,,ari/otle4 ,,by ,,george ,,grote1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,,ox=d1 ,,& ,,ll4,d4 ,,cambridge2 ,,late ,,vice-,,*ancellor ,,( ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,london2 ,,presid5t ,,( ,,univ]sity ,,college1 ,,london2 ,,& ,,=eign ,,memb] ,,( ,,! ,,in/itute ,,( ,,france4 ,,edit$ ,,by ,,alex&] ,,ba91 ,,ll4,d41 ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,logic ,,9 ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,ab]de51 ,,& ,g4 ,,croom ,,rob]tson1 ,m4,a41 ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,philosophy ,,( ,,m9d ,,& ,,logic ,,9 ,,univ]sity ,,college1 ,,london4 ,,second ,,edition1 ,,) ,,additions4 ,,london3 ,,john ,,murray1 ,,albem>le ,,/reet4 #ahhj4 ,! "r ( ,translation is res]v$4 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,william ,,cl[es ,,& ,,sons1 ,,london3 ,,/am=d ,,/reet ,,& ,,*>+ ,,cross4 ,,notice ,,to ,,! ,,second ,,edition4 ,?is ,edition is an exact repr9t ( ! ,fir/ ,edition1 ) ! addition ( two important ,essays on ! ,e?ics & ,politics ( ,ari/otle1 :i* 7 f\nd among ! au?or's po/hum\s pap]s4 ,!y 7 orig9ally publi%$ 9 #ahgf1 9 ',fragm5ts on ,e?ical ,subjects1 by ! late ,george ,grote1' b w\ld h be5 includ$ 9 ! ,fir/ ,edition ( ?is ,"w1 _h !y be5 discov]$ 9 "t4 ,^! ,essays are ! fruit ( long & labori\s /udy1 &1 s f> z !y ext5d1 embody ! writ]'s matur$ views ^u ! ,e?ics & ! ,politics3 ! two treatises ^: omission f 8 publi%$ exposition ( ! ,ari/otelian philosophy has be5 mo/ regrett$4 ,! ,essay on ',! ,e?ics ( ,ari/otle' falls naturally into two divisions2 ! fir/ treats ( ,happ9ess2 ! second ( :at1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 is ! *ief +r$i5t ( ,happ9ess1 namely4 ,virtue4 ,on ,ari/otle's own conception ( ,happ9ess1 ,mr4 ,grote dwells v m9utely2 turn+ x ov] on all sides1 & look+ at x f e po9t ( view4 ,:ile fully ackn[l$g+ its m]its1 he gives also ! full measure ( its defects4 ,8 criticisms on ?is head are 9 ! au?or's be/ /yle & are no less important z reg>ds ,e?ical discussion ?an z a comm5t>y on ,ari/otle4 ,8 h&l+ ( ,ari/otle's doctr9e ( ,virtue is equally subtle & in/ructive4 ,p>ticul>ly /rik+ are ! rem>ks on ! ,volunt>y & ! ,involunt>y1 & on ,greek3 proai_/resis1 or delib]ate pref]5ce4 ,! treatm5t ( ! ,virtues 9 detail is1 unhappily1 m fragm5t>y2 b :at he does say reg>d+ ,ju/ice & ,equity has a p]man5t int]e/4 ,! ,essay on ',! ,politics ( ,ari/otle' mu/ be /udi$ 9 connection ) ! prec$+4 ,al?\gh b a brief sket*1 x is rem>kable = ! insight :i* x af=ds u into ! mo/ consummate political ideal ( ! anci5t _w4 ,,preface ,,by ,,! ,,editors ,,to ,,! ,,fir/ ,,edition4 ,! ,hi/orian ( ,greece1 :5 clos+ 8 great n>rative 9 ! ye> #ahef1 promis$ to foll[ out 9 a sep>ate "w t speculative movem5t ( ! f\r? c5tury ,b4,c4 :i* upheld ! supremacy ( ! ,hell5ic intellect long aft] ! decl9e ( ,hell5ic lib]ty4 ,he _h trac$ ! beg9n+s ( ! movem5t 9 ! fam\s *apt] on ,sokrates1 b to d ju/ice to its *ief h]oes--,plato & ,ari/otle--prov$ to be impossible )9 ! limits ( ! ,hi/ory4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! promis$ "w appe>$1 aft] n9e labori\s ye>s1 x 0 f\nd to compass only ,plato & ! o!r imm$iate companions ( ,sokrates1 leav+ a full half ( ! appo9t$ task unp]=m$4 ,mr4 ,grote _h already pass$ 8 #gj? ye>1 b saw 9 ?is only a reason = turn+1 )\t a mom5t's pause1 to ! ardu\s lab\r /ill be=e him4 ,!nce=?1 9 spite ( fail+ /r5g? & ! increas+ di/raction ( public bus9ess1 he held /eadily on till dea? ov]took him 9 ! middle ( ! c\rse4 ,:at he 0 able to accompli%1 ?\gh n :at /udy he _h gone ?r\gh t[>ds ! rema9d] ( 8 design1 ^! volumes w %[4 ,! (fice ( prep>+ & sup]9t5d+ _! publication 0 entru/$ to ! pres5t editors by ,mrs4 ,grote1 9 ! ex]cise ( h] discretion z sole executrix "u 8 la/ ,w4 ,z n[ pr9t$1 ! "w has its =m det]m9$ by ! au?or himself up to ! end ( ,*apt] ,,xi4 ,! fir/ two *apt]s1 conta9+ a biography ( ,ari/otle & a g5]al acc\nt ( 8 works1 are foll[$ by a critical analysis1 9 eight *apt]s1 ( all ! treatises includ$ "u ! title ',organon2' & 9 ! rema9+ *apt] ( ! elev5 ! h&l+ ( ! ,physica & ,metaphysica 7tak5 toge!r = ! reasons giv57 is begun4 ,:at n[ /& z ,*apt]s ,,iii41 ,,iv41 c41 7 m>k$1 h[ev]1 z ,*apt]s ,,vi41 ,,vii41 c41 by ! au?or2 8 design evid5tly be+ to int]polate be=e publication ?ree o!r *apt]s ( an introductory ca/4 ,un=tunately no positive indication rema9s z to ! subject ( ^!2 al?\gh !re is reason to believe t1 = "o ?+1 he int5d$ to prefix to ! detail$ consid]ation ( ! works a key to ,ari/otle's p]plex+ t]m9ology4 ,possibly also he design$ to ent] ^u a m p>ticul> discussion ( ! ,canon1 aft] hav+ view$ x ext]nally 9 ,*apt] ,,ii42 citations & ref]5ces be>+ on su* a discussion be+ f\nd among 8 loose notes4 ,:at might h be5 ! c\rse ( ! "w f ! po9t :]e x is brok5 (f1 is altoge!r matt] ( inf]5ce1 beyond an indication ( ! subject ( ! *apt] next to foll[2 b ! rem>ks at ! beg9n+ ( ,*apt] ,,iii4 po9t to "s likely conclusions4 ,aft] ! metaphysical discussions1 :i* mu/ h be5 prolong$ ?r\gh sev]al *apt]s1 !re w\ld probably h be5 tak5 9 ord] ! treatises ,de ,coelo1 ,de ,g5]atione et ,corruptione1 ! ,meteorologica1 & next ! v>i\s ,biological works2 ?\gh ) :at detail 9 ea* case x is impossible to guess4 ,!n mu/ h foll[$ ! ,de ,anim ) ! m9or ,psy*ological treatises summ$ up z ,p>va ,naturalia1 & next1 )\t d\bt1 ! ,e?ica & ,politica2 la/ ( all1 ! ,rhetorica & ,poetica4 ,t ,mr4 ,grote _h c>efully ma/]$ all ^! works is evid5t f 8 m>g9al annotations 9 ! v>i\s copies :i* he read4 ,) ! ,e?ica & ,politica 9 p>ticul> he _h e>ly be5 famili>1 & mo/ !re is reason to regret t he has left no?+ work$ out ^u ?is field s specially 8 own4#a ,=tunately x happ5s t on ! psy*ological field next adjo9+ !re is some?+ consid]able to %[4 ,footnote #a3 ,x has be5 already /at$ t two important ,essays on ^! subjects h be5 discov]$ among ,mr4 ,grote's po/hum\s pap]s s9ce ! publication ( ! ,fir/ ,edition4 ,!y are pr9t$ 9 ?is ,edition aft] ! *apt] ,de ,anim4--,second ,edition4 ,9 ! autumn ( #ahfg ,mr4 ,grote und]took to write a %ort acc\nt ( ,ari/otle's /rik+ recognition ( ! physical aspect ( m5tal ph5om5a1 to be app5d$ to ! ?ird edition ( ! s5ior editor's "w1 ',! ,s5ses & ! ,intellect2' b1 on foll[+ out ! indications relative to t po9t1 he 0 gradually l$ by 8 int]e/ 9 ! subject to elaborate a full ab/ract ( ! ,de ,anim & ! o!r psy*ological treatises4 ,sev]al mon?s 7 sp5t on ?is task1 & at ! end he decl>$ t x _h greatly deep5$ 8 insight into ,ari/otle's philosophy z a :ole4 ,he also express$ 8 satisfaction at hav+ ?us complet$ an exposition ( ! ,psy*ology1 fitt$ to /& z 8 contribution to t "p ( ,ari/otle1 9 case he %\ld nev] rea* ! subject 9 ! regul> c\rse ( 8 g5]al "w4 ,! exposition 0 pr9t$ 9 full at ! "t 7#ahfh71 & drew ! att5tion ( /ud5ts4 ,x is n[ repr9t$1 ) ! prom95ce due to its lit]>y f9i% & intr9sic value1 z a *apt]--! la/--9 ! body ( ! pres5t "w4 ,! long ,app5dix com+ aft] is compos$ ( elem5ts some:at het]og5e\s2 b ! diff]5t sections 7 all writt5 9 ! p]iod s9ce #ahfe1 & all1 n except+ ! la/ two 7treat+ briefly ( ,epikurus & ! ,/oics71 h a be>+ ^u ! au?or's g5]al design4 ,! fir/ section--an hi/orical acc\nt ( anci5t !ories ( ,univ]sals--has already se5 ! light4#b ,x br+s toge!r1 z n[h]e else1 all ! *ief ref]5ces to ! doctr9e ( ,realism 9 ,plato1 & exhibits ! directly antagoni/ic position tak5 up by ,ari/otle t[>ds 8 ma/]4 ,?is x does s impressively t !re c\ld be no "q ( exclud+ x1 ev5 al?\gh x reproduces 9 "p "s ( ! matt] ( ,*apt] ,,iii41 on ! ,categories4 ,be+ compos$1 9 #ahfg1 lat] ?an ?is ,*apt]1 x is on t acc\nt writt5 ) all ! firm] a grasp4 ,on f9i%+ x z x /&s1 ,mr4 ,grote1 9 a private lett]1 express$ himself 9 t]ms t des]ve to be quot$3--,i nev] saw be=e s cle>ly ! extreme importance ( ,ari/otle's speculations z ! guides & /imulants ( m$ival philosophy4 ,if ,i _h "t to c>ry ! acc\nt fur!r1 ,i %\ld h be5 able to %[ h[ mu* ! improv$ views ( ! "q ( ,univ]sals dep5d$ on ! fact t m & m ( ! works ( ,ari/otle1 & bett] texts1 became kn[n to ,alb]tus ,magnus1 ,?omas ,aqu9as1 & _! successors4 ,dur+ ! c5turies imm$iately succe$+ ,bo?ius1 no?+ ( ,ari/otle except ! ,categories & ! treatise ,de ,int]pretatione 0 kn[n1 & ^! 9 a ,lat9 translation4 ,mo/ =tunately ! ,categories 0 nev] put out ( sight2 & x is !re t ! doctr9e ( ,sub/antia ,prima /&s cle>ly proclaim$4 ,footnote #b3 ,9 ! ,app5dix to ! s5ior editor's ',manual ( ,m5tal & ,moral ,sci5ce' 7#ahfg74 ,! second section1 or1 r1 ! "p !re9 treat+ ( ,ari/otle's doctr9e ( ,fir/ ,pr9ciples1 is also a repr9t4 ,x 0 compos$ 79 #ahfg7 at ! same "t z ! section on ,univ]sals1 & 0 pr9t$ along ) t2 %orn1 h[ev]1 ( ! critical exam9ation ( ,sir ,william ,hamilton's views on ,ari/otle1 :i* is n[ prefix$ to ! /atem5t ( ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e4 ,hamilton hav+ 79 ,note ,a1 app5d$ to 8 edition ( ,reid's ,works7 claim$ ,ari/otle z a support] ( ! ,philosophy ( ,common ,s5se1 bas+ ^u a long li/ ( passages quot$1 ^! 7 subject$ by ,mr4 ,grote to a se>*+ criticism1 ! po9t$ vig\r ( :i* w be duly appreciat$4 ,! /atem5t ( 8 own view ( ,ari/otle's doctr9e1 ?\gh conta9+ little t may n be f\nd at m places ?an "o 9 ! body ( ! pres5t "w1 is yet repr9t$1 because it]ation 0 8 fav\rite art = impress+ any?+ to :i* he atta*$ z mu* importance z he did atta* to ?is conviction ( 81 reg>d+ ! v he>t ( ,ari/otle's ?\ght4 ,! long ab/racts ( six books ( ! ,metaphysica & two books ( ! ,de ,coelo1 next foll[+ 9 ! ,app5dix1 are sections ( a "* altoge!r diff]5t f ! =ego+4 ,evid5tly n int5d$ = publication1 !y h be5 includ$1 p>tly z furni%+ "s indication ( ! lab\r ! au?or und]w5t 9 seek+ to lay hold ( 8 subject1 p>tly because ( _! inh]5t value4 ,f ! fir/ motive1 !y are "h reproduc$ z ne>ly z possible 9 ! guise !y wore z prelim9>y drafts1 be/rew$ ) ref]5ces4 ,_! value consi/s 9 ! fact t !y give ,mr4 ,grote's int]pretation ( ! text ( treatises at once exce$+ly difficult & important3 difficult1 z is prov$ by ! great div]g5ce1 among comm5tators at _m po9ts2 important1 n m = ! deep] aspects ( ,ari/otle's own sy/em1 ?an = ! speculations ( ! e>li] ,greek philosoph]s on :i* !y are ! classical au?ority4 ,:at relation1 9 ! case ( ea* treatise1 ! books ab/ract$ 7(t5 translat$7 hold to ! o!r books left unt\*$1 is specially indicat$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! ?ird section & at ! end ( ! f\r?4 ,"h let x suffice to m5tion t ea* ab/ract has a c]ta9 complet5ess 9 itself1 & at ! same "t a bond ( connection ) ! o!r4 ,! ab/ract ( ! ,metaphysica closes :]e ,ari/otle desc5ds to speak ( ! concrete heav5ly bodies1 & j z mu* ( ! ,de ,coelo is giv5 z treats specially ( ^!4 ,?is connection1 :e!r or n x 0 pres5t to ! au?or's m9d1 enhances ! value ( ! ab/racts z "h pres5t$4#c ,footnote #c3 ,! au?or c>ri$ ! ab/ract ( ,de ,coelo a little f>!r1 & !n abruptly broke x (f2 probably f9d+ himself borne too f> away f ! logical treatises ) :i* he 0 at ! "t deal+4 ,9 ! rema9+ sections ( ! ,app5dix1 n deal+ ) ,ari/otle1 ! %ort acc\nt ( ,epikurus aims at sett+ 9 its true light a mu*-malign$ sy/em ( ?\ght4 ,on writ+ x1 9 #ahfg1 ,mr4 ,grote rem>k$ t ! la/ ^w _h n yet be5 said on ,epikurus4 ,! e?ical "p ( ! sket* 0 pr9t$ at ! "t3#d ! :ole is n[ giv54 ,m fragm5t>y is ! notice ( ! ,/oics1 z m]ely replac+ passages t he consid]$ inadequate 9 a sket* submitt$ to him4 ,s9ce x =m$ "p ( 8 entire design to add to ! treatm5t ( ,ari/otle a full exposition bo? ( ,/oic & ,epikurean doctr9es1 consid]$ z ! outgr[? ( ! ,cynic & ,kyr5aic !ories already h&l$ at ! end ( ! ',plato1' ! two fragm5ts may n unfitly close ! pres5t "w4 ,footnote #d3 ,also 9 ! ',manual ( ,m5tal & ,moral ,sci5ce1' among ',e?ical ,sy/ems4' ,tak5 altoge!r1 ! two volumes are und\bt$ly a mo/ important contribution to ! hi/ory ( anci5t ?\ght4 ,z reg>ds ,ari/otle1 ! au?or's design mu/ be ga!r$ *iefly f ! fir/ elev5 *apt]s1--begun z ^! 7 9 #ahfe1 & proce$$ ) 9 _! ord]1 till he 0 ov]tak51 9 ! act ( compos+ ! la/1 by ! insidi\s malady :i*1 aft] six mon?s1 f9ally c>ri$ him (f4 ,p]haps ! mo/ /rik+ feature 9 ! exposition ( ! ,organon1 is ! v full analysis giv5 ( ! long treatise call$ ,topica4 ,:ile ! o!r treatises h all1 m or less1 be5 drawn ^u = ! ord9>y !ory ( ,logic1 ! ,topica1 ) its mix$ logical & rhetorical be>+s1 has ceas$ to be embodi$ 9 mod]n s*emes ( discipl9e or /udy4 ,mr4 ,grote's pr(\nd int]e/ 9 ev]y?+ p]ta9+ to ,dialectic drew him especially to ?is "w1 z ! exhibition 9 detail ( t habit ( me?odiz$ discussion s deep root$ 9 ! ,hell5ic m9d4 ,& 9 ! same connection x may be not$ h[ ! natural c\rse ( 8 "w br\ght him1 9 ! la/ mon?s ( 8 intellectual activity1 to tread aga9 old & famili> gr\nd4 ,a plea--?is "t aga9/ ,ari/otle--= ! decri$ ,sophi/s1 &1 once m1 a picture ( t 9999dialectical mission ( ,sokrates :i* = him _h an imp]i%able *>m1 7 among ! v la/ ef=ts ( 8 p54 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,besides mak+ up ! ,second ,volume f ! end ( ,*apt] ,,xi41 ! editors h1 ?r\gh\t ! :ole "w1 be/[$ mu* att5tion on ! notes & ref]5ces set d[n by ! au?or ) 8 usual copi\s m9ut5ess4 ,x 0 deem$ advisable to subject ^! ev]y:]e to a detail$ v]ification2 &1 ?\gh ! editors speak on ! matt] ) a diffid5ce be/ und]/ood by ^? :o may h und]gone a simil> lab\r1 x is hop$ t a result n unwor?y ( ! au?or has be5 atta9$4 ,9 diff]5t places additional ref]5ces h be5 suppli$1 ei!r :]e !re 0 an obvi\s omission on ! au?or's "p1 or 9 f>!r confirmation ( 8 views giv5 9 ! text3 su* ref]5ces1 mo/ly to ! works ( ,ari/otle himself1 x has n be5 ?\ght necess>y to signalize4 ,:]e1 z once or twice 9 ! ,app5dix1 a long] note 9 explanation seem$ call$ =1 ?is has be5 pr9t$ )9 squ>e brackets4 ,f ! text "s passages1 :]e ! it]ations seem$ excessive1 h be5 )held1 b only su* z x 0 ?\ght ! au?or w\ld himself h /ruck out ^u revision3 :]ev] !re 0 evid5ce t revision _h be5 made1 ! it]ations1 freely employ$ = emphasis1 h be5 all[$ to /&4 ,on r>e occasions1 int]polations & v]bal *anges h be5 made ) ! view ( br++ out m cle>ly ! mean+ s\ght to be convey$4 ,x is impossible to be m deeply s5sible ?an ! editors are1 ( ! responsibility !y h ?us incurr$2 b !y h be5 guid$ by _! v respect = ! v5]able au?or1 & !y 7 =tunate 9 ! _m opportunities !y enjoy$ ( le>n+ f 8 own lips ! ca/ ( 8 views on ,ari/otle4#e ,footnote #e3 ,x is b due to ! y\ng] editor to /ate t ! heavie/ "p ( all ! "w "h indicat$ has be5 done by him4--,a4 ,b4 ,an index has be5 drawn up ) "s c>e2 z 0 ne$ful1 if meant to be ( real s]vice to ! read]s ( s elaborate a "w4 ,x only rema9s to add t 9 pr9t+ ! ,greek ( ! notes1 c41 ! text ( ,waitz has be5 foll[$ = ! ,organon 7ev]y:]e %ort ( ! beg9n+72 ! text ( ,bonitz1 = ! ,metaphysica2 & = o!r works ( ,ari/otle1 g5]ally ! ,b]l9 edition4 ,reg>d 0 _h1 z f> z ! editors' k w5t1 to ! au?or's own pref]5ces 9 8 read+4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,life ,,( ,,ari/otle #a ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,ari/otelian ,,canon #bg ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,categori #ed ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,de ,,int]pretatione #ajh ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,analytica ,,priora ,i4 #aci ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,analytica ,,priora ,,ii4 #aga ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,analytica ,,po/]iora ,i4 #bjg ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,analytica ,,po/]iora ,,ii4 #bch ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,topica 7,i4-,,viii47 #bfb ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,sophi/ici ,,el5*i #cgf ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,physica ,,& ,,metaphysica #dbb ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,de ,,anim1 ,,etc4 #ddf ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,e?ica #did ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,politica #eci ,,app5dix4 ,i4 ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,univ]sals #eea ,,ii4 ,,fir/ ,,pr9ciples3 ,a4 ,sir ,william ,hamilton on ,ari/otle's ,doctr9e #efe ,b4 ,ari/otle's ,doctr9e #egc ,,iii4 ,,metaphysica3 ,book ,greek3 ,g4 #ehc ,book ,greek3 ,e4 #eib ,book ,greek3 ,z4 #eid ,book ,greek3 4 #fji ,book ,greek3 ,?4 #fac ,book ,greek3 ,l4 #fai ,,iv4 ,,de ,,coelo3 ,book ,i4 #fcj ,book ,,ii4 #fci ,v4 ,,epikurus #fed ,,vi4 ,,! ,,/oics4--,a ,,fragm5t #ffj ,,ari/otle4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,life ,,( ,,ari/otle4 ,9 my prec$+ "w1 ',plato & ! ,o!r ,companions ( ,sokrates1' ,i describ$ a b& ( philosoph]s diff]+ mu* f ea* o!r1 b all emanat+ f ,sokrates z common intellectual prog5itor2 all manife/+ !mselves :olly or pr9cipally 9 ! composition ( dialogues2 & all liv+ 9 an atmosph]e ( ,hell5ic fre$om1 z yet untr\bl$ by any ov]-rul+ imp]ial asc5dancy f )\t4 ,f t b&1 among :om ,plato is facil pr9ceps1 ,i n[ proce$ to ano!r1 among :om ! l pre-em95ce belongs to ,ari/otle4 ,?is second b& knew ! ,sokratic /imulus only z an hi/orical tradition2 !y gradually pass$1 fir/ f ! ,sokratic or ,platonic dialogue--dramatic1 colloquial1 cross-exam9+--to ! ,ari/otelian dialogue1 semi-dramatic1 rhetorical1 c\nt]-expository2 & next to =mal !oriz+1 +5i\s solution & div9ation ( special problems1 hi/orical criticism & abundant collections ( detail$ facts3 moreov]1 !y 7 witnesses ( ! ext9ction ( fre$om 9 ,hellas1 & ( ! rise ( ! ,mac$onian k+dom out ( comp>ative nullity to ! highe/ p9nacle ( supremacy & ma/]%ip4 ,"u ! successors ( ,alex&]1 ?is extrane\s supremacy1 int]m$dl+ & dictatorial1 n only ov]rul$ ! political movem5ts ( ! ,greeks1 b also influ5c$ p[]fully ! position & work+ ( _! philosoph]s2 & w\ld h become at once equally int]m$dl+ ev5 e>li]1 "u ,alex&] himself1 _h n 8 :ole "t & p]sonal en]gy be5 absorb$ by insatiable ?ir/ = ea/]n conque/1 end+ ) an untimely dea?4 ,ari/otle 0 born at ,/ageira1 an unimportant ,hell5ic colony 9 ,?race1 :i* has obta9$ a la/+ "n 9 hi/ory f ! fact ( be+ 8 bir?place4 ,x 0 situat$ 9 ! ,/rymonic ,gulf1 a little nor? ( ! i/hmus :i* t]m9ates 9 ! m\nta9\s promontory ( ,a?os2 its f\nd]s 7 ,greeks f ! isl& ( ,&ros1 re9=c$ aft]w>ds by additional immigrants f ,*alkis 9 ,euboea4 ,x 01 l o!r ,grecian cities1 autonom\s--a di/9ct1 self-gov]n+ community2 b x aft]w>ds became incorporat$ 9 ! conf$]acy ( free cities "u ! presid5cy ( ,olyn?us4 ,! mo/ mat]ial feature 9 its condition1 at ! p]iod ( ,ari/otle's bir?1 01 t x lay ne> ! fronti] ( ,mac$onia1 & n f> ev5 f ,pella1 ! resid5ce ( ! ,mac$onian k+ ,amyntas 7fa!r ( ,philip74 ,ari/otle 0 born1 n e>li] ?an #cib ,b4,c41 nor lat] ?an #che-chd ,b4,c4 ,8 fa!r1 ,nikoma*us1 0 a citiz5 ( ,/ageira1 di/+ui%$ z a physician1 au?or ( "s m$ical works1 & boa/+ ( be+ desc5d$ f ! h]oic g5s ( ! ,asklepiads2 8 "m1 ,phae/is1 0 also ( good civic family1 desc5d$ f "o ( ! fir/ ,*alkidian coloni/s4#a ,moreov]1 ,nikoma*us 0 n m]ely le>n$ 9 8 art1 b 0 accept$ z confid5tial physician & fri5d ( ,amyntas1 ) :om he pass$ mu* ( 8 "t--a circum/ance ( great mom5t to ! future c>e] ( 8 son4 ,we are told t among ! ,asklepiads ! habit ( physical obs]vation1 & ev5 manual tra9+ 9 dissection1 7 imp>t$ traditionally f fa!r to son1 f ! e>lie/ ye>s1 ?us s]v+ z prep>ation = m$ical practice :5 !re 7 no writt5 treatises to /udy4#b ,! m9d ( ,ari/otle may ?us h acquir$ t appetite = physiological /udy :i* s _m ( 8 treatises indicate4 ,footnote #a3 ,diog4 ,l4 v4 #aj4 ,?is 0 probably among ! reasons :i* induc$ ,ari/otle to pref] ,*alkis z 8 place ( tempor>y retirem5t1 :5 he left ,a!ns aft] ! dea? ( ,alex&]4 ,footnote #b3 ,gal51 ,de ,anatomicis ,adm9i/r4 ii4 #a4 ,t4 ii4 pp4 #bhj-bha1 ed4 ,khn4 ,greek3 p>a tois goneus9 e7k pai_/dn a7sk\me_/nois1 7_/sp] a7nag9_/ske9 kai gra_/phe91 ou7_/ts a7nate_/mne9--7comp>e ,plato--,protagoras1 p4 #cbh ,a1 p4 #caa ,c74 ,diog4 ,l4 v4 #a4 ,greek3 ,o7 de ,niko_/ma*os 7n a7po ,nikoma_/*\ t\ ,ma*a_/nos t\ ,a7sklpi\1 ka?a_/ phs9 ,e7_/rmippos e7n t p]i ,a7ri/ote_/l\s kai sunebi_/ ,a7mu_/nta t ,mak$o_/nn basilei i7atr\ kai phi_/l\ *rei_/a4 ,we "h le>n t 9 ! h]oic g5ealogy ( ! ,asklepiads1 ! son ( ,ma*aon himself bore ! "n ( ,nikoma*us4 ,i d n ?9k t ,w4 v4 ,humboldt & ,b]nays are w>rant$ 9 call+ ,ari/otle e9 ,halbgrie*e1 ke9 vollbrtig] ,hell5e--7,die ,dialoge des ,ari/oteles1 pp4 #b-ef-acd74 ,an ,hell5ic family :i* migrat$ f ,a!ns1 ,*alkis1 ,cor9?1 etc41 to e/abli% a colony on ! coa/ ( ,?race1 or ,asia ,m9or1 did n necess>ily lose its ,hell5ism4 ,"o _c designate ,demokritus1 ,x5okrates1 ,anaxagoras1 ,emp$okles1 c41 half ,greeks4 ,diog5es "h especially cites ,h]mippus 7,b4,c4 #bbj-baj71 f :om sev]al ( 8 /atem5ts 9 ?is & o!r biographies appe> to h be5 d]iv$4 ,! "w ( ,h]mippus seems to h be5 entitl$ ,lives ( ! ,philosoph]s 7v4 #b71 among :i* lives t ( ,ari/otle 0 "o4 ,h]mippus m5tion$1 among o!r matt]s1 communications made to ,ari/otle by ,/roebus 7a p]son engag$ 9 ! s]vice ( ,kalli/h5es z read]7 respect+ ! condemnation & execution ( ,kalli/h5es 9 ,baktria1 by ord] ( ,alex&] 7,plut>*1 ,alex4 c4 #ed74 ,f :at s\rce did ,h]mippus d]ive ^! /atem5ts made by ,/roebus to ,ari/otle8 ,respect+ ! "* ( 8 y\?1 !re exi/$1 ev5 9 antiquity1 diff]5t acc\nts4 ,we le>n t he lo/ 8 fa!r & "m :ile yet a y\?1 & t he came "u ! gu>dian%ip ( ,prox5us1 a native ( ,at>neus :o _h settl$ at ,/ageira4 ,accord+ to "o acc\nt1 adopt$ app>5tly by ! e>lie/ witnesses pres]v$ to u1#c he 0 at fir/ an extravagant y\?1 sp5t mu* ( 8 pat]nal prop]ty1 & !n engag$ himself to milit>y s]vice2 ( :i* he soon became we>y1 & w5t back to ,/ageira1 turn+ to acc\nt ! surgical build+1 app>atus1 & m$ic9es left by 8 fa!r z a m$ical practition]4 ,aft] "s "t1 we "k n h[ long1 he retir$ f ?is pr(ession1 %ut up ! build+1 & devot$ himself to rhetoric & philosophy4 ,he !n w5t to ,a!ns1 & !re ent]$ himself 9 ! s*ool ( ,plato1 at ! age ( ?irty4#d ,! philosophical life 0 ?us 7if ?is acc\nt be believ$7 a second *oice1 adopt$ comp>atively late 9 life4#e ,! o!r acc\nt1 dep5d+ also ^u good witnesses1 repres5ts him z hav+ come to ,a!ns & enli/$ z pupil ( ,plato1 at ! e>ly age ( sev5te5 or eighte53 x omits all m5tion ( an antec$5t p]iod1 occupi$ by milit>y s]vice & a t5tative ( m$ical pr(ession4#f ,9 bo? ! two n>ratives1 ,ari/otle appe>s z resid5t at ,a!ns1 & devot+ himself to rhetoric & philosophy1 f "s p]iod be=e #cfj ,b4,c4 d[n to ! dea? ( ,plato 9 #cdg ,b4,c42 ?\gh1 accord+ to ! fir/ ( ! two n>ratives1 he beg9s 8 philosophical c>e] at a lat] age1 :ile 8 :ole life occupi$ sev5ty ye>s in/ead ( sixty-two ye>s4 ,footnote #c3 ,epikurus & ,timu4 ,greek3 ,e7pi_/k\ros e7n t p]i e7pitdeuma_/tn e7pi/ol 7,eusebius1 ,prp4 ,ev4 xv4 #e7--;,diog54 ,l4 x4 #h2 lian4 ,v4 ,h4 v4 #i4 ,footnote #d3 ,an au?or nam$ ,eumlus 7cit$ by ,diog5es1 v4 #f1 ,greek e7n t pe_/mpt tn i7/orin1 b n o!rwise kn[n7 /at$ t ,ari/otle came to ,plato at ! age ( ?irty1 & t he liv$ altoge!r to sev5ty ye>s ( age1 in/ead ( sixty-?ree1 z ,h]mippus & ,apollodorus affirm$4 ,eumlus conceiv$ ,ari/otle z born 9 #cib ,b4,c41 & com+ to ,plato 9 #cfb ,b4,c4 ,8 *ronological data are 9 h>mony ) ! /atem5ts ( ,epikurus & ,timu respect+ ! e>ly life ( ,ari/otle4 ,! ,greek3 ,bi_/os ,a7n_/numos giv5 by ,mnage recognizes two di/9ct acc\nts z to ! age at :i* ,ari/otle di$3 "o assign+ to him #gj ye>s1 ! o!r only #fc4 ,footnote #e3 ,see ! ,fragm5ts ( ,timu 9 ,didot1 ,fragm5ta ,hi/oricorum ,grcorum1 ,fr4 #gj-gd2 also ,ari/okles1 ap4 ,eusebium1 ,prp4 ,evang4 xv4 #b2 ,diog5es1 ,l4 x4 #h2 ,a!nu1 viii4 p4 #ced4 ,timu call$ ,ari/otle ,greek3 sophi/n o7psima? kai misto_/n1 kai to poluti_/mton i7atreion a7rti_/s a7pokekeiko_/ta4 ,! speak] 9 ,a!nu designates him z ,greek3 o7 ph>makop_/ls4 ,! t]ms us$ by ^! writ]s are illtemp]$ & unbecom+ 9 reg>d to s great a man z ,ari/otle2 b ?is is irrelevant to ! "q1 :e!r !y d n describe1 9 p]v]t$ col\r+1 "s real features 9 8 e>li] life1 or :e!r !re 0 n1 at lea/1 a *ronological basis ( possibility = !m4 ,t no su* features 7 notic$ by o!r enemies ( ,ari/otle1 su* z ,eubulides & ,kephisodrus1 is a reason z f> z x goes = n believ+ !m to be real1 yet n at all a conclusive reason2 nor is ! speak] 9 ,a!nu exact :5 he says t ,epikurus is ! only witness1 = we f9d ,timu mak+ ! same /atem5ts4 ,! ,greek3 i7atreion 7see ,antiphanes1 apud ,polluc4 iv4 #ahc--;,fragm5ta ,comic4 cxxv41 ,me9eke7 ( a ,greek physician 7m prop]ly we %\ld call ! ,greek3 i7atros a g5]al practition] & *emi/7 0 ! repository ( 8 mat]ials & ! sc5e ( 8 important op]ations2 = _m ( :i* in/ructions are giv5 9 ! curi\s ,hippokratic treatise entitl$ ,greek3 ,kat' ,i7treion1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #bfb-ccg ( ! edition ( ,m4 ,littr1 :o 9 8 preface to ! treatise1 p4 #bfe1 rem>ks ab\t ,ari/otle3--,il p>at qu',ari/ote1 qui tait de famille mdicale1 avoit r5onc une (fic9e de ce g5re1 d'une gr&e valeur4 ,/ahr speaks ( ?is ,greek3 i7atreion z if ,ari/otle _h set up "o at ,a!ns 7,ari/otelia1 p4 #ch71 :i* ! au?orities d n ass]t2 x 0 probably at ,/ageira4 ,idel] 7,comm4 9999ad ,ari/ot4 ,meteorol4 iv4 #c1 #af1 p4 #dcc7 consid]s ?is /ory ab\t ,ari/otle's ,greek3 i7atreion to h be5 a fiction aris+ out ( v>i\s expressions 9 8 writ+s ab\t ! prep>ation ( drugs--,greek3 ta pha_/rmaka e7_/pse91 c4 ,i ?9k ?is is f>-fet*$4 ,& :5 we f9d ,ari/okles reject+ ! allegation ab\t ! ,greek3 i7atreion1 by speak+ ( x z an ,greek3 a7_/doxon i7atreion1 we c admit nei!r ! ju/ice ( ! epi!t nor ! gr\nd ( rejection4 ,footnote #f3 ,?is acc\nt re/$ orig9ally 7s f> z we "k7 ^u ! /atem5t ( ,h]mippus 7,b4,c4 #bbj71 & 0 adopt$ by ,apollodrus 9 8 ,*ronology 7,b4,c4 #aej71 bo? ( !m good au?orities1 yet nei!r ( !m s e>ly z ,epikurus & ,timu4 ,diog5es ,la]tius & ,dionysius ( ,halik>nassus alike foll[ ,h]mippus4 ,bo? ! life ( ,ari/otle ascrib$ to ,ammonius1 & ! ,anonym\s ,life fir/ edit$ by ,robbe 7,leyd51 #ahfa1 p4 #b71 include ! same /range *ronological blund]3 !y affirm ,ari/otle to h come to ,a!ns at ! age ( sev5te51 & to h frequ5t$ ! society ( ,sokrates 7:o _h be5 dead m ?an ?irty ye>s7 = ?ree ye>s2 !n to h gone to ,plato at ! age ( tw5ty4 ,zell] imag9es1 & ,i ?9k x likely1 t ,ari/otle may h be5 = a %ort "t pupil ) ,isokrates1 & t ! /ory ( 8 hav+ be5 pupil ) ,sokrates has aris5 f confusion ( ! two names1 :i* confusion has be5 se5 on sev]al occasions 7,zell]1 ,ges*4 d] ,philos4 d] ,grie*51 ii4 #b1 p4 #ae47 ,dur+ ! int]val1 #cfg-cfj ,b4,c41 ,plato 0 mu* abs5t f ,a!ns1 hav+ paid two sep>ate visits to ,dionysius ! y\ng] at ,syracuse4 ,! "t :i* he sp5t !re at ea* visit is n explicitly giv52 b z f> z we c conjecture f indirect allusions1 x _c h be5 less ?an a ye> at ea*1 & may possibly h be5 long]4 ,if1 !re=e1 ,ari/otle rea*$ ,a!ns 9 #cfg ,b4,c4 7z ,h]mippus repres5ts7 he _c h enjoy$ cont9u\s in/ructions f ,plato = ! ?ree or f\r ye>s next ensu+4 ,h[ev] ! facts may /& z to ,ari/otle's e>ly life1 !re is no d\bt t 9 or be=e ! ye> #cfb ,b4,c4 he became resid5t at ,a!ns1 & t he rema9$ !re1 pr(it+ by ! society & lectures ( ,plato1 until ! dea? ( ! latt] 9 #cdg ,b4,c4 ,%ortly aft] ! loss ( 8 ma/]1 he quitt$ ,a!ns1 along ) 8 fell[-pupil ,x5okrates1 & w5t to ,at>neus1 :i* 0 at t "t rul$ by ! despot ,h]meias4 ,t despot 0 a rem>kable man1 :o be+ a eunu* ?r\gh bodily hurt :5 a *ild1 & hav+ become slave ( a prior despot nam$ ,eubulus1 _h contriv$ to succe$ him 9 ! supreme p[]1 & gov]n$ ! t[ns ( ,at>neus & ,assos ) firmness & en]gy4 ,h]meias _h be5 at ,a!ns1 _h he>d ,plato's lectures1 & _h contract$ fri5d%ip ) ,ari/otle2 :i* fri5d%ip became f>!r cem5t$ by ! m>riage ( ,ari/otle1 dur+ 8 resid5ce at ,at>neus1 ) ,py?ias ! niece ( ,h]meias4#g ,= ?ree ye>s ,ari/otle & ,x5okrates rema9$ at ,assos or ,at>neus1 :5ce !y 7 !n =c$ to escape by reason ( ! despot's dea?2 = ,m5tor ! ,rhodian1 g5]al ( ! ,p]sians 9 ^? regions1 decoy$ ,h]meias out ( ! t[n "u pret5ce ( a diplomatic negociation1 !n p]fidi\sly seiz$ him1 & s5t him up z prison] to ! ,p]sian k+1 by ^: ord] he 0 hang$4 ,m5tor at ! same "t seiz$ ! two t[ns & o!r possessions ( ,h]meias1#h :ile ,ari/otle ) 8 wife retir$ to ,mityl5e4 ,8 deep grief = ! fate ( ,h]meias 0 te/ifi$ 9 a noble hymn or pan :i* he compos$1 & :i* /ill rema9s1 z well z by an epigram inscrib$ on ! /atue ( ,h]meias at ,delphi4 ,we d n he> ( 8 go+ else:]e1 until1 two or ?ree ye>s aft]w>ds 7! exact date is diff]5tly report$71 he 0 invit$ by ,philip into ,mac$onia1 to become preceptor to ! "y pr9ce ,alex&]1 !n ?irte5 or f\rte5 ye>s old4 ,! reputation1 :i* ,ari/otle himself _h by ?is "t e/abli%$1 d\btless co9cid$ ) ! recollection ( 8 fa!r ,nikoma*us z physician & fri5d ( ,amyntas1 9 det]m9+ ,philip to su* a *oice4 ,ari/otle p]=m$ ! duties requir$ f him1#i enjoy+ ! confid5ce & fav\r bo? ( ,philip & ,alex&]1 until ! assass9ation ( ! =m] & ! accession ( ! latt] 9 #ccf ,b4,c4 ,8 pr9ciple resid5ce dur+ ?is p]iod 0 9 ,mac$onia1 b he paid occasional visits to ,a!ns1 & allusion is made to c]ta9 diplomatic s]vices :i* he r5d]$ to ! ,a!nians at ! c\rt ( ,philip2 moreov] he mu/ h sp5t "s "t at 8 native city ,/ageira1#aj :i* _h be5 among ! _m ,greek cities captur$ & ru9$ by ,philip dur+ ! ,olyn?ian w> ( #cdi-cdg ,b4,c4 ,hav+ obta9$ ! cons5t & au?ority ( ,philip1 ,ari/otle repair$ to ,/ageira = ! purpose ( direct+ ! re-e/abli%m5t ( ! city4 ,recall+ su* ( its disp]s$ inhabitants z c\ld be collect$1 ei!r out ( ! neighb\r+ villages or f m di/ant p>ts1 he is said to h drawn up laws1 or fram$ regulations = ! return$ citiz5s1 & new com]s4 ,he _h reason to compla9 ( v>i\s rivals :o intrigu$ aga9/ him1 gave him mu* tr\ble1 & ob/ruct$ ! complete r5ovation ( ! city2 b1 not)/&+1 8 s]vices 7 su* t an annual fe/ival 0 in/itut$ to commemorate !m4#aa ,x is f>!r /at$1 t at "s "t dur+ ?is p]iod he _h a s*ool 7analog\s to ! ,academy at ,a!ns7 9 ! ,nymphum ( ! place call$ ,mieza2 :]e /one seats & %ady walks1 ennobl$ by ! "n ( ,ari/otle1 7 /ill %[n ev5 9 ! days ( ,plut>*4#ab ,footnote #g3 ,/rabo1 xiii4 #faj2 ,diodor4 xvi4 #eb4 ,x appe>s t ,ari/otle incurr$ c5sure1 ev5 f contempor>y rivals1 = ?is m>riage ) ,py?ias4 ,on :at gr\nd we _c exactly make out 7,ari/okles ap4 ,eusebium ,prp4 ,ev4 xv4 #b71 unless x be f h] relation%ip to ,h]meias4 ,%e di$ long be=e ,ari/otle1 b he m5tions h] 9 8 w 9 t]ms atte/+ ! con/ant affection :i* _h reign$ betwe5 !m until h] dea?4 ,ari/otle ?\ght x "r to reply to ! c5sure 9 "o ( 8 lett]s to ,antipat]4 ,ari/okles 7ap4 ,euseb4 ,prp4 ,ev4 xv4 #b7 says t ,ari/otle did n m>ry ,py?ias until aft] ! dea? ( ,h]meias1 :5 %e 0 compell$ to save h]self by flight1 & 0 9 di/ress & pov]ty4 ,mr4 ,blakesley 7,life ( ,ari/otle1 p4 #cf7 & ,onck5 7,die ,/aatslehre des ,ari/oteles1 p4 #aeh7 concur 9 ?9k+ t ! dep>ture ( ,ari/otle f ,a!ns _h no?+ to d ) ! dea? ( ,plato1 b 0 det]m9$ by ! capture ( ,olyn?us1 & by ! fe> & dislike ( ,philip :i* t ev5t eng5d]$ at ,a!ns4 ,b ! fact t ,x5okrates left ,a!ns along ) ,ari/otle disproves ?is supposition1 & proves t ! dea? ( ,plato 0 ! real cause4 ,footnote #h3 ,diog4 ,la]t4 v4 #g-h4 ,diodorus ascribes ?is proce$+ to ,m5tor ! ,rhodian3 ,/rabo1 to 8 bro!r ,memnon4 ,i ?9k ,diodorus is "r4 ,a rem>kable passage 9 ! ,magna ,moralia 7g5u9e or spuri\s7 ( ,ari/otle1 seems to me to id5tify ! proce$+ ) ,m5tor 7,ari/ot4 ,magn4 ,mor4 i4 #ce1 p4 #aaig1 b4 #ba2 z also ! spuri\s second book ( ! ,o,ekonomica1 p4 #acea1 a4 #cc74 ,footnote #i3 ,x 0 probably dur+ ?is p]iod t ,ari/otle introduc$ to ,alex&] 8 fri5d ! rhetor ,!odekts ( ,phaslis4 ,alex&] took delight 9 ! society ( ,!odekts1 & te/ifi$ ?is feel+1 :5 he conqu]$ ,phaslis1 by demon/rations ( affection & respect t[>ds ! /atue ( ! rhetor1 :o _h di$ dur+ ! int]v5+ ye>s--,greek3 a7podid\s timn t g5ome_/n di' ,a7ri/ote_/ln kai philosophi_/an o7mili_/a pros ton a7_/ndra 7,plut>*1 ,alex4 c4 #ag74 ,footnote #aj3 ,x is to ?is p]iod ( ,ari/otle's life t ! passage extract$ f 8 lett]s 9 ,demetrius 7s-call$ ,greek3 p]i ,e7rmnei_/z7 ref]s4 ,greek3 7s ,a7ri/ote_/ls phsi_/n--e7g e7k men ,a7?nn ei7s ,/a_/geira 7l?on dia ton basile_/a ton me_/gan1 e7k de ,/agei_/rn ei7s ,a7?_/nas dia ton *eimna ton me_/gan--s4 #bi4 ,we %all h>dly consid] ?is d\ble employm5t ( ! epi!t ,greek3 9999me_/gan z an in/ance ( t success 9 epi/ol>y /yle1 :i* ,demetrius ascribes to ,ari/otle 7s4 #bci72 b ! passage proves ,ari/otle's visits bo? to ,/ageira & to ,a!ns4 ,! v cold w9t]s ( ! ,*alkidic p59sula 7 sev]ely felt by ! ,greeks 7,plato--,symposion1 p4 #bbj71 & may well h s]v$ z motive to ,ari/otle = go+ f ,/ageira to ,a!ns4 ,footnote #aa3 ,ammonius1 ,vit4 ,ari/ot4 ,see ! curi\s /atem5ts giv5 by ,dion ,*ryso/om1 out ( ! epi/les ( ,ari/otle2 ,orat4 ii4 p4 #ajj1 xlvii4 p4 #bbe1 ,reiske4 ,respect+ ! allusions made 9 ^! /atem5ts to v>i\s p]sons :o 7 reluctant to return out ( ! sep>ate villages into ! re/or$ city1 comp>e :at ,x5ophon says ab\t ! ,greek3 dioi_/kisis1 & subsequ5t re/itution1 ( ,mant9eia2 ,hell5ica1 v4 #b1 #a-h1 vi4 #e1 #c-f4 ,footnote #ab3 ,plut>*1 ,alex&]1 c4 #g4 ,:at ,plut>* calls ! ,nymphum1 is consid]$ by ,/ahr 7,ari/otelia1 i4 p4 #ic n47 to be probably ! same z :at ,pl9y d5om9ates ! ,museum at ,/ageira 7,n4 ,h4 xvi4 c4 #bc72 b ,zell] 7p4 #bc1 n471 aft] ,gei]1 holds t ,mieza lay ,s4,w4 ( ,pella1 9 ,ema?ia1 f> f ,/ageira4 ,plut>* seems to imply t ,ari/otle 0 e/abli%$ along ) ,alex&] at ,meiza by ,philip4 ,comp>e1 = ^! facts ( ! biography ( ,ari/otle1 ,/ahr1 ,ari/otelia1 ,"p ,i41 pp4 #hf-id1 #ajc-ajf4 ,i conceive t x 0 dur+ ?is resid5ce 9 ,mac$onia & at ,pella1 t ,ari/otle erect$ ! c5otaph 9 hon\r ( ,h]meias1 :i* is s contemptu\sly d]id$ by ! ,*ian poet ,!okritus 9 8 epigram1 ,diog4 ,l4 v4 #aa4 ,! epigram is v sev]e on ,ari/otle1 = pref]r+ ,pella to ! ,academy z a resid5ce2 ascrib+ su* pref]5ce to ! exig5cies ( an ungov]nable /oma*4 ,9 #ccf ,b4,c4 ,alex&] became k+ ( ,mac$onia1 & 8 va/ projects = conque/1 fir/ ( ,p]sia1 next ( o!r peoples kn[n & unkn[n1 left him no leisure = any?+ b milit>y & imp]ial occupations4 ,x 0 9 ! ensu+ ye> 7#cce ,b4,c4 :5 ! prep>ations = ! ,p]sian exp$ition 7 be+ complet$1 ready = its execution 9 ! foll[+ spr+1 t ,ari/otle transf]r$ 8 resid5ce to ,a!ns4 ,! ,platonic philosophical s*ool 9 :i* he _h /udi$ 0 n[ conduct$ by ,x5okrates z ,s*ol>*1 hav+ pass$ at ! dea? ( ,plato1 9 #cdg ,b4,c41 to 8 nephew ,speusippus1 & f ! latt] to ,x5okrates 9 #cci ,b4,c4 ,ari/otle e/abli%$ = himself a new & rival s*ool on ! ea/]n side ( ,a!ns1 9 ! gymnasium atta*$ to ! temple ( ,apollo ,lykeius1 & d]iv+ f !nce ! "n by :i* x 0 commonly kn[n--! ,lykeium4 ,9 t s*ool1 & 9 ! g>d5 adjo9+1 he cont9u$ to lecture or tea*1 dur+ ! succe$+ twelve ye>s1 compris+ ! life & ! brilliant conque/s ( ,alex&]4 ,mu* ( 8 in/ruction is said to h be5 giv5 :ile walk+ 9 ! g>d51 f :5ce ! /ud5ts & ! sect d]iv$ ! title ( ,p]ipatetics4 ,9 ! bus9ess ( 8 s*ool & ! composition ( 8 works all 8 "t 0 occupi$2 & 8 s*ol>s soon became s num]\s t he f\nd x conv5i5t to desire !m to elect f !mselves e t5 days a rector to ma9ta9 ord]1 z ,x5okrates _h already done at ! ,academy4#ac ,ari/otle f>!r ma9ta9$ correspond5ce1 n m]ely ) ,alex&] & ,antipat] b also ) ,!mison1 "o ( ! pr9ces ( ,cyprus1 z ,isokrates _h correspond$ ) ,nikokles1 & ,plato ) ,dionysius ( ,syracuse4#ad ,footnote #ac3 ,diog4 ,l4 v4 #d4 ,br&is notes x z a feature 9 ,ari/otle's "* 7p4 #fe71 t he ab/a9$ f m$dl+ ) public affairs at ,a!ns4 ,b we mu/ rememb]1 t1 n be+ a citiz5 ( ,a!ns1 ,ari/otle 0 n compet5t to m$dle p]sonally4 ,8 great & respect$ philosophical competitor1 ,x5okrates 7a non-citiz5 or metic z well z he71 0 s f> f be+ 9 a condition to m$dle ) public affairs1 t he 0 once ev5 arre/$ = n hav+ paid 9 due season 8 ,greek3 metoi_/kion1 or capitation-tax impos$ ^u metics4 ,he 0 lib]at$1 accord+ to "o /ory1 by ,lykurgus 7,plut>*1 ,vit4 x4 ,oratt4 p4 #hdb72 accord+ to ano!r /ory 7seem+ly m probable71 by ,demetrius ,phal]eus 7,diog4 ,la4 iv4 #ad74 ,! anonym\s life ( ,ari/otle publi%$ by ,robbe 7,leyd51 #ahfa1 p4 #c71 takes due notice ( ,ari/otle's position at ,a!ns z a metic4 ,footnote #ad3 ,ari/otle address$ to ,!mison a composition n[ lo/1 b well kn[n 9 antiquity1 call$ ,greek3 ,protreptiko_/s4 ,x 0 probably a dialogue2 & 0 int5d$ z an enc\ragem5t to ! /udy ( philosophy4 ,see ,rose1 ,ari/ot4 ,pseud4 pp4 #fi-gb1 :o gives a v int]e/+ fragm5t ( x out ( ,/obu4 ,we h ! titles ( two lo/ works ( ,ari/otle--,greek3 ,p]i ,basilei_/z1 & ,greek3 ,a7le_/x&ros1 7 u7per a7poi_/kn 7or ,greek3 a7poikin74 ,bo? seem to h be5 dialogues4 ,9 "o1 or 9 bo?1 he gave advice to ,alex&] respect+ ! mann] ( rul+ 8 newly acquir$ empire 9 ,asia2 & respect+ ! relations prop] to be e/abli%$ betwe5 ,hell5es & native ,asiatics 7see ,rose1 ,ari/4 ,pseud4 pp4 #ib-if2 ,b]nays1 ,die ,dialoge des ,ari/ot4 pp4 #ea-eg74 ,9 ,june1 #cbc ,b4,c41 occurr$ ! premature & unexpect$ decease ( ! great ,mac$onian conqu]or1 ag$ #cb ye>s & #h mon?s1 by a viol5t fev] at ,babylon4 ,s va/ 0 8 p[]1 & s unmeasur$ 8 ambition1 t ! sudd5 removal ( su* a man op]at$ z a %ock to ! hopes & fe>s ( almo/ e "o1 bo? 9 ,greece & ,asia4 ,x produc$ an entire *ange 9 ! position ( ,ari/otle at ,a!ns4 ,to und]/& :at t position really 01 we mu/ look at x 9 connection ) 8 ,mac$onian sympa?ies1 & ) ! contemporane\s political s5tim5t at ,a!ns4 ,x 0 9 ! middle ( ! ye> #cce ,b4,c41 t ,alex&] put d[n by =ce ! revolt ( ! ,!bans1 took _! city by assault1 demoli%$ x altoge!r 7leav+ no?+ b ! citadel call$ ,kadmeia1 occupi$ by a ,mac$onian g>rison71 & divid$ its t]ritory betwe5 two o!r ,boeotian t[ns4 ,imm$iately aft] t t]ror-/rik+ act1 he dem&$ f ! ,a!nians 7:o _h sympa?iz$ w>mly ) ,!bes1 ?\gh )\t ov]t acts ( assi/ance7 ! surr5d] ( _! pr9cipal anti-,mac$onian politicians4 ,t dem& hav+ be5 refus$1 he at fir/ prep>$ to extort compliance at ! po9t ( ! sword1 b 0 p]suad$1 n )\t difficulty1 to r5\nce su* int5tion1 & to be cont5t ) ! volunt>y exile ( ,ephialtes & ,*>idemus f ,a!ns4 ,?\gh ! unanim\s vote ( ! ,grecian ,synod at ,cor9? con/itut$ him ,imp]ator1 !re c be no d\bt t ! preval5t s5tim5t 9 ,greece t[>ds him 0 t ( fe> & dislike2 especially among ! ,a!nians1 ^: dignity 0 mo/ deeply mortifi$1 & to :om ! re/riction ( free spee* 0 ! mo/ pa9ful4#ae ,footnote #ae3 ,see ,hi/ory ( ,greece1 *ap4 xci4 pp4 #ah1 #da1 #fd4 ,n[ x 0 j at ?is mom5t 79 #cce ,b4,c47 t ,ari/otle came to ,a!ns & op5$ 8 s*ool4 ,we _c d\bt t he 0 already kn[n & e/eem$ z ! au?or ( v>i\s publi%$ writ+s4 ,b ! prom95t m>k by :i* e "o n[ di/+ui%$ him1 01 t he _h be5 = sev]al ye>s confid5tial preceptor ( ,alex&]1 & 0 /ill m or less consult$ by t pr9ce1 z well z su/a9$ by ! fri5d%ip ( ,antipat]1 vic]oy ( ,mac$onia dur+ ! k+'s abs5ce4 ,ari/otle 0 reg>d$ z philo-,mac$onian1 & to a c]ta9 ext5t1 anti-,hell5ic--! s5tim5t express$ t[>ds him 9 ! unfri5dly epigram ( ! contempor>y ,*ian poet ,!okritus4#af ,8 new s*ool1 orig9ally op5$ "u ! protection & patronage ( ,alex&] & ,antipat]1 cont9u$ to be associat$ ) _! names1 by t l>ge proportion ( ,a!nian citiz5s :o held anti-,mac$onian s5tim5ts4 ,alex&] caus$ ! /atue ( ,ari/otle to be erect$ 9 ,a!ns1#ag & s5t to him cont9ual pres5ts ( money1 usefully employ$ by ! philosoph] 9 ! prosecution ( 8 physical & zoological rese>*es1#ah z well z 9 ! pur*ase ( books4 ,moreov]1 ,ari/otle rema9$ 9 con/ant & fri5dly correspond5ce ) ,antipat]1 ! resid5t vic]oy at ,pella1#ai dur+ ! abs5ce ( ,alex&] 9 ,asia4 ,lett]s ( recomm5dation f ,ari/otle to ! ,mac$onian rul]s 7 (t5 giv5 & f\nd useful3 sev]al ( !m 7 pres]v$ & publi%$ aft]w>ds4 ,!re is ev5 reason to believe t ! son ( ,antipat]--,kass&]1 aft]w>ds vic]oy or k+ ( ,mac$onia1 0 among 8 pupils4#bj ,footnote #af3 ,diog4 ,l4 v4 #aa4 ,greek3 ,e7rmi_/ou eu7n\_/*\ 7_/d' ,eu7b\_/l\ a7_/ma d\_/l\ ,sma k5on k5o_/phrn teux5 ,a7ri/ote_/ls2 ,o7s dia tn a7krat ga/ros phu_/s9 ei7_/leto nai_/e9 ,a7nt' ,a7kadmei_/z ,borbo_/r\ e7n pro*oais4 ,cf4 ,plut>*1 ,de ,exilio1 p4 #fjc4 ,footnote #ag3 ,/ahr1 ,ari/otelia1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bij4 ,footnote #ah3 ,a!nu1 ix4 #cih2 ,pl9y1 ,h4 ,n4 viii4 c4 #af4 ,a!nu alludes to #hjj tal5ts z hav+ be5 giv5 by ,alex&] to ,ari/otle = ?is purpose4 ,pl9y tells u t ,alex&] put ?\s&s ( m5 at 8 s]vice = enquiry & inve/igation4 ,! g5]al fact is all t we c /ate ) confid5ce1 )\t pret5d+ to v]ify am\nts4 ,footnote #ai3 ,vit4 ,ari/otelis1 ,leyd51 #ahfa1 ,robbe1 pp4 #d-f2 ,ari/okles ap4 ,eusebium ,prp4 ,evang4 xv4 #b4 ,respect+ ! ,epi/les ( ,ari/otle1 & ! collection !re( by ,artemon1 see ,rose1 ,ari/oteles ,pseudepigr4 pp4 #eid-eih4 ,footnote #bj3 ,we may inf] ?is fact f ! insult+ reply made by ,alex&]1 n long be=e 8 dea?1 to ,kass&]1 :o _h j !n jo9$ him = ! fir/ "t at ,babylon1 hav+ be5 s5t by ,antipat] at ! head ( a re9=cem5t4 ,"s rec5t com]s f ,greece compla9$ to ,alex&] ( hav+ be5 ill-us$ by ,antipat]4 ,kass&] be+ pres5t at ! compla9t1 endeav\r$ to ju/ify 8 fa!r & to invalidate _! te/imony1 ^u :i* ,alex&] sil5c$ him by ! rem>k t he 0 giv+ a specim5 ( sophi/ical duplicity le>nt f ,ari/otle4 ,greek3 ,tauta e7keina sophi_/smata tn ,a7ri/ote_/l\s ei7s e7ka_/t]on tn lo_/gn1 oi7mxome_/nn1 a7n kai mikron a7dik\ntes t\s a7n?r_/p\s phante 7,plut>*1 ,alex4 #gd74 ,i h rec\nt$ else:]e h[ ! "* ( ,alex&] became gradually corrupt$ by unexampl$ success & ,asiatic influ5ces2#ba h[ he ?us came to feel less affection & e/eem = ,ari/otle1 to :om he well knew t 8 newly acquir$ imp]ial & semi-div9e pret5sions 7 n likely to be acceptable2 h[1 on occasion ( ! cruel s5t5ce pass$ on ,kalli/h5es1 he ?reat5$ ev5 to puni% ,ari/otle himself1 z hav+ recomm5d$ ,kalli/h5es1 & z sympa?iz+ ) ! same free _s2 la/ly1 h[ ,alex&] became m or less ali5at$1 n only f ! society ( ,hell5ic citiz5s1 b ev5 f 8 fai?ful vic]oy1 ! ,mac$onian ,antipat]4 ,b ^! *ang$ relations betwe5 ,ari/otle & ,alex&] did n come be=e ! notice ( ! ,a!nians1 nor alt] ! po9t ( view 9 :i* !y reg>d$ ! philosoph]2 ! r1 s9ce ! relations ( ,ari/otle ) ,antipat] cont9u$ z intimate z ev]4 ,footnote #ba3 ,hi/or4 ( ,greece1 *4 xciv4 pp4 #bia1 #cja1 #cda2 ,plut>*1 ,alex&4 c4 lv42 ,dion ,*ryso/om4 ,orat4 #fd1 p4 #cch1 ,reiske4 ,x w ?us appe>1 t ?\gh all ! pres]v$ writ+s ( ,ari/otle are imbu$ ) a ?or\ghly indep5d5t _s ( !oriz+ contemplation & lett]$ indu/ry1 uncorrupt$ by any s]vility or political bias--yet 8 position dur+ ! twelve ye>s betwe5 #cce-cbc ,b4,c4 inevitably pres5t$ him to ! ,a!nians z ! mac$oniz+ philosoph]1 p>allel ) ,phokion z ! mac$oniz+ politician1 & 9 po9t$ anti!sis to ,x5okrates at ! ,academy1 :o 0 atta*$ to ! democratical con/itution1 & refus$ k+ly pres5ts4 ,besides t enmity :i* he 0 sure to incur1 z an acute & self-?9k+ philosoph]1 f !ology & ! o!r anti-philosophical ve9s 9 ! m9ds ( ord9>y m51 ,ari/otle ?us became ! object ( unfri5dly s5tim5t f _m ,a!nian patriots1#bb :o consid]$ ! s*ool ( ,plato g5]ally z ho/ile to popul> lib]ty1 & :o _h be=e _! eyes examples ( individual ,platoni/s1 rul+ _! respective cities ) a sceptre =cibly usurp$4#bc ,footnote #bb3 ,! /atem5t ( ,ari/okles 7ap4 ,eusebium1 ,prp4 ,ev4 xv4 #b7 is d\btless j--,greek3 phan]on ou7n1 o7_/ti ka?a_/p] pollois kai a7_/llois1 ou7_/t kai ,a7ri/ote_/lei sune_/b1 dia_/ te tas pros t\s basileis phili_/z kai dia tn e7n tois lo_/gois u7p]o*_/n1 u7po tn to_/te sophi/n ph?onei/hai4 ,! l is said by ! rhetor ,ari/eides--,or4 xii4 p4 #add1 ,d9dorf4 ,i h already obs]v$ t ! phrase ( ,halbgrie*e appli$ by ,b]nays & ,w4 v4 ,humboldt to ,ari/otle 7,b]nays1 ,die ,dialoge des ,ari/oteles1 p4 #b1 p4 #acd7 is n accurate lit]ally1 unless we *oose to treat all ! ,hell5ic colonies z half-,greek4 ,8 ance/ry 0 on bo? sides fully ,hell5ic4 ,b x is true ( him1 9 ! same metaphorical s5se 9 :i* x is true ( ,phokion4 ,ari/otle 0 semi-,mac$onian 9 8 sympa?ies4 ,he _h no atta*m5t to ,hellas z an organiz$ sy/em autonom\s1 self-act+1 ) an ,hell5ic city z presid5t3 :i* atta*m5t w\ld h be5 consid]$1 by ,p]ikles1 ,ar*idamus1 & ,epame9ondas1 z "o among ! con/itu5ts indisp5sable to ,hell5ic patriotism4 ,footnote #bc3 ,qu9tilian--,declamat4 #bfh4 ,quis ignorat1 ex ips ,socratis 7quo velut fonte omnis philosophia manasse cr$itur7 s*ol evasisse tyrannos et ho/es patri su8 ,comp>e ,a!nu1 xi4 #ejh-eji4 ,su* s5tim5t 0 probably aggravat$ by ! unp>allel$ & (f5sive ,mac$onian demon/ration at ! ,olympic fe/ival ( #cbd ,b4,c4 ,x 0 on t occasion t ,alex&]1 ab\t "o ye> prior to 8 decease1 s5t d[n a =mal rescript1 :i* 0 read publicly to ! assembl$ cr[d by a h]ald ) l\d voice2 ord]+ e ,grecian city to recall all exiles :o _h be5 bani%$ by judicial s5t5ce1 & intimat+1 t if ! rescript 7 n obey$ spontane\sly1 ,antipat] w\ld be in/ruct$ to compel ! execution ( x by =ce4 ,a l>ge numb] ( ! exiles ^: re/itution 0 ?us ord]$1 7 pres5t on ! pla9 ( ,olympia1 & he>d ! ord] proclaim$1 d\btless ) undisguis$ triumph & exultation4 ,s mu* ! ke5] mu/ h be5 ! disgu/ & humiliation among ! o!r ,grecian he>]s1 :o saw ! autonomy ( ea* sep>ate city viol5tly trampl$ d[n1 )\t ev5 ! pret5ce ( enquiry1 by ?is high-h&$ s5t5ce ( ! ,mac$onian conqu]or4 ,among ! ,a!nians especially1 ! res5tm5t felt 0 pr(\nd2 & a vote 0 pass$ appo9t+ deputies to visit ,alex&] 9 p]son1 = ! purpose ( remon/rat+ aga9/ x4 ,! orator ,demo/h5es1 :o happ5$ to be nam$ ,ar*i-,!rus ( ,a!ns 7*ief ( ! solemn legation s5t to repres5t ,a!ns7 at ?is ,olympic fe/ival1 incurr$ sev]e reproa* f 8 accus] ,de9>*us1 = hav+ ev5 be5 se5 9 p]sonal conv]sation ) ! ,mac$onian (fic] :o _h arriv$ f ,asia z be>] ( ?is odi\s rescript4#bd ,footnote #bd3 ,see ! description ( ?is ev5t 9 ,hi/ory ( ,greece1 *4 xcv4 p4 #daf4 ,!re is reason = suppos+ t ,hyp]eides also 7z well z ,de9>*us7 inveigh$ aga9/ ,demo/h5es = hav+ publicly s\ght ! company ( ,nikanor at ?is ,olympic fe/ival4 ,at lea/ we "k t ,hyp]eides1 9 8 oration aga9/ ,demo/h5es1 made express allusion to ,nikanor4 ,see ,h>pokration v4 ,greek3 ,nika_/nr4 ,! exordium prefix$ to ! ,pseud-,ari/otelian ,rhetorica ad ,alex&rum1 ann\nces t disc\rse to h be5 compos$ pursuant to ! desire ( ,alex&]2 & notices especially "o message transmitt$ by him to ,ari/otle ?r\gh ,nikanor 7p4 #adbj a4 #f1 #adba a4 #bf-ch1 ,greek3 ka?a_/p] 7min e7d_/lse ,nika_/nr1 c474 ,n[ x happ5$ t ?is (fic]1 ! be>] ( ! rescript1 0 ,nikanor ( ,/ageira2#be son ( ,prox5us :o _h be5 ,ari/otle's e>ly gu>dian1 & himself ! *]i%$ fri5d or w>d1 ultimately ! son-9-law1 ( ! philosoph]4 ,we may be c]ta9 t ,ari/otle w\ld gladly embrace ! opportunity ( see+ aga9 ?is atta*$ fri5d1 return+ aft] a long abs5ce on s]vice 9 ,asia2 t he w\ld be pres5t ) him at ! ,olympic fe/ival1 p]haps receive a visit f him at ,a!ns also4 ,& ! unpopul>ity ( ,ari/otle at ,a!ns1 z id5tifi$ ) ,mac$onian imp]ial au?ority1 w\ld ?us be aggravat$ by 8 notori\s p]sonal alliance ) 8 fell[-citiz5 ,nikanor1 ! be>] ( t rescript 9 :i* su* au?ority _h be5 mo/ odi\sly manife/$4 ,footnote #be3 ,diodor4 xviii4 #h4 ,greek3 dio_/p] u7pogu_/n o7_/ntn tn ,o7lumpi_/n e7xe_/pemps5 7,alex&]7 ,greek3 ei7s tn ,e7lla_/da ,nika_/nora ton ,/ageiri_/tn1 d\s e7pi/oln p]i ts ka?o_/d\4 ,antipat]1 :5 re-di/ribut+ ! satrapies ( ! ,mac$onian empire1 aft] ! dea? bo? ( ,alex&] & ( ,p]dikkas1 appo9t$ ,nikanor prefect or satrap ( ,kappadokia 7,arrian1 ,greek3 ,ta meta ,a7le_/x&ron1 apud ,photium1 cod4 #ib1 s4#cg1 ,didot74 ,ammonius1 9 ! life ( ,ari/otle1 m5tions ,nikanor z son ( ,prox5us ( ,at>neus4 ,sextus ,empiricus alludes to ,nikanor z son-9-law ( ,ari/otle 7adv4 ,ma!maticos1 sect4 #beh4 p4 #bga1 ,fabr474 ,see ,mnage ad ,diog54 ,la]t4 v4 #ab4 ,robbe's ,life ( ,ari/otle also 7,leyd51 #ahfa1 p4 #b7 m5tions ,nikanor z son ( ,prox5us4 ,nikanor 0 appo9t$ aft]w>ds 79 #cah ,b4,c41 five ye>s lat] ?an ! dea? ( ,ari/otle7 by ,kass&]1 son ( ,antipat]1 to be comm&] ( ! ,mac$onian g>rison :i* occupi$ ,muny*ia1 z a controll+ =ce ov] ,a!ns 7,diodor4 xviii4 #fd74 ,x w be se5 9 my ,hi/ory ( ,greece 7*4 xcvi4 p4 #deh7 t ,kass&] 0 at t mom5t play+ a difficult game1 8 fa!r ,antipat] be+ j dead2 t he c\ld only get possession ( ,muny*ia by artifice1 & t x 0 important = him to entru/ ! mission to an (fic] :o already _h connections at ,a!ns2 t ,nikanor1 z adopt$ son ( ,ari/otle1 possess$ probably be=eh& acqua9tance ) ,phokion & ! o!r mac$oniz+ lead]s at ,a!ns2 s t ! ready way 9 :i* ,phokion n[ fell into co-op]ation ) him is ! m easily expla9$4 ,nikanor1 h[ev]1 0 put to dea? by ,kass&] himself1 "s mon?s aft]w>ds4 ,dur+ ! twelve or ?irte5 ye>s#bf ( ,ari/otle's tea*+ & ,alex&]'s reign1 ,a!ns 0 adm9i/]$ by mac$oniz+ citiz5s1 ) ,phokion & ,demades at _! head4 ,"u su* circum/ances1 ! enmity ( ^? :o hat$ ! imp]ial philosoph] c\ld n pass into act2 nor 0 x )9 ! contemplation ( any "o1 t only "o ye> aft] t rescript :i* insult$ ! great ,pan-,hell5ic fe/ival1 ! illu/ri\s conqu]or :o issu$ x w\ld die ( fev]1 9 ! vig\r ( 8 age & at ! height ( 8 p[] 7,june1 #cbc ,b4,c474 ,b z soon z ! news ( 8 decease1 com+ by surprise bo? on fri5ds & enemies1 became confirm$1 ! suppress$ anti-,mac$onian s5tim5t bur/ =? 9 p[]ful tide1 n m]ely at ,a!ns1 b also ?r\gh\t o!r p>ts ( ,greece4 ,!re result$ t /ruggle aga9/ ,antipat]1 kn[n z ! ,lamian w>3#bg a gallant /ruggle1 at fir/ promis+ well1 b too soon put d[n by sup]ior =ce1 & end+ 9 ! occupation ( ,a!ns by ,antipat] ) a ,mac$onian g>rison 9 ,septemb]1 #cbb ,b4,c41 z well z 9 ! ext9ction ( free spee* & free citiz5%ip by ! suicide ( ,demo/h5es & ! execution ( ,hyp]eides4 ,footnote #bf3 ,!re rema9 small fragm5ts ( an oration ( ,demades 9 def5ce ( 8 adm9i/ration1 or political activity1 = twelve ye>s--,greek3 u7per ts ddekaeti_/z 7,demad4 ,fragm4 #agi1 #cb74 ,! twelve ye>s ( ,demades1 h[ev]1 seem to be c\nt$ f ! battle ( ,*roneia 9 #cch ,b4,c42 s t !y end 9 ,b4,c4 #cbf4 ,see ,cl9ton1 ,fa/4 ,hell54 ,b4,c4 #cbf4 ,footnote #bg3 ,= ! acc\nt ( ! ,lamian w>1 see ,hi/ory ( ,greece1 *4 xcv4 pp4 #dbj-ddj4 ,z to ! 9999anti-,mac$onian s5tim5t preval5t at ,a!ns1 see ,diodorus1 xviii4 #aj4 ,dur+ ! ye> imm$iately succe$+ ! dea? ( ,alex&]1 ! anti-,mac$onian s5tim5t cont9u$ s vehem5tly prepond]ant at ,a!ns1 t sev]al ( ! lead+ citiz5s1 fri5ds ( ,phokion1 left ! city to jo9 ,antipat]1 ?\gh ,phokion himself rema9$1 oppos+ ineffectually ! movem5t4 ,x 0 dur+ ?is p]iod t ! enemies ( ,ari/otle f\nd a fav\rable opportunity = assail+ him4 ,an indictm5t on ! score ( impiety 0 pref]r$ aga9/ him by ,eurym$on ! ,hi]ophant 7*ief prie/ ( ! ,eleus9ian ,demet]71 aid$ by ,demophilus1 son ( ! hi/orian ,ephorus4 ,! ,hymn or ,pan 7/ill exi/+71 :i* ,ari/otle _h compos$ 9 commemoration ( ! dea?1 & 9 praise ( ! "*1 ( ! eunu* ,h]meias1#bh 0 arraign$ z a m>k ( impiety2 besides :i* ,ari/otle _h erect$ at ,delphi a /atue ( ,h]meias ) an honorific inscription1 & 0 ev5 alleg$ to h (f]$ sacrifices to him z to a god4 ,9 ! publi%$ writ+s ( ,ari/otle1 too1 ! accus]s f\nd v>i\s h]etical doctr9es1 suitable = su/a9+ _! indictm5t2 z1 = example1 ! decl>ation t pray] & sacrifices to ! gods 7 ( no avail4#bi ,b !re c be little d\bt t ! ,hymn1 ,ode1 or ,pan1 9 hon\r ( ,h]meias1 w\ld be m (f5sive to ! feel+s ( an ord9>y ,a!nian ?an any philosophical dogma extract$ f ! cauti\s prose compositions ( ,ari/otle4 ,x is a hymn1 ( noble ?\ght & dignifi$ measure1 address$ to ,virtue 7,greek3 ,a7ret--mascul9e or milit>y ,virtue71 9 :i* are extoll$ ! semi-div9e or h]oic p]sons :o _h f\ght1 endur$1 & p]i%$ 9 h] s]vice4 ,! "n & exploits ( ,h]meias are "h introduc$ z ! clos+ p>allel & example 9 a li/ beg9n+ ) ,hrakls1 ! ,dioskri1 ,a*illes1 & ,ajax4 ,n[ ! poet ,kalli/ratus1 9 8 memorable ,skolion1 (f]s a l complim5t to ,h>modius & ,ari/ogeiton2 & ,p9d>1 to sev]al free ,greeks ( noble family1 :o paid highly = 8 ep9ician ,odes n[ rema9+4 ,b all ! p]sons ?us complim5t$ 7 su* z _h ga9$ prizes at ! sacr$ fe/ivals1 or _h di/+ui%$ !mselves 9 o!r ways :i* ! public 7 pr$ispos$ to hon\r2 :]eas ,h]meias 0 a eunu*1 :o began by be+ a slave1 & end$ by becom+ despot ov] a free ,grecian community1 )\t any exploit conspicu\s to ! eye4 ,to _m ( ! ,a!nian public x w\ld seem insult1 & ev5 impiety1 to c\ple ,h]meias ) ! greate/ p]sonages ( ,hell5ic my?ology1 z a successful competitor = h]oic hon\rs4 ,we ne$ only read ! invective ( ,claudian aga9/ ,eutropius1 to appreciate ! incr$ible bitt]ness ( indignation & contempt1 :i* 0 sugge/$ by ! spectacle ( a eunu* & a slave ex]cis+ high public functions4#cj ,& ! "* ( a despot 01 to ! anti-mac$oniz+ ,a!nians1 h>dly less odi\s ?an ei!r ( ! o!rs comb9$ ) x 9 ,h]meias4 ,footnote #bh3 ,diog54 ,l4 v4 #e2 ,a!nu1 xv4 #fif4 ,! "n ( ,demophilus 0 m5tion$ by ,favor9us z also subscrib$ to ! indictm5t3 ?is ,demophilus 0 probably son ( ! hi/orian ,ephorus4 ,see ,val4 ,rose1 ,ari/oteles ,pseudepigraphus1 p4 #ehb4 ,he took "p aft]w>ds 9 ! indictm5t aga9/ ,phokion4 ,z an hi/orian1 he complet$ ! n>rative ( ! ,sacr$ ,w>1 :i* 8 fa!r ,ephorus _h left unf9i%$ 7,diodor4 xvi4 #ad74 ,! words ( ,a!nu1 z f> z ,i c und]/& !m1 seem to imply t he compos$ a spee* = ! ,hi]ophant ,eurym$on4 ,footnote #bi3 ,see ! passages f ,orig5 adv]s4 ,celsum1 cit$ 9 ,/ahr's ,ari/otelia1 vol4 i4 p4 #adf4 ,among ! titles ( ! lo/ works ( ,ari/otle 7,no4 #ad 9 ! ,catalogue ( ,diog5es ,la]tius1 ,no4 #i 9 t ( ! ,anonym\s2 see ,rose1 ,ari/oteles ,pseudepigraphus1 pp4 #ab-ah71 "o is ,greek3 ,p]i ,eu7*s4 ,f its position 9 ! ,catalogue1 x seems pla9ly to h be5 a dialogue2 & ! dialogues 7 ! mo/ popul> & be/-kn[n writ+s ( ,ari/otle4 ,n[ we "k f ! ,nikoma*4 ,e?ica 7x4 #h1 #aagh1 b4 #f-cb7 t ,ari/otle decl>$ all con/ructive ef=t1 & all action ) a view to ext]nal ends1 to be inconsi/5t ) ! ,div9e ,nature1 :i* 0 ble/ exclusively 9 !oriz+ & contemplation4 ,if he advocat$ ! same doctr9e 9 ! dialogue ,greek3 ,p]i ,eu7*s1 he mu/ h cont5d$ t p]sons pray+ c\ld h no additional *ance ( obta9+ ! b5efits :i* !y pray$ =2 & ?is w\ld h plac$ him 9 conflict ) ! receiv$ op9ions4 ,respect+ ! dialogue ,greek3 ,p]i ,eu7*s1 see ,b]nays1 ,die ,dialoge des ,ari/oteles1 pp4 #abj-abb2 & ,rose1 ,ari/4 ,pseudepigr4 pp4 #fg1 #fh4 ,footnote #cj3 ,omnia cess]unt1 eunu*o consule1 mon/ra3 ?is is among ! bitt] l9es ( ,claudian1 too num]\s to cite2 b !y well des]ve to be read 9 ! orig9al4 ,comp>e also1 ab\t ! anci5t s5tim5t t[>ds eunu*s1 ,h]odotus1 viii4 #ajf2 ,x5ophon1 ,cyropd4 viii4 #c4 #ae4 ,apellikon ?\ght x wor? :ile to compose a special treatise1 = ! purpose ( v9dicat+ ,ari/otle f ! asp]sions circulat$ 9 reg>d to 8 relations ) ,h]meias4 ,ari/okles speaks ( ! v9dication z successful 7ap4 ,euseb4 ,p4 ,e4 xv4 #b74 ,tak+ ^! p>ticul>s into acc\nt1 we %all see t a *>ge ?us su/a9$1 :5 pref]r$ by a v5]able prie/1 dur+ ! preval5ce ( /rong anti-,mac$onian feel+1 aga9/ a notori\s fri5d ( ,antipat] & ,nikanor1 0 q suffici5t to al>m ! prud5ce ( ! accus$4 ,ari/otle b[$ to ! /orm 7if inde$ he _h n already left ,a!ns1 along ) o!r philo-,mac$onians7 & retir$ to ,*alkis 79 ,euboea71#ca !n "u g>rison by ,antipat]4 ,an accus$ p]son at ,a!ns _h always ! option ( leav+ ! city1 at any "t be=e ! day ( trial2 ,sokrates might h retir$1 & obta9$ p]sonal security 9 ! same mann]1 if he _h *os5 to d s4 ,ari/otle mu/ h be5 s]v$1 ( c\rse1 ) due notice3 & accord+ to ,a!nian cu/om1 ! indictm5t w\ld be br\ght into c\rt 9 8 abs5ce1 z if he _h be5 pres5t2 v>i\s accus]s1 among !m ,demo*>es1#cb ! nephew ( ,demo/h5es1 w\ld probably speak 9 support ( x2 & ,ari/otle mu/ be5 f\nd guilty 9 8 abs5ce4 ,b !re is no gr\nd = believ+ t he int5d$ to ab&on ,a!ns1 & live at ,*alkis1 p]man5tly2 ! r1 inasmu* z he seems to h left n only 8 s*ool1 b 8 libr>y1 at ,a!ns "u ! *>ge ( ,!ophra/us4 ,ari/otle knew t ! ,mac$onian *iefs w\ld n =ego supremacy ov] ,greece )\t a /ruggle2 &1 be+ 9 p]sonal correspond5ce ) ,antipat] himself1 he w\ld receive direct assurance ( ?is resolution1 if assurance 7 ne$$4 ,9 a "q ( milit>y =ce1 ,ari/otle probably felt satisfi$ t ,mac$onian arms mu/ prevail2 aft] :i* ! affairs ( ,a!ns w\ld be aga9 adm9i/]$1 at lea/ 9 ! same _s1 z !y _h be5 be=e ,alex&]'s dea?1 if n ) m complete s]vility4 ,he w\ld !n h return$ ?i!r to resume 8 s*ool1 9 competition ) t ( ,plato "u ,x5okrates at ! ,academy2 = he mu/ h be5 well aw>e t ! reputation ( ,a!ns1 z c5tral he>? ( ,hell5ic lett]s & philosophy1 c\ld n be transf]r$ to ,*alkis or to any o!r city4#cc ,footnote #ca3 ,t ,*alkis 0 among ! ,grecian t[ns !n occupi$ by a ,mac$onian g>rison is ! /atem5t ( ,br&is 7,entwickelung5 d] ,grie*is*5 ,philosophie1 i4 p4 #cia1 #ahfb74 ,?\gh ,i f9d no direct au?ority = ?is /atem5t1 ,i adopt x z probable 9 ! highe/ degree4 ,footnote #cb3 ,ari/okles 7ap4 ,eusebium ,prp4 ,ev4 xv4 #b7 takes notice ( ! allegations ( ,demo*>es aga9/ ,ari/otle3 ,t lett]s ( ,ari/otle _h be5 detect$ or captur$ 7,greek3 a7lnai71 giv+ in=mation injuri\s to ,a!ns3 ,t ,ari/otle _h betray$ ,/ageira to ,philip3 ,t :5 ,philip1 aft] ! capture ( ,olyn?us1 0 sell+ into slav]y ! ,olyn?ian prison]s1 ,ari/otle 0 pres5t at ! auction 7,greek3 e7pi t\ laphuroplei_/ou71 & po9t$ out to him :i* among ! prison]s 7 m5 ( ! l>ge/ prop]ty4 ,we d n "k ^u :at f\ndation ( fact 7if ^u any7 ^! allegations 7 advanc$ by a contempor>y orator4 ,b !y are curi\s1 z illu/rat+ ! view tak5 ( ,ari/otle by 8 enemies4 ,!y mu/ h be5 deliv]$ z p>ts ( "o ( ! accusatory spee*es on ,ari/otle's trial p> contumace3 = ?is 0 ! e>lie/ occasion on :i* ,ari/otle's enemies _h ! opportunity ( publicly proclaim+ _! antipa?y aga9/ him1 & !y w\ld h>dly omit to avail !mselves ( x4 ,! ,hi]ophant1 ! pr9cipal accus]1 w\ld be support$ by o!r speak]s foll[+ him2 j z ,meltus1 ! accus] ( ,sokrates1 0 support$ by ,anytus & ,lykon4 ,! ,greek3 i7/ori_/ai ( ,demo*>es 7 n compos$ until sev5te5 ye>s aft] ?is epo*--c]ta9ly n e>li] ?an #cjf ,b4,c4--sixte5 ye>s aft] ! dea? ( ,ari/otle1 :5 8 "* 0 n prom95tly be=e ! public4 ,nev]!less ,demo*>es may possibly h includ$ ^! accusatory allegations aga9/ ! philosoph] 9 8 ,greek3 i7/ori_/ai1 z well z 9 8 publi%$ spee*4 ,8 invectives aga9/ ,antipat]1 & ! fri5ds ( ,antipat]1 7 num]\s & bitt]3--,polybius4 xii4 #ac1 #i2 ,cic]o1 ,brutus1 #hc2 comp>e ,demo*>is ,fragm5ta1 9 ,didot's ,fragm4 ,hi/oricorum ,grcorum1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ddh4 ,philn1 :o indict$ ,sophokles 7"u ! ,greek3 graph p>ano_/mn7 = ! law :i* ! latt] _h propos$ 9 #cjf ,b4,c4 aga9/ ! philosoph]s at ,a!ns1 _h be5 a fri5d ( ,ari/otle1 ,greek3 ,a7ri/ote_/l\s gn_/rimos4 ,a!nu1 xiii4 #faj4 ,footnote #cc3 ,we may apply "h ! same rem>k t ,dionysius makes ab\t ,de9>*us z a spee*-mak]2 :5 ,de9>*us retir$ to ,*alkis1 no "o w\ld s5d to ,*alkis = a spee*3 ,greek3 ,ou7 gar ei7s ,*alki_/da a7_/n t9es e7_/pleon lo_/gn *a_/r91 7 i7di_/n1 7 dmosi_/n2 ou7 gar te_/leon 7po_/r\n ou7_/t lo_/gn4 ,dionys4 ,halic4 ,d9>4 p4 #fci4 ,?is is :at w\ld probably h occurr$1 :5 ! ,lamian w> 0 f9i%$ & ! ,mac$onian g>rison in/all$ at ,a!ns1 9 ,sept4 #cbb ,b4,c4--_h ,ari/otle's life la/$ long]4 ,b 9 or ab\t t v p]iod1 a little be=e ! dea? ( ,demo/h5es1 he di$ at ,*alkis ( illness2 hav+ = "s "t be5 tr\bl$ ) indige/ion & weakness ( /oma*4#cd ,! ass]tion ( ,eumlus & o!rs t he took poison1 appe>s a m]e fiction sugge/$ by ! analogy ( ,sokrates4#ce ,"o ( 8 late/ compositions 0 a def5ce ( himself aga9/ ! *>ge ( impiety1 & aga9/ ! allegations ( 8 accus]s 7z report$ to him1 or publi%$7 9 support ( x4 ,a s5t5ce ( ?is def5ce rema9s1#cf :]e9 he po9ts out ! inconsi/5cy ( 8 accus]s 9 affirm+ t he int5d$ to hon\r ,h]meias z an immortal1 :ile he _h notori\sly erect$ a tomb1 & _h celebrat$ fun]al c]emonies to him z a mortal4 ,& 9 a lett] to ,antipat]1 he said 7among o!r ?+s7 t ,a!ns 0 a desirable resid5ce1 b t ! preval5ce ( sycophancy or false accusation 0 a sad drawback to its value2 moreov] t he _h retir$ to ,*alkis1 9 ord] t ! ,a!nians might n h ! opportunity ( s9n+ a second "t aga9/ philosophy1 z !y _h already done once1 9 ! p]son ( ,sokrates4#cg ,9 ! same or ano!r lett] to ,antipat]1 he adv]t$ to an honorific tribute :i* _h be5 vot$ to him at ,delphi be=e ! dea? ( ,alex&]1 b ! vote = :i* _h be5 s9ce resc9d$4 ,he intimat$ t ?is disappo9tm5t 0 n indiff]5t to him1 yet at ! same "t no s]i\s annoyance4#ch ,footnote #cd3 ,c5sor9us1 ,de ,die ,natali--,mnage ad ,diog54 ,la]t4 v4 #af4 ,footnote #ce3 ,diog5es ,l4 h[ev] 7v4 #h7 gave cr$it to ?is /ory1 z we may see by 8 ,epigram4 ,footnote #cf3 ,a!nu xv4 p4 #fif1 #fig4 ,probably ?is reply ( ,ari/otle 7?\gh ,zell]1 p4 #cc1 decl>es x to be spuri\s1 9 my judgm5t v gratuit\sly71 may h be5 suit$ to ! words ( ! spee* 7n pres]v$ to u7 :i* x 0 int5d$ to answ]4 ,b ! reply does n meet :at ,i conceive to h be5 ! real feel+ 9 ! m9ds ( ^? :o orig9at$ ! *>ge4 ,! logical inconsi/5cy :i* he po9ts out did n appe> an inconsi/5cy to ,greeks g5]ally4 ,ari/otle _h r5d]$ to ! deceas$ ,h]meias ! same hon\rs 7?\gh less magnific5t 9 degree7 z ,alex&] to ! deceas$ ,heph/ion1 & ! ,amphipolitans to ! deceas$ ,brasidas 7,?ucyd4 v4 #aa2 ,ari/otel4 ,e?ic4 ,nikom4 v4 #g4 #a74 ,9 bo? ^! cases a tomb 0 erect$ to ! deceas$1 imply+ mortality2 & p]man5t sacrifices 7 (f]$ to him1 imply+ immortality3 yet ^! two proce$+s did n appe> to involve any logical contradiction1 9 ! eyes ( ! wor%ipp]s4 ,t :i* (f5d$ ! ,a!nians1 really1 9 ! case ( ,ari/otle1 0 ! wor?lessness ( ,h]meias1 to :om he r5d]$ ^! prodigi\s hon\rs--eunu*1 slave1 & despot2 an assemblage ( :at !y consid]$ mean attributes4 ,! solemn measure & "* ( a ,pan 0 disgrac$ by be+ appli$ to su* a vile p]son4 ,footnote #cg3 ,ammonius1 ,vit4 ,ari/otelis1 p4 #dh1 9 ,buhle's ,ari/ot4 vol4 i42 ,mnage ad ,diog4 ,la]t4 v4 #e1 ) ! passage f ,orig5 7adv4 ,celsum7 !re cit$2 lian1 ,v4 ,h4 iii4 #cf4 ,we le>n f ,diog5es t ,!ophra/us 0 indict$ = impiety by ,agnonides2 b su* 0 ! e/eem 9 :i* ,!ophra/us 0 held1 t ! indictm5t utt]ly fail$2 & ,agnonides 0 v ne> incurr+ ! f9e :i* e accus] _h to pay1 if he did n obta9 "o-fif? ( ! suffrages ( ! ,dika/s 7,diog4 ,l4 v4 #cg74 ,n[ ,agnonides comes =w>d pr9cipally z ! vehem5t accus] ( ,phokion f\r ye>s aft] ! dea? ( ,ari/otle1 dur+ ! few mon?s ( democratical reaction br\ght ab\t by ! edicts & int]f]5ce ( ,polysp]*on 7#cah ,b4,c47 aft] ! dea? ( ,antipat] 7,hi/ory ( ,greece1 *4 xcvi4 p4 #dgg74 ,agnonides mu/ h felt himself enc\rag$ by :at _h happ5$ five ye>s be=e ) ,ari/otle1 to ?9k t he w\ld succe$ 9 a simil> *>ge aga9/ ,!ophra/us4 ,b ,!ophra/us 0 p]sonally e/eem$2 he 0 n intimately alli$ ) ,antipat]1 or directly protect$ by him2 moreov]1 he _h compos$ no hymn to a p]son l ,h]meias4 ,accord+ly1 ! indictm5t recoil$ ^u ! accus] himself4 ,footnote #ch3 lian1 ,v4 ,h4 xiv4 #a4 ,greek3 ,a7ri/ote_/ls1 e7pei_/ tis au7t\ a7phei_/leto tas psphi/hei_/sas e7n ,delphois tima_/s1 e7pi/e_/lln pros ,a7nti_/patron p]i t\_/tn1 phsi_/n--,u7per tn e7n ,delphois psphi/he_/ntn moi1 kai 7n a7ph_/rmai nun1 ou7_/ts e7_/* 7s m_/te moi spho_/dra me_/le9 au7tn1 m_/te moi mden me_/le94 ,! /atue ( ,ari/otle at ,a!ns 0 be=e ! eyes ( ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias ab\t ,a4,d4 #bjj4 ,see ,zumpt1 ,s*ol>*5 zu ,a!n1 p4 #gd4 ,9 reg>d to ! p]son & habits ( ,ari/otle1 we are in=m$ t he _h ?9 legs & small eyes2 t 9 spee* he 0 some:at lisp+2 t 8 attire 0 elegant & ev5 %[y2 t 8 table 0 well-s]v$--accord+ to 8 enemies1 luxuri\s above ! measure ( philosophy4 ,8 pleas+ & p]suasive mann]s are especially atte/$ by ,antipat]1 9 a lett]1 app>5tly ( m>k$ sympa?y & e/eem1 writt5 %ortly aft] ! philosoph]'s dea?4#ci ,he 0 deeply atta*$ to 8 wife ,py?ias1 by :om he _h a daught] :o bore ! same "n4 ,8 wife hav+ di$ aft] "s ye>s1 he !n re-m>ri$ ) a woman ( ,/ageira1 nam$ ,h]pyllis1 :o bore him a son call$ ,nikoma*us4 ,h]pyllis liv$ ) him until 8 dea?2 & ! con/ant z well z reciprocal atta*m5t betwe5 !m is atte/$ by 8 la/ w4#dj ,at ! "t ( 8 dea?1 8 daught] ,py?ias _h n yet atta9$ m>riageable age2 ,nikoma*us 0 probably a *ild4 ,footnote #ci3 ,plut>*--,alkibiad4 et ,coriolan4 ,comp4 c4 #c2 ,ari/eid4 cum ,caton4 maj4 ,comp4 c4 #b4 ,! accusation ( luxury & da9ty fe$+ 0 urg$ aga9/ him by 8 contempor>y assailant ,kephisodorus 7,eusebius1 ,pr4 ,ev4 xv4 #b72 accord+ to "s /atem5ts1 by ,plato also1 lian1 ,v4 ,h4 iii4 #ai4 ,contra/ ! epigram ( ! contempor>y poet ,!okritus ( ,*ios1 :o c5sures ,ari/otle ,greek3 dia tn a7krat ga/ros phu_/s91 ) ! satirical drama ( ! poet ,lykophron 7ap4 ,a!num1 ii4 p4 #ee71 9 :i* he d]id$ ! supp]s ( philosoph]s1 = _! co>se & unattractive food3 comp>e ! v]ses ( ,antiphanes1 ap4 ,a!n4 iii4 p4 #ih ,f42 & ,diog4 ,l4 vii4 #bg2 ,timu ap4 ,a!num1 viii4 #cdb4 ,! l9es ( ,antiphanes ap4 ,a!n4 iv4 #acdf1 seem to apply to ,ari/otle1 not)/&+ ,me9eke's rem>ks1 p4 #ei4 ,footnote #dj3 ,diog4 ,l4 v4 #a1 #ac2 ,ari/okles ap4 ,euseb4 ,pr4 ,ev4 xv4 #b4 ,! w or te/am5t ( ! philosoph] is pres]v$4#da ,its fir/ words con/itute ,antipat] 8 g5]al executor 9 ! mo/ compreh5sive t]ms1#db words well calculat$ to ensure t 8 directions %\ld be really c>ri$ into effect2 s9ce n only 0 ,antipat] n[ ! supreme pot5tate1 b ,nikanor1 ! *ief b5efici>y "u ! w1 0 9 8 s]vice & dep5d5t on 8 ord]s4 ,ari/otle !n proce$s to decl>e t ,nikanor %all become 8 son-9-law1 by m>riage ) 8 daught] ,py?ias z soon z %e %all atta9 suitable age2 also1 8 g5]al heir1 subject to c]ta9 p>ticul> beque/s & directions1 & ! gu>dian ( 8 infant son ,nikoma*us4 ,nikanor be+ at t "t on s]vice1 & p]haps 9 ,asia1 ,ari/otle directs t f\r fri5ds 7nam$ ,ari/om5es1 ,tim>*us1 ,hipp>*us1 ,diotels7 %all take provisional c>e ( ,h]pyllis1 8 two *ildr51 & 8 effects1 until ,nikanor c appe> & act3 ,!ophra/us is to be conjo9$ ) ^! f\r if he *ooses1 & if circum/ances p]mit him4#dc ,! daught] ,py?ias1 :5 %e atta9s suitable age1 is to become ! wife ( ,nikanor1 :o w take ! be/ c>e bo? ( h] & h] son ,nikoma*us1 be+ 9 ! jo9t relation ( fa!r & bro!r to !m4#dd ,if ,py?ias %all die1 ei!r be=e ! m>riage or aft] x1 b )\t leav+ (fspr+1 ,nikanor %all h discretion to make su* arrangem5ts z may be hon\rable bo? = himself & = ! te/ator respect+ ,nikoma*us & ! e/ate g5]ally4 ,9 case ( ! dea? ( ,nikanor himself1 ei!r be=e ! m>riage or )\t (fspr+1 any directions giv5 by him %all be obs]v$2 b ,!ophra/us %all be entitl$1 if he *ooses1 to become ! husb& ( ,py?ias1 & if ,!ophra/us does n *oose1 !n ! executors along ) ,antipat] %all det]m9e :at !y ?9k be/ bo? = h] & = ,nikoma*us4#de ,! w !n proce$s z foll[s3--,! executors 7"h ,antipat] is n call$ 9 to co-op]ate7 ) ,nikanor1 9 fai?ful memory ( me & ( ! /eady affection ( ,h]pyllis t[>ds me1 %all take good c>e ( h] 9 e way1 b especially if %e desires to be m>ri$1 9 giv+ h] away to "o n unwor?y ( me4 ,!y %all assign to h]1 besides :at %e has already receiv$1 a tal5t ( silv]1 & ?ree female slaves *os5 by h]self1 out ( ! prop]ty1 toge!r ) ! "y girl & ! ,pyrrhan slave n[ atta*$ to h] p]son4 ,if %e pref]s to reside at ,*alkis1 %e may occupy ! lodg+ ne> ! g>d52 if at ,/ageira1 %e may live at my pat]nal h\se4 ,:i*ev] ( ! two %e may pref]1 ! executors %all provide x ) all su* articles ( furniture z !y deem suffici5t = h] com=t & dignity4#df ,footnote #da3 ,diog4 ,l4 v4 #aa4 ,greek3 ,e7_//ai m5 eu72 e7an de_/ ti sumbai_/n1 ta_/de die_/!to ,a7ri/ote_/ls2 e7pi_/tropon men ei7nai pa_/ntn kai dia pantos ,a7nti_/patron1 c4 ,! te/am5t ( ,ari/otle 0 kn[n to ,h]mippus 7,a!nu1 xiii4 p4 #ehi7 ab\t a c5tury lat] ?an ,ari/otle1 & ! mo/ anci5t kn[n au?ority respect+ ! facts ( 8 life4 ,/ahr 7,ari/otelia1 vol4 i4 #aei7 & ,br&is 7,ari/4 p4 #fb7 suppose t :at ,diog5es gives is only an extract f ! w2 s9ce no?+ is said ab\t ! libr>y1 & ,ari/otle w\ld n omit to direct :at %\ld be done ) a libr>y :i* he s mu* valu$4 ,b to ?is ,i reply1 t !re 0 no necessity = 8 mak+ any provision ab\t ! libr>y2 he _h left x at ,a!ns along ) 8 s*ool1 9 ! c>e ( ,!ophra/us4 ,he wi%$ x to rema9 !re1 & probably consid]$ x z an app5dage to ! s*ool2 & x naturally w\ld rema9 !re1 if he said no?+ ab\t x 9 8 te/am5t4 ,we mu/ rememb] 7z ,i h already intimat$7 t :5 ,ari/otle left ,a!ns1 he only contemplat$ be+ abs5t = a "t2 & int5d$ to come back & resume 8 s*ool1 :5 ,mac$onian supremacy %\ld be re-e/abli%$4 ,footnote #db3 ,pausanias 7vi4 #d1 #e7 describes a /atue ( ,ari/otle :i* he saw at ,olympia3 ! fact by :i* ,ari/otle 0 be/ kn[n bo? to him & to ! guides1 seems to h be5 ! fri5d%ip fir/ ( ,alex&]1 next ( ,antipat]4 ,footnote #dc3 ,diog4 ,l4 v4 #ab4 ,greek3 e7_/s d' a7n ,nika_/nr katala_/b1 e7pimelei/hai ,a7ri/ome_/nn1 ,ti_/m>*on1 ,i7_/pp>*on1 ,diote_/ln1 ,!o_/phra/on1 e7an b\_/ltai kai e7nde_/*tai au7t1 tn te paidi_/n kai ,e7rpulli_/dos kai tn kataleleimme_/nn4 ,! f\r p]sons "h nam$ 7 probably pres5t at ,*alkis1 s t ,ari/otle c\ld c\nt ^u !m2 b at ! "t :5 ?is w 0 made1 ,!ophra/us 0 at ,a!ns1 conduct+ ! ,ari/otelian s*ool2 & 9 ! critical condition ( ,grecian politics1 !re 0 room = d\bt h[ f> he c\ld securely or prud5tly act 9 ?is matt]4 ,! words ( ,diog5es--,greek3 e7_/s d' a7n ,nika_/nr katala_/b--are r5d]$ 9 ! improv$ translation ( ! edition by ,firm9 ,didot1 quoad v]o ,nicanor adolescat1 c4 ,i _c ?9k ?is a correct und]/&+1 ei!r ( ! words or ( ! fact4 ,nikanor 0 n a m9or "u age1 b an (fic] on active s]vice4 ,! translation giv5 by ,mnage appe>s to me m true--tantisp] dum r$ux sit ,nicanor3 7ad4 ,d4 ,l4 v4 #ab47 ,footnote #dd3 ,diog4 ,l4 v4 #ab4 ,greek3 7s kai patr 7n kai a7delpho_/s4 ,footnote #de3 ,diog4 ,l4 v4 #ac4 ,9 foll[+ ! phraseology ( ?is te/am5t1 we rem>k t :5 ,ari/otle makes allusion to ^! inauspici\s possibilities--! dea? ( ,nikanor or ( ,py?ias1 he annexes to !m a deprecatory phrase3 ,greek3 e7an de t paidi sumb--o7 m ge_/noito ou7de e7_//ai1 c4 ,footnote #df3 ,diog4 ,l4 v4 #ad4 ,greek3 kai e7an men e7n ,*alki_/di b\_/ltai oi7kein1 ton x5na ton pros t k_/p2 e7an de e7n ,/agei_/rois1 tn patr_/an oi7ki_/an4 ,! lodg+ ne> ! g>d5 may probably h be5 ! resid5ce occupi$ by ,ari/otle himself1 dur+ 8 tempor>y resid5ce at ,*alkis4 ,! m5tion ( 8 pat]nal h\se1 :i* he /ill possess$ at ,/ageira1 seems to imply t ,philip1 :5 he de/roy$ t t[n1 respect$ ! h\se !re9 :i* _h belong$ to 8 fa!r's physician4 ,we f9d 9 ! w ( ,!ophra/us 7,diog4 ,l4 v4 #eb7 m5tion made ( a prop]ty 7,greek3 *ri_/on7 at ,/ageira belong+ to ,!ophra/us1 :i* he bequea?s to ,kall9us4 ,probably ?is is ! same prop]ty :i* _h once belong$ to ,ari/otle2 = ,i d n see h[ else ,!ophra/us 7:o 0 a native ( ,eresus 9 ,lesbos7 c\ld h become possess$ ( prop]ty at ,/ageira4 ,ari/otle proce$s to direct t ,nikanor %all make com=table provision = sev]al p]sons m5tion$ by "n1 male & female1 mo/ ( !m slaves1 b "o 7,myrmex71 seem+ly1 a free bo>d] or pupil1 ^: prop]ty he _h und]tak5 to manage4 ,two or ?ree ( ^! slaves are ord]$ to be lib]at$1 & to receive pres5ts1 z soon z 8 daught] ,py?ias %all be m>ri$4 ,he /rictly enjo9s t n "o ( ! y\?ful slaves :o att5d$ him %all be sold4 ,!y are to be br\ght up & kept 9 employm5t2 :5 ( mature age1 !y are to be lib]at$ accord+ z !y %ew !mselves wor?y4#dg ,footnote #dg3 ,diog4 ,l4 v4 #ae4 ,greek3 m plein de tn pai_/dn mde_/na tn e7me !rapeuo_/ntn1 9999a7lla *r/hai au7tois2 o7_/tan d' e7n 7liki_/a ge_/nntai1 e7leu!_/r\s a7pheinai kat' a7xi_/an4 ,ari/otle _h 9 8 lifetime ord]$1 f a sculptor nam$ ,gryllion1 bu/s ( ,nikanor & ( ! "m ( ,nikanor2 he int5d$ f>!r to ord] f ! same sculptor a bu/ ( ,prox5us1 ,nikanor's fa!r4 ,nikanor is in/ruct$ by ! w to complete ^! ord]s1 & to d$icate ! bu/s prop]ly :5 br\ght 94 ,a bu/ ( ! "m ( ,ari/otle is to be d$icat$ to ,demet] at ,nemea1 or 9 any o!r place :i* ,nikanor may pref]2 ano!r bu/ ( ,arimn/us 7bro!r ( ,ari/otle7 is to be d$icat$ z a mem5to ( ! same1 s9ce he has di$ *ildless4#dh ,footnote #dh3 ,diog4 ,l4 v4 #ae4 ,dur+ "s pa/ dang] ( ,nikanor 7we d n "k :at7 ,ari/otle _h made a v[ ( f\r m>ble animal figures1 9 case ! dang] 7 av]t$1 to ,zeus ! ,pres]v] & ,a?n ! ,pres]v]4 ,nikanor is direct$ to fulfil ?is v[ & to d$icate ! figures 9 ,/ageira4#di ,footnote #di3 ,diog4 ,l4 v4 #af4 ,greek3 a7na!inai de kai ,nika_/nora s!_/nta1 7n eu7*n u7per au7t\ u7xa_/mn1 za li_/?9a tetrap_/* ,dii ,s_/tri kai ,a7?_/na ,stei_/ra e7n ,/agei_/rois4 ,"h is a v[1 made by ,ari/otle to ! gods "u "s unkn[n previ\s em]g5cy1 :i* he ord]s 8 executor to fulfil4 ,i presume t ! la/ words ( direction giv5 by ,sokrates be=e 8 dea? to ,kriton 7 ( ! same nature3 ,we owe a cock to sculapius3 pay ! debt1 & d n fail4 7,see my prec$+ "w1 ,plato & ! o!r ,companions ( ,sokrates1 vol4 ii4 *4 #bc1 p4 #aie47 ,la/ly1 :]ev] ,ari/otle is buri$1 ! bones ( 8 deceas$ wife ,py?ias are to be collect$ & br\ght to ! same spot1 z %e _h comm&$ dur+ h] lifetime4#ej ,footnote #ej3 ,diog4 ,l4 v4 #af4 ,?is te/am5t is int]e/+1 z x illu/rates ! p]sonal circum/ances & s5tim5ts ( ! philosoph]1 ev9c+ an affectionate =e?\ght & solicitude = ^? :o 7 9 dome/ic relations ) him4 ,z f> z we c judge1 ! e/abli%m5t & prop]ty :i* he left mu/ h be5 an ample "o4#ea ,h[ ! provisions ( ! w 7 execut$1 or :at became ( mo/ p]sons nam$ 9 x1 we d n "k1 except t ,py?ias ! daught] ( ,ari/otle 0 m>ri$ ?ree times3 fir/1 to ,nikanor 7accord+ to ! w72 secondly1 to ,prokls1 desc5dant ( ,dem>atus 7! k+ ( ,sp>ta =m]ly bani%$ to ,asia7 by :om %e _h two sons1 ,prokls & ,dem>atus1 aft]w>ds pupils 9 ! s*ool ( ,!ophra/us2 ?irdly1 to a physician nam$ ,metrodrus1 by :om %e _h a son nam$ ,ari/otle4#eb ,footnote #ea3 ,! eld] ,pl9y 7,h4 ,n4 xxxv4 #ab1 #df2 comp>e also ,diog54 ,l4 v4 #a1 #af7 m5tions t 9 ! sale ( ,ari/otle's effects by 8 heirs !re 7 includ$ sev5ty di%es or pans 7pat9as1 e>!nw>e74 ,pl9y consid]$ ?is z a m>k ( luxuri\s liv+2 s9ce 7accord+ to ,f5e/ella7 tripat9ium appellabatur summam co5>um lautitia4 ,footnote #eb3 ,sextus ,empiric4 adv4 ,ma!maticos1 i4 p4 #bga ,f4 sect4 #beh4 ,ab\t ! bani%m5t1 or r volunt>y exile1 ( ,dem>atus to ,asia1 9 ! reign ( ,d>ius ,i4 k+ ( ,p]sia1 see ,h]odot4 vi4 #gj4 ,"s t[ns & l&s 7 assign$ to him 9 olis1 :]e ,x5ophon f\nd 8 desc5dant ,prokles settl$1 aft] ! conclusion ( ! ,cyreian exp$ition 7,x54 ,anab4 vii4 #h1 #ag74 ,respect+ ?is y\ng] ,ari/otle--son ( ,metrodorus & gr&son ( ! great philosoph]--m5tion is made 9 ! te/am5t ( ,!ophra/us1 & directions are giv5 = promot+ 8 improvem5t 9 philosophy 7,diog4 ,la4 v4 #ec74 ,nikoma*us 0 br\ght up *iefly by ,!ophra/us1 b p]i%$ "y 9 battle 7,ari/okles ap4 ,euseb4 ,prp4 ,ev4 xv4 #b74 ,!re exi/$ 9 antiquity sev]al works1 p>tly by contempor>ies l ! ,meg>ic ,eubulides1 p>tly by subsequ5t ,platoni/s1 9 :i* ,ari/otle 0 reproa*$ ) +ratitude to ,plato1#ec s]vility to ! ,mac$onian p[]1 love ( co/ly display & indulg5ces1 c4 ,:at proportion ( tru? may lie at ! bottom ( ^! *>ges we d n "k en\gh to det]m9e confid5tly2 b we "k t he _h _m enemies1 philosophical z well z political2#ed & controv]sy on ^? gr\nds 7!n z n[7 0 r>ely kept free f p]sonal sl&] & invective4 ,footnote #ec3 ,euseb4 ,prp4 ,ev4 xv4 #b2 ,diog4 ,la4 ii4 #aji4 ,footnote #ed3 ,! rem>kable passage ( ,!mi/ius 7,orat4 xxiii4 p4 #cdf7 atte/s ! numb] & vehem5ce ( ^! oppon5ts4 ,greek3 ,kphisodr\s te kai ,eu7b\li_/das kai ,timai_/ous kai ,dikaia_/r*\s1 kai /ra_/ton o7_/lon tn e7pi!me_/nn ,a7ri/ote_/lei t ,/ageiri_/t1 po_/t' a7n katale_/xaimi eu7pets1 7n kai lo_/goi e7xikn\ntai ei7s to_/nde ton *ro_/non1 diatr\ntes tn a7pe_/*!ian kai philoneiki_/an8 ,! accusation ( +ratitude or unbecom+ behavi\r to ,plato is no way prov$ by any evid5ce n[ rema9+4 ,x seems to h be5 sugge/$ to ! ,platoni/s ma9ly1 if n :olly1 by ! direct rivalry ( ,ari/otle 9 sett+ up a second philosophical s*ool at ,a!ns1 alongside ( ! ,academy2 by 8 indep5d5t1 self-work+1 philosophical speculation2 & by ! (t5-repeat$ opposition :i* he made to "s capital doctr9es ( ,plato1 especially to ! s-call$ ,platonic ,ideas4#ee ,su* opposition 0 inde$ express$1 z f> z we c judge1 9 t]ms ( respectful c\rtesy1 & sometimes ev5 ( affectionate regret2 examples ( :i* we %all h to notice 9 go+ ?r\gh ! ,ari/otelian writ+s4 ,yet "s ,platoni/s seem to h ?\ght t direct attack on ! ma/]'s doctr9es 0 undutiful & ungrateful 9 ! pupil1 h[ev] unexceptionable ! language might be4 ,!y also ?\ght1 probably1 t ! critic misrepres5t$ :at he s\ght to refute4 ,:e!r ,ari/otle really believ$ t he _h sup]ior claims to be made ,s*ol>* ( ! ,platonic s*ool at ! dea? ( ,plato 9 #cdg ,b4,c41 or at ! dea? ( ,speusippus 9 #cci ,b4,c41 is a po9t :i* we c nei!r affirm nor d5y4 ,b we c easily und]/& t ! act ( sett+ up a new philosophical s*ool at ,a!ns1 ?\gh p]fectly fair & admissible on 8 "p1 0 a ho/ile competition sure bo? to damage & (f5d ! pre-e/abli%$ s*ool1 & likely en\gh to be res5t$ ) unbecom+ asp]ity4 ,+ratitude t[>ds ! great common ma/] ,plato1 ) arrogant claims ( sup]iority ov] fell[-pupils1 7 ! allegations :i* ?is res5tm5t w\ld sugge/1 & :i* _m ,platoni/s 9 ! ,academy w\ld n scruple to advance aga9/ _! mac$oniz+ rival at ! ,lykeium4 ,footnote #ee3 ,?is is :at lies at ! bottom ( ! *>ges advanc$ by ,eubulides1 probably d]iv$ f ! ,platoni/s1 ,greek3 kai ,eu7b\li_/ds prod_/ls e7n t kat' au7t\ bibli_/ pseu_/detai1 pha_/skn1 teleutnti ,pla_/tni m p>ag5e_/sphai1 ta_/ te bi_/blia au7t\ diaph!irai 7,ari/okles ap4 ,euseb4 ,prp4 ,ev4 xv4 #b74 ,!re c be no possible basis = ?is la/ *>ge--de/roy+ or corrupt+ ! books ( ,plato--except t ,ari/otle _h %>ply criticiz$ !m1 & 0 suppos$ to h mis-/at$ or unfairly discr$it$ !m4 ,! frequ5tly recurr+ prote/ ( ,ari/otle aga9/ ! ,platonic doctr9e ( ,ideas may be read n[ 9 ! ,analytica1 ,topica1 ,metaphysica1 & ,e?ica ,nikoma*ea1 b 0 introduc$ ev5 9 ! lo/ ,dialogues4 ,see ,plut>* adv4 ,kolt51 c4 #ad2 & ,proklus adv4 ,joann4 ,philoponum ap4 ,b]nays1 ,die ,dialoge des ,ari/oteles1 n4 #bb1 p4 #aea4 ,su* allegations moreov] w\ld f9d easy cr$5ce f o!r m5 ( lett]s1 ^: enmity ,ari/otle _h incurr$1 & to a c]ta9 ext5t ev5 provok$--,isokrates & 8 num]\s disciples4 ,?is celebrat$ rhetor 0 an eld]ly man at ! z5i? ( 8 glory & influ5ce1 dur+ ^? e>li] ye>s :i* ,ari/otle pass$ at ,a!ns be=e ! decease ( ,plato4 ,! ,isokratean s*ool 0 !n ! fir/ 9 ,greece1 frequ5t$ by ! mo/ promis+ pupils f cities ne> & f>1 p]haps ev5 by ,ari/otle himself4 ,! political views & h&l+1 z well z ! rhetorical /yle ( :i* ! ma/] set ! example1 f\nd _m imitators4 ,illu/ri\s /atesm51 speak]s1 & writ]s trac$ _! improvem5t to ?is tea*+4 ,s _m ( ! pupils1 inde$1 acquir$ celebrity--among !m ,!odekts1 ,!opompus1 ,ephorus1 ,naukrates1 ,philiskus1 ,kephisodrus1 & o!rs--t ,h]mippus#ef ?\ght x wor? 8 :ile to draw up a catalogue ( !m3 _m mu/ h be5 p]sons ( opul5t family1 highly valu+ ! b5efit receiv$ f ,isokrates1 s9ce ea* ( !m 0 requir$ to pay to him a fee ( #ajjj dra*m4#eg ,dur+ ! fir/ soj\rn ( ,ari/otle 9 ,a!ns 7#cfb-cdg ,b4,c471 :ile he 0 /ill atta*$ to & receiv+ in/ruction f ,plato1 he appe>s to h devot$ himself m to rhetoric ?an to philosophy1 & ev5 to h giv5 public lessons or lectures on rhetoric4 ,he ?us ent]$ into rivalry ) ,isokrates1 = :om1 z a tea*] & au?or1 he contract$ dislike or contempt4 ,footnote #ef3 ,a!nu x4 p4 #dea2 ,dionys4 ,hal41 ,de ,iso ,judic4 pp4 #ehh1 #fbe4 ,greek3 ou7de gar o7 t\s ,i7sokra_/t\s ma?tas a7nagra_/phas ,e7_/rmippos1 a7kribs e7n tois a7_/llois g5o_/m5os1 u7per t\de t\ r7_/toros ou7den ei7_/rk51 e7_/x duoin t\_/to91 o7_/ti di_/k\se men ,i7sokra_/t\s1 ka?g_/sato de ,dmo/he_/n\s1 sunege_/neto de tois a7ri_//ois tn philoso_/phn4 ,see ,h]mippi ,fragm5ta ed4 ,loz9ski1 ,bonn1 #ahcb1 pp4 #db-dc4 ,cic]o1 ,de ,oratore1 ii4 #bb1 #id4 ,ecce tibi exortus e/ ,isocrates1 magi/] i/orum omnium1 cujus ludo1 tanquam ex equo ,trojano1 m]i pr9cipes exi]unt3 s$ eorum p>tim 9 pomp1 p>tim 9 acie1 illu/res esse volu]unt4 ,atqui et illi--,!opompi1 ,ephori1 ,philiski1 ,naucrat1 multique alii--+5iis diff]unt1 c4 ,comp>e also ,cic]o1 ,brutus1 #h1 #cb2 & ,dionys4 ,hal41 ,de ,isocrate ,judicium1 p4 #ecf4 ,greek3 e7piphane_//atos de g5o_/m5os tn kata ton a\7ton a7kmasa_/ntn *ro_/non1 kai t\s krati_//\s tn e7n ,a7?_/nsi_/ te kai e7n t a7_/ll ,e7lla_/di ne_/n paideu_/sas2 7n oi7 men e7n tois dikanikois e7ge_/nonto a7_/ri/oi lo_/gois1 oi7 d' e7n t politeu_/e/hai kai ta ko9a pra_/tte9 dinegkan1 kai a7_/lloi de tas ko9as tn e7ll_/nn te kai b>ba_/rn pra_/xeis a7ne_/grapsan1 c4 ,footnote #eg3 ,see ,demo/h5es1 adv4 ,lakritum1 pp4 #ibh1 #ich4 ,lakritus 0 a citiz5 ( ,phaslis--,greek3 me_/ga pragma1 ,i7sokra_/t\s ma?t_/s4 ,to h gone ?r\gh a c\rse ( tea*+ f ,isokrates1 0 evid5tly consid]$ z a di/9ction ( "s importance4 ,! composition ( ,isokrates 0 extremely elegant3 8 /ructure ( s5t5ces 0 elaborate ev5 to excess1 8 arrangem5t ( words rhy?mical1 8 phrases nicely balanc$ 9 anti!tical equipoise1 l ^? ( 8 ma/] ,gorgias2 ! recital ( 8 disc\rses prov$ highly captivat+ to ! e>4#eh ,moreov]1 he _h compos$ a book ( rhetorical precepts kn[n & e/eem$ by ,cic]o & ,qu9tilian4 ,besides su* te*nical excell5ce1 ,isokrates /rove to atta91 & to a c]ta9 ext5t actually atta9$1 a high] ord] ( m]it4 ,he famili>iz$ 8 pupils ) ?\ghts & argum5ts ( l(ty be>+ & compreh5sive int]e/2 n assi/+ !m to ga9 victory ei!r 9 any real issue tri$ be=e ! ,dika/s1 or 9 any express motion ab\t to be vot$ on by ! public assembly1 b pr$ispos+ _! m9ds to prize above all ?+s ! great ,pan-hell5ic aggregate--its indep5d5ce 9 reg>d to ext]nal =ce1 & int]nal h>mony among its con/itu5t cities1 ) a reasonable recognition ( presid5tial au?ority1 equitably divid$ betwe5 ,a!ns & ,sp>ta1 & ex]cis$ ) mod]ation by bo?4 ,he inculcat$ sob] habits & def]5ce to legal au?ority on ! "p ( ! democrats ( ,a!ns2 he impress$ ^u pr9ces1 l ,philip & ,nikokles1 ! importance ( j & mild be>+ t[>ds subjects4#ei ,su* is ! g5]al /ra9 ( ! disc\rses :i* we n[ possess f ,isokrates2 ?\gh he appe>s to h adopt$ x only 9 middle life1 hav+ begun at fir/ 9 ! m usual track ( ! logograph]--compos+ spee*es to be deliv]$ be=e ! ,dika/]y by actual pla9tiffs or def5dants1#fj & acquir+ ?us bo? reputation & pr(it4 ,8 reputation z a tea*] 0 n only ma9ta9$ b ev5 increas$ :5 he alt]$ 8 /yle2 & he made himself peculi>ly attractive to =eign pupils :o desir$ to acquire a comm& ( graceful expressions1 )\t special ref]5ce to ! ,a!nian ,assembly & ,dika/]y4 ,b 8 new /yle be+ midway betwe5 ,demo/h5es & ,plato--betwe5 ! practical advocate & politician on "o side1 & ! g5]aliz+ or speculative philosoph] on ! o!r--he incurr$ z a semi-philosoph]1 pr(ess+ to h discov]$ ! ju/e milieu1 m or less ( disp>agem5t f bo? extremes2#fa & ,ari/otle1 :ile yet a "y man 9 ! ,platonic s*ool1 rais$ an ard5t controv]sy aga9/ 8 works1 on ! gr\nd bo? ( composition & tea*+4 ,?\gh ! :ole controv]sy is n[ lo/1 !re is good gr\nd = believ+ t ,ari/otle mu/ h display$ no small acrimony4 ,he appe>s to h impugn$ ! ,isokratean disc\rses1 p>tly z conta9+ improp] dogmas1 p>tly z specim5s ( m]e unimpressive elegance1 int5d$ = %[1 pomp1 & imm$iate admiration f ! he>]--ad impl5das aures--b de/itute bo? ( compreh5sive !ory & ( applicability to any useful purpose4#fb ,kephisodrus1 an intimate fri5d & pupil ( ,isokrates1 def5d$ him 9 an express reply1 attack+ bo? ,ari/otle ! s*ol> & ,plato ! ma/]4 ,?is reply 0 9 f\r books1 & ,dionysius *>act]izes x by an epi!t ( ! highe/ praise4#fc ,footnote #eh3 ,dionysius1 :ile admir+ ,isocrates1 compla9s ( him1 & compla9s /ill m ( 8 imitators1 z some:at monoton\s1 want+ 9 flexibility & v>iety 7,de ,compos4 ,v]borum1 p4 #acd74 ,yet he pron\nces ,isokrates & ,lysias to be m natural1 %ew+ less ( craft & art ?an ,isu & ,demo/h5es 7,de ,iso ,judicium1 p4 #eib74 ,isokrates ,greek3 ton o7_/gkon ts poitiks kataskeus e7pi lo_/g\s 7_/gage philoso_/ph\s1 zl_/sas t\s p]i ,=gi_/an4 7,dionys4 ,hal4 ad ,pompeium de ,platone1 p4 #gfd2 also ,de ,iso ,judicium1 p4 #eib2 besides ! special *apt]1 p4 #ecd1 seq41 :i* he has devot$ to ,isokrates47 ,cic]o1 ,de ,oratore1 iii4 #dd1 #agc3 ,idque pr9ceps ,isocrates in/ituisse f]tur1 ut inconditam antiquorum dic5di consuetud9em delectationis atque aurium caus1 quemadmodum scribit discipulus ejus ,naucrates1 num]is ad/r+]et4 ,comp>e ,cic]o1 ,orator4 #eb1 #age1 #agf4 ,! ref]5ce to ,naucrates 7^: works h n be5 pres]v$1 ?\gh ,dionysius comm5ds 8 ,greek3 ,lo_/gos ,e7pita_/phios1 ,ars4 ,rhet4 p4 #bei7 is int]e/+1 z x %ews :at 0 said ( ,isokrates by 8 own disciples4 ,cic]o says ( ! doctr9es 9 8 own dialogue ,de ,oratore 7,epi/4 ad ,famil4 i4 #i1 #bc71 ,abhorr5t a communibus prceptis1 et omnem antiquorum1 et ,ari/oteleam et ,isocrateam1 rationem oratoriam complectuntur4 ,ab\t ! ,greek3 ,te_/*n ( ,isokrates1 see ,sp5gel1 ,greek3 ,sunagg ,te*nn 7,muni*71 pp4 #aee-agj4 ,footnote #ei3 ,dionysius ,hal4 dwells emphatically on ! l(ty morality inculcat$ 9 ! disc\rses ( ,isokrates1 & recomm5ds !m z mo/ improv+ /udy to all politicians 7,de ,isocrate ,judic4 pp4 #ecf1 #edd1 #eee1 seq47--m improv+ ?an ! writ]s purely !oretical1 among :om he probably numb]$ ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,footnote #fj3 ,dionysius ,hal4 ,de ,isocrate ,judicium1 pp4 #egf1 #egg1 ,reiske3 ,greek3 de_/smas pa_/nu pollas dikanikn lo_/gn ,i7sokratei_/n p]iphe_/re/hai_/ phs9 u7po tn bibliopln ,a7ri/ote_/ls4 ,x appe>s t ,aph>eus1 ! adopt$ son ( ,isokrates1 d5i$ t ,isokrates _h ev] writt5 any judicial orations2 :ile ,kephisodrus1 ! disciple ( ,isokrates1 9 8 reply to ,ari/otle's accusations1 admitt$ t ,isokrates _h compos$ a few1 b only a few4 ,dionysius accepts ! allegation ( ,kephisodrus & discr$its t ( ,ari/otle3 ,i1 = my "p1 believe ! allegation ( ,ari/otle1 ^u a matt] ( fact :i* he _h ! means ( kn[+4 ,cic]o also affirms 7,brutus1 xii4 #df-dh71 on ! au?ority ( ,ari/otle1 t ,isokrates di/+ui%$ himself at fir/ z a compos] ( spee*es int5d$ to be deliv]$ by actual plead]s 9 ! ,dika/]y or ,ekklesia2 & t he aft]w>ds alt]$ 8 /yle4 ,& ?is is :at ,ari/otle says 7respect+ ,isokrates7 9 ,rhetoric4 i4 #i1 #acfh1 a4 #bj1 ,greek3 o7_/p] ,i7sokra_/ts e7poi_/ei dia tn sun_/!ian t\ dikologein1 :]e ,bekk] has alt]$ ! sub/antive to ,greek3 tn a7sun_/!ian2 9 my judgm5t1 n wisely4 ,i d n p]ceive ! mean+ or p]t95ce ( ,greek3 a7sun_/!ian 9 t s5t5ce4 ,footnote #fa3 ,see ,plato1 ,eu?ydemus1 p4 #cje2 also ',plato & ! ,o!r ,companions ( ,sokrates1' vol4 i4 *4 xix4 pp4 #eeg-efc4 ,x is exactly ?is ju/e milieu :i* ,dionysius ,hal4 extols z ! mo/ wor?y ( be+ foll[$1 z be+ ,greek3 7 a7l?9 philosophi_/a4 ,de ,isocrate ,jud4 pp4 #edc1 #eeh4 ,footnote #fb3 ,cic]o1 ,de ,oratore1 iii4 #ce1 #ada4 ,itaque ipse ,ari/oteles quum flor]e ,isocratem nobilitate discipulorum vid]et1 quod ipse suas disputationes a causis =5sibus et civilibus ad inanem s]monis elegantiam tran/ulisset1 mutavit rep5te totam =mam prope discipl9 su1 v]sumque qu5dam ,philoctet paulo secus dixit4 ,ille enim 'turpe sibi ait esse tac]e1 quum b>b>os'--hic autem1 'quum ,isocratem'--'pat]etur dic]e' ,see 9999,qu9tilian1 ,in/4 ,or4 iv4 #b1 #aif2 & ,cic]o1 ,orator4 #ai1 #fb3 ,ari/oteles ,isocratem ipsum lacessivit4 ,also1 ib4 #ea1 #agb3 ,omitto ,isocratem discipulosque ejus ,ephorum et ,naucratem2 quanquam orationis faci5d et orn& auctores locupletissimi summi ipsi oratores esse debebant4 ,s$ quis omnium doctior1 quis acutior1 quis 9 rebus vel inv5i5dis vel judic&is acrior ,ari/otele fuit8 ,quis porro ,isocrati adv]satus e/ inf5sius8 ,t ,ari/otle 0 ! fir/ to assail ,isokrates1 & t ,kephisodrus wrote only 9 reply1 is expressly /at$ by ,num5ius1 ap4 ,euseb4 ,pr4 ,ev4 xiv4 #f3 ,greek3 o7 ,kphiso_/dros1 e7peid u7p' ,a7ri/ote_/l\s ballo_/m5on e7aut ton dida_/skalon ,i7sokra_/tn e7_/ra1 c4 ,qu9tilian also says1 ,in/4 ,or4 iii4 #a1 p4 #abf3 ,nam et ,isocratis pr/antissimi discipuli fu]unt 9 omni /udiorum g5]e2 eoque jam s5iore 7octavum enim et nonagesimum implevit annum7 pom]idianis s*olis ,ari/oteles prcip]e artem oratoriam coepit2 noto quidem illo 7ut traditur7 v]su ex ,philoctet frequ5t] usus3 ,greek3 ,ai7s*ron sipan me_/n1 kai ,i7sokra_/tn e7an le_/ge94 ,diog5es ,la4 7v4 #c7 ma9ta9s t ,ari/otle turn$ ! p>ody n aga9/ ,isokrates1 b aga9/ ,x5okrates3 ,greek3 ,ai7s*ron sipan1 ,x5okra_/tn d' e7an le_/ge94 ,b ! au?ority ( ,cic]o & ,qu9tilian is decid$ly pref]able4 ,:5 we recollect t ! p>ody 0 employ$ by a "y man1 z yet little kn[n1 aga9/ a tea*] advanc$ 9 age1 & greatly frequ5t$ z well z admir$ by pupils1 x w appe> suffici5tly (f5sive4 ,moreov]1 x does n seem at all p]t95t2 = ! defects ( ,isokrates1 h[ev] great !y may h be51 7 n ^? ( analogy ) ,greek3 ba_/rb>oi1 b ! direct rev]se4 ,dionysius mu/ h be5 =cibly /ruck ) ! bitt] animus display$ by ,ari/otle aga9/ ,isokrates1 :5 he makes x a reason = reject+ ! explicit av]m5t ( ,ari/otle z to a matt] ( fact3 ,greek3 kai ou7_/t' ,a7ri/ote_/lei pei_/?omai r7upai_/ne9 ton a7_/ndra b\lome_/n 7,de ,isocr4 ,jud4 p4 #egg74 ,mr4 ,cope1 9 8 ,introduction to ,ari/otle's ,rhetoric 7p4 #ci1 seq471 gives a j repres5tation ( ! probable relations betwe5 ,ari/otle & ,isokrates2 ?\gh ,i d n concur 9 ! unfav\rable op9ion :i* he expresses ab\t ! malignant influ5ce ex]cis$ by ,isokrates ^u education 9 g5]al 7p4 #dj74 ,mr4 ,cope at ! same "t rem>ks1 t ,ari/otle 9 ! ,rhetorica draws a great] numb] ( illu/rations ( excell5ces ( /yle f ,isokrates ?an f any o!r au?or 7p4 #da72 & he adds1 v truly1 t ! abs5ce ( any evid5ce ( ill feel+ t[>ds ,isokrates 9 ,ari/otle's lat] "w1 & ! exi/5ce ( su* ill feel+ z an actual fact at an e>li] p]iod1 are p]fectly reconcileable 9 !mselves 7p4 #db74 ,t ! ,rhetorica ( ,ari/otle :i* we n[ possess is a "w ( 8 lat] age1 c]ta9ly publi%$1 p]haps compos$1 dur+ 8 second resid5ce at ,a!ns1 ,i hold ) ,mr4 ,cope & o!r antec$5t critics4 ,footnote #fc3 ,a!nu1 ii4 #fj1 iii4 #abb2 ,euseb4 ,pr4 ,e4 xiv4 #f2 ,dionys4 ,h4 de ,isocrate ,judic4 p4 #egg3 ,greek3 i7kanon 7gsa_/m5os ei7nai ts a7l!i_/z bebaitn ton ,a7?naion ,kphiso_/dron1 o7s kai sunebi_/s5 ,i7sokra_/tei1 kai gnsi_/tatos a7k\/s e7ge_/neto1 kai tn a7pologi_/an tn pa_/nu ?auma/n e7n tais pros ,a7ri/ote_/l a7ntigraphais e7poi_/sato1 ,c4 ,kephisodrus1 9 ?is def5ce1 cont5d$ t y might pick out1 ev5 f ! v be/ poets & sophi/s1 ,greek3 e7n 7 du_/o ponrs ei7rme_/na4 ,?is implies t ,ari/otle1 9 attack+ ,isokrates1 _h cit$ v>i\s extracts :i* he d5\nc$ z exceptionable4 ,^! polemics ( ,ari/otle 7 begun dur+ 8 fir/ resid5ce at ,a!ns1 prior to #cdg ,b4,c41 ! ye> ( ,plato's decease1 & at ! "t :5 he 0 /ill acc\nt$ a memb] ( ! ,platonic s*ool4 ,!y exemplify ! rivalry betwe5 t s*ool & ! ,isokratean1 :i* 7 !n ! two compet+ places ( education at ,a!ns3 & we le>n t ,ari/otle1 at t "t only a half-fl$g$ ,platoni/1 op5$ on 8 own acc\nt n a new philosophical s*ool 9 competition ) ,plato1 z "s /ate1 b a new rhetorical s*ool 9 opposition to ,isokrates4#fc ,b ! case 0 diff]5t at ! latt] epo*1 #cce ,b4,c41 :5 ,ari/otle came to reside at ,a!ns = ! second "t4 ,isokrates 0 !n dead1 leav+ no successor1 s t 8 rhetorical s*ool expir$ ) him4 ,ari/otle pref]r$ philosophy to rhetoric3 he 0 no long] trammell$ by ! liv+ pres5ce & au?ority ( ,plato4 ,! ,platonic s*ool at ! ,academy /ood at t "t alone1 "u ,x5okrates1 :o1 ?\gh an e>ne/ & dignifi$ philosoph]1 0 defici5t 9 grace & 9 p]suasiv5ess1 & _h be5 criticiz$ = ?is defect ev5 by ,plato himself4 ,ari/otle possess$ ^? gifts 9 l>ge measure1 z we "k f ! te/imony ( ,antipat]4 ,by ^! circum/ances1 c\pl$ ) 8 own e/abli%$ reputation & well-gr\nd$ self-e/eem1 he 0 enc\rag$ to comm5ce a new philosophical s*ool2 a s*ool1 9 :i* philosophy =m$ ! express subject ( ! morn+ lecture1 :ile rhetoric 0 includ$ z "o among ! subjects ( m v>i$ & popul> in/ruction giv5 9 ! aft]noon4#fd ,dur+ ! twelve ensu+ ye>s1 ,ari/otle's rivalry 0 ma9ly aga9/ ! ,platoni/s or ,x5okrateans at ! ,academy2 embitt]$ on bo? sides by acrimoni\s feel+s1 :i* ^! express$ by compla9+ ( 8 +ratitude & unfairness t[>ds ! common ma/]1 ,plato4 ,footnote #fd3 ,t ,ari/otle _h a s*ool at ,a!ns be=e ! dea? ( ,plato we may see by :at ,/rabo 7xiii4 #faj7 says ab\t ,h]meias3 ,greek3 g5o_/m5os d' ,a7?_/ns9 7kroa_/sato kai ,pla_/tnos kai ,a7ri/ote_/l\s4 ,comp>e ,cic]o1 ,orator4 #df2 also ,mi*elet1 ,essai sur la ,mtaphys4 d',ari/ote1 p4 #bbg4 ,! /atem5t t ,ari/otle dur+ ,plato's lifetime tri$ to set up a rival s*ool aga9/ him1 is repeat$ by all ! biograph]s1 :o d n h[ev] believe x to be true1 ?\gh !y cite ,ari/ox5us z its w>rant4 ,i conceive t !y h mi/ak5 :at ,ari/ox5us said2 & t !y h conf\nd$ ! s*ool :i* ,ari/otle fir/ set up z a rhetor1 aga9/ ,isokrates1 ) t :i* he aft]w>ds set up z a philosoph]1 aga9/ ,x5okrates4 ,footnote #fe3 ,aulus ,gellius1 ,n4 ,a4 xx4 #e4 ,qu9tilian 7see note on p4 #ce7 puts ! rhetorical pom]idian s*ol )9 ! lifetime ( ,isokrates2 b ,ari/otle did n !n lecture on philosophy 9 ! morn+4 ,!re 7 ?us1 at ,a!ns1 ?ree di/9ct p>ties inspir$ ) unfri5dly s5tim5t t[>ds ,ari/otle3 fir/1 ! ,isokrateans2 aft]w>ds1 ! ,platoni/s2 along ) bo?1 ! anti-,mac$onian politicians4 ,h5ce we c acc\nt = :at ,!mi/ius entitles ! army ( assailants 7,greek3 /ra_/ton o7_/lon7 t fa/5$ ^u him1 = ! unfav\rable col\r+ ) :i* 8 dome/ic circum/ances are pres5t$1 & = ! necessity "u :i* he lay ( ,mac$onian protection2 s t :5 su* protection 0 nullifi$1 giv+ place to a reaction>y f]v\r1 8 resid5ce at ,a!ns became bo? disagreeable & insecure4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,ari/otelian ,,canon4 ,9 ! f\r? & fif? *apt]s ( my "w on ',plato & ! ,o!r ,companions ( ,sokrates1' ,i inve/igat$ ! "q ( ! ,platonic ,canon1 & attempt$ to det]m9e1 ^u ! be/ gr\nds op5 to u1 ! "q1 ,:at are ! real works ( ,plato8 ,i n[ propose to discuss ! l "q respect+ ,ari/otle4 ,b ! premisses = su* a discussion are mu* less simple 9 reg>d to ,ari/otle ?an 9 reg>d to ,plato4 ,z f> z ! te/imony ( antiquity goes1 we le>n t ! ,canon ( ,?rasyllus1 dat+ at lea/ f ! "t ( ! ,byzant9e ,ari/ophanes1 & probably f an e>li] "t1 0 believ$ by all read]s to conta9 ! au!ntic works ( ,plato & none o!rs2 an assemblage ( dialogues1 "s unf9i%$1 b ea* undivid$ & unbrok54 ,! only exception to unanimity 9 reg>d to ! ,platonic ,canon1 applies to t5 dialogues1 :i* 7 receiv$ by "s 7we d n "k by h[ _m1 or by :om7 z ,platonic1 b :i*1 z ,diog5es in=ms u1 7 reject$ by agreem5t ( ! mo/ kn[n & compet5t critics4 ,?is is z ne> to unanimity z c be expect$4 ,! d\bts1 n[ s multipli$1 respect+ ! au!nticity ( v>i\s dialogues includ$ 9 ! ,canon ( ,?rasyllus1 h all orig9at$ ) mod]n s*ol>s s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t c5tury1 or at lea/ s9ce ! e>li] compositions ( ,wytt5ba*4 ,x 0 my task to appreciate ! value ( ^? d\bts2 &1 9 decl9+ to be guid$ by !m1 ,i 0 at lea/ able to consid] myself z adh]+ to ! views ( all kn[n anci5t critics4 ,v diff]5t is ! case :5 we attempt to frame an ,ari/otelian ,canon1 compris+ all ! works ( ,ari/otle & none o!rs4 ,we f9d ! problem f> m complicat$1 & ! matt]s ( evid5ce at once m defective1 m unc]ta91 & m contradictory4 ,! diff]5t works n[ rema9+1 & publi%$ 9 ! ,b]l9 edition ( ,ari/otle1 are =ty-six 9 numb]4 ,b1 among ^!1 sev]al 7 disall[$ or suspect$ ev5 by "s anci5t critics1 :ile mod]n critics h ext5d$ ! l judgm5t yet f>!r4 ,( sev]al o!rs aga91 ! compon5t sections 7ei!r ! books1 9 our pres5t phraseology1 or portions !re(7 appe> to h exi/$ once z deta*$ rolls1 to h become disjo9t$ or ev5 to h p>t$ company1 & to h be5 re-arrang$ or put toge!r into aggregates1 accord+ to ! judgm5t ( critics & libr>ians4 ,examples ( su* d\btful aggregates1 or d\btful arrangem5ts1 w appe> :5 we review ! sep>ate ,ari/otelian compositions 7! ,metaphysica1 ,politica1 c474 ,x is1 h[ev]1 by "o or m ( ^! =ty-six titles t ,ari/otle is kn[n to mod]n /ud5ts1 & 0 kn[n to m$ival /ud5ts4 ,b ! case 0 v diff]5t ) anci5t lit]ati1 su* z ,erato/h5es1 ,polybius1 ,cic]o1 ,/rabo1 ,plut>*1 c41 d[n to ! "t ( ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias1 ,a!nu1 ,diog5es ,la]tius1 c41 t[>ds ! close ( ! second c5tury aft] ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,x is c]ta9 t ^! anci5ts p]us$ _m works ( ,ari/otle1 or g5]ally recogniz$ z 81 :i* we d n n[ possess2 & among ^? :i* we d n[ possess1 !re are _m :i* x is n c]ta9 t !y p]us$1 or ev5 knew4 ,diog5es ,la]tius1 aft] affirm+ g5]ally t ,ari/otle _h compos$ a prodigi\s numb] ( books 7,greek3 pa_/mplei/a bi_/blia71 proce$s to say1 t1 9 consequ5ce ( ! excell5ce ( ! au?or 9 e v>iety ( composition1 he ?9ks x prop] to indicate !m briefly4#a ,he !n enum]ates "o hundr$ & =ty-six di/9ct titles ( works1 ) ! numb] ( books or sections conta9$ 9 ea* "w4 ,! subjects are exce$+ly het]og5e\s1 & ! =m ( composition likewise v diff]5t2 ^? :i* come fir/ 9 ! li/ be+ ,dialogues1#b :ile ^? :i* come la/ are ,epi/les1 ,hexamet]s1 & ,elegies4 ,at ! close ( ! li/ we read3 ,all ( !m toge!r are #dde1bgj l9es1 & ?is is ! numb] ( books 7works7 compos$ by ,ari/otle4#c ,a little f>!r on1 ,diog5es adds1 z an evid5ce ( ! extraord9>y dilig5ce & inv5tive =ce ( ,ari/otle1 t ! books 7works7 enum]at$ 9 ! prec$+ li/ 7 ne>ly f\r hundr$ 9 numb]1 & t ^! 7 n conte/$ by any "o2 b t !re 7 _m o!r writ+s1 & dicta besides1 ascrib$ to ,ari/otle--ascrib$ 7we mu/ und]/& him to mean7 errone\sly1 or at lea/ s z to leave mu* d\bt4#d ,footnote #a3 ,diog4 ,la4 v4 #ba4 ,greek3 ,sune_/grapse de pa_/mplei/a bi_/blia1 a7_/p] a7ko_/l\?on 7gsa_/mn u7pogra_/psai1 dia tn p]i pa_/ntas lo_/g\s ta7ndros a7ret_/n4 ,footnote #b3 ,b]nays has po9t$ out 79 8 valuable treatise1 ,die ,dialoge des ,ari/oteles1 p4 #acc7 t ! fir/ 9 ord]1 n9ete5 9 numb]1 among ! titles enum]at$ by ,diog5es1 designate ,dialogues4 ,! longe/ ( !m1 ^? :i* includ$ m ?an "o book or section1 are enum]at$ fir/ ( all4 ,"s ( ! dialogues appe> to h co9cid$1 ei!r 9 title or 9 subject1 ) "s ( ! ,platonic3--,greek3 ,p]i ,dikaiosu_/ns1 9 f\r books 7comp>able ) ,plato's ,republic72 ,greek3 ,politik\1 9 two books2 ,greek3 ,sophi/s1 ,m5e_/x5os1 ,sumpo_/sion1 ea* 9 "o book2 all simil> 9 title to works ( ,plato2 p]haps also ano!r1 ,greek3 ,p]i r7toriks 7 ,gru_/llos1 ! analogue ( ,plato's ,gorgias4 ,footnote #c3 ,diog4 ,la4 v4 #bg4 ,greek3 gi_/gnontai ai7 pasai muria_/des /i_/*n te_/tt>es kai tett>a_/konta pros tois p5takis*ili_/ois kai diakosi_/ois e7bdom_/konta4 ,kai tosauta men au7t pepragma_/teutai bi_/blia4 ,footnote #d3 ,diog4 ,la4 v4 #cd4 ,heitz 7,die ,v]lor55 ,s*rift5 des ,ari/oteles1 p4 #ag7 notices1 z a fact invalidat+ ! tru/wor?9ess ( ! catalogue giv5 by ,diog5es1 t ,diog5es1 9 o!r places1 alludes to ,ari/otelian compositions :i* are n m5tion$ 9 8 own catalogue4 ,= example1 ?\gh ,diog5es1 9 ! catalogue1 all[s only five books to ! ,e?ica1 yet he himself alludes 7v4 #ba7 to ! sev5? book ( ! ,e?ica4 ,b ?is example c h>dly be reli$ ^u1 because ,greek3 e7n t e7bdo_/m tn 7?ikn is only a conjecture ( ,h4 ,/eph5s or ,mnage4 ,! only case :i* ,heitz really f9ds to su/a9 8 rem>k1 is ! passage ( ! ,prooemium 7i4 #h71 :]e ,diog5es cites ,ari/otle ,greek3 e7n t ,magik1 t "w n be+ nam$ 9 8 catalogue4 ,b !re is ano!r case 7n notic$ by ,heitz7 :i* appe>s to me /ill /rong]4 ,diog5es cites at l5g? ! ,hymn or ,pan compos$ by ,ari/otle 9 hon\r ( ,h]meias4 ,n[ !re is no g5]al head ( 8 catalogue "u :i* ?is hymn c\ld fall4 ,"h ,anonymus 7to be pres5tly m5tion$7 has a sup]iority ov] ,diog5es2 = he introduces1 t[>ds ! close ( 8 catalogue1 "o g5]al head--,greek3 e7gk_/mia 7 u7_/mn\s1 :i* is n to be f\nd 9 ,diog5es4 ,we h ano!r di/9ct enum]ation ( ! titles ( ,ari/otle's works1 prep>$ by an anonym\s biograph] cit$ 9 ! notes ( ,mnage to ,diog5es ,la]tius4#e ,?is anonym\s li/ conta9s only "o hundr$ & tw5ty-sev5 titles1 be+ n9ete5 less ?an ! li/ 9 ,diog5es4 ,! great] numb] ( titles are ! same 9 bo?2 b ,anonymus has eight titles :i* are n f\nd 9 ,diog5es1 :ile ,diog5es has tw5ty-sev5 titles :i* are n giv5 by ,anonymus4 ,!re are !re=e ?irty-five titles :i* re/ on ! evid5ce ( "o alone out ( ! two li/s4 ,anonymus does n specify any total numb] ( l9es2 nev]!less he gives ! total numb] ( books compos$ by ,ari/otle z be+ ne>ly f\r hundr$--! same z ,diog5es4 ,?is total numb] _c be elicit$ out ( ! items enum]at$ by ,anonymus2 b x may be made to co9cide pretty ne>ly ) ! items 9 ,diog5es1#f provid$ we und]/& by books1 sections or subdivisions ( "o & ! same title or "w4 ,footnote #e3 ,mnage ad ,diog4 tom4 ii4 p4 #bja4 ,see ! v in/ructive treatise ( ,pr(essor ,heitz1 ,die ,v]lor55 ,s*rift5 des ,ari/oteles1 p4 #ae 7,leipzig1 #ahfe74 ,footnote #f3 ,heitz1 ,die ,v]l4 ,s*rift4 des ,ari/ot4 p4 #ea4 ,su* co9cid5ce assumes t we reckon ! ,greek3 ,politeiai & ! ,epi/les ea* z "o book4 ,i ?9k x unnecess>y to transcribe ^! catalogues ( ! titles ( works mo/ly lo/4 ,! read] w f9d !m cle>ly pr9t$ 9 ! le>n$ "w ( ,val4 ,rose1 ,ari/oteles ,pseudepigraphus1 pp4 #ab-bj4 ,! two catalogues j m5tion$1 agree+ z !y d 9 ! total numb] ( books & 9 ! great] "p ( ! items1 may probably be consid]$ n z orig9al & copy1 b z inaccurate transcripts f ! same orig9al au?ority4 ,yet nei!r ( ! two transcrib]s tells u :at t orig9al au?ority 04 ,we may1 h[ev]1 be c]ta9 t ea* ( !m consid]$ 8 catalogue to compreh5d all t ,ari/otle c\ld be affirm$ on good au?ority to h publi%$2 ,diog5es pla9ly signifies ?us mu*1 :5 he gives n only ! total numb] ( books1 b ! total numb] ( l9es4 ,su* be+ ! case1 we expect to f9d 9 x1 ( c\rse1 ! titles ( ! =ty-six works compos+ ! ,b]l9 edition ( ,ari/otle n[ be=e u4 ,b ?is expectation is disappo9t$4 ,! f> great] numb] ( ! ,ari/otelian works :i* we n[ p]use are n specifi$ ei!r 9 ! li/ ( ,diog5es1 or 9 t ( ,anonymus4#g ,moreov]1 ! li/s also fail to specify ! titles ( v>i\s works :i* are n n[ extant1 b :i* we "k f ,ari/otle himself t he really compos$4#h ,footnote #g3 ,heitz1 ,v]l4 ,s*r4 ,ari/ot4 p4 #ah1 rem>ks t ,9 diesem ,v]zei*nisse 7t ( ,diog5es7 die bei weitem grs/e ,zahl d]j5ig5 ,s*rift5 fehlt1 wel*e wir heute no* besitz51 und die wir als d5 eig5tli*5 ,k]n d] ari/otelis*5 ,lehre en?alt5d zu betra*t5 gewohnt s9d4 ,cf4 p4 #cb4 ,br&is expresses himself sub/antially to ! same effect 7,ari/oteles1 ,b]l91 #ahec1 pp4 #gg1 #gh1 #if72 & ,zell] also 7,ges*4 d] ,phil4 #bnd ed4 ,ari/ot4 ,s*rift51 p4 #dc74 ,footnote #h3 ,heitz1 ,v]l4 ,s*r4 des ,ari/oteles1 p4 #ef1 seq4 ,! la/-m5tion$ fact is 9 itself suffici5tly /range & difficult to expla91 & our difficulty becomes aggravat$ :5 we comb9e x ) ano!r fact h>dly less surpris+4 ,bo? ,cic]o1 & o!r writ]s ( ! c5tury subsequ5t to him 7,dionysius ,hal41 ,qu9tilian1 c471 make ref]5ce to ,ari/otle1 & especially to 8 dialogues1 ( :i* none h be5 pres]v$1 ?\gh ! titles ( sev]al are giv5 9 ! two catalogues m5tion$ above4 ,^! writ]s be/[ mu* encomium on ! /yle ( ,ari/otle2 b :at is rem>kable is1 t !y ascribe to x attributes :i* ev5 8 w>me/ admir]s w h>dly f9d 9 ! ,ari/otelian works n[ rema9+4 ,cic]o extols ! sweetness1 ! abundance1 ! v>iety1 ! rhetorical =ce :i* he discov]$ 9 ,ari/otle's writ+s3 he ev5 goes s f> z to employ ! phrase flum5 orationis aureum 7a gold5 /ream ( spee*71 9 *>act]iz+ ! ,ari/otelian /yle4#i ,su* pr$icates may h be5 correct1 inde$ 7 d\btless correct1 9 reg>d to ! dialogues1 & p]haps o!r lo/ works ( ,ari/otle2 b !y describe exactly ! opposite#aj ( :at we f9d 9 all ! works pres]v$4 ,) mo/ ( ^! 7except ! ,hi/ory ( ,animals7 ,cic]o manife/s no acqua9tance2 & "s ( ! be/ mod]n critics decl>e him to h be5 ignorant ( !m4#aa ,nor d o!r anci5t au?ors1 ,plut>*1 ,a!nu1 ,diog5es ,la]tius1 c41 give evid5ce ( hav+ be5 acqua9t$ ) ! pr9cipal works ( ,ari/otle kn[n to u4 ,!y make ref]5ce only to works enum]at$ 9 ! ,catalogue ( ,diog5es ,la]tius4#ab ,footnote #i3 ,cic]o1 ,acad4 ,prior4 ii4 #ch1 #aai3 ,quum enim tuus i/e ,/oicus sapi5s syllabatim tibi i/a dix]it1 v5iet flum5 orationis aureum fund5s ,ari/oteles1 qui illum desip]e dicat4 ,also ,topica1 i4 #c4 ,quibus 7i4e4 ^? :o 7 ignorant ( ,ari/otle7 eo m9us ignosc5dum e/1 quod non modo rebus iis1 qu ab illo dict et inv5t sunt1 adlici debu]unt1 s$ dic5di quoque incr$ibili qudam quum copi1 tum suavitate4 ,also ,de ,oratore1 i4 #aa1 #di2 ,brutus1 #ca1 #aba2 ,de ,nat4 ,deor4 ii4 #cg2 ,de ,inv5tione1 ii4 #b2 ,de ,f9ibus1 i4 #e1 #ad2 ,epi/ol4 ad ,atticum1 ii4 #a1 :]e he speaks ( ! ,ari/otelia pigm5ta1 along ) ! ,greek3 muro?_/kion ( ,isokrates4 ,dionysius ,hal4 recomm5ds ! /yle ( ,ari/otle 9 equal t]ms ( admiration3 ,greek3 p>alpte_/on de kai ,a7ri/ote_/l ei7s mi_/ms9 ts te p]i tn e7rmnei_/an de9o_/ttos kai ts saphnei_/z1 kai t\ 7de_/os kai poluma?\s 7,de ,vet]4 ,script4 ,c5sur1 p4 #dcj1 ,r42 ,de ,v]b4 ,copi1 p4 #ahg74 ,qu9tilian extols ! eloqu5di suavitas among ,ari/otle's excell5ces 7,in/4 ,or4 ,x4 i4 p4 #eaj74 ,demetrius ,phal]eus 7or ! au?or :o be>s t title71 ,de ,eloqu5ti1 s4 #abh1 comm5ds ,greek3 ai7 ,a7ri/ote_/l\s *a_/rites4 ,david ! ,arm5ian1 :o speaks ( him 7hav+ ref]5ce to ! dialogue7 z ,greek3 ,a7phrodi_/ts e7nno_/m\ ge_/mn 7! correction ( ,b]nays1 ,dial4 des ,ari/4 p4 #acg7 ,greek3 kai *>i_/tn a7na_/me/os1 probably copies ! judgm5t ( pr$ecessors 7,s*olia ad ,categor4 p4 #bf1 b4 #cf1 ,br&is74 ,b]nays 7,die ,dialoge des ,ari/oteles1 pp4 #c-e7 po9ts out h[ little ju/ice has be5 done by mod]n critics to ! lit]>y m]its1 exhibit$ 9 ! dialogues & o!r works n[ lo/1 ( "o :om we "k only z a dorni*t5 und wortk>g5 ,sy/ematik]4 ,footnote #aj3 ,?is op9ion is insi/$ on by ,ravaisson1 ,essai sur la ,mtaphysique d',ari/ote1 pp4 #baj1 #baa4 ,footnote #aa3 ,val5t9e ,rose1 ,ari/oteles ,pseudepigraphus1 p4 #bc3 ,cic]o philosophicis c]te ipsius ,ari/otelis libris nunquam usus e/4 ,heitz1 ,die ,v]lor4 ,s*rift4 des ,ari/ot4 pp4 #ca1 #aeh1 #ahg3 ,cic]o1 dess5 ,unbekannts*aft mit be9ahe smmtli*5 heute vorh&55 ,w]k5 des ,ari/oteles e9e un/reitige ,?atsa*e bildet1 d]5 ,b$eutung man si* umson/ bemht hat abzus*w*54 ,madvig1 ,excursus ,,vii4 ad ,cic]on4 ,de ,f9ibus1 p4 #hee3 ,non dubito pr(it]i1 ,cic]onem mihi vid]i dialogos ,ari/otelis popul>it] scriptos1 et ,rhetorica 7quibus hic ,topica adnum]o7 tum ,greek3 politei_/z legisse2 difficiliora v]o1 quibus omnis int]ior philosophia cont9ebatur1 aut omn9o non attigisse1 aut si aliqu&o attig]it1 non longe progressum esse1 ut ipse de subtilioribus ,ari/otelis s5t5tiis aliquid hab]e possit explorati4 ,! language "h us$ by ,madvig is m precise ?an t ( ! o!r two2 = ,cic]o mu/ be all[$ to h kn[n1 & ev5 to h _h 9 8 libr>y1 ! ,topica ( ,ari/otle4 ,footnote #ab3 ,see ?is po9t en=c$ by ,heitz1 pp4 #bi-ca4 ,a!nu 7xiv4 #fef7 ref]s to a passage ( ,philo*orus1 9 :i* ,philo*orus alludes to ,ari/otle1 t is1 z critics h hi!rto suppos$1 to ,ari/ot4 ,meteorol4 iv4 #c1 #ba4 ,bussemak] 79 8 ,prfat4 ad ,ari/ot4 ,didot1 vol4 iv4 p4 xix47 has %ewn t ?is supposition is unf\nd$1 & t ! passage m probably ref]s to "o ( ! ,problemata ,in$ita 7iii4 #dc7 :i* ,bussemak] has fir/ publi%$ 9 ,didot's edition ( ,ari/otle4 ,"h1 !n1 we f9d sev]al emb>rass+ facts 9 reg>d to ! ,ari/otelian ,canon4 ,mo/ ( ! works n[ accept$ & kn[n z belong+ to ,ari/otle1 are nei!r includ$ 9 ! full ,ari/otelian ,catalogue giv5 by ,diog5es1 nor 7 !y kn[n to ,cic]o2 :o1 moreov]1 ascribes to ,ari/otle attributes ( /yle n only diff]5t1 b opposite1 to ^? :i* our ,ari/otle pres5ts4 ,besides1 m ?an tw5ty ( ! compositions ent]$ 9 ! ,catalogue are dialogues1 ( :i* =m our ,ari/otle af=ds n a s+le specim53 :ile o!rs relate to matt]s ( anci5t exploit or p]sonal hi/ory2 collect$ prov]bs2 acc\nts ( ! actual con/itution ( _m ,hell5ic cities2 li/s ( ! ,py?ian victors & ( ! sc5ic repres5tations2 erotic disc\rses2 leg5d>y n>ratives1 embodi$ 9 a miscellane\s "w call$ ',peplus'--a title p]haps borr[$ f ! ,peplus or robe ( ,a?n at ! ,pana!naic fe/ival1 embroid]$ ) v>i\s figures by ,a!nian wom52 a symposion or banquet-colloquy2 & rem>ks on intoxication4 ,all ^! subjects are =eign 9 "* to ^? :i* our ,ari/otle treats4#ac ,footnote #ac3 ,br&is & ,zell]1 moreov]1 rem>k1 t among ! allusions made by ,ari/otle 9 ! works :i* we possess to o!r works ( 8 own1 ! majority relate to o!r works actually extant1 & v few to any ( ! lo/ works enum]at$ 9 ! ,catalogue 7,br&4 ,ari/oteles1 pp4 #ig-aja2 ,zell]1 ,phil4 d] ,grie*4 ii4 #b1 p4 #gi1 ed4 #bnd74 ,?is h[ev] is n always ! case3 we f9d 7e4g47 9 ,ari/otle's notice ( ! ,py?agorean t5ets 7,metaphys4 ,a4 p4 #ihf1 a4 #ab7 ! rem>k1 ,greek3 di_/ri/ai de p]i t\_/tn e7n e7te_/rois 7min a7kribe_//]on2 :]e he probably means to indicate 8 special treatises1 ,greek3 ,p]i tn ,pu?agorei_/n & ,greek3 ,pros t\s ,pu?agorei_/ous1 enum]at$ by ,diog4 ,l4 v4 #be1 & m5tion$ by ,alex&]1 ,porphyry1 & ,simplikius4 ,see ,alex&]1 ,s*ol4 ad ,metaphys4 p4 #edb1 b4 #e1 #efj1 b4 #be1 ,br42 & ! note ( ,s*wegl] on ,metaphys4 i4 #e1 p4 #dg4 ,! difficulty ( h>moniz+ our ,ari/otle ) ! ,ari/otle ( ! ,catalogue is ?us consid]able4 ,x has be5 s /rongly felt 9 rec5t ye>s1 t "o ( ! able/ mod]n critics altoge!r dissev]s ! two1 & pron\nces ! works enum]at$ 9 ! ,catalogue n to belong to our ,ari/otle4 ,i allude to ,val5t9e ,rose1 :o 9 8 v le>n$ & in/ructive volume1 ',ari/oteles ,pseudepigraphus1' has collect$ & illu/rat$ ! fragm5ts :i* rema9 ( ^! works4 ,he consid]s !m all pseudo-,ari/otelian1 compos$ by v>i\s unkn[n memb]s ( ! ,p]ipatetic s*ool1 dur+ ! c5tury or two imm$iately succe$+ ! dea? ( ,ari/otle1 & inscrib$ ) ! illu/ri\s "n ( ! ma/]1 p>tly ?r\gh fraud ( ! sell]s1 p>tly ?r\gh c>elessness ( pur*as]s & libr>ians4#ad ,emil ,heitz1 on ! o!r h&1 has argu$ m rec5tly1 t ^u ! ext]nal evid5ce z x /&s1 a m correct conclusion to draw w\ld be 7! opposite ( t drawn by ,rose1 viz473 ,t ! works enum]at$ 9 ! ,catalogue are ! true & g5u9e2 & t ^? :i* we possess1 or mo/ ( !m1 are n really compos$ by ,ari/otle4#ae ,heitz ?9ks ?is conclusion bett] su/a9$ ?an t ( ,rose1 ?\gh he himself takes a diff]5t view1 :i* ,i %all pres5tly m5tion4 ,footnote #ad3 ,val5t4 ,rose1 ,ari/oteles ,pseudepigr4 pp4 #d-aj4 ,! same op9ion is decl>$ also 9 ! e>li] "w ( ! same au?or1 ,de ,ari/otelis ,librorum ,ord9e et ,auctoritate4 ,footnote #ae3 ,heitz1 ,die ,v]lor4 ,s*rift4 des 9999,ar4 pp4 #bi1 #cj4 ,x w be se5 f ! =ego+ obs]vations h[ mu* m difficult x is to settle a g5u9e ,canon = ,ari/otle ?an = ,plato4 ,i d n ass5t to ei!r ( ! two conclusions j indicat$2 b ,i cont5d t1 if we appli$ to ?is "q ! same pr9ciples ( judgm5t z ^? :i* mod]n ,platonic critics (t5 apply1 :5 !y all[ or disall[ dialogues ( ,plato1 we %\ld be oblig$ to embrace "o or o!r ( !m1 or at lea/ some?+ ne>ly approa*+ !reto4 ,if a critic1 aft] att5tively /udy+ ! pr9cipal compositions n[ extant ( our ,ari/otle1 ?9ks himself entitl$1 on ! fai? ( 8 acquir$ ,ari/otelis*es ,gefhl1 to decl>e t no works diff]+ mat]ially f !m 7ei!r 9 subject h&l$1 or 9 mann] ( h&l+1 or 9 degree ( excell5ce71 c h be5 compos$ by ,ari/otle--he w assur$ly be =c$ to include 9 su* rejection a l>ge proportion ( ^? indicat$ 9 ! ,catalogue ( ,diog5es4 ,especially he w be =c$ to reject ! ,dialogues--! v compositions by :i* ,ari/otle 0 be/ kn[n to ,cic]o & 8 contempor>ies4 ,= ! diff]5ce betwe5 !m & ! kn[n compositions ( ,ari/otle1 n m]ely 9 =m b 9 /yle 7! /yle be+ kn[n f ! epi!ts appli$ to !m by ,cic]o71 mu/ h be5 m m>k$ & decisive ?an t betwe5 ! ,alkibiades1 ,hippias1 ,!ages1 ,era/1 ,leges1 c4--:i* mo/ ,platonic critics n[ set aside z spuri\s--& ! ,republic1 ,protagoras1 ,gorgias1 ,philbus1 c41 :i* !y treat z indisputably g5u9e4#af ,footnote #af3 ,?us 7= example7 9 ,b]nays1 :o has display$ great acut5ess & le>n+ 9 inve/igat+ ! ,ari/otelian ,canon1 & 9 collect+ :at c be kn[n respect+ ! lo/ dialogues ( ,ari/otle1 we read ! foll[+ obs]vations3--,9 d] ,t mangelt es au* ni*t an d5 be/immte/5 ,na*ri*t5 b] die vormalige ,exi/5z e9] gross5 ari/otelis*5 ,s*rift5reihe1 die von d] jetzt erhalt55 dur* die tief/e =male ,v]s*i$5heit getr5nt w>4 ,das ,v]zei*niss ari/otelis*] ,w]ke fhrt an se9] ,spitze sieb5 und zwanzig ,bnde jetzt v]lor5] ,s*rift5 auf1 die alle 9 d] kn/l]is*5 ,gespr*s=m abgefas/ w>51 c4 7,b]nays1 ,die ,dialoge des ,ari/oteles1 p4 #b2 comp>e ibid4 p4 #cj74 ,if1 z ,b]nays ju/ly cont5ds1 we are to admit ^! v>i\s writ+s1 not)/&+ ! pr(\nd diff]5ce ( =m1 z hav+ emanat$ f ! same philosoph] ,ari/otle1 h[ are we to tru/ ! ,platonic critics :5 !y reject ab\t "o-?ird ( ! pres]v$ dialogues ( ,plato1 ?\gh !re is no diff]5ce ( =m to proce$ ^u1 b only a diff]5ce ( /yle1 m]it1 &1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 doctr9e8 ,zell] 7,die ,phil4 d] ,grie*51 ii4 #b1 pp4 #de1 #df1 #bnd ed47 rem>ks t ! dialogues compos$ by ,ari/otle are probably to be ascrib$ to ! e>li] "p ( 8 lit]>y life1 :5 he 0 /ill 7or _h rec5tly be57 ,plato's s*ol>4 ,9 discuss+ ! ,platonic ,canon1 ,i h already decl>$ t ,i consid] ^! gr\nds ( rejection to be unsafe & mislead+4 ,su* judgm5t is f>!r confirm$1 :5 we obs]ve ! consequ5ces to :i* !y w\ld conduct 9 reg>d to ! ,ari/otelian ,canon4 ,9 fact1 we mu/ le>n to admit among g5u9e works1 bo? ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 great div]sity 9 subject1 9 /yle1 & 9 excell5ce4 ,i see no gr\nd = di/ru/+ ! ,catalogue giv5 by ,diog5es1 z be+ 9 g5]al an enum]ation ( works really compos$ by ,ari/otle4 ,^! works mu/ h be5 lodg$ 9 "s great libr>y--probably ! ,alex&r9e--:]e !y 7 se5 & c\nt$1 & ! titles ( !m enroll$ by "s "o or m among ! lit]ati1 ) a specification ( ! sum total obta9$ on add+ toge!r ! l9es conta9$ 9 ea*4#ag ,i d n d5y ! probability1 t1 9 reg>d to "s1 ! libr>ians may h be5 impos$ ^u1 & t pseudo-,ari/otelian works may h be5 admitt$2 b :e!r su* 0 p>tially ! fact or n1 ! g5]al goodness ( ! ,catalogue seems to me unimpea*able4 ,z to ! au?or ( x1 ! mo/ admissible conjecture seems t ( ,br&is & o!rs1 rec5tly adopt$ & advocat$ by ,heitz3 t ! ,catalogue owes its orig9 to "o ( ! ,alex&r9e lit]ati2 probably to ,h]mippus ( ,smyrna1 a lett]$ man & a pupil ( ,kallima*us at ,alex&ria1 betwe5 #bdj-baj ,b4,c44 ,diog5es does n inde$ tell u f :om he borr[$ ! ,catalogue2 b 9 8 life ( ,ari/otle1 he m ?an once cites ,h]mippus1 z hav+ treat$ ( ,ari/otle & 8 biography 9 a "w ( "s ext5t2 & we "k f o!r s\rces t ,h]mippus _h devot$ mu* att5tion to ,ari/otle z well z to o!r philosoph]s4 ,if ,h]mippus be ! au?or ( ?is ,catalogue1 x mu/ h be5 drawn up ab\t ! same "t t ! ,byzant9e ,ari/ophanes arrang$ ! dialogues ( ,plato4 ,probably1 inde$1 ,kallima*us ! *ief libr>ian1 _h prep>$ ! way = bo? ( !m4 ,we "k t he _h drawn up compreh5sive tables1 includ+1 n only ! pr9cipal orators & dramati/s1 ) an enum]ation ( _! disc\rses & dramas1 b also v>i\s miscellane\s au?ors1 ) ! titles ( _! works4 ,we "k1 f>!r1 t he notic$ ,demokritus & ,eudoxus1 & we may feel assur$ t1 9 a s*eme ?us l>ge1 he w\ld n omit ,plato or ,ari/otle1 ! two great f\nd]s ( ! fir/ philosophical s*ools1 nor ! specification ( ! works ( ea* conta9$ 9 ! ,alex&r9e libr>y4#ah ,heitz supposes t ,h]mippus 0 ! au?or ( mo/ ( ! catalogues 7n m]ely ( ,ari/otle1 b also ( o!r philosoph]s7 giv5 by ,diog5es2#ai yet t nev]!less ,diog5es himself _h no direct acqua9tance ) ! works ( ,h]mippus1 b copi$ ^! catalogues at second-h& f "s lat] au?or1 probably ,favor9us4 ,?is la/ supposition is n[ay made out4 ,footnote #ag3 ,/ahr1 :o 9 ! fir/ volume ( 8 "w ,ari/otelia 7p4 #aid71 _h express$ an op9ion t ! ,catalogue giv5 by ,diog5es is ! ,catalogue d] eig55 ,s*ritt5 des ,/ageirit51 wie sie si* 9 se9em ,na*lasse bef&51 retracts t op9ion 9 ! second volume ( ! same "w 7pp4 #fh-gj71 & decl>es ! ,catalogue to be an enum]ation ( ! ,ari/otelian works 9 ! libr>y ( ,alex&ria4 ,tr5del5burg concurs 9 ?is lat] op9ion 7,prooemium ad ,comm5t>4 9 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 p4 #abc74 ,footnote #ah3 ,greek3 ,e7_/rmippos o7 ,kallima_/*eios e7n t pr_/t p]i ,a7ri/ote_/l\s1 is cit$ by ,a!nu1 xv4 #fif2 also v4 #bac4 ,among ! ,tables prep>$ by ,kallima*us1 "o 0 ,greek3 ,pantoda_/pn ,suggramma_/tn ,pi_/nax2 & 9 x 7 includ$ ! ,greek3 ,plak\ntopoiika suggra_/mmata ,ai7gimi_/ou1 kai 7gsi_/pp\1 kai ,mtrobi_/ou1 e7_/ti de ,phai_/t\ 7,a!nu1 xiv4 #fdd74 ,if ,kallima*us c>ri$ d[n 8 catalogue ( ! cont5ts ( ! libr>y to works s unimportant z ^!1 we may surely believe t he w\ld n omit to catalogue su* works ( ,ari/otle z 7 9 x4 ,he appe>s to h made a li/ ( ! works ( ,demokritus 7i4e4 su* z 7 9 ! libr>y7 ) a gloss>y4 ,see ,br&is 7,ari/oteles1 ,b]l91 #ahec1 p4 #gd72 also ,suidas v4 ,greek3 ,kalli_/ma*os1 ,diog54 ,la]t4 viii4 #hf2 ,dionys4 ,hal4 ,de ,d9>*o1 pp4 #fcj1 #feb ,r42 ,a!nu1 viii4 #ccf1 xv4 #ffi4 ,footnote #ai3 ,heitz1 ,die ,v]l4 ,s*r4 des ,ari/ot4 pp4 #de-dh4 ,patricius1 9 8 ,discuss4 ,p]ipatetic4 7t4 i4 pp4 #ac-ah71 _h previ\sly consid]$ ,h]mippus z hav+ prep>$ a ,catalogue ( ! works ( ,ari/otle1 p>tly on ! au?ority ( ! ,s*olion annex$ to ! conclusion ( ! ,metaphysica ( ,!ophra/us4 ,h]mippus recit$ ! te/am5t ( ,ari/otle 7,a!nu1 xiii4 #ehi74 ,bo? ,val5t9e ,rose & ,b]nays reg>d ,&ronikus z au?or ( ! ,catalogue ( ,ari/otle 9 ,diog5es4 ,b ,i ?9k t v suffici5t reasons to refute ?is supposition h be5 %[n by ,heitz1 pp4 #di-eb4 ,! op9ion giv5 by ,*ri/1 respect+ ! ,catalogue :i* we f9d 9 ,diog5es ,la]tius--illum catalogum non ,alex&r9 biblio!c1 s$ exempl>ium ,ari/otelis ab ,apelliconte ,a!nas translatorum fuisse equidem c5seo--is 9 sub/ance ! same z t ( ,rose & ,b]nays4 ,i d n concur 9 x4 7,*ri/1 ,/udia 9 ,ari/otelis ,libros ,metaphysicos1 ,b]l91 #ahec1 p4 #aje74 ,x seems ?us probable t ! ,catalogue giv5 by ,diog5es d]ives its orig9 f ,h]mippus or ,kallima*us1 enum]at+ ! titles ( su* works ( ,ari/otle z 7 conta9$ 9 ! ,alex&r9e libr>y4 ,b ! aggregate ( works compos+ our ,ari/otle is n[ay 9 h>mony ) t ,catalogue4 ,x proce$s f a s\rce indep5d5t & totally diff]5t1 viz41 ! edition & classification fir/ publi%$ by ! ,rhodian ,&ronikus1 9 ! g5]ation betwe5 ! dea? ( ,cic]o & ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,to expla9 ! exi/5ce ( ^! two di/9ct & indep5d5t s\rces & *annels1 we mu/ h rec\rse to ! rem>kable n>rative 7already notic$ 9 my *apt] on ! ,platonic ,canon71 deliv]$ ma9ly by ,/rabo & less fully by ,plut>*1 respect+ ! fate ( ! ,ari/otelian libr>y aft] ,ari/otle's dea?4 ,at ! decease ( ,ari/otle1 8 libr>y & ,,mss4 came to ,!ophra/us1 :o cont9u$ *ief ( ! ,p]ipatetic s*ool at ,a!ns = ?irty-five ye>s1 until 8 dea? 9 #bhg ,b4,c4 ,bo? ,ari/otle & ,!ophra/us n only compos$ _m works ( _! own1 b also laid out mu* money 9 pur*as+ or copy+ ! works ( o!rs2#bj especially we are told t ,ari/otle1 aft] ! dea? ( ,speusippus1 exp5d$ ?ree tal5ts 9 pur*as+ 8 books4 ,! entire libr>y ( ,!ophra/us1 ?us enri*$ f two s\rces1 0 bequea!d by 8 te/am5t to a philosophical fri5d & pupil1 ,neleus2#ba :o left ,a!ns1 & c>ri$ away ! libr>y ) him to 8 resid5ce at ! t[n ( ,skpsis1 9 ! ,asiatic region kn[n z olis1 ne> ,troad4 ,at ,skpsis ! libr>y rema9$ = ! great] "p ( two c5turies1 9 possession ( ! desc5dants ( ,neleus1 m5 ( no accompli%m5ts & no ta/e = philosophy4 ,x 0 ab\t ?irty or =ty ye>s aft] ! dea? ( ,!ophra/us t ! k+s ( ,p]gamus began to occupy !mselves 9 collect+ _! royal libr>y1 :i* pres5tly rea*$ a magnitude second only to t ( ,alex&ria4 ,n[ ,skpsis 0 "u _! dom9ion1 & x w\ld seem t ! k+s seiz$ ! books belong+ to _! subjects = ! use ( ! royal libr>y2 = we are told t ! heirs ( ,neleus 7 =c$ to conceal _! lit]>y treasures 9 a cell>1 subject to great injury1 p>tly f damp1 p>tly f worms4 ,9 ?is ru9\s hid+-place ! manuscripts rema9$ = ne>ly a c5tury & a half--blatt>um ac t9e>um epul1--until ! ,attalid dyna/y at ,p]gamus became ext9ct4 ,! la/ ( ^! k+s1 ,attalus1 di$ 9 #acc ,b4,c41 bequea?+ 8 k+dom to ! ,romans4 ,all fe> ( requisitions = ! royal libr>y be+ ?us at end1 ! manuscripts 7 9 c\rse ( "t )drawn by _! proprietors f concealm5t1 & sold = a l>ge sum to ,apellikon1 a native ( ,teos1 a v ri* resid5t at ,a!ns1 & atta*$ to ! ,p]ipatetic sect4 ,probably ?is weal?y ,p]ipatetic already possess$ a libr>y ( 8 own1 ) "s ,ari/otelian works2 b ! new acquisitions f ,skpsis1 ?\gh n 8 :ole /ock1 =m$ ! mo/ r>e & preci\s +r$i5ts 9 x4 ,"h1 !n1 ! manuscripts & libr>y bo? ( ,ari/otle & ,!ophra/us became1 = ! fir/ "t s9ce #bhg ,b4,c41 op5 to ! inspection ( ! ,a!nian ,p]ipatetics ( ! "t 7ab\t #ajj ,b4,c471 z well z ( o!r le>n$ m54 ,among ! /ock 7 conta9$ _m compositions :i* ! ,s*ol>*s1 successors ( 9999,!ophra/us at ,a!ns1 _h nei!r possess$ nor kn[n4#bb ,b ! manuscripts 7 f\nd imp]fect1 s]i\sly damag$1 & 9 a /ate ( disord]4 ,apellikon did 8 be/ to rem$y t mis*ief1 by caus+ new copies to be tak51 correct+ :at _h become worm-eat51 & supply+ :at 0 defective or illegible4 ,he appe>s to h be5 an erudite man1 & _h publi%$ a biography ( ,ari/otle1 refut+ v>i\s calumnies advanc$ by o!r biograph]s2 b be+ 79 ! words ( ,/rabo7 a lov] ( books r ?an a philosoph]1 he p]=m$ ! "w ( correction s unskilfully1 t ! copies :i* he publi%$ 7 f\nd full ( errors4#bc ,9 ! ye> #hf ,b4,c41 ,sylla besieg$ ,a!ns1 & captur$ x by /orm2 n long aft] :i* he took to himself z a p]quisite ! libr>y ( ,apellikon1 & transport$ x to ,rome4#bd ,x 0 !re pres]v$ "u cu/ody ( a libr>ian1 & v>i\s lit]>y ,greeks resid5t at ,rome obta9$ access to x1 especially ,tyrannion1 ! fri5d ( ,cic]o & a w>m admir] ( ,ari/otle1 :o took peculi> pa9s to ga9 ! fav\r ( ! libr>ian4#be ,x 0 !re also t ! ,rhodian ,&ronikus obta9$ access to ! ,ari/otelian works4#bf ,he classifi$ !m to a great degree anew1 putt+ 9 juxtaposition ! treatises mo/ analog\s 9 subject2#bg moreov]1 he correct$ ! text1 & publi%$ a new edition ( ! manuscripts1 ) a tabulat$ li/4 ,?is 0 all ! m necess>y1 because "s booksell]s at ,rome1 aim+ only at sale & pr(it1 _h employ$ bad writ]s1 & circulat$ inaccurate copies1 n collat$ ) ! orig9als4#bh ,^! orig9als1 h[ev]1 7 s damag$1 & ! re/itutions made by ,apellikon 7 s injudici\s1 t ! m c>eful critics :o n[ /udi$ !m 7 (t5 driv5 to proce$ on m]e probable evid5ce4 ,footnote #bj3 ,diog4 ,l4 iv4 #e2 ,aulus ,gellius1 ,n4 ,a4 iii4 #ag4 ,footnote #ba3 ,f a passage ( ,lucian 7,de ,p>asito1 c4 xxxv47 we le>n t ,ari/ox5us spoke ( himself z fri5d & gue/ ( ,neleus3 ,greek3 kai ti_/s p]i t\_/t\ le_/gei8 ,polloi men kai a7_/lloi1 ,a7ri/o_/x5os de o7 m\siko_/s1 poll\ lo_/g\ a7_/xios kai au7tos de p>a_/sitos ,n_/les 7n4 ,footnote #bb3 ,/rabo1 xiii4 #fjh1 #fji2 ,a!nu1 v4 #bad4 ,! n>rative ( ,/rabo has be5 (t5 misund]/ood & impugn$1 z if he _h ass]t$ t none ( ! ma9 works ( ,ari/otle _h ev] be5 publi%$ until !y 7 ?us exhum$ by ,apellikon4 ,?is is ! suppos$ allegation :i* ,/ahr1 ,zell]1 & o!rs h tak5 s mu* pa9s to refute4 ,b 9 reality ,/rabo says no su* ?+4 ,8 words affirm or imply ! direct contr>y1 viz41 t _m works ( ,ari/otle1 n m]ely ! exot]ic works b o!rs besides1 _h be5 publi%$ e>li] ?an ! pur*ase made by ,apellikon4 ,:at ,/rabo says is1 t few ( ^! works 7 9 possession ( ! ,p]ipatetic ,s*ol>*s at ,a!ns be=e ! "t ( t pur*ase2 & he expla9s ?us h[ x 0 t ^! ,s*ol>*s1 dur+ ! c5tury int]v5+1 _h paid little att5tion to ! pr(\nd & ab/ruse speculations ( ,ari/otle2 h[ x 0 t !y _h conf9$ !mselves to dialectic & rhetorical debate on special problems4 ,i see no gr\nd = call+ 9 "q ! fact affirm$ by ,/rabo--! pov]ty ( ! ,p]ipatetic s*ool-libr>y at ,a!ns2 ?\gh he may p]haps h assign$ a great] importance to t fact ?an x des]ves1 z a means ( expla9+ ! intellectual work+ ( ! ,p]ipatetic ,s*ol>*s f ,lykon to ,kritolaus4 ,! philosophical impulse ( t int]v5+ c5tury seems to h turn$ *iefly t[>ds e?ics & ! ,summum ,bonum1 ) ! conflict+ !ories ( ,platoni/s1 ,p]ipatetics1 ,/oics1 & ,epikureans !reupon4 ,footnote #bc3 ,/rabo1 xiii4 #fji4 ,greek3 7n de o7 ,a7pellikn philo_/biblos mallon 7 philo_/sophos1 dio kai ztn e7pano_/o?s9 tn diabrma_/tn1 ei7s a7nti_/grapha ka9a met_/negke tn graphn a7naplrn ou7k eu71 kai e7xe_/dk5 a7m>ta_/dn pl_/r ta bi_/blia4 ,footnote #bd3 ,/rabo1 xiii4 #fji2 ,plut>*1 ,sylla1 c4 xxvi4 ,footnote #be3 ,/rabo1 xiii4 #fji4 ,greek3 ,turanni_/n1 o7 grammatikos die*eiri_/sato phil>i/ote_/ls 7_/n1 !rapeu_/sas ton e7pi ts biblo?_/ks4 ,tyrannion _h be5 ! preceptor ( ,/rabo 7xii4 #edh72 & ,bo?us1 :o /udi$ ,ari/otle along ) ,/rabo1 0 a disciple ( ! ,rhodian ,&ronikus4 ,see ,ammonius ad ,categorias1 f4 #h2 & ,ravaisson1 ,essai sur la ,mtaphysique d',ari/ote1 ,introduction1 p4 #aj4 ,footnote #bf3 ,plut>*1 ,sylla1 c4 xxvi4 ,footnote #bg3 ,! te/imony ( ,porphyry 9 respect to ,&ronikus1 & to ! real s]vice p]=m$ by ,&ronikus1 is highly valuable4 ,porphyry 0 ! devot$ disciple & fri5d1 z well z ! lit]>y executor1 ( ,plot9us2 ^: writ+s 7 left 9 an incorrect & disord]ly condition4 ,porphyry und]took to put !m 9 ord] & publi% !m2 & he tells u t1 9 fulfill+ ?is promise1 he foll[$ ! example ( :at ,&ronikus _h done = ! works ( ,ari/otle & ,!ophra/us4 ,greek3 ,e7pei de au7tos 7,plot9us7 ,greek3 tn dio_/r?s9 kai tn dia_/tax9 tn bibli_/n poiei/hai 7min e7pe_/treps51 e7g de e7kei_/n znti u7pes*o_/mn kai tois a7_/llois e7tai_/rois e7pggeila_/mn poisai t\to1 prton men ta bi_/blia ou7 kata *ro_/n\s e7asai phu_/rdn e7kd$ome_/na e7dikai_/sa1 mimsa_/m5os d' ,a7pollo_/dron ton ,a7?naion kai ,a7ndro_/nikon ton ,p]ipattiko_/n1 7n o7 men ,e7pi_/*>mon ton kmdiogra_/phon ei7s de_/ka to_/m\s phe_/rn sun_/gag51 o7 de ta ,a7ri/ote_/l\s kai ,!ophra_//\ ei7s pragmatei_/z dieile1 tas oi7kei_/z u7po!_/seis ei7s tau7ton sunagag_/n1 ou7_/t d kai e7g p5t_/konta te_/ss>au7_/nta e7_/*n ta t\ ,plti_/n\ bi_/blia dieilon men ei7s e7x e7nnea_/das1 t teleio_/tti t\ e7x a7ri?m\ kai tais e7nnea_/s9 a7sme_/ns e7pitu*_/n1 e7ka_// de e7nnea_/di ta oi7keia phe_/rn sunepho_/rsa1 d\s kai ta_/x9 pr_/tn tois e7laphrote_/rois probl_/mas94 7,porphyry1 ,vita ,plot9i1 p4 #aag1 ,didot47 ,porphyry "h di/9ctly affirms t ,&ronikus r5d]$ ?is valuable s]vice n m]ely to ! works ( ,ari/otle1 b also to ^? ( ,!ophra/us4 ,?is is important1 z connect+ him ) ! libr>y convey$ by ,sylla to ,rome2 :i* libr>y we "k to h conta9$ ! manuscripts ( bo? ^! philosoph]s4 ,& 9 ! ,s*olion app5d$ to ! ,metaphysica ( ,!ophra/us 7p4 #cbc1 ,br&is7 we are told t ,&ronikus & ,h]mippus _h made a catalogue ( ! works ( ,!ophra/us1 9 :i* ! ,metaphysics 0 n includ$4 ,footnote #bh3 ,/rabo1 xiii4 #fji3 ,greek3 biblioplai_/ t9es grapheusi phau_/lois *r_/m5oi kai ou7k a7ntiba_/llontes1 c4 ,?is int]e/+ n>rative--deliv]$ by ,/rabo1 ! junior contempor>y ( ,&ronikus1 & probably d]iv$ by him ei!r f ,tyrannion 8 preceptor or f ! ,sidonian ,bo?us#bi & o!r philosophical companions jo9tly1 ) :om he _h prosecut$ ! /udy ( ,ari/otle--appe>s fully wor?y ( tru/4 ,! proce$+s bo? ( ,apellikon & ( ,sylla prove1 :at inde$ we might h presum$ )\t pro(1 t ! recov]y ( ^! long-lo/ orig9al manuscripts ( ,ari/otle & ,!ophra/us excit$ great s5sation 9 ! philosophical _w ( ,a!ns & ( ,rome4 ,) su* newly-acquir$ mat]ials1 a new epo* began = ! /udy ( ^! au?ors4 ,! m ab/ruse philosophical works ( ,ari/otle n[ came into ! =egr\nd "u ! auspices ( a new ,s*ol>*2 :]eas ,ari/otle _h hi!rto be5 *iefly kn[n by 8 m popul> & readable compositions4 ,( ^! la/1 probably1 copies may h be5 acquir$ to a c]ta9 ext5t by ! previ\s ,p]ipatetic ,s*ol>*s or ,s*ool at ,a!ns2 b ! ,s*ool _h be5 irrep>ably impov]i%$1 s f> z reg>d$ ! deep] speculations ( philosophy1 by ! loss ( ^? orig9al manuscripts :i* _h be5 transport$ f ,a!ns to ,skpsis4 ,:at ,ari/otelian ,s*ol>*s1 prior to ,&ronikus1 *iefly possess$ & /udi$1 ( ! productions ( _! illu/ri\s f\nd]1 7 *iefly ! exot]ic or extra-philosophical & comp>atively popul>3--su* z ! dialogues2 ! leg5d>y & hi/orical collections2 ! facts respect+ con/itutional hi/ory ( v>i\s ,hell5ic cities2 ! v>iety ( miscellane\s problems respect+ ,hom] & a numb] ( div]se matt]s2 ! treatises on animals & on anatomy1 c4#cj ,9 ! ,alex&r9e libr>y 7z we see by ! ,catalogue ( ,diog5es7 !re exi/$ all ^! & sev]al philosophical works also2 b t libr>y 0 n easily available = ! use ( ! ,s*ol>*s at ,a!ns1 :o work$ ^u _! own /ock1 conf9+ !mselves ma9ly to smoo? & elegant disc\rses on p>ticul> que/ions1 & especially to discussions1 ) ! ,platoni/s1 ,/oics1 & ,epikureans1 on ! pr9cipia ( ,e?ics1 )\t any attempt ei!r to foll[ up or to elucidate ! m pr(\nd speculations 7logical1 physical1 metaphysical1 cosmical7 ( ,ari/otle himself4 ,a mat]ial *ange took place :5 ! libr>y ( ,apellikon came to be laid op5 & /udi$1 n m]ely by lectur]s 9 ! pr(essorial *air at ,a!ns1 b also by critics l ,tyrannion & ,&ronikus at ,rome4 ,^! critics f\nd !re9 ! mo/ pr(\nd & difficult philosophical works ( ,ari/otle 9 ! h&writ+ ( ! philosoph] himself2 "s probably1 ( :i* copies may h already exi/$ 9 ! ,alex&r9e libr>y1 b "s also z yet unpubli%$4 ,! purpose ( ,&ronikus1 :o is describ$ z ,p]ipatetic ,s*ol>*1 elev5? 9 succession f ,ari/otle1 0 n simply to make a ,catalogue 7z ,h]mippus _h made at ,alex&ria71 b to r5d] a mu* great] s]vice1 :i* no critic c\ld r5d] )\t hav+ access to orig9al ,,mss41 namely1 to obta9 a correct text ( ! books actually be=e him1 to arrange ^! books 9 prop] ord]1 & !n to publi% & expla9 !m1#ca b to take no acc\nt ( o!r ,ari/otelian works 9 ! ,alex&r9e libr>y or else:]e4 ,! ,ari/otelian philosophy ?us pass$ into a new phase4 ,our editions ( ,ari/otle may be consid]$ z tak+ _! date f ?is critical ef=t ( ,&ronikus1 ) or )\t subsequ5t modifications by o!rs1 z ! case may be4 ,footnote #bi3 ,/rabo1 xvi4 #geg4 ,/ahr1 9 8 m9or "w1 ,ari/oteles unt] d5 ,rm]n1 p4 #cb1 consid]s t ?is circum/ance less5s ! cr$ibility ( ,/rabo4 ,i ?9k ! contr>y4 ,no "o 0 s likely to h /udi$ ! previ\s hi/ory ( ! ,,mss4 z ! editors ( a new edition4 ,footnote #cj3 ,/rabo1 xiii4 #fji3 ,greek3 sune_/b de tois e7k tn p]ipa_/tn tois men pa_/lai tois meta ,!o_/phra/on1 o7_/ls ou7k e7_/*\si ta bi_/blia pln o7li_/gn kai ma_/li/a tn e7xt]ikn1 mden e7_/*e9 philosophein pragmatiks1 a7lla !_/seis lku?i_/ze92 tois d' u7_//]on1 a7ph' ou7 ta bi_/blia tauta prol!n1 a7_/me9on men e7kei_/nn philosophein kai a7ri/oteli_/ze91 a7nagka_/ze/hai me_/ntoi ta polla ei7ko_/ta le_/ge9 dia to pl?os tn a7m>tin4 ,also ,plut>*1 ,sylla1 c4 xxvi4 ,! passage ( ,/rabo is s p]spicu\s & detail$1 t x has all ! air ( hav+ be5 d]iv$ f ! be/ critics :o frequ5t$ ! libr>y at ,rome1 :]e ,/rabo 0 :5 he wrote 7,greek3 kai e7_/n?ade kai e7n ,a7lex&rei_/a1 xiii4 #fji74 ,! ,p]ipatetic ,&ronikus1 :om he names among ! celebrat$ ,rhodians 7xiv4 #fee71 may h be5 among 8 in=mants4 ,8 /atem5ts ab\t ! bad /ate ( ! manuscripts2 ! unskilful em5dations ( ,apellikon2 ! contra/ betwe5 ! ve9 ( ,p]ipatetic /udy1 z x _h /ood be=e ! revelation ( ! manuscripts1 & z x came to /& aft]w>ds2 ! unc]ta9 evid5ces ^u :i* c>eful /ud5ts1 ev5 ) ! manuscripts be=e !m1 7 compell$ to proce$2 ! tone ( depreciation 9 :i* he speaks ( ! c>elessness ( booksell]s :o s\ght only = pr(it1--all ^! po9ts ( in=mation appe> to me to indicate t ,/rabo's in=mants 7 acute & dilig5t critics1 famili> ) ! libr>y1 & anxi\s bo? = ! real und]/&+ ( ^! docum5ts1 & = philosophy z an end4 ,footnote #ca3 ,plut>*1 ,sylla1 c4 xxvi4 ,sp5gel 7,ueb] die ,reih5folge d] naturwiss5s*aftli*5 ,s*rift5 des ,ari/oteles1 ,mn*54 philol4 ,abh&l4 #ahdh17 rem>ks ju/ly t ! critical arrangem5t ( ,ari/otle's writ+s1 = collective publication1 beg9s f ! libr>y ( ,apellikon at ,rome1 n f t ( ,alex&ria4 ,see p4 #adf3 ,mehr als zweihund]t ,jahre lang fehlt uns alle n"h ,kunde b] die p]ipatetis*e ,s*ule4 ,er/ mit d] viel bespro*55 ,auff9dung d] ,biblio!k des ,ari/oteles 9 ,a!n und d]5 ,wegfhrung na* ,rom dur* ,sulla wird e9 reg]es ,/udium fr die ,s*rift5 des ,philosoph5 bem]kb>--und zw> jetzt eig5tli* d] ,s*rift51 w5ig] d] ,lehre und ,philosophie im ,allgeme951 wel*e frh] alle9 bea*tet word5 i/4 ,wir m*t5 sag51 von jetzt an beg9ne das philologis*e ,/udium mit d5 ,w]k5 des ,ari/oteles1 die kritis*e und exegetis*e ,beh&lung dies] dur* ,tyrannion1 ,&ronikus1 ,adra/us und viele &re na*lfolg5de1 c4 ,! explanation j giv51 co9cid+ on _m po9ts ) ,br&is & ,heitz1 af=ds ! mo/ probable elucidation ( t obscurity :i* arises ab\t ! ,ari/otelian ,canon1 :5 we comp>e our ,ari/otle ) ! ,catalogue ( ,diog5es--! p>tial lik5ess1 b /ill great] discrepancy1 betwe5 ! two4 ,x is c]ta9 t nei!r ,cic]o#cb nor ! great ,alex&r9e lit]ati1 ant]ior to & contempor>y ) him1 knew ,ari/otle f mo/ ( ! works :i* we n[ possess4 ,!y knew him *iefly f ! dialogues1 ! matt]s ( hi/ory & leg5d1 "s zoological books1 & ! problems2 ! dialogues1 & ! hi/orical collections respect+ ! con/itutions ( ,hell5ic cities1#cc be+ m popul> & bett] kn[n ?an any o!r works4 ,:ile ! ,republic ( ,plato is famili> to !m1 !y exhibit no k ( our ,ari/otelian ,politica1 9 :i* treatise ! criticism ^u ! ,platonic ,republic is among ! mo/ int]e/+ p>ts4 ,:5 we look ?r\gh ! cont5ts ( our editions ( ,ari/otle ! /yle & mann] ( h&l+ is inde$ pretty mu* ! same ?r\gh\t1 b ! subjects w appe> extremely div]se & multif>i\s2 & ! encyclop$ical "* ( ! au?or1 z to sci5ce & its applications1 w /rike u =cibly4 ,! entire & real ,ari/otle1 h[ev]1 0 n only m encyclop$ical z to subjects h&l$1 b also m v>iable z to /yle & mann] ( h&l+2 pass+ f ! smoo?1 sweet1 & fl[+ /yle--:i* ,cic]o extols z *>act]iz+ ! ,ari/otelian dialogues--to ! elliptical brevity & obscurity :i* we n[ f9d s puzzl+ 9 ! ,de ,anim & ! ,metaphysica4#cd ,footnote #cb3 ,?is is c]ta91 f ! rem>ks address$ by ,cic]o to ,trebatius at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,cic]onian ,topica1 t 9 8 "t ,ari/otle 0 little kn[n & little /udi$ at ,rome1 ev5 by philosophical /ud5ts4 ,trebatius knew no?+ ( ! ,topica1 until he saw ! "w by *ance 9 ,cic]o's libr>y1 & ask$ in=mation ab\t ! cont5ts4 ,! reply ( ,cic]o illu/rates ! little notice tak5 ( ,ari/otle by ,roman read]s4 ,cum autem ego te1 non tam vit&i laboris mei caus1 quam quia tua id int]esse arbitr>]1 vel ut eos p] te ipse leg]es1 vel ut totam rationem a doctissimo quodam rhetore accip]es1 hortatus essem1 utrumque ut ex te audiebam1 es exp]tus4 ,s$ a libris te obscuritas rejecit3 rhetor autem ille magnus1 ut op9or1 ,ari/otelia se ignor>e respondit4 ,quod quidem m9ime sum admiratus1 eum philosophum rhetori non esse cognitum1 qui ab ipsis philosophis1 prt] admodum paucos1 ignor>etur4 ,comp>e also ,cic]o1 ,academ4 ,po/4 i4 #c1 #aj4 ,footnote #cc3 ,ev5 ! philosophical comm5tators on ,ari/otle1 su* z ,david ! ,arm5ian1 seem to h kn[n ! lo/ "w ( ,ari/otle call$ ,greek3 ,politeiai 7! hi/ory ( ! con/itutions ( #bej ,hell5ic cities71 bett] ?an ! !oretical "w :i* we possess1 call$ ! ,politica2 ?\gh !y d\btless knew bo?4 7,see ,s*olia ad ,categorias1 ,br&is1 p4 #af1 b4 #bj2 p4 #bd1 a4 #be2 p4 #be1 b4 #e47--,we read 9 ,s*neid]'s ,preface to ! ,ari/otelian ,politica 7p4 x473 ,altum et mirabile sil5tium e/ apud antiquitatem ,grcam et ,romanam de nov ,ari/otelis ,republic1 cum omnes f] scriptores ,grci et ,romani1 m5tione ,reipublic ,platonic pl5i1 vel laudibus vel vitup]iis ejus abundant4--,!re is no cle> ref]5ce to ! ,ari/otelian ,politica e>li] ?an ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias4 ,bo? ,hild5br& 7,ges*i*te d] ,/aats- und ,re*ts-,philosoph51 t4 i4 pp4 #ceh-cfa71 & ,onck5 7,/aatslehre des ,ari/ot4 pp4 #fe-ff71 ?9k t ! ,ari/otelian ,politica 0 n publi%$ until aft] ! pur*ase ( ! libr>y by ,apellikon4 ,footnote #cd3 ,:at ,/rabo ass]ts ab\t ! ,p]ipatetic ,s*ol>*s succe$+ ,!ophra/us 7viz41 ,greek3 mden e7_/*e9 philosophein pragmatiks1 a7lla !_/seis lku?i_/ze93 t !y c\ld n h&le philosophy 9 a bus9esslike way--) ^? high g5]alities & t subtle analysis :i* 0 suppos$ to belong to philosophy--b gave smoo? & ornate disc\rses on set problems or !ses7 is fully borne out by :at we read 9 ,cic]o ab\t ^! same ,p]ipatetics4 ,! ,/oics 7imm$iate successors & rivals7 accus$ _! ,p]ipatetic contempor>ies ev5 ( be+ ignorant ( ,dialectic3 :i* _! f\nd]1 ,ari/otle1 9 8 works t we n[ possess1 _h be5 ! fir/ to raise into some?+ l a sci5ce4 ,cic]o says 7,de ,f9ibus1 iii4 #ab1 #da73 ,8 igitur ita positis 7inquit ,cato7 sequitur magna cont5tio3 quam tractatam ,p]ipateticis mollius 7e/ enim eorum consuetudo dic5di non satis acuta1 propt] ignorationem ,dialectic71 ,c>neades tuus1 egregi qudam ex]citatione 9 dialecticis summque eloqu5ti1 rem 9 summum discrim5 adduxit4 ,also ,cic]o1 9 ,tuscul4 ,disput4 iv4 #e4 #i3 ,quia ,*rysippus et ,/oici1 quum de animi p]turbationibus disputant1 magnam p>tem 9 iis p>ti5dis et def9i5dis occupati sunt1 illa eorum p]exigua oratio e/1 qu m$eantur animis nec eos turbul5tos esse patiantur4 ,p]ipatetici autem ad plac&os animos multa aff]unt1 sp9as p>ti5di et def9i5di prt]mittunt4 ,?is la/ s5t5ce is almo/ an exact equival5t ( ! words ( ,/rabo3 ,greek3 mden e7_/*e9 philosophein pragmatiks1 a7lla !_/seis lku?i_/ze94 ,ari/otle himself1 9 ! works :i* we possess1 might pass z fa!r ( ! ,/oics r ?an ( ! ,p]ipatetics2 = he ab\nds 9 classification & subdivision 7sp9as p>ti5di et divid5di71 & is ev5 d]id$ on ?is v gr\nd by oppon5ts 7see ,atticus ap4 ,euseb4 ,prp4 ,ev4 xv4 #d72 b he has no?+ ( ! poli%$ amplification ascrib$ to ! lat] ,p]ipatetics by ,/rabo & ,cic]o4 ,comp>e1 ab\t ! ,p]ipatetics f ,lykon to ,kritolaus1 ,cic]o1 ,de ,f9ibus1 v4 #e3 ,lyco1 oratione locuples1 rebus ipsis jejunior4 ,plut>* 7,sylla1 c4 xxvi47 calls ^! lat] ,p]ipatetics ,greek3 *>ie_/ntes kai philo_/logoi1 c4 ,i %all assume ?is v>iety1 bo? ( subject & ( h&l+1 z a feature to be admitt$ & all[$ = 9 ,ari/otle1 :5 ,i come to discuss ! objections ( "s critics aga9/ ! au!nticity ( c]ta9 treatises among ! =ty-six :i* n[ pass "u 8 "n4 ,b 9 canvass+ ! ,ari/otelian ,canon ,i am unable to take ! same gr\nd z ,i took 9 my =m] "w1 :5 review+ ! ,platonic ,canon4 ,9 reg>d to ,plato1 ,i po9t$ out a /rong antec$5t presumption 9 fav\r ( ! ,canon ( ,?rasyllus--a canon d]iv$ orig9ally f ! ,alex&r9e libr>ians1 & su/a9$ by ! unanim\s adhesion ( antiquity4 ,9 reg>d to ,ari/otle1 !re are no simil> gr\nds ( presumption to /& ^u4 ,we h good reason = believ+ t ! works bo? ( ,plato & ,ari/otle--if n all ! works1 at lea/ _m ( !m1 & ^? ! mo/ g5]ally int]e/+--7 copi$ & transmitt$ e>ly to ! ,alex&r9e libr>y4 ,n[ our ,plato repres5ts t :i* 0 possess$ & accr$it$ z ,platonic by ! ,byzant9e ,ari/ophanes & ! o!r ,alex&r9e libr>ians2 b our ,ari/otle does n1 9 my judgm5t1 repres5t :at ^! libr>ians possess$ & accr$it$ z ,ari/otelian4 ,t :i* !y ?us accr$it$ /&s record$ 9 ! ,catalogue giv5 by ,diog5es1 probably ! "w ( ,h]mippus1 z ,i h already /at$2 :ile our ,ari/otle is traceable to ! collection at ,a!ns1 includ+ t ( ,apellikon1 ) t :i* he b\ght f ! heirs ( ,neleus1 & to ! sift+1 correction1 & classification1 appli$ !reto by able critics ( ! fir/ c5tury ,b4,c4 & subsequ5tly2 among :om ,&ronikus is be/ kn[n4 ,we may easily believe t ! libr>y ( ,apellikon conta9$ v>i\s compositions ( ,ari/otle1 :i* _h nev] be5 copi$ = ! ,alex&r9e libr>y--p]haps nev] prep>$ = publication at all1 s t ! task ( arrang+ deta*$ sections or morsels into a :ole1 ) "o sep>ate title1 /ill rema9$ to be p]=m$4 ,?is 0 mo/ likely to be ! case ) ab/rus] speculations1 l ! compon5t books ( ! ,metaphysica1 :i* ,!ophra/us may n h be5 =w>d to t5d]1 & :i* ! libr>y might n be v eag] to acquire1 hav+ already ne> f\r hundr$ o!r volumes by ! same au?or4 ,^! res]v$ works w\ld !re=e rema9 9 ! libr>y ( ,!ophra/us1 n copi$ & circulat$ 7or at lea/ circulat$ only to a few private philosophical bre?r51 su* z ,eudmus71 s t !y nev] became fully publi%$ until ! days ( ,apellikon4#ce ,footnote #ce3 ,! two ,p]ipatetic ,s*ol>*s at ,a!ns1 ,/raton & ,lykon1 :o succe$$ 7aft] ! dea? ( ,!ophra/us & ! transf] ( 8 libr>y to ,skpsis7 9 ! conduct ( ! s*ool1 left at _! decease collections ( books1 ( :i* ea* disposes by 8 w 7,diog54 ,l4 v4 #fb2 v4 #gc74 ,! libr>y ( ,apellikon1 :5 s5t by ,sylla to ,rome1 conta9$ probably _m o!r ,ari/otelian ,,mss41 besides ^? pur*as$ f ,skpsis4 ,mi*elet1 9 8 ,comm5t>y on ! ,nikoma*ean ,e?ica1 advances a !ory some:at analog\s b bold]1 respect+ ! relation betwe5 ! ,catalogue giv5 by ,diog5es1 & ! works conta9$ 9 our ,ari/otle4 ,comm4 p4 #b4 ,id solum addam1 hoc ,ari/otelis opus 7! ,nikoma*ean ,e?ica71 ut reliqua omnia1 ex brevioribus comm5tationibus cons>c9atum fuisse1 qu quidem vivo ,ari/otele 9 lucem prodi]9t1 cum unaquque discipl9a1 e qu exc]pta fu]9t 9 admirabilem illum quem habemus ord9em jam ab ipso ,ari/otele sive quodam ejus discipulo r$acta1 9 libris ,ari/otelis manu scriptis latitav]it1 qui h]$itate ad ,nelei prolem1 ut notum e/1 transmissi1 9 cell ill subt]rane ,scepsi absconditi fu]unt1 donec ,apellicon ,teius et ,rhodius ,&ronicus eos edid]9t4 ,leguntur autem comm5tationum ill>um de ,moribus tituli 9 el5*o librorum ,ari/otelis apud ,diog5em 7v4 #bb-bf73 ,greek3 p]i a7retn 7,lib4 ii41 iii4 c4 #f-;f94 iv4 no/rorum ,e?icorum72 ,greek3 p]i e7k\si_/ou 7,lib4 iii4 c4 #a-e72 c4 ,pl]umque enim non integra volum9a1 s$ s+ulos libros vel s+ula volum9a div]s>um discipl9>um1 ,diog5es 9 el5*o suo enum]avit4 ,9 8 o!r "w 7,essai sur la ,mtaphysique d',ari/ote1 pp4 #bjb1 #bje1 #bbe7 ,mi*elet has c>ri$ ?is !ory /ill f>!r1 & has endeav\r$ to id5tify sep>ate fragm5ts ( ! ,ari/otelian works n[ extant1 ) v>i\s titles 9 ! ,catalogue giv5 by ,diog5es4 ,! id5tification is n conv9c+4 ,b ?\gh ! edition publi%$ by ,&ronikus w\ld ?us conta9 _m g5u9e works ( ,ari/otle n previ\sly kn[n or edit$1 we _c be sure t x w\ld n also include "s :i* 7 spuri\s4 ,reflect :at ! libr>y ( ,apellikon1 transport$ to ,rome by ,sylla1 really 04 ,!re 0 9 x ! entire libr>y ( ,!ophra/us2 probably1 also1 t ( ,neleus1 :o mu/ h _h "s books ( 8 own1 besides :at he inh]it$ f ,!ophra/us4 ,x includ$ all ! num]\s manuscript works compos$ by ,ari/otle & ,!ophra/us1 & _m o!r manuscript works pur*as$ or acquir$ by !m1 b compos$ by o!rs--! :ole 9 v bad ord] & condition2 &1 moreov]1 ! books :i* ,apellikon possess$ be=e1 d\btless z _m ,ari/otelian books z he c\ld pur*ase4 ,to di/+ui%1 among ?is het]og5e\s mass ( manuscripts1 :i* ( !m 7 ! manuscripts compos$ by ,ari/otle2 to sep>ate ^! f ! writ+s ( ,!ophra/us1 ,eudmus1 or o!r au?ors1 :o compos$ v>i\s works ( _! own ^u ! same subjects & ) ! same titles z ^? ( ,ari/otle--requir$ extreme critical disc]nm5t & caution2 ! r1 s9ce !re 0 no liv+ companion ( ,ari/otle or ,!ophra/us to guide or advise1 m ?an a c5tury & a half hav+ elaps$ s9ce ! dea? ( ,!ophra/us1 & two c5turies s9ce t ( ,ari/otle4 ,su* 7 ! difficulties amid/ :i* ,apellikon1 ,tyrannion1 & ,&ronikus _h to decide1 :5 !y s+l$ out ! manuscripts ( ,ari/otle to be publi%$4 ,i w n say t !y decid$ wrongly2 yet nei!r c ,i cont5d 7z ,i argu$ 9 ! case ( ! ,platonic dialogues7 t ! presumption is v p[]ful 9 fav\r ( t ,canon :i* _! decision made legal4 ,! case is mu* m op5 to argum5t1 if any gr\nds aga9/ ! decision c be urg$4 ,&ronikus put 91 arrang$1 & publi%$ ! treatises ( ,ari/otle 7or ^? :i* he reg>d$ z compos$ by ,ari/otle7 includ$ 9 ! libr>y convey$ by ,sylla to ,rome4 ,i h already obs]v$1 t among ^! treatises !re 7 "s1 ( :i* copies exi/$ 9 ! ,alex&r9e libr>y 7z repres5t$ by ! ,catalogue ( ,diog5es71 b a /ill great] numb] :i* _c be id5tifi$ ) ! titles rema9+ ( works !re pres]v$4 ,z to ! works common to bo? libr>ies1 we mu/ rememb] t ,&ronikus introduc$ a classification ( 8 own1 analog\s to ! ,enneads appli$ by ,porphyry to ! works ( ,plot9us1 & to ! ,tetralogies adopt$ by ,?rasyllus 9 reg>d to ! ,dialogues ( ,plato2 s t ev5 ^! works might n be di/ribut$ 9 ! same p>titions "u ea* ( ! two arrangem5ts4 ,& ?is is :at we actually see :5 we comp>e ! ,catalogue ( ,diog5es ) our ,ari/otle4 ,rhetoric1 ,e?ics1 ,physics1 ,problems1 c41 appe> 9 bo? z titles or subjects1 b di/ribut$ into a diff]5t numb] ( books or sections 9 "o & 9 ! o!r2 p]haps1 inde$1 ! compositions are n always ! same4 ,be=e ,i proce$ to deal ) ! pres]v$ works ( ,ari/otle--^? by :i* alone he is kn[n to u1 & 0 kn[n to m$ival read]s1 ,i %all say a few words respect+ ! import ( a di/9ction :i* has be5 mu* canvass$1 convey$ 9 ! ^w exot]ic & its opposite4 ,?is t]m1 us$ on v>i\s occasions by ,ari/otle himself1 has be5 also employ$ by _m anci5t critics1 f ,cic]o d[nw>ds2 :ile by m$ival & mod]n critics1 x has n m]ely be5 employ$1 b also analys$ & elucidat$4 ,accord+ to ,cic]o 7! e>lie/ writ] subsequ5t to ,ari/otle 9 :om we f9d ! t]m71 x designates "o among two classes ( works compos$ by ,ari/otle3 exot]ic works 7 ^? compos$ 9 a popul> /yle & int5d$ = a l>ge1 indiscrim9ate circle ( read]s3 be+ contra/$ ) o!r works ( elaborat$ philosophical reason+1 :i* 7 n prep>$ = ! public ta/e1 b left 9 ! condition ( memorials = ! in/ruction ( a m select class ( /udi\s m54 ,two po9ts are to be obs]v$ respect+ ,cic]o's decl>ation4 ,fir/1 he applies x to ! writ+s n ( ,ari/otle exclusively1 b also to ^? ( ,!ophra/us1 & ev5 ( succe$+ ,p]ipatetics2 secondly1 he applies x directly to su* ( _! writ+s only z relat$ to ! discussion ( ! ,summum ,bonum4#cf ,fur!rmore1 ,cic]o describes ! works :i* ,ari/otle call$ exot]ic1 z hav+ proems or introductory prefaces4#cg ,footnote #cf3 ,cic]o1 ,de ,f9ibus1 v4 #e1 #ab4 ,de summo autem bono1 quia duo g5]a librorum sunt1 unum popul>it] scriptum1 quod ,greek3 e7xt]ikon appellabant1 alt]um limatius1 quod 9 comm5t>iis reliqu]unt1 non semp] idem dic]e vid5tur3 nec 9 summ tam5 ips aut v>ietas e/ ulla1 apud hos quidem quos nom9avi1 aut int] ipsos diss5sio4 ,! ^w limatius "h _c allude to high poli% & ornam5t ( /yle 7nitor orationis71 b mu/ be equival5t to ,greek3 a7kribe_//]on1 doctius1 subtilius1 c4 7z ,buhle & o!rs h already rem>k$1 ,buhle1 ,de ,libris ,ari/ot4 ,exot]4 et ,acroam4 p4 #aae2 ,madvig1 ad ,cic]o de ,f9ib4 v4 #ab2 ,heitz1 p4 #acd71 appli$ to pr(\nd reason+1 ) di/9ctions ( unusual precision1 :i* x requir$ a c>eful prep>atory tra9+ to appreh5d4 ,?is employm5t ( ! ^w limatius appe>s to me s+ul>1 b x _c mean any?+ else "h4 ,! comm5t>ii are ! g5]al heads--pla9 unadorn$ /atem5ts ( facts or reason+--:i* ! orator or hi/orian is to employ 8 g5ius 9 sett+ =? & decorat+1 s t x may be he>d or read ) pleasure & admiration by a g5]al audi5ce4 ,cic]o1 9 t rem>kable lett] :]e9 he entreats ,lucceius to n>rate 8 7,cic]o's7 consul%ip 9 an hi/orical "w1 und]takes to compose comm5t>ios r]um omnium z mat]ials = ! use ( ,lucceius 7,ep4 ad ,famil4 v4 #ab4 #aj74 ,8 expression1 9 comm5t>iis reliqu]unt1 %[s t he consid]$ ! exot]ic books to h be5 prep>$ by work+ up "s nak$ prelim9>y mat]ials into an ornate & int]e/+ =m4 ,footnote #cg3 ,cic]o1 ,ep4 ad ,att4 iv4 #af4 ,9 ! ma91 ! di/9ction "h drawn by ,cic]o1 und]/ood 9 a v g5]al s5se1 has be5 accept$ by mo/ foll[+ critics z int5d$ by ! t]m exot]ic3 some?+ address$ to a wide1 indiscrim9ate circle ( g5]al read]s or he>]s1 & intelligible or int]e/+ to !m )\t any special /udy or tra9+--z contra/$ ) t :i* is res]v$ = a small] circle ( /ud5ts assum$ to be specially qualifi$4 ,b among ^? :o agree 9 ?is g5]al admission1 _m diff]5ces h prevail$4 ,"s h ?\ght t ! t]m 0 n us$ by ,ari/otle to designate any writ+s ei!r ( 8 own or ( o!rs1 b only 9 allusion to in=mal oral dialogues or debates4 ,o!rs aga91 feel+ assur$ t ,ari/otle int5d$ by ! t]m to signify "s writ+s ( 8 own1 h se>*$ among ! works pres]v$1 z well z among ! titles ( ! works lo/1 to discrim9ate su* z ! au?or consid]$ to be exot]ic3 ?\gh ?is se>* has c]ta9ly n end$ 9 unanimity2 nor d ,i ?9k x has be5 successful4 ,aga91 !re h n be5 want+ critics 7among !m1 ,?omas ,aqu9as & ,sepulv$a71 :o assign to ! t]m a mean+ /ill m vague & undef9$2 cont5d+ t :5 ,ari/otle alludes to exot]ic disc\rses1 he indicates simply "s o!r treatise ( 8 own1 di/9ct f t 9 :i* ! allusion occurs1 )\t mean+ to imply any?+ respect+ its "*4#ch ,footnote #ch3 ,sepulv$a1 p4 #abe 7cit$ by ,b]nays1 ,dialoge des ,ari/oteles1 p4 #da73 ,ext]nos s]mones sive exot]icos solet ,ari/oteles libros eos appell>e1 quicunque sunt extra id opus 9 quo tunc v]satur1 ut jure pontificio p]iti consuev]unt3 non enim exot]ici s]mones seu libri c]to aliquo g5]e cont95tur1 ut e/ publicus error4 ,zell] l5ds 8 high au?ority to an explanation ( exot]ic v simil> to ! above4 7,ges*4 d] ,philos4 ii4 #b1 p4 #ajj1 seq43--dass unt] exot]is*5 ,r$5 ni*t e9e eig5e ,klasse populr ges*rieb5] ,b*]1 sond]n nur b]haupt sol*e ,errt]ung5 v]/&5 w]d51 wel*e ni*t 9 d5 ,b]ei* d] vorlieg5d5 ,unt]su*ung gehr547 ,he discusses ! po9t at "s l5g?2 b ! v passages :i* he cites1 especially ,physica1 iv4 #aj1 appe> to me less fav\rable to 8 view ?an to t :i* ,i h /at$ 9 ! text1 accord+ to :i* ! ^w means dialectic z contra/$ ) didactic4 ,to me x appe>s t ?is la/ explanation is unt5able1 & t ! t]m exot]ic designates matt] ( a c]ta9 "*1 assignable to "s ext5t by positive m>ks1 b /ill m by negative2 matt]1 9 "p1 analog\s to t def9$ by ,cic]o & o!r critics4 ,b to conceive cle>ly or fully :at its "* is1 we mu/ turn to ,ari/otle himself1 :o is ( c\rse ! f9al au?ority1 :]ev] he c be f\nd to speak 9 a decisive mann]4 ,8 pres]v$ works af=d altoge!r eight passages 7two ( !m inde$ 9 ! ,eudemian ,e?ics1 :i*1 = ! pres5t at lea/1 ,i %all assume to be 8 "w71 :]e9 ! phrase exot]ic disc\rses 7,greek3 e7xt]ikoi lo_/goi7 occurs4 ,out ( ^! eight passages1 !re are sev5 :i* pres5t ! phrase z designat+ "s unkn[n matt]1 n f>!r specifi$1 b di/9ct f ! "w 9 :i* ! phrase occurs3 ,en\gh has be5 said 7or is said1 ,ari/otle intimates7 ab\t ?is subject1 ev5 9 ! exot]ic disc\rses4 ,to :at x is t he "h alludes--:e!r to o!r writ+s ( 8 own or oral discussions ( 8 own1 or writ+ & spee* ( a p>ticul> sort by o!rs--we are left to int]pret z we be/ may1 by probable reason or conjecture4 ,b !re is "o among ! eight passages1 9 :i* ,ari/otle uses ! t]m exot]ic z describ+1 n :at is to be look$ = else:]e1 b :at he is himself ab\t to give 9 ! treatise 9 h&4 ,9 ! f\r? book ( ! ,physica1 he discusses ! ?ree high ab/ractions1 ,place1 ,vacuum1 ,"t4 ,aft] mak+ an end ( ! fir/ two1 he ent]s ^u ! ?ird1 beg9n+ ) ! foll[+ words3--,x foll[s naturally on :at has be5 said1 t we %\ld treat respect+ ,"t4 ,b fir/ x is conv5i5t to adv]t to ! difficulties involv$ 9 x1 by exot]ic disc\rse also--:e!r ,"t be includ$ among entities or among non-entities2 !n aft]w>ds1 :at is its nature4 ,n[ a man might suspect1 f ! foll[+ reasons1 t ,"t ei!r absolutely does n exi/1 or exi/s sc>cely & dimly1 c4 ,ari/otle !n gives a /r+ ( dialectic reasons1 la/+ ?r\gh "o ( ! columns ( ! ,b]l9 edition1 = d\bt+ :e!r ,"t really exi/s4 ,he aft]w>ds proce$s ?us1 ?r\gh two f>!r columns3--,let ^! be enum]at$ z ! difficulties accompany+ ! attributes ( ,"t4 ,:at ,"t is1 & :at is its nature1 is obscure1 z well f :at has be5 h&$ d[n to u by o!rs1 z f :at we ourselves h j gone ?r\gh2#ci & ?is "q also he fir/ discusses dialectically1 & !n br+s to a solution4 ,footnote #ci3 ,ari/ot4 ,physic4 iv4 #aj1 p4 #bag1 b4 #bi4 ,greek3 ,e7*o_/m5on de tn ei7rme_/nn e7/in e7pel!in p]i *ro_/n\2 prton de kals e7_/*ei diaporsai p]i au7t\ kai dia tn e7xt]ikn lo_/gn1 po_/t]on tn o7_/ntn e7/in 7 tn m o7_/ntn1 ei7ta ti_/s 7 phu_/sis au7t\4 ,o7_/ti men ou7n 7 o7_/ls e7_//91 7 mo_/lis kai a7mudrs1 e7k tnde_/ tis a7n u7popteu_/sei54 ,!n1 aft] a column ( text urg+ v>i\s ,greek3 a7pori_/z z to :e!r ,"t is or is n1 he goes on1 p4 #bah1 a4 #ca3--;,greek3 ,p]i men ou7n tn u7p>*o_/ntn au7t tosaut' e7_// diporme_/na4 ,ti_/ d' e7/in o7 *ro_/nos1 kai ti_/s au7t\ 7 phu_/sis1 o7moi_/s e7_/k te tn p>ad$ome_/nn a7_/dlo_/n e7/i1 kai p]i 7n tug*a_/nom5 diellu?o_/tes pro_/t]on--?us tak+ up ! que/ions1 ,:at ,"t is8 ,:at is ! nature ( ,"t8 ,^u ?is he goes ?r\gh ano!r column ( ,greek3 a7pori_/ai1 difficulties & c\nt]-difficulties1 until p4 #bai1 a4 #a1 :5 he approa*es to a positive det]m9ation1 z ! sequel ( v>i\s negatives--,greek3 o7_/ti men ou7n ou7_/te ki_/nsis ou7_/t' a7_/neu k9_/ses o7 *ro_/nos e7/i_/1 phan]o_/n4 lpte_/on de_/1 e7pei zt\m5 ti_/ e7/9 o7 *ro_/nos1 e7nteu!n a7r*ome_/nois1 ti_/ ts k9_/se_/s e7/94 ,he pursues ?is positive det]m9ation ?r\gh\t two f>!r columns 7see ,greek3 u7pokei_//h1 a4 #cj71 until at l5g? he arrives at 8 f9al def9ition ( ,"t--,greek3 a7ri?mos k9_/ses kata to pro_/t]on kai u7_//]on1 kai sune*_/s 7sune*\s gar7--:i* he decl>es to be ,greek3 phan]o_/n1 p4 #bbj1 a4 #be4 ,x is pla9 t ! phrase ,greek3 e7xt]ikoi lo_/goi "h designates ! prelim9>y dialectic t5tative process1 be=e ! f9al affirmative is directly attempt$1 z we read 9 ,de ,g5]4 et ,corr4 i4 #c1 p4 #cag1 b4 #ac3 ,greek3 p]i men ou7n t\_/tn e7n a7_/llois te dipo_/rtai kai di_/ri/ai tois lo_/gois e7pi pleion--fir/1 ,greek3 to diaporein1 next1 ,greek3 to diori_/ze94 ,n[ :at is x t ,ari/otle "h means by exot]ic disc\rse8 ,we may discov] by read+ ! matt] compris$ betwe5 ! two =ego+ citations4 ,we f9d a /r+ ( p]plex+ difficulties connect$ ) ! supposition t ,"t exi/s3 su* z1 ,t all ,"t is ei!r pa/ or future1 ( :i* ! =m] no long] exi/s1 & ! latt] does n yet exi/2 t ! ,n[ is no "p ( ,"t1 = e ,:ole is compos$ ( its ,p>ts1 & ,"t is n compos$ ( ,n[s1 c4 ,i d n g f>!r "h into ^! subtle sugge/ions1 because my pres5t purpose is only to illu/rate :at ,ari/otle calls exot]ic disc\rse1 by exhibit+ :at he himself ann\nces to be a specim5 !re(4 ,x is ! process ( notic+ & trac+ out all ! d\bts & difficulties 7,greek3 a7pori_/z7 :i* beset ! enquiry 9 h&1 along ) ! diff]5t op9ions ent]ta9$ ab\t x ei!r by ! vulg>1 or by individual philosoph]s1 & ! v>i\s reasons :]eby su* op9ions may be su/a9$ or impugn$4 ,x is 9 fact ! same process z t :i*1 :5 p]=m$ 7z x 0 habitually & actively 9 8 age7 betwe5 two disputants1 he calls dialectic debate2 & :i* he seeks to enc\rage z well z to regulate 9 8 treatise entitl$ ,topica4 ,he contra/s x ) philosophy1 or ) ! /rictly didactic & demon/rative proc$ure3 :]e9 ! tea*] lays d[n pr9ciples :i* he requires ! le>n] to admit1 & !n d$uces f !m1 by syllogisms con/ruct$ 9 regul> =m1 consequ5ces indisputably b9d+ on all :o h admitt$ ! pr9ciples4 ,b ?\gh ,ari/otle ?us di/+ui%es ,dialectic f ,philosophy1 he at ! same "t decl>es x to be valuable z an auxili>y t[>ds ! purpose ( philosophy1 & z an introductory ex]cise be=e ! didactic /age beg9s4 ,! philosoph] ought to %[ 8 compet5ce z a dialectician1 by indicat+ & h&l+ ^? v>i\s difficulties & controv]sies be>+ on 8 subject1 :i* h already be5 made kn[n1 ei!r 9 writ+s or 9 oral debate4#dj ,footnote #dj3 ,see ,ari/ot4 ,topic4 i4 p4 #ajj1 b4 #ba1 p4 #aja1 a4 #be1 #cd-cf1 b4 #b4 ,greek3 ,pros de tas kata philosophi_/an e7pi/_/mas 7*r_/simos 7 pragmatei_/a71 o7_/ti duna_/m5oi pros a7mpho_/t]a diaporsai r7aon e7n e7ka_//ois katopso_/me?a ta7l!_/s te kai to pseudos1 p4 #aje1 b4 #cj4 ,greek3 ,pros men ou7n philosophi_/an kat' a7l!ian p]i 9999au7tn pragmateue_/on1 9999dialektiks de pros d_/xan4 ,comp>e also ! comm5cem5t ( book ,b4 9 ! ,metaphysica1 p4 #iie1 a4 #bh seq41 &1 inde$1 ! :ole ( book ,b41 :i* conta9s a dialectic discussion ( num]\s ,greek3 a7pori_/ai4 ,ari/otle himself ref]s to x aft]w>ds 7,greek3 ,g4 p4 #ajjd1 a4 #cb7 9 ! words ,greek3 u7_/p] e7n tais a7pori_/ais e7le*?4 ,! ,s*olia ( ,alex&] on ! beg9n+ ( ! ,topica 7pp4 #bea1 #beb1 ,br&is7 are in/ructive2 also 8 ,s*olia on p4 #aje1 b4 #cj1 p4 #bfj1 a4 #bd4 ,greek3 dialektiks de pros d_/xan1 7s e7n tau_/t t pragmatei_/a 7i4e4 ! ,topica7 ,greek3 kai e7n tois r7torikois1 kai e7n tois e7xt]ikois4 kai gar e7n e7kei_/nois plei/a kai p]i tn9999 7?ikn kai p]i tn phusikn e7ndo_/xs le_/getai4 ,we see "h t ,alex&] und]/&s by ! exot]ic ! dialectic h&l+ ( op9ions on physics & e?ics4 ,9 ! ,eudemian ,e?ica also 7i4 #h1 p4 #abag1 b4 #af7 we f9d ,greek3 e7pe_/skeptai de pollois p]i au7t\ tro_/pois1 kai e7n tois e7xt]ikois lo_/gois kai e7n tois kata philosophi_/an1 :]e we h ! same anti!sis 9 o!r words--,exot]ic or ,dialectic v]sus ,philosophical or ,didactic4 ,comp>e a cle> /atem5t 9 ,simplikius 7,s*ol4 ad ,physic4 p4 #cfd1 b4 #ai74 ,greek3 ,prton men logiks e7pi*eirei1 t\_/te/i pi?ans kai e7ndo_/xs1 kai e7_/ti ko9o_/t]o_/n ps kai dialektik_/t]on4 7 gar dialektik 7 ,a7ri/ote_/l\s ko9_/ e7/i me_/?odos p]i pantos t\ prote!_/ntos e7x e7ndo_/xn sullogizome_/n--to gar logikon 7s ko9on ei7_/!n a7ntidia/e_/lle9 ta oi7kei_/ kai kata phu_/s9 t\ pra_/gmatos kai a7podeiktik4 ,we ?us le>n1 f ! example furni%$ by ,ari/otle himself1 :at he means by exot]ic disc\rses4 ,! epi!t means lit]ally1 extrane\s to1 ly+ on ! outside (2 9 ! pres5t case1 on ! outside ( philosophy1 consid]$ 9 its special didactic & demon/rative m>*4#da ,yet :at ?us lies outside philosophy1 is nev]!less useful z an accompanim5t & prep>ation = philosophy4 ,we %all f9d ,ari/otle insi/+ ^u ?is 9 8 ,topica & ,analytica2 & we %all also f9d him introduc+ ! exot]ic treatm5t into 8 mo/ ab/ruse philosophical treatises 7! ,physica is "o ( ! mo/ ab/ruse7 z an accompanim5t & auxili>y--a dialectic survey ( op9ions1 puzzles1 & controv]t$ po9ts1 be=e he beg9s to lay d[n & foll[ out affirmative pr9ciples ( 8 own4 ,he does ?is n only ?r\gh\t ! ,physica 79 sev]al o!r passages besides t :i* ,i h j cit$71#db b also 9 ! ,metaphysica1 ! treatises ,de ,anim1 ,de ,g5]atione et ,corruptione1 c4 ,footnote #da3 ,we f9d ! epi!t ,greek3 e7xt]ikos us$ once by ,ari/otle1 n 9 conjunction ) ,greek3 lo_/goi1 b ) ,greek3 pra_/xeis1 designat+ ^? acts :i* are p]=m$ ) a view to "s ult]ior & extrane\s end 7,greek3 tn a7poba9o_/ntn *a_/r91 z contra/$ ) ,greek3 pra_/xeis au7toteleis--oi7keiai73 ,polit4 vii4 p4 #acbe1 b4 #bb-bi4 ,greek3 s*ol 9999gar a7n o7 !os e7_/*oi kals kai pas o7 ko_/smos1 oi7s ou7k ei7sin e7xt]ikai pra_/xeis p>a tas oi7kei_/z tas au7tn4 ,9 ! ,eudemian ,e?ics ! phrase ,greek3 tois a7llotri_/ois lo_/gois sophi_/zontai is us$ mu* 9 ! same s5se z ,greek3 tois e7xt]ikois lo_/gois3 i4e4 oppos$ to ,greek3 tois oi7kei_/ois--to t :i* belongs specially to ! sci5tific det]m9ation ( ! problem 7,e?ic4 ,eudem4 i4 p4 #abah1 b4 #ah74 ,! phrase ,greek3 dia tn e7xt]ikn lo_/gn1 9 ,ari/ot4 ,physic4 iv4 #aj1 p4 #bag1 b4 #ca1 & ! diff]5t phrase ,greek3 e7k tn ei7?o_/tn lo_/gn le_/ge/hai1 9 ,phys4 vi4 #b1 p4 #bcc1 a4 #ac1 appe> to h ! same mean+ & ref]5ce4 ,comp>e ,prantl n4 ad ,ari/4 ,phys4 p4 #eja4 ,footnote #db3 ,if we turn to ! beg9n+ ( book iv4 ( ! ,physica1 :]e ,ari/otle und]takes to exam9e ,greek3 ,to_/pos1 ,place1 we %all see t he beg9s by a dialectic h&l+ ( ,greek3 a7pori_/ai1 exactly analog\s to t :i* he himself calls ,greek3 e7xt]ikoi lo_/goi1 :5 he proce$s to exam9e ,greek3 ,*ro_/nos1 ,"t3 see ,physica1 iv4 pp4 #bjh1 a4 #cb-ce1 #bji1 a4 #cj2 #baj1 a4 #ab1 b4 #ca4 ,he does ! l also ab\t ,greek3 ,k5o_/n1 ,vacuum1 p4 #bac1 a4 #bj1 b4 #bh1 & ab\t ,greek3 ,a7_/peiron1 ,inf9itum1 iii4 p4 #bjd1 b4 #d 7) ! ,s*olia ( ,simplikius1 p4 #cfd1 b4 #bj1 ,br474 ,comp>e ! ,s*olion ( ,simplikius ad ,physica 7i4 p4 #cbi1 b4 #a1 ,br47--,greek3 i7_/ss de 7,simplikius uses ?is indecisive ^w ,greek3 i7_/ss7 ,greek3 o7_/ti 7 e7ph' e7ka_/t]a a7pori_/a t\ lo_/g\ e7xt]ik_/ tis 7n1 7s ,eu7_/dmo_/s phsi1 dialektik mallon ou7sa1 ) ?is la/ ,s*olion1 on p4 #cfd1 b4 #bj1 :i* describes ! same dialectic h&l+1 ?\gh )\t directly call+ x exot]ic4 ,hav+ ?us le>nt to und]/&1 f "o di/9ct passage ( ,ari/otle himself1 :at he means by exot]ic disc\rses1 we mu/ int]pret by ! light ( ?is analogy ! o!r indi/9ct passages 9 :i* ! phrase occurs4 ,we see cle>ly t 9 us+ ! phrase1 he does n ( necessity int5d to ref] to any o!r writ+s ( 8 own--nor ev5 to any o!r writ+s at all4 ,he may possibly mean ?is2 b we _c be sure ( x4 ,he means by ! phrase1 a dialectic process ( turn+ ov] & criticiz+ div]se op9ions & probabilities3 :e!r 9 8 own writ+s1 or 9 ^? ( o!rs1 or 9 no writ+s at all1 b simply 9 ^? oral debates :i* 8 treatise call$ ,topica presupposes--?is is a po9t :i* ! phrase itself does n det]m9e4 ,he may mean to allude1 9 "s cases :]e he uses ! phrase1 to 8 own lo/ dialogues2 b he may also allude to ,platonic & o!r dialogues1 or to colloquies c>ri$ on orally by himself ) 8 pupils1 or to oral debates on intellectual topics betwe5 o!r active-m9d$ m54 ,:5 ,b]nays ref]s exot]ic disc\rse to ! lo/ ,ari/otelian ,dialogues2 :5 ,madvig1 ,zell]1 ,tor/rick1 ,=*hamm]1 & o!rs1 ref] x to ! contempor>y oral dialectic#dc--;,i ?9k t nei!r ( ^! explanations is 9 itself inadmissible4 ,! context ( ea* p>ticul> passage mu/ decide :i* ( ! two is ! m probable4 ,we _c g f>!r1 9 expla9+ ! sev5 d\btful passages :]e ,ari/otle alludes to ! exot]ic disc\rses1 ?an to und]/& ! g5]al "* & scope ( ! reason+s :i* he ?us designates4 ,extra-philosophical1 d\ble-sid$1 dialectic1 is 9 g5]al 7he holds7 insuffici5t by itself1 & valuable only z a prep>ation & auxili>y to ! didactic process4 ,b !re are "s p>ticul> po9ts on :i* su* dialectic leaves a result suffici5t & satisfactory1 :i* c be safely accept$ z ! basis ( future d$uction4 ,^! po9ts he indicates 9 ! passages above cit$2 )\t in=m+ u m p>ticul>ly :e!r ! dialectic 0 writt5 or spok51 & :e!r by himself or by o!rs4#dd ,footnote #dc3 ,ueb]weg 7,ges*i*te d] ,philos4 des ,alt]?ums1 vol4 i4 #df1 p4 #abg1 #bnd ed47 gives a j & accurate view ( ,greek3 e7xt]ikoi lo_/goi1 z conceiv$ by ,ari/otle4 ,see also ! diss]tation ( ,buhle1 prefix$ to 8 unf9i%$ edition ( ,ari/otle1 ,de ,ari/otelis ,libris ,exot]icis et ,acroamaticis1 pp4 #ajg-aeb--:i* discusses ?is subject copi\sly1 & gives a collection bo? ( ! passages & comm5ts :i* be> ^u x4 ,x is in/ructive1 ?\gh 8 op9ion leans too mu* t[>ds ! supposition ( a d\ble doctr9e4 ,b]nays1 9 8 diss]tation1 ,die ,dialoge des ,ari/oteles1 ma9ta9s t by exot]ic books are always meant ! lo/ dialogues ( ,ari/otle2 & he employs mu* reason+ to refute ! supposition ( ,madvig 7,excurs4 ,,vii4 ad ,cic]o1 de ,f94 p4 #hfa71 ( ,tor/rick 7ad ,ari/otel4 de ,anim1 p4 #abc71 & also ( ,zell]1 t by exot]ic disc\rses are n meant any writ+s at all1 b simply ! colloquies & debates ( cultivat$ m51 ap>t f ! philosophical s*ools4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,=*hamm] has esp\s$ ?is la/-m5tion$ op9ion1 & has def5d$ x aga9/ ! objections ( ,b]nays 7,=*hamm]1 ,ari/oteles und die exot]is*5 ,r$51 p4 #af1 seq474 ,! "q is ?us fully argu$ on bo? sides4 ,to me x seems t ea* ( ^! two op9ions is p>tially "r1 & nei!r ( !m exclusively "r4 ,exot]ic disc\rse1 z ,i und]/& x1 might be f\nd bo? 9 ! ,ari/otelian dialogues1 & 9 ! debates ( cultivat$ m5 out ( ! s*ools1 & also 9 p>ts ( ! ,ari/otelian akroamatic works4 ,! argum5t ( ,b]nays 7p4 #cf1 seq471 t ! po9ts :i* ,ari/otle alludes to z hav+ be5 debat$ & settl$ 9 exot]ic disc\rses1 7 too ab/ruse & subtle to h be5 mu* h&l$ by cultivat$ m5 out ( ! s*ools1 or 7z he expresses x7 9 ! salons or c(fee-h\ses 7or :at correspond$ !reto7 at ,a!ns--?is argum5t seems to me unt5able4 ,we "k well1 f ! ,topica ( ,ari/otle1 t ! mo/ ab/ruse subjects 7 h&l$ dialectically1 9 a mann] :i* he call$ extra-philosophical2 & t ?is 0 a frequ5t occupation ( active-m9d$ m5 at ,a!ns4 ,to discuss ^! matt]s 9 ! way :i* he calls ,greek3 pros d_/xan1 0 m frequ5t ?an to discuss !m ,greek3 pros a7l_/!ian4 ,zell rem>ks 7ad ,e?ica ,nikom4 i4 #ac71 aft] ref]r+ to ! passage 9 ,ari/otle's ,physica1 iv4 #aj 7to :i* ,i h call$ att5tion 9 a previ\s note71 quo loco1 ,buhlio neglecto1 ,greek3 e7xt]ikoi lo_/goi idem significant quod alibi ,greek3 ko9ai d_/xai1 ei7?o_/tes lo_/goi1 vel ,greek3 ta lego_/m5a3 qu semp]1 priusquam suas rationes 9 disput&o proponat1 disquir]e solet ,ari/oteles4 ,vide supra1 ad cap4 viii4 #a4 ,i f9d also 9 ,weisse 7,translation ( & ,comm5t on ! ,physica ( ,ari/otle1 p4 #eag7 a fair explanation ( :at ,ari/otle really means by exot]ic2 an explanation1 h[ev]1 :i* ,ritt] sets aside1 9 my judgm5t errone\sly 7,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bc74 ,footnote #dd3 ,?us1 = example1 ! passage 9 ! ,e?ica ,nikom4 i4 #ac1 p4 #aajb1 a4 #bf4 ,greek3 le_/getai de p]i au7tn kai e7n tois e7xt]ikois lo_/gois a7rk\_/nts e7_/nia1 kai *r/e_/on au7tois1 is expla9$ 9 ! ,p>aphrase ( ! ,pseudo-,&ronikus z ref]r+ to oral colloquy ( ,ari/otle himself ) pupils or int]locutors2 & ?is may possibly be a correct explanation4 ,f ! "t ( ,cic]o d[nw>d1 a di/9ction has be5 drawn betwe5 "s books ( ,ari/otle :i* 7 exot]ic1 & o!rs t 7 n s2 ^! la/ be+ occasionally designat$ z akroamatic4 ,"s mod]n critics h f>!r tri$ to po9t out :i*1 among ! pres]v$ works ( ,ari/otle1 belong$ to ea* ( ^! heads4 ,n[ !re exi/$1 d\btless1 9 ! days ( ,cic]o1 ,/rabo1 ,plut>*1 & ,gellius1 books ( ,ari/otle prop]ly call$ exot]ic1 i4e4 consi/+ almo/ entirely ( exot]ic disc\rse & debate2 ?\gh :e!r ,ari/otle himself w\ld h spok5 ( an exot]ic book1 ,i h "s d\bt4 ,( su* a "* 7 8 ,dialogues4 ,b all ! works designat$ z akroamatic 7or non-exot]ic7 mu/ probably h conta9$ a c]ta9 admixture ( exot]ic disc\rse2 z ! ,physica 7,greek3 ,phusik ,a7kro_/asis7 & ! ,metaphysica are se5 to conta9 n[4 ,! di/9ction indicat$ by ,cic]o w\ld ?us be really betwe5 "o class ( works1 :]e9 exot]ic disc\rse 0 exclusive or p>am\nt1--& ano!r1 9 :i* x 0 p>tially introduc$1 subord9ate to "s specifi$ didactic purpose4#de ,to ?is la/ class belong all ! works ( ,ari/otle t we possess at pres5t4 ,cic]o w\ld h f\nd none ( !m correspond+ to 8 notion ( an exot]ic book4 ,footnote #de3 ,to ?is ext5t ,i g along ) ! op9ion express$ by ,weisse 9 8 translation ( ! ,physica ( ,ari/otle1 p4 #eag3 ,dass dies] ,geg5satz ke9 absolut] von zwei dur*aus getr5nt5 ,b*]class5 i/1 sond]n dass e9 und dasselbe ,w]k zuglei* exot]is* und esot]is* se9 konnte2 und zweit5s1 dass exot]is* b]haupt dasj5ige heis/1 0 ni*t 9 d5 positiv-dogmatis*5 ,zusamm5hang d] ,lehre des ,philosoph5 unmittelb> als ,gli$ e9tritt4 ,b ,weisse goes on aft]w>ds to give a diff]5t op9ion 7ab\t ! mean+ ( exot]ic books71 con=mable to :at ,i h cit$ 9 a previ\s note f ,sepulv$a2 & 9 t ,i d n concur4 ,h[ev]1 he rem>ks t ! mann] 9 :i* ,ari/otle h&l$ ! ,ab/racta1 ,place & ,inf9ite1 is j ! same z t :i* he decl>es to be exot]ic 9 ! case ( ,"t4 ,! di/9ction drawn by ,aulus ,gellius 7xx4 #e7 is n accurate3 ,greek3 ,e7xt]ika dicebantur1 qu ad rhetoricas m$itationes1 facultatem arguti>um1 civiliumque r]um notitiam conducebant4 ,greek3 ,a7kroatika autem vocabantur1 9 quibus philosophia remotior subtiliorque agitabatur2 quque ad natur contemplationes1 disceptationesque dialecticas p]t9ebant4 ,x appe>s to me t disceptationes dialectic ought to be transf]r$ to ! dep>tm5t ,greek3 e7xt]ika_/1 & t civilium r]um notitia belongs z mu* to ,greek3 a7kroatika z to ,greek3 e7xt]ika_/4 ,m4 ,ravaisson has discuss$ ?is "q v ably & in/ructively1 ,essai sur la ,mtaphysique d',ari/ote1 pp4 #bbd-bdd4 ,he pr(esses inde$ to def5d ! op9ion :i* ,i h cit$ f ,sepulv$a1 & :i* ,i ?9k errone\s2 b 8 reason+s g really to ! support ( ! op9ion giv5 9 my text4 ,he rem>ks1 ju/ly1 t ! dialogues ( ,plato 7at lea/ all ! dialogues ( ,se>*7 are specim5s ( exot]ic h&l+2 ( :i* attribute ,=*hamm] speaks z if x 7 peculi> to ! ,*>mides 7,ari/ot4 ,exot4 ,r$54 p4 #bb74 ,br&is 7,ari/oteles1 p4 #aje7 ?9ks t :5 ,ari/otle says 9 ! ,politica1 vii4 #a1 p4 #acbc1 a4 #ba3 ,greek3 nomi_/santas ou7n i7kans polla le_/ge/hai kai tn e7n tois e7xt]ikois lo_/gois p]i ts a7ri_//s z_/s1 kai nun *r/e_/on au7tois1 he int5ds to designate ! ,e?ica4 ,x may be s2 yet ! ,politica seems a cont9uation ( ! ,e?ica3 moreov]1 ev5 9 ! ,e?ica1 we f9d ref]5ce made to previ\s discussions1 ,greek3 e7n tois e7xt]iks lo_/gois 7,e?4 ,n4 ,i4 #ac74 ,to und]/& fully ! ext5t compreh5d$ by ! ^w exot]ic1 we mu/ recollect t its direct & imm$iate mean+ is negative-- extrane\s to philosophy1 & suitable to an audi5ce n specially taught or prep>$ = philosophy4 ,n[ ?is negative *>act]i/ic belongs n m]ely to dialectic 7z we see x 9 ! example above cit$ f ! ,ari/otelian ,physica71 b also to rhetoric or rhetorical argum5t4 ,we "k t1 9 ,ari/otle's m9d1 ! rhetorical h&l+ & ! dialectical h&l+1 are plac$ bo? ( !m "u ! same head1 z deal+ ) op9ions r ?an ) tru?4#df ,bo? ! "o & ! o!r are p>t$ (f f ! didactic or demon/rative m>* :i* leads to philosophical tru?2 ?\gh dialectic has a di/ant aff9ity ) t m>*1 & is inde$ available z an auxili>y skirmi%]4 ,! t]m exot]ic w ?us compreh5d bo? rhetorical argum5t & dialectical argum5t4#dg ,( ! latt]1 we h j se5 a specim5 extract$ f ! ,physica2 ( ! =m]1 ,i "k no specim5 rema9+1 b !re probably 7 _m ( !m 9 ! ,ari/otelian dialogues n[ lo/--t :i* 0 call$ ',eudemus1' & o!rs4 ,) ^! dialogues ,cic]o 0 probably m famili> ?an ) any o!r composition ( ,ari/otle4 ,i ?9k x highly probable t ,ari/otle alludes to ! dialogues 9 "s ( ! passages :]e he ref]s to exot]ic disc\rses4 ,to t ext5t ,i agree ) ,b]nays2 b ,i see no reason to believe 7z he does7 t ! case is ! same ) all ! passages1 or t ! epi!t is to be und]/ood always z imply+ "o ( ^! lo/ ,ari/otelian dialogues4#dh ,footnote #df3 ,see ! fir/ two *apt]s ( ,ari/otle's ,rhetorica1 especially pp4 #acee a4 #bd-ce1 #aceh a4 #e1 #aa1 #be1 also p4 #adjd a4 #a43 ,greek3 o7_/ls ou7_/ss pros d_/xan ts pragmatei_/z ts p]i tn r7torik_/n1 :i* is exactly :at he says also ab\t ,dialectic1 9 ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,topica4 ,footnote #dg3 ,octavianus ,f]r>ius obs]ves1 9 8 treatise ,de ,s]monibus ,exot]icis 7,v5et4 #aege71 p4 #bd3 ,quod si ,dialecticus et ,rhetor int] se mutant1 ut aiunt1 ita ut ,dialecticus ,rhetorem et ,rhetor ,dialecticum vicissim induat--de 8 ipsis vet]ibus ,dialecticis m9ime nobis dubit&um e/1 qu9 iidem dialectice simul et rhetorice loqui 9 utramque p>tem potu]9t4 ,nec valde mirum debet hoc vid]i2 libros enim exot]icos prope solos habu]unt3 qui cum scripti ess5t 7ut po/]ius planum faciam7 dialectico m1 illorum lectio cum libris pep]it philosophos congru5tes--,f]r>i adv]ts well to ! di/9ction betwe5 ! philosoph] & ! dialectician 7s5su ,ari/otelico71 h&l+ (t5 ! same subjects1 b 9 a diff]5t way3 betwe5 ! ,greek3 oi7keiai a7r*ai_/1 ^u :i* didactic me?od re/$1 & ! ,greek3 d_/xai or div]se op9ions1 ea* c\nt5anc$ by m or less au?ority1 f :i* dialectic took its dep>ture 7pp4 #cf1 #hf1 #hi74 ,footnote #dh3 ,i agree v mu* ) ! mann] 9 :i* ,b]nays puts 8 case1 pp4 #gi1 #hj1 #ib1 #ic3 ?\gh !re is a contradiction betwe5 p4 #hj & p4 #ib1 9 respect to ! ta/e & aptitude ( ! ext]ior public = dialectic debate2 :i* is affirm$ 9 ! =m] page1 d5i$ 9 ! latt]4 ,b ! doctr9e ass]t$ 9 ! pages j indicat$ am\nts only to ?is--t ! dialogues 7 includ$ 9 ,ari/otle's phrase1 ,greek3 e7xt]ikoi lo_/goi2 :i* appe>s to me true4 ,!re grew up1 9 ! m9ds ( "s comm5tators1 a supposition ( exot]ic doctr9e z d5ot+ :at ,ari/otle promulgat$ to ! public1 contra/$ ) ano!r secret or my/ic doctr9e res]v$ = a special few1 & d5ot$ by ! t]m esot]ic2 ?\gh ?is t]m is n f\nd 9 use be=e ! days ( ,lucian4#di ,i believe ! supposition ( a d\ble doctr9e to be mi/ak5 9 reg>d to ,ari/otle2 b x is true z to ! ,py?agoreans1 & is n )\t "s col\r ( tru? ev5 z to ,plato4 ,t ,ari/otle employ$ "o mann] ( explanation & illu/ration1 :5 discuss+ ) advanc$ pupils1 & ano!r1 m or less diff]5t1 :5 address+ an unprep>$ audi5ce1 we may hold z c]ta9 & ev5 unavoidable2 b ?is does n am\nt to a d\ble positive doctr9e4 ,prop]ly speak+1 inde$1 ! t]m exot]ic 7z ,i h j expla9$ x out ( ,ari/otle himself7 does n designate1 or ev5 imply1 any positive doctr9e at all4 ,x d5otes a _m-sid$ controv]sial debate1 9 :i* num]\s po9ts are canvass$ & few settl$2 ! express purpose be+ to br+ into full daylight ! p]plex+ aspects ( ea*4 ,!re are inde$ a few exceptional cases1 9 :i* exot]ic disc\rse w itself h ?r[n up a tol]ably tru/wor?y result3 ^! few 7z ,i h above %[n7 ,ari/otle occasionally s+les out & appeals to4 ,b z a g5]al rule1 !re is no doctr9e :i* c prop]ly be call$ exot]ic3 ! exot]ic disc\rse sugge/s _m new puzzles1 b t]m9ates )\t any solution at all4 ,! doctr9e1 :5ev] any su* is prov$1 em]ges out ( ! didactic process :i* foll[s4 ,footnote #di3 ,luc4 ,vit4 ,auct4 #bf4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,categori4 ,( ! prodigi\s total ( works compos$ by ,ari/otle1 ,i h already m5tion$ t ! l>g] numb] h p]i%$4 ,b !re /ill rema9 ab\t =ty treatises1 ( au!nticity n op5 to any reasonable suspicion1 :i* atte/ ! gr&eur ( 8 intellig5ce1 9 respect ( speculative =ce1 positive z well z negative1 sy/ematiz+ pati5ce1 compreh5sive curiosity z to matt]s ( fact1 & div]sifi$ applications ( detail4 ,9 tak+ acc\nt ( ^! treatises1 we p]ceive "s 9 :i* ! ord] ( sequ5ce is det]m9$ by assignable reasons2 z reg>ds o!rs1 no simil> gr\nds ( pref]5ce appe>4 ,! works call$ #a4 ,de ,coelo2 #b4 ,de ,g5]atione et ,corruptione2 #c4 ,meteorologica1--are m>k$ out z int5d$ to be /udi$ 9 imm$iate succession1 & ! v>i\s ,zoological treatises aft] !m4 ,! clu/] entitl$ ,p>va ,naturalia is complem5t>y to ! treatise ,de ,anim4 ,! ,physica ,auscultatio is ref]r$ to 9 ! ,metaphysica1 & discusses _m que/ions id5tical or analog\s1 /&+ 9 ! relation ( prior to a po/]ior1 z ! titles indicate2 ?\gh ! title ',metaphysica' is n affix$ or recogniz$ by ,ari/otle himself1 & ! treatise s call$ includes mu* t goes beyond ! rea* ( ! ,physica4 ,z to ! treatises on ,logic1 ,rhetoric1 ,e?ics1 ,politics1 ,poetics1 ,me*anics1 c41 we are left to fix = ourselves ! mo/ conv5i5t ord] ( /udy4 ,( no "o among !m c we assign ! date ( composition or publication4 ,!re are inde$ 9 ! ,rhetorica1 ,politics1 & ,meteorologica1 v>i\s allusions :i* mu/ h be5 writt5 lat] ?an "s giv5 ev5ts ( kn[n date2 b ^! allusions may h be5 lat] additions1 & _c be consid]$ z conclusively prov+1 ?\gh !y c]ta9ly raise a presumption1 t ! entire "w 0 writt5 subsequ5tly to ^? ev5ts4 ,! prop] ord] 9 :i* ! works ( ,ari/otle ought to be /udi$ 7l ! ord] prop] = /udy+ ! ,platonic dialogues71#a 0 matt] ( debate f ! "t ( 8 e>lie/ editors & comm5tators1 9 ! c5tury imm$iately prec$+ ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,bo?us ! ,sidonian 7,/rabo's contempor>y & fell[-/ud5t7 recomm5d$ t ! works on natural philosophy & physiology %\ld be p]us$ fir/2 cont5d+ t ^! 7 ! easie/1 ! mo/ int]e/+1 &1 on ! :ole1 ! mo/ successful among all ! ,ari/otelian productions4 ,"s ,platoni/s advis$ t ! e?ical treatises %\ld be put 9 ! front rank1 on ! gr\nd ( _! sup]ior importance = correct+ bad habits & "*2 o!rs assign$ ! fir/ place to ! ma!matics1 z exhibit+ sup]ior firmness 9 ! demon/rations4 ,b ,&ronikus himself1 ! e>lie/ kn[n editor ( ,ari/otle's works1 arrang$ !m 9 a diff]5t ord]1 plac+ ! logical treatises at ! comm5cem5t ( 8 edition4 ,he consid]$ ^! treatises1 tak5 collectively1 to be n s mu* a "p ( philosophy z an ,organon or in/rum5t1 ! use ( :i* mu/ be acquir$ by ! read] be=e he became compet5t to grasp or compreh5d philosophy2 z an exposition ( me?od r ?an ( doctr9e4#b ,f ! "t ( ,&ronikus d[nw>d1 ! logical treatises h always /ood fir/ among ! writt5 or pr9t$ works ( ,ari/otle4 ,!y h be5 kn[n "u ! collective title ( ! ',organon1' & z su* x w be conv5i5t /ill to reg>d !m4#c ,footnote #a3 ,s*olia1 p4 #be1 b4 #cg1 seq4 ,br42 p4 #cba1 b4 #cj2 ,diog54 ,l4 iii4 #fb4 ,! ord] 9 :i* ! =ty-six ,ari/otelian treatises /& pr9t$ 9 ! ,b]l9 edition1 & 9 o!r prec$+ editions1 corresponds to ! trip>tite division1 set =? by ,ari/otle himself1 ( sci5ces or cognitions g5]ally3 #a4 ,!oretical2 ,greek3 !rtikai_/ #b4 ,practical2 ,greek3 praktikai_/4 #c4 ,con/ructive or ,te*nical2 ,greek3 poitikai_/4 ,patricius1 9 8 ,discussiones ,p]ipatetic1 publi%$ 9 #aeha 7tom4 i4 lib4 xiii4 p4 #agc71 proclaims himself to be ! fir/ au?or :o w und]take to give an acc\nt ( ,ari/otle's philosophy f ,ari/otle himself 7in/ead ( tak+ x1 z o!rs be=e him _h done1 f ! ,ari/otelian expositors1 ,&ronikus1 ,alex&]1 ,porphyry1 or ,av]roes72 likewise1 to be ! fir/ au?or :o w consult all ! works ( ,ari/otle1 in/ead ( conf9+ himself1 z 8 pr$ecessors _h done1 to a select few ( ! works4 ,patricius !n proce$s to enum]ate ^? works ^u :i* alone ! pr(essors 9 ,italicis s*olis lectur$1 & to :i* ! att5tion ( all read]s 0 re/rict$4 #a4 ,! ,pr$icabilia1 or ,eisagoge ( ,porphyry4 #b4 ,! ,categori4 #c4 ,! ,de ,int]pretatione4 #d4 ,! ,analytica ,priora2 b only ! f\r fir/ *apt]s ( ! fir/ book4 #e4 ,! ,analytica ,po/]iora2 b only a few *apt]s ( ! fir/ book2 no?+ ( ! second4 #f4 ,! ,physica2 books fir/ & second2 !n p>ts ( ! ?ird & f\r?2 la/ly1 ! eigh? book4 #g4 ,! ,de ,coelo2 books fir/ & second4 #h4 ,! ,de ,g5]atione et ,corruptione2 books fir/ & second4 #i4 ,! ,de ,anim2 all ! ?ree books4 #aj4 ,! ,metaphysica2 books ,alpha major1 ,alpha m9or1 ?ird1 six?1 & elev5?4 ,idque1 quadri5nio integro1 quadruplicis ord9is ,philosophi p]legunt auditoribus4 ,de reliquis omnibus tot libris1 mirum sil5tium4 ,patricius expressly rem>ks t nei!r ! ,topica nor ! ,de ,sophi/icis ,el5*is 0 t\*$ 9 ?is full c\rse ( f\r ye>s4 ,b he does n rem>k--:at to a mod]n read] w seem m surpris+--t nei!r ! ,e?ica1 nor ! ,politica1 nor ! ,rhetorica1 is includ$ 9 ! c\rse4 ,footnote #b3 ,ari/ot4 ,topica1 i4 p4 #ajd1 b4 #a1 ) ! ,s*olia ( ,alex&]1 p4 #bei1 a4 #dh ,br42 ,s*olia ad ,analyt4 ,prior4 p4 #adj1 a4 #dg1 p4 #ada1 a4 #be2 also ,s*ol4 ad ,categor4 p4 #cf1 a41 p4 #dj1 a41 #h4 ,?is conception ( ! ,organon is n explicitly ann\nc$ by ,ari/otle1 b seems q 9 h>mony ) 8 views4 ,! contemptu\s t]ms 9 :i* ,prantl speaks ( x 7,ges*4 d] ,logik1 i4 #acf71 z a silly innovation ( ! ,/oics1 are unw>rant$4 ,ari/otle 7,metaph4 ,e4 i4 p4 #ajbe1 b4 #bf7 classifies ! sci5ces z ,greek3 !rtikai_/1 praktikai_/1 poitikai_/2 next he subdivides ! fir/ ( ! ?ree into ,greek3 phusik_/1 ma?matik_/1 pr_/t philosophi_/a4 ,br5tano1 aft] rem>k+ t no place 9 ?is di/ribution is expressly provid$ = ,logic1 expla9s ! omission z foll[s3 ,diese auffall5de ,ers*e9ung erklrt si* d>aus1 dass diese ! ?ree above-nam$ !oretical sci5ces alle9 das reelle ,se9 betra*t51 und na* d5 drei ,grad5 d] ,ab/raktion 9 ihr] ,betra*tungsweise v]s*i$51 ges*i$5 w]d52 whr5d die ,logik das bloss rationelle ,se91 das ,greek3 o7n 7s a7l!_/s1 beh&elt4 7,ueb] die ,b$eutung des ,sei5d5 na* ,ari/oteles1 p4 #ci47--;,inve/igations ,greek3 p]i ts a7l!i_/z1 o7n tro_/pon dei a7pode_/*e/hai are consid]$ by ,ari/otle z belong+ to ,greek3 ta ,a7naluktika2 enquiries into me?od 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 & into doctr9e *iefly ) a view to me?od 7,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,g4 p4 #ajje1 b4 #b4 ,9 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,g4 #ajje1 b4 #g1 he decl>es t ^! enquiries into me?od1 or analysis ( ! pr9cipia ( syllogi/ic reason+1 belong to ! ,philosophia ,prima 7comp>e ,metaphys4 ,z4 #ab1 p4 #ajcg1 b4 #h74 ,s*wegl] 9 8 ,comm5t>y 7p4 #afa7 rem>ks t ?is is "o ( ! few passages 9 :i* ,ari/otle indicates ! relation 9 :i* ,logic /&s to ,metaphysics1 or ,fir/ ,philosophy4 ,! "q has be5 />t$ among 8 ,greek3 ,a7pori_/ai ,metaph4 ,b4 #b1 p4 #iii1 b4 #cj4 ,footnote #c3 ,respect+ ! title ( ,organon :i* 0 sometimes appli$ to ! ,analytica ,po/]iora only1 see ,waitz ad ,organ1 ii4 p4 #bid4 ,^! treatises are six 9 numb]3--#a4 ,categori2#d #b4 ,de ,int]pretatione1 or ,de ,enunciatione2 #c4 ,analytica ,priora2 #d4 ,analytica ,po/]iora2 #e4 ,topica2 #f4 ,de ,sophi/icis ,el5*is4 ,?is la/ %ort treatise--,de ,sophi/icis ,el5*is--belongs naturally to ! ,topica :i* prec$es x1 & ( :i* x ought to be rank$ z ! n9? or conclud+ book4 ,waitz has pr9t$ x z su* 9 8 edition ( ! ,organon2 b z x has be5 g5]ally kn[n ) a sep>ate place & title1 ,i %all n dep>t f ! receiv$ und]/&+4 ,footnote #d3 ,"s em95t critics1 ,prantl & ,bonitz among !m1 consid] ! treatise ,categori n to be ! "w ( ,ari/otle4 ,! argum5ts on :i* ?is op9ion re/s are n conv9c+ to me2 & ev5 if !y 71 ! treatise c\ld n be left out ( consid]ation1 s9ce ! doctr9e ( ! ,t5 ,categories is indisputably ,ari/otelian4 ,see ,zell]1 ,die ,phil4 d] ,grie*4 ii4 #b1 pp4 #ej1 #ea1 #bnd ed4 ,ari/otle himself does n ann\nce ^! six treatises z =m+ a di/9ct aggregate1 nor z belong+ to "o & ! same dep>tm5t1 nor z be>+ "o compreh5sive "n4 ,we f9d inde$ 9 ! ,topica ref]5ces to ! ,analytica1 & 9 ! ,analytica ref]5ces to ! ,topica4 ,9 bo? ( !m1 ! t5 ,categories are assum$ & presuppos$1 ?\gh ! treatise describ+ !m is n expressly m5tion$3 to bo? also1 ! cont5ts ( ! treatise ,de ,int]pretatione or ,enunciatione1 ?\gh x is n nam$1 are indisp5sable4 ,! aff9ity & int]dep5d5ce ( ! six is evid5t1 & ju/ifies ! practice ( ! comm5tators 9 treat+ !m z belong+ to "o & ! same dep>tm5t4 ,to t dep>tm5t !re belong$ also sev]al o!r treatises ( ,ari/otle1 n n[ pres]v$1 b specifi$ 9 ! catalogue ( 8 lo/ works2 & ^! 8 disciple ,!ophra/us1 ,eudemus1 & ,phanias1 _h be=e !m4 ,z all ^! ?ree disciples compos$ treatises ( _! own on ! same or simil> topics1#e amplify+1 elucidat+1 or controv]t+ ! views ( _! ma/]1 ! ,p]ipatetics imm$iately succe$+ !m mu/ h possess$ a copi\s logical lit]ature1 9 :i* ! six treatises n[ con/itut+ ! ,organon appe>$ z portions1 b n z a special aggregate 9 !mselves4 ,footnote #e3 ,ammonius ap4 ,s*ol4 p4 #bh1 a4 #da2 p4 #cc1 b4 #bg1 ,br4 ,( ! two treatises :i* /& fir/ 9 ! ,ari/otelian ,organon--! ,categori & ! ,de ,int]pretatione--ea* =ms 9 a c]ta9 s5se ! complem5t ( ! o!r4 ,! treatise ,de ,int]pretatione h&les ,propositions 7comb9ations ( t]ms 9 ! way ( ,subject & ,pr$icate71 ) prom95t ref]5ce to ! specific attribute ( a ,proposition--! be+ true or false1 ! object ( belief or disbelief2 ! treatise ,categori deals ) ^! same ,t]ms 7to use ,ari/otle's own phrase7 pron\nc$ )\t or ap>t f su* comb9ation4 ,9 8 def9ition ( ! simple ,t]m1 ! ,proposition is at ! same "t assum$ to be =ekn[n z ! correlate or anti!sis to x4#f ,footnote #f3 ,greek3 ,ta a7_/neu sumploks lego_/m5a--tn kata mdemi_/an sumplokn legome_/nna ,categ4 p4 #a1 a4 #af1 b4 #be74 ,see ,s*ol4 ad ,ari/ot4 ,physica1 p4 #cbc1 b4 #be1 ,br42 & ,bonitz ad ,ari/otel4 ,metaph4 7,a4 p4 #ihg7 p4 #ij4 ,! ,categories ( ,ari/otle appe> to =m$ "o ( ! mo/ prom95t topics ( ! tea*+ ( ,!mi/ius3 rebutt+ ! *>ge1 advanc$ bo? aga9/ himself1 &1 9 e>li] days1 aga9/ ,sokrates & ! ,sophi/s1 ( r5d]+ 8 pupils presumptu\s & conceit$1 he asks1 ,greek3 7k\_/sate de au7 t9os tn e7mn e7pitdei_/n u7pslog\me_/n\ kai br5?uome_/n\ e7pi tois sunnu_/mois 7 o7mnu_/mois 7 p>nu_/mois2 7,orat4 xxiii4 p4 #cea47 ,ref]5ce is made 79 ! ,s*olia on ! ,categori1 p4 #dc1 b4 #ai7 to a classification ( names made by ,speusippus1 :i* mu/ h be5 at lea/ z e>ly z t ( ,ari/otle2 p]haps e>li]1 s9ce ,speusippus di$ 9 #cci ,b4,c4 ,we d n he> en\gh ( ?is to und]/& cle>ly :at x 04 ,bo?us rem>k$ t ,ari/otle _h omitt$ to notice "s di/9ctions drawn by ,speusippus on ?is matt]1 ,s*ol4 p4 #dc1 a4 #bi4 ,comp>e a rem>k 9 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,coelo1 i4 p4 #bhj1 b4 #b4 ,! fir/ di/9ction po9t$ out by ,ari/otle among simple1 uncomb9$ ,t]ms1 or ! ?+s d5ot$ !reby1 is ! ,homonym\s1 ! ,synonym\s1 & ! ,p>onym\s4 ,homonym\s are ^? :i* are call$ by ! same "n1 us$ 9 a diff]5t s5se or ) a diff]5t def9ition or rational explanation4 ,synonym\s are ^? call$ by ! same "n 9 ! same s5se4 ,p>onym\s are ^? call$ by two names1 ( :i* ! "o is d]iv$ f ! o!r by v>y+ ! inflexion or t]m9ation4#g ,footnote #g3 ,ari/ot4 ,categor4 p4 #a1 a4 #a-ae4 ,we c h>dly d\bt t x 0 ,ari/otle :o fir/ gave ?is peculi> di/9ctive mean+ to ! two words ,homonym\s & ,synonym\s1 r5d]$ 9 mod]n phraseology 7?r\gh ! ,lat97 ,equivocal & ,univocal4 ,be=e 8 "t ?is important di/9ction betwe5 diff]5t t]ms _h no te*nical "n to designate x4 ,! s]vice r5d]$ to ,logic by introduc+ su* a te*nical t]m1 & by call+ att5tion to ! lax mode ( speak+ :i* x indicat$1 0 great4 ,9 e bran* ( 8 writ+s ,ari/otle p]petually rev]ts to x1 apply+ x to new cases1 & especially to ^? famili> univ]sal words utt]$ mo/ freely & frequ5tly1 "u ! common p]suasion t _! mean+ is n only ?or\ghly kn[n b con/ant & uni=m4 ,z a g5]al fact1 /ud5ts are n[ well acqua9t$ ) ?is s\rce ( error1 ?\gh ! /ream ( p>ticul> errors fl[+ f x is /ill abundant1 ev] r5ew$ & div]sifi$4 ,b 9 ! "t ( ,ari/otle ! s\rce itself _h nev] yet be5 po9t$ out emphatically to notice1 nor signaliz$ by any *>act]i/ic t]m z by a beacon4 ,! natural bias :i* lead u to suppose t "o t]m always c>ries "o & ! same mean+1 0 n c\nt]act$ by any sy/ematic w>n+ or g5]aliz$ expression4 ,sokrates & ,plato did inde$ expose _m p>ticul> examples ( undef9$ & equivocal phraseology4 ,no "p ( ! ,platonic writ+s is m valuable ?an ! dialogues 9 :i* ?is op]ation is p]=m$1 =c+ ! respond5t to feel h[ imp]fectly he und]/&s ! phrases con/antly 9 use4 ,b x is r>ely ,plato's practice to furni% g5]aliz$ positive w>n+s or sy/ematic di/9ctions4 ,he has no g5]al t]m correspond+ to homonym\s or equivocal2 & !re are ev5 passages :]e 7"u ! "n ( ,prodikus7 he d]ides or disp>ages a c>eful di/9ctive analysis ( diff]5t significations ( ! same "n4 ,to recognize a class ( equivocal t]ms & assign !reto a special class-"n1 0 an important /ep 9 logical proc$ure2 & t /ep1 among s _m o!rs1 0 made by ,ari/otle4#h ,footnote #h3 ,9 ! in/ructive comm5t>y ( ,dexippus on ! ,categori 7conta9$ 9 a suppos$ dialogue betwe5 ,dexippus & 8 pupil ,seleukus1 ( :i* all t rema9s has be5 rec5tly publi%$ by ,sp5gel1 ,muni*1 #ahei71 t comm5tator def5ds ,ari/otle aga9/ "s critics :o wond]$ :y he began ) ^! ,ante-pr$icam5ts 7,greek3 o7m_/numa1 sun_/numa1 c471 in/ead ( proce$+ at once to ! ,pr$icam5ts or ,categories !mselves4 ,dexippus rem>ks t )\t und]/&+ ?is di/9ction betwe5 equivoca & univoca1 ! ,categories !mselves c\ld n be prop]ly appreciat$2 = ,ens--,greek3 to o7n--is homonym\s 9 ref]5ce to all ! ,categories1 & n a ,summum ,g5us1 compreh5d+ ! ,categories z di/9ct species "u x2 :ile ea* ,category is a ,g5us 9 ref]5ce to its p>ticul>s4 ,moreov]1 ,dexippus obs]ves t ?is di/9ction ( homonyms & synonyms 0 altoge!r unkn[n & nev] self-sugge/$ to ! ord9>y m9d 7,greek3 o7_/sn gar e7_/nnoian ou7k e7_/*om51 t\_/tn pro_/lps9 ou7k e7_/*om51 p4 #bj71 & !re=e requir$ to be br\ght out fir/ ( all at ! beg9n+2 :]eas ! ,po/-pr$icam5ts 7to :i* we %all come lat] on7 7 po/pon$ to ! end1 because !y 7 cases ( famili> t]ms loosely employ$1 7,see ,sp5gel1 ,dexipp4 pp4 #ai1 #bj1 #ba47 ,?\gh ,ari/otle has pr(ess$ to di/+ui% betwe5 t]ms implicat$ 9 pr$ication1 & t]ms n s implicat$1#i yet :5 he comes to expla9 ! functions ( ! latt] class1 he consid]s !m 9 ref]5ce to _! functions z con/itu5t memb]s ( propositions4 ,he imm$iately beg9s by di/+ui%+ f\r sorts ( matt]s 7,entia73 ,t :i* is affirmable ( a ,subject1 b is n 9 a ,subject2 ,t :i* is 9 a ,subject1 b is n affirmable ( a ,subject2 ,t :i* is bo? 9 a ,subject1 & affirmable ( a ,subject2 ,t :i* is nei!r 9 a ,subject1 nor affirmable ( a ,subject4#aj ,footnote #i3 ,ari/ot4 ,categor4 p4 #a1 a4 #af4 ,greek3 tn legome_/nn ta men kata sumplokn le_/getai1 ta d' a7_/neu sumploks2 ta men ou7n kata sumplokn oi7on a7_/n?rpos tre_/*ei1 a7_/n?rpos nika2 ta d' a7_/neu sumploks oi7on a7_/n?rpos1 b\s1 tre_/*ei1 nika4 ,x w be se5 t ! mean+ & function ( ! s+le ^w c only expla9$ relatively to ! complete proposition1 :i* mu/ be assum$ z =ekn[n4 ,t :i* ,ari/otle discrim9ates 9 ?is treatise1 9 ! phrases--,greek3 le_/ge/hai kata sumplokn & ,greek3 le_/ge/hai a7_/neu sumploks is equival5t to :at we read 9 ! ,de ,int]pretatione 7p4 #af1 b4 #bg1 p4 #ag1 a4 #ag7 diff]5tly express$1 ,greek3 phn smantik 7s kata_/phasis & ,greek3 phn smantik 7s pha_/sis4 ,footnote #aj3 ,ari/ot4 ,categor4 p4 #a1 a4 #bj4 ,?is fundam5tal quadruple di/9ction ( ,entia1 :i* s]ves z an introduction to ! t5 ,categories or ,pr$icam5ts1 belongs to words altoge!r accord+ to _! relative places or functions 9 ! proposition2 ! mean+s ( ! words be+ classifi$ accord+ly4 ,t ! le>n] may und]/& x1 he ought prop]ly to be ma/] ( ! fir/ "p ( ! treatise ,de ,int]pretatione1 :]e9 ! con/itu5t elem5ts ( a proposition are expla9$3 s intimate is ! connection betwe5 t treatise & ?is4 ,! classification applies to ,entia 7,?+s or ,matt]s7 univ]sally1 & is ?us a fir/ /ep 9 ,ontology4 ,he "h looks at ,ontology 9 "o ( its sev]al div]se aspects--z x ent]s into pr$ication1 & furni%es ! mat]ial = ,subjects & ,pr$icates1 ! con/itu5t memb]s ( a proposition4 ,ontology1 or ! ,sci5ce ( ,ens quat5us ,ens1 occupies an important place 9 ,ari/otle's sci5tific programme2 be>+ usually ! title ( ,fir/ ,philosophy1 sometimes ,!ology1 ?\gh nev] 79 8 works7 ! m mod]n title ( ,metaphysica4 ,he describes x z ! univ]sal & compreh5sive ,sci5ce1 to :i* all o!r sci5ces are relat$ z p>ts or fractions4 ,ontology deals ) ,ens 9 its wide/ s5se1 z an ,unum n g5]ic b analogical--di/+ui%+ ! d]ivative v>ieties into :i* x may be di/ribut$1 & sett+ out ! attributes & accompanim5ts ( ,ess5tia univ]sally2 :ile o!r sci5ces1 su* z ,geometry1 ,a/ronomy1 c41 conf9e !mselves to di/9ct bran*es ( t :ole2#aa ea* hav+ its own sep>ate class ( ,entia = special & exclusive /udy4 ,?is is ! *>act]i/ic di/9ction ( ,ontology1 z ,ari/otle conceives x2 he does n set x 9 anti!sis to ,ph5om5ology1 accord+ to ! di/9ction t has become curr5t among mod]n metaphysicians4 ,footnote #aa3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,g4 p4 #ajjc1 a4 #ba1 #be-cc1 ,e4 p4 #ajbe1 b4 #h4 ,greek3 e7_//9 e7pi/_/m tis 7 !rei to o7n 7 o7n kai ta t\_/t u7pa_/r*onta ka?' au7to_/2 au7_/t d' e7/in ou7demia tn a7_/lln e7piskopei ka?o_/l\ p]i t\ o7_/ntos 7 o7_/n1 a7lla me_/ros au7t\ ti a7potemo_/m5ai p]i t\_/t\ !r\si to sumbebko_/s1 c4 ,comp>e p4 #ajje1 a4 #b-ad4 ,n[ ,ens 7or ,entia71 9 ! doctr9e ( ,ari/otle1 is n a synonym\s or univocal ^w1 b an homonym\s or equivocal ^w2 or1 r1 x is some?+ betwe5 ! two1 be+ equivocal1 ) a c]ta9 qualification4 ,?\gh n a ,summum ,g5us1 i4e4 n manife/+ ?r\gh\t all its p>ticul>s g5]ic unity1 nor divisible into species by ! addition ( well-m>k$ ess5tial diff]5ti1 x is an analogical aggregate1 or a ,summum ,analogon1 compreh5d+ "u x _m subord9ates :i* be> ! same "n f be+ all relat$ 9 "s way or o!r to a common root or fundam5tum1 ! relation%ip be+ bo? div]se 9 k9d & ne>] or m di/ant 9 degree4 ,! ^w ,ens is ?us homonym\s1 yet 9 a qualifi$ s5se4 ,:ile x is n univocal1 x is at ! same "t n absolutely equivocal4 ,x is multivocal 7if we may co9 su* a ^w71 hav+ _m mean+s held toge!r by a multif>i\s & graduat$ relation%ip to "o common fundam5tum4#ab ,ens 7or ,entia71 9 ?is wide/ s5se1 is ! !me ( ,ontology or ,fir/ ,philosophy1 & is look$ at by ,ari/otle 9 f\r diff]5t pr9cipal aspects4#ac ,footnote #ab3 ,simplikius speaks ( ^! ,analoga z ,greek3 to me_/son tn te sunnu_/mn kai tn o7mnu_/mn1 to a7ph' e7no_/s1 c4 ,s*ol4 ad ,categor4 p4 #fi1 b4 #bi1 ,br&4 ,see also ,metaphys4 ,z4 p4 #ajcj1 a4 #cd4 ,dexippus does n recognize1 =mally & "u a di/9ct title1 ?is int]m$iate /age betwe5 ,greek3 sun_/numa & ,greek3 o7m_/numa4 ,he /ates t ,ari/otle consid]$ ,ens z ,greek3 o7m_/numon1 :ile o!r philosoph]s consid]$ x z ,greek3 sun_/numon 7,dexippus1 p4 #bf1 book i4 sect4 #ai1 ed4 ,sp5gel74 ,b he intimates t ! t5 g5]al heads call$ ,categories h a c]ta9 cont9uity & int]dep5d5ce 7,greek3 sune_/*eian kai a7lll\*i_/an7 ea* ) ! o!rs1 bran*+ out f ,greek3 ou7si_/a 9 ramifications m or less /raggl+ 7p4 #dh1 book ii4 sects4 #a1 #b1 ,sp5gel74 ,! li/ 7he says1 p4 #dg7 does n dep5d ^u ,greek3 diai_/resis 7g5]ic division71 nor yet is x simple enum]ation 7,greek3 a7p>i_/?msis ( incoh]5t items4 ,9 ! ,physica1 vii4 #d1 p4 #bdi1 a4 #bc1 ,ari/otle obs]ves3 ,greek3 ei7si de tn o7mnumin ai7 men polu a7pe_/*\si ai7 de e7_/*\sai_/ t9a o7moio_/tta1 ai7 d' e7ggus 7 ge_/nei 7 a7nalogi_/a1 dio ou7 dok\s9 o7mnumi_/ai ei7nai ou7sai4 ,footnote #ac3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,d4 p4 #ajag1 a4 #g1 ,e4 p4 #ajbe1 a4 #cd1 p4 #ajbf1 a4 #cc1 b4 #d2 ^u :i* la/ passage see ! note ( ,bonitz4 #a4 ,greek3 ,to o7n kata sumbebko_/s--,ens p] ,accid5s--,ens accid5tal1 or r concomitant1 ei!r z r>e & exceptional attribute to a subject1 or along ) "s o!r accid5t 9 ! same common subject4 #b4 ,greek3 ,to o7n 7s a7l!_/s1 kai to m o7n 7s pseudos--,ens1 9 ! s5se _/( ,tru?1 ,non-,ens1 9 ! s5se ( ,falsehood4 ,?is is ! ,ens ( ! ,proposition2 a true affirmation or d5ial falls "u ,ens 9 ?is mode1 :5 ! m5tal conjunction ( t]ms agrees ) reality2 a false affirmation or d5ial1 :]e no su* agreem5t exi/s1 falls "u ,non-,ens4#ad ,footnote #ad3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,e4 #d1 p4 #ajbg1 b4 #ah1--p4 #ajbh1 a4 #d4 ,greek3 ou7 gar e7/i to pseudos kai to a7l!s e7n tois pra_/gmas9--a7ll' e7n dianoi_/a--ou7k e7_/x dl\s9 ou7sa_/n t9a phu_/s9 t\ o7_/ntos4 ,also ,greek3 ,?4 #aj1 p4 #ajea1 b4 #a3 ,greek3 to kuri_/tata o7n a7l!s kai pseudos4 ,9 a ,s*olion1 ,alex&] rem>ks3 ,greek3 to de 7s a7l?s o7n pa_/?os e7/i kai b\_/lma dianoi_/z1 to de ztein to e7ka_// dok\n ou7 spho_/dra a7nagkaion4 #c4 ,greek3 ,to o7n duna_/mei kai to o7n e7n]gei_/a--,ens1 pot5tial1 actual4 #d4 ,greek3 ,to o7n kata ta s*_/mata tn katgorin--,ens1 accord+ to ! t5 v>ieties ( ! ,categories1 to be pres5tly expla9$4 ,^! f\r are ! pr9cipal aspects "u :i* ,ari/otle looks at ! aggregate compris$ by ! equivocal or multivocal ^w ,entia4 ,9 all ! f\r bran*es1 ! v>ieties compris$ are n species "u a common g5us1 correlat+1 ei!r z co-ord9ate or subord9ate1 "o to ! o!r2 !y are analoga1 all hav+ relation%ip ) a common t]m1 b hav+ no o!r necess>y relation%ip ) ea* o!r4 ,ari/otle does n mean t ^! f\r modes ( di/ribut+ ?is va/ aggregate1 are ! only modes possible2 = he himself sometimes alludes to o!r modes ( di/ributions4#ae ,nor w\ld he ma9ta9 t ! f\r di/ributions 7 completely di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r1 s t ! same subord9ate fractions are n compreh5d$ 9 any two2 = on ! contr>y1 ! bran*es ov]lap ea* o!r & co9cide to a great degree1 especially ! fir/ & f\r?4 ,b he consid]s ! f\r z discrim9at+ c]ta9 di/9ct aspects ( ,entia or ,entitas1 m important ?an any o!r aspects !re( t c\ld be po9t$ out1 & z af=d+ ?us ! be/ basis & comm5cem5t = ! ,sci5ce call$ ,ontology4 ,footnote #ae3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,g4 p4 #ajjc1 a4 #cc1 b4 #aj4 ,comp>e ! able treatise ( ,br5tano1 ,ueb] die ,b$eutung des ,sei5d5 na* ,ari/oteles1 pp4 #f1 #g4 ,( ^! f\r heads1 h[ev]1 ! fir/ & second are rapidly dismiss$ by ,ari/otle 9 ! ,metaphysica1#af be+ conceiv$ z hav+ little ref]5ce to real ess5ce1 & !re=e belong+ m to ,logic ?an to ,ontology2 i4e4 to ! subjective processes ( nam+1 pr$icat+1 believ+1 & inf]r+ r ?an to ! objective _w ( ,p]ceivables & ,cogitables4#ag ,x is ! ?ird & f\r? t are treat$ 9 ! ,metaphysica2 :ile x is ! f\r? only 7,ens accord+ to ! t5 figures ( ! ,categories7 :i* is set =? & elucidat$ 9 ?is fir/ treatise ( ! ,organon1 :]e ,ari/otle appe>s to bl5d ,logic & ,ontology into "o4 ,footnote #af3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,e4 p4 #ajbg1 b4 #af1 p4 #ajbh4 a4 #f4 ,footnote #ag3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,?4 #aj1 p4 #ajea1 b4 #b-ae1 ) ,s*wegl]'s ,comm5t1 p4 #ahf4 ,?is is ! di/9ction drawn by ,simplikius 7,s*ol4 ad ,categ4 p4 #gf1 b4 #dg7 betwe5 ! ,organon & ! ,metaphysica3 ,greek3 ,ai7 gar a7r*ai kata men t_/n smantikn au7tn le_/x9 e7n t logik pragmatei_/a dl\ntai1 kata de ta sma9o_/m5a e7n t ,meta ta ,phusika oi7kei_/s4 ,greek3 ,ta o7_/nta are equival5t to ,greek3 ta lego_/m5a1 9 ?is & ! o!r logical treatises ( ,ari/otle4 ,categ4 p4 #a1 a4 #af-bj1 b4 #be2 ,analyt4 ,prior4 i4 p4 #dc1 a4 #be4 ,?is is ! logical aspect ( ,ontology2 t is1 ,entia are consid]$ z ,objects to be nam$1 & to s]ve z ,subjects or ,pr$icates = propositions3 e su* t]m hav+ a fix$ d5otation1 & 7) ! exception ( prop] names7 a fix$ connotation1 kn[n to speak]s & he>]s4 ,greek3 ,ta lego_/m5a 7or ,entia consid]$ 9 ?is aspect7 are di/+ui%$ by ,ari/otle into two classes3 #a4 ,greek3 ,ta lego_/m5a kata sumplok_/n1 oi7on a7_/n?rpos tre_/*ei1 a7_/n?ropos nika4 #b4 ,greek3 ,ta lego_/m5a a7_/neu sumploks 7or ,greek3 kata mdemi_/an sumplok_/n7 ,greek3 oi7on a7_/n?rpos1 b\s1 tre_/*ei1 nika4 ,we are to obs]ve "h1 t 9 ,logic ! ,proposition or ,enunciation is ! ,prius ,natur1 :i* mu/ be presuppos$ z kn[n be=e we c und]/& :at ! sep>ate t]ms are 7,analytic4 ,prior4 i4 p4 #bd1 a4 #af73 j z ! "r angle mu/ be und]/ood be=e we c expla9 :at is an acute or an obtuse angle 7to use an illu/ration ( ,ari/otle2 see ,metaphys4 ,z4 p4 #ajce1 b4 #g74 ,we mu/ und]/& ! entire logical act1 call$ ,affirm+ or ,d5y+1 be=e we c und]/& ! functions ( ! two factors or correlates ) :i* t act is p]=m$4 ,ari/otle def9es ! ,t]m by means ( ! ,proposition1 ,greek3 o7_/ron de kal ei7 o7n dialu_/etai 7 pro_/tasis 7,anal4 ,pr4 i4 #bd1 b4 #af74 ,greek3 ,ta lego_/m5a1 z "h us$ by ,ari/otle1 co9cides 9 mean+ ) :at ! ,/oics aft]w>ds call$ ,greek3 ,ta lekta_/--( two classes3 #a4 ,greek3 lekta au7totel1 "o bran* ( :i*1 ,greek3 ta a7xi_/mata1 are equival5t to ! ,ari/otelian ,greek3 ta kata sumplokn lego_/m5a4 #b4 ,greek3 lekta e7llip1 equival5t to ,greek3 ta a7_/neu sumploks lego_/m5a 7,diog54 ,la]t4 vii4 #dc1 #dd1 #fc1 #fd2 ,sext4 ,emp4 adv4 ,ma!mat4 viii4 #fi1 #gj1 #gd73 equival5t also1 seem+ly1 to ,greek3 ta dianota 9 ,ari/otle3 ,greek3 o7 dianotos ,a7ri/ome_/ns 7,anal4 ,pr4 ,i4 p4 #dg1 b4 #bb74 ,hobbes obs]ves 7,computation or ,logic1 "p i4 #b1 #e73 ,nor is x at all necess>y t e "n %\ld be ! "n ( some?+4 ,= z ^!1 a man1 a tree1 a /one1 are ! names ( ! ?+s !mselves1 s ! images ( a man1 ( a tree1 ( a /one1 :i* are repres5t$ to m5 sleep+1 h _! names also1 ?\gh !y be n ?+s1 b only fictions & phantasms ( ?+s4 ,= we c rememb] ^!2 & !re=e x is no less necess>y t !y h names to m>k & signify !m1 ?an ! ?+s !mselves4 ,also ?is ^w future is a "n2 b no future ?+ has yet any be+4 ,moreov]1 t :i* nei!r is1 nor has be51 nor ev] %all or ev] c be1 has a "n--impossible4 ,to conclude1 ?is ^w no?+ is a "n1 :i* yet _c be "n ( any ?+2 = :5 we subtract two & ?ree f five1 &1 s no?+ rema9+1 we w\ld call t subtraction to m9d1 ?is spee* no?+ rema9s1 & 9 x ! ^w no?+1 is n unuseful4 ,& = ! same reason we say truly1 less ?an no?+ rema9s1 :5 we subtract m f less2 = ! m9d feigns su* rema9s z ^! = doctr9e's sake1 & desires1 z (t5 z is necess>y1 to call ! same to memory4 ,b see+ e "n has "s relation to t :i* is nam$1 ?\gh t :i* we "n be n always a ?+ t has a be+ 9 nature1 yet is lawful = doctr9e's sake to apply ! ^w ?+ to :atsoev] we "n2 z x 7 all "o :e!r t ?+ truly exi/5t1 or be only feign$4 ,! ,greek neut] g5d] 7,greek3 to lego_/m5on or ,greek3 to lekto_/n1 ta lego_/m5a or ,greek3 ta lekta_/7 cov]s all t ,hobbes "h includes "u ! ^w ?+4--,s*olia ad ,ari/ot4 ,physic4 ,i4 i4 p4 #cbc1 a4 #ba1 ,br&43 ,greek3 o7noma_/zontai men kai ta m o7_/nta1 o7ri_/zontai de mo_/na ta o7_/nta4 ,( ?is mix$ "*1 p>tly logical1 p>tly ontological1 is ! fir/ di/9ction set =? 9 ! ,categori--! di/9ction betwe5 matt]s pr$icat$ ( a ,subject1 & matt]s :i* are 9 a ,subject--! ,subject itself be+ assum$ z ! fundam5tum correlative to bo? ( !m4 ,! def9ition giv5 ( t :i* is 9 a ,subject is ontological3 viz41 ,9 a ,subject1 ,i call t :i* is 9 any?+1 n z a "p1 yet s t x _c exi/ sep>ately f t 9 :i* x is4#ah ,by ^! two negative *>act]i/ics1 )\t any m>k positive1 does ,ari/otle def9e :at is meant by be+ 9 a ,subject4 ,mod]n logicians1 & ,hobbes among !m1 c f9d no bett] def9ition = an ,accid5t2 ?\gh ,hobbes rem>ks truly1 t ,accid5t _c be prop]ly def9$1 b mu/ be elucidat$ by examples4#ai ,footnote #ah3 ,ari/ot4 ,categ4 p4 #a1 a4 #bd4 ,footnote #ai3 ,hobbes1 ,computation or ,logic1 "p i4 #c1 #c1 i4 #f1 #b1 ii4 #h1 #b-c4 ,! di/9ction "h drawn by ,ari/otle betwe5 be+ pr$icat$ ( a ,subject1 & be+ 9 a ,subject1 co9cides ) t betwe5 ess5tial & non-ess5tial pr$ication3 all ! pr$icates 7includ+ ! diff]5tia7 :i* belong to ! ess5ce1 fall "u ! fir/ division2#bj all ^? :i* d n belong to ! ess5ce1 "u ! latt]4 ,! ,subjects--:at ,ari/otle calls ! ,fir/ ,ess5ces or ,sub/ances1 ^? :i* are ess5ces or sub/ances 9 ! fulle/ & /ricte/ mean+ ( ! ^w--are concrete individual ?+s or p]sons2 su* z ,sokrates1 ?is man1 t horse or tree4 ,^! are nev] employ$ z pr$icates at all 7except by a di/ort$ & unnatural /ructure ( ! proposition1 :i* ,ari/otle indicates z possible1 b decl9es to take into acc\nt72 !y are always ,subjects ( diff]5t pr$icates1 & are1 9 ! la/ analysis1 ! ,subjects ( all pr$icates4 ,b besides ^! ,fir/ ,ess5ces1 !re are also ,second ,ess5ces--,species & ,g5us1 :i* /& to ! fir/ ,ess5ce 9 ! relation ( pr$icates to a ,subject1 & to ! o!r ,categories 9 ! relation ( ,subjects to pr$icates4#ba ,^! ,second ,ess5ces are less ( ,ess5ces ?an ! ,fir/1 :i* alone is an ,ess5ce 9 ! fulle/ & mo/ appropriate s5se4 ,among ! ,second ,ess5ces1 ,species is m ( an ,ess5ce ?an ,g5us1 because x belongs m closely & specially to ! ,fir/ ,ess5ce2 :ile ,g5us is f>!r remov$ f x4 ,ari/otle ?us recognizes a graduation ( m or less 9 ,ess5ce2 ! individual is m ,ess5ce1 or m complete z an ,ess5ce1 ?an ! ,species1 ! ,species m ?an ! ,g5us4 ,z he recognizes a ,fir/ ,ess5ce1 i4e4 an individual object 7su* z ,sokrates1 ?is horse1 c471 s he also recognizes an individual accid5t 7?is p>ticul> :ite col\r1 t p>ticul> grammatical k7 :i* is 9 a ,subject1 b is n pr$icat$ ( a ,subject2 ?is p>ticul> :ite col\r exi/s 9 "s giv5 body1 b is n pr$icable ( any body4#bb ,footnote #bj3 ,ari/ot4 ,categ4 p4 #c1 a4 #bj4 ,x appe>s t ,&ronikus did n draw ! l9e betwe5 ^! two classes ( pr$icates 9 same mann] z ,ari/otle3 he includ$ _m non-ess5tial pr$icates 9 ,greek3 ta ka?' u7pokeime_/n\4 ,see ,simplikius1 ad ,categorias1 ,basil4 #aeea1 fol4 #ac1 #ba1 ,b4 ,nor 0 ei!r ,alex&] or ,porphyry c>eful to obs]ve ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two classes4 ,see ,s*ol4 ad ,metaphys4 p4 #gja4 b4 #bc1 ,br42 ,s*ol4 ad ,de ,int]pret4 p4 #ajf1 a4 #bi1 ,br4 ,& :5 ,ari/otle says1 ,analyt4 ,prior4 i4 p4 #bd1 b4 #bf1 ,greek3 to de e7n o7_/l ei7nai e7_/t]on e7te_/r1 kai to kata pantos katgorei/hai ?ate_/r\ ?a_/t]on1 tau7to_/n e7/91 he seems himself to =get ! di/9ction entirely4 ,footnote #ba3 ,categor4 p4 #b1 a4 #ae1 seq4 ,9 ,ari/otle phraseology x is n said t ,second ,ess5ces are conta9$ 9 ,fir/ ,ess5ces1 b t ,fir/ ,ess5ces are conta9$ 9 ,second ,ess5ces1 i4e4 9 ! species :i* ,second ,ess5ces signify4 ,see ! ,s*olion to p4 #c1 a4 #i1 9 ,waitz1 vol4 i4 p4 #cb4 ,footnote #bb3 ,ari/4 ,categ4 p4 #a1 a4 #bf2 b4 #g3 ,greek3 ,a7npls de ta a7_/toma kai e7n a7ri?m kat' ou7d5os u7pokeime_/n\ le_/getai1 e7n u7pokeime_/n de e7_/nia ou7den klu_/ei ei7nai2 7 ga_/r tis grammatik tn e7n u7pokeime_/n e7/i_/n4 ,ari/otle "h recognizes an attribute z individual & z num]ically "o2 & v>i\s o!r logicians h foll[$ him4 ,b is x correct to say1 t an attribute1 :5 x _c be f>!r divid$ specifically1 & is ?us ! l[e/ 9 its own pr$icam5tal s]ies1 is ,unum ,num]o8 ,! attribute may belong to an indef9ite numb] ( diff]5t objects2 & c we c\nt x z ,"o1 9 ! same s5se 9 :i* we c\nt ea* ( ^! objects z ,"o8 ,i d\bt :e!r ,unum ,num]o be applicable to attributes4 ,ari/otle decl>es t ! ,greek3 deute_/ra ou7si_/a is n ,unum ,num]o l ! ,greek3 pr_/t ou7si_/a--ou7 gar e7n e7/i to u7pokei_/m5on 7_/sp] 7 pr_/t ou7si_/a1 a7lla kata polln o7 a7_/n?rpos le_/getai kai to zon 7,categ4 p4 #c1 b4 #af74 ,^u ! same pr9ciple1 ,i ?9k1 he ought to decl>e t ! attribute is n ,unum ,num]o2 = ?\gh x is n 79 8 language7 pr$icable ( _m ,subjects1 yet x is 9 _m ,subjects4 ,x _c correctly be call$ ,unum ,num]o1 accord+ to ! explanation :i* he gives ( t phrase 9 two passages ( ! ,metaphysica1 ,b4 p4 #iii1 b4 #cc2 ,greek3 ,d4 p4 #ajaf1 b4 #cb3 ,greek3 a7ri?m men 7n 7 u7_/l mi_/a1 c4 ,respect+ ! logical di/9ction1 :i* ,ari/otle places 9 ! comm5cem5t ( ?is treatise on ! ,categories--betwe5 pr$icates :i* are affirm$ ( a ,subject1 & pr$icates :i* are 9 a ,subject#bc--we may rem>k t x turns altoge!r ^u ! "n by :i* y describe ! pr$icate4 ,?us he tells u t ! ,species & ,g5us 7man1 animal71 & ! ,diff]5tia 7rational71 may be pr$icat$ ( ,sokrates1 b are n 9 ,sokrates2 :ile k is 9 ,sokrates1 b _c be pr$icat$ ( ,sokrates2 & may be pr$icat$ ( gramm>1 b is n 9 gramm>4 ,b if we look at ?is comp>ison1 we %all see t 9 ! la/-m5tion$ example1 ! pr$icate is describ$ by an ab/ract ^w 7k72 :ile 9 ! prec$+ examples x is describ$ by a concrete ^w 7man1 animal1 rational74#bd ,if1 9 place ( ^! ?ree la/ words1 we sub/itute ! ab/ract words correspond+ to !m--humanity1 animality1 rationality--we %all h to say t ^! are 9 ,sokrates1 ?\gh !y _c 79 _! ab/ract =m7 be pr$icat$ ( ,sokrates1 b only 9 ! =m ( _! concrete p>onyms1 :i* ,ari/otle treats z a di/9ct pr$ication4 ,s if1 in/ead ( ! ab/ract ^w k1 we employ ! concrete ^w kn[+ or wise1 we c no long] say t ?is is 9 ,sokrates1 & t x may be pr$icat$ ( gramm>4 ,ab/ract alone c be pr$icat$ ( ab/ract2 concrete alone c be pr$icat$ ( concrete2 if we describe ! relation betwe5 ,ab/ract & ,concrete1 we mu/ say1 ,! ,ab/ract is 9 ! ,concrete--! ,concrete conta9s or embodies ! ,ab/ract4 ,inde$ we f9d ,ari/otle ref]r+ ! same pr$icate1 :5 describ$ by ! ab/ract "n1 to "o ,category2 & :5 describ$ by ! concrete p>onym\s adjective1 to ano!r & diff]5t ,category4#be ,! names ,concrete & ,ab/ract 7 n 9 ! philosophical vocabul>y ( 8 day4 ,9 ?is passage ( ! ,categori1 he e/abli%es a di/9ction betwe5 pr$icates ess5tial & pr$icates non-ess5tial2 ! latt] he "h decl>es to be 9 ! ,subject1 ! =m] n to be 9 x1 b to be co-effici5ts ( its ess5ce4 ,b we %all f9d t he does n adh]e to ?is di/9ction ev5 ?r\gh\t ! pres5t treatise1 /ill less 9 o!r works4 ,x seems to be a po9t ( diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,categori on "o side1 & ! ,physica & ,metaphysica on ! o!r1 t 9 ! ,categori he is m dispos$ to f\nd suppos$ real di/9ctions on v]bal etiquette1 & on precise adh]5ce to ! syntactical /ructure ( a proposition4#bf ,footnote #bc3 ,! di/9ction is express$ by ,ammonius 7,s*ol4 p4 #ea1 b4 #df7 z foll[s3--,greek3 ai7 prtai ou7si_/ai u7pokeuntai pas91 a7ll' ou7* o7moi_/s2 tois men gar pros u7_/p>x91 t\_/te/i tois sumbebko_/s91 tois de pros katgori_/an1 t\_/te/i tais ka?o_/l\ ou7si_/ais4 ,footnote #bd3 ,ueb]weg makes a rem>k simil> to ?is4--,sy/em d] ,logik1 sect4 #ef1 note1 p4 #aaj1 ed4 second4 ,footnote #be3 ,! diff]5ce ( op9ion z to ! prop] mode ( describ+ ! ,diff]5tia--:e!r by ! concrete ^w ,greek3 pezon1 or by ! ab/ract ,greek3 pezo_/ts--gives occasion to an objection aga9/ ,ari/otle's view1 & to a reply f ,dexippus n v conclusive 7,dexippus1 book ii4 s4 #bb1 pp4 #fj1 #fa1 ed4 ,sp5gel74 ,footnote #bf3 ,categor4 p4 #c1 a4 #c4 ,9 ! ,physica1 iv4 p4 #baj1 a4 #ad-cj1 ,ari/otle enum]ates n9e diff]5t s5ses ( ! phrase ,greek3 e7_/n t9i4 ,8 own use ( ! phrase is n always uni=m or consi/5t4 ,if we comp>e ! ,s*olia on ! ,categori1 pp4 #dd1 #de1 #ec1 #eh1 #ei1 ,br41 ) ! ,s*olia on ! ,physica1 pp4 #cgb1 #cgc1 ,br41 we %all see t ! ,comm5tators 7 some:at emb>rass$ by 8 fluctuation4 ,! doctr9e ( ! ,categori 0 f\nd especially difficult 9 its application to ! ,diff]5tia4 ,9 ,analyt4 ,po/4 i4 p4 #hc1 a4 #cj1 ,ari/otle says1 ,greek3 o7_/sa de m ou7si_/an smai_/nei1 dei kata_/ t9os u7pokeime_/n\ katgorei/hai1 :i* is at v>iance ) ! language ( ! ,categori1 z ! ,s*olia/ rem>ks1 p4 #bbh1 a4 #cc4 ,! l may be said ab\t ,metaphys4 ,b4 p4 #ajja1 b4 #bi2 ,greek3 ,d4 p4 #ajag1 b4 #ac4 ,see ! ,s*olia ( ,alex&]1 p4 #gja1 b4 #be1 ,br4 ,see also ,de ,g5]4 et ,corrupt4 p4 #cai1 b4 #h2 ,physic4 i4 p4 #ahe1 a4 #ca3 ,greek3 ou7!n gar tn a7_/lln *ri/o_/n e7/i p>a tn ou7si_/an2 pa_/nta gar ka?' u7pokeime_/n\ ts ou7si_/z le_/getai1 :]e ,simplikius rem>ks t ! phrase is us$ ,greek3 a7nti t\ e7n u7pokeime_/n 7,s*ol4 p4 #cbh1 b4 #dc74 ,la/ly1 ,ari/otle "h makes "o important obs]vation respect+ ^? pr$icates :i* he describes z 7n 9 a ,subject b7 affirm$ or d5i$ ( a ,subject--i4e4 ! ess5tial pr$icates4 ,9 ^! 7he says7 :atev] pr$icate c be truly affirm$ or d5i$ ( ! pr$icate1 ! same c be truly affirm$ or d5i$ ( ! ,subject4#bg ,?is obs]vation des]ves notice1 because x is 9 fact a brief b di/9ct ann\ncem5t ( 8 ma9 !ory ( ! ,syllogism2 :i* !ory he aft]w>ds exp&s 9 ! ,analytica ,priora1 & traces into its v>ieties & ramifications4 ,footnote #bg3 ,categor4 p4 #a1 b4 #aj-ae4 ,aft] su* prelim9>ies1 ,ari/otle proce$s#bh to give ! enum]ation ( 8 ,t5 ,categories or ,pr$icam5ts2 "u "o or o!r ( :i*1 e subject or pr$icate1 consid]$ z capable ( ent]+ into a proposition1 mu/ belong3 #a4 ,ess5ce or ,sub/ance2 su* z1 man1 horse4 #b4 ,h[ mu* or ,quantity2 su* z1 two cubits long1 ?ree cubits long4 #c4 ,:at mann] ( or ,quality2 su* z1 :ite1 erudite4 #d4 ,ad aliquid--,to some?+ or ,relation2 su* z1 d\ble1 half1 great]4 #e4 ,:]e2 su* z1 9 ! m>ket-place1 9 ! ,lykeium4 #f4 ,:52 su* z1 ye/]day1 la/ ye>4 #g4 ,9 :at po/ure2 su* z1 he /&s up1 he is sitt+ d[n4 #h4 ,to h2 su* z1 to be %od1 to be arm$4 #i4 ,activity2 su* z1 he is cutt+1 he is turn+4 #aj4 ,passivity2 su* z1 he is be+ cut1 he is be+ burn$4 ,footnote #bh3 ,ibid4 p4 #a1 b4 #be1 seq4 ,ens 9 its complete /ate--concrete1 individual1 det]m9ate-- includes an embodim5t ( all ^! t5 ,categories2 ! ,fir/ ,ens be+ ! ,subject ( :i* ! re/ are pr$icates4 ,:atev] "q be ask$ respect+ any individual ,subject1 ! in=mation giv5 9 ! answ] mu/ fall1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 "u "o or m ( ^! t5 g5]al heads2 :ile ! full outfit ( ! individual w comprise "s pr$icate "u ea* ( !m4 ,moreov]1 ea* ( ! t5 is a ,g5]alissimum2 hav+ m or few] species conta9$ "u x1 b n be+ itself conta9$ "u any l>g] g5us 7,ens n be+ a g5us7 ,s t ,ari/otle does n attempt to def9e or describe any "o ( ! t52 8 only way ( expla9+ is by cit+ two or ?ree illu/rative examples ( ea*4 ,"s ( ! t5 are ev5 ( wid] ext5t ?an ,summa ,g5]a2 ?us1 ,quality _c be consid]$ z a true g5us1 compreh5d+ g5]ically all ! cases fall+ "u x4 ,x is a ,summum ,analogon1 rea*+ beyond ! compreh5sion ( a g5us2 an analog\s or multivocal "n1 appli$ to _m cases vaguely & remotely ak9 to ea* o!r4#bi ,& aga9 ! same p>ticul> pr$icate may be rank$ bo? "u ,quality & "u ,relation2 x ne$ n belong exclusively to ei!r "o ( !m4#cj ,moreov]1 ,good1 l ,ens or ,unum1 is common to all ! ,categories1 b is diff]5tly repres5t$ 9 ea*4#ca ,footnote #bi3 ,ari/ot4 ,categor4 p4 #h1 b4 #bf4 ,greek3 e7_//i de 7 poio_/ts tn pleona*s legome_/nn1 c4 ,see ! ,s*olia1 p4 #fh1 b4 #fi a41 ,br&is4 ,ammonius gives ! true explanation ( ?is phrase1 ,greek3 tn pleona*s legome_/nn 7p4 #fi1 b4 #g74 ,alex&] & ,simplikius try to make out t x implies "h a ,greek3 sun_/nomon4 ,footnote #cj3 ,ari/ot4 ,categor4 p4 #aa1 a4 #cg4 ,comp>e ! ,s*olion ( ,dexippus1 p4 #dh1 a4 #bh-cg4 ,footnote #ca3 ,ari/ot4 ,e?ic4 ,nikoma*4 i4 p4 #ajif1 a4 #be2 ,e?ic4 ,eudem4 i4 p4 #abag1 b4 #be4 ,ari/otle comm5ts at consid]able l5g? ^u ! f\r fir/ ( ! t5 ,categories4 #a4 ,ess5ce or ,sub/ance4 #b4 ,quantity4 #c4 ,quality4 #d4 ,relation4 ,z to ! six la/1 he says little ^u any ( !m2 ^u "s1 no?+ at all4 ,8 decuple p>tition ( ,entia or ,enunciata is f\nd$ entirely ^u a logical pr9ciple4 ,he looks at !m 9 _! relation to ,propositions2 & 8 t5 classes discrim9ate ! relation :i* !y be> to ea* o!r z p>ts or con/itu5t elem5ts ( a proposition4 ,ari/otle takes 8 dep>ture1 n f any results ( sci5tific rese>*1 b f common spee*2 & f ! dialectic1 frequ5t 9 8 "t1 :i* debat$ ab\t matt]s ( common life & talk1 ab\t receiv$ & curr5t op9ions4#cb ,we may presume him to h /udi$ & comp>$ a v>iety ( curr5t propositions1 s z to discov] :at 7 ! diff]5t relations 9 :i* ,subjects & ,pr$icates did /& or c\ld /& to ea* o!r2 also ! v>i\s que/ions :i* might be put respect+ any giv5 subject1 ) ! answ]s suitable to be return$4#cc ,footnote #cb3 ,waitz1 ad ,ari/ot4 ,categor4 p4 #bhd3 ,id ,categoriis non de ips r]um natura et v]itate exponit1 s$ res tales capit1 quales app>5t 9 communi vita hom9i philosophia non imbuto1 unde fit1 ut 9 ,categoriis alia sit ,greek3 pr_/t ou7si_/a et 9 prima philosophia3 illa enim p>tes habet1 hc v]o non componitor ex p>tibus4 ,comp>e ,metaphys4 ,z4 p4 #ajcb1 b4 #b1 & ! ,greek3 a7pori_/a 9 ,z4 p4 #ajbi1 a41 p4 #ajcg1 a4 #bh4 ,! diff]5t mean+ ( ,greek3 pr_/t ou7si_/a 9 ! ,categori & 9 ! ,metaphysica1 is connect$ ) v>i\s difficulties & seem+ discrepancies 9 ! ,ari/otelian !ory ( cognition1 :i* ,i %all adv]t to 9 a future *apt]4 ,see ,zell]1 ,philos4 d] ,grie*4 ii4 #b1 pp4 #bcd1 #bfb2 ,heyd]1 ,ari/otelis*e und ,hegels*e ,dialektik1 p4 #ada1 seq4 ,footnote #cc3 ,?us he frequ5tly supposes a "q put1 an answ] giv51 & ! prop] mode ( answ]+4 ,categor4 p4 #b1 b4 #h3 ,greek3 e7an gar a7podid tis tn pr_/tn ou7si_/an ti_/ e7/i1 gnrim_/t]on kai oi7keio_/t]on a7pod_/sei1 c42 also ibid4 p4 #b1 b4 #cb2 p4 #c1 a4 #d1 #bj4 ,ari/otle ranks z 8 fir/ & fundam5tal ,category ,sub/ance or ,ess5ce--,greek3 ,ou7si_/a2 ! ab/ract sub/antive ^w correspond+ to ,greek3 ,to o7_/n2 :i* la/ is ! va/ aggregate1 n g5]ically ,"o b only analogically ,"o1 de/9$ to be di/ribut$ among ! t5 ,categories z ,summa ,g5]a4 ,! ,fir/ ,ens or ,fir/ ,ess5ce--t :i* is ,ens 9 ! fulle/ s5se--is ! individual concrete p]son or ?+ 9 nature2 ,sokrates1 ,bukephalus1 ?is man1 t horse1 t oak-tree1 c4 ,?is ,fir/ ,ens is indisp5sable z ,subject or ,sub/ratum = all ! o!r ,categories1 & ev5 = pr$ication g5]ally4 ,x is a ,subject only2 x nev] appe>s z a pr$icate ( any?+ else4 ,z ,hic ,aliquis or ,hoc ,aliquid1 x lies at ! bottom 7ei!r express$ or impli$7 ( all ! "w ( pr$ication4 ,x is ,ens or ,ess5ce mo/ ( all1 p> excell5ce2 & is s absolutely indisp5sable1 t if all ,fir/ ,entia 7 suppos$ to be remov$1 nei!r ,second ,entia nor any ( ! o!r ,categories c\ld exi/4#cd ,footnote #cd3 ,ari/ot4 ,categ4 p4 #b1 a4 #aa1 b4 #f4 ,greek3 ,ou7si_/a 7 kuri_/tata kai pr_/ts kai ma_/li/a legome_/n--m ou7sn ou7n tn pr_/tn ou7sin1 a7du_/naton tn a7_/lln ti ei7nai4 ,! ,species is recogniz$ by ,ari/otle z a ,second ,ens or ,ess5ce1 9 :i* ^! ,fir/ ,ess5ces reside2 x is less 7has less completely ! "*7 ( ,ess5ce ?an ! ,fir/1 to :i* x s]ves z ,pr$icate4 ,! ,g5us is 7/rictly speak+7 a ,?ird ,ess5ce1#ce 9 :i* bo? ! ,fir/ & ! ,second ,ess5ce are includ$2 x is f>!r remov$ ?an ! ,species f ! ,fir/ ,ess5ce1 & has !re=e /ill less ( ! "* ( ,ess5ce4 ,x /&s z pr$icate bo? to ! ,fir/ & to ! ,second ,ess5ce4 ,:ile ! ,fir/ ,ess5ce is m ,ess5ce ?an ! ,second1 & ! ,second m ?an ! ,?ird1 all ! v>ieties ( ! ,fir/ ,ess5ce are 9 ?is respect ^u an equal foot+ ) ea* o!r4 ,?is man1 ?is horse1 t tree1 c41 are all ,ess5ce1 equally & alike4#cf ,! ,fir/ ,ess5ce admits ( mu* v>iety1 b does n admit graduation1 or degrees ( m or less4 ,footnote #ce3 ,ari/otle "h1 9 ! ,categori1 ranks ,g5us & ,species z be+1 bo? ( !m1 ,greek3 deu_/t]ai ou7si_/ai4 ,yet s9ce he admits ,g5us to be f>!r remov$ f ,greek3 pr_/t ou7si_/a ?an ,species is1 he ought r to h call$ ,g5us a ,?ird ,ess5ce4 ,9 ! ,metaphysica he recognizes a gradation or ord9ation ( ,greek3 ou7si_/a into ,fir/1 ,second1 & ,?ird1 f\nd$ ^u a totally diff]5t pr9ciple3 ! ,concrete1 :i* 9 ! ,categori ranks z ,greek3 pr_/t ou7si_/a1 ranks z ,greek3 tri_/t ou7si_/a 9 ! ,metaphysica4 ,see ,metaphys4 ,greek3 4 p4 #ajdc4 a4 #ah-bh4 ,footnote #cf3 ,ari/ot4 ,categ4 p4 #b1 b4 #bj2 p4 #c1 b4 #ce4 ,no?+ else except ,g5]a & ,species c be call$ ,second ,ess5ces1 or said to belong to ! ,category ,ess5ce2 = !y alone decl>e :at ! ,fir/ ,ess5ce is4 ,if y are ask$ respect+ ,sokrates1 ,:at he is8 & if y answ] by /at+ ! ,species or ! ,g5us to :i* he belongs--t he is a man or an animal--y\r answ] w be appropriate to ! "q2 & x w be m fully und]/ood if y /ate ! ,species ?an if y /ate ! ,g5us4 ,b if y answ] by /at+ :at belongs to any ( ! o!r ,categories 7viz41 t he is :ite1 t he is runn+71 y\r answ] w be inappropriate1 & =eign to ! "q2 x w n decl>e :at ,sokrates is4#cg ,accord+ly1 none ( ^! o!r ,categories c be call$ ,ess5ces4 ,all ( !m rank z pr$icates bo? ( ,fir/ & ( ,second ,ess5ce2 j z ,second ,ess5ces rank z pr$icates ( ,fir/ ,ess5ces4#ch ,footnote #cg3 ,ibid4 p4 #b1 b4 #bi-cg4 ,greek3 ei7ko_/ts de meta tas pr_/tas ou7si_/z mo_/na tn a7_/lln ta ei7_/d kai ta ge_/n deu_/t]ai ou7si_/ai le_/gontai2 mo_/na gar dloi tn pr_/tn ou7si_/an tn katgor\me_/nn4 ton ga_/r t9a a7_/n?rpon e7an a7podid tis ti_/ e7/i1 to men ei7dos 7 to ge_/nos a7podid\s oi7kei_/s a7pod_/sei1 kai gnrim_/t]on poi_/sei a7_/n?rpon 7 zon a7podid\_/s2 tn de a7_/lln o7_/1 ti a7n a7podid tis1 a7llotri_/s e7_//ai a7pod$k_/s1 oi7on leuko_/n 7 tre_/*ei 7 o7ti\n tn toi\_/tn a7podid\_/s4 7_//e ei7ko_/ts tn a7_/lln tauta mo_/na ou7si_/ai le_/gontai4 ,footnote #ch3 ,ibid4 p4 #c1 a4 #b4 ,ess5ce or ,sub/ance is n 9 a ,subject2 nei!r ,fir/ nor ,second ,ess5ce4 ,! ,fir/ ,ess5ce is nei!r 9 a ,subject nor pr$icat$ ( a ,subject2 ! ,second ,ess5ces are n 9 ! ,fir/1 b are pr$icat$ ( ! ,fir/4 ,bo? ! ,second ,ess5ce1 & ! def9ition ( ! ^w describ+ x1 may be pr$icat$ ( ! ,fir/2 t is1 ! pr$ication is synonym\s or univocal2 :]eas1 ( t :i* is 9 a ,subject1 ! "n may (t5 be pr$icat$1 b nev] ! def9ition ( ! "n4 ,:at is true ( ! ,second ,ess5ce1 is true also ( ! ,diff]5tia2 t x is n 9 a ,subject1 b t x may be pr$icat$ univocally ( a ,subject-- n only its "n1 b also ! def9ition ( its "n4#ci ,footnote #ci3 ,ibid4 p4 #c1 a4 #g1 #ba1 #cd4 ,greek3 ko9on de kata pa_/ss ou7si_/z to m e7n u7pokeime_/n ei7nai--ou7k i7_/dion de ts t\to ou7si_/z1 a7lla kai 7 diaphora tn m e7n u7pokeime_/n e7/i_/n--u7pa_/r*ei de tais ou7si_/ais kai tais diaphorais to pa_/nta sunnu_/ms a7p' au7tn le_/ge/hai4 ,all ,ess5ce or ,sub/ance seems to signify ,hoc ,aliquid ,unum ,num]o4 ,! ,fir/ ,ess5ce really does s signify1 b ! ,second ,ess5ce does n really s signify3 x only seems to d s1 because x is enunciat$ by a sub/antive "n1 l ! ,fir/4#dj ,x signifies really ,tale ,aliquid1 answ]+ to ! enquiry ,quale ,quid8 = x is said n m]ely ( "o ?+ num]ically1 b ( _m ?+s ea* num]ically "o4 ,nev]!less1 a di/9ction mu/ be drawn4 ,! ,second ,ess5ce does n 7l ! ,accid5t1 su* z :ite7 signify ,tale ,aliquid simply & absolutely1 or t & no?+ m4 ,x signifies ,talem ,aliquam ,ess5tiam2 x decl>es :at ! ,ess5ce is1 or m>ks (f ! *>act]i/ic feature ( v>i\s ,fir/ ,ess5ces1 ea* ,unum ,num]o4 ,! ,g5us m>ks (f a great] numb] ( su* ?an ! ,species4#da ,footnote #dj3 ,ari/ot4 ,categ4 p4 #c1 b4 #aj-af3 ,greek3 ,pasa de ou7si_/a dokei to_/de ti smai_/ne94 e7pi men ou7n tn pr_/tn ou7sin a7namphisb_/tton kai a7l!_/s e7/9 o7_/ti to_/de ti smai_/nei2 a7_/tomon gar kai e7n a7ri?m to dl\_/m5o_/n e7/92 e7pi de tn deute_/rn ou7sin phai_/netai men o7moi_/s t s*_/mati ts prosgori_/z to_/de ti smai_/ne91 o7_/tan ei7_/p a7_/n?rpon 7 zon1 ou7 mn a7l!_/s ge1 a7lla mallon poio_/n ti smai_/nei4 ,footnote #da3 ,ibid4 p4 #c1 b4 #ah-bd4 ,aga91 ,ess5ces h no contr>ies4#db ,b ?is is n peculi> to ,ess5ces1 = ,quanta also h no contr>ies2 !re is no?+ contr>y to t51 or to t :i* is two cubits long4 ,nor is any "o ( ! v>ieties ( ,fir/ ,ess5ce m or less ,ess5ce ?an any o!r v>iety4 ,an individual man is z mu* ,ess5ce z an individual horse1 nei!r m nor less4 ,nor is he at "o "t m a man ?an he 0 at ano!r "t2 ?\gh he may become m or less :ite1 m or less h&some4#dc ,footnote #db3 ,ibid4 b4 #bd-cj4 ,footnote #dc3 ,ibid4 b4 #cd1 seq4 ,b t :i* is mo/ peculi> to ,ess5ce1 is1 t :ile rema9+ ,unum et ,idem ,num]o1 x is capable by *ange 9 itself ( receiv+ alt]nately contr>y ,accid5ts4 ,?is is true ( no o!r ,category4 ,= example1 ?is p>ticul> col\r1 be+ "o & ! same 9 numb]1 w nev] be n[ black1 & !n :ite2 ?is p>ticul> action1 be+ "o & ! same 9 numb]1 w n be at "o "t virtu\s1 at ano!r "t vici\s4 ,! l is true respect+ all ! o!r ,categories4 ,b "o & ! same man w be n[ :ite1 hot1 virtu\s2 at ano!r "t1 he w be black1 cold1 vici\s4 ,an objector may say t ?is is true1 n m]ely ( ,ess5ce1 b also ( ,disc\rse & ( ,op9ion2 ea* ( :i* 7he w urge7 rema9s ,unum ,num]o1 b is nev]!less recipi5t ( contr>y attributes2 = ! proposition or ass]tion1 ,sokrates is sitt+1 may n[ be true & may pres5tly become false4 ,b ?is case is diff]5t1 because !re is no *ange 9 ! proposition itself1 b 9 ! p]son or ?+ to :i* ! proposition ref]s2 :ile "o & ! same man1 by new affections 9 himself1 is n[ heal?y1 !n sick2 n[ hot1 !n cold4#dd ,footnote #dd3 ,ari/ot4 ,categ4 p4 #d1 a4 #aj-;b4 #bj4 ,"h ,ari/otle concludes 8 fir/ ,category or ,pr$icam5t--,ess5ce or ,sub/ance4 ,he proce$s to ! o!r n9e1 & ranks ,quantity fir/ among !m4#de ,quantum is ei!r ,cont9ual or ,discrete2 x consi/s ei!r ( p>ts hav+ position 9 ref]5ce to ea* o!r1 or ( p>ts n hav+ position 9 ref]5ce to ea* o!r4 ,discrete ,quanta are ,numb] & ,spee*2 ,cont9ual ,quanta are ,l9e1 ,surface1 ,body1 & besides ^!1 ,"t & ,place4 ,! p>ts ( ,numb] h no position 9 ref]5ce to ea* o!r2 ! p>ts ( ,l9e1 ,surface1 ,body1 h position 9 ref]5ce to ea* o!r4 ,^! are call$ ,quanta1 prim>ily2 o!r ?+s are call$ ,quanta 9 a second>y way1 ,greek3 kata sumbebko_/s4#df ,?us we say mu* :ite1 :5 ! surface ( :ite is l>ge2 we say1 ! action is long1 because mu* "t & movem5t h be5 consum$ 9 x4 ,if we are ask$1 h[ long ! action is8 we mu/ answ] by specify+ its l5g? 9 "t--a ye> or a mon?4 ,footnote #de3 ,ibid4 b4 #ba1 seq4 ,footnote #df3 ,ibid4 p4 #e1 a4 #ch1 seq4 ,to ,quantum 7z to ,ess5ce or ,sub/ance7 !re exi/s no contr>y4#dg ,!re is no?+ contr>y to a l5g? ( ?ree cubits or an area ( f\r squ>e feet4 ,great1 little1 long1 %ort1 are m prop]ly t]ms ( ,relation ?an t]ms ( ,quantity2 ?us belong+ to ano!r ,category4 ,nor is ,quantum ev] m or less ,quantum2 x does n admit ( degree4 ,! ,quantum a y>d is nei!r m nor less ,quantum ?an t call$ a foot4 ,t :i* is peculi> to ,quanta is to be equal or unequal3#dh ! relations ( equality & inequality are n prop]ly affirm$ ( any?+ else except ( ,quanta4 ,footnote #dg3 ,ibid4 b4 #aa1 seq4 ,footnote #dh3 ,ibid4 p4 #f1 a4 #bf-ce4 ,f ! ,category ( ,quantity1 ,ari/otle proce$s next to t ( ,relation2#di :i* he discusses 9 imm$iate sequ5ce aft] ,quantity1 & be=e ,quality1 probably because 9 ! c\rse ( 8 exposition ab\t ,quantity1 he _h be5 oblig$ to intimate h[ closely ,quantity 0 implicat$ ) ,relation1 & h[ ess5tial x 0 t ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two %\ld be made cle>4 ,footnote #di3 ,ibid4 a4 #cf1 seq4 ,relata 7,greek3 ta pro_/s ti--ad ,aliquid7 are ?+s su*1 t :at !y are1 !y are said to be ( o!r ?+s1 or are said to 9 "s o!r mann] t[>ds some?+ else 7,greek3 o7_/sa au7ta a7_/p] e7/in 9999e7te_/rn ei7nai le_/getai1 7 o7p/\n a7_/lls pros e7_/t]on74 ,?us1 t :i* is great]1 is said to be great] ?an ano!r2 t :i* is call$ d\ble is call$ also d\ble ( ano!r4 ,habit1 disposition1 p]ception1 cognition1 position1 c41 are all ,relata4 ,habit1 is habit ( some?+2 p]ception & cognition1 are always ( some?+2 position1 is position ( some?+4 ,! ,category ( ,relation admits contr>iety 9 "s cases1 b n always2 x also admits1 9 "s cases1 graduation1 or ! m or less 9 degree2 ?+s are m l or less l to ea* o!r4#ej ,all ,relata are s designat$ 9 virtue ( _! relation to o!r ,correlata2 ! ma/] is ma/] ( a s]vant--! s]vant is s]vant ( a ma/]4 ,sometimes ! ,correlatum is m5tion$ n 9 ! g5itive case b 9 "s o!r case2 ?us cognition is cognition ( ! cognitum1 b cognitum is cognitum by cognition2 p]ception is p]ception ( ! p]ceptum1 b ! p]ceptum is p]ceptum by p]ception4#ea ,! correlation inde$ w n manife/ly appe>1 unless ! ,correlate be designat$ by its appropriate t]m3 ?us1 if ! w+ be decl>$ to be w+ ( a bird1 !re is no app>5t correlation2 we ought to say1 ! w+ is w+ ( ! w+$1 & ! w+$ is w+$ ?r\gh or by ! w+2 = ! w+ belongs to ! bird1 n qu bird1 b qu w+$1#eb s9ce !re are _m ?+s w+$1 :i* are n birds4 ,sometimes !re is no curr5t t]m appropriate to ! ,correlate1 s t we are "u ! necessity ( co9+ "o = ! occasion3 we mu/ say1 to speak ) /rict accuracy1 ,greek3 7 kephal_/1 t\ kephalt\ kephal_/ n ,greek3 7 kephal_/1 t\ zou kephal_/2 ,greek3 to pda_/lion1 t\ pdalit\ pda_/lion1 n ,greek3 to pda_/lion1 ploi_/ou pda_/lion4#ec ,footnote #ej3 ,ari/ot4 ,categ4 p4 #f1 b4 #bj4 ,footnote #ea3 ,ibid4 b4 #bh-cg4 ,footnote #eb3 ,ibid4 b4 #cf2 p4 #g1 a4 #e4 ,greek3 ou7 mn a7ll' e7ni_/ote ou7 d_/xei a7nti/re_/phe91 e7an m oi7kei_/s pros o7 le_/getai a7podo?1 a7lla diama_/rt o7 a7podid\_/s1 oi7on to pt]on e7an a7podo? o7_/rni?os1 ou7k a7nti/re_/phei o7_/rnis pt]\2 ou7 gar oi7kei_/s to prton a7pode_/dotai pt]on o7_/rni?os2 ou7 gar 7 o7_/rnis1 tau_/t to pt]on au7t\ le_/getai1 a7ll' 7 pt]to_/n e7/i2 polln gar kai a7_/lln pt]a_/ e7/91 a7 ou7k ei7sin o7_/rni!s4 ,footnote #ec3 ,ibid4 p4 #g1 a4 #f-be4 ,greek3 e7ni_/ote de kai o7nomatopoiein ,i7_/ss a7nagkaion1 e7an m kei_/m5on 7 o7_/noma pros o7 oi7kei_/s a7n a7podo!i_/1 c4 ,! ,relatum & its ,correlate seem to be simul natur4 ,if y suppress ei!r "o ( ! pair1 ! o!r vani%es along ) x4 ,ari/otle appe>s to ?9k1 h[ev]1 t !re are _m cases 9 :i* ?is is n true4 ,he says t !re c be no cognosc5s )\t a cognoscibile1 nor any p]cipi5s )\t a p]cipibile2 b t !re may be cognoscibile )\t any cognosc5s1 & p]cipibile )\t any p]cipi5s4 ,he says t ,greek3 to ai7/hton exi/s ,greek3 pro t\ ai7_//hs9 ei7nai4#ed ,:e!r any ,ess5ce or ,sub/ance c be a ,relatum or n1 he is puzzl$ to say2 he seems to ?9k t ! ,second ,ess5ce may be1 b t ! ,fir/ ,ess5ce _c be s4 ,he concludes1 h[ev]1 by admitt+ t ! "q is "o ( d\bt & difficulty4#ee ,footnote #ed3 ,ibid4 b4 #ae2 p4 #h1 a4 #ab4 ,! ,s*olion ( ,simplikius on ?is po9t 7p4 #fe1 a4 #af1 b4 #ah1 ,br47 is in/ructive4 ,he gives 8 own op9ion1 & t ( "s prec$+ comm5tators1 adv]se to ,ari/otle4 ,he says t ,greek3 e7pi/_/m & ,greek3 to e7pi/to_/n1 ai7/hsis & ,greek3 to ai7/hto_/n1 are n prop]ly correlates4 ,! actual correlates ) ! actual1 ! pot5tial ) ! pot5tial4 ,n[1 9 ! above pairs1 ,greek3 to e7pi/ton & ,greek3 to ai7/hton are pot5tials1 :ile ,greek3 9999e7pi/_/m & ,greek3 ai7_//hsis are actuals2 !re=e x is correct to say t ,greek3 to e7pi/ton & ,greek3 to ai7/hton w n cease to exi/ if y take away ,greek3 e7pi/_/m & ,greek3 ai7_//hsis4 ,b ! real & prop] correlate to ,greek3 to e7pi/ton w\ld be ,greek3 to e7pi/moniko_/n3 ! prop] correlate to ,greek3 to ai7/hton w\ld be ,greek3 to ai7/htikon4 ,& :5 we take ^! two latt] pairs1 x is p]fectly correct to say1 ,greek3 sunanairei tauta a7_/llla4 ,9 ! treatise1 ,de ,p>tibus ,animalium1 i4 p4 #fda1 b4 #b1 :]e ,ari/otle makes ,greek3 n\s correlate ) ,greek3 ta nota_/1 we mu/ und]/& ,greek3 n\s z equival5t to ,greek3 to notiko_/n1 & z diff]5t f ,greek3 7 no_/sis4 ,footnote #ee3 ,ari/ot4 ,categ4 p4 #h1 b4 #bb4 ,quality is t accord+ to :i* ,subjects are call$ ,su* & ,su* 7,greek3 poioi_/ t9es74 ,x is1 h[ev]1 n a true g5us1 b a vague ^w1 ( _m di/9ct1 ?\gh analog\s1 mean+s includ+ an assemblage ( p>ticul>s n b\nd toge!r by any g5]ic tie4#ef ,! m famili> v>ieties are--#a4 ,habits or end[m5ts 7,greek3 e7_/xeis7 ( a durable "*1 su* z1 wise1 j1 virtu\s2 #b4 ,conditions m or less transitory1 su* z1 hot1 cold1 sick1 heal?y1 c4 7,greek3 dia!_/seis72 #c4 ,natural p[]s or incapacities1 su* z h>d1 s(t1 fit = box+1 fit = runn+1 c4 #d4 ,capacities ( caus+ s5sation1 su* z sweet ( honey1 hot & cold ( fire & ice4 ,b a p]son :o occasionally blu%es ) %ame1 or occasionally becomes pale ) fe>1 does n receive ! designation ( su* or su* f ?is fact2 ! occasional emotion is a passion1 n a quality4#eg ,footnote #ef3 ,see ! fir/ note on p4 #ff4 ,ari/ot4 ,categ4 p4 #h1 b4 #bf3 ,greek3 e7_//i de 7 poio_/ts tn pleona*s legome_/nn1 c4 ,comp>e ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,d4 p4 #ajbj1 a4 #cc1 & ! ,s*olion ( ,alex&]1 p4 #gae1 a4 #e1 ,br4 ,! ab/ract t]m ,greek3 ,poio_/ts 0 a new co9age 9 ,plato's "t2 he introduces x ) an apology 7,!tet4 p4 #ahb ,a474 ,footnote #eg3 ,ari/ot4 ,categ4 p4 #i1 b4 #bj-cc4 ,a fif? v>iety ( ,quality is figure or circumscrib+ =m1 /raightness or crook$ness4 ,b d5se1 r>e1 r\gh1 smoo?1 are n prop]ly v>ieties ( ,quality2 objects are n d5om9at$ su* & su* f ^! circum/ances4 ,!y r decl>e position ( ! p>ticles ( an object 9 ref]5ce to ea* o!r1 ne> or di/ant1 ev5ly or unev5ly arrang$4#eh ,footnote #eh3 ,ibid4 p4 #aj1 a4 #aa-bd4 ,quality admits1 9 "s cases b n 9 all1 bo? contr>iety & graduation4 ,j is contr>y to unju/1 black to :ite2 b !re is no contr>y to r$ or pale4 ,if "o ( two contr>ies belongs to ,quality1 ! o!r ( ! two w also belong to ,quality4 ,9 reg>d to graduation1 we c h>dly say t ,quality 9 ! ab/ract is capable ( m & less2 b x is indisputable t diff]5t objects h m or less ( ! same quality4 ,"o man is m j1 heal?y1 wise1 ?an ano!r2 ?\gh ju/ice or heal? 9 itself _c be call$ m or less4 ,"o ?+ _c be m a triangle1 squ>e1 or circle ?an ano!r2 ! squ>e is n m a circle ?an ! oblong4#ei ,footnote #ei3 ,ari/ot4 ,categ4 p4 #aj1 b4 #ab2 p4 #aa1 a4 #aj1 #aa-bd4 ,:at has j be5 said is n peculi> to ,quality2 b "o peculi>ity !re is requir+ to be m5tion$4 ,quality is ! f\ndation ( ,simil>ity & ,dissimil>ity4 ,objects are call$ l or unlike 9 ref]5ce to qualities4#fj ,footnote #fj3 ,ibid4 p4 #aa1 a4 #ae4 ,9 speak+ ab\t ,quality1 ,ari/otle has cit$ _m illu/rations f ,relata4 ,habits & dispositions1 describ$ by _! g5]ic names1 are ,relata2 9 _! specific v>ieties !y are ,qualities4 ,?us cognition is always cognition ( some?+1 & is !re=e a ,relatum2 b grammatik 7grammatical cognition7 is n grammatik ( any ?+1 & is !re=e a ,quality4 ,x has be5 already intimat$#fa t ! same v>iety may well belong to two di/9ct ,categories4 ,footnote #fa3 ,ibid4 a4 #bj-ch4 ,greek3 e7_/ti ei7 tu_/g*anoi to au7to pro_/s ti kai poion o7_/n1 ou7den a7_/topon e7n a7mphote_/rois tois ge_/nes9 au7to kat>i?mei/hai4 ,aft] hav+ ?us dwelt at "s l5g? on ea* ( ! fir/ f\r ,categories1 ,ari/otle passes lightly ov] ! rema9+ six4 ,respect+ ,ag]e & ,pati1 he obs]ves t !y admit 7l ,quality7 bo? ( graduation & contr>iety4 ,respect+ ,jacere he tells u t ! pr$icates includ$ 9 x are d]iv$ f ! fact ( positions1 :i* positions he _h be=e rank$ among ! ,relata4 ,respect+ ,ubi1 ,qu&o1 & ,hab]e1 he consid]s !m all s manife/ & intelligible1 t he w say no?+ ab\t !m2 he repeats ! illu/rations be=e giv5--,hab]e1 z1 to be %od1 or to be arm$ 7to h %oes or arms72 ,ubi1 z1 9 ! ,lykeium2 ,qu&o1 z1 ye/]day1 la/ ye>4#fb ,footnote #fb3 ,ibid4 b4 #h-ae4 ,greek3 dia to prophan ei7nai1 ou7den u7per au7tn a7_/llo le_/getai 7 o7_/sa e7n a7r* e7rre_/?1 c4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,no "p ( ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e has become m incorporat$ ) logical tradition1 or elicit$ a great] am\nt ( comm5t & discussion1#fc ?an ^! ,t5 ,categories or ,pr$icam5ts4 ,i h endeav\r$ to give ! exposition z ne> z may be 9 ! words & ) ! illu/rations ( ,ari/otle2 because 9 _m ( ! comm5ts new po9ts ( view are introduc$1 sometimes m j ?an ^? ( ,ari/otle1 b n pres5t to 8 m9d4 ,mod]n logicians jo9 ! ,categories side by side ) ! five ,pr$icables1 :i* are expla9$ 9 ! ,eisagoge ( ,porphyry1 m ?an five c5turies aft] ,ari/otle's dea?4 ,z expositors ( ,logic !y are "r 9 do+ ?is2 b my purpose is to illu/rate r ! views ( ,ari/otle4 ,! m9d ( ,ari/otle 0 n altoge!r exempt f t fasc9ation#fd :i* p>ticul> numb]s ex]cis$ ^u ! ,py?agoreans & aft] !m ^u ,plato4 ,to ! numb] ,t5 ! ,py?agoreans ascrib$ peculi> virtue & p]fection4 ,! fundam5tal ,contr>ies1 :i* !y laid d[n z ! ,pr9ciples ( ! ,univ]se1 7 t5 9 numb]4#fe ,aft] !m1 also1 ,plato c>ri$ 8 ideal numb]s z f> z ! ,dekad1 b no f>!r4 ,t ,ari/otle consid]$ ,t5 to be ! suitable numb] = a complete li/ ( g5]al heads--t he 0 satisfi$ ) mak+ up ! li/ ( t51 & look$ = no?+ beyond--may be inf]r$ f ! diff]5t mann] 9 :i* he deals ) ! diff]5t items4 ,at lea/1 su* 0 8 po9t ( view :5 he compos$ ?is treatise4 ,?\gh he recognizes all ! t5 ,categories z co-ord9ate 9 s f> t 7except ,quale7 ea* is a di/9ct ,g5us1 n r$ucible "u ei!r ( ! o!rs1 yet he devotes all 8 att5tion to ! fir/ f\r1 & gives explanations 7copi\s = him7 9 reg>d to ^!4 ,ab\t ! fif? & six? 7,ag]e & ,pati7#ff he says a little1 ?\gh mu* less ?an we %\ld expect1 consid]+ _! ext5t & importance4 ,ab\t ! la/ f\r1 next to no?+ appe>s4 ,!re are ev5 passages 9 8 writ+s :]e he seems to drop all m5tion ( ! two la/ 7,jac]e & ,hab]e71 & to recognize no m ?an eight ,pr$icam5ts4 ,9 ! treatise ,categori :]e 8 att5tion is fa/5$ on ,t]ms & _! signification1 & on ! appropriate way ( comb9+ ^! t]ms into propositions1 he recites ! t5 s]iatim2 b 9 o!r treatises1 :]e 8 rem>ks be> m ^u ! matt] & less ^u ! t]ms by :i* x is signifi$1 he ?9ks himself w>rant$ 9 leav+ out ! two or ?ree ^: applications are mo/ conf9$ to special subjects4 ,if he _h ?\ght fit to c>ry ! total numb] ( ,pr$icam5ts to twelve or fifte5 in/ead ( t51#fg he w\ld probably h _h little difficulty 9 f9d+ "s o!r g5]al heads n less entitl$ to admission ?an ,jac]e & ,hab]e2 ! r1 z he himself all[s1 ev5 9 reg>d to ! pr9cipal ,categories1 t p>ticul>s compris$ "u "o ( !m may also be compris$ "u ano!r1 & t !re is no necessity = suppos+ ea* p>ticul> to be re/rict$ to "o ,category exclusively4 ,footnote #fc3 ,ab\t ! prodigi\s numb] ( ^! comm5ts1 see ! ,s*olion ( ,dexippus1 p4 #ci1 a4 #cd1 ,br42 p4 #e1 ed4 ,sp5gel4 ,footnote #fd3 ,see ,simpl4 9 ,categ4 ,s*ol4 p4 #gh1 b4 #ad1 ,br42 also ! two fir/ *apt]s ( ! ,ari/otelian treatise ,de ,coelo2 comp>e also1 ab\t ! p]fection ( ! ,greek3 tri_/t su_//asis1 ,de ,p>tibus ,animalium1 ii4 p4 #fdf1 b4 #i2 ,de ,g5]at4 ,animal4 iii4 p4 #gfj1 a4 #cd4 ,footnote #fe3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,a4 p4 #ihf1 a4 #h4 ,!re exi/$1 9 ! "t ( ! lat] ,p]ipatetics1 a treatise 9 ! ,doric dialect by ,ar*ytas--,greek3 ,p]i t\ ,panto_/s--discrim9at+ ,t5 ,categories1 & app>5tly ! same t5 ,categories z ,ari/otle4 ,by sev]al ,ari/otelian critics ?is treatise 0 believ$ to h be5 compos$ by ,ar*ytas ! ,t>5t9e1 em95t bo? z a ,py?agorean philosoph] & z ! lead+ citiz5 ( ,t>5tum--! contempor>y & fri5d ( ,plato1 &1 !re=e1 ( c\rse1 e>li] ?an ,ari/otle4 ,sev]al critics believ$ t ,ari/otle _h borr[$ 8 ,t5 ,categories f ?is "w ( ,ar*ytas2 & we "k t ! latt] pres]v$ ! total numb] ( ,t54 ,see ,s*ol4 ad ,categor4 p4 #gi1 b4 #c1 ,br4 ,b o!r critics affirm$1 app>5tly ) bett] reason1 t ! ,ar*ytas1 au?or ( ?is treatise1 0 a ,p]ipatetic philosoph] lat] ?an ,ari/otle2 & t ! doctr9e ( ,ar*ytas on ! ,categories 0 copi$ f ,ari/otle 9 ! same mann] z ! ,doric treatise on ! ,kosmos1 ascrib$ to ! ,lokrian ,timu1 0 copi$ f ! ,timu ( ,plato1 be+ translat$ into a ,doric dialect4 ,see ,s*olia ( ,simplikius & ,bo?ius1 p4 #cc1 a4 #a1 n42 p4 #dj1 a4 #dc1 ,br&is4 ,! fact t ?is treatise 0 ascrib$ to ! ,t>5t9e ,ar*ytas1 indicates h[ mu* ! numb] ,t5 0 consecrat$ 9 m5's m9ds z a ,py?agorean canon4 ,footnote #ff3 ,tr5del5burg ?9ks 7,ges*i*te d] ,kategori5lehre1 p4 #aca7 t ,ari/otle mu/ h h&l$ ! ,categories ,ag]e1 & ,pati m copi\sly 9 o!r treatises2 & !re are "s passages 9 8 works :i* r5d] ?is probable4 ,see ,de ,anim1 ii4 p4 #daf1 b4 #ce2 ,de ,g5]at4 ,animal4 iv4 p4 #gfh1 b4 #ae4 ,moreov]1 9 ! li/ ( ,ari/otle's works giv5 by ,diog5es ,la]tius1 "o title appe>s-- ,greek3 ,p]i t\ poiein kai pepon!_/nai 7,diog4 ,l4 v4 #bb74 ,footnote #fg3 ,prantl expresses ?is view 9 8 ,ges*i*te d] ,logik 7p4 #bjf71 & ,i ?9k x j4 ,^! rem>ks s]ve p>tly to meet ! difficulties po9t$ out by comm5tators 9 reg>d to ! ,t5 ,categories4 ,f ! c5tury imm$iately succe$+ ,ari/otle1 d[n to rec5t times1 ! "q has always be5 ask$1 :y did ,ari/otle fix ^u ,t5 ,categories r ?an any o!r numb]8 & :y ^u ^! ,t5 r ?an o!rs8 ,& anci5t comm5tators#fh z well z mod]n h insi/$1 t ! classification is at once defective & r$undant2 leav+ out altoge!r "s p>ticul>s1 :ile x enum]ates o!rs twice ov] or m ?an twice4 7,?is la/ *>ge is1 h[ev]1 admitt$ by ,ari/otle himself1 :o consid]s x no gr\nd ( objection t ! same p>ticul> may sometimes be rank$ "u two di/9ct heads47 ,! replies made to ! que/ions1 & ! attempts to %ew cause = ! selection ( ^! ,t5 classes1 h n be5 satisfactory2 ?\gh x is c]ta9 t ,ari/otle himself treats ! classification z if x 7 real & exhau/ive1#fi obta9$ by comp>+ _m propositions & draw+ f !m an induction4 ,he tries to det]m9e1 9 reg>d to "s p>ticul> enquiries1 "u :i* ( ! ,t5 ,summa ,g5]a ! subject ( ! enquiry is to be rang$2 he indicates "s pr$icate ( extreme g5]ality 7,unum1 ,bonum1 c471 :i* ext5d ov] all or sev]al ,categories1 z equivocal or analog\s1 repres5t+ no true ,g5]a4 ,b ?\gh ,ari/otle takes ?is view ( ! complet5ess ( 8 own classification1 he nev] assigns ! gr\nds ( x1 & we are left to make !m out 9 ! be/ way we c4 ,footnote #fh3 ,s*ol4 p4 #dg1 b4 #ad1 seq41 #di1 a4 #aj1 seq4 ,br42 also ,simplikius ad ,categor4 fol4 #ae1 #ca ,a1 #cc ,e4 ed4 ,basil41 #aeea4 ,footnote #fi ,s*olia ad ,analyt4 ,po/]4 7,i4 xxiii4 p4 #hc1 a4 #ba7 p4 #bbg1 b4 #dj1 ,br4 ,greek3 ,o7_/ti de tosautai mo_/nai ai7 katgori_/ai ai7 kata tn ou7sin lego_/m5ai1 e7k ts e7paggs lamba_/nei4 ,br5tano 79 8 treatise1 ,ueb] die ,b$eutung des ,sei5d5 9 ,ari/oteles1 ,sects4 #ab & #ac1 pp4 #adh-agg7 attempts to draw out a s*eme ( sy/ematic d$uction = ! ,categories4 ,he quotes 7pp4 #aha1 #ahb7 a passage f ,?omas ,aqu9as1 9 :i* su* a s*eme is set =? acutely & plausibly4 ,b if ,ari/otle _h _h any su* sy/em pres5t to 8 m9d1 he w\ld h>dly h left x to be div9$ by comm5tators4 ,simplikius obs]ves 7,s*ol4 ad ,categ4 p4 #dd1 a4 #cj7 t ! la/ n9e ,categories co9cide 9 ! ma9 7except+ su* portion ( ,quale z belongs to ! ,ess5ce7 ) ,greek3 to o7_/n kata sumbebko_/s3 :i* latt]1 accord+ to ,ari/otle's repeat$ decl>ations1 c nev] be ! matt] ( any !oriz+ or sci5tific treatm5t--,greek3 ou7demi_/a e7/i p]i au7to !ri_/a1 ,metaphys4 ,e4 p4 #ajbf1 b4 #d2 ,k4 p4 #ajfd1 b4 #ag4 ,?is view ( ,ari/otle respect+ ,greek3 to sumbebko_/s1 is h>dly consi/5t ) a s*eme ( int5tional d$uction = ! accid5tal pr$icates4 ,we _c safely presume1 ,i ?9k1 t he foll[$ out any d$uctive pr9ciple or sy/em2 if he _h done s1 he w\ld probably h indicat$ x4 ,! decuple indication ( g5]al heads arose r f comp>ison ( propositions & induction !refrom4 ,"u ea* ( ^! t5 heads1 "s pr$icate or o!r may always be appli$ to e concrete individual object1 su* z a man or animal4 ,ari/otle proce$$ by comp>+ a v>iety ( propositions1 su* z 7 employ$ 9 common disc\rse or dialectic1 & ?r[+ ! diff]5t pr$icates into g5]a1 accord+ z !y /ood 9 diff]5t logical relation to ! ,subject4 ,! analysis appli$ is n metaphysical b logical2 x does n resolve ! real individual into metaphysical ,greek3 a7r*ai or ,pr9ciples1 su* z ,=m & ,matt]2 x accepts ! individual z he /&s1 ) 8 full complex array ( pr$icates embodi$ 9 a proposition1 & analyses t proposition into its logical con/itu5ts4#gj ,! pr$icates d]ive _! exi/5ce f be+ atta*$ to ! ,fir/ ,subject1 & h a diff]5t mann] ( exi/5ce accord+ z !y are diff]5tly relat$ to ! ,fir/ ,subject4#ga ,:at is ?is individual1 ,sokrates8 ,he is an animal4 ,:at is 8 ,species8 ,man4 ,:at is ! ,diff]5tia1 limit+ ! ,g5us & con/itut+ ! ,species8 ,rationality1 two-foot$ness4 ,:at is 8 height & bulk8 ,he is six feet high1 & is ( twelve /one weight4 ,:at mann] ( man is he8 ,he is flat-nos$1 virtu\s1 pati5t1 brave4 ,9 :at relation does he /& to o!rs8 ,he is a fa!r1 a proprietor1 a citiz51 a g5]al4 ,:at is he do+8 ,he is digg+ 8 g>d51 pl\gh+ 8 field4 ,:at is be+ done to him8 ,he is be+ rubb$ ) oil1 he is hav+ 8 hair cut4 ,:]e is he8 ,9 ! city1 at home1 9 b$4 ,:5 d y speak ( him8 ,z he is1 at ?is mom5t1 z he 01 ye/]day1 la/ ye>4 ,9 :at po/ure is he8 ,he is ly+ d[n1 sitt+1 /&+ up1 kneel+1 balanc+ on "o leg4 ,:at is he we>+8 ,he has a tunic1 arm\r1 %oes1 gloves4 ,footnote #gj3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaphys4 ,z4 p4 #ajch1 b4 #ae4 ,greek3 di*s u7pokeitai1 7 to_/de ti o7_/n1 7_/sp] to zon tois pa_/!s91 7 7s 7 u7_/l t e7ntele*ei_/a4 ,! fir/ mode ( ,greek3 u7pokei_/m5on is :at is 9 ! ,categories4 ,= ! second1 :i* is ! metaphysical analysis1 see ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,z4 p4 #ajbi1 a4 #bc3 ,greek3 ta men gar a7_/lla ts ou7si_/z katgoreitai1 au7_/t de ts u7_/ls4 7_//e to e7_/s*aton ka?' au7to ou7_/te ti ou7_/te poson ou7_/te a7_/llo ou7!_/n e7/i4 ,porphyry & ,dexippus tell u 7,s*ol4 ad ,categ4 p4 #de1 a4 #f-cj7 t bo? ,ari/otle & ! ,/oics di/+ui%$ ,greek3 prton u7pokei_/m5on & ,greek3 deu_/t]on u7pokei_/m5on4 ,! ,greek3 prton u7pokei_/m5on is ,greek3 7 a7_/poios u7_/l--to duna_/mei sma1 :i* ,ari/otle insi/s ^u 9 ! ,physica & ,metaphysica1 ! ,greek3 deu_/t]on u7pokei_/m5on1 o7 ko9s poion 7 i7di_/s u7phi_//atai1 co9cides ) ! ,greek3 pr_/t ou7si_/a ( ! ,categories1 already implicat$ ) ,greek3 ei7dos & /opp+ %ort ( metaphysical analysis4 ,! rem>ks ( ,bo?us & ,simplikius ^u ?is po9t des]ve att5tion4 ,s*ol4 pp4 #ej-ed1 ,br42 p4 #ed1 a4 #b3 ,greek3 ou7 p]i ts a7s*e_/t\ u7_/ls e7/in o7 p>n lo_/gos1 a7lla ts 7_/d s*e_/s9 e7*\_/ss pros to ei7dos4 to de su_/n!ton dlo_/noti1 o7_/p] e7/i to a7_/tomon1 e7pide_/*etai to to_/de4 ,!y po9t out t ! t]ms ,=m & ,matt] are n m5tion$ 9 ! ,categories1 nor d !y s]ve to illu/rate ! ,categories1 :i* d n c>ry analysis s f> back1 take _! initial />t f ,greek3 to_/de ti1 ! ,greek3 su_/n!ton ( ,=m & ,matt]1--,greek3 ou7si_/a kuri_/tata kai pr_/ts kai ma_/li/a legome_/n4 ,simplikius says 7p4 #ej1 a4 #ag73--;,greek3 dunaton de t\ m mnmoneusai t\ ei7_/d\s kai ts u7_/ls ai7_/tion le_/ge91 kai to tn tn ,katgorin pragmatei_/an kata tn pro_/*eiron kai ko9n t\ lo_/g\ *rs9 poiei/hai2 to de ts u7_/ls kai t\ ei7_/d\s o7_/noma kai ta u7po t\_/tn sma9o_/m5a ou7k 7n tois pollois sun_/?1 c4 ,comp>e p4 #dg1 a4 #bg4 ,?is :at ,dexippus says also1 t ! ,categories be> only ^u ,greek3 tn pr_/tn *rei_/an t\ lo_/g\ ka?' 7n ta pra_/gmata dl\n a7lllois e7phie_/me?a 7p4 #ac1 ed4 ,sp5gel2 also p4 #di74 ,waitz1 ad ,categor4 p4 #bhd4 ,9 ,categoriis1 non de ips r]um natur et v]itate exponit1 s$ res tales capit1 quales app>5t 9 communi vit hom9i philosophi non imbuto4 ,we may add1 t ,ari/otle applies ! metaphysical analysis--,=m & ,matt]--n only to ! ,category ,greek3 ou7si_/a b also to t ( ,greek3 poion & ,greek3 poso_/n 7,de ,coelo1 iv4 #cab1 a4 #ad47 ,footnote #ga3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,d4 #ajag1 a4 #bc4 ,greek3 o7sa*s gar le_/getai1 tosauta*s to ei7nai smai_/nei4 ,conf9+ ourselves 7z ,i h already obs]v$ t ,ari/otle does 9 ! ,categories7 to ^? p]ceptible or physical subjects :i* e "o admits1#gb & keep+ cle> ( metaphysical entities1 we %all see t respect+ any "o ( ^! subjects ! n9e que/ions "h put may all be put & answ]$2 t ! two la/ are mo/ likely to be put 9 reg>d to "s liv+ be+2 & t ! la/ c seldom be put 9 reg>d to any o!r subject except a p]son 7includ+ man1 woman1 or *ild74 ,e individual p]son falls necess>ily "u ea* ( ! t5 ,categories2 belongs to ! ,g5us animal1 ,species man2 he is ( a c]ta9 height & bulk2 has c]ta9 qualities2 /&s 9 c]ta9 relations to o!r p]sons or ?+s2 is do+ some?+ & suff]+ some?+2 is 9 a c]ta9 place2 mu/ be describ$ ) ref]5ce to a c]ta9 mom5t ( "t2 is 9 a c]ta9 attitude or po/ure2 is clo!d or equipp$ 9 a c]ta9 mann]4 ,in=mation ( "s k9d may always be giv5 respect+ him "u ea* ( ^! heads2 he is always by necessity quantus1 b n always ( any p>ticul> quantity4 ,until su* in=mation is giv51 ! concrete individual is n kn[n "u conditions ?or\ghly det]m9$4#gc ,moreov] ea* head is sep>ate & indep5d5t1 n resolvable into any ( ! re/1 ) a res]vation1 pres5tly to be notic$1 ( ,relation 9 its mo/ compreh5sive mean+4 ,:5 ,i say ( a man1 t he is at home1 ly+ d[n1 clo!d ) a tunic1 c41 ,i d n pr$icate ( him any quality1 action1 or passion4 ,! in=mation :i* ,i give belongs to ?ree o!r heads di/9ct f ^! la/1 & di/9ct also f ea* o!r4 ,if y suppress ! two la/ ( ! t5 ,categories & leave only ! prec$+ eight1 "u :i* ( ^! eight are y to rank ! pr$icates1 ,sokrates is ly+ d[n1 ,sokrates is clo!d ) a tunic1 c48 ,! necessity = admitt+ ! n9? & t5? ,categories 7,jac]e & ,hab]e7 z sep>ate g5]al heads 9 ! li/1 is z great z ! necessity = admitt+ mo/ ( ! ,categories :i* prec$e4 ,! n9? & t5? are ( n>r[] compreh5sion1#gd & include a small] numb] ( di/+ui%able v>ieties1 ?an ! prec$+2 b !y are n ! less sep>ate heads ( in=mation4 ,s1 among ! *emical elem5ts enum]at$ by mod]n sci5ce1 "s are v r>ely f\nd2 yet !y are n = t reason ! less entitl$ to a place 9 ! li/4 ,footnote #gb3 ,ibid4 ,z4 p4 #ajbh1 b4 #h1 seq43 p4 #ajdb1 a4 #be4 ,greek3 ai7 ai7/htai ou7si_/ai--ai7 o7molog\_/m5ai ou7si_/ai4 ,footnote #gc3 ,prantl obs]ves1 ,ges*i*te d] ,logik1 p4 #bjh3--;,frag5 wir1 wie ,ari/oteles b]haupt dazu gekomm5 sei1 von ,kategori5 zu spre*51 und wel*e ,geltung dieselb5 bei ihm hab51 s i/ uns]e ,antwort hi]auf folg5de3 ,ari/oteles geht1 im ,geg5satze geg5 ,platon1 davon aus1 dass die ,allgeme9heit 9 d] ,concretion des ,sei5d5 si* v]wirkli*e und 9 dies] ,realitt von dem m5s*li*5 ,d5k5 und ,spre*5 ergriff5 w]de2 d] ,v]wirkli*ungsprocess des concret ,sei5d5 i/ d] ,ueb]gang vom ,unbe/immt51 j$] ,be/immung ab] fhig51 zum allseitig ,be/immt51 wel*em demna* die ,be/imm!it b]haupt als e9e selb/ concret geword5e e9wohnt und eb5so 9 des ,m5s*5 ,r$e von ihm ausgesagt wird4 ,das grundwes5tli*e ,ergebniss d] ,v]wirkli*ung i/ sona*3 die zeitli*-rumli* concret auftret5de und hiemit individuell geword5e ,sub/anzialitt1 9 e9] dem ,zu/&e d] ,concretion entspre*5d5 ,ers*e9ungsweise2 diese letzt]e umfas/ das ganze habituelle ,dase9 und ,wirk5 d] concret5 ,sub/anz1 wel*e 9 d] ,welt d] rumli*5 ,ausdehnung num]r5 ,vielheit ers*e9t4 ,die ontologis*e ,basis demna* d] ,kategori5 i/ d] 9 die ,concretion fhr5de ,v]wirkli*ungsprocess d] ,be/imm!it b]haupt4 ,footnote #gd3 ,plot9us1 among 8 v>i\s gr\nds ( exception to ! t5 ,ari/otelian ,categories1 objects to ! n9? & t5? on ! gr\nd ( _! n>r[ compreh5sion 7,ennead4 vi4 #a1 #bc1 #bd74 ,bo?us expressly v9dicat$ ! title ( ,greek3 e7_/*e9 to be recogniz$ z a sep>ate ,category1 aga9/ ! ,/oic objectors4--,s*ol4 ad ,categ4 p4 #ha1 a4 #e4 ,if we seek n to appreciate ! value ( ! ,t5 ,categories z a philosophical classification1 b to und]/& :at 0 9 ! m9d ( ,ari/otle :5 he fram$ x1 we %all att5d1 n mu* to ! great] features1 :i* x pres5ts 9 common ) e o!r s*eme ( classification1 z to ! m9or features :i* con/itute its peculi>ity4 ,9 ?is po9t ( view ! two la/ ,categories are m significant ?an ! fir/ f\r1 & ! t5? is ! mo/ significant ( all2 = e "o is a/oni%$ :5 he f9ds ,hab]e enroll$ z a t5? ,summum ,g5us1 co-ord9ate ) ,quantum & ,quale4 ,n[ :at is rem>kable ab\t ! n9? & t5? ,categories is1 t individual p]sons or animals are ! only ,subjects respect+ :om !y are ev] pr$icat$1 & are at ! same "t ,subjects respect+ :om !y are con/antly 7or at lea/ frequ5tly7 pr$icat$4 ,an individual p]son is habitually clo!d 9 "s p>ticul> way 9 all or "p ( 8 body2 he 7& p]haps 8 horse also7 are ! only ,subjects t are ev] s clo!d4 ,moreov] animals are ! only ,subjects1 & among !m man is ! pr9cipal ,subject1 ^: *anges ( po/ure are frequ5t1 v>i\s1 det]m9$ by int]nal impulses1 & at ! same "t int]e/+ to o!rs to "k4 ,h5ce we may inf] t :5 ,ari/otle lays d[n ! ,t5 ,categories1 z ,summa ,g5]a = all pr$ications :i* c be made ab\t any giv5 ,subject1 ! ,subject :i* he has :olly1 or at lea/ pr9cipally1 9 8 m9d is an individual ,man4 ,we und]/&1 !n1 h[ x is t he decl>es ,hab]e & ,jac]e to be s pla9 z to ne$ no f>!r explanation4 ,:at is a man's po/ure8 ,:at is 8 clo?+ or equipm5t8 are que/ions und]/ood by e "o4#ge ,b :5 ,ari/otle treats ( ,hab]e else:]e1 he is f> f recogniz+ x z n>r[ & pla9 p] se4 ,ev5 9 ! ,po/-,pr$icam5ta 7an app5dix tack$ on to ! ,categori1 ei!r by himself aft]w>ds1 or by "s foll[]7 he decl>es ,hab]e to be a pr$icate ( vague & equivocal signification2 includ+ portions ( ,quale1 ,quantum1 & ,relata4 ,& he specifies ! p]sonal equipm5t ( an individual z only "o among ^! _m v>ieties ( signification4 ,he takes ! same view 9 ! f\r? book 7,greek3 ,d47 ( ! ,metaphysica1 :i* book is a sort ( lexicon ( philosophical t]ms4#gf ,?is enl>gem5t ( ! mean+ ( ! ^w ,hab]e seems to indicate an alt]ation ( ,ari/otle's po9t ( view1 dropp+ t special ref]5ce to an individual man z ,subject1 :i* 0 pres5t to him :5 he drew up ! li/ ( ,t5 ,categories4 ,! l alt]ation c>ri$ him /ill f>!r1 s z to omit ! n9? & t5? almo/ entirely1 :5 he discusses ! m ext5sive topics ( philosophy4 ,"s ( 8 foll[]s1 on ! contr>y1 in/ead ( omitt+ ,hab]e out ( ! li/ ( ,categories1 tri$ to procure recognition = x 9 ! l>g] s5se :i* x be>s 9 ! ,metaphysica4 ,ar*ytas rank$ x fif? 9 ! s]ies1 imm$iately aft] ,relata4#gg ,footnote #ge3 ,9 ! ?irte5? & f\rte5? *apt]s ( ,mr4 ,james ,h>ris's ,philosophical ,arrangem5ts1 !re is a le>n$ & valuable illu/ration ( ^! two la/ ,ari/otelian ,categories4 ,i ?9k1 h[ev]1 t he gives to ! ,pr$icam5t ,greek3 ,kei/hai 7,jac]e7 a l>g] & m compreh5sive mean+ ?an x be>s 9 ! treatise ,categori2 & t nei!r he1 nor ! comm5tators :om he cites 7p4 #cag71 take suffici5t notice ( ! m>k$ di/9ction drawn 9 t treatise betwe5 ,greek3 kei/hai & ,greek3 !_/sis 7,cat4 p4 #f1 b4 #ab74 ,mr4 ,h>ris ranks ! arrangem5t ( words 9 an ord]ly disc\rse1 & ( propositions 9 a valid syllogism1 z cases com+ "u ! ,pr$icam5t ,greek ,kei/hai2 :i* is travell+ f> beyond ! mean+ ( t ^w 9 ! ,ari/otelian ,categories4 ,at ! same "t he br+s out /rongly ! fact1 t liv+ be+s1 & especially m51 are ! true & special subjects ( pr$icates belong+ to ,greek3 ,kei/hai & ,greek3 ,e7_/*e94 ,! m we att5d to ?is1 ! ne>] approa* %all we make to ! /ate ( ,ari/otle's m9d :5 he drew up ! li/ ( ,categories2 z inde$ ,h>ris himself seems to recognize 7*ap4 ii4 p4 #bi74 ,footnote #gf3 ,ari/ot4 ,categor4 p4 #ae1 b4 #ag2 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,d4 p4 #ajbc1 a4 #h4 ,footnote #gg3 ,see ! ,s*olia ( ,simplikius1 p4 #hj1 b4 #g1 seq42 p4 #ib1 b4 #da1 ,br&42 :]e ! diff]5t views ( ,ar*ytas1 ,plot9us1 & ,bo?us1 are giv52 also p4 #ei1 b4 #dc3 ,greek3 progeitai gar 7 sumphus tn pro_/s ti s*e_/sis tn e7pikt_/tn s*e_/sen1 7s kai t ,a7r*u_/ta dokei4 ,9 ! language ( ,ar*ytas1 ,greek3 ai7 e7pi_/kttoi s*e_/seis 7 ! equival5t ( ! ,ari/otelian ,greek3 e7_/*e94 ,! n>r[ mann] 9 :i* ,ari/otle conceives ! ,pr$icam5t ,hab]e 9 ! treatise ,categori1 & ! enl>g$ s5se giv5 to t t]m bo? 9 ! ,po/-,pr$icam5ts & 9 ! ,metaphysica1 lead to a suspicion t ! ,categori is comp>atively e>ly1 9 po9t ( date1 among 8 compositions4 ,x seems m likely t he %\ld beg9 ) ! n>r[] view1 & pass f !nce to ! l>g]1 r ?an vice v]s4 ,probably ! pr$icates specially applicable to ,man w\ld be among 8 e>ly conceptions1 b w\ld by lat] ?\ght be tacitly dropp$1#gh s z to reta9 ^? only :i* _h a wid] philosophical application4 ,footnote #gh3 ,respect+ ! p>agraph 7at ! close ( ! ,categori7 ab\t ,greek3 to e7_/*e91 see ! ,s*olion 9 ,waitz's ed4 ( ! ,organon1 p4 #ch4 ,! fact t ,ar*ytas 9 8 treatise pres5t$ ! ,ari/otelian ,category ,greek3 e7_/*e9 "u ! m g5]al phrase ( ,greek3 ai7 e7pi_/kttoi s*e_/seis 7see ! prec$+ note71 is among ! reasons = believ+ t treatise to be lat] ?an ,ari/otle4 ,i h already rem>k$ t ,ari/otle1 :ile enroll+ all ! ,t5 ,pr$icam5ts z indep5d5t heads1 ea* ! ,g5]alissimum ( a sep>ate desc5d+ l9e ( pr$icates1 admitt$ at ! same "t t v>i\s pr$icates did n ( necessity belong to "o ( ^! l9es exclusively1 b might take rank 9 m ?an "o l9e4 ,!re are "s :i* he enum]ates "u all ! diff]5t heads ( ,quality1 ,relation1 ,action1 ,passion4 ,! classification is evid5tly recogniz$ z "o to :i* we may apply a rem>k :i* he makes especially 9 reg>d to ,quality & ,relation1 "u bo? ( :i* heads 7he says7 ! same pr$icates may sometimes be c\nt$4#gi ,& ! obs]vation is mu* m ext5sively true ?an he 0 aw>e2 = he bo? conceives & def9es ! ,category ( ,relation or ,relativity 7,ad ,aliquid7 9 a way mu* n>r[] ?an really belongs to x4 ,if he _h assign$ to ?is ,category its full & true compreh5sion1 he w\ld h f\nd x implicat$ ) all ! o!r n9e4 ,none ( !m c be isolat$ f x 9 pr$ication4 ,footnote #gi3 ,ari/ot4 ,categ4 p4 #aa1 a4 #cg4 ,simplikius says t :at ,ari/otle admits ab\t ,greek3 poio_/ts1 is true ab\t all ! o!r ,categories also1 viz43 t x is n a /rict & prop] ,greek3 ge_/nos4 ,ea* ( ! t5 ,categories is 7:at ,ari/otle says ab\t ,greek3 to o7n7 ,greek3 me_/son tn te sunno_/mn kai o7mnu_/mn4--ou7de gar e7keina kuri_/s e7/i ge_/n1 ou7de 7s ge_/n tn u7p' au7ta katgoreitai1 ta_/xes ou7_/ss panta*\ pr_/tn kai deute_/rn4 7,s*olia ad ,categor4 p4 #fi1 b4 #cj1 ,br47 ,?is is a rem>kable obs]vation1 :i* has be5 suffici5tly adv]t$ to1 ,i ?9k1 by ,br5tano 9 8 treatise on ,ari/otle's ,ontology4 ,t ,ag]e & ,pati 7) ! illu/rations :i* he himself gives !re(--urit1 uritur7 may be rank$ z v>ieties "u ! g5]ic ,category ( ,relation or ,relativity1 c h>dly be ov]look$4 ,! l is se5 to be true ab\t ,ubi & ,qu&o1 :5 we adv]t to any "o ( ! pr$icates belong+ to ei!r2 su* z1 9 ! m>ket-place1 ye/]day4#hj ,moreov]1 n m]ely ! la/ six ( ! t5 ,categories1 b also ! second & f\r? 7,quantum & ,quale7 are implicat$ ) & subord9at$ to ,relation4 ,if we look at ,quantum1 we %all f9d t ! example :i* ,ari/otle gives ( x is ,greek3 trip*us1 tricubital1 or ?ree cubits long2 a t]m q z cle>ly relative z ! t]m ,greek3 dipla_/sios or d\ble1 :i* he aft]w>ds produces z in/ance ( ! ,category ,ad ,aliquid4#ha ,:5 we are ask$ ! que/ions1 ,h[ mu* is ! height8 ,h[ l>ge is ! field8 we _c give ! in=mation requir$ except by a relative pr$icate--x is ?ree feet--x is f\r acres2 we !reby c>ry back ! m9d ( ! que/ion] to "s unit ( l5g? or sup]ficies already kn[n to him1 & we convey our mean+ by comp>ison ) su* unit4 ,aga91 if we turn f ,quantum to ,quale1 we f9d ! l ,relativity impli$ 9 all ! pr$icates :]eby answ] is made to ! "q ,greek3 ,poios ti_/s e7/i8 ,qualis e/8 ,:at mann] ( man is he8 ,he is su* z ,a1 ,b1 ,c--p]sons :om we h previ\sly se51 or he>d1 or read (4#hb ,footnote #hj3 ,! rem>ks ( ,plot9us ^u ^! f\r la/-m5tion$ ,categories are prolix & vague1 b _m ( !m g to %ew h[ mu* ,greek3 to pro_/s ti is involv$ 9 all ( ! f\r 7,ennead4 vi4 #a1 #ad-ah74 ,footnote #ha3 ,tr5del5burg 7,kategori5lehre1 p4 #ahd7 admits a c]ta9 degree ( int]f]5ce & confusion betwe5 ! ,categories ( ,quantum & ,ad ,aliquid2 b 9 v scanty measure1 & mu* b5ea? ! reality4 ,footnote #hb3 ,! foll[+ passages f ,mr4 ,james ,mill 7,analysis ( ! ,ph5om5a ( ! ,human ,m9d1 vol4 ii4 *4 xiv4 sect4 ii4 pp4 #dh1 #di1 #ef1 #a/ ed47 /ate v cle>ly ! ,relativity ( ! pr$icates ( ,quantity & ,quality3-- ,x seems necess>y t ,i %\ld say some?+ ( ! ^w ,quantus1 f :i* ! ^w ,quantity is d]iv$4 ,quantus is ! correlate ( ,tantus4 ,tantus1 ,quantus1 are relative t]ms1 applicable to all ! objects to :i* we apply ! t]ms ,great1 ,little4--,( two l9es1 we call ! "o tantus1 ! o!r quantus4 ,! occasions on :i* we d s1 are :5 ! "o is z long z ! o!r4--,:5 we say t "o ?+ is tantus1 quantus ano!r1 or "o s great1 z ! o!r is great2 ! fir/ is ref]r$ to ! la/1 ! tantus to ! quantus4 ,! fir/ is di/+ui%$ & nam$ by ! la/4 ,! ,quantus is ! /&>d4--,on :at acc\nt1 !n1 is x t we give to any ?+ ! "n ,quantus8 ,z a /&>d by :i* to "n ano!r ?+1 ,tantus4 ,! ?+ call$ ,quantus is ! previ\sly kn[n ?+1 ! asc]ta9$ am\nt1 by :i* we c m>k & def9e ! o!r am\nt4 ,talis1 ,qualis1 are appli$ to objects 9 ! same way1 on "o acc\nt1 z ,tantus1 ,quantus1 on ano!r2 & ! explanation we gave ( ,tantus1 ,quantus1 may be appli$1 mutatis mut&is1 to ! pair ( relatives :i* we h n[ nam$4 ,tantus1 ,quantus1 are names appli$ to objects on acc\nt ( dim5sion4 ,talis1 ,qualis1 are names appli$ to objects on acc\nt ( all o!r s5sations4 ,we apply ,tantus1 ,quantus1 to a pair ( objects :5 !y are equal2 we apply ,talis1 ,qualis1 to a pair ( objects :5 !y are alike4 ,"o ( ! objects is !n ! /&>d4 ,! object ,qualis is t to :i* ! ref]5ce is made4 ,comp>e ! same "w1 vol4 i4 *4 ix4 p4 #bbe3--,! ^w ,su* is a relative t]m1 & always connotes s mu* ( ! mean+ ( "s o!r t]m4 ,:5 we call a ?+ su*1 x is always und]/ood t x is su* z "s o!r ?+4 ,correspond+ ) our words su* z1 ! ,lat9s _h ,talis1 ,qualis4 ,we ?us see t all ! pr$icates1 n only "u ! ,category :i* ,ari/otle t]ms ,ad ,aliquid1 b also "u all ! la/ n9e ,categories1 are relative4 ,inde$ ! "w ( pr$ication is always relative4 ,! express purpose1 z well z ! practical usefulness1 ( a significant pr$icate is1 to c>ry ! m9d ( ! he>] ei!r to a comp>ison or to a g5]al notion :i* is ! result ( pa/ comp>isons4 ,b ?\gh ea* pr$icate connotes ,relation1 ea* connotes a c]ta9 fundam5tum besides1 :i* gives to ! ,relation its peculi> "*4 ,relations ( ,quantity are n ! same z relations ( ,quality2 ! pr$icates ( ! =m] connote a fundam5tum diff]5t f ! pr$icates ( ! latt]1 ?\gh 9 bo? ! mean+ convey$ is relative4 ,9 fact1 e pr$icate or concrete g5]al "n is relative1 or connotes a ,relation to some?+ else1 actual or pot5tial1 beyond ! ?+ nam$4 ,! only "n n relative is ! ,prop] "n1 :i* connotes no attributes1 & _c prop]ly be us$ z a pr$icate 7s ,ari/otle rem>ks71 b only z a ,subject4#hc ,sokrates1 ,kallias1 ,bukephalus c41 d5otes ! ,hoc ,aliquid or ,unum ,num]o1 :i*1 :5 pron\nc$ alone1 indicates "s concrete aggregate 7z yet unkn[n7 :i* may manife/ itself to my s5ses1 b does n1 s f> z ! "n is conc]n$1 involve necess>y ref]5ce to any?+ besides2 ?\gh ev5 ^! names1 :5 "o & ! same "n cont9ues to be appli$ to ! same object1 may be held to connote a real or suppos$ cont9uity ( pa/ or future exi/5ce1 & become ?us to a c]ta9 ext5t relative4 ,footnote #hc3 ,y may make ,sokrates a pr$icate1 9 ! proposition1 ,greek3 to leukon e7keino ,skra_/ts e7/i_/n1 b ,ari/otle dismisses ?is z an irregul> or p]v]se mann] ( speak+ 7see ,analytic4 ,priora1 i4 p4 #dc1 a4 #ce2 ,analyt4 ,po/]4 i4 p4 #hc1 a4 #b-af74 ,alex&] calls ^! propositions ,greek3 ai7 p>a phu_/s9 prota_/seis 7see ,s*ol4 ad ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,d4 p4 #ajag1 a4 #bc74 ,mr4 ,james ,h>ris obs]ves 7,philosophical ,arrangem5ts1 *4 x4 p4 #bad2 also #cag1 #cdh73--;,h5ce too we may see :y ,relation /&s next to ,quantity2 = 9 /rictness ! ,pr$icam5ts :i* foll[ are b diff]5t modes ( ,relation1 m>k$ by "s peculi> "* ov] _! own1 ov] & above ! relative "*1 :i* is common to !m all4 ,to :i* ,i w\ld add1 t ! fir/ two ,categories1 ,sub/ance & ,quantity1 are no less relative or correlative ?an ! eight lat] ,categories2 z inde$ ,h>ris himself ?9ks2 see ! same "w1 pp4 #ij1 #dgc3 ,matt] & ,attribute are ess5tially di/9ct1 yet1 l convex & concave1 !y are by nature insep>able4 ,we h already spok5 z to ! insep>ability ( attributes2 we n[ speak z to t ( matt]4 ,greek3 7meis de phamen men ei7nai_/ t9a u7_/ln tn sma_/tn tn ai7/htn1 a7lla tau_/tn ou7 *ri/n a7ll' a7ei met' e7nanti_/ses--u7_/ln tn a7*_/ri/on men1 u7pokeime_/nn de tois e7nanti_/ois 7,ari/ot4 ,de ,g54 et ,corr4 p4 #cbi1 a4 #bd74 ,by contr>ies1 ,ari/otle means "h ! sev]al attributes ( matt]1 hot1 cold1 c42 f "s "o or o!r ( :i* matt] is always insep>able4 ,we mu/ obs]ve t :at ! prop] "n d5otes is any c]ta9 concrete ,"o & individual1#hd ) 8 attributes ess5tial & non-ess5tial1 :atev] !y may be1 ?\gh z yet undecl>$1 & ) 8 capacity ( receiv+ o!r attributes diff]5t & ev5 opposite4 ,?is is :at ,ari/otle indicates z ! mo/ special *>act]i/ic ( ,sub/ance or ,ess5ce1 t :ile x is ,unum et ,idem ,num]o1 x is capable ( receiv+ contr>ies4 ,?is pot5tiality ( contr>ies1 describ$ z *>act]iz+ ! ,unum et ,idem ,num]o1#he is relative to some?+ ab\t to come2 ! ,fir/ ,ess5ce is d\btless logically ,fir/1 b x is j z mu* relative to ! ,second1 z ! ,second to ! ,fir/4 ,we "k x only by two negations & "o affirmation1 all ( :i* are relative to pr$ications 9 futuro4 ,x is nei!r 9 a ,subject1 nor pr$icable ( a ,subject4 ,x is itself ! ultimate ,subject ( all pr$ications & all inh]5cies4 ,pla9ly1 !re=e1 we "k x only relatively to ^! pr$ications & inh]5cies4 ,ari/otle says truly1 t if y take2 away ! ,fir/ ,ess5ces1 ev]y?+ else1 ,second ,ess5ces z well z ,accid5ts1 disappe>s along ) !m4 ,b he might h add$ ) equal tru?1 t if y take away all ,second ,ess5ces & all ,accid5ts1 ! ,fir/ ,ess5ces w disappe> equally4 ,! correlation & int]dep5d5ce is reciprocal4#hf ,x may be suitable1 ) a view to cle> & reta9able philosophical explanation1 to /ate ! ,subject fir/ & ! pr$icates aft]w>ds2 s t ! ,subject may ?us be consid]$ z logically prius4 ,b 9 tru? ! ,subject is only a sub/ratum = pr$icates1#hg z mu* z ! pr$icates are sup]/rata ^u ! ,subject4 ,! t]m sub/ratum designates n an absolute or a p] se1 b a ,correlatum to c]ta9 sup]/rata1 det]m9$ or undet]m9$3 n[ ! ,correlatum is "o ( ! pair implicat$ directly or indirectly 9 all ,relation2 & x is 9 fact specifi$ by ,ari/otle z "o v>iety ( ! ,category ,ad ,aliquid4#hh ,we see !re=e t ! idea ( ,relativity atta*es to ! fir/ ( ! t5 ,categories1 z well z to ! n9e o!rs4 ,! inf]5ce f ^! obs]vations is1 t ,relation or ,relativity1 und]/ood 9 ! l>ge s5se :i* really belongs to x1 ought to be consid]$ r z an ,univ]sal1 compreh5d+ & p]vad+ all ! ,categories1 ?an z a sep>ate ,category 9 itself1 co-ord9ate ) ! o!r n9e4 ,x is ! condition & *>act]i/ic ( ! "w ( pr$ication g5]ally2 ! la/ analysis ( :i* is into ,subject & ,pr$icate1 9 reciprocal implication ) ea* o!r4 ,i rem>k t ?is 0 ! view tak5 ( x by "s well-kn[n ,p]ipatetic comm5tators ( antiquity2#hi by ,&ronikus1 = example1 & by ,ammonius aft] him4 ,plato1 ?\gh he makes no attempt to draw up a li/ ( ,categories1 has an incid5tal passage respect+ ,relativity2#ij conceiv+ x 9 a v ext5d$ s5se1 app>5tly z belong+ m or less to all pr$icates4 ,ari/otle1 ?\gh 9 ! ,categori he gives a n>r[] explanation ( x1 f\nd$ ^u grammatical r ?an real consid]ations1 yet intimates 9 o!r places t pr$icates rank$ "u ! heads ( ,quale1 ,actio1 ,passio1 ,jac]e1 c41 may also be look$ at z belong+ to ! head ( ,ad ,aliquid4#ia ,?is latt]1 moreov]1 he himself decl>es else:]e to be ,ens 9 ! l[e/ degree1 f>!r remov$ f ! ,prima ,ess5tia ?an any ( ! o!r ,categories2 to be m 9 ! nature ( an app5dage to "s ( !m1 especially to ,quantum & ,quale2#ib & to presuppose1 n only ! ,prima ,ess5tia 7:i* all ! n9e lat] ,categories presuppose71 b also "o or m ( ! o!rs1 indicat+ ! p>ticul> mode ( comp>ison or ,relativity 9 ea* case affirm$4 ,?us1 "u "o aspect1 ,relation or ,relativity may be said to /& prius natur1 & to come fir/ 9 ord] be=e all ! ,categories1 inasmu* z x is implicat$ ) ! :ole bus9ess ( pr$ication 7:i* ^? ,categories are int5d$ to resolve into its elem5ts71 & belongs n less to ! mode ( conceiv+ :at we call ! ,subject1 ?an to ! mode ( conceiv+ :at we call its ,pr$icates1 ea* & all4 ,"u ano!r aspect1 ,relativity may be said to /& la/ 9 ord] among ! ,categories--ev5 to come aft] ! adv]bial ,categories ,ubi et ,qu&o2 because its locus /&i is dim & d\btful1 & because e "o ( ! subord9ate pr$icates belong+ to x may be se5 to belong to "o or o!r ( ! rema9+ ,categories also4 ,ari/otle rem>ks t ! ,category ,ad ,aliquid has no peculi> & def9ite mode ( g5]ation correspond+ to x1 9 ! mann] t ,increase & ,dim9ution belong to ,quantum1 ,*ange to ,quale1 ,g5]ation1 simple & absolute1 to ,ess5ce or ,sub/ance4#ic ,new relations may become pr$icable ( a ?+1 )\t any *ange 9 ! ?+ itself1 b simply by *anges 9 o!r ?+s4#id ,footnote #hd3 ,simplikius ap4 ,s*ol4 p4 #eb1 a4 #db3 ,greek3 pros o7_/ phas9 oi7 sp\daio_/t]oi tn e7xgtn1 o7_/ti 7 ai7/ht ou7si_/a sumpho_/rsi_/s ti_/s e7/i poiot_/tn kai u7_/ls1 kai o7m\ men pa_/nta sumpage_/nta mi_/an poiei tn ai7/htn ousi_/an1 *ris de e7_/ka/on lambano_/m5on to men poion to de poso_/n e7/i lambano_/m5on1 7_/ ti a7_/llo4 ,footnote #he3 ,ari/ot4 ,categ4 p4 #d1 a4 #aj3 ,greek3 ,ma_/li/a de ,i7_/dion t\to ts ou7si_/z dokei ei7nai1 to tau7ton kai e7n a7ri?m o7n tn e7nanti_/n ei7nai dektiko_/n4 ,see ,waitz1 note1 p4 #bij3 ,greek3 dektikon dicitur ,greek3 to e7n 7 pe_/phuk5 u7pa_/r*e9 ti4 ,dexippus1 & aft] him ,simplikius1 obs]ve ju/ly1 t ! *>act]i/ic m>k ( ,greek3 pr_/t ou7si_/a is ?is v circum/ance ( be+ unum num]o1 :i* belongs 9 common to all ,greek3 prtai ou7si_/ai1 & is indicat$ by ! ,prop] "n3 ,greek3 lu_/sis de t\o_/t\1 o7_/ti au7to to mi_/an ei7nai a7ri?m1 ko9o_/s e7/i lo_/gos4 7,simpl4 9 ,categor41 fol4 #bb ,greek3 ,d42 ,dexippus1 book ii4 sect4 #ah1 p4 #eg1 ed4 ,sp5gel47 ,footnote #hf3 ,ari/ot4 ,categ4 p4 #b1 b4 #e4 ,greek3 m ou7sn ou7n tn pr_/tn ou7sin a7du_/naton tn a7_/lln ti ei7nai4 ,mr4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill obs]ves3 ,z to ! self-exi/5ce ( ,sub/ance1 x is v true t a sub/ance may be conceiv$ to exi/ )\t any o!r sub/ance2 b s also may an attribute )\t any o!r attributes4 ,& we c no m imag9e a sub/ance )\t attributes1 ?an we c imag9e attributes )\t a sub/ance4 7,sy/em ( ,logic1 bk4 i4 *4 iii4 p4 #fa1 #f? ed47 ,footnote #hg3 ,ari/ot4 ,physic4 ii4 p4 #aid1 b4 #h4 ,greek3 e7_/ti tn pro_/s ti 7 u7_/l2 a7_/ll gar ei7_/dei a7_/ll u7_/l4 ,plot9us puts ?is correctly1 9 8 criticisms on ! ,/oic ,categories2 criticisms :i* on ?is po9t equally apply to ! ,ari/otelian3 ,greek3 pro_/s ti gar to u7pokei_/m5on1 ou7 pros to e7n au7t1 a7lla pros to poi\n ei7s au7to_/1 kei_/m5on4 ,kai to u7pokei_/m5on u7pokeitai pros to ou7* u7pokei_/m5on2 ei7 t\to1 pros ta to e7_/x1 c4 ,also ,dexippus 9 ! ,s*olia ad ,categor4 p4 #de1 a4 #bf3 ,greek3 to gar u7pokei_/m5on kata pro_/s ti le_/ge/hai e7d_/kei1 t9i gar u7pokei_/m5on4 ,footnote #hh3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,d4 p4 #ajbj1 b4 #ca1 p4 #ajba1 a4 #bg1 seq4 ,footnote #hi3 ,s*ol4 p4 #fj1 a4 #ch1 ,br42 p4 #dg1 b4 #bf4 ,x5okrates & ,&ronikus includ$ all ?+s "u ! two heads ,greek3 to ka?' au7to & ,greek3 to pro_/s ti4 ,greek3 ,a7ndro_/nikos men gar o7 ,r7o_/dios teleutai_/an a7pone_/mei tois pros ti ta_/x91 le_/gn ai7ti_/an toiau_/tn4 ta pro_/s ti oi7kei_/an u7_/l ou7k e7_/*ei2 p>aphua_/di gar e7_/oik5 oi7kei_/an phu_/s9 m e7*\_/s a7lla p]iplekome_/n tois e7_/*\s9 oi7kei_/an r7i_/zan2 ai7 de e7_/nnea katgori_/ai oi7kei_/an u7_/ln e7_/*\s92 ei7ko_/ts ou7n teleutai_/an 7_/pheilon e7_/*e9 ta_/x94 ,aga91 ,s*ol4 p4 #fj1 a4 #bd 7,ammonius73 ,greek3 kals de_/ t9es a7peika_/z\si ta pro_/s ti p>aphua_/s91 c4 ,also p4 #ei1 b4 #da2 p4 #di1 a4 #dg2 p4 #fa1 b4 #bi3 ,greek3 i7_/ss de kai o7_/ti ta pro_/s ti e7n tois a7_/llois ge_/nes9 u7phe_//ke1 dia t\to sun au7tois !reitai1 ka7n m prog\me_/ns e7_/tu*e mn_/ms 7& ! ,s*olia ad p4 #f1 a4 #cf1 prefix$ to ,waitz's edition1 p4 #cc74 ,also p4 #fb1 a4 #cg3 ,greek3 dia tauta de 7s p>aphuome_/nn tais a7_/llais katgori_/ais tn t\ pro_/s ti e7peisodi_/d nomi_/z\si1 kai_/toi prog\me_/nn ou7san kai kata diaphoran oi7kei_/an !r\me_/nn4 ,bo?us _h writt5 an entire book ^u ,greek3 ta pro_/s ti1 ,s*ol4 p4 #fa1 b4 #i4 ,footnote #ij3 ,plato1 ,republic1 iv4 #dcg ,c4 to #dci ,b4 7comp>e also ,sophi/es1 p4 #bee ,c41 & ,politicus1 p4 #bhe74 ,greek3 ,kai ta plei_/ d pros ta e7la_/tt kai ta dipla_/sia pros ta 7mi_/sea kai pa_/nta ta toiauta1 kai au7 b>u_/t]a pros k\pho_/t]a kai ?a_/tt pros bradu_/t]a1 kai e7_/ti ge ta !rma pros ta psu*ra kai pa_/nta ta t\_/tois o7_/moia1 a7r' ou7* ou7_/ts e7_/*ei8 7#dch ,c47 ,footnote #ia3 ,see ,metaphysic4 ,greek3 ,d4 p4 #ajbj1 b4 #bf1 p4 #ajba1 b4 #aj4 ,tr5del5burg obs]ves 7,ges*4 d] ,kategori5lehre1 pp4 #aah-abb1 seq47 h[ mu* m ! description giv5 ( ,greek3 pro_/s ti 9 ! ,categori is det]m9$ by v]bal or grammatical consid]ations1 ?an 9 ! ,metaphysica & o!r treatises ( ,ari/otle4 ,footnote #ib3 ,see ,e?ic4 ,nikoma*4 i4 p4 #ajif1 a4 #bj3 ,greek3 to de ka?' au7to kai 7 ou7si_/a pro_/t]on t phu_/sei t\ pro_/s ti2 p>aphua_/di gar t\t' e7_/oike kai sumbebko_/ti t\ o7_/ntos1 7_//e ou7k a7n ei7_/ ko9_/ tis e7pi t\_/tn i7de_/a4 7,! expression ,greek3 p>aphua_/di 0 copi$ by ,&ronikus2 see a note on ! prec$+ page47 ,metaphys4 ,n4 p4 #ajhh1 a4 #bb-bf3 ,greek3 to de pro_/s ti pa_/ntn 7_/ki/a phu_/sis tis 7 ou7si_/a tn katgorin e7/i_/1 kai u7/e_/ra t\ poi\ kai pos\2 kai pa_/?os ti t\ pos\ to pro_/s ti1 7_/sp] e7le_/*?1 a7ll' ou7* u7_/l1 ei7_/ ti e7_/t]on kai t o7_/ls ko9 pro_/s ti kai tois me_/res9 au7t\ kai ei7_/des94 ,comp>e ,bonitz 9 8 note on p4 #ajgj1 a4 #cc4 ,! g5]al doctr9e laid d[n by ,ari/otle1 ,metaphys4 ,n4 p4 #ajhg1 b4 #cd1 seq41 ab\t ! univ]sality ( ,greek3 me_/tron z p]vad+ all ! ,categories1 is analog\s to ! passage above ref]r$ to 9 ! ,politicus ( ,plato1 & implies ! ,relativity involv$ m or less 9 all pr$icates4 ,footnote #ic3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,n4 p4 #ajhh1 a4 #bi3 ,greek3 smeion de o7_/ti 7_/ki/a ou7si_/a tis kai o7_/n ti to pro_/s ti to mo_/non m ei7nai ge_/nes9 au7t\ mde ph?oran mde ki_/ns91 7_/sp] kata to poson au7_/xsis kai ph?i_/sis1 kata to poion a7lloi_/sis1 kata to_/pon phora_/1 kata tn ou7si_/an 7 a7pl ge_/nesis kai ph?ora_/4 ,comp>e ,k4 p4 #ajfh1 a4 #i3 ,greek3 a7na_/gk treis ei7nai k9_/seis1 poi\1 pos\1 to_/p\4 kat' ou7si_/an d' ou7_/1 dia to m!n ei7nai ou7si_/a e7nanti_/on1 ou7de t\ pro_/s ti4 ,also ,physica1 v4 p4 #bbe1 b4 #aa3 ,greek3 e7nde_/*etai gar ?ate_/r\ metaba_/llontos a7l!u_/e/hai ?a_/t]on mden meta_/ballon4 ,see ab\t ?is passage ,bonitz & ,s*wegl]'s notes on ,metaphys4 p4 #ajfh4 ,footnote #id3 ,hobbes obs]ves 7,fir/ ,philosophy1 "p ii4 *4 xi4 #f73 ,b we mu/ n s ?9k ( ,relation z if x 7 an accid5t diff]+ f all ! o!r accid5ts ( ! relative2 b "o ( !m1 namely1 t by :i* ! comp>ison is made4 ,= example1 ! lik5ess ( "o :ite to ano!r :ite1 or its unlik5ess to black1 is ! same accid5t ) its :it5ess4 ,?is may be true ab\t ! relations ,l & ,unlike 7see ,mr4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill1 ,logic1 *4 iii4 p4 #hj1 #f? ed47 ,b1 9 ,relations g5]ally1 ! fundam5tum may be logically di/+ui%$ f ! ,relation itself4 ,ari/otle makes ! same rem>ks ^u ,greek3 to sumbebkos z ^u ,greek3 to pro_/s ti3--,t x v]ges ^u ,non-ens2 & t x has no special mode ( be+ g5]at$ or de/roy$4 ,greek3 phai_/netai gar to sumbebkos e7ggu_/s ti t\ m o7_/ntos2 tn men gar a7_/llon tro_/pon o7_/ntn e7_//i ge_/nesis kai ph?ora_/1 tn de kata sumbebkos ou7k e7_//94 7,metaphys4 ,e4 p4 #ajbf1 b4 #ba47 ,^? among ! ,ari/otelian comm5tators :o d5i$ ! title ( ,ad ,aliquid to a place among ! ,categories or ,summa ,g5]a ( pr$icates1 might support _! views f passages :]e ,ari/otle ranks ! ,g5us z a ,relatum1 ?\gh he at ! same "t decl>es t ! ,species "u x are n ,relata4 ,?us sci5tia is decl>$ by him to be a ,relatum2 because x mu/ be ( some?+--alicujus scibilis2 :ile ! some?+ ?us impli$ is n specifi$4#ie ,b 7sci5tia7 musica1 grammatica1 m$ica1 c41 are decl>$ n to be ,relata2 ! indet]m9ate some?+ be+ !re det]m9$1 & b\nd up 9 "o ^w ) ! pr$ication ( ,relativity4 ,n[ ! tru? is t bo? are alike ,relata1 ?\gh bo? also belong to ! ,category ( ,quality2 a man is call$ ,talis f be+ sci5s1 z well z f be+ grammaticus4 ,aga91 he gives z illu/rative examples ( ! ,category ,ad ,aliquid1 ! adjectives d\ble1 triple4 ,b he ranks 9 a diff]5t ,category 7t ( ,quantum7 ! adjectives bicubital1 tricubital 7,greek3 dip*us1 trip*us4 ,x is pla9 t ! two la/ ( ^! pr$icates are species "u ! two fir/1 & t all f\r pr$icates are alike relative1 "u any real def9ition t c be giv5 ( ,relativity1 ?\gh all f\r belong also to ! ,category ( ,quantum4 ,yet ,ari/otle does n recognize any pr$icates z belong+ to ,ad ,aliquid1 except su* z are logically & grammatically elliptical2 t is1 su* z d n include 9 !mselves ! specification ( ! ,correlate1 b require to be supplem5t$ by an additional ^w 9 ! g5itive or dative case1 specify+ ! latt]4 ,z we h already se51 he lays x d[n g5]ally1 t all ,relata 7or ,ad ,aliquid7 imply a ,correlatum2 & he prescribes t :5 ! ,correlatum is indicat$1 c>e %all be tak5 to designate x by a precise & specific t]m1 n ( wid] import ?an ! ,relatum1#if b specially reciprocat+ !re)3 ?us he reg>ds ala 7a w+7 z ,ad ,aliquid1 b :5 y specify its correlate 9 ord] to speak ) propriety 7,greek3 oi7kei_/s71 y mu/ describe x z ala alati 7n z ala avis71 9 ord] t ! ,correlatum may be /rictly co-ext5sive & reciprocat+ ) ! ,relatum4 ,w+1 head1 h&1 c41 are ?us ,ad ,aliquid1 ?\gh !re may be no receiv$ ^w 9 ! language to express _! exact ,correlata2 & ?\gh y may f9d x necess>y to co9 a new ^w expressly = ! purpose4#ig ,9 specify+ ! ,correlatum ( s]vant1 y mu/ say1 s]vant ( a ma/]1 n s]vant ( a man or ( a bip$2 bo? ( :i* are 9 ?is case accompanim5ts or accid5ts ( ! ma/]1 be+ /ill accid5ts1 ?\gh !y may be 9 fact con/antly conjo9$4 ,unless y say ma/]1 ! t]ms w n reciprocate2 take away ma/]1 ! s]vant is no long] to be f\nd1 ?\gh ! man :o 0 call$ s]vant is /ill !re2 b take away man or bip$1 & ! s]vant may /ill cont9ue4#ih ,y _c "k ! ,relatum det]m9ately or accurately1 unless y "k ! ,correlatum also2 )\t ! k ( ! latt]1 y c only "k ! =m] 9 a vague & indef9ite mann]4#ii ,ari/otle raises1 also1 ! "q :e!r any ,ess5ce or ,sub/ance c be describ$ z ,ad ,aliquid4#ajj ,he incl9es to ! negative1 ?\gh n decisively pron\nc+4 ,he seems to ?9k t ,simo & ,davus1 :5 call$ m51 are ,ess5ces or ,sub/ances2 b t :5 call$ ma/] & slave1 !y are n s2 ?is1 h[ev]1 is surpris+1 :5 he _h j be=e spok5 ( ! connotation ( man z accid5ts 7,greek3 sumbebko_/ta7 belong+ to ! connotation ( ma/]4 ,he speaks ( ! memb]s ( an organiz$ body 7w+1 head1 foot7 z examples ( ,ad ,aliquid2 :ile 9 o!r treatises1 he det]m9es v cle>ly t ^! memb]s presuppose1 z a prius natur1 ! complete organism :]e( !y are p>ts1 & t ! "n ( ea* memb] connotes ! p]=mance (1 or aptitude to p]=m1 a c]ta9 special function3 n[1 su* aptitude _c exi/ unless ! :ole organism be held toge!r 9 co-op]ative ag5cy1 s t if ?is la/ condition be want+1 ! names1 head1 eye1 foot1 c no long] be appli$ to ! sep>ate memb]s1 or at lea/ c only be appli$ equivocally or metaphorically4#aja ,x w\ld seem !re=e t ! function+ some?+ is "h ! ,ess5ce1 & t all its mat]ial prop]ties are accid5ts 7,greek3 sumbebko_/ta74 ,footnote #ie3 ,categor4 p4 #f1 b4 #ab1 p4 #aa1 a4 #bd2 ,topic4 iv4 p4 #abd1 b4 #af4 ,comp>e also ,topica1 iv4 p4 #aba1 a4 #a1 & ! ,s*olia !reupon1 p4 #bgh1 b4 #ab-af1 ,br42 9 :i* ,s*olia ,alex&] feels ! difficulty ( enroll+ a g5]ic t]m z ,greek3 pro_/s ti1 :ile ! specific t]ms compris$ "u x are n ,greek3 pro_/s ti2 & removes ! difficulty by sugge/+ t ,greek3 e7pi/_/m may be at once bo? ,greek3 poio_/ts & ,greek3 pro_/s ti2 & t z ,greek3 poio_/ts 7n z ,greek3 pro_/s ti7 x may be ! g5us includ+ ,greek3 m\sik & ,greek3 gemetri_/a1 :i* are n ,greek3 pro_/s ti1 b ,greek3 poio_/ttes4 ,footnote #if3 ,categor4 p4 #f1 b4 #cj1 p4 #g1 b4 #ab4 ,footnote #ig3 ,categor4 p4 #g1 a4 #e4 ,greek3 e7ni_/ote de o7nomatopoiein ,i7_/ss a7nagkaion1 e7an m kei_/m5on 7 o7_/noma pros o7 oi7kei_/s a7n a7podo!i_/4 ,footnote #ih3 ,categor4 p4 #g1 a4 #ca4 ,greek3 e7_/ti d' e7an me_/n ti oi7kei_/s a7podido_/m5on 7 pros o7 le_/getai1 pa_/ntn p]iair\me_/nn tn a7_/lln o7_/sa sumbebko_/ta e7/i_/1 kataleipome_/n\ de mo_/n\ t\_/t\ pros o7 a7p$o_/? oi7kei_/s1 a7ei pros au7to r7?_/setai1 oi7on o7 d\los e7an pros despo_/tn le_/gtai1 p]iair\me_/nn tn a7_/lln a7pa_/ntn o7_/sa sumbebko_/ta e7/i t despo_/t oi7on to di_/podi ei7nai kai to e7pi/_/ms dektik kai to a7n?r_/p1 kataleipome_/n\ de mo_/n\ t\ despo_/tn ei7nai1 a7ei o7 d\los pros au7to r7?setai4 ,?is is n only j & useful 9 reg>d to accuracy ( pr$ication1 b des]ves att5tion also 9 ano!r po9t ( view4 ,9 g5]al1 x w\ld be said t man & bip$ belong$ to ! ,ess5ce 7,greek3 ou7si_/a72 & ! be+ a ma/] to ! ,accid5ts or ,accompanim5ts 7,greek3 sumbebko_/ta74 ,"h ! case is rev]s$2 man & bip$ are ! accid5ts or accompanim5ts2 ma/] is ! ,ess5ce4 ,:at is connot$ by ! t]m ma/] is "h ! ess5tial idea1 t :i* is b\nd up ) ! idea connot$ by s]vant2 :ile ! connotation ( man or bip$ s9ks into ! "* ( an accessory or accompanim5t4 ,! ma/] might possibly n be a man1 b a god2 ! ,delphian ,apollo 7,euripid4 ,ion1 #acb71 & ! ,cor9?ian ,aphrodit1 _h ea* _m slaves belong+ to !m4 ,moreov]1 ev5 if e ma/] 7 a man1 ! qualities connot$ by man are "h accid5tal1 z n be+ includ$ 9 ^? connot$ by ! t]m ma/]4 ,comp>e ,metaphysica1 ,greek3 ,d4 p4 #ajbe1 a4 #cb2 ,topica1 i4 p4 #ajb1 a4 #ah4 ,footnote #ii3 ,t ,plato 0 fully s5sible to ! necessity ( precision & appropriat5ess 9 designat+ ! ,correlatum belong+ to ea* ,relatum1 may be se5 by ! +5i\s reason+ 9 ! ,platonic ,p>m5ides1 pp4 #acc-acd1 :]e ,greek3 despo_/ts & ,greek3 d\los are also ! illu/rative examples employ$4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,categor4 p4 #h1 a4 #ce1 b4 #bj4 ,footnote #aja3 ,see ,politica1 i4 p4 #abec1 a4 #ah3 ,greek3 kai pro_/t]o d t phu_/sei po_/lis 7 oi7ki_/a kai e7_/ka/os 7mn e7/i_/n2 to gar o7_/lon pro_/t]on a7nagkaion ei7nai t\ me_/r\s2 a7nair\me_/n\ gar t\ o7_/l\ ou7k e7_//ai p\s ou7de *eir1 ei7 m o7mnu_/ms1 7_/sp] ei7_/ tis le_/gei 9999tn li?i_/nn2 diaph?>eisa gar e7_//ai toiau_/t4 pa_/nta det e7_/rg 7_/ri/ai kai t duna_/mei1 _//e mke_/ti toiauta o7_/nta ou7 lekte_/on ta au7ta ei7nai a7ll' o7m_/numa2 also p4 #abed1 a4 #i3 ,greek3 to_/ te gar mo_/rion ou7 mo_/non a7_/ll\ e7/i mo_/rion1 a7lla kai a7_/ll\4 ,comp>e ,de ,anim1 ii4 #a1 p4 #dab1 b4 #bj2 ,meteorologic4 iv4 p4 #cij1 a4 #ab4 ,! doctr9e enunciat$ 9 ^! passages is a v important "o1 9 ! ,ari/otelian philosophy4 ,tr5del5burg 7,kategori5lehre1 p4 #ahb7 t\*es ^u ?is confusion ( ! ,categories1 b fa9tly & p>tially4 ,9 ! f\r? book ( ! ,metaphysica1 ,ari/otle gives an explanation ( ,ad ,aliquid diff]5t f1 & sup]ior to1 t :i* we read 9 ! ,categori2 treat+ x1 n z "o among _m di/9ct ,categories1 b z implicat$ ) all ! ,categories1 & tak+ a diff]5t "* accord+ z x is bl5d$ ) "o or ! o!r--,ess5tia1 ,quantum1 ,quale1 ,actio1 ,passio1 c4#ajb ,he !re1 also1 enum]ates z "o ( ! v>ieties ( ,relata1 :at seems to g beyond ! limit1 or at lea/ beyond ! direct d5otation1 ( ! ,categories2 =1 hav+ specifi$1 z "o v>iety1 ,relata ,num]o1 &1 z ano!r1 ,relata secundum actionem et passionem 7,greek3 to !rmantikon pros to !rmanto_/n1 c471 he proce$s to a ?ird v>iety1 su* z ! m5surabile ) ref]5ce to m5sura1 ! scibile ) ref]5ce to sci5tia1 ! cogitabile ) ref]5ce to cogitatio2 & 9 reg>d to ?is ?ird v>iety1 he draws a nice di/9ction4 ,he says t m5sura & cogitatio are ,ad ,aliquid1 n because !y are !mselves relat$ to m5surabile & cogitabile1 b because m5surabile & cogitabile are relat$ to !m4#ajc ,y _c say 7he ?9ks7 t m5sura is ref]able to ! m5surabile1 or cogitatio to ! cogitabile1 because t w\ld be repeat+ ! same ^w twice ov]--m5sura e/ illius cujus e/ m5sura--cogitatio e/ illius cujus e/ cogitatio4 ,s t he reg>ds m5sura & cogitatio z ,correlata1 r ?an z ,relata2 :ile m5surabile & cogitabile are ! ,relata to !m4 ,b 9 po9t ( fact1 ! di/9ction is n important2 ( ! relative pair !re may be "o :i* is m prop]ly call$ ! ,correlatum2 yet bo? are alike relative4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,d4 p4 #ajbj1 b4 #bg-cb4 ,at ! same "t we mu/ rem>k1 t :ile ,ari/otle enum]ates ,greek3 to u7pe_/re*on & ,greek3 to u7p]e*o_/m5on "u ,greek3 ,pro_/s ti1 he _h j be=e 7a4 #be7 rank$ ,greek3 to me_/ga kai to mikro_/n1 to meizon kai to e7_/latton1 "u ! g5]al head ,greek3 ,poso_/n--z ,greek3 pos\ pa_/? ka?' au7ta_/4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,d4 p4 #ajba1 a4 #bf1 b4 #c2 also ,i4 p4 #ajef1 b4 #cd4 ,bonitz 9 8 note 7p4 #bfb7 rem>ks t ! di/9ction "h drawn by ,ari/otle is n t5able2 & ,i agree ) him t x is n4 ,b x co9cides ) :at ,ari/otle ass]ts 9 o!r words 9 ! ,categori2 viz41 t to be simul natur is n true ( all ,relata1 b only ( ! great] "p ( !m2 t ,greek3 to ai7/hton is ,greek3 pro_/t]on ts ai7/h_/ses1 & ,greek3 to e7pi/ton pro_/t]on ts e7pi/_/ms 7,categor4 p4 #g1 b4 #bc2 p4 #h1 a4 #aj74 ,z ,i h m5tion$ be=e 7p4 #ga n471 ,simplikius1 9 ! ,s*olia 7p4 #fe1 b4 #ad71 po9ts out t ,ari/otle has n be5 c>eful "h to obs]ve 8 own precept ( select+ ,greek3 oi7kei_/s ! correlative t]m4 ,he ought to h /at$ ! pot5tial z correlat+ ) ! pot5tial1 ! actual ) ! actual4 ,if he _h done ?is1 ! ,greek3 sunu_/p>xis tn pro_/s ti w\ld h be5 se5 to be true 9 all cases4 ,eudorus notic$ a simil> inadv]t5ce ( ,ari/otle 9 ! case ( ,greek3 pte_/ron & ,greek3 pt]to_/n 7,s*ol4 #fc1 a4 #dc74 ,see ',plato & ! ,o!r ,companions ( ,sokrates1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ccj1 note x4 ,i transcribe a curi\s passage ( ,leibnitz1 be>+ on ! same "q3--,on rplique ma9t5ant1 que la vrit du m\vem5t e/ indp5dante de l'obs]vation3 et qu'un vaisseau peut avanc]1 sans que celui qui e/ d$ans s'en ap]oive4 ,je rponds1 que le m\vem5t e/ indp5dant de l'obs]vation3 mais qu'il n'e/ po9t indp5dant de l'obs]vabilit4 ,il n'y a po9t de m\vem5t1 qu& il n'y a po9t de *angem5t obs]vable4 ,et mme qu& il n'y a po9t de *angem5t obs]vable1 il n'y a po9t de *angem5t du t\t4 ,le contraire e/ fond sur la supposition d'un ,espace rel absolu1 que j'ai rfut demon/rativem5t p> le pr9cipe du beso9 d'une ,raison suffisante des *oses4 7,correspond5ce ) ,cl>ke1 p4 #ggj4 ,erdmann's edition47 ,if we comp>e toge!r ! v>i\s passages 9 :i* ,ari/otle cites & applies ! ,t5 ,categories 7n m]ely 9 ! treatise be=e u1 b also 9 ! ,metaphysica1 ,physica1 & else:]e71 we %all see t he _c keep !m ap>t /eadily & con/antly2 t ! same pr$icate is ref]r$ to "o head 9 "o place1 & to ano!r head 9 ano!r3 :at is "h spok5 ( z belong+ to ,actio or ,passio1 w be treat$ 9 ano!r place z an in/ance ( ,quale or ,ad ,aliquid2 ev5 ! d]ivative n\n ,greek3 e7_/xis 7habitus7 does n belong to ! ,category ,greek3 e7_/*e9 7,hab]e71 b sometimes to ,quale1 sometimes to ,ad ,aliquid4#ajd ,?is is inevitable2 = ! pr$icates ?us diff]5tly ref]r$ h really sev]al diff]5t aspects1 & may be classifi$ 9 "o way or ano!r1 accord+ z y take !m 9 ?is or t aspect4 ,moreov]1 ?is same difficulty ( f9d+ impassable l9es ( dem>cation w\ld /ill be felt1 ev5 if ! ,categories1 in/ead ( ! full li/ ( ,t51 7 r$uc$ to ! small] li/ ( ! f\r pr9cipal ,categories--,sub/ance1 ,quantity1 ,quality1 & ,relation2 a r$uction :i* has be5 recomm5d$ by comm5tators on ,ari/otle z well z by acute logicians ( mod]n times4 ,ev5 ^! f\r _c be kept cle>ly ap>t3 ! pr$icates :i* decl>e ,quantity or ,quality mu/ at ! same "t decl>e or imply ,relation2 :ile ! pr$icates :i* decl>e ,relation mu/ also imply ! fundam5tum ei!r ( ,quantity or ( ,quality4#aje ,footnote #ajd3 ,ari/ot4 ,categor4 p4 #f1 b4 #b2 p4 #h1 b4 #bg4 ,footnote #aje3 ,see ,tr5del5burg1 ,kategori5lehre1 p4 #aag1 seq4 ,! rem>ks made by ,mr4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill 79 8 ,sy/em ( ,logic1 book i4 *4 iii47 ^u ! ,ari/otelian ,categories1 & ! enl>g$ philosophical arrangem5t :i* he introduces 9 _! place1 well des]ve to be /udi$4 ,aft] enum]at+ ! t5 ,pr$icam5ts1 ,mr4 ,mill says3--,x is a m]e catalogue ( ! di/9ctions rudely m>k$ out by ! language ( famili> life1 ) little or no attempt to p5etrate1 by philosophic analysis1 to ! rationale ev5 ( ^! common di/9ctions4 ,su* an analysis w\ld h %ewn ! enum]ation to be bo? r$undant & defective4 ,"s objects are omitt$1 & o!rs repeat$ sev]al times "u diff]5t heads4 7,comp>e ! rem>ks ( ! ,/oic comm5tators1 & ,porphyry1 ,s*ol4 p4 #dh1 b4 #aj ,br43 ,greek3 a7!t\ntes tn diai_/res9 7s polla p>ieisan kai m p]ilamba_/n\san1 7 kai pa_/l9 pleona_/z\san4 ,& ,ari/otle himself obs]ves t ! same pr$icates might be rank$ (t5 "u m ?an "o head47 ,t c\ld n be a v compreh5sive view ( ! nature ( ,relation1 :i* c\ld exclude action1 passivity1 & local situation f t category4 ,! same objection applies to ! categories ,qu&o 7or position 9 "t71 & ,ubi 7or position 9 space72 :ile ! di/9ction betwe5 ! latt] & ,situs 7,greek3 ,kei/hai7 is m]ely v]bal4 ,! incongruity ( erect+ into a summum g5us ! t5? ,category is manife/4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! enum]ation takes no notice ( any ?+ b ,sub/ances & ,attributes4 ,9 :at ,category are we to place s5sations1 or any o!r feel+s & /ates ( m9d8 z hope1 joy1 fe>2 s\nd1 smell1 ta/e2 pa91 pleasure2 ?\ght1 judgm5t1 conception1 & ! l8 ,probably all ^! w\ld h be5 plac$ by ! ,ari/otelian s*ool 9 ! ,categories ( ,actio & ,passio2 & ! relation ( su* ( !m z are active1 to _! objects1 & ( su* ( !m z are passive1 to _! causes1 w\ld h be5 rightly s plac$2 b ! ?+s !mselves1 ! feel+s or /ates ( m9d1 wrongly4 ,feel+s1 or /ates ( consci\sness1 are assur$ly to be c\nt$ among realities2 b !y _c be reckon$ ei!r among sub/ances or among attributes4 ,among ! _m defici5cies ( ! ,ari/otelian ,categories1 z a complete catalogue1 !re is none m gl>+ ?an ! imp]fect conception ( ,greek3 ,pro_/s ti 7! ,relative71 :i* ,mr4 ,mill "h po9ts out4 ,b ! ,category ,greek3 ,kei/hai 7badly translat$ by comm5tators ,situs1 f :i* ,ari/otle expressly di/+ui%es x1 ,categor4 p4 #f1 b4 #ab3 ,greek3 to de a7nakei/hai 7 e7/a_/nai 7 ka?/hai au7ta men ou7k ei7si !_/seis7 appe>s to be h>dly op5 to ,mr4 ,mill's rem>k1 t x is only v]bally di/+ui%$ f ,greek3 ,p\1 ,ubi4 ,greek3 ,kei/hai is int5d$ to mean po/ure1 attitude1 c4 ,x is a reply to ! "q1 ,9 :at po/ure is ,sokrates8 ,answ]4--,he is ly+ d[n1 /&+ upright1 kneel+1 ,greek3 pux protei_/nn1 c4 ,?is is q diff]5t f ! "q1 ,:]e is ,sokrates8 ,9 ! m>ket-place1 9 ! pal/ra1 c4 ,greek3 ,kei/hai 7z ,ari/otle himself admits1 ,categ4 p4 #f1 b4 #ab7 is n easily di/+ui%$ f ,greek3 ,pro_/s ti3 = ! ab/ract & g5]al ^w ,greek3 !_/sis 7position7 is reckon$ by ,ari/otle "u ,greek3 ,pro_/s ti1 ?\gh ! p>onyma ,greek3 a7nakei/hai1 e7/a_/nai1 ka?/hai are affirm$ n to be ,greek3 !_/seis1 b to come "u ! sep>ate ,category ,greek3 ,kei/hai4 ,b ,greek3 ,kei/hai is cle>ly di/+ui%able f ,greek3 ,p\ ,ubi4 ,aga91 to ,mr4 ,mill's "q1 ,9 :at ,category are we to place s5sations or o!r /ates ( m9d--hope1 fe>1 s\nd1 smell1 pa91 pleasure1 ?\ght1 judgm5t1 c48 ,ari/otle w\ld h repli$ 7,i appreh5d7 t !y come "u ! ,category ei!r ( ,quale or ( ,pati--,greek3 ,poio_/ttes or ,greek3 ,pa_/?4 ,!y are attributes or modifications ( ,man1 ,kallias1 ,sokrates1 c4 ,if ! condition ( :i* we speak be tempor>y or transitory1 x is a ,greek3 pa_/?os1 & we speak ( ,kallias z ,greek3 pa_/s*n ti2 if x be a durable disposition or capacity likely to pass into repeat$ manife/ations1 x is ,greek3 poio_/ts1 & we describe ,kallias z ,greek3 poio_/s tis 7,categ4 p4 #i1 a4 #bh-p4 #aj a4 #i74 ,?is equally applies to m5tal & bodily conditions 7,greek3 o7moi_/s de t\_/tois kai kata tn psu*n pa?tikai poio_/ttes kai pa_/? le_/getai4--p4 #i1 b4 #cc74 ,! l9e is dubi\s & difficult betwe5 ,greek3 pa_/?os & ,greek3 poio_/ts1 b "o or o!r ( ! two w compreh5d all ! m5tal /ates indicat$ by ,mr4 ,mill4 ,ari/otle w\ld n h admitt$ t feel+s are to be c\nt$ among realities1 except z !y are n[ or may be ! feel+s ( ,kallias1 ,sokrates1 or "s o!r ,hic ,aliquis--"o or _m4 ,he w\ld consid] feel+s z attributes belong+ to ^! ,greek3 ,prtai ,ou7si_/ai2 & s 9 fact ,mr4 ,mill himself consid]s !m 7p4 #hc71 aft] hav+ specifi$ ! ,m9d 7di/+ui%$ f ,body or ext]nal object7 z ! ,sub/ance to :i* !y belong4 ,mr4 ,mill's classification ( ,nameable ,?+s is mu* bett] & m complete ?an ! ,ari/otelian ,categories1 inasmu* z x br+s into full prom95ce ! di/9ction betwe5 ! subjective & objective po9ts ( view1 &1 likewise1 ! all-p]vad+ pr9ciple ( ,relativity1 :i* implicates ! two2 :]eas1 ,ari/otle ei!r confuses ! "o ) ! o!r1 or conceives !m n>r[ly & inadequately4 ,b we _c say1 ,i ?9k1 t ,ari/otle1 9 ! ,categories1 assigns no room = ! m5tal /ates or elem5ts4 ,he has a place = !m1 ?\gh he treats !m altoge!r objectively4 ,he takes acc\nt ( himself only z an object--z "o among ! ,greek3 prtai ou7si_/ai1 or individuals1 along ) ,sokrates & ,kallias4 ,! mo/ capital di/9ction1 h[ev]1 :i* is to be f\nd among ! ,categories is t ( ,ess5ce or ,sub/ance f all ! re/4 ,?is is sometimes ann\nc$ z hav+ a /&+ p] se2 z n only logically di/+ui%able1 b really sep>able f ! o!r n9e1 if we pres]ve ! ,ari/otelian li/ ( t51#ajf or f ! o!r ?ree1 if we pref] ! r$uc$ li/ ( f\r4 ,b su* real sep>ation _c be ma9ta9$4 ,! ,prima ,ess5tia 7we are told7 is indisp5sable z a ,subject1 b _c appe> z ,pr$icate2 :ile all ! re/ c & d s appe>4 ,n[ we see t ?is def9ition is f\nd$ ^u ! function enact$ by ea* ( !m 9 pr$ication1 & !re=e presupposes ! fact ( pr$ication1 :i* is 9 itself a ,relation4 ,! ,category ( ,relation is ?us impli$1 9 decl>+ :at ! ,fir/ ,ess5ce is1 toge!r ) "s pr$icabilia z correlates1 ?\gh x is n yet specifi$ :at ! pr$icabilia are4 ,b besides ?is1 ! di/9ction drawn by ,ari/otle1 betwe5 ,fir/ & ,second ,ess5ce or ,sub/ance1 aboli%es ! m>k$ l9e ( sep>ation betwe5 ,sub/ance & ,quality1 mak+ ! =m] %ade d[n into ! latt]4 ,! di/9ction recognizes a m or less 9 ,sub/ance1 :i* graduation ,ari/otle expressly po9ts out1 /at+ t ! ,species is m ,sub/ance or ,ess5ce1 & t ,g5us less s4 ,we see ?us t he did n conceive ,sub/ance 7ap>t f attributes7 accord+ to ! mod]n view1 z t :i* exi/s )\t ! m9d 7exclud+ )9 ! m9d or relation to ! m9d72 = 9 t !re c be no graduation4 ,t :i* is )\t ! m9d1 mu/ also be )92 & t :i* is )9 mu/ also be )\t2 ! subject & ! object correlat+4 ,?is implication ( )9 & )\t und]/ood1 !re is !n room = graduation1 accord+ z ! "o or ! o!r aspect may be m or less prom95t4 ,ari/otle1 9 po9t ( fact1 conf9es himself to ! m5tal or logical "w ( pr$ication1 to ! conditions !re(1 & to ! compon5t t]ms :]eby ! m9d accompli%es t act4 ,:5 he speaks ( ! ,fir/ ,ess5ce or ,sub/ance1 )\t ! ,second1 all t he c say ab\t x positively is to call x ,unum num]o & indivisible3#ajg ev5 ?us1 he is compell$ to introduce unity1 measure1 & numb]1 all ( :i* belong to ! two ,categories ( ,quantity & ,relation2 & yet /ill ! ,fir/ ,ess5ce or ,sub/ance rema9s indet]m9ate4 ,we only beg9 to det]m9e x :5 we call x by ! "n ( ! ,second ,sub/ance or ,ess5ce2 :i* "n connotes c]ta9 attributes1 ! attributes ?us connot$ be+ ( ! ess5ce ( ! ,species2 t is1 unless !y be pres5t1 no individual w\ld be consid]$ z belong+ to ! ,species1 or w\ld be call$ by ! specific "n4#ajh ,:5 we ?us1 h[ev]1 introduce attributes1 we f9d ourselves n m]ely 9 ! ,category ( ,sub/antia 7,secunda71 b also 9 t ( ,qualitas4 ,! b\nd>y betwe5 ,sub/antia & ,qualitas disappe>s2 ! latt] be+ p>tially conta9$ 9 ! =m]4 ,! ,second ,sub/ance or ,ess5ce includes attributes or ,qualities belong+ to ! ,ess5ce4 ,9 fact1 ! ,second ,sub/ance or ,ess5ce1 :5 di/+ui%$ f ! ,fir/1 is bo? "h & else:]e *>act]iz$ by ,ari/otle1 z be+ n ,sub/ance at all1 b ,quality1#aji ?\gh :5 consid]$ z be+ 9 implication ) ! ,fir/1 x takes on ! nature ( ,sub/ance & becomes sub/antial or ess5tial ,quality4 ,! ,diff]5tia belongs ?us bo? to ,sub/ance & to ,quality 7quale quid71 mak+ up z complem5t t :i* is designat$ by ! specific "n4#aaj ,footnote #ajf3 ,ari/otle sometimes speaks ( x z ,greek3 *ri/o_/n1 ! o!r ,categories be+ n ,greek3 *ri/a_/ 7,metaphys4 ,z4 p4 #ajbh1 a4 #cd74 ,x is n easy1 h[ev]1 always to di/+ui% :e!r he means by ! t]m ,greek3 *ri/a sejuncta re1 or sejuncta notione sol4 ,see ,bonitz ad ,metaphysic4 7,greek3 ,d4 p4 #ajag71 p4 #bdd4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,categor4 p4 #c1 b4 #ab3 ,greek3 a7_/tomon gar kai e7n a7ri?m to dl\_/m5o_/n e7/94 ,comp>e ,metaphysic4 ,n4 p4 #ajhg1 b4 #cc2 p4 #ajhh1 a4 #aj4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,hobbes says3--,n[ t accid5t 7i4e4 attribute7 = :i* we give a c]ta9 "n to any body1 or ! accid5t :i* d5om9ates its ,subject1 is commonly call$ ! ,ess5ce !re(2 z rationality is ! ess5ce ( a man1 :it5ess ( any :ite ?+1 & ext5sion ! ess5ce ( a body 7,hobbes1 ,philosophy1 *4 viii4 s4 #bc74 ,?is topic w be f\nd discuss$1 mo/ completely & philosophically1 9 ,mr4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill's ,sy/em ( ,logic1 ,book ,i4 *4 vi4 ss4 #b-c2 *4 vii4 s4 #e4 ,footnote #aji3 ,categor4 p4 #c1 b4 #ac3 ,greek3 e7pi de tn deute_/rn ou7sin phai_/netai men o7moi_/s t s*_/mati ts prosgori_/z to_/de ti smai_/ne91 o7_/tan ei7_/p a7_/n?rpon 7 zon1 ou7 mn a7l!_/s ge1 a7lla mallon poio_/n ti smai_/nei--poian ga_/r t9a ou7si_/an smai_/nei 7b4 #bj74 ,metaphysic4 ,z4 p4 #ajch1 b4 #ce3 ,greek3 phan]on o7_/ti ou7!n tn ka?o_/l\ u7p>*o_/ntn ou7si_/a e7/i_/1 kai o7_/ti ou7!n smai_/nei tn ko9 katgor\me_/nn to_/de ti1 a7lla toio_/nde4 ,comp>e ,metaphys4 ,m4 p4 #ajhg1 a4 #a2 ,sophi/ic4 ,el5*4 p4 #agh1 b4 #cg2 #agi1 a4 #i4 ,t :i* is call$ ,greek3 pr_/t ou7si_/a 9 ! ,categori is call$ ,greek3 tri_/t ou7si_/a 9 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 4 p4 #ajdc1 a4 #ah4 ,9 ,e?ic4 ,nikom4 ,z4 p4 #aadc1 a4 #cb1 seq41 ! g5]alissima are call$ ,greek3 prta1 & p>ticul>s are call$ ,greek3 e7_/s*ata4 ,zell obs]ves 9 8 comm5t>y 7p4 #bbd71 ,greek3 ta e7_/s*ata sunt res s+ul1 qu et ips sunt extrem1 ratione m5tis no/r1 ab univ]sis ad s+ula delab5tis4 ,patricius rem>ks ^u ! diff]5t s5se ( ! t]ms ,greek3 ,pr_/t ,ou7si_/a 9 ! ,categori & 9 ! ,de ,int]pretatione 7,discuss4 ,p]ipatetic4 p4 #ba74 ,footnote #aaj3 ,metaphysic4 ,greek3 ,d4 p4 #ajbj1 b4 #ac3 ,greek3 s*$on d kata du_/o tro_/p\s le_/goit' a7n to poio_/n1 kai t\_/tn e7_/na ton kuri_/taton2 pr_/t men gar poiots 7 ts ou7si_/z diaphora_/4 ,comp>e ,physic4 v4 p4 #bbf1 a4 #bg4 ,see ,tr5del5burg1 ,kategori5lehre1 pp4 #ef1 #ic4 ,! rem>ks ( ! diff]5t expositors 7conta9$ 9 ,s*olia1 pp4 #eb1 #ec1 #ed1 ,br&471 are int]e/+ ^u ! ambigu\s position ( ,diff]5tia1 9 reg>d to ,sub/ance & ,quality4 ,x comes out to be ,nei!r & ,bo?--,greek3 ou7de_/t]a kai a7mpho_/t]a 7,plato1 ,eu?ydemus1 p4 #cjj ,c474 ,dexippus & ,porphyry call$ x some?+ int]m$iate betwe5 ,greek3 ou7si_/a & ,greek3 poio_/ts1 or betwe5 ,greek3 ou7si_/a & ,greek3 sumbebko_/s4 ,we see1 accord+ly1 t nei!r is ! l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 ! ,category ( ,sub/ance or ,ess5ce & ! o!r ,categories s impassable1 nor ! sep>ability ( x f ! o!rs s m>k$ z "s ?9k]s cont5d4 ,sub/ance is repres5t$ by ,ari/otle z admitt+ ( m & less1 & z graduat+ by successive /eps d[n to ! o!r ,categories2 moreov]1 nei!r 9 its complete manife/ation 7z ,fir/ ,sub/ance71 nor 9 its incomplete manife/ation 7z ,second ,sub/ance71 c x be expla9$ or und]/ood )\t call+ 9 ! o!r ,categories ( ,quantity1 ,quality1 & ,relation4 ,x does n correspond to ! def9ition ( ,sub/antia giv5 by ,sp9oza--quod 9 se e/ et p] se concipitur4 ,x c no m be conceiv$ or describ$ )\t "s ( ! o!r ,categories1 ?an !y c be conceiv$ or describ$ )\t x4 ,ari/otle def9es x by f\r *>act]i/ics1 two negative1 & two positive4 ,x _c be pr$icat$ ( a ,subject3 x _c inh]e 9 a ,subject3 x is1 at bottom1 ! 9999,subject ( all ,pr$icates3 x is ,unum num]o & indivisible4#aaa ,n "o ( ^! f\r det]m9ations c be conceiv$ or und]/ood1 unless we h 9 our m9ds ! idea ( o!r ,categories & its relation to !m4 ,sub/ance is kn[n only z ! ,subject ( pr$icates1 t is1 relatively to !m2 z !y also are kn[n relatively to x4 ,)\t ! ,category ( ,relation1 we c no m und]/& :at is meant by a ,subject ?an :at is meant by a ,pr$icate4 ,! ,category ( ,sub/ance1 z laid out by ,ari/otle1 nei!r exi/s by itself1 nor c be conceiv$ by itself1 )\t t ( ,relation & ! g5]ic notion ( ,pr$icate4#aab ,all ?ree lie toge!r at ! bottom ( ! analytical process1 z ! la/ f9d+s & residuum4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,categor4 p4 #b1 a4 #ad1 b4 #d2 p4 #c1 b4 #ab4 ,footnote #aab3 ,ari/otle gives an explanation ( :at he means by ,greek3 ka?' au7to_/--ka?' au7ta_/1 9 ! ,analytic4 ,po/4 ,i4 iv4 p4 #gc1 a4 #cd1 b4 #ac4 ,accord+ to t explanation x w be necess>y to include 9 ,greek3 to ka?' au7to ( ! ,category ,greek3 ,ou7si_/a1 all t is necess>y to make ! def9ition or explanation ( t ,category und]/ood4 ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire1 9 ! valuable ,preface introduc+ 8 translation ( ! ,organon1 gives :at ,i ?9k a j view ( ! ,categories g5]ally1 & especially ( ,greek3 pr_/t ou7si_/a1 z simply nam+ 7i4e4 giv+ a prop] "n71 & do+ no?+ m4 ,i transcribe ! passage1 m]ely not+ t ! t]ms ant]ior & po/]ior c mean no?+ m ?an logical ant]iority & po/]iority4 ,mais comm5t class] les mots8--,c'e/ la ralit seule qu'il faut le dem&]2 la ralit dont le langage n'e/ que le rflet1 dont les mots ne sont que le symbole4 ,que n\s prs5te la ralit8 ,des individus1 ri5 que des individus1 exi/ant p> eux-mmes1 et se gr\pant1 p> leurs ressemblances et leurs diffr5ces1 s\s des espces et s\s des g5res4 ,a9si donc1 en tudiant l'individu1 l'tre individuel1 et en analysant avec exactitude t\t ce qu'il e/ possible d'en dire en tant qu'tre1 on aura les classes les plus gnrales des mots2 les catgories1 ou p\r pr5dre le t]me franais1 les attributions1 qu'il e/ possible de lui appliqu]4 ,voil t\t le fondem5t des ,catgories4--,ce n'e/ pas du re/e1 une classification des *oses la manire de celles de l'hi/oire naturelle1 qu'il s'agit de faire en logique3 c'e/ une simple numration de t\s les po9ts de vue1 d'9999o l'esprit peut considr] les *oses1 non pas1 il e/ vrai1 p> rapport l'esprit lui-mme1 mais p> rapport leur ralit et leurs appellations4--,ari/ote di/+ue ici dix po9ts de vue1 dix significations pr9cipales des mots4--,la ,catgorie de la ,sub/ance e/ la tte de t\tes les autres1 prcism5t p>ceque la premire1 la plus ess5tielle1 m>que d'un tre1 c'e/ d'tre4 ,cela revi5t dire qu'avant t\t1 l'tre e/1 l'tre exi/e4 ,p> suite les mots qui exprim5t la sub/ance sont antrieurs t\s les autres et sont les plus importants4 ,il faut aj\t] que ces mots l p>ticip]ont en quelque sorte cet isolem5t que les individus n\s (fr5t dans la nature4 ,mais de mme que1 dans la ralit1 les individus subsi/ant p> eux seuls =m5t des espces et des g5res1 qui ont bi5 aussi une exi/5ce sub/antielle1 la sub/ance se divis]a de mme en sub/ance premire et sub/ance seconde4--,les espces et les g5res1 s'ils exprim5t la sub/ance1 ne l'exprim5t pas dans t\te sa puret2 c'e/ 9999dj de la sub/ance qualifi1 comme le dit ,ari/ote4--,il n'y a bi5 dans la ralit que des individus et des espces ou g5res4 ,mais ces individus en soi et p\r soi n'exi/5t pas seulem5t2 ils exi/5t s\s c]ta9es conditions2 leur exi/5ce se produit s\s c]ta9es modifications1 que les mots exprim5t aussi1 t\t comme ils exprim5t l'exi/5ce absolue4 ,ces n\velles classes de mots =m]ont les autres ,catgories4--,ces modifications1 ces accid5ts1 de l'individu sont au nombre de neuf3 ,ari/ote n'en reconnat pas davantage4--9999,voil donc les dix ,catgories3 les dix seules attributions possibles4 ,p> la premire1 on nomme les individus1 sans faire plus que les nomm]3 p> les autres1 on les qualifie4 ,on dit d'abord ce qu'e/ l'individu1 et ensuite quel il e/4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire1 ,logique d',ari/ote1 ,preface1 pp4 lxxii4-lxxvii4 ,ari/otle1 tak+ 8 dep>ture f an analysis ( ! complete s5t5ce or ( ! act ( pr$ication1 appe>s to h reg>d$ ! ,subject z hav+ a natural priority ov] ! ,pr$icate4 ,! n\n-sub/antive 7:i* to him repres5ts ! ,subject71 ev5 :5 pron\nc$ alone1 c>ries to ! he>] a m complete conception ?an ei!r ! adjective or ! v]b :5 pron\nc$ alone2 ^! make !mselves felt mu* m z elliptical & ne$+ complem5t>y adjuncts4 ,b ?is is only true 9 s f> z ! conception1 rais$ by ! sub/antive nam$ alone 7,greek3 a7_/neu sumploks71 includes by anticipation :at w\ld be includ$1 if we add$ to x "s or all ( its pr$icates4 ,if we c\ld d$uct f ?is conception ! mean+ ( all ! applicable pr$icates1 x w\ld seem ess5tially b>r5 or incomplete1 await+ some?+ to come2 a m]e po9t ( comm5cem5t or dep>ture1#aac kn[n only by ! v>i\s l9es :i* may be drawn f x2 a sub/ratum = v>i\s attributes to lie ^u or to inh]e 94 ,t :i* is kn[n only z a sub/ratum1 is kn[n only relatively to a sup]/ructure to come2 ! "o is ,relatum1 ! o!r ,correlatum1 & ! m5tion ( ei!r involves an impli$ assumption ( ! o!r4 ,!re may be a logical priority1 f\nd$ ^u expository conv5i5ce1 belong+ to ! sub/ratum1 because x rema9s num]ically "o & ! same1 :ile ! sup]/ructure is v>iable4 ,b ! priority is no?+ m ?an logical & notional2 x does n am\nt to an ability ( prior indep5d5t exi/5ce4 ,on ! contr>y1 !re is simultaneity by nature 7accord+ to ,ari/otle's own def9ition ( ! phrase7 betwe5 ,subject1 ,relation1 & ,pr$icate2 s9ce !y all imply ea* o!r z reciprocat+ correlates1 :ile no "o ( !m is ! cause ( ! o!rs4#aad ,footnote #aac3 ,plato w\ld n admit ! po9t z z any?+ m ?an ,greek3 a7r*n gramms 7,ari/ot4 ,metaphys4 ,a4 p4 #iib1 a4 #ba74 ,footnote #aad3 ,ari/ot4 ,categor4 p4 #ad1 b4 #bg3 ,greek3 phu_/sei de a7_/ma1 o7_/sa a7nti/re_/phei kata tn t\ ei7nai a7kol\_/?s91 mdams de ai7_/tion ?a_/t]on ?ate_/r t\ ei7nai e7/91 oi7on e7pi t\ diplasi_/ou kai t\ 7mi_/seos2 c4 ,:5 ,ari/otle says1 v truly1 t if ! ,fir/ ,sub/ances 7 non-exi/5t1 none ( ! o!r ,pr$icam5ts c\ld exi/1 we mu/ und]/& :at he means by ! t]m fir/4 ,t t]m be>s1 9 ?is treatise1 a s5se diff]5t f :at x be>s else:]e3 "h x means ! extreme concrete & individual2 else:]e x means ! extreme ab/ract & univ]sal4 ,! ,fir/ ,sub/ance or ,fir/ ,ess5ce1 9 ! ,categories1 is a ,hoc ,aliquid 7,greek3 to_/de ti71 illu/rat$ by ! examples hic homo1 hic equus4 ,n[1 z ?us expla9$ & illu/rat$1 x includes n m]ely ! ,second ,sub/ance1 b v>i\s accid5tal attributes besides4 ,:5 we talk ( ,?is man1 ,sokrates1 ,kallias1 c41 ! he>] conceives n only ! attributes = :i* he is call$ a man1 b also v>i\s accid5tal attributes1 rank+ "u "o or m ( ! o!r ,pr$icam5ts4 ,! ,fir/ ,sub/ance ?us 7z expla9$ by ,ari/otle7 is n conceiv$ z a m]e sub/ratum )\t ,second ,sub/ance & )\t any ,accid5ts1 b z already includ+ bo? ( !m1 ?\gh z yet indet]m9ately2 x waits = specializ+ words1 to det]m9e :at its ,sub/ance or ,ess5ce is1 & :at its accompany+ ,accid5ts are4 ,be+ an individual 7,unum num]o71 x unites 9 itself bo? ! ess5tial attributes ( its species1 & ! uness5tial attributes peculi> to itself4#aae ,x is already und]/ood z includ+ attributes ( bo? k9ds2 b we wait = pr$icates to decl>e 7,greek3 dl\n--a7podido_/nai#aaf7 :at ^! attributes are4 ,! ,fir/ or ,complete ,ens embodies 9 itself all ! ,pr$icam5ts1 ?\gh z yet pot5tial & indet]m9ate1 until ! pr$icat+ adjuncts are specifi$4 ,!re is no priority1 9 ! ord] ( exi/5ce1 belong+ to ,sub/ance ov] ,relation or ,quality2 take away ei!r "o ( ! ?ree1 & ! ,fir/ ,ens disappe>s4 ,b 9 reg>d to ! ord] ( exposition1 !re is a natural priority1 f\nd$ on conv5i5ce & facility ( und]/&+4 ,! ,hoc ,aliquid or ,unum ,num]o1 :i* intimates 9 g5]al outl9e a c]ta9 concretion or co-exi/5ce ( attributes1 ?\gh we d n yet "k :at !y are--be+ z x 7 a skeleton--comes naturally z ,subject be=e ! pr$icates1 ^: function is decl>atory & specify+ z to ^? attributes3 moreov]1 ! ess5tial attributes1 :i* are decl>$ & connot$ :5 we fir/ be/[ a specific "n on ! subject1 come naturally be=e ! uness5tial attributes1 :i* are pr$icat$ ( ! subject already call$ by a specific "n connot+ o!r attributes4#aag ,! ess5tial *>act]s are native & at home2 ! accid5tal attributes are domiciliat$ =eign]s4#aah ,footnote #aae3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaphys4 ,z4 p4 #ajcc1 b4 #bd2 p4 #ajcd1 a4 #h4 ,greek3 ,to d' a7_/pan to_/de ,kalli_/z 7 ,skra_/ts e7/in 7_/sp] 7 sphaira 7 *alk 7di_/1 o7 d' a7_/n?rpos kai to zon 7_/sp] sphaira *alk o7ls4--to d' a7_/pan 7_/d to toio_/nde ei7dos e7n taisde tais s>xi kai o7/ois ,kalli_/z kai ,skra_/ts2 kai e7_/t]on men dia tn u7_/ln1 e7_/t]a ga_/r1 tau7to de t ei7_/dei2 a7_/tomon gar to ei7dos4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,categor4 p4 #b1 b4 #bi1 seq4 ,greek3 ei7ko_/ts de meta tas pr_/tas ou7si_/z mo_/na tn a7_/lln ta ei7_/d kai ta ge_/n deu_/t]ai ou7si_/ai le_/gontai2 mo_/na gar dloi tn pr_/tn ou7si_/an tn katgor\me_/nn4 c4 ,footnote #aag3 ,analyt4 ,po/]4 i4 p4 #gc1 b4 #f3 ,greek3 oi7on to badi_/zon e7_/t]o_/n ti o7n badi_/zon e7/i kai leuko_/n1 7 d' ou7si_/a1 kai o7_/sa to_/de ti smai_/nei1 ou7* e7_/t]o_/n ti o7_/nta o7_/p] e7/i_/n4 ,also p4 #hc1 a4 #ca4 ,greek3 kai m ei7nai_/ ti leuko_/n1 o7 ou7* e7_/t]o_/n ti o7n leuko_/n e7/93 also p4 #hc1 b4 #bb4 ,footnote #aah3 ,categor4 p4 #b1 b4 #ca3 ,greek3 ton ga_/r t9a a7n?rpon e7an a7podid tis ti_/ e7/i1 to men ei7dos 7 to ge_/nos a7podid\s oi7kei_/s a7pod_/sei--tn d' a7_/lln o7_/ ti a7n a7podid tis1 a7llotri_/s e7/ai a7pod$k_/s1 c4 ,x is ?us t ,ari/otle has dealt ) ,ontology1 9 "o ( ! f\r di/9ct aspects !re(1 :i* he di/+ui%es f ea* o!r2 t is1 9 ! di/ribution ( ,entia accord+ to _! logical ord]1 & ! reciprocal int]dep5d5ce1 9 pr$ication4 ,ens is a multivocal ^w1 nei!r /rictly univocal nor altoge!r equivocal4 ,x d5otes 7z has be5 /at$ above7 n a g5]ic aggregate1 divisible into species1 b an analogical aggregate1 />t+ f "o common t]m9us & ramify+ into _m d]ivatives1 hav+ no o!r community except t ( relation%ip to ! same t]m9us4#aai ,! diff]5t modes ( ,ens are di/+ui%$ by ! degree or v>iety ( su* relation%ip4 ,! ,ens ,primum1 ,proprium1 ,completum1 is 79 ,ari/otle's view7 ! concrete individual2 ) a def9$ ess5ce or ess5tial con/itu5t attributes 7,greek3 ti_/ 7_/n ei7nai71 & ) uness5tial accessories or accid5ts also--all embodi$ & implicat$ 9 ! ,"o ,hoc ,aliquid4 ,9 ! ,categori ,ari/otle analyses ?is ,ens ,completum 7n metaphysically1 into ,=m & ,matt]1 z we %all f9d him do+ else:]e1 b7 logically into ,subject & ,pr$icates4 ,9 ?is logical analysis1 ! ,subject :i* c nev] be a ,pr$icate /&s fir/2 next1 come ! ne> k9sm51 ,g5us & ,species 7express$ by sub/antive names1 z ! ,fir/ ,sub/ance is71 :i* are sometimes ,pr$icates--z appli$ to ,sub/antia ,prima1 sometimes ,subjects--9 reg>d to ! extr9sic accompanim5ts or accid5ts2#abj 9 ! ?ird rank1 come ! m remote k9sm51 ,pr$icates pure & simple4 ,^! are ! logical factors or con/itu5ts into :i* ! ,ens ,completum may be analys$1 & :i* toge!r make x up z a logical sum-total4 ,b no "o ( ^! logical con/itu5ts has an absolute or indep5d5t locus /&i1 ap>t f ! o!rs4 ,ea* is relative to ! o!rs2 ! ,subject to its ,pr$icates1 n less ?an ! ,pr$icates to _! ,subject4 ,x is a mi/ake to describe ! ,subject z hav+ a real /&+ sep>ately & alone1 & ! ,pr$icates z some?+ aft]w>ds tack$ on to x4 ,! ,subject p] se is no?+ b a g5]al pot5tiality or receptivity = ,pr$icates to come2 a relative g5]al conception1 9 :i* ! two1 ,pr$icate & ,subject1 are jo9tly implicat$ z ,relatum & ,correlatum4#aba ,footnote #aai3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,d4 p4 #ajag1 a4 #bb4 ,greek3 ka?' au7ta de ei7nai le_/getai o7_/sap] smai_/nei ta s*_/mata ts katgori_/z2 o7sa*s gar le_/getai1 tosauta*s to ei7nai smai_/nei4 ,footnote #abj3 ,categor4 p4 #c1 a4 #a3 ,greek3 7s de_/ ge ai7 prtai ou7si_/ai pros ta a7_/lla pa_/nta e7_/*\s91 ou7_/t ta ei7_/d kai ta ge_/n pros ta loipa pa_/nta e7_/*ei2 kata t\_/tn gar pa_/nta ta loipa katgoreitai4 ,footnote #aba3 ,bonitz has an in/ructive note ^u ,=m & ,matt]1 ! metaphysical con/itu5ts ( ,prima ,sub/antia1 ,hoc ,aliquid1 ,sokrates1 ,kallias 7see ,ari/ot4 ,metaphys4 ,z4 p4 #ajcc1 b4 #bd71 :i* illu/rates p]t95tly ! relation betwe5 ,pr$icate & ,subject1 ! logical con/itu5ts ( ! same ,greek3 su_/nolon4 ,he obs]ves 7n4 p4 #cbg1 9999ad ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,z4 p4 #ajcc1 b4 #ai74 ,quoniam ex duabus sub/antiis1 qu quidem actu s9t1 nunquam una exi/it sub/antia1 si et =mam et mat]iem utrumque p] se esse pon]emus1 nunquam ex utroque exi/]et res def9ita ac s5sibilis1 ,greek3 to_/de ti4 ,pon5dum potius1 si recte assequor ,ari/otelis s5t5tiam1 utrumque 7,=m & ,matt]7 ita ut alt]um exspectet1 mat]ia ut =m def9itionem1 =ma ut mat]iam def9i5dam1 exspectet1 neutra v]o p] se et absolute sit4 ,:at ,bonitz says "h ab\t ,matt] & ,=m is no less true ab\t ,subject & ,pr$icate3 ea* is relative to ! o!r--nei!r ( !m is absolute or indep5d5t ( ! o!r4 ,9 fact1 ! explanation giv5 by ,ari/otle ( ,mat]ia 7,metaph4 ,z4 p4 #ajbh1 b4 #cf7 co9cides v mu* ) ! ,prima ,ess5tia ( ! ,categories1 if ab/ract$ f ! ,secunda ,ess5tia4 ,mat]ia is call$ !re by ,ari/otle ,greek3 to u7pokei_/m5on1 ka?' ou7 ta a7_/lla le_/getai4 e7keino d' au7to mke_/ti kat' a7_/llo--le_/g d' u7_/ln 7 ka?' au7tn m_/te ti m_/te poson m_/te a7_/llo m!n le_/getai oi7s 7_/ri/ai to o7_/n 7p4 #ajbi1 a4 #bj74 ,greek3 e7_//i ga_/r ti ka?' ou7 katgoreitai t\_/tn e7_/ka/on1 7 to ei7nai e7_/t]on kai tn katgorin e7ka_//2 ta men gar a7_/lla ts ou7si_/z katgoreitai1 au7_/t de ts u7_/ls4 ,ari/otle proce$s to say t ?is ,subject--! ,subject = all ,pr$icates1 b nev] itself a ,pr$icate--_c be ! g5u9e ,greek3 ou7si_/a1 :i* mu/ ess5tially be ,greek3 *ri/on kai to to_/de ti 7p4 #ajbi1 a4 #bh71 & :i* mu/ h a ,greek3 ti_/ 7n ei7nai 7#ajbi1 b4 #b74 ,! ,subject is 9 fact n true ,greek3 ou7si_/a1 b is "o ( ! con/itu5t elem5ts !re(1 be+ relative to ! ,pr$icates z ,correlata3 x is ! pot5tiality = ,pr$icates g5]ally1 z ,mat]ia is ! pot5tiality = ,=ms4 ,! logical aspect ( ,ontology1 analys+ ,ens into a common ,subject ) its v>i\s classes ( ,pr$icates1 appe>s to beg9 ) ,ari/otle4 ,he 01 z f> z we c see1 orig9al1 9 tak+ z ! po9t ( dep>ture = 8 !ory1 ! individual man1 horse1 or o!r p]ceivable object2 9 lay+ d[n ?is ,concrete ,p>ticul> ) all its outfit ( details1 z ! type ( ,ens prop]1 complete & prim>y2 & 9 arrang+ into classes ! v>i\s second>y modes ( ,ens1 accord+ to _! diff]5t relations to ! prim>y type & ! mode 9 :i* !y contribut$ to make up its complet5ess4 ,he ?us /ood oppos$ to ! ,py?agoreans & ,platoni/s1 :o took _! dep>ture f ! ,univ]sal1 z ! type ( full & true ,entity2#abb :ile he also diss5t$ f ,demokritus1 :o recogniz$ no true ,ens except ! und]ly+1 imp]ceptible1 et]nal atoms & vacuum4 ,moreov] ,ari/otle seems to h be5 ! fir/ to draw up a logical analysis ( ,entity 9 its wide/ s5se1 z di/+ui%$ f t metaphysical analysis :i* we read 9 8 o!r works2 ! two n be+ contradictory1 b di/9ct & t5d+ to diff]5t purposes4 ,bo? 9 ! "o & 9 ! o!r1 8 pr9cipal controv]sy seems to h be5 ) ! ,platoni/s1 :o disreg>d$ bo? individual objects & accid5tal attributes2 dwell+ ^u ,univ]sals1 ,g5]a & ,species1 z ! only real ,entia capable ( be+ kn[n4 ,) ! ,sophi/s1 ,ari/otle cont5ds on a diff]5t gr\nd1 accus+ !m ( neglect+ altoge!r ! ess5tial attributes1 & conf9+ !mselves to ! region ( accid5ts1 9 :i* no c]ta9ty 0 to be f\nd2#abc 9 ,plato1 he po9ts out ! opposite mi/ake1 ( conf9+ himself to ! ess5tials1 & ascrib+ undue importance to ! process ( g5]ic & specific subdivision4#abd ,8 own logical analysis takes acc\nt bo? ( ! ess5tial & accid5tal1 & puts !m 9 :at he ?9ks _! prop] relation4 ,! ,accid5tal 7,greek3 sumbebko_/s71 concomitant1 i4e4 ( ! ess5ce7 is p] se n kn[able at all 7he cont5ds71 nor is ev] ! object ( /udy pursu$ 9 any sci5ce2 x is little bett] ?an a "n1 designat+ ! l[e/ degree ( ,ens1 bord]+ on ,non-,ens4#abe ,x is a t]m compreh5d+ all t he includes "u 8 n9e la/ ,categories2 yet x is n a t]m connot+ ei!r g5]ic communion1 or ev5 s mu* z analogical relation4#abf ,9 ! treatise n[ be=e u1 he does n recognize ei!r t or any o!r g5]al t]m z common to all ^? n9e ,categories2 ea* ( ! n9e is "h treat$ z a ,summum ,g5us1 hav+ its own mode ( relation%ip1 & cl++ by its own sep>ate ?read to ! ,subject4 ,he ackn[l$ges ! ,accid5ts 9 8 classification1 n z a class by !mselves1 b z subord9at$ to ! ,ess5ce1 &1 z s _m ?reads ( di/9ct1 v>iable1 & irregul> accompanim5ts1 atta*+ !mselves to ?is con/ant root1 )\t uni=mity or /ead9ess4#abg ,footnote #abb3 ,simplikius ad ,categ4 p4 #b1 b4 #e2 ,s*ol4 p4 #eb1 a4 #a1 ,br3 ,greek3 ,a7r*u_/tas o7 ,pu?agoreios ou7 prosi_/etai tn nuni prokeime_/nn tn ou7si_/n diai_/res91 a7ll' a7_/lln a7nti tau_/ts e7keinos e7gkri_/nei--tn me_/ntoi ,pu?agorei_/n ou7deis a7n pro_/soito tau_/tn tn diai_/res9 tn pr_/tn kai deute_/rn ou7sin1 o7_/ti tois ka?o_/l\ to pr_/ts u7pa_/r*e9 m>tur\si1 to de e7_/s*aton e7n tois m]i/ois a7polei_/p\si1 kai dio_/ti e7n tois a7pl\/a_/tois tn pr_/tn kai kurita_/tn ou7si_/an a7poti_/!ntai1 a7ll' ou7* 7s nun le_/getai e7n tois sun!_/tois kai ai7/htois1 kai dio_/ti ta ge_/n kai ta ei7_/d o7_/nta nomi_/z\s91 a7ll' ou7*i sugkephalai\_/m5a tais *ri/ais e7p9oi_/ais4 ,footnote #abc3 ,metaphys4 ,e4 p4 #ajbf1 b4 #ae3 ,greek3 ei7si gar oi7 tn sophi/n lo_/goi p]i to sumbebkos 7s ei7pein ma_/li/a pa_/ntn1 c42 also ,k4 p4 #ajfa1 b4 #h2 ,analytic4 ,po/]4 i4 p4 #ga1 b4 #aj4 ,footnote #abd3 ,analytic4 ,priora1 i4 p4 #df1 a4 #ca4 ,footnote #abe3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,e4 p4 #ajbf1 b4 #ac-ba4 ,greek3 7_/sp] gar o7no_/mati mo_/non to sumbebko_/s--phai_/netai gar to sumbebkos e7ggu_/s ti t\ m o7_/ntos4 ,footnote #abf3 ,physica1 iii4 #a1 p4 #bjj1 b4 #cd4 ,greek3 ko9on d' e7pi t\_/tn ou7de_/n e7/i labein1 c4 ,footnote #abg3 ,see ! explanation giv5 ( ,greek3 to o7n kata sumbebkos 9 ,metaphys4 ,e4 pp4 #ajbf b41 #ajbg a4 ,?is is ! s5se 9 :i* ,ari/otle mo/ frequ5tly & usually talks ( ,greek3 sumbebko_/s1 ?\gh he sometimes uses x to include also a con/ant & insep>able accompanim5t or ,accid5t1 if x be n includ$ 9 ! ,ess5ce 7i4 e4 n connot$ by ! specific "n72 ?us1 to h ! ?ree angles equal to two "r angles is a ,greek3 sumbebkos ( ! triangle1 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,d4 p4 #ajbe1 a4 #hj4 ,! prop] s5se 9 :i* he und]/&s ,greek3 to sumbebkos is z oppos$ to ,greek3 to a7ei e7x a7na_/gks1 z well z ,greek3 to 7s e7pi to polu_/4 ,see ,metaphys4 ,k4 p4 #ajfe1 a4 #b2 ,analyt4 ,po/]4 i4 p4 #gd1 b4 #ab1 p4 #ge1 a4 #ah4 ,x is t :i* is by its nature irregul> & unpr$ictable4 ,see ! valuable *apt] 7ii7 9 ,br5tano1 ,von d] ,b$eutung des ,sei5d5 na* ,ari/oteles 7pp4 #h-ba71 9 :i* ! mean+ ( ,greek3 to sumbebkos 9 ,ari/otle is cle>ly set =?4 ,9 discrim9at+ & arrang+ ! ,t5 ,categories1 ,tr5del5burg supposes t ,ari/otle 0 guid$1 consci\sly or unconsci\sly1 by grammatical consid]ations1 or by a di/9ction among ! p>ts ( spee*4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$ t :at are n[ famili>ly kn[n z ! eight p>ts ( spee*1 _h n yet be5 di/+ui%$ or nam$ 9 ! "t ( ,ari/otle1 nor did ! di/9ction come into vogue be=e ! "t ( ! ,/oic & ,alex&r9e gramm>ians1 m ?an a c5tury aft] him4 ,ess5tia or ,sub/antia1 ! fir/ ,category1 answ]s 7s ,tr5del5burg ?9ks#abh7 to ! ,sub/antive2 ,quantum & ,quale repres5t ! ,adjective2 ,ad ,aliquid1 ! comp>ative ,adjective1 ( :i* ,quantum & ,quale are ! positive degree2 ,ubi & ,qu&o ! ,adv]b2 ,jac]e1 ,hab]e1 ,ag]e1 ,pati ! ,v]b4 ,( ! la/ f\r1 ,ag]e & ,pati correspond to ! active & passive voices ( ! ,v]b2 ,jac]e to ! neut] or intransitive ,v]b2 & ,hab]e to ! peculi> mean+ ( ! ,greek p]fect--! pres5t result ( a pa/ action4 ,footnote #abh3 ,tr5del5burg1 ,kategori5lehre1 pp4 #bc1 #baa4 ,?is g5]al view1 :i* ,tr5del5burg himself conceives z hav+ be5 only guid+ & n decisive or p]emptory 9 ! m9d ( ,ari/otle1#abi appe>s to me likely & plausible1 ?\gh ,bonitz & o!rs h /rongly oppos$ x4 ,we see f ,ari/otle's own language1 t ! grammatical po9t ( view _h great effect ^u 8 m9d2 t ! =m 7e4g47 ( a sub/antive impli$ 9 8 view a mode ( signification belong+ to itself1 :i* 0 to be tak5 into acc\nt 9 arrang+ & expla9+ ! ,categories4#acj ,i appreh5d t ,ari/otle 0 induc$ to di/+ui% & set out 8 ,categories by analys+ v>i\s complete s5t5ces1 :i* w\ld ( c\rse include sub/antives1 adjectives1 v]bs1 & adv]bs4 ,x is also rem>kable t ,ari/otle %\ld h designat$ 8 f\r la/ ,categories by ! indication ( v]bs1 ! two imm$iately prec$+ by adv]bs1 ! second & ?ird by adjectives1 & ! fir/ by a sub/antive4 ,!re rema9s ! important ,category ,ad ,aliquid1 :i* has no "p ( spee* correspond+ to x specially4 ,ev5 ?is ,category1 ?\gh n repres5t$ by any "p ( spee*1 is nev]!less conceiv$ & def9$ by ,ari/otle 9 a v n>r[ way1 ) close ref]5ce to ! =m ( expression1 & to ! requirem5t ( a n\n imm$iately foll[+1 9 ! g5itive or dative case4 ,& ?us1 :]e !re is no special "p ( spee*1 ! m9d ( ,ari/otle /ill seems to receive its guidance f grammatical & syntactic =ms4 ,footnote #abi3 ,ibid4 p4 #bji3 ,gesi*tspunkte d] ,spra*e leitet5 d5 erf9d5d5 ,gei/1 um sie 7die ,kategori57 zu be/imm54 ,ab] die grammatis*5 ,beziehung5 leit5 nur und ents*eid5 ni*t4 ,p4 #baf3 d] grammatis*e ,leitfad5 d] ,satzz]gli$]ung wird an]kannt4 ,footnote #acj3 ,categor4 p4 #c1 b4 #ac3 ,greek3 e7pi de tn deute_/rn ou7sin phai_/netai men o7moi_/s t s*_/mati ts prosgori_/z to_/de ti smai_/ne91 o7_/tan ei7_/p a7_/n?rpon 7 zon1 ou7 mn a7l!_/s ge1 a7lla mallon poio_/n ti smai_/nei4 c4 ,we may illu/rate ! t5 ,categories ( ,ari/otle by comp>+ !m ) ! f\r ,categories ( ! ,/oics4 ,dur+ ! c5tury succe$+ ,ari/otle's dea?1 ! ,/oics1 ,z5o & ,*rysippus 7pr9cipally ! latt]71 hav+ be=e !m :at he _h done1 propos$ a new arrangem5t = ! complete di/ribution ( ,subject & ,pr$icates4 ,_! di/ribution 0 quadruple in/ead ( decuple4 ,_! fir/ ,category 0 ,greek3 ti_/1 ,aliquid or ,quiddam--,greek3 to u7pokei_/m5on1 ! ,sub/ratum or ,subject4 ,_! second 0 ,greek3 poio_/n1 ,quale or ,quality4 ,_! ?ird 0 ,greek3 ps e7_/*on1 c]to ,modo se hab5s4 ,_! f\r? 01 ,greek3 pro_/s ti ps e7_/*on1 ,ad ,aliquid c]to ,modo se hab5s4#aca ,footnote #aca3 ,plot9us1 ,ennead4 vi4 #a1 #be2 vi4 #a1 #cj3 ,greek3 ta ps e7_/*onta tri_/ta ti_/!/hai4 ,simplikius ad ,categor4 f4 #g1 p4 #dh1 a4 #ac1 ,br&4 ,s*ol43 ,greek3 ,oi7 ,/ikoi ei7s e7la_/ttona su/e_/lle9 a7xi\si ton tn pr_/tn g5n a7ri?mo_/n kai_/ t9a e7n tois a7la_/ttos9 u7pllagme_/na p>alamba_/n\si4 poi\ntai gar tn tomn ei7s te_/ss>a1 ei7s u7pokei_/m5a1 kai poia1 kai ps e7_/*onta1 kai pro_/s ti ps e7_/*onta4 ,x w\ld seem f ! adv]se criticisms ( ,plot9us1 t ! ,/oics recogniz$ "o gr& ,greek3 9999ge_/nos compreh5d+ all ! above f\r z di/9ct species3 see ,plot9us1 ,ennead41 vi4 #b1 #a2 vi4 #a1 #be4 ,he *>ges !m ) inconsi/5cy & error = do+ s4 ,he admits1 h[ev]1 t ,ari/otle did n recognize any "o supreme ,greek3 ge_/nos compreh5d+ all ! t5 ,categories 7vi4 #a1 #a71 b treat$ all ! t5 z ,greek3 prta ge_/n1 "u an analog\s aggregate4 ,i _c b ?9k t ! 9999,/oics look$ ^u _! f\r ,greek3 ge_/n 9 ! same mann]2 = ,i d n see :at !y c\ld f9d m compreh5sive to rank g5]ically above ,greek3 ti_/4 ,we d n possess ! advantage 7:i* we h 9 ! case ( ,ari/otle7 ( kn[+ ?is quadruple s*eme z /at$ & en=c$ by its au?ors4 ,we "k x only ?r\gh ! abridgm5t ( ,diog5es ,la]tius1 toge!r ) incid5tal rem>ks & criticisms1 *iefly adv]se1 by ,plut>*1 ,sextus ,empiricus1 ,plot9us1 & "s ,ari/otelian comm5tators4 ,z f> z we c make out ^u ?is evid5ce1 x appe>s t ! fir/ ,/oic ,category correspond$ ) ! ,greek3 ,pr_/t ,ou7si_/a1 ,fir/ ,ess5ce or ,sub/ance ( ,ari/otle4 ,x 0 exclusively ,subject1 & c\ld nev] become ,pr$icate2 b x 0 indisp5sable z ,subject1 to ! ?ree o!r ,pr$icates4 ,its mean+ 0 concrete & p>ticul>2 = we are told t all g5]al notions or conceptions 7 exclud$ by ! ,/oics f ?is ,category1#acb & 7 designat$ z ,greek3 ,ou7_/t9a1 ,non-,individuals1 or ,non-,p>ticul>s4 ,homo 0 c\nt$ by !m1 n "u ! ,category ,greek3 ti_/1 ,quid1 b "u ! ,category ,greek3 poio_/n1 ,quale2 9 its "* ( pr$icate det]m9+ ! ,subject ,greek3 ti_/s or ,greek3 ti_/4 ,! ,/oic ,category ,quale ?us includ$ ! ,ari/otelian ,second ,ess5ces or ,sub/ances1 & also ! ,ari/otelian diff]5tia4 ,quale 0 a species-mak+ ,category 7,greek3 ei7dopoio_/s74#acc ,x decl>$ :at 0 ! ,ess5ce ( ! ,subject ,greek3 ti_/--! ess5tial qualities or attributes1 b also ! d]ivative manife/ations !re(1 co9cid+ ) :at is call$ ! proprium 9 ,porphyry's ,eisagoge4 ,x !re=e came next 9 ord] imm$iately aft] ,greek3 ti_/3 s9ce ! ,ess5ce ( ! ,subject mu/ be decl>$1 be=e y proce$ to decl>e its ,accid5ts4 ,footnote #acb3 ,simpl4 ad ,categ41 p4 #ed1 a4 #ab1 ,s*ol4 ,br&43 ,greek3 sump>alpte_/on de kai tn sun_/!ian tn ,/ikn p]i tn g5ikn poin1 ps ai7 pt_/seis kat' au7t\s prophe_/rontai1 kai ps ou7_/t9a ta ko9a p>' au7tois le_/getai1 kai o7_/ps p>a tn a7_/gnoian t\ m pasan ou7si_/an to_/de ti smai_/ne9 kai to p>a ton ou7_/t9a s_/phisma gi_/netai p>a to s*ma ts le_/xes2 oi7on ei7_/ ti_/s e7/9 e7n ,a7?_/nais1 ou7k e7_//9 e7n ,mega_/rois2 o7 gar a7_/n?rpos ou7_/tis e7/i_/n1 ou7 ga_/r e7/i_/ tis o7 ko9o_/s1 7s t9a de au7ton e7la_/bom5 e7n t lo_/g1 kai p>a t\to to o7_/noma t\to e7_/s*5 o7 lo_/gos ou7_/tis kl!i_/s4 ,comp>e ,s*ol4 p4 #de99991 a4 #g1 :]e ,porphyry says t ! ,/oics1 z well z ,ari/otle1 9 arrang+ ,categories1 took z _! po9t ( dep>ture ,greek3 to 9999deu_/t]on u7pokei_/m5on1 n ,greek3 to prton u7pokei_/m5on 7 tn a7_/poion u7_/ln74 ,footnote #acc3 ,tr5del5burg1 ,kategori5lehre p4 #bbb2 ,plut>*1 ,de ,/oicor4 ,repugnantiis1 p4 #ajed a42 ,simpl4 ad ,categor4 ,s*ol4 p4 #fg4 ,br4 ,greek3 ,poia 7 di/ribut$ by ! ,/oics into ?ree v>ieties2 & ! ab/ract ^w ,greek3 ,poio_/ts1 9 ! ,/oic s5se1 correspond$ only to ! highe/ & mo/ complete ( ^! ?ree v>ieties1 n to ! second or ?ird v>iety1 s t ,geek3 poio_/ts _h a n>r[] ext5sion ?an ,greek3 poio_/n3 !re 7 ,greek3 poia )\t any ,greek3 poiots correspond+ to !m4 ,to ! ?ird ,category1 ,greek3 ,ps e7_/*onta1 :i* 0 l>g] & m v>i$ ?an ! second1 !y _h no ab/ract t]m correspond+2 nor to ! f\r? ,category1 ,greek3 ,pro_/s ti4 ,h5ce1 we may see "o reason :y ! ,/oics1 conf9+ ! ab/ract t]m ,greek3 poio_/ttes to durable attributes1 7 dispos$ to ma9ta9 t ! ,greek3 poio_/ttes tn sma_/tn 7 !mselves ,greek3 s_/mata or ,greek3 smatika_/3 :i* ,gal5 takes mu* pa9s to refute 7vol4 xix4 p4 #dfc1 seq4 ed4 ,khn74 ,! ,/oics consid]$ ^! qualities z ,greek3 a7e_/ras t9a_/s1 or ,greek3 pneu_/mata1 c41 spiritual or gase\s ag5ts p]vad+ & hold+ toge!r ! solid sub/ance4 ,x is difficult to make out ^! ,/oic !ories cle>ly f ! evid5ce be=e u4 ,f ! /atem5ts ( ,simplikius 9 ,s*olia1 pp4 #fg-fi1 ,i _c und]/& ! l9e ( di/9ction betwe5 ,greek3 poia & ,greek3 ps e7_/*onta4 ,! ,/oics consid]$ ,greek3 poio_/ts to be ,greek3 du_/namis plei_//n e7poi/ik sumptma_/tn1 7s 7 phro_/nsis t\ te phroni_/ms p]ipatein kai t\ phron_/ms diale_/ge/hai 7p4 #fi1 b4 #b72 & if all ^! ,greek3 sumpt_/mata 7 includ$ "u ,greek3 poio_/n1 s t ,greek3 o7 phroni_/ms p]ipatn1 o7 pux protei_/nn & ,greek3 o7 tre_/*n1 7 ,greek3 poioi_/ t9es 7p4 #fg1 b4 #cd74 ,i h>dly see :at 0 left = ! ?ird ,category ,greek3 ps e7_/*onta to compreh5d2 al?\gh1 accord+ to ! indications ( ,plot9us1 x w\ld be ! mo/ compreh5sive4 ,! ,/oic writ]s seem bo? to h diff]$ among !mselves & to h writt5 inconsi/5tly4 ,nei!r ,tr5del5burg 7,kategori5lehre1 pp4 #bbc-bbf71 nor ev5 ,prantl1 9 8 m elaborate acc\nt 7,ges*4 d] ,logik1 pp4 #dbi-dcg71 cle>s up ?is obscurity4 ,! ,?ird ,/oic ,category 7,greek3 ps e7_/*on7 compris$ a portion ( :at ,ari/otle rank$ "u ,quale1 & all t he rank$ "u ,quantum1 ,ubi1 ,qu&o1 ,ag]e1 ,pati1 ,jac]e1 ,hab]e4 ,! f\r? ,/oic ,category co9cid$ ) ! ,ari/otelian ,ad ,aliquid4 ,! ?ird 0 ?us int5d$ to cov] :at 7 und]/ood z absolute or non-relative ,accid5ts2 ! f\r? includ$ :at 7 und]/ood z ,relative ,accid5ts4 ,! ord] ( arrangem5t among ! f\r 0 consid]$ z fix$ & p]emptory4 ,!y 7 n co-ord9ate species "u "o & ! same g5us1 b sup]ord9ate & subord9ate1#acd ! second presuppos+ & atta*+ to ! fir/2 ! ?ird1 presuppos+ & atta*+ to ! fir/1 plus ! second2 ! f\r?1 presuppos+ & atta*+ to ! fir/1 plus ! second & ?ird4 ,! fir/ proposition to be made is1 9 answ] to ! "q ,quale ,quid8 ,y answ] ,tale ,aliquid1 decl>+ ! ess5tial attributes4 ,^u ?is1 ! next "q is put1 ,quali ,modo se hab5s8 ,y answ] by a t]m ( ! ?ird ,category1 decl>+ "o or m ( ! accid5tal attributes non-relative1 ,tale ,aliquid1 tali ,modo se hab5s4 ,^u ?is1 ! f\r? & la/ "q foll[s1 ,quali ,modo se hab5s ad alia8 ,answ] is made by ! pr$icate ( ! f\r? ,category1 i4e4 a ,relative4 ,hic ,aliquis--homo 7#a71 nig] 7#b71 s]vus 7#c74 ,footnote #acd3 ,prantl1 ,ges*i*te d] ,logik1 vol4 i4 pp4 #dbh1 #dbi2 ,simplikius ad ,categor4 fol4 #dc1 ,a3 ,greek3 ka7keino a7_/topon to su_/n!ta poiein ta ge_/n e7k prote_/rn t9n kai deute_/rn 7s to pro_/s ti e7k poi\ kai pro_/s ti4 ,cf4 ,plot9us1 ,ennead4 vi4 #a1 #be-bi4 ,porphyry appe>s to include all ,greek3 sumbebko_/ta "u ,greek3 poion & ,greek3 ps e7_/*on3 he gives z examples ( ! latt]1 :at ,ari/otle w\ld h assign$ to ! ,category ,greek3 kei/hai 7,eisagoge1 cc4 #b1 #aj2 ,s*ol4 ,br4 p4 #a1 b4 #cb1 p4 #e1 a4 #cj74 ,9 comp>+ ! t5 ,ari/otelian ) ! f\r ,/oic ,categories we see t ! fir/ great diff]5ce is 9 ! ext5t & compreh5sion ( ,quale1 :i* ,ari/otle re/ricts on "o side 7by di/+ui%+ f x ,ess5tia ,secunda71 & enl>ges on ! o!r 7by includ+ 9 x _m attributes accid5tal & =eign to ! ,ess5ce74 ,! second diff]5ce is1 t ! ,/oics did n subdivide _! ?ird ,category1 b includ$ !re9 all ! matt] ( six ,ari/otelian ,categories1#ace & mu* ( ! matt] ( ! ,ari/otelian ,quale4 ,bo? s*emes agree on two po9ts3--#a4 ,9 tak+ z ! po9t ( dep>ture ! concrete1 p>ticul>1 individual1 ,sub/ance4 #b4 ,9 ! n>r[1 re/rict$1 inadequate conception =m$ ( ! ,relative--,ad ,aliquid4 ,footnote #ace3 ,plot9us 7,ennead4 vi4 #a4 #hj7 disapproves greatly ! numb] ( disp>ates rank$ "u ,greek3 to ps e7_/*on1 :i* has 7he cont5ds7 no discov]able unity z a g5]ic t]m4 ,x is curi\s to see h[ he cites ! ,ari/otelian ,categories1 z if ! decuple di/9ction :i* !y m>k$ out 7 indefeasible4 ,simplikius says t ! ,/oics di/+ui%$ betwe5 ,greek3 to pro_/s ti & ,greek3 to pro_/s ti ps e7_/*on2 & ,tr5del5burg1 7pp4 #bbh1 #bbi7 expla9s & illu/rate ?is di/9ction1 :i*1 h[ev]1 appe>s to be v obscure4 ,plot9us himself recognizes five ,summa or ,prima ,g5]a1#acf 7he does n call !m ,categories7 ,ens1 ,motus1 ,quies1 ,idem1 ,div]sum2 ! same z ^? enum]at$ 9 ! ,platonic ,sophi/es4 ,he does n admit ,quantum1 ,quale1 or ,ad ,aliquid1 to be ,prima ,g5]a2 /ill less ! o!r ,ari/otelian ,categories4 ,moreov]1 he insi/s emphatically on ! di/9ction betwe5 ! intelligible & ! s5sible _w1 :i* di/9ction he c5sures ,ari/otle = neglect+4 ,8 five ,g5]a he applies directly & pr9cipally to ! intelligible _w4 ,= ! s5sible _w he admits ultimately five ,catgories2 ,sub/antia or ,ess5tia 7?\gh he conceives ?is z fluctuat+ betwe5 ,=m1 ,matt]1 & ! ,comp\nd ( ! two71 ,ad ,aliquid1 ,quantum1 ,quale1 ,motus4 ,b he d\bts :e!r ,quantum1 ,quale1 & ,motus1 are n compreh5d$ 9 ,ad ,aliquid4#acg ,he consid]s1 moreov]1 t ,s5sible ,sub/ance is n ,sub/ance1 prop]ly speak+1 b only an imitation !re(2 a cong]ies ( non-sub/antial elem5ts1 qualities & matt]4#ach ,dexippus1#aci 9 answ]+ ! objections ( ,plot9us1 insi/s mu* on ! diff]5ce betwe5 ,ari/otle's po9t ( view 9 ! ,categori1 9 ! ,physica1 & 9 ! ,metaphysica4 ,9 ! ,categori1 ,ari/otle dwells ma9ly on s5sible sub/ances 7su* z ! vulg> und]/&7 & ! modes ( nam+ & describ+ !m4 ,footnote #acf3 ,plot9us1 ,ennead4 vi4 #b1 #h1 #ad1 #af4 ,footnote #acg3 ,plot9us1 ,ennead4 vi4 #c4 #c4 ,greek3 7 kai tauta ei7s ta pro_/s ti2 p]iektikon gar mallon4 ,8 idea ( ,relation is m compreh5sive ?an t ( ,ari/otle1 = he decl>es t t]ms1 propositions1 disc\rse1 c41 are ,greek3 pro_/s ti2 ka?' o7 smantika_/ 7vi4 #c4 #ai74 ,footnote #ach3 ,ibid4 vi4 #c4 #h-ae4 ,footnote #aci3 ,! second & ?ird books ( ,dexippus's ,dialogue conta9 8 answ]s to _m ( ! objections urg$ by ,plot9us4 ,ari/otle1 9 ! ,categori 7,dexippus says71 accommodates himself bo? to ! receiv$ mann] ( speak+ & to ! simple or ord9>y conception ( ,greek3 ou7si_/a ent]ta9$ by y\? or unphilosophical m5--,greek3 ou7_/te gar p]i tn o7_/ntn1 ou7_/te p]i tn g5n ts pr_/ts ou7si_/z nun au7t pro_/keitai le_/ge92 /o*a_/zetai gar tn ne_/n tois a7pl\/e_/rois e7pakol\!in duname_/nn 7p4 #di74 ,comp>e also pp4 #ej-ed1 :]e ,dexippus contra/s ! m ab/ruse h&l+ :i* we read 9 ! ,physica & ,metaphysica1 ) ! m obvi\s & unpret5d+ ?\ghts work$ out by ,ari/otle 9 ! ,categori4 ,dexippus gives an int]e/+ piece ( advice to 8 pupil1 t he %\ld v>y 8 mode ( discuss+ ^! topics1 accord+ z 8 companions are philosophical or o!rwise--,greek3 e7g men ou7n1 7 kale ka7ga! ,se_/leuke1 dogmatik_/t]on pros ,pltinon a7pant1 su de_/1 e7pei ba?u_/t]ai_/ ps ei7sin ai7 lu_/seis au7tai1 pros men t\s e7k philosophi_/z o7rmme_/n\s tais toiau_/tais a7pant_/sesi *r1 pros de t\s o7li_/ga e7pi/ame_/n\s tn dogma_/tn tais pro*ei_/rois *r dialu_/ses91 e7keino le_/gn1 o7_/ti p]i po_/da poiei/hai e7_/?os tas a7kroa_/seis ,a7ri/ote_/lei2 dio kai nun ou7den e7_/x!n e7peisa_/gei tn a7nte_/r keime_/nn philosophma_/tn1 c4 7pp4 #ej1 #ea74 ,gal5 also recognizes five ,categories2 b n ! same five z ,plot9us4 ,he makes a new li/1 =m$ p>tly out ( ! ,ari/otelian t51 p>tly out ( ! ,/oic f\r3--,greek3 ,ou7si_/a1 poso_/n1 poio_/n1 pro_/s ti1 pro_/ ti ps e7_/*on4#adj ,footnote #adj3 ,s*ol4 ad ,categor4 p4 #di a4 #cj4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,! latt] portion ( ?is ,ari/otelian treatise1 on ! ,categories or ,pr$icam5ts1 consi/s ( an ,app5dix1 usually kn[n "u ! title ( ',po/-,pr$icam5ta2'#ada :]e9 ! foll[+ t]ms or notions are analys$ & expla9$--,opposita1 ,prius1 ,simul1 ,motus1 ,hab]e4 ,footnote #ada3 ,&ronikus & o!r comm5tators suppos$ ! ,po/-,pr$icam5ta to h be5 app5d$ to ! ,categori by "s lat] h&4 ,mo/ ( ! comm5tators diss5t$ f ?is view4 ,! di/9ctions & explanations seem all ,ari/otelian4 ,( ,opposita1 ,ari/otle reckons f\r modes1 analog\s to ea* o!r1 yet n diff]5t species "u ! same g5us3#adb--a4 ,relative-,opposita--,relatum & ,correlatum4 #b4 ,contr>ia4 #c4 ,habitus & ,privatio4 #d4 ,affirmatio & ,negatio4 ,footnote #adb3 ,categ4 p4 #aa1 b4 #af3 ,greek3 p]i de tn a7ntikeime_/nn1 posa*s ei7_/!n a7ntikei/hai r7te_/on4 ,see ,simpl4 9 ,s*ol4 p4 #ha1 a4 #cg-;b4 #bd4 ,:e!r ,ari/otle reckon$ ,greek3 ta a7ntikei_/m5a a true g5us or n1 0 debat$ among ! comm5tators4 ,! ^w ,greek3 posa*s implies t he did n2 & he treats ev5 ! t]m ,greek3 e7nanti_/a z a ,greek3 polla*s lego_/m5on1 ?\gh x is less wide 9 its application ?an ,greek3 a7ntikei_/m5a1 :i* includes ,relata 7,metaphys4 ,i4 p4 #ajee1 a4 #ag74 ,he ev5 treats ,greek3 /e_/rsis z a ,greek3 polla*s lego_/m5on 7p4 #ajee1 a4 #cd74 ,greek3 ,ai7 a7nti!_/seis te_/ss>es1 ! f\r di/9ct v>ieties ( ,greek3 ta a7ntikei_/m5a are enum]at$ by ,ari/otle 9 v>i\s o!r places3--,topic4 ii4 p4 #aji1 b4 #ag2 p4 #aac1 b4 #ae2 ,metaphys4 ,i4 p4 #ajee1 a4 #ch4 ,9 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,d4 p4 #ajah1 a4 #bj1 two o!r v>ieties are add$4 ,bonitz obs]ves 7ad ,metaph4 p4 #bdg7 t ,ari/otle seems to treat ?is quadrip>tite di/ribution ( ,opposita1 tanquam c]tum et exploratum1 p>it] ac caus>um num]um1 c4 ,^! f\r modes ( opposition h pass$ f ! ,categori ( ,ari/otle into all or mo/ ( ! mod]n treatises on ,logic4 ,! ?ree la/ ( ! f\r are usefully class$ toge!r1 & illu/rat$ by _! contra/s ) ea* o!r4 ,b z to ! fir/ ( ! f\r1 ,i _c ?9k t ,ari/otle has be5 happy 9 ! place :i* he has assign$ to x4 ,to treat ,relativa z a v>iety ( ,opposita1 appe>s to me an inv]sion ( ! true ord] ( classification2 plac+ ! m compreh5sive t]m 9 subord9ation to ! less compreh5sive4 ,in/ead ( say+ t ,relatives are a v>iety ( ! ,opposite1 we ought r to say t ,opposites are v>ieties ( ! ,relative4 ,we h "h ano!r pro( ( :at has be5 rem>k$ a few pages above2 ! n>r[ & inadequate conception :i* ,ari/otle =m$ ( 8 ,ad ,aliquid or ! ,relative2 re/rict+ x to cases 9 :i* ! describ+ phrase is grammatically elliptical4#adc ,! ?ree classes la/-m5tion$ by ,ari/otle 7#a4 ,contr>ia1 #b4 ,habitus & ,privatio1 #c4 ,affirmatio & ,negatio7 are truly ,opposita2 9 ea* !re is a diff]5t mode ( opposition1 :i* x is good to di/+ui% f ! o!rs4 ,b ! ,relatum & its ,correlatum1 z su*1 are n necess>ily ,opposite at all2 !y are comp>$ or conceiv$ 9 conjunction ) ea* o!r2 :ile a "n1 call$ relative1 :i* connotes su* comp>ison1 c41 is be/[$ ^u ea*4 ,opposita fall "u ?is g5]al description1 z p>ts 7toge!r ) o!r p>ts n ,opposita7 ( a l>g] :ole4 ,!y ought prop]ly to be call$ ,opposite-,relativa3 ! phrase ,relative-,opposita1 z appli$ to ,relatives g5]ally1 be+ discont9u$ z incorrect4#add ,footnote #adc3 ,categ4 p4 #aa1 b4 #bd4 ,ammonius & ,simplikius in=m u t !re 0 mu* debate among ! comm5tators ab\t ^! f\r alleg$ v>ieties ( ,greek3 a7ntikei_/m5a2 also1 t ev5 ,ari/otle himself _h compos$ a special treatise 7n n[ extant71 ,greek3 ,p]i tn ,a7ntikeime_/nn1 full ( p]plex+ ,greek3 a7pori_/ai1 :i* ! ,/oics aft]w>ds discuss$ )\t solv+ 7,s*ol4 p4 #hc1 a4 #ae-dh74 ,h]m9us & o!rs seem to h felt ! difficulty ( call+ all ,relatives ,greek3 a7ntikei_/m5a2 = !y admitt$ t ! anti!sis betwe5 ! ,relative & its ,correlate 0 ( g5tl] "*1 n conflict+1 b reciprocally su/a9+4 ,alex&] +5i\sly comp>$ ,relatum & its ,correlatum to ! opposite raft]s ( a ro(1 ea* support+ ! o!r 7,greek3 malak_/t]a kai 7tton ma*o_/m5a e7n tois a7ntikeime_/nois1 7s kai a7mphiba_/le/hai ei7 ei7sin a7ntikei_/m5a s_/zonta a7_/llla2 a7lla t\to men dei_/knus9 ,a7le_/x&ros o7_/ti a7ntikei_/m5a1 o7s kai ta labdoeid xu_/la p>adeigma lamba_/nei1 c41 ,s*ol4 p4 #ha1 b4 #cb2 p4 #hb1 a4 #ae1 b4 #bj74 ,?is is an undue enl>gem5t ( ! mean+ ( ,opposita1 by tak+ 9 ! lit]al mat]ial s5se z an adjunct to ! logical4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! ,/oics are alleg$ to h work$ out ! views ( ,ari/otle ab\t ,greek3 e7nanti_/a1 b to h re/rict$ ! mean+ ( ,greek3 9999a7ntikei_/m5a to contradictory opposition1 i4 e4 to ,affirmative & ,negative ,propositions ) ! same subject & pr$icate 7,s*ol4 p4 #hc1 b4 #aa2 p4 #hg1 a4 #bi74 ,9 ,metaphysica1 ,a4 #ihc1 a4 #ca1 ,ari/otle calls ! f9al cause 7,greek3 to ou7 e7_/neka kai ta7ga?o_/n7 tn a7ntikeime_/nn ai7ti_/an to ! cause 7among 8 f\r71 ,greek3 to 9999o7_/!n 7 ki_/nsis4 ,?is is a mislead+ phrase2 ! two are n oppos$1 b mutually implicat$ & correlative4 ,footnote #add3 ,see ! j & compreh5sive def9ition ( ,relative ,names giv5 by ,mr4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill1 9 8 ,sy/em ( ,logic1 ,book ,i4 *ap4 ii4 #g1 p4 #df4 ,aft] read+ t def9ition1 ! inconv5i5ce ( rank+ ,relatives z a species or v>iety ( ,opposites1 w be se5 at once4 ,f ,opposita ,ari/otle passes to ,prius & ,simul2 ) ! diff]5t modes ( ea*4#ade ,successive & ,syn*ron\s1 are ! two mo/ g5]al classes "u :i* facts or ev5ts c be ca/4 ,!y include betwe5 !m all t is meant by ,ord] 9 ,"t4 ,!y admit ( no def9ition1 & c be expla9$ only by appeal to imm$iate consci\sness 9 p>ticul> cases4 ,priority & ,simultaneity1 9 ?is direct & prim>y s5se1 are among ! cle>e/ & mo/ impressive notions ( ! human m9d4 ,b ,ari/otle recognizes f\r additional mean+s ( ^! same words1 :i* he di/+ui%es f ! prim>y1 9 ! same way z he di/+ui%es 79 ! t5 ,categories7 ! diff]5t mean+s ( ,ess5tia1 9 a gradually desc5d+ scale ( analogy4 ,! second>y ,prius is t :i* does n reciprocate accord+ to ! ord] ( exi/5ce ) its ,po/]ius2 :]e ! ,po/]ius presupposes ! ,prius1 :ile ! ,prius does n presuppose ! ,po/]ius3 = example1 giv5 two1 ! exi/5ce ( "o is necess>ily impli$2 b giv5 "o1 ! exi/5ce ( two is n impli$4#adf ,! t]ti>y ,prius is t :i* comes fir/ 9 ! arrangem5ts ( sci5ce or disc\rse3 z1 9 geometry1 po9t & l9e are prior z comp>$ ) ! diagrams & demon/rations2 9 writ+1 lett]s are prior z comp>$ ) syllables2 9 spee*es1 ! proem is prior z comp>$ ) ! exposition4 ,a f\r? mode ( ,prius 7:i* is ! mo/ remote & f>-fet*$7 is1 t ! bett] & m hon\rable is prius natur4 ,/ill a fif? mode is1 :51 ( two ,relatives :i* reciprocate ) ea* o!r z to exi/5ce1 "o is cause & ! o!r effect3 9 su* a case1 ! cause is said to be prior by nature to ! effect4#adg ,= example1 if x be a fact t ,caius exi/s1 ! proposition ,caius exi/s1 is a true proposition2 & vice v]s1 if ! proposition ,caius exi/s is a true proposition1 x is a fact t ,caius exi/s4 ,b ?\gh f ei!r 9999( ^! y c inf] ! o!r1 ! tru? ( ! proposition is ! effect1 & n ! cause1 ( ! reality ( ! fact4 ,h5ce x is correct to say t ! latt] is prius natur1 & ! =m] po/]ius natur4 ,footnote #ade3 ,categ4 p4 #ad1 a4 #bf1 seq4 ,footnote #adf3 ,ibid4 p4 #ad1 a4 #bi1 seq4 ,?is second mode ( ,prius is entitl$ by ,alex&] 7see ,s*ol4 7ad ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,d47 p4 #gjg1 b4 #g1 ,br&is7 ,greek3 pro_/t]on t phu_/sei4 ,b ,ari/otle does n s call x "h2 he res]ves t title = ! f\r? & fif? modes4 ,x appe>s t debates1 ,greek3 ,p]i ,prote_/r\ kai ,u7/e_/r\ 7 frequ5t 9 ! dialectic s*ools ( ,ari/otle's day z well z debates1 ,greek3 ,p]i ,tau7t\ kai ,e7te_/r\1 ,p]i ,o7moi_/ou kai ,a7nomoi_/ou1 ,p]i ,tau7to_/ttos kai ,e7nantio_/ttos 7,ari/4 ,metaph4 ,b4 p4 #iie1 b4 #bj74 ,footnote #adg3 ,ari/ot4 ,categ4 p4 #ad1 b4 #aj4 ,?is is a sort ( article 9 a ,philosophical ,diction>y1 trac+ ! v>i\s d]ivative s5ses ( two v usual correlative phrases2 & !re is ano!r article 9 ! f\r? book ( ! ,metaphysica1 :]e ! d]ivations ( ! same t]ms are aga9 trac$ out1 ?\gh by roads consid]ably diff]5t4#adh ,! two t]ms are relatives2 ,prius implies a ,po/]ius1 z ,simul implies ano!r ,simul2 & x is an useful process to discrim9ate cle>ly ! v>i\s mean+s assign$ to ea*4 ,ari/otle has done ?is1 n inde$ cle>ly nor consi/5tly ) himself1 b ) an e>ne/ desire to elucidate :at he felt to be confus$ & p]plex+4 ,yet !re are few t]ms 9 8 philosophy :i* are m mislead+4 ,?\gh he sets out1 pla9ly & repeat$ly ! prim>y & lit]al s5se ( ,priority1 7! temporal or real71 z discrim9at$ f ! v>i\s second>y & metaphorical s5ses1 nev]!less :5 he comes to employ ! t]m ,prius 9 ! c\rse ( 8 reason+s1 he (t5 does s )\t specify+ 9 :i* s5se he int5ds x to be und]/ood4 ,& z ! lit]al s5se 7temporal or real priority7 is ! mo/ pres5t & familial to e man's m9d1 s ! t]m is (t5 con/ru$ 9 ?is s5se :5 x prop]ly be>s only ! metaphorical s5se4 ,! confusion ( logical or emotional priority 7priority ei!r 9 logical ord] ( conception1 or 9 e/eem & respect7 ) priority 9 ! ord] ( "t1 involv+ sep>ability ( exi/5ce1 is a frequ5t s\rce ( misund]/&+ 9 ! ,ari/otelian ,physics & ,metaphysics4 ,! ord] ( logical antec$5ce & sequ5ce1 or ! fact ( logical coexi/5ce1 is ( great importance to be und]/ood1 ) a view to ! pro( ( tru?1 to ! dispro( ( error1 or to ! sy/ematization ( our processes ( ?\ght2 b we mu/ keep 9 m9d t :at is prior 9 ! logical ord] is n = t reason prior 9 temporal ord]1 orf sep>able 9 real exi/5ce1 or fit to be appeal$ to z a real ,cause or ,ag5t4#adi ,footnote #adh3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,d4 p4 #ajah1 b4 #aa-p4 #ajai1 a4 #ab4 ,! article 9 ! ,metaphysica is bett] & full] ?an t 9 ! ,categori4 ,9 ?is la/1 ,ord] 9 ,place receives no special recognition1 :ile we f9d su* recognition 9 ! ,metaphysica1 & we f9d also full] developm5t ( ! v>ieties ( ! logical or intellectual ,prius4 ,footnote #adi3 ,9 ! language ( ,porphyry1 ,greek3 pr\phe_//ke 7priority 9 real exi/5ce7 means no?+ m ?an ,greek3 proep9oeitai 7priority 9 ! ord] ( conception71 ,eisagoge1 cc4 xv41 xvi42 ,s*ol4 ,br4 p4 #f1 a4 #g-ba4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,de ,,int]pretatione4 ,9 ! prec$+ *apt] ,i enum]at$ & discuss$ :at ,ari/otle calls ! ,categories4 ,we %all n[ proce$ to ! "w :i* /&s second 9 ! aggregate call$ ! ,organon--! treatise ,de ,int]pretatione4 ,we h already se5 t ! ,ari/otelian ,ontology di/+ui%es "o gr\p ( v>ieties ( ,ens 7or diff]5t mean+s ( ! t]m ,ens7 z correspond+ to ! div]sity ( ! t5 ,categories2 :ile recogniz+ also ano!r v>iety ( ,ens z ,tru?1 ) its anti!sis ,non-,ens z ,falsehood4#a ,! =m] gr\p 0 dealt ) 9 ! prec$+ *apt]2 ! latt] w =m ! subject ( ! pres5t *apt]4 ,9 bo?1 inde$1 ,ontology is look$ at z implicat$ ) ,logic2 t is1 ,ens is consid]$ z di/ribut$ "u significant names1 fit to be c\pl$ 9 propositions4 ,?is is ! common basis bo? ( ! ,categori & ( ! treatise ,de ,int]pretatione4 ,! :ole classification ( ! ,categories re/s on ! assumption ( ! proposition ) its con/itu5t p>ts1 & on ! diff]5t relation borne by ea* ( ! n9e g5]a ( pr$icates t[>ds _! common ,subject4 ,b 9 ! ,categori no acc\nt 0 tak5 ( ! di/9ction betwe5 tru? & falsehood1 9 ! application ( ^! pr$icates to ! ,subject4 ,if we say ( ,sokrates1 t he is fair1 pug-nos$1 brave1 wise1 c41 we %all pr$icate truly2 if we say t he is black1 high-nos$1 c[>dly1 /upid1 c41 we %all pr$icate falsely2 b 9 ea* case our pr$icates w belong to ! same ,category--t ( ,quale4 ,:e!r we describe him z he n[ is1 /&+1 talk+1 9 ! m>ket-place at ,a!ns2 or :e!r we describe him z he is n1 sitt+ d[n1 s++1 9 ,egypt--9 bo? spee*es1 our pr$icates rank "u ! same ,categories1 ,jac]e1 ,ag]e1 ,ubi4 ,no acc\nt is tak5 9 ! ,categori ( ! di/9ction betwe5 true & false application ( pr$icates2 we are only in=m$ "u :at numb] ( g5]al heads all our pr$icates mu/ be includ$1 :e!r our propositions be true or false 9 ea* p>ticul> case4 ,footnote #a3 ,see above 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 p4 #fj4 ,b ?is di/9ction betwe5 true & false1 :i* rema9$ unnotic$ 9 ! ,categori1 comes into ! =egr\nd 9 ! treatise ,de ,int]pretatione4 ,! ,proposition1 or enunciative spee*1#b is di/+ui%$ f o!r v>ieties ( spee* 7int]rogative1 precative1 imp]ative7 by its communicat+ :at is true or :at is false4 ,x is def9$ to be a complex significant spee*1 compos$ ( two t]ms at lea/1 ea* 9 itself significant1 yet nei!r ( !m1 sep>ately tak51 communicat+ tru? or falsehood4 ,! t]ms con/itut+ ! ,proposition are decl>$ to be a ,n\n 9 ! nom9ative case1 z ,subject1 & a ,v]b1 z ,pr$icate2 ?is latt] ess5tially connot+ "t1 9 ord] t ! syn!sis ( ! two may become ! enunciation ( a fact or quasi-fact1 susceptible ( be+ believ$ or disbeliev$4 ,all ?is mode ( analys+ a proposition1 diff]5t f ! analysis !re( giv5 or impli$ 9 ! ,categori1 is conduct$ ) a view to br+ out prom95tly its function ( imp>t+ true or false in=mation4 ,! treatise call$ ! ,categori is a !ory ( significant names subjicible & pr$icable1 fit to s]ve z elem5ts ( propositions1 b n yet look$ at z put toge!r into actual propositions2 :ile 9 ! treatise ,de ,int]pretatione !y are assum$ to be put toge!r1 & a !ory is giv5 ( ,propositions ?us complet$4 ,footnote #b3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pret4 p4 #ag1 a4 #a3 ,greek3 lo_/gos a7pophantiko_/s4 ,words spok5 are m>ks significant ( m5tal impressions associat$ ) !m bo? by speak] & he>]2 words writt5 are symbols ( ^? ?us utt]$4 ,bo? spee* & writ+ diff] 9 diff]5t nations1 hav+ no natural connection ) ! ?+s signifi$4 ,b ^! la/1 ! affections or modifications ( ! m9d1 & ! facts or objects ( :i* !y are repres5tations or lik5esses1 are ! same to all4 ,words are m>ks prim>ily & directly ( ! fir/1 second>ily & indirectly ( ! second4#c ,ari/otle ?us recognizes ^! two aspects--fir/1 ! subjective1 next ! objective1 z belong+1 bo? ( !m conjo9tly1 to significant language1 yet z logically di/+ui%able2 ! =m] look+ to ! proximate correlatum1 ! latt] to ! ultimate4 ,footnote #c3 ,ibid4 p4 #af1 a4 #c1 seq4 ,greek3 7n me_/ntoi tauta smeia pr_/ts1 tau7ta pasi pa?_/mata ts psu*s1 kai 7n tauta o7moi_/mata1 pra_/gmata 7_/d tau7ta_/4 ,= ?is doctr9e1 t ! m5tal affections ( mank9d1 & ! ?+s or facts :i* !y repres5t1 are ! same ev]y:]e1 ?\gh ! m>ks :]eby !y are signifi$ diff]1 ,ari/otle ref]s u to 8 treatise ,de ,anim1 to :i* he says t x prop]ly belongs4#d ,he ?us recognizes ! legitimate dep5d5ce ( ,logic on ,psy*ology or ,m5tal ,philosophy4 ,footnote #d3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pret4 p4 #af1 a4 #h3 ,greek3 p]i men ou7n tau_/tn ei7_/rtai e7n tois p]i psu*s2 a7_/lls gar pragmatei_/z4 ,x 0 ^u ?is ref]5ce1 ma9ly1 t ,&ronikus ! ,rhodian re/$ 8 op9ion1 t ! treatise ,de ,int]pretatione 0 n ! "w ( ,ari/otle4 ,&ronikus cont5d$ t !re 0 no?+ 9 ! ,de ,anim to ju/ify ! ref]5ce4 ,b ,ammonius 9 8 ,s*olia 7p4 #ig1 ,br&47 makes a suffici5t reply to ! objection ( ,&ronikus4 ,! ?ird book ,de ,anim 7pp4 #dcj1 #dca7 lays d[n ! doctr9e "h allud$ to4 ,comp>e ,tor/rick's ,comm5t>y1 p4 #baj4 ,t :i* is signifi$ by words 7ei!r s+le or 9 comb9ation7 is "s v>iety ( ^! m5tal affections or ( ! facts :i* !y repres5t4 ,b ! signification ( a s+le ,t]m is di/+ui%$1 9 an important po9t1 f ! signification ( t conjunction ( t]ms :i* we call a ,proposition4 ,a n\n1 or a v]b1 belong+ to ! aggregate call$ a language1 is associat$ ) "o & ! same phantasm#e or notion1 )\t any consci\s act ( conjunction or disjunction1 9 ! m9ds ( speak]s & he>]s3 :5 pron\nc$1 x arre/s = a c]ta9 "t ! fl[ ( associat$ ideas1 & det]m9es ! m9d to dwell ^u t p>ticul> gr\p :i* is call$ its mean+4#f ,b nei!r ! n\n nor ! v]b1 s+ly tak51 does m ?an ?is2 nei!r "o ( !m affirms1 or d5ies1 or communicates any in=mation true or false4 ,= ?is la/ purpose1 we mu/ conjo9 ! two toge!r 9 a c]ta9 way1 & make a ,proposition4 ,! signification ( ! ,proposition is ?us specifically di/9ct f t ( ei!r ( its two compon5t elem5ts4 ,x communicates :at purports to be matt] ( fact1 :i* may be ei!r true or false2 9 o!r words1 x implies 9 ! speak]1 & raises 9 ! he>]1 ! /ate ( belief or disbelief1 :i* does n atta* ei!r to ! n\n or to ! v]b sep>ately4 ,h]e9 ! ,proposition is discrim9at$ f o!r significant arrangem5ts ( words 7precative1 int]rogative1 :i* convey no tru? or falsehood71 z well z f its own compon5t p>ts4 ,ea* ( ^! p>ts1 n\n & v]b1 has a significance ( its own2 b ^! are ! ultimate elem5ts ( spee*1 = ! p>ts ( ! n\n or ( ! v]b h no significance at all4 ,! ,v]b is di/+ui%$ f ! ,n\n by connot+ "t1 & also by always s]v+ z pr$icate to "s n\n z subject4#g ,footnote #e3 ,ibid4 p4 #af1 a4 #ac3 ,greek3 ta men ou7n o7no_/mata au7ta kai ta r7_/mata e7_/oike t a7_/neu diaire_/ses kai sun!_/ses no_/mati1 oi7on to a7_/n?rpos kai to leuko_/n1 o7_/tan m pro/e_/? ti2 ou7_/te gar pseudos ou7_/te a7l!_/s p4 ,footnote #f3 ,ibid4 p4 #af1 b4 #ai3 ,greek3 au7ta men ka?' e7auta lego_/m5a ta r7_/mata o7no_/mata_/ e7/i kai smai_/nei ti 7i7_//si gar o7 le_/gn tn dia_/noian1 kai o7 a7k\_/sas 7re_/ms57 a7ll' ei7 e7/in 7 m_/1 ou7_/p smai_/nei1 c4 ,comp>e ,analyt4 ,po/]4 ,,ii4 xix4 pp4 #ii1 #ajj1 :]e ! same doctr9e occurs3 ! movem5t ( association is /opp$1 & ! m9d is det]m9$ to dwell ^u a c]ta9 idea2 "o among an aggregate ( runaways be+ arre/$ 9 flight1 ano!r halts also1 & s ! re/ 9 succession1 until at l5g? ! ,univ]sal1 or ! sum total1 is deta9$1 or /&s /ill z an object ( att5tion4 ,also ,ari/ot4 ,problem4 p4 #ief1 b4 #ci4 ,footnote #g3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pr4 p4 #af1 b4 #b1 seq4 ,ari/otle intimates 8 op9ion1 di/9ctly & ev5 repeat$ly1 ^u ! ma9 "q debat$ by ,plato 9 ! ,kratylus4 ,he lays x d[n t all significant spee* is significant by conv5tion only1 & n by nature or z a natural in/rum5t4#h ,he tells u also t1 9 ?is treatise1 he does n mean to treat ( all significant spee*1 b only ( t v>iety :i* is kn[n z enunciative4 ,?is la/1 z decl>+ tru? or falsehood1 is ! only "p belong+ to ,logic z he conceives x2 o!r modes ( spee*1 ! precative1 imp]ative1 int]rogative1 c41 belong m naturally to ,rhetoric or ,poetic4#i ,enunciative spee* may be ei!r simple or complex2 x may be "o enunciation1 decl>+ "o pr$icate 7ei!r 9 "o ^w or 9 sev]al words7 ( "o subject2 or x may comprise sev]al su*4#aj ,! conjunction ( ! pr$icate ) ! subject con/itutes ! v>iety ( proposition call$ ,affirmation2 ! disjunction ( ! same two is ,negation or ,d5ial4#aa ,b su* conjunction or disjunction1 op]at$ by ! cogitative act1 betwe5 two m5tal /ates1 takes place "u ! condition t1 :]ev] conjunction may be enunciat$1 !re also disjunction may be enunciat$1 & vice v]s4 ,:atev] may be affirm$1 x is possible also to d5y2 :atev] may be d5i$1 x is possible also to affirm4#ab ,footnote #h3 ,ibid4 p4 #af1 a4 #bf2 p4 #ag1 a4 #b4 ,footnote #i3 ,ibid4 p4 #ag1 a4 #f3 ,greek3 o7 de a7pophantikos ts nun !ri_/z4 ,see ! 9999,s*olion ( ,ammonius1 pp4 #ie1 #if1 #ajh1 a4 #bg4 ,9 ! la/ passage1 ,ammonius ref]s to a passage 9 "o ( ! lo/ works ( ,!ophra/us1 :]e9 t philosoph] di/+ui%$ ,greek3 ton a7pophantikon lo_/gon f ! o!r v>ieties ( ,greek3 lo_/gos1 by ! diff]5ce ( ,greek3 s*e_/sis3 ! ,greek3 a7pophantikos lo_/gos 0 ,greek3 pros ta pra_/gmata1 or objective2 ! o!rs 7 ,greek3 pros t\s a7krome_/n\s1 i4e4 v>y+ ) ! diff]5t v>ieties ( he>]s1 or subjective4 ,footnote #aj3 ,ibid4 p4 #ag1 a4 #be4 ,footnote #aa3 ,ibid4 p4 #ag1 a4 #be4 ,footnote #ab3 ,ibid4 p4 #ag1 a4 #cj3 ,greek3 a7_/pan a7n e7nde_/*oito kai o7 kate_/phse_/ tis a7pophsai1 kai o7 a7pe_/phse_/ tis kataphsai4 ,to e affirmative proposition !re is ?us oppos$ a contradictory negative proposition2 to e negative a contradictory affirmative4 ,?is pair ( contradictory opposites may be call$ an ,antiphasis2 always assum+ t ! pr$icate & subject ( ! two %all be really ! same1 )\t equivocation ( t]ms--a proviso necess>y to gu>d aga9/ tr\blesome puzzles />t$ by ,sophi/s4#ac ,& we mu/ also di/+ui% ^! propositions opposite z ,contradictories1 f propositions opposite z ,contr>ies4 ,= ?is1 x has to be obs]v$ t !re is a di/9ction among ?+s 7,greek3 pra_/gmata7 z univ]sal or s+ul>1 accord+ z !y are1 9 _! nature1 pr$icable ( a numb] or n3 homo is an example ( ! fir/1 & ,kallias is an example ( ! second4 ,:51 n[1 we affirm a pr$icate univ]sally1 we mu/ atta* ! m>k ( univ]sality to ! subject & n to ! pr$icate2 we mu/ say1 ,e man is :ite1 ,no man is :ite4 ,we _c atta* ! m>k ( univ]sality to ! pr$icate1 & say1 ,e man is e animal2 ?is w\ld be untrue4#ad ,an affirmation1 !n1 is contradictorily oppos$ to a negation1 :5 "o indicates t ! subject is univ]sally tak51 & ! o!r1 t ! subject is tak5 n univ]sally1 e4g4 ,omnis homo e/ albus1 ,non omnis homo e/ albus2 ,nullus homo e/ albus1 ,e/ aliquis homo albus4 ,! opposition is contr>y1 :5 ! affirmation is univ]sal1 & ! negation is also univ]sal1 i4e41 :5 ! subject is m>k$ z univ]sally tak5 9 ea*3 = example1 ,omnis homo e/ albus1 ,nullus homo e/ albus4 ,( ^! contr>y opposites1 bo? _c be true1 b bo? may be false4 ,contradictory opposites1 on ! o!r h&1 :ile !y _c bo? be true1 _c bo? be false2 "o mu/ be false & ! o!r true4 ,?is holds also :]e ! subject is a s+ul> t]m1 z ,sokrates4#ae ,if1 h[ev]1 an univ]sal t]m appe> z subject 9 ! proposition indef9itely1 t is1 )\t any m>k ( univ]sality :atev]1 e4g41 ,e/ albus homo1 ,non e/ albus homo1 !n ! affirmative & negative are n necess>ily ei!r contr>y or contradictory1 ?\gh !y may be s sometimes3 !re is no opposition1 prop]ly speak+1 betwe5 !m2 bo? may alike be true4 ,?is la/ obs]vation 7says ,ari/otle7 w seem /range1 because _m p]sons suppose t ,non e/ homo albus is equival5t to ,nullus homo e/ albus2 b ! mean+ ( ! two is n ! same1 nor does ! tru? ( ! latt] foll[ f t ( ! =m]1#af s9ce homo 9 ! =m] may be con/ru$ z n univ]sally tak54 ,footnote #ac3 ,ibid4 p4 #ag1 a4 #cc3 ,greek3 kai e7_// a7nti_/phasis t\to1 kata_/phasis kai a7po_/phasis ai7 a7ntikei_/m5ai4 ,x seems 7z ,ammonius obs]ves1 ,s*ol4 p4 #aab1 a4 #cc7 t ,greek3 a7nti_/phasis 9 ?is s5se 0 a te*nical t]m1 introduc$ by ,ari/otle4 ,footnote #ad3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pr4 p4 #ag1 a4 #cg-;b4 #ad3 ,greek3 e7pei d' e7/i ta men ka?o_/l\ tn pragma_/tn1 ta de ka?' e7_/ka/on 7le_/g de ka?o_/l\ men o7 e7pi pleio_/nn pe_/phuke katgorei/hai1 ka?' e7_/ka/on de o7 m1 oi7on a7_/n?rpos men tn ka?o_/l\1 ,kalli_/z de tn ka?' e7_/ka/on72 c4 ,ammonius 79 ,s*ol4 p4 #aac1 a4 #ch7 says t :at is pr$icat$1 ei!r ( _m subjects or ( "o1 mu/ be ,greek3 mi_/a phu_/sis4 ,! w>n+ aga9/ quantify+ ! pr$icate appe>s 9 ?is logical treatise ( ,ari/otle1 & is repeat$ 9 ! ,analytica ,priora1 ,i4 xxvii4 p4 #dc1 b4 #ag4 ,"h we h3 ,greek3 ou7demi_/a kata_/phasis a7l?s e7_//ai1 e7n 7 t\ katgor\me_/n\ ka?o_/l\ to ka?o_/l\ katgoreitai1 oi7on e7_//i pas a7_/n?rpos pan zon 7b4 #ad74 ,footnote #ae3 ,ibid4 b4 #af-bi4 ,footnote #af3 ,ibid4 p4 #ag1 b4 #bi-cg4 ,mr4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill 7,sy/em ( ,logic1 ,bk4 ,i4 *4 iv4 s4 #d7 cites & approves ,dr4 ,:ately's obs]vation1 t ! recognition ( a class ( ,propositions call$ indef9ite is a solecism1 ( ! same nature z t committ$ by gramm>ians :5 9 _! li/ ( g5d]s !y enum]ate ! d\btful g5d]4 ,! speak] mu/ mean to ass]t ! proposition ei!r z an univ]sal or z a p>ticul> proposition1 ?\gh he has fail$ to decl>e :i*4 ,b ,ari/otle w\ld n h admitt$ ,dr4 ,:ately's doctr9e1 decl>+ :at ! speak] mu/ mean4 ,ari/otle fe>s t 8 class1 indef9ite1 w appe> imp]t95t1 because _m speak]s are n consci\s ( any di/9ction or transition betwe5 ! p>ticul> & ! g5]al4 ,! loos5ess ( ord9>y spee* & ?\ght1 :i* ,logic is int5d$ to br+ to view & to gu>d aga9/1 0 m pres5t to 8 m9d ?an to t ( ,dr4 ,:ately3 moreov]1 ! =ms ( ,greek spee* fav\r$ ! ambiguity4 ,ari/otle's obs]vation illu/rates ! defici5cies ( common speak+1 z to cle>ness & limitation ( mean+1 at ! "t :5 he began to !orize on propositions4 ,i ?9k t ,:ately's assumption--! speak] mu/ mean--is analog\s to ! assumption on :i* ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton f\nds 8 proposal = explicit quantification ( ! pr$icate1 viz41 t ! speak] mu/1 implicitly or m5tally1 quantify ! pr$icate2 & t 8 spee* ought to be su* z to make su* quantification explicit4 ,mr4 ,mill has %ewn else:]e t ?is assumption ( ,sir4 ,w4 ,hamilton's is incorrect4 ,x ?us appe>s t !re is always "o negation correspond+ to "o & ! same affirmation2 mak+ up toge!r ! ,antiphasis1 or pair ( contradictory opposites1 q di/9ct f contr>y opposites4 ,by "o affirmation we mean1 t 9 :i* !re is "o pr$icate only1 & "o subject only1 :e!r tak5 univ]sally or n univ]sally3-- ,e4g4 ,omnis homo e/ albus 444 444 ,non omnis homo e/ albus4 ,e/ homo albus 444 444 444 ,non e/ homo albus4 ,nullus homo e/ albus 444 444 ,aliquis homo e/ albus4 ,b ?is w only hold on ! assumption t album signifies "o & ! same ?+4 ,if !re be "o "n signify+ two ?+s n capable ( be+ g5]aliz$ into "o nature1 or n com+ "u ! same def9ition1 !n ! affirmation is no long] "o4#ag ,?us if any "o applies ! t]m himation to signify bo? horse & man1 !n ! proposition1 ,e/ himation album1 is n "o affirmation1 b two2 x is ei!r equival5t to ,e/ homo albus & ,e/ equus albus--or x means no?+ at all2 = ?is or t individual man is n a horse4 ,accord+ly1 9 ?is case also1 z well z 9 t m5tion$ above1 x is n indisp5sable t "o ( ! two propositions con/itut+ ! ,antiphasis %\ld be true & ! o!r false4#ah ,footnote #ag3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pr4 p4 #ah1 a4 #ac1 seq43 ,greek3 mi_/a de_/ e7/i kata_/phasis kai a7po_/phasis 7 e7n ka?' e7nos smai_/n\sa1 7 ka?o_/l\ o7_/ntos ka?o_/l\ 7 m o7moi_/s1 oi7on pas a7_/n?rpos leuko_/s e7/9 4 4 4 ei7 to leukon e7n smai_/nei4 ei7 de duoin e7n o7_/noma keitai1 e7x 7n m_/ e7/9 e7_/n1 ou7 mi_/a kata_/phasis1 c41 & ! ,s*olion ( ,ammonius1 p4 #aaf1 b4 #f1 seq4 ,footnote #ah3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pr4 p4 #ah1 a4 #bf4 ,! example :i* ,ari/otle "h gives is "o ( a subject designat$ by an equivocal "n2 :5 he _h begun ) ! pr$icate4 ,x w\ld h be5 m p]t95t if he _h said at fir/1 ,greek3 ei7 o7 a7_/n?rpos e7n smai_/nei4 ,) ^! exceptions ,ari/otle lays x d[n1 t1 9 e ,antiphasis1 "o proposition mu/ be true & ! o!r mu/ be false4 ,b 7he goes on to say7 ?is is only true 9 reg>d to matt]s pa/ or pres5t2 x is n true 9 reg>d to ev5ts p>ticul> & future4 ,to admit x 9 reg>d to ^! latt]1 w\ld be to affirm t ! sequ5ces ( ev5ts are all necess>y1 & none ( !m casual or cont+5t2 :]eas we "k1 by our own p]sonal exp]i5ce1 t _m sequ5ces dep5d ^u our delib]ation & volition1 & are !re=e n necess>y4 ,if all future sequ5ces are necess>y1 delib]ation on our "p mu/ be useless4 ,we mu/ !re=e 7he cont9ues7 recognize "o class ( sequ5ces :i* are n uni=m--n pr$et]m9$ by antec$5ts2 ev5ts :i* may happ51 b :i* also may n happ51 = !y w n happ54 ,?us1 my coat may be cut into two halves1 b x nev] w be s cut2 x w we> out )\t any su* bisection occurr+4#ai ,footnote #ai3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pr4 p4 #ah1 a4 #bh-p4 #ai1 b4 #d4 ,if y affirm ! reality ( a fact pa/ or pres5t1 y\r affirmation is ( necessity det]m9ately true1 or x is det]m9ately false1 i4e4 ! contradictory negation is det]m9ately true4 ,b if y affirm ! reality ( a fact to come1 !n y\r affirmation is n by necessity det]m9ately true1 nor is ! contradictory negation det]m9ately true4 ,nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r sep>ately is true3 no?+ is true except ! disjunctive anti!sis z a :ole1 includ+ bo?4 ,if y say1 ,to-morr[ !re w ei!r be a sea-fight1 or !re w n be a sea-fight1 ?is disjunctive or indet]m9ate proposition1 tak5 z a :ole1 w be true4 ,yet nei!r ( its con/itu5t p>ts w be det]m9ately true2 nei!r ! proposition1 ,to-morr[ !re w be a sea-fight1 nor ! proposition1 ,to-morr[ !re w n be a sea-fight4 ,b if y speak ) reg>d to pa/ or pres5t--if y say1 ,ye/]day ei!r !re 0 a sea-fight or !re 0 n a sea-fight--!n n only w ! disjunctive z a :ole be true1 b also "o or o!r ( its p>ts w be det]m9ately true4#bj ,footnote #bj3 ,ibid4 p4 #ah1 b4 #bi4 ,ammonius 7,s*olia ad ,de ,int]pret4 p4 #aai1 bb4 #ah1 #bh1 seq47 expresses ,ari/otle's mean+ 9 t]ms m di/9ct ?an ,ari/otle himself3 ,greek3 m pa_/nts e7_/*e9 to e7_/t]on mo_/rion ts a7ntipha_/ses a7phrisme_/ns a7l!uon1 c4 7b4 #dc74 ,?is rem>kable logical di/9ction is f\nd$ on ,ari/otle's ontological or physical doctr9es respect+ ! sequ5ce & conjunction ( ev5ts4 ,he held 7z we %all see m fully 9 ! ,physica & o!r treatises7 t sequ5ces ?r\gh\t ! ,kosmos 7 to a c]ta9 ext5t regul>1 to a c]ta9 ext5t irregul>4 ,! ext]ior sph]e ( ! ,kosmos 7! ,aplanes7 ) ! c\ntless numb] ( fix$ />s fa/5$ into x1 0 a type ( regul>ity & uni=mity2 et]nal & ev] mov+ 9 ! same circul> orbit1 by necessity ( its own nature1 & )\t any pot5tiality ( do+ o!rwise4 ,b ! e>? & ! elem5tal bodies1 organiz$ & unorganiz$1 bel[ ! lun> sph]e & 9 ! int]ior ( ! ,kosmos1 7 ( inf]ior p]fection & ( v diff]5t nature4 ,!y 7 inde$ 9 "p gov]n$ & p]vad$ by ! movem5t & influ5ce ( ! cele/ial sub/ance )9 :i* !y 7 compreh5d$1 & f :i* !y borr[$ _! ,=m or con/itu5t ess5ce2 b !y held ?is ,=m implicat$ ) ,matt]1 i4e4 ! pr9ciple ( pot5tiality1 *ange1 irregul>ity1 g5]ation1 & de/ruction1 c4 ,!re are ?us 9 ^! sublun>y bodies bo? con/ant t5d5cies & v>iable t5d5cies4 ,! con/ant ,ari/otle calls ',nature2' :i* always aspires to ,good1 or to p]petual r5ovation ( ,=ms z p]fect z may be1 ?\gh imp$$ 9 ?is "w by adv]se influ5ces1 & !re=e nev] produc+ any ?+ b individuals comp>atively defective & sure to p]i%4 ,! v>iable he calls ',spontaneity' & ',*ance1' =m+ an indep5d5t ag5cy insep>ably accompany+ ,nature--always modify+1 di/ort+1 fru/rat+1 ! full purposes ( ,nature4 ,moreov]1 ! diff]5t natural ag5cies (t5 int]f]e ) ea* o!r1 :ile ! irregul> t5d5cy int]f]es ) !m all4 ,s f> z ,nature acts1 9 ea* ( h] di/9ct ag5cies1 ! ph5om5a be=e u are regul> & pr$ictable2 all t is uni=m1 & all t 7)\t be+ q uni=m7 recurs usually or frequ5tly1 is h] "w4 ,b1 besides & along ) ,nature1 !re is ! ag5cy ( ,*ance & ,spontaneity1 :i* is ess5tially irregul> & unpr$ictable4 ,"u ?is ag5cy !re are possibilities bo? = & aga9/2 ei!r ( two alt]native ev5ts may happ54 ,x is ) a view to ?is doctr9e ab\t ! v>iable kosmical ag5cies or pot5tialities t ,ari/otle lays d[n ! logical doctr9e n[ be=e u1 di/+ui%+ propositions affirm+ p>ticul> facts pa/ or pres5t1 f propositions affirm+ p>ticul> facts future4 ,9 bo? cases alike1 ! disjunctive anti!sis1 z a :ole1 is necess>ily true4 ,ei!r !re 0 a sea-fight ye/]day1 or !re 0 n a sea-fight ye/]day3 ,ei!r !re w be a sea-fight to-morr[1 or !re w n be a sea-fight to-morr[--bo? ^! disjunctives alike are necess>ily true4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a diff]5ce betwe5 ! "o disjunctive c\ple & ! o!r1 :5 we take ! affirmation sep>ately or ! negation sep>ately4 ,if we say1 ,!re w be a sea-fight to-morr[1 t proposition is n necess>ily true nor is x necess>ily false2 to say t x is ei!r ! "o or ! o!r 7,ari/otle argues7 w\ld imply t e ?+ 9 nature happ5$ by necess>y ag5cy--t ! casual1 ! pot5tial1 ! may be or may n be1 is /opp$ out & =eclos$4 ,b ?is la/ is really ! case1 9 reg>d to a pa/ fact4 ,!re 0 a sea-fight ye/]day1 is a proposition ei!r necess>ily true or necess>ily false4 ,"h ! antec$5t ag5cies h already sp5t !mselves1 bl5d$1 & become realiz$ 9 "o or o!r ( ! two alt]native det]m9ate results4 ,!re is no pot5tiality any long] op52 all ! antec$5t pot5tiality has be5 =eclos$4 ,! proposition !re=e is ei!r necess>ily true or necess>ily false2 ?\gh p]haps we may n "k :e!r x is ! "o or ! o!r4 ,9 def5d+ 8 position reg>d+ ?is "q1 ,ari/otle d5ies 7:at he repres5ts 8 oppon5ts z ma9ta9+7 t all ev5ts happ5 by necessity4 ,he po9ts to ! notori\s fact t we delib]ate & take c\nsel habitually1 & t ! ev5t is frequ5tly modifi$1 accord+ z we adopt "o mode ( conduct or ano!r2 :i* c\ld n be 7he cont5ds71 if ! ev5t c\ld be decl>$ be=eh& by a proposition necess>ily or det]m9ately true4 ,:at ,ari/otle means by necessity1 h[ev]1 is at bottom no?+ else ?an con/ant sequ5ce or conjunction1 conceiv$ by him z necess>y1 because ! fix$ ends :i* ,nature is aim+ at c only be atta9$ by c]ta9 fix$ means4 ,to ?is he opposes ,spontaneity & ,*ance1 di/urb+ =ces ess5tially incon/ant & irregul>2 admitt+1 inde$1 ( be+ record$ :5 !y h produc$ effects 9 ! pa/1 yet defy+ all p[] ( pr$iction z to ^? effects :i* !y w produce 9 ! future4 ,h5ce arises ! radical di/9ction t he draws 9 ,logic1 betwe5 ! tru? ( propositions relat+ to ! pa/ 7or pres5t7 & to ! future4 ,b ?is logical di/9ction _c be su/a9$1 because 8 metaphysical doctr9e 7on :i* x is f\nd$7 respect+ ! ess5tially irregul> or casual1 is n def5sible4 ,8 oppon5ts w\ld refuse to grant t !re is any ag5cy ess5tially or 9 itself irregul>1 casual1 & unpr$ictable4#ba ,! aggregate ( ,nature consi/s ( a v>iety ( sequ5ces1 ea* ( !m con/ant & regul>1 ?\gh int]mix$1 co-op]at+1 & conflict+ ) ea* o!r1 9 su* mann] t ! result+ effects are difficult to ref] to _! respective causes1 & are n to be calculat$ be=eh& except by ! highe/ sci5tific ef=ts2 (t51 n by any sci5tific ef=ts4 ,we mu/ dismiss ! hypo!sis ( ,ari/otle1 assum+ ag5cies ess5tially irregul> & unpr$ictable1 ei!r z to ! pa/ or z to ! future4 ,! pa/ has be5 br\ght ab\t by ag5cies all regul>1 h[ev] multif>i\s & conflict+1 & ! future w be br\ght ab\t by ! l3 !re is no su* di/9ction ( pr9ciple z t :i* ,ari/otle lays d[n betwe5 propositions respect+ ! pa/ & propositions respect+ ! future4 ,footnote #ba3 ,! ,/oics 7 oppos$ to ,ari/otle on ?is po9t4 ,!y recogniz$ no logical diff]5ce 9 ! "* ( ! ,antiphasis1 :e!r appli$ to pa/ & pres5t1 or to future4 ,niko/ratus def5d$ ! !sis ( ,ari/otle aga9/ !m4 ,see ! ,s*olia ( ,simplikius on ! ,categori1 p4 #hg1 b4 #cj-p4 #hh1 a4 #bd4 ,greek3 ai7 gar ei7s ton me_/llonta *ro_/non e7gkl9o_/m5ai prota_/seis ou7_/te a7l!is ei7sin ou7_/te pseudeis dia tn t\ e7nde*ome_/n\ phu_/s94 ,! rem>ks ( ,hobbes1 ^u ! "q "h discuss$ by ,ari/otle1 well des]ve to be transcrib$ 7,de ,corpore1 "p ,,ii4 *4 ,x4 s4 #e73-- ,b "h1 p]haps1 "s man may ask :e!r ^? future ?+s1 :i* are call$ cont+5ts1 are necess>y4 ,i say1 !re=e1 t g5]ally all cont+5ts h _! necess>y causes1 b are call$ cont+5ts 9 respect ( o!r ev5ts1 ^u :i* !y d n dep5d2 z ! ra91 :i* %all be to-morr[1 %all be necess>y1 t is1 f necess>y causes2 b we ?9k & say1 x happ5s by *ance1 because we d n yet p]ceive ! causes !re(1 ?\gh !y exi/ n[4 ,= m5 commonly call t casual or cont+5t1 :]e( !y d n p]ceive ! necess>y cause2 & 9 ! same mann] !y use to speak ( ?+s pa/1 :5 n kn[+ :e!r a ?+ be done or no1 !y say1 x is possible x nev] 0 done4 ,:]e=e1 all propositions conc]n+ future ?+s1 cont+5t or n cont+5t--z ?is1 ,x w ra9 to-morr[1 or ?is1 ,to-morr[ ! sun w rise--are ei!r necess>ily true1 or necess>ily false2 b we call !m cont+5t1 because we d n yet "k :e!r !y be true or false2 :]eas _! v]ity dep5ds n ^u our k1 b ^u ! =ego+ ( _! causes4 ,b !re are "s1 :o1 ?\gh !y confess ?is :ole proposition1 ,to-morr[ x w ei!r ra9 or n ra91 to be true1 yet !y w n ackn[l$ge ! p>ts ( x1 z ,to-morr[ x w ra91 or ,to-morr[ x w n ra91 to be ei!r ( !m true by itself2 because !y say nei!r ?is nor t is true det]m9ately4 ,b :at is ?is det]m9ately true1 b true ^u our k1 or evid5tly true8 ,& !re=e !y say no m1 b t x is n yet kn[n :e!r x be true or no2 b !y say x m obscurely1 & d>k5 ! evid5ce ( ! tru? ) ! same words ) :i* !y endeav\r to hide _! own ignorance4 ,comp>e also ! full] elucidation ( ! subject giv5 by ,mr4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill1 9 8 ,sy/em ( ,logic1 ,bk4 ,,iii4 *4 xvii4 s4 #b3--;,an ev5t occurr+ by *ance may be bett] describ$ z a co9cid5ce f :i* we h no gr\nd to inf] an uni=mity2 ! occurr5ce ( an ev5t 9 c]ta9 circum/ances1 )\t our hav+ reason on t acc\nt to inf] t x w happ5 aga9 9 ^? circum/ances4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 :5 look$ closely into1 implies t ! enum]ation ( ! circum/ances is n complete4 ,:atev] ! fact 01 s9ce x has occurr$ once1 we may be sure t if all ! circum/ances 7 repeat$1 x w\ld occur aga92 & n only if all1 b !re is "s p>ticul> portion ( ^? circum/ances1 on :i* ! ph5om5on is inv>iably consequ5t4 ,) mo/ ( !m1 h[ev]1 x is n connect$ 9 any p]man5t mann]3 its conjunction ) ^? is said to be ! effect ( *ance1 to be m]ely casual4 ,facts casually conjo9$ are sep>ately ! effect ( causes1 & !re=e ( laws2 b ( diff]5t causes1 & causes n connect$ by any law4 ,x is incorrect !n to say t any ph5om5on is produc$ by *ance2 b we may say t two or m ph5om5a are conjo9$ by *ance1 t !y co-exi/ or succe$ "o ano!r only by *ance4 ,!re is1 inde$1 "o di/9ction betwe5 inf]5ces z to ! pa/ & inf]5ces z to ! future1 :i* may h contribut$ to sugge/1 ?\gh x w n ju/ify1 ! position "h laid d[n by ,ari/otle4 ,9 reg>d to ! disjunctive--,to-morr[ !re w be a sea-fight1 or !re w n be a sea-fight--no?+ m tru/wor?y ?an inf]5ce or anticipation is practicable3 ! anticipation ( a sagaci\s man ) full k is m likely to prove correct ?an t ( a /upid man ) little k2 yet bo? are alike anticipations1 unv]ifiable at ! pres5t mom5t4 ,b if we turn to ! o!r disjunctive--,ye/]day !re 0 a sea-fight1 or !re 0 n a sea-fight--we are no long] 9 ! same position4 ,! two disputants1 suppos$ to decl>e ?us1 may h be5 f> (f1 & may h no o!r means ( decid+ ! d\bt ?an inf]5ce4 ,b ! inf]5ce "h is n unv]ifiable3 !re exi/1 or may exi/1 witnesses or spectators ( ! two fleets1 :o c give direct atte/ation ( ! reality1 & c ei!r confirm or refute ! inf]5ce1 negative or affirmative1 made by an abs5tee4 ,?us ! proposition1 ,ye/]day !re 0 a sea-fight1 or ! o!r1 ,ye/]day !re 0 n a sea-fight1 w be v]ifiable or det]m9ably true4 ,!re are inde$ _m inf]5ces z to ! pa/1 9 reg>d to :i* no direct evid5ce is atta9able4 ,/ill ?is is an accid5t2 = su* direct evid5ce may always be suppos$ or imag9$ z capable ( be+ br\ght into c\rt4 ,b1 9 respect to ! future1 v]ification is out ( ! "q2 we are conf9$ to ! region ( inf]5ce1 well or ill-support$4 ,"h1 !n1 we h a mat]ial di/9ction betwe5 ! pa/ & ! future4 ,x 0 probably pres5t to ! m9d ( ,ari/otle1 ?\gh he misconceives its real ext5t ( op]ation1 & makes x subs]vi5t to 8 /ill m compreh5sive classification ( ! diff]5t contemporane\s ag5cies 7regul> & irregul>7 :i* he supposes to p]vade ! ,kosmos4 ,9 ! treatise be=e u1 he next proce$s to /ate :at collocation ( ! negative p>ticle con/itutes ! special or legitimate negation to any giv5 affirmation1 or :at are ! real =ms ( proposition1 /&+ 9 contradictory opposition to c]ta9 o!r =ms1 s z to make up "o ,antiphasis4#bb ,! simple/ proposition mu/ include a n\n & a v]b1 ei!r def9ite or indef9ite3 non homo is a specim5 ( an indef9ite n\n--non currit1 ( an indef9ite v]b4 ,!re mu/ be1 9 any "o proposition1 "o subject & "o pr$icate2 ev5 ! indef9ite n\n or v]b signifies1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 "o ?+4 ,ea* affirmation comprises a n\n1 or an indef9ite n\n1 ) a v]b2 ! special correspond+ or contradictory negation 7mak+ up ! ,antiphasis along ) ! =m]7 comprises a n\n 7or an indef9ite n\n7 ) an indef9ite v]b4 ,! simple/ proposition is-- ,affirmative4 ,contradictory ,negative4 ,e/ homo 444 444 444 444 ,non e/ homo4 ,e/ non homo 444 444 444 444 ,non e/ non homo4 ,"h are only two pairs ( anti!tic propositions1 or "o quat]nion4 ,! above is an indef9ite proposition 7:i* may be ei!r univ]sal or n74 ,:5 we univ]salize x1 or turn x an univ]sal proposition1 we h-- ,affirmative4 ,contradictory ,negative4 ,e/ omnis homo 444 444 444 ,non e/ omnis homo4 ,e/ omnis non homo 444 444 ,non e/ omnis non homo4 ,footnote #bb3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pr4 p4 #ai1 b4 #e1 seq4 ,! above are specim5s ( ! smalle/ proposition2 b :5 we reg>d l>g] propositions1 su* z ^? 7call$ t]tii adjac5tis7 :]e !re are two t]ms besides e/1 ! collocation ( ! negative p>ticle becomes m complicat$1 & requires full] illu/ration4 ,take1 z an example1 ! affirmative ,e/ ju/us homo1 ! true negation ( ?is is1 ,non e/ ju/us homo4 ,9 ^! two propositions1 homo is ! subject2 b we may jo9 ! negative ) x1 & we may consid] non homo1 n less ?an homo1 z a di/9ct subject = pr$ication1 affirmative or negative4 ,f>!r1 we may atta* e/ & non e/ ei!r to ju/us or to non ju/us z ! pr$icate ( ! proposition1 ) ei!r homo1 or non homo1 z subject4 ,we %all ?us obta9 a d\ble mode ( anti!sis1 or two di/9ct quat]nions1 ea* conta9+ two pairs ( contradictory propositions4 ,! second pair ( ! fir/ quat]nion w n be 9 ! same relation z ! second pair ( ! second quat]nion1 to ! proposition j m5tion$1 viz4--7,a7 ,e/ ju/us homo2 ) its negative1 7,b7 ,non e/ ju/ice homo4#bc ,footnote #bc3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pr4 p4 #ai1 b4 #ai4 ,greek3 o7_/tan de to e7_//i tri_/ton proskatgortai1 7_/d di*s le_/gontai ai7 a7nti!_/seis2 le_/g de oi7on e7_//i di_/kaios a7_/n?rpos2 to e7_//i tri_/ton phmi sugkei/hai o7_/noma 7 r7ma e7n t katapha_/sei4 7_//e dia t\to te_/tt>a e7_//ai tauta1 7n ta men du_/o pros tn kata_/phas9 kai a7po_/phas9 e7_/xei kata to /oi*\n 7s ai7 /]_/seis1 ta de du_/o1 ou7_/4 le_/g de o7_/ti to e7_//9 7 t dikai_/ proskei_/setai 7 t ou7 dikai_/1 7_//e kai 7 a7po_/phasis4 te_/tt>a ou7n e7_//ai4 no\m5 de to lego_/m5on e7k tn u7pogegramme_/nn4 ,9 ?is passage ! words :i* ,i h enclos$ betwe5 brackets are alt]$ by ,waitz3 ,i %all /ate pres5tly :at ,i ?9k ( 8 alt]ation4 ,foll[+ ^u ^! words !re ought to be1 & x seems f ,ammonius 7,s*ol4 p4 #aba1 a4 #bj7 t !re once 01 a s*eme or table arrang+ ! f\r propositions 9 ! ord] & disposition :i* we read 9 ! ,analytica ,priora1 ,i4 xlvi4 p4 #ea1 b4 #cg1 & :i* ,i %all "h foll[4 ,b no su* table n[ appe>s 9 our text2 we h only an enum]ation ( ! f\r propositions1 9 a diff]5t ord]1 & !n a ref]5ce to ! ,analytica4 ,fir/1 let u assume homo z subject4 ,we h !n 7,,quat]nion ,i47 7,a7 ,e/ ju/us homo 444 444 444 444 7,b7 ,non e/ ju/us homo4 7,d7 ,non e/ non ju/us homo 444 444 444 7,c7 ,e/ non ju/us homo4 ,exam9+ ! relation borne by ! la/ two among ^! f\r propositions 7,c & ,d71 to ! fir/ two 7,a & ,b71 ! simple affirmative & negative1 we see t ,b is ! legitimate negative ( ,a1 & ,d t ( ,c4 ,we f>!r see t ,b is a consequ5ce ( ,c1 & ,d a consequ5ce ( ,a1 b n vice v]s3 t is1 if ,c is true1 ,b mu/ c]ta9ly be true2 b we _c inf]1 because ,b is true1 t ,c mu/ also be true3 :ile1 if ,a is true1 ,d mu/ also be true2 b ,d may p]haps be true1 ?\gh ,a be n true4 ,9 o!r words1 ! relation ( ,d to ,a & ( ,c to ,b1 is ! same z x w\ld be if ! privative t]m inju/us 7 sub/itut$ 9 place ( non ju/us2 i4e4 if ! proposition ,c 7,e/ inju/us homo7 be true1 ! o!r proposition ,b 7,non e/ ju/us homo7 mu/ c]ta9ly be true1 b ! inf]5ce w n hold conv]sely2 :ile if ! proposition ,a 7,e/ ju/us homo7 be true1 x mu/ also be true to say ,d 7,non e/ inju/us homo71 b n vice v]s4#bd ,footnote #bd3 ,ref]r+ to ! words cit$ 9 ! prec$+ note1 ,i con/rue ,greek3 ta de du_/o1 ou7_/ z ,boe?ius does 7,,ii4 pp4 #chd-che71 & n 9 agreem5t ) ,ammonius 7,s*ol4 p4 #abb1 a4 #bf1 ,br471 :o1 h[ev]1 is foll[$ bo? by ,julius ,pacius & ,waitz 7p4 #cdd74 ,i ?9k x impossible t ^! words1 ,greek3 ta de du_/o1 ou7_/1 c mean 7z ,ammonius ?9ks7 ! ,greek3 kata_/phasis & ,greek3 a7po_/phasis !mselves1 s9ce ! v po9t :i* ,ari/otle is affirm+ is ! relation ( ^! words1 ,greek3 pros tn kata_/phas9 kai a7po_/phas91 i4e4 to ! affirmative & negative />t$ f-- 7,a7 ,e/ ju/us homo 444 444 444 444 7,b7 ,non e/ ju/us homo4 ,z ! words ,greek3 ta men du_/o ref] to ! second contradictory pair 7t is1 ,c & ,d7 9 ! fir/ ,quat]nion1 s ! words ,greek3 ta de du_/o1 ou7_/ designate ! second contradictory pair 7,g & ,h7 9 ! second ,quat]nion4 ,?\gh ,g & ,h are includ$ 9 ! second ,quat]nion1 !y are "h designat$ by ! negative relation 7,greek3 ta de du_/o1 ou7_/7 :i* !y be> to ,a & ,b1 ! fir/ contradictory pair ( ! fir/ ,quat]nion4 ,greek3 di*s le_/gontai ai7 a7nti!_/seis 7l9e #bj7 is expla9$ & illu/rat$ by l9e #cg--;,greek3 au7tai men ou7n du_/o a7nti_/ke9tai1 a7_/llai de du_/o pros to ou7k a7_/n?rpos 7s u7pokei_/m5o_/n ti pro/e!_/n4 ,la/ly1 ,ari/otle expressly /ates t ! second ,quat]nion w /& indep5d5tly & by itself 7p4 #bj1 a4 #a71 hav+ notic$ x 9 ! beg9n+ only 9 relation to ! fir/4 ,su* is ! result obta9$ :5 we take homo z ! subject ( ! proposition2 we get f\r propositions1 ( :i* ! two la/ 7,c & ,d7 /& to ! two fir/ 7,b & ,a7 9 ! same relation z if !y 7,c & ,d7 7 privative propositions4 ,b if1 in/ead ( homo1 we take non homo z ,subject ( ! proposition 7ju/us or non ju/us be+ pr$icates z be=e71 we %all !n obta9 two o!r pairs ( contradictory propositions2 & ! second pair ( ?is new quat]nion w n /& 9 t same relation to ^! same propositions ,b & ,a4 ,we %all !n f9d t1 in/ead ( ,b & ,a1 we h a diff]5t negative & a diff]5t affirmative1 z ! appropriate correlates to ! ?ird & f\r? propositions4 ,! new quat]nion ( propositions1 ) non homo z subject1 w /& ?us-- 7,,quat]nion ,,ii47 7,e7 ,e/ ju/us non homo 444 444 444 7,f7 ,non e/ ju/us non homo4 7,h7 ,non e/ non ju/us non homo 444 7,g7 ,e/ non ju/us non homo4#be ,"h we see t propositions ,g & ,h d n /& to ,b & ,a 9 ! same relations z ,c & ,d /& to ,b & ,a2 b t !y /& 9 t same relation to two p]fectly diff]5t propositions1 ,f & ,e4 ,t is1 if 9 place ( non 9999ju/us1 9 propositions ,g & ,h1 we sub/itute ! privative t]m inju/us 7?us turn+ ,g into ,e/ inju/us non homo1 & turn+ ,h into ,non e/ inju/us non homo71 ! relation ( ,g1 :5 ?us alt]$1 to ,f1 & ! relation ( ,h1 :5 ?us alt]$1 to ,e1 w be ! same z x 0 be=e4 ,or1 9 o!r words1 if ,g be true1 ,f w c]ta9ly be true1 b n vice v]s2 & if ,e be true1 ,h w c]ta9ly be true1 b n vice v]s4 ,footnote #be3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pr4 p4 #ai1 b4 #cf4 ,greek3 au7tai men ou7n du_/o a7nti_/ke9tai 7! two pairs--,a ,b & ,c ,d--( ! fir/ quat]nion71 ,greek3 a7_/llai de du_/o pros to ou7k a7_/n?rpos 7s u7pokei_/m5o_/n ti pro/e!_/n2 7,e7 ,greek3 e7_//i di_/kaios ou7k a7_/n?rpos 444 444 444 7,f7 ,greek3 ou7k e7_//i di_/kaios ou7k a7_/n?rpos4 7,h7 ,greek3 ou7k e7_//9 ou7 di_/kaios ou7k a7_/n?rpos 444 7,g7 ,greek3 e7_//9 ou7 di_/kaios ou7k a7_/n?rpos4 ,greek3 plei_/ous de t\_/tn ou7k e7_/sontai a7nti!_/seis4 au7tai de *ris e7kei_/nn au7tai ka?' e7autas e7_/sontai1 7s o7no_/mati t ou7k a7_/n?rpos *r_/m5ai4 ,! second ,greek3 au7tai alludes to ?is la/ quat]nion1 ,greek3 e7kei_/nn to ! fir/4 ,i h1 z 9 ! =m] case1 transpos$ propositions ?ree & f\r ( ?is second quat]nion1 9 ord] t ! relation ( ,g to ,f & ( ,h to ,e may be m easily disc]n$4 ,!re are few *apt]s 9 ,ari/otle m obscure & puzzl+ ?an ! t5? *apt] ( ! ,de ,int]pretatione4 ,x 0 f\nd s by ,alex&]1 ,h]m9us1 ,porphyry1 ,ammonius1 & all ! ,s*olia/s4 ,ammonius 7,s*ol4 pp4 #aba1 #abb1 ,br47 reports ^! d\bts1 & compla9s ( x z a riddle almo/ insolvable4 ,! difficulties rema91 ev5 aft] ! long note ( ,waitz1 & ! lit]al translation ( ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire4 ,! propositions :i* we h hi!rto /udi$ h be5 indef9ite2 t is1 !y might be univ]sal or n4 ,b if we atta* to !m ! sign ( univ]sality1 & con/rue !m z univ]sals1 all t we h said ab\t !m w\ld /ill cont9ue to be true1 except t ! propositions :i* are diametrically 7or diagonally7 oppos$ w\ld n be bo? true 9 s _m in/ances4 ,?us1 let u take ! fir/ quat]nion ( propositions1 9 :i* e/ is atta*$ to homo1 & let u con/rue ^! propositions z univ]sal4 ,!y w /& ?us-- 7,a7 ,omnis e/ homo ju/us 444 444 7,b7 ,non omnis e/ homo ju/us4 7,d7 ,non omnis e/ homo non ju/us 7,c7 ,omnis e/ homo non ju/us4 ,9 ^! propositions1 z 9 ! o!rs be=e notic$1 ! same relation prevails betwe5 ,c & ,b1 & betwe5 ,a & ,d2 if ,c be true1 ,b also is true1 b n vice v]s2 if ,a be true1 ,d also w be true1 b n vice v]s4 ,b ! propositions diagonally oppos$ w n be s (t5 alike true3#bf ?us1 if ,a be true 7,omnis e/ homo ju/us71 ,c _c be true 7,omnis e/ homo non ju/us72 :]eas 9 ! =m] quat]nion ( propositions 7indef9ite1 & !re=e capable ( be+ con/ru$ z n univ]sal7 ,a & ,c might bo? be alike true4#bg ,footnote #bf3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pret4 p4 #ai1 b4 #ce4 ,greek3 pln ou7* o7moi_/s tas kata dia_/metron e7nde_/*etai sunal!u_/e92 e7nde_/*etai de pote_/4 ,! diamet] or diagonal is to be und]/ood ) ref]5ce to ! s*eme or squ>e m5tion$ p4 #aai1 note1 ! relat$ propositions /&+ at ! angles1 z above4 ,footnote #bg3 ,! ,s*olion ( ,ammonius1 p4 #abc1 a4 #ag1 ,br41 expla9s ?is v obscure passage3 ,greek3 a7ll' e7pi men tn a7prosdiori_//n 7indef9ite propositions1 su* z may be con/ru$ ei!r z univ]sal or z p>ticul>71 ,greek3 kata tn e7nde*ome_/nn u7_/ln ta_/s te katapha_/seis 7( ! propositions diagonally opposite71 ,greek3 sunal!u_/e9 a7ll_/lais sumbai_/nei kai tas a7popha_/seis1 a7_/te tais m]ikais i7sodunam\_/sas4 e7pi de tn prosdirisme_/nn 7^? propositions :]e ! m>k ( univ]sality is tack$ to ! ,subject71 ,greek3 p]i 7n nuni au7t o7 lo_/gos1 ts ka?o_/l\ katapha_/ses kai ts e7pi me_/r\s a7popha_/ses1 tas men katapha_/seis a7du_/naton sunal!usai ka?' oi7&_/pote u7_/ln1 tas me_/ntoi a7popha_/seis sumbai_/nei sunal!u_/e9 kata mo_/nn tn e7nde*ome_/nn2 c4 ,x is ?us t ,ari/otle expla9s ! di/9ctions ( mean+ 9 propositions1 aris+ out ( ! alt]$ collocation ( ! negative p>ticle2 ! di/9ction betwe5 7#a7 ,non e/ ju/us1 7#b7 ,e/ non ju/us1 7#c7 ,e/ inju/us4 ,! fir/ ( ! ?ree is ! only true negative1 correspond+ to ! affirmative ,e/ ,ju/us4 ,! second is n a negative at all1 b an affirmative 7,greek3 e7k meta!_/ses1 or by transposition1 z ,!ophra/us aft]w>ds call$ x74 ,! ?ird is an affirmative1 b privative4 ,bo? ! second & ! ?ird /& relat$ 9 ! same mann] to ! fir/2 t is1 ! tru? ( ! fir/ is a necess>y consequ5ce ei!r ( ! second or ( ! ?ird1 b nei!r ( ^! c be c]ta9ly inf]r$ f ! fir/4 ,?is is expla9$ /ill m cle>ly 9 ! ,prior ,analytics2 to :i* ,ari/otle "h makes express ref]5ce4#bh ,footnote #bh3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pr4 p4 #ai1 b4 #ca4 ,greek3 tauta men ou7n1 7_/sp] e7n tois ,a7nalutikois le_/getai1 ou7_/t te_/taktai4 ,waitz 9 8 note sugge/s t in/ead ( ,greek3 te_/taktai we ought to read ,greek3 teta_/*?4 ,b if we suppose t ! =mal table once exi/$ 9 ! text1 9 an ord] ( arrangem5t agree+ ) ! ,analytica1 ?is conjectural *ange w\ld be unnecess>y4 ,waitz has made "s *anges 9 ! text ( ?is *apt]1 :i* appe> to me p>tly = ! bett]1 p>tly n = ! bett]4 ,bo? ,bekk] & ,bussemak] 7,firm9 ,didot7 reta9 ! old text2 b ?is old text 0 a puzzle to ! anci5t comm5tators1 ev5 ant]ior to ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias4 ,i w "h give fir/ ! text ( ,bekk]1 next ! *anges made by ,waitz3 my own op9ion does n :olly co9cide ) ei!r4 ,i %all cite ! text f p4 #ai1 b4 #ai1 leav+ out ! portion betwe5 l9es #cj & #cf1 :i* does n be> ^u ! matt] "h discuss$1 :ile x obscures ! legitimate sequ5ce ( ,ari/otle's reason+4 7,bekk]47--,greek3 ,o7_/tan de to e7_//i tri_/ton proskatgortai1 7_/d di*s le_/gontai ai7 a7nti!_/seis4 le_/g de oi7on e7_//i di_/kaios a7_/n?rpos2 to e7_//i tri_/ton phmi sugkei/hai o7_/noma 7 r7ma e7n t katapha_/sei4 7_//e dia t\to te_/tt>a e7_//ai tauta1 7n ta men du_/o pros tn kata_/phas9 kai a7po_/phas9 e7_/xei kata to /oi*\n 7s ai7 /]_/seis1 ta de du_/o1 ou7_/4 le_/g d' o7_/ti to e7_//9 7 t dikai_/ proskei_/setai 7 t ou7 dikai_/ 7#be71 ,greek3 7_//e kai 7 a7po_/phasis4 te_/tt>a ou7n e7_//ai4 7,"h foll[ ! fir/ pairs ( ,anti!ses1 or ! fir/ ,quat]nion ( propositions 9 ! ord] z giv57-- 7,a7 ,greek3 e7_//i di_/kios a7_/n?rpos 444 444 7,b7 ,greek3 ou7k e7_//i di_/kios a7_/n?rpos4y 7,c7 ,greek3 e7_//9 ou7 di_/kaios a7_/n?rpos 444 7,d7 ,greek3 ou7k e7_//9 ou7 di_/kaios a7_/n?rpos4 ,greek3 to gar e7_//9 e7ntau?a kai to ou7k e7_//i t dikai_/ proskei_/setai kai t ou7 dikai_/ 7#cj74--;,greek3 ,au7tai men ou7n du_/o a7nti_/ke9tai1 a7_/llai de du_/o pros to ou7k a7_/n?rpos 7s u7pokei_/m5o_/n ti 7#ch7 ,greek3 pro/e!_/n4 7,"h foll[ ! second pairs ( ,anti!ses1 or ! second ,quat]nion ( propositions1 aga9 9 ! ord] f :i* ,i h dep>t$ above7-- 7,e7 ,greek3 e7_//i di_/kaios ou7k a7_/n?rpos 444 444 7,f7 ,greek3 ,ou7k e7_//i di_/kaios ou7k a7_/n?rpos4 7,g7 ,greek3 e7_//9 ou7 di_/kaios ou7k a7_/n?rpos 444 7,h7 ,greek3 ,ou7k e7_//9 ou7 di_/kaios ou7k a7_/n?rpos4 ,greek3 plei_/ous de t\_/tn ou7k e7_/sontai a7nti!_/seis4 au7tai de 7! second ,quat]nion7 ,greek3 *ris e7kei_/nn 7fir/ ,quat]nion7 ,greek3 au7tai ka?' e7autas e7_/sontai1 7s o7no_/mati t ou7k a7_/n?rpos *r_/m5ai4 ,9 ?is text ,waitz makes ?ree alt]ations3--#a4 ,9 l9e #bd1 in/ead ( ,greek3 7 t dikai_/ proskei_/setai 7 t ou7 dikai_/--he reads1 ,greek3 7 t a7n?r_/p proskei_/setai 7 t ou7k a7n?r_/p4 #b4 ,9 l9e #cj he makes a simil> *ange2 in/ead ( ,greek3 t dikai_/ proskei_/setai kai t ou7 dikai_/--he reads1 ,greek3 t a7n?r_/p proskei_/setai kai t ou7k a7n?r_/p4 ,9 l9e #ch1 in/ead ( ,greek3 pro/e!_/n1 he reads ,greek3 pro/e!_/ntos4 ,( ^! ?ree alt]ations ! fir/ appe>s to me good1 b insuffici5t2 ! second n good1 ?\gh ! passage z x /&s 9 ,bekk] requires am5dm5t2 & ! ?ird1 a *ange = ! worse4 ,! purpose ( ,ari/otle is "h two-fold4 ,fir/1 to give ! reason :y1 :5 ! propositions 7 t]tii adjac5tis1 !re 7 two ,quat]nions or f\r c\ples ( anti!tical propositions2 :]eas 9 propositions secundi adjac5tis1 !re 0 only "o ,quat]nion or two c\ples ( anti!tical propositions4 ,next1 to assign ! di/9ction betwe5 ! fir/ & ! second ,quat]nion 9 propositions t]tii adjac5tis4 ,n[ ! fir/ ( ^! two purposes is m>k$ out 9 l9e #be1 :i* ,i ?9k we ought to read n by sub/itut+ ! words ( ,waitz 9 place ( ! words ( ,bekk]1 b by reta9+ ! words ( ,bekk] & ins]t+ ! words ( ,waitz z an addition to !m4 ,! passage aft] su* addition w /& ?us--,greek3 le_/g d' o7_/ti to e7_//9 7 t dikai_/ proskei_/setai 7 t ou7 dikai_/1 kai 7 t a7n?r_/p 7 t ou7k a7n?r_/p1 7_//e kai 7 a7po_/phasis4 te_/tt>a ou7n e7_//ai4 ,"h ,ari/otle decl>es ! reason :y 7,greek3 ou7n7 !re come to be f\r c\ples ( propositions2 t reason is1 because ,greek3 e7_//i & ,greek3 ou7k e7_//i may be jo9$ ei!r ) ,greek3 di_/kaios or ,greek3 ou7 di_/kaios & ei!r ) ,greek3 a7_/n?rpos or ) ,greek3 ou7k a7_/n?rpos4 ,bo? ^! alt]natives mu/ be specifi$ 9 ord] to make out a reason :y !re are two ,quat]nions or f\r c\ples ( anti!tical propositions4 ,b ! passage1 z read by ,bekk]1 gives only "o ( ^! alt]natives1 :ile ! passage1 z read by ,waitz1 gives only ! o!r4 ,accord+ly1 nei!r ( !m sep>ately is suffici5t2 b bo? ( !m tak5 toge!r furni% ! reason requir$1 & ?us answ] ,ari/otle's purpose4 ,ari/otle n[ proce$s to enunciate ! fir/ ( ! two ,quat]nions1 & !n proce$s to l9e #cj1 :]e ! read+ ( ,bekk] is irrelevant & unmean+2 b ! am5dm5t ( ,waitz appe>s to me /ill worse1 be+ positively incorrect 9 /atem5t ( fact4 ,waitz reads ,greek3 to gar e7_//9 e7ntau?a 79 ! fir/ ,quat]nion1 :i* has j be5 enunciat$7 ,greek3 kai to ou7k e7_//9 t a7n?r_/p proskei_/setai kai t ou7k a7n?r_/p4 ,^! la/ words are incorrect 9 fact1 = ,greek3 ou7k a7_/n?rpos does n appe> 9 ! fir/ ,quat]nion1 b is res]v$ = ! second4 ,:ile ! read+ ( ,waitz is ?us evid5tly wrong1 t ( ,bekk] ass]ts no?+ to ! purpose4 ,x is useless to tell u m]ely t ,greek3 e7_//i & ,greek3 ou7k e7_//9 atta* bo? to ,greek3 di_/kaios & to ,greek3 ou7 di_/kaios 9 ?is fir/ ,quat]nion 7,greek3 e7ntau?a71 because t *>act]i/ic is equally true ( ! second ,quat]nion 7pres5tly to foll[71 & !re=e con/itutes no di/9ction betwe5 ! two4 ,to br+ out ! mean+ int5d$ by ,ari/otle ,i ?9k we ought "h also to reta9 ! words ( ,bekk]1 & to add aft] !m "s1 ?\gh n all1 ( ! words ( ,waitz4 ,! passage w\ld !n /& ?us--,greek3 to gar e7_//9 e7ntau?a kai to ou7k e7_//i t dikai_/ proskei_/setai kai t ou7 dikai_/1 kai t a7n?r_/p1 a7ll' ou7 t ou7k a7n?r_/p4 ,or p]haps ,greek3 kai ou7 t ou7k a7n?r_/p might suffice 9 ! la/ clause 7be+ a small] *ange71 ?\gh ,greek3 a7ll' ou7 seem ! prop] t]ms to decl>e ! mean+4 ,9 ! read+ :i* ,i propose1 ! sequ5ce int5d$ by ,ari/otle is cle> & intelligible4 ,hav+ fir/ told u t ,greek3 e7_//9 & ,greek3 ou7k e7_//i be+ jo9$ alt]nately ) ,greek3 di_/kaios & ) ,greek3 ou7 di_/kaios & also ) ,greek3 a7_/n?rpos & ,greek3 ou7k a7_/n?rpos1 make up two ,quat]nions1 he proce$s to enunciate ! di/9ctive "* belong+ to ! fir/ ,quat]nion ( ! two1 viz41 t 9 x ,greek3 e7_//i & ,greek3 ou7k e7_//9 are jo9$ bo? ) ,greek3 di_/kaios & ,greek3 ou7 di_/kaios1 & also ) ,greek3 a7_/n?rpos b n ) ,greek3 ou7k a7_/n?rpos1 ,?is is exactly ! tru?4 ,ari/otle next proce$s to ! second ,quat]nion1 :]e he po9ts out1 z ! *>act]i/ic di/9ction1 t ,greek3 ou7k a7_/n?rpos comes 9 & ,greek3 a7_/n?rpos disappe>s1 :ile ,greek3 di_/kaios & ,greek3 ou7 di_/kaios rema9 includ$1 z 9 ! fir/4 ,?is is decl>$ pla9ly by ,ari/otle 9 l9e #cg3--;,greek3 au7tai men ou7n du_/o a7nti_/ke9tai 7ref]r+ to ! two pairs ( anti!tical propositions 9 ! fir/ ,quat]nion71 ,greek3 a7_/llai de pros to ou7k a7_/n?rpos 7s u7pokei_/m5o_/n ti pro/e!_/n2 e7_//i di_/kaios ou7k a7_/n?rpos1 e7_//9 ou7 di_/kaios ou7k a7_/n?rpos-ou7k e7_//i di_/kaios ou7k a7_/n?rpos1 e7_//9 ou7 di_/kaios ou7k a7_/n?rpos-ou7k e7_//9 ou7 di_/kaios ou7k a7_/n?rpos4 ,:5 we read ^! words1 ,greek3 a7_/llai de du_/o pros to ou7k a7_/n?rpos 7s u7pokei_/m5o_/n ti pro/e!_/n1 z appli$ to ! second ,quat]nion1 we see t !re mu/ h be5 "s words prec$+ :i* exclud$ ,greek3 ou7k a7_/n?rpos f ! fir/ ,quat]nion4 ,waitz cont5ds = ! necessity ( *ang+ ,greek3 pro/e!_/n into ,greek3 pro/e!_/ntos4 ,i d n concur ) 8 reasons = ! *ange2 ! words t foll[1 p4 #bj1 l9e #b1 ,greek3 7s o7no_/mati t ou7k a7_/n?rpos *r_/m5ai 7pros*r_/m5ai71 are a reasonable ju/ification ( ,greek3 pro/e!_/n--ou7k a7_/n?rpos 7s u7pokei_/m5o_/n ti pro/e!_/n be+ v analog\s to ,greek3 ou7k a7_/n?rpos 7s o7_/noma4 ,?is long note1 = ! purpose ( re/or+ cle>ness to an obscure text1 w appe> amply ju/ifi$ if ! read] w turn to ! p]plexities & compla9ts ( ! anci5t ,s*olia/s1 reveal$ by ,ammonius & ,boe?ius4 ,ev5 e>li] ?an ! "t ( ,alex&] 7,s*ol4 p4 #abb99991 b4 #dg7 !re 0 div]g5ce 9 ! ,,mss4 ( ,ari/otle2 sev]al read ,greek3 t dikai_/ 7p4 #ai1 b4 #be71 sev]al o!rs read ,greek3 t a7n?r_/p4 ,i ?9k t all ( !m 7 "r 9 :at !y reta9$1 & wrong by omission only or ma9ly4 ,aft] ?is v subtle & obscure di/9ction betwe5 propositions secundi adjac5tis1 & ^? t]tii adjac5tis1 9 respect to ! application ( ! negative1 ,ari/otle t\*es on ! relation ( contr>iety betwe5 propositions4 ,! univ]sal affirmation ,omne e/ animal ju/um has = its contr>y ,nullum e/ animal ju/um4 ,x is pla9 t bo? ^! propositions w nev] be true at once4 ,b ! negatives or contradictories ( bo? may well be true at once3 ?us1 ,non omne animal e/ ju/um 7! contradictory ( ! fir/7 & ,e/ aliquid animal ju/um 7! contradictory ( ! second7 may be & are bo? alike true4 ,if ! affirmative proposition ,omnis homo e/ non ju/us be true1 ! negative ,nullus e/ homo ju/us mu/ also be true2 if ! affirmative ,e/ aliquis homo ju/us be true1 ! negative ,non omnis homo e/ non ju/us mu/ also be true4 ,9 s+ul> propositions1 :]ev] ! negative or d5ial is true1 ! indef9ite affirmative 7,greek3 e7k meta!_/ses1 9 ! language ( ,!ophra/us7 correspond+ to x w also be true2 9 univ]sal propositions1 ! same w n always hold4 ,?us1 if y ask1 ,is ,sokrates wise8 & receive = answ] ,no1 y are w>rant$ 9 affirm+1 ,sokrates is n wise 7! indef9ite affirmation74 ,b if y ask1 ,are all m5 wise8 & ! answ] is ,no1 y are n w>rant$ 9 affirm+1 ,all m5 are n wise4 ,?is la/ is ! contr>y ( ! proposition1 ,all m5 are wise2 & two contr>ies may bo? be false4 ,y are w>rant$ 9 decl>+ only ! contradictory negative1 ,n all m5 are wise4#bi ,footnote #bi3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pret4 p4 #bj1 a4 #af-cj4 ,nei!r ! indef9ite n\n 7,greek3 ou7k a7_/n?rpos7 nor ! indef9ite v]b 7,greek3 ou7 tre_/*ei--ou7 di_/kaios7 is a real & true negation1 ?\gh x appe>s to be su*4 ,= e negation ought to be ei!r true or false2 b non homo1 if no?+ be app5d$ to x1 is n m true or false 7inde$ less s7 ?an homo4#cj ,footnote #cj3 ,ibid4 a4 #ca1 seq4 ,! transposition ( sub/antive & adjective makes no diff]5ce 9 ! mean+ ( ! phrase2 ,e/ albus homo is equival5t to ,e/ homo albus4 ,if x 7 n equival5t1 !re w\ld be two negations correspond+ to ! same affirmation2 b we h %[n t !re c be only "o negation correspond+ to "o affirmation1 s z to make up an ,antiphasis4#ca ,footnote #ca3 ,ibid4 b4 #a-ab4 ,t ,greek3 e7/i leukos a7_/n?rpos1 & ,greek3 e7/in a7_/n?rpos leuko_/s1 mean exactly ! same1 nei!r m nor less--we might h suppos$ t ,ari/otle w\ld h ass]t$ )\t any pro(2 t he w\ld h be5 cont5t ,greek3 a7po tn pragma_/tn pi/\/hai 7to use ! phrase ( ,ammonius 9 a portion ( ! ,s*olia1 p4 #aba1 a4 #bg74 ,b he pref]s to d$uce x z a coroll>y f a g5]al doctr9e mu* less evid5t ?an ! /atem5t itself2 & aft] all1 8 d$uction is n conclusive1 z ,waitz has already rem>k$ 7ad ,organ4 ,i4 p4 #cea74 ,9 "o & ! same proposition1 x is indisp5sable t ! subject be "o & ! pr$icate "o2 if n1 ! proposition w n be "o1 b two or m4 ,bo? ! subject & ! pr$icate inde$ may consi/ ( sev]al words2 b 9 ea* case ! sev]al words mu/ coalesce to make "o total unity2 o!rwise ! proposition w n be "o4 ,?us1 we may pr$icate ( man--animal1 bipes1 mansuetum2 b ^! ?ree coalesce into "o1 s t ! proposition w be a s+le "o4 ,on ! o!r h& ! ?ree t]ms homo1 albus1 ambulans1 d n coalesce into "o2 & !re=e1 if we pr$icate all respect+ ! same subject1 or if we affirm ! same pr$icate respect+ all ?ree1 express+ !m all by "o ^w1 ! proposition w n be "o1 b sev]al4#cb ,footnote #cb3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pr4 p4 #bj1 b4 #ac-bb4 ,ari/otle foll[s ?is up by a rem>k int]e/+ to note1 because we see h[ mu* 8 g5]alities 7 int5d$ to be> ^u ! actual practice ( 8 day1 9 reg>d to dialectical disputation4 ,9 dialectic ex]cise1 ! respond5t und]took to def5d a !sis1 s z to avoid inconsi/5cy betwe5 "o answ] & ano!r1 aga9/ any que/ions :i* might be put by ! oppon5t4 ,bo? ! =m ( ! que/ions1 & ! =m ( ! answ]s1 7 det]m9$ be=eh&4 ,no "q 0 admissible :i* t5d$ to elicit in=mation or a positive decl>ation f ! respond5t4 ,a proposition 0 t5d]$ to him1 & he 0 requir$ to ann\nce :e!r he affirm$ or d5i$ x4 ,! "q might be put 9 ei!r "o ( two ways3 ei!r by ! affirmative alone1 or by putt+ bo? ! affirmative & ! negative2 ei!r 9 ! =m1 ,is ,rhetoric e/imable8 or 9 ! =m1 ,is ,rhetoric e/imable or n8 ,to ! fir/ =m ! respond5t answ]$ ,yes or ,no3 to ! second =m1 he repli$ by repeat+ ei!r ! affirmative or ! negative1 z he pref]r$4 ,b x 0 n all[able to ask him1 ,:at is ,rhetoric8 s z to put him "u ! necessity ( enunciat+ an explanation ( 8 own4#cc ,footnote #cc3 ,see ! ,s*olia ( ,ammonius1 p4 #abg1 ,br4 ,"u ^! canons ( dialectic debate1 ea* "q 0 requir$ to be really & truly "o1 s z to admit ( a def9ite answ] 9 "o ^w4 ,! que/ion] 0 ei!r unfair or unskilful1 if he wrapp$ up two que/ions really di/9ct 9 ! same ^w1 & ?us compell$ ! respond5t ei!r to admit !m bo?1 or to d5y !m bo?1 at once4 ,aga9/ ?is inconv5i5ce ,ari/otle seeks to gu>d1 by expla9+ :at are ! conditions "u :i* "o & ! same ^w does 9 fact include m ?an "o "q4 ,he _h be=e br\ght to view ! case ( an equivocal t]m1 :i* involves su* duplication3 if himation means bo? horse & man1 x w (t5 happ5 t que/ions respect+ himation _c be truly answ]$ ei!r by ,yes or ,no4 ,he n[ br+s to view a diff]5t case 9 :i* ! l ambiguity is involv$4 ,to con/itute "o proposition1 x is ess5tial bo? t ! subject %\ld be "o1 & t ! pr$icate %\ld be "o2 ei!r ( !m inde$ may be call$ by two or ?ree names1 b ^! names mu/ coalesce into "o4 ,?us1 animal1 bipes1 mansuetum1 coalesce into homo1 & may be employ$ ei!r z "o subject or z "o pr$icate2 b homo1 albus1 ambulans1 d n coalesce into "o2 s t if we say1 ,kallias e/ homo1 albus1 ambulans1 ! proposition is n "o b ?ree4#cd ,accord+ly1 ! respond5t _c make "o answ] to a "q ?us complicat$4 ,we ?us f9d ,ari/otle lay+ d[n pr9ciples--& probably no "o _h ev] attempt$ to d s be=e him--= ! correct managem5t ( t dialectical debate :i* he analyses s copi\sly 9 ! ,topica4 ,footnote #cd3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pret4 p4 #bj1 b4 #b4 seq42 ,ammonius1 ,s*ol4 pp4 #abg-abh1 a4 #ba1 ,br4 ,comp>e ,de ,sophi/4 ,el5*4 p4 #afi1 a4 #f-ae4 ,!re are cases 7he proce$s to /ate7 9 :i* two pr$icates may be truly affirm$1 tak5 sep>ately1 respect+ a giv5 subject1 b 9 :i* !y _c be truly affirm$1 tak5 toge!r4#ce ,kallias is a curri]1 ,kallias is good--bo? ^! propositions may be true2 yet ! proposition1 ,kallias is a good curri]1 may n be true4 ,! two pr$icates are bo? ( !m accid5tal co-inh]+ 9 ! same individual2 b d n fuse !mselves into "o4 ,s1 too1 we may truly say1 ,hom] is a poet2 b we _c truly say1 ,hom] is4#cf ,we see by ?is la/ rem>k1#cg h[ di/9ctly ,ari/otle assign$ a d\ble mean+ to e/3 fir/1 p] se1 z mean+ exi/5ce2 next1 relatively1 z p]=m+ ! function ( copula 9 pr$ication4 ,he tells u1 9 reply ei!r to ,plato or to "s o!r contempor>ies1 t ?\gh we may truly say1 ,non-,ens e/ op9abile1 we _c truly say ,non-,ens e/1 because ! real mean+ ( ! fir/ ( ^! propositions is1 9999,non-,ens e/ op9abile non esse4#ch ,footnote #ce3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pr4 p4 #ba1 a4 #g1 seq4 ,footnote #cf3 ,ibid4 a4 #bg4 ,footnote #cg3 ,comp>e ,s*ol4 7ad ,anal4 ,prior4 ,i47 p4 #adf1 a4 #ai-bg2 also ,eudemi ,fragm5t4 cxiv4 p4 #afg1 ed4 ,sp5gel4 ,eudemus consid]$ ,greek3 e7_//9 z "o t]m 9 ! proposition4 ,alex&] diss5t$ f ?is1 & reg>d$ x z be+ only a copula betwe5 ! t]ms1 ,greek3 sun!_/ses mnutikon mo_/rion tn e7n t prota_/sei o7_/rn4 ,footnote #ch3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pr4 p4 #ba1 a4 #cb2 comp>e ,rhetorica1 ii4 p4 #adjb1 a4 #e4 ,! rem>k ( ,ari/otle seems to be> ^u ! doctr9e laid d[n by ,plato 9 ! ,sophi/es1 p4 #beh--! close ( ! long discussion :i* beg9s1 p4 #bcg1 ab\t ,greek3 to m o7_/n1 z ,ammonius tells u 9 ! ,s*olia1 p4 #aab1 b4 #e1 p4 #abi1 b4 #bj1 ,br4 ,ammonius also alludes to ! ,republic2 z if ,plato _h deliv]$ ! same doctr9e 9 bo?2 :i* is n ! fact4 ,see ',plato & ! ,o!r ,companions ( ,sokrates1' vol4 ,,ii4 *4 xxvii4 pp4 #ddg-deh1 seq4 ,ari/otle n[ discusses ! s-call$ ,modal ,propositions--! ,possible & ! ,necess>y4 ,:at is ! appropriate =m ( ,antiphasis 9 ! case ( su* propositions1 :]e possible to be1 or necess>y to be1 is jo9$ to ! simple is4 ,aft] a *apt] ( "s l5g?1 he decl>es t ! =m ( ,antiphasis suitable = ! ,simple proposition w n suit = a ,modal proposition2 & t 9 ! latt] ! sign ( negation mu/ be annex$ to ! modal adjective--possible1 n possible1 c4 ,8 reason+ "h is n m]ely involv$1 b sub/antially incorrect2 =1 9 tru?1 bo? 9 "o & 9 ! o!r1 ! sign ( contradictory negation ought to be annex$ to ! copula4#ci ,f ! ,antiphasis 9 ,modals ,ari/otle proce$s to legitimate sequ5ces admissible 9 su* propositions1 h[ f> any "o ( !m c be inf]r$ f any o!r4#dj ,he sets out f\r tables1 ea* conta9+ f\r modal det]m9ations int]*angeable ) ea* o!r4 #a4 #a4 ,possible 7physically7 to be4 #b4 ,possible 7logically7 to be4 #c4 ,n impossible to be4 #d4 ,n necess>y to be4 #b4 #a4 ,possible 7physically7 n to be4 #b4 ,possible 7logically7 n to be4 #c4 ,n impossible n to be4 #d4 ,n necess>y n to be4 #c4 #a4 ,n possible 7physically7 to be4 #b4 ,n possible 7logically7 to be4 #c4 ,impossible to be4 #d4 ,necess>y n to be4 #d4 #a4 ,n possible 7physically7 n to be4 #b4 ,n possible 7logically7 n to be4 #c4 ,impossible n to be4 #d4 ,necess>y to be4 ,ari/otle canvasses ^! tables at "s l5g?1 & am5ds !m p>tly by mak+ ! f\r? case ( ! second table *ange place ) ! f\r? ( ! fir/4#da ,he !n discusses :e!r we c correctly say t ! necess>y to be is also possible to be4 ,if n1 !n we might say correctly t ! necess>y to be is n possible to be2 = "o side or o!r ( a legitimate ,antiphasis may always be truly affirm$4 ,yet ?is w\ld be absurd3 accord+ly we mu/ admit t ! necess>y to be is also possible to be4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 we fall seem+ly into a diff]5t absurdity2 = ! possible to be is also possible n to be2 & h[ c we all[ t :at is necess>y to be is at ! same "t possible n to be8 ,to escape f su* absurdities on bo? sides1 we mu/ di/+ui% two modes ( ! ,possible3 "o1 9 :i* ! affirmative & negative are alike possible2 ! o!r 9 :i* ! affirmative alone is possible1 because x is always & con/antly realiz$4 ,if a man is actually walk+1 we "k t x is possible = him to walk2 & ev5 :5 he is n walk+1 we say ! same1 because we believe t he may walk if he *ooses4 ,he is n always walk+2 & 9 8 case1 z 9 all o!r int]mitt5t realities1 ! affirmative & ! negative are alike possible4 ,b ?is is n true 9 ! case ( necess>y1 con/ant1 & sempit]nal realities4 ,) !m !re is no alt]native possibility1 b only ! possibility ( _! do+ or cont9u+ to d4 ,! cele/ial bodies revolve1 sempit]nally & necess>ily2 x is !re=e possible = !m to revolve2 b !re is no alt]native possibility2 x is n possible = !m n to revolve4 ,p]petual reality ?us includes ! unilat]al1 b n ! bilat]al1 possibility4#db ,footnote #ci3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pret4 p4 #ba1 a4 #cd-p4 #bb1 a4 #ac4 ,see ! note ( ,waitz1 ad ,organ4 ,i4 p4 #cei1 :o po9ts out ! error ( ,ari/otle1 p>tly indicat$ by ,ammonius 9 ! ,s*olia4 ,! rule does n hold 9 propositions ) ! sign ( univ]sality atta*$ to ! subject2 b x is at lea/ ! same = ,modals & ,non-modals4 ,footnote #dj3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pr4 p4 #bb1 a4 #ad-;b4 #bh4 ,footnote #da3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pr4 p4 #bb1 b4 #bb1 ,greek3 lei_/petai toi_/nun c42 ,ammonius1 ,s*ol4 p4 #acc1 b4 #e-bg-cf4 ,ari/otle also intimates 7p4 #bc1 a4 #ah7 t x w\ld be bett] to rev]se ! ord] ( ! propositions 9 ! tables1 & to place ! ,necess>y be=e ! ,possible4 ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire has ins]t$ 79 ! note to 8 ,translation1 p4 #aig7 tables ) ?is rev]s$ ord]4 ,footnote #db3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pret4 p4 #bb1 b4 #bi-p4 #bc1 a4 #ae4 ,hav+ ?us /at$ t possible to be1 9 ?is unilat]al & equivocal s5se b 9 no o!r1 is a legitimate consequ5ce ( necess>y to be1 ,ari/otle proce$s to lay d[n a trip>tite di/9ction :i* surprises u 9 ?is place4 ,x is pla9 f :at has be5 said t t :i* is by ,necessity1 is 9 ,act or ,actuality2 s t if ?+s sempit]nal are prior1 ,actuality is prior to ,possibility4 ,"s ?+s1 l ! fir/ 7or cele/ial7 sub/ances1 are ,actualities )\t ,possibility2 o!rs 7! g5]at$ & p]i%able sub/ances7 :i* are prior 9 nature b po/]ior 9 g5]ation1 are ,actualities along ) ,possibility2 :ile a ?ird class are ,possibilities only1 & nev] come into ,actuality 7su* z ! l>ge/ numb]1 or ! lea/ magnitude74#dc ,footnote #dc3 ,ibid4 p4 #bc1 a4 #ba-bf4 ,n[ ! s5t5ce j translat$ 7enunciat+ a doctr9e ( ,ari/otle's ,fir/ ,philosophy r ?an ( ,logic7 appe>s decid$ly to contradict :at he _h said ?ree l9es be=e1 viz41 t 9 "o c]ta9 s5se1 ! necess>y to be includ$ & impli$ ! possible to be2 t is1 a possibility or pot5tiality unilat]al only1 n bilat]al2 = we are "h told t ! cele/ial sub/ance is ,actuality )\t ,possibility 7or ,pot5tiality71 s t ! unilat]al s5se ( ?is la/ t]m is disall[$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a ?ird s5se ( ! same t]m is recogniz$ & di/+ui%$2 a s5se nei!r bilat]al nor unilat]al1 b ! negation ( bo?4 ,?is ?ird s5se is h>dly intelligible1 giv+ z x does an impossible ,possible2 x seems a self-contradictory description4#dd ,at be/1 x c only be und]/ood z a limit 9 ! ma!matical s5se2 a t]m9us t[>ds :i* pot5tiality may come con/antly ne>] & ne>]1 b :i* x c nev] rea*4 ,! fir/1 or bilat]al pot5tiality1 is ! only s5se at once consi/5t1 legitimate1 & con=mable to ord9>y spee*4 ,ari/otle himself admits t ! second & ?ird are equivocal mean+s1#de dep>t+ f ! fir/ z ! legitimate mean+2 b if equivocal dep>ture to s great an ext5t 7 all[$1 ! t]m1 put to su* multif>i\s s]vice1 becomes unfit = accurate philosophical reason+4 ,& we f9d ?is illu/rat$ by ! contradiction into :i* ,ari/otle himself falls 9 ! c\rse ( a few l9es4 ,! s5t5ce ( ,fir/ ,philosophy 7:i* ,i translat$ 9 ! la/ page7 is a correction ( ! logical /atem5t imm$iately prec$+ x1 9 s f> z x suppresses ! necess>y ,possible1 or ! unilat]al pot5tiality4 ,b on ! o!r h& ! same s5t5ce introduces a new confusion by its ?ird v>iety--! impossible ,pot5tial1 dep>t+ f all cle> & consi/5t mean+ ( pot5tiality1 & co9cid+ only ) ! explanation ( ,non-,ens1 z giv5 by ,ari/otle else:]e4#df ,footnote #dd3 ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire1 9 ! note to 8 translation 7p4 #aig7 calls x ju/ly--le possible qui n'e/ jamais2 et qui p> cela mme1 porte en lui une sorte d'impossibilit4 ,x contradicts bo? ! two explanations ( ,greek3 dunaton :i* ,ari/otle _h giv5 a few l9es be=e4 #a4 ,greek3 dunaton o7_/ti e7n]gei4 #b4 ,greek3 dunaton o7_/ti e7n]g_/sei5 a7_/n 7p4 #bc1 a4 #aj74 ,footnote #de3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pr4 p4 #bc1 a4 #e4 ,greek3 t\to men t\_/t\ *a_/r9 ei7_/rtai1 o7_/ti ou7 pasa du_/namis tn a7ntikeime_/nn1 ou7d' o7_/sai le_/gontai kata to au7to ei7dos4 e7_/niai de duna_/meis o7m_/numoi_/ ei7s92 to gar dunaton ou7* a7pls le_/getai1 a7lla to men o7_/ti a7l!s 7s e7n]gei_/a o7_/n1 c4 ,if we read ! ?irte5? *apt] ( ,analytica ,priora ,i4 7p4 #cb1 a4 #ah-bi7 we %all see t ,greek3 to e7nde*o_/m5on is decl>$ to be ,greek3 ou7k a7nagkaion1 & t 9 ! def9ition ( ,greek3 to e7nde*o_/m5on1 ! words ,greek3 ou7 m o7_/ntos a7nagkai_/ou are expressly ins]t$4 ,:5 ,greek3 to a7nagkaion is said ,greek3 e7nde_/*e/hai1 ?is is said only 9 an equivocal s5se ( ,greek3 e7nde_/*e/hai--to gar a7nagkaion o7mnu_/ms e7nde_/*e/hai le_/gom54 ,on ! mean+ ( ,greek3 to e7nde*o_/m5on1 translat$ above1 9 ! table1 possible 7logically7 to be1 & its relation to ,greek3 to dunato_/n1 see ,waitz1 ad ,organ4 ,i4 pp4 #cge-h4 ,comp>e ,prantl4 ,ges*t4 d] ,logik1 ,i4 pp4 #aff-h4 ,footnote #df3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pr4 p4 #ba1 a4 #cb3 ,greek3 to de m o7_/n1 o7_/ti doxa/o_/n1 ou7k a7l!s ei7pein o7_/n ti2 d_/xa gar au7t\ ou7k e7_//9 o7_/ti e7_//91 a7ll' o7_/ti ou7k e7_//94 ,to m o7_/n is ! true description ( t :i* ,ari/otle improp]ly calls ,greek3 du_/namis 7 ou7de_/pote e7ne_/rgeia_/ e7/94 ,! triple enum]ation giv5 by ,ari/otle 7#a4 ,actuality )\t ,pot5tiality4 #b4 ,actuality ) ,pot5tiality4 #c4 ,pot5tiality )\t ,actuality7 pres5ts a neat symmetry :i* /&s 9 ! place ( philosophical exactness4 ,! contra/ ( ,actual & ,pot5tial /&s s prom95tly =w>d 9 ,ari/otle's ,fir/ ,philosophy1 & is1 :5 correctly und]/ood1 s valuable an elem5t 9 ,fir/ ,philosophy g5]ally1 t we _c be too c>eful aga9/ ^? misapplications ( x into :i* he himself sometimes falls4 ,! s5se ( ,pot5tiality1 z includ+ ! alt]native ( ei!r affirmative or negative--may be or may n be--is q ess5tial 9 compreh5d+ ! ontological !ories ( ,ari/otle2 & :5 he pr(esses to drop ! may n be & leave only ! may be1 ?is is n m]ely an equivocal s5se ( ! ^w1 b an entire r5unciation ( its g5u9e s5se4 ,9 common p>lance1 inde$1 we speak elliptically1 & say1 ,x may be1 :5 we really mean1 ,x may or may n be4 ,b ! la/ or negative half1 ?\gh n expressly ann\nc$1 is always includ$ 9 ! ?\ght & belief ( ! speak] & und]/ood by ! he>]4#dg ,footnote #dg3 ,see ,tr5del5burg ad ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 pp4 #cjc-cjg4 ,_m logicians1 & ,sir ,william ,hamilton v emphatically1 h consid]$ ! ,modality ( propositions z improp] to be includ$ 9 ! prov9ce ( ,logic1 & h treat$ ! proce$+ ( ,ari/otle 9 ?us includ+ x1 z "o among sev]al cases 9 :i* he _h transc5d$ ! legitimate b\nd>ies ( ! sci5ce4#dh ,?is criticism1 to :i* ,i _c subscribe1 is f\nd$ ^u "o peculi> view ( ! prop] def9ition & limits ( ,logic4 ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton lays d[n ! limitation p]emptorily1 & he is w>rant$ 9 do+ ?is = himself2 b x is a "q ab\t :i* !re has be5 great div]sity ( view among expositors1 & he has no "r to blame o!rs :o enl>ge x4 ,my purpose 9 ! pres5t volume is to expla9 h[ ! subject pres5t$ itself to ,ari/otle4 ,he 0 ! fir/ au?or t ev] attempt$ to pres5t ,logic 9 a sci5tific aspect2 & x is h>dly fair to try him by re/rictions emanat+ f critics mu* lat]4 ,yet1 if he is to be tri$ ^u ?is po9t1 ,i ?9k ! latitude 9 :i* he indulges pref]able to ! re/rict$ doctr9e ( ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton4 ,footnote #dh3 ,see pp4 #adc-e ( ! article1 ,logic1 9 ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,discussions on ,philosophy--a v le>n$ & in/ructive article1 ev5 = ^? :o diff] f mo/ ( its conclusions4 ,comp>e ! opposite view1 z advocat$ by ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire1 ,logique d',ari/ote1 ,prface1 pp4 9999lxii4-lxviii4 ,9 ! treatise n[ be=e u 7,de ,int]pretatione7 ,ari/otle ann\nces 8 int5tion to expla9 ! ,proposition or ,enunciative ,spee*1 ! conjunction ( a n\n & a v]b2 z di/+ui%$1 fir/1 f its two con/itu5ts 7n\n & v]b7 sep>ately tak52 next1 f o!r modes ( spee*1 also comb9+ ! two 7precative1 int]rogative1 c474 ,all spee* 7he says71 ! n\n or v]b sep>ately1 z well z ! proposition conjo9tly1 is1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 a sign ( c]ta9 m5tal /ates common to ! speak] ) 8 he>]s2 &1 9 ! second in/ance1 a sign ( c]ta9 ?+s or facts1 resembl+ 7or correlat+ )7 ^! m5tal /ates4#di ,! n\n1 pron\nc$ sep>ately1 & ! v]b1 pron\nc$ sep>ately1 are ea* signs ( a c]ta9 ?\ght 9 ! speak]'s m9d1 )\t ei!r tru? or falsehood2 ! ,proposition1 or conjunction ( ! two1 goes f>!r & decl>es tru? or falsehood4 ,! words pron\nc$ 7he says7 foll[ ! ?\ghts 9 ! m9d1 express+ an op9ion 7i4e4 belief or disbelief7 ent]ta9$ 9 ! m9d2 ! v]bal affirmation or negation gives utt]ance to a m5tal affirmation or negation--a feel+ ( belief or disbelief--t some?+ is1 or t some?+ is n4#ej ,?us1 ,ari/otle int5ds to give a !ory ( ! ,proposition1 leav+ o!r modes ( spee* to ,rhetoric or ,poetry3#ea ! ,proposition he consid]s "u two di/9ct aspects4 ,9 its fir/ or subjective aspect1 x decl>es ! /ate ( ! speak]'s m9d1 z to belief or disbelief4 ,9 its second or objective aspect1 x decl>es a tru? or falsehood correlat+ ) su* belief or disbelief1 = ! in=mation ( ! he>]4 ,n[ ! ,mode belong+ to a proposition ( ?is sort1 9 virtue ( its =m1 is to be true or false4 ,b !re are also o!r propositions--o!r v>ieties ( spee* enunciative--:i* diff] f ! ,simple or ,ass]tory ,proposition hav+ ! =m is or is n1 & :i* h di/9ct modes belong+ to !m1 besides t ( be+ true or false4 ,?us we h ! ,necess>y ,proposition1 decl>+ t a ?+ is s by necessity1 t x mu/ be s1 or _c b be s2 aga91 ! ,problematical ,proposition1 enunciat+ t a ?+ may or may n be s4 ,^! two modes atta* to ! =m ( ! proposition1 & are q di/9ct f ^? :i* atta* to its matt] z simply affirm$ or d5i$2 z :51 in/ead ( say+1 ,john is sick1 we say1 ,john is sick ( a fev]1 ,john is dang]\sly sick1 ) a m]ely mat]ial modification4 ,su* adv]bs1 modify+ ! matt] affirm$ or d5i$1 are num]\s1 & may be div]sifi$ almo/ )\t limit4 ,b !y are n to be plac$ 9 ! same category ) ! two j m5tion$1 :i* modify ! =m ( ! proposition1 & correspond to a /ate ( m9d di/9ct f simple belief or disbelief1 express$ by a simple affirmation or negation4#eb ,9 ! case ( ea* ( ! two1 ,ari/otle has laid d[n rules 7correct or incorrect7 = con/ruct+ ! legitimate ,antiphasis1 & = det]m9+ o!r propositions equipoll5t to1 or foll[+ ^u1 ! propositions giv52 rules di/9ct f ^? apply+ to ! simple affirmation4 ,:5 we say ( any?+1 ,x may be or may n be1 we enunciate "h only "o proposition1 n two2 we decl>e a /ate ( m9d :i* is nei!r belief nor disbelief1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,simple ,proposition1 b some?+ wav]+ betwe5 ! two2 yet :i* is nev]!less frequ5t1 famili> to e "o1 & useful to be made kn[n by a special =m ( proposition adapt$ to x--! ,problematical4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 we say1 ,x is by necessity--mu/ be--_c b be--we decl>e our belief1 & some?+ m besides2 we decl>e t ! supposition ( ! opposite ( :at we believe1 w\ld involve a contradiction--,i w\ld contradict "s def9ition or axiom to :i* we h already sworn adh]5ce4 ,?is aga9 is a /ate ( m9d kn[n1 di/+ui%able1 & ! same 9 all1 subjectively2 ?\gh z to ! objective correlate--:at con/itutes ! ,necess>y1 sev]al diff]5t op9ions h be5 ent]ta9$4 ,footnote #di3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pr4 p4 #af1 a4 #c-h3 ,greek3 e7_//i men ou7n ta e7n t phn tn e7n t psu* pa?ma_/tn su_/mbola--7n me_/ntoi tauta smeia pr_/ts1 tau7ta pasi pa?_/mata ts psu*s1 kai 7n tauta o7moi_/mata1 pra_/gmata 7_/d tau7ta_/4 ,ibid4 a4 #ac3 ,greek3 ta men ou7n o7no_/mata au7ta kai ta r7_/mata e7_/oike t a7_/neu sun!_/ses kai diaire_/ses no_/mati--ou7_/te gar pseudos ou7_/t' a7l!_/s p4 ,ib4 p4 #ag1 a4 #b3 ,greek3 lo_/gos a7pophantikos1 e7n 7 to a7l!u_/e9 7 pseu_/de/hai u7pa_/r*ei4 ,comp>e p4 #bj1 a4 #cd4 ,footnote #ej3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pret4 p4 #bc1 a4 #cb3 ,greek3 ta men e7n t phn a7kol\!i tois e7n t dianoi_/a1 e7kei de e7nanti_/a d_/xa 7 t\ e7nanti_/ou1 c4 ,ib4 p4 #bd1 b4 #a3 ,greek3 7_//e ei7_/p] e7pi d_/xs ou7_/ts e7_/*ei1 ei7si de ai7 e7n t phn katapha_/seis kai a7popha_/seis su_/mbola tn e7n t psu*1 dlon o7_/ti kai katapha_/sei e7nanti_/a men a7po_/phasis 7_/ p]i t\ au7t\ ka?o_/l\1 c4 ,ib4 p4 #ag1 a4 #bb3 ,greek3 e7_//i de 7 a7pl a7po_/phansis phn smantik p]i t\ u7pa_/r*e9 ti 7 m u7pa_/r*e91 c4 ,footnote #ea3 ,ibid4 p4 #ag1 a4 #e4 ,greek3 oi7 men ou7n a7_/lloi 7lo_/goi7 a7phei_//hsan2 r7toriks gar 7 poitiks oi7keiote_/ra 7 ske_/psis2 o7 de a7pophantikos ts nun !ri_/z4 ,footnote #eb3 ,ammonius 79 ! ,s*olia on ,de ,int]pret4 p4 #acj1 a4 #af1 seq41 ,br&47 ranks all modal propositions "u ! same category1 & consid]s ! numb] ( !m to be1 n inde$ inf9ite1 b v great4 ,he gives z examples3 ,! moon *anges fa/2 ,plato loves ,dion vehem5tly4 ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton adopts ! same view z ,ammonius3 ,modes may be conceiv$ )\t end--all mu/ be admitt$1 if any are2 ! l9e ( di/9ction attempt$ to be drawn is futile4 7,discussions on ,phil4 ut sup4 p4 #ade47 ,on ! o!r h&1 we le>n f ,ammonius t mo/ ( ! ,ari/otelian int]pret]s prec$+ him reckon$ ! simple proposition ,greek3 to u7pa_/r*e9 z a modal2 & ,ari/otle himself seems s to m5tion x 7,analytica ,priora1 ,i4 ii4 p4 #be1 a4 #a72 besides t he enum]ates true & false1 :i* und\bt$ly atta* to ,greek3 to u7pa_/r*e91 z examples ( modes 7,de ,int]pret4 c4 #ab1 p4 #bb1 a4 #ac74 ,ammonius himself prote/s aga9/ ?is doctr9e ( ! =m] int]pret]s4 ,mr4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill 7,sy/em ( ,logic1 ,bk4 ,i4 *4 iv4 s4 #b7 says3--,a rem>k ( a simil> nature may be appli$ to mo/ ( ^? di/9ctions among propositions :i* are said to h ref]5ce to _! modality2 z diff]5ce ( t5se or "t2 ! sun did rise1 is ris+1 w rise4 4 4 4 ,! circum/ance ( "t is prop]ly consid]$ z atta*+ to ! copula1 :i* is ! sign ( pr$ication1 & n to ! pr$icate4 ,if ! same _c be said ( su* modifications z ^!1 ,cs> is p]haps dead2 x is possible t ,cs> is dead2 x is only because ^! fall toge!r "u ano!r head2 be+ prop]ly ass]tions n ( any?+ relat+ to ! fact itself1 b ( ! /ate ( our own m9d 9 reg>d to x2 namely1 our abs5ce ( disbelief ( x4 ,?us1 ,cs> may be dead1 means1 ,i am n sure t ,cs> is alive4 ,i d n "k :e!r ,mr4 ,mill means t ! function ( ! copula is diff]5t 9 ^! problematical propositions1 f :at x is 9 ! categorical propositions3 ,i ?9k !re is no diff]5ce4 ,b 8 rem>k t ! problematical proposition is an ass]tion ( ! /ate ( our m9ds 9 reg>d to ! fact1 appe>s to me p]fectly j4 ,only1 we ought to add1 t ?is is equally true ab\t ! categorical proposition4 ,x is equally true ab\t all ! ?ree foll[+ propositions3--#a4 ,! ?ree angles ( a triangle may or may n be equal to two "r angles4 #b4 ,! ?ree angles ( a triangle are equal to two "r angles4 #c4 ,! ?ree angles ( a triangle are necess>ily equal to two "r angles4 ,9 ea* ( ^! ?ree propositions1 an ass]tion ( ! /ate ( our m9ds is involv$1 & a diff]5t /ate ( m9d 9 ea*4 ,?is is ! subjective aspect ( ! proposition2 x belongs to ! =m r ?an to ! matt]1 & may be consid]$ z a mode4 ,! comm5tators prec$+ ,ammonius did s consid] x1 & said t ! categorical proposition _h its mode z well z ! o!rs4 ,ammonius diff]$ f !m1 treat+ ! categorical z hav+ no mode--z ! /&>d unit or po9t ( dep>ture4 ,! propositions n[ kn[n z ,hypo!tical & ,disjunctive1 :i* may also be reg>d$ z 9 a c]ta9 s5se ,modals1 are n expressly consid]$ by ,ari/otle4 ,9 ! ,anal4 ,prior4 ,i4 xliv4 p4 #ej a4 #af-ch1 he adv]ts to hypo!tical syllogisms1 & intimates 8 int5tion ( discuss+ !m m at l5g?3 b ?is int5tion has n be5 execut$1 9 ! works t we possess4 ,9 e complete !ory ( enunciative spee*1 ^! modal propositions des]ve to be sep>ately expla9$1 bo? 9 _! sub/antive mean+ & 9 _! relation to o!r propositions4 ,_! *>act]i/ic prop]ty z ,modals belongs to =m r ?an to matt]2 & ,ari/otle ought n to be consid]$ z unphilosophical = introduc+ !m into ! ,organon1 ev5 if we adopt ! re/rict$ view ( ,logic tak5 by ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton1 t x takes no cognizance ( ! matt] ( propositions1 b only ( _! =m4 ,b ?\gh ,i diss5t f ,hamilton's criticisms on ?is po9t1 ,i d n concur ) ! oppos+ critics :o ?9k t ,ari/otle has h&l$ ! ,modal ,propositions 9 a satisfactory mann]4 ,on ! contr>y1 ,i ?9k t ! equivocal s5se :i* he assigns to ! ,pot5tial or ,possible1 & 8 inconsi/5cy 9 sometimes admitt+1 sometimes d5y+1 a ,pot5tial t is always actual1 & a ,pot5tial t is nev] actual--are s]i\s imp$im5ts to any consi/5t ,logic4 ,! ,problematical ,proposition does n admit ( be+ cut 9 half2 & if we are to recognize a necess>y ,possible1 or an impossible ,possible1 we ought to f9d diff]5t phrases by :i* to designate !m4 ,we mu/ obs]ve t ! di/9ction ( ,problematical & ,necess>y ,propositions corresponds1 9 ! m9d ( ,ari/otle1 to t capital & *>act]i/ic doctr9e ( 8 ,ontology & ,physics1 already t\*$ on 9 ?is *apt]4 ,he ?\ght1 z we h se51 t 9 ! va/ circumf]5tial region ( ! ,kosmos1 f ! out] sid]eal sph]e d[n to ! lun> sph]e1 cele/ial sub/ance 0 a necess>y exi/5ce & en]gy1 sempit]nal & uni=m 9 its rotations & influ5ce2 & t ?r\gh its b5efic5t influ5ce1 p]vad+ ! concavity betwe5 ! lun> sph]e & ! t]re/rial c5tre 7:i* includ$ ! f\r elem5ts ) _! comp\nds7 !re prevail$ a regul>iz+ t5d5cy call$ ,nature3 modifi$1 h[ev]1 & p>tly c\nt]act$ by indep5d5t & irregul> =ces call$ ,spontaneity & ,*ance1 ess5tially unkn[able & unpr$ictable4 ,! irregul> sequ5ces ?us nam$ by ,ari/otle 7 ! objective correlate ( ! ,problematical ,proposition 9 ,logic4 ,9 ^! sublun>y sequ5ces1 z to future "t1 may or may n 0 all t c\ld be atta9$1 ev5 by ! highe/ k2 c]ta9ty1 ei!r ( affirmation or negation1 0 out ( ! "q4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! necess>y & uni=m en]gies ( ! cele/ial sub/ance1 =m$ ! objective correlate ( ! ,necess>y ,proposition 9 ,logic2 ?is sub/ance 0 n m]ely an exi/5ce1 b an exi/5ce necess>y & un*angeable4 ,i %all say m on ?is :5 ,i come to treat ( ,ari/otle z a kosmical & physical philosoph]2 at pres5t x is en\gh to rem>k t he consid]s ! ,problematical ,proposition 9 ,logic to be n purely subjective1 z an expression ( ! speak]'s ignorance1 b some?+ m1 namely1 to correlate ) an objective ess5tially unkn[able to all4 ,! la/ p>agraph ( ! treatise ,de ,int]pretatione discusses ! "q ( ,contr>ies & ,contradictories1 & makes out t ! greate/ bread? ( opposition is t betwe5 a proposition & its contradictory 7,kallias is j--,kallias is n j71 n t betwe51 a proposition & :at is call$ its contr>y 7,kallias is j--,kallias is unju/72 !re=e1 t accord+ to ! def9ition ( contr>y1 ! true contr>y ( a proposition is its contradictory4#ec ,?is p>agraph is n connect$ ) t :i* prec$es2 moreov]1 bo? ! reason+ & ! conclusion diff] f :at we read z well 9 ?is treatise z 9 o!r portions ( ,ari/otle4 ,accord+ly1 ,ammonius 9 ! ,s*olia1 :ile in=m+ u t ,porphyry _h decl9$ to include x 9 8 comm5t>y1 intimates also 8 own belief t x is n g5u9e1 b ! "w ( ano!r h&4 ,at be/ 7,ammonius ?9ks71 if we mu/ consid] x z ! "w ( ,ari/otle1 x has be5 compos$ by him only z a dialectical ex]cise1 to debate an unsettl$ "q4#ed ,i ?9k ! latt] hypo!sis n improbable4 ,! p>agraph has c]ta9ly ref]5ce to discussions :i* we d n "k1 & x may h be5 compos$ :5 ,ari/otle _h n fully made up 8 m9d on ! di/9ction betwe5 ,contr>y & ,contradictory4 ,consid]+ ! difficult problems t he und]took to solve1 we may be sure t he mu/ h writt5 d[n sev]al tra9s ( ?\ght m]ely prelim9>y & t5tative4 ,moreov]1 we "k t he _h compos$ a di/9ct treatise ',de ,oppositis1'#ee :i* is un=tunately lo/1 b 9 :i* he mu/ h includ$ ?is v topic--! di/9ction betwe5 ,contr>y & ,contradictory4 ,footnote #ec3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pr4 p4 #bc1 a4 #bg1 seq4 ,footnote #ed3 ,s*olia ad ,ari/4 pp4 #ace-aci1 ,br4 ,greek3 gumna_/sai mo_/non b\l!_/ntos t\s e7ntug*a_/nontas pros tn e7pi_/kris9 tn pi?ans men ou7 me_/ntoi a7l?s legome_/nn lo_/gn c4 7p4 #ace1 b4 #ae2 also p4 #acf1 a4 #db74 ,footnote #ee3 ,s*olia ad ,categorias1 p4 #hc1 a4 #ag-ai1 b4 #aj1 p4 #hd1 a4 #bi1 p4 #hf1 b4 #db1 p4 #hh1 a4 #cj4 ,x seems mu* ref]r$ to by ,simplikius1 :o tells u t ! ,/oics adopt$ mo/ ( its pr9ciples 7p4 #hc1 a4 #ba1 b4 #g74 ,:atev] may h be5 ! real orig9 & purpose ( ?is la/ p>agraph1 ,i ?9k x unsuitable z a portion ( ! treatise ,de ,int]pretatione4 ,x nullifies1 or at lea/ ov]cl\ds1 "o ( ! be/ p>ts ( t treatise1 ! cle> det]m9ation ( ,anaphasis & its consequ5ces4 ,if1 n[1 we comp>e ! !ory ( ! ,proposition z giv5 by ,ari/otle 9 ?is treatise1 ) t :i* we read 9 ! ,sophi/es ( ,plato1 we %all f9d ,plato already conceiv+ ! proposition z compos$ indisp5sably ( n\n & v]b1 & z be+ ei!r affirmative or negative1 = bo? ( :i* he indicates ! te*nical t]ms4#ef ,he has no te*nical t]m = ei!r subject or pr$icate2 b he conceives ! proposition z belong+ to its subject3#eg we may be mi/ak5 9 ! pr$icates1 b we are n mi/ak5 9 ! subject4 ,ari/otle enl>ges & improves ^u ?is !ory4 ,he n only has a te*nical t]m = affirmation & negation1 & = negative n\n & v]b1 b also = subject & pr$icate2 aga91 = ! mode ( signification belong+ to n\n & v]b1 ea* sep>ately1 z di/+ui%$ f ! mode ( signification belong+ to !m conjo9tly1 :5 br\ght toge!r 9 a proposition4 ,he foll[s ,plato 9 insi/+ ^u ! *>act]i/ic feature ( ! proposition--aptitude = be+ true or false2 b he gives an ampl] def9ition ( x1 & he introduces ! novel & important di/ribution ( propositions accord+ to ! quantity ( ! subject4 ,until ?is la/ di/ribution _h be5 made1 x 0 impossible to appreciate ! true value & be>+ ( ea* ,antiphasis & ! correct language = express+ x1 s z to say nei!r m nor less4 ,we see1 by read+ ! ,sophi/es1 t ,plato did n conceive ! ,antiphasis correctly1 z di/+ui%$ f ,contr>iety on ! "o h&1 & f m]e ,diff]5ce on ! o!r4 ,he saw t ! negative ( any proposition does n affirm ! contr>y ( its affirmative2 b he knew no o!r alt]native except to say1 t x affirms only some?+ diff]5t f ! affirmative4 ,8 !ory 9 ! ,sophi/es recognizes no?+ b affirmative propositions1 ) ! pr$icate ( contr>iety on "o h&1 or ( diff]5ce on ! o!r2#eh he ignores1 or jumps ov]1 ! int]m$iate /ation ( propositions affirm+ no?+ at all1 b simply d5y+ a pre-und]/ood affirmative4 ,!re 7 o!r contempor>ies1 ,anti/h5es among !m1 :o decl>$ contradiction to be an impossibility2#ei an op9ion co9cid+ at bottom ) :at ,i h j cit$ f ,plato himself4 ,we see1 9 ! ,!ttus1 ! ,eu?ydmus1 ! ,sophi/es1 & else:]e1 h[ great 0 ! difficulty felt by philosoph]s ( t age to f9d a prop] locus /&i = false propositions1 s z to prove !m !oretically possible1 to assign a legitimate function = ! negative1 & to escape f ! int]dict ( ,p>m5ides1 :o elim9at$ ,non-,ens z unmean+ & incogitable4 ,ev5 aft] ! dea? ( ,ari/otle1 ! acute disputation ( ,/ilpon sugge/$ _m problems1 b yield$ few solutions2 & ,m5$mus w5t s f> z to disall[ negative propositions altoge!r4#fj ,footnote #ef3 ,plato1 ,sophi/es1 pp4 #bfa-bfb4 ,greek3 pha_/s9 kai a7po_/phas94--ib4 p4 #bfc ,e4 ,9 ! s-call$ ,platonic ',def9itions1' we read ,greek3 e7n katapha_/sei kai a7popha_/sei 7p4 #dac ,c72 b ^! are probably aft] ,ari/otle's "t4 ,9 ano!r ( ^! ,def9itions 7#dac ,d47 we read ,greek3 a7po_/phasis1 :]e ! ^w ought to be ,greek3 a7po_/phansis4 ,footnote #eg3 ,plato1 ,sophi/4 p4 #bfc ,a-,c4 ,footnote #eh3 ,ibid4 p4 #beg1 ,b3 ,greek3 ,ou7k a7r'1 e7nanti_/on o7_/tan a7po_/phasis le_/gtai smai_/ne91 sug*rs_/me?a1 tos\ton de mo_/non1 o7_/ti tn a7_/lln ti mnu_/ei to m kai to ou7_/ proti!_/m5a tn e7pio_/ntn o7noma_/tn1 mallon de tn pragma_/tn1 p]i a7_/tt' a7n ke_/tai ta e7piph!ggo_/m5a u7_//]on ts a7popha_/ses o7no_/mata4 ,! t]m ,greek3 a7nti_/phasis1 & its d]ivative ,greek3 a7ntiphatiks1 are n recogniz$ 9 ! ,platonic ,lexicon4 ,comp>e ! same dialogue1 ,sophi/es1 p4 #bfc2 also ,eu?ydmus1 p4 #bih1 ,a4 ,plato does n seem to take acc\nt ( negative propositions z su*4 ,see ',plato & ! ,o!r ,companions ( ,sokrates1' vol4 ,,ii4 *4 xxvii4 pp4 #ddf-dee4 ,footnote #ei3 ,ari/ot4 ,topica1 ,i4 xi4 p4 #ajd1 b4 #bj2 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,d4 p4 #ajbd1 b4 #cb2 ,analytic4 ,po/]4 ,i4 xxv4 p4 #hf1 b4 #cd4 ,footnote #fj3 ,diogon4 ,la]t4 ii4 #acd-ace4 ,see ! long discussion 9 ! ,platonic ,!ttus 7pp4 #ahg-aif71 9 :i* ,sokrates 9 va9 endeav\rs to produce "s !ory :]eby ,greek3 pseuds d_/xa may be r5d]$ possible4 ,hobbes1 also1 9 8 ,computation or ,logic 7,de ,corp4 c4 iii4 #f71 foll[$ by ,de/utt ,tracy1 disall[s ! negative proposition p] se1 & treats x z a clumsy disguise ( ! affirmative ,greek3 e7k meta!_/ses1 to use ! phrase ( ,!ophra/us4 ,mr4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill has ju/ly criticiz$ ?is "p ( ,hobbes's !ory 7,sy/em ( ,logic1 ,book ,i4 *4 iv4 #b74 ,su* be+ ! conditions "u :i* philosoph]s debat$ 9 ! age ( ,ari/otle1 we c appreciate ! full value ( a positive !ory ( propositions su* z t :i* we read 9 8 treatise ,de ,int]pretatione4 ,x is1 s f> z we "k1 ! fir/ positive !ory !re( t 0 ev] set out2 ! fir/ attempt to classify propositions 9 su* a mann] t a legitimate ,antiphasis c\ld be assign$ to ea*2 ! fir/ decl>ation t to ea* affirmative proposition !re belong$ "o appropriate negative1 & to ea* negative proposition "o appropriate c\nt]-affirmative1 & "o only2 ! e>lie/ ef=t to con/ruct a !ory = ?is purpose1 su* z to hold gr\nd aga9/ all ! puzzl+ que/ions ( acute disputants4#fa ,! cle> det]m9ation ( ! ,antiphasis 9 ea* case--! di/9ction ( ,contradictory anti!sis f ,contr>y anti!sis betwe5 propositions--?is 0 an important logical doctr9e nev] advanc$ be=e ,ari/otle2 & ! importance ( x becomes manife/ :5 we read ! argum5ts ( ,plato & ,anti/h5es1 ! =m] ov]leap+ & ignor+ ! contradictory opposition1 ! latt] ma9ta9+ t x 0 a process !oretically indef5sible4 ,b 9 ord] t ^! two modes ( anti!sis %\ld be cle>ly contra/$1 ea* ) its prop] *>act]i/ic1 x 0 requisite t ! di/9ction ( quantity betwe5 diff]5t propositions %\ld also be br\ght to view1 & consid]$ 9 conjunction ) ! di/9ction ( quality4 ,until ?is 0 done1 ! ,maxim ( ,contradiction1 d5i$ by "s1 c\ld n be %[n 9 its true =ce or ) its prop] limits4 ,n[1 we f9d x done1#fb = ! fir/ "t1 9 ! treatise be=e u4 ,"h ! ,contradictory anti!sis 7opposition bo? 9 quantity & quality7 9 :i* "o proposition mu/ be true & ! o!r false1 is contra/$ ) ! ,contr>y 7propositions opposite 9 quality1 b bo? ( !m univ]sal74 ,ari/otle's t]m9ology is n 9 all respects fully develop$2 9 reg>d1 especially1 to ! quantity ( propositions x is less advanc$ ?an 9 8 own lat] treatises2 b f ! !ory ( ! ,de ,int]pretatione all ! di/9ctions curr5t among lat] logicians1 take _! rise4 ,footnote #fa3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pr4 p4 #ag1 a4 #cf3 ,greek3 pros tas sophi/ikas e7no*l_/seis4 ,footnote #fb3 ,we see1 f ! argum5t 9 ! ,metaphysica ( ,ari/otle1 t !re 7 p]sons 9 8 day :o d5i$ or refus$ to admit ! ,maxim ( ,contradiction2 & :o held t contradictory propositions might bo? be true or bo? false 7,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,g4 p4 #ajjf1 a4 #a2 p4 #ajji1 a4 #bd74 ,he employs sev]al pages 9 confut+ !m4 ,see ! ,ant9omies 9 ! ,platonic ,p>m5ides 7pp4 #aed-aee71 "s ( :i* de/roy or set aside ! ,maxim ( ,contradiction 7',plato & ! ,o!r ,companions ( ,sokrates1' vol4 ,,ii4 *4 xxv4 p4 #cjf74 ,! di/9ction ( ,contradictory & ,contr>y is fundam5tal 9 ratioc9ative ,logic1 & lies at ! bottom ( ! syllogi/ic !ory z deliv]$ 9 ! ,analytica ,priora4 ,! precision ) :i* ,ari/otle designates ! ,univ]sal proposition ) its exact contradictory anti!sis1 is rem>kable 9 8 day4 ,"s1 h[ev]1 ( 8 obs]vations respect+ ! place & functions ( ! negative p>ticle 7,greek3 ou771 mu/ be und]/ood ) ref]5ce to ! v>iable ord] ( words 9 a ,greek or ,lat9 s5t5ce2 = in/ance1 ! di/9ction betwe5 ,kallias non e/ ju/us & ,kallias e/ non ju/us does n sugge/ itself to "o speak+ ,engli% or ,fr5*4#fc ,moreov]1 ! ,ari/otelian !ory ( ! ,proposition is encumb]$ ) v>i\s unnecess>y subtleties2 & ! introduction ( ! ,modals 7?\gh !y belong1 9 my op9ion1 legitimately to a complete logical !ory7 r5d]s ! doctr9e s intricate & complicat$1 t a judici\s tea*] w pref]1 9 expla9+ ! subject1 to leave !m = second or ult]ior /udy1 :5 ! simpl] relations betwe5 categorical propositions h be5 made evid5t & famili>4 ,! =ce ( ?is rem>k w be felt m :5 we g ?r\gh ! ,analytica ,priora4 ,! two pr9cipal relations to be consid]$ 9 ! !ory ( ,propositions--,opposition & ,equipoll5ce--w\ld h come out f> m cle>ly 9 ! treatise ,de ,int]pretatione1 if ! discussion ( ! ,modals _h be5 res]v$ = a sep>ate *apt]4 ,footnote #fc3 ,! diagram or p>allelogram ( logical anti!sis1 :i* is said to h begun ) ,apuleius1 & to h be5 transmitt$ ?r\gh ,boe?ius & ! ,s*oolm5 to mod]n times 7,ueb]weg1 ,sy/em d] ,logik1 sect4 #gb1 p4 #agd7 is z foll[s3-- ,a4 ,omnis homo e/ ju/us4 --- ,e4 ,nullus homo e/ ju/us4 ,x ,i4 ,aliquis homo e/ ju/us4 --- ,o4 ,aliquis homo non e/ ju/us4 ,b ! p>allelogram set out by ,ari/otle 9 ! treatise ,de ,int]pretatione1 or at lea/ 9 ! ,analytica ,priora1 is diff]5t1 & int5d$ = a diff]5t purpose4 ,he puts x ?us3-- #a4 ,omnis homo e/ ju/us 4 4 4 4 4 #b4 ,non omnis homo e/ ju/us4 #d4 ,non omnis homo e/ non ju/us 4 #c4 ,omnis homo e/ non ju/us4 ,"h ,proposition 7#a7 is an affirmative1 ( :i* 7#b7 is ! direct & appropriate negative3 also ,proposition 7#c7 is an affirmative 7,ari/otle s consid]s x71 ( :i* 7#d7 is ! direct & appropriate negative4 ,! great aim ( ,ari/otle is to m>k out cle>ly :at is ! appropriate negative or ,greek3 ,a7po_/phasis to ea* ,greek3 ,kata_/phasis 7mi_/a a7po_/phasis mias katapha_/ses1 p4 #ag1 b4 #ch71 mak+ up toge!r ! pair :i* he calls ,greek3 ,a7nti_/phasis1 /&+ 9 ,contradictory ,opposition2 & to di/+ui% ?is appropriate negative f ano!r proposition :i* comprises ! p>ticle ( negation1 b :i* is really a new affirmative4 ,! true negatives ( homo e/ ju/us--,omnis homo e/ ju/us are1 ,homo non e/ ju/us--,non omnis homo e/ ju/us4 ,if y say1 ,homo e/ non ju/us--,omnis homo e/ non ju/us1 ^! are n negative propositions1 b new affirmatives 7,greek3 e7k meta!_/ses 9 ! language ( ,!ophra/us74 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,analytica ,,priora ,i4 ,review+ ! treatise ,de ,int]pretatione1 we h foll[$ ,ari/otle 9 8 fir/ attempt to def9e :at a ,proposition is1 to po9t out its con/itu5t elem5ts1 & to specify "s ( its lead+ v>ieties4 ,! *>act]i/ic feature ( ! ,proposition he /at$ to be--,t x decl>es1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 ! m5tal /ate ( ! speak] z to belief or disbelief1 &1 9 its ult]ior or f9al be>+1 a /ate ( facts to :i* su* belief or disbelief corresponds4 ,x is ?us significant ( tru? or falsehood2 & ?is is its logical "* 7belong+ to ,analytic & ,dialectic71 z di/+ui%$ f its rhetorical "*1 ) o!r aspects besides4 ,ari/otle f>!r indicat$ ! two pr9cipal discrim9ative attributes ( propositions z logically reg>d$1 pass+ "u ! names ( quantity & quality4 ,he took great pa9s1 9 reg>d to ! quality1 to expla9 :at 0 ! special negative proposition 9 true contradictory anti!sis to ea* affirmative4 ,he /at$ & en=c$ ! important sep>ation ( contradictory propositions f contr>y2 & he ev5 p>t$ (f 7:i* ! ,greek & ,lat9 languages admit1 ?\gh ! ,fr5* & ,engli% w h>dly d s7 ! true negative f ! indet]m9ate affirmative4 ,he t\*$ also ^u equipoll5t propositions1 ?\gh he did n g f> into !m4 ,?us comm5c$ ) ,ari/otle ! sy/ematic /udy ( propositions1 classifi$ accord+ to _! mean+ & _! v>i\s int]dep5d5ces ) ea* o!r z to tru? & falsehood--_! mutual consi/5cy or incompatibility4 ,m5 :o _h long be5 talk+ good ,greek flu5tly & famili>ly1 7 taught to reflect ^u ! conjunctions ( words t !y habitually employ$1 & to pay he$ to ! conditions ( correct spee* 9 ref]5ce to its prim>y purpose ( affirmation & d5ial1 = ! int]*ange ( beliefs & disbeliefs1 ! communication ( tru?1 & ! rectification ( falsehood4 ,to _m ( ,ari/otle's contempor>ies ?is fir/ attempt to !orize ^u ! =ms ( locution famili> to e "o w\ld probably appe> h>dly less /range ?an ! int]rogative dialectic ( ,sokrates1 :5 he decl>$ himself n to "k :at 0 meant by ju/ice1 virtue1 piety1 temp]ance1 gov]nm5t1 c42 :5 he a/oni%$ 8 he>]s by ask+ !m to rescue him f ?is /ate ( ignorance1 & to communicate to him "s portion ( _! suppos$ pl5itude ( k4 ,ari/otle tells u expressly t ! !ory ( ! ,syllogism1 bo? demon/rative & dialectic1 on :i* we are n[ ab\t to ent]1 0 8 own "w altoge!r & f ! beg9n+2 t no "o _h ev] attempt$ x be=e2 t he !re=e f\nd no basis to "w ^u1 b 0 oblig$ to elaborate 8 own !ory1 f ! v rudim5ts1 by long & labori\s application4 ,9 ?is po9t ( view1 he contra/s ,logic po9t$ly ) ,rhetoric1 on :i* !re _h be5 a s]ies ( writ]s & tea*]s1 ea* pr(it+ by ! lab\rs ( 8 pr$ecessors4#a ,!re is no reason to conte/ ! claim to orig9ality "h advanc$ by ,ari/otle4 ,he 0 ! fir/ :o endeav\r$1 by c>eful /udy & multipli$ comp>ison ( propositions1 to elicit g5]al tru?s respect+ _! ratioc9ative int]dep5d5ce1 & to f\nd !reupon precepts = regulat+ ! conduct ( demon/ration & dialectic4#b ,footnote #a3 ,see ! rem>kable passage at ! close ( ! ,sophi/ici ,el5*i1 p4 #ahc1 b4 #cd-p4 #ahd1 b4 #i3 ,greek3 tau_/ts de ts pragmatei_/z ou7 to men 7n to de ou7k 7n proexeirgasme_/non1 a7ll' ou7den pantels u7pr*e--kai p]i men tn r7torikn u7pr*e polla kai palaia ta lego_/m5a1 p]i de t\ sullogi_/ze/hai pantels ou7den ei7_/*om5 pro_/t]on a7_/llo le_/ge91 a7ll' 7 trib zt\ntes polun *ro_/non e7pon\m54 ,footnote #b3 ,sir ,wm4 ,hamilton1 ,lectures on ,logic1 ,lect4 v4 pp4 #hg-ia1 vol4 ,,iii43--,! pr9ciples ( ,contradiction & ,exclud$ ,middle c bo? be trac$ back to ,plato1 by :om !y 7 en\nc$ & frequ5tly appli$2 ?\gh x 0 n till long aft]1 t ei!r ( !m obta9$ a di/9ctive appellation4 ,to take ! pr9ciple ( ,contradiction fir/4 ,?is law ,plato frequ5tly employs1 b ! mo/ rem>kable passages are f\nd 9 ! ,phd 7p4 #ajc71 9 ! ,sophi/a 7p4 #beb71 & 9 ! ,republic 7iv4 #dcf1 vii4 #ebe74 ,?is law 0 h[ev] m di/9ctively & emphatically en\nc$ by ,ari/otle4 4 4 4 4 ,foll[+ ,ari/otle1 ! ,p]ipatetics e/abli%$ ?is law z ! highe/ pr9ciple ( k4 ,f ! ,greek ,ari/otelians x obta9$ ! "n by :i* x has subsequ5tly be5 d5om9at$1 ! pr9ciple1 or law1 or axiom1 ( ,contradiction 7,greek3 a7xi_/ma ts a7ntipha_/ses74 4 4 4 4 ,! law ( ,exclud$ ,middle betwe5 two contradictories rem\nts1 z ,i h said1 also to ,plato2 ?\gh ! ,second ,alcibiades1 9 :i* x is mo/ cle>ly express$ 7p4 #aci2 also ,sophi/a1 p4 #bej71 mu/ be admitt$ to be spuri\s4 4 4 4 4 ,?is law1 ?\gh univ]sally recogniz$ z a pr9ciple 9 ! ,greek ,p]ipatetic s*ool1 & 9 ! s*ools ( ! middle ages1 only receiv$ ! di/9ctive appellation by :i* x is n[ kn[n at a comp>atively mod]n date4 ,! passages ( ,plato1 to :i* ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton "h ref]s1 w n be f\nd to be> out 8 ass]tion t ,plato en\nc$ & frequ5tly appli$ ! pr9ciples ( ,contradiction & ,exclud$ ,middle4 ,^! two pr9ciples are bo? ( !m enunciat$1 d5om9at$1 & di/9ctly expla9$ by ,ari/otle1 b by no "o be=e him1 z f> z our k ext5ds4 ,! conception ( ! two maxims1 9 _! g5]ality1 dep5ds ^u ! cle> di/9ction betwe5 ,contradictory ,opposition & ,contr>y ,opposition2 :i* is fully br\ght out by ,ari/otle1 b n adv]t$ to1 or at lea/ nev] broadly & g5]ally set =?1 by ,plato4 ,inde$ x is rem>kable t ! ^w ,greek3 ,a7nti_/phasis1 ! te*nical t]m = ,contradiction1 nev] occurs 9 ,plato2 at lea/ x is n recogniz$ 9 ! ,lexicon ,platonicum4 ,ari/otle puts x 9 ! =egr\nd ( 8 logical exposition2 =1 )\t x1 he c\ld n h expla9$ :at he meant by ,contradictory ,opposition4 ,see ,categori1 pp4 #ac-ad1 & else:]e 9 ! treatise ,de ,int]pretatione & 9 ! ,metaphysica4 ,respect+ ! idea ( ! ,negative z put =? by ,plato 9 ! ,sophi/es 7n co9cid+ ei!r ) ,contradictory ,opposition or ) ,contr>y ,opposition71 see ',plato & ! ,o!r ,companions ( ,sokrates1' vol4 ,,ii4 *4 xxvii4 pp4 #ddi-dei4 ,i h rem>k$ 9 t *apt]1 & ! read] ought to recollect1 t ! philosophical views set out by ,plato 9 ! ,sophi/es diff] on _m po9ts f :at we read 9 o!r ,platonic dialogues4 ,he beg9s ! ,analytica ,priora by sett+ =? 8 g5]al purpose1 & def9+ 8 pr9cipal t]ms & phrases4 ,8 mann] is "o ( geometrical pla9ness & /rictness4 ,x may p]haps h be5 common to him ) v>i\s contempor>y geomet]s1 ^: works are n[ lo/2 b x pres5ts an entire novelty 9 ,grecian philosophy & lit]ature4 ,x dep>t$ n m]ely f ! mann] ( ! rhetoricians & ! physical philosoph]s 7z f> z we "k !m1 n exclud+ ev5 ,demokritus71 b also f ,sokrates & ! ,sokratic s*ool4 ,= ?\gh ,sokrates & ,plato 7 p]petually call+ = def9itions1 & did mu* to make o!rs feel ! want ( su*1 !y nei!r ( !m ev9c$ aptitude or read9ess to supply ! want4 ,! new mann] ( ,ari/otle is adapt$ to an und]tak+ :i* he himself describes z orig9al1 9 :i* he has no pr$ecessors1 & is compell$ to dig 8 own f\ndations4 ,x is ess5tially didactic & expository1 & contra/s /rik+ly ) ! mixture ( dramatic livel9ess & dialectical subtlety :i* we f9d 9 ,plato4 ,! t]m9ology ( ,ari/otle 9 ! ,analytica is to a c]ta9 ext5t diff]5t f t 9 ! treatise ,de ,int]pretatione4 ,! ,enunciation 7,greek3 ,a7po_/phanis7 appe>s "u ! new "n ( ,greek3 ,pro_/tasis1 ,proposition 79 ! lit]al s5se7 or ,premiss2 :ile1 in/ead ( ,n\n & ,v]b1 we h ! ^w ,t]m 7,greek3 ,o7_/ros71 appli$ alike bo? to ,subject & to ,pr$icate4#c ,we pass n[ f ! region ( decl>$ tru?1 into t ( inf]5tial or reason$ tru?4 ,we f9d ! proposition look$ at1 n m]ely z communicat+ tru? 9 itself1 b z g5]at+ & help+ to gu>antee c]ta9 ult]ior propositions1 :i* communicate some?+ additional or diff]5t4 ,! prim>y purpose ( ! ,analytica is ann\nc$ to be1 to treat ( ,demon/ration & demon/rative ,sci5ce2 b ! second>y purpose1 runn+ p>allel ) x & s]v+ z illu/rative c\nt]p>t1 is1 to treat also ( ,dialectic2 bo? ( !m#d be+ applications ( ! inf]5tial or ratioc9ative process1 ! !ory ( :i* ,ari/otle int5ds to unfold4 ,footnote #c3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 i4 p4 #bd1 b4 #af3 ,greek3 o7_/ron de kal ei7s o7n dialu_/etai 7 pro_/tasis1 oi7on to_/ te katgor\_/m5on kai to ka?' ou7 katgoreitai1 c4 ,greek3 ,o7_/ros--,t]m9us--seems to h be5 a te*nical ^w fir/ employ$ by ,ari/otle himself to designate subject & pr$icate z ! extremes ( a proposition1 :i* latt] he conceives z ! int]val betwe5 ! t]m9i--,greek3 dia_//ma4 7,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xv4 p4 #ce1 a4 #ab4 ,greek3 /]tikn dia/ma_/tn1 c4 ,see ,alex&]1 ,s*ol4 pp4 #ade-adf47 ,9 ! ,topica ,ari/otle employs ,greek3 o7_/ros 9 a v diff]5t s5se--,greek3 lo_/gos o7 to ti_/ 7n ei7nai smai_/nn 7,topic4 ,i4 v4 p4 #aja1 b4 #ci7--;h>dly di/+ui%$ f ,greek3 o7rismo_/s4 ,! ,s*olia take little notice ( ?is rem>kable v>iation ( mean+1 z betwe5 two treatises ( ! ,organon s intimately connect$ 7pp4 #bef-beg1 ,br474 ,footnote #d3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 i4 p4 #bd1 a4 #be4 ,! ?ree treatises--#a1 ,analytica ,priora1 #b1 ,analytica ,po/]iora1 #c1 ,topica ) ,sophi/ici ,el5*i--?us belong all to "o g5]al s*eme2 to ! !ory ( ! ,syllogism1 ) its di/9ct applications1 fir/1 to demon/rative or didactic sci5ce1 &1 next1 to dialectical debate4 ,! s*eme is pla9ly ann\nc$ at ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,analytica ,priora2 :i* treatise discusses ! ,syllogism g5]ally1 :ile ! ,analytica ,po/]iora deals ) ,demon/ration1 & ! ,topica ) ,dialectic4 ,! fir/ *apt] ( ! ,analytica ,priora & ! la/ *apt] ( ! ,sophi/ici ,el5*i 7clos+ ! ,topica71 =m a preface & a conclusion to ! :ole4 ,! exposition ( ! ,syllogism1 ,ari/otle di/9ctly ann\nces1 prec$es t ( ,demon/ration 7& = ! same reason also prec$es t ( ,dialectic71 because x is m g5]al3 e demon/ration is a sort ( syllogism1 b e syllogism is n a demon/ration4#e ,footnote #e3 ,ibid4 ,i4 iv4 p4 #be1 b4 #cj4 ,z a f\ndation = ! syllogi/ic !ory1 propositions are classifi$ accord+ to _! quantity 7m =mally ?an 9 ! treatise ,de ,int]pretatione7 into ,univ]sal1 ,p>ticul>1 & ,indef9ite or ,indet]m9ate2#f ,ari/otle does n recognize ! ,s+ul> ,proposition z a di/9ct v>iety4 ,9 reg>d to ! ,univ]sal ,proposition1 he introduces a diff]5t phraseology accord+ z x is look$ at f ! side ( ! ,subject1 or f t ( ! ,pr$icate4 ,! ,subject is1 or is n1 9 ! :ole ,pr$icate2 ! ,pr$icate is affirm$ or d5i$ respect+ all or e "o ( ! ,subject4#g ,! m9or t]m ( ! ,syllogism 79 ! fir/ mode ( ! fir/ figure7 is decl>$ to be 9 ! :ole middle t]m2 ! major is decl>$ to belong to1 or to be pr$icable (1 all & e ! middle t]m4 ,ari/otle says t ! two are ! same2 we ought r to say t ea* is ! concomitant & correlate ( ! o!r1 ?\gh 8 phraseology is su* z to obscure ! correlation4 ,footnote #f3 ,ibid4 ,i4 i4 p4 #bd1 a4 #ag4 ,! ,p>ticul> 7,greek3 e7n me_/rei71 "h = ! fir/ "t expressly di/+ui%$ by ,ari/otle1 is ?us def9$3--,greek3 e7n me_/rei de to t9i 7 m t9i 7 m panti u7pa_/r*e94 ,footnote #g3 ,ibid4 b4 #bf3 ,greek3 to d' e7n o7_/l ei7nai e7_/t]on e7te_/r1 kai to kata pantos katgorei/hai ?ate_/r\ ?a_/t]on1 tau7to_/n e7/i--tau7ton1 i4e4 ,greek3 a7nte/ramme_/ns1 z ,waitz rem>ks 9 note4 ,julius ,pacius says3--,idem re1 s$ ratione diff]unt ut asc5sus et desc5sus2 nam subjectum dicitur esse vel non esse 9 toto attributo1 quia attributum dicitur de omni vel de nullo subjecto 7p4 #abh74 ,! def9ition giv5 ( a ,syllogism is v cle> & rem>kable3--,x is a spee* 9 :i*1 "s positions hav+ be5 laid d[n1 some?+ diff]5t f ^! positions foll[s z a necess>y consequ5ce f _! be+ laid d[n4 ,9 a p]fect ,syllogism no?+ additional is requir$ to make ! necessity ( ! consequ5ce obvi\s z well z complete4 ,b !re are also imp]fect ,syllogisms1 9 :i* su* necessity1 ?\gh equally complete1 is n s obvi\sly convey$ 9 ! premisses1 b requires "s *ange to be effect$ 9 ! position ( ! t]ms 9 ord] to r5d] x conspicu\s4#h ,footnote #h3 ,ari/ot4 ,anal4 ,prior4 ,i4 i4 p4 #bd1 b4 #ah-bf4 ,! same1 ) a little diff]5ce ( word+1 at ! comm5cem5t ( ,topica1 p4 #ajj1 a4 #be4 ,comp>e also ,analyt4 ,po/]4 ,i4 x4 p4 #gf1 b4 #ch3 ,greek3 o7_/sn o7_/ntn t e7keina ei7nai gi_/netai to sumpe_/rasma4 ,! t]m ,syllogism has acquir$1 ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ,ari/otle1 a mean+ s def9ite & te*nical1 t we d n easily conceive x 9 any o!r mean+4 ,b 9 ,plato & o!r contempor>ies x be>s a mu* wid] s5se1 be+ equival5t to reason+ g5]ally1 to ! process ( comp>ison1 ab/raction1 g5]alization4#i ,x 0 ,ari/otle :o consecrat$ ! ^w1 s z to mean exclusively ! reason+ embodi$ 9 propositions ( def9ite =m & numb]4 ,hav+ already analys$ propositions sep>ately tak51 & discrim9at$ !m into v>i\s classes accord+ to _! con/itu5t elem5ts1 he n[ proce$s to consid] propositions 9 comb9ation4 ,two propositions1 if prop]ly fram$1 w conduct to a ?ird1 diff]5t f !mselves1 b :i* w be necess>ily true if !y are true4 ,ari/otle calls ! ?ree toge!r a ,syllogism4#aj ,he und]takes to %ew h[ x mu/ be fram$ 9 ord] t its conclusion %all be necess>ily true1 if ! premisses are true4 ,he furni%es s*emes :]eby ! ca/ & arrangem5t ( premisses1 prop] = atta9+ tru?1 may be recogniz$2 toge!r ) ! nature ( ! conclusion1 w>rantable "u ea* arrangem5t4 ,footnote #i3 ,see especially ,plato1 ,!tt4 p4 #ahf1 ,b-,d41 :]e ,greek3 o7 sullogismos & ,greek3 ta a7nalogi_/smata are equival5ts4 ,footnote #aj3 ,julius ,pacius 7ad ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 i47 says t x is a mi/ake on ! "p ( mo/ logicians to treat ! ,syllogism z includ+ ?ree propositions 7ut vulgus logicorum putat74 ,he consid]s ! premisses alone z con/itut+ ! ,syllogism2 ! conclusion is n a "p !re(1 b some?+ di/9ct & sup]add$4 ,x appe>s to me t ! vulgus logicorum are "h 9 ! "r4 ,9 ! ,analytica ,priora1 we f9d ourselves involv$1 f & aft] ! second *apt]1 9 ! di/9ction ( ,modal propositions1 ! necess>y & ! possible4 ,! rules respect+ ! simple ,ass]tory propositions are ?us1 ev5 f ! beg9n+1 giv5 9 conjunction & contra/ ) ^? respect+ ! ,modals4 ,?is is "o among _m causes ( ! difficulty & obscurity ) :i* ! treatise is beset4 ,!ophra/us & ,eudemus seem also to h foll[$ _! ma/] by giv+ prom95ce to ! ,modals3#aa rec5t expositors avoid ! difficulty1 "s by omitt+ !m altoge!r1 o!rs by def]r+ !m until ! simple ass]tory propositions h be5 fir/ made cle>4 ,i %all foll[ ! example ( ^! la/2 b x des]ves to be kept 9 m9d1 z illu/rat+ ,ari/otle's po9t ( view1 t he reg>ds ! ,modals z pr9cipal v>ieties ( ! proposition1 co-ord9ate 9 logical position ) ! simple ass]tory4 ,footnote #aa3 ,eudemi ,fragm5ta1 cii4-ciii4 p4 #ade1 ed4 ,sp5gel4 ,be=e ent]+ on comb9ations ( propositions1 ,ari/otle beg9s by %ew+ :at c be done ) s+le propositions1 9 view to ! inve/igation or prov+ ( tru?4 ,a s+le proposition may be conv]t$2 t is1 its subject & pr$icate may be made to *ange places4 ,if a proposition be true1 w x be true :5 ?us conv]t$1 or 79 o!r words7 w its conv]se be true8 ,if false1 w its conv]se be false8 ,if ?is be n always ! case1 :at are ! conditions & limits "u :i* 7assum+ ! proposition to be true7 ! process ( conv]sion leads to assur$ tru?1 9 ea* v>iety ( propositions1 affirmative or negative1 univ]sal or p>ticul>8 ,z f> z we "k1 ,ari/otle 0 ! fir/ p]son t ev] put to himself ?is "q2 ?\gh ! answ] to x is indisp5sable to any !ory ( ! process ( prov+ or disprov+4 ,he answ]s x be=e he ent]s ^u ! ,syllogism4 ,! rules :i* he lays d[n on ! subject h pass$ into all logical treatises4 ,!y are n[ famili>2 & read]s are apt to fancy t !re nev] 0 any novelty 9 !m--t e "o kn[s !m )\t be+ told4 ,su* fancy w\ld be illusory4 ,^! rules are v f> f be+ self-evid5t1 any m ?an ! maxims ( ,contradiction & ( ! ,exclud$ ,middle4 ,n "o ( ! rules c\ld h be5 laid d[n ) its prop] limits1 until ! discrim9ation ( propositions1 bo? z to quality 7affirmative or negative71 & z to quantity 7univ]sal or p>ticul>71 _h be5 put prom95tly =w>d & appreciat$ 9 all its be>+s4 ,! rule = tru/wor?y conv]sion is diff]5t = ea* v>iety ( propositions4 ,! ,univ]sal ,negative may be conv]t$ simply2 t is1 ! pr$icate may become subject1 & ! subject may become pr$icate--! proposition be+ true aft] conv]sion1 if x 0 true be=e4 ,b ! ,univ]sal ,affirmative _c be ?us conv]t$ simply4 ,x admits ( conv]sion only 9 ! mann] call$ by logicians p] accid5s3 if ! pr$icate *ange places ) ! subject1 we _c be sure t ! proposition ?us *ang$ w be true1 unless ! new subject be l[]$ 9 quantity f univ]sal to p>ticul>2 e4g4 ! proposition1 ,all m5 are animals1 has = its legitimate conv]se n1 ,all animals are m51 b only1 ,"s animals are m54 ,! ,p>ticul> ,affirmative may be conv]t$ simply3 if x be true t ,"s animals are m51 x w also be true t ,"s m5 are animals4 ,b1 la/ly1 if ! true proposition to be conv]t$ be a ,p>ticul> ,negative1 x _c be conv]t$ at all1 s z to make sure t ! conv]se w be true also4#ab ,footnote #ab3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 ii4 p4 #be1 a4 #a-bf4 ,"h !n are f\r sep>ate rules laid d[n1 "o = ea* v>iety ( propositions4 ,! rules = ! second & ?ird v>iety are prov$ by ! rule = ! fir/ 7! ,univ]sal ,negative71 :i* is ?us ! basis ( all4 ,b h[ does ,ari/otle prove ! rule = ! ,univ]sal ,negative itself8 ,he proce$s z foll[s3 ,if ,a _c be pr$icat$ ( any "o among ! ,b's1 nei!r c ,b be pr$icat$ ( any "o among ! ,a's4 ,= if x c\ld be pr$icat$ ( any "o among !m 7say ,c71 ! proposition t ,a _c be pr$icat$ ( any ,b w\ld n be true2 s9ce ,c is "o among ! ,b's4#ac ,"h we h a pro( giv5 :i* is no pro( at all4 ,if ,i disbeliev$ or d\bt$ ! proposition to be prov$1 ,i %\ld equally disbelieve or d\bt ! proposition giv5 to prove x4 ,! pro( only becomes valid1 :5 y add a f>!r assumption :i* ,ari/otle has n di/9ctly enunciat$1 viz43 ,t if "s ,a 7e4g4 ,c7 is ,b1 !n "s ,b mu/ also be ,a2 :i* w\ld be contr>y to ! fundam5tal supposition4 ,b ?is f>!r assumption _c be grant$ "h1 because x w\ld imply t we already "k ! rule respect+ ! conv]tibility ( ,p>ticul> ,affirmatives1 viz41 t !y admit ( be+ conv]t$ simply4 ,n[ ! rule ab\t ,p>ticul> ,affirmatives is aft]w>ds itself prov$ by help ( ! prec$+ demon/ration respect+ ! ,univ]sal ,negative4 ,z ! pro( /&s1 !re=e1 ,ari/otle demon/rates ea* ( ^! by means ( ! o!r2 :i* is n admissible4#ad ,footnote #ac3 ,ibid4 p4 #be1 a4 #ae3 ,greek3 ei7 ou7n md5i tn ,b to ,a u7pa_/r*ei1 ou7de tn ,a ou7d5i u7pa_/rxei to ,b4 ei7 gar t9i1 oi7on t ,g1 ou7k a7l!s e7_//ai to md5i tn ,b to ,a u7pa_/r*e92 to gar ,g tn ,b ti_/ e7/94 ,julius ,pacius 7p4 #abi7 proves ! ,univ]sal ,negative to be conv]tible simplicit]1 by a ,r$uctio ad ,absurdum ca/ into a syllogism 9 ! ,fir/ figure4 ,b x is surely unphilosophical to employ ! rules ( ,syllogism z a means ( prov+ ! legitimacy ( ,conv]sion1 see+ t we are =c$ to assume conv]sion 9 our process = di/+ui%+ valid f invalid syllogisms4 ,moreov] ! ,r$uctio ad ,absurdum assumes ! two fundam5tal ,maxims ( ,contradiction & ,exclud$ ,middle1 ?\gh ^! are less obvi\s1 & /& m 9 ne$ ( pro( ?an ! simple conv]sion ( ! ,univ]sal ,negative1 ! po9t t !y are br\ght to e/abli%4 ,footnote #ad3 ,waitz1 9 8 note 7p4 #cgd71 endeav\rs1 b ,i ?9k )\t success1 to %[ t ,ari/otle's pro( is n op5 to ! criticism "h advanc$4 ,he admits t x is obscurely indicat$1 b ! amplification ( x giv5 by himself /ill rema9s expos$ to ! same objection4 ,ev5 ! fri5ds & companions ( ,ari/otle 7 n satisfi$ ) 8 mann] ( e/abli%+ ?is fundam5tal rule z to ! conv]sion ( propositions4 ,eudmus is said to h giv5 a diff]5t pro(2 & ,!ophra/us assum$ z self-evid5t1 )\t any pro(1 t ! ,univ]sal ,negative might always be conv]t$ simply4#ae ,x appe>s to me t no o!r or bett] evid5ce ( x c be (f]$1 ?an ! trial ^u p>ticul> cases1 t is to say1 ,induction4#af ,no?+ is ga9$ by divid+ 7z ,ari/otle does7 ! :ole ,a into p>ts1 "o ( :i* is ,c2 nor c ,i agree ) ,!ophra/us 9 ?9k+ t e le>n] w\ld ass5t to x at fir/ he>+1 especially at a "t :5 no univ]sal maxims respect+ ! logical value ( propositions _h ev] be5 proclaim$4 ,/ill less w\ld a ,meg>ic dialectician1 if he _h nev] he>d ! maxim be=e1 be satisfi$ to /& ^u an alleg$ priori necessity )\t ask+ = evid5ce4 ,n[ !re is no o!r evid5ce except by exemplify+ ! =mula1 ,no ,a is ,b1 9 sep>ate propositions already kn[n to ! le>n] z true or false1 & by *all5g+ him to produce any "o case1 9 :i*1 :5 x is true to say ,no ,a is ,b1 x is n equally true to say1 ,no ,b is ,a2 ! univ]sality ( ! maxim be+ liable to be ov]?r[n by any "o contradictory in/ance4#ag ,if ?is pro( does n conv9ce him1 no bett] c be produc$4 ,9 a %ort "t1 d\btless1 he w acquiesce 9 ! g5]al =mula at fir/ he>+1 & he may ev5 come to reg>d x z self-evid5t4 ,x w recall to 8 memory an aggregate ( sep>ate cases ea* individually =gott51 summ+ up _! unit$ effect "u ! same aspect1 & ?us impress+ ^u him ! g5]al tru? z if x 7 n only au?oritative b self-au?oriz$4 ,footnote #ae3 ,see ! ,s*olia ( ,alex&] on ?is passage1 p4 #adh1 a4 #cj-de1 ,br&is2 ,eudemi ,fragm4 ci4-cv4 pp4 #ade-adi1 ed4 ,sp5gel4 ,footnote #af3 ,we f9d ,ari/otle decl>+ 9 ,topica1 ,,ii4 viii4 p4 #aac1 b4 #ae1 t 9 conv]t+ a true ,univ]sal ,affirmative proposition1 ! negative ( ! ,subject ( ! conv]t5d is always true ( ! negative ( ! ,pr$icate ( ! conv]t5d2 e4g4 ,if e man is an animal1 e ?+ :i* is n an animal is n a man4 ,?is is to be assum$ 7he says7 ^u ! evid5ce ( ,induction--uncontradict$ it]ation ( p>ticul> cases1 ext5d$ to all cases univ]sally--,greek3 lamba_/ne9 d' e7x e7paggs1 oi7on ei7 o7 a7_/n?rpos zon1 to m zon ou7k a7_/n?rpos2 o7moi_/s de kai e7pi tn a7_/lln4 4 4 4 4 e7pi pa_/ntn ou7n to toi\ton a7xite_/on4 ,! rule = ! simple conv]sion ( ! ,univ]sal ,negative re/s ^u ! same evid5ce ( ,induction1 nev] contradict$4 ,footnote #ag3 ,dr4 ,wallis1 9 "o ( 8 acute controv]sial treatises aga9/ ,hobbes1 rem>ks ^u ?is z ! process pursu$ by ,euclid 9 8 demon/rations3--,y tell u next t an ,induction1 )\t enum]ation ( all ! p>ticul>s1 is n suffici5t to inf] a conclusion4 ,yes1 ,sir1 if aft] ! enum]ation ( "s p>ticul>s1 !re comes a g5]al clause1 & ! l 9 o!r cases 7z "h x do?71 ?is may pass = a pro(e till !re be a possibility ( giv+ "s in/ance to ! contr>y1 :i* "h y w nev] be able to doe4 ,& if su* an ,induction may n pass = pro(e1 !re is nev] a proposition 9 ,euclid demon/rat$4 ,= all along he takes no o!r c\rse1 or at lea/ gr\nds 8 ,demon/rations on ,propositions no o!rwise demon/rat$4 ,z1 = in/ance1 he propose? x 9 g5]al 7i4 c4 #a47--,to make an equilat]al triangle on a l9e giv54 ,& !n he %[s y h[ to d x ^u ! l9e ,a ,b1 :i* he !re %[s y1 & leaves y to supply3 ,& ! same1 by ! l means1 may be done ^u any o!r /rait l9e2 & !n inf]s 8 g5]al conclusion4 ,yet ,i h n he>d any man object t ! ,induction 0 n suffici5t1 because he did n actually p]=me x 9 all l9es possible4--7,wallis1 ,due ,correction to ,mr4 ,hobbes1 ,oxon4 #afef1 sect4 v4 p4 #db47 ,?is is induction by p>ity ( reason+4 ,s also ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,po/]4 ,i4 iv4 p4 #gc1 b4 #cb3 ,greek3 to ka?o_/l\ de u7pa_/r*ei to_/te1 o7_/tan e7pi t\ tu*o_/ntos kai pr_/t\ deiknu_/tai4 ,ari/otle passes next to ,affirmatives1 bo? ,univ]sal & ,p>ticul>4 ,fir/1 if ,a c be pr$icat$ ( all ,b1 !n ,b c be pr$icat$ ( "s ,a2 = if ,b _c be pr$icat$ ( any ,a1 !n 7by ! rule = ! ,univ]sal ,negative7 nei!r c ,a be pr$icat$ ( any ,b4 ,aga91 if ,a c be pr$icat$ ( "s ,b1 9 ?is case also1 & = ! same reason1 ,b c be pr$icat$ ( "s ,a4#ah ,"h ! rule = ! ,univ]sal ,negative1 suppos$ already e/abli%$1 is appli$ legitimately to prove ! rules = ,affirmatives4 ,b 9 ! fir/ case1 t ( ! ,univ]sal1 x fails to prove "s 9 ! s5se ( n-all or "s-at-mo/1 :i* is requir$2 :]eas1 ! rules = bo? cases c be prov$ by ,induction1 l ! =mula ab\t ! ,univ]sal ,negative4 ,:5 we come to ! ,p>ticul> ,negative1 ,ari/otle lays d[n ! position1 t x does n admit ( be+ necess>ily conv]t$ 9 any way4 ,he gives no pro( ( ?is1 beyond "o s+le exemplification3 ,if "s animal is n a man1 y are n !reby w>rant$ 9 ass]t+ ! conv]se1 t "s man is n an animal4#ai ,x is pla9 t su* an exemplification is only an appeal to ,induction3 y produce "o p>ticul> example1 :i* is ent]+ on ! track ( ,induction2 & "o example alone is suffici5t to e/abli% ! negative ( an univ]sal proposition4#bj ,! conv]se ( a ,p>ticul> ,negative is n 9 all cases true1 ?\gh x may be true 9 _m cases4 ,footnote #ah3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 ii4 p4 #be1 a4 #ag-bb4 ,footnote #ai3 ,ibid4 p4 #be1 a4 #bb-bf4 ,footnote #bj3 ,?\gh "s may fancy t ! rule = conv]t+ ! ,univ]sal ,negative is intuitively kn[n1 yet e "o mu/ see t ! rule = conv]t+ ! ,univ]sal ,affirmative is n ?us self-evid5t1 or d]iv$ f natural intuition4 ,9 fact1 ,i believe t e le>n] at fir/ he>s x ) great surprise4 ,"s are apt to fancy t ! ,univ]sal ,affirmative 7l ! ,p>ticul> ,affirmative7 may be conv]t$ simply4 ,inde$ ?is error is n unfrequ5tly committ$ 9 actual reason+2 all ! m easily1 because !re is a class ( cases 7) subject & pr$icate co-ext5sive7 :]e ! conv]se ( ! ,univ]sal ,affirmative is really true4 ,also1 9 ! case ( ! ,p>ticul> ,negative1 !re are _m true propositions 9 :i* ! simple conv]se is true4 ,a novice might incauti\sly g5]alize ^u ^? in/ances1 & conclude t bo? 7 conv]tible simply4 ,nor c\ld y conv9ce him ( 8 error except by produc+ examples 9 :i*1 :5 a true proposition ( ?is k9d is conv]t$ simply1 ! result+ conv]se is notori\sly false4 ,! appeal to v>i\s sep>ate cases is ! only basis on :i* we c re/ = te/+ ! correctness or incorrectness ( all ^! maxims proclaim$ z univ]sal4 ,f "o proposition tak5 s+ly1 no new proposition c be inf]r$2 = purposes ( inf]5ce1 two propositions at lea/ are requir$4#ba ,?is br+s u to ! rules ( ! ,syllogism1 :]e two propositions z premisses conduct u to a ?ird :i* necess>ily foll[s f !m2 & we are introduc$ to ! well-kn[n ?ree ,figures ) _! v>i\s ,modes4#bb ,to =m a valid ,syllogism1 !re mu/ be ?ree t]ms & no m2 ! two1 :i* appe> z ,subject & ,pr$icate ( ! conclusion1 are call$ ! m9or t]m 7or m9or extreme7 & ! major t]m 7or major extreme7 respectively2 :ile ! ?ird or middle t]m mu/ appe> 9 ea* ( ! premisses1 b n 9 ! conclusion4 ,^! t]ms are call$ extremes & middle1 f ! position :i* !y occupy 9 e p]fect ,syllogism--t is 9 :at ,ari/otle ranks z ! ,fir/ among ! ?ree figures4 ,9 8 way ( enunciat+ ! ,syllogism1 ?is middle position =m$ a conspicu\s feature2 :]eas ! mod]n arrangem5t disguises x1 ?\gh ! d5om9ation middle t]m is /ill reta9$4 ,ari/otle usually employs lett]s ( ! alphabet1 :i* he 0 ! fir/ to select z abbreviations = exposition2#bc & he has two ways 7con=m+ to :at he _h said 9 ! fir/ *apt] ( ! pres5t treatise7 ( enunciat+ ! modes ( ! ,fir/ figure4 ,9 "o way1 he beg9s ) ! major extreme 7,pr$icate ( ! conclusion73 ,a may be pr$icat$ ( all ,b1 ,b may be pr$icat$ ( all ,c2 !re=e1 ,a may be pr$icat$ ( all ,c 7,univ]sal ,affirmative74 ,aga91 ,a _c be pr$icat$ ( any ,b1 ,b c be pr$icat$ ( all ,c2 !re=e1 ,a _c be pr$icat$ ( any ,c 7,univ]sal ,negative74 ,9 ! o!r way1 he beg9s ) ! m9or t]m 7,subject ( ! conclusion73 ,c is 9 ! :ole ,b1 ,b is 9 ! :ole ,a2 !re=e1 ,c is 9 ! :ole ,a 7,univ]sal ,affirmative74 ,&1 ,c is 9 ! :ole ,b1 ,b is n 9 ! :ole ,a2 !re=e1 ,c is n 9 ! :ole ,a 7,univ]sal ,negative74 ,we see ?us t 9 ,ari/otle's way ( enunciat+ ! ,fir/ figure1 ! middle t]m is really plac$ betwe5 ! two extremes1#bd ?\gh ?is is n s 9 ! ,second & ,?ird figures4 ,9 ! mod]n way ( enunciat+ ^! figures1 ! middle t]m is nev] plac$ betwe5 ! two extremes2 yet ! d5om9ation middle /ill rema9s4 ,footnote #ba3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xv4 p4 #cd1 a4 #ag2 xxiii4 p4 #dj1 b4 #ce2 ,analyt4 ,po/]4 ,i4 iii4 p4 #gc1 a4 #g4 ,footnote #bb3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 iv4 p4 #be1 b4 #bf1 seq4 ,footnote #bc3 ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire 7,logique d',ari/ote1 vol4 ii4 p4 #g1 n471 ref]r+ to ! examples ( ,conv]sion 9 *ap4 ii41 obs]ves3--,voici le prmi] usage des lettres reprs5tant des ides2 c'e/ un procd t\t fait algbrique1 c'e/ dire1 de gnralisation4 ,dj1 dans l',h]mneia1 *4 #ac1 #a et suiv41 ,ari/ote a fait usage de tableaux p\r reprs5t] sa p5se relativem5t la conscution des modales4 ,il p>le encore spcialem5t de figures explicatives1 liv4 #b4 des ,d]ni]s ,analytiques1 *4 #ag1 #g4 ,v+t passages de l',hi/oire des ,animaux atte/5t qu'il joignait des dess9s ses obs]vations et ses ?ories zoologiques4 ,les illu/rations pittoresques dat5t donc de =t lo94 ,l'emploi symbolique des lettres a t appliqu aussi p> ,ari/ote la ,physique4 ,il l'avait emprunt1 sans d\te1 aux procds des ma?matici5s4 ,we may rem>k1 h[ev]1 t :5 ,ari/otle proce$s to specify ^? comb9ations ( propositions :i* d n give a valid conclusion1 he is n satisfi$ ) giv+ lett]s ( ! alphabet2 he sup]adds special illu/rative examples 7,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 v4 p4 #bg1 a4 #g1 #ab1 #cd1 #ch74 ,footnote #bd3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 iv4 p4 #be1 b4 #ce3 ,greek3 kal de me_/son1 o7 kai au7to e7n a7_/ll kai a7_/llo e7n t\_/t e7/i_/n1 o7 kai t !_/sei gi_/netai me_/son4 ,! ,modes ( ea* figure are di/+ui%$ by ! diff]5t "* & relation ( ! two premisses1 accord+ z ^! are ei!r affirmative or negative1 ei!r univ]sal or p>ticul>4 ,accord+ly1 !re are f\r possible v>ieties ( ea*1 & sixte5 possible modes or v>ieties ( comb9ations betwe5 ! two4 ,ari/otle goes ?r\gh mo/ ( ! sixte5 modes1 & %[s t 9 ! fir/ ,figure !re are only f\r among !m t are legitimate1 c>ry+ ) !m a necess>y conclusion4 ,he %[s1 f>!r1 t 9 all ! f\r !re are two conditions obs]v$1 & t bo? ^! conditions are indisp5sable 9 ! ,fir/ figure3--7#a7 ,! major proposition mu/ be univ]sal1 ei!r affirmative or negative2 7#b7 ,! m9or proposition mu/ be affirmative1 ei!r univ]sal or p>ticul> or indef9ite4 ,su* mu/ be ! "* ( ! premisses1 9 ! fir/ ,figure1 :]ev] ! conclusion is valid & necess>y2 & vice v]s1 ! conclusion w be valid & necess>y1 :5 su* is ! "* ( ! premisses4#be ,footnote #be3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 iv4 p4 #bf1 b4 #bf1 et sup4 ,9 reg>d to ! f\r valid modes 7,b>b>a1 ,cel>5t1 ,d>ii1 ,f]io1 z we read 9 ! s*ola/ic ,logic7 ,ari/otle decl>es at once 9 g5]al language t ! conclusion foll[s necess>ily2 :i* he illu/rates by sett+ d[n 9 alphabetical lett]s ! skeleton ( a syllogism 9 ,b>b>a4 ,if ,a is pr$icat$ ( all ,b1 & ,b ( all ,c1 ,a mu/ necess>ily be pr$icat$ ( all ,c4 ,b he does n ju/ify x by any real example2 he produces no special syllogism ) real t]ms1 & ) a conclusion kn[n be=eh& to be true4 ,he seems to ?9k t ! g5]al doctr9e w be accept$ z evid5t )\t any su* corroboration4 ,he c\nts ^u ! le>n]'s memory & phantasy = supply+1 out ( ! pa/ disc\rse ( common life1 propositions con=m+ to ! conditions 9 :i* ! symbolical lett]s h be5 plac$1 & = n supply+ any contradictory examples4 ,?is might suffice = a treatise2 b we may reasonably believe t ,ari/otle1 :5 tea*+ 9 8 s*ool1 w\ld sup]add illu/rative examples2 = ! doctr9e 0 !n novel1 & he is n unm9dful ( ! errors into :i* le>n]s (t5 fall spontane\sly4#bf ,footnote #bf3 ,analyt4 ,po/]4 ,i4 xxiv4 p4 #he1 b4 #ba4 ,:5 he deals ) ! rema9+ or invalid modes ( ! ,fir/ figure1 8 mann] ( %[+ _! invalidity is diff]5t1 & 9 itself some:at curi\s4 ,if 7he says7 ! major t]m is affirm$ ( all ! middle1 :ile ! middle is d5i$ ( all ! m9or1 no necess>y consequ5ce foll[s f su* be+ ! fact1 nor w !re be any syllogism ( ! two extremes2 = x is equally possible1 ei!r t ! major t]m may be affirm$ ( all ! m9or1 or t x may be d5i$ ( all ! m9or2 s t no conclusion1 ei!r univ]sal or p>ticul>1 is necess>y 9 all cases4#bg ,examples ( su* d\ble possibility are !n exhibit$3 fir/1 ( ?ree t]ms arrang$ 9 two propositions 7,a & ,e71 9 :i*1 f ! t]ms specially *os51 ! major happ5s to be truly affirmable ( all ! m9or2 s t ! ?ird proposition is an univ]sal ,affirmative3-- ,major & ,animal is pr$icable ( e ,man2 ,middle4 ,middle & ,man is n pr$icable ( any ,horse2 ,m9or ,major & ,animal is pr$icable ( e ,horse4 ,m9or ,next1 a second example is set out ) new t]ms1 9 :i* ! major happ5s n to be truly pr$icable ( any ( ! m9or2 ?us exhibit+ z ?ird proposition an univ]sal ,negative3-- ,major & ,animal is pr$icable ( e ,man2 ,middle4 ,middle & ,man is n pr$icable ( any ,/one2 ,m9or ,major & ,animal is n pr$icable ( any ,/one4 ,m9or ,"h we see t ! full exposition ( a syllogism is indicat$ ) real t]ms common & famili> to e "o2 alphabetical symbols w\ld n h suffic$1 = ! le>n] mu/ himself recognize ! "o conclusion z true1 ! o!r z false4 ,h5ce we are taught t1 aft] two premisses ?us condition$1 if we v5ture to jo9 toge!r ! major & m9or s z to =m a pret5d$ conclusion1 we may 9 "s cases obta9 a true proposition univ]sally ,affirmative1 9 o!r cases a true proposition univ]sally ,negative4 ,!re=e 7,ari/otle argues7 !re is no "o necess>y conclusion1 ! same 9 all cases1 d]ivable f su* premisses2 9 o!r words1 ?is mode ( syllogism is invalid & proves no?+4 ,he applies ! l reason+ to all ! o!r invalid modes ( ! fir/ ,figure2 sett+ !m aside 9 ! same way1 & produc+ examples :]e9 d\ble & opposite conclusions 7improp]ly s call$71 bo? true1 are obta9$ 9 diff]5t cases f ! l arrangem5t ( premisses4 ,footnote #bg3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 iv4 p4 #bf1 a4 #b1 seq4 ,?is mode ( reason+ pla9ly dep5ds ^u an appeal to prior exp]i5ce4 ,! validity or invalidity ( ea* mode ( ! ,fir/ figure is te/$ by apply+ x to diff]5t p>ticul> cases1 ea* ( :i* is famili> & kn[n to ! le>n] aliunde2 9 "o case1 ! conjunction ( ! major & m9or t]ms 9 ! ?ird proposition makes an univ]sal ,affirmative :i* he kn[s to be true2 9 ano!r case1 ! l conjunction makes an univ]sal ,negative1 :i* he also kn[s to be true2 s t !re is no "o necess>y 7i4e4 no "o uni=m & tru/wor?y7 conclusion d]ivable f su* premisses4#bh ,9 o!r words1 ^! modes ( ! ,fir/ figure are n valid or available 9 =m2 ! negation be+ suffici5tly prov$ by "o s+le undisput$ example4 ,footnote #bh3 ,?\gh ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire 7note1 p4 #ai7 decl>es ,ari/otle's exposition to be a model ( analysis1 x appe>s to me t ! gr\nds = disall[+ ?is invalid mode ( ! ,fir/ figure 7,a--,e--,a1 or ,a--,e--,e7 are n cle>ly set =? by ,ari/otle himself1 :ile !y are r5d]$ /ill d>k] by "s ( 8 be/ comm5tators4 ,?us ,waitz says 7p4 #cha73 ,p] exempla allata probat 7,ari/oteles7 quod demon/r>e debebat ex ips ratione quam s+uli t]m9i int] se habeant3 e/ enim proprium artis logic1 ut t]m9orum rationem cognoscat1 dum res ignoret4 ,num de ,caio prdicetur animal nescit1 scit de ,caio prdic>i animal1 si animal de hom9e et homo de ,caio prdicetur4 ,?is comm5t ( ,waitz appe>s to me f\nd$ 9 error4 ,ari/otle _h no means ( %ew+ ! invalidity ( ! mode ,a ,e 9 ! ,fir/ figure1 except by an appeal to p>ticul> examples4 ,! invalidity ( ! invalid modes1 & ! validity ( ! valid modes1 re/ alike ^u ?is ultimate ref]5ce to examples ( propositions kn[n to be true or false1 by prior exp]i5ce ( ! le>n]4 ,! valid modes are ^? :i* w /& ?is trial & v]ification2 ! invalid modes are ^? :i* w n /& x4 ,n till su* v]ification has be5 made1 is "o w>rant$ 9 g5]aliz+ ! result1 & enunciat+ a =mula applicable to unkn[n p>ticul>s 7rationem t]m9orum cognosc]e1 dum res ignoret74 ,x 0 impossible = ,ari/otle to d :at ,waitz requires ( him4 ,i take ! opposite gr\nd1 & regret t he did n set =? ! fundam5tal te/ ( appeal to example & exp]i5ce1 9 a m emphatic & unmi/akeable mann]4 ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire 79 ! note to 8 translation1 p4 #ad7 does n l5d any additional cle>ness1 :5 he talks ( ! conclusion f ! propositions ,a & ,e 9 ! ,fir/ figure4 ,julius ,pacius says 7p4 #acd73 ,si tam5 conclusio dici debet1 qu non colligitur ex propositionibus1 c4 ,moreov]1 ,m4 ,/4 ,hilaire 7p4 #ai7 slurs ov] ! legitimate f\ndation1 ! appeal to exp]i5ce1 mu* z ,ari/otle himself does3 ,puis pr5ant des exemples o la conclusion e/ de t\te vid5ce1 ,ari/ote les applique successivem5t *acune de ces comb9aisons2 celles qui donn5t la conclusion f\rnie d'ailleurs p> le bon s5s1 sont concluantes ou syllogi/iques1 les autres sont asyllogi/iques4 ,we are n[ introduc$ to ! ,second figure1 9 :i* ea* ( ! two premisses has ! middle t]m z ,pr$icate4#bi ,to give a legitimate conclusion 9 ?is figure1 "o or o!r ( ! premisses mu/ be negative1 & ! major premiss mu/ be univ]sal2 moreov] no affirmative conclusions c ev] be obta9$ 9 x--none b negative conclusions1 univ]sal or p>ticul>4 ,9 ?is ,second figure too1 ,ari/otle recognizes f\r valid modes2 sett+ aside ! o!r possible modes z invalid#cj 79 ! same way z he _h done 9 ! ,fir/ figure71 because ! ?ird proposition or conjunction ( ! major t]m ) ! m9or1 might 9 "s cases be a true univ]sal affirmative1 9 o!r cases a true univ]sal negative4 ,z to ! ?ird & f\r? ( ! valid modes1 he demon/rates !m by assum+ ! contradictory ( ! conclusion1 toge!r ) ! major premiss1 & !n %[+ t ^! two premisses =m a new syllogism1 :i* leads to a conclusion contradict+ ! m9or premiss4 ,?is me?od1 call$ ,r$uctio ad ,impossibile1 is "h employ$ = ! fir/ "t2 & employ$ )\t be+ u%]$ 9 or def9$1 z if x 7 famili>ly kn[n4#ca ,footnote #bi3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 v4 p4 #bf1 b4 #cd4 ,z ,ari/otle enunciates a proposition by putt+ ! pr$icate be=e ! subject1 he says t 9 ?is ,second figure ! middle t]m comes ,greek3 prton t !_/sei4 ,9 ! ,?ird figure1 = ! same reason1 he calls x ,greek3 e7_/s*aton t !_/sei1 vi4 p4 #bh1 a4 #ae4 ,footnote #cj3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 v4 p4 #bg1 a4 #ah4 ,9 ^! invalid modes1 ,ari/otle says !re is no syllogism2 !re=e we _c prop]ly speak ( a conclusion1 b only ( a ?ird proposition1 conjo9+ ! major ) ! m9or4 ,footnote #ca3 ,ibid4 p4 #bg1 a4 #ae1 #bf1 seq4 ,x is said to involve ,greek3 u7po_/!sis1 p4 #bh1 a4 #g2 to be ,greek3 e7x u7po!_/ses xxiii4 p4 #da1 a4 #be2 to be ,greek3 t\ e7x u7po!_/ses1 z oppos$ to ,greek3 deiktiko_/s1 xxiii4 p4 #dj1 b4 #be4 ,m4 ,b4 ,/4 ,hilaire rem>ks ju/ly1 t ,ari/otle might be expect$ to def9e or expla9 :at x is1 on fir/ m5tion+ x 7note1 p4 #bb74 ,la/ly1 we h ! ,?ird figure1 :]e9 ! middle t]m is ! ,subject 9 bo? premisses4 ,"h "o at lea/ ( ! premisses mu/ be univ]sal1 ei!r affirmative or negative4 ,b no univ]sal conclusions c be obta9$ 9 ?is figure2 all ! conclusions are p>ticul>4 ,ari/otle recognizes six legitimate modes2 9 all ( :i* ! conclusions are p>ticul>1 f\r ( !m be+ affirmative1 two negative4 ,! o!r possible modes he sets aside z 9 ! two prec$+ figures4#cb ,footnote #cb3 ,ibid4 ,i4 vi4 p4 #bh1 a4 #aj-p4 #bi1 a4 #ah4 ,b ,ari/otle assigns to ! ,fir/ figure a m>k$ sup]iority z comp>$ ) ! ,second & ,?ird4 ,x is ! only "o t yields p]fect syllogisms2 ^? furni%$ by ! o!r two are all imp]fect4 ,! c>d9al pr9ciple ( syllogi/ic pro(1 z he conceives x1 is--,t :atev] c be affirm$ or d5i$ ( a :ole1 c be affirm$ or d5i$ ( any "p !re(4#cc ,! major proposition affirms or d5ies some?+ univ]sally respect+ a c]ta9 :ole2 ! m9or proposition decl>es a c]ta9 "p to be includ$ 9 t :ole4 ,to ?is pr9ciple ! f\r modes ( ! ,fir/ figure manife/ly & unmi/akably con=m1 )\t any trans=mation ( _! premisses4 ,b 9 ! o!r figures su* con=mity does n obvi\sly appe>1 & mu/ be demon/rat$ by r$uc+ _! syllogisms to ! ,fir/ figure2 ei!r o/5sively by exposition ( a p>ticul> case1 & conv]sion ( ! premisses1 or by ,r$uctio ad ,impossibile4 ,ari/otle1 accord+ly1 claims au?ority = ! ,second & ,?ird figures only s f> z !y c be r$uc$ to ! ,fir/4#cd ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 obs]ve t 9 ?is process ( r$uction no new evid5ce is tak5 92 ! matt] ( evid5ce rema9s un*ang$1 & ! =m alone is alt]$1 accord+ to laws ( logical conv]sion :i* ,ari/otle has already laid d[n & ju/ifi$4 ,ano!r gr\nd ( ! sup]iority & p]fection :i* he claims = ! ,fir/ figure1 is1 t x is ! only "o 9 :i* e v>iety ( conclusion c be prov$2 & especially ! only "o 9 :i* ! ,univ]sal ,affirmative c be prov$--! great aim ( sci5tific rese>*4 ,:]eas1 9 ! ,second figure we c prove only negative conclusions1 univ]sal or p>ticul>2 & 9 ! ,?ird figure only p>ticul> conclusions1 affirmative or negative4#ce ,footnote #cc3 ,ibid4 ,i4 xli4 p4 #di1 b4 #cg3 ,greek3 o7_/ls gar o7 m_/ e7/9 7s o7_/lon pros me_/ros kai a7_/llo pros t\to 7s me_/ros pros o7_/lon1 e7x ou7d5os tn toi\_/tn dei_/knus9 o7 deiknu_/n1 7_//e ou7de gi_/netai sullogismo_/s4 ,he _h be=e said ?is ab\t ! relation ( ! ?ree t]ms 9 ! ,syllogism1 ,i4 iv4 p4 #be1 b4 #cb3 ,greek3 o7_/tan o7_/roi treis ou7_/ts e7_/*si pros a7ll_/l\s 7_//e ton e7_/s*aton e7n o7_/l ei7nai t me_/s kai ton me_/son e7n o7_/l t pr_/t 7 ei7nai 7 m ei7nai1 a7na_/gk tn a7_/krn ei7nai sullogismon te_/leion 7,dictum de ,omni et ,nullo74 ,footnote #cd3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 vii4 p4 #bi1 a4 #cj-;b4 #be4 ,footnote #ce3 ,ibid4 ,i4 iv4 p4 #bf1 b4 #cj1 p4 #bg1 a4 #a1 p4 #bh1 a4 #i1 p4 #bi1 a4 #ae4 ,an admissible syllogism 9 ! ,second or ,?ird figure is sometimes call$ ,greek3 dunatos z oppos$ to ,greek3 te_/leios1 p4 #da1 b4 #cc4 ,comp>e ,kampe1 ,die ,erk5ntniss-,!orie des ,ari/oteles1 p4 #bde1 ,leipzig1 #ahgj4 ,su* are ! ma9 pr9ciples ( syllogi/ic inf]5ce & rules = syllogi/ic reason+1 z laid d[n by ,ari/otle4 ,dur+ ! m$ival p]iod1 !y 7 all[$ to ramify into endless subtle te*nicalities1 & to absorb ! att5tion ( tea*]s & /udi\s m51 long aft] ! "t :5 o!r useful bran*es ( sci5ce & lit]ature 7 press+ = att5tion4 ,?r\gh su* prolong$ monopoly--:i* ,ari/otle1 among ! mo/ encyclop$ical ( all writ]s1 nev] ?\ght ( claim+ = !m--!y h become s discr$it$1 t x is difficult to call back att5tion to !m z !y /ood 9 ! ,ari/otelian age4 ,we h to rem9d ! read]1 aga91 t ?\gh language 0 !n us$ ) great ability = rhetorical & dialectical purposes1 !re exi/$ z yet h>dly any sy/ematic or sci5tific /udy ( x 9 ei!r ( ^! bran*es4 ,! s*eme & ! t]m9ology ( any su* sci5ce 7 alike unkn[n1 & ,ari/otle 0 oblig$ to con/ruct x himself f ! f\ndation4 ,! rhetorical & dialectical tea*+ z !n giv5 7he tells u7 0 m]e unsci5tific r\t9e1 prescrib+ specim5s ( art to be committ$ to memory3 respect+ syllogism 7or ! conditions ( legitimate d$uctive inf]5ce7 absolutely no?+ _h be5 said4#cf ,"u ^! circum/ances1 8 !ory ( names1 notions1 & propositions z employ$ = purposes ( exposition & ratioc9ation1 is a rem>kable example ( orig9al inv5tive p[]4 ,he _h to "w x out by pati5t & labori\s rese>*4 ,no way 0 op5 to him except ! dilig5t comp>ison & analysis ( propositions4 ,& ?\gh all /ud5ts h n[ become famili> ) ! v>i\s classes ( t]ms & propositions1 toge!r ) _! pr9cipal *>act]i/ics & relations1 yet to frame & designate su* classes = ! fir/ "t )\t any prec$5t to foll[1 to det]m9e = ea* ! rules & conditions ( logical conv]tibility1 to put toge!r ! con/itu5ts ( ! ,syllogism1 ) its graduation ( ,figures & diff]5ce ( ,modes1 & ) a selection1 ju/ifi$ by reasons giv51 betwe5 ! valid & ! invalid modes--all ?is implies a high ord] ( orig9al sy/ematiz+ g5ius1 & mu/ h requir$ ! mo/ labori\s & multipli$ comp>isons betwe5 propositions 9 detail4 ,footnote #cf3 ,ari/ot4 ,sophi/4 ,el5*4 p4 #ahd1 a4 #a1 b4 #b3 ,greek3 dio_/p] ta*eia men a7_/te*nos d' 7n 7 didaskali_/a tois man?a_/n\si p>' au7tn2 ou7 gar te_/*nn a7lla ta a7po ts te_/*ns dido_/ntes paideu_/e9 u7pela_/mbanon 4 4 4 4 p]i de t\ sullogi_/ze/hai pantels ou7den ei7_/*om5 pro_/t]on a7_/llo le_/ge91 a7ll' 7 trib zt\ntes polun *ro_/non e7pon\m54 ,! prec$+ abridgm5t ( ,ari/otle's exposition ( ! ,syllogism applies only to propositions simply affirmative or simply negative4 ,b ,ari/otle himself1 z already rem>k$1 complicates ! exposition by putt+ ! ,modal propositions 7,possible1 ,necess>y7 ^u ! same l9e z ! above-m5tion$ ,simple propositions4 ,i h notic$1 9 deal+ ) ! treatise ,de ,int]pretatione1 ! confusion t has aris5 f ?us elevat+ ! ,modals into a l9e ( classification co-ord9ate ) propositions simply ,ass]tory4 ,9 ! ,analytica1 ?is confusion is /ill m s5sibly felt1 f ! introduction ( syllogisms 9 :i* "o ( ! premisses is necess>y1 :ile ! o!r is only possible4 ,we may rem>k1 h[ev]1 t1 9 ! ,analytica1 ,ari/otle is /rict] 9 def9+ ! ,possible ?an he has be5 9 ! ,de ,int]pretatione2 = he n[ disjo9s ! ,possible altoge!r f ! ,necess>y1 mak+ x equival5t to ! ,problematical 7n m]ely may be1 b may be or may n be74#cg ,9 ! middle1 too1 ( 8 diffuse exposition ( ! ,modals1 he ins]ts "o important rem>k1 respect+ univ]sal propositions g5]ally1 :i* belongs q z mu* to ! prec$+ exposition ab\t propositions simply ass]tory4 ,he obs]ves t univ]sal propositions h no?+ to d ) "t1 pres5t1 pa/1 or future2 b are to be und]/ood 9 a s5se absolute & unqualifi$4#ch ,footnote #cg3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 viii4 p4 #bi1 a4 #cb2 xiii4 p4 #cb1 a4 #bj-cf3 ,greek3 to gar a7nagkaion o7mnu_/ms e7nde_/*e/hai le_/gom54 ,9 xiv4 p4 #cc1 b4 #bb1 he excludes ?is equivocal mean+ ( ,greek3 to e7nde*o_/m5on--dei de to e7nde_/*e/ha lamba_/ne9 m e7n tois a7nagkai_/ois1 a7lla kata ton ei7rme_/non diorismo_/n4 ,see xiii4 p4 #cb1 a4 #cc1 :]e ,greek3 to e7nde_/*e/hai u7pa_/r*e9 is ass]t$ to be equival5t to or conv]tible ) ,greek3 to e7nde_/*e/hai m u7pa_/r*e92 & xix4 p4 #ch1 a4 #ce3 ,greek3 to e7x a7na_/gks ou7k 7n e7nde*o_/m5on4 ,!ophra/us & ,eudemus diff]$ f ,ari/otle ab\t 8 !ory ( ! ,modals 9 sev]al po9ts 7,s*olia ad ,analyt4 ,priora1 pp4 #afa1 b4 #cj2 #afb1 b4 #bc2 #aff1 a4 #ab1 b4 #ae1 ,br&474 ,respect+ ! want ( cle>ness 9 ,ari/otle ab\t ,greek3 to e7nde*o_/m5on1 see ,waitz's note 9999ad p4 #cb1 b4 #af4 ,moreov]1 he sometimes uses ,greek3 u7pa_/r*on 9 ! wide/ s5se1 includ+ ,greek3 e7nde*o_/m5on & ,greek3 a7nagkaion1 xxiii4 p4 #dj1 b4 #bd4 ,footnote #ch3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xv4 p4 #cd1 b4 #g4 ,hav+ f9i%$ ) ! ,modals1 ,ari/otle proce$s to lay x d[n1 t all demon/ration mu/ fall "u "o or o!r ( ! ?ree figures j describ$2 & !re=e t all may be r$uc$ ultimately to ! two fir/ modes ( ! ,fir/ figure4 ,y _c proce$ a /ep ) two t]ms only & "o proposition only4 ,y mu/ h two propositions includ+ ?ree t]ms2 ! middle t]m occupy+ ! place assign$ to x 9 "o or o!r ( ! ?ree figures4#ci ,?is is obvi\sly true :5 y demon/rate by direct or o/5sive syllogism2 & x is no less true :5 y proce$ by ,r$uctio ad ,impossibile4 ,?is la/ is "o mode ( syllogiz+ f an hypo!sis or assumption3#dj y\r conclusion be+ disput$1 y prove x indirectly1 by assum+ its contradictory to be true1 & con/ruct+ a new syllogism by means ( t contradictory toge!r ) a second premiss admitt$ to be true2 ! conclusion ( ?is new syllogism be+ a proposition obvi\sly false or kn[n be=eh& to be false4 ,y\r demon/ration mu/ be conduct$ by a regul> syllogism1 z x is :5 y proce$ directly & o/5sively4 ,! diff]5ce is1 t ! conclusion :i* y obta9 is n t :i* y wi% ultimately to arrive at1 b some?+ notori\sly false4 ,b z ?is false conclusion arises f y\r assumption or hypo!sis t ! contradictory ( ! conclusion orig9ally disput$ 0 true1 y h indirectly made out y\r case t ?is contradictory mu/ h be5 false1 & !re=e t ! conclusion orig9ally disput$ 0 true4 ,all ?is1 h[ev]1 has be5 demon/ration by regul> syllogism1 b />t+ f an hypo!sis assum$ & admitt$ z "o ( ! premisses4#da ,footnote #ci3 ,ibid4 xxiii4 p4 #dj1 b4 #bj1 p4 #da1 a4 #d-bj4 ,footnote #dj3 ,ibid4 p4 #dj1 b4 #be3 ,greek3 e7_/ti 7 deiktiks 7 e7x u7po!_/ses2 t\ d' e7x u7po!_/ses me_/ros to dia t\ a7duna_/t\4 ,footnote #da3 ,ibid4 p4 #da1 b4 #bc3 ,greek3 pa_/ntes gar oi7 dia t\ a7duna_/t\ p]ai_/nontes to men pseudos sullogi_/zontai1 to d' e7x a7r*s e7x u7po!_/ses deiknu_/ous91 o7_/tan a7du_/nato_/n ti sumbai_/n ts a7ntipha_/ses te!i_/ss4 ,x des]ves to be rem>k$ t ,ari/otle uses ! phrase ,greek3 sullogismos e7x u7po!_/ses1 n ,greek3 sullogismos u7po!tiko_/s4 ,?is be>s ^u ! "q z to 8 views ^u :at subsequ5tly receiv$ ! title ( hypo!tical syllogisms2 a subject to :i* ,i %all adv]t 9 a future note4 ,ari/otle "h aga9 en=ces :at he _h be=e urg$--t 9 e valid syllogism1 "o premiss at lea/ mu/ be affirmative1 & "o premiss at lea/ mu/ be univ]sal4 ,if ! conclusion be univ]sal1 bo? premisses mu/ be s likewise2 if x be p>ticul>1 "o ( ! premisses may n be univ]sal4 ,b )\t "o univ]sal premiss at lea/1 !re c be no syllogi/ic pro(4 ,if y h a !sis to support1 y _c assume 7or ask to be conc$$ to y7 t v !sis1 )\t committ+ petitio pr9cipii1 7i4e4 qusiti or prob&i72 y mu/ assume 7or ask to h conc$$ to y7 "s univ]sal proposition conta9+ x & m besides2 "u :i* univ]sal y may br+ ! subject ( y\r !sis z a m9or1 & ?us ! premisses necess>y = support+ x w be complet$4 ,ari/otle illu/rates ?is by giv+ a demon/ration t ! angles at ! base ( an isosceles triangle are equal2 ju/ify+ e /ep 9 ! reason+ by an appeal to "s univ]sal proposition4#db ,footnote #db3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xxiv4 p4 #da1 b4 #f-ca4 ,! demon/ration giv5 7b4 #ac-bb7 is diff]5t f t :i* we read 9 ,euclid1 & is n easy to foll[4 ,x is m cle>ly expla9$ by ,waitz 7p4 #dcd7 ?an ei!r by ,julius ,pacius or by ,m4 ,b>?4 ,/4 ,hilaire 7p4 #ajh74 ,aga91 e demon/ration is effect$ by two propositions 7an ev5 numb]7 & by ?ree t]ms 7an odd numb]72 ?\gh ! same proposition may p]haps be demon/rable by m ?an "o pair ( premisses1 or ?r\gh m ?an "o middle t]m2#dc t is1 by two or m di/9ct syllogisms4 ,if !re be m ?an ?ree t]ms & two propositions1 ei!r ! syllogism w no long] be "o b sev]al2 or !re mu/ be p>ticul>s introduc$ = ! purpose ( obta9+ an univ]sal by induction2 or some?+ w be includ$1 sup]flu\s & n ess5tial to ! demon/ration1 p]haps = ! purpose ( conceal+ f ! respond5t ! real inf]5ce meant4#dd ,9 ! case 7aft]w>ds call$ ,sorites7 :]e ! ultimate conclusion is obta9$ ?r\gh sev]al mean t]ms 9 cont9u\s s]ies1 ! numb] ( t]ms w always exce$ by "o ! numb] ( propositions2 b ! numb]s may be odd or ev51 accord+ to circum/ances4 ,z t]ms are add$1 ! total ( int]m$iate conclusions1 if drawn out 9 =m1 w come to be f> great] ?an t ( ! t]ms or propositions1 multiply+ z x w d 9 an increas+ ratio to !m4#de ,footnote #dc3 ,ibid4 ,i4 xxv4 p4 #da1 b4 #cf1 seq4 ,footnote #dd3 ,ibid4 xxv4 p4 #db1 a4 #bc3 ,greek3 ma_/tn e7_//ai ei7lmme_/na1 ei7 m e7paggs 7 kru_/pses 7_/ t9os a7_/ll\ tn toi\_/tn *a_/r94 ,ib4 a4 #ch3 ,greek3 ou7tos o7 lo_/gos 7 ou7 sullelo_/gi/ai 7 plei_/ tn a7nagkai_/n 7r_/tke pros tn !_/s94 ,footnote #de3 ,ibid4 p4 #db1 b4 #e-bf4 ,x w be se5 cle>ly f ! =ego+ rem>ks t !re is a great diff]5ce betwe5 "o !sis & ano!r z to facility ( attack or def5ce 9 ,dialectic4 ,if ! !sis be an ,univ]sal ,affirmative proposition1 x c be demon/rat$ only 9 ! ,fir/ figure1 & only by "o comb9ation ( premisses2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 x c be impugn$ ei!r by an univ]sal negative1 :i* c be demon/rat$ bo? 9 ! ,fir/ & ,second figures1 or by a p>ticul> negative1 :i* c be demon/rat$ 9 all ! ?ree figures4 ,h5ce an ,univ]sal ,affirmative !sis is at once ! h>de/ to def5d & ! easie/ to oppugn3 m s ?an ei!r a ,p>ticul> ,affirmative1 :i* c be prov$ bo? 9 ! ,fir/ & ,?ird figures2 or a ,univ]sal ,negative1 :i* c be prov$ ei!r 9 ,fir/ or ,second4#df ,to ! oppon5t1 an univ]sal !sis af=ds an easi] victory ?an a p>ticul> !sis2 9 fact1 speak+ g5]ally1 8 task is easi] ?an t ( ! def5dant4 ,footnote #df3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xxvi4 p4 #db1 b4 #bg1 p4 #dc1 a4 #ae4 ,9 ! ,analytica ,priora1 ,ari/otle proce$s to tell u t he contemplates n only !ory1 b also practice & art4 ,! read] mu/ be taught1 n m]ely to und]/& ! pr9ciples ( ,syllogism1 b likewise :]e he c f9d ! matt] = con/ruct+ syllogisms readily1 & h[ he c obta9 ! pr9ciples ( demon/ration p]t95t to ea* !sis prop\nd$4#dg ,footnote #dg3 ,ibid4 ,i4 xxvii4 p4 #dc1 a4 #bj3 ,greek3 ps d' eu7por_/som5 au7toi pros to ti!_/m5on a7ei sullogismn1 kai dia poi_/z o7d\ lpso_/me?a tas p]i e7_/ka/on a7r*a_/s1 nun 7_/d lekte_/on2 ou7 gar mo_/non i7_/ss dei tn ge_/nes9 !rein tn sullogismn1 a7lla kai tn du_/nam9 e7_/*e9 t\ poiein4 ,! second section ( ,book ,i4 "h beg9s4 ,a !sis be+ prop\nd$ 9 appropriate t]ms1 ) subject & pr$icate1 h[ are y ! prop\nd] to seek out argum5ts = its def5ce8 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ,ari/otle rev]ts to ! di/9ction already laid d[n at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,categori4#dh ,individual ?+s or p]sons are subjects only1 nev] appe>+ z pr$icates--?is is ! l[e/ extremity ( ! logical scale3 at ! opposite extremity ( ! scale1 !re are ! highe/ g5]alities1 pr$icates only1 & n subjects ( any pr$ication1 ?\gh sometimes suppos$ to be su*1 z matt]s ( dialectic discussion4#di ,betwe5 ! l[e/ & highe/ we h int]m$iate or graduate g5]alities1 appe>+ sometimes z subjects1 sometimes z pr$icates2 & x is among ^! t ! mat]ials bo? ( problems = debate1 & ( premisses = pro(1 are usually f\nd4#ej ,footnote #dh3 ,ibid4 ,i4 xxvii4 p4 #dc1 a4 #be1 seq4 ,footnote #di3 ,ibid4 p4 #dc1 a4 #ci3 ,greek3 pln ei7 m kata d_/xan4 ,cf4 ,s*ol4 ( ,alex&]1 p4 #age1 a4 #dd1 ,br43 ,greek3 e7ndo_/xs kai dialektiks1 7_/sp] ei7p5 e7n tois ,topikois1 t ev5 ! pr9cipia ( sci5ce may be debat$2 = example1 9 book ,b4 ( ! ,metaphysica4 ,ari/otle does n recognize ei!r ,greek3 to o7_/n or ,greek3 to e7_/n z true g5]a1 b only z pr$icates4 ,footnote #ej3 ,ibid4 a4 #dj-dc4 ,y mu/ beg9 by putt+ d[n1 along ) ! matt] 9 h& itself1 its def9ition & its propria2 aft] t1 its o!r pr$icates2 next1 ^? pr$icates :i* _c belong to x2 la/ly1 ^? o!r subjects1 ( :i* x may itself be pr$icat$4 ,y mu/ classify its v>i\s pr$icates di/+ui%+ ! ess5tial1 ! propria1 & ! accid5tal2 also di/+ui%+ ! true & unque/ionable1 f ! problematical & hypo!tical4#ea ,y mu/ look out = ^? pr$icates :i* belong to x z subject univ]sally1 & n to c]ta9 portions ( x only2 s9ce univ]sal propositions are indisp5sable 9 syllogi/ic pro(1 & indef9ite propositions c only be reckon$ z p>ticul>4 ,:5 a subject is includ$ 9 "s l>g] g5us--z1 = example1 man 9 animal--y mu/ n look = ! affirmative or negative pr$icates :i* belong to animal univ]sally 7s9ce all ^! w ( c\rse belong to man also7 b = ^? :i* di/+ui% man f o!r animals2 nor mu/ y1 9 se>*+ = ^? l[] subjects ( :i* man is ! pr$icate1 fix y\r att5tion on ! high] g5us animal2 = animal w ( c\rse be pr$icable ( all ^? ( :i* man is pr$icable4 ,y mu/ collect :at p]ta9s to man specially1 ei!r z pr$icate or subject2 nor m]ely t :i* p]ta9s to him necess>ily & univ]sally1 b also usually & 9 ! majority ( cases2 = mo/ ( ! problems debat$ belong to ?is latt] class1 & ! wor? ( ! conclusion w be co-ord9ate ) t ( ! premisses4#eb9999 ,d n select pr$icates t are pr$icable#ec bo? ( ! pr$icate & subject2 = no valid affirmative conclusion c be obta9$ f !m4 ,footnote #ea3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xxvii4 p4 #dc1 b4 #h3 ,greek3 kai t\_/tn poia doxa/iks kai poia kat' a7l_/!ian4 ,footnote #eb3 ,ibid4 ,i4 xxvii4 p4 #dc1 b4 #aj-ce4 ,footnote #ec3 ,ibid4 b4 #cf3 ,greek3 e7_/ti ta pas9 e7po_/m5a ou7k e7klekte_/on2 ou7 gar e7_//ai sullogismos e7x au7tn4 ,! phrase ,greek3 ta pas9 e7po_/m5a1 z d5ot+ pr$icates applicable bo? to ! pr$icate & to ! subject1 is curi\s4 ,we %\ld h>dly und]/& x1 if x 7 n expla9$ a little fur!r on1 p4 #dd1 b4 #ba4 ,bo? ! ,s*olia/ & ! mod]n comm5tators und]/& ,greek3 ta pas9 e7po_/m5a 9 ?is s5se2 & ,i d n v5ture to dep>t f !m4 ,at ! same "t1 :5 ,i read six l9es aft]w>ds 7p4 #dd1 b4 #bf7 ! words ,greek3 oi7on ei7 ta e7po_/m5a e7kate_/r tau7ta_/ e7/9--9 :i* ! same mean+ z t :i* ! comm5tators ascribe to ,greek3 ta pas9 e7po_/m5a is giv5 9 its own special & appropriate t]ms1 & ?us ! same supposition unnecess>ily repeat$--,i _c help suspect+ t ,ari/otle int5ds ,greek3 ta pas9 e7po_/m5a to mean some?+ diff]5t2 to mean su* wide & univ]sal pr$icates z ,greek3 to e7n & ,greek3 to o7_/n :i* so> above ! ,categories & apply to e ?+1 b d5ote no real g5]a4 ,?us1 :5 ! !sis to be ma9ta9$ is an univ]sal affirmative 7e4g4 ,a is pr$icable ( all ,e71 y w survey all ! subjects to :i* ,a w apply z pr$icate1 & all ! pr$icates apply+ to ,e z subject4 ,if ^! two li/s co9cide 9 any po9t1 a middle t]m w be f\nd = ! con/ruction ( a good syllogism 9 ! ,fir/ figure4 ,let ,b repres5t ! li/ ( pr$icates belong+ univ]sally to ,a2 ,d1 ! li/ ( pr$icates :i* _c belong to x2 ,c1 ! li/ ( subjects to :i* ,a p]ta9s univ]sally z pr$icate4 ,likewise1 let ,f repres5t ! li/ ( pr$icates belong+ univ]sally to ,e2 ,h1 ! li/ ( pr$icates t _c belong to ,e2 ,g1 ! li/ ( subjects to :i* ,e is applicable z pr$icate4 ,if1 "u ^! suppositions1 !re is any co9cid5ce betwe5 ! li/ ,c & ! li/ ,f1 y c con/ruct a syllogism 79 ,b>b>a1 ,fig4 #a71 demon/rat+ t ,a belongs to all ,e2 s9ce ! pr$icate 9 ,f belongs to all ,e1 & ,a univ]sally to ! subject 9 ,c4 ,if ! li/ ,c co9cides 9 any po9t ) ! li/ ,g1 y c prove t ,a belongs to "s ,e1 by a syllogism 79 ,d>apti1 ,fig4 #c74 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! li/ ,f co9cides 9 any po9t ) ! li/ ,d1 y c prove t ,a _c belong to any ,e3 = ! pr$icate 9 ,d _c belong to any ,a1 & !re=e 7by conv]t+ simply ! univ]sal negative7 ,a _c belong z pr$icate to any ,d2 b ,d co9cides ) ,f1 & ,f belongs to all ,e2 accord+ly1 a syllogism 79 ,cel>5t1 ,fig4 #a7 may be con/ruct$1 %ew+ t ,a _c belong to any ,e4 ,s also1 if ,b co9cides 9 any po9t ) ,h1 ! same conclusion c be prov$2 = ! pr$icate 9 ,b belongs to all ,a1 b ,b co9cides ) ,h1 :i* belongs to no ,e2 :5ce y obta9 a syllogism 79 ,came/res1 ,fig4 #b71 %ew+ t no ,a belongs to ,e4#ed ,9 collect+ ! pr$icates & subjects bo? ( ,a & ( ,e1 ! highe/ & mo/ univ]sal expression ( !m is to be pref]r$1 z af=d+ ! l>ge/ grasp = ! purpose ( obta9+ a suitable middle t]m4#ee ,x w be se5 7z has be5 decl>$ already7 t e syllogism obta9$ w h ?ree t]ms & two propositions2 & t x w be 9 "o or o!r ( ! ?ree figures above describ$4#ef ,footnote #ed3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xxviii4 p4 #dc1 b4 #ci-p4 #dd1 a4 #ce4 ,footnote #ee3 ,ibid4 p4 #dd1 a4 #ci4 ,alex&] & ,philoponus 7,s*olia1 p4 #agg1 a4 #ai1 #ci1 ,br&is7 po9t out an inconsi/5cy betwe5 :at ,ari/otle says "h & :at he _h said 9 "o ( ! prec$+ p>agraphs1 dissuad+ ! inquir] f att5d+ to ! highe/ g5]alities1 & recomm5d+ him to look only at bo? subject & pr$icate 9 _! special place on ! logical scale4 ,alex&]'s way ( remov+ ! inconsi/5cy is n successful3 ,i d\bt if !re be an inconsi/5cy4 ,i und]/& ,ari/otle "h to mean only t ! univ]sal expression ,,kz 7,greek3 to ka?o_/l\ ,z7 is to be pref]r$ to ! indef9ite or indet]m9ate 7simply ,z1 ,greek3 a7dio_/ri/on71 also ,k,greek3 ,g 7,greek3 to ka?o_/l\ ,g7 to simple ,greek3 ,g 7a7dio_/ri/on74 ,?is appe>s to me n inconsi/5t ) ! recomm5dation :i* ,ari/otle _h giv5 be=e4 ,footnote #ef3 ,ibid4 p4 #dd1 b4 #f-bj4 ,! way j po9t$ out is ! only way t[>ds obta9+ a suitable middle t]m4 ,if1 = example1 y f9d "s pr$icate applicable bo? to ,a & ,e1 ?is w n conduct y to a valid syllogism2 y w only obta9 a syllogism 9 ! ,second figure ) two affirmative premisses1 :i* w n w>rant any conclusion4 ,or if y f9d "s pr$icate :i* _c belong ei!r to ,a or to ,e1 ?is aga9 w only give y a syllogism 9 ! ,second figure ) two negative premisses1 :i* leads to no?+4 ,s also1 if y h a t]m ( :i* ,a c be pr$icat$1 b :i* _c be pr$icat$ ( ,e1 y d]ive f x only a syllogism 9 ! ,fir/ figure1 ) its m9or negative2 & ?is1 too1 is invalid4 ,la/ly1 if y h a subject1 ( :i* nei!r ,a nor ,e c be pr$icat$1 y\r syllogism con/ruct$ f ^! conditions w h bo? its premisses negative1 & w !re=e be wor?less4#eg ,footnote #eg3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xxviii4 p4 #dd1 b4 #be-cg4 ,9 ! survey prescrib$1 no?+ is ga9$ by look+ out = pr$icates 7( ,a & ,e7 :i* are diff]5t or opposite3 we mu/ collect su* z are id5tical1 s9ce our purpose is to obta9 f !m a suitable middle t]m1 :i* mu/ be ! same 9 bo? premisses4 ,x is true t if ! li/ ,b 7conta9+ ! pr$icates univ]sally belong+ to ,a7 & ! li/ ,f 7conta9+ ! pr$icates univ]sally belong+ to ,e7 are incompatible or contr>y to ea* o!r1 y w arrive at a syllogism prov+ t no ,a c belong to ,e4 ,b ?is syllogism w proce$1 n s mu* f ! fact t ,b & ,f are incompatible1 z f ! o!r fact1 di/9ct ?\gh correlative1 t ,b w to a c]ta9 ext5t co9cide ) ,h 7! li/ ( pr$icates :i* _c belong to ,e74 ,! middle t]m & ! syllogism con/itut$ !reby1 is d]iv$ f ! co9cid5ce betwe5 ,b & ,h1 n f ! opposition betwe5 ,b & ,f4 ,^? :o d]ive x f ! latt]1 ov]look or disreg>d ! real s\rce1 & adopt a po9t ( view m]ely incid5tal & irrelevant4#eh ,footnote #eh3 ,ibid4 p4 #dd1 b4 #ch-p4 #de1 a4 #bb4 ,greek3 sumbai_/nei d tois ou7_/ts e7piskop\si prosepible_/pe9 a7_/lln o7dn ts a7nagkai_/z1 dia to lan?a_/ne9 tn tau7to_/tta tn ,b kai tn ,?4 ,! precept "h deliv]$--,t 9 ord] to obta9 middle t]ms & good syllogisms1 y mu/ /udy & collect bo? ! pr$icates & ! subjects ( ! two t]ms ( y\r !sis--,ari/otle decl>es to be equally applicable to all demon/ration1 :e!r direct or by way ( ,r$uctio ad ,impossibile4 ,9 bo? ! process ( demon/ration is ! same--involv+ two premisses1 ?ree t]ms1 & "o ( ! ?ree a suitable middle t]m4 ,! only diff]5ce is1 t 9 ! direct demon/ration1 bo? premisses are prop\nd$ z true1 :ile 9 ! ,r$uctio ad ,impossibile1 "o ( ! premisses is assum$ z true ?\gh kn[n to be false1 & ! conclusion also4#ei ,9 ! o!r cases ( hypo!tical syllogism y\r att5tion mu/ be direct$1 n to ! orig9al qusitum1 b to ! condition annex$ !reto2 yet ! se>* = pr$icates1 subjects1 & a middle t]m1 mu/ be conduct$ 9 ! same mann]4#fj ,sometimes1 by ! help ( a condition extrane\s to ! premisses1 y may demon/rate an univ]sal f a p>ticul>3 e4g41 ,suppose ,c 7! li/ ( subjects to :i* ,a belongs z pr$icate7 & ,g 7! li/ ( subjects to :i* ,e belongs z pr$icate7 to be id5tical2 & suppose f>!r t ! subjects 9 ,g are ! only ones to :i* ,e belongs z pr$icate 7?is seems to be ! extrane\s or extra-syllogi/ic condition assum$1 on :i* ,ari/otle's argum5t turns72 !n1 ,a w be applicable to all ,e4 ,or if ,d 7! li/ ( pr$icates :i* _c belong to ,a7 & ,g 7! li/ ( subjects to :i* ,e belongs z pr$icate7 are id5tical2 !n1 assum+ ! l extrane\s condition1 ,a w n be applicable to any ,e4#fa ,9 bo? ^! cases1 ! conclusion is m univ]sal ?an ! premisses2 b x is because we take 9 an hypo!tical assumption1 9 addition to ! premisses4 ,footnote #ei3 ,ibid4 ,i4 xxix4 p4 #de1 a4 #be-;b4 #ae4 ,footnote #fj3 ,ibid4 ,i4 xxix4 p4 #de1 b4 #ae-bj4 ,?is p>agraph is v obscure4 ,nei!r ,alex&]1 nor ,waitz1 nor ,/4 ,hilaire cle>s x up 9999completely4 ,see ,s*ol4 pp4 #agh1 b41 #agi1 a4 ,br&is4 ,ari/otle concludes by say+ t syllogisms f an hypo!sis ought to be review$ & classifi$ into v>ieties--,greek3 e7piske_/psa/hai de dei kai dielein posa*s oi7 e7x u7po!_/ses 7b4 #bj74 ,b x is d\btful :e!r he himself ev] execut$ ?is classification4 ,x 0 done 9 ! ,analytica ( 8 successor ,!ophra/us 7,s*ol4 p4 #agi1 a4 #f1 #bd74 ,comp>e ! note ( ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire1 p4 #adj4 ,footnote #fa3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xxix4 p4 #de1 b4 #ba-cj4 ,ari/otle has n[ %[n a me?od ( proc$ure common to all inve/igations & prop] = ! solution ( all problems1 :]ev] soluble4 ,he has %[n1 fir/1 all ! conditions & v>ieties ( probative ,syllogism1 two premisses & ?ree t]ms1 ) ! place requir$ = ! middle t]m 9 ea* ( ! ?ree figures2 next1 ! qu>t] 9 :i* we are to look = all ! mat]ials necess>y or suitable = con/ruct+ valid syllogisms4 ,hav+ ! two t]ms ( ! !sis giv51 we mu/ /udy ! pr$icates & subjects belong+ to bo?1 & mu/ provide a l>ge li/ ( !m2 out ( :i* li/ we mu/ make selection accord+ to ! purpose ( ! mom5t4 ,our selection w be diff]5t1 accord+ z we wi% to prove or to refute1 & accord+ z ! conclusion t we wi% to prove is an univ]sal or a p>ticul>4 ,! lesson "h giv5 w be mo/ useful 9 tea*+ ! reason] to conf9e 8 att5tion to ! sort ( mat]ials really promis+1 s t he may avoid wa/+ 8 "t ^u su* z are irrelevant4#fb ,footnote #fb3 ,ibid4 b4 #cf-xxx4 p4 #df1 a4 #aj4 ,?is me?od ( proc$ure is alike applicable to demon/ration 9 ,philosophy or 9 any ( ! special sci5ces1#fc & to debate 9 ,dialectic4 ,9 bo?1 ! premisses or pr9cipia ( syllogisms mu/ be put toge!r 9 ! same mann]1 9 ord] to make ! syllogism valid4 ,9 bo?1 too1 ! range ( topics fall+ "u exam9ation is l>ge & v>i$2 ea* topic w h its own sep>ate premisses or pr9cipia1 :i* mu/ be se>*$ out & select$ 9 ! way above describ$4 ,exp]i5ce alone c furni% ^! pr9cipia1 9 ea* sep>ate bran* or dep>tm5t4 ,a/ronomical exp]i5ce--! obs]v$ facts & ph5om5a ( a/ronomy--h furni%$ ! data = ! sci5tific & demon/rative treatm5t ( a/ronomy4 ,! l ) e o!r bran* ( sci5ce or art4#fd ,:5 ! facts 9 ea* bran* are br\ght toge!r1 x w be ! prov9ce ( ! logician or analytical philosoph] to set out ! demon/rations 9 a mann] cle> & fit = use4 ,= if no?+ 9 ! way ( true matt] ( fact has be5 omitt$ f our obs]vation1 we %all be able to discov] & unfold ! demon/ration1 on e po9t :]e demon/ration is possible2 &1 :]ev] x is n possible1 to make ! impossibility manife/4#fe ,footnote #fc3 ,ibid4 p4 #df1 a4 #h99993 ,greek3 kata men a7l_/!ian e7k tn kat' a7l_/!ian diagegramme_/nn u7pa_/r*e91 ei7s de t\s dialektik\s sullogism\s e7k tn kata d_/xan prota_/sen4 ,julius ,pacius 7p4 #beg7 rem>ks ^u ! ^w ,greek3 diagegramme_/nn z indicat+ t ,ari/otle1 :ile allud+ to special sci5ces di/+ui%able f philosophy on "o side1 & f dialectic on ! o!r1 _h 9 view geometrical demon/rations4 ,footnote #fd3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xxx4 p4 #df1 a4 #aj-bj99993 ,greek3 ai7 d' a7r*ai tn sullogismn ka?o_/l\ men ei7_/rntai--i7_/diai de ka?' e7ka_//n ai7 plei/ai4 dio tas men a7r*as tas p]i e7_/ka/on e7mpeiri_/z e7_//i p>ad\nai4 le_/g d' oi7on tn a7/rologikn men e7mpeiri_/an ts a7/rologiks e7pi/_/ms2 lph!_/ntn gar i7kans tn pha9ome_/nn ou7_/ts eu7re_/?san ai7 a7/rologikai a7podei_/xeis4 o7moi_/s de kai p]i a7_/lln o7poian\n e7_/*ei te_/*nn te kai e7pi/_/mn4 ,:at ,ari/otle says "h--( a/ronomical obs]vation & exp]i5ce z furni%+ ! basis = a/ronomical sci5ce--/&s 9 m>k$ contra/ ) ,plato1 :o rejects ?is basis1 & puts aside1 ) a sort ( contempt1 a/ronomical obs]vation 7,republic1 vii4 pp4 #ecj-eca72 treat+ ac\/ics also 9 a simil> way4 ,comp>e ,ari/ot4 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,l4 p4 #ajgc1 a4 #f1 seq41 ) ! comm5t>y ( ,bonitz1 p4 #ejf4 ,footnote #fe3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xxx4 p4 #df1 a4 #bb-bg99993 ,greek3 7_//e a7n lph? ta u7pa_/r*onta p]i e7_/ka/on1 7me_/t]on 7_/d tas a7podei_/xeis e7toi_/ms e7mphani_/ze94 ei7 gar mden kata tn i7/ori_/an p>aleiph!i_/ tn a7l?s u7p>*o_/ntn tois pra_/gmas91 e7_/xom5 p]i a7_/pantos ou7 men e7_//9 a7po_/deixis1 tau_/tn eu7rein kai a7podeiknu_/nai1 ou7 de m pe_/phuk5 a7po_/deixis1 t\to poiein phan]o_/n4 ,respect+ ! ^w ,greek3 i7/ori_/a--inve/igation & record ( matt]s ( fact--! fir/ s5t5ce ( ,h]odotus may be comp>$ ) ,ari/otle1 ,hi/or4 ,animal4 p4 #dia1 a4 #ab2 also p4 #geg1 b4 #ce2 ,rhetoric4 p4 #acei1 b4 #cb4 ,= ! full] developm5t ( ^! important pr9ciples1 ! read] is ref]r$ to ! treatise on ,dialectic1 entitl$ ,topica1 :i* we %all come to 9 a future *apt]4 ,!re is no?+ 9 all ,ari/otle's writ+s m rem>kable ?an ! te/imony "h af=d$1 h[ completely he consid]$ all ! g5]alities ( demon/rative sci5ce & d$uctive reason+ to re/ altoge!r on exp]i5ce & inductive obs]vation4 ,we are next introduc$ to a comp>ison betwe5 ! syllogi/ic me?od1 z above describ$ & sy/ematiz$1 & ! process call$ logical ,division into g5]a & species2 a process mu* reli$ ^u by o!r philosoph]s1 & especially by ,plato4 ,?is logical ,division1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 is a m]e fragm5t ( ! syllogi/ic proc$ure2 no?+ bett] ?an a feeble syllogism4#ff ,^? :o employ$ x 7 ignorant bo? ( ,syllogism & ( its conditions4 ,!y tri$ to demon/rate--:at nev] c be demon/rat$--! ess5tial con/itution ( ! subject4#fg ,in/ead ( select+ a middle t]m1 z ! ,syllogism requires1 m univ]sal ?an ! subject b less univ]sal 7or n m s7 ?an ! pr$icate1 !y inv]t$ ! prop] ord]1 & took = _! middle t]m ! highe/ univ]sal4 ,:at really requires to be demon/rat$1 !y nev] demon/rat$ b assume4#fh ,footnote #ff3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xxxi4 p4 #df1 a4 #cc4 ,alex&]1 9 ,s*olia1 p4 #ahj1 a4 #ad4 ,! ,platonic me?od ( ,greek3 diai_/resis is exemplifi$ 9 ! dialogues call$ ,sophi/s & ,politicus2 comp>e also ,philbus1 c4 v41 p4 #ae4 ,footnote #fg3 ,ibid4 p4 #df1 a4 #cd3 ,greek3 prton d' au7to t\to e7lel_/!i t\s *rme_/n\s au7t pa_/ntas1 kai pei_/!9 e7pe*ei_/r\n 7s o7_/ntos dunat\ p]i ou7si_/z a7po_/deix9 gi_/ne/hai kai t\ ti_/ e7/94 ,footnote #fh3 ,ibid4 p4 #df1 b4 #a-ab4 ,?us1 !y take ! subject man1 & propose to prove t man is mortal4 ,!y beg9 by lay+ d[n t man is an animal1 & t e animal is ei!r mortal or immortal4 ,"h1 ! mo/ univ]sal t]m1 animal1 is select$ z middle or z m$ium ( pro(2 :ile aft] all1 ! conclusion demon/rat$ is1 n t man is mortal1 b t man is ei!r mortal or immortal4 ,! position t man is mortal1 is assum$ b n prov$4#fi ,moreov]1 by ?is me?od ( logical division1 all ! /eps are affirmative & none negative2 !re _c be any refutation ( error4 ,nor c any pro( be giv5 ?us respect+ g5us1 or proprium1 or accid5s2 ! g5us is assum$1 & ! me?od proce$s f !nce to species & diff]5tia4 ,no d\btful matt] c be settl$1 & no unkn[n po9t elucidat$ by ?is me?od2 no?+ c be done except to arrange 9 a c]ta9 ord] :at is already asc]ta9$ & unque/ionable4 ,to _m inve/igations1 accord+ly1 ! me?od is altoge!r inapplicable2 :ile ev5 :]e x is applicable1 x leads to no useful conclusion4#gj ,footnote #fi3 ,ibid4 p4 #df1 b4 #a-ab4 ,footnote #gj3 ,ibid4 b4 #bf-cg4 ,alex&] 9 ,s*ol4 p4 #ahj1 b4 #a4 ,we n[ come to t :i* ,ari/otle indicates z ! ?ird section ( ?is ,fir/ ,book ( ! ,analytica ,priora4 ,9 ! fir/ section he expla9$ ! con/ruction & con/itu5ts ( ,syllogism1 ! v>ieties ( figure & mode1 & ! conditions indisp5sable to a valid conclusion4 ,9 ! second section he tells u :]e we are to look = ! premisses ( syllogisms1 & h[ we may obta9 a /ock ( mat]ials1 apt & ready = use :5 requir$4 ,!re rema9s "o m task to complete 8 plan--t he %\ld tea* ! mann] ( r$uc+ argum5tation z x actually occurs 7(t5 invalid1 & ev5 :5 valid1 (t5 elliptical & disord]ly71 to ! figures ( syllogism z above set =?1 = ! purpose ( te/+ its validity4#ga ,9 p]=m+ ?is ?ird "p 7,ari/otle says7 we %all at ! same "t confirm & illu/rate ! two prec$+ p>ts2 = tru? ought 9 e way to be consi/5t ) itself4#gb ,footnote #ga3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xxxii4 p4 #dg1 a4 #b3 ,greek3 loipon gar e7_/ti t\to ts ske_/pses2 ei7 gar t_/n te ge_/nes9 tn sullogismn !roim5 kai t\ eu7ri_/ske9 e7_/*oim5 du_/nam91 e7_/ti de t\s geg5me_/n\s a7nalu_/oim5 ei7s ta proeirme_/na s*_/mata1 te_/los a7n e7_/*oi 7 e7x a7r*s pro_/!sis4 ,footnote #gb3 ,ibid4 a4 #h4 ,:5 a piece ( reason+ is be=e u1 we mu/ fir/ try to dis5gage ! two syllogi/ic premisses 7:i* are m easily dis5gag$ ?an ! ?ree t]ms71 & note :i* ( !m is univ]sal or p>ticul>4 ,! reason]1 h[ev]1 may n h set out bo? ( !m cle>ly3 sometimes he w leave out ! major1 sometimes ! m9or1 & sometimes1 ev5 :5 enunciat+ bo? ( !m1 he w jo9 ) !m irrelevant matt]4 ,9 ei!r ( ^! cases we mu/ ourselves supply :at is want+ & /rike out ! irrelevant4 ,)\t ?is aid1 r$uction to regul> syllogism is impracticable2 b x is n always easy to see :at ! exact defici5cy is4 ,sometimes inde$ ! conclusion may foll[ necess>ily f :at is impli$ 9 ! premisses1 :ile yet ! premisses !mselves d n =m a correct syllogism2 = ?\gh e su* syllogism c>ries ) x necessity1 !re may be necessity )\t a syllogism4 ,9 ! process ( r$uction1 we mu/ fir/ dis5gage & set d[n ! two premisses1 !n ! ?ree t]ms2 out ( :i* ?ree1 t "o :i* appe>s twice w be ! middle t]m4 ,if we d n f9d "o t]m twice repeat$1 we h got no middle & no real syllogism4 ,:e!r ! syllogism :5 obta9$ w be 9 ! fir/1 second1 or ?ird figure1 w dep5d ^u ! place ( ! middle t]m 9 ! two premisses4 ,we "k by ! nature ( ! conclusion :i* ( ! ?ree figures to look =1 s9ce we h already se5 :at conclusions c be demon/rat$ 9 ea*4#gc ,footnote #gc3 ,ibid4 a4 #aj-;b4 #ad4 ,sometimes we may get premisses :i* look l ^? ( a true syllogism1 b are n s 9 reality2 ! major proposition ought to be an univ]sal1 b x may happ5 to be only indef9ite1 & ! syllogism w n 9 all cases be valid2 yet ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two (t5 passes unnotic$4#gd ,ano!r s\rce ( fallacy is1 t we may set out ! t]ms incorrectly2 by putt+ 79 mod]n phrase7 ! ab/ract in/ead ( ! concrete1 or ab/ract 9 "o premiss & concrete 9 ! o!r4#ge ,to gu>d aga9/ ?is1 we ought to use ! concrete t]m 9 pref]5ce to ! ab/ract4 ,= example1 let ! major proposition be1 ,heal? _c belong to any disease2 & ! m9or4 ,disease c belong to any man2 ,ergo1 ,heal? _c belong to any man4 ,?is conclusion seems valid1 b is n really s4 ,we ought to sub/itute concrete t]ms to ?is effect3--,x is impossible t ! sick c be well2 ,any man may be sick2 ,ergo1 ,x is impossible t any man c be well4 ,to ! syllogism1 n[1 z /at$ 9 ^! concrete t]ms1 we may object1 t ! major is n true4 ,a p]son :o is at ! pres5t mom5t sick may at a future "t become well4 ,!re is !re=e no valid syllogism4#gf ,:5 we take ! concrete man1 we may say ) tru? t ! two contr>ies1 heal?-sickness1 k-ignorance1 may bo? alike belong to him2 ?\gh n to ! same individual at ! same "t4 ,footnote #gd3 ,ibid4 ,i4 xxxiii4 p4 #dg1 b4 #af-dj3 ,greek3 au7_/t men ou7n 7 a7pa_/t gi_/netai e7n t p>a mikro_/n2 s gar ou7den diaphe_/ron ei7pein to_/de tde u7pa_/r*e91 7 to_/de tde panti u7pa_/r*e91 sug*r\m54 ,m4 ,b4 ,/4 ,hilaire obs]ves 9 8 note 7p4 #aee73 ,l'erreur vi5t uniquem5t de ce qu'on confond l'univ]sel et l'indet]m9 sp>s p> une nuance trs faible d'expression1 qu'on ne doit pas cep5dant neglig]4 ,julius ,pacius 7p4 #bfd7 gives ! same explanation at great] l5g?2 b ! example *os5 by ,ari/otle 7,greek3 o7 ,a7ri/ome_/ns e7/i dianotos ,a7ri/ome_/ns7 appe>s op5 to o!r objections besides4 ,footnote #ge3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xxxiv4 p4 #dh1 a4 #a-bh4 ,footnote #gf3 ,ibid4 a4 #b-bc4 ,see ! ,s*olion ( ,alex&]1 p4 #aha1 b4 #af-bg1 ,br&is4 ,aga91 we mu/ n suppose t we c always f9d "o di/9ct & sep>ate "n belong+ to ea* t]m4 ,sometimes "o or all ( ! ?ree t]ms c only be express$ by an entire phrase or proposition4 ,9 su* cases x is v difficult to r$uce ! reason+ into regul> syllogism4 ,we may ev5 be deceiv$ into fancy+ t !re are syllogisms )\t any middle t]m at all1 because !re is no s+le ^w to express x4 ,= example1 let ,a repres5t equal to two "r angles2 ,b1 triangle2 ,c1 isosceles4 ,!n we h a regul> syllogism1 ) an explicit & s+le-word$ middle t]m2 ,a belongs fir/ to ,b1 & !n to ,c ?r\gh ,b z middle t]m 7triangle74 ,b h[ d we "k t ,a belongs to ,b8 ,we "k x by demon/ration2 = x is a demon/rable tru? t e triangle has its ?ree angles equal to two "r angles4 ,yet !re is no o!r m g5]al tru? ab\t triangles f :i* x is a d$uction2 x belongs to ! triangle p] se1 & foll[s f ! fundam5tal prop]ties ( ! figure4#gg ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a middle t]m 9 ! demon/ration1 ?\gh x is n s+le-word$ & explicit2 x is a decl>atory proposition or a fact4 ,we mu/ n suppose t !re c be any demon/ration )\t a middle t]m1 ei!r s+le-word$ or _m-word$4 ,footnote #gg3 ,ibid4 ,i4 xxxv4 p4 #dh1 a4 #cj-ci3 ,greek3 phan]on o7_/ti to me_/son ou7* ou7_/ts a7ei lpte_/on 7s to_/de ti1 a7ll' e7ni_/ote lo_/gon1 o7_/p] sumbai_/nei ka7pi t\ le*!_/ntos4 ,a good ,s*olion ( ,philoponus is giv51 p4 #aha1 b4 #bh-de1 ,br&4 ,:5 we are r$uc+ any reason+ to a syllogi/ic =m1 & trac+ out ! ?ree t]ms ( :i* x is compos$1 we mu/ expose or set out ^! t]ms 9 ! nom9ative case2 b :5 we actually con/ruct ! syllogism or put ! t]ms into propositions1 we %all f9d t "o or o!r ( ! oblique cases1 g5itive1 dative1 c41 is requir$4#gh ,moreov]1 :5 we say1 '?is belongs to t1' or '?is may be truly pr$icat$ ( t1' we mu/ recollect t !re are _m di/9ct v>ieties 9 ! relation ( pr$icate to subject4 ,ea* ( ! ,categories has its own di/9ct relation to ! subject2 pr$ication secundum quid is di/+ui%$ f pr$ication simplicit]1 simple f comb9$ or comp\nd1 c4 ,?is applies to negatives z well z affirmatives4#gi ,!re w be a mat]ial diff]5ce 9 sett+ out ! t]ms ( ! syllogism1 accord+ z ! pr$ication is qualifi$ 7secundum quid7 or absolute 7simplicit]74 ,if x be qualifi$1 ! qualification atta*es to ! pr$icate1 n to ! subject3 :5 ! major proposition is a qualifi$ pr$ication1 we mu/ consid] ! qualification z belong+1 n to ! middle t]m1 b to ! major t]m1 & z de/9$ to re-appe> 9 ! conclusion4 ,if ! qualification be atta*$ to ! middle t]m1 x _c appe> 9 ! conclusion1 & any conclusion t embraces x w n be prov$4 ,suppose ! conclusion to be prov$ is4 ,! :olesome is k quat5us bonum or quod bonum e/2 ! ?ree t]ms ( ! syllogism mu/ /& ?us3-- ,major--,bonum is kn[able1 quat5us bonum or quod bonum e/4 ,m9or--,! :olesome is bonum4 ,ergo--,! :olesome is kn[able1 quat5us bonum1 c4 ,= e syllogism 9 :i* ! conclusion is qualifi$1 ! t]ms mu/ be set out accord+ly4#hj ,footnote #gh3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xxxvi4 p4 #dh1 a4 #dj-p4 #di1 a4 #e4 ,greek3 a7pls le_/gom5 gar t\to kata pa_/ntn1 o7_/ti t\s men o7_/r\s a7_/ei !te_/on kata tas kl_/seis tn o7noma_/tn--tas de prota_/seis lpte_/on kata tas e7ka_//\ pt_/seis4 ,sev]al examples are giv5 ( ?is precept4 ,footnote #gi3 ,ibid4 ,i4 xxxvii4 p4 #di1 a4 #f-aj4 ,alex&] rem>ks 9 ! ,s*olia 7p4 #ahc1 a4 #b7 t ! di/9ction betwe5 simple & comp\nd pr$ication has already be5 adv]t$ to by ,ari/otle 9 ,de ,int]pretatione 7see p4 #bj1 b4 #ce72 & t x 0 l>gely treat$ by ,!ophra/us 9 8 "w1 ,greek3 ,p]i ,katapha_/ses1 n pres]v$4 ,footnote #hj3 ,ibid4 ,i4 xxxviii4 p4 #di1 a4 #aa-;b4 #b4 ,greek3 phan]on ou7n o7_/ti e7n tois e7n me_/rei sullogismois ou7_/t lpte_/on t\s o7_/r\s4 ,alex&] expla9s ,greek3 oi7 e7n me_/rei sullogismoi_/ 7,s*ol4 p4 #ahc1 b4 #cb1 ,br47 to be ^? 9 :i* ! pr$icate has a qualify+ adjunct tack$ to x4 ,we are p]mitt$1 & x is (t5 conv5i5t1 to ex*ange "o phrase or t]m = ano!r ( equival5t signification1 & also "o ^w aga9/ any equival5t phrase4 ,by do+ ?is1 we (t5 9999facilitate ! sett+ out ( ! t]ms4 ,we mu/ c>efully note ! diff]5t mean+s ( ! same sub/antive n\n1 accord+ z ! def9ite article is or is n prefix$4 ,we mu/ n reckon x ! same t]m1 if x appe>s 9 "o premiss ) ! def9ite article1 & 9 ! o!r )\t ! def9ite article4#ha ,nor is x ! same proposition to say ,b is pr$icable ( ,c 7indef9ite71 & ,b is pr$icable ( all ,c 7univ]sal74 ,9 sett+ out ! syllogism1 x is n suffici5t t ! major premiss %\ld be indef9ite2 ! major premiss mu/ be univ]sal2 & ! m9or premiss also1 if ! conclusion is to be univ]sal4 ,if ! major premiss be univ]sal1 :ile ! m9or premiss is only affirmative indef9ite1 ! conclusion _c be univ]sal1 b w be no m ?an indef9ite1 t is1 c\nt+ z p>ticul>4#hb ,footnote #ha3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xxxix4-xl4 p4 #di1 b4 #c-ac4 ,greek3 ou7 tau7ton e7/i to ei7nai tn 7donn a7ga?on kai to ei7nai tn 7donn to a7ga?o_/n1 c4 ,footnote #hb3 ,ibid4 ,i4 xli4 p4 #di1 b4 #ad-cb4 ,! ,s*olion ( ,alex&] 7,s*ol4 p4 #ahd1 a4 #bb-dj7 alludes to ! peculi> mode1 call$ by ,!ophra/us ,greek3 kata pro_/slps91 ( /at+ ! premisses ( ! syllogism3 two t]ms only1 ! major & ! middle1 be+ enunciat$1 :ile ! ?ird or m9or 0 includ$ pot5tially1 b n enunciat$4 ,!ophra/us1 h[ev]1 did n recognize ! di/9ction ( mean+ to :i* ,ari/otle alludes 9 ?is *apt]4 ,he con/ru$ z an univ]sal m9or1 :at ,ari/otle treats z only an indef9ite m9or4 ,! liability to mi/ake ! ,indef9ite = an ,univ]sal is "h aga9 adv]t$ to4 ,!re is no fe> ( our be+ misl$ by sett+ out a p>ticul> case = ! purpose ( ! g5]al demon/ration2 = we nev] make ref]5ce to ! specialties ( ! p>ticul> case1 b deal ) x z ! geomet] deals ) ! diagram t he draws4 ,he calls ! l9e ,a ,b1 /raight1 a foot long1 & )\t bread?1 b he does n draw any conclusion f ^! assumptions4 ,all t syllogi/ic demon/ration ei!r requires or employs1 is1 t]ms t are relat$ to ea* o!r ei!r z :ole to "p or z "p to :ole4 ,)\t ?is1 no demon/ration c be made3 ! exposition ( ! p>ticul> case is int5d$ z an appeal to ! s5ses1 = facilitat+ ! m>* ( ! /ud5t1 b is n ess5tial to demon/ration4#hc ,footnote #hc3 ,ibid4 ,i4 xli4 p4 #ej1 a4 #a3 ,greek3 t d' e7kti_/!/hai ou7_/t *r_/me?a 7_/sp] kai t ai7/ha_/ne/hai ton man?a_/nonta le_/gontes2 ou7 gar ou7_/ts 7s a7_/neu t\_/tn ou7* oi7o_/n t' a7podei*?nai1 7_/sp] e7x 7n o7 sullogismo_/s4 ,?is *apt] is a v rem>kable /atem5t ( ! ,nom9ali/ic doctr9e2 p]ceiv+ or conceiv+ all ! real specialties ( a p>ticul> case1 b att5d+ to1 or reason+ ^u1 only a portion ( !m4 ,plato treats x z a m>k ( ! inf]ior sci5tific value ( ,geometry1 z comp>$ ) true & pure ,dialectic1 t ! geomet] _c demon/rate ?r\gh ,ideas & ,univ]sals alone1 b is compell$ to help himself by visible p>ticul> diagrams or illu/rations4 7,plato1 ,repub4 vi4 pp4 #eaj-eaa1 vii4 p4 #ecc1 ,c47 ,ari/otle rem9ds u once m ( :at he _h be=e said1 t 9 ! ,second & ,?ird figures1 n all v>ieties ( conclusion are possible1 b only "s v>ieties2 accord+ly1 :5 we are r$uc+ a piece ( reason+ to ! syllogi/ic =m1 ! nature ( ! conclusion w in=m u :i* ( ! ?ree figures we mu/ look =4 ,9 ! case :]e ! "q debat$ relates to a def9ition1 & ! reason+ :i* we are try+ to r$uce turns ^u "o "p only ( t def9ition1 we mu/ take c>e to look = our ?ree t]ms only 9 reg>d to t p>ticul> "p1 & n 9 reg>d to ! :ole def9ition4#hd ,all ! modes ( ! ,second & ,?ird figures c be r$uc$ to ! ,fir/1 by conv]sion ( "o or o!r ( ! premisses2 except ! f\r? mode 7,b>oco7 ( ! ,second1 & ! fif? mode 7,boc>do7 ( ! ,?ird1 :i* c be prov$ only by ,r$uctio ad ,absurdum4#he ,footnote #hd3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xlii41 xliii4 p4 #ej1 a4 #e-ae4 ,i foll[ "h ! explanation giv5 by ,philoponus & ,julius ,pacius1 :i* ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire adopts4 ,b ! illu/rative example giv5 by ,ari/otle himself 7! def9ition ( wat]7 does n convey mu* in/ruction4 ,footnote #he3 ,ibid4 xlv4 p4 #ej1 b4 #e-p4 #ea1 b4 #b4 ,no syllogisms f an ,hypo!sis1 h[ev]1 are r$ucible to any ( ! ?ree figures2 = !y are n prov$ by syllogism alone3 !y require besides an extra-syllogi/ic assumption grant$ or und]/ood betwe5 speak] & he>]4 ,suppose an hypo!tical proposition giv51 ) antec$5t & consequ5t3 y may p]haps prove or refute by syllogism ei!r ! antec$5t sep>ately1 or ! consequ5t sep>ately1 or bo? ( !m sep>ately2 b y _c directly ei!r prove or refute by syllogism ! conjunction ( ! two ass]t$ 9 ! hypo!tical4 ,! speak] mu/ asc]ta9 be=eh& t ?is w be grant$ to him2 o!rwise he _c proce$4#hf ,! same is true ab\t ! proc$ure by ,r$uctio ad ,absurdum1 :i* involves an hypo!sis ov] & above ! syllogism4 ,9 employ+ su* ,r$uctio ad ,absurdum1 y prove syllogi/ically a c]ta9 conclusion f c]ta9 premisses2 b ! conclusion is manife/ly false2 !re=e1 "o at lea/ ( ! premisses f :i* x foll[s mu/ be false also4 ,b if ?is reason+ is to h =ce1 ! he>] mu/ "k aliunde t ! conclusion is false2 y\r syllogism has n %[n x to be false1 b has %[n x to be hypo!tically true2 & unless ! he>] is prep>$ to grant ! conclusion to be false1 y\r purpose is n atta9$4 ,sometimes he w grant x )\t be+ expressly ask$1 :5 ! falsity is gl>+3 e4g4 y prove t ! diagonal ( a squ>e is incomm5surable ) ! side1 because if x 7 tak5 z comm5surable1 an odd numb] might be %[n to be equal to an ev5 numb]4 ,few disputants w hesitate to grant t ?is conclusion is false1 & !re=e t its contradictory is true2 yet ?is la/ 7viz4 t ! contradictory is true7 has n be5 prov$ syllogi/ically2 y mu/ assume x by hypo!sis1 or dep5d ^u ! he>] to grant x4#hg ,footnote #hf3 ,ibid4 xliv4 p4 #ej1 a4 #af-bh4 ,footnote #hg3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xliv4 p4 #ej1 a4 #bi-ch4 ,see above1 xxiii4 p4 #dj1 a4 #be4 ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire rem>ks 9 ! note to 8 translation ( ! ,analytica ,priora 7p4 #agh73 ,ce *apitre suffit pr\v] qu',ari/ote a di/+u trs-nettem5t les syllogismes p> l'absurde1 des syllogismes hypo?tiques4 ,cette d]nire dnom9ation e/ t\t fait p\r lui ce qu'elle e/ p\r n\s4 ,( ^! two /atem5ts1 ,i ?9k ! latt] is m ?an we c v5ture to affirm1 consid]+ t ! g5]al survey ( hypo!tical syllogisms1 :i* ,ari/otle int5d$ to draw up1 ei!r nev] 0 really complet$1 or at lea/ has p]i%$3 ! =m] appe>s to me incorrect4 ,ari/otle decid$ly reckons ! ,r$uctio ad ,impossibile among hypo!tical pro(s4 ,b he und]/&s by ,r$uctio ad ,impossibile some?+ r wid] ?an :at ! mod]ns und]/& by x4 ,x n[ means only1 t y take ! contradictory ( ! conclusion toge!r ) "o ( ! premisses1 & by means ( ^! two demon/rate a conclusion contradictory or contr>y to ! o!r premiss4 ,b ,ari/otle und]/ood by x ?is1 & some?+ m besides1 namely1 :5ev]1 by tak+ ! contradictory ( ! conclusion1 toge!r ) "s o!r inconte/able premiss1 y demon/rate1 by means ( ! two1 "s new conclusion notori\sly false4 ,:at ,i "h say1 is illu/rat$ by ! v example :i* he gives 9 ?is *apt]4 ,! incomm5surability ( ! diagonal 7) ! side ( ! squ>e7 is demon/rat$ by ,r$uctio ad ,impossibile2 because if x be suppos$ comm5surable1 y may demon/rate t an odd numb] is equal to an ev5 numb]2 a conclusion :i* e "o w decl>e to be inadmissible1 b :i* is n ! contradictory ( ei!r ( ! premisses :]eby ! true proposition 0 demon/rat$4 ,"h ,ari/otle expressly res]ves = sep>ate treatm5t ! g5]al subject ( ,syllogisms f ,hypo!sis4#hh ,footnote #hh3 ,! expressions ( ,ari/otle "h are rem>kable1 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xliv4 p4 #ej1 a4 #ci-;b4 #c3 ,greek3 polloi de kai e7_/t]oi p]ai_/nontai e7x u7po!_/ses1 ou7s e7piske_/psa/hai dei kai diasmnai ka?>s4 ti_/nes men ou7n ai7 diaphorai t\_/tn1 kai posa*s gi_/netai to e7x u7po!_/ses1 u7_//]on e7r\m52 nun de tos\nton 7min e7_// phan]o_/n1 o7_/ti ou7k e7_//9 a7nalu_/e9 ei7s ta s*_/mata t\s toi\_/t\s sullogism\_/s4 kai di' 7n ai7ti_/an1 ei7r_/kam54 ,syllogisms f ,hypo!sis 7 _m & v>i\s1 & ,ari/otle int5d$ to treat !m 9 a future treatise2 b all t conc]ns ! pres5t treatise1 9 8 op9ion1 is1 to %[ t none ( !m c be r$uc$ to ! ?ree ,figures4 ,among ! ,syllogisms f ,hypo!sis1 two v>ieties recogniz$ by ,ari/otle 7besides ,greek3 oi7 dia t\ a7duna_/t\7 7 ,greek3 oi7 kata meta_/lps9 & ,greek3 oi7 kata poio_/tta4 ,! same proposition :i* ,ari/otle entitles ,greek3 kata meta_/lps91 0 aft]w>ds designat$ by ! ,/oics ,greek3 kata pro_/slps9 7,alex&] ap4 ,s*ol4 p4 #agh1 b4 #f-bd74 ,x seems t ,ari/otle nev] realiz$ ?is int5d$ future treatise on ,hypo!tical ,syllogisms2 at lea/ ,alex&] did n "k x4 ,! subject 0 h&l$ m at l>ge by ,!ophra/us & ,eudmus aft] ,ari/otle 7,s*ol4 p4 #ahd1 b4 #de4 ,br42 ,boe?ius1 ,de ,syllog4 ,hypo!tico1 pp4 #fjf-fjg72 & 0 /ill f>!r exp&$ by ,*rysippus & ! ,/oics4 ,comp>e ,prantl1 ,ges*i*te d] ,logik1 ,i4 pp4 #bie1 #cgg1 seq4 ,he treats ! ,hypo!tical ,syllogism z hav+ no logical value1 & comm5ds ,ari/otle = decl9+ to develop or =mulate x2 :ile ,ritt] 7,ges*4 ,phil4 iii4 p4 #ic71 &1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 ,ueb]weg 7,sy/em d] ,logik1 sect4 #aba1 p4 #cbf71 consid] ?is to be a defect 9 ,ari/otle4 ,9 ! la/ *apt] ( ! fir/ book ( ! ,analytica ,priora1 ,ari/otle returns to ! po9t :i* we h already consid]$ 9 ! treatise ,de ,int]pretatione1 viz4 :at is really a negative proposition2 & h[ ! adv]b ( negation mu/ be plac$ 9 ord] to con/itute "o4 ,we mu/ place ?is adv]b imm$iately be=e ! copula & 9 conjunction ) ! copula3 we mu/ n place x aft] ! copula & 9 conjunction ) ! pr$icate2 =1 if we d s1 ! proposition result+ w n be negative b affirmative 7,greek3 e7k meta!_/ses1 by transposition1 accord+ to ! te*nical t]m introduc$ aft]w>ds by ,!ophra/us74 ,?us ( ! f\r propositions3 #a4 ,e/ bonum4 #b4 ,non e/ bonum4 #d4 ,non e/ non bonum4 #c4 ,e/ non bonum4 ,no4 #a is affirmative2 ,no4 #c is affirmative 7,greek3 e7k meta!_/ses72 ,nos4 #b & #d are negative4 ,:]ev] ,no4 #a is pr$icable1 ,no4 #d w be pr$icable also2 :]ev] ,no4 #c is pr$icable1 ,no4 #b w be pr$icable also--b 9 nei!r case vice v]s4#hi ,mi/akes (t5 fl[ f incorrectly sett+ out ! two contradictories4 ,footnote #hi3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xlvi4 p4 #ea1 b4 #e1 ad f9em4 ,see above1 ,*ap4 ,,iv4 p4 #aah1 seq4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,analytica ,,priora ,,ii4 ,! ,second ,book ( ! ,analytica ,priora seems conceiv$ ) a view ma9ly to ,dialectic & ,sophi/ic1 z ! ,fir/ ,book bore m ^u ,demon/ration4#a ,ari/otle beg9s ! ,second ,book by %ortly recapitulat+ :at he _h /at$ 9 ! ,fir/2 & !n proce$s to t\* ^u "s o!r prop]ties ( ! ,syllogism4 ,univ]sal syllogisms 7^? 9 :i* ! conclusion is univ]sal7 he says1 h always m conclusions ?an "o2 p>ticul> syllogisms sometimes1 b n always1 h m conclusions ?an "o4 ,if ! conclusion be univ]sal1 x may always be conv]t$--simply1 :5 x is negative1 or p] accid5s1 :5 x is affirmative2 & its conv]se ?us obta9$ w be prov$ by ! same premisses4 ,if ! conclusion be p>ticul>1 x w be conv]tible simply :5 affirmative1 & its conv]se ?us obta9$ w be prov$ by ! same premisses2 b x w n be conv]tible at all :5 negative1 s t ! conclusion prov$ w be only itself s+ly4#b ,moreov]1 9 ! univ]sal syllogisms ( ! ,fir/ figure 7,b>b>a1 ,cel>5t71 any ( ! p>ticul>s compreh5d$ "u ! m9or t]m may be sub/itut$ 9 place ( ! m9or t]m z subject ( ! conclusion1 & ! pro( w hold good 9 reg>d to !m4 ,s1 aga91 all or any ( ! p>ticul>s compreh5d$ 9 ! middle t]m may be introduc$ z subject ( ! conclusion 9 place ( ! m9or t]m2 & ! conclusion w /ill rema9 true4 ,9 ! ,second figure1 ! *ange is admissible only 9 reg>d to ^? p>ticul>s compreh5d$ "u ! subject ( ! conclusion or m9or t]m1 & n 7at lea/ ^u ! /r5g? ( ! syllogism7 9 reg>d to ^? compreh5d$ "u ! middle t]m4 ,f9ally1 :]ev] ! conclusion is p>ticul>1 ! *ange is admissible1 ?\gh n by reason ( ! syllogism 9 reg>d to p>ticul>s compreh5d$ "u ! middle t]m2 x is n admissible z reg>ds ! m9or t]m1 :i* is itself p>ticul>4#c ,footnote #a3 ,?is is ! rem>k ( ! anci5t ,s*olia/s4 ,see ,s*ol4 p4 #ahh1 a4 #dd1 b4 #aa4 ,footnote #b3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 i4 p4 #ec1 a4 #c-ad4 ,footnote #c3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 i4 p4 #ec1 a4 #ad-ce4 ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire1 foll[+ ,pacius1 ju/ly rem>ks 7note1 p4 #bjc ( 8 translation7 t ! rule z to p>ticul>s breaks d[n 9 ! cases ( ,b>oco1 ,disamis1 & ,boc>do4 ,on ! *apt] 9 g5]al he rem>ks 7note1 p4 #bjd73--;,cette ?orie des conclusions div]ses1 soit pat5tes soit ca*es1 d'un mme syllogisme1 e/ surt\t utile en dialectique1 dans la discussion2 o il faut faire la plus gr&e att5tion ce qu'on accorde l'adv]saire1 soit explicitem5t1 soit implicitem5t4 ,?is illu/rates ! obs]vation cit$ 9 ! prec$+ note f ! ,s*olia/s4 ,ari/otle has hi!rto reg>d$ ! ,syllogism ) a view to its =mal *>act]i/ics3 he n[ makes an important obs]vation :i* be>s ^u its matt]4 ,=mally speak+1 9999! two premisses are always assum$ to be true2 b 9 any real case ( syllogism 7=m & matt] comb9$7 x is possible t ei!r "o or bo? may be false4 ,n[1 ,ari/otle rem>ks t if bo? ! premisses are true 7! syllogism be+ correct 9 =m71 ! conclusion mu/ ( necessity be true2 b t if ei!r or bo? ! premisses are false1 ! conclusion ne$ n necess>ily be false likewise4 ,! premisses be+ false1 ! conclusion may nev]!less be true2 b x w n be true because ( or by reason ( ! premisses4#d ,footnote #d3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 ii4 p4 #ec1 b4 #e-aj3 ,greek3 e7x a7l?n men ou7n ou7k e7_//i pseudos sullogi_/sa/hai1 e7k pseudn d' e7_//9 a7l!_/s1 pln ou7 dio_/ti a7ll' o7_/ti2 t\ gar dio_/ti ou7k e7_//9 e7k pseudn sullogismo_/s2 di' 7n d' ai7ti_/an1 e7n tois e7pome_/nois le*?_/setai4 ,! true conclusion is n true by reason ( ^! false premisses1 b by reason ( c]ta9 o!r premisses :i* are true1 & :i* may be produc$ to demon/rate x4 ,comp>e ,analyt4 ,po/]4 ,i4 ii4 p4 #ga1 b4 #ai4 ,fir/1 he w\ld prove t if ! premisses be true1 ! conclusion mu/ be true also2 b ! pro( t he gives does n seem m evid5t ?an ! prob&um itself4 ,assume t if ,a exi/s1 ,b mu/ exi/ also3 x foll[s f h5ce 7he argues7 t if ,b does n exi/1 nei!r c ,a exi/2 :i* he ann\nces z a r$uctio ad absurdum1 see+ t x contradicts ! fundam5tal supposition ( ! exi/5ce ( ,a4#e ,"h ! probans is inde$ equally evid5t ) ! prob&um1 b n at all m evid5t2 "o :o disputes ! latt]1 w dispute ! =m] also4 ,no?+ is ga9$ 9 ! way ( pro( by mak+ ei!r ( !m dep5d5t on ! o!r4 ,bo? ( !m are alike self-evid5t2 t is1 if a man hesitates to admit ei!r ( !m1 y h no means ( remov+ 8 scruples except by invit+ him to try ! g5]al maxim ^u z _m p>ticul> cases z he *ooses1 & to see :e!r x does n hold good )\t a s+le exception4 ,footnote #e3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 ii4 p4 #ec1 b4 #aa-af4 ,9 reg>d to ! case "h put =w>d z illu/ration1 ,ari/otle has an obs]vation :i* %[s 8 anxiety to ma9ta9 ! *>act]i/ic pr9ciples ( ! ,syllogism2 "o ( :i* pr9ciples he _h decl>$ to be--,t no?+ less ?an ?ree t]ms & two propositions1 c\ld w>rant ! inf]5tial /ep f premisses to conclusion4 ,9 ! pres5t case he assum$1 ,if ,a exi/s1 !n ,b mu/ exi/2 giv+ only "o premiss z gr\nd = ! inf]5ce4 ,?is 7he adds7 does n contrav5e :at has be5 laid d[n be=e2 = ,a 9 ! case be=e u repres5ts two propositions conceiv$ 9 conjunction4#f ,"h he has giv5 ! type ( hypo!tical reason+2 n recogniz+ x z a v>iety p] se1 nor foll[+ x out into its diff]5t =ms 7z 8 successors did aft] him71 b resolv+ x into ! categorical syllogism4#g ,he h[ev] conveys v cle>ly ! c>d9al pr9ciple ( all hypo!tical inf]5ce--,t if ! antec$5t be true1 ! consequ5t mu/ be true also1 b n vice v]s2 if ! consequ5t be false1 ! antec$5t mu/ be false also1 b n vice v]s4 ,footnote #f3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 ii4 p4 #ec1 b4 #af-be4 ,greek3 to ou7n ,a 7_/sp] e7n keitai1 du_/o prota_/seis sullph!isai4 ,footnote #g3 ,ari/otle1 x %\ld be rem>k$1 uses ! ^w ,greek3 katgoriko_/s1 n 9 ! s5se :i* x subsequ5tly acquir$1 z ! anti!sis ( ,greek3 u7po!tiko_/s 9 application to ! proposition & syllogism1 b 9 ! s5se ( affirmative z oppos$ to ,greek3 /]tiko_/s4 ,hav+ laid d[n ! pr9ciple1 t ! conclusion may be true1 ?\gh "o or bo? ! premisses are false1 ,ari/otle proce$s1 at great l5g?1 to illu/rate x 9 its application to ea* ( ! ?ree syllogi/ic figures4#h ,no portion ( ! ,analytica is trac$ out m p]spicu\sly ?an ! exposition ( ?is mo/ important logical doctr9e4 ,footnote #h3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 ii4-iv4 p4 #ec1 b4 #bf-p4 #eg1 b4 #ag4 ,at ! close 7p4 #eg1 a4 #cf-;b4 #ag71 ! g5]al doctr9e is summ$ up4 ,x is possible 7he !n cont9ues1 aga9 at consid]able l5g?7 to inv]t ! syllogism & to demon/rate 9 a circle4 ,t is1 y may take ! conclusion z premiss = a new syllogism1 toge!r ) "o ( ! old premisses1 transpos+ its t]ms2 & ?us y may demon/rate ! o!r premiss4 ,y may d ?is successively1 fir/ ) ! major1 to demon/rate ! m9or2 next1 ) ! m9or1 to demon/rate ! major4 ,ea* ( ! premisses w ?us 9 turn be made a demon/rat$ conclusion2 & ! circle w be complete4 ,b ?is c be done p]fectly only 9 ,b>b>a1 & :51 besides1 all ! ?ree t]ms ( ! syllogism reciprocate ) ea* o!r1 or are co-ext5sive 9 import2 s t ea* ( ! two premisses admits ( be+ simply conv]t$4 ,9 all o!r cases1 ! process ( circul> demon/ration1 :]e possible at all1 is m or less imp]fect4#i ,footnote #i3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 v4-viii4 p4 #eg1 b4 #ah-p4 #ei1 a4 #ce4 ,hav+ ?us %[n "u :at conditions ! conclusion c be employ$ = ! demon/ration ( ! premisses1 ,ari/otle proce$s to /ate by :at trans=mation x c be employ$ = ! refutation ( !m4 ,?is he calls conv]t+ ! syllogism2 a mo/ inconv5i5t use ( ! t]m conv]t 7,greek3 a7nti/re_/phe971 s9ce he _h already assign$ to t same t]m m ?an "o o!r mean+1 di/9ct & diff]5t1 9 logical proc$ure4#aj ,:at x "h means is rev]s+ ! conclusion1 s z to ex*ange x ei!r = its contr>y1 or = its contradictory2 !n employ+ ?is rev]s$ proposition z a new premiss1 along ) "o ( ! previ\s premisses1 s z to disprove ! o!r ( ! previ\s premisses--i4e4 to prove its contr>y or contradictory4 ,! result w "h be diff]5t1 accord+ to ! mann] 9 :i* ! conclusion is rev]s$2 accord+ z y ex*ange x = its contr>y or its contradictory4 ,suppose t ! syllogism demon/rat$ is3 ,a belongs to all ,b1 ,b belongs to all ,c2 ,ergo1 ,a belongs to all ,c 7,b>b>a74 ,n[1 if we rev]se ?is conclusion by tak+ its contr>y1 ,a belongs to no ,c1 & if we comb9e ?is z a new premiss ) ! major ( ! =m] syllogism1 ,a belongs to all ,b1 we %all obta9 z a conclusion ,b belongs to no ,c2 :i* is ! contr>y ( ! m9or1 9 ! =m ,came/res4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 we rev]se ! conclusion by tak+ its contradictory1 ,a does n belong to all ,c1 & comb9e ?is ) ! same major1 we %all h z conclusion1 ,b does n belong to all ,c2 :i* is ! contradictory ( ! m9or1 & 9 ! =m ,b>oco3 ?\gh 9 ! "o case z 9 ! o!r ! m9or is disprov$4 ,! major is contradictorily disprov$1 :e!r x be ! contr>y or ! contradictory ( ! conclusion t is tak5 along ) ! m9or to =m ! new syllogism2 b /ill ! =m v>ies f ,felapton to ,boc>do4 ,ari/otle %[s f>!r h[ ! same process applies to ! o!r modes ( ! ,fir/1 & to ! modes ( ! ,second & ,?ird figures4#aa ,! new syllogism1 obta9$ by ?is process ( rev]sal1 is always 9 a diff]5t figure f ! syllogism rev]s$4 ,?us syllogisms 9 ! ,fir/ figure are rev]s$ by ! ,second & ,?ird2 ^? 9 ! second1 by ! ,fir/ & ,?ird2 ^? 9 ! ,?ird1 by ! ,fir/ & ,second4#ab ,footnote #aj3 ,s*ol4 7ad ,analyt4 ,prior4 p4 #ei1 b4 #a71 p4 #aij1 b4 #bj1 ,br&is4 ,comp>e ! notes ( ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire1 pp4 #ee1 #bdb4 ,footnote #aa3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 viii4-x4 p4 #ei1 b4 #a-p4 #fa1 a4 #d4 ,footnote #ab3 ,ibid4 x4 p4 #fa1 a4 #g-ae4 ,( ?is rev]s+ process1 "o v>iety is :at is call$ ! ,r$uctio ad ,absurdum2 9 :i* ! conclusion is rev]s$ by tak+ its contradictory 7nev] its contr>y71 & !n jo9+ ?is la/ ) "o ( ! premisses1 9 ord] to prove ! contradictory or contr>y ( ! o!r premiss4#ac ,! ,r$uctio ad ,absurdum is di/+ui%$ f ! o!r modes ( rev]sal by ^! *>act]i/ics3 7#a7 ,t x takes ! contradictory1 & n ! contr>y1 ( ! conclusion2 7#b7 ,t x is de/9$ to meet ! case :]e an oppon5t decl9es to admit ! conclusion2 :]eas ! o!r cases ( rev]sion are only int5d$ z confirmatory evid5ce t[>ds a p]son :o already admits ! conclusion2 7#c7 ,t x does n appeal to or require any concession on ! "p ( ! oppon5t2 = if he decl9es to admit ! conclusion1 y presume1 z a matt] ( c\rse1 t he mu/ adh]e to ! contradictory ( ! conclusion2 & y !re=e take ?is contradictory = grant$ 7)\t ask+ 8 concurr5ce7 z "o ( ! bases ( a new syllogism2 7#d7 ,t x presumes z foll[s3--,:51 by ! contradictory ( ! conclusion jo9$ ) "o ( ! premisses1 y h demon/rat$ ! opposite ( ! o!r premiss1 ! orig9al conclusion itself is %[n to be beyond all impea*m5t on ! score ( =m1 i4e4 beyond impea*m5t by any "o :o admits ! premisses4 ,y assume to be true1 = ! occasion1 ! v proposition :i* y mean f9ally to prove false2 y\r purpose 9 ! new syllogism is1 n to demon/rate ! orig9al conclusion1 b to prove x to be true by demon/rat+ its contradictory to be false4#ad9999 ,footnote #ac3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xi4 p4 #fa1 a4 #ah1 seq4 ,footnote #ad3 ,ibid4 p4 #fb1 a4 #aa3 ,greek3 phan]on ou7n o7_/ti ou7 to e7nanti_/on1 a7lla to a7ntikei_/m5on1 u7po!te_/on e7n a7_/pasi tois sullogismois4 ou7_/t gar to a7nagkaion e7_//ai kai to a7xi_/ma e7_/ndoxon4 ei7 gar kata pantos 7 kata_/phasis 7 a7po_/phasis1 dei*!_/ntos o7_/ti ou7* 7 a7po_/phasis1 a7na_/gk tn kata_/phas9 a7l!u_/e/hai4 ,see ,s*olia1 p4 #aij1 b4 #dj1 seq41 ,br&4 ,by ! ,r$uctio ad ,absurdum y c 9 all ! ?ree figures demon/rate all ! f\r v>ieties ( conclusion1 univ]sal & p>ticul>1 affirmative & negative2 ) ! s+le exception1 t y _c by ?is me?od demon/rate 9 ! ,fir/ figure ! ,univ]sal ,affirmative4#ae ,) ?is exception1 e true conclusion admits ( be+ demon/rat$ by ei!r ( ! two ways1 ei!r directly & o/5sively1 or by r$uction to ! impossible4#af ,footnote #ae3 ,ibid4 p4 #fa1 a4 #ce-p4 #fb1 b4 #aj2 xii4 p4 #fb1 a4 #ba4 ,alex&]1 ap4 ,s*ol4 p4 #aia1 a4 #ag-cf1 ,br&4 ,footnote #af3 ,ibid4 xiv4 p4 #fc1 b4 #ab-ba4 ,9 ! ,second & ,?ird figures1 ?\gh n 9 ! ,fir/1 x is possible to obta9 conclusions ev5 f two premisses :i* are contradictory or contr>y to ea* o!r2 b ! conclusion w1 z a matt] ( c\rse1 be a self-contradictory "o4 ,?us if 9 ! ,second figure y h ! two premisses--,all ,sci5ce is good2 ,no ,sci5ce is good--y get ! conclusion 79 ,came/res71 ,no ,sci5ce is ,sci5ce4 ,9 oppos$ propositions1 ! same pr$icate mu/ be affirm$ & d5i$ ( ! same subject 9 "o ( ! ?ree diff]5t =ms--,all & ,none1 ,all & ,n ,all1 ,"s & ,none4 ,?is %[s :y su* conclusions _c be obta9$ 9 ! ,fir/ figure2 = x is ! *>act]i/ic ( t figure t ! middle t]m mu/ be pr$icate 9 "o premiss1 & subject 9 ! o!r4#ag ,9 dialectic discussion x w h>dly be possible to get contr>y or contradictory premisses conc$$ by ! adv]s>y imm$iately aft] ea* o!r1 because he w be sure to p]ceive ! contradiction3 y mu/ mask y\r purpose by ask+ ! two que/ions n 9 imm$iate succession1 b by introduc+ o!r que/ions betwe5 ! two1 or by o!r indirect means z sugge/$ 9 ! ,topica4#ah ,footnote #ag3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xv4 p4 #fc1 b4 #bb-p4 #fd1 a4 #cb4 ,ari/otle "h decl>es ,subcontr>ies 7z !y 7 lat] call$71--,"s m5 are wise1 ,"s m5 are n wise1--to be oppos$ only 9 expression or v]bally 7,greek3 kata tn le_/x9 mo_/non74 ,footnote #ah3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 xv4 p4 #fd1 a4 #cc-cg4 ,see ,topica1 ,,viii4 i4 p4 #aee1 a4 #bf2 ,julius ,pacius1 p4 #cgb1 note4 ,9 ! ,topica1 ,ari/otle sugge/s modes ( conceal+ ! purpose ( ! que/ion] & driv+ ! adv]s>y to contradict himself3 ,greek3 e7n de ts ,topikois p>adi_/dsi me?o_/d\s tn kru_/psen di' a7s t\to do?_/setai 7,s*ol4 p4 #aib1 a4 #ah1 ,br474 ,comp>e also ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xix4 p4 #ff1 a4 #cc4 ,ari/otle n[ passes to c]ta9 g5]al heads ( ,fallacy1 or g5]al liabilities to ,error1 ) :i* ! syllogiz+ process is beset4 ,:at ! reason] und]takes is1 to demon/rate ! conclusion be=e him1 & to demon/rate x 9 ! natural & appropriate way2 t is1 f premisses bo? m evid5t 9 !mselves & logically prior to ! conclusion4 ,:5ev] he fails ?us to demon/rate1 !re is error ( "s k9d2 b he may err 9 sev]al ways3 7#a7 ,he may produce a defective or in=mal syllogism2 7#b7 ,8 premisses may be m unkn[able ?an 8 conclusion1 or equally unkn[able2 7#c7 ,8 premisses1 in/ead ( be+ logically prior to ! conclusion1 may be logically po/]ior to x4#ai ,footnote #ai3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 xvi4 p4 #fd1 b4 #cj-ce3 ,greek3 kai gar ei7 o7_/ls m sullogi_/zetai1 kai ei7 di' a7gn/ote_/rn 7 o7moi_/s a7gn_//n1 kai ei7 dia tn u7/e_/rn to pro_/t]on2 7 gar a7po_/deixis e7k pi/ote_/rn te kai prote_/rn e7/94444 ta men di' au7tn pe_/phuke gnri_/ze/hai1 ta de di' a7_/lln4 ,di/9ct f all ^! ?ree1 h[ev]1 ,ari/otle s+les out & dwells ^u ano!r mode ( error1 :i* he calls ,petitio ,pr9cipii4 ,"s tru?s1 ! pr9cipia1 are by nature kn[able ?r\gh or 9 !mselves1 o!rs are kn[able only ?r\gh o!r ?+s4 ,if y conf\nd ?is di/9ction1 & ask or assume some?+ ( ! latt] class z if x belong$ to ! =m]1 y commit a ,petitio ,pr9cipii4 ,y may commit x ei!r by assum+ at once t :i* ought to be demon/rat$1 or by assum+1 z if x 7 a pr9cipium1 some?+ else among ^? matt]s :i* 9 natural propriety w\ld be demon/rat$ by means ( a pr9cipium4 ,?us1 !re is 7let u suppose7 a natural propriety t ,c %all be demon/rat$ ?r\gh ,a2 b y1 ov]look+ ?is1 demon/rate ,b ?r\gh ,c1 & ,a ?r\gh ,b4 ,by ?us inv]t+ ! legitimate ord]1 y d :at is tantam\nt to demon/rat+ ,a ?r\gh itself2 = y\r demon/ration w n hold unless y assume ,a at ! beg9n+1 9 ord] to arrive at ,c4 ,?is is a mi/ake made n unfrequ5tly1 & especially by "s :o def9e p>allel l9es2 = !y give a def9ition :i* _c be und]/ood unless p>allel l9es be presuppos$4#bj ,footnote #bj3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xvi4 p4 #fd1 b4 #cc-p4 #fe1 a4 #i4 ,pet]e pr9cipium is1 9 ! phrase ( ,ari/otle1 n ,greek3 tn a7r*n ai7tei/hai1 b ,greek3 to e7n a7r* ai7tei/hai or ,greek3 to e7x a7r*s ai7tei/hai 7xvi4 p4 #fd1 b4 #bh1 #cd74 ,:5 ! problem is su*1 t x is unc]ta9 :e!r ,a c be pr$icat$ ei!r ( ,c or ( ,b1 if y !n assume t ,a is pr$icable ( ,b1 y may p]haps n commit ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 b y c]ta9ly fail 9 demon/rat+ ! problem2 = no demon/ration w hold :]e ! premiss is equally unc]ta9 ) ! conclusion4 ,b if1 besides1 ! case be su*1 t ,b is id5tical ) ,c1 t is1 ei!r co-ext5sive & reciprocally conv]tible ) ,c1 or relat$ to ,c z g5us or species1--9 ei!r ( ^! cases y commit ,petitio ,pr9cipii by assum+ t ,a may be pr$icat$ ( ,b4#ba ,= see+ t ,b reciprocates ) ,c1 y might j z well demon/rate t ,a is pr$icable ( ,b1 because x is pr$icable ( ,c2 t is1 y might demon/rate ! major premiss by means ( ! m9or & ! conclusion1 z well z y c demon/rate ! conclusion by means ( ! major & ! m9or premiss4 ,if y _c s demon/rate ! major premiss1 ?is is n because ! /ructure ( ! syllogism =bids x1 b because ! pr$icate ( ! major premiss is m ext5sive ?an ! subject !re(4 ,if x be co-ext5sive & conv]tible ) ! subject1 we %all h a circul> pro( ( ?ree propositions 9 :i* ea* may be alt]nately premiss & conclusion4 ,! l w be ! case1 if ! ,petitio ,pr9cipii is 9 ! m9or premiss & n 9 ! major4 ,9 ! ,fir/ syllogi/ic figure x may be 9 ei!r ( ! premisses2 9 ! ,second figure x c only be 9 ! m9or premiss1 & t only 9 "o mode 7,came/res7 ( ! figure4#bb ,! ess5ce ( ,petitio ,pr9cipii consi/s 9 ?is1 t y exhibit z true p] se t :i* is n really true p] se4#bc ,y may commit ?is fault ei!r 9 ,demon/ration1 :5 y assume = true :at is n really true1 or 9 ,dialectic1 :5 y assume z probable & con=mable to au?oritative op9ion :at is n really s4#bd9999 ,footnote #ba3 ,ibid4 p4 #fe1 a4 #a-aj4 ,footnote #bb3 ,ibid4 p4 #fe1 a4 #aj3 ,greek3 ei7 ou7n tis1 a7d_/l\ o7_/ntos o7_/ti to ,a u7pa_/r*ei t ,g1 o7moi_/s de kai o7_/ti t ,b1 ai7toito t ,b u7pa_/r*e9 to ,a1 ou7_/p dlon ei7 to e7n a7r* ai7teitai1 a7ll' o7_/ti ou7k a7podei_/knusi1 dlon2 ou7 gar a7r* a7podei_/xes to o7moi_/s a7_/dlon4 ei7 me_/ntoi to ,b pros to ,g ou7_/ts e7_/*ei 7_//e tau7ton ei7nai1 7 dlon o7_/ti a7nti/re_/ph\s91 7 u7pa_/r*ei ?a_/t]on ?ate_/r1 to e7n a7r* ai7teitai4 kai gar a7_/n1 o7_/ti t ,b to ,a u7pa_/r*ei1 di' e7kei_/nn deiknu_/oi1 ei7 a7nti/re_/phoi4 nun de t\to klu_/ei1 a7ll' ou7* o7 tro_/pos4 ei7 de t\to poioi1 to ei7rme_/non a7n poioi kai a7nti/re_/phoi 7s dia trin4 ,?is *apt]1 9 :i* ,ari/otle decl>es ! nature ( ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 is obscure & difficult to foll[4 ,x has be5 expla9$ at "s l5g?1 fir/ by ,philoponus 9 ! ,s*olia 7p4 #aib1 a4 #ce1 b4 #bd71 aft]w>ds by ,julius ,pacius 7p4 #cgf1 ^: explanation is foll[$ by ,m4 ,b4 ,/4 ,hilaire1 p4 #bhh71 & by ,waitz1 7,i4 p4 #ead74 ,b ! translation & comm5t giv5 by ,mr4 ,po/e appe> to me ! be/3 ,assum+ ! conclusion to be affirmative1 let u exam9e a syllogism 9 ,b>b>a3-- ,all ,b is ,a4 4 ,all ,c is ,b4 4 4 ,all ,c is ,a4 ,& let u fir/ suppose t ! major premiss is a ,petitio ,pr9cipii2 i4e4 t ! proposition ,all ,b is ,a is id5tical ) ! proposition ,all ,c is ,a4 ,?is c only be because ! t]ms ,b & ,c are id5tical4 ,next1 let u suppose t ! m9or premiss is a ,petitio ,pr9cipii3 i4e4 t ! proposition ,all ,c is ,b is id5tical ) ! proposition ,all ,c is ,a4 ,?is c only be because ,b & ,a are id5tical4 ,! id5tity ( ! t]ms is1 _! conv]tibility or _! sequ5ce 7,greek3 u7pa_/r*ei1 e7_/petai74 ,?is h[ev] requires "s limitation2 = z ! major is always pr$icat$ 7,greek3 u7pa_/r*ei1 e7_/petai7 ( ! middle1 & ! middle ( ! m9or1 if ?is 7 en\gh to con/itute ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 e syllogism ) a problematical premiss w\ld be a ,petitio ,pr9cipii4 7,see ! ,app5dix ,a1 pp4 #agh-ahc1 atta*$ to ,mr4 ,po/e's edition ( ,ari/otle's ,sophi/ici ,el5*i47 ,comp>e1 ab\t ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 ,ari/ot4 ,topic4 ,,viii4 xiii4 p4 #afb1 b4 #cd1 9 :i* passage ,ari/otle gives to ! fallacy call$ ,petitio ,pr9cipii a /ill l>g] sweep ?an :at he assigns to x 9 ! ,analytica ,priora4 ,mr4 ,po/e's rem>k is p]fectly j1 t accord+ to ! above passage 9 ! ,analytica1 e syllogism ) a problematical 7i4e4 real z oppos$ to v]bal7 premiss w\ld be a ,petitio ,pr9cipii2 t is1 all real d$uctive reason+1 9 ! syllogi/ic =m1 w\ld be a ,petitio ,pr9cipii4 ,to ?is we may add1 t1 f ! passage above ref]r$ to 9 ! ,topica1 all inductive reason+ also 7reason+ f p>ts to :ole7 w\ld involve ,petitio ,pr9cipii4 ,mr4 ,po/e's explanation ( ?is difficult passage br+s into view ! orig9al & valuable exposition made by ,mr4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill ( ! ,functions & ,logical ,value ( ! ,syllogism4--,sy/em ( ,logic1 ,book ,,ii4 *4 iii4 sect #b3--;,x mu/ be grant$1 t 9 e syllogism1 consid]$ z an argum5t to prove ! conclusion1 !re is a ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 c4 ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 if rank$ among ! ,fallacies1 c h>dly be ext5d$ beyond ! fir/ ( ! five di/9ct v>ieties enum]at$ 9 ! ,topica1 ,,viii4 xiii4 ,footnote #bc3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xvi4 p4 #fe1 a4 #bc-bg3 ,greek3 to gar e7x a7r*s ti_/ du_/natai1 ei7_/rtai 7min1 o7_/ti to di' au7t\ deiknu_/nai to m di' au7t\ dlon4--t\to d' e7_//i1 to m deiknu_/nai4 ,! mean+ ( "s l9es 9 ?is *apt] 7p4 #fe1 a4 #ag-ah7 is to me v obscure1 aft] all ! explanations ( comm5tators4 ,footnote #bd3 ,ibid4 p4 #fe1 a4 #ce2 ,topic4 ,,viii4 xiii4 p4 #afb1 b4 #ca4 ,we mu/ be c>eful to note1 t :5 ,ari/otle speaks ( a pr9cipium z kn[able 9 itself1 or true 9 itself1 he does n mean t x is innate1 or t x />ts up 9 ! m9d ready made )\t any gradual build+ up or prep>ation4 ,:at he means is1 t x is n demon/rable d$uctively f any?+ else prior or m kn[able by nature ?an itself4 ,he decl>es 7z we %all see7 t pr9cipia are acquir$1 & ma9ly by ,induction4 ,next to ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 ,ari/otle indicates ano!r fallaci\s or errone\s proc$ure 9 dialectic debate2 misconception or mis/atem5t ( ! real gr\nds on :i* a conclusion re/s--,non p] ,hoc4 ,y may impugn ! !sis 7set up by ! respond5t7 directly1 by prov+ syllogi/ically its contr>y or contradictory2 or y may also impugn x indirectly by ,r$uctio ad ,absurdum2 i4e4 y prove by syllogism "s absurd conclusion1 :i* y cont5d to be necess>ily true1 if ! !sis is admitt$4 ,suppose y impugn x 9 ! fir/ me?od1 or directly1 by a syllogism conta9+ only two premisses & a conclusion3 ,non p] ,hoc is inapplicable "h1 = if ei!r premiss is disall[$1 ! conclusion is unprov$2 ! respond5t _c meet y except by que/ion+ "o or bo? ( ! premisses ( y\r impugn+ syllogism4#be ,b if y proce$ by ! second me?od or indirectly1 ,non p] ,hoc may become applicable2 = !re may !n be m ?an two premisses1 & he may1 :ile grant+ t ! absurd conclusion is correctly made out1 cont5d t ! tru? or falsehood ( 8 !sis is n[ay implicat$ 9 x4 ,he decl>es 79 ,ari/otle's phrase7 t ! absurdity or falsehood j made out does n foll[ z a consequ5ce f 8 !sis1 b f o!r premisses indep5d5t !re(2 t x w\ld /& equally prov$1 ev5 ?\gh 8 !sis 7 )drawn4#bf ,9 e/abli%+ ! falsehood or absurdity y mu/ take c>e t x %all be "o implicat$ ) or dep5d5t ^u 8 !sis4 ,x is ?is la/ condition t he 7! respond5t7 affirms to be want+4#bg ,footnote #be3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xvii4 p4 #fe1 b4 #d3 ,greek3 o7_/tan a7naire_/? ti deiktiks dia tn ,a1 ,b1 ,g1 c42 xviii4 #ff1 a4 #ag3 ,greek3 7 gar e7k tn du_/o prota_/sen 7 e7k pleio_/nn pas e7/i sullogismo_/s2 ei7 men ou7n e7k tn du_/o1 t\_/tn a7na_/gk tn men e7te_/ran 7 kai a7mphote_/ras ei7nai pseudeis2 c4 ,:oev] w\ld und]/& ?is difficult *apt] xvii41 w d well to /udy x ) ! notes ( ,julius ,pacius 7p4 #cfj71 & also ! valuable exposition ( ,mr4 ,po/e1 :o has extract$ & illu/rat$ x 9 ,app5dix ,b4 7p4 #aij7 ( ! notes to 8 edition ( ! ,sophi/ici ,el5*i4 ,! six illu/rative diagrams giv5 by ,julius ,pacius af=d great help1 ?\gh ! two fir/ ( !m appe> to me incorrectly pr9t$1 z to ! brackets connect+ ! diff]5t propositions4 ,footnote #bf3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 xvii4 p4 #fe1 b4 #ch1 b4 #ad1 p4 #ff1 a4 #b1 #g3 ,greek3 to m p>a t\to sumbai_/ne9 to pseudos--t\ m p>a tn !_/s9 ei7nai to pseudos--ou7 p>a tn !_/s9 sumbai_/nei to pseudos--ou7k a7n ei7_/ p>a tn !_/s94 ,in/ead ( ! preposition ,greek3 p>a_/1 ,ari/otle on two occasions employs ,greek3 dia_/--ou7_/t gar e7_//ai dia tn u7po_/!s9--p4 #fe1 b4 #cc1 p4 #ff1 a4 #c4 ,! preposition ,greek3 p>a_/1 ) acc4 case1 means on acc\nt (1 ow+ to1 c4 ,see ,mat?i & ,khn]'s ,gramm>s1 & ! passage ( ,?ucydides i4 #ada2 ,greek3 kai e7_/ka/os ou7 p>a tn e7aut\ a7me_/leian oi7etai bla_/pse91 me_/le9 de_/ t9i kai a7_/ll u7per e7aut\ ti proidein1 c41 :i* ,i transcribe p>tly on acc\nt ( ,dr4 ,arnold's note1 :o says ab\t ,greek3 p>a "h3--,?is is exactly express$ 9 vulg> ,engli%1 all along ( 8 own neglect1 i4 e4 ow+ to 8 own neglect4 ,footnote #bg3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 xvii4 p4 #fe1 b4 #cc3 ,greek3 dei pros t\s e7x a7r*s o7_/r\s suna_/pte9 to a7du_/naton2 ou7_/t gar e7_//ai dia tn u7po_/!s94 ,ari/otle tells u t ?is 0 a precaution :i* ! def5d] ( a !sis 0 oblig$ (t5 to employ 9 dialectic debate1 9 ord] to gu>d aga9/ abuse or misapplication ( ,r$uctio ad ,absurdum on ! "p ( oppon5ts1 :o 7x appe>s7 sometimes took cr$it = success1 :5 !y _h introduc$ & demon/rat$ "s absurd conclusion t _h little or no connection ) ! !sis4#bh ,b ev5 :5 ! absurd conclusion is connect$ ) ! !sis cont9u\sly1 by a s]ies ( propositions ea* hav+ a common t]m ) ! prec$+1 9 ei!r ! asc5d+ or ! desc5d+ scale1 we h "h m ?an ?ree propositions1 & ! absurd conclusion may p]haps be prov$ by ! o!r premisses1 )\t involv+ ! !sis4 ,9 ?is case ! respond5t w meet y ) ,non p] ,hoc3#bi he w po9t out t 8 !sis is n "o ( ! premisses requisite = demon/rat+ y\r conclusion1 & is !re=e n ov]?r[n by ! absurdity !re(4 ,p]haps ! !sis may be false1 b y h n %[n x to be s1 s9ce x is n among ! premisses necess>y = prov+ y\r absurdum4 ,an absurdum may sometimes admit ( be+ demon/rat$ by sev]al l9es ( premisses1#cj ea* involv+ di/9ct falsehood4 ,e false conclusion implies falsity 9 "o or m syllogi/ic or prosyllogi/ic premisses t h prec$$ x1 & is ow+ to or occasion$ by ?is fir/ falsehood4#ca ,footnote #bh3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xvii4 p4 #fe1 a4 #ch3 ,greek3 o7 polla_/kis e7n tois lo_/gois ei7_/?am5 le_/ge91 c4 ,t ! ,r$uctio ad ,absurdum 0 sometimes made to turn ^u matt]s :olly irrelevant1 we may see f ! illu/ration cit$ by ,ari/otle1 p4 #fe1 b4 #ag4 ,footnote #bi3 ,9 ?is *apt] ( ! ,analytica1 ,ari/otle designates ! pres5t fallacy by ! title1 ,non p] ,hoc1 ,greek3 ou7 p>a t\to--ou7 p>a tn !_/s9 sumbai_/nei to pseudos4 ,he makes express ref]5ce to ! ,topica 7i4e4 to ! fif? *apt] ( ,sophi/4 ,el5*i1 :i* he reg>ds z "p ( ! ,topica71 :]e ! same fallacy is designat$ by a diff]5t title1 ,non ,causa pro ,caus1 ,greek3 to a7nai_/tion 7s ai7_/tion ti!_/nai4 ,we see pla9ly t ?is *apt] ( ! ,anal4 ,priora 0 compos$ lat] ?an ! fif? *apt] ( ,soph4 ,el42 :e!r ?is is true ( ! two treatises z :oles is n s c]ta94 ,i ?9k x probable t ! *ange ( designation = ! same fallacy 0 delib]ately adopt$4 ,x is an improvem5t to dismiss ! vague t]m ,cause4 ,footnote #cj3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 xvii4 p4 #ff1 a4 #aa3 ,greek3 e7pei tau7to_/ ge pseudos sumbai_/ne9 dia pleio_/nn u7po!_/sen ou7den i7_/ss a7_/topon1 oi7on tas p>all_/l\s sumpi_/pte91 c4 ,footnote #ca3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 xviii4 p4 #ff1 a4 #af-bd3 ,greek3 o7 de pseuds lo_/gos gi_/netai p>a to prton pseudos1 c4 ,9 impugn+ ! !sis & 9 extract+ f y\r oppon5t ! prop] concessions to enable y to d s1 y w take c>e to put ! int]rogations 9 su* =m & ord] z w be/ disguise ! f9al conclusion :i* y aim at e/abli%+4 ,if y int5d to arrive at x ?r\gh prelim9>y syllogisms 7prosyllogisms71 y w ask ass5t to ! necess>y premisses 9 a confus$ or inv]t$ ord]1 & w refra9 f enunciat+ at once ! conclusion f any ( !m4 ,suppose t y wi% to end by %[+ t ,a may be pr$icat$ ( ,f1 & suppose t !re mu/ be int]v5+ /eps ?r\gh ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e4 ,y w n put ! que/ions 9 ?is regul> ord]1 b w fir/ ask him to grant t ,a may be pr$icat$ ( ,b2 next1 t ,d may be pr$icat$ ( ,e2 aft]w>ds1 t ,b may be pr$icat$ ( ,c1 c4 ,y w ?us try to obta9 all ! concessions requisite = y\r f9al conclusion1 be=e he p]ceives y\r drift4 ,if y c c>ry y\r po9t by only "o syllogism1 & h only "o middle t]m to get conc$$1 y w d well to put ! middle t]m fir/ 9 y\r que/ions4 ,?is is ! be/ way to conceal y\r purpose f ! respond5t4#cb ,footnote #cb3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xix4 p4 #ff1 a4 #cc-;b4 #c3 ,greek3 *r d' o7_/p] phila_/tte/hai p>agge_/llom5 a7pokr9ome_/n\s1 au7t\s e7pi*eir\ntas peira/hai lan?a_/ne94--ka7n di' e7nos me_/s\ gi_/ntai o7 sullogismo_/s1 a7po t\ me_/s\ a7_/r*e/hai2 ma_/li/a gar a7n ou7_/t la_/n?anoi ton a7pokr9o_/m5on4 ,see ! explanation ( ,pacius1 p4 #che4 ,s9ce ! middle t]m does n appe> 9 ! conclusion1 ! respond5t is less likely to be prep>$ = ! conclusion t y want to e/abli%4 ,to put ! middle t]m fir/1 9 enunciat+ ! ,syllogism1 is reg>d$ by ,ari/otle z a p]v]t$ & emb>rass+ ord]1 yet x is ! receiv$ practice among mod]n logicians4 ,x w be 8 bus9ess to see t he is n ?us tripp$ up 9 ! syllogi/ic process4#cc ,if y ask ! que/ions 9 ! ord] above indicat$1 )\t enunciat+ y\r prelim9>y conclusions1 he mu/ take c>e n to conc$e ! same t]m twice1 ei!r z pr$icate1 or z subject1 or z bo?2 = y c arrive at no conclusion unless he grants y a middle t]m2 & no t]m c be employ$ z middle1 unless x be repeat$ twice4 ,kn[+ ! conditions ( a conclusion 9 ea* ( ! ?ree figures1 he w avoid mak+ su* concessions z w emp[] y to conclude 9 any "o ( !m4#cd ,if ! !sis :i* he def5ds is affirmative1 ! el5*us by :i* y impugn x mu/ be a negative2 s t he w be c>eful n to conc$e ! premisses = a negative conclusion4 ,if 8 !sis be negative1 y\r purpose w require y to meet him by an affirmative2 accord+ly he mu/ avoid grant+ y any suffici5t premisses = an affirmative conclusion4 ,he may ?us make x impossible = y to prove syllogi/ically ! contr>y or contradictory ( 8 !sis2 & x is 9 prov+ ?is t ! el5*us or refutation consi/s4 ,if he w n grant y any affirmative proposition1 nor any univ]sal proposition1 y "k1 by ! rules previ\sly laid d[n1 t no valid syllogism c be con/ruct$2 s9ce no?+ c be inf]r$ ei!r f two premisses bo? negative1 or f two premisses bo? p>ticul>4#ce ,footnote #cc3 ,analyt ,prior4 ,,ii4 xix4 p4 #ff1 a4 #be-cb3 ,greek3 pros de to m katasullogi_/ze/hai p>atrte_/on1 o7_/tan a7_/neu tn sump]asma_/tn e7rta ton lo_/gon1 c4 ,waitz 7p4 #ebj7 expla9s ,greek3 katasullogi_/ze/hai1 disputationum et int]rogationum laqueis aliquem irretire4 ,?is is1 ,i ?9k1 m correct ?an ! di/9ction :i* ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire seeks to draw1 entre le ,catasyllogisme et la ,rfutation1 9 ! valuable notes to 8 translation ( ! ,analytica ,priora1 p4 #cjc4 ,footnote #cd3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 xix4 p4 #ff1 a4 #be-cb4 ,footnote #ce3 ,ibid4 xx4 p4 #ff1 b4 #d-ag4 ,! read] w obs]ve h[ completely ?is advice giv5 by ,ari/otle is %ap$ = ! purpose ( obta9+ victory 9 ! argum5t & h[ he leaves out ( consid]ation bo? ! tru? ( :at ! oppon5t asks to be conc$$1 & ! belief ent]ta9$ by ! def5dant4 ,?is is exactly ! proc$ure :i* he himself makes a gr\nd ( contemptu\s reproa* aga9/ ! ,sophi/s4 ,we h already se5 t error may arise by wrong enunciation or arrangem5t ( ! t]ms ( a syllogism1 t is1 defects 9 its =m2 b sometimes also1 ev5 :5 ! =m is correct1 error may arise f wrong belief z to ! matt]s affirm$ or d5i$4#cf ,?us ! same pr$icate may belong1 imm$iately & ess5tially1 alike to sev]al di/9ct subjects2 b y may believe 7:at is ! tru?7 t x belongs to "o ( !m1 & y may at ! same "t believe 7errone\sly7 t x does n belong to ano!r4 ,suppose t ,a is pr$icable ess5tially bo? ( ,b & ,c1 & t ,a1 ,b1 & ,c1 are all pr$icable ess5tially ( ,d4 ,y may "k t ,a is pr$icable ( all ,b1 & t ,b is pr$icable ( all ,d2 b y may at ! same "t believe 7errone\sly7 t ,a is n pr$icable ( any ,c1 & t ,c is pr$icable ( all ,d4 ,"u ?is /ate ( k & belief1 y may con/ruct two valid syllogisms2 ! fir/ 79 ,b>b>a1 ) ,b = its middle t]m7 prov+ t ,a belongs to all ,d2 ! second 79 ,cel>5t1 ) ,c = its middle t]m7 prov+ t ,a belongs to no ,d4 ,! case w be ! same1 ev5 if all ! t]ms tak5 belong to ! same asc5d+ or desc5d+ logical s]ies4 ,"h1 !n1 y "k "o proposition2 yet y believe ! proposition contr>y to x4#cg ,h[ c su* a m5tal condition be expla9$8 ,x w\ld1 inde$1 be an impossibility1 if ! middle t]m ( ! two syllogisms 7 ! same1 & if ! premisses ( ! "o syllogism ?us contradict$ directly & 9 t]ms1 ! premisses ( ! o!r3 %\ld t happ51 y _c "k "o side ( ! alt]native & believe ! o!r4 ,b if ! middle t]m be diff]5t1 s t ! contradiction betwe5 ! premisses ( ! "o syllogism & ^? ( ! o!r1 is n direct1 !re is no impossibility4 ,?us1 y "k t ,a is pr$icable ( all ,b1 & ,b ( all ,d2 :ile y believe at ! same "t t ,a is pr$icable ( no ,c1 & ,c ( all ,d2 ! middle t]m be+ 9 "o syllogism ,b1 9 ! o!r1 ,c4#ch ,?is la/ =m ( error is analog\s to :at (t5 occurs 9 respect to our k ( p>ticul>s4 ,y "k t ,a belongs to all ,b1 & ,b to all ,c2 y "k1 !re=e1 t ,a belongs to all ,c4 ,yet y may p]haps be ignorant ( ! exi/5ce ( ,c4 ,suppose ,a to d5ote equal to two "r angles2 ,b1 to be ! triangle g5]ally2 ,c1 a p>ticul> visible triangle4 ,y "k ,a ,b ! univ]sal proposition2 yet y may at ! same "t believe t ,c does n exi/2 & ?us x may happ5 t y "k1 & d n "k1 ! same ?+ at ! same "t4 ,=1 9 tru?1 ! k1 t e triangle has its ?ree angles equal to two "r angles1 is n 7z a m5tal fact7 simple & absolute1 b has two di/9ct aspects2 "o z conc]ns ! univ]sal1 ! o!r z conc]ns ! sev]al p>ticul>s4 ,n[1 assum+ ! case above imag9$1 y possess ! k 9 ! fir/ ( ^! two aspects1 b n 9 ! second2 s t ! app>5t contr>iety betwe5 k & no k is n real4#ci ,& 9 ?is s5se ! doctr9e ( ,plato 9 ! ,m5on is p>tially true--t le>n+ is rem9isc5ce4 ,we c nev] "k be=eh& p>ticul> cases p] se2 b 9 proportion z we ext5d our induction to ea* case 9999successively1 we1 z x 71 recognize t1 :i* we knew be=eh& z a g5]al tru?1 to be realiz$ 9 ea*4 ,?us :5 we asc]ta9 ! giv5 figure be=e u to be a triangle1 we "k imm$iately t its ?ree angles are equal to two "r angles4#dj ,footnote #cf3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xxi4 p4 #ff1 b4 #ah3 ,greek3 sumbai_/nei d' e7ni_/ote1 ka?a_/p] e7n t !_/sei tn o7_/rn a7pat_/me?a1 kai kata tn u7po_/lps9 gi_/ne/hai tn a7pa_/tn4 ,! vague & g5]al way 9 :i* ,ari/otle uses ! t]m ,greek3 u7po_/lpsis1 seems to be be/ r5d]$ by our ^w belief4 ,see ,tr5del5burg ad ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 p4 #dfi2 ,biese1 ,philos4 des ,ari/ot4 i4 p4 #baa4 ,footnote #cg3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 xxi4 p4 #ff1 b4 #cc3 ,greek3 7_//e o7_/ ps e7pi_//atai1 t\to o7_/ls a7xioi m u7polamba_/ne92 o7_/p] a7du_/naton4 ,footnote #ch3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 xxi4 p4 #fg1 a4 #e-h4 ,footnote #ci3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xxi4 p4 #fg1 a4 #ai3 ,greek3 ou7_/t men ou7n 7s t ka?o_/l\ ou7de to ,g o7_/ti du_/o o7r?ai_/1 7s de t ka?' e7_/ka/on ou7k oi7d51 7_//' ou7* e7_/xei tas e7nanti_/z 7sc4 ,greek3 e7pi/_/mos74 ,footnote #dj3 ,ibid4 a4 #bb3 ,greek3 ou7dam\ gar sumbai_/nei proepi_//a/hai to ka?' e7_/ka/on1 a7ll' a7_/ma t e7pagg lamba_/ne9 tn tn kata me_/ros e7pi/_/mn 7_/sp] a7nagnri_/zontas1 c4 ,cf4 ,anal4 ,po/4 ,i4 ii4 p4 #ga1 b4 #i1 seq42 ,plato1 ,m5on1 pp4 #ha-hb4 ,we ?us1 by help ( ! univ]sal1 acquire a !oretical k ( p>ticul>s1 b we d n "k !m by ! special obs]vation prop]ly belong+ to ea* p>ticul> case3 s t we may err 9 respect to !m )\t any positive contr>iety betwe5 our cognition & our error2 s9ce :at we "k is ! univ]sal1 :ile :at we err 9 is ! p>ticul>4 ,we may ev5 "k t ,a is pr$icable ( all ,b1 & t ,b is pr$icable ( all ,c2 & yet we may believe t ,a is n pr$icable ( ,c4 ,we may "k t e mule is b>r51 & t ! animal be=e u is a mule1 yet /ill we may believe h] to be 9 foal2 = p]haps we may nev] h comb9$ 9 our m9ds ! p>ticul> case along ) ! univ]sal proposition4#da ,a =tiori1 !re=e1 we may make ! l mi/ake1 if we "k ! univ]sal only1 & d n "k ! p>ticul>4 ,& ?is is p]fectly possible4 ,= take any "o ( ! visible p>ticul> in/ances1 ev5 "o :i* we h already inspect$1 s soon z x is out ( sight we d n "k x by actual & pres5t cognition2 we only "k x1 p>tly f ! remembrance ( pa/ special inspection1 p>tly f ! univ]sal "u :i* x falls4#db ,we may "k 9 "o1 or o!r1 or all1 ( ^! ?ree di/9ct ways3 ei!r by ! univ]sal2 or specially 7z rememb]$73 or by comb9ation ( bo?--actual & pres5t cognition1 t is1 by ! application ( a =ekn[n g5]ality to a case submitt$ to our s5ses4 ,& z we may "k 9 ea* ( ^! ?ree ways1 s we may also err or be deceiv$ 9 ea* ( ! same ?ree ways4#dc ,x is !re=e q possible t we may "k1 & t we may err or be deceiv$ ab\t ! same ?+1 & t1 too1 )\t any contr>iety4 ,?is is :at happ5s :5 we "k bo? ! two premisses ( ! syllogism1 b h nev] reflect$ on !m be=e1 nor br\ght !m into conjunction 9 our m9ds4 ,:5 we believe t ! mule be=e u is 9 foal1 we are de/itute ( ! actual k2 yet our errone\s belief is n = t reason contr>y to k2 = an errone\s belief1 contr>y to ! univ]sal proposition1 mu/ be repres5t$ by a c\nt]-syllogism4#dd ,footnote #da3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 xxi4 p4 #fg1 a4 #cf3 ,greek3 ou7 gar e7pi_//atai o7_/ti to ,a t ,g1 m sun!rn to ka?' e7ka_/t]on4 ,footnote #db3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xxi4 p4 #fg1 a4 #ci3 ,greek3 ou7den gar tn ai7/htn e7_/x ts ai7/h_/ses g5o_/m5on i7_/sm51 ou7_/d' a7n 7/hme_/noi tug*a_/nm51 ei7 m 7s t ka?o_/l\ kai t e7_/*e9 tn oi7kei_/an e7pi/_/mn1 a7ll' ou7* 7s t e7n]gein4 ,complete cognition 7,greek3 to e7n]gein1 accord+ to ! view "h set =?7 consi/s ( "o m5tal act correspond+ to ! major premiss2 ano!r correspond+ to ! m9or2 & a ?ird includ+ bo? ! two 9 consci\s juxta-position4 ,! ?ird implies bo? ! fir/ & ! second2 b ! fir/ & ! second d n necess>ily imply ! ?ird1 nor does ei!r ( !m imply ! o!r2 ?\gh a p]son cognizant ( ! fir/ is 9 a c]ta9 way1 & to a c]ta9 ext5t1 cognizant ( all ! p>ticul>s to :i* ! second applies4 ,?us ! p]son :o kn[s ,ontology 7! mo/ univ]sal ( all sci5ces1 ,greek3 t\ o7_/ntos 7 o7_/n71 kn[s 9 a c]ta9 way all scibilia4 ,metaphys4 ,a41 p4 #ihb1 a4 #ba3 ,greek3 t\_/tn de to men pa_/nta e7pi_//a/hai t ma_/li/a e7_/*onti tn ka?o_/l\ e7pi/_/mn a7nagkaion u7pa_/r*e92 ou7_/tos gar oi7de_/ ps pa_/nta ta u7pokei_/m5a4 ,ib4 a4 #h3 ,greek3 u7polamba_/nom5 d prton men e7pi_//a/hai pa_/nta ton sophon 7s e7nde_/*etai1 m ka?' e7_/ka/on e7_/*onta e7pi/_/mn au7tn4 ,see ! ,s*olia ( ,alex&] on ^! passages1 pp4 #ebe1 #ebf1 ,br&is2 also ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xxiv4 p4 #hf1 a4 #be2 ,physica1 ,,vii4 p4 #bdg1 a4 #e4 ,bonitz obs]ves ju/ly 7,comm4 9999ad ,metaphys4 p4 #da7 z to ! doctr9e ( ,ari/otle3 ,sci5tia et ars v]satur 9 notionibus univ]salibus1 solutis ac lib]is conceptu s+ul>um r]um2 ideoque1 etsi orta e/ pr9cipio et exp]i5ti1 tradi tam5 etiam iis pote/ qui c>eant exp]i5ti4 ,footnote #dc3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xxi4 p4 #fg1 b4 #c3 ,greek3 to gar e7pi_//a/hai le_/getai tri*s1 7 7s t ka?o_/l\1 7 7s t oi7kei_/a1 7 7s t e7n]gein2 7_//e kai to 7pat/hai tosauta*s4 ,footnote #dd3 ,ibid4 b4 #e3 ,greek3 ou7den ou7n klu_/ei kai ei7de_/nai kai 7pat/hai p]i au7to_/1 pln ou7k e7nanti_/s4 o7_/p] sumbai_/nei kai t ka?' e7kate_/ran ei7d_/ti tn pro_/tas9 kai m e7peskemme_/n pro_/t]on4 u7polamba_/nn gar ku_/e9 tn 7mi_/onon ou7k e7_/*ei tn kata to e7n]gein e7pi/_/mn1 ou7d' au7 dia tn u7po_/lps9 e7nanti_/an a7pa_/tn t e7pi/_/m2 sullogismos gar 7 e7nanti_/a a7pa_/t t ka?o_/l\4 ,ab\t errone\s belief1 :]e a man believes ! contr>y ( a true conclusion1 adopt+ a c\nt]-syllogism1 comp>e ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xvi4 p4 #gi1 b4 #bc3 ,greek3 a7_/gnoia kata dia_/!s94 ,x is impossible1 h[ev]1 = a man to believe t "o contr>y is pr$icable ( its contr>y1 or t "o contr>y is id5tical ) its contr>y1 ess5tially & z an univ]sal proposition2 ?\gh he may believe t x is s by accid5t 7i4e4 9 "s p>ticul> case1 by reason ( ! peculi>ities ( t case74 ,9 v>i\s ways ?is la/ is possible2 b ?is we res]ve = full] exam9ation4#de ,footnote #de3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xxi4 p4 #fg1 b4 #bc3 ,greek3 a7ll' i7_/ss e7keino pseudos1 to u7polabein t9a kak ei7nai to a7ga? ei7nai1 ei7 m kata sumbebko_/s2 polla*s gar e7g*rei t\?' u7polamba_/ne94 e7piskepte_/on de t\to be_/ltion4 ,?is di/9ction is illu/rat$ by :at we read 9 ,plato1 ,republic1 v4 pp4 #dgh-dgi4 ,! impossibility ( believ+ t "o contr>y is id5tical ) its contr>y1 is ma9ta9$ by ,sokrates 9 ,plato1 ,!tetus1 p4 #aij1 ,b-,d1 z a "p ( ! long discussion respect+ ,greek3 pseuds d_/xa3 ei!r !re is no su* ?+ z ,greek3 pseuds d_/xa1 or a man may "k1 & n "k1 ! same ?+1 ibid4 p4 #aif ,c4 ,ari/otle has "h tri$ to %[ 9 :at s5se ?is la/-m5tion$ case is possible4 ,:5ev] 7,ari/otle next goes on to say7 ! extremes ( a syllogism reciprocate or are co-ext5sive ) ea* o!r 7i4e4 :5 ! conclusion be+ affirmative is conv]tible simply71 ! middle t]m mu/ reciprocate or be co-ext5sive ) bo?4#df ,if !re be f\r t]ms 7,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d71 su* t ,a reciprocates ) ,b1 & ,c ) ,d1 & if ei!r ,a or ,c mu/ necess>ily be pr$icable ( e subject2 !n x foll[s t ei!r ,b or ,d mu/ necess>ily also be pr$icable ( e subject4 ,aga91 if ei!r ,a or ,b mu/ necess>ily be pr$icable ( e subject1 b nev] bo? pr$icable ( ! same at once2 & if1 ei!r ,c or ,d mu/ be pr$icable ( e subject1 b nev] bo? pr$icable ( ! same at once2 !n1 if ,a & ,c reciprocate1 ,b & ,d w also reciprocate4#dg ,:5 ,a is pr$icable ( all ,b & all ,c1 b ( no o!r subject besides1 & :5 ,b is pr$icable ( all ,c1 !n ,a & ,b mu/ reciprocate ) ea* o!r1 or be co-ext5sive ) ea* o!r2 t is1 ,b may be pr$icat$ ( e subject ( :i* ,a c be pr$icat$1 ?\gh ,b _c be pr$icat$ ( ,a itself4#dh ,aga91 :5 ,a & ,b are pr$icable ( all ,c1 & :5 ,c reciprocates ) ,b1 !n ,a mu/ also be pr$icable ( all ,b4#di ,footnote #df3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 xxii4 p4 #fg1 b4 #bg1 seq4 ,9 ?is *apt] ,ari/otle introduces u to affirmative univ]sal propositions conv]tible simplicit]2 t is1 9 :i* ! pr$icate mu/ be und]/ood to be di/ribut$ z well z ! subject4 ,"h1 !n1 ! quantity ( ! pr$icate is det]m9$ 9 ?\ght4 ,?is is 7z ,julius ,pacius rem>ks1 p4 #cga7 9 ord] to lay d[n pr9ciples = ! resolution ( ,induction into ,syllogism1 :i* is to be expla9$ 9 ! next *apt]4 ,9 ^! peculi> propositions1 ! reason urg$ by ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton = 8 fav\rite precept ( v]bally indicat+ ! quantity ( ! pr$icate1 is well f\nd$ z a fact3 ?\gh he says t 9 all propositions ! quantity ( ! pr$icate is und]/ood 9 ?\ght1 :i* ,i hold to be incorrect4 ,we may rem>k t ?is recognition by ,ari/otle ( a class ( univ]sal affirmative propositions 9 :i* pr$icate & subject reciprocate1 contriv$ 9 ord] to =ce ,induction into ! syllogi/ic framework1 is at v>iance ) 8 g5]al view bo? ( reciprocat+ propositions & ( ,induction4 ,he tells u 7,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 iii4 p4 #gc1 a4 #ah7 t su* reciprocat+ propositions are v r>e1 :i* w\ld n be true if !y are tak5 to repres5t e ,induction2 & he =bids u emphatically to annex ! m>k ( univ]sality to ! pr$icate2 :i* he has no "r to d1 if he calls ^u u to reason on ! pr$icate z di/ribut$ 7,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xxvii41 p4 #dc1 b4 #ag2 ,de ,int]pret4 p4 #ag1 b4 #ad74 ,footnote #dg3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 xxii4 p4 #fh1 a4 #b-ae4 ,footnote #dh3 ,ibid4 a4 #af-ba4 ,greek3 pln au7t\ t\ ,a4 ,waitz expla9s ^! words 9 8 note 7p4 #eca73 yet ,i d n cle>ly make !m out2 & ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias decl>$ !m to ass]t :at 0 errone\s 7,greek3 e7spha_/l?ai le_/gei1 ,s*ol4 p4 #aid1 a4 #dj1 ,br&is74 ,footnote #di3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 xxii4 p4 #fh1 a4 #ba-be4 ,la/ly1 suppose two pairs ( opposites1 ,a & ,b1 ,c & ,d2 let ,a be m eligible ?an ,b1 & ,d m eligible ?an ,c4 ,!n1 if ,a ,c is m eligible ?an ,b ,d1 ,a w also be m eligible ?an ,d4 ,= ,a is z mu* wor?y ( pursuit z ,b is wor?y ( avoidance1 !y be+ two opposites2 ! l also respect+ ,c & ,d4 ,if !n ,a & ,d are equally wor?y ( pursuit1 ,b & ,c are equally wor?y ( avoidance2 = ea* is equal to ea*4 ,accord+ly ! two toge!r1 ,a ,c1 w be equal to ! two toge!r1 ,b ,d4 ,b ?is w\ld be contr>y to ! supposition2 s9ce we assum$ ,a to be m eligible ?an ,b1 & ,d to be m eligible ?an ,c4 ,x w be se5 t on ?is supposition ,a is m wor?y ( pursuit ?an ,d1 & t ,c is less wor?y ( avoidance ?an ,b2 ! great] good & ! less] evil be+ m eligible ?an ! less] good & ! great] evil4 ,n[ apply ?is to a p>ticul> case ( a lov]1 s f> =? z lov]4 ,let ,a repres5t 8 possession ( ^? qualities :i* inspire reciprocity ( love t[>ds him 9 ! p]son belov$2 ,b1 ! abs5ce ( ^? qualities2 ,d1 ! atta9m5t ( actual sexual enjoym5t2 ,c1 ! non-atta9m5t !re(4 ,9 ?is /ate ( circum/ances1 x is evid5t t ,a is m eligible or wor?y ( pref]5ce ?an ,d4 ,! be+ lov$ is a great] object ( desire to ! lov] qua lov] ?an sexual gratification2 x is ! real end or purpose to :i* love aspires2 & sexual gratification is ei!r n at all ! purpose1 or at be/ only subord9ate & accessory4 ,! l is ! case ) our o!r appetites & pursuits4#ej ,footnote #ej3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xxii4 p4 #fh1 a4 #be-;b4 #ag4 ,ari/otle may be "r 9 ! conclusion :i* he "h emphatically ass]ts2 b ,i am surpris$ t he %\ld consid] x to be prov$ by ! reason+ t prec$es4 ,x is probable t ,ari/otle "h und]/ood ! object ( ,greek3 e7_/rs 7z x is conceiv$ ?r\gh mo/ "p ( ! ,symposion ( ,plato7 to be a beautiful y\?3 7see ,plato1 ,sympos4 pp4 #bah-bbb2 also ,x5ophon1 ,sympos4 c4 viii41 ,hi]o1 c4 xi4 #aa1 ,memorab4 ,i4 ii4 #bi1 #cj74 ,yet ?is we mu/ say--:at ! two wom5 said :5 !y in=m$ ,sim?a ( ! fai?lessness ( ,delphis 7,!okrit4 ,id4 ii4 #adi7--;,greek3 ,k7pe_/ moi a7_/lla te polla_/1 kai 7s a7_/ra ,de_/lphis e7_/ratai2 ,k7_/te m9 au7te gunaikos e7_/*ei po_/?os1 ei7_/te kai a7ndro_/s1 ,ou7k e7_/phat' a7trekes i7_/dm54 ,su* is ! relation ( ! t]ms ( a syllogism 9 reg>d to reciprocation & anti!sis4 ,let x next be und]/ood t ! canons hi!rto laid d[n belong n m]ely to demon/rative & dialectic syllogisms1 b to rhetorical & o!r syllogisms also2 all ( :i* mu/ be con/ruct$ 9 "o or o!r ( ! ?ree figures4 ,9 fact1 e case ( belief on evid5ce1 :atev] be ! me?od foll[$1 mu/ be te/$ by ^! same canons4 ,we believe ev]y?+ ei!r ?r\gh ,syllogism or ^u ,induction4#ea ,footnote #ea3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 xxiii4 p4 #fh1 b4 #ac3 ,greek3 a7_/panta gar pi/eu_/om5 7 dia sullogism\ 7 e7x e7paggs4 ,?\gh ,ari/otle might seem1 ev5 "h1 to h emphatically contra/$ ,syllogism ) ,induction z a gr\nd ( belief1 he proce$s =?) to indicate a peculi> =m ( ,syllogism :i* may be con/ruct$ out ( ,induction4 ,induction1 & ! ,syllogism f or out ( ,induction 7he says7 is a process 9 :i* we inv]t ! ord] ( ! t]ms4 ,in/ead ( conclud+ f ! major ?r\gh ! middle to ! m9or 7i4e4 conclud+ t ! major is pr$icable ( ! m9or71 we n[ beg9 f ! m9or & conclude f !nce ?r\gh ! middle to ! major 7i4e4 we conclude t ! major is pr$icable ( ! middle74#eb ,9 ,syllogism z hi!rto describ$1 we conclud$ t ,a ! major 0 pr$icable ( ,c ! m9or1 ?r\gh ! middle ,b2 9 ! ,syllogism f ,induction we beg9 by affirm+ t ,a ! major is pr$icable ( ,c ! m9or2 next1 we affirm t ,b ! middle is also pr$icable ( ,c ! m9or4 ,! two premisses1 /&+ ?us1 correspond to ! ,?ird figure ( ! ,syllogism 7z expla9$ 9 ! prec$+ pages7 & w\ld n !re=e by !mselves ju/ify any?+ m ?an a p>ticul> affirmative conclusion4 ,b we re9=ce !m by introduc+ an extrane\s assumption3--,t ! m9or ,c is co-ext5sive ) ! middle ,b1 & comprises ! entire aggregate ( individuals ( :i* ,b is ! univ]sal or class-t]m4 ,by reason ( ?is assumption ! m9or proposition becomes conv]tible simply1 & we are enabl$ to inf] 7accord+ to ! la/ prec$+ *apt]7 an univ]sal affirmative conclusion1 t ! major t]m ,a is pr$icable ( ! middle t]m ,b4 ,?us1 let ,a 7! major t]m7 mean ! class-t]m1 long-liv$2 let ,b 7! middle t]m7 mean ! class-t]m1 bile-less1 or ! hav+ no bile2 let ,c 7! m9or t]m7 mean ! individual animals--man1 horse1 mule1 c41 com+ "u ! class-t]m ,b1 bile-less4#ec ,we are suppos$ to "k1 or to h asc]ta9$1 t ,a may be pr$icat$ ( all ,c2 7i4e4 t all m51 horses1 mules1 c41 are long-liv$72 we f>!r "k t ,b is pr$icable ( all ,c 7i4e4 t m51 horses1 mules1 c41 belong to ! class bile-less74 ,"h1 !n1 we h two premisses 9 ! ,?ird syllogi/ic figure1 :i* 9 !mselves w\ld w>rant u 9 draw+ ! p>ticul> affirmative conclusion1 t ,a is pr$icable ( "s ,b1 b no m4 ,accord+ly1 ,ari/otle directs u to supplem5t ^! premisses#ed by ! extrane\s assumption or po/ulate1 t ,c ! m9or comprises all ! individual animals t are bile-less1 or all ^? t correspond to ! class-t]m ,b2 9 o!r words1 ! assumption1 t ,b ! middle does n d5ote any m individuals ?an ^? :i* are cov]$ by ,c ! m9or--t ,b ! middle does n /ret* beyond or ov]pass ,c ! m9or4#ee ,hav+ ! two premisses1 & ?is po/ulate besides1 we acquire ! "r to conclude t ,a is pr$icable ( all ,b4 ,b we c\ld n draw t conclusion f ! premisses alone1 or )\t ! po/ulate :i* decl>es ,b & ,c to be co-ext5sive4 ,! conclusion1 !n1 becomes a p>ticul> exemplification ( ! g5]al doctr9e laid d[n 9 ! la/ *apt]1 respect+ ! reciprocation ( extremes & ! consequ5ces !re(4 ,we ?us see t ?is v peculi> ,syllogism f ,induction is 7z inde$ ,ari/otle himself rem>ks7 ! opposite or anti!sis ( a g5u9e ,syllogism4 ,x has no prop] middle t]m2 ! conclusion 9 :i* x results is ! fir/ or major proposition1 ! *>act]i/ic feature ( :i* x is to be imm$iate1 or n to be demon/rat$ ?r\gh a middle t]m4 ,ari/otle adds t ! g5u9e ,syllogism1 :i* demon/rates ?r\gh a middle t]m1 is by nature prior & m effective z to cognition2 b t ! ,syllogism f ,induction is to u pla9] & cle>]4#ef ,footnote #eb3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xxiii4 p4 #fh1 b4 #ae3 ,greek3 e7pagg men ou7n e7/i kai o7 e7x e7paggs sullogismos to dia t\ e7te_/r\ ?a_/t]on a7_/kron t me_/s sullogi_/sa/hai2 oi7on ei7 tn ,,ag me_/son to ,b1 dia t\ ,g deixai to ,a t ,b u7pa_/r*on2 ou7_/t gar poi\_/me?a tas e7pagga_/s4 ,waitz 9 8 note 7p4 #ecb7 says3 ,fit ,inductio1 cum p] m9orem t]m9um demon/ratur m$ium prdic>i de majore4 ,?is is an errone\s explanation4 ,x %\ld h be53 demon/ratur majorem prdic>i de m$io4 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xxiii4 #fh1 b4 #cb3 ,greek3 kai tro_/pon t9a a7ntikeitai 7 e7pagg t sullogism2 o7 men gar dia t\ me_/s\ to a7_/kron t tri_/t dei_/knus91 7 de dia t\ tri_/t\ to a7_/kron t me_/s4 ,footnote #ec3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 xxiii4 p4 #fh1 b4 #ah3 ,greek3 oi7on e7_// to ,a makro_/bion1 to d' e7ph' 7 ,b1 to *oln m e7_/*on1 e7ph' 7 de ,g1 to ka?' e7_/ka/on makro_/bion1 oi7on a7_/n?rpos kai i7_/ppos kai 7mi_/onos4 t d ,g o7_/l u7pa_/r*ei to ,a2 pan gar to a7_/*olon makro_/bion2 a7lla kai to ,b1 to m e7_/*e9 *ol_/n1 panti u7pa_/r*ei t ,g4 ei7 ou7n a7nti/re_/phei to ,g t ,b kai m u7p]tei_/nei to me_/son1 a7na_/gk to ,a t ,b u7pa_/r*e94 ,i h transcrib$ ?is ,greek text z x /&s 9 ! editions ( ,buhle1 ,bekk]1 ,waitz1 & ,f4 ,didot4 ,yet1 not)/&+ ^! high au?orities1 ,i v5ture to cont5d t x is n :olly correct2 t ! ^w ,greek3 makro_/bion1 :i* ,i h emphasiz$1 is nei!r consi/5t ) ! context1 nor suitable = ! po9t :i* ,ari/otle is illu/rat+4 ,in/ead ( ,greek3 makro_/bion1 we ought 9 t place to read ,greek3 a7_/*olon2 & ,i h giv5 ! s5se ( ! passage 9 my ,engli% text z if x did /& ,greek3 a7_/*olon 9 t place4 ,i proce$ to ju/ify ?is *ange4 ,if we turn back to ! edition by ,julius ,pacius 7#aehd1 p4 #cgg71 we f9d ! text giv5 z foll[s aft] ! ^w ,greek3 7mi_/onos 7d[n to t ^w ! text is ! same73 ,greek3 t d ,g o7_/l u7pa_/r*ei to ,a2 pan gar to ,g makro_/bion2 a7lla kai to ,b1 to m e7_/*on *ol_/n1 panti u7pa_/r*ei t ,g4 ei7 ou7n a7nti/re_/phei to ,g t ,b1 kai m u7p]tei_/nei to me_/son1 a7na_/gk to ,a t ,b u7pa_/r*e94 ,e>li] ?an ,pacius1 ! edition ( ,erasmus 7,basil4 #aeej7 has ! same text 9 ?is *apt]4 ,"h x w be se5 t 9 place ( ! words giv5 9 ,waitz's text1 ,greek3 pan gar to a7_/*olon makro_/bion1 ,pacius gives ,greek3 pan gar to ,g makro_/bion3 annex+ h[ev] to ! lett] ,greek3 ,g an a/]isk ref]r+ to ! m>g91 :]e we f9d ! ^w ,greek3 a7_/*olon ins]t$ 9 small lett]s1 seem+ly z a v>i\s read+ n approv$ by ,pacius4 ,& ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire has accommodat$ 8 ,fr5* translation 7p4 #cbh7 to ! text ( ,pacius3 ,donc ,a e/ ,c t\t enti]1 c> t\t ,c e/ longve4 ,boe?ius 9 8 ,lat9 translation 7p4 #eai7 recognizes z 8 orig9al ,greek3 pan gar to a7_/*olon makro_/bion1 b he alt]s ! text 9 ! words imm$iately prec$+3--,ergo toti ,b 7in/ead ( toti ,c7 ine/ ,a1 omne enim quod s9e *ol]a e/1 longvum1 c4 7p4 #eai74 ,! edition ( ,aldus 7,v5et4 #adie7 has ! text con=mable to ! ,lat9 ( ,boe?ius3 ,greek3 t d ,b o7_/l u7pa_/r*ei to ,a2 pan gar to a7_/*olon makro_/bion4 ,?ree di/9ct ,lat9 translations ( ! #af? c5tury are adapt$ to ! same text1 viz41 t ( ,vives & ,val5t9us 7,basil4 #aedb72 t publi%$ by ! ,junta 7,v5et4 #aeeb72 & t ( ,cyriacus 7,basil4 #aefc74 ,la/ly1 ! two ,greek editions ( ,sylburg 7#aehg7 & ,casaubon 7,lugduni #aeij71 h ! same text also3 ,greek3 t d ,b o7_/l u7pa_/r*ei to ,a2 pan gar to ,g to a7_/*olon makro_/bion4 ,casaubon pr9ts 9 brackets ! words ,greek3 to ,g be=e ,greek3 to a7_/*olon4 ,n[ x appe>s to me t ! text ( ,bekk] & ,waitz 7?\gh ,waitz gives x )\t any comm5t or explanation7 is errone\s2 nei!r consi/+ ) itself1 nor con=m+ to ! g5]al view enunciat$ by ,ari/otle ( ! ,syllogism f ,induction4 ,i h cit$ two di/9ct v]sions1 ea* diff]5t f ?is text1 z giv5 by ! e>lie/ editors2 9 bo? ! confusion appe>s to h be5 felt1 & an attempt made to avoid x1 ?\gh n successfully4 ,ari/otle's view ( ! ,syllogism f ,induction is v cle>ly expla9$ by ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire 9 ! in/ructive notes ( 8 translation1 pp4 #cbf-cbh2 also 9 8 ,preface1 p4 lvii43--,l'induction n'e/ au fond qu'un syllogisme dont le m9eur et le moy5 sont d'ext5sion gale4 ,du re/e1 il n'e/ qu'une seule manire dont le moy5 et le m9eur puiss5t tre d'gale ext5sion2 c'e/ que le m9eur se compose de t\tes les p>ties dont le moy5 reprs5te la totalit4 ,d'une "p1 t\s les individus3 de l'autre1 l'espce totale qu'ils =m5t4 ,l'intellig5ce fait aussitt quation entre les deux t]mes gaux4 ,accord+ to ! ,ari/otelian text1 z giv5 bo? by ,pacius & ! o!rs1 ,a1 ! major t]m1 repres5ts longvum 7long-liv$1 ! class-t]m or total72 ,b1 ! middle t]m1 repres5ts vacans bile 7bile-less1 ! class-t]m or total72 ,c1 ! m9or t]m1 repres5ts ! aggregate individuals ( ! class longvum1 man1 horse1 mule1 c4 ,julius ,pacius draws out ! ,inductive ,syllogism1 ?us3-- #a4 ,omnis homo1 equus1 as9us1 c41 e/ longvus4 #b4 ,omnis homo1 equus1 as9us1 c41 vacat bile4 ,ergo3 #c4 ,quicquid vacat bile1 e/ longvum4 ,conv]tible into a ,syllogism 9 ,b>b>a3-- #a4 ,omnis homo1 equus1 as9us1 c41 e/ longvus4 #b4 ,quicquid vacat bile1 e/ homo1 equus1 as9us1 c4 ,ergo3 #c4 ,quicquid vacat bile1 e/ longvum4 ,"h ! =ce ( ! pro( 7or ! possibility1 9 ?is exceptional case1 ( conv]t+ a syllogism 9 ! ,?ird figure into ano!r 9 ,b>b>a ( ! ,fir/ figure7 dep5ds ^u ! equation or co-ext5siv5ess 7n enunciat$ 9 ! premisses1 b assum$ 9 addition to ! premisses7 ( ! m9or t]m ,c ) ! middle t]m ,b4 ,b ,i cont5d t ?is is n ! condition p]emptorily requir$1 or suffici5t = pro(1 if we suppose ,c ! m9or t]m to repres5t omne longvum4 ,we mu/ und]/& ,c ! m9or t]m to repres5t omne vacans bile1 or quicquid vacat bile3 & unless we und]/& ?is1 ! pro( fails4 ,9 o!r words1 homo1 equus1 as9us1 c4 7! aggregate ( individuals71 mu/ be co-ext5sive ) ! class-t]m bile-less or vacans bile3 b !y ne$ n be co-ext5sive ) ! class-t]m long-liv$ or longvum4 ,9 ! f9al conclusion1 ! subject vacans bile is di/ribut$2 b ! pr$icate longvum is n di/ribut$2 ?is latt] may include1 besides all bile-less animals1 any numb] ( o!r animals1 )\t impea*m5t ( ! syllogi/ic pro(4 ,su* be+ ! case1 ,i ?9k t !re is a mi/ake 9 ! text z giv5 by all ! editors1 f ,pacius d[n to ,bekk] & ,waitz4 ,:at !y give1 9 sett+ out ! t]ms ( ! ,ari/otelian ,syllogism f ,induction1 is3 ,greek3 e7_// to ,a makro_/bion1 to d' e7ph' 7 ,b1 to *oln m e7_/*on1 e7ph' 7 de ,g1 to ka?' e7_/ka/on makro_/bion1 oi7on a7_/n?rpos kai i7_/ppos kai 7mi_/onos4 ,in/ead ( :i* ! text ought to run1 ,greek3 e7ph' 7 de ,g1 to ka?' e7_/ka/on a7_/*olon1 oi7on a7_/n?r4 k4 i7_/p4 k4 7mi_/4 ,t ^! la/ words 7 ! orig9al text1 is se5 by ! words imm$iately foll[+3 ,greek3 t d ,g o7_/l u7pa_/r*ei to ,a4 pan gar to a7_/*olon makro_/bion4 ,= ! reason ?us assign$ 79 ! p>ticle ,greek3 ga_/r7 is irrelevant & unmean+ if ,greek3 ,g designates ,greek3 to ka?' e7_/ka/on makro_/bion 1 :ile x is p]t95t & ev5 indisp5sable if ,greek3 ,g designates ,greek3 to ka?' e7_/ka/on a7_/*olon4 ,pacius 7or ^? ^: guidance he foll[$ 9 8 text7 appe>s to h p]ceiv$ ! incongruity ( ! reason convey$ 9 ! words ,greek3 pan gar to a7_/*olon makro_/bion2 = he gives1 in/ead ( ^! words1 ,greek3 pan gar to ,g makro_/bion4 ,9 ?is v]sion ! reason is inde$ no long] incongru\s1 b simply useless & unnecess>y2 = :5 we are told t ,a designates ! class longvum1 & t ,greek3 ,g designates ! individual longva1 we surely require no reason f )\t to satisfy u t ,a is pr$icable ( all ,greek3 ,g4 ,! text1 z translat$ by ,boe?ius & o!rs1 escapes t p>ticul> incongruity1 ?\gh 9 ano!r way1 b x introduces a v]sion inadmissible on o!r gr\nds4 ,in/ead ( ,greek3 t d ,g o7_/l u7pa_/r*ei to ,a1 pan gar to a7_/*olon makro_/bion1 ,boe?ius has ,greek3 t d ,b o7_/l u7pa_/r*ei to ,a1 pan gar to a7_/*olon makro_/bion4 ,?is _c be accept$1 because x enunciates ! conclusion ( ! syllogism z if x 7 "o ( ! premisses4 ,we mu/ rememb] t ! conclusion ( ! ,ari/otelian ,syllogism f ,induction is1 t ,a is pr$icable ( ,b1 "o ( ! premisses to prove x be+ t ,a is pr$icable ( ! m9or t]m ,c4 ,b obvi\sly we _c admit z "o ( ! premisses ! proposition t ,a may be pr$icat$ ( ,b1 s9ce ?is proposition w\ld !n be us$ z premiss to prove itself z conclusion4 ,if we exam9e ! ,ari/otelian ,inductive ,syllogism :i* is int5d$ to conduct u to ! f9al prob&um1 we %all see t ! t]ms ( x are incorrectly set out by ,bekk] & ,waitz1 :5 !y give ! m9or t]m ,greek3 ,g z designat+ ,greek3 to ka?' e7_/ka/on makro_/bion4 ,?is la/ is n "o ( ! ?ree t]ms1 nor has x any place 9 ! syllogism4 ,! ?ree t]ms are3 #a4 ,a--major--! class-t]m or class ,greek3 makro_/bion--longvum4 #b4 ,b--middle--! class t]m or class ,greek3 a7_/*olon--bile-less4 #c4 ,c--m9or--! individual bile-less animals1 man1 horse1 c4 ,!re is no t]m 9 ! syllogism correspond+ to ! individual longva or long-liv$ animals2 ?is la/ 7,i repeat7 has no place 9 ! reason+4 ,we are n[ay conc]n$ ) ! totality ( long-liv$ animals2 all t ! syllogism und]takes to prove is1 t 9 & among t totality all bile-less animals are includ$2 :e!r !re are or are n o!r long-liv$ animals besides ! bile-less1 ! syllogism does n pret5d to det]m9e4 ,! equation or co-ext5siv5ess requir$ 7z describ$ by ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire 9 8 note7 is n betwe5 ! individual long-liv$ animals & ! class1 bile-less animals 7middle t]m71 b betwe5 ! aggregate ( individual animals kn[n to be bile-less & ! class1 bile-less animals4 ,! real m9or t]m1 !re=e1 is 7n ! individual long-liv$ animals1 b7 ! individual bile-less animals4 ,! two premisses ( ! ,inductive ,syllogism w /& ?us3-- ,m51 ,horses1 ,mules1 c41 are long-liv$ 7major74 ,m51 ,horses1 ,mules1 c41 are bile-less 7m9or74 ,&1 inasmu* z ! subject ( ! m9or proposition is co-ext5sive ) ! pr$icate 7:i*1 if quantifi$ accord+ to ,hamilton's phraseology1 w\ld be1 ,all bile-less animals71 s t ! proposition admits ( be+ conv]t$ simply1--! middle t]m w become ! subject ( ! conclusion1 ,all bileless animals are long-liv$4 ,footnote #ed3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xxiii4 p4 #fh1 b4 #bg3 ,greek3 dei de noein to ,g to e7x a7pa_/ntn tn ka?' e7_/ka/on sugkei_/m5on2 7 gar e7pagg dia pa_/ntn4 ,footnote #ee3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 9999xxiii4 p4 #fh1 p4 #bc3 ,greek3 ei7 ou7n a7nti/re_/phei to ,g t ,b1 kai m u7p]tei_/nei to me_/son1 a7na_/gk to ,a t ,b u7pa_/r*e94 ,julius ,pacius translates ?is3 ,si igitur conv]tatur ,greek3 to ,g cum ,b1 nec m$ium exc$at1 necesse e/ ,greek3 to ,a t ,b inesse4 ,^! ,lat9 words include ! same grammatical ambiguity z is f\nd 9 ! ,greek orig9al3 m$ium1 l ,greek3 to me_/son1 may be ei!r an accusative case gov]n$ by exc$at1 or a nom9ative case prec$+ exc$at4 ,! same may be said ( ! o!r ,lat9 translations1 f ,boe?ius d[nw>ds4 ,b ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire 9 8 ,fr5* translation1 & ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton 9 8 ,engli% translation 7,lectures on ,logic1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 iv4 p4 #ceh1 ,app5dix71 /e] cle> ( ?is ambiguity4 ,! =m] says3 ,si donc ,c e/ rciproque ,b1 et qu'il ne dpasse pas le moy51 il e/ ncessaire alors que ,a soit ,b3 to ! same purpose1 ,hamilton1 l4 c4 ,^! words are q pla9 & unequivocal4 ,yet ,i d n ?9k t !y convey ! mean+ ( ,ari/otle4 ,9 my judgm5t1 ,ari/otle meant to say3 ,if !n ,c reciprocates ) ,b1 & if ! middle t]m 7,b7 does n /ret* beyond 7! m9or ,c71 x is necess>y t ,a %\ld be pr$icable ( ,b4 ,to %[ t ?is mu/ be ! mean+1 we h only to reflect on :at ,c & ,b respectively designate4 ,x is assum$ t ,c designates ! sum ( individual bile-less animals2 & t ,b designates ! class or class-t]m bile-less1 t is1 ! totality !re(4 ,n[ ! sum ( individuals includ$ 9 ! m9or 7,c7 _c ^u any supposition ov]pass ! totality3 b x may v possibly fall %ort ( totality2 or 7to /ate ! same ?+ 9 o!r words7 ! totality may possibly surpass ! sum ( individuals "u survey1 b x _c possibly fall %ort !re(4 ,b is "h ! limit1 & may possibly /ret* beyond ,c2 b _c /ret* beyond ,b4 ,h5ce ,i cont5d t ! translations1 bo? by ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire & ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton1 take ! wrong side 9 ! grammatical alt]native admissible "u ! words ,greek3 kai m u7p]tei_/nei to me_/son4 ,! only d\bt t c\ld possibly arise 9 ! case 01 :e!r ! aggregate ( individuals designat$ by ! m9or did1 or did n1 rea* up to ! totality designat$ by ! middle t]m2 or 7*ang+ ! phrase7 :e!r ! totality designat$ by ! middle t]m did1 or did n1 /ret* beyond ! aggregate ( individuals designat$ by ! m9or4 ,ari/otle t]m9ates ?is d\bt by ! words3 ,& if ! middle t]m does n /ret* beyond 7! m9or74 ,( c\rse ! middle t]m does n /ret* beyond1 :5 ! t]ms reciprocate2 b :5 !y d n reciprocate1 ! middle t]m mu/ be ! m ext5sive ( ! two2 x c nev] be ! less ext5sive ( ! two1 s9ce ! aggregate ( individuals _c possibly exce$ totality1 ?\gh x may fall %ort !re(4 ,i h giv5 9 ! text :at ,i ?9k ! true mean+ ( ,ari/otle1 dep>t+ f ! translations ( ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire & ,sir9999 ,w4 ,hamilton4 ,footnote #ef3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xxiii4 p4 #fh1 b4 #cj-ch3 ,greek3 e7_//i d' o7 toi\tos sullogismos ts pr_/ts kai a7me_/s\ prota_/ses2 7n men ga_/r e7/i me_/son1 dia t\ me_/s\ o7 sullogismo_/s1 7n de m_/ e7/i1 di' e7paggs4--phu_/sei men ou7n pro_/t]os kai gnrim_/t]os o7 dia t\ me_/s\ sullogismo_/s1 7min d' e7n>ge_//]os o7 dia ts e7paggs4 ,f ,induction he proce$s to ,example4 ,y "h take 9 7besides ! ?ree t]ms1 major1 middle1 & m9or1 ( ! ,syllogism7 a f\r? t]m2 t is1 a new p>ticul> case analog\s to ! m9or4 ,y\r purpose "h is to %[--n1 z 9 ! ord9>y ,syllogism1 t ! major t]m is pr$icable ( ! m9or1 b1 z 9 ! ,inductive ,syllogism--t ! major t]m is pr$icable ( ! middle t]m2 & y prove ?is conclusion1 n 7z 9 ! ,inductive ,syllogism7 ?r\gh ! m9or t]m1 b ?r\gh ! new case or f\r? t]m analog\s to ! m9or4#eg ,let ,a repres5t evil or mis*iev\s2 ,b1 w> aga9/ neighb\rs1 g5]ally2 ,c1 w> ( ,a!ns aga9/ ,!bes1 an ev5t to come & "u delib]ation2 ,d1 w> ( ,!bes aga9/ ,phokis1 a pa/ ev5t ( :i* ! issue is kn[n to h be5 signally mis*iev\s4 ,y assume z kn[n1 fir/1 t ,a is pr$icable ( ,d1 i4e4 t ! w> ( ,!bes aga9/ ,phokis has be5 disa/r\s2 next1 t ,b is pr$icable bo? ( ,c & ( ,d1 i4e4 t ea* ( ! two w>s1 ( ,a!ns aga9/ ,!bes1 & ( ,!bes aga9/ ,phokis1 is a w> ( neighb\rs aga9/ neighb\rs1 or a cont]m9\s w>4 ,n[ f ! premiss t ,a is pr$icable ( ,d1 along ) ! premiss t ,b is pr$icable ( ,d1 y inf] t ,a is pr$icable ( ! class ,b1 or ( cont]m9\s w>s g5]ally2 & h5ce y draw ! f>!r inf]5ce1 t ,a is also pr$icable ( ,c1 ano!r p>ticul> case "u ! same class ,b4 ,! inf]5ce "h is1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 f "p to :ole2 & f9ally1 ?r\gh t :ole1 f ! "o "p to ano!r "p ( ! same :ole4 ,induction includes 9 its major premiss all ! p>ticul>s1 decl>+ all ( !m to be sev]ally subjects ( ! major z pr$icate2 h5ce x inf]s z conclusion1 t ! major is also pr$icable ( ! middle or class-t]m compris+ all ^! p>ticul>s1 b compris+ no o!rs4 ,example includes n all1 b only "o or a few p>ticul>s2 inf]r+ f x or !m1 fir/1 to ! entire class1 next1 to "s new analog\s p>ticul> belong+ to ! class4#eh ,footnote #eg3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 xxiv4 p4 #fh1 b4 #ch3 ,greek3 p>adeigma d' e7/in o7_/tan t me_/s to a7_/kron u7pa_/r*on dei*? dia t\ o7moi_/ou t tri_/t4 ,footnote #eh3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xxiv4 p4 #fi1 a4 #a-ai99994 ,julius ,pacius 7p4 #djj7 notes ! unau?oriz$ "* ( ?is s-call$ ,p>adeigmatic ,syllogism1 contradict+ ! rules ( ! figures laid d[n by ,ari/otle1 & also ! confus$ mann] 9 :i* ! scope ( x is describ$3 fir/1 to inf] f a s+le example to ! univ]sal2 next1 to inf] f a s+le example ?r\gh ! univ]sal to ano!r p>allel case4 ,to :i* we may add ! confus$ description 9 p4 #fi1 a4 #ag1 #ah1 :]e ,greek3 to a7_/kron 9 ! fir/ ( ! two l9es signifies ! major extreme--9 ! second ( ! two ! m9or extreme4 ,see ,waitz's note1 p4 #ecc4 ,if we turn to *4 xxvii4 p4 #gj1 a4 #cj-cd1 we %all f9d ,ari/otle on a diff]5t occasion disall[+ altoge!r ?is s-call$ ,syllogism f ,example4 ,^! *apt]s respect+ ,induction & ,example are among ! mo/ obscure & p]plex+ 9 ! ,ari/otelian ,analytica4 ,! attempt to ?r[ bo? ,induction & ,example into ! syllogi/ic =m is alike complicat$ & un=tunate2 moreov]1 ! unsatisfactory read+ & div]sities 9 ! text1 among comm5tators & translators1 %[ t ! reason+ ( ,ari/otle has hi!rto be5 imp]fectly appreh5d$4#ei ,f "s ( 8 phrases1 we see t he 0 aw>e ( ! ess5tial anti!sis betwe5 ,induction & ,syllogism2 yet ! syllogi/ic =ms appe> to h ex]cis$ su* fasc9ation ov] 8 m9d1 t he c\ld n be satisfi$ )\t try+ to f9d "s abnormal =m ( ,syllogism to repres5t & give validity to ,induction4 ,9 expla9+ g5]ally :at ! ,syllogism is1 & :at ,induction is1 he in=ms u t ! ,syllogism presupposes & re/s ^u ! process ( ,induction z its po/ulate4 ,= !re c be no valid ,syllogism )\t an univ]sal proposition 9 "o 7at lea/7 ( ! premisses2 & he decl>es1 unequivocally1 t univ]sal propositions are obta9$ only ?r\gh ,induction4 ,h[ ,induction op]ates ?r\gh ! p>ticul> facts ( s5se1 rememb]$1 comp>$1 & coalesc+ into clu/]s held toge!r by associat+ simil>ity1 he has also told u2 x is ?us t ,exp]i5ce1 ) its univ]sal notions & conjunctions1 is obta9$4 ,b ?is important process is radically di/9ct f t ( syllogiz+1 ?\gh x furni%es ! basis ^u :i* all syllogiz+ is built4 ,footnote #ei3 ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton 7,lectures on ,logic1 vol4 i4 p4 #cai7 says ju/ly1 t ,ari/otle has be5 v brief & unexplicit 9 8 treatm5t ( ,induction4 ,yet ! objections t ,hamilton makes to ,ari/otle are v diff]5t f ^? :i* ,i %\ld make4 ,9 ! le>n$ & valuable ,app5dix to 8 ,lectures 7vol4 iv4 pp4 #ceh-cfi71 he collects v>i\s int]e/+ criticisms ( logicians respect+ ,induction z h&l$ by ,ari/otle4 ,ramus 79 8 ,s*ol ,dialectic1 ,,viii4 xi47 says v truly3--,quid v]o sit ,inductio1 p]obscure ab ,ari/otele decl>atur2 nec ab int]pretibus intelligitur1 quo modo syllogismus p] m$ium concludat majus extremum de m9ore2 inductio1 majus de m$io p] m9us4 ,! ,inductive ,syllogism1 z con/ruct$ by ,ari/otle1 requires a reciprocat+ m9or premiss4 ,x may1 inde$1 be cit$ 7z ,i h already rem>k$7 9 support ( ,hamilton's fav\rite precept ( quantify+ ! pr$icate4 ,! pr$icate ( ?is m9or mu/ be assum$ z quantifi$ 9 ?\ght1 ! subject be+ tak5 z co-ext5sive !re)4 ,!re=e ,hamilton's dem& t x %all be quantifi$ 9 spee* has really 9 ?is case t f\ndation :i* he errone\sly claims = x 9 all cases4 ,he compla9s t ,lamb]t & "s o!r logicians disp5se ) ! necessity ( quantify+ ! pr$icate ( ! m9or by mak+ x disjunctive2 & adds ! rem>kable /atem5t t ! rec5t ,g]man logicians1 ,h]b>t1 ,twe/51 ,drobis*1 c41 foll[+ ,lamb]t1 make ! ,inductive ,syllogism a byeword 7p4 #cff74 ,i agree ) !m 9 ?9k+ ! attempt$ trans=mation ( ,induction into ,syllogism v un=tunate1 ?\gh my reasons are probably n ! same z !irs4 ,tr5del5burg agrees ) ^? :o said t ,ari/otle's doctr9e ab\t ! ,inductive ,syllogism requir$ t ! m9or %\ld be disjunctively enunciat$ 7,logis*e ,unt]su*ung51 xiv4 p4 #age1 xvi4 pp4 #bfb1 #bfc2 also ,erlut]ung5 zu d5 ,elem5t5 d] ,ari/otelis*5 ,logik1 ss4 #cd-cf1 p4 #ga74 ,ueb]weg takes a simil> view 7,sy/em d] 9999,logik1 sect4 #abh1 p4 #cfg1 #crd ed474 ,if ! ,inductive ,inf]5ce is to be twi/$ into ,syllogism1 x seems m naturally to fall into an hypo!tical syllogism1 e4 g43-- ,if ?is1 t1 & ! o!r magnet attract iron1 all magnets attract iron2 ,b ?is1 t1 & ! o!r magnet d attract iron3 ,ergo1 c4 ,! c5tral idea ( ! ,syllogism1 z def9$ by ,ari/otle1 is t ( a conclusion foll[+ f giv5 premisses by necess>y sequ5ce2#fj mean+ by ! t]m necess>y ?us mu* & no m--t y _c grant ! premisses1 & d5y ! conclusion1 )\t be+ inconsi/5t ) y\rself1 or fall+ into contradiction4 ,9 all ! v>i\s comb9ations ( propositions1 set =? by ,ari/otle z ! diff]5t figures & modes ( ,syllogism1 ?is prop]ty ( necess>y sequ5ce is f\nd4 ,b x is a prop]ty :i* no ,induction c ev] possess4#fa ,:5 ,ari/otle pr(esses to po9t out a p>ticul> mode ( ,syllogism to :i* ,induction con=ms1 he c only d s by falsify+ ! process ( ,induction1 & by n accurately di/+ui%+ betwe5 :at is obs]v$ & :at is inf]r$4 ,9 ! case :i* he takes to illu/rate ! ,inductive ,syllogism--! inf]5ce f all p>ticul> bile-less animals to ! :ole class bile-less--he assumes t we h asc]ta9$ ! attribute to belong to all ! p>ticul>s1 & t ! inductive inf]5ce consi/s 9 pass+ f all ( !m to ! class-t]m2 ! passage f premisses to conclusion be+ "h necess>y1 & ?us fall+ "u ! def9ition ( ,syllogism2 s9ce1 to grant ! premisses1 & yet to d5y ! conclusion1 involves a contradiction4 ,b ?is doctr9e misconceives :at ! inductive inf]5ce really is4 ,we nev] c obs]ve all ! p>ticul>s ( a class1 :i* is indef9ite z to numb] ( p>ticul>s1 & def9ite only 9 respect ( ! attributes connot$ by ! class-t]m4 ,we c only obs]ve "s ( ! p>ticul>s1 a great] or small] proportion4 ,n[ x is 9 ! transition f ^! to ! totality ( p>ticul>s1 t ! real inductive inf]5ce consi/s2 n 9 ! transition f ! totality to ! class-t]m :i* d5otes t totality & connotes its det]m9+ common attribute4 ,9 fact1 ! di/9ction betwe5 ! totality ( p>ticul>s & ! mean+ ( ! class-t]m1 is "o n commonly att5d$ to2 ?\gh x is wor?y ( note 9 an analysis ( ! intellectual process1 & is !re=e br\ght to view by ,ari/otle4 ,b he employs x incorrectly z an int]m$iate /ep to slur ov] ! radical di/9ction betwe5 ,induction & ,syllogism4 ,he subjo9s3#fb--,y mu/ conceive ! m9or t]m ,c 79 ! ,inductive ,syllogism7 z compos$ ( all ! p>ticul>s2 = ,induction is ?r\gh all ( !m4 ,y may say t ,induction is ?r\gh all ! p>ticul>s1 if y di/+ui% ?is totality f ! class-t]m1 & if y treat ! class-t]m z ! ultimate t]m9us ad quem4 ,b ! ,induction mu/ fir/ travel to all ! p>ticul>s2 be+ =c$ to take />t f a "p only1 & !n to jump onw>d f> en\gh to cov] ! indef9ite unobs]v$ rema9d]4 ,?is jump is ! real ,induction2 & ?is c nev] be br\ght "u ! def9ition ( ,syllogism2 = 9 ! be/ & mo/ c]ta9 ,induction ! sequ5ce is nev] a necess>y "o3 y may grant ! premisses & d5y ! conclusion )\t contradict+ y\rself4 ,footnote #fj3 ,alex&] intimates t ,ari/otle enunciat$ necess>y sequ5ce z a "p ( 8 def9ition ( ,syllogism1 = ! express purpose ( di/+ui%+ x f ,induction1 :i* is a sequ5ce n necess>y 7,s*ol4 ad ,top4 p4 #bec1 a4 #ai1 ,br473 ,greek3 to d' e7x a7na_/gks proskei_/m5on e7n t o7_/r1 ts 9999e7paggs *ri_/zei ton sullogismo_/n2 9999e7_//i men gar kai e7pagg lo_/gos e7n 7 te!_/ntn t9n e7_/t]o_/n ti tn keime_/nn sumbai_/nei1 a7ll' ou7k e7x a7na_/gks4 ,footnote #fa3 ,alex&] 79 8 ,s*olia on ! ,metaphysica1 ,e4 i4 p4 #djf99991 ed4 ,bonitz7 obs]ves truly3 ,greek3 a7ll' ei7 e7k ts ai7/h_/ses kai ts e7paggs pi_//is1 ou7k e7_//9 a7po_/deixis1 pros pasan gar e7paggn du_/natai_/ tis e7ni_//a/hai kai m e7an to ka?o_/l\ sump]ai_/ne94 ,footnote #fb3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xxiii4 p4 #fh1 b4 #bg3 ,greek3 dei de noein to ,g to e7x a7pa_/ntn tn ka?' e7_/ka/on sugkei_/m5on2 7 gar e7pagg dia pa_/ntn4 ,see ,pr(essor ,ba9's ',inductive ,logic1' *ap4 i4 s4 #b1 :]e ?is process is prop]ly criticis$4 ,ari/otle /ates v cle>ly3--,we believe ev]y?+ ei!r ?r\gh ,syllogism1 or f ,induction4#fc ,"h1 z well z 9 sev]al o!r passages1 he notes ! two processes z ess5tially di/9ct4 ,! ,syllogism requires 9 its premisses at lea/ "o g5]al proposition2 nor does ,ari/otle conceive ! g5]alities z ! orig9al data3#fd he d]ives !m f antec$5t ,induction4 ,! two processes are 7z he says7 opposite 9 a c]ta9 way2 t is1 !y are complem5t>y halves ( ! same :ole2 ,induction be+ ! e/abli%m5t ( ^? univ]sals :i* are ess5tial = ! d$uctive m>* ( ! ,syllogism2 :ile ! two toge!r make up ! entire process ( sci5tific reason+4 ,b he =gets or rel9qui%es ?is anti!sis1 :5 he pres5ts to u ! ,inductive process z a giv5 v>iety ( ,syllogism4 ,& ! objection to su* a doctr9e becomes ! m manife/1 s9ce 9 con/ruct+ 8 ,inductive ,syllogism1 he is compell$ to admit ei!r t !re is no middle t]m1 or t ! middle t]m is subject ( ! conclusion1 9 violation ( ! syllogi/ic canons4#fe ,footnote #fc3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 xxiii4 p4 #fh1 b4 #ac3 ,greek3 a7_/panta gar pi/eu_/om5 7 dia sullogism\ 7 e7x e7paggs4 ,"h ,induction includes ,example1 ?\gh 9 ! next /age he puts ! two ap>t4 ,comp>e ,anal4 ,po/]4 ,i4 i4 p4 #ga1 a4 #i4 ,footnote #fd3 ,see ,mr4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill's ,sy/em ( ,logic1 ,bk4 ,,ii4 *4 iii4 a4 #d1 p4 #bai1 #e? ed4 ,footnote #fe3 ,aldri* 7,artis ,log4 ,rudim4 *4 iii4 #i1 #b1 p4 #age7 & ,ar*bi%op ,:ately 7,elem4 ( ,logic1 *4 i4 p4 #bji7 agree 9 treat+ ! argum5t ( ,induction z a defective or in=mal ,syllogism3 see also to ! same purpose ,sir49999 ,w4 ,hamilton1 ,lectures on ,logic1 vol4 i4 p4 #cbb4 ,aldri* treats x z a ,syllogism 9 ,b>b>a1 ) ! m9or suppress$2 b ,:ately rejects ?is1 because ! m9or necess>y to be suppli$ is false4 ,he ma9ta9s t ! premiss suppress$ is ! major1 n ! m9or4 ,i diss5t f bo?4 ,x appe>s to me t ! op9ion :i* ,:ately pron\nces to be a fallacy is ! real tru?3 ,induction is a di/9ct k9d ( argum5t f ! ,syllogism 7p4 #bjh74 ,x is ! ess5tial prop]ty ( ! ,syllogism1 z def9$ by ,ari/otle & by e "o aft] him1 t ! tru? ( ! conclusion foll[s necess>ily f ! tru? ( its premisses3 t y _c admit ! premisses & reject ! conclusion )\t contradict+ y\rself4 ,n[ ?is is :at ! be/ ,induction nev] atta9s2 & ,i cont5d t ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ?is important *>act]i/ic is q en\gh to con/itute two di/9ct k9ds ( argum5t4 ,:ately objects to ,aldri* 7:om ,hamilton def5ds7 = supply+ a suppress$ m9or1 because x is manife/ly false 7p4 #bji74 ,i object to ,:ately's suppli$ major1 because x is unc]tifi$1 & !re=e _c be us$ to prove any conclusion4 ,by clo?+ argum5ts f ,induction 9 syllogi/ic =m1 we inve/ !m ) a "* ( necessity :i* does n really belong to !m4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( g5]al propositions1 & ! int]pretation ( !m :5 e/abli%$ 7to use ! phraseology ( ,mr4 ,mill71 mu/ always be di/9ct m5tal processes2 & ! =ms appropriate to ! latt]1 involv+ necess>y sequ5ce1 ought n to be employ$ to disguise ! want ( necessity--! v>y+ & graduat$ probability1 inh]5t 9 ! =m]4 ,mr4 ,mill says 7,sy/4 ,log4 ,bk4 ,,iii4 *4 iii4 s4 #a1 p4 #cdc1 #e? ed437--,z ,:ately rem>ks1 e induction is a syllogism ) ! major premiss suppress$2 or 7z ,i pref] express+ x7 e induction may be ?r[n into ! =m ( a syllogism1 by supply+ a major premiss4 ,ev5 9 ?is modifi$ phraseology1 ,i _c admit ! propriety ( ?r[+ ,induction into syllogi/ic =ms ( argum5t4 ,by do+ ?is we efface ! special "* ( ,induction1 z ! jump f p>ticul> cases1 m or few]1 to an univ]sal proposition compris+ !m & an indef9ite numb] ( o!rs besides4 ,to /ate ?is 9 =ms :i* imply t x is a necess>y /ep1 involv+ no?+ m ?an ! int]pretation ( a high] univ]sal proposition1 appe>s to me unphilosophical4 ,mr4 ,mill says ) tru? 79 8 admirable *apt] expla9+ ! real function ( ! major premiss 9 a ,syllogism1 p4 #baa71 t ! individual cases are all ! evid5ce :i* we possess2 ! /ep f !m to univ]sal propositions ought n to be express$ 9 =ms :i* suppose univ]sal propositions to be already atta9$4 ,i w "h add t1 ?\gh ,aldri* himself 7z ,i /at$ at ! beg9n+ ( ?is note7 treats ! argum5t f ,induction z a defective or in=mal ,syllogism1 8 anonym\s ,oxonian editor & comm5tator takes a s\nd] view4 ,he says 7pp4 #agf1 #agg1 #ahd1 ed4 #ahbc4 ,oxon473-- ,! pr9ciples acquir$ by human p[]s may be consid]$ z tw(old4 ,"s are intuitive1 & are commonly call$ ,axioms2 ! o!r class ( g5]al pr9ciples are ^? acquir$ by ,induction4 ,b x may be d\bt$ :e!r ?is di/9ction is correct4 ,x is highly probable1 if n c]ta91 t ^? prim>y ,axioms g5]ally e/eem$ intuitive1 are 9 fact acquir$ by an inductive process2 al?\gh t process is less disc]nible1 because x takes place long be=e we ?9k ( trac+ ! act+s ( our own m9ds4 ,x is (t5 f\nd necess>y to facilitate ! und]/&+ ( ^? ,axioms1 :5 !y are fir/ propos$ to ! judgm5t1 by illu/rations drawn f individual cases4 ,b :e!r x is1 z is g5]ally suppos$1 ! m]e enunciation ( ! pr9ciple1 or ! pr9ciple itself1 :i* requires ! illu/ration1 may admit ( a d\bt4 ,x seems probable1 h[ev] t1 su* illu/rations are no?+ m ?an a recurr5ce to ! orig9al me?od by :i* ! k ( ^? pr9ciples 0 acquir$4 ,?us1 ! repeat$ trial or obs]vation ( ! necess>y connection betwe5 ma!matical co9cid5ce & equality1 fir/ au?orizes ! g5]al position or ,axiom relative to t subject4 ,if ?is conjecture is f\nd$ 9 fact1 x foll[s t bo? prim>y & ultimate pr9ciples h ! same nature & are alike acquir$ by ! ex]cise ( ! inductive faculty4 ,^? :o acquiesce 9 ! prec$+ obs]vations w feel a regret to f9d ,induction class$ among defective or in=mal ,syllogisms4 ,x is 9 fact prior 9 its ord] to ,syllogism2 nor c syllogi/ic reason+ he c>ri$ on to any ext5t )\t previ\s ,induction 7p4 #ahd74 ,we mu/ presume ,syllogisms )\t a middle t]m1 :5 we read3--,! ,syllogism ?r\gh a middle t]m is by nature prior1 & ( great] cognitive efficacy2 b to u ! ,syllogism ?r\gh ,induction is pla9] & cle>]4#ff ,nor1 inde$1 is ! say+1 :5 lit]ally tak51 at all well-f\nd$2 = ! pret5d$ ,syllogisms f ,induction & ,example1 f> f be+ cle> & pla91 are m involv$ & difficult to foll[ ?an ,b>b>a & ,cel>5t4 ,yet ! sub/ance ( ,ari/otle's ?\ght is true & important1 :5 consid]$ z decl>+ ! anti!sis 7n betwe5 v>ieties ( ,syllogisms1 b7 betwe5 ,induction & ,example on ! "o "p1 & ,syllogism 7,d$uction7 on ! o!r4 ,x is ?us t he sets out ! same anti!sis else:]e1 bo? 9 ! ,analytica ,po/]iora & ! ,topica4#fg ,prior & m cognizable by nature or absolutely1 prior & m cognizable to u or 9 relation to u--^! two are n m]ely di/9ct1 b ! "o is ! correlate & anti!sis ( ! o!r4 ,footnote #ff3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xxiii4 p4 #fh1 b4 #ce3 ,greek3 phu_/sei men ou7n pro_/t]os kai gnrim_/t]os o7 dia t\ me_/s\ sullogismo_/s1 7min d' e7n>ge_//]os o7 dia ts e7paggs4 ,footnote #fg3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 ii4 p4 #gb1 a4 #b1 b4 #bi2 ,e?ic4 ,nik4 ,,vi4 iii99994 p4 #aaci1 b4 #bh3 ,greek3 7 men d e7pagg a7r*_/ e7/i kai t\ ka?o_/l\1 o7 de sullogismos e7k tn ka?o_/l\4 ei7sin a7_/ra a7r*ai e7x 7n o7 sullogismo_/s1 7n ou7k e7_//i sullogismo_/s2 e7pagg a7_/ra4 ,comp>e ,topica1 ,i4 xii4 p4 #aje1 a4 #aa2 ,,vi4 iv4 pp4 #ada1 #adb99992 ,physica1 ,i4 i4 p4 #ahd1 a4 #af2 ,metaphysic4 ,e4 iv4 p4 #ajbi1 b99994 #d-ab4 ,comp>e also ,tr5del5burg's explanation ( ?is doctr9e1 ,erlut]ung5 zu d5 ,elem5t5 d] ,ari/otelis*5 ,logik1 sects4 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 p4 #cc1 seq4 ,to u ! p>ticul>s ( s5se /& fir/1 & are ! e>lie/ objects ( k4 ,to u1 means to ! l>ge v>iety ( individual m9ds1 :i* gr[ up imp]ceptibly f ! simple capacities ( infancy to ! mature accompli%m5ts ( adult ye>s2 ea* acquir+ its own /ock ( s5sible impressions1 rememb]$1 comp>$1 associat$2 & ea* le>n+ a language1 :i* bo? embodies 9 g5]al t]ms & propositions ! receiv$ classification ( objects1 & communicates ! curr5t emotional beliefs4 ,we all beg9 by be+ le>n]s2 & we asc5d by diff]5t pa?s to ^? univ]sal notions & beliefs :i* con/itute ! common fund ( ! advanc$ intellect2 develop$ 9 "s m9ds into pr9cipia ( philosophy ) _! consequ5ces4 ,by nature1 or absolutely1 ^! pr9cipia are consid]$ z prior1 & z =m+ ! po9t ( dep>ture3 ! advanc$ position is reg>d$ z ga9$1 & ! m>* tak5 is n t ( ! novice1 b t ( ! tra9$ adult1 :o hav+ already le>nt mu*1 is d\bly equipp$ ei!r = le>n+ m or = tea*+ o!rs2 :o ?us /&s on a summit f :5ce he surveys nature z a classifi$ & coh]5t :ole1 manife/+ h]self 9 details :i* he c int]pret & sometimes pr$ict4 ,! pa? ( k1 se5 relatively to u1 is "o ?r\gh p>ticul>s1 by way ( example to fre% p>ticul>s1 or by way ( induction to univ]sals4 ,! pa? ( k1 by nature or absolutely1 is f univ]sals by way ( d$uction ei!r to new univ]sals or to new p>ticul>s4 ,by ! cognitive nature ( man1 ,ari/otle means ! full equipm5t1 ( & = cognition1 :i* our mature age exhibits2 notiora natur are ! acquisitions1 po9ts ( view1 & processes1 famili> 9 great] or less p]fection to su* mature individuals & societies4 ,notiora nobis are ! facts & processes ) :i* all ( u beg91 & :i* belong to ! intellect 9 its highe/ z well z its l[e/ /age2 ?\gh1 9 ! high] /ages1 !y are employ$1 direct$1 & modifi$1 by an acquir$ intellectual capital1 & by ! p]man5t ma*9]y ( univ]sal significant t]ms 9 :i* t capital is inve/$4 ,su* is ! anti!sis betwe5 notiora natur 7or simplicit]7 & notiora nobis 7or quoad nos71 :i* ,ari/otle recognizes z a capital po9t 9 8 philosophy1 & insi/s ^u 9 _m ( 8 writ+s4 ,! anti!sis is repres5t$ by ,example & ,induction1 9 ! po9t ( view--quoad nos--la/ m5tion$2 by ,syllogism or ,d$uction1 9 ! o!r po9t ( view--natur4 ,induction 7he says71#fh or ! ris+ f p>ticul>s to univ]sals1 is pla9]1 m p]suasive1 m )9 ! cognizance ( s5sible p]ception1 m )9 ! appreh5sion ( mank9d g5]ally1 ?an ,syllogism2 b ,syllogism is m cog5t & ( great] efficacy aga9/ controv]sial oppon5ts4 ,:at he affirms "h ab\t ,induction is equally true ab\t ! inf]5ce f ,example1 t is1 ! inf]5ce f "o or "s p>ticul>s1 to o!r analog\s p>ticul>s2 ! rudim5t>y intellectual process1 common to all human & to _m animal m9ds1 ( :i* ,induction is an improvem5t & an exaltation4 ,:ile ,induction w be m impressive1 & w c>ry ass5t m easily ) an ord9>y uncultivat$ m9d1 an acute disputant may always d5y ! ultimate inf]5ce1 = ! d5ial involves no contradiction4 ,b ! rightly con/ruct$ ,syllogism con/ra9s ass5t2#fi ! disputant _c grant ! premisses & d5y ! conclusion )\t contradict+ himself4 ,! con/ra9+ =ce1 h[ev]1 does n come into accurate & regulat$ work+ until ! pr9ciples & conditions ( d$uctive reason+ h be5 set =?--until ! ,syllogism has be5 analys$1 & ! *>act]i/ics ( its validity1 z di/+ui%$ f its invalidity1 h be5 m>k$ out4 ,?is is :at ,ari/otle tea*es 9 ! ,analytica & ,topica4 ,x admits ( be+ set out 9 regul> figure & mode--=ms ( premisses ) ! conclusion appropriate to ea*2 & ! lesson mu/ be le>nt be=e we c "k h[ f> ! =ce ( d$uctive reason+1 :i* beg9s ) ! notiora natur1 is legitimately b9d+ & tru/wor?y4 ,footnote #fh3 ,ari/ot4 ,topica1 ,i4 xii4 p4 #aje1 a4 #ac-ai3 ,greek3 e7pagg de 7 a7po tn ka?' e7_/ka/on e7pi ta ka?o_/l\ e7_/phodos2 oi7on ei7 e7_//i kub]n_/ts o7 e7pi/a_/m5os kra_/ti/os kai 7ni_/o*os1 kai o7_/ls e7/in o7 e7pi/a_/m5os p]i e7_/ka/on a7_/ri/os4 e7_//i d' 7 men e7pagg pi?an_/t]on kai saphe_//]on kai kata tn ai7_//hs9 gnrim_/t]on1 kai tois pollois ko9o_/n2 o7 de sullogismos bia/ik_/t]on kai pros t\s a7ntilogik\s e7n]ge_//]on4 ,also ! same treatise4 ,,vi4 iv4 p4 #ada1 b4 #ag4 ,! inductive int]rogations ( ,sokrates relat+ to matt]s ( common life1 & ! way 9 :i* !y conv9c$ ord9>y he>]s1 are /rik+ly illu/rat$ 9 ! ,memorabilia ( ,x5ophon1 especially ,,iv4 vi43 ,greek3 polu ma_/li/a 7n e7g oi7da1 o7_/te le_/goi1 t\s a7k\_/ontas o7molog\ntas p>ei*5 7#ae74 ,! same c h>dly be said ( ! ,platonic dialogues4 ,footnote #fi3 ,bacon1 ,novum ,organ4 ,i4 ,aphor4 #ac3--,syllogismus ass5sum con/r+it1 non res4 ,bo? ! two ma9 po9ts ( ,ari/otle's doctr9e--! anti!sis betwe5 ,induction & ,d$uction1 & ! dep5d5ce ( ! latt] process ^u premisses furni%$ by ! =m]1 s t ! two toge!r =m ! two halves ( complete ratioc9ation & au?oritative pro(--bo? ^! two are confus$ & d>k5$ by 8 attempt to pres5t ! ,inductive inf]5ce & ! ,analogical or ,p>adeigmatic inf]5ce z two special =ms ( ,syllogi/ic d$uction4#gj ,b :5 we put aside ?is attempt1 & adh]e to ,ari/otle's ma9 doctr9e--( ,induction z a process anti!tical to & sep>ate f ,d$uction1 yet z an ess5tial prelim9>y !reto1--we see t x =ms ! basis ( t complete & compreh5sive ,sy/em ( ,logic1 rec5tly elaborat$ 9 ! "w ( ,mr4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill4 ,! inf]5ce f ,example 7i4e4 f "s p>ticul>s to o!r simil> p>ticul>s7 is di/+ui%$ by ,ari/otle f ,induction1 & is recogniz$ by him z ! primitive intellectual en]gy1 common to all m51 ?r\gh :i* ,induction is rea*$2 its results he calls ,exp]i5ce 7,greek3 e7mpeiri_/a71 & he describes x z ! real guide1 m ess5tial ?an philosophical g5]alities1 to exactness ( p]=mance 9 detail4#ga ,mr4 ,john ,mill has be5 ! fir/ to assign to ,exp]i5ce1 ?us und]/ood1 its full value & true position 9 ! !ory ( ,ratioc9ation2 & to %[ t ! ,p>adeigmatic process exhibits ! prime & ultimate reality ( all ,inf]5ce1 ! real premisses & ! real conclusion :i* ,inf]5ce connects toge!r4 ,betwe5 ^! two is int]pos$ ! d\ble process ( :i* ,induction =ms ! fir/ half & ,d$uction ! second2 nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r be+ indisp5sable to ,inf]5ce1 b bo? ( !m be+ requir$ z securities = ,sci5tific inf]5ce1 if we desire to h its correctness te/$ & its suffici5cy c]tifi$2 ! real evid5ce1 :]eby ! conclusion ( a ,syllogism is prov$1 be+ ! m9or premiss1 toge!r ) 7n ! major premiss itself1 b7 ! assemblage ( p>ticul> facts f :i* by ,induction ! major premiss is drawn4 ,n[ ,ari/otle _h pres5t to 8 m9d ! conception ( ,inf]5ce z an entire process1 enabl+ u f "s p>ticul> tru?s to discov] & prove o!r p>ticul> tru?s3 he consid]s x z an unsci5tific process1 ( :i* to a limit$ ext5t o!r animals besides man are capable1 & :i*1 z op]ative "u ! title ( ,exp]i5ce 9 mature practical m51 is a saf] guide ?an ,sci5ce amid/ ! d\bts & difficulties ( action4 ,^u ?is f\ndation he erects ! sup]/ructure ( ,sci5ce2 ! univ]sal propositions acquir$ ?r\gh ,induction1 & appli$ aga9 to p>ticul>s or to l[] g5]alities1 ?r\gh ! rules ( ! d$uctive ,syllogism4 ,he signalizes1 ) j emphasis1 ! univ]saliz+ po9t ( view call$ ,sci5ce or ,!ory2 b he reg>ds x z em]g+ f p>ticul> facts1 & z travell+ aga9 d[nw>ds t[>ds p>ticul> facts4 ,! mis=tune is1 t he cont5ts himself ) b>ely recogniz+1 ?\gh he di/9ctly proclaims ! necessity (1 ! inductive "p ( ?is complex op]ation2 :ile he be/[s elaborate c>e ^u ! analysis ( ! d$uctive "p1 & ( ! rules = conduct+ x4 ,f ?is disproportionate treatm5t1 "o half ( ,logic is made to look l ! :ole2 ,sci5ce is disjo9$ f ,exp]i5ce1 & is pres5t$ z consi/+ 9 ,d$uction alone2 e ?+ :i* is n ,d$uction1 is degrad$ into unsci5tific ,exp]i5ce2 ! major premiss ( ! ,syllogism be+ consid]$ z "p ( ! pro( ( ! conclusion1 & ! conclusion be+ necess>ily connect$ !re)1 we appe> to h acquir$ a locus /&i & a b9d+ cog5cy su* z ,exp]i5ce c\ld nev] supply2 la/ly1 :5 ,ari/otle resolves ,induction into a peculi> v>iety ( ! ,syllogism1 he appe>s f9ally to aboli% all its sep>ate dignity & jurisdiction4 ,?is "o-sid$ view ( ,logic has be5 embrac$ & p]petuat$ by ! ,ari/otelian expositors1 :o h c>efully illu/rat$1 & to a c]ta9 ext5t ev5 amplifi$1 ! "p :i* 0 already 9 comp>ative excess1 :ile !y h add$ no?+ to ! "p t 0 9 defect1 & h sc>cely ev5 pres]v$ ,ari/otle's recognition ( x z be+ n m]ely legitimate b ess5tial4 ,! va/ body ( ,inductive ,sci5ce1 accumulat$ dur+ ! la/ ?ree c5turies1 has ?us1 until rec5tly1 be5 all[$ to gr[ up1 z if its pro(s & processes _h no?+ to d ) ,logic4 ,footnote #gj3 ,heyd] 79 8 le>n$ treatise1 ,d>/ellung d] ,ari/otelis*5 und ,hegels*5 ,dialektik1 p4 #bbf71 aft] hav+ consid]$ ! unsatisfactory process :]eby ,ari/otle attempts to resolve ,induction into a v>iety ( ,syllogism1 concludes by a rem>k :i* ,i ?9k j3--,aus alle dem erhellt zur ,g5ge1 dass si* ,ari/oteles bei dem ,v]su* die ,induction auf e9e ,s*luss=m zurckzufhr51 selb/ si* ni*t re*t befri$igt fhlte1 und d]selbe wohl nur aus se9em dur*gngig5 ,be/reb5 zu erklr5 i/1 alles wiss5s*aftli*e ,v]fahr5 9 die ,=m des ,s*lusses zu br+52 dass dageg51 se9] eig5tli*5 ,me9ung und d] /r5g5 ,consequ5z se9] ,lehre zu ,folge1 die ,induction zum syllogi/is*5 und beweis5d5 ,v]fahr5 e95 9 dem ,begriff d] beid5 ,v]fahrungsweis5 lieg5d5 ,geg5satz bildete1 0 si* ihm dann au* auf das ,v]hltniss d] ,induction zur ,begriffsbe/immung ausdehn5 mus/e4 ,footnote #ga3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xxiii4 p4 #fh1 b4 #ab2 xxvi4 p4 #fi1 a4 #ag4 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xix4 p4 #ii1 b4 #cj1 seq999942 xiii4 p4 #ig1 b4 #g4 ,topica1 ,,viii4 i4 p4 #aee1 b4 #ce2 p4 #aef1 b4 #aj2 p4 #aeg1 a4 #ad-bc2 p4 #afj1 a4 #cf4 ,metaphys4 ,a4 i4 p4 #ihj1 b4 #be-p4 #iha1 a4 #cj4 ,?is fir/ *apt] ( ! ,metaphysica is "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable passages ( ,ari/otle1 respect+ ! analytical philosophy ( m9d4 ,b ?\gh ?is re/rict$ conception ( ,logic or ! !ory ( ,reason+ has aris5 naturally f ,ari/otle's treatm5t1 ,i ma9ta9 t x does n adequately repres5t 8 view ( t !ory4 ,9 8 num]\s treatises on o!r subjects1 sc>cely any allusion is made to ! ,syllogism2 nor is appeal made to ! rules = x laid d[n 9 ! ,analytica4 ,8 conviction t ! =malities ( ,d$uction 7 only "o "p ( ! process ( g5]al reason+1 & t ! value ( ! f9al conclusion dep5d$ n m]ely ^u _! be+ correctly p]=m$1 b also ^u ! correctness ( t initial "p :]eby !y are suppli$ ) matt] = premisses--is manife/$ z well by 8 indu/ry 7unrivall$ among 8 contempor>ies7 9 collect+ multif>i\s facts1 z by 8 specific decl>ations respect+ ,induction4 ,inde$1 a rec5t mo/ erudite logician1 ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 :o insi/s ^u ! con/ruction ( ,logic 9 its /ricte/ s5se z purely =mal1 blames ,ari/otle#gb = hav+ transgress$ ?is b\nd>y1 & = introduc+ o!r consid]ations be>+ on div]sities ( matt] & ( mat]ial evid5ce4 ,! *>ge s made1 to :atev] ext5t x is well-f\nd$1 does r p>take ( ! nature ( praise2 inasmu* z x ev9ces ,ari/otle's l>g] views ( ! !ory ( ,inf]5ce1 & confirms 8 own /atem5t t ! ,d$uctive process 0 only ! la/ half ( x1 presuppos+ a prior ,induction4 ,x is only ?is la/ half t ,ari/otle has "h analys$1 sett+ =? its =mal conditions ) precepts f\nd$ !reupon2 :ile he claims to h accompli%$ ! "w by long & pati5t inve/igation1 hav+ f\nd n ! smalle/ f\ndation laid by o!rs1 & bespeaks indulg5ce#gc z = a fir/ attempt requir+ to be br\ght to completion by o!rs4 ,he made ?is fir/ /ep = himself2 & if any "o w\ld make a second /ep1 s z to apply ! same analysis to ! o!r half1 & to br+ out 9 l mann] ! =mal conditions & pr9ciples ( ,induction1 we may fairly believe t ,ari/otle w\ld h welcom$ ! act1 z fill+ up :at he himself recogniz$ to be a gap 9 ! entire compass ( ,reason+4 ,z to 8 own a*ievem5t1 x is c]ta9 t he c\ld n h compos$ ! ,analytica & ,topica1 if he _h n _h be=e him _m specim5s ( ! d$uctive process to /udy & comp>e4 ,nei!r c\ld ! inductive process h be5 analys$1 until aft] ! examples ( successful advance 9 inductive sci5ce :i* rec5t ye>s h furni%$4 ,^u ^! examples1 ma9ly1 has be5 bas$ ! pr(\nd ,sy/em ( ,mr4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill1 analys+ & discrim9at+ ! =malities ( ,induction 9 ! same way z ^? ( ,d$uction _h be=e be5 h&l$ by ,ari/otle2 also fus+ ! two toge!r z co-op]ative t[>ds "o compreh5sive s*eme ( ,logic--! ,logic ( ,evid5ce g5]ally1 or ( ,tru? z discov]able & proveable4 ,9 ?is s*eme ! ,syllogi/ic ,!ory1 or ,logic ( ,consi/5cy betwe5 "o proposition & o!rs1 is recogniz$ z an ess5tial "p1 b is no long] tol]at$ z an indep5d5t :ole4#gd ,footnote #gb3 ,see 8 ,discussions on ,philosophy1 p4 #aci1 seq42 ,lectures on ,logic1 vol4 i4 p4 #bg4 ,footnote #gc3 ,see ! rem>kable p>agraph at ! close ( ! ,sophi/ici ,el5*i1 already quot$ 7supra1 p4 #adj1 note74 ,footnote #gd3 ,mr4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill says 7,bk4 ,,ii4 *4 i4 sect4 #c73 9999,induction is inf]r+ a proposition f premisses less g5]al ?an itself1 & ,ratioc9ation is inf]r+ a proposition f premisses equally or m g5]al4 ,aga9 9 ano!r passage3 ,we h f\nd t all ,inf]5ce1 consequ5tly all ,pro(1 & all discov]y ( tru?s n self-evid5t1 consi/s ( inductions1 & ! int]pretation ( inductions2 t all our k1 n intuitive1 comes to u exclusively f t s\rce4 ,:at ,induction is1 !re=e1 & :at conditions r5d] x legitimate1 _c b be deem$ ! ma9 "q ( logic--! "q :i* includes all o!rs4 ,x is h[ev] "o :i* pr(ess$ writ]s on logic h almo/ entirely pass$ ov]4 ,! g5]alities ( ! subject1 inde$1 h n be5 altoge!r neglect$ by metaphysicians2 b1 = want ( suffici5t acqua9tance ) ! processes by :i* sci5ce has actually succe$$ 9 e/abli%+ g5]al tru?s1 _! analysis ( ! inductive op]ation1 ev5 :5 unexceptionable z to correctness1 has n be5 specific en\gh to be made ! f\ndation ( practical rules1 :i* might be = ,induction itself :at ! rules ( ! ,syllogism are = int]pretation ( ,induction 7,bk4 ,,iii4 *4 i4 s4 #a4 p4 #cac47--,! bus9ess ( ,inductive ,logic is to provide rules & models 7su* z ! ,syllogism & its rules are = ratioc9ation7 to :i* if inductive argum5ts con=m1 ^? argum5ts are conclusive1 & n o!rwise4 ,?is is :at ! ,f\r ,me?ods pr(ess to be1 & :at ,i believe !y are univ]sally consid]$ to be by exp]im5tal philosoph]s1 :o _h practis$ all ( !m long be=e any "o s\ght to r$uce ! practice to !ory 7,bk4 ,,iii4 *4 ix4 s4 #e1 p4 #dga1 #e? ed47--,see also ! same po9t ( view m copi\sly set =?1 9 ,mr4 ,mill's lat] "w1 ',exam9ation ( ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton's ,philosophy' 7*4 xx4 pp4 #ded-dfb1 #crd ed473 ,x is only z a means to mat]ial tru? t ! =mal 7or to speak m cle>ly1 ! conditional7 validity ( an op]ation ( ?\ght is ( any value2 & ev5 t value is only negative3 we h n made ! smalle/ positive advance t[>ds "r ?9k+1 by m]ely keep+ ourselves consi/5t 9 :at is p]haps sy/ematic error4 ,?is by no means implies t ,=mal ,logic1 ev5 9 its n>r[e/ s5se1 is n ( v great1 ?\gh purely negative value4--,n only h[ev] is x indisp5sable t ! l>g] ,logic1 :i* embraces all ! g5]al conditions ( ! asc]ta9m5t ( tru?1 %\ld be /udi$ 9 addition to ! small] ,logic1 :i* only conc]ns itself ) ! conditions ( consi/5cy2 b ! small] ,logic ought to be 7at lea/1 f9ally7 /udi$ z "p ( ! great]--z a portion ( ! means to ! same end2 & its relation to ! o!r p>ts--to ! o!r means--%\ld be di/9ctly display$4 ,aft] adv]t+ to ano!r v>iety ( ratioc9ative proc$ure1 :i* he calls ,apagoge or ,abduction 7:]e ! m9or is h>dly m evid5t ?an ! conclusion1 & might sometimes conv5i5tly become a conclusion fir/ to be prov$71#ge ,ari/otle goes on to treat ( ,objection g5]ally--! function ( ! dialectical respond5t4 ,! ,en/asis or ,objection is a proposition oppos$ n to a conclusion1 b to ! proposition set up by ! def5dant4 ,:5 ! proposition set up by him is univ]sal1 z x mu/ be if he seeks to e/abli% an univ]sal conclusion1 y\r objection may be ei!r univ]sal or p>ticul>3 y may d5y ei!r ! :ole ( 8 proposition1 or only "o portion ( ! p>ticul>s conta9$ "u x2 ! d5ial ( "o s+le p>ticul>1 :5 sub/antiat$1 be+ en\gh to ov]?r[ 8 univ]sal4 ,accord+ly1 y\r objection1 be+ ?us v>i\sly oppos$ to ! proposition1 w lie 9 ! syllogi/ic figures :i* admit opposite conclusions2 t is1 ei!r 9 ! ,fir/ or ,?ird2 = ! ,second figure admits only negative conclusions n oppos$ to ea* o!r4 ,if ! def5dant has set up an ,univ]sal ,affirmative1 y may d5y ! :ole & e/abli% a contr>y negative1 9 ! ,fir/ figure2 or y may d5y a "p only1 & e/abli% a contradictory negative1 9 ! ,?ird figure4 ,! l1 if he has set up an ,univ]sal ,negative3 y may impugn x ei!r by an univ]sal contr>y affirmative1 9 ! ,fir/ figure2 or by a p>ticul> contradictory affirmative1 9 ! ,?ird figure4#gf ,footnote #ge3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xxv4 p4 #fi1 a4 #bj-cf4 ,footnote #gf3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 xxvi4 p4 #fi1 a4 #cg-;b4 #cg4 ,9 object+ to ,a univ]sally1 y take a t]m compreh5d+ ! orig9al subject2 9 object+ p>ticul>ly1 a t]m compreh5d$ by x4 ,( ! new t]m 9 ea* case y d5y ! orig9al pr$icate1 & h ?us1 z a major premiss1 ,e4 ,= a m9or premiss1 y affirm1 9 ! fir/ case1 ! new t]m z pr$icate ( ! orig9al subject 7less compreh5sive72 9 ! second case1 ! orig9al subject 7m compreh5sive7 z pr$icate ( ! new t]m4 ,?is gives y1 9 ! fir/ case1 a conclusion 9 ,cel>5t 7,fig4 ,i471 &1 9 ! second1 a conclusion 9 ,felapton 7,fig4 ,,iii472 oppos$1 ! "o univ]sally or contr>ily1 ! o!r p>ticul>ly or contradictorily1 to ! orig9al proposition4 ,! ,en?ymeme is a syllogism f ,probabilities or ,signs2#gg ! two be+ n exactly ! same4 ,probabilities are propositions commonly accept$1 & true 9 ! great] numb] ( cases2 su* z1 ,envi\s m5 hate ^? :om !y envy1 ,p]sons :o are belov$ look ) affection on ^? :o love !m4 ,we call x a ,sign1 :5 "o fact is ! antec$5t or consequ5t ( ano!r1 & !re=e s]ves z m>k or evid5ce !re(4 ,! conjunction may be ei!r con/ant1 or frequ5t1 or m]ely occasional3 if con/ant1 we obta9 = ! major premiss ( our syllogism a proposition approa*+ t :i* is univ]sally or necess>ily true2 if n con/ant b only frequ5t or occasional1 ! major premiss ( our syllogism w at be/ only be probable4 ,! con/ant conjunction w furni% u ) a ,syllogism or ,en?ymeme 9 ! ,fir/ figure2 ! significant m>k be+ "h a g5u9e middle t]m--subject 9 ! major premiss1 & pr$icate 9 ! m9or4 ,we c !n get a conclusion bo? affirmative & univ]sally true4 ,9 o!r cases1 we _c obta9 premisses = a syllogism 9 ! ,fir/ figure1 b only = a syllogism 9 ! ,second or ,?ird4 ,9 ! ,?ird figure1 s9ce we get by "r no univ]sal conclusions at all1 b only p>ticul> conclusions1 ! conclusion ( ! ,en?ymeme1 ?\gh x may happ5 to be true1 is op5 to refutation4 ,:]e by ! laws ( ,syllogism no affirmative conclusion :atev] is possible1 z 9 ! ,second figure1 ! conclusion obta9$ by ,en?ymeme is altoge!r suspici\s4 ,9 contra/ ) ! ,sign 9 ^! figures1 t :i* ent]s z an effective middle t]m into ! ,fir/ figure1 %\ld be di/+ui%$ "u ! "n ( ,pro( 7,greek3 tekm_/rion47#gh ,footnote #gg3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 xxvii4 p4 #gj1 a4 #aj3 ,greek3 e7n?u_/mma men ou7n e7/i sullogismos e7x ei7ko_/tn 7 smei_/n2 lamba_/netai de to smeion tri*s1 o7sa*s kai to me_/son e7n tois s*_/masi4 ,footnote #gh3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xxvii4 p4 #gj1 a4 #ca-;b4 #f4 ,ari/otle ?r[s 9 ! rem>k 7a4 #bd71 t1 :5 "o premiss only ( ! ,en?ymeme is enunciat$1 x is a ,sign2 :5 ! o!r is add$1 x becomes a ,syllogism4 ,9 ! examples giv5 to illu/rate ! description ( ! ,en?ymeme1 t :i* belongs to ! ,fir/ figure has its ?ree t]ms & two propositions specifi$ l a complete & regul> ,syllogism2 b :5 we come to ! ,?ird & ,second figures1 ,ari/otle gives two alt]nate ways ( /at+ ea*3 "o way 9 full1 ) bo? premisses enunciat$1 con/itut+ a normal1 ?\gh invalid1 ,syllogism2 ! o!r way1 ) only "o ( ! premisses enunciat$1 ! o!r be+ suppress$ z well-kn[n & famili>4 ,among logicians po/]ior to ,ari/otle1 ! def9ition giv5 ( ! ,en?ymeme1 & suppos$ to be d]iv$ f ,ari/otle 01 t x 0 a ,syllogism ) "o ( ! premisses suppress$--,greek3 monol_/mmatos4 ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton has impugn$ ?is doctr9e1 & has decl>$ ! def9ition to be bo? absurd 9 itself1 & n c\nt5anc$ by ,ari/otle4 7,lectures on ,logic1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,lect4 xx4 p4 #chf1 seq47 ,i ?9k ,hamilton is mi/ak5 on ?is po9t4 7,see ,mr4 ,cope's ,introd4 to ,ari/4 ,rhetoric1 p4 #ajc1 seq47 ,ev5 9 ! pres5t *apt] ,ari/otle di/9ctly alludes to ! monolemmatic enunciation ( ! ,en?ymeme z "o mode ( di/+ui%+ x f a full ,syllogism2 & 9 ! ,rhetorica he br+s out ?is *>act]i/ic /ill m =cibly4 ,! di/9ction is "o :i* belongs to ,rhetoric m ?an to ,logic2 ! rhetor1 9 enunciat+ 8 premisses1 mu/ be c>eful n to we>y 8 auditors2 he mu/ glance at or omit reasons t are famili> to !m2 logical fulness & accuracy w\ld be inconsi/5t ) 8 purpose4 ,! writ]s subsequ5t to ,ari/otle1 :o ?9k mu* ( ! rhetorical & little ( ! logical po9t ( view1 br+ out ! di/9ction yet m =cibly4 ,b ! rhetorical mode ( /at+ premisses is (t5 n s mu* an omission ei!r ( major or m9or1 z a confus$ bl5d+ or pack+ up ( bo? into "o4 ,ari/otle concludes 8 ,analytica ,priora by apply+ ?is doctr9e ( ,signs to det]m9e ! limits )9 :i* ,physiognomy z a sci5ce is practicable4 ,! basis ^u :i* x re/s is ?is g5]al fact or po/ulate3 ,t 9 all natural affections ( ! animal1 bodily *anges & m5tal *anges accompany ea* o!r4 ,! =m]1 !re=e1 may become signs or pro(s ( ! latt]1#gi if1 9 ea* class ( animals1 we c discrim9ate ! "o specific bodily ph5om5on :i* atta*es to ea* m5tal ph5om5on4 ,?us1 ! lion is a c\rage\s animal4 ,:at is ! bodily sign accompany+ a c\rage\s disposition8 ,x is 7we assume "h7 ! hav+ extremities ( great size4 ,?is belongs to all lions1 z a proprium2 9 ! s5se t1 ?\gh x may or does belong also to "s individuals ( o!r races 7z m571 x does n belong to any o!r entire race4 ,physiognomy z a sci5ce w1 !n1 be possible1 if we c f9d races ( animals :i* h only "o *>act]i/ic m5tal attribute1 & if we c discov] :at is ! physical attribute correlat+ ) x4#hj ,b ! difficulties are great] :5 ! same race has two *>act]i/ic m5tal attributes 7e4g4 lions are bo? c\rage\s & g5]\s71 ea* ) its correlative physical attribute2 = h[ c we tell :i* belongs to :i*8 ,we h !n to /udy individuals ( o!r races possess+ "o ( ^! attributes )\t ! o!r2 ?us1 if we f9d t c\rage\s m51 :o are n g5]\s1 agree 9 hav+ l>ge extremities1 we may inf] t ?is la/ circum/ance is1 9 ! lion1 ! correlative m>k ( 8 c\rage & n ( 8 g5]osity4 ,! physiognomonic inf]5ce w be express$ by a syllogism 9 ! ,fir/ figure1 9 :i* ! major t]m 7,a7 reciprocates & is conv]tible ) ! middle t]m 7,b71 :ile ,b /ret*es beyond 7or is m ext5sive ?an7 ! m9or 7,c72 ?is relation ( ! t]ms be+ necess>y1 if !re is to be a s+le m>k = a p>ticul> attribute4#ha ,footnote #gi3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xxvii4 p4 #gj1 b4 #g-af3 ,greek3 ei7_/ tis di_/ds9 a7_/ma metaba_/lle9 to sma kai tn psu*_/n1 o7_/sa phusika_/ e7/i pa?_/mata2--sumpa_/s*e9 gar a7ll_/lois u7pokeitai4 ,see ! ,ari/otelian treatise entitl$ ,greek3 ,phusiognmonika_/1 pp4 #hjh-hji1 ,bekk4 ,footnote #hj3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 xxvii4 p4 #gj1 b4 #bb4 ,ab\t ! *>act]i/ics ( ! lion see ,ari/ot4 ,physiognom4 p4 #hji1 b4 #ad-cf3 ,greek3 ta p]i tn psu*n dotikon kai e7leu_/!ron1 megalo_/psu*on kai philo_/nikon1 kai prau kai di_/kaion kai philo_//orgon pros a7 a7n o7mil_/s4 ,footnote #ha3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 xxvii4 p4 #gj1 b4 #ca-cf4 ,"h ! treatise ends2 b ! read] w rememb] t1 9 describ+ ! canons laid d[n by ,ari/otle = ! ,syllogism ) its ?ree ,figures & ! ,modes conta9$ !re91 ,i conf9$ myself to ! simple ,ass]tory syllogism1 po/pon+ = ! mom5t ! long expositions add$ by him ab\t ,modal syllogisms1 involv+ ! ,possible & ! ,necess>y4 ,:at is prop] to be said ab\t ?is complicat$ & useless portion ( ! ,analytica ,priora1 may well come 9 "h2 =1 9 tru?1 ! doctr9es j laid d[n ab\t ,probabilities1 ,signs1 & ,pro(s1 br+ u back to ! ,modals "u a diff]5t set ( phrases4 ,! ,possible or ,problematical is t1 ( ! occurr5ce or reality ( :i* we d\bt1 nei!r believ+ nor disbeliev+ x1 n be+ prep>$ to ass]t ei!r t x is1 or t x is n2 t :i* may be or may n be4 ,x is our mann] ( speak+1 :5 we h only signs or probabilities to guide u1 & n c]ta9 pro(s4 ,! feel+ ( d\bt is1 z a psy*ological ph5om5on1 ess5tially di/9ct f ! feel+ ( belief :i*1 9 its objective aspect1 correlates ) c]ta9ty or matt] ( fact2 z well z f ! feel+ ( disbelief1 ! correlate ( :i* c only be describ$ negatively4 ,e man kn[s ^! feel+s by 8 own m5tal exp]i5ce4 ,b 9 describ+ ! feel+ ( d\bt1 z to its matt] or 9 its objective aspect1 we mu/ take c>e to use phrases :i* decl>e pla9ly bo? sides ( its disjunctive or alt]native "*4 ,! ,possible is1 ,t :i* ei!r may be or may n be4 ,z ,t :i* may be1 x /&s oppos$ to ! ,impossible2 z ,t :i* may n be1 x /&s oppos$ to ! ,necess>y4 ,x ?us c>ries ) x negation bo? ( impossibility & ( necessity2 b1 9 common p>lance1 ! fir/ half ( ?is mean+ /&s out prom95tly1 & is mi/ak5 = ! :ole4 ,ari/otle1 z we saw previ\sly1 speaks equivocally on ?is po9t1 recogniz+ a d\ble signification ( ! t]m3 he sometimes uses x 9 ! s5se oppos$ only to impossible1 ma9ta9+ t :at is necess>y mu/ also be possible2 sometimes 9 ! tru] s5se1 oppos$ bo? to necessity & to impossibility4#hb ,footnote #hb3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pret4 xiii4 p4 #bb4 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xiii4 p4 #cb1 a4 #ba1 #bi1 #cf1 xiv4 p4 #cc1 b4 #bb2 xix4 p4 #ch1 a4 #ce4 ,! ,possible or ,problematical1 h[ev]1 9 ?is latt] complete s5se--,:at may or may n be--exhibits v>i\s modifications or gradations4 #a4 ,! *ances on ei!r side may be conceiv$ z p]fectly equal1 s t !re is no probability1 & we h no m reason = expect+ "o side ( ! alt]native ?an ! o!r2 ! sequ5ce or conjunction is indet]m9ate4 ,ari/otle con/rues ?is indet]m9at5ess 9 _m cases 7n z subjective1 or z dep5d+ ^u our want ( complete k & calculat+ p[]1 b7 z objective1 insup]able1 & inh]5t 9 _m ph5om5al ag5cies2 *>act]iz+ x1 "u ! names ( ,spontaneity & ,*ance1 z ! ess5tially unpr$ictable4 #b4 ,! *ances on bo? sides may be conceiv$ z unequal & ! ratio betwe5 !m z v>y+ inf9itely3 ! usual & ord9>y t5d5cy ( ph5om5a--:at ,ari/otle calls ,nature--prevails 9 ! majority ( cases1 b n 9 all2 be+ liable to occasional c\nt]action f ,*ance & o!r =ces4 ,?us1 betwe5 ,necessity & p]fect con/ancy at "o extreme 7su* z ! rotation ( ! sid]eal sph]e71 & ,*ance at ! o!r1 !re may be e %ade ( gradation2 f natural ag5cy next bel[ ! con/ant1 d[n to ! l[e/ degree ( probability4#hc ,footnote #hc3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xiii4 p4 #cb1 b4 #e-ai4 ,greek3 to d' a7o_/ri/on t mden mallon ou7_/ts 7 e7kei_/ns4 ,comp>e ,metaphys4 ,k4 p4 #ajfd1 b4 #cb4 ,n[1 )9 ! range ( ^! limits lie :at ,ari/otle describes z ,signs & ,probabilities2 9 fact1 all ! m>ks :i* we %all pres5tly come to z di/+ui%+ ! dialectical syllogism f ! demon/rative4 ,b "h is involv$ r ! matt] ( ! ,syllogism ?an its =m4 ,! =m inde$ is s f> implicat$1 t 7z ,ari/otle ju/ly rem>ks at ! end ( ! ,analytica ,priora#hd71 ! ,fir/ figure is ! only "o t w prove bo? conjunctions & disjunctions1 z well con/ant z occasional2 ! ,?ird figure proves only occasional conjunctions & occasional disjunctions1 n con/ant2 ! ,second figure w prove no conjunctions at all1 b only disjunctions1 con/ant z well z occasional4 ,"h a diff]5ce ( =m is prop]ly po9t$ out z c\pl$ ) & f\nd$ on a diff]5ce ( matt]4 ,b ! special rules giv5 by ,ari/otle1 e>ly 9 ! pres5t treatise1 = ! conv]sion ( ,modal ,propositions1 & ! di/9ctions t he draws z to ! modal "* ( ! conclusion accord+ z "o or o!r ( ! premisses belongs to "o or o!r ( ! diff]5t modes1--are bo? prolix & ( little practical value4#he ,footnote #hd3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xxvii4 p4 #gj1 a4 #b-ch4 ,comp>e :at is said "h ab\t ,greek3 ei7ko_/s1 smeion1 tekm_/rion1 ) ! fir/ *apt] ( ! ,topica1 & ! dialectic syllogism z !re describ$3 ,greek3 o7 e7x e7ndo_/xn sullogizo_/m5os4 ,footnote #he3 ,ibid4 ,i4 viii4-xxii4 p4 #bi1 b4 #bi-p4 #dj1 b4 #af4 ,:at he calls ! ,necess>y might inde$1 f ! po9t ( view n[ rea*$1 cease to be recogniz$ z a sep>ate mode at all4 ,! ,c]ta9 & ! ,problematical are real modes ( ! ,proposition2 objective correlates to ! subjective phases call$ ,belief & ,d\bt4 ,b no proposition c be m ?an c]ta93 ! ^w necess>y1 9 /rictness1 implies only a peculi>ity ( ! evid5ce on :i* our belief is gr\nd$4 ,grant+ c]ta9 giv5 premisses to be true1 a giv5 conclusion mu/ be true also1 if we w\ld avoid inconsi/5cy & contradiction4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,analytica ,,po/]iora ,i4 ,9 ! two books ( ,analytica ,priora1 ,ari/otle has c>ri$ u ?r\gh ! full doctr9e ( ! functions & v>ieties ( ! ,syllogism2 ) an intimation t x might be appli$ to two purposes--,demon/ration & ,dialectic4 ,we are n[ introduc$ to ^! two di/9ct applications ( ! ,syllogism3 fir/1 9 ! ,analytica ,po/]iora1 to ,demon/ration2 next1 9 ! ,topica1 to ,dialectic4 ,we are inde$ di/9ctly told t1 z f> z ! =ms & rules ( ,syllogism g1 ^! are alike applicable to bo?2#a b ! diff]5ce ( matt] & purpose 9 ! two cases is s consid]able z to require a di/9ct !ory & precepts = ! "o & = ! o!r4 ,footnote #a3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xxx4 p4 #df1 a4 #d-aj2 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 ii4 p4 #ga1 a4 #bc4 ,! contra/ betwe5 ,dialectic 7along ) ,rhetoric7 on ! "o h& & ,sci5ce on ! o!r is "o deeply pres5t to ! m9d ( ,ari/otle4 ,he seems to h proce$$ ^u ! same fundam5tal anti!sis z t :i* appe>s 9 ! ,platonic dialogues2 b to h modifi$ x bo? 9 mean+ & 9 t]m9ology1 dismiss+ at ! same "t v>i\s hypo!ses ) :i* ,plato _h connect$ x4 ,! anti!sis t bo? ?9k]s h 9 view is ,op9ion or ,common ,s5se v]sus ,sci5ce or ,special ,tea*+ & ,le>n+2 ^? aptitudes1 acquirem5ts1 s5tim5ts1 antipa?ies1 c41 :i* a man imbibes & appropriates ins5sibly1 p>tly by 8 own do+ & suff]+1 p>tly by liv+ amid/ ! drill & example ( a giv5 society--z di/+ui%$ f ^? accompli%m5ts :i* he d]ives f a tea*] already kn[n to possess !m1 & 9 :i* bo? ! "t ( 8 appr5tice%ip & ! /eps ( 8 progress are alike assignable4 ,common ,s5se is ! region ( ,op9ion1 9 :i* !re is div]sity ( au?orities & contradiction ( argum5ts )\t any settl$ tru?2 all affirmations be+ p>ticul> & relative1 true at "o "t & place1 false at ano!r4 ,sci5ce1 on ! contr>y1 deals ) imp]i%able ,=ms & univ]sal tru?s1 :i* ,plato reg>ds1 9 _! subjective aspect1 z ! innate1 ?\gh buri$1 furniture ( ! s\l1 inh]it$ f an ext]nal pre-exi/5ce1 & reviv$ 9 x out ( ! mislead+ data ( s5se by a process fir/ ( ! cross-exam9+ ,el5*us1 next ( sci5tific ,demon/ration4 ,plato depreciates altoge!r ! untaught1 unexam9$1 /ock ( acquirem5ts :i* passes "u ! "n ( ,common ,s5se1 z a m]e wor?less semblance ( k )\t reality2 z requir+ to be brok5 up by ! scrut9iz+ ,el5*us1 9 ord] to impress a pa9ful b heal?y consci\sness ( ignorance1 & to prep>e ! m9d = t process ( tea*+ :]eby alone ,sci5ce or ,cognition c be imp>t$4#b ,he admits t ,op9ion may be "r z well z wrong4 ,yet ev5 :5 "r1 x is ess5tially diff]5t f ,sci5ce1 & is ess5tially transitory2 a safe guide to action :ile x la/s1 b n to be tru/$ = /ability or p]man5ce4#c ,by ,plato1 ,rhetoric is treat$ z belong+ to ! prov9ce ( ,op9ion1 ,dialectic to t ( ,sci5ce4 ,! rhetor addresses multitudes 9 cont9u\s spee*1 appeals to receiv$ common places1 & p]suades3 ! dialectician1 conv]s+ only ) "o or a few1 receives & imp>ts ! /imulus ( %ort "q & answ]2 ?us awak5+ ! dormant capacities ( ! s\l to ! rem9isc5ce ( ^? univ]sal ,=ms or ,ideas :i* are ! only true ,kn[able4 ,footnote #b3 ,plato1 ,sophi/es1 pp4 #bbh-bbi2 ,symposion1 pp4 #bjc-bjd2 ,!tetus1 pp4 #adh1 #adi1 #aej4 ,comp>e also ',plato & ! ,o!r ,companions ( ,sokrates1' ,vol4 ,i4 *s4 vi4-vii4 pp4 #bde-bhh2 ,,ii4 *4 xxvi4 p4 #cgf1 seq4 ,footnote #c3 ,plato1 ,republic1 v4 pp4 #dgg-dgh2 ,m5on1 pp4 #ig-ih4 ,l ,plato1 ,ari/otle di/+ui%es ! region ( ,common ,s5se or ,op9ion f t ( ,sci5ce1 & reg>ds ,univ]sals z ! objects ( ,sci5ce4 ,b 8 ,univ]sals are v diff]5t f ^? ( ,plato3 !y are n self-exi/5t realities1 kn[n by ! m9d f a long p]iod ( pre-exi/5ce1 & call$ up by rem9isc5ce out ( ! *aos ( s5sible impressions4 ,to op]ate su* revival is ! great function t ,plato assigns to ,dialectic4 ,b 9 ! philosophy ( ,ari/otle ,dialectic is some?+ v diff]5t4 ,x is plac$ alongside ( ,rhetoric 9 ! region ( ,op9ion4 ,bo? ! rhetor & ! dialectician deal ) all subjects1 recogniz+ no limit2 !y attack or def5d any or all conclusions1 employ+ ! process ( ratioc9ation :i* ,ari/otle has treat$ "u ! "n ( ,syllogism2 !y take up z premisses any "o ( ! v>i\s op9ions 9 circulation1 = :i* "s plausible au?ority may be cit$2 !y foll[ out ! consequ5ces ( "o op9ion 9 its be>+ ^u o!rs1 fav\rable or unfav\rable1 & ?us become well furni%$ ) argum5ts = & aga9/ all4 ,! ultimate f\ndation "h suppos$ is "s sort ( recogniz$ presumption or au?oritative sanction#d--law1 cu/om1 or cre$1 e/abli%$ among ?is or t portion ( mank9d1 "s maxim enunciat$ by an em95t poet1 "s doctr9e ( ! ,py?agoreans or o!r philosoph]s1 curr5t prov]b1 answ] f ! ,delphian oracle1 c4 ,any "o ( ^! may s]ve z a dialectical au?ority4 ,b ^! au?orities1 f> f be+ h>moni\s ) ea* o!r1 are recogniz$ z indep5d5t1 discordant1 & (t5 contradictory4 ,?\gh n all ( equal value1#e ea* is suffici5t to w>rant ! sett+ up ( a !sis = debate4 ,9 ,dialectic1 "o ( ! disputants und]takes to d ?is1 & to answ] all que/ions t may be put to him respect+ ! !sis1 )\t implicat+ himself 9 inconsi/5cies or contradiction4 ,! que/ion] or assailant1 on ! o!r h&1 %apes 8 que/ions ) a view to refute ! !sis1 by elicit+ answ]s :i* may furni% him ) premisses = "s syllogism 9 contradiction !re(4 ,b he is ti$ d[n by ! laws ( debate to syllogize only f su* premisses z ! respond5t has expressly grant$2 & to put que/ions 9 su* mann] t ! respond5t is requir$ only to give or )hold ass5t1 accord+ z he ?9ks "r4 ,footnote #d3 ,ari/ot4 ,topica1 ,i4 x4 p4 #ajd1 a4 #h1 xi4 p4 #ajd1 b4 #ai4 ,comp>e ,metaphysica1 ,a4 p4 #iie1 a4 #a-aj4 ,footnote #e3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xix4 p4 #ha1 b4 #ah3 ,greek3 kata men ou7n d_/xan sullogizome_/nois kai mo_/non dialektiks dlon o7_/ti t\to mo_/non skepte_/on1 ei7 e7x 7n e7nde_/*etai e7ndoxota_/tn gi_/netai o7 sullogismo_/s1 7_//' ei7 kai e7_//i ti t a7l!i_/a tn ,,ab me_/son1 dokei de m_/1 o7 dia t\_/t\ sullogizo_/m5os sullelo_/gi/ai dialektiks1 pros d' a7l_/!ian e7k tn u7p>*o_/ntn dei skopein4 ,comp>e ,topica1 ,,viii4 xii4 p4 #afb1 b4 #bg4 ,we %all see m fully h[ ,ari/otle deals ) ,dialectic1 :5 we come to ! ,topica3 "h ,i put x =w>d briefly1 9 ord] t ! read] may bett] und]/&1 by contra/1 its extreme anti!sis1 viz41 ,demon/rative ,sci5ce & ,necess>y ,tru? z conceiv$ by ,ari/otle4 ,fir/1 in/ead ( two debat]s1 "o ( :om sets up a !sis :i* he pr(esses to und]/& & und]takes to ma9ta91 :ile ! o!r puts que/ions ^u x1--,demon/rative ,sci5ce assumes a tea*] :o kn[s1 & a le>n] consci\s ( ignorance b wi%+ to "k4 ,! tea*] lays d[n premisses :i* ! le>n] is b\nd to receive2 or if !y are put 9 ! =m ( que/ions1 ! le>n] mu/ answ] !m z ! tea*] expects1 n accord+ to 8 own k4 ,secondly1 in/ead ( ! unb\nd$ miscellany ( subjects treat$ 9 ,dialectic1 ,demon/rative ,sci5ce is conf9$ to a few special subjects1 9 :i* alone appropriate premisses c be obta9$1 & def9itions fram$4 ,?irdly1 in/ead ( ! sev]al het]og5e\s au?orities recogniz$ 9 ,dialectic1 ,demon/rative ,sci5ce has pr9cipia ( its own1 s]v+ z po9ts ( dep>ture2 "s pr9cipia common to all its v>ieties1 o!rs special or conf9$ to "o alone4 ,f\r?ly1 !re is no conflict ( au?orities 9 ,demon/rative ,sci5ce2 its propositions are ess5tial1 univ]sal1 & true p] se1 f ! comm5cem5t to ! conclusion2 :ile ,dialectic takes 9 accid5tal premisses z well z ess5tial4 ,fif?ly1 ! pr9cipia ( ,demon/rative ,sci5ce are obta9$ f ,induction only2 orig9at+ 9 p>ticul>s :i* are all t ! ord9>y gr[+ m9d c at fir/ appreh5d 7notiora nobis71 b culm9at+ 9 univ]sals :i* correspond to ! p]fection ( our cognitive compreh5sion 7notiora natur47#f ,footnote #f3 ,ari/ot4 ,topica1 ,,vi4 iv4 p4 #ada1 b4 #c-ad4 ,greek3 oi7 polloi gar ta toiauta prognri_/z\s92 ta men gar ts tu*\_/ss1 ta d' a7krib\s kai p]itts dianoi_/z katama!in e7/i_/n4 ,comp>e 9 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xii4 pp4 #gg-gh1 ! contra/ betwe5 ,greek3 ta ma?_/mata & ,greek3 oi7 dia_/logoi4 ,amid/ all ^! div]sities1 ,dialectic & ,demon/rative ,sci5ce h 9 common ! process ( ,syllogism1 includ+ su* assumptions z ! rules ( syllogiz+ po/ulate4 ,9 bo?1 ! conclusions are hypo!tically true 7i4e4 grant+ ! premisses to be s74 ,b1 9 demon/rative syllogism1 ! conclusions are true univ]sally1 absolutely1 & necess>ily2 d]iv+ ?is "* f _! premisses1 :i* ,ari/otle holds up z ! cause1 reason1 or condition ( ! conclusion4 ,:at he means by ,demon/rative ,sci5ce1 we may be/ conceive1 by tak+ x z a small ,greek3 te_/m5os or specially cultivat$ enclosure1 subdivid$ into /ill small] sep>ate comp>tm5ts--! extreme anti!sis to ! va/ common l& ( ,dialectic4 ,betwe5 ! two lies a l>ge region1 nei!r ess5tially det]m9ate l ! "o1 nor ess5tially indet]m9ate l ! o!r2 an int]m$iate region 9 :i* are compreh5d$ ! subjects ( ! treatises =m+ ! v miscellane\s ,encyclopdia ( ,ari/otle4 ,^! subjects d n admit ( be+ h&l$ ) equal exactness2 accord+ly1 he admoni%es u t x is important to "k h[ mu* exactness is atta9able 9 ea*1 & n to aspire to m4#g ,footnote #g3 ,ari/ot4 ,e?ic4 ,nikom4 ,i4 p4 #ajid1 b4 #ab-be2 p4 #ajih1 a4 #bf-;b4 #h2 ,metaphys4 ,a4 p4 #iie1 a4 #ae2 ,e?ic4 ,eudem4 ,i4 p4 #abaf1 b4 #cj-p4 #abag1 a4 #ag2 ,politic4 ,,vii4 p4 #acbh1 a4 #ai2 ,meteorolog4 ,i4 p4 #cch1 a4 #ce4 ,comp>e ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xiii4 p4 #gh1 b4 #cb 7) ,waitz's note1 ,,ii4 p4 #cce72 & ,i4 xxvii4 p4 #hg1 a4 #ca4 ,! passages above nam$ 9 ! ,nikoma*ean ,e?ica are rem>kable3 ,greek3 le_/goito d' a7n i7kans1 ei7 kata tn u7pokeime_/nn u7_/ln diasaph!i_/2 to gar a7kribes ou7* o7moi_/s e7n a7_/pasi tois lo_/gois e7piztte_/on1 7_/sp] ou7d' e7n tois dmi\rg\me_/nois4 tn a7kri_/beian m o7moi_/s e7n a7_/pas9 e7piztein 7*r_/71 a7ll' e7n e7ka_//ois kata tn u7pokeime_/nn u7_/ln1 kai e7pi tos\ton e7ph' o7_/son oi7keion t me?od4 ,comp>e ,metaphys4 ,e4 p4 #ajbe1 b4 #ac3 ,greek3 a7podeiknu_/ous9 7 a7nagkai_/ot]on 7 malak_/t]on4 ,! diff]5t degrees ( exactness atta9able 9 diff]5t dep>tm5ts ( sci5ce1 & ! reasons ^u :i* su* diff]5ce dep5ds are well expla9$ 9 ! six? book ( ,mr4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill's ,sy/em ( ,logic1 vol4 ,,ii4 *ap4 iii4 pp4 #dbb-dbe1 #e? ed4 ,ari/otle says t !re c be no sci5tific !ory or cognition ab\t ,greek3 to sumbebko_/s :i* he def9es to be t :i* belongs to a subject nei!r necess>ily1 nor con/antly1 nor usually1 b only on occasion 7,metaphys4 ,e4 p4 #ajbf1 b4 #c1 #bf1 #cc2 ,k4 p4 #ajfe1 a4 #a1 mean+ ,greek3 to sumbebkos m ka?' au7to_/1--,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 #f1 #ge1 a4 #ah2 = he uses ! t]m 9 two diff]5t s5ses--,metaph4 ,greek3 ,d4 p4 #ajbe1 a4 #ca74 ,9 8 view1 !re c be no sci5ce except ab\t con/ant conjunctions2 & we f9d ! same doctr9e 9 ! foll[+ passage ( ,mr4 ,mill3--,any facts are fitt$1 9 !mselves1 to be a subject ( sci5ce1 :i* foll[ "o ano!r accord+ to con/ant laws2 al?\gh ^? laws may n h be5 discov]$1 nor ev5 be discov]able by our exi/+ res\rces4 ,take1 = in/ance1 ! mo/ famili> class ( meteorological ph5om5a1 ^? ( ra9 & sun%9e4 ,sci5tific inquiry has n yet succe$$ 9 asc]ta9+ ! ord] ( antec$5ce & consequ5ce among ^! ph5om5a1 s z to be able1 at lea/ 9 our regions ( ! e>?1 to pr$ict !m ) c]ta9ty1 or ev5 ) any high degree ( probability4 ,yet no "o d\bts t ! ph5om5a dep5d on laws4 4 4 4 4 ,meteorology n only has 9 itself e requisite = be+1 b actually is1 a sci5ce2 ?\gh f ! difficulty ( obs]v+ ! facts ^u :i* ! ph5om5a dep5d 7a difficulty inh]5t 9 ! peculi> nature ( ^? ph5om5a71 ! sci5ce is extremely imp]fect2 & 7 x p]fect1 might probably be ( little avail 9 practice1 s9ce ! data requisite = apply+ its pr9ciples to p>ticul> in/ances w\ld r>ely be procurable4 ,a case may be conceiv$ ( an int]m$iate "* betwe5 ! p]fection ( sci5ce1 & ?is its extreme imp]fection4 ,x may happ5 t ! great] causes1 ^? on :i* ! pr9cipal "p ( ! ph5om5a dep5ds1 are )9 ! rea* ( obs]vation & measurem5t2 s t1 if no o!r causes int]v5$1 a complete explanation c\ld be giv51 n only ( ! ph5om5on 9 g5]al1 b ( all ! v>iations & modifications :i* x admits (4 ,b inasmu* z o!r1 p]haps _m o!r1 causes1 sep>ately insignificant 9 _! effects1 co-op]ate or conflict 9 _m or 9 all cases ) ^? great] causes1 ! effect1 accord+ly1 pres5ts m or less ( ab]ration f :at w\ld be produc$ by ! great] causes alone4 ,n[ if ^! m9or causes are n s con/antly accessible1 or n accessible at all1 to accurate obs]vation1 ! pr9cipal mass ( ! effect may /ill1 z be=e1 be acc\nt$ =1 & ev5 pr$ict$2 b !re w be v>iations & modifications :i* we %all n be compet5t to expla9 ?or\ghly1 & our pr$ictions w n be fulfill$ accurately1 b only approximately4 ,x is ?us1 = example1 ) ! !ory ( ! ,tides4 4 4 4 4 ,& ?is is :at is or ought to be meant by ^? :o speak ( sci5ces :i* are n exact sci5ces4 ,a/ronomy 0 once a sci5ce1 )\t be+ an exact sci5ce4 ,x c\ld n become exact until n only ! g5]al c\rse ( ! planet>y motions1 b ! p]turbations also1 7 acc\nt$ = & ref]r$ to _! causes4 ,x has become an exact sci5ce because its ph5om5a h be5 br\ght "u laws compreh5d+ ! :ole ( ! causes by :i* ! ph5om5a are influ5c$1 :e!r 9 a great or only 9 a trifl+ degree1 :e!r 9 all or only 9 "s cases1 & assign+ to ea* ( ^? causes ! %>e ( effect t really belongs to x4 4 4 4 4 ,! sci5ce ( human nature falls f> %ort ( ! /&>d ( exactness n[ realiz$ 9 ,a/ronomy2 b !re is no reason t x %\ld n be z mu* a sci5ce z ,tidology is1 or z ,a/ronomy 0 :5 its calculations _h only ma/]$ ! ma9 ph5om5a1 b n ! p]turbations4 ,9 sett+ out ! process ( ,demon/ration1 ,ari/otle beg9s f ! idea ( tea*+ & le>n+4 ,9 e v>iety !re( "s prcognita mu/ be assum$1 :i* ! le>n] mu/ "k be=e he comes to be taught1 & ^u :i* ! tea*] mu/ f\nd 8 in/ruction4#h ,?is is equally true1 :e!r we proce$ 7z 9 ,syllogism7 f ! m g5]al to ! less g5]al1 or 7z 9 ,induction7 f ! p>ticul> to ! g5]al4 ,he :o comes to le>n ,geometry mu/ "k be=eh& ! figures call$ circle & triangle1 & mu/ h a triangul> figure drawn to contemplate2 he mu/ "k :at is a unit or monad1 & mu/ h1 besides1 expos$ be=e him :at is *os5 z ! unit = ! reason+ on :i* he is ab\t to ent]4 ,^! are ! prcognita requir$ = ,geometry & ,ari?metic4 ,"s prcognita are also requir$ prep>atory to any & all reason+3 e4g41 ! maxim ( ,id5tity 7fix$ mean+ ( t]ms & propositions71 & ! maxims ( ,contradiction & ( ,exclud$ ,middle 7impossibility t a proposition & its contradictory c ei!r be bo? true or bo? false47#i ,! le>n] mu/ ?us "k be=eh& c]ta9 ,def9itions & ,axioms1 z conditions )\t :i* ! tea*] _c in/ruct him 9 any demon/rative sci5ce4 ,footnote #h3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 i4 pp4 #ga-gb2 ,metaphys4 ,a4 ,,ix4 p4 #iib1 b4 #cj4 ,footnote #i3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i1 i4 p4 #ga1 a4 #aa-ag4 ,greek3 a7_/pan 7 phsai 7 a7pophsai a7l!_/s4 ,ari/otle1 "h at ! beg9n+1 seeks to cle> up a difficulty :i* _h be5 rais$ 9 ! "t ( ,plato z betwe5 k & le>n+4 ,h[ is x possible to le>n at all8 is a "q />t$ 9 ! ,m5on4#aj ,y ei!r "k a ?+ already1 &1 on ?is supposition1 y d n want to le>n x2 or y d n "k x1 & 9 ?is case y _c le>n x1 because1 ev5 :5 y h le>nt1 y _c tell :e!r ! matt] le>nt is :at y 7 9 se>* (4 ,to ?is difficulty1 ! reply made 9 ! ,m5on is1 t y nev] d le>n any ?+ really new4 ,:at y are said to le>n1 is no?+ m ?an rem9isc5ce ( :at _h once be5 kn[n 9 an ant]ior life1 & =gott5 at bir? into ! pres5t life2 :at is suppos$ to be le>nt is only ! recall ( t :i* y once knew1 b _h =gott54 ,su* is ! ,platonic doctr9e ( ,rem9isc5ce4 ,ari/otle w n accept t doctr9e z a solution2 b he ackn[l$ges ! difficulty1 & intimates t o!rs _h already tri$ to solve x )\t success4 ,8 own solution is t !re are two grades ( cognition3 7#a7 ! full1 complete1 absolute2 7#b7 ! p>tial1 incomplete1 qualifi$4 ,:at y already "k by ! fir/ ( ^! grades1 y _c be said to le>n2 b y may le>n t :i* y "k only by ! second grade1 & by su* le>n+ y br+ y\r incomplete cognition up to complet5ess4 ,footnote #aj3 ,plato1 ,m5on4 p4 #hj4 ,?us1 y h le>nt1 & y "k1 ! univ]sal tru?1 t e triangle has its ?ree angles equal to two "r angles2 b y d n yet "k t ,a ,b ,c1 ,d ,e ,f1 ,g ,h ,i1 c41 h _! two angles equal to two "r angles2 = y h n yet se5 any ( ^! figures1 & y d n "k t !y are triangles4 ,! mom5t t y see ,a ,b ,c1 or he> :at figure x is1 y le>n at "o & ! same "t two facts3 fir/1 t x is a triangle2 next1 by virtue ( y\r previ\s cognition1 t x possesses ! above-m5tion$ prop]ty4 ,y knew ?is 9 a c]ta9 way or incompletely be=e1 by hav+ foll[$ ! demon/ration ( ! univ]sal tru?1 & by ?us kn[+ t e triangle _h its ?ree angles equal to two "r angles2 b y did n "k x absolutely1 be+ ignorant t ,a ,b ,c 0 a triangle4#aa ,footnote #aa3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 i4 p4 #ga1 a4 #ag-;b4 #h3 ,greek3 e7_//i de gnri_/ze9 ta men pro_/t]on gnri_/zonta1 tn de kai a7_/ma lamba_/nonta tn gns91 oi7on o7_/sa tug*a_/nei o7_/nta u7po to ka?o_/l\1 7n e7_/*ei tn gns94 o7_/ti men gar pan tri_/gnon e7_/*ei dusin o7r?ais i7_/sas1 pro_/dei2 o7_/ti de to_/de to e7n t 7mikukli_/ tri_/gno_/n e7/91 a7_/ma e7pago_/m5os e7gn_/ris54--prin d' e7pa*?nai 7 labein sullogismo_/n1 tro_/pon me_/n t9a i7_/ss phate_/on e7pi_//a/hai1 tro_/pon d' a7_/llon ou7_/4 o7 gar m 7_/dei ei7 e7_//9 a7pls1 t\to ps 7_/dei o7_/ti du_/o o7r?as e7_/*ei a7pls8 a7lla dlon 7s 7di men e7pi_//atai1 o7_/ti ka?o_/l\ e7pi_//atai1 a7pls d' ou7k e7pi_//atai4--ou7den 7oi7mai7 klu_/ei1 o7 man?a_/nei1 e7_//9 7s e7pi_//a/hai1 e7_//i d' 7s a7gnoein2 a7_/topon gar ou7k ei7 oi7de_/ ps o7 man?a_/nei1 a7ll' ei7 7di_/1 oi7on 7 man?a_/nei kai 7_/s4 ,comp>e also ,anal4 ,po/4 ,i4 xxiv4 p4 #hf1 a4 #bc1 & ,metaph4 ,a4 ii4 p4 #ihb1 a4 #h2 ,anal4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xxi4 p4 #fg1 a4 #e-;b4 #aj47 ,ari/otle reports ! solution giv5 by o!rs1 b f :i* he himself diss5t$1 ( ! ,platonic puzzle4 ,! respond5t 0 ask$1 ,d y "k t e ,dyad is ev58--,yes4 ,"s ,dyad 0 !n produc$1 :i* ! respond5t did n "k to be a ,dyad2 accord+ly he did n "k x to be ev54 ,n[ ! critics allud$ to by ,ari/otle said t ! respond5t made a wrong answ]2 in/ead ( say+ ,i "k e ,dyad is ev51 he ought to h said4 ,e ,dyad :i* ,i "k to be a ,dyad is ev54 ,ari/otle pron\nces t ?is criticism is incorrect4 ,! respond5t kn[s ! conclusion :i* _h previ\sly be5 demon/rat$ to him2 & t conclusion 01 ,e triangle has its ?ree angles equal to two "r angles2 x 0 n1 ,e ?+ :i* ,i "k to be a triangle has its ?ree angles equal to two "r angles4 ,?is la/ proposition _h nev] be5 demon/rat$1 nor ev5 /at$3 ,greek3 ou7demi_/a gar pro_/tasis lamba_/netai toiau_/t1 o7_/ti o7n su oi7das a7ri?mo_/n1 7 o7 su oi7das eu7?u_/grammon1 a7lla kata panto_/s 7b4 #c-e74 ,?is discussion1 9 ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,analytica ,po/]iora 7comb9$ ) ,analyt4 ,priora1 ,,ii4 xxi471 is int]e/+1 because x %[s t ev5 !n ! difficulties 7 felt1 ab\t ! major proposition ( ! ,syllogism1 :i* ,mr4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill has s ably cle>$ up1 = ! fir/ "t1 9 8 ,sy/em ( ,logic4 ,see ,book ,,ii4 *4 iii4 ( t "w1 especially z x /&s 9 ! six? edition1 ) ! note !re add$1 pp4 #bcb-bcc4 ,y affirm1 9 ! major proposition ( ! ,syllogism1 t e triangle has its ?ree angles equal to two "r angles2 does n ?is include ! triangle ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 & is x n !re=e a petitio pr9cipii8 ,or1 if x be n s1 does x n ass]t m ?an y "k8 ,! ,sophi/s 7^u :om bo? ,plato & ,ari/otle are always sev]e1 b :o 7 valuable contributors to ! !ory ( ,logic by fa/5+ ^u ! weak po9ts7 attack$ x on ?is gr\nd1 & rais$ aga9/ x ! puzzle describ$ by ,ari/otle 79 ?is *apt]71 aft]w>ds kn[n z ! ,sophism entitl$ ,greek3 o7 e7gkekalumme_/nos 7see ,!mi/ius ,p>aphras4 ,i4 i42 also ',plato & ! ,o!r ,companions ( ,sokrates1' ,vol4 ,,iii4 *4 xxxviii4 p4 #dhi74 ,! critics :om ,ari/otle "h cites & disapproves1 virtually admitt$ ! p]t95ce ( ?is puzzle by modify+ _! ass]tion1 & by cutt+ x d[n to ,ev]y?+ :i* we "k to be a triangle has its ?ree angles equal to two "r angles4 ,ari/otle f9ds fault ) ?is modification1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is "o way ( abat+ ! excess ( absolute & p]emptory pret5sion conta9$ 9 ! major1 & ( intimat+ ! want ( a m9or to be add$ = int]pret+ & supplem5t+ ! major2 :ile ,ari/otle himself arrives at ! same result by admitt+ t ! k correspond+ to ! major proposition is n yet absolute1 b incomplete & qualifi$2 & t x is only made absolute :5 supplem5t$ by a m9or4 ,! v same po9t1 sub/antially1 is rais$ 9 ! discussion betwe5 ,mr4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill & an oppon5t1 9 ! note above ref]r$ to4 ,a writ] 9 ! ',briti% ,qu>t]ly ,review' endeav\rs to %[ t !re is no petitio pr9cipii 9 ! ,syllogism1 by d5y+ t ! proposition ,all m5 are mortal1 ass]ts or assumes t ,socrates is mortal4 ,9 support ( ?is d5ial1 he argues t we may1 & 9 fact d1 admit ! g5]al proposition )\t hav+ p>ticul>ly exam9$ ! case ( ,socrates1 & ev5 )\t kn[+ :e!r ! individual s nam$ is a man or some?+ else4 ,b ?is ( c\rse 0 nev] d5i$4 ,t we c & d draw inf]5ces conc]n+ cases specifically unkn[n to u1 is ! datum f :i* all :o discuss ?is subject mu/ set out4 ,! "q is1 9 :at t]ms ! evid5ce or gr\nd on :i* we draw ^! conclusions may be/ be designat$--:e!r x is mo/ correct to say t ! unkn[n case is prov$ by kn[n cases1 or t x is prov$ by a g5]al proposition includ+ bo? sets ( cases1 ! kn[n & ! unkn[n8 ,i cont5d = ! =m] mode ( expression4 ,i hold x an abuse ( language to say1 t ! pro( t ,socrates is mortal1 is t all m5 are mortal4 ,turn x 9 :at way we w1 ?is seems to me ass]t+ t a ?+ is ! pro( ( itself4 ,:oev] pron\nces ! words1 ,all m5 are mortal1 has affirm$ t ,socrates is mortal1 ?\gh he may nev] h he>d ( ,socrates2 = s9ce ,socrates1 :e!r kn[n to be a man or n1 really is a man1 he is includ$ 9 ! words1 ,all m51 & 9 e ass]tion ( :i* !y are ! subject4 4 4 4 4 ,! review] ackn[l$ges t ! maxim 7,dictum de ,omni et ,nullo7 z commonly express$--',:atev] is true ( a class is true ( ev]y?+ includ$ 9 ! class1' is a m]e id5tical proposition1 s9ce ! class is no?+ b ! ?+s includ$ 9 x4 ,b he ?9ks ?is defect w\ld be cur$ by word+ ! maxim ?us3 ',:atev] is true ( a class is true ( ev]y?+ :i* c be %[n to be a memb] ( ! class3' z if a ?+ c\ld be %[n to be a memb] ( ! class )\t be+ "o4 ,! qualifi$ mann] 9 :i* ! maxim is "h enunciat$ by ! review] 7:at c be %[n to be a memb] ( ! class7 corresponds ) ! qualification introduc$ by ^? critics :om ,ari/otle impugns 7,greek3 lu_/ousi gar ou7 pha_/skontes ei7de_/nai pasan dua_/da a7rti_/an ou7san1 a7ll' 7n i7_/sas9 o7_/ti dua_/s72 & ! reply ( ,mr4 ,mill w\ld h suit$ = ^! critics z well z = ! review]4 ,! puzzle />t$ 9 ! ,platonic ,m5on is1 at bottom1 f\nd$ on ! same view z t ( ,mr4 ,mill1 :5 he /ates t ! major proposition ( ! ,syllogism includes be=eh& ! conclusion4 ,! g5]al pr9ciple1 7says ,mr4 ,mill1 p4 #bje71 in/ead ( be+ giv5 z evid5ce ( ! p>ticul> case1 _c itself be tak5 = true )\t exception1 until e %ad[ ( d\bt :i* c\ld affect any case compris$ 9 x is dispell$ by evid5ce aliunde2 & !n :at rema9s = ! syllogism to prove8 ,f a g5]al pr9ciple we _c inf] any p>ticul>s b ^? :i* ! pr9ciple itself assumes z kn[n4 ,to enunciate ?is 9 ! language ( ! ,platonic ,m5on1 we le>n no?+ by or ?r\gh ! evid5ce ( ! ,syllogism1 except a "p ( :at we h already pr(ess$ ourselves to "k by ass]t+ ! major premiss4 ,ari/otle proce$s to tell u :at is meant by kn[+ a ?+ absolutely or completely 7,greek3 a7pls74 ,x is :5 we believe ourselves to "k ! cause or reason ?r\gh :i* ! matt] kn[n exi/s1 s t x _c b be z x is4 ,t is :at ,demon/ration1 or ,sci5tific ,syllogism1 tea*es u2#ab a ,syllogism d]iv$ f premisses true1 imm$iate1 prior to1 & m kn[able ?an ! conclusion--causes ( ! conclusion1 & specially appropriate !reto4 ,^! premisses mu/ be kn[n be=eh& )\t be+ demon/rat$ 7i4e4 kn[n n ?r\gh a middle t]m72 & mu/ be kn[n n m]ely 9 ! s5se ( und]/&+ ! signification ( ! t]ms1 b also 9 t ( be+ able to affirm ! tru? ( ! proposition4 ,prior or m kn[able is und]/ood "h z prior or m kn[able by nature 7n relatively to u1 accord+ to ! anti!sis =m]ly expla9$72 fir/1 mo/ univ]sal1 undemon/rable pr9cipia are meant4 ,"s ( ^! are ,axioms1 :i* ! le>n] mu/ br+ ) him f home1 or "k be=e ! tea*] c in/ruct him 9 any special sci5ce2 "s are ,def9itions ( ! "n & its ess5tial mean+2 o!rs1 aga91 are ,hypo!ses or affirmations ( ! exi/5ce ( ! ?+ def9$1 :i* ! le>n] mu/ accept ^u ! au?ority ( ! tea*]4#ac ,z ^! are ! pr9cipia ( ,demon/ration1 s x is necess>y t ! le>n] %\ld "k !m1 n m]ely z well z ! conclusions demon/rat$1 b ev5 bett]2 & t among matt]s contradictory to ! pr9cipia !re %\ld be none t he kn[s bett] or tru/s m4#ad ,footnote #ab3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,po/ ,i4 ii4 p4 #ga1 b4 #i-ag4 ,julius ,pacius says 9 a note1 ad c4 ii4 p4 #cid3 ,propositio demon/rativa e/ prima1 imm$iata1 et indemon/rabilis4 ,8 tribus v]bis significatur una et eadem conditio2 nam propositio prima e/1 qu1 quod m$io c>et1 demon/r>i nequit4 ,s also ,zab>ella 7,9 lib4 ,i4 ,po/4 ,anal4 ,comm41 p4 #cdj1 ,op4 ed4 ,v5et4 #afag73 ,du ill dictiones 7primis et imm$iatis7 unam tantum significant conditionem ord9e secundam1 non duas2 idem namque e/1 pr9cipia esse m$io c>5tia1 ac esse prima4 ,footnote #ac3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 ii4 p4 #gb1 a4 #a-bd2 ,!mi/ius1 ,p>aphr4 ,i4 ii4 p4 #aj1 ed4 ,sp5gel2 ,s*ol4 p4 #aii1 b4 #dd4 ,!mi/ius quotes ! def9ition ( an ,axiom z giv5 by ,!ophra/us3 ,greek3 ,a7xi_/ma_/ e7/i d_/xa tis1 c4 ,?is %[s ! difficulty ( adh]+ precisely to a sci5tific t]m9ology4 ,!ophra/us expla9s an axiom to be a sort ( ,greek3 d_/xa1 ?us laps+ into ! common loose use ( ! ^w4 ,yet /ill bo? he & ,ari/otle decl>e ,greek3 d_/xa to be ( inf]ior intellectual wor? z comp>$ ) ,greek3 e7pi/_/m 7,anal4 ,po/4 ,i4 xxiii471 :ile at ! same "t !y decl>e ! ,axiom to be ! v maximum ( sci5tific tru?4 ,!ophra/us gave1 z examples ( ,axioms1 ! 9999maxim ( ,contradiction1 univ]sally applicable1 &1 ,if equals be tak5 f equals ! rema9d]s w be equal1 applicable to homog5e\s quantities4 ,ev5 ,ari/otle himself sometimes falls into ! same vague employm5t ( ,greek3 d_/xa1 z includ+ ! ,axioms4 ,see ,metaphys4 ,b4 ii4 p4 #iif1 b4 #bh2 ,greek3 ,g4 iii4 p4 #ajje1 b4 #cc4 ,footnote #ad3 ,ari/ot4 ,anal4 ,po/4 ,i4 ii4 p4 #gb1 a4 #be1 b4 #d4 ,i translate ^! words 9 con=mity ) ,!mi/ius1 pp4 #ab-ac1 & ) ,mr4 ,po/e's translation1 p4 #dc4 ,julius ,pacius & ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire r5d] !m some:at diff]5tly4 ,!y also read ,greek3 a7meta_/pttos1 :ile ,waitz & ,firm9 ,didot read ,greek3 a7meta_/pei/os1 :i* la/ seems pref]able4 ,9 ,ari/otle's "t two doctr9es _h be5 advanc$1 9 opposition to ! prec$+ !ory3 7#a7 ,"s d5i$ ! necessity ( any indemon/rable pr9cipia1 & affirm$ ! possibility (1 demon/rat+ backw>ds ad inf9itum2 7#b7 ,o!rs agre$ 9 d5y+ ! necessity ( any indemon/rable pr9cipia1 b cont5d$ t demon/ration 9 a circle is valid & legitimate--e4g4 t ,a may be demon/rat$ by means ( ,b1 & ,b by means ( ,a4 ,aga9/ bo? ^! doctr9es ,ari/otle ent]s 8 prote/4 ,! fir/ ( !m--! supposition ( an int]m9able regress--he pron\nces to be obvi\sly absurd3 ! second he decl>es tantam\nt to prov+ a ?+ by itself2 ! circul> demon/ration1 besides1 hav+ be5 %[n to be impossible1 except 9 ! ,fir/ figure1 ) propositions 9 :i* ! pr$icate reciprocates or is co-ext5sive ) ! subject--a v small proportion among propositions g5]ally us$ 9 demon/rat+4#ae ,footnote #ae3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 iii4 p4 #gb1 b4 #e-p4 #gc1 a4 #bj3 ,greek3 7_//' e7peid o7li_/ga toiauta e7n tais a7podei_/xes91 c4 ,demon/rative ,sci5ce is atta9$ only by syllogiz+ f necess>y premisses1 su* z _c possibly be o!r ?an !y are4 ,! pr$icate mu/ be 7#a7 de omni1 7#b7 p] se1 7#c7 quat5us ipsum1 s t x is a ,primum ,univ]sale2 ?is ?ird *>act]i/ic n be+ realiz$ )\t ! prec$+ two4 ,fir/1 ! pr$icate mu/ belong1 & belong at all times1 to ev]y?+ call$ by ! "n ( ! subject4 ,next1 x mu/ belong !reunto p] se1 or ess5tially2 t is1 ei!r ! pr$icate mu/ be /at$ 9 ! def9ition decl>+ ! ess5ce ( ! subject1 or ! subject mu/ be /at$ 9 ! def9ition decl>+ ! ess5ce ( ! pr$icate4 ,! pr$icate mu/ n be extra-ess5tial to ! subject1 nor atta*$ to x z an adjunct f )\t1 simply concomitant or accid5tal4 ,! l di/9ction holds 9 reg>d to ev5ts3 "s are accid5tally concomitant sequ5ces :i* may or may n be realiz$ 7e4g41 a fla% ( lightn+ occurr+ :5 a man is on 8 j\rney72 9 o!rs1 ! conjunction is necess>y or causal 7z :5 an animal dies "u ! sacrificial knife74#af ,bo? ^! two *>act]i/ics 7de omni & p] se7 are presuppos$ 9 ! ?ird 7quat5us ipsum72 b ?is la/ implies f>!r1 t ! pr$icate is atta*$ to ! subject 9 ! highe/ univ]sality consi/5t ) tru?2 i4e41 t x is a ,fir/ ,univ]sal1 a prim>y pr$icate & n a d]ivative pr$icate4 ,?us1 ! pr$icate ( hav+ its ?ree angles equal to two "r angles1 is a *>act]i/ic n m]ely de omni & p] se1 b also a ,fir/ ,univ]sal1 appli$ to a triangle4 ,x is appli$ to a triangle1 quat5us triangle1 z a prim>y pr$icate4 ,if appli$ to a subject ( high] univ]sality 7e4g41 to e geometrical figure71 x w\ld n be always true4 ,if appli$ to a subject ( l[] univ]sality 7e4g41 to a "r-angl$ triangle or an isosceles triangle71 x w\ld be univ]sally true & w\ld be true p] se1 b x w\ld be a d]ivative pr$icate & n a ,fir/ ,univ]sal2 x w\ld n be appli$ to ! isosceles quat5us isosceles1 = !re is a /ill high] ,univ]sal ( :i* x is pr$icable1 be+ true respect+ any triangle y please4 ,?us1 ! prop]ties ) :i* ,demon/ration1 or full & absolute ,sci5ce1 is conv]sant1 are de omni1 p] se1 & quat5us ipsum1 or ,univ]salia ,prima2#ag all ( !m necess>y1 su* z _c b be true4 ,footnote #af3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 iv4 p4 #gc1 a4 #ba1 b4 #af4 ,greek3 ,ta a7_/ra lego_/m5a e7pi tn a7pls e7pi/tn ka?' au7ta ou7_/ts 7s e7nupa_/r*e9 tois katgor\me_/nois 7 e7nupa_/r*e/hai di' au7ta_/ te_/ e7/i kai e7x a7na_/gks 7b4 #af1 seq474 ,l9e mu/ be includ$ 9 ! def9ition ( ! opposites /raight or curve4 ,also x is ess5tial to e l9e t x is ei!r /raight or curve4 ,numb] mu/ be includ$ 9 ! def9ition ( ! opposites odd or ev52 & to be ei!r odd or ev5 is ess5tially pr$icable ( e numb]4 ,y _c und]/& :at is meant by /raight or curve unless y h ! notion ( a l9e4 ,! example giv5 by ,ari/otle ( causal conjunction 7! dea? ( an animal "u ! sacrificial knife7 %[s t he _h 9 8 m9d ! p]fection ( ,inductive ,obs]vation1 includ+ full application ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,footnote #ag3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 iv4 p4 #gc1 b4 #be-p4 #gd1 a4 #c4 ,greek3 o7 toi_/nun to tu*on prton dei_/knutai du_/o o7r?as e7_/*on 7 o7ti\n a7_/llo1 t\_/t pr_/t u7pa_/r*ei ka?o_/l\1 kai 7 a7po_/deixis ka?' au7to t\_/t\ ka?o_/l\ e7/i1 tn d' a7_/lln tro_/pon t9a ou7 ka?' au7to_/2 ou7de t\ i7soske_/l\s ou7k e7_//i ka?o_/l\ a7ll' e7pi ple_/on4 ,ab\t ! precise signification ( ,greek3 ka?o_/l\ 9 ,ari/otle1 see a valuable note ( ,bonitz 7ad ,metaphys4 ,z4 iii47 p4 #bii2 also ,waitz 7ad ,ari/ot4 ,de ,int]pr4 c4 vii47 ,i4 p4 #ccd4 ,ari/otle gives x "h1 b4 #bf3 ,greek3 ka?o_/l\ de le_/g o7 a7n kata panto_/s te u7pa_/r* kai ka?' au7to kai 7 au7to_/4 ,comp>e ,!mi/ius1 ,p>aphr4 p4 #ai1 ,sp5gel4 ,greek3 ,to ka?' au7to_/ is describ$ by ,ari/otle confus$ly4 ,greek3 ,to ka?o_/l\1 is t :i* is pr$icable ( ! subject z a :ole or summum g5us3 ,greek3 to kata panto_/s1 t :i* is pr$icable ( e individual1 ei!r ( ! summum g5us or ( any inf]ior species conta9$ !re94 ,cf4 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xxiv4 p4 #he1 b4 #bd3 ,greek3 7 gar ka?' au7to u7pa_/r*ei ti1 t\to au7to au7t ai7_/tion--! subject is itself ! cause or fundam5tum ( ! prop]ties p] se4 ,see ! explanation & ref]5ces 9 ,kampe1 ,die ,erk5ntniss-!orie des ,ari/oteles1 *4 v4 pp4 #afj-afe4 ,ari/otle rem>ks t !re is great liability to error ab\t ^! ,univ]salia ,prima4 ,we sometimes demon/rate a pr$icate to be true1 univ]sally & p] se1 ( a l[] species1 )\t be+ aw>e t x might also be demon/rat$ to be true1 univ]sally & p] se1 ( ! high] g5us to :i* t species belongs2 p]haps1 inde$1 t high] g5us may n yet h obta9$ a curr5t "n4 ,t proportions hold by p]mutation1 0 demon/rat$ sev]ally = numb]s1 l9es1 solids1 & int]vals ( "t2 b ?is belongs to ea* ( !m1 n f any sep>ate prop]ty ( ea*1 b f :at is common to all3 t1 h[ev]1 :i* is common to all _h receiv$ no "n1 s t x 0 n kn[n t "o demon/ration might comprise all ! f\r4#ah ,9 l mann]1 a man may "k t an equilat]al & an isosceles triangle h _! ?ree angles equal to two "r angles1 & also t a scal5e triangle has its ?ree angles equal to two "r angles2 yet he may n "k 7except sophi/ically & by accid5t#ai7 t a triangle 9 g5]e has its ?ree angles equal to two "r angles1 ?\gh !re be no o!r triangles except equilat]al1 isosceles1 & scal5e4 ,he does n "k t ?is may be demon/rat$ ( e triangle quat5us triangle4 ,! only way to obta9 a c]ta9 recognition ( ,primum ,univ]sale1 is1 to ab/ract successively f ! sev]al conditions ( a demon/ration respect+ ! concrete & p>ticul>1 until ! proposition ceases to be true4 ,?us1 y h be=e y a braz5 isosceles triangle1 ! ?ree angles :]e( are equal to two "r angles4 ,y may elim9ate ! condition braz51 & ! proposition w /ill rema9 true4 ,y may also elim9ate ! condition isosceles2 /ill ! proposition is true4 ,b y _c elim9ate ! condition triangle1 s z to reta9 only ! high] g5us1 geometrical figure2 = ! proposition !n ceases to be always true4 ,triangle is 9 ?is case ! ,primum ,univ]sale4#bj ,footnote #ah3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,po/ ,i4 v4 p4 #gd1 a4 #d-bc4 ,greek3 a7lla dia to m ei7nai 7nomasme_/non ti pa_/nta tauta e7_/n1 a7ri?moi_/1 m_/k1 *ro_/nos1 /]ea_/1 kai ei7_/dei diaphe_/re9 a7ll_/ln1 *ris e7lamba_/neto4 ,:at ^! f\r h 9 common is t :i* he himself expresses by ,greek3 ,poso_/n--,quantum--9 ! ,categori & else:]e4 7,categor4 p4 #d1 b4 #bj1 seq42 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,d4 p4 #ajbj1 a4 #g1 seq47 ,footnote #ai3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 v4 p4 #gd1 a4 #bg3 ,greek3 ou7_/p oi7de to tri_/gnon o7_/ti du_/o o7r?ais1 ei7 m ton sophi/ikon tro_/pon ou7de ka?o_/l\ tri_/gnon1 ou7_/d' ei7 mde_/n e7/i p>a tauta tri_/gnon e7_/t]on4 ,! phrase ,greek3 ton sophi/ikon tro_/pon is equival5t to ,greek3 ton sophi/ikon 9999tro_/pon ton kata sumbebko_/s1 p4 #ga1 b4 #aj4 ,i see no?+ 9 x connect$ ) ,ari/otle's *>act]i/ic ( a ,sophi/ 7special pr(essional life purpose--,greek3 t\ bi_/ou t proaire_/sei1 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,g4 p4 #ajjd1 b4 #bd73 ! phrase means no?+ m ?an unsci5tific4 ,footnote #bj3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt ,po/ ,i4 v4 p4 #gd1 a4 #cb-;b4 #d4 ,9 e demon/ration ! pr9cipia or premisses mu/ be n only true1 b necess>ily true2 ! conclusion also w !n be necess>ily true1 by reason ( ! premisses1 & ?is con/itutes ,demon/ration4 ,:]ev] ! premisses are necess>ily true1 ! conclusion w be necess>ily true2 b y _c say1 vice v]s1 t :]ev] ! conclusion is necess>ily true1 ! syllogi/ic premisses f :i* x foll[s mu/ always be necess>ily true4 ,!y may be true )\t be+ necess>ily true1 or !y may ev5 be false3 if1 !n1 ! conclusion be necess>ily true1 x is n s by reason ( ^! premisses2 & ! syllogi/ic pro( is 9 ?is case no demon/ration4 ,y\r syllogism may h true premisses & may lead to a conclusion :i* is true by reason ( !m2 b /ill y h n demon/rat$1 s9ce nei!r premisses nor conclusion are necess>ily true4#ba ,:5 an oppon5t conte/s y\r demon/ration1 he succe$s if he c disprove ! necessity ( y\r conclusion2 if he c %[ any s+le case 9 :i* x ei!r is or may be false4#bb ,x is n en\gh to proce$ ^u a premiss :i* is ei!r probable or simply true3 x may be true1 yet n appropriate to ! case3 y mu/ take y\r dep>ture f ! fir/ or highe/ univ]sal ( ! g5us ab\t :i* y attempt to demon/rate4#bc ,aga91 unless y c /ate ! :y ( y\r conclusion2 t is to say1 unless ! middle t]m1 by reason ( :i* ! conclusion is necess>ily true1 be itself necess>ily true1--y h n demon/rat$ x1 nor d y "k x absolutely4 ,y\r middle t]m n be+ necess>y may vani%1 :ile ! conclusion to :i* x 0 suppos$ to lead abides3 9 tru? no conclusion 0 kn[n ?r\gh t middle4#bd ,9 ! complete demon/rative or sci5tific syllogism1 ! major t]m mu/ be pr$icable ess5tially or p] se ( ! middle1 & ! middle t]m mu/ be pr$icable ess5tially or p] se ( ! m9or2 ?us alone c y be sure t ! conclusion also is p] se or necess>y4 ,! demon/ration _c take effect ?r\gh a middle t]m :i* is m]ely a ,sign2 ! sign1 ev5 ?\gh x be a con/ant concomitant1 yet be+ n1 or at lea/ n kn[n to be1 p] se1 w n br+ out ! :y ( ! conclusion1 nor make ! conclusion necess>y4 ,( non-ess5tial concomitants altoge!r !re is no demon/ration2 :]e=e x might seem to be useless to put que/ions ab\t su*2 yet1 ?\gh ! que/ions _c yield necess>y premisses = a demon/rative conclusion1 !y may yield premisses f :i* a conclusion w necess>ily foll[4#be ,footnote #ba3 ,ibid4 vi4 p4 #gd1 b4 #e-ah4 ,greek3 e7x a7l?n men gar e7_//i kai m a7podeiknu_/nta sullogi_//hai1 e7x a7nagkai_/n d' ou7k e7_//9 a7ll' 7 a7podeiknu_/nta2 t\to gar 7_/d a7podei_/xe_/s e7/94 ,comp>e ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 ii4 p4 #ec1 b4 #g-be4 ,footnote #bb3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 vi4 p4 #gd1 b4 #ah3 ,greek3 smeion d' o7_/ti 7 a7po_/deixis e7x a7nagkai_/n1 o7_/ti kai tas e7n/a_/seis ou7_/t phe_/rom5 pros t\s oi7ome_/n\s a7podeiknu_/nai1 o7_/ti ou7k a7na_/gk1 c4 ,footnote #bc3 ,ibid4 vi4 p4 #gd1 b4 #ba-bf3 ,greek3 dlon d' e7k t\_/tn kai o7_/ti eu7_/!is oi7 lamba_/ne9 oi7o_/m5oi kals tas a7r*a_/s1 e7an e7_/ndoxos 7 7 pro_/tasis kai a7l?_/s1 oi7on oi7 sophi/ai o7_/ti to e7pi_//a/hai to e7pi/_/mn e7_/*e921 c4 ,footnote #bd3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 vi4 p4 #gd1 b4 #bf-p4 #ge1 a4 #ag4 ,footnote #be3 ,ibid4 vi4 p4 #ge1 a4 #h-cg4 ,on ! po9t la/ m5tion$1 ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire obs]ves 9 8 note1 p4 #da3 ,dans les que/ions de dialectique1 la conclusion e/ ncessaire en ce s5s1 qu'elle suit ncessairem5t des prmisses2 elle n'e/ pas du t\t ncessaire en ce s5s1 que la *ose qu'elle exprime soit ncessaire4 ,a9si il faut di/+u] la ncessit de la =me et la ncessit de la matire3 ou comme dis5t les s*ola/iques1 necessitas illationis et necessitas mat]i4 ,la dialectique se cont5te de la premire1 mais la demon/ration a ess5tiellem5t beso9 des deux4 ,9 e demon/ration ?ree ?+s may be di/+ui%$3 7#a7 ,! demon/rat$ conclusion1 or ,attribute ess5tial to a c]ta9 g5us2 7#b7 ,! ,g5us1 ( :i* ! attributes p] se are ! matt] ( demon/ration2 7#c7 ,! ,axioms1 out ( :i*1 or ?r\gh :i*1 ! demon/ration is obta9$4 ,^! ,axioms may be & are common to sev]al g5]a3 b ! demon/ration _c be transf]r$ f "o g5us to ano!r2 bo? ! extremes z well z ! middle t]m mu/ belong to ! same g5us4 ,an ari?metical demon/ration _c be transf]r$ to magnitudes & _! prop]ties1 except 9 s f> z magnitudes are numb]s1 :i* is p>tially true ( "s among !m4 ,! demon/rations 9 ari?metic may inde$ be transf]r$ to h>monics1 because h>monics is subord9ate to ari?metic2 &1 = ! l reason1 demon/rations 9 geometry may be transf]r$ to me*anics & optics4 ,b we _c introduce into geometry any prop]ty ( l9es1 :i* does n belong to !m qu l9es2 su*1 = example1 z t a /raight l9e is ! mo/ beautiful ( all l9es1 or is ! contr>y ( a circul> l9e2 = ^! pr$icates belong to x1 n qu l9e1 b qu memb] ( a diff]5t or m ext5sive g5us4#bf ,!re c be no complete demon/ration ab\t p]i%able ?+s1 or ab\t any individual l9e1 except 9 reg>d to its attributes z memb] ( ! g5us l9e4 ,:]e ! conclusion is n et]nally true1 b true at "o "t & n true at ano!r1 ?is c only be because "o ( its premisses is n univ]sal or ess5tial4 ,:]e bo? premisses are univ]sal & ess5tial1 ! conclusion mu/ be et]nal or et]nally true4 ,z !re is no demon/ration1 s also !re c be no def9ition1 ( p]i%able attributes4#bg ,footnote #bf3 ,ibid4 vii4 p4 #ge1 a4 #ch-;b4 #bj4 ,mr4 ,po/e1 9 8 translation1 "h cites 7p4 #ej7 a good illu/rative passage f ,dr4 ,:ewell's ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 ,book ,,ii4 ii43--,b1 9 ord] t we may make any real advance 9 ! discov]y ( tru?1 our ideas mu/ n only be cle>2 !y mu/ also be appropriate4 ,ea* sci5ce has = its basis a diff]5t class ( ideas2 & ! /eps :i* con/itute ! progress ( "o sci5ce c nev] be made by employ+ ! ideas ( ano!r k9d ( sci5ce4 ,no g5u9e advance c\ld ev] be obta9$ 9 ,me*anics by apply+ to ! subject ! ideas ( space & "t m]ely2 no advance 9 ,*emi/ry by ! use ( m]e me*anical conceptions2 no discov]y 9 ,physiology by ref]r+ facts to m]e *emical & me*anical pr9ciples4 c4 ,footnote #bg3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 viii4 p4 #ge1 b4 #ba-cf4 ,comp>e ,metaphys4 ,z4 p4 #ajdj1 a4 #a3 ,greek3 dlon o7_/ti ou7k a7n ei7_/ au7tn 7tn ph?>tn7 ou7_/?' o7rismos ou7_/t' a7po_/deixis4 ,also ,biese1 ,die ,philosophie des ,ari/oteles1 *4 iv4 p4 #bdi4 ,= complete demon/ration1 x is n suffici5t t ! premisses be true1 imm$iate1 & undemon/rable2 !y mu/1 fur!rmore1 be ess5tial & appropriate to ! class 9 h&4 ,unless !y be su*1 y _c be said to "k ! conclusion absolutely2 y "k x only by accid5t4 ,y c only "k a conclusion :5 demon/rat$ f its own appropriate premisses2 & y "k x be/ :5 x is demon/rat$ f its highe/ premisses4 ,x is sometimes difficult to det]m9e :e!r we really "k or n2 = we fancy t we "k1 :5 we demon/rate f true & univ]sal pr9cipia1 )\t be+ aw>e :e!r !y are1 or are n1 ! pr9cipia appropriate to ! case4#bh ,b ^! pr9cipia mu/ always be assum$ )\t demon/ration--! class ^: ess5tial con/itu5t prop]ties are 9 "q1 ! univ]sal ,axioms1 & ! ,def9ition or mean+ ( ! attributes to be demon/rat$4 ,if ^! def9itions & axioms are n always =mally enunciat$1 x is because we tacitly presume !m to be already kn[n & admitt$ by ! le>n]4#bi ,he may inde$ always refuse to grant !m 9 express words1 b !y are su* t he _c help grant+ !m by int]nal ass5t 9 8 m9d1 to :i* e syllogism mu/ address itself4 ,:5 y assume a premiss )\t demon/rat+ x1 ?\gh x be really demon/rable1 ?is1 if ! le>n] is fav\rable & will+ to grant x1 is an assumption or ,hypo!sis1 valid relatively to him alone1 b n valid absolutely3 if he is reluctant or adv]se1 x is a ,po/ulate1 :i* y claim :e!r he is satisfi$ or n4#cj ,! ,def9ition by itself is n an hypo!sis2 = x nei!r affirms nor d5ies ! exi/5ce ( any?+4 ,! pupil mu/ inde$ und]/& ! t]ms ( x2 b ?is alone is n an hypo!sis1 unless y call ! fact t ! pupil comes to le>n1 an hypo!sis4#ca ,! ,hypo!sis or assumption is conta9$ 9 ! premisses1 be+ t by :i* ! reason ( ! conclusion comes to be true4 ,"s object t ! geomet] makes a false hypo!sis or assumption1 :5 he decl>es a giv5 l9e drawn to be /raight1 or to be a foot long1 ?\gh x is nei!r "o nor ! o!r4 ,b ?is objection has no p]t95ce1 s9ce ! geomet] does n d]ive 8 conclusions f :at is true ( ! visible l9es drawn be=e 8 eyes1 b f :at is true ( ! l9es conceiv$ 9 8 own m9d1 & signifi$ or illu/rat$ by ! visible diagrams4#cb ,footnote #bh3 ,ibid4 ix4 p4 #ge1 b4 #cg-p4 #gf1 a4 #cj4 ,footnote #bi3 ,ibid4 x4 p4 #gf1 a4 #ca-;b4 #bb4 ,footnote #cj3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 x4 p4 #gf1 b4 #bi-cd3 ,greek3 e7an men dok\nta lamba_/n t man?a_/nonti1 u7poti_/!tai1 kai e7_//9 ou7_/* a7pls u7po_/!sis1 a7lla pros e7keinon mo_/non1 a7n de 7 mdemi_/as e7n\_/ss d_/xs 7 kai e7nanti_/z e7n\_/ss lamba_/n to au7to_/1 ai7teitai4 kai t\_/t diaphe_/rei u7po_/!sis kai ai7_/tma1 c4 ,!mi/ius1 ,p>aphras4 p4 #cg1 ,sp5gel4 ,footnote #ca3 ,ibid4 p4 #gf1 b4 #cf3 ,greek3 t\to d' ou7* u7po_/!sis1 ei7 m kai to a7k\_/e9 u7po_/!si_/n tis ei7nai ph_/sei4 ,= ! mean+ ( ,greek3 to a7k\_/e91 comp>e ,greek3 o7 a7k\_/n1 infra1 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xxiv4 p4 #he1 b4 #bb4 ,footnote #cb3 ,ibid4 p4 #gg1 a4 #a3 ,greek3 o7 de geme_/trs ou7den sump]ai_/netai t t_/nde ei7nai tn grammn 7n au7tos e7_/ph!gktai1 a7lla ta dia t\_/tn dl\_/m5a4 ,!mi/ius1 ,p>aphr4 p4 #cg3 ,greek3 7_/sp] ou7d' oi7 geme_/trai ke_/*rntai tais grammais u7per 7n diale_/gontai kai deiknu_/ous91 a7ll' a7s e7_/*\s9 e7n t psu*1 7n ei7si su_/mbola ai7 grapho_/m5ai4 ,a simil> doctr9e is ass]t$1 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xli4 p4 #di1 b4 #ce1 & /ill m cle>ly 9 ,de ,memoria et ,rem9isc5tia1 p4 #dej1 a4 #b-ab4 ,! process ( ,demon/ration nei!r requires1 nor c\nt5ances1 ! ,platonic !ory ( ,ideas--univ]sal sub/ances beyond & ap>t f p>ticul>s4 ,b x does require t we %\ld admit univ]sal pr$ications2 t is1 "o & ! same pr$icate truly applicable 9 ! same s5se to _m diff]5t p>ticul>s4 ,unless ?is be s1 !re c be no univ]sal major premiss1 nor appropriate middle t]m1 nor valid demon/rative syllogism4#cc ,footnote #cc3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xi4 p4 #gg1 a4 #e-i4 ,! ,maxim or ,axiom ( ,contradiction1 9 its mo/ g5]al enunciation1 is nev] =mally enunciat$ by any special sci5ce2 b ea* ( !m assumes ! ,maxim s f> z applicable to its own purpose1 :5ev] ! ,r$uctio ad ,absurdum is introduc$4#cd ,x is 9 ?is & ! o!r common pr9ciples or ,axioms t all ! sci5ces f9d _! po9t ( contact & communion2 & t ,dialectic also comes into communion ) all ( !m1 z also ! sci5ce 7,fir/ ,philosophy7 t scrut9izes ! validity or demon/rability ( ! ,axioms4#ce ,! dialectician is n conf9$ to any "o sci5ce1 or to any def9ite subject-matt]4 ,8 lib]ty ( int]rogation is unlimit$2 b 8 proc$ure is ess5tially int]rogatory1 & he is b\nd to accept ! answ] ( ! respond5t--:atev] x be1 affirmative or negative--z premiss = any syllogism t he may con/ruct4 ,9 ?is way he c nev] be sure ( demon/rat+ any ?+2 = ! affirmative & ! negative w n be equally s]viceable = t purpose4 ,!re is inde$ also1 9 discussions on ! sep>ate sci5ces1 a legitimate practice ( sci5tific int]rogation4 ,"h ! que/ions prop] to be put are limit$ 9 numb]1 & ! answ]s prop] to be made are det]m9$ be=eh& by ! tru?s ( ! sci5ce--say ,geometry2 /ill1 an answ] ?us correctly made w s]ve to ! int]rogator z premiss = syllogi/ic demon/ration4#cf ,! respond5t mu/ submit to h su* answ] te/$ by appeal to geometrical pr9cipia & to o!r geometrical propositions already prov$ z legitimate conclusions f ! pr9cipia2 if he f9ds himself involv$ 9 contradictions1 he is confut$ qu geomet]1 & mu/ correct or modify 8 answ]4 ,b he is n b\nd1 qu geomet]1 to und]go scrut9y z to ! geometrical pr9cipia !mselves2 ?is w\ld c>ry ! dialogue out ( ! prov9ce ( ,geometry into t ( ,fir/ ,philosophy & ,dialectic4 ,c>e1 inde$1 mu/ be tak5 to keep bo? que/ions & answ]s )9 ! limits ( ! sci5ce4 ,n[ !re c be no security = ?is re/riction1 except 9 ! sci5tific compet5ce ( ! auditors4 ,refra91 accord+ly1 f all geometrical discussions among m5 ignorant ( geometry & conf9e y\rself to geometrical auditors1 :o alone c di/+ui% :at que/ions & answ]s are really appropriate4 ,& :at is "h said ab\t geometry1 is equally true ab\t ! o!r special sci5ces4#cg ,answ]s may be improp] ei!r z =eign to ! sci5ce "u debate1 or z app]ta9+ to ! sci5ce1 yet false z to ! matt]1 or z equivocal 9 middle t]m2 ?\gh ?is la/ is less likely to occur 9 ,geometry1 s9ce ! demon/rations are accompani$ by diagrams1 :i* help to r5d] conspicu\s any su* ambiguity4#ch ,to an inductive proposition1 br++ =w>d a s+le case z contributory to an ultimate g5]alization1 no g5]al objection %\ld be (f]$2 ! objection %\ld be res]v$ until ! g5]alization itself is t5d]$4#ci ,sometimes ! mi/ake is made ( draw+ an affirmative conclusion f premisses 9 ! ,second figure2 ?is is =mally wrong1 b ! conclusion may 9 "s cases be true1 if ! major premiss happ5s to be a reciprocat+ proposition1 hav+ its pr$icate co-ext5sive ) its subject4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 _c be presum$2 nor c a conclusion be made to yield up its pr9ciples by necess>y reciprocation2 = we h already obs]v$ t1 ?\gh ! tru? ( ! premisses c]tifies ! tru? ( ! conclusion1 we _c say vice v]s t ! tru? ( ! conclusion c]tifies ! tru? ( ! premisses4 ,yet propositions are m frequ5tly f\nd to reciprocate 9 sci5tific discussion ?an 9 ,dialectic2 because1 9 ! =m]1 we take no acc\nt ( accid5tal prop]ties1 b only ( def9itions & :at foll[s f !m4#dj ,footnote #cd3 ,ibid4 a4 #aj1 seq4 ,footnote #ce3 ,ibid4 a4 #bf-cj3 ,greek3 kai ei7_/ tis ka?o_/l\ peirto deiknu_/nai ta ko9a_/1 oi7on o7_/ti a7_/pan pha_/nai 7 a7popha_/nai1 7 o7_/ti i7_/sa a7po i7_/sn1 7 tn toi\_/tn a7_/tta4 ,comp>e ,metaph4 ,k4 p4 #ajfa99991 b4 #ah4 ,footnote #cf3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xii1 p4 #gg1 a4 #cf-dj2 ,!mi/ius1 p4 #dj4 ,! text is "h v obscure4 ,he proce$s to di/+ui% ,geometry especially 7also o!r sci5ces1 ?\gh less emphatically7 f ,greek3 ta e7n tois dialo_/gois 7,i4 xii4 p4 #gh1 a4 #ab74 ,julius ,pacius1 ad ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 viii4 7he divides ! *apt]s diff]5tly71 p4 #dag1 says3--,diff]5tia int]rogationis dialectic et demon/rativ hc e/4 ,dialecticus ita int]rogat1 ut optionem det adv]s>io1 utrum malit affirm>e an neg>e4 ,demon/rator v]o int]rogat ut rem evid5tiorem faciat2 id e/1 ut doceat ex pr9cipiis auditori notis4 ,footnote #cg3 ,ibid4 ,i4 xii4 p4 #gg1 b4 #a-ae2 ,!mi/ius1 p4 #da3 ,greek3 ou7 gar 7_/sp] tn e7ndo_/xn oi7 polloi kritai_/1 ou7_/t kai tn kat' e7pi/_/mn oi7 a7nepi/_/mones4 ,footnote #ch3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xii4 p4 #gg1 b4 #af-cc4 ,propositions )9 ! limits ( ! sci5ce1 b false z to matt]1 are /yl$ by ,ari/otle ,greek3 pseudograph_/mata4 ,see ,ari/ot4 ,sophi/4 ,el5*4 xi4 p4 #aga1 b4 #ad2 p4 #agb1 a4 #a4 ,l'int]rogation syllogi/ique se confondant avec la proposition1 il s'ensuit que l'int]rogation doit tre1 comme la proposition1 propre la sci5ce dont il s'agit4 7,b>?lemy ,/ ,hilaire1 note1 p4 #gj74 ,int]rogation "h has a diff]5t mean+ f t :i* x be>s 9 ,dialectic4 ,footnote #ci3 ,ibid4 ,i4 xii4 p4 #gg99991 b4 #cd seq4 ,?is passage is to me h>dly intelligible4 ,x is diff]5tly und]/ood by comm5tators & translators4 ,john ,philoponus 9 ! ,s*olia 7p4 #bag1 b4 #ag-cb1 ,br&is71 cites ! explanation ( x giv5 by ,ammonius1 b rejects t explanation1 & waits = o!rs to supply him ) a bett]4 ,zab>ella 7,comm4 9 ,analyt4 ,po/4 pp4 #dbf1 #def1 ed4 ,v5et #afag7 admits t z x /&s1 & :]e x /&s1 x is un9telligible1 b transposes x to ano!r "p ( ! book 7to ! end ( cap4 xvii41 imm$iately be=e ! words ,greek3 phan]on de kai o7_/ti1 c41 ( c4 xviii471 & gives an explanation ( x 9 ?is alt]$ position4 ,b ,i d n ?9k he has succe$$ 9 cle>+ x up4 ,footnote #dj3 ,ibid4 ,i4 xii4 p4 #gg1 b4 #dj-p4 #gh1 a4 #ac4 ,k ( ,fact & k ( ! ,cause mu/ be di/+ui%$1 & ev5 )9 ! same ,sci5ce4#da ,9 "s syllogisms ! conclusion only br+s out ,greek3 to o7_/ti--! reality ( c]ta9 facts2 9 o!rs1 x ends 9 ,greek3 to dio_/ti--! affirmation ( a cause1 or ( ! ,:y4 ,! syllogism ( ! ,:y is1 :]e ! middle t]m is n m]ely ! cause1 b ! proximate cause1 ( ! conclusion4 ,(t51 h[ev]1 ! effect is m notori\s1 s t we employ x z middle t]m1 & conclude f x to its reciprocat+ cause2 9 :i* case our syllogism is only ( ! ,greek3 o7_/ti2 & s x is also :5 we employ z middle t]m a cause n proximate b remote1 conclud+ f t to ! effect4#db ,sometimes ! syllogisms ( ! ,greek3 o7_/ti may fall "u "o sci5ce1 ^? ( ! ,greek3 dio_/ti "u ano!r1 namely1 9 ! case :]e "o sci5ce is subord9ate to ano!r1 z optics to geometry1 & h>monics to ari?metic2 ! facts ( optics & h>monics belong+ to s5se & obs]vation1 ! causes !re( to ma!matical reason+4 ,x may happ51 !n1 t a man kn[s ,greek3 to dio_/ti well1 b is comp>atively ignorant ,greek3 t\ o7_/ti3 ! geomet] may h paid little att5tion to optical facts4#dc ,cognition ( ! ,greek3 dio_/ti is ! maximum1 ! p]fection1 ( all cognition2 & ?is1 compris+ ari?metical & geometrical !orems1 is almo/ always atta9$ by syllogisms 9 ! ,fir/ figure4 ,?is figure is ! mo/ truly sci5tific ( ! ?ree2 ! o!r two figures dep5d ^u x = expansion & cond5sation4 ,x is1 besides1 ! only "o 9 :i* univ]sal affirmative conclusions c be obta9$2 = 9 ! ,second figure we get only negative conclusions2 9 ! ,?ird1 only p>ticul>4 ,accord+ly1 propositions decl>+ ,ess5ce or ,def9ition1 obta9$ only ?r\gh univ]sal affirmative conclusions1 are yield$ 9 none b ! ,fir/ figure4#dd ,footnote #da3 ,ibid4 ,i4 xiii4 p4 #gg1 a4 #bb seq4 ,footnote #db3 ,!mi/ius1 p4 #de3 ,greek3 polla_/kis sumbai_/nei kai a7nti/re_/phe9 a7ll_/lois to ai7tion kai to smeion kai a7_/mph dei_/knu/hai di' a7ll_/ln1 dia t\ smei_/ou men 7s to o7_/ti1 dia ?ate_/r\ de 7s to dio_/ti4 ,cum enim v]a demon/ratio1 id e/ ,greek3 t\ dio_/ti1 fiat p] causam proximam1 consequ5s e/1 ut demon/ratio vel p] effectum proximum1 vel p] causam remotam1 sit demon/ratio ,greek3 t\ o7_/ti 7,julius ,pacius1 ,comm4 p4 #dbb74 ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire obs]ves 7,note1 p4 #hb73--,la cause loigne non immdiate1 donne un syllogisme dans la seconde figure4--,il e/ vrai qu',ari/ote n'appelle cause que la cause immdiate2 et que la cause loigne n'e/ pas p\r lui une vritable cause4 ,see 9 ,s*ol4 p4 #ahh1 a4 #ai1 ! explanation giv5 by ,alex&] ( ! syllogism ,greek3 t\ dio_/ti4 ,footnote #dc3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xiii4 p4 #gi1 a4 #b1 seq43 ,greek3 e7ntau?a gar to men o7_/ti tn ai7/htikn ei7de_/nai1 to de dio_/ti tn ma?matikn1 c4 ,comp>e ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xxi4 p4 #fg1 a4 #aa2 & ,metaphys4 ,a4 p4 #iha1 a4 #ae4 ,footnote #dd3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xiv4 p4 #gi1 a4 #ag-cb4 ,z !re are "s affirmative propositions t are indivisible1 i4e41 hav+ affirmative pr$icates :i* belong to a subject at once1 directly1 imm$iately1 indivisibly1--s !re are also "s indivisible negative propositions1 i4e41 ) pr$icates t belong negatively to a subject at once1 directly1 c4 ,9 all su* !re is no int]m$iate /ep to ju/ify ei!r ! affirmation ( ! pr$icate1 or ! negation ( ! pr$icate1 respect+ ! giv5 subject4 ,?is w be ! case :]e nei!r ! pr$icate nor ! subject is conta9$ 9 any high] g5us4#de ,footnote #de3 ,ibid4 ,i4 xv4 p4 #gi1 a4 #cc-;b4 #bb4 ,! po9t :i* ,ari/otle "h especially insi/s ^u is1 t !re may be & are imm$iate1 undemon/rable1 negative 7z well z affirmative7 pr$icates3 ,greek3 phan]on ou7n o7_/ti e7nde_/*etai_/ te a7_/llo a7_/ll m u7pa_/r*e9 a7to_/ms4 7,!mi/ius1 ,p>aphr4 p4 #dh1 ,sp5gel3 ,greek3 a7_/mesoi de prota_/seis ou7 katapha_/seis mo_/non ei7si_/n1 a7lla kai a7popha_/seis o7moi_/s ai7 m du_/nantai dia sullogism\ dei*?nai1 au7tai d' ei7sin e7ph' 7n ou7dete_/r\ tn o7_/rn a7_/llos tis o7_/l\ katgoreitai47 ,x _h be5 already %[n1 9 an e>li] *apt] ( ?is treatise 7p4 #gb1 b4 #ai71 t !re 7 affirmative pr$icates imm$iate & undemon/rable4 ,?is may be comp>$ ) t :i* ,plato decl>es 9 ! ,sophi/es 7pp4 #bec-bed1 seq47 ab\t ! int]communion ,greek3 tn g5n kai tn ei7dn ) ea* o!r4 ,"s ( !m admit su* int]communion1 o!rs repudiate x4 ,9 reg>d bo? to ^! propositions imm$iate & indivisible1 & to propositions m$iate & d$ucible1 !re are two v>ieties ( error4#df ,y may err simply1 f ignorance1 n kn[+ bett]1 & n suppos+ y\rself to "k at all2 or y\r error may be a false conclusion1 d$uc$ by syllogism ?r\gh a middle t]m1 & accompani$ by a belief on y\r "p t y d "k4 ,?is may happ5 9 diff]5t ways4 ,suppose ! negative proposition1 ,no ,b is ,a1 to be true imm$iately or indivisibly4 ,!n1 if y conclude ! contr>y ( ?is#dg 7,all ,b is ,a7 to be true1 by syllogism ?r\gh ! middle t]m ,c1 y\r syllogism mu/ be 9 ! ,fir/ figure2 x mu/ h ! m9or premiss false 7s9ce ,b is br\ght "u ,c1 :5 x is n conta9$ 9 any high] g5us71 & x may h bo? premisses false4 ,aga91 suppose ! affirmative proposition1 ,all ,b is ,a1 to be true imm$iately or indivisibly4 ,!n if y conclude ! contr>y ( ?is 7,no ,b is ,a7 to be true1 by syllogism ?r\gh ! middle t]m ,c1 y\r syllogism may be 9 ! ,fir/ figure1 b x may also be 9 ! ,second figure1 y\r false conclusion be+ negative4 ,if x be 9 ! ,fir/ figure1 bo? its premisses may be false1 or "o ( !m only may be false1 ei!r indiff]5tly4#dh ,if x be 9 ! ,second figure1 ei!r premiss s+ly may be :olly false1 or bo? may be p>tly false4#di ,footnote #df3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xvi4 p4 #gi1 b4 #bc3 ,greek3 a7_/gnoia kat' a7po_/phas9--a7_/gnoia kata dia_/!s94 ,see ,!mi/ius1 p4 #di1 ,sp5gel4 ,9 reg>d to simple & uncomb9$ ideas1 ignorance is n possible z an errone\s comb9ation1 b only z a m5tal blank4 ,y ei!r h ! idea & ?us "k s mu* tru?1 or y h n ! idea & are ?us ignorant to t ext5t2 ?is is ! only alt]native4 ,cf4 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,?4 p4 #ajea1 a4 #cd2 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 vi4 p4 #dcj1 a4 #bf4 ,footnote #dg3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xvi4 p4 #gi1 b4 #bi4 ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire rem>ks 7p4 #ie1 n473--,il faut rem>qu] qu',ari/ote ne s'occupe que des modes univ]sels dans la premire et dans la seconde figure1 p>ceque1 la dmon/ration tant t\j\rs univ]selle1 les propositions qui exprim5t l'erreur oppose doiv5t l'tre comme elle4 ,a9si ce sont les propositions contraires1 et non les contradictoires1 dont il s]a "q ici4 ,= ! l reason ! ,?ird figure is n m5tion$ "h1 b only ! ,fir/ & ,second3 because 9 ! ,?ird figure no univ]sal conclusion c be prov$ 7,julius ,pacius1 p4 #dca74 ,footnote #dh3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xvi4 p4 #hj1 a4 #f-bf4 ,footnote #di3 ,ibid4 a4 #bg-;b4 #ad3 ,greek3 e7n de t me_/s s*_/mati o7_/las men ei7nai tas prota_/seis a7mphote_/ras pseudeis ou7k e7nde_/*etai--e7pi_/ ti d' e7kate_/ran ou7den klu_/ei pseud ei7nai4 ,let u next assume ! affirmative proposition1 ,all ,b is ,a1 to be true1 b m$iate & d$ucible ?r\gh ! middle t]m ,c4 ,if y conclude ! contr>y ( ?is 7,no ,b is ,a7 ?r\gh ! same middle t]m ,c1 9 ! ,fir/ figure1 y\r error _c arise f falsity 9 ! m9or premiss1 because y\r m9or 7by ! laws ( ! figure7 mu/ be affirmative2 y\r error mu/ arise f a false major1 because a negative major is n inconsi/5t ) ! laws ( ! ,fir/ figure4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if y conclude ! contr>y 9 ! ,fir/ figure ?r\gh a diff]5t middle t]m1 ,d1 ei!r bo? y\r premisses w be false1 or y\r m9or premiss w be false4#ej ,if y employ ! ,second figure to conclude y\r contr>y1 bo? y\r premisses _c be false1 ?\gh ei!r "o ( !m s+ly may be false4#ea ,footnote #ej3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xvi4 p4 #hj1 b4 #ag-p4 #ha1 a4 #d4 ,footnote #ea3 ,ibid4 p4 #ha1 a4 #e-ad4 ,su* w be ! case :5 ! d$ucible proposition assum$ to be true is affirmative1 & :5 !re=e ! contr>y conclusion :i* y pr(ess to h prov$ is negative4 ,b if ! d$ucible proposition assum$ to be true is negative1 & if consequ5tly ! contr>y conclusion mu/ be affirmative1--!n1 if y try to prove ?is contr>y ?r\gh ! same middle t]m1 y\r premisses _c bo? be false1 b y\r major premiss mu/ always be false4#eb ,if1 h[ev]1 y try to prove ! contr>y ?r\gh a diff]5t & inappropriate middle t]m1 y _c conv]t ! m9or premiss to its contr>y 7because ! m9or premiss mu/ cont9ue affirmative1 9 ord] t y may arrive at any conclusion at all71 b ! major c be s conv]t$4 ,%\ld ! major premiss ?us conv]t$ be true1 ! m9or w be false2 %\ld ! major premiss ?us conv]t$ be false1 ! m9or may be ei!r true or false4 ,ei!r "o ( ! premisses1 or bo? ! premisses1 may ?us be false4#ec ,footnote #eb3 ,ibid4 xvii4 p4 #ha1 a4 #ae-bj4 ,footnote #ec3 ,ibid4 a4 #bj-cd4 ,mr4 ,po/e's translation 7pp4 #fe-gj7 is v p]spicu\s & in/ructive 9 reg>d to ^! two difficult *apt]s4 ,errors ( simple ignorance 7n conclud$ f false syllogism7 may proce$ f defect or failure ( s5sible p]ception1 9 "o or o!r ( its bran*es4 ,= )\t s5sation !re c be no induction2 & x is f induction only t ! premisses = demon/ration by syllogism are obta9$4 ,we _c arrive at univ]sal propositions1 ev5 9 :at are call$ ab/ract sci5ces1 except ?r\gh induction ( p>ticul>s2 nor c we demon/rate except f univ]sals4 ,induction & ,demon/ration are ! only two ways ( le>n+2 & ! p>ticul>s compos+ our inductions c only be kn[n ?r\gh s5se4#ed ,footnote #ed3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xviii4 p4 #ha1 a4 #ch-;b4 #i4 ,9 ?is important *apt] 7! doctr9es ( :i* are m fully exp&$ 9 ! la/ *apt] ( ! ,second ,book ( ! ,analyt4 ,po/471 ! text ( ,waitz does n fully agree ) t ( ,julius ,pacius4 ,9 ,firm9 ,didot's edition ! text is ! same z 9 ,waitz2 b 8 ,lat9 translation rema9s adapt$ to t ( ,julius ,pacius4 ,waitz gives ! sub/ance ( ! *apt] z foll[s 7ad ,organ4 ,,ii4 p4 #cdg73-- ,univ]sales propositiones omnes inductione comp>antur1 quum etiam 9 iis1 qu a s5sibus maxime ali5a vid5tur et qu1 ut ma!matica 7,greek3 ta e7x a7phaire_/ses71 cogitatione sep>antur mat]ia quacum conjuncta sunt1 inductione prob5tur ea qu de g5]o 7e4 g41 de l9ea vel de corpore ma!matico71 ad quod demon/ratio p]t9eat1 prdic5tur ,greek3 ka?' au7ta_/ et cum ejus natura conjuncta s9t4 ,inductio autem iis nititur qu s5sibus p]cipiuntur2 nam res s+ul>es s5tiuntur1 sci5tia v]o r]um s+ul>ium non datur s9e inductione1 non datur inductio s9e s5su4 ,ari/otle next proce$s to %[ 7:at 9 previ\s passages he _h assum$7#ee t1 if ,demon/ration or ! syllogi/ic process be possible--if !re be any tru?s suppos$ demon/rable1 ?is implies t !re mu/ be prim>y or ultimate tru?s4 ,x has be5 expla9$ t ! con/itu5t elem5ts assum$ 9 ! ,syllogism are ?ree t]ms & two propositions or premisses2 9 ! major premiss1 ,a is affirm$ 7or d5i$7 ( all ,b2 9 ! m9or1 ,b is affirm$ ( all ,c2 9 ! conclusion1 ,a is affirm$ 7or d5i$7 ( all ,c4#ef ,n[ x is possible t !re may be "s "o or m pr$icates high] ?an ,a1 b x is impossible t !re c be an inf9ite s]ies ( su* high] pr$icates4 ,s also !re may be "o or m subjects l[] ?an ,c1 & ( :i* ,c w be ! pr$icate2 b x is impossible t !re c be an inf9ite s]ies ( su* l[] subjects4 ,9 l mann] !re may p]haps be "o or m middle t]ms betwe5 ,a & ,b1 & betwe5 ,b & ,c2 b x is impossible t !re c be an inf9ite s]ies ( su* int]v5+ middle t]ms4 ,!re mu/ be a limit to ! s]ies asc5d+1 desc5d+1 or int]v5+4#eg ,^! rem>ks h no application to reciprocat+ propositions1 9 :i* ! pr$icate is co-ext5sive ) ! subject4#eh ,b !y apply alike to demon/rations negative & affirmative1 & alike to all ! ?ree figures ( ,syllogism4#ei ,footnote #ee3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xxvii4 p4 #dc1 a4 #ch2 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 ii4 p4 #ga1 b4 #ba4 ,footnote #ef3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xix4 p4 #ha1 b4 #aj-ag4 ,footnote #eg3 ,ibid4 p4 #ha1 b4 #cj-p4 #hb1 a4 #ad4 ,footnote #eh3 ,ibid4 p4 #hb1 a4 #ae-bj4 ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire1 p4 #aag3--;,ceci ne saurait s'appliqu] aux t]mes rciproques1 p>ce que dans les t]mes qui peuv5t tre attribus rciproquem5t l'un l'autre1 on ne peut pas dire qu'il y ait ni premi] ni d]ni] rlativem5t l'attribution4 ,footnote #ei3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xx41 xxi4 p4 #hb1 a4 #ba-;b4 #cf4 ,9 ,dialectical ,syllogism x is en\gh if ! premisses be admitt$ or reput$ z propositions imm$iately true1 :e!r !y are s 9 reality or n2 b 9 ,sci5tific or ,demon/rative ,syllogism !y mu/ be s 9 reality3 ! demon/ration is n complete unless x c be trac$ up to premisses t are ?us imm$iately or directly true 7)\t any int]v5+ middle t]m74#fj ,t !re are & mu/ be su* prim>y or imm$iate premisses1 ,ari/otle n[ und]takes to prove1 by "s dialectical reasons1 & o!r analytical or sci5tific reasons4#fa ,he himself ?us di/+ui%es !m2 b ! di/9ction is fa9tly m>k$1 & am\nts1 at mo/1 to ?is1 t ! analytical reasons adv]t only to ess5tial pr$ication1 & to ! conditions ( sci5tific demon/ration1 :ile ! dialectical reasons dwell ^u ^!1 b include some?+ else besides1 viz41 accid5tal pr$ication4 ,! pro( consi/s ma9ly 9 ! decl>ation t1 unless we assume "s propositions to be true imm$iately1 indivisibly1 undemon/rably1--,def9ition1 ,demon/ration1 & ,sci5ce w\ld be alike impossible4 ,if ! asc5d+ s]ies ( pr$icates is endless1 s t we nev] arrive at a highe/ g5]ic pr$icate2 if ! desc5d+ s]ies ( subjects is endless1 s t we nev] rea* a l[e/ subject1--no def9ition c ev] be atta9$4 ,! ess5tial prop]ties includ$ 9 ! def9ition1 mu/ be f9ite 9 numb]2 & ! accid5tal pr$icates mu/ also be f9ite 9 numb]1 s9ce !y h no exi/5ce except z atta*$ to "s ess5tial subject1 & s9ce !y mu/ come "u "o or o!r ( ! n9e lat] ,categories4#fb ,if1 !n1 ! two extremes are ?us fix$ & f9ite--! highe/ pr$icate & ! l[e/ subject--x is impossible t !re c be an inf9ite s]ies ( t]ms betwe5 ! two4 ,! int]v5+ t]ms mu/ be f9ite 9 numb]4 ,! ,ari/otelian !ory !re=e is1 t !re are c]ta9 propositions directly & imm$iately true1 & o!rs d]iv$ f !m by demon/ration ?r\gh middle t]ms4#fc ,x is alike an error to ass]t t e ?+ c be demon/rat$1 & t no?+ c be demon/rat$4 ,footnote #fj3 ,ibid4 xix4 p4 #ha1 b4 #ah-bi4 ,footnote #fa3 ,ibid4 xxi4 p4 #hb1 b4 #ce2 xxii4 p4 #hd1 a4 #g3 ,greek3 logiks men ou7n e7k t\_/tn a7_/n tis pi/eu_/seie p]i t\ le*!_/ntos1 a7nalutiks de dia tnde phan]on suntom_/t]on4 ,9 ,s*olia1 p4 #bbg1 a4 #db1 ! same di/9ction is express$ by ,philoponus 9 ! t]ms ,greek3 logik_/t]a & ,greek3 pragmatde_//]a4 ,comp>e ,biese1 ,die ,philosophie des ,ari/oteles1 pp4 #acd1 #bfa2 ,bass[1 ,de ,notionis ,def9itione1 pp4 #ai1 #bj2 ,heyd]1 ,ari/ot4 u4 ,hegel4 ,dialektik1 pp4 #caf1 #cag4 ,ari/otle1 h[ev]1 does n always adh]e closely to ! di/9ction4 ,?us1 if we comp>e ! logical or dialectical reasons giv51 p4 #hb1 b4 #cg1 seq41 ) ! analytical1 ann\nc$ z beg9n+ p4 #hd1 a4 #h1 seq41 we f9d ! same ma9 topic dwelt ^u 9 bo?1 namely1 t to admit an inf9ite s]ies excludes ! possibility ( ,def9ition4 ,bo? ,alex&] & ,ammonius agree 9 ann\nc+ ?is z ! capital topic on :i* ! pro( turn$2 b ,alex&] inf]r$ f h5ce t ! argum5t 0 purely dialectical 7,greek3 logikon e7pi*ei_/rma71 :ile ,ammonius reg>d$ x z a reason ?or\ghly conv9c+ & evid5t3 ,greek3 o7 me_/ntoi philo_/sophos 7,ammonius7 ,greek3 e7_/lege m dia t\to le_/ge9 logika ta e7pi*eir_/mata2 e7n>ges gar o7_/ti ei7sin o7rismoi_/1 ei7 m a7katalpsi_/an ei7saga_/gm5 7,s*ol4 p4 #bbg1 a4 #dj1 seq41 ,br&474 ,footnote #fb3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xxii4 p4 #hc1 a4 #bj1 b4 #ad4 ,only eight ( ! t5 ,categories are "h enum]at$4 ,footnote #fc3 ,ibid4 ,i4 xxii4 p4 #hd1 a4 #cj-ce4 ,! p>aphrase ( ,!mi/ius 7pp4 #ee-eh1 ,sp5gel7 /ates ! ,ari/otelian reason+ 9 cle>] language ?an ,ari/otle himself4 ,zab>ella 7,comm4 9 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xviii42 context4 #adh1 #aej1 #aed7 repeats t ,ari/otle's pro( is f\nd$ ^u ! und5iable fact t !re are def9itions1 & t )\t !m !re c\ld be no demon/ration & no sci5ce4 ,?is excludes ! supposition ( an inf9ite s]ies ( pr$icates & ( middle t]ms3--,sumit rationem def9itione2 si 9 pr$icatis 9 quid proc$]etur ad inf9itum1 sequ]etur auf]ri def9itionem et omn9o ess5ti cognitionem2 s$ hoc dic5dum non e/1 quum omnium cons5sioni adv]setur 7p4 #dff1 ,v54 #afag74 ,x is pla9 f ,ari/otle's own words#fd t he int5d$ ^! f\r *apt]s 7xix4-xxii47 z a confirmation ( :at he _h already ass]t$ 9 *apt] iii4 ( ! pres5t treatise1 & z f>!r refutation ( ! two di/9ct classes ( oppon5ts !re indicat$3 7#a7 ^? :o said t ev]y?+ 0 demon/rable1 demon/ration 9 a circle be+ admissible2 7#b7 ^? :o said t no?+ 0 demon/rable1 inasmu* z ! tra9 ( pr$ication upw>ds1 d[nw>ds1 & int]m$iate1 0 inf9ite4 ,bo? ^! two classes ( oppon5ts agre$ 9 say+1 t !re 7 no tru?s imm$iate & indemon/rable2 & x is ^u ?is po9t t ,ari/otle "h takes issue ) !m1 seek+ to prove t !re are & mu/ be su* tru?s4 ,b ,i _c ?9k ! pro( satisfactory2 nor has x appe>$ s to able comm5tators ei!r ( anci5t or mod]n times--f ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias d[n to ,mr4 ,po/e4#fe ,! elaborate amplification add$ 9 ^! la/ *apt]s adds no =ce to ! /atem5t already giv5 at ! e>li] /age2 & x is 9 "o respect a *ange = ! worse1 inasmu* z x does n adv]t to ! important di/9ction ann\nc$ 9 *apt] iii41 betwe5 univ]sal tru?s kn[n by ,induction 7f s5se & p>ticul>s71 & univ]sal tru?s kn[n by ,d$uction f ^!4 ,! tru?s imm$iate & indemon/rable 7n kn[n ?r\gh a middle t]m7 are ! inductive tru?s1 z ,ari/otle decl>es 9 _m places1 & mo/ emphatically at ! close ( ! ,analytica ,po/]iora4 ,b 9 ^! *apt]s1 he h>dly alludes to ,induction4 ,moreov]1 :ile try+ to prove t !re mu/ be imm$iate univ]sal tru?s1 he nei!r gives any complete li/ ( !m1 nor assigns any positive *>act]i/ic :]eby to id5tify !m4 ,oppon5ts might ask him :e!r ^! imm$iate univ]sal tru?s 7 n ready-made inspirations ( ! m9d2 & if s1 :at bett] au?ority !y _h ?an ! ,platonic ,ideas1 :i* are contemptu\sly dismiss$4 ,footnote #fd3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xxii4 p4 #hd1 a4 #cb3 ,greek3 o7_/p] e7_/phame_/n t9as le_/ge9 kat' a7r*a_/s1 c4 ,footnote #fe3 ,see ,mr4 ,po/e's note1 p4 #gg1 ( 8 translation ( ?is treatise4 ,aft] say+ t ! fir/ ( ,ari/otle's dialectical pro(s is faulty1 & t ! second is a petitio pr9cipii1 ,mr4 ,po/e adds1 respect+ ! s-call$ analytical pro( giv5 by ,ari/otle3--,x is n s mu* a pro(1 z a m accurate det]m9ation ( ! pr9ciple to be po/ulat$4 ,?is po/ulate1 ! exi/5ce ( fir/ pr9ciples1 z conc]n+ ! con/itution ( ! _w1 appe>s to belong prop]ly to ,metaphysics1 & is m]ely borr[$ by ,logic4 ,see ,metaph4 ii4 #b1 & ,introduction4 ,9 ! passage ( ! ,metaphysica 7,greek3 a4 p4 #iid7 "h cit$ ! ma9 argum5t ( ,ari/otle is op5 to ! same objection ( petitio pr9cipii :i* ,mr4 ,po/e urges aga9/ ,ari/otle's second dialectical argum5t 9 ?is place4 ,mr4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill1 9 8 ,sy/em ( ,logic1 takes = grant$ t !re mu/ be imm$iate1 indemon/rable tru?s1 to s]ve z a basis = d$uction2 t !re _c be a *a9 ( pro( susp5d$ f no?+2 t !re mu/ be ultimate laws ( nature1 ?\gh we _c be sure t ! laws n[ kn[n to u are ultimate4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we read 9 ! rec5t "w ( an acute contempor>y philosoph]1 ,pr(essor ,delboeuf 7,essai de ,logique ,sci5tifique1 ,lige1 #ahfe1 ,pref4 pp4 v1 vii1 viii1 pp4 #df1 #dg37--;,il e/ des po9ts sur lesquels je cra9s de ne m'tre pas expliqu assez nettem5t1 entre autres la "q du fondem5t de la c]titude4 ,je suis de ceux qui rep\ss5t de t\tes leurs =ces l'axiome si spcieux qu'on ne peut t\t dmontr]2 cette proposition aurait1 mes yeux1 plus beso9 que t\te autre d'une dmon/ration4 ,cette dmon/ration ne s]a en p>tie donne que qu& on aura une bonne fois numr t\tes les propositions indmontrables2 et qu& on aura bi5 df9i le c>actre auquel on les reconnait4 ,nulle "p on ne tr\ve ni une semblable numration1 ni une semblable df9ition4 ,on re/e cet g>d dans une position vague1 et p> cela mme facile df5dre4 ,x w\ld seem1 by ^! words1 t ,m4 ,delboeuf /&s 9 ! mo/ direct opposition to ,ari/otle1 :o tea*es u t ! ,greek3 a7r*ai or pr9cipia f :i* demon/ration />ts _c be !mselves demon/rat$4 ,b :5 we comp>e o!r passages ( ,m4 ,delboeuf's "w1 we f9d t1 9 reject+ all undemon/rable propositions1 :at he really means is to reject all self-evid5t univ]sal tru?s1 ,c'e/ donc une vritable illusion d'admettre des vrits vid5tes p> elles-mmes4 ,il n'y a pas de proposition fausse que n\s ne soyons disposs d'admettre comme axiome1 qu& ri5 ne n\s a encore autoriss la rep\ss] 7p4 ix474 ,?is is q true 9 my op9ion2 b ! imm$iate indemon/rable tru?s = :i* ,ari/otle cont5ds z ,greek3 a7r*ai ( demon/ration1 are n ann\nc$ by him z self-evid5t1 !y are decl>$ to be results ( s5se & induction1 to be rais$ f obs]vation ( p>ticul>s multipli$1 comp>$1 & p]man5tly =mul>iz$ "u ! intellectual habitus call$ ,nos4 ,by ,demon/ration ,ari/otle means d$uction 9 its mo/ p]fect =m1 beg9n+ f ^! ,greek3 a7r*ai :i* are inductively kn[n b n demon/rable 7i4 e4 n kn[able d$uctively74 ,& 9 ?is view ! v able & in/ructive treatise ( ,m4 ,delboeuf ma9ly co9cides1 assign+ ev5 great] prepond]ance to ! inductive process1 & approximat+ 9 ?is respect to ! important improvem5ts 9 logical !ory advanc$ by ,mr4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill4 ,among ! univ]sal propositions :i* are n d]iv$ f ,induction1 b :i* s]ve z ,greek3 a7r*ai = ,d$uction & ,demon/ration1 we may reckon ! religi\s1 e?ical1 /hetical1 social1 political1 c41 beliefs receiv$ 9 ea* diff]5t community1 & impress$ ^u all newcom]s born into x by ! =ce ( precept1 example1 au?ority4 ,"h ! major premiss is felt by ea* individual z c>ry+ an au?ority ( its own1 /amp$ & en=c$ by ! sanction ( society1 & by ! disgrace or o!r p5alties 9 /ore = ^? :o disobey x4 ,x is ready to be int]pret$ & div]sifi$ by suitable m9or premisses 9 all inf]5tial applications4 ,b ^! ,greek3 a7r*ai = d$uction1 diff]+ widely at diff]5t times & places1 ?\gh g5]at$ 9 ! same mann] & en=c$ by ! same sanction1 w\ld belong m prop]ly to ! class :i* ,ari/otle t]ms ,greek3 ta e7_/ndoxa4 ,we h ?us recogniz$ t !re exi/ imm$iate 7ultimate or prim>y7 propositions1 :]e9 ! conjunction betwe5 pr$icate & subject is su* t no int]m$iate t]m c be assign$ betwe5 !m4 ,:5 ,a is pr$icat$ bo? ( ,b & ,c1 ?is may p]haps be 9 consequ5ce ( "s common prop]ty possess$ by ,b & ,c1 & su* common prop]ty w =m a middle t]m4 ,= example1 equality ( angles to two "r angles belongs bo? to an isosceles & to a scal5e triangle1 & x belongs to !m by reason ( _! common prop]ty--triangul> figure2 :i* la/ is ?us ! middle t]m4 ,b ?is ne$ n be always ! case4#ff ,x is possible t ! two propositions--,a pr$icat$ ( ,b1 ,a pr$icat$ ( ,c--may bo? ( !m be imm$iate propositions2 & t !re may be no community ( nature betwe5 ,b & ,c4 ,:5ev] a middle t]m c be f\nd1 demon/ration is possible2 b :]e no middle t]m c be f\nd1 demon/ration is impossible4 ,! proposition1 :e!r affirmative or negative1 is !n an imm$iate or indivisible "o4 ,su* propositions1 & ! t]ms ( :i* !y are compos$1 are ! ultimate elem5ts or pr9cipia ( ,demon/ration4 ,pr$icate & subject are br\ght con/antly into clos] & clos] conjunction1 until at la/ !y become "o & indivisible4#fg ,"h we rea* ! unit or elem5t ( ! syllogiz+ process4 ,9 all sci5tific calculations !re is assum$ an unit to />t f1 ?\gh 9 ea* bran* ( sci5ce x is a diff]5t unit2 e4g4 9 b>ology1 ! p\nd-weight2 9 h>monics1 ! qu>t]-tone2 9 o!r bran*es ( sci5ce1 o!r units4#fh ,analytical rese>* tea*es u t ! correspond+ unit 9 ,syllogism is ! affirmative or negative proposition :i* is prim>y1 imm$iate1 indivisible4 ,9 ,demon/ration & ,sci5ce x is ! ,nos or ,intellect4#fi ,footnote #ff3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xxiii4 p4 #hd1 b4 #c-ah4 ,greek3 t\to d' ou7k a7ei ou7_/ts e7_/*ei4 ,footnote #fg3 ,ibid4 b4 #be-cg4 ,greek3 a7ei to me_/son pukn\tai1 e7_/s a7diai_/reta ge_/ntai kai e7_/n4 e7_//i d' e7_/n1 o7_/tan a7_/meson ge_/ntai kai mi_/a pro_/tasis a7pls 7 a7_/mesos4 ,footnote #fh3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xxiii4 p4 #hd1 b4 #cg3 ,greek3 kai 7_/sp] e7n tois a7_/llois 7 a7r* a7pl\n1 t\to d' ou7 tau7to panta*\1 a7ll' e7n b>ei men mna1 e7n de me_/lei di_/esis1 a7_/llo d' e7n a7_/ll1 ou7_/ts e7n sullogism to e7n pro_/tasis a7_/mesos1 e7n d' a7podei_/xei kai e7pi/_/m o7 n\s4 ,footnote #fi3 ,ibid4 b4 #ce-p4 #he1 a4 #a4 ,hav+ ?us1 9 ! long prec$+ reason+1 s\ght to prove t all demon/ration mu/ take its dep>ture f prim>y undemon/rable pr9cipia--f "s premisses1 affirmative & negative1 :i* are directly true 9 !mselves1 & n demon/rable ?r\gh any middle t]m or int]v5+ propositions1 ,ari/otle n[ passes to a diff]5t enquiry4 ,we h "s demon/rations 9 :i* ! conclusion is ,p>ticul>1 o!rs 9 :i* x is ,univ]sal3 aga91 "s ,affirmative1 "s ,negative1 ,:i* ( ! two1 9 ea* ( ^! alt]natives1 is ! be/8 ,we h also demon/rations ,direct or ,o/5sive1 & demon/rations ,indirect or by way ( ,r$uctio ad ,absurdum4 ,:i* ( ^! two is ! be/8 ,bo? que/ions appe> to h be5 subject$ to debate by contempor>y philosoph]s4#gj ,footnote #gj3 ,ibid4 xxiv4 p4 #he1 a4 #ac-ah4 ,greek3 a7mphisbteitai pote_/ra belti_/n2 7s d' au7_/ts kai p]i ts a7podeiknu_/nai legome_/ns kai ts ei7s to a7du_/naton a7g\_/ss a7podei_/xes4 ,ari/otle discusses ^! po9ts dialectically 7z inde$ he po9ts out 9 ! ,topica t ! comp>ison ( two ?+s g5]ally1 z to bett] & worse1 falls "u ! v>ieties ( 9999dialectical enquiry#ga71 fir/ /at+ & next refut+ ! argum5ts on ! weak] side4 ,"s p]sons may ?9k 7he says7 t demon/ration ( ! ,p>ticul> is bett] ?an demon/ration ( ! ,univ]sal3 fir/1 because x conducts to full] cognition ( t :i* ! ?+ is 9 itself1 & n m]ely t :i* x is quat5us memb] ( a class2 secondly1 because demon/rations ( ! ,univ]sal are apt to g5]ate an illusory belief1 t ! ,univ]sal is a di/9ct reality ap>t f & indep5d5t ( all its p>ticul>s 7i4e41 t figure 9 g5]al has a real exi/5ce ap>t f all p>ticul> figures1 & numb] 9 g5]al ap>t f all p>ticul> numb]s1 c471 :ile demon/rations ( ! ,p>ticul> d n lead to any su* illusion4#gb ,footnote #ga3 ,ari/ot4 ,topic4 ,,iii4 i4 p4 #aaf1 a4 #a1 seq4 ,footnote #gb3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xxiv4 p4 #he1 a4 #bj-;b4 #c4 ,!mi/ius1 pp4 #eh-ei1 ,sp5gel3 ,greek3 ou7 gar o7m_/numon to ka?o_/l\ e7/i_/n1 ou7de phn mo_/non1 a7ll' u7po_//asis1 ou7 *ri/ men 7_/sp] ou7de ta sumbebko_/ta1 e7n>gs d' ou7n empha9ome_/n tois pra_/gmas94 ,! ,s*ola/ic doctr9e ( ,univ]salia 9 re is "h express$ v cle>ly by ,!mi/ius4 ,to ^! argum5ts ,ari/otle replies3--#a4 ,x is n correct to say t cognition ( ! ,p>ticul> is m complete1 or be>s m ^u real exi/5ce1 ?an cognition ( ! ,univ]sal4 ,! rev]se w\ld be ne>] to ! tru?4 ,to "k t ! isosceles1 quat5us triangle1 has its ?ree angles equal to two "r angles1 is m complete cognition ?an kn[+ simply t ! isosceles has its ?ree angles equal to two "r angles4 #b4 ,if ! ,univ]sal be n an equivocal t]m--if x repres5ts "o prop]ty & "o def9ition common to _m p>ticul>s1 x !n has a real exi/5ce z mu* or m ?an any "o or any numb] ( ! p>ticul>s4 ,= all ^! p>ticul>s are p]i%able1 b ! class is imp]i%able4 #c4 ,he :o believes t ! univ]sal t]m has "o mean+ 9 all ! p>ticul>s1 ne$ n necess>ily believe t x has any mean+ ap>t f all p>ticul>s2 he ne$ n believe ?is ab\t ,quiddity1 any m ?an he believes x ab\t ,quality or ,quantity4 ,or if he does believe s1 x is 8 own individual mi/ake1 n imputable to ! demon/ration4 #d4 ,we h %[n t a complete demon/ration is "o 9 :i* ! middle t]m is ! cause or reason ( ! conclusion4 ,n[ ! ,univ]sal is mo/ ( ! nature ( ,cause2 = x repres5ts ! ,fir/ ,ess5ce or ! ,p] ,se1 & is !re=e its own cause1 or has no o!r cause beh9d x4 ,! demon/ration ( ! ,univ]sal has ?us m ( ! ,cause or ! ,:y1 & is !re=e bett] ?an ! demon/ration ( ! ,p>ticul>4 #e4 ,9 ! ,f9al ,cause or ,end ( action1 !re is always "s ultimate end = ! sake ( :i* ! int]m$iate ends are pursu$1 & :i*1 z x is bett] ?an !y1 yields1 :5 x is kn[n1 ! only complete explanation ( ! action4 ,s x is also ) ! ,=mal ,cause3 !re is "o highe/ =m :i* conta9s ! ,:y ( ! subord9ate =ms1 & ! k ( :i* is !re=e bett]2 z :51 = example1 ! ext]ior angles ( a giv5 isosceles triangle are se5 to be equal to f\r "r angles1 n because x is isosceles or triangle1 b because x is a rectil9eal figure4 #f4 ,p>ticul>s1 z su*1 fall into inf9ity ( numb]1 & are ?us unkn[able2 ! ,univ]sal t5ds t[>ds on5ess & simplicity1 & is ?us ess5tially kn[able1 m fully demon/rable ?an ! inf9ity ( p>ticul>s4 ,! demon/ration !re( is !re=e bett]4 #g4 ,x is also bett]1 on ano!r gr\nd2 = he t kn[s ! ,univ]sal does 9 a c]ta9 s5se "k also ! ,p>ticul>2#gc b he t kn[s ! ,p>ticul> _c be said 9 any s5se to "k ! ,univ]sal4 #h4 ,! pr9cipium or p]fection ( cognition is to be f\nd 9 ! imm$iate proposition1 true p] se4 ,:5 we demon/rate1 & ?us employ a middle t]m1 ! ne>] ! middle t]m approa*es to t pr9cipium1 ! bett] ! demon/ration is4 ,! demon/ration ( ! ,univ]sal is ?us bett] & m accurate ?an t ( ! ,p>ticul>4#gd ,footnote #gc3 ,comp>e ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 i4 p4 #ga1 a4 #be2 also ,metaphys4 ,a4 p4 #iha1 a4 #ab4 ,footnote #gd3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xxiv4 p4 #he1 b4 #d-p4 #hf1 a4 #ba4 ,s*ol4 p4 #bcc1 b4 #f3 ,greek3 o7moi_/s de o7_/ntn gnri_/mn1 7 di' e7latto_/nn me_/sn ai7rette_/ra2 mallon gar e7ggute_/r ts t\ n\ e7n]gei_/z4 ,su* are ! sev]al reasons enum]at$ by ,ari/otle 9 refutation ( ! previ\s op9ion /at$ 9 fav\r ( ! ,p>ticul>4 ,evid5tly he does n acc\nt !m all ( equal value3 he intimates t "s are purely dialectical 7,greek3 logika_/72 & he insi/s mo/ ^u ! two foll[+3--#a4 ,he t kn[s ! ,univ]sal kn[s 9 a c]ta9 s5se ! ,p>ticul>2 if he kn[s t e triangle has its ?ree angles equal to two "r angles1 he kn[s pot5tially t ! isosceles has its ?ree angles equal to ! same1 ?\gh he may n "k z yet t ! isosceles is a triangle4 ,b he t kn[s ! ,p>ticul> does n 9 any way "k ! ,univ]sal1 ei!r actually or pot5tially4#ge #b4 ,! ,univ]sal is appreh5d$ by ,intellect or ,nos1 ! highe/ ( all cognitive p[]s2 ! ,p>ticul> t]m9ates 9 s5sation4 ,"h1 ,i presume1 he means1 t1 9 demon/ration ( ! ,p>ticul>1 ! conclusion tea*es y no?+ m ?an y might h le>nt f a direct obs]vation ( s5se2 :]eas 9 t ( ! ,univ]sal ! conclusion tea*es y m ?an y c\ld h le>nt f direct s5sation1 & comes into correlation ) ! highe/ =m ( our intellectual nature4#gf ,footnote #ge3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xxiv4 p4 #hf99991 a4 #bb3 ,greek3 a7lla tn men ei7rme_/nn e7_/nia logika_/ e7/i2 ma_/li/a de dlon o7_/ti 7 ka?o_/l\ kurite_/ra1 o7_/ti--o7 de tau_/tn e7_/*n tn pro_/tas9 7! ,p>ticul>7 ,greek3 to ka?o_/l\ ou7dams oi7d51 ou7_/te duna_/mei ou7_/t' e7n]gei_/a4 ,footnote #gf3 ,ibid4 a4 #bi3 ,greek3 kai 7 men ka?o_/l\ not_/1 7 de kata me_/ros ei7s ai7_//hs9 teleuta4 ,comp>e xxiii4 p4 #hd1 b4 #ci1 :]e we notic$ ! doctr9e t ,greek3 ,n\s is ! unit ( sci5tific demon/ration4 ,next1 ,ari/otle comp>es ! ,affirmative ) ! ,negative demon/ration1 & %[s t ! ,affirmative is ! bett]4 ,( two demon/rations 7he lays x d[n7 t "o :i* proce$s ^u a small] numb] ( po/ulates1 assumptions1 or propositions1 is bett] ?an ! o!r2 =1 to say no?+ ( o!r reasons1 x conducts y m spe$ily to k ?an ! o!r1 & t is an advantage4 ,n[1 bo? 9 ! affirmative & 9 ! negative syllogism1 y mu/ h ?ree t]ms & two propositions2 b 9 ! affirmative y assume only t some?+ is2 :ile 9 ! negative y assume bo? t some?+ is1 & t some?+ is n4 ,"h is a d\ble assumption in/ead ( a s+le2 !re=e ! negative is ! worse or inf]ior ( ! two4#gg ,moreov]1 = ! demon/ration ( a negative conclusion1 y require "o affirmative premiss 7s9ce f two negative premisses no?+ :atev] c be conclud$72 :ile = ! demon/ration ( an affirmative conclusion1 y mu/ h two affirmative premisses1 & y _c admit a negative4 ,?is1 aga91 %[s t ! affirmative is logically prior1 m tru/wor?y1 & bett] ?an ! negative4#gh ,! negative is only intelligible & kn[able ?r\gh ! affirmative1 j z ,non-,ens is kn[able only ?r\gh ,ens4 ,! affirmative demon/ration !re=e1 z involv+ bett] pr9ciples1 is1 on ?is gr\nd also1 bett] ?an ! negative4#gi ,a =tiori1 x is also bett] ?an ! demon/ration by way ( ,r$uctio ad ,absurdum1 :i* 0 ! la/ case to be consid]$4 ,?is1 z conclud+ only indirectly & f impossibility ( ! contradictory1 is worse ev5 ?an ! negative2 mu* m !re=e is x worse ?an ! direct affirmative4#hj ,footnote #gg3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xxv4 p4 #hf1 a4 #ca-;b4 #i4 ,footnote #gh3 ,ibid4 b4 #aj-cj4 ,footnote #gi3 ,ibid4 b4 #cj-ci4 ,footnote #hj3 ,ibid4 ,i4 xxvi4 p4 #hg1 a4 #b-cj4 ,waitz 7,,ii4 p4 #cgj71 says3 d$uctio 7ad absurdum71 quippe qu p] ambages cogat1 po/ pon5da1 e/ demon/rationi rect4 ,philoponus says 7,s*ol4 pp4 #bcd-bce99991 ,br&47 t ! ,comm5tators all c5sur$ ,ari/otle = ! mann] 9 :i* he "h laid out ! ,syllogism ,greek3 di' a7duna_/t\4 ,i d n1 h[ev]1 f9d any su* c5sure 9 ,!mi/ius4 ,philoponus def5ds ,ari/otle f ! c5sure4 ,if we next comp>e "o ,sci5ce ) ano!r1 ! prior & m accurate ( ! two is1 7#a7 ,t :i* comb9es at once ! ,greek3 o7_/ti & ! ,greek3 dio_/ti2 7#b7 ,t :i* is ab/ract$ f mat]ial conditions1 z comp>$ ) t :i* is imm]s$ !re9--= example1 ari?metic is m accurate ?an h>monics2 7#c7 ,! m simple z comp>$ ) ! m complex3 ?us1 ari?metic is m accurate ?an geometry1 a monad or unit is a sub/ance )\t position1 :]eas a po9t 7m concrete7 is a sub/ance ) position4#ha ,"o & ! same sci5ce is t :i* belongs to "o & ! same g5]ic subject-matt]4 ,! premisses ( a demon/ration mu/ be includ$ 9 ! same g5us ) ! conclusion2 & :]e ! ultimate premisses are het]og5e\s1 ! cognition d]iv$ f !m mu/ be consid]$ z n "o b a comp\nd ( sev]al4#hb ,y may f9d two or m di/9ct middle t]ms = demon/rat+ ! same conclusion2 sometimes out ( ! same logical s]ies or table1 sometimes out ( diff]5t tables4#hc ,footnote #ha3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xxvii4 p4 #hg1 a4 #ca-cg4 ,!mi/ius1 ,p>aphras4 p4 #fj1 ed4 ,sp5g43 ,greek3 kat' a7_/llon de 7tro_/pon71 e7an 7 men p]i u7pokei_/m5a_/ t9a kai ai7/hta pragmateu_/tai1 7 de p]i nota kai ka?o_/l\4 ,philoponus illu/rates ?is 7,s*ol4 p4 #bce1 b4 #da1 ,br473 ,greek3 oi7on ta ,!odosi_/ou sphairika a7kribe_//]a_/ e7/9 e7pi/_/m ts tn ,au7tolu_/k\ p]i k9\me_/ns sphai_/ras4 c4 ,footnote #hb3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xxviii4 p4 #hg1 a4 #ch-;b4 #e4 ,!mi/ius1 p4 #fa3 ,greek3 dlon de t\to gi_/netai proious9 e7pi tas a7napodei_/kt\s a7r*a_/s2 au7tai gar ei7 mdemi_/an e7_/*oi5 sugge_/neian1 e7_/t]ai ai7 e7pi/mai4 ,footnote #hc3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xxix4 p4 #hg1 b4 #e-ah4 ,ari/otle gives an example to illu/rate ?is g5]al doctr9e3 ,greek3 7_/de/hai1 to k9ei/hai1 to 7remi_/ze/hai1 to metaba_/lle94 ,z he includes ^! t]ms und ?is subject among ! topics = demon/ration1 x is difficult to see :]e he w\ld draw a di/9ct l9e betwe5 topics = ,demon/ration & topics = ,dialectic4 ,!re _c be demon/rative cognition ( =tuit\s ev5ts1#hd = all demon/ration is ei!r ( ! necess>y or ( ! cu/om>y4 ,nor c !re be demon/rative cognition ?r\gh s5sible p]ception4 ,= ?\gh by s5se we p]ceive a ?+ z su* & su* 7?r\gh its s5sible qualities71 yet we p]ceive x inevitably z hoc aliquid1 hic1 et nunc4 ,b ! ,univ]sal _c be p]ceiv$ by s5se2 = x is nei!r hic nor nunc1 b semp] et ubique4#he ,n[ demon/rations are all accompli%$ by means ( ! ,univ]sal1 & demon/rative cognition _c !re=e be _h ?r\gh s5sible p]ception4 ,if ! equality ( ! ?ree angles ( a triangle to two "r angles 7 a fact directly p]ceivable by s5se1 we %\ld /ill h look$ out = a demon/ration !re(3 we %\ld h no prop] sci5tific cognition ( x 7?\gh "s p]sons cont5d = ?is73 = s5sible p]ception gives u only p>ticul> cases1 & ,cognition or ,sci5ce prop] comes only ?r\gh kn[+ ! ,univ]sal4#hf ,if1 be+ on ! surface ( ! moon1 we _h on any "o occasion se5 ! e>? betwe5 u & ! sun1 we c\ld n h kn[n f t s+le obs]vation t su* int]position is ! cause univ]sally ( eclipses4 ,we _c directly by s5se p]ceive ! ,univ]sal1 ?\gh s5se is ! pr9cipium ( ! ,univ]sal4 ,by multipli$ obs]vation ( s5sible p>ticul>s1 we c hunt out & elicit ! ,univ]sal1 enunciate x cle>ly & sep>ately1 & make x s]ve = demon/ration4#hg ,! ,univ]sal is preci\s1 because x reveals ! ,cause or ,greek3 dio_/ti1 & is !re=e m preci\s1 n m]ely ?an s5sible obs]vation1 b also ?an intellectual conception ( ! ,greek3 o7_/ti only1 :]e ! ,cause or ,greek3 dio_/ti lies ap>t1 & is d]iv$ f a high] g5us4 ,respect+ ,fir/ ,pr9ciples or ,summa ,g5]a1 we mu/ speak else:]e4#hh ,x is cle>1 !re=e1 t no demon/rable matt] c be kn[n1 prop]ly speak+1 f direct p]ception ( s5se2 ?\gh !re are cases 9 :i* no?+ b ! impossibility ( direct obs]vation drives u ^u seek+ = demon/ration4 ,:5ev] we c get an adequate numb] ( s5sible obs]vations1 we c g5]alize ! fact2 & 9 "s in/ances we may p]haps n seek = any demon/rative k 7i4e4 to expla9 x by any high] pr9ciple74 ,if we c\ld see ! pores 9 glass & ! light pass+ ?r\gh !m1 we %\ld le>n ?r\gh _m su* obs]vations :y combu/ion arises on ! f>!r side ( ! glass2 ea* ( our obs]vations w\ld h be5 sep>ate & individual1 b we %\ld by intellect g5]alize ! result t all ! cases fall "u ! same law4#hi ,footnote #hd3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xxx4 p4 #hg1 b4 #ai-bg4 ,footnote #he3 ,ibid4 xxxi4 p4 #hg1 b4 #bh3 ,greek3 ei7 gar kai e7_//9 7 ai7_//hsis t\ toi\de kai m t\de_/ t9os1 a7ll' ai7/ha_/ne/hai_/ ge a7nagkaion to_/de ti kai p\ kai nun4 ,footnote #hf3 ,ibid4 b4 #ce3 ,greek3 dlon o7_/ti kai ei7 7n ai7/ha_/ne/hai to tri_/gnon o7_/ti dusin o7r?ais i7_/sas e7_/*ei tas gni_/z1 e7zt\m5 a7n a7po_/deix91 kai ou7* 77_/sp] phasi_/ t9es7 7pi/a_/me?a2 ai7/ha_/ne/hai men gar a7na_/gk ka?' e7_/ka/on1 7 d' e7pi/_/m t to ka?o_/l\ gnri_/ze9 e7/i_/n4 ,euclid1 9 ! #bj? ,proposition ( 8 fir/ ,book1 demon/rates t any two sides ( a triangle are toge!r great] ?an ! ?ird side4 ,accord+ to ,proklus1 ! ,epikureans d]id$ ! demon/ration ( su* a po9t z absurd2 & x seems t "s contempor>ies ( ,ari/otle argu$ 9 a simil> way1 judg+ by ! phrase ,greek3 7_/sp] phasi_/ t9es4 ,footnote #hg3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xxxi4 p4 #hh1 a4 #b3 ,greek3 ou7 mn a7ll' e7k t\ !rein t\to polla_/kis sumbainon1 to ka?o_/l\ a7n ?reu_/santes a7po_/deix9 ei7_/*om52 e7k gar tn ka?' e7_/ka/a pleio_/nn to ka?o_/l\ dlon4 ,!mi/ius1 p4 #fb1 ,sp43 ,greek3 a7r* men gar a7podei_/xes ai7_//hsis1 kai to ka?o_/l\ e7nno\m5 dia to polla_/kis ai7/he_//hai4 ,footnote #hh3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xxxi4 p4 #hh1 a4 #f3 ,greek3 to de ka?o_/l\ ti_/mion1 o7_/ti dloi to ai7_/tion2 7_//e p]i tn toi\_/tn 7 ka?o_/l\ timite_/ra tn ai7/h_/sen kai ts no_/ses1 o7_/sn e7_/t]on to ai7_/tion2 p]i de tn pr_/tn a7_/llos lo_/gos4 ,by ,greek3 ta prta1 he means ! ,greek3 a7r*ai ( ,demon/ration1 :i* are treat$ especially 9 ,,ii4 xix4 ,see ,biese1 ,die ,philos4 des ,ari/oteles1 p4 #bgg4 ,footnote #hi3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xxxi4 p4 #hh1 a4 #i-ag4 ,greek3 e7_//i me_/ntoi e7_/nia a7nago_/m5a ei7s ai7/h_/ses e7_/kleips9 e7n tois probl_/mas92 e7_/nia gar ei7 e7_/rm51 ou7k a7n e7zt\m51 ou7* 7s ei7d_/tes t o7ran1 a7ll' 7s e7_/*ontes to ka?o_/l\ e7k t\ o7ran4 ,! text ( ?is & ! succe$+ words seems op5 to d\bt1 z well z t ( ,!mi/ius 7p4 #fc74 ,waitz 9 8 note 7p4 #cgd7 expla9s ! mean+ cle>ly3--non ita quidem ut ipsa s5suum p]ceptio sci5tiam aff]at2 s$ ita ut quod 9 s+ulis accid]e videamus1 idem etiam 9 omnibus accid]e coniici5tes univ]se intelligamus4 ,ari/otle next proce$s to refute1 at "s l5g?1 ! supposition1 t ! pr9cipia ( all syllogisms are ! same4 ,we see at once t ?is _c be s1 because "s syllogisms are true1 o!rs false4 ,b1 besides1 ?\gh !re are inde$ a few ,axioms ess5tial to ! process ( demon/ration1 & ! same 9 all syllogisms1 yet ^! are n suffici5t ( !mselves = demon/ration4 ,!re mu/ f>!r be o!r premisses or matt]s ( evid5ce--propositions imm$iately true 7or e/abli%$ by prior demon/rations7 belong+ to ea* bran* ( ,sci5ce specially1 z di/+ui%$ f ! o!rs4 ,our demon/ration relates to ^! special matt]s or premisses1 ?\gh x is accompli%$ out ( or by means ( ! common ,axioms4#ij ,footnote #ij3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xxxii4 p4 #hh1 a4 #ah-;b4 #bi4 ,greek3 ai7 gar a7r*ai dittai_/1 e7x 7n te kai p]i o72 ai7 men ou7n e7x 7n ko9ai_/1 ai7 de p]i o7_/ i7_/diai1 oi7on a7ri?mo_/s1 me_/ge?os4 ,comp>e xi4 p4 #gg1 a4 #bg4 ,see ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire1 ,plan ,gnral des ,d]ni]s ,analytiques1 p4 lxxxi4 ,sci5ce or sci5tific ,cognition diff]s f true ,op9ion1 & ! cognitum f ! op9atum1 h]e91 t ,sci5ce is ( ! ,univ]sal1 & ?r\gh necess>y premisses :i* _c be o!rwise2 :ile ,op9ion relates to matt]s true1 yet :i* at ! same "t may possibly be false4 ,! belief 9 a proposition :i* is imm$iate 7i4 e41 undemon/rable7 yet n necess>y1 is ,op9ion2 x is n ,sci5ce1 nor is x ,nos or ,intellect--! pr9cipium ( ,sci5ce or sci5tific ,cognition4 ,su* beliefs are fluctuat+1 z we see e day2 we all di/+ui% !m f o!r beliefs1 :i* we _c conceive n to be true & :i* we call cognitions4#ia ,b may !re n be ,op9ion & ,cognition respect+ ! same matt]s8 ,!re may be 7says ,ari/otle7 9 diff]5t m51 or 9 ! same man at diff]5t times2 b n 9 ! same man at ! same "t4 ,!re may also be1 respect+ ! same matt]1 true op9ion 9 "o man's m9d1 & false op9ion 9 ! m9d ( ano!r4#ib ,footnote #ia3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xxxiii4 p4 #hh1 b4 #cj-p4 #hi1 a4 #aj4 ,footnote #ib3 ,ibid4 p4 #hi1 a4 #aa-;b4 #f4 ,t eclipse ( ! sun is caus$ by ! int]position ( ! moon 0 to ! a/ronom] ,hipp>*os sci5tific ,cognition2 = he saw t x c\ld n be o!rwise4 ,to ! philosoph] ,epikurus x 0 ,op9ion2 = he ?\ght t x might be o!rwise 7,!mi/ius1 p4 #ff1 ,sp5gel74 ,) "s rem>ks ^u ,sagacity1 or ! p[] ( div9+ a middle t]m 9 a "t too %ort = reflection 7z :5 ! fri5d%ip ( two m5 is on ! in/ant ref]r$ to ! fact ( _! hav+ a common enemy71 ! pres5t book is br\ght to a close4#ic ,footnote #ic3 ,ibid4 xxxiv4 p4 #hi1 b4 #aj-bj4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,analytica ,,po/]iora ,,ii4 ,ari/otle beg9s ! ,second ,book ( ! ,analytica ,po/]iora by an enum]ation & classification ( ,problems or ,que/ions suitable = inve/igation4 ,! matt]s kn[able by u may be di/ribut$ into f\r classes3-- ,greek3 ,o7_/ti4 ,greek3 ,dio_/ti4 ,greek3 ,ei7 e7_//i4 ,greek3 ,ti_/ e7/i4 #a4 ,quod4 #b4 ,cur4 #c4 ,an sit4 #d4 ,quid sit4 ,"u ! fir/ head come que/ions ( ,fact2 "u ! second head1 que/ions ( ,cause or ,reason2 "u ! ?ird1 que/ions ( ,exi/5ce2 "u ! f\r?1 que/ions ( ,ess5ce4 ,"u ! fir/ head we enquire1 ,:e!r a fact or ev5t is s or s8 ,:e!r a giv5 subject possesses ?is or t attribute1 or is 9 ?is or t condition8 enum]at+ 9 ! "q ! v>i\s supposable alt]natives4 ,"u ! second head1 we assume ! fir/ "q to h be5 affirmatively answ]$1 & we proce$ to enquire1 ,:at is ! cause or reason = su* fact1 or su* conjunction ( subject & attribute8 ,"u ! ?ird head1 we ask1 ,does a suppos$ subject exi/8 ,& if ! answ] be 9 ! affirmative1 we proce$ to enquire1 "u ! f\r? head1 ,:at is ! ess5ce ( ! subject8#a ,footnote #a3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 i4 p4 #hi1 b4 #bc1 seq4 ,!mi/ius obs]ves1 p4 #fg1 ,sp5g43 ,greek3 zt\m5 ti_/nun 7 p]i a7pl\ t9os kai a7sun!_/t\1 7 p]i sun!_/t\ kai e7n prota_/sei4 ,!mi/ius has "h *ang$ ,ari/otle's ord]1 & plac$ ! ?ird & f\r? heads be=e ! fir/ & second4 ,comp>e ,s*ol4 p4 #bdj1 b4 #cj2 p4 #bda1 a4 #ah4 ,! ,s*olia/ compla9s ( ! enigmatical /yle ( ,ari/otle3 ,greek3 t griph_/dei t\ r7t\ e7paggeli_/a 7p4 #bdj1 b4 #be74 ,we h "h two di/9ct pairs ( ,qusita3 ,obvi\sly ! second head presupposes ! fir/1 & is consequ5t !reupon2 :ile ! f\r? also presupposes ! ?ird4 ,b x might seem a m suitable arrangem5t 7z ,!mi/ius & o!r expositors h conceiv$7 t ! ?ird & f\r? heads %\ld come fir/ 9 ! li/1 r ?an ! fir/ & second2 s9ce ! ?ird & f\r? are simpl]1 & come e>li] 9 ! ord] ( philosophical exposition1 :ile ! fir/ & second are m complicat$1 & _c be exp\nd$ philosophically until aft] ! philosophical exposition ( ! o!rs4 ,?is is cle>$ up by adv]t+ to ! di/9ction1 s (t5 insi/$ on by ,ari/otle1 betwe5 :at is fir/ 9 ord] ( cognition relatively to u 7nobis notiora71 & :at is fir/ 9 ord] ( cognition by nature 7natur notiora74 ,to u 7t is to m5 tak5 individually & 9 ! c\rse ( actual gr[?7 ! ph5om5a ( nature#b pres5t !mselves z p>ticul>s confus$ & complicat$ 9 e way1 ) attributes ess5tial & accid5tal implicat$ toge!r3 we gradually le>n fir/ to see & comp>e !m z p>ticul>s1 next to resolve !m into g5]alities1 bundles1 classes1 & p>tially to expla9 ! ,:y ( "s by means ( o!rs4 ,"h we />t f facts embodi$ 9 propositions1 t include subjects clo!d ) _! attributes4 ,b 9 ! ord] ( nature 7t is1 9 ! ord] foll[$ by ^? :o "k ! scibile z a :ole1 & c exp\nd x sci5tifically7 t :i* comes fir/ is ! ,univ]sal or ! simple ,subject ab/ract$ f its pr$icates or accompanim5ts3 we h to enquire1 fir/1 :e!r a giv5 subject exi/s2 next1 if x does exi/1 :at is its real con/itu5t ess5ce or def9ition4 ,we ?us see ! reason = ! ord] 9 :i* ,ari/otle has arrang$ ! two co-ord9ate pairs ( ,qusita or ,problems1 con=mable to ! diff]5t processes pursu$1 on ! "o h&1 by ! common intellect1 gr[+ & untra9$--on ! o!r1 by ! mature or discipl9$ intellect1 already compet5t = philosophical exposition & apply+ itself to new incognita4 ,footnote #b3 9999,s*ol4 ,philopon4 p4 #bda1 a4 #ah-bd3 ,greek3 t\_/tn to ei7 e7_//i kai to ti_/ e7/9 ei7sin a7pla1 to de o7_/ti kai to dio_/ti su_/n!ta--pro_/t]a gar 7min kai gnrim_/t]a ta su_/n!ta1 7s t phu_/sei ta a7pla4 ,mr4 ,po/e obs]ves ^u ?is quadruple classification by ,ari/otle 7p4 #if73--,! two la/ ( ^! are problems ( ,inductive1 b fir/ pr9ciples ( ,d$uctive1 ,sci5ce2 ! "o be+ ! hypo!sis1 ! o!r ! def9ition4 ,! 9999attribute z well z ! subject mu/ be def9$ 7,i4 x471 s t to a c]ta9 degree ! second problem also is assum$ among ! pr9ciples ( ,demon/ration4 ,comp>+ toge!r ^! f\r ,qusita1 x w appe> t 9 ! fir/ & ?ird 7,quod & ,an71 we seek to f9d out :e!r !re is or is n any middle t]m4 ,9 ! second & f\r? 7,cur & ,quid71 we already "k or assume t !re is a middle t]m2 & we try to asc]ta9 :at t middle t]m is4#c ,! enquiry ,cur1 is 9 ! ma9 analog\s to ! enquiry ,quid2 9 bo? cases1 we aim at asc]ta9+ :at ! cause or middle t]m is4 ,b1 9 ! enquiry ,cur1 :at we discov] is p]haps "s indep5d5t fact or ev5t1 :i* is ! cause ( ! ev5t qusitum2 :ile1 9 ! enquiry ,quid1 :at we seek is ! real ess5ce or def9ition ( ! sub/ance--! fundam5tal1 g5]at+1 imman5t cause ( its concomitant attributes4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 ! ,quid & ! ,cur are only diff]5t ways ( /at+ ! same ?+4 ,e4g41 ,quid e/ eclipsis lun8 ,answ]3 ,! ess5ce ( an eclipse is a privation ( light f ! moon1 ?r\gh int]v5tion ( ! e>? betwe5 h] & ! sun4 ,cur locum habet eclipsis lun8 ,answ]3 ,because ! light ( ! sun is prev5t$ f rea*+ ! moon by int]v5tion ( ! e>?4 ,"h x is manife/ t ! answ]s to ! enquiries ,quid & ,cur are really & 9 sub/ance ! same fact1 only /at$ 9 diff]5t phrases4#d ,footnote #c3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 i4 p4 #hhi1 b4 #cg-p4 #ij1 a4 #g4 ,greek3 sumbai_/nei a7_/ra e7n a7pa_/sais tais zt_/sesi ztein 7 ei7 e7_//i me_/son1 7 ti_/ e7/i to me_/son2 to men gar ai7_/tion to me_/son1 e7n a7_/pasi de t\to zteitai4 ,comp>e ,s*ol4 p4 #bda1 b4 #aj1 ,br4 ,footnote #d3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 ii4 p4 #ij1 a4 #ad-bc1 #ca3 ,greek3 to ti_/ e7/9 ei7de_/nai tau7to_/ e7/i kai dia ti_/ e7/94 ,t ! qusitum 9 all ^! rese>*es is a middle t]m or m$ium1 is pla9 f ^? cases :]e9 ! m$ium is p]ceivable by s5se2 = !n we nei!r require nor ent] ^u rese>*4 ,= example1 if we 7 ^u ! moon1 we %\ld see ! e>? com+ betwe5 u & ! sun1 n[ & 9 ea* p>ticul> case ( eclipse4 ,accord+ly1 aft] _m su* obs]vations1 we %\ld affirm ! univ]sal proposition1 t su* int]v5tion ( ! e>? 0 ! cause ( eclipses2 ! univ]sal becom+ kn[n to u ?r\gh induction ( p>ticul> cases4#e ,! middle t]m1 ! ,cause1 ! ,quid1 & ! ,cur1 are ?us all ! same enquiry1 9 sub/ance2 ?\gh sometimes su* qusitum is ! quiddity or ess5tial nature ( ! ?+ itself 7z ! ess5ce ( a triangle is ! cause or gr\nd ( its hav+ its ?ree angles equal to two "r angles1 z well z ( its o!r prop]ties71 sometimes x is an extrane\s fact4#f ,footnote #e3 ,ibid4 a4 #bd-cj4 ,greek3 e7k gar t\ ai7/he_//hai kai to ka?o_/l\ e7ge_/neto a7n 7min ei7de_/nai2 7 men gar ai7_//hsis o7_/ti nun a7ntiphra_/ttei2 kai gar dlon o7_/ti nun e7klei_/pei2 e7k de t\_/t\ to ka?o_/l\ a7n e7ge_/neto4 ,! purport & relation ( ?is quadruple classification ( problems is set =? /ill m cle>ly 9 ! six? book ( ! ,metaphysica 7,z4 p4 #ajda7 ) ! explanations ( ,bonitz1 ,comm4 pp4 #ceh1 #cei4 ,footnote #f3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 ii4 p4 #ij1 a4 #ca4 ,b h[ or by :at process is ?is qusitum obta9$ & made cle>8 ,is x by ,demon/ration or by ,def9ition8 ,:at is ,def9ition1 & :at matt]s admit ( ,def9ition8#g ,ari/otle beg9s by treat+ ! "q dialectically2 by sett+ out a s]ies ( d\bts & difficulties4 ,fir/1 ,is x possible t ! same cognition1 & 9 ! same relation1 c be obta9$ bo? by ,def9ition & by ,demon/ration8 ,no2 x is n possible4 ,x is pla9 t mu* t is kn[n by ,demon/ration _c be kn[n by ,def9ition2 = we h se5 t conclusions bo? p>ticul> & negative are e/abli%$ by ,demon/ration 79 ! ,?ird & ,second figures71 :ile e ,def9ition is univ]sal & affirmative4 ,b we may g f>!r & say1 t ev5 :]e a conclusion univ]sal & affirmative is e/abli%$ 79 ! ,fir/ figure7 by ,demon/ration1 t same conclusion c nev] be kn[n by ,def9ition2 = if x c\ld be kn[n by ,def9ition1 x might h be5 kn[n )\t ,demon/ration4 ,n[ we are assur$1 by an uncontradict$ induction1 t ?is is n ! fact2 = t :i* we "k by ,demon/ration is ei!r a proprium ( ! subject p] se1 or an accid5t or concomitant2 b no ,def9ition ev] decl>es ei!r ! "o or ! o!r3 x decl>es only ! ess5ce4#h ,footnote #g3 ,ibid4 iii4 p4 #ij1 a4 #cg3 ,greek3 ti_/ e7/9 o7rismo_/s1 kai ti_/nn1 ei7_/pm51 diapor_/santes prton p]i au7tn4 ,footnote #h3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 iii4 p4 #ij1 b4 #ac3 ,greek3 i7kan de pi_//is kai e7k ts e7paggs2 ou7den gar p_/pote o7risa_/m5oi e7_/gnm51 ou7_/te tn ka?' au7to u7p>*o_/ntn ou7_/te tn sumbebko_/tn4 e7_/ti ei7 o7 o7rismos ou7si_/z tis gnrismo_/s1 ta ge toiauta phan]on o7_/ti ou7k ou7si_/ai4 ,aga91 let u ask1 vice v]s1 ,c ev]y?+ t is decl>$ by ,def9ition1 or inde$ any?+ t is decl>$ by ,def9ition1 be kn[n also by ,demon/ration8 ,nei!r is ?is possible4 ,"o & ! same cognitum c be kn[n only by "o process ( cognition4 ,def9itions are ! pr9cipia f :i* ,demon/ration dep>ts2 & we h already %[n t 9 go+ back ^u demon/rations1 we mu/ /op some:]e1 & mu/ recognize "s pr9cipia undemon/rable4#i ,! ,def9ition c nev] be demon/rat$1 = x decl>es only ! ess5ce ( ! subject1 & does n pr$icate any?+ conc]n+ ! subject2 :]eas ,demon/ration assumes ! ess5ce to be kn[n1 & d$uces f su* assumption an attribute di/9ct f ! ess5ce4#aj ,footnote #i3 ,ibid4 b4 #ah-bg4 ,footnote #aj3 ,ibid4 b4 #cc1 seq43 ,greek3 e7_/ti pasa a7po_/deixis ti kata_/ t9os dei_/knus91 oi7on o7_/ti e7_//9 7 ou7k e7_//92 e7n de t o7rism ou7den e7_/t]on e7te_/r\ katgoreitai1 oi7on ou7_/te to zon kata t\ di_/podos ou7de t\to kata t\ zou--o7 men ou7n o7rismos ti_/ e7/i dloi1 7 de a7po_/deixis o7_/ti 7 e7_//i to_/de kata t\de 7 ou7k e7_//94 ,!mi/ius 7p4 #ga1 ,sp5g47 di/+ui%es ! ,greek3 o7rismo_/s itself f ,greek3 7 pro_/tasis 7 ton o7rismon katgor\_/m5on e7_/*\sa4 ,prosecut+ /ill f>!r ! dialectical & dubitative treatm5t1#aa ,ari/otle n[ proce$s to sugge/1 t ! ,ess5ce 7t is1 ! entire ,ess5ce or ,quiddity71 :i* is decl>$ by ,def9ition1 c nev] be kn[n by ,demon/ration4 ,to suppose t x c\ld be s kn[n1 w\ld be inconsi/5t ) ! conditions ( ! syllogi/ic pro( us$ 9 demon/rat+4 ,y prove by syllogism1 ?r\gh a middle t]m1 "s pr$icate or attribute2 e4g4 because ,a is pr$icable ( all ,b1 & ,b is pr$icable ( all ,c1 !re=e ,a is pr$icable ( all ,c4 ,b y _c prove1 ?r\gh ! middle t]m ,b1 t ,a is ! ess5ce or quiddity ( ,c1 unless by assum+ 9 ! premisses t ,b is ! ess5ce ( ,c1 & t ,a is ! ess5ce ( ,b2 accord+ly1 t ! ?ree propositions1 ,,ab1 ,,bc1 ,,ac1 are all co-ext5sive & reciprocate ) ea* o!r4 ,"h1 !n1 y h assum$ z y\r premisses two ess5tial propositions1 ,,ab1 ,,bc1 9 ord] to prove z an ess5tial proposition ! conclusion ,,ac4 ,b ?is is inadmissible2 = y\r premisses require demon/ration z mu* z y\r conclusion4 ,y h committ$ a ,petitio ,pr9cipii2#ab y h assum$ 9 y\r m9or premiss ! v po9t to be demon/rat$4 ,footnote #aa3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 iv4 p4 #ia1 a4 #ab3 ,greek3 tauta men ou7n me_/*ri t\_/t\ dipor_//h4 ,"o w\ld ?9k1 by ^! words1 t ,greek3 to diaporein 7or ! dubitative treatm5t7 f9i%$ "h4 ,b ! fact is n s3 t treatm5t is cont9u$ = f\r *apt]s m1 to ! comm5cem5t ( *4 viii4 p4 #ic4 ,footnote #ab3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 iv4 p4 #ia1 a4 #ab-cb3 ,greek3 tauta d' a7na_/gk anti/re_/phe92 ei7 gar to ,a t\ ,g i7_/dion1 dlon o7_/ti kai t\ ,b kai t\to t\ ,g1 7_//e pa_/nta a7ll_/ln4--lamba_/nei ou7n o7 dei deixai2 kai gar to ,b e7_//i ti_/ e7/9 a7_/n?rpos4 ,!mi/ius1 pp4 #gb1 #gc3 ,greek3 ton a7podeiknu_/nta to ti_/ 7n ei7nai t\ a7n?r_/p\1 a7_/llo ti dei prolabein t\ au7t\ to ti_/ 7n ei7nai4--ou7 gar b\_/letai ton o7rismon a7podeixai1 t\_/t\ prolamba_/nei t9a o7rismon ei7nai *tis a7podei_/xes4 ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire1 notes1 p4 #bje3--;,il faut donc1 p\r conclure p> syllogisme que ,a e/ la df9ition ess5tielle de ,c1 que ,a soit la df9ition ess5tielle de ,b1 et que ,b soit lui-mme la df9ition ess5tielle de ,c4 ,mais alors la df9ition de la *ose s]a dans le moy5 t]me lui-mme1 avant d'tre dans la conclusion2 en effet1 la m9eure3 ,b e/ la df9ition ess5tielle de ,c1 donne la df9ition ess5tielle de ,c1 sans qu'il soit beso9 d'all] jusqu'9999 la conclusion4 ,donc la dmon/ration de l'ess5ce a9si ent5due e/ absurde4 ,if y _c obta9 ,def9ition z ! conclusion ( syllogi/ic ,demon/ration1 /ill less c y obta9 x ?r\gh ! me?od ( g5]ic & specific ,division2 :i* la/ me?od 7z has be5 already %[n 9 ! ,analytica ,priora7 is n equal ev5 to ! ,syllogism 9 respect ( usefulness & efficacy4#ac ,y _c 9 ?is me?od di/+ui% betwe5 propositions bo? true & ess5tial1 & propositions true b n ess5tial2 y nev] obta91 by ask+ que/ions accord+ to ! me?od ( g5]ic subdivision1 any premisses f :i* ! conclusion foll[s by necessity4 ,yet ?is is :at y ought to obta9 = ! purpose ( ,demon/ration2 = y are n all[$ to enunciate ! full actual conclusion among ! premisses1 & require ass5t to x4 ,division ( a g5us into its species w (t5 give useful in=mation1 z ,induction also w2#ad b nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r w be equival5t to a demon/ration4 ,a def9ition obta9$ only f subdivisions ( a g5us1 may always be *all5g$1 l a syllogism )\t its middle t]m4 ,footnote #ac3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 v4 p4 #ia1 b4 #ab1 seq42 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 xxxi4 p4 #df1 a4 #ca4 ,ari/otle "h alludes to ! me?od pursu$ by ,plato 9 ! ,sophi/es & ,politicus1 ?\gh he does n "n ,plato3 ,greek3 7 dia tn diaire_/sen o7d_/s1 c4 ,footnote #ad3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 v4 p4 #ia1 b4 #ae-cc3 ,greek3 ou7de gar o7 e7pa_/gn i7_/ss a7podei_/knus91 a7ll' o7_/ms dloi ti4 ,comp>e ,!mi/ius1 p4 #gd4 ,aga91 nei!r c y arrive at ! def9ition ( a giv5 subject1 by assum+ 9 g5]al t]ms :at a def9ition ought to be1 & !n decl>+ a giv5 =m ( words to be con=mable to su* assumption2 because y\r m9or premiss mu/ involve ,petitio ,pr9cipii4 ,! same logical fault w be committ$1 if y take y\r dep>ture f an hypo!sis 9 :i* y po/ulate ! def9ition ( a c]ta9 subject1 & !n decl>e inf]5tially :at ! def9ition ( its contr>y mu/ be4 ,! def9ition :i* y "h assume requires pro( z mu* z t :i* y inf] f x4#ae ,moreov]1 nei!r by ?is process1 nor by t ( g5]ic subdivision1 c y %[ any reason :y ! p>ts ( ! def9ition %\ld coalesce into "o ess5tial :ole4 ,if !y d n ?us coalesce--if !y be no?+ bett] ?an di/9ct attributes conjo9$ 9 ! same subject1 l musicus & grammaticus--! real ess5ce is n decl>$1 & ! def9ition is n a good "o4#af ,footnote #ae3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 vi4 p4 #ib1 a4 #f-bh4 ,!mi/4 p4 #gf4 ,rass[ r5d]s ,greek3 e7x u7po!_/ses--assumpt g5]ali def9itionis notione2 & also says3 ,greek3 to ti_/ 7n ei7nai--g5]alem def9itionis notionem2 ,greek3 to ti_/ e7/9--c]tam qu&am def9itionem1 signific>e p]spicuum e/4 7,ari/otelis de ,notionis ,def9itione ,doctr9a1 p4 #fe74 ,footnote #af3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 vi4 p4 #ib1 a4 #cb4 ,t ! p>ts ( ! def9ition mu/ coalesce into "o unity is laid d[n aga9 9 ! ,metaphysica1 ,z4 pp4 #ajcg1 #ajch1 :]e ,ari/otle makes ref]5ce to ! ,analytica z hay+ already treat$ ! same subject1 & pr(esses an int5tion to complete :at has be5 begun 9 ! ,analytica2 ,greek3 e7ph' o7_/son e7n tois ,a7nalutikois p]i o7rism\ m ei7_/rtai4 ,aft] /at+ "s o!r additional difficulties :i* seem to leave ! "w ( ,def9ition inexplicable1 ,ari/otle rel9qui%es ! dubitative treatm5t1 & looks out = "s solution ( ! puzzle3 ,h[ may x be possible t ! ,def9ition %all become kn[n8#ag ,he has already told u t to "k ! ess5ce ( a ?+ is ! same z to "k ! cause or reason ( its exi/5ce2 b we mu/ fir/ beg9 by kn[+ t ! def9i5dum exi/s2 = !re c be no def9ition ( a non-entity1 except a m]e def9ition ( ! ^w1 a nom9al or v]bal def9ition4 ,n[ sometimes we "k ! exi/5ce ( ! subject by "o or o!r ( its accid5tal attributes2 b ?is gives u no help t[>ds f9d+ ! def9ition4#ah ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 we obta9 a p>tial k ( its ess5ce along ) ! k ( its exi/5ce2 :5 we "k x along ) "s con/ant antec$5t1 or ?r\gh "s con/ant1 ?\gh d]ivative1 consequ5t4 ,kn[+ ?us mu*1 we c (t5 discov] ! cause or fundam5tal condition !re(1 :i* is ! ess5ce or def9ition ( ! subject4#ai ,inde$1 x may happ5 t ! con/ant d]ivative1 & ! fundam5tal ess5ce on :i* x dep5ds1 become kn[n bo? toge!r2 or1 aga91 ! cause or fundam5tal condition may p]haps n be ! ess5ce ( ! subject alone1 b "s fact includ+ o!r subjects also2 & ?is fact may !n be /at$ z a middle t]m4 ,?us1 9 reg>d to eclipse ( ! moon1 we "k ! con/ant ph5om5al fact ab\t x1 t1 on a c]ta9 recurr5ce ( ! "t ( full moon1 ! moon ca/s no light & makes no %ad[4 ,h5ce we proce$ to se>* out ! cause4 ,is x int]position ( ! e>?1 or conv]sion ( ! moon's body1 or ext9ction ( h] light1 c48 ,! new fact :5 %[n1 mu/ appe> z a middle t]m1 ?r[+ into syllogi/ic =m 79 ! ,fir/ figure7 ! cause or rational explanation ( a lun> eclipse2 %[+ n m]ely t !re is an eclipse1 b :at an eclipse is1 or :at is its def9ition4#bj ,footnote #ag3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 vii4 p4 #ib1 a4 #cd1 seq4 ,! ,greek3 a7po_/riai cont9ue to ! end ( *4 vii4 ,he goes on1 *4 viii4 p4 #ic1 a4 #a-b3 ,greek3 pa_/l9 de skepte_/on ti_/ t\_/tn le_/getai kals1 kai ti_/ ou7 kals1 c4 ,t\t ce qui prcde ne reprs5te pas la ?orie proprem5t dite2 ce n'e/ qu'une discussion prlim9aire 7,b>?4 ,/4 ,hilaire1 n4 p4 #bbb74 ,^! difficult *apt]s are well illu/rat$ by ,h]mann ,rass[1 *1 i4 pp4 #i-ad4 ,footnote #ah3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 viii4 p4 #ic1 a4 #c3 ,greek3 e7pei d' e7/i_/n1 7s e7_/pham51 tau7ton to ei7de_/nai ti_/ e7/i kai to ei7de_/nai to ai7_/tion t\ ei7 e7_//i2 ,ibid4 a4 #bd3 ,greek3 o7_/sa men ou7n kata sumbebkos oi7_/dam5 o7_/ti e7_//91 a7nagkaion mdams e7_/*e9 pros to ti_/ e7/92 9999ou7de gar o7_/ti e7_//9 i7_/sm52 to de ztein ti_/ e7/i m e7_/*ontas o7_/ti e7_//i1 mden ztein e7/i_/n4 ka?' o7_/sn d' e7_/*ome_/n ti1 r7aon2 7_//e 7s e7_/*om5 o7_/ti e7_//91 ou7_/ts e7_/*om5 kai pros to ti_/ e7/94 ,comp>e ,br5tano1 ,ueb] die ,b$eutung des ,sei5d5 na* ,ari/oteles1 p4 #ag4 ,footnote #ai3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 viii4 p4 #ic1 a4 #ba4 ,!mi/ius1 p4 #gi1 ,sp5g43 ,greek3 o7_/sa de a7po tn oi7kei_/n te kai e7x au7t\ t\ pra_/gmatos1 a7po t\_/tn 7_/d r7aon ei7s to ti_/ e7/i metabai_/nom54 ,footnote #bj3 ,ibid4 p4 #ic1 a4 #cj-;b4 #ad4 ,ari/otle has ?us %[n h[ ! ,ess5ce or ,quiddity 7,greek3 ti_/ e7/i7 may become kn[n 9 ?is class ( cases4 ,!re is nei!r syllogism nor demon/ration !re(1 yet x is decl>$ ?r\gh syllogism & demon/ration3 ?\gh no demon/ration !re( is possible1 yet y _c "k x )\t demon/ration1 :]ev] !re is an extrane\s cause4#ba ,footnote #ba3 ,ibid4 b4 #ae-bj3 ,greek3 7_//e sullogismos men t\ ti_/ e7/9 ou7 gi_/netai ou7d' a7po_/deixis1 dlon me_/ntoi dia sullogism\ kai di' a7podei_/xes4 ,mr4 ,po/e translates an e>li] passage 7p4 #ic1 a4 #e7 9 ?is v difficult *apt] z foll[s 7p4 #ajg73 ,if "o cause is demon/rable1 ano!r indemon/rable cause mu/ be ! int]m$iate2 & ! pro( is 9 ! fir/ figure1 & ! conclusion affirmative & univ]sal4 ,9 ?is mode ( demon/rat+ ! ess5ce1 we prove "o def9ition by ano!r1 = ! int]m$iate t proves an ess5ce or a peculi> pr$icate mu/ itself be an ess5ce or a peculi> pr$icate4 ,( two def9itions1 !n1 "o is prov$ & ! o!r assum$2 &1 z we said be=e1 ?is is n a demon/ration b a dialectical pro( ( ! ess5ce4 ,mr4 ,po/e "h translates ,greek3 logikos sullogismo_/s dialectical pro(4 ,i und]/& x r z mean+ a syllogism1 ,greek3 t\ u7pa_/r*e9 simply 7,top4 ,i4 v4 p4 #ajb1 b4 #e71 9 :i* all t y really "k is t ! pr$icate belongs to ! subject1 b 9 :i* y assume besides t x belongs to ! subject ess5tially4 ,x is n a demon/ration because1 9 ord] to obta9 ,ess5ce 9 ! conclusion1 y are oblig$ to po/ulate ,ess5ce 9 y\r premiss4 7,see ,alex&] ad ,topic4 ,i4 p4 #bfc1 ,br474 ,y h !re=e po/ulat$ a premiss :i* requir$ pro( z mu* z ! conclusion4 ,b ! above doctr9e w hold only 9 cases :]e !re is a di/9ct or extrane\s cause2 x w n hold 9 cases :]e !re is none4 ,x is only 9 ! =m] 7z has be5 said7 t a middle t]m c be %[n2 r5d]+ x possible t ,quiddity or ,ess5ce %\ld be decl>$ by a valid =mal syllogism1 ?\gh x _c be demon/rat$ by syllogism4 ,9 ! latt]1 :]e !re is no di/9ct cause1 no su* middle t]m c be enunciat$3 ! ,quiddity or ,ess5ce mu/ be assum$ z an imm$iate or undemon/rable pr9cipium1 & mu/ be expos$ or set out 9 ! be/ mann] practicable z an exi/5t reality1 on ,induction or on "s o!r au?ority4 ,! ari?metician makes 8 fir/ /eps by assum+ bo? :at a monad is & t !re exi/s su* a monad4#bb ,footnote #bb3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 ix4 p4 #ic1 b4 #ba4 ,greek3 e7_//i de tn men e7_/t]o_/n ti ai7_/tion1 tn d' ou7k e7_//94 7_//e dlon o7_/ti kai tn ti_/ e7/i ta men a7_/mesa kai a7r*ai_/ ei7s91 a7 kai ei7nai kai ti_/ e7/9 u7po!_//hai dei 7 a7_/llon tro_/pon phan]a poisai4 o7_/p] o7 a7ri?mtikos poiei2 kai gar ti_/ e7/i tn mona_/da u7poti_/!tai1 kai o7_/ti e7_//94 ,!mi/ius1 p4 #hj3 ,greek3 a7 kai ei7nai kai ti_/ e7/9 u7po!_//hai dei1 7 a7_/llon tro_/pon phan]a poisai e7x e7paggs 7 pi_//es 7 e7mpeiri_/z4 ,rass[1 ,de ,notionis ,def9itione1 pp4 #ah-bb4 ,we may di/+ui% ?ree v>ieties ( ,def9ition4 #a4 ,sometimes x is ! m]e explanation :at a ^w signifies2 9 ?is s5se1 x has no?+ to d ) ess5ce or exi/5ce2 x is a nom9al def9ition & no?+ m4#bc #b4 ,sometimes x enunciates ! ,ess5ce1 cause1 or reason ( ! def9itum2 ?is w happ5 :]e ! cause is di/9ct or extrane\s1 & :]e !re is accord+ly an int]v5+ middle t]m3 ! def9ition w !n diff] f a demon/ration only by cond5s+ into "o enunciation ! two premisses & ! conclusion :i* toge!r con/itute ! demon/ration4#bd #c4 ,sometimes x is an imm$iate proposition1 an indemon/rable hypo!sis1 assum+ ,ess5ce or ,quiddity2 ! ess5ce itself be+ cause1 & no extrane\s cause--no int]v5+ middle t]m--be+ obta9able4#be ,footnote #bc3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 x4 p4 #ic1 b4 #bi-cg4 ,footnote #bd3 ,ibid4 p4 #ic1 b4 #ch1 seq4 ,greek3 oi7on a7po_/deixis t\ ti_/ e7/91 t !_/sei diaphe_/rn ts a7podei_/xes2--sullogismos t\ ti_/ e7/i1 pt_/sei diaphe_/rn ts a7podei_/xes--diff]+ situ et positione t]m9orum 7,julius ,pacius1 p4 #dic74 ,footnote #be3 ,ibid4 p4 #id1 a4 #i3 ,greek3 o7 de tn a7me_/sn o7rismo_/s1 !_/sis e7/i t\ ti_/ e7/9 a7napo_/deiktos4 ,comp>e ,i4 xxiv4 p4 #he1 b4 #bd3 ,greek3 7 gar ka?' au7to u7pa_/r*ei ti1 t\to au7to au7t ai7_/tion4 ,see ,kampe1 ,die ,erk5ntniss-!orie des ,ari/oteles1 p4 #bab1 seq4 ,to "k or cognize is1 to "k ! ,cause2 :5 we "k ! ,cause1 we are satisfi$ ) our cognition4 ,n[ !re are f\r ,causes1 or v>ieties ( ,cause3-- #a4 ,! ,ess5ce or ,quiddity 7,=m7--,greek3 to ti_/ 7n ei7nai4 #b4 ,! necessitat+ conditions 7,matt]7--,greek3 to_/ ti_/nn o7_/ntn a7na_/gk t\t' ei7nai4 #c4 ,! proximate mov] or /imulator ( *ange 7,effici5t7--,greek3 7 ti_/ prton e7ki_/nse4 #d4 ,t = ! sake ( :i* 7,f9al ,cause or ,end7--,greek3 to ti_/nos e7_/neka4 ,all ^! f\r ,causes 7,=mal1 ,mat]ial1 ,effici5t1 ,f9al7 appe> z middle t]ms 9 demon/rat+4 ,we c proce$ ?r\gh ! m$ium ei!r ( ,=m1 or ( ,matt]1 or ( ,effici5t1 or ( ,end4 ,! fir/ ( ! f\r has already be5 exemplifi$--! demon/ration by ,=m4 ,! second appe>s 9 demon/rat+ t ! angle 9 a semi-circle is always a "r angle2 :]e ! middle t]m 7or matt] ( ! syllogism1 7,greek3 to e7x ou77 is1 t su* angle is always ! half ( two "r angles4#bf ,! ,effici5t is ! middle t]m1 :5 to ! "q1 ,:y did ! ,p]sians invade ,a!ns8 x is answ]$ t ! ,a!nians _h previ\sly invad$ ,p]sia along ) ! ,eretrians4 7,all are dispos$ to attack ^? :o h attack$ !m fir/2 ! ,a!nians attack$ ! ,p]sians fir/2 ergo1 ! ,p]sians 7 dispos$ to attack ! ,a!nians47 ,la/ly1 ! ,f9al ,cause s]ves z middle t]m1 :5 to ! "q1 ,:y does a man walk aft] d9n]8 ! response is1 ,= ! purpose ( keep+ up 8 heal?4 ,9 ano!r way1 ! middle t]m "h is dige/ion3 walk+ aft] d9n] promotes dige/ion2 dige/ion is ! effici5t cause ( heal?4#bg ,footnote #bf3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xi4 p4 #id1 a4 #ba-cf4 ,!mi/ius1 p4 #hc3 ,greek3 ma_/li/a men gar e7pi pa_/ss a7podei_/xes o7 me_/sos e7_//9 oi7on 7 u7_/l t sullogism2 ou7_/tos gar o7 poin tas du_/o prota_/seis1 e7ph' ai7s to sumpe_/rasma4 ,footnote #bg3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xi4 p4 #id1 a4 #cf-;b4 #ba4 ,! ,f9al ,cause or ,end is prior 9 ! ord] ( nature1 b po/]ior to ! t]ms ( ! conclusion 9 ! ord] ( "t or g5]ation2 :ile ! ,effici5t is prior 9 ! ord] ( "t or g5]ation4 ,! ,=mal & ,mat]ial are simultane\s ) ! effect1 nei!r prior nor po/]ior4#bh ,sometimes ! same fact may proce$ bo? f a ,f9al cause1 & f a cause ( ,mat]ial ,necessity2 ?us ! light passes ?r\gh our lant]n = ! purpose ( guid+ u 9 ! d>k1 b also by reason t ! p>ticles ( light are small] ?an ! pores 9 ! glass4 ,nature produces effects ( f9ality1 or ) a view to "s giv5 end2 & also effects by necessity1 ! necessity be+ ei!r inh]5t 9 ! sub/ance itself1 or impos$ by extrane\s =ce4 ,?us a /one falls to ! gr\nd by necessity ( ! fir/ k9d1 b asc5ds by necessity ( ! second k9d4 ,among products ( human intellig5ce "s spr+ :olly f design )\t necessity2 b o!rs arise by accid5t or *ance & h no f9al cause4#bi ,footnote #bh3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xi4 p4 #id1 a4 #ba-bf4 ,!mi/ius1 p4 #hc3 ,greek3 7 ge_/nesis ou7n t\ me_/s\ kai ai7ti_/ou tn au7tn ou7k e7_/*ei ta_/x9 e7ph' a7pa_/ntn1 a7ll' ou7 men pr_/tn 7s e7pi tn k9tikn1 ou7 de teleutai_/an 7s e7pi tn teln kai 7n e7_/neka1 ou7 d' a7_/ma 7s e7pi tn o7rismn kai t\ ti_/ 7n ei7nai4 ,footnote #bi3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 p4 #id1 b4 #bg-p4 #ie1 a4 #i4 ,t ! middle t]m is ! ,cause1 is equally true 9 respect to ,entia1 ,fi5tia1 ,prt]ita1 & ,futura2 only t 9 respect to ,entia1 ! middle t]m or ,cause mu/ be an ,ens2 9 respect to ,fi5tia x mu/ be a ,fi5s2 9 respect to ,prt]ita1 a ,prt]itum2 & 9 respect to ,futura1 a ,futurum2 t is1 9 ea* case1 x mu/ be g5]at$ at ! correspond+ "t ) ! major & m9or t]ms 9 ! conclusion4#cj ,:at is ! cause ( an eclipse ( ! moon8 ,! cause is1 t ! e>? int]v5es betwe5 moon & sun2 & ?is is true alike ( eclipses pa/1 pres5t1 & future4 ,su* an int]v5tion is ! ess5ce or def9ition ( a lun> eclipse3 ! cause is !re=e ,=mal1 & cause & effect are simultane\s1 occurr+ at ! same mom5t ( "t4 ,b 9 ! o!r ?ree ,causes--,mat]ial1 ,effici5t1 ,f9al--:]e ph5om5a are successive & n simultane\s1 c we say t ! antec$5t is cause & ! consequ5t effect1 "t be+1 z seems to u1 a cont9uum8 ,9 cases l ?is1 we c syllogize f ! consequ5t backw>d to ! antec$5t2 b n f ! antec$5t =w>d to ! consequ5t4 ,if ! h\se has be5 built1 we c inf] t ! f\ndations h be5 laid2 b1 if ! f\ndations h be5 laid1 we _c inf] t ! h\se has be5 built4#ca ,!re mu/ always be an int]val ( "t dur+ :i* inf]5ce f ! antec$5t w be untrue2 p]haps1 inde$1 x may nev] become true4 ,cause & causatum 9 ^! ?ree la/ v>ieties ( ,cause1 d n univ]sally & necess>ily reciprocate ) ea* o!r1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,=mal cause4 ,?\gh "t is cont9u\s1 ev5ts or g5]ations are di/9ct po9ts m>k$ 9 a cont9u\s l9e1 & are n cont9u\s ) ea* o!r4#cb ,! numb] ( ^! po9ts t may be tak5 is inde$ inf9ite2 yet we mu/ assume "s ( !m z ultimate & imm$iate pr9cipia1 9 ord] to con/ruct our syllogism1 & provide our middle t]m4#cc ,:]e ! middle t]m reciprocates & is co-ext5sive ) ! major & ! m9or1 9 su* cases we h g5]ation ( ph5om5a 9 a cycle2 e4g41 aft] ! e>? has be5 made wet1 vap\r rises ( necessity3 h5ce comes a cl\d1 h5ce wat]2 :i* aga9 falls1 & ! e>? aga9 becomes wet4#cd ,f9ally1 :]ev] our conclusion is n univ]sally & necess>ily true1 b true only 9 mo/ cases1 our imm$iate pr9cipia mu/ also be ( ! same "*1 true 9 mo/ cases1 b 9 mo/ cases only4#ce ,footnote #cj3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xii4 p4 #ie1 a4 #aj1 #cf3 ,greek3 to gar me_/son o7mo_/gonon dei ei7nai1 c4 ,footnote #ca3 ,ibid4 a4 #bd seq41 b4 #cb2 ,julius ,pacius1 ad loc42 ,biese1 ,die ,philosophie des ,ari/ot4 pp4 #cjb-cjc4 ,footnote #cb3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xii4 p4 #ie1 a4 #ci-;b4 #h2 ,!mi/ius1 p4 #hf4 ,footnote #cc3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xii4 p4 #ie1 b4 #ad-ca3 ,greek3 a7r* de kai e7n t\_/tois a7_/mesos lpte_/a4 ,footnote #cd3 ,ibid4 b4 #ch-p4 #if1 a99994 #g4 ,footnote #ce3 ,ibid4 p4 #if1 a4 #h-ai4 ,h[ are we to proce$ 9 hunt+ out ^? attributes t are pr$icat$ 9 ,quid1#cf z belong+ to ! ,ess5ce ( ! subject8 ,! subject be+ a l[e/ species1 we mu/ look out = su* attributes z belong to all individuals !re(1 b :i* belong also to individuals ( o!r species "u ! same g5us4 ,we %all ?us f9d "o1 two1 ?ree1 or m1 attributes1 ea* ( :i*1 sep>ately tak51 belongs to v>i\s individuals ly+ out ( ! species2 b ! assemblage ( :i*1 collectively tak51 does n belong to any individual ly+ out ( ! species4 ,! ,assemblage ?us f\nd is ! ,ess5ce2 & ! enunciation !re( is ! ,def9ition ( ! species4 ,?us1 ! triad is includ$ 9 ! g5us numb]2 9 se>*+ = its def9ition1 !re=e1 we mu/ n g beyond t g5us1 nor include any attributes 7su* z ens1 c47 pr$icable ( o!r subjects z well z numb]s4 ,keep+ )9 ! limits ( ! g5us1 we f9d t e triad agrees 9 be+ an odd numb]4 ,b ?is oddness belongs to o!r numb]s also 7p5tad1 heptad1 c474 ,we !re=e look out = o!r attributes1 & we f9d t e triad agrees 9 be+ a prime numb]1 9 two di/9ct s5ses2 fir/1 t x is n measur$ by any o!r numb]2 secondly1 t x is n comp\nd$ ( any o!r numb]s4 ,?is la/ attribute belongs to no o!r odd numb] except ! triad4 ,we h n[ an assemblage ( attributes1 :i* belong ea* ( !m to e triad1 univ]sally & necess>ily1 & :i*1 tak5 all toge!r1 belong exclusively to ! triad1 & !re=e con/itute its ess5ce or def9ition4 ,! triad is a numb]1 odd1 & prime 9 ! two s5ses4#cg ,! def9itum & ! def9ition are "h exactly co-ext5sive4 ,footnote #cf3 ,ibid4 xiii4 p4 #if1 a4 #bb3 ,greek3 ps dei ?reu_/e9 ta e7n t ti_/ e7/i katgor\_/m5a8 ,footnote #cg3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xiii4 p4 #if1 a4 #bd-;b4 #ad4 ,greek3 ei7 toi_/nun md5i u7pa_/r*ei a7_/ll 7 tais a7to_/mois tria_/si1 t\t' a7n ei7_/ to tria_/di ei7nai4 u7pokei_//h gar kai t\to1 7 ou7si_/a 7 e7ka_//\ ei7nai 7 e7pi tais a7to_/mois e7_/s*atos toiau_/t katgori_/a4 7_//e o7moi_/s kai a7_/ll o7toun tn ou7_/t dei*!_/ntn to au7t ei7nai e7_//ai4 ,:]e ! matt] t we /udy is ! entire g5us1 we mu/ beg9 by di/ribut+ x into its l[e/ species2 e4g4 numb] into dyad1 triad1 c42 9 l mann]1 tak+ /raight l9e1 circle1 "r angle1 c4#ch ,we mu/ fir/ se>* out ! def9itions ( ea* ( ^! l[e/ species2 & ^! hav+ be5 asc]ta9$1 we mu/ next look above ! g5us1 to ! ,category 9 :i* x is itself compris$1 :e!r ,quantum1 ,quale1 c4 ,hav+ done ?us mu* we mu/ /udy ! d]ivative attributes or propria ( ! l[e/ species ?r\gh ! common g5]alities true respect+ ! l>g]4 ,we mu/ recollect t ^! d]ivative attributes are d]iv$ f ! ess5ce & def9ition ( ! l[e/ species1 ! complex fl[+ f ! simple z its pr9cipium3 !y belong p] se only to ! l[e/ species ?us def9$2 !y belong to ! high] g5]a only ?r\gh ^? species4#ci ,x is 9 ?is way1 & n 9 any o!r1 t ! logical ,division ( g5]a1 accord+ to specific diff]5ces1 c be made s]viceable = inve/igation ( ess5tial attributes2 t is1 x c only be made to demon/rate :at is d]ivative f ! ess5ce4 ,we h %[n already t x _c help 9 demon/rat+ ess5ce or ,def9ition itself4 ,we le>n to m>%al 9 prop] ord] ! two con/itu5t elem5ts ( our def9ition1 & to atta* ea* specific diff]5ce to ! g5us to :i* x prop]ly belongs4 ,?us we mu/ n attempt to di/ribute ! g5us animal accord+ to ! diff]5ce ( hav+ ! w+ divid$ or undivid$3 _m animals w fall "u nei!r ( ! two heads2 ! diff]5ce 9 "q belongs to ! l[] g5us w+$ animal1 & di/ributes ! same into two species4 ,! *>act]i/ic or specific diff]5ce mu/ be enunciat$ & po/ulat$ by itself1 & mu/ be atta*$ to its appropriate g5us 9 ord] to =m ! def9ition4 ,x is only by c>eful att5tion to ! /eps ( legitimate logical ,division t we c make sure ( includ+ all ! p>ticul>s & leav+ out none4#dj ,footnote #ch3 ,ibid4 b4 #ah4 ,! /raight l9e is ! fir/ or l[e/ ( all l9es3 no o!r l9e c be und]/ood1 unless we fir/ und]/& :at is meant by a /raight l9e4 ,9 l mann] ! "r angle is ! fir/ ( all angles1 ! circle ! fir/ ( all curvil9e> figures 7,julius ,pacius1 ad loc4 p4 #ejd74 ,footnote #ci3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xiii4 p4 #if1 b4 #ai-be3 ,greek3 meta de t\to1 la_/bo_/nta ti_/ to ge_/nos1 oi7on po_/t]on tn posn 7 tn poin1 ta i7_/dia pa_/? !rein dia tn ko9n pr_/tn4 tois gar sunti!me_/nois e7k tn a7to_/mn 7speciebus infimis7 ,greek3 ta sumbai_/nonta e7k tn o7rismn e7_//ai dla1 dia to a7r*n ei7nai pa_/ntn ton o7rismo_/n kai to a7pl\n1 kai tois a7plois ka?' au7ta u7pa_/r*e9 ta sumbai_/nonta mo_/nois1 tois d' a7_/llois kat' e7keina4 ,!mi/ius illu/rates ?is obscure passage1 p4 #hi4 ,! def9itions ( ,greek3 eu7!ia gramm_/1 keklasme_/n gramm_/1 p]iph]s gramm_/1 mu/ ea* ( !m conta9 ! def9ition ( ,greek3 gramm_/ 7 mkos a7plate_/s71 s9ce x is 9 ! ,category ,greek3 ,poso_/n 7poson mkos a7plate_/s74 ,b ! d]ivative prop]ties ( ! circle 7,greek3 p]iph]s gramm_/7 are d$uc$ f ! def9ition ( a circle1 & belong to x 9 ! fir/ in/ance qu ,greek3 p]iph]s gramm_/1 9 a second>y way qu ,greek3 gramm_/4 ,footnote #dj3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xiii4 p4 #if1 b4 #be-p4 #ig1 a4 #f4 ,"s contempor>ies ( ,ari/otle1 & among !m ,speusippus1 ma9ta9$ t x 0 impossible ei!r to def9e1 or to divide logically1 unless y knew all p>ticul>s )\t exception4 ,y _c 7!y said7 "k any "o ?+1 except by kn[+ its diff]5ces f all o!r ?+s2 :i* w\ld imply t y knew also all ^! o!r ?+s4#da ,to ^! reason]s ,ari/otle replies3 ,x is n necess>y to "k all ! diff]5ces ( e ?+2 y "k a ?+ z soon z y "k its ess5ce1 ) ! prop]ties p] se :i* are d]ivative !refrom4 ,!re are _m diff]5ces n belong+ to ! ess5ce1 b di/+ui%+ f ea* o!r two ?+s hav+ ! same ess5ce3 y may "k ! ?+1 )\t kn[+ ^! accid5tal diff]5ces4#db ,:5 y divide a g5us into two species1 di/+ui%$ by "o proximate specific diff]5ce1 su* t !re _c be any ?+ t does n fall "u "o or o!r ( ^! membra condivid5tia1 & :5 y h trac$ ! subject inve/igat$ "u "o or o!r ( ^! memb]s1 y c always foll[ ?is road until no l[] specific diff]5ce c be f\nd1 & y h !n ! f9al ess5ce & def9ition ( ! subject2 ev5 ?\gh y may n "k h[ _m o!r subjects ea* ( ! two memb]s may include4#dc ,?us does ,ari/otle reply to ,speusippus1 %[+ t x is n necess>y1 = ! def9ition ( "o ?+1 t y %\ld "k all o!r ?+s4 ,8 reply1 z 9 _m o!r cases1 is f\nd$ on ! di/9ction betwe5 ! ,ess5tial & ! ,accid5tal4 ,footnote #da3 ,ibid4 p4 #ig1 a4 #f-aj2 ,!mi/ius1 p4 #ib4 ,ari/otle does n "h expressly "n ,speusippus1 b simply says ,greek3 phasi_/ t9es4 ,x is ,!mi/ius :o names ,speusippus2 & "o ( ! ,s*olia/s ref]s to ,eudemus z hav+ expressly indicat$ ,speusippus 7,s*ol4 p4 #bdh1 a4 #bd1 ,br474 ,footnote #db3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xiii4 p4 #ig1 a4 #ab3 ,greek3 pollai gar diaphorai u7pa_/r*\si tois au7tois t ei7_/dei1 a7ll' ou7 kat' ou7si_/an ou7de ka?' au7ta_/4 ,footnote #dc3 ,ibid4 a4 #ah-bb3 ,greek3 phan]on gar o7_/ti a7n ou7_/t badi_/zn e7_/l? ei7s tauta 7n mke_/ti e7/i diaphora_/1 e7_/xei ton lo_/gon ts ou7si_/z4 ,to obta9 or put toge!r a def9ition ?r\gh logical ,division1 ?ree po9ts are to be att5d$ to4#dd ,collect ! pr$icates 9 ,quid2 range !m 9 ! prop] ord]2 make sure t !re are no m1 or t y h collect$ all4 ,! ess5tial pr$icates are g5]a1 to be obta9$ n o!rwise ?an by ! me?od 7dialectical7 us$ 9 conclud+ accid5ts4 ,z reg>ds ord]1 y beg9 ) ! highe/ g5us1 t :i* is pr$icable ( all ! o!rs1 :ile none ( ^! is pr$icable ( x1 det]m9+ 9 l fa%ion ! succession ( ! re/ respectively4 ,! collection w be complete1 if y divide ! highe/ g5us by an exhau/ive specific diff]5ce1 su* t e ?+ mu/ be includ$ 9 "o or o!r ( ! two proximate & oppos$ portions2 & !n tak+ ! species ?us f\nd z y\r divid5dum1 subdivide x until no l[] specific diff]5ce c be f\nd1 or y obta9 f ! elem5ts an exact equival5t to ! subject4#de ,footnote #dd3 ,ibid4 a4 #bc3 ,greek3 ei7s de to kataskeua_/ze9 o7_/ron dia diaire_/sen4 ,! ,s*olia/1 p4 #bdh1 a4 #da1 expla9s ,greek3 kataskeua_/ze9 by ,greek3 eu7rein1 sun!inai1 a7pod\nai4 ,he di/+ui%es x f ,greek3 a7podeiknu_/nai2 demon/ration ( ! def9ition be+ impracticable4 ,footnote #de3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xiii4 p4 #ig1 a4 #bc seq4 ,see ,waitz1 ,comm4 p4 #dah4 ,:5 ! inve/igation mu/ proce$ by gett+ toge!r a gr\p ( simil> p>ticul>s1 y comp>e !m1 & note :at is ! same 9 all2 !n turn to ano!r gr\p :i* are ! same 9 g5]e yet diff] 9 specie f ! fir/ gr\p1 & h a diff]5t po9t ( community among !mselves4 ,y next comp>e ! po9t ( community among ! memb]s ( ! fir/ gr\p1 & t among ! memb]s ( ! second gr\p4 ,if ! two po9ts ( community c be br\ght "u "o rational =mula1 t w be ! def9ition ( ! subject2 b if at ! end ( ! process1 ! di/9ct po9ts ( community are n f\nd resolvable into any f9al "o1 ?is proves t ! suppos$ def9i5dum is n "o b two or m4#df ,= example1 suppose y are inve/igat+1 ,:at is ! ess5ce or def9ition ( magnanimity8 ,y mu/ /udy v>i\s magnanim\s individuals1 & note :at !y h 9 common qu magnanim\s4#dg ,?us1 ,a*illes1 ,ajax1 ,alkibiades 7 all magnanim\s4 ,n[1 t :i* ! ?ree _h 9 common 01 t !y c\ld n endure to be insult$2 on t acc\nt ,alkibiades w5t to w> ) 8 c\ntrym51 ,a*illes 0 angry & /ood alo( f ! ,greeks1 ,ajax slew himself4 ,b1 aga91 y f9d two o!r magnanim\s m51 ,sokrates & ,lys&]4 ,^! two _h 9 common ! quality1 t !y ma9ta9$ an equal & un%ak5 temp] bo? 9 prosp]ity & adv]sity4 ,n[ :5 y h got ?us f>1 ! "q to be exam9$ is1 ,:at is ! po9t ( id5tity betwe5 ! temp] t w n endure insult1 & ! temp] t rema9s undi/urb$ "u all div]sities ( =tune8 ,if an id5tity c be f\nd1 ?is w be ! ess5ce or def9ition ( magnanimity2 to :i* w belong equanimity z "o v>iety1 & intol]ance ( insult z ano!r4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 no id5tity c be f\nd1 y w !n h two di/9ct m5tal dispositions1 )\t any common def9ition4#dh ,footnote #df3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xiii4 p4 #ig1 b4 #g-ae4 ,greek3 pa_/l9 skopein ei7 tau7ton e7_/s a7n ei7s e7_/na e7_/l? lo_/gon2 ou7tos gar e7_//ai t\ pra_/gmatos o7rismo_/s4 e7an de m badi_/z ei7s e7_/na a7ll' ei7s du_/o 7 plei_/1 dlon o7_/ti ou7k a7n ei7_/ e7_/n ti ei7nai to zt\_/m5on1 a7lla plei_/4 ,footnote #dg3 ,ibid4 b4 #af3 ,greek3 skepte_/on e7pi_/ t9n megalopsu_/*n1 ou7s i7_/sm51 ti_/ e7_/*\s9 e7n pa_/ntes 7 toi\toi4 ,footnote #dh3 ,ibid4 b4 #ag-be4 ,greek3 tauta du_/o labn skop ti_/ to au7to e7_/*\s9 7_/ te a7pa_/!ia 7 p]i tas tu_/*as kai 7 m u7pomon a7timazome_/nn4 ei7 de mde_/n1 du_/o ei7_/d a7n ei7_/ ts megalopsu*i_/z4 quam mem5to rebus 9 arduis ,s]v>e m5tem3 non secus 9 bonis ,ab insol5ti temp]atam ,ltiti4--,horace4 ,ode1 ii4 #c4 ,ari/otle says t !re w be two species ( magnanimity4 ,b surely if ! two s-call$ species connote no?+ 9 common !y are n rightly call$ species1 nor is magnanimity rightly call$ a g5us4 ,equanimity w\ld be di/9ct f magnanimity2 ,sokrates & ,lys&] w\ld n prop]ly be magnanim\s b equanim\s4 ,e def9ition mu/ be an univ]sal proposition1 applicable1 n exclusively to "o p>ticul> object1 b to a class ( great] or less ext5t4 ,! l[e/ species is easi] to def9e ?an ! high] g5us2 ?is is "o reason :y we mu/ beg9 ) p>ticul>s1 & asc5d to univ]sals4 ,x is 9 ! high] g5]a t equivocal t]ms mo/ frequ5tly escape detection4#di ,:5 y are demon/rat+1 :at y h fir/ to att5d to is1 ! complet5ess ( ! =m ( syllogiz+3 :5 y are def9+1 ! ma9 requisite is to be p]spicu\s & intelligible2 i4e4 to avoid equivocal or metaphorical t]ms4#ej ,y w be/ succe$ 9 avoid+ !m1 if y beg9 ) ! individuals1 or ) examples ( ! l[e/ species1 & !n proce$ to consid] n _! resemblances g5]ally1 b _! resemblances 9 c]ta9 def9ite ways1 z 9 col\r or figure4 ,^! m def9ite resemblances y w note fir/2 ^u ea* y w f\nd a =mula ( sep>ate def9ition2 aft] :i* y w asc5d to ! m g5]al =mula ( less def9ite resemblance common to bo?4 ,?us1 9 reg>d to ! acute or %>p1 y w consid] ! acute 9 s\nd1 & 9 o!r matt]s 7ta/es1 pa9s1 weapons1 angles1 c471 & y w inve/igate :at is ! common po9t ( id5tity *>act]iz+ all4 ,p]haps !re may be no su* id5tity2 ! transf] ( ! t]m f "o to ! o!r may be only a metaphor3 y w ?us le>n t no common def9ition is atta9able4 ,?is is an important lesson2 = z we are =bidd5 to c>ry on a dialectical debate 9 metaphorical t]ms1 mu* m are we =bidd5 to introduce metaphorical t]ms 9 a def9ition4#ea ,footnote #di3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xiii4 p4 #ig1 b4 #bi3 ,greek3 kai gar ai7 o7mnumi_/ai 9999lan?a_/n\si mallon e7n tois ka?o_/l\ 7 e7n tois a7diapho_/rois4 ,footnote #ej3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xiii4 p4 #ig1 b4 #ca3 ,greek3 7_/sp] de e7n tais a7podei_/xesi dei to_/ ge sullelogi_//hai u7pa_/r*e91 ou7_/t kai e7n tois o7_/rois to saphe_/s4 ,by ,greek3 to saphe_/s1 he evid5tly means ! avoidance ( equivocal or metaphorical t]ms1 & ! adh]5ce to true g5]a & species4 ,comp>e ,biese1 ,die ,philosophie des ,ari/ot4 pp4 #cjh-caj4 ,footnote #ea3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xiii4 p4 #ig1 b4 #ce-ci4--7;,greek3 diale_/ge/hai_/ phsi1 to dialektiks o7milein4--,s*ol4 p4 #bdh1 b4 #bc1 ,br&474 ,ari/otle consid]s x metaphorical :5 ! t]m acute is appli$ bo? to a s\nd & to an angle4 ,! treatm5t ( ?is portion ( ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e by ,prantl 7,ges*i*te d] ,logik1 vol4 ,i4 *4 iv4 pp4 #bdf1 #bdg1 #cch71 is in/ructive4 ,he br+s out1 9 peculi> b =cible t]ms1 ! idea ( notional causality :i* und]lies ,ari/otle's ,logic4 ,s also i/ die ,def9ition das ,ausspre*5 des s*pf]is*5 ,wes5sbegriffes4 4 4 4 4 ,s[eit d] s*pf]is*e ,wes5sbegriff errei*t w]d5 kann1 i/ dur* d5selb5 die begriffli*e ,causalitt erkannt2 und die ,e9si*t 9 diese primitive ,urs*li*keit wird 9 dem ,syllogismus v]mittel/ des ,mittelbegriffes errei*t4 ,ueb] d5 s*pf]is*5 ,wes5sbegriff h9auszugeh51 i/ ni*t mgli*4 4 4 4 4 ,sobald die ,def9ition mehr als e9e blosse ,nam5s]klrung i/--und sie muss mehr seyn--erk5nt sie d5 ,mittelbegriff als s*pf]is*e ,causalitt4 4 4 4 4 ,die ontologis*e ,b$eutung des ,mittelbegriffes i/1 dass er s*pf]is*] ,wes5sbegriff i/4 ,rass[ 7pp4 #ea1 #fc1 c47 adopts a l metaphorical phrase3--,def9itionem e/1 explic>e notionem2 qu quidem e/ creatrix r]um causa4 ,to obta9 & enunciate correctly ! problems suitable = discussion 9 ea* bran* ( sci5ce1 y mu/ h be=e y tables ( dissection & logical division1 & take !m z guides2#eb beg9n+ ) ! highe/ g5us & proce$+ d[nw>d ?r\gh ! successively desc5d+ scale ( sub-g5]a & species4 ,if y are /udy+ animals1 y fir/ collect ! pr$icates belong+ to all animals2 y !n take ! highe/ subdivision ( ! g5us animal1 su* z bird1 & y collect ! pr$icates belong+ to all birds2 & s on to ! next 9 ! desc5d+ scale4 ,y w be able to %[ cause :y any ( ^! pr$icates mu/ belong to ! man ,sokrates1 or to ! horse ,bukephalus2 because x belongs to ! g5us animal1 :i* includes man & horse4 ,animal w be ! middle t]m 9 ! demon/ration4#ec ,?is example is tak5 f ! class-t]ms curr5t 9 vulg> spee*4 ,b y mu/ n conf9e y\rself to ^!2 y mu/ look out = new classes1 b\nd toge!r by ! possession ( "s common attribute1 yet n usually talk$ ( z classes1 & y mu/ see :e!r o!r attributes c be f\nd con/antly conjo9$ !re)4 ,?us y f9d t all animals hav+ horns1 h also a /ructure ( /oma* fit = rum9ation1 & tee? ^u "o jaw only4 ,y "k1 !re=e1 :at is ! cause t ox5 & %eep h a /ructure ( /oma* fit = rum9ation4 ,x is because !y h horns4 ,hav+-horns is ! middle t]m ( ! demon/ration4#ed ,cases may also be f\nd 9 :i* sev]al objects possess no common nature or attribute to b9d !m into a class1 b are yet l9k$ toge!r1 by analogy1 9 diff]5t ways1 to "o & ! same common t]m4#ee ,"s pr$icates w be f\nd to accompany con/antly ?is analogy1 or to belong to all ! objects qu analog\s1 j z if !y _h "o & ! same class-nature4 ,demon/ration may be appli$ to ^!1 z to ! =m] cases4 ,footnote #eb3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xiv4 p4 #ih99991 a4 #a4 ,greek3 pros de to e7_/*e9 ta probl_/mata1 le_/ge9 dei ta_/s te a7natomas kai tas diaire_/seis1 ou7_/t de diale_/ge91 u7po!_/m5on to ge_/nos to ko9on a7pa_/ntn4 ,?is is ,waitz's text1 :i* diff]s f ,julius ,pacius & f ,firm9 ,didot4 ,!mi/ius 7pp4 #id-ie7 expla9s ,greek3 tas a7natomas to be anatomical draw+s or ex]cises prep>$ by ,ari/otle = tea*+3 ,greek3 kai tas a7natomas e7_/*e9 dei pro*ei_/rs1 o7_/sai pepoi_/ntai ,a7ri/ote_/lei4 ,! collection ( ,problems or que/ions = inve/igation 0 mu* prosecut$1 n m]ely by ,ari/otle b by ,!ophra/us 7,s*ol4 p4 #bdi1 a4 #ab1 ,br474 ,footnote #ec3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xiv4 p4 #ih1 a4 #e-ab4 ,footnote #ed3 ,ibid4 a4 #ac-ai4 ,ari/otle assumes t ! mat]ial :i* ought to h s]v$ = ! upp] tee?1 is appropriat$ by ,nature = ! =mation ( horns4 ,footnote #ee3 ,ibid4 a4 #bj-bc3 ,greek3 e7_/ti d' a7_/llos tro_/pos e7/i kata to a7na_/logon e7kle_/ge94 ,he gives z examples1 ,greek3 s_/pion1 a7_/kan?a1 o7/\n4 ,problems mu/ be consid]$ to be ! same1 :5 ! middle t]m ( ! demon/ration is ! same = ea*1 or :5 ! middle t]m 9 ! "o is a subord9ate or coroll>y to t 9 ! o!r4 ,?us1 ! cause ( e*o1 ! cause ( images 9 a mirror1 ! cause ( ! ra9b[1 all come "u ! same g5]al head or middle t]m 7refraction71 ?\gh ) a specific diff]5ce 9 ea* case4 ,aga91 :5 we inve/igate ! problem1 ,:y does ! ,nile fl[ ) a m p[]ful curr5t 9 ! la/ half ( ! 7lun>7 mon?8 ! reason is t ! mon? is !n m w9try4 ,b :y is ! mon? !n m w9try8 ,because ! light ( ! moon is !n dim9i%+4 ,"h are two middle t]ms1 ! "o ( :i* dep5ds ^u ! o!r4 ,! problem = inve/igation is !re=e ! same 9 bo?4#ef ,footnote #ef3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xv4 p4 #ih1 a4 #bd-cd4 ,!ophra/us is said to h made collections ( l problems1 problems ( :i* ! solution dep5d$ ^u ! same middle t]m 7,s*ol4 p4 #bdi1 a4 #aa99991 ,br&474 ,respect+ ,causa & ,causatum "q may be made :e!r x is necess>y t :5 ! causatum exi/s1 ! causa mu/ exi/ also8 ,! answ] mu/ be 9 ! affirmative1 if y include ! cause 9 ! def9ition ( causatum4 ,?us1 if y include 9 ! def9ition ( a lun> eclipse1 ! cause !re(1 viz41 int]v5tion ( ! e>? betwe5 moon & sun--!n1 :5ev] an eclipse occurs1 su* int]v5tion mu/ occur also4 ,b x mu/ n be suppos$ t !re is "h a p]fect reciprocation1 & t z ! causatum is 9 ?is case demon/rable f ! cause1 s !re is ! l demon/ration ( ! cause f ! causatum4 ,su* a demon/ration is nev] a demon/ration ( ,greek3 dio_/ti2 x is only a demon/ration ( ,greek3 o7_/ti4 ,! causatum is n includ$ 9 ! def9ition ( ! cause2 if y demon/rate t because ! moon is eclips$1 !re=e ! e>? is int]pos$ betwe5 ! moon & ! sun1 y prove ! fact ( ! int]position1 b y le>n no?+ ab\t ! cause !re(4 ,aga91 9 a syllogism ! middle t]m is ! cause ( ! conclusion 7i4e41 x is ! reason :y ! major t]m is pr$icat$ ( ! m9or1 :i* pr$ication is ! conclusion72 & 9 ?is s5se ! cause & causatum may sometimes reciprocate1 s t ei!r may be prov$ by means ( ! o!r4 ,b ! causatum "h reciprocates ) ! causa only z premiss & conclusion 7i4e41 we may "k ei!r by means ( ! o!r71 n z cause & effect2 ! causatum is n cause ( ! causa z a fact & reality1 z ! causa is cause ( ! causatum4#eg ,footnote #eg3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xvi4 p4 #ih1 a4 #ce1 seq4 ,!mi/ius1 pp4 #if-ig3 ,greek3 ou7 ga_/r e7/9 ai7_/tion t\ tn gn e7n me_/s ei7nai to tn sel_/nn e7klei_/pe91 a7lla me_/son t\ sullogism\2 kai t\ sump]a_/smatos i7_/ss ai7_/tion1 t\ pra_/gmatos de ou7dams4 ,!mi/ius "h speaks ) a precision :i* is n always pres5t to ! m9d ( ,ari/otle2 = he discrim9ates ! cause ( ! fact f ! cause ( ! affirm$ fact or conclusion4 ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire says 7,plan ,gnral des ,d]ni]s ,analytiques1 p4 cxl473--,a9si1 la dmon/ration de l'effet p> la cause appr5d p\rquoi la *ose e/2 la dmon/ration p> l'effet appr5d seulem5t que la *ose e/4 ,on sait que la t]re s'int]pose1 mais on ne sait pas p\rquoi elle s'int]pose3 et ce qui le montre bi51 c'e/ que l'ide de l'int]position de la t]re e/ indisp5sable la df9ition ess5tielle de l'clipse t&is que l'ide de l'clipse n'a que faire dans la df9ition de l'int]position4 ,l'int]position de la t]re fait donc compr5dre l'clipse2 t&is que l'clipse ne fait pas du t\t compr5dre l'int]position de la t]re4 ,! "q !n arises1 ,c !re be m ?an "o cause ( ! same causatum8 ,is x necess>y t ! same effect %\ld be produc$ 9 all cases by ! same cause8 ,9 o!r words1 :5 ! same pr$icate is demon/rat$ to be true ( two di/9ct m9ors1 may x n be demon/rat$ 9 "o case by "o middle t]m1 & 9 ! o!r case by a diff]5t middle t]m8#eh ,answ]3 ,9 g5u9e & prop] sci5tific problems ! middle t]m is ! rational acc\nt 7def9ition1 int]pretation7 ( ! major extreme2 ?is middle t]m !re=e1 or ! cause1 mu/ 9 all cases be "o & ! same4 ,! demon/ration 9 ^! cases is d]iv$ f ! same ess5ce2 x is p] se1 n p] accid5s4 ,b !re are o!r problems1 n /rictly & prop]ly sci5tific1 9 :i* cause & causatum are connect$ m]ely p] accid5s2 ! demon/ration be+ op]at$ by a middle t]m :i* is n ( ! ess5ce ( ! major1 b is only a sign or concomitant4#ei ,accord+ z ! t]ms ( ! conclusion are relat$ to ea* o!r1 s also w ! middle t]m be relat$ to bo?4 ,if ! conclusion be equivocal1 ! middle t]m w be equivocal also2 if ! pr$icate 9 ! conclusion be 9 g5]ic relation to ! subject1 ! major also w be 9 g5]ic relation to ! middle4 ,?us1 if y are demon/rat+ t "o triangle is simil> to ano!r1 & t "o col\r is simil> to ano!r1 ! ^w simil> 9 ^! two cases is n univocal1 b equivocal2 accord+ly1 ! middle t]m 9 ! demon/ration w also be equivocal4 ,aga91 if y are demon/rat+ t f\r proportionals w also be proportionals alt]nately1 !re w be "o cause or middle t]m1 if ! subject ( ! conclusion be l9es2 ano!r1 if ! subject be numb]s4 ,yet ! middle t]m or cause 9 bo? is ! same1 9 z f> z bo? involve a c]ta9 fact ( increm5t4#fj ,footnote #eh3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xvi4 p4 #ih1 b4 #be4 ,footnote #ei3 ,ibid4 xvii4 p4 #ii1 a4 #d3 ,greek3 e7_//i de kai ou7 ai7_/tion kai 7 skopein kata sumbebko_/s2 ou7 mn dokei probl_/mata ei7nai4 ,veluti si probemus grammaticum esse aptum ad rid5dum1 quia homo e/ aptus ad rid5dum4 7,julius ,pacius1 p4 #ead47 ,footnote #fj3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xvii4 p4 #ii1 a4 #h-af4 ,! major t]m ( ! syllogism w 9 po9t ( ext5sion be l>g] ?an any p>ticul> m9or1 b equal or co-ext5sive ) ! sum total ( ! p>ticul>s4 ,?us ! pr$icate decidu\s1 affirmable ( all plants ) broad leaves1 is great] 9 ext5sion ?an ! subject v9es1 also ?an ! subject fig-trees2 b x is equal 9 ext5sion to ! sum total ( v9es & fig-trees 7! o!r p>ticul> broad-leav$ plant74 ,! middle also1 9 an univ]sal demon/ration1 reciprocates ) ! major1 be+ its def9ition4 ,"h ! true middle or cause ( ! effect t v9es & fig-trees %$ _! leaves1 is n t !y are broad-leav$ plants1 b r a coagulation ( sap or "s su* fact4#fa ,footnote #fa3 ,ibid4 a4 #af seq4 ,! la/ *apt] ( ! pres5t treatise is ann\nc$ by ,ari/otle z ! app5dix & completion ( 8 entire !ory ( ,demon/rative ,sci5ce1 conta9$ 9 ! ,analytica ,priora1 :i* treats ( ,syllogism1 & ! ,analytica ,po/]iora1 :i* treats ( ,demon/ration4 ,aft] =mally w9d+ up ! :ole enquiry1 he proce$s to ask reg>d+ ! pr9cipia ( ,demon/rative ,sci5ce3 ,:at are !y8 ,h[ d !y become kn[n8 ,:at is ! m5tal habit or condition t is cognizant ( !m8#fb ,footnote #fb3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xix4 p4 #ii1 b4 #ae-ai3 ,greek3 p]i men ou7n sullogism\ kai a7podei_/xes1 ti_/ te e7ka_/t]o_/n e7/i kai ps gi_/netai1 phan]o_/n1 a7_/ma 9999de kai p]i e7pi/_/ms a7podeiktiks2 tau7ton ga_/r e7/94 p]i de tn a7r*n1 ps te gi_/nontai gn_/rimoi1 kai ti_/s 7 gnri_/z\sa e7_/xis1 e7nteu!_/n e7/i dlon proapor_/sasi prton4 ,bekk] & ,waitz1 9 _! editions1 include all ^! words 9 *4 xix43 ! old] editions plac$ ! words prec$+ ,greek3 p]i de 9 *4 xviii4 ,zab>ella obs]ves ! transition to a new subject 7,comm4 ad ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 *4 xv4 p4 #fdj73--,po/remum hoc caput 7beg9n+ at ,greek3 p]i de7 extra prim>iam tractationem positum esse manife/um e/3 quum prcess]it epilogus respond5s prooemio quod legitur 9 initio primi libri ,priorum ,analyticorum4 ,ari/otle has already laid d[n t !re c be no ,demon/ration )\t c]ta9 prcognita to />t f2 & t ^! prcognita mu/1 9 ! la/ resort1 be pr9cipia undemon/rable1 imm$iately kn[n1 & kn[n ev5 m accurately ?an ! conclusions d$uc$ f !m4 ,are !y !n cognitions1 or cognizant habits & possessions1 born along ) u1 & complete f ! fir/8 ,?is is impossible 7,ari/otle decl>es72 we _c h su* valuable & accurate cognitions f ! fir/ mom5ts ( *ildhood1 & yet n be at all aw>e ( !m4 ,!y mu/ !re=e be acquir$2 yet h[ is x possible = u to acquire !m8#fc ,! fact is1 t1 ?\gh we d n f ! fir/ possess any su* complete & accurate cognitions z ^!1 we h f ! fir/ an inborn capacity or pot5tiality ( arriv+ at !m4 ,& some?+ ( ! same k9d belongs to all animals4#fd ,all ( !m possess an appreh5d+ & discrim9at+ p[] born ) !m1 call$ ,s5sible ,p]ception2 b1 ?\gh all possess su* p[]1 !re is ?is diff]5ce1 t ) "s ! act ( p]ception dwells = a long] or %ort] "t 9 ! m9d2 ) o!rs x does n4 ,9 animals ) :om x does n dwell1 !re c be no k beyond p]ception1 at lea/ z to all ^? matt]s :]e9 p]ception is evanesc5t2 b ) ^? t bo? p]ceive & reta9 p]ceptions 9 _! m9ds1 ult]ior k gr[s up4#fe ,!re are _m su* ret5tive animals1 & !y diff] among !mselves3 ) "s ( !m reason or rational notions arise out ( ! p]ceptions reta9$2 ) o!rs1 x is n s4 ,fir/1 out ( p]ception arises memory2 next1 out ( memory ( ! same (t5 repeat$1 arises exp]i5ce1 s9ce _m remembrances num]ically di/9ct are summ$ up into "o exp]i5ce4 ,la/ly1 out ( exp]i5ce1 or out ( ! univ]sal notion1 ! unum et idem :i* p]vades & *>act]izes a multitude ( p>ticul>s1 :5 x has tak5 re/ & root 9 ! m9d1 !re arises ! pr9cipium ( art & sci5ce3 ( sci5ce1 9 respect to objects exi/5t2 ( art1 9 respect to ?+s g5]able4#ff ,& ?us ^! m5tal habits or acquirem5ts nei!r exi/ 9 our m9ds det]m9$ f ! beg9n+1 nor d !y spr+ f o!r acquirem5ts ( great] cognitive efficacy4 ,!y spr+ f s5sible p]ception2 & we may illu/rate _! gr[? by :at happ5s 9 ! panic ( a t]rifi$ ho/1 :]e fir/ "o runaway /ops 9 8 flight1 !n a second1 !n a ?ird1 until at la/ a numb] docile to comm& is collect$4 ,"o *>act]i/ic feature ( ! m9d is to be capable ( ?is process4#fg ,footnote #fc3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xix4 p4 #ii1 b4 #be-cj3 ,greek3 po_/t]on ou7k e7n\sai ai7 e7_/xeis e7ggi_/nontai1 7 e7n\sai lel_/?as94 ei7 men d e7_/*om5 au7ta_/s1 a7_/topon2 sumbai_/nei gar a7kribe/e_/ras e7_/*ontas gn_/seis a7podei_/xes lan?a_/ne92 ei7 de lamba_/nom5 m e7_/*ontes pro_/t]on1 ps a7n gnri_/zoim5 kai man?a_/noim5 e7k m pr\p>*\_/ss gn_/ses8 ,comp>e1 supra1 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 iii4 p4 #gb1 b4 #bj-cj2 ,metaphys4 ,a4 ix4 p4 #iic1 a4 #a1 ) ! ,comm5t4 ( ,alex&]1 p4 #if1 ,bonitz4 ,footnote #fd3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xix4 p4 #ii1 b4 #cj3 ,greek3 phan]on toi_/nun ou7_/t' e7_/*e9 oi7o_/n te1 ou7_/t' a7gno\si kai mdemi_/an e7_/*\s9 e7_/x9 e7ggi_/ne/hai2 a7na_/gk a7_/ra e7_/*e9 me_/n t9a du_/nam91 m toiau_/tn d' e7_/*e9 7 e7_//ai t\_/tn timite_/ra kat' a7kri_/beian4 phai_/netai de t\to_/ ge pas9 u7pa_/r*on tois z_/ois4 ,footnote #fe3 ,analyt4 ,po/ ,,ii4 xix4 p4 #ii1 b4 #cg3 ,greek3 o7_/sois men ou7n m e7ggi_/netai1 7 o7_/ls 7 p]i a7 m e7ggi_/netai1 ou7k e7_//i t\_/tois gnsis e7_/x t\ ai7/ha_/ne/hai2 e7n oi7s d' e7_/ne/9 ai7/hanome_/nois e7_/*e9 e7_/ti e7n t psu*4 polln de toi\_/tn g9ome_/nn 7_/d diaphora_/ tis gi_/netai1 7_//e tois men gi_/ne/hai lo_/gon e7k ts tn toi\_/tn mons1 tois de m_/4 ,comp>e ,analyt4 ,po/]4 ,i4 p4 #ha1 a4 #ch1 seq41 :]e ! dep5d5ce ( ,induction on ! p]ceptions ( s5se is also affirm$4 ,see ,!mi/ius1 pp4 #ej-ea1 ed4 ,sp5gel4 ,! fir/ *apt] ( ! ,metaphysica 7p4 #iha71 conta9s a /rik+ acc\nt ( ?is g5]ation ( univ]sal notions f memory & comp>ison ( s5sible p>ticul>s3 ,greek3 gi_/netai de te_/*n1 o7_/tan e7k polln ts e7mpeiri_/z e7nnoma_/tn mi_/a ka?o_/l\ ge_/ntai p]i tn o7moi_/n u7po_/lpsis 7intellecta similitudo74 ,also 9 ! ,physica ,,vii4 p4 #bdg1 b4 #bj 79 ! ,p>aphrase ( ,!mi/ius1 z pr9t$ 9 ! ,b]l9 edition1 at bottom ( page73 ,greek3 e7k gar ts kata me_/ros e7mpeiri_/z tn ka?o_/l\ lamba_/nom5 e7pi/_/mn4 ,footnote #ff3 ,analyt ,po/ ,,ii4 xix4 p4 #ajj1 a4 #c-aj3 ,greek3 e7k men ou7n ai7/h_/ses gi_/netai mn_/m1 7_/sp] le_/gom51 e7k de mn_/ms polla_/kis t\ au7t\ g9ome_/ns e7mpeiri_/a2 ai7 gar pollai mnmai t a7ri?m e7mpeiri_/a mi_/a e7/i_/n4 e7k d' e7mpeiri_/z1 7 e7k pantos 7rem_/santos t\ ka?o_/l\ e7n t psu*1 t\ e7nos p>a ta polla_/1 o7 a7n e7n a7_/pas9 e7n e7n e7kei_/nois to au7to_/1 te_/*ns a7r* kai e7pi/_/ms2 e7an men p]i ge_/nes91 te_/*ns1 e7an de p]i to o7_/n1 e7pi/_/ms4 ,a !ory v analog\s to ?is 7respect+ ! gradual g5]ation ( sci5tific univ]sal notions 9 ! m9d out ( ! p>ticul>s ( s5se7 is /at$ 9 ! ,phdon ( ,plato1 *4 xlv4 p4 #if1 ,b41 :]e ,sokrates reckons up ! unsuccessful t5tatives :i* he _h made 9 philosophy3 ,greek3 kai po_/t]on to ai7ma_/ e7/9 7 phron\m51 7 o7 a7r1 7 to pur1 7 t\_/tn men ou7de_/n1 o7 de e7gke_/phalo_/s e7/9 o7 tas ai7/h_/seis p>e_/*n t\ a7k\_/e9 kai o7pan kai o7sphrai_/ne/hai1 e7k t\_/tn de gi_/gnoito mn_/m kai d_/xa1 e7k de mn_/ms kai d_/xs1 lab\_/ss to 7remein1 kata tauta gi_/gne/hai e7pi/_/mn4 ,boe?ius says1 ,comm4 9 ,cic]onis ,topica1 p4 #hje3--,plato ideas quasdam esse ponebat1 id e/1 species incorporeas1 sub/antiasque con/antes et p] se ab aliis natur ratione sep>atas1 ut hoc ipsum homo1 quibus p>ticipantes ct] res hom9es vel animalia fi]5t4 ,at v]o ,ari/oteles nullas putat extra esse sub/antias2 s$ intellectam similitud9em plurimorum int] se diff]5tium sub/antialem1 g5us putat esse vel speciem4 ,nam cum homo et equus diff]unt rationabilitate et irrationabilitate1 horum intellecta similitudo efficit g5us4 ,ergo communitas qudam et plurimorum int] se diff]5tium similitudo notio e/2 cujus notionis aliud g5us e/1 aliud =ma4 ,s$ quoniam similium intellig5tia e/ omnis notio1 9 rebus v]o similibus necess>ia e/ diff]5ti>um discretio1 idcirco indiget notio quadam enodatione ac divisione2 velut ipse intellectus animalis sibi ipsi non sufficit1 c4 ,! phrase intellecta similitudo plurimorum embodies bo? ,induction & ,intellection 9 "o4 ,a l doctr9e appe>s 9 ! obscure passages ( ,ari/otle1 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 viii4 p4 #dbi1 b4 #aj2 also p4 #dcb1 a4 #c3 ,greek3 o7 n\s1 ei7dos ei7dn1 kai 7 ai7_//hsis1 ei7dos ai7/htn4 e7pei de ou7de pragma ou7!_/n e7/i p>a ta mege_/?1 7s dokei1 ta ai7/hta ke*risme_/non1 e7n tois ei7_/desi tois ai7/htois ta nota_/ e7/94 ,footnote #fg3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xix4 p4 #ajj1 a4 #aj-ad3 ,greek3 ou7_/te d e7nupa_/r*\s9 a7phrisme_/nai ai7 e7_/xeis1 ou7_/t' a7p' a7_/lln e7_/xen gi_/nontai gnrimte_/rn1 a7ll' a7po ai7/h_/ses1--7 de psu* u7pa_/r*ei toiau_/t ou7sa oi7_/a du_/na/hai pa_/s*e9 t\to4 ,! v>ieties ( intellectual ,greek3 e7_/xeis enum]at$ by ,ari/otle 9 ! six? book ( ! ,nikoma*ean ,e?ica1 are elucidat$ by ,alex&] 9 8 ,comm5t4 on ! ,metaphysica4 7,a4 p4 #iha7 pp4 #g1 #h1 ,bonitz4 ,! diff]5ce ( ,greek3 e7_/xis & ,greek3 dia_/!sis1 ! durable condition z contra/$ ) ! transi5t1 is not$ 9 ,categori1 pp4 #h1 #i4 ,see also ,e?4 ,nikom4 ,,ii4 i4 ii4 pp #aajc1 #d4 ,ari/otle proce$s to repeat ! illu/ration 9 cle>] t]ms--at lea/ 9 t]ms :i* he ?9ks cle>]4#fh ,we p]ceive ! p>ticul> individual2 yet s5sible p]ception is ( ! univ]sal 9 ! p>ticul> 7z1 = example1 :5 ,kallias is be=e u1 we p]ceive man1 n ! man ,kallias74 ,n[1 :5 "o ( a set ( p>ticul>s dwells "s "t 9 ! m9d1 fir/ an univ]sal notion arises2 next1 m p>ticul>s are p]ceiv$ & deta9$1 & univ]sal notions arise ^u !m m & m compreh5sive1 until at la/ we rea* ! highe/ /age--! mo/ univ]sal & simple4 ,f ,kallias we rise to man2 f su* & su* an animal1 to animal 9 g5]e2 f animal 9 g5]e1 /ill high]1 until we rea* ! highe/ or indivisible g5us4#fi ,h5ce x is pla9 t ! fir/ & highe/ pr9cipia c become kn[n to u only by ,induction2 = x is by ?is process t s5sible p]ception builds up 9 u ! ,univ]sal4#gj ,n[ among 7^? intellective habits or acquirem5ts1 :]eby we come to appreh5d tru?1 !re are "s 7,sci5ce & ,nos7 t are uni=mly & un]r+ly true1 :ile o!rs 7,op9ion & ,ratioc9ation7 admit an alt]native ( falsehood4#ga ,comp>+ ,sci5ce ) ,nos1 ! latt]1 & ! latt] only1 is m accurate & un]r+ ?an ,sci5ce4 ,b all ,sci5ce implies demon/ration1 & all t we "k by ,sci5ce is conclusions d$uc$ by demon/ration4 ,we h already said t ! pr9cipia ( ^! demon/rations _c be !mselves demon/rat$1 & !re=e _c be kn[n by ,sci5ce2 we h also said t !y mu/ be kn[n m accurately ?an ! conclusions4 ,h[ !n c ^! pr9cipia !mselves be kn[n8 ,!y c be kn[n only by ,nos1 & f p>ticul>s4 ,x is f ! pr9cipia kn[n by ,nos1 ) ! maximum ( accuracy1 t ,sci5ce demon/rates h] conclusions4 ,nos is ! great pr9cipium ( ,sci5ce4#gb ,footnote #fh3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xix4 p4 #ajj1 a4 #ad3 ,greek3 o7 d' e7le_/*? men pa_/lai1 ou7 saphs de e7le_/*?1 pa_/l9 ei7_/pm54 ,waitz supposes t ,ari/otle "h ref]s to a passage 9 ! fir/ book ( ! ,analytica ,po/]iora1 c4 xxxi4 p4 #hg1 b4 #cj4 ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire ?9ks 7p4 #bij7 t ref]5ce is int5d$ to an e>li] s5t5ce ( ?is same *apt]4 ,nei!r ( ^! suppositions seems to suit 7lea/ ( all ! la/7 ) ! mean+ ( ,greek3 pa_/lai4 ,b :i*ev] he meant1 ,ari/otle has n done mu* to cle> up :at 0 obscure 9 ! antec$5t /atem5ts4 ,footnote #fi3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xix4 p4 #ajj1 a4 #ae3 ,greek3 /a_/ntos gar tn a7diapho_/rn e7no_/s1 prton men e7n t psu* ka?o_/l\ 7kai gar ai7/hsis t\ ka?o_/l\ e7/i_/n1 oi7on a7n?r_/p\1 a7ll' ou7 ,kalli_/ou a7n?r_/p\7 pa_/l9 d' e7n t\_/tois i7_//atai1 e7_/s a7n ta a7m] / kai ta ka?o_/l\1 oi7on toiondi zon1 e7_/s zon2 kai e7n t\_/t 7sau_/ts4 ,^! words are obscure3 ,greek3 ta a7m] mu/ mean ! highe/ g5]a2 indivisible1 i4e4 be+ a m9imum 9 respect ( compreh5sion4 ,in/ead ( ,greek3 ta ka?o_/l\1 we might h expect$ ,greek3 ta ma_/li/a ka?o_/l\1 or1 p]haps1 t ,greek3 kai %\ld be omitt$4 ,tr5del5burg comm5ts at l5g? on ?is passage1 ,ari/4 ,de ,anim ,comm5t4 pp4 #agj-agd4 ,footnote #gj3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xix4 p4 #ajj1 b4 #c3 ,greek3 dlon d o7_/ti 7min ta prta e7pagg gnri_/ze9 a7nagkaion2 kai gar kai ai7_//hsis ou7_/t to ka?o_/l\ e7mpoiei4 ,comp>e1 supra1 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xviii4 p4 #ha1 b4 #a4 ,"s comm5tators cont5d$ t ,ari/otle did n mean to ascribe an inductive orig9 to ! common ,axioms prop]ly s call$1 b only to ! special pr9cipia belong+ to ea* sci5ce4 ,zab>ella refutes ?is doctr9e1 & ma9ta9s t ! ,axioms 7,dignitates7 are d]iv$ f ,induction 7,comm4 9 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xix4 p4 #fdi1 ed4 ,v5et41 #afag73--,quum igitur inductio non sit proprie discursus1 nec ratio1 jure dicit ,ari/oteles pr9cipiorum notitiam non esse cum ratione1 quia non ex aliis innotescunt1 s$ ex seipsis dum p] inductionem innotescunt4 ,propt]ea 9 illa propositione1 qu 9 initio 9999primi libri legitur1 sub doctr9a discursiva cognitio pr9cipiorum non compreh5ditur1 quia non e/ dianotica4 ,hoc1 quod modo diximus1 si nonnulli adv]tiss5t1 =tasse non negass5t pr9cipia communia1 qu dicuntur ,dignitates1 inductione cognosci4 ,dix]unt enim ,ari/otelem hic de pr9cipiis loqu5tem sola pr9cipia propria consid]asse1 qu cum non proprio lum9e cognoscantur1 inductione innotescunt2 at ,dignitates 7inquiunt7 proprio lum9e ab intellectu no/ro cognoscuntur p] solam t]m9orum intellig5tiam1 ut quod omne totum majus e/ su p>te2 hoc enim non magis e/ evid5s s5sui 9 p>ticul>i1 quam intellectui 9 univ]sali1 pro9de inductione non eget4 ,s$ hanc s5t5tiam hic ,av]roes refutat1 dic5s hc quoque inductione cognosci1 s$ non animadv]ti nobis tempus hujus inductionis2 id enim omn9o confit5dum e/1 omnem intellectualem doctr9am s5su orig9em duc]e1 et nihil esse 9 intellectu quod prius 9 s5su non fu]it1 ut ubique ass]it ,ari/oteles4 ,to ! same purpose ,zab>ella expresses himself 9 an e>li] portion ( 8 ,comm5t>y on ! ,analyt4 ,po/41 :]e he lays x d[n t ! tru? ( ! proposition1 ,e :ole is great] ?an its "p1 is kn[n f antec$5t k ( p>ticul>s by way ( ,induction4 ,comp>e ! ,s*olion ( ,philoponus1 ad ,analyt4 ,po/4 p4 #bbe1 a4 #cb1 ,br&41 :]e ! same is said ab\t ! ,axiom1 ,?+s equal to ! same are equal to ea* o!r4 ,footnote #ga3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xix4 p4 #ajj1 b4 #e3 ,greek3 e7pei de tn p]i tn dia_/noian e7_/xen1 ai7s a7l!u_/om51 ai7 men a7ei a7l!is ei7si_/n1 ai7 de e7pide_/*ontai to pseudos1 c4 ,footnote #gb3 ,ibid4 f94 p4 #ajj4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ,ari/otle "h describes h[ ! pr9cipia ( ,syllogism become kn[n to ! m9d des]ves p>ticul> att5tion4 ,! m>* up to pr9cipia is n only diff]5t f1 b ! rev]se (1 ! m>* d[n f pr9cipia2 l ! a?lete :o runs fir/ to ! end ( ! /adium1 & !n back4#gc ,g5]aliz+ or univ]saliz+ is an acquir$ intellectual habit or p]man5t end[m5t2 gr[+ out ( num]\s p>ticul> acts or judgm5ts ( s5se1 rememb]$1 comp>$1 & coalesc+ into "o m5tal gr\p ?r\gh associat+ resemblance4 ,z ! e?ical1 moral1 practical habits1 are acquirem5ts gr[+ out ( a repetition ( p>ticul> acts1 s also ! intellectual1 !oriz+ habits are m5tal results g5]at$ by a multitude ( p>ticul> judgm5ts ( s5se1 reta9$ & comp>$1 s z to impr9t ^u ! m9d a la/+ /amp ( "s id5tity common to all4 ,! ,univ]sal 7notius natur7 is ?us g5]at$ 9 ! m9d by a process ( ,induction out ( p>ticul>s :i* are notiora nobis2 ! pot5tiality ( ?is process1 toge!r ) s5se & memory1 is all t is innate or connatural4 ,footnote #gc3 ,ari/ot4 ,e?4 ,nikom4 ,i4 iv4 p4 #ajie1 b4 #a4 ,! pr9cipia1 f :i* ! conclusions ( ,syllogism are d$uc$1 be+ ?us obta9$ by ,induction1 are1 9 ,ari/otle's view1 appreciat$ by1 or correlat$ )1 ! infallible & un]r+ ,nos or ,intellect4#gd ,he conceives repeat$ & uncontradict$ ,induction z c>ry+ ) x ! maximum ( c]ta9ty & necessity3 ! syllogi/ic d$uctions con/itut+ ,sci5ce he reg>ds z also c]ta92 b _! c]ta9ty is only d]ivative1 & ! pr9cipia f :i* !y fl[ he ranks /ill high]1 z be+ /ill m c]ta94#ge ,bo? ! "o & ! o!r he po9t$ly contra/s ) ,op9ion & ,calculation1 :i* he decl>es to be liable to error4 ,footnote #gd3 ,! passages respect+ ,greek3 a7r*ai or pr9cipia1 9 ! ,nikoma*ean ,e?ica 7especially ,books ,i4 & ,,vi471 are in/ructive z to ,ari/otle's views4 ,! pr9cipia are univ]sal notions & propositions1 n />t+ up ready-made nor z orig9al prompt+s ( ! intellect1 b gradually built up out ( ! p>ticul>s ( s5se & ,induction1 & repeat$ p>ticul> acts4 ,!y are judg$ & sanction$ by ,greek3 ,n\s or ,intellect1 b x requires mu* c>e to def9e !m well4 ,!y belong to ! ,greek3 o7_/ti1 :ile demon/ration belongs to ! ,greek3 dio_/ti4 ,e?4 ,nik4 ,i4 vii4 p4 #ajih1 a4 #cc3 ,greek3 ou7k a7paitte_/on d' ou7de tn ai7ti_/an e7n a7_/pas9 o7moi_/s1 a7ll' i7kanon e7_/n tisi to o7_/ti dei*?nai kals1 oi7on kai p]i tas a7r*a_/s2 to d' o7_/ti prton kai a7r*_/4 tn a7r*n d' ai7 men e7pagg !r\ntai1 ai7 d' ai7/h_/sei1 ai7 d' e7?ism t9i1 kai a7_/llai d' a7lls4 metie_/nai de peirate_/on e7ka_//as 7 pephu_/kas91 kai sp\da/e_/on o7_/ps o7ri/hsi kals2 mega_/ln gar e7_/*\si r7opn pros ta e7po_/m5a4 ,comp>e ,e?4 ,nik4 ,,vi4 iii4 p4 #aaci1 b4 #be1 :]e ! ,analytica is cit$ by "n--,greek3 7 men d e7pagg a7r*_/ e7/i kai t\ ka?o_/l\1 o7 de sullogismos e7k tn ka?o_/l\2 ei7sin a7_/ra a7r*ai e7x 7n o7 sullogismo_/s1 7n ou7_/k e7/i sullogismo_/s2 e7pagg a7_/ra4--ib4 p4 #aada1 a4 #g3 ,greek3 lei_/petai n\n ei7nai tn a7r*n4--p4 #aadb1 a4 #be3 ,greek3 o7 men gar n\s tn o7_/rn1 7n ou7_/k e7/i lo_/gos4--p4 #aadc1 b4 #a4 ,footnote #ge3 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 ii4 p4 #gb1 a4 #cg3 ,greek3 ton de me_/llonta e7_/xe9 tn e7pi/_/mn tn di' a7podei_/xes ou7 mo_/non dei tas a7r*as gnri_/ze9 kai mallon au7tais pi/eu_/e9 7 t deiknume_/n1 a7lla md' a7_/llo au7t pi/o_/t]on ei7nai mde gnrim_/t]on tn a7ntikeime_/nn tais a7r*ais1 e7x 7n e7_//ai sullogismos o7 ts e7nanti_/z a7pa_/ts1 ei7_/p] dei ton e7pi/a_/m5on a7pls a7meta_/pei/on ei7nai4 ,ari/otle _h inh]it$ f ,plato ?is doctr9e ( an infallible ,nos or ,intellect1 enjoy+ complete immunity f error4 ,b1 in/ead ( connect+ x 7z ,plato _h done7 ) rem9isc5ces ( an ant]ior life among ! ,ideas1 he assign$ to x a position z t]m9us & correlate to ! process ( ,induction4#gf ,! l po/ulate & pret5sion pass$ aft]w>ds to ! ,/oics1 & v>i\s o!r philosophical sects3 !y c\ld n be satisfi$ )\t f9d+ infallibility some:]e4 ,x 0 aga9/ ?is pret5sion t ! ,academics & ,sceptics ent]$ _! prote/2 cont5d+1 on gr\nds sometimes sophi/ical b (t5 v =cible1 t x 0 impossible to escape f ! region ( fallibility1 & t no crit]ion ( tru?1 at once univ]sal & imp]ative1 c\ld be set up4 ,footnote #gf3 ,ibid4 iii4 p4 #gb1 b4 #bj-cj4 ,greek3 kai ou7 mo_/non e7pi/_/mn a7lla kai a7r*n e7pi/_/ms ei7nai t9a_/ pham51 7 t\s o7_/r\s gnri_/zom54 ,!mi/ius1 p4 #ad3 ,greek3 7n d a7_/r*ei pa_/l9 o7 n\s 7 t\s o7_/r\s ?reu_/om51 e7x 7n sugkeitai ta a7xi_/mata4 ,! ,p>aphrase ( ,!mi/ius 7pp4 #ajj-ajd7 is cle> & in/ructive1 :]e he amplifies ! la/ *apt]1 & expla9s ,greek3 ,n\s z ! g5]aliz+ or univ]saliz+ aptitude ( ! s\l1 gr[+ up gradually out ( ! p>ticul>s furni%$ by ,s5se & ,induction4 ,x is to be regrett$ t ,ari/otle %\ld h cont5t$ himself ) proclaim+ ?is ,inductive process z an ideal1 culm9at+ 9 ! infallible ,nos2 & t he %\ld only h sup]ficially notic$ ^? conditions "u :i* x mu/ be conduct$ 9 reality1 9 ord] to avoid errone\s or unc]tifi$ results4 ,?is is a defici5cy h[ev] :i* has rema9$ unsuppli$ until ! pres5t c5tury4#gg ,footnote #gg3 ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton1 ,lectures on ,logic1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,lect4 xix4 p4 #chj1 says3--,9 reg>d to simple syllogisms1 x 0 an orig9al dogma ( ! ,platonic ,s*ool1 & an e>ly dogma ( ! ,p]ipatetic1 t philosophy 7sci5ce /rictly s-call$7 0 only conv]sant )1 & 0 exclusively conta9$ 91 univ]sals2 & ! doctr9e ( ,ari/otle1 :i* taught t all our g5]al k is only an induction f an obs]vation ( p>ticul>s1 0 too easily =gott5 or p]v]t$ by 8 foll[]s4 ,x ?us obta9$ almo/ ! =ce ( an ackn[l$g$ pr9ciple1 t ev]y?+ to be kn[n mu/ be kn[n "u "s g5]al =m or notion4 ,h5ce ! exagg]at$ importance attribut$ to def9ition & d$uctions1 x n be+ consid]$ t we only take out ( a g5]al notion :at we _h previ\sly plac$ !re91 & t ! amplification ( our k is n to be s\ght = f above b f bel[1--n f speculation ab\t ab/ract g5]alities1 b f ! obs]vation ( concrete p>ticul>s4 ,b h[ev] errone\s & irrational1 ! p]suasion _h its day & influ5ce1 & x p]haps det]m9$1 z "o ( its effects1 ! total neglect ( "o half1 & t n ! lea/ important half1 ( ! reason+ process4 ,= :ile m5 ?\ght only ( look+ upw>d to ! m ext5sive notions1 z ! only objects & ! only m$ia ( sci5ce1 !y took little he$ ( ! m compreh5sive notions1 & absolutely contemn$ individuals1 z objects :i* c\ld nei!r be sci5tifically kn[n 9 !mselves nor supply ! conditions ( sci5tifically kn[+ aught besides4 ,! ,logic ( ,compreh5sion & ( ,induction 0 !re=e neglect$ or ignor$1--! ,logic ( ,ext5sion & ,d$uction exclusively cultivat$1 z alone af=d+ ! rules by :i* we might evolve high] notions into _! subord9ate concepts4 7,hamilton1 9 ?is passage1 consid]s ! ,logic ( ,induction to be ! same z ! ,logic ( ,compreh5sion47 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,topica4 ,i4 ,9 treat+ ( ! ,analytica ,po/]iora ,i h already adv]t$1 9 ! way ( contra/1 to ! ,topica2 &1 9 n[ approa*+ ! latt] "w1 ,i mu/ aga9 br+ ! same contra/ be=e ! m9d ( ! read]4 ,! treatise call$ ,topica 7includ+ t :i* be>s ! sep>ate title ,de ,sophi/icis ,el5*is1 b :i* is prop]ly its ,n9? or la/ ,book1 w9d+ up ) a brief b memorable recapitulation ( ! ,analytica & ,topica consid]$ z "o s*eme7 is ( consid]able l5g?1 long] ?an ! ,prior & ,po/]ior ,analytics tak5 toge!r4 ,x conta9s bo? a !ory & precepts ( ,dialectic2 also1 an analysis ( ! process call$ by ,ari/otle ,sophi/ical ,refutation1 ) advice h[ to resi/ or neutralize x4 ,all ?r\gh ! works ( ,ari/otle1 !re is no?+ :i* he s directly & emphatically ass]ts to be 8 own orig9al p]=mance1 z ! design & execution ( ! ,topica3 i4e41 ! d$uction ( ,dialectic & ,sophi/ic f ! g5]al !ory ( ,syllogism4 ,he _h to beg9 f ! beg9n+1 )\t any model to copy or any pr$ecessor to build ^u3 & 9 e sort ( "w1 he obs]ves ju/ly1 ! fir/ or initial /ages are ! h>de/4#a ,9 reg>d to ,rhetoric mu* _h be5 done be=e him2 !re 7 n only ma/]s :o taught x1 b writ]s :o !oriz$ well or ill1 & laid d[n precepts ab\t x2 s t1 9 8 treatise on t subject1 he _h only to enl>ge & improve ^u pre-exi/+ sugge/ions4 ,b 9 reg>d to ,dialectic z he conceives x--9 its contra/ ) ,demon/ration & ,sci5ce on ! "o h&1 & 9 its analogy or k9%ip ) ,rhetoric on ! o!r--no?+ :atev] _h be5 done4 ,!re 71 inde$1 tea*]s ( cont5ti\s dialogue1 z well z ( ,rhetoric2#b b ^! tea*]s c\ld d no?+ bett] ?an recomm5d to _! /ud5ts dialogues or orations ready made1 to be le>nt by he>t4 ,su* a mode ( tea*+ 7he says71 ?\gh spe$y1 0 altoge!r unsy/ematic4 ,! /ud5t acquir$ no k ( ! art1 be+ furni%$ only ) specim5s ( art-results4 ,x 0 z if a ma/]1 pr(ess+ to communicate ! art ( mak+ ! feet com=table1 taught no?+ ab\t lea!r-cutt+ or %oe-mak+1 b furni%$ 8 pupils ) diff]5t v>ieties ( ready-made %oes2 ?us supply+ :at !y want$ = ! protection ( ! feet1 b n imp>t+ to !m any p[] ( provid+ su* protection = !mselves4#c ,9 reg>d to ! process ( syllogiz+ 7says ,ari/otle1 includ+ bo? ,analytic & ,dialectic7 ,i f\nd positively no?+ said be=e me3 ,i _h to "w x out = myself by long & labori\s rese>*4#d ,footnote #a3 ,ari/ot4 ,sophi/4 ,el5*4 xxxiv4 p4 #ahc1 b4 #bb3 ,greek3 me_/gi/on gar i7_/ss a7r* panto_/s1 7_/sp] le_/getai2 dio kai *alep_/taton4 o7_/s gar kra_/ti/on t duna_/mei1 tos\_/t mikro_/taton o7n t mege_/!i *alep_/tato_/n e7/9 o7ph?nai4 ,footnote #b3 ,sophi/4 ,el5*4 xxxiv4 p4 #ahc1 b4 #cd3 ,greek3 tau_/ts de ts pragmatei_/z ou7 to men 7n to d' ou7k 7n proexeirgasme_/non1 a7ll' ou7den pantels u7pr*54 kai gar tn p]i t\s e7ri/ik\s lo_/g\s mi/h>n\_/ntn o7moi_/a tis 7n 7 pai_/deusis t ,gorgi_/ou pragmatei_/a2 lo_/g\s gar oi7 men r7torik\s oi7 de e7rtti_/k\s e7di_/dosan e7kman?a_/ne91 ei7s ou7s plei/a_/kis e7mpi_/pte9 7_/?san e7ka_/t]oi t\s a7ll_/ln lo_/g\s4 ,footnote #c3 ,ibid4 xxxiv4 p4 #ahd1 a4 #b4 ,footnote #d3 ,ibid4 a4 #g3 ,greek3 kai p]i men tn r7torikn polla kai palaia ta lego_/m5a1 p]i de t\ sullogi_/ze/hai pantels ou7den ei7_/*om5 pro_/t]on a7_/llo le_/ge91 a7ll' 7 trib zt\ntes polun *ro_/non e7pon\m54 ,?is is "o ( ! few passages1 ?r\gh\t ! philosoph]'s v>i$ & multitud9\s works1 9 :i* he alludes to 8 own speciality ( me?od4 ,x is all ! m int]e/+ on t acc\nt4 ,if we turn back to ,sokrates & ,plato1 we %all und]/& bett] :at ! innovation op]at$ by ,ari/otle 02 :at ! position ( ,dialectic _h be5 be=e 8 "t1 & :at x became aft]w>ds4 ,9 ! m9ds ( ,sokrates & ,plato1 ! great anti!sis 0 betwe5 ,dialectic & ,rhetoric--int]*ange ( %ort "q & answ] be=e a select audi5ce1 z contra/$ ) long cont9u\s spee* address$ to a miscellane\s cr[d ) kn[n e/abli%$ s5tim5ts & op9ions1 9 ! view ( p]suad+ !m on "s giv5 int]e/+ po9t requir+ decision4 ,9 su* ,dialectic ,sokrates 0 a consummate ma/]2 pass+ mo/ ( 8 long life 9 ! m>ket-place & pal/ra1 & c\rt+ disputation ) e "o4 ,he made =mal pr(ession ( ignorance1 disclaim$ all p[] ( tea*+1 wrote no?+ at all1 & appli$ himself almo/ exclusively to ! cross-exam9+ ,el5*us by :i* he expos$ & humiliat$ ! able/ m5 n less ?an ! vulg>4 ,plato1 along ) ! o!r companions ( ,sokrates1 imbib$ ! ,dialectic ( 8 ma/]1 & gave p]petuity to x 9 ^? inimitable dialogues :i* are /ill pres]v$ to u f 8 p54 ,he compos$ no?+ b dialogues2 ?us giv+ expression to 8 own ?\ghts only "u borr[$ names1 & introduc+ t ( ,sokrates v g5]ally z *ief spokesman4 ,b ,plato1 ?\gh 9 "s dialogues he puts into ! m\? ( 8 spokesman ! g5u9e ,sokratic disclaim] ( all p[] & all purpose ( tea*+1 yet does n d ?is 9 all4 ,he sometimes assumes ! didactic function2 ?\gh he /ill adh]es to ! =m ( dialogue1 ev5 :5 x has become inconv5i5t & unsuitable4 ,9 ! ,platonic ,republic ,sokrates is made to alt]nate 8 own peculi> ve9 ( cross-exam9ation ) a ve9 ( dogmatic exposition n 8 own2 b bo? "o & ! o!r 9 ! same /yle ( %ort "q & answ]4 ,9 ! ,leges becomes /ill m manife/ ! inconv5i5ce ( comb9+ ! sub/ance ( dogmatic exposition ) ! =m ( dialogue3 ! same rem>k may also be made ab\t ! ,sophi/es & ,politicus2 9 :i* two dialogues1 moreov]1 ! didactic process is exhibit$ purely & exclusively z a logical p>tition1 sy/ematically conduct$1 ( a g5us into its compon5t species4 ,long-cont9u$ spee*1 always depreciat$ by ,plato 9 its rhetorical manife/ations1 is =eign to 8 g5ius ev5 = purposes ( philosophy3 ! v lecture on cosmogony :i* he assigns to ,timu1 & ! my?ical n>rative 7unf9i%$7 deliv]$ by ,kritias1 are br\ght into some?+ l ! =m ( dialogue by a prefatory colloquy specially adapt$ = t end4 ,x ?us appe>s t1 :ile 9 ,sokrates ! dialectic process is exhibit$ 9 its maximum ( p]fection1 b disconnect$ altoge!r f ! didactic1 :i* is left unnotic$1--9 ,plato ! didactic process is recogniz$ & po/ulat$1 b is nev]!less conf\nd$ ) or absorb$ into ! dialectic1 & admitt$ only z "o p>ticul>1 ult]ior1 phase & manife/ation ( x4 ,at ! same "t1 :ile bo? ,sokrates & ,plato br+ out =cibly ! side ( anti!sis betwe5 ,rhetoric & ,dialectic1 !y omit entirely to notice ! side ( analogy or p>allelism betwe5 !m4 ,on bo? ^! po9ts ,ari/otle has correct$ ! confusion1 & improv$ ^u ! discrim9ation1 ( 8 two pr$ecessors4 ,he has po9t$ly di/+ui%$ ! dialectic process f ! didactic2 & he has gone a /ep f>!r1 furni%+ a sep>ate !ory & precepts bo? = ! "o & = ! o!r4 ,aga91 he has indicat$ ! important feature ( analogy betwe5 ,dialectic & ,rhetoric1 9 :i* same feature bo? ( !m contra/ ) ,didactic--! po9t n seiz$ ei!r by ,sokrates or by ,plato4 ,plato1 9 8 ,sokratic dialogues or dialogues ( ,se>*1 has giv5 admirable illu/rative specim5s ( t :i* ,sokrates und]/ood & practis$ orally z ,dialectic4 ,ari/otle1 9 8 ,topica1 has 9 8 usual ve9 ( philosophy !oriz$ on ?is practice z an art4 ,he _h himself compos$ dialogues1 :i* seem z f> z we c judge f indirect & fragm5t>y evid5ce1 to h be5 ,cic]onian or rhetorical colloquies--a long plead+ pro foll[$ by a long plead+ con1 r ?an examples ( ,sokratic bra*ylogy & cross-exam9ation4 ,b 8 !ory giv5 9 ! ,topica applies to g5u9e ,sokratic f5c+1 n to ! ,cic]onian alt]nation ( set spee*es4 ,he disall[s ! conception ( ,plato1 t ,dialectic is a process includ+ n m]ely dispute b all full & efficaci\s employm5t ( g5]al t]ms & ideas = purposes ( tea*+3 he treats ?is latt] z a prov9ce by itself1 "u ! head ( ,analytic3 & devotes ! ,topica to ! explanation ( argum5tative debate1 pure & simple4 ,he takes 8 dep>ture f ! ,syllogism1 z ! type ( d$uctive reason+ g5]ally2 ! conditions "u :i* syllogi/ic reason+ is valid & legitimate1 hav+ be5 already expla9$ 9 8 treatise call$ ,analytica ,priora4 ,s obta9$1 & regulat$ by ^? conditions1 ! ,syllogism may be appli$ to "o or o!r ( two di/9ct & indep5d5t purposes3--7#a7 ,to ,demon/ration or ,sci5tific ,tea*+1 :i* we h _h be=e u 9 ! la/ two *apt]s1 comm5t+ on ! ,analytica ,po/]iora2 7#b7 ,to ,dialectic1 or ,argum5tative ,debate1 :i* we are n[ ab\t to ent] on 9 ! ,topica4 ,! ,dialectic ,syllogism1 expla9$ 9 ! ,topica1 has "s po9ts 9 common ) ! ,demon/rative ,syllogism1 treat$ 9 ! ,analytica ,po/]iora4 ,9 bo?1 ! =mal conditions are ! same1 & ! conclusions w c]ta9ly be true1 if ! premisses are true2 9 bo?1 ! axioms ( d$uctive reason+ are assum$1 namely1 ! maxims ( ,contradiction & ,exclud$ ,middle4 ,b1 9 reg>d to ! subject-matt]1 ! diff]5ces betwe5 !m are important4 ,! ,demon/rative ,syllogism applies only to a small numb] ( select sci5ces1 ea* hav+ special pr9cipia ( its own1 or prim>y1 undemon/rable tru?s1 obta9$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance by induction f p>ticul>s4 ,! premisses be+ ?us incontrov]tibly c]ta91 ! conclusions d$uc$ are n less c]ta92 !re is no necess>y place = conflict+ argum5ts or c\nt]-syllogisms1 al?\gh 9 p>ticul> cases p>alogisms may be committ$1 & errone\s propositions or majors = syllogism may be assum$4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! ,dialectic ,syllogism applies to all matt]s )\t exception2 ! premisses on :i* x proce$s are nei!r obta9$ by induction1 nor incontrov]tibly c]ta91 b are borr[$ f "s "o among ! v>ieties ( accr$it$ or au?oritative op9ion4 ,!y may be op9ions held by ! multitude ( any p>ticul> c\ntry1 or by an intellig5t majority1 or by a p>ticul> s*ool ( philosoph]s or wise individuals1 or f transmission z a curr5t prov]b or dictum ( "s anci5t poet or se]4 ,f any "o ( ^! s\rces ! dialectician may borr[ premisses = syllogiz+4 ,b x (t5 happ5s t ! premisses :i* !y supply are disp>ate1 or 9 direct contradiction to ea* o!r2 & none ( !m is entitl$ to be consid]$ z f9al or p]emptory aga9/ ! re/4 ,accord+ly1 x is an ess5tial feature ( ,dialectic z well z ( ,rhetoric t !y furni% means ( e/abli%+ conclusions contr>y or contradictory1 by syllogisms equally legitimate4#e ,! dialectic proc$ure is f its beg9n+ intr9sically cont5ti\s1 imply+ a debate betwe5 two p]sons1 "o ( :om sets up a !sis to def5d1 :ile ! o!r impugns x by int]rogation3 ! assailant has ga9$ 8 po9t1 if he c r$uce ! def5dant to ! necessity ( contradict+ himself2 :ile ! def5dant on 8 side has to avoid giv+ any responses :i* may drive him to ! necessity ( su* contradiction4 ,footnote #e3 ,ari/ot4 ,rhetoric4 ,i4 i4 p4 #acee1 a4 #bi3 ,greek3 e7_/ti de ta7nanti_/a dei du_/na/hai pei_/!91 ka?a_/p] kai e7n tois sullogismois1 ou7* o7_/ps a7mpho_/t]a pra_/ttm51 7ou7 gar dei ta phaula pei_/!971 a7ll' i7_/na m_/te lan?a_/n ps e7_/*ei1 kai o7_/ps a7_/ll\ *rme_/n\ tois lo_/gois m dikai_/s au7toi lu_/e9 e7_/*m54 tn men ou7n a7_/lln te*nn ou7demi_/a ta7nanti_/a sullogi_/zetai2 7 de dialektik kai 7 r7torik mo_/nai t\to poi\s92 o7moi_/s ga_/r ei7s9 a7mpho_/t]ai tn e7nanti_/n4 ,ari/otle takes great pa9s to en=ce ! sep>ation bo? ( ,dialectic & ,rhetoric f ,sci5ce or ,in/ruction ) its purpose ( tea*+ or le>n+4 ,he disapproves ( ^? 7seem+ly int5d+ ,plato7 :o seek to conf\nd ! two4 ,dialectic & ,rhetoric 7he says7 h = _! prov9ce words & disc\rse1 n facts or ?+s3 !y are n sci5tific or didactic processes1 b p[]s or accompli%m5ts ( disc\rse2 & :oev] tries to conv]t !m into means ( tea*+ or le>n+ p>ticul> subjects1 aboli%es _! *>act]i/ic feature & re/ricts _! univ]sality ( application4#f ,bo? ( !m deal n ) sci5tific facts1 b ) ! sum total ( accr$it$ op9ions1 ?\gh ea* = its own purpose3 bo? ( !m lay hold ( any "o among ! incoh]5t aggregate ( accept$ g5]alities1 suitable = ! occasion2 ! ,dialectician try+ to =ce 8 oppon5t into an inconsi/5cy1 ! ,rhetor try+ to p]suade 8 auditors into a fav\rable decision4 ,nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r goes deep] ?an op9ion = 8 premisses1 nor conc]ns himself ab\t e/abli%+ by induction prim>y or special pr9cipia1 su* z may s]ve = a basis ( demon/ration4 ,footnote #f3 ,ibid4 iv4 #b1 p4 #acei1 b4 #ab3 ,greek3 o7_/s d' a7_/n tis 7 tn dialektikn 7 tau_/tn 7tn r7torikn7 m ka?a_/p] a7n duna_/meis1 a7ll' e7pi/_/mas1 peiratai kataskeua_/ze91 l_/setai tn phu_/s9 au7tn a7phani_/sas1 t metabai_/ne9 e7piskeua_/zn ei7s e7pi/_/mas u7pokeime_/nn t9n pragma_/tn1 a7lla m mo_/non lo_/gn4 ,9 e society !re are v>i\s float+ op9ions & beliefs1 ea* c>ry+ ) x a c]ta9 measure ( au?ority1 (t5 inconsi/5t ) ea* o!r1 n ! same 9 diff]5t societies1 nor always ! same ev5 9 ! same society4 ,ea* y\?ful citiz51 z he gr[s to manhood1 imbibes ^! op9ions & beliefs ins5sibly & )\t special or pr(essional tea*+4#g ,! /ock ( op9ions ?us transmitt$ w\ld n be id5tical ev5 at ,a!ns & ,sp>ta3 ! diff]5ce w\ld be /ill great]1 if we comp>$ ,a!ns ) ,rome1 ,alex&ria1 or ,j]usalem4 ,su* op9ions all c>ry ) !m m or less ( au?ority1 & x is f !m t ! reason+s ( common life1 among unsci5tific m51 are suppli$4 ,! practice ( dialectical discussion1 preval5t 9 ,a!ns dur+ & be=e ! "t ( ,ari/otle1 0 only a m elaborate1 improv$1 & +5i\s exhibition ( ?is common talk2 proce$+ on ! same premisses1 b br++ !m toge!r f a great] v>iety ( s\rces1 h&l+ !m m clev]ly1 & hav+ = its purpose to convict an oppon5t ( inconsi/5cy4 ,! dialecticians dwelt exclusively 9 ! region ( ^! receiv$ op9ions2 & ! purpose ( _! debates 0 to prove inconsi/5cy1 or to repel ! pro( ( inconsi/5cy1 betwe5 "o op9ion & ano!r4 ,footnote #g3 ,= an acute & int]e/+ description ( ?is unsy/ematic transmission ( op9ions1 see1 9 ! ,protagoras ( ,plato1 ! spee* put into ! m\? ( ,protagoras1 pp4 #cbc-cbe4 ,see also ',plato & ! ,o!r ,companions ( ,sokrates1' ,vol4 ,,ii4 *4 xxi4 p4 #de1 seq4 ,?is dialectic debate1 :i* ,ari/otle f\nd curr5t at ,a!ns1 he tries 9 ! ,topica to def9e & r$uce to sy/em4 ,! dialectician mu/ employ ,syllogism2 & we are fir/ taught to di/+ui% ! ,syllogism t he employs f o!rs4 ,! ,dialectic syllogism is discrim9at$ on "o side f ! ,demon/rative1 on ! o!r f ! ,eri/ic 7or litigi\s72 also f ! sci5tific ,p>alogism or ,pseudographeme4 ,?is discrim9ation is f\nd$ on ! nature ( ! evid5ce belong+ to ! premisses4 ,! ,demon/rative syllogism 7:i* we h already gone ?r\gh 9 ! ,analytica ,po/]iora7 has premisses n[ay dep5d5t ^u op9ion3 x d$uces conclusions f true fir/ pr9ciples1 obta9$ by ,induction 9 ea* sci5ce1 & diff]5t 9 ea* diff]5t sci5ce4 ,! ,dialectic syllogism does n aspire to any su* evid5ce1 b borr[s its premisses f ,op9ion ( "s sort2 accr$it$ ei!r by numb]s1 or by wise individuals1 or by "s o!r au?oritative hold+4 ,z ?is evid5ce is v inf]ior to t ( ! demon/rative syllogism1 s aga9 x is sup]ior to t ( ! ?ird v>iety--! ,eri/ic syllogism4 ,9 ?is ?ird v>iety1#h ! premisses d n re/ ^u any real op9ion1 b only on a fallaci\s appe>ance or simulation ( op9ion2 insomu* t !y are at once detect$ z false1 by any p]son ev5 ( mod]ate und]/&+2 :]eas 7accord+ to ,ari/otle7 no real op9ion ev] c>ries ) x su* a m]ely sup]ficial semblance1 or is ev] s obvi\sly & palpably false4 ,a syllogism is call$ ,eri/ic also :5 x is faulty 9 =m1 ?\gh its premisses may be borr[$ f real op9ion1 or :5 x is bo? faulty 9 =m & false 9 ! matt] ( ! premisses4 ,/ill a f\r? v>iety ( syllogism is ! sci5tific ,p>alogism3 :]e ! premisses are n borr[$ f any op9ion1 real or simulat$1 b belong prop]ly to ! p>ticul> sci5ce 9 :i* !y are employ$1 yet nev]!less are false or errone\s4#i ,footnote #h3 ,topic4 ,i4 p4 #ajj1 b4 #bc3 ,greek3 e7ri/ikos d' e7_//i sullogismos o7 e7k pha9ome_/nn e7ndo_/xn1 m o7_/ntn de_/1 kai o7 e7x e7ndo_/xn 7 pha9ome_/nn e7ndo_/xn pha9o_/m5os4 ou7 gar pan to pha9o_/m5on e7_/ndoxon kai e7_//9 e7_/ndoxon4 ou7!n gar tn legome_/nn e7ndo_/xn e7pipo_/laion e7_/*ei pantels tn phantasi_/an1 ka?a_/p] p]i tas tn e7ri/ikn lo_/gn a7r*as sumbe_/bk5 e7_/*e92 p>a*rma gar kai 7s e7pi to polu tois kai mikra sunoran duname_/nois kata_/dlos e7n au7tois 7 t\ pseu_/d\s e7/i phu_/sis4 ,footnote #i3 ,ibid4 i4 p4 #aja1 a4 #e-ag4 ,^u ! classification ( syllogisms "h set =? by ,ari/otle1 we may rem>k t ! di/9ction betwe5 ! ,demon/rative & ! ,dialectic is true & important2 b t betwe5 ! ,dialectic & ! ,eri/ic is fa9t & unimportant2 ! class call$ ,eri/ic syllogisms be+ app>5tly introduc$ m]ely to create a diff]5ce1 real or suppos$1 betwe5 ! ,dialectician & ! ,sophi/1 & ?us to s]ve z a prelude to ! la/ book ( ?is treatise1 entitl$ ,sophi/ici ,el5*i4 ,! class-title ,eri/ic 7or litigi\s7 is f\nd$ ^u a supposition ( di%one/ int5tions on ! "p ( ! disputant2 b x is unphilosophical to make ?is ! f\ndation ( a class1 & to rank ! same syllogism 9 ! class1 or out ( x1 accord+ z ! int5tions ( ! disputant :o employs x are hone/ or di%one/4 ,besides1 a portion ( ,ari/otle's def9ition tells u t ! ,eri/ic syllogism is "o ( :i* ! premisses c impose ^u no "o2 be+ su* t a v ord9>y man c at once detect _! falsity4 ,! di%one/ disputant1 surely1 w\ld argue to little purpose1 if he int5tionally employ$ su* premisses z ^!4 ,la/ly1 accord+ to ano!r portion ( ,ari/otle's def9ition1 e syllogism faulty 9 =m1 or yield+ no legitimate conclusion at all1 w fall "u ! class ,eri/ic1 & ?is he himself 9 ano!r place explicitly /ates2#aj :i* w\ld imply t ! bad syllogism mu/ always emanate f litigi\s or di%one/ int5tions4 ,b 9 def9+ ! ,pseudographeme1 imm$iately aft]w>ds1 ,ari/otle does n imply t ! false sci5tific premiss af=ds presumption ( litigi\s disposition on ! "p ( ^? :o advance x2 nor does !re seem any great] propriety 9 ?r[+ all bad dialectic syllogisms "u ! g5]al head ( ,eri/ic4 ,footnote #aj3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 xii4 p4 #afb1 b4 #d4 ,! dialectician1 !n1 w c>ry on debate only by means ( premisses su/a9$ by real op9ion2 :i* n only always c>ry "s au?ority1 b are assum$ z be+ nev] obvi\sly fallaci\s2 ?\gh (t5 inconsi/5t ) ea* o!r1 & admitt+ ( argum5tation pro & con4 ,^! are :at ,ari/otle calls ,endoxa2 oppos$ to ,adoxa1 or propositions :i* are disc\nt5anc$1 or at lea/ n c\nt5anc$1 by op9ion1 & to ,p>adoxa 7a peculi> v>iety ( ,adoxa71#aa or propositions :i*1 ?\gh hav+ +5i\s argum5ts 9 _! fav\r1 yet are adv]se to "s proclaim$ & wide-spread op9ions1 & ?us h ! pr$om9ant au?ority ( op9ion aga9/ !m4 ,footnote #aa3 ,ibid4 ,i4 xi4 p4 #ajd1 b4 #bd3 ,greek3 p]i 7n lo_/gon e7_/*om5 e7nanti_/on tais d_/xais4 ,( ^! ?ree words1 ,p>adox is ! only "o t has obta9$ a foot+ 9 mod]n languages1 ?anks to ,cic]o & ! ,lat9 au?ors4 ,if ! ^w ,endox _h obta9$ ! l foot+1 we %\ld be able to keep m closely to ! ?\ght & views ( ,ari/otle4 ,z x is1 we are oblig$ to translate ! ,greek ,endoxon z ,probable1 & ,adoxon z ,improbable3#ab :i*1 ?\gh n incorrect1 is nei!r suitable nor exactly co9cid5t4 ,probable corresponds m ne>ly to :at ,ari/otle 7bo? 9 ?is treatise & 9 ! ,analytica7 ann\nces sometimes z ,greek3 to 7s e7pi to polu_/--t :i* happ5s 9 mo/ cases b n 9 all1 z di/+ui%$ f ! univ]sal & necess>y on "o side1 & f ! purely casual on ! o!r2#ac sometimes1 also1 z ,greek3 to ei7ko_/s or ,greek3 to smeion4 ,n[ ?is is a diff]5t idea f 7?\gh x has a po9t ( analogy )7 ! ,endoxon3 :i* is n necess>ily true ev5 9 "p1 b may be :olly untrue2 :i* always has "s consid]ations aga9/ x1 ?\gh !re may be m 9 its fav\r2 & :i*1 la/ly1 may be diff]5t1 or ev5 opposite1 9 diff]5t ages & diff]5t /ates ( society4 ,:5 ,josephus di/+ui%$ himself z a disputant 9 ! s*ools ( ,j]usalem on po9ts ( law & cu/om1#ad 8 argum5ts mu/ h be5 *iefly borr[$ f ! ,endoxa or preval5t op9ions ( ! "t & place2 b ^! mu/ h diff]$ widely f ! ,endoxa f\nd & argu$ ^u by ! contempor>ies ( ,ari/otle at ,a!ns4 ,! ,endoxon may inde$ be rightly call$ probable1 because1 :5ev] a proposition is =tifi$ by a c]ta9 body ( op9ion1 ,ari/otle admits a c]ta9 presumption 7great] or less7 t x is true4 ,b su* probability is n ess5tial to ! ,endoxon3 x is only an accid5t or accompanim5t 7to use ! ,ari/otelian phrase71 & by no means an univ]sal accompanim5t4 ,! ess5tial feature ( ! ,endoxon is1 t x has acquir$ a c]ta9 am\nt ( recognition among ! mass ( op9ions & beliefs float+ & c>ry+ au?ority at ! actual "t & place4 ,! ,engli% ^w :]eby x is translat$ ought to express ?is idea1 & no?+ m2 j z ! correlative ^w ,p>adox does express its implication1 approa*$ f ! o!r side4 ,un=tunately1 9 ! abs5ce ( ,endox1 we h no good ^w = ! purpose4 ,footnote #ab3 ,ari/otle gives a d\ble mean+ ( ,greek3 a7_/doxon 7,topic4 ,,viii4 ix4 ix4 #afj1 b4 #ag73-- #a4 ,t :i* involves absurd or /range consequ5ces 7,greek3 a7_/topa74 #b4 ,t :i* af=ds presumption ( a bad disposition1 su* z o!rs w disapprove--,greek3 oi7on o7_/ti 7don ta7ga?on kai to a7dikein be_/ltion t\ a7dikei/hai4 ,footnote #ac3 ,topic4 ,,ii4 vi4 p4 #aab1 b4 #a3 ,greek3 e7pei de tn pragma_/tn ta men e7x a7na_/gks e7/i_/1 ta d' 7s e7pi to polu_/1 ta d' o7po_/t]' e7_/tu*51 c4 ,comp>e also ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 xxx41 et alib4 ,footnote #ad3 ,see ,josephus1 ,de ,vit ,su1 c4 ii4 ,x is )9 ?is wide field ( float+ op9ions t dialectical debate & rhetorical plead+ are c>ri$ on4 ,dialectic supposes a que/ion] or assailant1 & a respond5t or def5dant4 ,! respond5t selects & proclaims a problem or !sis1 :i* he und]takes to ma9ta93 ! assailant puts to him successive que/ions1 ) ! view ( obta9+ concessions :i* may s]ve z premisses = a c\nt]-syllogism1 ( :i* ! conclusion is contradictory or contr>y to ! !sis itself1 or to "s o!r antec$5t premiss :i* ! respond5t has already conc$$4 ,x is ! bus9ess ( ! respond5t to avoid mak+ any answ]s :i* may s]ve z premisses = su* a c\nt]-syllogism4 ,if he succe$s 9 ?is1 s z n to become implicat$ 9 any contradiction ) himself1 he has baffl$ 8 assailant1 & ga9$ ! victory4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 rules & conditions1 b9d+ on bo? p>ties1 "u :i* ! debate mu/ be c>ri$ on4 ,x is ! purpose ( ! ,topica to indicate ^! rules2 &1 9 accordance !re)1 to advise bo? p>ties z to ! effective conduct ( _! respective cases--z to ! be/ ?ru/s & ! be/ mode ( p>ry+4 ,! assailant is suppli$ ) a classifi$ catalogue ( mat]ials = que/ions1 & ) indications ( ! weak po9ts :i* he is to look out = 9 any new subject :i* may turn up = debate4 ,he is f>!r in/ruct$ h[ to %ape1 m>%al1 & disguise 8 que/ions1 9 su* a way t ! respond5t may lea/ be able to =esee _! ultimate be>+4 ,! respond5t1 on 8 side1 is told :at he ought to look =w>d to & gu>d aga9/4 ,su* is ! scope ( ! pres5t treatise2 ! entire process be+ consid]$ 9 ! l>ge & compreh5sive _s cu/om>y ) ,ari/otle1 & di/ribut$ accord+ to ! ,ari/otelian t]m9ology & classification4 ,x is pla9 t nei!r ! direct purpose ( ! debat]s1 nor ! usual result ( ! debate1 is to prove tru? or to disprove falsehood4 ,su* may inde$ be ! result occasionally2 b ! only c]ta9 result is1 t an inconsi/5cy is expos$ 9 ! respond5t's mann] ( def5d+ 8 !sis1 or t ! assailant fails 9 8 purpose ( %[+ up su* inconsi/5cy4 ,:i*ev] way ! debate may turn1 no c]ta9 inf]5ce c be drawn z to ! !sis itself3 n m]ely z to :e!r x is true or false1 b ev5 z to :e!r x consi/s or does n consi/ ) o!r bran*es ( receiv$ op9ions4 ,su* be+ ! case1 :at is ! use or value ( dialectic debate1 or ( a me?odiz$ proc$ure = conduct+ x8 ,ari/otle answ]s ?is "q1 tell+ u t x is useful = ?ree purposes4#ae ,fir/1 ! debate is a valuable & /imulat+ m5tal ex]cise2 &1 if a me?odiz$ proc$ure be laid d[n1 bo? p>ties w be able to conduct x m easily z well z m efficaci\sly4 ,secondly1 x is useful = our int]c\rse ) ! multitude2#af = ! proc$ure directs u to note & rememb] ! op9ions ( ! multitude1 & su* k w facilitate our int]c\rse ) !m3 we %all conv]se ) !m out ( _! own op9ions1 :i* we may ?us be able b5eficially to modify4 ,?irdly1 dialectic debate has an useful ?\gh indirect be>+ ev5 ^u ! processes ( sci5ce & philosophy1 & ^u ! tru?s !reby acquir$4#ag ,= x accu/oms u to /udy ! difficulties on bo? sides ( e "q1 & ?us assi/s u 9 detect+ & discrim9at+ tru? & falsehood4 ,moreov]1 ap>t f ?is mode ( usefulness1 x op5s a new road to ! scrut9y ( ! fir/ pr9cipia ( ea* sep>ate sci5ce4 ,^! pr9cipia c nev] be scrut9iz$ ?r\gh ! tru?s ( ! sci5ce itself1 :i* presuppose !m & are d$uc$ f !m4 ,to inve/igate & v]ify !m1 is ! appropriate task ( ,fir/ ,philosophy4 ,b ,dialectic also1 c>ry+ inve/igation z x does ev]y:]e1 & famili>iz$ ) ! receiv$ op9ions on bo? sides ( e subject1 sugge/s _m po9ts ( importance 9 reg>d to ^! pr9cipia4 ,footnote #ae3 ,topic4 ,i4 ii4 p4 #aja1 a4 #bf3 ,greek3 e7_//i d pros tri_/a1 pros gumnasi_/an1 pros tas e7nteu_/xeis1 pros tas kata philosophi_/an e7pi/_/mas4 ,footnote #af3 ,ibid4 a4 #cj3 ,greek3 pros de tas e7nteu_/xeis1 dio_/ti tas tn polln katri?mme_/noi d_/xas ou7k e7k tn a7llotri_/n a7ll' e7k tn oi7kei_/n dogma_/tn o7mil_/som5 pros au7t\_/s1 metabiba_/zontes o7_/ ti a7n m kals phai_/nntai le_/ge9 7min4 ,footnote #ag3 ,ibid4 a4 #cd3 ,greek3 pros de tas kata philosophi_/an e7pi/_/mas1 c4 ,! ?ree heads j enum]at$ illu/rate ! discrim9at+ c>e ( ,ari/otle4 ,! po9t ( ! fir/ head is br\ght out (t5 9 ! ,platonic ,dialogues ( ,se>*3 ! /imulus br\ght to be> 9 awak5+ dormant intellectual p[]1 & 9 dissipat+ t false p]suasion ( k :i* is ! g5]al infirmity ( mank9d1 is frequ5tly decl>$ by ,plato to be ! mo/ difficult1 b ! indisp5sable1 op]ation ( ! tea*] ^u 8 pupil4 ,"u ! ?ird head1 ,ari/otle puts ?is po9t m ju/ly ?an ,plato1 n z a portion ( tea*+1 nor z sup]s$+ direct tea*+1 b z a prelim9>y !reunto2 & x is a habit ( 8 own to prefix ?is antec$5t survey ( d\bts & difficulties on bo? sides1 z a means ( %>p5+ our insight into ! dogmatic exposition :i* imm$iately foll[s4 ,"u ! second head1 we f9d exhibit$ ano!r *>act]i/ic feature ( ,ari/otle's m9d--! value :i* he sets ^u a copi\s acqua9tance ) receiv$ op9ions1 :e!r correct or errone\s4 ,! philosoph]s ( 8 day no long] talk$ publicly 9 ! m>ket-place & ) e "o indiscrim9ately1 z ,sokrates _h done3 sci5tific /udy1 & ! habit ( writt5 compositions naturally conduct$ !m into a life ap>t1 among select companions4 ,ari/otle "h indicates t su* e/rangem5t f ! multitude less5$ _! means ( act+ b5eficially on ! multitude1 & 9 ! way ( c\nt]action he prescribes dialectical ex]cise4 ,8 own l>ge & _m-sid$ obs]vation1 ext5d+ to ! mo/ vulg> ph5om5a1 is visible ?r\gh\t 8 works1 & we "k t he drew up a collection ( curr5t prov]bs4#ah ,footnote #ah3 ,diog4 ,la]t4 v4 #bf4 ,kephisodorus1 ! disciple ( ,isokrates1 9 def5d+ 8 ma/]1 depreciat$ ?is ,ari/otelian collection2 see 9 ,a!nu ,,ii4 lvi41 comp>+ ,s*weighus]'s ,animadv]siones ,i4 p4 #djf4 ,aga91 :at we read "u ! ?ird head %[s t1 :ile ,ari/otle ev]y:]e decl>es ,demon/ration & tea*+ to be a process ap>t f ,dialectic1 he at ! same "t recognizes ! legitimate function ( ! latt]1 = te/+ & v]ify+ ! pr9cipia ( ,demon/ration3#ai :i* pr9cipia _c be rea*$ by ,demon/ration itself1 s9ce e demon/ration presupposes !m4 ,he does n mean t ^! pr9cipia c be prov$ by ,dialectic1 = ,dialectic does n prove any ?+2 b x is necess>y z a te/ or scrut9iz+ process to assure u t all ! objections capable ( be+ (f]$ aga9/ !m c be met by suffici5t replies4 ,9 respect ( univ]sal compet5ce & applicability1 ,dialectic is ! c\nt]p>t1 or r ! t5tative companion & adjunct1 ( :at ,ari/otle calls ,fir/ ,philosophy or ,ontology2 to :i* la/ he assigns ! cognizance ( pr9cipia1 z we %all see :5 we treat ( ! ,metaphysica4#bj ,dialectic 7he repeats m ?an once7 is n a def9ite sci5ce or body ( doctr9e1 b1 l rhetoric or m$ic9e1 a practical art or ability ( deal+ ) ! ev] v>y+ situations ( ! dialogue2 ( imag9+ & enunciat+ ! "q prop] = attack1 or ! answ] prop] = def5ce1 z ! case may be4 ,z 9 ! o!r arts1 its res\rces are n unlimit$4 ,nor c ! dialectician1 any m ?an ! rhetor or ! physician1 always gu>antee success4 ,ea* ( !m has an end to be accompli%$2 & if he employs = its accompli%m5t ! be/ means t ! situation p]mits1 he mu/ be consid]$ a ma/] ( 8 own art & proc$ure4#ba ,to detect tru?1 & to detect :at is l tru?1 belong 79 ,ari/otle's judgm5t7 to ! same m5tal capacity4 ,mank9d h a natural t5d5cy t[>ds tru?1 & ! common op9ions !re=e are1 9 mo/ cases1 co9cid5t ) tru?4 ,accord+ly1 ! man :o div9es well 9 reg>d to v]isimilitude1 w usually div9e well 9 reg>d to tru?4#bb ,footnote #ai3 ,topic4 ,i4 ii4 p4 #aja1 b4 #c3 ,greek3 e7xeta/ik gar ou7sa pros tas a7pasn tn me?o_/dn a7r*as o7dn e7_/*ei4 ,footnote #bj3 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,g4 iii4 p4 #ajje1 a4 #bj-;b4 #aj2 ,greek3 ,g4 ii4 p4 #ajjd1 b4 #ae-cj4 ,footnote #ba3 ,topic4 ,i4 iii4 p4 #aja1 b4 #e3 ,greek3 e7_/xom5 de tele_/s tn me_/?odon1 o7_/tan o7moi_/s e7_/*m5 7_/sp] e7pi r7toriks kai i7atriks kai tn toi\_/tn duna_/men4 t\to d' e7/i to e7k tn e7nde*ome_/nn poiein a7 proair\_/me?a4 ou7_/te gar o7 r7torikos e7k pantos tro_/p\ pei_/sei1 ou7_/?' o7 i7atrikos u7gia_/sei2 a7ll' e7an tn e7nde*ome_/nn mden p>ali_/p1 i7kans au7ton e7_/*e9 tn e7pi/_/mn ph_/som54 ,! ^w ,greek3 e7pi/_/mn 9 ! la/ l9e is us$ loosely1 s9ce ,ari/otle1 9 ! ,rhetorica 7p4 #acfi1 b4 #ab71 explicitly /ates t ,rhetoric & ,dialectic are n to be treat$ z ,greek3 e7pi/_/mas b z m]e ,greek3 duna_/meis4 ,footnote #bb3 ,rhetoric4 ,i4 i4 p4 #acee1 a4 #ag4 ,! subject-matt] ( dialectic debate1 speak+ g5]ally1 consi/s ( ,propositions & ,problems1 to be prop\nd$ z que/ions by ! assailant & to be admitt$ or disall[$ by ! def5dant4 ,!y w relate ei!r to ,expet5da & ,fugi5da1 or !y mu/ be>1 at lea/ indirectly1 ^u "s po9t ( sci5tific tru? or obs]v$ cognition4#bc ,!y w be ei!r e?ical1 physical1 or logical2 class-t]ms :i* ,ari/otle decl9es to def9e1 cont5t+ himself ) giv+ an example to illu/rate ea* ( !m1 :ile add+ t ! /ud5t %\ld collect o!r simil> examples1 & gradually famili>ize himself ) ! full mean+ ( ! g5]al t]m1 ?r\gh su* inductive comp>ison ( p>ticul>s4#bd ,footnote #bc3 ,topic4 ,i1 xi4 p4 #ajd1 b4 #b4 ,footnote #bd3 ,topic4 ,i4 xiv4 p4 #aje1 b4 #bj-bi3 ,greek3 ai7 men gar 7?ikai prota_/seis ei7si_/n1 ai7 de phusikai_/1 ai7 de logikai_/4--poiai d' e7_/ka/ai tn proeirme_/nn1 o7rism men ou7k eu7petes a7pod\nai p]i au7tn1 t de dia ts e7paggs sun!i_/a peirate_/on gnri_/ze9 e7ka_//n au7tn1 kata ta proeirme_/na p>adei_/gmata e7piskop\nta4 ,?is illu/rates ,ari/otle's view ( ! process ( ,induction & its results2 ! acquisition ( ! import ( a g5]al t]m1 ?r\gh comp>ison ( num]\s p>ticul>s compreh5d$ "u x4 ,! t]m logical does n exactly correspond ) ,ari/otle's ,greek3 logikai_/1 b on ! pres5t occasion no bett] t]m pres5ts itself4 ,b x is n e problem com+ "u "o ( ^! ?ree heads t is fit = dialectic debate4 ,if a man prop\nds z subject = debate1 ,:e!r we ought to hon\r ! gods or to love our p>5ts1 he des]ves puni%m5t in/ead ( refutation3 if he selects ! "q1 ,:e!r sn[ is :ite or n1 he mu/ be suppos$ defici5t 9 p]ceptive p[]4#be ,:at all p]sons unanim\sly believe1 is unsuitable3#bf :at no "o believes is also unsuitable1 s9ce x w n be conc$$ by any respond5t4 ,! problem mu/ h "s d\bts & difficulties1 9 ord] to af=d scope = discussion2 yet x mu/ n be "o ( :i* ! premisses are f>-fet*$ or recondite1 = t goes beyond ! limits ( dialectic ex]cise4#bg ,x ought to be "o on :i* op9ions are kn[n to be held1 bo? 9 ! affirmative & 9 ! negative2 on :i* ei!r ! multitude diff] among !mselves1 ! majority be+ on "o side1 :ile yet !re is an adv]se m9ority2 or "s indep5d5t au?ority /&s oppos$ to ! multitude1 su* z a philosoph] ( em95ce1 a pr(essional man or arti/ speak+ on 8 own p>ticul> craft1 a geomet] or a physician on ! specialities ( 8 dep>tm5t4 ,matt]s su* z ^! are ! appropriate subjects = dialectic debate2 & new matt]s ak9 to !m by way ( analogy may be imag9$ & w be p]fectly admissible4#bh ,ev5 an +5i\s p>adox or !sis adv]se to prevail+ op9ions may s]ve ! purpose1 z likely to obta9 c\nt5ance f "s au?ority1 ?\gh z yet we "k ( none4#bi ,footnote #be3 ,ibid4 xi4 p4 #aje1 a4 #fg3 ,greek3 kola_/ses--ai7/h_/ses1 de_/ontai4 ,yet he consid]s ! "q1 ,:e!r we ought r to obey ! laws ( ! /ate or ! comm&s ( our p>5ts1 9 case ( discrepancy betwe5 ! two1--z q fit = debate 7xiv4 p4 #aje1 b4 #bb74 ,footnote #bf3 ,ibid4 x4 p4 #ajd1 a4 #e4 ,footnote #bg3 ,ibid4 xi4 p4 #aje1 a4 #g3 ,greek3 ou7de d 7n su_/neggus 7 a7po_/deixis1 ou7_/d' 7n li_/an po_/r7r72 ta men gar ou7k e7_/*ei a7pori_/an1 ta de 9999plei_/on 7 kata gumna/ik_/n4 ,! loose use ( ! ^w ,greek3 a7po_/deixis des]ves note "h3 x is ! te*nical t]m ( ! ,analyt4 ,po/41 d5ot+ t application ( ! syllogism :i* contra/s ) ,dialectic altoge!r4 ,ari/otle "h means only t problems fall+ )9 ^! limits are ! be/ = dialectic discussion2 b1 9 8 sugge/ions lat] on1 he includes problems = discussion involv+ ! utmo/ g5]alities ( philosophy4 ,= example1 he (t5 adv]ts to dialectic debate on ! ,platonic ,ideas or ,=ms 7,topic4 ,,ii4 vii4 p4 #aac1 a4 #be2 ,v4 vii4 p4 #acg1 b4 #g2 ,,vi4 vi4 p4 #adc1 b4 #bd4 ,comp>e also ,i4 xi4 p4 #ajd1 b4 #ad47 ,footnote #bh3 ,topic4 ,i4 x4 p4 #ajd1 a4 #aa-cg4 ,footnote #bi3 ,ibid4 xi4 p4 #ajd1 b4 #bd-bh3 ,greek3 7 p]i 7n lo_/gon e7_/*om5 e7nanti_/on tais d_/xais--t\to ga_/r1 ei7 kai_/ t9i m dokei1 d_/xei5 a7n dia to lo_/gon e7_/*e94 ,^! conditions apply bo? to problems prop\nd$ = debate1 & to premisses t5d]$ on ei!r side dur+ ! discussion4 ,bo? ! int]rogator & ! respond5t--! =m] hav+ to put appropriate que/ions1 & ! latt] to make appropriate answ]s--mu/ "k & keep 9 m9d ^! v>ieties ( exi/+ op9ion among ! multitude z well z among ! special dissid5t au?orities above indicat$4 ,! dialectician ought to collect & catalogue su* ,endoxa1 ) ! op9ions analog\s to !m1 out ( writt5 treatises & else:]e2#cj di/ribut+ !m "u conv5i5t heads1 su* z ^? relat+ to good & evil g5]ally1 & to ea* special class ( good1 c4 ,ari/otle1 h[ev]1 admoni%es him t he is debat+ problems n sci5tifically1 b dialectically3 hav+ ref]5ce n to tru?1 b to op9ion4#ca ,if ! int]rogator 7 proce$+ sci5tifically & didactically1 he w\ld make use ( all true & asc]ta9$ propositions1 :e!r ! respond5t conc$$ !m or n1 z premisses = 8 syllogism4 ,b 9 ,dialectic he is dep5d5t on ! concession ( ! respond5t1 & c con/ruct 8 syllogisms only f premisses t h be5 conc$$ to him4#cb ,h5ce he mu/ keep z closely z he c to op9ions c>ry+ extr9sic au?ority1 z be+ ^? :i* ! respond5t w hesitate to disall[4#cc ,footnote #cj3 ,topic4 ,i4 xiv4 p4 #aje1 b4 #a-ah4 ,greek3 e7kle_/ge9 de *r kai e7k tn gegramme_/nn lo_/gn4 ,footnote #ca3 ,ibid4 b4 #cj3 ,greek3 pros men ou7n philosophi_/an kat' a7l_/!ian p]i au7tn pragmateute_/on1 dialektiks de pros d_/xan4 ,footnote #cb3 ,ibid4 ,,viii4 i4 p4 #aee1 b4 #aj3 ,greek3 pros e7_/t]on gar pan to toi\ton1 t de philoso_/ph kai zt\nti ka?' e7auton ou7den me_/lei1 e7an a7l? men 7 kai gn_/rima di' 7n o7 sullogismo_/s1 m ? d' au7ta o7 a7pokr9o_/m5os1 c4 ,footnote #cc3 ,ibid4 i4 p4 #aef1 b4 #bj3 ,greek3 *r_/simon de kai to e7pile_/ge9 o7_/ti su_/n!s kai lego_/m5on to toi\ton2 o7kn\si gar k9ein to ei7?o_/s1 e7_/n/as9 m e7_/*ontes4 ,moreov]1 ! =m ( ! int]rogation admissible 9 dialectic debate is peculi>4 ,! respond5t is n b\nd to furni% any in=mation 9 8 answ]3 he is b\nd only to admit1 or to d5y1 a proposition t5d]$ to him4 ,y mu/ n ask him1 ,:at is ! g5us ( man8 ,y mu/ y\rself decl>e ! g5us1 & ask :e!r he admits x1 9 "o or o!r ( ! two foll[+ =ms--7#a7 ,is animal ! g5us ( man8 7#b7 ,is animal ! g5us ( man1 or n8 to :i* ! response is an admission or a d5ial4#cd ,footnote #cd3 ,ibid4 ,i4 iv4 p4 #aja1 b4 #cj4 ,! fir/ ( ^! two =ms ,ari/otle calls a ,greek3 pro_/tasis1 ! second he calls a ,greek3 pro_/blma4 ,b ?is di/9ction betwe5 ^! two words is n /eadily adh]$ to3 x is diff]5tly decl>$ 9 ,topic4 ,i4 x41 xi4 p4 #ajd1 z ,alex&] has rem>k$ 9 ! ,s*olia1 p4 #beh1 b4 #d1 ,br&4 ,comp>e also ,de ,int]pretat4 p4 #bj1 b4 #bf2 & ,topic4 ,,viii4 ii4 p4 #aeh1 a4 #ad3 ,greek3 ou7 dokei de pan to ka?o_/l\ dialektik pro_/tasis ei7nai1 oi7on ti_/ e7/9 a7_/n?rpos1 7 posa*s le_/getai ta7ga?o_/n8 e7_//i gar pro_/tasis dialektik pros 7n e7_//9 a7pokri_/na/hai nai 7 ou7_/2 pros de tas ei7rme_/nas ou7k e7_//94 dio ou7 dialektika_/ e7/i ta toiauta tn e7rtma_/tn1 a7n m au7tos diori_/sas 7 dielo_/m5os ei7_/p4 ,dialectic proc$ure1 bo? ( ! assailant & ( ! def5dant1 has to d ) propositions & problems2 accord+ly1 ,ari/otle introduces a g5]al di/ribution ( propositions "u f\r heads4 ,! pr$icate mu/ ei!r be ,g5us1 or ,proprium1 or ,accid5t1 ( its subject4 ,b ! ,proprium divides itself aga9 into two4 ,x always reciprocates )1 or is co-ext5sive )1 its subject2 b sometimes x decl>es ! ess5ce ( ! subject1 sometimes x does n4 ,:5 x decl>es ! ess5ce ( ! subject1 ,ari/otle calls x ! ,def9ition2 :5 x does n decl>e ! ess5ce ( ! subject1 al?\gh reciprocat+ !re)1 he res]ves = x ! title ( ,proprium4 ,e proposition1 & e problem1 ! entire mat]ial ( ,dialectic1 w decl>e "o ( ^! f\r--,proprium1 ,def9ition1 ,g5us1 or ,accid5t4#ce ,! ,diff]5tia1 z be+ atta*$ to ! ,g5us1 is rank$ along ) ! ,g5us4#cf ,footnote #ce3 ,topic4 ,i4 iv4 p4 #aja1 b4 #ag-cf4 ,footnote #cf3 ,ibid4 b4 #ah3 ,greek3 tn diaphoran 7s ou7san g5ikn o7m\ t ge_/nei takte_/on4 ,! above f\r g5]al heads include all ! ,pr$icables1 :i* 7 di/ribut$ by subsequ5t logicians 7f :om ,porphyry borr[$7 into five heads in/ead ( f\r--,g5us1 ,species1 ,diff]5tia1 ,proprium1 ,accid5t2 ! ,diff]5tia be+ rank$ z a sep>ate item 9 ! qu9tuple di/ribution1 & ! ,species sub/itut$ 9 place ( ! ,def9ition4 ,x is "u ?is quadruple classification t ,ari/otle int5ds to consid] propositions & problems z matt]s = dialectic proc$ure3 he w give argum5tative sugge/ions applicable to ea* ( ! f\r successively4 ,x might be practicable 7he ?9ks7 to range all ! f\r "u ! s+le head ( ,def9ition2 s9ce argum5ts impugn+ ,g5us1 ,proprium1 & ,accid5t1 are all ( !m good also aga9/ ,def9ition4 ,b su* a simplification w\ld be p]plex+ & unmanageable 9 reg>d to dialectic proc$ure4#cg ,footnote #cg3 ,topic4 ,i4 vi4 p4 #ajb1 b4 #bg-ch4 ,greek3 a7ll' ou7 dia t\to mi_/an e7pi pa_/ntn ka?o_/l\ me_/?odon ztte_/on2 ou7_/te gar r7a_/dion eu7rein t\t' e7/i_/n1 ei7_/ ?' eu7re!i_/1 pantels a7saphs kai du_/s*r/os a7n ei7_/ pros tn prokeime_/nn pragmatei_/an4 ,t ! quadruple classification is exhau/ive1 & t e proposition or problem falls "u "o or o!r ( ! f\r heads1 may be %[n 9 two ways4 ,fir/1 by ,induction3 survey & analyse z _m propositions z y w1 all )\t exception w be f\nd to belong to "o ( ! f\r4#ch ,secondly1 by ! foll[+ ,d$uctive pro(3--,9 e proposition ! pr$icate is ei!r co-ext5sive & reciprocat+ ) ! subject1 or x is n4 ,if x does reciprocate1 x ei!r decl>es ! ess5ce ( ! subject1 or x does n3 if ! =m]1 x is ! ,def9ition2 if ! latt]1 x is a ,proprium4 ,b1 suppos+ ! pr$icate n to reciprocate ) ! subject1 x w ei!r decl>e some?+ conta9$ 9 ! ,def9ition1 or x w n4 ,if x does conta9 a "p ( ! ,def9ition1 t "p mu/ be ei!r a ,g5us or a ,diff]5tia1 s9ce ^! are ! con/itu5ts ( ! ,def9ition4 ,if x does n conta9 any su* "p1 x mu/ be an ,accid5t4#ci ,h5ce x appe>s t e proposition mu/ belong to "o or o!r ( ! f\r1 & t ! classification is exhau/ive4 ,footnote #ch3 ,ibid4 viii4 p4 #ajc1 b4 #c3 ,greek3 mi_/a men pi_//is 7 dia ts e7paggs2 ei7 ga_/r tis e7piskopoi_/ e7ka_//n tn prota_/sen kai tn problma_/tn1 phai_/noit' a7n 7 a7po t\ o7_/r\ 7 c4 ,footnote #ci3 ,topic4 ,i4 9999viii4 p4 #ajc1 b4 #f-ai3 ,greek3 a7_/ll de pi_//is 7 dia sullogism\4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ,ari/otle "h resolves ,def9ition into ,g5us & ,diff]5ti--,greek3 e7peid o7 o7rismos e7k ge_/n\s kai diaphorn e7/i_/n4 ,moreov]1 ?\gh he does n recognize ,species z a sep>ate head1 yet 9 8 def9ition ( ,g5us he implies ,species z kn[n--,greek3 ge_/nos e7/i to kata pleio_/nn kai diaph]o_/ntn t ei7_/dei e7n t ti_/ e7/i katgor\_/m5on 7p4 #ajb1 a4 #ca74 ,x ?us appe>s t ! qu9tuple classification is ! real & logical "o2 b ! quadruple may p]haps be m suitable = ! ,topica1 ) a view to dialectic proc$ure1 s9ce debates turn ^u ! attack & def5ce ( a ,def9ition4 ,moreov]1 ea* ( ! f\r ,pr$icables mu/ fall "u "o or o!r ( ! t5 ,categories or ,pr$icam5ts4 ,if ! pr$icate be ei!r ( ,g5us or ,def9ition1 decl>+ ! ess5ce ( ! subject1 x may fall "u any "o ( ! t5 ,categories2 if ( ,proprium or ,accid5t1 n decl>+ ess5ce1 x _c belong to ! fir/ ,category 7,greek3 ,ou7si_/a71 b mu/ fall "u "o ( ! rema9+ n9e4#dj ,footnote #dj3 ,ibid4 ix4 p4 #ajc1 b4 #bj-ci4 ,! notion ( ,sam5ess or ,id5tity occurs s (t5 9 dialectic debate1 t ,ari/otle discrim9ates its ?ree di/9ct s5ses or grades3 7#a7 ,num]o2 7#b7 ,specie2 7#c7 ,g5]e4 ,wat] f ! same spr+ is only idem specie1 ?\gh ! resemblance betwe5 two cups ( wat] f ! same spr+ is f> great] ?an t betwe5 wat] f diff]5t s\rces4 ,ev5 ,idem ,num]o has diff]5t significations3 sometimes !re are complete synonyms2 sometimes an individual is call$ by its proprium1 sometimes by its peculi> tempor>y accid5t4#da ,footnote #da3 ,ibid4 vii4 p4 #ajc1 a4 #f-ci4 ,hav+ ?us classifi$ dialectic propositions1 ,ari/otle proce$s to ! comb9ation ( propositions1 or dialectic disc\rse & argum5t4 ,?is is ( two sorts1 ei!r ,induction or ,syllogism2 ( bo? :i* we h already he>d 9 ! ,analytica4 ,induction is decl>$ to be pla9]1 m p]suasive1 ne>] to s5sible exp]i5ce1 & m suitable to ! _m1 ?an ,syllogism2 :ile ?is latt] c>ries great] compulsion & is m irresi/ible aga9/ pr(ess$ disputants4#db ,a p>ticul> example is giv5 to illu/rate :at ,induction is4 ,b we rem>k t ?\gh x is always m5tion$ z an argum5tative proc$ure important & indisp5sable1 yet nei!r "h nor else:]e does ,ari/otle g into any discrim9ative analysis ( ! conditions "u :i* x is valid1 z he does ab\t ,syllogism 9 ! ,analytica ,priora4 ,footnote #db3 ,ibid4 xii4 p4 #aje1 a4 #aj-ai3 ,greek3 po_/sa tn lo_/gn ei7_/d tn dialektikn1 c4 ,:at helps are available to give to ! dialectician a ready & abundant comm& ( syllogisms8 ,f\r di/9ct helps may be nam$3#dc 7#a7 ,he mu/ make a l>ge collection ( ,propositions2 7#b7 ,he mu/ /udy & discrim9ate ! diff]5t s5ses 9 :i* ! ,t]ms ( ^! propositions are us$2 7#c7 ,he mu/ detect & note ,diff]5ces2 7#d7 ,he mu/ inve/igate ,resemblances4 ,footnote #dc3 ,topic4 ,i4 xiii4 p4 #aje1 a4 #ba3 ,greek3 ta d' o7_/rgana1 di' 7n eu7por_/som5 tn sullogismn1 e7/i te_/tt>a1 e7_/n men to prota_/seis labein1 deu_/t]on de posa*s e7_/ka/on le_/getai du_/na/hai dielein1 tri_/ton tas diaphoras eu7rein1 te_/t>ton de 7 t\ o7moi_/ou ske_/psis4 ,! t]m ,greek3 o7_/rgana1 prop]ly signify+ in/rum5ts1 appe>s "h by a /ra9$ metaphor4 ,x means simply helps or aids1 z may be se5 by comp>+ ,top4 ,,viii4 xiv4 p4 #afc1 b4 #i4 ,waitz says truly 7,prolegg4 ad ,analyt4 ,po/4 p4 #bid73 unde fit1 ut ,greek3 o7_/rgana dicat qucunque ad aliquam rem faci5dam adium5tum aff]ant4 #a4 ,ab\t collect+ ,propositions1 ,ari/otle has already indicat$ t ^? want$ are su* z decl>e ,endoxa1 & o!r modes ( ?\ght cognate or 9999analog\s to ! ,endoxa3#dd op9ions ( ! _m1 & op9ions ( any small sections or individuals c>ry+ au?ority4 ,all su* are to be collect$ 7out ( writt5 treatises z well z f p]sonal enquiry72 nor are individual philosoph]s 7l ,emp$okles7 to be omitt$1 s9ce a proposition is likely en\gh to be conc$$ :5 put ^u ! au?ority ( an illu/ri\s "n4#de ,if any proposition is curr5tly admitt$ z true 9 g5]al or 9 mo/ cases1 x mu/ be t5d]$ ) confid5ce to ! respond5t z an univ]sal pr9ciple2 = he w probably grant x1 n be+ at fir/ aw>e ( ! exceptions4#df ,all propositions mu/ be regi/]$ 9 ! mo/ g5]al t]ms possible1 & mu/ !n be resolv$ into _! subord9ate con/itu5t p>ticul>s1 z f> z ! process ( subdivision c be c>ri$4#dg ,footnote #dd3 ,topic4 ,i4 xiv4 p4 #aje1 b4 #d3 ,greek3 e7kle_/ge9 m mo_/non tas ou7_/sas e7ndo_/x\s1 a7lla kai tas o7moi_/z tau_/tais4 ,footnote #de3 ,ibid4 b4 #ag3 ,greek3 !i_/ gar a7_/n tis to u7po_/ t9os ei7rme_/non e7ndo_/x\4 ,footnote #df3 ,ibid4 b4 #aj3 ,greek3 o7_/sa e7pi pa_/ntn 7 tn plei_//n phai_/netai1 lpte_/on 7s a7r*n kai dok\san !_/s92 ti!_/asi gar oi7 m sunorntes e7pi ti_/nos ou7* ou7_/ts4 ,footnote #dg3 ,ibid4 b4 #ca-cg3 ,greek3 lpte_/on d' o7_/ti ma_/li/a ka?o_/l\ pa_/sas tas prota_/seis1 kai tn mi_/an pollas poite_/on--diairete_/on1 e7_/s a7n e7nde_/*tai diairein1 c4 #b4 ,! propositions hav+ be5 got toge!r1 !y mu/ be exam9$ 9 ord] to f9d out ,equivocation or d\ble mean+ ( t]ms4 ,!re are v>i\s ways ( go+ ab\t ?is task4 ,sometimes ! same pr$icate is appli$ to two diff]5t subjects1 b 9 diff]5t s5ses2 ?us1 c\rage & ju/ice are bo? ( !m good1 b 9 a diff]5t way4 ,sometimes ! same pr$icate is appli$ to two diff]5t classes ( subjects1 ea* admitt+ ( be+ def9$2 ?us1 heal? is good 9 itself1 & ex]cise is good z be+ among ^? ?+s t promote heal?4#dh ,sometimes ! equivocal mean+ ( a t]m is p]ceiv$ by consid]+ its contr>y2 if we f9d t x has two or m di/9ct contr>ies1 we "k at once t x has diff]5t mean+s4 ,sometimes1 ?\gh !re are n two di/9ct contr>ies1 yet ! m]e conjunction ( ! same adjective ) two sub/antives %[s u at once t x _c mean ! same 9 bo?#di 7,greek3 leuk phn_/--leukon *rma74 ,9 "o s5se1 ! t]m may h an assignable contr>y1 :ile 9 ano!r s5se x may h no contr>y2 %[+ t ! two s5ses are di/9ct3 = example1 ! pleasure ( dr9k+ has = its contr>y ! pa9 ( ?ir/2 b ! pleasure ( sci5tifically contemplat+ t ! diagonal ( a squ>e is incomm5surable ) ! side1 has no contr>y2 h5ce1 we see t pleasure is an equivocal t]m4#ej ,9 "o s5se1 !re may be a t]m int]m$iate betwe5 ! two contr>ies2 9 ano!r s5se1 !re may be none2 or !re may be two di/9ct int]m$iate t]ms = ! two di/9ct s5ses2 or !re may be sev]al int]m$iate t]ms 9 "o ( ! s5ses1 & only "o or none 9 ! o!r3 9 ea* ( ^! ways ! equivocation is reveal$4#ea ,we mu/ look also to ! contradictory opposite 7( a t]m71 :i* may p]haps h an obvi\s equivocation ( mean+2 ?us1 ,greek3 m ble_/pe9 means sometimes to be bl9d1 sometimes n to be see+ actually1 :5ce we discov] t ,greek3 ble_/pe9 also has ! same equivocation4#eb ,if a positive t]m is equivocal1 we "k t ! privative t]m correlat+ ) x mu/ also be equivocal2 ?us1 ,greek3 to ai7/ha_/ne/hai has a d\ble s5se1 accord+ z we speak ) ref]5ce to m9d or body2 & ?is w be alike true ( ! correlat+ privative--,greek3 to a7nai_//hton ei7nai4#ec ,f>!r1 an equivocal t]m w h its d]ivatives equivocal 9 ! same mann]2 & conv]sely1 if ! d]ivative be equivocal1 ! radical w be s likewise4#ed ,! t]m mu/ also be look$ at 9 ref]5ce to ! t5 ,categories3 if its mean+s fall "u m ?an "o ,category1 we "k t x is equivocal4#ee ,if x compreh5ds two subjects :i* are n 9 ! same g5us1 or 9 g5]a n subord9ate "o to ! o!r1 ?is too w %[ t x is equivocal4#ef ,! contr>y1 also1 ( ! t]m mu/ be look$ at ) a view to ! same inf]5ce4#eg ,footnote #dh3 ,topic4 ,i4 xv4 p4 #ajf1 a4 #a-h3 ,greek3 to de posa*s1 pragmateute_/on m mo_/non o7_/sa le_/getai ka?' e7_/t]on tro_/pon1 a7lla kai t\s lo_/g\s au7tn peirate_/on a7podido_/nai4 ,footnote #di3 ,ibid4 a4 #i-ce4 ,footnote #ej3 ,ibid4 a4 #cf4 ,footnote #ea3 ,ibid4 b4 #d4 ,footnote #eb3 ,ibid4 b4 #ac-bj4 ,footnote #ec3 ,ibid4 b4 #ba-bh4 ,footnote #ed3 ,ibid4 b4 #bh4 ,footnote #ee3 ,ibid4 p4 #ajg1 a4 #c-ag4 ,footnote #ef3 ,ibid4 a4 #ah4 ,footnote #eg3 ,ibid4 a4 #cb-ce4 ,aga91 x w be useful to br+ toge!r ! same t]m 9 two diff]5t conjunctions1 & to comp>e ! def9itions ( ! two4 ,def9e bo? ( !m1 & !n d$uct :at is peculi> to ea* def9itum3 if ! rema9d] be diff]5t1 ! t]m w be equivocal2 if ! rema9d] be ! same1 ! t]m w be univocal4 ,?us1 ,greek3 leukon sma w be def9$1 a body hav+ su* & su* a col\r3 ,greek3 leuk phn_/1 a voice easily & di/9ctly he>d3 d$uct ,greek3 sma f ! fir/ def9ition1 & ,greek3 phn f ! second1 ! rema9d] w be totally disp>ate2 !re=e1 ! t]m ,greek3 leuko_/n is equivocal4#eh ,sometimes1 also1 ! ambiguity may be f\nd 9 def9itions !mselves1 :]e ! same t]m is us$ to expla9 subjects t are n ! same2 :e!r su* use is admissible1 has to be consid]$4#ei ,if ! t]m be univocal1 two conjunctions ( x may always be comp>$ z to great] or less1 or 9 respect ( lik5ess2 :5ev] ?is _c be1 ! t]m is equivocal4#fj ,if1 aga91 ! t]m is us$ z a diff]5tia = two g5]a q di/9ct & indep5d5t ( ea* o!r1 x mu/ be equivocal2 = g5]a t are unconnect$ & n subord9ate "o to ! o!r1 h _! diff]5ti also disp>ate4#fa ,&1 conv]sely1 if ! t]m be su* t ! diff]5ti appli$ to x are disp>ate1 we may "k x to be an equivocal t]m4 ,! l1 if ! t]m be us$ z a species 9 "s ( its conjunctions1 & z a diff]5tia 9 o!rs4#fb ,footnote #eh3 ,topic4 ,i4 xv4 p4 #ajg1 a4 #cf-;b4 #c4 ,footnote #ei3 ,ibid4 b4 #h4 ,footnote #fj3 ,ibid4 b4 #ac-ah3 ,greek3 e7_/ti ei7 m sumblta kata to mallon 7 o7moi_/s1--to gar sun_/numon pan sumblto_/n4 ,footnote #fa3 ,ibid4 b4 #ai-bf4 ,footnote #fb3 ,ibid4 b4 #bg-cg4 #c4 ,ari/otle has ?us indicat$1 at consid]able l5g?1 ! po9ts to be look$ = :5 we are exam9+ :e!r a t]m is univocal or equivocal4 ,he is m concise :5 he t\*es on ! la/ two out ( ! f\r helps 7,greek3 o7_/rgana7 enum]at$ = supply+ syllogisms :5 ne$$1--viz4 ! /udy ( ,diff]5ces & ( ,resemblances4 ,9 reg>d to ! /udy ( ,diff]5ces1 /&+ ?ird1 :ile he rem>ks t1 :]e ^! are wide & num]\s1 !y are sure )\t any precept to excite our att5tion1 he advises t we %\ld /udy ! diff]5ces ( subjects t are ne>ly alli$1--^? )9 ! same g5us1 or compreh5d$ 9 g5]a n mu* remov$ f "o ano!r1 su* z1 ! di/9ction betwe5 s5sible p]ception & sci5ce4 ,b he goes into no detail4#fc ,footnote #fc3 ,ibid4 xvi4 p4 #ajg1 b4 #ci4 #d4 ,9 reg>d to ! /udy ( ,resemblances1 he inv]ts ! above precept1 & directs u to note especially ! po9ts ( resemblance betwe5 subjects ( great app>5t diff]5ce4#fd ,we mu/ exam9e :at is ! quality common to all species ( ! same g5us--man1 horse1 dog1 c42 = x is 9 ?is t !y are simil>4 ,we may also comp>e diff]5t g5]a ) ea* o!r1 9 respect to ! analogies t are to be f\nd 9 ea*3 e4g41 z sci5ce is to ! cognizable1 s is p]ception to ! p]ceivable2 z sight is 9 ! eye1 s is intellection 9 ! s\l2 z ,greek3 gal_/n is 9 ! sea1 s is ,greek3 nnemi_/a 9 ! air4#fe ,footnote #fd3 ,ibid4 xvii4 p4 #ajh1 a4 #ab3 ,greek3 ma_/li/a d' e7n tois polu die/si gumna_/ze/hai dei2 r7aon gar e7pi tn loipn duns_/me?a ta o7_/moia sunoran4 ,footnote #fe3 ,topic4 ,i4 xvii4 p4 #ajh1 a4 #g4 ,su* are ! f\r di/9ct helps1 t[>ds facility ( syllogiz+1 enum]at$ by ,ari/otle4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! ?ird & f\r? 7/udy ( ,resemblances & ,diff]5ces7 be> m ^u matt]s ( fact & less ^u words2 :ile ! second 7,greek3 to posa*s71 ?\gh d\btless also be>+ on matt]s ( fact & d]iv+ f !nce its ma9 real wor?1 yet takes its dep>ture f t]ms & propositions1 & proce$s by comp>+ multipli$ v>ieties ( ^! 9 reg>d to div]sity ( mean+4 ,^u ?is gr\nd x is1 app>5tly1 t ,ari/otle has giv5 s mu* full] developm5t to ! second head ?an to ! ?ird & f\r?2 =1 9 ! ,topica1 he is deal+ ) propositions & c\nt]-propositions--) op9ions & c\nt]-op9ions1 n ) sci5ce & tru?4 ,he proce$s to indicate ! diff]5t ways 9 :i* ^! ?ree helps 7! second1 ?ird1 & f\r?7 fur!r ! purpose ( ! dialectician--respond5t z well z assailant4 ,unless ! diff]5t mean+s ( ! t]m be discrim9at$1 ! respond5t _c "k cle>ly :at he admits or :at he d5ies2 he may be ?9k+ ( some?+ diff]5t f :at ! assailant int5ds1 & ! syllogisms con/ruct$ may turn ^u a t]m only1 n ^u any reality4#ff ,! respond5t w be able to protect himself bett] aga9/ be+ driv5 into contradiction1 if he c di/+ui% ! v>i\s mean+s ( ! same t]m2 = he w ?us "k :e!r ! syllogisms br\ght aga9/ him t\* ! real matt] :i* he has admitt$4#fg ,on ! o!r h&1 ! assailant w h mu* facility 9 driv+ 8 oppon5t into contradiction1 if he 7! assailant7 c di/+ui% ! diff]5t mean+s ( ! t]m1 :ile ! respond5t _c d s2 9 ^? cases at lea/ :]e ! proposition is true 9 "o s5se ( ! t]m & false 9 ano!r4#fh ,?is mann] ( proce$+1 h[ev]1 is h>dly consi/5t ) g5u9e ,dialectic4 ,no dialectician ought ev] to f\nd 8 int]rogations & 8 argum5ts ^u a m]e unanalys$ t]m1 unless he c f9d absolutely no?+ else to say 9 ! debate4#fi ,footnote #ff3 ,ibid4 xviii4 p4 #ajh1 a4 #bb4 ,footnote #fg3 ,ibid4 a4 #bf3 ,greek3 *r_/simon de kai pros to m p>alogi/hnai kai pros to p>alogi_/sa/hai4 ei7d_/tes gar posa*s le_/getai ou7 m p>alogi/hm51 a7ll' ei7d_/som5 e7an m pros to au7to ton lo_/gon poitai o7 e7rtn4 ,footnote #fh3 ,ibid4 a4 #bi3 ,greek3 au7toi_/ te e7rtntes duns_/me?a p>alogi_/sa/hai e7an m tug*a_/n ei7ds o7 a7pokr9o_/m5os posa*s le_/getai2 t\to d' ou7k e7pi pa_/ntn dunato_/n1 a7ll' o7_/tan 7 tn polla*s legome_/nn ta men a7l?1 ta de pseud4 ,footnote #fi3 ,topic4 ,i4 xviii4 p4 #ajh1 a4 #cd3 ,greek3 dio pantels eu7labte_/on tois dialektikois to toi\nton1 to pros t\7_/noma diale_/ge/hai1 e7an m_/ tis a7_/lls e7xadunat p]i t\ prokeime_/n\ diale_/ge/hai4 ,! ?ird help 7an acqua9tance ) ,diff]5ces7 w be ( mu* avail on all occasions :]e we h to syllogize ^u ,same & ,diff]5t1 & :]e we wi% to asc]ta9 ! ess5ce or def9ition ( any ?+2 = we asc]ta9 ?is by exclusion ( :at is =eign !reunto1 f\nd$ on ! appropriate diff]5ces 9 ea* case4#gj ,footnote #gj3 ,ibid4 b4 #b4 ,la/ly1 ! f\r? help 7! intellig5t survey ( ,resemblances7 s]ves u 9 diff]5t ways3--7#a7 ,t[>ds ! con/ruction ( inductive argum5ts2 7#b7 ,t[>ds syllogiz+ f\nd$ ^u assumption2 7#c7 ,t[>ds ! decl>ation ( def9itions4 ,z to ! inductive argum5t1 x is f\nd$ altoge!r on a repetition ( simil> p>ticul>s1 :]eby ! univ]sal is obta9$4#ga ,z to ! syllogiz+ f an assumption1 ! k ( resemblances is valuable1 because we are entitl$ to assume1 z an ,endoxon or a doctr9e con=mable to common op9ion1 t :at happ5s 9 any "o ( a /r+ ( simil> cases w happ5 also 9 all ! re/4 ,we lay d[n ?is z ! major proposition ( a syllogism2 & ?us1 if we c lay hold ( any "o simil> case1 we c draw inf]5ce f x to ! matt] actually 9 debate4#gb ,aga91 z to ! decl>ation ( def9itions1 :5 we h once discov]$ :at is ! same 9 all p>ticul> cases1 we %all h asc]ta9$ to :at g5us ! subject be=e u belongs2#gc = t "o ( ! common pr$icates :i* is mo/ ( ! ess5ce1 w be ! g5us4 ,ev5 :]e ! two matt]s comp>$ are m disp>ate ?an we c rank 9 ! same g5us1 ! k ( resemblances w enable u to discov] useful analogies1 & ?us to obta9 a def9ition at lea/ approximative4 ,?us1 z ! po9t is 9 a l9e1 s is ! unit 9 numb]s2 ea* ( !m is a pr9cipium2 ?is1 !re=e1 is a common g5us1 :i* w s]ve z a tol]able def9ition4 ,inde$ ?is is ! def9ition ( !m commonly giv5 by philosoph]s2 :o call ! unit pr9cipium ( numb]1 & ! po9t pr9cipium ( a l9e1 ?us putt+ "o & ! o!r into a g5us common to bo?4#gd ,footnote #ga3 ,ibid4 b4 #i4 ,footnote #gb3 ,ibid4 b4 #ab3 ,greek3 pros de t\s e7x u7po!_/ses sullogsism\_/s1 dio_/ti e7_/ndoxo_/n e7/91 7_/s pote e7ph' e7nos tn o7moi_/n e7_/*ei1 ou7_/ts kai e7i tn loipn2 7_//e pros o7_/ ti a7n au7tn eu7porm5 diale_/ge/hai1 prodiomologs_/me?a1 7_/s pote e7pi t\_/tn e7_/*ei1 ou7_/t kai e7pi t\ prokeime_/n\ e7_/*e94 dei_/xantes de e7keino kai 9999to prokei_/m5on e7x u7po!_/ses d$ei*o_/tes e7s_/me?a2 u7po!_/m5oi ga_/r1 7_/s pote e7pi t\_/tn e7_/*ei1 ou7_/t kai e7pi t\ prokeime_/n\ e7_/*e91 tn a7po_/deix9 pepoi_/me?a4 ,= ,greek3 to e7x u7po!_/ses1 comp>e ,topic4 ,,iii4 vi4 p4 #aai1 b4 #ce4 ,footnote #gc3 ,topic4 ,i4 xviii4 p4 #ajh1 b4 #ai4 ,footnote #gd3 ,topic4 ,i4 xviii4 p4 #ajh1 b4 #bg3 ,greek3 7_//e to ko9on e7pi pa_/ntn ge_/nos a7podi_/dontes d_/xom5 ou7k a7llotri_/s o7ri_/ze/hai4 ,x w be recollect$ t all ! "w ( ,dialectic 7z ,ari/otle tells u (t57 has ref]5ce to ,greek3 d_/xa & n to sci5tific tru?4 ,we %all seem to def9e n 9 a mann] dep>t+ f ! reality ( ! subject is1 !re=e1 an appropriate dialectic artifice4 ,,ii4 ,! ,fir/ ,book ( ! ,topica1 :i* we h ?us gone ?r\gh1 0 entitl$ by "s anci5t comm5tators ,greek3 ta pro tn ,to_/pn--matt]s prelim9>y to ! ,loci4 ,?is is q true1 z a description ( its cont5ts2 = ,ari/otle 9 ! la/ words ( ! book1 di/9ctly ann\nces t he is ab\t to enum]ate ! ,loci t[>ds :i* ! f\r above-m5tion$ ,organa w be useful4#ge ,footnote #ge3 ,ibid4 p4 #ajh1 b4 #cb3 ,greek3 oi7 de to_/poi pros ou7s *r_/sima ta le*!_/nta oi7_/de ei7si_/n4 ,locus 7,greek3 to_/pos7 is a place 9 :i* _m argum5ts p]t95t to "o & ! same dialectical purpose1 may be f\nd-- s$es argum5torum4 ,9 ea* locus1 ! argum5ts conta9$ !re9 look at ! !sis f ! same po9t ( view2 & ! locus implies no?+ di/9ct f ! argum5ts1 except ?is mann] ( view common to !m all4 ,9 fact1 ! metaphor is a conv5i5t "o = designat+ ! relation ( e ,univ]sal g5]ally to its p>ticul>s3 ! ,univ]sal is n a new p>ticul>1 nor any adjunct sup]impos$ ^u all its p>ticul>s1 b simply a place 9 :i* all kn[n simil> p>ticul>s may be f\nd gr\p$ toge!r1 & 9 :i* !re is room = an indef9ite numb] ( new ones4 ,if we wi% to arm ! /ud5t ) a l>ge comm& ( dialectical artifices1 we _c d bett] ?an discrim9ate ! v>i\s gr\ps ( argum5ts1 indicat+ ! po9t ( view common to ea* gr\p1 & ! circum/ances 9 :i* x becomes applicable4 ,by ?is means1 :5ev] he is call$ ^u to deal ) a new debate1 he w consid] ! !sis 9 ref]5ce to ea* "o ( ^! diff]5t loci1 & w be able to apply argum5ts out ( ea* ( !m1 accord+ z ! case may admit4 ,! f\r ,helps 7,greek3 o7_/rgana7 expla9$ 9 ! la/ book diff] f ! ,loci 9 be+ ( wid] & m undef9$ be>+3 !y are directions = prep>atory /udy1 r ?an = deal+ ) any p>ticul> situation ( a giv5 problem2 ?\gh x mu/ be confess$ t1 :5 ,ari/otle proce$s to specify ! mann] 9 :i* ! ?ree la/-m5tion$ helps are useful1 he makes consid]able approa* t[>ds ! great] detail & p>ticul>ization ( ! ,loci4 ,9 ent]+ n[ ^u ^!1 he rev]ts to t quadruple classification ( propositions & problems 7accord+ to ! f\r ,pr$icables71 not$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! treatise1 9 :i* ! pr$icate is ei!r ,def9ition1 ,proprium1 ,g5us1 or ,accid5t1 ( ! subject4 ,he makes a f\rfold di/ribution ( ,loci1 accord+ z !y be> ^u "o or o!r ( ^! f\r4 ,9 ! ,second & ,?ird ,books1 we f9d ^? :i* be> ^u propositions pr$icat+ ,accid5t2 9 ! ,f\r? ,book1 we pass to ,g5us2 9 ! ,fif?1 to ,proprium2 9 ! ,six? & ,sev5?1 to ,def9ition4 ,! problem or !sis prop\nd$ = debate may h two faults on :i* x may be impugn$3 ei!r x may be untrue2 or x may be express$ 9 a way dep>t+ f ! receiv$ phraseology4#gf ,x w be univ]sal1 or p>ticul>1 or indef9ite2 & ei!r affirmative or negative2 b1 9 mo/ cases1 ! respond5t prop\nds = debate an affirmative univ]sal1 & n a negative or a p>ticul>4#gg ,ari/otle !re=e beg9s ) ^? loci t are useful = refut+ an ,affirmative ,univ]sal2 ?\gh1 9 g5]al1 ! same argum5ts are available = attack & def5ce bo? ( ! univ]sal & ( ! p>ticul>2 = if y c ov]?r[ ! p>ticul>1 y w h ov]?r[n ! univ]sal along ) x1 :ile if y c def5d ! univ]sal1 ?is w include ! def5ce ( ! p>ticul>4 ,z ! !sis prop\nd$ is usually affirmative1 ! assailant und]takes ! negative side or ! "w ( refutation4 ,& ?is inde$ 7z ,eudemus1 ! pupil ( ,ari/otle1 rem>k$1 aft] 8 ma/]#gh7 is ! pr9cipal function & result ( dialectic ex]cise2 :i* refutes mu* & proves v little1 accord+ to ! analogy ( ! ,platonic ,dialogues ( ,se>*4 ,footnote #gf3 ,topic4 ,,ii4 i4 p4 #aji1 a4 #bg3 ,greek3 diori_/sa/hai de dei kai tas a7m>ti_/z tas e7n tois probl_/mas91 o7_/ti ei7si dittai_/1 7 t pseu_/de/hai1 7 t p>abai_/ne9 tn keime_/nn le_/x94 ,alex&] rem>ks 7,s*ol4 p4 #bfd1 b4 #bc1 ,br47 t ,greek3 pro_/blma "h means1 n ! int]rogation1 b ,greek3 to 7risme_/non 7_/d kai kei_/m5on--ou7 proi_//atai_/ tis1 o7_/n o7 dialektikos e7le_/g*e9 e7pi*eirei4 ,footnote #gg3 ,topic4 ,,ii4 i4 p4 #aji1 a4 #h3 ,greek3 dia to mallon tas !_/seis komi_/ze9 e7n t u7pa_/r*e9 7 m_/1 t\s de dialegome_/n\s a7naskeua_/ze94 ,footnote #gh3 ,alex&] ap4 ,s*ol4 p4 #bfd1 a4 #bg1 ,br43 ,greek3 o7_/ti de oi7keio_/t]on t dialektik to a7naskeua_/ze9 t\ kataskeua_/ze91 e7n t pr_/t tn e7pigraphome_/nn ,eu7dmei_/n ,a7nalutikn 7e7pigra_/phetai de au7to kai ,eu7d_/m\ u7per tn ,a7nalutikn7 ou7_/ts le_/getai1 o7_/ti o7 dialektikos a7 men kataskeua_/zei mikra_/ e7/i1 to de polu ts duna_/mes au7t\ pros to a7nairein ti e7/i_/n4 ,ari/otle takes ! f\r heads--,accid5t1 ,g5us1 ,proprium1 & ,def9ition1 9 ! ord] "h enum]at$4 ,! !sis ( :i* ! pr$icate is enunciat$ z ,accid5t1 affirms ! lea/1 is easie/ to def5d1 & h>de/ to upset4#gi ,:5 we enunciate ,g5us or ,proprium1 we affirm1 n m]ely t ! pr$icate belongs to ! subject 7:i* is all t is affirm$ 9 ! case ( ,accid5t71 b1 also some?+ m--t x belongs to ! subject 9 a c]ta9 mann] & relation4 ,& :5 we enunciate ,def9ition1 we affirm all ?is & some?+ rea*+ yet f>!r--t x decl>es ! :ole ess5ce ( ! def9itum1 & is conv]tible !re)4 ,accord+ly1 ! !sis ( ,def9ition1 affirm+ z x does s v mu*1 pres5ts ! mo/ po9ts ( attack & is by f> ! h>de/ to def5d4#hj ,next 9 po9t ( difficulty1 = ! respond5t1 comes ! ,proprium4 ,footnote #gi3 ,topic4 ,,vii4 v4 p4 #aee1 a4 #bg3 ,greek3 r7a/on de pa_/ntn kataskeua_/sai to sumbebko_/s--a7naskeua_/ze9 de *alep_/taton to sumbebko_/s1 o7_/ti e7la_/*i/a e7n au7t de_/dotai2 ou7 gar prossmai_/nei e7n t sumbebko_/ti ps u7pa_/r*ei1 7_//' e7pi men tn a7_/lln di*s e7_//9 a7nelein1 7 dei_/xanta o7_/ti ou7* u7pa_/r*ei 7 o7_/ti ou7* ou7_/ts u7p>*ei1 e7pi de t\ sumbebko_/tos ou7k e7_//9 a7nelein a7ll' 7 dei_/xanta o7_/ti ou7* u7pa_/r*ei4 ,footnote #hj3 ,topic4 ,,vii4 v4 p4 #aee1 a4 #c4 ,greek3 pa_/ntn r7a/on o7_/ron a7naskeua_/sai2 plei/a gar e7n au7t ta d$ome_/na polln ei7rme_/nn4 a4 #bc3 ,greek3 tn d' a7_/lln to i7_/dion ma_/li/a toi\ton4 ,beg9n+ ?us ) ! !sis enunciat+ ,accid5t1 ,ari/otle enum]ates no less ?an ?irty-sev5 di/9ct loci or argum5tative po9ts ( view be>+ ^u x4 ,mo/ ( !m sugge/ modes ( assail+ ! !sis2 b !re are also occasionally intimations to ! respond5t h[ he may be/ def5d himself4 ,9 ?is num]\s li/ !re are inde$ "s items repetitions ( ea* o!r1 or at lea/ n easily di/+ui%able4#ha ,z x w\ld be t$i\s to enum]ate !m all1 ,i %all select "s ( ! mo/ m>k$ & illu/rative4 ,footnote #ha3 ,ari/otle himself admits ! repetition 9 "s cases1 ,topic4 ,,ii4 ii4 p4 #aaj1 a4 #ab3 ! f\r? locus is id5tical sub/antially ) ! second locus4 ,!ophra/us di/+ui%$ ,greek3 p>a_/ggelma z ! g5]al precept1 f ,greek3 to_/pos or locus1 z any proposition specially apply+ ! precept to a p>ticul> case 7,s*ol4 p4 #bfd1 b4 #ch74 #a4 ,! respond5t has enunciat$ a c]ta9 pr$icate z belong+ 9 ! way ( accid5t1 to a giv5 subject4 ,p]haps x may belong to ! subject2 yet n z accid5t1 b "u "s "o ( ! o!r ?ree ,pr$icables4 ,p]haps he may h enunciat$ 7ei!r by explicit discrim9ation1 or at lea/ by implication conta9$ 9 8 phraseology7 ! g5us z if x 7 an accid5t1--an error n unfrequ5tly committ$4#hb ,?us1 if he has said1 ,to be a col\r is an accid5t ( :ite1 he has affirm$ explicitly ! g5us z if x 7 an accid5t4 ,& he has affirm$ ! same by implication1 if he has said1 ,:ite 7or :it5ess7 is col\r$4 ,= ?is is a =m ( words n prop] = ! affirmation ( a g5us respect+ its species1 9 :i* case ! g5us itself ought to /& z a lit]al pr$icate 7,:ite is a col\r71 & n to be replac$ by "o ( its d]ivatives 7,:ite is col\r$74 ,nor c ! proposition be int5d$ to be tak5 z affirm+ ei!r proprium or def9ition2 = 9 bo? ^! ! pr$icate w\ld reciprocate & be co-ext5sive ) ! subject1 :]eas 9 ! pres5t case !re are obvi\sly _m o!r subjects ( :i* x may be pr$icat$ t !y are col\r$4#hc ,9 say+1 ,:ite is col\r$1 ! respond5t _c mean to affirm ei!r g5us1 proprium1 or def9ition2 !re=e he mu/ mean to affirm accid5t4 ,! assailant w %[ t ?is is errone\s4 ,footnote #hb3 ,topic4 ,,ii4 ii4 p4 #aji1 a4 #cd3 ,greek3 ei7s men d to_/pos to e7pible_/pe9 ei7 to kat' a7_/llon t9a tro_/pon u7pa_/r*on 7s sumbebkos a7pode_/dk54 a7m>ta_/netai de ma_/li/a t\to p]i ta ge_/n1 oi7on ei7_/ tis t leuk phai_/ sumbebke_/nai *r_/mati ei7nai2 ou7 gar sumbe_/bke t leuk *r_/mati ei7nai1 a7lla ge_/nos au7t\ to *rma_/ e7/94 ,footnote #hc3 ,we may f9d cases 9 :i* ,ari/otle has n be5 c>eful to ma9ta9 ! /rict logical s5se ( ,greek3 sumbebko_/s or ,greek3 sumbe_/bk5 :]e he applies ^! t]ms to ,g5us or ,proprium3 e4g4 ,topic4 ,,ii4 iii4 p4 #aaj1 b4 #bd2 ,soph4 ,el4 vi4 p4 #afh1 b4 #a4 #b4 ,suppose ! !sis set up by ! respond5t to be an univ]sal affirmative1 or an univ]sal negative4 ,y 7! int]rogator or assailant7 %\ld review ! p>ticul>s conta9$ "u ^! univ]sals4 ,review !m n at once z sep>ate individuals1 b z compris$ 9 subord9ate g5]a & species2 beg9n+ f ! highe/1 & desc5d+ d[n to ! l[e/ species :i* is n f>!r divisible except into individuals4 ,?us1 if ! !sis prop\nd$ be1 ,! cognition ( opposites is "o & ! same cognition2 y w inve/igate :e!r ?is c be truly pr$icat$ respect+ all ! prim>y species ( ,opposita3 respect+ ,relata & ,correlata1 respect+ ,contr>ies1 respect+ ,contradictories1 respect+ ,habitus & ,privatio4 ,if1 by go+ ?us f>1 y obta9 no result fav\rable to y\r purpose1#hd y mu/ proce$ f>!r1 & subdivide until y come to ! l[e/ species3--,is ! cognition ( j & unju/ "o & ! same8 t ( d\ble & half8 ( sight & bl9dness8 ( exi/5ce & non-exi/5ce8 ,if 9 all1 or 9 any "o1 ( ^! cases y c %[ t ! univ]sal !sis does n hold1 y w h ga9$ y\r po9t ( refut+ x4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if1 :5 y h enum]at$ _m p>ticul>s1 ! !sis is f\nd to hold 9 all1 ! respond5t is entitl$ to require y to grant x z an univ]sal proposition1 unless y c produce a satisfactory c\nt]-example4 ,if y decl9e ?is *all5ge1 y w be consid]$ an unreasonable debat]4#he ,footnote #hd3 ,topic4 ,,ii4 ii4 p4 #aji1 b4 #bj3 ,greek3 ka7n e7pi t\_/tn m_/p phan]on 71 pa_/l9 tauta diairete_/on me_/*ri tn a7to_/mn1 oi7on ei7 tn dikai_/n kai a7di_/kn1 c4 ,footnote #he3 ,ibid4 b4 #be-cj4 ,greek3 e7an gar mde_/t]on t\_/tn poi1 a7_/topos phaneitai m ti!i_/s4 #c4 ,y w f9d x useful to def9e bo? ! accid5t pr$icat$ 9 ! !sis1 & ! subject respect+ :i* x is pr$icat$1 or at lea/ "o ( !m3 y w see !n :e!r ^! def9itions reveal any?+ false 9 ! affirmation ( ! !sis4 ,?us1 if ! !sis affirms t x is possible to d inju/ice to a god1 y w def9e :at is meant by do+ inju/ice4 ,! def9ition is--hurt+ int5tionally3 y c ?us refute ! !sis by %[+ t no inju/ice to a god c possibly be done2 = a god _c be hurt4#hf ,or let ! !sis ma9ta9$ be1 ,! virtu\s man is envi\s4 ,y def9e envy1 & y f9d t x is--vexation felt by reason ( ! manife/ success ( "s m]itori\s man4 ,^u ?is def9ition x is pla9 t ! virtu\s man _c feel envy3 he w\ld be wor?less1 if he did feel x4 ,p]haps "s ( ! t]ms employ$ 9 y\r def9ition may !mselves require def9ition2 if s1 y w repeat ! process ( def9+ until y come to some?+ pla9 & cle>4#hg ,su* an analysis w (t5 br+ out "s error at fir/ unp]ceiv$ 9 ! !sis4 ,footnote #hf3 ,topic4 ,,ii4 ii4 p4 #aji1 b4 #cd3 ,greek3 ou7 gar e7nde_/*etai bla_/pte/hai ton !o_/n4 ,footnote #hg3 ,ibid4 p4 #aaj1 a4 #d3 ,greek3 lamba_/ne9 de kai a7nti tn e7n tois lo_/gois o7noma_/tn lo_/g\s1 kai m a7phi_//a/hai e7_/s a7n ei7s gn_/rimon e7_/l?4 #d4 ,x w be advisable1 bo? = assailant & respond5t1 to discrim9ate ^? cases 9 :i* ! au?ority ( ! multitude is conclusive f ^? 9 :i* x is n4 ,?us1 9 reg>d to ! mean+ ( t]ms & 9 nam+ objects1 we mu/ speak l ! multitude2 b1 :5 ! "q is z to :at objects des]ve to be d5om9at$ s & s1 we mu/ n feel b\nd by ! multitude1 if !re be any special diss5ti5t au?ority4#hh ,t :i* produces good heal? we mu/ call :olesome1 z ! multitude d2 b1 9 call+ ?is or t sub/ance :olesome1 ! physician mu/ be our guide4 ,footnote #hh3 ,ibid4 a4 #ad-bb4 #e4 ,ari/otle gives m ?an "o sugge/ion z to ^? cases 9 :i* ! t]ms ( ! !sis h a d\ble or triple s5se1 yet 9 :i* ! !sis is prop\nd$ ei!r z an univ]sal affirmative or z an univ]sal negative4 ,if ! respond5t is himself n aw>e ( ! d\ble s5se ( 8 !sis1 :ile y 7! que/ion]7 are aw>e ( x1 y w prove ! po9t :i* y are seek+ to e/abli% aga9/ him 9 "o or o!r ( ! two s5ses1 if y _c prove x 9 bo?4 ,if he is aw>e ( x 9 ! d\ble s5se1 he w insi/ t y h *os5 ! s5se :i* he did n int5d4#hi ,?is mode ( proc$ure w be available to ! respond5t z well z to y2 b x w be h>d] to him1 s9ce 8 !sis is univ]sal4 ,=1 9 ord] to make good an univ]sal !sis1 he mu/ obta9 y\r ass5t to a prelim9>y assumption or conv5tion1 t1 if he c prove x 9 "o s5se ( ! t]ms1 x %all be held prov$ 9 bo?2 &1 unless ! proposition be s plausible t y are dispos$ to grant him ?is1 he w n succe$ 9 ! proc$ure4#ij ,b y on y\r side1 z refut+1 d n require any su* prelim9>y conv5tion or acquiesc5ce2 =1 if y prove ! negative 9 any s+le case1 y succe$ 9 ov]?r[+ ! univ]sal affirmative1 :ile1 if y prove ! affirmative 9 any s+le case1 y succe$ 9 ov]?r[+ ! univ]sal negative4#ia ,su* proc$ure1 h[ev]1 is to be adopt$ only :5 y c f9d no argum5t applicable to ! equivocal !sis 9 all its sep>ate mean+s2 ?is la/ sort ( argum5t1 :]ev] x c be f\nd1 be+ always bett]4#ib ,footnote #hi3 ,topic4 ,,ii4 iii4 p4 #aaj1 a4 #bd4 ,footnote #ij3 ,ibid4 a4 #cg3 ,greek3 kataskeua_/z\si de prodiomologte_/on o7_/ti ei7 o7toun u7pa_/r*ei1 panti u7pa_/r*ei1 a7n pi?anon 7 to a7xi_/ma2 ou7 gar a7po_/*r pros to deixai o7_/ti panti u7pa_/r*ei to e7ph' e7nos diale*?nai4 ,footnote #ia3 ,topic4 ,,ii4 iii4 p4 #aaj1 a4 #cb3 ,greek3 pln a7naskeua_/zonti men ou7den dei e7x o7mologi_/z diale_/ge/hai4 ,footnote #ib3 ,ibid4 b4 #d4 ,9 cases :]e ! d\ble mean+ is manife/1 ! two mean+s mu/ be di/+ui%$ by bo? p>ties1 & ! argum5t conduct$ accord+ly4 ,:]e ! t]m has two or m mean+s 7n equivocal b7 relat$ to ea* o!r by analogy1 we mu/ deal ) ea* ( ^! mean+s di/9ctly & sep>ately4#ic ,if our purpose is to refute1 we select any "o ( !m 9 :i* ! proposition is inadmissible1 neglect+ ! o!rs3 if our purpose is to prove1 we *oose any "o 9 :i* ! proposition is true1 neglect+ ! o!rs4#id ,footnote #ic3 ,topic4 ,,ii4 iii4 p4 #aaj1 b4 #af-p4 #aaa1 a4 #g4 ,?is locus is v obscurely /at$ by ,ari/otle4 ,footnote #id3 ,ibid4 p4 #aaj1 b4 #bi-cb3 ,greek3 e7an b\l_/me?a kataskeua_/sai1 ta toiauta prooi/e_/on o7_/sa e7nde_/*etai1 kai diairete_/on ei7s tauta mo_/non o7_/sa kai *r_/sima pros to kataskeua_/sai2 a7n d' a7naskeua_/sai1 o7_/sa m e7nde_/*etai1 ta de loipa p>aleipte_/on4 ,ari/otle's precepts indicate ! way ( manag+ ! debate ) a view to success4 #f4 ,obs]ve t a pr$icate :i* belongs to ! g5us does n necess>ily belong to any "o ( its species1 b t any pr$icate :i* belongs to "o ( ! species does belong also to ! g5us2 on ! o!r h&1 t any pr$icate :i* c be d5i$ ( ! g5us may be d5i$ also ( all its conta9$ species1 b t any pr$icate :i* c be d5i$ ( "s "o or "s portion ( ! conta9$ species _c = t reason be d5i$ ( ! g5us4 ,y may ?us prove f "o species to ! g5us1 & disprove f ! g5us to ea* "o species2 b n vice v]s4 ,?us1 if ! respond5t grants t !re exi/ cognitions bo? e/imable & wor?less1 y are w>rant$ 9 inf]r+ t !re exi/ habits ( m9d e/imable & wor?less2 = cognition is a species "u ! g5us habit ( m9d4 ,b if ! negative 7 grant$1 t !re exi/ no cognitions bo? e/imable & wor?less1 y c\ld n = t reason inf] t !re are no habits ( m9d e/imable & wor?less4 ,s1 if x 7 grant$ to y t !re are judgm5ts correct & errone\s1 y c\ld n = t reason inf] t !re 7 p]ceptions ( s5se correct & errone\s2 p]ceiv+ by s5se be+ a species "u ! g5us judg+4 ,b1 if x 7 grant$ t !re 7 no judgm5ts correct & errone\s1 y might !nce inf] ! l negative ab\t p]ceptions ( s5se4#ie ,footnote #ie3 ,topic4 ,,ii4 iv4 p4 #aaa1 a4 #ad-cb4 ,greek3 nun men ou7n e7k t\ ge_/n\s p]i to ei7dos 7 a7po_/deixis2 to gar kri_/ne9 ge_/nos t\ ai7/ha_/ne/hai2 o7 gar ai7/hano_/m5os kri_/nei ps--o7 men ou7n pro_/t]os to_/pos pseud_/s e7/i pros to kataskeua_/sai1 o7 de deu_/t]os a7l?_/s4--pros de to a7naskeua_/ze9 o7 men pro_/t]os a7l?_/s1 o7 de deu_/t]os pseud_/s4 ,x is "h a po9t des]v+ att5tion1 t ,ari/otle ranks ,greek3 to ai7/ha_/ne/hai z a species "u ! g5us ,greek3 to kri_/ne94 ,?is is a notable circum/ance 9 ! ,ari/otelian psy*ology4 #g4 ,keep 9 m9d also t if !re be any subject ( :i* y c affirm ! g5us1 ( t same subject y mu/ be able to affirm "o or o!r ( ! species conta9$ "u ! g5us4 ,?us1 if sci5ce be a pr$icate applicable1 gramm>1 music1 or "s o!r ( ! special sci5ces mu/ also be applicable3 if any man c be call$ truly a sci5tific man1 he mu/ be a gramm>ian1 a musician1 or "s o!r speciali/4 ,accord+ly1 if ! !sis set up by y\r respond5t be1 ,! s\l is mov$1 y mu/ exam9e :e!r any "o ( ! kn[n v>ieties ( motion c be truly pr$icat$ ( ! s\l1 e4g41 increase1 de/ruction1 g5]ation1 c4 ,if none ( ^! special pr$icates is applicable to ! s\l1 nei!r is ! g5]ic pr$icate applicable to x2 & y w ?us h refut$ ! !sis4 ,?is locus may s]ve z a precept = pro( z well z = refutation2 =1 equally1 if ! s\l be mov$ 9 any "o species ( motion1 x is mov$1 &1 if ! s\l be n mov$ 9 any species ( motion1 x is n mov$4#if ,footnote #if3 ,topic4 ,,ii4 iv4 p4 #aaa1 a4 #cc-;b4 #aa4 #h4 ,:]e ! !sis itself pres5ts no obvi\s hold = int]rogation1 turn ov] ! v>i\s def9itions t h be5 propos$ ( its con/itu5t t]ms2 "o or o!r ( ^! def9itions w (t5 af=d matt] = attack4#ig ,look also to ! antec$5ts & consequ5ts ( ! !sis--:at mu/ be assum$ & :at w foll[1 if ! !sis be grant$4 ,if y c disprove ! consequ5t ( ! proposition1 y w h disprov$ ! proposition itself4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! antec$5t ( ! proposition be prov$1 ! proposition itself w be prov$ also4#ih ,exam9e also :e!r ! proposition be n true at "s times1 & false at o!r times4 ,! !sis1 ,:at takes n\ri%m5t gr[s necess>ily1 is true n always1 b only = a c]ta9 "t3 animals take n\ri%m5t dur+ all _! lives1 b gr[ only dur+ a "p ( _! lives4 ,or1 if a man %\ld say t kn[+ is rememb]+1 ?is is incorrect2 = we rememb] no?+ b ev5ts pa/1 :]eas we "k n only ^!1 b pres5t & future also4#ii ,footnote #ig3 ,ibid4 b4 #ab-af4 ,footnote #ih3 ,ibid4 b4 #ag-bc4 ,footnote #ii3 ,topic4 ,,ii4 iv4 p4 #aaa1 b4 #bd-ca4 #i4 ,x is a sophi/ical proc$ure 7s ,ari/otle t]ms x7 to transf] ! debate to "s po9t on :i* we happ5 to be well provid$ ) argum5ts1 ly+ ap>t f ! !sis def5d$4 ,su* transf]1 h[ev]1 may be sometimes necess>y4 ,9 o!r cases x is n really b only app>5tly necess>y2 9 /ill o!r cases x is purely gratuit\s1 nei!r really nor app>5tly necess>y4 ,x is really necess>y1 :5 ! respond5t1 hav+ d5i$ "s proposition p]fectly relevant to 8 !sis1 /&s to 8 d5ial & accepts ! debate ^u x1 ! proposition be+ "o on :i* a good /ock ( argum5ts may be f\nd aga9/ him2 also1 :5 y are endeav\r+ to disprove ! !sis by an induction ( negative analogies4#ajj ,x is only app>5tly1 & n really1 necess>y1 :5 ! proposition 9 debate is n p]fectly relevant to ! !sis1 b m]ely has ! semblance ( be+ s4 ,x is nei!r really nor app>5tly necess>y1 :5 !re does n exi/ ev5 ?is semblance ( relevance1 & :5 "s o!r way is op5 ( br++ bye-confutation to be> on ! respond5t4 ,y ought to avoid entirely su* a proc$ure 9 ?is la/ class ( cases2 = x is an abuse ( ! g5u9e purpose ( ,dialectic4 ,if y d resort to x1 ! respond5t %\ld grant y\r int]rogations1 b at ! same "t notify t !y are irrelevant to ! !sis4 ,su* notification w r5d] 8 concessions r tr\blesome ?an advantage\s = y\r purpose4#aja ,footnote #ajj3 ,ibid4 v4 p4 #aaa1 b4 #cb-p4 #aab1 a4 #b3 ,greek3 e7_/ti o7 sophi/ikos tro_/pos1 to a7_/ge9 ei7s toi\ton pros o7 eu7por_/som5 e7pi*eirma_/tn1 c4 ,footnote #aja3 ,ibid4 p4 #aab1 a4 #b-ae4 ,greek3 dei d' eu7labei/hai ton e7_/s*aton tn r7!_/ntn tro_/pn2 pantels gar a7prtme_/nos kai a7llo_/trios e7_/oik5 ei7nai ts dialektiks4 ,! epi!t ,greek3 sophi/ikos tro_/pos is probably int5d$ by ,ari/otle to apply only to ?is la/ class ( cases4 ,?is p>agraph is v obscure1 & is n mu* elucidat$ by ! long ,s*olion ( ,alex&] 7pp4 #bfg-bfh1 ,br474 #aj4 ,y w recollect t e proposition laid d[n or grant$ by ! respond5t c>ries ) x by implication _m o!r propositions2 s9ce e affirmation has necess>y consequ5ces1 m or few]4 ,:oev] says t ,sokrates is a man1 has said also t he is an animal1 t he is a liv+ creature1 bip$1 capable ( acquir+ k4 ,if y c disprove any ( ^! necess>y consequ5ces1 y w h disprov$ ! !sis itself4 ,y mu/ take c>e1 h[ev]1 t y fix ^u "s "o ( ! consequ5ces :i* is really easi]1 & n m difficult1 to refute ?an ! !sis itself4#ajb ,footnote #ajb3 ,topic4 ,,ii4 v4 p4 #aab1 a4 #af-bc4 #aa4 ,p]haps ! !sis set up by ! respond5t may be ( su* a nature t "o or o!r ( two contr>y pr$icates mu/ belong to ! subject2 e4g41 ei!r heal? or sickness4 ,9 t case1 if y are provid$ ) argum5ts be>+ on "o ( ! two contr>ies1 ! same argum5ts w also s]ve indirectly = pro(1 or = dispro(1 ( ! o!r4 ,?us1 if y %[ t "o ( ! two contr>ies does belong to ! subject1 ! same argum5ts prove t ! o!r does n2 vice v]s1 if y %[ t "o ( !m does n belong1 x foll[s t ! o!r does4#ajc ,footnote #ajc3 ,topic4 ,,ii4 vi4 p4 #aab1 a4 #be-ca4 ,greek3 dlon ou7n o7_/ti pros a7mph *r_/simos o7 to_/pos4 #ab4 ,y may f9d x advantage\s1 9 attack+ ! !sis1 to con/rue ! t]ms 9 _! /rict etymological s5se1 r ?an 9 ! s5se :i* common 9999usage gives !m4#ajd ,footnote #ajd3 ,ibid4 a4 #cb-ch3 ,greek3 e7_/ti to e7pi*eirein metaphe_/ronta t\7_/noma e7pi ton lo_/gon1 7s ma_/li/a proskon e7klamba_/ne9 7 7s keitai t\7_/noma4 ,! illu/rative examples :i* foll[ prove t ,greek3 lo_/gon "h means ! etymological orig91 & n ! def9ition1 :i* is its m usual mean+4 #ac4 ,! pr$icate may belong to its subject ei!r necess>ily1 or usually1 or by pure haz>d4 ,y w take notice 9 :i* ( ^! ?ree ways ! respond5t affirms x1 & :e!r t :i* he *ooses is con=mable to ! fact4 ,if he affirms x z necess>y1 :5 x is really ei!r usual or casual1 ! !sis w be op5 to y\r attacks4 ,if he affirms x )\t cle>ly di/+ui%+ 9 :i* ( ! ?ree s5ses he int5ds x to be und]/ood1 y are at lib]ty to con/rue x 9 t "o ( ! ?ree s5ses :i* be/ suits y\r argum5t4#aje ,footnote #aje3 ,ibid4 b4 #a-bj4 ,?is locus seems unsuitable 9 t "p ( ! ,topica :]e ,ari/otle pr(esses to deal ) !ses ,greek3 t\ symbebko_/tos1 or !ses affirm+ or d5y+ accid5tal pr$icates4 ,x is "o ( ! suppositions "h t ! respond5t affirms ! pr$icate z necess>y4 #ad4 ,p]haps ! !sis may h pr$icate & subject exactly synonym\s1 s t ! same ?+ w be affirm$ z an accid5t ( itself4 ,on ?is gr\nd x w be assailable4#ajf ,footnote #ajf3 ,ibid4 b4 #ba-bf4 #ae4 ,sometimes ! !sis w h m ?an "o proposition contr>y to x4 ,if s1 y may employ 9 argu+ aga9/ x t "o among its v>i\s contr>ies :i* is mo/ conv5i5t = y\r purpose4#ajg ,p]haps ! pr$icate 7accid5tal7 ( ! !sis may h "s contr>y3 if x has1 y w exam9e :e!r t contr>y belongs to ! subject ( ! !sis2 &1 %\ld su* be ! case1 y may use x z an argum5t to refute ! !sis itself4#ajh ,or ! pr$icate ( ! !sis may be su* t1 if ! !sis be grant$1 x w foll[ z a necess>y consequ5ce t contr>y pr$icates mu/ belong to ! same subject4 ,?us1 if ! !sis be t ! ,platonic ,ideas exi/ 9 u1 x foll[s necess>ily t !y are bo? 9 motion & at re/2 bo? p]ceivable by s5se1 & cogitable by intellect4#aji ,z ^! two pr$icates 7^? con/itut+ ! fir/ pair z well z ! second pair7 are contr>y to ea* o!r1 & _c bo? belong to ! same subject1 ?is may be us$ z an argum5t aga9/ ! !sis f :i* su* consequ5ce foll[s4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,ibid4 vii4 p4 #aab1 b4 #bh-p4 #aac1 a4 #ai4 ,greek3 dlon ou7n e7k tn ei7rme_/nn o7_/ti t au7t plei_/ona e7nanti_/a sumbai_/nei gi_/ne/hai4--lamba_/ne9 ou7n tn e7nanti_/n o7po_/t]on a7n 7 pros tn !_/s9 *r_/simon4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,ibid4 viii4 p4 #aac1 a4 #bj-bc4 ,footnote #aji3 ,topic4 ,,ii4 viii4 p4 #aac1 a4 #bd-cb3 ,greek3 7 ei7_/ ti toi\ton ei7_/rtai kata_/ t9os1 ou7 o7_/ntos a7na_/gk ta e7nanti_/a u7pa_/r*e92 oi7on ei7 tas i7de_/z e7n 7min e7_/phs5 ei7nai2 k9ei/hai_/ te gar kai 7remein au7tas sumb_/setai1 e7_/ti de ai7/htas kai notas ei7nai4 ,ari/otle !n proce$s to /ate h[ ?is consequ5ce arises4 ,^? :o affirm ! ,platonic ,ideas1 assign to !m z fundam5tal *>act]i/ic1 t !y are at re/ & cogitable4 ,b1 if ! ,ideas exi/ 9 u1 !y mu/ be moveable1 because we are mov$2 !y mu/ also be p]ceivable by s5se1 because x is ?r\gh vision only t we discrim9ate & "k diff]5ces ( =m4 ,waitz obs]ves 79 reg>d to ! la/ pair1 ,greek3 kai ai7/htai_/73 ,nam s+ul ide c]tam qu&am r]um speciem et =mam exprimunt3 species autem et =ma oculis c]nitur4 ,i d n cle>ly see1 h[ev]1 t ?is is a consequ5ce ( affirm+ ,ideas to be ,greek3 e7n 7min2 x is equally true if !y are n ,greek3 e7n 7min4 #af4 ,we "k t :atev] is ! recipi5t ( "o ( two contr>ies1 is capable also ( becom+ recipi5t ( ! o!r4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! pr$icate ( ! !sis has any contr>y1 y w exam9e :e!r ! subject ( ! !sis is capable ( receiv+ su* contr>y4 ,if n1 y h an argum5t aga9/ ! !sis4 ,let ! !sis be1 ,! appetitive pr9ciple is ignorant4 ,if ?is be true1 t pr9ciple mu/ be capable ( k4#aaj ,s9ce ?is la/ is n g5]ally admitt$1 y h an argum5t aga9/ ! !sis4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,topic4 ,,ii4 vii4 p4 #aac1 a4 #cc-;b4 #aj4 #ag4 ,we recognize f\r v>ieties ( ,opposita3 7#a7 ,contradictory2 7#b7 ,contr>y2 7#c7 ,habitus & ,privatio2 7#d7 ,relata4 ,y w consid] h[ ! relation 9 ea* ( ^! f\r v>ieties be>s ^u ! !sis 9 debate4 ,9 reg>d to ,contradictories1 y are entitl$1 conv]t+ ! t]ms ( ! !sis1 to d5y ! pr$icate ( ! conv]t$ proposition respect+ ! negation ( ! subject4 ,?us1 if man is an animal1 y are entitl$ to inf]1 ,:at is n an animal is n a man4 ,y w prove ?is to be an univ]sal rule by ,induction2 t is1 by cit+ a multitude ( p>ticul> cases 9 :i* x is indisputably true1 )\t possibility ( f9d+ any "o case 9 :i* x does n apply4 ,if y c prove or disprove ! conv]t$ obv]se ( ! !sis--,:at is n an animal is n a man--y w h prov$ or disprov$1 ! !sis itself1 ,man is an animal4 ,?is locus is available bo? = assailant & respond5t4#aaa ,footnote #aaa3 ,ibid4 viii4 p4 #aac1 b4 #ae-bf3 ,greek3 e7pei d' ai7 a7nti!_/sis te_/ss>es1 skopein e7k men tn a7ntipha_/sen e7k ts a7kol\?_/ses kai a7nair\nti kai kataskeua_/zonti2 lamba_/ne9 d' e7x e7paggs1 oi7on ei7 o7 a7_/n?rpos zon1 to m zon ou7k a7_/n?rpos2 o7moi_/s de kai e7pi tn a7_/lln--e7pi pa_/ntn ou7n to toi\ton a7xite_/on4 ,ari/otle's decl>ation1 t ?is great logical rule c only be prov$ by ,induction1 des]ves notice4 ,i h rem>k$ ! same ?+ ab\t 8 rules = ! conv]sion ( propositions1 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! ,analytica ,priora4 ,see above1 p4 #ade1 seq4 ,9 reg>d to ,contr>ies1 y w /udy ! !sis1 to see :e!r ! contr>y ( ! pr$icate c be truly affirm$ respect+ ! contr>y ( ! subject1 or :e!r ! contr>y ( ! subject c be truly affirm$ respect+ ! contr>y ( ! pr$icate4 ,?is la/ alt]native occurs sometimes1 b n (t52 9 g5]al ! fir/ alt]native is f\nd to be true4 ,y mu/ make good y\r po9t "h also by ,induction1 or by repetition ( p>ticul> examples4 ,?is locus w s]ve ei!r = ! purpose ( refutation or = t ( def5ce1 accord+ to circum/ances4 ,if nei!r ( ! two alt]natives above-m5tion$ is f\nd correct1 ?is is an argum5t aga9/ ! !sis4#aab ,footnote #aab3 ,topic4 ,,ii4 viii4 p4 #aac1 b4 #bg-p4 #aad1 a4 #f4 ,greek3 lamba_/ne9 de kai ta toiauta e7x e7paggs1 e7ph' o7_/son *r_/simon4--spa_/nion de to a7na_/pal9 e7pi tn e7nanti_/n sumbai_/nei1 a7lla tois plei_//ois e7pi tau7ta 7 a7kol\_/?sis4 ei7 ou7n mt' e7pi tau7ta t e7nanti_/ to e7nanti_/on a7kol\!i m_/te a7na_/pal91 dlon o7_/ti ou7de tn r7!_/ntn a7kol\!i to e7_/t]on t e7te_/r4 ,9 reg>d to ,habitus & ,privatio1 ! rule is ! same z ab\t ,contr>ies2 only t ! fir/ ( ! two above alt]natives always holds1 & ! second nev] occurs4#aac ,if s5sible p]ception c be pr$icat$ ( vision1 ins5sibility also c be pr$icat$ ( bl9dness2 o!rwise1 ! !sis fails4 ,footnote #aac3 ,ibid4 p4 #aad1 a4 #g-ab4 ,9 reg>d to ,relata1 ! inf]5ce holds f ! correlate ( ! subject to ! correlate ( ! pr$icate4 ,if k is belief1 t :i* is kn[n is believ$2 if vision is s5sible p]ception1 t :i* is visible is s5sibly p]ceivable4 ,"s say t !re are cases 9 :i* ! above does n hold2 e4g41 ,t :i* is s5sibly p]ceivable is kn[able2 yet s5sible p]ception is n k4 ,b ?is objection is n valid2 = _m p]sons dispute ! fir/ ( ! two propositions4 ,?is locus w be equally available = ! purpose ( refutation--?us1 y may argue--,t :i* is s5sibly p]ceivable is n kn[able1 because s5sible p]ception is n k4#aad ,footnote #aad3 ,ibid4 a4 #ac-be4 #ah4 ,y w look at ! t]ms ( ! proposition1 also1 9 reg>d to _! ,d]ivatives1 ,inflections1 c41 & to matt]s associat$ ) !m 9 ! way ( production1 pres]vation1 c4 ,?is locus s]ves bo? = pro( & = refutation4 ,:at is affirmable ( ! subject1 is affirmable also ( its d]ivatives3 :at is n affirmable ( ! d]ivatives1 is n affirmable ( ! subject itself4#aae ,footnote #aae3 ,ibid4 ix4 p4 #aad1 a4 #bf-;b4 #e4 ,greek3 du_//oi*a1 pt_/seis1 ta poitika kai phulaktika_/--dlon ou7n o7_/ti e7nos o7poi\\n dei*!_/ntos tn kata tn au7tn su/oi*i_/an a7ga?\ 7 e7pa9et\1 kai ta loipa pa_/nta d$eigme_/na gi_/netai4--b4 #bc3 ,greek3 7n men gar ta poitika a7ga?a_/1 kai au7ta tn a7ga?n1 7n de ta ph?>tika a7ga?a_/1 au7ta tn kakn4 #ai4 ,argum5ts may (t5 be drawn1 bo? = pro( & = refutation1 f matt]s ,simil> or ,analog\s to ! subject or pr$icate ( ! !sis4 ,?us1 if "o & ! same cognition compreh5ds _m ?+s1 "o & ! same op9ion w also compreh5d _m ?+s4 ,if to possess vision is to see1 !n also to possess audition is to he>4 ,if to possess audition is n to he>1 !n nei!r is to possess vision to see4 ,! argum5t may be urg$ :e!r ! resemblance is real or only g5]ally suppos$4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 ! inf]5ce w n hold f "o to _m4 ,?us1 if to "k is to cogitate1 !n to "k _m ?+s %\ld be to cogitate _m ?+s4 ,b ?is la/ is impossible4 ,a man may "k _m ?+s1 b he _c cogitate _m ?+s2 !re=e1 to "k is n to cogitate4#aaf ,footnote #aaf3 ,topic4 ,,ii4 x4 p4 #aad1 b4 #be-cf3 ,greek3 pa_/l9 e7pi tn o7moi_/n1 ei7 o7moi_/s e7_/*ei1--kai e7pi tn o7_/ntn kai tn dok\_/ntn2 *r_/simos d' o7 to_/pos pros a7_/mph2--skopein de kai ei7 e7ph' e7nos kai ei7 e7pi polln o7moi_/s e7_/*ei2 e7nia*\ gar diaphnei4 #bj4 ,!re are v>i\s loci = argum5t1 aris+ f degrees ( ,comp>ison--m1 less1 equally4 ,"o is ! argum5t f concomitant v>iations1 :i* is available bo? = pro( & = dispro(4 ,if to d inju/ice is evil1 to d m inju/ice is m evil4 ,if an increase 9 degree ( ! subject implies an increase 9 degree ( ! pr$icate1 !n ! pr$icate is truly affirm$2 if n1 n4 ,?is may be %[n by ,induction1 or repetition ( p>ticul> in/ances4#aag ,aga91 suppose ! same pr$icate to be affirmable ( two di/9ct subjects ,a & ,b1 b to be m probably affirmable ( ,a ?an ( ,b4 ,!n1 if y c %[ t x does n belong to ,a1 y may argue 7 =tiori7 t x does n belong to ,b2 or1 if y c %[ t x belongs to ,b1 y may argue 7 =tiori7 t x belongs also to ,a4 ,or1 if two di/9ct pr$icates be affirmable respect+ ! same subject b ) unequal degrees ( probability1 !n1 if y c disprove ! m probable ( ! two1 y may argue f !nce 9 dispro( ( ! less probable2 &1 if y c prove ! less probable1 y may argue f !nce 9 pro( ( ! m probable4 ,or1 if two di/9ct pr$icates be affirmable respect+ two di/9ct subjects b ) unequal degrees ( probability1 !n1 if y c disprove ! m probable y may argue f !nce aga9/ ! less probable2 &1 if y c prove ! less probable1 y are furni%$ ) an argum5t 9 pro( ( ! m probable4#aah ,if ! degrees ( probability1 in/ead ( be+ unequal1 are equal or alike1 y may /ill1 9 ! cases m5tion$1 argue 9 l mann] f pro( or dispro( ( ! "o to pro( or dispro( ( ! o!r4#aai ,footnote #aag3 ,ibid4 b4 #cg-p4 #aae1 a4 #e3 ,greek3 ei7si de t\ mallon to_/poi te_/ss>es1 ei7s men ei7 a7kol\!i to mallon t mallon1--*r_/simos de pros a7_/mph o7 to_/pos2 ei7 men gar a7kol\!i t t\ u7pokeime_/n\ e7pido_/sei 7 t\ sumbebko_/tos e7pi_/dosis1 ka?a_/p] ei7_/rtai1 dlon o7_/ti sumbe_/bk51 ei7 de m a7kol\!i1 ou7 sumbe_/bk54 t\to d' e7pagg lpte_/on4 ,footnote #aah3 ,topic4 ,,ii4 x4 p4 #aae1 a4 #e-ad4 ,footnote #aai3 ,ibid4 a4 #ae-bd3 ,greek3 e7k t\ o7moi_/s u7pa_/r*e9 7 dokein u7pa_/r*e91 c4 #ba4 ,ano!r locus = argum5t is1 t ex adjuncto4 ,if ! subject1 prior to adjunction ( ! attribute1 be n :ite or good1 & if adjunction ( ! attribute makes x :ite or good1 !n1 y may argue t ! adjunct mu/ itself be :ite or good4 ,& y might argue 9 l mann]1 if ! subject prior to adjunction 7 to a c]ta9 ext5t :ite or good1 b became m :ite or m good aft] su* adjunction4#abj ,b ?is locus w n be f\nd available = ! negative inf]5ce or refutation4 ,y _c argue1 because ! adjunction does n make ! subject :ite or good1 t !re=e ! adjunct itself is n :ite or n good4#aba ,footnote #abj3 ,ibid4 xi4 p4 #aae1 a4 #bf-cc4 ,footnote #aba3 ,ibid4 a4 #cb-;b4 #b4 #bb4 ,if ! pr$icate be affirmable ( ! subject 9 great] or less degree1 x mu/ be affirmable ( ! subject simply & absolutely4 ,unless ! subject be "o t c be call$ :ite or good1 y c nev] call x m :ite or m good4 ,?is locus aga91 h[ev]1 _c be employ$ 9 ! negative1 = ! purpose ( refutation4 ,because ! pr$icate _c be affirm$ ( ! subject 9 great] or less degree1 y are n w>rant$ 9 inf]r+ t x _c be affirm$ ( ! subject at all4 ,sokrates _c be call$ 9 great] or less degree a man2 b y _c !nce inf] t he is n call$ a man simply4#abb ,if ! pr$icate c be d5i$ ( ! subject simply & absolutely1 x c be d5i$ !re( ) e sort ( qualification3 if x c be affirm$ ( ! subject ) qualification1 x c also be affirm$ !re( simply & absolutely1 z a possible pr$icate4#abc ,?is1 h[ev]1 :5 x comes to be expla9$1 means only t x c be affirm$ ( "s among ! p>ticul>s call$ by ! "n ( ! subject4 ,ari/otle recognizes t ! same pr$icate may (t5 be affirm$ ( ! subject secundum quid1 & d5i$ ( ! subject simply & absolutely4 ,9 "s places 7z among ! ,triballi71 x is hon\rable to sacrifice y\r fa!r2 simply & absolutely1 x is n hon\rable4 ,to "o :o is sick1 x is advantage\s to und]go m$ical treatm5t2 speak+ simply & absolutely 7i4e41 to p]sons g5]ally 9 ! ord9>y /ate ( heal?71 x is n advantage\s4 ,x is only :5 y c truly affirm ! proposition1 )\t add+ any qualify+ words1 t ! proposition is true simply & absolutely4#abd ,footnote #abb3 ,ibid4 b4 #c-aj4 ,footnote #abc3 ,ibid4 b4 #aa-ce4 ,greek3 ei7 gar kata_/ ti e7nde_/*etai1 kai a7pls e7nde_/*etai4 ,footnote #abd3 ,topic4 ,,ii4 xi4 p4 #aae1 b4 #cc3 ,greek3 7_//e o7 a7n md5os pro/i!me_/n\ dok ei7nai kalon 7 ai7s*ron 7 a7_/llo ti tn toi\tn1 a7pls r7?_/setai4 ,,iii4 ,su* are ! *ief among ! ?irty-sev5 ,loci :i* ,ari/otle indicates = debat+ dialectically ^? !ses 9 :i* ! pr$ication is only ( ,accid5t--n ( ,g5us1 or ,proprium1 or ,def9ition4 ,he proce$s 79 ! ,?ird ,book ( ! ,topica7 to deal sep>ately ) "o special bran* ( su* !ses1 respect+ ,expet5da & ,fugi5da3 :]e ! "q put is1 ,( two or m di/9ct subjects1 :i* is ! m desirable or ! bett]8 ,! cases suppos$ are ^? 9 :i* ! diff]5ce ( value betwe5 ! two subjects comp>$ is n conspicu\s & unmi/akeable1 b :]e !re is a tol]ably ne> approximation ( value betwe5 !m1 s z to w>rant d\bt & debate4#abe ,footnote #abe3 ,ibid4 ,,iii4 i4 p4 #aaf1 a4 #a-ab3 ,greek3 ,po_/t]on d' ai7ret_/t]on 7 be_/ltion duein 7 pleio_/nn1 e7k tnde skepte_/on4 c4 ,we mu/ presume t que/ions ( ?is class occurr$ v frequ5tly among ! dialectical debates ( ,ari/otle's contempor>ies2 s t he ?9ks x necess>y to give advice ap>t = conduct+ !m 9 ! be/ mann]4 #a4 ,( two good subjects comp>$1 t is bett] & m desirable :i* is ! m la/+2 or :i* is pref]r$ by ! wise & good man2 or by ! pr(essional arti/ 9 8 own craft2 or by "r law2 or by ! multitude1 all or mo/ ( !m4 ,t is absolutely or simply bett] & m desirable1 :i* is decl>$ to be su* by ! bett] cognition2 t is bett] to any giv5 individual1 :i* is decl>$ to be bett] by 8 own cognition4#abf ,footnote #abf3 ,topic4 ,,iii4 i4 p4 #aaf1 a4 #ac-bb4 #b4 ,t is m desirable :i* is includ$ 9 ! g5us good1 ?an :at is n s includ$2 t :i* is desirable on its own acc\nt & p] se1 is bett] ?an :at is desirable only on acc\nt ( some?+ else & p] accid5s2 ! cause ( :at is good 9 itself is m desirable ?an ! cause ( :at is good by accid5t4#abg ,footnote #abg3 ,ibid4 a4 #bc-;b4 #g4 #c4 ,:at is good absolutely & simply 7i4e41 to all & at all times7 is bett] ?an :at is good only = a special occasion or individual2 ?us1 to be 9 good heal? is bett] ?an be+ cut = ! /one4 ,:at is good by nature is bett] ?an :at is good n by nature2 e4g41 ju/ice 7good by nature71 ?an ! j individual1 ^: "* mu/ h be5 acquir$4#abh ,:at is good1 or :at is peculi>ly appurt5ant1 to ! m elevat$ ( two subjects is bett] ?an :at is good or peculi> to ! less elevat$4 ,good1 hav+ its place 9 ! bett]1 prior1 & m exalt$ elem5ts ( any subject1 is m desirable ?an good belong+ to ! d]ivative1 second>y1 & less exalt$2 ?us1 heal?1 :i* has its seat 9 prop] admixture & proportion ( ! fundam5tal con/itu5ts ( ! body 7wet1 dry1 hot1 cold71 is bett] ?an /r5g? or beauty--/r5g? resid+ 9 ! bones & muscles1 beauty 9 prop] symmetry ( ! limbs4#abi ,next1 an end is sup]ior to t :i* is means !reunto2 &1 9 comp>+ two di/9ct means1 t :i* is ne>] to ! end is ! bett]4 ,t :i* t5ds to secure ! great end ( life is sup]ior to t :i* t5ds t[>ds any o!r end2 means to happ9ess is bett] ?an means to intellig5ce2 also ! possible end1 to ! impossible4 ,comp>+ "o subject z means ) ano!r subject z end1 we mu/ exam9e :e!r ! second end is m sup]ior to ! end produc$ by ! fir/ subject1 ?an ! end produc$ by ! fir/ subject is sup]ior to ! means or fir/ subject itself4 ,= example1 9 ! two ends1 happ9ess & heal?1 if happ9ess z an end surpasses heal? z an end 9 great] proportion ?an heal? surpasses ! means ( heal?1 !n ! means produc+ happ9ess is bett] ?an ! end heal?4#acj ,footnote #abh3 ,topic4 ,,iii4 i4 p4 #aaf1 b4 #g-ab4 ,footnote #abi3 ,ibid4 b4 #ab-bb3 ,greek3 kai to e7n belti_/os9 7 prote_/rois 7 timite_/rois be_/ltion1 oi7on u7gi_/eia i7s*u_/os kai ka_/ll\s4 7 men gar e7n u7grois kai xrois kai !rmois kai psu*rois1 a7pls d' ei7pein e7x 7n pr_/tn sune_//ke to zon1 ta d' e7n tois u7/e_/rois2 7 men gar i7s*us e7n tois neu_/rois kai o7/ois1 to de ka_/llos tn meln tis summetri_/a dokei ei7nai4 ,! reason giv5 9 ?is locus = sup]ior e/imation is a v curi\s "o3 ! fundam5tal or prim>y con/itu5ts rank high] ?an comp\nds or d]ivatives =m$ by !m or out ( !m4 ,also1 ! def9ition ( beauty des]ves att5tion3 ! ,greeks consid]$ beauty to reside m 9 proportions ( =m ( ! body ?an 9 features ( ! face4 ,footnote #acj3 ,ibid4 b4 #bb-cf4 ,aga91 t :i* is m beautiful1 hon\rable1 & praisewor?y p] se1 is bett] ?an :at possesses ^! same attributes 9 equal degree b only on acc\nt ( "s o!r consequ5ce4 ,?us1 fri5d%ip is sup]ior to weal?1 ju/ice to /r5g?2 = no "o values weal? except = its consequ5ces1 :]eas we e/eem fri5d%ip p] se1 ev5 ?\gh no consequ5ces ensue f x4#aca ,footnote #aca3 ,ibid4 b4 #cc-p4 #aag1 a4 #d4 ,:]e ! two subjects comp>$ are 9 !mselves s ne>ly equal t ! diff]5ce ( m]it c h>dly be disc]n$1 we mu/ look to ! antec$5ts or consequ5ts ( ea*1 especially to ! consequ5ts2 &1 accord+ z ^! exhibit mo/ ( good or lea/ ( evil1 we mu/ regulate our e/imation ( ! two subjects to :i* !y respectively belong4#acb ,! l>g] lot ( good ?+s is pref]able to ! small]4 ,sometimes :at is n 9 itself good1 if ca/ into ! same lot ) o!r ?+s v good1 is pref]able to ano!r ?+ t is 9 itself good4 ,?us1 :at is n p] se good1 if x goes along ) happ9ess1 is pref]able ev5 to ju/ice & c\rage4 ,! same ?+s1 :5 tak5 along ) pleasure or ) ! abs5ce ( pa91 are pref]able to !mselves )\t pleasure or along ) pa94#acc ,ev]y?+ is bett]1 at ! season :5 x tells = mo/1 ?an itself at any o!r season2 ?us1 intellig5ce & abs5ce ( pa9 are to be rank$ z ( m value 9 old age ?an 9 y\?2 b c\rage & temp]ance are m indisp5sably requir$1 & !re=e m to be e/eem$1 9 y\? ?an 9 old age4 ,:at is useful on all or mo/ occasions is m to be e/eem$ ?an :at is useful only n[ & !n2 e4g41 ju/ice & mod]ation1 z comp>$ ) c\rage3 also t :i* be+ possess$ by e "o1 ! o!r w\ld n be requir$2 e4g41 ju/ice is bett] ?an c\rage1 =1 if e "o 7 j1 c\rage w\ld n be requir$4#acd ,footnote #acb3 ,topic4 ,,iii4 i4 p4 #aag1 a4 #e-ae4 ,footnote #acc3 ,ibid4 a4 #af-be4 ,footnote #acd3 ,ibid4 a4 #bf-;b4 #b4 ,among two subjects ! m desirable is t ( :i* ! g5]ation or acquirem5t is m desirable2 t ( :i* ! de/ruction or ! loss is m to be deplor$2 t :i* is ne>] or m l to ! ,summum ,bonum or to t :i* is bett] ?an itself 7unless inde$ ! resemblance be ^u ! ridicul\s side1 9 ! nature ( a c>icature1 z ! ape is to man#ace72 t :i* is ! m conspicu\s2 ! m difficult to atta92 ! m special & peculi>2 ! m entirely remov$ f all bad accompanim5ts2 t :i* we c be/ %>e ) fri5ds2 t :i* we wi% to d to our fri5ds1 r ?an to ord9>y /rang]s 7e4g41 do+ ju/ice or conf]r+ b5efit1 ?an seem+ to d s2 = t[>ds our fri5ds we pref] do+ ?is 9 reality1 :ile t[>ds /rang]s we pref] seem+ to d s#acf72 t :i* we _c obta9 f o!rs1 z comp>$ ) t :i* c be hir$2 t :i* is unconditionally desirable1 z comp>$ ) t :i* is desirable only :5 we h some?+ else along ) x2 t ( :i* ! abs5ce is a gr\nd ( j reproa* aga9/ u & ought to make u a%am$2#acg t :i* does good to ! proprietor1 or to ! be/ p>ts ( ! proprietor 7to 8 m9d r ?an 8 body72#ach t :i* is eligible on its own gr\nd1 r ?an f op9ion ( o!rs2 t :i* is eligible on bo? ^! acc\nts jo9tly1 ?an ei!r4#aci ,acquisitions ( sup]]ogation are bett] ?an necess>ies1 & are sometimes m eligible3 ?us1 to live well is bett] ?an life simply2 philosophiz+ is bett] ?an money-mak+2 b sometimes necess>ies are m eligible1 z1 e4g41 to a />v+ man4 ,speak+ g5]ally1 necess>ies are m eligible2 b ! o!rs are bett]4#adj ,footnote #ace3 ,ibid4 p4 #aag1 b4 #b-ag4 ,greek3 skopein de kai ei7 e7pi ta geloio_/t]a ei7_/ o7_/moion1 ka?a_/p] o7 pi_/?kos t a7n?r_/p1 t\ i7_/pp\ m o7_/ntos o7moi_/ou2 ou7 gar ka_/llion o7 pi_/?kos1 o7moio_/t]on de t a7n?r_/p4 ,footnote #acf3 ,ibid4 b4 #bj-p4 #aah1 a4 #e4 ,greek3 a7 pros ton phi_/lon praxai mallon b\lo_/me?a 7 a7 pros ton tu*o_/nta1 tauta ai7ret_/t]a1 oi7on to dikaiopragein kai eu7 poiein mallon 7 to dokein2 t\s gar phi_/l\s eu7 poiein b\lo_/me?a mallon 7 dokein1 t\s de tu*o_/ntas a7na_/pal94 ,footnote #acg3 ,topic4 ,,iii4 ii4 p4 #aah1 a4 #af-bf4 ,footnote #ach3 ,ibid4 iii4 p4 #aah1 a4 #bi4 ,footnote #aci3 ,ibid4 b4 #bj4 ,! def9ition ( ?is la/ condition is--t we %\ld n c>e to possess ! ?+ if no "o knew t we possess$ x3 ,greek3 o7_/ros de t\ pros d_/xan1 to md5os suneido_/tos m a7n sp\da_/sai u7pa_/r*e94 ,footnote #adj3 ,ibid4 p4 #aah1 a4 #f-ad4 ,greek3 ou7 gar ei7 belti_/1 a7nagkaion kai ai7ret_/t]a2 to g\n philosophein be_/ltion t\ *rmati_/ze/hai1 a7ll' ou7* ai7ret_/t]on t e7ndeei tn a7nagkai_/n4 to d' e7k p]i\si_/z e7/i_/n1 o7_/tan u7p>*o_/ntn tn a7nagkai_/n a7_/lla t9a proskataskeua_/ztai_/ tis tn kaln4 s*$on d' i7_/ss ai7ret_/t]on to a7nagkaio_/n e7/i1 be_/ltion de to e7k p]i\si_/z4 ,among _m o!r loci1 applicable to ?is same "q ( comp>ative excell5ce betwe5 two diff]5t subjects1 "o m w suffice "h4 ,y mu/ di/+ui% ! v>i\s ends 9 relation to :i* any giv5 subject is decl>$ to be eligible3 ! advantage\s1 ! beautiful1 ! agreeable4 ,t :i* conduces to all ! ?ree is m eligible ?an t :i* conduces to "o or two ( !m only4 ,if !re be two subjects1 bo? ( !m conducive to ! same end among ! ?ree1 y mu/ exam9e :i* ( !m conduces to x mo/4 ,aga91 t :i* conduces to ! bett] end 7e4g41 to virtue r ?an to pleasure7 is ! m eligible4 ,! l comp>ison may be appli$ to ! ,fugi5da z well z to ! ,expet5da4 ,t is mo/ to be avoid$ :i* %uts u out mo/ f ! desirable acquisitions3 e4g41 sickness is m to be avoid$ ?an ungraceful =m2 = sickness %uts u out m completely bo? f virtue & f pleasure4#ada ,footnote #ada3 ,ibid4 iii4 p4 #aah1 b4 #bg-cf4 ,! same loci :i* are available = ! "q ( comp>ison w also be available 9 ! "q ( positive eligibility or positive ineligibility4#adb ,fur!r1 x holds = all cases ( ! k9d t y %\ld enunciate ! argum5t 9 ! mo/ g5]al t]ms t ea* case admits3 9 ?is way x w cov] a great] numb] ( p>ticul>s4 ,slight mutations ( language w (t5 "h /r5g!n y\r case3 t :i* is 7good7 by nature is m 7good7 ?an t :i* is 7good7 n by nature2 t :i* makes ! subject to :i* x is bett] ?an t :i* does n make ! subject good4#adc ,footnote #adb3 ,ibid4 iv4 p4 #aai1 a4 #a4 ,footnote #adc3 ,topic4 ,,iii4 v4 p4 #aai1 a4 #ab3 ,greek3 lpte_/on d' o7_/ti ma_/li/a ka?o_/l\ t\s to_/p\s p]i t\ mallon kai t\ mei_/zonos2 lph!_/ntes gar ou7_/ts pros plei_/ *r_/simoi a7n ei7_/san4 ,! loci j enum]at$ are ,univ]sal1 & applicable to ! debate ( !ses prop\nd$ 9 univ]sal t]ms2 b !y w also be applicable1 if ! !sis prop\nd$ be a ,p>ticul> proposition4 ,if y prove ! univ]sal affirmative1 y w at ! same "t prove ! p>ticul>2 if y prove ! univ]sal negative1 y prove ! p>ticul> negative also4 ,! univ]sal loci f ,opposites1 f ,conjugates1 f ,inflections1 w be alike applicable to p>ticul> propositions4 ,?us1 if we look at ! univ]sal locus f ,contr>ies1 ,if all pleasure is good1 !n all pa9 is evil1--?is w apply also to ! p>ticul>1 ,if "s pleasure is good1 !n "s pa9 is evil3 9 ! p>ticul> z 9 ! univ]sal =m ! proposition is alike an ,endox or con=mable to common receiv$ op9ion4 ,! l may be said ab\t ! loci f ,habitus & ,privatio2 also ab\t ^? f ,g5]ation & ,de/ruction2#add aga91 f ,m1 ,less1 & ,equally--?is la/1 h[ev]1 ) "s re/riction1 = ! locus f ,less w s]ve only = prov+ an affirmative4 ,?us1 if "s capacity is a less good ?an sci5ce1 :ile yet "s capacity is a good1 !n1 =tiori1 "s sci5ce is a good4 ,b1 if y take ! same locus 9 ! negative & say t ! capacity is a good1 y w n be w>rant$ 9 say+1 = t reason1 t no sci5ce is a good4#ade ,y may apply ?is same locus f ,less to comp>e1 n m]ely two subjects 9 diff]5t g5]a1 b also two subjects ( diff]5t degrees "u ! same g5us4 ,?us1 let ! !sis be1 ,"s sci5ce or cognition is a good4 ,y w disprove ?is !sis1 if y c %[ t prud5ce 7,greek3 phro_/nsis7 is n a good2 =1 if prud5ce1 :i* 9 common op9ion is mo/ confid5tly held to be a good1 be really n s1 y may argue t1 =tiori no o!r sci5ce c be s4 ,aga91 let ! !sis be prop\nd$ ) ! assumption t1 if x c be prov$ true or false 9 any "o case1 x %all be accept$ z true or false 9 all univ]sally 7= example1 t1 if ! human s\l is immortal1 all o!r s\ls are immortal also2 or if n t1 !n none ( ! o!rs73 evid5tly1 ! prop\nd] ( su* a !sis ext5ds ! p>ticul> into an univ]sal4 ,if he prop\nds 8 !sis affirmatively1 y mu/ try to prove ! negative 9 "s p>ticul> case2 = ?is1 "u ! conditions suppos$1 w be equival5t to prov+ an univ]sal negative4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 he puts 8 !sis negatively1 y w try to prove "s p>ticul> affirmative2 :i* 7always "u ! giv5 conditions7 w c>ry ! univ]sal affirmative also4#adf ,footnote #add3 ,ibid4 vi4 p4 #aai1 a4 #cb-;b4 #af4 ,greek3 o7moi_/s gar e7_/ndoxon to a7xisai1 ei7 pasa 7don a7ga?o_/n1 kai lu_/pn pasan ei7nai kako_/n1 t ei7_/ tis 7don a7ga?o_/n1 kai lu_/pn ei7nai_/ t9a kako_/n--e7n a7_/pasi gar o7moi_/s to e7_/ndoxon4 ,footnote #ade3 ,ibid4 b4 #ag-cj4 ,greek3 dlon ou7n o7_/ti kataskeua_/ze9 mo_/non e7k t\ 7tton e7_//94 ,footnote #adf3 ,topic4 ,,iii4 vi4 p4 #aai1 b4 #ca-p4 #abj1 a4 #e4 ,suppose ! respond5t to prop\nd 8 !sis indef9itely1 n c>ry+ ! indication ei!r ( univ]sal or p>ticul>2 e4g41 ,pleasure is good4 ,?is c be prov$ by %[+ ei!r t all pleasure is good1 or t "s pleasure is good2 :ile x c be refut$ only ?r\gh ! univ]sal negative--by %[+ t no pleasure is good4#adg ,b1 if ! !sis be dive/$ ( its indef9ite "* & prop\nd$ ei!r z univ]sal or z p>ticul>1 !re w !n be two di/9ct ways ( refut+ x4 ,if x be f>!r specializ$--e4g41 ,"o pleasure only is good--!re w be ?ree ways ( refut+3 y may %[ ei!r t all pleasures are good2 or t no pleasure is good2 or t m pleasures ?an "o are good4 ,if ! proposition be specializ$ f>!r /ill--e4g41 ,prud5ce alone among all ! virtues is sci5ce1--!re are f\r l9es ( argum5t op5 = refut+ x3 y may prove ei!r t all virtue is sci5ce2 or t no virtue is sci5ce2 or t "s o!r virtue 7su* z ju/ice7 is sci5ce2 or t prud5ce is n sci5ce4#adh ,footnote #adg3 ,ibid4 p4 #abj1 a4 #f-bj3 ,greek3 a7diori_//\ men ou7n o7_/ntos t\ probl_/matos mona*s a7naskeua_/ze9 e7nde_/*etai--a7nairein men mona*s e7nde_/*etai1 kataskeua_/ze9 de di*s4 c4 ,footnote #adh3 ,ibid4 a4 #ae-ca4 ,9 deal+ ) a p>ticul> proposition z !sis1 /ill o!r loci already indicat$ = deal+ ) univ]sal propositions w be available4 ,y w run ?r\gh ! p>ticul>s compris$ 9 ! subject1 di/ribut$ into g5]a & species4 ,:5 y h produc$ a numb] ( p>ticul>s successively to e/abli% ! univ]sal1 affirmative or negative1 y are w>rant$ 9 call+ on ! respond5t ei!r to admit ! univ]sal1 or to produce on 8 side "s adv]se p>ticul>4#adi ,y w also 7z 0 be=e recomm5d$7 di/ribute ! pr$icate ( ! !sis into ! v>i\s species :i* x compreh5ds4 ,if no "o ( ^! species be truly affirmable ( ! subject1 !n nei!r c ! g5us be truly affirmable2 s t y w h refut$ ! !sis1 suppos+ x to be affirmative4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 any "o ( ! species be truly affirmable ( ! subject1 !n ! g5us w also be truly affirmable2 s t y w h refut$ ! !sis1 suppos+ x to be negative4 ,?us1 if ! !sis prop\nd$ be1 ,! s\l is a numb]3 y divide numb] into its two species1 odd & ev51 & prove t ! s\l is nei!r odd nor ev52 :]e=e1 x is n a numb]4#aej ,footnote #adi3 ,ibid4 a4 #cb-ch3 ,greek3 a7_/n te gar panti phai_/ntai u7pa_/r*on a7_/n te md5i_/1 polla pro5e_/gkanti a7xite_/on ka?o_/l\ o7mologein1 7 phe_/re9 e7_/n/as9 e7pi ti_/nos ou7* ou7_/ts4 ,footnote #aej3 ,topic4 ,,iii4 vi4 p4 #abj1 a4 #cg-;b4 #f4 ,x w\ld appe> f ! examples "h giv5 by ,ari/otle--,greek3 o7 *ro_/nos ou7 k9eitai1 o7 *ro_/nos ou7_/k e7/i ki_/nsis1 7 psu* ou7_/k e7/9 a7ri?mo_/s1 t he consid]s ^! propositions z ei!r indef9ite or p>ticul>4 ,,iv4 ,aft] ?is long catalogue ( ,loci belong+ to debate on propositions ( ,accid5t1 ,ari/otle proce$s to enum]ate ^? applicable to propositions ( ,g5us & ( ,proprium4 ,nei!r ,g5us nor ,proprium is (t5 made subject ( debate z su*2 b bo? ( !m are con/itu5t elem5ts ( ! debate respect+ ,def9ition1 :i* is ( frequ5t occurr5ce4#aea ,= t reason1 bo? des]ve to be /udi$4 ,footnote #aea3 ,ibid4 ,,iv4 i4 p4 #abj1 b4 #ab3 ,greek3 meta de tauta p]i tn pros to ge_/nos kai to i7_/dion e7piskepte_/on2 e7_//i de tauta /oi*eia tn pros t\s o7_/r\s2 p]i au7tn de t\_/tn o7liga_/kis ai7 ske_/pseis gi_/nontai tois dialegome_/nois4 ,:5 ! !sis prop\nd$ affirms t ,a is g5us ( ,b1 y w run ov] all ! cognates ( ,b1 & see :e!r !re is any "o among !m respect+ :i* ,a _c be affirm$ z g5us4 ,if !re be1 ?is is a good argum5t aga9/ ! !sis2 = ! g5us ought to be pr$icable ( all4 ,next1 :e!r :at is really no m ?an an accid5t is affirm$ z g5us1 :i* ought to belong to ! ess5ce ( ! subject4 ,p]haps 7e4g47 :ite is affirm$ 9 ! !sis z be+ g5us ( sn[2 b :ite _c be truly s affirm$2 = x is n ( ! ess5ce ( sn[1 b is only a quality or accid5t4#aeb ,exam9e :e!r ! pr$icate ,a comes "u ! def9ition already giv5 ( an ,accid5t1--t :i* may or may n be pr$icat$ ( ! subject2 also1 :e!r ,a & ,b bo? fall "u ! same "o out ( ! t5 ,categories or ,pr$icam5ts4 ,if ,b ! subject comes "u ,ess5tia1 or ,quale1 or ,ad ,aliquid1 ! pr$icate ought also to belong to ,ess5tia1 or ,quale1 or ,ad ,aliquid3 ! species & ! g5us ought to come "u ! same ,category4#aec ,if ?is be n ! case 9 a !sis ( ,g5us1 ! !sis _c be ma9ta9$4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,ibid4 b4 #bc-bi4 ,footnote #aec3 ,ibid4 p4 #abj1 b4 #cf-p4 #aba1 a4 #i4 ,greek3 ka?o_/l\ d' ei7pein u7po tn au7tn diai_/res9 dei to ge_/nos t ei7_/dei ei7nai4 ,ari/otle "h enunciates ?is z univ]sally true1 :]eas if we turn to ,categor4 p4 #aa1 a4 #bd1 seq4 we %all f9d him decl>+ x n to be univ]sally true4 ,comp>e also ,topic4 ,,iv4 iv4 p4 #abd1 b4 #ae4 ,y are aw>e t ! species always p>takes ( ! g5us1 :ile ! g5us nev] p>takes ( ! species2 to p>take mean+ t ! species includes ! ess5ce or def9ition ( ! g5us1 b ! g5us nev] includes ! ess5ce or def9ition ( ! species4 ,y w exam9e1 !re=e1 :e!r 9 ! !sis prop\nd$ to y ?is condition is realiz$2 if n1 ! !sis may be refut$4 ,suppose1 e4g41 t x enunciates "s sup]ior g5us z includ+ ,ens or ,unum4 ,if ?is 7 true1 ! g5us s assign$ w\ld /ill p>take ( ,ens & ,unum2 = ,ens & ,unum maybe pr$icat$ ( all exi/5ces :atev]4 ,!re=e :at is enunciat$ 9 ! !sis z a g5us1 _c be a real g5us4#aed ,footnote #aed3 ,topic4 ,,iv4 i4 p4 #aba1 a4 #aj-ai4 ,p]haps y may f9d some?+ respect+ :i* ! subject 7species7 may be truly affirm$1 :ile ! pr$icate 7g5us7 _c be truly affirm$4 ,if s1 ! pr$icate is n a real g5us4 ,?us1 ! !sis may enunciate ,ens or ,scibile z be+ ! g5us ( ,op9abile4 ,b ?is la/1 ! species or subject ,op9abile1 may be affirm$ respect+ ,non-,ens also2 :ile ! pr$icates ,ens or ,scibile 7giv5 z ! pret5d$ g5us ( ,op9abile7 _c be affirm$ respect+ ,non-,ens4 ,y c ?us %[ t ,ens or ,scibile is n ! real g5us ( ,op9abile4#aee ,! pret5d$ species ,op9abile 7compris+ z x does bo? ,ens & ,non-,ens7 /ret*es f>!r ?an ! pret5d$ g5us ,ens or ,scibile3 :]eas e real g5us ought to /ret* f>!r ?an any "o or any portion ( its con/itu5t species4#aef ,! !sis may ?us be ov]?r[n1 if !re be any "o species :i* /ret*es ev5 equally f> or is co-ext5sive ) ! pret5d$ g5us4#aeg ,footnote #aee3 ,ibid4 a4 #bj-bf4 ,footnote #aef3 ,ibid4 b4 #a-ad4 ,greek3 /oi*eion de pros a7_/panta ta toiauta1 to e7pi ple_/on to ge_/nos 7 to ei7dos kai tn diaphoran le_/ge/hai2 e7p' e7_/latton gar kai 7 diaphora t\ ge_/n\s le_/getai4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,ibid4 b4 #d4 ,x is a g5]al tru? t ! same species _c belong to two di/9ct g5]a1 unless "o ( ! two be subord9ate to ! o!r1 or unless bo? ( !m be compreh5d$ "u "s common high] g5us4 ,y w exam9e1 !re=e1 :e!r !re is any o!r g5us1 besides ! pr$icate ( ! !sis1 to :i* ! subject ( ! !sis c be ref]r$4 ,if !re be "s o!r g5us1 n "u ei!r ( ! two conditions above indicat$1 ! pr$icate enunciat$ by ! !sis _c be ! real g5us ( ! subject4 ,?us1 if ! !sis decl>es ju/ice to be sci5ce 7or to belong to ! g5us sci5ce71 y may rem>k t !re is ano!r di/9ct g5us 7virtue7 to :i* ju/ice also belongs4 ,9 ?is p>ticul> case1 h[ev]1 x w\ld be repli$ t sci5ce & virtue c bo? be ref]r$ to "o & ! same high] g5us1 viz41 habit & disposition4 ,!re=e ! !sis1 ,ju/ice is sci5ce1 w n be truly op5 to objection on ?is gr\nd4#aeh ,footnote #aeh3 ,topic4 ,,iv4 ii4 p4 #aba1 b4 #bd1 seq4 ,aga91 if ! pr$icate ( ! !sis be ! true g5us ( ! subject1 all ! high] g5]a 9 :i* ! pr$icate is conta9$ mu/ also be pr$icat$ 9 ,quid 7z ! pr$icate itself is99997 respect+ ! subject4 ,?is y mu/ %[ by an induction ( p>ticul> in/ances1 no c\nt]-in/ance be+ producible4#aei ,if ! !sis enunciat$ does n con=m to ?is condition1 y w h a good argum5t aga9/ x4 ,y w also run ov] ! sub-species t are compreh5d$ 9 ! subject ( ! !sis1 consid]$ z a g5us2 & y w exam9e :e!r ! pr$icate ( ! !sis 7toge!r ) all its sup]ior g5]a7 is pr$icable ess5tially or 9 ,quid ( all ^! sub-species4 ,if y c f9d any "o among ^! sub-species1 ( :i* x is n ess5tially pr$icable1 ! pr$icate ( ! !sis is n ! true g5us ( ! subject2#afj ! l also1 if ! def9itions ( ^? g5]a are n pr$icable ( ! subject or its sub-species4#afa ,footnote #aei3 ,ibid4 p4 #abb1 a4 #e-ai4 ,greek3 o7_/ti de e7nos e7n t ti_/ e7/i katgor\me_/n\ pa_/nta ta loipa_/1 a7_/np] katgortai1 e7n t ti_/ e7/i katgor?_/setai1 di' e7paggs lpte_/on4 ,footnote #afj3 ,ibid4 a4 #ba-;b4 #f4 ,footnote #afa3 ,ibid4 b4 #g-aa4 ,greek3 ei7 ou7n diaphnei1 dlon o7_/ti ou7 ge_/nos to a7podo!_/n4 ,p]haps ! !sis may enunciate z a g5us :at is really no?+ m ?an a diff]5tia4 ,x may also enunciate ! diff]5tia ei!r z a "p ( ! g5us or z a "p ( ! species2 or x may enunciate ! g5us ei!r z a "p ( ! diff]5tia or z a "p ( ! species4 ,all ^! are attackable4 ,! diff]5tia is n a g5us1 nor does x respond to ! "q ,quid e/1 b to ! "q ,quale quid e/4 ,x is always ei!r 9999m ext5sive ?an ! species1 or co-ext5sive !re)4#afb ,if none ( ! diff]5ti belong+ to a g5us c be pr$icat$ ( a species1 nei!r c ! g5us itself be pr$icat$ !re(4 ,?us1 nei!r odd nor ev5 c be pr$icat$ ( ! s\l2 accord+ly1 nei!r c ! g5us 7numb]7 be pr$icat$ ( ! s\l4#afc ,if ! species be prius natur1 s t :5 x disappe>s ! enunciat$ g5us disappe>s along ) x1 ?is _c be ! real g5us2 nor1 if ! enunciat$ g5us or diff]5tia c be suppos$ to disappe> & yet ! species does n disappe> along ) !m4#afd ,if ! species p>takes ( 7includes 9 its ess5ce7 some?+ contr>y to ! enunciat$ g5us1 ?is la/ _c be ! real g5us2 nor1 if ! species includes some?+ :i* _c possibly belong to :at is 9 t g5us4 ,?us1 if ! s\l p>takes ( 7or includes 9 its ess5ce7 life1 & if no numb] c possibly live1 ! s\l _c be a species ( numb]4#afe ,footnote #afb3 ,ibid4 b4 #ab-p4 #abc1 a4 #aj4 ,greek3 ou7de dokei mete_/*e9 7 diaphora t\ ge_/n\s2 pan gar to mete_/*on t\ ge_/n\s 7 ei7dos 7 a7_/tomo_/n e7/94 a7ei gar 7 diaphora e7p' i7_/ss 7 e7pi pleion t\ ei7_/d\s le_/getai4--e7pi ple_/on te gar to ge_/nos ts diaphoras dei le_/ge/hai1 kai m mete_/*e9 ts diaphoras4 ,z an example to illu/rate ! enclos+ ( ! g5us )9 ! species 7,greek3 ei7 to ge_/nos ei7s to ei7dos e7_/?k571 ,ari/otle cites a def9ition giv5 by ,plato1 :o def9$ ,greek3 tn kata to_/pon ki_/ns91 z ,greek3 phora_/n4 ,n[ ,greek3 phora is less ext5sive 9 its mean+ ?an ,greek3 7 kata to_/pon ki_/nsis1 :i* includes ,greek3 ba_/disis & o!r t]ms ( motion ap>t f or =eign to ,greek3 phora_/4--,example ( enunciat+ diff]5tia z a g5us is1 if immortal be giv5 z ! g5us to :i* a god belongs4 ,immortal is ! diff]5tia belong+ to ,greek3 zon1 & con/itut+ !re) ! species god4--,example ( enclos+ ! diff]5tia 9 ! g5us is1 if odd be giv5 z ! ess5ce ( numb] 7,greek3 o7_/p] a7ri?mo_/n74--,example ( enclos+ diff]5tia 9 ! species is1 if immortal be put =w>d z ! ess5ce ( a god 7,greek3 o7_/p] !o_/n74--,example ( enclos+ ! g5us 9 ! diff]5tia is1 numb] giv5 z ! ess5ce ( ! odd4--,example ( enunciat+ ! g5us z a diff]5tia is1 :5 *ange ( place is giv5 z ! diff]5tia ( ,greek3 phora_/4 ,footnote #afc3 ,topic4 ,,iv4 ii4 p4 #abc1 a4 #aa-ad4 ,footnote #afd3 ,ibid4 a4 #ad-ai4 ,footnote #afe3 ,ibid4 iii4 a4 #bj-bf4 ,aga91 ! g5]ic t]m & ! specific t]m ought to be univocal 9 signification4 ,y mu/ exam9e 7accord+ to ! te/s indicat$ 9 ! ,fir/ ,book ( ! ,topica7 :e!r x be tak5 equivocally 9 ! !sis4 ,if x be s1 y h a gr\nd ( attack1 & also if x be tak5 metaphorically2 = e g5us ought to be enunciat$ 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! t]m1 & no metaphor c be all[$ to pass z a g5us4#aff ,note f>!r t e true g5us has m ?an "o di/9ct species4 ,y w1 !re=e1 exam9e :e!r any o!r species1 besides ! subject ( ! !sis1 c be sugge/$ z belong+ to ! pr$icate ( ! !sis4 ,if none1 t pr$icate _c be ! true g5us ( ! subject4#afg ,footnote #aff3 ,ibid4 a4 #bg-cg4 ,greek3 skopein de kai ei7 to metaphora lego_/m5on 7s ge_/nos a7pode_/dk51 oi7on tn sphrosu_/nn sumphni_/an2 pan gar ge_/nos kuri_/s kata tn ei7dn katgoreitai1 7 de sumphni_/a kata ts sphrosu_/ns ou7 kuri_/s a7lla metaphora2 pasa gar sumphni_/a e7n ph?o_/ggois4 ,footnote #afg3 ,topic4 ,,iv4 iii4 p4 #abc1 a4 #cj4 ,sev]al loci are furni%$ by ,contr>ies1 ei!r to ! species or ! g5us4 ,if !re be some?+ contr>y to ! species1 b no?+ contr>y to ! g5us1 !n t :i* is contr>y to ! species ought to be includ$ "u ! same g5us z ! species itself2 b1 if !re be some?+ contr>y to ! species1 & also some?+ contr>y to ! g5us1 !n t :i* is contr>y to ! species ought to be includ$ 9 t :i* is contr>y to ! g5us4 ,ea* ( ^! doctr9es y w h to make good by induction ( p>ticul> cases4#afh ,if t :i* is contr>y to ! species be a g5us itself 7e4g41 bonum7 & n includ$ 9 any sup]ior g5us1 !n ! l w be true respect+ ! species itself3 x w n be includ$ 9 any g5us2 & ! pr$icate ( ! !sis w n be a true g5us4 ,bonum & malum are n includ$ 9 any common sup]ior g5us2 ea* is a g5us p] se4#afi ,or suppose t ! subject 7species7 ( ! !sis1 & ! pr$icate 7g5us7 ( ! !sis1 h bo? ( !m contr>ies2 b t 9 ! "o !re is an int]m$iate betwe5 ! two contr>ies1 & 9 ! o!r1 n4 ,?is %[s t ! pr$icate _c be ! true g5us ( ! species2 =1 :]ev] !re is an int]m$iate betwe5 ! two contr>ies ( ! species1 !re also is an int]m$iate betwe5 ! two contr>ies ( ! g5us2 & vice v]s4#agj ,if !re be an int]m$iate betwe5 ! two contr>ies ( ! species1 & also an int]m$iate betwe5 ! two contr>ies ( ! g5us1 y w exam9e :e!r bo? int]m$iates are ( l nature1 designat$ by analog\s t]ms4 ,if x be n s 7if1 e4g41 ! "o int]m$iate is designat$ by a positive t]m1 & ! o!r only by a negative t]m71 y w h gr\nd = cont5d+ aga9/ ! !sis1 t ! pr$icate enunciat$ !re9 is n ! true g5us ( ! subject4 ,at any rate1 ?is is a probable 7,greek3 e7_/ndoxon7 dialectical argum5t--to insi/ ^u analogy betwe5 ! two int]m$iates2 ?\gh !re are "s p>ticul> cases 9 :i* ! doctr9e does n hold4#aga ,footnote #afh3 ,ibid4 b4 #a-h4 ,greek3 phan]on de t\_/tn e7_/ka/on dia ts e7paggs4 ,footnote #afi3 ,ibid4 b4 #h-ab4 ,footnote #agj3 ,topic4 ,,iv4 iii4 p4 #abc1 b4 #ab1 seq4 ,footnote #aga3 ,ibid4 b4 #ag-bc3 ,greek3 e7_/n/asis t\_/t\ o7_/ti u7giei_/z kai no_/s\ ou7den metaxu_/1 kak\ de kai a7ga?\2 7 ei7 e7_//i me_/n ti a7mphoin a7na me_/son1 kai tn ei7dn kai tn g5n1 m o7moi_/s de_/1 a7lla tn men kat' a7po_/phas91 tn d' 7s u7pokei_/m5on4 e7_/ndoxon gar to o7moi_/s a7mphoin1 ka?a_/p] e7p' a7rets kai kaki_/z1 kai dikaiosu_/ns kai a7diki_/z2 a7mphoin gar kata a7po_/phas9 ta a7na me_/son4 ,aga91 suppose diff]5t conditions3 t !re is no contr>y to ! g5us1 b t !re is a contr>y to ! species4 ,y w exam9e :e!r n m]ely ! contr>y ( ! species1 b also ! int]m$iate betwe5 its two contr>ies1 is includ$ 9 ! same g5us2 =1 if ! two contr>ies are includ$ !re91 ! int]m$iate ought also to be includ$4 ,?is is a l9e ( argum5t probable 7i4e41 con=mable to g5]al presumption1 & recomm5dable 9 a dialectical debate71 ?\gh !re are n want+ examples adv]se to x3 ?us1 excess & defect are includ$ 9 ! same g5us evil1 b ! mod]ate or measur$ 7,greek3 to me_/trion7 is n 9 ! g5us evil1 b 9 ! g5us good4#agb ,we mu/ rem>k1 moreov]1 t ?\gh x be a probable dialectical argum5t1 t1 :]ev] ! g5us has a contr>y1 ! species w also h a contr>y1 yet !re are cases adv]se to ?is pr9ciple4 ,?us1 sickness 9 g5]al has = its contr>y heal? 9 g5]al2 b p>ticul> species ( sickness 7su* z fev]1 oph?almia1 g\t1 c47 h no contr>y4#agc ,footnote #agb3 ,ibid4 b4 #bc-cj4 ,footnote #agc3 ,ibid4 b4 #cj-cg4 ,su* w be y\r way ( proc$ure1 if ! !sis prop\nd$ be ,affirmative1 & if y h to make out a negative aga9/ x4 ,b if1 on ! contr>y1 ! !sis be ,negative1 s t y h to make out an affirmative aga9/ x1 y h !n ?ree l9es ( proc$ure op54 #a4 ,! g5us may h no contr>y1 :ile ! species has a contr>y3 9 t case1 y may p]haps be able to %[ t ! contr>y ( ! species 7subject7 is includ$ 9 ! pr$icate ( ! !sis 7g5us72 if s1 !n ! species also w be includ$ !re94 #b4 ,or1 if y c %[ t ! int]m$iate betwe5 ! species & its contr>y is includ$ 9 ! pr$icate 7g5us71 !n t same g5us w also include ! species & its contr>y2 =1 :]ev] ! int]m$iate is1 !re also are ! two extremes betwe5 :i* x is int]m$iate4 #c4 ,la/ly1 if ! g5us has a contr>y z well z ! species1 y may be able to %[ t ! contr>y ( ! species is includ$ 9 ! contr>y ( ! g5us2 assum+ :i* to be ! case1 !n ! species itself w be includ$ 9 ! g5us4#agd ,^! are ! ?ree modes ( proc$ure1 if y\r task is to make out ! negative4 ,footnote #agd3 ,topic4 ,,iv4 iii4 p4 #abd1 a4 #a-i4 ,if ! g5us enunciat$ by ! !sis be a true "o1 all ! ,d]ivatives & ,collat]als ( ! pr$icate w be fit & suitable = ^? ( ! subject4 ,?us1 if ju/ice be a sort ( sci5ce1 ju/ly w be sci5tifically1 & ! j man w be a sci5tific man4 ,?is locus is useful to be kept 9 m9d1 :e!r y h to make out an affirmative or a negative4#age ,y may reason 9 ! same way ab\t ! ,analoga ( ! pr$icate & ! subject2 ab\t ! productive & de/ructive causes ( ea*2 ! manife/ations pres5t1 pa/1 & future1 ( ea*1 c4#agf ,footnote #age3 ,ibid4 a4 #aj-ad4 ,footnote #agf3 ,ibid4 iv4 p4 #abd1 a4 #ae-cd4 ,:5 ! opposite ( ! species 7subject7 is ,privative1 ! !sis w be op5 to attack 9 two ways4 #a4 ,if ! privative opposite be conta9$ 9 ! pr$icate1 ! subject itself w n be conta9$ !re92 = x is a g5]al tru? t a subject & its privative opposite are nev] bo? ( !m conta9$ 9 ! same l[e/ g5us3 ?us1 if vision is s5sible p]ception1 bl9dness is n s5sible p]ception4 #b4 ,if bo? ! species & ! g5us h privative opposites1 !n if ! privative opposite ( ! species be conta9$ 9 ! privative opposite ( ! g5us1 ! species itself w also be conta9$ 9 ! g5us2 if n1 n4 ,?us1 if bl9dness be an inability ( s5sible p]ception1 vision w be a s5sible p]ception4 ,?is la/ locus w be available1 :e!r y are mak+ out an affirmative or a negative4#agg ,footnote #agg3 ,ibid4 a4 #ce-;b4 #f4 ,if ! pr$icate ( ! !sis be a true g5us1 y may conv]t ! !sis simply1 hav+ sub/itut$ = ! pr$icate ! d5ial ( its ,contradictory2 if n1 n4 ,vice v]s1 if ! new proposition s =m$ be true1 ! pr$icate ( ! !sis w be a true g5us2 if n1 n4 ,?us1 if good be ! true g5us ( pleasurable1 no?+ t is n good w be pleasurable4 ,?is locus also w s]ve bo? = mak+ out an affirmative & = mak+ out a negative4#agh ,footnote #agh3 ,topic4 ,,iv4 iv4 p4 #abd1 b4 #g-ad3 ,greek3 pa_/l9 e7pi tn a7popha_/sen skopein a7na_/pal91 c4 ,if ! subject 7species7 ( ! !sis be a ,relative1 y w exam9e :e!r ! pr$icate 7g5us7 be relative also2 if n1 x w n be ! true g5us ( ! subject4 ,! conv]se ( ?is rule1 h[ev]1 w n hold2 & inde$ ! rule itself is n absolutely univ]sal4#agi ,y may also argue t1 if ! correlate ( ! g5us be n ! same z ! correlate ( ! species1 ! g5us _c be truly pr$icat$ ( t species3 ?us1 half is ! correlate ( d\ble1 b half is n ! prop] correlate ( multiple2 !re=e1 multiple is n ! true g5us ( d\ble4 ,b y\r argum5t may "h be met by contradictory in/ances2 ?us1 cognition has ref]5ce to ! cognitum1 b habitus & dispositio 7! g5]a to :i* cognitio belongs7 d n ref] to cognitum b to anima4#ahj ,y may also exam9e :e!r ! correlate1 :5 appli$ to ! g5us1 is put 9 ! same case 7e4g41 g5itive1 dative1 c47 z :5 x is appli$ to ! species3 if x be put into a diff]5t case1 ?is af=ds presumption t ! g5us is n a true g5us2 ?\gh "h aga9 in/ances may be produc$ %[+ t y\r presumption w n hold univ]sally4 ,f>!r1 y w obs]ve :e!r ! correlates ?us simil>ly inflect$ reciprocate l ! species & g5us2 if n1 ?is w furni% y ) ! same adv]se presumption4#aha ,footnote #agi3 ,ibid4 b4 #ae-bb4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,ibid4 b4 #bc-cd4 ,footnote #aha3 ,ibid4 b4 #ce1 seq4 ,aga91 exam9e :e!r ! correlate ( ! g5us is g5us to ! correlate ( ! species2 if x be n s1 y may argue t ! g5us is n truly pr$icat$4 ,?us1 if ! !sis affirms t p]ceptio is ! g5us ( cognitio1 x w foll[ t p]cipibile is ! g5us ( cognoscibile4 ,n[ ?is _c be ma9ta9$2 = !re are "s cognoscibilia :i* are n p]ceivable1 e4g41 "s cogitabilia 7intelligibilia1 ,greek3 nota_/74 ,s9ce !re=e p]cipibile is n ! true g5us ( cognoscibile1 nei!r c p]ceptio be ! true g5us ( cognitio4#ahb ,footnote #ahb3 ,ibid4 p4 #abe1 a4 #be-cb3 ,greek3 o7ran de kai ei7 t\ a7ntikeime_/n\ to a7ntikei_/m5on ge_/nos1 oi7on ei7 t\ diplasi_/ou to pollapla_/sion kai t\ 7mi_/seos to pollo/mo_/rion2 dei gar to a7ntikei_/m5on t\ a7ntikeime_/n\ ge_/nos ei7nai4 ,we mu/ take note "h ( ! l>ge s5se 9 :i* ,ari/otle uses ,greek3 ,a7ntikei_/m5a--,opposita1 includ+ z "o ( ! f\r v>ieties ,relata & ,correlata ,relativ-,opposita 7to use a te*nical ^w famili> 9 logical manuals74 ,i h be=e 7supra1 p4 #aje7 rem>k$ ! inconv5i5ce ( call+ ! ,relative opposite to its ,correlate2 & h obs]v$ t x is logically incorrect to treat ,relata z a species or mode ( ! g5us ,opposita4 ,! rev]se w\ld be m correct3 we ought to rank ,opposita or a species or mode "u ! g5us ,relata4 ,s9ce ,ari/otle numb]s ,relata among ! t5 ,categories1 he ought to h se5 t x _c be includ$ z a subord9ate "u any sup]ior g5us4 ,suppose ! !sis pr$icates ( memory t x is--a cont9uance ( cognition4 ,?is w be op5 to attack1 if ! pr$icate be affirm$ z ! g5us 7or ev5 z ! accid5t7 ( ! subject4 ,= e cont9uance mu/ be 9 t :i* cont9ues4 ,b memory is ( necessity 9 ! s\l2 x _c !re=e be 9 cognition4#ahc ,!re is ano!r gr\nd on :i* ! !sis w be assailable1 if x def9es memory to be--a habit or acquirem5t ret5tive ( belief4 ,?is w n hold1 because x conf\nds habit or disposition ) act2 :i* la/ is ! true description ( memory4 ,! opposite error w be committ$ if ! respond5t def9es p]ceptivity to be a--movem5t ?r\gh or by means ( ! body4 ,"h p]ceptivity1 :i* is a habit or disposition1 is rank$ "u movem5t1 :i* is ! act ex]cis+ ! same1 i4e41 p]ceptivity 9 actual ex]cise4#ahd ,or1 ! mi/ake may be made ( rank+ "s habit or disposition "u ! p[] consequ5t on ! possession !re(1 z if ?is p[] 7 ! sup]ior g5us3 ?us ! respond5t may def9e g5tl5ess to be a cont95ce ( ang]2 c\rage1 a cont95ce ( fe>s2 ju/ice1 a cont95ce ( appetite ( lucre4 ,b ! g5us "h assign$ is n a good "o3 = a man :o feels no ang] is call$ g5tle2 a man :o feels no fe> is call$ c\rage\s2 :]eas ! cont95t man is he :o feels ang] or fe>1 b controls !m4 ,su* controll+ p[] is a natural consequ5ce ( g5tl5ess & c\rage1 insomu* t1 if ! g5tle man happ5$ to feel ang]1 or ! c\rage\s man to feel fe>1 ea* w\ld control ^! impulses2 b x is no "p ( ! ess5ce !re(1 & !re=e _c be ! g5us "u :i* !y fall4#ahe ,a l mi/ake is made if pa9 be pr$icat$ z ! g5us ( ang]1 or supposition z ! g5us ( belief4 ,! angry man d\btless feels pa91 b 8 pa9 prec$es 8 ang] 9 "t1 & is ! antec$5t cause !re(2 n[ ! g5us c nev] prec$e its species 9 "t4 ,s also a man may h ! same supposition sometimes ) belief1 sometimes )\t x2 accord+ly1 supposition _c be ! g5us ( belief any m ?an ! same animal c be sometimes a man1 sometimes a brute4#ahf ,& inde$ ! same negative conclusion w\ld foll[1 ev5 if we grant$ t e supposition 0 always att5d$ ) belief4 ,=1 9 t case1 supposition & belief w\ld be co-ext5sive t]ms2 b ! g5]ic t]m mu/ always be m ext5sive ?an its specific4#ahg ,footnote #ahc3 ,topic4 ,,iv4 iv4 p4 #abe1 b4 #f3 ,greek3 oi7on ei7 tn mn_/mn monn e7pi/_/ms ei7p54 pasa gar mon e7n t me_/nonti kai p]i e7keino1 7_//e kai 7 ts e7pi/_/ms mon e7n t e7pi/_/m4 7 mn_/m a7_/ra e7n t e7pi/_/m1 e7peid mon ts e7pi/_/ms e7/i_/n4 t\to d' ou7k e7nde_/*etai2 mn_/m gar pasa e7n psu*4 ,a def9ition simil> to ?is is f\nd 9 ! ,kratylus ( ,plato1 p4 #dcg1 ,b43 ,greek3 e7_/peita de 7 mn_/m panti_/ p\ mnu_/ei o7_/ti mon_/ e7/9 e7n t psu*1 a7ll' ou7 phora_/4 ,footnote #ahd3 ,ibid4 v4 p4 #abe1 b4 #ae-ai4 ,greek3 oi7on tn ai7_//hs9 ki_/ns9 dia s_/matos2 7 men gar ai7_//hsis e7_/xis1 7 de ki_/nsis e7ne_/rgeia4 ,?is1 too1 seems to allude to ,plato's explanation ( ,greek3 ai7_//hsis 9 ! ,timu1 pp4 #dc1 ,c1 #fd1 ,b2 comp>e also ! ,platonic or pseudo-,platonic ,def9itiones1 p4 #dad1 ,c4 ,footnote #ahe3 ,topic4 ,,iv4 v4 p4 #abe1 b4 #bj-bg4 ,footnote #ahf3 ,waitz1 9 8 notes 7p4 #dgh71 says t ,ari/otle is "h 9 ! wrong4 ,b ,i d n agree ) ,waitz4 ,ari/otle consid]s ,greek3 pi_//is to be an accid5tal accompanim5t ( ,greek3 u7po_/lpsis1 n a species !re(4 ,x may be pres5t or abs5t )\t det]m9+ any new specific "n to ,greek3 u7po_/lpsis1 :i* t]m has ref]5ce only to ! intellectual or conceptive "p ( ! m5tal supposition4 ,at lea/ !re seems to be no?+ contradictory or errone\s 9 :at ,ari/otle "h says1 ?\gh he does n adh]e ev]y:]e to ?is re/rict$ mean+ ( ,greek3 u7po_/lpsis ,footnote #ahg3 ,topic4 ,,iv4 v4 p4 #abe1 b4 #bh-p4 #abf1 a4 #b4 ,y w f>!r exam9e :e!r ! pr$icate ( ! !sis be ( a nature to inh]e 9 ! same sub/ance z ! subject4 ,if x be n1 x _c be truly pr$icat$ !re(1 ei!r z g5us or ev5 z accid5t4 ,:ite 7species7 & col\r 7g5us7 are ( a nature to inh]e or belong to ! same sub/ance4 ,b1 if ! !sis decl>es t %ame is a species ( fe>1 or t ang] is a species ( pa91 y may impugn x on ! gr\nd t %ame belongs to ! reason+ elem5t 9 man1 fe> to ! c\rage\s or en]getic elem5t2 & t pa9 belongs to ! appetitive elem5t1 ang] to ! c\rage\s4 ,?is proves t fe> c nei!r be ! g5us nor ! accid5t ( %ame2 t pa9 c nei!r be ! g5us nor ! accid5t ( ang]4#ahh ,footnote #ahh3 ,ibid4 p4 #abf1 a4 #c-af4 ,comp>e ,v4 iv4 p4 #acc1 a4 #ca4 ,ari/otle appe>s "h to recognize ! ,platonic doctr9e z laid d[n 9 ! ,republic & ,timu1 ass]t+ ei!r ?ree di/9ct p>ts ( ! s\l1 or1 r1 ?ree di/9ct s\ls4 ,9 ! treatise ,de ,anim 7,,iii4 ix4 p4 #dcb1 a4 #be2 ,i4 v4 p4 #daa1 b4 #be71 he diss5ts f & impugns ?is same doctr9e4 ,suppose ! !sis decl>es t animal is a species "u ! g5us visibile or p]cepibile4 ,y may oppose x by po9t+ out t animal is only visibile secundum quid1 or p>tially2 t is1 only s f> z reg>ds body1 n z reg>ds m9d4 ,b ! species always p>takes ( its g5us :olly1 n p>tially or secundum quid2 ?us1 man is n p>tially animal1 b :olly or ess5tially animal4 ,if :at is pr$icat$ z ! g5us be n ?us ess5tially p>tak51 x _c be a true g5us2 h5ce nei!r visibile nor p]cepibile is a true g5us ( animal4#ahi ,footnote #ahi3 ,topic4 ,,iv4 v4 p4 #abf1 a4 #ag-be4 ,sometimes :at is pr$icat$ z ! g5us is1 :5 comp>$ to its species1 only z a "p to ! :ole2 :i* is nev] ! case ) a true g5us4 ,"s ref] animal to ! g5us liv+ body2 b body is only "p ( ! :ole animal1 & !re=e _c be ! true g5us !re(4#aij ,sometimes a species :i* is blamewor?y & hateful1 or a species :i* is praisewor?y & eligible1 may be ref]r$ to ! p[] or capacity f :i* x spr+s1 z g5us2 ?us1 ! ?ief1 a blamewor?y & hateful "*1 may be ref]r$ to ! pr$icate--capable ( /eal+ ano!r man's prop]ty4 ,b ?is1 ?\gh true z a pr$icate1 is n ! true g5us2 = ! hone/ man is also capable ( s act+1 b he is di/+ui%$ f ! ?ief by n act+ s1 nor hav+ ! disposition s to act4 ,all p[] & capacity is eligible2 if ! above 7 ! true g5us ( ?ief1 x w\ld be a case 9 :i* p[] & capacity is blamewor?y & hateful4 ,nei!r1 on ! o!r h&1 c any ?+ 9 its own nature praisewor?y & eligible1 be ref]r$ to p[] & capacity z its g5us2 = all p[] & capacity is praisewor?y & eligible n 9 itself or its own nature1 b by reason ( some?+ else1 namely1 its realizable consequ5ces4#aia ,footnote #aij3 ,ibid4 a4 #bf-bi4 ,footnote #aia3 ,topic4 ,,iv4 v4 p4 #abf1 a4 #cj-;b4 #f3 ,greek3 o7ran de kai ei7_/ ti tn psektn 7 pheutn ei7s du_/nam9 7 to dunaton e7_/?k51 oi7on ton sophi/n 7 dia_/bolon 7 kle_/ptn ton duna_/m5on la_/?ra ta a7llo_/tria kle_/pte94 ,! g5]al drift ( ,ari/otle is "h illu/rat$ bett] by tak+ ! ?ief sep>ately1 ap>t f ! o!r two4 ,b we mu/ notice "h ! pro( ( 8 temp] or judgm5t conc]n+ ! p]sons call$ ,sophi/s1 :5 we f9d him gr\p+ !m 9 ! bun* ( ,greek3 psekta & ,greek3 pheukta along ) ?ieves4 ,! majority ( 8 un9/ruct$ contempor>ies w\ld probably h agre$ 9 ?is judgm5t1 b !y w\ld c]ta9ly h enroll$ ,ari/otle himself among ! ,sophi/s ?us depreciat$4 ,aga91 y may detect 9 ! !sis sometimes ! mi/ake ( putt+ "u "o g5us a species :i* prop]ly comes "u two g5]a conjo9tly1 n subalt]nate "o to ! o!r2 sometimes1 ! mi/ake ( pr$icat+ ! g5us z a diff]5tia1 or ! diff]5tia z a g5us4#aib ,sometimes1 also1 ! subject 9 :i* ! attribute or affection resides is pr$icat$ z if x 7 ! g5us ( su* affection2 or1 conv]so1 ! attribute or affection is pr$icat$ z ! g5us ( ! subject :]e9 x resides2 e4g41 :5 brea? or w9d1 :i* is really a movem5t ( air1 is affirm$ to be air put 9 motion1 & ?us con/itut$ z a species "u ! g5us air2 or :5 sn[ is decl>$ to be wat] congelat$2 or mud1 to be e>? mix$ ) moi/ure4#aic ,9 none ( ^! cases is ! pr$icate a true g5us2 = x _c be always affirm$ ( ! subject4 ,footnote #aib3 ,ibid4 b4 #g-cc4 ,footnote #aic3 ,ibid4 b4 #cd-p4 #abg1 a4 #ai4 ,or p]haps ! pr$icate affirm$ z g5us may be no g5us at all2 = no?+ c be a g5us unless !re are species conta9$ "u x2 e4g41 if ! !sis decl>e :ite to be a g5us1 ?is may be impugn$1 because :ite objects d n diff] 9 specie f ea* o!r4 ,or a m]e univ]sal pr$icate 7su* z ,ens or ,unum7 may be put =w>d z a g5us or diff]5tia2 or a simple concomitant attribute1 or an equivocal t]m1 may be s put =w>d4#aid ,footnote #aid3 ,topic4 ,,iv4 vi4 p4 #abg1 a4 #bj-;b4 #g4 ,p]haps x may happ5 t ! subject 7species7 & ! pr$icate 7g5us7 ( ! !sis may ea* h a contr>y t]m2 & t 9 ea* pair ( contr>y t]ms "o may be bett]1 ! o!r worse4 ,if1 9 t case1 ! bett] species be ref]r$ to ! worse g5us1 or vice v]s1 ?is w r5d] ! !sis assailable4 ,or p]haps ! species may be fit to be ref]r$ equally to bo? ! contr>y g5]a2 9 :i* case1 if ! !sis %\ld ref] x to ! worse ( ! two1 t w be a gr\nd ( objection4 ,?us1 if ! s\l be ref]r$ to ! g5us mobile1 y are at lib]ty to object t x is equally ref]able to ! g5us /abile3 & t1 z ! latt] is ! bett] ( ! two1 x ought to be ref]r$ to ! bett] 9 pref]5ce to ! worse4#aie ,footnote #aie3 ,ibid4 b4 #h-ag4 ,!re is a locus ( ,m & ,less1 :i* may be made available 9 v>i\s ways4 ,?us1 if ! g5us pr$icat$ admits ( be+ graduat$ z m or less1 :ile ! species ( :i* x is pr$icat$ does n admit ( su* graduation1 y may "q ! applicability ( ! g5us to ! species4#aif ,y may raise ! "q also1 if !re be any ?+ else :i* looks equally l ! true g5us1 or m l x ?an ! g5us pr$icat$ by ! !sis4 ,?is w happ5 (t51 :5 ! ess5ce ( ! species includes sev]al di/9ct elem5ts2 e4g41 9 ! ess5ce ( ang]1 !re is includ$ bo? pa9 7an emotional elem5t71 & ! supposition or belief ( be+ und]valu$ 7an intellectual elem5t72 h5ce1 if ! !sis ranks ang] "u ! g5us pa91 y may object t x equally belongs to ! g5us supposition#aig ,?is locus is useful = rais+ a negative "q1 b w s]ve little = e/abli%+ an affirmative4 ,t[>ds ! affirmative1 y w f9d advantage 9 exam9+ ! subject 7species7 respect+ :i* ! !sis pr$icates a giv5 g5us2 =1 if x c be %[n t ?is suppos$ species is no real species b a g5us1 ! g5us pr$icat$ !re( w be =tiori a g5us4#aih ,footnote #aif3 ,ibid4 b4 #ah-be3 ,greek3 e7_/ti e7k t\ mallon kai 7tton1 a7naskeua_/zonti me_/n1 ei7 to ge_/nos de_/*etai to mallon1 to d' ei7dos m de_/*etai m_/t' au7to m_/te to kat' e7keino lego_/m5on4 ,footnote #aig3 ,ibid4 b4 #bf-cg3 ,greek3 *r_/simos d' o7 to_/pos e7pi tn toi\_/tn ma_/li/a e7ph' 7n plei_/ phai_/netai t\ ei7_/d\s e7n t ti_/ e7/i katgor\_/m5a1 kai m di_/ri/ai1 m_/d' e7_/*om5 ei7pein poion au7tn ge_/nos1 c4 ,footnote #aih3 ,ibid4 b4 #ch-p4 #abh1 a4 #ab4 ,"s ?9k 7says ,ari/otle7#aii t ,diff]5tia z well z ,g5us is pr$icat$ ess5tially respect+ ! ,species4 ,accord+ly1 ,g5us mu/ be discrim9at$ f ,diff]5tia4 ,= su* discrim9ation ! foll[+ *>act]i/ics are po9t$ out3--#a4 ,g5us has great] ext5t 9 pr$ication ?an ,diff]5tia4 #b4 ,9 reply+ to ! enquiry1 ,quid e/8 x is m suitable & significant to decl>e ! ,g5us ?an ! ,diff]5tia4 #c4 ,diff]5tia decl>es a quality ( ,g5us1 & !re=e presupposes ,g5us z already kn[n2 b ,g5us does n 9 l mann] presuppose ,diff]5tia4 ,if y wi% to %[ t belief is ! g5us to :i* cognition belongs1 y mu/ exam9e :e!r ! cognosc5s believes qu cognosc5s4 ,if he does s1 y\r po9t is made out4#bjj ,footnote #aii3 ,ibid4 a4 #bj1 seq43 ,greek3 e7pei de dokei tisi kai 7 diaphora e7n t ti_/ e7/i tn ei7dn katgorei/hai1 *ri/e_/on to ge_/nos a7po ts diaphoras1 c4 ,footnote #bjj3 ,topic4 ,,iv4 vi4 p4 #abh1 a4 #ce4 ,if y are try+ to %[ ,greek3 tn e7pi/_/mn o7_/p] pi_//91 y mu/ exam9e ,greek3 ei7 o7 e7pi/a_/m5os 7 e7pi_//atai pi/eu_/ei2 dlon gar o7_/ti 7 e7pi/_/m pi_//is a7_/n tis ei7_/4 ,:]ev] a pr$icate is univ]sally true ( its subject1 :ile ! proposition is n true if simply conv]t$ 7i4e41 :]ev] ! pr$icate is ( l>g] ext5sion ?an ! subject71 !re is difficulty 9 di/+ui%+ x f a g5us4 ,accord+ly1 :5 y are respond5t1 ma9ta9+ ! affirmative side1 y w use su* pr$icate z if x 7 a g5us2 b1 :5 y are assailant1 y w n all[ ! respond5t to d s4 ,y may quote aga9/ him ! in/ance ( ,non-,ens2 :i* is pr$icable ( e ?+ g5]at$1 b :i* is n a g5us1 s9ce x has no species "u x4#bja ,footnote #bja3 ,ibid4 a4 #ch-;b4 #i4 ,v4 ,ari/otle passes1 9 ! ,fif? book ( ! ,topica1 to ^? debates 9 :i* ! !sis set up decl>es ! pr$icate z ,proprium ( ! subject4 ,a ,proprium may belong to its subject ei!r p] se & semp]1 or relatively to some?+ else & occasionally or sometimes4 ,x is a proprium p] se ( man to be an animal by nature tractable4 ,x is a relative proprium ( ! s\l 9 reg>d to ! body1 to ex]cise comm&2 ( ! body 9 reg>d to ! s\l1 to obey comm&4 ,x is a proprium semp] ( a god1 to be immortal2 x is an occasional proprium 7i4e41 sometimes7 ( ?is or t man1 to be walk+ 9 ! m>ket-place4#bjb ,:5 ! proprium is set out relatively to some?+ else1 ! debate mu/ involve two que/ions1 & may involve f\r4 ,?us1 if ! !sis affirms t x is a proprium ( man relatively to horse 7discrim9at+ man f horse7 to be by nature two-foot$1 y may 7z oppon5t7 ei!r d5y t man is two-foot$1 or affirm t horse is two-foot$2 or y may g f>!r & affirm t man is by nature f\r-foot$1 or d5y t horse is by nature f\r-foot$4 ,if y c succe$ 9 %[+ any "o ( ^! f\r1 y w h refut$ ! !sis4#bjc ,footnote #bjb3 ,ibid4 ,v4 i4 p4 #abh1 b4 #ad-ba4 ,t :i* ,ari/otle calls ,proprium p] se is a proprium ( ! subject z mu* relative z :at he calls specially ! relative ,proprium4 ,! ,proprium p] se discrim9ates ! subject f ev]y?+ else2 ! relative ,proprium discrim9ates x f "s giv5 correlate4 ,footnote #bjc3 ,topic4 ,v4 i4 p4 #abh1 b4 #bb-cc4 ,! ,proprium p] se discrim9ates its subject f ev]y?+ else1 & is univ]sally true !re(2 ! relative ,proprium discrim9ates its subject only f "s o!r assignable subject4 ,! relative ,proprium may be ei!r con/ant & univ]sally true1 or true ) exceptions--true & applicable 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( ?+s3 x may be te/$ ?r\gh ^? ,loci :i* h be5 enum]at$ z applicable to ! ,accid5t4 ,! ,proprium p] se1 & ! con/ant ,proprium1 h c]ta9 ,loci ( _! own1 :i* we %all n[ indicate4 ,^! are ! mo/ logical 7s5su ,ari/otelico7 or suitable = ,dialectic2 furni%+ ! mo/ ample matt] = debates4#bjd ,footnote #bjd3 ,ibid4 b4 #cd-p4 #abi1 a4 #ce4 ,greek3 tn d' i7di_/n e7/i lo_/gika ma_/li/a2 c4 ,he expla9s pres5tly :at he means by ,greek3 logika_/--logikon de t\t' e7/i pro_/blma1 pros o7 lo_/goi ge_/noit' a7n kai su*noi kai kaloi_/4 ,! di/9ctions 9 ?is p>agraph are n v %>ply drawn4 ,ari/otle di/+ui%es 7#a7 ^? cases 9 :i* ! alleg$ proprium is a true proprium1 b is incorrectly or in=mally set out 9 ! !sis1 f ^? 7#b7 9 :i* x is untruly pr$icat$1 or is no proprium at all4 ,to set out a proprium well1 t :i* is pr$icat$ ought to be cle>] & bett] kn[n ?an ! subject ( :i* x is pr$icat$1 s9ce ! purpose ( pr$icat+ ! proprium is to communicate k4#bje ,if x be m obscure or less kn[n1 y may impugn ! !sis z bad 9 =m1 or badly set out4 ,?us1 if ! !sis decl>e1 z a proprium ( fire1 t fire is ( all ?+s ! mo/ l to ! s\l1 ?is is n well set out1 because ! ess5ce ( ! s\l is n s well kn[n z ! ess5ce ( fire4 ,moreov]1 ! fact t ! pr$icate belongs to ! subject1 ought to be bett] kn[n ev5 ?an ! subject itself2 = :oev] is ignorant t ,a belongs to ,b at all1 _c possibly "k t ,a is ! proprium ( ,b4#bjf ,?us1 if ! !sis decl>e1 z proprium ( fire1 t x is ! fir/ or mo/ univ]sal subject 9 :i* x is ! nature ( s\l to be f\nd1 ! pr$icate is "h d\bly unkn[able3 fir/1 ! he>] does n "k t ! s\l is f\nd 9 fire at all2 next1 he does n "k t fire is ! fir/ subject 9 :i* s\l is f\nd4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! respond5t w repel y\r attack if he c %[ t 8 proprium is m kn[able 9 bo? ! two above-m5tion$ ways4 ,if1 = example1 he decl>es z !sis1 ,to h s5sible p]ception is ! proprium ( an animal1 "h ! proprium is bo? well kn[n 9 itself1 & well kn[n z belong+ to ! giv5 subject4 ,accord+ly1 x is well set out1 z f> z ?is condition is conc]n$4#bjg ,footnote #bje3 ,ibid4 p4 #abi1 b4 #g3 ,greek3 gn_/ses gar e7_/neka to i7_/dion poi\_/me?a2 dia gnrimte_/ron ou7n a7podote_/on2 ou7_/t gar e7_//ai katanoein i7kans mallon4 ,he repeats ! same dictum1 sub/antially1 9 ! next page1 p4 #acj1 a4 #d3 ,greek3 to gar i7_/dion t\ ma!in *a_/r9 a7podi_/dotai2 &1 aga91 p4 #aca1 a4 #a4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,ibid4 b4 #ae3 ,greek3 o7 m gar ei7ds ei7 td' u7pa_/r*ei1 ou7d' ei7 td' u7pa_/r*ei mo_/n gnriei4 ,footnote #bjg3 ,topic4 ,v4 ii4 p4 #abi1 b4 #ba-bi4 ,a second condition ( its be+ well set out is1 t x %all conta9 nei!r equivocal t]m nor equivocal or amphibolical proposition4 ,?us1 if ! !sis decl>es1 ,to p]ceive is ! proprium ( an animal1 x is equivocal2 = x may mean ei!r to h s5sible p]ception1 or to ex]cise s5sible p]ception actually4 ,y may apply ! te/ to su* a !sis1 by syllogiz+ f "o or bo? ( ^! equivocal mean+s4 ,! respond5t w make good 8 def5ce1 if he %[s t !re is no su* equivocation3 z1 = example1 if ! !sis be1 ,x is a proprium ( fire to be ! body mo/ easily mov$ into ! upp] region2 :]e !re is no equivocation1 ei!r ( t]m or proposition4#bjh ,sometimes ! equivocation may be1 n 9 ! "n ( ! proprium itself1 b 9 ! "n ( ! subject to :i* x is appli$4 ,:]e ?is la/ is n unum et simplex b equivocal1 ! !sis mu/ specify :i* among ! sev]al s5ses is int5d$2 &1 if t be neglect$1 ! mann] ( sett+ out is incorrect4#bji ,footnote #bjh3 ,ibid4 b4 #cj-p4 #acj1 a4 #ac4 ,footnote #bji3 ,ibid4 p4 #acj1 a4 #ae-bh4 ,ano!r =m ( ! l mi/ake is1 :]e ! same t]m is repeat$ bo? 9 ! pr$icate & 9 ! subject2 :i* is (t5 done1 bo? z to ,proprium & z to ,def9ition1 ?\gh x is a cause ( obscurity1 z well z a tiresome repetition4#baj ,! repetition may be made 9 two ways3 ei!r directly1 by ! same t]m occurr+ twice2 or indirectly1 :5 ! second t]m giv5 is su* t x _c be def9$ )\t repeat+ ! fir/4 ,an example ( direct repetition is1 ,fire is a body ! r>e/ among bodies 7= proprium ( fire74 ,an example ( indirect repetition is1 ,e>? is a sub/ance :i* t5ds mo/ ( all bodies d[nw>ds to ! l[e/ region 7z proprium ( e>?72 =1 :5 ! respond5t is requir$ to def9e bodies1 he mu/ def9e !m--su* & su* sub/ances4#baa ,an example free f objection on ?is gr\nd is1 ,man is an animal capable ( receiv+ cognition 7z proprium ( man74 ,footnote #baj3 ,ibid4 a4 #cj-cd4 ,greek3 t>a_/ttei gar ton a7k\_/onta pleona_/kis le*!_/n--kai pros t\_/tois a7doles*ein dok\s94 ,footnote #baa3 ,ibid4 a4 #cd-;b4 #e4 ,greek3 e7_/n gar kai tau7to_/n e7/i sma kai ou7si_/a toiadi_/2 e7_//ai 9999gar ou7tos to ou7si_/a pleona_/kis ei7rk_/s4 ,ano!r mode ( bad or incorrect sett+ out is1 :5 ! t]m pr$icat$ z proprium belongs n only to ! subject1 b also to all o!r subjects4 ,su* a proposition is useless2 = x furni%es no means ( discrim9at+ ! subject f any?+2 :]eas discrim9ation is "o express purpose ( ! ,proprium z well z ( ! ,def9ition4#bab ,aga91 ano!r mode is1 :5 ! !sis decl>es sev]al propria belong+ to ! same subject1 )\t ann\nc+ t !y are sev]al4 ,z ! def9] ought n to introduce into 8 def9ition any words beyond :at are requir$ = decl>+ ! ess5ce ( ! subject1 s nei!r %\ld ! p]son :o sets out a proprium add any words beyond ^? requisite = con/itut+ ! proprium4 ,?us1 if ! !sis enunciates1 z proprium ( fire1 t x is ! ?9ne/ & lighte/ body1 "h are two propria in/ead ( "o4 ,contra/ ) ?is ano!r proprium1 free f ! objection j po9t$ out--,moi/ is t :i* may assume e v>iety ( figure4#bac ,footnote #bab3 ,topic4 ,v4 ii4 p4 #acj1 b4 #ab3 ,greek3 a7*reion 9999gar e7_//ai to m *ri_/zon a7po_/ t9n1 9999to d' e7n tois i7di_/ois lego_/m5on *ri_/ze9 dei1 ka?a_/p] kai ta e7n tois o7_/rois4 ,footnote #bac3 ,ibid4 b4 #bc-cg4 ,a f>!r mi/ake is1 :5 ! pr$icate decl>+ ! proprium includes ei!r ! subject itself or "s species compreh5d$ "u ! subject2 = example1 :5 we are told1 z a proprium ( animal1 t animal is a sub/ance ( :i* man is a species4 ,we h already se5 t ! proprium ought to be bett] kn[n ?an its subject2 b man is ev5 less kn[n 7po/]ior 9 respect to cognition7 ?an animal1 because x is a species "u ! g5us animal4#bad ,footnote #bad3 ,ibid4 iii4 p4 #acj1 b4 #ch4 ,aga91 our canon--,t ! ,proprium %\ld be bett] kn[n ?an its subject1 or %\ld make ! subject bett] kn[n--w be violat$ 9 ano!r way1 if ! proprium enunciat$ be some?+ opposite to ! subject1 or 9 any o!r way simul natur z comp>$ ) ! subject2 & /ill m1 if x be po/]ius natur z comp>$ ) ! subject4 ,?us1 if a man enunciates1 z proprium ( good1 t good is t :i* is mo/ opposite to evil1 8 proprium w n be well or correctly set out4#bae ,footnote #bae3 ,ibid4 p4 #aca1 a4 #ab-bf4 ,?is locus is n cle> or satisfactory1 z ,alex&] rem>ks 9 ,s*olia 7p4 #bhd1 b4 #ab-bc1 ,br474 ,he says t x may pass z an ,greek3 e7_/ndoxon--some?+ suffici5tly plausible to be employ$ 9 ,dialectic4 ,9 fact1 ,alex&] virtually controv]ts ?is locus 9 :at he says a little f>!r d[n 7,s*ol4 p4 #bhe1 a4 #ca71 t ! ,proprium is always simul natur ) its subject4 ,p]haps1 aga91 ! !sis may enunciate z proprium :at is n con/antly appurt5ant to ! subject1 b is sometimes abs5t !refrom2 or1 int5d+ to enunciate an occasional proprium1 x may omit to specify ! qualify+ epi!t occasional4 ,9 ei!r case ! proprium is n well set out1 & a gr\nd is furni%$ = c5sure1 :i* ought always to be avoid$4#baf ,footnote #baf3 ,topic4 ,v4 iii4 p4 #aca1 a4 #bg-;b4 #ah4 ,greek3 ou7k e7_//ai kals kei_/m5on to i7_/dion--ou7_/k\n dote_/on e7/in e7pitim_/ses skps94 ,moreov]1 ! proprium w n be well set out1 if x be su* z does n necess>ily belong to ! subject1 b is only %[n by ! evid5ce ( s5se to belong !reunto4 ,9 ?is case1 :5 ! subject is out ( ! rea* ( s5sible p]ception1 no "o kn[s :e!r ! suppos$ proprium /ill cont9ues z its attribute4 ,?us1 suppose ! !sis to enunciate z a proprium ( ! sun1 t x is ! brighte/ /> borne 9 movem5t above ! e>?3 ! fact t x is s borne 9 movem5t above ! e>? is "o t we "k by s5sible p]ception only2 accord+ly1 aft] ! sun sets & we cease to see x1 we _c be sure t x cont9ues to be borne 9 movem5t4 ,if a proprium kn[able z su* by s5se be *os51 x ought to be "o :i* is also kn[able indep5d5tly1 z belong+ to ! subject by necessity4 ,?us1 if a man enunciates1 z proprium ( sup]ficies1 t sup]ficies is :at fir/ becomes col\r$ or fir/ receives col\r1 ?is is a proprium well set out4 ,= we "k cle>ly t x mu/ always belong to a sup]ficies2 ?\gh we may also obta9 ! additional evid5ce ( s5se1 by look+ at "s p]ceivable body4#bag ,footnote #bag3 ,ibid4 b4 #ai-cf4 ,greek3 oi7on e7pei o7 !_/m5os e7piphanei_/z i7_/dion o7 prton ke_/*r/ai1 ai7/ht me_/n t9i proske_/*rtai t ke*r/hai1 toi\_/t d' o7 phan]o_/n e7/9 u7pa_/r*on a7ei_/1 ei7_/ a7n kata t\to kals a7pod$ome_/non to ts e7piphanei_/z i7_/dion4 ,ari/otle means t we "k cle>ly1 by evid5ce indep5d5t ( s5se1 t ! sup]ficies mu/ be ! fir/ portion ( ! body t becomes col\r$1 ?\gh we may atta9 ! additional evid5ce ( our s5ses 7,greek3 proske_/*rtai7 to ! same fact4 ,p]haps too ! !sis may enunciate ! ,def9ition z if x 7 a ,proprium2 :i* is ano!r gr\nd = object+ t ! proprium is n well set out4 ,?us1 ! !sis may enunciate1 z proprium ( man1 t man is a l& animal walk+ on two feet4 ,"h :at is giv5 z proprium is ! ess5ce ( man1 :i* nev] ought to be affirm$ 9 ! proprium4 ,to set out ! proprium well1 ! pr$icate ought to reciprocate & to be co-ext5sive ) ! subject1 b x ought n to affirm ! ess5ce !re(4 ,a good specim5 ( proprium well set out is ! foll[+1 ,man is an animal by nature g5tle2 = "h ! pr$icate is co-ext5sive ) ! subject1 yet does n decl>e ! ess5ce ( ! subject4#bah ,footnote #bah3 ,ibid4 b4 #cg-p4 #acb1 a4 #i4 ,la/ly1 ! proprium1 to be well set out1 ?\gh x does n decl>e ! ess5ce ( ! subject1 yet ought to beg9 by presuppos+ ! g5]ic portion ( ! ess5ce1 & to atta* itself !reunto z a con/ant adjunct or concomitant4 ,?us1 suppose ! !sis to enunciate1 z proprium1 ,animal is t :i* has a s\l2 ?is w n be well set out1 = ! pr$icate is n sup]add$ or atta*$ to ! decl>$ g5]ic ess5ce ( animal4 ,b1 if ! !sis enunciates1 z proprium ( man1 ,man is an animal capable ( acquir+ cognition1--?is w be a proprium well set out1 s f> z ! pres5t objection is conc]n$4 ,= "h ! pr$icate decl>es fir/ ! g5]ic ess5ce ( ! subject1 & !n sup]9duces ! peculi> adjunct !reupon4#bai ,footnote #bai3 ,topic4 ,v4 iii4 p4 #aca1 a4 #aj-ba4 ,?us f> ,ari/otle has po9t$ out c]ta9 conditions to be att5d$ to 9 det]m9+ :e!r a ,proprium is well set out or describ$1 )\t det]m9+ :e!r x be really a ,propium or n4 ,x may p]haps be truly pr$icat$ ( ! subject1 & may ev5 admit ( a bett] description :i* w\ld %[ x to be a proprium ( ! subject2 b ! description actually set out is defective1 & ! assailant is entitl$ to impea* x on t gr\nd4 ,he n[ proce$s to a l>g] discussion3 ,:at are ! conditions = det]m9+ :e!r ! suppos$ ,proprium be really a ,proprium at all1 9 respect to ! subject ( :i* x is pr$icat$8 ,assum+ t ! description ( x is n op5 to impea*m5t on any ( ! gr\nds above enum]at$1 are !re n o!r real gr\nds ( objection1 disprov+ its title to ! "* ( ,proprium8#bbj ,footnote #bbj3 ,ibid4 p4 #acb1 a4 #bb-bg4 ,greek3 po_/t]on men ou7n kals 7 ou7 kals a7pode_/dotai to i7_/dion1 dia tnde skepte_/on2 po_/t]on d' i7_/dio_/n e7/9 o7_/ls to ei7rme_/non 7 ou7k i7_/dion1 e7k tnde !rte_/on4 ,! di/9ction "h not$ by ,ari/otle 7betwe5 ! two que/ions3--7#a7 ,:e!r ! alleg$ ,proprium is well set out or cle>ly describ$8 7#b7 ,:e!r ! alleg$ ,proprium is a ,proprium at all87 is n c>ri$ out1 nor inde$ capable ( be+ c>ri$ out1 ) /rict precision4 ,! two heads ( que/ions run toge!r & become conf\nd$4 ,alex&] rem>ks 7,s*olia1 p4 #bhd1 b4 #bd-df1 ,br47 t ! ?ree or f\r la/-m5tion$ loci "u ! fir/ head embrace ! second head also4 ,he all[s only ?ree loci z belong+ peculi>ly to ! fir/ head--,greek3 t\ m kals a7pod$o_//hai to i7_/dion3--7#a7 ,equivocal t]ms2 7#b7 ,pr$icate n reciprocat+ or co-ext5sive ) subject2 7#c7 ,pr$icate n m kn[able ?an subject4 ,! o!r loci 7besides ^! ?ree7 enum]at$ by ,ari/otle "u ! fir/ head1 ,alex&] consid]s z belong+ equally to ! second head4 ,b he comm5ds ,ari/otle = mak+ a di/9ction betwe5 ! two heads3 ,greek3 ou7 gar pan to a7pllotrime_/non t\_/tn1 kai m e7_/*on o7mnu_/m\s phnas 7_/ ti tn ei7rme_/nn1 kai i7_/dion r7te_/on e7x a7na_/gks4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire expla9s ?is nice di/9ction is n cle> to me 7,note to 8 translation ( ,topica1 p4 #agg74 #a4 ,suppose y\r respond5t to set up ,a z a proprium ( ,b3 y w exam9e fir/ :e!r ,a c be truly pr$icat$ ( ,b at all2 next1 if x c s be1 :e!r x is truly pr$icable ( ,b qu ,b1 or ( e ?+ t comes "u ,b qu ,b4 ,?us1 if he cont5ds t n to be deceiv$ by reason is a proprium ( sci5tific m51 y w be able to %[ t ?is does n hold 9 geometry1 s9ce geometricians are deceiv$ by pseudographemes or sci5tific p>alogisms4 ,or1 %\ld ! respond5t d5y t ,a is a proprium ( ,b1 y w succe$ 9 refut+ him1 if y c prove t ,a is truly pr$icable ( e ,b & qu ,b4 ,?us1 x is a proprium ( man to be an animal capable ( acquir+ k2 because t attribute is truly pr$icable ( e man qu man4#bba ,footnote #bba3 ,topic4 ,v4 iv4 p4 #acb1 a4 #bg1 seq4 #b4 ,aga91 suppose y\r respond5t affirms a giv5 proprium ,a ( ,b3 y w exam9e :e!r ,a c be truly pr$icat$ ( e ?+ call$ ,b1 & :e!r ,b c be truly pr$icat$ ( e ?+ call$ ,a2 if n1 ! alleg$ proprium w n hold4 ,?us ! affirmation1 ,a god is an animal p>ticipant ( k1 is a true affirmation2 b x w\ld n be true to say1 ,a god is a man3 :]e=e1 to be p>ticipant ( k is n proprium ( man2 &1 if ?is be ! proprium :i* ! respond5t und]takes to ma9ta91 y w be able to refute him4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if :at he und]takes is ! negation ( a proprium 7,a is n a proprium ( ,b71 y w e/abli% ! affirmative aga9/ him by %[+ t ( e ?+ respect+ :i* ,a c be truly affirm$ ,b c be affirm$ also1 & vice v]s4 ,y w ?us %[ t ,a is a true proprium ( ,b4#bbb ,footnote #bbb3 ,ibid4 b4 #h-ah4 #c4 ,aga91 ! respond5t may p]haps affirm ! subject itself z a proprium ( some?+ inh]5t 9 ! subject4 ,y may refute ?is by %[+ t1 if x 7 s1 ! same ?+ w\ld be a proprium ( sev]al ?+s diff]+ f ea* o!r 9 species4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! respond5t may p]haps d5y t some?+ inh]5t 9 ! subject is a proprium3 y may !n refute him by %[+ t x is truly pr$icable ( ! subject only1 & n truly pr$icable ( any ?+ else4#bbc ,footnote #bbc3 ,ibid4 b4 #ai-cd4 ,alex&]1 9 ! ,s*olia 7p4 #bhe1 a4 #ad1 ,br47 has /at$ ?is locus m cle>ly ?an ,ari/otle--,greek3 to gar i7_/dion u7pa_/r*e9 dei e7n e7te_/r1 ou7* e7_/t]on e7n au7t4 #d4 ,! respond5t may p]haps affirm z a proprium some?+ conta9$ 9 ! ess5ce ( ! subject3 if s1 y w refute him by %[+ ?is4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if he d5ies some?+ to be a proprium1 y w refute him by %[+ t1 ?\gh x is n conta9$ 9 ! ess5ce ( ! subject1 x is nev]!less pr$icable co-ext5sively !re)4#bbd ,footnote #bbd3 ,topic4 ,v4 iv4 p4 #acb1 b4 #ce-p4 #acc1 a4 #aa4 #e4 ,! respond5t may affirm z a proprium t :i* is n a necess>y concomitant ( ! subject1 b may ei!r prec$e or foll[ x4 ,or1 on ! o!r h&1 he may d5y some?+ to be a proprium :i* y c %[ to be a con/ant & necess>y concomitant ( ! subject1 )\t be+ includ$ ei!r 9 its def9ition or diff]5tia4 ,9 ea* case y w h a gr\nd = refut+ him4#bbe ,footnote #bbe3 ,topic4 ,v4 iv4 p4 #acc1 a4 #ab-bc4 #f4 ,! respond5t may affirm z a proprium ( ! subject :at he has already d5i$ ( ! same subject "u "s o!r "n2 or he may d5y ( x :at he has already affirm$ ( x "u "s o!r "n4 ,y w h gr\nds = refut+ him4#bbf ,footnote #bbf3 ,ibid4 a4 #bd-cb4 #g4 ,if !re be two subjects 7e4g41 man & horse7 ! same ) ea* o!r 9 species1 ! respond5t may affirm respect+ "o ( !m a proprium :i* is n ! same 9 species ) ! proprium ( ! o!r4 ,?us1 x is n a con/ant proprium ( horse to /& /ill spontane\sly2 accord+ly nei!r is x a con/ant proprium ( man to move spontane\sly2 ^! two propria be+ ! same 9 species1 & belong+ bo? to man & to horse quat5us animal4#bbg ,if1 !re=e1 ! respond5t affirms ! "o :ile he d5ies ! o!r1 y h an argum5t 9 refutation4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he may prop\nd z !sis ! d5ial ( ! "o proprium1 :ile he affirms or admits ! o!r4 ,"h too y w be able to make good ! c\nt]-affirmation aga9/ 8 d5ial1 on ! gr\nd ( t :i* he admits4 ,?us1 if x be proprium ( man to be a walk+-bip$1 x mu/ also be proprium ( bird to be a fly+-bip$4 ,! two pairs1 man & bird1 walk+ & fly+1 are ! same 9 species ) ea* o!r1 s9ce bo? pairs are subord9ates "u ! same g5us3 man & bird are species1 fly+ & walk+ are diff]5ti1 "u ! same g5us animal4 ,?is locus1 h[ev]1 is n univ]sally applicable2 = p]haps "o ( ! two pr$icates may n be ( exclusive application to ! subject1 b may belong to o!r subjects also4 ,?us walk+-bip$ designates only "o v>iety--man2 b walk+-quadrup$ designates sev]al--horse1 ass1 dog1 c4 ,walk+-quadrup$ !re=e is n a proprium ( horse4#bbh ,footnote #bbg3 ,ibid4 a4 #ce-;b4 #e4 ,greek3 oi7on e7pei tau7to_/n e7/i t ei7_/dei a7_/n?rpos kai i7_/ppos1 ou7k a7ei de t\ i7_/pp\ e7/in i7_/dion to e7/a_/nai u7ph' au7t\1 ou7k a7n ei7_/ t\ a7n?r_/p\ i7_/dion to k9ei/hai u7ph' au7t\2 tau7ton ga_/r e7/i t ei7_/dei to k9ei/hai kai e7/a_/nai u7ph' au7t\1 7 z_/ e7/in e7kate_/r au7tn to sumbebke_/nai4 ,! la/ words are v obscure3 !y are expla9$ by ,waitz 7p4 #dhf7--;,greek3 7 to sumbebke_/nai e7ka_/t]on 7to k9ei/hai kai e7/a_/nai u7ph' au7t\ intell47 ,greek3 e7kate_/r au7tn e7/i sumbebke_/nai 7 z_/1 quat5us utrumque de utroque1 quat5us animal e/1 prdicatur4 ,footnote #bbh3 ,topic4 ,v4 iv4 p4 #acc1 b4 #e-ad4 ,alex&] decl>es ?is locus to be obscure4 ,he comm5ts1 n )\t reason1 on ! loose mann] 9 :i* ,ari/otle uses ! t]m ,greek3 ei7dos2 & he obs]ves t ,ari/otle himself admits ! locus to be ,greek3 kata_/ ti pseud_/s 7,s*ol4 p4 #bhe1 a4 #dj-de1 ,br474 ,x is /range to read t man & horse1 man & bird1 are ,greek3 tau7ton ei7_/dei1 ! same 9 species4 #h4 ,!re is "s difficulty 9 discuss+ ! proprium1 :5 ! respond5t is assail$ by a sophi/ical dialectician :o avails himself ( ! equivocal application ( ,idem & ,div]sum3 cont5d+ t ,subject ) an ,accid5t becomes a diff]5t subject--e4g41 homo albus1 a subject diff]5t f homo 7s t1 :5 a proprium has be5 %[n to belong to homo1 x has n be5 %[n t ! same proprium belongs to homo albus72 & t ! ,ab/ract is a diff]5t subject f ! ,concrete--e4g4 cognition1 f ! cogniz+ man 7s t :at has be5 %[n z proprium ( cognition has n be5 %[n z proprium ( ! cogniz+ man74 ,if ! respond5t %all himself set up ^! negatives1 leav+ to y ! task ( e/abli%+ ! proprium aga9/ him1 y w meet him by say+ t homo is n a subject absolutely diff]5t & di/9ct f homo albus1 b t !re is only a notional di/9ction1 ! same subject hav+ "h two names ea* ) a di/9ct connotation3 homo has its own connotation2 homo albus has also its own connotation1 embody+ 9 "o total t :i* ea* ( ! t]ms connotes4 ,&1 :5 ! ,sophi/ rem>ks t :at is a proprium ( sci5tia _c be pr$icat$ also z a proprium ( homo sci5s1 y w reply t x may be s pr$icat$1 only ) a slight *ange ( inflection4 ,= y ne$ n scruple to employ sophi/ical refutation aga9/ ^? :o debate ) y 9 a sophi/ical way4#bbi ,footnote #bbi3 ,topic4 ,v4 iv4 p4 #acc1 b4 #ae-p4 #acd1 a4 #d4 ,greek3 pros gar ton pa_/nts e7ni/a_/m5on1 pa_/nts a7ntitakte_/on e7/i_/n4 ,x appe>s to me t ,ari/otle is n entitl$ to treat ?is objection z sophi/ical 7i4e4 z unfair ,dialectic74 ,he is "h consid]+ pr$ication z ,proprium1 contra/$ ) pr$ication z ,accid5t4 ,:at is true z an accid5t respect+ homo albus1 w also be true z an accid5t respect+ homo3 b :at is true z a proprium respect+ homo albus1 w n be true z a proprium respect+ homo--nor vice v]s4 ,?is is a good locus = objections 9 pr$ication ( ,proprium4 ,!re is a real di/9ction betwe5 homo & homo albus2 betwe5 ,koriskus & ,koriskus albus3 & "o ( ! ways ( elucidat+ t di/9ction is by po9t+ out t ! proprium ( "o is n ! same z ! proprium ( ! o!r4 ,ari/otle treats ^? :o dwelt ^u ?is di/9ction z ,sophi/s3 :at _! mann] ( notic+ x may h be5 he does n cle>ly tell u2 b if we are to h t logical accuracy ( spee* :i* 8 classification & !ory dem&1 ?is di/9ction mu/ und\bt$ly be br\ght to view among ! re/4 #i4 ,! respond5t may p]haps int5d to affirm z proprium some?+ :i* by nature belongs to ! subject2 b he may err 9 8 mode ( /at+ x1 & may pr$icate x z always belong+ to ! subject4 ,?us1 he may pr$icate bip$ z a proprium always belong+ to man4 ,"u ?is mode ( expression1 y w be able to %[ t he is wrong2 = !re are "s m5 :o h n two feet4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! respond5t d5ies bip$ to be a proprium ( man1 rely+ ^u ! /atem5t t x is n actually true ( e individual1 y w be able to %[ aga9/ him t x is s 9 ! correct phraseology ( belong+ to man by nature4#bcj ,footnote #bcj3 ,topic4 ,v4 v4 p4 #aca1 a4 #e-ag4 ,?is locus is a "q r ( phraseology ?an ( real fact1 & seems !re=e r to belong to ! =m] class ( ,loci respect+ ! ,proprium--,greek3 po_/t]on kals 7 ou7 kals a7pode_/dotai to i7_/dion--?an to ! pres5t class1 :i* ,ari/otle decl>es 7,v4 iv4 p4 #acb1 a4 #be7 to relate to ! "q ,greek3 po_/t]on i7_/dio_/n e7/9 o7_/ls to 9999ei7rme_/non 7 ou7k i7_/dion4 #aj4 ,t :i* is affirm$ z a proprium may belong to its subject ei!r prim>ily & imm$iately1 or 9 a second>y way--relatively to "s prior d5om9ation ( ! same subject4 ,9 su* cases x is difficult to set out ! proprium 9 t]ms ?or\ghly unobjectionable4 ,?us1 ! sup]ficies ( a body is :at is fir/ col\r$3 :5 we speak ( corpus album1 ?is is by reason ( its :ite sup]ficies4 ,album is a proprium true bo? ( body & ( sup]ficies2 b ! explanation usually giv5 ( ,proprium w n hold "h--t1 :]ev] ! pr$icate c be affirm$1 ! subject c be affirm$ also4 ,album is proprium ( sup]ficies2 & album c be truly affirm$ z also proprium ( body2 b sup]ficies _c be truly affirm$ ( body4#bca ,footnote #bca3 ,topic4 ,v4 v4 p4 #acd1 a4 #ah-be4 ,?is is a v obscure & difficult locus4 ,i am n sure t ,i und]/& x4 #aa4 ,! respond5t :o is affirm+ a ,proprium may sometimes err by n cle>ly di/+ui%+ 9 :at mode1 & 9 respect to :at precise subject1 he int5ds to affirm x4 ,!re are t5 diff]5t modes1 9 "o or o!r ( :i* he always proposes to affirm x3--#bcb a4 ,z belong+ to ! subject by nature4 ,e4g41 ,bip$ is by nature a proprium ( man4 b4 ,z belong+ to ! subject simply--9 "s way or o!r4 ,e4g41 ,to h f\r f+]s1 belongs to ,koriskus or "s o!r individual man4 c4 ,z belong+ to ! species4 ,e4g41 ,x belongs to fire to be ! mo/ subtle ( all bodies4 d4 ,z belong+ absolutely 7,greek3 a7pls1 ka?a_/p] z_/ou to zn7--9 virtue ( ! ess5ce ( ! subject--p] se4#bcc e4 ,z belong+ to ! subject by reason ( "s prim>y int]v5+ aspect or attribute !re(4 ,e4g41 ,prud5ce is a proprium ( ! s\l1 look$ at quat5us reasonable or intellectual4 f4 ,z belong+ to t prim>y attribute or special aspect1 logically di/+ui%$ & nam$ sep>ately f ! subject4 ,e4g41 ,prud5ce is a proprium ( ! logi/ikon or rationale4 g4 ,z belong+ to ! subject view$ z possess+ or hold+ 9 possession4 ,e4g41 ,! sci5tific man possesses t acquir$ m5tal habit :i* r5d]s him incapable ( hav+ 8 convictions f>!r alt]$ by discussion4 h4 ,z belong+ to "s possession held by a possess+ p]son4 ,e4g41 ,sci5ce is unalt]able by discussion2 :]e sci5ce1 a possession ( ! sci5tific man1 is assign$ z subject ( ! proprium1 unalt]able by discussion4 i4 ,z belong+ to a subject :i* is p>tak5 or held 9 p>ticipation by ano!r subject ly+ beh9d4 ,e4g41 ,s5sible p]ception is a proprium ( ! g5us animal :i* g5us is p>tak5 or held 9 p>ticipation by ?is individual man1 t individual horse1 c42 :5ce x may be pr$icat$ n only ( animal b also ( man1 z ?us p>ticipant4 k4 ,z belong+ to ! ultimate subject p>tak+4 ,e4g41 ,to live is a proprium ( ?is p>ticul> man or horse1 p>ticipant 9 ! g5us animal1 9 ! way j indicat$4 ,footnote #bcb3 ,ibid4 a4 #bf-;b4 #d3 ,greek3 sumbai_/nei d' e7n e7ni_/ois tn i7di_/n 7s e7pi to polu gi_/ne/hai_/ t9a a7m>ti_/an p>a to m diori_/ze/hai ps kai ti_/nn ti_/?si to i7_/dion4 a7_/pantes gar e7pi*eir\s9 a7podido_/nai to i7_/dion 7 to phu_/sei u7pa_/r*on1 c4 ,he !n proce$s to enum]ate ! t5 div]sities ( ,proprium :i* ,i h giv5 9 ! text3 ?is p>agraph also is v obscure4 ,i _c b repeat ! rem>k "h 7:i* ,i made supra p4 #cah71 t ! cont5ts ( ?is p>agraph also belong to ! =m] inve/igation 7viz41 ,h[ ought ! ,proprium to be set out & describ$87 r ?an to ! pres5t inve/igation 7viz41 ,:e!r ! alleg$ ,proprium is really a ,proprium ( ! assign$ subject or n874 ,footnote #bcc3 ,topic4 ,v4 v4 p4 #acd1 a4 #cb3 ,greek3 7 a7pls1 ka?a_/p] z_/ou to zn4 ,is n ,greek3 to zn includ$ 9 ! ess5tia 7,greek3 to ti 7n ei7nai7 ( ,greek3 zon8 ,if s1 h[ c x be admitt$ z a proprium !re(8 ,n[ ea* ( ^! v>ieties ( ! ,proprium is liable to its own mode ( errone\s sett+ out or description4 ,?us ! correspond+ errors w be3--#bcd a4 ,n to add ! qualify+ words by nature4 b4 ,n to /ate ! proprium z simply belong+1 :5 x does only belong to ! subject n[1 & may pres5tly cease to belong4 c4 ,n to /ate ! proprium z belong+ to ! species4 ,if he omits ^! words1 he may be told t x belongs to "o v>iety alone among ! species 7e4g41 %\ld x be a sup]lative7 & n to o!rs3 p]haps x may belong to "s conspicu\sly1 & to o!rs fa9tly4 ,or p]haps1 if he does add ! express words--to ! species1 he may err1 inasmu* z !re exi/s no real species prop]ly s call$4 e4 f4 ,n to di/+ui% :e!r he means to affirm x ( ,b by reason ( ,a1 or ( ,a directly3 he w lay himself op5 to ! objection t 8 proprium1 & ! subject t]m ( :i* he decl>es x to be a proprium1 are n co-ext5sive 9 pr$ication4 g4 h4 ,n to di/+ui% :e!r he int5ds z subject ! p]son possess+1 or ! possession4 ,if he leaves ?is undet]m9$1 ! objector may attack him on "o gr\nd or ! o!r4 i4 k4 ,n to di/+ui% :e!r he means z subject ! p>tak]1 or ! g5us :i* is p>tak54 ,"h too ! objector w h gr\nd = attack ei!r f "o side or f ! o!r4 ,footnote #bcd3 ,topic4 ,v4 v4 p4 #acd1 b4 #e-p4 #ace1 a4 #e4 ,= ! f\r? head 7d471 no correspond+ error is assign$4 ,x %\ld be not$ t ! illu/ration giv5 ( x1 & rem>k$ ^u at ! foot ( ! la/ page1 is repeat$ = ! conclud+ head ( ! li/4 ,9 case ! respond5t %\ld enunciate 8 proprium 9 any "o ( ! above defective ways1 y w ?us "k :]e to f9d objections aga9/ him4 ,b1 if y und]take y\rself to enunciate a proprium1 y w avoid lay+ y\rself op5 to ! objections1 by discrim9at+ "u :i* ( ^! heads y int5d to affirm x4#bce ,footnote #bce3 ,topic4 ,v4 v4 p4 #ace1 a4 #e3 ,greek3 a7_/ll\ men ou7n ou7_/ts a7podido_/ntos to i7_/dion e7pi*eirte_/on1 au7t d' ou7 dote_/on e7/i tau_/tn tn e7_/n/as91 a7ll' eu7?us ti!_/m5on to i7_/dion diori/e_/on o7n tro_/pon ti_/?si to i7_/dion4 #ab4 ,aga91 ! respond5t may p]haps affirm z proprium a pr$icate really id5tical ) ! subject1 ?\gh "u a diff]5t "n4 ,?us1 he may decl>e to ,greek3 to pre_/pon to be a proprium ,greek3 t\ kal\3 y may !n refute him by %[+ t ,greek3 pre_/pon is id5tical ) ,greek3 kalo_/n4 ,if he is on ! negative side1 d5y+ ,a to be a proprium ( ,b on ! gr\nd t ,a is id5tical ) ,b1 y w make out ! affirmative aga9/ him by %[+ t ,a is n id5tical ) ,b1 b only co-ext5sive & reciprocat+ !re)4 ,?us1 y may %[ t animat$ sub/ance is n id5tical ) animal1 b a proprium ( animal4#bcf ,footnote #bcf3 ,ibid4 a4 #aa-ai4 #ac4 ,:]e ! subject is homoeom]ic1 ! respond5t may decl>e z proprium ( ! :ole :at _c be truly affirm$ z proprium ( a "p sep>ately2 or he may decl>e z proprium ( a "p sep>ately :at _c be truly decl>$ z proprium ( ! :ole4 ,9 ei!r case1 y h a plausible argum5t = refut+ him2 b y\r refutation w n be always conclusive1 because !re are v>i\s cases 9 :i* :at is true ( ea* homoeom]ic "p is n true ( ! :ole2 & vice v]s4 ,if y\r position 9 ! debate is affirmative1 y w select z illu/ration "s case 9 :i* :at is by nature true ( ! :ole is also true ( ea* sep>ate "p3 e4g41 ,! e>? z a :ole1 & ea* ( its p>ts1 t5d by nature d[nw>ds4 ,?is is a proprium ( ! e>?4#bcg ,footnote #bcg3 ,topic4 ,v4 v4 p4 #ace1 a4 #bj-;b4 #f4 #ad4 ,respect+ ,opposita1 !re are diff]5t loci = diff]5t v>ieties4 a4 ,contr>ia4--,suppose ! respond5t to affirm ,a z proprium ( ,b3 y w exam9e :e!r ! contr>y ( ,a is proprium ( ! contr>y ( ,b4 ,if x be n1 !n nei!r is ,a proprium ( ,b4 ,?us1 if be/ is n a proprium ( ju/ice1 nei!r c wor/ be a proprium ( inju/ice4 ,if ! respond5t is on ! negative side1 y may prove ! affirmative aga9/ him by %[+ t ! contr>y ( ! alleg$ proprium is a proprium ( ! contr>y ( ! alleg$ subject4#bch ,footnote #bch3 ,ibid4 vi4 p4 #ace1 b4 #g-af4 b4 ,relata4--,suppose ! respond5t to affirm a relatum ,a z proprium ( a relatum ,b1 y may refute him by %[+ t ! correlate ( ,a is n proprium ( ! correlate ( ,b4 ,suppose him to d5y ! same1 y w refute him by prov+ ! affirmative betwe5 correlate & correlate4#bci ,footnote #bci3 ,ibid4 vi4 p4 #ace1 b4 #ag-bf4 c4 ,habitus et ,privatio4--,suppose ! respond5t to affirm an attribute ( ! habitus ,b1 z proprium !re(3 y may refute him by %[+ t ! correspond+ attribute ( ! privatio correlat+ ) habitus ,b1 is n proprium ( t privatio4 ,suppose him to take ! negative side1 y w refute him by prov+ ! affirmative ( ?is latt] proposition4#bdj ,footnote #bdj3 ,ibid4 b4 #bg-p4 #acf1 a4 #d4 #ae4 ,respect+ ,contradictory ,propositions 7affirmation & negation ( ! same71 m ?an "o mode ( deal+ may be /at$4 ,:]ev] ! affirmation is a proprium ( ! subject1 ! negation _c also be a proprium !re(2 & vice v]s4 ,if ! affirmative pr$icate be n a proprium ( ! affirmative subject1 nei!r c ! negative pr$icate be proprium ( ! negative subject2 & vice v]s4 ,if ! affirmative pr$icate be proprium ( ! affirmative subject1 ! negative pr$icate w also be proprium ( ! negative subject4 ,! same pr$icate _c be proprium bo? ( ! affirmative subject & ( ! negative subject4#bda ,footnote #bda3 ,ibid4 p4 #acf1 a4 #e-;b4 #b4 ,?is locus is decl>$ by ,ari/otle to furni% argum5ts = refutation only1 & n = pro(4 #af4 ,respect+ two or m ,contra-,specific ,t]ms "u ! same g5us & exhau/+ ! :ole g5us3--,suppose ,a & ,b contra-specific t]ms us$ z subjects2 ,c & ,d contra-specific t]ms us$ z pr$icates4 ,if ,c be n a proprium ( ,a1 nei!r w ,d be a proprium ( ,b2 ?us1 if p]ceivable 7,greek3 ai7/hto_/n7 is n a proprium ( any o!r species 7except gods7 includ$ "u ! g5us animal1 nei!r w intelligible 7,greek3 noto_/n7 be proprium ( a god4 ,aga91 if ,c be a proprium ( ,a1 ,d also w be a proprium ( ,b4 ,?us1 if x be a proprium ( prud5ce to be by its own nature ! excell5ce ( ! rational or calculat+ s\l 7,greek3 logi/ik\71 we mu/ also affirm z proprium ( temp]ance t x is ! excell5ce ( ! appetitive s\l 7,greek3 e7pi?umtik\74#bdb ,footnote #bdb3 ,topic4 ,v4 vi4 p4 #acf1 b4 #c-ac4 ,il faut suppos] ici quatre t]mes1 qui sont deux deux les membres d'une division3 si le premi] n'e/ pas le propre du troisime1 le second ne le s]a pas du quatrime2 et rciproquem5t p\r la ngation d'abord4 ,les quatre t]mes sont ici3 s5sible1 intelligible1 membres d'une mme division3 mortel1 div9it1 membres d'une autre division4 7,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire1 p4 #aig47 #ag4 ,respect+ ,cases or ,inflections1 ei!r ( ! subject ,b1 or ! pr$icate ,a3--,if ! case or inflection ( ! pr$icate be n a proprium ( ! correspond+ case or inflection ( ! subject1 nei!r w ! pr$icate be proprium ( ! subject4 ,if ! case or inflection ( ! pr$icate be a proprium ( ! correspond+ case or inflection ( ! subject1 !n ! pr$icate itself w also be proprium ( ! subject4 ,pul*r is n proprium ( j2 !re=e1 pul*rum is n proprium ( ju/um4 ,?is locus w be f\nd available 9 comb9ation ) ! prec$+ locus be>+ on ,opposita4 ,n only opposita !mselves1 b also ! cases & inflections ( opposita1 may be adduc$ z argum5ts1 foll[+ ! rules above laid d[n4#bdc ,footnote #bdc3 ,topica1 ,v4 vii4 p4 #acf1 b4 #ae-cb4 #ah4 ,analog\s cases or propositions3--,if ! respond5t affirms ,a z proprium ( ,b1 y h an argum5t aga9/ him by %[+ t some?+ analog\s to ,a is n proprium ( a subject analog\s to ,b4 ,?us1 ! build]1 9 relation to h\se-mak+1 is analog\s to ! physician1 9 relation to heal?-mak+2 n[ heal?-mak+ is n ! proprium ( ! physician1 & !re=e nei!r is h\se-mak+ ! proprium ( ! build]4 ,if ! respond5t has advanc$ a negative1 y w apply ?is same locus 9 ! affirmative aga9/ him3 e4g41 z x is ! proprium ( ! gymna/ to imp>t a good habit ( body1 s x is ! proprium ( ! physician to imp>t heal?4#bdd ,footnote #bdd3 ,ibid4 b4 #cc-p4 #acg1 a4 #g4 #ai4 ,esse1 & ,g5]>i or ,fi]i3--,if ,a consid]$ z ,ens is n ! proprium ( ,b consid]$ z ,ens1 !n nei!r w ,a consid]$ z ,fi5s be ! proprium ( ,b consid]$ z ,fi5s4 ,vice v]s1 on ! affirmative side3 if ! =m] ( ^! two be ! fact1 y may argue t ! latt] is ! fact also4#bde ,footnote #bde3 ,topic4 ,v4 vii4 p4 #acg1 a4 #ba-;b4 #b4 #bj4 ,comp>ison ) ! ,idea3--,if ! respond5t sets up ,a z proprium ( ,b1 y w turn y\r m9d to ! ,idea ( ,b1 & note :e!r ,a is proprium ( ?is ,idea1 9 ! same s5se & "u ! same aspect z x is affirm$ to be proprium ( ,b4 ,if x be n s1 y w h an argum5t 9 refutation ( ! respond5t4 ,?us1 if he ma9ta9s t x is a proprium ( man to be at re/1 y w argue t ?is _c be s1 because to be at re/ is n ! proprium ( ! ,self-man 7,greek3 au7toa_/n?rpos7 quat5us man1 b quat5us ,idea4 ,vice v]s1 y w h an affirmative argum5t1 if y c %[ t x is ! proprium ( ! ,idea4 ,?us1 s9ce x is a proprium ( ! self-animal quat5us animal to be compos$ ( s\l & body1 y may inf] t to be compos$ ( s\l & body is really a proprium ( animal4#bdf ,footnote #bdf3 ,ibid4 b4 #c-ac4 #ba4 ,locus f ,m & ,less3--,suppose ! respond5t to affirm ,a z proprium ( ,b3 y w h an argum5t aga9/ him1 if y c %[ t :at is m ,a is n proprium ( t :i* is m ,b4 ,?us1 if to be m col\r$ is n proprium ( t :i* is m body1 nei!r is to be less col\r$ proprium ( t :i* is less body2 nor is to be col\r$ proprium ( body simply4 ,vice v]s1 if y c %[ t :at is m ,a is proprium ( :at is m ,b1 y w h an affirmative argum5t to e/abli% t ,a is proprium ( ,b4 ,?us1 to p]ceive m is proprium ( t :i* is m liv+4 ,h5ce1 to p]ceive simply is proprium ( t :i* is liv+ simply2 also1 to p]ceive mo/1 lea/1 or less1 is proprium ( t :i* is mo/1 lea/1 or less liv+1 respectively4#bdg ,footnote #bdg3 ,ibid4 viii4 p4 #acg1 b4 #ad-bg4 ,if y c %[ t ,a simply is n proprium ( ,b simply1 y h an argum5t to e/abli% t :at is m or less ,a is n proprium ( t :i* is m or less ,b4 ,if1 on ! o!r l&1 y %[ ! affirmative ( ! fir/1 ?is w be an argum5t su/a9+ ! affirmative ( ! la/4#bdh ,p]haps y c %[ t :at is m ,a is n proprium ( :at is m ,b3 ?is w be an argum5t to %[ t ,a is n proprium ( ,b4 ,?us1 to p]ceive is m proprium ( animal ?an to "k is proprium ( man2 b to p]ceive is n proprium ( animal2 !re=e1 to "k is n proprium ( man4 ,or aga91 if y c %[ t :at is less ,a is proprium ( :at is less ,b1 ?is w =m an argum5t to %[ t ,a is proprium ( ,b4 ,?us1 natural mansuetude is less proprium ( man ?an life is proprium ( animal2 b natural mansuetude is proprium ( man3 !re=e life is proprium ( animal4#bdi ,f>!r1 if y c %[ t ,a is m a proprium ( ,c ?an x is a proprium ( ,b1 yet nev]!less t x is n a proprium ( ,c y may !nce argue t ,a is n a proprium ( ,b4 ,?us1 to be col\r$ is m a proprium ( sup]ficies ?an x is a proprium ( body2 yet x is n a proprium ( sup]ficies2 !re=e1 x is n a proprium ( body4 ,?is la/ v>iety ( ! locus ( ,m & ,less 7,ari/otle rem>ks7 af=ds no correspond+ affirmative plea2#bej = ! same pr$icate _c be a proprium ( _m subjects4 ,if ,a be really a proprium ( sup]ficies1 x _c be also proprium ( body4 ,la/ly1 y may p]haps be able to %[ t ,c is m a proprium ( ,b ?an ,a is a proprium ( ,b2 yet1 if ,c is n a proprium ( ,b1 y w inf] negatively t nei!r is ,a proprium ( ,b4 ,?us1 to be p]ceivable is m proprium ( animal1 ?an to be divisible is proprium ( animal2 yet to be p]ceivable is n proprium ( animal1 &1 !re=e1 nei!r is to be divisible proprium ( animal4 ,y may inv]t ?is argum5t = ! affirmative1 if y c %[ t ,c is less a proprium ( ,b ?an ,a is a proprium ( ,b1 yet /ill t ,c is a proprium ( ,b2 h5ce y w inf]1 =tiori1 t ,a is a proprium !re(4 ,e4g41 ,if to p]ceive is less a proprium ( animal ?an to live is a proprium !re(1 yet to p]ceive is a proprium ( animal2 !n1 to live is s likewise4#bea ,footnote #bdh3 ,ibid4 b4 #bh-p4 #ach1 a4 #c4 ,footnote #bdi3 ,topica1 ,v4 viii4 p4 #ach1 a4 #d-ab4 ,footnote #bej3 ,ibid4 p4 #ach1 a4 #ac-bj3 ,greek3 kataskeua_/zonti de o7 to_/pos ou7tos ou7_/k e7/i *r_/simos2 a7du_/naton ga_/r e7/i tau7to pleio_/nn i7_/dion ei7nai4 ,footnote #bea3 ,ibid4 a4 #ba-cj4 #bb4 ,locus f ,equal ,relation3--,argum5ts bo? negative & affirmative may 9 l mann] be obta9$ by comp>+ diff]5t ?+s :i* are 7n m or less propria1 b7 alike or equally propria ( "s o!r subject4 ,if ,a is z mu* a proprium ( ,b z ,c is proprium ( ,d1 :ile yet ,a is n a proprium ( ,b1 y may h5ce inf] t ,c is n a proprium ( ,d4 ,if1 "u ?is hypo!sis1 ,a is a proprium ( ,b1 y may inf] affirmatively t ,c is a proprium ( ,d4#beb ,or1 if ,a & ,c be1 alike & equally1 propria ( ! same subject ,b1 !n1 if y %[ t ,a is n proprium !re(1 y w inf] negatively t ,c is n s2 if y %[ t ,a is proprium ( ,b1 y w inf] affirmatively t ,c is s likewise4 ,or1 ?irdly1 if ,a be1 alike & equally1 a proprium ( ,b & ( ,e1 !n1 if y c %[ t ,a is n a proprium ( ,e1 y may inf] negatively t x is n a proprium ( ,b4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 ! c\nt]-inf]5ce affirmatively is n all[able2 = ! same proprium _c belong z proprium to two di/9ct subjects1 z 0 /at$ be=e4#bec ,footnote #beb3 ,ibid4 a4 #cj-;b4 #ae4 ,footnote #bec3 ,ibid4 b4 #af-bb4 #bc4 ,locus f ,pot5tiality3--,no pot5tiality :atev] c belong to ,non-,ens4 ,accord+ly1 if ,a1 ! proprium affirm$ ( a subject ,b1 is a pot5tiality1 ?is mu/ imply "s real ,ens 9 :i* x inh]es1 & :i* is correlate to ! subject4 ,b1 if 9 ! specification ( ! proprium no allusion is made to su* correlate1 y w attack x z a bad proprium--z a pot5tiality inh]+ 9 ,non-,ens or no?+4 ,e4g41 if ! case be1 ,x is a proprium ( air to be respirable1 y w refute ?is by po9t+ out t ?is is true only :5 !re exi/ animals 9 :om ! pot5tiality ( brea?+ resides2 t no m5tion is made by ! respond5t ( ?is correlate or ( any o!r correlate2 9 o!r words1 t1 s f> z ! specification is conc]n$1 ! correlate is pass$ ov] z ,non-,ens or a non-entity4 ,!re=e ! proprium is n a good proprium4#bed ,aga91 suppose ! affirmation to be1 ,x is a proprium ( ,ens to be capable ( do+ or suff]+ some?+2 ?is w be def5sible because x is only :5 ! subject is ,ens1 t x is decl>$ to h su* proprium4#bee ,footnote #bed3 ,topica1 ,v4 ix4 p4 #ach1 b4 #bg-cg4 ,greek3 oi7on e7pei o7 ei7_/pas a7e_/ros i7_/dion to a7napneu/o_/n t duna_/mei men a7pe_/dke to i7_/dion 7to gar toi\ton i7_/dion oi7on a7napnei/hai a7napneu/o_/n e7/971 a7pode_/dke de kai pros to m o7n to i7_/dion2 kai gar m o7_/ntos z_/ou1 oi7on a7napnein pe_/phuke ton a7e_/ra1 e7nde_/*etai a7e_/ra ei7nai2 ou7 me_/ntoi m o7_/ntos z_/ou dunato_/n e7/9 a7napnein2 7_//' ou7d' a7e_/ros e7_//ai i7_/dion to toi\ton oi7on a7napnei/hai1 to_/te o7_/te z_/on ou7k e7_//ai toi\ton oi7on a7napnein4 ou7k a7n ou7n ei7_/ a7e_/ros i7_/dion to a7napneu/o_/n4 ,respirability 7! proprium "h discuss$7 be+ a relative t]m1 ,ari/otle dem&s t ! correlate !re( %all be nam$ & includ$ 9 sett+ out ! proprium4 ,if ?is be n done1 a refutative argum5t may be drawn f su* omission--t ! respond5t 0 n aw>e ( ! relativity4 ,we may rem>k "h t ?is objection is f\nd$ on a bad or incomplete specification ( ! proprium 9 "q3 x is n an objection aga9/ ! reality ( t proprium itself1 if c>efully describ$4 ,! objection belongs to t class :i* ,ari/otle _h discuss$ be=e1 at ! comm5cem5t ( ,book ,v4 ,footnote #bee3 ,ibid4 p4 #aci1 a4 #a-h4 #bd4 ,locus f ! ,sup]lative3--,suppose ! affirmation to be1 ,x is a proprium ( fire to be ! lighte/ ( all bodies3 ?is y may refute by %[+ t1 if fire ceas$ to exi/1 !re w\ld /ill be "s o!r body ! lighte/ ( all bodies4 ,!re=e ! proprium may /ill be pr$icat$ ( some?+ else1 :5 its alleg$ subject has ceas$ to exi/4 ,! proprium & its subject are n reciprocat+ & co-ext5sive2 !re=e x is n a true proprium4#bef ,footnote #bef3 ,ibid4 a4 #i-bj4 ,,vi4 ,we n[ ent] on ! ,six? ,book1 conta9+ ! ,loci be>+ on ,def9ition4 ,9 debates respect+ ,def9ition1 !re are five po9ts on any ( :i* ! attack & def5ce may turn3--#beg #a4 ,t :i* ! def9] enunciates z a def9ition may n be true at all1 ev5 z a pr$icate ( ! def9i5d or subject to be def9$2 or at lea/ n true ( ev]y?+ t be>s ! "n ( ! subject4 #b4 ,! def9i5d may h be5 includ$ 9 a g5us1 b n 9 t g5us to :i* x rightly & specially belongs4 #c4 ,! def9ition giv5 may n be specially appropriate to ! def9i5d 7i4e41 x may include1 n only t b1 o!r matt]s besides74 #d4 ,! def9ition1 ?\gh unobjectionable on any ( ! above ?ree gr\nds1 may nev]!less n decl>e ! ,ess5ce ( ! def9i5d4 #e4 ,la/ly1 ! def9ition may be good 9 sub/ance1 b badly express$ or set out4 ,footnote #beg3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 i4 p4 #aci1 a4 #bd-ce3 ,greek3 ts de p]i t\s o7_/r\s pragmatei_/z me_/r pe_/nte e7/i_/n4 ,z to ! fir/ ( ^! five heads1 ! ,loci be>+ !reupon h already be5 enum]at$ 9 ! ,?ird ,book1 on ,accid5t3 9 accid5tal pr$ications ! "q rais$ is always ab\t ! tru? or falsehood ( ! pr$ication4#beh ,z to ! second & ?ird ( ! five heads1 ^! h be5 dealt ) 9 ! ,f\r? & ,fif? ,books1 enum]at+ ! ,loci on ,g5us & ,proprium4#bei ,footnote #beh3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 i4 p4 #aci1 a4 #cf4 ,footnote #bei3 ,ibid4 b4 #c4 ,!re rema9 ! f\r? & fif? heads1 on :i* we are ab\t to ent]3 7#a7 ,:e!r ! def9ition is well express$ or set out 7! fif? head72 7#b7 ,:e!r x has any "r to be call$ a def9ition at all1 i4e41 :e!r x decl>es ! ,ess5ce ( ! subject 7! f\r?74#bfj ,! fif? is tak5 fir/1 because to d a ?+ well is always m difficult ?an to d x simply1 & is !re=e likely to af=d great] op5+ = argum5tative attack4 ,footnote #bfj3 ,ibid4 b4 #f4 ,! def9ition1 :ile unobjectionable 9 sub/ance1 may be badly set out 9 two ways4 ,fir/1 x may be indi/9ct 9 t]ms--n pla9 nor cle>4 ,next1 x may be r$undant3 ! t]ms may include m ?an is requir$ = ! def9ition4 ,"u ea* ( ^! defects ( expression sev]al loci may be indicat$4#bfa ,footnote #bfa3 ,ibid4 b4 #ab-ah4 #a4 ,indi/9ctness may arise f ! employm5t ( equivocal t]ms 9 ! def9ition4 ,or x may arise f ! t]m to be def9$ be+ itself equivocal2 :ile ! def9]1 tak+ no notice ( su* equivocation1 has tri$ to compreh5d all its s5ses "u "o & ! same def9ition4 ,y may attack him ei!r by d5y+ t ! def9ition z giv5 cov]s all ! diff]5t mean+s ( ! def9i5d2 or y may y\rself di/+ui% 7:i* ! def9] has omitt$ to d7 ^! diff]5t mean+s1 & %[ t none ( !m or few ( !m are cov]$ by ! def9ition4#bfb ,footnote #bfb3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 ii4 p4 #aci1 b4 #ai4 ,greek3 o7moi_/s de kai ei7 t\ o7rizome_/n\ pleona*s legome_/n\ m dieln ei7p52 a7_/dlon gar o7pote_/r\ ton o7_/ron a7pode_/dk51 e7nde_/*etai_/ te sukophantein 7s ou7k e7ph>mo_/ttontos t\ lo_/g\ e7pi pa_/nta 7n ton o7rismon a7pode_/dk54 ,! t]m ,greek3 sukophantein surprises u "h1 because ! po9t "u consid]ation is indicat$ by ,ari/otle himself z a real mi/ake2 accord+ly he ought n to *>act]ize ! proc$ure :]eby su* mi/ake is expos$ z m]e cavil--,greek3 sukophanti_/a4 ,alex&]1 9 ! ,s*olia 7p4 #bhg1 b4 #a1 ,br471 says t ,ari/otle int5ds to apply ! t]m ,greek3 sukophantein to ! respond5t :o advances ?is bad def9ition1 n to ! assailant :o impea*es x4 ,b ! text ( ,ari/otle does n h>monize ) ?is int]pretation4 #b4 ,indi/9ctness may arise f def9+ by means ( a metaphor2 b ,ari/otle treats y z a cavill] if y impugn ?is metaphor z ?\gh x 7 proprio s5su4#bfc ,he decl>es x to be wrong1 b he seems to ?9k t y ought to object to x at once z a metaphor1 )\t tr\bl+ y\rself to prove x inappropriate4 ,footnote #bfc3 ,ibid4 b4 #cb3 ,greek3 e7nde_/*etai de kai tn metaphoran ei7po_/nta sukophantein 7s kuri_/s ei7rko_/ta4 ,"h aga9 we h ! ^w ,greek3 sukophantein to designate :at seems a legitimate mode ( argum5tative attack4 #c4 ,indi/9ctness w arise if ! t]ms ( ! def9ition are r>e or f>-fet*$ or f\nd$ ^u "s fact v little kn[n4#bfd ,def9itions giv5 by ,plato are cit$ to illu/rate ?is4 ,footnote #bfd3 ,ibid4 p4 #adj1 a4 #c3 ,greek3 pan gar a7saphes to m ei7?o_/s4 #d4 ,indi/9ctness arises f ! employm5t ( a poetical image1 :i* is ev5 worse ?an a pr(ess$ metaphor3 z :]e law is def9$ to be--a measure or image ( ?+s by nature j4#bfe ,footnote #bfe3 ,ibid4 a4 #f-ag4 ,greek3 *eiron o7poi\\s tn kata metaphoran legome_/nn4 #e4 ,! def9ition is indi/9ct1 if x does n1 :ile mak+ kn[n ! def9i5d1 make cle> at ! same "t its contr>y4#bff ,footnote #bff3 ,ibid4 a4 #ah4 #f4 ,! def9ition is also indi/9ct if x does n1 :5 enunciat$1 make kn[n :at ! def9i5d is1 )\t requir+ t ! def9i5d itself %all be expressly enunciat$4 ,! def9ition by itself ought to sugge/ at once ! "n ( ! def9i5d4 ,o!rwise1 ! def9] is no bett] ?an ^? ar*aic pa9t]s1 :o1 :5 pa9t+ a dog or a horse1 7 compell$ to write ! "n alongside 9 ord] t ! animal might be recogniz$4#bfg ,footnote #bfg3 ,ibid4 a4 #bj4 ,?is la/ condition is a high measure ( p]fection to exact f a def9ition4 ,assur$ly ,ari/otle's own def9itions (t5 fall lam5tably %ort ( x4 ,su* are ! ,loci reg>d+ ,indi/9ctness 9 ! sett+ out ( ! def9ition4 ,! second defect is ,r$undancy4 #a4 ,r$undancy w arise if ! t]ms ( ! def9ition include ei!r all ?+s absolutely1 or all ?+s conta9$ 9 ! same g5us z ! def9i5d2 s9ce ! def9ition ought to consi/ ( a g5]ic t]m to discrim9ate ! def9i5d f all extra-g5]ic ?+s1 & a diff]5tial t]m to discrim9ate x f o!r ?+s )9 ! same g5us4 ,a def9ition ( ! k9d m5tion$ w be useless ?r\gh r$undancy4#bfh ,x w also be op5 to ! l objection1 if x includes :at is m]ely a proprium ( ! def9i5d1 ov] & above ! ess5tial attributes2 or1 inde$1 if x includes any ?+ else except :at is requir$ = cle>ly br++ out ! def9i5d4#bfi ,x w be /ill worse1 if x comprises any attribute n belong+ to all individuals ( ! species2 = !n x w n ev5 be a proprium or a reciprocat+ pr$ication4#bgj ,footnote #bfh3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 iii4 p4 #adj1 a4 #bc-cb4 ,alex&]1 h[ev]1 rem>ks v p]t95tly1 t ! defects ( su* a def9ition are defects ( sub/ance r ?an ( expression4 ,ari/otle has pass$ unconsci\sly f ! latt] to ! =m]3 ,greek3 e7n men t pr_/t tn e7pho_/dn d_/xei5 a7n o7 ,a7ri/ote_/ls meta_/ge9 ei7s tas pragmatikas e7xeta_/seis 7,s*ol4 p4 #bhg1 b4 #bg1 ,br474 ,footnote #bfi3 ,ibid4 a4 #cg3 ,greek3 a7pls d' ei7pein1 a7_/pan p]i_/ergon ou7 a7phaire!_/ntos to loipon dlon poiei to o7rizo_/m5on4 ,footnote #bgj3 ,ibid4 b4 #af4 #b4 ,repetition is ano!r fault sometimes committ$4 ,! same attribute may be pr$icat$ twice ov]4 ,or a p>ticul> & n>r[ attribute may be subjo9$1 9 addition to a m g5]al & compreh5sive attribute 9 :i* x has already be5 includ$4#bga ,footnote #bga3 ,ibid4 b4 #bg-p4 #ada1 a4 #bb4 ,s mu* = ! faults :i* belong to ! mann] ( express+ ! def9ition t5d]$4 ,next1 z be>+ on ! matt] & sub/ance ( ! def9ition1 ! foll[+ loci are di/+ui%able4 #a4 ,! fir/ ( ^! loci is1 if ! matt] ( ! def9ition is n prius & notius z comp>$ ) ! def9i5d4 ,x is "o ( ! canons ( ,def9ition1 ! purpose ( :i* is to imp>t k ( ! def9i5d1 to introduce no?+ except :at is prior by nature & bett] kn[n ?an ! latt]4 ,! ess5ce ( ea* def9i5d--! be+ :at x is--is "o & only "o4 ,if a def9ition be giv51 o!r ?an t by means ( :at is prius & notius1 x w\ld foll[ t ! same def9i5d might h two di/9ct ess5ces2 :i* is impossible4 ,accord+ly1 any proposition t5d]$ z a def9ition b enunciat+ :at is n prior by nature & bett] kn[n ?an ! def9i5d s9s aga9/ ?is canon1 & is to be held z no true def9ition at all4#bgb ,footnote #bgb3 ,ibid4 iv4 p4 #ada1 a4 #bd-;b4 #b4 ,! locus "h indicat$ by ?is g5]al feature is "o1 b x includes a numb] ( v>ieties4#bgc ,m kn[n1 or less kn[n1 x %\ld fir/ be obs]v$1 has two di/9ct mean+s3 ei!r m or less kn[n absolutely 7by nature72 or m or less kn[n to u4 ,absolutely1 or by nature1 ! po9t is bett] kn[n ?an ! l9e2 ! l9e1 ?an ! sup]ficies2 ! sup]ficies1 ?an ! solid2 ! prius1 ?an ! po/]ius4 ,b to u ! rev]se is true4 ,! solid1 z object ( s5sible p]ception1 is e>li] kn[n & m kn[n ?an ! sup]ficies2 ! sup]ficies1 ?an ! l9e2 ! l9e1 ?an ! po9t2 ! po/]ius1 ?an ! prius4 ,to u means to ! bulk ( mank9d3 absolutely or by nature ref]s to ! in/ruct$1 sup]ior1 tea*+ & expository1 intellects4#bgd ,!re may be "s cases 9 :i* ! notius nobis co9cides & is id5tical ) ! notius natur2#bge b1 z a rule1 ! two are di/9ct1 & ! "o is ! inv]se ( ! o!r4 ,a g5u9e & p]fect def9ition is "o :i* enunciates ! ess5ce ( ! ,species ?r\gh ,g5us & ,diff]5ti1 :i* are bo? ( !m absolutely prior & m kn[able ?an ! ,species1 s9ce1 if !y be suppos$ non-exi/5t1 ! ,species is n[h]e to be f\nd4 ,no man c "k ! ,species )\t kn[+ its ,g5us & ,diff]5ti2 b y may "k ! ,g5us & ,diff]5ti )\t kn[+ ! ,species2 h5ce ! ,species is m unkn[able ?an !y are4#bgf ,?is is ! true sci5tific def9ition2 b !re are p]sons incapable ( acquir+ k by means ( x4 ,to ^! p]sons1 an imp]fect explanation or quasi-def9ition mu/ be giv51 by means ( matt]s kn[able to !m4#bgg ,^?1 h[ev]1 :o reg>d su* imp]fect explanations z true def9itions1 mu/ be rem9d$ t1 ^u t hypo!sis1 we %\ld be compell$ to admit _m di/9ct def9itions ( ! same def9i5d4 ,= individuals diff] f ea* o!r 9 respect to :at is m kn[able3 :at is m s to "o man is n m s to ano!r4 ,inde$ ! same man diff]s f himself on ?is po9t at diff]5t p]iods3 to ! e>ly & untra9$ m9d objects ( s5sible p]ception are ! mo/ kn[able2 b1 :5 a man has be5 improv$ by tra9+ & in/ruction1 ! case is rev]s$1 & ! objects ( intellect become ! mo/ famili> to 8 m9d4#bgh ,to def9e prop]ly1 !re=e1 we mu/ enunciate1 n ! notiora nobis b1 ! notiora natur or simplicit]2 und]/&+ by ?is la/ phrase1 n :at is m kn[able to all actual m5 b1 :at is m kn[able to m5 ( well-tra9$ & well-con/itut$ intellect2 j z1 :5 we speak ( ! :olesome1 we mean :at is :olesome to ! well-con/itut$ body4#bgi ,^! conditions ( ,def9ition y mu/ ?or\ghly ma/]1 & apply to ea* debate z ! occasion may require4 ,y\r task 9 refut+ an alleg$ def9ition w be ! easie/ 9 ^? cases :]e x con=ms to nei!r ( ! above conditions2 t is1 :5 x enunciates nei!r :at is notius natur nor :at is notius nobis4#bhj ,footnote #bgc3 ,ibid4 v4 p4 #adb1 b4 #bj4 ,footnote #bgd3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 iv4 p4 #ada1 b4 #c-ad4 ,footnote #bge3 ,ibid4 b4 #bb4 ,footnote #bgf3 ,ibid4 b4 #be4 ,footnote #bgg3 ,ibid4 b4 #af4 ,footnote #bgh3 ,ibid4 b4 #cd4 ,! g5]al m5tal fact "h notic$ by ,ari/otle may be se5 philosophically /at$ & expla9$ 9 ! volume ( ,pr(essor ,ba9 on ! ,emotions & ! ,w4 7,*apt] on ,consci\sness1 sect4 #ai1 p4 #eha1 #bnd ed47 ,a s5sation is1 "u any view ( x1 a consci\s elem5t ( ! m9d4 ,z pleasure or pa91 we are consci\s 9 "o way2 z discrim9ation1 we are consci\s 9 ! o!r way1 namely1 9 a mode ( neutral excitem5t4--,b ?is is n all4 ,aft] mu* contact ) ! s5sible _w1 a new situation arises1 & a new v>iety ( ! consci\sness1 :i* /&s 9 ne$ ( "s explanation4 ,:5 a *ild exp]i5ces = ! fir/ "t ! s5sation ( sc>let1 !re is no?+ b ! s5sibility ( a new impression m or less int5se4 4 4 4 ,x is v difficult = u to realize or def9e ?is orig9al %ock1 our position 9 mature life be+ totally alt]$4 ,x is ! r>e/ ?+ = u !n to come "u a radically new impression2 & we c only1 by help ( imp]fect analogies1 =m an approximate conception ( :at happ5s at ! fir/ %ock ( a discrim9ative s5sation4 ,! process ( engra9+ ^! impressions on ! m9d aft] repetition1 gives to subsequ5t s5sations q a diff]5t "* z comp>$ ) ! fir/4 ,! second %ock ( sc>let1 if x /ood alone1 w\ld d\btless resemble ! prec$+2 b su* is ! nature ( ! m9d1 t ! new %ock w n /& alone1 b re/ores ! notion or idea or trace t surviv$ ! =m]4 ,! s5sation is no long] ! primitive /roke ( surprise1 b a coalition ( a pres5t %ock ) all t rema9s ( ! previ\s occasions4 ,h5ce x may prop]ly be said1 :5 we see1 or he>1 or t\*1 or move1 t :at comes be=e u is really contribut$ m by ! m9d itself ?an by ! object pres5t4 ,! consci\sness is complicat$ by ?ree concurr+ elem5ts--! new %ock1 ! fla% ( agreem5t ) ! sum total ( ! pa/1 & ! feel+ ( t pa/ z reviv$ 9 ! pres5t4 ,9 tru?1 ! new s5sation is apt to be entirely ov]-ridd5 by ! old2 &1 9 place ( discrim9at+ by virtue ( our susceptibility to :at is *>act]i/ic 9 x1 our discrim9ation foll[s ano!r c\rse4 ,= example1 if ,i h be=e me two %ades ( col\r1 in/ead ( feel+ ! diff]5ce exactly z ,i am /ruck at ! mom5t1 my judgm5t resorts to ! r\nd-ab\t process ( fir/ id5tify+ ea* ) "s reit]at$ s]ies ( pa/ impressions2 &1 hav+ two sum-totals 9 my m9d1 ! diff]5ce t ,i feel is betwe5 ^? totals4 ,if ,i made a mi/ake1 x may be attribut$ n s mu* to a wrong act ( discrim9ation1 z to a wrong act ( id5tification4--,all s5sations1 !re=e1 aft] ! fir/ ( ea* k9d1 involve a fla% ( recov]y f ! pa/1 :i* is :at really det]m9es _! "*4 ,! pres5t %ock is simply made use ( z a means ( reviv+ "s "o pa/ 9 pref]5ce to all o!rs2 ! new impression ( sc>let is 9 itself almo/ insignificant1 s]v+ only z ! m$ium ( resuscitat+ ! c]ebral condition result+ f ! unit$ =ce ( all ! previ\s sc>lets4--,s5sation ?us calls into op]ation ! two great intellectual laws1 9 addition to ! primitive s5sibility ( diff]5ce4--,:5 we consid] ourselves z p]=m+ ! mo/ ord9>y act ( see+ or he>+1 we are br++ into play ^? v functions ( ! intellect t make its developm5t & its glory 9 its highe/ manife/ations4 ,footnote #bgi3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 iv4 p4 #adb1 a4 #aj4 ,footnote #bhj3 ,ibid4 a4 #ab2 also1 a4 #cb4 ,! canon be+1 ,t :at is po/]ius mu/ be def9$ by its prius1--! def9] may s9 aga9/ ?is 9 def9+ ! prius by its po/]ius2 e4g41 if he def9es ! /ation>y & ! det]m9ate by means ( ! moveable & ! v>iable4#bha ,also1 :5 8 def9ition is nei!r prius1 nor po/]ius1 b ( equal position ) ! def9i5d1 he is at fault4 ,?is may happ5 7#a7 :5 he def9es by an ,opposite 7=1 accord+ to "s1 ! sci5ce ( ,opposites is "o & ! same1 & x is impossible t ei!r "o ( a pair c be absolutely m kn[able ?an ! o!r2 ?\gh x is true t no relative c be und]/ood or expla9$ )\t ! k ( its correlative1 e4g41 d\ble & half72 or 7#b7 :5 he includes ! def9i5d itself 9 8 def9ition1 ei!r "u its prop] "n or any o!r "n2#bhb or 7#c7 :5 he def9es by means ( a contra-specific to ! def9i5d--by some?+ ( equal specific rank or position1 :i* is !re=e simul natur !re) 7e4g41 ,odd is t :i* is great] ?an ev5 by unity72 or 7#d7 :5 he def9es by some?+ specifically subord9ate 7e4g41 ,an ev5 numb] is t :i* may be bisect$1 :]e bisect$ means divisible by two1 itself "o among ! ev5 numb]s#bhc74 ,footnote #bha3 ,ibid4 a4 #bj3 ,greek3 pro_/t]on gar to me_/non kai to 7risme_/non t\ a7ori_//\ kai e7n k9_/sei o7_/ntos4 ,footnote #bhb3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 iv4 p4 #adb1 a4 #bb-;b4 #f4 ,footnote #bhc3 ,ibid4 b4 #g-ai3 ,greek3 pa_/l91 ei7 t a7ntidirme_/n to a7ntidirme_/non 7_/ri/ai--o7moi_/s de kai ei7 dia tn u7poka_/t to e7pa_/n 7_/ri/ai4 #b4 ,! second locus 7aft] t be>+ on ! ,prius et ,notius7 ( argum5t = 9999impugn+ a def9ition is1 :]e x does n enunciate ! g5us 9 :i* ! def9i5d is really includ$4 ,! m5tion ( ! g5us1 z enunciat+ ! fundam5tal ess5ce ( ! def9i5d1 ought to /& fir/ 9 ! def9ition4 ,if y\r oppon5t def9es body--t :i* has ?ree dim5sions1 or man--t :i* kn[s h[ to c\nt1 y attack him by ask+1 ,:at is x t has ?ree dim5sions8 ,:at is x t kn[s h[ to c\nt8 ,no g5us has be5 assign$4#bhd ,footnote #bhd3 ,ibid4 v4 p4 #adb1 b4 #bb-bi4 #c4 ,a ?ird locus is1 :]e ! def9i5d is a complex :ole hav+ ref]5ce to sev]al di/9ct facts or ph5om5a1 :ile ! def9ition indicates only "o ( !m4 ,?us1 if gramm> be def9$--! kn[+ h[ to write f dictation1 y w object t x is j z mu*--! kn[+ h[ to read4 ,! def9ition is incomplete unless x includes bo?4#bhe ,footnote #bhe3 ,ibid4 b4 #cj4 #d4 ,a f\r? locus is1 :]e ! def9i5d admits bo? ( a bett] & a worse con/ruction1 & :]e ! def9ition enunciates only ! worse4 ,y may impugn x1 on ! gr\nd t e cognition & e p[] mu/ be und]/ood z t5d+ to its be/ results4#bhf ,footnote #bhf3 ,ibid4 p4 #adc1 a4 #i4 #f4 ,a fif? locus is1 :]e ! def9i5d is enunciat$ z rank+1 n 9 ! l[e/ & ne>e/ species to :i* x belongs b1 9 "s high] & m di/9ct g5us4 ,"h ! real ess5ce w n be decl>$1 & ! def9ition w ?us be incomplete2 unless inde$ x includes1 along ) ! highe/ g5us1 ! sup]add$ m5tion ( all ! diff]5ti desc5d+ d[n to ! l[e/ species4 ,x w !n be complete1 because x w include1 9 circumlocutory phrase1 all t w\ld be decl>$ by enunciat+ ! specific "n4#bhg ,footnote #bhg3 ,ibid4 a4 #ae-bh4 #f4 ,assum+ ! g5us to be truly decl>$ 9 ! def9ition y w exam9e :e!r ! diff]5ti enunciat$ are diff]5ti at all8 :e!r !y really belong to ! def9i5d8 :at is x :i* !y s]ve to contra/ ) & exclude1--s9ce1 if !re be no?+ su*1 !y _c be truly diff]5ti8 :e!r ! diff]5tial t]m & its c\nt]-diff]5tial apply to & cov] ! :ole g5us8 :e!r1 grant+ ! diff]5tia to be real1 x be su*1 :5 tak5 along ) ! g5us1 z to con/itute a true species1 & :e!r its c\nt]-diff]5tia be su* also8 ,?is is a locus furni%+ _m possibilities ( impugn+ ! def9ition4#bhh ,footnote #bhh3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 vi4 p4 #adc1 a4 #bi-;b4 #aj4 #g4 ,p]haps ! def9ition may enunciate a diff]5tia :i* is m]ely negative2 e4g41 ,a l9e is l5g? )\t bread?4 ,if y are debat+ ) a respond5t :o holds ! 7,platonic7 doctr9e ( ,ideas1 & :o consid]s ea* ,idea or g5us to be some?+ num]ically "o1 di/9ct f all its p>ticipants1 y w f9d "h a locus = attack+ !m4#bhi ,he ass]ts ! exi/5ce ( a ,self-long or g5]ical long1 a ,self-animal or g5]ic animal1 ea* num]ically "o4 ,n[1 ^u ?is hypo!sis1 s9ce ( all long y may pr$icate ei!r 9 ! affirmative or ! negative 7i4e41 ei!r x is broad or x is n broad71 s ?is alt]native may be pr$icat$ ( ! ,self-long or g5]ical long2 & ?us ! g5us w co9cide )1 or fall "u ! def9ition (1 "o among its own species4 ,or1 if ?is be d5i$1 x w foll[ t ! g5]ic long mu/ be bo? broad & n broad2 :i* is a contradiction /ill m inadmissible4 ,accord+ly1 aga9/ "o :o holds ! doctr9e ( ,ideas1 decl>+ ! g5us to be unum num]o1 ! negative diff]5tia w furni% gr\nds = attack2 b n aga9/ any o!r respond5t4#bij ,= !re are v>i\s cases 9 :i* ! negative mu/ be employ$ z a "p ( ! diff]5tia3 e4g41 9 privative t]ms1 bl9d is "o ^: nature x is to see b :o does n see4 ,&1 ev5 :5 ! diff]5tia enunciat$ is affirmative1 x may h = its condivid5t memb] only a negative t]m1 e4g41 l5g? hav+-bread? has = its condivid5t memb] only ! negative1 l5g? n-hav+-bread?4#bia ,footnote #bhi3 ,ibid4 b4 #aa-cj4 ,footnote #bij3 ,ibid4 b4 #bi3 ,greek3 7_//e pros e7kei_/n\s mo_/n\s *r_/simos o7 to_/pos1 o7_/soi to ge_/nos e7n a7ri?m phasin ei7nai4 t\to de poi\s9 oi7 tas i7de_/z ti!_/m5oi2 au7to gar mkos kai au7to zon ge_/nos phasin ei7nai4 ,footnote #bia3 ,ibid4 b4 #cc4 #h4 ,p]haps ! def9ition may enunciate z a diff]5tia :at is really a subord9ate species2 or :at is really ! g5us itself "u ano!r "n2 or :at is n ,quale1 b ,quid2 or :at belongs to ! def9i5d z an accid5t only4 ,ea* ( ^! is a locus = argum5ts aga9/ ! def9ition4#bib ,footnote #bib3 ,topica1 ,,vi4 vi4 p4 #add1 a4 #e-bg4 #i4 ,p]haps also1 9 ! def9ition giv51 ! diff]5tia or ! species may be f\nd pr$icable ( ! entire g5us2 or ! g5us may be f\nd pr$icable ( ! diff]5tia itself1 & n ( objects "u x2 or ! species 7sometimes ev5 "o ( its sub-species7 may be f\nd pr$icable ( ! diff]5tia2 or p]haps ! diff]5tia may n be a prius z reg>ds ! species 7:i* x ought to be1 :ile x is a po/]ius z reg>ds ! g5us74 ,argum5ts aga9/ ! def9ition may be drawn f any "o ( ^! loci4#bic ,footnote #bic3 ,ibid4 a4 #bh-;b4 #aa4 #aj4 ,recollect t ! same diff]5tia _c belong to two di/9ct g5]a nei!r ( :i* compreh5ds ! o!r1 unless bo? are compreh5d$ "u "s high] g5us4 ,exam9e :e!r ?is is obs]v$ 9 ! def9ition t5d]$ to y4#bid ,footnote #bid3 ,ibid4 b4 #ab4 #aa4 ,no g5u9e diff]5tia c be d]iv$ ei!r f ! ,category ,ubi or f ! ,category ,passio2 = nei!r ( !m furni%es *>act]i/ics ess5tial to ! subject4 ,all ,passio :5 int5sifi$ to a c]ta9 degree de/roys ! ess5ce ( ! subject & removes x f its own appropriate species2 b ! diff]5tia is insep>able f its subject2 accord+ly1 no?+ by virtue ( :i* ! subject is call$ ,greek3 a7lloion c be a true diff]5tia4 ,if ! def9ition s9s aga9/ ?is rule1 x w be op5 to "q4#bie ,footnote #bie3 ,ibid4 b4 #ca-p4 #ade1 a4 #ab3 ,greek3 o7ran de kai ei7 to e7_/n t9i diaphoran a7pode_/dk5 ou7si_/z2 ou7 dokei gar diaphe_/re9 ou7si_/a ousi_/z t p\ ei7nai4--pa_/l9 ei7 to pa_/?os diaphoran a7pode_/dk54--a7pls d' ei7pein1 ka?' o7_/sa a7lloi\tai to e7_/*on1 ou7den t\_/tn diaphora e7kei_/n\2--a7pls gar ou7k a7lloi\_/me?a kata tas diaphora_/s4 #ab4 ,if ! subject be relative1 its true diff]5tia ought to be relative also2 ?us1 sci5ce or cognition is a relatum1 & accord+ly its ?ree diff]5ti--!oretical1 practical1 con/ructive--are all relata also4#bif ,! def9ition mu/ con=m to ?is2 & x mu/ also1 9 cases :]e ! relative subject has m ?an "o correlate1 decl>e t correlate :i* is ! ord9>y & natural "o1 n any o!r :i* is r>e & realiz$ only on occasion4#big ,y mu/ wat* to see :e!r ?is condition is obs]v$2 & also :e!r ! correlative enunciat$ 9 ! def9ition is ! "o /rictly proximate4 ,?us1 if ! def9ition giv5 ( prud5ce be1 ,x is an excell5ce ( man or an excell5ce ( ! s\l1 ?is w n be a good def9ition4 ,x ought to be--an excell5ce ( ! rational dep>tm5t ( ! s\l2 = x is ?r\gh & by reason ( ?is dep>tm5t t bo? man & s\l are d5om9at$ prud5t4#bih ,footnote #bif3 ,ibid4 a4 #ac4 ,footnote #big3 ,ibid4 a4 #ai-bf4 ,footnote #bih3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 vi4 p4 #ade1 a4 #bh-cb4 ,greek3 pr_/ton gar t\ logi/ik\ a7ret 7 phro_/nsis2 kata gar t\to kai 7 psu* kai o7 a7_/n?rpos phronein le_/getai4 #ac4 ,:5 ! def9i5d is giv5 z an affection or la/+ condition ( "s subject1 y mu/ exam9e :e!r x really resides or c reside 7z by nature x ought to d7 9 ! subject to :i* x is ref]r$ 9 ! def9ition4 ,if x _c1 ! 9999def9ition is unt5able2 & ?is mi/ake is sometimes made1 ! produc+ conditions ( a ph5om5on be+ conf\nd$ ) ! ph5om5on itself1 or vice v]s4#bii ,?us1 "s p]sons h def9$ sleep--incapacity ( s5sible p]ception2 d\bt--equality ( contr>y reason+s2 pa9--brea* ( cont9uity viol5tly made 9 p>ts ( ! organism :i* naturally gr[ toge!r4 ,n[ sleep does n reside 9 p]ception1 nor d\bt 9 reason+s4 ,sleep is t :i* produces or occasions incapacity ( s5sible p]ception2 d\bt is a /ate ( m9d produc$ by equality ( contr>y reason+s4#cjj ,?is w be a locus = argu+ aga9/ ! def9ition4 ,footnote #bii3 ,ibid4 b4 #aa3 ,greek3 to poi\_/m5on ei7s to poitikon 7 a7na_/pal9 sumbai_/nei ti!_/nai tois ou7_/ts o7rizome_/nois4 ,footnote #cjj3 ,ibid4 a4 #cc-;b4 #bj4 #ad4 ,ano!r locus is1 :5 ! def9i5d has direct be>+ & ref]5ce to some?+ diff]5t f :at is enunciat$ 9 ! def9ition4 ,?us1 if ! respond5t def9es ju/ice--a p[] t5d+ to make equal di/ribution1 y may rem>k h]eupon1 t ! j man is he :o is delib]ately resolv$ to make equal di/ribution1 n he :o has ! p[] to d s4 ,if ?is def9ition 7 all[$1 ! ju/e/ man w\ld be he :o has ! greate/ p[] ( s di/ribut+4#cja ,footnote #cja3 ,ibid4 vii4 p4 #ade1 b4 #cd-p4 #adf1 a4 #b4 #ae4 ,aga91 ! def9ition w be assailable1 if ! def9i5d admits graduation ( ,m or ,less1 :ile t :i* is enunciat$ 9 ! def9ition does n admit x1 or vice v]s2 also1 if bo? ( !m admit graduation1 b ! v>iations ( ! two are n correspond+ & concomitant4 ,! def9+ phrase ought to be id5tical 9 signification ) ! t]m def9$4#cjb ,if bo? ( !m agree 9 ref]5ce to "s common correlate1 b "o is to ?is 9 ! relation ( m :ile ! o!r is 9 ! relation ( less1 ! def9ition is faulty4#cjc ,footnote #cjb3 ,ibid4 p4 #adf1 a4 #c-ab4 ,greek3 ei7_/p] d tau7to_/n e7/i to kata ton lo_/gon a7podo!n t pra_/gmati4 ,"h we h a pr9ciple ( ,concomitant ,v>iations analog\s to t :i* is s well unfold$1 z "o ( ! ,f\r ,inductive ,me?ods1 9 ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill's ',sy/em ( ,logic4' ,see ,book ,,iii4 *4 viii4 sect4 #f4 ,footnote #cjc3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 vii4 p4 #adf1 a4 #f-bj3 ,greek3 e7_/dei d' a7mpho_/t]a mallon t au7t u7pa_/r*e91 ei7_/p] tau7ta 7n1 c4 #af4 ,aga91 y w be able to object1 if ! def9ition enunciate ref]5ces to two di/9ct correlates1 sev]ally or alt]nately3 e4g41 ,! beautiful is t :i* af=ds pleasure ei!r ?r\gh ! eye or ?r\gh ! e>2 ,ens is t :i* is capable ei!r ( suff]+ or act+4 ,y may %[ t1 accord+ to ?is def9ition1 beautiful & n beautiful1 or t ,ens & ,non-,ens1 w co9cide & be pr$icable ( ! same subjects4#cjd ,footnote #cjd3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 vii4 p4 #adf1 a4 #ba-cb4 ,! def9ition "h giv5 ( ,ens appe>s 9 ! ,sophi/es ( ,plato1 p4 #bdg1 ,e4 ,! def9ition ( ! beautiful 7,greek3 to kalo_/n7 appe>s 9 ! ,hippias ,major ( ,plato 7p4 #bih1 ,e1 seq471 :]e x is criticiz$ by ,sokrates4 #ag4 ,:5 ! def9ition is t5d]$1 y ought to exam9e & def9e its own t]ms1 :i*1 ( c\rse1 pr(ess to enunciate g5us & diff]5tia ( ! def9i5d4#cje ,y w see :e!r ! def9itions ( ^? def9+ t]ms are 9 any way inapplicable to ! def9i5d4 ,footnote #cje3 ,ibid4 a4 #cc-ce4 #ah4 ,if ! def9i5d be a ,relatum1 ! def9ition ought to enunciate its true correlate1 or ! true correlate ( ! g5us to :i* x belongs4 ,y mu/ exam9e :e!r ?is is done1 & :e!r ! correlate enunciat$ be an ultimate end1 z x ought to be 7i4e4 n m]ely a means t[>ds some?+ ult]ior74 ,if ! correlate enunciat$ is a g5]ation or a process1 ?is w af=d y an argum5t aga9/ ! def9ition2 = all g5]ation or process is a means t[>ds "s ult]ior end4#cjf ,footnote #cjf3 ,ibid4 viii4 p4 #adf1 a4 #cf-;b4 #ai4 ,?is is a subtle di/9ction4 ,he says t desire mu/ be def9$ 7n desire ( ! pleasurable1 b7 desire ( pleasure3 we desire ! pleasurable = ! sake ( pleasure4 ,he admits1 h[ev]1 t !re are cases 9 :i* ! argum5t w n hold3 ,greek3 s*$on gar oi7 plei/oi 7_/de/hai mallon b\_/lontai 7 pepau/hai 7d_/m5oi2 7_//e to e7n]gein mallon te_/los a7n poiointo t\ e7nrgke_/nai4 #ai4 ,! def9ition ought n to omit any ( ! diff]5ti ( ! def9i5d2 if any be omitt$1 ! real ess5ce is n decl>$4 ,"h !n is a defect 9 ! def9ition1 :i* x is y\r bus9ess always to assail on its defective side4#cjg ,?us1 if ! def9i5d be a relatum correspond+1 n to "s correlate absolutely b1 to "s correlate specially quantifi$ or qualifi$1 ! def9ition ought to enunciate su* quantification or qualification2 if x does n1 x is op5 to attack4 ,footnote #cjg3 ,ibid4 b4 #bj3 ,greek3 pa_/l9 e7p' e7ni_/n ei7 m di_/rike t\ po_/s\1 7 poi_/ou1 7 p\1 7 kata tas a7_/llas diaphora_/s1--a7polei_/pn gar diaphoran 7nt9\n ou7 le_/gei to ti 7n ei7nai2 dei d' a7ei pros to e7ndees e7pi*eirein4 #bj4 ,suppose t ! def9i5d is "o ( ! appetites1 relative to an appetitum z correlate1 a mode ( ! good or agreeable4 ,y w take notice :e!r ! def9ition giv5 !re( enunciates ! correlate z only an app>5t mode ( good3 if x does n1 y h a locus = attack+ x4 ,b if x does1 & if ! def9] be "o :o believes 9 ! ,platonic ,ideas1 y may attack him by %[+ t 8 def9ition w n squ>e ) t doctr9e4 ,= ! def9ition z s giv5 w n suit = ! ideal or g5]ic appetite--! ,self-appetite2 :i* correlates ) ! ideal or g5]ic good--! ,self-good4 ,9 ?is no di/9ction is admissible ( real & app>5t3 a ,self-app>5t-good is an absurdity4#cjh ,footnote #cjh3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 viii4 p4 #adf1 b4 #cf-p4 #adg1 a4 #aa4 ,greek3 e7an de kai a7pod to ei7rme_/non1 e7pi ta ei7_/d a7kte_/on ton ti!_/m5on i7de_/z ei7nai2 ou7 ga_/r e7/9 i7de_/a pha9ome_/n\ ou7d5o_/s1 to d' ei7dos pros to ei7dos dokei le_/ge/hai1 oi7on au7t e7pi?umi_/a au7t\ 7de_/os kai au7t b\_/lsis au7t\ a7ga?\4 ou7k e7_//ai ou7n pha9ome_/n\ a7ga?\ ou7de pha9ome_/n\ 7de_/os2 a7_/topon gar to ei7nai au7to pha9o_/m5on a7ga?on 7 7du_/4 ,comp>e ,plato1 ,p>m5ides1 pp4 #acc-acd1 :]e ?is doctr9e t if ! relatum be an ,idea 7s5su ,platonico71 ! correlatum mu/ also be an ,idea1 is enunciat$ & pu%$ to its consequ5ces3 ,greek3 o7_/sai tn i7den pros a7ll_/las ei7sin ai7_/ ei7s91 au7tai pros au7tas tn ou7si_/an e7_/*\s91 a7ll' ou7 pros ta p>' 7min ei7_/te o7moi_/mata ei7_/te o7_/p d_/ tis au7ta ti_/!tai1 c4--,greek3 au7t de despotei_/a au7ts d\lei_/z e7/in o7_/ e7/i1 c4 7#acc1 ,c-,e47 #ba4 ,aga91 suppose t ! def9i5d is a habit or disposition4 ,y w exam9e h[ f> ! def9ition fits z appli$ to ! individual p]son :o has ! habit2 & h[ f> x fits :5 tak5 9 comp>ison ) subjects contr>y or cong5]ic4 ,e su* def9ition1 if good1 implies 9 a c]ta9 way ! def9ition ( ! contr>y3 he :o def9es cognition furni%es by implication ! def9ition ( ignorance4#cji ,footnote #cji3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 ix4 p4 #adg1 a4 #ab-bb4 #bb4 ,or suppose ! def9i5d to be a g5]ic relatum1 & ! def9ition to enunciate its g5]ic correlate4 ,y mu/ call to m9d ! specific t]ms compreh5d$ "u ^! two g5]ic t]ms1 & obs]ve :e!r !y fit on to ea* o!r respectively4 ,if !y d n1 ! def9ition is faulty4#caj ,footnote #caj3 ,ibid4 a4 #bc-bh4 #bc4 ,y w f>!r exam9e :e!r ! ,opposite ( ! def9ition w s]ve z def9ition to ! ,opposite ( ! def9i5d1 z ! def9ition ( half is opposite to ! def9ition ( d\ble2 ?us1 if d\ble is t :i* exce$s equality1 half is t :i* is exce$$ by equality4 ,! l is true ( ,contr>ies3 if ! pr(itable be t :i* is productive ( good1 ! hurtful w be t :i* is productive ( evil or de/ructive ( good4 ,if1 on try+ ! contr>ies1 y f9d t ?is w n hold1 ! def9ition orig9ally giv5 w be f\nd unsatisfactory4#caa ,9 def9+ ! privative contr>y ( any t]m1 a man _c avoid enunciat+ 9 ! def9ition ! t]m ( :i* x is ! privative3 b he is n all[$ to def9e ! t]m itself by means ( its privative4 ,to def9e equality--t :i* is contr>y to inequality1 is improp]4 ,y w require him at once to def9e inequality2 & 8 def9ition mu/ be--! privation ( equality4 ,sub/itute ?is def9ition ( ! t]m inequality1 9 place ( t t]m itself1 9 ! above-nam$ def9ition ( equality3 & ! la/ def9ition w !n run z foll[s3 ,equality is t :i* is contr>y to ! privation ( equality4 ,"h ! def9i5d is enunciat$ z a "p ( ! def9ition ( itself2 a pro( t ! orig9al def9ition--,equality is ! contr>y ( inequality--is itself wrong4#cab ,footnote #caa3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 ix4 p4 #adg1 a4 #bi-;b4 #d4 ,we mo/ rememb] t ,ari/otle1 classify+ ,relata z "o species "u ! g5us ,opposita1 treats d\ble & half z ,opposita1 i4e4 ,relative-,opposita4 ,i h already said t ,i ?9k ?is classification improp]1 & t ,opposita ought to be rank$ z a species "u ! g5us ,relata4 ,footnote #cab3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 ix4 p4 #adg1 b4 #d-be4 #bd4 ,:5 ! def9i5d is a ,privative ,t]m1 ! def9ition giv5 ought to enunciate t :i* x is1 & t ( :i* x is ! privation2 also t subject 9 :i* x resides naturally & 9 ! fir/ in/ance4 ,9 def9+ ignorance1 ! def9ition mu/ enunciate n privation only1 b privation ( k2 nor w ?is be suffici5t unless x be add$ t ! privation ( k is 9 ! rational dep>tm5t ( ! s\l 7,greek3 e7n t logi/ik74 ,privation ( k 9 ! s\l or 9 ! man1 w n suffice2 because nei!r ( ^! subjects is t 9 :i* ! attribute resides 9 ! fir/ in/ance3 ! rational dep>tm5t ( ! s\l mu/ be nam$ by itself1 z be+ ! prim>y subject ( ! attribute4 ,if ! def9ition be want+ 9 any ( ^! conditions1 y w h an argum5t = impea*+ x4#cac ,footnote #cac3 ,ibid4 b4 #bf-p4 #adh1 a4 #b4 #be4 ,a t]m t is privative 9 =m may sometimes be us$ 9 ! s5se ( m]e negation1 n 9 t ( privation4 ,if ?is t]m be def9$ g5]ally by privation1 ! def9ition w n include ! m]ely negative s5se1 & w !re=e be impea*able4 ,! only g5]al explanation atta9able is t by pure negation1 :i* is common bo? to ! negative & ! privative4 ,?us1 if ! respond5t def9es ignorance--privation ( k1 su* privation c be pr$icat$ only ( subjects ^: nature x is to h k or :o might be expect$ to h x3 su* privation _c be pr$icat$ ( infants1 or ( inanimate objects l /ones4 ,to include ^!1 ignorance mu/ be expla9$ z ! m]e negation or non-exi/5ce ( k2 ! def9ition !re( by privation is inadequate4#cad ,footnote #cad3 ,ibid4 p4 #adh1 a4 #c-i3 ,greek3 o7ran de kai ei7 m legome_/n\ kata /e_/rs9 /]_/sei 7ri_/sato1 oi7on kai e7pi ts a7gnoi_/z d_/xei5 a7n u7pa_/r*e9 7 toiau_/t a7m>ti_/a tois m kat' a7po_/phas9 tn a7_/gnoian le_/g\s94 ,waitz says 9 note1 p4 #ejc3--,s5sus loci hic e/4 ,peccant qui p] privationem ignorantiam def9i5tes non eam ignorantiam def9ire volu]unt qu e/ ,greek3 kat' a7po_/phas91 s$ eam qu e/ ,greek3 kata dia_/!s94 ,comp>e ,analyt4 ,po/]4 ,i4 xvi4 p4 #gi1 b4 #bc4 #bf4 ,if y are debat+ ) "o :o holds ! ,platonic doctr9e ( ,ideas1 y w note :e!r any def9ition t he may give fits n only ! def9i5d itself b also ! ,idea ( ! def9i5d4 ,?us1 ,plato 9 def9+ animal introduces mortality z a "p ( 8 def9ition2#cae b mortality _c be pr$icat$ ( ! ,idea or g5]ic animal--! ,self-animal2 !re=e1 y w h an argum5t aga9/ 8 def9ition4 ,9 l mann]1 if any active or passive attribute is br\ght into 8 def9ition1 y w object t ?is _c apply to ! ,ideas2 :i* are av[$ly impassive & un*angeable4#caf ,footnote #cae3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 x4 p4 #adh1 a4 #ae3 ,greek3 oi7on 7s ,pla_/tn o7ri_/zetai to ?nton prosa_/ptn e7n tois tn z_/n o7rismois4 ,?is may p]haps allude to ,plato's mann] ( speak+ ( ,greek3 za 9 ,sophi/es1 p4 #bdf1 ,e41 p4 #bfe1 ,c42 ,timu1 p4 #fi1 ,c4 ,footnote #caf3 ,topica1 ,,vi4 x4 p4 #adh1 a4 #ad-bb4 ,greek3 a7pa!is gar kai a7ki_/ntoi dok\s9 ai7 i7de_/ai tois le_/g\s9 i7de_/z ei7nai4 #bg4 ,ano!r locus = c\nt]-argum5t is1 :]e ! def9i5d is ,equivocal or ,analog\s1 :ile "o & ! same def9ition is made to apply to all its di/9ct mean+s4 ,su* a def9ition1 pret5d+ to fit all1 w 9 reality fit none2 no?+ b an univocal t]m c come "u "o & ! same def9ition4 ,x is wrong to attempt to def9e an equivocal t]m4#cag ,:5 its equivocation is n obvi\s1 ! respond5t w put x =w>d confid5tly z univocal2 :ile y z assailant w expose ! equivocation4 ,sometimes1 inde$1 a respond5t may pret5d t an univocal ^w is equivocal1 or t an equivocal ^w is univocal1 9 ! c\rse ( ! debate4 ,to obviate su* misconception1 y w d well to come to an agreem5t ) him prior to ! debate1 or to det]m9e by special antec$5t reason+s :at t]ms are univocal or equivocal2 = at t e>ly /age1 :5 he does n =esee ! consequ5ce ( y\r que/ions1 he is m likely to conc$e :at w facilitate y\r attack4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( su* prelim9>y agreem5t1 if ! respond5t1 :5 y h %[n t 8 bad def9ition w n apply univ]sally1 resorts to ! pret5ce t ! def9i5d1 ?\gh really univocal1 is equivocal1 y w press him ) ! true def9ition ( ! "p n includ$ "u 8 def9ition1 & y w %[ t ?is true def9ition suits also = ! rema9+ p>ts ( ! def9i5d4 ,y w ?us confute him by %[+ t1 ^u 8 orig9al hypo!sis1 x mu/ foll[ t !re are two di/9ct def9itions = ! same def9i5d--! bad "o :i* he has giv51 & ! true "o :i* y h con/ra9$ him to admit4#cah ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 ! t]m :i* he has und]tak5 to def9e may be really equivocal1 & !re=e indef9able2 nev]!less1 :5 y h %[n ! insuffici5cy ( 8 def9ition1 he may refuse to admit t ! t]m is equivocal1 b w d5y a portion ( its real mean+4 ,y w !n rem9d him t1 z to ! mean+ ( names1 we mu/ recognize tradition & cu/om )\t presum+ to di/urb x2 b t1 :5 we comb9e ^! names 9 our own disc\rse1 we mu/ bew>e ( ^? equivocations :i* mislead ! multitude4#cai ,footnote #cag3 ,ibid4 a4 #bc-cg3 ,greek3 e7_/ti ei7 tn ka?' o7mnumi_/an legome_/nn e7_/na lo_/gon a7pa_/ntn ko9on a7pe_/dk54--a7ll' ou7den 7tton1 ei7 o7pot]s\n pepoi_/k51 7ma_/rtk54 ,ari/otle "h cites & c5sures ! def9ition ( life giv5 by a philosoph] nam$ ,dionysius2 he rem>ks t life is an equivocal t]m1 hav+ "o mean+ 9 animals1 ano!r & a diff]5t "o 9 plants4 ,dr4 ,:ewell has rem>k$ t ev5 at ! pres5t day a good def9ition ( life is matt] ( dispute1 & /ill a desid]atum ) philosoph]s4 ,mr4 ,john ,s4 ,mill adv]ts1 9 m ?an "o portion ( 8 ',sy/em ( ,logic' 7,bk4 ,,iv4 *4 iii4 s4 #e1 p4 #bbb1 seq42 ,bk4 ,v4 *4 v4 s4 #h1 p4 #cga71 to ! mi/ake & confusion aris+ f attempts to def9e ,equivocal ,t]ms4 ,! inquiries ( ,plato into ! def9itions ( "s ( ! mo/ g5]al t]ms ( moral speculation1 are *>act]iz$ by ,bacon z a f> ne>] approa* to a true inductive me?od ?an is else:]e to be f\nd among ! anci5ts1 & are1 inde$1 almo/ p]fect examples ( ! prep>atory process ( comp>ison & ab/raction2 b1 f be+ unaw>e ( ! law j m5tion$1 he (t5 wa/$ ! p[]s ( ?is great logical in/rum5t on inquiries 9 :i* x c\ld realize no result1 s9ce ! ph5om5a1 ^: common prop]ties he s elaborately endeav\r$ to detect1 _h n really any common prop]ties4 ,bacon himself fell into ! same error 9 8 speculations on ! nature ( heat1 9 :i* he evid5tly conf\nd$1 "u ! "n hot1 classes ( ph5om5a :i* _h no prop]ty 9 common4--,he occasionally proce$s l "o :o seek+ = ! cause ( h>dness1 aft] exam9+ t quality 9 iron1 fl9t1 & diamond1 %\ld expect to f9d t x is some?+ t c be trac$ also 9 h>d wat]1 a h>d knot1 & a h>d he>t4 ,footnote #cah3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 x4 p4 #adh1 a4 #cg1 seq4 ,greek3 e7pei d' e7_/nia lan?a_/nei tn o7mnu_/mn1 e7rtnti men 7s sunnu_/mois *r/e_/on1 au7t d' a7pokr9ome_/n diairete_/on4 e7pei d' e7_/nioi tn a7pokr9ome_/nn to men sun_/numon o7m_/numo_/n phas9 ei7nai1 o7_/tan m e7ph>mo_/tt e7pi pan o7 a7podo!is lo_/gos1--prodiomologte_/on u7per tn toi\_/tn 7 prosullogi/e_/on o7_/ti o7m_/numon 7 sun_/numon1 o7po_/t]on a7n 72 mallon gar sug*r\s9 ou7 proorntes to sumbs_/m5on4 ,^! c\nsels ( ,ari/otle are rem>kable1 z be>+ on ! details1 & ev5 ! artifices1 ( dialectical debate4 ,footnote #cai3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 x4 p4 #adh1 b4 #af-bb4 ,greek3 r7te_/on pros ton toi\ton o7_/ti t men o7nomasi_/a dei *r/hai t p>ad$ome_/n kai p>epome_/n kai m k9ein ta toiauta1 e7_/nia d' ou7 lekte_/on o7moi_/s tois pollois4 #bh4 ,if ! def9i5d1 ( :i* a def9ition is t5d]$ to y1 is a comp\nd1 y may subtract f ?is def9ition ! def9ition ( "o ( ! p>ts ( ! def9i5d1 & !n exam9e :e!r ! rema9d] w suit z a def9ition ( ! rema9+ "p ( ! def9i5d4 ,if ! rema9d] %\ld n suit1 ?is w %[ t ! entire def9ition t5d]$ is n t5able4 ,?us1 if ! def9i5d be a f9ite /raight l9e1 & if ! def9ition t5d]$ be1 ,x is ! b\nd>y ( a f9ite plane1 ( :i* 7b\nd>y7 ! middle cov]s or /&s 9 ! way ( ! extremities2 y may subtract f ?is def9ition ! def9ition ( a f9ite l9e1 viz41 ! b\nd>y ( a plane surface hav+ b\nd>ies1 & ! rema9d] ( ! def9ition ought !n to suit = ! rema9d] ( ! def9i5d4 ,n[ ! rema9d] ( ! def9i5d is--/raight2 & ! rema9d] ( ! def9ition is--t ( :i* ! middle cov]s or /&s 9 ! way ( ! extremities4 ,b ^! two w n suit2 = a l9e may be /raight1 yet inf9ite1 9 :i* case x w h nei!r middle nor extremities4 ,accord+ly1 s9ce ! rema9d] ( ! def9ition w n suit = ! rema9d] ( ! def9i5d1 ?is w s]ve z an argum5t t ! entire def9ition t5d]$ is n a good "o4#cbj ,footnote #cbj3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 xi4 p4 #adh1 b4 #bc-cb4 ,if ! def9i5d be a comp\nd1 & if ! def9ition conta9 no great] numb] ( words ?an ! def9i5d1 ! def9ition mu/ be faulty2 x w be no?+ bett] ?an a sub/itution ( words4 ,/ill m faulty w x be1 if x sub/itutes r>e & /range words 9 place ( o!rs :i* are kn[n & famili>2 or if x introduces a new ^w :i* signifies some?+ diff]5t f t :i* x replaces4#cba ,footnote #cba3 ,ibid4 b4 #cb-p4 #adi1 a4 #ac4 ,! def9i5d1 be+ comp\nd1 w conta9 bo? a g5]ic & a diff]5tial t]m4 ,9 g5]al1 ! g5]ic t]m w be ! bett] kn[n ( ! two2 yet sometimes ! o!r is ! bett] kn[n4 ,:i*ev] ( ! two is ! bett] kn[n1 ! def9] ought to *oose t1 if all t he aims at is a m]e sub/itution ( "o "n 9 place ( ano!r4 ,b1 if he aims at some?+ m or at ! sub/itution ( an explanatory proposition 9 place ( a "n 7)\t :i* !re c be no true def9ition71 he ought !n to *oose ! diff]5tia 9 pref]5ce to ! g5us2 = ! def9ition is produc$ = ! purpose ( imp>t+ k1 & ! diff]5tia1 be+ usually less kn[n ?an ! g5us1 /&s mo/ 9 ne$ ( extrane\s help to cognition4#cbb ,:5 ! def9ition ( ! diff]5tia has ?us be5 t5d]$1 y w exam9e :e!r x w be equally suitable = any o!r def9i5d also4 ,if x be1 y h an argum5t aga9/ ! goodness ( ! def9ition4 ,= example1 ! def9ition ( odd numb] t5d]$ to y may be--numb] hav+ a middle4 ,"h1 s9ce numb] is common bo? to ! def9i5d & to ! def9ition1 hav+-a-middle is evid5tly put =w>d z ! equival5t ( odd4 ,b ?is _c /& z equival5t to odd2 s9ce v>i\s o!r subjects :i* are n odd 7su*1 = example1 z a body or a l9e71 nev]!less h a middle4 ,s9ce1 !n1 we see t hav+-a-middle w\ld be suitable 9 def9+ def9i5ds :i* are n odd1 x _c be admitt$1 )\t "s qualify+ adjunct1 z a good def9ition ( odd4 ,! adjunct annex$ mu/ decl>e 9 :at s5se middle is int5d$1 s9ce x is an equivocal phrase4#cbc ,footnote #cbb3 ,ibid4 p4 #adi1 a4 #ad-bh4 ,footnote #cbc3 ,ibid4 a4 #bi-cg4 #bi4 ,if ! def9i5d be a some?+ really exi/5t1 ! def9ition giv5 ( x ought n to be a proposition decl>+ an incompatible comb9ation1 su* z nei!r does nor c exi/4 ,"s1 = example1 def9e :ite--col\r m+l$ ) fire2 :i* is incompatible1 s9ce t :i* is incorporeal 7col\r7 _c be m+l$ ) a body 7fire74#cbd ,footnote #cbd3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 xii4 p4 #adi1 a4 #ch-;b4 #c4 #cj4 ,aga91 suppose ! def9i5d to be a ,relatum3 ! correlate !re( mu/ ( c\rse be decl>$ 9 ! def9ition4 ,c>e1 h[ev]1 mu/ be tak5 t x %all be decl>$1 n 9 vague g5]ality b1 di/9ctly & ) prop] specialization2 o!rwise1 ! def9ition w be incorrect ei!r entirely or p>tially4 ,?us1 if ! respond5t def9es m$ic9e--! sci5ce ( ! really exi/5t1 he is incorrect ei!r :olly or p>tially4 ,! relatum ought to reciprocate or to be co-ext5sive ) its correlate4#cbe ,:5 ! correlate1 h[ev]1 is prop]ly specializ$ 9 ! def9ition1 x may be decl>$ "u sev]al diff]5t descriptions2 = ! same real ?+ may be at once ens1 album1 bonum4 ,none ( ^! descriptions w be incorrect4 ,yet1 if ! correlate is ?us describ$ 9 ! def9ition ( a relatum1 ! def9ition _c be consid]$ good or suffici5t4 ,= x applies to m ?+s besides ! def9i5d2 & a good def9ition ought to reciprocate or to be co-ext5sive ) its def9i5d4#cbf ,footnote #cbe3 ,ibid4 b4 #d1 seq43 ,greek3 e7_/ti o7_/soi m diair\s9 e7n tois pro_/s ti pros o7 le_/getai1 a7ll' e7n plei_/osi p]ilabo_/ntes ei7pan1 7 o7_/ls 7 e7pi_/ ti pseu_/dontai1 oi7on ei7_/ tis tn i7atrikn e7pi/_/mn o7_/ntos ei7p5--o7moi_/s de kai e7pi tn a7_/lln1 e7peid a7nti/re_/phei pa_/nta ta pro_/s ti4 ,footnote #cbf3 ,ibid4 b4 #ab-bc4 ,greek3 e7_/ti d' a7du_/naton ton toi\ton lo_/gon i7_/dion t\ a7podo!_/ntos ei7nai2--dlon ou7n o7_/ti o7 toi\tos ou7demias e7/in e7pi/_/ms o7rismo_/s2 i7_/dion gar kai ou7 ko9on dei ton o7rismon ei7nai4 #ca4 ,ano!r mi/ake 9 def9+ is committ$1 :5 a man def9es1 n ! subject purely & simply b1 ! subject 9 a high measure ( excell5ce4 ,sometimes ! rhetor 7e4g47 is def9$--"o :o c p]ceive & produce )\t omission all t !re is plausible 9 any cause2 ! ?ief is def9$--"o :o takes away secretly :at belongs to ano!r4 ,b ^! are ! def9itions1 n ( a rhetor & a ?ief g5]ally b1 ( a skilful rhetor & skilful ?ief4 ,! ?ief is "o :o is b5t on tak+ away secretly1 n "o :o does take away secretly4#cbg ,footnote #cbg3 ,ibid4 b4 #bd-cj4 ,greek3 ou7 gar o7 la_/?ra lamba_/nn1 a7ll' o7 b\lo_/m5os la_/?ra lamba_/ne91 kle_/pts e7/i_/n4 #cb4 ,aga91 ano!r error consi/s 9 def9+ :at is desirable 9 itself & on its own acc\nt1 z if x 7 desirable z a means t[>ds "s o!r end--z productive or pres]vative !re(4 ,= example1 if a man def9es ju/ice--t :i* is pres]vative ( ! laws2 or wisdom--t :i* is productive ( happ9ess1 he pres5ts !m z if !y 7 desirable1 n = !mselves b1 ) ref]5ce to some?+ diff]5t f !mselves4 ,?is is a mi/ake2 & x is n less a mi/ake1 ?\gh v possibly ! same subject may be desirable bo? = itself & = ! sake ( some?+ else4 ,= ! def9ition ought to enunciate :at is be/ 9 ! def9i5d2 & ! be/ ( ev]y?+ resides mo/ 9 its ess5ce1 n 9 :at x is relatively to some?+ else4 ,x is bett] to be desirable p] se1 ?an alt]ius caus4#cbh ,footnote #cbh3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 xii4 p4 #adi1 b4 #ca-ci4 ,greek3 e7ka_//\ gar to be_/lti/on e7n t ou7si_/a ma_/li/a1 be_/ltion de to di' au7to ai7reton ei7nai t\ di' e7_/t]on1 7_//e t\to kai ton o7rismon e7_/dei mallon smai_/ne94 #cc4 ,p]haps ! def9ition t5d]$ may be a complex proposition1 enunciat+ two t]ms ei!r jo9tly or sev]ally1 9 "o or o!r ( ?ree comb9ations4 ,ei!r ! def9i5d is ,a & ,b2 or x is t :i* spr+s out ( ,a & ,b2 or x is ,a ) ,b4#cbi ,9 ea* ( ^! ?ree cases y may f9d argum5ts = impugn+ ! def9ition4 ,footnote #cbi3 ,ibid4 xiii4 p4 #aej1 a4 #a-d3 ,greek3 skopein de kai ei7_/ t9os o7rismon a7podid\s ta_/de1 7 to e7k t\_/tn1 7 to_/de meta t\de 7ri_/sato4 a4 ,?us1 take ! fir/ ( ! ?ree4 ,suppose ! respond5t to def9e ju/ice by say+1 ,x is temp]ance & c\rage4 ,y may urge aga9/ him1 t two m51 "o ( :om is temp]ate )\t be+ c\rage\s1 :ile ! o!r is c\rage\s )\t be+ temp]ate1 w be j toge!r1 ?\gh nei!r ( !m sep>ately is j2 nay1 t ea* ( !m sep>ately 7! "o be+ temp]ate & c[>dly1 ! o!r c\rage\s & intemp]ate71 w be bo? j & unju/2 s9ce1 if ju/ice is temp]ance & c\rage1 inju/ice w be intemp]ance & c[>dice4#ccj ,! def9] is op5 to ! f>!r objection t he treats enum]ation ( p>ts z id5tical ) ! :ole2 z if he def9$ a h\se--bricks & mort>1 =gett+ ! peculi> mode ( putt+ !m toge!r4 ,bricks & mort> may exi/1 & yet !re may be no h\se4#cca ,footnote #ccj3 ,ibid4 a4 #d-ad4 ,footnote #cca3 ,ibid4 a4 #ae-ba4 ,greek3 dlon gar o7_/ti tn m]n o7_/ntn ou7den klu_/ei to o7_/lon m ei7nai2 7_//e ou7 tau7ton ta me_/r t o7_/l4 b4 ,next1 suppose ! def9ition to decl>e1 t ! def9i5d is t :i* spr+s f ,a & ,b--is a result or comp\nd ( ,a & ,b4 ,y w !n exam9e :e!r ,a & ,b are su* z to yield any result2 = "s c\ples 7z a l9e & a numb]7 yield no result4 ,or1 p]haps1 ! def9i5d may by its own nature inh]e 9 "s fir/ subject1 :ile ,a & ,b d n inh]e 9 any "o fir/ subject1 b "o 9 ! o!r2 9 :i* case ! def9ition is assailable4#ccb ,or1 ev5 grant+ t x is ! nature ( ,a & ,b to inh]e 9 ! same fir/ subject1 y may f9d t t fir/ subject is n ! same z ! "o 9 :i* ! def9i5d inh]es4 ,n[ ! :ole _c ?us inh]e 9 "o1 & ! p>ts 9 ano!r3 y w "h h a good objection4 ,or1 p]haps1 x may appe> t1 if ! :ole be de/roy$1 ! p>ts w be de/roy$ also2 :i* ought n to be1 b ! rev]se2 =1 :5 ! p>ts are de/roy$1 ! :ole mu/ necess>ily vani%4 ,or1 p]haps1 ! def9i5d may be good or bad1 :ile ! p>ts ( ! def9ition 7,a & ,b7 are nei!r "o nor ! o!r4 7,yet ?is la/ is n a conclusive objection2 = x w sometimes happ5 9 comp\nd m$ic9es t ea* ( ! +r$i5ts is good1 :ile !y are bad if giv5 9 conjunction47#ccc ,or1 p]haps1 ! :ole may be> ! same "n z "o ( its p>ts3 ?is1 also1 w r5d] ! def9ition impea*able4 ,/ill m w x be impea*able1 if x enunciates simply a result or comp\nd ( ,a & ,b1 )\t specify+ ! mann] ( composition2 x ought to decl>e n m]ely ! p>ts ( ! comp\nd1 b also ! way 9 :i* !y are put toge!r to =m ! comp\nd4#ccd ,footnote #ccb3 ,ibid4 a4 #bb-cj4 ,greek3 e7_/ti ei7 to men 7risme_/non e7n e7ni_/ t9i pe_/phuke t pr_/t gi_/ne/hai1 e7x 7n d' e7_/phs5 au7to ei7nai1 m e7n e7ni_/ t9i t pr_/t1 all' e7ka_/t]on e7n e7kate_/r4 ,footnote #ccc3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 xiii4 p4 #aej1 a4 #cj-;b4 #ac4 ,footnote #ccd3 ,ibid4 b4 #ad-bf4 ,greek3 e7_/ti ei7 m ei7_/rke ton tro_/pon ts sun!_/ses2 c4 c4 ,la/ly1 suppose ! def9ition to decl>e t ! def9i5d is ,a along ) ,b4 ,y w note1 fir/1 t ?is ?ird head mu/ be id5tical ei!r ) ! fir/ or ) ! second 7e4g41 honey ) wat] means ei!r honey & wat]1 or ! comp\nd ( honey ) wat]72 x w !re=e be op5 to impea*m5t on "o or o!r ( ! above-nam$ gr\nds ( objection1 accord+ z ! respond5t may admit4#cce ,y may also di/+ui% all ! diff]5t s5ses 9 :i* "o ?+ may be said to be ) ano!r 7e4g41 :5 ! two are 9 ! same recipi5t1 ju/ice & c\rage toge!r 9 ! s\l2 or 9 ! same place2 or 9 ! same "t71 & y may be able to %[ t 9 none ( ^! s5ses c ! two p>ts ( ! def9ition be truly said to be "o along ) ! o!r4#ccf ,or1 if x be true t ^! two p>ts are co-exi/5t 9 "t1 y may enquire :e!r !y are n affirm$ ) relation to diff]5t correlates4 ,e4g41 ,! def9ition ( c\rage may be t5d]$ ?us3 ,c\rage is d>+ along ) "r intellig5ce2 ^u :i* y may rem>k t d>+ may h ref]5ce to an act ( spoliation1 & t "r intellig5ce may h ref]5ce to ! pres]vation ( heal?4 ,n[ a man :o has bo? d>+ & "r intellig5ce 9 ^! s5ses1 _c be t]m$ c\rage\s1 & ?us y w h an argum5t aga9/ ! def9ition4 ,&1 ev5 if !y be affirm$ ) ref]5ce to ! same correlate 7e4g41 ! duties ( a physician71 a man :o has bo? d>+ & "r intellig5ce 9 ref]5ce to ^! duties w h>dly be /yl$ c\rage\s2 ! t]m c\rage mu/ be s def9$ z to h ref]5ce to its appropriate end2 e4g41 ! dang]s ( w>1 or any /ill m public-spirit$ end4#ccg ,ano!r mi/ake may1 p]haps1 be committ$ 9 ?is same sort ( def9ition--,a along ) ,b2 z :51 = example1 ! def9ition t5d]$ ( ang] is--pa9 along ) ! belief ( be+ treat$ ) contempt4 ,:at ! def9] really int5ds "h is1 t ! pa9 arises f ! belief ( be+ treat$ ) contempt4 ,b ?is is n express$ by ! t]ms ( 8 def9ition1 9 any "o ( _! admissible mean+s4#cch ,footnote #cce3 ,ibid4 b4 #bg-cb4 ,greek3 7_//' e7an o7pot]oun tn ei7rme_/nn tau7ton o7molog_/s ei7nai to to_/de meta t\de1 tau7ta a7rmo_/sei le_/ge9 a7_/p] pros e7ka_/t]on t\_/tn e7_/mpro/h5 ei7_/rtai4 ,footnote #ccf3 ,ibid4 b4 #cb-ci4 ,greek3 7 7s e7_/n t9i tau7t dektik1 c4 ,footnote #ccg3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 xiii4 p4 #aea1 a4 #a-ac4 ,greek3 ou7_/te gar pros e7_/t]on au7tn e7ka_/t]on dei le_/ge/hai ou7_/te pros tau7ton to tu*o_/n1 a7lla pros to ts a7ndrei_/z te_/los1 oi7on pros t\s polemik\s k9du_/n\s 7 ei7_/ ti mallon t\_/t\ te_/los4 ,footnote #cch3 ,ibid4 a4 #ad-ai4 #cd4 ,p]haps ! def9ition1 :ile includ+ two or m di/9ct p>ts1 may be t5d]$ 9 ?is =m3 ,! def9i5d is ! composition ( ,a & ,b2 e4g41 animal is ! composition ( s\l & body4 ,y w fir/ note t ! def9] has n decl>$ :at sort ( composition4 ,!re is a great diff]5ce betwe5 "o mode ( composition & ano!r2 ! mode mu/ be specializ$4 ,bo? fle% & bone may be def9$--a composition ( fire1 e>?1 & wat]2 b "o mode ( composition makes fle%1 ano!r makes bone1 out ( ^! same elem5ts4 ,y may also take ! f>!r objection t to def9e a comp\nd z composition is errone\s2 ! two are ess5tially disp>ate1 "o ( !m be+ ab/ract1 ! o!r concrete4#cci ,footnote #cci3 ,ibid4 a4 #bj-ca4 #ce4 ,if ! def9i5d be 9 its nature capable ( receiv+ two contr>y attributes1 & if ! respond5t def9e x by "o or o!r ( !m1 y h an argum5t aga9/ him4 ,if "o ( !m is admissible1 ! o!r mu/ be equally s2 & ^u ?is supposition !re w\ld be two di/9ct def9itions ( ! same subject2 :i* has be5 already decl>$ impossible4 ,?us1 x is wrong to def9e ! s\l z a sub/ance :i* is recipi5t ( k2 ! s\l is also recipi5t ( ignorance4#cdj ,footnote #cdj3 ,ibid4 a4 #cb-;b4 #b4 #cf4 ,p]haps ! def9i5d is n suffici5tly well kn[n to enable y to attack ! def9ition z a :ole1 b y may f9d argum5ts aga9/ "o or o!r ( its p>ts2 ?is is suffici5t to upset x4 ,if x be obscure & un9telligible1 y %\ld help to correct & re-model x until x becomes cle>2 y w !n see :at are ! really assailable po9ts 9 x4 ,:5 y indicate & expose ! obscurity1 ! respond5t mu/ ei!r sub/itute "s cle>] exposition ( 8 own mean+1 or else he mu/ acquiesce 9 t :i* y propose z sub/itute4#cda ,if ! improv$ def9ition :i* y propose is obvi\sly cle>] & bett]1 8 previ\s def9ition is ( c\rse put out ( c\rt2 s9ce !re _c be sev]al def9itions ( ! same subject4#cdb ,footnote #cda3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 xiv4 p4 #aea1 b4 #c-aa4 ,greek3 o7_/soi t' a7sapheis tn o7rismn1 sundior?_/santa kai sus*mati_/santa pros to dl\n ti kai e7_/*e9 e7pi*ei_/rma1 ou7_/ts e7piskopein2 a7nagkaion gar t a7pokr9ome_/n 7 de_/*e/hai to e7klambano_/m5on u7po t\ e7rtntos1 7 au7ton diasaphsai ti_/ pote tug*a_/nei to dl\_/m5on u7po t\ lo_/g\4 ,footnote #cdb3 ,ibid4 b4 #ab-ag4 ,to conclude1 "o sugge/ion may be giv5 be>+ ^u all ! argum5ts t y h to c>ry on aga9/ def9itions t5d]$ by respond5ts3--,reflect on ! def9i5d1 & frame a def9ition ( x = y\rself1 z clev]ly z y c at ! mom5t2 or call to m9d any good def9ition ( x :i* y may h he>d be=e4 ,?is w s]ve y z a /&>d ) :i* to comp>e ! def9ition t5d]$1 s t y w see at once :at !re is 9 x ei!r defective or r$undant1 & :]e y c f9d argum5ts aga9/ x4#cdc ,footnote #cdc3 ,ibid4 b4 #ah-bc4 ,greek3 a7na_/gk gar1 7_/sp] pros p>a_/deigma !_/m5on1 to_/ t' e7lleipon 7n prosk5 e7_/*e9 ton o7rismon kai to proskei_/m5on p]ie_/rgs ka?oran1 7_//e mallon e7pi*eirma_/tn eu7porein4 ,,vii4 ,9 ! ,sev5? ,book ( ! ,topica ,ari/otle cont9ues 8 review ( ! mann] ( debat+ !ses :i* pr(ess to def9e1 b ent]s also on a collat]al "q connect$ ) t discussion3 viz41 ,by :at argum5ts are we to det]m9e :e!r two ,subjects or ,pr$icates are ! same ,num]o 7modo maxime proprio71 z di/+ui%$ f be+ ! same m]ely ,specie or ,g5]e8 ,to measure ! ext5t ( id5tity betwe5 any two subjects1 is important t[>ds ! attack & def5ce ( a def9ition4#cdd ,footnote #cdd3 ,ibid4 ,,vii4 i4 p4 #aea1 b4 #bh3 ,greek3 po_/t]on de tau7ton 7 e7_/t]on kata ton kuri_/taton tn r7!_/ntn p]i tau7t\ tro_/pn 7e7le_/geto de kuri_/tata tau7ton to t a7ri?m e7_/n7 c4 ,two subjects 7,a & ,b7 be+ affirm$ z ! same num]o1 y may te/ ?is by exam9+ ! ,d]ivatives1 ! ,co-ord9ates1 & ! ,opposites1 ( ea*4 ,?us1 if c\rage is id5tical ) ju/ice1 ! c\rage\s man w be id5tical ) ! j man2 c\rage\sly w be id5tical ) ju/ly4 ,likewise1 ! opposite ( c\rage 79 all ! f\r modes ( ,opposition7 w be id5tical ) ! opposite ( ju/ice4 ,!n1 aga91 ! g5]ators & de/roy]s1 ! g5]ations & de/ructions1 ( c\rage1 w be id5tical ) ^? ( ju/ice4#cde ,if !re be any pr$icate appli$ to c\rage 9 ! sup]lative degree1 ! same pr$icate w also be appli$ to ju/ice 9 ! sup]lative degree4#cdf ,if !re be a ?ird subject ,c ) :i* ,a is id5tical1 ,b also w be id5tical !re)4 ,! same attributes pr$icable ( ,a w also be pr$icable ( ,b2 &1 if ! two be attributes1 ea* w be pr$icable ( ! same subjects ( :i* ! o!r is pr$icable4 ,bo? w be compris$ 9 ! same ,category1 & w h ! same g5us & diff]5tia4 ,bo? w increase or dim9i% "u ! same circum/ances4 ,ea*1 :5 add$ to or subtract$ f any ?ird subject1 w yield ! same result4#cdg ,footnote #cde3 ,ibid4 p4 #aeb1 a4 #b4 ,footnote #cdf3 ,topic4 ,,vii4 p4 #aeb1 a4 #e-cj3 ,greek3 skopein de kai 7n ?a_/t]on ma_/li/a le_/getai o7ti\n1 ei7 kai ?a_/t]on tn au7tn t\_/tn kata to au7to ma_/li/a le_/getai1 ka?a_/p] ,x5okra_/ts ton eu7dai_/mona bi_/on kai ton sp\daion a7podei_/knusi ton au7to_/n1 e7peid pa_/ntn tn bi_/n ai7ret_/tatos o7 sp\daios kai o7 eu7dai_/mn2 e7n gar to ai7ret_/taton kai to me_/gi/on2 c4 ,ari/otle rem>ks t ,x5okrates "h c>ri$ 8 inf]5ce too f>3 t ! application ( ! same sup]lative pr$icate to ,a & ,b af=ds inde$ a presumption t !y are ,idem num]o1 b n a conclusive pro( !re(2 t ! pr$icate might be appli$ 9 l mann]1 if ,b 7 a species compris$ 9 ,a z g5us4 ,x5okrates made ! mi/ake ( draw+ an affirmative conclusion f syllogi/ic premisses 9 ! ,second figure4 ,footnote #cdg3 ,topic4 ,,vii4 i4 p4 #aeb1 a4 #ca-;b4 #af4 ,f>!r1 9 exam9+ ! !sis 7,a is id5tical num]o ) ,b7 y mu/ look n m]ely :e!r x involves actually any impossible consequ5ces1 b also :e!r any cases c be imag9$ 9 :i* x w\ld involve su*2#cdh :e!r ! id5tity is n m]ely specie or g5]e2 f9ally1 :e!r ! "o c exi/ )\t ! o!r4#cdi ,footnote #cdh3 ,ibid4 b4 #ag-bd4 ,ari/otle illu/rates ?is locus z foll[s3--,"s say t to be void1 & to be full ( air1 are ! same4 ,b suppose ! air to be drawn away2 !n ! place w no long] be full ( air1 yet x w /ill be void1 ev5 m ?an x 0 be=e4 ,"o ( ! two t]ms decl>$ to be id5tical is ?us )drawn1 :ile ! o!r rema9s4 ,accord+ly1 ! two are n really id5tical4 ,?is illu/ration fits bett] to ! pr9ciple laid d[n1 b4 #cd3 ,greek3 ei7 du_/naton ?a_/t]on a7_/neu ?ate_/r\ ei7nai2 ou7 gar a7n ei7_/ tau7to_/n4 ,footnote #cdi3 ,ibid4 b4 #be-ce4 ,su* are ! v>i\s loci available = argum5t aga9/ ! !sis affirm+ ! equivocal pr$icate same4 ,all ( !m may be useful :5 y are impugn+ a def9ition2 = ! *>act]i/ic ( ?is is to decl>e t ! def9+ proposition is equival5t or id5tical ) ! def9$ "n2 &1 if y c disprove su* id5tity1 y upset ! def9ition4 ,b ^! loci w be ( little avail1 if y\r task is to def5d or uphold a def9ition2 =1 ev5 if y succe$ 9 e/abli%+ ! above-m5tion$ id5tity1 ! def9ition may /ill be op5 to attack = o!r weaknesses or defects4#cej ,footnote #cej3 ,ibid4 ii4 p4 #aeb1 b4 #cf-p4 #aeh1 a4 #e4 ,greek3 a7_/pantes oi7 pros tau7ton a7naskeua/ikoi to_/poi kai pros o7_/ron *r_/simoi--tn de kataskeua/ikn to_/pn ou7deis *r_/simos pros o7_/ron2 c4 ,to uphold1 or prove by way ( syllogism1 requires a diff]5t proc$ure4 ,x is a task h>d1 b n impossible4 ,mo/ disputants assume )\t prov+ _! def9ition1 9 ! same way z ! tea*]s ( ,geometry & ,ari?metic d 9 _! respective sci5ces4 ,ari/otle tells u t he does n "h int5d to give a didactic exposition ( ,def9ition1 nor ( ! prop] way ( def9+ accurately or sci5tifically4 ,to d ?is 7he says7 belongs to ! prov9ce ( ,analytic2 :ile 9 ! pres5t treatise he is deal+ m]ely ) ,dialectic4 ,= ! purposes1 !n1 ( ,dialectic1 he decl>es t syllogi/ic pro( ( a def9ition is practicable1 inasmu* z ! def9ition is only a proposition decl>+ :at is ess5tial to ! def9i5d2 & no?+ is ess5tial except g5us 7or g5]a7 & diff]5ti4#cea ,footnote #cea3 ,topic4 ,,vii4 iii4 p4 #aec1 a4 #f-bb4 ,comp>e ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 iii4-x41 :]e ! !ory ( ,sci5tific ,def9ition is elaborately work$ out2 supra1 ,vol4 ,i4 *4 viii4 pp4 #cdf-cec4 ,t[>ds ! e/abli%m5t ( ! def9ition :i* y h to def5d1 y may f9d argum5ts by exam9+ ! ,contr>ies & ,opposites ( ! compon5t t]ms1 & ( ! def9+ proposition4 ,if ! opposite ( ! def9ition is all[$ z def9+ prop]ly ! opposite ( ! def9i5d1 y may argue f h5ce t y\r own def9ition is a good "o4#ceb ,if y c %[ t !re is decl>$ 9 y\r def9ition a p>tial correspond5ce ( contr>ies ei!r sep>ately 9 ! g5us1 or sep>ately 9 ! diff]5tia1 y h a c]ta9 =ce ( argum5t 9 y\r fav\r2 &1 if y c make out bo? ! two sep>ately1 ?is w suffice = y\r entire def9ition4#cec ,y may also draw argum5ts f ! ,d]ivatives1 or ,co-ord9ates ( y\r own t]ms2 f ,analog\s ,t]ms1 or f ,comp>ates 7,m or ,less74 ,if ! def9ition ( any "o ( ^! is grant$ to y1 an argum5t is furni%$ = ! def5ce ( an analog\s def9ition 9 ! case ( y\r own t]m4 ,if x is conc$$ z a good def9ition t =getfulness is--! ca/+ away ( k1 !n ! def9ition mu/ also hold good t to =get is--to ca/ away k4 ,if de/ruction is admitt$ to be well def9$--dissolution ( ess5ce1 !n to be de/roy$ is well def9$--to be dissolv$ z to ess5ce4 ,if ! :olesome may be def9$--t :i* is productive ( heal?1 !n also ! pr(itable may be def9$--t :i* is productive ( good2 t is1 if ! decl>ation ( ! special end makes a good def9ition 9 "o case1 s x w also 9 ! o!r4#ced ,footnote #ceb3 ,ibid4 a4 #bh3 ,greek3 ei7 gar o7 a7ntikei_/m5os t\ a7ntikeime_/n\1 kai ton ei7rme_/n\ t\ prokeime_/n\ a7na_/gk ei7nai 7o7_/ron74 ,footnote #cec3 ,ibid4 b4 #ad3 ,greek3 ka?o_/l\ d' ei7pein1 e7pei o7 o7rismo_/s e7/9 e7k ge_/n\s kai diaphorn1 a7n o7 t\ e7nanti_/ou o7rismos phan]os 71 kai o7 t\ prokeime_/n\ o7rismos phan]os e7_//ai4 ,footnote #ced3 ,topic4 ,,vii4 iii4 p4 #aec1 b4 #be-p4 #aed1 a4 #aa3 ,greek3 e7_/ti e7k tn pt_/sen kai tn su/oi_/*n2 a7na_/gk a7kol\!in ta ge_/n tois ge_/nes9 kai t\s o7_/r\s tois o7_/rois4--e7nos ou7n o7poi\\n tn ei7rme_/nn o7mol!_/ntos1 a7na_/gk ki ta loipa o7mologei/hai4--kai e7k tn o7moi_/s e7*o_/ntn pros a7_/llla--o7moi_/s gar e7_/ka/on tn ei7rme_/nn pros to oi7keion te_/los e7_/*ei4 ,^! loci1 f ,analoga1 f ,d]ivatives1 f ,conjugates1 are ( ! mo/ frequ5t avail 9 dialectical debates or def9itions4 ,! disputant mu/ acquire promptitude 9 ! employm5t ( !m4 ,he mu/ le>n1 moreov]1 to te/ a def9ition t5d]$ to him by call+ to m9d p>ticul>s & sub-species1 s z to det]m9e :e!r ! def9ition fits !m all4 ,su* a proc$ure w be f\nd especially s]viceable 9 debate ) "o :o upholds ! ,platonic ,ideas4 ,c>e mu/ also be tak5 to see :e!r ! def9i5d is di/ort$ f its prop] signification1 or :e!r x is us$ 9 def9+ itself4#cee ,footnote #cee3 ,topic4 ,,vii4 iv4 p4 #aed1 a4 #ab-bb4 ,^! la/ obs]vations are address$ to ! que/ion] or assailant ( ! def9ition4 ,we h already se5 h[ev] t 8 task is comp>atively easy2 ! gr& difficulty is to def5d a def9ition4 ,! respond5t _c at once see :at he ought to aim at2 &1 ev5 :5 he does see x1 he has f>!r difficulty 9 obta9+ ! requisite concessions f 8 oppon5t1 :o may decl9e to grant t ! two p>ts ( ! def9ition t5d]$ are really ! g5us & diff]5tia ( ! def9i5d2 :ile1 if !re be any ?+ besides ^! two p>ts conta9$ 9 ! ess5ce ( ! def9i5d1 !re is an excuse = decl9+ to grant x4#cef ,! oppon5t succe$s1 if he c e/abli% "o s+le contradictory in/ance2 accord+ly1 a syllogism ) p>ticul> conclusion w s]ve 8 purpose4 ,! respond5t on ! o!r h&1 mu/ meet ea* "o ( ^! in/ances1 mu/ e/abli% an univ]sal conclusion1 & mu/ %[ t 8 def9ition reciprocates ) ! def9i5d1 s t1 :]ev] ! latt] is pr$icable1 ! =m] is pr$icable likewise1 & n 9 any o!r case :atev]4#ceg ,footnote #cef3 ,topic4 ,,vii4 v4 p4 #aed1 a4 #bc1 seq4 ,greek3 kai gar i7dein au7ton kai labein p>a tn e7rtme_/nn tas toiau_/tas prota_/seis ou7k eu7pete_/s1 c4 ,footnote #ceg3 ,ibid4 a4 #cb-;b4 #ab4 ,s mu* great] are ! difficulties belong+ to ! def5ce ( a ,def9ition1 z comp>$ ) ! attack ^u x2 & ! same may be said ab\t attack & def5ce ( a ,proprium1 & ( a ,g5us4 ,9 bo? cases1 ! assailant w c>ry 8 po9t1 if he c %[ t ! pr$icate 9 "q is n pr$icable1 9 ?is relation1 ( all1 or t x is n pr$icable1 9 ?is relation1 ( any "o4 ,b ! def5dant is requir$ to make good ! univ]sal aga9/ e sep>ate objection advanc$ aga9/ any "o ( ! p>ticul>s4 ,x is a g5]al rule1 t ! "w ( de/ruction is easi] ?an t ( con/ruction2 & ! pres5t cases come "u t rule4#ceh ,! h>de/ ( all !ses to def5d1 & ! easie/ to ov]?r[1 is :]e ,def9ition is affirm$2 = ! respond5t 9 ?is case is requir$ to decl>e well ! ess5ce ( 8 subject1 & he /&s 9 ne$ ( ! greate/ numb] ( auxili>y data2 :ile all ! ,loci = attack1 ev5 ^? prop]ly belong+ to ! ,proprium1 ! ,g5us1 & ! ,accid5t1 are available aga9/ him4#cei ,next 9 ord]1 z reg>ds difficulty ( def5ce1 comes ! !ses affirm+ ,proprium2 :]e ! respond5t has to make out1 n m]ely t ! pr$icate belongs to ! subject1 b t x belongs !reunto exclusively & reciprocally3 "h also all ! ,loci = attack1 ev5 ^? prop]ly belong+ to ,accid5t1 are available4#cfj ,easie/ ( all !ses to def5d1 :ile x is ! h>de/ to impugn1 is t 9 :i* ,accid5t alone is affirm$--! nak$ fact1 t ! pr$icate ,a belongs to ! ,subject ,b1 )\t inve/+ x ) ! "* ei!r ( ,g5us or ,proprium4 ,"h :at is affirm$ is a m9imum1 requir+ ! smalle/ array ( data to be conc$$2 moreov]1 ! ,loci available = attack are ! fewe/1 s9ce _m ( ^? :i* may be employ$ aga9/ ,g5us1 ,proprium1 & ,def9ition1 h no application aga9/ a !sis affirm+ m]ely ,accid5t4#cfa ,inde$1 if ! !sis affirm$ be only a proposition p>ticul> 7& n univ]sal71 affirm+ ,accid5t 7& no?+ m71 ! task ( refut+ x w be m difficult ?an t ( ma9ta9+ x4#cfb ,footnote #ceh3 ,ibid4 b4 #ac-cb4 ,greek3 e7_/oike d'1 7_/sp] kai e7n tois a7_/llois to diaph!irai toi poisai r7aon1 ou7_/t kai e7pi t\_/tn to a7naskeua_/sai t\ kataskeua_/sai4 ,footnote #cei3 ,topic4 ,,vii4 v4 p4 #aee1 a4 #c-ba3 ,greek3 phan]on de kai dio_/ti pa_/ntn r7a/on o7_/ron a7naskeua_/sai4 ,footnote #cfj3 ,ibid4 a4 #bc-bg4 ,ari/otle has 9 view ! mo/ complete ,proprium3 belong+ omni1 soli1 et semp]4 ,footnote #cfa3 ,ibid4 a4 #bh-cf3 ,greek3 r7a/on de pa_/ntn kataskeua_/sai to sumbebko_/s2--a7naskeua_/ze9 de *alep_/taton to sumbebko_/s1 o7_/ti e7la_/*i/a e7n au7t de_/dotai1 c4 ,footnote #cfb3 ,ibid4 p4 #aed1 b4 #cf-p4 #aee1 a4 #b3 ,greek3 to d' e7pi me_/r\s a7na_/pal9 r7aon kataskeua_/sai 7 a7naskeua_/sai2 kataskeua_/zonti men gar a7po_/*r deixai t9i u7pa_/r*on1 a7naskeua_/zonti de deikte_/on o7_/ti ou7d5i u7pa_/r*ei4 ,,viii4 ,! ,eigh? ,book ( ! ,topica br+s our att5tion back to ! g5]al consid]ations conta9$ 9 ! ,fir/4 ,9 ! int]v5+ "p ( ! treatise we h _h ! quadruple di/ribution ( dialectical problems1 ) ! enum]ation ( ^? ,loci ( argum5t :i* be> ^u ea* or all3 we are n[ invit$ to /udy ! application ( ^! di/9ctions 9 practice1 & ) ?is view to look once m bo? at ! p]sons & ! purposes ( dialectical debate4 ,:at is ! ord] ( proc$ure mo/ suitable1 fir/1 = ! que/ion] or assailant2 next1 = ! respond5t or def5d]8#cfc ,?is ord] ( proc$ure m>ks ! di/9ctive l9e ( sep>ation betwe5 ! dialectician & ! man ( sci5ce or philosoph]3 to bo? ( !m ! ,loci ( argum5ts are alike available1 ?\gh ea* ( !m deals ) ^? argum5ts 9 8 own way1 & 9 an arrangem5t suitable = 8 purpose4#cfd ,! dialectician1 be+ engag$ 9 debate1 mu/ %ape 8 que/ions1 & regulate 8 m>* z que/ion]1 accord+ to ! concessions obta9$ or likely to be obta9$ f 8 respond5t2 :o1 if a "q be ask$ hav+ an obvi\s refutative be>+ on ! !sis1 w =esee ! consequ5ces ( answ]+ 9 ! affirmative1 & w refuse to grant :at is ask$4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! philosoph]1 :o pursues inve/igation ) a view to 8 own satisfaction alone1 is "u no simil> re/riction4 ,he looks out at once = su* premisses z conduct /raight to a conclusion2 &1 ! m obvi\s _! be>+ on ! conclusion is1 ! m sci5tific w ! syllogism be1 & ! bett] w he be pleas$4#cfe ,footnote #cfc3 ,ibid4 ,,viii4 i4 p4 #aee1 b4 #c3 ,greek3 meta de tauta p]i ta_/xes1 kai ps dei e7rtan1 lekte_/on4 ,footnote #cfd3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 i4 p4 #aee1 b4 #g3 ,greek3 me_/*ri men ou7n t\ eu7rein ton to_/pon1 o7moi_/s t\ philoso_/ph\ kai t\ dialektik\ 7 ske_/psis1 to d' 7_/d tauta ta_/tte9 kai e7rtmati_/ze9 i7_/dion t\ dialektik\4 ,footnote #cfe3 ,ibid4 b4 #aj-af4 ,9 ! praxis dialectica 7z has already be5 /at$7 two talk]s are assum$--! respond5t :o sets up a !sis :i* he und]takes to def5d1 & a que/ion] :o int]rogates ) a view to impugn x2 or at lea/ ) a view to compel ! o!r to answ] 9 an inconsi/5t or contradictory mann]4 ,we are to assume1 f>!r1 a circle ( li/5]s1 :o s]ve to a c]ta9 ext5t z gu>antees aga9/ any brea* ( ! rules ( debate4#cff ,?ree di/9ct purposes may be suppos$ 9 ! debate4 #a4 ,y z a que/ion] may be a tea*]1 & ! respond5t a le>n]2 y\r purpose is to tea* :at y "k1 :ile he wi%es to le>n f y :at he does n "k4 #b4 ,y engage 9 an intellectual conte/ or duel ) ! respond5t1 ea* ( y seek+ only victory ov] ! o!r1 ?\gh subject on bo? sides to obs]vance ( ! rules ( debate4 #c4 ,y nei!r seek to tea*1 nor to conqu]2 y & ! respond5t h bo? ! same purpose--to te/ ! argum5tative consequ5ces ( diff]5t admissions1 & to acquire a l>g] comm& ( ! *a9s ( reason+ pro & con1 be>+ on "s giv5 topic4#cfg ,footnote #cff3 ,ibid4 ii4 p4 #aeh1 a4 #aj4 ,footnote #cfg3 ,ibid4 v4 p4 #aei1 a4 #bf3 ,greek3 ou7 gar oi7 au7toi skopoi tois dida_/sk\s9 7 man?a_/n\si kai tois a7gnnizome_/nois1 ou7de t\_/tois te kai tois diatri_/b\si met' a7ll_/ln ske_/psis *a_/r94 ,accord+ z ! aim ( ! talk]s is "o or o!r ( ^! ?ree1 ! good or bad conduct ( ! dialogue1 on ! "p bo? ( que/ion] & ( respond5t1 mu/ be diff]5tly appreciat$4 ,( ea* ( ! ?ree1 specim5s may be f\nd 9 ,plato1 ?\gh n c>efully sev]$ b runn+ "o into ! o!r4 ,ari/otle appe>s to h be5 ! fir/ to =mulate ! di/9ction !oretically1 & to prescribe = ! practice ( ea* sep>ately4 ,he tells u p>ticul>ly t no "o be=e him _h cle>ly di/+ui%$ ! ?ird head1 & prescrib$ = x ap>t f ! second4 ,! m]it ( hav+ fir/ done ?is he expressly claims = ! ,topica4#cfh ,footnote #cfh3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 v4 p4 #aei1 a4 #be-cg3 ,greek3 e7pei d' e7/in a7dio_/ri/a tois gumnasi_/z kai pei_/ras e7_/neka t\s lo_/g\s poi\me_/nois--e7n de tais dialektikais suno_/dois tois m a7gnos *a_/r9 a7lla pei_/ras kai ske_/pses t\s lo_/g\s 9999poi\me_/nois1 ou7 9999di_/r?rtai_/ p ti_/nos dei /o*a_/ze/hai ton a7pokr9o_/m5on kai o7poia dido_/nai kai poia m_/1 pros to kals 7 m kals phula_/tte9 tn !_/s94 e7pei ou7n ou7den e7_/*om5 p>ad$ome_/non u7p' a7_/lln1 au7toi_/ ti peira?m5 ei7pein4 ,bo? ! que/ion] & ! respond5t h a duty t[>ds ! dialogue2 _! common purpose is to conduct x well1 n only obey+ ! p]emptory rules1 b display+1 ov] & above1 skill = ! atta9m5t ( _! sep>ate ends4 ,"u ! fir/ & ?ird heads1 bo? may be alike successful4 ,"u ! second or cont5ti\s head1 inde$1 "o only ( ! two c ga9 ! victory2 yet1 /ill1 ev5 ! defeat$ p>ty may exhibit ! maximum ( skill :i* 8 position admits4 ,?is is suffici5t = 8 cr$it2 s t ! common "w w /ill be well p]=m$4#cfi ,b a p>tn] :o p]=ms 8 own "p s z to ob/ruct in/ead ( =w>d+ ?is common "w--:o conducts ! debate 9 a _s ( ill-temp]$ cont5tion r ?an ( regul> ,dialectic--des]ves c5sure4#cgj ,footnote #cfi3 ,ibid4 xi4 p4 #afa1 a4 #ai-;b4 #aj3 ,greek3 ou7 gar e7_//9 e7pi ?ate_/r mo_/non to lals e7pitele/hnai to ko9on e7_/rgon--e7pei de phaulos ko9nos o7 e7mpodi_/zn to ko9on e7_/rgon1 dlon o7_/ti kai e7n lo_/g4 ,comp>e ,topica1 ,i4 iii4 p4 #aja1 b4 #h4 ,footnote #cgj3 ,ibid4 a4 #cc3 ,greek3 dialektiks kai m e7ri/iks4--b4 #b-ah4 ,hav+ ?us 9 view ! dialogue z a p>tn]%ip = common pr(it1 ,ari/otle adm9i/]s c\nsel to ! que/ion+ z well z to ! respond+ p>tn]4 ,y z que/ion] h to deal ) a !sis set up by ! respond5t4 ,y see at once :at ! syllogism is t is requir$ to prove ! contr>y or contradictory ( t !sis2 & y\r bus9ess is s to %ape y\r que/ions z to induce ! respond5t to conc$e ! premisses necess>y t[>ds t syllogism4 ,if y ask him at once & directly to conc$e ^! premisses1 he sees y\r drift & answ]s 9 ! negative4 ,y mu/ !re=e beg9 y\r approa*es f a great] di/ance4 ,y mu/ ask que/ions be>+ only indirectly & remotely ^u y\r ultimate conclusion4#cga ,^! outly+ & prep>atory que/ions w fall "u f\r pr9cipal heads4 ,ei!r 7#a7 !y w be inductive p>ticul>s1 multipli$ 9 ord] t y may obta9 ass5t to an univ]sal compris+ !m all2 or 7#b7 !y w be put = ! purpose ( giv+ dignity to y\r disc\rse2 or 7#c7 !y w be %ap$ ) a view to conceal or keep out ( sight ! ultimate conclusion t y aim at2 or 7#d71 la/ly1 !y w be introduc$ to make y\r :ole argum5t cle>]4#cgb ,! ?ird ( ^! f\r g5]al heads--! head ( que/ions = ! purpose ( concealm5t--comes out pr9cipally 9 dialectical conte/s = victory4 ,9 ^? x is ( supreme importance1 & ! result dep5ds mu* on ! employm5t ( x2 b ev5 9 o!r dialectical debates y mu/ employ x to a c]ta9 ext5t4#cgc ,footnote #cga3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 i4 p4 #aee1 b4 #bi3 ,greek3 tas men ou7n a7nagkai_/z1 di' 7n o7 sullogismo_/s1 ou7k eu7?us au7tas protate_/on1 a7ll' a7po/ate_/on o7_/ti a7nta_/t1 c4 ,footnote #cgb3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 i4 p4 #aee1 b4 #bj4 ,footnote #cgc3 ,ibid4 b4 #bf4 ,ari/otle goes at great l5g? into ! means ( ,concealm5t4 ,suppose ! proposition :i* y desire to get conc$$ is1 ,! sci5ce ( two contr>ies is ! same4 ,y w f9d x useful to comm5ce by a "q m g5]al3 e4g41 ,is ! sci5ce ( two opposites ! same8 ,if ! respond5t answ]s 9 ! affirmative1 y w d$uce f 8 concession1 by syllogism1 ! conclusion :i* y desire4 ,if he answ]s 9 ! negative1 y mu/ !n try to arrive at y\r end by a /r+ ( que/ions respect+ p>ticul> contr>ies or opposites2 :i* if ! respond5t grants successively1 y w br+ 9 y\r g5]al "q ultimately z ! inductive result f ^? concessions4#cgd ,y\r p>ticul>s mu/ be select$ f obvi\s matt]s ( s5se & notoriety4 ,y are likely to obta9 9 ?is way admissions :i* w s]ve z premisses = sev]al diff]5t prosyllogisms1 n inde$ suffici5t by !mselves1 yet valuable z conditions & prelim9>ies to ! f9al syllogism :]eby ! !sis is refut$4 ,=1 :5 ! que/ions are put 9 ?is way1 ! respond5t w n see y\r drift nor ! consequ5ces ( 8 own concessions2 s t he w m readily conc$e :at y want4#cge ,! bett] to conceal y\r purpose1 y w refra9 f draw+ out any ( ^! prosyllogisms cle>ly at once2 y w n ev5 put ! major & m9or premiss ( any "o ( !m 9 imm$iate sequ5ce2 b y w conf\nd ! ord] ( !m int5tionally1 /at+ fir/ a premiss belong+ to "o1 & next a premiss belong+ to ano!r4#cgf ,! respond5t1 ?us kept 9 ! d>k1 answ]s 9 ! affirmative to ea* ( y\r que/ions successively4 ,at l5g? y f9d t y h obta9$ a suffici5t numb] ( concessions f him1 to enable y to prove ! syllogism contradictory ( 8 !sis4 ,y in=m him ( ?is2 & x %[s ! p]fect skill & success ( y\r proc$ure1 :5 he expresses surprise at ! ann\ncem5t1 & asks on :at premisses y reckon4#cgg ,footnote #cgd3 ,ibid4 b4 #cd3 ,greek3 a7n de m ti?1 di' e7paggs lpte_/on1 protei_/nanta e7pi tn kata me_/ros e7nanti_/n4 ,footnote #cge3 ,ibid4 p4 #aef1 a4 #g3 ,greek3 kru_/ptonta de prosullogi_/ze/hai di' 7n o7 sullogismos t\ e7x a7r*s me_/llei gi_/ne/hai1 kai tauta 7s plei/a4 ,footnote #cgf3 ,ibid4 a4 #bc3 ,greek3 *r_/simon de kai to m sune* ta a7xi_/mata lamba_/ne9 e7x 7n oi7 sullogismoi_/1 a7ll' e7nallax to pros e7_/t]on kai e7_/t]on sumpe_/rasma4 ,footnote #cgg3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 i4 p4 #aef1 a4 #ac3 ,greek3 ka?o_/l\ d' ei7pein1 ou7_/t dei e7rtan ton kruptiks pun?ano_/m5on1 7_//' 7rtme_/n\ t\ pantos lo_/g\ kai ei7po_/ntos to sumpe_/rasma ztei/hai to dia ti_/4 ,!re are also o!r manoeuvres s]v+ y\r purpose ( concealm5t1 & prev5t+ ! respond5t f see+ be=eh& ! full p]t95ce ( y\r que/ions4 ,?us1 if y wi% to obta9 ! def9ition ( y\r major1 y w d well to ask ! def9ition1 n ( ! t]m itself b1 ( "s "o among its conjugates4 ,y w put y\r "q1 z if ! answ] 7 ( little importance 9 itself1 & z if y did n c>e :e!r x 0 giv5 9 ! affirmative or 9 ! negative2#cgh y w sometimes ev5 sugge/ objections to t :i* y are seem+ to aim at4 ,all ?is w give y ! air ( a c&id disputant2 x w ?r[ ! respond5t (f 8 gu>d1 & make him m ready to answ] z he really ?9ks1 )\t al>m = ! consequ5ces4#cgi ,:5 y wi% to get a c]ta9 premiss conc$$1 y w put ! "q fir/ ^u a diff]5t premiss analog\s to x4 ,9 putt+ y\r "q1 y w add t ! answ] :i* y desire is a matt] ( c\rse1 famili> & admitt$ by e "o2 = respond5ts are %y ( contradict+ any receiv$ belief1 unless !y h pres5t to _! m9ds a cle> in/ance adv]se to x4#chj ,y w nev] manife/ app>5t e>ne/ness ab\t an answ]2 :i* w\ld make ! respond5t less will+ to conc$e x4#cha ,y w po/pone until ! la/ ! premiss :i* y wi% to obta91 & w beg9 by putt+ que/ions ! answ]s to :i* s]ve z remote premisses beh9d x1 only 9 ! end conduct+ to x z consequ5ce4 ,g5]ally speak+1 que/ion]s d ! rev]se1 putt+ fir/ ! que/ions ab\t :i* !y are mo/ anxi\s2 :ile mo/ respond5ts1 aw>e ( ?is habit1 are mo/ intractable 9 reg>d to ! fir/ que/ions1 except "s presumptu\s & ill-temp]$ disputants1 :o conc$e :at is ask$ at fir/ b aft]w>ds become ob/9ate 9 d5egation4#chb ,y w ?r[ 9 "s irrelevant que/ions ) a view to l5g!n ! proc$ure1 l fallaci\s geomet]s :o complicate a diagram by draw+ unnecess>y l9es4 ,amid/ a multitude ( premisses falsehood is m likely to escape detection2 & ?us1 also1 y may p]haps be able to slip 91 unp]ceiv$ & 9 a corn]1 "s important premiss1 :i*1 if put z a sep>ate "q by itself1 w\ld c]ta9ly n h be5 grant$4#chc ,footnote #cgh3 ,ibid4 b4 #f3 ,greek3 a7pls d' ei7pein1 o7_/ti ma_/li/a poiein a7_/dlon1 po_/t]on to prote9o_/m5on 7 to a7ntikei_/m5on b\_/letai labein2 a7d_/l\ gar o7_/ntos t\ pros ton lo_/gon *rsi_/m\1 mallon to dok\n au7tois ti!_/as94 ,footnote #cgi3 ,ibid4 b4 #ah3 ,greek3 dei de kai au7to_/n pote au7t e7_/n/as9 phe_/re92 a7nupo_/pts gar e7_/*\s9 oi7 a7pokr9o_/m5oi pros t\s dok\ntas dikai_/s e7pi*eirein4 ,footnote #chj3 ,ibid4 b4 #aj1 #bj3 ,greek3 *r_/simon de kai to e7pile_/ge9 o7_/ti su_/n!s kai lego_/m5on to toi\ton2 o7kn\si gar k9ein to ei7?o_/s1 e7_/n/as9 m e7_/*ontes4 ,footnote #cha3 ,ibid4 b4 #bc3 ,greek3 e7_/ti to m sp\da_/ze94 ,footnote #chb3 ,ibid4 b4 #cj-ci3 ,greek3 kai to e7p' e7s*a_/t e7rtan o7 ma_/li/a b\_/letai labein2 c4 ,footnote #chc3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 i4 p4 #aeg1 a4 #a-e3 ,greek3 e7_/ti to mku_/ne9 kai p>emba_/lle9 ta mden *r_/sima pros ton lo_/gon1 ka?a_/p] oi7 pseudograph\ntes2 polln gar o7_/ntn a7_/dlon e7n o7poi_/ to pseudos4 dio kai lan?a_/n\s9 e7ni_/ote oi7 e7rtntes e7n p>abu_// pro/i!_/ntes a7 ka?' au7ta prote9o_/m5a ou7k a7n te!i_/4 ,su* are ! multif>i\s sugge/ions address$ by ,ari/otle to ! que/ion] = conceal+ 8 me?od ( attack2#chd ,concealm5t be+ ! ?ird ( ! f\r g5]al heads relat+ to ! treatm5t ( premisses n imm$iately necess>y = pro( ( ! f9al refutative conclusion4 ,on ! o!r ?ree g5]al heads--,induction f p>ticul>s to an univ]sal1 ,dignity1 ,cle>ness--,ari/otle goes into less detail4 ,= ,cle>ness1 he recomm5ds t examples %\ld be introduc$2 especially famili> examples1 tak5 f well-kn[n poets l ,hom]1 n f obscure poets l ,*o]ilus4#che ,footnote #chd3 ,ibid4 a4 #f3 ,greek3 ei7s men ou7n pru_/ps9 tois ei7rme_/nois *r/e_/on1 c4 ,footnote #che3 ,ibid4 a4 #ad4 ,9 reg>d to ,induction1 ,ari/otle po9ts out an emb>rassm5t (t5 aris+ f ! want ( suitable univ]sal names4 ,:51 aft] hav+ obta9$ an affirmative answ] ab\t sev]al simil> p>ticul>s1 y wi% to put a "q g5]aliz+ ! result1 y w sometimes f9d no univ]sal t]m fitt+ ! position4 ,y are oblig$ to say3 ,w x n be s 9 all su* cases8 & ?is lets 9 a s]i\s difficulty1 h[ to "k :at o!r cases are l1 & :at are n4 ,"h ! respond5t w (t5 dispute y\r "r to include ?is or t o!r p>ticul>4#chf ,y w d well to co9 a new univ]sal t]m fitt+ ! situation4 ,footnote #chf3 ,ibid4 ii4 p4 #aeg1 a4 #ah-cc4 ,greek3 dio peirate_/on e7pi pa_/ntn tn toi\_/tn o7nomatopoiein au7to_/n1 c4 ,if ! respond5t answ]s 9 ! affirmative to sev]al que/ions ( simil> p>ticul>s1 b answ]s 9 ! negative :5 y sum !m up 9 an univ]sal compreh5d+ all simil> cases1--y may require him to cite "s p>ticul> case ju/ify+ 8 d5ial2 ?\gh y _c require him to d ?is be=e he has made ! affirmative answ]s4#chg ,x is n suffici5t t he %\ld cite1 z ! s+le case ( exception1 ! express case :i* =ms ! subject ( ! !sis3 ,he ought to produce "s di/9ct & indep5d5t in/ance1 really compris$ )9 ! g5us1 & n m]ely connect$ ) x by ! l9k ( an equivocal t]m4#chh ,if he produces an adv]se in/ance really compris$ )9 ! g5us1 y may p]haps be able to re-model y\r "q1 s z to make res]ve = ! basis on :i* ?is objection is f\nd$4 ,! respond5t w !n be compell$ 7unless he c =esee "s new case ( objection7 to conc$e ! univ]sal ) ?is special qualification2 s t y w h ga9$ all t y really require4 ,%\ld ! respond5t cont9ue to refuse1 )\t produc+ any new case1 he w transgress ! rules ( ,dialectic2 :i* recognize an univ]sal affirmative1 :]ev] !re are num]\s affirmative p>ticul>s )\t "o assignable negative4#chi ,inde$1 if y "k ! univ]sal to hold 9 _m p>ticul> cases1 & d n "k ( any o!rs adv]se1 y may boldly put y\r "q at once 9 ref]5ce to ! univ]sal 7)\t go+ fir/ ?r\gh ! s]ies ( p>ticul>s74 ,! respond5t w h>dly v5ture to d5y x1 n hav+ 9 8 m9d any negative p>ticul>s4#cij ,footnote #chg3 ,ibid4 a4 #cd-cg4 ,footnote #chh3 ,ibid4 a4 #cg-;b4 #h4 ,footnote #chi3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 ix4 p4 #aegg1 b4 #h-cc4 ,greek3 dialektik ga_/r e7/i pro_/tasis pros 7n ou7_/ts e7pi polln e7_/*\san m e7_//9 e7_/n/asis4 ,footnote #cij3 ,ibid4 p4 #aeh1 a4 #c-f4 ,y mu/ h[ev] keep 9 m9d :at a dialectic univ]sal premiss really is4 ,n e "q requir+ an univ]sal answ] is all[$ to be put4 ,y mu/ n ask = positive in=mation1 nor put su* que/ions z ! foll[+3 ,:at is man8 ,9 h[ _m diff]5t s5ses is good employ$8 ,a dialectic "q is "o to :i* ! respond5t makes suffici5t reply by say+1 ,yes or ,no4#cia ,y mu/ ask 9 ?is =m3 ,is ! def9ition ( man s & s8 ,is good enunciat$ 9 ?is or t diff]5t s5se8 ,to ^! que/ions ! respond5t may answ] ,yes or ,no4 ,b if he p]si/s 9 negative answ]s to y\r multipli$ que/ions z to ?is or t s5se ( ! t]m good1 y may p]haps /& excus$ = ask+ him3 ,9 h[ _m diff]5t s5ses1 !n1 d y y\rself use ! t]m good8#cib ,footnote #cia3 ,ibid4 p4 #aeh1 a4 #ad1 seq4 ,greek3 e7_//i gar pro_/tasis dialektik pros 7n e7_//9 a7pokri_/na/hai nai 7 ou7_/4 ,footnote #cib3 ,ibid4 a4 #ba-bd4 ,:5 y h obta9$ concessions :i* furni% premisses = a =mal syllogism1 y w draw out & prop\nd t syllogism & its conclusion =?)1 )\t ask+ any f>!r "q f ! respond5t or any leave f him to d s4 ,he may inde$ d5y y\r "r to d ?is1 9 spite ( ! concessions :i* he has made2 & ! auditors ar\nd1 n fully appreciat+ all 8 concessions1 may p]haps ?9k t he is entitl$ to d5y x4 ,b1 if y ask 8 leave to draw out ! syllogism & he refuses to give leave1 ! auditors are mu* m likely to ?9k t y\r syllogism is n all[able4#cic ,if y h ! *oice betwe5 an o/5sive syllogism & a ,r$uctio ad ,absurdum1 y ought always to pref] ! =m]1 z pla9] & m inconte/able4#cid ,footnote #cic3 ,ibid4 a4 #g-ab3 ,greek3 ou7 dei de to sumpe_/rasma e7r_/tma poiein2 ei7 de m_/1 a7naneu_/santos ou7 dokei gegone_/nai sullogismo_/s4 ,footnote #cid3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 ii4 p4 #aeh1 b4 #cd-p4 #aeh1 a4 #b4 ,y mu/ n p]sev]e long 9 ! same l9e ( que/ions4 ,=1 if ! respond5t answ]s !m all1 x w soon appe> t y are 9 ! wrong c\rse1 s9ce y\r syllogism1 if y c get "o at all1 w always be obta9$ f a small numb] ( premisses2 &1 if ! respond5t w n answ] !m1 y h no alt]native except to prote/ & desi/4#cie ,footnote #cie3 ,ibid4 p4 #aeh1 a4 #be-cj4 ,! !ses t are mo/ difficult to attack are also mo/ easy to def5d2 & ^! are ! highe/ univ]sals1 & ! l[e/ p>ticul>s4 ,! highe/ y _c deal )1 unless y c get a def9ition ( !m2 :i* is sometimes impossible & always difficult2 s9ce ! respond5t w nei!r def9e !m himself nor accept y\r def9itions4 ,^? :i* are next to ! highe/ are also difficult to impugn1 because !re are few int]m$iate /eps ( pro(4 ,aga91 ! l[e/ p>ticul>s are also difficult = ! contr>y reason1 t !re are s _m int]m$iate /eps1 & x is t$i\s to enum]ate !m all cont9u\sly2 :ile1 if any are omitt$1 ! demon/ration is incomplete1 & ! proc$ure w appe> sophi/ical4#cif ,! mo/ difficult ( all to impugn are def9itions fram$ 9 vague & un9telligible t]ms1 :]e y d n "k :e!r !y are univocal or equivocal1 lit]al or metaphorical4 ,:5 ! !sis t5d]$ to y pres5ts su* difficulty1 y may presume t x is affect$ ) ! obscurity ( t]ms "h indicat$2 or1 at any rate1 t its t]ms /& 9 ne$ ( def9ition4#cig ,9 geometrical con/ruction1 z well z 9 dialectical debate1 x is indisp5sable t ! pr9cipia or prim>y t]ms %\ld be def9$1 & def9$ prop]ly2 )\t ?is1 nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r c be pursu$4#cih ,footnote #cif3 ,ibid4 iii4 p4 #aeh1 a4 #ca1 seq4 ,greek3 7 sophismat_/d phai_/netai ta e7pi*eir_/mata4 ,footnote #cig3 ,ibid4 iii4 p4 #aeh1 b4 #h-bc2 p4 #aei1 a4 #c3 ,greek3 ou7_/k\n dei lan?a_/ne91 o7_/tan dusepi*ei_/rtos 7 7 !_/sis1 o7_/ti pe_/pon!_/ ti tn ei7rme_/nn4 ,footnote #cih3 ,ibid4 p4 #aeh1 b4 #bd-p4 #aei1 a4 #b4 ,sometimes ! major & m9or premisses ( y\r syllogi/ic conclusion are m difficult to e/abli%--m beyond ! level ( av]age intellig5ce--?an ! !sis itself4 ,9 su* a case "s may ?9k t ! respond5t ought to grant ^! premisses1 because1 if he refuses & requires !m to be prov$1 he w be impos+ ^u ! que/ion] a duty m ardu\s ?an ! !sis itself imposes2 o!rs may say t he ought n to grant !m1 because1 if he did1 he w\ld be ackn[l$g+ a conclusion d]iv$ f premisses requir+ pro( z mu* or m ?an itself4#cii ,a di/9ction mu/ "h be made4 ,if y are putt+ que/ions ) a view to tea*1 ! le>n] ought n to grant su* premisses z ^? above describ$1 because he is entitl$ to require t 9 e /ep ( ! process he %all be induct$ f :at is m kn[able to :at is less kn[able4 ,accord+ly1 :5 y attempt to demon/rate to him some?+ :i* he kn[s little1 by requir+ him to conc$e some?+ :i* he kn[s /ill less1 he _c be advis$ to grant :at y ask4 ,b1 if y are debat+ ) a companion = ! purpose ( dialectical ex]cise1 he ought to grant :at y ask :5ev] ! affirmative really appe>s to him true4#djj ,footnote #cii3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 iii4 p4 #aei1 a4 #d-aa4 ,greek3 o7_/tan d' 7 pros to a7xi_/ma kai tn pro_/tas9 meizon e7_/rgon dialegnai 7 tn !_/s91 diapor_/sei5 a7_/n tis po_/t]on !te_/on ta toiauta 7 ou7_/2 c4 ,footnote #djj3 ,ibid4 a4 #aa-ad3 ,greek3 7 t men man?a_/nonti ou7 !te_/on1 a7n m gnrim_/t]on 71 t de gumnazome_/n !te_/on1 a7n a7l!s mo_/non phai_/ntai4 7_//e phan]on o7_/ti ou7* o7moi_/s e7rtnti_/ te ki dida_/skonti a7xite_/on ti!_/nai4 ,?is section is obscure & difficult4 ,i am n sure t ,i und]/& x4 ,x seems d\btful :e!r ! v]b ,greek3 ti!_/nai is int5d$ to apply to ! que/ion] or to ! respond5t4 ,we h n[ said en\gh = ! purpose ( in/ruct+ ! que/ion] h[ to frame & m>%al 8 int]rogations4 ,we mu/ turn to ! respond5t1 & po9t out h[ he mu/ answ] 9 ord] to d well & p]=m 8 duty to ! common "w ( dialogue4 ,speak+ g5]ally1 ! task ( ! que/ion] is to conduct ! dialogue s z to make ! respond5t enunciate ! mo/ improbable & absurd replies :i* foll[ necess>ily f ! !sis t he has und]tak5 to def5d2 :ile ! task ( ! respond5t is to make x appe> t ^! absurdities foll[ f ! !sis itself1 & n f 8 mann] ( def5d+ x4 ,! respond5t may err 9 "o ( two ways1 or inde$ 9 bo? toge!r3 ei!r he may set up an indef5sible !sis2 or he may fail to def5d x 9 ! be/ mann] t x really admits2 or he may d bo?4 ,! second is a worse error ?an ! fir/1 9 ref]5ce to ! g5]al purpose ( ,dialectic4#dja ,footnote #dja3 ,ibid4 iv4 p4 #aei1 a4 #ae-bd3 ,greek3 t\ d' a7pokr9ome_/n\ to m di' au7ton phai_/ne/hai sumbai_/ne9 to a7du_/naton 7 to p>a_/doxon1 a7lla dia tn !_/s92 e7te_/ra gar i7_/ss a7m>ti_/a to !_//hai prton o7 m dei kai to !_/m5on m phula_/xai kata tro_/pon4 ,ari/otle di/+ui%es 7z has be5 already /at$7 ?ree purposes 9 ! dialogue3--7#a7 ,tea*+ & ,le>n+2 7#b7 ,cont5tion1 :]e bo? que/ion] & respond5t /rive only = victory2 7#c7 ,inve/igat+ & ,te/+ ! consequ5ces ( "s giv5 doctr9e4#djb ,! fir/ two ( ^! ?ree are dismiss$ rapidly4 ,9 ! fir/1 ! tea*+ que/ion] has no int5tion ( deceiv+1 & ! pupil respond5t has only to answ] by grant+ all t appe>s to him true4#djc ,9 ! second1 ,ari/otle tells u only t ! que/ion] mu/ always appe> z if he 7 mak+ "s po9t ( 8 own2 :ile ! respond5t1 on 8 side1 mu/ always appe> z if no po9t 7 made aga9/ him4#djd ,b 9 reg>d to ! ?ird head--dialogues ( ,se>*1 ,te/+1 ,ex]cise--he is m copi\s 9 sugge/ions3 he consid]s ^! z ! prop] field ( ,dialectic1 &1 z we saw1 claims to h be5 ! fir/ :o treat$ !m ap>t f ! didactic dialogues on "o side1 & ! cont5ti\s on ! o!r4#dje ,footnote #djb3 ,ibid4 v4 p4 #aei1 a4 #bd-bh4 ,footnote #djc3 ,ibid4 a4 #bi3 ,greek3 t men gar man?a_/nonti !te_/on a7ei ta dok\nta2 kai gar ou7_/d' e7pi*eirei pseudos ou7deis dida_/ske94 ,footnote #djd3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 iv4 p4 #aei14 a4 #cj3 ,greek3 tn d' a7gnnizome_/nn ton men e7rtnta phai_/ne/hai_/ ti dei poiein pa_/nts1 ton d' a7pokr9o_/m5on mden phai_/ne/hai pa_/s*e94 ,footnote #dje3 ,ibid4 a4 #cb-cg2 xi4 p4 #afa1 a4 #bc-be3 ,greek3 duskolai_/nontes ou7n a7gnni/ikas kai ou7 dialektikas poi\ntai tas diatriba_/s2 e7_/ti d' e7pei gumnasi_/z kai pei_/ras *a_/r9 a7ll' ou7 didaskali_/z oi7 toi\toi tn lo_/gn1 c4 ,! !sis :i* ! respond5t und]takes to def5d 79 a dialogue ( ,se>* or ,te/+7 mu/ be ei!r probable1 or improbable1 or nei!r "o nor ! o!r4 ,! probability or improbability may be ei!r simple & absolute1 or special & relative--9 ! e/imation ( ! respond5t himself or ( "s "o or m p]sons4 ,n[1 if ! !sis be improbable1 ! opposite !re(1 :i* y ! que/ion] try to prove1 mu/ be probable2 if ! !sis be probable1 ! opposite !re( mu/ be improbable2 if ! !sis be nei!r1 its opposite w also be nei!r4 ,suppose1 fir/1 t ! !sis is improbable absolutely4 ,9 t case1 its opposite1 :i* y ! que/ion] mu/ fi% = premisses to prove1 w be probable2 ! respond5t !re=e ought n to grant y any dem& :i* is ei!r simply improbable or less probable ?an ! conclusion :i* y aim at prov+2 = no su* concessions c really s]ve y\r purpose1 s9ce y are b\nd to prove y\r conclusion f premisses m probable ?an itself4#djf ,suppose1 next1 t ! !sis is probable absolutely4 ,9 t case1 ! opposite conclusion1 :i* y h to make out1 w be improbable absolutely4 ,accord+ly1 :5ev] y ask concessions t are probable1 ! respond5t ought to grant !m2 :5ev] y ask = concessions t are less improbable ?an y\r int5d$ conclusion1 he ought to grant ^! also2 b1 if y ask = any ?+ m improbable ?an y\r int5d$ conclusion1 he ought to refuse x4#djg ,suppose1 ?irdly1 t ! !sis is nei!r probable nor improbable4 ,"h1 too1 ! respond5t ought to grant all concessions t appe> to him probable1 z well z all t he ?9ks m probable ?an ! opposite conclusion :i* y are seek+ to arrive at2 b no o!rs4 ,?is is suffici5t = ! purpose ( ,dialectic1 & = keep+ op5 ! l9es ( probable argum5t4#djh ,footnote #djf3 ,ibid4 v4 p4 #aei1 b4 #i3 ,greek3 phan]on 7s a7d_/x\ men o7_/ntos a7pls t\ keime_/n\ ou7 dote_/on t a7pokr9ome_/n ou7_/?' o7 m dokei a7pls1 ou7_/?' o7 dokei me_/n 7tton de t\ sump]a_/smatos dokei4 a7d_/x\ gar ou7_/ss ts !_/ses e7_/ndoxon to sumpe_/rasma1 7_//e dei ta lambano_/m5a e7ndoxa pa_/nt' ei7nai kai mallon e7_/ndoxa t\ prokeime_/n\1 ei7 me_/llei dia tn gnrimte_/rn to 7tton gn_/rimon p]ai_/ne/hai4 7_//' ei7_/ ti m toi\to_/n e7/i tn e7rtme_/nn1 ou7 !te_/on t a7pokr9ome_/n4 ,footnote #djg3 ,ibid4 b4 #af4 ,footnote #djh3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 v4 p4 #aei1 b4 #ai-bc3 ,greek3 i7kans gar a7n d_/xeie dieile_/*?ai--ou7_/t gar e7ndoxote_/r\s sumb_/setai t\s lo_/g\s gi_/ne/hai4 ,:5 ! probability or improbability ( ! !sis is consid]$ simply & absolutely1 ! respond5t ought to measure 8 concessions by ! /&>d ( op9ion receiv$ usually4#dji ,:5 ! probability or improbability ( ! !sis is consid]$ z ref]able to ! respond5t himself1 he has only to consult 8 own judgm5t & e/imation 9 grant+ or refus+ :at is ask$4 ,:5 he und]takes to def5d a !sis av[$ly z ! doctr9e ( "s kn[n philosoph]1 su* z ,h]akleitus1 he mu/1 9 giv+ 8 answ]s1 measure probability & improbability accord+ to :at ,h]akleitus w\ld det]m9e4#daj ,footnote #dji3 ,ibid4 b4 #bd3 ,greek3 pros ta dok\nta a7pls tn 9999su_/gkris9 poite_/on4 ,footnote #daj3 ,ibid4 b4 #be-ce4 ,greek3 pros tn e7kei_/n\ dia_/noian a7poble_/ponta !te_/on e7_/ka/a kai a7rnte_/on4 ,s9ce all ! que/ions t y ask mu/ be ei!r probable1 improbable1 or neut]1 & ei!r relevant#daa or n relevant to y\r purpose ( refut+ ! !sis1 let u fir/ suppose t y ask = a concession :i* is 9 itself probable1 b n relevant4 ,! respond5t ought to grant x1 add+ t he ?9ks x probable4 ,if :at y ask is nei!r probable nor relevant1 he ought ev5 !n to grant x2 b annex+ a notification t he is aw>e ( its improbability1 9 ord] to save 8 own cr$it = intellig5ce4#dab ,if x be bo? probable & relevant1 he ought to say t he is aw>e ( its probability1 b t x is too closely connect$ ) ! !sis1 & t1 if he grants x1 ! !sis w /& refut$4 ,if x be relevant1 yet at ! same "t v improbable1 he mu/ reply t1 if he grants x1 ! !sis w be refut$1 b t x is too silly to be prop\nd$4 ,if1 be+ neutral1 x is also n relevant1 he ought to grant x )\t comm5t2 b if1 be+ neutral1 x is relevant1 he ought to notify t he is aw>e t by grant+ x 8 !sis w be refut$4#dac ,footnote #daa3 ,ibid4 vi4 p4 #aei1 b4 #ci3 ,greek3 7 pros ton lo_/gon1 7 m pros ton lo_/gon4 ,by ?is phrase ,ari/otle seems to mean1 n simply relevant1 b closely1 directly1 conspicu\sly relevant--equival5t to ,greek3 li_/an suneggus t\ e7n a7r* 7p4 #afj1 a4 #e74 ,footnote #dab3 ,ibid4 b4 #cf-p4 #afj1 a4 #b4 ,greek3 e7an de m dok\n kai m pros ton lo_/gon1 dote_/on me_/n1 e7pismante_/on de to m dok\n pros eu7la_/beian eu7!i_/z4 ,h[ is ?is to be reconcil$ ) :at ,ari/otle says 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 p4 #aei1 b4 #aa-ah1 t ! respond5t ought n to grant su* improbabilities at all8 ,footnote #dac3 ,ibid4 p4 #afj1 a4 #f-aa4 ,9 ?is way ( proce$+1 ! m>* ( ! dialogue on bo? sides w be cr$itable4 ,! respond5t1 signify+ pla9ly t he und]/&s ! full consequ5ces ( 8 own concessions1 w n appe> to be wor/$ ?r\gh any %ort-com+s ( 8 own1 b only ?r\gh :at is inh]5t 9 8 !sis2 :ile y ! que/ion]1 hav+ ask$ = su* premisses z are really m probable ?an ! conclusion to be e/abli%$1 & hav+ _h !m grant$1 w h made out y\r po9t4 ,x mu/ be und]/ood t y ought n to try to prove y\r conclusion f premisses less probable ?an itself2 & t1 if y put que/ions ( ?is sort1 y transgress ! rules ( dialectical proc$ure4#dad ,footnote #dad3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 vi4 p4 #afj1 a4 #aa-af4 ,greek3 ou7_/t gar o7_/ t' a7pokr9o_/m5os ou7den d_/xei di' au7ton pa_/s*e91 e7an proorn e7_/ka/a ti?1 o7_/ t' e7rtn teu_/xetai sullogism\ ti!me_/nn au7t pa_/ntn e7ndoxote_/rn t\ sump]a_/smatos4 o7_/soi d' e7x a7doxote_/rn t\ sump]a_/smatos e7pi*eir\si sullogi_/ze/hai1 dlon 7s ou7 kals sullogi_/zontai2 dio tois e7rts9 ou7 !te_/on4 ,if y ask a dialectical "q 9 pla9 & univocal language1 ! respond5t is b\nd to answ] ,yes or ,no4 ,b if y ask x 9 t]ms obscure or equivocal1 he is n oblig$ to answ] ?us directly4 ,he is at lib]ty to tell y t he does n und]/& ! "q2 he ought to h no scruple 9 tell+ y s1 if su* is really ! fact4 ,suppose ! t]ms ( y\r "q to be famili>1 b equivocal2 ! answ] to x may p]haps be ei!r true or false1 alike 9 all ! diff]5t s5ses ( ! t]ms4 ,9 t case1 ! respond5t ought to answ] ,yes or ,no directly4 ,b1 if ! answ] w\ld be an affirmation 9 "o s5se ( ! t]ms & a negation 9 ano!r1 he mu/ take c>e to signify t he is aw>e ( ! equivocation1 & to di/+ui% at once ! two-fold mean+2 =1 if ! di/9ction is n notic$ till aft]w>ds1 he _c cle>ly %[ t he 0 aw>e ( x f ! fir/4 ,if he really 0 n at fir/ aw>e ( ! equivocation1 & gave an affirmative answ] look+ only to "o among ! sev]al di/9ct mean+s1 y w try to convict him ( error by pu%+ him on ! o!r mean+4 ,! be/ ?+ t he c !n d w be to confess 8 ov]sight1 & to excuse himself by say+ t misconception is easy :]e ! same t]m or ! same proposition may mean sev]al diff]5t ?+s4#dae ,footnote #dae3 ,ibid4 vii4 p4 #afj1 a4 #ag-cd4 ,suppose y put sev]al p>ticul> que/ions 7or sev]al analog\s que/ions7 ) ! view ( arriv+ ultimately by induction at ! concession ( an univ]sal1 compris+ !m all4 ,if !y are all bo? true & probable1 ! respond5t mu/ conc$e !m all sev]ally2 yet he may /ill int5d to answ] ,no1 :5 ! univ]sal is t5d]$ to him aft] !m4 ,he has no "r to answ] ?us1 h[ev]1 unless he c produce "s contradictory p>ticul> in/ance1 real or app>5t1 to ju/ify him2 &1 if he does s )\t su* ju/ification1 he is a p]v]se dialectician4#daf ,p]haps he may try to su/a9 8 d5egation ( ! univ]sal1 aft] hav+ conc$$ _m p>ticul>s1 by a c\nt]-attack f\nd$ on "s *a9 ( p>adoxical reason+ su* z t ( ,z5o aga9/ motion2 !re be+ _m su* p>adoxes contradictory ( probabilities1 yet h>d to refute4 ,b ?is is no suffici5t ju/ification = refus+ to admit ! univ]sal1 :51 aft] hav+ admitt$ _m p>ticul>s1 he c produce no p>ticul> adv]se to !m4 ,! case w be /ill worse1 if he refuses to admit ! univ]sal1 hav+ nei!r any adv]se in/ance1 nor any c\nt]-ratioc9ative attack4 ,x is !n ! extreme ( p]v]se ,dialectic4#dag ,footnote #daf3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 viii4 p4 #afj1 b4 #b-e3 ,greek3 to gar a7_/neu e7n/a_/ses1 7 ou7_/ss 7 dok\_/ss1 klu_/e9 ton lo_/gon duskolai_/ne9 e7/i_/n4 ei7 ou7n e7pi polln pha9ome_/n\ m di_/dsi to ka?o_/l\ m e7_/*n e7_/n/as91 phan]on o7_/ti duskolai_/nei4 ,footnote #dag3 ,ibid4 b4 #e1 seq4 ,greek3 e7_/ti ei7 md' a7ntepi*eirein e7_/*ei o7_/ti ou7k a7l!_/s1 poll mallon a7n d_/xeie duskolai_/ne94 kai_/toi ou7de t\?' i7kano_/n2 poll\s gar lo_/g\s e7_/*om5 e7nanti_/ous tais d_/xais1 ou7s *alepon lu_/e91 ka?a_/p] ton ,z_/nnos o7_/ti ou7k e7nde_/*etai k9ei/hai ou7de to /a_/dion diel!in2 a7ll' ou7 dia t\to ta7ntikei_/m5a t\_/tois ou7 !te_/on4 ,be=e ! respond5t und]takes to def5d any !sis or def9ition1 he ought to h previ\sly /udi$ ! v>i\s modes attack+ x1 & to h prep>$ himself = meet+ !m4#dah ,he mu/ also be cauti\s ( tak+ up improbable !ses1 9 ei!r ( ! s5ses ( improbable4 ,= a !sis is s call$ :5 x involves /range & p>adoxical developm5ts1 z if a man lays d[n ei!r t e ?+ is 9 motion or t no?+ is 9 motion2 & also1 :5 x implies a discr$itable "* & is contr>y to t :i* m5 wi% to be ?\ght to hold1 z1 = example1 ! doctr9e t pleasure is ! good1 or t x is bett] to d wrong ?an to suff] wrong4 ,if a man def5ds su* !ses z ^!1 p hate him because !y presume t he is n m]ely prop\nd+ !m z matt] = dialectical argum5t1 b advocat+ !m z convictions ( 8 own4#dai ,footnote #dah3 ,ibid4 ix4 p4 #afj1 b4 #ad4 ,footnote #dai3 ,ibid4 b4 #ag-bb3 ,greek3 a7_/doxon d' u7po_/!s9 eu7labte_/on u7pe_/*e92 ei7_/ d' a7n a7_/doxos di*s2 c4 ,! respond5t mu/ f>!r be able1 if y br+ aga9/ him a false syllogi/ic reason+1 to di/+ui% ^u :i* among y\r premisses ! false conclusion really turns1 & to refute t "o4 ,y\r reason+ may h m ?an "o false premiss2 b he mu/ n cont5t himself ) refut+ any "o or any o!r3 he mu/ s+le out t "o :i* is ! *ief det]m9+ cause ( ! falsehood4 ,?us1 if y\r syllogism be3--,e man 9 a sitt+ position is writ+1 ,sokrates is a man 9 a sitt+ position2 !re=e1 ,sokrates is writ+1--x w n suffice t ! respond5t %\ld refute y\r m9or premiss1 ?\gh ?is may be false2#dbj because su* a refutation w n apply to ! numb] ( o!r cases 9 :i* m5 are sitt+ b n writ+2 & !re=e x w n expose ! full be>+ ( ! falsehood4 ,y\r major premiss is t ^u :i* ! full be>+ ( ! falsehood dep5ds2 & ! respond5t mu/ %[ t he is aw>e ( ?is by refut+ y\r major4#dba ,footnote #dbj3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 x4 p4 #afj1 b4 #bc-bf4 ,greek3 ou7 gar o7 o7ti\n a7neln le_/luk51 ou7_/d' ei7 pseud_/s e7/i to a7nair\_/m5on2 e7_/*oi gar a7n plei_/ pseud o7 lo_/gos4 ,footnote #dba3 ,ibid4 b4 #cj-ci4 ,greek3 oi7de de tn lu_/s9 o7 ei7ds o7_/ti p>a t\to o7 lo_/gos--ou7 gar a7po_/*r to e7n/nai1 ou7_/d' a7n pseudos 7 to a7nair\_/m5on1 a7lla kai dio_/ti pseudos a7podeikte_/on2 ou7_/t gar a7n ei7_/ phan]on po_/t]on proorn ti 7 ou7 poieitai tn e7_/n/as94 ,?is la/-m5tion$ proce$+--refutation ( t premiss ^u :i* y\r false conclusion 9 its full be>+ really turns--is ! only regul>1 valid1 & complete objection :]eby ! respond5t c /op out y\r syllogi/ic approa*es4 ,!re are inde$ ?ree o!r modes ( objection to :i* he may resort2 b ^! are all ei!r inconclusive or unfair4 ,he may turn 8 objection aga9/ y p]sonally2 &1 )\t refut+ any ( y\r premisses1 he may ?us p]plex & confuse y1 s t y are disqualifi$ f pursu+ ! ?read ( y\r que/ions4 ,or he may turn 8 objections aga9/ portions ( y\r que/ions2 n refut+ any "o ( y\r premisses1 b %[+ t1 z !y /&1 !y are insuffici5t to w>rant ! conclusion :i* y seek to e/abli%2 :51 if y are ma/] ( y\r subject1 & reta9 y\r calmness1 y w at once supply ! defici5cy by putt+ additional que/ions1 s t 8 objection ?us vani%es4 ,or1 la/ly1 he may multiply irrelevant objections aga9/ "t1 = ! purpose ( prolong+ ! discussion & tir+ y out4#dbb ,( ^! f\r modes ( objection op5 to ! respond5t ! fir/ is ! only "o truly valid & conclusive2 ! ?ree o!rs are ob/ructions ei!r surm\ntable or unfair1 & ! la/ is ! mo/ discr$itable ( all4#dbc ,footnote #dbb3 ,ibid4 p4 #afa1 a4 #a-ab3 ,greek3 e7_//i de lo_/gon klusai sump]a_/na/hai tetra*s4 7 gar a7nelo_/nta p>' o7 gi_/netai to pseudos4 7 pros ton e7rtnta e7_/n/as9 ei7po_/nta2--tri_/ton de pros ta 7rtme_/na2--teta_/rt de kai *eiri_// tn e7n/a_/sen 7 pros ton *ro_/non4 ,footnote #dbc3 ,ibid4 a4 #ac-ae3 ,greek3 ai7 men ou7n e7n/a_/seis1 ka?a_/p] ei7_/pam51 tetra*s gi_/nontai2 lu_/sis d' e7/i tn ei7rme_/nn 7 pr_/t mo_/non1 ai7 de loipai klu_/seis t9es kai e7mpodismoi tn sump]asma_/tn4 ,to blame ! argum5tative proc$ure & to blame ! que/ion] are two di/9ct ?+s4 ,p]haps y\r mann] ( conduct+ ! int]rogation1 prep>atory to y\r f9al syllogism1 may be op5 to c5sure2 yet nev]!less y ! que/ion] may des]ve no c5sure2 = x may be ! respond5t's fault1 n y\rs4 ,he may refuse to grant ! v premisses :i* are ess5tial to ! good conduct ( y\r case2 he may resort to p]v]se evasions & contradictions = ! m]e purpose ( ?w>t+ y2 s t y are =c$ to adapt y\rself to 8 unwor?y manoeuvres r ?an to aim at ! !sis itself4 ,dialectic _c be well conduct$ unless bo? ! p>tn]s d _! duty to ! common purpose2 ! bad conduct ( y\r respond5t puts y out1 & ! dialectic pres5tly deg5]ates on bo? sides into angry cont5tion4#dbd ,ap>t f ?is1 too1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! express purpose ( ,dialectic is n to tea*1 b to se>* & te/ consequ5ces & to ex]cise ! intellect ( bo? p>ties4 ,accord+ly y are n always re/rict$ to true syllogi/ic premisses & conclusions4 ,y are all[$ to resort occasionally to false premisses & false conclusions2 =1 if :at ! respond5t advances be true1 y h no means ( refut+ x except by falsehood2 &1 if :at he advances be false1 ! be/ way ( refut+ x may be ?r\gh "s o!r falsehood4#dbe ,y r5d] s]vice to him by do+ s2 =1 s9ce 8 beliefs are contr>y to tru?1 if ! dialogue is conf9$ to 8 beliefs1 ! result may p]haps contribute to p]suade him1 b x w n in/ruct or pr(it him4#dbf ,x is y\r bus9ess to br+ him r\nd & emancipate him f ^! errone\s beliefs2 b y mu/ accompli% ?is 9 a mann] truly dialectical1 & n cont5ti\s2 :e!r y proce$ by true or by false conclusions4#dbg ,if y on y\r side1 inde$1 put que/ions 9 a cont5ti\s _s1 x is y t are to blame4 ,b (t5 ! respond5t is mo/ to blame1 :5 he refuses to grant :at he ?9ks probable1 & :5 he does n appreh5d :at y really int5d to ask4#dbh ,he is sometimes also to blame = grant+ :at he ought to refuse2 su* z ,petitio ,pr9cipii or ,affirmation ( ,contr>ies4 ,x is (t5 difficult to di/+ui% :at que/ions involve ,petitio ,pr9cipii or ,affirmation ( ,contr>ies3 !y are ask$ & grant$ )\t ei!r p>ty be+ aw>e1 & ! l mi/ake is committ$ by m5 9 private talk1 n m]ely 9 =mal dialogue4 ,:5 ?is happ5s1 ! argum5t w inevitably be a bad "o2 b ! fault is ) ! respond5t :o1 hav+ be=e refus$ :at he ought to h grant$1 n[ grants :at he ought to refuse4#dbi ,footnote #dbd3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 xi4 p4 #afa1 a4 #af-bd4 ,greek3 duskolai_/nontes ou7n a7gni/ikas kai ou7 dialektikas poi\ntai tas diatriba_/s4 a4 #cg3 ,greek3 phaulos ko9nos o7 e7mpodi_/zn to ko9on e7_/rgon4 ,footnote #dbe3 ,ibid4 a4 #bd-ca3 ,greek3 e7_/ti d' e7pei gumnasi_/z kai pei_/ras *a_/r9 a7ll' ou7 didaskali_/z oi7 toi\toi tn lo_/gn1 dlon 7s ou7 mo_/non ta7l? sullogi/e_/on a7lla kai pseudos1 ou7de di' a7l?n a7ei a7ll' e7ni_/ote kai pseudn4 polla_/kis gar a7l?\s te!_/ntos a7nairein a7na_/gk ton dialego_/m5on1 7_//e protate_/on ta pseud4 e7ni_/ote de kai pseu_/d\s te!_/ntos a7nairete_/on dia pseudn4 ,footnote #dbf3 ,ibid4 a4 #cj3 ,greek3 ou7den gar klu_/ei t9i dokein ta m o7_/nta mallon tn a7l?n1 7_//' e7k tn e7kei_/n dok\_/ntn t\ lo_/g\ g5ome_/n\ mallon e7_//ai pepeisme_/nos 7 7phelme_/nos4 ,footnote #dbg3 ,ibid4 a4 #cc3 ,greek3 dei de ton kals metabiba_/zonta dialektiks kai m e7ri/iks metabiba_/ze94 ,ab\t ,greek3 to metabiba_/ze91 comp>e ,topica1 ,i4 ii4 p4 #aja1 a4 #bc4 ,footnote #dbh3 ,ibid4 b4 #b3 ,greek3 o7_/ te gar e7ri/iks e7rtn phau_/ls diale_/getai1 o7_/ t' e7n t a7pokri_/ne/hai m did\s ta pha9o_/m5on md' e7kde*o_/m5os o7_/ ti_/ pote b\_/letai o7 e7rtn pu!_//hai4 ,footnote #dbi3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 xi4 p4 #afa1 b4 #aa-ah3 ,greek3 e7pei d' e7/in a7dio_/ri/on po_/te ta7nanti_/a kai po_/te ta e7n a7r* lamba_/n\s9 oi7 a7_/n?rpoi 7polla_/kis gar ka?' au7t\s le_/gontes ta7nanti_/a le_/g\si1 kai a7naneu_/santes pro_/t]on dido_/as9 u7_//]on2 dio_/p] e7rt_/m5oi ta7nanti_/a kai to e7n a7r* polla_/kis u7pak\_/ous97--a7na_/gk phau_/l\s gi_/ne/hai t\s lo_/g\s2 ai7_/tios d' o7 a7pokr9o_/m5os1 ta men ou7 did\_/s1 ta de toiauta did\_/s4 ,?is passage is n v cle>4 ,su* !n are ! cases 9 :i* ! conduct ( ! dialogue is op5 to c5sure1 )\t any fault on y\r "p z que/ion]4 ,b !re are o!r cases 9 :i* ! fault is really y\rs4 ,^! are five 9 numb]3--7#a7 ,:5 all or mo/ ( y\r que/ions are s fram$ z to elicit premisses ei!r false or improbable1 s t nei!r ! conclusion :i* y seek to obta91 nor any o!r conclusion at all1 foll[s f !m2 7#b7 ,:51 f simil> defects1 ! prop] conclusion t y seek to obta9 _c be drawn f y\r premisses2 7#c7 ,:5 ! prop] conclusion w\ld foll[1 if c]ta9 additions 7 made to y\r premisses1 b su* additions are ( a "* worse ?an ! premisses already obta9$1 & are ev5 less probable ?an ! conclusion itself2 7#d7 ,:5 y h accumulat$ a sup]flu\s multitude ( premisses1 s t ! prop] conclusion does n foll[ f all ( !m b f a "p ( !m only 7#e7 ,:5 y\r premisses are m improbable & less tru/wor?y ?an ! prop] conclusion1 or :51 ?\gh true1 !y are h>d] & m tr\blesome to prove ?an ! problem itself4#dcj ,footnote #dcj3 ,ibid4 b4 #ai-cc3 ,greek3 ka?' au7ton de t lo_/g pe_/nte ei7sin e7pitim_/seis4 ,9 reg>d to ! la/ item1 h[ev]1 ! fault may sometimes be 9 ! problem itself r ?an 9 y z que/ion]4 ,"s problems1 be+ 9 _! own nature h>d & n to be settl$ f probable or plausible data1 ought n to be admitt$ into ,dialectic4 ,all t c be requir$ f y z que/ion] is t y %all "k & obta9 ! mo/ probable premisses t ! problem admits3 y\r proc$ure may be ?us 9 itself blameable1 yet x may ev5 des]ve praise1 hav+ reg>d to ! problem1 if ?is la/ be v intractable2 or x may be 9 itself praisewor?y1 yet blameable 9 reg>d to ! problem1 if ! problem admit ( be+ settl$ by premisses /ill m probable4#dca ,y may ev5 be m blameable1 if y obta9 y\r conclusion b obta9 x f improbable premisses1 ?an if y fail$ to obta9 x2 ! premisses requir$ to make x complete be+ true & probable & n ( capital importance1 b be+ refus$ by ! respond5t4#dcb ,h[ev]1 y ought n to be blam$ if y obta9 y\r true & prop] conclusion b obta9 x ?r\gh premisses 9 !mselves false2 = ?is is recogniz$ 9 analytical !ory z possible3 if ! conclusion is false1 ! premisses 7"o or bo?7 mu/ be false1 b a true conclusion may be drawn f false premisses4#dcc ,footnote #dca3 ,ibid4 b4 #cd-p4 #afb1 a4 #c4 ,footnote #dcb3 ,ibid4 p4 #afb1 a4 #c-h4 ,footnote #dcc3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 xi4 p4 #afb1 a4 #h-aa3 ,greek3 tois de dia pseudn a7l!s sump]a9ome_/nois ou7 di_/kaion e7pitiman-- phan]on d' e7k tn ,a7nalutikn4 ,:5 y h obta9$ y\r premisses & prov$ a conclusion1 ^! same premisses w n s]ve z pro( ( any o!r proposition sep>ate & indep5d5t ( ! conclusion2 su* may sometimes seem to be ! case1 b x is a m]e sophi/ical delusion4 ,if y\r premisses are bo? ( !m probable1 y\r conclusion may 9 "s cases be m probable ?an ei!r4#dcd ,footnote #dcd3 ,ibid4 a4#ab-bd4 ,ari/otle "h introduces f\r def9itions ( t]ms1 :i* are useful 9 reg>d to 8 ?\ghts b h no great p]t95ce 9 ! place :]e !y occur3 ,greek3 e7_//i de philoso_/phma men sullogismos a7podeiktiko_/s1 e7pi*ei_/rma de sullogismos dialektiko_/s1 s_/phisma de sullogismos e7ri/iko_/s1 a7po_/rma de sullogismos dialektikos a7ntipha_/ses4 ,"o o!r matt] yet rema9s 9 :i* y\r proc$ure z que/ion] may be blameable4 ,! premisses ?r\gh :i* y prove y\r conclusion may be long & unnecess>ily multipli$2 ! conclusion may be su* t y ought to h obta9$ x ?r\gh few]1 yet equally p]t95t premisses4#dce ,footnote #dce3 ,ibid4 a4 #bd-cd4 ,! example :]eby ,ari/otle illu/rates ?is position is obscure & difficult to foll[4 ,x is borr[$ f ! ,platonic !ory ( ,ideas4 ,! po9t :i* y are suppos$ to be anxi\s to prove is1 t "o op9ion is m op9ion ?an ano!r 7,greek3 o7_/ti e7/i d_/xa mallon e7te_/ra e7te_/ras74 ,to prove x y ask z premisses3 7#a7 ,t ! ,idea ( e class ( ?+s is m t ?+ ?an any "o among ! p>ticul>s ( ! class2 7#b7 ,t !re is an ,idea ( matt] ( op9ion1 & t ?is ,idea is m op9ion ?an any "o ( ! p>ticul> matt]s ( op9ion4 ,if ?is ,idea is m op9ion1 x mu/ also be m true & accurate ?an any p>ticul> matt] ( op9ion4 ,& x is ?is la/ conclusion t ,ari/otle seems to indicate z ! conclusion to be prov$3 ,greek3 7_//e au7t 7 d_/xa a7kribe/e_/ra e7/i_/n 7a4 #cb74 ,z ,i und]/& x1 ,ari/otle supposes t ! doctr9e :i* y are "h refut+ is1 t all ,greek3 e7_/ndoxa are on an equal foot+ z to tru? & accuracy2 & t ! doctr9e :i* y are prov+ aga9/ x is1 t "o ,greek3 e7_/ndoxon is m true & accurate ?an ano!r4 ,if y attempt to prove ?is la/ by invok+ ! ,platonic !ory ( ,ideas1 y w introduce premisses f>-fet*$ & unnecess>y1 ev5 if true2 :]eas y might prove y\r conclusion f premisses easi] & m obvi\s4 ,! fault is 7he says7 t su* r\ndab\t proc$ure puts out ( sight ! real gr\nd ( ! pro(3 ,greek3 ti_/s de 7 mo*?ri_/a8 7 o7_/ti poiei1 p>' o7 o7 lo_/gos1 lan?a_/ne9 to ai7_/tion 7a4 #cc74 ,! dubitative & problematical =m "h is rem>kable4 ,h[ w\ld ,ari/otle himself h prov$ ! above conclusion8 ,by ,induction8 ,he does n tell u4 ,! cases 9 :i* y\r argum5t w c>ry ! cle>e/ evid5ce1 impress+ itself ev5 on ! mo/ vulg> m9ds1 are ^? 9 :i* y obta9 su* premisses z w enable y to draw y\r f9al conclusion )\t ask+ any f>!r concessions4 ,b ?is w r>ely happ54 ,ev5 aft] y h obta9$ all ! premisses sub/antially necess>y to y\r f9al conclusion1 y w g5]ally be =c$ to draw out two or m prosyllogisms or prelim9>y syllogisms1 & to ask ! ass5t ( ! respond5t to ^!1 be=e y c v5ture to enunciate ! f9al conclusion4 ,?is second grade ( evid5ce is h[ev] suffici5t1 ev5 if ! premisses fall %ort ( ! highe/ probability4#dcf ,footnote #dcf3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 xii4 p4 #afb1 a4 #ce-;b4 #b4 ,on ! o!r h&1 y\r argum5t may des]ve to be pron\nc$ false on f\r di/9ct gr\nds3--7#a7 ,if y\r syllogism appe>s to prove ! conclusion b does n really prove x1 be+ !n an eri/ic or cont5ti\s syllogism2 7#b7 ,if ! conclusion be good b n 9999relevant to ! !sis1 :i* is mo/ likely to happ5 :]e y employ ,r$uctio ad ,impossible2 7#c7 ,if y\r conclusion ?\gh valid & ev5 relevant1 is n f\nd$ on ! premisses & pr9cipia appropriate to ! !sis2 7#d7 ,if y\r premisses are false1 ev5 ?\gh ! conclusion 9 itself may prove true1 s9ce x has already be5 said t a true conclusion may sometimes be obta9$ f false premisses4#dcg ,footnote #dcg3 ,ibid4 b4 #c-ae3 ,greek3 pseuds de lo_/gos kaleitai tetra*s1 c4 ,falsehood 9 y\r argum5t w be r y\r own fault ?an t ( y\r argum5t1 especially if y y\rself are n aw>e ( its falsehood4 ,inde$1 !re are "s false argum5ts :i* are m valuable 9 ,dialectic ?an _m true ones2 :]e1 = example1 f highly probable premisses y refute "s recogniz$ tru?4 ,su* an argum5t is sure to s]ve z a demon/ration ( o!r tru?s2 at ! v lea/1 x %[s t "s "o ( ! propositions conc]n$ is altoge!r untrue4#dch ,on ! o!r h&1 if y prove a true conclusion by premisses false & improbable1 y\r argum5t w be m wor?less ?an _m o!rs 9 :i* ! conclusion is false2 f su* premisses1 inde$1 ! conclusion may well be really false4#dci ,footnote #dch3 ,ibid4 b4 #af-bb3 ,greek3 to men ou7n pseud ton lo_/gon ei7nai t\ le_/gontos a7ma_/rtma mallon 7 t\ lo_/g\1 kai ou7de t\ le_/gontos a7ei to a7ma_/rtma1 a7ll' o7_/tan lan?a_/n au7to_/n1 e7pei ka?' au7to_/n ge polln a7l?n a7pode*o_/me?a mallon1 a7n e7x o7_/ti ma_/li/a dok\_/ntn a7nair ti tn a7l?n2 toi\tos gar 7n e7te_/rn a7l?n a7po_/deixi_/s e7/92 dei gar tn keime_/nn ti m ei7nai pantels1 7_//' e7_//ai t\_/t\ a7po_/deixis4 ,footnote #dci3 ,ibid4 b4 #bb-bd4 ,9 e/imat+ ! dialectical value ( an argum5t1 !re=e1 we mu/ fir/ look :e!r ! conclusion is =mally valid2 next1 :e!r ! conclusion is true or false2 la/ly1 :at are ! premisses f :5ce x is d]iv$4#ddj ,=1 if x be d]iv$ f premisses false yet probable1 x has logical or dialectical value2 :ile1 if d]iv$ f premisses true yet improbable1 x has none4#dda ,if d]iv$ f premisses bo? false & improbable1 x w ( c\rse be wor?less2 ei!r absolutely 9 itself1 or ) ref]5ce to ! !sis "u debate4 ,footnote #ddj3 ,ibid4 b4 #bd3 ,greek3 7_//e dlon o7_/ti pr_/t men e7pi_/skepsis lo_/g\ ka?' au7ton ei7 sump]ai_/netai1 deute_/ra de po_/t]on a7l!s 7 pseudos2 tri_/t d' e7k poi_/n t9n4 ,footnote #dda3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 xii4 p4 #afb1 b4 #bg3 ,greek3 ei7 men gar e7k pseudn e7ndo_/xn de_/1 logiko_/s1 ei7 d' e7x o7_/ntn men a7d_/xn de_/1 phaulos1 c4 ,two faults ( que/ion]s 9 ,dialectic are dealt ) specially by ,ari/otle3--7#a7 ,petitio ,pr9cipii2 7#b7 ,petitio ,contr>iorum4 ,he _h t\*$ ^u bo? ( !m 79 ! ,analytica ,priora7 z !y conc]n$ ! demon/rative process1 or ! prov+ ( tru?3 he n[ deals ) !m z !y conc]n ! dialectical process1 or ! sett+ out ( op9ions & probabilities4#ddb ,footnote #ddb3 ,ibid4 xiii4 p4 #afb1 b4 #ca3 ,greek3 to d' e7n a7r* kai ta e7nanti_/a ps ai7teitai o7 e7rtn1 kat' a7l_/!ian men e7n tois ,a7nalutikois 7,priora1 ,,ii4 xvi47 ,greek3 ei7_/rtai1 kata d_/xan de nun lekte_/on4 ,five di/9ct modes may be enum]at$ ( committ+ ! fault call$ ,petitio ,pr9cipii3-- #a4 ,y may put z a "q ! v conclusion :i* x is incumb5t on y to prove1 9 refutation ( ! !sis ( ! respond5t4 ,if ?is is done 9 explicit t]ms1 y\r oppon5t c h>dly fail to p]ceive x2 b he possibly may fail1 if y sub/itute an equival5t t]m or ! def9ition 9 place ( ! t]m4#ddc ,footnote #ddc3 ,ibid4 b4 #cd4 ,greek3 prton ei7_/ tis au7to to dei_/knu/hai de_/on ai7t_/sei2 t\to d' e7p' au7t\ men ou7 r7a_/dion lan?a_/ne91 e7n de tois sunnu_/mois1 kai e7n o7_/sois to o7_/noma kai o7 lo_/gos to au7to smai_/nei1 mallon4 #b4 ,if ! conclusion :i* y are seek+ to prove is a p>ticul> "o1 y may put z a "q ! univ]sal 9 :i* x is compris$4 ,?us1 if y are to prove t ! k ( ,contr>ies is "o & ! same1 y may put z a "q1 ,is n ! k ( ,opposites "o & ! same8 ,y are ask+ ! v po9t :i* x 0 y\r bus9ess to %[2 b y are ask+ along ) x mu* m besides4#ddd ,footnote #ddd3 ,ibid4 p4 #afc1 a4 #a4 #c4 ,if y are seek+ to prove an univ]sal conclusion1 9999y may put z a "q "o ( ! p>ticul>s compris$ !re94 ,?us1 if y are to prove t ! k ( ,contr>ies is "o & ! same1 y may put z a "q1 ,is n ! k ( :ite & black1 good & evil1 or any o!r pair ( p>ticul> contr>ies1 "o & ! same8 ,x 0 y\r bus9ess to prove ?is p>ticul>1 along ) _m o!rs besides2 b y are n[ ask+ x z a "q sep>ately4#dde ,footnote #dde3 ,ibid4 a4 #e4 #d4 ,if ! conclusion :i* y are seek+ to prove has two t]ms conjo9tly1 y may put z a "q "o or ! o!r ( ^! sep>ately4 ,?us1 :5 y are try+ to %[ t ! heal+ art is k ( :at is :olesome & un:olesome1 y may ask1 ,is x a k ( ! :olesome8#ddf ,footnote #ddf3 ,ibid4 a4 #h4 #e4 ,suppose !re are two conclusions necess>ily implicat$ ) ea* o!r1 & t x is y\r bus9ess to prove "o ( !m3 y may put z a "q ! o!r ( ! two4 ,?us1 if y are seek+ to prove t ! diagonal is incomm5surable ) ! side1 y may put z a "q1 ,is n ! side incomm5surable ) ! diagonal8#ddg ,footnote #ddg3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 xiii4 p4 #afc1 a4 #aj4 ,!re are also five di/9ct modes ( ,petitio ,contr>iorum3-- #a4 ,y may ask ! respond5t1 9 pla9 t]ms1 to grant fir/ ! affirmative1 next1 ! negative1 ( a giv5 proposition4#ddh ,footnote #ddh3 ,ibid4 a4 #ad3 ,greek3 prton men gar ei7_/ tis tas a7ntikeime_/nas ai7t_/saito pha_/s9 kai a7nti_/phas94 #b4 ,y may ask him to grant1 fir/1 t a giv5 subject is1 e4g41 good1 next1 t ! same subject is bad4#ddi ,footnote #ddi3 ,ibid4 a4 #af3 ,greek3 deu_/t]on de ta7nanti_/a kata tn a7nti_/!s91 oi7on a7ga?on kai kakon tau7to_/n4 #c4 ,aft] he has grant$ to y ! affirmative univ]sally1 y may ask him to grant ! negative 9 "s p>ticul> case "u ! univ]sal3 e4g41 aft] he has grant$ t ! k ( ,contr>ies is "o & ! same1 y ask him to grant t ! k ( :olesome & un:olesome is n "o & ! same4 ,or y may proce$ by ! way ( rev]s+ ?is process4#dej ,footnote #dej3 ,ibid4 a4 #ag-ba4 #d4 ,y may ask ! contr>y ( t :i* foll[s necess>ily f ! premisses admitt$4#dea ,footnote #dea3 ,ibid4 a4 #ba4 #e4 ,in/ead ( ask+ ! two contr>ies 9 pla9 & direct t]ms1 y may ask ! two contr>ies 9 diff]5t propositions1 yet necess>ily implicat$ ) ! fir/ two4#deb ,footnote #deb3 ,ibid4 a4 #bb4 ,!re is ?is diff]5ce betwe5 ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 & ,petitio ,contr>iorum3 ! fir/ has ref]5ce to ! conclusion :i* y h to prove1 & ! wrong proc$ure involv$ 9 x is relative to t conclusion2 b 9 ! second ! wrong proc$ure affects only ! two propositions !mselves & ! relation subsi/+ betwe5 !m4#dec ,footnote #dec3 ,ibid4 a4 #bd3 ,greek3 diaphe_/rei de to ta7nanti_/a lamba_/ne9 t\ e7n a7r*1 o7_/ti t\ me_/n e7/9 7 a7m>ti_/a pros to sumpe_/rasma 7pros gar e7keino ble_/pontes to e7n a7r* le_/gom5 ai7tei/hai71 ta d' e7nanti_/a e7/in e7n tais prota_/sesi t e7_/*e9 ps tau_/tas pros a7ll_/las4 ,ari/otle n[1 f9ally1 proce$s to give "s g5]al advice = ex]cise & practice 9 ,dialectic4 ,y ought to accu/om y\rself to treat argum5ts by conv]t+ ! syllogisms ( :i* !y consi/2 t is1 by apply+ to !m ! treatm5t ( :i* ! ,r$uctio ad ,absurdum is "o case4#ded ,y ought to te/ e !sis by fir/ assum+ x to be true1 !n assum+ x to be false1 & foll[+ out ! consequ5ces on bo? sides4#dee ,:5 y h hunt$ out ea* tra9 ( argum5ts1 look out at once = ! c\nt]-argum5ts available aga9/ x4 ,?is w /r5g!n y\r p[] bo? z que/ion] & z respond5t4 ,x is inde$ an ex]cise s valuable1 t y w d well to g ?r\gh x by y\rself1 if y h no companion4#def ,put ! diff]5t tra9s ( argum5t1 be>+ on ! same !sis1 into comp>ison ) ea* o!r4 ,a wide comm& ( argum5ts affirmative z well z negative w s]ve y well bo? = attack & = def5ce4#deg ,footnote #ded3 ,ibid4 xiv4 p4 #afc1 a4 #bi3 ,greek3 pros de gumnasi_/an kai mele_/tn tn toi\_/tn lo_/gn prton men a7nti/re_/phe9 e7?i_/ze/hai *r t\s lo_/g\s4 ,= ,conv]sion ( ,syllogism1 see p4 #agd4 ,footnote #dee3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 xiv4 p4 #afc1 a4 #cf3 ,greek3 pros a7_/pasa_/n te !_/s9 kai o7_/ti ou7_/ts kai o7_/ti ou7* ou7_/ts to e7pi*ei_/rma skepte_/on4 ,footnote #def3 ,ibid4 b4 #c3 ,greek3 ka7n pros mde_/na a7_/llon e7_/*m51 pros au7t\_/s4 ,footnote #deg3 ,ibid4 b4 #e3 ,greek3 t\to gar pro_/s te to bia_/ze/hai polln eu7pori_/an poiei kai pros to e7le_/g*e9 mega_/ln e7_/*ei bo_/!ian1 o7_/tan eu7por tis kai o7_/ti ou7_/ts kai o7_/ti ou7* ou7_/ts2 pros ta e7nanti_/a gar sumbai_/nei poiei/hai tn phulak_/n4 ,in/ead ( ,greek3 pro_/s te to bia_/ze/hai1 ought we n to read "h ,greek3 pro_/s te to m bia_/ze/hai1 tak+ ?is v]b 9 ! passive s5se8 ,surely ,greek3 bia_/ze/hai 9 ! active s5se gives ! same mean+ sub/antially z ,greek3 e7le_/g*e91 :i* comes aft]w>ds1 bo? ( !m ref]r+ to ! assailant or que/ion]1 :]eas ,ari/otle int5ds "h to illu/rate ! usefulness ( ! practice to bo? p>ties4 ,?is same accompli%m5t w be ( use1 moreov]1 = acquisitions ev5 9 ,sci5ce & ,philosophy4 ,x is a great /ep to see & grasp 9 conjunction ! tra9s ( reason+ on bo? sides ( ! "q2 ! task t rema9s--"r det]m9ation :i* ( ! two is ! bett]--becomes mu* easi]4 ,to d ?is well1 h[ev]1--to *oose ! true & to reject ! false correctly--!re mu/ be conjo9$ a good natural pr$isposition4 ,none b ^? :o are well con/itut$ by nature1 :o h _! lik+s & dislikes well set 9 reg>d to ea* p>ticul> conjuncture1 c judge correctly :at is be/ & :at is wor/4#deh ,footnote #deh3 ,ibid4 b4 #ab-af3 ,greek3 dei de pros to toi\to u7pa_/r*e9 eu7phua2 kai t\t' e7_//9 7 kat' a7l_/!ian eu7phui_/a1 to du_/na/hai kals e7le_//hai ta7l!s kai phugein to pseudos2 o7_/p] oi7 pephuko_/tes eu7 du_/nantai poiein2 eu7 gar phil\ntes kai mis\ntes to prosph]o_/m5on eu7 kri_/n\si to be_/lti/on4 ,9 reg>d to ! prim>y or mo/ univ]sal !ses1 & to ^? problems :i* are mo/ frequ5tly put 9 debate1 y w d well to h reason+s ready prep>$1 & ev5 to get !m by he>t4 ,x is on ^! fir/ or mo/ univ]sal !ses t respond5ts become (t5 reluctant & disgu/$4 ,to be exp]t 9 h&l+ prim>y doctr9es & probabilities1 & to be well provid$ ) ! def9itions f :i* syllogisms mu/ />t1 is to ! dialectician an acquisition ( ! highe/ mom5t2 l famili>ity ) ! ,axioms to a geomet]1 & ready application ( ! multiplication table to an ari?metical calculator4#dei ,:5 y h ^! g5]alities & major propositions firmly e/abli%$ 9 y\r m9d1 y w recall1 9 a def9ite ord] & arrangem5t1 ! p>ticul> matt]s fall+ "u ea* ( !m1 & w ?r[ !m m easily into syllogisms4 ,!y w assi/ y 9 do+ ?is1 j z ! m]e di/ribution ( places 9 a s*eme = topical memory makes y recollect :at is associat$ ) ea*4 ,y %\ld lodge 9 y\r memory1 h[ev]1 univ]sal major premisses r ?an complete & ready-made reason+s2 = ! great difficulty is ab\t ! pr9cipia4#dfj ,footnote #dei3 ,ibid4 b4 #ag-bf4 ,footnote #dfj3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 xiv4 p4 #afc1 b4 #bg-cc3 ,greek3 o7moi_/s kai e7n tois lo_/gois to pro_/*eiron ei7nai p]i tas a7r*as kai tas prota_/seis a7po /o_/matos e7xepi_//a/hai2 ka?a_/p] gar e7n t mnmonik mo_/non oi7 to_/poi te!_/ntes eu7?us poi\s9 au7ta mnmoneu_/e91 kai tauta poi_/sei sullogi/ik_/t]on dia to pros 7risme_/nas au7tas ble_/pe9 kat' a7ri?mo_/n2 pro_/tasi_/n te ko9n mallon 7 lo_/gon ei7s mn_/mn !te_/on2 a7r*s gar kai u7po!_/ses eu7porsai metri_/s *alepo_/n4 ,y ought also to accu/om y\rself to break d[n "o reason+ into _m2 :i* w be done mo/ easily :5 ! !me ( ! reason+ is mo/ univ]sal4 ,conceal ?is purpose z well z y c2 & 9 ?is view beg9 ) ^? p>ticul>s :i* lie mo/ remote f ! subject 9 h&4#dfa ,9 record+ argum5ts = y\r own in/ruction1 y w g5]alize !m z mu* z possible1 ?\gh p]haps :5 spok5 !y may h be5 p>ticul>2 = ?is is ! be/ way to break d[n "o into sev]al4 ,9 conduct+ y\r own case z que/ion] y w avoid ! high] g5]alities z mu* z y c4#dfb ,b y mu/ at ! same "t take c>e to keep up "s common or g5]al premisses ?r\gh\t ! disc\rse2 = e syllogi/ic process1 ev5 :]e ! conclusion is p>ticul>1 implies ?is1 & no syllogism is valid )\t x4#dfc ,footnote #dfa3 ,ibid4 b4 #cd4 ,footnote #dfb3 ,ibid4 p4 #afd1 a4 #b-g3 ,greek3 dei de kai tas a7pomnmoneu_/seis ka?o_/l\ poiei/hai tn lo_/gn1 ka7n 7 dieilegme_/nos e7pi me_/r\s2--au7ton de o7_/ti ma_/li/a pheu_/ge9 e7pi to ka?o_/l\ phe_/re9 t\s sullogism\_/s4 ,?is passage is to me obscure4 ,i h giv5 ! be/ mean+ :i* x seems to (f]4 ,footnote #dfc3 ,ibid4 a4 #h4 ,ex]cise 9 inductive disc\rse is mo/ suitable = a "y beg9n]2 ex]cise 9 d$uctive or syllogi/ic disc\rse1 = skilful vet]ans4 ,f ^? :o are accompli%$ 9 ! =m] y c le>n ! art ( multiply+ p>ticul> comp>isons2 f ^? :o are accompli%$ 9 ! latt] y d]ive univ]sal premisses2 su* be+ ! /rong po9ts ( ea*4 ,:5 y g ?r\gh a dialectical ex]cise1 try to br+ away ) y = future use ei!r "s complete syllogism1 or "s solution ( an app>5t refutation1 or a major premiss1 or a well-su/a9$ exceptional example 7,greek3 e7_/n/as972 note also :e!r ei!r y or y\r respond5t "q correctly or o!rwise1 & on :at reason su* correctness or incorrectness turn$4#dfd ,x is ! express purpose ( dialectical ex]cise to acquire p[] & facility 9 ?is proc$ure1 especially z reg>ds univ]sal premisses & special exceptions4 ,inde$ ! ma9 *>act]i/ic ( ! dialectician is to be apt at univ]sal premisses1 & apt at special exceptions4 ,9 ! fir/ ( ^! two aptitudes he gr\ps _m p>ticul>s into "o univ]sal1 )\t :i* he _c make good 8 syllogism2 9 ! second ( ! two he breaks up ! "o univ]sal into _m1 di/+ui%+ ! sep>ate con/itu5ts1 & d5y+ "s :ile he affirms o!rs4#dfe ,footnote #dfd3 ,ibid4 a4 #ab-ai4 ,greek3 o7_/ls d' e7k t\ gumna_/ze/hai dialego_/m5on peirate_/on a7pophe_/re/hai 7 sullogismon p]i t9os1 7 lu_/s9 7 pro_/tas9 7 e7_/n/as91 c4 ,footnote #dfe3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 xiv4 p4 #afd1 b4 #b-f3 ,greek3 e7_//i gar 7s a7pls ei7pein dialektikos o7 protatikos kai e7n/atiko_/s2 e7_//i de to men protei_/ne/hai e7n poiein ta plei_/ 7dei 9999gar e7n o7_/ls lph?nai pros o7 o7 lo_/gos71 to d' e7ni_//a/hai to e7n polla_/2 7 gar diairei 7 a7nairei1 to men did\s to d' ou7 tn 9999prote9ome_/nn4 ,y mu/ take c>e h[ev] n to c>ry on ?is ex]cise ) e "o1 especially ) a vulg>-m9d$ man4 ,) "s p]sons ! dispute _c fail to take a discr$itable turn4 ,:5 ! respond5t tries to make a %[ ( escap+ by unwor?y manoeuvres1 ! que/ion] on 8 "p mu/ be unscrupul\s also 9 syllogiz+2 b ?is is a disgraceful sc5e4 ,to keep cle> ( su* abusive disc\rse1 y mu/ be cauti\s n to disc\rse ) commonplace1 unprep>$1 respond5ts4#dff ,footnote #dff3 ,ibid4 b4 #h-ae3 ,greek3 pros gar ton pa_/nts peir_/m5on phai_/ne/hai diapheu_/ge91 di_/kaion men pa_/nts peira/hai sullogi_/sa/hai1 ou7k eu7_/s*mon de_/4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,sophi/ici ,,el5*i4 ,! ,sophi/ 7accord+ to ,ari/otle7 is "o ^: pr(essional occupation x is to make money by a delusive %[ ( wisdom )\t ! reality--by contriv+ to make o!rs believe falsely t he possesses wisdom & k4 ,! ab/ract sub/antive n\n ,sophi/ic1 ) ! v]b to practice z a ,sophi/ 7,greek3 sophi/eu_/e971 expresses su* pr(ession & purpose4#a ,?is application ( ! t]m is d]iv$ f ,plato1 :o has 9 v>i\s dialogues 7,protagoras1 ,hippias1 ,eu?ydmus1 c47 introduc$ ,sokrates conv]s+ ) diff]5t pr(essional ,sophi/s1 & :o has1 9 a long] dialogue call$ ,sophi/es1 attempt$ an elaborate def9ition ( ! intellectual peculi>ities ( ! p]son s nam$4 ,x is ! actual argum5tative proc$ure ( ! ,sophi/ t ,ari/otle proposes to himself z ! !me ( ?is little treatise1 app5d$ to 8 g5]al !ory ( ! ,syllogism2 a treatise :i*1 ?\gh =m+ prop]ly ! ,n9? & conclud+ ,book ( ! ,topica1 is commonly kn[n z a sep>ate app5dix !reto1 "u ! title ( ,sophi/ici ,el5*i1 or ,sophi/ical ,refutations4 ,footnote #a3 ,soph4 ,el4 i4 p4 #afe1 a4 #ba1 #bh1 #cb3 ,greek3 e7_//i gar 7 sophi/ik pha9ome_/n sophi_/a ou7sa d' ou7_/1 kai o7 sophi/s *rmati/s a7po pha9ome_/ns sophi_/z a7ll' ou7k ou7_/ss2--a7na_/gk ou7n t\s b\lome_/n\s sophi/eu_/e9 to tn ei7rme_/nn lo_/gn ge_/nos ztein2--o7_/ti men ou7n e7_//i ti toi\ton lo_/gn ge_/nos1 kai o7_/ti toiau_/ts e7phi_/entai duna_/mes ou7s kal\m5 sophi/a_/s1 dlon4 ,also xi4 p4 #aga1 b4 #bg4 ,! ,sophi/ical ,el5*us or ,refutation1 be+ a delusive semblance ( refutation :i* imposes on ord9>y m5 & induces !m to accept x z real1 _c be prop]ly und]/ood )\t ! !ory ( ,el5*us 9 g5]al2 nor c ?is la/ be und]/ood )\t ! entire !ory ( ! ,syllogism1 s9ce ! ,el5*us is only "o v>iety ( ,syllogism4#b ,! ,el5*us is a syllogism ) a conclusion contradictory to or refutative ( "s enunciat$ !sis or proposition4 ,accord+ly we mu/ fir/ und]/& ! conditions ( a good & valid ,syllogism1 be=e we /udy ^? ( a valid ,el5*us2 ^! la/1 aga91 mu/ be und]/ood1 be=e we ent] on ! di/9ctive attributes ( ! ,pseudo-el5*us--! sophi/ical1 invalid1 or %am1 refutation4 ,9 o!r words1 an enum]ation & classification ( ,fallacies =ms ! clos+ section ( a treatise on ,logic--accord+ to ! philosophical arrangem5t orig9at+ ) ,ari/otle1 & copi$ by mo/ logicians aft] him4 ,footnote #b3 ,ibid4 x4 p4 #aga1 a4 #a-e4 ,ari/otle beg9s by di/+ui%+ reality & m]e deceptive appe>ance2 & by /at+ t ?is di/9ction is f\nd to prevail n less 9 syllogisms ?an 9 o!r matt]s4 ,next he designates a notori\s class ( p]sons1 call$ ,sophi/s1 :o made x _! pr(ession to /udy & practise ! deceptive appe>ance ( syllogiz+2 & he !n proce$s to di/+ui% f\r species ( debate3--7#a7 ,didactic2 7#b7 ,dialectic2 7#c7 ,peira/ic2 7#d7 ,eri/ic or ,sophi/ic4#c ,9 ?is quadruple arrangem5t1 h[ev]1 he is n consi/5t ) 8 own def9itions1 :5 he ranks ! f\r z di/9ct & co-ord9ate species4 ,! m>k$ & special anti!sis is betwe5 ,didactic & ,dialectic4 ,bo? ,peira/ic & ,eri/ic fall z v>ieties or sub-species "u ! species ,dialectic2 & !re is "u ! species ,didactic a v>iety call$ ,pseudo-graphic or ,pseudo-didactic1 :i* /&s to ,didactic 9 ! same relation 9 :i* ,eri/ic /&s to ,dialectic4#d ,footnote #c3 ,soph4 ,el4 ii4 p4 #afe1 a4 #ch3 ,greek3 e7_//i d tn e7n t diale_/ge/hai lo_/gn te_/tt>a ge_/n1 didaskalik\ kai dialektikoi kai peira/ikoi kai e7ri/ikoi_/4 ,footnote #d3 ,ibid4 xi4 p4 #aga1 b4 #cd4 ,didactic disc\rse is n applicable to all matt]s indiscrim9ately1 b only to c]ta9 special sci5ces2 ea* ( :i* has its own sep>ate1 undemon/rable pr9cipia1 f :i* its conclusions1 s f> z true & valid1 mu/ be d$uc$4 ,x supposes a tea*] acqua9t$ ) ^! pr9cipia & d$uctions1 talk+ ) "s "o :o be+ ignorant ( !m wi%es to le>n4 ,! tea*] puts que/ions1 to :i* ! le>n] makes ! be/ answ]s t he c2 &1 if ! answ]s are wrong1 corrects !m & proce$s to draw1 accord+ to syllogi/ic canons1 conclusions f premisses :i* he himself kn[s to be ! tru?4 ,^! premisses ! le>n] mu/ believe ^u ! tea*]'s au?ority4 ,prop]ly speak+1 inde$1 ! didactic process is n int]rogative 79 ! same s5se t ,dialectic is73 ! tea*] does n accept ! le>n]'s answ] & reason f x1 if he ?9ks x wrong4#e ,footnote #e3 ,ibid4 xi4 p4 #agb1 a4 #aa3 ,greek3 nun d' ou7k e7_//9 o7 dialektios p]i ge_/nos ti 7risme_/non1 ou7de deiktikos ou7d5o_/s1 ou7de toi\tos oi7os o7 ka?o_/l\4 ou7_/te ga_/r e7/9 a7_/panta e7n e7ni_/ t9i ge_/nei1 ou7_/te ei7 ei7_/1 oi7o_/n te u7po tas au7tas a7r*as ei7nai ta o7_/nta4 7_//' ou7demi_/a te_/*n tn deiknu\sn t9a phu_/s9 e7rttik_/ e7/92 ou7 gar e7_/xe/9 o7pot]on\n tn mori_/n d\nai2 sullogismos gar ou7 gi_/netai e7x a7mphoin4 7 de dialektik e7rtrik_/ e7/92 ei7 d' e7dei_/knu51 ei7 kai m pa_/nta1 a7lla ta_/ ge prta kai tas oi7kei_/z a7r*a_/s1 ou7k a7n 7r_/ta4 m dido_/ntos gar ou7k a7n e7_/ti ei7*5 e7x 7n e7_/ti diale_/xetai pros tn e7_/n/as94 ,:5 ,ari/otle1 !re=e1 reckons ,greek3 lo_/g\s didaskalik\_/s z "o ( ! f\r species ,greek3 tn e7n t diale_/ge/hai lo_/gn 7,soph4 ,el4 ii4 p4 #afe1 a4 #ch71 we mu/ und]/& ,greek3 to diale_/ge/hai 9 a v wide & vague s5se1 go+ mu* beyond ! d]ivative n\n ,greek3 dialektik_/4 ,dialectic1 on ! contr>y1 is applicable to all matt]s univ]sally & indiscrim9ately1 includ+ ev5 ! undemon/rable pr9cipia :i* ! tea*] assumes z ! highe/ premisses ( 8 didactic syllogisms4 ,x supposes1 9 place ( tea*] & le>n]1 an int]rogator 7or oppon5t7 & a respond5t4 ,! respond5t decl>es a problem or !sis1 :i* he und]takes to def5d2 :ile ! o!r puts que/ions to him respect+ x1 ) ! purpose ( compell+ him ei!r to contradict ! !sis1 or to contradict himself on "s o!r po9t4 ,! int]rogator is all[$ only to ask que/ions1 & to d$uce legitimate conclusions f ! premisses grant$ by ! respond5t 9 answ]3 he is n p]mitt$ to introduce any o!r premisses4 ,! premisses ^u :i* ! debate turns are und]/ood all to be probable--op9ions accr$it$ ei!r among an ord9>y multitude or among a few wise m51 b to h no high] au?ority4 ,accord+ly !re is (t5 a conflict ( argum5ts pro & con1 mu* div]sifi$4 ,! process is ess5tially controv]sial2 &1 if ! que/ion] does n succe$ 9 expos+ a contradiction1 ! respond5t is victori\s1 & rema9s 9 possession ( ! field4 ,su* is ! capital anti!sis1 mu* dwelt ^u by ,ari/otle1 betwe5 ,didactic & ,dialectic4 ,b t :i* he calls ,peira/ic1 & t :i* he calls ,eri/ic1 are n species co-ord9ate ) & di/+ui%$ f ,dialectic3 !y are peculi> aspects1 subord9ate v>ieties or modes1 ( ,dialectic itself4 ,ari/otle himself1 inde$1 admits ,peira/ic to be a mode or v>iety ( ,dialectic2#f & ! l is equally true respect+ :at he t]ms ,eri/ic or ,sophi/ic4 ,footnote #f3 ,soph4 ,el4 xi4 p4 #aga1 b4 #d-i3 ,greek3 7 gar peira/ik_/ e7/i dialektik_/ tis1 c4--p4 #agb1 a4 #ce3 ,greek3 o7 te_/*n sullogi/ik peira/iko_/s1 dialektiko_/s4--viii4 p4 #afi1 b4 #be3 ,greek3 e7_//i d' 7 peira/ik me_/ros ts dialektiks4 ,^! subord9ate di/9ctions turn ^u ! mann]1 ! limitations1 & ! purpose1 = & "u :i* ! dialectical process is conduct$4 ,dialectic is ess5tially gymna/ic & peira/ic3#g x may be look$ at ei!r z gymna/ic1 9 ref]5ce to ! two debat]s1 or z peira/ic1 9 ref]5ce to ! argum5ts & doctr9es br\ght =w>d2 intellectual ex]cise & /imulation ( ! two speak]s & ! auditors ar\nd be+ effect$ by te/+ & confront+ v>i\s probable doctr9es4 ,x is ! common purpose 7,greek3 ko9on e7_/rgon7#h ( ! two *ampions1 to improve & enl>ge ?is ex]cise = ! in/ruction ( all1 by foll[+ out a v>iety ( logical consequ5ces & logical repugnancies1 be>+ m or less directly on ! !sis :i* ! respond5t *ooses & und]takes to def5d aga9/ a te/+ cross-exam9ation4 ,c]ta9 rules & limitations are prescrib$ bo? = que/ion] & respond5t2 b1 subject to ^! rules1 ea* ( !m is b\nd to ex]t all 8 acut5ess = ! purpose ( ga9+ victory2 &1 ?\gh "o only c ga9 x1 ! debate may be well & cr$itably conduct$ on bo? sides4 ,if ! rules are n obs]v$1 if ! assail+ *ampion1 b5t ^u victory at all co/1 has rec\rse to di%one/ int]rogative tricks1 or ! def5sive *ampion to p]v]se & ob/ructive negations1 beyond ! prescrib$ b\nd>y1 9 t case ! debate is call$ by ,ari/otle eri/ic or cont5ti\s1 f ! undue 9999pr$om9ance ( ! controv]sial _s & purpose2 also sophi/ic1 f ! fact t !re exi/$ 7z he ass]ts7 a class or pr(ession ( p]sons call$ ,sophi/s1 :o regul>ly /udi$ & practis$ ^! culpable manoeuvres1 fir/ ) a view to reputation1 & ultimately ) a view to pecuni>y pr(it1 be+ pret5d]s to k & wisdom )\t any reality to ju/ify !m4#i ,footnote #g3 ,topic4 ,i4 ii4 p4 #aja1 a4 #bf1 b4 #b3 ,greek3 pros gumnasi_/an--e7xeta/ik gar ou7sa1 c4 ,comp>e also ,topica1 ,,viii4 xi4 p4 #afa1 a4 #be2 xiv4 p4 #afc1 a4 #bi1 p4 #afd1 b4 #a3 ,greek3 to de gumna_/ze/hai duna_/mes *a_/r91 kai ma_/li/a p]i tas prota_/seis kai e7n/a_/seis2 e7_//i gar 7s a7pls ei7pein dialektikos o7 protatikos kai e7n/atiko_/s4 ,footnote #h3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 xi4 p4 #afa1 a4 #bj1 #cg4 ,footnote #i3 ,soph4 ,el4 xi4 p4 #aga1 b4 #be-ce3 ,greek3 oi7 men ou7n ts ni_/ks au7ts *a_/r9 toi\toi e7ri/ikoi a7_/n?rpoi kai phile_/rides dok\s9 ei7nai1 oi7 de d_/xs *a_/r9 ts ei7s *rmatismon sophi/ikoi_/2--kai tn lo_/gn tn au7tn me_/n ei7s9 oi7 phile_/rides kai sophi/ai_/1 a7ll' ou7 tn au7tn e7_/nek54 kai lo_/gos o7 au7tos men e7_//ai sophi/ikos kai e7ri/iko_/s1 a7ll' ou7 kata tauto_/n1 a7ll' 7 men ni_/ks pha9ome_/ns1 e7ri/iko_/s1 7 de sophi_/z1 sophi/iko_/s4 c4 ,we ?us see pla9ly t ,peira/ic & ,eri/ic are n to be rank$ z two di/9ct species ( disc\rse1 co-ord9ate ) ,didactic & ,dialectic2 b t peira/ic is 9 fact an epi!t applicable g5]ally to ,dialectic1 br++ to view "o ( its useful & appropriate functions2 :ile eri/ic designates only a peculi> mode ( conduct+ ! process1 ! ess5tial feature ( :i* is t x is abusive or t x transgresses ! rules & regulations4 ,/ill less ought ,sophi/ic to be rank$ z a di/9ct species2 s9ce x involves no intr9sic or intellectual diff]5tia1 b connotes only e?ical & p]sonal peculi>ities ascrib$ to ! ,sophi/1 :o is treat$ z an impo/or practis+ di%one/ tricks = ! sake ( pecuni>y pr(it4#aj ,footnote #aj3 ,ari/ot4 ,rhetoric4 ,i4 i4 p4 #acee1 b4 #ag3 ,greek3 o7 gar sophi/ikos ou7k e7n t duna_/mei1 a7ll' e7n t proaire_/sei2--sophi/s men kata tn proai_/res91 dialektikos d' ou7 kata tn proai_/res9 a7lla kata tn du_/nam94 ,to ! same purpose he speaks 9 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,g4 ii4 p4 #ajjd1 b4 #be1 di/+ui%+ ! ,sophi/ by 8 ,greek3 proai_/resis f ! ,dialectician1 b recogniz+ t 9 po9t ( ,greek3 du_/namis bo? are alike4 ,mr4 ,po/e obs]ves ju/ly 79 ,transl4 ( ! ,soph4 ,el41 notes1 p4 #ii73--;,greek3 du_/namis1 capacity1 is 9 ! intellect2 ,greek3 proai_/resis1 purpose1 9 ! w4 ,! anti!sis betwe5 ^! t]ms may ?r[ light on :at ,ari/otle conceiv$ to be ! relation betwe5 ,sophi/ic & ,dialectic4 4 4 ,! p[] plus ! w to deceive is call$ ,sophi/ic2 ! p[] )\t ! w1 ,dialectic 7p4 #ajj74 ,:ile1 h[ev]1 we recognize z ma9 logical di/9ctions only ! two heads ,didactic & ,dialectic1 we note ano!r way t ,ari/otle has ( br++ 9 :at he calls ,sophi/ic z a v>iety ( ! latt]4 ,bo? 9 ,didactic & ,dialectic 7he tells u7 ! speak]s enunciate & prove _! propositions by ,syllogism2 ! didactic syllogism is d]iv$ f ! pr9cipia belong+ specially to "o p>ticul> sci5ce1 & proce$s f premisses t are true to conclusions t are true2 :ile ! dialectic syllogism />ts f probable premisses 7i4e41 accr$it$ by ! ord9>y public or by a few wise m571 & m>*es 9 correct =m to conclusions t are probable4 ,n[1 correspond+ to ea* ( ^! two1 ,ari/otle recognizes f>!r a sort ( deg5]ate c\nt]p>t4 ,to ! didactic syllogism !re corresponds ! pseudographic syllogism or ! p>alogism3 :i* draws its premisses 7z ! didactic syllogism does7 f ! special matt]s ( "s giv5 sci5ce1#aa yet :i* nev]!less has only ! appe>ance ( tru? )\t ! reality2 ei!r because x is incorrect 9 syllogi/ic =m1 or because ! matt] ( ! premisses 7! major1 ! m9or1 or bo?7 is untrue4 ,to ! dialectic syllogism 9 l mann]1 !re corresponds ! eri/ic or sophi/ic syllogism3 :i* is a good syllogism 9 appe>ance1 b n 9 reality2 ei!r because x is incorrect 9 =m1 or because its premisses1 9 respect ( _! matt]1 appe> to be probable )\t be+ really probable4#ab ,footnote #aa3 ,topic4 ,i4 i4 p4 #aja1 a4 #e-ae4 ,greek3 oi7 e7k tn p]i_/ t9as e7pi/_/mas oi7kei_/n g9o_/m5oi p>alogismoi_/1 ka?a_/p] e7pi ts gemetri_/z kai tn tau_/t sugg5n sumbe_/bk5 e7_/*e92--e7k tn oi7kei_/n men t e7pi/_/m lmma_/tn1 ou7k a7l?n de_/1 ton sullogismon poieitai4 ,footnote #ab3 ,ibid4 p4 #ajj1 a4 #ca-p4 #aja1 a4 #af2 ,soph4 ,el4 i4 p4 #afd1 a4 #bj-;b4 #ba4 ,"o w\ld suppose t ! relation betwe5 ! pseudo-didactic & ! didactic syllogism1 0 ! same z t betwe5 ! pseudo-dialectic & ! dialectic2 s t1 if ! pseudo-dialectic des]v$ to be call$ sophi/ic or eri/ic1 ! pseudo-didactic w\ld des]ve ^! appellations also2 especially1 s9ce ! =mal conditions ( ! syllogism are alike = bo?4 ,?is ,ari/otle does n admit1 b draws in/ead a rem>kable di/9ction4 ,! ,sophi/ 7he says7 is a di%one/ man1 mak+ x 8 pr(essional purpose to deceive2 ! pseudo-graphic man ( sci5ce is hone/ always1 ?\gh sometimes mi/ak54 ,s long z ! pseudo-graphic syllogism keeps )9 ! limits belong+ to its own special sci5ce1 x may be false1 s9ce ! geomet] may be deceiv$ ev5 9 8 own sci5ce geometry1#ac b x _c be sophi/ic or eri/ic2 yet1 :5ev] x transgresses ^? limits1 ev5 ?\gh x be true & ?\gh x solves ! problem propos$1 x des]ves to be call$ by ^? two epi!ts4 ,?us1 !re 7 two di/9ct me?ods propos$ = ! quadrature ( ! circle--"o by ,hippokrates1 on geometrical pr9ciples1 ! o!r by ,bryson1 ^u pr9ciples extra-geometrical4 ,bo? demon/rations 7 false & unsuccessful2 yet t ( ,hippokrates 0 n sophi/ic or eri/ic1 because he kept )9 ! sph]e ( geometry2 :ile t ( ,bryson 0 s1 because x travell$ out ( geometry4 ,nay m1 ?is la/ w\ld h be5 equally sophi/ic & eri/ic1 & on ! same gr\nd1 ev5 if x _h succe$$ 9 solv+ ! problem4#ad ,if inde$ ! pseudo-graphic syllogism be invalid 9 =m1 x mu/ be consid]$ z sophi/ic1 ev5 ?\gh )9 ! prop] sci5tific limits z to matt]2 b1 if x be correct 9 =m & )9 ^! same limits1 !n1 h[ev] untrue its premisses may be1 x is to be reg>d$ z n sophi/ic or eri/ic4#ae ,footnote #ac3 ,topic4 ,v4 iv4 p4 #acb1 a4 #cb4 ,footnote #ad3 ,soph4 ,el4 xi4 p4 #aga1 b4 #ab-bj3 ,greek3 ta gar pseudograph_/mata ou7k e7ri/ika_/ 7kata gar ta u7po tn te_/*nn oi7 p>alogismoi_/71 ou7de_/ g' ei7_/ ti_/ e7/i pseudogra_/phma p]i a7l!_/s1 oi7on to ,i7ppokra_/t\s 7 o7 tetragnismos o7 dia tn mni_/skn4 a7ll' 7s ,bru_/sn e7tetrag_/nize ton ku_/klon1 ei7 kai tetragni_/zetai o7 ku_/klos1 a7ll' o7_/ti ou7 kata to pragma1 dia t\to sophi/iko_/s4 ,also p4 #agb1 a4 #a-h4 ,footnote #ae3 ,ibid4 xi4 p4 #aga1 b4 #ai-bj4 ,comp>e ,topic4 ,,viii4 xi4 p4 #afa1 a4 #cc3 ,greek3 dei de ton kals metabiba_/zonta dialektiks kai m e7ri/iks metabiba_/ze91 ka?a_/p] ton geme_/trn gemetriks1 a7_/n te pseudos a7_/n t' a7l!s 7 to sump]a9o_/m5on4 ,also ,topic4 ,,viii4 xii4 p4 #afb1 b4 #aj4 ,su* is ! te/ :]eby ,ari/otle di/+ui%es ! sophi/ication ( ! didactic process f ! legitimate work+ ( t process4 ,n[ ?is same te/ _c be appli$ to ,dialectic1 :i* has no appropriate or exclusive specialty ( matt]s1 b deals ) ,omne ,scibile1 univ]sally & indiscrim9ately4 ,ari/otle !re=e puts ! analogy 9 ano!r way4 ,bo? 9 ,didactic & 9 ,dialectic ! ,sophi/ is "o :o s9s aga9/ ! fundam5tal conditions ( ! task :i* he und]takes2 ^! conditions be+1 t 9 ,didactic he %all conf9e himself to ! matt]s & premisses ( a giv5 sci5ce1--9 ,dialectic1 to matt]s probable ( :atev] k9d !y may be4 ,transgression ( ^! conditions con/itutes unfair & di%one/ manoeuvre1 :e!r ( tea*] or que/ion]2 l brea* ( ! regulations on ! "p ( competitors1 b5t on victory at all price1 9 ! ,olympic games4 ,ari/otle ranks ?is di%one/y z a species1 "u ! "n ( ,sophi/ic or ,eri/ic1 admitt+ ( be+ analys$ & def9$2#af & 8 treatise on ,sophi/ical ,refutations is int5d$ to describe & illu/rate ! ,loci belong+ to x1 & contribut+ to its purpose4#ag ,footnote #af3 ,soph4 ,el4 xi4 p4 #aga1 b4 #bb3 ,greek3 7_/sp] gar 7 e7n a7gni a7diki_/a ei7d_/s ti e7_/*ei kai e7_//9 a7dikoma*i_/a tis1 ou7_/ts e7n a7ntilogi_/a a7dikoma*i_/a 7 e7ri/ik_/ e7/92 e7kei te gar oi7 pa_/nts nikan proair\_/m5oi pa_/ntn a7_/ptontai1 kai e7ntau?a oi7 e7ri/ikoi_/4 ,footnote #ag3 ,soph4 ,el4 ix4 p4 #agj1 a4 #cd3 ,greek3 dlon ou7n o7_/ti ou7 pa_/ntn tn e7_/leg*n a7lla tn p>a tn dialektikn lpte_/on t\s to_/p\s4 ,fallaci\s dialectical refutation be+ ?us ref]r$ altoge!r to di%one/y ( purpose 7ei!r cont5ti\s or pr(it-seek+7 & be+ assum$ z unkn[n 9 fair dialectical debate1 we h to see by :at *>act]i/ic ,ari/otle discrim9ates fallaci\s premisses f fair & admissible premisses4 ,dialectic 7he tells u7 has = its appropriate matt] probable premisses--beliefs accr$it$ ei!r by ! multitude or by a wise few4 ,b 7he goes on to say7 n ev]y?+ :i* appe>s probable is really probable4 ,no?+ t is really probable is a m]e sup]ficial fancy2 :]ev] ?is la/ is ! case1 ! probabilia are app>5t only & n real2 !y h ! "* ( falsehood /amp$ ^u !m1 s z to be imm$iately manife/ & obvi\s1 ev5 to p]sons ( v n>r[ intellig5ce4 ,x is su* app>5t probabilia z ^!1 :i* make up ! premisses ( eri/ic or sophi/ic disc\rse1 & ^u :i* ! sophi/ical or fallaci\s refutations turn4#ah ,footnote #ah3 ,topic4 ,i4 i4 p4 #ajj1 b4 #bc3 ,greek3 e7ri/ikos d' e7_//i sullogismos o7 e7k pha9ome_/nn e7ndo_/xn m o7_/ntn de_/1 kai o7 e7x e7ndo_/xn 7 pha9ome_/nn e7ndo_/xn pha9o_/m5os4 ou7 gar pan to pha9o_/m5on e7_/ndoxon1 kai e7_//9 e7_/ndoxon4 ou7!n gar tn legome_/nn e7ndo_/xn e7pipo_/laion e7_/*ei pantels tn phantasi_/an1 ka?a_/p] p]i tas tn e7ri/ikn lo_/gn a7r*as sumbe_/bk5 e7_/*e92 p>a*rma gar kai 7s e7pi to polu_/ tois kai mikra sunoran duname_/nois kata_/dlos e7n au7tois 7 t\ pseu_/d\s e7/i phu_/sis4 ,comp>e ,soph4 ,el4 ii4 p4 #afe1 b4 #g4 ,ari/otle ?us draws a broad & m>k$ l9e betwe5 ,dialectic on ! "o h&1 & ,eri/ic or ,sophi/ic on ! o!r2 & he treats ! :ole important doctr9e ( ,logical ,fallacies z com+ "u ?is latt] dep>tm5t4 ,! di/9ction t he draws betwe5 !m is two-fold3 fir/ z to purpose1 next z to subject-matt]4 ,on ! "p ( ! litigi\s or sophi/ical debat] !re is ! illicit purpose ( victory at all co/1 or = pr(it2 & probabilities m]ely app>5t--su* z any "o may see n to be real probabilities--con/itute ! matt] ( 8 syllogisms4 ,n[1 z to ! di/9ction ( purpose1 we may put aside ! idea ( pr(it z hav+ no ess5tial connection ) ! "q4 ,x is q possible to suppose ! fair ,dialectician1 n less ?an ! ,sophi/1 z exhibit+ 8 skill = pecuni>y rew>d2 :ile ! eag]ness = victory on bo? sides is absolutely indisp5sable ev5 9 well-conduct$ debate1 9 ord] t ! appropriate /imulus & b5efit ( dialectical ex]cise may be realiz$4 ,b1 if ! di/9ction ( purpose & proc$ure1 betwe5 ! ,dialectician & ! ,sophi/1 is ?us undef9$ & unsatisfactory1 /ill m unsatisfactory is ! di/9ction ( subject-matt]4 ,to discrim9ate betwe5 :at is really probable 7i4e41 accr$it$ ei!r by ! multitude or by a wise few71 & :at is only probable 9 appe>ance & n 9 reality--is a task ( extreme difficulty4 ,! explanation giv5 by ,ari/otle himself#ai--:5 he describes ! app>5tly probable z t :i* has only sup]ficial %[1 & :i* ! mo/ ord9>y intellig5ce disc]ns at once to be false--includes only ! m gross & obvi\s fallacies1 b leaves out all ! re/4 ,no?+ c be m incorrect ?an ! assumption1 9 reg>d to fallacies g5]ally1 t ! appe>ance ( probability is too fa9t to impose ^u any ord9>y man4 ,if all fallacies c\ld be suppos$ to come "u ?is def9ition1 ! !ory ( ,fallacies w\ld und\bt$ly be wor?less 7z ,mr4 ,po/e sugge/s t x is1 9 ! ,preface to 8 translation ( ! ,sophi/ici ,el5*i72 & ! mo/ di%one/ ,sophi/ w\ld at any rate be h>mless4 ,b1 9 fact1 ,ari/otle himself dep>ts f ?is def9ition ev5 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! ,sophi/ici ,el5*i2 = he !re treats ! sophi/ic syllogism & refutation z hav+ a semblance ( validity plausible en\gh to impose ^u _m p]sons1 & to be difficult ( detection2 l base metals hav+ ! ext]ior appe>ance ( gold & silv]1 & l m5 got up = ! purpose ( look+ f9] & /rong] ?an !y really are4#bj ,"h we h ! eri/ic or sophi/ic syllogism pres5t$ z fallaci\s1 yet z v likely to be mi/ak5 = tru?1 by unprep>$ auditors1 unless w>n+ & precaution be appli$2 n 7z x 0 set =? 9 ! def9ition above cit$7 z be>+ ! pla9 & obvi\s /amp ( falsehood1 recognizable ev5 by ! vulg>4 ,at ! "t :5 ,ari/otle con/ruct$ t def9ition1 he probably _h pres5t to 8 m9d su* c>icatures ( dialectical que/ions z ,plato 79 ! dialogue ,eu?ydmus7 puts into ! m\? ( ! ,sophi/s ,eu?ydmus & ,dionysodorus4 ,&1 s9ce ,ari/otle *ose to connect fallaci\s reason+ ) di%one/ purposes1 & to ann\nce x z employ$ exclusively by di%one/ debat]s1 he seems to h f\nd satisfaction 9 describ+ x z some?+ :i* no hone/ man ( ord9>y und]/&+ c\ld accept z true3 ! ,sophi/ be+ ?us pres5t$ n m]ely z a knave b z a fool4 ,footnote #ai3 ,topic4 ,i4 i4 p4 #ajj1 b4 #bd1 seq4 ,footnote #bj3 ,soph4 ,el4 i4 p4 #afd1 a4 #bc-;b4 #bg4 ,greek3 ton au7ton de tro_/pon kai sullogismos kai e7_/leg*os o7 men e7_//91 o7 d' ou7k e7_//i me_/n1 phai_/netai de dia tn a7peiri_/an2 oi7 gar a7_/peiroi 7_/sp] a7n a7pe_/*ontes po_/r7r7!n !r\s94 ,i ?9k x a mi/ake on ! "p ( ,ari/otle to treat ! fallacies incid5tal to ! human intellect z if !y 7 m]e traps laid by ,sophi/s & litigants2 & z if !y w\ld nev] %[ !mselves1 assum+ dialectical debate to be conduct$ entirely ) a view to its legitimate purposes ( te/+ a !sis & foll[+ out argum5tative consequ5ces4 ,x is true t1 if !re are infirmities incid5t to ! human intellect1 a di%one/ disputant w be likely to take advantage ( !m4 ,s f> x may be well to note 8 pres5ce4 ,b ! di%one/ disputant does n orig9ate ^! infirmities3 he f9ds !m already exi/+1 & manife/$ undesign$ly n m]ely 9 dialectical debate1 b ev5 9 ord9>y disc\rse4 ,x is ! bus9ess ( ^? :o !orize on ! intellectual processes to specify & discrim9ate ! ,fallacies z liabilities to intellectual error among mank9d 9 g5]al1 hone/ or di%one/1 ) a view to precaution aga9/ _! occurr5ce1 or correction if !y d occur2 n to pres5t !m z inv5tions ( a class ( pr(essional *eats1#ba or z t>es s[n by ! enemy 9 a field :]e ! natural gr[? w\ld be no?+ b pure :eat4 ,footnote #ba3 ,soph4 ,el4 i4 p4 #afe1 a4 #ai1 seq4 ,9 po9t ( fact ! actual classification ( ,fallacies giv5 by ,ari/otle is f> s\nd] ?an 8 ann\ncem5t w\ld lead u to expect4 ,?\gh he entitles !m ,sophi/ical ,refutations1 describ+ !m z int5tionally cultivat$ & exclusively practis$ by pr(essional ,sophi/s = ga91 or by unpr9cipl$ litigants = victory1 yet he recognises !m z (t5 v difficult ( detection1 & z an ess5tial portion ( ! !ory ( ,dialectic g5]ally4#bb ,! v>i\s g5]al heads "u :i* he di/ributes !m are ea* *>act]iz$ by intellectual or logical m>ks4 ,footnote #bb3 ,ibid4 xi4 p4 #agb1 b4 #g4 ,8 fir/ & mo/ g5]al obs]vation is1 t language is ! usual m$ium & in/rum5t ?r\gh :i* fallacies are op]at$4#bc ,names & propositions are ( necessity limit$ 9 numb]2 b ?+s nam$ or nameable are innum]able2 h5ce x happ5s inevitably t ! same "n or ! same proposition mu/ h sev]al diff]5t mean+s4 ,s9ce we _c talk ( ?+s except by means ( _! names1 ! equivocation insep>able f ^! names is a con/ant s\rce ( false conclusions4#bd ,footnote #bc3 ,ibid4 i4 p4 #afe1 a4 #e4 ,footnote #bd3 ,ibid4 a4 #aj3 ,greek3 ta men gar o7no_/mata pepe_/rantai kai to tn lo_/gn pl?os1 ta de pra_/gmata ton a7ri?mon a7_/peira_/ e7/94 a7nagkaion ou7n plei_/ ton au7ton lo_/gon kai t\7_/noma to e7n smai_/ne94 ,9 dialectical proc$ure1 ! ,sophi/ & ! litigi\s debat] aim at ! accompli%m5t ( five di/+ui%able ends3--7#a7 ,to refute1 or obta9 ! false appe>ance ( refut+1 ! !sis2 7#b7 ,to cat*1 or appe> to cat*1 ! oppon5t 9 affirm+ some?+ false or contradictory2 7#c7 ,or 9 affirm+ some?+ p>adoxical2 7#d7 ,or 9 utt]+ incorrect & ungrammatical spee*2 7#e7 ,or 9 tautological repetition4 ,! fir/ ( ^! five ends is :at ! ,sophi/ mo/ desires2 :]e t _c be _h1 !n1 z second>y purposes1 ! succe$+ f\r1 9 ! ord] 9 :i* !y are enum]at$4#be ,footnote #be3 ,soph4 ,el4 iii4 p4 #afe1 b4 #ab-bb4 ,! syllogism :]eby ! ,sophi/ appe>s to refute )\t really refut+1 is ei!r faulty 9 =m1 or untrue 9 matt]1 or irrelevant to ! purpose4 ,! ,fallacies t he employs to br+ ab\t ?is deceitful appe>ance ( refutation are v>i\s1 & may be di/ribut$ fir/ "u two great divisions3-- ,i4 ,fallaci ,dictionis4 ,,ii4 ,fallaci ,extra ,dictionem4 ,i4 ,! fir/ division--,fallaci ,dictionis--includes all ^? cases :]e91 "u ! same t]ms or propositions1 m ?an "o mean+ is express$4 ,six heads may be di/+ui%$3-- #a4 ,homonymy 7,equivocation73 :]e ! d\ble mean+ resides 9 "o s+le t]m--n\n or v]b4 #b4 ,amphiboly3 :]e ! d\ble mean+ resides1 n 9 a s+le ^w b1 9 a comb9ation ( words--proposition1 phrase1 or s5t5ce4 #c4 ,conjunction 7h>dly di/+ui%able f t imm$iately prec$+--,amphiboly74 #d4 ,disjunction3 :]e :at is affirm$ conjunctively is n true disjunctively1 or ! rev]se4 7,e4g41 ,five are two & ?ree2 b y _c say1 ,five are ev5 & odd4 ,! great] is equal & some?+ besides2 b y _c say1 ,! great] is equal47 #e4 ,acc5tuation3 :]e ! same ^w diff]5tly acc5tuat$ has a diff]5t mean+4 #f4 ,figura ,dictionis3 :]e two words1 f be+ analog\s 9 =m1 /ructure1 or conjugation1 are errone\sly suppos$ to be analog\s 9 mean+ also4#bf ,footnote #bf3 ,ibid4 iv4 p4 #afe1 b4 #bc-p4 #aff1 b4 #ai4 ,su* are ! six heads ( ,fallaci ,dictionis--,fallacies or ,p>alogisms aris+ f words z su*1 or some?+ directly app]ta9+ to !m4 ,,ii4 ,"u ! second division--,fallacies or ,p>alogisms ,extra ,dictionem--!re are sev5 heads3 #a4 ,fallacia ,accid5tis4 #b4 ,fallacia a dicto ,secundum ,quid ad dictum ,simplicit]4 #c4 ,ignoratio ,el5*i4 #d4 ,fallacia ,consequ5tis #e4 ,petitio ,pr9cipii4 #f4 ,non ,causa pro ,caus4 #g4 ,fallacia ,plurium ,int]rogationum4#bg ,footnote #bg3 ,soph4 ,el4 v4 p4 #aff1 b4 #bj-bg4 #a4 ,! fir/ ( ^! v>ieties1 call$ ,fallacia ,accid5tis1 arises :5 a syllogism is made to conclude t1 because a giv5 pr$icate may be truly affirm$ ( a giv5 subject1 ! same pr$icate may also be truly affirm$ respect+ all ! accid5ts ( t subject3 z :5 ,koriskus is d5i$ to be a man1 because he is n ,sokrates1 :o is a man2 or is d5i$ to be ,koriskus1 because he is a man1 :ile a man is n ,koriskus4 ,9 ! title giv5 to ?is g5]al head ( ,fallacy1#bh we mu/ und]/& ,accid5t1 n 9 its special logical s5se z oppos$ to ,ess5ce1 b 9 a f> l>g] s5se1 includ+ bo? ,g5us :5 pr$icat$ sep>ately f ,diff]5tia1 & ,diff]5tia :5 pr$icat$ sep>ately f ,g5us2 includ+1 9 fact1 e ?+ :i* is di/+ui%able f ! subject 9 any way1 & at ! same "t pr$icable ( x--e ?+ except ! ,def9ition1 :i* conjo9s ,g5us & ,diff]5tia toge!r1 & is ?us id5tical & conv]tible ) ! def9itum4 ,footnote #bh3 ,ibid4 b4 #bi3 ,greek3 oi7 p>a to sumbebkos p>alogismoi_/4 ,e man is an animal2 b1 because a pr$icate is true ( ! subject man1 y _c inf] t ! same pr$icate is true ( ! subject animal4 ,?is title compreh5ds )9 its range ano!r1 :i* is pres5tly ann\nc$ z di/9ct & sep>ate--,fallacia ,consequ5tis4 #b4 ,! second g5]al v>iety arises :5 a proposition is affirm$ ) qualification or limitation 9 ! premisses1 b is affirm$ )\t qualification1 simply & absolutely1 9 ! conclusion4 ,! ,e?iopian is :ite 9 8 tee? & black 9 8 sk92 !re=e1 he is bo? :ite & n :ite--bo? :ite & black4 ,9 ?is example ! fallacy is obvi\s1 & c h>dly escape any "o2 b !re are _m o!r cases 9 :i* ! di/9ction is n s conspicu\s1 & 9 :i* ! respond5t w hesitate :e!r he ought to grant or refuse a "q simply & absolutely4#bi ,"o example giv5 by ,ari/otle des]ves notice on its own acc\nt3 ,non-,ens e/ op9abile1 !re=e ,non-,ens e/2 or1 aga91 ,ens non e/ homo1 !re=e1 ,ens non e/4 ,?is is "o among ,ari/otle's ways ( br++ to view :at mod]n logicians describe z ! d\ble function ( ! sub/antive v]b--to s]ve z copula 9 pr$ication1 & to pr$icate exi/5ce4#cj ,he reg>ds ! confusion betwe5 ^! two functions z an example ( ! ,fallacy n[ be=e u--( pass+ a dicto ,secundum ,quid ad dictum ,simplicit]4#ca ,footnote #bi3 ,ibid4 b4 #cg1 seq4 ,greek3 o7_/tan to e7n me_/rei lego_/m5on 7s a7pls ei7rme_/non lph?--to de toi\ton e7p' e7ni_/n men panti !rsai r7a_/dion--e7p' e7ni_/n de lan?a_/nei polla_/kis4 ,footnote #cj3 ,! same d\ble or multiple mean+ ( ,e/ is discrim9at$ by ,ari/otle 9 ! ,metaphysica1 b 9 a diff]5t way--,greek3 to o7n 7s a7l!_/s1 kai to m o7n 7s pseudos--,greek3 ,d4 vii4 p4 #ajag1 a4 #ca2 ,e4 iv4 p4 #ajbg1 b4 #ah-cf4 ,bonitz 7ad4 ,metaphys4 ,z4 iv4 p4 #caj7 says3--,quid quod etiam illud esse huc ref]t1 quo non exi/5tiam significamus1 s$ pr$icati cum subjecto conjunctionem4 ,ari/otle is ev5 m precise ?an mod]n logicians 9 analys+ ! diff]5t mean+s ( ,greek3 to o7_/n3 he di/+ui%es f\r ( !m4 ,footnote #ca3 ,soph4 ,el4 v4 p4 #afg1 a4 #a3 ,greek3 oi7on ei7 to m o7_/n e7/i doxa/o_/n1 o7_/ti to m o7n e7_//92 ou7 gar tau7ton ei7nai te_/ ti kai ei7nai a7pls4 ,comp>e ,metaphys4 ,z4 iv4 p4 #ajcj1 a4 #be1 & ,de ,int]pretatione1 p4 #ba1 a4 #be-cd3 ,greek3 7_/sp] ,o7_/mro_/s e7/i_/ ti1 oi7on poit_/s2 a7r' ou7n kai e7_//91 7 ou7_/8 kata sumbebkos gar katgoreitai t\ ,o7m_/r\ to e7_//92 o7_/ti gar poit_/s e7/91 a7ll' ou7 ka?' au7to_/1 katgoreitai kata t\ ,o7m_/r\ to e7_//94 ,x is cle> f ! above passages t ,ari/otle 0 ?or\ghly aw>e ( ! logical fact :i* ,hobbes1 ,james ,mill1 & ,mr4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill1 h m fully br\ght out & illu/rat$1 z ! confusion betwe5 ! two di/9ct functions ( ! sub/antive v]b4 ,_m excell5t rem>ks on ! subject w be f\nd 9 ! ',sy/em ( ,logic1' by ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill 7,bk4 ,i4 *4 iv4 s4 #a72 also 9 ! ',analysis ( ! ,human ,m9d1' by ,james ,mill1 especially 9 ! rec5t edition ( t "w1 conta9+ ! explanatory notes by ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill & ,dr4 ,f9dlat] 7,vol4 ,i4 *4 iv4 p4 #agd1 seq474 ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 h[ev]1 speaks too unres]v$ly ( ?is confusion z hav+ escap$ ! notice ( ,ari/otle1 & z hav+ be5 br\ght to light only by or s9ce ,hobbes4 ,he says 79 a note on ! ',analysis1' p4 #ahc73--;,z 9 ! case ( _m o!r lum9\s ?\ghts1 an approa* is f\nd to h be5 made to x by previ\s ?9k]s4 ,hobbes1 ?\gh he did n rea* x1 came v close to x2 & x 0 /ill m di/9ctly anticipat$ by ,l>omiguire1 ?\gh )\t any suffici5t p]ception ( its value 4 4 4 9 ! foll[+ words3--',qu& on dit1 l'tre e/1 c41 le mot e/1 ou le v]be1 n'exprime pas la mme *ose que le mot tre1 sujet de la df9ition4 ,si j'nonce la proposition suivante3 ,dieu e/ exi/ant1 je ne v\drais pas dire assurm5t1 ,dieu exi/e exi/ant3 cela ne f]ait pas un s5s3 de mme1 si je dis que ,virgile e/ pote1 je ne veux pas donn] ent5dre que ,virgile exi/e4 ,le v]be e/ dans la proposition n'exprime dont pas l'exi/5ce relle2 il n'exprime qu'un rapport spcial entre le sujet et l'attribut1 c4' ,! passages above cit$ f ,ari/otle %[ t he _h n only enunciat$ ! same tru? z ,l>omiguire1 b ev5 illu/rat$ x by ! same example 7,hom] in/ead ( ,virgil74 ,i %all 9 ano!r place /ate m fully ! views ( ,ari/otle respect+ ,exi/5ce4 #c4 ,! ?ird ( ^! heads ( ,fallacy--,ignoratio ,el5*i--is1 :5 ! speak]1 pr(ess+ to contradict ! !sis1 advances ano!r proposition :i* contradicts x 9 appe>ance only b n 9 reality1 because he does n "k :at are ! true & suffici5t conditions ( a valid ,el5*us4 ,9 ord] to be valid1 x mu/ be real1 n m]ely v]bal2 x mu/ be prov$ by good syllogi/ic premisses1 )\t any ,petitio ,pr9cipii2 & x mu/ d5y ! same matt]1 9 ! same relations1 & at ! same "t1 z t :i* ! !sis affirm$4 ,?us1 x is no contradiction to affirm & d5y d\bl5ess ( ! same body2 bo? affirmation & d5ial may be true1 if y take ! comp>ison aga9/ diff]5t numb]s or diff]5t bodies1 or at diff]5t times4 ,sometimes p]sons neglect "s ( ^! conditions1 & fancy t !y h contradict$ ! !sis1 :5 !y h n3 ?is is ,ignoratio ,el5*i4#cb 7,if ! !sis be an affirmative univ]sal1 x is suffici5t contradiction if y prove a negative p>ticul> aga9/ x47 ,footnote #cb3 ,soph4 ,el4 v4 p4 #afg1 a4 #ba-ce3 ,greek3 oi7 de p>a to m diri_//hai ti_/ e7/i sullogismos 7 ti_/ e7_/leg*os1 a7lla p>a tn e7_/lleips9 gi_/nontai t\ lo_/g\4 ,we may rem>k1 by ! way1 t x is n v consi/5t 9 ,ari/otle to recognize "o g5]al head ( ,sophi/ical ,refutation call$ ,ignoratio ,el5*i1 aft] ! def9ition t he has giv5 ( ! ,sophi/ at ! beg9n+ ( ?is treatise4 ,he _h told u t ! ,sophi/ 0 a di%one/ man1 :o made x 8 pr(ession to /udy & practise ^! tricks1 = ! purpose ( mak+ himself pass = a clev] man1 & ( gett+ money4 ,accord+ to ?is def9ition1 !re is no ,ignoratio ,el5*i 9 ! ,sophi/1 ?\gh !re may be 9 ! p]son :o supposes himself refut$4 ,! ,sophi/ is assum$ to "k :at he is ab\t1 & to be aw>e t 8 argum5t is a fallaci\s "o4 #d4 ,! f\r? head includes :at are call$ ,fallaci ,consequ5tis3 :5 a man inv]ts ! relation betwe5 pr$icate & subject 9 a categorical proposition affirmative & univ]sal1 ?9k+ t x may be simply conv]t$ or t ! subject may be truly affirm$ ( ! pr$icate2 or :51 9 an hypo!tical proposition1 he inv]ts ! relation betwe5 antec$5t & consequ5t1 argu+ t1 because ! consequ5t is true1 ! antec$5t mu/ = t reason be true also4 ,honey is ( yell[ col\r2 y see a yell[ sub/ance1 & y inf] = t reason t x mu/ be honey4 ,?ieves g5]ally walk out by night2 y f9d a man walk+ out by night1 & y inf] t he mu/ be a ?ief4 ,^! are inf]5ces f ,signs1 op9ions f\nd$ on facts ( s5se1 su* z are usually employ$ 9 ,rhetoric2 (t5 or usually true1 b n necess>ily or univ]sally true1 & !re=e fallaci\s :5 us$ z premisses 9 a syllogism4#cc ,footnote #cc3 ,soph4 ,el4 v4 p4 #afg1 b4 #a-ah4 ,?is head 7,fallacia ,consequ5tis7 is n ess5tially di/+ui%able f ! fir/ 7,fallacia ,accid5tis71 be+ no?+ m ?an a peculi> species or v>iety !re(1 z ,ari/otle himself admits a little f>!r on--vi4 p4 #afh1 a4 #bf2 vii4 p4 #afi1 b4 #g2 viii4 p4 #agj1 a4 #c4 ,comp>e also xxviii4 p4 #aha1 a4 #be4 #e4 ,! fif? head is t ( ,petitio ,pr9cipii3 a man sometimes assumes = 8 premiss :at is id5tical ) ! conclusion to be prov$1 )\t be+ aw>e ( ! id5tity4#cd ,footnote #cd3 ,ibid4 v4 p4 #afg1 a4 #ch3 ,greek3 dia to m du_/na/hai sunoran to tau7ton kai to e7_/t]on4 #f4 ,! six? head ( ,fallacy--,non ,causa pro ,caus--is1 :5 we mi/ake = a cause t :i* is n really a cause2 or1 to drop ! mislead+ ^w cause1 & to adopt ! cle>] t]ms 9 :i* ?is same fallacy is ann\nc$ 9 ! ,analytica ,priora#ce--,non p] ,hoc--,non propt] ,hoc1 x arises :5 we put =w>d1 z an ess5tial premiss ( a giv5 conclusion1 some?+ t is n really an ess5tial premiss !re(4 ,:5 y int5d to refute a giv5 !sis by %[+1 t1 if admitt$1 x leads to impossible or absurd conclusions1 y mu/ enunciate t !sis itself among ! premisses t lead to su* absurdities4#cf ,b1 ?\gh enunciat$ 9 ?is place1 x may (t5 happ5 t ! !sis may be an unnecess>y adjunct--n among ! premisses really p]t95t & ess5tial3 & t ! impossible conclusion may be suffici5tly prov$1 ev5 ?\gh ! !sis 7 omitt$4 ,/ill1 s9ce ! !sis is decl>$ along ) ! re/1 x w appe> falsely to be a "p ( ! real pro(4 ,x w (t5 appe> s ev5 to y\rself ! que/ion]2 y n detect+ ! fallacy4#cg ,"u su* circum/ances ! respond5t meets y by ,non propt] ,hoc4 ,he admits y\r conclusion to be impossible1 & at ! same "t to be duly prov$1 b he %[s y t x is prov$ by evid5ce indep5d5t ( 8 !sis1 & n by reason or means ( 8 !sis4 ,accord+ly y h advanc$ a syllogism good 9 itself1 b n good = ! purpose :i* y aim$ at2#ch viz41 to refute ! !sis by e/abli%+ t x l$ to impossible consequ5ces4 ,y w fail1 ev5 if ! impossible consequ5ce :i* y advance is a proposition conjo9$ ) ! !sis ?r\gh a cont9u\s s]ies ( int]m$iate propositions1 ea* ( !m hav+ "o common t]m ) ! next4 ,mu* m w y fail1 if y\r impossible consequ5ce is q =eign & unconnect$ ) ! !sis2 z we sometimes f9d 9 ,dialectic4 ,footnote #ce3 ,ibid4 b4 #ba2 vii4 p4 #afi1 b4 #ac4 ,comp>e ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,,ii4 xvii4 p4 #fe4 ,9 comm5t+ on ! above *apt] ( ! ,analytica ,priora1 ,i h already rem>k$ 7,vol4 ,i4 p4 #beh1 note7 h[ mu* bett] is ! designation !re giv5 ( ! pres5t fallacy--,non p] ,hoc 7,greek3 ou7 p>a tn !_/s9 to pseudos7--?an ! designation "h giv5 ( ! same fallacy--,non ,causa pro ,caus4 ,ari/otle is speak+ ( a syllogi/ic process1 consi/+ ( premisses & a conclusion2 ! premisses be+ ! reasons or gr\nds ( ! conclusion1 n ! cause !re(1 z t t]m is commonly und]/ood4 ,! t]m cause is "o us$ 9 s _m diff]5t s5ses t we _c be too c>eful 9 reason+ ^u x4 ,see ,:ately's rem>ks on ?is subject1 ,bk4 iii4 ,sect4 #ad1 ( 8 ,logic3 also 8 ,app5dix ,i4 to t "w1 "u article ,reason4 ,footnote #cf3 ,soph4 ,el4 v4 p4 #afg1 b4 #bd3 ,greek3 e7an ou7n e7gkat>i?m_/? e7n tois a7nagkai_/ois e7rt_/masi pros to sumbainon a7du_/naton1 d_/xei p>a t\to gi_/ne/hai polla_/kis o7 e7_/leg*os4 ,footnote #cg3 ,ibid4 b4 #ce3 ,greek3 kai lan?a_/nei polla_/kis ou7* 7tton au7t\s t\s e7rtntas to toi\ton4 ,footnote #ch3 ,ibid4 b4 #cd3 ,greek3 a7sullo_/gi/oi men ou7n a7pls ou7k ei7sin oi7 toi\toi lo_/goi1 pros de to prokei_/m5on a7sullo_/gi/oi4 #g4 ,! sev5? & la/ ( ^! heads ( ,fallacy is1 :5 ! que/ion] puts two di/9ct que/ions 9 ! same =m ( words1 z if !y 7 "o--,fallacia ,plurium ,int]rogationum ut ,unius4 ,9 well-conduct$ ,dialectic ! respond5t 0 assum$ to reply ei!r ,yes or ,no to ! "q put2 or1 if x 0 put 9 ! =m ( an alt]native1 he accept$ di/9ctly "o t]m ( ! alt]native4 ,"u su* conditions he c\ld n reply to "o ( ^! d\ble-t]m$ que/ions )\t speak+ falsely or committ+ himself4 ,are ! e>? & ! sea liquid8 ,is ! heav5 or ! e>? sea8 ,! que/ions are improp]ly put1 & nei!r admits ( any "o correct answ]4 ,y ought to conf9e y\rself to "o "q at a "t1 ) "o subject & "o pr$icate1 mak+ :at is prop]ly und]/ood by "o s+le proposition4 ,! two que/ions "h /at$ z examples ought prop]ly to be put z f\r4#ci ,footnote #ci3 ,ibid4 b4 #ch-p4 #afh1 a4 #af2 vi4 p4 #afi1 a4 #f-ab4 ,greek3 7 gar pro_/tasi_/s e7/9 e7n ka?' e7no_/s4--ei7 ou7n mi_/a pro_/tasis 7 e7n ka?' e7nos a7xi\sa1 kai a7pls e7_//ai pro_/tasis 7 toiau_/t e7r_/tsis4 ,! examples giv5 ( ?is fallacy by ,ari/otle are s palpable--! exp\nd] ( e fallacy mu/ make x cle> by giv+ examples t e "o sees ?r\gh at once--t we are tempt$ to imag9e t no "o c be impos$ on by x4 ,b ,ari/otle himself rem>ks1 v ju/ly1 t !re occur _m cases 9 :i* we d n readily see :e!r "o "q only1 or m ?an "o1 is involv$2 & 9 :i* "o answ] is made1 ?\gh two que/ions are conc]n$4 ,to set out di/9ctly all ! sep>ate debateable po9ts is "o ( ! mo/ ess5tial precautions = ensur+ correct decision4 ,! importance ( su* discrim9at+ sep>ation is "o ( ! f\r rules prescrib$ by ,desc>tes 9 8 ,disc\rs de la ,m?ode4 ,! pres5t case comes "u ,mr4 ,mill's ,fallacies ( ,confusion4 ,ari/otle has ?us di/+ui%$ & classifi$ ,fallacies "u ?irte5 di/9ct heads 9 all--six ,9 ,dictione1 & sev5 ,extra ,dictionem2 among :i* la/ "o is ,ignoratio ,el5*i4 ,he n[ proce$s to %[ t1 9 ano!r way ( look+ at ! matt]1 all ! ,fallacies rang$ "u ! ?irte5 heads1 may be %[n to be r$ucible to ?is s+le "o--,ignoratio ,el5*i4 ,e ,fallacy1 :atev] x be1 transgresses or fails to satisfy1 9 "s way or o!r1 ! canons or conditions :i* g to con/itute a valid ,el5*us1#dj or a valid ,syllogism4 ,= a true ,el5*us is only "o mode ( a true ,syllogism2 namely1 t ( :i* ! conclusion is contradictory to "s giv5 !sis or proposition4#da ,) ?is p>ticul> add$1 ! def9ition ( a valid ,syllogism w also be ! def9ition ( a good ,el5*us4 ,& ?us ,ignoratio ,el5*i--misconception or neglect ( ! conditions ( a good ,el5*us--und]/ood 9 its l>ge/ mean+1 is r a *>act]i/ic common to all v>ieties ( ,fallacy1 ?an "o v>iety among o!rs4#db ,footnote #dj3 ,soph4 ,el4 vi4 p4 #afh1 a4 #ai3 ,greek3 e7_//i gar a7_/pantas a7nalusai t\s le*!_/ntas tro_/p\s ei7s ton t\ e7le_/g*\ diorismo_/n4 ,footnote #da3 ,ibid4 a4 #ce4 ,footnote #db3 ,ibid4 p4 #afi1 b4 #ae4 ,9 reg>d to two among ! ?irte5 heads--,fallacia ,accid5tis & ,fallacia ,consequ5tis 7:i* h[ev] ought prop]ly to rank z only "o head1 s9ce ! second is m]ely a p>ticul> v>iety ( ! fir/7--,ari/otle's obs]vations are rem>kable4 ,aft] hav+ po9t$ out t a ,syllogism embody+ ?is fallacy w n be valid or conclusive 7?us %[+ t x involves ,ignoratio ,el5*i71 he affirms t ev5 sci5tific m5 7 (t5 n aw>e ( x1 & conceiv$ !mselves to be really refut$ by an unsci5tific oppon5t urg+ aga9/ !m su* an inconclusive syllogism4 ,to take an example3--,e triangle has its ?ree angles equal to two "r angles2 e triangle is a figure2 !re=e1 e figure has its ?ree angles equal to two "r angles4#dc ,"h we h an invalid syllogism2 = x is 9 ! ,?ird figure1 & s9s aga9/ ! conditions ( t figure1 by exhibit+ an univ]sal affirmative conclusion3 x is a syllogism prop]ly conclud+ 9 ,d>apti1 b ) conclusion improp]ly g5]aliz$4 ,yet ,ari/otle intimates t a sci5tific geomet] ( 8 day1 9 argum5t ) an unsci5tific oppon5t1 w\ld admit ! conclusion to be well prov$1 n kn[+ h[ to po9t out :]e ! fallacy lay3 he w\ld1 if ask$1 grant ! premisses necess>y = con/ruct+ su* a syllogism2 &1 ev5 if n ask$1 w\ld suppose t he _h already grant$ !m1 or t !y ought to be grant$4#dd ,footnote #dc3 ,ibid4 p4 #afh1 a4 #dj3 ,greek3 ou7d' ei7 to tri_/gnon duoin o7r?ain i7_/sas e7_/*ei1 sumbe_/bke d' au7t s*_/mati ei7nai 7 pr_/t 7 a7r*1 o7_/ti s*ma 7 a7r* 7 prton t\to4 ,"h we h ,figure reckon$ z an accid5t ( ,triangle4 ,?is is a specim5 ( ,ari/otle's occasional laxity 9 employ+ ! ^w ,greek3 sumbebko_/s4 ,he commonly uses x z contra/$ ) ess5tial1 ( :i* la/ t]m ,mr4 ,po/e says v ju/ly 7notes1 p4 #abi73--,to complete ! /atem5t ( ,ari/otle's view1 x %\ld be add$1 t ess5tial propositions are ^? ^: pr$icate _c be def9$ )\t nam+ ! subject1 or ^: subject _c be def9$ )\t nam+ ! pr$icate4 ,n[ figure is ! g5us to :i* triangle belongs1 & triangle _c be def9$ )\t nam+ its g5us figure4 ,b to include ,g5us z a pr$icable "u ! head ( ,greek3 sumbebko_/sor ,accid5t1 is 9 m>k$ opposition to ,ari/otle's own doctr9e else:]e3 see ,topic4 ,i4 v4 p4 #ajb1 b4 #d2 iv4 p4 #aja1 b4 #ag2 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 ii4 p4 #ga1 b4 #i2 ,metaphys4 ,e4 p4 #ajbf1 b4 #cb4 ,x is a mis=tune t ,ari/otle gave to ?is g5]al head ( ,fallacy ! mislead+ title ( ,fallacia ,accid5tia--,greek3 p>a to sumbebko_/s4 ,:5 he gave ?is title1 he probably _h pres5t to 8 m9d only su* examples z he indicates 9 ,soph4 ,el4 v4 p4 #aff1 b4 #cb4 ,?r\gh\t ! ,topica & else:]e1 ,g5us is di/+ui%$ po9t$ly f ,greek3 sumbebko_/s1 ?\gh examples occur occasionally 9 :i* ! di/9ction is neglect$4 ,! two ,fallacies call$ ,accid5tis & ,consequ5tis1 w\ld bo? be m prop]ly rank$ "u "o common logical title--,suppos$ conv]tibility or int]*angeabl5ess betwe5 ,subject & ,pr$icate--,greek3 ei7 to_/de a7po t\de m *ri_/zetai1 md' a7po ?ate_/r\ *ri_/ze/hai ?a_/t]on 7vii4 p4 #afi1 b4 #h74 ,footnote #dd3 ,soph4 ,el4 vi4 p4 #afh1 b4 #f3 ,greek3 a7lla p>a t\to kai oi7 te*nitai kai o7_/ls oi7 e7pi/_/mones u7po tn a7nepi/mo_/nn e7le_/g*ontai2 kata sumbebkos gar poi\ntai t\s sullogism\s pros t\s ei7d_/tas2 oi7 d' ou7 duna_/m5oi diairein 7 e7rt_/m5oi dido_/as9 7 ou7 d_/ntes oi7_/ontai d$ke_/nai4 ,! passage af=ds u a curi\s insight into ! intellectual grasp ( ! sci5tific m5 contempor>y ) ,ari/otle4 ,mo/ ( !m 7 prep>$ to admit fallaci\s inf]5ces 7su* z ! above7 :i* assum$ ! int]*angeability ( subject & pr$icate4 ,!y _h paid little or no att5tion to ! logical relations betwe5 "o proposition & ano!r1 & betwe5 ! two diff]5t t]ms ( ! same proposition4 ,! diff]5ces ( ess5tial f accid5tal pr$ication1 & ( ea* among ! five ,pr$icables f ! o!rs1 mu/ h be5 practically famili> to !m1 z to o!rs1 f ! habit ( correct speak+ 9 detail2 b !y _h n be5 call$ ^u to consid] correct speak+ & reason+ 9 !ory1 nor to und]/& ^u :at conditions x dep5d$ :e!r ! m>* ( _! argum5tative disc\rse l&$ !m 9 true or false results4 ,&1 if ev5 ! sci5tific m5 7 ?us unaw>e ( logical fallacies1 we may be sure t ?is mu/ h be5 /ill m ! case ) unsci5tific m51 ( ord9>y intellig5ce & education4 ,ari/otle tells u "h1 9 m ?an "o passage1 h[ widespread su* illogical t5d5cies 73 to fancy t two subjects :i* _h "o pr$icate ! same mu/ be ! same ) ea* o!r 9 all respects2#de to und]/& ea* pr$icate appli$ to a subject z be+ itself an indep5d5t subject1 imply+ a new ,hoc ,aliquid or ,unum2#df to treat ! univ]sal1 n z a common epi!t b1 z a sub/antive & s+ul> ap>t2#dg to use equivocal words or phrases1 ev5 ! mo/ wide & vague1 )\t any attempt to discrim9ate _! v>i\s mean+s4#dh ,su* ins5sibility to ! conditions ( accurate reason+ prevail$ alike among ord9>y m5 & among ! m5 ( special sci5ce4 ,a geomet] w\ld be impos$ ^u by ! inconclusive syllogism /at$ 9 ! la/ p>agraph1 :i*1 z be+ f\nd$ on ! ,fallacia ,accid5tia 7or int]*angeability ( subject & pr$icate71 ,ari/otle numb]s among ,sophi/ical ,refutations4 ,su* a refutation1 h[ev]1 ev5 :5 successful1 w\ld n at all prove t ! geomet] 0 defici5t 9 k ( 8 own sci5ce2#di = x w\ld puzzle ! really sci5tific man z well z ! pret5d]4 ,footnote #de3 ,soph4 ,el4 vi4 p4 #afh1 b4 #ca3 ,greek3 ta gar e7ni tau7ta_/1 kai a7ll_/lois a7xi\m5 ei7nai tau7ta_/4--vii4 p4 #afi1 b4 #g3 ,greek3 e7_/ti kai e7pi polln phai_/netai kai a7xi\tai ou7_/ts1 ei7 to_/de a7po t\de m *ri_/zetai1 md' a7po ?ate_/r\ *ri_/ze/hai ?a_/t]on4 ,footnote #df3 ,ibid4 vii4 p4 #afi1 a4 #cc3 ,greek3 o7_/ti pan to katgor\_/m5o_/n t9os u7polamba_/nom5 to_/de ti kai 7s e7n u7pak\_/om52 t gar e7ni kai t ou7si_/a ma_/li/a dokei p>e_/pe/hai to to_/de ti kai to o7_/n4 ,footnote #dg3 ,ibid4 xxii4 p4 #agh1 b4 #cg-p4 #agi1 a4 #aj4 ,footnote #dh3 ,ibid4 vii4 p4 #afi1 a4 #bb4 ,footnote #di3 ,ibid4 viii4 p4 #afi1 b4 #bg3 ,greek3 oi7 de sophi/ikoi e7_/leg*oi1 a7n kai sullogi_/zntai tn a7nti_/phas91 ou7 poi\si dlon ei7 a7gnoei2 kai gar ton ei7d_/ta e7mpodi_/z\si t\_/tois tois lo_/gois4 ,comp>e vi4 p4 #afh1 b4 #f4 ,we mu/ always recollect t ,ari/otle 0 ! fir/ au?or :o /udi$ ! logical relations betwe5 ,t]ms & ,propositions1 ) a view to !ory & to g5]al rules f\nd$ !reupon4 ,! di/9ctions :i* he br\ght to view 7 9 8 "t novelties2 ev5 ! simple/ rules1 su* z ^? relat+ to ! ,conv]sion ( propositions1 or to ,contr>ies & ,contradictories1 _h nev] be5 /at$ 9 g5]al t]ms be=e4 ,up to a c]ta9 po9t1 inde$1 acquir$ habit1 ev5 )\t ^! g5]alities1 w\ld d\btless lead to correct spee* & reason+2 yet liable to be p]v]t$ 9 _m cases by errone\s t5d5cies1 requir+ to be indicat$ & gu>d$ aga9/ by a logician4 ,:5 we are told t ev5 a pr(ess$ geomet] 0 impos$ ^u by ^! fallacies1 we le>n at once h[ deep-seat$ 7 su* illogical defici5cies1 h[ useful 0 ,ari/otle's !oretical /udy 9 m>k+ !m out1 & h[ insuffici5t 0 8 classification :5 he describ$ ! ,fallacies z obvi\s frauds1 broa*$ only by di%one/ pr(essional ,sophi/s4 ,z he himself /ates1 ! cause ( deceit turns ^u a q trifl+ diff]5ce2 hav+ its root 9 ! imp]fection ( language & 9 our frequ5t habit ( us+ words )\t mu* att5tion to logical di/9ctions4#ej ,footnote #ej3 ,soph4 ,el4 vii4 p4 #afi1 b4 #ad3 ,greek3 e7n a7_/pasi gar 7 a7pa_/t dia to p>a mikro_/n2 ou7 gar diakrib\m5 ou7_/te ts prota_/ses ou7_/te t\ sullogism\ ton o7_/ron dia tn ei7rme_/nn ai7ti_/an4 ,comp>e v4 p4 #afg1 a4 #e-ad2 i4 p4 #afe1 a4 #f-ai4 ,"u "o or o!r1 !n1 ( ! ?irte5 g5]al heads above enum]at$1 all ,p>alogisms mu/ be includ$--m]ely app>5t syllogisms1 or refutations1 :i* are n real & valid2#ea & all ( !m designat$ by ,ari/otle z sophi/ic or eri/ic4 ,besides ^!1 moreov]1 he includes1 z we saw1 "u ! same designation1 syllogisms or refutations valid 9 =m1 & true z to conclusion1 yet f\nd$ on premisses n suit$ to ! matt] 9 debate2 i4e41 n suit$ to ,dialectic4 ,n[1 "h x is t difficulty arises4 ,dialectic & ,rhetoric are c>efully di/+ui%$ by ,ari/otle f all ! special sci5ces 7su* z ,geometry1 ,a/ronomy1 ,m$ic9e1 c472 & are con/ru$ z embrac+ e v>iety ( au?oritative dicta1 curr5t beliefs1 & matt]s ( op9ion1 toge!r ) all ! mo/ g5]al maxims & hypo!ses ( ,ontology & ,metaphysics1 ( ,physics & ,e?ics1 & ! common ,axioms assum$ 9 all ! sci5ces1 z discrim9at$ f :at is special & peculi> to ea*4 ,con/ru$ 9 ?is way1 we might imag9e t ! subject-matt] ( ,dialectic 0 all-compreh5sive1 & t e ?+ )\t exception belong$ to x1 except ! specialties ( ,geometry & ( ! o!r sci5ces2 & su* is ! usual language ( ,ari/otle4 ,yet 9 ! treatise be=e u we f9d him ex]t+ himself to e/abli% ano!r classification1 & to "p (f ,dialectic f a c]ta9 o!r sci5ce or art :i* he ackn[l$ges "u ! title ( ,sophi/ic or ,eri/ic4#eb ,else:]e he describes ,sophi/ic z occupi$ 9 ! /udy ( accid5ts or occasional conjunctions2 & ?is *>act]i/ic feature p>ts x (f f ,demon/ration & ,sci5ce4 ,b !re is great] difficulty :5 he tries to "p x (f f ,dialectic4 ,:]e are we to f9d a cle> l9e ( di/9ction betwe5 ! matt] ( dialectic debate 7gymna/ic or te/+7 on ! "o h&1 & ! matt] ( debate sophi/ic or litigi\s1 on ! o!r8 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,topica ,ari/otle assign$1 z ! di/9ction1 t ! ,dialectician argues ^u premisses really probable1 :ile ! litigi\s ,sophi/ takes up premisses :i* are probable 9 appe>ance only1 & n 9 reality2 su* app>5t probabilia 7he goes on to say7 hav+ only ! mo/ sup]ficial semblance ( tru?1 & be+ se5 imm$iately to be manife/ falsehoods by p]sons ( v ord9>y intellig5ce4#ec ,b ,i h already po9t$ out t ?is description ( app>5t probabilia1 if consid]$ z apply+ to fallaci\s reason+ g5]ally1 is bo? unt5able 9 itself1 & contradict$ by ,ari/otle himself else:]e4 ,! tru? is1 t !re is no cle> di/9ction betwe5 ! matt] ( ,dialectic & ! matt] ( ,sophi/ic4 ,& s1 inde$1 ,ari/otle mu/ be und]/ood to admit1 :5 he falls back ^u an alleg$ di/9ction ( aim & purpose betwe5 ! practition]s ( "o & ! o!r4 ,! litigi\s man 7he tells u7 is b5t ^u no?+ b victory 9 debate1 p] fas et nefas3 ! ,sophi/ aims at pass+ himself (f falsely = a wise or clev] man1 & mak+ money !reby4#ed ,footnote #ea3 ,ibid4 viii4 p4 #agj1 a4 #aj4 ,footnote #eb3 ,metaphys4 ,k4 viii4 p4 #ajfd1 b4 #bf3 ,greek3 t\to de 7to sumbebko_/s7 ou7demi_/a ztei tn o7molog\me_/ns ou7sn e7pi/mn1 pln 7 sophi/ik_/2 p]i to sumbebkos gar au7_/t mo_/n pragmateu_/etai4 ,comp>e ,analyt4 ,po/]4 ,i4 ii4 p4 #ga1 b4 #aj4 ,footnote #ec3 ,topic4 ,i1 i4 p4 #ajj1 b4 #bf3 ,greek3 ou7 gar pan to pha9o_/m5on e7_/ndoxon kai e7_//9 e7_/ndoxon4 ou7!n gar tn legome_/nn e7_/ndoxn e7pipo_/laion e7_/*ei pantels tn phantasi_/an1 ka?a_/p] p]i tas tn e7ri/ikn lo_/gn a7r*as sumbe_/bk5 e7_/*e92 p>a*rma gar kai 7s e7pi to polu tois kai mikra sunoran duname_/nois kata_/dlos e7n au7tois 7 t\ pseud\s e7/i phu_/sis4 ,x is by ref]5ce to ?is di/9ction betwe5 ,greek3 e7_/ndoxa :i* are g5u9e & ,greek3 e7_/ndoxa :i* are only su* 9 appe>ance t ! ,s*olia/ 7p4 #cjf1 b4 #dj7 expla9s ! mean+ ( ,ari/otle 9 ! elev5? *apt] ( ,sophi/ici ,el5*i3 ,greek3 o7 men ou7n kata to pragma !rn ta ko9a dialektiko_/s1 o7 de t\to pha9ome_/ns poin sophi/iko_/s 7p4 #aga1 b4 #f-bj74 ,i confess t ,i atta* no di/9ct mean+ to ! words ,greek3 kata to pragma !rn ta ko9a1 :i* *>act]izes ! ,dialectician z contra/$ ) ! ,sophi/2 nor c ,i le>n mu* f ! notes ei!r ( ,waitz1 or ( ,mr4 ,po/e 7p4 #abi1 seq47 on ! passage4 ,take = example ! la/ half ( ! ,p>m5ides ( ,plato1 or ,book ,b4 ( ! ,metaphysics ( ,ari/otle4 ,are we to say t 9 ^! two compositions ,plato & ,ari/otle speculate on to ,greek3 ta ko9a kata to pragma1 or t !y d s only 9 appe>ance8 ,footnote #ed3 ,soph4 ,el4 xi4 p4 #aga1 b4 #be-ce2 i4 p4 #afe1 a4 #ba-ca4 ,n[1 9 reg>d to ! di/9ction ( aim or disposition drawn by ,ari/otle betwe5 ! dialectical disputant & ! litigi\s or sophi/ic disputant1 we see at once1 z 0 be=e sugge/$1 t x lies ap>t f ! critical e/imate ( art1 sci5ce1 or philosophy2 & t x belongs1 s f> z x is well f\nd$1 to ! e/imate ( individuals e?ically & politically1 z wor?y m5 or patriotic citiz5s4 ,:e!r ,euripides or ,sophokles compos$ f9] trag$ies 7z we f9d argu$ 9 ! ,ran ( ,ari/ophanes71 mu/ be decid$ by exam9+ ! trag$ies !mselves1 n by enquir+ :e!r "o ( !m 0 va9 & gre$y ( money1 ! o!r free f ^! blemi%es4 ,a !ori/ :o is lay+ d[n g5]al pr9ciples ( ,rhetoric1 & illu/rat+ !m by ! /udy ( s*9es & ,demo/h5es1 w appreciate ! oration aga9/ ,ktesiphon & ! oration ,de ,coron 9 _! "* ( compositions int5d$ = a p>ticul> purpose4 ,= ,rhetoric x is ( no mom5t :e!r s*9es 0 v5al or dis9t]e/$--a malignant rival or an hone/ patriot2 ?is is an enquiry important inde$1 b belong+ to ! hi/orian & n to ! rhetorical !ori/4 ,:e!r ,ari/otle 0 or 0 n guid$1 9 8 animadv]sions on ,plato1 by an unwor?y & capti\s jeal\sy ( 8 ma/]1 is an int]e/+ "q 9 ref]5ce to 8 "*2 b our appreciation ( 8 philosophy mu/ proce$ ^u an exam9ation1 n ( 8 motives b1 ( 8 doctr9es & reason+s z we f9d !m4 ,a good argum5t is n depriv$ ( its =ce :5 enunciat$ by a knave1 nor is a bad argum5t r5d]$ good because x proce$s f a virtu\s man4 ,inde$1 s f> z ! "* ( ! speak] c\nts at all1 9 falsify+ ! fair logical e/imate ( an argum5t1 x op]ates 9 a direction opposite to t "h indicat$ by ,ari/otle4 ,! same argum5t 9 ! m\? ( "o :o is e/eem$ & admir$ c\nts = m ?an its wor?2 9 ! m\? ( a p]son ( l[ "* x c\nts = less ?an x is wor?4#ee ,to di/ribute argum5ts into two classes--^? employ$ by p]sons ( di%on\rable "* & ^? employ$ by hon\rable m5--is a dep>ture f ! sci5tific "* ( ,logic4 ,footnote #ee3 ,eurip4 ,hecub4 #bic4 ,greek3 to d' a7xi_/ma1 ka7n kas le_/gs1 to sn pei_/sei2 lo_/gos gar e7_/k t' a7dox\_/ntn i7n ka7k tn dok\_/ntn au7tos ou7 tau7ton /he_/nei4 ,ari/ot4 ,rhetoric4 ,i4 ii4 p4 #acef1 a4 #e-ae4 ,z to ! o!r "p ( ! case 7if x is /ill necess>y to recur to x71 t\*+ ! peculi>ity ( ! matt] ( sophi/ical argum5ts1 ! inconsi/5cy ( ,ari/otle is mo/ app>5t4 ,9 enum]at+ ! ,sophi/ical ,refutations he tells u t ^! fallacies are inde$ sometimes palpable & easily detect$1 b t !y are (t5 v difficult to detect & v mislead+2 t an unprep>$ he>] w g5]ally be impos$ ^u by sev]al ( !m1 & ev5 a sci5tific he>] by "s2 & t1 ev5 :]e ! fallacy does n actually deceive1 ! prop] mode ( meet+ & expos+ x w n occur unless to "o previ\sly ex]cis$ 9 ,dialectic4#ef ,t ,fallacies ,9 ,dictione1 tak5 z a class 7?\gh ^! are :at he decl>es to be ! mo/ usual modus op]&i ( ! %am dialecticians call$ ,sophi/s#eg71 (t5 pass$ unp]ceiv$1 & 7 h>d to solve & elucidate ev5 :5 p]ceiv$--we "k to h be5 8 op9ion2 = x is n only 9 ! ,topica & ,sophi/ici ,el5*i1 b also 9 ! ,metaphysica & o!r works1#eh t he takes pa9s to analyse & discrim9ate ! sev]al di/9ct mean+s borne by t]ms famili> to e "o1 su* z idem1 unum1 pul*rum1 bonum1 am>e1 album1 acutum1 c41 :i* t]ms !re=e1 :5 employ$ 9 argum5t1 7 always liable to introduce a fallacy ( ,equivocation or ,amphiboly4 ,he tells u ! l 9 specify+ ! sev5 ,fallacies ,extra ,dictionem3 t !y also 7 (t5 unnotic$1 & requir$ vigilant practice to see ?r\gh & solve4 ,! description 9 detail1 !re=e1 :i* ,ari/otle gives 79 ,sophi/ici ,el5*i7 ( ! work+ process peculi> to ! litigi\s ,sophi/1 is completely at v>iance ) ! def9ition :i* he _h giv5 ( ! sophi/ic syllogism at ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,topica4 ,t def9ition is inde$ suitable = ! type-specim5s :i* he & o!r logicians give to illu/rate ?is or t class ( ,fallacies3 ! type-specim5 produc$ mu/ c>ry absurdity on ! face ( x1 s t ! read] may at fir/ sight recognize x z a fallacy2 & he may ev5 f9d difficulty 9 believ+ t any "o c really be impos$ ^u by su* trifl+4 ,b1 ?\gh suitable = ! type-specim5 tak5 sep>ately1 ?is def9ition fails 9 ! ess5tial "* :i* ,ari/otle po/ulates = a def9ition1 s9ce x is q untrue & unsuitable = num]\s in/ances ( ! class int5d$ to be illu/rat$4#ei ,ari/otle 0 ! fir/ :o attempt$ to di/ribute ,fallacies into classes1 su* t1 :ile 9 ea* class !re 7 c]ta9 specim5s palpably /amp$ ) ! fallaci\s "*1 !re 7 also 9 ea* class an indef9ite multitude ( analog\s cases :]e9 ! fallaci\s "* did n reveal itself op5ly or easily1 b requir$ att5tive consid]ation to detect x1 (t5 inde$ rema9+ undetect$1 & produc+ its natural fruit ( error & confusion4 ,?is 0 "o ( 8 _m great m]its 9 reg>d to ,logic2 & ! classification ( ,fallacies 7modifi$ z to details7 has pass$ to all subsequ5t logicians1 s t we f9d difficulty 9 und]/&+ t ! contempor>ies ( ,sokrates & ,plato _h no idea ( x4 ,b ! value ( 8 s]vice to ,logic w\ld be mu* less5$1 if all fallacies 7 sophi/ic syllogisms1 int5d$ to deceive b nev] really deceiv+1 correspond+ to 8 def9ition at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,topica2 if 7z he tells u 9 ! ,sophi/ici ,el5*i7 !y 7 only impud5t =g]ies put 9 circulation by a set ( pr(essional knaves call$ ,sophi/s2 & if all non-sophi/ical dialecticians1 & all ! _w )\t1 c\ld be tru/$ z speak+ correctly by nature & z nev] fall+ into !m4 ,footnote #ef3 ,soph4 ,el4 v4 p4 #afg1 a4 #e-ae1 b4 #e-ce4 ,greek3 kai lan?a_/nei polla_/kis ou7* 7tton au7t\s t\s e7rtntas to toi\ton4--vii4 p4 #afi1 a4 #bb-cj1 b4 #h-ae3 ,greek3 e7n a7_/pasi gar 7 a7pa_/t dia to p>a mikro_/n4--xv4 p4 #age1 a4 #bj4 ,footnote #eg3 ,ibid4 i4 p4 #afe1 a4 #b-bj4 ,footnote #eh3 ,topic4 ,i4 vii4 p4 #ajc1 a4 #f-ci2 p4 #ajf1 b4 #c-i2 p4 #ajg1 a4 #ab1 b4 #g3 ,greek3 polla_/kis de kai e7n au7tois tois lo_/gois lan?a_/nei p>akol\?\n to o7m_/numon4 ,cf4 ,topic4 ,,ii4 iii4 p4 #aaj1 b4 #cc2 ,v4 ii4 p4 #abi1 b4 #cj1 seq42 ,,vi4 x4 p4 #adh1 a4 #bc1 seq4 ,soph4 ,el4 x4 p4 #aga1 a4 #ag4 ,comp>e also ,book ,greek3 ,d4 ( ! ,metaphysica1 & ! frequ5t recognition & analysis ,greek3 tn polla_/ks legome_/nn ?r\gh\t ! o!r ,books ( ! ,metaphysica4 ,footnote #ei3 ,topic4 ,,vi4 i4 p4 #aci1 a4 #bf3 ,greek3 dei gar ton t\ a7n?r_/p\ o7rismon kata pantos a7n?r_/p\ a7l!u_/e/hai4--,,vi4 x4 p4 #adh1 x4 p4 #adh1 b4 #b3 ,greek3 dei gar e7pi pan to sun_/numon e7ph>mo_/tte94 ,:oev] reads ! ,six? ,book ( ! ,topica1 :]e9 ,ari/otle indicates to ! que/ion] ,loci = impugn+ a def9ition1 w see h[ little ?is def9ition ( ! ,sophi/ic ,syllogism w /& su* attacks4 ,! appeal made by ,ari/otle to a diff]5ce ( "* & motives z ! di/9ction betwe5 ! ,dialectician & ! ,sophi/ is all ! m misplac$1 because he himself lays d[n z ! ess5tial feature ( ,dialectic g5]ally1 t x is a mat* or cont5tion betwe5 two rivals1 ea* anxi\s to obta9 ! victory4 ,x is l a mat* at *ess betwe5 two exp]t play]s1 or a f5c+-mat* betwe5 two celebrat$ ma/]s at arms4 ,its v nature is to be an attack & def5ce1 9 :i* ea* combatant resorts to /ratagem1 & ea* outwits ! o!r if he c4 ,:e!r ! mat* is play$ = money or = no?+--:e!r ! cont5ti\s _s is m or less int5se--does n conc]n ! !ori/ on dialectical proc$ure4 ,x is indisp5sable t bo? ! que/ion] & ! respond5t %\ld ex]t _! full =ce1 ! "o 9 ?ru/+1 ! o!r 9 p>ry+3 if !y d n1 ! purpose ( ,dialectic1 :i* is ! common bus9ess ( bo?1 w n be atta9$4 ,t purpose is cle>ly decl>$ by ,ari/otle4 ,x is n didactic3 he di/+ui%es x expressly f tea*+1#fj :]e "o man :o kn[s communicates su* k to an ignorant pupil4 ,x is gymna/ic1 ex]cis+ ! promptitude & inv5tion ( bo? p>ties2 or peira/ic1 te/+ :e!r ! respond5t kn[s a giv5 !sis 9 su* mann] z to avoid be+ driv5 into answ]s inconsi/5t ) ea* o!r or notori\sly false4#fa ,ea* p>ty seeks1 n to help or enlight5 b1 to puzzle & defeat ! o!r4 ,z at *ess or 9 f5c+1 to mask "o's projects & deceive ! adv]s>y is ess5tial to ! "w & to its purpose2 ea* expects x f ! o!r1 & und]takes to meet & p>ry x4 ,! !ses debat$ 7 always su* t argum5ts might be f\nd bo? = ! affirmative & = ! negative4 ,footnote #fj3 ,soph4 ,el4 ii4 p4 #afe1 b4 #a-e2 x4 p4 #aga1 a4 #cb-;b4 #b4 ,cf4 ,topic4 ,,viii4 xi4 p4 #afa1 a4 #be4 ,footnote #fa3 ,topic4 ,i4 i4 p4 #ajj1 a4 #bj2 ,,viii4 i4 p4 #aee1 b4 #aj-bh4 ,accord+ to ,ari/otle himself1 !re=e1 ! ,dialectician is agoni/ic & eri/ic1 j z mu* z ! ,sophi/4 ,if ! "o tries to entrap 8 oppon5t = ! purpose ( victory1 s also does ! o!r3 ! l9e :i* ,ari/otle draws betwe5 !m is "o n f\nd$ ^u any real di/9ction betwe5 two purposes & modes ( proc$ure1 b is m]ely v]bal & s5tim5tal2 putt+ aside "u a discr$it$ title :at he himself dislik$4 ,he admits t ! dialectical que/ion]1 :5ev] ! !sis :i* he und]takes to refute is true1 c nev] refute x except by induc+ ! respond5t to conc$e :at is false2 t1 ev5 :]e ! !sis is false1 he (t5 c only refute x by "s o!r incompatible falsehood1 because he _c obta9 f ! respond5t bett] premisses2 t1 :]e ! !sis is probable & con=mable to receiv$ op9ion1 8 only way ( refut+ x is by entrapp+ ! respond5t into concessions p>adoxical & contr>y to receiv$ op9ion4#fb ,b ^! ends--fallaci\s refutation1 falsehood1 & p>adox--are ! v same z ^? :i* ,ari/otle 79 ! ,sophi/ici ,el5*i7#fc sets =? z ! peculi> *>act]i/ics ( ! litigi\s ,sophi/4 ,& ! improv+ intellectual t5d5cies :i* he ascribes to ,sophi/ic1 are almo/ id5tical ) ^? attribut$ to ,dialectic1 be+ decl>$ 9 v simil> words4#fd ,t !re 7 dialecticians ( e degree ( m]it1 9 ! "t ( ,ari/otle1 _c be d\bt$2 "s clev] & ready1 o!rs /upid & de/itute ( inv5tion4 ,b t !re 7 any two classes ( dialecticians su* z he describes & contra/s--"o h]etical class1 call$ ,sophi/s1 :o purposely & habitually employ$ ! ?irte5 fallaci\s refutations1 & ano!r or?odox class :o purposely avoid$ or habitually ab/a9$ f !m--we may mo/ reasonably d\bt4 ,if ! argum5t 9 ! ,sophi/ici ,el5*i is good at all1 x is good aga9/ all ,dialectic4 ,! ,sophi/1 z ,ari/otle describes him1 is only ! ,dialectician look$ at on ! unfav\rable side & pa9t$ by an enemy4 ,we "k t !re 7 9 ,greece _m enemies ( ,dialectic g5]ally2 ! int5se antipa?y inspir$ by ! cross-exam9+ colloquy ( ,sokrates1 & atte/$ by 8 own decl>ations1 is a suffici5t pro( ( ?is4 ,! enemies ( ,sokrates depict$ him--z ,ari/otle depicts ! ,sophi/ 9 ! ,sophi/ici ,el5*i--z a clev] fabricator ( fallaci\s contradictions & puzzles2 to :i* ,ari/otle adds ! f>!r *>ge 7advanc$ by ,plato be=e him7 aga9/ ! ,sophi/1 ( argu+ = lucre--:i* is an irrelevant *>ge1 travell+ out ( ! region ( art1 & be>+ on ! p]sonal "* ( ! individual4 ,if ! sophi/ical /ratagems 7 discr$itable & mis*iev\s :5 exhibit$ = money1 !y w\ld be no less su* if exhibit$ gratuit\sly4 ,! sophi/ical disc\rse is n 7z ,ari/otle w\ld h u believe7 g5]ically di/+ui%able f ! dialectical2#fe nor is ,sophi/ic an art di/9ct f ,dialectic :ile adjo9+ to x1 b an insep>able portion ( ! tissue ( ,dialectic itself4#ff ,if ! ,sophi/ pass$ himself (f z kn[+ :at he did n really "k1 s also did ! ,dialectician2 z we "k f ! te/imony ( ,sokrates1 ! mo/ consummate ma/] ( ! art4 ,! conflict ( two m9ds ea* tak+ advantage ( ! misconceptions1 %ort-com+s1 & bl9dness ( ! o!r1 is ! ess5tial feature ( ,dialectic z ,ari/otle conceives x2 to :i* ! eight books ( 8 ,topica are adapt$1 ) _! multiplicity ( di/9ctions & precepts bo? = attack & def5ce4 ,!re _c be a game ( *ess )\t /ratagems1 nor a f5c+-mat* )\t fe9ts2 ! p[] ( su* aggressive deception is "o *>act]i/ic m>k ( a good play]4 ,^? :o tea* or !orize on ! game d n seek to exclude /ratagem1 b furni% precautions to prev5t x f succe$+4 ,ma/]y ( ! art assumes skill 9 def5ce z well z 9 attack4 ,footnote #fb3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 xi4 p4 #afa1 a4 #bd4 ,footnote #fc3 ,soph4 ,el4 iii4 p4 #afe1 b4 #ad4 ,footnote #fd3 ,comp>e ,topic4 ,i4 ii4 p4 #aja1 a4 #bf-;b4 #d1 ) ,soph4 ,el4 xvi4 p4 #age1 a4 #e-af4 ,footnote #fe3 ,soph4 ,el4 ii4 p4 #afe1 a4 #cb2 xxxiv4 p4 #ahc1 b4 #a4 ,footnote #ff3 ,plato1 ,apol4 ,sokrat4 p4 #bc1 ,a4 ,comp>e ?is ) ,ari/ot4 ,soph4 ,el4 i4 p4 #afe1 a4 #cj4 ,d\btless !re are rules t require to be obs]v$ 9 ! dialectical attack & def5ce1 z !re are rules = all o!r mat*es su* z *ess or f5c+4 ,i %\ld h be5 glad if ,ari/otle _h giv5 a precise & t5able explanation :at ^! rules 74 ,he describes ! ,sophi/ z "o :o plays ! game unfairly2 b we h already se5 t ! ends pursu$ by ! ,dialectician g5]ally are h>dly at all di/+ui%able f ^? aim$ at by ! ,sophi/4 ,if we look to ! acc\nt ( ! means employ$ by "o & ! o!r1 we %all 9 l mann] fail to see h[ any real l9e c be drawn betwe5 !m4 ,?us1 "o proce$+ decl>$ to be *>act]i/ic ( ! ,sophi/ is--t he puts multipli$ que/ions app>5tly at r&om1 )\t any visible be>+ on ! !sis2 practis+ a sort ( fi%+ exam9ation1 9 ord] to obta9 "s answ] ( :i* he may take advantage4#fg ,b1 :5 we turn to ! ,eigh? ,book ( ! ,topica1 we f9d ,ari/otle expressly recomm5d+ ! l manoeuvre to ! ,dialectician2 advis+ him to conceal z mu* z possible ! s*eme & int5d$ s]ies ( 8 que/ions--to beg9 z f> z possible ap>t f ! !sis1 to put ! que/ions 9 a succession design$ly incoh]5t & un9telligible1 & to obta9 7:at1 if obta9$1 ensur$ complete success7 ! full ext5t ( premisses necess>y = 8 f9al refutative syllogism1 )\t ! respond5t be+ aw>e t he _h conc$$ !m4#fh ,! que/ion] is f>!r advis$ to ?r[ ! respond5t (f 8 gu>d by affect+ indiff]5ce :e!r ea* "q is answ]$ affirmatively or negatively1 & by occasionally tak+ objection aga9/ himself1 9 ord] t he may create ! impression ( a /rictly hone/ purpose4#fi ,if we comp>e ! int]rogative proc$ure :i* ,ari/otle recomm5ds to ! ,dialectician ) t :i* he blames 9 ! ,sophi/1 we %all f9d t ! =m] is ev5 a great] ref9em5t ( deception ?an ! latt]4 ,footnote #fg3 ,soph4 ,el4 xii4 p4 #agb1 b4 #i-be4 ,ari/otle treats ! ,sophi/s z guilty ( di%on\rable proce$+ h]e9--,greek3 du_/nantai de nun 7tton kat\rgein dia t\_/tn 7 pro_/t]on4 ,! v same *>ge 0 urg$ aga9/ ! dialectic ( ,sokrates by 8 oppon5ts3 ,plato1 ,hippias ,m9or1 p4 #cgc--;,greek3 a7lla ,skra_/ts a7ei t>a_/ttei e7n tois lo_/gois kai e7_/oik5 7_/sp] kak\rg\nti4 ,comp>e ,plato1 ,gorgias1 pp4 #dfa1 ,b41 #dhb1 ,e41 #dhc1 ,a4 ,footnote #fh3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 i4 p4 #aee1 b4 #a4-p4 #aee1 b4 #cj2 p4 #aef1 a4 #e-bb4 ,comp>e ,analyt4 ,priora1 ,,ii4 xix4 p4 #ff1 a4 #cc4 ,footnote #fi3 ,topic4 ,,viii4 i4 p4 #aef1 b4 #c1 #ag4 ,comp>e ,,viii4 i4 pp4 #aee-aef1 ) ,soph4 ,el4 xv4 p4 #agd1 a4 #bh4 ,! next trick :i* we f9d ascrib$ to ! ,sophi/ is--t he conducts ! tra9 ( int]rogation 9 su* mann] z to br+ x ^u a gr\nd on :i* 8 memory is abundantly furni%$ ) topics4 ,ari/otle adds t ?is may be done well & hon\rably1 or ill & di%on\rably4#gj ,f 8 own admission we see t ?is practice 0 n peculi> to ,sophi/s1 b 0 common also to ^? :om he calls ,dialecticians3 l e o!r "p ( ! proc$ure1 x might be done well or ill2 b :]e9 ?is diff]5ce consi/$ he does n fur!r expla94 ,inde$1 :5 we recollect t ! elaborate details & classification ( ! ,topica are ma9ly int5d$ to furni% ! memory ) an abundant /ore ( premisses well-arrang$ & ready = int]rogation1#ga we may be sure t e ,dialectician :o _h gone ?r\gh ! tr\ble ( le>n+ !m w\ld be impati5t to apply !m2 & w\ld make an opportunity = do+ s1 if none 7 spontane\sly t5d]$ to him4 ,b1 if ! answ]s obta9$ 7 totally irrelevant to 8 f9al purpose ( refut+ ! !sis1 !y w\ld be no?+ b emb>rassm5t to him4#gb ,we mu/1 !re=e1 und]/& t ! que/ions put w\ld be su* z t5d$ ultimately to introduce t refutative ,syllogism :i* ! que/ion] 0 b\nd to conclude )4 ,if !y 7 n1 he 0 ( c\rse puni%$ by failure4 ,footnote #gj3 ,soph4 ,el4 xii4 p4 #agb1 b4 #bf4 ,9 ,topic4 ,,iii4 i4 p4 #aaf1 a4 #bj1 ,ari/otle prescribes ! same proc$ure to ! ,dialectician4 ,see also ,waitz's note on ! passage4 ,alex&] 79 ,s*olia1 p4 #bfg1 b4 #h7 tells u t x 0 cu/om>y = ! ,sophi/s to put que/ions ly+ away f ! !sis1 & he %[s ?is by m5tion+ ! ,platonic ,protagoras1 9 :i* he says t ! ,sophi/ ,protagoras does s4 ,b ! illu/ration "h produc$ does n s]ve ,alex&]'s purpose4 ,! ,sophi/ ,protagoras 79 ! ,platonic dialogue s call$7 is repres5t$1 n z %ift+ dialectic f "o po9t to ano!r1 b z runn+ away f x altoge!r into long disc\rse & cont9u\s rhetoric 7,plato1 ,protagor4 pp4 #ccc1 #ccd1 #cce74 ,9 respect to ! !sis />t$ = debate1 ! dialectic ( ,sokrates dep>ts f x z widely z t ( ,protagoras1 & ?is is ackn[l$g$ at ! close ( ! dialogue1 p4 #cfa4 ,comp>e ',plato & ! ,o!r ,companions ( ,sokrates'1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #ec1 #ei1 #gj4 ,footnote #ga3 ,topic4 ,i4 v4 p4 #ajb1 a4 #ac2 ,i4 xiii4 p4 #aje1 a4 #bb2 ,,viii4 xiv4 p4 #afc1 a4 #ca-;b4 #b4 ,footnote #gb3 ,ari/otle himself obs]ves ?is1 ,topic4 ,,ii4 v4 p4 #aab1 a4 #ad4 ,a ?ird manoeuvre treat$ z peculi> to ! ,sophi/ is--t he takes acc\nt ( ! p>ticul> philosophical sect to :i* ! respond5t belongs1 & endeav\rs to br+ out by int]rogations :atev] !re may be p>adoxical 9 ! t5ets ( t sect4#gc ,b w\ld n any exp]t ,dialectician d j ! same8 ,:at else w\ld be done by ,sokrates1 if cross-exam9+ an ,anaxagorean or a ,h]akleitean8 or by ,ari/otle himself1 if int]rogat+ a ,platoni/8 ,footnote #gc3 ,soph4 ,el4 xii4 p4 #agb1 b4 #bi4 ,ano!r proce$+ treat$ z peculi> to ! ,sophi/ is--t he seeks to drive ! respond5t into a p>adox1 by br++ out 9 cross-exam9ation c]ta9 well-kn[n anti!ses or contradictions :i* subsi/ toge!r 9 ! op9ions ( mank9d4 ,?us1 m5 pr(ess 9 _! public talk high pr9ciples ( virtue2 b secretly & at ! bottom ( _! he>ts !y desire to get weal? or p[] p] fas et nefas4 ,aga91 !re are two k9ds ( ju/ice3 "o1 t :i* is j by nature & 9 tru?1 su* z wise m5 or philosoph]s approve2 ! o!r1 t :i* is j accord+ to law or cu/om1 su* z ! multitude 9 ?is or 9 9 "s o!r society approve4 ,!re is1 also1 conflict betwe5 ! au?ority ( a fa!r1 & t ( ! wise2 betwe5 ju/ice & exp$i5cy2 & z to :e!r x is m eligible to suff] wrong or to d wrong4#gd ,all ^! anti!ses are pres5t$ to u 9 ! ,platonic ,gorgias1 to :i* 7i4e41 to ! spee* ( ,kallikles !re97 ,ari/otle "h makes ref]5ce2 & he numb]s x among ! vices di/+ui%+ ! ,sophi/ f ! g5u9e ,dialectician--to dwell ^u su* anti!ses = ! purpose ( =c+ ! respond5t into p>adoxical answ]s4 ,b1 surely1 ! anti!ses "h fa/5$ ^u t obnoxi\s "n are ( a class utt]ly oppos$ to ! class ( pseudo-probabilia1 :i* he tells u are ! peculi> game ( ! litigi\s ,sophi/1 ?\gh e man ( ord9>y intellig5ce detects !m at fir/ sight z fallacies4 ,!y are all real & s]i\s issues1#ge hav+ plausible argum5ts pro & con1 debateable )\t end1 & settl$ by e man = himself accord+ to 8 own s5tim5t & pr$isposition4 ,!y are exactly ! subject-matt] be/ fitt$ = ! acute ,dialectician4 ,no man w\ld be all[$ by ,ari/otle to des]ve t title1 if he omitt$ to raise & argue !m1 ! !sis be+ suppos$ suitable4#gf ,ari/otle himself speaks (t5 ( ! equivocal s5se ( ! t]m ju/ice--( ! di/9ction betwe5 :at is j by nature & :at is j accord+ to "s local or peculi> s5tim5t4#gg ,! manoeuvre :i* ,ari/otle imputes to ! ,sophi/ be+ exactly ! same z t :i* ,kallikles imputes to ,sokrates 9 ! ,platonic ,gorgias1#gh x is ,sokrates1 & n ,kallikles1 :o s]ves "h z illu/rat+ :at ,ari/otle calls a ,sophi/4 ,inde$1 if we read ! ,gorgias1 we %all f9d ! ,platonic ,sokrates !re repres5t$ z neglect+ ! diff]5ce betwe5 :at is probable 7con=mable to receiv$ op9ion7 & :at is p>adoxical4 ,he admits t he /&s alone 9 8 op9ion1 aga9/ all ! _w1 & 8 oppon5ts ev5 imag9e t he is bant]+ !m2 b he confides 9 8 own individual reason & consi/5cy1 s z to be able to r$uce all oppon5ts dialectically to prov$ contradiction ) !mselves4#gi ,himself ma9ta9+ a p>adox1 he con/ra9s 8 respond5t by acute dialectic to ass5t to x2 :i* is exactly :at ,ari/otle imputes to ! ,sophi/s ( 8 day z a reproa*4 ,footnote #gd3 ,ibid4 b4 #cf-p4 #agc1 a4 #cj4 ,footnote #ge3 ,rhetoric4 ,,ii4 xxv4 p4 #adjb1 a4 #cc3 ,greek3 oi7 men gar sullogismoi e7k tn e7ndo_/xn1 dok\nta de polla e7nanti_/a a7ll_/lois e7/i_/n4 ,a disputant :o argu$ ab\t ^! memorable e?ical anti!ses1 mu/ be all[$ ,greek3 kata to pragma !rein ta ko9a_/1 :i* is ! *>act]i/ic feature assign$ by ,ari/otle to ! ,dialectician1 z contra/$ ) ! ,sophi/ 7,soph4 ,el4 xi4 p4 #aga1 b4 #e71 9 s f> u ,i c und]/& ! words ,greek3 kata to pragma4 ,see note b p4 #cid supra4 ,footnote #gf3 ,topic4 ,i4 iii4 p4 #aja1 a4 #e-aj4 ,greek3 e7k tn e7nde*ome_/nn poiein a7 proair\_/me?a4 ,footnote #gg3 ,topic4 ,,ii4 xi4 p4 #aae1 b4 #be4 ,e?ic4 ,nikom4 ,v4 x4 p4 #aacd1 b4 #ah2 ,i4 i4 p4 #ajid1 b4 #ae4 ,rhetoric4 ,i4 xiii4 p4 #acgc1 b4 #e4 ,footnote #gh3 ,plato1 ,gorgias1 pp4 #dhb-dhc4 ,greek3 o7 d kai su 7,sokrates7 ,greek3 t\to to sophon katan5oks kak\rgeis e7n tois lo_/gois1 e7an me_/n tis kata no_/mon le_/g1 kata phu_/s9 u7p]tn1 e7an de ta ts phu_/ses1 ta t\ no_/m\4 ,footnote #gi3 ,plato1 ,gorgias1 pp4 #dgj1 #dgb1 #dha1 #dhb4 ,"s pr$ecessors ( ,ari/otle _h di/+ui%$ argum5ts or disc\rses into two sep>ate classes--^? address$ to ! "n1 & ^? address$ to ! ?\ght4#hj ,?is di/9ction ,ari/otle disapproves1 d5y+ c]ta9ly its p]t95ce & almo/ its reality4 ,!re c be no argum5ts address$ to ! ?\ght only1 ap>t f ! "n3 all ( !m mu/ be address$ to ! "n1 & ?r\gh x to ! ?\ght4#ha ,:e!r an argum5t is address$ to ! ?\ght or n1 dep5ds n ^u any ?+ 9 ! argum5t itself1 b ^u ! mean+ :i* "o respond5t or o!r may happ5 to atta* to ! words3 if ! respond5t und]/&s x z ! que/ion] int5d$1 x is address$ to ! ?\ght2 if n1 n4#hb ,to require t ! que/ion] %all di/+ui% accurately ! s5se 9 :i* he puts ! "q1 w\ld1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 conv]t him into a tea*]--w\ld conf\nd ! l9e betwe5 ,dialectic & ,didactic4#hc ,& ?is may be grant$2 b n less1 if ,dialecticians are to refra9 f all ^? proce$+s :i* ,ari/otle notes & condemns z peculi> to ! ,sophi/1 mu/ !y be held to pass into ! attitude ( tea*] & le>n]2 ! que/ion] do+ :at he c1 n to emb>rass b1 to enlight5 & assi/ ! respond5t4 ,! purpose ( victory1 & ! /imulus ( competition 9 ! d\ble function ( "q & answ] 7:ile entirely abs5t f ,didactic71 are q z ess5tial to ! ,dialectician z to ! ,sophi/4 ,t ! ,sophi/ seeks victory unscrupul\sly & at all co/1 :ile ! ,dialectician respects c]ta9 rules & limits ( ! proc$ure--is a diff]5ce well des]v+ to be notic$2 yet n a diff]5tia giv+ "n & ess5ce to a new species4 ,! unfair ,dialectician is a ,dialectician /ill2 all 8 purposes rema9 ! same1 ?\gh ! means :]eby he pursues !m are alt]$4 ,?is di/9ction ( means betwe5 ! two1 ,ari/otle has tak5 v insuffici5t pa9s to po9t out4 ,rude & provocative mann]1 ei!r on ! "p ( que/ion] or respond5t1 & impud5t assumption ( concessions :i* h nei!r be5 ask$ nor grant$1--^! are ju/ly enum]at$ z illu/rations ( unfair ,dialectic4#hd ,b ! enum]ation is mo/ incompletely p]=m$2 because ,ari/otle1 9 8 anxiety to erect ,sophi/ic into an art or proc$ure by itself1 di/9ct f & alongside ( ,dialectic1 has transf]r$ to x mu* t belongs to fair & & admissible ,dialectic4 ,h5ce ! really unfair & objectionable means are n (t5 br\ght into ! =egr\nd4 ,footnote #hj3 ,soph4 ,el4 x4 p4 #agj1 b4 #ab3 ,greek3 ou7k e7_//i de diaphora tn 7n le_/g\si t9es1 to ei7nai t\s men pros t\7_/noma lo_/g\s1 e7te_/r\s de pros tn dia_/noian4 ,f ?is allusion 7& o!r allusions also xvii4 p4 #agf1 a4 #f2 xx4 p4 #agg1 b4 #h2 xxii4 p4 #agh1 b4 #aj7 to ! doctr9es ( pr$ecessors1 we see t ! ass]tion made by ,ari/otle 79 ! la/ *apt] ( ,sophi/ici ,el5*i7 ( 8 own orig9ality1 & ( ! abs5ce ( prior rese>*es1 mu/ be tak5 ) "s indulg5ce4 ,footnote #ha3 ,soph4 ,el4 x4 p4 #agj1 b4 #bc4 ,footnote #hb3 ,ibid4 b4 #bh3 ,greek3 ou7 gar e7n t lo_/g e7_//i to pros tn dia_/noian ei7nai1 a7ll' e7n t ton a7pokr9o_/m5on e7_/*e9 ps pros ta d$ome_/na4 ,footnote #hc3 ,ibid4 p4 #aga1 a4 #bh1 seq4 ,footnote #hd3 ,soph4 ,el4 xv4 p4 #agd1 a4 #bb1 b4 #aj4 ,?\gh ,ari/otle speaks s contemptu\sly ab\t ,sophi/ic1 he nev]!less indicates ,loci 7or g5]al heads ( subjects7 to assi/ ! sophi/ical que/ion] 9 attack+1 & precepts to ! sophi/ical respond5t = w>d+ (f attack4 ,on ! :ole1 ^! precepts are n mat]ially diff]5t f ^? laid out 9 ! ,topica = ,dialectic2 except t he gives great] prom95ce to ,solecism & ,tautology1 z ?ru/s practis$ by ! sophi/ical que/ion]4 ,he insi/s ^u ! intellectual usefulness ( practice 9 sophi/ical debate1 h>dly less ?an 9 :at he calls dialectical1 &1 z 0 rem>k$1 ^u simil> gr\nds4#he ,he recomm5ds x z valuable n only = imp>t+ read9ess & abundance 9 argum5t1 b also = solit>y m$itation & = inve/igation ( sci5tific tru?s4 ,)\t x 7he decl>es7 we _c become famili> ) ! equivocations ( t]ms & propositions1 nor acquire ! means ( escap+ !m4 ,if we all[ ourselves to be entangl$ 9 !m1 )\t be+ aw>e ( x1 by o!rs1 we %all also be entangl$ 9 !m :5 we pursue reflections ( our own4#hf ,x is n en\gh to see g5]ally t !re is a fallacy2 we mu/ f>!r le>n to detect at once ! precise seat ( ! fallacy1 & to po9t out rapidly h[ x may be cle>$ up4 ,?is is ! m difficult to d1 because fallacies t we are ?or\ghly aw>e ( w (t5 escape our notice "u inv]sion & sub/itution ( words4#hg ,unless we acquire promptitude by frequ5t ex]cise 9 su* debates1 we %all f9d ourselves always unprep>$ & beh9d-h& 9 ea* p>ticul> case ( confusion4 ,if we compla9 & condemn su* debates g5]ally1 we %all appe> to d s ^u no bett] gr\nds ?an our own /upidity & incompet5ce4#hh ,footnote #he3 ,ibid4 xvi4 p4 #age1 a4 #e-af4 ,comp>e ,topica99991 ,i4 ii4 p4 #aja1 a4 #cj1 seq4 ,footnote #hf3 ,soph4 ,el4 xvi4 p4 #age1 a4 #i3 ,greek3 deu_/t]on de pros tas ka?' au7ton zt_/seis 7*r_/simoi72 o7 gar u7ph' e7te_/r\ r7adis p>alogizo_/m5os kai t\to m ai7/hano_/m5os ka7n au7tos u7ph' au7t\ t\to pa_/?oi polla_/kis4 ,footnote #hg3 ,ibid4 a4 #bj3 ,greek3 ou7 tau7to d' e7/i labo_/nta te ton lo_/gon i7dein kai lusai tn mo*?ri_/an1 kai e7rt_/m5on a7pantan du_/na/hai ta*e_/s4 o7 gar i7_/sm51 polla_/kis metati!_/m5on a7gno\m54 ,comp>e xxxiii4 p4 #ahb1 b4 #g4 ,footnote #hh3 ,soph4 ,el4 xvi4 p4 #age1 a4 #be3 ,greek3 7_//e1 a7n dlon men 7min 71 a7mele_/ttoi d' 7m51 u7/]\m5 tn kairn polla_/kis4 ,accord+ly ! ,sophi/ici ,el5*i conta9s precepts1 at consid]able l5g?1#hi to ! respond5t 9 a sophi/ical debate1 h[ reply or solution is to be giv5 to ! fallacies involv$ 9 ! que/ions2 all ! ?irte5 ,fallacies1 7! six ,9 ,dictione1 & ! sev5 ,extra ,dictionem7 be+ treat$ 9 succession4 ,9 conduct+ 8 def5sive proc$ure1 ! respond5t mu/ keep con/antly 9 m9d :at ! ,sophi/ical ,refutation really is4 ,he mu/ treat x n z a real or g5u9e refutation1 b z a m]e simulation ( su*2 & he mu/ s arrange 8 reply z to br+ into full evid5ce ?is fact ( simulation4 ,:at he has to gu>d aga9/ is1 n ! be+ really refut$ b1 ! seem+ to be refut$4#ij ,! refutative syllogism con/ruct$ by ! sophi/ical que/ion]1 includ+ z x does ,equivocation1 ,amphiboly1 or "s o!r v]bal fallacy1 & !re=e yield+ no valid conclusion1 does n settle :e!r ! respond5t is really refut$ or n4 ,if inde$ ! que/ion]1 9 putt+ 8 int]rogation1 discrim9ates ! d\ble mean+ ( 8 words1 :]e !y h a d\ble mean+1 ! respond5t ought to answ] pla9ly & briefly ,yes1 or ,no2 ei!r affirm+ or d5y+ :at is t5d]$4 ,b1 if ! que/ion] does n s discrim9ate1 ! respond5t _c reply simply ,yes1 or ,no3 he mu/ himself discrim9ate ! two mean+s1 & affirm or d5y accord+ly4#ia ,unless he gu>ds himself by su* discrim9ation1 he _c avoid fall+ into a contradiction1 at lea/ 9 appe>ance4 ,! equivocal word+ ( ! "q w be tantam\nt to ! fallacy ( putt+ two que/ions z "o4#ib ,footnote #hi3 ,f xvi4 p4 #age1 to xxxiii4 p4 #ahc1 ( ,soph4 ,el4 ,footnote #ij3 ,soph4 ,el4 xvii4 p4 #age1 a4 #cc3 ,greek3 o7_/ls gar pros t\s e7ri/ik\s ma*ete_/on1 ou7k 7s e7le_/g*ontas1 a7ll' 7s pha9ome_/n\s2 ou7 ga_/r pham5 sullogi_/ze/hai_/ ge au7t\_/s1 7_//e pros to m dokein dior?te_/on4 ,footnote #ia3 ,ibid4 b4 #a-ad4 ,comp>e ,topica1 ,,viii4 vii4 p4 #afj1 a4 #bi4 ,ari/otle tells u t ?is dem& = a reply brief & direct1 )\t any qualify+ additions or di/9ctions1 0 advanc$ by dialecticians 9 =m] days mu* m emphatically ?an 9 8 own--,greek3 o7_/ t' e7pizt\si nun men 7tton pro_/t]on de mallon oi7 e7ri/ikoi_/1 to 7 nai 7 ou7 a7pokri_/ne/hai ton e7rt_/m5on1 e7gi_/net' a7_/n4 ,i presume t he makes comp>ison ) ! ,platonic dialogues--,eu?ydemus1 p4 #bie2 ,gorgias1 pp4 #ddh-ddi2 ,protagoras1 pp4 #ccd-cce4 ,footnote #ib3 ,soph4 ,el4 xvii4 #age1 b4 #ae-p4 #agf1 a4 #ah4 ,z ! que/ion] may prop\nd z refutation :at seems to be su* b is n s 9 reality1 s ! respond5t may meet x by :at is an app>5t solution b no solution 9 reality1 ,!re occur v>i\s cases1 9 sophi/ic or agoni/ic debate1 :]e9 a simulat$ solution ( ?is k9d is ev5 pref]able to a real "o4#ic ,if ! "q is plausible1 ! respond5t may answ]1 ,be x s2 b1 if x involves any p>adox 9 answ]+1 he w answ] by say+1 ,s x w\ld appe>3 he w ?us n be suppos$ to h grant$ :at am\nts to refutation or p>adox4#id ,:]e ! "q put is su* t1 :ile involv+ falsehood or p>adox if answ]$ 9 ! affirmative1 x is at ! same "t closely or imm$iately connect$ ) ! !sis set up1--! respond5t may treat x z equival5t to a ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 & make answ] 9 ! negative4 ,also1 :]e ! que/ion]1 try+ to e/abli% an univ]sal proposition by ,induction1 puts ! f9al "q1 n "u an univ]sal t]m b1 z ! g5]al result ( ! p>ticul>s conc$$ 7& su* l71--! respond5t may refuse to admit ?is la/ /ep1 & may say t 8 antec$5t concessions h be5 misund]/ood4#ie ,footnote #ic3 ,ibid4 p4 #agf1 a4 #ba4 ,footnote #id3 ,ibid4 a4 #be4 ,footnote #ie3 ,ibid4 a4 #bg-ce4 ,if a "q is put 9 pla9 & appropriate language1 answ] mu/ be made pla9ly or ) "s cle> di/9ction2 b1 :]e ! "q is put obscurely & elliptically1 leav+ "p ( ! mean+ unexpress$1 ! respond5t mu/ n conc$e x unres]v$ly4 ,if he does1 fallaci\s refutation may v possibly be ! result3#if he may appe> to be refut$ by t :i* is no real refutation4 ,if1 ( two propositions1 ! second foll[s ^u ! fir/1 b ! fir/ does n foll[ ^u ! second1 ! respond5t1 :]e he has ! *oice1 ought to grant ! second only1 & n ! fir/4 ,he ought n to make a great] concession :5 he c escape ) a less2#ig e4g41 he ought to conc$e ! p>ticul> r ?an ! univ]sal4 ,footnote #if3 ,ibid4 a4 #ch-;b4 #g4 ,footnote #ig3 ,ibid4 b4 #h-ac4 ,aga91 among op9ions g5]ally receiv$1 !re are "s :i* ! public recognize z matt]s ( m or less d\bt & unc]ta9ty2 o!rs1 on :i* !y are firmly assur$ t e "o :o contradicts !m speaks falsely4 ,:5 x is unc]ta9 to :i* ( ^! two classes ! "q put is ref]able1 ! respond5t w be saf] 9 answ]+ nei!r affirmatively nor negatively1 b simply1 ,i g ) ! receiv$ op9ions4#ih ,9 cases :]e op9ions are divid$1 he may f9d opportunity = *ang+ ! t]ms1 & = sub/itut+ a metaphorical equival5t z :at he conc$es4 ,su* *ange ( t]ms may pass )\t prote/1 9 consequ5ce ( ! d\btful "* ( ! matt]2 :ile x w emb>rass ! que/ion] 9 con/ruct+ 8 refutation4#ii ,! respond5t may fur!r emb>rass him by anticipat+ que/ions t seem likely to be put1 & by object+ aga9/ !m be=eh&4#ajj ,footnote #ih3 ,soph4 ,el4 9999xvii4 p4 #agf1 b4 #ad-bj4 ,bo? ! text & ! mean+ ( ?is difficult clause are diff]5tly giv5 by v>i\s comm5tators4 ,! text & con/ruction ( ,waitz appe>s to me ! be/1 & ,i h foll[$ him4 ,i _c agree ) ,mr4 ,po/e :5 he decl>es 7notes1 p4 #adc7 ,greek3 a7popha_/neis to be ! true read+1 in/ead ( ,greek3 a7popha_/seis1 :i* la/ is adopt$ bo? by ,bekk] & 9 ! edition ( 9999,firm9 ,didot4 ,footnote #ii3 ,ibid4 b4 #bj-be4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,ibid4 b4 #bf4 ,:5 ! que/ion] has obta9$ ! premisses :i* he ?9ks necess>y1 & has drawn f !m a refutative syllogism1 ! respond5t mu/ see :e!r he c prop]ly solve t syllogism or n4#aja ,a good & prop] solution is1 to po9t out on :i* premiss ! fallacy ( ! conclusion dep5ds4 ,fir/1 he mu/ exam9e :e!r x is =mally correct1 or :e!r x has only a false appe>ance ( be+ s3 if ! la/ be ! case1 he mu/ di/+ui% 9 :i* ( ! premisses & 9 :at way su* false appe>ance has aris54 ,if on ! o!r h& ! syllogism is =mally correct1 he mu/ look :e!r ! conclusion is true or false4 ,%\ld x be true1 he _c solve ! syllogism except by controv]t+ "o or bo? ( ! premisses2 b %\ld ! conclusion be false1 two modes ( solution are op5 to him4 ,"o mode is1 if he c po9t out an equivocation or amphiboly 9 ! t]ms ( ! conclusion2 ano!r mode w be1 to controv]t1 or exhibit a fallacy 91 "o ( ! premisses4#ajb ,! respond5t1 h[ev]1 mu/ le>n to apply ?is exam9ation rapidly & unhesitat+ly3 to d s at once is v difficult1 ?\gh x may be easily done if he has leisure to reflect4#ajc ,footnote #aja3 ,soph4 ,el4 xviii4 p4 #agf1 b4 #bi3 ,greek3 7 me_/n o7r? lu_/sis e7mpha_/nisis pseud\s sullogism\1 p>' o7poi_/an e7r_/ts9 sumbai_/nei to pseudos4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,soph4 ,el4 xviii4 p4 #agf1 b4 #ch3 ,greek3 t\s men kata to sumpe_/rasma pseudeis di*s e7nde_/*etai lu_/e92 kai gar t a7nelein ti tn 7rtme_/nn1 kai t deixai to sumpe_/rasma e7_/*on ou7* ou7_/ts4 ,mr4 ,po/e translates ^! la/ words--or by a c\nt]pro( direct$ aga9/ ! conclusion3 & he rem>ks 9 8 note 7pp4 #ade-adg71 t ?is ass]tion--dispro( ( ! conclusion ( ! refutative syllogism is "o mode ( solution--is bo? manife/ly inadmissible1 & flatly contradict$ by ,ari/otle himself else:]e4 ,! words ( ,ari/otle d\btless seem to c\nt5ance ,mr4 ,po/e's translation2 yet ! contradiction po9t$ out by ,mr4 ,po/e 7& v imp]fectly expla9$1 p4 #adg7 ought to make u look out = ano!r mean+2 :i* is sugge/$ by ! *apt] imm$iately foll[+ 7xix4 p4 #agg1 a4 #i71 :]e ,ari/otle treats ( ! ,fallacies ( ,equivocation & ,amphiboly4 ,he tells u t equivocation may be f\nd ei!r 9 ! conclusion or 9 ! premisses2 & t to %[ x 9 ! conclusion is "o mode ( solv+ or invalidat+ ! refutation4 ,?is is :at ,ari/otle means by ! words cit$ at ! beg9n+ ( ?is note3 ,greek3 t deixai to sumpe_/rasma e7_/*on ou7* o7r?s4 ,9 ,mr4 ,po/e's translation ^! words mean ! same z ,greek3 a7nelein us$ j be=e1 :i* ,ari/otle obvi\sly does n int5d4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,soph4 ,el4 xviii4 p4 #agg1 a4 #g4 ,ari/otle !n proce$s to indicate ! modes 9 :i* ! respond5t may provide solutions = ea* ( ! ?irte5 heads ( fallaci\s refutation above enum]at$4 ,= ^! ?irte5 classes1 he pron\nces t "o & ! same solution w be f\nd applicable to all fallacies conta9$ 9 "o & ! same class4#ajd ,footnote #ajd3 ,s*olia1 p4 #cab1 a4 #d1 ,br42 ,soph4 ,el4 #bj1 p4 #agg1 b4 #ca3 ,greek3 tn gar p>a tau7ton lo_/gn 7 au7t lu_/sis1 c4 ,?us1 9 ! two fir/ ( !m--,equivocation ( ,t]ms & ,amphiboly ( ,propositions--duplicity ( mean+ mu/ be ei!r 9 ! conclusion1 or 9 ! premisses1 ( ! refutative syllogism4 ,if x be 9 ! conclusion1 ! refutation mu/ at once be reject$1 unless ! respond5t has previ\sly admitt$ "s proposition conta9+ ! equivocal ^w z "o ( its t]ms1 s t ! refutation may appe> to contradict x expressly & di/9ctly4 ,b1 if x be 9 ! premisses1 !n !re is no necessity t ! respond5t %\ld h previ\sly admitt$ su* a proposition2 = ! equivocal ^w may =m ! middle t]m ( ! refutative syllogism1 & may ?us n appe> 9 ! conclusion !re(4#aje ,! prop] way = ! respond5t to deal ) ^! que/ions1 involv+ equivocation or amphiboly1 is to answ] !m1 at ! outset1 ) a res]ve = ! d\ble mean+1 ?us3 ,9 "o s5se1 x is s2 9 ano!r s5se1 x is n4 ,if he does n p]ceive ! d\ble mean+ until he has already answ]$ ! fir/ "q1 he mu/ recov] himself1 :5 he answ]s ! second1 by po9t+ out ! equivocation m di/9ctly1 & by specify+ h[ mu* he is prep>$ to conc$e4#ajf ,ev5 if he has be5 tak5 unaw>es1 & has n p]ceiv$ ! equivocation until ! refutative syllogism has be5 con/ruct$ simply & absolutely1 he %\ld /ill cont5d t he nev] meant to conc$e :at has be5 app>5tly refut$1 & t ! refutation tells only aga9/ ! "n1 n aga9/ ! ?+ meant2#ajg s t !re is no g5u9e refutation at all4 ,footnote #aje3 ,soph4 ,el4 xix4 p4 #agg1 a4 #ah3 ,greek3 o7_/sois d' e7n tois e7rt_/mas91 ou7k a7na_/gk proapophsai to ditto_/n2 ou7 gar pros t\to a7lla dia t\to o7 lo_/gos4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,ibid4 a4 #bd3 ,greek3 e7an de la_/?1 e7pi te_/lei pro/i!_/nta t e7rt_/sei dior?te_/on2 c4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,ibid4 a4 #cj3 ,greek3 o7_/ls te ma*ete_/on1 a7n kai a7pls sullogi_/ztai1 o7_/ti ou7* o7 e7_/phs5 a7pe_/phse pragma1 a7ll' o7_/noma2 7_//' ou7k e7_/leg*os4 ,in/ead ( ,greek3 a7n kai_/1 ,julius ,pacius reads ,greek3 ka7_/n3 ! mean+ is mu* ! same4 ,9 ! next two ,fallacies--^? ( ,composition & ,division1 or ,conjunction & ,disjunction--:5 ! que/ion] draws up 8 refutative syllogism z if "o ( ! two _h be5 conc$$1 ! respond5t w retort by say+ t 8 concession 0 int5d$ only 9 ! o!r con/ruction ( ! words4 ,?is fallacy is di/9ct f ,equivocation2 & x is a mi/ake to try 7z "s h tri$7 to r$uce all fallacies to ,equivocation or ,amphiboly4#ajh ,! respond5t w di/+ui%1 9 ea* p>ticul> case1 t con/ruction ( ! words :i* he int5d$ 9 8 admission1 f t :i* ! que/ion] assumes 9 8 pret5d$ refutation4#aji ,footnote #ajh3 ,soph4 ,el4 xx4 p4 #agg1 a4 #cc-;b4 #i4 ,greek3 ou7 pa_/ntes oi7 e7_/leg*oi p>a to ditto_/n1 ka?a_/p] t9e_/s phas94 ,?is is ano!r ( ! evid5ces %[+ t !re 7 !ori/s prior to ,ari/otle on logical pro(2 & t 8 decl>ation ( orig9ality 79 ! conclud+ *apt] ( ,sophi/4 ,el5*i7 mu/ be tak5 ) res]ve4 ,footnote #aji3 ,soph4 ,el4 xx4 p4 #agg1 b4 #aj-bf3 ,greek3 diairete_/on ou7n t a7pokr9ome_/n2 c4 ,! ,fallacies ( ,acc5t r>ely furni% sophi/ical refutations1#aaj b ^? ( ,figura ,dictionis furni% a great _m4 ,:5 two words h ! l =m & /ructure1 x may naturally be imag9$ t ! signification ( "o belongs to ! same ,category z t ( ! o!r4 ,b ?is is (t5 an illusion2 & 9 su* cases a sophi/ical refutation may be f\nd$ !reupon4 ,! respond5t w solve x by d5y+ ! inf]5ce f simil>ity ( =m to simil>ity ( mean+1 & by di/+ui%+ accurately to :i* among ! t5 ,categories ! mean+ ( ea* sev]al ^w or ea* proposition belongs4 ,:5 two words ?us seem1 by _! =m1 to belong to ! same ,category1 ! que/ion] w (t5 take x = grant$1 )\t expressly ask+1 t !y d belong to ! same1 & w f\nd a confutation !reupon2 b ! respond5t mu/ n admit ! confutation to be valid1 unless ?is "q has be5 explicitly put to him & conc$$4#aaa ,a "q is put :i*1 9 its direct & obvi\s mean+1 be>s only on ! category ( ,quantity1 ( ,quality1 ( ,relation1 ( ,action1 or ( ,passion2 b ! respond5t1 n aw>e ( ! equivocation1 answ]s x 9 su* a mann] z to compreh5d ! ,category ( ,sub/ance1 & is s und]/ood by ! que/ion] :5 he con/ructs 8 refutative syllogism4 ,! respond5t w secure himself f be+ ?us confut$1 by keep+ con/antly 9 view to :i* ( ! ,categories 8 answ] is int5d$ to ref]4#aab ,footnote #aaj3 ,ibid4 xxi4 p4 #agg1 b4 #ce4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,ibid4 xxii4 p4 #agh1 a4 #d-bh4 ,greek3 to gar loipon au7tos pro/i_/?s9 o7 a7k\_/n 7s o7moi_/s lego_/m5on2 to de le_/getai men ou7* o7moi_/s1 phai_/netai de dia tn le_/x94 ,footnote #aab3 ,sev]al illu/rative examples ( ?is mode ( sophi/ical refutation1 f\nd$ on ! ,fallacy call$ ,figura ,dictionis1 are indicat$ 9 ?is *apt] by ,ari/otle4 ,! indication h[ev]1 is (t5 s brief & elliptical1 t !re is great difficulty 9 re/or+ ! fallacies 9 full1 & /ill great] difficulty 9 translat+ !m into any mod]n language4 #a4 ,is x possible at ! same "t to d & to h done ! same ?+8--,no4 ,to see some?+ is to d some?+2 to h se5 some?+ is to h done some?+8--,yes4 ,is x possible at ! same "t to see & to h se5 ! same ?+8--,yes4 ,! respond5t has ?us contradict$ himself4 ,! =m ( ! ^w ,greek3 o7ran appe>s to rank x "u ! ,category ,greek3 poiein4 ,h[ev]1 ,i ?9k t ! mi/ake really made "h 01 t ! respond5t return$ an answ] univ]sally negative to ! fir/ "q4 #b4 ,does any?+ com+ "u ! ,category ,pati come "u ! ,category ,ag]e8--,no4 ,b ,greek3 te_/mnetai1 kai_/etai1 ai7/ha_/netai1 all %[ by _! =m t !y belong to ! ,category ,pati8--,yes4 ,aga91 ,greek3 le_/ge91 tre_/*e91 o7ran1 %[ by _! =m t !y belong to ! ,category ,ag]e8--,yes4 ,y w admit1 h[ev]1 t ,greek3 to o7ran is ,greek3 ai7/ha_/ne/hai_/ ti8--,c]ta9ly4 ,!re=e some?+ t belongs to ! ,category ,ag]e belongs also to t ( ,pati4 ,if we turn back to ,ari/ot4 ,categ4 viii4 p4 #aa1 a4 #cg1 we %all f9d t he admits ! possibility t ! same subject may belong to two di/9ct ,categories4 #c4 ,did any "o write t :i* /&s "h writt58--,yes4 ,x /&s "h writt5 t y are /&+ up--a false /atem5t2 b :5 x 0 writt5 ! /atem5t 0 true8--,yes4 ,!re=e ! writ] has writt5 a /atem5t bo? true & false8--,yes4 ,"h true & false belong to ! ,category ,quality2 ! /atem5t or matt] writt5 belongs to t ( ,sub/ance4 ,:at ! writ] wrote _h no?+ to d ) ! =m] ( ! two ,categories2 & no contradiction has be5 made out by admitt+ t ! /atem5t 0 once true & is n[ false4 #d4 ,does a man tread t :i* he walks8--,yes4 ,b he walks ! :ole day8--,yes4 ,!re=e he treads ! :ole day4 ,"h ! ,category ( ,qu&o is confus$ ) t ( ,sub/ance4 #e4 ,b ! mo/ int]e/+ illu/ration ( ?is confusion ( "o ,category ) ano!r1 is furni%$ by ,ari/otle 9 respect ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 himself & ,plato z to ,ideas or ,univ]sals4 ,accord+ to ,plato ! univ]sal t]m d5ot$ a sep>ate some?+ ap>t f ! p>ticul>s1 yet ( :i* ea* ( ^! p>ticul>s p>took4 ,accord+ to ,ari/otle x d5ot$ no?+ sep>ate f ! p>ticul>s1 b some?+ belong+ 7ess5tially or non-ess5tially7 to all & ea* ( ! p>ticul>s4 ,9 ! ,platonic !ory x 0 an ,hoc ,aliquid 7,greek3 to_/de ti71 or _h an exi/5ce sub/antive & sep>ate3 9 ! ,ari/otelian x 0 a ,quale or ,quale ,quid 7,greek3 poio_/n71 hav+ an exi/5ce m]ely adjective or pr$icative4 ,ari/otle ma9ta9s t ,plato or ! ,platoni/s plac$ x 9 ! wrong ,category--9 ! ,category ( ,sub/ance in/ead ( 9 t ( ,quality4 ,n[ x is by rectify+ ?is confusion ( ,categories t ,ari/otle solves two argum5tative puzzles :i* he ranks z sophi/ical3--7#a7 ,! argum5t conclud+ 9 :at 0 call$ ! ',?ird ,man2' 7#b7 ,! foll[+ "q3 ,koriskus1 & ! musical ,koriskus--are ^! ! same1 or is ! second diff]5t f ! fir/8 ,:at is call$ ! ',?ird ,man' 0 a refutation ( ! ,platonic !ory ( ,ideas4 ,because ,plato recogniz$ a sub/antive exi/5ce1 correspond+ to ea* common d5om9ation connot+ lik5ess1 ap>t f all ! simil> p>ticul>s d5om9at$1 e4g41 a ,self-man1 or sep>ate self-exi/5t man1 correspond+ to ! ,idea1 & ap>t f all individual m51 ,caius1 c4--oppon5ts argu$ aga9/ him1 say+3--,if ?is is recogniz$1 y mu/ also recognize t ! ,self-man1 & ! individual man call$ ,caius1 h also a common d5om9ation & simil>ity1 :i* 7^u y\r pr9ciples7 corresponds to ano!r ,ideal ,man1 or a ,?ird ,man4 ,y mu/1 !re=e1 g on inf]r+ upw>ds to a ,f\r? ,man1 a ,fif? ,man1 c41 & s onw>ds to an indef9ite numb] ( ,ideal ,m51 "o above ! o!r4 ,?is 0 int5d$ z a refutation1 by ,r$uctio ad ,impossibile1 ( ! ,platonic view ( ,ideas z sep>ate ,entities1 ea* ( !m ,"o & ,univ]sal4 ,b ,ari/otle "h treats x z a ,sophi/ical ,refutation2 & he indicates :at he calls ! solution ( x by say+ t x conf\nds ! ,categories ( ,sub/ance & ,quality1 putt+ ! ,univ]sal 7:i* ought to be "u ! ,category ( ,quality7 "u ! ,category ( ,sub/ance4 ,he has no "r1 h[ev]1 to include ?is among ,sophi/ical ,refutations1 :i* are 7z he himself def9es !m7 n real b fallaci\s refutations1 inv5t$ by a di%one/ money-gett+ pr(ession call$ ,sophi/s1 & :i* are solv$ by po9t+ out ! precise seat ( ! fallacy4 ,! refutation call$ ! ',?ird ,man' is s f> f be+ fallaci\s1 t x is valid1 & is recit$ z su* else:]e by ,ari/otle himself 7,metaphs4 ,a4 ix4 p4 #iij1 b4 #ag999972 :ile ! solution t5d]$ by ,ari/otle1 in/ead ( be+ a solution1 is a confirmation1 po9t+ out1 n :]e ! fallacy ( ! refutation resides b1 :]e ! fallacy ( ! doctr9e refut$ resides4 ,moreov]1 if we are to treat ! refutation call$ ! ',?ird ,man' z sophi/ical1 we mu/ numb] ,plato himself among ! di%one/ class call$ ,sophi/s4 ,"h is "o among ! _m pro(s t ! /rong l9e drawn by ,ari/otle betwe5 ! ,dialectician & ! ,sophi/ is q unt5able4 ,! argum5t is di/9ctly enunciat$ 9 ! ,platonic ,p>m5ides 7pp4 #aca-acc74 ,! mean+ ( ! ,univ]sal 7,ari/otle ma9ta9s7 mu/ be consid]$ z pr$icative only1 tack$ on to "s ,hoc ,aliquid1 & belong+ to ,quale or "s o!r ( ! n9e latt] ,categories4 ,x may be set out z a di/9ct subject = logical consid]ation & reason+3 b x _c be set out z a di/9ct exi/5ce beyond & ap>t f its p>ticul>s 7,greek3 p>a t\s poll\s e7_/n ti74 ,x is ,greek3 poio_/n1 & x _c ev5 be recogniz$ z ,greek3 o7_/p] poio_/n or ,greek3 au7to-poio_/n1 = ?is w\ld put x ap>t f all ! o!r ,greek3 poia_/1 & w\ld be op5 to ! refutation above notic$ call$ ! ',?ird ,man4' ,su* is ! drift ( ! v difficult passage ( ! ,sophi/ici ,el5*i 7xxii4 p4 #agh1 b4 #cg-p4 #agi1 a4 #aj999974 ,i diff] f ,mr4 ,po/e's translation 7p4 #ga7 ( "p ( ?is passage1 & /ill m f ! explanation giv5 9 ! latt] "p ( 8 note 7p4 #aee74 ,i ?9k t ! doctr9e ( ,greek3 to e7n p>a ta polla_/ is produc$ by ,ari/otle "h & else:]e 9 8 "w z untrue & inadmissible1 n z 8 own doctr9e4 ,mr4 ,po/e und]/&s ?is passage diff]5tly f ! previ\s translators1 ) :om ,i agree = ! mo/ "p1 ?\gh ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire appe>s to me to h miss$ ! h+e ^u :i* ,ari/otle's argum5t turns1 by translat+ ,greek3 o7_/p] poio_/n--id ipsum1 quod quale e/ 7,j4 ,pacius7--une qualit3 ! argum5t turns ^u ! di/9ction betwe5 ,greek3 o7_/p] poio_/n & ,greek3 poio_/n4 ,i come n[ to ! second sophi/ical refutation giv5 by ,ari/otle3 ,koriskus1 & ! musician ,koriskus--are ! two ! same or diff]5t8 ,?is is :at ,ari/otle calls a sophi/ical or fallaci\s argum5t 7comp>e ,metaphys4 ,e4 ii4 p4 #ajbf1 b4 #ae72 b x c h>dly be s call$ ) propriety1 = ! only solution t ,ari/otle himself gives ( x is1 t ! two are idem num]o1 b 9 an improp] or second>y s5se 7,topic4 ,i4 vii4 p4 #ajc1 a4 #cj72 i4 e41 t !y are 9 "o po9t ( view ! same1 9 ano!r po9t ( view diff]5t--!y are ,greek3 e7n kata sumbebko_/s4 ,see ,ari/4 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,d4 vi4 p4 #ajae1 b4 #af2 ,s*olia1 p4 #fif1 a4 #bb1 seq42 & ,alex&4 ,aphrodis4 ad ,metaph4 pp4 #cba1 #cbb1 #dad1 #dae1 ed4 ,bonitz4 ,i und]/& ,ari/otle to say t ,greek3 ,ko_/riskos m\siko_/s _c be prop]ly set out or ab/ract$ 7,greek3 ou7k e7_//9 au7to e7k!_//hai71 because x includes two ,categories 7,sub/ance & ,quality7 9 "o2 :]e=e x _c be prop]ly comp>$ ei!r ) ,greek3 ,ko_/riskos simply 7,category ( ,sub/ance7 or ) ,greek3 m\siko_/s simply 7,category ( ,quality74 ,x seems /range t ,ari/otle does n notice ?is argum5tative difficulty 9 ! discussion :i* he be/[s on ,greek3 tau7to_/n 9 ! ,sev5? ,book ( ! ,topica4 ,! subtle reason+s1 v h>d to foll[1 :i* ,ari/otle employs 7,physic4 ,v4 iv4 p4 #bbg7 might h made him cauti\s 9 treat+ ! difficulties ( oppon5ts z s _m di%one/ cavils4 ,x is curi\s t ,alex&]1 9 recit+ ! sophi/ical argum5t1 assumes z a matt] ( c\rse t ,greek3 o7 grammatikos ,skra_/ts is ,greek3 o7 au7tos t ,skra_/tei 7,s*ol4 ad ,metaphys4 p4 #gcf1 b4 #bf1 ,br&474 ,z a g5]al rule1 9 all ! refutations f\nd$ on ! sev5 ,fallacies ,9 ,dictione1 ! respond5t w solve ! refutation by di/+ui%+ ! d\ble mean+ ( ! words or ( ! phrase1 & by adopt+ z 8 own ! "o opposite to t :i* ! que/ion] proce$s ^u4 ,if ! ,fallacy is ( ,conjunction & ,disjunction1 & if ! que/ion] assumes ,conjunction1 ! respond5t w adopt ,disjunction2 if x be a ,fallacy ( ,acc5t1 & if ! que/ion] assumes ! grave acc5t1 ! respond5t w adopt ! acute4#aac ,footnote #aac3 ,soph4 ,el4 xxiii4 p4 #agi1 a4 #aa-be4 ,pass+ to ! ,fallacies ,extra ,dictionem1 :]e ! sophi/ical refutation is f\nd$ ^u a ,fallacy ( ,accid5t1 ! respond5t ought to apply "o & ! same solution to all4 ,he w say3 ,! conclusion does n necess>ily foll[ f ! premisses2 & he w be prep>$ ) an example1 9 :i* ! conclusion obta9$ "u ?is fallacy is notori\sly untrue4#aad ,d y "k ,koriskus8--,yes4 ,d y "k ! di/ant p]son com+ ?is way8--,no4 ,t di/ant p]son is ,koriskus3 !re=e y "k1 & y d n "k1 ! same p]son4 ,! inf]5ce "h is n necess>y4 ,to be com+ ?is way--is an accid5t ( ,koriskus2 &1 because y d n "k ! accid5t1 we _c inf] t y d n "k ! subject2 su* may or may n be ! case4#aae ,footnote #aad3 ,soph4 ,el4 xxiv4 p4 #agi1 a4 #cj3 ,greek3 r7te_/on ou7n sumbiba/he_/ntas o7moi_/s pros a7_/pantas o7_/ti ou7k a7nagkaion2 e7_/*e9 de dei prophe_/re9 to oi7on4 ,footnote #aae3 ,ibid4 a4 #ce-;b4 #g4 ,! major premiss ^u :i* ! prec$+ sophi/ical refutation mu/ re/1 is1 ,t x is impossible bo? to "k & n to "k ! same ?+4 ,?is mu/ be put z a direct "q by ! que/ion]1 & mu/ be conc$$ by ! respond5t1 be=e ! int5d$ refutation c be made good4 ,n[ !re are "s p]sons :o solve ! refutation by answ]+ ?is "q 9 ! negative1 & by say+ t x is possible bo? to "k & n to "k ! same ?+1 only n 9 ! same respect3 su* is ! case :5 we "k ,koriskus1 b d n "k ,koriskus approa*+ f a di/ance4#aaf ,ari/otle disapproves ?is mode ( solution1 z well z ano!r mode :i* ref]s ! fallacy to equivocation ( t]ms4 ,he po9ts out t !re are _m o!r sophi/ical refutations1 com+ "u ! g5]al head ( ,fallaci ,accid5tis1 to :i* su* solution w n apply2 & t !re ought to be "o uni=m mode ( solution applicable to e fallacy com+ "u ! same g5]al head2 ?\gh he admits at ! same "t t p>ticul> sophi/ical refutations may be vici\s 9 m ?an "o way4 ,he says1 moreov]1 t ?is contradiction or negation ( ! premiss is no true solution2 = a solution ought to br+ to view cle>ly ! reason :y ! fallaci\s refutation appe>s to be a real refutation4 ,?us ! ,fallacia ,accid5tis consi/s 9 an inf]5ce t :at is true ( an accid5t is true also ( ! subject !re(3 y expla9 t su* inf]5ce1 ?\gh app>5tly cog5t1 has no real cog5cy1 & 9 t explanation consi/s ! only prop] solution ( ! fallacy4#aag ,footnote #aaf3 ,ibid4 b4 #g1 #ah1 #cg3 ,greek3 lu_/ousi de_/ t9es a7nair\ntes tn e7r_/ts92 phasi gar e7nde_/*e/hai tau7to pragma ei7de_/nai kai a7gnoein1 a7lla m kata tau7to_/4 ,mr4 ,po/e 7pp4 #aeb-aeg7 translates ,greek3 a7nair\ntes tn e7r_/ts9--contradict+ ! !sis1 & he expresses 8 surprise at ! ass]tion1 obs]v+ 7v truly7 t contradiction ( ! !sis is ! v opposite ( a solution2 x helps 9 ! v "w :i* ! refutation aims at accompli%+4 ,b ,i _c ?9k t ,greek3 e7r_/tsis does mean ! !sis1 ei!r "h or 9 ! o!r passage to :i* ,mr4 ,po/e ref]s 7xxii4 p4 #agh1 b4 #ad74 ,i ?9k x means a premiss :i* ! respond5t has conc$$1 or mu/ be presum$ to h conc$$1 ess5tial to ! validity ( ! refutation4 ,! t]m ,greek3 e7r_/tsis _c surely1 ) any propriety1 be appli$ to ! !sis4 ,x means ei!r a "q1 or :at is conc$$ 9 reply to a "q2 & ! !sis _c come "u ei!r "o mean+ or ! o!r1 be+ ! proposition :i* ! respond5t sets out by affirm+ & und]takes to def5d4 ,footnote #aag3 ,soph4 ,el4 xxiv4 p4 #agi1 b4 #bc3 ,greek3 7n gar 7 lu_/sis e7mpha_/nisis pseud\s sullogism\1 p>' o7 pseud_/s4 ,9 l mann]1 all ^? ,fallacies :i* come "u ! g5]al head ( ,a dicto ,secundum ,quid ad dictum ,simplicit]1 c only be solv$ by po9t+ out1 9 ea* p>ticul> case1 9 :at t]ms ?is confusion is conceal$--:]e9 resides ! inf]5ce app>5tly cog5t :i* is mi/ak5 = "o really cog5t4 ,! respond5t is driv5 to an app>5t contradiction1 by hav+ grant$ premisses f :i* ! inf]5ce is d]ivable t bo? sides ( ! ,antiphasis are true--t ! same pr$icate ,a may be bo? affirm$ & d5i$ ( ! same subject ,b4 ,he solves ! contradiction by analys+ ! ,antiphasis1 & by %[+ t affirmation is secundum quid1 :ile d5ial is simplicit]2 & t !re is a contradiction n real1 b only app>5t1 betwe5 ! two4#aah ,footnote #aah3 ,ibid4 xxv4 p4 #ahj1 a4 #bc-ca4 ,9 l mann]1 ! ,fallacy ,ignoratio ,el5*i w be solv$ by analys+ ! two suppos$ c\nt]-propositions ( ! ,antiphasis1 & by %[+ t !re is no real contradiction or inconsi/5cy betwe5 !m4#aai ,footnote #aai3 ,ibid4 xxvi4 p4 #aha1 a4 #a-ad4 ,9 reg>d to ! ,fallacies "u ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 ! respond5t if he p]ceives t ! premiss ask$ ( him involves su* a fallacy1 mu/ refuse to grant x1 h[ev] probable x may be 9 itself4 ,if he does n p]ceive ?is until aft] he has grant$ x1 he mu/ ?r[ back ! *>ge ( mal-proc$ure ^u ! que/ion]2 decl>+ t an ,el5*us involv+ assumption ( ! matt] 9 "q is null1 & t ! concession 0 made "u ! supposition t "s sep>ate & indep5d5t syllogism 0 9 contemplation4#abj ,footnote #abj3 ,ibid4 xxvii4 p4 #aha1 a4 #ae-ba4 ,!re are two di/9ct ways 9 :i* ! ,fallacia ,consequ5tis may be employ$4 ,! pr$icate may be an univ]sal1 compreh5d+ ! subject3 because animal always goes along ) man1 x is falsely inf]r$ t man always goes along ) animal2 or x is falsely inf]r$ t n-animal always goes along ) n-man4 ,! fallacy is solv$ :5 ?is is po9t$ out4 ,! la/ inf]5ce is only valid :5 ! t]ms are inv]t$2 if animal always goes along ) man1 n-man w always g along ) n-animal4#aba ,footnote #aba3 ,ibid4 xxviii4 p4 #aha1 a4 #bb-cj4 ,greek3 a7na_/pal9 gar 7 a7kol\_/?sis4 ,if ! sophi/ical refutation includes m premisses ?an are indisp5sable to ! conclusion1 ! respond5t1 aft] hav+ satisfi$ himself t ?is is ! fact1 w po9t out ! mal-proc$ure ( ! que/ion]1 & w say t he conc$$ ! sup]flu\s premiss1 n because x 0 9 itself probable b1 because x seem$ relevant to ! debate2 :ile nev]!less ! que/ion] has made no real or legitimate application ( x t[>ds t object4#abb ,?is is ! mode ( solution applicable 9 ! case ( ! ,fallacies com+ "u ! head ,non ,causa pro ,caus4#abc ,footnote #abb3 ,soph4 ,el4 xxix4 p4 #aha1 a4 #ca-ce4 ,footnote #abc3 ,s*ol4 p4 #cah1 a4 #cf1 ,br4 ,:]e ! sophi/ical que/ion] tries to refute by ! ,fallacia ,plurium ,int]rogationum 7i4e41 by putt+ two or m que/ions z "o71 ! respond5t %\ld =?) divide ! complex "q into its compon5t simple que/ions1 & make answ] accord+ly4 ,he mu/ n give "o answ]1 ei!r affirmative or negative1 to t :i* is m ?an "o "q4 ,ev5 if he does give "o answ]1 he may sometimes n involve himself 9 any contradiction2 = x may happ5 t ! same pr$icate is truly affirmable1 or truly d5iable1 ( two or m di/9ct & indep5d5t subjects4 ,(t51 h[ev]1 ! contr>y is ! case3 no "o true answ]1 ei!r affirmative or negative1 c be giv5 to "o ( ^! complex que/ions3 ! "o answ] giv51 :atev] x be1 mu/ always be p>tially false or inconsi/5t4#abd ,suppose two subjects1 ,a & ,b1 "o good1 ! o!r bad3 if ! "q be1 ,:e!r ,a & ,b are good or bad1 x w be equally true to say--,bo? are good1 or1 ,bo? are bad1 or1 ,bo? are nei!r good nor bad4 ,!re may inde$ be o!r solutions = ?is fallacy3 ,bo? or ,all may signify two or m items tak5 individually1 or tak5 collectively2 b ! only sure precaution is--"o answ] to "o "q4#abe ,footnote #abd3 ,soph4 ,el4 xxx4 p4 #aha1 a4 #ch3 ,greek3 ou7_/te plei_/ ka?' e7nos ou7_/te e7n kata polln1 a7ll' e7n ka?' e7nos phate_/on 7 a7pophate_/on4 ,footnote #abe3 ,ibid4 b4 #f-be4 ,suppose t1 in/ead ( aim+ at a seem+ refutation1 ! ,sophi/ tries to convict ! respond5t ( ,tautology4 ,! s\rce ( ?is emb>rassm5t is commonly ! fact t a relative t]m is (t5 us$ & conveys cle> mean+ )\t its correlate1 ?\gh ! correlate is always impli$ & und]/ood4 ,! respond5t mu/ avoid ?is trap by refus+ to grant t ! relative has any mean+ at all )\t its correlate2 & by requir+ t ! correlate %all be di/9ctly enunciat$ along ) x4 ,he ought to treat ! relative )\t its correlate z m]ely a "p ( ! :ole significant expression--z m]ely syncategorematic2 j z t5 is 9 ! phrase--t5 m9us "o1 or z ! affirmative ^w is 9 a negative proposition4#abf ,?us he w n recognize d\ble z significant by itself )\t its correlate half1 nor half )\t its correlate d\ble2 al?\gh 9 common p>lance su* correlate is (t5 und]/ood )\t be+ =mally enunciat$4 ,footnote #abf3 ,soph4 ,el4 ,xxxi4 p4 #aha1 b4 #bf3 ,greek3 ou7 dote_/on tn pro_/s ti legome_/nn smai_/ne9 ti *rizome_/nas ka?' au7tas tas katgori_/z4 ,mr4 ,po/e obs]ves 9 8 note3--,! sophi/ic locus ( tautology may be consid]$ z a c>icature ( a dialectic locus4 ,"o fault :i* dialectic criticism f9ds ) a def9ition is ! introduction ( sup]flu\s words4 ,he !n cites ,topic4 ,,vi4 ii4 7p4 #ada1 a4 #d1 seq472 b 9 ?is passage we f9d t ! repetition ( ! same ^w is decl>$ n to be an argum5tative impropriety1 s t ! ,sophi/ w\ld ga9 no?+ by driv+ 8 oppon5t into tautology4 ,la/ly1 ano!r purpose :i* ,ari/otle ascribes to ! ,sophi/1 is t ( driv+ ! respond5t into a ,solecism--into "s grammatical or syntactical impropriety1 su* z1 us+ a n\n 9 ! wrong case or g5d]1 us+ a pron\n ) a diff]5t g5d] or numb] f ! n\n to :i* x belongs1 c4 ,he po9ts out t ! solution ( ^! v]bal puzzles mu/ be diff]5t = ea* p>ticul> case2 9 g5]al1 :5 ?r[n into a regul> syllogi/ic =m1 ev5 ! que/ion] himself w be f\nd to speak bad ,greek4 ,! examples giv5 by ,ari/otle d n admit ( be+ translat$ into a mod]n language1 s z to pres]ve ! solecism t con/itutes _! peculi>ity4#abg ,footnote #abg3 ,soph4 ,el4 xxxii4 p4 #ahb1 a4 #g-;b4 #e4 ,aft] hav+ ?us gone ?r\gh ! diff]5t artifices ascrib$ to ! ,sophi/1 & ! ways ( solv+ or meet+ !m1 ,ari/otle rem>ks t !re are mat]ial di/9ctions betwe5 ! diff]5t cases :i* fall "u "o & ! same g5]al head ( ,sophi/ical ,p>alogism4 ,"s cases !re are 9 :i* bo? ! fallacy itself1 & ! p>ticul> po9t ^u :i* x turns1 are obvi\s & disc]nible at fir/ sight4 ,9 o!r cases1 aga91 an ord9>y p]son does n p]ceive t !re is any fallacy at all2 or1 if he does p]ceive x1 he (t5 does n detect ! seat ( ! fallacy1 s t "o man w ref] ! case to "o g5]al head1 & ano!r1 to a diff]5t "o4#abh ,?us1 = example1 ,fallacies ( ,equivocation are p]haps ! mo/ frequ5t & num]\s ( all fallacies2 "s ( !m are *ildi% & jocul>1 n really impos+ ^u any "o2 b !re are o!rs aga9 9 :i* ! d\ble mean+ ( a ^w is at fir/ unnotic$1 & is disput$ ev5 :5 po9t$ out1 s t x c only be br\ght to light by ! mo/ c>eful & subtle analysis4 ,?is happ5s especially ) t]ms t are highly ab/ract & g5]al3 :i* are treat$ by _m1 includ+ ev5 9999philosoph]s l ,p>m5ides & ,z5o1 z if !y 7 n equivocal at all1 b univocal4#abi ,aga91 ! ,fallaci ,accid5tis1 & ! o!r classes ,extra ,dictionem1 are also (t5 h>d to detect4 ,on ! :ole1 x is (t5 h>d to det]m9e1 n m]ely to :i* ( ! classes any case ( fallacy belongs1 b ev5 :e!r !re is any fallacy at all--:e!r ! refutation is1 or is n1 a valid "o4#acj ,footnote #abh3 ,ibid4 xxxiii4 p4 #ahb1 b4 #f-ab4 ,footnote #abi3 ,soph4 ,el4 xxxiii4 p4 #ahb1 b4 #ac-be3 ,greek3 7_/sp] ou7n e7n tois p>a tn o7mnumi_/an1 o7_/sp] dokei tro_/pos eu7!_//atos ei7nai tn p>alogismn1 ta men kai tois tu*\si_/n e7/i dla--ta de kai t\s e7mpeirota_/t\s phai_/netai lan?a_/ne92 smeion de t\_/tn o7_/ti ma_/*ontai polla_/kis p]i o7noma_/tn1 oi7on po_/t]on tau7to smai_/nei kata pa_/ntn to o7n kai to e7n 7 e7_/t]on4 ,footnote #acj3 ,ibid4 b4 #bg3 ,greek3 o7moi_/s de kai p]i t\ sumbebko_/tos kai p]i tn a7_/lln e7_/ka/on1 oi7 men e7_/sontai r7a_/ous i7dein oi7 de *alep_/t]oi tn lo_/gn2 kai labein e7_/n t9i ge_/nei1 kai po_/t]on e7_/leg*os 7 ou7k e7_/leg*os1 ou7 r7a_/dion o7moi_/s p]i pa_/ntn4 ,! pung5t argum5ts 9 debate are ^? :i* bite mo/ ke5ly1 & create ! greate/ am\nt ( emb>rassm5t & puzzle4#aca ,9 dialectical debate a puzzle arises1 :5 ! respond5t f9ds t a correct syllogism has be5 e/abli%$ aga9/ him1 & :5 he does n at once see :i* among its premisses he ought to controv]t1 9 ord] to ov]?r[ ! conclusion4 ,9 ! eri/ic or sophi/ic debate ! puzzle ( ! respond5t is1 9 :at language to enunciate 8 propositions s z to keep cle> ( ! subtle objections :i* w be br\ght aga9/ him by ! que/ion]4#acb ,x is ^! pung5t argum5ts t mo/ effectually /imulate ! m9d to inve/igation4 ,! mo/ pung5t ( all is1 :]e ! syllogi/ic premisses are highly probable1 yet :]e !y nev]!less negative a conclusion :i* is also highly probable4 ,"h we h an equal anti!sis z to presumptive cr$ibility1 betwe5 ! premisses tak5 toge!r on "o side & ! conclusion on ! o!r4#acc ,we d n "k :e!r x is 9 ! premisses only1 or 9 ! conclusion1 t we are to look = untru?3 ! conclusion1 ?\gh improbable1 may yet be true1 :ile we may f9d t ! true conclusion has be5 obta9$ f untrue premisses2 or ! conclusion may be bo? improbable & untrue1 9 :i* case we mu/ look = untru? 9 "o ( ! premisses also--ei!r ! major or ! m9or4 ,?is is ! mo/ emb>rass+ position ( all4 ,ano!r1 r less emb>rass+1 is1 :]e our !sis w be confut$ unless we c %[ ! confut+ conclusion to be untrue1 b :]e ea* ( ! premisses on :i* ! conclusion dep5ds is equally probable1 s t we d n at once see 9 :i* ( !m ! cause ( its untru? is to be s\ght4 ,^! two are ! mo/ pung5t & p]plex+ argum5tative conjunctures ( dialectical debate4 ,footnote #aca3 ,ibid4 #cb3 ,greek3 e7_//i de drimus lo_/gos o7_//is a7porein poiei ma_/li/a2 da_/knei gar ou7tos ma_/li/a4 ,footnote #acb3 ,soph4 ,el4 xxxiii4 p4 #ahb1 b4 #cc3 ,greek3 a7pori_/a d' e7/i ditt_/1 7 men e7n tois sullelogisme_/nois1 o7_/ ti a7ne_/l tis tn e7rtma_/tn1 7 d' e7n tois e7ri/ikois1 ps ei7_/p tis to prota!_/n4 ,! difficulty "h po9t$ out1 ( f9d+ language n op5 to "s logical objection by an acute ,sophi/1 is illu/rat$ by :at he himself /ates ab\t ! caution requir$ = gu>d+ 8 def9itions aga9/ attack2 see ,de ,int]pret4 vi4 p4 #ag1 a4 #cd3 ,greek3 le_/g de a7ntikei/hai tn t\ au7t\ kata t\ au7t\1 m o7mnu_/ms de_/1 kai o7_/sa a7_/lla prosdiorizo_/me?a pros tas sophi/ikas e7no*l_/seis4 ,:at is "h meant by ,greek3 sophi/ikai e7no*l_/seis is express$ else:]e by ,greek3 pros tas logikas dus*]ei_/z--,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,g4 iii4 p4 #ajje1 b4 #ba2 ,n4 i4 p4 #ajhg1 b4 #bj4 ,see ! ,s*olia 7pp4 #aab1 #fea1 ,br47 ( ,ammonius & ,alex&] ^u ! above passages ( ,de ,int]pr4 & ,metaphys4 ,footnote #acc3 ,soph4 ,el4 xxxiii4 p4 #ahb1 b4 #cg-p4 #ahc1 a4 #d3 ,greek3 e7_//i de sullogi/ikos men lo_/gos drimu_/tatos1 a7n e7x o7_/ti ma_/li/a dok\_/ntn o7_/ti ma_/li/a e7_/ndoxon a7nair2 ei7s gar 7n o7 lo_/gos1 metati!me_/ns ts a7ntipha_/ses1 a7_/pantas o7moi_/ous e7_/xei t\s sullogism\_/s2 a7ei gar e7x e7ndo_/xn o7moi_/s e7_/ndoxon a7nair_/sei 7 kataskeua_/sei2 dio_/p] a7porein a7nagkaion4 ma_/li/a men ou7n o7 toi\tos drimu_/s1 o7 e7x i7_/s\ to sumpe_/rasma poin tois e7rt_/masi4 ,i transcribe ?is text z x is giv5 by ,bekk]1 ,waitz1 ,bussemak]1 & ,mr4 ,po/e4 ,! editions ant]ior to ,bekk] _h ! additional words ,greek3 7 kataskeua_/z aft] ,greek3 a7nair 9 ! f\r? l9e2 & ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4 ,hilaire 9 8 translation def5ds & reta9s !m4 ,bekk] & ! subsequ5t editors h omitt$ !m1 b h reta9$ ! la/ words ,greek3 7 kataskeua_/sei 9 ! sev5? l9e4 ,to me ?is seems inconsi/5t3 ! words ought ei!r to be reta9$ 9 bo? places or omitt$ 9 bo?4 ,i ?9k !y ought to be omitt$ 9 bo?4 ,i h enclos$ !m 9 brackets 9 ! fif? l9e4 ,?is difficult passage 7n well expla9$ by ,alex&]1 ,s*ol4 p4 #cbj1 b4 #i7 requires ! explanations ( ,waitz & ,mr4 ,po/e4 ,! note ( ,mr4 ,po/e is p>ticul>ly in/ructive1 because he exp&s 9 full 7p4 #afd7 ! ?ree simil> syllogisms to :i* ,ari/otle "h briefly alludes4 ,! phrase ,greek3 metati!me_/ns ts a7ntipha_/ses is det]m9$ by a passage 9 ,analyt4 ,priora1 ,,ii4 viii4 p4 #ei1 b4 #a3 x means employm5t ( ! contradictory ( ! conclusion1 9 comb9ation ) ei!r "o ( ! premisses1 to upset ! o!r4 ,! orig9al syllogism is assum$ to h two premisses1 ea* highly probable1 :ile ! conclusion is highly improbable1 be+ ! negation ( a highly probable proposition4 ,! orig9al syllogism w /& ?us3 ,all ,m is ,p2 ,all ,s is ,m2 ,ergo1 ,all ,s is ,p3 ! two premisses be+ suppos$ highly probable1 & ! conclusion highly improbable4 ,( c\rse1 !re=e1 ! contradictory ( ! conclusion w be highly probable--,"s ,s is n ,p4 ,we take ?is contradictory & employ x to con/ruct two new syllogisms z foll[s3--,all ,m is ,p2 ,"s ,s is n ,p2 ,ergo ,"s ,s is n ,m4 ,& aga91 ,"s ,s is n ,p3 ,all ,s is ,m2 ,ergo1 ,"s ,m is n ,p4 ,all ^! ?ree syllogisms are simil> 9 ?is respect3 t ea* has two highly probable premisses1 :ile ! conclusion is highly improbable4 ,b 9 eri/ic or sophi/ic debate our greate/ emb>rassm5t z respond5ts w arise :5 we d n at once see :e!r ! refutative syllogism br\ght aga9/ u is conclusive or n1 & :e!r x is to be solv$ by negation or by di/9ction4#acd ,next 9 ord] z to emb>rassm5t /&s ! case1 :]e we see 9 :i* ( ! two processes 7negation or di/9ction7 we are to f9d our solution1 yet )\t see+ on :i* ( ! premisses we are to br+ ! process to be>2 or :e!r1 if di/9ction be ! process requir$1 we are to apply x to ! conclusion1 or to "o ( ! premisses4#ace ,a defective syllogi/ic argum5t is silly1 :5 ! defici5t po9ts are ( capital importance--relat+ to ! m9or or to ! middle t]m1 or :5 ! assumptions are false & /range2 b x w sometimes be wor?y ( att5tion1 if ! po9ts defici5t are outly+ & easily suppli$2 9 :i* cases x is ! c>elessness ( ! que/ion] t is to blame1 r ?an ! argum5t itself4#acf ,bo? ! l9e ( argum5t tak5 by ! que/ion]1 & ! mode ( solution adopt$ by ! respond5t1 may be direct$ t[>ds any "o ( ?ree di/9ct purposes3 ei!r to ! !sis & ma9 subject discuss$2 or to ! adv]s>y p]sonally 7i4e41 to ! p>ticul> way 9 :i* he has be5 argu+72 or to nei!r ( ^!1 b simply to prolong ! discussion 7i4e41 aga9/ "t74 ,! solution may ?us be sometimes su* t x w\ld take m "t to argue ^u x ?an ! pati5ce ( ! auditors w all[4#acg ,footnote #acd3 ,soph4 ,el4 xxxiii4 p4 #ahc1 a4 #g4 ,footnote #ace3 ,ibid4 a4 #i3 ,greek3 deu_/t]os de tn a7_/lln o7 dlos men o7_/ti p>a diai_/res9 7 a7nai_/resi_/n e7/i1 m phan]os d' 7n dia ti_/nos tn 7rtme_/nn a7nai_/res9 7 diai_/res9 lute_/os e7/i_/n1 a7lla po_/t]on au7_/t p>a to sumpe_/rasma 7 p>a_/ ti tn e7rtma_/tn e7/i_/n4 ,mr4 ,po/e translates ^! la/ words v correctly3--,:e!r x is "o ( ! premisses or ! conclusion t requires di/9ction4 ,"h ,ari/otle aga9 speaks ( a mode ( solution furni%$ by apply+ di/9ction 7,greek3 diai_/resis7 to ! conclusion z well z to ! premisses1 ?\gh he does n say t solution c be furni%$ by apply+ dispro( 7,greek3 a7nai_/resis7 to ! conclusion4 ,see my rem>ks1 a few pages above1 on ,mr4 ,po/e's note respect+ *4 xviii4 7supra1 p4 #djf74 ,footnote #acf3 ,soph4 ,el4 xxxiii4 p4 #ahc1 a4 #ad-bj4 ,footnote #acg3 ,ibid4 a4 #ba4 ,! la/ *apt] ( ! ,sophi/ici ,el5*i is employ$ by ,ari/otle 9 recapitulat+ ! scope & proc$ure ( ! n9e ,books ( ,topica 7reckon+ ! ,sophi/ici ,el5*i z ! ,n9?1 z we ought 9 propriety to d72 & 9 appreciat+ ! g5]al be>+ & value ( t treatise1 hav+ reg>d to ! practice & !ory ( ! day4 ,! bus9ess ( ,dialectic & ,peira/ic is to f9d & apply ! syllogiz+ process to any giv5 !sis1 ) premisses ! mo/ probable t c be obta9$ be>+ on ! !sis4 ,?is ,ari/otle treats z ! prop] function ( ,dialectic p] se & ( ,peira/ic2 consid]+ bo?--! la/1 ( c\rse--z ref]r+ :olly to ! que/ion]4 ,8 purpose is to inve/igate & imp>t ?is syllogiz+ p[]--! p[] ( que/ion+ & cross-exam9+ a respond5t :o sets up a giv5 !sis1 s z to drive him into inconsi/5t answ]s4 ,x appe>s t ,ari/otle w\ld n h c>$ to tea* ! respond5t h[ he might def5d himself aga9/ ?is proc$ure1 if !re _h n happ5$ to be ano!r art--,sophi/ic1 closely bord]+ on ,dialectic & ,peira/ic4 ,he consid]s x indisp5sable to furni% ! respond5t ) def5sive arm\r aga9/ sophi/ical cross-exam9ation2 & ?is c\ld n be done )\t tea*+ him at ! same "t modes ( def5ce aga9/ ! cross-exam9ation ( ,dialectic & ,peira/ic4 ,= ?is reason x is 7,ari/otle 9999tells u#ach7 t he has includ$ 9 ! ,topica precepts on ! be/ mode ( def5d+ ! !sis by ! mo/ probable argum5ts1 z well z ( impugn+ x4 ,! respond5t pr(esses to "k 7:ile ! que/ion] does n71 & mu/ be taught h[ to ma9ta9 8 !sis l a man ( k4 ,sokrates1 ! pr9ce ( dialecticians1 did no?+ b "q & cross-exam9e3 he w\ld nev] be respond5t at all2 = he explicitly disclaim$ k4 ,& if x 7 n = ! neighb\rhood ( ,sophi/ic1 ,ari/otle w\ld h ?\ght x suffici5t to tea* a proc$ure l t ( ,sokrates4 ,x 0 ! dang] f sophi/ical cross-exam9ation t l$ him to enl>ge 8 s*eme--to unmask ! ,sophi/s by enum]at+ ! p>alogisms peculi> to !m1 & to indicate ! prop] s*eme ( ! responses & solutions :]eby ! respond5t might def5d himself aga9/ !m4 ,we rememb] t ,ari/otle treats all p>alogisms & fallacies z if !y belong$ to a peculi> art or pr(ession call$ ,sophi/ic1 & z if !y 7 employ$ by ,sophi/s exclusively2 z if ! ,dialecticians & ! ,peira/s1 includ+ among !m ,sokrates & ,plato1 put all _! que/ions )\t ev] resort+ to or fall+ into p>alogisms4 ,footnote #ach3 ,ibid4 xxxiv4 p4 #ahc1 a4 #cg-;b4 #h3 ,greek3 proeilo_/me?a men ou7n eu7rein du_/nami_/n t9a sullogi/ikn p]i t\ probl!_/ntos e7k tn u7p>*o_/ntn 7s e7ndoxota_/tn2 t\to gar e7_/rgon e7/i ts dialektiks ka?' au7tn kai ts peira/iks4 e7pei de proskataskeua_/zetai pros au7tn dia tn ts sophi/iks geitni_/as91 7s ou7 mo_/non peiran du_/natai labein dialektiks1 a7lla kai 7s ei7d_/s1 dia t\to ou7 mo_/non to le*!n e7_/rgon u7pe!_/me?a ts pragmatei_/z to lo_/gon du_/na/hai labein1 a7lla kai o7_/ps lo_/gon u7pe_/*ontes phula_/xom5 tn !_/s9 7s di' e7ndoxota_/tn o7motro_/ps4 tn d' ai7ti_/an ei7r_/kam5 t\_/t\1 e7pei kai dia t\to ,skra_/ts 7r_/ta a7ll' ou7k a7pekri_/neto2 7molo_/gei gar ou7k ei7de_/nai4 ,x appe>s to me t 9 "o l9e ( ?is rem>kable passage a ^w has dropp$ out :i* is necess>y to ! s5se4 ,we n[ read 7ab\t ! middle7 ,greek3 7s ou7 mo_/non peiran du_/natai labein dialektiks1 a7lla kai 7s ei7d_/s4 ,n[ ! words ,greek3 peiran labein z ! passage /&s1 mu/ be con/ru$ along ) ,greek3 7s ei7d_/s1 & ?is makes no mean+ at all1 or an inadmissible mean+4 ,i ?9k x cle> t ! ^w ,greek3 u7pe_/*e9 or ,greek3 d\nai has dropp$ out be=e ,greek3 ei7d_/s4 ,! passage w !n /&3--,greek3 7s ou7 mo_/non peiran du_/natai labein dialektiks1 a7lla kai u7pe_/*e9 7or ,greek3 d\nai7 7s ei7d_/s4 ,:5 ?is v]b is suppli$ ! s5se w be q 9 h>mony ) :at foll[s1 :i* at pres5t x is n4 ,greek3 ,peiran labein applies to ! que/ion]1 b n to ! respond5t2 ,greek3 7s ei7d_/s applies to ! respond5t1 b n to ! que/ion]2 ,greek3 peiran u7pe_/*e9 applies to ! respond5t1 & is !re=e ! fit concomitant ( ,greek3 7s ei7d_/s4 ,! translation giv5 by ,mr4 ,po/e fir/ 7p4 #ic73--pr(ess+ n only to te/ k ) ! res\rces ( ,dialectic1 b also to ma9ta9 any !sis ) ! infallibility ( sci5ce appe>s to me 7except+ ! ^w infallibility1 :i* is unsuitable7 to r5d] ,ari/otle's ?\ght1 ?\gh n 8 words z !y n[ /&2 b ,mr4 ,po/e has giv5 :at he ?9ks an am5d$ translation 7p4 #age73--,s9ce x claims ! p[] ( cate*iz+ or cross-exam9+ n only dialectically b also sci5tifically4 ,?is second translation may approa* m ne>ly to ! pres5t words ( ,ari/otle1 b x dep>ts m widely f 8 s5se & doctr9e4 ,ari/otle does n claim = ei!r ,dialecticians or ,sophi/s ! p[] ( cross-exam9+ sci5tifically4 ,he ascribes to ! ,sophi/s no?+ b cavil & fallacy--v]bal & extra-v]bal--! pret5ce & %am ( be+ wise or kn[+ 7,soph4 ,el4 i41 ii4 p4 #afe74 ,ari/otle1 we h already m ?an once se51 ass]ts emphatically 8 claim to orig9ality z hav+ be5 ! fir/ to treat ^! subjects !oretically1 & to sugge/ precepts f\nd$ on ! !ory4 ,on all important subjects 7he rem>ks7 ! elaboration ( any good !ory is a gradual process1 ! "w ( sev]al successive au?ors4 ,! fir/ beg9n+s are v imp]fect & rudim5t>y2 ^u ^!1 h[ev]1 subsequ5t au?ors build1 bo? correct+ & enl>g+1 until1 aft] "s consid]able "t1 a tol]ably complete s*eme or sy/em comes to be con/ruct$4 ,su* has be5 ! case ) ,rhetoric & o!r arts4 ,tisias 0 ! fir/ writ] & preceptor on ,rhetoric1 yet ) poor & insuffici5t effect4 ,to him succe$$ ,?rasyma*us1 next ,!odorus1 & v>i\s o!rs2 f ea* ( :om p>tial improvem5ts & additions 7 d]iv$1 until at l5g? we h n[ 7x is ,ari/otle t speaks7 a copi\s body ( rhetorical !ory & precept1 inh]it$ f pr$ecessors & accumulat$ by successive traditions4 ,comp>$ ) ?is1 ! e>lie/ attempt at !ory 0 inde$ n>r[ & imp]fect2 b x 0 nev]!less ! fir/ /ep 9 a great "w1 &1 z su*1 x 0 ! mo/ difficult & ! mo/ important4 ,! task ( build+ on a f\ndation already laid1 is f> easi]4#aci ,footnote #aci3 ,soph4 ,el4 xxxiv4 p4 #ahc1 b4 #ag-bf3 ,greek3 tn gar eu7riskome_/nn a7pa_/ntn ta men p>' e7te_/rn lph!_/nta pro_/t]on peponme_/na kata me_/ros e7pide_/dk5 u7po tn p>alabo_/ntn u7_//]on2 ta d' e7x u7p>*s eu7risko_/m5a mikran to prton e7pi_/dos9 lamba_/ne9 ei7_/!1 *rsimte_/ran me_/ntoi poll ts u7_//]on e7k t\_/tn au7x_/ses2 me_/gi/on gar i7_/ss a7r* panto_/s1 7_/sp] le_/getai2 dio kai *alep_/taton2 o7_/s gar kra_/ti/on t duna_/mei1 tos\_/t mikro_/taton o7n t mege_/!i *alep_/tato_/n e7/9 o7ph?nai2 tau_/ts d' eu7rme_/ns r7aon pro/i!_/nai kai sunau_/xe9 to loipo_/n e7/94 ,:ile rhetorical !ory has ?us be5 gradually work$ up to maturity1 ! case has be5 altoge!r diff]5t ) ,dialectic4 ,9 ?is ,i 7,ari/otle7 f\nd no basis prep>$2 no pr$ecessor to foll[2 no models to copy4 ,i _h to beg9 f ! beg9n+1 & to make good ! fir/ /ep myself4 ,! process ( syllogiz+ _h nev] yet be5 analys$ or expla9$ by any "o2 mu* less _h any?+ be5 set =? ab\t ! diff]5t applications ( x 9 detail4 ,i work$ x out = myself1 )\t any assi/ance1 by long & labori\s application4#adj ,!re exi/$ inde$ paid tea*]s1 bo? 9 ,dialectic & 9 ,eri/ic 7or ,sophi/ic72 b _! tea*+ has be5 entirely )\t analysis1 or !ory1 or sy/em4 ,j z rhetoricians gave to _! pupils orations to le>n by he>t1 s ^! dialectical tea*]s gave out dialogues to le>n by he>t ^u ^? subjects :i* !y ?\ght mo/ likely to become ! topics ( disc\rse4 ,!y ?us imp>t$ to _! pupils a c]ta9 read9ess & flu5cy2 b !y communicat$ no art1 no rational conception ( :at 0 to be s\ght or avoid$1 no skill or p[] ( deal+ ) new circum/ances4#ada ,!y proce$$ l m51 :o1 pr(ess+ to %[ h[ com=table cov]+ might be provid$ = ! feet1 %\ld n tea* ! pupil h[ he c\ld make %oes = himself1 b %\ld m]ely furni% him ) a good /ock ( ready-made %oes--a pres5t valuable inde$ = use1 b q unconnect$ ) any skill z an artific]4 ,! syllogism z a sy/em & !ory1 ) precepts f\nd$ on t !ory = ,demon/ration & ,dialectic1 has orig9at$ fir/ ) me 7,ari/otle74 ,m9e is ! fir/ /ep1 & !re=e a small "o1 ?\gh work$ out ) mu* ?\ght & h>d lab\r3 x mu/ be look$ at z a fir/ /ep1 & judg$ ) indulg5ce4 ,y1 my read]s1 or he>]s ( my lectures1 if y ?9k t ,i h done z mu* z c fairly be requir$ = an initiatory />t1 comp>$ ) o!r m advanc$ dep>tm5ts ( !ory1 w ackn[l$ge :at ,i h a*iev$1 & p>don :at ,i h left = o!rs to accompli%4#adb ,footnote #adj3 ,soph4 ,el4 xxxiv4 p4 #ahd1 a4 #h3 ,greek3 kai p]i men tn r7torikn u7pr*e polla kai palaia ta lego_/m5a1 p]i de t\ sullogi_/ze/hai pantels ou7den ei7_/*om5 pro_/t]on a7_/llo le_/ge91 a7ll' 7 trib zt\ntes polun *ro_/non e7pon\m54 ,footnote #ada3 ,ibid4 a4 #a3 ,greek3 dio_/p] ta*eia men a7_/te*nos d' 7n 7 didaskali_/a tois man?a_/n\si p>' au7tn2 ou7 gar te_/*nn a7lla ta a7po ts te_/*ns dido_/ntes paideu_/e9 u7pela_/mbanon4 ,cic]o1 9 describ+ 8 own treatise ,de ,oratore1 insi/s ^u ! m>k$ diff]5ce betwe5 8 mode ( treatm5t & ! common rhetorical precepts2 he claims to h foll[$ ! mann] ( ! ,ari/otelian ,dialogues3--,scripsi ,ari/oteleo m1 quemadmodum quidem volui1 tres libros 9 disputatione ac dialogo de ,oratore1 quos arbitror ,l5tulo tuo =e non inutiles4 ,abhorr5t enim a communibus prceptis1 atque omnem antiquorum et ,ari/oteleam et ,isocrateam rationem oratoriam complectuntur 7,cic]o1 ,epi/4 ad ,famill4 i4 #i74 ,footnote #adb3 ,soph4 ,el4 xxxiv4 p4 #ahd1 b4 #c3 ,greek3 ei7 de phai_/netai !asame_/nois u7min 7s e7k toi\_/tn e7x a7r*s u7p>*o_/ntn e7_/*e9 7 me?o_/dos i7kans p>a tas a7_/llas pragmatei_/z tas e7k p>ado_/ses 7uxme_/nas1 loipon a7n ei7_/ pa_/ntn u7mn 7 tn 7kroame_/nn e7_/rgon tois men p>aleleimme_/nois ts me?o_/d\ suggn_/mn tois d' eu7rme_/nois polln e7_/*e9 *a_/r94 ,x w\ld seem t by ,greek3 tois !asame_/nois ,ari/otle means to address ! read]s ( ! pres5t treatise1 :ile by ,greek3 tn 7kroame_/nn he designates ^? :o _h he>d 8 oral expositions on ! same subject4 ,su* is ! impressive clos+ *apt] ( ! ,sophi/ici ,el5*i4 ,x is rem>kable 9 two ways3 fir/1 t ,ari/otle expressly addresses himself to he>]s & read]s 9 ! second p]son2 next1 t he ass]ts emphatically 8 own claim to orig9ality z a !ori/ on ,logic1 & decl>es himself to h work$ out ev5 ! fir/ beg9n+s ( su* !ory by labori\s application4 ,i und]/& 8 claim to orig9ality z int5d$ to be>1 n simply on ! treatise call$ ,sophi/ici ,el5*i & on ! enum]ation ( ,fallacies !re9 conta9$1 b1 9 a l>g] s5se1 on ! !ory ( ! ,syllogism2 z fir/ unfold$ 9 ! ,analytica ,priora1 appli$ to ,demon/ration 9 ! ,analytica ,po/]iora1 appli$ aft]w>ds to ,dialectic 9 ! ,topica1 appli$ la/ly to ,sophi/ic 7or ,eri/ic7 9 ! ,sophi/ici ,el5*i4 ,! phrase1 ,respect+ ! process ( syllogiz+1#adc ,i f\nd absolutely no?+ prep>$1 b work$ x out by labori\s application = myself--seems pla9ly to d5ote ?is l>ge compreh5sion4 ,&1 inde$1 9 respect to ,sophi/ic sep>ately1 ! rem>k ( ,ari/otle t no?+ :atev] _h be5 done be=e him1 w\ld n be well f\nd$3 we f9d 9 8 own treatise ( ! ,sophi/ici ,el5*i allusion to v>i\s prior doctr9es1 f :i* he diss5ts4#add ,9 ^! prior doctr9es1 h[ev]1 8 pr$ecessors _h treat$ ! sophi/ical modes ( refutation )\t ref]5ce to ! ,syllogism & its g5]al !ory4#ade ,x is aga9/ su* sep>ation t ,ari/otle di/9ctly prote/s4 ,he insi/s ^u ! necessity ( fir/ exp\nd+ ! ,syllogism1 & ( discuss+ ! laws ( good or bad ,refutation z a coroll>y or dep5dant ( ! syllogi/ic !ory4 ,accord+ly he beg9s ?is treatise by intimat+ t he int5ds to d$uce ^! laws f ! fir/ & highe/ g5]alities ( ! subject2#adf & he concludes x by claim+ ?is me?od ( philosophiz+ z orig9al ) himself4 ,footnote #adc3 ,soph4 ,el4 xxxiv4 p4 #ahd1 b4 #a3 ,greek3 p]i de t\ sullogi_/ze/hai pantels ou7den ei7_/*om5 pro_/t]on a7_/llo le_/ge91 c4 7cit$ 9 a prec$+ note74 ,footnote #add3 ,see note p4 #djb4 ,footnote #ade3 ,soph4 ,el4 x4 p4 #aga1 a4 #a3 ,greek3 o7_/ls te a7_/topon1 to p]i e7le_/g*\ diale_/ge/hai1 a7lla' m pro_/t]on p]i sullogism\2 o7 gar e7_/leg*os sullogismo_/s e7/91 7_//e *r kai p]i sullogism\ pro_/t]on 7 p]i pseud\s e7le_/g*\4 ,footnote #adf3 ,ibid4 i4 p4 #afd1 a4 #ba3 ,greek3 le_/gm51 a7rxa_/m5oi kata phu_/s9 a7po tn pr_/tn4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,physica ,,& ,,metaphysica4 ,ari/otle di/+ui%es1 9 cle> & explicit language1 a sci5ce :i* he t]ms ,wisdom1 ,philosophy1 or ,fir/ ,philosophy2 ! subject-matt] ( :i* he decl>es to be ,ens quat5us ,ens1 toge!r ) ! concomitants belong+ to x z su*4 ,) ?is ,ontology ! treatise entitl$ ,metaphysica purports to deal1 & ! l>g] portion ( x does really s deal4 ,at ! same "t1 ! l9e t p>ts (f ,ontology f ,logic 7,analytic & ,dialectic7 on ! "o h&1 & f ,physics on ! o!r1 is n always cle>ly m>k$4 ,=1 ?\gh ! :ole process ( ,syllogism1 employ$ bo? 9 ,analytic & ,dialectic1 involves & dep5ds ^u ! ,maxim ( ,contradiction1 yet ! discussion ( ?is ,maxim is decl>$ to belong to ,fir/ ,philosophy2#a :ile n only ! f\r ,ari/otelian v>ieties ( ,cause or ,condition1 & ! di/9ction betwe5 ,pot5tial & ,actual1 b also ! ab/ractions ,=m1 ,matt] & ,privation1 :i* play s capital a "p 9 ! ,metaphysica1 are equally ess5tial & equally appeal$ to 9 ! ,physica4#b ,footnote #a3 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,g4 iii4 p4 #ajje1 a4 #ai-;b4 #aa4 ,:e!r t discussion prop]ly belongs to ,philosophia ,prima1 or n1 /&s z ! fir/ ,greek3 ,a7pori_/a enum]at$ 9 ! li/ :i* occupies ,book ,b4 9 t treatise1 p4 #iie1 b4 #d-ac2 comp>e ,k4 i4 p4 #ajei1 a4 #bd4 ,footnote #b3 ,physica1 ,i4 pp4 #aij-aia2 ,,ii4 p4 #aid1 b4 #bj1 seq42 ,metaph4 ,a4 p4 #ihc1 a4 #cc2 ,alex&] ad ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,d4 p4 #cjf1 ed4 ,bonitz2 p4 #fhi1 b4 ,s*ol4 ,br4 ,if we include bo? :at is treat$ 9 ! ,analytica ,po/]iora 7! sci5tific explanation ( ,ess5ce & ,def9ition7 & :at is treat$ 9 ! ,physica1 we %all f9d t ne>ly all ! expository processes employ$ 9 ! ,metaphysica are employ$ also 9 ^! two treatises4 ,to look ^u ! g5]al notion z a cause1 & to treat x z a creative =ce 7d] s*pf]is*e ,wes5sbegriff1 to use ! phrase ( ,prantl & o!r ,g]man logicians#c71 belongs alike to ! ,physica & to ! ,analytica ,po/]iora4 ,! *>act]i/ic di/9ction ( ! treatise entitl$ ,metaphysica is1 t x is all-compreh5sive 9 respect to ! gr\nd cov]$2 t ! expository process is appli$1 n exclusively to any sep>ate bran* ( ,ens1 b to ,ens z a :ole quat5us ,ens--to all ! v>ieties ( ,ens t admit ( sci5tific treatm5t at all2#d t ! same ab/ractions & analytical di/9ctions1 :i*1 bo? 9 ! ,analytica & 9 ! ,physica1 are indicat$ & made to s]ve an explanatory purpose1 up to a c]ta9 po9t--are 9 ! ,metaphysica sometimes assum$ z already famili>1 sometimes foll[$ out ) nic] accuracy & subtlety4#e ,inde$ bo? ! ,physica & ! ,metaphysica1 z we read !m 9 ,ari/otle1 w\ld be consid]$ 9 mod]n times z belong+ alike to ! dep>tm5t ( ,metaphysics4 ,footnote #c3 ,see *4 viii4 pp4 #bdj seq4 ( ! pres5t "w1 ) ! citations 9 note b1 p4 #beb1 f ,prantl & ,rass[4 ,footnote #d3 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,g4 i4 p4 #ajjc1 a4 #ba3 ,greek3 e7_//9 e7pi/_/m tis 7 !rei to o7n 7 o7n kai ta t\_/t u7pa_/r*onta ka?' au7to_/4 ,au7_/t d' e7/in ou7demi_/a tn e7n me_/rei legome_/nn 7 au7t_/4 ou7demi_/a gar tn a7_/lln e7piskopei ka?o_/l\ p]i t\ o7_/ntos 7 o7_/n1 a7lla me_/ros au7t\ ti a7potemo_/m5ai1 c4 ,footnote #e3 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,l4 vii4 p4 #ajgc1 a4 ) ,bonitz's ,comm5t4 pp4 #ejd-eje4 ,physica1 ,i4 ix4 p4 #aib1 a4 #cd3 ,greek3 p]i de ts kata to ei7dos a7r*s1 po_/t]on mi_/a 7 pollai kai ti_/s 7 ti_/nes ei7si_/1 di' a7kribei_/z ts pr_/ts philosophi_/z e7_/rgon e7/i diori_/sai1 7_//' ei7s e7keinon ton kairon a7pokei_//h4 ,comp>e ,physic4 ,i4 viii4 p4 #aia1 b4 #bi1 & ,weisse1 ,ari/oteles ,physik1 p4 #bhe4 ,ab\t ! ,metaphysica1 z c>ry+ out & complet+ ! exposition ( ! ,analytica ,po/]iora1 see ,metaphys4 ,z4 xii4 p4 #ajcg1 b4 #h3 ,greek3 nun de le_/gm5 prton1 e7ph' o7_/son e7n tois ,a7nalutikois p]i o7rism\ m ei7_/rtai 7,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 vi4 p4 #ib1 a4 #cb2 see note b1 p4 #bdc74 ,! prim>y di/9ction & classification recogniz$ by ,ari/otle among ,sci5ces or ,cognitions1 is1 t ( 7#a7 ,!oretical1 7#b7 ,practical1 7#c7 ,arti/ic or ,con/ructive4#f ,( ^! ?ree divisions1 ! second & ?ird alike comprise bo? intellig5ce & action1 b ! two are di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r by ?is--t 9 ! ,arti/ic !re is always "s assignable product :i* ! ag5cy leaves beh9d indep5d5t ( itself1 :]eas 9 ! ,practical no su* indep5d5t result rema9s1#g b ! ag5cy itself1 toge!r ) ! purpose 7or intellectual & volitional condition7 ( ! ag5t1 is e ?+4 ,! division nam$ ,!oretical comprises intellig5ce alone--intellig5ce ( pr9cipia1 causes & con/itu5t elem5ts4 ,"h aga9 we f9d a trip>tite classification4 ,! highe/ & mo/ univ]sal ( all ,!oretical ,sci5ces is recogniz$ by ,ari/otle z ,ontology 7,fir/ ,philosophy1 sometimes call$ by him ,!ology7 :i* deals ) all ,ens univ]sally quat5us ,ens1 & ) ! ,prima ,mov5tia1 !mselves immoveable1 ( ! entire ,kosmos4 ,! two o!r heads ( ,!oretical ,sci5ce are ,ma!matics & ,physics2 ea* ( !m special & limit$1 z comp>$ ) ,ontology4 ,9 ,physics we sci5tifically /udy natural bodies ) _! motions1 *anges1 & ph5om5a2 bodies 9 :i* ,=m always appe>s implicat$ ) ,matt]1 & 9 :i* ! pr9ciple ( motion or *ange is imman5t & indwell+ 7i4e41 dep5d5t only on ! univ]sal ,prima ,mov5tia1 & n impress$ f )\t by a special ag5cy1 z 9 works ( human art74 ,9 ,ma!matics1 we /udy immoveable & un*angeable numb]s & magnitudes1 ap>t f ! bodies to :i* !y belong2 n t !y c ev] be really sep>at$ f su* bodies1 b we intellectually ab/ract !m1 or consid] !m ap>t4#h ,footnote #f3 ,metaphys4 ,e4 i4 p4 #ajbe1 b4 #be4 ,footnote #g3 ,ibid4 b4 #bb4 ,footnote #h3 ,metaphys4 ,e4 i4 p4 #ajbf2 ,k4 vii4 p4 #ajfd1 a4 #bh-;b4 #ad2 ,m4 iii4 pp4 #ajgg-ajgh2 ,bonitz1 ,comm5t>4 p4 #bhd4 ,su* is ,ari/otle's trip>tite di/ribution ( ,!oretical or ,contemplative ,sci5ce4 ,9 introduc+ u to ! /udy ( ,fir/ ,philosophy1 he beg9s by cle>+ up ! mean+ ( ! t]m ,ens4 ,x is a t]m ( _m di/9ct significations2 be+ nei!r univocal1 nor altoge!r equivocal1 b some?+ int]m$iate betwe5 ! two1 or multivocal4 ,x is n a g5]ic :ole1 di/ribut$ exhau/ively among correlative species m>k$ (f by an assignable diff]5ce3#i x is an analogical :ole1 includ+ sev]al g5]a di/9ct f ea* o!r at ! beg9n+1 ?\gh all ( !m bran*es d]ivative f "o & ! same root2 all ( !m connect$ by "s sort ( analogy or common relation to t "o root1 yet n necess>ily connect$ ) ea* o!r by any direct or special tie4 ,footnote #i3 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,g4 ii4 p4 #ajjc1 a4 #cc-p4 #ajjd1 a4 #e3 ,greek3 to d' o7n le_/getai men polla*s1 a7lla pros e7n kai mi_/an t9a phu_/s91 kai ou7* o7mnu_/m s--u7pa_/r*ei gar eu7?us ge_/n e7_/*onta to o7n kai to e7_/n4 ,comp>e ,k4 iii4 p4 #ajfj1 b4 #cb4 ,see also above1 *4 iii4 p4 #fj1 ( ! pres5t "w4 ,( ^! v>i\s significations1 he enum]ates1 z we h already se51 f\r3--7#a7 ,ens :i* is m]ely concomitant )1 dep5d5t ^u1 or relat$ to1 ano!r ,ens z t]m9us2 7#b7 ,ens 9 ! s5se ( ! ,true1 oppos$ to ,non-,ens 9 ! s5se ( ! ,false2 7#c7 ,ens accord+ to ea* ( ! ,t5 ,categories2 7#d7 ,ens pot5tially1 z contra/$ ) ,ens actually4 ,b among ^! f\r heads1 ! two la/ only are matt]s ^u :i* sci5ce is atta9able1 9 ! op9ion ( ,ari/otle4 ,to ^! two1 accord+ly1 he 9999conf9es ,ontology or ,fir/ ,philosophy4 ,!y are ! only two t h an objective1 self-/&+1 indep5d5t1 nature4 ,t :i* falls "u ! fir/ head 7,ens p] ,accid5s7 is ess5tially indet]m9ate2 & its causes1 be+ alike indet]m9ate1 are out ( ! rea* ( sci5ce4 ,s also is t :i* falls "u ! second head--,ens tanquam v]um1 contra/$ ) ,non-,ens tanquam falsum4 ,?is has no indep5d5t /&+1 b results f an int]nal act ( ! judg+ or believ+ m9d1 comb9+ two elem5ts1 or disjo9+ two elem5ts1 9 a way con=mable to1 or non-con=mable to1 real fact4 ,! true comb9ation or disjunction is a v>iety ( ,ens2 ! false comb9ation or disjunction is a v>iety ( ,non-,ens4 ,?is m5tal act v>ies bo? 9 diff]5t individuals1 & at diff]5t times ) ! same individual1 accord+ to a multitude ( causes (t5 unassignable4 ,accord+ly1 x does n fall "u ,ontological ,sci5ce1 nor c we discov] any causes or pr9ciples det]m9+ x4#aj ,:5 ,ari/otle says t ! two fir/ heads are out ( ! rea* ( sci5ce1 or n prop] subjects ( sci5ce1 he means t _! fir/ pr9cipia1 causes1 or deepe/ f\ndations1 _c be discov]$ & assign$2 = x is 9 det]m9+ ^! pr9cipia & causes t true sci5tific cognition consi/s4#aa ,footnote #aj3 ,ari/ot4 ,met4 ,e4 iv4 p4 #ajbg1 b4 #ag2 ,greek3 ,?4 p4 #ajea1 b4 #b2 p4 #ajeb1 a4 #ag-cj2 ,k4 viii4 p4 #ajfe1 a4 #ba4 ,!re rema9s mu* obscurity ab\t ?is mean+ ( ,ens 7,ens ,greek3 7s a7l!_/s71 ev5 aft] ! ,s*olia ( ,alex&] 7p4 #gja1 a4 #aj1 ,s*4 ,br&471 & ! in/ructive comm5ts ( ,bonitz1 ,s*wegl]1 & ,br5tano 7,ueb] die ,b$eutung des ,sei5d5 na* ,ari/oteles1 *4 iii4 pp4 #ba-ci74 ,! f\ndation ( ?is mean+ ( ,ens lies 9 ! legitimate ,antiphasis1 & ! prop] division !re( 7,greek3 to de su_/nolon p]i m]ismon a7ntipha_/ses1 p4 #ajbg1 b4 #bj74 ,x is a fir/ pr9ciple 7p4 #ajje1 b4 #cj7 t1 if "o memb] ( ! ,antiphasis mu/ be affirm$ z true1 ! o!r mu/ be d5i$ z false4 ,if we fix ^u ! "r comb9ation to affirm1 we say ! ?+ t is3 if we fix ^u ! wrong comb9ation & affirm x1 we say ! ?+ t is n 7p4 #ajab1 b4 #aj74 ,falsehood & ,tru? 7,ari/otle says1 ,e4 iv4 p4 #ajbg1 b4 #be7 are n 9 ?+s b 9 our m5tal comb9ation2 & z reg>ds simple 7uncomb9$7 matt]s & ess5ces1 !y are n ev5 9 our m5tal comb9ation3 ,greek3 ou7 ga_/r e7/i to pseudos kai to a7l!s e7n tois pra_/gmas91 oi7on to men a7ga?on a7l!_/s1 to de kakon eu7?us pseudos1 a7ll' e7n dianoi_/a2 p]i de ta a7pla kai ta ti_/ e7/9 ou7d' e7n t dianoi_/a4 ,comp>e ,bonitz 7ad ,ar4 ,metaph4 ,z4 iv4 p4 #ajcj1 a471 p4 #caj1 ,comm4 ,9 reg>d to cogitabilia--simple1 indivisible1 uncomp\nd$--!re is no comb9ation or disjunction2 !re=e1 /rictly speak+1 nei!r tru? nor falsehood 7,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 vi4 p4 #dcj1 a4 #bf2 also ,categor4 x4 p4 #ac1 b4 #aj74 ,! intellect ei!r appreh5ds ^! simple elem5ts1 or x does n appreh5d !m2 !re is no ,greek3 dia_/noia conc]n$4 ,n to appreh5d !m is ignorance1 ,greek3 a7_/gnoia1 :i* sometimes loosely passes "u ! title ( ,greek3 pseudos 7,s*wegl]1 ,comm4 ,pt4 ,,ii41 p4 #cb74 ,footnote #aa3 ,metaphys4 ,e4 i4 p4 #ajbe1 b4 #c3 ,greek3 ai7 a7r*ai kai ta ai7_/tia zteitai tn o7_/ntn1 dlon d' o7_/ti 7 o7_/nta4--o7_/ls de pasa e7pi/_/m dianotik 7 mete_/*\sa_/ ti dianoi_/z p]i ai7ti_/z kai a7r*a_/s e7/9 7 a7kribe/e_/ras 7 a7pl\/e_/ras4 ,comp>e ,metaph4 ,k4 vii4 p4 #ajfc1 b4 #cf2 p4 #ajfe1 a4 #h-bf4 ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 ii4 p4 #ga1 b4 #i4 ,!re rema91 z matt] prop] = ! inve/igation ( ,fir/ ,philosophy1 ! two la/-m5tion$ heads ( ,ens2 viz41 ,ens accord+ to ! ,t5 ,categories1 & ,ens pot5tial & actual4 ,b1 along ) ^!1 ,ari/otle includes ano!r matt] also2 viz41 ! critical exam9ation ( ! ,axioms & highe/ g5]alities ( syllogi/ic pro( or ,demon/ration4 ,he ann\nces z ! fir/ pr9ciple ( ^! ,axioms--z ! highe/ & firme/ ( all ,pr9ciples--! ,maxim ( ,contradiction3#ab ,! same pr$icate _c bo? belong & n belong to ! same subject1 at ! same "t & 9 ! same s5se2 or1 ,y _c bo? truly affirm1 & truly d5y1 ! same pr$icate respect+ ! same subject2 or1 ,! same proposition _c be at once true & false4 ,?is ,axiom is by nature ! beg9n+ or s\rce ( all ! o!r ,axioms4 ,x /&s fir/ 9 ! ord] ( k2 & x nei!r re/s ^u nor involves any hypo!sis4#ac ,footnote #ab3 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,g4 iii4 p4 #ajje1 b4 #g1 #ag1 #bb1 #cd3 ,greek3 au7_/t d pasn e7/i bebaiota_/t tn a7r*n--phu_/sei gar a7r* kai tn a7_/lln a7xima_/tn au7_/t pa_/ntn4--p4 #ajaa1 b4 #ac3 ,greek3 bebaiota_/t d_/xa pasn to m ei7nai a7l!is a7_/ma tas a7ntikeime_/nas pha_/seis--7,he "h applies ! t]m ,greek3 d_/xa to designate ?is fundam5tal maxim4 ,?is des]ves notice1 because ( ! anti!sis1 common ) him else:]e1 betwe5 ,greek3 d_/xa & ,greek3 e7pi/_/m74 ,footnote #ac3 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,g4 iii4 p4 #ajje1 b4 #ac-ad3 ,greek3 gnrimta_/tn--a7nupo_/!ton4 ,! ,syllogism is def9$ by ,ari/otle z consi/+ ( premisses & a conclusion3 if ! two propositions call$ premisses be grant$ z true1 a ?ird z conclusion mu/ = t reason be grant$ z true also4#ad ,! tru? ( ! conclusion is affirm$ conditionally on ! tru? ( ! premisses2 & ! rules ( ,syllogism set out ^? comb9ations ( propositions 9 :i* su* affirmation may be made legitimately4 ,! rules ( ! ,syllogism be+ ?us ! rules = su* conditional affirmation1 ! ,pr9ciple or ,axiom !re( enunciates 9 ! mo/ g5]al t]ms :at is impli$ 9 all ^? rules1 z ess5tial to _! validity4 ,&1 s9ce ! syllogi/ic or d$uctive process is applicable )\t exception to e v>iety ( ! ,scibile1 ,ari/otle consid]s ! ,axioms or ,pr9ciples !re( to come "u ! inve/igation ( ,ontology or ,fir/ ,philosophy4 ,?us x is1 t he introduces u to ! ,maxim ( ,contradiction1 & its supplem5t or correlative1 ! ,maxim ( ! ,exclud$ ,middle4 ,footnote #ad3 ,analyt4 ,prior4 ,i4 i4 p4 #bd1 b4 #ah-bj1 et alib4 ,8 v9dication ( ^! ,axioms is v illu/rative ( ! philosophy ( 8 day4 ,x _c be too (t5 impress$ t he 0 ! fir/ ei!r to =mulate ! precepts2 or to asc5d to ! !ory1 ( d$uctive reason+2 t he 0 ! fir/ to m>k by appropriate t]ms ! mo/ important logical di/9ctions & *>act]i/ic attributes ( propositions2 t be=e 8 "t1 !re 0 abundance ( acute dialectic1 b no attempt to set =? any critical s*eme :]eby ! conclusions ( su* dialectic might be te/$4 ,ant]ior to ,sokrates1 ! ca/ ( ,grecian philosophy _h be5 altoge!r ei!r !ological1 or poetical1 or physical1 or at lea/ "s fusion ( ^! ?ree v>ieties into "o4 ,sokrates 0 ! fir/ :o broke gr\nd = ,logic--= te/+ ! diff]5ce betwe5 good & bad ratioc9ation4 ,he did ?is by enquiry z to ! def9ition ( g5]al t]ms1#ae & by dialectical exposure ( ! ignorance g5]ally preval5t among ^? :o famili>ly us$ !m4 ,plato 9 8 ,sokratic dialogues foll[$ 9 ! same negative track2 op5+ up _m in/ructive po9ts ( view respect+ ! errone\s t5d5cies by :i* reason]s 7 misl$1 b n attempt+ any positive sy/ematic analysis1 nor prop\nd+ any intelligible s*eme ( 8 own = correction or avoidance ( ! l4 ,if ,sokrates & ,plato1 bo? ( !m active 9 expos+ ratioc9ative error & confusion1 /opp$ %ort ( any wide logical !ory1 /ill less 7 ! physical philosoph]s likely to supply t defici5cy4 ,ari/otle tells u t sev]al ( !m controv]t$ ! ,maxim ( ,contradiction4#af ,h]akleitus & 8 foll[]s ma9ta9$ ! negative ( x1 di/9ctly & emphatically2#ag :ile ! disciples ( ,p>m5ides1 ?\gh less pron\nc$ 9 _! negative1 c\ld n h admitt$ x z univ]sally true4 ,ev5 ,plato mu/ be reckon$ among ^? :o1 probably )\t hav+ cle>ly /at$ to himself ! ,maxim 9 its univ]sal t]ms1 decl>$ doctr9es q incompatible ) x3 ! ,platonic ,p>m5ides af=ds a conspicu\s example ( contradictory conclusions d$uc$ by elaborate reason+ & decl>$ to be bo? ( !m firmly e/abli%$4#ah ,moreov]1 9 ! ,sophi/es1#ai ,plato expla9s ! negative proposition z express+ :at is diff]5t f t :i* is d5i$1 b no?+ beyond2 an explanation :i*1 if admitt$1 w\ld set aside ! ,maxim ( ,contradiction z invalid4 ,footnote #ae3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,a4 vi4 p4 #ihg1 b4 #a3 ,greek3 ,s kra_/t\s de p]i men ta 7?ika pragmateuome_/n\1 p]i de ts o7_/ls phu_/ses ou7!_/n1 e7n me_/ntoi t\_/tois to ka?o_/l\ zt\ntos1 kai p]i o7rismn e7pi/_/santos pr_/t\ tn dia_/noian4 ,footnote #af3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,g4 iv4 p4 #ajje1 b4 #ce3 ,greek3 ei7si de_/ t9es1 oi7_/1 ka?a_/p] ei7_/pom51 au7toi_/ te e7nde_/*e/hai_/ phasi to au7to ei7nai kai m ei7nai1 kai u7polamba_/ne9 ou7_/ts4 *rntai de t lo_/g t\_/t polloi kai tn p]i phu_/ses4 ,footnote #ag3 ,ibid4 iii4 p4 #ajje1 b4 #be2 v4 p4 #ajaj1 a4 #ac2 vi4 p4 #ajaa1 a4 #bd4 ,footnote #ah3 ,plato1 ,republic4 v4 p4 #dgi1 ,a42 vii4 p4 #ech1 ,e4 ,comp>e also ! conclusion ( ! ,platonic ,p>m5ides1 & ! elaborate dialectic or ant9omies by :i* ! contradictions involv$ 9 x are prov$4 ,footnote #ai3 ,plato1 ,sophi/es1 p4 #beg1 ,b4 ,:ile ,ari/otle m5tions ^! v>i\s diss5ti5ts1 & especially ,h]akleitus1 he seems to imag9e t !y 7 n really 9 e>ne/#bj 9 _! diss5t4 ,yet he nev]!less goes at l5g? into ! case aga9/ !m1 z well z aga9/ o!rs1 :o agre$ ) him 9 affirm+ ! ,maxim1 b :o und]took also to demon/rate x4 ,any su* demon/ration ,ari/otle decl>es to be impossible4 ,! ,maxim is assum$ 9 all demon/rations2 unless y grant x1 no demon/ration is valid2 b x _c be itself demon/rat$4 ,he _h already laid d[n 9 ! ,analytica t ! premisses = demon/ration c\ld n be c>ri$ back indef9itely1 & t ! attempt s to c>ry !m back 0 unphilosophical4#ba ,!re mu/ be "s prim>y1 undemon/rable tru?s2 & ! ,maxim ( ,contradiction he ranks among ! fir/4 ,/ill1 ?\gh 9 attempt+ any =mal demon/ration ( ! ,maxim y _c avoid assum+ ! ,maxim itself & ?us fall+ into ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 ,ari/otle cont5ds t y c demon/rate x 9 ! way ( refutation1#bb relatively to a giv5 oppon5t1 provid$ su* oppon5t w n cont5t himself ) simply d5y+ x1 b w besides advance "s affirmative !sis ( 8 own1 z a tru? 9 :i* he believes2 or provid$ he w ev5 grant ! fix$ mean+ ( words1 def9+ !m 9 a mann] significant alike to himself & to o!rs1--ea* ^w to h ei!r "o fix$ mean+1 or a limit$ numb] ( diff]5t mean+s1 cle> & well def9$4#bc ,x is impossible = two p]sons to conv]se1 unless ea* und]/&s ! o!r4 ,a ^w :i* conveys to ! m9d n "o mean+1 b a multitude ( unconnect$ mean+s1 is = all useful purposes unmean+4#bd ,if1 !re=e1 ! oppon5t once b9ds himself to an affirmative def9ition ( any ^w1 ?is def9ition may be truly pr$icat$ ( ! def9itum z subject2 :ile he mu/ be consid]$ z int]dict+ himself f pr$icat+ ( ! same subject ! negative ( t def9ition4 ,b :5 y ask = ! def9ition1 y\r oppon5t mu/ answ] ! "q directly & bon fide4 ,he mu/ n enl>ge 8 def9ition s z to include bo? ! affirmative & negative ( ! same proposition2 nor mu/ he tack on to ! real ess5ce 7decl>$ 9 ! def9ition7 a multitude ( uness5tial attributes4 ,if he answ]s 9 ?is confus$ & p]plex+ mann]1 he mu/ be treat$ z n answ]+ at all1 & z r5d]+ philosophical discussion impossible4#be ,su* a mode ( speak+ goes to disall[ any ultimate ess5ce or det]m9ate subject1 & %uts out all pr$ication2 = !re _c be an inf9ite regress ( pr$icates ^u pr$icates1 & accid5ts ^u accid5ts1 )\t arriv+ at an ultimate sub/ratum--,subject or ,ess5ce4#bf ,if1 :]ev] y c truly affirm a pr$icate ( any subject1 y c also truly d5y ! same pr$icate ( ! same subject1 x is manife/ t all subjects are "o3 !re is no?+ to discrim9ate man1 horse1 %ip1 wall1 c41 f ea* o!r2 e "o speaks tru?1 & e "o at ! same "t speaks falsehood2 a man believes & disbelieves ! same ?+ at ! same "t2 or he nei!r believes nor disbelieves1 & !n 8 m9d is blank1 l a vegetable4#bg ,footnote #bj3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,g4 iii4 p4 #ajje1 b4 #bf2 ,k4 v4 p4 #ajfb1 a4 #cb4 ,"h ,ari/otle intimates t ,h]akleitus may h ass]t$ :at he did n believe2 ?\gh we f9d him 9 ano!r place cit+ ,h]akleitus z an example ( ^? :o adh]$ z ob/9ately to _! op9ions z o!r p]sons adh]$ to demon/rat$ tru? 7,e?ic4 ,nik4 ,,vii4 v4 p4 #aadf1 b4 #cj474 ,footnote #ba3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,g4 iv4 p4 #ajjf1 a4 #e3 ,greek3 a7xi\si d kai t\to a7podeiknu_/nai t9es di' a7paideusi_/an2 e7_//i gar a7paideusi_/a to m gign_/ske9 ti_/nn dei ztein a7po_/deix9 kai ti_/nn ou7 dei4 ,footnote #bb3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,g4 iv4 p4 #ajjf1 a4 #aa3 ,greek3 e7_//i d' a7podeixai e7legktiks kai p]i t\_/t\ o7_/ti a7du_/naton1 a7n mo_/non ti le_/g o7 a7mphisbtn4--,k4 v4 p4 #ajfb1 a4 #b3 ,greek3 kai p]i tn toi\_/tn a7pls men ou7k e7_//9 a7po_/deixis1 pros to_/nde d' e7_//94--p4 #ajfb1 a4 #cj4 ,footnote #bc3 ,ibid4 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,g4 iv4 p4 #ajjf1 a4 #ah-cd4 ,greek3 diaphe_/rei d' ou7!n ou7_/d' ei7 plei_/ tis phai_/ smai_/ne91 mo_/non de 7risme_/na4--,k4 v4 p4 #ajfb1 a4 #ab4 ,footnote #bd3 ,ibid4 ,greek3 ,g4 iv4 p4 #ajjf1 b4 #g3 ,greek3 to gar m e7_/n ti smai_/ne9 ou7!n smai_/ne9 e7/i_/n1 m sma9o_/ntn de tn o7noma_/tn a7n_/rtai to diale_/ge/hai pros a7ll_/l\s1 kata de tn a7l_/!ian kai pros au7to_/n2 ou7!n 9999gar e7nde_/*etai noein m no\nta e7_/n4--,k4 v4 p4 #ajfb1 a4 #bj4 ,footnote #be3 ,ibid4 ,greek3 ,g4 iv4 p4 #ajjf1 b4 #cj-p4 #ajjg1 a4 #bj4 ,greek3 sumbai_/nei to le*!_/n1 a7n a7pokri_/ntai to e7rt_/m5on4 e7an de pro/i? e7rtntos a7pls kai tas a7popha_/seis1 ou7k a7pokri_/netai to e7rt_/m5on4--e7an de t\to poi1 ou7 diale_/getai4 ,footnote #bf3 ,ibid4 p4 #ajjg1 a4 #bj-;b4 #ai3 ,greek3 o7_/ls d' a7nair\s9 oi7 t\to le_/gontes ou7si_/an kai to ti_/ 7n ei7nai4--ei7 de pa_/nta kata sumbebkos le_/getai1 ou7!n e7_//ai prton to ka?' ou71 ei7 a7ei to sumbebkos ka?' u7pokeime_/n\ t9os smai_/nei tn katgori_/an2 a7na_/gk a7_/ra ei7s a7_/peiron i7e_/nai2 a7ll' a7du_/naton4 ,footnote #bg3 ,ari/ot4 ,met4 ,greek3 ,g4 iv4 p4 #ajjh1 a4 #ah-;b4 #ab3 ,greek3 ei7 de o7moi_/s kai o7_/sa a7pophsai pha_/nai a7na_/gk--pa_/nta d' a7n ei7_/ e7_/n--ou7!n dioi_/sei e7_/t]on e7te_/r\--ei7 de m!n u7polamba_/nei a7ll' o7moi_/s oi7_/etai kai ou7k oi7_/etai1 ti_/ a7n diaph]o_/nts e7_/*oi tn phutn8 ,k4 v4 p4 #ajfb1 a4 #bh4 ,! man :o pr(esses ?is doctr9e1 h[ev] 7cont9ues ,ari/otle#bh71 %[s pla9ly by 8 conduct t 8 m9d is n ?us blank2 t99991 9 respect ( ! contradictory alt]native1 he does n believe ei!r bo? sides or nei!r side1 b believes "o & disbelieves ! o!r4 ,:5 he feels hungry1 & seeks :at he kn[s to be palatable & :olesome1 he avoids :at he kn[s to be na/y & poison\s4 ,he kn[s :at is to be f\nd 9 ! m>ket-place1 & goes !re to get x2 he keeps cle> ( fall+ into a well or walk+ into ! sea2 he does n mi/ake a horse = a man4 ,he may (t5 f9d himself mi/ak52 b he %[s by 8 conduct t he believes c]ta9 subjects to possess c]ta9 def9ite attributes1 & n to possess o!rs4 ,?\gh we d n rea* infallible tru?1 we obta9 an approa* to x1 sometimes ne>]1 sometimes m remote2 & we ?us escape ! extreme doctr9e :i* =bids all def9ite affirmation4#bi ,footnote #bh3 ,ibid4 ,greek3 ,g4 iv4 p4 #ajjh1 b4 #ab-ca2 ,k4 vi4 p4 #ajfc1 a4 #cj4 ,footnote #bi3 ,ibid4 ,greek3 ,g4 iv4 p4 #ajjh1 b4 #cf3 ,greek3 ei7 ou7n to mallon e7ggu_/t]on1 ei7_/ ge a7_/n ti a7l!s ou7 e7ggu_/t]on to mallon a7l!_/s2 ka7n ei7 m_/ e7/91 a7ll' 7_/d ge_/ ti e7/i bebaio_/t]on kai a7l?9_/t]on1 kai t\ lo_/g\ a7pllagme_/noi a7n ei7_/m5 t\ a7kra_/t\ kai klu_/onto_/s ti t dianoi_/a o7ri_/sai4 ,x is 9 ?is mann] t ,ari/otle1 v9dicat+ ! ,maxims ( ,contradiction & ( ,exclud$ ,middle z ! highe/ pr9cipia ( syllogi/ic reason+1 disposes ( ! two contemporane\s dogmas t 7 mo/ directly incompatible ) ^! ,maxims3--7#a7 ,! dogma ( ,h]akleitus1 :o d5i$ all duration or p]man5ce ( subject1 recogniz+ no?+ b p]petual process1 flux1 or *ange1 ea* successive mom5t ( :i* involv$ de/ruction & g5]ation implicat$ ) ea* o!r3 ,is & is n are bo? alike & conjo9tly true1 :ile nei!r is true sep>ately1 to ! exclusion ( ! o!r2#cj 7#b7 ,! dogma ( ,anaxagoras1 :o did n d5y fixity or p]man5ce ( subject1 b held t ev]y?+ 0 mix$ up ) ev]y?+2 t e subject _h an inf9ite assemblage ( contr>y pr$icates1 s t nei!r ( !m c\ld be sep>ately affirm$ or sep>ately d5i$3 ,! tru? lies 9 a ?ird alt]native or middle1 betwe5 affirmation & d5ial4#ca ,footnote #cj3 ,ari/ot4 ,met4 ,a4 vi4 p4 #ihg1 a4 #cd2 ,greek3 ,g4 v4 p4 #ajaj1 a4 #ab3 ,greek3 ,kra_/tulos--o7s to teleutaion ou7!n _/eto dein le_/ge9 a7lla ton da_/ktulon e7ki_/nei mo_/non1 kai 7raklei_/t e7peti_/ma ei7po_/nti o7_/ti dis t au7t pota_/m ou7k e7_//9 e7mbnai2 au7tos gar 7_/eto ou7_/d' a7pa_/x4 ,h]akleitus adopt$ z 8 "o fundam5tum ,fire or ,heat1 z be+ ! pr9ciple ( mobility or *ange3 ,greek3 *rntai gar 7s k9tikn e7_/*onti t puri tn phu_/s9--,metaph4 ,a4 iii4 p4 #ihd1 b4 #e4 ,ibid4 ,k4 v4 p4 #ajfb1 a4 #ca-;b4 #aj2 ,k4 x4 p4 #ajfg1 a4 #e2 ,m4 iv4 p4 #ajgh1 b4 #ae4 ,footnote #ca3 ,ari/ot4 ,met4 ,k4 vi4 p4 #ajfc1 b4 #be2 ,a4 viii4 p4 #ihi1 a4 #ca-;b4 #af4 ,greek3 o7_/te gar ou7!n 7n a7pokekrime_/non1 dlon 7s ou7!n 7n a7l!s ei7pein kata ts ou7si_/z e7kei_/ns1 le_/g d' oi7on o7_/ti ou7_/te leukon ou7_/te me_/lan 7 phaion 7 a7_/llo *rma1 a7ll' a7_/*rn 7n e7x a7na_/gks2 o7moi_/s de kai a7_/*umon t au7t lo_/g t\_/t1 ou7de a7_/llo tn o7moi_/n ou7!_/n2 ou7_/te gar poio_/n ti oi7o_/n te au7to ei7nai ou7_/te poson ou7_/te ti_/4--,greek3 ,g4 iv4 b4 #ajjg1 b4 #be3 ,greek3 kai gi_/gnetai d to t\ ,a7naxago_/r\1 o7m\ pa_/nta *r_/mata2 7_//e m!n a7l?s u7pa_/r*e94--,greek3 ,g4 viii4 p4 #ajab1 a4 #bd3 ,greek3 e7_/oike d' o7 men 7raklei_/t\ lo_/gos1 le_/gn pa_/nta ei7nai kai m ei7nai1 a7_/panta a7l? poiein1 o7 d' ,a7naxago_/r\ ei7nai_/ ti metaxu ts a7ntipha_/ses1 7_//e pa_/nta pseud2 o7_/tan gar mi*?1 ou7_/t' a7ga?on ou7_/t' ou7k a7ga?on to migma1 7_//' ou7!n ei7pein a7l!_/s4 ,hav+ ?us refut$ ^! dogmas to 8 own satisfaction1 ,ari/otle proce$s to impugn a ?ird doctr9e :i* he decl>es to be analog\s to ^! two & to be equally 9 conflict ) ! two syllogi/ic pr9cipia :i* he is und]tak+ to v9dicate4 ,?is ?ird doctr9e is ! ,homo ,m5sura ( ,protagoras3 ,man is ! measure ( all ?+s--! measure ( ?+s exi/5t z well z ( ?+s non-exi/5t3 ,to ea* individual t is true or false :i* he believes to be su*1 & = z long z he believes x4 ,ari/otle cont5ds t ?is doctr9e is homog5e\s ) ^? ( ,h]akleitus & ,anaxagoras1 & mu/ /& or fall along ) !m2 all ?ree be+ alike adv]se to ! ,maxim ( ,contradiction4#cb ,h]e9 he foll[s p>tially ! example ( ,plato1 :o 79 8 ,!ttus#cc71 ?\gh n =mally enunciat+ ! ,maxim ( ,contradiction1 _h decl>$ ! t5ets ( ,protagoras to be co9cid5t ) or analog\s to ^? ( ,h]akleitus1 & _h impugn$ bo? "o & ! o!r by ! same l9e ( argum5ts4 ,protagoras agre$ ) ,h]akleitus 7s ,plato & ,ari/otle tell u7 9 decl>+ bo? affirmative & negative 79 ! contradictory alt]native7 to be at once & alike true2 = he ma9ta9$ t :at any p]son believ$ 0 true1 & t :at any p]son disbeliev$ 0 false4 ,accord+ly1 s9ce op9ions altoge!r opposite & contradictory are held by diff]5t p]sons or by ! same p]son at diff]5t times1 bo? ! affirmative & ! negative ( e ,antiphasis mu/ be held z true alike2#cd 9 o!r words1 all affirmations & all negations 7 at once true & false4 ,su* co-exi/5ce or implication ( contradictions is ! ma9 doctr9e ( ,h]akleitus4 ,footnote #cb3 ,ari/ot4 ,met ,greek3 ,g4 v4 p4 #ajji1 a4 #f3 ,greek3 e7_//i d' a7po ts au7ts d_/xs kai o7 ,prtago_/r\ lo_/gos1 kai a7na_/gk o7moi_/s a7_/mph au7t\s 7 ei7nai 7 m ei7nai4 ,footnote #cc3 ,ari/otle ref]s "h to ,plato by "n1 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,g4 v4 p4 #ajaj1 b4 #ab4 ,footnote #cd3 ,ibid4 p4 #ajji1 a4 #h-bj4 ,greek3 a7na_/gk pa_/nta a7_/ma a7l? kai pseud ei7nai4--p4 #ajaa1 a4 #cj4 ,i h already 9 ano!r "w1#ce :ile analys+ ! ,platonic dialogues ,!ttus & ,kratylus1 criticiz$ at "s l5g? ! doctr9e "h laid d[n by ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,i h endeav\r$ to %[ t ! capital t5et ( ,protagoras is ess5tially di/9ct f ! o!r t5ets ) :i* ^! two philosoph]s w\ld id5tify x3 di/9ct bo? f ! dogma ( ,h]akleitus1 ,t ev]y?+ is 9 unceas+ flux & process1 ea* p>ticul> mom5t !re( be+ an implication ( contradictions bo? alike true2 & di/9ct also f ! o!r dogma held by o!rs1 ,t all cognition is s5sible p]ception4 ,! ,protagorean t5et ,homo ,m5sura is some?+ ess5tially di/9ct f ei!r ( ^! two2 ?\gh possibly ,protagoras himself may h held ! second ( ! two1 besides 8 own4 ,8 t5et is no?+ m ?an a cle> & g5]al decl>ation ( ! pr9ciple ( univ]sal ,relativity4 ,true belief & affirmation h no mean+ except 9 relation to "s believ]1 real or suppos$2 true disbelief & negation h no mean+ except 9 relation to "s disbeliev]1 real or suppos$4 ,:5 a man affirms any proposition z true1 he affirms only :at he 7p]haps ) "s o!r p]sons also7 believes to be true1 :ile o!rs may p]haps disbelieve x z falsehood4 ,object & ,subject are insep>ably implicat$3 we may sep>ate !m by ab/raction1 & reason ab\t ea* ap>t f ! o!r2 b1 z reality1 !y exi/ only lock$ up "o ) ! o!r4 ,footnote #ce3 ',plato & ! ,o!r ,companions ( ,sokrates1' ,vol4 ,,ii4 c4 xxvi4 pp4 #cbe-cfc3 ,! ,protagorean doctr9e--,man is ! measure ( all ?+s--is simply ! pres5tation 9 complete view ( a common fact2 uncov]+ an aspect ( x :i* ! receiv$ phraseology hides4 ,tru? & ,falsehood h ref]5ce to "s believ+ subject--& ! words h no mean+ except 9 t relation4 ,protagoras br+s to view ?is subjective side ( ! same complex fact1 ( :i* ,tru? & ,falsehood d5ote ! objective side4 ,he refuses to admit ! object absolute--! pret5d$ ?+ 9 itself--,tru? )\t a believ]4 ,8 doctr9e ma9ta9s ! indefeasible & necess>y involution ( ! p]cipi5t m9d 9 e p]ception--( ! concipi5t m9d 9 e conception--( ! cognizant m9d 9 e cognition4 ,f>!r1 ,protagoras ackn[l$ges _m di/9ct believ+ or kn[+ ,subjects3 & affirms t e object kn[n mu/ be relative to 7or 9 8 language1 measur$ by7 ! kn[+ ,subject3 t e cognitum mu/ h its cognosc5s1 & e cognoscibile its cognitionis capax2 t ! words h no mean+ unless ?is be suppos$2 t ^! two names designate two opposite poles or aspects ( ! indivisible fact ( cognition--actual or pot5tial--n two factors1 :i* are 9 !mselves sep>ate or sep>able1 & :i* come toge!r to make a comp\nd product4 ,a man _c 9 any case get cle> ( or disc>d 8 own m9d z a ,subject4 ,self is necess>ily omnipres5t1 conc]n$ 9 e mom5t ( consci\sness1 c4 ,comp>e also c4 xxiv4 p4 #bfa4 ,t su* is & always has be5 ! /ate ( ! fact1 9 reg>d to tru? & falsehood1 belief & disbelief1 is matt] ( notoriety3 ,protagoras n only accepts x z a fact1 b =mulates x z a !ory4 ,in/ead ( decl>+ t :at he 7or ! oracle :i* he consults & foll[s7 believes to be true1 is absolute tru?1 :ile t :i* o!rs believe1 is tru? relatively to !m1--he l[]s 8 own pret5sions to a level ) !irs4 ,he pr(esses to be a measure ( tru? only = himself1 & = su* z may be satisfi$ ) ! reasons t satisfy him4 ,ari/otle compla9s t ?is !ory disc\rages ! se>* = tru? z hopeless1 n less ?an ! *ase aft] fly+ birds4#cf ,b1 h[ev] s]i\s su* disc\ragem5t may be1 we d n escape ! real difficulty ( ! se>* by sett+ up an ab/ract idol & call+ x ,absolute ,tru?1 )\t ei!r relativity or ref]ee2 :ile1 if we ent]1 z s9c]e & bon fide enquir]s1 on ! se>* = reason$ tru? or philosophy1 we %all f9d ourselves n dep>t+ f ! ,protagorean canon1 b involunt>ily con=m+ to x4 ,ari/otle1 aft] hav+ decl>$ t ! ,maxim ( ,contradiction 0 true beyond ! possibility ( deception1#cg b yet t !re 7 sev]al em95t philosoph]s :o disall[$ x1 is =c$ to produce ! be/ reasons 9 8 p[] to remove _! d\bts & br+ !m r\nd to 8 op9ion4 ,8 reasons mu/ be su* z to satisfy n 8 own m9d only1 b ! m9ds ( oppon5ts & indiff]5t auditors z ref]ees4 ,?is is an appeal to o!r m51 z judges ea* = himself & 9 8 own case3 x is a tacit recognition ( ! autonomy ( ea* individual enquir] z a measure ( tru? to himself4 ,9 o!r words1 x is a recognition ( ! ,protagorean canon4 ,footnote #cf3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,g4 v4 p4 #ajji1 b4 #ch4 ,footnote #cg3 ,ibid4 ,greek3 ,g4 iii4 p4 #ajje1 b4 #aa3 ,greek3 bebaiota_/t d' a7r* pasn1 p]i 7n diapseu/hnai a7du_/naton4 ,we "k little ab\t ! op9ions ( ,protagoras2 b !re 0 no?+ 9 ?is canon necess>ily at v>iance ei!r ) ! ,maxim ( ,contradiction or ) t ( ,exclud$ ,middle4 ,bo? ,ari/otle & ,plato w\ld h u believe t ,protagoras 0 b\nd by 8 canon to decl>e e op9ion to be alike false & true1 because e op9ion 0 believ$ by "s & disbeliev$ by o!rs4#ch ,b h]e9 !y mis/ate 8 !ory4 ,he did n decl>e any ?+ to be absolutely true1 or to be absolutely false4 ,tru? & ,falsehood 7 consid]$ by him z always relative to "s ref]ee1 & he recogniz$ no univ]sal or infallible ref]ee4 ,9 8 !ory ! necessity ( "s ref]ee 0 di/9ctly enunciat$1 in/ead ( be+ put out ( sight "u an ellipsis1 z 9 ! receiv$ !ories & practice4 ,& ?is is exactly :at ,plato & ,ari/otle omit1 :5 !y refute him4 ,he proclaim$ t ea* man 0 a measure = himself alone1 & t e op9ion 0 true to ! believ]1 false to ! disbeliev]2 :ile !y criticize him z if he _h said--,e op9ion is alike true & false2 ?us leav+ out ! v qualification :i* =ms ! *>act]i/ic feature ( 8 !ory4 ,!y commit t fallacy :i* ,plato %[s up 9 ! ,eu?ydmus1 & :i* ,ari/otle#ci numb]s 9 8 li/ ( ,fallaci ,extra ,dictionem1 imput+ x z a vice to ! ,sophi/s3 !y slide dicto secundum quid ad dictum simplicit]4 ,& x is rem>kable t ,ari/otle1 9 "o portion ( 8 argum5t aga9/ ,homo ,m5sura1 expressly admoni%es ! ,protagoreans t !y mu/ take c>e to adh]e con/antly to ?is qualifi$ mode ( enunciation2#dj t !y mu/ n talk ( app>5t tru? g5]ally1 b ( tru? z x appe>s to !mselves or to "s o!r p]sons1 n[ or at a diff]5t "t4 ,protagoras h>dly ne$$ su* an admonition to keep to :at is ! key-note & *>act]i/ic peculi>ity ( 8 own !ory2 s9ce x is only by suppress+ ?is peculi>ity t 8 oppon5ts make ! !ory seem absurd4 ,he w\ld by no means h disclaim$ t consequ5ce ( 8 !ory1 :i* ,ari/otle urges aga9/ x z an irrefragable objection2 viz41 t x makes e ?+ relative1 & recognizes no?+ z absolute4 ,?is is p]fectly true1 & con/itutes its m]it 9 ! eyes ( its support]s4 ,footnote #ch3 ,plato1 ,!tt4 pp4 #aga-agi4 ,ari/ot4 ,met4 ,greek3 ,g4 iv4 p4 #ajjg1 b4 #ba3 ,greek3 ei7 kata panto_/s ti 7 kataphsai 7 a7pophsai e7nde_/*etai1 ka?a_/p] a7na_/gk tois ton ,prtago_/r\ le_/g\si lo_/gon4 ,comp>e v4 p4 #ajji1 a4 #f2 viii4 p4 #ajab1 b4 #ae4 ,footnote #ci3 ,ari/ot4 ,soph4 ,el4 p4 #afg1 a4 #c2 ,rhetoric4 ,,ii4 xxiv4 p4 #adjb1 a4 #b-ae4 ,greek3 7_/sp] kai e7pi tn e7ri/ikn to kata_/ ti kai pro_/s ti kai p ou7 pro/i!_/m5a poiei tn sukophanti_/an4 ,footnote #dj3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,g4 vi4 p4 #ajaa1 a4 #ba3 ,greek3 dio kai phulakte_/on tois tn bi_/an e7n t lo_/g zt\s91 a7_/ma de kai u7pe_/*e9 lo_/gon a7xi\s91 o7_/ti ou7 to pha9o_/m5on e7_//91 a7lla to pha9o_/m5on7 phai_/netai kai o7_/te phai_/netai kai 7 kai 7_/s4--b4 #a3 ,greek3 a7ll' i7_/ss dia t\t' a7na_/gk le_/ge9 tois m di' a7pori_/an a7lla lo_/g\ *a_/r9 le_/g\s91 o7_/ti ou7k e7_//9 a7l!s t\to1 a7lla t\_/t a7l!_/s4 ,ano!r argum5t ( ,ari/otle#da aga9/ ! ,protagorean ,homo ,m5sura--,t x implies 9 e affirm+ ,subject an equal au?ority & equal title to cr$5ce1 z comp>$ ) e o!r affirm+ ,subject--,i h already endeav\r$ to combat 9 my review ( ! ,platonic ,!ttus1 :]e ! same argum5t appe>s fully develop$4 ,! anti!sis betwe5 ,plato & ,ari/otle on "o side1 & ,protagoras on ! o!r1 is inde$ simply t betwe5 ,absolute & ,relative4 ,! ,protagorean doctr9e is q di/9ct f ! o!r doctr9es ) :i* !y jumble x toge!r--f ^? ( ,h]akleitus & ,anaxagoras1 & f ! !ory t ,k is s5sible p]ception4 ,! real oppon5ts ( ! ,maxim ( ,contradiction 7 ,h]akleitus1 ,anaxagoras1 ,p>m5ides1 & ,plato himself z repres5t$ 9 "s ( 8 dialogues1 especially ! ,p>m5ides1 ,timu1 ,republic1 ,sophi/es4 ,ea* ( ^! philosoph]s adopt$ a ,fir/ ,philosophy diff]5t f ! o!rs3 b ea* also adopt$ "o completely diff]5t f t ( ,ari/otle1 & n reconcileable ) 8 logical canons4 ,none ( !m admitt$ det]m9ate & def9able attributes belong+ to det]m9ate p>ticul> subjects1 ea* ) a c]ta9 measure ( durability4 ,footnote #da3 ,ibid4 v4 p4 #ajaj1 b4 #aa4 ,n[ ! common spee* ( mank9d ?r\gh\t ! ,hell5ic _w 0 f\nd$ on ! assumption ( su* fix$ subjects & pr$icates4 ,^? :o want$ in=mation = practical guidance or security1 ask$ = x 9 ?is =m2 ^? :o desir$ to be und]/ood by o!rs1 & to det]m9e ! actions ( o!rs1 adopt$ ! l mode ( spee*4 ,in=mation 0 giv5 ?r\gh significant propositions1 :i* ! que/ion] s\ght to obta91 & :i* ! answ]1 if cognizant1 enunciat$3 e4g41 ,!ttus 9999is sitt+ d[n#db--to repeat ! m9imum or skeleton ( a proposition z giv5 by ,plato1 requir+ bo? subject & pr$icate 9 prop] comb9ation1 to convey ! mean+4 ,n[ ! logical analysis1 & ! syllogi/ic precepts ( ,ari/otle1--z well z 8 rhetorical & dialectical sugge/ions = p]suad+1 = refut+1 or = avoid+ refutation--are all bas$ ^u ! practice ( common spee*4 ,9 conv]s+ 7he says7 x is impossible to produce & exhibit ! actual objects signifi$2 ! speak] mu/ be cont5t ) enunciat+1 in/ead !re(1 ! "n significant ( ea*4#dc ,! fir/ beg9n+ ( rhetorical diction is1 to speak good ,greek2#dd ! rhetor & ! dialectician mu/ dwell ^u words1 propositions1 & op9ions1 n peculi> to su* z h receiv$ special tea*+1 b common to ! _m & employ$ 9 famili> conv]sation2 ! auditors1 to :om !y address !mselves1 are assum$ to be commonplace m51 ( fair av]age intellig5ce1 b no?+ beyond4#de ,?us mu* ( acquirem5t is imbib$ by almo/ e "o z he gr[s up1 f ! ord9>y int]c\rse ( society4 ,! m5 ( special in/ruction beg9 ) x1 z o!rs d2 b !y also sup]add o!r cognitions or accompli%m5ts d]iv$ f peculi> tea*]s4 ,univ]sally--bo? 9 ! int]ior ( ! family1 amid/ ! unsci5tific multitude1 & by ! cultivat$ few--habitual spee* 0 c>ri$ on ?r\gh t]ms assum+ fix$ subjects & pr$icates4 ,x 0 ?is recogniz$ process 9 its two v>ieties ( ,analytic & ,dialectic1 :i* ,ari/otle embrac$ 9 8 logical !ory1 & to :i* he also adapt$ 8 ,fir/ ,philosophy4 ,footnote #db3 ,plato1 ,sophi/es1 pp4 #bfb-bfc4 ,footnote #dc3 ,ari/ot4 ,soph4 ,el4 p4 #afe1 a4 #e3 ,greek3 e7pei gar ou7k e7_//9 au7ta ta pra_/gmata diale_/ge/hai phe_/rontas1 a7lla tois o7no_/mas9 a7nti tn pragma_/tn *r_/me?a sumbo_/lois4 ,footnote #dd3 ,ari/ot4 ,rhet4 ,,iii4 v4 p4 #adjg1 b4 #ai3 ,greek3 e7_//i d' a7r* ts le_/xes to ,e7llni_/ze94 ,footnote #de3 ,ari/ot4 ,rhet4 ,i4 i4 p4 #aced1 a4 #a3 ,greek3 7 r7torik a7nti_//ropho_/s e7/i t dialektik2 a7mpho_/t]ai gar p]i toi\_/tn t9n ei7sin a7 ko9a tro_/pon t9a a7pa_/ntn e7/i gnri_/ze9 kai ou7demias e7pi/_/ms a7phrisme_/ns2 dio kai pa_/ntes tro_/pon t9a mete_/*\s9 a7mphoin4--p4 #acee1 a4 #be3 ,greek3 didaskali_/z ga_/r e7/9 o7 kata tn e7pi/_/mn lo_/gos1 t\to de a7du_/naton1 a7ll' a7na_/gk dia tn ko9n poiei/hai tas pi_//eis kai t\s lo_/g\s1 7_/sp] kai e7n tois ,topikois e7le_/gom5 p]i ts pros t\s poll\s e7nteu_/xes4--p4 #aceg1 a4 #a3 ,greek3 e7_//i de to e7_/rgon au7ts p]i_/ te toi\_/tn p]i 7n b\leuo_/me?a kai te_/*nas m e7_/*om51 kai e7n tois toi\_/tois a7kroatais oi7 ou7 du_/nantai dia polln sunoran ou7de logi_/ze/hai po_/r7r7!n4--p4 #aceg1 a4 #aa3 ,greek3 o7 gar kri_/ts u7pokeitai ei7nai a7pl\s4 ,comp>e ,topica1 ,i4 ii4 p4 #aja1 a4 #bf-cf2 ,soph4 ,el4 p4 #agb1 a4 #cj4 ,b ! ,fir/ ,philosophy t prec$$ 81 _h n be5 s adapt$4 ,! ,greek philosoph]s1 :o fl\ri%$ be=e dialectical discussion _h become active1 dur+ ! int]val betwe5 ,?ales & ,sokrates1 consid]$ ,philosophy z "o :ole--r]um div9>um et human>um sci5tia--de/9$ to r5d] ,nature or ! ,kosmos m or less intelligible4 ,!y took up 9 ! gross all ^? va/ problems1 :i* ! religi\s or my?ological poets _h embodi$ 9 div9e g5ealogies & _h ascrib$ to sup]human p]sonal ag5cies4 ,?ales & 8 imm$iate successors 7l _! pr$ecessors ! poets7 accommodat$ _! hypo!ses to intellectual impulses & aspirations ( _! own2 ) little anxiety ab\t giv+ satisfaction to o!rs1#df /ill less ab\t avoid+ inconsi/5cies or meet+ objections4 ,ea* ( !m fa/5$ ^u "s "o gr& & impos+ g5]alization 7set =? (t5 9 v]se7 :i* he /ret*$ z f> z x w\ld g by v>i\s comp>isons & illu/rations1 b )\t any att5tion or def]5ce to adv]se facts or reason+s4 ,provid$ t 8 g5]al po9t ( view 0 impressive to ! imag9ation1#dg z ! old religi\s s*eme ( p]sonal ag5cies 0 to ! vulg>1 he did n conc]n himself ab\t ! conditions ( pro( or dispro(4 ,! data ( exp]i5ce 7 altoge!r falsifi$ 7z by ! ,py?agoreans7#dh 9 ord] to accommodate !m to ! !ory2 or 7 set aside z deceptive & inexplicable f ! !ory 7z by bo? ,p>m5ides & ,h]akleitus74#di ,footnote #df3 ,ari/ot4 ,met4 ,b4 iv4 p4 #ajjj1 a4 #i3 ,greek3 oi7 men ou7n p]i 7si_/odon kai pa_/ntes o7_/soi !o_/logoi mo_/non e7phro_/ntisan t\ pi?an\ t\ pros au7t\_/s1 7mn d' 7lig_/rsan2--kai gar o7_/np] oi7!i_/ le_/ge9 a7_/n tis ma_/li/a o7molog\me_/ns au7t1 ,e7mp$okls1 kai ou7tos tau7ton pe_/pon!n4--,metaph4 ,n4 iv4 p4 #ajia1 b4 #a-ae4 ,footnote #dg3 ,?is is /rik+ly express$ by a phrase ( ,ari/otle ab\t ! ,platonic !ory1 ,metaph4 ,n4 iii4 p4 #ajij1 a4 #ce3 ,greek3 oi7 de *ri/on poi\ntes1 o7_/ti e7pi tn ai7/htn ou7k e7_//ai ta a7xi_/mata1 a7l? de ta lego_/m5a kai sai_/nei tn psu*_/n1 ei7nai_/ te u7polamba_/n\si kai *ri/a ei7nai4 ,footnote #dh3 ,metaph4 ,n4 iii4 p4 #ajij1 a4 #cd3 ,greek3 e7oi_/kasi p]i a7_/ll\ ou7ra_/n\ le_/ge9 kai sma_/tn a7ll' ou7 tn ai7/ht n4--,metaph4 ,a4 v4 p4 #ihf1 a4 #e2 & ,de ,coelo1 ,,ii4 xiii4 p4 #bic1 a4 #be4 ,footnote #di3 ,physic4 ,i4 ii4-iii4 pp4 #ahe-ahf4 ,b ^! vague hypo!ses became subject$ to a new scrut9y1 :5 ! dialectical age ( ,z5o & ,sokrates sup]v5$4 ,oppon5ts ( ,p>m5ides impugn$ 8 !ory ( ,ens ,unum ,cont9uum ,immobile1 z lead+ to absurdities2 :ile 8 disciple ,z5o repli$1 n by any attempt to disprove su* allegations b1 by %[+ t ! c\nt]-!ory ( ,entia ,plura ,discont9ua ,mov5tia1 or ,mutabilia1 involv$ consequ5ces yet m absurd4#ej ,9 ! acute dialectical w>f>e1 to :i* ! old !ories ?us /ood expos$1 ! means ( attack mu* surpass$ ^? ( def5ce2 moreov]1 ! p>tisans ( ,h]akleitus despis$ all coh]5t argum5tation1 conf9+ !mselves to obscure oracul> aphorisms & multipli$ metaphors4#ea ,9 po9t ( fact1 no suitable language c\ld be f\nd1 consi/5tly ) common spee* or common exp]i5ce1 = exp&+ 9 detail ei!r ! ,h]akleitean#eb or ! ,p>m5idean !ory2 ! =m] suppress+ all duration & recogniz+ no?+ b ev5ts--a p]petual /ream ( ,fi5tia or int]*ange ( ,ens ) ,non-,ens2 ! latt] disc>d+ ,non-,ens z unmean+1 & recogniz+ no real ev5ts or successions1 b only ,ens ,unum p]petually la/+ & un*angeable4 ,! o!r physical hypo!ses1 broa*$ by ,py?agoras1 ,emp$okles1 ,anaxagoras1 & ,demokritus1 ea* altoge!r discordant ) ! o!rs1 7 alike impos+ 9 _! g5]al enunciation & promise1 alike insuffici5t :5 appli$ to common exp]i5ce & detail4 ,footnote #ej3 ,plato1 ,p>m5id4 p4 #abh1 ,d4 ,footnote #ea3 ,plato1 ,!tt4 p4 #agi1 ,e3 ,greek3 p]i t\_/tn tn 7rakleitei_/n1--to e7pimeinai e7pi lo_/g kai e7rt_/mati kai 7su*i_/s e7n me_/rei a7pokri_/na/hai kai e7re_//hai 7tton au7tois e7_/ni 7 to mde_/n2--7_/sp] e7k ph>e_/tras r7mati_/skia ai7nigmat_/d a7naspntes a7potoxeu_/ousi1 ka7n t\_/t\ zts lo_/gon labein1 ti_/ ei7_/rk51 e7te_/r pepl_/xei ka9s metnomasme_/n1 p]aneis de ou7de_/pote ou7den pros ou7de_/na au7t n4 ,footnote #eb3 ,ibid4 p4 #ahc1 ,b3 ,greek3 a7lla_/ t9' a7_/lln phnn !te_/on tois ton lo_/gon t\ton le_/g\s91 7s nun ge pros tn au7tn u7po_/!s9 ou7k e7_/*\si r7_/mata1 ei7 m a7_/ra to ou7_/d' o7_/ps2 ma_/li/a d' ou7_/ts a7n au7tois a7_/rmottoi1 a7_/peiron lego_/m5on4 ,plato applies ?is rem>k to ! !ory ( ,protagoras2 b ! rem>k belongs prop]ly to t ( ,h]akleitus4 ,b ! great developm5t ( ,dialectic dur+ ! ,sokratic age1 toge!r ) ! new applications made ( x by ,sokrates & ! unrivall$ acut5ess ) :i* he wield$ x1 alt]$ mat]ially ! position ( ^! physical !ories4 ,sokrates 0 n ignorant ( !m2#ec b he disc\rag$ su* /udies1 & turn$ att5tion to o!r topics4 ,he pass$ 8 :ole life 9 public & 9 indiscrim9ate conv]sation ) e "o4 ,he deprecat$ a/ronomy & physics z unbecom+ attempts to pry into ! secrets ( ! gods2 :o adm9i/]$ ! g5]al affairs ( ! ,kosmos accord+ to _! own pleasure1 & grant$ only1 ?r\gh ! m$ium ( prophecy or oracles1 su* special revelations z !y ?\ght fit4 ,9 8 own discussions ,sokrates dwelt only on matt]s ( famili> conv]sation & exp]i5ce--social1 e?ical1 political1 c41 su* z 7 9 e "o's m\?1 among ! daily gr\ps ( ! m>ket-place4 ,^! he decl>$ to be ! truly human topics#ed--! prop] /udy ( mank9d--^u :i* x 0 disgraceful to be ignorant1 or to =m untrue & inconsi/5t judgm5ts4 ,he f\nd1 moreov]1 t ^u ^! topics no "o suppos$ himself to be ignorant1 or to require tea*+4 ,e "o gave confid5t op9ions1 d]iv$ f int]c\rse ) society1 embodi$ 9 ! famili> words ( ! language1 & imbib$ almo/ unconsci\sly along ) ! mean+ ( ^! words4 ,n[ ,sokrates n only disclaim$ all purpose ( tea*+1 b made o/5tati\s pr(ession ( 8 own ignorance4 ,8 practice 0 to ask in=mation f o!rs :o pr(ess$ to "k2 & ) ?is view1 to "q !m ab\t ! import ( vulg> words ) ! social convictions conta9$ 9 !m4#ee ,to ! answ]s giv5 he appli$ an acute cross-exam9ation1 :i* seldom fail$ to detect s mu* inconsi/5cy & contradiction z to cov] ! respond5t ) %ame1 & to make him s5sible t he 0 pr(\ndly ignorant ( matt]s :i* he _h believ$ himself to "k well4 ,sokrates decl>$1 9 8 la/ spee* be=e condemnation by ! ,a!nian ,dika/s1 t su* false p]suasion ( k1 comb9$ ) real ignorance1 0 univ]sal among mank9d2 & t ! exposure !re(1 z ! great misguid+ =ce ( human life1 _h be5 enjo9$ ^u him z 8 mission by ! ,delphian ,god4#ef ,footnote #ec3 ,x5ophon1 ,mem4 ,,iv4 vii4 #e3 ,greek3 kai_/toi ou7de t\_/t n ge a7n_/koos 7n4 ,footnote #ed3 ,x5ophon1 ,mem4 ,i4 i4 #ab-af3 ,greek3 kai prton men au7tn e7sko_/pei po_/t]a_/ pote nomi_/santes i7kans 7_/d ta7n?r _/peia ei7de_/nai e7_/r*ontai e7pi to p]i tn toi\_/tn phronti_/ze91 7 ta men a7n?r_/peia p>e_/ntes1 ta de daimo_/nia skop\ntes1 7g\ntai ta pros_/konta pra_/tte94--au7tos de p]i tn a7n?rpei_/n a7ei diele_/geto1 skopn ti_/ eu7sebe_/s1 ti_/ a7sebe_/s1 ti_/ kalo_/n1 ti_/ ai7s*ro_/n1 ti_/ di_/kaion1 ti_/ a7_/dikon1 ti_/ sphrosu_/n1 ti_/ mani_/a1 ti_/ po_/lis1 ti_/ politiko_/s1 ti_/ a7r* a7n?r_/pn1 ti_/ a7r*ikos a7n?r_/pn1 c4 ,comp>e ,,iv4 vii4 #b-i4 ,footnote #ee3 ,x5oph4 ,memor4 ,i4 ii4 #bf-df2 ,,iii4 vi4 #b-ae2 ,,iv4 ii42 ,,iv4 vi4 #a3 ,greek3 skopn sun tois sunoisi ti_/ e7_/ka/on ei7_/ tn o7_/ntn ou7de_/pot' e7_/lge4--,,iv4 iv4 #i3 ,greek3 a7rkei gar o7_/ti tn a7_/lln katagelas1 e7rtn men kai e7le_/g*n pa_/ntas1 au7tos d' ou7d5i !_/ln u7pe_/*e9 lo_/gon ou7de gn_/mn a7pophai_/ne/hai p]ei ou7d5o_/s4--,plato1 ,republic ,i4 pp4 #ccf-ccg2 ,!tt4 p4 #aej ,c4 ,footnote #ef3 ,plato1 ,apol4 ,sokrat4 pp4 #bb1 #bh1 #cc3 ,greek3 e7moi de t\to1 7s e7g_/ phmi1 pro/e_/taktai u7po t\ !\ pra_/tte9 kai e7k mantein kai e7x e7nupni_/n kai panti tro_/p1 7pe_/r ti_/s pote kai a7_/ll !i_/a moira a7n?r_/p kai o7ti\n prose_/taxe pra_/tte94--,plato1 ,sophi/4 pp4 #bcj-bca2 ,m5on1 pp4 #hj1 ,a41 #hd1 ,b4 ,comp>e ! analysis ( ! ,platonic ,apology 9 my "w1 ',plato & ! ,o!r ,companions ( ,sokrates1' ,vol4 ,i4 c4 vii4 ,! peculi>ities :i* ,ari/otle ascribes to ,sokrates are--t he talk$ ^u e?ical topics in/ead ( physical1 t he fa/5$ especially on ! def9itions ( g5]al t]ms1 & t 8 discussions 7 inductive1 br++ =w>d _m analog\s illu/rative or probative p>ticul>s to ju/ify a true g5]al proposition1 & "o or a few to set aside a false "o4#eg ,?is ,sokratic practice is copi\sly illu/rat$ bo? by ,plato 9 _m ( 8 dialogues1 & by ,x5ophon ?r\gh\t all ! ,memorabilia4#eh ,9 ,plato1 h[ev]1 ,sokrates is (t5 introduc$ z spokesman ( doctr9es n 8 own2 :ile 9 ,x5ophon we h be=e u ! real man z he talk$ 9 ! m>ket-place1 & app>5tly little besides4 ,x5ophon v emphatically exhibits to u a po9t :i* 9 ,plato's ,dialogues ( ,se>* is less conspicu\sly m>k$1 ?\gh /ill app>5t3 viz41 ! p[] possess$ by ,sokrates ( accommodat+ himself to ! ord9>y m9d 9 all its v>ieties--8 habit ( dwell+ on ! homely & famili> topics ( ! citiz5's daily life--8 con/ant appeal to small & ev5 vulg> details1 z ! way ( te/+ l>ge & impos+ g5]alities4#ei ,sokrates possess$ to a surpris+ degree ! art ( select+ argum5ts really p]suasive to ord9>y non-!oriz+ m52 s z (t5 to c>ry _! ass5t along ) him1 & /ill (t5] to %ake _! previ\s beliefs1 if unw>rant$1 or ev5 if adopt$ by m]e passive receptivity )\t prelim9>y reflection & comp>ison4 ,footnote #eg3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,m4 iv4 p4 #ajgh1 b4 #bh3 ,greek3 du_/o ga_/r e7/9 a7_/ tis a7n a7podoi_/ ,skra_/tei dikai_/s1 t\_/s t' e7paktik\s lo_/g\s kai to o7ri_/ze/hai ka?o_/l\2 tauta ga_/r e7/9 a7_/mph p]i a7r*n e7pi/_/ms4--ib4 ,a4 p4 #ihg1 b4 #a3 ,greek3 ,skra_/t\s de p]i men ta 7?ika pragmateuome_/n\1 p]i de ts o7_/ls phu_/ses ou7!_/n1 e7n me_/ntoi t\_/tois to ka?o_/l\ zt\ntos kai p]i o7rismn e7pi/_/santos pr_/t\ tn dia_/noian4 ,footnote #eh3 ,no portion ( ! ,memorabilia illu/rates ?is po9t bett] ?an ! dialogue ) ,eu?ydmus1 ,,iv4 vi4 ,footnote #ei3 ,x5ophon1 ,memor4 ,,iv4 vi4 #ae3 ,greek3 o7_/pote de au7to_/s ti t lo_/g diexi_/oi1 dia tn ma_/li/a o7molog\me_/n n e7poreu_/eto1 nomi_/zn tau_/tn tn a7spha_/leian ei7nai lo_/g\2 toig>\n polu ma_/li/a 7n e7g oi7da1 o7_/te le_/goi1 t\s a7k\_/ontas o7molog\ntas p>ei*52 e7_/ph de kai ,o7_/mron t ,o7dussei a7na!inai to a7sphal r7_/tora ei7nai1 7s i7kanon au7ton o7_/nta dia tn dok\_/ntn tois a7n?r_/pois a7_/ge9 t\s lo_/g\s4 ,comp>e ib4 ,i4 ii4 #ch2 ,,iv4 iv4 #f2 also ,plato1 ,!ttus1 p4 #adg1 ,a1 ,b2 ,republic ,i4 p4 #cch1 ,c4 ,)\t dep>t+ f ,ari/otle's description1 !re=e1 we may conceive ! *ange op]at$ by ,sokrates 9 philosophical discussion "u a new po9t ( view4 ,9 ex*ang+ ,physics = ,e?ics1 x vulg>iz$ bo? ! topics & ! talk ( philosophy4 ,physical philosophy z x /ood 9 ! age ( ,sokrates 7be=e ,ari/otle _h broa*$ 8 peculi> def9ition ( ,nature7 0 m]ely an obscure1 semi-poetical1 hypo!tical ,philosophia ,prima1#fj or r ,philosophia ,prima & ,philosophia ,secunda bl5d$ 9 "o4 ,?is is true ( all its v>ieties1--( ! ,ionic philosoph]s z well z ( ,py?agoras1 ,p>m5ides1 ,h]akleitus1 ,anaxagoras1 ,emp$okles1 & ev5 ,demokritus4 ,su* philosophy1 dimly enunciat$ & only half intelligible1#fa n m]ely did n t5d to expla9 or cle> up ph5om5al exp]i5ces1 b (t5 add$ new difficulties ( its own4 ,x pres5t$ itself sometimes ev5 z discr$it+1 ov]rid+1 & contradict+ exp]i5ce2 b nev] z op5+ any d$uctive road f ! ,univ]sal d[n to its p>ticul>s4#fb ,su* !ories1 ?\gh 9 circulation among a few disciples & oppon5ts1 7 =eign & unsuitable to ! talk ( ord9>y m54 ,to pass f ^! cl\dy my/]ies to social topics & t]ms :i* 7 9 e "o's m\?1 0 ! important revolution 9 philosophy introduc$ 9 ! age ( ,sokrates1 & ma9ly by him4 ,footnote #fj3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,g4 iii4 p4 #ajje1 a4 #ca4 ,footnote #fa3 ,ibid4 ,a4 x4 p4 #iic1 a4 #ae3 ,greek3 psellizome_/n gar e7_/oik5 7 pr_/t philosophi_/a p]i pa_/ntn1 a7_/te ne_/a te kat' a7r*as ou7sa kai to prton4 ,footnote #fb3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,greek3 a4 i4 p4 #iic1 b4 #f3 ,greek3 to o7_/lon ti e7_/*e9 kai me_/ros m du_/na/hai dloi to *alepon au7ts 7ts p]i ts a7l!i_/z !ri_/z74 ,alex&] ap4 ,s*ol4 p4 #ajd1 ,bonitz3 ,greek3 ei7s e7_/nnoian men t\ o7_/l\ kai e7pi_//as9 pa_/ntas e7l!in1 mden de me_/ros au7ts e7xakrib_/sa/hai dun?nai1 dloi to *alepon au7ts4 ,ari/otle indicates h[ mu* ! ,philosophia ,prima ( 8 e>li] pr$ecessors 0 uncong5ial to & at v>iance ) ph5om5al exp]i5ce--,metaphys4 ,a4 v4 p4 #ihf1 b4 #ca4 ,to %ape _! !ories 9 su* a way--,greek3 ta pha9o_/m5a ei7 me_/llei tis a7pod_/se9 7,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,l4 viii4 p4 #ajgc1 b4 #cf71 0 an obligation :i* philosoph]s h>dly felt incumb5t on !m prior to ! ,ari/otelian age4 ,comp>e ,simplikius 7ad4 ,ari/ot4 ,physic4 ,i471 p4 #cbh1 a4 #a-bf1 ,s*ol4 ,br42 ,s*ol4 7ad4 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,coelo ,,iii4 ,i47 p4 #eji1 a4 #bf-p4 #eaj1 a4 #ac4 ,! drift ( ! ,sokratic proc$ure 0 to br+ m5 into ! habit ( def9+ ^? univ]sal t]ms :i* !y _h hi!rto us$ undef9$1 ! def9itions be+ v]ifi$ by induction ( p>ticul>s z ! ultimate au?ority4 ,x 0 a proc$ure built ^u common spee*1 b improv+ on common spee*2 ! talk ( e man be+ 9 propositions1 ea* includ+ a subject & pr$icate1 b nei!r subject nor pr$icate be+ ev] def9$4 ,x 0 ! mission ( ,sokrates to make m5 pa9fully s5sible ( t defici5cy1 z well z to en=ce ^u !m ! inductive evid5ce by :i* alone x c\ld be rectifi$4 ,n[ ! ,analytic & ,dialectic ( ,ari/otle grew directly out ( ?is ,sokratic proc$ure1 & out ( ! ,platonic dialogues 9 s f> z !y en=c$ & illu/rat$ x4 ,:5 ,sokrates _h suppli$ ! negative /imulus & indication ( :at 0 amiss1 toge!r ) ! appeal to ,induction z f9al au?ority1 ,ari/otle furni%$1 or did mu* to furni%1 ! positive analysis & complem5t>y precepts1 necess>y to cle> up1 ju/ify1 & assure ! m>* ( reason$ tru?4#fc ,:at ,ari/otle calls ! syllogi/ic pr9cipia1 or ! pr9ciples ( syllogi/ic demon/ration1 are no?+ else ?an ! /eps t[>ds reason$ tru?1 & ! precautions aga9/ ^? fallaci\s appe>ances t simulate x4 ,! /eps are /at$ 9 _! mo/ g5]al t]ms1 z involv+ bo? ,d$uction & ,induction2 ?\gh 9 ,ari/otle we f9d ! d$uctive portion copi\sly unfold$ & classifi$1 :ile ,induction1 ?\gh recogniz$ z ! only v]ify+ f\ndation ( ! :ole1 is left )\t expansion or illu/ration4 ,footnote #fc3 ,?\gh ! !oriz+ & ! analysis ( ,ari/otle presuppose & recognize ! ,sokratic proc$ure1 yet1 if we read ! ,x5ophontic ,memorabilia1 ,,iv4 vii41 & comp>e !re) ! fir/ two *apt]s ( ,ari/otle's ,metaphysica1 9 :i* he describes & extols ,philosophia ,prima1 we %all see h[ radically antipa!tic 7 ! two po9ts ( view3 ,sokrates conf9+ himself to practical results--,greek3 me_/*ri t\ 7phelim\2 ,ari/otle extoll+ ,philosophia ,prima1 because x so>s above practical results1 & s]ves z its own rew>d1 elevat+ ! philosoph] to a p>tial communion ) ! contemplative self-suffici5cy ( ! ,gods4 ,inde$ ! rem>k ( ,ari/otle1 p4 #ihc1 a4 #a-f1 d5y+ altoge!r ! jeal\sy ascrib$ to ! ,gods1 c41 is almo/ a reply to ! op9ion express$ by ,sokrates1 t a man by su* ov]we5+ rese>*es br\ght ^u himself ! displeasure ( ! ,gods1 z pry+ into _! secrets 7,x54 ,mem4 ,,iv4 vii4 #f2 ,i4 i4 #ab74 ,if we g ?r\gh ! ,sokratic conv]sations z report$ 9 ! ,memorabilia ( ,x5ophon1 we %all f9d illu/ration ( :at has be5 j /at$3 we %all see ,sokrates recogniz+ & foll[+ ! common spee* ( m51 9 propositions comb9+ subject & pr$icate2 b try+ to fix ! mean+ ( bo? ^! t]ms1 & to te/ ! consi/5cy ( ! univ]sal pr$ications by appeal to p>ticul>s4 ,! syllogiz+ & ! inductive processes are exhibit$ bo? ( !m 9 actual "w on p>ticul> po9ts ( discussion4 ,n[ on ^! processes ,ari/otle br+s 8 analysis to be>1 elicit+ & enunciat+ 9 g5]al t]ms _! pr9cipia & _! conditions4 ,we h se5 t he expressly decl>es ! analysis ( ^! pr9cipia to belong to ,fir/ ,philosophy4#fd ,& ?us x is t ,fir/ ,philosophy z conceiv$ by ,ari/otle1 ackn[l$ges among its fundam5ta ! habits ( common ,hell5ic spee*2 subject only to correction & control by ! ,sokratic cross-exam9+ & te/+ discipl9e4 ,he /&s di/+ui%$ among ! philosoph]s = ! respectful att5tion ) :i* he collects & builds ^u ! beliefs actually preval5t among mank9d4#fe ,h]e9 z well z 9 o!r respects 8 ,fir/ ,philosophy n only diff]$ f t ( all ! pre-,sokratic philosoph]s 7su* z ,h]akleitus1 ,p>m5ides1 ,anaxagoras1 c47 by expla9+ ! pr9cipia ( ,analytic & ,dialectic z well z ^? ( ,physics & ,physiology1 b x also diff]$ f t ( ! po/-,sokratic & semi-,sokratic ,plato1 by keep+ up a clos] communion bo? ) ,sokrates & ) common spee*4 ,?\gh ,plato 9 8 ,dialogues ( ,se>* appe>s to apply ! inductive discipl9e ( ,sokrates1 & to h&le ! ,univ]sal z ref]able to & dep5d5t ^u its p>ticul>s2 yet ! ,platonic ,philosophia ,prima proce$s ^u a view totally diff]5t4 ,x is a fusion ( ,p>m5ides ) ,h]akleitus2#ff divorc+ ! ,univ]sal altoge!r f its p>ticul>s2 treat+ ! ,univ]sal z an indep5d5t reality & z ! only p]man5t reality2 negat+ ! p>ticul>s z s _m unreal1 evanesc5t1 ev]-*ang+ copies or %ad[s !re(4 ,ari/otle expressly intimates 8 diss5t f ! divorce or sep>ation ?us introduc$ by ,plato4 ,he proclaims 8 adh]5ce to ! practice ( ,sokrates1 :i* kept ! two elem5ts toge!r1 & :i* cogniz$ p>ticul>s z ! ultimate reality & te/ = ! ,univ]sal4#fg ,^u ?is doctr9e 8 ,fir/ ,philosophy is built3 be+ di/+ui%$ h]eby f all ! o!r v>ieties broa*$ by ei!r 8 pr$ecessors or contempor>ies4 ,footnote #fd3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,g4 iii4 p4 #ajje1 a4 #ai-;b4 #aa4 ,footnote #fe3 ,see ,ari/ot4 ,de ,div9at4 p] ,somnum1 i4 p4 #dfb1 b4 #ae2 ,de ,coelo1 ,i4 iii4 p4 #bgj1 b4 #c1 #bj2 ,metaphys4 ,a4 ii4 p4 #ihb1 a4 #d-ad4 ,alex&] ap4 ,s*olia1 p4 #ebe1 b4 #cf1 ,br43 ,greek3 e7n pas9 e7_/?os a7ei tais ko9ais kai phusikais tn a7n?r_/pn prol_/pses9 a7r*ais ei7s ta deiknu_/m5a pros au7t\ *r/hai4 ,footnote #ff3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,a4 vi4 p4 #ihg1 a4 #cb2 ,m4 iv4 p4 #ajgh1 b4 #ab4 ,t ,plato's ,philosophia ,prima involv$ a p>tial co9cid5ce ) t ( ,h]akleitus is "h di/9ctly ann\nc$ by ,ari/otle3 t x also includ$ an intimate conjunction or fusion ( ,p>m5ides ) ,h]akleitus is made out 9 ! +5i\s ,diss]tation ( ,h]b>t1 ,de ,platonici ,sy/ematis ,fundam5to1 ,gtt+5 7#ahje71 :i* w9ds up ) ! foll[+ epigrammatic s5t5ce z result 7p4 #ej73--;,divide ,h]acliti ,greek3 ge_/nes9 ou7si_/a ,p>m5idis1 et habebis ,ideas ,platonicas4 ,comp>e ,plato1 ,republic ,,vii4 p4 #eae1 seq4 ,footnote #fg3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,m4 iv4 p4 #ajgh1 b4 #ag1 seq42 ix4 p4 #ajhf1 a4 #cg3 ,greek3 ta men ou7n e7n tois ai7/htois ka?' e7_/ka/a r7ein e7no_/mizon 7,platonici7 ,greek3 kai me_/ne9 ou7!n au7tn1 to de ka?o_/l\ p>a tauta ei7nai_/ te kai e7_/t]o_/n ti ei7nai4 t\to d'1 7_/sp] e7n tois e7_/mpro/h5 e7le_/gom51 e7ki_/nse men ,skra_/ts dia t\s o7rism\_/s1 ou7 mn e7*_/rise_/ ge tn ka?' e7_/ka/on4 kai t\to o7r?s e7no_/s5 ou7 *ri_/sas4 ,! ,maxim ( ,contradiction1 :i* ,ari/otle proclaims z ! fir/ & firme/ pr9cipium ( syllogiz+1 may be f\nd p]petually appli$ to p>ticul> cases ?r\gh\t ! ,memorabilia ( ,x5ophon & ! ,sokratic dialogues ( ,plato4 ,inde$ ! ,el5*us = :i* ,sokrates 0 s di/+ui%$1 is no?+ m ?an an ev]-r5ew$ & +5i\s application ( x2 illu/rat+ ! pa9ful & humiliat+ effect produc$ ev5 ^u common m9ds by ! %ock ( a pla9 contradiction1 :5 a respond5t1 hav+ at fir/ confid5tly laid d[n "s univ]sal affirmative1 f9ds himself unexpect$ly compell$ to admit1 9 "s p>ticul> case1 ! contradictory negative4 ,z aga9/ a ,h]akleitean1 :o saw no difficulty 9 believ+ bo? sides ( ! contradiction to be true at once1 ! ,sokratic ,el5*us w\ld h be5 p[]less4 ,:at ,ari/otle did 01 to ab/ract & elicit ! g5]al rules ( ! process2 to classify propositions accord+ to _! logical value1 9 su* mann] t he c\ld =mulate cle>ly ! /ructure ( ! two propositions betwe5 :i* an exact contradictory anti!ses subsi/$4 ,! important logical di/9ctions betwe5 propositions contradictory & propositions contr>y1 0 fir/ cle>ly enunciat$ by ,ari/otle2 &1 until ?is _h be5 done1 ! ,maxim ( ,contradiction c\ld n h be5 laid d[n 9 a def5sible mann]4 ,inde$ we may rem>k t1 :ile ?is ,maxim is fir/ promulgat$ z a =mula ( ,fir/ ,philosophy 9 ,book ,greek3 ,g4 ( ! ,metaphysica1 x _h already be5 tacitly assum$ & appli$ by ,ari/otle ?r\gh\t ! ,de ,int]pretatione1 ,analytica1 & ,topica1 z if x 7 obvi\s & unconte/$4 ,! ,fir/ ,philosophy ( ,ari/otle 0 adapt$ to ! conditions ( ord9>y colloquy z am5d$ & te/$ by ,sokrates1 furni%+ ! !oretical basis ( 8 practical ,logic4 ,b1 z ,ari/otle tells u1 !re 7 sev]al philosoph]s & dialecticians :o did n recognize ! ,maxim2 ma9ta9+ t ! same proposition might be at once true & false--t x 0 possible = ! same ?+ bo? to be & n to be4 ,h[ is he to deal ) ^! oppon5ts8 ,he admits t he _c demon/rate ! ,maxim aga9/ !m1 & t any attempt to d ?is w\ld involve ,petitio ,pr9cipii4 ,b he cont5ds = ! possibility ( demon/rat+ x 9 a peculi> way--refutatively or indirectly2 t is1 provid$ t ! oppon5ts c be induc$ to grant 7n inde$ ! tru? ( any proposition1 to ! exclusion ( its contradictory anti!sis1 :i* concession he admits w\ld involve ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 b7 ! fix$ & uni=m signification ( t]ms & propositions4 ,ari/otle cont5ds t ! oppon5ts ought to grant ?us mu*1 "u p5alty ( be+ exclud$ f discussion z incapables or m]e plants4#fh ,i d n imag9e t ! oppon5ts !mselves w\ld h felt oblig$ to grant z mu* z he "h dem&s4 ,! onus prob&i lay ^u him1 z advanc+ a positive !ory2 & he w\ld h f\nd 8 indirect or refutative demon/ration n m available 9 conv9c+ !m ?an a direct or ord9>y demon/ration4 ,aga9/ respond5ts :o proclaim z _! !sis ! negative ( ! ,maxim ( ,contradiction1 refutation & demon/ration are equally impossible4 ,no dialectical discussion c\ld ev] lead to any result2 = y c nev] prove m aga9/ !m ?an :at _! own !sis unequivocally av[s4#fi ,z aga9/ ,h]akleitus & ,anaxagoras1 ,i d n ?9k t ,ari/otle's qualifi$ v9dication ( ! ,maxim has any effective be>+4 ,footnote #fh3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,g4 iv4 p4 #ajjf1 a4 #aa1 seq4 ,footnote #fi3 ,ibid4 a4 #bf3 ,greek3 a7nairn gar lo_/gon u7pome_/nei lo_/gon4--p4 #ajjh1 a4 #cj4 ,b ,ari/otle is q "r 9 say+ t nei!r dialectical debate nor demon/ration c be c>ri$ on unless t]ms & propositions be def9$1 & unless to ea* t]m !re be assign$ "o special signification1 or a limit$ numb] ( special significations--exclud+ a c]ta9 numb] ( o!rs4 ,?is dem& = def9itions1 & also ! multipli$ use ( inductive int]rogations1 keep+ ! ,univ]sal implicat$ ) & dep5d5t ^u its p>ticul>s--are ! innovations :i* ,ari/otle expressly places to ! cr$it ( ,sokrates4 ,! ,sokratic ,el5*us op]at$ by fir/ obta9+ f ! respond5t a def9ition1 & !n te/+ x ?r\gh a v>iety ( p>ticul>s3 :5 ! te/ br\ght out a negative z aga9/ ! pre-ass]t$ affirmative1 ! contradiction betwe5 ! two 0 felt z an intellectual %ock by ! respond5t1 r5d]+ x impossible to believe bo? at once2 & ! unrivall$ acut5ess ( ,sokrates 0 exhibit$ 9 r5d]+ su* %ock peculi>ly pung5t & humiliat+4 ,b ! ,sokratic ,el5*us presupposes ?is psy*ological fact1 common to mo/ m9ds1 ord9>y z well z sup]ior1--! intellectual %ock felt :5 incompatible beliefs are pres5t$ to ! m9d at once4 ,if ! collocutors ( ,sokrates _h n be5 s con/itut$ by nature1 ! magic ( 8 colloquy w\ld h be5 unfelt & inop]ative4 ,aga9/ a ,h]akleitean1 :o pr(ess$ to feel no difficulty 9 believ+ bo? sides ( a contradiction at once1 he c\ld h effect$ no?+3 & if n he1 /ill less any o!r dialectician4 ,pro( & dispro(1 z di/+ui%$ "o f ! o!r1 w\ld h _h no mean+2 dialectical debate w\ld h l$ to no result4 ,?us1 !n1 al?\gh ,ari/otle 0 ! fir/ to enunciate ! ,maxim ( ,contradiction 9 g5]al t]ms1 aft] hav+ previ\sly orig9at$ t logical di/9ction ( contr>y & contradictory ,propositions & doctr9e ( legitimate ,antiphasis :i* r5d]$ su* enunciation possible1--yet1 :5 he tries to uphold x aga9/ diss5ti5ts1 x _c be said t he has correctly e/imat$ ! logical position ( ^? :om he 0 oppos+1 or ! real ext5t to :i* ! def5ce ( ! ,maxim c be c>ri$ )\t incurr+ ! *>ge ( ,petitio ,pr9cipii4 ,z aga9/ ,protagoras1 no def5ce 0 ne$$1 = ! ,protagorean ,homo ,m5sura is n incompatible ) ! ,maxim ( ,contradiction2 :ile1 z aga9/ ,h]akleitus1 ,anaxagoras1 ,p>m5ides1 c41 no def5ce 0 practicable1 & ! attempt ( ,ari/otle to con/ruct "o appe>s to me a failure4 ,all t c be really done 9 ! way ( def5ce is1 to prove ! ,maxim 9 its g5]al enunciation by an appeal to p>ticul> cases3 if y\r oppon5t is will+ to grant ^! p>ticul> cases1 y e/abli% ! g5]al ,maxim aga9/ him by way ( ,induction2 if he w n grant !m1 y _c prove ! g5]al ,maxim at all4 ,suppose y are attempt+ to prove to an ,h]akleitean t an univ]sal affirmative & its contradictory p>ticul> negative _c be bo? true at once4 ,y beg9 by ask+ him ab\t p>ticul> cases1 ,:e!r x is possible t ! two propositions--,all m5 are mortal1 &1 ,"s m5 are n mortal--c bo? be true at once8 ,if he admits t ^! two propositions _c bo? be true at once1 if he admits ! l ) reg>d to o!r simil> pairs ( contradictories1 & if he c sugge/ no simil> pair 9 :i* bo? propositions are true at once1 !n y may consid] y\rself z hav+ furni%$ a suffici5t inductive pro(1 & y may call ^u him to admit ! ,maxim ( ,contradiction 9 its g5]al enunciation4 ,b1 if he w n admit x 9 ! p>ticul> cases :i* y t5d]1 or if1 :ile admitt+ x 9 ^!1 he himself c t5d] o!r cases 9 :i* he consid]s x inadmissible1 !n y h effect$ no?+ suffici5t to e/abli% ! g5]al ,maxim aga9/ him4 ,! case is n susceptible ( any o!r or bett] pro(4 ,x is 9 va9 t ,ari/otle tries to div]sify ! absurdity1 & to foll[ x out into collat]al absurd consequ5ces4 ,if ! ,h]akleitean does n feel any repulsive %ock ( contradiction 9 a def9ite p>ticul> case1 if he directly ann\nces t he believes ! two propositions to be bo? at once true1 !n ! collat]al inconsi/5cies & d]ivative absurdities1 :i* ,ari/otle multiplies aga9/ him1 w n %ock him m ?an ! direct contradiction 9 its nak$ =m4 ,nei!r ! g5]al reason+ ( ,ari/otle1 nor ! ,el5*us ( ,sokrates br\ght to be> 9 p>ticul> cases1 w\ld make any impression ^u him2 s9ce he w n comply ) ei!r ( ! two conditions requir$ = ! ,sokratic ,el5*us3 he w nei!r decl>e def9itions1 nor give suitable po9t & sequ5ce to inductive int]rogatories4 ,nor is any?+ ga9$1 z ,ari/otle supposes1 by rem9d+ ! ,h]akleitean ( 8 own practice 9 ! daily conc]ns ( life & 9 conv]sation ) common p]sons3 t he fe$s himself ) bread to-day1 9 ! confid5ce t x has ! same prop]ties z x _h ye/]day2#gj t1 if he wi%es ei!r to give or to obta9 in=mation1 ! spee* :i* he utt]s or t :i* he acts ^u mu/ be ei!r affirmative or negative4 ,he w admit t he acts 9 ?is way1 b he w tell y t he has no c]ta9ty ( be+ "r2 t ! negative may be true z well z ! affirmative4 ,he w grant t !re is an inconsi/5cy betwe5 su* acts ( detail & ! pr9ciples ( ! ,h]akleitean doctr9e1 :i* recognize no real /ability ( any ?+1 b only p]petual flux or process2 b inconsi/5cy 9 detail w n induce him to set aside 8 pr9ciples4 ,! tru? is1 t nei!r ,h]akleitus1 nor ,p>m5ides1 nor ,anaxagoras1 nor ,py?agoras1 gave !mselves mu* tr\ble to reconcile ,philosophy ) facts ( detail4 ,ea* fa/5$ ^u "s gr& & impressive prim>y hypo!sis1 illu/rat$ x by a few obvi\s facts 9 h>mony !re)1 & disreg>d$ altoge!r ! mass ( contradictory facts4 ,t a fav\rite hypo!sis %\ld contradict physical details1 0 n[ay %ock+ to !m4 ,bo? ! pa9ful feel+ accompany+ t %ock1 & ! disposition to te/ ! value ( ! hypo!sis by its consi/5cy ) inductive details1 became fir/ develop$ & att5d$ to 9 ! dialectical age1 ma9ly ?r\gh ! work+ ( ,sokrates4 ,! ,analytic & ! ,fir/ ,philosophy ( ,ari/otle 7 con/ruct$ aft] ! "t ( ,sokrates1 & ) reg>d1 9 a v great degree1 to ! ,sokratic te/s & conditions--to ! indisp5sable necessity = def9ite subjects & pr$icates1 capable ( /&+ ! inductive scrut9y ( p>ticul>s4 ,9 ?is respect ! ,philosophia ,prima ( ,ari/otle /&s di/+ui%$ f t ( any ( ! e>li] philosoph]s1 & ev5 f t ( ,plato4 ,he dep>t$ f ,plato by recogniz+ ! ,hoc ,aliquid or ! def9ite ,individual1 ) its ess5tial ,pr$icates1 z ! f\ndation ( ! ,univ]sal1 & by apply+ 8 analytical factors ( ,=m & ,matt] to ! intellectual g5]ation ( ! ,individual 7,greek3 to su_/nolon--to sunampho_/t]on72 & ?us he devis$ a ,fir/ ,philosophy con=mable to ! habits ( common spee* z rectifi$ by ! critical scrut9y ( ,sokrates4 ,we %all see ?is 9 ! next ,*apt]4 99 99 99 99 ,footnote #gj3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,k4 vi4 p4 #ajfc1 a4 #ca4 ,! ,au?or's ,,ms4 breaks (f "h4 ,:at foll[s on ! next page1 z ,*apt] ,,xii1 is ! exposition ( ,ari/otle's ,psy*ology1 orig9ally contribut$ to ! ?ird edition ( ,pr(essor ,ba9's "w ',! ,s5ses & ! ,intellect1' 9 #ahfh4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,de ,,anim1 ,,etc4 ,to und]/& ,ari/otle's ,psy*ology1 we mu/ look at x 9 comp>ison ) ! views ( o!r anci5t ,greek philosoph]s on ! same subject1 z f> z our k w p]mit4 ,( ^! anci5t philosoph]s1 none h be5 pres]v$ to u except ,plato1 & to a c]ta9 ext5t ,epikurus1 reckon+ ! poem ( ,lucretius z a complem5t to ! epi/ol>y remnants ( ,epikurus himself4 ,! pr$ecessors ( ,ari/otle 7ap>t f ,plato7 are kn[n only ?r\gh small fragm5ts f !mselves1 & imp]fect notices by o!rs2 among :i* notices ! be/ are f ,ari/otle himself4 ,9 ! ,timu ( ,plato we f9d ,psy*ology1 9 a v l>ge & compreh5sive s5se1 id5tifi$ ) ,kosmology4 ,! ,kosmos1 a s*eme ( rotatory sph]es1 has bo? a s\l & a body3 ( ! two1 ! s\l is ! prior1 gr&]1 & pr$om9ant1 ?\gh bo? ( !m are con/ruct$ or put toge!r by ! ,div9e ,ar*itect or ,demiurgus4 ,! kosmical s\l1 root$ at ! c5tre1 & /ret*$ f !nce ?r\gh & ar\nd ! :ole1 is endu$ ) self-movem5t1 & ) ! p[] ( initiat+ movem5t 9 ! kosmical body2 moreov]1 be+ cognitive z well z motive1 x includes 9 itself ?ree +r$i5ts mix$ toge!r3--7#a7 ,! ,same--! indivisible & un*angeable ess5ce ( ,ideas2 7#b7 ,! ,div]se--! ,plural--! divisible bodies or elem5ts2 7#c7 ,a ,comp\nd1 =m$ ( bo? ^! +r$i5ts melt$ into "o4 ,z ! kosmical s\l is int5d$ to "k all ! ?ree--,idem1 ,div]sum1 & ,idem ) ,div]sum 9 "o1 s x mu/ comprise 9 its own nature all ! ?ree +r$i5ts1 accord+ to ! receiv$ ,axiom--,l kn[s l--,l is kn[n by ,l4 ,! +r$i5ts are bl5d$ toge!r accord+ to a scale ( h>monic proportion4 ,! elem5t ,idem is plac$ 9 an ev5 & undivid$ rotation ( ! out] or sid]eal sph]e ( ! ,kosmos2 ! elem5t ,div]sum is di/ribut$ among ! rotations1 all oblique1 ( ! sev5 int]ior planet>y sph]es1 t is1 ! five planets1 ) ! ,sun & ,moon4 ,impressions ( id5tity & div]sity1 d]iv$ ei!r f ! ideal & indivisible1 or f ! s5sible & divisible1 are ?us circulat$ by ! kosmical s\l ?r\gh\t its own entire range1 yet )\t ei!r voice or s\nd4 ,reason & ,sci5ce are propagat$ by ! circle ( ,idem3 ,s5se & ,op9ion1 by ^? ( ,div]sum4 ,:5 ^! la/-m5tion$ circles are 9 "r movem5t1 ! op9ions circulat$ are true & tru/wor?y4#a ,footnote #a3 ,see ?is doctr9e ( ! ,timu m fully exp\nd$ 9 ',plato & ! ,o!r ,companions ( ,sokrates1' ,,iii4 xxxvi4 pp4 #bej-bef1 seq4 ,x is ?us t ,plato beg9s 8 ,psy*ology ) ,kosmology3 ! ,kosmos is 9 8 view a div9e immortal be+ or animal1 compos$ ( a sph]ical rotatory body & a rational s\l1 cognitive z well z motive4 ,among ! t5ants ( ?is ,kosmos are includ$1 n only gods1 :o dwell 9 ! p]iph]al or cele/ial regions1 b also m51 birds1 quadrup$s1 & fi%es4 ,^! f\r inhabit ! m c5tral or l[] regions ( air1 e>?1 & wat]4 ,9 describ+ m5 & ! inf]ior animals1 ,plato takes 8 dep>ture f ! div9e ,kosmos1 & proce$s d[nw>ds by successive /ages ( increas+ deg5]acy & corruption4 ,! cranium ( man 0 con/ruct$ z a little ,kosmos1 includ+ 9 itself an immortal rational s\l1 compos$ ( ! same mat]ials1 ?\gh dilut$ & adult]at$1 z ! kosmical s\l2 & mov+ ) ! l rotations1 ?\gh di/urb$ & irregul>1 suit$ to a rational s\l4 ,?is cranium1 = wise purposes :i* ,plato indicates1 0 elevat$ by ! gods ^u a tall body1 ) atta*$ limbs = motion 9 diff]5t directions--=w>d1 backw>d1 upw>d1 d[nw>d1 to ! "r & left4#b ,)9 ?is body 7 includ$ two inf]ior & mortal s\ls3 "o 9 ! ?oracic region ne> ! he>t1 ! o!r l[] d[n1 bel[ ! diaphragm1 9 ! abdom9al region2 b bo? ( !m fa/5$ or root$ 9 ! sp9al m>r[ or cord1 :i* =m$ a cont9u\s l9e ) ! bra9 above4 ,^! two s\ls 7 bo? emotional2 ! high] or ?oracic s\l be+ ! seat ( c\rage1 en]gy1 ang]1 c41 :ile to ! l[] or abdom9al s\l belong$ appetite1 desires1 love ( ga91 c4 ,bo? ( !m 7 int5d$ z companions & adjuncts1 yet 9 ! relation ( dep5d5ce & ob$i5ce1 to ! rational s\l 9 ! cranium above2 :i*1 ?\gh unavoidably debas$ & p]turb$ by su* unwor?y companion%ip1 0 protect$ p>tially aga9/ ! contagion by ! diff]5ce ( location1 ! neck be+ built up z an i/hmus ( sep>ation betwe5 ! two4 ,! ?oracic s\l1 ! seat ( c\rage1 0 plac$ ne>] to ! head1 9 ord] t x might be ! m$ium = transmitt+ influ5ce f ! cranial s\l above1 to ! abdom9al s\l bel[2 :i* la/ 0 at once ! lea/ wor?y & ! mo/ difficult to control4 ,! he>t1 be+ ! initial po9t ( ! ve9s1 receiv$ ! ord]s & inspirations ( ! cranial s\l1 transmitt+ !m onw>d ?r\gh its _m blood-*annels to all ! s5sitive p>ts ( ! body2 :i* 7 ?us r5d]$ ob$i5t1 z f> z possible1 to ! au?ority ( man's rational nature4#c ,! unity or communication ( ! ?ree s\ls 0 kept up ?r\gh ! cont9uity ( ! c]ebro-sp9al column4 ,footnote #b3 ,plato1 ,timu1 p4 #dd1 ,e42 ',plato & ,o!r ,comp4 ( ,sokr4'1 ,,iii4 xxxvi4 p4 #bfd4 ,footnote #c3 ,plato1 ,timu1 p4 #gj2 ',plato & ,o!r ,comp4 ( ,sokr4'1 ,,iii4 pp4 #bga-bgb4 ,b1 ?\gh by ^! arrangem5ts ! high] s\l 9 ! cranium 0 enabl$ to control to a c]ta9 ext5t its inf]ior allies1 x 0 itself mu* di/urb$ & contam9at$ by _! reaction4 ,! viol5ce ( passion & appetite1 ! con/ant processes ( nutrition & s5sation p]vad+ ! :ole body1 ! multif>i\s movem5ts ( ! limbs & trunk1 9 all v>ieties ( direction1--^! causes all contribut$ to agitate & to confuse ! rotations ( ! cranial s\l1 p]v]t+ ! ari?metical proportions & h>mony belong+ to !m4 ,! circles ( ,same & ,div]se 7 made to convey false in=mation2 & ! s\l1 = "s "t aft] its fir/ junction ) ! body1 became de/itute ( intellig5ce4#d ,9 mature life1 inde$1 ! viol5ce ( ! di/urb+ causes abates1 & ! man may become m & m intellig5t1 especially if plac$ "u appropriate tra9+ & education4 ,b 9 _m cases no su* improvem5t took place1 & ! rational s\l ( man 0 irrecov]ably spoil$2 s t new & worse bre$s 7 =m$1 by successive /eps ( deg5]acy4 ,! fir/ /age1 & ! lea/ am\nt ( deg5]acy1 0 exhibit$ 9 ! =mation ( woman2 ! orig9al type ( man n hav+ includ$ div]sity ( sex4 ,by f>!r /eps ( degradation1 9 diff]5t ways1 ! inf]ior animals 7 =m$--birds1 quadrup$s1 & fi%es4#e ,9 ea* ( ^!1 ! rational s\l became weak] & worse2 its circul> rotations ceas$ ) ! disappe>ance ( ! sph]ical cranium1 & animal appetites ) s5sational agitations 7 left )\t control4 ,z man1 ) 8 two emotional s\ls & body jo9$ on to ! rational s\l & cranium1 0 a debas$ copy ( ! p]fect rational s\l & 9999sph]ical body ( ! div9e ,kosmos1 s ! o!r inhabitants ( ! ,kosmos proce$$ f /ill f>!r debasem5t & disrationalization ( ! orig9al type ( man4 ,footnote #d3 ,plato1 ,timu1 pp4 #dc-dd2 ',plato & ,o!r ,comp4 ( ,sokr4'1 ,,iii4 pp4 #bfb-bfd4 ,footnote #e3 ,plato1 ,timu1 p4 #ia2 ',plato & ,o!r ,comp4 ( ,sokr4'1 pp4 #bha-bhb4 ,su* is ! view ( ,psy*ology giv5 by ,plato 9 ! ,timu2 beg9n+ ) ! div9e ,kosmos1 & pass+ d[nw>ds f !nce to ! triple s\l ( man1 z well z to ! v>i\s /ill l[] successors ( deg5]at$ man4 ,x is to be rem>k$ t ,plato1 ?\gh he puts s\l z prior to body 9 dignity & p[]1 & z hav+ = its functions to control & move body1 yet always conceives s\l z atta*$ to body1 & nev] z altoge!r deta*$1 n ev5 9 ! div9e ,kosmos4 ,! s\l1 9 ,plato's view1 is self-mov+ & self-mov$3 x is bo? ,primum ,mobile 9 itself1 & ,primum ,mov5s z to ! body2 x has itself ! corporeal prop]ties ( be+ ext5d$ & mov$1 & x has body implicat$ ) x besides4 ,! !ory above describ$1 9 s f> z x attributes to ! s\l rational con/itu5t elem5ts 7,idem1 ,div]sum71 cont9u\s magnitude1 & circul> rotations1 0 peculi> to ,plato1 & is criticiz$ by ,ari/otle z ! peculi>ity ( 8 ma/]4#f ,b sev]al o!r philosoph]s agre$ ) ,plato 9 consid]+ self-motion1 toge!r ) motive causality & faculties p]ceptive & cognitive1 to be ess5tial *>act]i/ics ( s\l4 ,alkmon decl>$ ! s\l to be 9 p]petual motion1 l all ! cele/ial bodies2 h5ce x 0 also immortal1 z !y 74#g ,h]akleitus describ$ x z ! subtle/ ( elem5ts1 & z p]petually flu5t2 h5ce x 0 enabl$ to "k o!r ?+s1 all ( :i* 7 9 flux & *ange4 ,diog5es ( ,apollonia affirm$ t ! elem5t con/itu5t ( s\l 0 air1 at once mobile1 all-p5etrat+1 & intellig5t4 ,demokritus decl>$ t among ! inf9ite div]sity ( atoms ^? ( sph]ical figure 7 ! con/itu5ts bo? ( ! elem5t fire & ( ! s\l3 ! sph]ical atoms 7 by reason ( _! figure ! mo/ apt & rapid 9 mov+2 x 0 _! nature nev] to be at re/1 & !y imp>t$ motion to ev]y?+ else4#h ,anaxagoras affirm$ s\l to be radically & ess5tially di/9ct f e ?+ else1 b to be ! great prim>y s\rce ( motion1 & to be endu$ ) cognitive p[]1 ?\gh at ! same "t n suff]+ impressions f )\t4#i ,emp$okles consid]$ s\l to be a comp\nd ( ! f\r elem5ts--fire1 wat]1 air1 e>?2 ) love & hatr$ z pr9ciples ( motion1 ! =m] produc+ aggregation ( elem5ts1 ! latt]1 disgregation3 by means ( ea* elem5t ! s\l became cognizant ( ! l elem5t 9 ! ,kosmos4 ,"s ,py?agoreans look$ ^u ! s\l z an aggregate ( p>ticles ( extreme subtlety1 :i* p]vad$ ! air & 7 9 p]petual agitation4 ,o!r ,py?agoreans1 h[ev]1 decl>$ x to be an h>moni\s or proportional mixture ( contr>y elem5ts & qualities2 h5ce its univ]sality ( cognition1 ext5d+ to all4#aj ,footnote #f3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,i4 iii4 p4 #djg1 a4 #b4 ,footnote #g3 ,ibid4 ii4 p4 #dje1 a4 #bi4 ,footnote #h3 ,ibid4 p4 #djd1 a4 #h2 p4 #dje1 a4 #bb2 p4 #djf1 b4 #ag4 ,footnote #i3 ,ibid4 p4 #dje1 a4 #ac1 b4 #ai4 ,footnote #aj3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,i4 ii4 p4 #djd1 a4 #af2 p4 #djg1 b4 #bg4 ,a peculi> !ory 0 deliv]$ by ,x5okrates 7:o1 hav+ be5 fell[-pupil ) ,ari/otle "u ,plato1 aft]w>ds conduct$ ! ,platonic ,s*ool1 dur+ all ! "t t ,ari/otle taught at ! ,lykeium71 :i* ,ari/otle decl>es to involve great] difficulty ?an any ( ! o!rs4 ,x5okrates describ$ ! s\l z a numb] 7a monad or indivisible unit7 mov+ itself4#aa ,he reta9$ ! self-mov+ prop]ty :i* ,plato _h decl>$ to be *>act]i/ic ( ! s\l1 :ile he dep>t$ f ,plato's doctr9e ( a s\l ) cont9u\s ext5sion4 ,he ?us fell back ^u ! ,py?agorean idea ( numb] z ! fundam5tal ess5ce4 ,ari/otle impugns1 z alike unt5able1 bo? ! two prop]ties "h alleg$--numb] & self-motion4 ,if ! monad bo? moves & is mov$ 7he argues71 x _c be indivisible2 if x be mov$1 x mu/ h position1 or mu/ be a po9t2 b ! motion ( a po9t is a l9e1 )\t any ( t v>iety t con/itutes life4 ,h[ c ! s\l be a monad8 or1 if x be1 :at diff]5ce c exi/ betwe5 "o s\l & ano!r1 s9ce monads _c diff] f ea* o!r except 9 position8 ,h[ comes x t "s bodies h s\ls & o!rs n8 & h[1 ^u ?is !ory1 c we expla9 ! fact t _m animat$ bodies1 bo? plants & animals1 w rema9 alive aft] be+ divid$1 ! monadic s\l ?us exhibit+ itself z _m & div]se8 ,besides1 ! monad set up by ,x5okrates is h>dly di/+ui%able f ! highly att5uat$ body or sph]ical atom recogniz$ by ,demokritus z ! orig9 or beg9n+ ( bodily motion4#ab ,footnote #aa3 ,ibid4 iv4 p4 #djh1 b4 #cb4 ,footnote #ab3 ,ibid4 p4 #dji1 b4 #ab4 ,^! & o!r argum5ts are employ$ by ,ari/otle to refute ! !ory ( ,x5okrates4 ,9 fact1 he rejects all ! !ories !n curr5t4 ,aft] hav+ dismiss$ ! self-motor doctr9e1 he proce$s to impugn ! views ( ^? :o decl>$ ! s\l to be a comp\nd ( all ! f\r elem5ts1 9 ord] t !y might acc\nt = its p]cipi5t & cognitive faculties ^u ! maxim !n v g5]ally admitt$#ac--,t l is p]ceiv$ & kn[n by l4 ,?is !ory1 ! pr9cipal *ampion ( :i* 0 ,emp$okles1 appe>s to ,ari/otle inadmissible4 ,y say 7he rem>ks7 t l kn[s l2 h[ does ?is consi/ ) y\r o!r doctr9e1 t l _c act ^u1 or suff] f1 l1 especially z y consid] t bo? 9 p]ception & 9 cognition ! p]cipi5t & cognizant suff]s or is act$ ^u8#ad ,v>i\s p>ts ( ! cognizant subject1 su* z bone1 hair1 ligam5ts1 c41 are de/itute ( p]ception & cognition2 h[ !n c we "k any?+ ab\t bone1 hair1 & ligam5ts1 s9ce we _c "k !m by l8#ae ,suppose ! s\l to be comp\nd$ ( all ! f\r elem5ts2 ?is may expla9 h[ x comes to "k ! f\r elem5ts1 !mselves1 b n h[ x comes to "k all ! comb9ations ( ! f\r2 n[ innum]able comb9ations ( ! f\r are compris$ among ! cognita4 ,we mu/ assume t ! s\l conta9s 9 itself n m]ely ! f\r elem5ts1 b also ! laws or def9ite proportions :]e9 !y c comb9e2 & ?is is affirm$ by no "o4#af ,moreov]1 ,ens is an equivocal1 or at lea/ a multivocal1 t]m2 !re are ,entia belong+ to ea* ( ! t5 ,categories4 ,n[ ! s\l _c include 9 itself all ! t51 = ! diff]5t ,categories h no elem5ts 9 common2 9 :i*ev] ,category y rank ! s\l1 x w "k 7by virtue ( lik5ess7 ! cognita belong+ to t category1 b x w n "k ! cognita belong+ to ! o!r n9e4#ag ,besides1 ev5 if we grant t ! s\l includes all ! f\r elem5ts1 :]e is ! cem5t+ pr9ciple t comb9es all ! f\r into "o8 ,! elem5ts are m]ely matt]2 & :at holds !m toge!r mu/ be ! really pot5t pr9ciple ( s\l2 b ( ?is no explanation is giv54#ah ,footnote #ac3 ,ibid4 v4 p4 #dji1 b4 #bi4 ,footnote #ad3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,i4 v4 p4 #daj1 a4 #be4 ,footnote #ae3 ,ibid4 a4 #cj4 ,footnote #af3 ,ibid4 p4 #dji1 b4 #bh2 p4 #daj1 a4 #ab4 ,footnote #ag3 ,ibid4 p4 #daj1 a4 #bj4 ,footnote #ah3 ,ibid4 p4 #daj1 b4 #aj4 ,"s philosoph]s h assum$ 7cont9ues ,ari/otle7 t s\l p]vades ! :ole ,kosmos & its elem5ts2 & t x is inhal$ by animals 9 respiration along ) ! air4#ai ,!y =get t all plants1 & ev5 "s animals1 live )\t respir+ at all2 moreov]1 ^u ?is !ory1 air & fire also1 z possess+ s\l1 & :at is said to be a bett] s\l1 ought 7if ! phrase 7 p]mitt$7 to be reg>d$ z animals4 ,! s\l ( air or fire mu/ be homog5e\s 9 its p>ts2 ! s\ls ( animals are n homog5e\s1 b involve sev]al di/9ct p>ts or functions4#bj ,! s\l p]ceives1 cogitates1 op9es1 feels1 desires1 repudiates2 f>!r1 x moves ! body locally1 & br+s ab\t ! gr[? & decay ( ! body4 ,"h we h a new my/]y3#ba--;,is ! :ole s\l engag$ 9 ! p]=mance ( ea* ( ^! functions1 or has x a sep>ate "p exclusively consecrat$ to ea*8 ,if s1 h[ _m are ! p>ts8 ,"s philosoph]s 7,plato among !m7 decl>e ! s\l to be divid$1 & t "o "p cogitates & cognizes1 :ile ano!r "p desires4 ,b ^u t supposition :at is x t holds ^! diff]5t p>ts toge!r8 ,c]ta9ly n ! body 7:i* is ,plato's !ory72 on ! contr>y1 x is ! s\l t holds toge!r ! body2 =1 z soon z ! s\l is gone1 ! body rots & disappe>s4#bb ,if !re be any?+ t keeps toge!r ! div]s p>ts ( ! s\l z "o1 t some?+ mu/ be ! true & fundam5tal s\l2 & we ought n to speak ( ! s\l z hav+ p>ts1 b z ess5tially "o & indivisible1 ) sev]al di/9ct faculties4 ,aga91 if we are to admit p>ts ( ! s\l1 does ea* "p hold toge!r a special "p ( ! body1 z ! entire s\l holds toge!r ! entire body8 ,?is seems impossible2 = :at "p ( ! body c ! ,nos or ,intellect 7e4g47 be imag9$ to hold toge!r8 ,&1 besides1 sev]al k9ds ( plants & ( animals may be divid$1 yet s t ea* ( ! sep>ate p>ts %all /ill cont9ue to live2 h5ce x is pla9 t ! s\l 9 ea* sep>ate "p is complete & homog5e\s4#bc ,footnote #ai3 ,ibid4 ii4 p4 #djd1 a4 #i3 ,greek3 t\ zn o7_/ron ei7nai tn a7napno_/n1 c4 ,comp>e ! doctr9e ( ,demokritus4 ,footnote #bj3 ,ibid4 v4 p4 #daa1 a4 #a1 #h1 #af4 ,footnote #ba3 ,ibid4 a4 #cj4 ,footnote #bb3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,i4 v4 p4 #daa1 b4 #h4 ,footnote #bc3 ,ibid4 b4 #ae-bg4 ,ari/otle ?us rejects all ! !ories propos$ by antec$5t philosoph]s1 b m especially ! two foll[+3--,t ! s\l d]ives its cognitive p[]s f ! fact ( be+ comp\nd$ ( ! f\r elem5ts2 ,t ! s\l is self-mov$4 ,he pron\nces x incorrect to say t ! s\l is mov$ at all4#bd ,he f>!r obs]ves t none ( ! philosoph]s h kept 9 view ei!r ! full mean+ or all ! v>ieties ( s\l2 & t none ( ^! defective !ories suffices = ! purpose t e good & suffici5t !ory ought to s]ve1 viz41 n m]ely to def9e ! ess5ce ( ! s\l1 b also to def9e x 9 su* a mann] t ! concomitant functions & affections ( ! s\l %all all be d$ucible f x4#be ,la/ly1 he po9ts out t mo/ ( 8 pr$ecessors _h consid]$ t ! prom95t *>act]i/ics ( s\l 7--to be motive & to be p]cipi5t3#bf :ile1 9 8 op9ion1 nei!r ( ^! two *>act]i/ics is univ]sal or fundam5tal4 ,footnote #bd3 ,ibid4 a4 #be4 ,footnote #be3 ,ibid4 i4 p4 #djb1 b4 #af1 seq42 v4 p4 #dji1 b4 #ae4 ,footnote #bf3 ,ibid4 ii4 p4 #djc1 b4 #cj4 ,ari/otle requires t a good !ory ( ! s\l %all expla9 alike ! l[e/ vegetable s\l1 & ! highe/ functions ( ! human or div9e s\l4 ,&1 9 comm5t+ on ^? !ori/s :o decl>$ t ! ess5ce ( s\l consi/$ 9 movem5t1 he rem>ks t _! !ory fails altoge!r 9 reg>d to ! ,nos 7or cogitative & intellective faculty ( ! human s\l72 ! op]ation ( :i* be>s f> great] analogy to re/ or susp5sion ( movem5t ?an to movem5t itself4#bg ,footnote #bg3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,i4 iii4 p4 #djg1 a4 #cb3 ,greek3 e7_/ti d' 7 no_/sis e7_/oik5 7rem_/sei t9i 7 e7pi/a_/sei mallon 7 k9_/sei4 ,we %all n[ proce$ to /ate h[ ,ari/otle /e]s cle> 7or at lea/ believes himself to /e] cle>7 ( ! defects t he has po9t$ out 9 ! psy*ological !ories ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,in/ead ( go+ back 7l ,emp$okles1 ,plato1 & o!rs7 to a "t :5 ! ,kosmos did n yet exi/1 & giv+ u an hypo!sis to expla9 h[ its p>ts came toge!r or 7 put toge!r1 he takes ! facts & objects ( ! ,kosmos z !y /&1 & di/ributes !m accord+ to di/9ctive m>ks alike obvi\s1 fundam5tal1 & p]vad+2 aft] :i* he seeks a mode ( explanation 9 ! pr9ciples ( 8 own ,fir/ ,philosophy or ,ontology4 ,:oev] _h /udi$ ! ,organon & ! ,physica ( ,ari/otle 7app>5tly int5d$ to be read prior to ! treatise ,de ,anim7 w\ld be famili> ) 8 di/ribution ( ,entia into t5 ,categories1 ( :i* ,ess5ce or ,sub/ance 0 ! fir/ & ! fundam5tal4 ,( ^! ,ess5ces or ,sub/ances ! 9999mo/ complete & recogniz$ 7 physical or natural bodies2 & among su* bodies "o ( ! mo/ /rik+ di/9ctions1 0 betwe5 ^? t _h life & ^? t _h x n4 ,by life1 ,ari/otle means keep+ up ! processes ( nutrition1 gr[?1 & decay4#bh ,footnote #bh3 ,ibid4 ,,ii i4 p4 #dab1 a4 #aa3 ,greek3 ou7si_/ai de ma_/li/' ei7nai dok\si ta s_/mata1 kai t\_/tn ta phusika_/2 tn de phusikn ta men e7_/*ei z_/n1 ta d' ou7k e7_/*ei2 zn de le_/g1 tn di' au7t\ trophn kai au7_/xs9 kai ph?i_/s94 ,to live 7,ari/otle obs]ves7 is a t]m us$ 9 sev]al diff]5t mean+s2 :atev] possesses any "o ( ! foll[+ f\r prop]ties is said to live3#bi 7#a7 ,intellect1 7#b7 ,s5sible p]ception1 7#c7 ,local movem5t & re/1 7#d7 ,int]nal movem5t ( nutrition1 gr[?1 & decay4 ,b ( ^! f\r ! la/ is ! only "o common to all liv+ bodies )\t exception2 x is ! f\ndation presuppos$ by ! o!r ?ree4 ,x is ! only "o possess$ by plants1#cj & common to all plants z well z to all animals--to all animat$ bodies4 ,footnote #bi3 ,ibid4 ii4 p4 #dac1 a4 #bb3 ,greek3 pleona*s de t\ zn legome_/n\1 ka7n e7_/n ti t\_/tn e7nupa_/r* mo_/non1 zn au7to_/ pham51 c4 ,footnote #cj3 ,ibid4 ,i4 v4 p4 #daa1 b4 #bg1 ad f94 ,:at is ! animat+ pr9ciple belong+ to ea* ( ^! bodies1 & :at is ! mo/ g5]al def9ition ( x8 ,su* is ! problem t ,ari/otle /ates to himself ab\t ! s\l4#ca ,he expla9s x by a metaphysical di/9ction fir/ introduc$ 7app>5tly7 by himself into ,philosophia ,prima4 ,he consid]s ,sub/ance or ,ess5ce z an ideal comp\nd2 n simply z clo!d ) all ! accid5ts describ$ 9 ! n9e la/ ,categories1 b also z be+ analysable 9 itself1 ev5 ap>t f ^! accid5ts1 into two ab/ract1 logical1 or notional elem5ts or pr9cipia--,=m & ,matt]4 ,?is di/9ction is borr[$ f ! mo/ famili> facts ( ! s5sible _w--! %ape ( solid objects4 ,:5 we see or feel a cube ( wax1 we di/+ui% ! cubic %ape f ! wax5 mat]ial2#cb we may f9d ! l %ape 9 _m o!r mat]ials--wood1 /one1 c42 we may f9d ! l mat]ial 9 _m diff]5t %apes--sph]e1 pyramid1 c42 b ! matt] has always "s %ape1 & ! %ape has always "s matt]4 ,we c "n & reason ab\t ! matt]1 )\t att5d+ to ! %ape1 or di/+ui%+ :e!r x be cube or sph]e2 we c "n & reason ab\t ! %ape1 )\t att5d+ to ! mat]ial %ap$1 or to any ( its v>i\s peculi>ities4 ,b ?is1 ?\gh highly useful1 is a m]e ab/raction or notional di/9ction4 ,!re c be no real sep>ation betwe5 ! two3 no %ape )\t "s solid mat]ial2 no solid mat]ial )\t "s %ape4 ,! two are correlates2 ea* ( !m imply+ ! o!r1 & nei!r ( !m admitt+ ( be+ realiz$ or actualiz$ )\t ! o!r4 ,footnote #ca3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 p4 #dac1 b4 #aa3 ,greek3 7 psu* tn ei7rme_/nn t\_/tn a7r*_/4--,ibid4 ,i4 p4 #dab1 a4 #e3 ,greek3 ti_/s a7n ei7_/ ko9o_/tatos lo_/gos au7ts4 ,footnote #cb3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 i4 p4 #dab1 b4 #g3 ,greek3 ton kron kai to s*ma4 ,?is di/9ction ( ,=m & ,matt] is "o ( ! capital features ( ,ari/otle's ,philosophia ,prima4 ,he exp&s x & div]sifies x 9 a ?\s& ways1 (t5 ) subtleties v difficult to foll[2 b ! fundam5tal import ( x is seldom lo/--two correlates insep>ably implicat$ 9 fact & reality 9 e concrete individual t has receiv$ a sub/antive "n1 yet logically sep>able & capable ( be+ nam$ & consid]$ ap>t f ea* o!r4 ,! ,ari/otelian analysis ?us br+s out1 9 reg>d to ea* individual sub/ance 7or ,hoc ,aliquid1 to use 8 phrase71 a triple po9t ( view3 7#a7 ,! ,=m2 7#b7 ,! ,matt]2 7#c7 ,! comp\nd or aggregate ( ! two--9 o!r words1 ! insep>able ,ens1 :i* c>ries u out ( ! doma9 ( logic or ab/raction into t ( ! concrete or reality4#cc ,footnote #cc3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaphys4 ,z4 iii4 p4 #ajbi1 a4 #a-cd2 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 i4 p4 #dab1 a4 #f2 p4 #dad1 a4 #ae4 ,9 ! fir/ book ( ! ,physica1 ,ari/otle pu%es ?is analysis yet fur!r1 introduc+ ?ree pr9cipia in/ead ( two3--7#a7 ,=m1 7#b7 ,matt]1 7#c7 ,privation 7( ,=m72 he gives a di/9ct g5]al "n to ! negation z well z to ! affirmation2 he provides a sign m9us z c\nt]-d5om9ation to ! sign plus4 ,b he intimates t ?is is only ! same analysis m m9utely discrim9at$1 or 9 a diff]5t po9t ( view3 ,greek3 dio e7_//i men 7s du_/o lekte_/on ei7nai tas a7r*a_/s1 e7_//i d' 7s treis 7,phys4 ,i4 vii4 p4 #aij1 b4 #bi74 ,mat]ia ,prima 7,ari/otle says1 ,phys4 ,i4 vii4 p4 #aia1 a4 #h7 is kn[able only by analogy--i4e41 explicable only by illu/rative examples3 z ! brass is to ! /atue1 z ! wood is to ! c\*1 c42 natural sub/ances be+ expla9$ f works ( art1 z is frequ5t ) ,ari/otle4 ,ari/otle f>!r recognizes1 betwe5 ^! two logical correlates1 a m>k$ diff]5ce ( rank4 ,! ,=m /&s fir/1 ! ,matt] second1--n 9 "t1 b 9 notional pres5tation4 ,! ,=m is high]1 gr&]1 prior 9 dignity & e/eem1 m ,ens1 or m ne>ly approa*+ to p]fect entity2 ! ,matt] is l[]1 mean]1 po/]ior 9 dignity1 f>!r remov$ f t p]fection4 ,! conception ( wax1 pla/]1 wood1 c41 )\t amy def9ite or det]m9ate %ape1 is confus$ & unimpressive2 b a "n1 connot+ "s def9ite %ape1 at once removes ?is confusion1 & c>ries ) x m5tal pre-em95ce1 alike z to phantasy1 memory1 & sci5ce4 ,9 ! logical hi]>*y ( ,ari/otle1 ,matt] is ! inf]ior & ,=m ! sup]ior2#cd yet nei!r ( ! two c escape f its relative "*3 ,=m requires ,matt] = its correlate1 & is no?+ 9 itself or ap>t1#ce j z mu* z ,matt] requires ,=m2 ?\gh f ! inf]ior dignity ( ,matt] we f9d x m frequ5tly describ$ z ! second or correlate1 :ile ,=m is made to /& =w>d z ! relatum4 ,= complete reality1 we want ! concrete individual hav+ ! implication ( bo?2 :ile1 9 reg>d to ea* ( ! con/itu5ts p] se1 no sep>ate real exi/5ce c be affirm$1 b only a nom9al or logical sep>ation4 ,footnote #cd3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,g5]4 ,animal4 ,,ii4 i4 p4 #gbi1 a4 #aj4 ,matt] & ,=m are "h comp>$ to ! female & ! male--to "m & fa!r4 ,=m is a cause op]ative1 ,matt] a cause co-op]ative1 ?\gh bo? are alike indisp5sable to full reality4 ,comp>e ,physic4 ,i4 ix4 p4 #aib1 a4 #ac3 ,greek3 7 men gar u7pome_/n\sa sunaiti_/a t morph tn g9ome_/nn e7/i_/n1 7_/sp] m_/tr2--a7lla t\t' e7_//9 7 u7_/l1 7_/sp] a7n ei7 ?lu a7_/r7r7enos kai ai7s*ron kal\ 7e7phi_/eto74--,de ,p>tibus ,animalium1 ,i4 i4 p4 #fdj1 b4 #bh3 ,greek3 7 gar kata tn morphn phu_/sis kurite_/ra ts u7liks phu_/ses4 ,metaphys4 ,z4 iii4 p4 #ajbi1 a4 #e3 ,greek3 to ei7dos ts u7_/ls pro_/t]on kai mallon o7_/n--p4 #ajci1 a4 #a4 ,see 9 ,s*wegl]1 pp4 #ac1 #db1 #hc1 ,"p ,,ii4 ( 8 ,comm5t>y on ! ,ari/otelian ,metaphysica4 ,footnote #ce3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,z4 viii4 p4 #ajcc1 b4 #aj1 seq4 ,?is diff]5ce ( rank betwe5 ,matt] & ,=m--t ! fir/ is inf]ior & ! la/ ! sup]ior--is sometimes s mu* put 9 ! =egr\nd1 t ! two are conceiv$ 9 a diff]5t mann] & "u o!r names1 z ,pot5tial & ,actual4 ,matt] is ! pot5tial1 imp]fect1 in*oate1 :i* ! sup]v5+ ,=m actualizes into ! p]fect & complete2 a transition f half-reality to entire reality or act4 ,! ,pot5tial is ! undef9$ or indet]m9ate#cf--:at may be or may n be--:at is n yet actual1 & may p]haps nev] become s1 b is prep>$ to pass into actuality :5 ! en]giz+ pr9ciple comes to aid4 ,9 ?is way ( putt+ ! anti!sis1 ! ,pot5tial is n s mu* implicat$ ) ! ,actual z m]g$ & suppress$ to make room = ! ,actual3 x is z a half-gr[n pass+ into a full-gr[n2 be+ itself ess5tial z a prelim9>y /age 9 ! ord] ( logical g5]ation4#cg ,! ?ree logical divisions--,matt]1 ,=m1 & ! result+ ,comp\nd or ,concrete 7,greek3 to su_/nolon1 to suneilmme_/non71 are "h compress$ into two--! ,pot5tial & ! ,actualization !re(4 ,actuality 7,greek3 e7ne_/rgeia1 e7ntele_/*eia7 co9cides 9 mean+ p>tly ) ! ,=m1 p>tly ) ! result+ ,comp\nd2 ! ,=m be+ s mu* exalt$1 t ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two is almo/ effac$4#ch ,footnote #cf3 ,ibid4 ,greek3 ,?4 viii4 p4 #ajej1 b4 #aj4 ,he says1 p4 #ajdh1 a4 #ce1 t ?is di/9ction betwe5 ,pot5tial & ,actual _c be def9$1 b c only be illu/rat$ by p>ticul> examples1 sev]al ( :i* he proce$s to enum]ate4 ,tr5del5burg obs]ves 7,note 9999ad ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 p4 #cjg73--;,greek3 ,du_/namis contr>ia adhuc 9 se inclusa t5et1 ut 9 utrumque abire possit3 ,greek3 e7ne_/rgeia alt]um excludit4 ,comp>e also ib4 p4 #cjb4 ,?is ,may or ,may n be is ! wide/ & mo/ g5]al s5se ( ! t]ms ,greek3 du_/namis & ,greek3 dunato_/n1 common to all ! analogical or d]ivative applications t ,ari/otle po9ts out z belong+ to !m4 ,x is m g5]al ?an t :i* he gives z ! ,greek3 ku_/rios o7_/ros ts pr_/ts duna_/mes--a7r*_/ metabltik e7n a7_/ll 7 7 a7_/llo1 & ought seem+ly to be itself consid]$ z ! ,greek3 ku_/rios o7_/ros4 ,cf4 ,ari/4 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,d4 xii4 p4 #ajbj1 a4 #e1 ) ! comm5t ( ,bonitz1 :o rem>ks ^u ! loose language ( ,ari/otle 9 ?is *apt] b imputes to ,ari/otle a great] am\nt ( contradiction ?an he seems to des]ve 7,comm4 ad ,metaphys4 pp4 #bef1 #cic74 ,footnote #cg3 ,ens pot5ti is a v>iety ( ,ens 7,ari/4 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,d4 vii4 p4 #ajag1 b4 #f71 b an imp]fect v>iety3 x is ,greek3 o7n a7tele_/s1 :i* may become matur$ into ,greek3 o7n te_/leion1 o7n e7ntele*ei_/a or ,greek3 e7n]gei_/a 7,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,?4 i4 p4 #ajde1 a4 #cd74 ,matt] is ei!r remote or proximate1 remov$ ei!r by "o /age or sev]al /ages f ! ,greek3 su_/nolon 9 :i* x culm9ates4 ,/rictly speak+1 none b proximate matt] is said to exi/ ,greek3 duna_/mei4 ,alex&] ,s*ol4 7ad ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,?4 p4 #ajdi1 a4 #ai7 p4 #gha1 b4 #ci3 ,greek3 7 po_/r7r7 u7_/l ou7 le_/getai duna_/mei4 ti_/ d_/ pote8 o7_/ti ou7 p>numia_/zom5 ta pra_/gmata e7k ts po_/r7r7 a7ll' e7k ts prose*\s2 le_/gom5 gar to kib_/tion xu_/l9on e7k ts prose*\s1 a7ll' ou7 g_/inon e7k ts po_/r7r74 ,footnote #ch3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 4 i4 p4 #ajdb1 a4 #be1 seq4 ,he sc>cely makes any di/9ction "h betwe5 ,greek3 u7_/l & ,greek3 du_/namis1 or betwe5 ,greek3 morph & ,greek3 e7ne_/rgeia 7cf4 ,greek3 ,?4 viii4 p4 #ajej1 a4 #ae74 ,alex&] 9 8 ,comm5t>y on ?is book 7,greek3 ,?4 iii4 p4 #ajdg1 a4 #cj7 p4 #edb1 ,bonitz's edit41 rem>ks t ,greek3 e7ne_/rgeia is us$ by ,ari/otle 9 a d\ble s5se2 sometimes mean+ ,greek3 ki_/nsis pros to te_/los1 sometimes mean+ ! ,greek3 te_/los itself4 ,comp4 ,greek3 4 iii4 p4 #ajdc1 a4 #cb2 also ! comm5t>y ( ,bonitz1 p4 #cic4 ,two ?+s are to be rememb]$ respect+ ,matt]1 9 its ,ari/otelian 7logical or ontological7 s5se3 7#a7 ,x may be ,body1 b x is n necess>ily ,body2#ci 7#b7 ,x is only intelligible z ! correlate ( ,=m3 x c nei!r exi/ by itself1 nor c x be kn[n by itself 7i4e41 :5 tak5 out ( t relativity74 ,?is des]ves notice1 because to =get ! relativity ( a relative ^w1 & to reason ^u x z if x 7 an absolute1 is an ov]sight n unfrequ5t4 ,fur!rmore1 ea* v>iety ( ,matt] has its appropriate ,=m1 & ea* v>iety ( ,=m its appropriate ,matt]1 ) :i* x correlates4 ,!re are v>i\s /ages or gradations ( ,matt]2 f ,mat]ia ,prima1 :i* has no ,=m at all1 pass+ upw>ds ?r\gh successive p>tial developm5ts to ,mat]ia ,ultima2 :i* la/ is h>dly#dj di/+ui%able f ,=m or f ,mat]ia ,=mata4 ,footnote #ci3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,z4 xi4 p4 #ajcf1 a4 #h3 ,greek3 7 d' u7_/l a7_/gn/os ka?' au7t_/n4 u7_/l d' 7 men ai7/ht_/1 7 de not_/2 ai7/ht men oi7on *alkos kai xu_/lon kai o7_/s k9t u7_/l1 not de 7 e7n tois ai7/htois u7pa_/r*\sa m 7 ai7/hta_/1 oi7on ta ma?matika_/4--p4 #ajce1 a4 #g4 ,physica1 ,,iii4 vi4 p4 #bjg1 a4 #bf2 ,de ,g5]at4 et ,corrupt4 ,i4 v4 p4 #cbj1 b4 #ad-be4 ,footnote #dj3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 ii4 p4 #dad1 a4 #be3 ,greek3 e7ka_//\ gar 7 e7ntele_/*eia e7n t duna_/mei u7pa_/r*onti kai t oi7kei_/a u7_/l pe_/phuk5 e7ggi_/ne/hai4--,physica1 ,,ii4 ii4 p4 #aid1 b4 #h3 ,greek3 e7_/ti tn pro_/s ti 7 u7_/l2 a7_/ll gar ei7_/dei a7_/ll u7_/l4--,metaph4 ,greek3 4 vi4 p4 #ajde1 b4 #ag3 ,greek3 e7_//i d'1 7_/sp] ei7_/rtai1 kai 7 e7s*a_/t u7_/l kai 7 morph tau7to_/ kai duna_/mei1 to de e7n]gei_/a4 ,see ^u ?is doctr9e ,s*wegl]'s ,comm5t>y1 pp4 #ajj1 #aed1 #agc1 #bdj1 ,pt4 #bnd4 ,comp>e also ,ari/4 ,de ,g5]4 ,animal4 ,,ii4 i4 p4 #gce1 a4 #i2 also ,de ,coelo1 ,,iv4 iii4 p4 #caj1 b4 #ad4 ,! di/9ction above specifi$ is employ$ by ,ari/otle 9 8 exposition ( ! ,s\l4 ,! s\l belongs to ! ,category ( ,sub/ance or ,ess5ce 7n to t ( ,quantity1 ,quality1 c472 b ( ! two po9ts ( view "u :i* ,ess5ce may be pres5t$1 ! s\l ranks ) ,=m1 n ) ,matt]--) ! ,actual1 n ) ! ,pot5tial4 ,! ,matt] to :i* 7z correlate7 s\l /&s relat$1 is a natural body 7i4e41 a body hav+ )9 x an inh]5t pr9ciple ( motion & re/7 organiz$ 9 a c]ta9 way1 or fitt$ out ) c]ta9 capacities & prep>ations to :i* s\l is ! active & indisp5sable complem5t4 ,^! capacities w\ld nev] come into actuality )\t ! s\l2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! range ( actualities or functions 9 ! s\l dep5ds ^u1 & is limit$ by1 ! range ( capacities ready prep>$ = x 9 ! body4 ,! implication ( ! two con/itutes ! liv+ subject1 ) all its functions1 active & passive4 ,if ! eye 7 an animat$ or liv+ subject1 see+ w\ld be its s\l2 if ! c>p5t]'s axe 7 liv+1 cutt+ w\ld be its s\l2#da ! matt] w\ld be ! l5s or ! iron 9 :i* ?is s\l is embodi$4 ,x is n indisp5sable1 h[ev]1 t all ! functions ( ! liv+ subject %\ld be at all times 9 complete ex]cise3 ! subject is /ill liv+1 ev5 :ile asleep2 ! eye is /ill a good eye1 ?\gh at ! mom5t clos$4 ,x is en\gh if ! functional aptitude exi/ z a dormant prop]ty1 ready to rise into activity1 :5 ! prop] occasions pres5t !mselves4 ,?is m9imum ( ,=m suffices to give liv+ efficacy to ! pot5tialities ( body2 x is en\gh t a man1 ?\gh n[ 9 a d>k night & see+ no?+1 w see z soon z ! sun rises2 or t he kn[s geometry1 ?\gh he is n n[ ?9k+ ( a geometrical problem4 ,?is dormant possession is :at ,ari/otle calls ! ,fir/ ,entele*y or ,en]gy1 i4e41 ! l[e/ /age ( ,actuality1 or ! m9imum ( influ5ce requir$ to trans=m ,pot5tiality into ,actuality4 ,! ,ari/otelian def9ition ( ,s\l is ?us3 ,! fir/ entele*y ( a natural organiz$ body1 hav+ life 9 pot5tiality4#db ,?is is all t is ess5tial to ! s\l2 ! second or high] entele*y 7actual ex]cise ( ! faculties7 is n a con/ant or univ]sal prop]ty4#dc ,footnote #da3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 i4 p4 #dab1 b4 #ah3 ,greek3 ei7 gar 7n o7 o7ph?almos zo_/n1 psu* a7n 7n au7t\ 7 o7_/psis2 au7_/t gar ou7si_/a o7ph?alm\ 7 kata ton lo_/gon4 o7 d' o7ph?almos u7_/l o7_/pses1 7s a7poleip\_/ss ou7ke_/t' o7ph?almo_/s1 pln o7mnu_/ms1 ka?a_/p] o7 li_/?9os kai o7 gegramme_/nos4 ,footnote #db3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 i4 p4 #dab1 a4 #bg3 ,greek3 dio psu*_/ e7/9 e7ntele_/*eia 7 pr_/t s_/matos phusik\ duna_/mei zn e7_/*ontos2 toi\to de o7 a7n 7 o7rganiko_/n4 ,comp>e ,metaphysica1 ,z4 x4 p4 #ajce1 b4 #ad-bg4 ,footnote #dc3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 ii4 p4 #dad1 a4 #h-ah4 ,! di/9ction "h tak5 betwe5 ! fir/ or l[] /age ( ,entele*y1 & ! second or high] /age1 co9cides sub/antially ) ! di/9ction 9 ! ,nikoma*ean ,e?ica & else:]e betwe5 ,greek3 e7_/xis & ,greek3 e7ne_/rgeia4 ,see ,topica1 ,,iv4 v4 p4 #abe1 b4 #ae2 ,e?ic4 ,nikom4 ,,ii4 i4-v4 p4 #aajc seq4 ,9 ?is def9ition ( ,s\l1 ,ari/otle employs 8 own ,philosophia ,prima to escape ! errors committ$ by prior philosoph]s4 ,he does n admit t ! s\l is a sep>ate entity 9 itself2 or t x is compos$ 7z ,emp$okles & ,demokritus _h said7 ( corporeal elem5ts1 or 7z ,plato _h said7 ( elem5ts p>tly corporeal1 p>tly logical & notional4 ,he rejects ! imag9>y virtues ( numb]1 invok$ by ! ,py?agoreans & ,x5okrates2 la/ly1 he keeps be=e him n m]ely man1 b all ! v>ieties ( animat$ objects1 to :i* 8 def9ition mu/ be adapt$4 ,8 fir/ capital po9t is to put aside ! alleg$ id5tity1 or simil>ity1 or sam5ess ( elem5ts1 betwe5 s\l & body2 & to put aside equally any sep>ate exi/5ce or sub/antiality ( s\l4 ,he effects bo? ^! purposes by def9+ !m z ess5tially relatum & correlate2 ! s\l1 z ! relatum1 is un9telligible & unmean+ )\t its correlate1 ^u :i* accord+ly its def9ition is decl>$ to be f\nd$4 ,! real animat$ subject may be look$ at ei!r f ! po9t ( view ( ! relatum or f t ( ! correlate2 b1 ?\gh ! two are ?us logically sep>able1 9 fact & reality !y are insep>ably implicat$2 &1 if ei!r ( !m be )drawn1 ! animat$ subject disappe>s4 ,! s\l 7says ,ari/otle7 is n any v>iety ( body1 b x _c be )\t a body2 x is n a body1 b x is some?+ belong+ to or relat$ to a body2 & = ?is reason x is 9 a body1 & 9 a body ( su* or su* pot5tialities4#dd ,s\l is to body 7we ?us read71 n z a comp\nd ( l elem5ts1 nor z a type is to its copy1 or vice v]s1 b z a relatum to its correlate2 dep5d5t ^u ! body = all its acts & manife/ations1 & br++ to consummation :at 9 ! body exi/s z pot5tiality only4 ,s\l1 h[ev]1 is bett] ?an body2 & ! animat$ be+ is bett] ?an ! inanimate by reason ( its s\l4#de ,footnote #dd3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 ii4 p4 #dad1 a4 #ai3 ,greek3 kai dia t\to kals u7polamba_/n\s9 oi7s dokei mt' a7_/neu s_/matos ei7nai m_/te s_/ma_/ ti 7 psu*_/2 sma men gar ou7k e7_//i1 s_/matos de_/ ti1 kai dia t\to e7n s_/mati u7pa_/r*ei1 kai e7n s_/mati toi\_/t4 ,comp>e ,ari/ot4 ,de ,juv5tute et ,s5ectute1 i4 p4 #dfg1 b4 #ad4 ,footnote #de3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,g5]at4 ,animal4 ,,ii4 i4 p4 #gca1 b4 #bi4 ,! animat$ subject is ?us a =m imm]s$ or implicat$ 9 matt]2 & all its actions & passions are s likewise4#df ,ea* ( ^! has its =mal side1 z conc]ns ! s\l1 & its mat]ial side1 z conc]ns ! body4 ,:5 a man or animal is angry1 = example1 ?is emotion is bo? a fact ( ! s\l & a fact ( ! body3 9 ! fir/ ( ^! two *>act]s1 x may be def9$ z an appetite = hurt+ "s "o :o has hurt u2 9 ! second ( ! two1 x may be def9$ z an ebullition ( ! blood & heat r\nd ! he>t4#dg ,! emotion1 belong+ to ! animat$ subject or aggregate ( s\l & body1 is a complex fact hav+ two aspects1 logically di/+ui%able f ea* o!r1 b ea* correlat+ & imply+ ! o!r4 ,?is is true n only 9 reg>d to our passions1 emotions1 & appetites1 b also 9 reg>d to our p]ceptions1 phantasms1 rem9isc5ces1 reason+s1 ef=ts ( att5tion 9 le>n+1 c4 ,we d n say t ! s\l weaves or builds 7,ari/otle obs]ves#dh73 we say t ! animat$ subject1 ! aggregate ( s\l & body1 ! man1 weaves or builds4 ,s we ought also to say1 n t ! s\l feels ang]1 pity1 love1 hatr$1 c41 or t ! s\l le>ns1 reasons1 recollects1 c41 b t ! man ) 8 s\l does ^! ?+s4 ,! actual movem5t ?r\gh\t ^! processes is n 9 ! s\l1 b 9 ! body2 sometimes go+ to ! s\l 7z 9 s5sible p]ception71 sometimes proce$+ f ! s\l to ! body 7z 9 ! case ( rem9isc5ce74 ,all ^! processes are at once corporeal & psy*ical1 p]vad+ ! :ole animat$ subject1 & hav+ two aspects co9cid5t & int]-dep5d5t1 ?\gh logically di/+ui%able4 ,! p]fect or imp]fect discrim9ation by ! s5ti5t s\l dep5ds ^u ! good or bad condition ( ! bodily s5ti5t organs2 an old man t has become %ortsight$ w\ld see z well z be=e1 if he c\ld rega9 8 y\?ful eye4 ,! defects ( ! s\l arise f defects 9 ! bodily organism to :i* x belongs1 z 9 cases ( drunk5ness or sickness2 & ?is is n less true ( ! ,nos1 or intellective s\l1 ?an ( ! s5ti5t s\l4#di ,intellig5ce1 z well z emotion1 are ph5om5a1 n ( ! bodily organism simply1 nor ( ! ,nos simply1 b ( ! community or p>tn]%ip ( :i* bo? are memb]s2 &1 :5 intellig5ce gives way1 ?is is n because ! ,nos itself is impair$1 b because ! p>tn]%ip is ru9$ by ! failure ( ! bodily organism4 ,footnote #df3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,i4 i4 p4 #djc1 a4 #be3 ,greek3 ta pa_/? lo_/goi e7_/nuloi_/ ei7s94 ,comp>e ,,ii4 p4 #dab1 b4 #aj-be2 p4 #dac1 a4 #b4 ,footnote #dg3 ,ibid4 ,i4 i4 p4 #djc1 a4 #cj4 ,footnote #dh3 ,ibid4 iv4 p4 #djh1 b4 #ab4 ,greek3 to de le_/ge9 o7rgi_/ze/hai tn psu*n o7_/moion ka7n ei7_/ tis le_/goi tn psu*n u7phai_/ne9 7 oi7kodomein2 be_/ltion gar i7_/ss m le_/ge9 tn psu*n e7leein 7 man?a_/ne9 7 dianoei/hai1 a7lla ton a7_/n?rpon t psu*2 t\to de m 7s e7n e7kei_/n ts k9_/ses ou7_/ss1 a7ll' o7_/te men me_/*ri e7kei_/ns1 o7_/te d' a7p' e7kei_/ns1 c4 ,aga91 b4 #cj3 ,greek3 o7_/ti men ou7n ou7* oi7o_/n te k9ei/hai tn psu*_/n1 phan]on e7k t\_/tn4 ,footnote #di3 ,ibid4 b4 #bf4 ,comp>e a simil> doctr9e 9 ! ,timu ( ,plato1 p4 #hf1 ,b4-,d4 ,respect+ ! ,nos 7! !oriz+ ,nos71 we mu/ "h obs]ve t ,ari/otle treats x z a sep>ate k9d or v>iety ( s\l1 ) sev]al peculi>ities4 ,we %all collect pres5tly all t he says ^u t subject1 :i* is ! mo/ obscure portion ( 8 psy*ology4 ,9 reg>d to s\l g5]ally1 ! relative po9t ( view ) body z ! correlate is con/antly insi/$ on by ,ari/otle2 )\t su* correlate 8 ass]tions w\ld h no mean+4 ,b ! relation betwe5 !m is pres5t$ 9 sev]al diff]5t ways4 ,! s\l is ! cause & pr9ciple ( a liv+ body2#ej by :i* is meant1 n an indep5d5t & pre-exi/5t some?+ t br+s ! body into exi/5ce b1 an imman5t or indwell+ influ5ce :i* su/a9s ! unity & guides ! functions ( ! organism4 ,accord+ to ! quadruple classification ( ,cause recogniz$ by ,ari/otle--,=mal1 ,mat]ial1 ,mov5t1 & ,f9al--! body furni%es ! ,mat]ial ,cause1 :ile ! s\l comprises all ! ?ree o!rs4 ,! s\l is 7z we h already se57 ! ,=m 9 relation to ! body z ,matt]1 b x is1 besides1 ! ,mov5t1 inasmu* z x det]m9es ! local displacem5t z well z all ! active functions ( ! body--nutrition1 gr[?1 g5]ation1 s5sation1 c42 la/ly1 x is also ! ,f9al ,cause1 s9ce ! ma9t5ance & p]petuation ( ! same ,=m1 9 successive individuals1 is ! /&+ purpose aim$ at by ea* body 9 ! economy ( ,nature4#ea ,"u ?is div]sity ( aspect1 s\l & body are reciprocally integrant & complem5t>y ( ea* o!r1 ! real integ] 7! ,liv+ or ,animat$ ,body7 includ+ bo?4 ,footnote #ej3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 iv4 p4 #dae1 b4 #g3 ,greek3 e7_//i d' 7 psu* t\ zntos s_/matos ai7ti_/a kai a7r*_/2 tauta de polla*s le_/getai4 ,footnote #ea3 ,ibid4 b4 #a4 ,s\l1 9 ! ,ari/otelian po9t ( view--:at is common to all liv+ bodies1 comprises sev]al v>ieties4 ,b ^! v>ieties are n repres5t$ z =m+ a g5us ) co-ord9ate species "u x1 9 su* mann] t ! c\nt]-ord9ate species1 reciprocally exclud+ ea* o!r1 are1 :5 tak5 toge!r1 co-ext5sive ) ! :ole g5us2 l man & brute 9 reg>d to animal4 ,! v>ieties ( s\l are di/ribut$ into successive /ages gradually n>r[+ 9 ext5sion & enl>g+ 9 compreh5sion2 ! fir/ or l[e/ /age be+ co-ext5sive ) ! :ole1 b connot+ only two or ?ree simple attributes2 ! second1 or next above1 connot+ all ^! & m besides1 b d5ot+ only "p ( ! individuals d5ot$ by ! fir/2 ! ?ird connot+ all ?is & m1 b d5ot+ yet few] individuals2 & s on =w>d4 ,?us ! concrete individuals1 call$ liv+ bodies1 include all plants z well z all animals2 b ! s\l1 call$ ,nutritive by ,ari/otle1 correspond+ !reto connotes only nutrition1 gr[?1 decay1 & g5]ation ( ano!r simil> individual4#eb ,9 ! second /age1 plants are left out1 b all animals rema93 ! ,s5ti5t s\l1 belong+ to animals1 b n belong+ to any plants1 connotes all ! functions & unities ( ! ,nutritive s\l1 toge!r ) s5sible p]ception 7at lea/ 9 its rude/ %ape7 besides4#ec ,we proce$ onw>d 9 ! same direction1 tak+ 9 additional faculties--! ,mov5t1 ,appetitive1 ,phanta/ic 7,imag9ative71 ,notic 7,intellig5t7 s\l1 & ?us dim9i%+ ! total ( individuals d5ot$4 ,b ea* high] v>iety ( s\l cont9ues to possess all ! faculties ( ! l[]4 ,?us ! ,s5ti5t s\l _c exi/ )\t compreh5d+ all ! faculties ( ! ,nutritive1 ?\gh ! ,nutritive exi/s 79 plants7 )\t any admixture ( ! ,s5ti5t4 ,aga91 ! ,s5ti5t s\l does n necess>ily possess ei!r memory1 imag9ation1 or intellect 7,nos72 b no s\l c be ei!r ,imag9ative or ,notic1 )\t be+ ,s5ti5t z well z ,nutritive4 ,! ,notic ,s\l1 z ! highe/ ( all1 reta9s 9 itself all ! l[] faculties2 b ^! are f\nd to exi/ ap>t f x4#ed ,footnote #eb3 ,9 ! ,ari/otelian treatise ,de ,plantis1 p4 #hae1 b4 #af1 x is /at$ t ,emp$okles1 ,anaxagoras1 & ,demokritus1 all affirm$ t plants _h bo? intellect & cognition up to a c]ta9 mod]ate po9t4 ,we d n cite ?is treatise z ! composition ( ,ari/otle1 b x is reasonably good evid5ce 9 ref]5ce to ! doctr9e ( ^? o!r philosoph]s4 ,footnote #ec3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,i4 v4 p4 #daa1 b4 #bh4 ,footnote #ed3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 ii4 p4 #dac1 a4 #be-cj1 b4 #cb2 iii4 p4 #dad1 b4 #bi2 p4 #dae1 a4 #aj4 ,we may rem>k "h t ! psy*ological classification ( ,ari/otle proce$s 9 ! inv]se direction to t ( ,plato4 ,9 ! ,platonic ,timu we beg9 ) ! gr& s\l ( ! ,kosmos1 & are conduct$ by successive /eps ( degradation to m51 animals1 plants2 :ile ,ari/otle lays 8 f\ndation 9 ! l>ge/1 mo/ multipli$1 & l[e/ range ( individuals1 c>ry+ u by successive increase ( conditions to ! few] & ! high]4 ,! l[e/ or ,nutritive s\l1 9 spite ( ! small numb] ( conditions involv$ 9 x1 is ! indisp5sable basis :]eon all ! o!rs dep5d4 ,none ( ! o!r s\ls c exi/ ap>t f x4#ee ,x is ! fir/ con/itu5t ( ! liv+ individual--! implication ( ,=m ) ,matt] 9 a natural body suitably organiz$2 x is ! pres]vative ( ! life ( ! individual1 ) its aggregate ( functions & faculties1 & ) ! prop] limits ( size & %ape t *>act]ize ! species2#ef x is1 moreov]1 ! pres]vative ( p]petuity to ! species1 inasmu* z x prompts & enables ea* individual to g5]ate & leave beh9d a successor l himself2 :i* is ! only way t an individual c obta9 quasi-immortality1 ?\gh all aspire to become immortal4#eg ,?is l[e/ s\l is ! prim>y cause ( dige/ion & nutrition4 ,x is cognate ) ! cele/ial heat1 :i* is ess5tial also z a co-op]ative cause2 accord+ly1 all animat$ bodies possess an inh]5t natural heat4#eh ,footnote #ee3 ,ibid4 iv4 p4 #dae1 a4 #be3 ,greek3 pr_/t kai ko9ota_/t du_/nami_/s e7/i psu*s1 ka?' 7n u7pa_/r*ei to zn a7_/pas94--p4 #dae1 b4 #h3 ,greek3 t\ zntos s_/matos ai7ti_/a kai a7r*_/4--,,iii4 xii4 p4 #dcd1 a4 #bb-cj1 b4 #bd4 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,respiratione1 viii4 p4 #dgd1 a4 #cj1 b4 #aa4 ,footnote #ef3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 iv4 p4 #daf1 a4 #ag4 ,footnote #eg3 ,ibid4 p4 #dae1 b4 #b2 p4 #daf1 b4 #bc3 ,greek3 e7pei d' a7po t\ te_/l\s a7_/panta prosagoreu_/e9 di_/kaion1 te_/los de to g5nsai oi7on au7to_/1 a7n 7 pr_/t psu* g5ntik oi7on au7to_/4 ,also ,de ,g5]at4 ,animal4 ,,ii4 i4 p4 #gca1 b4 #cc4 ,footnote #eh3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 iv4 p4 #daf1 a4 #aj-ah1 b4 #bi4 ,we advance upw>ds n[ f ! nutritive s\l to t high] s\l :i* is at once nutritive & ,s5ti5t2 = ,ari/otle does n foll[ ! example ( ,plato 9 recogniz+ ?ree s\ls to "o body1 b assigns only "o & ! same s\l1 ?\gh ) multipli$ faculties & functions1 to "o & ! same body4 ,s5sible p]ception1 ) its accompanim5ts1 =ms ! *>act]i/ic privilege ( ! animal z contra/$ ) ! plant4#ei ,s5sible p]ception admits ( _m div]sities1 f ! simple/ & rude/ tactile s5sation1 :i* ev5 ! l[e/ animals _c be )\t1 to ! full equipm5t ( five s5ses :i* ,ari/otle decl>es to be a maximum n susceptible ( increase4#fj ,b ! s5ti5t faculty1 ev5 9 its l[e/ /age1 indicates a rem>kable exaltation ( ! s\l 9 its "* ( =m4 ,! s\l1 qu s5ti5t & p]cipi5t1 receives ! =m ( ! p]ceptum )\t ! matt]2 :]eas ! nutritive s\l _c disconnect ! two1 b receives & appropriates ! nutri5t sub/ance1 =m & matt] 9 "o & comb9$4#fa ,ari/otle illu/rates ?is *>act]i/ic feature ( s5sible p]ception by recurr+ to 8 =m] example ( ! wax & ! figure4 ,j z wax receives f a signet ! impression engrav5 !reon1 :e!r ! matt] ( ! signet be iron1 gold1 /one1 or wood2 z ! impression /amp$ has no reg>d to ! matt]1 b reproduces only ! figure engrav5 on ! signet1 ! wax be+ m]ely pot5tial & undef9$1 until ! signet comes to conv]t x into some?+ actual & def9ite2#fb s ! p]cipi5t faculty 9 man is impress$ by ! sub/ances 9 nature1 n accord+ to ! matt] ( ea* b1 accord+ to ! qualitative =m ( ea*4 ,su* passive receptivity is ! fir/ & l[e/ =m ( s5sation1#fc n hav+ any magnitude 9 itself1 b resid+ 9 bodily organs :i* h magnitude1 & sep>able f !m only by logical ab/raction4 ,x is a pot5tiality1 correlat+ )1 & 9 due proportion to1 ! ext]ior p]cipibile1 :i*1 :5 act+ ^u x1 br+s x into full actuality4 ,! actuality ( bo? 7p]cipi5s & p]ceptum7 is "o & ! same1 & _c be disjo9$ 9 fact1 ?\gh ! pot5tialities ( ! two are di/9ct yet correlative2 ! p]cipi5s is n l ! p]cipibile orig9ally1 b becomes l x by be+ ?us actualiz$4#fd ,footnote #ei3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,s5su et ,s5sili1 i4 p4 #dcf1 b4 #ab4 ,he consid]s sponges to h "s s5sation 7,hi/4 ,animal4 ,i4 i4 p4 #dhg1 b4 #i74 ,footnote #fj3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 iii4 p4 #dad1 b4 #b2 p4 #dae1 a4 #c2 ,,iii4 i4 p4 #dbd1 b4 #bb2 xiii4 p4 #dce1 b4 #ae4 ,footnote #fa3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 xii4 p4 #dbd1 a4 #cb-;b4 #d3 ,greek3 dia ti_/ pote ta phuta ou7k ai7/ha_/netai1 e7_/*onta_/ ti mo_/rion psu*ikon kai pa_/s*onta_/ ti u7po tn a7ptn8 kai gar psu_/*etai kai !rmai_/netai2 ai7_/tion gar to m e7_/*e9 meso_/tta1 mde toiau_/tn a7r*n oi7_/an ta ei7_/d de_/*e/hai tn ai7/htn1 a7lla pa_/s*e9 meta ts u7_/ls4 ,!mi/ius ad loc4 p4 #add1 ed4 ,sp5gel3 ,greek3 pa_/s*ei 7ta phuta_/7 suneisi\_/ss ts u7_/ls t\ poi\ntos1 c4 ,footnote #fb3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 xii4 p4 #dbd1 a4 #ai4 ,footnote #fc3 ,ibid4 a4 #bd3 ,greek3 ai7/ht_/rion de prton e7n 7 7 toiau_/t du_/namis1 c4--,,iii4 xii4 p4 #dcd1 a4 #bi4 ,footnote #fd3 ,ibid4 ,,iii4 ii4 p4 #dbe1 b4 #be3 ,greek3 7 de t\ ai7/ht\ e7ne_/rgeia kai ts ai7/h_/ses 7 au7t me_/n e7/i kai mi_/a1 to d' ei7nai ou7 tau7ton au7tais4--,,ii4 v4 p4 #dah1 a4 #c3 ,greek3 to d' ai7/htikon duna_/mei e7/in oi7on to ai7/hton 7_/d e7ntele*ei_/a1--pa_/s*ei men ou7n ou7* o7_/moion o7_/n1 pepon?os d' 7moi_/tai kai e7_//9 oi7on e7keino4 ,also p4 #dag1 a4 #g1 #ad1 #bj4 ,!re 7 conflict+ doctr9es curr5t 9 ,ari/otle's "t3 "s said t1 = an ag5t to act ^u a pati5t1 !re mu/ be lik5ess betwe5 ! two2 o!rs said t !re mu/ be unlik5ess4 ,ari/otle diss5ts f bo?1 & adopts a sort ( int]m$iate doctr9e4 ,! s5ti5t s\l is communicat$ by ! male p>5t 9 ! act ( g5]ation1#fe & is complete f ! mom5t ( bir?1 n requir+ a process ( tea*+ aft] bir?2 ! s5ti5t subject becomes at once & in/antly1 9 reg>d to s5se1 on a level ) "o t has atta9$ a c]ta9 actuality ( cognition1 b is n at ! mom5t reflect+ ^u ! cognitum4 ,pot5tiality & ,actuality are 9 fact di/+ui%able into l[] & high] degrees2 ! ,pot5tial t has be5 actualiz$ 9 a fir/ or l[] /age1 is /ill a ,pot5tial relatively to high] /ages ( ,actuality4#ff ,! ,pot5tial may be act$ ^u 9 two opposite ways2 ei!r by dead5+ & ext+ui%+ x1 or by develop+ & c>ry+ x =w>d to realization4 ,! s5ti5t s\l1 :5 asleep or in]t1 requires a cause to /imulate x into actual see+ or he>+2 ! notic or cognizant s\l1 "u l circum/ances1 mu/ also be /imulat$ into actual m$itation on its cognitum4 ,b !re is ?is diff]5ce betwe5 ! two4 ,! s5ti5t s\l communes ) p>ticul>s2 ! notic s\l ) univ]sals4 ,! s5ti5t s\l d]ives its /imulus f )\t1 & f "s ( ! individual objects1 tangible1 visible1 or audible2 b ! notic s\l is put into action by ! ab/ract & univ]sal1 :i* is 9 a c]ta9 s5se )9 ! s\l itself2 s t a man c at any "t m$itate on :at he pleases1 b he _c see or he> :at he pleases1 or any?+ except su* visible or audible objects z are at h&4#fg ,footnote #fe3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,g5]4 ,animal4 ,,ii4 v4 p4 #gda1 a4 #ac1 b4 #g2 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 v4 p4 #dag1 b4 #ag4 ,footnote #ff3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 v4 p4 #dag1 b4 #ah-cb4 ,see above1 p4 #deg1 note a4 ,! ext5t ( ,pot5tiality1 or ! p>tial ,actuality1 :i* ,ari/otle claims = ! s5ti5t s\l ev5 at bir?1 des]ves to be kept 9 m9d2 we %all contra/ x pres5tly ) :at he says ab\t ! ,nos4 ,footnote #fg3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 v4 p4 #dag1 b4 #bb3 ,greek3 ai7_/tion de o7_/ti1 tn ka?' e7_/ka/on 7 kat' e7ne_/rgeian ai7_//hsis1 7 d' e7pi/_/m tn ka?o_/l\2 tauta d' e7n au7t p_/s e7/i t psu*4 ,,iii4 iii4 p4 #dbg1 b4 #ah4 ,we h already rem>k$1 t 9 _m animals ! s5ti5t s\l is little develop$2 be+ conf9$ 9 "s to ! s5se ( t\* 7:i* c nev] be want+71#fh & 9 o!rs to t\* & ta/e4 ,b ev5 ?is m9imum ( s5se--?\gh small1 if comp>$ ) ! v>iety ( s5ses 9 man--is a prodigi\s /ep 9 advance ( plants2 x comprises a c]ta9 cognition1 & )9 its own sph]e x is always critical1 comp>+1 discrim9ative4#fi ,! s5ti5t s\l possesses ?is discrim9ative faculty 9 common ) ! notic s\l or ,intellig5ce1 ?\gh appli$ to diff]5t objects & purposes2 & possesses su* faculty1 because x is itself a mean or middle t]m betwe5 ! two s5sible extremes ( :i* x takes cognizance1--hot & cold1 h>d & s(t1 wet & dry1 :ite & black1 acute & grave1 bitt] & sweet1 light & d>kness1 visible & invisible1 tangible & intangible1 c4 ,we feel no s5sation at all :5 ! object t\*$ is exactly ( ! same temp]ature ) ourselves1 nei!r hott] nor cold]2 ! s5ti5t s\l1 be+ a mean betwe5 ! two extremes1 is /imulat$ to assimilate itself = ! "t to ei!r ( !m1 accord+ z x is act$ ^u f )\t4 ,x ?us makes comp>ison ( ea* ) ! o!r1 & ( bo? ) its own mean4#gj ,la/ly1 ! s5ti5t faculty 9 ! s\l is really "o & indivisible1 ?\gh di/+ui%able logically or by ab/raction into diff]5t g5]a & species4#ga ,( t faculty ! c5tral physical organ is ! he>t1 :i* conta9s ! cong5ital or animal _s4 ,! ,ari/otelian psy*ology is "h rem>kable1 affirm+ z x does ! ess5tial relativity ( all ph5om5a ( s5se to ! appreciative condition ( ! s5ti5t2 z well z ! con/ant implication ( intellectual & discrim9ative comp>ison among !m4 ,footnote #fh3 ,ibid4 ,,iii4 xii4 p4 #dcd1 b4 #bc3 ,greek3 phan]on o7_/ti ou7* oi7o_/n te a7_/neu a7phs ei7nai zon4 ,footnote #fi3 ,ibid4 ix4 p4 #dcb1 a4 #af3 ,greek3 t kritik1 o7 dianoi_/z e7_/rgon e7/i kai ai7/h_/ses4--,,iii4 iii4 p4 #dbg1 a4 #bj2 p4 #dbf1 b4 #aj-ae4 ,de ,g5]at4 ,animal4 ,i4 xxiii4 p4 #gca1 a4 #cj-;b4 #e2 ,de ,somno et ,vigil4 i4 p4 #deh99991 b4 #b4 ,! s5ti5t faculty is call$ ,greek3 du_/nam9 su_/mphuton kritik_/n 9 ,analyt4 ,po/]4 ,,ii4 xix4 p4 #ii1 b4 #ce4 ,footnote #gj3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 x4 p4 #dbb1 a4 #bj2 ix4 p4 #dba1 b4 #d-aa2 xi4 p4 #dbd1 a4 #e3 ,greek3 kai dia t\to kri_/nei ta ai7/hta_/--to gar me_/son kritiko_/n4 ,,iii4 vii4 p4 #dca1 a4 #aj3 ,greek3 e7_//i to 7_/de/hai kai lupei/hai to e7n]gein t ai7/htik meso_/tti pros to a7ga?on 7 kako_/n1 7 toiauta4 ,,iii4 xiii4 p4 #dce1 a4 #ba4 ,he rem>ks t plants h no simil> ,greek3 meso_/ts--,,ii4 xii4 p4 #dbd1 b4 #a4 ,footnote #ga3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,s5su et ,s5sili1 vii4 p4 #ddi1 a4 #h1 #ag4 ,de ,motu ,animal4 x4 p4 #gjc1 a4 #ae4 ,de ,somno et ,vigil4 ii4 p4 #dee1 a4 #ae1 #ba1 #ce2 p4 #def1 a4 #e4 ,de ,juv5tute et ,s5ect4 p4 #dfg1 b4 #bg2 p4 #dfi1 a4 #d-ab4 ,all ! objects g5]at+ s5sible p]ception1 are magnitudes4#gb ,"s p]ceptions are peculi> to "o s5se alone1 z col\r to ! eye1 c4 ,^u ^! we nev] make mi/akes directly2 9 o!r words1 we always judge rightly :at is ! col\r or :at is ! s\nd1 ?\gh we are (t5 deceiv$ 9 judg+ :at ! ?+ col\r$ is1 or :]e ! sonor\s object is4#gc ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s p]ceivables n peculi> to any "o s5se alone1 b appreciable by two or m2 ?\gh *iefly & be/ by ! s5se ( vision2 su* are motion1 re/1 numb]1 figure1 magnitude4 ,"h ! appreciation becomes less accurate1 yet x is /ill made directly by s5se4#gd ,b !re are yet o!r matt]s t1 ?\gh n directly affect+ s5se1 are p]ceiv$ indirectly1 or by way ( accompanim5t to :at is directly p]ceiv$4 ,?us we see a :ite object2 no?+ else affect+ our s5se 9999except its :it5ess4 ,beyond ?is1 h[ev]1 we judge & decl>e1 t ! object s se5 is ! son ( ,kleon4 ,?is is a judgm5t obta9$ indirectly1 or by way ( accompanim5t2 by accid5t1 s to speak1 inasmu* z ! same does n accompany all s5sations ( :ite4 ,x is "h t we are mo/ liable to error4#ge ,footnote #gb3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,s5su et ,s5sili1 vii4 p4 #ddi1 a4 #bj3 ,greek3 to ai7/hton pan e7/i me_/ge?os4 ,footnote #gc3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 vi4 p4 #dah1 a4 #aj-af4 ,footnote #gd3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,s5su et ,s5sili1 i4 p4 #dcg1 a4 #h2 iv4 p4 #ddb1 b4 #d-ab4 ,he says 9 ?is la/ passage1 t ! common p]ceivables are appreciable at lea/ by bo? sight & t\*--if n by all ! s5ses4 ,footnote #ge3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 vi4 p4 #dah1 a4 #g-be3 ,greek3 le_/getai de to ai7/hton tri*s1 7n du_/o men ka?' au7ta_/ pham5 ai7/ha_/ne/hai1 to de e7n kata sumbebko_/s4 ,also1 ,,iii4 i4 p4 #dbe1 b4 #bd2 iii4 p4 #dbh1 b4 #ah-be4 ,among ! five s5ses1 ,ari/otle di/+ui%es two z op]at+ by direct contact betwe5 subject & object 7t\*1 ta/e72 ?ree z op]at+ ?r\gh an ext]nal int]v5+ m$ium 7vision1 smell1 ta/e74 ,he beg9s ) ,vision1 :i* he reg>ds z possess+ mo/ completely ! nature & *>act]i/ics ( a s5se4#gf ,! direct & prop] object ( vision is col\r4 ,n[ col\r op]ates ^u ! eye n imm$iately 7=1 if ! col\r$ object be plac$ 9 contact ) ! eye1 !re w be no vision71 b by caus+ movem5ts or p]turbations 9 ! ext]nal int]v5+ m$ium1 air or wat]1 :i* affect ! s5se ?r\gh an appropriate ag5cy ( _! own4#gg ,?is ag5cy is1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 ! ,diaphan\s or ,transp>5t4 ,:5 actual or 9 en]gy1 ! transp>5t is call$ light2 :5 pot5tial or 9 capacity only1 x is call$ d>kness4 ,! eye is ( wat]y /ructure1 apt = receiv+ ^! impressions4#gh ,x is ! pres5ce ei!r ( fire1 or ( some?+ analog\s to ! cele/ial body1 t calls =? ! diaphan\s f ! /ate ( pot5tiality into t ( actuality or light2 9 :i* latt] condition x is /imulat$ by col\r4 ,! diaphan\s1 :e!r z light or z d>kness1 is a peculi> nature or accompanim5t1 n sub/antive 9 itself1 b inh]5t *iefly 9 ! ,fir/ or ,cele/ial ,body1 yet also 9 air1 wat]1 glass1 preci\s /ones1 & 9 all bodies to a great] or less degree4#gi ,! diaphan\s passes at once & simultane\sly1 9 "o place z well z 9 ano!r1 f pot5tiality to actuality--f d>kness to light4 ,light does n take "t to travel f "o place to ano!r1 z s\nd & smell d4#hj ,! diaphan\s is n a body1 nor effluvium f a body1 nor any "o ( ! elem5ts3 x is ( an adjective "*--a c]ta9 ag5cy or attribute p]vad+ or belong+ to bodies1 along ) _! ext5sion4#ha ,col\r m>ks & def9es ! surface ( ! body qu diaphan\s1 z figure def9es x qu ext5d$4 ,col\r makes ! diaphan\s itself visible1 & its own v>ieties visible ?r\gh ! diaphan\s4 ,air & wat] are transp>5t ?r\gh\t1 ?\gh ) an ill-def9$ sup]ficial col\r4 ,:ite & black1 z col\rs 9 solid bodies1 correspond to ! condition ( light or d>kness 9 air4 ,!re are "s lum9\s objects visible 9 ! d>k1 z fire1 fung\s matt]1 eyes1 & scales ( fi%1 c41 ?\gh !y h no appropriate col\r4#hb ,!re are sev5 species or v>ieties ( col\rs1 b all ( !m proce$ f :ite & black1 bl5d$ 9 diff]5t proportions1 or se5 "o ?r\gh ano!r2 :ite & black are ! two extremes1 ! o!r v>ieties be+ int]m$iate betwe5 !m4 ,footnote #gf3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 iii4 p4 #dbi1 a4 #b3 ,greek3 7 o7_/psis ma_/li/a ai7/hsi_/s e7/94 ,also ,metaphysica1 ,a4 init4 ,footnote #gg3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 vii4 p4 #dai1 a4 #ab1 #ad1 #ai2 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,s5su et ,s5sili1 iii4 p4 #ddj1 a4 #ah3 ,greek3 7_//' eu7?us kreitton pha_/nai1 t k9ei/hai to metaxu ts ai7/h_/ses u7po t\ ai7/ht\ gi_/ne/hai tn ai7_//hs91 a7ph kai m tais a7por7r7oi_/ais4--,ib4 ii4 p4 #dch1 b4 #c3 ,greek3 ei7_/te phs ei7_/t' a7_/r e7/i to metaxu t\ o7rme_/n\ kai t\ o7_/mmatos1 7 dia t\_/t\ ki_/nsi_/s e7/9 7 poi\sa to o7ran4 ,footnote #gh3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 vii4 p4 #dai1 a4 #i3 ,greek3 t\to gar 7n au7t to *r_/mati ei7nai1 to k9tik ei7nai t\ kat' e7ne_/rgeian diaphan\s phs e7/i_/n4--,ib4 ii4 p4 #dah1 b4 #aa-ag3 ,greek3 o7_/tan 7 e7ntele*ei_/a diaphanes u7po puros 7 toi\_/t\ oi7on to a7_/n sma2--puros 7 toi\_/t\ t9os p>\si_/a e7n t diaphanei4 ,footnote #gi3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 vii4 p4 #dah1 b4 #d4 ,de ,s5su et ,s5sili1 ii4 p4 #dch1 a4 #ad1 b4 #g2 iii4 p4 #dci1 a4 #ba1 seq43 ,greek3 o7 de le_/gom5 diaphane_/s1 ou7k e7_//9 i7_/dion a7e_/ros 7 u7_/datos1 ou7d' a7_/ll\ tn ou7_/t legome_/nn sma_/tn1 a7lla_/ ti_/s e7/i ko9 phu_/sis kai du_/namis1 7 *ri/ men ou7k e7_//91 e7n t\_/tois d' e7/i_/1 kai tois a7_/llois s_/mas9 e7nupa_/r*ei1 tois men mallon tois d' 7tton4 ,footnote #hj3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,s5su et ,s5sili1 vi4 p4 #ddf1 a4 #bc1 seq41 b4 #bg3 ,greek3 t ei7nai ga_/r ti phs e7/i_/n1 a7ll' ou7 ki_/nsi_/s tis4 ,emp$okles affirm$ t light travell+ f ! ,sun rea*$ ! int]v5+ space be=e x came to ! e>?2 ,ari/otle contradicts him4 ,footnote #ha3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 vii4 p4 #dah1 b4 #ah3 ,greek3 e7_//i de to sko_/tos /e_/rsis ts toiau_/ts e7_/xes e7k diaphan\s1 7_//e dlon o7_/ti kai 7 t\_/t\ p>\si_/a phs e7/i_/n4--,ari/ot4 ,de ,s5su et ,s5sili1 iii4 p4 #dci1 a4 #bf3 ,greek3 7 men ou7n t\ phtos phu_/sis e7n ao7ri_// t diaphanei e7/i_/n2 t\ d' e7n tois s_/masi diaphan\s to e7_/s*aton1 o7_/ti men ei7_/ a7_/n ti1 dlon2 o7_/ti de t\to e7/i to *rma1 e7_/k tn sumba9o_/ntn phan]o_/n4--e7_//i men gar e7n t t\ s_/matos pe_/rati1 a7ll' ou7_/ ti to t\ s_/matos pe_/ras1 a7lla tn au7tn phu_/s9 dei nomi_/ze91 7_/p] kai e7_/x *rmati_/zetai1 tau_/tn kai e7nto_/s4 ,footnote #hb3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 vii4 p4 #dai1 a4 #b-be2 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,s5su et ,s5sili1 iv4 p4 #ddb1 a4 #bj1--sev5 col\rs4 ,! same necessity = an int]v5+ m$ium ext]nal to ! subject1 z 9 ! case ( vision1 prevails also 9 ! s5ses ( he>+ & smell4 ,if ! audible or odor\s object be plac$ 9 contact ) its organ ( s5se1 !re w be no he>+ or smell4 ,:5ev] we he> or smell any object1 !re mu/ be int]pos$ betwe5 u & ! object a suitable m$ium t %all be affect$ fir/2 :ile ! organ ( s5se w be affect$ second>ily ?r\gh t m$ium4 ,air is ! m$ium 9 reg>d to s\nd1 bo? air & wat] 9 reg>d to smell2 b !re seems besides 7analog\s to ! transp>5t 9 reg>d to vision7 a special ag5cy call$ ! ,trans-,sonant1 :i* p]vades air & enables x to transmit s\nd2 & c]ta9ly ano!r special ag5cy call$ ! ,trans-,olfaci5t1 :i* p]vades bo? air & wat]1 & enables !m to transmit smell4#hc 7,x seems ?us t some?+ l a lum9if]\s e!r--ext5d$1 mobile1 & p]meat+ bodies1 yet /ill incorporeal 9 itself--0 an hypo!sis z old z ,ari/otle2 & "o o!r e!r besides1 analog\s 9 prop]ty & purpose--an odorif]\s e!r2 p]haps a ?ird or sonif]\s e!r1 b ?is is less di/9ctly specifi$ by ,ari/otle47 ,footnote #hc3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 vii4 p4 #dai1 a4 #be-ce2 ,de ,s5su et ,s5sili1 v4 p4 #ddb1 b4 #cj2 ,!mi/ius ad ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 vii41 viii4 p4 #aae1 ,sp5gel4 ,( ! ?ree names1 ,greek3 to diaphane_/s--to di*e_/s--to di_/osmon1 ! la/ two are n di/9ctly /at$ by ,ari/otle1 b are said to h be5 fir/ appli$ by ,!ophra/us aft] him4 ,see ! notes ( ,tr5del5burg & ,tor/rick2 ! latt] supposes ,!mi/ius to h _h be=e him a full] & bett] text ( ,ari/otle ?an t :i* we n[ possess1 :i* seems corrupt4 ,9 our pres5t text1 ! transp>5t z well z ! trans-olfaci5t e!r are cle>ly indicat$1 ! trans-sonant n cle>ly4 ,s\nd1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 arises f ! %ock ( two or m solid bodies communicat$ to ! air4 ,x implies local movem5t 9 "o at lea/ ( ^? bodies4 ,_m s(t bodies are incapable ( mak+ s\nd2 ^? be/ suit$ = x are su* z metals1 h>d 9 /ructure1 smoo? 9 surface1 holl[ 9 %ape4 ,! bl[ mu/ be sm>t & quick1 o!rwise ! air slips away & dissipates itself be=e ! s\nd c be communicat$ to x4#hd ,s\nd is communicat$ ?r\gh ! air to ! organ ( he>+2 ! air is "o cont9uum 7n compos$ ( adjac5t p>ticles ) int]spaces71 & a wave is propagat$ f x to ! int]nal e>1 :i* conta9s "s air enclos$ 9 ! s9u\s ducts )9 ! membrane ( ! tympanum1 cong5itally atta*$ to ! organ itself1 & endu$ ) a c]ta9 animation4#he ,?is int]nal air )9 ! e>1 excit$ by ! motion propagat$ f ! ext]nal e>1 causes he>+4 ,! e> is enabl$ to appreciate accurately ! movem5ts ( ! ext]nal air1 because x has itself little or no movem5t )94 ,we _c he> ) any o!r "p ( ! body2 because x is only 9 ! e> t nature has giv5 u ?is /ock ( int]nal air4 ,if wat] gets into ! e>1 we _c he> at all2 because ! wave g5]at$ 9 ! air )\t1 _c propagate itself )94 ,nor c we he>1 if ! membrane ( ! e> be disord]$2 any m ?an we c see1 :5 ! membrane ( ! eye is disord]$4#hf ,footnote #hd3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 9999,,ii4 viii4 p4 #dai1 b4 #d seq4 ,he calls air ,greek3 psa?uro_/s1 eu7_/?ruptos 7p4 #dbj1 a4 #a-h71--;,greek3 eu7diai_/retos1 eu7o_/li/hos 7,!mi/ius1 pp4 #aaf1 #aag1 ,sp47--quod facil diffluit 7,tr5del5burg1 ,comm4 p4 #chd74 ,he says t = sonor\s purposes air ought to be ,greek3 a7?r\n--compact or d5se3 s\nd rev]b]ates be/ f metals ) smoo? surface1 p4 #dbj1 a4 #be4 ,footnote #he3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 viii4 p4 #dai1 b4 #cd seq43 ,greek3 ou7tos d' 7o7 a7r7 e7/in o7 poin a7k\_/e91 o7_/tan k9? sune*s kai ei7s2--psophtikon men ou7n to k9tikon e7nos a7e_/ros sune*ei_/a me_/*ris a7kos4 a7ko de sumphus a7_/r2 dia de to e7n a7e_/ri ei7nai1 k9\me_/n\ t\ e7_/x to ei7_/s k9ei4 dio_/p] ou7 pa_/nt to zon a7k\_/ei1 ou7de pa_/nt die_/r*etai o7 a7_/r2 ou7 gar pa_/nt e7_/*ei a7e_/ra to k9s_/m5on me_/ros kai e7_/mpsu*on4--dia tas e7_/likas 7p4 #dbj1 a4 #ac74 ,! text ( ?is passage is n satisfactory4 ,x has be5 mu* criticis$ z well z am5d$ by ,tor/rick2 see 8 ,comm5t4 p4 #adh seq4 ,i _c approve 8 alt]ation ( ,greek3 e7_/mpsu*on into ,greek3 e7_/mpsophon4 ,footnote #hf3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 viii4 p4 #dbj1 a4 #i3 ,greek3 o7 d' e7n tois 7sin e7gkatkodo_/mtai pros to a7ki_/ntos ei7nai1 o7_/ps a7kribs ai7/ha_/ntai pa_/sas tas diaphoras ts k9_/ses4--p4 #dbj1 a4 #ad4 ,greek3 ou7d' 7a7k\_/om57 a7n 7 m_/nigx ka_/m1 7_/sp] to e7pi t ko_/r de_/rma o7_/tan ka_/m4 ,voice is a k9d ( s\nd peculi> to animat$ be+s2 yet n belong+ to all ( !m1 b only to ^? t inspire ! air4 ,nature employs respiration = two purposes3 ! fir/1 indisp5sable to animal life1--t ( cool+ & temp]+ ! excessive heat ( ! he>t & its adjac5t p>ts2 ! second1 n indisp5sable to life1 yet mo/ valuable to ! high] faculties ( man1--significant spee*4 ,! organ ( respiration is ! l>ynx2 a man _c speak ei!r :5 inspir+ or expir+1 b only :5 reta9+ & us+ ! brea? )94 ,! s\l 9 ^? p>ts1 :5 guid$ by "s phantasm or ?\ght1 impels ! air )9 aga9/ ! walls ( ! tra*ea1 & ?is %ock causes vocal s\nds4#hg ,footnote #hg3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 viii4 p4 #dbj1 b4 #e-p4 #dba1 a4 #f4 ,greek3 7_//e 7 plg t\ a7napneome_/n\ a7e_/ros u7po ts e7n t\_/tois tois mori_/ois psu*s pros tn kal\me_/nn a7rtri_/an phn_/ e7/94 ou7 gar pas z_/ou pso_/phos phn_/1 ka?a_/p] ei7_/pom5 7e7_//i gar kai t gl_/tt psophein kai 7s oi7 b_/ttontes7 a7lla dei e7_/mpsu*o_/n te ei7nai to tu_/pton kai meta phantasi_/z t9o_/s2 smantikos gar d_/ tis pso_/phos e7/in 7 phn_/2 kai ou7 t\ a7napneome_/n\ a7e_/ros1 7_/sp] 7 b_/x1 a7lla t\_/t tu_/ptei ton e7n t a7rtri_/a pros au7t_/n4 ,ari/otle seems to h be5 tol]ably satisfi$ ) ! above explanation ( sight & he>+2 =1 9 approa*+ ! s5se ( ,smell ) ! olfaci5ts1 he beg9s by say+ t x is less def9able & explicable4 ,among ! five s5ses1 smell /&s int]m$iate betwe5 ! two 7ta/e & t\*7 t op]ate by direct contact1 & ! o!r two 7sight & he>+7 t op]ate ?r\gh an ext]nal m$ium4 ,man is bel[ o!r animals 9 ?is s5se2 he discrim9ates little 9 smells except ! pleasurable & ! pa9ful4#hh ,8 ta/e1 ?\gh analog\s 9 _m po9ts to smell1 is f> m accurate & discrim9at+1 because ta/e is a v>iety ( t\*2 & 9 respect to t\*1 man is ! mo/ discrim9at+ ( all animals4 ,h5ce 8 great sup]iority to !m 9 practical wisdom4 ,inde$ ! m>k$ diff]5ce ( intellig5ce betwe5 "o man & ano!r1 turns ma9ly ^u ! organ ( t\*3 m5 ( h>d fle% 7or sk97 are by nature dull 9 intellig5ce1 m5 ( s(t fle% are apt & clev]4#hi ,! classify+ names ( diff]5t smells are borr[$ f ! names ( ! analog\s ta/es to :i* !y are analog\s--sweet1 bitt]1 t>t1 dry1 %>p1 smoo?1 c4#ij ,smells take effect ?r\gh air z well z ?r\gh wat]2 by means ( a peculi> ag5cy or accompanim5t 7m5tion$ above1 call$ ! ,trans-,olfaci5t7 p]vad+ bo? "o & ! o!r4 ,x is peculi> to man t he _c smell except :5 inhal+ air 9 ! act ( inspiration2 any "o may settle ?is = himself by mak+ ! trial4#ia ,b fi%es & o!r aquatic animals1 :i* nev] inhale air1 c smell 9 ! wat]2 & ?is proves t ! trans-olfaci5t ag5cy is op]ative to transmit od\rs n less 9 wat] ?an 9 air4#ib ,we "k t ! s5se ( smell 9 ^! aquatic animals is ! same z x is 9 man1 because ! same /rong od\rs t are de/ructive to man are also de/ructive to !m4#ic ,smell is ! p>allel1 & 9 a c]ta9 s5se ! anti!sis ( ta/e2 smell is ( ! dry1 ta/e is ( ! moi/3 ! olfactory matt] is a juicy or sapid dryness1 extract$ or wa%$ out f bo? air & wat] by ! trans-olfaci5t ag5cy1 & act+ on ! s5sory pot5tialities ( ! no/rils4#id ,?is olfactory inhalation is w>m z well z dry4 ,h5ce x is light1 & rises easily to ! bra91 ! moi/ure & coldness ( :i* x contributes to temp]2 ?is is a v salut>y process1 = ! bra9 is ! wette/ & colde/ "p ( ! body1 requir+ w>m & dry influ5ces z a corrective4 ,x is ) a view to ?is correction t ,nature has plac$ ! olfactory organ 9 su* close proximity to ! bra94#ie ,!re are two k9ds ( olfactory impressions4 ,"o ( !m is ak9 to ! s5se ( ta/e--od\r & sav\r go+ toge!r--an affection 7to a great degree7 ( ! nutritive s\l2 s t ! same od\r is agreeable :5 we are hungry1 disagreeable :5 our hung] is fully satisfi$4 ,?is fir/ k9d ( impression is common to m5 ) o!r animals2 b !re is a second1 peculi> to man1 & disconnect$ f ! s5se ( ta/e1 viz41 ! sc5t ( fl[]s1 ungu5ts1 c41 :i* are agreeable or disagreeable con/antly & p] se4#if ,nature has assign$ ?is second k9d ( od\rs z a privilege to man1 because 8 bra91 be+ s l>ge & moi/1 requires to be temp]$ by an additional /ock ( dry+ & w>m+ olfactory influ5ce4 ,footnote #hh3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 ix4 p4 #dba1 a4 #g4 ,de ,s5su et ,s5sili1 v4 p4 #dde1 a4 #f2 iv4 p4 #dda1 a4 #a4 ,de ,p>tibus ,animal4 ,,ii4 xii4 p4 #fef1 a4 #ca2 p4 #feg1 a4 #i4 ,footnote #hi3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 ix4 p4 #dba1 a4 #ba3 ,greek3 kata de tn a7phn poll tn a7_/lln z_/n diaph]o_/nts a7kriboi 7o7 a7_/n?rpos74 dio kai phronim_/tato_/n e7/i tn z_/n4 smeion de to kai e7n t ge_/nei tn a7n?r_/pn p>a to ai7/ht_/rion t\to ei7nai eu7phueis kai a7phueis1 p>' a7_/llo de mde_/n2 oi7 men gar sklro_/s>koi a7phueis tn dia_/noian1 oi7 de malako_/s>koi eu7phueis4 ,footnote #ij3 ,ibid4 a4 #bf4 ,footnote #ia3 ,ibid4 b4 #i-ai4 ,greek3 to a7_/neu t\ a7napnein m ai7/ha_/ne/hai i7_/dion e7pi tn a7n?r_/pn2 dlon de peirme_/nois4 ,he seems to ?9k t ?is is n true ( any animal o!r ?an man4 ,footnote #ib3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,s5su et ,s5sili1 v4 p4 #ddc1 a4 #c-ca2 p4 #ddd1 b4 #i4 ,footnote #ic3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 ix4 p4 #dba1 b4 #bc4 ,he in/ances brim/one1 ,greek3 a7_/sphaltos1 c4 ,footnote #id3 ,?is is difficult to und]/&1 b x seems to be :at ,ari/otle "h means4--,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 ix4 p4 #dbb1 a4 #f3 ,greek3 e7_//i d' 7 o7sm t\ xr\1 7_/sp] o7 *umos t\ u7gr\2 to d' o7sphrantikon ai7/ht_/rion duna_/mei toi\ton4--,de ,s5su et ,s5sili1 v4 p4 #ddc1 a4 #a-i3 ,greek3 e7_//i d' o7sphranton ou7* 7 diaphane_/s1 a7ll' 7 pluntikon 7 r7uptikon e7g*u_/m\ xro_/ttos2--7 e7n u7gr t\ e7g*u_/m\ xr\ phu_/sis o7sm_/1 kai o7sphranton to pa_/?os1 dlon e7k tn e7*o_/ntn kai m e7*o_/ntn o7sm_/n1 c4 ,also p4 #ddc1 b4 #c-g4 ,9 ! treatise ,de ,s5su et ,s5sili1 !re is "o passage 7ii4 p4 #dch1 b4 #bd71 :]e9 ,ari/otle affirms t smell is ,greek3 kapn_/ds a7na?umi_/asis1 e7k puro_/s2 b we also f9d a subsequ5t passage 7v4 p4 #ddc1 a4 #ba1 seq47 :]e he cites t same doctr9e z ! op9ion ( o!rs1 b di/9ctly refutes x4 ,footnote #ie3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,s5su et ,s5sili1 v4 p4 #ddd1 a4 #aj1 #bb1 #bd3 ,greek3 7 gar ts o7sms du_/namis !rm tn phu_/s9 e7/i_/n4 ,footnote #if3 ,ibid4 p4 #ddc1 b4 #ag2 p4 #ddd1 a4 #f4 #ae1 #bh3 ,greek3 i7_/dion de ts t\ a7n?r_/p\ phu_/se_/s e7/i to ts o7sms ts toiau_/ts ge_/nos dia to plei/on e7gke_/phalon kai u7gro_/taton e7_/*e9 tn z_/n 7s kata me_/ge?os4 ,plato also reckons ! pleasures ( smell among ! pure & admissible pleasures 7,philebus1 p4 #ea1 ,e42 ,timu1 p4 #fe1 ,a41 p4 #fg1 ,a474 ,ta/e is a v>iety ( t\*1 & belongs to ! l[] or nutritive s\l1 z a guide to ! animal 9 seek+ or avoid+ diff]5t sorts ( food4 ,! object ( ta/e is ess5tially liquid1 (t5 /ra9$ & extract$ f dry food by w>m? & moi/ure4 ,! prim>y manife/ation ( ?is s5sory ph5om5on is ! contra/ ( dr9kable & undr9kable4#ig ,! organ ( ta/e1 ! tongue1 is a mean betwe5 dryness & moi/ure2 :5 ei!r ( ^! is 9 excess1 ! organ is disord]$4 ,among ! v>ieties ( ta/e1 !re are two fundam5tal contr>ies 7z 9 col\r1 s\nd1 & ! objects ( ! o!r s5ses except t\*7 f :i* ! o!r contra/s are d]iv$4 ,^! fundam5tals 9 ta/e are sweet & bitt]2 correspond+ to :ite & black1 acute & grave1 9 col\rs & s\nds4 ,! s5se ( ta/e is pot5tially sweet or bitt]2 ! gu/able object is :at makes x sweet or bitt] 9 actuality4#ih ,footnote #ig3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 x4 p4 #dbb1 a4 #cj-cc4 ,de ,s5su et ,s5sili1 i4 p4 #dcf1 b4 #ae2 iv4 p4 #dda1 b4 #ag3 ,greek3 dia t\ xr\ kai ge_/d\s di?\sa 77 phu_/sis7 kai k9\sa t !rm poio_/n ti to u7gron p>askeua_/zei4 kai e7_//i t\to *umos to gigno_/m5on u7po t\ ei7rme_/n\ xr\ pa_/?os e7n t u7gr4--,ib4 b4 #bd3 ,greek3 ou7 pantos xr\ a7lla t\ trophi_/m\4 ,footnote #ih3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 x4 p4 #dbb1 b4 #e-af2 ,,ii4 xi4 p4 #dbb1 b4 #bc3 ,greek3 pasa_/ te gar ai7_//hsis mias e7nanti_/ses ei7nai dokei1 c4 ,! s5se ( t\*1 9 :i* man surpasses all o!r animals1 diff]s f ! o!r s5ses by n hav+ any two fundam5tal contr>ies giv+ orig9 to ! re/1 b by hav+ v>i\s contr>ies alike fundam5tal4 ,x is ?us h>dly "o s5se1 b an aggregate ( sev]al s5ses4 ,x appreciates ! elem5t>y diff]5ces ( body qu body--hot1 cold1 dry1 moi/1 h>d1 s(t1 c4 ,x is a mean betwe5 ea* ( ^! two extremes2 be+ pot5tially ei!r "o ( !m1 & capable ( be+ made to assimilate itself actually to ei!r4#ii ,9 ?is s5se1 ! tangible object op]ates :5 9 contact ) ! sk92 &1 z has be5 already said1 mu* ( ! sup]iority ( man dep5ds ^u 8 sup]ior f95ess & delicacy ( sk94#ajj ,/ill ,ari/otle rem>ks t ! true organ ( t\* is n ! sk9 or fle%1 b some?+ int]ior to ! fle%4 ,?is la/ s]ves only z a peculi> m$ium4 ,! fact t ! s5sation arises :5 ! object t\*es our sk91 does n prove t ! sk9 is ! true organ2 =1 if !re exi/$ a ?9 ext]ior membrane surr\nd+ our bodies1 we %\ld /ill feel ! same s5sation4 ,moreov]1 ! body is n 9 real contact ) our sk91 ?\gh x appe>s to be s2 !re is a ?9 film ( air betwe5 ! two1 ?\gh we d n p]ceive x2 j z1 :5 we t\* an object "u wat]1 !re is a film ( wat] int]pos$ betwe51 z is se5 by ! wetness ( ! f+]4#aja ,! sk9 is1 !re=e1 n ! true organ ( t\*1 b a m$ium betwe5 ! object & ! organ2 & ?is s5se does 9 reality agree ) ! o!r s5ses 9 hav+ a c]ta9 m$ium int]pos$ betwe5 object & organ4 ,b !re is ?is diff]5ce3 9 t\* ! m$ium is close to & a "p ( ourselves2 9 sight & he>+ x is ext]ior to ourselves1 & may ext5d to "s di/ance4 ,9 sight & he>+ ! object does n affect u directly2 x affects ! ext]nal m$ium1 :i* aga9 affects u4 ,b 9 t\* ! object affects1 at ! same "t & by ! same influ5ce1 bo? ! m$ium & ! int]ior organ2 l a spe> t1 ) ! same ?ru/1 pi]ces ! w>rior's %ield & w\nds ! w>rior himself4#ajb ,app>5tly1 !re=e1 ! true organ ( t\* is some?+ int]ior1 & sk9 & fle% is an int]pos$ m$ium4#ajc ,b :at ?is int]ior organ is1 ,ari/otle does n m p>ticul>ly decl>e4 ,he m]ely /ates x to be 9 close & intimate communication ) ! great c5tral focus & pr9ciple ( all s5sation--! he>t2#ajd m closely connect$ ) ! he>t 7he appe>s to ?9k7 ?an any ( ! o!r organs ( s5se1 ?\gh all ( !m are s connect$ m or less closely4 ,footnote #ii3 ,ibid4 xi4 p4 #dbb1 b4 #ag seq4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,ari/ot4 ,hi/or4 ,animal4 ,i4 xv4 p4 #did1 b4 #ag4 ,man is ,greek3 leptod]mo_/tatos tn zn 7,ari/ot4 ,de ,p>tib4 ,animal4 ii4 p4 #feg1 b4 #b71 & has ! tongue also loos] & s(t] ?an any ( !m1 mo/ fit = v>iety ( t\* 7p4 #ffj1 a4 #bj7 z well z = articulate spee*4 ,footnote #aja3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 xi4 p4 #dbc1 a4 #be-cb4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,ibid4 p4 #dbc1 b4 #ab-ag3 ,greek3 diaphe_/rei to a7pton tn o7ratn kai tn psophtikn o7_/ti e7kei_/nn men ai7/hano_/me?a t to metaxu poiein ti 7mas1 tn de a7ptn ou7* u7po t\ metaxu a7ll' a7_/ma t metaxu_/1 7_/sp] o7 di' a7spi_/dos plgei_/s2 ou7 gar 7 a7spis plgeisa e7pa_/tax51 a7ll' a7_/m' a7_/mph sune_/b plgnai4 ,?is analogy ( ! w>rior pi]c$ at ! same "t ) 8 %ield illu/rates ,ari/otle's view ( ! eigh? ,category--,hab]e3 ( :i* he gives ,greek3 7_/pli/ai z ! example4 ,he consid]s a man's clo!s & def5sive weapons z /&+ 9 a peculi> relation to him l a p]sonal appurt5ance & almo/ z a "p ( himself4 ,x is "u ?is po9t ( view t he erects ,hab]e into a di/9ct ,category4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 xi4 p4 #dbc1 b4 #bb-bf3 ,greek3 7 kai dlon o7_/ti e7ntos to t\ a7pt\ ai7/htiko_/n4--to metaxu t\ a7ptik\ 7 sa_/rx4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,p>tibus ,animal4 ,,ii4 x4 p4 #fef1 a4 #cj2 ,de ,vit et ,morte1 iii4 p4 #dfi1 a4 #ab3 ,de ,somno et ,vigil4 ii4 p4 #dee1 a4 #bc2 ,de ,s5su et ,s5sili1 ii4 p4 #dci1 a4 #b4 ,hav+ gone ?r\gh ! five s5ses s]iatim1 ,ari/otle (f]s v>i\s reasons to prove t !re nei!r are1 nor c be1 m ?an five2 & !n discusses "s complicat$ ph5om5a ( s5se4 ,we p]ceive t we see or he>2#aje d we p]ceive ?is by sight or by he>+8 & if n1 by :at o!r faculty8#ajf ,ari/otle replies by say+ t ! act ( s5se is "o & ! same1 b t x may be look$ at 9 two diff]5t po9ts ( view4 ,we see a col\r$ object2 we he> a s\nd3 9 ea* case ! act ( s5se is "o2 ! en]gy or actuality ( ! visum1 & vid5s1 ( ! sonans & audi5s1 is implicat$ & indivisible4 ,b ! pot5tiality ( ! "o is q di/9ct f ! pot5tiality ( ! o!r1 & may be consid]$ z well z nam$ ap>t4#ajg ,:5 we say3 ,i p]ceive t ,i see--we look at ! same act ( vision f ! side ( ! vid5s2 ! visum be+ put out ( sight z ! unnotic$ correlate4 ,?is is a m5tal fact di/9ct f1 ?\gh foll[+ ^u1 ! act ( vision itself4 ,ari/otle ref]s x r to t g5]al s5ti5t s\l or faculty1 ( :i* ! five s5ses are p>tial & sep>ate manife/ations1 ?an to ! s5se ( vision itself4#ajh ,he ?us consid]s :at w\ld n[ be t]m$ consci\sness ( a s5sation1 z be+ m]ely ! subjective view ( ! s5sation1 di/+ui%$ by ab/raction f ! objective4 ,footnote #aje3 ,9 mod]n psy*ology ! language w\ld be--,we are consci\s t we see or he>4 ,b ,sir ,william ,hamilton has rem>k$ t ! ^w ,consci\sness has no equival5t usually or famili>ly employ$ 9 ! ,greek psy*ology4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 ii4 p4 #dbe1 b4 #ad4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,ibid4 b4 #bf2 p4 #dbf1 a4 #af-ai4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,somno et ,vigil4 ii4 p4 #dee1 a4 #ab-ag2 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 ii4 ) ,tor/rick's note1 p4 #aff1 & ! exposition ( ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias !re9 cit$4 ,^! two passages ( ,ari/otle are to a c]ta9 ext5t diff]5t yet n contradictory1 ?\gh ,tor/rick supposes !m to be s4 ,x is ! same g5]al s5ti5t faculty1 ?\gh div]sifi$ & logically di/+ui%able 9 its manife/ations1 t enables u to conceive _m s5sations z comb9$ into "o2 & to comp>e or discrim9ate s5sations belong+ to diff]5t s5ses4#aji ,footnote #aji3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,s5su et ,s5sili1 vii4 p4 #ddi1 a4 #h-bj4 ,:ite & sweet are p]ceiv$ by two di/9ct s5ses1 & at two di/9ct mom5ts ( "t2 b !y mu/ be comp>$ & discrim9at$ by "o & ! same s5ti5t or cogitant act1 & at "o mom5t ( "t4#aaj ,?is m5tal act1 ?\gh 9 itself indivisible1 has yet two aspects1 & is ?us 9 a c]ta9 s5se divisible2 j z a po9t tak5 9 ! middle ( a l9e1 :ile indivisible 9 itself1 may be look$ ^u z ! clos+ t]m9us ( "o-half ( ! l9e1 & z ! comm5c+ t]m9us ( ! o!r half4 ,! comp>ison ( two diff]5t s5sations or ?\ghts is ?us "o & ! same m5tal fact1 ) two di/+ui%able aspects4#aaa ,footnote #aaj3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 ii4 p4 #dbf1 b4 #ag-bi3 ,greek3 ou7_/te d ke*risme_/nois e7nde_/*etai kri_/ne9 o7_/ti e7_/t]on to gluku t\ leuk\1 a7lla dei e7ni_/ t9i a7_/mph dla ei7nai4--dei de to e7n le_/ge9 o7_/ti e7_/t]on2 e7_/t]on gar to gluku t\ leuk\4--a7*_/ri/on kai e7n a7*ri_// *ro_/n4 ,,iii4 vii4 p4 #dca1 a4 #bj4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 ii4 p4 #dbg1 a4 #aj-ad3 ,greek3 7_/sp] 7n kal\si_/ t9es /igm_/n1 7 mia kai 7 du_/o1 tau_/t kai a7diai_/retos kai diaire_/t2 7 men ou7n a7diai_/reton1 e7n to krino_/n e7/i kai a7_/ma1 7 de diai_/reton u7pa_/r*ei1 ou7* e7_/n2 dis gar t au7t *rtai smei_/ a7_/ma4 ,x is to be rem>k$ t1 9 expla9+ ?is m5tal process ( comp>ison1 ,ari/otle ?ree sev]al times applies x bo? to ,greek3 ai7_//hsis & to ,greek3 no_/sis1 p4 #dbf1 b4 #bb-ca2 p4 #dbg1 a4 #i4 ,ari/otle devotes a *apt] to ! enquiry3 :e!r we c p]ceive two di/9ct s5sations at once 7i4e4 9 "o & ! same mom5t ( "t74 ,he decides t we _c2 t ! s5ti5t s\l or faculty is "o & indivisible1 & c only h a s+le en]gy or actuality at once4#aab ,if two causes ( s5sation are op]ative toge!r1 & "o ( !m be mu* sup]ior 9 =ce1 x w r5d] u ins5sible to ! o!r4 ,he rem>ks t1 :5 we are pre-occupi$ ) l\d noise1 or ) deep reflection1 or ) int5se fright1 visual objects w (t5 pass by u unse5 & unnotic$4#aac ,(t5 ! two simultane\s s5sations w comb9e or bl5d into "o comp\nd1 s t we %all feel nei!r ( !m purely or sep>ately4#aad ,"o s+le act ( s5sational en]gy may h[ev] h a d\ble aspect2 z ! same individual object may be at once :ite & sweet1 ?\gh its :it5ess & its sweetness are logically sep>able4#aae ,footnote #aab3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,s5su et ,s5sili1 vii4 p4 #ddg1 a4 #ab4 ,footnote #aac3 ,ibid4 a4 #ae4 ,footnote #aad3 ,ibid4 b4 #ab-bj4 ,footnote #aae3 ,ibid4 p4 #ddi1 a4 #ad4 ,to ! s5ti5t s\l1 ev5 9 its l[e/ manife/ations1 belong ! feel+s ( pleasure & pa91 appetite & av]sion4#aaf ,! movem5ts connect$ ) ^! feel+s1 z ) all s5sation1 beg9 & close ) ! c5tral organ--! he>t4#aag ,^u ^! are consequ5t ! v>i\s passions & emotions2 yet n )\t c]ta9 faculties ( memory & phantasy accompany+ or foll[+ ! facts ( s5se4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 iii4 p4 #dad1 b4 #c-af2 ,,iii4 vii4 p4 #dca1 a4 #i2 ,de ,somno et ,vigil4 i4 p4 #ded1 b4 #bi4 ,footnote #aag3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,p>tibus ,animalium1 ,,iii4 iv4 p4 #fff1 a4 #ab4 ,ari/otle proce$s by gradual /eps upw>d f ! ,s5ti5t s\l to ! ,notic 7,cogitant or ,intellig5t7 s\l1 call$ 9 its highe/ p]fection ,nos4 ,:ile refut+ ! doctr9e ( ,emp$okles1 ,demokritus1 & o!r philosoph]s1 :o consid]$ cogitation or intellig5ce to be ! same z s5sible p]ception1 & :ile insi/+ ^u ! di/9ctness ( ! two z m5tal ph5om5a1 he recognizes ! important po9t ( analogy betwe5 !m1 t bo? ( !m include judgm5t & comp>ison2#aah & he describes an int]m$iate /age call$ ,phantasy or ,imag9ation1 =m+ ! transition f ! l[] ( ! two to ! high]4 ,we h already obs]v$ t1 9 ! ,ari/otelian psy*ology1 ! high] functions ( ! s\l presuppose & are built ^u ! l[] z _! f\ndation1 ?\gh ! l[] d n necess>ily involve ! high]4 ,)\t nutrition1 !re is no s5se2 )\t s5se1 !re is no phantasy2 )\t phantasy1 !re is no cogitation or intellig5ce4#aai ,! high] psy*ical ph5om5a are n id5tical ) ! l[]1 yet nei!r are !y indep5d5t !re(2 !y presuppose ! l[] z a "p ( _! conditions4 ,"h1 & inde$ v g5]ally else:]e1 ,ari/otle has be5 c>eful to avoid ! fallacy ( conf\nd+ or id5tify+ ! conditions ( a ph5om5on ) ! ph5om5on itself4#abj ,footnote #aah3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 iii4 p4 #dbg1 a4 #bj4 ,footnote #aai3 ,ibid4 b4 #ad3 ,greek3 phantasi_/a gar e7_/t]on kai ai7/h_/ses kai dianoi_/z4--,ib4 vii4 p4 #dca1 a4 #af3 ,greek3 ou7de_/pote noei a7_/neu phanta_/smatos 7 psu*_/4--,de ,memori et ,rem9isc5t4 i4 p4 #ddi1 b4 #ca3 ,greek3 noein ou7k e7_//9 a7_/neu phanta_/smatos4 ,footnote #abj3 ,mill's ,sy/em ( ,logic1 ,book ,v4 *4 #c1 s4 #h4 ,he proce$s to expla9 ,phantasy or ! ,phanta/ic dep>tm5t ( ! s\l1 ) ! phantasms t belong to x4 ,x is n s5sible p]ception1 nor belief1 nor op9ion1 nor k1 nor cogitation4 ,our dreams1 ?\gh affections ( ! s5ti5t s\l1 are really phantasms 9 our sleep1 :5 !re is no visual s5sation2 ev5 :5 awake1 we h a phantasm ( ! sun1 z ( a disk "o foot 9 diamet]1 ?\gh we believe ! sun to be l>g] ?an ! e>?4#aba ,_m ( ! l[] animals h s5sible p]ception )\t any phantasy3 ev5 ^? among !m t h phantasy h no op9ion2 = op9ion implies fai?1 p]suasion1 & "s rational explanation ( t p]suasion1 to none ( :i* does any animal atta94#abb ,phantasy is an int]nal movem5t ( ! animat$ be+ 7body & s\l 9 "o72 belong+ to ! s5ti5t s\l1 n to ! cogitant or intellig5t2 n id5tical ) ! movem5t ( s5se1 b cont9u$ f or produc$ by t1 & by t alone2 accord+ly1 simil> to ! movem5t ( s5se & relat+ to ! same matt]s4#abc ,s9ce our s5sible p]ceptions may be ei!r true or false1 s also may be our phantasms4 ,&1 s9ce ^! phantasms are n only l our s5sations1 b rema9 /&+ 9 ! s\l long aft] ! objects ( s5se h pass$ away1 !y are to a great degree ! det]m9+ causes bo? ( action & emotion4 ,!y are su* habitually to animals1 :o are de/itute ( ,nos2 & (t5 ev5 to intellig5t m51 if ! ,nos be ov]cl\d$ by disease or drunk5ness4#abd ,footnote #aba3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 iii4 p4 #dbh1 a4 #e1 b4 #c2 ,de ,somno et ,vig4 ii4 p4 #def1 a4 #bd3 ,greek3 k9\ntai d' e7_/nioi ka!u_/dontes kai poi\si polla e7grgorika_/1 ou7 me_/ntoi a7_/neu phanta_/smatos kai ai7/h_/se_/s t9os2 to gar e7nu_/pnio_/n e7/9 ai7_//hma tro_/pon t9a_/4--,ibid4 i4 p4 #ded1 b4 #aj4 ,footnote #abb3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 iii4 p4 #dbh1 a4 #aj1 #bb1 #be4 ,footnote #abc3 ,ibid4 b4 #aj-ae2 ,de ,somniis1 i4 p4 #dei1 a4 #ae4 ,footnote #abd3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 iii4 p4 #dbh1 b4 #af3 ,greek3 kai polla kat' au7tn 7i4e4 ,greek3 kata tn phantasi_/an7 kai poiein kai pa_/s*e9 to e7_/*on4--,ibid4 p4 #dbi1 a4 #d3 ,greek3 kai dia to e7mme_/ne9 kai o7moi_/z ei7nai 7tas phantasi_/z7 tais ai7/h_/sesi1 polla kat' au7tas pra_/ttei ta za1 c4 ,9 ! *apt] n[ be=e u1 ,ari/otle is c>eful to discrim9ate phantasy f sev]al o!r psy*ological ph5om5a :]e) x is liable to be conf\nd$4 ,b we rem>k ) "s surprise1 t nei!r "h1 nor 9 any o!r "p ( 8 g5]al ,psy*ology1 does he (f] any exposition ( ,memory1 ! ph5om5on m ne>ly approa*+ ?an any o!r to phantasy4 ,he suppli$ ! defici5cy aft]w>ds by a %ort b valuable tract on ,memory & ,rem9isc5ce2 :]e9 he recognizes1 & ref]s to1 ! m g5]al "w on ,psy*ology4 ,memory be>s on ! pa/1 z di/+ui%$ bo? f ! pres5t & future4 ,memory & phantasy are 9 "s cases s alike1 t we _c di/+ui% cle>ly :e!r :at is 9 our m9ds is a remembrance or a phantasm4#abe ,bo? ( !m belong to ! same psy*ological dep>tm5t--to ! c5tral s5ti5t pr9ciple1 & n to ! cogitant or intellig5t ,nos4 ,memory z well z phantasy are cont9uations1 remnants1 or second>y consequ5ces1 ( ! prim>y movem5ts ( s5se2 :at 9 itself is a phantasm1 may become an object ( remembrance directly & p] se2 matt]s ( cogitation1 be+ includ$ or implicat$ 9 phantasms1 may also become objects ( remembrance1 indirectly & by way ( accompanim5t4#abf ,we c rememb] our prior acts ( cogitation & demon/ration2 we c rememb] t1 a mon? ago1 we demon/rat$ ! ?ree angles ( a triangle to be equal to two "r angles2 b1 z ! orig9al demon/ration c\ld n be c>ri$ on )\t our hav+ be=e our m5tal vision ! phantasm ( "s p>ticul> triangle1 s nei!r c ! remembrance ( ! demon/ration be made pres5t to u )\t a simil> phantasm4#abg ,9 acts ( remembrance we h a conception ( pa/ "t1 & we recognize :at is n[ pres5t to our m9ds z a copy ( :at has be5 =m]ly pres5t to u1 ei!r z p]ception ( s5se or z actual cognition2#abh :ile 9 phantasms !re is no conception ( pa/ "t1 nor any simil> recognition1 nor any necess>y ref]5ce to our own pa/ m5tal /ates2 ! phantasm is look$ at by itself1 & n z a copy4 ,?is is ! ma9 po9t ( di/9ction betwe5 phantasm & remembrance3#abi :at is rememb]$ is a pres5t phantasm assimilat$ to an impression ( ! pa/4 ,"s ( ! sup]ior animals possess bo? memory & phantasy4 ,b o!r animals h nei!r2 _! s5sations disappe>1 !y h no endurance2 :ile endurance is ! basis bo? ( phantasy & memory4#acj ,footnote #abe3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,memor4 et ,rem94 i4 p4 #dea1 a4 #e2 p4 #ddi1 a4 #aj4 ,footnote #abf3 ,ibid4 p4 #dej1 a4 #bb3 ,greek3 ti_/nos men ou7n tn ts psu*s e7/in 7 mn_/m1 phan]on o7_/ti ou7p] kai 7 phantasi_/a2 kai e7_//i mnmoneuta ka?' au7ta men o7_/sa e7/i phanta/a_/1 kata sumbebkos d' o7_/sa m a7_/neu phantasi_/z4 ,footnote #abg3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,memor4 et4 ,rem4 i4 p4 #ddi1 b4 #ah4 ,footnote #abh3 ,ibid4 b4 #bb3 ,greek3 a7ei gar o7_/tan e7n]g kata to mnmoneu_/e91 ou7_/ts e7n t psu* le_/gei1 o7_/ti pro_/t]on t\to 7_/k\s5 7 7_//heto 7 e7no_/s54--,ibid4 p4 #deb1 b4 #bh4 ,footnote #abi3 ,ibid4 p4 #dej1 a4 #cj2 p4 #dea1 a4 #ae3 ,greek3 to mnmoneu_/e91 7s ei7ko_/nos ou7 pha_/ntasma1 e7_/xis4 ,!mi/ius 9999ad ,ari/ot4 ,de ,memori1 p4 #bdj1 ed4 ,sp5gel4 ,footnote #acj3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,po/]4 ii4 p4 #ii1 b4 #cf3 ,greek3 mon t\ ai7/h_/matos4 ,x may be rem>k$ t 9 ! ,topica ,ari/otle urges a dialectical objection aga9/ ?is or a simil> doctr9e 7,topic4 ,,iv4 iv4 v4 p4 #abe1 b4 #f-ai71 & aga9/ 8 own def9ition cit$ 9 ! prec$+ note1 :]e he calls ,greek3 mn_/m an ,greek3 e7_/xis4 ,comp>e ! fir/ *apt] ( ! ,metaphysica4 ,b ?\gh "s animals h memory1 no animal except man has ,rem9isc5ce4 ,h]e9 man surpasses !m all4#aca ,ari/otle draws a m>k$ di/9ction betwe5 ! two2 betwe5 ! 7memorial7 ret5tive & reviv+ functions1 :5 work+ unconsci\sly & in/9ctively1 & ! same two functions1 :5 /imulat$ & guid$ by a delib]ate purpose ( our own--:i* he calls rem9isc5ce4 ,?is la/ is l a syllogism or c\rse ( ratioc9ative inf]5ce1 p]=mable only by m9ds capable ( tak+ c\nsel & calculat+4 ,he consid]s memory z a movem5t proce$+ f ! c5tre & organs ( s5se to ! s\l1 & /amp+ an impression !reupon2 :ile rem9isc5ce is a c\nt]-movem5t proce$+ f ! s\l to ! organs ( s5se4#acb ,9 ! process ( rem9isc5ce1 movem5ts ( ! s\l & movem5ts ( ! body are conjo9$1#acc m or less p]turb+ & durable accord+ to ! temp]am5t ( ! individual4 ,! process is int5tional & delib]ate1 in/igat$ by ! desire to se>* = & recov] "s lo/ phantasm or cognition2 its success dep5ds ^u ! fact t !re exi/s by nature a regul> obs]vable ord] ( sequ5ce among ! movem5ts ( ! sy/em1 physical z well z psy*ical4 ,! consequ5ts foll[ _! antec$5ts ei!r univ]sally1 or at lea/ accord+ to cu/om>y rules1 9 ! majority ( cases4#acd ,footnote #aca3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,memor4 et ,rem4 ii4 p4 #dec1 a4 #h4 ,he draws ! same di/9ction 9 ,hi/4 ,animal4 ,i4 i4 p4 #dhh1 b4 #bf4 ,footnote #acb3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,i4 iv4 p4 #djh1 b4 #ag4 ,de ,memor4 et ,rem94 i4 p4 #dej1 a4 #cj2 ii4 p4 #dec1 a4 #aj3 ,greek3 to a7namimn_/ske/hai_/ e7/9 oi7on sullo_/gismo_/s tis4 ,footnote #acc3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,memor4 et ,rem4 ii4 p4 #dec1 a4 #ad-bc4 ,footnote #acd3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,memor4 et ,rem4 ii4 p4 #dea1 b4 #aj3 ,greek3 sumbai_/n\si d' ai7 a7namn_/seis1 e7peid pe_/phuk5 7 ki_/nsis 7_/de g5e_//hai meta t_/nde4 ,! consequ5t is ei!r 7#a7 l its antec$5t1 :olly or p>tially2 or 7#b7 contr>y to x2 or 7#c7 has be5 actually felt 9 juxtaposition ) x4 ,9 rem9isc5ce1 we endeav\r to rega9 ! =gott5 consequ5t by hunt+ out "s antec$5t :]eupon x is likely to foll[2 tak+ our />t ei!r f ! pres5t mom5t or f "s o!r kn[n po9t4#ace ,we run ov] _m phantasms until we hit ^u ! true antec$5t2 ! possibility ( rem9isc5ce dep5ds ^u our hav+ ?is )9 our m5tal rea*1 among our accessible /ock ( ideas3 if su* be n ! case1 rem9isc5ce is impracticable1 & we mu/ le>n ov] aga94#acf ,we are mo/ likely to succe$1 if we get ^u ! track or ord] :]e9 ev5ts actually occurr$2 ?us1 if we are try+ to recollect a =gott5 v]se or s5t5ce1 we beg9 to repeat x f ! fir/ ^w2 ! same antec$5t may inde$ call up diff]5t consequ5ts at diff]5t times1 b x w g5]ally call up :at has habitually foll[$ x be=e4#acg ,footnote #ace3 ,ibid4 b4 #ah3 ,greek3 dio kai to e7phexs ?reu_/om5 no_/santes a7po t\ nun 7 a7_/ll\ t9o_/s1 kai a7ph' o7moi_/ou 7 e7nanti_/ou 7 t\ su_/neggus4 ,ab\t ! associative prop]ty ( ,contr>ies see also ,de ,somno et ,vigil4 i4 p4 #dec1 b4 #bg4 ,footnote #acf3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,memor4 et ,rem4 ii4 p4 #deb1 a4 #g3 ,greek3 polla_/kis d' 7_/d men a7dunatei a7namn/hnai1 ztein de du_/natai kai eu7ri_/skei4 t\to de gi_/netai k9\nti polla_/1 e7_/s a7n toiau_/tn k9_/s ki_/ns91 7 a7kol\?_/sei to pragma4 to gar memn/hai_/ e7/i to e7neinai duna_/mei 9999tn k9\san2 t\to de_/1 7/' e7x au7t\ kai 7n e7_/*ei k9_/sen k9?nai1 7_/sp] ei7_/rtai4 ,footnote #acg3 ,ibid4 ii4 p4 #deb1 a4 #b4 ,! movem5ts ( ,memory & ( ,rem9isc5ce are p>tly corporeal & p>tly psy*ical1 j z ^? ( ,s5sation & ,phantasy are4 ,we comp>e 9 our remembrance great] & less 7ei!r 9 "t or 9 ext]nal magnitudes7 ?r\gh simil> int]nal movem5ts diff]+ f ea* o!r 9 ! same1 proportion1 b all on a m9iature scale4#ach ,^! int]nal movem5ts (t5 lead to great discom=t1 :5 a p]son makes fruitless ef=ts to recov] ! =gott5 phantasm t he desires2 especially ) excitable m51 :o are mu* di/urb$ by _! own phantasms4 ,!y _c /op ! movem5t once begun2 &1 :5 _! s5sitive sy/em is s(t & flexible1 !y f9d t !y h unwitt+ly provok$ ! bodily movem5ts belong+ to ang] or fe>1 or "s o!r pa9ful emotion4#aci ,^! movem5ts1 :5 once provok$1 cont9ue 9 spite ( ! opposition ( ! p]son t exp]i5ces !m4 ,he br+s ^u himself ! reality ( ! pa9ful emotion2 j z we f9d t1 aft] we h v frequ5tly pron\nc$ a s5t5ce or sung a song1 ! int]nal movem5ts left 9 our memories are sometimes s /rong & s p]si/5t1 t !y act on our vocal organs ev5 )\t any volition on our p>ts1 & det]m9e u to s+ ! song or pron\nce ! s5t5ce ov] aga9 9 reality4#adj ,sl[ m5 are usually good 9 memory1 quick m5 & apt le>n]s are good 9 rem9isc5ce3 ! two are seldom f\nd toge!r4#ada ,footnote #ach3 ,ibid4 b4 #ab3 ,greek3 e7_//i gar e7n au7t ta o7_/moia s*_/mata kai k9_/seis4--pa_/nta gar ta e7ntos e7la_/tt1 7_/sp] a7na_/logon kai ta e7kto_/s4 ,footnote #aci3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,memor4 et ,rem4 ii4 p4 #dec1 a4 #bb3 ,greek3 o7 a7namimnsko_/m5os kai ?reu_/n smatiko_/n ti k9ei1 e7n 7 to pa_/?os4 ,footnote #adj3 ,ibid4 p4 #dec1 a4 #bh3 ,greek3 e7_/oike to pa_/?os tois o7no_/masi kai me_/lesi kai lo_/gois1 o7_/tan dia /o_/matos ge_/ntai_/ ti au7tn spho_/dra2 pausame_/nois gar kai ou7 b\lome_/nois e7pe_/r*etai pa_/l9 a7_/de9 7 le_/ge94 ,footnote #ada3 ,ibid4 i4 p4 #ddi1 b4 #g4 ,9 ?is acc\nt ( ,memory & ,rem9isc5ce1 ,ari/otle displays an acute & p5etrat+ intellig5ce ( ! great pr9ciples ( ! ,association ( ,ideas4 ,b ^! pr9ciples are op]ative n less 9 memory ?an 9 rem9isc5ce3 & ! exagg]at$ prom95ce t he has giv5 to ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two 7det]m9$ app>5tly by a wi% to keep ! proc$ure ( man ap>t f t ( animals7 t5ds to p]plex 8 description ( ! associative process4 ,at ! same "t1 8 mann] ( *>act]iz+ phantasy1 memory1 & rem9isc5ce1 z be+ all ( !m at once corporeal & psy*ical--involv+1 l s5sation1 int]nal movem5ts ( ! body z well z phases ( ! consci\sness1 sometimes ev5 pass+ into ext]nal movem5ts ( ! bodily organs )\t our volition--all ?is is a /rik+ example ( psy*ological obs]vation1 z well z ( consi/5cy 9 foll[+ out ! doctr9e laid d[n at ! comm5cem5t ( 8 *ief treatise3 ,s\l z ! ,=m implicat$ ) ,body z ! ,matt]1--! two be+ an integral concrete sep>able only by ab/raction4 ,we come n[ to ! highe/ & 79 ,ari/otle's op9ion7 mo/ hon\rable portion ( ! s\l--! ,nos or notic faculty1 :]eby we cogitate1 und]/&1 reason1 & believe or op9e "u ! influ5ce ( reason4#adb ,accord+ to ! uni=m s*eme ( ,ari/otle1 ?is highe/ portion ( ! s\l1 ?\gh di/9ct f all ! l[]1 presupposes !m all4 ,z ! s5ti5t s\l presupposes ! nutri5t1 s also ! cogitant s\l presupposes ! nutri5t1 ! s5ti5t1 ! phanta/ic1 ! memorial1 & ! rem9isc5t4 ,ari/otle c>efully di/+ui%es ! s5ti5t dep>tm5t ( ! s\l f ! cogitant1 & refutes m ?an once ! doctr9e ( ^? philosoph]s t id5tifi$ ! two4 ,b he is equally c>eful to ma9ta9 ! correlation betwe5 !m1 & to exhibit ! s5ti5t faculty n only z involv+ 9 itself a c]ta9 measure ( intellectual discrim9ation1 b also z an ess5tial & fundam5tal condition to ! ag5cy ( ! cogitant1 z a portion ( ! human s\l4 ,we h already gone ?r\gh ! ?ree successive /ages--phanta/ic1 memorial1 rem9isc5t--:]eby ! int]val betwe5 s5sation & cogitation is bridg$ ov]4 ,ea* ( ! ?ree is directly dep5d5t on pa/ s5sation1 ei!r z reproduction or z coroll>y2 ea* ( !m is an indisp5sable condition ( man's cogitation2 moreov]1 9 ! highe/ ( ! ?ree1 we h actually slid unp]ceiv$ into ! cogitant phase ( ! human s\l2 = ,ari/otle decl>es ! rem9isc5t process to be ( ! nature ( a syllogism4#adc ,t ! s\l _c cogitate or reason )\t phantasms--t phantasms are requir$ = ! actual work+ ( ! human ,nos--he affirms 9 ! mo/ explicit mann]4#add ,footnote #adb3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 iv4 p4 #dbi1 a4 #aj3 ,greek3 p]i de t\ mori_/ou t\ ts psu*s 7 g9_/skei te 7 psu* kai phronei4 ,he himself def9es :at he means by ,greek3 n\s a few l9es l[]2 & he is c>eful to specify x z ,greek3 o7 ts psu*s n\s--o7 a7_/ra kal\_/m5os ts psu*s n\s 7le_/g de n\n1 7 dianoeitai kai u7polamba_/nei 7 psu*_/7--a4 #bb4 ,9 ! prec$+ *apt] he expressly discrim9ates ,greek3 no_/sis f ,greek3 u7po_/lpsis4 ,?is la/ ^w ,greek3 u7po_/lpsis is ! mo/ g5]al t]m = believ+ or op9+ ^u reasons good or bad2 ! v>ieties "u x are ,greek3 e7pi/_/m1 d_/xa1 phro_/nsis kai ta7nanti_/a t\_/tn 7p4 #dbg1 b4 #af-bg74 ,footnote #adc3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,memor4 et ,rem4 ii4 p4 #dec a4 #aj4 ,footnote #add3 ,ibid4 p4 #ddi1 b4 #ca-p4 #dej1 a4 #ab3 ,greek3 noein ou7k e7_//9 a7_/neu phanta_/smatos--7 de mn_/m kai 7 tn notn ou7k a7_/neu phanta_/smato_/s e7/94--,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 vii4 p4 #dca1 a4 #af4 ,! doctr9e ( ,ari/otle respect+ ,nos has be5 a puzzle1 ev5 f ! "t ( 8 fir/ comm5tators4 ,p>tly f ! obscurity inh]5t 9 ! subject1 p>tly f ! defective condition ( 8 text z x n[ /&s1 8 mean+ _c be always cle>ly compreh5d$1 nor does x seem t ! diff]5t passages c be completely reconcil$4 ,anaxagoras1 ,demokritus1 & o!r philosoph]s1 appe> to h spok5 ( ,nos or ,intellect 9 a l>ge & vague s5se1 z equival5t to ,s\l g5]ally4 ,plato seems to h be5 ! fir/ to n>r[ & specialize ! mean+2 di/+ui%+ po9t$ly 7z we h /at$ above7 ! rational or encephalic s\l1 9 ! cranium1 ) its circul> rotations1 f ! two l[] s\ls1 9999?oracic & abdom9al4 ,ari/otle agre$ ) him 9 ?is di/9ction 7ei!r ( sep>ate s\ls or ( sep>ate functions 9 ! same s\l72 b he att5uat$ & dive/$ x ( all connexion ) sep>ate corporeal lodgm5t1 or ) peculi> movem5ts ( any k9d4 ,9 8 psy*ology1 ! bra9 no long] appe>s z ! seat ( intellig5ce1 b simply z a cold1 moi/1 & s5seless organ1 de/9$ to c\nt]vail ! excessive heat ( ! he>t3 :i* la/ is ! great c5tre ( animal heat1 ( life1 & ( ! s5ti5t s\l4 ,ari/otle decl>es ,nos n to be connect$ )1 or dep5d5t on1 any giv5 bodily organs or movem5ts appropriat$ to itself3 ?is is "o ma9 circum/ance di/+ui%+ x f ! nutri5t s\l z well z f ! s5ti5t s\l1 ea* ( :i* re/s indisp5sably ^u corporeal organs & ag5cies ( its own4 ,x w be rememb]$ t we /at$ ! relation ( ,s\l to ,body 79 ,ari/otle's view7 z t ( ,=m to ,matt]2 ! two toge!r con/itut+ a concrete individual1 num]ically "o2 also t ,=m & ,matt]1 ea* be+ ess5tially relative to ! o!r1 admitt$ ( gradations1 high] & l[]2 e4g4 a massive cube ( m>ble is already mat]ia =mata1 b x is /ill purely mat]ia1 relative to ! /atue t may be obta9$ f x4 ,n[1 ! gr& region ( ,=m is ! ,cele/ial ,body--! va/1 deep1 p]ceivable1 circul> mass circumscrib+ ! ,kosmos1 & enclos+1 9 & ar\nd its c5tre1 ,e>? ) ! o!r ?ree elem5ts1 t5ant$ by sub/ances g5]at$ & p]i%able4 ,?is ,cele/ial ,body is ! abode ( div9ity1 includ+ _m div9e be+s :o take "p 9 its et]nal rotations1 viz4 ! ,sun1 ,moon1 ,/>s1 c41 & o!r ,gods4 ,n[1 e s\l1 or e =m t animates ! matt] ( a liv+ be+1 d]ives its vitaliz+ influ5ce f ?is cele/ial region4 ,all se$s ( life include )9 !m a spiritual or gase\s heat1 m div9e ?an ! f\r elem5ts1 proce$+ f ! sun1 & 9 nature ak9 to ! elem5t ( ! />s4 ,su* sol> or cele/ial heat diff]s g5]ically f ! heat ( fire4 ,x is ! only s\rce f :5ce ! pr9ciple ( life1 ) ! animal heat t accompanies x1 c be obta9$4 ,s\l1 9 all its v>ieties1 proce$s f h5ce4#ade ,footnote #ade3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,g5]at4 ,animal4 ,,ii4 iii4 p4 #gcf1 b4 #bi3 ,greek3 pa_/ss men ou7n psu*s du_/namis e7te_/r\ s_/matos e7_/oike keko9nke_/nai kai !iote_/r\ tn kal\me_/nn /oi*ei_/n2 7s de diaphe_/r\si timio_/tti ai7 psu*ai kai a7timi_/a a7ll_/ln1 ou7_/t kai 7 toiau_/t diaphe_/rei phu_/sis2 pa_/ntn men gar e7n t spe_/rmati e7nupa_/r*ei1 o7_/p] poiei g_/nima ei7nai ta spe_/rmata1 to kal\_/m5on !rmo_/n4 ,b ?\gh all v>ieties ( ,s\l emanate f ! same cele/ial s\rce1 !y possess ! div9e elem5t 9 v diff]5t degrees1 & are v unequal 9 comp>ative wor? & dignity4 ,! l[e/ v>iety1 or nutritive s\l--! only "o possess$ by plants1 among :i* !re is no sep>ation ( sex#adf--;is conta9$ pot5tially 9 ! se$1 & is ?us transmitt$ :5 t se$ is matur$ into a new individual4 ,9 animals1 :i* possess x along ) ! s5sitive s\l & among :i* ! sexes are sep>at$1 x is also conta9$ pot5tially 9 ! g5]ative sy/em ( ! female sep>ately2 & ! fir/ comm5cem5t ( life 9 ! future animal is ?us a purely vegetable life4#adg ,! s5sitive s\l1 ! *>act]i/ic ( ! complete animal1 _c be sup]add$ except by copulation & ! male sem54 ,! female1 be+ comp>atively impot5t & hav+ less animal heat1 furni%es only ! matt] ( ! future (fspr+2 =m1 or ! mov+1 fecundat+1 cause1 is suppli$ by ! male4 ,?r\gh ! two toge!r ! new individual animal is complet$1 hav+ n m]ely ! nutritive s\l1 b also ! s5ti5t s\l along ) x4#adh ,footnote #adf3 ,ibid4 ,i4 xxiii4 p4 #gca1 a4 #bg4 ,footnote #adg3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,g5]at4 ,animal4 ,,ii4 iii4 p4 #gcf1 b4 #ab4 ,footnote #adh3 ,ibid4 ,i4 ii4 p4 #gaf1 a4 #d-ag2 xix4 p4 #gbf1 b4 #cc2 xx4 p4 #gbh1 a4 #ag2 xxi4 p4 #gbi1 b4 #f-bg4 ,bo? ! nutritive & ! s5ti5t s\ls h1 ea* ( !m respectively1 a special bodily ag5cy & movem5t belong+ to !m4 ,b ! ,nos1 or ! notic s\l1 has no p>tn]%ip ) any simil> bodily ag5cy4 ,!re is no special corporeal pot5tiality 7to speak 9 ,ari/otelian language7 :i* x is de/9$ to actualize4 ,x ent]s f )\t1 & emanates f a /ill m exalt$ influ5ce ( t div9e cele/ial sub/ance f :i* all psy*ical or vitaliz+ heat proce$s4#adi ,x is sup]9duc$ ^u ! nutritive & s5ti5t s\ls1 & introduces itself at an age ( ! individual lat] ?an bo? ( !m4 ,hav+ no "p ( ! bodily organism specially appropriat$ to x1 ?is v>iety ( s\l--:at is call$ ! ,nos--/&s di/+ui%$ f ! o!r two 9 be+ p]fectly sep>able f ! body2#aej t is1 sep>able f ! organiz$ body :i* x is ! ess5tial function ( ! two l[] s\ls to actualize1 & ) :i* bo? ( !m are b\nd up4 ,! ,nos is n sep>able f ! body altoge!r2 x belongs ess5tially to ! div9e cele/ial body1 & to ^? lum9>ies & o!r div9e be+s by :om portions ( x are t5ant$4 ,!oriz+ contemplation--! p]fect1 uncl\d$1 unemb>rass$1 ex]cise ( ! !oretical ,nos--is ! s+le m5tal activity ( ^! div9ities2 contemplation ( ! =mal regul>ity ( ! ,kosmos1 ) its et]nal & faultless rotations1 & ) _! own p]fection z p>ticipat+ !re94 ,! cele/ial body is ! body :]eto ,nos1 or ! notic s\l1 prop]ly belongs2#aea q ap>t f ! two o!r s\ls1 s5ti5t & nutritive1 ^u :i* x is graft$ 9 ! animal body2 & ap>t also f all ! necessities ( human action1 prec$$ by balanc$ motives & delib]ate *oice4#aeb ,footnote #adi3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 iii4 p4 #gcf1 b4 #bg3 ,greek3 lei_/petai de ton n\n mo_/non ?u_/ra!n e7peisie_/nai1 kai !ion ei7nai mo_/non2 ou7!n gar au7t\ t e7n]gei_/a ko9nei smatik e7ne_/rgeia4 ,! words ,greek3 !ion ei7nai mo_/non mu/ n be con/ru$ /rictly1 = 9 ! next foll[+ passage he proce$s to decl>e t all ,greek3 psu*_/1 psu*ik du_/namis or ,greek3 a7r*_/1 p>takes ( ! div9e elem5t1 & t 9 ?is respect !re is only a diff]5ce ( degree betwe5 "o ,greek3 psu* & ano!r4 ,footnote #aej3 ,ibid4 p4 #gcg1 a4 #aj3 ,greek3 o7 kal\_/m5os n\s4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 ii4 p4 #dac1 b4 #be2 iii4 p4 #dae1 a4 #aa4 ,footnote #aea3 ,respect+ ,greek3 to a7_/n sma1 see ! copi\s citations 9 ,tr5del5burg's note ad ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 vii42 ,comm4 p4 #cgc4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,ari/ot4 ,e?ic4 ,nikom4 ,x4 viii4 p4 #aagh1 b4 #bj3 ,greek3 t d znti t\ pra_/tte9 a7phrme_/n1 e7_/ti de mallon t\ poiein1 ti_/ lei_/petai pln !ri_/z8 7_//e 7 t\ !\ e7ne_/rgeia1 mak>io_/tti diaphe_/r\sa1 !rtik a7n ei7_/4--,see also ,metaphysic4 ,greek3 ,l4 v4 p4 #ajgd1 b4 #bf-ce4 ,f ?is cele/ial body1 a c]ta9 influ5ce ( ,nos is transf]r$ to "s ( ! mortal inhabitants ( e>?1 wat]1 & air4 ,?us a ?ird or notic s\l--or r a ?ird notic function--is add$ to ! two exi/+ functions1 s5sitive & nutri5t1 ( ! animal s\l1 :i* acquires !reby an improv$ aptitude =1 & correlation )1 ! ,=mal & ,univ]sal4 ,we h already /at$ t ! s5sitive s\l possesses ?is aptitude to a c]ta9 ext5t2 x receives ! impression ( s5sible =ms1 )\t be+ impress$ by ! matt] accompany+ !m4 ,! notic function /r5g!ns & %>p5s ! aptitude2 ! s\l comes into correlation ) ^? cogitable or intellective =ms :i* are involv$ 9 ! s5sible =ms2#aec x rises f ! l[] g5]alities ( ! ,second ,philosophy1 to ! high] g5]alities ( ! ,fir/ ,philosophy4 ,footnote #aec3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 viii4 p4 #dcb1 a4 #f3 ,greek3 e7n tois ei7_/desi tois ai7/htois ta nota_/ e7/94 ,z ! s5ti5t or p]cipi5t s\l is ! =m or correlate ( all p]ceivables1 & ?us id5tifi$ ) !m 9 nature1 all ( !m hav+ exi/5ce only 9 relation to x1--s ! cogitant or intellective s\l is ! =m or correlate ( all cogitables1 all ( :i* exi/ relatively to x1 & only relatively4#aed ,x is 9 fact ! highe/ ( all =ms--! ,=m ( ,=ms2 ! m5tal or subjective aspect ( all =mal reality4 ,footnote #aed3 ,ibid4 p4 #dcb1 b4 #b3 ,greek3 o7 n\s ei7_/dos ei7dn kai 7 ai7_//hsis ei7dos ai7/htn4 ,su* at lea/ is ! t5d5cy & purpose ( t notic influ5ce :i* ! cele/ial sub/ance imp>ts to ! human s\l2 b x is realiz$ only to a v small degree4 ,9 its *>act]i/ic !oriz+ efficacy1 ! godlike ,nos c\nts = a small fraction ( ! :ole s\l1 ?\gh sup]excell5t 9 quality4#aee ,!re are b few m5 9 :om x is tol]ably develop$1 & ev5 9 ^? few x is c\nt]vail$ by _m o!r ag5cies4#aef ,! notic function 9 m5 & animals exi/s only 9 companion%ip ) ! two o!r psy*ical functions4 ,x is subs]vi5t to ! limits & conditions t !y impose1 z well z to ! necessities ( individual & social action2 to all t is requir$ = act+ l a man1 accord+ to ! ,ari/otelian phrase4 ,man's nature is complex1 & n self-suffic+ = a life ( !oriz+ contemplation1 su* z t :]e9 ! cele/ial inmates pass _! immortality ( happ9ess4#aeg ,footnote #aee3 ,ari/ot4 ,e?ic4 ,nikom4 ,x4 vii4 p4 #aagg1 b4 #cd3 ,greek3 ei7 gar kai t o7_/gk mikro_/n e7/i1 duna_/mei kai timio_/tti polu mallon pa_/ntn u7p]e_/*ei4 ,footnote #aef3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,memor4 et ,rem94 i4 p4 #dej1 a4 9999#ah4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,ari/ot4 ,e?ic4 ,nikom4 ,x4 vii4 p4 #aagg1 b4 #bf3 ,greek3 o7 de toi\tos a7n ei7_/ bi_/os krei_/ttn 7 kat' a7_/n?rpon4--viii4 p4 #aagh1 b4 #f3 ,greek3 de_/setai ou7n toi\_/tn pros to a7n?rpeu_/e/hai4--ix4 p4 #aagh1 b4 #cc3 ,greek3 ou7k au7ta_/rks 7 phu_/sis pros to !rein4 ,comp>e simil> s5tim5ts 9 ,ari/ot4 ,metaphys4 ,a4 ii4 p4 #ihc1 a4 #a4 ,we h ?us to /udy ! notic function accord+ to ! manife/ations ( x t we f9d 9 man1 & to a c]ta9 ext5t 9 "s o!r privileg$ animals4 ,bees1 = example1 p>take 9 ! div9e gift to a c]ta9 ext5t2 be+ di/+ui%$ 9 ?is respect f _! analogues--wasps & hornets4#aeh ,footnote #aeh3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,g54 ,animal4 ,,iii4 x4 p4 #gfj1 a4 #d3 ,greek3 o7_/ntos de p]itt\ t\ ge_/n\s kai i7di_/ou t\ tn melittn4--p4 #gfa1 a4 #d3 ,greek3 ou7 gar e7_/*\s9 7wasps & hornets7 ,greek3 ou7den !ion1 7_/sp] to ge_/nos tn melittn4 ,x is rem>kable t ,greek3 p]itto_/s1 ! epi!t "h appli$ by ,ari/otle to bees1 is ! epi!t t he also applies to m5 ( !oretical & speculative activity1 z contra/$ ) m5 prud5t & judici\s 9 action 7see ,metaphys4 ,a4 ii4 p4 #ihc1 a4 #b2 also ,e?ic4 ,nikom4 ,,vi4 vii4 p4 #aada1 b4 #f74 ,else:]e he calls bees ,greek3 phro_/nima 7,metaphys4 ,a4 i4 p4 #ihj1 b4 #bb74 ,see a good note ( ,tor/rick 7on ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 p4 #dbh1 a4 #aj71 p4 #agb ( 8 ,comm5t>y4 ,ari/otle may possibly h be5 "o among ! philosoph]s t ,virgil _h 9 8 m9d1 9 ,georgics1 iv4 #bai3-- ,8 quidam signis1 atque hc exempla secuti1 ,esse apibus p>tem div9 m5tis1 et hau/us !reos dix]e3 ,deum namque ire p] omnes ,t]rasque1 tractusque m>is1 coelumque pr(undum1 c4 ,9 ^! & o!r animals1 & 9 man to a /ill great] degree1 ! !oriz+ activity exi/s2 b x is ei!r />v$1 or at lea/ has to deal ) mat]ials obscure1 puzzl+1 conflict+2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 ! practical intellect becomes l>gely develop$1 ?r\gh ! pressure ( wants & desires1 comb9$ ) ! tea*+ ( exp]i5ce4 ,9 ,ari/otle's view1 s5sible p]ception is a sep>ate s\rce ( k1 accompani$ ) judgm5t & discrim9ation1 indep5d5t ( ! notic function4 ,occasionally1 he ref]s ! intellectual sup]iority ( man to ! prop]ly attemp]$ comb9ation & antagonism ( heat 9 ! he>t ) cold 9 ! bra91 ea* /rong & pure2#aei all ! highly end[$ animals 7he says7 h great] animal heat1 :i* is ! ess5tial condition ( a bett] s\l2#afj he reckons ! f9] s5se ( t\* possess$ by man z an ess5tial condition ( ! same intellectual result4#afa ,s5sible p]ception 9 its five div]se manife/ations1 toge!r ) its second>y psy*ical effects--phantasy & memory1 accumulates 9 ! human m9d 7& 9 "s animals7 a great] or less exp]i5ce ( p>ticul> facts2 f "s ( :i* inf]5ces are drawn z to o!rs unkn[n1 direct+ conduct z well z enl>g+ k4#afb ,footnote #aei3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,g5]at4 ,animal4 ,,ii4 vi4 p4 #gdd1 a4 #aa-ca3 ,greek3 dloi de tn eu7krasi_/an 7 dia_/noia2 phronim_/taton ga_/r e7/i tn zn a7_/n?rpos4 ,we may rem>k t ,ari/otle consid]s cold z 9 "s cases a positive prop]ty1 n simply z ! abs5ce or privation ( heat 7,de ,p>tibus ,animal4 ,,ii4 ii4 p4 #fdi1 a4 #ah74 ,! he>t is ! "p :]e9 ! psy*ical fire 7z x 77 is kept burn+3 ,greek3 ts psu*s 7_/sp] e7mpepureume_/ns e7n tois mori_/ois t\_/tois 7,ari/ot4 ,de ,vit et ,morte1 iv4 p4 #dfi1 b4 #af74 ,virgil1 9 ! beautiful l9es ( 8 ,second ,georgic 7#dhc71 lam5ts t he is disqualifi$ = deep philosophical /udies by ! want ( heat r\nd 8 he>t3--,p ,s91 has ne possim natur acc$]e p>tes1 ,frigidus ob/it]it circum prcordia sanguis1 c4 ,footnote #afj3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,respirat4 xiii4 p4 #dgg1 a4 #af4 ,footnote #afa3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 ix4 p4 #dba1 a4 #ba4 ,footnote #afb3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaphys4 ,a4 i4 pp4 #ihj-a4 ,all ?is process--a p]petual movem5t ( s5se & memory--beg9s f infancy1 & goes on indep5d5tly ( ,nos or ! notic function prop]ly s call$2 :i* gr[s up gradually at a lat] age1 aid$ by ! acquisition ( language & by in/ruction convey$ ?r\gh language4 ,! sup]v5+ ,nos presupposes & dep5ds ^u :at has be5 ?us treasur$ up by exp]i5ce4 ,?\gh1 9 ! cele/ial body4 ,nos exi/s sep>ately f human be+s1 & ?\gh x !re op]ates proprio motu ap>t f s5se1 su* is n ! case ) ! human ,nos2 :i* dep5ds ^u ! co-op]ation1 & is subject to ! re/rictions1 ( ! complicat$ s\l & body :]e) x is domicil$--re/rictions diff]+ 9 ea* individual case4 ,?\gh ! notic process is di/9ct f s5se1 yet )\t s5se x _c take place 9 man4 ,ari/otle expressly says3 ,y _c cogitate )\t a phantasm or )\t a cont9u\s image4 ,n[ ! phantasm has be5 already expla9$ z a relic ( movem5ts ( s5se--or z ^? movem5ts !mselves1 look$ at 9 ano!r po9t ( view4#afc ,:5 we cogitate 7he says71 our m5tal affection is ! same z :5 we draw a triangle = geometrical /udy2 = !re1 ?\gh we d n make use ( ! fact t ! triangle is det]m9ate 9 its magnitude1 we /ill draw x ( a det]m9ate magnitude4 ,s 9 cogitation1 ev5 :5 we are n cogitat+ a det]m9ate quantum1 we nev]!less set be=e our eyes a det]m9ate quantum1 b we d n cogitate x quat5us det]m9ate4#afd ,we _c ev5 7he goes on to say7 rememb] ! cogitabilia )\t a phantasm or s5sible image2 s t our memory ( !m is only by way ( concomitance 7indirect & second>y74#afe ,phantasy is ?us absolutely indisp5sable to cogitation3 fir/ to c>ry+ on ! process at all2 next to rememb]+ x aft] x is pa/4 ,)\t ei!r ! visible phantasm ( objects se5 & t\*$1 or ! audible phantasm ( words he>d & rememb]$1 ! ,nos 9 human be+s w\ld be a nullity4#aff ,footnote #afc3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,somniis1 i4 p4 #dei1 a4 #ae2 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 vii4 p4 #dca1 a4 #ag2 iii4 p4 #dbh1 b4 #ab4 ,footnote #afd3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,memor4 et ,rem94 i4 p4 #ddi1 b4 #cj3 ,greek3 e7pei de p]i phantasi_/z ei7_/rtai pro_/t]on e7n tois p]i psu*s1 kai noein ou7k e7_//9 a7_/neu phanta_/smatos2 sumbai_/nei gar to au7to pa_/?os e7n t noein o7_/p] kai e7n t diagra_/phe92 e7kei te gar ou7!n pros*r_/m5oi t to poson 7risme_/non ei7nai to trig_/n\1 o7_/ms gra_/phom5 7risme_/non kata to poso_/n2 kai o7 non 7sau_/ts1 ka7n m poson no1 ti_/!tai pro o7mma_/tn poso_/n1 noei d' ou7* 7 poso_/n4 ,?is passage appe>s to be z cle> a /atem5t ( ! ma9 doctr9e ( ,nom9alism z c be f\nd 9 ,hobbes or ,b]keley4 ,9 ! sixte5? section ( ! ,introduction to ! ,pr9ciples ( ,human ,k1 ,b]keley says3--,& "h x mu/ be ackn[l$g$ t a man may consid] a figure m]ely z triangul>1 )\t att5d+ to ! p>ticul> qualities ( ! angles or relations ( ! sides4--,9 l mann] we may consid] ,pet] to f> =? z man1 or s f> =? z animal1 )\t fram+ ! =em5tion$ idea1 ei!r ( man or animal1 inasmu* z all t is p]ceiv$ is n consid]$4 ,b]keley has n improv$ ^u ! /atem5t ( ,ari/otle4 ,footnote #afe3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,memor4 et ,rem94 i4 p4 #dej1 a4 #ac4 ,footnote #aff3 ,ab\t s5se & he>+1 z ! fundam5ta ( intellect1 see ,ari/ot4 ,de ,s5su et ,s5sili1 i4 p4 #dcg1 a4 #a-ag4 ,we see t1 ?\gh ,ari/otle recognizes a g5]al di/9ction betwe5 phantasy & cogitation1 & alludes to _m animals z hav+ ! =m] )\t atta9+ to ! latt]1 yet he also decl>es t 9 man1 :o possesses bo?1 n only is cogitation dep5d5t ^u phantasy1 b phantasy passes into cogitation by gradations almo/ imp]ceptible4 ,9 reg>d to ! practical application ( ,nos 7i4e4 to animal movem5ts det]m9$ ei!r by appetite or by reason71 he f9ds a great difficulty 9 keep+ ! di/9ction cle>ly m>k$4 ,sub/antially1 inde$1 he lets x drop4 ,:5 he speaks ( phantasy z be+ ei!r calculat+ or p]ceptive1 we are unable to see 9 :at respect calculat+ phantasy 7:i* he /ates n to belong to o!r animals7 diff]s f an ef=t ( cogitation4#afg ,inde$1 he speaks ) "s diffid5ce respect+ any di/ribution ( p>ts 9 ! same s\l1 suspect+ t su* di/ribution is n real b logical3 y may subdivide z mu* z y *oose4#afh ,footnote #afg3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 x4 p4 #dcc1 a4 #i-;b4 #cj3 ,greek3 ei7_/ tis tn phantasi_/an ti!i_/ 7s no_/si_/n t9a--phantsi_/a de pasa 7 logi/ik 7 ai7/htik_/2 tau_/ts men ou7n kai ta a7_/lla za mete_/*ei4 ,also vii4 p4 #dca1 b4 #g4 ,footnote #afh3 ,ibid4 ix4 p4 #dcb1 a4 #bc4 ,x ?us appe>s cle> t ,ari/otle re/ricts ! ,nos or notic function 9 man to ! matt]s ( s5se & exp]i5ce1 physical or m5tal1 & t he consid]s ! phantasm to be an ess5tial accompanim5t ( ! cogitative act4 ,yet ?is does n at all detract f 8 view ( ! gr&eur1 importance1 & wide range ( survey1 belong+ to ! notic function4 ,x is ! portion ( man's nature t correlates ) ! ab/ract & univ]sal2 b x is only a portion ( 8 nature1 & mu/ "w 9 conjunction & h>mony ) ! re/4 ,! ab/ract _c be really sep>at$ f ! concrete1 nor ! univ]sal f "o or o!r ( its p>ticul>s1 nor ! ess5ce f t :]e( x is ! ess5ce1 nor ! attribute f t ( :i* x is ! attribute1 nor ! g5us & species f ! individuals compreh5d$ !re92 nor1 to speak 9 purely ,ari/otelian language1 ! ,=m f "s ,matt]1 or ! ,matt] f "s ,=m4 ,9 all ^! cases !re is a notional or logical di/9ction1 impress+ ! m9d z ! result ( v>i\s comp>isons1 not$ by an appropriate t]m1 & rememb]$ aft]w>ds by means ( t t]m 7t is1 by means ( an audible or visible phantasm72 b real sep>ation !re nei!r is nor c be4 ,?is is ! c>d9al pr9ciple ( ,ari/otle1 repeat$ 9 almo/ all 8 works--8 m>k$ anti!sis aga9/ ,plato4 ,su* logical di/9ctions z ^? "h notic$ 7!y might be multipli$ )\t numb]7 x belongs to ,nos or ! notic function to cognize4 ,b ! real objects1 9 ref]5ce to :i* alone ! di/9ctions h a mean+1 are concrete & individual2 & ! cogniz+ subject is really ! entire man1 employ+ inde$ ! notic function1 b employ+ x ) ! aid ( o!r m5tal =ces1 phantasms & remembrances1 real & v]bal4 ,! notic s\l is call$ by ,ari/otle ! place ( ,=ms1 ! pot5tiality ( ,=ms1 ! correlate ( ?+s ap>t f ,matt]4#afi ,x cogitates ^! ,=ms 9 or along ) ! phantasms3 ! cogitable ,=ms are conta9$ 9 ! s5sible ,=ms2 = !re is no?+ really exi/5t beyond or ap>t f visible or tangible magnitudes1 ) _! prop]ties & affections1 & ) ! s-call$ ab/ractions consid]$ by ! geomet]4 ,h5ce1 )\t s5sible p]ception1 a man c nei!r le>n nor und]/& any?+2 9 all 8 !oretical contemplations1 he requires "s phantasm to contemplate along ) !m4#agj ,footnote #afi3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 iv4 p4 #dbi1 a4 #bg1 b4 #bb4 ,footnote #agj3 ,ibid4 vii4 p4 #dca1 b4 #b3 ,greek3 ta men ou7n ei7_/d to notikon e7n tois phanta_/smasi noei4--viii4 p4 #dcb1 a4 #c3 ,greek3 e7pei de ou7de pragma ou7!_/n e7/i p>a ta mege_/?1 7s dokei1 ta ai7/hta ke*risme_/non1 e7n tois ei7_/desi tois ai7/htois ta nota_/ e7/i1 ta_/ te e7n a7phaire_/sei lego_/m5a1 kai o7_/sa tn ai7/htn e7_/xeis kai pa_/?2 kai dia t\to ou7_/te m ai7/hano_/m5os m!n ou7!n a7n ma_/?oi ou7de xunei_/2 o7_/tan de !r1 a7na_/gk a7_/ma pha_/ntasma_/ ti !rein4 ,h]e9 lies "o ( ! ma9 di/9ctions betwe5 ! notic & ! s5ti5t s\ls4 ,! s5ti5t deals ) p>ticul>s1 & correlates ) ext]nal bodies2 ! notic appreh5ds univ]sals1 :i* 9 a c]ta9 s5se are )9 ! s\l3 h5ce a man c cogitate :5ev] or :atev] he *ooses1 b he c see or t\* only :at is pres5t4#aga ,ano!r di/9ction is1 t ! s5ti5t s\l is embodi$ 9 special organs1 ea* ) det]m9ate capacities1 & correlat+ ) ext]nal objects1 !mselves alike det]m9ate1 act+ only "u c]ta9 conditions ( locality4 ,! possibilities ( s5sation are ?us f ! beg9n+ limit$2 moreov]1 a c]ta9 relative proportion mu/ be ma9ta9$ betwe5 ! p]cipi5t & ! p]ceivable2 = extreme or viol5t s\nds1 col\rs1 c41 produce no s5sation2 on ! contr>y1 !y dead5 ! s5ti5t organ4#agb ,b ! notic s\l 7:at is call$ ! ,nos ( ! s\l1 to use ,ari/otle's language7#agc is no?+ at all 9 actuality be=e its notic function comm5ces1 ?\gh x is ev]y?+ 9 pot5tiality4 ,x is n embodi$ 9 any corporeal organ ( its own1 nor m+l$ z a new elem5t>y +r$i5t ) ! body2 x does n correlate ) any ext]nal objects2 x is n s specially atta*$ to "s p>ticul>s z to make x antipa!tic to o!rs4 ,accord+ly its possibilities ( cogitation are unlimit$2 x appreh5ds ) equal facility :at is mo/ cogitable & :at is lea/ cogitable4 ,x is ?or\ghly indet]m9ate 9 its nature1 & is 9 fact at fir/ a m]e unlimit$ cogitative pot5tiality2#agd l a tablet1 ^u :i* no lett]s h z yet be5 writt51 b ^u :i* all or any lett]s may be writt54#age ,footnote #aga3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 v4 p4 #dag1 b4 #bb4 ,footnote #agb3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 iv4 p4 #dbi1 a4 #ca4 ,footnote #agc3 ,ibid4 a4 #bb3 ,greek3 o7 a7_/ra kal\_/m5os ts psu*s n\s 7le_/g de n\n 7 dianoeitai kai u7polamba_/nei 7 psu*_/7 ou7!_/n e7/9 e7n]gei_/a tn o7_/ntn prin noein4 ,footnote #agd3 ,ibid4 a4 #ba3 ,greek3 7_//e md' au7t\ ei7nai phu_/s9 mdemi_/an a7ll' 7 tau_/tn1 o7_/ti dunato_/n4 ,footnote #age3 ,ibid4 p4 #dcj1 a4 #a4 ,we h already said t ! ,nos ( ! human s\l emanates f a peculi> influ5ce ( ! cele/ial body1 :i* is ! special region ( ,=m 9 ! ,kosmos4 ,?r\gh x we acquire an enl>g$ p[] ( appreh5d+ ! ab/ract & univ]sal2 we c asc5d above s5sible =ms to ! cogitable =ms conta9$ !re92 we c consid] all =ms 9 !mselves1 )\t pay+ att5tion to ! matt] :]e9 !y are embodi$4 ,in/ead ( consid]+ ! concrete solid or liquid be=e u1 we c m5tally analyse !m1 & ?us /udy solidity 9 ! ab/ract1 fluidity 9 ! ab/ract4 ,:ile our s5ses judge ( wat] z hot & cold1 our notic function enables u to appreciate wat] 9 ! ab/ract--to det]m9e its ess5ce1 & to furni% a def9ition ( x4#agf ,9 all ^! objects1 z comb9ations ( ,=m ) ,matt]1 ! cogitable =m exi/s pot5tially2 & is ab/ract$ or consid]$ ab/ract$ly1 by ! cogitant ,nos4#agg ,yet ?is la/ 7z we h already se57 _c op]ate except along ) & by aid ( phantasms--( impressions reviv$ or rema9+ f s5se4 ,x is ?us imm]s$ 9 ! mat]ials ( s5se1 & has no o!rs4 ,b x h&les !m 9 a way ( its own1 & "u new po9ts ( view2 comp>+ & analys+2 recogniz+ ! ab/ract 9 ! concrete1 & ! univ]sal 9 ! p>ticul>2 discrim9at+ m5tally & logically ! "o f ! o!r2 & not+ ! di/9ction by appropriate t]ms4 ,su* di/9ctions are ! nom5a1 g5]at$ 9 ! process ( cogitation by ,nos itself4 ,! ,nos1 z x exi/s 9 any individual1 gradually loses its orig9al "* ( nak$ pot5tiality1 & becomes an actual work+ =ce1 by means ( its own acquir$ mat]ials4#agh ,x is an aggregate ( nom5a1 all ( !m 9 nature id5tical ) itself2 &1 :ile cogitat+ !m1 ! ,nos at ! same "t cogitates itself4 ,consid]$ ab/ract$ly1 ap>t f matt]1 !y exi/ only 9 ! m9d itself2 9 !oretical speculation1 ! cognosc5s & ! cognitum are id5tical4 ,b !y are n really sep>able f matt]1 & h no reality ap>t f x4 ,footnote #agf3 ,ibid4 p4 #dbi1 b4 #aj4 ,footnote #agg3 ,ibid4 p4 #dcj1 a4 #b-i4 ,footnote #agh3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 v4 p4 #dag1 b4 #bc4 ,ibid4 ,,iii4 iv4 p4 #dbi1 b4 #g3 ,greek3 o7_/tan du_/ntai e7n]gein di' au7t\4 ,! di/9ction1 yet at ! same "t correlation1 betwe5 ,=m & ,matt]1 p]vades all nature 7,ari/otle affirms71 & w be f\nd 9 ! ,nos z else:]e4 ,we mu/ recognize an ,intellectus ,ag5s or con/ructive1 & an ,intellectus ,pati5s or receptive4#agi ,! ,ag5s is ! great intellectual en]gy p]vad+ ! cele/ial body1 & act+ ^u all ! animals susceptible ( its op]ation2 analog\s to light1 :i* illum9ates ! diaphan\s m$ium1 & elevates :at 0 m]e pot5tial col\r into col\r actual & visible4#ahj ,! ,pati5s is ! intellectual receptivity act$ ^u 9 ea* individual1 & capable ( be+ made to cogitate e ?+2 ant]ior to ! ,ag5s1 9 "t1 s f> z reg>ds ! individual1 yet z a g5]al fact 7:5 we are talk+ ( man z a species7 n ant]ior ev5 9 "t1 b correlative4 ,( ! two1 ! ,intellectus ,ag5s is ! m v5]able2 x is pure intellectual en]gy1 unmix$1 unimpressible f )\t1 & sep>able f all animal body4 ,x is ?is1 & no?+ m1 :5 consid]$ ap>t f animal body2 b x is !n et]nal & immortal1 :ile ! ,intellectus ,pati5s p]i%es ) ! rema9+ s\l & ) ! body4 ,yet ?\gh ! ,intellectus ,ag5s is ?us et]nal1 & ?\gh we h "p 9 x1 we _c rememb] any ( its op]ations ant]ior to our own maturity2 = ! concurr5ce ( ! ,intellectus ,pati5s1 :i* beg9s & ends ) u1 is indisp5sable bo? to remembrance & to ?\ght4#aha ,footnote #agi3 ,ibid4 ,,iii4 v4 p4 #dcj1 a4 #aj4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,ibid4 a4 #ad3 ,greek3 kai e7_//9 o7 men toi\tos n\s t pa_/nta gi_/ne/hai1 o7 de t pa_/nta poiein1 7s e7_/xis tis1 oi7on to phs2 tro_/pon ga_/r t9a kai to phs poiei ta duna_/mei o7_/nta *r_/mata e7n]gei_/a *r_/mata4 ,ari/otle "h illu/rates ,greek3 n\s poitiko_/s by ,greek3 phs & ,greek3 e7_/xis2 & we "k :at view he takes ( ,greek3 phs 7,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 vii4 p4 #dah1 b4 #i7 z ! ,greek3 e7ne_/rgeia or ,greek3 e7_/xis t\ diaphan\s--:i* diaphan\s he expla9s to be a ,greek3 phu_/sis tis e7nupa_/r*\sa e7n a7e_/ri kai u7_/dati kai e7n t a7idi_/ t a7_/n s_/mati4 ,judg+ by ?is illu/ration1 x seems prop] to c\ple ! ,greek3 n\s poitiko_/s "h ) 8 decl>ation 9 ,de ,g5]at4 ,animal4 ,,ii4 p4 #gcf1 b4 #bh3 ,greek3 ton n\n mo_/non ?u_/ra!n e7peise_/nai kai !ion ei7nai mo_/non3 he _c consid] ! ,greek3 n\s poitiko_/s1 :i* is ( ! nature ( ,=m1 z belong+ to ea* individual man l ! ,greek3 n\s pa?tiko_/s4 ,footnote #aha3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 v4 p4 #dcj1 a4 #ag3 ,greek3 kai ou7tos o7 n\s 7i4 e4 ,greek3 poitiko_/s7 *ri/os kai a7pa?s kai a7mig_/s1 t ou7si_/a 7n e7ne_/rgeia2 a7ei gar timi_/t]on to poi\n t\ pa_/s*ontos1 kai 7 a7r* ts u7_/ls4--,ibid4 a4 #bb3 ,greek3 *ri/heis d' e7/i mo_/non t\?' o7_/p] e7/i_/1 kai t\to mo_/non a7?a_/naton kai a7i_/dion2 ou7 mnmoneu_/om5 de_/1 o7_/ti t\to men a7pa!_/s1 o7 de pa?tikos n\s ph?>to_/s1 kai a7_/neu t\_/t\ ou7!n noei4 ,9 ?is obscure & difficult *apt] 7difficult ev5 to ,!ophra/us ! fri5d & pupil ( ! au?or71 we h giv5 ! be/ mean+ t ! words seem to admit4 ,we see "h ! full ext5t ( ,ari/otle's diff]5ce f ! ,platonic doctr9e1 9 respect to ! immortality ( ! s\l4 ,he _h def9$ s\l z ! fir/ actualization ( a body hav+ pot5tiality ( life ) a det]m9ate organism4 ,?is ( c\rse impli$1 & he expressly decl>es x1 t s\l & body 9 ea* individual case 7 "o & indivisible1 s t ! s\l ( ,sokrates p]i%$ ( necessity ) ! body ( ,sokrates4#ahb ,b he accompani$ t decl>ation ) a res]ve 9 fav\r ( ,nos1 & especially ( ! !oriz+ ,nos2 :i* he recogniz$ z a diff]5t sort ( s\l1 n dep5d5t on a det]m9ate bodily organism1 b capable ( be+ sep>at$ f x1 z ! et]nal is f ! p]i%able4#ahc ,! pres5t *apt] in=ms u h[ f> su* res]ve is int5d$ to g4 ,t ! !oriz+ ,nos is n limit$1 l ! s5ti5t s\l1 to a det]m9ate bodily organism1 b exi/s ap>t f t organism & et]nally--is ma9ta9$ z inconte/able3 x is ! *>act]i/ic intellectual activity ( ! et]nal cele/ial body & ! div9e inmates !re(4 ,b ! di/9ction ( ,=m & ,matt] is "h po9t$ out1 z prevail+ 9 ,nos & 9 ,s\l g5]ally1 n less ?an ?r\gh\t all o!r ,nature4 ,! !oriz+ ,nos1 z x exi/s 9 ,sokrates1 ,plato1 ,demokritus1 ,anaxagoras1 ,emp$okles1 ,x5okrates1 c41 is individualiz$ 9 ea*1 & individualiz$ diff]5tly 9 ea*4 ,x repres5ts ! result ( ! ,intellectus ,ag5s or ,=mal ,nos1 univ]sal & p]man5t1 ^u ! ,intellectus ,pati5s or notic receptivity peculi> to ea* individual2 ! co-op]ation ( ! two is indisp5sable to su/a9 ! !oriz+ intellect ( any individual man4 ,b ! ,intellectus ,pati5s1 or ,receptivus1 p]i%es along ) ! individual4 ,accord+ly1 ! intellectual life ( ,sokrates _c be cont9u$ f>!r4 ,x _c be prolong$ aft] 8 s5sitive & nutritive life has ceas$2 ! notic function1 z x exi/s 9 him1 is subject to ! same limits ( duration z ! o!r functions ( ! s\l4 ,! intellectual man is no m immortal ?an ! s5ti5t man4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 i4 p4 #dac1 a4 #c4 ,footnote #ahc3 ,ibid4 ii4 p4 #dac1 b4 #bd3 ,greek3 p]i de t\ n\ kai ts !rtiks duna_/mes ou7de_/n p phan]o_/n1 a7ll' e7_/oike psu*s ge_/nos e7_/t]on ei7nai1 kai t\to mo_/non e7nde_/*etai *ri_/ze/hai1 ka?a_/p] to a7i_/dion t\ ph?>t\4 ,su* is ! op9ion "h deliv]$ by ,ari/otle4 ,& x foll[s inde$ z a di/9ct coroll>y f 8 doctr9e respect+ animal & vegetable procreation 9 g5]al4 ,individuality 7! be+ unum num]o 9 a species7 & immortality are 9 8 view incompatible facts2 ! "o excludes ! o!r4 ,9 assign+ 7z he s (t5 does7 a f9al cause or purpose to ! wide-spread fact ( procreation ( species by animals & vegetables1 he tells u t e individual liv+ organism1 hav+ once atta9$ ! advantage ( exi/5ce1 ye>ns & aspires to prolong ?is = ev]1 & to become immortal4 ,b ?is aspiration _c be realiz$2 ,nature has =bidd5 x1 or is inadequate to x2 no individual c be immortal4 ,be+ preclud$ f sep>ate immortality1 ! individual approa*es z ne> to x z is possible1 by g5]at+ a new individual l itself1 & ?us p]petuat+ ! species4 ,su* is ! explanation giv5 by ,ari/otle ( ! great fact p]vad+ ! sublun>y1 organiz$ _w#ahd--;immortal species ( plants1 animals1 & m51 ?r\gh a succession ( individuals ea* ess5tially p]i%able4 ,! g5]al doctr9e applies to ,nos z well z to ! o!r functions ( ! s\l4 ,nos is immortal2 b ! individual ,sokrates1 consid]$ z notic or intellectual1 c no m be immortal ?an ! same individual consid]$ z s5ti5t or rem9isc5t4 ,footnote #ahd3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,g5]at4 ,animal4 ,,ii4 i4 p4 #gca1 b4 #bj1 seq42 ,de ,anim1 ,,ii4 iv4 p4 #dae1 a4 #bf1 seq42 ,o,economica1 ,i4 iii4 p4 #acdc1 b4 #bc4 ,we h already /at$ t ,nos--,intellect--! notic function--is t faculty ( ! s\l t correlates ) ! ab/ract & univ]sal2 ) ,=m ap>t f ,matt]4 ,its process is at once analytical1 syn!tical1 & ret5tive4 ,nature pres5ts to u only concretes & p>ticul>s1 9 a p]petual c\rse ( *ange & reciprocal action2 9 ^! ! ab/ract & univ]sal are imm]s$1 & out ( ^! !y h to be dis5gag$ by logical analysis4 ,t ! ab/ract is a d]ivative f ! concrete1 & ! univ]sal f p>ticul>s--is ! doctr9e ( ,ari/otle4 ,asc5d+ f p>ticul>s1 ! analysis is c>ri$ s f> t at l5g? x c g no f>!r4 ,x cont9ues to divide until x comes to indivisibles1 or simple notions1 ! highe/ ab/ractions1 & ! l>ge/ univ]sals4 ,^! are ! elem5ts out ( :i* univ]sal propositions are =m$1 ! fir/ premisses or pr9cipia ( demon/ration4 ,unphilosophical m9ds d n rea* ^! indivisibles at all3 b x is ! function ( ! !oriz+ ,nos to fa/5 on !m1 & comb9e !m into true propositions4 ,9 s f> z reg>ds ! indivisibles !mselves1 falsehood is out ( ! "q1 & tru? also1 s9ce !y affirm no?+4 ,! m9d ei!r appreh5ds !m1 or x does n appreh5d !m3 !re is no o!r alt]native4#ahe ,b1 :5 comb9$ into affirmative propositions1 !y !n are true or false1 z ! case may be4 ,! =mal ess5ce ( ea* object is among ^! indivisibles1 & is appreh5d$ z su* by ! intellect2 :i*1 :ile conf9+ itself to su* ess5ce1 is un]r+1 z ea* s5se is 9 reg>d to its own appropriate p]ceivables4#ahf ,b1 :5 ! intellect goes fa!r1 & proce$s to pr$icate any attribute respect+ ! ess5ce1 !n x becomes liable to error1 z s5se is :5 draw+ inf]5ces4 ,footnote #ahe3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 vi4 p4 #dcj1 a4 #bf3 ,greek3 7 men ou7n tn a7diaire_/tn no_/sis e7n t\_/tois p]i a7 ou7k e7_//i to pseudos2 e7n oi7s de kai to pseudos kai to a7l!_/s1 su_/n!si_/s tis 7_/d noma_/tn 7_/sp] e7n o7_/ntn4--,metaphysica1 ,greek3 ,?4 x4 p4 #ajea1 b4 #ca3 ,greek3 p]i tauta ou7k e7_//9 a7pat?nai1 a7ll' 7 noein 7 m_/4 ,footnote #ahf3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 vi4 p4 #dcj1 b4 #bi4 ,?is portion ( ! treatise is peculi>ly confus$ & difficult to und]/&4 ,"o ( ! *ief functions t ,ari/otle assigns to ,nos1 or ! notic function1 is t ! pr9cipia ( demon/ration & k belong to x2 & n m]ely ! pr9cipia1 b also1 9 cases ( action prec$$ by delib]ation & balance ( motives1 ! ultimate application ( pr9cipia to action4 ,s t he /yles ,nos bo? beg9n+ & end2 also ! beg9n+ ( ! beg9n+2 &1 moreov]1 he decl>es x to be always "r & un]r+--equal to ,sci5ce & ev5 m ?an ,sci5ce4#ahg ,^! are high praises1 convey+ little in=mation1 & n reconcilable ) o!r passages :]e9 he speaks ( ! ex]cise ( ! notic function 7,greek3 to noein7 z sometimes "r1 sometimes wrong4#ahh ,b1 = ! "q ( psy*ology1 ! po9t to be det]m9$ is1 9 :at s5se he meant t pr9cipia belong$ to ,nos4 ,he c]ta9ly did n mean t ! fir/ pr9ciples ( reason+ 7 novelties orig9at$1 sugge/$1 or introduc$ into ! s\l by notic influ5ce4 ,n only he does n say ?is1 b he takes pa9s to impress ! exact contr>y4 ,9 passages cit$ a few pages back1 he decl>es t ,nos 9 ent]+ ! s\l br+s no?+ :atev] ) x2 t x is an univ]sal pot5tiality--a capacity 9 reg>d to tru?1 b no?+ m2#ahi t x is 9 fact a capacity n m]ely = comp>+ & judg+ 7to bo? ( :i* he recognizes ev5 ! s5ti5t s\l z compet5t71 b also = comb9+ _m into "o1 & resolv+ ! app>5t "o into sev]al2 = ab/ract+1 g5]aliz+1 & select+ among ! phantasms pres5t1 :i* ( !m %\ld be att5d$ to1 & :i* %\ld be left out ( att5tion4#aij ,su* is 8 op9ion ab\t ! notic function2 & he /ates explicitly t ! ab/ract & univ]sal n only arise f ! concrete & p>ticul>1 b are insep>able f ! same really--sep>able only logically4 ,footnote #ahg3 ,ari/ot4 ,e?ic4 ,nikoma*4 ,,vi4 xii4 p4 #aadc1 a4 #be1 b4 #aj3 ,greek3 dio kai a7r* kai te_/los n\s4--,analyt4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xviii4 p4 #ajj1 b4 #e4 ,footnote #ahh3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 iii4 p4 #dbg1 b4 #h3 ,greek3 a7ll' ou7de to noein1 e7n 7 e7_//i to o7r?s kai m o7r?s--dianoei/hai d' e7nde_/*etai kai pseuds4 ,footnote #ahi3 ,ibid4 ,i4 ii4 p4 #djd1 a4 #cj1 :]e he c5sures ,demokritus3 ,greek3 ou7 d *rtai t n 7s duna_/mei t9i p]i tn a7l_/!ian1 a7lla tau7to le_/gei psu*n kai n\n4--,comp>e ibid4 ,,iii4 iv4 p4 #dbi1 a4 #ba1 b4 #cj4 ,footnote #aij3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 vi4 p4 #dcj1 b4 #e3 ,greek3 to de e7n poi\n1 t\to o7 n\s e7_/ka/on4--,ibid4 xi4 p4 #dcd1 a4 #i4 ,he describes1 at ! end ( ! ,analytica ,po/]iora & else:]e1 ! /eps :]eby ! m9d asc5ds gradually f s5se1 memory1 & exp]i5ce1 to g5]al pr9ciples4 ,& he indicates a curi\s contra/ betwe5 ^! & ! notic functions4 ,s5se1 memory1 phantasy1 rem9isc5ce1 are movem5ts ( ! body z well z ( ! s\l2 our ?\ghts & feel+s come & g1 none ( !m rema9+ long4 ,b ! notic process is ! rev]se ( ?is2 x is an arre/ ( all ?is m5tal movem5t1 a det5tion ( ! fugitive ?\ghts1 a subsid5ce f p]turbation--s t ! att5tion dwells /eadily & = "s "t on ! same matt]s4#aia ,analysis1 selection1 & conc5tration ( att5tion1 are ! real *>act]i/ics ( ! ,ari/otelian ,nos4 ,x is n 7z "s philosoph]s h ?\ght7 a s\rce ( new g5]al tru?s1 let into ! s\l by a sep>ate door1 & indep5d5t ( exp]i5ce z well z transc5d+ exp]i5ce4 ,footnote #aia3 ,ari/ot4 ,physica1 ,,vii4 iii4 p4 #bdg1 b4 #i3 ,greek3 7 d' e7x a7r*s lpsis ts e7pi/_/ms ge_/nesis ou7k e7_//92 t gar 7remsai kai /nai tn dia_/noian e7pi_//a/hai kai phronein le_/gom54--,also ,de ,anim1 ,i4 iii4 p4 #djg1 b4 #cb1 & ! rem>kable passage 9 ! ,analytica ,po/]4 ,,ii4 xviii4 p4 #ajj1 a4 #c-;b4 #e4 ,pass+ n[ to ! ,emotions1 we f9d t ^! are n sy/ematically classifi$ & analys$ by ,ari/otle1 z belong+ to a s*eme ( ,psy*ology2 ?\gh he treats !m incid5tally1 ) great ability & acut5ess1 bo? 9 8 ,e?ics1 :]e he reg>ds !m z auxili>ies or imp$im5ts to a rational plan ( life1 & 9 8 ,rhetoric1 :]e he t\*es ^u _! op]ation z x be>s on oratorical effect4 ,he introduces h[ev] 9 8 ,psy*ology "s answ] to ! "q1 ,:at is x t produces local movem5t 9 ! animal body8 ,he replies t movem5t is produc$ bo? by ,nos & by ,appetite4 ,speak+ /rictly1 we ought to call ,appetite alone ! direct produc+ cause1 act$ ^u by ! appetitum1 :i* is "h ! ,primum ,mov5s ,immobile4 ,b ?is appetitum _c act )\t com+ into ! intellectual sph]e1 z some?+ se51 imag9$1 cogitat$4#aib ,9 ?is case ! ,nos or ,intellect is /imulat$ ?r\gh appetite1 & op]ates 9 subord9ation !reto4 ,su* is ! ,intellect1 consid]$ z ,practical1 ! pr9ciple or det]m9+ cause ( :i* is ! appetitum or object ( desire2 ! ,intellect manife/+ itself only = ! sake ( "s end1 to be atta9$ or avoid$4 ,h]e9 x is di/+ui%$ altoge!r f ! ,!oretical ,nos or ,intellect1 :i* does n conc]n itself ) any expet5da or fugi5da & does n m$dle ) conduct4 ,! appetitum is good1 real or app>5t1 9 s f> z x c be a*iev$ by our actions4 ,(t5 we h contradictory appetites2 &1 9 su* cases1 ! ,intellect is active g5]ally z a =ce resi/+ ! pres5t & c>+ = ! future4 ,b ,appetite or ,desire1 be+ an en]gy includ+ bo? s\l & body1 is ! real & appropriate cause t det]m9es u to local movem5t1 (t5 ev5 aga9/ /rong opposition f ! ,intellect4#aic ,footnote #aib3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 x4 p4 #dcc1 b4 #aa3 ,greek3 prton de pa_/ntn to o7rekto_/n 7t\to gar k9ei ou7 k9\_/m5on t no?nai 7 phanta/hnai74 ,footnote #aic3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,anim1 ,,iii4 x4 p4 #dcc1 a4 #be1 b4 #ai3 ,greek3 dio e7n tois ko9ois s_/matos kai psu*s e7_/rgois1 c4 ,ari/otle ?us concludes 8 s*eme ( ,psy*ology1 compreh5d+ all plants z well z all animals2 a s*eme diff]+ 9 ?is respect1 z well z 9 o!rs1 f ! s*emes ( ^? t _h prec$$ him1 & f\nd$ ^u ! peculi> pr9ciples ( 8 own ,fir/ ,philosophy4 ,s\l is to organiz$ body z ,=m to ,matt]1 z ,actualiz] to ! ,pot5tial2 n simil> or homog5e\s1 b correlative2 ! two be+ only sep>able z di/9ct logical po9ts ( view 9 reg>d to "o & ! same integ] or individual4 ,ari/otle recognizes _m diff]5t v>ieties ( ,s\l1 or r _m di/9ct functions ( ! same s\l1 f ! l[e/ or mo/ univ]sal1 to ! highe/ or mo/ peculi> & privileg$2 b ! high] functions presuppose or dep5d ^u ! l[]1 z conditions2 :ile ! same pr9ciple ( ,relativity p]vades !m all4 ,he br+s ?is pr9ciple prom95tly =w>d1 :5 he is summ+ up#aid 9 ! ?ird or la/ book ( ! treatise ,de ,anim3--,! ,s\l is 9 a c]ta9 way all exi/5t ?+s2 = all ( !m are ei!r ,p]ceivables or ,cogitables2 & ! ,cogitant ,s\l is 9 a c]ta9 way ! matt]s cogitat$1 :ile ! ,p]cipi5t ,s\l is 9 a c]ta9 way ! matt]s p]ceiv$4 ,! ,p]cipi5t & its ,p]cepta--! ,cogitant & its ,cogitata--ea* implies & correlates ) ! o!r3 ! ,p]cipi5t is ! highe/ ,=m ( all ,p]cepta2 ! ,cogitant is ! ,=m ( ,=ms1 or ! highe/ ( all ,=ms1 cogitable or p]ceivable4#aie ,! ,p]cipi5t or ,cogitant ,subject is ?us conceiv$ only 9 relation to ! ,objects p]ceiv$ or cogitat$1 :ile ^! ,objects aga9 are pres5t$ z ess5tially correlative to ! ,subject4 ,! realities ( ,nature are p>ticul>s1 exhibit+ ,=m & ,matt] 9 "o3 ?\gh1 = purposes ( sci5tific /udy--( assimilation & di/9ction--x is necess>y to consid] ea* ( ! two ab/ract$ly f ! o!r4 ,footnote #aid3 ,ibid4 viii4 p4 #dca1 b4 #bj1 seq43 ,greek3 nun de p]i psu*s ta le*!_/nta sugkephalai_/santes1 ei7_/pm5 pa_/l9 o7_/ti 7 psu* ta o7_/nta p_/s e7/i pa_/nta4 7 gar ai7/hta ta o7_/nta 7 nota_/1 e7_//i de 7 e7pi/_/m men ta e7pi/ta_/ ps1 7 d' ai7_//hsis ta ai7/hta_/4 ,footnote #aie3 ,ibid4 p4 #dcb1 a4 #b3 ,greek3 o7 n\s ei7dos ei7dn1 kai 7 ai7_//hsis ei7dos ai7/htn4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,e?ica4 ,i4 ,! ,e?ics ( ,ari/otle presuppose c]ta9 conditions 9 ! p]sons to :om !y are address$1 )\t :i* !y _c be read ) pr(it4 ,!y presuppose a c]ta9 tra9+1 bo? moral & intellectual1 9 ! pupil4 ,fir/1 ! reason ( ! pupil mu/ be s f> develop$1 z t he %all be capable ( conceiv+ ! idea ( a s*eme ( life & action1 & ( regulat+ 8 mom5t>y impulses m or less by a ref]5ce to ?is /&>d4 ,he mu/ n live by passion1 obey+ )\t reflection ! appetite ( ! mom5t1 & ?9k+ only ( grasp+ at ?is imm$iate satisfaction4 ,! habit mu/ h be5 =m$ ( ref]r+ ea* sep>ate desire to "s rational measure1 & ( act+ or refra9+ to act accord+ z su* a comp>ison may dictate4 ,next1 a c]ta9 exp]i5ce mu/ h be5 acquir$ conc]n+ human affairs1 & conc]n+ ! actions ( m5 ) _! causes & consequ5ces4 ,^u ^! topics all ! reason+s & all ! illu/rations conta9$ 9 e !ory ( ,e?ics mu/ necess>ily turn3 s t a p]son ?or\ghly inexp]i5c$ w\ld be incompet5t to und]/& !m4 ,= bo? ^! two reasons1 no y\?ful p]son1 nor any p]son ( mature ye>s ^: m9d is /ill ta9t$ ) ! defects ( y\?1 c be a compet5t le>n] ( ,e?ics or ,politics 7,e?4 ,nic4 i4 #g4 ,comp>e vii4 #h74 ,su* a pupil w nei!r appreciate ! reason+s1 nor obey ! precepts 7i4 #c74 ,aga91 a p]son _c receive in/ruction 9 ,e?ics ) advantage unless he has be5 subject$ to a good practical discipl9e1 s z to h acquir$ habits ( virtu\s action1 & to h be5 taught to feel pleasure & pa9 on becom+ occasions & 9 ref]5ce to becom+ objects4 ,unless ! circum/ances by :i* he has be5 surr\nd$ & ! treatm5t :i* he has receiv$1 h be5 su* z to implant 9 him a c]ta9 ve9 ( s5tim5t & to give a c]ta9 direction to 8 factiti\s pleasures & pa9s--unless ob$i5ce to "r precepts has to a c]ta9 degree be5 made habitual ) him--he w n be able to imbibe1 /ill less to become atta*$ to1 ev5 ! pr9cipia ( e?ical reason+ 7,e?4 ,nic4 i4 #d4 #g74 ,! well-tra9$ man1 :o has already acquir$ virtu\s habits1 has )9 himself ! ,greek3 a7r*1 or beg9n+1 f :i* happ9ess proce$s3 he may d v well1 ev5 ?\gh ! reason on :i* ^! habits 7 =m$ %\ld nev] become kn[n to him3 b he w at lea/ readily appreh5d & und]/& ! reason :5 x is ann\nc$4 ,! ,greek3 a7r*ai or beg9n+s to :i* e?ical philosophy po9ts & f :5ce ! conduct :i* x enjo9s is d]iv$1 are obta9$ only by habituation1 n by induction nor by p]ception1 l o!r ,greek3 a7r*ai_/3 & we ought 9 all our inve/igations to look aft] ! ,greek3 a7r* 9 ! way :i* ! special nature ( ! subject requires1 & to be v c>eful to def9e x well 7i4 #d1 i4 #g74 ,9 consid]+ ,ari/otle's doctr9e respect+ ! ,greek3 a7r*ai ( e?ical & political sci5ce1 & ! way 9 :i* !y are to be discov]$ & made available1 we %\ld keep 9 m9d t he ann\nces ! end & object ( ^! sci5ces to be1 n m]ely ! enl>gem5t ( human k1 b ! det]m9ation ( human conduct t[>ds c]ta9 objects3 n !ory1 b practice3 n to tea* u :at virtue is1 b to induce u to practise x--,s9ce !n ! pres5t sci5ce is n conc]n$ ) speculation1 l ! o!rs4 ,= "h we enquire1 n 9 ord] t we may "k :at virtue is1 b 9 ord] t we may become good1 o!rwise !re w\ld be no pr(it 9 ! enquiry 7ii4 #b4 ,see also i4 #b1 i4 #e1 vi4 #e74 ,! rem>ks :i* ,ari/otle makes ab\t ! diff]5t ways ( f9d+ out & arriv+ at ,greek3 a7r*ai1 are curi\s4 ,"s pr9ciples or beg9n+s are obta9$ by induction--o!rs by p]ception--o!rs by habituation 9 a c]ta9 way--o!rs aga9 9 o!r ways4 ,o!r modes ( arriv+ at ,greek3 a7r*ai are notic$ by ! philosoph] himself 9 o!r places4 ,= example1 ! ,greek3 a7r*ai ( demon/rative sci5ce are said to be discov]$ by intellect 7,greek3 n\s7--vi4 #f-g4 ,!re is a passage h[ev] 9 vi4 #h 9 :i* he seems to say t ! ,greek3 a7r*ai ( ! wise man 7,greek3 s_/phos7 & ! natural man 7,greek3 phusikos7 are d]iv$ f exp]i5ce3 :i* ,i f9d x difficult to reconcile ) ! prec$+ *apt]s1 :]e he calls wisdom a comp\nd ( intellect & sci5ce 7,greek3 e7pi/_/m71 & :]e he gives ,?ales & ,anaxagoras z specim5s ( wise m54 ,by vi4 #f--;x seems t wisdom has ref]5ce to matt]s ( demon/rative sci5ce3 h[ !n c x be true t a y\? may be a ma!matician )\t be+ a wise man8 ,moreov]1 ,ari/otle takes mu* pa9s1 at ! comm5cem5t ( 8 treatise on ,e?ics1 to set =? ! inh]5t intricacy & obscurity ( ! subject1 & to induce ! read] to be satisfi$ ) conclusions n absolutely demon/rative4 ,he repeats ?is obs]vation sev]al times--a suffici5t pro( t ! evid5ce = 8 own op9ions did n appe> to himself altoge!r satisfactory 7,e?4 ,nic4 i4 #c1 i4 #g1 ii4 #b74 ,! complet5ess ( ! pro( 7he says7 mu/ be det]m9$ by ! subject-matt]3 a man ( cultivat$ m9d w n ask = bett] pro( ?an ! nature ( ! case admits3 & human action1 to :i* all e?ical !ory relates1 is ess5tially fluctuat+ & unc]ta9 9 its consequ5ces1 s t e g5]al proposition :i* c be affirm$ or d5i$ conc]n+ x1 is subject to m or less ( exception4 ,if ?is degree ( unc]ta9ty atta*es ev5 to g5]al reason+s on e?ical subjects1 ! p>ticul> applications ( ^! reason+s are /ill m op5 to mi/ake3 ! ag5t mu/ always det]m9e = himself at ! mom5t1 accord+ to ! circum/ances ( ! case1 )\t ! possibility ( %elt]+ himself "u te*nical rules ( univ]sal application3 j z ! physician or ! pilot is oblig$ to d 9 ! c\rse ( 8 pr(ession4 ,n[ ! actions & ! int]e/s ( m5 exhibit no fix$ rule1 j l ! conditions ( heal?4 ,& if ?is is ! case ) ! univ]sal !ory1 /ill m does ! !ory t ref]s to p>ticul> acts pres5t no?+ t c be accurately fix$2 = x falls n "u any art or any sy/em1 b ! actors !mselves mu/ always consid] :at suits ! occasion1 j z happ5s 9 ! physician's & ! pilot's art4 ,b ?\gh ?is is ! case ) ! !ory at pres5t1 we mu/ try to give x "s assi/ance 7,greek3 peirati_/on bo!in 74--,e?4 ,nic4 #b4 ,! la/ words cit$ are rem>kable4 ,!y seem to indicate1 t ,ari/otle reg>d$ ! successful prosecution ( e?ical enquiries z all b desp]ate4 ,he _h previ\sly said 7i4 #c7--,!re is s mu* diff]5ce ( op9ion & s mu* error respect+ :at is hon\rable & j1 ( :i* political sci5ce treats1 t ^! prop]ties ( human action seem to exi/ m]ely by positive legal appo9tm5t1 & n by nature4 ,& !re is ! same sort ( error respect+ :at ?+s are good1 because _m p]sons h su/a9$ injury f !m1 "s hav+ already be5 br\ght to de/ruction ?r\gh _! weal?1 o!rs ?r\gh _! c\rage4 ,"o _c b rem>k h[ entirely ?is is at v>iance ) ! notion ( a moral s5se or in/9ct1 or an intuitive k ( :at is "r & wrong4 ,ari/otle mo/ truly obs]ves t ! details ( our daily behavi\r are subject to su* an inf9ite v>iety ( modifications1 t no pre-e/abli%$ rules c be deliv]$ to guide !m3 we mu/ act ) ref]5ce to ! occasion & ! circum/ances4 ,"s few rules may inde$ be laid d[n1 admitt+ ( v few exceptions3 b ! va/ majority ( our proce$+s _c be subject$ to any rule :atev]1 except to ! gr& & all-compreh5sive rule1 if we are inde$ s to call x1 ( con=m+ to ! ultimate /&>d ( morality4 ,suppos+ ! conditions above indicat$ to be realiz$--suppos+ a c]ta9 degree ( exp]i5ce 9 human affairs1 ( rational self-gov]nm5t1 & ( habitual ob$i5ce to good rules ( action1 to be already e/abli%$ 9 ! pupil's m9d1 ! !ory ( e?ics may !n be unfold$ to him ) great advantage 7i4 #c74 ,x is n meant to be impli$ t a man mu/ h previ\sly acquir$ ! p]fection ( practical reason & virtue be=e he acqua9ts himself ) e?ical !ory2 b he mu/ h proce$$ a c]ta9 way t[>ds ! acquisition4 ,e?ics1 z ,ari/otle conceives !m1 are a sci5ce closely analog\s to if n a subord9ate bran* ( ,politics4 7,i d n h[ev] ?9k t he employs ! ^w ,greek3 7?ik 9 ! same di/9ct & sub/antive mean+ z ,greek3 politik 7e7pi/_/m71 al?\gh he sev]al times m5tions ,greek3 ta 7?ika & ,greek3 7?ikoi lo_/goi47 ,e?ical sci5ce is = ! individual :at political sci5ce is = ! community 7i4 #b74 ,9 e v>iety ( human action1 9 ea* sep>ate art & sci5ce1 ! ag5ts1 individual or collective1 propose to !mselves ! atta9m5t ( "s good z ! end & object ( _! proce$+s4 ,ends are multif>i\s1 & good ?+s are multif>i\s3 b good1 "u "o %ape or ano!r1 is always ! ?+ desir$ by e "o1 & ! det]m9+ cause ( human action 7,greek3 ou7 pa_/nta e7phi_/etai7--i4 #a4 ,sometimes ! action itself1 or ! ex]cise ( ! p[]s impli$ 9 ! action1 is ! end s\ght1 )\t any?+ beyond4 ,sometimes !re is an ult]ior end1 or sub/antive bus9ess1 to be accompli%$ by means ( ! action & ly+ beyond x4 ,9 ?is latt] class ( cases1 ! ult]ior end is ! real good3 bett] ?an ! c\rse ( action us$ to accompli% x--! ext]nal results are naturally 7,greek3 pe_/phuke7 bett] ?an ! c\rse ( action 7i4 #a74 ,tak+ ?is z a g5]al position1 x is subject to _m exceptions3 b ! ^w ,greek3 pe_/phuke seems to signify only t su* is naturally & ord9>ily ! case1 n t ! rev]se nev] occurs4 ,aga9 "s ends are compreh5sive & supreme2 o!rs1 p>tial & subord9ate4 ,! subord9ate ends are consid]$ ) ref]5ce to ! supreme1 & pursu$ z means to _! accompli%m5t4 ,?us ! end ( ! bridle-mak] is subs]vi5t to t ( ! horseman1 & ! v>i\s op]ations ( w> to ! g5]al s*eme ( ! comm&]4 ,! supreme1 or ar*itectonic1 ends1 are sup]ior 9 eligibility to ! subord9ate1 or m9i/]ial1 :i*1 inde$1 are pursu$ only = ! sake ( ! =m]4 ,"o end 7or "o good71 z subord9ate1 is ?us includ$ 9 ano!r end 7or ano!r good7 z supreme4 ,! same end may be supreme ) reg>d to "o end diff]5t f itself1 & subord9ate ) reg>d to ano!r4 ,! end ( ! g5]al is supreme ) ref]5ce to t ( ! soldi] or ! mak] ( arms1 subord9ate ) ref]5ce to t ( ! /atesman4 ,9 ?is scale ( compreh5siv5ess ( ends !re is no def9ite limit2 we may suppose ends m & m compreh5sive z we please1 & we come f !nce to =m ! idea ( "o mo/ compreh5sive & sov]eign end1 :i* includes "u x e o!r )\t exception--) ref]5ce to :i* all o!r ends /& 9 ! relation ei!r ( p>ts or ( means--& :i* is itself nev] 9 any case pursu$ = ! sake ( any o!r or indep5d5t end4 ,! end ?us conceiv$ is ! ,sov]eign ,good ( man1 or ,! ,good--,! ,summum ,bonum--,greek3 ,ta7ga?on--,to a7_/ri/on--,ta7n?r_/p9on a7ga?o_/n 7i4 #b74 ,to compreh5d1 to def9e1 & to prescribe means = realiz+ ! ,sov]eign ,good1 is ! object ( ,political ,sci5ce1 ! p>am\nt & mo/ ar*itectonic ,sci5ce ( all1 ) reg>d to :i* all o!r ,sci5ces are simply m9i/]ial4 ,x is ! bus9ess ( ! political rul] to regulate ! application ( all o!r ,sci5ces ) ref]5ce to ! production ( ?is 8 ,end--to det]m9e h[ f> ea* %all be le>nt & 9 :at mann] ea* %all be br\ght into practice--to en=ce or =bid any sy/em ( human action accord+ z x t5ds to promote ! accompli%m5t ( 8 supreme purpose--! ,sov]eign ,good ( ! ,community4 ,/rategical1 rhetorical1 economical1 sci5ce1 are all to be appli$ s f> z !y conduce to ?is purpose & no f>!r3 !y are all simply m9i/]ial2 political sci5ce is supreme & self-det]m9+ 7i4 #b74 ,:at ,political ,sci5ce is = ! community1 ,e?ical ,sci5ce is = ! individual citiz54 ,by ?is x is n meant t ! individual is to be ab/ract$ f society or consid]$ z liv+ ap>t f society3 b simply t human action & human feel+ is to be look$ at f ! po9t ( view ( ! individual1 ma9ly & prim>ily--& f ! po9t ( view ( ! society1 only 9 a second>y mann]3 :ile 9 political sci5ce1 ! rev]se is ! case--our po9t ( view is1 fir/ z reg>ds ! society2--next1 & subord9ate to t1 z reg>ds ! individual citiz5 7,see ,e?4 ,nic4 vii4 #h74 ,! object ( ! ,e?ical ,sci5ce is1 ! ,supreme ,good ( ! individual citiz5--! ,end ( all ,ends1 ) ref]5ce to 8 desires1 8 actions1 & 8 feel+s--! end :i* he seeks = itself & )\t any ult]ior aim--! end :i* compreh5ds all 8 o!r ends z m]ely p>tial or in/rum5tal & det]m9es _! comp>ative value 9 8 e/imation 7i4 #b1 i4 #d74 ,x is evid5t t ?is conception ( an ,end ( all ,ends is :at ,kant w\ld call an ,idea--no?+ precisely con=mable to x1 9 its full ext5t1 c ev] exi/ 9 reality4 ,no individual has ev] be5 f\nd1 or ev] w be f\nd1 ) a m9d s tra9$ z to make e sep>ate & p>ticul> desire subs]vi5t to "s g5]al preconceiv$ ,end h[ev] compreh5sive4 ,b x is equally c]ta9 t ?is subord9ation ( ,ends "o to ano!r is a process p]=m$ to a great] or less degree 9 e "o's m9d1 ev5 9 t ( ! rude/ savage4 ,no man c bl9dly & undi/+ui%+ly foll[ e imm$iate impulse3 ! impulse1 :atev] x be1 :5 x arises1 mu/ be consid]$ m or less z x be>s ^u o!r pursuits & o!r objects ( desire4 ,?is is an indisp5sable condition ev5 ( ! mo/ imp]fect =m ( social exi/5ce4 ,9 civiliz$ society1 we f9d ! process c>ri$ v f> inde$ 9 ! m9ds ( ! great] numb] ( individuals4 ,e man has 9 8 view c]ta9 lead+ ,ends1 su* z ! ma9t5ance ( 8 prop] position 9 society1 ! acquisition ( pr(essional success1 ! mak+ ( 8 =tune1 ! prosecution ( 8 /udies1 c41 ea* ( :i* is ess5tially p>am\nt & ar*itectonic1 & ) ref]5ce to :i* a ?\s& o!r ends are simply subord9ate & m9i/]ial4 ,suppose ?is process to be pu%$ f>!r1 & y arrive at ! idea ( an ,end /ill m compreh5sive1 embrac+ e o!r end :i* ! individual c aspire to1 & =m+ ! c5tral po9t ( an all-compreh5sive s*eme ( life4 ,su* a maximum1 nev] actually atta9able1 b con/antly approa*able1 9 reality1 =ms ! ,object ( ,e?ical ,sci5ce4 ,quorsum victuri gignimur6 ,:at is ! ,supreme ,good--! ,end ( all ,ends8 ,h[ are we to det]m9e :]e9 x consi/s1 or by :at means x is to be atta9$--at lea/1 z ne>ly atta9$ z ! limitations ( human condition p]mit8 ,e?ical ,sci5ce pr(esses to po9t out :at ! end ought to be--,e?ical precepts are sugge/ions = mak+ ! close/ approa*es to x :i* are practicable4 ,ev5 to und]/& :at ! end is1 is a consid]able acquisition3 s9ce we ?us "k ! precise po9t to aim at1 ev5 if we _c hit x 7i4 #b74 ,! approa*es :i* diff]5t m5 make t[>ds =m+ ?is idea1 ( an ,end ( ,ends or ( a ,supreme ,good1 diff] mo/ ess5tially3 al?\gh !re seems a v]bal agreem5t betwe5 !m4 ,e man speaks ( ,happ9ess z 8 ,end ( ,ends 7,greek3 o7no_/mati o7mologeitai1 i4 #d73 he wi%es to live well or to d well1 :i* he consid]s to be ! same z be+ happy4 ,b m5 disagree exce$+ly 9 _! op9ions z to t :i* con/itutes happ9ess3 nay ! same man sometimes places x 9 "o ?+1 sometimes 9 ano!r--9 heal? or 9 ri*es1 accord+ z he happ5s to be sick or poor4 ,!re are h[ev] ?ree gr& divisions1 9 "o or o!r ( :i* ! op9ions ( ! great majority ( mank9d may be di/ribut$4 ,"s ?9k t happ9ess consi/s 9 a life ( bodily pleasure 7,greek3 bi_/os a7polau/iko_/s73 o!rs1 9 a life ( successful political action or ambition 7,greek3 bi_/os politiko_/s73 o!rs aga91 9 a life ( speculative /udy & ! acquisition ( k 7,greek3 bi_/os !rtiko_/s74 ,he w n cons5t to numb] ! life ( ! 7,greek3 *rmati/s7 money-mak] among !m because he atta9s 8 end at ! exp5se ( o!r p & by a =ce ^u _! incl9ations 7?is at lea/ seems ! s5se ( ! words--,greek3 o7 gar *rmati/s bi_/aio_/s ti_/s e7/i71 & because weal? c nev] be ! good1 see+ t x is m]ely useful = ! sake ( ult]ior objects4 7,! reason :i* ,ari/otle gives = disc>d+ f 8 catalogue ! life ( ! money-seek]1 :ile he admits t ( ! pleasure-seek] & ! hon\r-seek]1 appe>s a v inconclusive "o4 ,he believ$ !m to be all equally mi/ak5 9 ref]5ce to real happ9ess3 ! two la/ j z mu* z ! fir/3 & c]ta9ly1 if we look to preval5ce 9 ! _w & numb] ( adh]5ts1 ! cre$ ( ! fir/ is at lea/ equal to t ( ! two la/47 ,! fir/ ( ! ?ree is ! op9ion ( ! mass1 c\nt5anc$ by _m ,sov]eigns su* z ,s>danapalus--x is m suitable to animals ?an to m51 9 ! judgm5t ( ,ari/otle 7i4 #e74 ,hon\r & glory--! rew>d ( political ambition1 _c be ! sov]eign good1 because x is a possession :i* ! p]son hon\r$ c nev] be sure ( reta9+3 = x dep5ds m ^u ! p]sons by :om he is hon\r$ ?an ^u himself1 :ile ! ideas :i* we =m ( ! sov]eign good suppose x to be some?+ intimately belong+ to u & h>d to be )drawn 7i4 #e74 ,moreov] ^? :o aspire to hon\r1 desire x n s mu* on its own acc\nt z 9 ord] t !y may h confid5ce 9 _! own virtue3 s t x seems ev5 9 _! e/imation z if virtue 7 ! high] aim ( ! two4 ,b ev5 virtue itself 7mean+ !reby ! simple possession ( virtue z di/+ui%$ f ! active habitual ex]cise ( x7 _c be ! sov]eign good3 = ! virtu\s man may pass 8 life 9 sleep or 9 inaction--or he may enc\nt] intol]able suff]+ & calamity 7i4 #e74 ,besides1 ,happ9ess z we conceive x1 is an ,end p]fect1 f9al1 compreh5sive & all-suffici5t--an end :i* we always seek on its own acc\nt & nev] ) a view to any?+ ult]ior4 ,b nei!r hon\r1 nor pleasure1 nor intellig5ce1 nor virtue1 des]ves ^! epi!ts3 ea* is an end special1 insuffici5t1 & n f9al--= ea* is s\ght p>tly inde$ on its own acc\nt1 b p>tly also on acc\nt ( its t5d5cy to promote :at we suppose to be our happ9ess 7i4 #g74 ,! latt] is ! only end always s\ght exclusively = itself3 includ+ z x always does & mu/ d1 ! happ9ess ( a man's relatives1 8 *ildr5 & 8 c\ntrym51 or ( all ) :om he has sympa?ies2 s t if atta9$1 x w\ld r5d] 8 life desirable & want+ = no?+--,greek3 o7 mon\_/m5on1 ai7reton poiei ton bi_/on1 kai md5os e7ndea 7i4 #g74 ,! rem>k :i* ,ari/otle "h makes 9 respect to ! f9al aim or happ9ess ( an individual--viz41 t x includes ! happ9ess ( 8 family & 8 c\ntrym5 & ( ^? ) :om he has sympa?ies--des]ves c>eful att5tion4 ,x %[s at once ! l>g5ess & ! b5evol5ce ( 8 conceptions4 ,we arrive ?us at ! same end z t propos$ by political sci5ce--! happ9ess ( ! community3 b we rea* x by a diff]5t road1 />t+ f ! po9t ( view ( ! individual citiz54 ,hav+ %[n t ?is ,happ9ess1 :i* is our be+'s end & aim1 does n consi/ 9 any special acquisition su* z pleasure1 or glory1 or intellig5ce1 or virtue1 ,ari/otle adopts a diff]5t me?od to %[ :]e9 x does consi/4 ,e arti/ & e pr(essional man 7he says--i4 #g71 ! pa9t]1 ! musician1 c41 has 8 peculi> bus9ess to d1 & ! ,good ( ea* arti/ consi/s 9 do+ 8 bus9ess well & appropriately4 ,ea* sep>ate portion ( man1 ! eye1 ! h& & ! foot1 has its peculi> function3 & 9 analogy ) bo? ^!1 man z su* has 8 bus9ess & function1 9 ! complete p]=mance ( :i* human ,good consi/s4 ,:at is ! bus9ess & peculi> function ( ,man1 z ,man8 ,n simply ,life1 = t he has 9 common ) ! entire vegetable & animal _w3 nor a m]e s5sitive ,life1 = t he has 9 common ) all ,animals3 x mu/ be some?+ :i* he has1 ap>t bo? f plants & animals--viz41 an active life 9 con=mity ) reason 7,greek3 praktik_/ tis t\ lo_/gon e7_/*ontos72 or ! ex]cise ( ,reason z a direct+ & sup]9t5d+ =ce1 & ! ex]cise ( ! appetites1 passions1 & capacities1 9 a mann] con=mable to ,reason4 ,?is is ! special & peculi> bus9ess ( man3 x is :at e man p]=ms ei!r well or ill3 & ! virtue ( a man is t :]eby he is enabl$ to p]=m x well4 ,! ,supreme ,good ( humanity1 !re=e1 consi/+ z x does 9 ! due p]=mance ( ?is special bus9ess ( man1 is to be f\nd 9 ! virtu\s activity ( our rational & appetitive s\l3 assum+ always a life ( ! ord9>y l5g?1 )\t :i* no degree ( m5tal p]fection w\ld suffice to atta9 ! object4 ,! full position w !n /& ?us--,happ9ess1 or ! highe/ good ( a human be+1 consi/s 9 ! work+ ( ! s\l & 9 a c\rse ( action1 pursuant to reason & con=mable to virtue1 ?r\gh\t ! full cont9uance ( life4 7,! argum5t respect+ a man's prop] bus9ess 7,greek3 e7_/rgon7 & virtue 7,greek3 a7ret7 seems to be borr[$ f ,plato--,republic1 i4 c4 #bc1 p4 #ceb2 c4 #bd1 p4 #cec4 ,comp>e also ,x5ophon--,memorabilia1 iv4 #b1 #ad47 ,?is explanation is deliv]$ by ,ari/otle z a m]e outl9e1 :i* he seems to ?9k t any "o may easily fill up 7i4 #g74 ,& he w>ns u n to require a great] degree ( precision ?an ! subject admits (3 s9ce we ought to be cont5t ) a r\gh approximation to ! tru?1 & ) conclusions :i* are n univ]sally true1 b only true 9 ! majority ( in/ances1 su* be+ ! nature ( ! premisses ) :i* we deal 7i4 #c74 ,hav+ det]m9$ 9 ?is mann] :at ,happ9ess or ! ,supreme ,good consi/s 91 ,ari/otle next %[s t ! explanation :i* he gives ( x con=ms 9 a great degree to ! op9ions previ\sly deliv]$ by em95t philosoph]s1 & fulfils at lea/ all ! requisite conditions :i* h ev] be5 suppos$ to belong to ,happ9ess 7i4 #h74 ,all philosoph]s h f v e>ly times agre$ 9 di/ribut+ good ?+s into ?ree classes--,m5tal1 ,corporeal1 & ,ext]nal4 ,n[ ! fir/ ( ^! classes is incomp>ably ! highe/ & mo/ ess5tially good ( ! ?ree3 & ! explanation :i* ,ari/otle gives ( happ9ess ranks x 9 ! fir/ class4 ,aga91 v>i\s def9itions ( happ9ess h be5 deliv]$ by em95t au?orities m or less anci5t 7,greek3 polloi kai palaioi_/74 ,eudoxus laid d[n ! pr9ciple t happ9ess consi/s 9 pleasure3 o!rs h ma9ta9$ ! op9ion t x is entirely indep5d5t bo? ( pleasure & pa9--t ! =m] is no good1 & ! latt] no evil 7i4 #ab1 vii4 #aa-ac1 x4 #a4 #b74 ,"s h plac$ happ9ess 9 virtue3 o!rs 9 prud5ce3 o!rs 9 a c]ta9 sort ( wisdom 7,greek3 sophi_/a tis73 o!rs h add$ to ! def9ition ?is condition1 t pleasure or ext]nal prosp]ity %\ld be c\pl$ ) ! above-m5tion$ objects 7i4 #h74 ,! moral doctr9es prop\nd$ by ,z5o & ,epicurus 7 !re=e 9 no way new3 h[ f> ! reason+s by :i* ^! philosoph]s su/a9$ !m 7 new we _c judge accurately1 f ! loss ( ! treatises ( ,eudoxus & o!rs to :i* ,ari/otle makes ref]5ce4 ,n[1 9 s f> z virtue is introduc$1 ! explanation ( ,happ9ess giv5 by ,ari/otle co9cides ) ^! philosoph]s & improves ^u !m by sub/itut+ ! active ex]cise ( virtu\s habits 9 place ( ! m]e possession ( virtue4 ,& 9 reg>d to pleasure1 ! man :o has once acquir$ habits ( virtu\s ag5cy /&s 9 no ne$ ( pleasure f )\t1 z a =eign accessory3 = he f9ds pleasure 9 8 own behavi\r1 & he w\ld n be d5om9at$ virtu\s unless he did s3 ,n[ 7he says7 _! life /&s 9 no ne$ ( pleasure1 l an extrane\s app5dage1 b has pleasure 9 itself 7ii4 #h74 ,aga91 ii4 #c1 he says t ! symptom ( a p]fect habit is ! pleasure or pa9 :i* ensues ^u ! p]=mance ( ! acts 9 :i* ! habit consi/s3 = ! man :o ab/a9s f bodily pleasures & rejoices 9 do+ s1 is temp]ate1 :ile he :o does x reluctantly & pa9fully1 is intemp]ate4 ,& ! man :o su/a9s dang]s ) pleasure1 or at lea/ )\t pa91 is c\rage\s3 if ) pa91 he is a c[>d4 ,= e?ical virtue has ref]5ce to our pleasures & pa9s3 x is on acc\nt ( pleasure t we commit vici\s acts1 & on acc\nt ( pa9 t we %r9k f virtu\s p]=mances4 ,:]e=e1 z ,plato directs1 we ought to be tra9$ at once f our infancy by "s means or o!r s z to feel pleasure & pa9 f ! prop] s\rces3 = t is ! "r education4 ,moreov]1 ! man :o is 9 ! active ex]cise ( virtue d]ives 8 pleasure f ! p]=mance ( t :i* is ! appropriate bus9ess ( humanity1 s t all 8 pleasures are con=mable to ! pleasures natural to man & !re=e consi/5t ) ea* o!r3 :]eas ! pleasures ( mo/ p are contradictory & inconsi/5t ) ea* o!r1 because !y are n con=mable to our nature 7i4 #h74 ,x is n easy to und]/& p]fectly :at ,ari/otle means by say+ t ! ?+s agreeable to ! majority ( mank9d are n ?+s agreeable by nature4 ,! con/ruction above put ^u ?is expression seems ! only plausible "o--t ^? pleasures :i* inh]e 9 ! p]=mance ( ! appropriate bus9ess ( man1 are to be consid]$ z our natural pleasures2 ^? :i* d n s inh]e1 z n natural pleasures3 inasmu* z !y arise out ( circum/ances =eign to ! p]=mance ( our appropriate bus9ess4 ,?is h[ev] h>dly consi/s ) ! explanation :i* ,ari/otle gives ( ,greek3 to phu_/sei--9 ano!r place & ) ref]5ce to ano!r subject4 ,9 ! ,magna ,moralia 7i4 #cd1 pp4 #aaid-aaie ,bek471 9 di/+ui%+ betwe5 natural ju/ice 7,greek3 to di_/kaion phu_/sei7 & conv5tional ju/ice 7,greek3 to di_/kaion no_/m71 he tells u t ! naturally j is t :i* mo/ commonly rema9s j4 7,simil>ly ,e?ic4 ,eudem4 iv4 #ad1 p4 #abag ,bek47 ,t :i* exi/s by nature 7he says7 may be *ang$ by art & practice2 ! left h& may by ^! means be r5d]$ z /rong z ! "r 9 p>ticul> cases1 b if 9 ! great] numb] ( cases & = ! long] portion ( "t ! left rema9s left & ! "r rema9s "r1 ?is is to be consid]$ z exi/+ by nature4 ,if we are to consid] t arrangem5t z natural :i* we f9d to prevail 9 ! greate/ numb] ( cases & = ! greate/ l5g? ( "t1 !n und\bt$ly ! pleasures aris+ out ( virtu\s active behavi\r mu/ be reg>d$ z less natural ?an ^? o!r pleasures :i* ,ari/otle admits to =m ! enjoym5t ( ! majority ( mank9d4 ,b aga9 !re is a ?ird passage1 respect+ nature & natural arrangem5ts1 :i* appe>s sc>cely reconcilable ) ei!r ( ! two op9ions j notic$4 ,9 ,e?4 ,nicom4 ii4 #a3 ,e?ical virtue is a result ( habit1 :5ce x is evid5t t n "o ( ! e?ical virtues exi/s 9 u by nature4 ,= none ( ^? ?+s :i* exi/ by nature is alt]$ by habit4 ,= example1 ! /one :i* naturally moves d[nw>ds _c be habituat$ to move upw>ds1 n ev5 if a man %\ld endeav\r s to habituate x by ?r[+ x upw>ds t5 ?\s& times2 nor 9 l mann] fire d[nw>ds3 nor c any o!r ( ! ?+s =m$ by nature 9 "o way be *ang$ by habit to any o!r ?an t natural way4 ,virtues !re=e are n g5]at$ 9 u ei!r by nature1 or contr>y to nature2 b we are =m$ by nature s z to be capable ( receiv+ !m1 & we are p]fect$ 9 !m ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( habit4 ,if x be true t no?+ :i* exi/s 9 "o mann] by nature c be *ang$ by habit s z to exi/ 9 ano!r mann]1 ,i d n see h[ ! ass]tion conta9$ 9 ! passage above cit$ out ( ! ,magna ,moralia c be reconcil$ ) x1 :]e we are told--,= ev5 ?+s :i* exi/ by nature p>take ( *ange4 ,?us if we all %\ld practise ?r[+ ) ! left h&1 we %\ld become ambidextr\s3 b /ill x is ! left h& by nature1 & ! "r h& is n ! less bett] by nature ?an ! left1 al?\gh we %\ld d ev]y?+ ) ! left z we d ) ! "r4 7,mag4 ,mor4 i4 #cd1 ut sup47 ,9 ! "o case he illu/rates ! mean+ ( natural prop]ties by ! comp>ative aptitudes ( ! "r & left h&3 9 ! o!r by ! d[nw>d t5d5cy ( ! /one4 ,! idea is pla9ly diff]5t 9 ! "o case & 9 ! o!r4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re seems to be n less v>iance betwe5 ! "o passage quot$ out ( ! ,nicoma*eian ,e?ics & ! o!r4 ,= 9 ! passage la/ quot$1 we are told t none ( ! e?ical virtues is g5]at$ 9 u by nature--nei!r by nature1 nor contr>y to nature3 nature makes u fit to receive !m1 habit introduces & creates !m--an obs]vation p]fectly true & accurate4 ,b if ?is 0 ! s5tim5t ( ,ari/otle1 h[ c\ld he also believe t ! pleasures aris+ out ( ! active manife/ation ( e?ical virtue 7 ! natural pleasures ( man8 ,if e?ical virtue does n come by nature1 ! pleasures belong+ to x _c come by nature ei!r4 ,on ! :ole1 ^! ?ree passages pres5t a v>iance :i* ,i am unable to reconcile 9 ! mean+ :i* ,ari/otle annexes to ! v equivocal ^w--nature4 ,al?\gh ,ari/otle tells u t ! active ex]cise ( ! functions ( ! s\l accord+ to virtue conf]s happ9ess1 yet he admits t a c]ta9 measure ( ext]nal com=t & advantages mu/ be sup]add$ z an indisp5sable auxili>y & in/rum5t4 ,disgu/+ ugl9ess1 bad heal?1 l[ bir?1 loss ( fri5ds & relatives or vici\s conduct ( fri5ds & relatives1 toge!r ) _m o!r mis=tunes1 are suffici5t to sully ! bless$ condition ( ! mo/ virtu\s man 7,greek3 r7upai_/n\si to maka_/rion--i4 #h7--;= :i* reason x is t "s p]sons h rank$ bo? virtue & good =tune z co-ord9ate +r$i5ts equally ess5tial to happ9ess3 & h d\bt$ also :e!r x c ev] be acquir$ ei!r by tea*+1 or by tra9+1 or by any o!r me?od except *ance or ,div9e inspiration4 ,to suppose t s magnific5t a boon is conf]r$ by *ance1 w\ld be an absurdity3 x is a boon n unwor?y inde$ ( ! ,div9e nature to conf]2 b /ill ! magnific5ce ( x w appe> equally great & equally und5iable1 if we suppose x to be acquir$ by tea*+ or tra9+4 ,& ?is is really ! prop] acc\nt to give ( ! way 9 :i* ,happ9ess is acquir$3 = ! gr& & prim>y elem5t 9 x1 is ! virtu\s ag5cy ( ! s\l1 :i* is und\bt$ly acquir$ by tra9+3 :ile ext]nal advantages1 ?\gh indisp5sable up to a c]ta9 limit1 are acquir$ only z second>y helps & in/rum5ts4 ,! creation ( ^! virtu\s habits among ! citiz5s is "o ( ! *ief objects ( political sci5ce & legislation3 :5 once acquir$1 !y are ! mo/ la/+ & ineffaceable ( all human possessions3 & z !y are creat$ by special tra9+1 !y may be imp>t$ to e man n disqualifi$ by "s natural defect ( organization1 & may ?us be widely diffus$ ?r\gh\t ! community 7i4 #i74 ,?is is an important prop]ty4 ,if happ9ess be suppos$ to be d]iv$ f ! possession ( weal? or hon\r or p[]1 x c only be possess$ by a small numb] ( p]sons4 ,= ^! ?ree consid]$ z objects ( human desire1 are ess5tially comp>ative4 ,a man does n ?9k himself ri*1 or hon\r$1 or p[]ful1 unless he becomes s to a degree above ! multitude ( 8 companions & neighb\rs4 ,ari/otle insi/s mo/ e>ne/ly t ! only way ( acquir+ ! "* prop] = happ9ess is by a c\rse ( e>ly & incessant tra9+ 9 virtu\s action4 ,moral tea*+1 he says1 w d little or no?+1 unless x be prec$$ by1 or at lea/ c\pl$ )1 moral tra9+4 ,motives mu/ be appli$ suffici5t to ensure p]=mance ( :at is virtu\s & ab/95ce f :at is vici\s1 until su* a c\rse ( conduct becomes habitual1 & until a disposition is creat$ to p]sev]e 9 !m4 ,x is ! bus9ess ( ! politician & ! legislator to employ _! means ( work+ ^u ! citiz5s = ! purpose ( en=c+ ?is tra9+4 ,x is n ) virtue 7he says7 z x is ) ^? faculties :i* we receive ready-made f nature1 z = example1 ! ext]nal s5ses4 ,we d n acquire ! faculty ( sight by (t5 see+1 b we h x f nature & !n ex]cise x3 :]eas ) reg>d to virtue1 we obta9 our virtues by means ( a previ\s c\rse ( virtu\s action1 j z we le>n o!r arts4 ,= ^? ?+s :i* we mu/ le>n 9 ord] to d1 we le>n by actually do+3 ?us by build+ we become build]s1 & by h>p+ we become h>p]s3 by do+ j & temp]ate & c\rage\s actions1 we become j & temp]ate & c\rage\s4 ,all legislators try1 "s 9 a bett] & o!rs 9 a worse mann]1 to e?ise 7,greek3 e7?i_/zontes7--to create habits among--! citiz5s = ! purpose ( mak+ !m good4 ,9 "o ^w habits are creat$ by repeat$ action1 :]e=e our actions mu/ be det]m9$ 9 a suitable way1 = accord+ z !y diff]1 s w our habits diff]4 ,nor is ! diff]5ce small :e!r we are e?is$ 9 "o way or 9 ano!r1 f our y\? upw>ds3 ! diff]5ce is v great1 or r x is ev]y?+ 7ii4 #a74 ,nei!r an ox1 nor a horse1 c acquire su* habits1 & !re=e nei!r ( !m c be call$ happy3 ev5 a *ild _c be call$ s1 except f ! hope & anticipation ( :at he w become 9 future ye>s4 ,x may appe> some:at s+ul> t ,ari/otle *>act]ises a *ild z incapable ( happ9ess1 s9ce 9 common language a *ild :5 heal?y & well treat$ is describ$ z peculi>ly happy4 ,b happ9ess1 z ,ari/otle und]/&s x1 is some?+ measur$ m by ! e/imate ( ! judici\s spectator ?an by ! s5tim5t ( ! man 9 ^: bosom x resides4 ,no p]son is entitl$ to be call$ happy1 :om ! intellig5t & reflective obs]v] does n mac>ise 7or 9999eudmonise71 or ^: condition he w\ld n desire m or less to make 8 own4 ,n[ ! life ( a *ild1 ev5 ?\gh replete ) all ! enjoym5ts belong+ to *ildhood1 is n su* z any p]son 9 ! /ate ( m9d ( a mature citiz5 c\ld br+ himself to accept 7i4 #aj1 x4 #c74 ,! te/ to :i* ,ari/otle appeals1 ei!r tacitly or op5ly1 seems always to be ! judgm5t ( ! s]i\s man 7i4 #h1 x4 #e74 ,x is no suffici5t pro( ( happ9ess t ! p]son :o feels x is completely satisfi$ ) 8 condition & does n desire any?+ beyond4 ,su* self-satisfaction is inde$ necess>y1 b is n by itself suffici5t3 x mu/ be f>!r confirm$ by ! judgm5t ( p]sons )\t--n ( ! multitude1 :o are apt to judge by a wrong /&>d--nor ( pr9ces1 :o are equally incompet5t1 & :o h nev] ta/$ ! reli% ( pure & lib]al pleasures 7x4 #f7--;b ( ! virtu\s & wor?y1 :o h arriv$ at ! mo/ p]fect condition atta9able by human be+s 7x4 #e1 x4 #f1 x4 #h74 ,! diff]5t /&>d adopt$ by ! _m & by ! m disc]n+ few1 9 e/imat+ human happ9ess1 is aga9 t\*$ ^u 9 ,politica1 vii4 #a4 ,x is 9 "s respects treat$ m cle>ly & simply 9 ?is passage ?an 9 ! ,e?ics4 ,bo? ! ,_m & ! ,few 7he says7 agree t 9 ord] to con/itute ,happ9ess1 !re mu/ be a co9cid5ce ( ! ?ree di/9ct k9ds ( ,good ?+s--,! ,m5tal--,! ,corporeal--,! ,ext]nal4 ,b ) respect to ! proportions 9 :i* ! ?ree ought to be int]m+l$1 a diff]5ce ( op9ion arises4 ,mo/ p]sons are satisfi$ ) a v mod]ate portion ( m5tal excell5ce1 :ile !y are immod]ate 9 _! desire = weal? & p[] 7,= ( virtue !y ?9k t !y h a suffici5cy1 :atev] be ! quantity !y h2 b ( weal? & possessions !y seek ! excess )\t b\nd4--,pol4 vii4 #a74 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! op9ion sanction$ by ! few ( a high] ord] ( m9d1 & adopt$ by ,ari/otle1 01 t ,happ9ess 0 possess$ 9 a high] degree by ^? :o 7 ri*ly set =? ) moral & intellectual excell5ce & only mod]ately provid$ ) ext]nal advantages1 ?an by ^? 9 reg>d to :om ! proportion 0 rev]s$ 7ib474 ,! same diff]5ce ( e/imate1 betwe5 ! few & ! _m1 is t\*$ ^u ,polit4 vii4 #ac1 :]e he says t m5 9 g5]al e/eem ext]nal advantages to be ! causes ( happ9ess3 :i* is j z if !y 7 to say t ! cause :y a musician play$ well 0 8 lyre1 & n 8 pr(ici5cy 9 ! art4 ,9 ?is *apt] ( ! ,politica 7vii4 #ac71 he ref]s to ! ,e?ica 9 a s+ul> mann]4 ,hav+ /at$ t ! po9t ( fir/ importance is1 to det]m9e :]e9 happ9ess consi/s1 he proce$s to say--,we h said also 9 ! ,e?ics1 if !re be any good 9 t treatise 7,greek3 ei7_/ ti tn lo_/gn e7kei_/nn o7_/phelos71 t x 7happ9ess7 is ! active ex]tion & p]fect$ habit ( virtue4--,?is is a s+ul> expression--if !re be any good 9 ! ,e?ics--x seems r to fall 9 ) ! sev]al passages 9 t treatise 9 :i* he insi/s ^u ! inh]5t confusion & d>kness ( ! subject-matt]4 ,! def9ition ( :at happ9ess really is seems to be "o ( ! weak po9ts ( ,ari/otle's treatise4 ,9 a "w address$ to ! public1 x is impossible to avoid mak+ ! public judges ( ! pleasure & pa91 ! happ9ess & unhapp9ess ( individuals4 ,a c]ta9 measure ( self-e/eem on ! "p ( ! individual1 & a c]ta9 measure ( e/eem t[>ds him on ! "p ( p]sons )\t1 come ?us to be reg>d$ z absolutely ess5tial to exi/5ce4 ,)\t ^!1 life w\ld appe> intol]able to any spectator )\t1 ?\gh ! individual himself might be degrad$ en\gh to cl+ to x4 ,b ^! are secur$ by ! ord9>y morality ( ! age & ( ! locality4 ,! "q arises z to degrees ( virtue beyond ! ord9>y level3 ,are we sure t su* high] excell5ce contributes to ! happ9ess ( ! individual :o possesses x8 ,assum+ t x does s contribute1 are we c]ta9 t ! accession ( happ9ess :i* he !reby acquires is great] ?an he w\ld h acquir$ by an increase ( 8 weal? & p[]1 8 virtue rema9+ /ill at ! ord9>y level8 ,^! are po9ts :i* ,ari/otle does n e/abli% satisfactorily1 al?\gh he pr(esses to h done s3 nor d ,i ?9k t !y are capable ( be+ e/abli%$4 ,! only gr\nd on :i* a morali/ c inculcate aspirations aft] ! high] degrees ( virtue1 is1 ! ga9 :i* !reby accrues to ! happ9ess ( o!rs1 n to t ( ! individual himself4 ,ari/otle appeals to ,god z a pro( ( ! sup]iority ( an int]nal s\rce ( happ9ess to an ext]nal s\rce--vii4 #a1 us+ ,god z a witness :o is happy & bless$1 yet n ?r\gh any ext]nal good1 b ?r\gh ,himself & f ,8 own nature4 ,aga91 vii4 #c1 ,= at leisure ,god w\ld be happy1 & ! :ole univ]se 7,greek3 ko_/smos71 :o h no ext]nal actions except su* z are prop] to !mselves--9 pro( ( ! sup]iority ( a life ( /udy & speculation to a life ( ambition & political activity4 ,! same argum5t is insi/$ ^u 9 ,e?4 ,nic4 x4 #h4 ,x is to be obs]v$ t ! ,greek3 ,ko_/smos z well z ,god is "h cit$ z exp]i5c+ happ9ess4 ,! analogy to :i* ,ari/otle appeals "h is und\bt$ly to a c]ta9 ext5t a j "o4 ,! mo/ p]fect happ9ess :i* we c conceive--our ,idea1 to use ,kant's phrase1 ( p]fect happ9ess--is t ( a be+ :o is happy 9 & = 8 own nature1 ) ! lea/ possible aid f ext]nal circum/ances--a be+ ^: nature or habits dispose him only to acts1 ! simple p]=mance ( :i* conf]s happ9ess4 ,b is ?is true ( ! p]fectly virtu\s nature & habits8 ,does ! simple p]=mance ( ! acts to :i* !y dispose u1 always conf] happ9ess8 ,is n ! exi/5ce ( a v high /&>d ( virtu\s exig5cy 9 a man's m9d1 a con/ant s\rce ( self-dissatisfaction1 f ! difficulty ( act+ up to 8 own ideas ( :at is becom+ & comm5dable8 ,t ! mo/ virtu\s nature is 9 itself & ess5tially ! mo/ happy nature1 is a po9t highly que/ionable--to say ! lea/ ( x3 & ev5 if we admit ! fact1 we mu/ at ! same "t add t x _c appe> to be s to ord9>y p]sons )\t4 ,! int]nal pleasures ( a highly virtu\s man _c be prop]ly appreciat$ by any p]son n ( simil> "*4 ,s t unless a p]son be himself dispos$ to believe x1 y c\ld f9d no means ( prov+ x to him4 ,to a man n already virtu\s1 y _c br+ ?is argum5t p]suasively home = ! purpose ( induc+ him to become s4 ,9 reg>d to prud5ce & temp]ance1 inde$1 qualities 9 ! fir/ in/ance b5eficial to himself1 x is cle> t ! m p]fectly he possesses !m1 ! great] & m assur$ w be 8 happ9ess4 ,b 9 reg>d to virtu\s qualities1 b5eficial 9 ! fir/ in/ance to o!rs & n to himself1 x c by no means be ass]t$ t ! p]son :o possesses ^! qualities 9 ! highe/ degree is happi] ?an "o :o possesses !m 9 a m mod]ate & ord9>y degree4 ,ari/otle inde$ says t ! be+ j necess>ily includes ! hav+ pleasure 9 su* behavi\r3 = we d n call a man j or lib]al unless he has a pleasure 9 ju/ice or lib]ality 7,e?4 ,nic4 i4 #h74 ,b ?is does n refute ! supposition1 t ano!r man1 less j or lib]al ?an he1 may enjoy great] happ9ess aris+ out ( o!r ta/es & o!r conduct4 ,9 ord] to su/a9 ! conclusion ( ,ari/otle respect+ ! sup]ior happ9ess ( ! virtu\s man1 x is necess>y to assume t ! pleasures ( self-e/eem & self-admiration are g5]ically di/+ui%$ f o!r pleasures & entitl$ to a pref]5ce 9 ! eyes ( e "r judg+ p]son4 ,& ,ari/otle does seem to assume some?+ ( ?is nature4 ,he says--x4 #c--,or t pleasures diff] 9 k9d8 ,= ! pleasures aris+ f ! hon\rable are diff]5t f ^? aris+ f ! base2 & x is n ! case t ! unju/ man exp]i5ces ! pleasure ( ! j1 or he t is unmusical t ( ! musician4 ,! inh]5t diff]5ce betwe5 v>i\s pleasures is aga9 t\*$ ^u x4 #e--;,& s9ce ! functions diff] 9 goodness & badness--"s ( !m be+ objects ( desire1 o!rs ( !m to be es*ew$1 & o!rs ( !m nei!r--s is x likewise ) ! pleasures3 = ea* function has its own pleasures4 ,! pleasure !n t is prop] to ! function ( good is good1 & t :i* is prop] to ! function ( bad is bad2 = ! desires ( ?+s hon\rable are praisewor?y1 ^? ( ?+s base are to be blam$4 ,& ! pleasures atta*+ to !m are m prop] to ! functions ?an are ! appet5cies !mselves4 ,9 ! next *apt]1 9 t rem>kable passage :]e he t\*es ^u ! pr$ilections ( m5 9 p[] = ! society ( je/]s & amus+ companions 7,! _m h rec\rse to ! amusem5ts ( ^? t are acc\nt$ happy7--,= x is n 9 k+ly p[] t y f9d ei!r virtue or intellect1 on :i* ! high] functions ( man dep5d4 ,nay1 n if pr9ces :o h nev] ta/$ ! reli% ( pure & lib]al pleasure1 h rec\rse to ! pleasures ( ! body1 on :i* acc\nt ^! mu/ be ?\ght ! m desirable4 ,= *ildr5 consid] ^? ?+s to be be/ t are held 9 hon\r among !mselves4 ,"h we h a m>k$ di/9ction drawn betwe5 ! diff]5t classes ( pleasures--"s be+ *>act]is$ z good1 "s bad1 "s indiff]5t4 ,! be/ ( all are ^? :i* ! virtu\s man enjoys1 & :i* he consid]s ! be/3 ! pleasures insep>ably annex$ to virtu\s ag5cy4 ,^! pleasures are ?us assum$ to be ( a pur] & m exalt$ "*1 & to des]ve a decid$ pref]5ce ov] e o!r class ( pleasures4 ,& if ?is be assum$1 ! sup]ior happ9ess ( ! virtu\s man foll[s z a matt] ( c\rse4 ,i %\ld obs]ve t ,ari/otle consid]s happ9ess to consi/ 9 ! ex]cise ( ! faculties agreeably to virtue 7,greek3 e7ne_/rgeia kat' a7retn7--! pleasure 7,greek3 7don7 is some?+ diff]5t f ! ex]cise 7,greek3 e7ne_/rgeia7--insep>ably att5d+ x1 inde$1 yet n ! same--conjo9$ ) ! functions 7,greek3 e7n]gei_/ais71 & ! two are s insep>able z to raise a "q :e!r ! function is n id5tical ) ! pleasure 7x4 #e74 ,& he says1 x4 #g--,we ?9k t pleasure %\ld be mix$ up 7,greek3 p>amemi_/*?ai7 ) happ9ess4 ,x seems to be 9 ! s5se ( self-e/eem1 :i* con/itutes ! di/9ctive m>k ( virtu\s ag5cy1 t ,ari/otle supposes happ9ess to consi/3 ! pleasure he supposes to be an insep>able concomitant1 b yet n ! same4 ,! self-e/eem is d\btless (t5 felt 9 cases :]e a man is p]=m+ a pa9ful duty--:]e ! sum total ( feel+s accompany+ ! p]=mance ( ! act is ! v rev]se ( pleasurable4 ,b /ill ! self-e/eem1 or te/imony ( an approv+ consci5ce1 is p] se always pleasurable1 & is 9 fact ! ess5tial pleasure inh]5t 9 virtu\s behavi\r4 ,i d n see ! propriety ( ! di/9ction "h tak5 by ,ari/otle4 ,he puts x some:at diff]5tly1 ,polit4 vii4 #a--,liv+ happily consi/s ei!r 9 joy or 9 virtue to m51 or 9 bo?4 ,& ,polit4 viii4 #e--;,= happ9ess is a comp\nd ( bo? ^! 7hon\r & pleasure74 ,s ,polit4 viii4 #c4 ,happ9ess 7aga9 he says--,polit4 vii4 #ac1 p4 #ddj ,e4 p4 #bhf7 consi/s 9 ! p]fect employm5t & active ex]cise ( virtue3 & t absolutely 7or "u ! mo/ fav\rable ext]nal conditions7--n "u limitation 7,greek3 e7x u7po!_/ses7 or subject to v try+ & difficult circum/ances4 ,= a man ( virtue may be s uncom=tably plac$ t he has no c\rse op5 to him except a *oice ( evils1 & c d no?+ b make ! be/ ( a bad position4 ,su* a man w conduct himself "u ! pressure ( want or mis=tune z well z 8 case admits3 b happ9ess is out ( 8 rea*4 7,comp>e ,e?4 ,nic4 i4 #aj47 ,to be happy1 x is necess>y t he %\ld be s plac$ z to be capable ( aspir+ to ! accompli%m5t ( positive good & advantage--he mu/ be admitt$ to cont5d = ! great prizes1 & to und]take actions :i* lead to new hon\rs & to b5efits previ\sly un5joy$3 he mu/ be reliev$ f ! necessity ( /ruggl+ aga9/ ov]:elm+ calamities4 ,ari/otle tells u 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! ,e?ics 7,e?4 ,nic4 i4 #c7--;,b !re is s mu* diff]5ce ( op9ion & s mu* error respect+ :at is hon\rable & j1 ( :i* political sci5ce treats1 t ^! prop]ties ( human action seem to exi/ m]ely by positive legal appo9tm5t1 & n by nature4 ,& !re is ! same sort ( error respect+ :at ?+s are good4 ,if !re be ?is widespread error & diss5sion among mank9d ) respect to ! det]m9+ ( :at is good & j1 :at /&>d has ,ari/otle e/abli%$ = ! purpose ( correct+ x8 ,i d n f9d t he has e/abli%$ any /&>d1 nor ev5 t he has ?\ght x necess>y to make ! attempt4 ,!re are inde$ a great numb] ( obs]vations1 & _m mo/ admirable obs]vations 9 8 ,treatise1 on ! v>i\s bran*es ( ,virtue & ,vice3 _m :i* t5d to conduct ! m9d ( ! read] unconsci\sly to ! prop] /&>d3 b no di/9ct ann\ncem5t ( any g5]al pr9ciple1 :]eby a dispute betwe5 two diss5ti5t morali/s may be settl$4 ,:5 he places virtue 9 a c]ta9 m$iocrity betwe5 excess on "o side & defect on ! o!r1 ?is middle po9t is n 9 any way m>k$ or discov]able3 x is a po9t n fix$1 b v>iable accord+ to ! position ( ! individual ag5t1 & is to be det]m9able 9 e case by "r reason & accord+ to ! judgm5t ( ! prud5t man--9 ! mean ) ref]5ce to ourselves1 z x has be5 det]m9$ by reason1 & z ! prud5t man 7,greek3 o7 phro_/nimos7 w\ld det]m9e x 7,e?4 ,nic4 ii4 #f74 ,b ?\gh ! decision is ?us ve/$ 9 ! prud5t man1 no m5tion is made ( ! pr9ciple :i* ! appo9t$ arbit] w\ld foll[ 9 deliv]+ 8 judgm5t1 assum+ a dispute to arise4 ,9 a previ\s "p ( ,*apt] ,,ii41 he def9es ! mean ) ref]5ce to ourselves to be t :i* nei!r exce$s1 nor falls %ort (1 ! rule ( propriety 7,greek3 t\ de_/ontos74 ,b ?is is n "o1 nor is x ! same to all4 ,to r5d] ?is def9ition suffici5t & satisfactory1 ,ari/otle ought to h po9t$ out to u h[ we are to f9d out t rule ( propriety 7,greek3 to de_/on7 :i* m>ks & con/itutes ! m$ium po9t1 ( actions & affections1 9 relation to ourselves--?is m$ium po9t be+ 9 8 op9ion virtue4 ,to expla9 :at is meant by a m$ium 9 relation to ourselves1 by ! words ,greek3 to de_/on1 ! rule ( propriety1 is only a *ange ( language1 )\t any additional in=mation4 ,?us ! capital problem ( moral philosophy /ill rema9s unsolv$4 ,x is rem>kable t ,ari/otle 9 "s p>ts ( 8 treatise /ates v di/9ctly :at ?is problem is1 & :at are ! po9ts ess5tial to its solution3 he speaks z if he 7 fully aw>e ( t :i* 0 want+ to 8 own treatise1 & z if he 7 prep>+ to supply ! defect3 b /ill ! promise is nev] realiz$4 ,take = example ! beg9n+ ( ,book ,,vi4 ,e?4 ,nic4 ,s9ce x has be5 already laid d[n1 t we ought to *oose ! middle po9t & n ei!r ! excess or ! defect--& s9ce ! middle po9t is t :i* "r reason det]m9es--let u di/+ui% :at t is4 ,= 9 all ! m5tal habits :i* h be5 describ$1 z well z 9 all o!rs also1 !re is a c]ta9 aim1 by a ref]5ce to :i* ! rational be+ is guid$ ei!r 9 relax+ or 9 re/rict+3 & !re is a c]ta9 def9ite b\nd>y ( ^? m$ial po9ts1 :i* we affirm to exi/ betwe5 excess & defect1 det]m9able accord+ to "r reason4 ,to speak ?us1 h[ev]1 is inde$ correct en\gh1 b x gives no di/9ct in=mation 7,greek3 ou7!n de saphe_/s73 = 9 all o!r modes ( proce$+ :i* are gov]n$ by sci5tific pr9ciples x is q j to say t y ought nei!r to "w nor to re/ m ?an is suffici5t nor less ?an is suffici5t1 b to a degree midway betwe5 ! two & agreeably to "r reason4 ,b a man :o has only ?is in=mation w\ld be no wis] ?an he 0 be=e x1 any m ?an he w\ld "k :at ?+s he ought to apply to 8 body1 by be+ simply told t he mu/ apply su* ?+s z m$ical sci5ce & z ! m$ical practition] direct$4 ,:]e=e1 ) respect also to ! habits ( ! s\l we mu/ n be cont5t ) m]ely giv+ a g5]al /atem5t 9 correct language1 b we mu/ f>!r discrim9ate :at "r reason is1 & :at is its def9ition4 ,?is is a v cle> & c&id /atem5t ( ! gr& & fundam5tal defect 9 ,ari/otle's !ory ( ,e?ics4 ,he says v truly t !re is a c]ta9 end & aim 7,greek3 sko_/pos71 to :i* a rational be+ has ref]5ce :5 he ei!r re/ricts or relaxes any disposition4 ,x 0 incumb5t on ,ari/otle to expla9 :at ?is ,greek3 sko_/pos 02 b ?is he nev] does1 ?\gh he seems s cle>ly to h felt ! want ( x4 ,we might h suppos$ t aft] he _h po9t$ out :at 0 requir$ to imp>t specific mean+ to correct b vague g5]alities1 he w\ld h proce$$ at once to fill up ! ackn[l$g$ *asm 9 8 !ory3 b in/ead ( ?is1 he ent]s into an analysis ( ! intellect1 speculative & practical1 & expla9s ! v>ieties ( intellectual1 z contradi/+ui%$ f moral1 excell5ce4 ,?is "p ( 8 "w is highly valuable & in/ructive3 b ,i _c f9d t he ev] aga9 t\*es ^u ! ,greek3 sko_/pos1 :i* _h be5 admitt$ to be z yet undet]m9$4 ,9 a c]ta9 s5se1 x is inde$ true t he endeav\rs to discrim9ate :at "r reason is1 & :at is its def9ition3 = he classifies ! intellectual functions into intellect 7,greek3 n\s71 sci5ce 7,greek3 e7pi/_/m71 wisdom 7,greek3 sophi_/a71 art 7,greek3 te_/*n71 prud5ce 7,greek3 phro_/nsis73 he /ates ! g5]al nature ( ea* ( ^! attributes1 & ! range ( subjects to :i* x applies4 ,he tells u t intellect & prud5ce h ref]5ce to human conduct--t prud5ce is conc]n$ ) ?+s j & hon\rable & good = man 7vii4 #ab7--) ! ?+s ( man1 & ^? ?+s reg>d+ :i* we delib]ate 7vii4 #g7--prud5ce mu/ ne$s be a true habit accord+ to reason1 conc]n$ ) ! good ( man 7vii4 #e74 ,9 expla9+ :at prud5ce is1 he tells u t x is accord+ to reason3 9 expla9+ :at is "r reason1 he tells u t x is accord+ to prud5ce4 ,he ?us seems to make use ( ea* z a "p ( ! def9ition ( ! o!r4 ,b h[ev] ?is may be1 c]ta9 x is t he nev] fulfils ! expectation held out 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! ,six? ,book1 nor ev] cle>s up ! ,greek3 ou7den saphes !re ackn[l$g$4 ,!re is "o s5t5ce at ! beg9n+ ( vi4 #e1 :i* looks z if x convey$ additional in=mation ^u ! difficulty 9 "q--,n[ x seems to belong to ! prud5t man to be able to delib]ate aright conc]n+ ! ?+s t are good & pr(itable to himself--n 9 "p1 z conc]n+ ! ?+s t h a ref]5ce to heal? or /r5g?--b conc]n+ ! ?+s t ref] to ! :ole ( liv+ well 7,greek3 pros to eu7 zn74 ,b ?is 9 po9t ( fact expla9s no?+4 ,= liv+ well is ! same z happ9ess3 happ9ess is ! active ex]cise ( ! s\l accord+ to virtue3 !re=e virtue mu/ be kn[n1 be=e we c "k :at liv+ well is4 ,i ?9k t ?is ,greek3 sko_/pos or end1 :i* ,ari/otle alludes to 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! ,six? ,book z n hav+ be5 yet made cle>1 appe>s to be m di/9ctly br\ght out 9 a previ\s passage ?an x is 9 any portion ( ! ,treatise aft] ! beg9n+ ( ! ,six? ,book4 ,9 ,book ,,iv4 #f1 ,ari/otle treats ( ! virtues & defects connect$ ) behavi\r 9 social int]c\rse3 ! obsequi\s at "o extreme1 ! peevi% or qu>relsome at ! o!r3 & ! becom+ m$ium1 ?\gh x _h no special "n1 :i* lay betwe5 !m4 ,speak+ ( ! p]son :o adopts ?is becom+ m$ium1 he says--,we h said g5]ally1 !n1 t he w associate ) p z he ought2 & hav+1 moreov]1 a con/ant ref]5ce to :at is hon\rable & :at is exp$i5t1 he w aim at n giv+ pa9 or at contribut+ pleasure4 ,aga9 9 reg>d to ,temp]ance--iii4 #aa--;he /ates ! ,greek3 sko_/pos ( ! temp]ate man--,:at ?+s h a ref]5ce to heal? or vig\r1 & are agreeable1 ^! he desires 9 measure & z he ought2 z well z ! o!r agreeable ?+s t are n oppos$ to ^!1 ei!r z be+ contr>y to :at is hon\rable or z be+ beyond 8 =tune4 ,= he t desires ?+s agreeable1 :i* yet are contr>y to :at is hon\rable or beyond 8 =tune1 loves ^! pleasures m ?an !y are wor?4 ,b n s ) ! temp]ate man :o lives accord+ to "r reason4 ,^! passages are n v di/9ct1 z an explanation ( ! prop] ,greek3 sko_/pos3 b ,i _c f9d any passages aft] ! beg9n+ ( ! ,six? ,book :i* are m di/9ct ?an !y3 or p]haps1 equally di/9ct4 ,9 "o passage ( ! ,sev5? ,book1 ,ari/otle ref]s1 ?\gh some:at obscurely1 to ! av]age degree ( virtue exhibit$ by ! mass ( mank9d z ! /&>d to be consult$ :5 we pron\nce ^u excess or defect 7vii4 #g74 ,ari/otle seems 9 "s passages to indicate pleasure & pa9 z ! end ) ref]5ce to :i* actions or dispositions are d5om9at$ good & evil4 ,he says--vii4 #aa--,to !orise respect+ pleasure & pa91 is ! bus9ess ( ! political philosoph]3 = he is ! ar*itect ( t end ) ref]5ce to :i* we call ea* matt] ei!r absolutely good or absolutely evil4 ,moreov]1 x is indisp5sable to in/itute an enquiry respect+ !m3 = we h expla9$ e?ical virtue & vice z ref]r+ to pleasures & pa9s3 & mo/ p affirm happ9ess to be c\pl$ ) pleasure3 = :i* reason !y h nam$ ,greek3 to maka_/rion a7po t\ *ai_/re94 ,9 ,book ,,viii4 #i-aj1 ! ,greek3 sko_/pos is inde$ /at$ v cle>ly1 b n z su*--n z if ,ari/otle int5d$ to make x s]ve z su*1 or ?\ght t x ought to =m ! basis ^u :i* our e/imate ( :at is ! prop] middle po9t %\ld be f\nd4 ,9 viii4 #i-aj1 he tells u t all ju/ice & b5evol5ce 7,greek3 to di_/kaion kai 7 phili_/a7 is a consequ5ce & an incid5t ( e/abli%$ communion among human be+s 7,greek3 ko9ni_/a7--t ! gr& communion ( all1 :i* compreh5ds all ! re/1 is ! ,political ,communion--t ! end & object ( ! ,political ,communion1 z well t = :i* x 0 orig9ally creat$ z t = :i* x subsi/s & cont9ues1 is ! common & la/+ advantage 7,greek3 to ko9 su_/mph]on7--t all o!r communions1 ( relations1 fri5ds1 fell[-soldi]s1 neighb\rs1 c41 are portions ( ! all-compreh5sive political communion1 & aim at realiz+ "s p>tial advantage to ! con/itu5t memb]s4 ,^! *apt]s are v cle> & v important1 & !y ann\nce pla9ly en\gh ! common & la/+ int]e/ z ! f\ndation & measure ( ju/ice z well z ( b5evol5ce4 ,b !y d n apply ! same measure1 to ! qualities :i* _h be5 enum]at$ 9 ! ,books prior to ! ,six?1 z a means ( asc]ta9+ :]e ! middle po9t is to be f\nd :i* is alleg$ to con/itute virtue4 ,nev]!less1 ,ari/otle tells u t x is 9 ! highe/ degree difficult to f9d ! middle po9t :i* con/itutes virtue 7ii4 #i74 ,x might seem at fir/ sight n easy = ,ari/otle1 consi/5tly ) ! plan ( 8 treatise1 to po9t out any su* /&>d or measure4 ,= none c be m5tion$1 ) any tol]able pret5sions to admissibility1 except t ( t5d5cy to promote happ9ess--! happ9ess bo? ( ! individual ag5t & ( ! society to :i* he belongs4 ,b z he _h begun by introduc+ ! ideas ( reason & virtue z m$ia = expla9+ :at happ9ess 01 !re w\ld h be5 at lea/ an app>5t incongruity 9 rev]t+ back to ! latt] z a means ( cle>+ up :at 0 obscure 9 ! =m]4 ,i say--at lea/ an app>5t incongruity--because aft] all ! incongruity is m app>5t ?an real4 ,if we c>efully pres]ve ! di/9ction betwe5 ! happ9ess ( ! individual ag5t & ! happ9ess ( ! ,society to :i* he belongs1 x w appe> t ,ari/otle might )\t any inconsi/5cy h specifi$ ! latt] z be+ ! object to :i* reason has reg>d1 9 regulat+ & controll+ ! v>i\s affections ( ea* individual4 ,:]e9 consi/s ! happ9ess ( an individual man8 ,9 a c\rse ( active ex]tion ( ! s\l con=mably to virtue3 virtue be+ und]/ood to consi/ 9 a c]ta9 m$iocrity ( our v>i\s affections z det]m9$ by "r reason4 ,:5 we next enquire1 to :at /&>d does "r reason look 9 mak+ ?is det]m9ation8 x may )\t inconsi/5cy be answ]$--,"r reason det]m9es ! prop] po9t ( m$iocrity by a ref]5ce to happ9ess g5]ally--t is1 to ! happ9ess ( society at l>ge1 includ+ t ( ! individual ag5t 9 "q--9 o!r words1 to ! common & la/+ advantage1 :i* ,ari/otle describes z ! gr& object ( ! /atesman4 ,!re is no inconsi/5cy 9 rev]t+ to happ9ess1 ?us expla9$1 z ! /&>d by :i* "r reason judges 9 controll+ our diff]5t affections4 ,9 all moral enquiries1 x is ( ! greate/ importance to keep 9 view ! happ9ess ( ! individual1 & ! happ9ess ( ! society at l>ge1 z two di/9ct & sep>ate objects--:i* co9cide inde$ ,greek3 7s e7pi to polu_/1 9 ! majority ( in/ances & ) reg>d to ! majority ( individuals--b :i* d n co9cide necess>ily & univ]sally1 nor ) reg>d to e individual4 ,a p>ticul> man may be plac$ 9 su* a position1 or animat$ ) su* feel+s1 t 8 happ9ess may be promot$ by do+ :at is contr>y to ! happ9ess ( ! society4 ,he w "u ^! circum/ances d :at is good = himself b bad = o!rs3 he w d :at is morally wrong1 & w incur ! blame ( society4 ,9 speak+ ( good & evil x is always necess>y to keep 9 m9d1 t :at is good = an individual may be bad = ! society3 ,i mean1 und]/&+ ! words good = an individual 9 ! mo/ compreh5sive s5se1 z includ+ all t he has to suff] f ! unfav\rable s5tim5ts ( society4 ,mu* confusion has aris5 f morali/s speak+ ( good & evil absolutely1 )\t specify+ :e!r !y meant good = ! individual or = ! society3 m p>ticul>ly 9 ! writ+s ( ! anci5t philosoph]s4 ,f ! mann] 9 :i* ,ari/otle arrives at 8 def9ition ( :at con/itutes happ9ess1 we might almo/ suppose t he w\ld h be5 l$ to ! indication ( ! happ9ess ( society at l>ge z ! /&>d = "r reason to appeal to4 ,= 9 exam9+ :at is ! prop] bus9ess ( man 9 g5]al1 he has rec\rse to ! analogy ( ! v>i\s p>ticul> arts & pr(essions--! pip]1 ! /atu>y1 ! c>p5t]1 ! c>ri]1 c4 ,ea* has 8 p>ticul> bus9ess & walk ( action1 & 9 ! p]=mance ( t bus9ess consi/s ! good & ! well 9 8 case 7i4 #g74 ,s 9 l mann] !re is a special bus9ess = man 9 g5]al1 9 ! p]=mance ( :i* we are to seek human good4 ,n[ ?is analogy ( p>ticul> arti/s & pr(essional m5 might h conduct$ ,ari/otle to ! idea ( ! g5]al happ9ess ( society z a /&>d4 ,= ! bus9ess ( e arti/ or artisan consi/s 9 conduc+ to ! com=t1 ! protection1 or ! gratification ( ! public1 ea* 9 8 p>ticul> walk3 pr(essional excell5ce = !m consi/s 9 accompli%+ ?is object p]fectly4 ,= e special pr(ession !re=e ! happ9ess ( society at l>ge1 "u "o =m or ano!r1 is introduc$ z ! /&>d by :i* good & excell5ce are to be measur$4 ,apply ?is analogy to man 9 g5]al1 tak5 ap>t f any p>ticul> craft or pr(ession4 ,if ea* man1 consid]$ simply z su*1 has 8 appropriate bus9ess1 9 ! good p]=mance ( :i* happ9ess = him consi/s1 ! /&>d ( excell5ce 9 respect to su* 9999p]=mance is to be f\nd 9 its conduciv5ess to ! happ9ess ( society at l>ge4 ,x c be f\nd n[h]e else1 if we are to judge accord+ to ! analogy ( special arts & pr(essions4 ,until ?is want ( a /&>d or measure is suppli$1 x is cle> t ! treatise ( ,ari/otle is defective 9 a mo/ ess5tial po9t--a defect :i* is "h admitt$ by himself 9 ! fir/ *apt] ( ! ,six? ,book4 ,nor is !re any o!r way ( supply+ :at is want+ except by ref]5ce to ! g5]al happ9ess ( society1 ! end & object 7z he himself tells u7 ( ! /atesman4 ,:at !n1 says ,ari/otle1 prev5ts our call+ him happy :o is 9 ! active ex]cise ( 8 s\l agreeably to p]fect virtue1 & is suffici5tly well furni%$ ) ext]nal goods1 n = a casual p]iod b = a complete lifetime8 7i4 #aj74 ,he ?9ks himself oblig$ to add1 h[ev]1 t ?is is n q suffici5t--= t aft] dea? a man w /ill be affect$ ) sympa?y = ! good or bad =tunes & conduct ( 8 surviv+ relatives1 affect$ h[ev] fa9tly & slightly1 s z n to deprive him ( ! title to be call$ happy1 if on o!r gr\nds he des]ves x4 ,! deceas$ p]son sees ! mis=tunes ( 8 surviv+ fri5ds ) some?+ ( ! same k9d ( sympa!tic int]e/1 ?\gh less 9 degree1 z is felt by a liv+ p]son 9 foll[+ ! repres5tation ( a trag$y 7i4 #aa74 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 a mis=tune1 happ5+ dur+ a man's life or aft] 8 dea?1 is mu* great] ?an t betwe5 sc5ic repres5tation ( pa/ calamities & actual reality 7ib474 ,x seems z if ,ari/otle 0 reluctantly oblig$ to make ?is admission--t deceas$ p]sons 7 at all conc]n$ 9 ! calamities ( ! liv+--m 9 def]5ce to ! op9ions ( o!rs ?an 9 consequ5ce ( any conviction ( 8 own4 ,8 language 9 ! two *apt]s :]e9 he treats ( x is m ?an usually hesitat+ & undecid$3 & 9 ! beg9n+ ( ,*apt] ,,xi41 he says--,to h no int]e/ :atev] 9 ! =tunes ( _! desc5dants & fri5ds1 seems exce$+ly he>tless & contr>y to :at we %\ld expect--he !n1 f>!r on1 /ates x to be a great matt] ( d\bt :e!r ! dead exp]i5ce ei!r good or evil--b if any?+ ( ! k9d does p5etrate to !m1 x mu/ be feeble & insignificant1 s z to make no s5sible diff]5ce to !m4 ,,ii4 ,ari/otle di/ributes good ?+s into ?ree classes--! admirable or wor%ipful--! praisewor?y--! pot5tial4 #a4 ,good--z an ,end3 t :i* is wor?y ( be+ hon\r$ & v5]at$ 9 itself & f its own nature1 )\t reg>d to any?+ ult]ior3 t :i* comes up to our idea ( p]fection4 #b4 ,good--z a means3 t :i* is good1 n on its own acc\nt nor 9 its own nature1 b on acc\nt ( c]ta9 ult]ior consequ5ces :i* fl[ f x4 #c4 ,good--z a means1 b n a c]ta9 & con/ant means3 t :i* produces g5]ally1 b n always1 ult]ior consequ5ces f9ally good3 t :i*1 9 ord] to produce consequ5ces 9 !mselves good1 requires to be c\pl$ ) c]ta9 concomitant conditions4 #a4 ,happ9ess belongs to ! fir/ ( ^! classes3 x is put along ) ! div9e1 ! bett]1 s\l1 intellect1 ! m anci5t1 ! pr9ciple1 ! cause1 c4 7,mag4 ,moral4 i4 #b74 ,su* objects z ^!1 we contemplate ) awe & rev]5ce4 #b4 ,virtue belongs to ! second ( ! classes3 x is good f ! acts to :i* x gives bir?1 & f ! end 7happ9ess7 :i* ^? acts1 :5 suffici5tly long cont9u$1 t5d to produce4 #c4 ,weal?1 p[]1 beauty1 /r5g?1 c41 belong to ! ?ird class3 ^! are g5]ally good because "u mo/ circum/ances !y t5d to produce happ9ess3 b !y may be q o!rwise1 if a man's m9d be s defectively tra9$ z to dispose him to abuse !m4 ,x is rem>kable t ?is classification is n =mally laid d[n & expla9$1 b is assum$ z already well kn[n & famili>1 9 ! ,nicom4 ,e?ics1 i4 #ab3 :]eas x is =mally /at$ & expla9$ 9 ! ,magna ,moralia1 i4 #b4 ,praise1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 does n belong to ! be/ ?+s1 b only to ! second-be/4 ,! ,gods are to be mac>is$1 n prais$3 ! praise ( ! ,gods mu/ h ref]5ce to ourselves1 & mu/ be tak5 9 comp>ison ) ourselves & our acts & capacities3 & ?is is ridicul\sly degrad+1 :5 we apply x to ! maje/y ( ! ,gods4 ,9 l mann] ! mo/ div9e & p]fect m5 des]ve to be mac>is$ r ?an prais$4 ,no man praises happ9ess1 z he praises ju/ice1 b mac>ises 7blesses7 x z some?+ m div9e & bett]4 ,happ9ess is to be numb]$ among/ ! p]fect & wor%ipful objects--x is ! ,greek3 a7r* = ! sake ( :i* all ( u d ev]y?+3 & we consid] ! pr9ciple & ! cause ( all good ?+s to be some?+ div9e & v5]able 7i4 #ab74 ,s9ce !n ,happ9ess is ! action ( ! s\l con=mably to p]fect virtue1 x is necess>y to exam9e :at human virtue is3 & ?is is ! mo/ ess5tial m>k to :i* ! true politician w direct 8 att5tion 7i4 #ac74 ,!re are two p>ts ( ! s\l--! rational & ! irrational4 ,:e!r ^! two are divisible 9 fact1 l ! p>ts ( ! body1 or :e!r !y are insep>able 9 fact1 & m]ely susceptible ( be+ sep>ately dealt ) 9 reason+1 l ! concavity & convexity ( a circle1 is a matt] n necess>y to be exam9$ 9 ! pres5t treatise4 ,ari/otle speaks z if he consid]$ ?is z really a d\btful po9t4 ,( ! irrational s\l1 "o bran* is1 ! nutritive & vegetative faculty1 common to man ) animals & plants4 ,! virtue ( ?is faculty is n special to man1 b common to ! vegetable & animal _w3 x is 9 fact mo/ en]getic dur+ sleep1 at ! p]iod :5 all virtue special to man is = ! "t dormant 7i4 #ac74 ,b ! irrational s\l has also ano!r bran*1 ! appetites1 desires1 & passions3 :i* are q di/9ct f reason1 b may ei!r resi/ reason1 or obey x1 z ! case may happ54 ,x may ?us 9 a c]ta9 s5se be said to p>take ( reason1 :i* ! vegetative & nutritive faculty does n 9 any way4 ,! virtue ( ?is dep>tm5t ( ! s\l consi/s 9 its due ob$i5ce to reason1 z to ! voice ( a p>5t 7i4 #ac74 ,human virtue1 !n1 di/ributes itself into two gr& divisions--#a4 ,! virtue ( ! rational s\l1 or ,intellectual ,virtue4 #b4 ,! virtue ( ! semi-rational s\l1 or ,e?ical ,virtue4 ,p]haps ! ^w ,excell5ce m exactly corresponds to ,greek3 a7ret1 ?an ,virtue4 ,intellectual excell5ce is bo? g5]at$ & augm5t$ by tea*+ & exp]i5ce4 ,e?ical excell5ce by practical tra9+4 ,! excell5ce is n natural to u3 b we are susceptible ( be+ tra9$1 & ! tra9+ creates x4 ,by tra9+1 accord+ z x is ei!r good or bad1 all excell5ce is ei!r creat$ or de/roy$3 j z a man becomes a good or a bad musician1 accord+ z he has be5 subject$ to a good or a bad mode ( practice4 ,x is by do+ ! same ?+ _m times t we acquire at la/ ! habit ( do+ x--,= :at ?+s we h to le>n to d1 ^! we le>n by do+ 7ii4 #a73 accord+ z ! ?+s we are tra9$ to d are good or bad1 we acquire good habits or bad habits4 ,by build+ we become build]s1 by play+ on ! h>p we become h>p]s--good or indiff]5t1 accord+ to ! way 9 :i* we h practis$4 ,all legislators wi% & attempt to make _! citiz5s good1 by means ( c]ta9 habits3 "s succe$ 9 ! attempt1 o!rs fail3 & ?is is ! diff]5ce betwe5 a good & a bad gov]nm5t4 ,x is by be+ tra9$ to d acts ( ju/ice & c\rage t we become at la/ j & c\rage\s--,9 "o ^w1 habits are g5]at$ by 7a succession (7 l op]ations3 = ?is reason x is ! "* ( ! op]ations p]=m$ :i* we ought *iefly to att5d to3 = accord+ to ! diff]5ce ( ^! w be ! habits :i* ensue4 ,x is !re=e n a matt] ( slight diff]5ce :e!r imm$iately f our e>lie/ ye>s we are e?is$ 9 "o way or 9 ano!r--x makes a prodigi\s diff]5ce--or r1 x makes ! :ole diff]5ce 7ii4 #a74 ,uni=m p]sev]ance 9 action1 !n1 creates a habit3 b ( :at nature is ! requir$ action to be8 ,9 e dep>tm5t ( our nature1 :]e any good result is to be produc$1 we may be disappo9t$ ( our result by two sorts ( error3 ei!r an excess or on ! side ( defect4 ,to "w or eat too mu*1 or too little1 prev5ts ! good effects ( tra9+ ^u ! heal? & /r5g?3 s ) reg>d to temp]ance1 c\rage & ! o!r virtues--! man :o is tra9$ to fe> ev]y?+ & ! man :o is tra9$ to fe> no?+1 w alike fail 9 acquir+ ! g5u9e habit ( c\rage4 ,! acquisition ( ! habit makes ! p]=mance ( ! action easy3 by a c\rse ( ab/95t acts1 we acquire ! habit ( temp]ance3 & hav+ acquir$ ?is habit1 we c ) ! great] ease p]=m ! act ( ab/95ce 7ii4 #b74 ,! symptom :i* indicates t ! habit has be5 p]fectly acquir$1 is ! facility or satisfaction ) :i* ! act comes to be p]=m$ 7ii4 #c74 ,! man :o ab/a9s f bodily pleasures1 & :o p]=ms ?is cont5t$ly 7,greek3 au7t t\_/t *ai_/rn71 is ! temp]ate man3 ! man :o does ! same ?+ b reluctantly & ) vexation 7,greek3 a7*?o_/nimos7 is intemp]ate3 ! l ) c\rage4 ,e?ical excell5ce1 or e?ical badness1 has ref]5ce to our pleasures & pa9s3 :5ev] we d any ?+ mean1 or %r9k f any ?+ hon\rable1 x is "s pleasure or "s pa9 :i* det]m9es our conduct3 = :i* reason ,plato rightly prescribes t ! "y %all be educat$ ev5 f ! e>lie/ mom5t s z to give a prop] direction to _! pleasures & pa9s 7ii4 #c74 ,by (t5 pursu+ pleasure & pa9 "u circum/ances 9 :i* we ought n to d s1 we contract bad habits1 by a law simil> to t :i* "u a good education w\ld h imp>t$ to u good habits4 ,e?ical virtue !n consi/s 9 su* a disposition ( our pleasures & pa9s z leads to p]=mance ( ! be/ actions4 ,"s p]sons h def9$ x to consi/ 9 apa?y & imp]turbability ( m9d3 b ?is def9ition is errone\s3 ! m9d ought to be affect$ "u prop] circum/ances 7ii4 #c74 7,?is seems to be ! same doctr9e :i* 0 aft]w>ds prea*$ by ! ,/oic s*ool47 ,!re are ?ree +r$i5ts :i* det]m9e our *oice1 ! hon\rable--! exp$i5t--! agreeable3 & z _m :i* occasion our rejection--! base--! inexp$i5t--! pa9ful or vexati\s4 ,9 respect to all ^! ?ree ! good man judges rightly1 ! wick$ man wrongly1 & especially 9 reg>d to ! latt]4 ,pleasure & pa9 are famili> to u f our e>lie/ *ildhood1 & are ineffaceable f human nature3 all m5 measure & classify actions 7,greek3 kanoni_/zom5 tas pra_/xeis7 by pleasure & pa93 "s m5 to a great] degree1 o!rs to a less degree4 ,all e?ical excell5ce1 & all ! political sci5ce1 turns ^u pleasure & pa9 7ii4 #c74 ,a man becomes j & temp]ate by do+ j & temp]ate actions1 ?us by degrees acquir+ ! habit4 ,b h[ 7x is ask$7 c ?is be true8 = if a man p]=ms j & temp]ate actions1 he mu/ already />t by be+ j & temp]ate4 ,! objection is n well f\nd$4 ,a man may d j & temp]ate actions1 & yet n be j & temp]ate4 ,if he does !m1 kn[+ :at he does1 int5d+ :at he does1 & int5d+ to d ! acts = _! own sake1 !n inde$ he is j & temp]ate1 b n o!rwise4 ,! productions ( art c>ry _! own m]it along ) !m3 a "w ( art is excell5t or defective1 :atev] be ! /ate ( m9d ( ! p]son :o has execut$ x4 ,b ! acts ( a man _c be said to be ju/ly or temp]ately done1 unless !re be a c]ta9 /ate ( m9d accompany+ _! p]=mance by ! do]3 !y may inde$ be call$ j & temp]ate acts1 mean+ !reby t !y are su* z a j & temp]ate man w\ld d1 b ! man :o does !m does n necess>ily des]ve ^! epi!ts4 ,x is only by frequ5t do+ ( acts ( ?is class t a man c acquire ! habit ( p]=m+ !m int5tionally & = !mselves1 9 :i* consi/s ! j & temp]ate "*4 ,to "k :at su* acts are1 is little or no?+3 y mu/ obey ! precepts1 j z y foll[ ! prescriptions ( a physician4 ,_m m5 ?9k errone\sly t philosophy w tea* !m to be virtu\s1 )\t any c\rse ( action adopt$ by !mselves 7ii4 #d74 ,ari/otle classifies ! ph5om5a ( ! s\l 7! non-rational s\l7 into ?ree--,passions--,capacities or ,faculties--,/ates4 ,! fir/ are ! occasional affections--ang]1 fe>1 envy1 joy1 av]sion--9 %ort1 ev]y?+ t is accompani$ by pleasure or pa9 7ii4 #e74 ,! second are1 ! capacities ( be+ mov$ by su* affections--! affective faculties1 if "o may s call !m 7ib4 ,s ,e?4 ,eudem4 ii4 #b74 ,! ?ird are1 ^? habits accord+ to :i* we are said to be well or ill dispos$ t[>ds ?is or t p>ticul> affection3 to be dispos$ to viol5t ang] or viol5t fe>1 is a bad habit4 ,virtues & vices are nei!r affections1 nor faculties1 b habits1 ei!r good or bad4 ,?is is ! g5us to :i* ! virtues belong 7,greek3 t ge_/nei--,e?4 ,nic4 ii4 #e74 ,virtue is t habit f ! possession ( :i* a man is call$ good1 & by :i* he p]=ms well 8 appropriate function 7ii4 #f74 ,x consi/s 9 a c]ta9 m$ium betwe5 two extremes1 ! "o ( excess1 ! o!r ( defect--a m$ium n positive & absolute1 b v>iable & hav+ ref]5ce to ea* p>ticul> p]son & ea* p>ticul> case--nei!r exce$+ nor fall+ %ort ( :at is prop] 7ii4 #f74 ,all e?ical virtue aims at ! atta9m5t ( ?is middle po9t 9 respect to our affections & actions--to exhibit ea* on ! prop] occasions1 9 ! prop] degree1 t[>ds ! prop] p]sons1 c4 ,?is middle po9t is b "o1 b errors on bo? sides ( x are numb]less3 x mu/ be det]m9$ by reason & by ! judgm5t ( ! prud5t man 7ii4 #f74 ,virtue !re=e1 accord+ to its ess5ce & g5]ic def9ition 7,greek3 kata men tn ousi_/an1 kai ton lo_/gon ton ti_/ 7n ei7nai le_/gonta71 is a c]ta9 m$iocrity4 ,b !re are "s actions & "s affections :i* d n admit ( m$iocrity1 & :i* imply at once 9 _! names evil & culpability 7ii4 #f7--su* z impud5ce1 envy1 !ft1 c4 ,ea* ( ^! names implies 9 its mean+ a c]ta9 excess & defect1 & does n admit ( m$iocrity3 j z temp]ance & c\rage imply 9 _! mean+ ! idea ( m$iocrity1 & exclude bo? excess & defect4 ,ari/otle !n proce$s to apply 8 g5]al doctr9e--t virtue or excell5ce consi/s 9 a m$ium betwe5 two extremes1 bo? defects--to v>i\s diff]5t virtues4 ,he aga9 insi/s ^u ! extreme difficulty ( det]m9+ :]e ?is requisite m$ium is1 9 ea* individual in/ance3 ei!r excess or defect is ! easy & natural c\rse4 ,9 f9d+ & adh]+ to ! middle po9t consi/s ! well1 ! r>e1 ! praisewor?y1 ! hon\rable 7ii4 #i74 ,! extremes1 ?\gh bo? wrong1 are n always equally wrong3 t :i* is ! mo/ wrong ought at any rate to be avoid$3 & we ought to be specially on our gu>d aga9/ ! s$uctions ( pleasure 7ib471 s9ce our natural incl9ations c>ry u 9 t direction4 ,ari/otle s (t5 speaks ( ! propriety ( foll[+ nature1 & produces nature s con/antly z an au?ority & an arbit]1 t x seems surpris+ to f9d him say+--,we mu/ be on our gu>d ) ref]5ce to ! ?+s :]eto we ourselves are prone4 ,= "s ( u are by nature dispos$ t[>ds "s ?+s1 o!rs t[>ds o!rs4--,b we mu/ drag ourselves away 9 ! opposite direction 7ii4 #i74 ,!re is a s+ul> passage 9 ! same *apt] ) respect to our moral judgm5ts4 ,aft] hav+ =cibly insi/$ on ! extreme difficulty ( hitt+ ! prop] m$ium po9t ( virtue1 he says t a man :o commits only small errors on "o side or on ! o!r side ( ?is po9t1 is n c5sur$1 b only he :o greatly deviates f x--he !n proce$s--,b x is n easy to def9e 9 g5]al language at :at po9t a man becomes des]v+ ( c5sure3 nor inde$ is x easy to d ?is ) reg>d to any o!r matt] ( p]ception4 ,que/ions ( ?is sort dep5d ^u ! circum/ances ( ! p>ticul> case1 & ! judgm5t ^u ea* resides 9 our p]ception 7ii4 #i74 ,! fir/ five *apt]s1 ( ! ?ird ,book ( ! ,e?ics1 are devot$ to an exam9ation ( v>i\s notions involv$ 9 our ideas ( virtue & vice--,volunt>y & ,involunt>y--,greek3 e7k\_/sion kai a7k\_/sion--,ignorance--,greek3 a7_/gnoia--,*oice or resolution1 consequ5t ^u previ\s delib]ation--,greek3 proai_/resis4 ,^? actions are involunt>y1 :i* are done ei!r by compulsion1 or ?r\gh ignorance4 ,an action is done by compulsion :5 ! proximate cause ( x 7or beg9n+--,greek3 a7r*7 is some?+ =eign to ! w ( ! ag5t--! ag5t himself nei!r concurr+ nor contribut+4 ,actions done f ! fe> ( great] evils are ( a mix$ "*1 z :]e a navigator 9 a /orm ?r[s 8 goods ov]bo>d to pres]ve ! %ip4 ,su* actions z ?is1 tak5 z a class1 & ap>t f p>ticul> circum/ances1 are :at no "o w\ld d volunt>ily3 b 9 ! p>ticul> circum/ances ( ! suppos$ case1 ! action is done volunt>ily4 ,e action is volunt>y1 :]e9 ! beg9n+ ( organic motion is1 ! w ( ! ag5t 7iii4 #a74 ,m5 are prais$ if "u su* pa9ful circum/ances !y make a "r *oice--if !y volunt>ily und]go :at is pa9ful or di%on\rable = ! purpose ( accompli%+ "s great & glori\s result 7ib473 !y are c5sur$1 if !y %r9k f ?is c\rse1 or if !y submit to ! evil )\t "s suffici5t end4 ,if a man is induc$ to d :at is unbecom+ by ! ?reat ( evils surpass+ human endurance1 he is spok5 ( ) =be>ance3 ?\gh !re are "s crimes ( su* magnitude z _c be excus$ ev5 by ! greate/ possible appreh5sion ( evil1 su* z dea? & torture4 ,9 su* try+ circum/ances1 x is difficult to make a "r *oice1 & /ill m difficult to adh]e to ! *oice :5 x is made4 ,:at is done ?r\gh ignorance1 c nev] be said to be done volunt>ily3 if ! ag5t %all be aft]w>ds griev$ & rep5tant = :at he has done1 x is involunt>y4 ,if he be n rep5tant1 ?\gh he _c be said to h done ! de$ volunt>ily1 yet nei!r ought x to be call$ involunt>y4 ,a di/9ction h[ev] is to be tak5 9 reg>d to ignorance1 consid]$ z a gr\nd = call+ ! action involunt>y1 & = excus+ ! ag5t4 ,a man drunk or 9 a viol5t passion1 misbehaves1 ignorantly b n ?r\gh ignorance3 t is1 ignorance is n ! cause ( 8 misbehavi\r1 b drunk5ness or rage4 ,9 l mann]1 e deprav$ p]son may be ignorant ( 8 true int]e/1 or ! rule :i* he ought to foll[1 b ?is sort ( ignorance does n r5d] 8 behavi\r involunt>y1 nor entitle him to any indulg5ce4 ,x mu/ be ignorance ) reg>d to "s p>ticul> circum/ance connect$ ) ! special action :i* he is committ+--ignorance ( ! p]son ) :om1 or ! in/rum5t ) :i*1 or ! subject matt] 9 reg>d to :i* he is deal+4 ,ignorance ( ?is special k9d1 if x be accompani$ ) subsequ5t sorr[ & rep5tance1 con/itutes an action involunt>y1 & =ms a reasonable gr\nd = indulg5ce 79999iii4 #a74 ,a volunt>y action1 !n1 is t ( :i* ! beg9n+ is 9 ! ag5t--he kn[+ ! p>ticul> circum/ances "u :i* he is act+4 ,"s p]sons h treat$ actions1 p]=m$ ?r\gh passion or ?r\gh desire1 z involunt>y2 b ?is is an error4 ,if ?is 7 true1 nei!r *ildr5 nor animals w\ld be capable ( volunt>y action4 ,besides1 x is prop]1 on "s occasions1 to foll[ ! dictates bo? ( ang] & ( desire3 & we _c be said to act involunt>ily 9 ^! cases :5 we d exactly :at we ought to d4 ,moreov] s9s f passions & s9s f bad reason+ are alike volunt>y or alike involunt>y3 bo? ( !m ought to be avoid$3 & ! nonrational affections are j z mu* a "p ( human nature z reason is 79999iii4 #a74 ,hav+ expla9$ ! prop] mean+ ( volunt>y & involunt>y z appli$ to actions1 ,ari/otle proce$s to def9e ,greek3 proai_/resis 7delib]ate *oice72 :i* is mo/ intimately connect$ ) excell5ce1 & :i* inde$ af=ds a bett] te/ ( disposition ?an actions !mselves c d 79999iii4 #b74 ,all prem$itat$ *oice is volunt>y1 b all volunt>y action is n preconc]t$4 ,*ildr5 & animals are capable ( volunt>y action1 b n ( preconc]t$ action3 sudd5 de$s1 too1 are volunt>y1 b n preconc]t$4 ,prem$itat$ *oice is diff]5t f desire--f passion--f wi%+--& f op9ion4 ,desire & passion are common to animals1 :o are nev]!less incapable ( delib]ate pref]5ce4 ,! incont95t man acts f desire1 b n f delib]ate pref]5ce3 ! cont95t man acts f delib]ate pref]5ce1 b n f desire4 ,nor is prem$itat$ *oice ! same z wi%+3 = we (t5 wi% = :at is notori\sly impracticable or unatta9able1 b we d n delib]ately pref] any su* ?+3 moreov] we wi% = ! end1 b we delib]ately *oose ! means conduct+ to ! end4 ,we wi% to be happy3 b x _c ) propriety be said t we delib]ately *oose to be happy4 ,delib]ate *oice has ref]5ce to :at x is or seems 9 our own p[] to a*ieve4 ,aga91 delib]ate *oice is n to be reg>d$ z a simple modification ( op9ion4 ,op9ions ext5d to ev]y?+3 delib]ate *oice belongs exclusively to matt]s )9 our grasp4 ,op9ion is ei!r true or false3 delib]ate *oice is ei!r good or evil4 ,we are good or bad1 accord+ to ! turn :i* our delib]ate *oice takes3 n accord+ to our op9ions4 ,we delib]ately *oose to seek some?+ or to avoid some?+1 & our *oice is prais$ :5 x falls ^u :at is prop]3 ! po9ts ^u :i* we =m an op9ion are1 :at su* or su* a ?+ is1 :om x w b5efit1 & h[3 & our op9ion is prais$ :5 x happ5s to be true4 ,x (t5 occurs1 too1 t m5 :o =m ! true/ op9ions are n ! be/ 9 _! delib]ate pref]5ces4 ,op9ion may prec$e or accompany e delib]ate *oice1 b /ill ! latt] is some?+ di/9ct 9 itself4 ,x is 9 fact a det]m9ation ( ! w1 prec$$ by delib]ate c\nsel1 & ?us includ+ or presuppos+ ! employm5t ( reason 79999iii4 #b74 ,x is an appet5cy1 det]m9$ by previ\s c\nsel1 ( "s matt] )9 our means1 ei!r really or seem+ly1 to accompli%--,greek3 b\leutik o7_/rexis tn e7ph' 7min 79999iii4 #c74 ,x seems f ! language ( ,ari/otle t ! v>i\s explanations ( ,greek3 ,proai_/resis :i* he has canvass$ & %[n to be inadmissible1 _h all be5 advanc$ by v>i\s contempor>y philosoph]s4 ,greek3 ,proai_/resis1 or delib]ate pref]5ce1 includes ! idea ( delib]ation4 ,a reasonable man does n delib]ate ^u all matt]s--he does n delib]ate respect+ ma!matical or physical tru?s1 or respect+ natural ev5ts altoge!r out ( 8 rea*1 or respect+ matt]s ( pure accid5t1 or ev5 respect+ matt]s ( human design c>ri$ on by di/ant =eign nations4 ,he only delib]ates respect+ matt]s :i* are m or less )9 8 own ag5cy & control3 respect+ matt]s :i* are n c]ta91 b ( d\btful issue4 ,he does n delib]ate ab\t ! end1 b ab\t ! means t[>ds ! end3 ! end itself is commonly assum$1 j z ! physician assumes ! necessity ( e/abli%+ good heal? & ! orator t ( p]suad+ 8 he>]s4 ,if !re be m ?an "o way ( accompli%+ ! end1 he delib]ates by :i* out ( ^! sev]al means he c a*ieve x be/ & mo/ easily3 proce$+ f ! end itself fir/ to ! proximate cause ( t end1 !n to ! cause imm$iately prec$+ t cause1 & s backw>ds until he arrives at ! prim>y cause1 :i* is ei!r an action ( 8 own1 )9 8 own means1 or some?+ requir+ implem5ts & assi/ance beyond 8 p[] to procure4 ,?is is a process ( analysis1 simil> to t :i* is pursu$ by geometricians 9 seek+ ! way ( solv+ a problem3 !y assume ! figure ) ! requir$ conditions to be con/ruct$3 !y !n take x to pieces1 foll[+ back ! consequ5ces ( ea* sep>ate condition :i* x has be5 assum$ to possess4 ,if by ?is way ( proce$+ !y arrive at "s kn[n tru?1 _! problem is solv$2 if !y arrive at "s kn[n untru?1 ! problem is insoluble4 ,t /ep :i* is la/ arriv$ at 9 ! analysis1 is ! fir/ 9 ! ord] ( production 7iii4 #c74 ,:5 a man 9 c>ry+ back m5tally ?is delib]ative analysis arrives at some?+ manife/ly impracticable1 he desi/s f f>!r delib]ation3 if he arrives at some?+ )9 8 p[] to p]=m1 he beg9s action accord+ly4 ,! subject ( delib]ation1 & ! subject ( delib]ate pref]5ce1 are ! same1 b ! latt] repres5ts ! process z accompli%$ & ! result ( delib]ation decid$4 ,we take c\nsel & delib]ation 7z has be5 said71 n ab\t ! end1 b ab\t ! means or ! be/ means t[>ds ! end assum$4 ,we wi% = ! end 7,greek3 7 b\_/lsis t\ te_/l\s e7_//i--iii4 #d74 ,our wi% is = good1 real or app>5t3 :e!r = ! "o or ! o!r1 is a disput$ "q4 ,speak+ g5]ally1 & )\t ref]5ce to peculi> idiosyncrasies1 ! real good or ! good is ! object ( human wi%es3 speak+ ) ref]5ce to any p>ticul> individual1 x is 8 own suppos$ or app>5t good4 ,on ?is matt]1 ! virtu\s man is ! prop] judge & /&>d ( ref]5ce3 t :i* is really good appe>s good to him4 ,ea* p>ticul> disposition has its own peculi> s5tim5t bo? ( :at is hon\rable & ( :at is agreeable 7iii4 #d73 ! pr9cipal excell5ce ( ! virtu\s man is1 t he 9 e v>iety ( circum/ances p]ceives :at is truly & g5u9ely good2 :]eas to mo/ m51 pleasure proves a deception1 & appe>s to be good1 n be+ s 9 reality4 ,bo? virtue & vice consi/s 9 delib]ate pref]5ce1 ( "o or ( ano!r c\rse ( action4 ,bo? !re=e are volunt>y & 9 our own p[]3 bo? equally s4 ,x is n possible to ref] virtu\s conduct or vici\s conduct to any o!r beg9n+ except to ourselves3 ! man is ! cause ( 8 own actions1 z he is ! fa!r ( 8 own *ildr54 ,x is ^u ?is assumption t all legal rew>d & puni%m5t is f\nd$3 x is int5d$ = purposes ( enc\ragem5t & prev5tion1 b x w\ld be absurd to ?9k ei!r ( enc\rag+ or prev5t+ :at is involunt>y1 su* z ! appetite ( hung] & ?ir/4 ,a man is puni%$ = ignorance1 :5 he is himself ! cause ( 8 own ignorance1 or :5 by reasonable pa9s he might h acquir$ ! requisite k4 ,e man above ! limit ( absolute fatuity 7,greek3 komid a7nai/h_/t\7 mu/ "k t any con/ant repetition ( acts t5ds to =m a habit3 if !n by repetition ( acts he all[s himself to =m a bad habit1 x is 8 own fault4 ,:5 once ! bad habit is =m$1 x is true t he _c at once get rid ( x3 b ! =mation ( su* a habit orig9ally 0 n ! less imputable to himself 7iii4 #e74 ,defects ( body also :i* we br+ ^u ourselves by our own neglig5ce or intemp]ance1 br+ ^u u c5sure3 if !y are con/itutional & unavoidable1 we are piti$ = !m4 ,"s p]sons seem to h cont5d$ at t "t1 t no man c\ld ju/ly be made responsible = 8 bad conduct3 because 7!y said7 ! end :i* he propos$ to himself 0 good or bad accord+ to 8 natural disposition1 n accord+ to any selection ( 8 own4 ,ari/otle seems to be some:at p]plex$ by ?is argum5t3 nev]!less he ma9ta9s1 t :atev] influ5ce we may all[ to orig9al & uncontrollable nature1 /ill ! =mation ( our habits is m or less "u our own concurr5t control2 & !re=e ! end :i* we propose to ourselves be+ dep5d5t ^u ^? habits1 is also 9 "p at lea/ dep5d5t ^u ourselves 7iii4 #e7--our virtues & our vices are bo? volunt>y4 ,! fir/ five *apt]s ( ! ?ird ,book 79 :i* ,ari/otle exam9es ! nature ( ,greek3 to e7k\_/sion1 to a7k\_/sion1 proai_/resis1 b\_/lsis1 c47 ought p]haps to con/itute a ,book by !mselves4 ,!y are among ! mo/ valuable p>ts ( ! ,e?ics4 ,he has n[ e/abli%$ c]ta9 po9ts ) reg>d to our virtues g5]ally4 #a4 ,!y are m$iocrities 7,greek3 meso_/ttes74#b4 ,!y are habits1 g5]at$ by p>ticul> actions (t5 repeat$4#c4 ,:5 g5]at$1 !y h a specific influ5ce ( _! own 9 facilitat+ ! p]=mance ( actions ( ! same class4 #d4 ,!y are 9 our own p[] orig9ally1 & volunt>y4#e4 ,!y are "u ! direction ( "r reason4 ,x is to be obs]v$ t our actions are volunt>y f ! beg9n+ to ! end--! la/ ( a numb] ( repeat$ actions is no less volunt>y ?an ! fir/4 ,b our habits are volunt>y only at ! beg9n+--!y cease to be volunt>y aft] a c]ta9 "t--b ! p]man5t effect left by ea* sep>ate repetition ( ! action is inappreciable 7iii4 #e74 ,ari/otle !n proce$s to an analysis ( ! sep>ate virtues--,c\rage1 ,temp]ance1 ,lib]ality1 ,magnific5ce1 ,magnanimity1 ,g5tl5ess1 ,frankness1 ,simplicity1 ,elegant playfulness1 ,ju/ice1 ,equity1 c4 ,he endeav\rs to %[ t ea* ( ^! is a c]ta9 m$iocrity--excess ly+ on "o side ( x1 defect on ! o!r4 ,!re are v>i\s passages ( ,ari/otle :i* appe> almo/ id5tical ) ! moral doctr9e subsequ5tly ma9ta9$ by ! ,/oic s*ool3 = example--iii4 #f--;,9 l mann] he ought n to fe> p5ury1 nor sickness1 nor 9 any way su* ?+s z arise n f moral bas5ess nor are dep5d5t on himself4 ,! c\rage\s man is afraid ( ?+s su* z x befits a man to fe>1 b ( no o!rs3 & ev5 ^! he w make head aga9/ on prop] occasions1 :5 reason comm&s & = ! sake ( hon\r1 :i* is ! end ( virtue 7iii4 #g74 ,to fe> no?+1 or too little1 is ra%ness or insanity3 to fe> too mu*1 is timidity3 ! c\rage\s man is ! mean betwe5 ! two1 :o fe>s :at he ought1 :5 he ought1 z he ought1 & ) ! "r views & purposes 7ib474 ,! ,greek3 moi*os 7adult]]7 exposes himself (t5 to great dang]s = ! purpose ( gratify+ 8 passion3 b ,ari/otle does n hold ?is to be c\rage4 ,nei!r does he ?us d5om9ate m5 :o affront dang] f passion1 or f ! ?ir/ ( rev5ge1 or f a sangu9e temp]am5t--!re mu/ be delib]ate pref]5ce & a prop] motive1 to con/itute c\rage--! motive ( hon\r 7iii4 #h74 ,! end ( c\rage 7says ,ari/otle7 is 9 itself pleasant1 b x is put out ( sight by ! circum/ances ar\nd x3 j z ! prize = :i* ! pugili/ cont5ds is 9 itself pleasurable1 b be+ ( small mom5t & encompass$ ) pa9ful accessories1 x appe>s to c>ry ) x no pleasure :atev]4 ,fatigue1 & w\nds & dea? are pa9ful to ! c\rage\s man--dea? is inde$ m pa9ful to him1 inasmu* z 8 life is ( m value3 b /ill he volunt>ily & kn[+ly affronts ^! pa9s = ! sake ( hon\r4 ,?is is pa9ful3 b pleasure is n to be anticipat$ 9 ! ex]cise ( all ! diff]5t virtues1 except 9 s f> z ! atta9m5t ( ! end is conc]n$ 7iii4 #i74 7,?is is p]fectly true3 b x contradicts decid$ly ! rem>k :i* ,ari/otle _h made be=e 9 8 fir/ ,book 7i4 #h7 respect+ ! inh]5t pleasure ( virtu\s ag5cy47 ,c\rage & ,temp]ance are ! virtues ( ! in/9cts 7,greek3 tn a7lo_/gn m]n--iii4 #aj74 ,temp]ance is ! obs]vance ( a rational m$ium ) respect to ! pleasures ( eat+1 dr9k+1 & sex4 ,ari/otle seems to be inconsi/5t :5 he makes x to belong to ^? pleasures 9 :i* animals g5]ally p>take 7iii4 #aj72 = o!r animals d n reli% intoxicat+ liquors3 unless inde$ ^! are consid]$ z rank+ "u dr9k g5]ally4 ,! temp]ate man desires ^! pleasures z he ought1 :5 he ought1 )9 ! limits ( :at is hon\rable1 & hav+ a prop] ref]5ce to ! am\nt ( 8 own pecuni>y means3 j z "r reason prescribes 7iii4 #aa74 ,to pursue !m m1 is excess3 to pursue !m less1 is defect4 ,!re is h[ev]1 9 e/imat+ excess & defect1 a c]ta9 tacit ref]5ce to ! av]age dispositions ( ! _m4 ,:]e=e ! desires ( ! temp]ate man ought to h>monize ) reason2 = ! aim ( bo? is ! hon\rable4 ,& ! temp]ate man desires :at he ought1 & z he ought1 & :53 & ?is too is ! ord] ( reason 7iii4 #ab74 ,all virtu\s acts are to be on acc\nt ( ! hon\rable--?us ,ari/otle says t ! donations ( ! ,greek3 a7_/stos 7prodigal7 are n to be call$ lib]al--,nei!r are _! gifts lib]al1 = !y are n hon\rable1 nor on acc\nt ( ?is1 nor z !y ought to be 7iv4 #a74 ,aga9 ab\t ! ,greek3 megalopreps or magnific5t man--,n[ ! magnific5t man w exp5d su* ?+s on acc\nt ( ! hon\rable2 = ?is is a condition %>$ 9 by all ! virtues3 & /ill he w d s pleasantly & lavi%ly 7iv4 #b74 ,on ! contr>y1 ! ,greek3 ba_/nausos or vulg> man1 :o diff]s f ! magnific5t man 9 ! way ( ,greek3 u7p]bol or excess1 is said to sp5d--,n = ! sake ( ! hon\rable1 b = ! purpose ( mak+ a display ( 8 weal? 7iv4 #b74 ,) respect to ^? epi!ts :i* imply praise or blame1 !re is always a tacit comp>ison ) "s assum$ /&>d4 ,?us ) reg>d to ! ,greek3 philo_/timos 7lov] ( hon\r71 ,ari/otle obs]ves--,x is evid5t t1 z ! t]m 'lov] ( su* & su* ?+s' is us$ 9 v>i\s s5ses1 we d n always apply 'lov] ( hon\r' to express ! same ?+2 b :5 we praise1 we praise t ambition :i* is m ?an mo/ m5's1 & blame t :i* is great] ?an x ought to be 7iv4 #d74 ,9 ! fif? ,book1 ,ari/otle proce$s to expla9 :]e9 consi/ ,ju/ice & ,inju/ice4 ,^! words are us$ 9 two s5ses--a l>g] s5se & a n>r[] s5se4 ,9 ! l>g] s5se1 j behavi\r is equival5t to ! obs]vance ( law1 g5]ally3 unju/ behavi\r is equival5t to ! violation ( law g5]ally4 ,b ! law ei!r actually does comm&1 or may be und]/ood to comm&1 t we %\ld p]=m t[>ds o!rs ! acts belong+ to ea* sep>ate head ( virtue3 x ei!r actually prohibits1 or may be und]/ood to prohibit1 u f p]=m+ t[>ds o!rs any ( ! acts belong+ to ea* sep>ate head ( vice4 ,9 ?is l>g] s5se1 !re=e1 ju/ice is synonym\s g5]ally ) p]fect virtue--inju/ice1 ) p]fect wick$ness3 !re is only ?is diff]5ce1 t j or unju/ are expressions appli$ to behavi\r 9 s f> z x affects o!r p]sons besides ! ag5t3 :]eas virtu\s or wick$ are expressions appli$ simply to ! ag5t )\t connot+ any su* ult]ior ref]5ce to o!r p]sons4 ,j or unju/1 is necess>ily t[>ds somebody else3 & ?is ref]5ce is impli$ di/9ctly 9 ! t]m4 ,virtu\s & vici\s d n 9 ! =ce ( ! t]m connote any su* relations1 b are employ$ ) ref]5ce to ! ag5t simply--,?is ju/ice !n is p]fect virtue2 yet n absolutely1 b ) ref]5ce to "o's neighb\r4--,9 "o s5se we call ^? ?+s j t are productive & pres]vative ( happ9ess & its p>ts to ! political communion 7v4 #a74 ,ju/ice 9 ?is s5se1 is ! v fulness ( virtue1 because x d5otes ! actual ex]cise ( virtu\s behavi\r t[>ds o!rs3 !re are _m :o behave virtu\sly 9 reg>d to _! own p]sonal affairs1 b :o are incapable ( do+ s 9 :at reg>ds o!rs 7ib474 ,= ?is reason1 ju/ice has be5 call$ by "s ! good ( ano!r & n our own--ju/ice alone ( all ! virtues1 because x necess>ily has ref]5ce to ano!r3 ! j man does :at is = ! int]e/ ( "s "o else1 ei!r ! magi/rate1 or ! community 7v4 #a74 ,ju/ice 9 ! n>r[] s5se1 is t mode ( behavi\r :]eby a man1 9 8 deal+s ) o!rs1 aims at tak+ to himself 8 fair %>e & no m ( ! common objects ( desire3 & will+ly cons5ts to endure 8 fair %>e ( ! common h>d%ips4 ,inju/ice is ! opposite--t by :i* a man tries to appropriate m ?an 8 fair %>e ( ! objects ( desire1 :ile he tries to escape 8 fair %>e ( ! objects ( av]sion4 ,to aim at ?is unfair di/ribution ( ! b5efits ( ! society1 ei!r 9 "o's own fav\r or 9 fav\r ( any "o else1 is inju/ice 9 ! n>r[ s5se 7v4 #b74 ,ju/ice 9 ?is n>r[] s5se is divid$ into two bran*es--#a4 ,di/ributive ,ju/ice4 #b4 ,corrective ,ju/ice4 ,di/ributive ,ju/ice has ref]5ce to ^? occasions on :i* positive b5efits are to be di/ribut$ among ! memb]s ( ! community1 weal? & hon\rs1 c4 7v4 #b74 ,9 ?is case1 ! %>e ( ea* citiz5 is to be a %>e n absolutely ( equality1 b "o proportional to 8 p]sonal wor? 7,greek3 a7xi_/an73 & x is 9 ! e/imation ( ?is p]sonal wor? t qu>rels & diss5sion arise4 ,corrective ,ju/ice has ref]5ce to ! individual deal+s1 or individual behavi\r1 betwe5 man & man3 ei!r to ! deal+s imply+ mutual cons5t & contract1 z pur*ase1 sale1 loan1 hire1 surety%ip1 deposit1 c43 or su* z imply no su* mutual cons5t1--su* z are on ! contr>y proce$+s ei!r by fraud or by =ce--z !ft1 adult]y1 p]jury1 poison+1 assass9ation1 robb]y1 beat+1 mutilation1 murd]1 defamation1 c4 ,9 reg>d to transactions ( ?is nature1 ! citiz5s are consid]$ z be+ all ^u a p>--no acc\nt is tak5 ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 !m 9 po9t ( individual wor?4 ,ea* man is consid]$ z entitl$ to an equal %>e ( good & evil3 & if 9 any deal+s betwe5 man & man1 "o man %all attempt to increase 8 own %>e ( good or to dim9i% 8 own %>e ( evil at ! exp5se ( ano!r man1 corrective ju/ice w int]pose & re-e/abli% ! equality ?us improp]ly di/urb$4 ,he :o has be5 made to lose or to suff] unduly1 mu/ be comp5sat$ & replac$ 9 8 =m] position3 he :o has ga9$ unduly1 mu/ be mulct$ or made to suff]1 s z to be ?r[n back to ! po9t f :i* he />t$4 ,! judge1 :o repres5ts ?is corrective ju/ice1 is a k9d ( m$iator1 & ! po9t :i* he seeks to atta9 9 direct+ r$ress1 is ! middle po9t betwe5 ga9 & loss--s t nei!r %all ! aggressive p>ty be a ga9]1 nor ! suff]+ p>ty a los]--,s t ju/ice is a mean betwe5 a sort ( ga9 & loss 9 volunt>y ?+s1--x is ! hav+ ! same aft] z be=e 7v4 #d74 ,ari/otle admits t ! words ga9 & loss are n /rictly applicable to _m ( ! transactions :i* come )9 ! scope ( int]f]5ce f corrective ju/ice--t !y prop]ly belong to volunt>y contracts1 & are /ra9$ 9 ord] to apply !m to acts ( aggression1 c4 7ib474 ,! ,py?agoreans held ! doctr9e t ju/ice univ]sally speak+ consi/$ 9 simple retaliation--9 r5d]+ to ano!r ! precise deal+ :i* t o!r _h fir/ giv54 ,?is def9ition w n suit ei!r = di/ributive ju/ice or corrective ju/ice3 ! treatm5t s prescrib$ w\ld be sometimes m1 sometimes less1 ?an ju/ice3 n to m5tion t acts des]ve to be treat$ diff]5tly accord+ z !y are int5tional or un9t5tional4 ,b ! doctr9e is to a c]ta9 ext5t true 9 reg>d to ! deal+s betwe5 man & man 7,greek3 e7n tais a7llaktikais ko9ni_/ais7--if x be appli$ 9 ! way ( g5]al analogy & n ) any reg>d to exact simil>ity--x is ( importance t ! man :o has be5 well treat$1 & ! man :o has be5 illtreat$1 %\ld ea* %[ 8 s5se ( ! proce$+ by return+ ! l usage3 = by proportionate requital ! ,/ate is held toge!r 7v4 #e74 ,! :ole bus9ess ( ex*ange & b>t]1 ( division ( lab\r & occupation1--! co-exi/5ce ( ^? di/9ct & het]og5e\s +r$i5ts :i* are requisite to con/itute ! political communion--! supply ( ! mo/ ess5tial wants ( ! citiz5s--is all f\nd$ ^u ! cont9uance & ! expectation ( ?is assur$ requital = acts done4 ,money is introduc$ z an indisp5sable in/rum5t = facilitat+ ?is con/ant traffic3 x af=ds a common measure = e/imat+ ! value ( e s]vice--,& ?us if !re 7 no possibility ( retaliation1 !re w\ld be no communion 7v4 #e74 ,ju/ice is ?us a m$iocrity--or consi/s 9 a j m$ium--betwe5 two extremes1 b n 9 ! same way z ! o!r virtues4 ,! j man is "o :o aw>ds bo? to himself & to e "o else ! prop] & rightful %>e bo? ( b5efit & bur!n4 ,inju/ice1 on ! contr>y1 consi/s 9 ! excess or defect :i* lie on "o side or ! o!r ( ?is m$ium po9t 7v4 #e74 ,di/ributive ju/ice is said by ,ari/otle to deal ) individuals accord+ to geometrical ratio2 corrective ju/ice1 accord+ to ari?metical proportion4 ,ju/ice1 /rictly & prop]ly s call$1 is political ju/ice3 t reciprocity ( "r & obligation :i* prevails betwe5 free & equal citiz5s 9 a community1 or betwe5 citiz5s :o1 if n positively equal1 yet /& 9 an assur$ & def9ite ratio "o to ! o!r 7v4 #f74 ,?is relation is def9$ & ma9ta9$ by law1 & by judges & magi/rates to adm9i/] ! law4 ,political ju/ice implies a /ate ( law--a community ( p]sons qualifi$ by nature to obey & su/a9 ! law--& a def9ite arrangem5t betwe5 ! citiz5s 9 respect to ! alt]nation ( comm& & ob$i5ce--,= ?is is1 z we h said 7,greek3 7n71 accord+ to law1 & among ^? :o c naturally h law2 ^?1 namely1 z we h said 7,greek3 7san71 :o h an equality ( rul+ & be+ rul$4 ,z ! law arises out ( ! necessity ( prev5t+ inju/ice1 or ( h9d]+ any individual f appropriat+ m ?an 8 fair %>e ( good ?+s1 s x is felt t any p]son inve/$ ) sov]eign au?ority may & w commit ?is inju/ice4 ,reason !re=e is und]/ood to hold ! sov]eign au?ority1 & ! ar*on acts only z ! gu>dian ( ! reciprocal rights & obligations--( ! con/itutional equality--betwe5 ! v>i\s citiz5s3 und]tak+ a tr\blesome duty & paid = 8 tr\ble by hon\r & respect 7v4 #f74 ,! relation :i* subsi/s betwe5 ma/] & slave1 or fa!r & son1 is n prop]ly speak+ t ( ju/ice1 ?\gh x is some:at analog\s4 ,bo? ! slave1 & ! non-adult son1 are z x 7 p>ts ( ! ma/] & fa!r3 !re c !re=e be no inju/ice on 8 "p t[>ds !m1 s9ce no "o delib]ately int5ds to hurt a "p ( himself4 ,betwe5 husb& & wife !re subsi/s a sort ( ju/ice--h\sehold ju/ice 7,greek3 to oi7konomikon di_/kaion7--b ?is too is diff]5t f political ju/ice 7v4 #f74 ,political ju/ice is 9 "p natural--9 "p conv5tional4 ,t :i* is natural is ev]y:]e ! same3 t :i* is conv5tional is diff]5t 9 diff]5t c\ntries1 & takes its orig9 altoge!r f positive & special in/itution4 ,"s p]sons ?9k t all political ju/ice is ?us conv5tional1 & none natural3 because !y see t rights & obligations 7,greek3 ta di_/kaia7 are ev]y:]e *angeable1 & n[h]e exhibit t p]man5ce & inv>iability :i* m>k ! prop]ties ( natural objects4 ,?is is true to a c]ta9 ext5t1 b n :olly true3 probably among ! ,gods x is n true at all3 b ) u t :i* is natural is 9 "p v>iable1 ?\gh n 9 e case3 yet !re is a real di/9ction betwe5 :at is natural & :at is n natural4 ,bo? natural ju/ice & conv5tional ju/ice1 are ?us alike cont+5t & v>iable3 b !re is a cle> mode ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! two1 applicable n only to ! case ( ju/ice b to o!r cases 9 :i* ! l di/9ction is to be tak54 ,= by nature ! "r h& is ! /rong]3 b nev]!less x may happ5 t !re are ambidextr\s m54--,& 9 l mann] ^? rules ( ju/ice :i* are n natural1 b ( human e/abli%m5t1 are n ! same ev]y:]e3 nor inde$ does ! same mode ( gov]nm5t prevail ev]y:]e1 ?\gh !re is b "o mode ( gov]nm5t :i* is ev]y:]e agreeable to nature--! be/ ( all 7v4 #g74 7,! comm5t>y ( ,&ronicus ^u ?is passage is cle>] & m in/ructive ?an ! passage ( ,ari/otle itself3 & x is rem>kable z a di/9ct ann\ncem5t ( ! pr9ciple ( utility4 ,s9ce bo? natural ju/ice1 & conv5tional ju/ice1 are *angeable1 9 ! way j /at$1 h[ are we to di/+ui% ! "o ( ^! fluctuat+ in/itutions f ! o!r8 ,! di/9ction is pla94 ,ea* special precept ( ju/ice is to be exam9$ on its own gr\nd to asc]ta9 :e!r x be = ! advantage ( all t x %\ld be ma9ta9$ unalt]$1 or :e!r ! subv]sion ( x w\ld occasion mis*ief4 ,if ?is be f\nd to be ! fact1 ! precept 9 "q belongs to natural ju/ice3 if x be o!rwise1 to conv5tional ju/ice 7,&ronic4 ,rh4 v4 c4 #aj74 ,! j1 & ! unju/1 be+ ?us def9$1 a man :o does1 will+ly & kn[+ly1 ei!r ! "o or ! o!r1 acts ju/ly or unju/ly3 if he does x unwill+ly or unkn[+ly1 he nei!r acts ju/ly nor unju/ly1 except by accid5t--t is1 he does :at is n ess5tially & 9 its own nature unju/1 b is only s by accid5t 7v4 #h74 ,inju/ice w ?us h be5 done1 b no unju/ act w h be5 committ$1 if ! act be done involunt>ily4 ,! man :o re/ores a deposit unwill+ly & f fe> ( dang] to himself1 does n act ju/ly1 ?\gh he does :at by accid5t is j3 ! man :o1 anxi\s to re/ore ! deposit1 is prev5t$ by positive sup]ior =ce f do+ s1 does n act unju/ly1 al?\gh he does :at by accid5t is unju/4 ,:5 a man does mis*ief1 x is ei!r done contr>y to all reasonable expectation1 9 su* mann] t nei!r he nor any "o else c\ld h anticipat$ f 8 act ! mis*ief :i* has actually ensu$ f x 7,greek3 p>alo_/gs71 & 9 ?is case x is a pure mis=tune 7,greek3 a7tu_/*ma73 or he does x )\t int5tion or =ekn[l$ge1 yet "u circum/ances 9 :i* mis*ief might h be5 =ese51 & ought to h be5 =ese52 9 ?is case x is a fault 7,greek3 a7ma_/rtma73 or he does x int5tionally & ) =ekn[l$ge1 yet )\t any previ\s delib]ation1 ?r\gh ang]1 or "s viol5t mom5t>y impulse2 9 ?is case x is an unju/ act 7,greek3 a7di_/kma71 b ! ag5t is n necess>ily an unju/ or wick$ man = hav+ done x3 or he does x ) int5tion & delib]ate *oice1 & 9 ?is case he is an unju/ & wick$ man4 ,! man :o does a j ?+1 or an unju/ ?+1 is n necess>ily a j or an unju/ man4 ,:e!r he be s or n1 dep5ds ^u ! /ate ( 8 m9d & int5tion at ! "t 7v4 #h74 ,equity1 ,greek3 to e7pieikes1 is n at v>iance ) ju/ice1 b is an improvem5t ^u ju/ice4 ,x is a correction & supplem5t to ! inevitable imp]fections 9 ! def9itions ( legal ju/ice4 ,! law wi%es to compreh5d all cases1 b fails 9 do+ s3 ! words ( its enactm5t d n fully & exactly express its real int5tions1 b ei!r some?+ m or some?+ less4 ,:5 ! lawgiv] speaks 9 g5]al t]ms1 a p>ticul> case may happ5 :i* falls )9 ! rule z he lays x d[n1 b :i* he w\ld n h wi%$ to compreh5d if he _h kn[n h[ to avoid x4 ,x is !n becom+ conduct 9 ! individual to ^: advantage ! law 9 ?is special case turns1 t he %\ld refra9 f pr(it+ by 8 position1 & t he %\ld act z ! legislator himself w\ld wi%1 if consult$ on ! special case4 ,! g5]al rules laid d[n by ! legislator are ( necessity m or less defective3 9 fact1 ! only reason :y ev]y?+ is n det]m9$ by law1 is1 t !re are "s matt]s respect+ :i* x is impossible to frame a law 7v4 #aj74 ,su* is ! conduct ( ! equitable man--! man :o refra9s f pu%+ 8 legal rights to ! extreme1 to ! injury ( o!rs1 b :o =egoes ! advantage ( 8 position1 al?\gh ! law is 9 8 fav\r 7,greek3 o7 m a7kribodi_/kaios e7pi *eiron1 a7ll' e7latttikos1 kai_/p] e7_/*n ton no_/mon bo?o_/n74 ,a man may hurt himself1 b he _c act unju/ly t[>ds himself4 ,no inju/ice c be done to a man except aga9/ 8 own cons5t4 ,suicide is by implication =bidd5 by ! law3 to commit suicide is wrong1 because a man 9 s do+ acts unju/ly t[>ds ! city1 n t[>ds himself1 :i* is impossible 7v4 #ab74 ,to act unju/ly--& to be ! object ( unju/ deal+ by o!rs--are bo? bad3 b :i* is ! wor/8 ,x is ! lea/ ( ! two evils to be ! object ( unju/ deal+ by o!rs4 ,bo? are bad1 because 9 ! "o case a man gets m ?an 8 %>e1 9 ! o!r less ?an 8 %>e3 9 bo? cases ! j m$ium is dep>t$ f4 ,to act unju/ly is blameable1 & implies wick$ness3 to be ! object ( unju/ deal+ by o!rs is n blameable1 & implies no wick$ness3 ! latt] is !re=e 9 itself ! lea/ evil1 al?\gh by accid5t x may p]haps turn out to be ! great] evil ( ! two4 ,9 ! same mann] a pleurisy is 9 itself a great] evil ?an a trip & a /umble3 b by accid5t x may turn out t ! latt] is ! great] evil ( ! two1 if x %\ld occur at ! mom5t :5 a man is runn+ away f ! enemy1 s z to cause 8 be+ tak5 prison] & sla94 ,! "q "h rais$ by ,ari/otle--:i* is ! great] evil--to act unju/ly or to be ! object ( unju/ deal+--_h be5 be=e rais$ by ,plato 9 ! ,gorgias4 ,ari/otle foll[s out 8 !ory ab\t virtue1 :]eby he makes x consi/ 9 ! obs]vance ( a m$ium po9t4 ,! man t acts unju/ly s9s on "o side ( ?is po9t1 ! object ( unju/ deal+ misses x on ! o!r side3 ! "o is comp>able to a man :o eats or works too mu* = 8 heal?1 ! o!r to a man :o eats or works too little4 ,! "q is "o :i* c\ld h>dly arise1 accord+ to ! view tak5 by mod]n e?ical writ]s ( ! pr9ciples ( moral sci5ce4 ,! two ?+s comp>$ are n 9 po9t ( fact comm5surable4 ,look+ at ! "q f ! po9t ( view ( ! morali/1 ! p]son injur$ has incurr$ no moral guilt1 b has suff]$ m or less ( mis=tune3 ! unju/ ag5t on ! contr>y has suff]$ no mis=tune--p]haps he has reap$ b5efit--b at any rate he has incurr$ moral guilt4 ,society on ! :ole is a decid$ los] by ! act3 b ! wrong done implies ! suff]+ inflict$3 ! act is consid]$ & call$ wrong because x does inflict suff]+1 & = no o!r reason4 ,x seems an inadmissible "q !re=e1 to ask :i* ( ! two is ! great] evil--! suff]+ und]gone by ,a--or ! wrong by :i* ,b occasion$ t suff]+3 at lea/ s f> z society is conc]n$4 ,b ! anci5t morali/s1 9 in/itut+ ?is comp>ison1 seem to h look$1 n at society1 b at ! two individuals--! wrong do] & ! wrong suff]]--& to h look$ at !m too f a po9t ( view ( _! own4 ,if we take ! feel+s ( ^! two p>ties !mselves z ! /&>d by :i* to judge1 ! s5t5ce mu/ be obvi\sly contr>y to ! op9ion deliv]$ by ,ari/otle3 ! suff]]1 accord+ to 8 own feel+1 is worse (f ?an he 0 be=e3 ! do] is bett] (f4 ,& x is = ?is reason t ! act =ms a prop] gr\nd = judicial puni%m5t or r$ress4 ,b ! morali/ e/imates ! condition ( ! two m5 by a /&>d ( 8 own1 n by ! feel+s :i* !y !mselves ent]ta94 ,he decides = himself t a virtu\s frame ( m9d is ! prim>y & ess5tial +r$i5t ( individual happ9ess--a wick$ frame ( m9d ! gr& s\rce ( mis]y3 & by ?is te/ he tries ! comp>ative happ9ess ( e man4 ,! man :o manife/s evid5ce ( a guilty frame ( m9d is decid$ly worse (f ?an he :o has only suff]$ an unm]it$ mis=tune4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,politica4 ,! s*eme ( gov]nm5t propos$ by ,ari/otle1 9 ! two la/ books ( 8 ,politics1 z repres5t+ 8 own ideas ( some?+ l p]fection1 is evid5tly f\nd$ ^u ! ,republic ( ,plato3 f :om he diff]s 9 ! important circum/ance ( n admitt+ ei!r community ( prop]ty or community ( wives & *ildr54 ,ea* ( ^! philosoph]s recognises "o sep>ate class ( inhabitants1 reliev$ f all private toil & all money-gett+ employm5ts1 & con/itut+ exclusively ! citiz5s ( ! commonweal?4 ,?is small class is 9 effect ! city--! commonweal?3 ! rema9+ inhabitants are n a "p ( ! commonweal?1 !y are only app5dages to x--indisp5sable inde$1 b /ill app5dages1 9 ! same mann] z slaves or cattle 7vii4 #h74 ,9 ! ,republic ( ,plato ?is n>r[ ari/ocracy are n all[$ to possess private prop]ty or sep>ate families1 b =m "o insep>able bro!rhood4 ,9 ! s*eme ( ,ari/otle1 ?is ari/ocracy =m a di/9ct ca/e ( private families ea* ) its sep>ate prop]ty4 ,! :ole t]ritory ( ! ,/ate belongs to !m1 & is till$ by dep5d5t cultivators1 by :om ! produce is made ov] & apportion$ "u c]ta9 re/rictions4 ,a c]ta9 section ( ! t]ritory is und]/ood to be ! common prop]ty ( ! body ( citiz5s 7i4e4 ( ! ari/ocracy71 & ! produce ( x is h&$ ov] by ! cultivators into a common /ock1 p>tly to supply ! public tables at :i* all ! citiz5s ) _! wives & families are subsi/$1 p>tly to defray ! co/ ( religi\s solemnities4 ,! rema9+ portion ( ! t]ritory is possess$ 9 sep>ate prop]ties by individual citiz5s1 :o consume ! produce z !y please 7vii4 #i73 ea* citiz5 hav+ two di/9ct lots ( l& assign$ to him1 "o ne> ! outskirts ( ! t]ritory1 ! o!r ne> ! c5tre4 ,?is latt] regulation also _h be5 adopt$ by ,plato 9 ! treatise de ,legibus1 & x is surpris+ to obs]ve t ,ari/otle himself _h c5sur$ x1 9 8 criticisms on t treatise1 z incompatible ) a judici\s & c>eful economy 7ii4 #c4 #h74 ,! syssitia or public tables are also adopt$ by ,plato1 9 con=mity ) ! in/itutions actually exi/+ 9 8 "t 9 ,crete & else:]e4 ,! dep5d5t cultivators1 9 ,ari/otle's s*eme1 ought to be slaves1 n unit$ toge!r by any bond ( common language or common c\ntry 7vii4 #i1 #i73 if ?is _c be1 !y ought to be a race ( subdu$ =eign]s1 degrad$ into p]ioeci1 depriv$ ( all use ( arms1 & conf9$ to ! task ( lab\r+ 9 ! field4 ,^? slaves :o till ! common l& are to be consid]$ z ! prop]ty ( ! collective body ( citiz5s3 ! slaves on l& belong+ to individual citiz5s1 are ! prop]ty ( ^? citiz5s4 ,:5 we consid] ! scanty proportion ( inhabitants :om ,ari/otle & ,plato include 9 ! b5efits ( _! community1 x w at once appe> h[ amaz+ly _! task z political !ori/s is simplifi$4 ,_! 9999commonweal? is really an ari/ocracy on a v n>r[ scale4 ,! great mass ( ! inhabitants are ?ru/ out altoge!r f all security & good gov]nm5t1 & are plac$ )\t res]ve at ! disposal ( ! small body ( arm$ citiz5s4 ,!re is b "o precaution on :i* ,ari/otle & ,plato rely = ensur+ good treatm5t f ! citiz5s t[>ds _! inf]iors3 & t is1 ! f9i%$ & elaborate education :i* ! citiz5s are to receive4 ,m5 s educat$1 accord+ to ^! philosoph]s1 w behave z p]fectly 9 ! relation ( sup]ior to inf]ior1 z 9 t ( equal to equal--( citiz5 to citiz54 ,?is supposition w\ld d\btless prove true1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 ?\gh f> %ort ( t ext5t :i* w\ld be requisite to assure ! complete com=t ( ! inf]ior4 ,b ev5 if x 7 true to ! fulle/ ext5t1 x w\ld be f> f satisfy+ ! dem&s ( a b5evol5t !ori/4 ,= ?\gh ! inf]ior %\ld meet ) k9dness & protection f 8 sup]ior1 /ill 8 m9d mu/ be kept 9 a degradation suitable to 8 position4 ,he mu/ be depriv$ ( all moral & intellectual culture3 he mu/ be prev5t$ f imbib+ any ideas ( 8 own dignity3 he mu/ be cont5t to receive :atev] is aw>d$1 to endure :atev] treatm5t is v\*saf$1 )\t = an in/ant imag9+ t he has a "r to b5efits or t suff]+ is wrongfully inflict$ ^u him4 ,bo? ,plato & ,ari/otle ackn[l$ge ! inevitable depravation & moral abasem5t ( all ! inhabitants except+ _! fav\r$ class4 ,nei!r ( !m seems solicit\s ei!r to disguise or to mitigate x4 ,b if !y are ?us indiff]5t ab\t ! moral condition ( ! mass1 !y are 9 ! highe/ degree exact & c>eful respect+ t ( _! select citiz5s4 ,?is is _! gr& & prim>y object1 t[>ds :i* ! :ole =ce ( _! intellect1 & ! full f]tility ( _! +5i\s imag9ation1 is direct$4 ,_! plans ( education are mo/ elaborate & compreh5sive3 aim+ at e bran* ( moral & intellectual improvem5t1 & seek+ to raise ! :ole man to a /ate ( p]fection1 bo? physical & m5tal4 ,y w\ld imag9e t !y 7 fram+ a s*eme ( public education1 n a political con/itution3 s :olly are _! ?\ghts engross$ ) ! tra9+ & culture ( _! citiz5s4 ,x is 9 ?is respect t _! ideas are truly in/ructive4 ,view$ ) ref]5ce to ! g5]al body ( inhabitants 9 a ,/ate1 no?+ c be m defective ?an ! plans ( bo? ^! great philosoph]s4 ,assum+ t _! objects 7 completely atta9$1 ! mass ( ! p w\ld receive no?+ m ?an t degree ( physical com=t & mild usage :i* c be made to consi/ ) subjection & ) ! extortion ( compulsory lab\r4 ,view$ ) ref]5ce to ! special class recogniz$ z citiz5s1 ! plans ( bo? are to a high degree admirable4 ,a bett] provision is made = ! virtue z well z = ! happ9ess ( ?is p>ticul> class ?an has ev] be5 devis$ by any o!r political projector4 ,! intimate mann] 9 :i* ,ari/otle connects virtue ) happ9ess1 is above all rem>kable4 ,he 9 fact def9es happ9ess to consi/ 9 ! active ex]tion & p]fect$ habit ( virtue 7,greek3 a7rets e7ne_/rgeia kai *rsi_/s tis te_/leios--vi4 #i4 #c473 & x is ^u ?is disposition t he f\nds ! necessity ( exclud+ ! mass ( inhabitants f ! citiz5%ip4 ,= ! purpose to be accompli%$ by ! political union1 is1 ! assur+ ( happ9ess to e individual citiz51 :i* is to be effect$ by implant+ habits ( virtue 9 e citiz54 ,:oev] !re=e is incapable ( acquir+ habits ( virtue1 is disqualifi$ f becom+ a citiz54 ,b e man ^: life is sp5t 9 labori\s avocations1 :e!r ( husb&ry1 ( trade1 or ( manufacture1 becomes !reby incapable ( acquir+ habits ( virtue1 & _c !re=e be admitt$ to ! citiz5%ip4 ,no man c be capable ( ! requisite m5tal culture & tuition1 :o is n exempt$ f ! necessity ( toil1 enabl$ to devote 8 :ole "t to ! acquisition ( virtu\s habits1 & subject$ f 8 infancy to a sev]e & sy/ematic tra9+4 ,! exclusion ( ! bulk ( ! p f civil rights is ?us f\nd$1 9 ! m9d ( ,ari/otle1 on ! l(ty idea :i* he =ms ( individual human p]fection1 :i* he conceives to be absolutely unatta9able unless x be made ! sole object ( a man's life4 ,b !n he takes especial c>e t ! education ( 8 citiz5s %all be really su* z to compel !m to acquire t virtue on :i* alone _! pre-em95ce is built4 ,if he exempts !m f manual or money-gett+ lab\rs1 he imposes ^u !m an endless s]ies ( pa9ful re/ra9ts & vexati\s duties = ! purpose ( =m+ & ma9ta9+ _! p]fection ( "*4 ,he all[s no luxury or self-indulg5ce1 no misappropriation ( "t1 no o/5tati\s display ( weal? or /ation4 ,! life ( 8 select citiz5s w\ld be su* z to provoke little envy or jeal\sy1 among m5 ( ! ord9>y /amp4 ,its h>d "w & its /rict discipl9e w\ld appe> repulsive r ?an invit+3 & ! pre-em95ce ( /rong & able m51 submitt+ to su* cont9u$ s*ool+1 w\ld appe> well des]v$ & h>dly e>n$4 ,olig>*ical reason]s 9 mod]n times employ ! bad "p ( ,ari/otle's pr9ciple )\t ! good4 ,!y repres5t ! ri* & great z alone capable ( rea*+ a degree ( virtue consi/5t ) ! full enjoym5t ( political privileges3 b !n !y take no precautions1 z ,ari/otle does1 t ! m5 s pref]r$ %all really answ] to ?is exalt$ "*4 ,!y leave ! ri* & great to _! own self-indulg5ce & indol5t prop5sities1 )\t tra9+ !m by any sy/ematic process to habits ( sup]ior virtue4 ,s t ! select citiz5s on ?is plan are at ! lea/ no bett]1 if inde$ !y are n worse1 ?an ! rema9+ community1 :ile _! unb\nd$ 9999indulg5ces excite ei!r undue envy or undue admiration1 among ! exclud$ multitude4 ,! select citiz5s ( ,ari/otle are bo? bett] & wis] ?an ! re/ ( _! community3 :ile !y are at ! same "t s hemm$ 9 & circumscrib$ by sev]e regulations1 t no?+ except ! p]fection ( _! "* c appe> wor?y ei!r ( envy or admiration4 ,?\gh !re=e ^! olig>*ical reason]s concur ) ,ari/otle 9 sacrific+ ! bulk ( ! community to ! pre-em95ce ( a n>r[ class1 !y fail ( accompli%+ ! end = :i* alone he pret5ds to ju/ify su* a sacrifice--! =mation ( a few citiz5s ( complete & unrivall$ virtue4 ,! arrangem5ts made by ,ari/otle = ! good gov]nm5t ( 8 ari/ocratical citiz5s among !mselves1 are f\nd$ ^u pr9ciples ( ! mo/ p]fect equality4 ,he w\ld h !m only limit$ 9 numb]1 = 9 8 op9ion1 p]sonal & famili> acqua9tance among !m all is ess5tially requisite to good gov]nm5t 7vii4 #d4 #g74 ,! pr9cipal (fices ( ! ,/ate are all to be held by ! ag$ citiz5s3 ! milit>y duties are to be fulfill$ by ! y\ng] citiz5s4 ,! city altoge!r1 ) ! t]ritory app]ta9+ to x1 mu/ be l>ge en\gh to be ,greek3 au7ta_/rks3 b x mu/ n be s ext5sive z to de/roy p]sonal intimacy among ! citiz5s4 ,a v l>ge body are1 9 ,ari/otle's view1 incapable ( discipl9e or regul>ity4 ,to produce a virtu\s citiz51 nature1 habit1 & reason mu/ co9cide4 ,!y ought to be endu$ ) virtues qualify+ !m bo? = occupation & = leisure3 ) c\rage1 self-d5ial 7,greek3 k>t]i_/a71 & =titude1 to ma9ta9 _! indep5d5ce3 ) ju/ice & temp]ance1 to re/ra9 !m f abus+ ! means ( enjoym5t provid$ = !m3 & ) philosophy or ! love ( contemplative wisdom & sci5ce1 9 ord] to bani% ennui1 & r5d] ! h\rs ( leisure agreeable to !m 7vii4 #ac4 #ag74 ,!y are to be taught t _! h\rs ( leisure are ( great] wor? & dignity ?an _! h\rs ( occupation4 ,occupation is to be submitt$ to = ! sake ( ! quiet enjoym5t ( leisure1 j z w> is made = ! sake ( procur+ peace1 & useful & necess>y employm5ts und]tak5 = ! sake ( ^? :i* are hon\rable 7vii4 #ac4 #h74 ,ari/otle greatly c5sures 7see vii4 #b4 #e7 7z inde$ ,plato _h done be=e him7 ! in/itutions ( ,lac$mon1 z be+ direct$ exclusively to create excell5t w>riors1 & to enable ! nation to rule ov] =eign]s4 ,?is 7he says7 is n only n ! "r end1 b is an end absolutely p]nici\s & culpable4 ,to ma9ta9 a =cible sov]eignty ov] free & equal =eign]s1 is unju/ & immoral3 & if ! m9ds ( ! citiz5s be corrupt$ ) ?is collective ambition & love ( p[]1 x is probable t "s individual citiz51 taught by ! education ( ! ,/ate to consid] p[] z ! fir/ ( all e>?ly ends1 w f9d an opportunity to aggr&ize himself by =ce or fraud1 & to e/abli% a tyranny ov] 8 c\ntrym5 !mselves 7viii4 #ac4 #ac74 ,! ,lac$monians conduct$ !mselves well & fl\ri%$ "u _! in/itutions1 s long z !y 7 c>ry+ on w> = ! enl>gem5t ( _! dom9ion3 b !y 7 incapable ( ta/+ or pr(it+ by peace3 !y 7 n educat$ by _! legislator s z to be able to turn leisure to acc\nt 7,greek3 ai7_/tios d' o7 nomo!_/ts1 ou7 paideu_/sas du_/na/hai s*ola_/ze9--vii4 #ac4 #ae74 ,! education ( ! citiz5 is to comm5ce ) ! body3 next ! irrational portion ( ! s\l is to be br\ght "u discipl9e--t is1 ! w & ! appetites1 ! concupisc5t & irascible passions3 ?irdly1 ! rational portion ( ! s\l is to be cultivat$ & develop$4 ,! habitual desires are to be s m\ld$ & tutor$ z to prep>e !m = ! sov]eignty ( reason1 :5 ! "t %all arrive = br++ reason into action 7vii4 #ac4 #bc74 ,!y are to le>n no?+ until five ye>s old 7vii4 #ae4 #d71 _! div]sions are to be c>efully prep>$ & pres5t$ to !m1 consi/+ g5]ally ( a mimicry ( subsequ5t s]i\s occupations 7vii4 #ae4 #ae73 & all ! fables & tales :i* !y he> recit$ are to be su* z to pave ! way = moral discipl9e 7ib472 all "u ! sup]9t5d5ce ( ! ,pdonom4 ,no obsc5e or lic5ti\s talk is to be tol]at$ 9 ! city 7vii4 #ae4 #g71 nor any indec5t pa9t+ or /atue1 except 9 ! temples ( "s p>ticul> ,deities4 ,no y\? is p]mitt$ to witness ! recitation ei!r ( iambics or ( com$y 7vii4 #ae4 #i71 until he atta9s ! age :i* qualifies him to sit at ! public tables4 ,imm5se /ress is laid by ! philosoph] on ! turn ( ideas to :i* ! t5d] m9ds ( y\? become accu/om$1 & on ! e>lie/ comb9ations ( s\nds or ( visible objects :i* meet _! s5ses 7vii4 #ae4 #aj74 ,greek3 ,pros pa_/sas duna_/meis kai te_/*nas e7/9 a7 dei propaideu_/e/hai kai proe?i_/ze/hai pros tas e7ka_//n e7rgasi_/z1 7_//e dlon o7_/ti kai pros tas ts a7rets pra_/xeis 7viii4 #a4 #b74 ,all ! citiz5s 9 ,ari/otle's republic are to be educat$ accord+ to "o common sy/em3 ea* be+ reg>d$ z belong+ to ! commonweal? m ?an to 8 own p>5ts4 ,?is 0 ! practice at ,lac$mon1 & ,ari/otle greatly eulogizes x 7viii4 #a4 #c74 ,ari/otle does n approve ( extreme & viol5t bodily tra9+1 su* z w\ld br+ ! body into ! condition ( an a?lete3 nor does he ev5 sanction ! gymna/ic lab\rs impos$ by ! ,lac$monian sy/em1 :i* _h ! effect ( r5d]+ ! ,sp>tans brutal ( s\l1 = ! purpose ( exalt+ _! c\rage 7,greek3 oi7 ,la_/knes--?ri_/deis a7p]ga_/zontai tois po_/nois1 7s t\to ma_/li/a pros a7ndrei_/an su_/mph]on74 ,he rem>ks1 fir/1 t c\rage is n ! s+le or exclusive end to be aim$ at 9 a civil education3 next1 t a savage & brutal s\l is less compatible ) exalt$ c\rage ?an a g5tle s\l1 tra9$ s z to be exquisitely s5sible to ! feel+s ( %ame & hon\r 7viii4 #c4 #c-e74 ,! mo/ sangu9>y & unfeel+ among ! b>b>\s tribes1 he rem>ks1 7 v f> f be+ ! mo/ c\rage\s4 ,a man tra9$ on ! ,lac$monian sy/em1 9 bodily ex]cises alone1 de/itute ev5 ( ! mo/ indisp5sable m5tal culture 7see bel[71 0 a real ,greek3 ba_/nausos--useful only = "o bran* ( political duties1 & ev5 = t less useful ?an if he _h be5 tra9$ 9 a diff]5t mann]4 ,up to ! age ( #ad1 ,ari/otle prescribes 7,greek3 7_/b means #ad ye>s ( age--see vii4 #ae4 #aa7 t boys %all be tra9$ 9 g5tle & regul> ex]cises1 )\t any sev]e or =c$ lab\r4 ,f #ad to #ag !y are to be in/ruct$ 9 v>i\s bran*es ( k3 aft] #ag1 !y are to be put to h>d] bodily lab\r & to be n\ri%$ ) a special & peculi> diet 7,greek3 a7nagkophagi_/ais74 ,= h[ long ?is is to cont9ue1 is n /at$4 ,b ,ari/otle insi/s on ! necessity ( n giv+ !m at ! same "t intellectual in/ruction & bodily tra9+1 = ! "o ( ^!1 he says1 c\nt]acts & fru/rates ! o!r 7viii4 #d4 #b-c74 ,! ,lac$monians made music no "p ( _! education3 ,isocrat4 ,pana!n4 ,or4 xii4 p4 #cge1 ,b42 !y did n ev5 le>n 'lett]s' 7,greek3 gra_/mmata71 b !y are said to h be5 good judges ( music 7viii4 #d4 #f74 ,ari/otle himself h[ev] seems to ?9k x next to impossible t m5 :o h n le>n$ music c be good judges 7viii4 #f4 #a74 ,ari/otle admits t music may be usefully le>nt z an innoc5t pleasure & relaxation3 b he *iefly consid]s x z desirable on acc\nt ( its moral effects1 on ! dispositions & affections4 ,a "r turn ( ! pleasurable & pa9ful emotions is1 9 8 op9ion1 ess5tial to virtue3 p>ticul> /ra9s & p>ticul> rhy?ms are naturally associat$ ) p>ticul> dispositions ( m9d3 by e>ly tea*+1 ^? /ra9s & ^? rhy?ms :i* are associat$ ) temp]ate & laudable dispositions may be made m agreeable to a y\? ?an any o!rs4 ,he w l be/ ^? :i* he he>s e>lie/1 & :i* he f9ds univ]sally comm5d$ & reli%$ by ^? ab\t him4 ,a reli% = ! ,greek3 o7moi_/mata ( virtu\s dispositions w t5d to increase 9 him ! love ( virtue itself 7viii4 #f4 #e4 #h74 ,ari/otle enjo9s t ! y\? be taught to execute music in/rum5tally & vocally1 because x is only 9 ?is way t !y c acquire a good ta/e or judgm5t 9 music3 besides :i*1 x is necess>y to furni% boys ) "s occupation1 to absorb _! re/less en]gies1 & !re is none m suitable ?an music4 ,"s p]sons alleg$ t ! tea*+ music z a manual art 0 banausic & degrad+1 l[]+ ! citiz5 d[n to ! /ation ( a hir$ pr(essional s+]4 ,ari/otle meets ?is objection by provid+ t y\?s %all be in/ruct$ 9 ! musical art1 b only ) ! view ( correct+ & cultivat+ _! ta/e3 !y are to be =bidd5 f mak+ any use ( _! musical acquisitions1 9 rip] ye>s1 9 actual play+ or s++ 7viii4 #f4 #c74 ,ari/otle obs]ves1 t music m difficult ( execution _h be5 rec5tly introduc$ into ! agones1 & _h f\nd its way f ! agones into ! ord9>y education4 ,he decid$ly disapproves & excludes x 7viii4 #f4 #d74 ,he =bids bo? ! flute & ! h>p1 & e o!r in/rum5t requir+ mu* art to play ^u x3 especially ! flute1 :i* he consid]s z n e?ical1 b orgia/ical--calculat$ to excite viol5t & mom5t>y emotions4 ,! flute obta9$ a foot+ 9 ,greece aft] ! ,p]sian invasion2 9 ,a!ns at t "t x became especially fa%ionable2 b 0 discont9u$ aft]w>ds 7,plut>* alleges1 ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ,alcibiades74 ,! sugge/ions ( ,ari/otle = ! education ( 8 citiz5s are f> less copi\s & circum/antial ?an ^? ( ,plato 9 8 ,republic4 ,he deliv]s no plan ( /udy1 no arrangem5t ( sci5ces to be successively communicat$1 no reasons = pref]r+ or reject+4 ,we d n "k :at x 0 precisely :i* ,ari/otle compreh5d$ 9 ! t]m philosophy1 int5d$ by him to be taught to 8 citiz5s z an aid = ! prop] employm5t ( _! leisure4 ,x mu/ probably h includ$ ! moral1 political1 & metaphysical sci5ces1 z !y 7 !n kn[n--^? sci5ces to :i* 8 own volum9\s works relate4 ,by means ( ! public table1 suppli$ f ! produce ( ! public l&s1 ,ari/otle provides = ! full subsi/5ce ( e citiz54 ,yet he is well aw>e t ! citiz5s w be likely to increase 9 numb]s too rapidly1 & he sugge/s v effici5t precautions aga9/ x4 ,no *ild at all de=m$ or imp]fect 9 frame is to be br\ght up3 *ildr5 beyond a conv5i5t numb]1 if born1 are to be expos$3 b %\ld ! law ( ! ,/ate =bid su* a practice1 c>e mu/ be tak5 to =e/all consci\sness & life 9 !m1 & to prev5t _! bir? by ,greek3 a7_/mblsis 7vii4 #ad4 #aj74 ,ari/otle e/abli%es two agora 9 8 city3 "o situat$ ne> to ! h>b\r1 adapt$ to ! buy+1 sell+1 & /or+ ( goods1 "u ! surveillance ( ! agoranomus3 ! o!r call$ ! free agora1 situat$ 9 ! upp] p>ts ( ! city1 set ap>t = ! amusem5t & conv]sation ( ! citiz5s1 & nev] defil$ by ! introduction ( any commodities = sale4 ,no artisan or husb&man is ev] to ent] ! latt] unless by special ord] f ! au?orities4 ,! temples ( ! ,gods1 ! resid5ces ( ! v>i\s bo>ds ( gov]nm5t function>ies1 ! gymnasia ( ! old] citiz5s1 are all to be erect$ 9 ?is free agora 7vii4 #aa74 ,! ,!ssalian cities _h an agora ( ?is description :]e no traffic or common occupations 7 p]mitt$4 ,! moral t5d5cy ( ,ari/otle's reflections is almo/ always useful & elevat+4 ,! intimate union :i* he =mally recognizes & p]petually proclaims betwe5 happ9ess & virtue1 is salut>y & in/ructive3 & 8 ideas ( :at virtue is1 are p]fectly j1 s f> z relates to ! conduct ( 8 citiz5s t[>ds ea* o!r3 ?\gh !y are mis]ably defective z reg>ds obligation t[>ds non-citiz5s4 ,he always assigns ! prop] pre-em95ce to wisdom & virtue3 he nev] ov]values ! advantages ( ri*es1 nor deems !m entitl$ on _! own acc\nt1 to any rev]5ce or submission3 he all[s no title to ! ob$i5ce ( mank9d1 except t :i* arises f sup]ior p[] & disposition to s]ve !m4 ,sup]ior p[] & /ation1 z he consid]s !m1 involve a s]ies ( tr\bles--"s obligations :i* r5d] !m objects ( desire only to m5 ( virtue & b5efic5ce4 ,:at is m r>e & m cr$itable /ill1 he treats all views ( conque/ & aggr&izem5t by a ,/ate z immoral & injuri\s1 ev5 to ! conqu]ors !mselves4 ,,app5dix4 ,,app5dix4 ,i4 ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,univ]sals4 ,! controv]sy respect+ ,univ]sals fir/ obta9$ its place 9 philosophy f ! colloquies ( ,sokrates1 & ! writ+s & tea*+s ( ,plato4 ,we ne$ n "h t\* ^u _! pr$ecessors1 ,p>m5ides & ,h]akleitus1 :o1 9 a confus$ & unsy/ematic mann]1 approa*$ ?is "q f opposite sides1 & ^: speculations work$ mu* ^u ! m9d ( ,plato 9 det]m9+ bo? 8 aggressive dialectic1 & 8 con/ructive !ories4 ,p>m5ides ( ,elea1 improv+ ^u ! rud] conceptions ( ,x5ophanes1 0 ! fir/ to give emphatic proclamation to ! celebrat$ ,eleatic doctr9e1 ,absolute ,ens z oppos$ to ,relative ,fi5tia3 i4e4 ! ,cogitable1 :i* ,p>m5ides conceiv$ z ! ,"o & ,all ( reality1 ,greek3 e7n kai pan1 endur+ & un*angeable1 ( :i* ! negative 0 unmean+1--& ! ,s5sible or ,p]ceivable1 :i* 0 9 p]petual *ange1 succession & multiplicity1 )\t ei!r unity1 or reality1 or endurance4 ,to ! la/ ( ^! two dep>tm5ts ,h]akleitus assign$ especial prom95ce4 ,9 place ( ! p]man5t und]ly+ ,ens1 :i* he did n recognize1 he sub/itut$ a cogitable process ( *ange1 or g5]aliz$ concept ( :at 0 common to all ! successive phases ( *ange--a p]petual /ream ( g5]ation & de/ruction1 or implication ( contr>ies1 9 :i* ev]y?+ appe>$ only t x might disappe>1 )\t endurance or uni=mity4 ,9 ?is doctr9e ( ,h]akleitus1 ! _w ( s5se & p>ticul>s c\ld n be ! object ei!r ( c]ta9 k or ev5 ( correct probable op9ion2 9 t ( ,p>m5ides1 x 0 recogniz$ z an object ( probable op9ion1 ?\gh n ( c]ta9 k4 ,b 9 bo? doctr9es1 z well z 9 ! !ories ( ,demokritus1 x 0 degrad$1 & pres5t$ z incapable ( yield+ satisfaction to ! se>* ( a philosophiz+ m9d1 :i* c\ld f9d nei!r tru? nor reality except 9 ! _w ( ,concepts & ,cogitables4 ,besides ! two !ories above-m5tion$1 !re 7 curr5t 9 ! ,hell5ic _w1 be=e ! maturity ( ,sokrates1 sev]al o!r ve9s ( speculation ab\t ! ,kosmos1 totally div]g5t "o f ! o!r1 & by t v div]g5ce sometimes /imulat+ curiosity1 sometimes disc\rag+ all /udy z ?\gh ! problems 7 hopeless4 ,b ,p>m5ides & ,h]akleitus1 toge!r ) ! ari?metical & geometrical hypo!ses ( ! ,py?agoreans1 are expressly notic$ by ,ari/otle z hav+ specially contribut$ to =m ! philosophy ( ,plato4 ,nei!r ,p>m5ides1 nor ,h]akleitus1 nor ! ,py?agoreans 7 dialecticians4 ,!y gave out _! own ?\ghts 9 _! own way1 ) little or no reg>d to diss5ti5ts4 ,!y did n cultivate ! art ( argum5tative attack or def5ce1 nor ! correct application & div]sifi$ confrontation ( univ]sal t]ms1 :i* are ! great in/rum5ts ( t art4 ,x 0 ,z5o1 ! disciple ( ,p>m5ides1 t fir/ employ$ dialectic 9 support ( 8 ma/]'s !ory1 or r aga9/ ! c\nt]-!ories ( oppon5ts4 ,he %[$ by argum5ts memorable = _! subtlety1 t ! hypo!sis ( an ,absolute1 compos$ ( ,entia ,plura ,discont9ua1 l$ to consequ5ces ev5 m absurd ?an ^? t oppon5ts d$uc$ f ! ,p>m5idean hypo!sis ( ,ens ,unum ,cont9uum4 ,! dialectic1 ?us inaugurat$ by ,z5o1 rea*$ /ill high] p]fection 9 ! colloquies ( ,sokrates2 :o n only employ$ a new me?od1 b also introduc$ new topics ( debate--e?ical1 political1 & social matt]s in/ead ( physical ?+s & ! ,kosmos4 ,! peculi> orig9ality ( ,sokrates is well kn[n3 a man :o wrote no?+1 b pass$ 8 life 9 indiscrim9ate colloquy ) e "o2 :o pr(ess$ to h no k himself1 b int]rogat$ o!rs on matt]s t !y talk$ ab\t famili>ly & pr(ess$ to "k well2 ^: colloquies g5]ally end$ by puzzl+ ! respond5ts1 & by prov+ to !mselves t !y nei!r knew nor c\ld expla9 ev5 matt]s t !y _h begun by affirm+ confid5tly z too cle> to ne$ explanation4 ,ari/otle tells u#a t ,sokrates 0 ! fir/ t set himself expressly & me?odically to scrut9ize ! def9itions ( g5]al or univ]sal t]ms1 & to confront !m1 n m]ely ) ea* o!r1 b also1 by a sort ( inductive process1 ) _m p>ticul> cases t 71 or appe>$ to be1 includ$ "u !m4 ,& bo? ,x5ophon & ,plato give u abundant examples ( ! t]ms to :i* ,sokrates appli$ 8 int]rogatories3 ,:at is ! ,holy8 ,:at is ! ,unholy8 ,:at is ! ,beautiful or ,hon\rable8 ,:at is ! ,ugly or ,base8 ,:at is ,ju/ice--,inju/ice--,temp]ance--,madness --,c\rage--,c[>dice--,a ,city--,a man fit = civil life8 ,:at is ! ,comm& ( ,m58 ,:at is ! "* fit = comm&+ m58 ,su* are ! specim5s1 furni%$ by a he>]1#b ( ! univ]sal t]ms :]eon ! int]rogatories ( ,sokrates bore4 ,all ( !m 7 t]ms spok5 & he>d famili>ly by citiz5s 9 ! m>ket-place1 z if ea* und]/ood !m p]fectly2 b :5 ,sokrates1 pr(ess+ 8 own ignorance1 put que/ions ask+ = solutions ( difficulties t p]plex$ 8 own m9d1 ! answ]s %[$ t ^! difficulties 7 equally insoluble by respond5ts1 :o _h nev] ?\ght ( !m be=e4 ,! confid5t p]suasion ( k1 ) :i* ! colloquy began1 /ood expos$ z a false p]suasion )\t any basis ( reality4 ,su* illusory semblance ( k 0 proclaim$ by ,sokrates to be ! *ronic1 ?\gh unconsci\s1 intellectual condition ( 8 contempor>ies4 ,h[ he und]took1 z ! mission ( a long life1 to expose x1 is impressively set =? 9 ! ,platonic ,apology4 ,footnote #a3 ,metaphysica1 ,a4 p4 #ihg1 b4 #b2 ,m4 p4 #ajgh1 b4 #ah4 ,footnote #b3 ,x5ophon ,memorab4 ,i4 i4 #af2 ,,iv4 vi4 #a-ac4 ,x 0 ?us by ,sokrates t ! mean+ ( univ]sal t]ms & univ]sal propositions1 & ! relation ( ea* respectively to p>ticul> t]ms & p>ticul> propositions 7 fir/ made a subject ( express enquiry & analytical int]rogation4 ,8 influ5ce 0 p[]ful 9 imp>t+ ! same dialectical impulse to sev]al companions2 b mo/ ( all to ,plato1 :o n only enl>g$ & amplifi$ ! range ( ,sokratic enquiry1 b also br\ght ! mean+ ( univ]sal t]ms into some?+ l sy/em & !ory1 z a portion ( ! conditions ( tru/wor?y sci5ce4 ,plato 0 ! fir/ to affirm ! doctr9e aft]w>ds call$ ,realism1 z ! fundam5tal po/ulate ( all true & prov$ cognition4 ,he affirm$ x boldly1 & 9 its mo/ ext5d$ s5se1 ?\gh he also produces 7accord+ to 8 frequ5t practice7 _m p[]ful argum5ts & unsolv$ objections aga9/ x4 ,x 0 he 7to use ! /rik+ phrase ( ,milton#c7 t fir/ import$ into ! s*ools ! port5t ( ,realism4 ,! doctr9e has be5 s9ce oppos$1 confut$1 curtail$1 trans=m$1 div]sifi$ 9 _m ways2 b x has ma9ta9$ its place 9 logical speculation1 & has rema9$1 "u "o phraseology or ano!r1 ! cre$ ( v>i\s philosoph]s1 f t "t d[n to ! pres5t4 ,footnote #c3 ,see ! ,lat9 v]ses ',de ,ide ,platonic quemadmodum ,ari/oteles intellexit'-- ,at tu1 p]5ne ruris ,academi decus1 ,hc mon/ra si tu primus induxti s*olis1 c4 ,! foll[+ acc\nt ( ! problems ( ,realism 0 h&$ d[n to ! speculations ( ! m$ival philosoph]s by ,porphyry 7betwe5 #bgj-cjj ,a4,d471 9 8 ,introduction to ! treatise ( ,ari/otle on ! ,categories4 ,aft] in=m+ ,*rysaorius t he w prep>e = him a concise /atem5t ( ! doctr9es ( ! old philosoph]s respect+ ,g5us1 ,diff]5tia1 ,species1 ,proprium1 ,accid5s1 ab/a9+ f ! deep] enquiries1 b giv+ suitable developm5t to ! m simple1--,porphyry ?us proce$s3--,= example1 ,i %all decl9e discuss+1 9 respect to ,g5]a & ,species1 7#a7 ,:e!r !y h a sub/antive exi/5ce1 or reside m]ely 9 nak$ m5tal conceptions2 7#b7 ,:e!r1 assum+ !m to h sub/antive exi/5ce1 !y are bodies or incorporeals2 7#c7 ,:e!r _! sub/antive exi/5ce is 9 & along ) ! objects ( s5se1 or ap>t & sep>able4 ,^u ?is task ,i %all n ent]1 s9ce x is ( ! greate/ dep?1 & requires ano!r l>g] inve/igation2 b %all try at once to %[ y h[ ! anci5ts 7especially ! ,p]ipatetics71 ) a view to logical disc\rse1 dealt ) ! topics n[ prop\nd$4#d ,footnote #d3 ,porphyry1 ,introd4 9 ,categor4 init4 p4 #a1 a4 #a1 ,s*ol4 ,br4 ,be=e ,porphyry1 all ^! ?ree problems _h be5 l>gely debat$1 fir/ by ,plato1 next by ,ari/otle aga9/ ,plato1 aga9 by ! ,/oics aga9/ bo?1 & la/ly by ,plot9us & ! ,neo-,platoni/s z conciliators ( ,plato ) ,ari/otle4 ,aft] ,porphyry1 problems ! same1 or simil>1 cont9u$ to /& 9 ! =egr\nd ( speculation1 until ! au?ority ( ,ari/otle became discr$it$ at all po9ts by ! influ5ces ( ! sixte5? & sev5te5? c5turies4 ,b 9 ord] to f9d ! beg9n+ ( !m1 z que/ions provok+ curiosity & op5+ diss5ti5t po9ts ( view to inv5tive dialecticians1 we mu/ g back to ! age & ! dialogues ( ,plato4 ,! real ,sokrates 7i4e4 z he is describ$ by ,x5ophon7 inculcat$ 9 8 conv]sation /eady rev]5ce = ! invisible1 z ap>t f & ov]rid+ ! ph5om5a ( s5sible exp]i5ce2 b he int]pret$ ! t]m 9 a religi\s s5se1 z signify+ ! ag5cy ( ! p]sonal gods1 employ$ to produce effects b5eficial or injuri\s to mank9d4#e ,he also puts =? 8 dialectical acut5ess to prep>e consi/5t & t5able def9itions ( famili> g5]al t]ms 7( :i* in/ances h already be5 giv571 at lea/ s f> z to make o!rs feel1 = ! fir/ "t1 t !y did n und]/& ^! t]ms1 ?\gh !y _h be5 always talk+ l p]sons t did und]/&4 ,b ! ,platonic ,sokrates 7i4e4 z spokesman 9 ! dialogues ( ,plato7 enl>ges bo? ^! discussions mat]ially4 ,plato recognizes1 n simply ! invisible p]sons or gods1 b also a sep>ate _w ( invisible1 imp]sonal entities or objects2 "o ( :i* he po/ulates z ! objective reality1 ?\gh only a cogitable reality1 correlat+ ) ea* g5]al t]m4 ,^! ,entia he consid]s to be n m]ely di/9ct realities1 b ! only true & kn[able realities3 !y are et]nal & un*angeable1 manife/$ by ! fact t p>ticul>s p>take 9 !m1 & imp>t+ a p>tial %[ ( /ability to ! indet]m9ate flux ( p>ticul>s3 unless su* sep>ate ,univ]sal ,entia be suppos$1 !re is no?+ :]eon cognition c fa/51 & consequ5tly !re c be no cognition at all4#f ,^! are ! sub/antive1 self-exi/5t ,ideas1 or ,=ms t ,plato fir/ pres5t$ to ! philosophical _w2 sometimes ) logical acut5ess1 (t5] /ill ) ri* poetical & imag9ative col\r+4 ,!y con/itute ! ma9 body & *>act]i/ic ( ! hypo!sis ( ,realism4 ,footnote #e3 ,x5ophon1 ,memorab4 ,i4 iv4 #i-ag2 ,,iv4 iii4 #ad4 ,footnote #f3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaphys4 ,a4 vi4 p4 #ihg1 b4 #e2 ,m4 iv4 p4 #ajgh1 b4 #ae4 ,b1 ?\gh ! ma9 hypo!sis is ! same1 ! accessories & mann] ( pres5tation diff] mat]ially among its diff]5t advocates4 ,9 ^! respects1 inde$1 ,plato diff]s n only f o!rs1 b also f himself4 ,sy/ematic tea*+ or exposition is n 8 purpose1 nor does he ev] give op9ions 9 8 own "n4 ,we h f him an aggregate ( deta*$ dialogues1 9 _m ( :i* ?is same hypo!sis is br\ght "u discussion1 b 9 ea* dialogue1 ! spokesm5 approa* x f a diff]5t side2 :ile 9 o!rs 7di/+ui%$ by v>i\s critics z ! ,sokratic dialogues7 x does n come "u discussion at all1 ,plato be+ cont5t to rema9 ^u ! ,sokratic plat=m1 & to debate ! mean+ ( g5]al t]ms )\t po/ulat+ 9 correlation ) !m an objective reality1 ap>t f _! respective p>ticul>s4 ,at ! close ( ! ,platonic dialogue call$ ,kratylus1 ,sokrates is introduc$ z pres5t+ ! hypo!sis ( self-exi/5t1 et]nal1 un*angeable ,ideas 7exactly 9 ! way t ,ari/otle ascribes to ,plato7 z ! c\nt]-proposition to ! !ory ( univ]sal flux & *ange ann\nc$ by ,h]akleitus4 ,p>ticul>s are ev] *ang+ 7x is "h argu$7 & are ?us out ( ! rea* ( cognition2 b1 unless ! ,univ]sal ,ideas above !m1 su* z ! ,self-beautiful1 ! ,self-good1 c41 be admitt$ z un*angeable1 objective realities1 !re c be no?+ ei!r nameable or kn[able3 cognition becomes impossible4 ,9 ! ,timu1 ,plato describes ! con/ruction ( ! ,kosmos by a ,div9e ,ar*itect1 & ! model foll[$ by ! latt] 9 8 "w4 ,! di/9ction is "h aga9 br\ght out1 & ann\nc$ z capital1 betwe5 ! p]man5t1 unalt]able ,entia1 & ! transi5t1 ev]-fluctuat+ ,fi5tia1 :i* come & g1 b nev] really are4 ,entia are appreh5d$ by ! cogitant or intellig5t s\l ( ! ,kosmos1 ,fi5tia by ! s5ti5t or p]cipi5t s\l2 ! cosmical s\l z a :ole1 9 ord] to suffice = bo? ^! tasks1 is made up ( div]se compon5t elem5ts--,idem1 correlat+ ) ! fir/ ( ! two1 ,div]sum1 correlat+ ) ! second1 & ,idem implicat$ ) ,div]sum1 correspond+ to bo? 9 conjunction4 ,! ,div9e ,ar*itect is describ$ z con/ruct+ a ,kosmos1 compos$ bo? ( s\l & body1 ^u ! patt]n ( ! gr& pre-exi/5t ,idea--,greek3 au7tozon or ! ,self-,animal2 :i* includ$ 9 itself z a g5us ! f\r di/9ct species--cele/ial 7gods1 visible & invisible71 t]re/rial1 a]ial1 & aquatic4 ,! ma9 po9t t ,plato "h insi/s ^u is--! et]nal & un*angeable reality ( ! cogitable objects call$ ,ideas1 prior bo? 9 "t & 9 logical ord] to ! transi5t objects ( sight & t\*1 & s]v+ z an exempl> to :i* ^! latt] are made to approximate imp]fectly4 ,he assumes su* priority1 )\t pro(1 9 ! case ( ! ,idea ( ,animal2 b1 :5 he t\*es ^u ! f\r elem5ts--,fire1 ,air1 ,wat]1 ,e>?--he hesitates to make ! same assumption1 & ?9ks himself requir$ to give a reason = x4 ,! reason t he assigns 7ann\nc$ di/9ctly z 8 own7 is z foll[s3 ,if ,intellection 7,cogitation1 ,greek3 ,n\s7 & true ,op9ion are two g5]a di/9ct f ea* o!r1 !re mu/ cle>ly exi/ ,=ms or ,ideas imp]ceptible to our s5ses1 & appreh5d$ only by cogitation or intellection2 b if1 z "s p]sons ?9k1 true op9ion is n[ay diff]5t f intellection1 !n we mu/ admit all ! objects p]ceiv$ by our s5ses z firm realities4 ,n[ ! fact is 7he proce$s to say7 t true op9ion is n id5tical ) intellection1 b q di/9ct1 sep>ate1 & unlike to x4 ,intellection is communicat$ by tea*+1 ?r\gh true reason+1 & is un%akeable by p]suasion2 true op9ion is communicat$ by p]suasion & remov$ by c\nt]-p]suasion1 )\t true reason+4 ,true op9ion may belong to any man2 b intellection is ! privilege only ( gods & ( a small section ( mank9d4 ,accord+ly1 s9ce ! two are di/9ct1 ! objects correlat+ ) ea* ( !m mu/ also be di/9ct f ea* o!r4 ,!re mu/ exi/1 fir/1 prim>y1 et]nal1 un*angeable ,=ms1 appreh5d$ by intellect or cogitation1 b imp]ceptible by s5se2 &1 secondly1 resemblances ( ^! be>+ ! same "n1 g5]at$ & de/roy$ ea* 9 "s place1 & appreh5d$ fir/ by s5se1 aft]w>ds by op9ion4 ,?irdly1 !re mu/ be ! place :]e9 su* resemblances are g5]at$2 a place itself imp]ceptible by s5se1 yet po/ulat$1 z a receptacle indisp5sable = !m1 by a dreamy k9d ( computation4 ,we see "h t ! pro( giv5 by ,plato1 9 support ( ! exi/5ce ( ,=ms z ! prim>y realities1 is ess5tially psy*ological3 re/+ ^u ! fact t !re is a di/9ct m5tal en]gy or faculty call$ ,intellection 7ap>t f ,s5se & ,op9ion71 :i* mu/ h its di/9ct objective correlate2 & ^u ! f>!r fact1 t intellection is ! high pr]ogative ( ! gods1 %>$ only by a few *os5 m54 ,?is la/ po9t ( ! case is m l>gely & emphatically br\ght out 9 ! ,phdrus1 :]e ,sokrates deliv]s a highly poetical effusion respect+ ! p>tial int]communion ( ! human s\l ) ^! et]nal intellectual realities4 ,to contemplate !m is ! con/ant privilege ( ! gods2 to d s is also ! aspiration ( ! immortal s\l ( man g5]ally1 9 ! pre-exi/5t /ate1 prior to incorporation ) ! human body2 ?\gh only 9 a few cases is su* aspiration realiz$4 ,ev5 ^? few human s\ls1 t h succe$$ 9 gett+ sight ( ! intellectual ,ideas 7ess5ces )\t col\r1 figure1 or tactile prop]ties71 lose all recollection ( !m :5 fir/ ent]+ into p>tn]%ip ) a human body2 b are enabl$ gradually to recall !m1 by comb9+ repeat$ impressions & exp]i5ce ( _! resemblances 9 ! _w ( s5se4 ,! revival ( ^! div9e elem5ts is an inspiration ( ! nature ( madness2 ?\gh x is a v>iety ( madness z mu* bett] ?an un9spir$ human reason z o!r v>ieties are worse4 ,! s\l1 becom+ ins5sible to ord9>y pursuits1 contracts a passionate devotion to ^! ,univ]sal ,ideas1 & to t dialectical communion1 especially ) "s pregnant y\?ful m9d1 t br+s !m into cle> sep>ate contemplation dis5gag$ f ! limits & confusion ( s5se4 ,"h philosophy is pres5t$ z ! special inspiration ( a few1 ^: s\ls dur+ ! p]iod ( pre-exi/5ce h suffici5tly caught sight ( ! ,univ]sal ,ideas or ,ess5ces2 s t ^! la/1 ?\gh ov]laid & buri$ :5 ! s\l is fir/ plung$ 9 a body1 are yet revivable aft]w>ds "u fav\rable circum/ances1 ?r\gh _! imp]fect copies 9 ! _w ( s5se2 especially by ! sight ( p]sonal beauty 9 an +5u\s & aspir+ y\?1 9 :i* case ! visible copy makes ne>e/ approa* to ! p]fection ( ! ,univ]sal ,idea or ,type4 ,at ! same "t1 ,plato aga9 pres5ts to u ! ,cogitable ,univ]sals z ! only objects ( true cognition1 ! ,s5sible ,p>ticul>s be+ objects m]ely ( op9ion4 ,9 ! ,phdon1 ,sokrates advances ! same doctr9e1 t ! 9999p]ceptions ( s5se are full ( error & confusion1 & c at be/ sugge/ no?+ high] ?an op9ion2 t true cogitation c nev] be atta9$ except :5 ! cogitant m9d dis5gages itself f ! body & comes into direct contemplation ( ! ,univ]sal ,entia1 objects et]nal & always ! same--,! ,self-beautiful1 ,self-good1 ,self-j1 ,self-great1 ,heal?y1 ,/rong1 c41 all :i* objects are invisible1 & c be appreh5d$ only by ! cogitation or intellect4 ,x is ?is ,cogitable ,univ]sal t is alone real2 ,s5sible ,p>ticul>s are n real1 nor la/+1 nor tru/wor?y4 ,none b a few philosoph]s1 h[ev]1 c atta9 to su* pure m5tal en]gy dur+ ?is life2 nor ev5 !y fully & p]fectly4 ,b !y w atta9 x fully aft] dea? 7_! s\ls be+ immortal71 if _! lives h be5 pass$ 9 sob] philosophical tra9+4 ,& _! s\ls enjoy$ x be=e bir? dur+ ! p]iod ( pre-exi/5ce2 hav+ acquir$1 be=e junction ) ! body1 ! k ( ^! ,univ]sals1 :i* are =gott5 dur+ *ildhood1 b recall$ 9 ! way ( ,rem9isc5ce1 by s5sible p]ceptions t make a di/ant approa* to !m4 ,?us1 accord+ to ! ,phdon & "s o!r dialogues1 all le>n+ is m]ely rem9isc5ce2 ! m9d is br\ght back1 by ! laws ( association1 to ! k ( ,univ]sal ,realities t x _h possess$ 9 its /ate ( pre-exi/5ce4 ,p>ticul>s ( s5se p>ticipate 9 ^! ,univ]sals to a c]ta9 ext5t1 or resemble !m imp]fectly2 & !y are !re=e call$ by ! same "n4 ,9 ! ,republic1 we h a repetition & copi\s illu/ration ( ?is anti!sis betwe5 ! _w ( ,univ]sals or ,cogitables1 :i* are ! only un*angeable realities & ! only objects ( k1--& ! _w ( ,s5sible ,p>ticul>s1 :i* are transitory & confus$ %ad[s ( ^! ,univ]sals1 & are objects ( op9ion only4 ,full & real ,ens is kn[able1 ,non-,ens is altoge!r unkn[able2 :at is midway betwe5 ! two is matt] ( op9ion1 & 9 su* midway are ! ,p>ticul>s ( s5se4#g ,respect+ ^! la/1 no tru? is atta9able3 :5ev] y affirm a proposition respect+ any ( !m1 y may ) equal tru? affirm ! contr>y at ! same "t4 ,n[h]e is ! contra/ betwe5 ! ,univ]sals or real ,ideas 7among :i* ! ,idea ( ,good is ! highe/1 pr$om9ant ov] all ! re/71 & ! unreal ,p>ticul>s1 or ,p]cepta1 ( ,s5se1 m =cibly insi/$ ^u ?an 9 ! ,republic4 ,ev5 ! cele/ial bodies & _! movem5ts1 be+ among ^! ,p]cepta ( s5se1 are rank$ among phantoms int]e/+ b useless to obs]ve2 !y are ! be/ ( all ,p]cepta1 b !y fall v %ort ( ! p]fection t ! m5tal eye contemplates 9 ! ,ideal--9 ! true ,figures & ,numb]s1 9 ! real ,velocity & ! real ,sl[ness4 ,9 ! simile comm5c+ ! sev5? book ( ! ,republic1 ,plato comp>es mank9d to prison]s 9 a cave1 *a9$ 9 "o p>ticul> attitude1 s z to behold only an ev]-v>y+ multiplicity ( %ad[s1 project$1 ?r\gh ! op5+ ( ! cave ^u ! wall be=e !m1 by c]ta9 unse5 realities beh9d4 ,! philosoph] is "o among a few1 :o by tra9+ or inspiration1 h be5 enabl$ to face ab\t f ?is orig9al attitude1 & to contemplate ) 8 m9d ! real un*angeable ,univ]sals1 in/ead ( hav+ 8 eye fix$ ^u _! p>ticul> manife/ations1 at once %ad[y & transi5t4 ,by su* m5tal revolution he comes r\nd f ! ,p]ceivable to ! ,cogitable1 f ,op9ion to ,k4 ,footnote #g3 ,plato1 ,republic4 v4 pp4 #dgg1 #dgh4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 ^! two is f>!r argu$ 9 ! elaborate dialogue call$ ,!tetus1 :]e ,sokrates1 try+ to expla9 :at ,k or ,cognition is1 refutes ?ree propos$ explanations & %[s1 to 8 own satisfaction1 t x is n s5sible p]ception1 t x is n true op9ion1 t x is n true op9ion c\pl$ ) rational explanation4 ,b he confesses himself unable to %[ :at ,k or ,cognition is1 ?\gh he cont9ues to ann\nce x z correlat+ ) ,realities ,cogitable & ,univ]sal only4#h ,footnote #h3 ,plato1 ,!tt4 pp4 #agc1 #agf1 #ahf4 ,grote's ,plato1 ,,ii4 xxvi4 pp4 9999#cbj-cie4 ,9 ! passages above notic$1 & 9 _m o!rs besides1 we f9d ,plato draw+ a capital di/9ction betwe5 ,univ]sals et]nal & un*angeable 7ea* ( !m a ,unit z well z a ,univ]sal71#i :i* he affirms to be ! only real ,entia1--& ,p>ticul>s transi5t & v>iable1 :i* are n ,entia at all1 b are always com+ or go+2 ! ,univ]sals be+ objects ( cogitation & ( a psy*ological fact call$ ,cognition1 :i* he decl>es to be infallible2 & ! ,p>ticul>s be+ objects ( ,s5se1 & ( ano!r psy*ological fact radically diff]5t1 call$ ,op9ion1 :i* he pron\nces to be fallible & mislead+4 ,plato holds1 moreov]1 t ! ,p>ticul>s1 ?\gh g5]ically di/9ct & sep>ate f ! ,univ]sals1 h nev]!less a c]ta9 communion or p>ticipation ) !m1 by virtue ( :i* !y become half exi/5t & half cognizable1 b nev] atta9 to full reality or cognizability4 ,footnote #i3 ,plato1 ,philbus1 p4 #ae1 ,a4 ,b42 ,republic1 x4 p4 #eif1 ,a4 ,! phrase ( ,milton1 unus et univ]sus1 expresses ?is idea2 also ! l9es3-- ,s$ quamlibet natura sit communior1 ,tam5 seorsus extat ad modum unius1 c4 ,?is is ! fir/ /atem5t ( ! !ory ( complete & unqualifi$ ,realism1 :i* came to be kn[n 9 ! ,middle ,ages "u ! phrase ,univ]salia ante rem or extra rem1 & to be di/+ui%$ f ! two c\nt]-!ories ,univ]salia 9 re 7,ari/otelian71 & ,univ]salia po/ rem 7,nom9alism74 ,inde$1 ! ,platonic !ory goes ev5 f>!r ?an ! phrase ,univ]salia ante rem1 :i* recognizes ! p>ticul> z a reality1 ?\gh po/]ior & d]ivative2 = ,plato att5uates x into phantom & %ad[4 ,! problem 0 n[ cle>ly set out 9 philosophy--,:at are ! objects correlat+ ) ,univ]sal t]ms1 & ) ,p>ticul> t]ms8 ,:at is ! relation betwe5 ! two8 ,plato fir/ gave to ! _w ! solution call$ ,realism1 :i* la/$ s long aft] 8 "t4 ,we %all pres5tly f9d ,ari/otle tak+ issue ) him on bo? ! affirmations includ$ 9 8 !ory4 ,b ?\gh ,plato fir/ introduc$ ?is !ory into philosophy1 he 0 nei!r bl9d to ! objections aga9/ x1 nor dispos$ to conceal !m4 ,8 m9d 0 at once poetically con/ructive & dialectically de/ructive2 to bo? ^! impulses ! !ory furni%$ ample scope1 :ile ! =m ( 8 compositions 7sep>ate dialogues1 ) no m5tion ( 8 own "n7 r5d]$ x easy to give expression ei!r to "o or to ! o!r4 ,be=e ,ari/otle arose to take issue ) him1 we %all f9d him tak+ issue ) himself1 especially 9 ! dialogues call$ ,sophi/es & ,p>m5ides1 n to m5tion ! ,philbus1 :]e9 he breaks d[n ! unity ev5 ( 8 sov]eign ,idea1 :i* 9 ! ,republic gov]ns ! ,cogitable ,_w1--! ,idea ( ,good4#aj ,footnote #aj3 ,plato1 ,philbus1 pp4 #fe1 #ff4 ,see ,grote's ,plato1 ,,ii4 xxx4 pp4 #ehd1 #ehe4 ,bo? 9 ! ,sophi/es & 9 ! ,p>m5ides1 ! lead+ disputant introduc$ by ,plato is n ,sokrates1 b ,p>m5ides & ano!r p]son 7unnam$7 ( ! ,eleatic s*ool4 ,9 bo? dialogues objections are tak5 aga9/ ! ,reali/ic !ory else:]e prop\nd$ by ,plato1 ?\gh ! objections adduc$ 9 ! "o are q di/9ct f ^? notic$ 9 ! o!r4 ,9 ! ,sophi/es1 ! ,eleatic reason] impugns successfully ! !ories ( two classes ( philosoph]s1 "o ! opposite ( ! o!r3 fir/1 ! ,mat]iali/s1 :o recogniz$ no ,entia except ! ,p]cepta ( ,s5se2 next1 ! ,reali/ic ,ideali/s1 :o refus$ to recognize ^! la/ z real ,entia1 or z any?+ m ?an transi5t & mutable ,g5]ata or ,fi5tia1 :ile !y conf9$ ! title ( ,entia to ! ,=ms1 cogitable1 incorporeal1 et]nal1 immutable1 nei!r act+ on any?+1 nor act$ ^u by any?+4 ,^! p]sons are call$ 9 ! ,sophi/es ,fri5ds ( ,=ms1 & _! !ory is exactly :at we h already cit$ out ( s _m o!r dialogues ( ,plato1 draw+ ! m>k$ l9e ( sep>ation betwe5 ,entia & ,fi5tia2 betwe5 ! ,immutable1 :i* alone is real & cognizable1 & ! ,mutable1 nei!r real nor cognizable4 ,! ,eleate 9 ! ,sophi/es controv]ts ?is ,platonic !ory1 & ma9ta9s t among ! ,univ]sal ,entia !re are includ$ items mutable z well z immutable2 t bo? are real & bo? cognizable2 t ,non-,ens 7in/ead ( be+ set 9 gl>+ contra/ ) ,ens1 z ! totally incogitable aga9/ ! infallibly cognizable7#aa is "o among ! multiplicity ( ,real ,=ms1 mean+ only :at is diff]5t f ,ens1 & !re=e cognizable n less ?an ,ens2 t ,p]cepta & ,cogitata are alike real1 yet bo? only relatively real1 correlat+ ) m9ds p]cipi5t & cogitant4 ,?us1 ! reason+ 9 ! ,sophi/es1 :ile x sets aside ! doctr9e ( ,univ]salia ante rem1 does n m>k out any o!r relation betwe5 ,univ]sals & ,p>ticul>s 7nei!r 9 re nor po/ rem74 ,x discusses *iefly ! int]communion or reciprocal exclusion ( ,univ]sals ) respect to ea* o!r2 & ^u ?is po9t1 f> f repres5t+ !m z objects ( infallible ,cognition z contra/$ ) ,op9ion1 x enrolls bo? ,op9ion & ,disc\rse among ! ,univ]sals !mselves1 & decl>es bo? ( !m to be readily comb9able ) ,non-,ens & ,falsehood4 ,s t we h "h error & fallibility recogniz$ 9 ! region ( ,univ]sals1 z well z 9 t ( ,p>ticul>s4 ,footnote #aa3 ,plato1 ,republic1 v4 pp4 #dgh1 #dgi4 ,b x is pr9cipally 9 ! dialogue ,p>m5ides t ,plato discusses ) dialectical acut5ess ! relation ( ,univ]sals to _! ,p>ticul>s2 putt+ aside ! int]communion 7affirm$ 9 ! ,sophi/es7 or reciprocal exclusion betwe5 "o ,univ]sal & ano!r1 z an hypo!sis at lea/ supremely difficult to v9dicate1 if at all admissible4#ab ,9 ! dialogue1 ,sokrates is introduc$ 9 ! unusual "* ( a y\?ful & ard5t aspirant 9 philosophy1 def5d+ ! ,platonic !ory ( ,ideas z we h se5 x proclaim$ 9 ! ,republic & 9 ! ,timu4 ,! vet]an ,p>m5ides appe>s z ! oppon5t to cross-exam9e him2 & n only impugns ! !ory by sev]al int]rogatories :i* ,sokrates _c answ]1 b also intimates t !re rema9 beh9d o!r objections equally s]i\s requir+ answ]4 ,yet at ! same "t he decl>es t1 unless ! !ory be admitt$1 & unless ,univ]salia ante rem c be su/a9$ z exi/5t1 !re is no tru/wor?y cognition atta9able1 nor any end to be s]v$ by philosophical debate4 ,moreov]1 ,p>m5ides w>ns ,sokrates t1 be=e he c acquire a m5tal condition compet5t to def5d ! !ory1 he mu/ g ?r\gh num]\s prelim9>y dialectical ex]cises2 foll[+ out bo? ! affirmative & ! negative hypo!ses 9 respect to a great v>iety ( ,univ]sals sev]ally4 ,to illu/rate ! c\rse prescrib$1 ,p>m5ides gives a long specim5 ( ?is dialectic 9 h&l+ 8 own doctr9e ( ,ens ,unum4 ,he takes fir/ ! hypo!sis ,si ,unum e/1 next ! hypo!sis ,si ,unum non e/2 & he d$uces f ea*1 by +5i\s subtleties1 d\ble & contradictory conclusions4 ,^! he sums up at ! end1 *all5g+ ,sokrates to solve ! puzzles be=e affirm+ 8 !sis4 ,footnote #ab3 ,plato1 ,p>m5id4 p4 #abi1 ,e42 ) ,/allbaum's ,prolegom5a to t dialogue1 pp4 #ch-db4 ,ap>t f ^! ant9omies at ! close ( ! dialogue1 ! cross-exam9ation ( ,sokrates by ,p>m5ides1 9 ! middle ( x1 br+s out =cibly aga9/ ! ,reali/ic !ory objections su* z ^? urg$ aga9/ x by ! ,nom9ali/s ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we f9d t ,plato conceiv$ ! !ory itself diff]5tly f ,porphyry & ! philosoph]s t wrote subsequ5tly to ! ,p]ipatetic criticism4 ,porphyry & 8 successors put ! "q1 ,:e!r ,g5]a & ,species _h a sep>ate exi/5ce1 ap>t f ! ,individuals compos+ !m8 ,n[1 ! _w ( ,=ms 7! ,cogitable or ,ideal _w z oppos$ to ! ,s5sible7 is n "h conceiv$ by ,plato z peopl$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance by ,g5]a & ,species4 ,its fir/ t5ants are ,attributes1 & attributes di/9ctly relative--,lik5ess1 ,"o & ,_m1 ,ju/ice1 ,beauty1 ,goodness1 c4 ,sokrates1 be+ ask$ by ,p>m5ides :e!r he admits ,=ms correspond+ ) ^! names1 answ]s unhesitat+ly 9 ! affirmative4 ,he is next ask$ :e!r he admits =ms correspond+ to ! names ,man1 ,fire1 ,wat]1 c41 &1 in/ead ( reply+ 9 ! affirmative1 intimates t he does n feel sure4 ,la/ly1 ! "q is put :e!r !re are ,=ms correspond+ to ! names ( mean objects--,mud1 ,hair1 ,dirt1 c4 ,at fir/ he answ]s emphatically 9 ! negative1 & treats ! affirmative z prepo/]\s2 !re exi/ no cogitable ,hair1 c41 b only ! object ( s5se t we s d5om9ate4 ,yet1 on second ?\ghts1 he is n )\t misgiv+ t !re may be ,=ms ev5 ( ^!2 ?\gh ! supposition is s repulsive to him t he %akes x (f z mu* z he c4 ,^u ?is la/ expression ( s5tim5t ,p>m5ides comm5ts1 ascrib+ x to ! juv5ility ( ,sokrates1 & intimat+ t1 :5 ,sokrates has become m deeply imbu$ ) philosophy1 he w cease to set aside any ( ^! objects z unwor?y4 ,"h we see t1 9 ! !ory ( ,realism z conceiv$ by ,sokrates1 ! ,self-,exi/5t ,univ]sals are n ,g5]a & ,species z su*1 b ,attributes--n ,second ,sub/ances or ,ess5ces1 b ,accid5ts or ,attributes1 e4g4 ,quality1 ,quantity1 ,relation1 c41 to use ! language aft]w>ds introduc$ 9 ! ,ari/otelian ,categories2 t no ,g5]a or ,species are admitt$ except ) hesitation2 & t ! mean & undignifi$ among !m are sc>cely admissible at all4 ,?is s5tim5t ( dignity1 associat$ ) ! ,univ]salia ante rem1 & emotional necessity = trac+ back p>ticul>s to an augu/ & respect$ orig91 is to be not$ z a m>k$ & la/+ feature ( ! ,reali/ic cre$2 & x ev5 pass$ on to ! ,univ]salia 9 re1 z aft]w>ds affirm$ by ,ari/otle4 ,p>m5ides "h takes exception to x 7& s does ,plato else:]e#ac7 z inconsi/5t ) fai?ful adh]5ce to sci5tific analogy4 ,footnote #ac3 ,plato1 ,sophi/4 p4 #bbg1 ,a4 ,politikus1 p4 #bff1 ,d4 ,p>m5ides !n proce$s 7int]rogat+ ,sokrates7 fir/ to /ate :at ! ,reali/ic !ory is 7,univ]sals ap>t f ,p>ticul>s--,p>ticul>s ap>t f ,univ]sals1 yet hav+ "s p>ticipation 9 !m1 & nam$ aft] !m71 next to br+ out ! difficulties atta*+ to x4 ,! ,univ]sal or ,=m 7he argues7 _c be entire 9 ea* ( its _m sep>ate p>ticul>s2 nor yet is x divisible1 s t a "p c be 9 "o p>ticul>1 & a "p 9 ano!r4 ,= take ! ,=ms ,great1 ,equal1 ,small2 ,equal magnitudes are equal because !y p>take 9 ! ,=m ( ,equality4 ,b h[ c a "p ( ! ,=m ,equality1 less ?an ! :ole ,=m1 cause ! magnitudes to be equal8 ,h[ c ! ,=m ,smallness h any p>ts less ?an itself1 or h[ c x be great] ?an any?+8 ,! ,=m _c be divid$1 nor c x co-exi/ undivid$ 9 ea* sep>ate p>ticul>2 accord+ly1 p>ticul>s c h no p>ticipation 9 x at all4 ,aga91 y assume a ,=m ( ,greatness1 because y see _m p>ticul> objects1 ea* ( :i* appe>s to y great2 ?is be+ ! po9t ( resemblance betwe5 !m4 ,b if y comp>e ! ,=m ( ,greatness ) any or all ( ! p>ticul> great objects1 y w p]ceive a resemblance betwe5 !m2 ?is w require y to assume a high] ,=m1 & s on upw>d )\t limit4 ,sokrates1 ?us emb>rass$1 />ts ! hypo!sis t p]haps ea* ( ^! ,=ms may be a cogitation1 & no?+ m1 exi/+ only )9 ! m9d4 ,h[8 rejo9s ,p>m5ides4 ,c !re be a cogitation ( no?+ at all8 ,mu/ n ea* cogitation h a real cogitatum correlat+ ) x1--9 ?is case1 ! "o ,=m t is id5tical ?r\gh\t _m p>ticul>s8 ,if y say t p>ticul>s p>take 9 ! ,=m1 & t ea* ,=m is no?+ b a cogitation1 does n ?is imply t ea* p>ticul> is itself cogitant8 ,aga9 ,sokrates urges t ! ,=ms are con/ant1 unalt]able1 /ation>y 9 nature2 t p>ticul>s resemble !m1 & p>ticipate 9 !m only s f> z to resemble !m4 ,b 7rejo9s ,p>m5ides71 if p>ticul>s resemble ! ,=m1 ! ,=m mu/ resemble !m2 accord+ly1 y mu/ admit ano!r & high] ,=m1 z ! po9t ( resemblance betwe5 ! ,=m & its p>ticul>s2 & s on1 upw>ds4 ,& f>!r 7cont9ues ,p>m5ides71 ev5 :5 admitt+ ^! ,univ]sal ,=ms z self-exi/5t1 h[ c we "k any?+ ab\t !m8 ,=ms c correlate only ) ,=ms1 ,p>ticul>s only ) ,p>ticul>s4 ,?us1 if ,i1 an individual man1 am ma/]1 ,i correlate ) ano!r individual man1 :o is my s]vant1 & he on 8 side ) me4 ,b ! ,=m ( ma/]%ip1 ! ,univ]sal self-exi/5t ,ma/]1 mu/ correlate ) ! ,=m ( s]vant%ip1 ! ,univ]sal ,s]vant4 ,! correlation does n subsi/ betwe5 memb]s ( ! two diff]5t worlds1 b betwe5 diff]5t memb]s ( ! same _w respectively4 ,?us ! ,=m ( ,cognition correlates ) ! ,=m ( ,tru?2 & ! ,=m ( ea* v>iety ( ,cognition1 ) ! ,=m ( ! correspond+ v>iety ( ,tru?4 ,b we1 z individual subjects1 d n possess 9 ourselves ! ,=m ( ,cognition2 our cognition is our own1 correlat+ ) su* tru? z belongs to x & to ourselves4 ,our cognition _c rea* to ! ,=m ( ,tru?1 nor !re=e to any o!r ,=m2 we c "k no?+ ( ! ,self-good1 ,self-beautiful1 ,self-j1 c41 ev5 suppos+ su* ,=ms to exi/4 ,^! acute & subtle argum5ts are n[h]e answ]$ by ,plato4 ,!y rema9 z unsolv$ difficulties1 emb>rass+ ! ,reali/ic !ory2 !y are re9=c$ by f>!r difficulties no less grave1 includ$ 9 ! dialectical ant9omies ( ,p>m5ides at ! close ( ! dialogue1 & by an unkn[n numb] ( o!rs indicat$ z producible1 ?\gh n actually produc$4 ,yet /ill ,plato1 ) full consci\sness ( ^! difficulties1 ass]ts unequivocally t1 unless ! ,reali/ic !ory c be su/a9$1 philosophical rese>* is fruitless1 & tru? _c be rea*$4 ,we see ?us t ! au?or ( ! !ory has also left on record "s ( ! mo/ =cible argum5ts aga9/ x4 ,x appe>s f ,ari/otle 7?\gh we d n le>n ! fact f ! ,platonic dialogues71 t ,plato1 9 8 lat] ye>s1 symboliz$ ! ,ideas or ,=ms "u ! d5om9ation ( ,ideal ,numb]s1 g5]at$ by implication ( ,! ,"o ) :at he call$ ,! ,great & ,little1 or ! ,indet]m9ate ,dyad4 ,?is la/1 h[ev]1 is n ! programme :]e9 ! ,reali/ic !ory /&s oppos$ to ,nom9alism4 ,b ! dialogue ,p>m5ides1 ?\gh full ( acut5ess on ! negative side1 n only furni%es no c\nt]-!ory1 b ass]ts cont9u$ allegiance to ! ,reali/ic !ory1 :i* passes z ,plato's doctr9e to 8 successors4 ,to impugn1 =cibly & ev5 unansw]ably1 a !ory at once s sweep+ & s little =tifi$ by positive reasons1 0 :at _m dialecticians ( ! age c\ld d4 ,b to d ?is1 & at ! same "t to con/ruct a c\nt]-!ory1 0 a task requir+ high] p[]s ( m9d4 ,"o1 h[ev]1 ( ,plato's disciples & successors 0 f\nd adequate to ! task--,ari/otle4 ,! ,reali/ic ,ontology ( ,plato is f\nd$ 7z ,ari/otle himself rem>ks7 ^u mi/ru/ & contempt ( p]ception ( s5se1 z be>+ entirely on ! flux ( p>ticul>s1 :i* nev] /& /ill s z to become objects ( k4 ,all reality1 & all cognoscibility1 7 suppos$ to reside 9 ! sep>ate _w ( ,cogitable ,univ]sals 7extra rem or ante rem71 ( :i*1 9 "s confus$ mann]1 p>ticul>s 7 suppos$ to p>take4 ,! ,univ]sal1 ap>t f its p>ticul>s1 0 cle>ly & fully kn[able1 furni%+ propositions con/antly & infallibly true3 ! ,univ]sal z manife/$ 9 its p>ticul>s 0 nev] fully kn[able1 nor c\ld ev] become ! subject ( propositions1 except su* z 7 sometimes true & sometimes false4 ,aga9/ ?is sep>ation ( ! ,univ]sal f its ,p>ticul>s1 ,ari/otle ent]$ a /rong prote/2 z well z aga9/ ! subsidi>y hypo!sis ( a p>ticipation ( ! latt] 9 ! =m]2 :i* p>ticipation1 :5 ! two _h be5 decl>$ sep>ate1 appe>$ to him n only unt5able & unc]tifi$1 b un9telligible4 ,8 argum5ts are int]e/+1 z be+ among ! e>lie/ objections kn[n to u aga9/ ,realism4 #a4 ,realism is a useless multiplication ( exi/5ces1 s]v+ no purpose4 ,:]ev] a numb] ( p>ticul>s--be !y sub/ances1 et]nal or p]i%able1 or be !y qualities1 or relations--be> ! same "n1 & ?us h a ,univ]sal 9 re pr$icable ( !m 9 common1 9 e su* case ,plato assumes a ,univ]sal extra rem1 or a sep>ate self-exi/5t ,=m2 :i* expla9s no?+1 & m]ely d\bles ! total to be summ$ up4#ad ,footnote #ad3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,a4 ix4 p4 #iij1 a4 #cd2 ,m4 iv4 p4 #ajgi1 a4 #b4 ,"h we h ! fir/ appe>ance ( ! argum5t t ,william ( ,ockham1 ! ,nom9ali/1 put 9 ! =egr\nd ( 8 case aga9/ ,realism3 ,entia non sunt multiplic&a prt] necessitatem4 #b4 ,plato's argum5ts 9 support ( ,realism are ei!r inconclusive1 or prove too mu*4 ,:]ev] !re is cognition 7he argues71 !re mu/ exi/ an et]nal & un*angeable object ( cognition1 ap>t f p>ticul>s1 :i* are *angeable & p]i%able4 ,no1 replies ,ari/otle3 cognition does n require ! ,univ]sale extra rem2 = ! ,univ]sale 9 re1 ! con/ant pr$icate ( all ! p>ticul>s1 is suffici5t z an object ( cognition4 ,moreov]1 if ! argum5t 7 admitt$1 x w\ld prove t !re exi/$ sep>ate ,=ms or ,univ]sals ( m]e negations2 = _m ( ! con/ant pr$icates are altoge!r negative4 ,aga91 if ,self-exi/5t ,univ]sals are to be assum$ correspond+ to all our cogitations1 we mu/ assume ,univ]sals ( ext9ct p>ticul>s1 & ev5 ( fictiti\s p>ticul>s1 su* z hippoc5taurs or *im]as2 = ( ^!1 too1 we h phantasms or concepts 9 our m9ds4#ae ,footnote #ae3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaphys4 ,a4 ix4 p4 #iij1 b4 #ad2 ,s*olia1 p4 #efe1 b4 #i1 ,br4 #c4 ,! mo/ subtle disputants on ?is matt] include ,relata1 among ! ,univ]sal ,ideas or ,=ms4 ,?is is absurd1 because ^! d n con/itute any ,g5us by !mselves4 ,^! disputants h also urg$ aga9/ ! ,reali/ic !ory t p[]ful & unsolv$ objection1 entitl$ ,! ,?ird ,man4#af ,footnote #af3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,a4 ix4 p4 #iij1 b4 #ae3 ,greek3 oi7 a7kribe_//]oi tn lo_/gn4 ,bo? ! po9ts "h notic$ appe> 9 ! ,p>m5ides ( ,plato4 ,! objection call$ ,! ,?ird ,man is express$ by say+ t1 if !re be a ,=m ( man1 resembl+ individual m51 y mu/ f>!r po/ulate "s high] ,=m1 m>k+ ! po9t ( resemblance betwe5 ! two2 & s on high]1 )\t end4 ,! au!nticity ( ! ,platonic ,p>m5ides is disput$ by ,ueb]weg 7,unt]su*ung5 b] die ,e*!it und ,zeitfolge d] ,platonis*5 ,s*rift51 pp4 #agf-aha71 ^u ! gr\nd 7among o!rs7 t1 :ile ,ari/otle nev] cites ! dialogue by its title1 nor ev] makes probable allusion to x1 ! ,p>m5ides advances aga9/ ! !ory ( ! ,platonic ,ideas ?is objection ( ,ari/otle's1 kn[n "u ! "n ( ,! ,?ird ,man4 ,ari/otle 7says ,ueb]weg71 if he _h kn[n ! ,p>m5ides1 w\ld n h advanc$ ?is objection z 8 own4 ,we mu/ !re=e suppose t ! ,p>m5ides 0 compos$ lat] ?an ,ari/otle1 & borr[$ ?is objection f ,ari/otle4 ,9 reply to ?is argum5t ,i transcribe ! passage ( ,ari/otle 7,metaphys4 ,a4 ix4 p4 #iij1 b4 #ae7 to :i* ,ueb]weg himself ref]s3 ,greek3 e7_/ti de oi7 a7kribe_//]oi tn lo_/gn oi7 men tn pro_/s ti poi\s9 i7de_/z1 7n ou7_/ pham5 ei7nai ka?' au7to ge_/nos1 oi7 de ton tri_/ton a7_/n?rpon le_/g\s94 ,! same words 7) ! exception ( ,greek3 phasi_/n 9 place ( ,greek3 phame_/n7 are repeat$ 9 ,m4 p4 #ajgi1 a4 #aa4 ,n[ ^! words pla9ly indicate t ,ari/otle does n pr(ess to advance ! objection1 call$ ,greek3 o7 tri_/tos a7_/n?rpos1 z 8 own1 or z broa*$ by himself4 ,he d]ives x f :at he calls ,greek3 oi7 a7kribe_//]oi tn lo_/gn4 ,! *>ge aga9/ ,ari/otle1 !re=e1 ( advanc+ z 8 own an objection :i* _h already be5 sugge/$ by ,plato himself 9 ! ,p>m5ides1 is unf\nd$4 ,& x is ! m unf\nd$1 because ,ari/otle1 9 ! fir/ book ( ! ,metaphysica1 speaks 9 ! language ( a ,platoni/1 & consid]s himself z p>tly responsible = ! doctr9e ( ,ideas3 ,greek3 dei_/knum51 phame_/n1 oi7o_/me?a1 c4 7,alex&4 9 ,s*ol4 p4 #efc1 b4 #bg1 ,br&47 ,b :at are we to und]/& by ^! words--,greek3 oi7 a7kribe_//]oi tn lo_/gn--f :i* ,ari/otle d]ives ! objection8 ,! words ref] to c]ta9 expositions or argum5ts 7oral1 or writt51 or bo?7 :i* 7 )9 ! k ( ,ari/otle1 & 7 ( a peculi>ly subtle & analytical "*4 ,among !m is v probably includ$ ! ,platonic ,p>m5ides itself1 di/+ui%$ z x is = extreme subtlety4 7,see ,/allbaum's ,prolegg4 pp4 #bdi1 #bgg1 #ccg1 :o says1 ,9 uno f] ,p>m5ide ide>um doctr9a subtilius inve/igatur47 ,i see no reason :y x %\ld n be includ$ )9 ! fair & reasonable mean+ ( ! words4 ,& su* be+ ! case1 ,i _c g along ) ,ueb]weg 7& o!r critics7 :o say t ,ari/otle has n ev5 made an indirect allusion to ! ,p>m5ides4 ,b :y did n ,ari/otle specify ! ,p>m5ides directly & by "n8 ,i d n "k :at 0 8 reason4 ,we may feel surprise 7z ,/allbaum feels1 p4 #ccg7 t he does n2 b1 :5 critics inf] f ! omission t he did n "k ! dialogue z a "w ( ,plato1 ,i conte/ ! inf]5ce4 ,we see t ,alex&]1 9 8 elaborate comm5t>y 7p4 #eff1 ,s*ol4 ,br&47 makes no allusion to ! ,p>m5ides1 ?\gh he alludes to ,eudmus1 to ,diodrus1 ,kronus1 & to ! mann] 9 :i* ! objection call$ ,greek3 o7 tri_/tos a7_/n?rpos 0 h&l$ by v>i\s ,sophi/s4 ,n[ we are fully assur$ t ! ,p>m5ides 0 ackn[l$g$ z a "w ( ,plato1 long be=e ! "t ( ,alex&] 7s9ce x is includ$ 9 ! catalogue ( ,?rasyllus72 yet he1 ! mo/ in/ruct$ ( all ! comm5tators1 makes no allusion to x4 ,:y he did n1 ,i _c say1 b 8 omission af=ds no gr\nd = conclud+ t he did n "k x1 or did n tru/ its au!nticity4 #d4 ,! support]s ( ^! ,self-exi/5t ,univ]sals trace !m to two pr9cipia--,! ,"o1 & ! ,indet]m9ate ,dyad2 :i* !y affirm to be prior 9 exi/5ce ev5 to ! ,univ]sals !mselves4 ,b ?is _c be grant$2 = ! ,idea ( ,numb] mu/ be logically prior to ! ,idea ( ! ,dyad2 b ! ,idea ( ,numb] is relative1 & ! ,relative c nev] be prior to ! ,absolute or ,self-exi/5t4 #e4 ,if we grant t1 :]ev] !re is "o con/ant pr$icate belong+ to _m p>ticul>s1 or :]ev] !re is /able & tru/wor?y cognition1 9 all su* cases a ,self-exi/5t ,univ]sal ,correlate extra rem is to be assum$1 we %all f9d t ?is applies n m]ely to ,sub/ances or ,ess5ces1 b also to ! o!r ,categories--,quality1 ,quantity1 ,relation1 c4 ,b h]eby we exclude ! possibility ( p>ticipation 9 !m by ,p>ticul>s2 s9ce f su* p>ticipation ! ,p>ticul> d]ives its ,sub/ance or ,ess5ce alone1 n its accid5tal pr$icates4 ,?us ! ,self-exi/5t ,univ]sal ,dyad is et]nal3 b a p>ticul> pair1 :i* d]ives its ess5tial prop]ty ( d\bl5ess f p>tak+ 9 ?is ,univ]sal ,dyad1 does n at ! same "t p>take ( et]nity1 unless by accid5t4 ,accord+ly1 !re are no ,univ]sal ,ideas1 except ( ,sub/ances or ,ess5ces3 ! common "n1 :5 appli$ to ! _w ( s5se & to t ( cogitation1 signifies ! same ?+--,sub/ance or ,ess5ce4 ,x is unmean+ to talk ( any?+ else z signifi$--any o!r pr$icate common to _m4 ,well !n1 if ! ,=m ( ! ,univ]sals & ! ,=m ( ^? ,p>ticul>s t p>ticipate 9 ! ,univ]sals be ! same1 we %all h some?+ common to bo? ! "o & ! o!r1 s t ! objection call$ ,! ,?ird ,man w become applicable1 & a high] ,=m mu/ be po/ulat$4 ,b1 if ! ,=m ( ! ,univ]sals & ! ,=m ( ! p>ticipat+ ,p>ticul>s1 be n id5tical1 !n ! same "n1 z signify+ bo?1 w be us$ equivocally2 j z if y appli$ ! same d5om9ation man to ,kallias & to a piece ( wood1 )\t any common prop]ty to w>rant x4 #f4 ,b ! greate/ difficulty ( all is to und]/& h[ ^! ,cogitable ,univ]sals1 n be+ causes ( any *ange or movem5t1 contribute 9 any way to ! objects ( s5se1 ei!r to ! et]nal or to ! p]i%able2 or h[ !y assi/ u t[>ds ! k !re(1 be+ n 9 !m1 & !re=e n _! sub/ance or ess5ce2 or h[ !y /& 9 any real relation to _! p>ticipants1 be+ n imman5t !re94 ,p>ticul>s c]ta9ly d n proce$ f ^! ,univ]sals1 9 any intelligible s5se4 ,to say t ! ,univ]sals are ar*etypes1 & t ,p>ticul>s p>take 9 !m1 is unmean+1 & m]e poetic metaphor4 ,= :]e is ! work+ =ce to m\ld !m 9 con=mity ) ! ,univ]sals8 ,any "o ?+ may be l1 or may become l1 to any o!r p>ticul> ?+1 by accid5t1 or )\t any regul> antec$5t cause to produce su* assimilation4 ,! same p>ticul> sub/ance1 moreov]1 w h n "o univ]sal ar*etype only1 b sev]al4 ,?us1 ! same individual man w h n only ! ,self-animal & ! ,self-bip$1 b also ! ,self-man1 z ar*etype4 ,!n aga91 !re w be univ]sal ar*etypes1 n m]ely = p>ticul> s5sible objects1 b also = ,univ]sals !mselves2 ?us ! g5us w be an ar*etype = its v>i\s species2 s t ! same :i* is n[ ar*etype w1 "u o!r circum/ances1 be copy4 #g4 ,fur!rmore1 x seems impossible t :at is ,sub/ance or ,ess5ce c be sep>ate f t :]e( x is ! sub/ance or ess5ce4 ,h[ !n c ! ,univ]sals1 if !y be ! ess5ces ( s5sible ?+s1 h any exi/5ce ap>t f ^? s5sible ?+s8 ,plato tells u 9 ! ,phdon1 t ! ,=ms or ,univ]sals are ! causes :y p>ticul>s bo? exi/ at all1 & come into su* or su* modes ( exi/5ce4 ,b ev5 if we assume ,univ]sals z exi/+1 /ill ! ,p>ticul>s p>ticipant !re9 w n come into be+1 unless !re be "s effici5t cause to produce movem5t2 moreov]1 _m o!r ?+s come into be+1 ?\gh !re be no ,univ]sals correlat+ !re)1 e4g4 a h\se1 or a r+4 ,! same causes t 7 suffici5t to br+ ^! la/ into be+1 w be suffici5t to br+ all p>ticul>s into be+1 )\t assum+ any ,univ]sals extra rem at all4 #h4 ,aga91 if ! ,univ]sals or ,=ms are ,numb]s1 h[ c !y ev] be causes8 ,ev5 if we suppose ,p>ticul>s to be ,numb]s also1 h[ c "o set ( ,numb]s be causes to ! o!rs8 ,!re c be no su* causal influ5ce1 ev5 if "o set be et]nal1 & ! o!r p]i%able4#ag ,footnote #ag3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,a4 p4 #iia1 b4 #ac4 ,sev]al o!r objections are made by ,ari/otle aga9/ t v>iety ( ! ,platonic !ory :]e9 ! ,ideas 7 commut$ into ,ideal ,numb]s4 ,^! objections d n belong to ! controv]sy ( ,realism aga9/ ,nom9alism4 ,out ( ! _m objections rais$ by ,ari/otle aga9/ ,plato1 we h select$ su* z be> pr9cipally ^u ! !ory ( ,realism2 t is1 ^u ! !ory ( ,univ]salia ante rem or extra rem--self-exi/5t1 ar*etypal1 cogitable sub/ances1 9 :i* ,p>ticul>s fa9tly p>ticipate4 ,! objections are n sup]ior 9 acut5ess1 & !y are decid$ly inf]ior1 9 cle>ness ( enunciation1 to ^? t ,plato himself produces 9 ! ,p>m5ides4 ,moreov]1 sev]al ( !m are f\nd$ ^u ,ari/otle's po9t ( view1 & w\ld h fail$ to conv9ce ,plato4 ,! great m]it ( ,ari/otle is1 t he w5t beyond ! negative ( ! ,p>m5ides1 ass]t$ ?is new po9t ( view ( 8 own1 & =mulat$ x into a c\nt]-!ory4 ,he reject$ altoge!r ! sep>ate & exclusive reality :i* ,plato _h claim$ = 8 ,absolutes ( ! cogitable _w1 z well z ! d]ivative & unreal semblance t alone ,plato accord$ to ! s5sible _w4 ,)\t d5y+ ! di/9ction ( ! two1 z conceivable & nameable1 he ma9ta9$ t tru? & cognition requir$ t !y %\ld be look$ at 9 implication ) ea* o!r4 ,& he w5t ev5 a /ep f>!r1 9 anti!sis to ,plato1 by rev]s+ ! ord] ( ! two4 ,in/ead ( consid]+ ! ,cogitable ,univ]sals alone z real & complete 9 !mselves1 & ! ,s5sible ,p>ticul>s z deg5]ate & confus$ semblances ( !m1 he plac$ complete reality 9 ! ,s5sible ,p>ticul>s alone1#ah & treat$ ! ,cogitable ,univ]sals z contributory app5dages !reto2 "s be+ ess5tial1 o!rs non-ess5tial1 b all ( !m relative1 & none ( !m indep5d5t integ]s4 ,8 philosophy 0 a complete revolution z comp>$ ) ,p>m5ides & ,plato2 a revolution1 too1 ! m calculat$ to la/1 because he embodi$ x 9 an elaborate & orig9al !ory ( ,logic1 ,metaphysics1 & ,ontology4 ,he 0 ! fir/ philosoph] t1 besides recogniz+ ! equivocal "* ( ^? g5]al t]ms :]eon speculative debate *iefly turns1 endeav\r$ me?odically to set out & comp>e ! diff]5t mean+s ( ea* t]m1 & _! relations to ea* o!r4 ,footnote #ah3 ,ari/otle takes pa9s to v9dicate aga9/ bo? ,plato & ! ,h]akleiteans ! dignity ( ! ,s5sible ,_w4 ,!y t depreciate s5sible objects z p]petually *ang+1 un/able1 & unkn[able1 make ! mi/ake 7he obs]ves7 ( conf9+ _! att5tion to ! sublun>y int]ior ( ! ,kosmos1 :]e1 inde$1 g5]ation & de/ruction l>gely prevail4 ,b ?is is only a small portion ( ! entire ,kosmos4 ,9 ! l>ge/ portion--! visible1 cele/ial1 sup]lun>y regions--!re is no g5]ation or de/ruction at all1 no?+ b p]man5ce & uni=mity4 ,9 appreciat+ ! s5sible _w 7,ari/otle says7 philosoph]s ought to p>don ! %ortcom+s ( ! small] portion on acc\nt ( ! excell5ces ( ! l>g]2 & n condemn bo? toge!r on acc\nt ( ! small] 7,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,g4 v4 p4 #ajaj1 a4 #cj74 ,h[ev] mu* ! ,ontology ( ,ari/otle may fail to satisfy mod]n exig5cies1 /ill1 z comp>$ ) ! ,platonic ,realism1 x 0 a consid]able improvem5t4 ,in/ead ( adopt+ ,ens z a self-expla9+ t]m1 contra/$ ) ! ,g5]at$ & ,p]i%able 7! doctr9e ( ,plato 9 ! ,republic1 ,phdon1 & ,timu71 he discrim9ates sev]al di/9ct mean+s ( ,ens2 a discrim9ation n always usefully pursu$1 b t5d+ 9 ! ma9 t[>ds a bett] !ory4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 ,ens pot5tial1 & ,ens actual1 does n belong directly to ! "q betwe5 ,realism & ,nom9alism1 yet x is a portion ( t philosophical revolution wr\ght by ,ari/otle aga9/ ,plato--displacem5t ( ! seat ( reality1 & transf] ( x f ! ,cogitable ,univ]sal to ! ,s5sible ,p>ticul>4 ,! direct enunciation ( ?is *ange is conta9$ 9 8 di/9ction ( ,ens into ,fundam5tal & ,concomitant 7,greek3 sumbebko_/s71 & 8 /ill great] ref9em5t on ! same pr9ciple by enum]at+ ! t5 v>ieties ( ,ens call$ ,categories or ,pr$icam5ts4#ai ,he w n all[ ,ens 7nor ,unum7 to be a g5us1 p>tible into species3 he recognizes x only z a ^w ( _m analog\s mean+s1 "o ( !m pr9cipal & fundam5tal1 ! re/ d]ivative & subord9ate !reto1 ea* 9 its own mann]4 ,ari/otle ?us e/abli%es a graduat$ scale ( ,entia1 ea* hav+ its own value & position1 & its own mode ( connexion ) ! common c5tre4 ,t common c5tre ,ari/otle decl>$ to be ( necessity "s individual object--,hoc ,aliquid1 ,t ,man1 ,?is ,horse1 c4 ,?is 0 ! common subject1 to :i* all ! o!r ,entia belong$ z pr$icates1 & )\t :i* none ( !m _h any reality4 ,we "h fall into ! language ( ,logic1 ! fir/ !ory ( :i* we owe to ,ari/otle4 ,8 ontological classification 0 adapt$ to t !ory4 ,footnote #ai3 ,9 enum]at+ ! ,t5 ,categories1 ,ari/otle takes 8 dep>ture f ! ,proposition--,homo currit--,homo v9cit4 ,he assumes a p>ticul> individual z subject2 & he di/ributes1 "u t5 g5]al heads1 all ! in=mation t c be ask$ or giv5 ab\t t subject--all ! pr$icates t c be affirm$ or d5i$ !re(4 ,see ,*4 iii41 especially p4 #gc1 seq4 ,z we are "h conc]n$ only ) ! diff]5t ways ( conceiv+ ! relation betwe5 ! ,p>ticul> & ! ,univ]sal1 we are n call$ on to criticize ! well-kn[n decuple enum]ation ( ,categories or ,pr$icam5ts giv5 by ,ari/otle1 bo? 9 8 treatise call$ by t "n & else:]e4 ,= our purpose x is en\gh to po9t out t ! p>ticul> s5sible ,hoc ,aliquid is decl>$ to be ! ultimate subject1 to :i* all ,univ]sals atta*1 z det]m9ants or accompanim5ts2 & t1 if ?is condition be want+1 ! unatta*$ ,univ]sal _c rank among complete ,entia4 ,! subject or ,fir/ ,sub/ance1 :i* c nev] become a pr$icate1 is e/abli%$ z ! indisp5sable ultimate subject = all pr$icates2 if t disappe>s1 all pr$icates disappe> along ) x4 ,! ,p>ticul> ?us becomes ! key/one ( ! ar* :]eon all ,univ]sals re/4 ,ari/otle is inde$ c>eful to po9t out a gradation 9 ^! pr$icates3 "s are ess5tial to ! subject1 & ?us approa* s ne> to ! ,fir/ ,sub/ance t he calls !m ,second ,sub/ances2 o!rs1 & ! mo/ 9 numb]1 are n ?us ess5tial2 ^! la/ are ,concomitants or ,accid5ts1 & "s ( !m fall s mu* %ort ( complete ,entity t he describes !m z ne> to ,non-,entia4#bj ,b all ( !m1 ess5tial or uness5tial1 are alike con/itu5ts or app5dages ( ! ,fir/ ,sub/ance or ,p>ticul> ,subject1 & h no reality 9 any o!r "*4 ,footnote #bj3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,e4 p4 #ajbf1 b4 #ba3 ,greek3 phai_/netas ga_/r to_/ sumbebkos e7ggu_/s ti t\ m o7_/ntos4 ,!re _c be a /rong] illu/ration ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,platonic & ! ,ari/otelian po9t ( view1 ?an ! fact t ,plato applies ! same designation to all p>ticul> objects ( s5se--t !y are only midway betwe5 ,entia & ,non-,entia 7,republic1 v4 pp4 #dgh-dgi74 ,we ?us h ! c\nt]-!ory ( ,ari/otle aga9/ ! ,platonic ,realism4 ,in/ead ( sep>ate ,univ]sal ,sub/ances1 conta9+ 9 !mselves full reality1 & =feit+ mu* ( t reality :5 !y fad$ d[n into ! %ad[y copies call$ ,p>ticul>s1 he inv]ts ! ,platonic ord]1 ann\nces full reality to be ! privilege ( ! ,p>ticul> ,s5sible1 & conf9es ! function ( ! ,univ]sal to t ( a pr$icate1 9 or along ) ! ,p>ticul>4 ,!re is no doctr9e t he prote/s aga9/ m frequ5tly ?an ! ascrib+ ( sep>ate reality to ! ,univ]sal4 ,! t5d5cy to d ?is1 he signalizes z a natural b un=tunate illusion1 less5+ ! b5eficial efficacy ( univ]sal demon/rative reason+4#ba ,& he decl>es x to be a coroll>y f ?is view ( ! ,p>ticul> z indisp5sable subject along ) ! ,univ]sal z its pr$icate--,t ! fir/ pr9ciples ( ,demon/ration 9 all ! sep>ate !oretical sci5ces mu/ be obta9$ by ,induction f p>ticul>s3 fir/ by impressions ( s5se pres]v$ 9 ! memory2 !n by multipli$ remembrances enl>g$ into "o exp]i5ce2 la/ly1 by _m exp]i5ces g5]aliz$ into "o pr9ciple by ! ,nos4#bb ,footnote #ba3 ,ari/ot4 ,analyt4 ,po/]4 ,i4 xxiv4 p4 #he1 a4 #ca1 b4 #ai4 ,footnote #bb3 ,see ! conclud+ *apt] ( ! ,analytica ,po/]iora4 ,a simil> doctr9e is /at$ by ,plato 9 ! ,phdon 7p4 #if1 ,b7 z "o among ! intellectual phases t ,sokrates _h pass$ ?r\gh 9 ! c\rse ( 8 life1 )\t cont9u+ 9 !m4 ,:ile ,ari/otle ?us decl>es ,induction to be ! s\rce f :5ce ,demon/ration 9 ^! sep>ate sci5ces draws its fir/ pr9ciples1 we mu/ at ! same "t ackn[l$ge t 8 mann] ( treat+ ,sci5ce is n always con=mable to ?is decl>ation1 & t he (t5 seems to =get ,induction altoge!r4 ,?is is ! case n only 9 8 ,fir/ ,philosophy1 or ,metaphysics1 b also 9 8 ,physics4 ,he !re pr(esses to trace out :at he calls beg9n+s1 causes1 elem5ts1 c41 & he analyses mo/ ( ! highe/ g5]alities4 ,yet /ill ^! analytical enquiries 7:atev] be _! value7 are usually1 if n always1 kept 9 subord9ation to ! c\nt]-!ory t he _h set up aga9/ ! ,platonic ,realism4 ,complete reality resides 7he con/antly repeats7 only 9 ! p>ticul> s5sible sub/ances & s5sible facts or movem5ts t compose ! aggregate ,kosmos3 :i* is n g5]at$1 b et]nal1 bo? z to sub/ance & z to movem5t4 ,if ^! s5sible sub/ances disappe>1 no?+ rema9s4 ,! beg9n+s & causes exi/ only relatively to ^! p>ticul>s4 ,=m1 ,matt]1 ,privation1 are n real ,be+s1 antec$5t to ! ,kosmos1 & pre-exi/5t g5]ators ( ! sub/ances con/itut+ ! ,kosmos2 !y are logical fragm5ts or factors1 obta9$ by m5tal analysis & comp>ison1 assi/+ to me?odize our philosophical po9t ( view or conception ( ^? sub/ances1 b incapable ( be+ und]/ood1 & hav+ no value ( _! own1 ap>t f ! sub/ances4 ,"s su* logical analysis 7t ( ,ari/otle or "s o!r7 is an indisp5sable condition ev5 ( ! mo/ /rictly inductive philosophy4 ,!re are "s portions ( ! writ+s ( ,ari/otle 7especially ! ?ird book ,de ,anim & ! twelf? book ( ! ,metaphysica7 :]e he appe>s to lose sight ( ! limit "h indicat$2 b1 ) few exceptions1 we f9d him con/antly rememb]+1 & (t5 repeat+1 ! great tru? =mulat$ 9 8 ,categories3 t full or sub/antive reality resides only 9 ! ,hoc ,aliquid1 ) its pr$icates implicat$ ) x1 & t ev5 ! highe/ ( ^! pr$icates 7,second ,sub/ances7 h no reality ap>t f "s "o ( _! p>ticul>s4 ,we mu/ recollect t1 ?\gh ,ari/otle d5ies to ! pr$icates a sep>ate reality1 he recognizes 9 !m an adjective reality1 z accompanim5ts & det]m9ants3 he contemplates all ! t5 ,categories z di/9ct v>ieties ( exi/5ce4#bc ,?is is suffici5t z a basis = ab/raction1 :]eby we c "n !m & reason ^u !m z di/9ct objects ( ?\ght or po9ts ( view1 al?\gh none ( !m come into reality except z implicat$ ) a s5sible p>ticul>4 ,( su* reason+ ,ari/otle's ,fir/ ,philosophy *iefly consi/s2 & he introduces peculi> phrases to describe ?is di/9ction ( reason betwe5 two diff]5t po9ts ( view1 :]e ! real object spok5 ( is "o & ! same4 ,! frequ5cy ( ! occasions tak5 to po9t out t di/9ction m>ks 8 anxiety to keep ! ,fir/ ,philosophy 9 h>mony ) ! !ory ( ,reality ann\nc$ 9 8 ,categories4 ,footnote #bc3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaphys4 ,greek3 ,d4 p4 #ajag1 a4 #bc3 ,greek3 o7sa*s gar le_/getai 7ta s*_/mata ts katgori_/z71 tosauta*s to ei7nai smai_/nei4 ,! ,categories ( ,ari/otle appe> to h become m widely kn[n ?an any o!r "p ( 8 philosophy4 ,!y 7 mu* discuss$ by ! sects com+ aft] him2 &1 ev5 :5 n adopt$1 7 pres5t to speculative m9ds z a s*eme to be am5d$4#bd ,mo/ ( ! argum5ts turn$ ^u ! n9e lat] ,categories3 x 0 debat$ :e!r ^! 7 prop]ly enum]at$ & discrim9at$1 & :e!r ! enum]ation z a :ole 0 exhau/ive4 ,footnote #bd3 ,?is is ! j rem>k ( ,tr5del5burg1 ,kategori5lehre1 p4 #bag4 ,) ^! details1 h[ev]1 ! "q betwe5 ,realism & its c\nt]-!ory 7:e!r ,conceptualism or ,nom9alism7 is n mat]ially conc]n$4 ,! /&>d aga9/ ,realism 0 rais$ by ,ari/otle 9 ! ,fir/ ,category1 :5 he proclaim$ ! ,hoc ,aliquid to be ! only complete ,ens1 & ! ,univ]sal to exi/ only along ) x z a pr$icate1 be+ no?+ 9 itself ap>t2 & :5 he enum]at$ ,quality z "o among ! pr$icates1 & no?+ beyond4 ,9 ! ,platonic ,realism 7,phdon1 ,timu1 ,p>m5ides7 :at ,ari/otle call$ ,quality 0 ! highe/ & mo/ inconte/able among all ,sub/ances--! ,good1 ! ,beautiful1 ! ,j1 c42 :at ,ari/otle call$ ,second ,sub/ance 0 also ,sub/ance 9 ! ,platonic ,realism1 ?\gh n s inconte/ably2 b :at ,ari/otle call$ ,fir/ ,sub/ance 0 9 ! ,platonic ,realism no ,sub/ance at all1 b only "o among a multitude ( confus$ & transi5t %ad[s4 ,x is 9 ! ,fir/ & ,?ird ,categories t ! capital anti!sis ( ,ari/otle aga9/ ! ,platonic ,realism is conta9$4 ,z f> z t anti!sis is conc]n$1 x matt]s little :e!r ! aggregate ( pr$icates be subdivid$ "u n9e g5]al heads 7,categories7 or "u ?ree4 ,9 ! c5tury succe$+ ,ari/otle1 ! ,/oic philosoph]s alt]$ 8 ,categories1 & drew up a new li/ ( _! own1 conta9+ only f\r di/9ct heads in/ead ( t54 ,we h no record or explanation ( ! ,/oic ,categories f any ( _! au?ors2 s t we are compell$ to accept ! li/ on second>y au?ority1 f ! comm5ts ( critics1 mo/ly oppon5ts4 ,b1 z f> z we c make out1 !y reta9$ 9 _! ,fir/ ,category ! capital feature ( ,ari/otle's ,fir/ ,category--! primacy ( ! ,fir/ ,sub/ance or ,hoc ,aliquid & its exclusive privilege ( imp>t+ reality to all ! o!r ,categories4 ,inde$1 ! ,/oics seem n only to h reta9$ ?is *>act]i/ic1 b to h exagg]at$ x4 ,!y did n recognize s close an approa* ( ! ,univ]sal to ! ,p>ticul>1 z is impli$ by giv+ to x a second place 9 ! same ,category1 & call+ x ,second ,sub/ance4 ,! ,fir/ ,category ( ! ,/oics 7,some?+ or ,subject7 includ$ only p>ticul> sub/ances2 all ,univ]sals 7 by !m rank$ 9 ! o!r ,categories1 be+ reg>d$ z negations ( sub/ances1 & designat$ by ! t]m ,non-,some?+s--,non-,sub/ances4#be ,footnote #be3 ,prantl1 ,ges*4 d] ,logik1 ,i4 vi4 p4 #dbj3 ,greek3 ou7_/t9a ta7ko9a p>' au7tois le_/getai4 c4 ,! ,neo-,platoni/ ,plot9us1 9 ! ?ird c5tury aft] ! ,*ri/ian era1 agre$ ) ! ,/oics 7?\gh look+ f ! opposite po9t ( view7 9 disapprov+ ,ari/otle's arrangem5t ( ,second ,sub/ance 9 ! same ,category ) ,fir/ ,sub/ance4#bf ,he criticizes at "s l5g? bo? ! ,ari/otelian li/ ( ,categories1 & ! ,/oic li/2 b he falls back into ! ,platonic & ev5 ! ,p>m5idean po9t ( view4 ,8 capital di/9ction is betwe5 ,cogitables & ,s5sibles4 ,! ,cogitables are 9 8 view ! mo/ real 7i4e4 ! ,ari/otelian ,second ,sub/ance is m real ?an ! ,fir/72 among !m ! highe/1 ,unum or ,bonum1 is ! gr& f\nta9 & sov]eign ( all ! re/4 ,plot9us ?us dep>t$ altoge!r f ! ,ari/otelian ,categories1 & reviv$ ! ,platonic or ,p>m5idean ,realism2 yet n )\t "s ,ari/otelian modifications4 ,b x is rem>kable t 9 ?is dep>ture 8 devot$ fri5d & s*ol> ,porphyry did n foll[ him4 ,porphyry n only compos$ an ,introduction to ! ,categories ( ,ari/otle1 b also v9dicat$ !m at great l5g?1 9 a sep>ate comm5t>y1 aga9/ ! c5sures ( ,plot9us2 ,dexippus1 ,jambli*us1 & ,simplikius1 foll[$ 9 ! same track4#bg ,/ill1 ?\gh ,porphyry /ood =w>d bo? z admir] & *ampion ( ! ,ari/otelian ,categories1 he did n consid] t ! "q rais$ by ! ,fir/ ,category ( ,ari/otle aga9/ ! ,platonic ,realism 0 f9ally decid$4 ,?is is suffici5tly prov$ by ! ?ree problems cit$ above out ( ! ,introduction ( ,porphyry2 :]e he proclaims x to be a deep & difficult enquiry1 :e!r ,g5]a & ,species _h n a real sub/antive exi/5ce ap>t f ! individuals compos+ !m4 ,ari/otle1 bo? 9 ! ,categories & 9 _m o!r places1 _h decl>$ 8 op9ion di/9ctly 9 ! negative aga9/ ,plato2 b ,porphyry _h n made up 8 m9d betwe5 ! two1 ?\gh he insi/s1 9 language v ,ari/otelian1 on ! di/9ction betwe5 ,fir/ & ,second ,sub/ance4#bh ,footnote #bf3 ,plot9us1 ,ennead4 vi4 #a1 #b4 ,footnote #bg3 ,simplikius1 ,s*ol4 9 ,ari/otel4 ,categ4 p4 #dj1 a1 b1 ,br&is4 ,footnote #bh3 ,prantl1 ,ges*i*te d] ,logik1 ,i4 xi4 p4 #fcd1 n4 #fi4 ,^u ?is acc\nt ,prantl f9ds ,porphyry guilty ( empiricism 9 its extreme crud5ess--j5e uss]/e ,rohheit des ,empirismus4 ,?r\gh ! translations & manuals ( ,bo?ius & o!rs1 ! ,categories ( ,ari/otle 7 transmitt$ to ! ,lat9 ,*ur*m51 & cont9u$ to be read ev5 ?r\gh ! d>ke/ ages1 :5 ! ,analytica & ! ,topica 7 unkn[n or neglect$4 ,! ,ari/otelian discrim9ation betwe5 ,fir/ & ,second ,sub/ance 0 ?us always kept 9 sight1 & ,bo?ius treat$ x mu* 9 ! same mann] z ,porphyry _h done be=e him4#bi ,alcu91 ,rhabanus ,maurus1 & ,eric ( ,aux]re1#cj 9 ! eigh? & n9? c5turies1 repeat$ :at !y f\nd 9 ,bo?ius1 & upheld ! ,ari/otelian tradition unimpair$4 ,b ,scotus ,erig5a 7d4 #hhj ,a4,d47 took an entirely opposite view1 & rev]t$ to ! ,platonic traditions1 ?\gh ) a l>ge admixture ( ,ari/otelian ideas4 ,he 0 a ,*ri/ian ,platoni/1 bl5d+ ! transc5d5talism ( ,plato & ,plot9us ) !ological dogmatic influ5ces 7d]iv$ f ! ,pseudo-,dionysius ,areopagita & o!rs7 & v]g+ some:at ev5 t[>ds ,pan!ism4 ,scotus ,erig5a reviv$ ! doctr9e ( ,cogitable ,univ]salia extra rem & ante rem4 ,he decl>$ express opposition to ! arrangem5t ( ! ,fir/ ,ari/otelian ,category1 :]eby ! individual 0 put fir/1 9 ! "* ( subject2 ! ,univ]sal second1 9 ! "* only ( pr$icate2 complete reality belong+ to ! two 9 conjunction4 ,scotus ma9ta9$ t ! ,cogitable or ,incorporeal ,univ]sal 0 ! fir/1 ! true & complete real2 f :5ce ! s5sible individuals 7 second>y1 incomplete1 multiple1 d]ivatives4#ca ,b1 ?\gh he ?us adopts & en=ces ! ,platonic !ory ( ,univ]sals ante rem & extra rem1 he does n ?9k himself oblig$ to d5y t ,univ]sals may be 9 re also4 ,footnote #bi3 ,prantl1 ,ges*i*te d] ,logik1 ,i4 xii4 p4 #fhe2 ,tr5del5burg1 ,kategori5lehre1 p4 #bde4 ,footnote #cj3 ,ueb]weg1 ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie d] s*ola/is*5 ,zeit1 p4 #ac4 ,footnote #ca3 ,prantl1 ,ges*4 d] ,logik1 ,,ii4 xiii1 pp4 #bi-ce4 ,! contradiction ( ! ,ari/otelian traditions1 s f> z conc]ns ! ,fir/ ,category1 ?us proclaim$ by ,scotus ,erig5a1 appe>s to h provok$ consid]able opposition among 8 imm$iate successors4 ,nev]!less he also obta9$ p>tizans4 ,remigius ( ,aux]re & o!rs n only def5d$ ! ,platonic ,realism1 b c>ri$ x z f> z ,plato himself _h done2 affirm+ t n m]ely ,univ]sal ,sub/ances1 b also ,univ]sal ,accid5ts1 _h a real sep>ate exi/5ce1 ap>t f & ant]ior to individuals4#cb ,! controv]sy = & aga9/ ! ,platonic ,realism 0 ?us di/9ctly laun*$ 9 ! s*ools ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,x 0 upheld bo? z a philosophical revival1 & z !ologically or?odox1 entitl$ to sup]s$e ! traditional c\nt]-!ory ( ,ari/otle4 ,footnote #cb3 ,prantl1 ,ges*4 d] ,logik1 ,,ii4 xiii1 pp4 #dd1 #de-dg4 ,,ii4 ,,fir/ ,,pr9ciples4 ,a4--,sir ,william ,hamilton on ,ari/otle's ,doctr9e4 ,9 read+ att5tively ,hamilton's ,diss]tation on ! ,philosophy ( ,common ,s5se 7,note ,a1 annex$ to ed4 ( ,reid's ,works1 p4 #gdb1 seq471 ,i f9d x difficult to seize accurately :at he means by ! t]m4 ,x seems to me t he unsays 9 "o passage :at he says 9 ano!r2 & t :at he tells u 7p4 #gej1 b471 viz4 t philosoph]s h r>ely scrupl$1 on ! "o h&1 quietly to sup]s$e ! data ( consci\sness1 s (t5 z ^! did n fall 9 ) _! pre-adopt$ op9ions2 & on ! o!r clamor\sly to appeal to !m z irrecusable tru?s1 s (t5 z !y c\ld allege !m 9 corroboration ( _! own1 or 9 refutation ( a ho/ile1 doctr9e--is illu/rat$ by 8 own practice4 ,on page #geb1 a41 he comp>es ,common ,s5se to ,common ,law1 & reg>ds x z consi/+ 9 c]ta9 elem5t>y feel+s & beliefs1 :i*1 ?\gh 9 possession ( all1 c only be elicit$ & decl>$ by philosoph]s1 :o decl>e x v diff]5tly4 ,?is comp>ison1 h[ev]1 sets aside unassi/$ ,common ,s5se z an available au?ority4 ,to make x s we mu/ c\ple ) x ! same supplem5t t ,common ,law requires2 t is1 we mu/ agree on "s "o philosoph] z au?oritative expon5t ( ,common ,s5se4 ,! ,common ,law ( "o c\ntry is diff]5t f t ( ano!r4 ,ev5 9 ! same c\ntry1 x is diff]5tly con/ru$ & set =? by diff]5t witnesses1 advocates1 & judges4 ,9 ea* c\ntry1 a supreme tribunal is appo9t$ to decide betwe5 ^! v]sions & to decl>e ! law4 ,! analogy goes f>!r ?an ,hamilton wi%es4 ,on ! same page1 he rem>ks3--,9 say+ 7to use ! words ( ,ari/otle7 simply & )\t qualification1 t ?is or t is a kn[n tru?1 we d n mean t x is 9 fact recogniz$ by all1 b only by su* z are ( a s\nd und]/&+2 j z1 9 say+ absolutely t a ?+ is :olesome1 we mu/ be held to mean1 to su* z are ( a hale con/itution4 ,! passage ( ,ari/otle's ,topica "h notic$ w be f\nd to h a diff]5t be>+ f t :i* ,hamilton gives x4 ,ari/otle is lay+ d[n 7,topica1 ,,vi4 iv4 p4 #ada1 a4 #bc-p4 #adb1 a4 #af7 ! v>i\s l9es ( argum5t :i* may be foll[$ out1 :5 y are te/+ 9 dialectical debate a def9ition giv5 or admitt$ by ! oppon5t4 ,!re _c be m ?an "o def9ition ( ! same ?+3 ! def9ition ought to decl>e ! ess5ce ( ! ?+1 :i* c only be done by means ( priora & notiora4 ,b notiora admits ( two mean+s3 7#a7 notiora simplicit]2 7#b7 notiora nobis or s+ulis hom9ibus4 ,"u ! fir/ head1 t :i* is prius is absolutely m kn[able ?an t :i* is po/]ius2 ?us1 a po9t m ?an a l9e1 a l9e m ?an a plane1 a plane m ?an a solid4 ,b "u ! second head ?is ord] is (t5 rev]s$3 to mo/ m5 ! solid 7z fall+ m "u s5se7 is m kn[able ?an ! plane1 ! plane ?an ! l9e1 ! l9e ?an ! po9t4 ,! fir/ 7notiora simplicit]7 is ! truly sci5tific ord]1 suit$ to sup]ior & accurate m9ds1 employ$ 9 tea*+1 le>n+1 & demon/ration 7p4 #ada1 a4 #bi3 ,greek3 ka?a_/p] e7n tais a7podei_/xes91 ou7_/t gar pasa didaskali_/a kai ma_/?sis e7_/*ei1--b4 #af3 ,greek3 e7pi/monik_/t]on gar to toi\to_/n e7/974 ,! second 7notiora nobis7 is adapt$ to ord9>y m9ds1 :o _c endure regul> tea*+1 nor und]/& a def9ition f\nd$ on ! fir/ ord]4 ,b def9itions f\nd$ on ! second alone 7,ari/otle says7 are n satisfactory1 nor d !y reveal ! true ess5ce ( ! ?+ def9$3 !re c be no satisfactory def9ition unless :at is notius simplicit] co9cides ) :at is notius nobis 7p4 #ada1 b4 #bd74 ,he !n proce$s to expla9 :at is meant by notius simplicit]2 & ?is is ! passage quot$ by ,hamilton4 ,aft] hav+ said t ! notiora nobis are n fix$ & uni=m1 b v>y ) diff]5t individuals1 & ev5 9 ! same individual at diff]5t times1 he goes on3 ,x is pla9 !re=e t we ought n to def9e by su* *>act]i/ics z ^! 7! notiora nobis71 b by ! notiora simplicit]3 = x is only 9 ?is way t we c obta9 a def9ition "o & ! same at all times4 ,p]haps1 too1 ! notius simplicit] is n t :i* is kn[able to all1 b t :i* is kn[able to ^? :o are well tra9$ 9 _! intellig5ce2 j z ! absolutely :olesome is t :i* is :olesome to ^? :o are well con/itut$ 9 _! bodies 7,greek3 i7_/ss de kai to a7pls gn_/rimon ou7 to pasi gn_/rimo_/n e7/91 a7lla to tois eu7 diakeime_/nois tn dia_/noian1 ka?a_/p] kai to a7pls u7gie9on to tois eu7 e7_/*\si to sma--p4 #adb1 a4 #i74 ,hamilton's translation misses ! po9t ( ,ari/otle1 :o "h repeats :at he frequ5tly also decl>es 9 o!r p>ts ( 8 writ+s 7see ,analyt4 ,po/4 ,i4 i4 p4 #ga1 b4 #cc71 namely1 ! contra/ & anti!sis betwe5 notius simplicit] 7or natur7 & notius nobis4 ,?is is a te*nical di/9ction ( 8 own1 :i* he _h expla9$ v fully 9 ! page prec$+ ! words translat$ by ,hamilton2 & ! words are int5d$ z a supplem5t>y caution1 to gu>d aga9/ a possible misund]/&+ ( ! phrase4 ,hamilton's words--say+ simply1 & )\t qualification1 t ?is or t is a kn[n tru?1 d n convey ,ari/otle's mean+ at all2 aga91 ! words--su* z are ( a s\nd und]/&+1 fail equally 9 r5d]+ :at ,ari/otle means by ,greek3 tois eu7 diakeime_/nois tn dia_/noian4 ,ari/otle tells u di/9ctly 79 ! prec$+ "p ( ! p>agraph7 t he int5ds to contra/ ! few m9ds sci5tific or prep>$ = sci5tific discipl9e1 ) ! _m m9ds unsci5tific or unprep>$ = su* discipl9e3 he does n int5d to contra/ m5 ( s\nd und]/&+ ) m5 n ( s\nd und]/&+4 ,x appe>s to me t ,hamilton has "h tak5 a passage away f its g5u9e s5se 9 ! ,ari/otelian context1 & has press$ x into 8 s]vice to illu/rate a view ( 8 own1 =eign to t ( ,ari/otle4 ,he has done ! l ) "s o!r passages1 to :i* ,i w n[ adv]t4 ,:at he says1 pp4 #gfd-gff1 ab\t ,ari/otle's use ( ! t]m ,greek3 a7xi_/ma is q oppos$ to ! words ( ,ari/otle himself1 :o pla9ly c]tifies x z be+ already 9 8 "t a te*nical t]m ) ma!maticians 7,met4 ,greek3 ,g4 p4 #ajje1 a4 #bj74 ,on p4 #gff1 a41 ,hamilton says t ! ^w ,greek3 a7xi_/ma is n us$ 9 any "w extant prior to ,ari/otle 9 a logical s5se4 ,?is is true z to any "w rema9+ to u1 b ,ari/otle himself talks ( previ\s philosoph]s or reason]s :o _h s us$ x2 ?us he speaks ( ,greek3 kata to ,z_/nnos a7xi_/ma 7,metaph4 ,b4 p4 #ajja1 b4 #g7--;accord+ to ! assumption laid d[n by ,z5o z au?oritative4 ,( ?is passage ,hamilton takes no notice3 he only ref]s to ! ,topica1 intimat+ a d\bt 79 my judgm5t gr\ndless & c]ta9ly pr(ess$ by few mod]n critics1 if any7 :e!r ! ,topica is a g5u9e "w ( ,ari/otle4 ,9 ! "t ( ,ari/otle1 v>i\s ma!matical tea*]s laid d[n ,axioms1 su* z1 ,if equals be tak5 f equals1 ! rema9d]s w be equal2 ,9 all propositions1 ei!r ! affirmative or ! negative mu/ be true1 c4 ,b ! case ( ,z5o %[s u t o!r philosoph]s also laid d[n ,axioms ( _! own1 :i* 7 n univ]sally accept$ by o!rs4 ,:at ,hamilton "h says1 ab\t ,axioms1 has little p]t95ce z a contribution to ! ,philosophy ( ,common ,s5se4 ,aga91 ,hamilton says1 p4 #ggj1 a43 ,! native contributions by ! m9d itself to our concrete cognitions h1 prior to _! elicitation into consci\sness ?r\gh exp]i5ce1 only a pot5tial1 & 9 actual exp]i5ce only an appli$1 engag$1 or implicate1 exi/5ce4 ,^! words n>r[ ! l9e ( di/9ction betwe5 ! two opposite s*ools s mu*1 t ,i _c see :]e x is drawn4 ,e g]m has 9 x ! pot5tialities ( t :i* x w aft]w>ds become4 ,no "o disputes t a baby j born has m5tal pot5tialities n possess$ by a puppy1 a calf1 or an acorn4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 cognitions elicit$ ?r\gh exp]i5ce1 & cognitions d]iv$ f exp]i5ce8 ,to ^? :o hold ! doctr9e ( ,relativity1 bo? our impressions ( s5se & our m5tal activities 7su* z memory1 discrim9ation1 comp>ison1 ab/raction1 c47 are alike indisp5sable to exp]i5ce4 ,! diff]5ce1 s f> z ,i c see1 betwe5 ,hamilton & ! ,inductive ,s*ool1 is n s mu* ab\t ! process :]eby cognitions are acquir$1 z ab\t ! mode ( te/+ & measur+ ! au?ority ( ^? cognitions :5 acquir$4 ,hamilton w n d5y t _m ( ! cognitions :i* he describes z elicit$ by exp]i5ce are untrue or exagg]at$4 ,h[ are we to discrim9ate ^! f ! true8 ,! ,inductive ,s*ool w\ld reply3 ,by ! te/ ( exp]i5ce1 & by t alone3 if ^! cognitions1 :i* h be5 elicit$ 9 y\r m9d ?r\gh exp]i5ce1 are refut$ or n confirm$ :5 te/$ by subsequ5t exp]i5ce c>efully wat*$ & select$ = ! purpose1 !y are n true or tru/wor?y cognitions4 ,b ,hamilton w\ld n concur 9 ?is answ]3 he w\ld say t ! cognitions1 ?\gh elicit$ ?r\gh exp]i5ce1 did n d]ive _! au?ority or tru/wor?9ess f exp]i5ce1 b 7 b9d+ & au?oritative 9 !mselves1 :e!r confirm$ by exp]i5ce or n4 ,9 speak+ ab\t ,axioms1 p4 #gfd1 b41 he says3 ,ari/otle limit$ 7?is is n correct3 ,ari/otle did n limit z "h affirm$7 ! expression ,axiom to ^? judgm5ts :i*1 on occasion ( exp]i5ce1 arise naturally & necess>ily 9 ! consci\s m9d1 & :i* are !re=e virtually prior to exp]i5ce4 ,t !y are n prior to exp]i5ce 9 ord] ( "t1 is admitt$ 9 ! words j cit$ f ,hamilton himself3 he means1 !re=e1 prior 9 logical au?ority--c>ry+ ) !m ! quality ( necessity1 ev5 ?\gh exp]i5ce may af=d no confirmation ( !m4 ,?is is :at he says1 on pp4 #gec-ged1 ab\t causality3 metaphysical causality mu/ be believ$1 z a necess>y & subjective law ( ! obs]v]--?\gh !re is no w>rant = x 9 exp]i5ce4 ,! "q betwe5 ,hamilton & ! ,inductive ,s*ool1 ,i repeat1 is n s mu* ab\t ! psy*ological g5esis ( beliefs1 z ab\t ! te/ = di/+ui%+ true f false or unc]tifi$ beliefs1 among ^? beliefs :i* arise1 (t5 & usually1 9 ! m9ds ( mo/ m54 ,is !re any valid te/ o!r ?an exp]i5ce itself1 z int5tionally v>i$ by exp]im5ts & int]pret$ by c>eful ,induction8 ,are we ev] w>rant$ 9 affirm+ :at transc5ds exp]i5ce1 except to ! ext5t to :i* ! inf]5ce f ,induction 7f "s to all7 always transc5ds actual obs]vation8 ,?is seems to me ! real "q at issue betwe5 ! cont5d+ s*ools ( ,metaphysics4 ,hamilton1 :ile he rejects exp]i5ce z ! te/1 furni%es no o!r te/ :]eby we c discrim9ate ! errone\s beliefs :i* are elicit$ into consci\sness ?r\gh exp]i5ce1 f ! true beliefs :i* are elicit$ 9 l mann]4 ,9 discuss+ ! doctr9e :i* ,hamilton & o!r philosoph]s entitle ,common ,s5se 79 ! metaphysical import :i* !y assign to x71 x is prop] to say a few words on ! legitimate mean+ ( ?is phrase1 be=e x 0 press$ into s]vice by a p>ticul> s*ool ( metaphysicians4 ,e "o :o lives ?r\gh *ildhood & boyhood up to man's e/ate w unavoidably acquire a c]ta9 am\nt ( k & c]ta9 habits ( believ+1 feel+1 judg+1 c42 diff]+ mat]ially 9 diff]5t ages & c\ntries1 & v>y+ to a less degree 9 diff]5t individuals ( ! same age & c\ntry1 yet /ill includ+ m or less :i* is common to ! l>ge majority4 ,t fire burns2 t wat] qu5*es ?ir/ & dr[ns2 t ! sun gives light & heat2 t animals are all mortal & _c live long )\t n\ri%m5t1--^! & _m o!r beliefs are n possess$ by a v "y *ild1 b are acquir$ by e man z he gr[s up1 ?\gh he _c rememb] h[ or :5 he le>nt !m4 ,! sum total ( ! beliefs ?us acquir$1 by ! impressions & influ5ces "u :i* e gr[+ m9d might pass1 con/itutes ! ,common ,s5se ( a p>ticul> age & c\ntry4 ,a p]son want+ 9 any ( !m w\ld be consid]$1 by ! majority ( ! inhabitants1 z defici5t 9 ,common ,s5se4 ,if ,i meet an adult /rang]1 ,i presume z a matt] ( c\rse t he has acquir$ !m1 & ,i talk to him accord+ly4 ,i also presume 7be+ 9 ,engl&7 t he has le>nt ! language ( ! c\ntry2 & t he is famili> ) ! =ms ( ,engli% spee* :]eby su* beliefs & _! correlative disbeliefs are enunciat$4 ,if ,i affirm to him any "o ( ^! beliefs1 he ass5ts to x at once3 x appe>s to him self-evid5t--t is1 requir+ no f>!r or extrane\s evid5ce to support x4 ,?\gh x appe>s to him self-evid5t1 h[ev]1 ! proposition may possibly be false4 ,to a ,greek ( ! ,ari/otelian age1 no proposition c\ld appe> m self-evid5t ?an t ( ! e>? be+ at re/4 ,no t]m c be m ?or\ghly relative ?an ! t]m self-evid5t3 t :i* appe>s s to "o man1 w (t5 n appe> s to ano!r1 & may sometimes appe> altoge!r untrue4 ,b1 if we suppose an individual to :om "o ( ^! beliefs does n appe> self-evid5t1 & :o requires pro(1 he w n be satisfi$ to be told t e "o else believes x1 & t x is a dictate ( ,common ,s5se4 ,he probably kn[s t already1 & yet1 nev]!less1 he is n conv9c$4 ,ari/>*us ( ,samos 0 told d\btless1 (t5 en\gh1 t ! doctr9e ( ! e>? be+ at re/ 0 ! pla9 v]dict ( ,common ,s5se2 b he did n ! less controv]t x4 ,y mu/ produce ! indep5d5t pro( :i* ! recusant dem&s2 &1 if y\r doctr9e is true & tru/wor?y1 su* pro( c be produc$4 ,i w "h rem>k t1 9 s f> z ,common ,s5se c prop]ly be quot$ z an au?ority or presumptive au?ority1 x is su* only 9 ! s5se proclaim$ by ,h]akleitus & ,la ,m5nais1 z cit$ by ,hamilton1 pp4 #ggj-gga3 z a magaz9e ( ready-fabricat$ dogmas4 ,hamilton f9ds fault ) bo? ( !m2 b x appe>s to me t !y rightly int]pret1 & t he wrongly int]prets1 :at ,common ,s5se1 z g5]ally und]/ood1 is2 & moreov]1 t mo/ ( ! o!r au?orities :om he himself quotes und]/& ! phrase z ^! two und]/& x4 ,common ,s5se is a magaz9e ( ready-fabricat$ dogmas1 z ,la ,m5nais 7see p4 #gga1 a47 consid]s x--dogmas assum$ z self-evid5t1 & z requir+ no pro(4 ,x only becomes a s\rce ( elem5t>y tru?s :5 analys$ & remodell$ by philosoph]s4 ,n[ philosoph]s diff] mu* 9 _! mode ( analys+ x 7z ,hamilton himself decl>es emphatically71 & br+ out ( x diff]5t elem5t>y tru?s2 ea* ( !m pr(ess+ to foll[ ,common ,s5se & quot+ ,common ,s5se z w>ranty4 ,x is pla9 t ,common ,s5se is no au?ority = ei!r "o ( two discrepant modes ( analysis4 ,its au?ority c\nts = ^? dogmas out ( :i* ! analysis is made1 9 s f> z ,common ,s5se is au?oritative at all4 ,hamilton cites or indicates ?irte5 diff]5t ,ari/otelian passages1 9 ord] to support 8 view t ,ari/otle is to be numb]$ among ! *ampions ( au?oritative ,common ,s5se4 ,x w be se5 t mo/ ( ! passages prove no?+1 & t only "o proves mu*1 9 fav\r ( t view4 ,i %all t\* ^u !m s]iatim4 7a7 ,fir/ tru?s are su* z are believ$1 n ?r\gh aught else 7say r ?r\gh o!r tru?s7 b ?r\gh !mselves alone4 ,=1 9 reg>d to ! fir/ pr9ciples ( sci5ce1 we ought n to require ! reason ,:y2 = ea* su* pr9ciple behoves to be itself a belief 9 & ( itself4#a ,aft] ! words reason ,:y1 ,hamilton ins]ts ! foll[+ additional words ( 8 own 9 brackets--b only ! fact ,t !y are giv54 ,footnote #a3 ,ari/ot4 ,topic4 ,i4 i4 p4 #ajj1 a4 #cj2 ,hamilton's ,reid1 p4 #ggb1 a4 ,i demur to ! words 9 brackets1 z imply+ an hypo!sis n conta9$ 9 ,ari/otle2 :o says only t ! tru? affirm$ by ! tea*] mu/ be su* z ! le>n] is prep>$ to believe )\t ask+ any que/ions4 ,x may be an analytical tru? 7s5su ,kantiano71 9 :i* ! pr$icate ass]ts only :at ! le>n] kn[s to be already conta9$ 9 ! def9ition ( ! subject4 ,x may be a syn!tical tru?2 yet ass]t+ only :at he is famili> ) by con/ant1 e>ly1 uncontradict$1 obvi\s1 exp]i5ce4 ,9 ei!r case1 he is prep>$ to believe x at once2 & ?us ! conditions ( a ,fir/ ,sci5tific ,tru? are satisfi$1 z "h describ$ by ,ari/otle2 :o says no?+ ab\t ! tru? be+ giv54 ,! next passage cit$ 7b7 is f ! ,analytica ,po/]iora 7! ref]5ce is pr9t$ by mi/ake ,priora74 ,accord+ to ,hamilton1 ,ari/otle says3--,we ass]t n only t sci5ce does exi/1 b also t !re is giv5 a c]ta9 beg9n+ or pr9ciple ( sci5ce1 9 s f> z 7or1 on ano!r int]pretation ( ! t]m ,greek3 7--by :i*7 we recognize ! import ( ! t]ms4#b ,i ?9k ,hamilton has n exactly r5d]$ ! s5se ( ! orig9al :5 he translates x--we recognize ! import ( ! t]ms2 & he proce$s to add expository words ( 8 own :i* c>ry u /ill f>!r away f :at ,i und]/& 9 ,ari/otle4 ,if ,hamilton's r5d]+ is correct1 all ! pr9cipia ( ,sci5ce w\ld be analytical propositions 7s5su ,kantiano71 :i* ,i d n ?9k t ,ari/otle int5d$ to affirm or imply4 ,9 ! la/ *apt] ( ! ,analytica ,po/]iora1 ,ari/otle n only affirm$ t !re 7 ,fir/ ,pr9ciples ( ,sci5ce1 b describ$ at l5g? ! inductive process by :i* we rea*$ !m3 ref]r+ !m ultimately to ! cognizance & approval ( ,nos or ,intellect4 ,:at ,ari/otle means is1 t1 9 asc5d+ f propositions ( l[] to propositions ( high] univ]sality1 we "k :5 we h rea*$ ! extreme t]m ( asc5t2 & ?is =ms ! pr9cipium4 ,footnote #b3 ,ari/ot4 ,anal4 ,po/4 ,i4 iii4 p4 #gb1 b4 #bc3 ,greek3 tauta_/ t' ou7n ou7_/t le_/gom51 kai ou7 mo_/non e7pi/_/mn a7lla kai a7r*n e7pi/_/ms ei7nai_/ t9a_/ pham51 7 t\s o7_/r\s gnri_/zom54 ,nei!r ,philoponus1 nor ,buhle1 nor ,m4 ,b>?lemy ,/4-,hilaire1 translate ! words ,greek3 t\s o7_/r\s gnri_/zom5 9 ! same way z ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton4 ,x r seems to me t ! words mean t]ms or limits ( regress1 :i* co9cides ) ! p>aphrase ( ,philoponus3 ,greek3 t\_/t gar 7t n7 tas a7r*oeide/a_/tas kai oi7onei o7_/r\s ou7_/sas gnri_/zom5 7,s*ol4 p4 #bja1 b4 #ac1 ,br471 z well z sub/antially ) ! note ( ,m4 ,/4-,hilaire4 ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton next gives u ano!r passage 7c7 f ! ,analytica ,po/]iora1 9 :i* ,ari/otle affirms t ! ,fir/ ,pr9ciples mu/ be believ$ 9 a sup]lative degree1 because we "k & believe all second>y tru?s ?r\gh !m3#c a doctr9e :i* appe>s to me to require bo? comm5t & limitation2 b ab\t :i* ,i say no?+1 because1 ev5 grant+ x to be true1 ,i d n see h[ x assi/s ! purpose--to prove t ,ari/otle is ! *ampion ( au?oritative ,common ,s5se4 ,nor d ,i f9d any great] pro( 9 ano!r passage previ\sly 7p4 #gfd1 b47 produc$ f ,ari/otle3 ,( ! imm$iate pr9ciples ( syllogism1 t :i* _c be demon/rat$1 b :i* x is n necess>y to possess z ! pre-requisite ( all le>n+1 ,i call ,!sis3 & t ,axiom1 :i* he :o w\ld le>n aught1 mu/ himself br+ 7& n receive f 8 in/ructor74 ,= "s su* pr9ciples !re are2 & x is to ^! t we are accu/om$ to apply ! "n4#d ,su* pr9ciples !re d\btless are1 :i* ! le>n] mu/ br+ ) him2 b ,ari/otle does n ass]t1 mu* less prove1 t !y are intuitions giv5 by au?oritative ,common ,s5se4 ,nay1 9 ! passage cit$ 9 my =m] page1 he bo? ass]t$ & prov$ t ! pr9cipia ( ,sci5ce 7 rais$ f ,s5se by ,induction4 ,! le>n]1 :5 he comes to be taught1 mu/ br+ "s ( ^! pr9cipia ) him1 if he is to le>n ,sci5ce f 8 tea*]2 j z he mu/ also br+ ) him a k ( ! language1 ( ! /ructure ( s5t5ces1 ( ! =ms = affirmation & d5ial1 c41 & v>i\s o!r requisites4 ,a recruit1 :5 fir/ com+ to be drill$1 mu/ br+ ) him a c]ta9 p[] ( walk+ & ( mak+ o!r movem5ts ( ! limbs4 ,b ^! pre-requisites1 on ! "p ( ! le>n] z well z on t ( ! recruit1 are n intuitive products or inspirations ( ! m9d3 !y are acquirem5ts made by long & irksome exp]i5ce1 ?\gh (t5 =gott5 9 its details4 ,we are n to reason ^u ! le>n] or ! recruit z if !y 7 *ildr5 j born4 ,footnote #c3 ,analyt4 ,po/]4 ,i4 ii4 p4 #gb1 a4 #bg4 ,footnote #d3 ,analyt4 ,po/]4 ,i4 iii4 p4 #gb1 a4 #ag3 ,greek3 t\to gar ma_/li/' e7pi tois toi\_/tois ei7_/?am5 o7_/noma le_/ge9--we are = ! mo/ "p accu/om$3 ,hamilton has n translat$ ! ^w ,greek3 ma_/li/a1 :i* x w\ld h be5 bett] = him to d1 because he f\nds ^u ! passage an argum5t to prove t ,ari/otle limit$ 9 a c]ta9 way ! s5se ( ! ^w ,axiom4 ,! passages out ( ! ,rhetorica & ! ,metaphysica 7cit$ on p4 #ggb1 b41 & m>k$ d & e7 are h>dly wor? notice4 ,b t :i* imm$iately foll[s 7m>k$ f71 out ( ! ,nikoma*ean ,e?ica1 is ! mo/ p]t95t ( all t are produc$4 ,hamilton writes3--,argu+ aga9/ a p>adox ( c]ta9 ,platoni/s 9 reg>d to ! ,pleasurable1 ,ari/otle says--',b !y :o oppose !mselves to ,eudoxus1 z if :at all nature desid]ates 7 n a good1 talk idly4 ,= :at appe>s to all1 t we affirm to be2 & he :o w\ld subv]t ?is belief1 w himself assur$ly advance no?+ m des]v+ ( cr$it4'#e ,comp>e also ,l4 vii4 c4 #ac 7#ad74 ,9 8 p>aphrase ( ! above passage1 ! ,pseudo-,&ronicus 9 "o place uses ! expression common op9ion1 & 9 ano!r all b uses 7:at inde$ he c\ld h>dly d 9 ?is mean+ z an ,ari/otelian1 if inde$ 9 ,greek at all7 ! expression common s5se1 :i* ,d4 ,he9sius 9 8 ,lat9 v]sion actually employs4 ,?us f> ,hamilton2 b ! words ( ,ari/otle :i* imm$iately foll[ are ev5 /rong]3--,=1 9 s f> z fooli% creatures desire pleasure1 ! objection tak5 w\ld be wor? some?+2 b1 :5 intellig5t creatures desire x also1 h[ c ! objectors make out _! case8 ,ev5 9 mean & fooli% creatures1 moreov]1 !re is p]haps a c]ta9 good natural appetite1 sup]ior to !mselves1 :i* aims at _! own good4#f ,or z ,ari/otle 7accord+ to "s critics1 ! ,ari/otelian ,eudemus7 /ates x 9 ! ,sev5? ,book ( ! ,nikoma*ean ,e?ica1 ref]r$ to by ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton )\t cit+ x3--,p]haps all creatures 7brutes z well z m57 pursue1 n t pleasure :i* !y ?9k !y are pursu+1 nor :at !y w\ld decl>e !mselves to be pursu+1 b all ( !m ! same pleasure2 = all creatures h by nature some?+ div9e4#g ,footnote #e3 ,ari/ot4 ,e?ic4 ,nik4 ,x4 ii4 p4 #aagb1 b4 #cf3 ,greek3 o7 gar pasi dokei1 t\t' ei7nai_/ pham52 o7 d' a7nairn tau_/tn tn pi_//91 ou7 pa_/nu pi/o_/t]a e7rei4 ,footnote #f3 ,ari/ot4 ,e?ic4 ,nik4 ,x4 ii4 p4 #aagc1 a4 #b3 ,greek3 7 men gar ta a7no_/ta o7re_/getai au7tn1 7n a7_/n ti to lego_/m52 ei7 de kai ta phro_/nima1 ps a7n le_/goie_/n ti8 i7_/ss de kai e7n tois phau_/lois e7/i_/ ti phusikon a7ga?on kreitton 7 ka?' au7ta_/1 o7 e7phi_/etai t\ oikei_/ou a7ga?\4 7,i adopt "h ! text z giv5 by ,mi*elet1 ,greek3 99997 men 9 place ( ,greek3 ei7 men1 b n 9 leav+ out ,greek3 to be=e ,greek3 lego_/m5on47 ,i ?9k ! s5t5ce w\ld /& bett] if ,greek3 a7ga?on 7 omitt$ aft] ,greek3 phusiko_/n4 ,footnote #g3 ,e?4 ,nikom4 ,,vii4 xiv4 p4 #aaec1 b4 #ca3 ,greek3 i7_/ss de kai di_/k\s9 ou7* 7n oi7_/ontai 77don_/n7 ou7d' 7n a7n phaien1 a7lla tn au7t_/n2 pa_/nta gar phu_/sei e7_/*ei ti !ion4 ,! s5tim5t is "h decl>$ ev5 m /rongly respect+ ! appet5cy ( all animals--brutes z well z m54 ,9 ?is passage1 ,ari/otle does really appe> z ! *ampion ( au?oritative ,common ,s5se4 ,he enunciates ! g5]al pr9ciple3 ,t :i* appe>s to all1 t we affirm to be4 ,& he proce$s to claim 7) ! qualification ( p]haps7 = ?is univ]sal belief a div9e or quasi-div9e au?ority2 l ,hesiod 9 ! v]ses cit$ by ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton1 p4 #ggj1 b41 & l ,dr4 ,reid 9 ! motto prefix$ to 8 ',inquiry into ! ,human ,m9d on ! ,pr9ciples ( ,common ,s5se4' ,if ,ari/otle _h (t5 spok5 9 ?is way1 he w\ld h be5 pre-em95tly suitable to figure 9 ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton's li/ ( au?orities4 ,b ! rev]se is ! fact4 ,9 ! ,analytica & ,topica1 ,ari/otle is s f> f accept+ ! op9ion & belief ( all z a c]tificate ( tru? & reality1 t he expressly ranks ! matt]s s c]tifi$ z belong+ to ! m]ely probable1 & includes !m 9 8 def9ition !re(4 ,univ]sal belief c\nts = m or less1 z a c]tificate ( ! tru? ( :at is believ$1 accord+ to ! matt] to :i* x ref]s2 & !re are few matt]s on :i* x is ( great] value ?an pleasure & pa94 ,yet ev5 ^u ?is po9t ,ari/otle rejects ! au?ority ( ! _m1 & calls ^u u to repose implicit confid5ce 9 ! v]dict ( ! j & intellig5t individual1 :om he en?rones z ! measure4 ,^? alone are pleasures 7says ,ari/otle7 :i* appe> pleasures to ?is man2 ^? alone are pleasant ?+s 9 :i* he takes delight4 ,if ?+s :i* are revolt+ to him appe> pleasurable to o!rs1 we ought n to wond]1 s9ce !re are _m corruptions & deg5]ations ( mank9d2 yet ^! ?+s are n really pleasurable1 except to ^! m5 & to m5 ( l disposition4#h ,?is decl>ation1 repeat$ m ?an once 9 ! ,nikoma*ean ,e?ica1 & support$ by ,analytica & ,topica1 m ?an c\nt]vails ! opposite op9ion express$ by ,ari/otle1 9 ! passage :]e he def5ds ,eudoxus4 ,footnote #h3 ,ari/ot4 ,e?ic4 ,nik4 ,x4 v4 p4 #aagf1 a4 #ae3 ,greek3 dokei d' e7n a7_/pasi toi\_/tois ei7nai to pha9o_/m5on t sp\dai_/4 ei7 de t\to kals le_/getai1 ka?a_/p] dokei1 kai e7_//9 e7ka_//\ me_/tron 7 a7ret kai o7 a7ga?os 7 toi\tos1 kai 7donai ei7en a7n ai7 t\_/t pha9o_/m5ai1 kai 7de_/a oi7s ou7tos *ai_/rei c4 ,ib4 vi4 p4 #aagf1 b4 #bd3 ,greek3 ka?a_/p] ou7n polla_/kis ei7_/rtai1 kai ti_/mia kai 7de_/a e7/i ta t sp\dai_/ toiauta o7_/nta4 ,! next passage 7g7 produc$ by ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton is out ( ! ,eudemian ,e?ica4 ,b ?is passage1 :5 translat$ m fully & exactly ?an we read x 9 8 words1 w be f\nd to prove no?+ to ! po9t :i* he aims at4 ,he gives x z foll[s1 p4 #ggc1 a43--,b ( all ^! we mu/ endeav\r to seek out rational gr\nds ( belief1 by adduc+ manife/ te/imonies & au?orities4 ,= x is ! /ronge/ evid5ce ( a doctr9e1 if all m5 c be adduc$ z ! manife/ confessors ( its positions2 because e individual has 9 him a k9d ( private organ ( ! tru?4 ,h5ce we ought n always to look to ! conclusions ( reason+1 b frequ5tly r to :at appe>s & is believ$ to be4 ,! orig9al is giv5 bel[4#i ,footnote #i3 ,ari/ot4 ,e?4 ,eud4 ,i4 vi4 p4 #abah1 b4 #bf3 ,greek3 peirate_/on de p]i t\_/tn pa_/ntn ztein tn pi_//9 dia tn lo_/gn1 m>turi_/ois kai p>adei_/gmasi *r_/m5on tois pha9ome_/nois4 kra_/ti/on men gar pa_/ntas a7n?r_/p\s phai_/ne/hai sunomolog\ntas tois pa_/nts1 o7_/p] metabibazo_/m5oi poi_/s\s92 e7_/*ei gar e7_/ka/os oi7keio_/n ti pros tn a7l_/!ian1 e7x 7n a7nagkaion deiknu_/nai ps p]i au7tn4 e7k gar tn a7l?s men legome_/nn1 ou7 saphs de_/1 proious9 e7_//ai kai to saphs1 metalamba_/n\s9 a7ei ta gnrim_/t]a tn ei7?o_/tn le_/ge/hai sugke*ume_/ns4 ,!n aft] an int]val ( fifte5 l9es3 ,greek3 kals d' e7_/*ei kai to *ris kri_/ne9 ton ts ai7ti_/z lo_/gon kai to deiknu_/m5on1 dia_/ te to r7!n a7rti_/s1 o7_/ti prose_/*e9 ou7 dei pa_/nta tois dia tn lo_/gn1 a7lla polla_/kis mallon tois pha9ome_/nois 7nun d' o7_/pot' a7n lu_/e9 m e7_/*s91 a7nagka_/zontai pi/eu_/e9 tois ei7rme_/nois71 kai dio_/ti polla_/kis to men u7po t\ lo_/g\ d$ei*?ai dok\n a7l!s me_/n e7/91 ou7 me_/ntoi dia tau_/tn tn ai7ti_/an di' 7_/n phs9 o7 lo_/gos4 e7_//i gar dia pseu_/d\s a7l!s deixai2 dlon d' e7k tn ,a7nalutikn4 ,! foll[+ is a lit]al translation1 re/or+ :at ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton omits3--,b1 respect+ all ^! matt]s1 we mu/ endeav\r to seek belief ?r\gh g5]al reason+1 employ+ ! appe>ances be=e u 7i4e4 ! curr5t dicta & facta ( society7 z te/imonies & examples4 ,= x is be/ t all mank9d %\ld be manife/ly 9 agreem5t ) :at we are ab\t to say2 b1 if t _c be1 t at all ev5ts !y %\ld be 9 "s sort ( agreem5t ) u2 :i* !y w come to be :5 br\ght r\nd 7by be+ address$ 9 ! prop] /yle74 ,= e man has 9 him "s t5d5cies fav\rable to ! tru?1 & x is out ( ^! t we mu/ someh[ or o!r prove our conclusions4 ,by tak+ our dep>ture f :at is said ar\nd u truly b n cle>ly1 we %all by gradual advance introduce cle>ness1 tak+ along ) u su* portion ( ! confus$ common talk z is mo/ congru\s to ,sci5ce4 4 4 4 ,x is well also to consid] ap>t ! causal reason+ 7syllogi/ic1 d$uctive premisses71 & ! conclusion %[n3 fir/1 ^u ! gr\nd j /at$1 t we mu/ n pay exclusive att5tion to ! results ( d$uctive reason+1 b (t5 r to app>5t facts1 :]eas x (t5 happ5s n[ t1 :5 m5 _c refute ! reason+1 !y feel con/ra9$ to believe 9 ! conclusion2 next1 because ! conclusion1 %[n by ! reason+1 may (t5 be true 9 itself1 b n f ! cause assign$ 9 ! reason+4 ,= a true conclusion may be %[n by false premisses2 z we h se5 9 ! ,analytica4 ,:oev] reads ! orig9al words ( ,ari/otle 7or ,eudemus7 w see h[ mu* ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton's translation /ra9s _! true mean+4 ,greek3 ,kra_/ti/on does n correspond to ! phrase--x is ! /ronge/ evid5ce ( a doctr9e4 ,greek3 ,kra_/ti/on is ! equival5t ( ,greek3 a7_/ri/on1 z we f9d 9 *ap4 iii4 ( ?is ,book ( ! ,eudemian ,e?ica 7p4 #abae1 a4 #c73 ,greek3 e7pei d' ei7sin a7pori_/ai p]i e7ka_//n pragmatei_/an oi7keiai1 dlon o7_/ti kai p]i bi_/ou t\ krati_//\ kai zs ts a7ri_//s ei7si_/n4 ,nor ought ! words ,greek3 oi7keio_/n ti pros tn a7l_/!ian to be translat$--a k9d ( private organ ( ! tru?3 !y mean simply--some?+ 9 him fav\rable or t5d+ t[>ds ! tru?1 z we read 9 *ap4 ii4 ( ?is same ,book--,greek3 oi7keion pros eu7exi_/an 7p4 #abad1 b4 #bb74 ,moreov]1 ,hamilton has omitt$ to translate bo? ! words prec$+ & ! words foll[+2 accord+ly he has miss$ ! real s5se ( ! passage4 ,ari/otle inculcates ^u ! philosoph] nev] to neglect ! common & preval5t op9ions1 b to acqua9t himself ) !m c>efully2 because1 ?\gh ^! op9ions are g5]ally full ( confusion & error 7,greek3 ei7k gar le_/g\si s*$on p]i a7pa_/ntn 7oi7 polloi_/7--,e?ic4 ,eudem4 ,i4 iii4 p4 #abae1 a4 #a71 he w f9d 9 !m p>tial correspond5ces ) ! tru?1 ( :i* he may avail himself to br+ ! common m9ds r\nd to bett] views2 b1 unless he kn[s pretty well :at ! op9ions ( ^! common m9ds are1 he w n be able to address !m p]suasively4 ,?is is ! same reasonable view :i* ,ari/otle expresses at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,topica 79 a passage already cit$1 above71 respect+ ! mann] ( deal+ prop] = a philosoph] t[>ds curr5t op9ion4 ,b x does n at all co9cide ) ! repres5tation giv5 by ,hamilton4 ,! next piece ( evid5ce 7h7 :i* we f9d t5d]$ is ano!r passage out ( ! ,eudemian ,e?ica4 ,x w be se5 t ?is passage is /ra9$ ) ev5 great] viol5ce ?an ! prec$+4 ,hamilton writes z foll[s1 fir/ translat+ ! words ( ,ari/otle1 !n comm5t+ on !m3--,! problem is ?is--,:at is ! beg9n+ or pr9ciple ( motion 9 ! s\l8 ,n[ x is evid5t1 z ,god is 9 ! univ]se1 & ! univ]se 9 ,god1 t ,i read ,greek3 k9ein kai_/--,w4 ,h4 ! div9ity 9 u is also1 9 a c]ta9 sort1 ! univ]sal mov] ( ! m9d4 ,= ! pr9ciple ( ,reason is n ,reason b some?+ bett]4 ,n[ :at c we say is bett] ?an ev5 ,sci5ce1 except ,god8#aj ,s f> ,hamilton's translation2 n[ foll[s 8 comm5t3--,! import ( ?is s+ul> passage is v obscure4 ,x has excit$1 ,i see1 ! att5tion1 & ex]cis$ ! +5uity1 ( ,pomponatius1 ,j4 ,c4 ,scalig]1 ,de ,raei1 ,leibnitz1 ,leid5fro/1 ,jacobi1 c4 ,b )\t view+ x z ( pan!i/ic t5d5cy1 z ,leibnitz is incl9$ to d1 x may be int]pret$ z a decl>ation1 t ,intellect1 :i* ,ari/otle else:]e all[s to be pre-exi/5t & immortal1 is a sp>k ( ! ,div9ity2 :il/ its data 7f :i* z pr9ciples m c]ta9 ?an _! d$uctions1 ,reason1 ,demon/ration1 ,sci5ce1 mu/ dep>t7 are to be rev]5c$ z ! revelation ( tru?s :i* w\ld o!rwise lie hid f man3 ,t1 9 %ort1 ',! voice ( ,nature is ! voice ( ,god4' ,by ! bye1 x is rem>kable t ?is text 0 n employ$ by any ( ^? ,ari/otelian philosoph]s :o endeav\r$ to id5tify ! ,active ,intellect ) ! ,deity4 ,footnote #aj3 ,e?ic4 ,eud4 ,,vii4 xiv4 p4 #abdh1 a4 #bd3 ,greek3 to de zt\_/m5on t\t' e7/i_/1 ti_/s 7 ts k9_/ses a7r* e7n t psu*8 dlon d_/1 7_/sp] e7n t o7_/l !o_/s1 kai pan 7,fritzs*e reads ,greek3 e7n7 e7kei_/n4 k9ei ga_/r ps pa_/nta to e7n 7min !ion4 lo_/g\ d' a7r* ou7 lo_/gos a7lla ti kreitton4 ti_/ ou7n a7n kreitton kai e7pi/_/ms ei7_/poi pln !o_/s8 ,in/ead ( ,greek3 ei7_/poi 7! la/ ^w b two7 ,fritzs*e reads ,greek3 ei7_/ kai n\4 ,?is is ! passage translat$ by ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton4 ,! words ( ! orig9al imm$iately foll[+ are ^!3 ,greek3 7 gar a7ret t\ n\ o7_/rganon2 kai dia t\to oi7 pa_/lai e7_/legon--eu7tu*eis kal\ntai1 oi7 a7n o7r_/ssi katop?\s9 a7_/logoi o7_/ntes1 kai b\leu_/e/hai ou7 sumphe_/rei au7tois--e7_/*\si gar a7r*n toi\_/tn 7 krei_/ttn t\ n\ kai b\leu_/ses4 oi7 de ton lo_/gon2 t\to d' ou7k e7_/*\si4 kai e7n?\sismoi_/2 t\to d' ou7 du_/nantai2 a7_/logoi gar o7_/ntes e7pitug*a_/n\si 7s ,fritzs*e reads 9 place ( ,greek3 a7potug*a_/n\si74 ,i ma9ta9 t ?is passage n[ay ju/ifies ! int]pretation :]eby ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton ascribes to ,ari/otle a doctr9e s l>ge & important4 ,! ackn[l$g$ obscurity ( ! passage might h r5d]$ any int]pret] cauti\s ( build+ mu* ^u x3 b ?is is n all3 ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton has translat$ x sep>ately1 )\t any allusion to ! *apt] ( :i* x =ms "p4 ,?is is a sure way ( misund]/&+ x2 = x _c be fairly con/ru$ except z be>+ on ! problem enunciat$ & discuss$ 9 t *apt]4 ,ari/otle 7or ,eudemus7 prop\nds = discussion explicitly 9 ?is *apt] a "q :i* _h be5 adv]t$ to briefly 9 ! e>li] "p ( ! ,eudemian ,e?ica 7,i4 i4 p4 #abad1 a4 #bd7--,:at is ! relation betwe5 good =tune & happ9ess8 ,^u :at does good =tune dep5d8 ,is x produc$ by special grace or inspiration f ! ,gods8 ,?is "q is tak5 up & debat$ at l5g? 9 ! *apt] f :i* ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton has made 8 extract4 ,x is av]r$1 z a matt] ( notoriety1 t "s m5 are =tunate4 ,?\gh fools1 !y are con/antly successful--m s ?an wis] m52 & ?is *>act]i/ic is s /eady1 t m5 c\nt ^u x & d5om9ate !m accord+ly4 7,see ?is g5]al belief illu/rat$ 9 ! debate at ,a!ns record$ by ,?ukydides1 vi4 #ag1 ! good =tune ( ,nikias be+ admitt$ ev5 by 8 oppon5ts47 ,^u :at does ?is good =tune dep5d8 ,^u nature8 ,^u intellig5ce8 ,^u =tune h]self z a special ag5t8 ,^u ! grace & fav\r ( ! gods to ! =tunate individual8 ,ari/otle 7or ,eudemus7 discusses ! problem 9 a long & p]plex$ *apt]1 /at+ ea* hypo!sis1 toge!r ) ! difficulties & objections atta*+ to x4 ,z f> z we c make out f an obscure /yle & a corrupt text1 ! foll[+ is ! result arriv$ at4 ,!re are two v>ieties ( ! =tunate man3 "o is1 he :o succe$s ?r\gh a rightly direct$ impulse1 "u special inspiration ( ! div9e elem5t )9 him & )9 all m52 ! o!r is1 he :o succe$s )\t any su* impulse1 ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( ,=tune prop]4 ,! good =tune ( ! fir/ is m con/ant ?an t ( ! second2 b bo? are alike irrational or extra-rational4#aa ,n[ ! div9e elem5t 9 ! s\l is ! beg9n+ or pr9ciple ( motion = all ! manife/ations 9 ! s\l--= reason z well z feel+3 t :i* calls reason into op]ation1 is some?+ m p[]ful ?an reason4 ,b 9 ! intellig5t man ?is div9e mov] only calls reason into op]ation1 leav+ reason1 :5 once 9 op]ation1 to its own =ce & guidance1 ( c\rse liable to err2 :]eas 9 ! =tunate man 7fir/ v>iety7 ! div9e elem5t inspires all 8 feel+s & volitions1 )\t any rational delib]ation1 s t he executes exactly ! "r ?+ at ! "r "t & place1 & accord+ly succe$s4#ab ,footnote #aa3 ,e?4 ,eudem4 ,,vii4 xiv4 p4 #abdh1 b4 #c3 ,greek3 phan]on de o7_/ti du_/o ei7_/d eu7tu*i_/z1 7 men !i_/a1 dio kai dokei o7 eu7tu*s dia !on kator?\n2 ou7tos d' e7/in o7 kata tn o7rmn dior?tiko_/s1 o7 d' e7_/t]os o7 p>a tn o7rmn2 a7_/logoi d' a7mpho_/t]oi4 kai 7 men sune*s eu7tu*i_/a mallon1 au7_/t d' ou7 sune*_/s4 ,! v>iety ,greek3 o7 p>a tn o7rmn dior?tiko_/s is exemplifi$ 9 ! ,physica 7,,ii4 iv4 p4 #aif1 a4 #d71 :]e ,ari/otle aga9 discusses ,greek3 tu_/*3 ! case ( a man :o comes to ! m>ket-place on 8 ord9>y bus9ess1 & !re by accid5t meets a fri5d :om he p>ticul>ly wi%$ to see1 b :om he nev] dreamt ( see+ !re & !n4 ,footnote #ab3 ,e?4 ,eud4 ,,vii4 xiv4 p4 #abdh1 a4 #bg-cb3 ,greek3 eu7tu*eis kal\ntai1 c4 ,comp>e also ib4 p4 #abdg1 b4 #ah4 ,ari/otle 7or ,eudemus7 ?us obta9s a psy*ological explanation 7good or bad7 ( ! fact1 t !re are fools :o con/antly succe$ 9 _! purposes1 & wise m5 :o frequ5tly fail4 ,he tells u t !re is 9 ! s\l a div9e pr9ciple ( motion1 :i* calls e ?+--reason z well z appetite or feel+--into op]ation4 ,b he says no?+ ( :at ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton ascribes to him--ab\t ,intellect z a sp>k ( ! ,div9ity1 or ab\t data ( ,intellect to be rev]5c$ z ! revelation ( hidd5 tru?s4 ,8 drift is q diff]5t & ev5 opposite3 to acc\nt = ! success ( individuals )\t intellect or reason--to br+ =w>d a div9e elem5t 9 ! s\l1 :i* disp5ses ) intellect1 & :i* conducts ^! un9tellig5t m5 to success1 solely by infus+ ! mo/ opportune feel+s & impulses4 ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton has misund]/ood ?is passage1 by tak+ no notice ( ! context & g5]al argum5t to :i* x belongs4 ,besides1 :5 ,hamilton repres5ts ,ari/otle "h z decl>+3 ,t ! data ( ,intellect are to be rev]5c$ z ! revelation ( tru?s :i* w\ld o!rwise lie hid f man--h[ are we to reconcile ?is ) :at we read two pages be=e 7p4 #gga1 a47 z ! view ( ,ari/otle ab\t ^! same data ( ,intellect1 t !y are !mselves pre-em95tly c]ta92 &1 if d5i$ 9 words1 !y are /ill always m5tally admitt$8 ,is x reasonable to say t ! ,maxim ( ,contradiction1 & ! proposition1 ,t if equals be subtract$ f equals1 ! rema9d]s w be equal--are data to be rev]5c$ z ! revelation ( tru?s :i* w\ld o!rwise lie hid f man8 ,at any rate1 ,i prote/ aga9/ ! supposition t ,ari/otle has ev] decl>$ ?is4 ,! next two passages cit$ f ,ari/otle h really no be>+ ^u ! au?ority ( ,common ,s5se 9 its metaphysical mean+3 !y are 7i7 f ,physic4 ,,viii4 iii4 & 7k7 f ,de ,g54 ,animal4 ,,iii4 x4 ,bo? passages ass]t ! au?ority ( s5sible p]ception aga9/ g5]al reason+1 :]e ! two are conflict+4 ,!y ass]t1 9 o!r words1 t g5]al reason+ ought to be te/$ by exp]i5ce & obs]vation1 & is n to be accept$ :5 disall[$ by ^! te/s4 7,! only condition is1 t ! obs]vation be exact & complete47 ,?is is j1 & is (t5 said1 ?\gh (t5 disreg>d$ 9 fact1 by ,ari/otle4 ,b x has no prop] connexion ) ! problem ab\t ! tru/wor?9ess ( ,common ,s5se4 ,next ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton ref]s u to 7)\t cit+7 ?ree o!r places ( ,ari/otle4 ,( ^!1 ! fir/ 7,de ,coelo1 ,i4 iii4 p4 #bgj1 b4 #d-ac1 m>k$ l7 is "o :i* ,i am mu* surpris$ to f9d 9 a mod]n *ampion ( ,common ,s5se3 s9ce x repres5ts ,common ,s5se z giv+ full c]tificate to errors n[ explod$ & =gott54 ,ari/otle _h begun by lay+ d[n & v9dicat+ 8 doctr9e ( ! ,fir/ or ,cele/ial ,body1 =m+ ! ext]ior portion ( ! ,kosmos1 radically di/9ct f ! f\r elem5ts2 revolv+ et]nally 9 uni=m1 p]fect1 circul> motion1 et]nal1 un*angeable1 c4 ,hav+ /at$ ?is1 he proce$s to affirm t ! results ( ^! reason+s co9cide ) ! common op9ions ( mank9d1 t is1 ) ,common ,s5se2 & t !y are n contradict$ by any kn[n obs]vations ( p]ceptive exp]i5ce4 ,?is illu/rates :at ,i h be=e obs]v$ ab\t ,ari/otle's position 9 reg>d to ,common ,s5se4 ,he does n extol x z an au?ority1 or tell u t x is to be rev]5c$ z a revelation2 b1 :5 he has prov$ a conclusion on :at he ?9ks good gr\nds1 he is glad to be able to %[ t x tallies ) common op9ions2 especially :5 ^! op9ions h "s alliance ) ! receiv$ religion4 ,! next passage 7m7 ref]r$ to 7,de ,coelo1 ,,iii4 vii4 p4 #cjf1 a4 #ac7 has no?+ to d ) ,common ,s5se1 b embodies a v j prote/ by ,ari/otle aga9/ ^? philosoph]s :o foll[$ out _! !ories consi/5tly to all possible consequ5ces1 )\t tr\bl+ !mselves to enquire :e!r ^? consequ5ces 7 9 h>mony ) ! results ( obs]vation4 ,!re foll[s "o o!r ref]5ce 7n7 :i* 0 h>dly wor? ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton's notice4 ,9 ,meteorologic4 ,i4 xiii4 p4 #cdi1 a4 #be1 ,ari/otle1 aft] recit+ a !ory ( "s philosoph]s 7respect+ ! w9ds7 :i* he consid]s v absurd1 !n proce$s to say3--,! _m1 )\t go+ into any enquiry at all1 talk bett] s5se ?an ^? :o aft] enquiry br+ =w>d su* conclusions z ^!4 ,x is n say+ mu* = ! au?ority ( ,common ,s5se1 to affirm t !re h be5 occasionally philosophical !ories s silly z to be worse ?an ,common ,s5se4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,b4--,ari/otle's ,doctr9e4 ,9 reg>d to ,ari/otle1 !re are two po9ts to be exam9$-- ,i4 ,:at position does he take up 9 respect to ! au?ority ( ,common ,s5se8 ,,ii4 ,:at doctr9e does he lay d[n ab\t ! fir/ pr9cipia or beg9n+s ( sci5tific reason+--! ,greek3 a7r*ai sullogi/ikai_/8 ,i4--,t ,ari/otle did n reg>d ,cause1 ,sub/ance1 ,"t1 c41 z ,intuitions1 is %[n by ! subtle & elaborate reason+s t he employs to expla9 !m1 & by ! c5sure t he be/[s on ! errone\s explanations & %ortcom+s ( o!rs4 ,inde$1 9 reg>d to ,causality1 :5 we read ! great & p]plex+ div]sity ( mean+ :i* ,ari/otle 7& ,plato be=e him 9 ! ,phdon7 recognizes z belong+ to ?is t]m1 we _c b be surpris$ to f9d mod]n philosoph]s treat+ x z enunciat+ a simple & intuitive idea4 ,b z to ,common ,s5se--tak+ ! t]m z above expla9$1 & z x is usually und]/ood by ^? t h no p>ticul> !ory to support--,ari/otle takes up a position at once di/9ct & in/ructive2 a position 7to use ! phraseology ( ,kant7 n dogmatical1 b critical4 ,he con/antly notices & reports ! affirmations ( ,common ,s5se2 he speaks ( x ) respect1 & assigns to x a qualifi$ value1 p>tly z help+ u to survey ! subject on all sides1 p>tly z a happy confirmation1 :]e x co9cides ) :at has be5 prov$ o!rwise2 b he does n appeal to x z an au?ority 9 itself tru/wor?y or imp]ative4 ,common ,s5se belongs to ! region ( ,op9ion4 ,n[ ! di/9ction betwe5 matt]s ( ,op9ion on ! "o h&1 & matt]s ( ,sci5ce or ,cognition on ! o!r1 is a m>k$ & *>act]i/ic feature ( ,ari/otle's philosophy4 ,he sets1 9 po9t$ anti!sis1 ,demon/ration1 or ! me?od ( ,sci5ce--:i* divides itself into special subjects1 ea* hav+ "s special pr9cipia ( its own1 !n proce$s by legitimate /eps ( d$uctive reason+ f su* pr9cipia1 & arrives at conclusions sometimes univ]sally true1 always true = ! mo/ "p--aga9/ ,rhetoric & ,dialectic1 :i* deal ) & discuss op9ions ^u all subjects1 comp>+ opposite argum5ts1 & l&+ 9 results m or less probable4 ,contra/+ !m z sep>ate l9es ( intellectual proc$ure1 ,ari/otle lays d[n a !ory ( bo?4 ,he recognizes ! proc$ure ( ,rhetoric & ,dialectic z be+ to a great degree ! common & spontane\s gr[? ( society2 :ile ,demon/ration is f ! beg9n+ special1 n m]ely z to subject1 b z to p]sons1 imply+ tea*] & le>n]4 ,rhetoric & ,dialectic are treat$ by ,ari/otle z analog\s processes4 ,( ! matt] ( op9ion & belief1 ) :i* bo? ( !m deal1 he di/+ui%es ?ree v>ieties3 7#a7 ,op9ions or beliefs ent]ta9$ by all2 7#b7 ,by ! majority2 7#c7 ,by a m9ority ( sup]ior m51 or by "o man 9 respect to a sci5ce :]e9 he has acquir$ r5[n4 ,x is ^! op9ions or beliefs t ! rhetorician & ! dialectician attack & def5d2 br++ out all ! argum5ts available = or aga9/ ea*4 ,! ,ari/otelian treatise on ,rhetoric op5s ) ! foll[+ words3--,rhetoric is ! c\nt]p>t ( ,dialectic2 = bo? ( !m deal ) su* matt]s z d n fall )9 any special sci5ce1 b belong 9 a c]ta9 way to ! common k ( all4 ,h5ce e individual has 8 %>e ( bo?1 great] or less2 = e "o c1 up to a c]ta9 po9t1 bo? exam9e o!rs & /& exam9ation f o!rs2 e "o tries to def5d himself & to accuse o!rs4#ac ,to ! same purpose ,ari/otle speaks ab\t ,dialectic1 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! ,topica3--,! dialectical syllogism takes its premisses f matt]s ( op9ion1 t is1 f matt]s t seem good to 7or are believ$ by7 all1 or ! majority1 or ! wise--ei!r all ! wise1 or mo/ ( !m1 or ! mo/ celebrat$4 ,ari/otle di/+ui%es ^! matt]s ( common op9ion or belief f ?ree di/9ct o!r matt]s3--7#a7 ,f matt]s t are n really su*1 b only 9 appe>ance2 9 :i* ! smalle/ att5tion suffices to detect ! false pret5ce ( probability1 :ile no "o except a cont5ti\s ,sophi/ ev] ?9ks ( advanc+ !m2 on ! contr>y1 ! real matt]s ( common belief are nev] ?us palpably false1 b h always some?+ deep] ?an a sup]ficial %[2 7#b7 ,f ! fir/ tru?s or pr9cipia1 ^u :i* sci5tific demon/ration proce$s2 7#c7 ,f ! p>alogisms1 or fallaci\s assumptions 7,greek3 pseudograph_/mata71 liable to occur 9 ea* p>ticul> sci5ce4 ,n[ :at ,ari/otle "h designates & def9es z matt]s ( common op9ion & belief 7,greek3 ta e7_/ndoxa7 includes all t is usually meant1 & prop]ly meant1 by ,common ,s5se--:at is believ$ by all m5 or by mo/ m54 ,b ,ari/otle does n claim any w>rant or au?ority = ! tru? ( ^! beliefs1 on ! gr\nd ( _! be+ deliv]ances ( ,common ,s5se1 & accept$ 7by all or by ! majority7 always z indisputable1 (t5 z self-evid5t4 ,on ! contr>y1 he ranks !m z m]e probabilities1 "s 9 a great]1 "s 9 a less degree2 z matt]s :]eon some?+ may be said bo? pro & con1 & :]eon ! full =ce ( argum5t on bo? sides ought to be br\ght out1 not)/&+ ! suppos$ self-evid5ce 9 ! m9ds ( unsci5tific believ]s4 ,?\gh1 h[ev]1 he enc\rages ?is dialectical discussion on bo? sides z useful & in/ructive1 he nev] affirms t x c by itself lead to c]ta9 sci5tific conclusions1 or to any?+ m ?an /rong probability on a balance ( ! c\nt]vail+ consid]ations4 ,! language t he uses 9 speak+ ( ^! deliv]ances ( ,common ,s5se is measur$ & j4 ,aft] di/+ui%+ ! real ,common ,op9ion f ! fallaci\s simulations ( ,common ,op9ion set up 7accord+ to him7 by "s pret5d]s1 he decl>es t 9 all cases ( ,common ,op9ion !re is always some?+ m ?an a m]e sup]ficial appe>ance ( tru?4 ,9 o!r words1 :]ev] any op9ion is really held by a l>ge public1 x always des]ves ! scrut9y ( ! philosoph] to asc]ta9 h[ f> x is errone\s1 &1 if x be errone\s1 by :at appe>ances ( reason x has be5 enabl$ s f> to prevail4 ,footnote #ac3 ,ari/ot4 ,rhetor4 ,i4 i4 p4 #aced1 a4 #a4 ,comp>e ,sophi/4 ,el5*4 xi4 p4 #agb1 a4 #cj4 ,aga91 at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,topica 79 :i* he gives bo? a !ory & precepts ( dialectical debate71 ,ari/otle specifies f\r diff]5t ends to be s]v$ by t treatise4 ,x w be useful 7he says7-- #a4 ,= our own practice 9 ! "w ( debate4 ,if we acquire a me?od & sy/em1 we %all f9d x easi] to conduct a debate on any new subject1 :5ev] su* debate may arise4 #b4 ,= our daily int]c\rse ) ! ord9>y public4 ,:5 we h made = ourselves a full collection ( ! op9ions held by ! _m1 we %all c>ry on our conv]sation ) !m out ( _! own doctr9es1 & n out ( doctr9es =eign to _! m9ds2 we %all ?us be able to br+ !m r\nd on any matt] :]e we ?9k !m 9 error4 #c4 ,= ! sci5ces belong+ to philosophy4 ,by discuss+ ! difficulties on bo? sides1 we %all m easily discrim9ate tru? & falsehood 9 ea* sep>ate sci5tific "q4 #d4 ,= ! fir/ & highe/ among ! pr9cipia ( ea* p>ticul> sci5ce4 ,^!1 s9ce !y are ! fir/ & highe/ ( all1 _c be discuss$ out ( pr9cipia special & peculi> to any sep>ate sci5ce2 b mu/ be discuss$ ?r\gh ! op9ions commonly receiv$ on ! subject-matt] ( ea*4 ,?is is ! ma9 prov9ce ( ,dialectic2 :i*1 be+ ess5tially te/+ & critical1 is connect$ by "s ?reads ) ! pr9cipia ( all ! v>i\s sci5tific rese>*es4 ,we see ?us t ,ari/otle's language ab\t ,common ,op9ion or ,common ,s5se is v gu>d$2 t1 in/ead ( cit+ x z an au?ority1 he c>efully discrim9ates x f ,sci5ce1 & places x decid$ly on a level l[] ?an ,sci5ce1 9 respect ( evid5ce2 yet t he recognizes x z ess5tial to be /udi$ by ! sci5tific man1 ) full confrontation ( all ! reason+s bo? = & aga9/ e op9ion2 n m]ely because su* /udy w enable ! sci5tific man to /udy & conv]se intelligibly & efficaci\sly ) ! vulg>1 b also because x w %>p5 8 disc]nm5t = ! tru?s ( 8 own sci5ce1 & because x furni%es ! only mat]ials = te/+ & limit+ ! fir/ pr9cipia ( t sci5ce4 ,,ii4 ,we w next adv]t to ! judgm5t ( ,ari/otle respect+ ^! pr9cipia ( sci5ce3 h[ he supposes !m to be acquir$ & v]ifi$4 ,he discrim9ates v>i\s special sci5ces 7geometry1 ari?metic1 a/ronomy1 c471 ea* ( :i* has its own appropriate matt]1 & special pr9cipia f :i* x takes its dep>ture4 ,b !re are also c]ta9 pr9cipia common to !m all2 & ^! he consid]s to fall "u ! cognizance ( "o gr& compreh5sive sci5ce1 :i* includes all ! re/2 ,fir/ ,philosophy or ,ontology--! sci5ce ( ,ens 9 its mo/ g5]al s5se1 quat5us ,ens2 :ile ea* ( ! sep>ate sci5ces conf9es itself to "o exclusive dep>tm5t ( ,ens4 ,! geomet] does n debate nor prove ! fir/ pr9cipia ( 8 own sci5ce2 nei!r ^? t x has 9 common ) o!r sci5ces1 nor ^? peculi> to itself4 ,he takes ^! = grant$1 & demon/rates ! consequ5ces t logically foll[ f !m4 ,x belongs to ! ,fir/ ,philosoph] to discuss ! pr9cipia ( all4 ,accord+ly1 ! prov9ce ( ! ,fir/ ,philosoph] is all-compreh5sive1 co-ext5sive ) all ! sci5ces4 ,s also is ! prov9ce ( ! ,dialectician alike all-compreh5sive4 ,?us f> ! two agree2 b !y diff] z to me?od & purpose4 ,! ,dialectician seeks to en=ce1 confront1 & value all ! diff]5t reasons pro & con1 consi/5t & inconsi/5t2 ! ,fir/ ,philosoph] p]=ms ?is too1 or supposes x to be p]=m$ by o!rs1 b proce$s f>!r3 namely1 to det]m9e c]ta9 ,axioms t may be tru/$ z sure gr\nds 7along ) c]ta9 o!r pr9cipia7 = demon/rative conclusions 9 sci5ce4 ,ari/otle describes 9 8 ,analytica ! process ( ,demon/ration1 & ! conditions requir$ to r5d] x valid4 ,b :at is ! po9t ( dep>ture = ?is process8 ,ari/otle decl>es t !re _c be a regress )\t end1 demon/rat+ "o conclusion f c]ta9 premisses1 !n demon/rat+ ^? premisses f o!rs1 & s on4 ,y mu/ arrive ultimately at "s premisses t are !mselves undemon/rable1 b t may be tru/$ z gr\nd f :5ce to />t 9 demon/rat+ conclusions4 ,all demon/ration is c>ri$ on ?r\gh a middle t]m1 :i* l9ks toge!r ! two t]ms ( ! conclusion1 ?\gh itself does n appe> 9 ! conclusion4 ,^? undemon/rable propositions1 f :i* demon/ration beg9s1 mu/ be kn[n )\t a middle t]m1 t is1 imm$iately kn[n2 !y mu/ be kn[n 9 !mselves1 t is1 n ?r\gh any o!r propositions2 !y mu/ be bett] kn[n ?an ! conclusions d]iv$ f !m2 !y mu/ be propositions fir/ & mo/ kn[able4 ,b ^! two la/ epi!ts 7,ari/otle (t5 repeats7 h two mean+s3 fir/ & mo/ kn[able by nature or absolutely1 are ! mo/ univ]sal propositions2 fir/ & mo/ kn[able to u1 are ^? propositions decl>+ ! p>ticul> facts ( s5se4 ,^! two mean+s designate tru?s correlative to ea* o!r1 b at opposite ends ( ! intellectual l9e ( m>*4 ,( ^! undemon/rable pr9cipia1 indisp5sable z ! gr\nds ( all ,demon/ration1 "s are peculi> to ea* sep>ate sci5ce1 o!rs are common to sev]al or to all sci5ces4 ,^! common pr9ciples 7 call$ ,axioms1 9 ma!matics1 ev5 9 ! "t ( ,ari/otle4 ,sometimes1 inde$1 he designates !m z ,axioms1 )\t any special ref]5ce to ma!matics2 ?\gh he also uses ! same "n to d5ote o!r propositions1 n ( ! l fundam5tal "*4 ,n[1 h[ d we come to "k ^! undemon/rable ,axioms & o!r imm$iate propositions or pr9cipia1 s9ce we d n knew !m by demon/ration8 ,?is is ! second "q to be answ]$1 9 appreciat+ ,ari/otle's views ab\t ! ,philosophy ( ,common ,s5se4 ,he is v explicit 9 8 way ( answ]+ ?is "q4 ,he pron\nces x absurd to suppose t ^! imm$iate pr9cipia are innate or cong5ital1--9 o!r words1 t we possess !m f ! beg9n+1 & yet t we rema9 = a long "t )\t any consci\sness ( possess+ !m2 see+ t !y are ! mo/ accurate ( all our cognitions4 ,:at we possess at ! beg9n+ 7,ari/otle says7 is only a m5tal p[] ( inf]ior accuracy & dignity4 ,we1 z well z all o!r animals1 beg9 ) a cong5ital discrim9ative p[] call$ s5sible p]ception4 ,) _m animals1 ! data ( p]ception are transi5t1 & soon disappe> altoge!r1 s t ! cognition ( su* animals consi/s 9 no?+ b successive acts ( s5sible p]ception4 ,) u1 on ! contr>y1 z ) "s o!r animals1 ! data ( p]ception are pres]v$ by memory2 accord+ly our cognitions include bo? p]ceptions & remembrances4 ,f>!rmore1 we are di/+ui%$ ev5 f ! bett] animals by ?is diff]5ce--t ) u1 b n ) !m1 a rational ord] ( ?\ght gr[s out ( su* data ( p]ception1 :5 multipli$ & long pres]v$4 ,& ?us out ( p]ception gr[s memory2 out ( memory ( ! same matt] (t5 repeat$ gr[s exp]i5ce1 s9ce _m remembrances ( ! same ?+ con/itute "o num]ical exp]i5ce4 ,out ( su* exp]i5ce1 a f>!r consequ5ce arises1 t :at is "o & ! same 9 all ! p>ticul>s1 7! ,univ]sal or ! ,"o alongside ( ! ,_m71 becomes fix$ or re/s /eadily )9 ! m9d4 ,h]e9 lies ! pr9cipium ( ,art1 9 ref]5ce to ,ag5da or ,faci5da--( ,sci5ce1 9 ref]5ce to ,entia4 ,?us ^! cognitive pr9cipia are n orig9al & det]m9ate possessions ( ! m9d1 nor d !y spr+ f any o!r m5tal possessions ( a high] cognitive ord]1 b simply f data ( s5sible p]ception2 :i* data are l runaway soldi]s 9 a panic1 fir/ "o /ops 8 flight & halts1 !n a second foll[s ! example1 aft]w>ds a ?ird & f\r?1 until at l5g? an ord]ly array is obta9$4 ,our m9ds are s con/itut$ z to r5d] ?is possible4 ,if a s+le individual impression is ?us deta9$1 x w pres5tly acquire ! "* ( a ,univ]sal 9 ! m9d2 =1 ?\gh we p]ceive ! p>ticul>1 our p]ception is ( ! ,univ]sal 7i4e41 :5 we p]ceive ,kallias1 our p]ception is ( man g5]ally1 n ( ! man ,kallias74 ,aga9 ! fixture ( ^! l[e/ ,univ]sals 9 ! m9d w br+ 9 ^? ( ! next highe/ ord]2 until at l5g? ! ,summa ,g5]a & ! absolute ,univ]sals acquire a /eady e/abli%m5t !re94 ,?us1 f ?is or t p>ticul> animal1 we %all rise z high z ,animal univ]sally2 & s on f ,animal upw>ds4 ,we ?us see cle>ly 7,ari/otle says7 t only by ,induction c we come to "k ! fir/ pr9cipia ( ,demon/ration2 = x is by ?is process t s5sible p]ception engraves ! ,univ]sal on our m9ds4#ad ,we beg9 by ! notiora nobis 7,p>ticul>s71 & asc5d to ! notiora natur or simplicit] 7,univ]sals74 ,"s among our m5tal habits t are conv]sant ) tru?1 are also capable ( falsehood 7su* z ,op9ion & ,reason+73 o!rs are n s capable1 b embrace uni=mly tru? & no?+ b tru?2 su* are ,sci5ce & ,intellect 7,greek3 ,n\s74 ,intellect is ! only s\rce m accurate ?an ,sci5ce4 ,n[ ! pr9cipia ( ,demon/ration are m accurate ?an ! demon/rations !mselves1 yet !y _c 7z we h already obs]v$7 be ! objects ( ,sci5ce4 ,!y mu/ !re=e be ! object ( :at is m accurate ?an ,sci5ce1 namely1 ( ,intellect4 ,intellect & ! objects ( ,intellect w ?us be ! pr9cipia ( ,sci5ce & ( ! objects ( ,sci5ce4 ,b ^! pr9ciples are n intuitive data or revelations4 ,!y are acquisitions gradually made2 & !re is a regul> road :]eby we travel up to !m1 q di/9ct f ! road :]eby we travel d[n f !m to sci5tific conclusions4 ,footnote #ad3 ,ari/ot4 ,anal4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 p4 #ajj1 b4 #c3 ,greek3 dlon d o7_/ti 7min ta prta e7pagg gnri_/ze9 a7nagkaion2 kai gar kai ai7_//hsis ou7_/t to ka?o_/l\ e7mpoiei2 also ibid4 ,i4 xviii41 p4 #ha1 b4 #c1 ^u :i* passage ,waitz1 9 8 note1 expla9s z foll[s 7p4 #cdg73--,s5t5tia no/ri loci hc e/4 ,univ]sales propositiones omnes inductione comp>antur1 quum etiam 9 iis1 qu a s5sibus maxime ali5a vid5tur1 et qu1 ut ma!matica 7,greek3 ta e7x a7phaire_/ses71 cogitatione sep>antur a mat]ia quacum conjuncta sunt1 inductione prob5tur ea qu de g5]e 7e4g41 de l9ea vel de corpore ma!matico71 ad quod demon/ratio p]t9eat1 prdic5tur ,greek3 ka?' au7ta_/ et cum ejus natura conjuncta s9t4 ,inductio autem iis nititur qu s5sibus p]cipiuntur3 nam res s+ul>es s5tiuntur1 sci5tia v]o r]um s+ul>ium non datur s9e inductione1 non datur inductio s9e s5su4 ,! *apt] j indicat$ 9 ! ,analytica ,po/]iora1 atte/+ ! gr[? ( ^? univ]sals t =m ! pr9cipia ( demon/ration out ( ! p>ticul>s ( s5se1 may be illu/rat$ by a simil> /atem5t 9 ! ,fir/ ,book ( ! ,metaphysica4 ,"h1 aft] /at+ t s5sible p]ception is common to all animals1 ,ari/otle di/+ui%es ! l[e/ among animals1 :o h ?is alone2 !n1 a class next above !m1 :o h x along ) phantasy & memory1 & "s ( :om are intellig5t 7l bees71 yet /ill _c le>n1 f be+ de/itute ( he>+2 f>!r ano!r class1 "o /age high]1 :o he>1 & !re=e c be taught some?+1 yet arrive only at a scanty sum ( exp]i5ce2 la/ly1 /ill high]1 ! class m51 :o possess a l>ge /ock ( phantasy1 memory1 & exp]i5ce1 fructify+ into sci5ce & art4#ae ,exp]i5ce 7,ari/otle says7 is ( p>ticul> facts2 ,art & ,sci5ce are ( ,univ]sals4 ,art is atta9$1 :5 out ( _m conceptions ( exp]i5ce !re arises "o univ]sal p]suasion respect+ ph5om5a simil> to ea* o!r4 ,we may "k t ,kallias1 sick ( a c]ta9 disease--t ,sokrates1 likewise sick ( x--t ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 & o!r individuals besides1 h be5 cur$ by a giv5 rem$y2 b ?is p]suasion respect+ ev] s _m individual cases1 is m]e matt] ( exp]i5ce4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we proce$ to g5]alize ^! cases1 & !n affirm t ! rem$y cures all p]sons suff]+ "u ! same disease1 circumscrib$ by specific m>ks--fev] or bili\sness--?is is ,art or ,sci5ce4 ,"o man may "k ! p>ticul> cases empirically1 )\t hav+ g5]aliz$ !m into a doctr9e2 ano!r may h le>nt ! g5]al doctr9e1 ) little or no k ( ! p>ticul> cases4 ,( ^! two1 ! la/ is ! wis] & m philosophical man2 b ! fir/ may be ! m effective & successful z a practition]4 ,footnote #ae3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaphys4 ,a4 i4 p4 #ihj1 a4 #bf1 seq43 ,greek3 phro_/nima men a7_/neu t\ man?a_/ne91 o7_/sa m du_/natai tn pso_/phn a7k\_/e91 oi7on me_/litta1 kai ei7_/ ti toi\ton a7_/llo ge_/nos z_/n e7_//94 ,we rem>k "h ! l9e t he draws betwe5 ! intellig5ce ( bees--dep5d+ altoge!r ^u s5se1 memory1 & exp]i5ce--& ! high] intellig5ce :i* is sup]add$ by ! use ( language2 :5 x becomes possible to tea* & le>n1 & :5 g5]al conceptions c be br\ght into view ?r\gh appropriate names4 ,9 ! passage above notic$1 ,ari/otle draws ! l9e ( intellectual di/9ction betwe5 man & ! l[] animals4 ,if he _h consid]$ t x 0 ! pr]ogative ( man to possess a /ock ( intuitive g5]al tru?s1 ready-made1 & indep5d5t ( exp]i5ce1 ?is 0 ! occasion = say+ s4 ,he says ! exact contr>y4 ,no mod]n psy*ologi/ c\ld proclaim m fully ?an ,ari/otle "h does ! d]ivation ( all g5]al concepts & g5]al propositions f ! ph5om5a ( s5se1 ?r\gh ! successive /ages ( memory1 association1 comp>ison1 ab/raction4 ,no "o c\ld give a m explicit ackn[l$gm5t ( ,induction f p>ticul>s ( s5se1 z ! process :]eby we rea* ultimately ^? propositions ( ! highe/ univ]sality1 z well z ( ! highe/ c]ta9ty2 f :5ce1 by legitimate d$uctive syllogism1 we desc5d to demon/rate v>i\s conclusions4 ,!re is no?+ 9 ,ari/otle ab\t g5]alities orig9ally inh]5t 9 ! m9d1 connate al?\gh dormant at fir/ & unkn[n1 until !y are evok$ or elicit$ by ! s5ses2 no?+ to c\nt5ance t nice di/9ction eulogiz$ s emphatically by ,hamilton 7p4 #ggb1 a4 note73 ,cognitio no/ra omnis m5te primam orig9em1 s5sibus exordium habet primum4 ,9 ,ari/otle's view1 ! s5ses furni% bo? orig9em & exordium3 ! successive /ages ( m5tal proc$ure1 :]eby we rise f s5se to univ]sal propositions1 are multipli$ & gradual1 )\t any break4 ,he ev5 goes s f> z to say t we h s5sible p]ception ( ! ,univ]sal4 ,8 language und\bt$ly calls = mu* criticism "h4 ,we %all only say t x disc\nt5ances altoge!r ! doctr9e t repres5ts ! ,m9d or ,intellect z an orig9al s\rce ( ,fir/ or ,univ]sal ,tru?s peculi> to itself4 ,t op9ion is m5tion$ by ,ari/otle1 b m5tion$ only to be reject$4 ,he d5ies t ! m9d possesses any su* ready-made /ores1 lat5t until elicit$ into consci\sness4 ,moreov]1 x is rem>kable t ! gr\nd :]eon he d5ies x is mu* ! same z t :]eon ! advocates ( intuitions affirm x1 viz41 ! supreme accuracy ( ^! axioms4 ,ari/otle _c believe t ! m9d includes cognitions ( su* value1 )\t be+ consci\s !re(4 ,nor w he grant t ! m9d possesses any native & inh]5t p[] ( orig9at+ ^! ine/imable pr9cipia4#af ,he decl>es t !y are g5]at$ 9 ! m9d only by ! sl[ process ( induction1 z above describ$2 beg9n+ f ! p]ceptive p[] 7common to man ) animals71 toge!r ) t fir/ /age ( ! intellig5ce 7judg+ or discrim9ative7 :i* he comb9es or id5tifies ) p]ception1 consid]+ x to be alike cong5ital4 ,f ?is humble basis m5 c rise to ! highe/ grades ( cognition1 ?\gh animals _c4 ,we ev5 become compet5t 7,ari/otle says7 to h s5sible p]ception ( ! ,univ]sal2 9 ! man ,kallias1 we see ,man2 9 ! ox fe$+ ne> u1 we see ,animal4 ,footnote #af3 ,ari/ot4 ,anal4 ,po/4 ,,ii4 xix4 p4 #ii1 b4 #bf3 ,greek3 ei7 men d e7_/*om5 au7ta_/s1 a7_/topon2 sumbai_/nei gar a7kribe/e_/ras e7_/*ontas gn_/seis a7podei_/xes lan?a_/ne94--phan]on toi_/nun o7_/ti ou7_/t' e7_/*e9 oi7o_/n te1 ou7_/t' a7gno\si kai mdemi_/an e7_/*\s9 e7_/x9 e7ggi_/ne/hai4 a7na_/gk a7_/ra e7_/*e9 me_/n t9a du_/nam91 m toiau_/tn d' e7_/*e9 7 e7_//ai t\_/tn timite_/ra kat' a7kri_/beian4 ,see ,metaphys4 ,a4 ix4 p4 #iic1 a4 #a4 ,"s mod]n psy*ologi/s1 :o admit t g5]al propositions ( a l[] degree ( univ]sality are rais$ f induction & s5se1 cont5d t propositions ( ! highe/ univ]sality are n s rais$1 b are ! intuitive (fspr+ ( ! intellect4 ,ari/otle does n c\nt5ance su* a doctr9e3 he says 7,metaphys4 ,a4 ii4 p4 #ihb1 a4 #be7 t ^! tru?s fur!/ remov$ f s5se are ! mo/ difficult to "k ( all4 ,if !y 7 intuitions !y w\ld be ! common possession ( ! race4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t1 :5 ,ari/otle1 9 ?is analysis ( cognition1 speaks ( ,induction1 he means induction completely & accurately p]=m$2 j z1 :5 he talks ( ,demon/ration1 he int5ds a good & legitimate demon/ration2 & j z 7to use 8 own illu/ration 9 ! ,nikoma*ean ,e?ica71 :5 he reasons ^u a h>p]1 or o!r pr(essional arti/1 he always tacitly implies a good & accompli%$ arti/4 ,induction ?us und]/ood1 & ,demon/ration1 he consid]s to be ! two processes = obta9+ sci5tific fai? or conviction2 bo? ( !m be+ alike cog5t & necess>y1 b ,induction ev5 m s ?an ,demon/ration2 because1 if ! pr9cipia furni%$ by ! =m] 7 n necess>y1 nei!r c\ld ! conclusions d$uc$ f !m by ! latt] be necess>y4 ,induction may ?us /& alone )\t ,demon/ration1 b ,demon/ration pre-supposes & po/ulates ,induction4 ,accord+ly1 :5 ,ari/otle proce$s to specify ^? functions ( m9d :]e) ! inductive pr9cipia & ! demon/rat$ conclusions correlate1 he ref]s bo? ( !m to functions :]e9 7accord+ to him7 ! m9d is un]r+ & infallible--,intellect 7,greek3 ,n\s7 & ,sci5ce4 ,b1 betwe5 ^! two he ranks ,intellect z ! high]1 & he ref]s ! inductive pr9cipia to ,intellect4 ,he does n mean t ,intellect 7,greek3 ,n\s7 g5]ates or produces ^! pr9ciples4 ,on ! contr>y1 he di/9ctly negatives su* a supposition1 & decl>es t no g5]ative =ce ( ?is high ord] resides 9 ! ,intellect2 :ile he tells u1 ) equal di/9ctness1 t !y are g5]at$ f a l[] s\rce--s5sible p]ception1 & ?r\gh ! gradual upw>d m>* ( ! inductive process4 ,to say t !y orig9ate f ,s5se ?r\gh ,induction1 & nev]!less to ref] !m to ,intellect 7,greek3 ,n\s7 z _! subjective correlate1--are n positions inconsi/5t ) ea* o!r1 9 ! view ( ,ari/otle4 ,he expressly di/+ui%es ! two po9ts1 z requir+ to be sep>ately dealt )4 ,by ref]r+ ! pr9cipia to ,intellect 7,greek3 ,n\s71 he does n int5d to indicate _! g5]at+ s\rce1 b _! evid5ti>y value & dignity :5 g5]at$ & matur$4 ,!y possess1 9 8 view1 ! maximum ( dignity1 c]ta9ty1 cog5cy1 & necessity1 because x is f !m t ev5 ,demon/ration d]ives ! necessity ( its conclusions2 accord+ly 7pursuant to ! incl9ation ( ! anci5t philosoph]s = presum+ aff9ity & comm5surate dignity betwe5 ! cognitum & ! cognosc5s71 !y belong z objective correlates to ! mo/ un]r+ cognitive function--! ,intellect 7,greek3 ,n\s74 ,x is ! ,intellect t grasps ^! pr9ciples1 & applies !m to _! legitimate purpose ( sci5tific demon/ration2 h5ce ,ari/otle calls ,intellect n only ! pr9cipium ( ,sci5ce1 b ! pr9cipium pr9cipii4 ,9 ! ,analytica1 f :i* we h hi!rto cit$1 ,ari/otle expla9s ! /ructure ( ! ,syllogism & ! process ( ,demon/ration4 ,he has 9 view ma9ly 7?\gh n exclusively7 ! m exact sci5ces1 ari?metic1 geometry1 a/ronomy1 c4 ,b he expressly tells u t all dep>tm5ts ( inquiry are n capable ( ?is exactness2 t "s come ne>] to x ?an o!rs2 t we mu/ be c>eful to require no m exactness f ea* ?an ! subject admits2 & t ! me?od adopt$ by u mu/ be su* z w atta9 ! admissible maximum ( exactness4 ,n[ ea* subject has "s pr9cipia1 & among !m def9itions1 peculi> to itself2 ?\gh !re are also "s pr9cipia common to all1 & ess5tial to ! m>* ( ea*4 ,9 "s dep>tm5ts ( /udy 7,ari/otle says7 we get our view ( pr9cipia or fir/ pr9ciples by induction2 9 o!rs1 by s5sible p]ception2 9 o!rs aga91 by habitual action 9 a c]ta9 way2 & by v>i\s o!r processes also4 ,9 ea*1 x is important to look = fir/ pr9ciples 9 ! way naturally appropriate to ! matt] be=e u2 = ?is is m ?an half ( ! :ole "w2 ^u "r fir/ pr9ciples w ma9ly dep5d ! value ( our conclusions4 ,= :at conc]ns ,e?ics1 ,ari/otle tells u t ! fir/ pr9ciples are acquir$ ?r\gh a c\rse ( well-direct$ habitual action2 & t !y w be acquir$ easily1 z well z c]ta9ly1 if su* a c\rse be en=c$ on y\? f ! beg9n+4 ,9 ! beg9n+ ( ! ,physica1 he />ts f t anti!sis1 s (t5 f\nd 9 8 writ+s1 betwe5 :at is m kn[able to u & :at is m kn[able absolutely or by nature4 ,! natural m>* ( k is to asc5d f ! fir/ ( ^! two t]m9i 7p>ticul>s ( s5se7 upw>d to ! second or opposite1#ag & !n to desc5d d[nw>d by demon/ration or d$uction4 ,! fact ( motion he proves 7aga9/ ,melissus & ,p>m5ides7 by an express appeal to induction1 z suffici5t & conclusive evid5ce4 ,9 physical sci5ce 7he says7 ! f9al appeal mu/ be to ! ?+s & facts p]ceiv$ by s5se4 ,9 ! treatise ,de ,coelo he lays x d[n t ! pr9cipia mu/ be homog5e\s ) ! matt]s !y belong to3 ! pr9cipia ( p]ceivable matt]s mu/ be !mselves p]ceivable2 ^? ( et]nal matt]s mu/ be et]nal2 ^? ( p]i%able matt]s1 p]i%able4 ,footnote #ag3 ,see also ,ari/ot4 ,metaphys4 ,z4 iv4 p4 #ajbi1 b4 #a-ad4 ,! treatises compos+ ! ,organon /& ap>t among ,ari/otle's works4 ,9 !m he und]takes 7= ! fir/ "t 9 ! hi/ory ( mank9d7 ! sy/ematic /udy ( significant propositions enunciative ( tru? & falsehood4 ,he analyses _! con/itu5t elem5ts2 he specifies ! conditions det]m9+ ! consi/5cy or inconsi/5cy ( su* propositions "o ) ano!r2 he tea*es to arrange ! propositions 9 su* ways z to detect & dismiss ! inconsi/5t1 keep+ our hold ( ! consi/5t4 ,"h ! signification ( t]ms & propositions is nev] out ( sight3 ! facts & realities ( nature are reg>d$ z s signifi$4 ,n[ all language becomes significant only ?r\gh ! conv5tion ( mank9d1 accord+ to ,ari/otle's express decl>ation3 x is us$ by speak]s to communicate :at !y mean to he>]s t und]/& !m4 ,we see ?us t 9 ^! treatises ! subjective po9t ( view is br\ght into ! =egr\nd--! enunciation ( :at we see1 rememb]1 believe1 disbelieve1 d\bt1 anticipate1 c4 ,x is n meant t ! objective po9t ( view is elim9at$1 b t x is tak5 9 implication )1 & 9 dep5d5ce ^u1 ! subjective4 ,nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r is dropp$ or hidd54 ,x is "u ?is d\ble & conjo9t po9t ( view t ,ari/otle1 9 ! ,organon1 pres5ts to u1 n only ! processes ( demon/ration & confutation1 b also ! fundam5tal pr9cipia or axioms !re(2 :i* axioms 9 ! ,analytica ,po/]iora 7z we h already se57 he expressly decl>es to orig9ate f ! data ( s5se1 & to be rais$ & g5]aliz$ by induction4 ,su* is ! way t ,ari/otle repres5ts ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( syllogi/ic ,demon/ration1 :5 he deals ) !m z portions ( ,logic4 ,b we also f9d him deal+ ) !m z portions ( ,ontology or ,fir/ ,philosophy 7?is be+ 8 mann] ( *>act]iz+ 8 own treatise1 n[ commonly kn[n z ! ,metaphysica74 ,to t sci5ce he decides1 aft] "s prelim9>y debate1 t ! task ( =mulat+ & def5d+ ! axioms belongs1 because ! application ( ^! axioms is q univ]sal1 = all grades & v>ieties ( ,entia4 ,ontology treats ( ,ens 9 its l>ge/ s5se1 ) all its prop]ties quat5us ,ens1 includ+ ,unum1 ,multa1 ,idem1 ,div]sum1 ,po/]ius1 ,prius1 ,g5us1 ,species1 ,totum1 ,p>tes1 c4 ,n[ ,ontology is ) ,ari/otle a purely objective sci5ce2 t is1 a sci5ce :]e9 ! subjective is dropt out ( sight & no acc\nt tak5 ( x1 or :]e9 7to /ate ! same fact 9 ! language ( relativity7 ! believ+ & reason+ subject is suppos$ con/ant4 ,ontology is ! mo/ compreh5sive among all ! objective sci5ces4 ,ea* ( ^! sci5ces s+les out a c]ta9 portion ( x = special /udy4 ,9 treat+ ! logical axioms z portions ( ,ontology1 ,ari/otle und]takes to %[ _! objective value2 & ?is purpose1 :ile x c>ries him away f ! po9t ( view t we rem>k$ z prevail+ 9 ! ,organon1 at ! same "t br+s him into conflict ) v>i\s !ories1 all ( !m 9 8 "t m or less curr5t4 ,sev]al philosoph]s--,h]akleitus1 ,anaxagoras1 ,demokritus1 ,protagoras--_h prop\nd$ !ories :i* ,ari/otle "h impugns4 ,we d n mean t ^! philosoph]s expressly d5i$ 8 fundam5tal axioms 7:i* !y probably nev] di/9ctly /at$ to !mselves1 & :i* ,ari/otle 0 ! fir/ to =mulate71 b _! !ories 7 to a c]ta9 ext5t inconsi/5t ) ^! axioms1 & 7 reg>d$ by ,ari/otle z :olly inconsi/5t4 ,! two ,axioms ann\nc$ 9 ! ,metaphysica1 & v9dicat$ by ,ari/otle1 are-- #a4 ,! ,maxim ( ,contradiction3 ,x is impossible = ! same ?+ to be & n to be2 ,x is impossible = ! same to belong & n to belong to ! same1 at ! same "t & 9 ! same s5se4 ,?is is ! /atem5t ( ! ,maxim z a =mula ( ,ontology4 ,ann\nc$ z a =mula ( ,logic1 x w\ld /& ?us3 ,! same proposition _c be bo? true & false at ! same "t2 ,y _c bo? believe & disbelieve ! same proposition at ! same "t2 ,y _c believe1 at ! same "t1 propositions contr>y or contradictory4 ,^! la/-m5tion$ =mulae are ! logical ways ( /at+ ! axiom4 ,!y pres5t x 9 ref]5ce to ! believ+ or disbeliev+ 7affirm+ or d5y+7 subject1 di/9ctly br\ght to view along ) ! matt] believ$2 n exclusively 9 ref]5ce to ! matt] believ$1 to ! omission ( ! believ]4 #b4 ,! ,maxim ( ,exclud$ ,middle3 ,a giv5 attribute ei!r does belong1 or does n belong to a subject 7i4e41 provid$ t x has any relation to ! subject at all7--!re is no m$ium1 no real condition int]m$iate betwe5 ! two4 ,?is is ! ontological =mula2 & x w /& ?us1 :5 translat$ into ,logic3 ,betwe5 a proposition & its contradictory opposite !re is no t5able halt+ gr\nd2 ,if y disbelieve ! "o1 y mu/ pass at once to ! belief ( ! o!r--y _c at ! same "t disbelieve ! o!r4 ,^! two maxims ?us tea*--! fir/1 t we _c at ! same "t believe bo? a proposition & its contradictory opposite2 ! second1 t we _c at ! same "t disbelieve !m bo?4#ah ,footnote #ah3 ,we h "h discuss$ ^! two maxims *iefly 9 ref]5ce to ,ari/otle's mann] ( pres5t+ !m1 & to ! conceptions ( 8 pr$ecessors & contempor>ies4 ,an excell5t view ( ! ,maxims !mselves1 9 _! true mean+ & value1 w be f\nd 9 ,mr4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill's ,exam9ation ( ! ,philosophy ( ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton1 *4 xxi4 pp4 #djf-dba4 ,n[1 ,h]akleitus1 9 8 !ory 7a !ory prop\nd$ mu* be=e ! "t ( ,protagoras & ! p]sons call$ ,sophi/s71 d5i$ all p]man5ce or durability 9 nature1 & recogniz$ no?+ except p]petual movem5t & *ange4 ,he d5i$ bo? durable sub/ances & durable attributes2 he consid]$ no?+ to be la/+ except ! univ]sal law or pr9ciple ( *ange--! ev]-r5ew$ junction or co-exi/5ce ( contr>ies & ! p]petual transition ( "o contr>y into ! o!r4 ,?is view ( ! facts ( nature 0 adopt$ by sev]al o!r physical philosoph]s besides4#ai ,inde$ x lay at ! bottom ( ,plato's new co9age--,rational ,types or ,=ms1 at once univ]sal & real4 ,! ,maxim ( ,contradiction is int5d$ by ,ari/otle to controv]t ,h]akleitus1 & to uphold durable sub/ances ) def9ite attributes4 ,footnote #ai3 ,see ',plato & o!r ,comp4 ( ,sokr4' ,i4 i4 pp4 #bh-ch4 ,aga91 ! !ory ( ,anaxagoras d5i$ all simple bodies 7except+ ,nos7 & all def9ite attributes4 ,he held t ev]y?+ 0 m+l$ ) ev]y?+ else1 ?\gh !re might be "s "o or o!r pr$om9ant con/itu5t4 ,9 all ! *anges visible ?r\gh\t nature1 !re 0 no g5]ation ( any?+ new1 b only ! com+ into prom95ce ( "s con/itu5t t _h be=e be5 comp>atively lat5t4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory1 y c\ld nei!r :olly affirm1 nor :olly d5y1 any attribute ( its subject4 ,bo? affirmation & d5ial 7 untrue3 ! real relation betwe5 ! two 0 some?+ half-way betwe5 affirmation & d5ial4 ,! ,maxim ( ,exclud$ ,middle is ma9ta9$ by ,ari/otle z a doctr9e 9 opposition to ?is !ory ( ,anaxagoras4#bj ,footnote #bj3 ,ibid4 pp4 #di-eg4 ,bo? ! two above-m5tion$ !ories are objective4 ,a ?ird1 t ( ,protagoras--,homo ,m5sura--br+s =w>d prom95tly ! subjective1 & is q di/9ct f ei!r4 ,ari/otle does inde$ treat ! ,protagorean !ory z sub/antially id5tical ) t ( ,h]akleitus1 & z /&+ or fall+ !re)4 ,?is seems a mi/ake3 ! !ory ( ,protagoras is z mu* oppos$ to ,h]akleitus z to ,ari/otle4 ,we h n[ to see h[ ,ari/otle su/a9s ^! two ,axioms 7:i* he calls ! firme/ ( all tru?s & ! mo/ assur$ly kn[n7 aga9/ !ories oppos$ to !m4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 he repeats "h :at he _h decl>$ 9 ! ,analytica ,po/]iora--t !y _c be directly demon/rat$1 ?\gh !y are !mselves ! pr9cipia ( all demon/ration4 ,"s p]sons inde$ ?\ght t ^! ,axioms 7 demon/rable2 b ?is is an error1 proce$+ 7he says7 f complete ignorance ( analytical !ory4 ,h[1 !n1 are ^! ,axioms to be prov$ aga9/ ,h]akleitus8 ,ari/otle _h told u 9 ! ,analytica t axioms 7 d]iv$ f p>ticul>s ( s5se by ,induction1 & appreh5d$ or approv$ by ! ,greek3 ,n\s4 ,he does n repeat t obs]vation "h2 b he intimates t !re is only "o process available = def5d+ !m1 & t process am\nts to an appeal to ,induction4 ,y c give no ontological reason 9 support ( ! ,axioms1 except :at w be condemn$ z a petitio pr9cipii2 y mu/ take !m 9 _! logical aspect1 z enunciat$ 9 significant propositions4 ,y mu/ require ! ,h]akleitean adv]s>y to answ] "s "q affirmatively1 9 t]ms significant bo? to himself & to o!rs1 & 9 a proposition decl>+ 8 belief on ! po9t4 ,if he w n d ?is1 y c hold no discussion ) him3 he might z well be deaf & dumb3 he is no bett] ?an a plant 7to use ,ari/otle's own comp>ison74 ,if he does x1 he has b\nd himself to some?+ det]m9ate3 fir/1 ! signification ( ! t]ms is a fact1 exclud+ :at is contr>y or contradictory2 next1 9 decl>+ 8 belief1 he at ! same "t decl>es t he does n believe 9 ! contr>y or contradictory1 & is s und]/ood by ! he>]s4 ,we may grant :at 8 !ory affirms--t ! subject ( a proposition is cont9ually "u "s *ange or movem5t2 yet ! id5tity designat$ by its "n is /ill ma9ta9$1#ba & _m true pr$ications respect+ x rema9 true 9 spite ( its p>tial *ange4 ,! argum5t 9 def5ce ( ! ,maxim ( ,contradiction is1 t x is a po/ulate impli$ 9 all ! p>ticul> /atem5ts z to matt]s ( daily exp]i5ce1 t a man und]/&s & acts ^u :5 he>d f 8 neighb\rs2 a po/ulate su* t1 if y d5y x1 no spee* is ei!r significant or tru/wor?y to in=m & guide ^? :o he> x4 ,if ! speak] bo? affirms & d5ies ! same fact at once1 no in=mation is convey$1 nor c ! he>] act ^u ! words4 ,?us1 9 ! ,a*>n5ses ( ,ari/ophanes1 ,dikopolis knocks at ! door ( ,euripides1 & inquires :e!r ! poet is )92 ,kephisophon1 ! att5dant1 answ]s--,euripides is )9 & n )94 ,?is answ] is un9telligible2 ,dikopolis _c act ^u x2 until ,kephisophon expla9s t n )9 is int5d$ metaphorically4 ,!n1 aga91 all ! actions 9 detail ( a man's life are f\nd$ ^u 8 own belief ( "s facts & disbelief ( o!r facts3 he goes to ,meg>a1 believ+ t ! p]son :om he desires to see is at ,meg>a1 & at ! same "t disbeliev+ ! contr>y3 he acts ^u 8 belief bo? z to :at is good & :at is n good1 9 ! way ( pursuit & avoidance4 ,y may cite innum]able examples bo? ( spee* & action 9 ! detail ( life1 :i* ! ,h]akleitean mu/ g ?r\gh l o!r p]sons2 & :51 if he proce$$ ^u 8 own !ory1 he c\ld nei!r give nor receive in=mation by spee*1 nor gr\nd any action ^u ! beliefs :i* he decl>es to co-exi/ 9 8 own m9d4 ,accord+ly1 ! ,h]akleitean ,kratylus 7s ,ari/otle says7 r5\nc$ ! use ( affirmative spee*1 & simply po9t$ ) 8 f+]4#bb ,footnote #ba3 ,?is argum5t is giv5 by ,ari/otle1 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,g4 v4 p4 #ajaj1 a4 #g-be1 contra/+ *ange ,greek3 kata to poso_/n & *ange ,greek3 kata to poio_/n4 ,footnote #bb3 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,g4 v4 p4 #ajaj1 a4 #ab4 ,comp>e ,plato1 ,!tt4 pp4 #agi-ahj1 ab\t ! av]sion ( ! ,h]akleiteans = cle> issues & propositions4 ,! ,maxim ( ,contradiction is ?us se5 to be only ! g5]al expression ( a po/ulate impli$ 9 all su* p>ticul> spee*es z communicate real in=mation4 ,x is prov$ by a v copi\s & div]sifi$ ,induction1 f matt]s ( exp]i5ce famili> to e individual p]son4 ,x is n less true 9 reg>d to propositions affirm+ *anges1 motions1 or ev5ts1 ?an 9 reg>d to ^? decl>+ durable /ates or attributes4 ,9 ! long plead+ ( ,ari/otle on behalf ( ! ,maxim ( ,contradiction aga9/ ! ,h]akleiteans1 ! portion ( x t appeals to ,induction is ! really =cible portion2 con=m+ z x does to :at he _h laid d[n 9 ! ,analytica ,po/]iora ab\t ! inductive orig9 ( ! pr9cipia ( demon/ration4 ,he employs1 h[ev]1 besides1 sev]al o!r dialectical argum5ts built m or less ^u !ories ( 8 own1 & !re=e n likely to weigh mu* ) an ,h]akleitean !ori/2 :o--argu+1 z he did argue1 t 7because nei!r subject nor pr$icate 0 ev] un*ang$ or /able = two mom5ts toge!r7 no true proposition c\ld be fram$ b 0 at ! same "t false1 & t contr>ies 7 9 p]petual co-exi/5ce--c\ld n by any g5]al reason+ be involv$ 9 great] contradiction & inconsi/5cy ?an he at once op5ly proclaim$4#bc ,x c only be %[n t su* a doctr9e _c be reconcil$ ) ! necessities ( daily spee*1 z practis$ by himself1 z well z by o!rs4 ,we read1 inde$1 "o +5i\s argum5t :]eby ,ari/otle adopts ?is belief 9 ! co-exi/5ce ( contr>ies1 b expla9s x 9 a mann] ( 8 own1 ?r\gh 8 mu* employ$ di/9ction betwe5 pot5tial & actual exi/5ce4 ,two contr>ies _c co-exi/ 7he says7 9 actuality2 b !y bo? may & d co-exi/ 9 diff]5t s5ses--"o or bo? ( !m be+ pot5tial4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is a !ory totally diff]5t f t ( ,h]akleitus2 co9cid5t only 9 words & 9 seem+4 ,x does inde$ elim9ate ! contradiction2 b t v contradiction =m$ ! *>act]i/ic feature & key/one ( ! ,h]akleitean !ory4 ,! case aga9/ ?is la/ !ory is1 t x is at v>iance ) psy*ological facts1 by incorrectly assum+ ! co-exi/5ce ( contradictory beliefs 9 ! m9d2 & t x conflicts bo? ) po/ulates impli$ 9 ! daily colloquy ( detail betwe5 man & man1 & ) ! volitional pref]5ces t det]m9e individual action4 ,all ( ^! are f\nd$ on a belief 9 ! regul> sequ5ce ( our s5sations1 & 9 ! at lea/ tempor>y durability ( comb9$ pot5tial aggregates ( s5sations1 :i* we enunciate 9 ! language ( def9ite attributes belong+ to def9ite sub/ances4 ,?is language1 ! common m$ium ( communication among non-!oriz+ m51 is accept$ z a basis1 & is g5]aliz$ & regul>iz$1 9 ! logical !ories ( ,ari/otle4 ,footnote #bc3 ,?is is /at$ by ,ari/otle himself1 ,metaph4 ,greek3 ,g4 vi4 p4 #ajaa1 a4 #ae3 ,greek3 oi7 d' e7n t lo_/g tn bi_/an mo_/non zt\ntes a7du_/naton zt\s92 e7nanti_/a gar ei7pein a7xi\s91 eu7?us e7nanti_/a le_/gontes4 ,he "h1 inde$1 applies ?is obs]vation imm$iately to ! ,protagoreans1 aga9/ :om x does n tell1 in/ead ( ! ,h]akleiteans1 aga9/ :om x does tell4 ,! :ole ( ! reason+ 9 ?is "p ( ! ,metaphysica is direct$ indiscrim9ately1 & 9 ! same words1 aga9/ ,protagoreans & ,h]akleiteans4 ,! doctr9e "h m5tion$ is v9dicat$ by ,ari/otle1 n only aga9/ ,h]akleitus1 by ass]t+ ! ,maxim ( ,contradiction1 b also aga9/ ,anaxagoras1 by ass]t+ ! ,maxim ( ,exclud$ ,middle4 ,"h we h ! second pr9cipium ( ,demon/ration1 :i*1 if x requir$ to be def5d$ at all1 c only be def5d$ 7l ! fir/7 by a process ( ,induction4 ,ari/otle adduces sev]al argum5ts 9 support ( x1 "s ( :i* involve an appeal to ,induction1 ?\gh n broadly or op5ly av[$2 b o!rs ( !m assume :at adv]s>ies1 & ,anaxagoras especially1 7 n likely to grant4 ,we mu/ rememb] t bo? ,anaxagoras & ,h]akleitus prop\nd$ _! !ories z portions ( ,physical ,philosophy or ( ,ontology2 & t 9 _! "t no su* logical pr9ciples & di/9ctions z ^? t ,ari/otle lays d[n 9 ! ,organon1 _h yet be5 made kn[n or press$ ^u _! att5tion4 ,n[1 ,ari/otle1 :ile pr(ess+ to def5d ^! ,axioms z data ( ,ontology1 =gets t !y deal ) ! logical aspect ( ,ontology1 z =mulat$ 9 me?odical propositions4 ,8 view ( ! ,axioms _c be prop]ly appreciat$ )\t a classification ( propositions1 su* z nei!r ,h]akleitus nor ,anaxagoras f\nd exi/+ or orig9at$ = !mselves4 ,ari/otle has taught u :at ,h]akleitus & ,anaxagoras _h n be5 taught--to di/+ui% sep>ate propositions z univ]sal1 p>ticul> & s+ul>2 & to di/+ui% pairs ( propositions z contr>y1 sub-contr>y1 & contradictory4 ,to take ! simple/ case1 t ( a s+ul> proposition1 9 reg>d to :i* ! di/9ction betwe5 contr>y & contradictory has no application1--su* z ! answ] 7cit$ above7 ( ,kephisophon ab\t ,euripides4 ,"h ,ari/otle w\ld ju/ly cont5d t ! two propositions--,euripides is )91 ,euripides is n )9--c\ld n be ei!r bo? ( !m true1 or bo? ( !m false2 t is1 t we c\ld nei!r believe bo?1 nor disbelieve bo?4 ,if ,kephisophon _h answ]$1 ,euripides is nei!r )9 nor n )91 ,dikopolis w\ld h f\nd himself z mu* at a loss ) ! two negatives z he 0 ) ! two affirmatives4 ,9 reg>d to s+ul> propositions1 nei!r ! doctr9e ( ,h]akleitus 7to believe bo? affirmation & negation7 nor t ( ,anaxagoras 7to disbelieve bo?7 is admissible4 ,b1 :5 9 place ( s+ul> propositions we take ei!r univ]sal or p>ticul> propositions1 ! rule to foll[ is no long] s simple & p]emptory4 ,! univ]sal affirmative & ! univ]sal negative are contr>y2 ! p>ticul> affirmative & ! p>ticul> negative are sub-contr>y2 ! univ]sal affirmative & ! p>ticul> negative1 or ! univ]sal negative & ! p>ticul> affirmative1 are contradictory4 ,x is n[ not$ 9 all manuals ( ,logic1 t ( two contr>y propositions1 bo? _c be true1 b bo? may be false2 t ( two sub-contr>ies1 bo? may be true1 b bo? _c be false2 & t ( two contradictories1 "o mu/ be true & ! o!r false4 ,,iii4 ,,metaphysica4 ,! foll[+ ,ab/ract--:5 n translation--( six books 7,greek3 ,g1 ,e1 ,z1 1 ,greek3 ,?1 ,greek3 ,l7 out ( ! f\rte5 includ$ "u ! title ',metaphysica1' may be said to cov] ! :ole ( ,ari/otle's dogmatic exposition ( ,fir/ ,philosophy4 ,accord+ to ! view ( ,br&is1 n[ 9 its ma9 features g5]ally accept$1 ! exposition cont9u$ ?r\gh ,books ,greek3 ,g1 ,e1 ,z1 1 rea*es back to ,books ,a & ,b1 & comes to an end ) ,book ,greek3 ,?4 ,/ill x is only ) ,book ,greek3 ,g t ! prop]ly didactic treatm5t beg9s1 ,book ,a be+ a hi/orical review ( previ\s op9ion1 & ,book ,b a m]e collection ( ,greek3 a7pori_/ai subject$ to a prelim9>y dialectical h&l+2 :ile1 at ! o!r end1 ,book ,greek3 ,l1 ?\gh x has no direct connection ) ,book ,greek3 ,?1 is1 especially 9 its latt] "p1 ( und5iable importance = ,ari/otle's metaphysical doctr9e4 ,! rema9+ books are kn[n z ,greek3 a1 ,greek3 ,d1 ,i1 ,k1 ,m1 ,n4 ,! %ort ,book ,greek3 a is entirely unconnect$ ) any ( ! o!rs1 & mo/ probably is n ! "w ( ,ari/otle4 ,book ,greek3 ,d 7,greek3 p]i tn posa*s legome_/nn7--a vocabul>y ( philosophical t]ms--is ,ari/otelian beyond "q1 be+ ref]r$ to occasionally 9 ! *ief books2 b x lies q ap>t f ! exposition prop]4 ,book ,i--deal+ ) ,unity & ,opposites--?\gh x also has no place 9 ! actual l9e ( treatm5t1 is truly ontological 9 "*1 & probably 0 int5d$ to fall )9 "s l>g] s*eme ( metaphysical doctr9e2 ! l1 z f> z c be judg$1 be+ true ( ,books ,m & ,n1 conta9+ toge!r a criticism ( ,py?agorean & ,platonic !ories4 ,f9ally1 ,book ,k1 consi/+ 9 "p ( an epitomiz$ exc]pt f ! ,physica--h>dly f ! h& ( ,ari/otle1 gives o!rwise only a sket* 9 outl9e ( ! argum5t ( ,books ,b1 ,greek3 ,g1 ,e1 & ?us1 al?\gh ,ari/otelian1 is to be disc\nt$4 ,! au?or n[h]e /ates ! pr9ciple ^u :i* he select$ ! six books = a prelim9>y ,ab/ract2 b ! actual selection1 jo9$ to v>i\s indications 9 ! ,ab/ract & m>g9al notes 9 8 copies ( ! ,metaphysica1 leaves no d\bt t he accept$ ! view ( ,br&is1 m especially z set =? by ,bonitz4 ,on ! :ole "q ( ! ,canon ( ! ,metaphysica1 ,bonitz's ,introduction to 8 ,comm5t>y may ) advantage be consult$4 ,book ,greek3 ,g4 ,9 ?is ,fir/ ,philosophy1 ,ari/otle analyses & illu/rates ! mean+ ( ! g5]alissima ( language--! mo/ g5]al & ab/ract words :i* language includes4 ,all ^! are words 9 common & frequ5t use2 9 ! process ( fram+ or putt+ toge!r language1 !y h become p]man5tly /amp$ & circulat$ z ! result ( _m previ\s comp>isons1 gone ?r\gh b aft]w>ds =gott51 or p]haps gone ?r\gh at fir/ )\t any di/9ct consci\sness4 ,m5 employ ^! words famili>ly 9 ord9>y spee*1 & are und]/ood by o!rs :5 !y d s4 ,= ! mo/ "p1 !y employ ! words correctly & consi/5tly1 9 ! affirmation ( p>ticul> propositions relat+ to topics ( daily life & exp]i5ce4 ,b ?is is n always or uni=mly ! case4 ,sometimes1 m or less (t51 m5 fall into error & inconsi/5cy 9 ! employm5t ( ^! famili> g5]al t]ms4 ,! ,fir/ ,philosophy takes up ! g5]alities & e/abli%$ phrases 9 ?is condition2 foll[+ back analytically ! syn!tical process :i* ! fram]s ( language h pursu$ )\t kn[+ or at lea/ )\t record+ x1 & br++ "u consci\s att5tion ! diff]5t mean+s1 m or few]1 9 :i* ^! g5]al words are us$4 ,philosophia ,prima devotes itself1 specially & 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 to ,ens quat5us ,ens 9 all its be>+s2 be+ ?us di/+ui%$ f ma!matics & o!r p>ticul> sci5ces1 ea* ( :i* devotes itself to a sep>ate bran* ( ,ens 7p4 #ajjc1 a4 #be74 ,x se>*es into ! ,fir/ ,causes or ,elem5ts ( ,ens p] se1 n p] accid5s 7a4 #ca74 ,b ,ens is a commune1 n g5]ically1 b analogically2 con/itut$ by common relation%ip to "o & ! same t]m9us1 z ev]y?+ heal?y is relat$ to heal?4 ,! ,pr9ciple 7,greek3 a7r*_/7 ( all ,entia is ,ess5ce 7,greek3 ou7si_/a72 b "s ,entia are s call$ z be+ affections ( ,ess5ce2 o!rs1 z be+ a transition to ,ess5ce1 or z de/ruction1 privation1 quality1 effici5t or g5]ative cause1 ( ,ess5ce or its analoga2 o!rs1 aga91 z be+ negations 7,greek3 a7popha_/seis7 !re(1 :5ce1 = example1 we say t ,non-,ens is ,non-,ens 7b4 #f-aj74 ,!re is "o sci5ce ( all ^! prim>y1 second>y1 t]ti>y1 c41 ,entia2 j z !re is "o sci5ce ( all ?+s heal?y1 ( ! prim>y1 ! second>y1 ! t]ti>y1 c41 quat5us heal?y4 ,b1 9 all su* matt]s1 t sci5ce be>s 9 ! fir/ in/ance & specially 7,greek3 kuri_/s7 on ! ,primum ,aliquid1 f :i* all ! second>y & o!r d]ivatives take _! dep>ture1 & ^u :i* !y dep5d 7b4 #af74 ,accord+ly1 9 ! pres5t case1 s9ce ,ess5ce is ! ,primum ,aliquid1 ! prov9ce ( ,fir/ ,philosophy is to inve/igate ! causes & pr9ciples ( ,ess5ces 9 all _! v>ieties 7b4 #ah-bb74 ,n[ :atev] v>ieties !re are ( ,ens1 ! l v>ieties !re are ( ,unum2 = ! two are always implicat$ toge!r1 ?\gh ! words are n absolutely ! same 9 mean+ 7b4 #bd-ce74 ,accord+ly bo? ,ens & ,unum ) all ! v>ieties ( ea* belong to ,philosophia ,prima2 likewise ,idem1 ,simile1 c41 & ! opposites !re(4 ,all opposites may be trac$ 9 ! la/ analysis to ?is f\ndation--! anti!sis ( ,unum & ,multa 7p4 #ajjd1 a4 #a74 ,we mu/ set =? & discrim9ate ! diff]5t v>ieties--prim>y1 second>y1 t]ti>y1 c4--( ,idem & ,simile1 & also ( _! opposites1 ,div]sum & ,dissimile2 & we mu/ %[ h[ !y are d]iv$ f or relat$ to ,primum ,idem1 c41 j z we mu/ d 9 ! case ( ,ens & ,unum4 ,all ?is task belongs to ,fir/ ,philosophy 7a4 #bj-cj74 ,ari/otle speaks ( ,greek3 o7 philo_/sophos1 z mean+ ! ma/] ( ,philosophia ,prima 7b4 #a2 ,b4 p4 #iig1 a4 #ad74 ,if ^! inve/igations d n belong to ! ,fir/ ,philosoph]1 to :i* among ! o!r inve/igators c !y belong8 ,:o is to enquire :e!r ,sokrates1 & ,sokrates sitt+1 is ! same p]son8 ,:e!r ,unum is opposite to ,unum8 ,9 h[ _m s5ses ,opposite c be said8 7p4 #ajjd1 b4 #c74 ,all ^! are affections p] se ( ,unum quat5us ,unum1 & ( ,ens quat5us ,ens1 n quat5us numb]s1 or l9es1 or fire2 t is1 !y are propria 7s5su logico7 ( ,ens & ,unum 7n includ$ 9 ! notion or def9ition1 b d$ucible !refrom--n consecutione notionis71 j z odd & ev51 proportionality1 equality1 excess & defect1 are propria ( numb]s2 & !re are o!r propria ( solids1 :e!r mov$ or unmov$1 heavy or light4 ,x is ^! propria ( ,ens & ,unum t ,philosophia ,prima und]takes to expla9 7b4 #g-af71 & :i* o!rs fail to expla91 because !y take no acc\nt ( ,greek3 ou7si_/a 7b4 #aj71 or ( ! fundam5tal ,ens or ,ess5tia to :i* ^! belong z propria4 ,^! ,propria ( ,ens are ! ,greek3 oi7keia--! special & peculi> matt] or pr9ciples--( ,philosophia ,prima4 ,t all ( !m belong 9 ?is special way to ! ,fir/ ,philosoph]1 we may f>!r see by ! fact t all ( !m are h&l$ by ! ,dialectician & ! ,sophi/1 :o assume an attitude c\nt]feit+ ! ,philosoph]4 ,all ?ree travel ov] ! same gr\nd1 & deal ) ,ens1 z a matt] common to all 7p4 #ajjd1 b4 #bj74 ,b ! ,sophi/ diff]s f ! ,philosoph] 9 8 purpose1 inasmu* z he aims only at giv+ ! false appe>ance ( wisdom )\t ! reality1 :ile ! ,dialectician diff]s f ! ,philosoph] 9 8 mann] ( h&l+ 7,greek3 t tro_/p ts duna_/mes--b4 #bd74 ,! ,dialectician discusses ! subject 9 a t5tative way1 f _m diff]5t po9ts ( view1 sugge/$ by curr5t op9ions2 ! ,philosoph] m>*es by a /raight & assur$ road f ! appropriate pr9ciples ( 8 sci5ce to c]ta9 conclusions & cognitions4 ,! same view ( ! scope & ext5t ( ,philosophia ,prima may be made out 9 ano!r way4 ,almo/ all philosoph]s affirm t ,entia are compos$ ( contr>ies1 & may be trac$ back to opposite pr9ciples--odd & ev51 hot & cold1 limit & ! unlimit$1 fri5d%ip & enmity1 c4 ,n[ ^! & all o!r contr>ies may be trac$ back to ,unum & ,multa3 ?is we may assume 7p4 #ajje1 a4 #a2 accord+ to ,alex&] ,aph41 x _h be5 %[n 9 ! treatise ,de ,bono--,s*ol4 p4 #fdh1 a4 #ch1 ,br474 ,?\gh x be true1 !re=e1 t nei!r ,ens nor ,unum is a true g5us1 nor sep>able1 b bo? ( !m aggregates ( analogical d]ivatives1 yet s9ce all ^! d]ivatives h _! root 9 "o & ! same fundam5tum1 ! /udy ( all ( !m belongs to "o & ! same sci5ce 7p4 #ajje1 a4 #f-aa74 ,x is n ! prov9ce ( ! geomet] to exam9e :at is ,! ,opposite1 ,! ,p]fect1 ,ens1 ,unum1 ,idem1 ,div]sum1 except 9 _! application to 8 own problems4 ,! g5]al enquiry devolves ^u ! ,fir/ ,philosoph]2 :o w inve/igate ,ens quat5us ,ens1 toge!r ) ! belong+s or app5dages 7,greek3 ta u7pa_/r*onta7 ( ,ens quat5us ,ens1 includ+ ,prius1 ,po/]ius1 ,g5us1 ,species1 ,totum1 ,p>s1 & su* l 7a4 #aa-ah74 ,x falls to ! ,fir/ ,philosoph] also to inve/igate & expla9 :at ma!maticians call _! ,axioms3 ! ma!matician ought n to d ?is himself1 b to leave x to ! ,fir/ ,philosoph]4 ,^! ,axioms are1 9 _! highe/ g5]ality1 affirmations respect+ ,ens quat5us ,ens1 all ( :i* belong to ! ,fir/ ,philosoph]2 f :om ! ma!matician accepts !m1 & applies !m z f> z 8 own dep>tm5t requires 7p4 #ajje1 a4 #bj1 seq474 ,9 ,fir/ ,philosophy1 ! firme/1 be/ kn[n1 & mo/ unque/ionable ( all pr9ciples is ?is3 ,x is impossible = ! same pr$icate at ! same "t & 9 ! same s5se to belong & n to belong to ! same subject 7p4 #ajje1 b4 #bj74 ,no "o c at ! same "t believe t ! same ?+ bo? is & is n2 ?\gh ,h]akleitus pr(ess$ to believe ?is1 we mu/ n suppose t he really did believe x 7b4 #be74 ,no man c hold two contr>y op9ions at ! same "t 7b4 #ca74 ,?is is by nature ! fir/ pr9ciple ( all o!r axioms2 to :i* pr9ciple all demon/rations are 9 ! la/ resort br\ght back 7b4 #cc3 ,greek3 phu_/sei gar a7r* kai tn a7_/lln a7xima_/tn au7_/t pa_/ntn74 ,ari/otle !n proce$s to expla9 & v9dicate at l5g? ?is ,greek3 a7r*_/--! ,pr9ciple ( ,contradiction1 :i* _m at t "t d5i$4 ,?is pr9ciple is at once ! mo/ kn[able1 & n[ay assum$ z hypo!sis 7,greek3 gnrimta_/tn kai a7nupo_/!ton--p4 #ajje1 b4 #ac74 ,y _c inde$ demon/rate x to be true2 ! v attempt to demon/rate x w\ld be unphilosophical3 demon/ration ( e ?+1 is an impossibility4 ,y _c m>* upw>ds 9 an inf9ite progression ( demon/rations2 y mu/ arrive ultimately at "s fir/ tru? :i* is n demon/rable2 &1 if any su* fir/ tru? is to be recogniz$1 no "o c po9t out any tru? bett] entitl$ to su* privilege ?an ! ,pr9ciple ( ,contradiction 7p4 #ajjf1 a4 #aa74 ,b y c convict an oppon5t ( self-contradiction 7,greek3 a7podeixai e7legktiks1 a4 #ab1 #ae71 if he w only cons5t to affirm any proposition 9 significant t]ms--t is1 9 t]ms :i* he admits to be significant to himself & :i* he int5ds z su* to o!rs2 9 o!r words1 if he w ent] into dialogue ) y1 = )\t significant spee* !re c be no dialogue ) him at all 7a4 #ba74 ,:5 ! oppon5t has %[n 8 will+ness to comply ) ! conditions ( dialogue1 by advanc+ a proposition 9 t]ms ea* hav+ "o def9ite signification1 x is pla91 by 8 own admission1 t ! proposition does n bo? signify & n signify ! same4 ,fir/1 ! copula ( ! proposition 7e/7 does n signify :at w\ld be signifi$ if ! copula 7 non e/2 s t "h is "o case :]e9 ! affirmative & ! negative _c be bo? ( !m true 7p4 #ajjf1 a4 #cj2 see ,alex4 ,s*ol4 & ,bonitz's note74 ,next1 let ! subject ( ! proposition be homo2 a t]m hav+ only "o s+le def9ite signification1 or p]haps hav+ two or ?ree 7or any def9ite numb] (7 di/9ct significations1 ea* def9ite4 ,if ! numb] ( di/9ct significations be indef9ite1 ! t]m is unfit = ! purpose ( dialogue 7a4 #cj-;b4 #aj74 ,! t]m homo w signify "o ?+ only2 x w h "o det]m9ate ess5ce & def9ition--say animal bipes3 t is1 if any ?+ be a man1 ! same w be animal bipes4 ,b ?is la/ _c be ! ess5ce & def9ition ( non-homo also3 non-homo1 z a diff]5t "n1 mu/ h diff]5t def9ition2 homo & non-homo _c be l ,greek3 l_/pion & ,greek3 i7ma_/tion1 two t]ms hav+ ! same signification1 ess5ce & def9ition2 = homo signifies "o subject ( con/ant & def9$ nature1 n simply "o among _m pr$icates applicable by accid5t to ?is same con/ant subject2 x signifies ,greek3 mi_/an phu_/s9 & n ,greek3 a7_/lln t9a phu_/s9 7,s*olia1 p4 #fef1 b4 #ba74 ,s9ce ea* "n inde$ is appli$ by conv5tion to :at x d5om9ates1 ! "n non-homo may be appli$ else:]e to t :i* we t]m homo2 b ?is is a m]e diff]5ce ( nam+2 :at be>s ! "n homo1 & :at be>s ! "n non-homo1 mu/ always be diff]5t1 if homo is def9$ to signify "o det]m9ate nature 7b4 #bb74 ,! "o s+le nature & ess5ce def9$ z belong+ to homo1 _c be ! same z t belong+ to non-homo4 ,if any ?+ be homo1 ! same _c be non-homo3 if any ?+ be non-homo1 ! same _c be homo 7b4 #be-cd74 ,:oev] says t homo & non-homo h ! same mean+1 mu/ say =tiori t homo1 =tis1 musicus1 simus1 pul*]1 c41 h ! same mean+2 = n "o ( ^! t]ms is s directly & emphatically opposite to homo1 z non-homo is4 ,he mu/ !re=e admit t ! mean+1 n m]ely ( all ^! words b also1 ( a ho/ besides is ! same2 9 o!r words1 t n m]ely ,opposites are "o1 b all o!r ?+s besides1 "u diff]5t names 7,greek3 o7_/ti e7n pa_/nta e7_//ai kai ou7 mo_/non ta a7ntikei_/m5a--p4 #ajjg1 a4 #f74 ,?is argum5t is direct$ aga9/ ^? :o ma9ta9 t affirmative & negative are bo? true at once1 b :o /ill desire to keep up dialogue 7,alex4 ,s*ol4 p4 #feh1 a4 #bf1 ,br43 ,greek3 t t_/n te a7nti_/phas9 sunal!u_/e9 le_/gonti1 kai s_/ze9 b\lome_/n to diale_/ge/hai74 ,no man :o ma9ta9s ?is op9ion1 c keep 8 consi/5cy 9 dialogue1 if he w only give direct answ]s to ! que/ions put to him1 )\t annex+ provisoes & gratuit\s additions to 8 answ]s4 ,if y ask him1 ,:e!r x is true t ,sokrates is homo8 he ought to answ] pla9ly ,yes1 or ,no4 ,he ought n to answ]3 ,yes1 b ,sokrates is also non-homo1 mean+ t ,sokrates is also ! subject ( _m o!r accid5tal pr$icates--fair1 flat-nos$1 brave1 accompli%$1 c4 ,he ought to answ] simply to ! "q1 :e!r ! "o ess5ce or def9ition signifi$ by ! ^w man1 belongs to ,sokrates or n2 he ought n to introduce ! m5tion ( ^! accid5tal pr$icates1 to :i* ! "q did n ref]4 ,^! accid5tal pr$icates are inf9ite 9 numb]2 he _c enum]ate !m all1 & !re=e he ought n to introduce ! m5tion ( any ( !m4 ,sokrates is homo1 by ! ess5ce & def9ition ( ! ^w2 he is non-homo1 t5 ?\s& times ov]1 by accid5tal pr$icates2 t is1 he is fair1 brave1 musical1 flat-nos$1 c41 all ( :i* are v>ieties ( ! g5]al ^w non-homo 7p4 #ajjg1 a4 #g-ai74 ,^? :o cont5d t bo? memb]s ( ! ,antiphasis are at once true disall[ ,ess5tia altoge!r1 & ! di/9ction betwe5 x & ,accid5s 7p4 #ajjg1 a4 #ba74 ,:5 we say t ! ^w homo signifies a c]ta9 ,ess5tia1 we mean t its ,ess5tia is no?+ diff]5t f ?is1 & t ! be+ homo _c be ! same z ! be+ non-homo1 or ! n be+ homo4 ,^? aga9/ :om we are reason+ disc>d ,ess5tia z di/+ui%$ f ,accid5s1 & consid] all pr$icates z ,accid5tia4 ,albus belongs to homo z an accid5t2 b ! ess5ce ( albus does n co9cide ) t ( homo1 & _c be pr$icat$ ( homo 7a4 #cb74 ,^u ! !ory ( ^! oppon5ts1 !re w\ld be no ,prima ,ess5tia to :i* all accid5ts are atta*$2 b ?is !ory is unt5able4 ,accid5ts _c be atta*$ "o to ano!r 9 an inf9ite asc5d+ s]ies 7b4 #a74 ,y _c proce$ m ?an two /eps upw>d3 fir/ "o accid5t1 !n a second2 ! two be+ jo9$ by belong+ to "o & ! same subject4 ,no accid5t c be ! accid5t ( ano!r accid5t4 ,greek3 ,to leuko_/n may h ! accid5t ,greek3 m\siko_/n1 or ,greek3 to m\siko_/n may h ! accid5t ,greek3 leuko_/n2 ea* ( ^! may be call$ indiff]5tly ! accid5t ( ! o!r2 b ! tru? is1 t ,greek3 leuko_/s & ,greek3 m\siko_/s are bo? ( !m accid5ts belong+ to ! common ,ess5tia--homo4 ,b1 :5 we affirm homo e/ musicus1 we implicate ! accid5t ) ! ,ess5tia to :i* x belongs2 t ,ess5tia is signifi$ by ! subject homo4 ,!re mu/ ?us be "o ^w :i* has signification z ,ess5tia2 &1 :5 su* is ! case1 we h already %[n t bo? memb]s ( ! ,antiphasis _c be pr$icat$ at once 7b4 #e-ah74 7,alex&]1 9 ,s*olia1 p4 #feh1 b4 #dj-p4 #fei1 b4 #ad1 ,br41 rem>ks on ?is argum5t ( ,ari/otle3 ,^? :o held ! op9ion "h controv]t$ by ,ari/otle--,greek3 tn a7nti_/phas9 sunal!u_/e9--_h 9 _! m9ds accid5tal propositions1 9 reg>d to :i* !y 7 "r1 except t bo? memb]s ( ! ,antiphasis _c be true at ! same "t4 ,sokrates e/ musicus--,sokrates non e/ musicus3 ^! two propositions are bo? true1 9 ! s5se t "o or o!r ( !m is true only pot5tially1 & t bo? _c be actually true at ! same "t4 ,"o ( !m is true1 & ! o!r false1 at ! pres5t mom5t2 b t :i* is n[ false has be5 true 9 ! pa/1 & may become true 9 ! future4 ,ari/otle does n controv]t ?is !ory s f> z reg>ds accid5tal propositions2 b he ma9ta9s t x is unt5able ab\t ess5tial propositions1 & t ! !ori/s ov]look$ ?is di/9ction47 ,moreov]1 if y say t bo? memb]s ( ! ,antiphasis are alike true respect+ e pr$icate ( a giv5 subject1 y mu/ admit t all ?+s are "o 7p4 #ajjg1 b4 #bj74 ,! same ?+ w be at once a wall1 a trireme1 a man4 ,respect+ e subject1 y may always ei!r affirm or d5y any giv5 pr$icate2 b1 accord+ to ?is !ory1 :5ev] x is true to affirm1 x is always equally true to d5y4 ,if y c say truly1 ,homo non e/ triremis1 y may say ) equal tru?1 accord+ to ! !ory be=e u1 ,homo e/ triremis4 ,&1 ( c\rse1 ,homo non e/ triremis may be said truly2 s9ce 7/ill accord+ to ?is !ory7 ! mu* m special negative1 ,homo non e/ homo1 may be said truly 7b4 #cb74 ,aga91 if ?is !ory be admitt$1 ! doctr9e t e pr$icate may be ei!r affirm$ or d5i$ ( any giv5 subject1 w no long] hold true4 ,=1 if x be true to say ( ,sokrates bo? ,e/ homo & ,e/ non-homo3 x mu/ also be true to say ( him bo? ,non e/ homo & ,non e/ non-homo4 ,if bo? affirmative & negative may be alike affirm$1 bo? may be alike d5i$ 7p4 #ajjh1 a4 #b-g74 ,if bo? memb]s ( ! ,antiphasis are alike true1 bo? mu/ be alike false 7,alex4 ,s*ol4 p4 #ffc1 a4 #ad-cd74 ,aga91 ! !ory t bo? memb]s ( ! ,antiphasis are alike true1 is int5d$ by its au?ors to apply univ]sally or n univ]sally4 ,e ?+ is bo? :ite & n :ite1 ,ens & ,non-,ens2 or ?is is true ) "s propositions1 b n ) reg>d to o!rs4 ,if ! !ori/s take ! latt] gr\nd & all[ "s exceptions1 s f> at lea/ z ^? exceptions rea*1 firm tru? is left 7,greek3 au7tai a7n ei7en o7molog\_/m5ai--p4 #ajjh1 a4 #aa74 ,b1 if !y take ! =m] gr\nd & all[ no exceptions1 !y may /ill p]haps say3 ,:]ev] y c affirm ) tru?1 we c also d5y ) tru?2 b1 :]ev] we c d5y ) tru?1 we _c 9 e case affirm ) tru? 7a4 #ae74 ,meet+ !m ^u ?is la/ gr\nd1 we rem>k t at any rate "s negative propositions are "h admitt$ to be kn[able1 & we obta9 ?us mu* ( settl$ op9ion2 besides1 :]ev] ! negative is kn[able1 ! correspond+ affirmative mu/ be /ill m kn[able 7a4 #ah74 ,if !y take ! =m] gr\nd & say t1 :]ev] ! negative is true1 ! affirmative is true also1 !y mu/ ei!r mean t ea* ( !m is true sep>ately1 or t nei!r ( !m is true sep>ately b t bo? are true :5 enunciat$ toge!r 9 a c\ple 7a4 #ai74 ,if !y mean ! latt]1 !y d n talk ei!r ( ^! ?+s or ( any ?+ else3 !re is nei!r spee* nor speak]1 no?+ b non-entity2 & h[ c non-entity ei!r speak or walk 7a4 #bb78 ,e ?+ w\ld be conf\nd$ 9 "o4 ,if !y mean ! =m]--t affirmative & negative are ea* alike true tak5 sep>ately1 we reply t1 s9ce ?is mu/ be true z mu* respect+ "o subject z respect+ ano!r1 s !re c be no di/9ction or diff]5ce betwe5 "o subject & ano!r2 all mu/ be alike & ! same2 if !re be any diff]5ce ( any k9d1 ?is mu/ con/itute a special & exceptional matt]1 /&+ ap>t f ! !ory n[ "u discussion4 ,^u ?is view ( ! !ory 9 "q1 !n1 z well z ^u ! prec$+1 we are l&$ 9 ! same result3 all ?+s w\ld be conf\nd$ into "o 7a4 #bg74 ,all m5 w\ld speak truly & all m5 alike 7includ+ ! !ori/ himself1 by 8 own admission7 w\ld speak falsely4 ,inde$ 9 discuss+ ) ?is !ori/ we h no?+ to talk ab\t2 = he says no?+4 ,he does n say1 ,x is ?us2 he does n say1 ,x is n ?us2 he says1 ,x is bo? ?us & n ?us3 !n1 aga91 he negatives bo?1 say+1 ,x is nei!r ?us nor n ?us2 s t !re is no?+ def9ite 9 :at he says 7a4 #cb74 ,aga91 let u ask1 ,does he :o believes ?+s to be s1 believe falsely1 & he :o believes ?+s n to be s & s1 believe falsely also1 :ile he :o believes bo? at once1 believes truly8 ,if ?is la/ p]son believes truly1 :at is meant by ! common say+ t su* & su* is ! con/itution ( nature8 ,if y ev5 say t ! la/ p]son does n inde$ believe truly1 b believes m truly ?an he :o believes ! affirmative alone1 or he :o believes ! negative alone1 we /ill h some?+ def9ite 9 ! con/itution ( nature1 some?+ :i* is really true1 & n true & false at ! same "t4 ,b1 if !re be no m truly or less truly--if all p]sons alike & equally speak truly & speak falsely--spee* is useless to su* p]sons2 :at !y say1 !y at ! same "t unsay4 ,if ! /ate ( _! m9ds really corresponds to ?is description--if !y believe no?+1 b at once ?9k s & s & d n ?9k s & s--h[ d su* p]sons diff] f plants 7b4 #c-ab2 see ,alex&]'s ,s*olion1 p4 #ffe1 b4 #i-ag ,br41 ab\t ! explanation ( ,greek3 mallon1 & ! di/9ction betwe5 ,greek3 le_/ge9 & ,greek3 u7polamba_/ne91 p4 #ffe1 b4 #ca1 seq478 ,x is c]ta91 h[ev]1 t ^! !ori/s are n l plants1 & d n act z su* 9 matt]s ( ord9>y life4 ,!y look = wat]1 :5 ?ir/y2 !y keep cle> ( fall+ into a well or ov] a precipice4 ,9 reg>d to :at is desirable or undesirable1 at lea/1 !y d n really act ^u _! own !ory--,t bo? memb]s ( ! ,antiphasis are equally true & equally false4 ,!y act ^u ! contr>y !ory--,t "o ( ! memb]s is true1 & ! o!r false4 ,b1 if ^! !ori/s1 admitt+ t !y act ?us1 say t !y d n act ?us ) any pr(ession ( kn[+ ! tru?1 b simply on ! fai? ( appe>ance & great] probability1 we reply t ?is ought to impose ^u !m a /rong] s5se ( duty 9 reg>d to gett+ at ! tru?4 ,! /ate ( ,op9ion /&s to t ( ,k 9 ! same relation z t ( sickness to heal? 7p4 #ajjh1 b4 #ab-ca74 ,f9ally1 to foll[ up ?is la/ argum5t1 ev5 if we grant to ^! !ori/s t bo? memb]s ( ! ,antiphasis are true1 /ill !re are degrees ( tru?3 ! ,m & ! ,less p]vades ! con/itution ( nature 7p4 #ajjh1 b4 #cb74 ,we %all n surely affirm t two & ?ree are equally ev52 nor %all we say1 :5 any "o affirms f\r to be five1 t he commits an equal error ) "o :o affirms f\r to be a ?\s&4 ,cle>ly "o ( ^! p]sons is m ne> to ! tru?1 ! o!r is less ne> to ! tru?4 ,b1 if !re be su* a ?+ z be+ ne>] to ! tru?1 !re mu/ surely be "s tru? to :i* y h come ne>]2 &1 ev5 if ?is be d5i$1 yet at lea/ :at we h already obta9$ 7! ,greek3 e7ggu_/t]on ts a7l!i_/z7 is some?+ firm] & ( a m tru?-l "*4 ,we %all ?us h got rid ( t unqualifi$ !ory :i* =bids all def9ite conceptions ( ! intellect 7,greek3 ka7n ei7 m_/ e7/91 a7ll' 7_/d ge_/ ti e7/i bebaio_/t]on kai a7l?9_/t]on1 kai t\ lo_/g\ a7pllagme_/noi a7n ei7_/m5 t\ a7kra_/t\ kai klu_/onto_/s ti t dianoi_/a o7ri_/sai--p4 #ajji1 a4 #b74 ,hav+ ?us complet$ 8 refutation ( ! unqualifi$ !ory1 :i* decl>es bo? memb]s ( ! ,antiphasis to be alike true1 ,ari/otle passes to ! exam9ation ( ! ,protagorean doctr9e ,homo ,m5sura3 he affirms t x proce$s f ! same mode ( ?9k+1 & t ! two mu/ /& or fall toge!r4 ,=1 if all ?+s :i* appe> true are true1 all ?+s mu/ be at once true & false2 s9ce ! opposition ( m5's op9ions is a notori\s fact1 ea* man ?9k+ 8 own op9ions true & 8 oppon5t's op9ions false 7p4 #ajji1 a4 #af74 ,ari/otle "h di/+ui%es betwe5 two classes ( reason]s1 bo? ( :om he combats1 b :o require to be dealt ) 9 a v diff]5t mann]3 7#a7 ,^? :o are s9c]ely conv9c$ ( :at !y affirm2 7#b7 ,^? :o h no s9c]e conviction1 b m]ely take up ! !sis z a matt] = +5i\s argum5t 7,greek3 lo_/g\ *a_/r971 & w n rel9qui% x until !y are compell$ by a /rong case made out aga9/ !m4 ,! fir/ require p]suasion1 = _! ignorance may be easily cur$1 & ! difficulties :]eby !y are puzzl$ may be remov$2 ! second require to be con/ra9$ by a =cible ,el5*us or refutation1 :i* may correct _! misuse ( dialectic & language 7p4 #ajji1 a4 #bb74 ,ari/otle beg9s ) ! fir/ class4 ,! difficulties :i* p]plex !m proce$ f s5sible ?+s 7,greek3 e7k tn ai7/htn--p4 #ajji1 a4 #bc74 ,!y p]ceive contr>y ?+s g5]at$ by ! same2 & ?is leads !m to believe t contr>ies are bo? alike real1 & t ! two memb]s ( ! ,antiphasis are alike true4 ,=1 s9ce ,non-,ens _c be g5]at$1 bo? ! two contr>ies mu/ h pre-exi/$ toge!r z ,entia1 prior to ! g5]ation 9 ! ?+ z x !n /ood 7a4 #be74 ,?is is ! op9ion ( ,anaxagoras1 :o affirms t e ?+ is mix$ 9 e ?+2 & ( ,demokritus1 :o affirms t ,pl5um & ,inane--9 o!r words4 ,ens & ,non-,ens--exi/ alike & toge!r 9 e "p 7a4 #bh74 ,to ^! reason]s we reply1 t 9 a c]ta9 s5se !y are "r1 9 a c]ta9 s5se wrong4 ,! t]m ,ens is us$ 9 two s5ses3 ! same ?+ may !re=e be at once ,ens & ,non-,ens1 b n 9 ! same s5se2 moreov]1 f ,non-,ens 9 "o s5se some?+ may be g5]at$1 b n f ,non-,ens 9 ! o!r4 ,! same ?+ may be at once two opposites 9 p[]1 b n 9 act 7,greek3 duna_/mei men gar e7nde_/*etai a7_/ma tau7to ei7nai ta e7nanti_/a1 e7ntele*ei_/a d' ou7_/--a4 #ce74 ,we mu/ f>!r rem9d ^! reason]s t ! basis on :i* !y proce$ is n univ]sally admissible2 = !re are v>i\s ,entia ( completely di/9ct & diff]5t ess5ce1 9 :i* !re is nei!r movem5t nor g5]ation nor de/ruction ( any sort 7a4 #ch74 ,! doctr9e held by ,protagoras--,t :at appe>s true is tru?1 comes f ! same s\rce z ! o!r doctr9e--,t bo? memb]s ( ! ,antiphasis are true4 ,bo? doctr9es proce$ f ! s5sible _w 7,greek3 o7moi_/s de kai 7 p]i ta pha9o_/m5a a7l_/!ia e7ni_/ois e7k tn ai7/htn e7l_/lu!n--p4 #ajji1 b4 #b2 ,greek3 o7moi_/s ref]s back to a4 #bc--;,greek3 au7_/t 7 d_/xa1 ! o!r doctr9e74 ,demokritus1 ,protagoras1 & o!rs obs]ve t s5sible ph5om5a are diff]5tly appreciat$ by diff]5t m51 by o!r animals1 & ev5 by ! same animal or man at diff]5t times4 ,!y d n ?9k t tru? ^u ^! po9ts ( diff]5ce c be det]m9$ by a majority ( voices4 ,demokritus says t ei!r !re is no?+ true1 or t we _c "k :at x is 7b4 #aj74 ,^! reason]s id5tifi$ intellig5ce ) s5sible p]ception1 & consid]$ t ?is latt] impli$ a *ange 9 ! subject 7b4 #ac73 !y conceiv$ t :at appe>$ to s5se 0 necess>ily true4 ,emp$okles1 ,demokritus1 ,p>m5ides1 ,anaxagoras1 ,hom]1 c41 all lay d[n ! doctr9e1 t ! intellig5ce ( m5 is v>i$ ) & det]m9$ by _! s5sible p]ceptions4 ,!y ?\ght t m5 ( wrong intellig5ce 7 nev]!less intellig5t m51 ?\gh _! intellig5ce did n c>ry !m to ! same conclusions 7b4 #cj72 t if1 bo? 9 "o case & 9 ! o!r1 !re 7 acts ( intellig5ce1 !re mu/ be realities correspond+ to bo?1 ju/ify+ ! affirmative z well z ! negative 7b4 #cc74 ,t s9c]e & dilig5t enquir]s %\ld fall into ^! errors is v disc\rag+2 b we mu/ rem>k t _! errors orig9at$ f ?is--t1 :ile inve/igat+ ! tru? respect+ ,entia1 !y suppos$ t ,entia 7 only ! ,p]cepta or ,p]cipibilia 7p4 #ajaj1 a4 #b74 ,n[ 9 ^! ,entia ,p]ceptionis !re is a great deal ( ! ,indef9ite & ( m]e ,pot5tial ,entity 7a4 #c74 ,h5ce ! !ories ( ^! reason]s 7 plausible1 ?\gh n true4 ,!y saw t all ! ,entia ,p]ceptionis 7 9 p]petual movem5t1 & !y ?\ght x impossible to pr$icate any ?+ ) tru? respect+ :at 0 at all times & 9 e way *ang+ 7a4 #i74 ,kratylus & ! ,h]akleitiz]s pu%$ ?is to an extreme4 ,ev5 aga9/ _! reason+1 we h some?+ to say 9 reply4 ,we grant t !y h "s gr\nd = imag9+ t :at und]goes *ange does n exi/ at ! mom5t :5 x *anges 7a4 #af74 ,yet ev5 "h !re is room = dispute2 = t :i* is 9 ! act ( ca/+ (f1 /ill reta9s some?+ ( t :i* is be+ ca/ (f2 & ( t :i* is be+ g5]at$1 some?+ mu/ already be 9 exi/5ce4 ,z a g5]al doctr9e1 if some?+ is 9 c\rse ( be+ de/roy$1 some?+ mu/ be 9 exi/5ce2 &1 if some?+ is 9 c\rse ( be+ g5]at$1 !re mu/ exi/ some?+ out ( :i* x proce$s & by :i* x is be+ g5]at$2 nor c ?is g back ad inf9itum 7a4 #bb74 ,dropp+ ?is argum5t1 h[ev]1 let u advance ano!r4 ,*ange z to ,quantity is n ! same z *ange z to ,quality or ,=m4 ,let u grant t1 z to ,quantity1 !re is *ange cont9u\s & p]petual--gr[? or decay--no su* ?+ z /ation>y condition4 ,b all our k relates to ,quality or ,=m1 9 :i* !re is no cont9u\s *ange 7a4 #bd3 ,greek3 kata men ou7n to poso_/n1 e7_// m me_/non2 a7lla kata to ei7dos a7_/panta gign_/skom54--,comp>e ,alex4 ,s*ol41 p4 #fga1 b4 #e-bb2 p4 #fgj1 a4 #cf3 ,bonitz has good rem>ks 9 8 note1 pp4 #bjb-bjd9999474 ,aga91 we h a f>!r reproa* to make to ^! reason]s4 ,_! argum5t is bas$ only on ! ,p]cepta or ,p]cipi5da2 yet1 ev5 z to ^! x is true only z to ! m9ority & untrue z to ! majority4 ,x is true m]ely z f> z ! sublun>y ,p]cepta2 b z to ! sup]lun>y or cele/ial x is ! rev]se ( tru?4 ,our e>? & its neighb\rhood is inde$ 9 cont9ual g5]ation & de/ruction2 b ?is is an insignificant "p ( ! :ole4 ,9 affirm+ any ?+ respect+ ! :ole1 we ought to foll[ ! majority r ?an ! m9ority 7p4 #ajaj1 a4 #bh-ca999974 ,la/ly1 we mu/ repeat aga9/ ^! reason]s ! argum5t urg$ j n[4 ,we mu/ expla9 to !m1 t !re exi/s1 ap>t f & besides all g5]ation1 de/ruction1 *ange1 motion1 c41 a c]ta9 ,immovable ,nature 7,greek3 a7ki_/nto_/s tis phu_/sis--a4 #cd74 ,inde$ _! own doctr9e--,t all ?+s bo? are & are n--w\ld seem to imply an univ]sal /ation>y condition r ?an univ]sal *ange 7a4 #ch74 ,!re c be no *ange2 = !re is no prospective t]m9us :i* c be rea*$ by *ange4 ,e ?+ is assum$ z already exi/+4 ,we h n[ to rem>k ^u ! special doctr9e ( ,protagoras--,greek3 pan to pha9o_/m5on a7l!_/s4 ,if we grant t p]ception is always true ^u matt]s /rictly belong+ to x1 /ill phantasy is n id5tical ) p]ception & we _c say t :at appe>s to ! phantasy is always true 7,greek3 to pha9o_/m5on--:i* implies a ref]5ce to ,greek3 phantasi_/a--p4 #ajaj1 b4 #b71 ,besides1 x is /range t ?9k]s %\ld puzzle !mselves ab\t ! que/ions3 ,:e!r ! magnitude & col\r ( objects is t :i* appe>s to a spectator ne> or to a spectator f> (f8 & to a spectator heal?y or jaundic$8 ,:e!r ! weight ( an object is z x appe>s to a weak or to a /rong man8 ,:e!r objects are truly :at !y appe> to m5 awake or to m5 asleep8 ,_! own actions %[ t !y d n ?9k !re is any d\bt2 = if1 be+ 9 ,libya1 !y happ5 to dream t !y are 9 ,a!ns1 none ( !m ev] ?9k ( go+ to ! ,odeium 7b4 #e-aa74 ,moreov]1 respect+ ! future1 z ,plato rem>ks1 ! anticipations ( ! ignorant man are n s tru/wor?y z ^? ( ! physician1 :e!r a pati5t w recov] or n 7b4 #ad74 ,!n1 aga91 9 respect ( pres5t s5sations1 ! p]ception ( sight is n equally tru/wor?y ) ! p]ception ( smell ab\t a "q ( od\r 7b4 #ag72 & ! p]ception ( smell w nev] report at ! same "t & ab\t ! same ?+1 t x is at once fragrant & n fragrant2 nor1 inde$1 at diff]5t times ab\t ! affection itself1 b only ab\t ! subject to :i* ! affection belong$ 7b4 #bj74 ,! same w9e :i* ta/$ sweet la/ mon?1 may n[ ta/e n sweet2 b ! sweet ta/e itself is ! same n[ & la/ mon?1 & ! reports ( ! s5se are nev] contradictory on ?is po9t4 ,! sweet ta/e :i* is to come 9 ! future w be ( necessity l ! sweet ta/e 9 ! pa/4 ,n[ su* necessity is abrogat$ by all ^? reason+s :i* affirm at once ! two memb]s ( ! ,antiphasis4 ,^! reason+s disall[ all ess5ce ( e ?+1 & all necessity2 = :atev] is necess>y1 _c be at once bo? ?us & n ?us 7b4 #ba-cj74 ,on ! :ole1 if no?+ exi/ except ,p]cepta1 no?+ c exi/ )\t animat$ be+s2 s9ce )\t ^! la/ !re c be no p]ception4 ,x is inde$ true1 p]haps1 t "u su* a supposition !re exi/ nei!r ,p]cepta nor acts ( ,p]ception 7:i* are affections ( ! ,p]cipi5t72 b t ! ,sub/rata :i* cause ,p]ception %\ld n exi/ ev5 )\t ,p]ception--is an impossibility 7p4 #ajaj1 b4 #cc3 ,greek3 to de ta u7pokei_/m5a m ei7nai1 a7 poiei tn ai7_//hs91 kai a7_/neu ai7/h_/ses1 a7du_/naton74 ,p]ception is n p]ception ( itself2 !re exi/s besides1 ap>t f p]ception1 some?+ else :i* mu/ necess>ily be prior to p]ception4 ,= ! ,mov5s is by nature prior to ! ,motum2 & ?is is n ! less true1 ?\gh ea* ( ^! two is enunciat$ 9 relation to ! o!r 7b4 #ce74 ,a difficulty is (t5 />t$1 & enquiry made1 ,:o is to be ! judge ( heal? & sickness8 ,:om are we to recognize z ! p]son to judge rightly 9 ea* p>ticul> case8 ,p]sons might z well raise difficulty & make enquiry1 ,:e!r we are n[ awake or asleep8 ,x is pla9 by m5's actual conduct t !y h no real d\bt ^u ! po9t 9 any p>ticul> case2 & bo? ^! enquiries arise f ! same fundam5tal mi/ake--t m5 require to h e ?+ demon/rat$1 & w recognize no?+ )\t demon/ration4 7,alex4 says 9 ,s*olia1 p4 #fge1 b4 #c3 ,greek3 e7_//i gar pros a7 e7k phu_/ses be_/ltion e7_/*om5 7 7_//e dei/hai ts p]i au7tn a7podei_/xes2 e7_//i de tauta ai7_/ te ai7/h_/seis1 kai ta a7xi_/mata kai ai7 phusikai_/ te kai ko9ai e7_/nnoiai47 ,^? :o s9c]ely & s]i\sly feel ?is difficulty1 may be expect$ to acquiesce 9 ! explanation "h giv5 7p4 #ajaa1 a4 #b-ad74 ,b ^? :o put =w>d ! difficulty m]ely = ! sake ( argum5t1 mu/ be in=m$ t !y require an impossibility4 ,!y require to h a refutative case made out aga9/ !m 7:i* c only be done by r$uc+ !m to a ,greek3 sullogismos a7ntipha_/ses72 yet !y !mselves beg9 by refus+ to ackn[l$ge ?is refutation z suffici5t1 = !y ma9ta9 ! !sis--,t bo? memb]s ( ! ,antiphasis are alike & equally true 7a4 #af2 comp>e ,alex4 ,s*ol41 p4 #fge1 b4 #bj-bh74 ,^? :o ma9ta9 ?is la/-m5tion$ !sis say1 9 o!r words1 ,t e ?+ :i* appe>s true1 is true4 ,b ?is !sis ( !irs _c be def5d$ except by ! admission t e ?+ is relative1 & t no?+ is absolute4 ,accord+ly !y mu/ take c>e to ann\nce _! !sis1 n 9 absolute t]ms z x n[ /&s1 b 9 t]ms /rictly relative3 ,e ?+ :i* appe>s true1 appe>s true to "s individual--at a c]ta9 mom5t ( "t--"u c]ta9 circum/ances & conditions 7p4 #ajaa1 a4 #bd74 ,=1 if !y affirm1 9 absolute phrase1 t all ?+s are alike false & true1 on ! gr\nd t :at appe>s true is true1 urg+ t ! same ?+s d n appe> true ei!r to diff]5t p]sons1 or to ! same p]son at diff]5t times--nay1 sometimes ev5 to ! same p]son at ! same "t1 z may be se5 by h&l+ a pebble betwe5 two cross$ f+]s 7,greek3 e7n t e7palla_/xei tn daktu_/ln--a4 #cc71 s t x appe>s two to ! t\*1 b only "o to ! sight2--we %all reply1 t !re is no su* contradiction ( judgm5t1 if !y conf9e !mselves to ! same p]son1 ! same "t1 & "o & ! same s5se4 ,9 ^! cases1 !re is only "o affirmation :i* appe>s to be true1 & !re=e1 accord+ to _! !ory1 t affirmation is true4 ,!y are n1 !re=e1 ju/ifi$ 9 conclud+ t e ?+ is alike true & false 7b4 #a74 ,!y c only escape ?is refutation by avoid+ to say1 ,?is is true1 & by say+1 ,?is is true to su* an individual1 at su* a "t1 c42 t is1 by mak+ e affirmation relative to "s p]son's op9ion or p]ception4 ,h5ce ! inf]5ce is1 t no?+ ei!r ev] has occurr$ or ev] w occur1 )\t ! antec$5t op9ion ( "s p]son 7,greek3 m!nos prodoxa_/santos--p4 #ajaa1 b4 #f73 if any ?+ ev] has s occurr$1 x _c be true t all ?+s are relative to op9ion4 ,moreov]1 if ! ,relatum be "o1 x mu/ be relative to "s "o1 "s def9ite1 ,correlate2 &1 ev5 if ! same ,relatum be bo? half & equal1 x w n be equal 9 ref]5ce to a d\ble ,correlate1 b half 9 ref]5ce to a d\ble1 & equal 9 ref]5ce to an equal 7b4 #i74 ,moreov]1 if homo & conceptum h bo? ( !m no m ?an a relative exi/5ce--t is1 if bo? ( !m exi/ only 9 correlation ) a concipi5s--!n ! concipi5s _c be homo2 x w be ! conceptum t is homo4 ,&1 if e individual ?+ h exi/5ce only 9 relation to a concipi5s1 ?is concipi5s mu/ =m ! ,correlate to an inf9ite numb] ( ,relata 7b4 #ab74 7,all ?is is v briefly & obscurely /at$ 9 ,ari/otle4 ,! comm5t>y ( ,alex&] is copi\s & valuable3 "o might suppose t he _h be=e him a m ample text2 = x is difficult to f9d 9 ! pres5t text all t 8 comm5t>y /ates999947 ,let ?us mu* be said to e/abli% ! op9ion1 ,t ! two memb]s ( ! ,antiphasis 7! ,affirmative & ! ,negative7 are n bo? true at ! same "t4 ,we h %[n :5ce x arises t "s p]sons suppose bo? to be true2 & :at are ! consequ5ces 9 :i* ^? :o hold ?is op9ion entangle !mselves4 ,accord+ly1 s9ce bo? sides ( ! ,antiphasis _c be truly pr$icat$ ( ! same subject1 x is impossible t opposite attributes c belong at ! same "t to ! same subject 7p4 #ajaa1 b4 #ag3 ,greek3 ou7de ta7nanti_/a a7_/ma u7pa_/r*e9 e7nde_/*etai t au7t74 ,= "o ( ^! opposites includes 9 itself privation1 & privation ( a c]ta9 real ess5ce2 n[ privation is ! negation ( a c]ta9 def9ite g5us4 ,&1 s9ce affirmation & negation _c be truly appli$ at ! same "t1 x foll[s t opposite attributes _c belong at ! same "t to ! same subject4 ,at lea/ x is only possible ?us f>3 "o may belong to x absolutely1 ! o!r secundum quid2 or bo? ( !m secundum quid only 7,greek3 tn men gar e7nanti_/n ?a_/t]on /e_/rsi_/s e7/9 ou7* 7tton1 ou7si_/z de /e_/rsis a7po_/phasi_/s e7/9 a7po_/ t9os 7risme_/n\ ge_/n\s--b4 #bj74 ,b1 also1 !re c be no?+ int]m$iate betwe5 ! two memb]s ( ! ,antiphasis2 we mu/ ( necessity ei!r affirm or d5y any "o ?+ ( any o!r 7p4 #ajaa1 b4 #bd74 ,?is w appe> cle>ly1 :5 we h fir/ def9$ :at is ,tru? & ,falsehood4 ,to say t ,ens is n1 or t ,non-,ens is1 is false3 ,to say t ,ens is1 or t ,non-,ens is n1 is true4 ,accord+ly1 he :o pr$icates e/--or he :o pr$icates non e/--w speak truly or speak falsely1 accord+ z he applies 8 pr$icate to ,ens or to ,non-,ens4 ,b he _c1 ei!r 9 application to ,ens or to ,non-,ens1 pr$icate e/ aut non e/ 7b4 #bi74 ,su* a pr$ication w\ld be nei!r true nor false1 b improp] & unmean+4 7,i foll[ at b4 #bg ! text ( ! ,b]l9 edition3 ,greek3 7_//e kai o7 le_/gn ei7nai 7 m a7l!u_/sei 7 pseu_/setai--:i* seems to me "h bett] ?an t ( ,bonitz1 :o puts ,greek3 7_//e kai o7 le_/gn t\to ei7nai 7 m a7l!u_/sei 7 pseu_/setai--foll[+ ,alex&]'s explanation1 ,s*ol41 p4 #fhj1 a4 #cc1 :i* ,i _c ?9k to be correct1 ?\gh ,bonitz praises x mu*4 ,ari/otle def9es ,tru? & ,falsehood3 ,:5 y say ,ens e/1 or ,non-,ens non e/1 y speak tru?2 :5 y say ,ens non e/1 or ,non-,ens e/1 y speak falsehood4 ,accord+ly1 :5 y employ ! pr$icate e/1 or :5 y employ ! pr$icate non e/1 y w speak truly or falsehood1 accord+ z ! subject ) :i* y jo9 x is ,ens or is ,non-,ens4 ,b nei!r ) respect to ! subject ,ens nor ) respect to ! subject ,non-,ens1 c y employ ! disjunctive pr$icate--e/ aut non e/499997 ,aga91 a m$ium betwe5 ! two horns ( ! ,antiphasis mu/ be ei!r a m$ium betwe5 opposites1 l grey betwe5 :ite & black1 or l ! nei!r betwe5 man & horse4 ,if x be ! latt]1 x w nev] *ange2 = all *ange is ei!r f a negative to its affirmative 7non-bonum to bonum7 or vice v]s3 n[ t :i* is bo? non-homo & non-equus mu/ *ange1 if x *ange at all1 into t :i* is bo? homo & equus2 b ?is is impossible4 ,we see *ange always go+ on2 b x is always *ange ei!r into "o ( ! two extremes or into ! m$ium betwe5 !m4 ,b c we assume t !re is su* a m$ium 7s t ! case suppos$ w belong to ! analogy ( grey1 halfway betwe5 :ite & black78 ,no1 we _c assume x2 =1 if we grant$ x1 we %\ld be =c$ to admit t !re 0 *ange into :ite n proce$+ f t :i* is n :ite3 n[ no?+ ( ! k9d is ev] p]ceiv$4 ,!re _c !re=e be any admissible m$ium halfway betwe5 ! two memb]s ( ! ,antiphasis--some?+ :i* is nei!r :ite nor n-:ite1 nei!r black nor n-black 7p4 #ajaa1 b4 #ce3 ,greek3 ei7 d' e7_//i metaxu_/--if su* m$ium be admitt$--,greek3 kai ou7_/ts ei7_/ a7_/n tis ei7s leukon ou7k e7k m leuk\ ge_/nesis2 nun d' ou7* o7ratai74 ,fur!rmore1 :atev] our intellig5ce und]/&s or reasons ^u1 x deals ) z matt] affirm$ or d5i$4 ,! v def9ition ( tru? & falsehood recognizes !m z belong+ only to affirmation or negation3 :5 we affirm or d5y 9 a c]ta9 way we speak tru?2 :5 9 ano!r way1 we speak falsely4 ,no?+ is conc]n$ b affirmation & d5ial 7i4e41 !re is no m5tal op]ation midway betwe5 ! two--p4 #ajab1 a4 #b-e74 ,if !re be any su* m$ium or midway process1 x is n conf9$ to ?is or t p>ticul> ,antiphasis1 b belongs alike to all1 & mu/ lie ap>t f all ! diff]5t ,antiphases--at lea/ if x is to be talk$ ( z a reality1 & n z a m]e possible comb9ation ( words2 s t ! speak] w nei!r speak tru?1 nor n speak tru?2 :i* is absurd 7a4 #g74 ,x mu/ also lie ap>t bo? f ,ens & f ,non-,ens2 s t we %\ld be compell$ to admit a c]ta9 mode ( *ange ( ,ess5ce1 :i* yet %all nei!r be g5]ation nor de/ruction2 :i* is impossible4 99997,accord+ to ,ari/otle's def9ition1 all *ange ( ,greek3 ou7si_/a mu/ be ei!r ,g5]ation1 i4e41 passage f ,greek3 to m o7_/n to ,greek3 to o7_/n1 or ,de/ruction1 i4e41 passage f ,greek3 to o7_/n to ,greek3 to m o7_/n4--,see ,alex4 ,s*ol4 p4 #fha1 b4 #cj-dj999947 ,aga91 !re are c]ta9 g5]a 9 :i* negation c>ries ) x ! affirmation ( an opposite2 su* z odd & ev51 9 numb]s4 ,9 su* g5]a1 if we are to admit any m$ium ap>t f & betwe5 ! two memb]s ( ! ,antiphasis1 we %\ld be =c$ to admit "s numb] :i* is nei!r odd nor ev5 7p4 #ajab1 a4 #aa74 ,?is is impossible3 ! def9ition excludes x4 7,alex&] gives ?is z ! def9ition ( numb]3 ,greek3 pas gar a7ri?mos 7 a7_/rtio_/s e7/9 7 p]itto_/s1 kai a7ri?mo_/s e7/9 o7s 7 a7_/rtio_/s e7/9 7 p]itto_/s--,s*ol4 p4 #fhb1 a4 #af47 ,aga91 if ! ,antiphasis c\ld be divid$1 & a half or int]m$iate position f\nd1 z ?is !ory cont5ds1 ! division ( x mu/ be admissible f>!r & f>!r1 ad inf9itum4 ,aft] bisect+ ! ,antiphasis1 y c proce$ to bisect ea* ( ! sections2 & s on4 ,ea* section w af=d an int]m$iate t]m :i* may be d5i$ ) ref]5ce to ea* ( ! two memb]s ( ! orig9al ,antiphasis4 ,two new ,antiphases w ?us be =m$1 ea* ( :i* may be bisect$ 9 ! same mann]2 & s bisection1 ) ! =mation ( successive new ,antiphases1 may proce$ )\t end 7p4 #ajab1 a4 #ac74 ,aga91 suppose a que/ion] to ask y1 ,is ?is subject :ite8 ,y answ]1 ,no4 ,n[ y h d5i$ no?+ else ?an ! be+-:ite3 ?is is ! ,greek3 a7po_/phasis1 or negative memb] ( ! ,antiphasis4 ,b y h nei!r d5i$ nor affirm$ ! int]m$iate /age betwe5 ! affirmative & ! negative2 nor is !re any answ] possible by :i* y c\ld d s4 ,!re=e !re is no real int]m$iate /age betwe5 !m 7,greek3 e7_/ti o7_/tan e7rome_/n\ ei7 leuko_/n e7/9 ei7_/p o7_/ti ou7_/1 ou7!n a7_/llo a7pope_/phk5 7 to ei7nai2 a7po_/phasis de to m ei7nai--p4 #ajab1 a4 #ae2 see ,alex4 ,s*ol4 p4 #fhb1 b4 #ae-ch1 & ,bonitz's note4 ,bonitz sugge/s1 ?\gh timidly1 ,greek3 a7pope_/phk5 in/ead ( ! common read+ ,greek3 a7pope_/phuk51 :i* none ( ! comm5tators expla91 & :i* seems un9telligible4 ,i ?9k ,bonitz is "r1 ?\gh ,greek3 a7pope_/phk5 is an unkn[n t5se f ,greek3 a7po_/phmi3 x is q z regul> z ,greek3 a7poph_/s or ,greek3 a7pe_/phsa9999474 ,! doctr9es :i* we h be5 j controv]t+ 7,ari/otle says7 arise1 l o!r p>adoxes1 ei!r f ! emb>rassm5t 9 :i* m5 f9d !mselves :5 !y _c solve a sophi/ical difficulty2 or f _! fancy+ t an explanation may be dem&$ ( e ?+4 ,9 reply+ to !m1 y mu/ take y\r />t f ! def9ition1 :i* assigns to ea* ^w "o fix$ & con/ant signification4 ,! doctr9e ( ,h]akleitus--,t all ?+s are & all ?+s are n--makes all propositions true2 t ( ,anaxagoras--,t e ?+ is int]m+l$ ) e ?+--makes all propositions false3 su* mixture is nei!r good1 nor n good2 nei!r ( ! memb]s ( ! ,antiphasis is true 7a4 #ag-bh74 ,our prec$+ reason+s h refut$ bo? ^! doctr9es1 & h %[n t nei!r ( ! two "o-sid$ extremes c be univ]sally true3 nei!r ! doctr9e--,e proposition is true2 nor t--,e proposition is false2 /ill less t :i* compreh5ds !m bo?--,e proposition is bo? true & false4 ,among ^! ?ree doctr9es1 ! second might seem ! mo/ plausible1 yet x is inadmissible1 l ! o!r two 7b4 #d74 ,9 debat+ ) all ^! reason]s1 y mu/ require !m 7z we h already laid d[n71 n to admit ei!r exi/5ce or non-exi/5ce b1 to admit a con/ant signification = ea* ^w4 ,y mu/ beg9 by def9+ tru? & falsehood2 ea* ( !m belongs only to affirmation 9 a c]ta9 way4 ,:]e ! affirmation is true ! d5ial is false2 all propositions _c be false2 "o memb] ( ea* ,antiphasis mu/ be true1 & ! o!r memb] mu/ be false4 ,ea* ( ^! doctr9es lab\rs "u ! (t5-expos$ defect--t x de/roys itself 7p4 #ajab1 b4 #ad1 ,greek3 to ?rull\_/m5on--allusion to ! ,!tetus1 accord+ to ,alex&]74 ,= :oev] decl>es all propositions to be true1 decl>es ! contradictory ( ?is decl>ation to be true z well z ! re/1 & !re=e 8 own decl>ation n to be true4 ,:oev] decl>es all propositions to be false1 decl>es 8 own decl>ation to be false z well z all o!r propositions 7b4 #ag74 ,&1 ev5 if we suppose ea* ( ^! p]sons to make a special exception 9 reg>d to ! p>ticul> propositions "h respectively indicat$1 /ill ?is w n s]ve4 ,! man :o decl>es all propositions to be false1 w be compell$ to admit an inf9ite numb] ( true propositions2 because ! proposition decl>+ ! true proposition to be true1 mu/ itself be true2 a second proposition decl>+ ?is la/ to be true1 w itself be true2 & s on to a ?ird1 a f\r?1 c41 9 endless scale ( asc5t4 ,! l may be said ab\t ! man :o decl>es all propositions to be true3 he too w be oblig$ to admit an inf9ite numb] ( false propositions2 = t :i* decl>es a true proposition to be false1 mu/ itself be false2 & s on ?r\gh a second1 a ?ird1 c41 9 endless scale ( asc5t z 9 ! =m] case 7b4 #bb74 ,x foll[s f :at has be5 j prov$1 t ^? :o affirm e ?+ to be at re/1 & ^? :o affirm e ?+ to be 9 motion1 are bo? alike wrong4 ,=1 if e ?+ 7 at re/1 ! same propositions w\ld be always true & always false4 ,b ?is is pla9ly contr>y to evid5ce2 = ! v reason] :o affirms x 0 once non-exi/5t1 & w aga9 be non-exi/5t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if e ?+ 7 9 motion1 no proposition w\ld be true1 & all w\ld be false3 b we h prov$ above t ?is is n s4 ,nor is x true t all ?+s are alt]nately 9 motion or at re/2 = !re mu/ be some?+ ev]-mov+ & o!r ?+s ev]-mov$--& ?is prime mov5t mu/ be itself immovable 7p4 #ajab1 b4 #bb-cj74 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,book ,e4 ,! ,fir/ ,philosophy inve/igates ! causes & pr9ciples ( ,entia quat5us ,entia 7p4 #ajbe1 b4 #c74 ,x is di/+ui%$ f o!r sci5ces1 by apply+ to all ,entia1 & 9 s f> z !y are ,entia2 = ea* ( ! o!r sci5ces applies itself to "s sep>ate bran* ( ,entia1 & inve/igates ! causes & pr9ciples ( t bran* exclusively4 ,ea* assumes ei!r f data ( p]ception1 or av[$ly by way ( hypo!sis1 ! portion or g5us ( ,entia to :i* x applies2 n inve/igat+ ! entity !re(1 b pre-suppos+ ?is process to h be5 already p]=m$ by ,ontology3 ea* !n inve/igates ! prop]ties belong+ p] se to t g5us 7b4 #ac74 ,x is pla9 t by su* an induction n "o ( ^! sci5ces c demon/rate ei!r ! ess5ce ( its own sep>ate g5us1 nor :e!r t g5us has any real exi/5ce4 ,bo? ^! que/ions--bo? ,greek3 ei7 e7_//9 & ,greek3 ti_/ e7/9--belong to ,ontology 7b4 #ah74 7,! belief d]iv$ f p]ception & induction nev] am\nts to demon/ration1 z has be5 %[n 9 ! ,analytica2 y may always conte/ ! univ]sality ( ! conclusion--,alex4 p4 #gcd1 b4 #af1 ,br47 ,ap>t f ,ontology1 ea* ( ^! sep>ate sci5ces is ei!r !oretical1 or practical1 or con/ructive 7p4 #ajbe1 b4 #ba74 ,two ( ! sep>ate sci5ces are !oretical--,physics & ,ma!matics2 &1 z ,ontology 7or ,!ology7 is also !oretical1 !re are ?ree v>ieties ( !oretical sci5ce 7p4 #ajbf1 a4 #ah74 ,physical ,sci5ce applies to subjects hav+ 9 !mselves ! pr9ciple ( mobility or *ange1 & inve/igates1 pr9cipally & = ! mo/ "p1 ! ,ess5ce or ,=m !re(2 yet n exclusively ! ,=m1 = ! ,=m mu/ always be jo9$ ) ,matt]4 ,! subject ( ,physics includes ,matt] 9 its def9ition1 l holl[-nos$1 n l holl[ 7p4 #ajbe1 b4 #cc74 ,all ! animal & vegetable _w is compris$ !re92 & ev5 "s s\l1 z f> z s\l is insep>able f ,matt] 7,greek3 p]i psu*s 9999e7ni_/z !rsai t\ phusik\1 o7_/s m a7_/neu ts u7_/ls e7/i_/n--p4 #ajbf1 a4 #e74 ,ma!matics is ano!r bran* ( !oretical sci5ce2 apply+ to subjects immovable & 9 "p insep>able f ,matt]2 t is1 sep>able f ,matt] only 9 logical conception 7p4 #ajbf1 a4 #g-ae74 ,!ology1 or ,fir/ ,philosophy1 or ,ontology1 is conv]sant ) subjects self-exi/5t1 immovable1 & sep>able f ,matt] 7p4 #ajbf1 a4 #af74 ,n[ all causes are necess>ily et]nal2 b ^! m ?an any o!r1 because !y are ! causes active among ! visible div9e bodies2 =1 cle>ly1 if ! ,div9ity has any place1 x mu/ be f\nd among subjects ( t nature2 & ! mo/ v5]able sci5ce mu/ deal ) ! mo/ v5]able subjects 7p4 #ajbf1 a4 #ai74 ,! !oretical sci5ces are m wor?y ?an ! re/ 7,greek3 ai7ret_/t]ai71 & ,fir/ ,philosophy is ! mo/ wor?y among ! !oretical sci5ces 7a4 #bb74 ,a man may inde$ d\bt :e!r ,fir/ ,philosophy is di/+ui%$ f ! o!r !oretical sci5ces by be+ m univ]sal1 & by compreh5d+ !m all z bran*es2 or :e!r x has a sep>ate dep>tm5t ( its own1 b m v5]able ?an ! o!rs2 z we see t ,ma!matics1 z a :ole1 compreh5ds ,geometry & ,a/ronomy 7a4 #bg74 ,if !re exi/ no o!r di/9ct ,ess5ce beyond ! comp\nds ( ,nature 7,greek3 p>a tas phu_/sei sune/kui_/z--a4 #bh71 ,physics w\ld be ! fir/ ( all sci5ces4 ,b if !re be a di/9ct immovable ,ess5ce1 t is fir/2 accord+ly ! sci5ce :i* deals ) x is fir/1 &1 z be+ fir/1 is = t reason univ]sal 7,greek3 kai ka?o_/l\ ou7_/ts o7_/ti pr_/t--a4 #cj74 ,x is ! prov9ce ( ?is ,fir/ ,philosophy to !orize respect+ ,ens qu ,ens--:at x is & :at are its prop]ties qu ,ens 7a4 #cb74 7,alex&] says ! ,fir/ ,philosophy is m univ]sal ?an ! re/1 b does n compreh5d ! re/3 ,greek3 pr_/t pa_/ntn kai ka?o_/l\ 7s pros tas a7_/llas1 ou7 p]ie_/*\sa e7kei_/nas1 a7ll' 7s pr_/t--,s*ol4 p4 #gcf1 a4 #bg47 ,n[ ,ens has _m diff]5t mean+s3-- #a4 ,ens ,greek3 kata sumbebko_/s4 #b4 ,ens ,greek3 7s a7l!_/s--,non-,ens ,greek3 7s pseudos4 #c4 ,ens ,greek3 kata ta s*_/mata ts katgori_/z 7decuple74 #d4 ,ens ,greek3 duna_/mei kai e7n]gei_/a4 #a4 ,respect+ ! fir/1 !re c be no philosophical speculation 7p4 #ajbf1 b4 #c74 ,no sci5ce1 ei!r !oretical1 or practical1 or con/ructive1 inve/igates ,accid5ts4 ,he :o con/ructs a h\se1 does n con/ruct all ! accid5ts or concomitants ( ! h\se2 = ^! are endless & indet]m9ate4 ,x may be agreeable to "o man1 hurtful to a second1 pr(itable to a ?ird1 & some?+ diff]5t 9 relation to e diff]5t ,ens2 b ! con/ructive art call$ h\se-build+ is n con/ructive ( any "o among ^! concomitants 7b4 #g-aj74 ,nor does ! geomet] inve/igate ! analog\s concomitants belong+ to 8 figures2 x is no "p ( 8 prov9ce to det]m9e :e!r a triangle is diff]5t f a triangle hav+ two "r angles 7b4 #ab74 ,?is is easy to und]/&3 ! ,concomitant is little m ?an a "n--z x 71 a "n & no?+ beyond 7b4 #ac74 ,plato came ne> ! tru? :5 he decl>$ t ,sophi/ic 0 busi$ ab\t ,non-,ens2 = ! debates ( ! ,sophi/s turn pr9cipally ^u ,accid5ts or ,concomitants1 su* z1 ,:e!r musical & lit]>y be ! same or diff]5t8 ,:e!r ,koriskus or lit]>y ,koriskus1 be ! same or diff]5t8 ,:e!r ev]y?+ :i* n[ is1 b has n always be51 has become2 z 9 ! case ( a man :o be+ musical has become lit]>y or be+ lit]>y has become musical8 & su* l debates 7see ,alex&]1 ,s*ol4 p4 #gcf1 b4 #dj74 ,= ! ,concomitant or ,accid5t appe>s some?+ next door to ,non-,ens 7,greek3 e7ggu_/s ti t\ m o7_/ntos1 p4 #ajbf1 b4 #ba71 z we may see by ^! debates4 ,( o!r ,entia !re is g5]ation or de/ruction1 b ( ,accid5ts !re is none 7b4 #bc74 ,nev]!less1 we %all /ate1 z f> z ! case admits1 :at is ! nature ( ! ,accid5t1 & ?r\gh :at cause x is 7,greek3 ti_/s 7 phu_/sis au7t\1 kai dia_/ t9' ai7ti_/an e7/i_/n2--p4 #ajbf1 b4 #be73 we %all p]haps at ! same "t expla9 :y !re c be no sci5ce respect+ x4 ,among ,entia1 "s are always & necess>ily ! same1 o!rs are usually b n always ! same4 ,^! :i* come to pass 9 nei!r ( ^! two ways1 are call$ ,accid5ts or ,concomitants4 ,( ! fir/ two1 ! ,con/ant & ! ,usual1 !re is always "s def9ite cause2 ( ! ?ird1 or ,accid5ts1 !re is none3 ! cause ( ^! is an ,accid5t 7p4 #ajbg1 a4 #h74 ,9 fact1 ,matt] is ! cause ( ,accid5ts1 admitt+ z x does ( be+ modifi$ 9 a way diff]5t f ! usual & ord9>y way 7a4 #ac74 ,x is pla9 t !re c be nei!r sci5ce nor tea*+ ( ,accid5ts3 ! tea*] c tea* only :at is con/ant or usual1 & no?+ beyond 7a4 #bj74 ,n[ ( ^! ,accid5ts1 !re is a c]ta9 pr9ciple or cause :i* x is indisp5sable to admit--,*ance 7,greek3 7 t\ o7po_/t]' e7_/tu*5--p4 #ajbg1 b4 #ab74 ,!re mu/ be pr9ciples & causes1 g5]able & de/ructible1 yet :i* nev] are ei!r g5]at$ or de/roy$2 if ?is 7 n s1 all ev5ts w\ld occur by necessity 7p4 #ajbf1 b4 #bi-ca74 7,?us ! build]1 consid]$ z cause ( ! h\se :i* he builds1 has be5 g5]at$1 i4e41 he has acquir$ ! art ( build+ & ! prop] accessories2 & he w be de/roy$1 i4e41 he w lose 8 art1 & its conditions ( be+ ex]cis$4 ,b1 consid]$ z ! cause ( ! accid5ts belong+ to ! h\se1 ( its be+ annoy+ or inconv5i5t to ,a or ,b1 he has n be5 g5]at$ nor w he be de/roy$2 i4e41 he has nei!r acquir$1 nor w he lose1 any skill or conditions t5d+ to ! production ( ?is effect4 ,z ! contact ( two sub/ances is n g5]at$1 b appe>s ( itself along ) ! sub/ances :5 !y are g5]at$2 z ! limits ( p]iods ( "t appe> )\t g5]ation along ) ! p]iods ( "t !mselves2 s ! build]1 :5 he acquires ! p[] ( build+ ! h\se1 /&s possess$ !reby1 )\t any additional "t or special g5]ation1 ( ! p[] to produce ! concomitant accid5ts ( ! h\se4 ,! h\se is ?us produc$ by necessity2 its concomitant accid5ts n by necessity--,alex4 ,s*ol4 p4 #gch1 a4 #ai-cc47 ,b :e!r ?is ,greek3 to o7po_/t]' e7_/tu*5 is to be consid]$ z ref]able to ,matt]1 ,end1 or ,mov5t1 is a po9t important to be det]m9$ 7p4 #ajbg1 b4 #ae74 ,ari/otle %[s else:]e t x is ref]able to ! la/ ( ! ?ree--,greek3 to poitiko_/n 7,asklepius1 p4 #gch1 b4 #da74 ,hav+ n[ said en\gh ^u ,ens p] ,accid5s1 we proce$ to t\* ^u ! second v>iety ( ,ens--,ens z ! ,true1 ,non-,ens z ! ,false4 ,?is v>iety ( ,ens dep5ds ^u conjunction & disjunction1 & =ms an aggregate ( two portions sep>ately exhibit$ & br\ght toge!r 9 ! ,antiphasis4 ,su* conjunction & disjunction is n 9 ?+s !mselves2 b 9 ! act ( intellig5ce :i* ?9ks ! two ?+s toge!r & n successively3 9 reg>d to simple matt]s & ,ess5ce1 n ev5 any special conjo9+ act ( intellig5ce is requir$2 su* ?+s mu/ be conceiv$ toge!r1 or n conceiv$ at all 7p4 #ajbg1 b4 #bg74 ,! m5tal act ( appreh5sion1 9 ^! cases1 is "o & indivisible3 y ei!r h x entire at once1 or n at all4 ,! cause ( ?is v>iety ( ,ens is to be f\nd 9 a c]ta9 affection ( ! intellig5ce2 t ( ! prec$+ v>iety ( ,ens is an undef9$ or indet]m9ate cause 7b4 #cd74 ,bo? ^! two v>ieties ( ,ens are peculi>1 /&+ ap>t f :at is mo/ prop]ly & p> excell5ce ,ens1 i4e41 f ! ,ens accord+ to ! t5 ,categories1 on :i* we %all n[ say some?+4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,book ,z4 ,we h already /at$ t ,ens is a ,greek3 polla*s lego_/m5on--di/+ui%$ accord+ to ! t5 figures or g5]a call$ ,categories4 ,! fir/ is ,greek3 ti_/ e7/91 or ,greek3 ou7si_/a 7s5su dignissimo7--,ess5tia1 ,sub/antia 7p4 #ajbh1 a4 #ae74 ,! rema9+ ,categories are all app5dages ( ,ess5tia1 presuppos+ x1 & insep>able f x2 :]eas ,ess5tia is sep>able f all ( !m1 & /&s fir/ 9 reason1 9 cognition1 & 9 "t4 ,all ! o!r ,categories are call$ ,entia only because !y are quantities1 qualities1 affections1 c41 ( ?is ,ess5tia ,prima4 ,a man may ev5 d\bt :e!r !y are ,entia or ,non-,entia1 s9ce none ( !m is ei!r p] se or sep>able4 ,we ought h>dly to say t a quality or an affection1 enunciat$ ab/ract$ly1 is ,ens at all--su* z curr]e1 s$]e1 sanitas3 we ought m prop]ly to say t curr5s equus1 s$5s homo1 sanus miles1 are ,entia1 enunciat+ along ) ! quality ! def9ite ,ess5ce or ,individual ,sub/ance to :i* x belongs 7a4 #bd74 ,! quality !n becomes ,ens1 because ! subject to :i* x belongs is an individual ,ens 7a4 #bg74 ,ess5tia ,prima is fir/ 9 reason or rational explanation 7,greek3 lo_/g1 a4 #cd71 because 9 ! rational explanation ( ea* ( ! re/ t ( ,ess5tia is implicat$4 ,x is fir/ also 9 cognition1 because we believe ourselves to "k any ?+ fully1 :5 we are able to answ] ,quid e/8 & say t x is homo or ignis2 n simply :5 we are able to answ] ,quale or ,quantum e/8 ,s t 9 answ]+ ! great & (t5-consid]$ "q1 ,quid e/ ,ens8 we %all fir/ und]/& x z mean+ ,ess5tia 7hoc s5su dignissimo71 & %all try to solve x s 7b4 #c1 ,greek3 p]i t\ ou7_/ts o7_/ntos74 ,ess5tia 7und]/ood 9 ?is s5se7 appe>s to belong 9 ! mo/ manife/ mann] to bodies3 we pr$icate x ( animals1 plants1 ! p>ts !re(1 ! natural bodies su* z fire1 wat]1 & su* l1 z well z ! p>ts & aggregates !re(1 su* z ! heav5 & its p>ts1 ! />s1 moon1 & sun 7p4 #ajbh1 b4 #g-ac74 ,b are ^! ! only ,ess5ces1 or are !re o!rs besides8 ,or aga91 is x an error to call ^! ,ess5ces1 & are all ,ess5ces really some?+ diff]5t f ^!8 ,?is is a po9t to be exam9$4 ,"s ?9k t ! limits ( bodies 7surface1 l9e1 po9t1 monad7 are ,ess5ces ev5 m ?an ! body & ! solid3 o!rs admit no ,ess5ces at all beyond or ap>t f ,p]cipi5da2 o!rs aga9 recognize o!r ,ess5ces di/9ct f & m et]nal ?an ! ,p]cipi5da2 = example1 ,plato1 :o ranks ,ideas or ,=ms1 & ! ,ma!matica1 z two di/9ct ,ess5ces1 :ile he places ! ,p]cipi5da only ?ird 9 ! scale ( ,ess5ce4 ,speusippus ev5 enum]ates a /ill great] numb] ( ,ess5ces1 beg9n+ ) ! ,"o1 & proce$+ to ,numb]s1 ,magnitudes1 ,s\l1 c41 ) a di/9ct ,greek3 a7r*_/ or pr9ciple = ea* 7b4 #ba74 ,"s o!rs hold t ,=ms & ,numb]s h ! same nature1 & t !re are o!r ?+s com+ ne> to ^!1 su* z l9es & surfaces1 9 a desc5d+ scale to ! ,heav5 & ! ,p]cipi5da 7b4 #bd74 ,we mu/ ?us inve/igate :i* ( ^! doctr9es are true or false1 :e!r !re are any ,ess5ces beyond ! ,p]cipi5da2 &1 if s1 h[ !y exi/3 :e!r !re is any sep>able ess5ce ap>t f ,p]cipi5da1 &1 if s1 h[ & :y2 or :e!r !re is no?+ ( ! k9d4 ,b fir/ we mu/ give a vague outl9e :at ,ess5ce is g5]ally 7,greek3 u7potupsame_/nois1 b4 #ca74 ,!re are f\r pr9cipal v>ieties ( mean+ 9 ?is ,ess5tia1 ,greek3 kuri_/s or s5su dignissimo3 7#a7 ,greek3 to ti_/ 7n ei7nai1 7#b7 ,greek3 to ka?o_/l\1 7#c7 ,greek3 to ge_/nos1 7#d7 ,greek3 to u7pokei_/m5on4 ,we %all fir/ speak ab\t ! f\r?--,sub/ratum--:i* is ! subject ( all pr$icates1 b nev] itself ! pr$icate ( any subject4 ,t :i* appe>s mo/ ( all to be ,ess5tia is1 ,greek3 to u7pokei_/m5on prton4 ,?is "n applies1 9 "o po9t ( view1 to ,matt]2 9 ano!r1 to ,=m2 9 a ?ird1 to ! total result ( ! two implicat$ toge!r 7p4 #ajbi1 a4 #a73 e4g41 ! brass1 ! figure1 & ! complete /atue ( figur$ brass4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! ,=m be prius1 & m ,ens1 z comp>$ ) ! ,matt]1 x w be also prius & m ,ens z comp>$ ) ! complete result4 ,we get ?us f> 9 ! adumbration ( ,ess5tia--t x is ! subject ( all pr$icates1 b nev] itself a pr$icate4 ,b ?is is n suffici5t to def9e x3 !re /ill rema9s obscurity4 ,x w\ld seem t ,matt] is ,ess5tia2 & t1 if x be n s1 no?+ else is disc]nible to be s2 =1 if e ?+ else be subtract$1 no?+ 7save ,matt]7 rema9s4 ,all ?+s else are ei!r affections1 or ag5cies1 or p[]s1 ( bodies2 &1 :ile l5g?1 bread?1 dep?1 c41 are quantities belong+ to ,ess5ce1 ,quantity is n ,ess5ce1 b some?+ belong+ to ,ess5ce z ,fir/ ,subject4 ,take away l5g?1 bread?1 dep?1 & !re w rema9 only t some?+ :i* ^! ?ree circumscribe2 9 o!r words1 ,matt]--t :i*1 9 itself & 9 its own nature1 is nei!r ,quantity1 nor ,quality1 b ( :i*1 ,quantity1 ,quality1 & ! o!r ,categories1 are pr$icat$4 ,all ^! ,categories are pr$icat$ ( ,ess5ce1 & ,ess5ce ( ,matt]2 s t ,matt] is ! la/ rema9+ p] se 7p4 #ajbi1 a4 #ab-bd74 ,take away ,matt]1 & !re rema9 nei!r affirmative nor negative pr$icates2 = ^! negative pr$icates are j z mu* concomitants or accid5ts z ! o!rs 7a4 #be74 ,^u ?is reason+1 x seems t ,matt] is ! true ,ess5ce4 ,yet1 on ! o!r h&1 ?is w be se5 to be impossible4 ,= ! pr9cipal *>act]i/ic ( ,ess5ce is to be sep>able & ,hoc ,aliquid4 ,s t ei!r ,=m1 or ! ,comp\nd ( ,=m & ,matt] toge!r1 mu/ be ! true ,ess5ce4 ,b ?is la/1 ! ,comp\nd1 may be dismiss$ z evid5tly unsuitable = ! enquiry1 n less ?an ,matt] sep>ately2 = x is manife/ly po/]ior to ei!r ( ! two compon5ts 7p4 #ajbi1 a4 #cj74 ,we mu/ !re=e inve/igate ! ,=m1 ?\gh x is full ( difficulty 7a4 #cc74 ,we %all beg9 ! inve/igation f "s ( ! ,p]cipi5da1 :i* are ackn[l$g$ z ,ess5ce2 = x is useful to g across f ?is />t+-po9t to :at is m cognizable 7,greek3 pro e7_/rg\ gar to metabai_/ne9 ei7s to gnrim_/t]on--p4 #ajbi1 b4 #c4 ,^! words ought prop]ly to come imm$iately aft] ,greek3 ztte_/on prton--p4 #ajbh1 a4 #ce1 & ! int]v5+ words n[ /&+ 9 ! text1 ,greek3 e7pei d' e7n a7r*--p]i au7t\1 ought to be transf]r$ to a m prop] place "s l9es l[] d[n1 imm$iately be=e ! words1 ,greek3 kai prton ei7_/pm5--p4 #ajbi1 b4 #ab4 ,bonitz has made ?is v j correction 9 8 ,obs]vatt4 pp4 #abi-acj1 ref]r$ to 9 8 ,notes on ! ,metaphysica474 ,e man le>ns 9 ?is way--by proce$+ f :at is less cognizable by nature to :at is m cognizable by nature4 ,& ! bus9ess 7,greek3 e7_/rgon7 ( le>n+ consi/s 9 mak+ :at is mo/ cognizable to nature1 mo/ cognizable to ourselves also2 j z1 9 practical matt]s1 proce$+ f :at is good = ea*1 to make :at is good by nature good also = ea* man's self4 ,= x w (t5 happ5 t ?+s fir/ & mo/ cognizable to ea* man's self1 are only fa9tly cognizable1 & h little or no?+ ( ,ens 7b4 #i74 ,yet /ill1 we mu/ try to become cognizant ( ?+s fully kn[able1 by beg9n+ ) ?+s poorly kn[able1 b kn[able to u 7b4 #ab74 ,tak+ up ^! ,p]cipi5da1 = ! purpose ( se>*+ = ,ess5tia 9 !m1 we %all fir/ adv]t to ,greek3 ti_/ 7n ei7nai1 :i* we discrim9at$ z "o ( ! *>act]i/ics ( ,ess5tia1 say+ some?+ ab\t ! rational explanation or def9ition ( x 7p4 #ajbi1 a4 #ab74 ,! ,greek3 t44e4 ( ea* subject is :at is affirm$ ( x p] se 7,greek3 e7_//i to t44e4 e7ka_// o7 le_/getai ka?' au7to_/--a4 #ac74 ,y\r ess5ce is n to be musical2 y are n musical by y\rself3 y\r ess5ce is1 :at y are by y\rself4 ,nor does x ev5 include all t y are by y\rself4 ,surface is n includ$ 9 ! ess5ce ( :ite2 = ! ess5ce ( surface is n ! same ?+ z ! ess5ce ( :ite4 ,moreov] :ite surface1 ! comp\nd ( bo?1 is n ! ess5ce ( :ite2 because :ite itself is includ$ 9 ! def9ition ( :ite--:i* _c be tol]at$4 ,! def9ition1 :i* expla9s ,greek3 t44e41 mu/ n include ! v ^w ( :i* y int5d to decl>e ! ,greek3 t44e4 ,if y int5d to decl>e ! ,greek3 t44e4 ( :ite surface by ! words smoo? surface1 ?is does n decl>e x all3 y only decl>e t :ite is id5tical 9 mean+ ) smoo? 7b4 #bb74 ,n[1 s9ce !re are comp\nds 9 e "o ( ! ,categories1 we mu/ enquire :e!r !re is a ,greek3 t44e4 belong+ to ea* ( ^!4 ,is !re1 = example1 a ,greek3 t44e4 = :ite man8 ,let ! mean+ ( ^! two words be includ$ 9 ! s+le ^w g>m5t4 ,is !re a ,greek3 t44e4 = g>m5t8 ,:at is x to be a g>m5t8 ,y _c answ]2 = nei!r is ?is an enunciation p] se 7p4 #ajbi1 b4 #bi74 ,are we to say1 inde$1 t !re are two di/9ct sorts ( enunciation p] se3 "o includ+ an addition 7,greek3 e7k pro/he_/ses71 ! o!r1 n8 ,y may def9e by intimat+ some?+ to :i* ! matt] def9$ belongs2 e4g41 9 def9+ :ite y may give ! def9ition ( :ite man4 ,or y may def9e by intimat+ some?+ :i* is n ess5tial b accessory to ! matt] def9$2 e4g41 g>m5t signify+ :ite man1 y may def9e g>m5t z :ite4 ,:]eas ! tru? is1 t1 ?\gh a :ite man is :ite1 yet to be :ite is accessory & n ess5tial to him 7p4 #ajcj1 a4 #a74 ,b c we 9 any way affirm t !re is any ,greek3 t44e4 to g>m5t 7tak5 9 ! above s5se78 ,or ought we to say t !re is none 7p4 #ajcj1 a4 #b2 ,bonitz4 ,obss4 p4 #abj78 ,= ! ,greek3 t44e4 is ( ! nature ( ,greek3 to_/de ti 7,greek3 o7_/p] gar to_/de ti e7_//i to t44e4--a4 #c71 or ,hoc ,aliquid1 i4e41 a p>ticul> concrete2 b1 :5 "o ?+ is affirm$ ( ano!r1 z :5 we say :ite man1 ?is is n ( ! nature ( ,greek3 to_/de ti1 if ,greek3 to_/de ti belongs to ,ess5ces alone 7a4 #e74 ,?us x appe>s t ,greek3 to_/de ti belongs to all ^? matt]s ( :i* ! rational explanation c be giv5 by ,def9ition4 ,= to give ! equival5t ( a "n 9 _m o!r words is n always to give a def9ition3 if ?is 7 s1 a p>aphrase ( any l5g?1 ev5 ! ,iliad1 might be call$ a def9ition4 ,!re c be no def9ition except ( a prim>y some?+2 :i* is affirm$1 )\t be+ affirm$ z some?+ ab\t ano!r 7a4 #aj74 ,!re w be no ,greek3 t44e41 !re=e1 except = species ( a g5us2 = 9 ^! alone :at is affirm$ is n an affection or an accessory or by way ( p>ticipation4 ,respect+ e ?+ besides1 !re w be no ,greek3 t44e4 or def9ition1 b !re may be a rational explanation 7,greek3 lo_/gos7 ( :at ! "n signifies1 or a m precise explanation sub/itut$ 9 place ( a simpl] 7a4 #af74 ,yet h we n gone too f> 9 re/rict+ ! applicability ( ,greek3 t44e4 & ,def9ition8 & ought we n r to say1 t bo? ! "o & ! o!r are us$ 9 _m diff]5t s5ses 7p4 #ajcj1 a4 #ah78 ,= ! ,quid e/ 7,greek3 to ti_/ e7/97 signifies 9 "o way ,ess5ce & ,hoc ,aliquid1 & 9 diff]5t ways all ! o!r ,categories ea* respectively4 ,to all ( !m ,e/ belongs1 ?\gh n 9 l mann]1 b prim>ily to "o & consequ5tially to ! re/2 s also ,quid e/ belongs simply & directly to ,ess5ce1 b 9 a c]ta9 way to ! o!rs 7a4 #ba74 ,respect+ ,quale1 ,quantum1 & ! re/1 we may enquire ,quid ,e/8 s t ,quale also comes "u ! ,quid e/1 ?\gh n absolutely or directly 7,greek3 ou7* a7pls1 a4 #be71 b analog\sly to ,non-,ens2 = "s ass]t 9 words t ,e/ belongs to ,non-,ens also ?\gh n absolutely1 viz41 ,non ,ens e/ ,non-,ens--7a4 #bf74 ,n[ we ought to be c>eful h[ we express ourselves ab\t any p>ticul> matt]1 b we ought n to be less c>eful to det]m9e h[ ! matt] itself really /&s 7p4 #ajcj1 a4 #bg3 ,greek3 dei men ou7n skopein kai to ps dei le_/ge9 p]i e7_/ka/on1 ou7 mn mallo_/n ge 7 to ps e7_/*ei4 ,?is contra/ ( ,greek3 ps dei le_/ge9 ) ,greek3 ps e7_/*ei appe>s to ref] to :at _h be5 said two l9es be=e3 ,greek3 logiks phasi_/ t9es ei7nai to m o7_/n--v]bal propositions di/+ui%$ f real474 ,! phraseology us$ j be=e is cle>1 & we mu/ !re=e recognize t ,greek3 t44e41 z well z ,greek3 ti_/ e7/i1 belongs absolutely & prim>ily to ,ess5tia1 b 9 a second>y way to ! o!r ,categories2 t is n absolutely1 b ,greek3 poi t44e41 po_/s t44e41 c4 7a4 #ca74 ,= we mu/ ei!r decl>e ! ,categories to be simply quivoca1 or we mu/ recognize ?is addition & subtraction ( ! sep>ate title ( ea*1 l ! non-cognizable cognizable 7,greek3 7_/sp] kai to m e7pi/ton e7pi/to_/n--a4 #cc4 ,i d n und]/& ^! words1 nor does ! ,s*olia/ or ,bonitz expla9 !m satisfactorily474 ,b ! tru? is1 t !y are nei!r quivoca nor univoca1 b 9 an int]m$iate grade ( relation--n ,greek3 ka?' e7_/n1 b ,greek3 pros e7_/n 7b4 #c474 ,p may express ?is 9 :at phrases !y l2 b ! tru? is1 t !re is bo? ,greek3 t44e4 & ,def9ition1 directly & prim>ily1 ( ,ess5ce2 & ( ! o!r ,categories also1 b n directly & prim>ily4 ,( :ite man1 y may give a rational explanation & a def9ition2 b x w apply 9 a diff]5t mann] to :ite & to ! ess5ce ( man 7b4 #ab74 ,!re is a f>!r difficulty to be notic$4 ,h[ are y to def9e any matt] n simple b ess5tially comp\nd1 :]e two or m elem5ts coalesce into an indivisible :ole1 l holl[-nos$ness out ( nose & holl[ness4 ,"h we h holl[-nos$ness & holl[ness belong+ to ! nose p] se1 n z an affection or accessory2 n z :ite belongs to ,kallias or man1 b z male belongs to animal1 or equal to quantity1 i4e41 p] se 7p4 #ajcj1 b4 #bj74 ,! subject is implicat$ ) ! pr$icate 9 "o "n1 & y _c enunciate ! "o ap>t f ! o!r4 ,su* pr$icates belong to _! subject p] se1 b 9 a diff]5t s5se 7see ,bonitz's note74 ,y _c prop]ly def9e !m1 9 ! s5se giv5 above 7b4 #bg74 ,if def9itions ( su* are to be admitt$1 x mu/ be 9 a diff]5t s5se3 ,def9ition & ,greek3 t44e4 be+ recogniz$ bo? ( !m z ,greek3 polla*s lego_/m5a4 ,def9ition !re=e is ! mode ( explanation :i* decl>es ! ,greek3 t44e41 & belongs to ,ess5ces1 ei!r exclusively1 or at lea/ prim>ily1 directly1 & *iefly 7p4 #ajca1 a4 #g-ad74 ,we h n[ to enquire--,:e!r ea* p>ticul> ?+1 & its ,greek3 t44e41 are ! same1 or diff]5t 7p4 #ajca1 a4 #ae74 ,?is w assi/ u 9 ! inve/igation ( ,ess5ce2 = app>5tly ea* ?+ is n diff]5t f its own ,ess5ce1 & ! ,greek3 t44e4 is said to be ! ,ess5ce ( ea* ?+4 ,9 reg>d to subjects enunciat$ p] accid5s1 ! above two w\ld seem to be di/9ct4 ,:ite man is diff]5t f ! be+ a :ite man4 ,if ^! two 7 ! same1 ! be+ a man w\ld be ! same z ! be+ a :ite man2 = ^? :o hold ?is op9ion affirm t man1 & :ite man1 are ! same2 &1 if ?is be s1 ( c\rse ! be+ a man mu/ also be ! same z ! be+ a :ite man4 ,yet ?is la/ inf]5ce is n necess>y2 = same is us$ 9 a diff]5t s5se1 :5 y say1 ,man & :ite man are ! same1 & :5 y say1 ,! be+ a man & ! be+ a :ite man are ! same4 ,b p]haps y may urge t ! two pr$icates may become ! same p] accid5s 7i4e41 by be+ truly pr$icat$ ( ! same subject72 & t1 because y say truly1 ,sokrates is :ite--,sokrates is musical1 !re=e y may also say truly1 ,! be+ :ite is ! same z ! be+ musical4 ,b ?is w be d5i$ 7,greek3 dokei d' ou7_/--p4 #ajca1 a4 #bh74 ,9 reg>d to subjects enunciat$ p] se1 ! case is o!rwise3 "h ea* ?+ is ! same ) its ,greek3 t44e4 ,suppose1 e4g41 !re exi/ any ,ess5ti 7su* z ,plato & o!rs make ! ,ideas7 prior to all o!rs2 9 t case1 if ! ,greek3 au7toaga?o_/n 7 di/9ct f ,greek3 to a7ga? ei7nai1 & ! ,greek3 au7tozon di/9ct f ,greek3 to z_/ ei7nai1 !re mu/ be o!r ,ess5ces & ,ideas ant]ior to ! ,platonic ,ideas4 ,if we believe ,greek3 t44e4 to be ,ess5tia1 x mu/ be an ,ess5tia ant]ior & sup]ior 9 dignity to ^! ,ideas ( ,plato4 ,moreov]1 if ! ,ess5ti or ,ideas1 & ! ,greek3 t44e41 be disjo9$ 7,greek3 a7polelume_/nai--p4 #ajca1 b4 #c71 ! fir/ w be uncognizable1 & ! la/ w be non-exi/5t 7,greek3 ta d' ou7k e7_//ai--b4 #d74 ,= to h cognition ( a ?+1 is1 to "k its ,greek3 t44e4 ,?is w be alike true ( all ,greek3 t44e42 all ( !m are alike exi/5t or alike non-exi/5t 7b4 #i74 ,if ,greek3 to o7_/nti ei7nai be n id5tical ) ,greek3 to o7_/n1 nei!r is ,greek3 to a7ga? ei7nai id5tical ) ,greek3 to a7ga?o_/n1 c4 ,b t ( :i* ,greek3 to a7ga? ei7nai is n truly pr$icable1 is n ,greek3 a7ga?o_/n 7b4 #aa74 ,h5ce we see t ( necessity ,greek3 to a7ga?o_/n is "o & ! same ) ,greek3 to a7ga? ei7nai2 likewise ,greek3 to kalo_/n1 ) ,greek3 to kal ei7nai2 & s 9 all cases :]e ! t]m enunciates a subject prim>ily & p] se1 n a pr$icate ( "s o!r & di/9ct subject 7p4 #ajca1 b4 #ac3 ,greek3 o7_/sa m kat' a7_/llo le_/gtai1 a7lla ka?' au7ta kai prta74 ,?is la/ is ! *>act]i/ic & suffici5t m>k1 ev5 if ! ,platonic ,ideas be n admitt$2 & ev5 m evid5tly s1 if !y be admitt$ 7b4 #ad74 ,x is at ! same "t cle> t1 if ! ,ideas be :at ,plato decl>es !m to be1 ! individual p]ceivable subjects "h _c be ,ess5ces2 = ! ,ideas are necess>ily ,ess5ces1 b n z pr$icable ( a subject4 ,if !y 7 ,ess5ces1 9 ?is la/ s5se1 !y w\ld be ,ess5ces p] p>ticipationem2 :i* is inconsi/5t ) :at is said ab\t !m by ,plato 7,greek3 e7_/sontai gar kata me_/!x9--b4 #ah74 ,^! reason+s %[ t ea* sep>ate ?+1 enunciat$ p] se & n p] accid5s1 is ! same ) its ,greek3 t44e42 t to "k ea* ?+1 is1 to "k its ,greek3 t44e42 t1 if y proce$ to expose or lay !m out1 bo? are "o & ! same 7,greek3 7_//e kata tn e7_/k!s9 a7na_/gk e7_/n ti ei7nai a7_/mph--p4 #ajca1 b4 #ba2 ) ,bonitz's explanation ( ,greek3 e7_/k!sis 9 8 ,note74 ,b t :i* is enunciat$ p] accid5s 7e4g41 album1 musicum7 _c be truly affirm$ to be "o & ! same ) its ,greek3 t44e41 because x has a d\ble signification3 x signifies bo? ! accid5t & ! subject to :i* su* accid5t belongs2 s t 9 a c]ta9 aspect x is id5tical ) its ,greek3 t44e41 & 9 ano!r aspect x is n id5tical !re) 7p4 #ajca1 b4 #bf74 ,! be+ a man1 & ! be+ a :ite man1 are n ! same2 b ! subject = affection is ! same 9 bo? 7b4 #bh3 ,greek3 ou7 tau7to1 pa_/!i de tau7to_/--obscure74 ,! absurdity ( suppos+1 t ! ,greek3 t44e4 ( a ?+ is diff]5t f ! ?+ itself1 w\ld appe> pla9ly1 if we gave a di/9ct "n to ! ,greek3 t44e4 ,= !re mu/ be ano!r ,greek3 t44e4 above ?is1 be+ ! ,greek3 t44e4 ( ! fir/ ,greek3 t44e42 & x w\ld be necess>y to provide a new "n = ! second ,greek3 t44e42 & s =w>d1 9 an asc5d+ m>* ad inf9itum4 ,:at h9d]s u f admitt+ "s ?+s at once1 z id5tical ) _! ,greek3 t44e41 if ! ,greek3 t44e4 be ,ess5tia8 7b4 #ca74 ,we see f ! prec$+ reason+ t n only ! ?+ itself is ! same ) its ,greek3 t44e41 b t ! rational explanation 7,greek3 lo_/gos7 ( bo? is ! same2 = ,"o1 & ! be+ ,"o1 are "o & ! same n p] accid5s1 b p] se 7p4 #ajcb1 a4 #b74 ,if !y 7 diff]5t1 y w\ld h to asc5d to a high] ,greek3 t44e4 ( ! be+ ,"o2 & above ?is1 to a high] /ill1 )\t end 7a4 #d74 ,x is !re=e cle> t1 9 matt]s enunciat$ p] se & prim>ily1 ea* individual ?+ is "o & ! same ) its ,greek3 t44e4 ,! refutations br\ght by ! ,sophi/s aga9/ ?is doctr9e1 & ! puzzles :i* !y />t1 e4g41 ,:e!r ,sokrates & ! be+ ,sokrates are ! same1--may be cle>$ up by ! explanations j (f]$ 7p4 #ajcb1 a4 #h74 ,x makes no diff]5ce :at p>ticul> que/ions ! objector asks3 "o is z easy to solve z ano!r 7a4 #aj74 ,( ?+s g5]at$1 "s come by ,nature1 "s by ,art1 "s ,spontane\sly4 ,all g5]at$ ?+s are g5]at$ out ( some?+1 by some?+1 & into or accord+ to some?+ 7p4 #ajcb1 a4 #ab74 ,! ^w some?+ applies to ea* & all ! ,categories4 ,natural g5]ation belongs to all ! ?+s ^: g5]ation comes f ,nature 7,greek3 e7k phu_/ses72 hav+ ,greek3 to e7x ou7--:at we call ,matt]1 ,greek3 to u7ph' ou7--"o ( ! ?+s exi/+ by nature 7,greek3 tn phu_/sei ti o7_/ntn--a4 #ag71 & ,greek3 to ti_/1 su* z a man1 a plant1 or ! l1 :i* we call ,ess5ces 9 ! fulle/ s5se 7,greek3 ma_/li/a ou7si_/z74 ,all ?+s g5]at$ ei!r by ,nature or ,art h ,matt]3 x is possible t ea* ( !m may be1 or may n be2 & ?is is :at we call ,matt] 9 ea* 7a4 #bj74 ,z an univ]sal tru? 7,greek3 ka?o_/l\71 ,nature includes 7#a7 ,t out ( :i*1 or ,matt]2 7#b7 ,t accord+ to :i* 7,greek3 ka?' o7_/71 e ?+ :i* is g5]at$ hav+ a def9ite nature or ,=m1 su* z plant or animal2 ,t by :i*1 or nature *>act]iz$ accord+ to ! ,=m1 be+ ! same ,=m z ! ?+ g5]at$ b 9 ano!r individual2 = a man begets a man 7a4 #bd74 ,! o!r g5]ations are call$ ,con/ructions 7,greek3 poi_/seis71 :i* are ei!r f ,art1 or f ,p[]1 or f ,intellig5ce4 ,x is ) ^! z ) natural g5]ations3 "s ( !m occur bo? by spontaneity & by *ance 7,greek3 kai a7po tau7toma_/t\ kai a7po tu_/*s--p4 #ajcb1 a4 #bi2 ! pr9ciple ( ^! la/ is app>5tly ,greek3 du_/namis1 ! second ( ! ?ree pr9cipia ann\nc$ j be=e 78772 bo? 9 ! "o & 9 ! o!r1 "s products arise )\t se$ z well z ) se$1 :i* we %all pres5tly adv]t to4 ,! g5]ations f ,art are ^? ( :i* ! ,=m is 9 ! m9d4 ,by ,=m ,i mean ! ,greek3 t44e4 ( ea* ?+ & its ,fir/ ,ess5ce 7,greek3 tn pr_/tn ou7si_/an1 p4 #ajcb1 b4 #a74 ,=1 9 a c]ta9 way1 ! ,=m ev5 ( contr>ies is ! same2 s9ce ! ess5ce ( privation is ! opposite ess5ce3 = example1 heal? is ! ess5ce ( disease2 = disease is decl>$ or describ$ z abs5ce ( heal?1 & heal? is ! rational notion exi/+ 9 ! m9d & 9 sci5ce4 ,n[ a heal?y subject is g5]at$ by su* an antec$5t tra9 ( ?\ght z foll[s 7,greek3 gi_/gnetai d to u7gies no_/santos ou7_/ts--b4 #f73--,s9ce heal? is s & s1 !re is necessity1 if ! subject is to atta9 heal?1 t su* & su* ?+s %\ld occur1 e4g41 an ev5 temp]ature ( ! body1 = :i* latt] purpose heat mu/ be produc$2 & s on f>!r1 until ! ?\ght re/s ^u some?+ :i* is 9 ! physician's p[] to con/ruct4 ,! motion proce$+ f ?is la/ ?\ght is call$ ,con/ruction 7b4 #aj71 t5d+ z x does t[>ds heal?4 ,s t1 9 a c]ta9 po9t ( view1 heal? may be said to be g5]at$ out ( heal?1 & a h\se out ( a h\se2 = ! m$ical art is ! =m ( heal? & ! build+ art ! =m ( ! h\se3 ,i mean ! ,greek3 t44e41 or ! ,ess5ce )\t ,matt]1 !re( 7b4 #ad74 ,( ! g5]ations & motions "h enum]at$1 "o is call$ ,rational ,appreh5sion1 viz41 t "o :i* takes its dep>ture f ! ,pr9ciple & ! ,=m2 ! o!r1 ,con/ruction1 viz41 t :i* takes its dep>ture f ! conclusion ( ! process ( rational appreh5sion 7,greek3 a7po t\ teleutai_/ou ts no_/ses--b4 #ag74 ,! l may be said ab\t ea* ( ! int]m$iate /eps3 ,i mean1 if ! pati5t is to be re/or$ to heal?1 he mu/ be br\ght to an ev5 temp]ature4 ,b ! be+ br\ght to an ev5 temp]ature1 :at is x8 ,x is s & s2 x w be a consequ5ce ( 8 be+ w>m$4 ,& ?is la/ aga9--:at is x8 ,s & s2 :i* already exi/s pot5tially1 s9ce x dep5ds ^u ! physician to produce x1 ! means be+ at 8 comm& 7,greek3 t\to d' 7_/d e7p' au7t--b4 #ba74 ,we see ?us t ! ,con/ructive ,ag5cy 7,greek3 to poi\n7 & ! po9t f :i* ! motion t[>ds produc+ heal? takes its orig91 is1 :5 ! process is "o ( ,art1 ! ,=m pres5t 9 ! m9d2 &1 :5 ! process is "o ( ,spontaneity1 x proce$s f t :i* w\ld be ! fir/ proce$+ ( ! arti/1 if ,art _h be5 conc]n$4 ,9 ! m$ical art1 e4g41 ! arti/ beg9s by imp>t+ w>m?4 ,he does ?is by rubb+4 ,b ?is w>m? might p]haps arise 9 ! body )\t any su* rubb+ or int]f]5ce by ! arti/4 ,! w>m? is ! prime ag5t1 9 ! case ( spontane\s production4 ,! w>m? is ei!r a "p ( heal?1 or a condition to ! exi/5ce ( heal?1 z bricks are to t ( a h\se 7p4 #ajcb1 b4 #cj74 ,no?+ c be g5]at$1 if no?+ pre-exi/$--z has be5 already said be=e4 ,"s "p ( :at is g5]at$ mu/ exi/ be=e3 ,matt] pre-exi/s1 z 9-dwell+ & n g5]at$ 7,greek3 7 gar u7_/l me_/ros2 e7nupa_/r*ei gar kai gi_/gnetai au7_/t--p4 #ajcc1 a4 #a4 ,i d n und]/& ^! la/ words3 x ought surely to be--,greek3 e7nupa_/r*ei gar kai ou7 gi_/gnetai au7_/t4 ,bonitz's explanation suits ^! la/ words bett] ?an x suits ! words 9 ! actual text474 ,b some?+ ( ! ,=m or rational explanation 7,greek3 tn e7n t lo_/g7 mu/ also pre-exi/4 ,9 reg>d to a braz5 circle1 if we are ask$1 ,quid e/8 we answ] 9 two ways3 ,we say ( ! ,matt]--,x is brass2 ,we say ( ! ,=m--,x is su* & su* a figure4 ,& ?is is ! g5us 9 :i* x is fir/ plac$ 7p4 #ajcc1 a4 #d74 ,! braz5 circle has ,matt] 9 its rational explanation4 ,b t :i* is g5]at$1 is call$ n by ! "n ( ! ,matt] out ( :i* x is g5]at$1 b by a d]ivative "n =m$ !refrom2 n ,greek3 e7keino1 b ,greek3 e7kei_/n9on4 ,a /atue is call$ n ,greek3 li_/?os1 b ,greek3 li_/?9os4 ,b1 :5 a man is made heal?y1 he is n said to be ! ,matt] out ( :i* ! heal? is g5]at$2 because t :i* we call ! ,matt] is g5]at$ out ( ,privation along ) ! subject4 ,?us1 bo? ! man becomes heal?y1 & ! pati5t becomes heal?y2 b ! g5]ation is m prop]ly said to come out ( ,privation3 we say1 ,sanus ex groto g5]atur1 r ?an1 ,sanus ex hom9e g5]atur 7p4 #ajcc1 a4 #ab74 ,9 cases :]e ! ,privation is unm>k$ & unnam$1 z1 9 ! case ( brass1 privation ( ! sph]ical1 or any o!r1 figure1 &1 9 ! case ( a h\se1 ! privation ( bricks or wood1 ! "w is said to be g5]at$ out ( !m l a heal?y man out ( a sick man 7a4 #ad74 ,nev]!less ! "w is n call$ by ! same "n z ! mat]ial out ( :i* x is made1 b by a p>onym !re(2 n ,greek3 xu_/lon b ,greek3 xu_/l9on 7a4 #ah74 ,9 /rict propriety1 inde$1 we c h>dly say t ! /atue is made out ( brass1 nor ! h\se out ( wood2 = ! mat]ia ex qu ought to be some?+ :i* und]goes *ange1 n some?+ :i* rema9s un*ang$ 7a4 #ba74 ,x 0 rem>k$ t 9 ,g5]ation !re are ?ree ?+s or aspects to be di/+ui%$-- #a4 ,greek3 ,to u7ph' ou71 o7_/!n 7 a7r* ts g5e_/ses4 #b4 ,greek3 ,to e7x ou7--r ,greek3 u7_/l ?an ,greek3 /e_/rsis4 #c4 ,greek3 ,ti_/ gi_/gnetai4 ,hav+ already t\*$ ^u ! two fir/1 ,i n[ proce$ to ! ?ird4 ,:at is x t is g5]at$8 ,nei!r ! ,matt]1 nor ! ,=m1 b ! embodim5t or comb9ation ( ! two4 ,an artisan does n con/ruct ei!r ! brass or ! sph]e1 b ! braz5 sph]e4 ,if he be said to con/ruct ! sph]e1 x is only by accid5t 7,greek3 kata sumbebko_/s71 s9ce ! sph]e 9 ?is p>ticul> case happ5s to be ( brass4 ,out ( ! entire subject-matt]1 he con/ructs a di/9ct individual ,some?+ 7p4 #ajcc1 a4 #ca74 ,to make ! brass r\nd1 is n to make ! r\nd1 or to make ! sph]e1 b to make a some?+ diff]5t3 t is ! ,=m 7( sph]icity7 embodi$ 9 ano!r ?+ 7a4 #cb74 ,=1 if ! artisan made ! r\nd or ! sph]e1 he mu/ make !m out ( some?+ diff]5t1 pre-exi/+ z a subject3 e4g41 he makes a braz5 sph]e1 & 9 ?is s5se--t he makes out ( t ,matt]1 :i* is brass1 ?is diff]5t some?+1 :i* is a sph]e4 ,if he made ! sph]e itself--! ,=m ( sph]e--he mu/ make x out ( "s pre-exi/5t subject2 & y w\ld ?us c>ry back ad inf9itum ! diff]5t acts ( g5]ation & diff]5t pre-exi/5t subjects 7b4 #d74 ,x is1 !re=e1 cle> t ,greek3 to ei7dos1 or by :atev] "n ! %ape ( ! p]cipi5d is to be call$1 is n g5]at$1 nor is g5]ation !re( possible2 nor is !re any ,greek3 t44e4 !re(2 t is1 ( ! ,=m ab/ract$ly3 = x is ?is v ,greek3 t44e4 :i* is g5]at$ or becomes embodi$ 9 some?+ else1 ei!r by nature1 or by art1 or by spontane\s p[] 7p4 #ajcc1 b4 #h74 ,! artisan makes a braz5 sph]e to exi/1 = he makes x out ( brass 7,matt]71 & ! sph]e 7,=m73 he makes or embodies ! ,=m into ?is ,matt]1 & t is a braz5 sph]e 7b4 #aa74 ,if !re be any g5]ation ( ! sph]e p] se 7,greek3 t\ sphaira ei7nai71 x mu/ be ,some?+ out ( ,some?+2 = ! ,g5]atum mu/ always be resolvable into a c]ta9 ,matt] & a c]ta9 ,=m4 ,let ! braz5 sph]e be a figure 9 :i* all po9ts ( ! circumf]5ce are equidi/ant f ! c5tre2 "h are ?ree ?+s to be consid]$3 7#a7 ,t 9 :i* :at is con/ruct$ resides2 7#b7 ,t :i* does s reside2 7#c7 ,! entire ,some?+ g5]at$ or con/ruct$--! braz5 sph]e4 ,we see ?us pla9ly t :at is call$ ! ,=m or ,ess5ce itself is n g5]at$1 b ! comb9ation call$ accord+ to ! ,=m is g5]at$2 moreov] t 9 e ,g5]atum !re is ,matt]1 s t ! ,g5]atum is 9 ea* case ?is or t 7b4 #ai74 ,c x be true1 !n1 t !re exi/s any sph]e or h\se beyond ^? :i* we see or t\* 7i4e41 any ,=m or ,idea ( a sph]e1 su* z ,plato advocates78 ,if !re exi/$ any su*1 x c\ld nev] h become or be5 g5]at$ into ,hoc ,aliquid4 ,x signifies only tale4 ,x is nei!r ,?is nor ,t nor any ?+ def9$3 b x 7or r ! ,con/ructive ,ag5cy7 makes or g5]ates ex hoc tale2 & :5 ?is la/ has be5 g5]at$1 x is ,tale ,hoc 7p4 #ajcc1 b4 #bb71 & ! entire comp\nd is ,kallias1 or ,sokrates1 or ?is braz5 sph]e1 :ile man1 animal1 c41 are analog\s to braz5 sph]e g5]ally4 ,ev5 if !re exi/ ,platonic ,=ms by !mselves1 !y c\ld be ( no use t[>ds g5]ation or ! production ( ,ess5ces4 ,frequ5tly x is obvi\s t ! ,g5]ans is l ! ,g5]atum1 only a diff]5t individual4 ,!re is no occasion to assume ! ,platonic ,=m z an ,exempl>2 = ! g5]at+ individual is q suffici5t ( itself to be ! cause ( ! ,=m 9 a new mass ( ,matt]4 ,! entire result is ! giv5 ,=m 9 ^! p>ticul> bones & fle%--call$ ,kallias or ,sokrates3 ea* is diff]5t s f> z ,matt]1 b ! same 9 ! ,=m2 = ! ,=m is indivisible 7p4 #ajcd1 a4 #g74 ,b h[ does x happ5 t !re are "s ?+s :i* are g5]at$ sometimes by art1 sometimes spontane\sly 7e4g41 heal?71 :ile 9 o!r ?+s 7e4g41 a h\se7 spontane\s production nev] takes place8 ,! reason is1 t1 9 ! fir/ class ( cases1 ! ,matt] :i* gov]ns ! "w ( g5]ation by ! arti/1 & 9 :i* itself a "p ( ! f9i%$ product resides1 is ( a nature to be mov$ or modifi$ by itself1 :ile1 9 ! second1 ?is is n ! fact2 & to be mov$1 besides1 9 a c]ta9 mann] & direction2 = !re are _m ?+s :i* are movable by !mselves1 b n 9 su* mann] & direction z ! case :i* we are suppos+ requires4 ,= example1 /ones are incapable ( be+ mov$ 9 c]ta9 directions except by "s o!r =ce1 b !y are capable ( be+ mov$ by !mselves 9 ano!r direction2 ! l ) fire4 ,x is ^u ?is t ! di/9ction turns betwe5 "s results :i* _c be realiz$ )\t an arti/1 & o!rs :i* may p]haps be s realiz$ 7a4 #ag74 ,x is pla9 f :at has be5 said t1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 ev]y?+ is g5]at$ f some?+ ( ! same "n1 z natural objects are 7e4g41 a man72 or f some?+ 9 "p be>+ ! same "n 7z a h\se out ( ! ideal =m ( a h\se71 or f some?+ :i* possesses t :i* 9 "p be>s ! same "n2 = ! fir/ cause ( ! g5]ation is itself "p ( ! ?+ g5]at$4 ,! heat 9 ! motion g5]ates heat 9 ! body2 & ?is is ei!r heal?1 or a "p ( heal?1 or ! antec$5t ( "o or o!r ( ^!2 h5ce x is said to produce or g5]ate heal?1 because x produces t ( :i* heal? is concomitant & consequ5t 7p4 #ajcd1 a4 #cj2 see ,bonitz's correction 9 8 ,note74 ,ess5ce is 9 ^! cases ! beg9n+ or pr9ciple ( all g5]ations1 j z 9 ,demon/ration x is ! beg9n+ or pr9ciple ( all syllogisms 7a4 #cc74 ,9 ! comb9ations & gr[?s ( ,nature1 ! case is simil>4 ,! se$ con/ructs1 z ,art con/ructs its products2 = ! se$ has 9 x pot5tially ! ,=m1 & t f :i* comes ! se$ is1 9 a c]ta9 mann]1 ( ! same "n ) ! product 7b4 #a74 ,= we mu/ n expect to f9d all g5]ations analog\s to t ( man f man--woman also is g5]at$ f man1 moreov]1 mule is n g5]at$ f mule--?\gh ?is is ! usual case1 :5 !re is no natural bodily defect 7b4 #c74 ,spontane\s g5]ation occurs 9 ! dep>tm5t ( ,nature1 z 9 t ( ,art1 :]ev] ! ,matt] c be mov$ by itself 9 ! same mann] z ! se$ moves x3 :]ev] ! ,matt] _c be s mov$ by itself1 !re c be no g5]ation except ! natural1 f simil> pr$ecessors 7b4 #g1 ,greek3 e7x au7tn--comp>e ,bonitz's note3 non ex ipsis1 s$ ,greek3 e7x au7tn tn poi\_/ntn74 ,?is doctr9e--,t ! ,=m is n g5]at$1 does n belong to ,ess5ce alone1 b also to all ! o!r ,categories alike--,quality1 ,quantity1 & ! re/ 7p4 #ajcd1 b4 #i74 ,x is n ! ,=m ,quality p] se :i* is g5]at$1 b tale lignum1 talis homo3 nor ! ,=m ,quantity p] se1 b tantum lignum or animal 7b4 #ae74 ,b1 9 reg>d to ,ess5ce1 !re is ?us mu* peculi> & di/9ctive z comp>$ ) ! o!r ,categories3 9 ! g5]ation ( ,ess5ce1 !re mu/ pre-exi/ z g5]ator ano!r actual & complete ,ess5ce2 9 ! g5]ation ( ,quality or ,quantity1 y ne$ no?+ pre-exi/+ beyond a pot5tial ,quality or a pot5tial ,quantity 7b4 #af74 ,a difficult "q arises 9 ?is way3 ,e def9ition is a rational explanation consi/+ ( p>ts2 &1 z ! p>ts ( ! explanation are to ! :ole explanation1 s are ! p>ts ( ! ?+ expla9$ to ! :ole ?+ expla9$4 ,n[ is x necess>y or n1 t ! rational explanation ( ! p>ts %all be embodi$ 9 ! rational explanation ( ! :ole 7p4 #ajcd1 b4 #bb78 ,9 "s cases x appe>s to be s2 9 o!rs1 n4 ,! rational explanation ( a circle does n include t ( its segm5ts2 b ! rational explanation ( a syllable does include t ( its compon5t lett]s4 ,moreov]1 if ! p>ts are prior to ! :ole1 & if ! acute angle be a "p ( ! "r angle1 & ! f+] a "p ( ! man1 ! acute angle mu/ be prior to ! "r angle1 & ! f+] to ! man4 ,yet ! contr>y seems to be ! tru?3 ! "r angle seems prior1 also ! man2 = ! rational explanation ( acute angle is giv5 f "r angle1 t ( f+] f man3 9 respect to exi/+ )\t ! o!r1 "r angle & man seem priora4 ,9 fact ! ^w "p is equivocal1 & x is only "o ( its mean+s to call x--t :i* quantitatively measures ano!r 7b4 #cc74 ,b let u dismiss ?is consid]ation1 & let u enquire ( :at x is t ,ess5ce consi/s1 z p>ts 7b4 #cd74 ,if ^! are 7#a7 ,matt]1 7#b7 ,=m1 7#c7 ,! ,comp\nd ( ! two1 & if ea* ( ^! ?ree be ,ess5ce1 ,matt] mu/ be consid]$1 9 a c]ta9 way1 z a "p ( some?+1 yet 9 a c]ta9 way z n s2 9 ?is latt] po9t ( view1 no?+ be+ a "p except ^? elem5ts out ( :i* ! rational explanation ( ! ,=m is fram$ 7p4 #ajce1 a4 #b74 ,?us1 fle% is n a "p ( flatness1 be+ ! matt] ^u :i* flatness is g5]at$ or sup]9duc$1 b fle% is a "p ( flat-nos$ness2 ! brass is a "p ( ! entire /atue1 b n a "p ( ! /atue :5 enunciat$ z ,=m1 or ( ! ideal /atue4 ,y may discrim9ate & reason sep>ately ^u ! /atue consid]$ z ,=m 7ap>t f ! complete /atue72 b y _c s discrim9ate ! mat]ial "p p] se1 or ! /atue consid]$ z ,matt] only 7a4 #g74 ,h5ce ! rational explanation ( ! circle does n conta9 t ( ! segm5ts ( ! circle2 b ! rational explanation ( ! syllable does conta9 t ( ! compon5t lett]s4 ,! lett]s are p>ts ( ! ,=m1 & n simply ! ,matt] ^u :i* ! ,=m is sup]9duc$2 b ! segm5ts are p>ts 9 ! s5se ( be+ ! ,matt] ^u :i* ! ,=m ( ! circle is sup]9duc$ 7a4 #ab73 !y are1 h[ev]1 ne>] to ! ,=m ?an ! brass1 :5 ! ,=m ( a circle or r\ndness is g5]at$ 9 brass 7a4 #ac74 ,9 a c]ta9 way1 inde$1 x _c be said t all ! lett]s are conta9$ 9 ! rational explanation ( ! syllables2 e4g41 ! lett]s inscrib$ 9 wax are n s conta9$1 nor ! s\nds ( ^? lett]s vibrat+ 9 ! air2 bo? ^! are a "p ( ! syllable1 9 ! s5se ( be+ ! p]ceivable matt] !re( 7a4 #ag3 ,greek3 7s u7_/l ai7/ht_/74 ,if a man be de/roy$ by be+ r$uc$ to bones1 ligam5ts1 & fle%1 y _c = t reason say1 t ! man is compos$ ( ^! z ( p>ts ( 8 ,ess5ce1 b z p>ts ( 8 ,matt]3 !y are p>ts ( ! entire man1 b n ( ! ,=m1 nor ( :at is conta9$ 9 ! rational explanation2 accord+ly !y d n figure 9 ! discussions :i* turn ^u rational explanation1 b only :5 ! discussions turn ^u ! entire or concrete subject 7a4 #bc74 ,h5ce1 9 "s cases1 ?+s are de/roy$ into ! same pr9cipia out ( :i* !y are =m$2 9 o!r cases1 n4 ,to ! fir/ class1 belong all ?+s :i* are tak5 9 conjunction ) ,matt]1 su* z ! flat-nos$ or1 ! braz5 circle2 to ! second class1 ^? :i* are tak5 disjo9$ f ,matt]1 ) ,=m only4 ,objects ( ! fir/ class1 7i4e41 ! concretes7 h ?us bo? pr9cipia & p>ts subord9ate2 b nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r belong to ! ,=m alone 7a4 #ca74 ,! pla/]-/atue passes :5 de/roy$ into pla/]1 ! braz5 circle into brass1 ,kallias into fle% & bones2 & ev5 ! circle1 :5 und]/ood 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 into its segm5ts1 = ! t]m circle is us$ equivocally1 sometimes to designate ! ,=m ( a circle1 sometimes to designate ?is or t p>ticul> circle--p>ticul> circles hav+ no "n peculi> to !mselves 7b4 #c74 ,t :i* has be5 already said is ! tru?2 yet let u try to recapitulate x 9 a /ill cle>] mann] 7p4 #ajce1 b4 #d74 ,! p>ts ( ! rational explanation or notion1 into :i* t notion is divid$1 are prior to ! notion1 at lea/ 9 "s in/ances4 ,b ! notion ( a "r angle is prior to t ( an acute angle or is "o ( ! elem5ts into :i* ! notion ( an acute angle is divid$2 = y _c def9e an acute angle )\t introduc+ ! "r angle into y\r def9ition1 nor c y def9e ! semicircle )\t introduc+ ! circle1 nor ! f+] )\t introduc+ ! man--! f+] be+ su* & su* a "p ( ! man4 ,! p>ts into :i* man is divid$ z ,matt]1 are po/]ior to man2 ^? into :i* man is divid$ z p>ts ( 8 ,=m or ,=mal ,ess5ce1 are prior to man--at lea/ "s ( !m are s 7b4 #ad74 ,n[1 s9ce ! s\l ( animals 7:i* is ! ,ess5ce ( ! animat$ be+--b4 #ae7 is ! ,ess5ce & ! ,=m & ! ,greek3 t44e4 ( a suitably arrang$ body2 &1 s9ce no good def9ition ( any "o "p c be giv51 :i* does n include ! function ( t "p1 & ?is _c be giv5 )\t ! me*anism ( s5se 7b4 #ah71 x foll[s t ! p>ts ( ?is s\l1 or "s ( !m at lea/1 are prior to ! entire animal1 alike 9 ! g5]al & 9 ea* p>ticul> case4 ,b ! body & its p>ts are po/]ior to ! s\l or ,=m1 & into ^!1 z p>ts1 ! entire man 7n ! ,ess5ce or ,=m7 is divid$4 ,^! p>ts are1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 prior to ! entire man1 &1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 n2 = !y _c ev5 exi/ at all sep>ately 7b4 #bc73 ! f+] is n a f+] unless x c p]=m its functions1 i4e41 unless x be animat$ by a c5tral s\l2 x is n a f+] 9 e possible /ate ( ! body to :i* x belongs2 aft] dea?1 x is m]ely a f+] by equivocation ( language4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s p>ts1 su*1 z ! bra9 or he>t1 to :i* ! ,=m or ,ess5ce is specially atta*$ :i* are nei!r prior nor po/]ior b simul to ! entire animal 7b4 #be74 ,man1 horse1 & su* l1 :i* are pr$icat$ univ]sally ( p>ticul> ?+s1 are n ,ess5tia2 !y are comp\nds ( a giv5 ,=m & a giv5 ,matt] 7b ( t fir/ ,matt]7 :i* goes to compose ,univ]sals4 ,x is out ( ! la/ ,matt]1 :i* comes l[e/ 9 ! s]ies1 & is already p>tially inve/$ ) ,=m1 t ,sokrates & o!r p>ticul> be+s are con/itut$ 7p4 #ajce1 b4 #cj74 ,?us1 !re are p>ts ( ! ,=m or ,greek3 t44e41 p>ts ( ! ,matt]1 & p>ts ( ! ,comp\nd includ+ bo?4 ,b x is only ! p>ts ( ! ,=m t are includ$ z p>ts 9 ! rational explanation or notion2 & ?is notion belongs to ! ,univ]sal2 = circle & ! be+ a circle1 s\l & ! be+ a s\l--are "o & ! same 7p4 #ajcf1 a4 #b74 ,( ! total comp\nd 7?is p>ticul> circle71 no notion1 no def9ition1 c be giv53 :e!r x be a p>ticul> circle p]ceivable by s5se1 9 wood or brass1 or m]ely conceivable1 su* z ! ma!matical figures4 ,su* p>ticul> circles are kn[n only along ) actual p]ception or conception 7a4 #f4 ,greek3 ,noein "h means ! equival5t ( ,greek3 a7phairein *ri_/ze9 t dianoi_/a--die ,?tigkeit des ,ab/rahir5s1 dur* wel*e das ,ma!matis*e gewonn5 wird--,s*wegl] ad loc4 ,comm41 p4 #aja1 ,pt4 ,,ii473 :5 we dismiss !m z actualities f our view or imag9ation1 we _c say cle>ly :e!r !y cont9ue to exi/ or n2 b we always talk ( !m & "k !m by ! rational explanation or def9ition ( ! univ]sal circle 7a4 #g3 ,greek3 a7pel?o_/ntas d' e7k ts e7ntele*ei_/z ou7 dlon po_/t]o_/n pote_/ ei7s9 7 ou7k ei7si_/n1 a7ll' a7ei le_/gontai kai gnri_/zontai t ka?o_/l\ lo_/g4 ,i appreh5d t ,ari/otle is "h speak+ ( ! ,greek3 ku_/klos noto_/s only1 n ( ! ,greek3 ku_/klos ai7/hto_/s or ,greek3 *alk\s ku_/klos4 ,he _h be=e told u t1 :5 ! ,greek3 *alk\s ku_/klos passes out ( ,greek3 e7ntele_/*eia or ,greek3 ph!i_/retai1 x passes into ,greek3 *alko_/s4 ,he c h>dly !re=e mean to say t1 :5 ! ,greek3 *alk\s ku_/klos passes out ( ,greek3 e7ntele_/*eia1 we d n cle>ly "k :e!r x exi/s or n4 ,b respect+ ! ,greek3 ku_/klos noto_/s or ma!matical circle1 he might well say t we did n cle>ly "k :e!r x exi/$ at all "u ! circum/ances suppos$3 if x cease to exi/1 we _c say ,greek3 ei7s o7 ph!i_/retai74 ,matt] is unkn[able p] se 7,greek3 ka?' au7t_/n--a4 #i1 i4e41 if altoge!r )\t ,=m74 ,"o v>iety ( ,matt] is p]ceivable by s5se1 z brass1 wood1 & all moveable matt]2 ano!r v>iety is conceivable1 viz41 t :i* exi/s 9 ! p]ceivable v>iety1 b n qu p]ceivable--! ma!matical figures 7,greek3 not de 7 e7n tois ai7/htois u7pa_/r*\sa m 7 ai7/hta_/1 oi7on ta ma?matika_/--a4 #ab2 i4e41 mak+ ab/raction ( ! acts ( s5se1 or ( :at is se5 & felt by s5se1 viz41 col\r by ! eye1 resi/ance by ! t\*2 & leav+ beh9d simply ! ext5sion or possibility ( motion1 :i* is a geometrical l9e74 ,we h n[ laid d[n ! true doctr9e respect+ ,:ole & ,"p1 ,prius & ,po/]ius4 ,&1 if any "o asks :e!r ! "r angle1 ! circle1 ! animal1 is prior or n to ! p>ts into :i* x is divid$ & out ( :i* x is =m$1 we _c answ] absolutely ei!r ,yes or ,no4 ,we mu/ add "s di/+ui%+ words1 specify+ :at we ass]t to be prior1 & to :at x is prior 7p4 #ajcf1 a4 #ai74 ,if by ! s\l y mean ! ,=m or ,ess5ce ( ! liv+ animal1 by ! circle1 ! ,=m ( ! circle1 by ! "r angle1 ! ,=m or ,ess5ce !re(1--!n ?is ,=m is po/]ior 9 reg>d to ! notional p>ts ( :i* x is con/itut$1 b prior 9 reg>d to ! p>ticul> circle or "r angle4 ,b1 if by s\l y meant ! entire concrete animal1 by "r angle or circle1 ^! two figures realiz$ 9 brass or wood1 !n we mu/ reply t any "o ( ^! is prior z reg>ds ! mat]ial p>ts ( :i* x is con/itut$ 7a4 #be74 ,ano!r reasonable d\bt arises "h 7,greek3 a7poreitai d' ei7ko_/ts--p4 #ajcf1 a4 #bf7 z to :i* p>ts belong to ! ,=m alone1 :i* to ! entire ,concrete4 ,unless ?is be made cle>1 we c def9e no?+2 = t :i* we def9e is ! ,univ]sal & ! ,=m1 &1 unless we "k :at p>ts belong to ! ,matt] & :at d n1 ! def9ition ( ! ?+ c nev] be made pla9 7a4 #cj74 ,n[1 :]ev] ! ,=m is se5 to be sup]9duc$ ^u matt]s div]se 9 _! own ,=m1 ! case pres5ts no difficulty3 e "o sees circles 9 brass1 /one1 wood1 c41 & is well aw>e t nei!r ! brass1 nor ! /one1 belongs to ! ,=m or ,ess5ce ( ! circle1 s9ce he easily conceives a circle )\t ei!r4 ,b1 if a man _h nev] se5 any circles except braz5 circles1 he w\ld h m difficulty 9 deta*+ m5tally ! circle f ! brass1 & w\ld be m likely to look ^u brass z belong+ to ! ,=m ( circle2 al?\gh1 9 po9t ( fact1 he w\ld h no m logical gr\nd = suppos+ s ?an 9 ! case j be=e suppos$2 = ! brass might /ill belong only to ! ,matt] ( circle 7b4 #b74 ,?is is ! case ) ! ,=m ( man4 ,x is always se5 implicat$ ) fle%1 bones1 & su* l p>ts4 ,are ^! p>ts ( ! ,=m ( man8 ,or are !y n r p>ts ( ! ,matt]1 ?\gh we are unable to conceive ! ,=m ap>t f !m1 because we nev] see x 9 conjunction ) any o!r ,matt]8 ,?is is at lea/ a possibility1 & we _c see cle>ly 9 :at cases x mu/ be admitt$4 ,"s !ori/s are s impress$ by x z to pu% ! case f>!r1 & apply ! same reason+ to ! circle & triangle4 ,^! !ori/s cont5d t x is improp] to def9e a circle & a triangle by figure1 l9es1 cont9uity1 c41 :i* 7!y affirm7 are only p>ts ( ! ,matt] ( circle & triangle2 z fle% & bones are p>ts ( ! ,matt] ( man4 ,!y ref] all ( !m to numb]s z ! ,=m1 & !y affirm t ! def9ition ( ! dyad is also ! def9ition ( a l9e 7b4 #ab74 ,among ! p>tisans ( ,ideas1 "s call ! dyad ,greek3 au7togramm_/ o!rs call x ! ,=m ( a l9e2 say+ t 9 "s cases ! ,=m & t ( :i* x is ! ,=m are ! same1 z ! dyad & ! ,=m ( ! dyad1 b t ?is is n true ab\t l9e4 7,^! two op9ions seem to be sub/antially ! same1 & only to diff] 9 ! phrase4 ,greek3 ,au7togramm_/ means ! same z ,greek3 to ei7dos ts gramms3 x seems to h be5 a peculi> phrase adopt$ by "s ,platoni/s1 b n by all4 ,o!rs pref]r$ to say ,greek3 to ei7dos ts gramms47 ,^! reason+s h already misl$ ! ,py?agoreans1 & are likely to mislead o!rs also3 !y w\ld conduct u to ! recognition ( "o & ! same ,=m 9 _m cases :]e ! ,=m is manife/ly diff]5t3 !y lead u ev5 to assume "o s+le ,=m univ]sally1 r$uc+ e ?+ besides to be no ,=m1 b m]ely ,matt] to t "o s+le real ,=m4 ,by su* reason+1 we %\ld be =c$ to consid] all ?+s z ,"o 7b4 #bj71 :i* w\ld be obvi\sly absurd4 ,we see f h5ce t !re are real difficulties respect+ ! !ory ( ,def9ition1 & h[ su* difficulties arise4 ,x is because "s p]sons are =w>d ov]mu* 9 try+ to analyse e ?+ & 9 ab/ract+ altoge!r f ,matt]2 = "s ?+s include ,matt] along ) ! ,=m1 or det]m9$ 9 a c]ta9 way1 i4e41 ?is along ) t1 or ^! ?+s 9 ?is condition 7p1 #ajcf1 b4 #bb74 ,! comp>ison :i* ! y\ng] ,sokrates 0 accu/om$ to make ab\t ! animal is a mi/ak5 "o 7b4 #bd73 x implies t man may be )\t 8 mat]ial p>ts1 z ! circle may exi/ )\t brass4 ,b ?is analogy w n hold2 animal is some?+ p]ceivable by s5se & _c be def9$ )\t motion2 ( c\rse1 !re=e1 n )\t bodily memb]s organiz$ 9 a c]ta9 way 7b4 #cj74 ,! h& is n a "p ( man1 :5 x is 9 any supposable condition1 b only :5 x c p]=m its functions1 t is1 :5 x is animat$2 :5 n animat$1 x is n a "p 7b4 #cb74 ,cle>ly ! s\l is ! fir/ ,ess5ce or ,=m1 ! body is ,matt]1 & man or animal is ! comp\nd ( bo? z an ,univ]sal2 :ile ,sokrates1 ,koriskus c41 are z p>ticul>s to ?is ,univ]sal1 :e!r y *oose to take ,sokrates z s\l )\t body1 or z s\l ) body 7p4 #ajcg1 a4 #e-aj3 ^! words are v obscure74 ,respect+ ,ma!matical ,entia1 :y are n ! notions ( ! 9999p>ts p>ts ( ! notion ( ! :ole8 e4g41 :y is n ! notion ( a semi-circle "p ( ! notion ( a circle8 ,p]haps x w be repli$ t ?is circle & semi-circle are n p]ceivable by s5se3 b ?is aft] all makes no diff]5ce2 = "s ?+s ev5 n p]ceivable by s5se involve ,matt] along ) !m1 & inde$ ,matt] is involv$ 9 e ?+ :i* is n ,greek3 t44e4 & ,=m ,greek3 au7to ka?' au7to_/4 ,! semi-circles are n includ$ z p>ts ( ! notion ( ! univ]sal circle2 b !y are p>ts ( ea* p>ticul> circle3 = !re is "o ,matt] p]ceivable & ano!r cogitable 7p4 #ajcf1 a4 #cd4--;,bonitz rem>ks t ^! words f p4 #ajcf1 a4 #bb to p4 #ajcg1 a4 #e1 are out ( _! prop] place74 ,:e!r !re be any o!r ,matt]1 besides ! ,matt] ( ^! ,ma!matical ,entia1 & :e!r we are to seek a di/9ct ,=m & ,ess5ce = !m--su* z numb]s1 mu/ be res]v$ = future enquiry4 ,?is has be5 "o ( our reasons = ! prec$+ *apt]s ab\t p]ceivable ,ess5ces2 = ^! la/ prop]ly belong to ! prov9ce ( ,second ,philosophy--( ! physical !ori/ 7,greek3 ts phusiks kai deute_/ras philosophi_/z e7_/rgon--p4 #ajcg1 a4 #ae74 ,! physical philosoph] /udies n m]ely ! ,matt]1 b ! ,=m or notional ,ess5ce ev5 m 7a4 #ag74 ,we are n[ 9 a position to cle> up :at 0 t\*$ ^u 9 ! ,analytica 7,anal4 ,po/]4 ,,ii4 p4 #ib1 a4 #bg2 also1 ,de ,int]p4 v4 p4 #ag1 a4 #ac71 b n complet$1 respect+ ,def9ition4 ,h[ is x t ! def9ition is ,"o8 ,we def9e man animal bipes3 ,h[ is x t ?is is ,"o & n ,_m8 ,man & :ite are two1 :5 ! latt] does n belong to ! =m]3 :5 x does s belong to & affects ! =m]1 ! two are ,"o--:ite man 7p4 #ajcg1 b4 #af73 t is1 !y are ,"o ,greek3 kata pa_/?os4 ,b ! p>ts includ$ 9 ! def9ition are n ,"o ,greek3 kata pa_/?os1 nor are !y "o ,greek3 kata me_/!x92 = ! ,g5us _c be said to p>take ( ! ,diff]5ti4 ,if x did1 x w\ld at "o & ! same "t p>take ( ,opposita1 = ! ,diff]5ti are ,opposita to ea* o!r4 ,&1 ev5 if we say t ! ,g5us does p>take ( ! ,diff]5ti1 ! same difficulty recurs1 :5 ! ,diff]5ti are num]\s4 ,! ,g5us mu/ p>take alike & equally ( all ( !m2 b h[ is x t all ( !m are ,"o1 & n ,_m8 ,x _c be meant t all ( !m belong ess5tially to ! ?+2 =1 if t 7 s1 all w\ld be includ$ 9 ! def9ition1 :i* !y are n4 ,we want to "k :y or h[ ^? ,diff]5ti :i* are includ$ 9 ! def9ition coalesce into ,"o1 )\t ! re/3 = we call ! def9i5d ,greek3 e7_/n ti kai to_/de ti 7b4 #bg74 ,9 answ]+ ?is "q1 we take1 z a specim51 a def9ition :i* arises out ( ! logical subdivision ( a ,g5us 7p4 #ajcg1 b4 #bh74 ,def9ition is giv5 by assign+ ! ,g5us & ,diff]5ce3 ! ,g5us is ! ,matt]1 ! ,diff]5ce is ! ,=m or ,ess5ce2 ! two coalesce into "o z ,=m & ,matt]4 ,9 ! def9ition ( man--animal bipes--animal is ! ,matt] & bipes ! ,=m2 s t ! two coalesc+ =m an ess5tial ,"o4 ,x does n signify ?r\gh h[ _m /ages ! logical subdivision is c>ri$1 provid$ x be well done2 t is1 provid$ ea* /age be a special & appropriate division ( all t has prec$$4 ,if ?is condition be compli$ )1 ! la/ diff]5tia w include all ! prec$+1 & w itself be ! ,=m ( :i* ! g5us s]ves z ,matt]4 ,y divide ! g5us animal fir/ into ,greek3 zon u7po_/p\n--zon a7p\n2 y next divide ,greek3 zon u7po_/p\n into ,greek3 zon u7po_/p\n di_/p\n--zon u7po_/p\n polu_/p\n2 or p]haps into ,greek3 zon u7po_/p\n s*izo_/pun--zon u7po_/p\n a7_/s*i/on4 ,x is ess5tial t ! next subdivision appli$ to ,greek3 zon u7po_/p\n %\ld be f\nd$ ^u "s subord9ate diff]5tia specially apply+ to ! feet 7p4 #ajch1 a4 #ad3 ,greek3 au7tai gar diaphorai podo_/s2 7 gar s*izopodi_/a podo_/ts tis74 ,if x does n specially apply to ! feet1 b takes 9 "s new attribute 7e4 g41 ,greek3 pt]to_/n1 a7_/pt]on71 ! division w be unphilosophical4 ,! la/ diff]5tia ,greek3 zon di_/p\n includes ! prec$+ diff]5tia ,greek3 u7po_/p\n3 to say ,greek3 zon u7po_/p\n di_/p\n w\ld be tautology4 ,:]e ea* diff]5tia is a diff]5tia ( ! prec$+ diff]5ti1 ! la/ diff]5tia includes !m all & is itself ! ,=m & ,ess5ce1 along ) ! g5us z ,matt] 7a4 #be74 ,! def9ition is ! rational explanation aris+ out ( ^! diff]5ces1 & by specify+ ! la/ x virtually includes all ! prec$+ 7a4 #bi3 ,greek3 o7 o7rismos lo_/gos e7/in o7 e7k tn diaphorn1 kai t\_/tn ts teleutai_/z kata_/ ge to o7r?o_/n74 ,9 ! con/itu5ts ( ! ,ess5ce1 !re is no di/9ctive ord] ( p>ts2 no subord9ation ( prius & po/]ius2 all are equally ess5tial & coord9ate 7,greek3 ta_/xis d' ou7k e7_//9 e7n t ou7si_/a--p4 #ajch1 a4 #cc74 ,z we are treat+ n[ ab\t ,ess5ce1 x w be conv5i5t to g back to ! po9t f :i* we dep>t$1 :5 we enum]at$ ! f\r v>ieties recogniz$ by diff]5t philosoph]s4 ,^! 7 7#a7 ,! ,subject--,sub/ratum--,matt]1 :i* is a subject ( pr$icates 9 two diff]5t ways3 ei!r z already an ,hoc ,aliquid & affect$ by v>i\s accid5ts1 or z n yet an ,hoc ,aliquid1 b simply ,matt] implicat$ ) ,entele*y 7p4 #ajch1 b4 #f72 7#b7 ,=m--,ess5ce--! ,greek3 t44e42 7#c7 ,! ,comp\nd or ,product ( ! prec$+ two2 7#d7 ,! ,univ]sal 7,greek3 to ka?o_/l\74 ,( ^! f\r1 we h already exam9$ ! fir/ ?ree2 we n[ proce$ to ! f\r?4 ,"s philosoph]s consid] ! ,univ]sal to be prim>ily & em95tly ,cause & ,pr9ciple 7p4 #ajch1 b4 #g74 ,b x seems impossible t any ?+ :i* is affirm$ univ]sally c be ,ess5ce4 ,= t is ! ,fir/ ,ess5ce ( ea* ?+ :i* belongs to no?+ b itself2 b ! ,univ]sal is by its nature common to _m ?+s4 ,( :i* among ^! ?+s is x ! ,ess5ce8 ,ei!r ( all or ( no "o4 ,n ( all c]ta9ly2 &1 if x be ! ,ess5ce ( any "o1 ! re/ ( !m w be id5tical ) t "o2 =1 :]e ! ,ess5ce is "o1 ! ?+s !mselves are "o 7b4 #ae74 ,besides1 ! ,ess5ce is t :i* is n pr$icat$ ( any subject3 b ! ,univ]sal is always pr$icat$ ( a subject4 ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 we %all be told1 t ! ,univ]sal is n id5tical ) ,greek3 t44e41 b is ,ess5ce :i* is imman5t 9 or belongs to ,greek3 t44e41 z animal 9 man & horse4 ,b ?is _c be admitt$4 ,=1 :e!r we suppose animal to be def9able or n1 if x be ess5ce ( any ?+1 x mu/ be ! ess5ce ( some?+ to :i* x belongs peculi>ly1 z homo is ! ess5ce ( man peculi>ly2 b1 if animal is to be reckon$ z ! ess5ce ( man1 x w be ! ess5ce ( some?+ to :i* x does n peculi>ly belong2 & ?is contradicts ! def9ition ( ,ess5ce 7p4 #ajch1 b4 #ae-bc4 ,?is passage is v obscure1 ev5 aft] ,bonitz & ,s*wegl]'s explanatory notes4 ,i incl9e to ,s*wegl]1 & to 8 rem>k1 ,comm4 ,,ii4 p4 #aae1 t ! text ( b4 #bc ought to be writt5 ,greek3 e7n 7 m 7s i7_/dion u7pa_/r*ei474 ,aga91 x is impossible t ,ess5ce1 if compos$ ( any elem5ts1 c be compos$ ( :at is n ,ess5ce1 z ( ,quality2 = ?is w\ld make ,quality prius z reg>ds ,ess5ce2 :i* x _c be1 ei!r 9 reason 7,greek3 lo_/g71 or 9 "t1 or 9 g5]ation4 ,if ?is 7 s1 ! affections w\ld be sep>able f ,ess5ces 7p4 #ajch1 b4 #bh74 ,ess5ce1 if compos$ ( any ?+1 mu/ be compos$ ( ,ess5ce4 ,once m1 if ! individual man or horse are ,ess5ces1 no?+ :i* is 9 ! def9ition ( ^! c be ,ess5ce2 nor ap>t f t ( :i* x is ,ess5ce2 nor 9 any ?+ else4 ,!re _c be any man1 ap>t f individual m5 7p4 #ajch1 b4 #cd74 ,h5ce we see cle>ly t none ( ! univ]sal pr$icates are ,ess5ce3 none ( !m signify ,hoc ,aliquid1 b ,tale4 ,to suppose o!rwise1 w\ld op5 ! door to _m inadmissible consequ5ces1 especially to ! argum5t ( ! ',?ird ,man' 7p4 #ajci1 a4 #b74 ,ano!r argum5t to ! same purpose3--,x is impossible t ,ess5ce c be compos$ ( diff]5t ,ess5ces imman5t 9 "o ,entele*y4 ,two 9 ! same ,entele*y c nev] be ,"o 9 ,entele*y4 ,if inde$ !y be two 9 pot5ti1 !y may coalesce into "o ,entele*y1 l "o d\ble out ( two pot5tial halves4 ,b ,entele*y e/abli%es a sep>ate & complete exi/5ce 7p4 #ajci1 a4 #g72 s t1 if ,ess5ce is ,"o1 x _c be made up ( di/9ct ,ess5ces imman5t or inh]5t4 ,demokritus1 :o recogniz$ only ! atoms z ,ess5ces1 0 "r 9 say+1 t two ( !m c\ld n be ,"o1 nor "o ( !m ,two4 ,! l is true ab\t numb]1 if numb] be1 z "s cont5d1 a syn!sis ( monads4 ,= ei!r ! dyad is n ,"o2 or else ! monads includ$ !re9 are n monads ,greek3 e7ntele*ei_/a 7a4 #ad74 ,"h h[ev] we /umble ^u a difficulty4 ,=1 if no ,ess5ce c be put toge!r out ( ,univ]sals1 nor any comp\nd ,ess5ce out ( o!r ,ess5ces exi/+ z ,entele*ies1 all ,ess5ce mu/ necess>ily be simple & uncomp\nd$1 s t no def9ition c be giv5 ( x4 ,b ?is is oppos$ to e "o's op9ion1 & to :at has be5 said long ago1 t ,ess5ce alone c\ld be def9$2 or at lea/ ,ess5ce mo/ ( all4 ,x n[ appe>s t !re c be no def9ition ( ,ess5ce1 nor by consequ5ce ( any ?+ else4 ,p]haps1 h[ev] ?is may be only true 9 a c]ta9 s5se3 9 "o way1 def9ition is possible2 9 ano!r way1 n4 ,we %all endeav\r to cle> up ! po9t pres5tly 7p4 #ajci1 a4 #bb4--,s*wegl] says 9 8 note ^u ?is passage3 ,die von ,ari/oteles hufig b]hrte1 do* nie zur abs*liess5d5 ,lsung gebra*te1 ,grundaporie des ari/otelis*5 ,sy/ems--,comm4 ,,ii4 p4 #aag74 ,^? :o ma9ta9 t ,ideas are self-exi/5t are involv$ 9 f>!r contradictions by admitt+ at ! same "t t ! ,species is compos$ out ( ,g5us & ,diff]5tia4 ,=1 suppose t ^! ,ideas are self-exi/5t & t ,greek3 au7tozon exi/s bo? 9 man & horse3 ,greek3 au7tozon is1 9 ^! two1 ei!r ! same or diff]5t num]ically4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 ! same 9 def9ition or notion 7,greek3 lo_/g72 ( t !re c be no d\bt4 ,if x be num]ically same 7,greek3 7_/sp] su saut7 9 man & 9 horse1 h[ c ?is same exi/ at once 9 sep>ate be+s1 unless we suppose ! absurdity t x exi/s ap>t f itself 7p4 #ajci1 b4 #a78 ,aga91 are we to imag9e t ?is g5]ic ,ens1 ,greek3 au7tozon1 p>takes at ! same "t ( contr>y diff]5ti--! dipod1 polypod1 apod8 ,if x does n1 h[ c dipodic or polypodic animals really exi/8 ,nor is ! difficulty at all less5$1 if1 in/ead ( say+ t ! g5]ic ,ens p>takes ( diff]5ti1 y say t x is mix$ ) !m1 or comp\nd$ ( !m1 or 9 contact ) !m4 ,!re is no?+ b a tissue ( absurdities 7,greek3 pa_/nta a7_/toma--b4 #f74 ,b take ! contr>y supposition & suppose t ! ,greek3 au7tozon is num]ically diff]5t 9 man1 horse1 c4 ,on ?is admission1 !re w be an inf9ite numb] ( di/9ct be+s ( :om ! ,greek3 au7tozon is ! ,ess5ce2 man1 = example1 s9ce animal is n accid5tal1 b ess5tial1 z a con/itu5t ( man 7p4 #ajci1 b4 #h74 ,greek3 ,au7tozon w ?us be ,_m 7e9 ,viel]lei--,s*wegl]72 = x w be ! ,ess5ce ( ea* p>ticul> animal1 ( :om x w be pr$icat$ ess5tially & n accid5tally 7,greek3 ou7 gar ka_/t' a7_/llo le_/getai--i4e41 ?is is n a case :]e ! pr$icate is some?+ di/9ct f ! subject74 ,moreov] all ! con/itu5ts ( man w be alike ,ideas 7e4g41 n m]ely ,greek3 zon1 b ,greek3 di_/p\n73 n[ ! same _c be ,idea ( "o ?+ & ,ess5ce ( ano!r2 accord+ly1 ,greek3 au7tozon w be ea* "o ( ! ess5tial con/itu5ts ( p>ticul> animals 7,greek3 di_/p\n1 polu_/p\n1 b4 #ad74 ,aga91 :5ce comes ,greek3 au7tozon itself1 & h[ d ! p>ticul> animals arise out ( x8 ,h[ c ! ,greek3 zon :i* is ,ess5ce1 exi/ ap>t f & alongside ( ,greek3 au7to to zon8 7p4 #ajci1 b4 #ae47 ,^! argum5ts %[ h[ impossible x is t !re c exi/ any su* ,ideas z "s philosoph]s affirm 7p4 #ajci1 b4 #ah74 ,we h already said t !re are two v>ieties ( ,ess5ce3 7#a7 ,! ,=m alone1 7#b7 ,! ,=m embodi$ 9 ,matt]4 ,! ,=m or ,ess5ce 9 ! fir/ mean+1 is nei!r g5]able nor de/ructible2 9 ! second mean+ x is bo?4 ,greek3 ,to oi7ki_/a ei7nai is nei!r g5]able nor de/ructible2 ,greek3 to tde t oi7ki_/a ei7nai is bo? ! "o & ! o!r 7p4 #ajci1 b4 #be74 ,( ^! la/1 !re=e1 ! p]ceivable or concrete ,ess5ces1 !re c be no def9ition nor demon/ration1 because !y are implicat$ ) ,matt]1 :i* is n[ay necess>y1 or un*angeable1 b may exi/ or n exi/1 *ange or n *ange4 ,demon/ration belongs only to :at is necess>y2 ,def9ition only to ,sci5ce1 :i* _c be to-day ,sci5ce & to-morr[ ,ignorance4 ,nei!r ,sci5ce1 nor ,demon/ration1 nor ,def9ition1 applies to su* ?+s z may be o!rwise3 ^! latt] belong to ,op9ion 7,greek3 t\ e7nde*ome_/n\ a7_/lls e7_/*e9--p4 #ajdj1 a4 #a74 ,y _c h ,sci5ce or ,demon/ration or ,def9ition ab\t p>ticul> or p]ceivable ?+s1 because !y are de/roy$ & pass out ( p]ception1 s t y d n "k :at cont9ues to be true ab\t !m2 ev5 ?\gh y pres]ve ! def9ition 9 y\r memory1 y _c tell h[ f> x cont9ues applicable to !m 7a4 #g74 ,any def9ition giv5 is liable to be ov]?r[n4 ,^u ! same pr9ciple1 !re _c be any def9ition ( ! ,platonic ,ideas2 ea* ( :i* is ann\nc$ z a p>ticul>1 di/9ct1 sep>able1 ,ens 7p4 #ajdj1 a4 #h74 ,! def9ition mu/ be compos$ ( words--( ! words ( a language g5]ally und]/ood--& ( words :i*1 be+ us$ by _m p]sons1 are applicable to o!r p>ticul>s besides ! def9i5d 7y def9e ,alex&] z :ite1 ?91 a philosoph]1 a native ( ,aphrodisias1 c41 all ( :i* are *>act]i/ics applicable to _m o!r p]sons besides74 ,! def9] may say t ea* *>act]i/ic tak5 sep>ately w apply to _m ?+s1 b t ! aggregate ( all toge!r w apply to none except ! def9i5d4 ,we reply h[ev]1 t ,greek3 zon di_/p\n mu/ h at lea/ two subjects to :i* x applies--,greek3 to zon & ,greek3 to di_/p\n4 ,( c\rse ?is is all ! m evid5t ab\t et]nal ,entia l ! ,platonic ,ideas1 :i* are prior to ! comp\nd & p>ts !re( 7,greek3 zon & ,greek3 di_/p\n are ea* prior & bo? ( !m p>ts ( ,greek3 au7toa_/n?rpos71 & sep>able1 j z ,greek3 au7toa_/n?rpos is sep>able 7a4 #ad-bj72 = ei!r nei!r ( !m is sep>able1 or bo? are s4 ,if nei!r ( !m is sep>able1 !n ! ,g5us is no?+ ap>t f ! ,species1 & ! ,platonic assumption ( self-exi/5t ,ideas falls to ! gr\nd2 if bo? are sep>able1 !n ! ,diff]5tia is self-exi/5t z well z ! ,g5us 7a4 #ba73 !re exi/ "s ,ideas prior to o!r ,ideas4 ,moreov]1 ! ,g5us & ,diff]5tia1 ! compon5t elem5ts ( ! ,species1 are logically prior to ! ,species3 suppress ! ,species1 & y d n suppress its compon5t elem5ts2 suppress ^!1 & y d suppress ! ,species 7a4 #ba74 ,we reply f>!r t1 if ! m comp\nd ,ideas arise out ( ! less comp\nd1 ! compon5t elem5ts 7l ,greek3 zon di_/p\n7 mu/ ne$s be pr$icable ( _m di/9ct subjects4 ,if ?is be n s always1 h[ are we to di/+ui% ! cases 9 :i* x is true f ^? 9 :i* x is n8 ,y mu/ assume ! exi/5ce ( "s ,idea :i* c only be pr$icat$ ( "s "o subject1 & no o!rs4 ,b ?is seems impossible4 ,e ,idea is p>ticipable 7a4 #bg74 ,^! philosoph]s d n reflect t def9ition is impossible ( et]nal ,ess5ces 7:i* ! ,platonic ,ideas are71 especially 9 cases :]e ! objects are ess5tially unique1 z ,sun1 or ,moon1 or ,e>? 7p4 #ajdj1 a4 #bi74 ,:5 !y try to def9e ,sun1 !y are =c$ to use phrases :i* are applicable to _m 9 common2 b ,sun1 7& ea* ,idea7 is p>ticul> & individual1 l ,kleon or ,sokrates4 ,:y does none ( !m produce a def9ition ( an ,idea8 ,if any "o tri$1 he w\ld soon see ! p]t95ce ( ! above rem>ks 7b4 #c74 7,alex&]1 ,bonitz1 & ,s*wegl]1 all obs]ve incid5tally t ! reason+ ( :at imm$iately prec$es is weak & sophi/ical4 ,bonitz1 p4 #ceb1 gives a good summ>y ( ! *apt]1 conclud+3 ,hoc capite non id ipsum demon/rat1 res s+ulas non esse sub/antias1 s$ r]um s+ul>um non esse def9itionem neque sci5tiam2 nimirum quum sub/anti vel unice vel potissimum esse def9itionem demon/ratum sit1 c4 #d1 hoc si comprobat1 illud simul e/ comprobatum47 ,x is f>!r evid5t t _m app>5t ,ess5ces are n /rictly & truly ,ess5ces2 = example1 ! p>ts ( animals2 s9ce n "o ( !m is sep>at$ f ! :ole 7,greek3 ou7!n gar ke*risme_/non au7tn e7/i_/n--p4 #ajdj1 b4 #f2 ,alex&] says ad loc43 ,greek3 ou7si_/z e7keina_/ pham5 o7_/sa ka?' au7ta o7_/nta du_/natai to oi7keion e7_/rgon a7potelein2 ou7si_/a gar ou7den a7_/llo e7/in 7 to a7ph' ou7 to e7ka_//\ e7_/rgon e7kplr\tai2 ou7si_/a gar kai ei7dos ,skra_/t\s 7 t\ ,skra_/t\s psu*_/1 a7ph' 7s au7t to t\ a7n?r_/p\ 7 a7_/n?rpos e7_/rgon e7kplr\n74 ,:5 any "o ( !m is sep>at$1 x exi/s only 9 ! "* ( ,matt]--e>?1 fire1 air2 none ( !m1 9 ?is sep>ate condition1 be+ an unity1 b only l a heap ( gra9s ( gold or t9 be=e !y are melt$ & comb9$ into "o4 ,we might suppose1 inde$1 t ! p>ts ( ! body1 & ! p>ts ( ! s\l1 ( animat$ be+s1 come ne> to ,ess5ce1 bo? "o & ! o!r1 alike pot5tially & actually 7b4 #ab71 because !y h pr9ciples ( motion 9 _! turn+s 7,greek3 kampais71 s t 9 "s cases !y cont9ue sep>ately alive aft] division4 ,/ill ! functions ( ! "p alone mu/ be really reg>d$ z no?+ m ?an pot5tial1 :]ev] ! on5ess & cont9uity ( ! :ole is ! "w ( ,nature 7b4 #ae71 & n a m]e case ( contact or =cible conjunction4 ,nev]!less ! be+ ,"o1 or ,unity 7p4 #ajdj1 b4 #af71 is n itself ! ,ess5ce ( ?+s4 ,unum is pr$icat$ 9 ! same mann] z ,ens2 ! two may always be pr$icat$ toge!r3 ! ,ess5ce ( ,unum is ,"o2 & ?+s ( :i* ! ,ess5ce is ,unum ,num]o1 are !mselves num]ically "o4 ,nei!r ,unum nor ,ens is ! ,ess5ce ( ?+s any m ?an ! be+ an ,elem5t1 or ! be+ a ,pr9ciple1 c be ! ,ess5ce !re(3 we h f>!r to enquire :at ! ,pr9ciple is1 9 ord] to br+ ! problem into a m cognizable %ape 7b4 #bj74 ,unum & ,ens are m ne> to ,ess5ce ?an ei!r ,elem5t1 ,pr9ciple1 or ,cause2 nev]!less nei!r ,unum nor ,ens is ,ess5ce2 = no?+ :i* is common to _m ?+s is ,ess5ce4 ,ess5ce belongs only to itself & to t :i* has itself4 ,f>!r1 ,unum _c be 9 _m places at once2 b t :i* is common is 9 _m places at once4 ,x is ?us pla9 t no?+ ,univ]sal exi/s ap>t or sep>ate f p>ticul>s 7b4 #bg74 ,! advocates ( ! 7,platonic7 ,ideas are "r 9 affirm+ !m to be sep>ate1 if !y be ,ess5ces2 b !y are wrong 9 call+ t :i* is pr$icable ( _m ?+s 7! ,univ]sal7 an ,idea 7p4 #ajdj1 b4 #bi74 ,:5 ask$1 ,:at are ^! inde/ructible ,ess5ces ( :i* y speak1 z ap>t f ! visible individual objects8--!y _h no intelligible answ] to give4 ,accord+ly !y 7 =c$ to make ^! ,ess5ces ! same specifically ) ! de/ructible 7individual7 objects2 = ^! we d "k 7b4 #cc74 ,!y simply prefix$ ! ^w ,greek3 au7to_/ to ! names ( s5sible objects--,greek3 au7toa_/n?rpos1 au7toi_/ppos4 ,b ^! ,ideas might /ill exi/1 ev5 ?\gh we knew n :at !y 72 j z et]nal ,ess5ces l ! />s w\ld /ill exi/1 ev5 ?\gh we _h nev] se5 !m 7p4 #ajda1 a4 #b74 ,let u aga9 exam9e :at we call ,ess5ce1 & :at sort ( ?+ x is2 & let u take ano!r po9t ( dep>ture1 :i* may p]haps help u to und]/& :at t ,ess5ce is :i* is ap>t & sep>ate f p]ceivable ,ess5ces 7p4 #ajda1 a4 #i74 ,we "k t ,ess5ce is a c]ta9 v>iety ( ,pr9ciple or ,cause2 & f ?is premiss we w reason 7a4 #aj74 ,n[ ! enquiry into ,cause1 or ! ,:y1 always comes 9 ?is %ape3 ,:y does "o ?+ belong to ano!r8 ,! enquiry1 ,:y a ?+ is itself8 is idle4 ,! fact--! ,greek3 o7_/ti--mu/ be assum$ to be cle> & kn[n 9 ! fir/ in/ance4 ,y "k t ! moon is eclips$1 z matt] ( fact2 y proce$ to enquire into ! cause !re( 7a4 #aa-bd74 ,:y does x ?und]8 or1 to enunciate ! same "q m fully1 ,:y is !re noise 9 ! cl\ds8 ,! qusitum is always "o ?+ pr$icat$ ( ano!r 7a4 #bf74 ,:y are ^! mat]ials1 bricks & /ones1 a h\se8 ,"h ! answ] s\ght is1 ! ,cause2 & t is ! ,greek3 t44e41 speak+ 9 logical or analytical phraseology 7,greek3 logiks--i4e41 t :i* belongs to ! ,greek3 lo_/gos ts ou7si_/z74 ,9 "s cases1 ?is qusitum is a ,f9al ,cause1 z 9 ! case ( a b$ or a h\se2 9 o!rs1 an ,effici5t or ,mov5t ,cause2 = t also is a v>iety ( ,cause1 g5]ally s\ght = 9 reg>d to ?+s g5]at$ or de/roy$2 b ! o!r 7viz41 ,greek3 to t44e41 ipsa rei =ma ac notio1 aut concepta 9 animo artificis1 aut inclusa ,greek3 duna_/mei 9 ips natur ac sem9e rei--,bonitz1 ,comm4 p4 #cei7 is s\ght = 9 reg>d to ,greek3 ei7nai4 ,! true nature ( ! qusitum is (t5 unp]ceiv$1 :5 ! problem is ann\nc$ )\t /at+ di/9ctly ! subject & pr$icate 9 _! mutual relations 7,greek3 e7n tois m katall_/ls legome_/nois1 p4 #ajda1 a4 #cc74 ,= example1 ,greek3 a7_/n?rpos dia ti_/ e7/98 is ambigu\s by imp]fect enunciation4 ,z x /&s1 x might be suppos$ to be int5d$ z ,greek3 a7_/n?rpos dia ti_/ e7/9 a7_/n?rpos8 :i* w\ld be a "q idle or null4 ,to make x cle>1 y ought to di/+ui% ! two memb]s to :i* ! real qusitum ref]s 7b4 #b71 & say ,greek3 dia ti_/ ta_/de 7 to_/de e7/in a7_/n?rpos8 y\r real enquiry is ab\t ! ,greek3 u7_/l or ,matt]1 :y x exi/s 9 ?is or t mann]4 ,:y are ^! mat]ials a h\se8 ,because ! ,ess5ce ( a h\se belongs to !m 7b4 #f74 ,"s ,greek3 t44e41 "s sort ( ,greek3 ei7nai1 mu/ belong to ! ,matt] 7b4 #d74 ,:y is ?is ,matt] a man8 or :y is ! body dispos$ 9 ?is p>ticul> way a man8 ,"h we enquire z to ! ,cause :i* acts ^u a c]ta9 ,matt]2 & t is ! ,=m :]eby ! ?+ is2 :i* aga9 is ! ,ess5ce 7b4 #h74 ,h5ce x is pla9 t a di/9ction mu/ be tak5 betwe5 ! ,simple & ! ,comp\nd4 ,! enquiry above describ$1 & ! tea*+ above describ$1 _c apply to ! ,simple1 :i* mu/ be inve/igat$ 9 ano!r way 7p4 #ajda1 b4 #i74 ,comp\nds are ( two sorts--aggregates l a heap 7me*anical71 & aggregates l a syllable 7organic or =mal74 ,9 ^! la/ !re are n m]ely ! con/itu5t elem5ts1 b some?+ else besides 7b4 #af74 ,! syllable ba is some?+ m ?an ! lett]s b & a2 fle% is some?+ m ?an fire & e>?1 its con/itu5t elem5ts4 ,n[ ?is some?+ m _c be itself a con/itu5t elem5t2 =1 if t 7 s1 fle% w\ld be compos$ ( ?ree con/itu5t elem5ts in/ead ( two1 & we %\ld /ill h to se>* = ! some?+ beyond1 & ?is ult]ior process might be repeat$ ad inf9itum 7b4 #bb74 ,nor c ! some?+ beyond be itself a comp\nd ( sev]al elem5ts1 = we %\ld /ill h to f9d ! indep5d5t some?+ :i* b9ds ^! into a comp\nd4 ,x is pla9 t ?is some?+ beyond mu/ be 9 its nature q di/9ct f an elem5t1 & mu/ be ! cause :y "o comp\nd is fle%1 ano!r comp\nd a syllable1 & s ab\t all ! rema9+ comp\nds4 ,n[ ?is is ! ,ess5ce ( ea* comp\nd--! ,fir/ ,cause ( exi/5ce to ea* 7b4 #be74 ,! ,elem5t 7,greek3 /oi*eion7 is t into :i* ! comp\nd is sep>at$1 z includ$ ,matt] 7,greek3 e7nupa_/r*on 7s u7_/ln73 b & a1 9 ! syllable ba 7b4 #cb74 ,!re are "s ?+s :i* are n ! ,ess5ces ( objects 7:ite1 = example1 is n ( ! ,ess5ce ( man1 b an attribute72 b1 9 all cases :]e comp\nds h come toge!r accord+ to ,nature & by natural process1 t ,nature also :i* is n ,elem5t b ,pr9ciple is ! ,ess5ce 7b4 #bh3 ,greek3 e7pei d' e7_/nia ou7k ou7si_/ai tn pragma_/tn1 a7ll' o7_/sai ou7si_/ai kata phu_/s9 kai phu_/sei sune/_/kasi1 phanei_/ a7n kai au7_/t 7 phu_/sis ou7si_/a1 7_/ e7/9 ou7 /oi*eion a7ll' a7r*_/4 ,s*wegl] 9 8 note1 p4 #ace1 proposes to correct ?is passage by /rik+ out ,greek3 kai_/ be=e ! words ,greek3 au7t 7 phu_/sis ou7si_/a4 ,b1 if ?is 7 done1 x w\ld make ! passage mean t ,greek3 u7_/l or ,greek3 /oi*eion is n ,greek3 ou7si_/a1 & t ! o!r ,greek3 phu_/sis :i* is n ,greek3 /oi*eion1 is to be reg>d$ exclusively z ,greek3 ou7si_/a4 ,n[ ?is is c]ta9ly n ! doctr9e ( ,ari/otle1 :o expressly decl>es ,greek3 u7_/l to be ,greek3 ou7si_/a2 see ,h1 p4 #ajdb1 a4 #cb4 ,reta9+ ! ,greek3 kai_/1 ! passage w !n mean t n m]ely ,greek3 u7_/l1 b also ,greek3 phu_/sis :i* is n ,greek3 u7_/l1 is ,greek3 ou7si_/a74 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,book ,greek3 4 ,9 ?is ,book1 ,ari/otle beg9s by recapitulat+ ! doctr9es & discussions ( ! prec$+4 ,8 purpose _h be5 decl>$ to be ! inve/igation ( ! ,causes1 ,pr9ciples1 & ,elem5ts ( ,ess5ces4 ,n[ ,ess5ces are div]se3 "s univ]sally admitt$1 z ! natural elem5ts & simple bodies1 also plants1 animals1 & ! p>ts ( ea*1 la/ly1 ! heav5 & ! p>ts !re(2 o!rs n univ]sally admitt$1 b advocat$ by "s philosoph]s1 z ! ,ideas & ,ma!matical ,entia2 o!rs1 aga91 :i* we arrive at by dialectical discussion1 z ,greek3 to t44e41 ! ,sub/ratum 7,logical ,entia--,greek3 e7k tn lo_/gn1 p4 #ajdb1 a4 #ab71 ! ,g5us m ,ess5ce ?an ! ,species1 ! ,univ]sal m ,ess5ce ?an ,p>ticul>s4 ,! 7,platonic7 ,ideas make a ne> approa* to ! ,g5us & ! ,univ]sal2 !y are v9dicat$ z ,ess5ces ^u simil> gr\nds4 ,next1 s9ce ,greek3 to t44e4 is ,ess5ce1 & s9ce ! ,def9ition is ! rational explanation ( ,greek3 t44e41 we f\nd x necess>y to discuss ,def9ition2 &1 s9ce ! ,def9ition is a s5t5ce hav+ p>ts1 we 7 call$ ^u to exam9e ^! p>ts1 & to expla9 :at p>ts belong$ bo? to ,ess5ce & to ,def9ition4 ,we decid$ f>!r1 aft] discussion1 t ! ,univ]sal & ! ,g5us 7 n ,ess5ce2 ! ,platonic ,ideas & ! ,ma!matical ,entia we po/pon$ = ! mom5t1 & we conf9$ ourselves to ! p]ceivable ,ess5ces1 recogniz$ by all 7a4 #be74 ,n[ all ^! p]ceivable ,ess5ti include ,matt]4 ,! ,sub/ratum--,matt] 9 "o way--is ,ess5ce2 :ile1 9 ano!r way1 ! ,=m & ! ,greek3 lo_/gos is ,ess5ce2 & f9ally ! ,comp\nd ( ! two is ,ess5ce4 ,matt] is ,hoc ,aliquid1 n ,greek3 e7n]gei_/a b only ,greek3 duna_/mei4 ,=m is an ,hoc ,aliquid sep>able by reason 7,greek3 t lo_/g *ri/o_/n1 p4 #ajdb1 a4 #bi74 ,! ,comp\nd ( ! two1 ! complete ,hoc ,aliquid1 is capable ( exi/+ sep>ably1 9 an absolute s5se 7:i* is true also ( "s ,=ms71 & is liable alone to g5]ation & de/ruction 7a4 #cj74 ,x is cle> t ,matt] also1 n less ?an ,=m1 is ,ess5ce2 = 9 all *anges f opposite to opposite1 !re is a c]ta9 sub/ratum to su* *anges4 ,?us1 9 *anges ( ,place1 !re is a sub/ratum :i* is n[ "h1 pres5tly !re2 9 *anges ( ,quantity1 :at is n[ ( su* & su* a size1 is pres5tly great] or less2 9 *anges ( ,quality1 :at is n[ heal?y is pres5tly sick2 9 *anges ( ,ess5ce1 :at is n[ 9 c\rse ( g5]ation is pres5tly 9 c\rse ( de/ruction1 or :at is n[ ! sub/ratum ( "s giv5 ,=m 7& is ?us ,hoc ,aliquid7 is pres5tly ! sub/ratum ( ,privation1 & ?us no long] ,hoc ,aliquid4 ,among ^! f\r v>ieties ( *ange 7,greek3 kat' ou7si_/an1 kata poso_/n1 kata poio_/n1 kata to_/pon7 ! ?ree la/ are consequ5t ^u ! fir/1 b ! fir/ is n consequ5t ^u all ! ?ree la/2 = we _c ma9ta9 t1 because a ?+ has ,matt] capable ( local movem5t1 x mu/ !re=e h g5]able & de/ructible ,matt] 7p4 #ajdb1 b4 #f74 ,hav+ discuss$ ! ,ess5ce ( p]ceivable ?+s s f> =? z pot5tial1 we n[ proce$ to ! same ,ess5ce s f> =? z actual 7,greek3 7 duna_/mei ou7si_/a--7 7s e7ne_/rgeia ou7si_/a tn ai7/htn--p4 #ajdb1 b4 #aj74 ,:at is ?is la/8 ,demokritus recognizes a primordial body "o & ! same z to ,matt]1 b hav+ ?ree diff]5ces--9 figure1 9 position1 9 arrangem5t4 ,b x is pla9 t ?is enum]ation is n suffici5t & t !re are _m o!r diff]5ces1 to ea* ( :i* corresponds a special acceptation ( ,greek3 e7_//i 7,greek3 to e7_//i tosauta*s le_/getai--b4 #bf74 ,"s diff]5ces dep5d ^u ! mode ( putt+ toge!r con/itu5t mat]ials 7,greek3 sun!_/sei ts u7_/ls--b4 #af71 z mixture1 ty+1 glu+1 pegg+1 c42 "s ^u position1 z ?re%old1 cop+1 c42 "s ^u "t2 "s ^u place2 "s ^u affections ( p]ceivable ?+s1 su* z h>dness1 s(tness1 dryness1 moi/ure1 d5sity1 r>ity1 c42 "s ^u comb9ations ( ! =ego+2 "s aga9 simply ^u excess or defect 9 quantity4 ,to "o or o!r ( ^!1 ,greek3 e7_//9 has ref]5ce 9 ea* p>ticul> case4 ,we say--,?is is a ?re%old1 because x lies 9 a p>ticul> mann]3 ,is 7or ,to be--,greek3 to ei7nai7 signifies 9 ?is case t p>ticul> mann] ( ly+4 ,to be ice1 is to h become solidifi$ 9 ?is p>ticul> mann] 7b4 #bh74 ,we mu/ !re=e look = ! summa g5]a ( ! diff]5ces2 9 "s cases ,greek3 to ei7nai w be def9$ by all ^! diff]5ces3 ?us m or less d5se1 m or less r>e1 belong to ! g5us excess & defect2 diff]5ces ( figure1 smoo?ness1 r\ghness1 c41 belong to ! g5us /raight & curve2 9 o!r cases1 to be1 or n to be1 w dep5d ^u mixture1 z ! g5us 7p4 #ajdc1 a4 #a74 ,if !n ! ,ess5ce is ! cause :y ea* ?+ is :at x is1 we mu/ seek 9 ^! diff]5ces ! cause :y ea* ?+ is :at x is 7p4 #ajdc1 a4 #c74 ,none ( ^! diff]5ces inde$ is itself ,ess5ce1--n ev5 :5 x is embodi$ or comb9$ ) ,matt]2 b x is 9 ea* ! analogue ( ,ess5ce1 & mu/ be employ$ 9 def9+1 j z 9 real & true ,ess5ce we def9e by pr$icat+ ( ,matt] ! ,actuality or ,=mality 7,greek3 7s e7n tais ou7si_/ais to ts u7_/ls katgor\_/m5on au7t 7 e7ne_/rgeia--a4 #f74 ,?us1 if we def9e a ?re%old1 we say--a piece ( wood or /one ly+ 9 ?is p>ticul> way2 if we def9e ice1 we say--wat] froz5 or solidifi$ 9 ?is p>ticul> way1 c4 ,! ,=m or ,actuality ( "o ,matt] is diff]5t f t ( ano!r2 s also is ! rational explanation or ,def9ition2 9 "s cases x is composition1 9 o!rs mixture1 c41 & s =?4 ,if any "o def9es a h\se by say+ t x is /one or brick1 he indicates only ! pot5tial h\se1 = ^! are ! ,matt] 7a4 #ae72 if he def9es x--a vessel protect+ bodies or prop]ty1 he !n assigns ! ,actuality 7,greek3 e7ne_/rgeian72 if he includes bo? ( ! above 9 8 def9ition1 he !n gives ! ?ird ,ess5ce complet$ out ( ! two toge!r 7,greek3 tn tri_/tn kai tn e7k t\_/tn ou7si_/an--a4 #ah74 ,to def9e f ! diff]5ces1 is to def9e f ! side ( ! ,actuality or ,=m2 to def9e f ! includ$ elem5ts 7,greek3 e7k tn e7nup>*o_/ntn7 is to def9e f ! side ( ! ,matt] 7a4 #bj74 ,we see h]efrom :at p]ceivable ,ess5ce is1 & h[ x is3 p>tly1 ( ! nature ( ,matt]2 p>tly1 ( ,=m & ,actuality or ,en]gy3 aga91 ! ?ird or ,concrete1 out ( bo? comb9$ 7p4 #ajdc1 a4 #bh74 ,sometimes1 x is n cle> :e!r ! "n signifies ?is ?ird ,concrete1 or ! ,=m & ,en]gy4 ,?us1 :5 y say a h\se1 d y mean a protective receptacle built ( bricks8 or d y mean simply a protective receptacle--! ,=m simply1 )\t specify+ ! ,matt]8 ,:5 y say a l9e1 d y mean a dyad 9 l5g?--,=m 9 ,matt]8 or simply a dyad--,=m alone8 ,:5 y talk ( an animal1 d y mean s\l 9 body8 or simply s\l1 :i* is ! ,ess5ce & ,actuality ( a c]ta9 body8 ,! ^w animal may be appli$ to bo?1 n inde$ univocally1 z imply+ g5]ic resemblance1 b 7quasi-univocally1 or semi-univocally7 by analogical relation%ip to a common t]m 7,greek3 ou7* 7s e7ni lo_/g lego_/m5on1 a7ll' 7s pros e7n--a4 #cf74 ,?is di/9ction h[ev]1 ?\gh important 9 "s respects1 is unimportant s f> z reg>ds ! inve/igation ab\t p]ceivable ,ess5ce2 = ! ,greek3 t44e4 belongs to ! ,=m & ! ,actuality 7a4 #ch74 ,s\l1 & ! be+ s\l1 are id5tical2 b man1 & ! be+ man1 are n id5tical2 unless ! s\l be call$ man4 ,?us ?is id5tity exi/s 9 "s cases1 b n 9 o!rs 7b4 #d74 ,a syllable is n compos$ m]ely ( lett]s & syn!sis1 nor is a h\se simply ( bricks & syn!sis2 = ! syn!sis or ! mixture does n proce$ out ( ! elem5ts :i* are put toge!r or mix$ 7b4 #h74 ,! l is true 9 o!r cases2 e4g41 if ! ?re%old is a ?re%old by position1 ! position does n proce$ out ( ! ?re%old1 b r ! ?re%old out ( ! position4 ,nor aga9 is man simply animal & bip$4 ,if ^! two are ! ,matt]1 !re mu/ be some?+ ap>t f & beyond !m1 some?+ n itself an elem5t nor proce$+ out ( an elem5t--! ,ess5ce2 :i* is indicat$ by ab/ract+ f ! ,matt] 7b4 #ac74 ,?is1 z be+ ! ,cause ( ,exi/5ce & ( ,ess5ce 7,greek3 ai7_/tion t\ ei7nai kai ts ou7si_/z--b4 #ad7 is :at is meant :5 ,ess5ce is spok5 (4 ,?is ,ess5ce or ,=m mu/ be et]nal2 or at lea/1 if de/ructible1 x has nev] be5 de/roy$2 if g5]able1 x has nev] be5 g5]at$4 ,= we h %[n already t no "o ei!r con/ructs or g5]ates ,=m3 ! ,hoc ,aliquid is con/ruct$2 ! product ( ,=m & ,matt] is g5]at$ 7p4 #ajdc1 b4 #ah74 ,z yet x has n be5 made cle> :e!r ! ,ess5ces ( de/ructible ?+s are sep>able or n3 9 "s cases at lea/1 !y c]ta9ly are n--9 ^? cases1 namely1 :]e !re c exi/ no?+ beyond ! p>ticul> ?+s1 z a h\se or an implem5t 7b4 #ba74 ,p]haps1 inde$1 ^! are n truly ,ess5ces--nei!r ^! p>ticul> ?+s nor any o!r ?+s :i* h come toge!r n by natural process2 = we might indicate ,nature alone z ! ,ess5ce 9 de/ructible ?+s 7,greek3 tn gar phu_/s9 mo_/nn a7_/n tis !i_/ tn e7n tois ph?>tois ou7si_/an7--b4 #bc4 ,ari/otle seems to say 9 :at prec$es1 t !re is no ,greek3 ge_/nesis or ,greek3 ph?ora_/ ( ,greek3 ou7si_/a2 see ,z4 p4 #ajcc1 b4 #ag4 ,b h[ is ?is to be reconcil$ ) ,k4 p4 #ajfj1 b4 #ah3 ,greek3 ou7si_/z men gar pa_/ss ge_/nesi_/s e7/91 /igms d' ou7k e7_//98 ,see ,s*wegl]'s ,comm4 expla9+ ,greek3 gigno_/m5on & ,greek3 ph!iro_/m5on1 ,pt4 ,,ii4 pp4 #hb1 #hc74 ,h5ce we see t ! difficulty />t$ by ,anti/h5es & o!rs equally uns*ool$ 7,greek3 a7pai_/deutoi7 is n )\t p]t95ce4 ,!y say t1 z a def9ition is a s5t5ce ( _m words1 pr$icat+ some?+ ( some?+1 s y _c def9e ,quid e/3 y c only def9e & in=m p]sons ,quale ,quid e/3 y c only tell p :at ! def9i5d is l1 n :at x is 9 itself3 y c tell !m t silv] is l t91 b y _c tell :at silv] is4 ,^u ?is !ory1 def9ition may be giv5 ( ,comp\nd ,ess5ce1 :e!r p]ceivable or cogitable2 b n ( ! primordia ( :i* ! comp\nd consi/s4 ,! def9ition mu/ pr$icate a some?+1 :i* is ( ! nature ( ,=m1 ( ano!r some?+1 :i* is ( ! nature ( ,matt] 7p4 #ajdc1 b4 #ca74 ,if ,ess5ces are 7z ! ,platoni/s say7 9 a c]ta9 s5se ,numb]s1 !y are s 9 ?is s5se2 n 7z ^! philosoph]s affirm7 9 ! "* ( assemblages ( ,monads4 ,= ! def9ition is a sort ( numb]1 divisible into indivisible units2 & ! numb] is s likewise4 ,if y add any ?+ to1 or d$uct any ?+ f1 a numb] 7let ! ?+ add$ or d$uct$ be nev] s small71 x w be no long] ! same numb]2 9 l mann]1 nei!r ! def9ition nor ! ,greek3 t44e41 w be ! same1 if any ?+ be add$ or subtract$ 7p4 #ajdd1 a4 #a74 ,ea* numb] mu/ h some?+ :i* makes its compon5t units coalesce into "o numb]1 ?\gh ! ,platonic philosoph]s _c tell :at t some?+ is2 ei!r ! units are a m]e 7uncem5t$7 heap1 or else y mu/ say :at is t some?+ :i* makes !m "o out ( _m 7a4 #e74 ,! def9ition also is "o2 yet ^! philosoph]s _c expla9 :at makes x "o4 ,! units ( ! numb] & t ( ! def9ition1 is to be expla9$ 9 ! same way1 & t ( ! ,ess5ce also2 n z a monad or a po9t1 b 9 ea* case l an ,entele*y & a peculi> nature 7,greek3 ou7*1 7s le_/g\si_/ t9es1 oi7on mona_/s tis ou7sa 7 /igm_/1 a7ll' e7ntele_/*eia kai phu_/sis tis e7ka_//--a4 #i74 ,a giv5 numb] admits ( no degrees1 m or less3 nei!r does a giv5 ,ess5ce1 unless x be tak5 embodi$ 9 ,matt] 7a4 #aj74 ,respect+ ! ,mat]ial ,ess5ce 7,greek3 p]i de ts u7liks ou7si_/z--p4 #ajdd1 a4 #ae71 we mu/ n =get t1 if !re be "o & ! same ,fir/ ,matt] common z a pr9ciple to all ,g5]ata or ,fi5tia1 !re is nev]!less a c]ta9 ,matt] special or peculi> 7proximate7 to ea* 7,greek3 o7_/ms e7_//i tis oi7kei_/a e7ka_//\--a4 #ah2 ,greek3 oi7kei_/a kai prose*_/s--,alex&]74 ,?us ! ,mat]ia ,prima ( phlegm is1 sweet or fat ?+s2 t ( bile is1 bitt] ?+s & su* l4 ,p]haps ^! two come bo? f ! same ,matt]2 & !re are sev]al diff]5t ,matt]s ( ! same product1 9 cases :]e "o ,matt] proce$s f ano!r4 ,?us phlegm proce$s f fat & sweet1 if fat proce$s f sweet2 & ev5 f bile1 if bile be analys$ into its ,fir/ ,matt] f :5ce phlegm may proce$ by a diff]5t road 7a4 #bc74 ,"o ?+ may proce$ f ano!r 9 two diff]5t ways3 ei!r ,d may proce$ f ,c1 because ,c is its imm$iate ,matt]1 already pre=m$ up to a c]ta9 po9t1 & ?us on ! way to a p]fectly =m$ /ate2 or ,d may proce$ f ,c1 aft] ! de/ruction ( ,c & ! resolution ( ,c into its ,mat]ia ,prima 7,greek3 di*s gar to_/d' e7k t\de1 7 o7_/ti pro o7d\ e7_//ai 7 o7_/ti a7nalu!_/ntos ei7s tn a7r*_/n--a4 #bd74 ,f "o & ! same ,matt] diff]5t products may proce$1 if ! mov+ cause be diff]5t3 f ! same wood !re may proce$ a box or a b$4 ,:at product %all em]ge does n1 h[ev]1 dep5d only ^u ! ,mov+ ,cause1 b (t5 ^u ! ,matt] also2 ?us a saw _c be made out ( wool or wood4 ,if ! same product c proce$ out ( diff]5t ,matt]1 ?is is evid5tly because ! ,art or ,mov+ ,cause is ! same3 if ?is la/ be diff]5t1 & ! ,matt] diff]5t also1 ! product w ( c\rse be diff]5t 7p4 #ajdd1 a4 #cb74 ,:5 a man asks u1 ,:at is ! ,cause8 we ought to reply1 s9ce ! ^w has _m s5ses1 by specify+ all ! causes :i* c h a be>+ on ! case 7p4 #ajdd1 a4 #cd74 ,?us1 ,:at is ! ,cause ( man1 z ,matt]8 ,p]haps ! katam5ia4 ,:at1 z ,mov5t8 ,p]haps ! se$4 ,:at1 z ,=m8 ,! ,greek3 t44e4 ,:at1 z ,greek3 ou7 e7_/neka8 ,! ,end4 ,^! two la/ are p]haps bo? ! same 7a4 #cf74 ,moreov] we ought to make answ] by specify+ ! proximate causes 7n ! remote & ultimate74 ,?us1 ,:at is ! ,matt] ( man8 ,we mu/ answ] by specify+ ! proximate matt]2 n fire & e>?1 ! ultimate & elem5tal 7b4 #b74 ,?is is ! only "r way ( proce$+ 9 reg>d to ,ess5ces natural & g5]able2 s9ce ! ,causes are _m1 & are :at we seek to "k4 ,b ! case is diff]5t 9 reg>d to ,ess5ces natural1 yet et]nal4 ,"s ( ^! la/ p]haps h no ,matt] at all2 or at lea/ a diff]5t ,matt]1 hav+ no attribute except local movability 7b4 #h4 ,alex&] says 9 explanation3 ,greek3 le_/gei de tn xu_/mpasan tn o7kt sphairn e7na_/da--u7_/ln ou7 g5ntn kai ph?>tn a7lla mo_/non kata to_/pon k9t_/n--p4 #ebg1 #bj-be1 ,bon474 ,aga91 9 reg>d to circum/ances :i* occur by ,nature1 b n 9 ! way ( ,ess5ce1 !re is no ,matt] at all3 ! subject itself is ! ,ess5ce4 ,?us 9 reg>d to an eclipse3 ,:at is its ,cause8 ,:at is its ,matt]8 ,!re is no ,matt]1 except ! moon :i* is affect$ 9 a c]ta9 way4 ,:at is ! ,cause1 z ,mov5t--"h light-de/roy+8 ,! e>?4 ,p]haps !re is no ,greek3 ou7 e7_/neka 9 ! case4 ,b ! ,cause 9 ! way ( ,=m is ! rational explanation or def9ition2 & ?is mu/ include a specification ( ! ,mov5t ,cause1 o!rwise x w be obscure4 ,?us1 ! eclipse is1 privation ( light2 &1 :5 y add--by ! e>? int]v5+1 y !n specify ! ,mov5t1 & make y\r def9ition satisfactory 7b4 #ae74 ,9 def9+ sleep we ought to say :at "p ( ! sy/em is fir/ affect$ !reby2 b ?is is n cle>4 ,%all we indicate only ! animal 7z sub/ratum78 ,b ?is is n en\gh4 ,we %all be ask$1 ,:at "p ( ! animal8 ,:i* "p fir/8 ,! he>t1 or :at o!r "p8 ,next1 by :at ,cause8 ,la/ly1 h[ is ! he>t affect$1 ap>t f ! re/ ( ! sy/em8 ,to say--,sleep is a c]ta9 sort ( immobility1 w n be a suffici5t def9ition4 ,we mu/ specify f :at prim>y affection su* immobility arises 7p4 #ajdd1 b4 #bj74 ,s9ce "s ?+s exi/1 & d n exi/1 )\t g5]ation or de/ruction 7z ,=ms1 & ,po9ts1 if !re be su* ?+s z ,po9ts71 x is impossible t all ,contr>ies c be g5]at$ out ( ea* o!r1 if e g5]ation be bo? aliquid & ex aliquo4 ,albus homo ex nigro hom9e mu/ be g5]at$ 9 a diff]5t way f album ex nigro4 ,n[ ,matt] is only to be f\nd 9 ^? cases :]e !re is g5]ation & *ange into ea* o!r2 9 o!r cases1 :]e no *ange takes place1 !re is no ,matt]4 ,!re is a difficulty 9 und]/&+ h[ ! ,matt] ( ea* sub/ance /&s 9 reg>d to ! contr>y modifications ( t sub/ance 7p4 #ajdd1 b4 #bi74 ,if ! body is pot5tially heal?y1 & if disease is ! contr>y ( heal?1 are we to say t bo? ^! /ates are pot5tial8 ,is wat] pot5tially bo? w9e & v9eg>8 ,or are we to say r t ! body is ! ,matt] ( heal?1 & t wat] is ! ,matt] ( w9e1 9 ! way ( acquisition by nature & by tak+ on ! ,=m to :i* x t5ds2 & t ! body is ! ,matt] ( sickness1 & w9e ! ,matt] ( v9eg> 9 ! way ( privation & ( de/ruction contr>y to nature 7b4 #cd78 ,h[ev]1 !re is "h "s difficulty3 ,s9ce v9eg> is g5]at$ out ( w9e1 :y is n w9e ! ,matt] ( v9eg>1 & pot5tially v9eg>8 ,:y is n ! liv+ man pot5tially a corpse8 ,is x n r ! tru?1 h[ev]1 t ^! are accid5tal or contra-natural de/ructions 7,greek3 kata sumbebkos ai7 ph?orai_/--b4 #cf1 i4e41 n 9 ! regul> appet5cy & aspirations1 accord+ to :i* ! de/ruction ( "o ,=m gives place to a bett]72 & t ?r\gh su* de/ruction ! same ,matt] :i* belong$ to ! liv+ man becomes aft]w>ds ! ,matt] ( ! corpse2 likewise ! ,matt] ( w9e becomes1 ?r\gh ! l de/ruction1 ,matt] ( v9eg>--by a g5]ation l t ( night out ( day8 ,*anges ( ?is sort mu/ take place by complete resolution into ! orig9al ,mat]ia ,prima 7,greek3 ei7s tn u7_/ln dei e7panel!in--a4 #c72 ?us1 if a liv+ animal comes out ( a dead "o1 ! latt] is fir/ resolv$ into its elem5ts1 & !n out ( !m comes ! liv+ animal4 ,s v9eg> is fir/ resolv$ into wat]1 !n out ( ! wat] comes w9e 7a4 #e74 ,we %all n[ rev]t to ! difficulty rec5tly notic$1 ab\t ,def9itions & ,numb]s4 ,:at is ! cause t ea* numb] & ea* def9ition is ,"o8 ,9 all cases :]e !re are sev]al p>ts n put toge!r z a m]e heap1 b :]e !re is a ,:ole besides ! p>ts1 !re mu/ be "s cause ( ?is k9d4 ,) "s bodies1 contact is su* cause2 ) o!rs1 viscosity 7,greek3 glis*ro_/ts--p4 #ajde1 a4 #ab71 or "s o!r affection4 ,b ! def9ition is "o complex phrase1 n by conjunction l ! ,iliad1 b ,"o by be+ ! def9ition ( "o subject 7a4 #ad74 ,n[ :at is x :i* makes ! subject man1 ,"o8 ,:y is he ,"o & n ,_m1 say animal & a bip$--m especially if !re exi/1 z ! ,platoni/s say1 a ,self-animal & a ,self-bip$8 ,:y are n ^! two ,greek3 au7ta_/ ! man 7,greek3 dia ti_/ gar ou7k e7keina au7ta o7 a7_/n?rpo_/s e7/i8--a4 #ag71 s t individuals are m5 by p>ticipation n ( "o ,self-man1 b ( ! two--,self-animal1 ,self-bip$8 ,on ?is !ory altoge!r1 x w\ld seem t a man _c be ,"o1 b mu/ be ,_m--animal & bip$4 ,x is pla9 t 9 ?is way ( inve/igation ! problem is insoluble4 ,b if1 z we say 7p4 #ajde1 a4 #bc71 !re be on "o side ,matt]1 on ! o!r side ,=m--on "o side t :i* is 9 ,pot5cy1 on ! o!r side t :i* is 9 ,act 7a4 #bd7--! problem ceases to be difficult4 ,! difficulty is ! same z x w\ld be if ! def9ition ( himation 71 r\nd brass3 ! ^w himation w\ld be ! sign ( t def9ition1 & ! problem w\ld be1 ,:at is ! ,cause :y r\nd & brass are ,"o8 ,b ! difficulty vani%es1 :5 we reply t "o is ,matt]1 ! o!r ,=m4 ,&1 9 cases :]e g5]ation int]v5es1 :at is ! ,cause :y ! pot5tial ,ens is actual ,ens1 except ! ,effici5t 7,greek3 p>a to poisan--a4 #ca78 ,!re is no o!r ,cause :y ! sph]e 9 pot5cy is a sph]e 9 actuality3 su* 0 ! ,greek3 t44e4 ( ea* 7,greek3 t\t' 7n to t44e4 e7kate_/r--a4 #cc74 ,( ,matt] !re are two v>ieties1 ! ,cogitable & ! ,p]ceivable2 &1 9 ! ,def9ition1 a "p is always ,matt]1 a "p is ,=m or ,en]gy2 z :5 we def9e ! circle--a plane figure4 7,ari/otle argues3--,on ! ,platonic !ory t ,ideas or ,=ms are ,entia1 sep>ate f p>ticul>s1 self-exi/5t1 & indep5d5t ( ea* o!r1 no cause c be assign$ = ! coalesc5ce ( any two or m ( !m into "o2 e4g4 animal & bip$1 into man4 ,b ^u my !ory1 ,=m & ,matt]1 ,p[] & ,act1 are 9 _! own nature relative to ea* o!r4 ,x is _! own inh]5t nature to coalesce into "o1 or = ,p[] to pass into ,act4 ,?is is ! cause ( _! unity3 no o!r cause c be f\nd or is necess>y4 ,see ,alex&]1 p4 #eca47 ,9 ^? cases :]e !re is no ,matt]1 ei!r cogitable or p]ceivable1 z 9 ! ,categories1 ,hoc ,aliquid1 ,quale1 ,quantum1 c41 ea* ( !m is1 9 itself & at once1 bo? ,ens & ,unum 7p4 #ajde1 b4 #b74 ,h5ce nei!r ,ens nor ,unum is includ$ 9 ! ,def9itions1 & ! ,greek3 t44e4 is1 9 itself & at once1 bo? ,ens & ,unum4 ,no o!r cause c be assign$ :y ea* ( ^! is ,ens & ,unum2 ea* ( !m is s1 at once & imm$iately2 yet n z if !y 7 all includ$ 9 ,ens or ,unum z common g5]a2 nor z if !y 7 ap>t & sep>able f p>ticul>s 7b4 #g74 ,philosoph]s1 :o d n adopt ?is op9ion1 resort to v>i\s phrases1 all unsatisfactory1 to expla9 ! coalesc5ce or unity ( ! elem5ts includ$ 9 ! ,def9ition4 ,"s call x ,greek3 me_/!xis1 b !y give no cause ( ! ,greek3 me_/!xis2 o!rs ,greek3 sun\si_/a1 or ,greek3 su_/ndesmos1 or ,greek3 su_/n!sis--( s\l ) body1 z def9ition ( life4 ,b we might j z well use ^! phrases on o!r occasions1 & say t to be well 0 a syn!sis ( ! s\l ) heal?2 t ! braz5 triangle 0 a ,greek3 su_/ndesmos ( brass ) triangle2 t :ite 0 a syn!sis ( sup]ficies ) :it5ess 7p4 #ajde1 b4 #ae74 ,^! phrases c>ry no explanation2 & ^! philosoph]s get into ! difficulty by tak+ a wrong po9t ( dep>ture4 ,!y fir/ lay d[n ,p[] z diff]5t f ,entele*y1 & !n look = an explanation :i* makes !m "o 7,greek3 ai7_/tion d' o7_/ti duna_/mes kai e7ntele*ei_/z zt\si lo_/gon e7nopoion kai diaphora_/n--p4 #ajde1 b4 #af1 ,s*wegl] obs]ves t ! two la/ words are loosely put1 & t ! cle> words to express :at ,ari/otle means w\ld be3 ,greek3 zt\si lo_/gon e7nopoion u7poti!_/ntes diaphora_/n--,comm4 ,,ii4 p4 #aed474 ,b ! tru? is t ,p[] & ,entele*y are n ess5tially two1 b only diff]5t aspects ( "o & ! same4 ,! ,la/ ,matt] & ! ,=m are ! same2 b ! fir/ is 9 pot5cy1 ! second 9 p]fect actuality 7,/(f und ,=m1 ,pot5zielles und ,actuelles1 s9d e9s und dasselbe auf v]s*i$55 ,entwicklungs/uf5--,s*wegl] ,,ii4 p4 #aea74 ,to enquire 9 any p>ticul> case :at is ! cause ( ?is ,"o1 is ! same z to enquire g5]ally ! cause ( ,unity4 ,ea* ?+ is a c]ta9 ,"o2 ! ,pot5tial & ! ,actual are ,"o1 9 a c]ta9 way 7b4 #bj74 ,s t no o!r ,cause c be f\nd except ! ,mov5t or ,effici5t--t :i* mov$ ! matt] out ( ,pot5cy into ,actuality4 ,z to ^? ?+s :i* h no ,matt]1 ea* ( !m is ,"o imm$iately & p] se 7b4 #bc74 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,book ,greek3 ,?4 ,9 discrim9at+ ! mean+s ( ,ens1 we notic$ "o ,greek3 kata du_/nam9 kai e7ne_/rgeian 7ap>t f ,ens accord+ to ! ,categories74 ,we %all n[ proce$ to discuss ^! two t]ms ,greek3 du_/namis & ,greek3 e7ntele_/*eia e7ne_/rgeia 7p4 #ajde1 b4 #ce74 ,x is else:]e m5tion$ 7,greek3 ,d4 p4 #ajai7 t ,greek3 du_/namis has _m s5ses1 ( :i* "s 7l ! geometrical1 c47 are equivocal or metaphorical1 s t we %all pass !m ov] "h 7p4 #ajdf1 a4 #f74 ,b !re is "o fir/ & prop] s5se ( ,greek3 du_/namis1 f :i* _m o!rs div]ge 9 diff]5t directions ( relation%ip or analogy 7a4 #aj74 ,t fir/ & prop] s5se is--a pr9ciple ( *ange 9 alio vel quat5us aliud1 or a pr9ciple ( *ange ab alio vel quat5us aliud 7,greek3 a7r* metabols e7n a7_/ll 7 7 a7_/llo--a7r* metabols u7p' a7_/ll\ 7 7 a7_/llo--a4 #aa1 #ad4 ,! same def9ition is giv5 9 t]ms some:at diff]5t at p4 #ajdh1 a4 #bh3 ,greek3 t\to le_/gom5 dunaton o7 pe_/phuke k9ein a7_/llo 7 k9ei/hai u7p' a7_/ll\1 7 a7pls 7 tro_/pon t9a_/4 ,?is ,ari/otle calls ,greek3 7 kata ki_/ns9 du_/namis--express$ by ,bonitz1 ,comm41 p4 #cgi3 ag5di pati5dive nisum qu5dam474 ,! notion ( ,greek3 du_/namis h[ev] ext5ds m widely ?an ?is fir/ s5se ( ,greek3 du_/namis kata ki_/ns94 ,x includes o!r cases1 z :]e we say t ,h]mes is ,greek3 duna_/mei 9 ! wood1 & t ! half foot is ,greek3 duna_/mei 9 ! :ole foot 7p4 #ajdh1 a4 #cc2 ,bonitz di/+ui%es ?is la/ s5se z ,mgli*keit1 f ! fir/ s5se z ,v]mg51 p4 #cgi74 ,we beg9 by speak+ ab\t ! fir/ & prop] s5se--,greek3 du_/namis 7 kata ki_/ns94 ,"o v>iety !re( is1 :5 a ?+ has p[] ( be+ passively affect$ s & s--:5 !re resides 9 ! ?+ a pr9ciple ( passive *ange 7,greek3 a7r* metabols pa?tiks--p4 #ajdf1 a4 #ac7 by some?+ else or by itself quat5us some?+ else4 7,^! la/ words are add$ because a sick man has ! ,greek3 du_/namis ( be+ cur$ ei!r by a physician1 or by himself if he be a physician2 b !n 9 ?is la/ case he is to be look$ ^u 9 two diff]5t *>act]s1 z physician & z pati5t3 he cures himself z physician1 he is cur$ z pati5t47 ,ano!r v>iety ( ,greek3 du_/namis kata ki_/ns9 is1 :5 a ?+ has p[] ( resi/+ *ange = ! worse or de/ruction by any ext]ior pr9ciple ( *ange 7a4 #ad72 z h>dness 9 iron4 ,sometimes ?is ,greek3 du_/namis is re/rict$ to ! cases 9 :i* a p]son c d ! ?+ 9 "q well3 no man is said to h ! p[] ( speak+ or s++ unless he c p]=m ^! functions pretty well 7a4 #ah74 ,9 all ^! v>ieties1 ! g5]al notion ( ,greek3 du_/namis kata ki_/ns9 is includ$ 7p4 #ajdf1 a4 #af74 ,! active & passive ,greek3 du_/namis are1 9 "o s5se1 "o & ! same2 9 ano!r s5se1 di/9ct & diff]5t4 ,= "o ( !m resides 9 ! pati5t1 ! o!r 9 ! ag5t 7a4 #bg73 sometimes ! two come by nature toge!r 9 ! same ?+2 yet ! pati5t does n suff] f itself z pati5t1 b f itself z ag5t4 ,impot5ce 7,greek3 a7dunami_/a7 is ! privation contr>y to ?is ,greek3 9999du_/namis4 ,privation has _m diff]5t mean+s 7a4 #cb74 ,among ^! pr9ciples ( *ange1 "s reside 9 ! inanimate sub/ances1 o!rs 9 ! animat$2 n only 9 ! s\l g5]ally1 b also 9 ! rational bran* ( ! s\l 7p4 #ajdf1 a4 #ch74 ,accord+ly "s ,greek3 duna_/meis are ,rational1 o!rs ,irrational4 ,all arts & con/ructive sci5ces are ,greek3 duna_/meis 7or ,greek3 a7r*ai metabltikai e7n a7_/ll 7 7 a7_/llo--b4 #c74 ,9 ! rational capacities1 ! same capacity cov]s bo? contr>ies2 9 ! irrational1 ea* be>s ^u "o ( ! two contr>ies exclusively2 ?us1 fire w only heat b n *ill1 :ile ! m$ical art w produce ei!r sickness or heal?4 ,! reason is1 t ,sci5ce is bas$ ^u rational explanations or def9itions2 & ! same rational explanation decl>es bo? ! ?+ itself & ! privation !re(2 ?\gh n inde$ 9 ! same mann]3 x decl>es1 9 a c]ta9 way1 bo? toge!r1 &1 9 a c]ta9 way1 *iefly ! positive side 7b4 #aj74 ,accord+ly ^! sci5ces are sci5ces ( bo? ! contr>ies at once3 namely1 p] se1 ( "o side ( ! ,antiphasis2 n p] se1 ( ! o!r side2 s9ce ! rational explanation also decl>es1 directly & p] se1 only "o side1 :ile x decl>es ! o!r side 9 a c]ta9 way indirectly1 m$iately1 p] accid5s--i4e41 by negation & exclusion 7,greek3 a7popha_/sei kai a7pophora4--b4 #ad74 ,= ! ,contr>y is ! highe/ grade ( privation2 & ?is is ! exclusion ( "o side ( ! alt]native 7,greek3 7 gar /e_/rsis 7 pr_/t to e7nanti_/on1 au7_/t d' a7pophora ?ate_/r\--p4 #ajdf b4 #ae2 ,bonitz says t ,greek3 to e7nanti_/on is ! subject ( ?is proposition1 & ,greek3 7 /e_/rsis ! pr$icate74 ,bo? ( two contr>ies _c reside1 inde$1 9 ! same subject2 b ,sci5ce is a ,greek3 du_/namis ?r\gh rational explanation or reason 9 ! s\l :i* has )9 x a pr9ciple ( motion2 accord+ly ! s\l c br+ to pass ei!r ( ! two contr>ies1 ?r\gh ref]5ce to ! same rational notion or explanation :i* comprises bo? 7b4 #bb74 ,! ,meg>ic philosoph]s recognize no ,greek3 du_/namis ap>t f ,greek3 e7ne_/rgeia2 affirm+ t no "o has any p[]1 except at ! mom5t :5 he is actually ex]cis+ x4 ,^! philosoph]s are wrong 7= v>i\s reasons indicat$3 p4 #ajdf1 b4 #cj--p4 #ajdg1 a4 #bj74 ,p[] & ,act are di/9ct4 ,a p>ticul> ev5t is possible to happ51 yet x does n happ52 or possible n to happ51 yet x does happ5 7p1 #ajdg1 a4 #bb74 ,t is possible1 to :i*1 if ! act sup]v5e :]eto su* possibility relates1 no?+ impossible w ensue 7a4 #be74 ,! "n ,greek3 e7ne_/rgeia1 app5d$ to t ( ,greek3 e7ntele_/*eia 7,greek3 7 pros tn e7ntele_/*eian sunti!me_/n--a4 #cj71 has come to be appli$ to o!r ?+s *iefly f ref]5ce to motions2 = motion is p> excell5ce ,greek3 e7ne_/rgeia4 ,h5ce ,non-,entia are nev] said to be mov$1 ?\gh o!r pr$icates may be appli$ to !m3 we may call !m ,greek3 dianota_/ & ,greek3 e7pi?umta_/1 b nev] ,greek3 k9\_/m5a2 =1 if we did1 we %\ld be guilty ( contradiction1 say+ t ?+s :i* are n ,greek3 e7n]gei_/a are ,greek3 e7n]gei_/a4 ,among ! ,non-,entia !re are "s :i* are ,entia ,greek3 duna_/mei3 we call !m ,non-,entia1 because !y are n ,greek3 e7ntele*ei_/a 7b4 #b74 ,if ! def9ition above giv5 ( ,greek3 to dunato_/n be admitt$1 we see pla9ly t no "o c say truly3 ,?is is possible1 yet x w nev] happ5 7p4 #ajdg1 b4 #c1 seq474 ,among all ! v>i\s ,greek3 duna_/meis1 "s are cong5ital1 su* z ! p]ceptive p[]s 7,greek3 ai7/h_/sen--p4 #ajdg1 b4 #ca72 o!rs are acquir$ by practice1 su* z play+ ! flute2 o!rs by le>n+1 l ! arts3 ^! two la/ v>ieties we _c possess )\t hav+ previ\sly ex]cis$ ourselves 9 !m actively 7b4 #cd71 b ! o!rs1 :i* are m ( a passive "*1 we may possess )\t su* condition4 ,?is di/9ction co9cides ) t :i* 0 drawn previ\sly betwe5 ! rational & ! irrational ,greek3 duna_/meis or capacities3 ! rational capacities belong+ only to a s\l1 & to ! rational bran* !re(4 ,n[ e ,greek3 dunato_/n has its own specialities & conditions3 x is itself a giv5 some?+1 & x is surr\nd$ ) concomitants ( special "t1 place1 neighb\rhood1 c4 7p4 #ajdh1 a4 #a74 ,! irrational capacities mu/ necess>ily pass into reality1 :5ev] ! active & ! passive conditions come toge!r1 because !re is b "o reality to arise2 b ! rational capacities n necess>ily1 because !y t5d to ei!r "o ( two contr>y realities1 bo? ( :i* _c be produc$4 ,:i* ( ! two contr>ies %all be br\ght to reality1 w dep5d ^u ano!r au?ority--! appet5cy or delib]ate resolution ( ! s\l3 to :i*soev] ( ! two1 ea* possible1 su* sov]eign appet5cy t5ds1 t "o w be br\ght to pass1 :5 ag5t & pati5t come toge!r & bo? are 9 suitable condition 7a4 #aa72 & "u ^? circum/ances1 x w necess>ily 7,greek3 a7na_/gk--a4 #ad7 be br\ght to pass4 ,we ne$ n =mally enunciate ! clause--if no?+ extr9sic occurs to prev5t x3 = ?is is already impli$ 9 ! def9ition ( ,greek3 du_/namis :i* is nev] affirm$ z absolute & unconditional1 b always "u c]ta9 giv5 conditions 7a4 #ah3 ,greek3 e7_//i d' ou7 pa_/nts1 a7ll' e7*o_/ntn ps74 ,accord+ly ! ag5t w n be able to br+ ab\t bo? sides ( ! alt]native at once1 ev5 ?\gh appetite or delib]ate resolution may prompt him to d x 7a4 #ba74 ,hav+ ?us gone ?r\gh ! v>iety ( ,greek3 du_/namis call$ ,greek3 7 kata ki_/ns91 we %all n[ give "s explanations ( ,greek3 e7ne_/rgeia2 9 ! c\rse ( :i* we %all be able to illu/rate by contra/1 ! o!r v>iety ( ,greek3 du_/namis1 :i* 0 indicat$ above 7p4 #ajdh1 a4 #cj74 ,greek3 ,e7ne_/rgeia is us$ :5 ! ?+ exi/s1 n ,greek3 duna_/mei3 mean+ by ,greek3 duna_/mei su* z ,h]mes 9 ! wood or ! half-y>d 9 ! :ole y>d4 ,we %all expla9 our mean+1 by giv+ an induction ( p>ticul>s2 = def9ition _c be giv5 ( e ?+4 ,we mu/ gr\p into "o view ! analogies foll[+ 7,greek3 ou7 dei pantos o7_/ron ztein1 a7lla kai to a7na_/logon sunoran--a4 #cg73 ,z ! p]son n[ actually build+ is to ! pr(essional build] n s engag$2 z ! animal awake is to ! animal asleep2 z ! animal see+ is to ! animal possess$ ( good eyes b hav+ !m clos$2 z t :i* is sev]$ f matt] is to matt] 7,greek3 to a7pokekrime_/non--b4 #c72 z ! "w complet$ is to ! mat]ial yet unwork$2--s is ,greek3 e7ne_/rgeia to ,greek3 du_/namis4 ,! anti!sis is n simil> 9 all ^! pairs ( in/ances1 b !re is a relation%ip or analogy p]vad+ all 7,greek3 7s t\to e7n t\_/t 7 pros t\to1 to_/d' e7n tde 7 pros to_/de--b4 #h74 ,9 "s ( ! pairs1 ! anti!sis is ! same z t ( ,greek3 ki_/nsis pros du_/nam92 9 o!rs1 x is ! same z t ( ,greek3 ou7si_/a pro_/s t9a u7_/ln 7b4 #i74 ,9 "o memb] ( ea* pair1 we h ,greek3 7 e7ne_/rgeia a7phrisme_/n2 9 ! o!r ,greek3 to dunato_/n 7b4 #e--;,greek3 e7ne_/rgeia "h is reality sev]$ & det]m9ate1 z contra/$ ) ,greek3 du_/namis pot5tiality huddl$ toge!r & indet]m9ate4--,see ,s*wegl]'s note3 ,pot5zialitt und ,aktualitt s9d re9e ,v]hltnissbegriffe--p4 #agb1 seq474 ,b 9 all ! above-nam$ examples1 t :i* is n[ ,greek3 duna_/mei may come actually to be ,greek3 e7n]gei_/a3 ! p]son n[ sleep+ may awake2 ! p]son ^: eyes are n[ clos$ may op5 !m & see2 ! ,h]mes n[ 9 ! wood may be br\ght out ( ! wood & exi/ z a real /atue4 ,x is o!rwise ) ,! ,inf9ite1 ,vacuum1 c4 ,^! exi/ ,greek3 duna_/mei only1 & c nev] come to exi/ ,greek3 e7n]gei_/a1 or indep5d5tly4 ,! ,inf9ite c exi/ ,greek3 e7n]gei_/a only = our cognition4 ,! fact t ! bisection !re( is nev] exhau/$--t we may g on divid+ z long z we *oose--gives to ! pot5tial ,inf9ite a c]ta9 actuality1 ?\gh x _c be truly sep>at$ 7b4 #af74 ,we mu/ f>!r expla9 9 :at cases x is prop] to say t a ?+ is ,greek3 duna_/mei1 & 9 :at cases x is n prop]4 ,y _c prop]ly say t e>? is pot5tially a man3 y may p]haps say t ! sem5 is pot5tially a man2 yet ev5 ?is n c]ta9ly1 s9ce o!r conditions besides sem5 are requir$ 7p4 #ajdi1 a4 #b74 ,! physician _c cure e pati5t1 yet nei!r is ! cure altoge!r a matt] ( *ance 7,greek3 a7po tu_/*s--a4 #d73 !re is a c]ta9 measure ( cure possible1 & t is call$ ,greek3 to u7giainon duna_/mei4 ,! def9ition !re(1 tak5 f ! side ( ! ag5t1 w\ld be--t :i* w come to pass if he wills x1 )\t any imp$im5t f )\t2 f ! side ( ! pati5t--:5 no imp$im5t occurs f )9 him 7a4 #h74 ,9 l mann]1 a h\se exi/s ,greek3 duna_/mei1 :5 all ! matt] = x is br\ght toge!r1 )\t ne$ ei!r ( addition or subtraction or *ange1 & :5 !re is no int]nal imp$im5t2 & s ) o!r products ( art1 :]e ! pr9ciple ( g5]ation is extr9sic to !mselves4 ,9 natural products1 :]e ! pr9ciple ( g5]ation is intr9sic1 we treat !m z pot5tially exi/+1 :5 ?is pr9ciple is 9 a condition to realize itself ?r\gh itself1 assum+ no ext]nal imp$im5ts to int]f]e4 ,?us we d n call ! sem5 pot5tially a man1 because1 be=e x becomes su*1 x mu/ und]go *ange 9 some?+ else1 & !re=e /&s 9 ne$ ( "s o!r pr9ciple2 we call x s only :5 x is 9 su* conditions t its own pr9ciple suffices4 ,e>? is n said to be a /atue ,greek3 duna_/mei1 until x has fir/ be5 *ang$ into brass 7a4 #ag74 ,we call ! product n by ! "n ( ! ,matt] itself1 b by an adjective appellation d]iv$ f ! next adjac5t ,matt]2 ?us we call a box1 n wood1 b wood53 wood is !n a box ,greek3 duna_/mei4 ,b we say ?is only ( ! proximate or imm$iate ,matt]1 n ( ! remote or prim>y ,matt]4 ,we mu/ g back ?r\gh successive /ages to ! fir/ or mo/ remote ,matt]2 ?us wood is n e>?1 b e>?y3 e>? !re=e is pot5tially wood4 ,! e>? may be a]i=m2 ! air may be fi]y2 ! fire has no analog\s adjective :]eby x c be call$1 & is ?us ! fir/ or la/ ,matt]4 ,b x is n said to be pot5tially any ?+ except ! ,greek3 su_/n!ton comb9$ ) ,=m imm$iately above x4 ,matt] may be ei!r proximate or remote3 ,pot5tiality is affirm$ only ( ! proximate ,matt]4 ,s9ce all ! diff]5t mean+s ( ,prius h be5 enum]at$ & di/+ui%$1 x is pla9 t 9 all ^? mean+s ,actuality is prius z comp>$ ) ,pot5tiality3 :e!r ! ,greek3 du_/namis be ,greek3 a7r* metabltik 7 k9tik7 e7n a7_/ll 7 a7_/llo1 l ,art2 or ,greek3 a7r* k9tik 7 /atik e7n au7t 7 au7to_/1 l ,nature 7p4 #ajdi1 b4 #e-aj74 ,actuality is prius bo? ,greek3 lo_/g & ,greek3 ou7si_/a3 x is also prius ,greek3 *ro_/n 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 ?\gh n 9 a c]ta9 o!r s5se4 ,x is prius ,greek3 lo_/g1 because ! ,actual is includ$ 9 ! def9ition ( ! ,pot5tial2 t is1 x mu/ be presuppos$ & =ekn[n1 be=e y c und]/& :at ! ,pot5tial is 7p4 #ajdi1 b4 #ag74 ,y expla9 ,greek3 oi7kodomiko_/s or ,greek3 o7ratiko_/s by say+ t he is ,greek3 duna_/m5os oi7kodomein 7 o7ran3 y expla9 ,greek3 o7rato_/n by say+ t x is ,greek3 dunaton o7ra/hai3 ,greek3 to dunato_/n1 9 its fir/ & absolute mean+1 is ,greek3 dunato_/n because x may come into ,actuality 7b4 #ac74 ,x is prius ,greek3 *ron 9 ! s5se t ! ,pot5tial always presupposes an ,actual id5tical specie1 ?\gh n id5tical num]o1 ) t ,actual to :i* ! ,pot5tial t5ds4 ,take a man n[ exi/+ & n[ see+1 or corn n[ ripe 9 ! field3 ^! d\btless1 be=e !y came into _! pres5t condition1 mu/ h pre-exi/$ 9 ,pot5tiality2 t is1 !re mu/ h pre-exi/$ a c]ta9 matt]--se$ or a some?+ capable ( vision--:i* at "o "t 0 n yet 9 a /ate ( ,actuality 7p4 #ajdi1 b4 #bc74 ,b prior to ?is matt] !re mu/ h exi/$ o!r ,actualities1 by :i* ?is matt] 0 g5]at$3 ! ,actual is always g5]at$ out ( its ,pot5tial by a prior ,actual1 e4g41 a man by a man1 a musical man by a musical man2 !re be+ always "s prior mov5t1 :i* mu/ be itself already 9 ,actuality 7b4 #bg74 ,we h already decl>$ t e ?+ g5]at$ is some?+ g5]at$ out ( some?+1 & by some?+ :i* is id5tical 9 species ) ! ?+ g5]at$ 7b4 #bi74 ,h5ce x seems t !re c be no build] :o has built no?+1 no h>p] :o has nev] h>p$2 = ! man :o is le>n+ to h>p le>ns by h>p+ 7b4 #cb72 :i* gave occasion to ! sophi/ical puzzle--,t "o1 :o does n possess ! k1 w nev]!less d t to :i* ! k relates4 ,! le>n] does n possess ! k2 yet /ill he mu/ h possess$ "s fragm5ts ( ! k3 j z1 9 e ?+ :i* is 9 c\rse ( g5]ation1 "s fraction mu/ h be5 already g5]at$2 9 e ?+ :i* is mov$1 "s fraction has be5 already mov$ 7b4 #cf74 ,la/ly1 ,actuality is prius z comp>$ ) ,pot5tiality 7n m]ely ,greek3 lo_/g1 kai *ro_/n e7_//9 7_/s1 b also7 ,greek3 ou7si_/a 7p4 #ajej1 a4 #d74 ,9 ! fir/ place1 t :i* is late/ 9 g5]ation is fir/ 9 ,=m & 9 ,ess5ce2 a man comp>$ ) a *ild1 man z comp>$ ) sem54 ,man already possesses ! ,=m1 sem5 does n4 ,next1 e ?+ g5]at$ m>*es or gradually progresses t[>ds its pr9ciple & t[>ds its end4 ,! pr9ciple is ! ,greek3 ou7 e7_/neka1 & ! g5]ation is = ! sake ( ! end4 ,n[ ! end or consummation is ,actuality1 & = ! sake ( ?is ! ,pot5tiality is tak5 on 7,greek3 lamba_/netai--a4 #aj74 ,animals d n see 9 ord] t !y may h sight2 !y h sight 9 ord] t !y may see3 !y d n !orize 9 ord] t !y may possess !oretical aptitude1 b ! conv]se2 except inde$ ^? :o are practis+ z le>n]s4 ,moreov]1 ,matt] is said to exi/ pot5tially1 because x may come into ,=m2 b1 :5 x exi/s actually1 x is !n 9 ,=m 7a4 #af74 7,alex&] says3 ,greek3 7_//e ka7n t\_/t prote_/ra 77 e7ne_/rgeia7 7s e7pheton kai ta_/sson kai ei7s ko_/smon a7_/gon duna_/mes--p4 #eei1 #aj1 ,bon47 ,! case is ! same :]e ! end is no?+ beyond a p>ticul> mode ( motion 7e4g41 danc+73 ! danc+-ma/] has atta9$ 8 end :5 he exhibits 8 pupil actually danc+4 ,9 natural productions ?is is no less true ?an 9 artificial3 ,nature has atta9$ h] end1 :5 ! product comes into ,greek3 e7ne_/rgeia2 t is1 :5 x is actually at "w1 f :5ce ! "n ,greek3 e7ne_/rgeia is d]iv$ 7,greek3 to gar e7_/rgon te_/los1 7 de e7ne_/rgeia to e7_/rgon--kai suntei_/nei pros tn e7ntele_/*eian--a4 #bc74 ,9 "s cases 7z we h (t5 rem>k$7 ! ultimatum is use1 )\t any ult]ior product di/9ct f ! use1 e4g41 ! act ( see+ is ! ultimatum ( ! visual p[] 7p4 #ajej1 a4 #bd72 9 o!r cases !re is some?+ ult]ior & di/9ct z a h\se f ! build+ p[]4 ,9 ! =m] ( ^! cases1 ,actuality is ! end ( ,greek3 du_/namis2 9 ! latt] x is m ! end ?an ,greek3 du_/namis4 7,greek3 ,o7_/ms ou7!n 7tton e7_/n?a men te_/los e7_/n?a de mallon te_/los ts duna_/me_/s e7/92 7 gar oi7kodo_/msis e7n t oi7kodom\me_/n1 kai a7_/ma gi_/gnetai kai e7_//i t oi7ki_/a--a4 #bi4 ,?is passage is obscure3 see ! comm5ts ( ,alex&]1 ) ! notes ( ,s*wegl] & ,bonitz1 :o accuse ,alex&] ( misund]/&+ x2 ?\gh x appe>s to me t nei!r ( !m is q cle>4 ,i und]/& ,ari/otle to reason z foll[s3--,greek3 ,o7_/rasis is ! ,greek3 te_/los1 ! ,greek3 e7ne_/rgeia1 ! consummation ( ! visual p[] call$ ,greek3 o7_/psis2 b ,greek3 oi7kodo_/msis1 is n ! ,greek3 te_/los1 ! ,greek3 e7ne_/rgeia1 ! consummation ( ! build+ p[] call$ ,greek3 oi7kodomik_/4 ,?is la/ has its ,greek3 te_/los1 ,greek3 e7ne_/rgeia1 consummation1 9 ! ult]ior product ,greek3 oi7ki_/a4 ,nev]!less ,greek3 oi7kodo_/msis1 resid+ z x does ,greek3 e7n t oi7kodom\me_/n1 & com+ into exi/5ce simultane\sly ) ! h\se1 is m ! end1 m ak9 to ! end or consummation ?an ! build+ p[] call$ ,greek3 oi7kodomik_/47 ,9 cases :]e !re is an ult]ior product beyond & ap>t f ! ex]cise ( ! p[]1 ! ,actuality 7consummation7 resides 9 t product 7p4 #ajej1 a4 #ca74 ,9 cases :]e is no su* ult]ior product1 ! ,actuality resides 9 ! same subject :]e9 ! p[] resides4 ,?us sight resides 9 him :o sees1 & life 9 ! s\l4 ,h5ce also happ9ess resides 9 ! s\l2 = happ9ess is a c]ta9 k9d ( life 7b4 #a74 ,x is ?us pla9 t ,actuality is ! ,ess5ce & ! ,=m1 & t x is prius ,greek3 t ou7si_/a comp>$ ) ,pot5tiality4 ,&1 z has be5 already rem>k$1 "o ,actuality always prec$es ano!r1 9 "t1 up to ! et]nal ,prime ,mov5t 7p4 #ajej1 b4 #e74 ,moreov]1 ,greek3 e7ne_/rgeia is prius to ,greek3 du_/namis 9 respect to speciality & dignity 7,greek3 kurite_/rs--b4 #f74 ,= et]nal ?+s are priora 9 ess5ce to de/ructible ?+s1 & no?+ is et]nal ,greek3 duna_/mei1 z ! reason ( ! case w %[ u 7b4 #h74 ,all ,pot5tiality applies at once to bo? sides ( ! ,antiphasis--to ! affirmative z well z to ! negative4 ,t :i* is n possible1 w nev] occur to any ?+2 b e ?+ :i* is possible may nev] come to ,actuality 7,greek3 to dunaton de pan e7nde_/*etai m e7n]gein--p4 #ajej1 b4 #aj74 ,t :i* is possible to be1 is also possible n to be4 ,n[ t :i* is possible n to be1 may p]haps n be 7,greek3 e7nde_/*etai m ei7nai--b4 #ac72 b t :i* may n be1 is de/ructible1 ei!r absolutely 7t is1 9 respect to ,ess5ce71 or 9 respect to su* portions ( its nature z may n be1 t is1 9 respect to locality or quantity or quality4 ,accord+ly1 ( ^? ?+s :i* are absolutely1 or 9 respect to ,ess5ce1 inde/ructible1 no?+ exi/s ,greek3 duna_/mei absolutely or 9 respect to ,ess5ce1 ?\gh x may exi/ ,greek3 duna_/mei 9 c]ta9 respects1 z 9 respect to quality or locality72 all ( !m exi/ ,greek3 e7n]gei_/a 7b4 #ah74 ,nor does any ?+ exi/ ,greek3 duna_/mei1 :i* exi/s by necessity2 yet ! ?+s :i* exi/ by necessity are fir/ ( all 7i4e41 priora 9 reg>d to e ?+ else72 =1 if !y did n exi/1 no?+ w\ld h exi/$4 ,moreov]1 if !re be any ,et]nal ,motion1 or any ,et]nal ,motum1 x _c be ,motum ,greek3 duna_/mei except 9 respect to :5ce & :i!r2 9 t special respect1 x may h ,matt] or ,pot5tiality 7b4 #ba74 ,accord+ly1 ! ,sun1 ! ,/>s1 & ! :ole ,heav51 are always at "w1 & !re is no dang] ( _! ev] /&+ /ill1 :i* "s physical philosoph]s fe> 7,greek3 a7ei e7n]gei o7 7_/lios--p4 #ajej1 b4 #bb72 nor are !y fatigu$ 9 do+ ?is4 ,motion ) !m is n a pot5tiality ( bo? memb]s ( ! ,antiphasis1 ei!r to be mov$ or n to be mov$4 ,if ! fact 7 s--if _! ,ess5ce 7 ,matt] & ,p[]1 & n ,act--! p]petual cont9uity ( 7"o side ( ! alt]native7 motion w\ld be toilsome to !m2 b x is n toilsome1 s9ce ,actuality is _! v ,ess5ce 7b4 #bh74 ,likewise mutable ?+s 7:i* are de/ructible71 su* z e>? & fire1 imitate ^! inde/ructible entities1 be+ ev] at "w2 = ^! elem5ts possess motion by !mselves & 9 !mselves1 ea* *ang+ into ano!r 7b4 #cj2 comp>e ,de ,g54 et ,corr4 p4 #ccg1 a4 #b74 ,b ! o!r ,greek3 duna_/meis are all pot5tialities ( bo? sides ( ! ,antiphasis1 or ( bo? alt]natives4 ,! rational ,greek3 duna_/meis c cause motion 9 su* & su* way1 or n 9 su* & su* way2 ! irrational ,greek3 duna_/meis may be pres5t or abs5t1 & ?us embrace bo? sides ( ! alt]native 7b4 #cc74 ,h5ce we draw ano!r argum5t = n admitt+ ! ,platonic doctr9e ( ,ideas1 affirm$ by ! dialecticians 7,greek3 oi7 e7n tois lo_/gois--p4 #ajej1 b4 #ce74 ,if !re exi/$ su* ,ideas1 !y w\ld be only ,greek3 duna_/neis9999duna_/meis 9 respect to ! ,greek3 e7ne_/rgeia exi/+ 9 _! p>ticul> embodim5ts4 ,?us an individual cogniz+ man w\ld be mu* m cognizant ?an ,greek3 au7toepi/_/m2 a p>ticul> sub/ance 9 motion w\ld be mu* m 9 motion ?an ,greek3 ki_/nsis or ,greek3 au7toki_/nsis itself4 ,= ,greek3 au7toepi/_/m or ,greek3 au7toki_/nsis are only ,greek3 duna_/meis to ! ,greek3 e7pi/mo_/n ti or ! ,greek3 k9\_/m5o_/n ti1 :i* belong to ,greek3 e7ne_/rgeia 7b4 #cf74 7,we may rem>k t 9 ! ,platonic ,p>m5ides1 p4 #acd1 ,c41 an argum5t ! v opposite to ?is is urg$4 ,x is !re cont5d$ t ,cognitio p] se 7! ,idea7 mu/ be f> m complete & accurate ?an any cognition :i* we possess47 ,x is ?us pla9 t ,greek3 e7ne_/rgeia is prius to ,greek3 du_/namis1 & to e pr9ciple ( *ange 7p4 #ajea1 a4 #b74 ,x is also bett] & m hon\rable ?an ,greek3 du_/namis ev5 9 ! direction ( good4 ,we h already obs]v$ t ,greek3 du_/namis always includes bo? ( two contr>ies1 9 ! way ( alt]native3 "o ( ^! mu/ be ! good1 ! o!r ! bad4 ,n[ ! actuality ( good is bett] ?an ! pot5tiality ( good2 ! actuality ( heal? is bett] ?an ! pot5tiality ( heal?1 :i* latt] mu/ also include ! pot5tiality ( sickness1 :ile ! actuality ( heal? excludes ! actuality ( sickness4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! actuality ( evil is worse ?an ! pot5tiality ( evil2 = ! pot5tiality is nei!r ( ! two contr>ies or bo? ( !m at once 7a4 #ag74 ,h5ce we see t evil is no?+ ap>t f p>ticul> ?+s2 s9ce x is po/]ior 9 its nature ev5 to ,pot5tiality3 !re is !re=e nei!r evil1 nor error1 nor de/ruction1 9 any ( ! pr9cipia or et]nal ,ess5ces 7a4 #ai74 7,! note ( ,bonitz "h is j3--,quem 9 hac argum5tatione significavi errorem--judicium morale de bono et malo immisc]i falso iis rebus1 a quibus illud e/ ali5um--ei non dissimilem ,ari/4 9 proxim argum5tatione1 si recte ejus s5t5tiam intelligo1 videtur admisisse1 quum quidem malum non esse ,greek3 p>a ta pra_/gmata1 seorsim ac p] se exi/5s1 demon/r>e conatur4 ,ari/otle "h z else:]e conf\nds ! idea ( ,good1 ,p]fection1 ,complet5ess1 c41 ) t ( ess5tial ,priority4 ,b :at he says "h--,greek3 ou7k e7_//i to kakon p>a ta pra_/gmata--c h>dly be reconcil$ ) :at he says 9 ! ,physica 7pp4 #ahi1 #aia1 #aib7 ab\t ,greek3 /e_/rsis1 :i* he includes among ! ?ree ,greek3 a7r*ai_/1 & :i* he decl>es to be ,greek3 kakopoio_/s--p4 #aib1 a4 #ae47 ,la/ly1 we discov] geometrical tru?s by draw+ visible diagrams1 & ?us translat+ ! ,pot5tialities into ,actuality4 ,if ^! diagrams 7 ready drawn = u by nature1 !re w\ld be no difficulty 9 see+ ^! tru?s2 b1 z ! case /&s1 ! tru?s only inh]e 9 ! figures pot5tially 7p4 #ajea1 a4 #bc3 ,greek3 ei7 d' 7n dirne_/na1 phan]a a7n 7n2 nun d' e7nupa_/r*ei duna_/mei74 ,if ! triangle _h a l9e ready drawn p>allel to its side1 we %\ld h se5 at once t its ?ree angles 7 equal to two "r angles4 ,pot5tial tru?s are ?us discov]$ by be+ translat$ into ,actuality4 ,! reason ( ?is is1 t ! ,actuality is itself an act ( cogitation1 s t ! ,pot5tiality spr+s f ,actuality 7,greek3 ai7_/tion d' o7_/ti no_/sis 7 e7ne_/rgeia2 7_//' e7x e7n]gei_/z 7 du_/namis--a4 #cj4 ,x is n !re=e true--:at ! ,platoni/s say--t ! ma!matical bodies & _! prop]ties are ,greek3 ou7si_/ai kai e7n]geiai3 !y are only ,greek3 duna_/meis1 & !y are br\ght into be+ by our cogitation or ab/raction74 ,x is true t ea* individual diagram drawn is po/]ior to ! p[] ( draw+ x 7a4 #cb74 ,hav+ gone ?r\gh ! discussion ( ,ens accord+ to ! fir/ ( ! t5 ,categories1 & ( ,ens ,pot5tial & ,actual1 we h n[ to say some?+ ab\t ,ens z ,true or ,false 9 ! /ricte/ s5se ( ! words 7,greek3 to de kuri_/tata o7n a7l!s 7 pseudos--p4 #ajea1 b4 #a74 ,^! words mean1 9 ref]5ce to ?+s1 ei!r t !y are conjo9$ or t !y are disjo9$4 ,to speak tru? is to affirm t ?+s :i* are disjo9$ or conjo9$ 9 fact1 are disjo9$ or conjo9$2 to speak falsely1 ! rev]se4 ,! appeal is to ! fact3 x is n because we truly call y :ite1 t y are :ite2 x is because y really are :ite1 t we :o call y :ite speak tru? 7b4 #i74 ,if !re are "s ?+s :i* are always conjo9$1 o!rs always disjo9$1 o!rs aga9 sometimes conjo9$ sometimes disjo9$1 propositions 9 ref]5ce to ! fir/ two classes affirm+ conjunction or disjunction1 w be always true or always false1 :ile 9 ref]5ce to ! ?ird class propositions may be ei!r true or false1 accord+ to ! case 7b4 #aj74 ,b :at %all we say 9 reg>d to ?+s ,uncomp\nd$8 ,9 respect to !m1 :at is tru? or falsehood--to be or n to be8 7,greek3 ta a7su_/n!ta--p4 #ajea1 b4 #ah74 ,if we affirm :ite ( ! wood1 or incomm5surability ( ! diagonal1 su* conjunction ( pr$icate & subject may be true or false2 b h[1 if !re be no pr$icate di/9ct f ! subject8 ,:]e !re is no di/9ction betwe5 pr$icate & subject1 :]e ! subject /&s alone1--9 ^! cases1 !re is no tru? or falsehood 9 ! s5se expla9$ above3 no o!r tru? except t ! m9d appreh5ds & names ! subject1 or fails to d s4 ,y ei!r "k ! subject1 or y d n "k x3 !re is no alt]native b t ( k or ignorance2 to be deceiv$ is impossible ab\t ! "q ,quid e/ 7,greek3 to men ?igein kai pha_/nai a7l!_/s1 ou7 gar tau7to kata_/phasis kai pha_/sis1 to d' a7gnoein m ?igga_/ne92 a7pat?nai gar p]i to ti_/ e7/9 ou7k e7_//9 a7ll' 7 kata sumbebko_/s--b4 #be4 ,! la/ words are ?us expla9$ by ,bonitz3 nisi =te p] abusum qu5dam vocabuli ipsam ignorantiam dix]is errorem--p4 #daa474 ,all ^! uncomp\nd$ subjects exi/ actually1 n pot5tially3 if ! latt] _h be5 true1 !y w\ld h be5 g5]at$ & de/roy$2 b ,ens ,ipsum 7,greek3 to o7n au7to_/--b4 #bi7 is nei!r g5]at$ nor de/roy$2 =1 if x _h be51 x mu/ h be5 g5]at$ out ( some?+4 ,respect+ all ^? ?+s :i* exi/ 9 ,ess5ce & ,actuality1 y _c be deceiv$3 y may appreh5d !m 9 cogitation1 or fail to appreh5d !m4 ,! ess5tial "q respect+ !m is1 :e!r !y exi/ 9 su* or su* mann] or n2 z x is respect+ ! ,"o & ! ,uncomp\nd$--:e!r1 be+ an exi/5t1 x exi/s ?us & ?us or n 7b4 #ce74 ,tru? consi/s 9 appreh5d+ or cogitat+ !m 7p4 #ajeb1 a4 #a73 ! contr>y !re( is non-appreh5sion ( !m or ignorance 7,greek3 a7_/gnoia71 yet n analog\s to bl9dness2 = t w\ld be equival5t to hav+ no appreh5sive intellig5ce 7,greek3 7s a7n ei7 to notikon o7_/ls m e7_/*oi tis--a4 #c2 "o is n absolutely )\t ,greek3 notiko_/n1 b "o's ,greek3 no_/sis does n suffice = appreh5d+ ^! p>ticul> objects74 ,respect+ objects immoveable & un*angeable1 & appreh5d$ z su*1 x is pla9 t !re c be no mi/ake z to ! ,:5 7,greek3 kata to_/ pote_/--p4 #ajeb1 a4 #e2 i4e41 a proposition :i* is true ( !m at "o "t _c be false at ano!r "t74 ,no man w suppose a triangle to h its ?ree angles equal to two "r angles at "o "t1 b n at ano!r4 ,ev5 9 ^! un*angeables1 inde$1 a man may mi/ake z to ! ,:at3 he may suppose t !re is no ev5 numb] :i* is a prime numb]1 or he may suppose t !re are "s ev5 numb]s :i* are prime1 o!rs :i* are n s2 b1 respect+ any p>ticul> numb]1 he w nev] suppose x to be sometimes prime1 sometimes n prime 7a4 #aj74 7,9 respect to ! mean+ ( ,greek3 ta a7su_/n!ta--p4 #ajea1 b4 #ag--;,bonitz & ,s*wegl] diff]4 ,bonitz says1 ,comm4 p4 #dji3 ,composit quas dicit non sunt intellig5d e qu ex pluribus elem5tis coalu]unt1 s$ e potius1 9 quibus cum sub/antia conjungitur accid5s aliquod1 veluti homo albus1 homo s$5s1 diagonalis irrationalis1 et similia4 ,s*wegl] says1 p4 #ahg3 ,unt] d5 ,greek3 m sun!tai ou7si_/ai v]/eht ,ari/4 nh] diej5ig5 ,sub/anz51 die ni*t e9 ,greek3 su_/n!ton od] ,greek3 su_/nolon sond]n ,greek3 a7_/neu u7_/ls 7ou7 duna_/mei7 und s*le*?9 ,greek3 e7n]gei_/a1 also re9e ,=m5 s9d1 und als sol*e ke9 ,w]d5 und ,v]geh5 hab54 ,( ^! two diff]5t explanations1 ,i ?9k t ! explanation giv5 by ,bonitz is ! m correct1 or at lea/ ! m probable47 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,book ,greek3 ,l4 ,we h to speculate respect+ ,ess5ce2 = t :i* we are 9 se>* ( is ! pr9ciples & causes ( ,ess5ces 7p4 #ajfi1 a4 #ah74 ,if we look ^u ! univ]se z "o :ole1 ,ess5ce is ! fir/ "p !re(3 if we look ^u x z a s]ies ( di/9ct units 7,greek3 ei7 t e7phexs1 a4 #bj71 ev5 9 t view ,greek3 ou7si_/a /&s fir/1 ,greek3 poio_/n next1 ,greek3 poso_/n ?ird2 inde$ ^! la/ are n ,entia at all1 /rictly speak+ 7a4 #ba7--;,i mean1 = example1 qualities & movem5ts1 & negative attributes su* z n-:ite & n-/raight2 ?\gh we d talk ( ^! la/ too z ,entia1 :5 we say ,e/ non-album4 ,moreov] ,ess5ce alone1 & none ( ! o!r ,categories1 is sep>able4 ,! old philosoph]s 7,greek3 oi7 a7r*aioi7 are 9 ! ma9 concurr5t ) u on ?is po9t1 t ,ess5ce is prius to all o!rs2 = !y inve/igat$ ! pr9ciples1 ! elem5ts1 & ! causes ( ,ess5ce4 ,! philosoph]s ( ! pres5t day 7,plato1 c47 decl>e ,univ]sals1 r ?an ,p>ticul>s1 to be ,ess5ces2 = ! g5]a are univ]sal1 :i* ^! philosoph]s1 f devot+ !mselves to dialectical discussions1 affirm to be m prop]ly consid]$ z ,pr9ciples & ,ess5ces 7a4 #bh72 b ! old philosoph]s consid]$ p>ticul> ?+s to be ,ess5ces1 z fire & e>?1 = example1 n ! common body or ,body 9 g5]al 7,greek3 ou7 to ko9on sma--a4 #cj74 ,n[ !re are ?ree ,ess5ces4 ,! ,p]ceivable includes two v>ieties3 "o1 ! ,p]i%able1 ackn[l$g$ by all1 e4g41 animals & plants2 ! o!r ,et]nal1 ( :i* we mu/ det]m9e ! elem5ts1 be !y _m or "o4 ,!re is also ! ,immoveable1 :i* "s consid] to be sep>able 7,greek3 a7_/ll de a7ki_/ntos kai tau_/tn t9es ei7nai phasi *ri/_/n--p4 #ajfi1 a4 #cc2 ,greek3 ou7si_/a not kai a7ki_/ntos--,s*wegl]'s note73 ei!r recogniz+ two v>ieties !re(1 di/9ct f ea* o!r--! ,=ms & ,ma!matical ,entia2 or n recogniz+ ,=ms z sep>able ,entia1 b only ! ,ma!matical ,entia 7a4 #cf74 ,n[ ! fir/1 or ,p]ceivable ,ess5ces1 belong to physical sci5ce1 s9ce !y are moveable or endu$ ) motion2 ! ,immoveable ,ess5ces1 :e!r !re be two v>ieties ( !m or only "o1 belong to a sci5ce di/9ct f physical4 ,! ,p]ceivable & ! ,immoveable ,ess5ces h no common pr9ciples 7b4 #b74 ,! ,p]ceivable ,ess5ce is subject to *ange 7,greek3 metablt_/74 ,s9ce *ange takes place ei!r out ( ,opposites or out ( ,int]m$iates1 & n out ( e v>iety ( ,opposites1 b only out ( ,contr>ies 7,greek3 e7k ts oi7kei_/z a7popha_/ses1 e7k ts oi7kei_/z /]_/ses--,alex&]1 pp4 #fdd1 #fde1 ,bon42 ! voice1 e4g41 is n :ite1 yet *ange does n take place f voice to :ite1 ^! be+ disp>ates1 or ( diff]5t g5]a3 ,greek3 ta ge_/nei diaphe_/ronta ou7k e7_/*ei o7dn ei7s a7_/llla--,i4 iv4 p4 #ajee1 a4 #f71 !re mu/ ( necessity be a c]ta9 ,sub/ratum :i* *anges into ! contr>y condition2 = contr>ies d n *ange into ea* o!r4 ,! sub/ratum rema9s1 b ! contr>ies d n rema93 !re is !re=e a ?ird some?+ besides ! contr>ies2 & t is ,matt] 7p4 #ajfi1 b4 #i74 ,s9ce !n ! v>ieties ( *ange are f\r3 7#a7 ,greek3 ge_/nesis & ,greek3 ph?ora_/ 7kata to ti_/71 7#b7 ,greek3 au7_/xsis kai ph?i_/sis 7kata to poso_/n71 7#c7 ,greek3 a7lloi_/sis 7kata to pa_/?os or ,greek3 kata to poio_/n71 7#d7 ,greek3 phora_/ 7kata to_/pon or ,greek3 kata to p\71 ea* ( ^! *anges w take place into its respective contr>y3 ! ,matt] w necess>ily *ange1 hav+ ! pot5tiality ( bo? contr>ies 7b4 #ad74 ,ens be+ two-fold1 all *ange takes place out ( ,ens ,pot5ti into ,ens ,actu1 e4g41 out ( pot5tial :ite into actual :ite2 & ! l holds = ,increase & ,decrease4 ,?us n only may !re be g5]ation f ,non-,ens accid5tally b all g5]ation takes place also out ( ,ens2 t is1 out ( ,ens ,pot5ti1 n ,ens ,actu 7b4 #bj74 ,?is ,ens ,pot5ti is :at ,anaxagoras really means by 8 ,unum1 :i* is a bett] phrase ?an ,greek3 o7m\ pa_/nta2 :at ,emp$okles & ,anaxagoras mean by _! ,greek3 migma2 :at ,demokritus means :5 he says ,greek3 o7m\ pa_/nta4 ,!y mean t all ?+s exi/$ at once pot5tially1 ?\gh n actually2 & we see t ^! philosoph]s got p>tial hold ( ! idea ( ,matt] 7,greek3 7_//e ts u7_/ls a7n ei7en 7mme_/noi--b4 #bd74 ,all ?+s subject to *ange possess ,matt]1 b ea* ( !m a diff]5t ,matt]2 ev5 ! et]nal ?+s :i* are n g5]at$ b mov$ 9 place1 possess ,matt]--n g5]at$1 b f :5ce :i!r 7i4e41 ! ,matt] ( local movem5t pure & simple--direction3 ,greek3 kai tn a7idi_/n o7_/sa m g5nta k9ta de phora1 a7ll' ou7 g5nt_/n 7u7_/ln71 a7lla po_/!n poi--b4 #bf74 ,s9ce !re are ?ree v>ieties ( ,non-,ens 7p4 #ajfi1 b4 #bg2 ,alex&] & ,bonitz expla9 ?is ,greek3 tri*s diff]5tly71 x may seem difficult to det]m9e1 out ( :i* among ! ?ree ,g5]ation takes place4 ,b ! answ] is1 t ! ,pot5tial ,ens is n pot5tial ( e ?+ alike & at haphaz>d1 b pot5tial 9 ea* case f some?+ t[>ds some?+ 7,greek3 ei7 d ti_/ e7/i duna_/mei1 a7ll' o7_/ms ou7 t\ tu*o_/ntos1 a7ll' e7_/t]on e7x e7te_/r\--b4 #bi74 ,nor is x en\gh to tell u t all ?+s are huddl$ toge!r 7,greek3 o7m\ pa_/nta *r_/mata--b4 #cj72 = !y diff] 9 respect to ,matt] or ,pot5tiality4 ,if ?is 7 n s1 h[ is x t !y are ( inf9ite div]sity1 & n all ,"o8 ,! ,nos 7i4e41 accord+ to ! !ory ( ,anaxagoras7 is ,"o2 s t1 if ! ,matt] 7 ,"o also1 x w\ld become 9 actuality t :i* x 0 at fir/ 9 pot5tiality1 & ! result w\ld be all ,"o & ! ,same 7b4 #cb74 ,! ,causes are ?us ?ree & ! ,pr9ciples are ?ree3 ! pair ( ,contr>ies1 "o ( !m ,=m 7,greek3 lo_/gos kai ei7dos71 ! o!r ,privation1 & ! ?ird ,matt] 7p4 #ajfi1 b4 #ce74 ,b we mu/ keep 9 m9d t nei!r ,mat]ia ,prima nor ,=ma ,prima is g5]at$4 ,= 9 all ,*ange1 !re is some?+ 7! ,matt]7 :i* und]goes *ange2 some?+ by :i* ! *ange is effect$ 7! ,prime ,mov5t1 ,greek3 u7ph' ou7 me_/n1 t\ pr_/t\ k9\ntos--p4 #ajgj1 a4 #a72 & some?+ into :i* ! *ange takes place 7! ,=m74 ,! brass becomes r\nd2 b1 if bo? ! brass becomes & ! r\nd becomes1 y w be condemn$ to an inf9ite regression3 y mu/ /op some:]e 7,greek3 a7na_/gk d /nai--a4 #d74 ,moreov]1 e ,ess5tia is g5]at$ out ( ano!r ,ess5tia ( ! same "n & =m 7,greek3 e7k sunnu_/m\--a4 #e74 ,all g5]at$ ?+s proce$ ei!r f ,nature1 ,art1 ,=tune1 or ,spontaneity4 ,x is ,nature1 :]e ! pr9ciple or beg9n+ is 9 ! subject itself2 x is ,art1 :]e ! pr9ciple or beg9n+ is 9 some?+ ap>t f ! subject2 ,=tune is ! privation ( ,art2 ,spontaneity is ! privation ( ,nature 7,greek3 ai7 de loipai ai7_/tiai /]_/seis t\_/tn--a4 #i74 ,ess5ti are ?reefold3 7#a7 ,matt]1 :i* appe>s to be ,hoc ,aliquid b is n s1 = deta*$ memb]s or fragm5ts1 simply t\*+ ea* o!r )\t coalesc+1 are matt] & sub/ratum 7i4e41 prep>$ = some?+ ult]ior72 7#b7 ,nature1 :i* is really ,hoc ,aliquid--a c]ta9 def9ite condition1 into :i* g5]ation takes place 7,greek3 7 de phu_/sis kai to_/de ti1 ei7s 7_/n1 kai e7_/xis tis--a4 #ab72 7#c7 ,! ,concrete ( ! two prec$+--! individual object call$ ,sokrates or ,kallias4 ,9 "s cases !re is no ,hoc ,aliquid except 9 ?is ,concrete or ,comp\nd2 ?us 9 artificial objects or productions1 su* z a h\se or heal?1 !re is no ,=m except ! ,art itself3 ! ideal h\se1 pre-exi/+ 9 ! m9d ( ! build]1 is g5]at$ & de/roy$ 9 a diff]5t s5se f ! real h\se4 ,x is 9 ! case ( natural objects1 if 9 any case1 t !re exi/s a ,hoc ,aliquid indep5d5t ( ! concrete individual 7a4 #ag74 ,h5ce ,plato 0 n wrong 9 say+ t ,=ms 7 coext5sive ) natural objects 7,greek3 o7po_/sa phu_/sei--p4 #ajgj1 a4 #ah71 if !re are ,=ms di/9ct f ^! objects3 su* z fire1 fle%1 head1 :i* are all prop]ly ,matt]4 ,! ,la/ ,matt] 7or t :i* has come mo/ "u ! influ5ce ( ,=m7 belongs to t :i* is 9 ! fulle/ s5se ,ess5tia 7or ! individual concrete nam$ ,sokrates or ,kallias--a4 #bj74 ,! ,mov+ ,causes pre-exi/1 z real individual be+s or objects3 ! ,=mal ,causes come into exi/5ce simultane\sly ) ! individual real comp\nd4 ,:5 ! pati5t becomes well1 !n heal? comes at ! same "t into exi/5ce3 :5 ! braz5 sph]e comes1 ! sph]icity ( x comes at ! same "t 7a4 #bd74 ,:e!r any ?+ ( ! ,=m cont9ues aft] ! dissolution ( ! individual comp\nd1 is a problem to be inve/igat$ 7a4 #be74 ,9 "s cases no?+ h9d]s b :at x may cont9ue2 = example1 ! s\l may be ( su* a nature3 ,i d n mean e s\l--= e s\l p]haps _c cont9ue--b ! ,greek3 ,n\s or rational s\l 7a4 #bg74 ,/ill x is pla9 t ?is af=ds no support to ! !ory ( self-exi/5t sep>ate ,ideas2 = e individual man is begott5 by ano!r individual man4 ,9 l mann] also ) respect to ! arts2 = ! m$ical art af=ds ! ,=m or rational explanation ( heal? 7a4 #cj2 i4e41 heal? is g5]at$1 n by ! ,idea ( ,heal?1 b by ! m$ical art1 or by ! arti/ 9 :om t art is embodi$74 ,causes & pr9ciples1 9 "o po9t ( view1 are diff]5t3 diff]5t subjects2 b 9 ano!r po9t ( view1 !y are ! same = all2 t is1 if we speak g5]ally & accord+ to analogy 7if we conf9e ourselves to ! mo/ g5]al t]ms1 ,=m1 ,privation1 ,matt]1 c474 ,9 respect to ,ess5tia1 ,relatio1 & ! rema9d] ( ! ,categories1 a difficulty arises to say :e!r ! causes1 elem5ts1 & pr9ciples ( all ! ,categories are ! same4 ,x w\ld be /range if !y 7 all ! same2 because !n ,ess5ti1 z well z ,relata1 w\ld proce$ out ( ! same causes & elem5ts4 ,=1 :at c ^! latt] be8 ,!y _c be extra-categorical2 s9ce !re exi/s no g5]al class ap>t f or besides ,ess5tia & ! o!r ,categories 7p4 #ajgj1 b4 #a74 ,nor c any "o ,category be ! elem5t ( ! o!rs3 = ! elem5t is prius to t ( :i* x is ! elem5t4 ,nor aga9 c ,ess5tia be ! elem5t ( ,relata2 nor is any "o ( ! n9e ,categories ! elem5t ( ,ess5tia4 ,aga91 h[ is x possible t ! elem5ts ( all ! ,categories c be ! same8 ,no elem5t c be ! same z t comp\nd ( :i* x is an elem5t3 nei!r ,b nor ,a c be ! same z ,b ,a4 ,if1 !re=e1 !re 7 su* elem5ts1 !y mu/ be extra-categorical2 :i* is impossible4 ,nor c ! elem5t 9 "q 7! suppos$ "o & ! same7 be any cogitable1 su* z ,ens or ,unum2 = e individual ,concrete is bo? ,ens & ,unum & ! elem5t _c be id5tical ) ! comp\nd put toge!r out ( x4 ,nei!r ,ess5tia nor ,relatio c\ld be said to exi/1 if ,ens 7 ! elem5t out ( :i* !y are compos$2 b ^! ,categories exi/ necess>ily3 !re=e !re is no "o & ! same elem5t common to all ! ,categories 7b4 #i74 ,yet we ought p]haps r to repeat1 :at 0 obs]v$ be=e1 t 9 "o s5se1 ! elem5ts ( all are ! same2 9 ano!r s5se1 diff]5t4 ,take = example ! p]ceivable bodies4 ,we f9d "h hot z ! ,=m1 cold z ! ,privation2 z ,matt]1 !re is t :i* is1 prim>ily & p] se1 bo? hot & cold pot5tially3 ! hot & ! cold are bo? ,ess5ti2 likewise o!r ?+s ( :i* ^! are ! pr9ciples1 e4g41 fle% & bone1 :i* ( necessity are diff]5t f ! pr9ciples out ( :i* !y proce$ 7b4 #ae74 ,fle% & bone h ^! elem5ts & pr9ciples2 o!r ?+s h o!r elem5ts & pr9ciples4 ,! same specific pr9ciples _c be assign$ to all1 b only pr9ciples analog\s to ^! 9 ea* case1 z say+1 9 g5]al t]ms1 t !re are ?ree pr9ciples--,=m1 ,privation1 ,matt]4 ,ea* ( ^! is diff]5t 9 e diff]5t g5us2 ?us 9 col\r1 ! pr9ciples are :ite1 black1 surface1 light1 d>kness1 air1 & out ( ^! are g5]at$ day & night 7b4 #ba74 ,! ?ree prec$+ causes are all intr9sic or imman5t 7,greek3 e7nupa_/r*onta74 ,b !re are o!r causes also extr9sic1 su* z ! ,mov5t4 ,s t ,pr9ciple & ,elem5t are n exactly id5tical2 = ,pr9ciple z well z ,cause includes all ! f\r3 ,greek3 to k9\n 7 i7/a_/n is a ,pr9ciple1 & is itself an ,ess5tia 7p4 #ajgj1 b4 #be74 ,?us ! analog\s ,elem5ts are ?ree1 :ile ! ,pr9ciples or ,causes are f\r2 b ! f\r are specifically diff]5t 9 ea* diff]5t case4 ,?us1 heal? is ,=m2 sickness is ,privation2 body is ,matt]2 ! m$ical art is ,mov5t4 ,h\se is ,=m2 disord] ( a c]ta9 sort is ,privation2 bricks are ,matt]2 ! build+ art is ,mov5t4 ,we ?us make out f\r ,causes2 yet1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 !re w be only ?ree 7b4 #cb74 ,=1 9 natural products1 a man is ! ,mov5t ,cause ( a man2 9 artificial products 7,greek3 e7n tois a7po dianoi_/z7 ! ,mov5t is ,=m or ,privation4 ,9 a c]ta9 s5se1 ! m$ical art is heal?1 & ! build+ art is ! ,=m ( a h\se1 & a man begets a man4 ,& f>!r1 ov] & above ^! special mov5t causes1 !re is ! ,primum ,mov5s ( all 7b4 #ce74 ,we di/+ui% :at is sep>able f :at is n sep>able4 ,n[ ,ess5ti1 & !y only1 are sep>able2 accord+ly !y are ! causes ( e ?+ else1 s9ce )\t ,ess5ti !re _c be ei!r affections or movem5ts 7p4 #ajga1 a4 #b74 ,su* causes w\ld be s\l & body1 or reason1 appetite1 & body4 ,aga91 9 ano!r s5se1 ! pr9ciples ( all ?+s are g5]ically ! same1 ?\gh specifically diff]5t2 su* are ,pot5tia & ,actus4 ,9 "s cases1 ! same ?+ exi/s n[ pot5tially1 at ano!r "t actually2 ?us w9e1 ?\gh actually w9e1 is pot5tially v9eg>2 fle% is actually fle%1 pot5tially a man1 ,pot5tia & ,actus w m]ge 9 ! above-m5tion$ causes--,=m1 ,privation1 ,matt]1 ,mov5t 7a4 #g74 ,= ! ,=m 7if x be sep>able71 ! ,concrete 7( ,=m & ,matt]71 & ,privation 7l d>kness or sickness7--all ^! exi/ actually2 :ile ,matt] exi/s pot5tially1 capable ei!r ( ,=m or ,privation4 ,?+s diff] pot5tially & actually sometimes ?r\gh diff]5ce 9 ! ,matt]1 sometime ?r\gh diff]5ce 9 ! ,=m4 ,?us1 ! cause ( a man is1 9 ! way ( ,matt]1 ! elem5ts fire & e>?2 9 ! way ( ,=m 8 own ,=m1 & ! same ,=m 9 ano!r individual--8 fa!r & besides ^!1 ! ,sun ) its oblique motion2 :i* la/ nei!r ,matt]1 nor ,=m1 nor ,privation1 nor ! l ,=m 9 ano!r individual1 b a ,mov5t ,cause 7,greek3 a7lla k9\nta--a4 #ag74 ,we mu/ rememb]1 besides1 t "s ?+s may be describ$ 9 g5]al t]ms1 o!rs _c be s describ$4 ,! fir/ pr9ciples ( all ?+s are1 speak+ 9 g5]al t]ms1 ,hoc ,primum ,actu & ,aliud ,primum ,pot5ti4 ,^! univ]sals d n really exi/ 7p4 #ajga1 a4 #ai71 = ! pr9cipium ( all individuals is "s o!r individual4 ,man inde$ is ! pr9cipium ( ! ,univ]sal ,man b no ,univ]sal ,man exi/s 7a4 #ba74 ,peleus is ! pr9cipium ( ,a*illes2 y\r fa!r1 ( y2 ?is ,b1 ( t ,b ,a2 ,b1 ! univ]sal1 ( ,b ,a ! univ]sal4 ,next 7aft] ! ,mov5t7 come ! ,=ms ( ,ess5ces2 b ! diff]5t g5]a !re( 7z has be5 already /at$71 col\rs1 s\nds1 ess5ces1 quantities1 c41 h diff]5t causes & elem5ts1 ?\gh ! same :5 describ$ 9 g5]al t]ms & by analogy2 also diff]5t individuals 9 ! same species h diff]5t causes & elem5ts1 n inde$ diff]5t 9 species1 b diff]5t individually2 t is1 y\r ,matt]1 y\r ,mov5t1 y\r ,=m1 are diff]5t f m9e1 ?\gh 9 g5]al t]ms & def9ition !y are ! same 7,greek3 t ka?o_/l\ de lo_/g tau7ta_/--a4 #bi74 ,:5 !re=e1 we enquire1 ,:at are ! pr9ciples or elem5ts ( ,ess5ces1 ( ,relata1 ( ,qualities c41 & :e!r !y are ! same or diff]5t8 x is pla9 t1 g5]ically speak+ 7all[+ = diff]5ce ( mean+--,greek3 polla*s1 p4 #ajga1 a4 #ca71 !y are ! same 9 ea*2 b1 speak+ di/ributively & ) ref]5ce to p>ticul>s1 !y are diff]5t1 & n ! same4 ,9 ! foll[+ s5se 7,greek3 7di_/--a4 #cd71 !y are ! same1 namely1 9 ! way ( ,analogy 7,greek3 t a7na_/logon74 ,!y are always ,matt]1 ,=m1 ,privation1 ! ,mov5t2 h5ce ! causes ( ,ess5ces are causes ( all o!r ?+s1 s9ce1 :5 ,ess5ces disappe>1 all ! re/ disappe>s along ) !m3 besides all ^!1 !re is ! ,primum ,mov5s ,actuale1 common to all 7,greek3 e7_/ti to prton e7ntele*ei_/a--a4 #cf74 ,9 ! foll[+ s5se1 aga91 !y are diff]5t--:5 we cease to speak ( g5]a1 & pass f equivocal t]ms to p>ticul>s3 :]ev] !re are diff]5t opposites 7z :ite & black1 heal? & sickness7 & :]ev] !re are diff]5t ,matt]s 7,greek3 kai e7_/ti ai7 u7lai--p4 #ajga1 b4 #a2 ,greek3 u7lai 9 ! plural1 r>e74 ,we h ?us decl>$1 respect+ ! pr9ciples ( ,p]ceivable ,ess5ces1 :at & h[ _m !y are2 9 :at respect ! same1 & 9 :at respect !y are diff]5t4 ,ess5ces are ?reefold2 two ,physical & "o ,immoveable4 ,we %all proce$ to speak ( ?is la/4 ,!re exi/s1 ( necessity1 "s ,et]nal1 ,immoveable ,ess5ce4 ,= ,ess5ces are ! fir/ ( all exi/5t ?+s2 &1 if !y all be p]i%able1 e ?+ is p]i%able4 ,b x is impossible t ,motion c ev] h be5 g5]at$ or c ev] be de/roy$2 = x always exi/$3 x is et]nal4 ,!re is ! l impossibility ab\t ,"t3 =1 if ,"t did n exi/1 !re c\ld be no?+ prius & no?+ po/]ius 7p4 #ajga1 b4 #h74 ,bo? ,motion & ,"t are ?us et]nal2 bo? are also cont9u\s2 = ei!r ! two are id5tical1 or ,"t is an affection 7,greek3 pa_/?os7 ( ,motion4 ,n[ no mode ( ,motion is cont9u\s except local motion2 & t 9 a circle 7= rectil9e> motion _c be cont9u\s & et]nal74 ,!re mu/ be a ,mov5t or ,produc5t ,pr9ciple 7,greek3 k9tikon 7 poitiko_/n--b4 #ab72 b1 if ! ,mov5t exi/$ pot5tially & n actually1 !re c\ld n be motion cont9u\s & et]nal2 = t :i* has m]e p[] may nev] come into act4 ,!re w be no use !re=e 9 su* et]nal ,ess5ces z ,plato assumes 9 8 ,ideas1 unless !re be along ) !m "s pr9ciple ( pot5tial *ange 7,greek3 ei7 m_/ tis duname_/n e7ne_//ai a7r* metaba_/lle9--b4 #ae74 ,nor inde$ w ev5 t be suffici5t 7i4e41 any pr9ciple ( m]ely pot5tial *ange71 nor any o!r ,ess5ce 7su* z ,numb]s--,s*wegl]7 besides or along ) ! ,platonic ,ideas2 =1 if ?is pr9cipium %all n come into ,actuality 7,greek3 ei7 m e7n]g_/sei--b4 #ag71 ! motion :i* we po/ulate1 cont9u\s & et]nal1 w n result f x4 ,nor w x ev5 be suffici5t t ! ,mov5t ,pr9ciple %\ld be suppos$ to be 9 actuality or op]ation 7,greek3 ou7d' ei7 e7n]g_/sei1 p4 #ajga1 b4 #ah71 if its ,ess5ce be ,pot5tiality3 ! motion result+ !refrom _c be et]nal2 = t :i* exi/s pot5tially may p]haps n exi/ at all4 ,! ,mov5t ,pr9ciples !re=e mu/ be some?+ ( :i* ! ,ess5ce is ,actuality 7b4 #ai71 & :i* %all be )\t ,matt]1 = !y mu/ be et]nal1 o!rwise no?+ else c be et]nal4 ,!y mu/ !re=e be ess5tial ,actualities 7b4 #bb74 ,"h h[ev]1 a difficulty sugge/s itself4 ,x seems t e ?+ :i* is 9 actuality mu/ also be 9 pot5tiality1 b t e ?+ :i* is 9 pot5tiality does n 9 e case come into actuality3 s t ,pot5tiality seems ! prius ( ! two 7,greek3 dokei gar to men e7n]g\n pan du_/na/hai1 to de duna_/m5on ou7 pan e7n]gein--p4 #ajga1 b4 #bd2 ,bonitz comp>es p4 #ajfj1 a4 #a3 ,greek3 a7r* gar to sunanair\n74 ,b1 if ?is 7 true1 no ,entia c\ld exi/2 = x may be t !y exi/ pot5tially1 b n yet exi/ actually 7b4 #bf74 ,!re is ! l impossibility1 if we adopt ! !ory ( ^? !ologians 7,orpheus1 ,hesiod1 c47 :o take _! dep>ture f ,night1 or ( ^? physical philosoph]s :o beg9 ) a *aotic huddle ( all ?+s4 ,9 bo? cases su* orig9al condition is "o ( m]e pot5tiality2 & h[ c x ev] be put 9 motion1 if !re is to be no cause 9 actuality 7,greek3 ei7 m!n e7_//ai e7n]gei_/a ai7_/tion--b4 #bi78 ,matt] w nev] cause motion 9 itself1 b mu/ wait = ! c>p5t]'s art2 nor w ! e>?1 b mu/ wait = se$4 ,x is = ?is reason t "s philosoph]s1 l ,plato & ,leukippus1 repres5t ,actuality z et]nal2 = !y say t motion has always exi/$4 ,b !y d n say :at v>iety ( motion1 nor :y t v>iety1 to ! exclusion ( o!rs4 ,= no?+ is mov$ at haphaz>d2 !re mu/ always be "s reason :y x is mov$ 9 "o way r ?an ano!r3 = example1 by nature 9 "o way2 by o!r causes1 su* z viol5ce or ,nos1 9 "s o!r way 7p4 #ajga1 b4 #cf74 ,b x is n compet5t to ,plato to assume :at he sometimes does assume z pr9cipium 7p4 #ajgb1 a4 #b--;allusion to ,plato ,phdrus #bde1 ,e71 viz41 a ,self-,mov5t2 = ,plato affirms 79 ,timu #cd1 ,b7 t ! s\l is po/]ius1 & coval ) ! ,kosmos4 ,! doctr9e j m5tion$--,t ! ,pot5tial is prior to ! ,actual--is true 9 "o s5se1 b n true 9 ano!r2 we h already expla9$ h[ 7,greek3 ei7_/rtai de ps--a4 #d4 ,s*wegl] ?9ks1 note p4 #bed1 t ?is ,greek3 ei7_/rtai ref]s to :at has be5 said 9 ,book ,greek3 ,?1 p4 #ajdi1 b4 #c1 seq42 & ?is seems probable1 ?\gh ,bonitz 9 8 note conte/s x1 & ref]s to 8 own !ory1 set =? 9 8 ,prooemium pp4 #bd1 #be1 t ,book ,greek3 ,l is a sep>ate treatise ( ,ari/otle1 completely di/9ct f all ! re/ ( ! ,metaphysica4 ,?is !ory ( ,bonitz may be 9 ! ma9 true2 b x is /ill possible t ,book ,greek3 ,? may h be5 writt5 previ\sly1 & t ,ari/otle may "h ref] to x1 z ,s*wegl] suppose9999474 ,t ,actuality is prior to ,pot5tiality1 is con=mable to ! doctr9e ( ,anaxagoras1 ,nos 9 8 doctr9e exi/+ 9 ,actuality2 also to t ( ,emp$okles1 :o introduces ,fri5d%ip & ,enmity2 & aga91 to t ( ,leukippus1 :o affirms ,motion to be et]nal4 ,s t ,*aos or ,night 7i4e41 m]e ,pot5tiality7 did n prevail = an inf9ite ant]ior "t1 b ! same ?+s came r\nd 9 p]petual vicissitude or rotation2 :i* consi/s ) ! doctr9e t ,actuality is prior to ,pot5tiality4 ,if ! same condition comes r\nd p]iodically1 we mu/ necess>ily assume some?+ ,actual1 :i* p]petually actualizes 9 ! same mann] 7,greek3 dei ti a7ei me_/ne9 7sau_/ts e7n]g\n--p4 #ajgb1 a4 #aj74 ,aga91 if g5]ation & de/ruction are to take place1 we mu/ assume some?+ else ,actual1 :i* actualizes 9 a mann] p]petually *ang+ 7,greek3 a7_/llo dei ei7nai a7ei e7n]g\n a7_/lls kai a7_/lls--a4 #ab74 ,?is la/ mu/ actualize sometimes p] se1 sometimes 9 a diff]5t way2 t is1 accord+ to "s o!r influ5ce1 or accord+ to ! ,fir/ 7or ,uni=m7 ,actual4 ,b x w necess>ily actualize accord+ to ! ,fir/ ,actual2 :i* w ?us be a cause bo? to itself1 & to ! v>iable ,actual4 ,n[ ! ,fir/ ,actual is ! be/2 = x is ! cause ( p]petual sam5ess1 :ile ! o!r is cause ( v>iety2 bo? toge!r are ! cause ( unceas+ v>iety4 ,b ?is is h[ ! motions really /&4 ,:y !n1 %\ld we look out = o!r pr9ciples 7a4 #ah78 ,n[1 s9ce ! prec$+ views are consi/5t ) ! facts & may be true 7,greek3 e7pei d' ou7_/t t' e7nde_/*etai--p4 #ajgb1 a4 #ah7--;&1 if !y be n true1 we %all be compell$ to admit t e ?+ proce$s ei!r f ,night1 or f confus$ ,*aos or ,non-,ens--we may consid] ! problem z solv$4 ,!re exi/s some?+ always 9 unceas+ circul> motion3 ?is is evid5t n m]ely f reason1 b f fact4 ,! ,fir/ ,heav5 7,aplans or ,fix$ ,/> sph]e7 w !re=e be et]nal4 ,!re mu/ !re=e exi/ some?+ :i* causes ?is unceas+ motion1 or "s ,prime ,mov5t4 ,b1 s9ce ,mov5s ,immobile1 ,mov5s ,motum1 ,motum non ,mov5s1 =m a s]ies ( ?ree t]ms1 & s9ce ! two la/ ( ^! c]ta9ly exi/1 we may inf] t ! fir/ exi/s also2 & t ! ,prime ,mov5t1 :i* causes ! motion ( ! ,aplans1 is immoveable 7a4 9999#bj-be4--,?is passage p]plexes all ! comm5tators--,s*wegl]1 ,bonitz1 ,alex&]1 c4 ,x c h>dly be con/ru$ )\t m or less *ange ( ! text4 ,i d n see to :at real ?+s ,ari/otle c allude "u ! description ( ,mota :i* are n ,mov5tia4 ,!re is mu* to be said = ,pi]ron & ,zvort's translation1 p4 #bbj3 ,comme il n'y a que trois sortes d'tres--ce qui e/ mu1 ce qui meut1 et le moy5 t]me entre ce qui e/ mu et ce qui meut3 c'e/ un tre 7i4e41 ?is middle t]m is an tre7 qui meut sans tre mu4--,bonitz disapproves ?is int]pretation ( ! ^w ,greek3 me_/son1 & x is c]ta9ly s+ul> to say t betwe5 ,mov5s & ,motum1 ! t]m ,mov5s s$ non ,motum =ms a m$ium3 ,motum s$ non ,mov5s w\ld =m j z good a m$ium9999474 ,?is ,prime ,mov5t1 :i* causes motion )\t be+ itself mov$1 mu/ be et]nal1 mu/ be ,ess5tia1 & mu/ be an ,actuality4 ,n[ bo? ! ,appetibile 7,greek3 to o7rekto_/n7 & ! ,cogitabile 7,greek3 to noto_/n7 cause motion 9 ?is way1 i4e41 )\t be+ mov$ !mselves2 moreov] ! ,primum ,appetibile & ! ,primum ,cogitabile are co9cid5t or id5tical 7p4 #ajgb1 a4 #bg74 ,= t :i* appe>s beautiful1 is ! object ( desire2 b t :i* is beautiful1 is ! fir/ object ( w 7a4 #bh74 ,cogitation is ! pr9cipium ( ! two 7! prim>y fact or fundam5tal elem5t73 we w s & s1 because we ?9k x good2 x is n true t we ?9k x good because we w x 7,greek3 o7rego_/me?a de dio_/ti dokei1 mallon 7 dokei dio_/ti o7rego_/me?a--a4 #bi74 ,n[ ! ,cogitant ,m9d 7,greek3 n\s7 is mov$ by ! ,cogitabile1 &1 9 ! s]ies ( fundam5tal ,contr>ies1 ! memb]s ( "o side ( ! s]ies are ,cogitabilia p] se 7:ile ^? ( ! o!r side are only ,cogitabilia p] aliud--,greek3 not d' 7 e7te_/ra su/oi*i_/a ka?' au7t_/n--a4 #ca2 see ,alex41 p4 #ffh1 #af1 ,bon474 ,^! ,cogitabilia p] se are fir/ z to ,ess5tia 7i4e41 comp>$ ) ! ,cogitabilia p] aliud1 !y are logically priora73 & aga91 among ,ess5ti1 t v>iety :i* is simple & actual comes fir/ 7i4e41 x is logically prius1 z comp>$ ) ! comp\nd & ! pot5tial74 ,n[ ,unum is n id5tical ) ,simplex3 ,unum signifies t :i* is a measure ( some?+ else1 :ile ,simplex d5otes a peculi> attribute ( ! subject 9 itself 7a4 #cd74 ,b ! ,pul*rum & ! ,eligibile p] se belongs to ! same side ( ! s]ies ( ,contr>ies1 z ! ,cogitabilia p] se3 & ! ,primum ,pul*rum or ,eligibile is ! ,be/ or ak9 !reunto1 9 its own p>ticul> asc5d+ scale 7b4 #a74 ,t ,greek3 to ou7 e7_/neka is among ! ,immoveables1 may be se5 by our ,treatise ,de ,bono1 :]e we give a /r+ ( g5]ic & specific di/ributions 7,greek3 7 diai_/resis dloi--p4 #ajgb1 b4 #b2 see ! int]pretation ( ,alex&]1 adopt$ bo? by ,s*wegl] & by ,bonitz74 ,= ,greek3 to ou7 e7_/neka is us$ 9 a d\ble s5se3 9 "o ( ! two s5ses x ranks among ! ,immoveables3 9 ano!r x does n 7,greek3 e7_//i gar ditton to ou7 e7_/neka1 b4 #c--;,greek3 ditto_/n is ,s*wegl]'s correction1 adopt$ by ,bonitz74 ,x causes motion1 9 ! mann] ( a belov$ object2 & t :i* x causes to move1 causes motion 9 ! o!r ?+s 7,greek3 k9ei de 7s e7r_/m5on2 to de k9\_/m5on ta7_/lla k9ei--b4 #c2 ,greek3 to de k9\_/m5on is ! conjecture ( ,s*wegl] & ,bonitz74 ,n[1 if any ?+ be mov$1 !re is a possibility t x may be 9 a condition diff]5t f t 9 :i* x actually is4 ,if ! fir/ actuality ( ! ,moveable be translation or motion 9 space1 !re is a possibility t x may be o!rwise ?an x is z to place1 ev5 ?\gh x _c be o!rwise ?an x is z to ,ess5tia 7p4 #ajgb1 b4 #g74 ,b1 z to ! ,prime ,mov5t1 :i* is itself immoveable1 & :i* exi/s 9 actuality1 x is impossible t t c be o!r ?an :at x is1 9 any respect :atev] 7p4 #ajgb1 b4 #h74 ,= ! fir/ ( all *anges is local motion1 or rotation 9 a circle1 & ?is is exactly :at ! ,prime ,mov5t imp>ts 7b does n itself possess74 ,x exi/s by necessity1 & by t species ( necessity :i* implies ! p]fect & beautiful3 & 9 ?is "* x is ! orig9at+ pr9ciple4 ,= !re are ?ree v>ieties ( necessity3 7#a7 ,t ( viol5ce1 9 contradiction to ! natural impulse2 7#b7 ,t )\t :i* good or p]fection _c be _h2 7#c7 ,t :i* is :at x is absolutely1 )\t possibility ( be+ o!rwise4 ,f a pr9ciple ( ?is nature 7i4e41 necess>y 9 ! two la/ s5ses7 dep5d ! ,heav5 & all ,nature 7b4 #ad74 ,! mode ( exi/5ce 7,greek3 diagg_/7 ( ?is ,prime ,mov5t is = ev] t :i* we enjoy 9 our be/ mom5ts1 b :i* we _c obta9 p]man5tly2 = its actuality itself is also pleasure 7p4 #ajgb1 b4 #af74 ,z actuality is pleasure1 s ! v>i\s actualities ( wak+1 p]ceiv+1 cogitat+1 are to u ! pleasante/ "p ( our life2 :ile hopes & remembrances are pleas+ by d]ivation f !m 7b ^! /ates we m5 _c enjoy p]man5tly & )\t int]mitt5ce74 ,cogitation p] se 7i4e41 cogitation 9 its mo/ p]fect condition7 embraces t :i* is be/ p] se2 & mo/ ( all :5 x is mo/ p]fect4 ,! ,nos ?us cogitates itself ?r\gh p>ticipation ( ! ,cogitabile3 = x becomes itself cogitable by t\*+ ! ,cogitabile & cogitat+3 s t ,cogitans & ,cogitabile become id5tical4 ,= ,nos 9 g5]al 7! human ,nos also7 is 9 pot5tiality ! recipi5t ( ! ,cogitabile1 & ( ,ess5tia or ,=ms2 & x comes into actuality by possess+ ^! ,=ms4 ,s t :at ! ,prime ,mov5t possesses is m div9e ?an ! div9e elem5t :i* ,nos 9 g5]al involves2 & ! actuality ( !oriz+ is ! pleasante/ & be/ ( all conditions 7,greek3 notos gar gi_/gnetai ?igga_/nn kai non1 7_//e tau7ton n\s kai noto_/n4 to gar dektikon t\ not\ kai ts ou7si_/z n\s4 e7n]gei de e7_/*n2 7_//' e7keino mallon t\_/t\ o7 dokei o7 n\s !ion e7_/*e91 kai 7 !ri_/a to 7_/di/on kai a7_/ri/on--b4 #bd4 ,?is is a v difficult passage1 9 :i* "o _c be sure ( int]pret+ rightly4 ,none ( ! comm5tators are p]fectly satisfactory4 ,! pron\n ,greek3 e7keino seems to ref] to ,greek3 7 no_/sis 7 ka?' au7t_/n--?ree l9es back4 ,! contra/ seems to be betwe5 ! ,prime ,mov5t1 & ,nos 9 g5]al1 includ+ ! human ,nos4 ,greek3 ,to dektiko_/n _c ref] to ! ,prime ,mov5t1 :i* has no pot5tiality1 b mu/ ref] to ! human ,nos1 :i* is n at fir/1 nor always1 9 a /ate ( actuality4 ,greek3 ,mallon seems equival5t to ,greek3 !io_/t]on4 ,! human ,nos has ,greek3 !io_/n ti1 by reason ( its pot5tiality to !orize474 ,?us x is wond]ful1 if ,god has p]petually an exi/5ce l t ( our be/ mom5ts2 & /ill m wond]ful1 if he has a bett]4 ,yet su* is ! fact4 ,life belongs to him3 = ! actuality ( ,nos is life1 & ,god is actuality4 ,8 life1 et]nal & be/1 is actuality p] se 7or p> excell5ce74 ,we decl>e ,god to be an ,animal ,optimum t]num1 s t duration et]nal & cont9u\s 7,greek3 ai7n sune*_/s7 belongs to him3 = t is ,god 7,greek3 t\to gar o7 !o_/s--p4 #ajgb1 b4 #cj74 ,! ,py?agoreans & ,speusippus are mi/ak5 9 affirm+ t ,optimum & ,pul*]rimum is n to be f\nd 9 ! orig9at+ pr9ciple 7,greek3 e7n a7r*72 on ! gr\nd t ! pr9ciples ( plants & animals are inde$ causes1 b t ! beautiful & p]fect appe>s fir/ 9 ! results ( ^? pr9ciples4 ,= ! se$ fir/ proce$s out ( antec$5t p]fect animals3 ! fir/ is n se$1 b ! p]fect animal4 ,?us we mu/ say t ! man is prior to ! se$3 ,i d n mean ! man :o sprang f ! se$1 b ! o!r man f :om ! se$ proce$$ 7p4 #ajgc1 a4 #b74 ,f ! prec$+ reason+s1 x is evid5t t !re exi/s an ,ess5ce et]nal1 immoveable1 & sep>at$ f all ! p]ceivable ,ess5ces4 ,we h %[n 79 ,physica2 see ,s*wegl]'s note7 t ?is ,ess5ce c h no magnitude2 t x is )\t p>ts & indivisible 7p1 #ajgc1 a4 #f74 ,= x causes 9 o!r subjects motion = an inf9ite "t2 & no?+ f9ite c h inf9ite p[]4 ,= ?is reason ! ,prime ,mov5t _c h f9ite magnitude2 b e magnitude is ei!r f9ite or inf9ite1 & !re is no su* ?+ z inf9ite magnitude2 !re=e ! ,prime ,mov5t c h no magnitude at all4 ,we h also %[n t x is un*angeable 9 quality1 & )\t any affections 7,greek3 a7pa!s kai a7nalloi_/ton74 ,= all o!r v>ieties ( *ange are po/]ior z comp>$ ) locomotive *ange or motion 9 space1 :i* is ! fir/ ( all4 ,z ! ,prime ,mov5t is exempt f ?is fir/1 mu* m is x exempt f ! o!rs 7a4 #ac74 ,we mu/ n[ consid] :e!r we ought to recognize "o su* ,mov5t or ,ess5ce only1 or sev]al ( ! same ,ess5ces8 &1 if sev]al1 h[ _m8 ,respect+ ! numb] !re( we mu/ rememb] t our pr$ecessors h laid d[n no cle> or decisive doctr9es 7,greek3 a7popha_/seis1 p4 #ajgc1 a4 #af74 ,! ,platonic !ory ( ,ideas includes no peculi> rese>* on ?is subject 7a4 #ah74 ,! ,platoni/s call ^! ,ideas ,numb]s3 ab\t :i* !y talk sometimes z if !re 7 an inf9ite multitude ( !m1 sometimes z if !y 7 fix$ z rea*+ to ! dekad & n high]--b !y furni% no demon/rative reason :y !y %\ld /op at ! dekad4 ,we %all proce$ to discuss ! po9t consi/5tly ) our prec$+ def9itions & ) ! nature ( ! subjects 7a4 #bc74 ,! ,pr9cipium1 ! ,fir/ ( all ,entia1 is immoveable bo? p] se & p] accid5s3 x causes motion 9 ano!r subject1 to :i* x imp>ts ! fir/ or locomotive *ange1 "o & et]nal 7a4 #be74 ,! ,motum mu/ necess>ily be mov$ by some?+2 ! ,prime ,mov5t mu/ be immoveable p] se2 et]nal motion mu/ be caus$ by an et]nal ,mov5t2 & "o motion by "o ,mov5t 7a4 #cj74 ,b we see t1 ov] & above ! simple rotation ( ! ,all 7or ,fir/ ,heav571 :i* rotation we affirm to be caus$ by ! ,primum ,mov5s ,immobile1 !re are also o!r et]nal rotations ( ! ,planets2 = ! circul> ,cele/ial ,body1 z we h %[n 9 ! ,physica1 is et]nal & nev] at re/ 7a4 #cb74 ,we mu/ !re=e necess>ily assume t ea* ( ^! rotations ( ! ,planets is caus$ by a ,mov5t ,immoveable p] se--by an et]nal ,ess5ce 7a4 #ce74 ,= ! ,/>s & ,planets are 9 _! nature et]nal ,ess5ces3 t :i* moves !m mu/ be itself et]nal1 & prior to t :i* x causes to be mov$2 likewise t :i*1 is prior to ,ess5ce mu/ itself be ,ess5ce1 & _c be any ?+ else 7a4 #cg74 ,x is pla91 !re=e1 t !re mu/ necess>ily exi/ a numb] ( ,ess5ces1 ea* et]nal by nature1 immoveable p] se1 & )\t magnitude1 z ,mov5ts to ! ,heav5ly ,bodies & equal 9 numb] !reto 7a4 #ch74 ,^! ,ess5ces are arrang$ 9 an ord] ( fir/1 second1 c41 correspond+ to ! ord] ( ! planet>y rotations 7b4 #b71 ,b :at ! numb] ( ^! rotations is1 we mu/ le>n f ,a/ronomy--t "o among ! ma!matical sci5ces :i* is mo/ ak9 7,greek3 oi7keiota_/ts7 to ! ,fir/ ,philosophy2 = ,a/ronomy !orizes ab\t ,ess5ce p]ceivable b et]nal1 :ile ,ari?metic & ,geometry d n treat ( any ,ess5ce at all 7,greek3 p]i ou7demias ou7si_/z--b4 #g74 ,t ! rotations are m 9 numb] ?an ! rotat+ bodies1 is kn[n to all :o h any t9cture ( ,a/ronomy2 = ea* ( ! ,planets is c>ri$ r\nd 9 m ?an "o rotation 7b4 #aj74 ,b :at ! exact numb] ( ^! rotations is1 we %all proce$ to /ate ^u ! au?ority ( "s ma!maticians1 = ! sake ( in/ruction1 t ! read] may h "s def9ite numb] pres5t to 8 m9d3 = ! re/1 he mu/ bo? inve/igate = himself & put que/ions to o!r inve/igators2 &1 if he le>ns f ! sci5tific m5 any ?+ diss5t+ f :at we "h lay d[n1 he mu/ love bo? diss5ti5ts b foll[ t "o :o reasons mo/ accurately 7,greek3 philein men a7mphote_/r\s1 pei_/!/hai de tois a7kribe/e_/rois--b4 #af74 ,ari/otle !n proce$s to unfold ! numb] & arrangem5t ( ! planet>y sph]es & ! corrective or c\nt]-roll+ 7,greek3 a7nelitt\_/sas7 sph]es implicat$ ) !m 7p4 #ajgc1 b4 #ag--p4 #ajgd1 a4 #ad74 ,he aft]w>ds proce$s3 ,let ! numb] ( sph]es ?us be =ty-sev52 s t x w be reasonable to assume ! ,immoveable ,mov5t ,ess5ces & ,pr9ciples to be =ty-sev5 also1 z well z ! p]ceivable sph]es 7,greek3 ai7/hta_/s--p4 #ajgd1 a4 #af73 we say reasonable 7,greek3 eu7_/logon71 = we %all leave to /rong] heads to decl>e x necess>y4 ,b1 s9ce !re _c be any rotation except su* z contributes to ! rotation ( "o ( ! ,planets1 & s9ce we mu/ assume t ea* ,nature & ea* ,ess5ce is exempt f extrane\s affection & possess$ p] se ( ! ,be/ z an end1 s !re w be no o!r ,nature besides ! =ty-sev5 above enum]at$1 & ?is numb] w be ! necess>y total ( ! ,ess5ces 7a4 #ba74 ,=1 if !re 7 any o!rs1 !y w\ld cause motion by s]v+ z an end = "s rotation to aspire to 7,greek3 k9oien a7n 7s te_/los ou7sai phoras--a4 #bc72 b x is impossible t !re c be any o!r rotation besides ^? t h be5 enum]at$4 ,we may fairly inf] ?is f ! bodies :i* are c>ri$ 9 rotation 7,greek3 e7k tn ph]ome_/nn--p4 #ajgd1 a4 #bd74 ,=1 if e c>ri] exi/s naturally = ! sake ( ! ?+ c>ri$1 & if e curr5t or rotation is a curr5t ( some?+ c>ri$1 !re c exi/ no curr5t ei!r = ! sake ( itself or = ! sake ( "s o!r curr5t4 ,e curr5t mu/ exi/ = ! sake ( ! ,planets1 & ) a view to _! rotation4 ,=1 if "o curr5t exi/$ = ! sake ( ano!r1 ?is la/ mu/ exi/ = ! sake ( a ?ird1 & s on2 b y _c g on 9 ?is way ad inf9itum2 & !re=e ! end ( e curr5t mu/ be1 "o or o!r ( ! ,div9e ,bodies :i* are c>ri$ r\nd 9 ! heav5s 7a4 #ca74 ,t !re is only "o ,heav51 we may pla9ly see4 ,=1 if !re 7 _m heav5s1 z !re are _m m51 ! pr9cipium ( ea* w\ld be "o 9 specie1 ?\gh ! pr9cipia w\ld be _m 9 num]o 7p4 #ajgd1 a4 #cc74 ,b all ?+s t are _m 9 numb]1 h ,matt]1 & are _m1 by reason ( _! ,matt]2 = to all ^! _m1 !re is "o & ! same ,=m 7,greek3 lo_/gos7--def9ition or rational explanation3 e4g41 "o = all m51 among :om ,sokrates is "o 7a4 #ce74 ,b ! ,fir/ ,ess5ce has no ,matt]2 = x is an ,actual 7,greek3 to de ti_/ 7n ei7nai ou7k e7_/*ei u7_/ln to prton2 e7ntele_/*eia 9999ga_/r--a4 #cf74 ,! ,primum ,mov5s ,immobile is !re=e ,"o1 bo? 9 def9ition & 9 numb]2 accord+ly1 ! ,motum--t :i* is mov$ bo? et]nally & cont9u\sly--is ,"o also4 ,!re exi/s !re=e only "o ,heav5 7p4 #ajgd1 a4 #ch74 ,n[ x has be5 h&$ d[n 9 a my?ical way1 f ! old & mo/ anci5t tea*]s 7p4 #ajgd1 b4 #a7 to _! successors1 t ^! 7,et]nal ,ess5ces7 are gods1 & t ! div9e elem5t compreh5ds all nature 7,greek3 o7_/ti !oi_/ te_/ ei7s9 ou7toi kai p]ie_/*ei to !ion tn o7_/ln phu_/s9--b4 #c74 ,! o!r accompanim5ts ( ! receiv$ cre$ h be5 sup]add$ ) a view to p]suad+ ! multitude & to useful purposes = ! laws & ! common int]e/ 7b4 #d72 :]e=e ! gods h be5 depict$ z l to m5 & to "s o!r animals1 comb9$ ) o!r simil> accompanim5ts4 ,if a man1 ab/ract+ f ^! /ories1 accepts only ! fir/ & fundam5tal tru?--,t !y conceiv$ ! ,fir/ ,ess5ces z gods1 he w consid] x z a div9e doctr9e 7,greek3 !i_/s a7n ei7r/hai nomi_/sei5--b4 #i71 pres]v$ & h&$ d[n z fragm5ts ( tru? f ! mo/ anci5t times4 ,= probably all art & philosophy & tru? h be5 _m times discov]$1 lo/1 & r$iscov]$4 ,to ?is po9t alone1 & ?us f>1 ! op9ion ( our fa!rs & ( ! fir/ m5 is evid5t to u 7b4 #ad74 ,!re are h[ev] v>i\s difficulties connect$ ) ! ,nos2 = x w\ld seem to be m div9e ?an ! visible cele/ial objects1 & yet we d n und]/& :at its condition c be to be su* 7p4 #ajgd1 b4 #ag74 ,=1 if x cogitates no?+ b is 9 ! condition ( slumb] & inaction1 :at gr\nd c !re be = respect+ x 7,greek3 ti_/ a7n ei7_/ to semno_/n--b4 #ah78 ,&1 if x cogitates some?+ actually1 yet if ?is process dep5ds ^u some?+ =eign & indep5d5t 7i4e41 ^u ! ,cogitatum71 ! ,nos _c be ! be/ ,ess5ce2 s9ce x is !n ess5tially n ,cogitation 9 act1 b only ! pot5tiality ( ,cogitation2 :ile its title to respect arises f actual ,cogitation4 ,aga91 :e!r we assume its ,ess5ce to be ,cogitation actual or ,cogitation pot5tial1 :at does x cogitate8 ,x mu/ cogitate ei!r itself1 or some?+ diff]5t f itself2 &1 if ! latt]1 ei!r always ! same ,cogitatum1 or sometimes "o1 sometimes ano!r4 ,b is !re no diff]5ce :e!r its ,cogitatum is hon\rable or vulg>8 ,are !re n "s ?+s :i* x is absurd to cogitate8 ,evid5tly ! ,nos mu/ cogitate :at is mo/ div9e & mo/ hon\rable1 )\t any *ange2 =1 if x did *ange1 x mu/ *ange = ! worse1 & t v *ange w\ld at once 7,greek3 7_/d7 be a c]ta9 motion2 :]eas ! ,nos is ess5tially immoveable 7b4 #bg74 ,fir/ ( all1 if ! ,ess5ce ( ! ,nos be1 n ,cogitation actual b ,cogitation pot5tial1 we may reasonably conceive t ! p]petuity ( ,cogitation w\ld be fatigu+ to x 7b4 #bi72 next1 we see pla9ly t !re mu/ exi/ some?+ else m hon\rable ?an ! ,nos2 namely1 ! ,cogitatum2 = to cogitate1 & ! act ( cogitation1 w belong ev5 to "o :o cogitates ! vile/ object4 ,if cogitation ( vile objects be dete/able 7,greek3 pheukto_/n1 b4 #cb7--;= n to see "s ?+s is bett] ?an to see !m--,cogitation _c be ! be/ ( all ?+s 7i4e41 ,cogitation absolutely1 :atev] be ! ,cogitatum74 ,s9ce ! ,nos is itself ! be/ ( all ?+s1 x mu/ employ its cogitation ^u itself & no?+ else4 ,its cogitation w ?us be ,cogitation ( ,cogitation 7,greek3 au7ton a7_/ra noei1 ei7_/p] e7/i to kra_/ti/on1 kai e7_//9 7 no_/sis no_/ses no_/sis--p4 #ajgd1 b4 #ce74 ,yet1 if we look to ! human m9d1 ,cognition1 ,p]ception1 ,op9ion1 ,m5tal ,disc\rse1 c41 appe> always z hav+ direct ref]5ce to some?+ else1 & z ref]r+ ea* to itself only 9 an indirect & second>y way 7,greek3 a7ei a7_/ll\--au7ts d' e7n p>e_/rg--b4 #cf72 & f>!r1 if to cogitate is "o ?+ & to be cogitat$ ano!r ?+1 9 :i* ( ! two po9ts ( view w ! b5e ( ! ,nos consi/8 ,to be ,cogitation1 & to be a ,cogitatum1 are n logically ! same 7,greek3 ou7de gar tau7to to ei7nai no_/sei kai no\me_/n--b4 #ch74 ,b may we n meet ^! difficulties by reply+ t !re are "s ?+s 9 :i* ,cognition is id5tical ) ! ,cognitum8 t is1 9 ^? ,cognita :i* are altoge!r exempt f ,matt]8 ,9 ,con/ructive cognitions )\t ,matt]1 ! ,=m & ! ,greek3 t44e4 is bo? ,cognitum & ,cognitio2 9 ,!oretical cognitions )\t ,matt]1 ! ,notion & ! ,cogitation is itself ! ,cognitum 7,greek3 o7 lo_/gos to pragma kai 7 no_/sis74 ,s9ce x appe>s1 !re=e1 t1 :]ev] !re is no ,matt]1 ,cogitatum & ,nos are n diff]5t1 ! same w be true ( ! div9e ,nos3 its ,cogitatio & its ,cogitatum w be id5tical 7p4 #ajge1 a4 #e74 ,"o f>!r difficulty rema9s1 if we suppose ! ,cogitatum to be a ,comp\nd 7,greek3 su_/n!ton72 =1 on t supposition1 ! ,cogitans w\ld *ange 9 runn+ ?r\gh ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! :ole4 ,b ! reply seems to be1 t e ?+ :i* has n ,matt] is indivisible & n comp\nd 7p4 #ajge1 a4 #g74 ,z ! human ,nos1 be+ t :i* deals ) comp\nds1 comports itself = a c]ta9 "t--= x does n atta9 its b5e 9 cogitat+ ?is or t "p ( ! comp\nd1 b 9 appreh5d+ a c]ta9 total or completion :i* is some?+ diff]5t f any ( ! p>ts--s does ! div9e ,nos1 engag$ 9 cogitation ( itself1 comport itself 9 p]petuity 7a4 #aj74 ,ano!r po9t to be consid]$ is--9 :at mann] ! nature ( ! ,univ]se 7,greek3 7 t\ o7_/l\ phu_/sis--p4 #ajge1 a4 #aa7 includes ,bonum & ,optimum4 ,is ,bonum includ$ z some?+ sep>ate & z an adjunct by itself transc5d5t8 ,or is x imman5t1 p]vad+ ! :ole arrangem5t ( ! con/itu5t p>ts8 ,or does x exi/ 9 bo? ways at once1 z 9 ! case ( a discipl9$ army2 =1 9 ?is latt]1 ,bonum belongs bo? to ! array & to ! g5]al1 & inde$ m to ! latt]1 s9ce ! array is direct$ by ! g5]al1 n ! g5]al by ! array4 ,all ?+s 9 ! univ]se are m>%all$ 9 a c]ta9 ord]ly way--! aquatic creatures1 ! arial1 & ! plants2 b all ?+s are n m>%all$ alike4 ,! univ]se is n su* t !re is no relation betwe5 "o ?+ & ano!r3 !re is su* a relation2 = e ?+ is m>%all$ ) a view to "o end1 ?\gh 9 diff]5t degrees4 ,z1 9 a family1 ! freem5 h lea/ discretion left to !m to act at haphaz>d1 b all or mo/ ( _! proce$+s are regulat$1 :ile slaves & ox5 are n requir$ to d mu* t[>ds ! common good1 b are left = ! mo/ "p to act at haz>d1--9 ?is way ! pr9cipium ( ea* is arrang$ by nature 7a4 #bc74 ,= example1 e ?+ mu/ necess>ily come to ! t]m9ation ( "o individual exi/5ce to make room = ano!r3 !re are also "s o!r facts & conditions common to all ?+s 9 ! univ]se 7,greek3 le_/g d' oi7on ei7_/s ge to diakri?nai a7na_/gk a7pas9 e7l!in--a4 #bc2 see ! explanation ( ,greek3 diakri?nai1 giv5 by ,bonitz1 ,comm4 p4 #eai--n v c]ta974 ,9 conclud+ ?is exposition1 we mu/ n lose sight ( ! absurdities & impossibilities :i* atta* to all o!r1 nor :at is advanc$ by ! mo/ +5i\s philosoph]s be=e u1 nor :i* ( _! !ories c>ries ) x ! fewe/ difficulties 7p4 #ajge1 a4 #bg74 ,t all ?+s proce$ f ,contr>ies1 all ^! philosoph]s agree 9 affirm+4 ,b x is n true t all ?+s are g5]at$1 nor t !y are g5]at$ f contr>ies2 = ! cele/ial sub/ance is n g5]at$ at all1 nor has x any contr>y4 ,moreov]1 9 ^? cases :]e !re really are contr>ies1 ^! philosoph]s d n tea* u h[ g5]ation c take place out ( !m2 = contr>ies !mselves h no effect ^u ea* o!r4 ,n[ our doctr9e solves ?is difficulty reasonably1 by introduc+ a t]tium quid 7p4 #ajge1 a4 #ca7--,matt]4 ,"s ( ^! philosoph]s errone\sly consid] ,matt] to be itself "o ( ! contr>ies3 !y consid] ! ,unequal z matt] or sub/ratum to ! ,equal2 or ! ,_m z matt] or sub/ratum to ! ,"o2 7,evil1 z oppos$ to ,good74 ,we resolve ?is 9 ! same way3 our ,matt] is "o1 is contr>y itself to no?+1 b may be pot5tially ei!r ( two contr>ies4 ,f>!rmore1 if we admit ! doctr9e t ,evil itself is ,matt] or "o ( ! elem5ts1 ! inf]5ce w foll[ t e ?+ :atev]1 except ! ,unum itself1 p>takes ( ,evil 7a4 #f74 ,"s philosoph]s d n admit ei!r ,good or ,evil to be pr9ciples at all2 b !y are manife/ly wrong2 = 9 all ?+s ,good is mo/ ( all ! pr9ciple 7p4 #ajge1 a4 #cg74 ,o!rs aga9 are s f> "r t !y recognize ,good z a pr9ciple3 b !y d n tell u h[ x is a pr9ciple--:e!r z ,end1 or z ,mov5t1 or z ,=m4 ,emp$okles lays d[n a /range doctr9e3 he makes ,fri5d%ip to be ! ,good 7p4 #ajge1 b4 #b74 ,b1 9 8 !ory1 ,fri5d%ip is pr9ciple p>tly z ,mov5t1 = its function is to br+ toge!r 7,greek3 suna_/gei gar--b4 #c72 p>tly z ,matt]1 = x is itself a portion ( ! mixture 7,greek3 mo_/rion t\ mi_/gmatos--b4 #d74 ,n[1 ev5 grant+ ! possibility t ! same ?+ may be p] accid5s 7,greek3 kata sumbebko_/s--b4 #e1 i4e41 by special co9cid5ce 9 any "o p>ticul> case7 pr9ciple z ,mov5t1 & also pr9ciple z ,matt]1 nev]!less ! two are n ! same logically & by def9ition4 ,"u :i* ( ! two1 !re=e1 are we to reckon ,fri5d%ip8 ,x is moreov] ano!r /range feature 9 ! !ory ( ,emp$okles1 t he makes ,enmity to be inde/ructible2 = ?is v ,enmity is ) him ! nature & pr9ciple ( ,evil 7b4 #h74 ,anaxagoras decl>es ,good to be ! pr9ciple z ,mov5t2 =1 9 8 !ory1 ,nos causes motion2 b x causes motion ) a view to "s end1 :i* is ( c\rse diff]5t f itself2 s t ! real pr9ciple is diff]5t f ,nos3 unless inde$ he adopt$ "o ( our t5ets2 = we too say t1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 ! m$ical art is heal? 7p4 #ajge1 b4 #aj2 ,z4 vii4 p4 #ajcb1 b4 #aj74 ,x is moreov] absurd1 t ,anaxagoras does n recognize any contr>y to ,good & to ! ,nos 7b4 #aa74 7,bonitz rem>ks1 ,comm4 p4 #ebb3--;,ari/otle means t ,anaxagoras 0 wrong1 because he fail$ ad eam dev5ire rationem1 ut intellectum sui ipsius intellig5tiam ideoque sui ipsius ,greek3 te_/los esse /atu]et2 f>!r1 he rem>ks1 on ! l9e b4 #aj--;,greek3 a7_/topon de kai to e7nanti_/on m poisai t a7ga? kai t n3 ,quid enim8 nonne p>it] et eodem jure ,greek3 n\s a7mig_/s1 quem posuit ,anaxagoras1 ab omni contr>ietate et oppositione immunis sit1 ac primus motor apud ,ari/otelem8--,ari/otle w\ld h repli$ to ?is3 ,i recognize pr9ciples ( ,evil "u ! names ( ,greek3 u7_/l & ,greek3 /e_/rsis2 ! la/ ( ! two be+ directly oppos$ to ,=m 7,regul>ity or ,good71 ! fir/ ( ! two be+ indiff]5t & equally ready z a recipi5t bo? = evil & = good4 ,my ,prime ,mov5t acts l an ,greek3 e7r_/m5on 9 caus+ motion 9 ! ,cele/ial ,sub/ance3 ! motion ( ?is la/ is pure ,good1 )\t any mixture ( ,evil4 ,b1 :5 ?is motion is transmitt$ to ! sublun>y elem5ts1 x becomes corrupt$ by ,greek3 u7_/l & ,greek3 /e_/rsis1 s t ,evil becomes m+l$ ) ! ,good4 ,anaxagoras recognizes no c\nt]act+ pr9ciples1 analog\s to ,greek3 u7_/l & ,greek3 /e_/rsis1 s t ,evil1 on 8 !ory1 rema9s unexpla9$47 ,^? philosoph]s :o lay d[n ,contr>ies z _! pr9ciples1 d n make prop] use ( ^! ,contr>ies1 unless _! language be improv$ or modifi$ 7p4 #ajge1 b4 #ab74 ,nor d !y tell u :y "s ?+s are de/ructible1 o!r ?+s inde/ructible2 = !y trace all ?+s to ! same pr9ciples4 ,"s make all ?+s to proce$ f ,non-,ens2 o!rs1 to escape t necessity1 make all ?+s ,"o 7& ?us recognize no real *ange or g5]ation at all--! ,eleates1 b4 #af74 ,aga91 n "o ( !m tells u :y g5]ation mu/ always be1 or :at is ! cause ( g5]ation4 ,once m1 ^? :o recognize two contr>y pr9ciples mu/ necess>ily recognize a ?ird sup]ior to bo? 7b4 #ah72 & ! ,platoni/s ) _! ,ideas are "u ! l necessity4 ,= !y mu/ assign "s reason :y p>ticul> ?+s p>take ( ^! ,ideas4 ,o!r philosoph]s1 moreov]1 mu/ consi/5tly ) _! !ories recognize some?+ contr>y to ,wisdom & to ! mo/ v5]able ,cognition4 ,b we are "u no su* necessity2 = !re is no?+ contr>y to ! ,fir/ 7,greek3 t pr_/t74 ,all contr>ies involve ,matt]1 & are 9 pot5tiality ! same3 "o ( ! two contr>ies is ignorance 9 reg>d to ! o!r2 b ! ,fir/ has no contr>y 7p4 #ajge1 b4 #bd74 ,aga91 if !re be no ,entia beyond ! ,p]ceptibilia1 !re c be no beg9n+1 no arrangem5t 9 ord]1 no g5]ation1 no cele/ial bodies or proce$+s 7i4e41 all ^! w rema9 unexpla9$74 ,!re w always be a beg9n+ beh9d ! beg9n+1 ad inf9itum2 z !re is 9 ! !ories ( all ! !ologians & physical philosoph]s 7p4 #ajge1 b4 #bg74 ,&1 ev5 if we recognize1 beyond ! ,p]ceptibilia1 ,ideas or ,numb]s1 ^! are causes ( no?+2 or1 if causes ( any ?+1 !y are c]ta9ly n causes ( motion4 ,h[1 moreov]1 c ,magnitude1 & a ,cont9uum arise out ( t :i* has no ,magnitude8 ,numb] _c1 ei!r z ,mov5t or z ,=m1 produce a ,cont9uum 7b4 #cj74 ,aga91 7,contr>ies _c be pr9ciples1 because7 no ,contr>y c be ess5tially ,con/ructive & ess5tially ,mov5t 7p4 #ajge1 b4 #ca72 = ,contr>ies involve ,matt] & ,pot5tiality1 & may possibly1 !re=e1 n exi/4 ,&1 if !re be ,pot5tiality1 x w come prior to ,actuality3 ^u t supposition !re=e 7i4e41 ( ,contr>ies z ! fundam5tal pr9ciples7 ,entia c\ld n be et]nal4 ,b ,entia are et]nal2 !re=e ^! !ories mu/ be 9 "p am5d$3 we h %[n h[ 7b4 #cd74 ,f>!r1 none ( ^! !ories expla9s h[ x is t numb]s coalesce into ,"o2 or s\l & body into ,"o2 or ,=m & ,matt] into "o ,concrete4 ,nor c !y expla9 ?is1 unless !y adopt our doctr9e1 t ! ,mov5t br+s ab\t ?is coalition 7p4 #ajge1 b4 #cg74 ,^? philosoph]s 7l ,speusippus7 :o recognize _m diff]5t grades & species ( ,entia 7fir/ ! ,ma!matical ,numb]1 c471 ) sep>ate pr9ciples = ea*1 make ! ,ess5ce ( ! ,univ]se to be incoh]5t 7,greek3 e7peisodi_/d--p4 #ajgf1 a4 #a7 & set up _m di/9ct pr9ciples2 = none ( ^! ,ess5ces contributes to or be>s ^u ! rema9d]1 :e!r x exi/s or does n exi/4 ,n[ ,entia are n will+ to be badly gov]n$ 7,greek3 ta de o7_/nta ou7 b\_/letai politeu_/e/hai kaks4 ou7k a7ga?on polukoirani_/2 ei7s koi_/ranos4--p4 #ajgf1 a4 #d74 ,,iv4 ,,de ,,coelo4 ,book ,i4 ,,*4 #a4--,! sci5ce ( ,nature has = its pr9cipal object--,bodies1 ,magnitudes1 & ! v>i\s affections & movem5ts ( ,bodies & ,magnitudes2 also ! beg9n+s or pr9ciples ( ?is sort ( ,ess5ce4 ,! ,cont9u\s is t :i* is divisible into p>ts p]petually divisible3 & ,body is t :i* is divisible 9 e direction4 ,( magnitudes1 "s 7l9es7 are divisible only 9 "o direction2 o!rs 7planes7 only 9 two directions2 o!rs aga9 7bodies7 9 ?ree directions4 ,?is is ! maximum3 !re is no o!r magnitude beyond2 = ?ree are all1 & to say 9 ?ree directions is ! same z to say 9 all directions4 ,z ! ,py?agoreans say1 ,! ,univ]se & ,all ,?+s are det]m9$ by ,?ree3 9 ,end1 ,middle1 & ,beg9n+1 lies ! numb] ( ! ,univ]se1 or ! ,triad4 ,we h receiv$ ^! z laws f nature1 & we accord+ly employ ?is numb] 7,?ree7 = solemnities 9 hon\r ( ! ,gods4 ,moreov]1 we apply our pr$icates on ! same pr9ciple2 = we call ,two1 & ,! ,two--,bo?1 b we d n call !m all4 ,?ree is ! fir/ numb] to :i* we apply ! pr$icate ,all4 ,h]e9 7z 0 obs]v$ be=e7 we foll[ ! lead ( ,nature h]self4 ,s9ce !re=e ^! ?ree phrases--,all ,?+s1 ,! ,univ]se1 ,! ,p]fect or ,complete--d n specifically diff] f ea* o!r1 b are di/+ui%$ only 9 respect ( ! matt] or occasions on :i* !y are appli$4 ,body is ! only k9d ( magnitude :i* c be decl>$ ,p]fect or ,complete1 t is1 ,all2 = x is ! only magnitude det]m9$ or def9$ by ! ,?ree4 ,be+ divisible 9 ?ree directions1 x is divisible e way2 o!r magnitudes are divisible ei!r only 9 "o way or only 9 two4 ,magnitudes are bo? divisible & cont9u\s accord+ to ! numb] by :i* !y are designat$--cont9u\s 9 "o direction1 9 two1 9 ?ree1 or all4 ,all divisible magnitudes are also cont9u\s3 :e!r all cont9u\s magnitudes are divisible1 is n yet cle>4 ,b :at is cle> is--t !re is no upw>d transition to a high] g5us beyond ,body1 z !re is f l9e to surface1 & f surface to ,body4 ,if !re 71 ,body w\ld n be p]fect or complete z a magnitude2 = ! transition w\ld be made at ! po9t ( defici5cy2 b ! p]fect or complete c h no defici5cy3 x /ret*es e way4 ,su* is ea* body includ$ z a "p 9 ! univ]se3 x has dim5sions 9 e direction4 ,yet ea* is di/+ui%$ f its neighb\r by contact1 & ea* !re=e 9 a c]ta9 s5se is _m4 ,b ! ,univ]se 7,greek3 to pan7 includ+ all ^! p>ts is ( necessity p]fect & complete2 ext5d+ n m]ely 9 "o way1 & 9 ano!r way n1 b ,greek3 pa_/nt1 z ! ^w lit]ally means 7ss4 #a-d74 ,,*4 #b4--,respect+ ! nature ( ! ,univ]se1 we %all enquire pres5tly :e!r 9 ! aggregate x be inf9ite or ( f9ite magnitude4 ,b fir/ let u speak ab\t its diff]5t con/itu5t species1 proce$+ on ! foll[+ basis4 ,i affirm t all natural bodies & magnitudes are p] se locally moveable2 & t ,nature is to !m a beg9n+ or pr9ciple ( motion4 ,n[ all ,local ,motion 7kn[n by ! "n ( ,greek3 phora_/7 is ei!r ,rectil9e> or ,circul>1 or comp\nd$ ( ! two2 = ^! two are ! only simple motions1 by reason t ! only two simple magnitudes are ! rectil9e> & ! circul>4 ,! circul> is motion r\nd ! ,c5tre2 ! rectil9e> is motion ei!r d[nw>ds t[>ds ! c5tre or upw>ds f ! c5tre4 ,^! ?ree are ! only simple modes ( motion or curr5ts3 z ,i said 9 ! la/ *apt] t body 0 made complete 9 ! numb] ?ree1 s also ! motion ( body is made complete 9 ! numb] ?ree4 ,n[1 z !re are "s bodies 7su* z fire1 e>?1 & _! cognates7 :i* are simple 7i4e4 :i* h 9 !mselves a natural beg9n+ or pr9ciple ( motion71 & o!rs :i* are comp\nds ( ^!1 s also !re mu/ be simple motions belong+ to ! =m] & comp\nd motions belong+ to ! latt]2 su* comp\nd motions be+ det]m9$ by ! prepond]ant elem5t !re94 ,s9ce1 !re=e1 circul> motion is a simple mode ( motion1 & s9ce simple modes ( motion belong only to simple bodies1 !re mu/ ( necessity be a p>ticul> v>iety ( simple body1 ^: especial nature x is to be c>ri$ r\nd 9 circul> motion4 ,by viol5ce1 inde$1 "o body might be mov$ 9 a mode belong+ to ano!r2 b n by nature4 ,moreov]1 s9ce motion aga9/ nature is opposite to motion con=mable to nature1 & s9ce ea* mode has "o s+le opposite1 simple circul> motion1 if x be n con=mable to ! nature ( ?is body1 mu/ be aga9/ its nature4 ,if !n ! body rotat+ 9 a circle be fire or any ( ! o!r elem5ts1 its natural mode ( motion mu/ be opposite to circul> motion4 ,b ea* ?+ has only "o opposite2 & up & d[n are ea* o!r's opposites4 ,if !n ! body :i* rotates 9 a circle rotates ?us aga9/ nature1 x mu/ h "s o!r mode ( motion con=mable to nature4 ,b ?is is impossible3 =1 if ! motion con=mable to its nature be motion upw>ds1 ! body mu/ be fire or air2 if motion d[nw>ds1 ! body mu/ be e>? or wat] 7& !re is no o!r simple mode ( motion t x c h74 ,moreov]1 its rotatory motion mu/ be a fir/ motion2 = ! p]fect is prior 9 nature to ! imp]fect4 ,n[ ! circle is p]fect2 b no /raight l9e is p]fect3 nei!r an inf9ite /raight l9e1 = 9 ord] to be p]fect1 x mu/ h an end & a b\nd>y2 nor any f9ite /raight l9e1 = ea* has some?+ )\t x & may be prolong$ at pleasure4 ,s t1 if motion fir/ by nature belong to a body fir/ by nature1 if circul> motion 7z be+ p]fect7 be prior to rectil9e> motion1 & if rectil9e> motion belong to a fir/ or a simple body1 z we see bo? 9 fire & 9 e>?1--we may be sure =tiori t circul> motion belongs to a simple body1 & t !re is1 besides ! f\r elem5ts "h1 prior to !m & m div9e ?an !m1 a diff]5t body cf special nature & ess5ce4 ,inde$1 s9ce circul> motion is aga9/ ! nature ( ^! f\r elem5ts1 !re mu/ be "s o!r diff]5t body to ^: nature x is con=mable4 ,!re mu/ ?us be "s simple & prim>y body1 ^: nature x is to be c>ri$ r\nd 9 a circle1 z e>? is c>ri$ d[nw>ds & fire upw>ds4 ,on ! assumption t ! revolv+ bodies revolv$ aga9/ _! own nature1 x w\ld be wond]ful & ev5 unreasonable t ?is "o s+le mode ( motion1 be+ ?us contr>y to nature1 %\ld be cont9u\s & et]nal2 = 9 all o!r ?+s we see t :at is contr>y to nature dies away mo/ spe$ily4 ,n[1 if ! revolv+ body 7 fire1 z "s affirm1 ! revolv+ motion w\ld be j z mu* contr>y to its nature z motion d[nw>ds2 = ! natural motion ( fire is upw>ds or away f ! c5tre4 ,reason+ f all ^! premisses1 we may safely conclude t1 di/9ct f all ^! bodies :i* are "h ar\nd u1 !re exi/s a body ^: nature is m hon\rable 9 proportion to its great] di/ance f u "h 7ss4 #a-ac74 ,,*4 #c4--,we pla9ly _c affirm t e body is ei!r heavy or light3 mean+ by heavy1 t :i* is c>ri$ by its nature d[nw>ds or t[>ds ! c5tre2 by light1 t :i* is c>ri$ by its nature upw>ds or away f ! c5tre4 ,heavie/ 7or e>?7 is t :i* und]lies all o!r d[nw>d mov+ bodies1 lighte/ 7fire7 is t :i* floats above all upw>d mov+ bodies4 ,air & wat] are bo? light & heavy1 relatively1 b relatively to diff]5t t]ms ( comp>ison2 ?us1 wat] is heavy z comp>$ to air & fire1 light z comp>$ to e>?4 ,b t body ^: nature x is to revolve 9 a circle1 _c possibly h ei!r heav9ess or levity2 = x _c move 9 a "r l9e1 ei!r upw>ds or d[nw>ds1 nor ei!r by nature or aga9/ nature4 ,n by nature1 =1 9 t case1 x mu/ be id5tical ) "s "o ( ! f\r elem5ts2 n aga9/ nature1 because1 if x mov$ upw>ds aga9/ nature1 ?is w\ld prove t motion d[nw>ds 0 con=mable to its nature1 & x w\ld ?us be id5tical ) e>?3 we h already se5 t1 if a body moves upw>ds aga9/ nature1 x mu/ move d[nw>ds accord+ to nature1 & vice v]s4 ,n[ ! same natural motion :i* belongs to any body z a :ole1 belongs also to its m9ute fragm5ts 7to ! :ole e>? & to any ( its con/itu5t clods74 ,accord+ly ! revolv+ body 9 its local movem5t ( revolution _c possibly be dragg$ 9 any o!r direction1 ei!r upw>d or d[nw>d1--nei!r ! :ole nor any portion !re(4 ,x is alike reasonable to conceive x z ung5]able1 inde/ructible1 incapable bo? ( increase & ( qualitative *ange 7,greek3 a7nauxes kai a7nalloi_/ton74 ,x _c be g5]at$1 because e ?+ g5]at$ comes out ( a sub/ratum & an opposite1 into :i* x relapses on be+ de/roy$4 ,n[ ! revolv+ body has no opposite2 = we h already se5 t opposite bodies h _! curr5ts ( motion opposite1 & !re is no curr5t ( motion opposite to t ( circul> rotation4 ,nature has rightly except$ ?is ung5]able & inde/ructible sub/ance f ! action ( contr>ies1 9 :i* g5]ation & de/ruction occur4 ,x is also incapable ( increase or dim9ution1 because ^! processes take place ?r\gh ! accession ( new cognate mat]ials2 & 9 ?is case !re are none su*4 ,x is f>!r incapable ( qualitative *ange1 because ?is always implies ! be+ affect$ fav\rably or unfav\rably 7,greek3 pa_/?os72 & ?is la/ nev] takes place1 9 plants or 9 animals1 )\t "s increase or dim9ution 9 quantity 7ss4 #a-e74 ,?is ,cele/ial ,sub/ance is ?us et]nal1 ung5]able1 inde/ructible1 n[ay increas$ nor dim9i%$1 nei!r gr[+ old nor capable ( di/urb+ affections nor *angeable 9 quality4 ,h]e9 ! evid5ce ( reason & t ( ph5om5a concur4 ,= all m51 ,hell5es & ,b>b>ians1 h "s belief respect+ ! ,gods1 & all :o believe ,gods to exi/ assign to ! div9e nature ! upp]mo/ place 9 ! ,kosmos2 an immortal place go+ naturally along ) immortal p]sons4 ,our p]ceptions confirm ?is suffici5tly1 at lea/ :5 we speak ) ref]5ce to human belief4 ,= n ! smalle/ *ange has ev] be5 obs]v$ 9 ! cele/ial sub/ance1 ?r\gh\t all pa/ "t4 ,"u ^! impressions1 ! anci5ts gave to x ! "n :i* x n[ be>s2 = ! same op9ions sugge/ !mselves to u n once1 nor twice1 b an inf9ite numb] ( times99994 ,h5ce ! anci5ts1 reg>d+ ! ,fir/ ,body z some?+ di/9ct f ,fire1 ,e>?1 ,air1 or ,wat]1 call$ ! upp]mo/ place !r1 f its be+ always runn+ 7,greek3 a7po t\ !in a7ei_/71 ! adv]bial designation be+ d]iv$ f et]nal duration4 ,anaxagoras employs ?is "n improp]ly3 he calls ,fire by ! "n ( !r 7s4 #f74 ,x is pla91 f all we h said1 t ! simple bodies _c be m 9 numb] ?an ^? j indicat$2 = a simple body mu/ ( necessity h a simple mode ( motion1 & !re are only ?ree simple modes ( motion--"o circul> & two rectil9e>1 "o ( ^! be+ f ! c5tre1 ! o!r t[>ds ! c5tre 7s4 #g74 ,,*4 #d4--,t ,circul> ,rotation has no motion oppos$ to x1 may be %[n by sev]al diff]5t argum5ts4 ,if !re 7 any1 x w\ld c]ta9ly be rectil9e> motion2 = convex & concave1 ?\gh ea* respectively oppos$ to ! o!r1 are1 :5 bo? put toge!r1 oppos$ z a c\ple to rectil9e> motion4 ,b ea* v>iety ( rectil9e> motion has ano!r v>iety ( rectil9e> motion oppos$ to x2 & ea* ?+ has b "o opposite4 ,moreov] ! oppositions betwe5 "o motion 7or "o curr5t--,greek3 phora_/7 & ano!r are f\nd$ ^u oppositions ( place1 :i* are ?ree 9 numb]3 7#a7 ,above & ,bel[2 7#b7 ,be=e & ,beh9d2 7#c7 ,"r & ,left4 ,n[ ! motion 9 circul> rotation 9999f ,a to ,b is n opposite to t f ,b to ,a3 ! opposition ( motion is along ! /raight l9e :i* jo9s ! two2 = an inf9ite numb] ( diff]5t circles may be drawn1 n int]f]+ ) ea* o!r b all pass+ ?r\gh ! same two po9ts ,a & ,b4 ,9 ! same circle1 ! opposition betwe5 ! curr5t f ,a to ,b & t f ,b to ,a1 is along ! l9e ( diamet]--n along ! l9e ( circumf]5ce4 ,if "o circul> curr5t 7 really oppos$ to any o!r circul> curr5t1 "o or o!r ( ! two w\ld h exi/$ to no purpose2 = bo? h ! same object4 ,t is to say3 :at is c>ri$ r\nd 9 a circle1 let x beg9 f any po9t :atev]1 mu/ necess>ily come r\nd equally to all ! opposite places1 above1 bel[1 be=e1 beh9d1 "r1 left4 ,if ! two 7presum$7 opposite circul> curr5ts 7 equal1 !y w\ld neutralize ea* o!r1 & !re w\ld be no motion at all ( ei!r ( !m4 ,if "o ( ! two 7 ! m p[]ful1 x w\ld ext+ui% ! o!r2 s t to suppose ! exi/5ce ( bo? is to suppose t "o or bo? exi/s 9 va9 7i4e41 c nev] be realiz$74 ,we say t a s&al exi/s 9 va9 7,greek3 ma_/tn71 :5 x _c be fa/5$ on4 ,b ,god & nature d no?+ 9 va9 7ss4 #a-h74 ,,*4 #e4--,mo/ ( ! anci5t philosoph]s admitt$ an inf9ite body2 b ?is may be %[n to be impossible4 ,! "q is v important2 = ! consequ5ces :i* foll[ f admitt+ ! ,inf9ite z pr9cipium1 affect our speculations conc]n+ ! :ole ( ,nature 7s4 #a74 ,e body is ( necessity ei!r simple or comp\nd4 ,! inf9ite body !re=e1 if x exi/s1 mu/ ( necessity be ei!r "o or ! o!r4 ,b !re c be no inf9ite comp\nd compos$ ( simple bodies f9ite 9 magnitude & 9 numb]3 s t1 if an inf9ite body exi/1 x mu/ be simple4 ,we %all fir/ enquire :e!r ! ,fir/ ,body1 ^: nature x is to move 9 a circle1 c be inf9ite 9 magnitude4 ,n[1 if x 7 inf9ite1 ! radii ?r[n out f ! c5tre w\ld be inf9ite1 & ! di/ance betwe5 !m w\ld also be inf9ite2 t is1 no f9ite p]iph]al l9e c be f\nd t\*+ all ! extremities ( ! radii )\t3 if any su* l9e be assum$1 y may always assume a great]4 ,we call ,numb] inf9ite1 because ! greate/ numb] _c be giv52 & ! l may be said ab\t ?is di/ance4 ,n[1 z an inf9ite di/ance _c be pass$ ov]1 no circul> motion pass+ ov] x is possible1 s z to come r\nd to ! po9t ( dep>ture4 ,b we see pla9ly t ! ,fir/ ,body or ! ,heav5 does come r\nd 9 a circle2 & x has be5 %[n by reason+ priori t !re is a v>iety ( body ^: nature x is to move 9 a circle4 ,su* a body !re=e z ! ,fir/ 7revolv+7 ,body _c be inf9ite 7ss4 #b1 #c74 ,f\r o!r argum5ts are add$1 prov+ ! same conclusion 7s4 #d1 seq474 ,"o ( !m is3 ,t an inf9ite squ>e1 circle1 or sph]e1 is an impossibility2 ea* ( ^! figures be+ def9$ or det]m9$4 ,z !re c be no inf9ite circle1 s nei!r c an inf9ite body be mov$ r\nd 9 a circle 7s4 #g74 ,,*4 #f4--;,z ! ,fir/ ,body _c be inf9ite1 s nei!r c ^? bodies be inf9ite ^: nature x is to move to ! c5tre & f ! c5tre--nei!r ! c5tripetal nor ! c5trifugal body4 ,= ^! two curr5ts are opposite 9 nature2 opposite curr5ts be+ *>act]iz$ by ! opposite places to :i* !y t5d4 ,b ( two opposites1 if ! "o be fix$ & det]m9ate1 ! o!r mu/ be fix$ & det]m9ate also4 ,n[ ! c5tre is det]m9$2 = ! c5tripetal body1 let x fall f :at height x w1 c nev] fall l[] ?an ! c5tre2 &1 s9ce ! c5tre is det]m9$1 ! upp] region or extremity mu/ also be det]m9$4 ,! places at ea* extreme be+ ?us det]m9$1 ! int]m$iate space mu/ be det]m9$ also2 o!rwise !re w\ld exi/ motion undet]m9$ or inf9ite1 :i* has be5 %[n 9 a =m] treatise to be impossible 7,physica1 ,,viii4 viii472 & !re=e t body :i* ei!r is !re91 or may possibly be !re91 mu/ be det]m9$4 ,b x is a fact t ! c5tripetal body & ! c5trifugal body c be !re92 = c5tripetality & c5trifugality are ( ! nature ( ea* respectively 7ss4 #a1 #b74 ,h5ce we see t !re c be no inf9ite body4 ,!re are o!r reasons also4 ,z ! c5tripetal body is heavy1 if x be inf9ite1 its gravity mu/ also be inf9ite2 &1 if gravity _c be inf9ite1 nei!r c any heavy body be inf9ite4 ,! l ab\t any light body1 su* z ! c5trifugal 7s4 #c74 ,he !n %[s 7by a long process ( reason+1 n easy to foll[7 fir/1 t !re _c be an inf9ite body ) f9ite gravity2 next1 t !re c be no inf9ite gravity4 ,accord+ly !re c be no inf9ite body at all1 hav+ gravity4 ,at ! end1 he consid]s t ?is is e/abli%$1 7#a7 by ! p>tial argum5ts 7,greek3 dia tn kata me_/ros7 imm$iately prec$+2 7#b7 by ! g5]al reason+s 9 8 o!r treatises respect+ fir/ pr9ciples1 9 :i* he expla9$ ! ,inf9ite--9 :at s5se x exi/$ & did n exi/2 7#c7 by an argum5t ab\t ! ,inf9ite1 ^u :i* he t\*es 9 ! next *apt] 7ss4 #d-ac74 ,,*4 #g4--;,e body is ( necessity ei!r inf9ite or f9ite4 ,if inf9ite1 x is z a :ole ei!r ( l con/itu5ts or ( unlike4 ,if ! latt]1 ei!r ( a f9ite numb] ( species1 or ( an inf9ite numb]4 ,! la/ is impossible1 if our fundam5tal assumptions are all[$ to /&4 ,= s9ce ! simple modes ( motion are limit$ 9 numb]1 ! simple bodies mu/ be alike limit$2 ea* simple mode ( notion belong+ to its own special simple body1 & ea* natural body hav+ always its own natural motion4 ,b1 if ! ,inf9ite be compos$ ( a f9ite numb] ( species1 ea* ( ^! con/itu5t p>ts mu/ be inf9ite2 t is1 wat] & fire mu/ be inf9ite4 ,yet ?is too1 is impossible2 = we h se5 t !re _c be ei!r inf9ite levity or inf9ite gravity 7! attributes ( fire & wat]74 ,moreov]1 if ^! bodies be inf9ite1 ! places :i* !y occupy1 & ! motions :i* !y make1 mu/ also be inf9ite2 b ?is also we h %[n to be inadmissible1 if our fundam5tal assumptions are admitt$4 ,! c5tripetal body _c be c>ri$ to an inf9ite di/ance d[nw>d1 nor ! c5trifugal body to an inf9ite di/ance upw>d4 ,t :i* _c come to pass1 _c be 9 c\rse ( com+ to pass2 ?us1 if a ?+ _c come to be :ite1 or a cubit long1 or domicil$ 9 ,egypt1 x _c be 9 c\rse ( becom+ :ite1 or a cubit long1 c4 ,x _c be 9 c\rse ( be+ c>ri$ to a t]m9us :i* _c be rea*$4 ,x might be argu$ t fire1 ?\gh discont9u\s & disp]s$1 might /ill be inf9ite1 9 ! sum total ( its diff]5t masses4 ,b body is t :i* is ext5d$ 9 e direction3 h[ c !re be _m bodies unlike to ea* o!r1 yet ea* ( !m inf9ite8 ,ea* ( !m1 if inf9ite at all1 ought to be inf9ite 9 e direction 7ss4 #a-e74 ,we ?us see t ! ,inf9ite _c consi/ ( unlike con/itu5ts4 ,b nei!r c x consi/ ( con/itu5ts all simil>4 ,=1 fir/1 !re are only ?ree simple motions1 & "o ( ! ?ree x mu/ h2 b we h %[n t x _c h ei!r c5tripetal or c5trifugal motion 7i4e41 t x _c h ei!r inf9ite gravity or inf9ite levity72 nor c x aga9 h circul> motion1 = ! ,inf9ite _c be c>ri$ 9 a circle3 ?is w\ld am\nt to say+ t ! ,heav5 is inf9ite1 :i* we h %[n to be impossible4 ,! ,inf9ite inde$ _c be mov$ 9 any way at all2 =1 if mov$1 x mu/ be mov$ ei!r accord+ to nature1 or contr>y to nature 7viol5tly71 &1 if its pres5t motion be viol5t1 x mu/ h "s o!r mode ( motion :i* is natural to x4 ,b1 if x h any su*1 ?is assumes t !re exi/s "s o!r place belong+ to x1 into :i* x may be convey$--an obvi\s impossibility 7ss4 #f1 #g74 ,f>!rmore1 ! ,inf9ite _c act 9 any way ^u ! ,f9ite1 nor be act$ ^u !reby 7ss4 #h-aj74 ,nor c ! ,inf9ite be act$ ^u 9 any way by ! ,inf9ite 7ss4 #aa-ab74 ,if !n e p]ceptible body possesses p[]s1 z ag5t or pati5t or bo?1 !re c be no p]ceptible body :i* is inf9ite4 ,b all bodies :i* are 9 any place are p]ceptible2 !re=e no body :i* is 9 any place c be inf9ite4 ,!re is no inf9ite body1 inde$ !re c be no body at all1 outside ( ! ,heav52 = t :i* is outside ( ! ,heav5 is 9 a place4 ,ev5 if p]ceivable only up to a c]ta9 po9t 7,greek3 me_/*ri t9o_/s71 ev5 if m]ely intelligible1 x w\ld /ill be 9 a place1 & w\ld !re=e come "u ! =ego+ argum5t--t !re is no body outside ( ! ,heav5 7ss4 #ac1 #ad74 ,! =ego+ reason+ may be summ$ up1 9 m g5]al language 7,greek3 logik_/t]on71 z foll[s3--,! ,inf9ite assum$ z homog5e\s _c be mov$ 9 a circle1 s9ce ! ,inf9ite has no c5tre2 nor 9 a /raight l9e1 s9ce ?is w\ld imply a second inf9ite place into :i* x mu/ be mov$ accord+ to nature1 & a ?ird inf9ite place into :i* x mu/ be mov$ aga9/ nature1 & s9ce 9 ei!r case ! =ce :i* causes x to be mov$ mu/ be inf9ite4 ,b we h already argu$1 9 treat+ ( ,motion 7,phys4 ,,viii4 x47 t no?+ f9ite c h inf9ite p[]1 no?+ inf9ite c h f9ite p[]2 &1 if t :i* is mov$ accord+ to nature c also be mov$ contr>y to nature1 !re mu/ ( necessity be two ,inf9ites--,mov5s & ,motum4 ,yet :at c t be :i* causes ! ,inf9ite to move8 ,if x cause itself to move1 x mu/ be animat$ 7,greek3 e7_/mpsu*on73 b h[ c an inf9ite animat$ be+ 7,greek3 zon7 exi/8 ,&1 if !re be any?+ else :i* causes x to move1 !re mu/ exi/ two ,inf9ites1 ea* di/+ui%$ f ! o!r 9 =m & p[] 7ss4 #ae-ag74 ,aga91 ev5 if we admit ! doctr9e ( ,leukippus & ,demokritus--,t ! :ole is n cont9u\s1 b discont9u\s1 atoms divid$ by int]v5+ spaces--/ill ! ,inf9ite is inadmissible4 ,= ! nature & ess5ce ( ^! atoms is all ! same1 ?\gh !y are diff]5t f ea* o!r 9 figure & arrangem5t2 accord+ly ! motion ( all mu/ be ! same3 if "o is heavy or c5tripetal1 all mu/ be s alike2 if "o is light or c5trifugal1 all mu/ be s alike4 ,b ei!r ( ^! motions w\ld imply ! exi/5ce ( c5tre & p]iph]y2 :i* does n consi/ ) an inf9ite :ole4 ,9 ! ,inf9ite1 !re is nei!r c5tre nor p]iph]y2 no t]m9us prefix$ ei!r = upw>d or d[nw>d motion2 no own place ei!r = c5tripetal or c5trifugal matt]4 ,!re=e 9 an inf9ite univ]se1 !re c be no motion at all 7ss4 #ah1 #ai74 ,,*4 #h4--,!re _c be m ?an "o ,kosmos4 ,all ?+s bo? re/ & are mov$1 ei!r by viol5ce1 or accord+ to nature4 ,9 t place to :i* x is c>ri$ by nature1 x also re/s by nature3 9 t place to :i* x is c>ri$ by viol5ce1 x re/s by viol5ce4 ,if ! curr5t :i* we see t[>ds ! c5tre is by viol5ce1 ! opposite curr5t mu/ be natural2 if e>? is c>ri$ by viol5ce f !nce hi!rw>d1 its natural curr5t mu/ be f h5ce ?i!rw>d2 &1 if be+ "h x re/s )\t viol5ce1 its curr5t t[>ds "h mu/ be a natural "o4 ,= !re is "o only :i* is natural4 ,n[1 if !re be _m ,kosmi1 !y mu/ be alike 9 _! nature1 & mu/ be compos$ ( ! same bodies1 hav+ ! same nature & p[]s--fire1 e>?1 & ! two int]m$iate elem5ts3 =1 if ! bodies "h are n ! same z ^? 9 o!r ,kosmi--if ! same names are giv5 9 an equivocal s5se & d n connote ! same specific attributes--! "n ,kosmos mu/ be equivocal also1 & !re _c be _m true or real ,kosmi1 9 ! same s5se4 ,to ! p>ts or elem5ts ( ea* ,kosmos1 !re=e1 ! c5tripetal & 9999c5trifugal curr5ts are natural2 = ! simple curr5ts are limit$ 9 numb]1 & ea* elem5t is s nam$ z to connote "o ( !m specially2 &1 if ! curr5ts are ! same1 ! elem5ts mu/ also be ! same ev]y:]e4 ,if !re 7 ano!r ,kosmos1 ! e>? 9 t w\ld t5d t[>ds ! c5tre ( our ,kosmos1 & ! fire 9 t w\ld t5d t[>ds ! p]iph]y ( our ,kosmos4 ,b ?is is impossible2 s9ce 9 t case ! e>? 9 t ,kosmos w\ld run away f ! c5tre ( its own ,kosmos1 & ! fire !re9 w\ld run away f its own p]iph]y4 ,ei!r we mu/ n admit ! same nature 9 ! simple elem5ts ( ! num]\s ,kosmi2 or1 if we d admit x1 we mu/ recognize only "o c5tre & "o p]iph]y4 ,?is difficulty prev5ts our recogniz+ m ?an "o ,kosmos 7ss4 #a-f74 ,x is unphilosophical to affirm t ! nature ( ^! simple elem5ts becomes *ang$ accord+ z !y are m or less di/ant f _! own places4 ,! diff]5ce is at be/ "o ( degree1 n "o ( k9d4 ,t !y are mov$1 we see pla9ly2 !re mu/ !re=e be "s "o curr5t ( motion natural to !m4 ,accord+ly e portion ( ! same elem5t 7or ( elem5ts ! same 9 k9d7 mu/ t5d t[>ds ! same num]ical place--t[>ds ?is actual c5tre 7,greek3 pros to_/de ti me_/son71 or t actual p]iph]y2 &1 if ! t5d5cy be t[>ds "o c5tre specie1 b t[>ds _m c5tres num]o1 because p>ticul>s diff] num]o alone1 & n specie1 /ill ! attribute w be alike 9 all1 & w n be pres5t 9 "s portions1 abs5t 9 o!rs3 ,i mean t1 if ! portions ( ?is ,kosmos are relative to ea* o!r1 ^? 9 ano!r ,kosmos are 9 ! l condition1 & :at is tak5 f ?is ,kosmos w n be diff]5t f :at is tak5 f ! correspond+ elem5ts ( any o!r ,kosmos4 ,unless ^! assumptions c be ov]?r[n1 x is indisputably c]ta9 t !re c be only "o c5tre & "o p]iph]y2 by consequ5ce !re=e1 only "o ,kosmos & n m 7ss4 #g-aj74 ,!re are o!r reasons to %[ t !re is a giv5 t]m9us = ! natural curr5t bo? ( fire & ( e>?4 ,a ?+ mov$1 speak+ g5]ally1 *anges f some?+ def9ite into some?+ else def9ite2 b !re are diff]5t species ( su* *ange3 ! *ange call$ gett+-well is f sickness to heal?2 t call$ gr[? is f ! little to great2 t call$ local movem5t is f a t]m9us to ano!r t]m9us1 & local movem5ts are specifically diff]5t f ea* o!r1 accord+ z ! t]m9us a quo & ! t]m9us ad quem is def9$ 9 ea*4 ,! t]m9us is always a kn[n & def9ite po9t3 x is n accid5tal1 nor dep5d5t ^u ! arbitrium ( ! mov]4 ,fire & e>? !re=e d n move on to inf9ity1 b to def9ite po9ts 9 opposite directions2 & ! local anti!sis is betwe5 above & bel[3 ^! are ! two t]m9i ( ! respective curr5ts4 ,e>? is c>ri$ ) great] velocity1 ! ne>] x approa*es to ! c5tre2 fire is c>ri$ ) great] velocity1 ! ne>] x approa*es to ! p]iph]y4 ,?is %[s t its curr5t does n /ret* to inf9ity2 = its velocity w\ld !n increase inf9itely4 ,e>? is n c>ri$ d[nw>d by ! =ce ( any ?+ else1 nor fire upw>ds3 n by any viol5ce1 nor by squeez+ out 7,greek3 e7k?li_/psei71 z "s say4 ,if ?is 7 s1 a l>g] quantity ( e>? w\ld move d[nw>d1 & a l>g] quantity ( fire upw>d1 m sl[ly ?an a small]4 ,b ! rev]se is :at occurs3 ! l>g] quantity ( e>? moves d[nw>d m rapidly ?an ! small]2 if its motion _h be5 caus$ by viol5ce or by squeez+ out1 su* motion w\ld h slack5$ z x became m widely di/ant f ! mov+ =ce 7ss4 #aa-ad74 ,we may d$uce ! same conclusion f ! reason+s ( ! ,fir/ ,philosophy1 also f ! fact ( circul> motion :i* ( necessity is con/ant bo? "h & ev]y:]e4 ,fur!r1 x is cle> t !re c be only "o ,kosmos2 =1 z !re are ?ree bodily elem5ts1 s !re are ?ree special places ( su* elem5ts3 "o ! und]mo/1 at ! c5tre2 ano!r ! upp]mo/1 at ! p]iph]y1 revolv+ 9 a circul> orbit2 ! ?ird1 9 ! int]m$iate place betwe5 ! two1 be+ ! light or float+ elem5t 7,greek3 to e7pipo_/lazon72 =1 if n !re1 x mu/ be outside ( ! ,kosmos1 :i* is impossible 7ss4 #ae1 #af74 ,,*4 #i4--,we mu/ h[ev] n[ exam9e "s reasons1 :i* h be5 alleg$ to prove ! contr>y2 & :i* seem to %[1 n only t !re are _m ,kosmi1 b ev5 t !re mu/ be _m1 & t ! hypo!sis ( "o s+le ,kosmos is inadmissible4 ,x is urg$ t 9 all aggregates1 natural z well z artificial1 ! ,=m by itself is "o ?+1 & ! ,=m implicat$ ) ,matt] is ano!r4 ,:5 we decl>e ! def9ition ( a sph]e or a circle1 we d n include !re9 gold or brass1 = ?is makes no "p ( ! ess5ce3 if we m5tion ^! metals1 x is :5 we _c conceive or grasp any?+ beyond ! p>ticul> case2 = example1 if we h "o p>ticul> circle be=e u4 ,nev]!less1 ev5 "h ! circle 9 ! ab/ract is "o ?+1 & ?is p>ticul> circle is ano!r3 ! fir/ is ! ,=m by itself1 ! la/ is ! ,=m along ) ,matt]1 "o among p>ticul> objects4 ,n[1 s9ce ! ,heav5 is p]ceivable by s5se1 x mu/ be "o among p>ticul> objects2 = e ?+ p]ceivable is implicat$ ) ,matt]4 ,z su*1 x is ?is ,heav53 to be ?is ,heav5 7,=m along ) ,matt]7 is "o ?+2 to be ! ,heav5 simply & absolutely 7,=m )\t ,matt]7 is ano!r4 ,n[1 :]ev] !re is ,=m1 !re ei!r are or may be _m di/9ct p>ticul>s2 :e!r we admit 7) ,plato7 t ! ,=ms exi/ sep>ately1 or n4 ,9 all ?+s :]e ! ,ess5ce is implicat$ ) ,matt]1 we see t ! p>ticul> manife/ations are _m & ( indef9ite numb]4 ,^u ?is reason+ !re=e1 !re are or at lea/ may be _m ,heav5s3 ! supposition t !re c be no m ?an "o1 is inadmissible 7ss4 #a-b74 ,b we mu/ see h[ f> ?is reason+ w hold4 ,t ! ,=m )\t ,matt] diff]s f ! ,=m ) ,matt]1 is p]fectly true4 ,b ?is does n %[ t !re mu/ be _m ,kosmi2 nor c !re be _m1 if ?is "o ,kosmos exhau/s all ! matt] t exi/s4 ,if ! matt] ( man 7 fle% & bone1 & if a s+le man 7 =m$1 includ+ all fle% & all bone indissolubly unit$2 !re c\ld n possibly exi/ any o!r man2 & ! l is true ab\t o!r objects2 =1 :]e ! ess5ce is implicat$ ) an und]ly+ matt]1 no object c come into exi/5ce unless "s matt] be furni%$4 ,! ,kosmos1 or ,heav51 is a p>ticul> object1 compos$ p>tly out ( appropriate matt]3 b if x absorbs all ! appropriate matt]1 no second ,kosmos c come to pass4 ,we %all n[ %[ t x does include all ! appropriate matt] 7ss4 #c-e74 ,! ^w ,heav5 has ?ree diff]5t s5ses4 #a4 ,x means ! ess5ce ( ! extreme p]iph]y ( ! univ]se1 or ! natural body :i* is !re situat$3 we call ?is highe/ & f>!/ place ,heav51 :]e we suppose all ! div9e ag5cy to be situat$ 7,greek3 e7n 7 to !ion pan i7dru/hai_/ pham574 #b4 ,x means ! body cont9u\s 7,greek3 to sune*es sma7 ) ! extreme p]iph]y ( ! univ]se1 :]e9 are conta9$ ,sun1 ,moon1 & "s ( ! ,/>s 7,planets72 = ^! we affirm to be 9 ! ,heav54 #c4 ,9 a ?ird s5se1 x means ! body circumscrib$ 7,greek3 p]ie*o_/m5on7 by ?is extreme p]iph]y3 = we usually call ! ,:ole & ! ,univ]se1 ,heav54--,^! be+ ! ?ree s5ses ( ,heav51 ! ,:ole circumscrib$ by ! extreme p]iph]y mu/ by necessity consi/ ( all ! natural & p]ceivable body exi/+1 s9ce !re nei!r is nor c be any su* outside ( ! ,heav54 ,=1 if !re 7 any su* outside ( ! ,heav51 x mu/ be ei!r "o ( ! elem5ts or a comp\nd !re(--ei!r by nature or contr>y to nature4 ,= we h %[n t ea* ( ! ?ree elem5ts--! circul>1 ! c5trifugal1 & ! c5tripetal--has its own special place by nature2 & t1 ev5 if ! place 9 :i* x n[ is 7 n its natural place1 t place w\ld be ! natural place ( ano!r "o among ! ?ree2 =1 if a place be contr>y to nature 9 ref]5ce to "o1 x mu/ be con=mable to nature 9 ref]5ce to ano!r4 ,nei!r ( ^! ?ree elem5ts !re=e c be outside ( ! ,heav51 nor1 ( c\rse1 any ( _! comp\nds4 ,& !re exi/s no o!r body besides ^!2 nor c 9999!re exi/ any o!r 7ss4 #f1 #g74 ,we see !re=e pla9ly t !re nei!r is nor c be any mass ( body 7,greek3 smatos o7_/gkon7 outside ( ! ,heav52 & t ! ,heav5 compreh5ds all matt]--all body natural & p]ceptible4 ,s t !re nei!r are1 nor ev] h be51 nor ev] c be1 _m ,heav5s3 ?is "o is unique z well z p]fect4 ,nor is !re ei!r place1 or vacuum1 or "t1 outside ( ! ,heav54 ,!re is no place or vacuum2 because1 if !re 71 body might be plac$ !re92 :i* we h %[n to be impossible4 ,!re is no "t2 because "t is ! numb] ( motion1 & !re c be no motion )\t "s natural body2 b !re _c exi/ any extra-cele/ial body4 ,nei!r1 !re=e1 are ! ?+s outside ( ! ,heav5 9 place1 nor is !re "t to affect !m ) old age1 nor d !y und]go *ange ( any k9d4 ,!y are )\t any *ange ( quality & )\t susceptibility ( suff]+2 !y rema91 ?r\gh\t ! entire on1 9 possession ( ! be/ & mo/ self-suffic+ life4 ,! ^w on is a div9e expression propos$ 7,greek3 !i_/s e7_/ph!gktai7 by ! anci5t philosoph]s3 !y call ! on ( ea* creature t end :i* circumscribes ! natural duration ( ! creature's life4 ,pursuant to ?is same explanation1 ! end ( ! :ole ,heav5--! end compris+ all "t & ! inf9ity ( all ?+s--is on1 s d5om9at$ ,greek3 a7po t\ 9999a7ei ei7nai1 immortal & div9e4 ,f ?is is susp5d$ exi/5ce & life = all o!r ?+s2 = "s closely & /rictly1 = o!rs fa9tly & feebly4 ,= x is a doctr9e (t5 repeat$ to u 9 ord9>y philosophical disc\rse 7,greek3 e7n tois e7gkukli_/ois philosoph_/masi7 respect+ div9e matt]s--t ! ,div9e1 e ?+ prim>y & supreme1 is by necessity un*angeable2 & ?is confirms :at has be5 j affirm$4 ,= !re exi/s no?+ m p[]ful ?an itself :i* c cause x to be mov$ 7if !re 71 t w\ld be m div9e72 nor has x any mean attribute2 nor is x defici5t 9 any ( ! p]fections belong+ to its nature4 ,its unceas+ motion too is easily expla9$4 ,= all ?+s cease to be mov$1 :5 !y come into _! own place2 b ) ! circul> or revolv+ body ! place 9 :i* x beg9s & 9 :i* x ends is ! same 7ss4 #h-aj74 ,,*4 #aj4--,we %all next discuss :e!r ! ,kosmos be g5]able or ung5]able1 & p]i%able or imp]i%able2 notic+ :at o!rs h said on ! subject be=e4 ,all ( !m consid] ! ,kosmos to be g5]at$3 b "s ?9k x 7al?\gh g5]at$7 to be et]nal2 o!rs look ^u x z p]i%able1 l o!r natural comp\nds2 o!rs aga9--,emp$okles & ,h]akleitus--decl>e x to be g5]at$ & de/roy$ 9 p]petual alt]nation4 ,n[ to affirm t x is g5]at$ & yet t x is et]nal1 is an impossibility3 we _c reasonably affirm any ?+1 except :at we see to happ5 ) all ?+s or ) mo/ ?+s2 &1 9 ! case be=e u1 :at happ5s is ! v rev]se ( ! =ego+ affirmation1 = all ?+s g5]at$ are se5 to be de/roy$4 ,aga9 t :i* has no beg9n+ ( be+ z x is n[--t :i* _c possibly h be5 o!rwise previ\sly ?r\gh\t ! :ole on--c nev] by any possibility *ange2 =1 if x c\ld ev] *ange1 !re mu/ exi/ "s cause1 :i*1 if x _h exi/$ be=e1 w\ld h compell$ :at is assum$ to be incapable ( be+ o!rwise1 to be o!rwise4 ,to ^? :o say t ! ,kosmos has come toge!r f mat]ials previ\sly exi/+ 9 ano!r condition1 we may reply99993 ,if ^! mat]ials 7 always 9 ?is prior condition & incapable ( any o!r1 ! ,kosmos w\ld nev] h be5 g5]at$ at all2 &1 if x has be5 g5]at$1 we may be sure t ! antec$5t mat]ials mu/ h be5 capable ( com+ into ano!r condition1 & 7 n "u a necessity to rema9 always 9 ! same condition2 s t aggregations once exi/+ 7 dissolv$1 & disgregations br\ght into comb9ation1 _m times ov] be=e ! pres5t ,kosmos2 at lea/ !y possibly may h be5 s3 & ?is is en\gh to prove t ! ,kosmos is n inde/ructible 7ss4 #a-c74 ,among ^? :o ma9ta9 ! ,kosmos to h be5 g5]at$ yet to be inde/ructible1 !re are "s :o def5d !mselves 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,!y tell u t ! g5]ation ( :i* !y speak is n meant to be affirm$ z a real pa/ fact1 b is a m]e explanatory or illu/rative fiction1 l ! g5]ation ( a geometrical figure1 introduc$ to facilitate ! und]/&+ by pupils4 ,b su* an analogy _c be admitt$4 ,= 9 geometry ! conclusions are j ! same1 if we suppose all ! figures exi/+ simultane\sly2 b x is n s ) ! demon/rations :i* !y t5d] ab\t ! g5]ation ( ! ,cosmos1 :]e ! antec$5t condition & ! consequ5t condition are ! rev]se ( ea* o!r4 ,out ( disord] 7!y tell u7 ?+s came into ord]3 ^! two conditions _c be simultane\s2 g5]ation mu/ be a real fact1 & di/9ction ( "t comp>+ ! "o condition ) ! o!r2 :]eas 9 geometrical figures no di/9ction ( "t is requir$ 7ss4 #d-f74 ,to assume alt]nate g5]ation & dissolution1 ov] & ov] aga91 is 9 fact to repres5t ! ,kosmos z et]nal1 b z *ang+ its =m2 z if y %\ld suppose ! same p]son to pass f boyhood to manhood & !n back aga9 f manhood to boyhood--call+ t by ! "n ( g5]ation & de/ruction4 ,=1 if ! elem5ts come toge!r1 ! aggregation result+ w n be accid5tal & v>iable b always ! same1 especially ^u ! assumptions ( ^! philosoph]s4 ,s t1 if ! :ole ,kosmos1 rema9+ cont9u\s1 is sometimes arrang$ 9 "o way1 sometimes 9 ano!r1 x is ^! arrangem5ts :i* are g5]at$ & de/roy$1 n ! ,kosmos itself 7ss4 #g1 #h74 ,total g5]ation1 & total de/ruction )\t any r5ovation1 ( ,kosmos might be possible1 if !re 7 an inf9ity ( ,kosmi1 b _c be possible ) only "o2 = ant]ior to ! mom5t ( g5]ation !re exi/$ ! antec$5t condition1 :i*1 nev] hav+ be5 g5]at$1 c\ld n be de/roy$ 7s4 #i74 ,!re are "s :o ?9k 7) ,plato 9 ,timu7 t ! non-g5]able may yet be de/roy$1 & t ! g5]at$ may be inde/ructible4 ,we h combat$ ?is op9ion on physical gr\nds1 respect+ ! ,heav5 specially4 ,we %all n[ treat ! subject ^u univ]sal reason+s 7i4e41 belong+ to ,logic or ,metaphysics--,greek3 pros ou7s phusiks men p]i t\ ou7ra_/n\ mo_/non ei7_/rtai2 ka?o_/l\ de p]i a7_/pantos skepsame_/nois1 e7_//ai kai p]i t\_/t\ dlon--s4 #aj74 ,,*4 #aa4--;,9 ?is reason+1 ! fir/ /ep is to po9t out t ,g5]able & ,non-,g5]able1 ,de/ructible or ,inde/ructible1 are words us$ 9 _m diff]5t s5ses1 :i* mu/ be discrim9at$ 7,greek3 polla*s lego_/m5a74 ,if a man uses ^! words 9 an affirmative proposition )\t su* discrim9ation1 8 affirmation is indet]m9ate2 y _c tell 9 :i* ( _! _m diff]5t s5ses he int5ds to affirm4 ,non-,g5]able means3 7#a7 ,t :i* n[ is1 hav+ previ\sly n be51 ev5 ?\gh )\t ei!r g5]ation or *ange1 z1 to t\* or to be mov$2 =1 accord+ to "s p]sons1 t\*+ or be+ mov$ are n cases ( g5]ation2 y _c become t\*+1 or become mov$2 y are mov$1 or y are n mov$2 y t\*1 or y d n t\* 7,greek3 ou7 gar ei7nai gi_/ne/hai_/ phas9 a7pto_/m5on1 ou7de k9\_/m5on4 ,he means1 ,i presume1 t to t\*1 & to be mov$1 are in/antane\s acts1 ?\gh h[ !y c be said to occur ,greek3 a7_/neu metabols1 ,i d n see474 ,x means3 7#b7 ,t :i*1 ?\gh capable ( com+ to pass or ( hav+ come to pass 7,greek3 e7nde*o_/m5on gi_/ne/hai 7 g5e_//hai71 nev]!less is n2 = ?is too is non-g5]able1 s9ce x might h come to be4 ,aga91 x means3 7#c7 ,t :i* _c by possibility sometimes exi/1 sometimes n exi/4 ,impossible has two mean+s3 7#a7 ,t ( :i* y _c truly say t x might be g5]at$ 7,greek3 o7_/ti ge_/noit' a7_/n72 7#b7 ,t :i* _c be g5]at$ easily1 or quickly1 or well 7,greek3 kals74 ,s also ! ,g5]able 7,greek3 to g5nto_/n7 means3 7#a7 ,t :i*1 n exi/+ previ\sly1 aft]w>ds exi/s at "o "t & n at ano!r1 :e!r g5]at$ or n 7he seems "h to po9t to ,greek3 to a7_/pte/hai or ,greek3 to k9ei/hai72 7#b7 ,! possible1 :e!r x be ! /rictly possible1 or ! easily possible2 7#c7 ,t ( :i* !re is g5]ation out ( ! nonexi/5t into exi/5ce1 :e!r x n[ does actually exi/1 or may exi/ h]eaft]4 ,! ,de/ructible & ,inde/ructible 7,greek3 ph?>ton kai a7_/ph?>ton7 h simil> diff]5ces ( mean+ 7ss4 #a-f74 ,if we say t a man c raise a weight ( #ajj p\nds1 or m>* #ajj /adia1 we speak always ) ref]5ce to a c]ta9 extreme1 mean+ to imply t he c also raise a weight ( #ej1 #dj1 #cj p\nds1 & t he c also walk #ej1 #dj1 #cj /adia4 ,if we say t he _c raise a weight ( #ajj p\nds1 we mean to imply1 =tiori1 t he _c raise a weight ( #aaj p\nds4 ,9 reg>d to sight & he>+1 ! case is opposite2 he :o c see a small object1 c c]ta9ly see a l>ge "o2 he :o c he> a fa9t s\nd1 c c]ta9ly he> a l\d "o4 ,b he :o c see a l>ge object1 is n necess>ily able to see a small "o2 he :o c he> a l\d s\nd1 is n necess>ily able to he> a fa9t "o4 ,9 sight & he>+1 sup]ior p[] is indicat$ by ! less includ+ ! great]2 9 motion1 by ! great] includ+ ! less 7ss4 #g-h74 ,,*4 #ab4--;,if !re are "s ?+s capable bo? ( exi/5ce & ( nonexi/5ce1 we mu/ def9e on :i* falls ! major portion ( "t2 =1 if we _c 9 ei!r case def9e ! "t1 & c only say t x is great] ?an any assum$ l5g? ( "t & nev] less ?an any assum$ l5g?1--! same ?+ w be capable bo? ( exi/5ce & ( non-exi/5ce = an inf9ite "t2 :i* is an impossibility4 ,we mu/ take our dep>ture f ?is pr9ciple3 ,impossibility is "o ?+1 ,falsehood ano!r4 ,bo? ! impossible & ! false are1 h[ev]1 ei!r conditional 7z :5 x is said to be impossible t ! triangle %\ld h its ?ree angles equal to two "r angles1 if su* & su* ?+s are grant$1 & t ! diamet] %\ld be comm5surate ) ! p]iph]y1 if su* & su* positions 7 true71 or absolute4 ,b !re are matt]s absolutely false1 :i* are n absolutely impossible4 ,:5 y are /&+1 ,i affirm t y are sitt+3 ?is is absolutely false1 b n absolutely impossible4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ,i affirm t y are at ! same "t sitt+ & /&+1 or t ! diamet] is comm5surable ) ! p]iph]y1 ! proposition is n m]ely absolutely false1 b absolutely impossible4 ,an assumption simply false is n ! same ?+ z an assumption absolutely impossible3 f an impossible assumption !re foll[ o!r impossibilities4 ,! p[] ( sitt+ or /&+ means t y c d ei!r "o at any giv5 "t--"o at "o "t1 ! o!r at ano!r2 b n t y c d bo? at ! same "t4 ,b1 if any ?+ has ?r\gh\t an inf9ite "t ! p[] ( do+ m ?+s ?an "o1 x mu/ h ! p[] ( do+ m ?+s ?an "o at ! same "t2 = ?is inf9ite "t compreh5ds its :ole exi/5ce4 ,accord+ly1 if any ?+ exi/+ = an inf9ite "t is nev]!less de/ructible1 ?is means t x has ! possibility n to exi/4 ,?is be+ a possibility1 let u imag9e x realiz$3 !n ! ?+ 9 "q w bo? exi/ actually = an inf9ite "t & yet n exi/2 :i* is a consequ5ce n only false1 b impossible1 & ?us proves ! premiss assum$ to be impossible 7i4e41 t a ?+ exi/+ = an inf9ite "t is nev]!less de/ructible74 ,we ?us see t :at exi/s always is absolutely inde/ructible 7ss4 #a-c74 ,x is also ung5]able2 =1 if g5]able1 !re w be a possibility t at "s "t or o!r x did n exi/4 ,t is g5]able1 :i* may possibly h n exi/$ at "s ant]ior "t1 f9ite or inf9ite3 s t1 if ,greek3 to a7ei o7_/n _c possibly n exi/1 x _c be g5]able4 ,n[ t :i* is always possible to exi/1 has1 = its correlate negative 7,greek3 a7po_/phasis71 t :i* is n always possible to exi/2 & t :i* is always possible n to exi/1 has1 = its contr>y1 t :i* is n always possible n to exi/4 ,^! two negatives mu/ ( necessity be true ( ! same subject3 !re mu/ be some?+ ( :i* we may truly say--,x has no possibility always to exi/--,x has no possibility always n to exi/4 ,?is !re=e is some?+ int]m$iate betwe5 t :i* always exi/s1 & t :i* always exi/s n1 viz41 ,t :i* may exi/ & may n exi/ 7,greek3 kai ei7nai me_/son t\ a7ei o7_/ntos kai t\ a7ei m o7_/ntos1 to duna_/m5on ei7nai kai m ei7nai72 = bo? ! negative pr$icates w f9d application1 if x d n exi/ always4 ,! possible to exi/1 & ! possible n to exi/1 mu/ !re=e be ! same ?+--a mean betwe5 ! two above-m5tion$ extremes 7ss4 #d1 #e74 ,aft] a long metaphysical d$uction1 occupy+ f sections #f to #ag1 ,ari/otle proce$s z foll[s4 ,we may also disc]n 9 ! foll[+ mann] t no?+ :i* has be5 once g5]at$1 c cont9ue inde/ructible2 no?+ :i* is ung5]able & :i* always exi/$ h]et(ore1 c ev] be de/roy$4 ,= x is impossible t any ?+ :i* arises spontane\sly 7,greek3 a7po t\ au7toma_/t\7 c be ei!r inde/ructible or ung5]able4 ,! ,spontane\s1 & ! ,casual 7,greek3 to a7po ts tu_/*s71 are 9 anti!sis to ! always or ! mo/ frequ5tly ,ens or ,fi5s 7,greek3 p>a to a7ei kai to 7s e7pi to polu 7 o7n 7 g9o_/m5on--s4 #ah72 b t :i* has exi/$ = an inf9ite or a v long t9e1 mu/ belong to ?is la/ category4 ,accord+ly1 su* ?+s mu/ by nature sometimes exi/1 sometimes n exi/4 ,9 !m1 bo? sides ( ! contradiction are alike true1 ow+ to ! matt] ( :i* !y are compos$3 !y exi/1 & !y d n exi/4 ,b y _c say ) tru? n[ t ! ?+ exi/s la/ ye>2 nor c\ld y say la/ ye> t x exi/s n[4 ,hav+ once be5 non-exi/5t1 x _c be et]nal = future "t2 = x w /ill possess 9 future "t ! possibility ( non-exi/5ce1 yet n ! p[] ( non-exi/+ at ! mom5t :5 x does exi/1 nor ) ref]5ce to la/ ye> & to pa/ "t2 !re be+ no p[] be>+ ^u pa/ "t1 b only on pres5t & future "t4 7,sections #ba & #bb are h>dly intelligible to me47 ,on physical gr\nds also x appe>s impossible t :at is et]nal 9 ! pa/ %\ld be de/roy$ aft]w>ds1 or t :at did n exi/ at "s =m] "t %\ld aft]w>ds be et]nal4 ,^? ?+s :i* are de/ructible1 are all ( !m g5]able & *angeable 7,greek3 g5nta kai a7lloita pa_/nta74 ,^? ?+s :i* exi/ by nature1 are *ang$ by _! opposites & by _! compon5t mat]ials1 & are de/roy$ by ! same ag5cies 7s4 #bc74 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,book ,,ii4 ,,*4 #a4--,! ,heav5 has n be5 g5]at$ nor c x be de/roy$1 z "s 7,plato7 affirm3 x is "o & et]nal1 hav+ nei!r beg9n+ nor end ( ! :ole on1 hold+ & compreh5d+ 9 itself inf9ite "t4 ,?is we may believe n m]ely f ! =ego+ reason+s1 b also f ! op9ion ( oppon5ts :o suppose ! ,cosmos to be g5]at$4 ,=1 s9ce _! op9ion has be5 %[n to be inadmissible1 & our doctr9e is at lea/ admissible1 ev5 ?us mu* w h great =ce to det]m9e our fai? 9 ! immortality & et]nity ( ! ,heav54 ,h5ce we %all d well to assi/ 9 p]suad+ ourselves t ! anci5t doctr9es1 & especially ^? ( our own c\ntry1 are true--,t !re is among ! sub/ances end[$ ) motion "o immortal & div9e1 ^: motion is su* t x has itself no limit b is r itself ! limit ( all o!r motions1 limit be+ ! attribute ( ! circumscrib+ sub/ance4 ,! circul> motion ( ! ,heav51 be+ itself p]fect1 circumscribes & compreh5ds all ! imp]fect motions :i* are subject to limit & cessation4 ,x has itself nei!r beg9n+ nor end1 b is unceas+ ?r\gh\t inf9ite "t3 9 reg>d to o!r motions1 x is ! initiatory cause to "s1 :ile x is ! recipi5t ( ! cessation ( o!rs 7ss4 #a1 #b74 ,! anci5ts assign$ ,heav5 to ! ,gods1 z ! only place :i* 0 immortal1 & our reason+s %[ t x is n m]ely inde/ructible & ung5]able1 b also unsusceptible ( all mortal defect or discom=t4 ,moreov] x feels no fatigue1 because x is n con/ra9$ by any extrane\s =ce to revolve contr>y to its own nature3 if x 7 s1 t w\ld be tiresome1 & all ! m s9ce ! motion is et]nal2 x w\ld be inconsi/5t ) any supremely good condition4 ,! anci5ts !re=e 7 mi/ak5 9 say+ t ! ,heav5 requir$ to be support$ by a p]son nam$ ,atlas3 ! au?ors ( ?is fable proce$$ ^u ! same supposition z rec5t philosoph]s2 reg>d+ ! cele/ial body z heavy & e>?y1 !y plac$ "u x1 9 my?ical guise1 an animat$ necessity 7,greek3 a7na_/gkn e7_/mpsu*on71 or con/ra9t aris+ f vital =ce4 ,b !y are wrong2 & s is ,emp$okles1 :5 he says t ! ,heav5 is kept p]man5tly 9 its place by extreme velocity ( rotation1 :i* c\nt]acts its natural incl9ation d[nw>ds 7,greek3 oi7kei_/z r7ops74 ,nor c we reasonably suppose t x is kept et]nally 9 its place 7i4e41 contr>y to its own nature7 by ! compulsion ( a s\l or vital =ce 7,greek3 u7po psu*s a7nagkaz\_/ss73 x is impossible t ! life ( a s\l ?us act+ c be pa9less or happy4 ,! motion :i* x causes1 be+ accompani$ ) viol5ce & be+ also p]petual 7z x is ! nature ( ! ,fir/ ,body to cause motion cont9u\sly ?r\gh\t ! ,kosmos71 mu/ be a tiresome duty1 unreliev$ by any reasonable relaxation2 s9ce ?is s\l enjoys no repose1 su* z ! lett+ d[n ( ! body dur+ sleep af=ds to ! s\l ( mortal animals1 b is subject$ to a fate l ,ixion's--ceaseless & unyield+ revolution4 ,n[ our reason+s1 if admissible1 respect+ ! ,fir/ or ,circul> ,motion 7,greek3 pr_/ts phoras7 af=d n m]ely m h>moni\s conceptions respect+ its et]nity1 b also ! only way ( speak+ 9 language :i* w be all[$ z consi/5t ) ! vague impressions respect+ ! ,deity 7,greek3 t mantei_/a t p]i ton !o_/n74 ,en\gh1 h[ev]1 ( ?is talk = ! pres5t 7ss4 #c-f74 ,,*4 #b4--,s9ce ! ,py?agoreans & o!rs recognize a ,"r & ,left 9 ! ,heav51 let u enquire :e!r su* ,greek3 a7r*ai_/ c prop]ly be ascrib$ to ! body ( ! ,univ]se2 =1 if ^! c be ascrib$1 mu* m may ! o!r ,greek3 a7r*ai_/ prior to !m be ascrib$ to x4 ,( ,greek3 a7r*ai_/ k9_/ses 7t]m9i a quibus71 !re are ?ree c\ples3 7#a7 ,upw>ds & ,d[nw>ds2 7#b7 ,=w>d & ,backw>d2 7#c7 ,"r & ,left4 ,all ! ?ree exi/ 9 animals2 b ! fir/ alone is f\nd 9 plants4 ,all ! ?ree are 9 all p]fect bodies1 & 9 all animat$ bodies :i* h 9 !mselves a beg9n+ ( motion2 b n 9 inanimate bodies1 :i* h n 9 !mselves a beg9n+4 ,ea* ( ^! ?ree ,greek3 a7r*ai_/ or ,greek3 dia/a_/seis is true & appropriate z an attribute2 b among ! ?ree1 ,upw>ds & ,d[nw>ds comes fir/ 9 ! ord] ( nature1 ,"r & ,left1 la/4 ,! ,py?agoreans are to be blam$ = dwell+ on ,"r & ,left1 & n notic+ ! o!r two pairs :i* are prior 9 ! ord] ( nature & m appropriate1 & = suppos+ t ,"r & ,left are to be f\nd 9 e ?+4 ,upw>d is ! pr9ciple ( l5g?2 ,"r1 ( bread?2 ,=w>d1 ( dep?4 ,aga91 f upw>d movem5t comes gr[?2 movem5t f ! "r is local movem5t2 movem5t f be=e is movem5t ( s5se 7,greek3 7 kata tn ai7_//hs971 or ! l9e 9 :i* s5sible impressions are propagat$ 7,greek3 e7ph' 7 ai7/h_/seis74 ,up is ! s\rce f :5ce motion orig9ates 7,greek3 to o7_/!n 7 ki_/nsis--s4 #f72 ,"r1 ! po9t f :i* ! direction ( ! motion />ts2 ,=w>d1 ! po9t t[>ds :i* x goes 7,greek3 to e7ph' o7_/74 ,9 inanimate bodies 7:i* are ei!r n mov$ at all1 or only mov$ 9 "o mann] & direction1 z fire only upw>ds1 e>? only d[nw>ds71 we speak ( above & bel[1 "r & left1 only ) ref]5ce to ourselves1 & n z attributes really belong+ to ^! objects2 = by inv]t+ ! objects ^! attributes w be inv]t$ also1 "r w become left1 & left w become "r4 ,b 9 animat$ objects1 :i* h 9 !mselves an ,greek3 a7r* k9_/ses1 a real "r & left1 a real upw>d & d[nw>d1 are to be recogniz$3 ( c\rse !re=e 9 ! ,heav51 :i* is an animat$ object ( ?is "* 7,greek3 e7_/mpsu*os74 ,= we mu/ n make any difficulty 9 consequ5ce ( ! sph]ical figure ( ! univ]se1 or suppose t su* a figure excludes real "r & left1 ! p>ts be+ all alike & all 9 p]petual motion4 ,we mu/ conceive ! case z l t ( a p]son hav+ a real "r & left1 di/9ct 9 attributes1 b :o has be5 enclos$ 9 a holl[ sph]e3 he w /ill h ! real di/9ct "r & left1 yet to a spectator outside he w appe> n to h x4 ,9 l mann]1 we mu/ speak ( ! ,heav5 z hav+ a beg9n+ ( motion2 =1 ?\gh its motion nev] did beg91 yet !re mu/ be "s po9t f :i* x w\ld h tak5 its dep>ture1 if x ev] _h begun1 & f :i* x w\ld recomm5ce1 if x ev] came to a /&/ill4 ,i call ! l5g? ( ! ,heav51 ! di/ance betwe5 ! poles--"o ( ! poles above1 ! o!r bel[4 ,n[ ! pole :i* is above u1 is ! l[] pole2 t :i* is invisible to u1 is ! upp] pole4 ,= t is call$ "r1 9 ea* object1 f :5ce local movem5t takes its dep>ture1 or :]e local movem5t beg9s4 ,b ! revolution ( ! ,heav5 beg9s on ! side :]e ! />s rise2 ?is1 !re=e1 is ! true "r1 & ! side on :i* !y set1 is left4 ,if1 !re=e1 x beg9s f ! "r1 & revolves r\nd to ! "r 7,greek3 e7pi ta de_/xia p]iphe_/retai71 ! invisible pole mu/ be ! upp] pole2 =1 if ! visible pole 7 ! upp]1 ! movem5t ( ! ,heav5 w\ld be to ! left1 :i* we d5y to be ! fact4 ,! invisible pole is !re=e ! upp]1 & ^? :o live ne> x are 9 ! upp] hemisph]e1 & to ! "r 7,greek3 pros tois dexi_/ois72 we on ! contr>y are 9 ! l[] hemisph]e1 & to ! left4 ,! ,py?agoreans are 9 error :5 !y say t we are 9 ! upp] hemisph]e1 & to ! "r1 & t inhabitants ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e are 9 ! l[] hemisph]e & to ! left4 ,b1 speak+ ) ref]5ce to ! second revolution 7,greek3 ts deute_/ras p]iphoras7 or t ( ! planets1 :i* is 9 ! contr>y direction to ! fir/ revolution or t ( ! ,fir/ ,heav51 x is we :o are 9 ! upp] hemisph]e & on ! "r side2 x is ! inhabitants ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 :o are 9 ! l[] hemisph]e & on ! left side3 t is1 x is we :o are on ! side ( ! beg9n+ ( motion1 !y :o are on ! side ( ! end 7ss4 #a-aj74 ,,*4 #c4--;,i h previ\sly laid x d[n1 t circul> movem5t is n opposite to circul>4 ,b1 if ?is be ! case1 :at is ! reason t !re are _m diff]5t revolutions 9 ! ,heav58 ,?is is :at ,i %all n[ enquire1 fully aw>e ( ! great di/ance f :i* ! enquiry mu/ be conduct$ 7,greek3 po_/r7r7!n7--n s mu* a di/ance 9 place1 z ow+ to ! small numb] ( accompany+ facts :i* c be obs]v$ by ! s5ses respect+ !m4 ,! cause mu/ be look$ = 9 ?is direction4 ,e ?+ :i* p]=ms a "w1 exi/s = ! sake ( t "w4 ,n[ ! "w ( ,deity is immortality1 or et]nal life2 s t ! div9e sub/ance mu/ ( necessity be 9 et]nal motion4 ,! ,heav5 is a div9e body & has = t reason ! encyclical body1 ^: nature x is to be mov$ = ev] 9 a circle4 ,b :y is n ! :ole body ( ! ,heav5 ?us con/itut$ 7i4e41 encyclical78 ,because x is necess>y t "s portion ( its body %\ld rema9 /ation>y 9 ! c5tre2 & no portion ( ! encyclical body c possibly rema9 /ation>y1 ei!r 9 ! c5tre or else:]e4 ,=1 if x c\ld1 its natural motion 7i4e41 ! motion ( t suppos$ portion7 w\ld be t[>ds ! c5tre2 :]eas its natural motion is circul>2 & x _c move t[>ds ! c5tre contr>y to its nature1 because on t supposition its motion w\ld n be et]nal3 no motion contr>y to nature c be et]nal4 ,moreov] t :i* is contr>y to nature is po/]ior to t :i* is natural2 x is a deviation !refrom aris+ 9 ! c\rse ( g5]ation 7s4 #a74 ,h5ce x is necess>y t e>? %\ld exi/1 ! nature ( :i* x is to re/ 9 ! c5tre 7i4e41 ! div9e encyclical body w n suffice alone1 )\t adjuncts ( diff]5t nature74 ,i assume ?is = ! pres5t2 m w be said ab\t x anon4 ,b1 if e>? exi/s1 fire mu/ exi/ also2 = ( two contr>ies1 if ! "o exi/ by nature1 ! o!r mu/ exi/ by nature also4 ,= ! matt] ( contr>ies is ! same1 & ,=m 7positive & affirmable7 is prior by nature to ,privation 7= example1 hot is prior to cold72 n[ re/ & gravity d5ote ! privation ( motion & lightness 7s4 #b--;i4e41 fire is prior 9 nature to e>?1 z hav+ ! positive ess5ces motion & levity1 :ile e>? has = its ess5ce ! privation !re(74 ,aga91 if fire & e>? exi/1 ! two o!r elem5ts int]m$iate betwe5 !m mu/ also exi/2 = ea* ( ! f\r elem5ts has its peculi> mode ( contr>iety ) ref]5ce to ea*4 ,at lea/ let ?is be assum$ n[3 ,i %all %[ x at l5g? pres5tly4 ,n[1 ^! po9ts be+ e/abli%$1 we see t g5]ation mu/ necess>ily come to pass1 because no "o ( ! f\r elem5ts c be et]nal3 !y act ^u ea* o!r1 & suff] f ea* o!r1 ) contr>y effects2 !y are de/ructive ( ea* o!r4 ,besides1 ea* ( !m has a mode ( motion natural & appropriate to x1 b ?is mode ( motion is n et]nal 7because x is ei!r to ! c5tre or to ! circumf]5ce & !re=e has a natural t]m9us74 ,x is n reasonable to suppose t any ,mobile c be et]nal1 ^: natural mode ( motion _c be et]nal 7s4 #c74 ,?us ! f\r elem5ts are n et]nal1 b require to be r5ew$ by g5]ation2 !re=e g5]ation mu/ come to pass4 ,b1 if g5]ation be necess>y1 m ?an "o revolution ( ! cele/ial body is indisp5sably requir$3 two at lea/1 if n m4 ,=1 if !re 7 no o!r revolution except t ( ! ,fir/ ,heav51 t is consi/5t only ) a p]fectly uni=m condition ( ! f\r elem5ts 9 relation to ea* o!r 7s4 #d74 ,:5 ! "q is ask$1 !re=e1 ,:y !re are 7n "o only b7 sev]al encyclical bodies8 ,i answ]3 ,because g5]ation mu/ come to pass4 ,!re mu/ be g5]ation1 if !re be fire2 !re mu/ be fire & ! o!r elem5ts1 if !re be e>?2 !re mu/ be e>?1 because some?+ mu/ rema9 /ation>y et]nally 9 ! c5tre1 if !re is to be et]nal revolution 7s4 #e74 ,,*4 #d4--,! ,heav5 is by necessity sph]ical3 ?is figure is at once bo? mo/ ak9 to its ess5ce & fir/ 9 its own nature4 ,i %all beg9 ) "s obs]vations respect+ figures g5]ally--plane & solid1 z to :i* among !m is ! fir/4 ,e plane figure is ei!r rectil9e> or curvil9e>2 ! =m] is compreh5d$ by _m l9es1 ! latt] only by "o4 ,n[1 s9ce 9 e dep>tm5t "o is prior to _m & simple to comp\nd1 ! fir/ ( all plane figures mu/ be ! circle4 ,moreov]1 s9ce t is p]fect :i* c receive no?+ additional f )\t1 & s9ce addition c be made to e /raight l9e1 b none :atev] to ! l9e circumscrib+ a circle1 x is pla9 t ?is latt] is p]fect2 & !re=e ! circle is ! fir/ ( all plane figures1 & ! sph]e ( all solid figures 7ss4 #a1 #b74 ,?is doctr9e appe>s mo/ reasonable :5 we set out ! diff]5t figures1 ea* ) a numb] belong+ to x 9 num]ical ord]4 ,! circle corresponds to ,"o1 ! triangle to ,two1 s9ce its ?ree angles are equal to two "r angles2 :]eas1 if we assign numb] ,"o to ! triangle & place t fir/1 we c f9d no numb] fit = ! circle3 ! circle w be no long] recogniz$ z a figure 7s4 #d74 ,n[1 s9ce ! fir/ figure belongs to ! fir/ body1 :i* is t 9 ! extreme or f>!/ circumf]5ce1 ?is body :i* revolves con/antly 9 a circle1 w be sph]ical 9 figure4 ,t :i* is cont9u\s ) x ev5 to ! c5tre1 w also be sph]ical2 & all ! int]ior p>ts are 9 contact & cont9uity ) x3 ! p>ts bel[ ! sph]e ( ! planets t\* ! sph]e above !m4 ,s t ! :ole revolv+ curr5t1 int]ior & ext]ior1 w be sph]ical2 = all ?+s t\* & are cont9u\s ) ! sph]es 7s4 #e74 ,!re is ano!r reason too :y ! univ]se is sph]ical 9 figure1 s9ce x has be5 %[n to revolve 9 a circle4 ,i h prov$ be=e t !re exi/s no?+ on ! outside ( ! univ]se2 nei!r place nor vacuum4 ,if ! figure ( ! ,kosmos1 revolv+ z x does 9 a circle1 7 any ?+ else b sph]ical--if x 7 ei!r rectil9e> or elliptical--x c\ld n possibly cov] exactly ! same space dur+ all its revolutions3 !re mu/ !re=e be place & vacuum )\t x2 :i* has be5 %[n to be impossible 7s4 #f74 ,f>!rmore1 ! rotation ( ! ,heav5 is ! measure ( motions1 because x is ! only "o cont9u\s & uni=m & et]nal4 ,n[ 9 e dep>tm5t ! measure is ! lea/1 & ! lea/ motion is ! quicke/2 accord+ly ! rotation ( ! ,heav5 w be ! quicke/ ( all motions 7s4 #g74 ,b among all curv$ l9es f ! same back to ! same1 ! circumf]5ce ( ! circle is ! %orte/1 & motion w be quicke/ ov] ! %orte/ di/ance4 ,accord+ly1 s9ce ! ,heav5 revolves 9 a circle & ) ! quicke/ ( all motions1 its figure mu/ be sph]ical 7s4 #h74 ,we may also draw ! same conclusion f ! bodies fix$ 9 ! c5tral p>ts ( ! ,kosmos4 ,! ,e>? 9 ! c5tre is surr\nd$ by wat]2 ! wat]1 by air2 ! air1 by fire4 ,! upp]mo/ bodies surr\nd ! fire1 foll[+ ! l proportion or analogy2 be+ n cont9u\s !re)1 b 9 contact !re)4 ,n[ ! surface ( wat] is sph]ical2 & t :i* is ei!r cont9u\s ) ! sph]ical or surr\nds ! sph]ical1 mu/ itself be sph]ical also 7s4 #i74 ,t ! surface ( ! wat] is truly sph]ical1 we may inf] f ! fact1 t x is ! nature ( wat] always to fl[ toge!r into ! l[e/ cavities1 t is1 into ! p>ts ne>e/ to ! c5tre 7s4 #aj74 ,f all ! =ego+ reason+s1 we see pla9ly t ! ,kosmos is sph]ical1 & moreov] turn$ ) su* a degree ( exact sph]icity 7,greek3 kata a7kri_/beian e7_/ntornos ou7_/ts71 t no piece ( human workman%ip nor any ?+ ev] se5 by u on e>? c be comp>$ to x4 ,= none ( ! compon5t mat]ials "h on e>? is s fit = receiv+ p]fect level & accuracy z ! nature ( ! ,fir/ or ,p]iph]al ,body2 x be+ cle> t1 9 ! same proportion z wat] is m exactly sph]ical1 ! elem5ts surr\nd+ ! wat] become m & m sph]ical 9 proportion z !y are m & m di/ant f ! c5tre 7s4 #aa74 ,,*4 #e4--;,circul> revolution may take place 9 two directions2 f ! po9t ,a on "o side t[>ds ,b1 or on ! o!r side t[>ds ,c4 ,t ^! two are n contr>y to ea* o!r1 ,i h already %[n4 ,b1 s9ce 9 et]nal sub/ances no?+ c possibly take place by *ance or spontaneity1 & s9ce bo? ! ,heav5 & its circul> revolution are et]nal1 we may enquire :at is ! reason :y ?is revolution takes place 9 "o direction & n 9 ! o!r4 ,?is circum/ance ei!r dep5ds ^u "s fir/ pr9ciple1 or is itself a fir/ pr9ciple 7s4 #a74 ,p]haps "s may consid] x a m>k ei!r ( great sill9ess1 or great presumption1 to decl>e any positive op9ion at all ^u "s matt]s1 or ^u all matt]s :atev]1 leav+ out no?+4 ,b we mu/ n c5sure indiscrim9ately all :o d ?is3 we mu/ consid] :at is ! motive :i* prompts ea* p]son to decl>e himself1 & ) :at am\nt ( confid5ce he affirms1 :e!r all[+ = human fallibility or sett+ himself above x4 ,:5ev] a man c f9d out exact & necess>y gr\nds = ! conclusions :i* he prop\nds1 we ought to be grateful to him3 "h we mu/ deliv] :at appe>s to be ! tru?4 ,nature 7we "k7 always does :at is be/ among all ! practicable c\rses4 ,n[ ! upp] place is m div9e ?an ! l[]1 & accord+ly among rectil9e> curr5ts1 t :i* is direct$ upw>ds is ! m hon\rable4 ,9 ! same mann]1 ! curr5t =w>ds is m hon\rable ?an backw>ds2 & ! curr5t t[>ds ! "r m hon\rable ?an t t[>ds ! left--z 0 be=e laid d[n4 ,! problem above />t$ indicates to u t !re is "h a real ,prius & ,po/]ius--a bett] & a worse2 =1 :5 we recognize ?is1 ! difficulty is solv$4 ,! solution is t ?is is ! be/ practicable arrangem5t1 viz41 t ! ,kosmos is mov$ 9 a motion1 simple1 nev]-end+1 & 9 ! mo/ hon\rable direction 7,greek3 e7pi to timi_/t]on1 s4 #b74 ,,*4 #f4--;,i h n[ to %[ t ?is motion ( ! ,fir/ ,heav5 is uni=m & n irregul> 7,greek3 o7mals kai ou7k a7n_/malos73 ,i speak only ( ! ,fir/ ,heav5 & ( ! ,fir/ ,rotation2 = 9 ! sub/ances l[] ?an ?is _m rotations or curr5ts h coalesc$ into "o4 ,if ! motion ( ! ,fir/ ,heav5 be irregul>1 !re w cle>ly be accel]ation & remission ( its motion1 & an extreme po9t or maximum 7,greek3 a7km_/7 !re(4 ,n[ ! maximum ( motion mu/ take place ei!r at ! t]m9us ad quem1 z 9 ?+s mov$ accord+ to nature2 or at ! t]m9us a quo1 z 9 ?+s mov$ contr>y to nature2 or dur+ ! int]val betwe51 z 9 ?+s ?r[n 7,greek3 e7n tois r7ipt\me_/nois74 ,b 9 circul> motion1 !re is nei!r t]m9us a quo1 nor t]m9us ad quem1 nor middle betwe5 ! two--nei!r beg9n+1 nor end1 nor mean2 = x is et]nal 9 duration1 compact z to l5g? or space mov$ ov]1 & unbrok5 7,greek3 t m_/kei sungme_/n kai a7_/kla/os74 ,x ?us _c h any maximum or accel]ation or remission2 & ( c\rse1 !re=e1 x _c be irregul> 7s4 #a74 ,besides1 s9ce e ?+ t is mov$ is mov$ by "s ?+1 ! irregul>ity1 if !re be su*1 mu/ arise ei!r f ! ,mov5s1 or ! ,motum1 or bo?3 ! p[] ( ! ,mov5s1 or ! quality ( ! ,motum1 or bo?1 mu/ und]go *ange4 ,b no?+ ( ! sort c happ5 ) ! ,motum1 be+ 9 ?is case ! ,heav52 = x has be5 %[n to be a ,fir/1 simple1 ung5]able1 inde/ructible1 & 9 e way un*angeable4 ,mu* m !n is x reasonable to believe t ! ,mov5s is su*2 = t :i* is qualifi$ to move ! ,fir/1 mu/ be itself a ,fir/ 7,greek3 to gar prton t\ pr_/t\ k9tiko_/n72 t :i* is qualifi$ to move ! simple1 mu/ be itself simple1 c4 ,if !n ! ,motum1 :i* is a body1 und]goes no *ange1 nei!r w ! ,mov5s1 be+ z x is incorporeal 7s4 #b74 ,accord+ly ! curr5t1 or motion 7,greek3 phora_/71 _c possibly be irregul>4 ,=1 if x comes to pass irregul>ly1 its irregul>ity ei!r p]vades ! :ole1 ! velocity becom+ alt]nately m or less1 or c]ta9 p>ts only4 ,b1 9 reg>d to ! p>ts sep>ately1 !re is c]ta9ly no irregul>ity3 if !re _h be51 ! relative di/ances ( ! />s "o f ! o!r w\ld h v>i$ 9 ! c\rse ( inf9ite "t2 n[ no su* v>iation 9 _! di/ances has ev] be5 obs]v$4 ,nei!r 9 reg>d to ! :ole is !re any irregul>ity4 ,= irregul>ity implies relaxation1 & relaxation arises 9 e subject f impot5ce4 ,n[ impot5ce is contr>y to nature3 9 animals1 all impot5ces 7su* z old age or decay7 are contr>y to nature2 = all animals1 p]haps1 are comp\nds put toge!r out ( elem5ts ea* ( :i* has a diff]5t place ( its own & n "o ( :i* is 9 its own place4 ,9 ! ,fir/ ,bodies1 on ! o!r h&1 :i* are simple1 unmix$1 9 _! own places1 & )\t any contr>y1 !re c be no impot5ce1 & !re=e nei!r relaxation nor int5sification1 :i* always g toge!r 7,greek3 ei7 gar e7pi_/tasis1 kai a7_/nesis1 s4 #c74 ,besides1 we _c ) any reason suppose t ! ,mov5s is impot5t = an inf9ite "t1 & !n aga9 pot5t = an inf9ite "t2 no?+ contr>y to nature la/s = an inf9ite "t1 & impot5ce is contr>y to nature2 nor c x be = an equal "t contr>y to nature & agreeable to nature--impot5t & pot5t4 ,if ! motion relaxes1 x _c g on relax+ = an inf9ite "t1 nor g on be+ int5sifi$1 nor ! "o & ! o!r alt]nately4 ,= 9 t case ! motion w\ld be inf9ite & indet]m9ate2 :i* is impossible1 s9ce e motion mu/ be f "o t]m to ano!r t]m & also det]m9ate 7s4 #d3 ,greek3 a7_/peiros gar a7n ei7_/ kai a7o_/ri/os 7 ki_/nsis4 a7_/pasan de_/ pham5 e7_/k t9os ei7_/s ti ei7nai1 kai 7risme_/nn--i4e41 all motion mu/ be det]m9$ bo? 9 di/ance & direction74 ,aga91 ! supposition may be made t !re is a m9imum ( "t requir$ = ! revolution ( ! ,heav51 9 less ?an :i* ! revolution c\ld n be complet$2 j z !re is a m9imum ( "t indisp5sable = a man to walk or play ! h>p4 ,admitt+ ?is supposition1 !re _c be p]petual increase 9 ! int5sity or velocity ( ! motion 7! increase has an impassable limit71 & !re=e !re _c be p]petual relaxation2 = bo? are on ! same foot+ 7s4 #e74 ,x might be urg$1 inde$1 t int5sification & relaxation g on alt]nately2 ea* proce$+ to a c]ta9 l5g?1 & !n giv+ place to ! o!r4 ,b ?is is altoge!r irrational--no?+ bett] ?an a gratuit\s fiction4 ,besides1 if !re 7 ?is alt]nation1 we may reasonably assume t x c\ld n rema9 conceal$ f u2 = contra/+ conditions com+ 9 imm$iate sequ5ce to ea* o!r are m easily disc]n$ by s5se4 ,:at has be5 said1 !n1 is suffici5t to prove--,t ! ,heav5 or ,cosmos is "o & only "o2 t x is ung5]able & et]nal2 t its motion is uni=m 7s4 #f74 ,,*4 #g4--,next 9 ord]1 ,i h to speak ( :at are call$ ! ,/>s 7,greek3 tn kal\me_/nn a7_//rn74 ,( :at are !y compos$8 ,:at is _! figure8 ,:at are _! motions8 ,x is consi/5t ) ! =ego+ reason+s1 z well z 9 itself ! mo/ rational doctr9e1 to conceive ea* ( ! />s z compos$ ( portions ( t body 9 :i* its curr5t ( motion takes place2 t is1 ( t body1 ^: nature x is to move 9 a circle4 ,= ^? :o affirm ! />s to be fire say ?is because !y believe ! upp] body to be fire1 assum+ x z reasonable t ea* ?+ %\ld be compos$ ( ! elem5ts 9 :i* x is2 & ,i assume ! same also 7s4 #a74 ,! heat & light ( ! />s arises f _! friction ) ! air 9 _! curr5t ( motion4 ,if x is ! nature ( motion to inflame pieces ( wood1 & /ones1 & iron1 x is /ill m reasonable t :at is ne>e/ to fire 7t is1 air7 %\ld be s inflam$4 ,we see t d>ts project$ are s inflam$1 t _! lead5 app5dages are melt$2 &1 ^! be+ ?us inflam$1 ! air ar\nd !m mu/ be modifi$ 9 ! same mann]4 ,n[ objects l ^! d>ts are ?us viol5tly heat$1 because !y are c>ri$ along 9 ! m$ium ( ! air1 :i* ?r\gh ! %ock giv5 by _! motion becomes fire4 ,b ea* ( ! upp] bodies or />s is c>ri$ r\nd 7n 9 ! air1 b7 9 its appropriate sph]e1 s t !y !mselves are n inflam$2 :ile ! air :i* is "u ! sph]e ( ! encyclical body becomes ( necessity heat$ by ! rotation ( t sph]e2 & mo/ ( all at ! po9t :]e ! ,sun has happ5$ to be fa/5$ 9 7,greek3 kai tau_/t ma_/li/a1 7 o7 7_/lios tetu_/*k5 e7nd$eme_/nos74 ,let x !n be und]/ood1 t ! />s are nei!r compos$ ( fire1 nor are !y c>ri$ r\nd 9 ! m$ium ( ! fire 7s4 #b74 ,,*4 #h4--;,x is se5 z a fact1 t bo? ! />s1 & ! entire ,heav51 *ange _! place 7,greek3 me?i/a_/m5a74 ,n[1 9 ?is *ange1 we mu/ assume ei!r t bo? cont9ue at re/1 or t bo? are 9 motion1 or t "o is at re/1 & ! o!r is 9 motion4 ,n[ x is impossible t bo? c be at re/1 at lea/ if we assume ! e>? to be at re/2 = ! facts :i* we see w\ld n h tak5 place1 ^u t supposition 7s4 #a74 ,ei!r !re=e bo? are 9 motion1 or "o is 9 motion & ! o!r at re/4 ,n[1 if bo? are 9 motion1 x is aga9/ reason t ! />s & ! circles 9 :i* !y are fa/5$ %\ld h equal velocities ( motion4 ,ea* "o ( !m mu/1 be equal 9 velocity to ! circle or sph]e 9 :i* x is c>ri$1 s9ce all come back r\nd along ) _! circles to ! same position2 s t 9 "o & ! same "t1 ! /> has gone r\nd its circle1 & ! circle has complet$ its revolution4 ,x is n reasonable to suppose t ! velocities ( ! />s & ! magnitudes ( ! circles %\ld be 9 ! same proportion4 ,comp>+ "o circle ) ano!r1 inde$1 x is n only n absurd1 b ev5 necess>y1 t ! velocities %\ld be 9 proportion to ! magnitudes2 b x is n reasonable t ea* ( ! />s 9 ^! circles %\ld be ( su* velocity4 ,=1 if x be necess>y t :at is c>ri$ r\nd 9 ! l>g] circle %\ld h ! great] velocity1 ! consequ5ce w\ld be t1 if ! />s 9 "o circle 7 transf]r$ to ano!r1 _! motions w\ld become accel]at$ or ret>d$2 :i* is equival5t to say+ t !y h no motion ( _! own at all1 b are c>ri$ r\nd by ! revolution ( ! circles 7s4 #b74 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 x be n necess>y1 b a spontane\s co9cid5ce 7,greek3 ei7_/te a7po tau7toma_/t\ sune_/pes57 t :at is c>ri$ r\nd 9 ! great] circle has ! great] velocity1 nei!r ^u ?is supposition is x reasonable t 9 all ! circles )\t exception ! circumf]5ce %\ld be great]1 & ! motion ( ! /> fa/5$ 9 ! great] circle quick]1 9 ! same proportion4 ,t ?is %\ld happ5 ) "o or two ( !m1 might be reasonably expect$2 b t x %\ld happ5 ) all alike1 sav\rs ( fiction4 ,moreov] *ance has no place 9 matt]s accord+ to nature2 nor is t :i* occurs ev]y:]e & belongs to all1 ev] ! produce ( *ance 7s4 #c74 ,s mu* = ! hypo!sis1 t bo? />s & circles are 9 motion4 ,let u n[ assume t "o is at re/1 & ! o!r 9 motion2 & fir/1 let ! circles be at re/1 & ! />s 9 motion4 ,?is aga9 w lead to absurdities2 = we %all /ill be unable to expla9 h[ x happ5s t ! out]mo/ />s are mov$ mo/ quickly1 & t _! velocities are proportion$ to ! magnitudes ( ! circles4 ,s9ce !n we _c assume ei!r t bo? are mov$1 or t ! /> alone is mov$1 we mu/ adopt ! ?ird supposition1 t ! circles are mov$1 & t ! />s1 be+ !mselves at re/1 are fa/5$ 9 ! circles & c>ri$ r\nd along ) !m4 ,?is is ! only hypo!sis :i* entails no unreasonable consequ5ces4 ,= x is reasonable t1 ( circles fa/5$ r\nd ! same c5tre1 ! great] velocity %\ld belong to ! greate/4 ,=1 z 9 all ! v>ieties ( body ! heavi] fragm5t is c>ri$ ) great] velocity ?an ! light] 9 its appropriate motion1 s x happ5s ) ! encyclical body4 ,:5 two /raight l9es are drawn f ! c5tre1 ! segm5t ( ! great] circle int]cept$ betwe5 !m w be great] ?an ! segm5t ( ! small]2 & x is consi/5t ) reason t ! great] circle %\ld be c>ri$ r\nd 9 equal "t4 ,?is is "o reason :y ! ,kosmos is n split into sep>ate p>ts2 ano!r reason is1 because ! univ]se has be5 %[n to be cont9u\s 7s4 #d1 #e74 ,n[ we all agree t ! />s are ( sph]ical figure3 & sph]ical bodies h two motions ( _! own--roll+ & rotatory 7,greek3 ku_/lisis kai di_/nsis74 ,if !y 7 mov$ ( !mselves1 !y w\ld be mov$ 9 "o or o!r ( ^! two ways2 b we see t !y are s 9 nei!r4 ,!y d n rotate2 =1 if !y did1 !y w\ld rema9 always 9 ! same place1 :i* contradicts univ]sal obs]vation & belief4 ,besides1 x is reasonable to suppose t all ! />s move 9 ! same mann]1 b ! ,sun is ! only "o t is se5 s to move1 :5 he rises or sets2 & he too1 n by any movem5t ( 8 own1 b ?r\gh ! di/ance ( our vision1 :i* :5 /ret*$ to a great di/ance1 rotates f weakness 7s4 #f74 ,?is is p]haps ! reason :y ! />s fa/5$ 79 ! out] sph]e7 tw9kle1 :ile ! planets d n tw9kle2 = ! planets are ne> to u1 s t our vision rea*es !m :ile yet /rong2 :]eas 9 reg>d to ! unmov$ />s x is made to quiv] 9 consequ5ce ( ! great di/ance f be+ /ret*$ out too f>1 & its quiv]+ causes ! appe>ance ( motion 9 ! />4 ,= !re is no diff]5ce betwe5 mov+ ! vision & mov+ ! object se5 7,greek3 ou7!n gar diaphe_/rei k9ein tn o7_/ps9 7 to o7r_/m5on--s4 #f74 ,aga91 nei!r d ! />s roll nor revolve =w>d4 ,= t :i* rolls =w>d mu/ necess>ily turn r\nd2 b ! same side ( ! moon--:at is call$ ! face ( ! moon--is always cle>ly visible to u 7s4 #g74 ,s9ce x is reasonable to believe1 !re=e1 t1 if ! />s 7 mov$ 9 !mselves1 !y w\ld be mov$ 9 _! own special v>iety ( motion 7i4e41 roll+ or rotatory71 & s9ce x has be5 %[n t !y are n mov$ 9 ei!r ( ^! two ways1 we see pla9ly t !y _c be mov$ 9 !mselves 7b are c>ri$ r\nd 9 ! revolution ( ! ,aplans74 ,besides1 if !y 7 mov$ 9 9999!mselves1 x is unreasonable t ,nature %\ld h assign$ to !m no organ suitable = motion1 s9ce ,nature does no?+ by haphaz>d2 & t %e %\ld h be5 consid]ate 9 provid+ = animals1 :ile %e ov]look$ objects s hon\rable z ! />s4 ,! tru? r is1 t %e has )held f !m1 z x 7 by express purpose1 all aids1 ?r\gh :i* x 0 possible = !m to advance =w>d 9 !mselves1 & has plac$ !m at ! greate/ possible di/ance f objects furni%$ ) organs = motion 7s4 #h74 ,h5ce x w\ld seem to be ! reasonable doctr9e--,t ! entire ,heav5 is sph]ical1 & t ea* ( ! />s 7fa/5$ 9 x7 is also sph]ical4 ,= ! sph]e is ! mo/ conv5i5t ( all figures = motion 9 ! same place1 s t ! ,heav5 be+ sph]ical w\ld be mov$ mo/ rapidly & w\ld be/ ma9ta9 its own place4 ,b = =w>d motion ! sph]e is ( all figures ! mo/ inconv5i5t2 = x lea/ resembles self-mov+ bodies2 x has no outly+ app5dage or project+ end1 z rectil9e> figures h1 & /&s f>!/ remov$ f ! figures ( m>*+ bodies4 ,s9ce !re=e x is ! function ( 7,greek3 dei7 ! ,heav5 to be mov$ by a motion 9 ! same place 7,greek3 k9ei/hai tn e7n au7t ki_/ns971 & t ( ! />s n to make any advance by !mselves 7,greek3 ta a7_/lla d' a7_//ra m proie_/nai di' au7tn71 x is ) good reason t bo? ( !m are sph]ical4 ,= ?us w ! ,heav5 be/ be mov$1 & ! />s w be/ be at re/4 ,,*4 #i4--;,f :at ,i h said1 x is pla9 t ^? :o affirm t ! revolv+ cele/ial bodies emit 9 _! revolutions s\nds h>moni\s to ea* o!r1 speak clev]ly & +5i\sly1 b n consi/5tly ) ! tru?4 ,!re mu/ necess>ily be s\nd 7!y say7 f ! revolution ( su* va/ bodies4 ,s9ce bodies ne> to u make s\nd 9 motion1 ! sun1 moon1 & />s1 be+ s mu* l>g] & mov+ ) s mu* great] velocity1 mu/ make an imm5se s\nd2 &1 s9ce _! di/ances & velocities are assum$ to be 9 h>monic proportion1 ! s\nds emitt$ 9 _! revolution mu/ also be 9 h>mony4 ,to ! "q put to !m--,:y d we n he> ?is imm5se s\nd8 !y reply1 t we h be5 he>+ x con/antly f ! mom5t ( our bir?2 t we h no exp]i5ce ( an opposite /ate1 or /ate ( sil5ce1 ) :i* to contra/ x1 & t s\nd & sil5ce are discrim9at$ only by relation to ea* o!r 7,greek3 7_//e m dia_/dlon ei7nai pros tn e7nanti_/an sig_/n2 pros a7_/llla gar phns kai sigs ei7nai tn dia_/gns972 t m5 ?us cease to be affect$ by x1 j z blacksmi?s f con/ant habit cease to be affect$ by ! noise ( _! own "w 7s4 #a74 ,! reason+ ( ^! philosoph]s 7! ,py?agoreans71 z ,i h j said1 is graceful & poetical1 yet nev]!less inadmissible4 ,= !y ought to expla91 ^u _! hypo!sis1 n m]ely :y we he> no?+1 b :y we exp]i5ce no uncom=table impressions ap>t f he>+4 ,= prodigi\s s\nds pi]ce ?r\gh & de/roy ! cont9uity ev5 ( inanimate bodies2 ?us ?und] splits up /ones & o!r bodies ( ! greate/ /r5g?4 ,! impression produc$ "h by ! s\nd ( ! cele/ial bodies mu/ be viol5t beyond all endurance4 ,b !re is good reason :y we nei!r he> nor suff] any ?+ f !m2 viz41 t !y make no s\nd4 ,! cause !re( is "o :i* atte/s ! tru? ( my doctr9e laid d[n above--,t ! />s are n mov$ ( !mselves1 b c>ri$ r\nd by & 9 ! circle to :i* !y are fa/5$4 ,bodies ?us c>ri$ r\nd1 make no s\nd or %ock3 x is only bodies c>ri$ r\nd ( !mselves t make s\nd & %ock4 ,bodies :i* are fa/5$ 91 or =m p>ts (1 a revolv+ body1 _c possibly s\nd1 any m ?an ! p>ts ( a %ip mov+1 nor inde$ c\ld ! :ole %ip s\nd1 if c>ri$ along 9 a runn+ riv]4 ,yet ! ,py?agoreans might urge j ! same reasons to prove t bodies s l>ge z ! ma/1 ! /]n1 & ! entire %ip1 c\ld n be mov$ )\t noise4 ,:atev] is c>ri$ r\nd1 inde$1 9 a m$ium n itself c>ri$ r\nd1 really makes s\nd2 b x _c d s1 if ! m$ium itself be c>ri$ r\nd cont9u\sly4 ,we mu/ !re=e 9 ?is case ma9ta9 t1 if ! va/ bodies ( ! />s 7 c>ri$ r\nd 9 a m$ium ei!r ( air or ( fire 7^: motion is rectil9e>71 z all m5 say t !y are1 !y mu/ necess>ily make a prodigi\s s\nd1 :i* w\ld rea* "h to u & w\ld we> u out 7,greek3 diaknai_/e974 ,s9ce no?+ ( ?is nature occurs1 we may be sure t ! />s are n c>ri$ r\nd 9 a curr5t ( _! own1 ei!r animat$ or viol5t4 ,x is z if ,nature _h =ese5 ! consequ5ce1 t1 unless ! cele/ial motions 7 c>ri$ on 9 ! mann] 9 :i* !y are c>ri$ on1 no?+ ( :at n[ takes place ne> u 7,greek3 tn p]i ton deuro to_/pon71 c\ld h be5 z x is n[4 ,i h ?us %[n t ! />s are sph]ical1 & t !y are n mov$ by a motion ( _! own 7ss4 #b-e74 ,,*4 #aj4--,respect+ ! arrangem5t ( ! />s--h[ ea* ( !m is plac$1 "s ant]ior o!rs po/]ior1 & :at are _! di/ances f ea* o!r--! books on a/ronomy mu/ be consult$ & w expla94 ,x consi/s ) ! pr9ciples !re laid d[n1 t ! motions ( ! />s 7planets7 %\ld be proportional to _! di/ances1 "s quick]1 o!rs sl[]4 ,=1 s9ce ! f>!/ circle ( ! ,heav5 has a revolution bo? simple & ( extreme velocity1 :ile ! revolutions ( ! o!r />s 7planets7 are _m 9 numb] & sl[]1 ea* ( !m be+ c>ri$ r\nd 9 its own circle 9 ! direction contr>y to t ( ! fir/ or f>!/ circle ( ! ,heav51 ! reasonable consequ5ce is1 t t planet :i* is ne>e/ to ! fir/ & simple revolv+ circle takes ! longe/ "t to complete its own 7c\nt]-revolv+7 circle1 :ile t :i* is mo/ di/ant f ! same circle takes ! %orte/ "t1 & ! rema9+ planets take m or less "t 9 proportion z !y are ne>] or f>!r4 ,= ! planet ne>e/ to ! fir/ revolv+ circle has its own c\nt]revolution mo/ completely conqu]$ or ov]p[]$ !reby2 ! planet f>!/ f ! same1 has its own c\nt]revolution lea/ conqu]$ !reby2 & ! int]m$iate planets m or less 9 inv]se proportion to _! di/ances f ! same1 z ma!maticians demon/rate4 ,,*4 #aa4--,we may mo/ reasonably assume ! figure ( ! />s to be sph]ical4 ,=1 s9ce we h %[n t x is n _! nature to h any motion ( _! own1 & s9ce ,nature does no?+ ei!r irrational or 9 va91 x is pla9 t %e has assign$ to ! immovables t figure :i* is lea/ fit = motion2 :i* figure is ! sph]e1 z hav+ no organ = motion4 ,besides1 :at is true ( "o is true ( all 7,greek3 e7_/ti d' o7moi_/s men a7_/panta kai e7_/n73 n[ ! ,moon may be %[n to be sph]ical1 fir/1 by ! visible manife/ations :i* %e af=ds 9 h] wax+s & wan+s1 next1 f a/ronomical obs]vations ( ! eclipses ( ! ,sun4 ,s9ce !re=e "o among ! />s is %[n to be sph]ical1 we may presume t ! re/ w be s likewise4 ,,*4 #ab4--;,i proce$ to two o!r difficulties1 :i* are well calculat$ to p]plex e "o4 ,we mu/ try to /ate :at looks mo/ l tru?1 consid]+ su* =w>dness n to be ( ! nature ( audacity1 b r to des]ve respect1 :5 any "o1 /imulat$ by ! ?ir/ = philosophy1 cont5ts himself ) small helps & fa9t approximations to tru?1 hav+ to deal ) ! grave/ difficulties4 #a4 ,:y is x1 t ! circles f>!/ f ! out]mo/ circle 7or ,aplans7 are n always mov$ by a great] numb] ( motions ?an ^? ne>] to x8 ,:y are "s ( ! int]m$iate circles 7nei!r f>!/ nor ne>e/7 mov$ by a great] numb] ( motions ?an any ( ! o!rs8 ,= x w\ld seem reasonable1 :5 ! ,fir/ ,body is mov$ by "o s+le rotatory curr5t1 t ! "o ne>e/ to x %\ld be mov$ by two1 ! next ne>e/ by ?ree1 & s on 9 regul> sequ5ce to ^? :i* are m di/ant4 ,b we f9d t ! rev]se occurs 9 fact3 ,sun & ,moon h few] movem5ts ?an "s ( ! planets1 :i* are nev]!less f>!r f ! c5tre1 & ne>] to ! ,fir/ ,body4 ,9 reg>d to "s ( ! planets1 we "k ?is by visual evid5ce2 = we h se5 ! ,moon :5 at half-moon pass+ "u ,m>s1 :o 0 occult$ by ! d>k "p ( h] body1 & em]g$ on ! bright side ( x4 ,! l is atte/$ respect+ ! o!r planets1 by ! ,egyptians & ,babylonians1 ! mo/ anci5t ( all obs]v]s4 #b4 ,:y is x1 t 9 ! ,fir/ ,revolution 79 ! revolution ( ! ,fir/ ,heav5 or ,fir/ ,body7 !re is includ$ s va/ a multitude ( />s z to seem innum]able2 :ile 9 ea* ( ! o!rs !re is "o alone & ap>t1 nev] two or m fa/5$ 9 ! same curr5t8 ,"h are two grave difficulties1 :i* x is well to inve/igate & try to und]/&1 ?\gh our means ( in=mation are v scanty1 & ?\gh we /& at s great a di/ance f ! facts4 ,/ill1 z f> z we c make out f su* data1 ^! difficulties w\ld n seem to involve any philosophical impossibility or incongruity4 ,n[ we are 9 ! habit ( consid]+ ^! cele/ial bodies z bodies only2 & z monads :i* h inde$ regul> arrangem5t1 b are totally de/itute ( s\l or vital pr9ciple4 7,:5 ,ari/otle "h says we1 he mu/ mean ! philosoph]s ^: po9t ( view he is discuss+3 = ! g5]al public c]ta9ly did n reg>d ! ,sun1 ,moon1 & />s z ,greek3 a7_/psu*a pa_/mpan1 b1 on ! contr>y1 consid]$ ?is z blameable h]esy1 & look$ ^u !m z ,gods999947 ,we ought1 h[ev]1 to conceive !m z p>tak+ ( life & action 7,greek3 dei d' 7s mete*o_/ntn u7polamba_/ne9 pra_/xes kai zs72 & 9 ?is po9t ( view ! actual /ate ( ! case w appe> n[ise unreasonable 7s4 #b74 ,= we %\ld naturally expect t to t :i* is 9 ! be/ possible condition1 su* well-be+ w belong )\t any ag5cy at all2 to t :i* is next be/1 ?r\gh ag5cy s+le & slight2 to su* z are f>!r remov$ 9 excell5ce ( condition1 ?r\gh action m multipli$ & div]sifi$4 ,j s 9 reg>d to ! human body3 ! be/ con/itut$ body ma9ta9s its good condition )\t any tra9+ at all2 !re are o!rs :i* w d ! same at ! co/ ( no?+ m ?an a little walk+2 !re are inf]ior bodies :i* require1 = ! same result1 wre/l+1 runn+1 & o!r motions2 :ile !re are ev5 o!rs :i* _c by any am\nt ( lab\r atta9 a good condition1 b are oblig$ to be satisfi$ ) some?+ %ort ( x 7s4 #c74 ,moreov] x is difficult to succe$ 9 _m ?+s1 or to succe$ (t53 y may ?r[ "o or two sixes ) ! dice1 b y _c ?r[ t5 ?\s&2 &1 f>!r1 :5 ! conditions ( ! problem become complicat$--:5 "o ?+ is to be done = ! sake ( ano!r1 t o!r = a ?ird result1 & t ?ird = a f\r?1 c4--success1 :i* may be tol]ably easy :5 ! /eps are only few1 ! m !y are multipli$1 becomes h>d] & h>d]4 ,h5ce we mu/ consid] ! ag5cy ( ! />s z analog\s to t ( plants & animals4 ,= "h ! ag5cy ( man is mo/ multif>i\s1 s9ce he is capable ( atta9+ _m v>ieties ( good1 & accord+ly busies himself ab\t _m ?+s & ab\t "o ?+ = ! sake ( o!rs4 ,! ag5cy ( o!r animals on ! o!r h& is m re/rict$2 t ( plants yet m s1 be+ ( slight =ce & only ( "o special "* 7s4 #d74 ,b t :i* exi/s 9 ! be/ possible condition /&s 9 no ne$ ( act+ or ag5cy2 = x already possesses t = ! sake ( :i* action is und]tak54 ,n[ action always includes two elem5ts--t = ! sake ( :i* & :at is = ! sake !re(--! end & ! means3 !re is ei!r "s "o end1 :i* ! ag5t may atta91 z 9 ! case ( man2 or !re are _m diff]5t matt]s all ( :i* may be us$ z means t[>ds ! be/ possible condition4 ,?us "o ag5t possesses & p>takes ( ! be/ possible condition2 ano!r comes ne> to x ) little tr\ble2 a ?ird1 ) mu* tr\ble2 a f\r? does n ev5 aspire to ! end1 b is compet5t only to arrive ne> to ! la/ ( ! means4 ,= example1 let heal? be ! end3 "o man is always 9 heal?2 a second becomes s1 by be+ />v$ d[n2 a ?ird by t1 comb9$ ) runn+ ex]cise2 a f\r? is oblig$ to take "s additional ex]cise1 9 ord] to qualify himself = runn+1 s t 8 motions are multipli$2 a fif? is incapable ( arriv+ at heal?1 b arrives only at ! runn+ & ! be+ ?9n$ d[n1 "o ( :i* 9 ?is case s]ves z end4 ,= x w\ld be be/ = all1 if !y c\ld atta9 ! supreme end--heal?2 b1 if t be impossible1 !n ! next be/ ?+ is to get z ne> to ! be/ z possible 7ss4 #e-g74 ,= ?is reason ! ,e>? is n mov$ at all1 & ! matt]s ne> ! ,e>? are mov$ ) few motions2 s9ce !y d n arrive at ! extreme be/1 b only z ne> z _! ability p]mits to obta9 or hit ! supremely div9e pr9ciple2 :ile ! ,fir/ ,heav51 on ! contr>y1 obta9s or hits x at once1 ?r\gh "o s+le motion2 & ! bodies int]m$iate betwe5 ! ,fir/ ,heav5 & ^? :i* are la/ 7or ne>e/ to ! ,e>?71 obta9 x or arrive at x also1 b only ?r\gh a great] numb] ( motions4 ,!re is ! o!r difficulty also to be consid]$--t va/ multitude ( />s are put all toge!r 9 ! "o s+le ,fir/ ,curr5t or ,revolution1 b ea* ( ! o!r />s 7planets7 has its own motions s+ly & ap>t4 ,! pr9cipal reason ( ?is we may fairly suppose to be t x foll[s z a natural consequ5ce f ! va/ sup]iority ( ! fir/1 9 ea* v>iety ( life & 9 ea* beg9n+1 ov] all po/]ior to ! fir/4 ,"h ! ,fir/ ,curr5t or ,revolution1 be+ "o & by itself1 moves _m ( ! div9e bodies1 :ile ! o!rs 7second>y or c\nt]curr5ts71 num]\s z !y are1 move ea* only "o2 = ea* "o ( ^! w&]+ bodies or planets is c>ri$ by _m diff]5t curr5ts4 ,?us ,nature e/abli%es equalization & a sort ( symmetry1 by assign+1 9 ! "o case1 _m bodies to "o curr5t1 & 9 ! o!r1 _m curr5ts to "o body 7ss4 #h-aj74 ,beside ?is pr9cipal reason1 !re is also ano!r4 ,! o!r curr5ts h ea* "o body only1 because motion is giv5 to _m bodies by all ( !m prior to ! la/ :i* be>s ! "o />4 ,= ! la/ sph]e is c>ri$ r\nd fa/5$ into _m sph]es1 & ea* sph]e is a body 7ss4 #aa1 #ab4 ,i d n cle>ly und]/& ! l9es t foll[3--,greek3 e7kei_/ns a7n ou7n ko9on ei7_/ to e7_/rgon2 au7_/t men gar e7ka_// 7 i7_/dios phu_/sei phora_/2 au7_/t de oi7on proskeitai4 pantos de pep]asme_/n\ s_/matos pros pep]asme_/non 7 du_/nami_/s e7/9474#a ,footnote #a3 ,see ,prantl's note on ?is difficult passage 9 8 ,g]man translation ( ! ,de ,coelo1 p4 #cji 7,leipzig1 #aheg74 ,,*4 #ac4--;,hav+ ?us expla9$1 respect+ ! ,/>s & ,planets :i* are c>ri$ r\nd 9 circul> motion1 :at is _! ess5ce1 figure1 curr5t1 & ord] ( position1 we n[ proce$ to speak ( ! ,e>?3 ,:at is its position8 ,:e!r is x at re/ or 9 motion8 ,:at is its figure8 ,philosoph]s diff] respect+ ! position ( ! ,e>?4 ,mo/ ( ^? :o conceive ! entire ,kosmos z f9ite1 decl>e ! ,e>? to be 9 its c5tre4 ,b ! ,italian philosoph]s1 call$ ,py?agoreans1 are ( an opposite op9ion2 affirm+ t ,fire is 9 ! c5tre1 & t ! ,e>?1 be+ "o ( ! />s revolv+ r\nd ! c5tre1 makes night & day4 ,!y assume moreov] ano!r ,e>? opposite to ?is 7,greek3 e7nanti_/an a7_/lln tau_/t7--:i* o!r !y call ,anti*?on4 ,h]e9 !y d n adju/ _! !ories & look out = causes adapt$ to ! ph5om5a2 b1 on ! contr>y1 !y di/ort ! ph5om5a s z to suit _! own doctr9es & reason+s1 & try to con/itute !mselves auxili>y gov]nors ( ! ,kosmos 7,greek3 peir_/m5oi sugkosmein--s4 #a74 ,&1 if we are to look = assurance n to ! ph5om5a b to our own reason+s1 _m o!rs might agree ) !m1 t x is n prop] 7,greek3 m dein7 to assign to ! ,e>? ! c5tral place4 ,!y ?9k t ! mo/ hon\rable place belongs to ! mo/ hon\rable body1 & t ,fire is m hon\rable ?an ,e>?2 t ! two extremes1 c5tre & circumf]5ce1 are m hon\rable ?an ! p>ts int]m$iate betwe5 !m4 ,^u ^! gr\nds !y consid] t ,fire & n ,e>? is at ! c5tre ( ! ,univ]sal ,sph]e2 & !y h ano!r reason1 peculi> to !mselves1 = ?is conclusion3 !y hold t ! c5tre is ! mo/ important place 9 ! univ]se1 & t x ought z su* to be ! mo/ c>efully gu>d$2 :]e=e !y call x ! wat* ( ,zeus 7,greek3 ,dios phulak_/n71 & reg>d x z occupi$ by ,fire 7s4 #b74 ,?is assumes t :at is absolutely 7i4e41 )\t subjo9+ any qualify+ adjunct71 describ$ z ! c5tre1 is at once c5tre ( ! magnitude1 c5tre ( ! object1 & c5tre ( nature4 ,b we ought r to foll[ ! analogy ( animals1 :]e ! same po9t is n ! c5tre ( ! animal & ! c5tre ( ! body3 ! case is ! same 9 ! entire ,kosmos4 ,h5ce ! ,py?agoreans ne$ n feel any anxiety ab\t ! ,univ]se 7,greek3 ou7!n au7t\s dei ?orubei/hai p]i to pan71 nor introduce a gu>d at ! c5tre4 ,!y ought r to enquire :]e & ( :at "* ! middle po9t is2 = t middle po9t is ! true beg9n+ & ! hon\rable4 ,! middle ( ! place occupi$ is r l an end ?an l a beg9n+2 = t :i* is limit$ is ! middle1 t :i* limits is ! b\nd>y3 n[ t :i* compreh5ds & is b\nd>y1 is m hon\rable ?an t :i* is b\nd$2 ! =m] is ! ,ess5ce ( ! entire comp\nd1 ! latt] is only its ,matt] 7s4 #c74 ,z ab\t ! place ( ! ,e>?1 s also ab\t its motion or re/1 philosoph]s diff]4 ,! ,py?agoreans & ^? :o d n ev5 place x at ! c5tre1 consid] x to revolve 9 a circle1 & !y consid] ! ,anti*?on to revolve 9 l mann]4 ,"s ev5 ?9k x possible t !re may be _m o!r bodies c>ri$ r\nd ! c5tre 9 l mann]1 ?\gh invisible to u1 by reason ( ! ob/ruct+ body ( ! ,e>?4 ,h5ce 7!y say7 ! eclipses ( ! moon are m frequ5t ?an ^? ( ! ,sun2 s9ce n only ! ,e>?1 b also ea* ( ^! unse5 bodies1 causes ! ,moon to be eclips$4 ,=1 ! ,e>? n be+ a po9t1 we on ! circumf]5ce !re(1 ev5 assum+ x to occupy ! c5tre1 are di/ant f ! c5tre by ! entire hemisph]e ( ! ,e>?2 yet we d n f9d out t we are n 9 ! c5tre1 & a/ronomical appe>ances pres5t !mselves to u j z if we 7 s4 ,?us x happ5s 7accord+ to ^! philosoph]s71 ! ,e>? n be+ 9 ! c5tre at all3 ! appe>ances pres5t$ to u are j ! same z if we 7 at ! c5tre4 ,aga91 !re are "s :o 7l ,plato 9 ,timu7 affirm t ! ,e>?1 ?\gh situat$ 9 ! c5tre1 is pack$ & revolves r\nd ! axis /ret*$ across ! univ]se 7s4 #d74 ,ab\t ! figure ( ! ,e>?1 !re is no less diff]5ce ( op9ion4 ,"s say t x is sph]ical2 o!rs1 t x is flat & 9 %ape l a tamb\r9e 7,greek3 tumpanoeid_/s74 ,^! la/ adduce z pro(1 t ! ,sun1 at ris+ & sett+1 exhibits a rectil9e> section or eclipse ( 8 disk & n a circul> "o1 :5 p>tially conceal$ by ! ,e>?1 & becom+ invisible "u ! horizon or visible above ! horizon4 ,!y d n take prop] acc\nt ( ! va/ di/ance ( ! ,sun & ! magnitude ( 8 circumf]5ce4 ,! segm5t ( a long circle appe>s f a di/ance l a /raight l9e4 ,^! philosoph]s fur!r add1 t ! flat tamb\r9e-l %ape mu/ be inf]r$ ( necessity f ! fact t ! ,e>? rema9s /ation>y 7s4 #e74 ,^u ?is disput$ "q1 a feel+ ( p]plexity comes unavoidably ^u e "o4 ,x w\ld argue a v irrational m9d n to wond] h[ a small piece ( ! ,e>?1 if susp5d$ 9 ! air1 is c>ri$ d[nw>d & w n /op ( itself1 & ! l>g] piece is c>ri$ d[nw>d m quickly ?an ! small]2 :ile nev]!less ! entire ,e>?1 if susp5d$ 9 l mann]1 w\ld n be s c>ri$4 ,9 spite ( its great weight1 x rema9s /ation>y 7s4 #f74 ,b ! solutions ( ?is problem :i* "s sugge/ are m /range & full ( p]plexity1 & x is surpris+ t !y h n be5 s consid]$4 ,! ,kolophonian ,x5ophanes affirm$ t ! l[] dep?s ( ! ,e>? 7 root$ d[nw>ds to inf9ity1 9 ord] to escape ! tr\blesome obligation ( look+ = a reason :y x rema9$ /ation>y4 ,o!rs say1 t ! ,e>? re/s ^u wat]1 float+ !reupon l wood3 ?is is an anci5t doctr9e promulgat$ by ,?ales2 z if !re 7 n z mu* p]plexity ab\t ! wat] :i* supports ! ,e>?1 z !re is ab\t ! ,e>? itself4 ,= x is n ! nature ( wat] to rema9 susp5d$1 b always to re/ ^u some?+ 7s4 #g74 ,moreov]1 air is light] ?an wat]1 & wat] light] ?an e>?2 h[ !n c ^! m5 ?9k t ! sub/ance naturally light] c lie bel[ ! sub/ance naturally heavi]8 ,besides1 if x 7 ! nature ( ! :ole ,e>? to rema9 re/+ on wat]1 x mu/ be ! nature ( ea* "p ( ! ,e>? to d ! same2 b ?is does n happ53 ea* "p ( ! e>? is c>ri$ d[n to ! bottom1 & ! great] "p m quickly ?an ! less 7s4 #h74 ,all ^! philosoph]s c>ry _! rese>*es to a c]ta9 po9t1 b n to ! bottom ( ! problem4 ,x is inde$ a habit ) all ( u to conduct our enquiries n ) ref]5ce to ! problem itself1 b ) ref]5ce to our special oppon5ts4 ,if we h no oppon5t b are conduct+ our inve/igations alone1 we pursue !m z f> z t po9t :]e we c make no f>!r objections to ourselves4 ,:oev] !re=e int5ds to inve/igate completely mu/ take c>e to make objections to himself ^u all ! po9ts ( objection :i* really belong to ! subject2 & ?is he c only d aft] hav+ ?or\ghly survey$ all ! diff]5ces ( op9ion & doctr9e 7s4 #i74 ,! reason :y ! ,e>? rema9s at re/1 ,anaxim5es1 ,anaxagoras1 & ,demokritus1 decl>e to be its bread? or flatness 7,greek3 to pla_/tos73 x does n 7!y say7 divide ! air b5ea?1 b cov]s ov] ! air l a lid 7,greek3 ou7 gar te_/mne91 a7ll' e7pipmati_/ze9 ton a7e_/ra ton ka_/t!n72 z we see t flat & spread+ bodies usually d1 be+ difficult to be mov$ & mak+ /rong resi/ance ev5 aga9/ ! w9ds4 ,! ,e>? does ! same1 ?r\gh its flatness1 aga9/ ! air b5ea?1 :i* rema9s at re/ !re 79 ! op9ion ( ^! philosoph]s7 because x f9ds no suffici5t place into :i* to travel1 l wat] 9 a klepsydra3 !y also produce _m evid5ces to %[ t air ?us imprison$1 :ile rema9+ /ation>y1 c support a heavy weight 7s4 #aj74 ,n[1 9 ! fir/ place1 ^! m5 affirm t1 unless ! %ape ( ! ,e>? 7 flat1 x w\ld n rema9 at re/4 ,yet on _! own %[+ x is n alone ! flat %ape ( ! e>? :i* causes x to rema9 at re/1 b r its magnitude4 ,= ! air b5ea? rema9s 9 situ by reason ( its va/ mass1 f9d+ no means ( escape ?r\gh ! n>r[ passage3 & ! mass ( ! air is ?us va/1 because x is imprison$ inside by ! great magnitude ( ! ,e>?2 :i* effect w be produc$ 9 ! same mann]1 ev5 ?\gh ! ,e>? be sph]ical1 provid$ x be ( its pres5t magnitude4 ,moreov]1 philosoph]s :o hold ?is op9ion ab\t ! motion ( ! ,e>?1 ?9k only ( its motion z a :ole1 & take no acc\nt ( its p>ts4 ,= !y ought to def9e at ! fir/ /ep :e!r bodies h or h n "o special mode ( motion by nature2 &1 if none by nature1 !n :e!r !y h any mode ( motion viol5t or contra-natural4 ,i h already det]m9$ ?is po9t z well z my p[]s admitt$1 & %all !re=e assume ! results z settl$4 ,if !re be no special motion natural to bodies1 nei!r w !re be any :i* is contra-natural or viol5t2 &1 if !re be none ei!r natural or viol5t1 no body w be mov$ at all4 ,i h already %[n t ?is is a necess>y consequ5ce2 &1 f>!r1 t 7^u t supposition7 !re c be no body ev5 at re/2 = re/1 l motion1 is ei!r natural or contra-natural2 &1 if !re be any special mode ( motion :i* is natural1 nei!r contra-natural motion1 nor contra-natural re/1 c /& alone 7ss4 #aa-ac74 ,let u !n assume 7reason+ on ! hypo!sis ( ^! philosoph]s7 t ! ,e>? n[ rema9s 9 its pres5t place contr>y to nature1 & t x 0 c>ri$ into aggregation at ! c5tre by ! revolution ( ! ,kosmos 7also contr>y to nature--,greek3 kai sunl!n e7pi to me_/son ph]ome_/n dia tn di_/ns9--s4 #ad74 ,= all ^? :o recognize a g5]ation ( ! ,kosmos assign ?is revolution z ! cause :i* det]m9$ ! aggregation ( ! ,e>? at ! c5tre1 ^u ! analogy ( p>ticles c>ri$ r\nd 9 liquids or 9 air1 :]e ! l>g] & heavi] p>ticles are always c>ri$ to ! c5tre ( ! revolution4 ,!y pr(ess ?us to "k ! cause :i* det]m9$ ! ,e>? to come to ! c5tre2 b :at !y seek to f9d out is ! cause :i* det]m9es x to rema9 !re1 & ^u t !y diff]3 "s say+1 z has be5 /at$ j n[1 t its bread? & magnitude is ! cause2 o!rs1 ) ,emp$okles1 ascrib+ ! fact to ! revolution ( ! ,heav51 ! extreme velocity ( :i* *ecks ! fall ( ! ,e>? d[nw>d1 j z wat] 9 a cup may be :irl$ rapidly r\nd )\t fall+ to ! gr\nd4 ,b suppose abs5ce ( ^! two causes3 9 :i* direction w ! ,e>? be naturally c>ri$8 ,n to ! c5tre2 = 7^u ! doctr9e :i* we are n[ criticis+7 its motion to ! c5tre1 & its rema9+ at ! c5tre1 are bo? ( !m contra-natural2 b "s special mode ( motion1 natural to ! ,e>?1 !re mu/ necess>ily be4 ,is ?is upw>d1 or d[nw>d1 or 9 :at o!r direction8 ,if !re be no great] t5d5cy d[nw>d ?an upw>d1 & if ! air above does n h9d] ! ,e>? f t5d+ upw>d1 nei!r w ! air b5ea? h9d] x f t5d+ d[nw>ds3 ! same causes produce ! same effects1 op]at+ on ! same matt] 7ss4 #ad1 #ae74 ,a f>!r argum5t becomes applicable1 :5 we are reason+ aga9/ ,emp$okles4 ,:5 ! f\r elem5ts 7 fir/ sep>at$ out ( _! confus$ huddle by ! influ5ce ( ,cont5tion1 :at 0 ! cause = ! ,e>? to rema9 /ill & 9 situ8 ,emp$okles _c claim to introduce !n ! ag5cy ( ! cosmical revolution4 ,moreov]1 x is /range t he %\ld n h reflect$ t 9 ! fir/ in/ance ! p>ticles & fragm5ts ( ! ,e>? 7 c>ri$ to ! c5tre4 ,b :at is ! cause n[ t e ?+ hav+ weight is c>ri$ t[>ds ! ,e>?8 ,x _c be ! revolution ( ! ,heav5 :i* br+s ^! ?+s ne>] to u 7s4 #af74 ,aga91 ,fire is c>ri$ upw>d4 ,:at is ! cause ( ?is8 ,! revolution ( ! ,heav5 _c cause x4 ,b1 if x be ! nature ( fire to be c>ri$ 9 "o c]ta9 direction1 x mu/ be equally ! nature ( ,e>? to be c>ri$ 9 "o c]ta9 direction4 ,light & heavy1 also1 are n discrim9at$ by ! heav5ly revolution4 ,!re are matt]s orig9ally heavy1 & matt]s orig9ally light3 ! =m] are c>ri$ to ! c5tre1 ! latt] to ! circumf]5ce1 ea* by its own special motion4 ,ev5 prior to ! heav5ly revolution !re exi/$ ?+s intr9sically light & intr9sically heavy2 :i* are discrim9at$ by c]ta9 attributes--a c]ta9 natural mode ( motion & a c]ta9 place4 ,9 inf9ite space1 !re c be no upw>d & d[nw>d2 & x is by ?is 7local di/9ction7 t light & heavy are discrim9at$ 7ss4 #ag1 #ah74 ,:ile mo/ philosoph]s insi/ ^u ! causes j notic$ :y ! ,e>? rema9s /ation>y :]e x is1 !re are o!rs1 l ,anaxim&]1 among ! anci5ts1 :o say t x rema9s s because ( its lik5ess or equality 7,greek3 dia tn o7moio_/t]a--equal t5d5cy 9 all directions74 ,t :i* is situat$ 9 ! c5tre 7!y say7 & :i* has l relation to ! extreme p>ts 7i4e41 l to all ! extreme p>ts7 ought n to be c>ri$ any m upw>d or d[nw>d or sideways2 & x _c be mov$ 9 opposite directions at once2 s t x rema9s /ation>y by necessity 7s4 #ai74 ,?is doctr9e is +5i\s1 b n true4 ,= ! prop]ty affirm$ is n[ay peculi> to ! ,e>?3 ! affirmation is1 t e ?+ :i* is plac$ at ! c5tre mu/ ( necessity rema9 !re2 s t ,fire also w\ld rema9 !re at re/1 z well z ,e>?4 ,b ?is necessity mu/ be d5i$4 ,= x is %[n by obs]vation t ! ,e>? n only rema9s at ! c5tre1 b is c>ri$ to ! c5tre2 s9ce ea* "p ( x is c>ri$ ?i!r1 &1 :i!rsoev] ! p>ts are c>ri$1 ! :ole is c>ri$ necess>ily to ! same po9t4 ,! peculi> prop]ty ( ! e>? !re=e is1 n 7z ?is hypo!sis decl>es7 to h l relation to all ! extreme p>ts--= t is common to all ! elem5ts--b to be c>ri$ t[>ds ! c5tre 7ss4 #bj1 #ba74 ,moreov]1 x is absurd to inve/igate :y ! ,e>? rema9s at ! c5tre1 & n to inve/igate equally :y ,fire rema9s at ! extremity4 ,=1 if y expla9 ?is la/ by say+ t ,fire has its natural place at ! extremity1 ! ,e>? mu/ h its natural place some:]e else4 ,if ! c5tre be n ! natural place ( ! ,e>?1 & if ! ,e>? rema9s !re ?r\gh l t5d5cy 9 all directions1 l ! hair 9 equal t5sion or ! man bo? hungry & ?ir/y betwe5 food & dr9k1 y mu/ equally assign ! reason :y ,fire rema9s at ! extremity4 ,x is s+ul> too t y %\ld try to expla9 only ! rema9+ at re/ 7,greek3 mons7 ( ! ,e>?1 & n also seek to expla9 ! natural curr5t 7,greek3 phora_/7--:y ,e>? is c>ri$ d[nw>d1 & ,fire upw>d1 :5 !re is no oppos+ =ce 7s4 #bb74 ,nor c x be admitt$ t ! doctr9e is true4 ,?us mu* inde$ is true by accid5t--t e ?+ :i* has no great] obligation to be mov$ 9 ?is direction ?an 9 t1 mu/ necess>ily rema9 at ! c5tre4 ,b ?is is true only s long z x rema9s a compact :ole2 =1 accord+ to ! !ory :i* we are discuss+1 x w n rema9 /ation>y1 b w be mov$3 n inde$ z a :ole1 b disp]s$ into p>ts 7s4 #bc3 ,greek3 a7lla mn ou7de a7l!_/s e7/i to lego_/m5on4 kata sumbebkos me_/ntoi t\to_/ ge a7l!_/s1 7s a7nagkaion me_/ne9 e7pi t\ me_/s\ pan1 7 m!n mallon deuro 7 deuro k9ei/hai pros_/kei4 a7lla dia_/ ge t\ton ton lo_/gon ou7 m5ei a7lla k9?_/setai2 ou7 me_/ntoi o7_/lon1 a7lla diespasme_/non4--,i und]/& ,greek3 kata sumbebko_/s to mean1 subject to ! condition ( its rema9+ a compact :ole74 ,= ! same reason+ w\ld apply to ,fire z well z to ,e>?3 x w\ld prove t ,fire1 if plac$ at ! c5tre1 w rema9 !re j z mu* z ,e>?1 because ,fire w h l relation to ea* po9t ( ! extreme p]iph]y4 ,yet nev]!less x w 7n rema9 at ! c5tre1 b w7 be c>ri$ away1 if n imp$$1 z we obs]ve t x is c>ri$ 9 fact1 to ! p]iph]y2 only n all to "o & ! same po9t ( ! p]iph]y1 b correspond+ portions ( ! ,fire to correspond+ portions ( ! p]iph]y3 ,i mean1 t ! f\r? "p 7e4g47 ( ! ,fire w be c>ri$ to ! f\r? "p ( ! p]iph]y2 = a po9t is no real "p ( bodies 7,greek3 ou7!n gar /igm tn sma_/tn e7/i_/n74 ,?is is ! only necess>y consequ5ce fl[+ f ! pr9ciple ( lik5ess ( relation4 ,z1 if suppos$ to be put all toge!r at ! c5tre1 x w\ld contract f a l>g] area into a small]1 s1 :5 c>ri$ away f ! c5tre to ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! p]iph]y1 x w\ld become r>] & w\ld exp& f a small] area into a l>g]4 ,9 l mann] ! ,e>? also w\ld be mov$ away f ! c5tre1 if y reason ^u ?is pr9ciple ( lik5ess ( relation1 & if ! c5tre 7 n ! place belong+ to x by nature 7s4 #bd74 ,,*4 #ad4--;,hav+ ?us report$ ! suppositions ( o!rs respect+ ! figure1 place1 re/ & motion1 ( ! ,e>?1 ,i %all n[ deliv] my own op9ion1 fir/1 :e!r x is 9 motion or at re/2 = "s philosoph]s1 z ,i h said1 reg>d x z "o ( ! />s 7& !re=e n 9 ! c5tre1 b mov+ r\nd ! c5tre--! ,py?agorean !ory72 o!rs 7z ,plato71 ?\gh !y place x 9 ! c5tre1 consid] x to be pack$ & mov$ r\nd ! middle ( ! axis ( ! ,kosmos 7,greek3 oi7 de e7pi t\ me_/s\ !_/ntes1 ei7lei/hai kai k9ei/hai_/ phasi p]i ton me_/son po_/lon74 ,t nei!r ( ^! hypo!ses is possible1 we %all p]ceive if we take z our po9t ( dep>ture--,t1 if ! ,e>? be c>ri$ r\nd1 :e!r 9 ! c5tre or ap>t f ! c5tre1 su* motion mu/ necess>ily be viol5t or contra-natural4 ,su* motion does n belong naturally to ! ,e>? itself2 =1 if su* 7 ! fact1 x w\ld belong equally to ea* portion ( ! ,e>?1 :]eas we see t all ^! portions are c>ri$ 9 a /raight l9e to ! c5tre4 ,be+ ?us viol5t or contra-natural1 x _c possibly be et]nal4 ,b ! ord] ( ! ,kosmos is et]nal4 ,besides1 all ! bodies :i* are c>ri$ r\nd 9 a circul> revolution 7all except ! ,fir/ or ,out]mo/ ,sph]e--! ,aplans7 appe> to obs]vation z lagg+ beh9d & z be+ mov$ 9 m ?an "o curr5t4 ,! l ought to happ5 ) ! ,e>?1 if mov$ r\nd1 :e!r on ! c5tre or ap>t f ! c5tre3 x ought to be mov$ 9 two curr5ts2 &1 z a consequ5ce !re(1 !re ought to be side-motions & back-turn+s ( ! />s fa/5$ 9 _! sph]e4 ,b we see by obs]vation t ?is does n happ52 & t ! same />s always rise & set at ! same places ( ! ,e>? 7s4 #a74 ,f>!rmore1 ! natural curr5t bo? ( ! entire ,e>? & ( ea* ( its p>ts is t[>ds ! middle ( ! univ]se3 ?is is ! reason :y x is at ! c5tre1 ev5 ?\gh x happ5s to be actually !re at pres5t 7,greek3 dia t\to gar1 ka7n ei7 tug*a_/nei keime_/n nun e7pi t\ ke_/ntr\--he means t ?\gh actually !re1 x rema9s !re n ?r\gh any =ce ( in]tia or o!r cause1 b because x has a natural curr5t t[>ds ! c5tre74 ,y might />t a d\bt1 inde$1 s9ce ! c5tre ( ! ,univ]se co9cides ) ! c5tre ( ! ,e>?1 to :i* ( ! two x is t ! curr5t ( heavy bodies naturally t5ds3 :e!r !y t5d !reto because x is ! c5tre ( ! ,univ]se1 or because x is ! c5tre ( ! ,e>?4 ,we mu/ h[ev] necess>ily suppose ! =m]2 s9ce ,fire & light bodies1 ^: curr5t is ! contr>y ( ! curr5t ( heavy bodies1 are c>ri$ to ! extreme p]iph]y ( ! ,univ]se1 or ( t place :i* compreh5ds & surr\nds ! c5tre ( ! ,univ]se 7ss4 #b1 #c74 ,b x happ5s 7,greek3 sumbe_/bke3 x is an accompany+ fact7 t ! same po9t is c5tre ( ! ,univ]se & c5tre ( ! ,e>?2 accord+ly heavy bodies are c>ri$ by accid5t 7,greek3 kata sumbebko_/s--by virtue ( ?is accompany+ fact7 to ! c5tre ( ! ,e>?2 & ! pro( t !y are c>ri$ to ?is same po9t is1 t _! l9es ( direction are n p>allel b accord+ to simil> angles 7s4 #d74 ,t ! ,e>? !re=e is at ! c5tre1 & t x is at re/1 we may see by ! =ego+ reasons1 z well z by ! fact1 t /ones ?r[n upw>ds to ev] s great a height1 are c>ri$ back 9 ! same l9e ( direction to ! same po9t 7s4 #e74 ,we may see f>!r ! cause :y ! ,e>? rema9s at re/4 ,=1 if its natural curr5t be f all directions t[>ds ! c5tre1 z obs]vation %[s1 & t ( ,fire f ! c5tre to ! p]iph]y1--no portion ( x c possibly be c>ri$ away f ! c5tre1 except by viol5ce4 ,= to "o body belongs "o curr5t ( motion1 & to a simple body a simple curr5t--n ! two opposite curr5ts2 & ! curr5t f ! c5tre is opposite to ! curr5t to ! c5tre4 ,if1 !re=e1 x be impossible = any portion ( ! ,e>? to be c>ri$ 9 a direction away f ! c5tre1 x is yet m impossible = ! :ole ,e>? to be s2 = ! natural curr5t ( ea* "p is ! same z t ( ! :ole4 ,accord+ly1 s9ce ! ,e>? _c be mov$ except by a sup]ior =ce or viol5ce1 x mu/ necess>ily rema9 /ation>y at ! c5tre 7s4 #f74 ,! same conclusion is confirm$ by :at we le>n f geomet]s respect+ a/ronomy2 = all ! ph5om5a ( ! ,heav5s--! *anges 9 figure1 ord]1 & arrangem5t ( ! />s--take place z if ! ,e>? 7 9 ! c5tre 7s4 #g74 ,! figure ( ! ,e>? is necess>ily sph]ical4 ,= ea* ( its p>ts has gravity1 until x rea*es ! c5tre2 & ! less] "p1 pu%$ =w>d by ! great]1 _c escape lat]ally1 b mu/ become m & m squeez$ toge!r1 "o "p giv+ place to ! o!r1 until ! c5tre itself is rea*$4 ,we mu/ conceive :at is "h affirm$ z occurr+ 9 a mann] l :at "s ( ! anci5t physical philosoph]s tell u1 except t !y ascribe ! d[nw>d curr5t to an extrane\s =ce2 :]eas we ?9k x bett] to /ate ! tru?1 & to say t x occurs because by nature all heavy bodies are c>ri$ t[>ds ! c5tre4 ,s9ce1 !re=e1 ! prelim9>y ,*aos or hot*pot* exi/$ 9 p[] 7or ) its inh]5t p[]s exi/+ ?\gh n ex]cis$71 ! elem5ts 7^? :i* _h gravity71 7 c>ri$ f all sides equally t[>ds ! c5tre 7,greek3 e7n duna_/mei ou7n o7_/ntos t\ mi_/gmatos1 ta diakr9o_/m5a e7phe_/reto o7moi_/s pa_/nto!n pros to me_/son--?is is an allusion to ! doctr9e ( ,anaxagoras72 inde$1 :e!r br\ght toge!r at ! c5tre equally f all ! p]iph]y or 9 any o!r mann]1 ! result w be ! same4 ,if we suppose p>ticles to be br\ght toge!r at ! c5tre equally f all sides1 x is pla9 t ! mass s =m$ w be regul> & sph]ical2 &1 ev5 if n equally f all sides1 ?is w make no diff]5ce 9 ! reason+2 =1 s9ce all portions ( ! mass h weight or t5d to ! c5tre1 ! l>g] portions w necess>ily pu% ! less] be=e !m z f> z ! c5tre 7ss4 #h1 #i74 ,a difficulty "h pres5ts itself1 :i* may be solv$ ^u ! same pr9ciples4 ,! ,e>? be+ sph]ical1 & at ! c5tre1 suppose t a va/ additional weight 7 appli$ to ei!r ( its hemisph]es4 ,9 t case1 ! c5tre ( ! ,univ]se1 & ! c5tre ( ! ,e>?1 w\ld cease to co9cide3 ei!r1 !re=e1 ! ,e>? w n rema9 at ! c5tre2 or1 if x w\ld /ill rema9 at re/1 :ile n occupy+ ! c5tre1 x is 9 its nature to be mov$ ev5 n[ 7s4 #aj3 ,greek3 7_//e 7 ou7 m5ei e7pi t\ me_/s\1 7 ei7_/p] 7rem_/sei ge kai m to me_/son e7_/*\sa 71 pe_/phuke k9ei/hai kai nun7--i4e41 if ! ,e>? c be at re/ :5 n at ! c5tre1 we mu/ inf] t ! c5tre is n its natural place1 & !re=e t its nature w be to be mov$ f ! c5tre t[>ds t natural place :]ev] situat$74 ,su* is a /atem5t ( ! difficulty2 b we %all see t x may be cle>$ up ) a little att5tion4 ,we mu/ di/+ui% :at we mean :5 we affirm t e p>ticle hav+ weight is c>ri$ t[>ds ! c5tre4 ,we cle>ly d n mean t x w be s c>ri$ until ! p>ticles f>!/ f ! c5tre %all t\* ! c5tre4 ,we mean t ! great] mass mu/ press ) prepond]at+ =ce 7,greek3 dei kratein to pleion e7_/s a7n la_/b t au7t\ me_/s to me_/son7 until its c5tre grasps ! c5tre ( ! univ]se2 up to ?is po9t its gravity w la/2 & ?is is equally true ab\t any clod ( e>? z ab\t ! :ole e>?3 l>ge or small size makes no diff]5ce4 ,:e!r ! :ole ,e>? 7 c>ri$ 9 a mass f any giv5 position1 or :e!r x 7 c>ri$ 9 sep>ate p>ticles1 9 ei!r case x w\ld be c>ri$ onw>d until x embrac$ ! c5tre equally on all sides2 ! small] p>ts be+ equaliz$ to ! great] 9 gravitat+ t5d5cy because !y are pu%$ =w>d by ! great] 7,greek3 a7nisazome_/nn tn e7latto_/nn u7po tn meizo_/nn t pro_/sei--s4 #aa74 ,if1 !re=e1 ! ,e>? 0 ev] g5]at$1 x mu/ h be5 g5]at$ 9 ?is mann]1 & mu/ ?us acquire a sph]ical figure2 &1 ev5 if x be ung5]able & /ation>y f ev]la/+1 we mu/ conceive its figure to be t :i* x w\ld h acquir$1 if x _h be5 g5]able & g5]at$ f ! fir/ 7,greek3 ei7_/te a7ge_/nntos a7ei me_/n\sa1 ton au7ton tro_/pon e7_/*e91 o7_/np] ka7n ei7 gignome_/n to prton e7ge_/neto74 ,t x mu/ be sph]ical1 we see n only f ?is reason+1 b also because all heavy bodies are c>ri$ t[>ds x1 n 9 p>allel l9es b1 9 equal angles4 ,?is is :at naturally happ5s ) :at is ei!r actually sph]ical1 or by nature sph]ical4 ,n[ we ought to call e ?+ su* z x by nature wi%es to become & to be3 we ought n to call x su* z x is by =ce & contr>y to nature 7s4 #ab74 ,! same conclusion is e/abli%$ by ! s5sible facts )9 our obs]vation4 ,if ! ,e>? _h be5 ( any o!r ?an sph]ical figure1 ! eclipses ( ! ,moon w\ld n h project$ on ! ,sun ! outl9es :i* we n[ see4 ,! moon 9 h] configurations ?r\gh\t ! mon? takes on e v>iety ( outl9e--rectil9e>1 d\ble convex1 & holl[4 ,b 9 h] eclipses ! di/+ui%+ l9e is always convex4 ,n[ ?is mu/ necess>ily be occasion$ by ! circumf]5ce ( ! ,e>? be+ sph]ical1 s9ce ! eclipses ( ! ,moon arise f ! int]position ( ! ,e>? 7s4 #ac74 ,f>!rmore1 we see f ! visible ph5om5a ( ! />s n only t ! ,e>? is sph]ical1 b also t its magnitude is n great4 ,=1 :5 we *ange our position a little z obs]v]s1 ei!r to ! nor? or to ! s\?1 we f9d ! cele/ial horizon to be manife/ly diff]5t4 ,! />s at ! z5i? are greatly *ang$1 & ! same />s d n appe>3 "s />s are visible 9 ,egypt & ,cyprus1 b become invisible :5 we proce$ f>!r nor?2 & ^? :i* are con/antly visible 9 ! nor!rn regions1 are f\nd to be n con/antly visible1 b to set1 :5 ! obs]v] is 9 ,egypt or ,cyprus4 ,! bulk ( ! ,e>? mu/ !re=e be small1 :5 a small *ange ( position is made s soon manife/ to u 7s4 #ad74 ,h5ce ^? :o hold t ! regions ne> ! pill>s ( ,h]akles jo9 on ) ,india & t ! ocean ea/w>d & we/w>d is "o & ! same1 mu/ n be suppos$ to talk extravagantly 7,greek3 m li_/an u7polamba_/ne9 a7_/pi/a dokein73 !y inf] ?is f ! pres5ce ( elephants alike at bo? extremities4 ,geomet]s :o try to calculate ! magnitude ( ! ,e>?1 affirm t its circumf]5ce is #djj1jjj /adia4 ,x foll[s necess>ily f all ^! reason+s1 t ! body ( ! ,e>? is n only ( sph]ical =m1 b also n l>ge comp>$ ) ! magnitude ( ! o!r ,/>s 7ss4 #ae1 #af74 ,! rema9+ two books ( ! treatise kn[n by ! title ',de ,coelo1' :ile connect$ ) ! =ego+1 are /ill m closely connect$ ) ! two ,books compos+ ! treatise entitl$ ',de ,g5]atione et ,corruptione4' ,! discussion c>ri$ on ?r\gh\t ! two treatises is 9 tru? "o2 b1 if any:]e brok51 x is at ! end ( ,book ,,ii4 ,de ,coelo1 z above4 ,f ?is po9t ,ari/otle proce$s to consid] 79 f\r ,books7 ! p>ticul> ph5om5a pres5t$ by natural bodies--ph5om5a ( ,g5]ation & ,de/ruction 79 ! wide/ s5se ( ^! words7--dep5d5t on ! opposition ( ! upw>d & d[nw>d motions2 bodies1 ?us light or heavy1 be+ !nce se5 to be ultimately r$ucible to f\r elem5ts v>i\sly comb9$4 ,treat+ ( ! ,kosmos 9 its l>g] aspects1 ! fir/ two ,books ( ,de ,coelo1 "h ab/ract$1 are obvi\sly ^? t alone correspond /rictly to ! "n ( ! treatise4 ,v4 ,,epikurus ,our in=mation f ,epikurean writ]s respect+ ! doctr9es ( _! sect is mu* less copi\s ?an t :i* we possess f ,/oic writ]s 9 reg>d to ,/oic op9ions4 ,we h no ,epikurean writ] on philosophy except ,lucretius2 :]eas respect+ ! ,/oical cre$ "u ! ,roman ,empire1 ! important writ+s ( ,s5eca1 ,epictetus1 & ,m>cus ,anton9us1 af=d mo/ valuable evid5ce4 ,! /&>d ( ,virtue & ,vice is ref]r$ by ,epikurus to ,pleasure & ,pa94 ,pa9 is ! only evil1 ,pleasure is ! only good4 ,virtue is no end 9 itself1 to be s\ght2 vice is no end 9 itself1 to be avoid$4 ,! motive = cultivat+ virtue & bani%+ vice arises f ! consequ5ces ( ea*1 z ! means ( multiply+ pleasures & av]t+ or less5+ pa9s4 ,b to ! atta9m5t ( ?is purpose1 ! complete supremacy ( ,reason is indisp5sable2 9 ord] t we may take a "r comp>ative measure ( ! v>ieties ( pleasure & pa91 & pursue ! c\rse t promises ! lea/ am\nt ( suff]+4 ,?is !ory 7tak5 9 its mo/ g5]al s5se1 & ap>t f diff]5ces 9 ! e/imation ( p>ticul> pleasures & pa9s71 _h be5 proclaim$ long be=e ! "t ( ,epikurus4 ,x is "o ( ! v>i\s !ories ( ,plato2 = 9 8 dialogue call$ ,protagoras 7?\gh 9 o!r dialogues he reasons diff]5tly7 we f9d x explicitly set =? & elaborately v9dicat$ by 8 pr9cipal spokesman1 ,sokrates1 aga9/ ! ,sophi/ ,protagoras4 ,x 0 also held by ,ari/ippus 7companion ( ,sokrates along ) ,plato7 & by 8 foll[]s aft] him1 call$ ! ,kyr5aics4 ,la/ly1 x 0 ma9ta9$ by ,eudoxus1 "o ( ! mo/ e/imable philosoph]s contempor>y ) ,ari/otle4 ,epikurus 0 ?us 9 no way ! orig9ator ( ! !ory2 b he _h 8 own way ( conceiv+ x1 8 own body ( doctr9e physical1 cosmological1 & !ological1 ) :i* x 0 implicat$1 & 8 own comp>ative valuation ( pleasures & pa9s4 ,bodily feel+1 9 ! ,epikurean psy*ology1 is prior 9 ord] ( "t to ! m5tal elem5t2 ! =m] is primordial1 :ile ! latt] is d]iv$ f x by repeat$ processes ( memory & association4 ,b1 ?\gh su* is ! ord] ( sequ5ce & g5]ation1 yet :5 we comp>e ! two z con/itu5ts ( happ9ess to ! =m$ man1 ! m5tal elem5t mu* outweighs ! bodily1 bo? z pa9 & z pleasure4 ,bodily pa9 or pleasure exi/s only 9 ! pres5t2 :5 n felt1 x is no?+4 ,b m5tal feel+s involve memory & hope1 embrace ! pa/ z well z ! future1 endure = a long "t1 & may be recall$ or put out ( sight1 to a great degree1 at our discretion4 ,?is la/ po9t is "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable features ( ! ,epikurean m5tal discipl9e4 ,epikurus deprecat$ ! g5]al habit ( mank9d 9 always hank]+ aft] "s new satisfaction to come2 always discont5t$ ) ! pres5t1 & oblivi\s ( pa/ com=ts z if !y _h nev] be54 ,^! pa/ com=ts ought to be treasur$ up by memory & reflection1 s t !y might become z x 7 matt] = rum9ation1 & might s]ve1 9 try+ mom5ts1 ev5 to c\nt]balance extreme physical suff]+4 ,! heal? ( ,epikurus himself 0 v bad dur+ ! clos+ ye>s ( 8 life4 ,!re rema9s a fragm5t ( 8 la/ lett]1 to an intimate fri5d & companion1 ,idom5eus3--,i write ?is to y on ! la/ day ( my life1 :i*1 9 spite ( ! sev]e/ int]nal bodily pa9s1 is /ill a happy day1 because ,i set aga9/ !m 9 ! balance all ! m5tal pleasure felt 9 ! recollection ( my pa/ conv]sations ) y4 ,take c>e ( ! *ildr5 left by ,metrodorus1 9 a mann] wor?y ( y\r demean\r f boyhood t[>ds me & t[>ds philosophy4 ,bodily pa9 might ?us be alleviat$1 :5 x occurr$2 x might be greatly less5$ 9 occurr5ce1 by prud5t & mod]ate habits2 la/ly1 ev5 at ! wor/1 if viol5t1 x nev] la/$ long2 if n viol5t1 x might be pati5tly borne1 & 0 at any rate t]m9at$1 or t]m9able at pleasure1 by dea?4 ,9 ! view ( ,epikurus1 ! *ief mis]ies ( life arose1 n f bodily pa9s1 b p>tly f delusions ( hope & exagg]at$ aspirations = weal?1 hon\rs1 p[]1 c41 9 all :i* ! objects appe>$ mo/ s$uctive f a di/ance1 incit+ man to lawless viol5ce & trea*]y1 :ile 9 ! reality !y 7 always disappo9tm5ts & g5]ally some?+ worse2 p>tly1 & /ill m1 f ! delusions ( fe>4 ,( ?is la/ sort1 7 ! two greate/ torm5ts ( human exi/5ce--fe> ( ,dea? & ( et]nal suff]+ aft] dea?1 z ann\nc$ by prophets & poets1 & fe> ( ! ,gods4 ,epikurus1 :o did n believe 9 ! cont9u$ exi/5ce ( ! s\l sep>ate f ! body1 decl>$ t !re c\ld nev] be any rational gr\nd = fe>+ dea?1 s9ce x 0 simply a p]man5t ext9ction ( consci\sness4 ,dea? 0 no?+ to u 7he said73 :5 dea? comes1 we are no m1 ei!r to suff] or to enjoy4 ,yet x 0 ! gr\ndless fe> ( ?is no?+ t poison$ all ! tranquillity ( life1 & held m5 imprison$ ev5 :5 exi/5ce 0 a torm5t4 ,:oev] _h surm\nt$ t fe> 0 arm$ at once aga9/ cruel tyranny & aga9/ all ! grave/ mis=tunes4 ,next1 ! fe> ( ! gods 0 n less delusive1 & h>dly less torm5t+1 ?an ! fe> ( dea?4 ,x 0 a capital error 7,epikurus decl>$7 to suppose t ! gods employ$ !mselves z ag5ts 9 work+ or sup]9t5d+ ! m>* ( ! ,kosmos2 or 9 conf]r+ fav\r on "s m51 & adm9i/]+ *a/isem5t to o!rs4 ,! vulg> religi\s tales1 :i* repres5t$ !m 9 ?is "*1 7 untrue & insult+ z reg>ds ! gods !mselves1 & pregnant ) p]v]sion & mis]y z reg>ds ! hopes & fe>s ( mank9d4 ,epikurus believ$ s9c]ely 9 ! gods2 rev]5c$ !m z be+s at once p]fectly happy1 immortal1 & un*angeable2 & took delight 9 ! public religi\s fe/ivals & c]emonies4 ,b x 0 inconsi/5t ) ^! attributes1 & repulsive to 8 feel+s ( rev]5ce1 to conceive !m z ag5ts4 ,! idea ( ag5cy is d]iv$ f human exp]i5ce3 we1 z ag5ts1 act ) a view to supply "s want1 to fulfil "s obligation1 to acquire "s pleasure1 to accompli% "s object desir$ b n yet atta9$--9 %ort1 to fill up "o or o!r ( ! _m gaps 9 our imp]fect happ9ess3 ! gods already h all t ag5ts /rive to get1 & m ?an ag5ts ev] d get2 _! condition is "o n ( ag5cy1 b ( tranquil1 self-su/a9+1 fruition4 ,accord+ly1 ,epikurus ?\ght 7z ,ari/otle#a _h ?\ght be=e him7 t ! p]fect1 et]nal1 & imp]turbable well-be+ & felicity ( ! gods exclud$ ! supposition ( _! be+ ag5ts4 ,he look$ ^u !m z types ( t unmole/$ safety & unalloy$ satisfaction :i* 0 :at he und]/ood by pleasure or happ9ess1 z objects ( rev]5tial envy1 ^: sympa?y he 0 likely to obta9 by assimilat+ 8 own temp] & condition to !irs z f> z human circum/ances all[$4 ,footnote #a3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,coelo1 ,,ii4 xii4 p4 #bib1 a4 #bb-;b4 #g3 ,greek3 e7_/oike gar t men a7_/ri/a e7_/*onti u7pa_/r*e9 to eu7 a7_/neu pra_/xes1 t d' e7ggu_/tata dia o7li_/gs kai mias1 tois de por7r7ta_/t dia pleio_/nn1--t d' 7s a7_/ri/a e7_/*onti ou7!n dei pra_/xes2 e7_//i gar au7to to ou7 e7_/neka1 7 de praxis a7ei_/ e7/9 e7n dusi_/n1 o7_/tan kai ou7 e7_/neka 7 kai to t\_/t\ e7_/neka4 c4 ,ibid4 iii4 p4 #bhf1 a4 #i3 ,greek3 !\ d' e7ne_/rgeia a7?anasi_/a2 t\to d' e7/i z a7i_/dos1 c4 ,9 ! ,e?ica1 ,ari/otle assigns !oriz+ contemplation to ! gods1 z ! only process wor?y ( _! exalt$ dignity & supreme felicity4 ,^! !ological views 7 plac$ by ,epikurus 9 ! =egr\nd ( 8 e?ical philosophy1 z ! only means ( dispell+ 9999^? fe>s ( ! gods t ! curr5t fables in/ill$ into e "o1 & t did s mu* to de/roy human com=t & security4 ,he proclaim$ t be+s 9 immortal felicity nei!r suff]$ vexation 9 !mselves nor caus$ vexation to o!rs2 nei!r %[$ ang] nor fav\r to p>ticul> p]sons4 ,! doctr9e t !y 7 ! work+ manag]s 9 ! affairs ( ! ,kosmos1 cele/ial & t]re/rial1 human & extra-human1 he n only repudiat$ z incompatible ) _! attributes1 b decl>$ to be impi\s1 consid]+ ! disord]1 suff]+s1 & viol5ce1 ev]y:]e visible4 ,he disall[$ all prophecy1 div9ation1 & oracul> inspiration1 by :i* ! public ar\nd him believ$ t ! gods 7 p]petually communicat+ special revelations to individuals1 & = :i* ,sokrates _h felt s peculi>ly ?ankful4 ,x is rem>kable t ,/oics & ,epikureans1 9 spite ( _! m>k$ opposition 9 dogma or !ory1 agre$ s f> 9 practical results1 t bo? decl>$ ^! two modes ( uneas9ess 7fe> ( ! gods & fe> ( dea?7 to be ! great torm5ts ( human exi/5ce1 & bo? /rove to remove or c\nt]balance !m4 ,s f> ! tea*+ ( ,epikurus appe>s conf9$ to ! sep>ate happ9ess ( ea* individual1 z dep5d5t ^u 8 own prud5ce1 sobriety1 & correct views ( ,nature4 ,b ?is is n ! :ole ( ! ,epikurean ,e?ics4 ,! sy/em also consid]$ ea* man z 9 companion%ip ) o!rs3 ! precepts 7 %ap$ accord+ly1 fir/ z to ,ju/ice1 next z to ,fri5d%ip4 ,9 bo?1 ^!1 ! f\ndation :]eon ,epikurus built 0 ,reciprocity--n pure sacrifice to o!rs1 b p>tn]%ip ) o!rs1 b5eficial to all4 ,he kept ! ideas ( self & ( o!rs insep>ably knit toge!r 9 "o complex association3 he did n expel or degrade ei!r1 9 ord] to give exclusive asc5dancy to ! o!r4 ,! dictate ( ,natural ,ju/ice 01 t no man %\ld hurt ano!r3 ea* 0 b\nd to ab/a9 f do+ h>m to o!rs2 ea*1 on ?is condition1 0 entitl$ to c\nt on security & relief f ! fe> t o!rs w\ld d h>m to him4 ,su* d\ble aspect1 or reciprocity1 0 ess5tial to social companion%ip3 ^? t c\ld n1 or w\ld n1 accept ?is cov5ant1 7 unfit = society4 ,if a man does n behave ju/ly t[>ds o!rs1 he _c expect t !y w behave ju/ly t[>ds him2 to live a life ( inju/ice1 & expect t o!rs w n f9d x out1 is idle4 ,! unju/ man _c enjoy a mom5t ( security4 ,epikurus laid x d[n explicitly1 t j & righte\s deal+ 0 ! indisp5sable condition to e "o's com=t1 & 0 ! be/ means ( atta9+ x4 ,! reciprocity ( ,ju/ice 0 valid t[>ds all ! _w2 ! reciprocity ( ,fri5d%ip w5t mu* f>!r3 x involv$ indef9ite & active b5efic5ce1 b c\ld rea* only to a select few4 ,epikurus insi/$ emphatically on ! value ( fri5d%ip1 z a means ( happ9ess to bo? ! p]sons s unit$4 ,he decl>$ t a good fri5d 0 ano!r self1 & t fri5ds ought to be prep>$1 9 case ( ne$1 to die = ea* o!r4 ,yet he decl9$ to recomm5d an e/abli%$ community ( goods among ! memb]s ( 8 frat]nity1 z prevail$ 9 ! ,py?agorean bro!rhood3 = su* an in/itution 7he said7 impli$ mi/ru/4 ,he recomm5d$ ef=ts to please & to s]ve1 & a =w>dness to give1 = ! purpose ( ga9+ & b5efit+ a fri5d1 & he ev5 decl>$ t !re 0 m pleasure 9 conf]r+ fav\rs ?an 9 receiv+ !m2 b he 0 no less /r5u\s 9 inculcat+ an intellig5t gratitude on ! receiv]4 ,no "o except a wise man 7he said7 knew h[ to return a fav\r prop]ly4#b ,footnote #b3 ,s5eca1 ,epi/4 p4 #ha4 ,^! exhortations to active fri5d%ip 7 n unfruitful4 ,we "k1 ev5 by ! admission ( witnesses adv]se to ! ,epikurean doctr9es1 t ! h>mony among ! memb]s ( ! sect1 ) common v5]ation = ! f\nd]1 0 m m>k$ & m endur+ ?an t exhibit$ by any ( ! o!r philosophical sects4 ,epikurus himself 0 a man ( amiable p]sonal qualities3 8 te/am5t1 /ill rema9+1 %[s an affectionate reg>d bo? = 8 surviv+ fri5ds1 & = ! p]man5t atta*m5t ( ea* to ! o!rs z well z ( all to ! s*ool4 ,diog5es ,la]tius tells u--ne>ly #bjj ye>s aft] ,*ri/1 & #dej ye>s aft] ! dea? ( ,epikurus--t ! ,epikurean sect /ill cont9u$ its numb]s & dignity1 hav+ outla/$ its contempor>ies & rivals4 ,! h>mony among ! ,epikureans may be expla9$1 n m]ely f ! temp] ( ! ma/]1 b p>tly f ! doctr9es & plan ( life t he recomm5d$4 ,ambition & love ( p[] 7 disc\rag$2 rivalry among ! memb]s = success1 ei!r political or rhetorical1 0 at any rate a r>e exception2 all 7 taught to conf9e !mselves to t privacy ( life & love ( philosophical communion :i* alike requir$ & n\ri%$ ! mutual sympa?ies ( ! bro!rhood4 ,9 reg>d to politics1 ,epikurus advis$ quiet submission to e/abli%$ au?ority1 )\t active m$dl+ beyond :at necessity requir$4 ,virtue & happ9ess1 9 ! !ory ( ,epikurus1 7 insep>able4 ,a man c\ld n be happy until he _h surm\nt$ ! fe> ( dea? & ! fe> ( gods in/ill$ by ! curr5t fables1 :i* di/urb$ all tranquillity ( m9d2 until he _h bani%$ ^? factiti\s desires t pu%$ him into cont5tion = weal?1 p[]1 or celebrity2 nor unless he behav$ ) ju/ice to all1 & ) active devot$ fri5d%ip t[>ds a few4 ,su* a m5tal condition1 :i* he ?\ght x 0 9 e man's p[] to acquire by appropriate tea*+ & companion%ip1 con/itut$ virtue2 & 0 ! sure z well z ! only precursor ( g5u9e happ9ess4 ,a m9d ?us undi/urb$ & purifi$ 0 suffici5t to itself4 ,! m]e satisfaction ( ! wants ( life1 & ! conv]sation ( fri5ds1 became !n felt pleasures3 if m c\ld be _h )\t prepond]ant mis*ief1 s mu* ! bett]2 b ,nature1 disbur!n$ ( h] corruptions & prejudices1 requir$ no m to be happy4 ,?is at lea/ 0 z mu* z ! conditions ( humanity admitt$3 a tranquil1 undi/urb$1 innocu\s1 non-competitive fruition1 :i* approa*$ mo/ ne>ly to ! p]fect happ9ess ( ! ,gods4 ,:5 we read ! explanations giv5 by ,epikurus & ,lucretius ( :at ! ,epikurean !ory really 01 & comp>e !m ) ! num]\s attacks ^u x made by oppon5ts1 we _c b rem>k t ! title & =mula ( ! !ory 0 ill-*os51 & really a misnom]4 ,:at ,epikurus meant by ,pleasure 0 n :at mo/ p meant by x1 b some?+ v diff]5t--a tranquil & com=table /ate ( m9d & body2 mu* ! same z :at ,demokritus _h express$ be=e him by ! phrase ,greek3 eu7?umi_/a4 ,?is la/ phrase w\ld h express$ :at ,epikurus aim$ at1 nei!r m nor less4 ,x w\ld at lea/ h pres]v$ 8 !ory f mu* misplac$ s>casm & aggressive rhetoric4 ,! ,physics ( ,epikurus 0 borr[$ 9 ! ma9 f ! atomic !ory ( ,demokritus1 b modifi$ by him 9 a mann] subs]vi5t & contributory to 8 e?ical s*eme4 ,to t s*eme x 0 ess5tial t ^? cele/ial1 atmosph]ic1 or t]re/rial ph5om5a :i* ! public ar\nd him ascrib$ to ag5cy & purposes ( ! gods1 %\ld be und]/ood z be+ produc$ by physical causes4 ,an eclipse1 an e>?quake1 a /orm1 a %ipwreck1 unusual ra9 or dr\ght1 a good or a bad h>ve/--& n m]ely ^!1 b _m o!r occurr5ces f> small] & m unimportant1 z we may see by ! eighte5? *apt] ( ! ',*>act]s' ( ,!ophra/us--7 !n reg>d$ z visitations ( ! gods1 requir+ to be int]pret$ by recogniz$ prophets1 & to be appeas$ by c]emonial expiations4 ,:5 once a man became conv9c$ t all ^! ph5om5a proce$$ f physical ag5cies1 a ho/ ( t]rors & anxieties w\ld disappe> f ! m9d2 & ?is ,epikurus ass]t$ to be ! b5efic5t effect & real recomm5dation ( physical philosophy4 ,he took little or no ?\ght = sci5tific curiosity z a motive p] se1 :i* bo? ,demokritus & ,ari/otle put s mu* 9 ! =egr\nd4 ,he compos$ a treatise call$ ',kanonicon' 7n[ lo/71 :i* seems to h be5 a sort ( ,logic ( ,physics--a summ>y ( ! pr9ciples ( evid5ce4 ,9 8 sy/em1 ,psy*ology 0 to a great ext5t a bran*--?\gh a peculi> & di/9ct bran*--( ,physics1 s9ce ! s\l 0 reg>d$ z a subtle b en]getic mat]ial comp\nd 7air1 vap\r1 heat1 & ano!r nameless +r$i5t71 ) its be/ p>ts conc5trat$ 9 ! *e/1 yet p]vad+ & su/a9+ ! :ole body--/ill1 h[ev]1 dep5d+ = its support on ! body1 & incapable ( sep>ate or disembodi$ cont9uance4 ,epikurus recogniz$1 z ! primordial basis ( ! univ]se1 ,atoms1 ,vacuum1 & ,motion4 ,! atoms 7 mat]ial solid m9ima1 ea* too small to be appreh5d$ sep>ately by s5se2 !y _h figure1 magnitude1 & gravity1 b no o!r qualities4 ,!y 7 inf9ite 9 numb]1 & ev] mov+ 9 an inf9ite vacuum4 ,_! motions br\ght !m into v>i\s coalitions & comp\nds1 result+ 9 ! p]ceptible bodies ( nature2 ea* ( :i* 9 its comb9$ /ate acquir$ new1 specific1 diff]5t qualities4 ,9 reg>d to ! primordial movem5ts ( ! atoms1 out ( :i* ^! end[$ comp\nds grew1 ,epikurus diff]$ f ,demokritus :o suppos$ ! atoms orig9ally to move ) an indef9ite v>iety ( directions & velocities1 rotatory z well z rectil9eal2 :]eas ,epikurus ma9ta9$ t ! only orig9al movem5t common to all atoms 0 "o & ! same--9 ! direction ( gravity /raight d[n1 & all ) equal velocity 9 ! inf9ite void4 ,b x occurr$ to him t1 ^u ?is hypo!sis only1 !re c\ld nev] occur any collisions or comb9ations ( ! atoms--no?+ b cont9u$ & un*angeable p>allel l9es4 ,accord+ly he modifi$ x by say+ t ! l9e ( desc5t 0 n /rictly rectil9e>1 b t ea* atom deflect$ a little f ! /raight l9e1 ea* 9 its own direction & degree2 s t x became possible to assume collisions1 resili5ces1 adhesions1 comb9ations1 among !m1 z x _h be5 possible "u ! v>iety ( orig9al movem5ts ascrib$ to !m by ,demokritus4 ,! oppon5ts ( ,epikurus d]id$ ?is auxili>y hypo!sis1 affirm+ t he inv5t$ ! individual deflection ( ea* atom )\t assign+ any cause1 & only because he 0 p]plex$ by ! my/]y ( man's freewill4 ,b ,epikurus 0 n m op5 to attack on ?is gr\nd ?an o!r physical philosoph]s4 ,mo/ ( !m 7except p]haps ! mo/ consi/5t ( ! ,/oic fatali/s7 believ$ t "s among ! ph5om5a ( ! univ]se occurr$ 9 regul> & pr$ictable sequ5ce1 :ile o!rs 7 ess5tially irregul> & unpr$ictable3 ea* philosoph] devis$ 8 hypo!sis1 & recogniz$ "s fundam5tal pr9ciple1 to expla9 ! latt] class ( ph5om5a z well z ! =m]2 ?us1 ,plato admitt$ an inv9cible erratic necessity1 ,ari/otle introduc$ ,*ance & ,spontaneity1 ,demokritus multipli$ indef9itely ! v>ieties ( atomic movem5ts4 ,! hypo!tical deflection alleg$ by ,epikurus 0 8 way1 n m unw>rant$ ?an ! o!rs1 ( provid+ a fundam5tal pr9ciple = ! unpr$ictable ph5om5a ( ! univ]se4 ,among ^! are ! volitional manife/ations ( m5 & animals2 b !re are _m o!rs besides1 & !re is no gr\nd = believ+ t :at is call$ ! my/]y ( ,free-,w 7i4 e41 ! "q :e!r volition is gov]n$ by motives1 act+ ^u a giv5 /ate ( ! m9d & body7 0 at all peculi>ly pres5t to 8 m9d4 ,:atev] !ory may be adopt$ on ?is po9t1 x is c]ta9 t ! movem5ts ( an individual man or animal are n exclusively det]m9$ by ! g5]al law ( gravitation1 or by ano!r cause extr9sic to himself2 b to a great degree by 8 own sep>ate volition1 :i* is (t5 imp]fectly kn[able be=eh& & !re=e n pr$ictable4 ,= ^! & _m o!r ph5om5a1 ,epikurus provid$ a fundam5tal pr9ciple 9 8 supplem5t>y hypo!sis ( atomic deflection2 & inde$ n = ^! only1 b also = ! que/ions ( oppon5ts1 h[ !re c\ld ev] be any coalition betwe5 ! atoms1 if all foll[$ only "o s+le law ( movem5t--rectil9eal desc5t ) equal velocity4 ,epikurus reject$ ! inexorable & all-compreh5sive fatalism conta9$ 9 ! !ories ( "s ,/oics1 ?\gh seem+ly n con/ru$ 9 its full application ev5 by !m4 ,he admitt$ a limit$ range ( empire to ,*ance1 or ph5om5a ess5tially irregul>4 ,b he ma9ta9$ t ! w1 f> f be+ among ! ph5om5a ess5tially irregul>1 is "u ! influ5ce ( motives2 = no man c insi/ m /r5u\sly ?an he does 7see ! lett] to ,m5oekeus7 on ! complete p[] ( philosophy--if ! /ud5t c\ld be made to feel its necessity & desire ! atta9m5t ( x1 s z to m$itate & engra9 )9 himself s\nd views ab\t ! gods1 dea?1 & human life g5]ally--to m\ld our volitions & "* 9 a mann] con=mable to ! exig5cies ( virtue & happ9ess4 ,all true belief1 accord+ to ,epikurus1 re/$ ultimately ^u ! impressions ( s5se1 ^u our int]nal feel+s1 & ^u our correct appreh5sion ( ! mean+ ( t]ms4 ,he did n suppose ! significance ( language to come by conv5tion1 b to be an inspiration ( ,nature1 diff]5t among diff]5t p4 ,! facts ( s5se 7 9 !mselves beyond all "q4 ,b tru?1 ?\gh f\nd$ ^u ^! evid5ces1 includ$ v>i\s inf]5ces1 m ?an s5se c\ld directly te/ify4 ,ev5 ! two capital po9ts ( ! ,epikurean physical philosophy--,atoms & ,void--7 inf]5ces f s5se1 & n capable ( direct atte/ation4 ,x 0 9 ^! inf]5ces1 & 9 ! sup]/ructure built ^u s5se1 t error 0 s frequ5tly impos$ ^u u4 ,we ought to te/ all affirmations or dogmas by ! evid5ce ( s5sible ph5om5a2 look+ !re91 if possible1 = "s positive gr\nds 9 support ( !m1 b at any rate assur+ ourselves t !re 7 no gr\nds 9 contradiction ( !m1 or1 if !re 7 su*1 reject+ ! dogmas at once4 ,out ( ! p>ticul> impressions ( s5se1 :5 (t5 repeat$1 rememb]$1 & comp>$1 !re grew c]ta9 g5]al notions or anticipations 7,greek3 prol_/pseis71 :i* 7 appli$ to int]pret or illu/rate any new case :5 x arose4 ,^! g5]al notions 7 n inborn or intuitive1 b gradually =m$ 7z ,ari/otle & ! ,/oics also conceiv$ !m7 out ( frequ5t remembrances & association4 ,besides ^? conclusions :i* c\ld be fully prov$ by ! evid5ti>y data j enum]at$1 ,epikurus recogniz$ admissible hypo!ses1 :i* await$ f>!r evid5ce confirmative or refutative 7,greek3 to pro_/sm5on71 & also o!r matt]s occult or z yet unexpla9$ 7,greek3 ta a7_/dla74 ,along ) ! int]m$iate or half-expla9$ class1 he reckon$ ^? 9 :i* plurality ( causes 0 to be invok$4 ,a giv5 effect might result f any "o out ( two1 ?ree1 or m diff]5t causes1 & !re 0 (t5 no c\nt]-evid5ce ( s5se to exclude ei!r ( !m 9 any p>ticul> case4 ,?is plural explanation 7,greek3 to pleona*s7 0 n s complete or satisfactory z ! s+ul> 7,greek3 to mona*s72 b x 0 (t5 ! be/ t we c\ld obta91 & 0 q suffici5t1 by %[+ a possible physical ag5cy1 to rescue ! m9d f ^? t]rors ( ignorance1 :i* drove m5 to imag9e visitations ( ! gods4 ,epikurus agre$ ) ,demokritus 9 believ+ t ext]nal objects produc$ _! impressions on our s5ses by project+ ?9 images1 outl9es ( _! own %apes4 ,he ?\ght t ! air 0 peopl$ ) su* images1 :i* pass$ ?r\gh x & /ill m ?r\gh ! inf9ite vacuum beyond x ) prodigi\s velocity4 ,_m ( !m became comm+l$1 dissipat$1 recomb9$1 dur+ ! transit1 s t1 :5 !y rea*$ u1 ! impressions produc$ 7 n con=mable to any real object2 h5ce ! ph5om5a ( dreams1 madness1 & ! v>i\s delusions ( wak+ m54 ,9 sett+ =? ! crit]ion ( tru?1 ,epikurus insi/$ *iefly ^u ! fundam5tal gr\ndwork--p>ticul> facts ( s5se1 z ! data = prov+ or disprov+ g5]al affirmations2 & he _h ! m]it ( call+ att5tion to refutative data z well z to probative4 ,b1 respect+ ! process ( pass+ f ^! p>ticul>s to true g5]alities & avoid+ ! untrue1 we c make out no cle> idea f 8 writ+s t rema93 8 great "w on ,physical ,philosophy is lo/4 ,x is c]ta9 t he disreg>d$ ! logical "p ( ! process--! sy/ematic /udy ( propositions1 & _! relations ( consi/5cy ) "o ano!r--:i* _h made s prodigi\s a /ride dur+ 8 e>ly ye>s "u ,ari/otle & ,!ophra/us4 ,we c1 inde$1 detect 9 8 rema9+ s5t5ces "o or two ( ^? t]ms :i* ,ari/otle _h /amp$ z te*nical 9 ,logic2 b he disc\rag$ z useless all ! v]bal tea*+ & discussion ( 8 day--all gramm>1 rhetoric1 & dialectic1 beyond ! l[e/ m9imum4 ,he disapprov$ ( ! poets z promulgators ( mis*iev\s fables & prejudices1 ! rhetoricians z furni%+ weapons = ! mislead+ c>e] ( political ambition1 ! dialecticians z wa/+ _! "t 9 useless puzzles4 ,none ( !m 7 s]viceable 9 promot+ ei!r ! tranquillity ( ! m9d1 or ! happ9ess ( life1 or ! acquisition ( tru?4 ,he himself compos$ a great numb] ( treatises & epi/les1 on subjects ( e?ics & philosophy2 b he is said to h writt5 9 ha/e1 )\t tak+ "t or tr\ble to correct 8 compositions4 ,by ! ,alex&r9e critic1 ,ari/ophanes ( ,byzantium1 8 /yle 0 c5sur$ z unpoli%$2 yet x is decl>$ to h be5 simple1 unaffect$1 & easily und]/ood4 ,?is la/ pr$icate is h>dly applicable to ! ?ree epi/les :i* alone rema9 f 8 p52 b ^? epi/les are int5d$ z brief ab/racts ( doctr9e1 on topics :i* he _h already treat$ at l5g? 9 =mal works2 & x is n easy to comb9e cle>ness ) brevity4 ,,vi4 ,,! ,,/oics--,a ,,fragm5t4 ,! ,/oics 7 "o ( ! f\r sects ( philosophy recogniz$ & conspicu\s at ,a!ns dur+ ! ?ree c5turies prec$+ ! ,*ri/ian era & dur+ ! c5tury or m foll[+4 ,among ^! f\r sects1 ! mo/ m>k$ anti!sis ( e?ical dogma 0 betwe5 ! ,/oics & ! ,epikureans4 ,! ,/oics agre$ ) ! ,p]ipatetics 7ant]ior to ,epikurus1 n specially aga9/ him7 t ! fir/ pr9ciple ( nature is 7n pleasure or relief f pa91 b7 ,self-pres]vation or ,self-love2 9 o!r words1 ! natural appetite or t5d5cy ( all creatures is1 to pres]ve _! exi/+ condition ) its inh]5t capacities1 & to keep cle> ( de/ruction or disablem5t4 ,?is appetite 7!y said7 manife/s itself 9 little *ildr5 be=e any pleasure or pa9 is felt1 & is moreov] a fundam5tal po/ulate1 pre-suppos$ 9 all desires ( p>ticul> pleasures1 z well z 9 all av]sions to p>ticul> pa9s4 ,we beg9 by lov+ our own vitality2 & we come1 by association1 to love :at promotes or /r5g!ns our vitality2 we hate de/ruction or disablem5t1 & come 7by second>y association7 to hate :atev] produces t effect4 ,?is doctr9e associat$1 & br\ght "u "o view1 :at 0 common to man n m]ely ) ! animal1 b also ) ! vegetable _w2 a plant 0 decl>$ to h an impulse or t5d5cy to ma9ta9 itself1 )\t feel+ pa9 or pleasure4 ,ari/otle 79 ! t5? ,book ( ! ,e?ica7 says t he w n det]m9e :e!r we love life = ! sake ( pleasure1 or pleasure = ! sake ( life2 = he affirms ! two to be ess5tially yok$ toge!r & insep>able3 pleasure is ! consummation ( our vital manife/ations4 ,! ,p]ipatetics1 aft] him1 put pleasure d[n to a l[] level1 z d]ivative & accid5tal4 ,! ,/oics w5t f>!r 9 ! same direction--possibly f anti!sis aga9/ ! gr[+ s*ool ( ,epikurus4 ,! prim>y (ficium 79 a l>g] s5se ?an our ^w duty7 ( man is 7!y said7 to keep himself 9 ! ,/ate ( ,nature2 ! second or d]ivative (ficium is to keep to su* ?+s z are accord+ to nature1 & to av]t ^? t are contr>y to nature2 our gradually increas+ exp]i5ce enables z to discrim9ate ! two4 ,! y\? le>ns1 z he gr[s up1 to value bodily accompli%m5ts1 m5tal cognitions & judgm5ts1 good conduct t[>ds ^? ar\nd him1--z p[]ful aids t[>ds keep+ up t /ate ( nature4 ,:5 8 exp]i5ce is s f> enl>g$ z to make him aw>e ( ! ord] & h>mony ( nature & human society1 & to impress ^u him ! compreh5sion ( ?is great idal1 8 emotions z well z 8 reason becomes absorb$ by x4 ,he recognizes ?is z ! only true ,bonum or ,hone/um1 to :i* all o!r desirable ?+s are ref]able2 z ! only ?+ desirable = itself & 9 its own nature4 ,he drops or dismisses all ^! prima natur t he _h begun by desir+4 ,he no long] consid]s any ( !m z wor?y ( be+ desir$ 9 itself1 or = its own sake4 ,:ile1 !re=e1 7accord+ to ,p]ipatetics z well z ,/oics7 ! love ( self & ( pres]v+ "o's own vitality & activity is ! prim>y elem5t1 intuitive & connate1 to :i* all rational pref]5ce 7(ficium7 0 at fir/ ref]r$1 !y ?\ght x n ! less true t 9 process ( "t1 by exp]i5ce1 association1 & reflection1 !re gr[s up 9 ! m9d a gr& acquir$ s5tim5t or notion1 a new & lat] light1 :i* ext+ui%es & puts out ( sight ! e>ly beg9n+4 ,x 0 important to di/+ui% ! feeble & obscure elem5ts f ! p[]ful & brilliant aft]-gr[?2 :i* inde$ 0 fully realiz$ only 9 *os5 m9ds1 & 9 !m h>dly be=e old age4 ,?is idea1 :5 once =m$ 9 ! m9d1 0 ,! ,good--! only ?+ wor?y ( desire = its own sake4 ,! ,/oics call$ x ! only good1 be+ suffici5t 9 itself = happ9ess2 o!r ?+s be+ n good1 nor necess>y to happ9ess1 b simply pref]able or advantage\s :5 !y c\ld be _h3 ! ,p]ipatetics recogniz$ x z ! fir/ & greate/ good1 b said also t x 0 n suffici5t 9 itself2 !re 7 two o!r inf]ior v>ieties ( good1 ( :i* some?+ mu/ be _h z complem5t>y 7:at ! ,/oics call$ prposita or sum5da74#a ,?us ! ,/oics said ab\t ! orig9 ( ! ,idea ( ,bonum or ,hone/um1 mu* ! same z :at ,ari/otle says ab\t e?ical ,virtue4 ,x is n implant$ 9 u by nature2 b we h at bir? c]ta9 initial t5d5cies & capacities1 :i*1 if aid$ by association & tra9+1 enable u 7& t n 9 all cases7 to acquire x4 ,footnote #a3 ,ari/otle & ! ,p]ipatetics held t !re 7 tria g5]a bonorum3 7#a7 ,^? ( ! m9d 7m5s sana72 7#b7 ,^? ( ! body2 & 7#c7 ,ext]nal advantages4 ,! ,/oics alt]$ ?is !ory by say+ t only ! fir/ ( ! ?ree 0 bonum2 ! o!rs 7 m]ely prposita or sum5da4 ,! oppon5ts ( ! ,/oics cont5d$ t ?is 0 an alt]ation 9 words r ?an 9 sub/ance4 ,! e>li] ,/oics laid x d[n t !re 7 no graduat+ m>ks bel[ ! level ( wisdom3 all %ortcom+s 7 on a p>4 ,good 0 a po9t1 ,evil 0 a po9t2 !re 7 gradations 9 ! prposita or sum5da 7none ( :i* 7 good71 & 9 ! rejecta or rejici5da 7none ( :i* 7 evil71 b !re 0 no m or less good4 ,a di/9ction 0 made by ,epictetus & o!r ,/oics betwe5 ?+s 9 our p[] & ?+s n 9 our p[]4 ,9 our p[] are our op9ions & notions ab\t objects1 & all our affections1 desires1 & av]sions3 n 9 our p[] are our bodies1 weal?1 hon\r1 rank1 au?ority1 c41 & _! opposites2 ?\gh1 9 reg>d to ^! la/1 x is 9 our p[] to ?9k ( !m z unimportant4 ,) ?is di/9ction we may connect ! argum5ts betwe5 ! ,/oics & _! oppon5ts z to :at is n[ call$ ! ,fre$om ( ! ,w4 ,b we mu/ fir/ beg9 by di/+ui%+ ! two que/ions4 ,by ?+s 9 our p[]1 ! ,/oics meant ?+s t we c\ld d or acquire if we will$3 by ?+s n 9 our p[]1 !y meant ?+s t we c\ld n d or acquire if we will$4 ,9 bo? cases1 ! volition 0 assum$ z a fact3 ! "q :at det]m9$ x1 or :e!r x 0 non-det]m9$1 i4 e41 self-det]m9+1 0 n rais$ 9 ! anti!sis4 ,b x 0 rais$ 9 o!r discussions betwe5 ! ,/oic !ori/ ,*rysippus1 & v>i\s oppon5ts4 ,^! oppon5ts d5i$ t volition 0 det]m9$ by motives1 & cit$ ! cases ( equal conflict+ motives 7:at is kn[n z ! ,ass ( ,buridan7 z prov+ t ! s\l includes 9 itself1 & ex]ts1 a special sup]v5i5t p[] ( decid+ action 9 "o way or ! o!r--a p[] n det]m9$ by any causal antec$5t1 b self-orig9at+1 & belong+ to ! class ( ag5cy t ,ari/otle recognizes "u ! d5om9ation ( automatic1 spontane\s 7or ess5tially irregul> & unpr$ictable74 ,*rysippus repli$ by d5y+ n only ! reality ( ?is sup]v5i5t =ce said to be inh]5t 9 ! s\l1 b also ! reality ( all t ,ari/otle call$ automatic or spontane\s ag5cy g5]ally4 ,*rysippus said t e movem5t 0 det]m9$ by antec$5t motives2 t 9 cases ( equal conflict ! exact equality did n long cont9ue1 because "s new b slight motive slipp$ 9 unp]ceiv$ & turn$ ! scale on "o side or ! o!r4#b ,"h1 we see1 ! "q n[ kn[n z ! ,fre$om ( ! ,w is discuss$1 & ,*rysippus decl>es aga9/ fre$om1 affirm+ t volition is always det]m9$ by motives4 ,footnote #b3 ,see ,plut>*1 ,de ,/oicorum ,repugnantiis1 xxiii4 p4 #ajde4 ,b we also see t1 :ile decl>+ ?is op9ion1 ,*rysippus does n employ ! t]ms ,necessity or ,fre$om ( ! ,w2 nei!r did 8 oppon5ts1 s f> z we c see3 !y _h a diff]5t & less mislead+ phrase4 ,by fre$om1 ,*rysippus & ! ,/oics meant ! fre$om ( do+ :at a man will$1 if he will$ x4 ,a man is free z to ! ?+ t is 9 8 p[]1 :5 he wills x3 he is n free z to :at is n 9 8 p[]1 "u ! same supposition4 ,! ,/oics laid great /ress on ?is di/9ction4 ,!y po9t$ out h[ mu* x is really 9 a man's p[] to trans=m or discipl9e 8 own m9d--9 ! way ( controll+ or suppress+ "s emotions1 g5]at+ or enc\rag+ o!rs1 =m+ new intellectual associations1 c42 h[ mu* a man c\ld d 9 ^! ways1 if he will$ x1 & if he w5t ?r\gh ! lessons1 habits ( conduct1 & 9999m$itations1 suitable to produce su* an effect4 ,! ,/oics /rove to create 9 a man's m9d ! volitions appropriate = su* m5tal discipl9e1 by depict+ ! b5eficial consequ5ces result+ f x1 & ! mis=tune & %ame inevitable1 if ! m9d 7 n s discipl9$4 ,_! purpose 0 to /r5g!n ! gov]n+ reason ( 8 m9d1 & to en?rone x z a fix$ habit & "*1 :i* w\ld control by c\nt] sugge/ions ! impulse aris+ at ea* special mom5t--p>ticul>ly all di/urb+ t]rors or allurem5ts4 ,?is1 9 _! view1 is a free m9d2 n "o :]e9 volition is indep5d5t ( all motive1 b "o :]e9 ! susceptibility to diff]5t motives is temp]$ by an asc5dant reason1 s z to give pr$om9ance to ! bett] motive aga9/ ! worse4 ,"o ( ! /ronge/ motives t !y endeav\r$ to en=ce1 0 ! prud5ce & dignity ( br++ our volitions into h>mony ) ! s*emes ( ,provid5ce2 :i* 7!y said7 7 always arrang$ ) a view to ! happ9ess ( ! ,kosmos on ! :ole4 ,! bad man1 ^: volitions conflict ) ^! s*emes1 is always baulk$ ( 8 expectations1 & br\ght at la/ aga9/ 8 w to see ?+s c>ri$ by an ov]-rul+ =ce1 ) aggravat$ pa9 & humiliation to himself3 :ile ! good man1 :o resigns himself to !m f ! fir/1 always escapes ) less pa91 & (t5 )\t any at all4 ,z a portion ( _! view conc]n+ ,provid5ce x may "h be m5tion$ t ! e>li] ,/oics1 ,z5o & ,*rysippus1 ent]ta9$ high rev]5ce = ! div9ation1 prophecy1 & om5s t 7 g5]ally curr5t 9 ! anci5t _w4 ,!y consid]$ t ^! 7 ! me?ods :]eby ! gods 7 graci\sly pleas$ to make kn[n be=eh& revelations ( _! =eorda9$ purposes4 ,h]e9 lay "o among ! m>k$ po9ts ( contra/ betwe5 ,/oics & ,epikureans4 ,we h ?us se5 t 9 reg>d to ! doctr9e call$ 9 mod]n times ! ,fre$om ( ! ,w 7i4e41 t volitions are self-orig9at+ & unpr$ictable71 ! ,/oic !ori/s n only d5i$ x1 b fram$ all _! ,e?ics ^u ! assumption ( ! contr>y4 ,?is same assumption ( ! contr>y1 inde$1 0 made also by ,sokrates1 ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 & ,epikurus2 9 %ort1 by all ! e?ical tea*]s ( antiquity4 ,all ( !m believ$ t volitions dep5d$ on causes2 t1 "u ! ord9>y conditions ( m5's m9ds1 ! causes t volitions g5]ally dep5d$ ^u are (t5 mislead+ & sometimes ru9\s2 b t1 by prop] /imulation f )\t & m$itation )91 ! rational causes ( volition might be made to ov]rule ! impulsive4 ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 ,epikurus1 n less ?an ! ,/oics1 wi%$ to create new fix$ habits & a new type ( "*4 ,!y diff]$1 inde$1 on ! "q :at ! prop] type ( "* 02 b ea* ( !m aim$ at ! same g5]al end--a new type ( "*1 regulat+ ! grades ( susceptibility to diff]5t motives4 ,& ! purpose ( all & ea* ( ^! morali/s precludes ! !ory ( free-w1 i4e41 ! !ory t our volitions are self-orig9at+ & unpr$ictable4 ,:ile ! ,epikureans decl9$1 z mu* z possible1 int]f]5ce 9 public affairs1 ! ,/oic philosoph]s urg$ m5 to ! duties ( active citiz5%ip4#c ,*rysippus ev5 said t ! life ( philosophical contemplation 7su* z ,ari/otle pref]r$ & acc\nt$ godlike7 0 to be plac$ on ! same level ) ! life ( pleasure2 ?\gh ,plut>* obs]ves t nei!r ,*rysippus nor ,z5o ev] m$dl$ p]sonally ) any public duty3 bo? ( !m pass$ _! lives 9 lectur+ & writ+4 ,! tru? is t bo? ( !m 7 =eign]s resid+ at ,a!ns1 & at a "t :5 ,a!ns 0 dep5d5t on =eign pr9ces4 ,accord+ly1 nei!r ,z5o nor ,*rysippus _h any sph]e ( political action op5 to !m3 !y 71 9 ?is respect1 l ,epictetus aft]w>ds1 b 9 a position q diff]5t f ,s5eca1 ! preceptor ( ,n]o1 :o might hope to influ5ce ! great imp]ial p[] ( ,rome1 & f ,m>cus ,anton9us1 :o held t imp]ial p[] 9 8 own h&s4 ,footnote #c3 ,tacitus says ( ! ,/oics 7,ann4 xiv4 #eg73 ',/oicorum secta1 qu turbidos et negotiorum appet5tes facit4' ,m>cus ,anton9us--n only a p[]ful emp]or1 b also ! mo/ g5tle & amiable man ( 8 day--talks ( active b5efic5ce bo? z a duty & a satisfaction4 ,b 9 ! cre$ ( ! ,/oics g5]ally1 active b5efic5ce did n occupy a prom95t place4 ,!y adopt$ ! f\r ,c>d9al ,virtues--,wisdom1 or ! ,k ( ,good & ,evil1 ,ju/ice1 ,=titude1 ,temp]ance--z "p ( _! plan ( ! virtu\s life1 ! life accord+ to ,nature4 ,ju/ice1 z ! social virtue1 0 plac$ above all ! re/4 ,b ! ,/oics 7 n /r5u\s 9 requir+ m ?an ,ju/ice1 = ! b5efit ( o!rs beside ! ag5t4 ,!y ev5 reckon$ compassion = ! suff]+s ( o!rs z a weakness1 analog\s to envy = ! good =tune ( o!rs4 ,! ,/oic recognis$ ! gods 7or ,univ]sal ,nature1 equival5t expressions 9 8 cre$7 z manag+ ! affairs ( ! _w1 ) a view to produc+ z mu* happ9ess z 0 atta9able on ! :ole4 ,t[>ds ?is end ! gods did n want any positive assi/ance f him2 b x 0 8 duty & 8 /ronge/ int]e/1 to resign himself to _! plans1 & to ab/a9 f all conduct t5d+ to fru/rate !m4 ,su* refractory t5d5cies 7 p]petually sugge/$ to him by ! unreasonable appetites1 emotions1 fe>s1 antipa?ies1 c41 ( daily life2 all claim+ satisfaction at ! exp5se ( future mis*ief to himself & o!rs4 ,to c\nt]vail ^! mislead+ =ces by means ( a fix$ rational "* built up ?r\gh m$itation & philosophical tea*+1 0 ! gr& purpose ( ! ,/oic e?ical cre$4 ,! emotional or appetitive self 0 to be />v$ or curb$1 & reta9$ only z an app5dage to ! rational self2 an idea proclaim$ be=e 9 g5]al t]ms by ,plato1 b c>ri$ out into a sy/em by ! ,/oics1 ?\gh to a great ext5t also by ! ,epikureans4 ,! ,/oic 0 taught to reflect h[ mu* t appe>s to be desirable1 t]ror-/rik+1 provocative1 c41 is n really s1 b is made to appe> s by false & curable associations4 ,&1 :ile he ?us disc\rag$ ^? self-reg>d+ emotions t plac$ him 9 ho/ility ) o!rs1 he le>nt to respect ! self ( ano!r man z well z 8 own4 ,epictetus advises to deal mildly ) a man t hurts u ei!r by ^w or de$2 & advises x ^u ! foll[+ v rem>kable gr\nd3--,recollect t 9 :at he says or does1 he foll[s 8 own s5se ( propriety1 n y\rs4 ,he mu/ d :at appe>s to him "r1 n :at appe>s to y3 if he judges wrongly1 x is he t is hurt1 = he is ! p]son deceiv$4 ,always repeat to y\rself1 9 su* a case3 ,! man has act$ on 8 own op9ion4 ,! reason "h giv5 by ,epictetus is an in/ance1 memorable 9 e?ical !ory1 ( respect = individual diss5t+ conviction1 ev5 9 an extreme case2 & x mu/ be tak5 9 conjunction ) 8 o!r doctr9e1 t damage ?us done to u unju/ly is really little or no damage1 except s f> z we ourselves give pung5cy to x by our irrational susceptibilities & associations4 ,we see t ! ,/oic subm]ges1 z mu* z he c1 ! pre-em95ce ( 8 own individual self1 & contemplates himself f ! po9t ( view ( ano!r1 z only "o among _m4 ,b he does n erect ! happ9ess ( o!rs into a direct object ( 8 own positive pursuit1 beyond ! reciprocities ( family1 citiz5%ip1 & common humanity4 ,! ,/oic !ori/s agre$ ) ,epikurus 9 inculcat+ ! reciprocities ( ,ju/ice betwe5 all fell[-citiz5s2 & !y ev5 w5t f>!r ?an he did1 by ext5d+ ! sph]e ( su* duties beyond ! limits ( city1 s z to compreh5d all mank9d4 ,b z to ! reciprocities ( individual ,fri5d%ip1 ,epikurus w5t beyond ! ,/oics 9 ! am\nt ( self-sacrifice & devotion t he enjo9$ = ! b5efit ( a fri5d4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,abduction 7,apagoge71 #bjb4 ,ab/ract1 & ,concrete1 appellatives n us$ by ,ari/otle1 #fd4 ,ab/raction1 belongs to ! ,notic function1 #dhf1 #dhg1 #dib4 ,absurdum1 ,r$uctio ad1 see ,r$uctio4 ,acc5tuation1 ,fallacy ( #che2 r>e1 #djh4 ,accid5s1 ,ens p] c41 see ,accid5t1 ,ens4 ,accid5tis ,fallacia1 #chf2 n und]/ood among ,ari/otle's sci5tific contempor>ies1 #cij2 h[ to solve1 #daj4 ,accid5t1 ,ens by1 #fj1 #dbd1 #efa1 #eic2 mod]n def9ition ( #fb2 an individual1 all[$ by ,ari/otle1 #fc2 no sci5ce (1 #ih2 "o ( ! ,pr$icables1 #bgf2 !sis (1 easie/ to def5d1 h>de/ to upset1 #bhd1 #cec2 ?irty-sev5 dialectical ,loci be>+ on1 #bhe seq42 :y no sci5ce (1 #dbe1 #eic1 #eid2 "o1 _c be accid5t ( ano!r1 #ehf2 oppos$ to ! con/ant & ! usual1 #eid2 ,*ance1 pr9ciple or cause (1 #eid2 see ,concomitants4 ,action 7,ag]e71 ,category1 #fe1 #gc4 ,actuality1 z oppos$ to ,pot5tiality1 #abh1 #def1 #fae seq4 ,adoxa1 oppos$ to ,endoxa1 #bfi4 on1 ( ! ,heav51 #fcf4 !r1 d]ivation ( ! "n1 #fcb4 ,affirmation1 conjunction ( pr$icate ) subject1 #aaa2 con/itu5ts (1 #aah2 ,greek3 e7k meta!_/ses 7,!ophra/us71 #abb1 #afi4 ,akroamatic books1 oppos$ to ,exot]ic1 #ej4 ,alcu91 foll[$ ,ari/otle on ,univ]sals1 #efc4 ,alex&] ( ,mac$on1 taught by ,ari/otle f boyhood1 #e2 came to ! ?rone1 & w5t on 8 fir/ ,p]sian exp$ition1 #f2 8 action t[>ds ,a!ns1 #h2 correspond5t1 protector1 patron1 ( ,ari/otle at ,a!ns1 #g1 #h2 lat] *ange 9 8 "* & ali5ation f ,ari/otle1 #i2 8 ord] = ! recall ( exiles ?r\gh\t ,greece1 #aj2 8 dea?1 #g1 #ab4 ,alex&r9e1 lit]ati1 _! k ( ,ari/otle1 #cd1 #ch1 #dj1 #db4 ,aliquid1 ,ad1 see ,relation2 ,hoc1 or ! def9ite individual1 see ,ess5ce4 ,alkmon1 8 view ( ! s\l1 #ddi4 ,ammonius1 put ,relation above all ! ,categories1 #hd2 8 op9ion on la/ p>agraph ( ,de ,int]pretatione1 #acd4 ,amphiboly1 ,fallacy (1 #che2 h[ to solve1 #djg4 ,amyntas1 k+ ( ,mac$on1 #b4 ,analytica1 ref]r$ to 9 ,topica1 #ef2 presuppose cont5ts ( ,categori & ,de ,int]pretatione1 #ef2 t]m9ology (1 diff]s f t ( ,de ,int]pretatione1 #ada2 purpose (1 #ada4 ,analytica ,priora1 diff]5t sections ( ,book ,i41 #aeg1 #afc2 relation ( ! two books (1 #aga4 ,analytica ,po/]iora1 applies ,syllogism to ,demon/ration1 #adb1 #bjg2 relation (1 to ! ,metaphysica1 #dbb4 ,anaxagoras1 doctr9e (1 inconsi/5t ) ,maxim ( ,contradiction1 #dbi1 #eib2 disreg>d$ data ( exp]i5ce1 #dcf2 8 view ( ! s\l1 #ddi2 ,maxim ( ,exclud$ ,middle def5d$ by ,ari/otle specially aga9/1 #eha2 made intellig5ce dep5d5t on s5se1 #ehh2 doctr9e (1 makes all propositions false1 #eib2 mu/ yet admit an inf9ite numb] ( true propositions1 #eib2 meant by 8 ,unum--,ens ,pot5ti1 & ?us got p>tial hold ( ! idea ( ,matt]1 #fbj2 9 8 doctr9e ( ! ,nos1 makes ,actuality prior to ,pot5tiality1 #fbc2 decl>es ,good to be ! pr9ciple z ,mov5t1 #fbh2 call$ fire !r1 #fcb2 8 reason = ! /ation>9ess ( ! ,e>?1 #fdi4 ,anaxim&]1 8 reason = /ation>9ess ( ! ,e>?1 #fej4 ,anaxim5es1 8 reason = /ation>9ess ( ! ,e>?1 #fdi4 ,&ronikus ( ,rhodes1 s\rce ( our ,ari/otle1 #ce2 sort$ & correct$ ! ,ari/otelian ,,mss4 at ,rome1 #cg1 #ci2 ,p]ipatetic ,s*ol>*1 #ci2 difficulties ( 8 task--! result appreciat$1 #dc2 plac$ !ological treatises fir/1 #ee2 put ,relation above all ! ,categories1 #hd4 ,anim1 ,treatise de1 ref]r$ to 9 ! ,de ,int]pretatione1 #aji4 ,anonymus1 8 catalogue ( ,ari/otle's works1 comp>$ ) t ( ,diog5es & ) ! extant works1 #bi seq4 ,antipat]1 fri5d & correspond5t ( ,ari/otle1 #g1 #h2 victor 9 ! ,lamian w>1 occupi$ ,a!ns1 #ab2 lett] to1 f ,ari/otle at ,*alkis1 #af2 lett] (1 9 praise ( ,ari/otle1 #af2 executor "u ,ari/otle's ,w1 #ag4 ,antiphasis1 pair ( contradictory opposites1 #aaa2 rule (1 z reg>ds tru? & falsity1 #aab1 #aac2 made up ( "o affirmation & "o negation correspond+1 #aac2 does n hold = ev5ts p>ticul> & future1 because ( irregul>ity 9 ! ,kosmos1 #aac seq42 quat]nions exhibit+ ea* two relat$ cases (1 #aah seq41 #agj2 =ms (1 9 ,modals1 #abg2 involves det]m9ation ( quantity1 #ace2 n und]/ood be=e ,ari/otle1 #acf2 ! two memb]s (1 c nei!r be bo? true nor bo? false1 argu$ at l5g? by ,ari/otle 9 ,metaph99994 ,greek3 ,g41 ii4 #ehf-ib4 ,anti/h5es1 decl>$ contradiction impossible1 #acf1 #acg2 all[$ def9ition only ( comp\nds1 #faa4 ,antonius1 ,m>cus1 au?ority = ,/oical cre$1 #fed2 on active b5efic5ce1 #ffb4 ,apagoge 7,abduction71 #bjb4 ,apellikon1 ( ,teos1 a ,p]ipatetic1 b\ght ,ari/otle's ,,mss41 c41 f heirs ( ,neleus1 #cf2 expos$ !m at ,a!ns & _h copies tak51 #cf2 wrote a biography ( ,ari/otle1 #cg2 libr>y (1 composite1 #dc4 ,aplans1 ext]ior sph]e ( ! ,kosmos1 #aad1 #fbc4 ,greek3 ,a7po_/phansis1 ,enunciation1 "n = ,proposition 9 ,de ,int]pretatione1 #ada4 ,appetite1 ! direct produc+ cause ( movem5t 9 animals1 #dib4 ,ar*ytas1 made ,hab]e fif? ,category1 #hj4 ,argum5ts1 h[ to f9d1 = diff]5t !ses1 #aeg4 ,arimne/us1 bro!r ( ,ari/otle1 #ai4 ,ari/ippus1 anticipat$ ,epikurus1 #fed4 ,ari/om5es1 fri5d ( ,ari/otle1 #ag4 ,ari/ophanes1 ( ,byzantium1 arrang$ dialogues ( ,plato1 #cd2 on ! /yle ( ,epikurus1 #feh4 ',ari/oteles ,pseudepigraphus1' "w by ,v4 ,rose1 #cb4 ,ari/otle1 bir? & p>5tage1 #a1 #b2 opportunities = physiological /udy1 #b2 an orphan 9 y\?1 became w>d ( ,prox5us1 #h2 discrepant acc\nts z to 8 e>ly life1 #c2 m$ical practice1 #c2 "u ,plato at ,a!ns1 #d2 w5t to ,at>neus1 on ,plato's dea?1 #d2 m>ri$ ,py?ias1 #e2 driv5 out to ,mityl5e1 #e2 invit$ by ,philip ( ,mac$on to become tutor to ,alex&]1 #e2 life 9 ,mac$on1 #e2 re-f\nd$ ,/ageira1 #f2 taught 9 ! ,nymphum ( ,mieza1 #f2 return$ to ,a!ns1 & set up 8 s*ool 9 ! ,lykeium1 #g2 lectur+ & writ+1 #g1 #be2 correspond5ce1 #g2 relation to ,a!nian polities1 #h2 protect$ & patroniz$ at ,a!ns by ,alex&] & ,antipat]1 #h2 9 spite ( e/rangem5t betwe5 him & ,alex&]1 reg>d$ always z unfri5dly to ,a!nian lib]ty1 #i1 #aj2 8 relation to ,nikanor1 be>] ( ,alex&]'s rescript to ! ,greek cities1 #aa2 indict$ = impiety 9 8 doctr9es & 8 commemoration ( ! eunu* ,h]meias1 #ab1 #ac2 retir$ to ,*alkis1 #ad2 di$ !re1 be=e he c\ld return to ,a!ns1 #ae2 wrote a def5ce aga9/ ! *>ge ( impiety1 #ae2 8 judgm5t on ,a!ns & ,a!nians1 #af2 8 p]son1 habits1 mann]s1 c41 #af2 8 second wife1 son1 & daught]1 #ag2 la/ te/am5t1 #ag-ai2 8 "* z !re9 exhibit$1 #ai2 reproa*es aga9/1 #bj2 8 opposition to ,plato misrepres5t$ by 9999,platoni/s1 #bj1 #ba2 a /ud5t & tea*] ( rhetoric1 #bb2 attack$ ,isokrates1 #bd2 assail$ by ?ree sets ( enemies1 #bf2 difficulty 9 det]m9+ ! ,canon ( 8 works z comp>$ ) ,plato's1 #bg2 extant works ascrib$ to1 #bg2 anci5t au?orities = 8 works1 #bh2 catalogue & ext5t ( 8 works1 accord+ to ,diog5es1 #bi2 accord+ to ,anonymus1 #bi2 ! catalogues comp>$ ) ea* o!r1 & ) li/ ( 8 extant works1 #bi1 #cj2 anci5t encomiums on 8 /yle1 #cj2 8 pr9cipal works unkn[n to ,cic]o & o!rs1 #ca1 #dj2 dialogues & o!r works (1 lo/ to u1 #ca2 works 9 ! catalogue are decl>$ by ,v4 ,rose n to belong to1 #cb2 diff]5t op9ion ( ,e4 ,heitz1 #cb2 all[ance to be made = div]sity ( /yle1 subject1 c41 9 ! works (1 #cc2 works 9 ! catalogue to be held z really compos$ by1 #cd2 extant works (1 :5ce d]iv$1 #ce2 fate ( 8 libr>y & ,,mss4 on 8 dea?1 till br\ght to ,rome & c>$ = by ,&ronikus1 #ce seq42 ?r\gh ,&ronikus1 became kn[n z we "k him1 #dj2 n ?us kn[n to ! ,alex&r9e libr>ians1 #db2 s-call$ ,exot]ic works (1 #dd2 8 own use ( ! phrase exot]ic disc\rses1 #df seq42 _h n two doctr9es--! ,exot]ic & ,esot]ic1 #eb2 ! ord] ( 8 extant works unc]ta91 #ed2 8 m]it 9 not+ equivocation ( t]ms1 #eg2 n free f fasc9ation by p>ticul> numb]s1 #gd2 fir/ made logical analysis ( ,ens1 #ig2 fir/ to treat ,logic sci5tifically1 #acj2 :at he did = !ory ( ,proposition1 #acf1 #aci2 claim$ ! !ory ( ,syllogism z 8 own "w1 #adj1 #aec1 #bei1 #dbj2 8 expository mann]1 novel & peculi>1 #ada2 specializ$ ! mean+ ( ,syllogism1 #adc2 fir/ to ask if a proposition c\ld be conv]t$1 #add2 fir/ us$ lett]s z symbols 9 exposition1 #adh2 proce$$ ^u1 b modifi$1 ,platonic anti!sis ( ,sci5ce & ,op9ion1 #bjg1 #bfd2 specially claim$ to be orig9al 9 8 !ory ( ,dialectic1 #bfb1 #dah2 att5d$ to curr5t op9ion1 drew up li/ ( prov]bs1 #bgb1 #ddj2 />t$ 9 8 philosophy f ! common habit ( spee*1 #dcd1 #ddj2 cont9u$ ! "w ( ,sokrates1 #dci1 #dda2 devis$ a ,fir/ ,philosophy con=mable to ! habits ( common spee*1 />t+ f ! def9ite individual or ,hoc ,aliquid1 #dde2 psy*ology (1 mu/ be comp>$ ) t ( 8 pr$ecessors1 #ddf2 reject$ all previ\s !ories on ,s\l1 #deb2 advance made 9 ! ,ontology (1 #efa2 8 view ( pleasure1 #ffj2 e?ical purpose (1 #ffb4 ,ari?metic1 prcognita requir$ 91 #bab2 ab/ract$ f mat]ial conditions1 #bcd2 simpl]1 & !re=e m accurate1 ?an geometry1 #bcd4 ,art1 ,g5]ation f1 #eih1 #fbj4 ,asklepiads1 traditional tra9+ (1 #b4 ,association ( ,ideas1 pr9ciples (1 #dgg2 ,ari/otle's acc\nt (1 p]plex$ by 8 %>p di/9ction ( ,memory & ,rem9isc5ce1 #dgh4 ,a/ronomy1 ! ma!matical sci5ce mo/ ak9 to ,fir/ ,philosophy1 #fbf4 ,at>neus1 ,ari/otle !re1 #d4 ,attalid k+s ( ,p]gamus1 ,ari/otle's libr>y at ,skepsis buri$1 to be kept hidd5 f1 #cf4 ,axioms1 assum$ 9 ,demon/ration1 #bab1 #bae1 #bbj2 a "p ( ,demon/ration1 #bai2 n always =mally enunciat$1 #bba2 ^? common to all sci5ces1 scrut9iz$ by ,dialectic1 #bba1 #ege2 & by ,fir/ ,philosophy1 #bba1 #dbe1 #ege1 #ehd2 ! common1 n alone suffici5t = ,demon/ration 9 ! special sci5ces1 #bcf2 use ( ! ^w be=e1 & by1 ,ari/otle1 #eff1 #ege1 #ehd4 ,b4 ,bees1 p>take 9 ,nos1 #dhc1 #egf4 ,belief1 at v>iance ) ,k1 #ahb2 f\nd$ on evid5ce ei!r syllogi/ic or inductive1 #ahg4 ,b]l9 edition ( ,ari/otle1 #bg1 #cj4 ,b]nays1 8 view ( exot]ic disc\rses1 #di1 #eb4 ,body1 animate & inanimate1 #def2 ,matt] ) ,ari/otle may be1 b is n necess>ily1 #def2 ?or\gh-go+ implication ( ,s\l )1 9 animat$ subject1 #deh seq42 has ?ree & only ?ree dim5sions1 #fcj2 no inf9ite1 #fcc4 ,bo?ius1 translat$ ,ari/otle's ,categori & def5d$ its position1 #efc4 ,bo?us ! ,sidonian1 /ud5t ( ,ari/otle1 #ch2 8 recomm5dation z to ord] ( /udy+ ! works1 #ee4 ,bonitz1 8 view ( ! canon ( ! ,metaphysica1 #ehc4 ,bra91 specially connect$ ) ! olfactory organ1 #dgj2 function ( !1 #dhj4 ,br&is1 ref]s catalogue ( ,diog5es to ,alex&r9e lit]ati1 #cd1 #dj2 8 view ( ! canon ( ! ,metaphysica1 #ehc4 ,bryson1 8 quadrature ( ! circle1 #cha4 ,c4 ,canon1 ,ari/otelian1 see ,ari/otle4 ,categori1 ! treatise1 n m5tion$ 9 ,analytica or ,topica1 #ef2 subject (1 h[ relat$ to t ( ,de ,int]pretatione1 #eg1 #ei1 #ajh1 #aji2 deals ) ,ens 9 a s5se t bl5ds ,logic & ,ontology1 #fb1 #ajh2 diff]5ce ( ,ari/otle's proc$ure 91 comp>$ ) ,physica & ,metaphysica1 #fe1 #ajc2 probably an e>ly composition1 #hj2 rema9$ kn[n1 :5 o!r works ( ,ari/otle 7 unkn[n or neglect$1 #efc4 ,categories1 ,t51 assum$ 9 ,analytica & ,topica1 #ef2 l$ up to by a di/9ction ( ,entia 7,enunciata71 #ei2 bl5d+ toge!r ,logic & ,ontology1 #fb2 ,ens accord+ to !1 #fa1 #dbe1 #eid seq4 7,metaph4 ,z41 ,greek3 472 enum]at$1 #fe2 all embodi$ 9 ,fir/ or ,complete ,ens1 #ff1 #eie2 ea* a ,summum ,g5us1 & "s wid] /ill1 #ff2 n all mutually exclusive1 #ff1 #gc1 #ha1 #hi2 may be exemplifi$1 n def9$1 #ff2 h[ arriv$ at1 #ff1 #gf seq42 jo9$ by lat] logicians ) ! ,pr$icables1 #gc2 /ress laid by ,ari/otle ^u ! fir/ f\r1 #gd2 :y ,t5 9 numb]--might h be5 m1 #gd seq42 obta9$ by logical1 n metaphysical1 analysis1 #gf2 heads ( in=mation or answ]s respect+ an individual1 #gg2 inf]5ce 9999z to true "* (1 f case ( ,hab]e & ,jac]e1 #gi2 all1 ev5 9999! fir/1 involve ,relativity1 #hj seq42 ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill on1 #ij n42 capital di/9ction betwe5 ! fir/ & all ! re/1 #ia seq41 #efc1 #eid2 ,tr5del5burg's view ( _! orig91 #ii1 likely & plausible1 #ii2 comp>$ ) ,categories ( ! ,/oics1 #ajj1 #efc1 ( ,plot9us1 #ajb1 #efc1 ( ,gal51 #ajc4 ,cause1 ,k (1 di/+ui%$ f k ( ,fact1 #bbc2 k (1 ! p]fection ( cognition1 #bbd1 #bce2 "o ( ! f\r heads ( ,inve/igation1 #bch2 nature ( ! "q z to1 #bci1 #fjh2 sub/antially ! same enquiry ) ,cur1 ,quid1 & ! ,middle ,t]m1 #bdj1 #bdf2 f\r v>ieties (1 #bde1 #faa1 #fba2 relation among ! v>ieties (1 #bdf2 h[ f> reciprocal ) ! causatum1 #bdg1 #bed2 has an effect only "o8 #bed2 ! ,g5]al ,notion view$ by ,ari/otle z a1 #dbb4 ,*ance1 s\rce ( irregul>ity 9 ! ,kosmos1 #aad1 #bjf2 affects ! rule ( ,antiphasis1 #aae2 ,ari/otle's doctr9e (1 *all5g$1 #aaf2 objective correlate to ! ,problematical ,proposition1 #acc1 #bje2 pr9ciple or cause ( ,accid5ts1 #eid2 ,g5]ations & ,con/ructions proce$+ f1 #eih1 #fbj4 ,*ange1 f\r v>ieties (1 #fji4 ,*rysippus1 on ! det]m9ation ( w by motives1 #ffa2 8 rev]5ce = div9ation1 c41 #ffb2 a =eign] at ,a!ns1 )\t a sph]e ( political action1 #ffb4 ,cic]o1 8 encomium on ,ari/otle's /yle1 #cj1 #da2 h[ f> he knew ,ari/otle's works1 #cj1 #ca1 #cc1 #dj1 #ej2 8 use ( ! ^w exot]ic1 #dd1 #ea4 ,claudian1 ref]r$ to1 #ac4 ,coelo1 ,treatise de1 connect$ ) :at o!r works1 #ed1 #fec4 ,col\r1 object ( vision1 action (1 #dff2 v>ieties (1 proce$+ all f :ite & black1 #dfg4 ,common ,s5se1 or ,op9ion1 oppos$ to ,sci5ce 9 ,plato & ,ari/otle1 #bjg2 ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton on1 #efe2 legitimate mean+ (1 #efg2 au?oritative "* (1 9 "o place all[$ by ,ari/otle1 #efi2 ,ari/otle's conception (1 z devoid ( sci5tific au?ority1 #egc1 #egd4 ,comp\nd1 ,! 7,greek3 to su_/nolon71 ( ,=m & ,matt]1 or ! ,individual1 #dde1 #def1 #eii seq4 ,concealm5t1 h[ to be practis$ by dialectical que/ion]1 #cef4 ,conclusion1 ( ,syllogism1 indicates ,figure1 #aeb1 #afd1 #afg2 :5 m ?an "o1 #aga2 true1 f false premisses1 #agb use to demon/rate premisses1 #agc2 rev]s$ to refute premisses1 #agd2 k9ds (1 9 ,demon/ration1 comp>$1 #bca4 ,concomitants1 non-ess5tial1 no demon/ration (1 #bai2 no def9ition (1 #bbj2 ne> to ,non-,entia1 #efa2 little m ?an a "n1 #eic2 see ,accid5t4 ,concrete1 & ,ab/ract1 appellatives n us$ by ,ari/otle1 #fe2 !1 z comp\nd ( ,=m & ,matt]1 #def seq42 see ,comp\nd4 ,conjunction1 ,fallacy (1 #che2 h[ to solve1 #djh4 ,consequ5tis ,fallacia1 #chh2 n und]/ood be=e ,ari/otle1 #cij2 h[ to solve1 #dab4 ,con/ruction1 k9d ( ,g5]ation1 #eih4 ,contradiction1 ,maxim or ,axiom (1 dep5ds ^u k ( quantity & quality ( propositions1 #acg1 #dda2 n self-evid5t1 #add2 among ! prcognita ( ,demon/ration1 #bab1 #dbg2 n =mally enunciat$ 9 any special sci5ce1 #bba2 discussion (1 belongs to ,fir/ ,philosophy1 #dbb1 #dbe1 :y1 #dbf1 #egi2 enunciat$1 z highe/ & firme/ ( all pr9ciples1 #dbe1 #ehe2 controv]t$ by ,ari/otle's pr$ecessors1 ,h]akleitus1 ,anaxagoras1 c41 #dbg1 #dbi1 #dda2 ,ari/otle's indirect pro( (1 #dbg seq41 #ehe seq42 appli$ 9 ! ,sokratic ,el5*us1 #dda2 rem>ks on ,ari/otle's def5ce (1 #ddb2 c be support$ only by an induction ( p>ticul> in/ances1 #ddc2 enunciat$ bo? z a logical & z an ontological =mula1 #egi2 def5d$ by ,ari/otle specially aga9/ ,h]akleitus1 #egi4 ,contradictory ,opposites1 pair (1 make ,antiphasis1 #aaa2 di/+ui%$ f ,contr>y ,opposites1 #aaa1 #abd1 #acd2 rule (1 z to tru? & falsity1 #aab2 relat$ pairs (1 set =? 9 quat]nions1 #aah seq41 #agj2 di/9ction ( f ,contr>y1 fundam5tal 9 ,logic1 #acg2 see ,antiphasis4 ,contr>iorum1 ,petitio1 9 ,dialectic1 #cgb4 ,contr>y ,opposites 7t]ms71 #ajd2 ,opposites 7propositions71 di/+ui%$ f ,contradictory1 #aaa1 #abd1 #acd2 rule ( z to tru? & falsity1 #aab4 ,conv]sion 7#a7 ( ,propositions1 import (1 #add2 rules =1 ) ,ari/otle's defective pro( !re(1 #add seq42 c be prov$ only by ,induction1 #adf1 #adg2 7#b7 ( ,syllogism1 #agd4 ,copula1 ,e/ z1 #abg1 #eia4 ,c\rage1 def9ition (1 #ebe4 ,d4 ,debate1 f\r species (1 #cgg4 ,def9ition1 among ! prcognita assum$ 9 ,demon/ration1 #bab1 #bad1 #bbj1 #bba2 propositions decl>+1 atta9$ only 9 ,fir/ figure1 #bbd2 ( ,ess5ce t dep5ds on extrane\s cause1 #bdj-dd2 ( ,ess5ce )\t su* middle ,t]m1 #bde2 ?ree v>ieties (1 #bde2 h[ to frame a1 #bdi2 z s\ght ?r\gh logical ,division1 #bej2 to exclude equivocation1 #bea2 "o ( ! ,pr$icates1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 #bgf2 !sis (1 easie/ to attack1 h>de/ to def5d1 #bhe1 #cec2 dialectical ,loci be>+ on1 #cbi seq42 h[ op5 to attack or def5ce1 #ccj2 defects 9 ! sett+ out (1 #ccj2 faults 9 ! sub/ance (1 #ccb-dh2 ! g5u9e & p]fect1 #ccc2 g5]al rule = dialectically te/+1 #cdi2 is prim>ily ( ,ess5ces1 ( ! o!r ,categories n directly1 #eig2 none1 ( p>ticul> ,concretes1 #fjb1 #fjf2 is ( ! ,univ]sal or ,=m1 #fjc2 :5ce ! unity ( !1 #fjd1 #fab2 none1 ( et]nal ,ess5ces1 #fjg2 analogy (1 to ,numb]1 #faa4 ,delboeuf1 ,pr(41 on indemon/rable tru?s1 #bbi n4 ,demades1 ) ,phokion at ! head ( ! ,a!nian adm9i/ration "u ,alex&]1 #ab4 ,demo*>es1 nephew ( ,demo/h5es1 accus] ( ,ari/otle1 #ad4 ,demokritus1 disreg>d$ exp]i5ce1 #dcf2 8 view ( ! s\l1 #ddi2 made intellig5ce dep5d5t on s5se1 :i* is ev] v>y+1 #ehh2 recogniz$ "o primordial body ) ?ree diff]5ces--figure1 position1 arrangem5t1 #fji2 got p>tial hold ( ! idea ( ,ens ,pot5ti or ,matt]1 #fbj2 atomic doctr9e (1 #fcd2 8 reason = ! /ation>9ess ( ! ,e>?1 #fdi2 h[ foll[$ by ,epikurus1 #fef-eh4 ,demon/rative ,sci5ce1 see ,demon/ration4 ,demon/ration1 ultimately r$ucible to two fir/ modes ( ,fir/ figure1 #aee2 circul>1 #agc1 #bae2 subject ( ,analyt4 ,po/4 #bjg2 h[ oppos$ to ,dialectic1 #bji1 #egc2 is tea*+ f prcognita assum$1 #baa1 #bad2 undemon/rable pr9ciples (1 #bae2 two doctr9es (1 oppos$ by ,ari/otle1 #bae1 #bbh2 necess>y premisses (1 #baf2 conclusion (1 mu/ be necess>y1 #bah2 none1 ( noness5tial concomitants1 #bai2 ! p>ts (1 #bai2 premisses (1 mu/ be ess5tial & appropriate1 #bbj2 requires admission ( univ]sal pr$icates1 #bba2 premisses =1 obta9$ only f ,induction1 #bbf1 #beh1 #bfj1 #egf2 implies "s tru?s prim>y or ultimate1 #bbg1 #bcj2 ! unit 91 #bca2 ( ! ,univ]sal bett] ?an ( ! ,p>ticul>1 #bca2 ,affirmative bett] ?an ,negative1 #bcc2 ,direct bett] ?an ,indirect1 #bcd2 is ( ! necess>y or cu/om>y1 n ( ! =tuit\s1 #bce1 #fjf2 none1 ?r\gh s5sible p]ception1 #bce2 9 default ( direct obs]vation1 #bcj2 relation (1 to ,def9ition1 #bdj2 pr9cipia (1 n innate1 #bef2 pr9cipia (1 h[ develop$ ^u s5sible p]ception1 #bef1 #ege4 ,demophilus1 jo9$ 9 indict+ ,ari/otle = impiety1 #ab4 ,demo/h5es1 reproa*$ = conv]s+ ) ! be>] ( ,alex&]'s rescript to ! ,greek cities1 #aa2 suicide (1 #ab4 ,desire1 see ,appetite4 ,dexippus1 v9dicat$ ,ari/otle's ,categories1#ajc1 #efc4 ,dialectic1 h[ relat$ to ,sci5ce or ,philosophy1 #dg1 #baj1 #bgb1 #bgc2 =m ( putt+ que/ions 91 #abe1 #bge2 !ses 91 v>i\sly liable to attack & def5ce1 #aef1 #bhe1 #ceb2 z conceiv$ by ,plato1 #bjh1 #bfc2 by ,ari/otle plac$ ) ,rhetoric 9 ! region ( ,op9ion1 #bjh1 #bff1 #egc2 oppos$ to ,demon/rative ,sci5ce & ,necess>y ,tru?1 #bji1 #egc2 conc]n$ ab\t ! ,common ,axioms ( all ,sci5ce1 #bba1 #bgb1 #egd1 #ehd2 ,ari/otle claims to be specially orig9al 9 8 !ory (1 #bfb1 #dah2 z conceiv$ & practis$ by ,sokrates1 #bfc1 #dcf2 oppos$ by ,ari/otle to ,didactic1 #bfd1 #cgg2 prov9ce (1 #bff1 #egc2 ess5tially cont5ti\s1 #bff1 #cgh1 #cig2 uses (1 #bga1 #egd2 propositions1 h[ classifi$ 91 #bgf2 proc$ure (1 9 contra/ ) t ( ,philosophy1 #cec1 #ehd2 conditions & aims ( ! practice (1 #ced1 #cfa1 #cgh2 to be practis$ z a p>tn]%ip = common intellectual pr(it1 #cee1 #cfg2 "p ( ! que/ion] 91 #cee seq42 "p ( ! respond5t 91 #cfa seq42 respond5t at fault 91 #cff2 que/ion] at fault 91 #cfg2 f\r k9ds ( false argum5t 91 #cgj2 outfit = practice (1 #cgb2 "o ( f\r species ( debate1 #cgg2 :5 & :y call$ eri/ic or sophi/ic by ,ari/otle1 #cgi2 ,ari/otle's di/9ction ( ,sophi/ic f1 conte/$1 #chb1 #cic seq4 ,dialogues ( ,ari/otle lo/1 #cj1 #cb1 #di4 ,diaphan\s1 action ( !1 9 vision1 #dff4 ,dicto secundum quid ad dictum simplicit]1,fallacia a1 #chf2 h[ to solve1 #dab4 ,didactic1 conf\nd$ by ,plato ) ,dialectic1 #bfd2 di/+ui%$ f ,dialectic by ,ari/otle1 #bfd1 #cgg2 species ( ,debate1 #cgg2 scope & conditions4 ,(1 #cgg2 see also ,demon/ration4 ,diff]5ces1 /udy (1 an organon ( debate1 #bhj4 ,diff]5tia1 n 91 b pr$icat$ (1 a ,subject1 #fh2 rank$ ) ,g5us 9 ,ari/otle's li/ ( ,pr$icables1 #bgf2 discrim9at$ f ,g5us1 #cac2 def9ition ( ,species ?r\gh ,g5us &1 #ccc1 #fja2 is ,=m 9 ! def9ition1 #fjd2 logically prior to ! ,species1 #fjg4 ,diog5es ( ,apollonia1 8 view ( ! s\l1 #ddi4 ,diog5es ,la]tius1 8 catalogue ( ,ari/otle's works1 #bh1 comp>$ ) t ( ,anonymus1 #bi2 ignorant ( ! pr9cipal works ( ,ari/otle kn[n to u1 #ca2 catalogue (1 probably ( ,alex&r9e orig91 #cd1 #da4 ,dionysius1 y\ng] ( ,syracuse1 visit$ by ,plato1 #d2 correspond$ ) ,plato1 #g4 ,dionysodorus1 ! ,sophi/1 #chc4 ,dioteles1 fri5d ( ,ari/otle1 #ag4 ,greek3 ,dio_/ti1 ,to_/1 ! ,:y1 k (1 #bbc1 "o ( ! f\r heads ( ,inve/igation1 #bch2 9 se>* = a middle t]m1 #bci2 relation (1 to ! "q ,quid1 #bci2 see ,cause4 ,disjunction1 ,fallacy (1 #che2 h[ to solve1 #djh4 ,division ,logical1 weakness (1 #afc1 #bdb2 use (1 to obta9 a def9ition1 #bej4 ,e4 ,e>1 /ructure ( !1 #dfh4 ,e>?1 op9ions z to positions (1 #fdh2 op9ions z to its /ate ( motion or re/1 figure1 c41 #fdi seq42 at re/ 9 ! c5tre ( ! ,kosmos1 #feb2 necess>ily sph]ical1 #feb4 #fec2 size (1 #fec4 ,eclipse1 lun>1 illu/ration ( ,causation f1 #bed1 #faa4 ,education ( ! citiz51 #edc4 ,effici5t ,cause1 #bde4 ,el5*us1 ( ,sokrates1 #bfc1 #dcg2 9 g5]al1 #cgf2 ! ,sophi/ical1 #cgf1 #djd directions = solv+ ! ,sophi/ical1 #djd4 ,emotions1 n sy/ematically treat$ by ,ari/otle z "p ( ,psy*ology1 b 9 ,e?ics & ,rhetoric1 #dib4 ,emp$okles1 8 disreg>d ( exp]i5ce1 #dcf2 8 view ( ! s\l1 #ddi2 criticiz$ by ,ari/otle1 #dea2 made intellig5ce dep5d5t on s5se1 #ehh2 got p>tial hold ( ! idea ( ,ens ,pot5ti or ,matt]1 #fbj2 8 pr9ciple ( ,fri5d%ip1 #fbc1 #fbh2 held ! ,kosmos to be g5]at$ & de/roy$ alt]nately1 #fcg2 held ! ,heav5 to be kept 9 its place by extreme velocity ( rotation1 #fci1 #fej4 ,end1 see ,f9al ,cause4 ,endoxa1 premisses ( ,dialectic1 #bfi2 n equival5t to ! ,probable1 #bgj2 collections to be made (1 #bge1 z an organon ( debate1 #bgh4 ,en]gy1 see ,entele*y4 ,ens1 f\r k9ds (1 view$ ) ref]5ce to ,proposition1 & z introductory to ! ,categories1 #ei2 quat5us ,ens1 subject ( ,fir/ ,philosophy1 #ei1 #dbb1 #ehc2 a homonym\s1 equivocal1 or multivocal ^w1 #fj1 #dbd1 #eid2 n a ,summum ,g5us1 b a ,summum ,analogon1 #fj1 #ehd2 f\r ma9 aspects (1 9 ,ontology1 #fj1 #dbd2 7#a7 ,p] ,accid5s1 #eic2 7#b7 9 ! s5se ( ,tru?1 #ajh1 #eid1 #fah2 7#c7 ,pot5tial & ,actual1 #fad-ah 7,metaph4 ,greek3 ,?72 7#d7 accord+ to ! ,categories1 #eid seq4 7,metaph4 ,z1 ,greek3 2 relation among ! v>i\s aspects (1 #fa1 #dbd2 aspects 7#a7 & 7#b7 lightly treat$ 9 ,metaphysica1 belong+ m to ,logic1 #fa2 9 aspect 7#d7 ,logic & ,ontology bl5d$1 #fb2 9 ! fulle/ s5se1 #ff1 #fg1 #if2 fir/ analyz$ 9 its logical aspect by ,ari/otle1 #ig2 z conceiv$ 9 e>lie/ ,greek ?\ght1 #ig1 #dcf2 ,plato's doctr9e (1 #eeb seq42 ,ari/otle's doctr9e (1 #efa4 ,en/asis 7,objection71 #bjb4 ,entele*y1 ,s\l ! fir/1 ( a natural organiz$ body1 #deh2 see ,actuality4 ,en?ymeme1 ,!1 #bjb4 ,enunciative spee*1 #aji2 see ,proposition4 ,epictetus1 au?ority = ,/oical cre$1 #fed2 8 di/9ction ( ?+s 91 & n 91 our p[]1 #ffa2 8 respect = diss5t+ conviction1 #ffc4 ,epikurus1 doctr9e (1 imp]fectly report$1 #fed2 8 /&>d ( ,virtue & ,vice1 #fed2 e?ical !ory (1 anticipat$1 #fed2 subord9at$ bodily pa9 & pleasure to m5tal1 #fed2 fragm5t ( 8 la/ lett]1 #fed2 8 views on ,dea? & ! ,gods1 #fee1 #feg2 f\nd$ ,ju/ice & ,fri5d%ip ^u ,reciprocity1 #fee2 specially inculcat$ ,fri5d%ip1 #fef2 duration & "* ( 8 sect1 #fef2 8 !ory misnam$1 & h5ce misund]/ood1 #fef2 modifi$ atomic !ory ( ,demokritus ) an e?ical purpose1 #feg2 8 writ+s1 #feg1 #feh2 provid$ by atomic deflection 7n = ,fre$om ( ,w b7 = ! unpr$ictable ph5om5a ( nature1 #feh2 8 view ( ! nature ( ,tru?1 #feh2 disreg>d$ logical !ory1 #feh4 ,equivocation1 ( t]ms1 #eg2 detection (1 an organon ( debate1 #bgi2 ,fallacy (1 #che2 h[ to solve ,fallacy (1 #djg2 p]haps mo/ frequ5t ( all fallacies1 #dad4 ,eric1 ( ,aux]re1 foll[$ ,ari/otle on ,univ]sals1 #efc4 ,eri/ic1 giv5 z "o ( ! f\r ,species ( ,debate1 #cgg2 really a v>iety or aspect ( ,dialectic1 #cgg1 #cgi4 ,error1 liabilities to1 9 7! =m (7 ,syllogism1 #agf2 9 ! matt] ( premisses1 #aha2 p>ticul>1 )9 k ( ! univ]sal1 #ahc2 ?ree modes (1 #ahd1 modes (1 9 reg>d to propositions z ,imm$iate or ,m$iate1 #bbe4 ,esot]ic doctr9e1 z oppos$ to ,exot]ic1 #eb4 ,ess5ce 7,sub/ance71 degrees (1 #fc1 #efa2 fir/ & fundam5tal ,category1 #fe1 #fg2 ,fir/1 or ,hoc ,aliquid1 subject1 nev] pr$icate1 #fg1 #ah1 #efa2 ,second1 pr$icat$ (1 n 91 ,fir/1 #fh2 ,?ird1 #fh2 has itself no contr>y1 b receives alt]nately contr>y accid5ts1 #fi1 #hc2 relativity (1 z a subject = pr$icates1 #hc1 #ia seq42 ,fir/1 %ades ?r\gh ,second into quality1 #ia2 priority (1 z subject ov] pr$icate1 logical1 n real1 #ic2 treat$ 9 ,metaphys4 ,z1 #eie seq4 ,ess5ce 7,quiddity71 propositions decl>+1 atta9$ only 9 ,fir/ figure ( ,syllogism1 #bbd2 "o ( ! f\r qusita 9 ,sci5ce1 #bch2 nature ( ! "q z to1 #bci2 h[ relat$ to ! "q ,cur1 #bdj2 9 all cases undemon/rable1 b decl>$ ?r\gh syllogism1 :]e x has an extrane\s cause1 #bdd2 v>i\sly giv5 9 ! ,def9ition1 #bde2 a v>iety ( ,cause 7,=mal7 #bde1 #faa2 treat$ 9 ,metaphys4 ,z1 #eie seq4 ,ess5tial pr$ication1 h[ di/+ui%$ by ,ari/otle f ,non-,ess5tial1 #fe4 ,e/1 d\ble mean+ (1 #abf4 ,e?ics1 ,ari/otle's treatise on1 analyz$1 #die seq42 unc]ta9ty & obscurity ( ! subject1 #dig2 ,e?ical sci5ce ! supreme good ( ! individual citiz51 #ejj2 fundam5tal defect 9 ,ari/otle's !ory1 #ead1 #eai2 fir/ pr9ciples h[ acquir$ 91 #egh4 ,eubulides1 wrote 9 reproa* ( ,ari/otle1 #bj4 ',eudmus1' ,dialogue ( ,ari/otle's1 #eb4 ,eudmus1 disciple ( ,ari/otle1 knew logical works ( 8 n[ lo/1 #ef2 wrote on logic1 #ef2 foll[$ ,ari/otle 9 treat+ ,modals1 #add2 8 pro( ( ! conv]tibility ( ,univ]sal ,negative1 #adf2 on ! negative function ( ,dialectic1 #bhd4 ,eudoxus1 anticipat$ e?ical !ory ( ,epikurus1 #fed4 ,eumlus1 ass]t$ t ,ari/otle took poison1 #ae4 ,eurym$on1 ! ,hi]ophant1 indict$ ,ari/otle = impiety1 #ab4 ,eu?ydemus1 ! ,sophi/1 #chc4 ,example1 ! ,syllogism f1 #aia2 ,induction an exaltation (1 #aig2 results 9 ,exp]i5ce1 #aih4 ,exclud$ ,middle1 ,maxim (1 n self-evid5t1 #add2 among ! prcognita ( ,demon/ration1 #bab2 supplem5t or correlative ( ,maxim ( ,contradiction1 #dbf2 enunciat$ bo? z a logical1 & z an ontological1 =mula1 #egi2 v9dicat$ by ,ari/otle specially aga9/ ,anaxagoras1 #eha1 #eij seq4 ,exi/5ce1 "o ( ! f\r heads ( ,inve/igation1 #bch4 ,exot]ic1 ! works s call$1 h[ und]/ood by ,cic]o1 #dd2 h[ by ! critics1 #de2 disc\rse1 mean+ ( 9 ,ari/otle himself1 #df seq42 oppos$ to ,akroamatic1 #ej2 doctr9e1 z oppos$ to ,esot]ic1 #eb4 ,greek3 ,e7xt]ikoi lo_/goi1 allusions to1 9 ,ari/otle1 #df seq4 ,exp]i5ce1 inf]5ce f ,example results 91 #aih2 place (1 9 ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill's !ory ( ,ratioc9ation1 #aii2 basis ( sci5ce1 #aii2 is ( p>ticul> facts1 #egf4 ,expet5da1 dialectical ,loci be>+ on1 #bif seq4 ,eye1 /ructure ( !1 #dff4 ,f4 ,fact1 k (1 di/+ui%$ f k ( ,cause1 #bbc1 #bce2 "o ( ! f\r heads ( ,inve/igation1 #bch2 nature ( "q z to1 #bci2 assum$ 9 "q z to ,cause1 #bci1 #fjh4 ,fallacies1 subject ( ,sophi/ici ,el5*i1 #cgg2 incid5tal to ! human 9999intellect1 (t5 h>d to detect1 n m]e traps1 #chc1 #cie1 #djd2 op]at$ ?r\gh language1 #chd2 classifi$1 #che2 7#a7 ,dictionis or ,9 ,dictione1 #che2 7#b7 ,extra ,dictionem #che seq42 may all be br\ght to ,ignoratio ,el5*i1 #cij2 curr5t among ,ari/otle's contempor>ies1 #cia2 ,9 ,dictione1 h[ to solve1 #dji seq4 ,extra ,dictionem1 h[ to solve1 #daj seq4 ,falsehood1 ,non-,ens 9 ! s5se (1 #fj2 c42 see ,tru? & ,ens4 ,favor9us1 #ce4 ,figura ,dictionis1 ,fallacy (1 #che2 h[ to solve1 #djh4 ,figure ( ,syllogism1 #adh2 ,fir/1 #adh2 alt]native ways ( enunciat+1 #adh2 ,modes (1 #adi2 valid modes ( ,fir/1 #adi2 invalid modes ( ,fir/1 h[ set =? by ,ari/otle1 #aej2 ,second & its modes1 #aea2 ,?ird & its modes1 #aeb2 sup]iority ( ,fir/1 #aeb1 #aec1 #bbd2 indicat$ by ! ,conclusion1 #aec1 #afd1 #afg2 all ,demon/ration ultimately r$ucible to two fir/ modes ( ,fir/1 #aed2 ,r$uction ( ,second & ,?ird1 #afh2 9 ,second & ,?ird1 conclusion possible f contradictory premisses1 #age2 k ( ,cause1 also propositions decl>+ ,ess5ce & ,def9ition1 atta9$ 9 ! fir/1 #bbd4 ,f9al ,cause1 #bdf1 #faa4 ,=*hamm]1 8 view ( exot]ic disc\rse1 #di4 ,=m1 jo9t-factor ) ,matt]1 a v>iety ( ,cause1 #bde1 #faa2 9 ! intellectual g5]ation ( ! ,individual1 #dde1 #eih seq42 & ,matt]1 di/9ction (1 a capital feature 9 ,ari/otle's ,fir/ ,philosophy1 #ded1 #eid seq4 7f ,metaph4 ,book ,z onw>ds72 relation (1 to ,matt]1 #dee2 z ! ,actual1 #dee1 #faf2 ! ,s\l is1 #deg1 #dfj2 ! ,cele/ial ,body1 ! region (1 #dhj4 ,fugi5da1 dialectical ,loci be>+ on1 #bif seq4 ,g4 ,gal51 8 li/ ( ,categories1 #ajc4 ,gellius1 ,a41 8 di/9ction ( ,exot]ic & ,akroamatic books1 #ej4 ,g5]able1 ! s5ses (1 #fcg4 ,g5]ation1 ! doctr9e (1 #eih seq41 #fbj4 ,g5]atione et ,corruptione1 ,treatise de1 connect$ ) :at o!r works1 #ed1 #fec n4 ,g5us1 is ,second ,ess5ce1 #fc2 or m /rictly ,?ird ,ess5ce1 #fg2 9 a ,demon/ration1 #bai2 division ( a1 #bej2 "o ( ! ,pr$icables1 #bgf1 #bhd2 dialectical ,loci be>+ on1 #cjb seq42 n (t5 made subject ( debate1 b important = ,def9ition1 #cjb2 di/+ui%$ f ,diff]5tia1 #cab2 p]fect def9ition ?r\gh1 & ,diff]5ti1 #ccc2 easi] to attack ?an to def5d1 #ceb2 is ,matt] 9 a def9ition1 #fjd2 logically prior to ! ,species1 #fjg4 ,geometry1 use ( diagrams 91 #afg1 #fah2 prcognita requir$ 91 #bab4 ,gorgias1 /yle (1 #bb4 ,gryllion1 sculptor nam$ 9 ,ari/otle's w1 #ai4 ,gymna/ics1 z "p ( education1 #edd4 ,h4 ,hab]e1 ,category1 #ff1 #gc2 sometimes dropt by ,ari/otle1 #gd1 #hj2 entitl$ ) ! o!rs to a place1 #gh2 ref]s prim>ily to a ,man1 #gi2 is also und]/ood m widely by ,ari/otle1 #gi1 #ajc2 exclusively s by "s ,ari/otelians1 #hj2 rank$ fif? by ,ar*ytas1 #hj4 ,habitus & ,privatio1 case ( ,opposita1 #ajd1 #aje4 ,hamilton1 ,sir ,w41 on ,modals 9 ,logic1 #acj1 #bjj2 wav]s 9 8 use ( ! t]m ,common ,s5se1 #efe2 po9ts on :i* he misrepres5ts ,ari/otle1 #efe1 #eff2 real "q betwe51 & ! ,inductive ,s*ool1 #efg2 ! passages ^u ! /r5g? ( :i* he numb]s ,ari/otle among ! *ampions ( au?oritative ,common ,s5se1 exam9$ s]iatim1 #efh seq4 ,happ9ess1 ,ari/otle's def9ition (1 exam9$1 #eja seq42 happ9ess ( ! individual & ( society di/9ct1 #eag4 ,he>+1 op]at$ ?r\gh a m$ium1 #afg4 ,he>t1 organ ( ,s5sation g5]ally1 #dfd1 #dgb1 #dgd1 specially ( ,t\*1 #dgb4 ,heav5 7,kosmos71 always 9 action1 #fag2 upp]mo/ place 91 assign$ to ! ,gods1 #fcb2 revolv+ 9 a circle1 _c be inf9ite1 #fcc2 no body outside (1 #fcd1 #fcf2 !re _c be m ?an "o1 #fcd2 diff]5t s5ses (1 #fcf2 ung5]at$ & inde/ructible1 #fcg-ci2 directions 9 !1 #fdj2 :5ce ! numb] ( revolutions 91 #fda2 necess>ily sph]ical1 #faa1 #fde2 motion (1 uni=m1 #fdb4 ,heavy1 di/+ui%$ f ,light1 #fca4 ,heitz1 ,emil1 takes gr\nd aga9/ ,v4 ,rose on ! catalogue ( ,diog5es1 #cb2 ref]s x to ,alex&r9e lit]ati1 #cd1 #dj4 ,h]akleitus1 philosophy (1 inconsi/5t ) ! ,maxim ( ,contradiction1 #dbg1 #dbi1 #eib2 disreg>d$ data ( exp]i5ce1 #dcf1 #ddd2 position (1 inexpugnable by g5]al argum5t1 #ddc2 8 view ( ! s\l1 #ddi2 8 view ( ! _w ( s5se & p>ticul>s1 #eea2 n a dialectician1 #eea2 ,maxim ( ,contradiction def5d$ by ,ari/otle specially aga9/1 #egi2 ! doctr9e (1 makes all propositions true1 #eib2 mu/ yet admit an inf9ite numb] ( false propositions1 #eib2 held ! ,kosmos to be g5]at$ & de/roy$ alt]nately1 #fcf4 ,h]meias1 despot ( ,at>neus & ,assos1 fri5d ( ,ari/otle1 #d2 commemorat$ aft] dea? by ,ari/otle 9 a hymn & epigram1 #e1 #ab1 #ac4 ,h]mippus1 drew up catalogue ( pupils ( ,isokrates1 #ba2 probable au?or ( ! catalogue 9 ,diog5es1 #cd1 #ce4 ,h]pyllis1 second wife ( ,ari/otle1 #ag1 #ah4 ,hipp>*us1 fri5d ( ,ari/otle1 #ag4 ,hippokrates1 8 quadrature ( ! circle1 #cha4 ,hobbes1 8 def9ition ( ,accid5t1 #fb4 ,hom]1 made intellig5ce dep5d5t on s5se1 #ehh4 ,homo ,m5sura1 doctr9e ( ,protagoras1 held by ,ari/otle to be at v>iance ) ,maxim ( ,contradiction1 #dcj seq41 #ehj1 #ehg seq4 ,homonym\s ?+s1 #eg4 ,homonymy 7,equivocation71 ,fallacy (1 #che2 h[ to solve1 #djg4 ,hyp]eides1 execut$1 #ab4 ,hypo!sis1 ,syllogisms f1 #afj1 #afh2 z a pr9ciple ( ,demon/ration1 #bae1 #bba4 ,i4 ,iambli*us1 def5d$ ,ari/otle's ,categories1 #efc4 ,ideas1 ,platonic ,!ory (1 n requir$ = ,demon/ration1 #bba2 z set =? by ,plato himself1 #eec2 psy*ological gr\nd =1 #eed2 objections urg$ aga9/1 9 ,sophi/es & ,p>m5ides1 #eef seq42 objections urg$ by ,ari/otle aga9/1 #eeh2 allusions to 9 books ( ! ,metaphysica1 #eie1 #eih1 #fjj1 #fjc1 #fjf1 #fjg1 #fab1 #fag1 #fai1 #fbj4 ,idem1 ?ree s5ses (1 #bgg1 #cej2 a topic 9 ,fir/ ,philosophy1 #ehd4 ,id5tity1 ,maxim (1 among ! prcognita ( ,demon/ration1 #bab4 ,idom5eus1 lett] to1 f ,epikurus1 #fed4 ,ignoratio ,el5*i1 ,fallacy (1 #chg2 all fallacies may be br\ght to1 #cij2 h[ to solve1 #dab4 ,immortality1 n ( ! individual1 #dfb1 #dhi1 #dij4 ,immoveable1 ess5ce1 subject ( ,ontology1 also ( ,ma!matics1 #dbc1 #eic1 #fai2 ,prime ,mov5t1 #fbd4 ,impossibile1 ,r$uctio ad1 see ,r$uctio4 ,impossible1 ,!1 s5ses (1 #fch2 diff]s f ! ,false1 #fch4 ,induction1 sole pro( ( ! rules = conv]t+ propositions1 #adf1 #adg2 ev]y?+ believ$ ?r\gh ,syllogism or ^u1 #ahg1 #aid1 #bbf2 ! ,syllogism f or out (1 #ahg seq42 ! opposite ( g5u9e ,syllogism1 #aij2 pla9] & cle>] to u1 ?an ,syllogism1 #aia2 ,ari/otle's attempt to r$uce1 to syllogi/ic =m1 #aib1 #aic2 want+ 9 ! fir/ requisite ( ,syllogism--necessity ( sequ5ce1 #aic1 #aig2 presuppos$ 9 ,syllogism1 #aid2 ! anti!sis (1 to ,syllogism1 obscur$ by ,ari/otle's treatm5t1 #aih1 #aii2 z "p ( ! :ole process ( ,sci5tific ,inf]5ce1 #aii1 #bja2 true "* (1 appreh5d$ by ,ari/otle1 b n foll[$ out1 #aii1 #bjj2 ,logic (1 neglect$ by ! expositors aft] ,ari/otle till mod]n times1 #bjj2 requisites to a ,logic (1 #bja2 supplies ! premisses ( ,demon/ration1 />t+ f p>ticul>s ( s5se1 #bbf1 #beh1 #bei1 #efb1 #egf2 repeat$ & uncontradict$1 gives maximum ( c]ta9ty1 #bfj2 process (1 culm9ates 9 ! infallible ,nos1 #bei-fa2 proc$ure by way (1 9 ,dialectic1 #ceh2 mo/ suitable to a "y beg9n] 9 ,dialectic1 #cgd4 ,inductive ,s*ool1 exact "q betwe5 !1 & ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton1 #efg4 ,inf9ite1 !1 exi/s only pot5tially1 n actually except 9 a c]ta9 way = our cognition1 #fae2 no body is1 #fcb seq4 ,intellect1 see ,nos4 ,intellectus ,ag5s1 relation (1 to ! ,pati5s1 #dhh1 #dhi2 et]nal & immortal1 b n 9 ! individual1 #dhh1 #dhi4 ,intellectus ,pati5s1 relation to ! ,ag5s1 #dhh1 #dhi2 belongs to & p]i%es ) ! individual1 #dhh1 #dhi4 ,int]pretatione1 ,treatise de1 n nam$1 b its cont5ts presuppos$1 9 ,analytica & ,topica1 #ef2 subject (1 h[ relat$ to subject ( ,categori1 #eg1 #ei1 #ajh1 #aji2 la/ section (1 out ( connection1 #acd2 conta9s fir/ positive !ory ( ,proposition1 #acf2 summ>y (1 #aci4 ,int]rogation 9 ,dialectic & 9 ,sci5ce1 #bbb4 ,irregul>ity1 pr9ciple (1 9 ! ,kosmos1 see ,*ance4 ,isokrates1 correspond$ ) ,nikokles1 #g1 #bc2 8 rhetorical s*ool1 #ba2 8 /yle ( composition & tea*+1 #bb2 attack$ by ,ari/otle1 #bd2 def5d$ by ,kephisodorus1 #bd4 ,j4 ,jac]e1 ,category1 #ff1 #gc2 sometimes dropt by ,ari/otle1 #gd1 #hj2 entitl$ ) ! o!rs to a place1 #gh2 ref]s prim>ily to a ,man1 #gi4 ,ju/ice1 def9ition (1 #eca2 view ( ! ,py?agoreans respect+1 #ecc4 ,k4 ,kallima*us ( ,alex&ria1 drew up tables ( au?ors & _! works1 #cd4 ,kalli/h5es1 recomm5d$ by ,ari/otle to ,alex&]1 #i4 ,kalli/ratus1 8 skolion on ,h>modius & ,ari/ogeiton1 #ac4 ,kass&]1 pupil ( ,ari/otle1 #i4 ,kephisodorus1 def5d$ ,isokrates aga9/ ,ari/otle1 #bd1 #bgb n4 ,k1 ( ! ,univ]sal ) error 9 p>ticul>s1 #ahb2 ?ree modes (1 #ahd2 two grades (--,absolute1 ,qualifi$1 #bab2 ( ,fact1 ( ,cause1 #bbc2 prop]1 is ( ! ,univ]sal1 #bce2 v]sus ,op9ion1 #bcf1 #egc4 ,kosmos1 pr9ciples ( regul>ity & irregul>ity 91 #aad2 see ,heav54 ,kratylus refra9$ f pr$ication1 & po9t$ only ) ! f+]1 #dbi n41 #ehj1 #eij4 ,l4 ,la ,m5nais1 on ,common ,s5se1 #efg4 ,lamian ,w>1 #ab4 ,language1 significant by conv5tion only1 #aji2 z subs]vi5t to ! gr[? ( intellect1 #dhd1 #egf4 ,leukippus1 affirm$ motion to be et]nal1 #fbc2 atomic doctr9e (1 #fcd4 ,life1 def9$1 #dec2 see ,s\l4 ,light1 di/+ui%$ f ,heavy1 #fca4 ,light1 takes no "t to travel1 #dff4 ,loci1 9 ,dialectic1 nature (1 #bhc2 di/ribution (1 accord+ to ! f\r ,pr$icables1 #bhd2 be>+ on ,accid5t1 #bhe seq42 be>+ on ,expet5da & ,fugi5da z cases ( ,accid5t1 #bif seq42 be>+ on ,g5us1 #cjb seq42 be>+ on ,proprium1 #cac seq42 be>+ on ,def9ition1 #cbi seq42 belong+ to ,sophi/ic1 #chb1 #djc4 ,locomotion1 ,animal1 produc$ by ,nos & ,appetite1 #dic4 ,logic1 importance ( ,ari/otle's di/9ction ( ! ,equivocal 91 #eg2 deals ) ,ens 9 :at s5ses1 #fa2 bl5d$ ) ,ontology 9 ! ,categories1 #fb2 connection (1 ) ,psy*ology1 #aaj2 deals ) spee* z ,enunciative1 #aaa2 fir/ pres5t$ sci5tifically by ,ari/otle1 #acj2 prop]ly includes discussion ( ,modals1 #acj seq42 di/9ction ( ,contradictory & ,contr>y fundam5tal 91 #acf2 use ( examples 91 #afg2 ,ari/otle's "o-sid$ treatm5t (1 9 subord9at+ ,induction1 #bjj2 z comb9+ ,induction & ,d$uction1 #bja2 ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill's sy/em (1 9 relation to ,ari/otle's1 #bja2 ,ari/otle's claim to orig9ality 9 respect (1 #dbj2 l9e betwe51 & ,ontology1 n cle>ly m>k$ by ,ari/otle1 #dbb2 ,sokrates fir/ broke gr\nd =1 #dbf2 subjective po9t ( view *iefly tak5 by ,ari/otle 91 #egh4 ,lucian1 uses ^w esot]ic1 #eb4 ,lucretius1 only extant ,epikurean writ]1 #fed4 ,m4 ,madvig1 8 view ( exot]ic disc\rse1 #di4 ,ma!matics1 !oretical sci5ce1 subject (1 #dbc1 #eic4 ,matt]1 a v>iety ( ,cause1 #bdf1 #faa2 jo9t-factor ) ,=m 9 ! intellectual g5]ation ( ! ,individual1 #dde1 #eih seq42 & ,=m1 di/9ction1 (1 a capital feature 9 ,ari/otle's ,fir/ ,philosophy1 #ded1 #eie seq4 7f ,metaph4 ,book ,z onw>ds72 relation (1 to ,=m1 #dee1 #def2 z ! ,pot5tial1 #dee1 #fae seq42 v>i\s grades (1 #def4 ,me*anics1 place (1 9 ,ari/otle's philosophy1 #ed4 ,meg>ics1 all[$ no p[] n 9 actual ex]cise1 #fad4 ,memory1 ,tract on1 & ,rem9isc5ce1 #dge2 nature (1 z di/+ui%$ f ,phantasy1 #dge2 di/+ui%$ f ,rem9isc5ce1 #dgf2 ph5om5a (1 #dgg4 ,m5$mus1 disall[$ negative propositions1 #acf4 ,m5o1 ,platonic1 "q z to possibility ( le>n+ 91 #bab4 ,m5oekeus1 lett] to1 f ,epikurus1 #fed4 ,m5tor1 ,p]sian g5]al1 drove ,ari/otle f ,mityl5e1 #e4 ,metaphysics1 9 mod]n s5se1 cov]s ,ari/otle's ,physica & ,metaphysica1 #dbb4 ,metaphysica1 "n n us$ by ,ari/otle1 #ed1 #ei2 relation ( !1 to ! ,physica1 #ed1 #dbb2 *>act]i/ic di/9ction ( !1 #dbb4 ,meteorologica1 connect$ ) :at o!r works1 #ed4 ,metrodorus1 ?ird husb& ( ,ari/otle's daught]1 #bj4 ,middle t]m 9 ,syllogism1 lit]al signification (1 #adh2 h[ to f9d a1 #aeg seq42 ! ,:y ( ! conclusion 9 ,demon/ration1 #bai2 p[] ( swiftly div9+ a1 #bcg2 f\rfold "q z to1 9 ,sci5ce1 #bci2 z ,cause1 #bdf4 ,mieza1 s*ool ( ,ari/otle !re1 #f4 ,mill1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,s41 on ! ,t5 ,categories1 #ij n42 8 sy/em ( ,logic1 9 relation to ,ari/otle's1 #aih-bja2 on indemon/rable tru?s1 #bbi n4 ,milton1 8 description ( ,realism1 #eeb4 ,mityl5e1 ,ari/otle sp5t "s "t !re1 #d4 ,modal ,propositions1 =m ( ,antiphasis 91 #abg2 exclud$ by ,hamilton & o!rs f ,logic1 #acj2 place (1 9 ,=mal ,logic v9dicat$1 #aca2 ,ari/otle's treatm5t (1 n satisfactory1 #acc1 #ach2 doctr9e (1 relat$ to ,ari/otle's ,ontology & ,physics1 #acc2 disadvantage\sly mix$ up ) ! ,ass]tory1 #ach1 #adc1 #aed2 9 ,syllogism1 #bjd4 ,modes ( ,figure1 #adi2 see ,figure4 ,moon1 sph]ical1 #fdf2 motions (1 #fdg4 ,motion1 ,z5o's argum5t aga9/1 p>adoxical1 #cfe2 ! k9ds ( local1 #eic4 ,motus1 "u ,opposita1 #ajd4 ,mov5t1 ,! ,immovable ,prime1 #fbd seq4 ,music1 necess>y "p ( education1 #ede4 ,myrmex1 slave or pupil ( ,ari/otle1 #ai4 ,n4 ,nature1 sum ( ! con/ant t5d5cies & sequ5ces )9 ! ,kosmos1 #aad1 #aag2 objective correlate to ! ,necess>y ,proposition 9 ,logic1 #acc2 ,g5]ation f1 #eih4 ,naturalia ,p>va1 complem5t>y to ! ,de ,anim1 #ed4 ,necess>y1 ,!1 z a mode affect+ ,antiphasis1 #abf seq42 relation (1 to ! ,possible1 #abg1 #bje2 a =mal mode ( ,proposition1 #aca2 :y x may be giv5 up z a ,mode1 #bjf4 ,necessity1 9 :at s5se ,ari/otle d5ies t all ev5ts happ5 by1 #aaf4 ,negation1 disjunction ( subject & pr$icate1 #aaa2 ?r\gh :at collocations ( ! negative p>ticle obta9$ /rictly1 #aah seq41 #afi2 real & app>5t1 #abb2 see ,contradictory1 ,antiphasis4 ,neleus1 inh]it$ libr>y ( ,!ophra/us1 & c>ri$ x away to ,skpsis1 #cf2 heirs (1 buri$ 8 libr>y = safety1 #cf4 ,nikanor1 son ( ,prox5us1 w>d & fri5d ( ,ari/otle1 bore ,alex&]'s rescript to ! ,greek cities1 #aa2 executor1 & *ief b5efici>y1 "u ,ari/otle's w1 #ag-bj2 m>ri$ ,ari/otle's daught]1 #bj4 ,nikokles1 correspond5t ( ,isokrates1 #g4 ,nikoma*us1 fa!r ( ,ari/otle1 m$ical au?or & physician to ,amyntas1 #b2 son ( ,ari/otle1 #ag1 #ah4 ,nom9alism1 ma9 position (1 cle>ly enunciat$ by ,ari/otle1 #dha n42 s*ola/ic =mula (1 #eee4 ,non ,causa pro ,caus1 #chh2 h[ to solve1 #dac4 ,non-,ens1 9 ! s5se ( ,falsehood1 #fj1 #ajh2 ,accid5t bord]s on1 #ih1 #eic4 ,non p] ,hoc1 ! argum5t s call$1 #agi2 ,fallacy (1 #chh4 ,notion1 ! g5]al1 z a cause & creative =ce1 #dbb4 ,notiora1 nobis v4 natur1 #aig1 #bae1 #bci1 #ccb4 ,n\n1 function ( !1 #aji1 #aaj1 #acj2 ! indef9ite1 #aah1 #abd4 ,nos1 ! unit ( ,demon/ration or ,sci5ce1 #bca2 ! pr9cipium ( ,sci5ce or sci5tific ,cognition1 #bcf1 #bei2 un]r+1 m s ev5 ?an ,sci5ce1 #bei1 #dia1 #egg2 /&s ) ,ari/otle z t]m9us & correlate to ! process ( ,induction1 #bfj1 #egh2 7,notic s\l7 di/9ct f1 b imply+1 ! l[] m5tal functions1 #dfa1 #dgi2 indep5d5t ( special bodily organs1 #dgi1 #dha1 #dhg2 h[ relat$ to ! ,cele/ial ,body1 #dha1 #dhg2 ! =m or correlate ( all cogitables--,=m ( ,=ms1 #dhb1 #dhf2 limit$ 9 its function1 z jo9$ ) s5ti5t & nutritive s\ls1 #dhb1 #dhd2 diff]5tly p>tak5 ( by man & animals1 #dhc2 gr[? (1 #dhd2 n cle>ly sep>at$ by ,ari/otle f ,phantasy1 ) :i* x is 9 its ex]cise b\nd up1 #dhe2 di/+ui%$ f ,s5se1 #dhf2 ( ! ,s\l1 an unlimit$ cogitative pot5tiality1 l a tablet n yet writt5 on1 #dhg1 #dia2 function (1 9 appreh5d+ ! ,ab/ract1 #dhh1 #dij2 has a =mal aspect 7,intellectus ,ag5s7 & a mat]ial 7,pati5s71 #dhi2 9 :at s5se immortal1 #dhi2 9 :at s5se ! pr9cipia ( ,sci5ce belong to1 #dia2 analysis1 selection1 & conc5tration ( att5tion1 ! real *>act]i/ics (1 #dib2 ,!oretical1 ,practical1 #dic2 cogitation & cogitatum are id5tical 91 #fbg4 ,numb]1 analogy ( ,def9ition to1 #faa4 ,nutritive s\l1 functions (1 #dfa2 orig9 (1 #dhj4 ,o4 ,objection 7,en/asis71 #bjb2 response to false1 9 ,dialectic1 #cff4 ,ontology1 />ts f classification ( ,entia1 #ei1 #fa2 ,sci5ce ( ,ens quat5us ,ens1 h[ nam$ by ,ari/otle1 #ei2 oppos$ z ! univ]sal sci5ce to p>ticul> sci5ces1 n to ,ph5om5ology1 #ei2 bl5d$ ) ,logic 9 ! ,categories1 #fb2 logical aspect (1 z set =? by ,ari/otle1 #abg2 ( ,ari/otle's pr$ecessors1 #ig1 #ajh1 #eea seq42 has ,dialectic z a t5tative companion1 #bgc2 n cle>ly di/+ui%$ f ,logic & ,physics by ,ari/otle1 #dbb2 highe/ ( ,!oretical ,sci5ces1 subject (1 #dbc1 #eic2 treats ( ,ens 9 two s5ses specially1 #dbd1 #dbe2 also critically exam9es highe/ g5]alities ( ,demon/ration1 #dbe1 #egi2 ,ari/otle's advance 91 ^u ,plato1 #dde1 #efa2 an objective sci5ce1 #egi4 ,op9ion1 oppos$ to ,sci5ce1 9 ,plato1 #bjg2 9 ,ari/otle1 #bjg1 #bcf1 #egc2 want+ to animals1 #dge4 ,opposita1 f\r modes (1 #ajd2 includ$ "u1 r ?an includ+1 ,relativa1 #ajd2 %\ld be call$ ,opposite-,relativa1 #aje4 ,opposition1 ,contradictory & ,contr>y1 #aaa2 squ>es (1 ,s*ola/ic & ,ari/otelian1 #acg n4 ,oppositis1 ,treatise de1 by ,ari/otle1 lo/1 #acd4 ,organon1 ,!1 mean+ (1 z appli$ to ,ari/otle's logical treatises1 #ee2 :at x includes1 #ef2 n s specifi$ by ,ari/otle1 #ef2 ,ari/otle's po9t ( view ?r\gh\t1 #egh4 ,organa1 or ,helps to comm& ( syllogisms 9 dialectical debate1 #bgh2 use ( !1 #bhb2 relation ( !1 to ! ,loci1 #bhc4 ,greek3 ,o7_/ros1 ,t]m1 appli$ bo? to subject & to ,pr$icate 9 ,analytica1 #ada4 ,greek3 ,o7_/ti1 ,to_/1 see ,fact4 ,greek3 ,ou7si_/a1 #fg1 see ,ess5ce4 ,p4 ,p>adeigmatic inf]5ce1 #aih2 see ,example4 ,p>adoxa1 a v>iety ( ,adoxa1 #bfi4 ,p>alogisms1 ,sci5tific1 #bfg1 #chj2 see ,fallacies4 ,p>m5ides1 elim9at$ ,non-,ens1 #acf2 uses equivocal names z univocal1 #dad2 8 doctr9e ( ,absolute ,ens1 #dcf1 #eea2 n a dialectician1 #eea2 made intellig5ce v>y ) s5se1 #ehh4 ,p>onym\s ?+s1 #eg4 ,"p1 relation (1 to ,:ole1 ) a view to ,def9ition1 #fja4 ,p>ticul>1 ,!1 notius nobis comp>$ ) ! ,univ]sal1 #aif2 inf]iority (1 to ! ,univ]sal1 #bca4 ,passion1 ,pati1 ,category1 #fe1 #gc4 ,peira/ic1 giv5 z "o ( ! f\r species ( debate1 #cgg2 really a v>iety or aspect ( ,dialectic1 #cgg1 #cgi4 ',peplus1' "w ( ,ari/otle's1 #cb4 ,p]ception1 s5sible1 see ,s5sation4 ,p]gamus1 k+s (1 _! libr>y1 #cf4 ,p]ipatetics1 orig9 ( ! title1 #g4 ,ph/is1 "m ( ,ari/otle1 #b2 directions = a bu/ to1 9 ,ari/otle's w1 #ai4 ,phanias1 disciple ( ,ari/otle1 knew logical works ( 8 n[ lo/1 #ef2 wrote on ,logic1 #ef4 ,phantasy1 nature (1 #dge2 di/+ui%$ f ,memory1 #dge2 indisp5sable to1 & passes by ins5sible degrees into1 ,cogitation1 #dgi1 #dhd1 #dhe4 ,philip ( ,mac$on1 *ose ,ari/otle z tutor to ,alex&]1 #e2 de/roy$ ,/ageira1 #f4 ,philosoph]1 ,!1 di/+ui%$ f ! ,dialectician1 #ced1 #ehd2 also f ! ,sophi/1 #ehd4 ,philosophy1 ,fir/1 usual "n = ,sci5ce ( ,ens quat5us ,ens1 #ei1 #dbb1 #ehd2 see ,ontology4 ,phokion1 at ! head ( ! ,a!nian adm9i/ration "u ,alex&]1 #ab2 ineffectually oppos$ anti-,mac$onian s5tim5t aft] ,alex&]'s dea?1 #ab4 ,physica1 relation ( !1 to ! ,metaphysica1 #ed1 #dbb4 ,physics1 !oretical sci5ce1 subject (1 #dbc1 #eic1 #fcj4 ,p9d>1 subject ( 8 ,odes1 #ac4 ,place1 9 ,dialectic1 #bhc2 none outside ( ! ,heav51 #fcf4 ,planets1 numb] ( ! sph]es (1 #fbf2 d n tw9kle1 :y1 #fde2 see ,/>s4 ,plato1 mu* abs5t f ,a!ns1 betwe5 #cfg-fj ,b4,c41 #d2 di$1 #cdg ,b4,c41 #d2 correspond$ ) ,dionysius1 #g2 ,ari/otle *>g$ ) +ratitude to1 #bj2 attack$ ) ,ari/otle by ,kephisodorus1 #bd2 anci5ts ne>ly unanim\s z to ! li/ ( 8 works1 #bg1 #db2 8 exposure ( equivocal phraseology1 #eh2 fasc9at$ by p>ticul> numb]s1 #gd2 on ,relativity1 #hd2 8 !ory ( ,proposition & ,negation1 #ace1 #dbg2 call$ =1 b did n supply1 def9itions1 #ada2 8 use ( ! ^w ,syllogism1 #adc2 reli$ ^u logical ,division = sci5ce1 #afb2 oppos$ ,sci5ce 7,dialectic7 to ,op9ion 7,rhetoric71 #bjh1 #bfc2 expla9$ le>n+ f ,rem9isc5ce1 #bab2 8 view ( ,nos z infallible1 #bfj2 "* ( 8 dialogues1 #bfd2 recogniz$ ,didactic1 b z absorb$ into ,dialectic1 #bfd2 8 use ( ! ^w ,sophi/1 #cgf2 8 psy*ology 79 ! ,timu71 #ddf-i1 #dea1 #dfa2 fir/ affirm$ ,realism1 #eeb2 8 ,ontology & !ory ( ,ideas1 #eec seq41 see ,ideas2 held ,sophi/ic to be busi$ ab\t ,non-,ens1 #eic2 8 scale ( ,ess5ces1 #eie1 #fbj2 8 assumption ( a self-mov5t z pr9cipium1 #fbc2 held t ! non-g5]able may be de/roy$1 #fcg1 #fci2 on ! position ( ! ,e>?1 #fdi2 9 8 ,protagoras anticipat$ ,epikurus1 #fed2 admitt$ an inv9cible erratic necessity 9 ,nature1 #feg2 e?ical purpose (1 #ffb4 ',plato & ! o!r ,companions ( ,sokrates1' subject ( ! "w1 #a2 ref]r$ to1 on subject ( ! ,platonic ,canon1 #bg4 ,platoni/s1 _! view ( ,ess5ces z ,numb]s1 #faa2 see ,ideas4 ,plot9us1 c5sur$ ,categories ( ! ,/oics1 #ajj1 #efc2 8 li/ ( ,categories1 #ajb1 #efc4 ,plurium ,int]rogationum ut ,unius1 ,fallacia1 #chi2 h[ to solve1 #dac4 ,plut>* does n appe> to h kn[n ! *ief ,ari/otelian works1 #ca2 au?ority = /ory ( ! fate ( ,ari/otle's libr>y1 #ce4 ,poetic1 place (1 9 ,ari/otle's philosophy1 #ed2 modes ( spee* ent]+ into1 #aaa1 #acj4 ,greek3 ,poio_/n1 see ,quality4 ,political ,sci5ce1 ! ,supreme ,sci5ce1 #ddi4 ,politics1 place ( 9 ,ari/otle's philosophy1 #ed2 ,ari/otle's ,treatise on1 #eci2 f\nd$ on ! ,republic ( ,plato1 #eci2 8 conception ( a republic1 #eci4 ,porphyry1 dispos$ works ( ,plot9us 9 ,enneads1 #dd2 8 ,eisagoge1 #gc1 #aja1 #eeb2 reject$ la/ p>agraph ( ,de ,int]pretatione1 #acd2 8 /atem5t ( ! 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,category1 treat$ ?ird1 #fe1 #gj2 admits1 9 "s cases1 contr>iety & graduation1 #ga2 too n>r[ly conceiv$ by ,ari/otle1 #hj2 cov]s all pr$icates1 #hb2 cov]s ev5 ,ess5ce z ,subject1 #hc2 an ,univ]sal compreh5d+ & p]vad+ all ! ,categories1 r ?an a ,category itself1 #hd2 und]/ood at ! wide/ by "s ( ! anci5ts1 #hd2 compreh5siv5ess (1 conc$$ by ,ari/otle himself1 #hd1 #hh4 ,relative-,opposita1 %\ld r /& ,opposite-,relativa1 #ajd1 #aje4 ,relativity1 or ,relation1 see ,relation2 ( k1 univ]sal 79 ! s5se ( ,protagoras71 impugn$ by ,ari/otle1 #dcj seq41 #ehi seq42 all[$ by ,ari/otle to p]vade all m9d1 #dic4 ,remigius ( ,aux]re1 w5t z f> z ,plato 9 ,realism1 #efd4 ,rem9isc5ce1 ,plato's doctr9e (1 #bab1 #eed2 ,ari/otle's ,tract on ,memory &1 #dge2 nature (1 z di/+ui%$ f ,memory1 #dgj2 ph5om5a (1 #dgf4 ,resemblances1 /udy (1 an organon ( debate1 #bhj4 ,respiration1 organ & function (1 #djh4 ,rev]sal ( ,conclusion1 #agd4 ,rhabanus ,maurus1 foll[$ ,ari/otle on ,univ]sals1 #ejc4 ,rhetoric1 place (1 9 ,ari/otle's philosophy1 #ed2 modes ( spee* dealt ) 91 #aaa1 #aca2 oppos$ by ,plato to ,dialectic1 #bjh1 #bjc2 oppos$ ) ,dialectic to ,sci5ce by ,ari/otle1 #bjh1 #bfe1 #bff2 develop$ be=e ,ari/otle1 #dai4 ,rose1 ,val5t9e1 8 view ( ! catalogue ( ,diog5es1 #cb4 ,s4 ,sagacity1 9 div9+ ,middle ,t]m1 #bcg4 ,sam5ess1 ?ree s5ses (1 #bgg1 #cdi4 ,s*ol>*s1 ,p]ipatetic1 _! limit$ k ( ,ari/otle be=e ,&ronikus1 #cj1 #ch4 ,sci5ce1 see ,k4 ,sci5ces1 "s prior & m accurate ?an o!rs1 #baj1 #bcd1 #egh2 classifi$ z ,!oretical1 ,practical1 ,con/ructive1 #dbc1 #eic2 ,!oretical subdivid$1 #dbc1 #eic4 ,s5eca1 au?ority = ,/oical cre$1 #fed2 a ,/oic engag$ 9 active politics1 #ffb4 ,s5sation1 k beg9s f ! natural process (1 #bef1 #dhc1 #dib2 consci\sness (1 expla9$1 #dgc4 ,s5ses1 ! five1 #dfe seq42 _c be m ?an five1 #dgb4 ,s5ti5t s\l1 involves functions ( ! ,nutritive ) s5sible p]ception besides1 #dfa2 di/+ui%es animals f plants1 #dfb2 receives ! =m ( ! p]ceptum )\t ! matt]1 z wax an impression f ! signet2 #dfb2 communicat$ by male 9 g5]ation1 & is complete f bir?1 #dfc3 diff]s f ! ,notic1 9 commun+ ) p>ticul>s & be+ dep5d5t on /imulus f )\t1 #dfc seq41 #dhf2 grades (1 #dfc2 has a faculty ( discrim9ation & comp>ison1 #dfd1 #dhc2 he>t1 ! organ (1 #dfd2 _c p]ceive two di/9ct s5sations at once1 #dgc2 at ! l[e/1 subject to pleasure & pa91 appetite & av]sion1 #dgc2 ,phantasy belongs to !1 #dge2 ,memory belongs to !1 #dge4 ,sepulv$a1 8 use ( exot]ic1 #de4 ,signs1 ,syllogism f1 #bjb2 di/+ui%$ f ,pro( 7,greek3 tekm_/rion71 #bjc2 9 ,physiognomy1 #bjd4 ,simplikius1 def5d$ ,ari/otle's ,categories1 #efc4 ,simul1 mean+ (1 #aje2 z betwe5 p>ts & :ole1 #fjb4 ,skpsis1 ,ari/otle's books & manuscripts long kept buri$ !re1 #cf4 ,smell1 op]at$ ?r\gh a m$ium1 #dfg2 /&s bel[ sight & he>+1 #dfh2 action (1 #dfi2 organ (1 #dgj4 ,sokrates1 ref]5ce to 8 fate by ,ari/otle1 #af2 8 exposure ( equivocal phraseology1 #eh2 call$ =1 b did n supply1 def9itions1 #ada2 8 conception & practice ( ,dialectic1 to ! neglect ( ,didactic1 #bfc2 ,el5*us (1 #bfc1 #dcg1 #dda2 did no?+ b "q1 #dah2 ,greek philosophy be=e1 #dbf2 fir/ broke gr\nd = ,logic1 #dbf2 8 "p 9 ! developm5t ( ,greek ,philosophy1 #dcf seq42 peculi>ities (1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 #dcg2 fir/ inquir$ into ! mean+ ( univ]sal t]ms1 #eea1 #eeb4 ,sokrates1 ! y\ng]1 false analogy (1 9 def9+ animal1 #fjd4 ,solecism1 sophi/ic *>ge (1 #che2 h[ to repel1 #dac4 ,sophi/1 !1 z und]/ood by ,ari/otle1 #cgf1 #cgg1 #cha2 z und]/ood by ,plato1 #cgf2 five ends ascrib$ to1 #chd2 n really di/+ui%$ by ,ari/otle f ! ,dialectician1 #chb1 #cic seq4 ,sophi/es ( ,plato1 !ory ( ,proposition 91 #ace4 ,sophi/ic1 busi$ ab\t accid5ts1 #ih1 #eic2 z und]/ood by ,ari/otle1 #cgf1 #chb2 giv5 z "o ( f\r species ( debate1 #cgg2 ,ari/otle's conception (1 bo? z to purpose & subject matt]1 disall[$1 #chb1 #cic seq42 ,loci be>+ on1 #djh2 debate1 difficulties 91 #daf2 bord]s on ,dialectic1 #dag4 ,sophi/ici ,el5*i1 la/ book ( ,topica1 #ef1 #bfb2 subject (1 #cgf2 la/ *apt] (1 #dag seq4 ,sorites1 :at 0 aft]w>ds s call$1 #aef4 ,s\l1 accord+ to ,plato1 #ddf1 #ddi1 #dea1 #dfa2 ,alkmon1 #ddi2 ,h]akleitus1 #ddi2 ,diog5es ( ,apollonia1 #ddi2 ,anaxagoras1 #ddi2 ,emp$okles1 #ddi2 ,py?agoreans1 #dej2 ,x5okrates1 criticiz$ by ,ari/otle1 #dej2 !ory ( ,emp$okles criticiz$1 #dea2 !ory (1 z p]vad+ ! :ole ,kosmos1 #dea2 all ! =ego+ !ories (1 reject$ by ,ari/otle1 #deb2 requisites ( a good !ory (1 #deb2 ,ari/otle's po9t ( view ) reg>d to1 #dec2 ! problem (1 /at$ to cov] all =ms ( ,life1 #dec2 resolv$ by metaphysical di/9ction ( ,=m & ,matt]1 #ded-g2 def9$ accord+ly1 #deh2 n a sep>ate entity 9 itself1 #deh2 n really1 b only logically1 sep>able f body1 #deh2 ?or\ghgo+ implication (1 ) ,matt]1 #dei1 #dgh2 is ,=m1 ,mov5t1 & ,f9al ,cause1 ( ! body z ,matt]1 #dfj1 #dhj2 makes ) body ! ,liv+ or ,animat$ ,body1 #dfj1 #dhj2 v>ieties (1 9 an asc5d+ scale1 #dfj1 #dha2 ! l[e/ or ,nutritive1 #dfa2 ! ,s5ti5t 7also nutritive71 #dfb-gd1 see ,s5ti5t2 high] functions (1 condition$ by l[]1 #dgd2 ,phanta/ic dep>tm5t (1 #dgd2 ! ,notic or ,cogitant1 #dgh1 see ,nos1 ,notic2 all v>ieties (1 proce$ f ! region ( ,=m or ! ,cele/ial ,body1 #dhj2 ,nos ( !1 #dhg2 n immortal1 ev5 ! ,notic1 9 ! individual1 #dhi2 is1 9 a c]ta9 way1 all exi/5t ?+s1 #dic2 two p>ts (1 ! rational & ! irrational1 #eba4 ,s\nd1 cause (1 #dfg4 ,species1 is ,second ,ess5ce1 #fc1 #fh2 "o ( ! ,pr$icables 9 ,porphyry's1 n 9 ,ari/otle's1 li/1 #bgf2 logically po/]ior to ,g5us & to ,diff]5ti1 #fjg4 ,spee*1 significant by conv5tion only1 #aji1 #aaa2 ,enunciative1 & o!r modes (1 #aaa4 ,speusippus1 succe$$ ,plato 9 ! ,academy1 #g1 #ba2 books (1 at 8 dea?1 b\ght by ,ari/otle1 #ce2 held x impossible to def9e any?+ )\t kn[+ ev]y?+1 #bdi2 8 enum]ation ( ,ess5ces1 #eie1 #fbi2 ascrib$ beauty & p]fection to results1 n to _! orig9at+ pr9ciples1 #fbe4 ,sp9oza1 8 def9ition ( ,sub/ance contra/$ ) ,ari/otle's1 #ic4 ,spontaneity1 s\rce ( irregul>ity 9 ! ,kosmos1 #aae1 #bje2 affects ! rule ( ,antiphasis1 #aae2 objective correlate to ! ,problematical ,proposition1 #acc1 #bje2 ,g5]ations & ,con/ructions f1 #eih1 #fbj4 ,/ageira1 bir?place ( ,ari/otle1 #b2 de/roy$ by ,philip1 re/or$ by ,ari/otle1 #f4 ,/>s1 9 _! nature et]nal ,ess5ces1 #fbf2 :5ce ! heat & light (1 #fdd2 !mselves at re/1 are c>ri$ r\nd 9 _! circles1 #fdd2 sph]ical 9 figure1 #fde1 #fdf2 7n planets7 tw9kle1 :y1 #fde2 rates ( motion ( 7planets71 z det]m9$ by _! position1 #fdf2 irregul> sequ5ce ( 7planets71 9 respect ( complexity ( motions1 #fdf2 p>tak]s ( life & action1 #fdg2 :y s _m1 9 ! "o s+le ,fir/ ,curr5t1 #fdh4 ,/ilpon1 m]ely disput$ on ,proposition1 #acf4 ,/oics1 ,categories ( !1 #ajj1 #efc2 _! doctr9e copi\sly report$1 #fed2 po9ts 9 :i* !y agre$ ) ! ,epikureans1 #fee1 #ffc2 fatalism (1 #feg2 held ,self-pres]vation to be ! fir/ pr9ciple ( ,nature1 #ffj2 inculcat$ z prim>y (ficium1 to keep 9 ! ,/ate ( ,nature1 #ffj2 _! idea ( ! ,good1 #ffj2 _! di/9ction ( ?+s 9 our p[]1 & n 9 our p[]1 #ffa2 held ! w to be always det]m9$ by motives1 #ffa2 _! view ( a free m9d1 #ffa2 all[$ an int]pos+ ,provid5ce1 #ffa2 e?ical purpose (1#ffb2 urg$ to active life1 #ffb2 subord9at$ b5efic5ce1 put ju/ice highe/1 #ffb1 #ffc2 _! respect = individual conviction1 #ffc4 ,/rabo1 au?ority = /ory ( ! fate ( ,ari/otle's libr>y1 #ce1 #ch4 ,subject1 to be pr$icat$ ( a1 di/+ui%$ f to be 9 a1 #ei1 #fb1 #fd2 :i* is nev] employ$ z pr$icate1 #fc1 #fh1 #aeg2 :i* may also be pr$icate1 #fc1 #aeg2 call$ ,t]m 9 ,analytica1 #ada4 ,sub/ance1 see ,ess5ce4 ,sub/ratum1 #fg1 #eie2 see ,ess5ce4 ,sun1 ev] at "w1 #fag2 :5ce ! heat & light (1 #fdd2 :y se5 to move at ris+ & sett+1 #fdd2 motions (1 #fdf4 ,sylla1 c>ri$ libr>y ( ,apellikon to ,rome1 #cg4 ,syllogism1 pr9ciple (1 indicat$ 9 ,categori1 #fe2 !ory (1 claim$ by ,ari/otle z 8 own "w1 #adj1 #aec2 def9$1 #adc1 #dbf2 ,p]fect & ,imp]fect1 #adc2 mean+ (1 9 ,plato1 specializ$ 9 ,ari/otle1 #adc2 conditions ( valid1 #adh1 #aee2 ,premisses1 ,t]ms1 ,figures1 c41 (1 #adh seq42 ,r$uction (1 #aec2 m$iaeval abuse (1 #aec2 ,direct or ,o/5sive1 & ,indirect1 #aee2 has two 7ev5 numb] (7 propositions1 & ?ree 7odd numb] (7 t]ms1 #aef2 h[ to con/ruct a1 #aeg2 me?od (1 sup]ior to logical ,division1 #afb2 f an ,hypo!sis1 #afh2 plurality ( conclusions f1 #aga2 inv]sion (1 #agc2 conv]sion (1 #agd2 liabilities to error 9 ! use (1 #agf2 cases ( ,reciprocation among t]ms (1 #ahe2 anti!sis among t]ms (1 #ahe seq42 canons (1 common to ,demon/ration1 ,dialectic1 ,rhetoric1 #ahf1 #baj1 #bfe2 !1 f ,induction1 #ahg2 prior & m effective z to cognition1 ?an ,induction1 #aia2 !1 f ,example1 #aia2 relation (1 to ,induction1 #aib seq42 v>ieties ( ,abduction1 ,objection1 ,en?ymeme1 c41 #bjb seq42 ,modal1 #bjd2 !ory (1 applicable bo? to ,demon/ration & ,dialectic1 #bjg1 #bfe2 ! ,demon/rative or ,sci5tific1 #bae1 #bai1 #bfe2 ( ,greek3 o7_/ti1 & ( ,greek3 dio_/ti1 #bbc2 ! unit 91 #bca2 scope & matt] ( ! ,dialectical1 #bfe1 #bfg2 ! ,eri/ic1 #bfh1 #chj2 ! ,el5*us1 or ,refutative1 #cgf2 ! ,pseudographic1 #chj2 inquiry into ,axioms (1 falls to ,fir/ ,philosophy1 #dbf4 ,synonym\s ?+s1 #eg4 ,t4 ,ta/e1 op]ates ?r\gh contact1 #dfi2 a v>iety ( ,t\*1 #dga2 organ (1 #dga4 ,tautology1 sophi/ic *>ge (1 #che2 h[ to repel1 #dac4 ,temp]ance1 def9ition (1 #eca4 ,greek3 ,tekm_/rion 7,pro(71 di/+ui%$ f ,sign1 #bjc4 ,t]ms1 z su*1 subject ( ,categori1 #eg2 ?+s d5ot$ by1 di/+ui%$ z ,homonym\s 7,equivocal71 ,synonym\s 7,univocal71 ,p>onym\s--importance ( ! di/9ction1 #eg2 view$ by ,ari/otle1 z con/itu5ts ( a ,proposition1 #ei2 di/+ui%$ f ,proposition 9 signification1 #aji1 #aaj2 ! ^w1 us$ in/ead ( ,n\n & ,v]b 9 ,analytica1 #ada2 ,major1 ,middle1 & ,m9or1 9 ,syllogism1 #adh2 9 ,syllogism1 are (t5 mask$1 #afe2 reciprocation (1 9 ,syllogism1 #ahe2 equivocation (1 to be att5d$ to 9 ,dialectic1 #bgh4 ,?ales1 "* ( 8 philosophy1 #dce2 suppos$ ! ,e>? to float at re/ on wat]1 #fdi4 ,!mison1 correspond5t ( ,ari/otle1 #g4 ,!mi/ius1 speaks ( an army ( assailants ( ,ari/otle1 #bf2 on ! ord] ( ! ,qusita 9 sci5ce1 #bch4 ,!odoras1 develop$ ,rhetoric1 #dai4 ,!ology1 alt]native "n = ,fir/ ,philosophy or ,ontology1 #ei1 #dbc4 ,!ophra/us1 left 9 *>ge ( ,ari/otle's s*ool & libr>y1 #ae1 #ce2 directions to1 9 ,ari/otle's w1 #ag1 #ah2 b\ght z well z compos$ books1 #ce2 disposition ( 8 libr>y1 #ce1 #db2 wrote on ,logic1 #ef2 di/+ui%$ ,affirmation ,greek3 e7k meta!_/ses1 #abb1 #afi2 foll[$ ,ari/otle 9 treat+ ( ,modals1 #add2 assum$ conv]tibility ( ,univ]sal ,negative1 #adf4 ,!ses1 h[ to f9d argum5ts =1 #aeg2 art ( impugn+ & def5d+1 #ahj2 9 ,dialectic1 h[ op5 to be impugn$1 #bhd2 *iefly ,univ]sal ,affirmative1 #bha2 comp>ison (1 z subjects ( attack & def5ce1 #bhe1 #ceb1 #cjj4 ,?rasyllus1 canon (1 #bg1 #da2 tetralogies (1 #dd4 ,?rasyma*us1 develop$ ,rhetoric1 #dai4 ,?omas ,aqu9as1 8 use ( exot]ic1 #de4 ,greek3 ,ti_/ 7n ei7nai1 ,to_/1 see ,ess5ce 7,quiddity74 ,timu1 ,platonic1 summ>y ( ! psy*ological doctr9e 9 !1 #ddf-i4 ,tim>*us1 fri5d ( ,ari/otle1 #ag4 ,"t1 none1 outside ( ! ,heav51 #bgg4 ,tisias1 fir/ writ] on ,rhetoric1 #dai4 ,topica1 ref]r$ to 9 ,analytica1 #ef2 presupposes cont5ts ( ,categori & ,de ,int]pretatione1 #ef2 "p ( "o s*eme ) ,analytica1 #adb2 design (1 specially claim$ by ,ari/otle z orig9al1 #bfb2 subject (1 #bfb1 #bfe2 ,fir/ ,book (1 prelim9>y to ! ,loci1 #bhc2 di/ribution (1 #bhd4 ,tor/rick1 8 view ( exot]ic disc\rse1 #di4 ,t\*1 mo/ wisely diffus$ s5se1 #dfd2 op]at$ ?r\gh contact1 #dfh2 i4e41 app>5tly1 #dgb2 mo/ develop$ 9 man1 #dga2 an aggregate ( sev]al s5ses1 #dga2 organ (1 #dga4 ,trans-,olfaci5t1 action ( !1 9 ,smell1 #dfg4 ,trans-,sonant1 action ( !1 9 ,he>+1 #dfg4 ,tr5del5burg1 br+s ! ,categories into relation ) p>ts ( spee*1 #ii4 ,tru?1 ,ens 9 ! s5se (1 #fj1 c41 see ,ens2 a m5tal conjunction or disjunction ( t]ms 9 con=mity ) fact1 #fj1 #aaa1 #eia1 #eid1 #fah2 embodi$ 9 ! ,proposition or ,enunciative ,spee*1 #aji1 #acj4 ,tyrannion /udi$ ,ari/otle's ,,mss4 ,at ,rome1 #cg-ci1 #dc4 ,u4 ,univ]sal1 ,!1 k (1 ) error z to p>ticul>s1 #ahc2 k (1 bett] ?an ( ! ,p>ticul>1 #bca2 n p]ceivable by s5se1 #bce2 b cf4 #beh2 reveals ! ,cause1 #bce2 g5]at$ by a process ( ,induction f p>ticul>s1 #bfj2 controv]sy ab\t1 began ) ,sokrates & ,plato1 #eea2 que/ions z to1 set out by ,porphyry1 #eeb2 ,plato's /atem5ts z to1 collect$1 #eec seq42 s*ola/ic =mulae ( ! diff]5t !ories (1 #eee2 ,ari/otle's objection to ,plato's ,reali/ic !ory (1 #eeh seq42 ,ari/otle's c\nt]-!ory z to1 #efj2 is to ,ari/otle a pr$icate 9 or along ) ! ,p>ticul>1 #efa1 #fje2 lat] hi/ory ( ! "q (1 till laun*$ 9 ! s*ools ( ! ,middle ,age1 #efb-d2 giv5 z "o ( ! v>ieties ( ,ess5ce1 #eie2 argum5ts aga9/ its be+ ,ess5ce1 #fje4 ,univ]salia ,prima1 z premisses 9 ,demon/rative ,sci5ce1 #baf4 ,univ]se1 ext5ds e way1 #fcj4 ,univocal t]ms1 #eg4 ,v4 ,vacuum1 exi/s pot5tially only1 #fae2 none1 outside ( ! ,heav51 #fcf4 ,v]b1 function ( !1 #aji1 #aaj1 #acj2 ! indef9ite1 #aah1 #abd4 ,virtue1 ,ari/otle's def9ition (1 exam9$1 #eba seq42 intellectual & e?ical1 #eba2 is a m$ium betwe5 two extremes4 #ebd4 ,vision1 mo/ p]fect s5se1 #dfe2 col\rs1 ! object (1 #dfe2 effect$ ?r\gh m$ia hav+ diaphan\s ag5cy1 #dff4 ,voice1 ,!1 #dfh4 ,volunt>y & ,involunt>y actions1 #ebe4 ,w4 ,waitz1 pr9ts ,sophi/ici ,el5*i z la/ ,book ( ,topica1 #ef4 ,:51 ,qu&o1 ,category1 #fe1 #gc4 ,:]e1 ,ubi1 ,category1 #fe1 #gc4 ,words1 subjective & objective aspects (1 #aji4 ,works ( ,ari/otle1 dates (1 unc]ta91 #ed2 9 :at ord] to be /udi$1 #ee2 cross-ref]5ces 9 ! logical1 #ef4 ,wytt5ba*1 />t$ d\bts z to ,platonic ,canon1 #bg4 ,x4 ,x5okrates1 fell[-pupil ( ,ari/otle1 accompani$ him to ,at>neus1 #d2 head ( ! ,academy1 #g2 atta*$ to ,a!nian democracy1 #aj2 "* (1 #be2 8 view ( ! s\l1 #dej4 ,x5ophanes1 improv$ on by ,p>m5ides1 #eea2 8 reason = ! /ation>9ess ( ! ,e>?1 #fdi4 ,z4 ,zell]1 8 view ( exot]ic disc\rse1 #di4 ,z5o1 ! ,eleatic1 argum5t (1 aga9/ ,motion1 p>adoxical1 #cfe2 uses equivocal names z univocal1 #dad2 def5d$ ! ,p>m5idean !ory dialectically1 #eea4 ,z5o1 ! ,/oic1 a =eign] at ,a!ns1 )\t a sph]e ( political action1 #ffb4 ,zoological ,treatises1 place ( !1 among ! o!r works ( ,ari/otle1 #ed4 ,,london3 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,william ,,cl[es ,,& ,,sons1 ,,/am=d ,,/reet ,,& ,,*>+ ,,cross4 9999999999999999999999999999999999999999 9999999999999999999999999999999999 ,transcrib]'s ,note ,!re are sev]al ref]5ces 9 ?is text to ,grote's previ\s book on ,plato1 ',plato & ! ,o!r companions ( ,sokrates'4 ,! #d-volume v]sion ( ?is book is available 9 ,project ,gut5b]g3 ,vol4 #a - https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/ebooks_/#djdc e ,vol4 #b - https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/ebooks_/#djdc f ,vol4 #c - https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/ebooks_/#djdc g ,vol4 #d - https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/ebooks_/#djdc h4 ,un=tunately ref]5ces 9 ?is text are to ! #c-volume edition1 s page numb]s diff] & 9 almo/ all cases *apt] numb]s are #b less ?an 9 ! #d-volume v]sion--z ! adv]tisem5t says ,9 ! pres5t ,edition1 ) a view to ! di/ribution into f\r volumes1 !re is a slight transposition ( ! au?or's arrangem5t4 ,8 conclud+ *apt]s 7,,xxxviii41 ,,xxxix471 entitl$ ,o!r ,companions ( ,sokrates1 & ,x5ophon1 are plac$ 9 ! ,fir/ ,volume1 z *apt]s ,,iii4 & ,,iv4 ,! text is bas$ on v]sions made available by ! ,int]net ,ar*ive4 ,= ! ,greek transcriptions ! foll[+ conv5tions h be5 us$3 7 is = smoo? brea?+2 7 = h>d2 = dia]esis2 _/ = acute acc5t2 = grave2 = circumflex2 = iota subscript4 * is us$ = *i1 ph = phi1 ps = psi1 ? = !ta2 = eta & = omega2 u is us$ = upsilon 9 all cases4 ,corrections to ! text1 indicat$ 9 text ) 99993 ,location ,text ( scan ( #bnd edition ,correction ,preface1 aft] fn4 #d dialetical dialectical ,*4 #a fn #e ad4 ad ,*4 #a fn #aj mge_/an me_/gan ,*4 #a fn #df a7lla7 a7lla ,*4 #a fn #fa ,qu9tillian ,qu9tilian ,*4 #b fn #ae ,art ,ar4 ,*4 #b be=e fn4 #bb ,!oph>/us ,!ophra/us ,*4 #b fn #dj a7utn au7tn ,*4 #b fn #dj dia lektiks dialektiks ,*4 #b fn #dj tn4 tn ,*4 #b fn #da lar gar ,*4 #c aft] fn #di e7te_/r_/n e7te_/rn ,*4 #c fn #ed e7pi/m e7pi/_/m ,*4 #c fn #aja tn tn ,*4 #c be=e fn #aaa ,subiect ,subject ,*4 #c fn #aab ou o ,*4 #c fn #aab dja dj ,*4 #c fn #aab ,voila dont ,voil donc ,*4 #c fn #aba ad4 ad ,*4 #c fn #aca le_/nos ge_/nos ,*4 #c fn #aca ,/oic ,/oics ,*4 #c fn #acb deu_/te_/ron deu_/t]on ,*4 #c fn #acb 4 1 ,*4 #c fn #adb a7ntikei_/me_/na a7ntikei_/m5a ,*4 #c fn #adb o7!n o7_/!n ,*4 #c aft] fn #adf if ( ,*4 #d fn #i ,s*olian ,s*olion ,*4 #d aft] fn #be ju/is ju/us ,*4 #d fn #bh 4 1 ,*4 #d be=e fn #ch ,nons-,ens ,non-,ens ,*4 #d fn #dh lxii-lxviii4 lxii4-lxviii4 ,*4 #d fn #eb no sup]script ,*4 #e fn #cg ad4 ad ,*4 #e fn #fj completly completely ,*4 #e fn #fc-fe 2 3 ,*4 #e be=e fn #ha faciliate facilitate ,*4 #f be=e fn #d ! ! ! ,*4 #f fn #ad1 #bd no sup]script ,*4 #f aft] fn #ci suscessively successively ,*4 #f fn #db ad4 ad ,*4 #f fn #ee xxxiii4 xxiii4 ,*4 #f fn #ee ,sir4 ,sir ,*4 #f fn #eh 4 ,*4 #f fn #ei ,lokik ,logik ,*4 #f fn #fj e7pogls e7paggs ,*4 #f fn #fj e7_// e7_//i ,*4 #f fn #fa 4 1 ,*4 #f fn #fe ,sir4 ,sir ,*4 #f fn #fg 7twice7 1 4 ,*4 #f fn #fg 3 2 ,*4 #f fn #ga seq seq4 ,*4 #f fn #gd ,induction ,induction ,*4 #g fn #ac maximum maxim ,*4 #g fn #ai tropon tro_/pon ,*4 #g fn #ce 4 1 ,*4 #g fn #ci 4 1 ,*4 #g be=e fn #ga dialetical dialectical ,*4 #g fn #ge 4 1 *4 #g fn #hj 4 1 ,*4 #h fn #b ,s*l4 ,s*ol4 ,*4 #h fn #b attibute attribute ,*4 #h fn #ab jusqu' jusqu' ,*4 #h fn #ah ou7de ou7de ,*4 #h fn #cd a a4 ,*4 #h fn #di lan?an\si lan?a_/n\si ,*4 #h fn #eb 4 1 ,*4 #h fn #ef 4 1 ,*4 #h fn #fb de de ,*4 #h fn #gj primilibri primi libri ,*4 #i fn #bg plei_/on' plei_/on ,*4 #i fn #ci vii44 viii4 ,*4 #i be=e fn #dd analg\s analog\s ,*4 #i fn #ga to to ,*4 #i be=e fn #aac usuage usage ,*4 #i be=e fn #aeh is respect+ is7 respect+ ,*4 #i be=e fn #afa m m m ,*4 #i fn #baj lar gar ,*4 #i fn #baa lar gar ,*4 #i fn #baa dto to ,*4 #i fn #bbi ei7rm5on ei7rme_/non ,*4 #i be=e fn #bhc impung+ impugn+ ,*4 #i be=e fn #bih def99ition def9ition ,*4 #i fn #cfg poioume_/nois poi\me_/nois ,*4 #i fn #cfg dir?rtai_/ di_/r?rtai_/ ,*4 #i fn #djh sugkris9 su_/gkris9 ,*4 #i be=e fn #dcf revelant relevant ,*4 #i be=e fn #ddd y y y ,*4 #i fn #dfd g> gar ,*4 #i fn #dfd prote9om5n prote9ome_/nn ,*4 #aj be=e fn #i pr$om95ce pr$om9ance ,*4 #aj fn #he ,topic1 ,topica1 ,*4 #aj fn #ih xxii4 xvii4 ,*4 #aj fn #ih ,firman ,firm9 ,*4 #aj fn #aab b4 #ag2 b4 #ag72 ,*4 #aj fn #aab a4 #aj14 a4 #aj74 ,*4 #aj be=e fn #abi philosph]s philosoph]s ,*4 #aj be=e fn #ach tell tells ,*4 #aa aft] fn #i confides conf9es ,*4 #aa aft] fn #bh t t1 ,*4 #ab aft] fn #e sp]ical sph]ical ,*4 #ab aft] fn #bg mo/ mo/ mo/ ,*4 #ab fn #cf ad4 ad ,*4 #ab fn #fi 4 1 ,*4 #ab be=e fn #ge accept except ,*4 #ab fn #abi & ad ,*4 #ab fn #aci tn tn ,*4 #ab aft] fn #add ?oraic ?oracic ,*4 #ab fn #aef #hh #ah ,*4 #ac endmonise eudmonise ,*4 #ac p]=ance p]=mance ,*4 #ac 7#e times7 ii4 iii4 ,*4 #ad commonwea? commonweal? ,*4 #ad indulg5cies indulg5ces ,app4 ,i preceptions p]ceptions ,app4 ,i fn #h #cgj-cie #cbj-cie ,app4 ,,ii fn #f 7 ,app4 ,,iii 74 474 ,app4 ,,iii 47 74 ,app4 ,,iii 74 47 ,app4 ,,iii 4 47 ,app4 ,,iii ,accord+ 7,accord+ ,app4 ,,iii 74 47 ,app4 ,,iii 74 474 ,app4 ,,iii tni_/z e7ni_/z ,app4 ,,iii p>ts p>ts p>ts ,app4 ,,iii du_/na_/mis du_/namis ,app4 ,,iii duna_/neis duna_/meis ,app4 ,,iii 47 474 ,app4 ,,iii #b-jbe #bj-be ,app4 ,,iii 74 474 ,app4 ,,iii gar ga_/r ,app4 ,,iv /op omitt$ 4 ,app4 ,,iv f f f ,app4 ,iv contrifugal c5trifugal ,app4 ,,iv _! !re ,app4 ,,iv a7ei a7ei ,app4 ,,iv 2 3 ,app4 ,,iv !m-!mselves !mselves ,app4 ,,iv 74 47 ,app4 ,v ! fe>s ( ^? gods ^? fe>s ( ! gods ,app4 ,,vi m$ita-tations m$itations ,index ,metaph ,metaph4 ,index ,platoni/ ,platoni/s ,index z z z ,index ! ! ! ,index inteltellect intellect ,index 7 71 ,index ,categorie ,category