,,an ,,advanced ,,english ,,grammar ,,with ,,exercises ,,by ,,george ,,lyman ,,kittredge ,,gurney ,,professor ,,of ,,english ,,literature ,,in ,,harvard ,,university ,,and ,,frank ,,edgar ,,farley ,,professor ,,of ,,english ,,literature ,,in ,,wesleyan ,,university ,,ginn ,,and ,,company ,,boston ,,new ,,york ,,chicago ,,london ,,atlanta ,,dallas ,,columbus ,,san ,,francisco ,,copyright1 #aiac1 ,,by ,,george ,,lyman ,,kittredge ,,and ,,frank ,,edgar ,,farley ,,entered ,,at ,,stationers' ,,hall ,,all ,,rights ,,reserved #dbd4b ,the ,athenum ,press ,,ginn ,,and ,,company ,,proprietors ,,boston ,u4,s4,a4 ,,preface ,this grammar is intended for students who have already received instruction in the rudiments4 ,still1 every such textbook must begin at the beginning4 ,part ,one1 therefore1 which occupies pp4 #a-bd1 gives a succinct treatment of the ,parts of ,speech in the ,sentence and of their substitutes1 the ,phrase and the ,clause1 concluding with a ,summary of ,definitions4 ,thus it clears the way for what follows1 and may be utilized as a review1 if the student needs to refresh his memory4 ,part ,two deals specifically and fully with ,inflections and ,syntax 7pp4 #be-ahb74 ,it includes also a chapter on the use of subordinate clauses as nouns1 adjectives1 and adverbs 7pp4 #aeg-afb71 as well as a chapter in which such clauses are logically classified in accordance with their particular offices in the expression of thought 7pp4 #afc-ahb74 ,part ,three 7pp4 #ahc-bbf7 develops the subject of ,analysis in its natural order1 first explaining how sentences are put together1 and then illustrating the process by which they may be resolved into their constituent parts4 ,modifiers and ,complements are classified1 and the so-called ,independent ,elements are discussed4 ,there is added a special chapter on ,combinations of ,clauses1 in which the grammatical and logical relations of cordination and subordination are set forth1 and their functions in the effective use of language are considered4 ,this portion of the book1 it is hoped1 will be especially useful to students of ,english composition4 ,the ,appendix furnishes lists of verbs1 tables of conjugation1 rules for capitals and marks of punctuation1 a summary of important rules of syntax1 and a brief history of the ,english language4 ,the ,exercises 7pp4 #bbg-bij7 are collected at the end of the text1 so as not to break continuity4 ,references prefixed to each1 as well as page-numbers in the ,table of ,contents1 enable the teacher to attach them1 at will1 to the topics which they concern4 ,the passages for parsing1 analysis1 etc41 have been carefully selected from a wide range of eminent ,british and ,american writers4 ,the name of the author is often appended to the quotation1 when the passage is particularly noteworthy either for its contents or its form4 ,in most cases1 however1 this has not been done2 but the student may always feel confident that he is occupying himself with specimens of ,english as actually composed by distinguished authors4 ,the constructive exercises call particular attention to those matters in which error is especially prevalent4 ,an advanced grammar must aim to be serviceable in two ways4 ,it should afford the means for continuous and systematic study of the subject or of any part of it2 and it should also be useful for reference in connection with the study of composition and of literature4 ,with this latter end in view1 many notes and observations have been included1 in smaller type1 to show the nature and development of the various forms and constructions1 and to point out differences between the usage of to-day and that which the student observes in ,shakspere and other ,english classics4 ,the fulness of the index makes it easy to find anything that the volume contains4 ,in accordance with the desire of many teachers1 certain topics of importance have been treated with unusual thoroughness4 ,among these may be mentioned the uses of shall and will1 should and would1 the infinitive and the infinitive clause1 conditional sentences1 indirect discourse1 and the combination of clauses in sentences of different kinds4 ,the authors are indebted to several teachers for suggestions and criticism4 ,particular acknowledgment is due to ,mr4 ,theodore ,c4 ,mitchill1 of the ,jamaica ,high ,school1 ,new ,york1 and ,mr4 ,c4 ,l4 ,hooper1 of the ,chicago ,normal ,school4 ,,contents ,the numbers in the first column refer to the pages of the text2 those in the second column to the pages of the ,exercises4 ,,introduction ,,text ,,exercises ,language and ,grammar xi ,grammar and ,usage xv ,summary of ,general ,principles xvii ,,english ,,grammar ,,part ,,one--,,the ,,parts ,,of ,,speech ,,in ,,the ,,sentence ,the ,sentence--,subject and ,predicate #a #bbg ,kinds of ,sentences #b #bbg ,the ,eight ,parts of ,speech ,defined #c #bbh ,the ,same ,word as ,different ,parts of ,speech #i #bbi ,infinitives and ,participles #aa #bbi ,comparative ,importance of the ,parts of ,speech #ac ,simple and ,complete ,subject and ,predicate #ad #bcj ,compound ,subject and ,predicate #ae #bcj ,substitutes for the ,parts of ,speech #af #bca ,phrases--,noun1 ,verb1 ,adjective1 ,adverbial #af #bca ,clauses--,independent and ,subordinate #af #bcb ,compound and ,complex ,sentences #ag #bcb ,compound ,complex ,sentences #ah #bcb ,clauses as ,parts of ,speech #ai #bcb ,summary of ,definitions #ba ,,part ,,two--,,inflection ,,and ,,syntax ,,chapter ,i--,,inflection ,inflection in ,general #be ,summary of ,inflections #bf ,,chapter ,,ii--,,nouns ,classification--,common ,nouns and ,proper ,nouns #bg #bcc ,special ,classes--,abstract1 ,collective1 ,compound #bi #bcd ,inflection of ,nouns #cj #bce ,gender #ca #bce ,number #cd #bce ,person #ci #bcf ,case #dj #bcg ,nominative ,case #da #bcg ,possessive ,case #dc #bch ,objective ,case #dg #bci ,parsing of ,nouns #ed #bdj ,,chapter ,,iii--,,pronouns ,personal ,pronouns #ee #bda ,gender and ,number of ,personal ,pronouns #ef #bda ,case of ,personal ,pronouns #eg #bda ,the ,self-,pronouns 7,compound ,personal ,pronouns7 #fj #bda ,adjective ,pronouns--,demonstratives #fb #bdc ,adjective ,pronouns--,indefinites #fd #bdc ,relative ,pronouns #ff #bdd ,the ,relative ,pronoun ,what #ga #bdf ,compound ,relative ,pronouns #gb #bdf ,interrogative ,pronouns #gc #bdf ,parsing of ,pronouns #gd #bdg ,,chapter ,,iv--,,adjectives ,classification of ,adjectives #ge #bdh ,adjectives--the ,articles #gg #bdh ,comparison of ,adjectives #gi #bdi ,irregular ,comparison #ha #bdi ,,chapter ,v--,,adverbs ,classification of ,adverbs #hc #bej ,relative and ,interrogative ,adverbs #hf #bea ,comparison of ,adverbs #hg #beb ,use of the ,comparative and ,superlative #hh #beb ,numerals--,adjectives1 ,nouns1 ,adverbs #hi #beb ,,chapter ,,vi--,,verbs ,classification of ,verbs #ia #bec ,auxiliary ,verbs--,verb-,phrases #ia #bec ,transitive and ,intransitive ,verbs #ib #bec ,copulative ,verbs #ic #bec ,inflection of ,verbs #id #bed ,tense of ,verbs #id #bed ,present and ,past ,tenses #id #bed ,weak 7,regular7 and ,strong 7,irregular7 ,verbs #ie #bed ,person and ,number #ig #bed ,the ,personal ,endings #ig #bed ,conjugation of the ,present and the ,past #ih #bed ,special ,rules of ,number and ,person #ajj #bed ,the ,future ,tense--,shall and ,will #ajb #bef ,complete or ,compound ,tenses #ajf #beh ,voice--,active and ,passive #ajg #beh ,conjugation of the ,six ,tenses #ajh #beh ,use of the ,passive ,voice #aaj #beh ,progressive ,verb-,phrases #aac #bfj ,emphatic ,verb-,phrases #aad #bfj ,mood of ,verbs #aae #bfa ,indicative ,mood #aae #bfa ,imperative ,mood #aaf #bfa ,subjunctive ,mood--,forms #aah #bfa ,uses of the ,subjunctive #aai #bfa ,potential ,verb-,phrases 7,modal ,auxiliaries7 #abd #bfb ,special ,rules for ,should and ,would #abg #bfd ,the ,infinitive #acb #bff ,the ,infinitive as a ,noun #acd #bff ,the ,infinitive as a ,modifier #acf #bff ,the ,infinitive ,clause #acg #bfg ,participles--,forms and ,constructions #adj #bfh ,nominative ,absolute #add #bfi ,verbal ,nouns in -ing 7,participial ,nouns7 #ade #bfi ,,chapter ,,vii--,,prepositions ,list of ,prepositions #adh #bgj ,special ,uses of ,prepositions #adi #bgj ,,chapter ,,viii--,,conjunctions ,cordinate 7or ,cordinating7 ,conjunctions #aea #bgj ,subordinate 7or ,subordinating7 ,conjunctions #aec #bgj ,correlative ,conjunctions #aec #bgj ,,chapter ,,ix--,,interjections ,interjections #aee #bgb ,exclamatory ,expressions #aee #bgb ,,chapter ,x--,,clauses ,,as ,,parts ,,of ,,speech ,clauses as ,parts of ,speech #aeg #bgb ,adjective ,clauses #aeg #bgb ,adverbial ,clauses #aeh #bgb ,noun 7or ,substantive7 ,clauses #aei #bgb ,,chapter ,,xi--,,the ,,meanings ,,of ,,subordinate ,,clauses ,clauses of ,place and ,time #afc #bgb ,causal ,clauses #afd #bgb ,concessive ,clauses #afd #bgb ,clauses of ,purpose and ,result #aff #bgd ,conditional ,sentences #afg #bgd ,forms of ,conditions #afi #bgd ,present and ,past ,conditions #agj #bgd ,future ,conditions #aga #bgd ,clauses of ,comparison #agc #bge ,indirect ,discourse #agc #bgg ,shall and ,will1 ,should and ,would in ,indirect ,discourse #agg #bgh ,indirect ,questions #agi #bhj ,shall and ,will1 ,should and ,would in ,indirect ,questions #ahb #bha ,,part ,,three--,,analysis ,,chapter ,i--,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,sentences ,analysis--the ,elements #ahc #bhb ,simple ,sentences #ahd #bhb ,compound ,sentences #ahe #bhb ,complex ,sentences #ahf #bhb ,compound and ,complex ,clauses #ahf #bhg ,compound ,complex ,sentences #ahg #bhc ,,chapter ,,ii--,,analysis ,,of ,,sentences ,simple ,sentences #ahh #bhc ,compound ,sentences #ahh #bhc ,complex ,sentences #ahi #bhc ,compound ,complex ,sentences #aij #bhc ,,chapter ,,iii--,,modifiers ,modifiers in ,general #aia #bhc ,modifiers of the ,subject #aib #bhc ,modifiers of the ,predicate #aif #bhd ,,chapter ,,iv--,,complements ,use of ,complements #bjj #bhe ,the ,direct ,object #bja #bhe ,the ,predicate ,objective #bjb #bhe ,the ,predicate ,nominative #bjb #bhe ,the ,predicate ,adjective #bjc #bhe ,,chapter ,v--,,modifiers ,,of ,,complements ,,and ,,of ,,modifiers ,modifiers of ,complements #bje #bhf ,modifiers of ,other ,modifiers #bjg #bhf ,,chapter ,,vi--,,independent ,,elements ,four ,kinds of ,independent ,elements #bji #bhf ,parenthetical ,expressions #bji #bhf ,,chapter ,,vii--,,combinations ,,of ,,clauses ,general ,principles #baj #bhg ,cordination and ,subordination #baj #bhg ,clauses--,simple1 ,compound1 ,complex #baa #bhg ,complex ,sentences #ahf #bhb ,simple ,sentences with ,compound ,subject or ,predicate #bab #bhg ,compound and ,complex ,sentences #bac #bhg ,compound ,complex ,sentences #bae #bhg ,varieties of the ,complex ,sentence #baf #bhg ,special ,complications in ,complex ,sentences #bbj #bhh ,special ,complications in ,compound ,complex ,sentences #bbb #bhh ,,chapter ,,viii--,,elliptical ,,sentences ,ellipsis in ,clauses and ,sentences #bbd #bhh ,varieties of ,ellipsis #bbe #bhh ,examples of ,elliptical ,constructions #bbf #bhh ,,exercises ,exercises on ,part ,one #bbg ,exercises on ,part ,two #bcc ,exercises on ,part ,three #bhb ,,appendix ,lists of ,verbs #bia ,conjugation of the ,verb to be #cjj ,conjugation of the ,verb to strike #cja ,use of ,capital ,letters #cje ,rules of ,punctuation #cjf ,rules of ,syntax #caa ,the ,english ,language #caf ,,index #cba ,,introduction ,,language ,,and ,,grammar ,i4 ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,language ,language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or written words4 ,the ,english word language comes 7through the ,french langue7 from the ,latin lingua1 8the tongue40 ,but the tongue is not the only organ used in speaking4 ,the lips1 the teeth1 the roof of the mouth1 the soft palate 7or uvula71 the nose1 and the vocal chords all help to produce the sounds of which language consists4 ,these various organs make up one delicate and complicated piece of mechanism upon which the breath of the speaker acts like that of a musician upon a clarinet or other wind instrument4 ,spoken language1 then1 is composed of a great variety of sounds made with the vocal organs4 ,a word may consist of one sound 7as ,ah6 or ,o or ,i71 but most words consist of two or more different sounds 7as go1 see1 try1 finish74 ,long or short1 however1 a word is merely a sign made to express thought4 ,thought may be imperfectly expressed by signs made with the head1 the hands1 etc4 ,thus1 if ,i grasp a person's arm and point to a dog1 he may understand me to ask1 8,do you see that dog80 ,and his nod in reply may stand for 8,yes1 ,i see him40 ,but any dialogue carried on in this way must be both fragmentary and uncertain4 ,to express our thoughts fully1 freely1 and accurately1 we must use words1--that is1 signs made with the voice4 ,such voice-signs have had meanings associated with them by custom or tradition1 so that their sense is at once understood by all4 ,their advantage is twofold3 they are far more numerous and varied than other signs2 and the meanings attached to them are much more definite than those of nods and gestures4 ,written words are signs made with the pen to represent and recall to the mind the spoken words 7or voice-signs74 ,written language 7that is1 composition7 must1 of necessity1 be somewhat fuller than spoken language1 as well as more formal and exact4 ,for the reader's understanding is not assisted by the tones of the voice1 the changing expressions of the face1 and the lively gestures1 which help to make spoken language intelligible4 ,most words are the signs of definite ideas4 ,thus1 ,charles1 captain1 cat1 mouse1 bread1 stone1 cup1 ink1 call up images or pictures of persons or things2 strike1 dive1 climb1 dismount1 express particular kinds of action2 green1 blue1 careless1 rocky1 triangular1 muscular1 enable us to describe objects with accuracy4 ,even general terms like goodness1 truth1 courage1 cowardice1 generosity1 have sufficiently precise meanings1 for they name qualities1 or traits of character1 with which everybody is familiar4 ,by the use of such words1 even when not combined in groups1 we can express our thoughts much more satisfactorily than by mere gestures4 ,the utterance of the single word 8,charles60 may signify3 8,hullo1 ,charles6 are you here8 ,i am surprised to see you40 8,bread60 may suggest to the hearer3 8,give me bread6 ,i am very hungry40 8,courage60 may be almost equivalent to1 8,don't be down-hearted6 ,your troubles will soon be over40 ,language1 however1 is not confined to the utterance of single words4 ,to express our thoughts we must put words together1--we must combine them into groups2 and such groups have settled meanings 7just as words have71 established 7like the meanings of single words7 by the customs or habits of the particular language that we are speaking or writing4 ,further1 these groups are not thrown together haphazard4 ,we must construct them in accordance with certain fixed rules4 ,otherwise we shall fail to express ourselves clearly and acceptably1 and we may even succeed in saying the opposite of what we mean4 ,in constructing these groups 7which we call phrases1 clauses1 and sentences7 we have the aid of a large number of short words like and1 if1 by1 to1 in1 is1 was1 which are very different from the definite and picturesque words that we have just examined4 ,they do not call up distinct images in the mind1 and we should find it hard to define any of them4 ,yet their importance in the expression of thought is clear2 for they serve to join other words together1 and to show their relation to each other in those groups which make up connected speech4 ,thus1 8box heavy0 conveys some meaning2 but 8,the box is heavy0 is a clear and definite statement4 ,the shows that some particular box is meant1 and is enables us to make an assertion about it4 ,and1 in 8,charles and ,john are my brothers10 indicates that ,charles and ,john are closely connected in my thought1 and that what ,i say of one applies also to the other4 ,if1 in 8,if ,charles comes1 ,i shall be glad to see him10 connects two statements1 and shows that one of them is a mere supposition 7for ,charles may or may not come74 ,in grouping words1 our language has three different ways of indicating their relations3 7#a7 the forms of the words themselves2 7#b7 their order2 7#c7 the use of little words like and1 if1 is1 etc4 ,i4 ,change of form4 ,words may change their form4 ,thus the word boy becomes boys when more than one is meant2 kill becomes killed when past time is referred to2 was becomes were when we are speaking of two or more persons or things2 fast becomes faster when a higher degree of speed is indicated4 ,such change of form is called inflection1 and the word is said to be inflected4 ,inflection is an important means of showing the relations of words in connected speech4 ,in 8,henry's racket weighs fourteen ounces10 the form ,henry's shows at once the relation between ,henry and the racket1--namely1 that ,henry owns or possesses it4 ,the word ,henry1 then1 may change its form to ,henry's to indicate ownership or possession4 ,,ii4 ,order of words4 ,in 8,john struck ,charles10 the way in which the words are arranged shows who it was that struck1 and who received the blow4 ,change the order of words to 8,charles struck ,john10 and the meaning is reversed4 ,it is1 then1 the order that shows the relation of ,john to struck1 and of struck to ,charles4 ,,iii4 ,use of other words4 ,compare the two sentences3 ,the train from ,boston has just arrived4 ,the train for ,boston has just arrived4 ,here from and for show the relation between the train and ,boston4 8,the ,boston train0 might mean either the train from ,boston or the train for ,boston4 ,by using from or for we make the sense unmistakable4 ,two matters1 then1 are of vital importance in language1--the forms of words1 and the relations of words4 ,the science which treats of these two matters is called grammar4 ,inflection is a change in the form of a word indicating some change in its meaning4 ,the relation in which a word stands to other words in the sentence is called its construction4 ,grammar is the science which treats of the forms and the constructions of words4 ,syntax is that department of grammar which treats of the constructions of words4 ,grammar1 then1 may be said to concern itself with two main subjects1--inflection and syntax4 ,english belongs to a family of languages--the ,indo-,european ,family#a--which is rich in forms of inflection4 ,this richness may be seen in other members of the family1--such as ,greek or ,latin4 ,the ,latin word homo1 8man10 for example1 has eight different inflectional forms1--homo1 8a man02 hominis1 8of a man02 homini1 8to a man10 and so on4 ,thus1 in ,latin1 the grammatical construction of a word is1 in general1 shown by that particular inflectional ending 7or termination7 which it has in any particular sentence4 ,in the ,anglo-,saxon period1#b ,english was likewise well furnished with such inflectional endings1 though not so abundantly as ,latin4 ,many of these1 however1 had disappeared by ,chaucer's time 7#acdj-adjj71 and still others have since been lost1 so that modern ,english is one of the least inflected of languages4 ,such losses are not to be lamented4 ,by due attention to the order of words1 and by using of1 to1 for1 from1 in1 and the like1 we can express all the relations denoted by the ancient inflections4 ,the gain in simplicity is enormous4 ,,ii4 ,,grammar ,,and ,,usage ,since language is the expression of thought1 the rules of grammar agree1 in the main1 with the laws of thought4 ,in other words1 grammar is usually logical1--that is1 its rules accord1 in general1 with the principles of logic1 which is the science of exact reasoning4 ,the rules of grammar1 however1 do not derive their authority from logic1 but from good usage1--that is1 from the customs or habits followed by educated speakers and writers4 ,these customs1 of course1 differ among different nations1 and every language has therefore its own stock of peculiar constructions or turns of expression4 ,such peculiarities are called idioms4 ,thus1 in ,english we say1 8,it is ,i02 but in ,french the idiom is 8,c'est moi10 which corresponds to 8,it is me40 ,many careless speakers of ,english follow the ,french idiom in this particular1 but their practice has not yet come to be the accepted usage4 ,hence1 though 8,c'est moi0 is correct in ,french1 we must still regard 8,it is me0 as ungrammatical in ,english4 ,it would1 however1 become correct if it should ever be adopted by the great majority of educated persons4 ,grammar does not enact laws for the conduct of speech4 ,its business is to ascertain and set forth those customs of language which have the sanction of good usage4 ,if good usage changes1 the rules of grammar must change4 ,if two forms or constructions are in good use1 the grammarian must admit them both4 ,occasionally1 also1 there is room for difference of opinion4 ,these facts1 however1 do not lessen the authority of grammar in the case of any cultivated language4 ,for in such a language usage is so well settled in almost every particular as to enable the grammarian to say positively what is right and what is wrong4 ,even in matters of divided usage1 it is seldom difficult to determine which of two forms or constructions is preferred by careful writers4 ,every language has two standards of usage1--the colloquial and the literary4 ,by 8colloquial language10 we mean the language of conversation2 by 8literary language10 that employed in literary composition4 ,everyday colloquial ,english admits many words1 forms1 phrases1 and constructions that would be out of place in a dignified essay4 ,on the other hand1 it is an error in taste to be always 8talking like a book40 ,unpractised speakers and writers should1 however1 be conservative4 ,they should avoid1 even in informal talk1 any word or expression that is of doubtful propriety4 ,only those who know what they are about1 can venture to take liberties4 ,it is quite possible to be correct without being stilted or affected4#c ,every living language is constantly changing4 ,words1 forms1 and constructions become obsolete 7that is1 go out of use7 and others take their places4 ,consequently1 one often notes in the older ,english classics1 methods of expression which1 though formerly correct1 are ungrammatical now4 ,here a twofold caution is necessary4 ,on the one hand1 we must not criticise ,shakspere or ,chaucer for using the ,english of his own time2 but1 on the other hand1 we must not try to defend our own errors by appealing to ancient usage4 ,examples of constructions once in good use1 but no longer admissible1 are3 8the best of the two0 7for 8the better of the two072 8the most unkindest cut of all02 8,there's two or three of us0 7for there are72 8,i have forgot the map0 7for forgotten72 8,every one of these letters are in my name0 7for is72 8,i think it be0 7for is74 ,the language of poetry admits many old words1 forms1 and constructions that are no longer used in ordinary prose4 ,these are called archaisms 7that is1 ancient expressions74 ,among the commonest archaisms are thou1 ye1 hath1 thinkest1 doth4 ,such forms are also common in prose1 in what is known as the solemn style1 which is modelled1 in great part1 on the language of the ,bible4#d ,in general1 it should be remembered that the style which one uses should be appropriate1--that is1 it should fit the occasion4 ,a short story and a scientific exposition will differ in style2 a familiar letter will naturally shun the formalities of business or legal correspondence4 ,good style is not a necessary result of grammatical correctness1 but without such correctness it is1 of course1 impossible4 ,,summary ,,of ,,general ,,principles #a4 ,language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or written words4 #b4 ,words are the signs of ideas4 ,spoken words are signs made with the vocal organs2 written words are signs made with the pen to represent the spoken words4 ,the meanings of these signs are settled by custom or tradition in each language4 #c4 ,most words are the signs of definite ideas3 as1--,charles1 captain1 cat1 strike1 dive1 climb1 triangular1 careless4 ,other words1 of less definite meaning1 serve to connect the more definite words and to show their relations to each other in connected speech4 #d4 ,in the expression of thought1 words are combined into groups called phrases1 clauses1 and sentences4 #e4 ,the relation in which a word stands to other words in the sentence is called its construction4 ,the construction of ,english words is shown in three ways3 7#a7 by their form2 7#b7 by their order2 7#c7 by the use of other words like to1 from1 is1 etc4 #f4 ,inflection is a change in the form of a word indicating some change in its meaning3 as1--boy1 boy's2 man1 men2 drink1 drank4 #g4 ,grammar is the science which treats of the forms and the constructions of words4 ,syntax is that department of grammar which treats of the constructions of words4 #h4 ,the rules of grammar derive their authority from good usage1--that is1 from the customs or habits followed by educated speakers and writers4 ,,english ,,grammar ,,part ,,one ,,the ,,parts ,,of ,,speech ,,in ,,the ,,sentence ,summary4 ,the ,sentence3 ,subject and ,predicate2 ,kinds of ,sentences4--,use of words in the ,sentence3 the ,eight ,parts of ,speech2 ,infinitives and ,participles4--,comparative ,importance of the ,parts of ,speech in the ,sentence3 the ,subject ,noun 7or ,simple ,subject72 the ,predicate ,verb 7or ,simple ,predicate72 ,compound ,subject and ,predicate4--,substitutes for the ,parts of ,speech3 ,phrases2 ,clauses2 ,compound and ,complex ,sentences4 ,,the ,,sentence #a4 ,a sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought4 ,fire burns4 ,wolves howl4 ,rain is falling4 ,charles is courageous4 ,patient effort removes mountains4 ,london is the largest city in the world4 ,a man who respects himself should never condescend to use slovenly language4 ,some of these sentences are short1 expressing a very simple thought2 others are comparatively long1 because the thought is more complicated and therefore requires more words for its expression4 ,but every one of them1 whether short or long1 is complete in itself4 ,it comes to a definite end1 and is followed by a full pause4 #b4 ,every sentence1 whether short or long1 consists of two parts1--a subject and a predicate4 ,the subject of a sentence designates the person1 place1 or thing that is spoken of2 the predicate is that which is said of the subject4 ,thus1 in the first example in #a1 the subject is fire and the predicate is burns4 ,in the third1 the subject is rain2 the predicate1 is falling4 ,in the last1 the subject is a man who respects himself2 the predicate1 should never condescend to use slovenly language4 ,either the subject or the predicate may consist of a single word or of a number of words4 ,but neither the subject by itself nor the predicate by itself1 however extended1 is a sentence4 ,the mere mention of a thing 7fire7 does not express a complete thought4 ,neither does a mere assertion 7burns71 if we neglect to mention the person or thing about which the assertion is made4 ,thus it appears that both a subject and a predicate are necessary to make a sentence4 #c4 ,sentences may be declarative1 interrogative1 imperative1 or exclamatory4 #a4 ,a declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fact4 ,dickens wrote 8,david ,copperfield40 ,the army approached the city4 #b4 ,an interrogative sentence asks a question4 ,who is that officer8 ,does ,arthur ,moore live here8 #c4 ,an imperative sentence expresses a command or a request4 ,open the window4 ,pronounce the vowels more distinctly4 #d4 ,an exclamatory sentence expresses surprise1 grief1 or some other emotion in the form of an exclamation or cry4 ,how calm the sea is6 ,what a noise the engine makes6 ,a declarative1 an interrogative1 or an imperative sentence is also exclamatory1 if it is uttered in an intense or excited tone of voice4 #d4 ,in imperative sentences1 the subject 7thou or you7 is almost always omitted1 because it is understood by both speaker and hearer without being expressed4 ,such omitted words1 which are present 7in idea7 to the minds of both speaker and hearer1 are said to be 8understood40 ,thus1 in 8,open the window10 the subject is 8you 7understood740 ,if expressed1 the subject would be emphatic3 as1--8,you open the window40 #e4 ,the subject of a sentence commonly precedes the predicate1 but sometimes the predicate precedes4 ,here comes ,tom4 ,next came ,edward4 ,over went the carriage4 ,a sentence in which the predicate precedes the subject is said to be in the inverted order4 ,this order is especially common in interrogative sentences4 ,where is your boat8 ,when was your last birthday8 ,whither wander you8--,,shakspere4 ,,the ,,parts ,,of ,,speech #f4 ,if we examine the words in any sentence1 we observe that they have different tasks or duties to perform in the expression of thought4 ,savage beasts roamed through the forest4 ,in this sentence1 beasts and forest are the names of objects2 roamed asserts action1 telling us what the beasts did2 savage describes the beasts2 through shows the relation in thought between forest and roamed2 the limits the meaning of forest1 showing that one particular forest is meant4 ,thus each of these words has its special office 7or function7 in the sentence4 #g4 ,in accordance with their use in the sentence1 words are divided into eight classes called parts of speech1--namely1 nouns1 pronouns1 adjectives1 verbs1 adverbs1 prepositions1 conjunctions1 and interjections4 ,i4 ,,nouns #h4 ,a noun is the name of a person1 place1 or thing4 ,,examples3 ,lincoln1 ,william1 ,elizabeth1 sister1 engineer1 ,chicago1 island1 shelf1 star1 window1 happiness1 anger1 sidewalk1 courage1 loss1 song4 ,,ii4 ,,pronouns #i4 ,a pronoun is a word used instead of a noun4 ,it designates a person1 place1 or thing without naming it4 ,in 8,i am ready10 the pronoun ,i is a convenient substitute for the speaker's name4 ,in 8,you have forgotten your umbrella10 the pronouns you and your designate the person to whom one is speaking4 ,other pronouns are3 he1 his1 him2 she1 hers1 her2 it1 its2 this1 that2 who1 whose1 whom1 which2 myself1 yourself1 himself1 themselves4 ,since pronouns stand for nouns1 they enable us to talk about a person1 place1 or thing without constantly repeating the name4 #aj4 ,nouns and pronouns are called substantives4 ,nouns and pronouns are very similar in their use4 ,the difference between them is merely that the noun designates a person1 place1 or thing by naming it1 and that the pronoun designates1 but does not name4 ,hence it is convenient to have a general term 7substantive7 to include both these parts of speech4 #aa4 ,the substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent4 ,frank introduced the boys to his father4 ,frank is the antecedent of the pronoun his4 ,eleanor is visiting her aunt4 ,the book has lost its cover4 ,the trappers sat round their camp fire4 ,washington and ,franklin served their country in different ways4 ,their has two antecedents1 connected by and4 ,,iii4 ,,adjectives #ab4 ,an adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive4#e ,this it usually does by indicating some quality4 ,an adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits4 #ac4 ,an adjective limits a substantive by restricting the range of its meaning4 ,the noun box1 for example1 includes a great variety of objects4 ,if we say wooden box1 we exclude boxes of metal1 of paper1 etc4 ,if we use a second adjective 7small7 and a third 7square71 we limit the size and the shape of the box4 ,most adjectives 7like wooden1 square1 and small7 describe as well as limit4 ,such words are called descriptive adjectives4 ,we may1 however1 limit the noun box to a single specimen by means of the adjective this or that or the1 which does not describe1 but simply points out1 or designates4 ,such words are called definitive adjectives4#f ,,iv4 ,,verbs #ad4 ,a verb is a word which can assert something 7usually an action7 concerning a person1 place1 or thing4#g ,the wind blows4 ,the horses ran4 ,the fire blazed4 ,her jewels sparkled4 ,tom climbed a tree4 ,the dynamite exploded4 ,some verbs express state or condition rather than action4 ,the treaty still exists4 ,the book lies on the table4 ,near the church stood an elm4 ,my aunt suffers much from headache4 #ae4 ,a group of words may be needed1 instead of a single verb1 to make an assertion4 ,a group of words that is used as a verb is called a verb-phrase4 ,you will see4 ,the tree has fallen4 ,we might have invited her4 ,our driver has been discharged4 #af4 ,certain verbs1 when used to make verb-phrases1 are called auxiliary 7that is1 8aiding07 verbs1 because they help other verbs to express action or state of some particular kind4 ,thus1 in 8,you will see10 the auxiliary verb will helps see to express future action2 in 8,we might have invited her10 the auxiliaries might and have help invited to express action that was possible in past time4 ,the auxiliary verbs are is 7are1 was1 were1 etc471 may1 can1 must1 might1 shall1 will1 could1 would1 should1 have1 had1 do1 did4 ,their forms and uses will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs4 ,the auxiliary verb regularly comes first in a verb-phrase1 and may be separated from the rest of it by some other word or words4 ,where was ,washington born8 ,the boat was slowly but steadily approaching4 #ag4 ,is 7in its various forms7 and several other verbs may be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in the predicate describe or define the subject4 #a4 ,gold is a metal4 #b4 ,charles is my friend's name4 #c4 ,the colors of this butterfly are brilliant4 #d4 ,iron becomes red in the fire4 #e4 ,our condition seemed desperate4 #f4 ,bertram proved a good friend in this emergency4 #g4 ,my soul grows sad with troubles4--,,shakspere4 ,in the first sentence1 the verb is not only makes an assertion1 but it also connects the rest of the predicate 7a metal7 with the subject 7gold7 in such a way that a metal serves as a description or definition of gold4 ,in sentences #d-g1 becomes1 seemed1 proved1 and grows are similarly used4 ,in such sentences is and other verbs that are used for the same purpose are called copulative 7that is1 8joining07 verbs4 ,is in this use is often called the copula1 that is1 the 8joiner0 or 8link40 ,the forms of the verb is are very irregular4 ,among the commonest are3 am1 is1 are1 was1 were1 and the verb-phrases has been1 have been1 had been1 shall be1 will be4#h ,v4 ,,adverbs #ah4 ,an adverb is a word which modifies a verb1 an adjective1 or another adverb4 ,to modify a word is to change or affect its meaning in some way4 ,thus in 8,the river fell rapidly10 the adverb rapidly modifies the verb fell by showing how the falling took place4 ,in 8,i am never late10 8,this is absolutely true10 8,that is too bad10 the italicized words are adverbs modifying adjectives2 in 8,he came very often10 8,he spoke almost hopefully10 8,the river fell too rapidly10 they are adverbs modifying other adverbs4 ,most adverbs answer the question 8,how80 8,when80 8,where80 or 8,to what degree or extent80 #ai4 ,observe that adverbs modify verbs in much the same way in which adjectives modify nouns4 ,,adjectives ,,adverbs ,a bright fire burned4 ,the fire burned brightly4 ,a fierce wind blew4 ,the wind blew fiercely4 ,a word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of another word is called a modifier4 ,adjectives and adverbs1 then1 are both modifiers4 ,adjectives modify substantives2 adverbs modify verbs1 adjectives1 or other adverbs4 ,,vi4 ,,prepositions #bj4 ,a preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its relation to some other word in the sentence4 ,the substantive which follows a preposition is called its object4 ,a preposition is said to govern its object4 ,in 8,the surface of the water glistened10 of makes it clear that surface belongs with water4 ,in 8,philip is on the river10 on shows ,philip's position with respect to the river4 ,in1 or near1 or beyond would have indicated a different relation4 ,water is the object of the preposition of1 and river is the object of the preposition on4 #ba4 ,a preposition often has more than one object4 ,over hill and dale he ran4 ,he was filled with shame and despair4 ,,vii4 ,,conjunctions #bb4 ,a conjunction connects words or groups of words4 ,a conjunction differs from a preposition in having no object1 and in indicating a less definite relation between the words which it connects4 ,in 8,time and tide wait for no man10 8,the parcel was small but heavy10 8,he wore a kind of doublet or jacket10 the conjunctions and1 but1 or1 connect single words1--time with tide1 small with heavy1 doublet with jacket4 ,in 8,do not go if you are afraid10 8,i came because you sent for me10 8,take my key1 but do not lose it10 8,sweep the floor and dust the furniture10 each conjunction connects the entire group of words preceding it with the entire group following it4 ,,viii4 ,,interjections #bc4 ,an interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing surprise1 anger1 pleasure1 or some other emotion or feeling4 ,interjections usually have no grammatical connection with the groups of words in which they stand2 hence their name1 which means 8thrown in40 ,,examples3 ,oh6 ,i forgot4 ,ah1 how ,i miss you6 ,bravo6 ,alas6 ,,the ,,same ,,word ,,as ,,different ,,parts ,,of ,,speech #bd4 ,the meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what part of speech it belongs4 ,the same word may be sometimes one part of speech1 sometimes another4 ,words of entirely separate origin1 meaning1 and use sometimes look and sound alike3 as in 8,the minstrel sang a plaintive lay10 and 8,he lay on the ground40 ,but the following examples 7 #be7 show that the same word may have more than one kind of grammatical office 7or function74 ,it is the meaning which we give to a word in the sentence that determines its classification as a part of speech4 #be4 ,the chief classes of words thus variously used are 7#a7 nouns and adjectives1 7#b7 nouns and verbs1 7#c7 adjectives and adverbs1 7#d7 adjectives and pronouns1 7#e7 adverbs and prepositions4 ,i4 ,,nouns ,,and ,,adjectives ,,nouns ,,adjectives ,rubber comes from ,south ,this wheel has a rubber tire4 ,america4 ,that brick is yellow4 ,here is a brick house4 ,the rich have a grave ,a rich merchant lives here4 responsibility4 ,the first two examples show how words that are commonly nouns may be used as adjectives2 the third shows how words that are commonly adjectives may be used as nouns4 ,,ii4 ,,nouns ,,and ,,verbs ,,nouns ,,verbs ,hear the wash of the tide4 ,wash those windows4 ,give me a stamp4 ,stamp this envelope4 ,it is the call of the sea4 ,ye call me chief4 ,other examples are3 act1 address1 ally1 answer1 boast1 care1 cause1 close1 defeat1 doubt1 drop1 heap1 hope1 mark1 offer1 pile1 place1 rest1 rule1 sail1 shape1 sleep1 spur1 test1 watch1 wound4 ,,iii4 ,,adjectives ,,and ,,adverbs ,,adjectives ,,adverbs ,that is a fast boat4 ,the snow is melting fast4 ,draw a straight line4 ,the arrow flew straight4 ,early comers get good seats4 ,tom awoke early4 ,for an explanation of the form of these adverbs1 see #aia4 ,,iv4 ,,adjectives ,,and ,,pronouns ,,adjectives ,,pronouns ,this man looks unhappy4 ,this is the sergeant4 ,that book is a dictionary4 ,that is a kangaroo4 ,each day brings its opportunity4 ,i received a dollar from each4 ,for further study of this class of words1 see pp4 #fb-fe4 ,v4 ,,adverbs ,,and ,,prepositions ,,adverbs ,,prepositions ,jill came tumbling after4 ,he returned after the accident4 ,we went below4 ,below us lay the valley4 ,the weeds sprang up4 ,we walked up the hill4 ,other examples are3 aboard1 before1 beyond1 down1 inside1 underneath4 ,miscellaneous examples of variation are the following3-- ,,noun4 ,the calm lasted for three days4 ,,adjective4 ,calm words show quiet minds4 ,,verb4 ,calm your angry friend4 ,other examples are3 iron1 stone1 paper1 sugar1 salt1 bark1 quiet1 black1 light1 head1 wet1 round1 square1 winter1 spring4 ,,noun4 ,wrong seldom prospers4 ,,adjective4 ,you have taken the wrong road4 ,,adverb4 ,edward often spells words wrong4 ,,verb4 ,you wrong me by your suspicions4 ,,noun4 ,the outside of the castle is gloomy4 ,,adjective4 ,we have an outside stateroom4 ,,adverb4 ,the messenger is waiting outside4 ,,preposition4 ,i shall ride outside the coach4 ,,adjective4 ,that boat is a sloop4 ,,pronoun4 ,that is my uncle4 ,,conjunction4 ,you said that you would help me4 ,,adjective4 ,neither road leads to ,utica4 ,,pronoun4 ,neither of us arrived in time4 ,,conjunction4 ,neither ,tom nor ,i was late4 ,,preposition4 ,i am waiting for the train4 ,,conjunction4 ,you have plenty of time1 for the train is late4 ,,interjection4 ,hurrah6 the battle is won4 ,,noun4 ,i heard a loud hurrah4 ,,verb4 ,the enemy flees4 ,our men hurrah4 ,,infinitives ,,and ,,participles #bf4 ,two classes of verb-forms illustrate in a striking way the fact that the same word may belong to different parts of speech2 for they really belong to two different parts of speech at one and the same time4 ,these are the infinitive 7which is both verb and noun7 and the participle 7which is both verb and adjective74 #bg4 ,examples of the infinitive may be seen in the following sentences3 ,to struggle was useless4 ,to escape is impossible4 ,to exercise regularly preserves the health4 ,to struggle is clearly a noun1 for 7#a7 it is the subject of the sentence1 and 7#b7 the noun effort or exertion might be put in the place of to struggle4 ,similarly1 the noun escape might be substituted for to escape2 and1 in the third sentence1 regular exercise 7a noun modified by an adjective7 might be substituted for to exercise regularly4 ,but these three forms 7to struggle1 to escape1 and to exercise7 are also verbs1 for they express action1 and one of them 7to exercise7 is modified by an adverb 7regularly74 ,such forms1 therefore1 are noun-forms of the verb4 ,they are classed with verbs1 and are called infinitives4 #bh4 ,the infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun4 ,it is commonly preceded by the preposition to1 which is called the sign of the infinitive4 #bi4 ,the infinitive without to is used in a great variety of verb-phrases4 ,i shall go4 ,john will win4 ,mary may recite4 ,jack can swim4 ,such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs4 ,,note4 ,that go1 win1 recite1 and swim are infinitives may be seen by comparing the following sentences3--8,i intend to go10 8,john is sure to win10 8,mary is permitted to recite10 8,jack is able to swim40 #cj4 ,the following sentence contains two participles3-- ,shattered and slowly sinking1 the frigate drifted out to sea4 ,in this sentence1 we recognize shattered as a form of the verb shatter1 and sinking as a form of the verb sink4 ,they both express action1 and sinking is modified by the adverb slowly4 ,but shattered and sinking have also the nature of adjectives1 for they are used to describe the noun frigate4 ,such words1 then1 are adjective forms of the verb4 ,they are classed as verbs1 and are called participles1 because they share 7or participate in7 the nature of adjectives4 #ca4 ,the participle is a verb-form which has no subject1 but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive4 ,a participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits4 #cb4 ,the chief classes of participles are present participles and past participles1 so called from the time which they denote4 ,all present participles end in ing4 ,past participles have several different endings1 which will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs 7 #ccd74 #cc4 ,participles are used in a variety of verb-phrases4 ,tom is coming4 ,our boat was wrecked4 ,i have sent the money4 ,he has brought me a letter4 ,your book is found4 ,they have sold their horses4 ,you have broken your watch4 ,the ship had struck on the reef4 ,such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs4 ,,note4 ,the double nature of the infinitive 7as both verb and noun7 and the participle 7as both verb and adjective7 almost justifies one in classifying each as a distinct part of speech 7so as to make ten parts of speech instead of eight74 ,but it is more convenient to include them under the head of verbs1 in accordance with the usual practice4 ,,simple ,,and ,,complete ,,subject ,,and ,,predicate #cd4 ,our survey of the eight parts of speech has shown1 7#a7 that these have very different offices or functions in the sentence1 and 7#b7 that their functions are not of equal importance4 ,clearly1 the most important parts of speech are substantives 7nouns and pronouns7 and verbs4 ,substantives enable us to name or designate persons1 places1 or things1 and verbs enable us to make statements about them4 ,both substantives and verbs1 then1 are absolutely necessary in framing sentences4 ,without a substantive1 there can be no subject2 without a verb1 there can be no predicate3 and both a subject and a predicate1 as we have seen1 are needed to make a sentence4 ,adjectives and adverbs are less important than substantives and verbs4 ,their function is to modify other parts of speech1 that is1 to change their meaning in some way4 ,thus adjectives modify substantives 7by describing or limiting71 and adverbs usually modify verbs 7by indicating how1 when1 or where the action took place74 ,without substantives1 there would be no use for adjectives2 without verbs1 there would be little use for adverbs4 ,prepositions and conjunctions are also less important than substantives and verbs4 ,their office is to connect and to show relation4 ,of course1 there would be no place for connectives if there were nothing to connect4 ,interjections are the least important of all4 ,they add liveliness to language1 but they are not actual necessities4 ,we could express all the thoughts that enter our minds without ever using an interjection4 #ce4 ,a sentence may consist of but two words1--a noun or pronoun 7the subject7 and a verb 7the predicate74 ,thus1-- ,charles swims4 ,commonly1 however1 either the subject or the predicate1 or both1 will contain more than one word4 ,thus1-- ,young ,charles swims slowly4 ,here the complete subject 7young ,charles7 consists of a noun 7,charles7 and an adjective 7young71 which describes ,charles4 ,the complete predicate consists of a verb 7swims7 and an adverb 7slowly71 which modifies swim by indicating how the action is performed4 ,the subject noun 7,charles7 and the predicate verb 7swims7 are the chief words in the sentence1 for neither could be omitted without destroying it4 ,they form1 so to speak1 the frame or skeleton of the whole4 ,either of the two modifiers1 the adjective or the adverb1 or both1 might be omitted1 without destroying the sentence2 for this would still exist as the expression of a thought 7,charles swims71 though the thought would be less definite and exact than it is when the modifiers are included4 #cf4 ,the simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun4 ,the simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase4 ,the simple subject1 with such words as explain or complete its meaning1 forms the complete subject4 ,the simple predicate1 with such words as explain or complete its meaning1 forms the complete predicate4 ,in each of the following sentences the complete subject and the complete predicate are separated by a vertical line1 and the simple subject and the simple predicate are printed in italics3-- ,the spider spreads her web4 ,the fiery smoke rose upward in billowing volumes4 ,a nameless unrest urged me forward4 ,our frantic horses swept round an angle of the road4 ,the infirmities of age came early upon him4 ,the general feeling among the ,english in ,bengal was strongly in favor of the ,governor ,general4 ,salutes were fired from the batteries4 ,the ,clives had been settled ever since the twelfth century on an estate of no great value near ,market ,drayton in ,shropshire4 ,i have written repeatedly to ,mr4 ,hobhouse4 #cg4 ,two or more simple subjects may be joined to make one compound subject1 and two or more simple predicates to make one compound predicate4 #a4 ,charles and ,henry play tennis well4 #b4 ,moore and ,i passed some merry days together4 #c4 ,frances and she are friends4 #d4 ,hats1 caps1 boots1 and gloves were piled together in confusion4 #e4 ,the watch sank and was lost4 #f4 ,the balloon rose higher and higher and finally disappeared4 #g4 ,he neither smiled nor frowned4 #h4 ,snow and ice covered the ground and made our progress difficult4 #ch4 ,a compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple subjects or predicates1 joined1 when necessary1 by conjunctions4 ,either the subject or the predicate1 or both1 may be compound4 ,in the first example in #cg1 two simple subjects 7,charles and ,henry7 are joined by the conjunction and to make a compound subject4 ,in the fourth1 four substantives 7hats1 caps1 boots1 gloves7 form a series in which the last two are joined by and4 ,in the fifth1 sixth1 and seventh1 the predicates are compound2 in the eighth1 both the subject and the predicate4 #ci4 ,the following conjunctions may be used to join the members of a compound subject or predicate3 and 7both 444 and71 or 7either 444 or2 whether 444 or71 nor 7neither 444 nor74 ,,substitutes ,,for ,,parts ,,of ,,speech ,,phrases #dj4 ,a group of words may take the place of a part of speech ,the ,father of ,waters is the ,mississippi4 ,a girl with blue eyes stood at the window4 ,you are looking well4 ,the ,father of ,waters is used as a noun1 since it names something4 ,with blue eyes takes the place of an adjective 7blue-eyed71 and modifies girl4 ,at the window indicates1 as an adverb might1 where the girl stood1 and modifies stood4 ,are looking could be replaced by the verb look4 #da4 ,a group of connected words1 not containing a subject and a predicate1 is called a phrase4 ,a phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech4 #a4 ,a phrase used as a noun is called a noun-phrase4 #b4 ,a phrase used as a verb is called a verb-phrase4 #c4 ,a phrase used as an adjective is called an adjective phrase4 #d4 ,a phrase used as an adverb is called an adverbial phrase4 ,in the examples in #dj1 ,the ,father of ,waters is a noun-phrase2 with blue eyes1 an adjective phrase2 at the window1 an adverbial phrase2 are looking1 a verb-phrase4 #db4 ,many adjective and adverbial phrases consist of a preposition and its object1 with or without other words4 ,your umbrella is in the corner4 ,he has a heart of oak4 ,a cup with a broken handle stood on the shelf4 ,my house of cards fell to the floor in a heap4 ,adjective or adverbial phrases consisting of a preposition and its object1 with or without other words1 may be called prepositional phrases4 ,,clauses--,,compound ,,and ,,complex ,,sentences #dc4 ,phrases must be carefully distinguished from clauses4 ,the difference is that a clause contains a subject and a predicate and a phrase does not4 #dd4 ,a clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a subject and a predicate4 ,the lightning flashed and the thunder roared4 ,the train started when the bell rang4 ,each of these sentences contains two clauses2 but the relation between the clauses in the first sentence is very different from that between the clauses in the second4 ,in the first example1 each of the two clauses makes a separate and distinct statement1 and might stand by itself as a simple sentence1--that is1 as a sentence having but one subject and one predicate4 ,these clauses are joined by the conjunction and1 which is not a part of either4 ,no doubt the speaker feels that there is some relation in thought between the two statements1 or he would not have put them together as clauses in the same sentence4 ,but there is nothing in the form of expression to show what that relation is4 ,in other words1 the two clauses are grammatically independent1 for neither of them modifies 7or affects the meaning of7 the other4 ,the clauses are therefore said to be cordinate1--that is1 of the same 8order0 or rank1 and the sentence is called compound4 ,in the second example1 on the contrary1 the relation between the two clauses is indicated with precision4 ,one clause 7the train started7 makes the main statement1--it expresses the chief fact4 ,hence it is called the main 7or principal7 clause4 ,the other clause 7when the bell rang7 is added because the speaker wishes to modify the main verb 7started7 by defining the time of the action4 ,this clause1 then1 is used as a part of speech4 ,its function is the same as that of an adverb 7promptly7 or an adverbial phrase 7on the stroke of the bell74 ,for this purpose alone it exists1 and not as an independent statement4 ,hence it is called a dependent 7or subordinate7 clause1 because it depends 7that is1 8hangs07 upon the main clause1 and so occupies a lower or 8subordinate0 rank in the sentence4 ,when thus constructed1 a sentence is said to be complex4 #de4 ,an ordinary compound sentence 7as we have seen in #dd7 is made by joining two or more simple sentences1 each of which thus becomes an independent cordinate clause4 ,in the same way we may join two or more complex sentences1 using them as clauses to make one compound sentence3-- ,the train started when the bell rang1 and ,tom watched until the last car disappeared4 ,this sentence is manifestly compound1 for it consists of two cordinate clauses 7the train started when the bell rang2 ,tom watched until the last car disappeared7 joined by and4 ,each of these two clauses is itself complex1 for each could stand by itself as a complex sentence4 ,similarly1 a complex and a simple sentence may be joined as cordinate clauses to make a compound sentence4 ,the train started when the bell rang1 and ,tom gazed after it in despair4 ,such a sentence1 which is compound in its structure1 but in which one or more of the cordinate clauses are complex1 is called a compound complex sentence4#i #df4 ,a clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a subject and a predicate4 ,a clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause4 ,all other clauses are said to be independent4 ,clauses of the same order or rank are said to be cordinate4 ,sentences may be simple1 compound1 or complex4 #a4 ,a simple sentence has but one subject and one predicate1 either or both of which may be compound4 #b4 ,a compound sentence consists of two or more independent cordinate clauses1 which may or may not be joined by conjunctions4 #c4 ,a complex sentence consists of two or more clauses1 one of which is independent and the rest subordinate4 ,a compound sentence in which one or more of the cordinate clauses are complex is called a compound complex sentence4 ,i4 ,,simple ,,sentences ,iron rusts4 ,george ,v is king4 ,dogs1 foxes1 and hares are quadrupeds4 ,compound subject4 ,the defendant rose and addressed the court4 ,compound predicate4 ,merton and his men crossed the bridge and scaled the wall4 ,both subject and predicate are compound4 ,,ii4 ,,compound ,,sentences ,shakspere was born in #aefd2 he died in #afaf4 ,two cordinate clauses2 no conjunction4 ,a rifle cracked1 and the wolf fell dead4 ,two clauses joined by the conjunction and4 ,you must hurry1 or we shall lose the train4 ,two clauses joined by or4 ,james ,watt did not invent the steam engine1 but he greatly improved it4 ,two clauses joined by but4 ,either you have neglected to write or your letter has failed to reach me4 ,two clauses joined by either 444 or4 ,the following conjunctions may be used to join cordinate clauses3 and 7both 444 and71 or 7either 444 or71 nor 7neither 444 nor71 but1 for4 ,,iii4 ,,complex ,,sentences ,examples will be found in #dh-ej4 ,,clauses ,,as ,,parts ,,of ,,speech #dg4 ,subordinate clauses1 like phrases1 are used as parts of speech4 ,they serve as substitutes for nouns1 for adjectives1 or for adverbs4 #a4 ,a subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun 7or substantive7 clause4 #b4 ,a subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an adjective clause4 #c4 ,a subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial clause4 #dh4 ,i4 ,,noun 7,,or ,,substantive7 ,,clauses4 ,success ,that we should succeed in this plan is improbable4 ,the thought in these two sentences is the same1 but in the second it is more fully expressed4 ,in the first sentence1 the subject is the noun success2 in the second1 the subject is the noun clause1 that we should succeed in this plan4 ,this clause is introduced by the conjunction that2 the simple subject of the clause is the pronoun we1 and the simple predicate is the verb-phrase should succeed4 ,the first sentence is simple2 the second is complex4 ,substantive clauses are often introduced by the conjunction that4 #di4 ,,ii4 ,,adjective ,,clauses4 ,the following sentences illustrate the use of 7#a7 an adjective1 7#b7 an adjective phrase1 7#c7 an adjective clause1 as a modifier of the subject noun4 ,an honorable man ,a man of honor ,a man who values his honor will not lie4 ,a seasonable word ,a word in season ,a word that is spoken at the right moment may save a soul4 ,my native land ,the land of my birth ,the land where ,i was born lies far across the sea4 ,the first two sentences in each group are simple1 the third is complex4 #ej4 ,,iii4 ,,adverbial ,,clauses4 ,the following sentences illustrate the use of 7#a7 an adverb1 7#b7 an adverbial phrase1 7#c7 an adverbial clause1 as a modifier of the predicate verb 7or verb-phrase74 ,the lightning struck here4 on this spot4 where we stand4 ,mr4 ,andrews lives near4 in this neighborhood4 where you see that elm4 ,the game began punctually4 on the stroke of one4 when the clock struck4 ,the banker will make the loan conditionally4 on one condition4 if you endorse my note4 ,the first two sentences in each group are simple1 the third is complex4 #ea4 ,adjective clauses may be introduced 7#a7 by the pronouns who1 which1 and that1 or 7#b7 by adverbs like where1 whence1 whither1 when4 ,adverbial clauses may be introduced 7#a7 by the adverbs where1 whither1 whence1 when1 while1 before1 after1 until1 how1 as1 or 7#b7 by the conjunctions because1 though1 although1 if1 that 7in order that1 so that71 lest1 etc4 ,,note4 ,the use of phrases and clauses as parts of speech increases enormously the richness and power of language4 ,though ,english has a huge stock of words1 it cannot provide a separate noun or adjective or adverb for every idea4 ,by grouping words1 however1 in phrases and clauses we1 in effect1 make a great variety of new nouns1 adjectives1 and adverbs1 each precisely fitted to the needs of the moment in the expression of thought4 ,,summary ,,of ,,definitions ,,the ,,sentence #a4 ,language is thought expressed in words4 #b4 ,to express thought words are combined into sentences4 #c4 ,a sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought4 #d4 ,sentences may be declarative1 interrogative1 imperative1 or exclamatory4 7#a7 ,a declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fact4 7#b7 ,an interrogative sentence asks a question4 7#c7 ,an imperative sentence expresses a command or a request4 7#d7 ,an exclamatory sentence expresses surprise1 grief1 or some other emotion in the form of an exclamation or cry4 ,a declarative1 an interrogative1 or an imperative sentence may also be exclamatory4 ,,subject ,,and ,,predicate #e4 ,every sentence consists of a subject and a predicate4 ,the subject of a sentence designates the person1 place1 or thing that is spoken of2 the predicate is that which is said of the subject4 #f4 ,the simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun4 ,the simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase4 #g4 ,the simple subject1 with such words as explain or complete its meaning1 forms the complete subject4 ,the simple predicate1 with such words as explain or complete its meaning1 forms the complete predicate4 #h4 ,a compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple subjects or predicates1 joined1 when necessary1 by conjunctions4 ,either the subject or the predicate1 or both1 may be compound4 ,,the ,,parts ,,of ,,speech #i4 ,in accordance with their use in the sentence1 words are divided into eight classes called parts of speech1--namely1 nouns1 pronouns1 adjectives1 verbs1 adverbs1 prepositions1 conjunctions1 and interjections4 7#a7 ,a noun is the name of a person1 place1 or thing4 7#b7 ,a pronoun is a word used instead of a noun4 ,it designates a person1 place1 or thing without naming it4 ,nouns and pronouns are called substantives4 ,the substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent4 7#c7 ,an adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive4 ,this it usually does by indicating some quality4 ,an adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits4 ,an adjective which describes is called a descriptive adjective2 one which points out or designates is called a definitive adjective4 7#d7 ,a verb is a word which can assert something 7usually an action7 concerning a person1 place1 or thing4 ,some verbs express state or condition rather than action4 ,a group of words that is used as a verb is called a verb-phrase4 ,certain verbs1 when used to make verb-phrases1 are called auxiliary 7that is1 8aiding07 verbs1 because they help other verbs to express action or state of some particular kind4 ,is 7in its various forms7 and several other verbs may be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in the predicate describe or define the subject4 ,in such sentences1 is and other verbs that are used for the same purpose are called copulative 7that is1 8joining07 verbs4 7#e7 ,an adverb is a word which modifies a verb1 an adjective1 or another adverb4 ,a word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of another word is called a modifier4 ,adjectives and adverbs are both modifiers4 7#f7 ,a preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its relation to some other word in the sentence4 ,the substantive which follows a preposition is called its object4 7#g7 ,a conjunction connects words or groups of words4 7#h7 ,an interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing surprise1 anger1 pleasure1 or some other emotion or feeling4 #aj4 ,the meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what part of speech it belongs4 ,the same word may be sometimes one part of speech1 sometimes another4 #aa4 ,the infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun4 ,it is commonly preceded by the preposition to1 which is called the sign of the infinitive4 #ab4 ,the participle is a verb-form which has no subject1 but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive4 ,a participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits4 ,the chief classes of participles are present participles and past participles1 so called from the time which they denote4 ,,substitutes ,,for ,,the ,,parts ,,of ,,speech ,,phrases #ac4 ,a group of connected words1 not containing a subject and a predicate1 is called a phrase4 ,a phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech4 7#a7 ,a phrase used as a noun is called a noun-phrase4 7#b7 ,a phrase used as a verb is called a verb-phrase4 7#c7 ,a phrase used as an adjective is called an adjective phrase4 7#d7 ,a phrase used as an adverb is called an adverbial phrase4 #ad4 ,adjective or adverbial phrases consisting of a preposition and its object1 with or without other words1 may be called prepositional phrases4 ,,clauses #ae4 ,a clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a subject and a predicate4 #af4 ,a clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause4 ,all other clauses are said to be independent4 #ag4 ,clauses of the same order or rank are said to be cordinate4 #ah4 ,sentences may be simple1 compound1 or complex4 7#a7 ,a simple sentence has but one subject and one predicate1 either or both of which may be compound4 7#b7 ,a compound sentence consists of two or more independent cordinate clauses1 which may or may not be joined by conjunctions4 7#c7 ,a complex sentence consists of two or more clauses1 one of which is independent and the rest subordinate4 ,a compound sentence in which one or more of the cordinate clauses are complex is called a compound complex sentence4 #ai4 ,subordinate clauses1 like phrases1 are used as parts of speech4 ,they serve as substitutes for nouns1 for adjectives1 or for adverbs4 7#a7 ,a subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun 7or substantive7 clause4 7#b7 ,a subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an adjective clause4 7#c7 ,a subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial clause4 ,,part ,,two ,,inflection ,,and ,,syntax ,,chapter ,i ,,inflection #eb4 ,inflection is a change of form in a word indicating some change in its meaning4 ,a word thus changed in form is said to be inflected4 ,thus the nouns man1 wife1 dog1 may change their form to man's1 wife's1 dog's1 to express possession2 or to men1 wives1 dogs1 to show that two or more are meant4 ,the pronouns ,i1 she1 may change their form to our1 her4 ,the adjectives large1 happy1 good1 may change their form to larger1 happier1 better1 to denote a higher degree of the quality2 or to largest1 happiest1 best1 to denote the highest degree4 ,the verbs look1 see1 sing1 may change their form to looked1 saw1 sang1 to denote past time4 ,the examples show that a word may be inflected 7#a7 by the addition of a final letter or syllable 7dog1 dogs2 look1 looked71 7#b7 by the substitution of one letter for another 7man1 men71 or 7#c7 by a complete change of form 7good1 better1 best74 #ec4 ,the inflection of a substantive is called its declension2 that of an adjective or an adverb1 its comparison2 that of a verb1 its conjugation4 ,,note4 ,some forms which we regard as due to inflection are really distinct words4 ,thus we is regarded as a form of the pronoun ,i1 but it is in fact an altogether different word4 ,such irregularities1 however1 are not numerous1 and are properly enough included under the head of inflection4 ,the table below gives a summary view of inflection1 and may be used for reference with the following chapters4 ,,substantives 7,,nouns ,,and ,,pronouns7 ,gender ,masculine 7male7 ,feminine 7female7 ,neuter 7no sex7 ,number ,singular 7one7 ,plural 7more than one7 ,person ,first 7speaker7 ,second 7spoken to7 ,third 7spoken of7 ,case ,nominative 7subject case7 ,possessive 7ownership7 ,objective 7object case7 ,,adjectives ,,and ,,adverbs ,comparison ,positive ,degree ,comparative ,degree ,superlative ,degree ,,verbs ,number ,singular ,plural ,verb agrees with ,subject ,person ,first ,second ,third ,tense ,simple ,tenses ,present ,past ,future ,compound ,tenses ,perfect 7or ,present ,perfect7 ,pluperfect 7or ,past ,perfect7 ,future ,perfect ,mood ,indicative 7all six tenses7 ,imperative 7,present ,tense only7 ,subjunctive 7,present1 ,past1 ,perfect1 ,pluperfect7 ,voice ,active 7,subject acts7 ,passive 7,subject receives the action7 ,infinitives 7,present and ,perfect7 ,participles 7,present1 ,past1 and ,perfect7 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,nouns ,,classification--,,common ,,nouns ,,and ,,proper ,,nouns #ed4 ,a noun is the name of a person1 place1 or thing4 #ee4 ,nouns are divided into two classes--proper nouns and common nouns4 #a4 ,a proper noun is the name of a particular person1 place1 or thing4 ,,examples3 ,lincoln1 ,napoleon1 ,ruth1 ,gladstone1 ,america1 ,denver1 ,jove1 ,ohio1 ,monday1 ,december1 ,yale1 ,christmas1 ,britannia1 ,niagara1 ,merrimac1 ,elmwood1 ,louvre1 ,richardson1 ,huron1 ,falstaff4 #b4 ,a common noun is a name which may be applied to any one of a class of persons1 places1 or things4 ,,examples3 general1 emperor1 president1 clerk1 street1 town1 desk1 tree1 cloud1 chimney1 childhood1 idea1 thought1 letter1 dynamo1 cruiser1 dictionary1 railroad4 ,proper nouns begin with a capital letter2 common nouns usually begin with a small letter4 ,,note4 ,although a proper noun is the name of a particular person1 place1 or thing1 that name may be given to more than one individual4 ,more than one man is named ,james2 but when we say ,james1 we think of one particular person1 whom we are calling by his own name4 ,when we say man1 on the contrary1 we are not calling any single person by name3 we are using a noun which applies1 in common1 to all the members of a large class of persons4 ,any word1 when mentioned merely as a word1 is a noun4 ,thus1-- ,and is a conjunction4 #ef4 ,a common noun becomes a proper noun when used as the particular name of a ship1 a newspaper1 an animal1 etc4 ,nelson's flagship was the ,victory4 ,give me this evening's ,herald4 ,my dog is named ,rover4 ,the ,limited ,express is drawn by the ,pioneer4 #eg4 ,a proper noun often consists of a group of words1 some of which are perhaps ordinarily used as other parts of speech4 ,,examples3 ,james ,russell ,lowell1 ,washington ,elm1 ,eiffel ,tower1 ,firth of ,clyde1 ,north ,lexington ,junction1 ,stony ,brook1 ,westminster ,abbey1 ,measure for ,measure1 ,white ,house1 ,brooklyn ,bridge1 ,atlantic ,railroad1 ,sherman ,act1 ,the ,return of the ,native1 ,flatiron ,building4 ,,note4 ,these are 7strictly speaking7 noun-phrases 7 #da72 but1 since all are particular names1 they may be regarded as proper nouns4 #eh4 ,a proper noun becomes a common noun when used as a name that may be applied to any one of a class of objects4 ,the museum owns two ,rembrandts and a ,titian4 ,i exchanged my old motor car for a new ,halstead4 ,my fountain pen is a ,blake4 ,lend me your ,webster4 ,he was a ,napoleon of finance4 ,i am going to buy a ,kazak4 #ei4 ,certain proper nouns have become common nouns when used in a special sense4 ,these generally begin with a small letter4 ,,examples3 macadam 7crushed stone for roads1 so called from ,macadam1 the inventor71 mackintosh 7a waterproof garment71 napoleon 7a coin71 guinea 7twenty-one shillings71 mentor 7a wise counsellor71 derringer 7a kind of pistol74 #fj4 ,a lifeless object1 one of the lower animals1 or any human quality or emotion is sometimes regarded as a person4 ,this usage is called personification1 and the object1 animal1 or quality is said to be personified4 ,each old poetic ,mountain ,inspiration breathed around4--,,gray4 ,who'll toll the bell8 8,i10 said the ,bull1 8,because ,i can pull40 ,his name was ,patience4--,,spenser4 ,smiles on past ,misfortune's brow ,soft ,reflection's hand can trace2 ,and o'er the cheek of ,sorrow throw ,a melancholy grace4--,,gray4 ,love is and was my lord and king1 ,and in his presence ,i attend4--,,tennyson4 ,time gently shakes his wings4--,,dryden4 ,the name of anything personified is regarded as a proper noun and is usually written with a capital letter4 ,,note4 ,the rule for capitals is not absolute4 ,when the personification is kept up for only a sentence or two 7as frequently in ,shakspere71 the noun often begins with a small letter4 ,,special ,,classes ,,of ,,nouns #fa4 ,an abstract noun is the name of a quality or general idea4 ,,examples3 blackness1 freshness1 smoothness1 weight1 height1 length1 depth1 strength1 health1 honesty1 beauty1 liberty1 eternity1 satisfaction1 precision1 splendor1 terror1 disappointment1 elegance1 existence1 grace1 peace4 ,many abstract nouns are derived from adjectives4 ,,examples3 greenness 7from green71 depth 7from deep71 freedom 7from free71 wisdom 7from wise71 rotundity 7from rotund71 falsity or falseness 7from false71 bravery 7from brave74 #fb4 ,a collective noun is the name of a group1 class1 or multitude1 and not of a single person1 place1 or thing4 ,,examples3 crowd1 group1 legislature1 squadron1 sheaf1 battalion1 squad1 ,associated ,press1 ,mediterranean ,steamship ,company1 ,senior ,class1 ,school ,board4 ,the same noun may be abstract in one of its meanings1 collective in another4 ,they believe in fraternity4 ,abstract4 ,the student joined a fraternity4 ,collective4 #fc4 ,abstract nouns are usually common1 but become proper when the quality or idea is personified 7 #fj74 ,collective nouns may be either proper or common4 #fd4 ,a noun consisting of two or more words united is called a compound noun4 ,,examples3 7#a7 common nouns1--tablecloth1 sidewalk1 lampshade1 bedclothes1 steamboat1 fireman1 washerwoman1 jackknife1 hatband1 headache1 flatiron1 innkeeper1 knife-edge1 steeple-climber1 brother-in-law1 commander-in-chief1 window curtain1 insurance company2 7#b7 proper nouns1--,johnson1 ,williamson1 ,cooperstown1 ,louisville1 ,holywood1 ,elk-horn1 ,auburndale1 ,stratford-on-,avon1 ,lowell ,junction4 ,as the examples show1 the parts of a compound noun may be joined 7with or without a hyphen7 or written separately4 ,in some words usage is fixed1 in others it varies4 ,the hyphen1 however1 is less used than formerly4 ,,note4 ,the first part of a compound noun usually limits the second after the manner of an adjective4 ,indeed1 many expressions may be regarded either 7#a7 as compounds or 7#b7 as phrases containing an adjective and a noun4 ,thus railway conductor may be taken as a compound noun1 or as a noun 7conductor7 limited by an adjective 7railway74 ,,inflection ,,of ,,nouns #fe4 ,in studying the inflection of nouns and pronouns we have to consider gender1 number1 person1 and case4 #a4 ,gender is distinction according to sex4 #b4 ,number is that property of substantives which shows whether they indicate one person or thing or more than one4 #c4 ,person is that property of substantives which shows whether they designate 7#a7 the speaker1 7#b7 the person spoken to1 or 7#c7 the person or thing spoken of4 #d4 ,substantives have inflections of case to indicate their grammatical relations to verbs1 to prepositions1 or to other substantives4 ,these four properties of substantives are included under inflection for convenience4 ,in strictness1 however1 nouns are inflected for number and case only4 ,gender is shown in various ways1--usually by the meaning of the noun or by the use of some pronoun4 ,person is indicated by the sense1 by the pronouns used1 and by the form of the verb4 ,i4 ,,gender #ff4 ,gender is distinction according to sex4 ,nouns and pronouns may be of the masculine1 the feminine1 or the neuter gender4 #a4 ,a noun or pronoun denoting a male being is of the masculine gender4 ,,examples3 ,joseph1 boy1 cockerel1 buck1 footman1 butler1 brother1 father1 uncle1 he4 #b4 ,a noun or pronoun denoting a female being is of the feminine gender4 ,,examples3 girl1 ,julia1 hen1 waitress1 maid1 doe1 spinster1 matron1 aunt1 squaw1 she4 #c4 ,a noun or pronoun denoting a thing without animal life is of the neuter gender4 ,,examples3 pencil1 light1 water1 star1 book1 dust1 leaf1 it4 ,a noun or pronoun which is sometimes masculine and sometimes feminine is often said to be of common gender4 ,,examples3 bird1 speaker1 artist1 animal1 cat1 ,european1 musician1 operator1 they4 #fg4 ,a pronoun must be in the same gender as the noun for which it stands or to which it refers4 ,each of the following pronouns is limited to a single gender3 ,,masculine3 he1 his1 him4 ,,feminine3 she1 her1 hers4 ,,neuter3 it1 its4 ,all other pronouns vary in gender4 ,robert greeted his employer4 ,masculine4 ,a mother passed with her child4 ,feminine4 ,this tree has lost its foliage4 ,neuter4 ,who laughed8 ,masculine or feminine4 ,how do you do8 ,masculine or feminine4 ,they have disappeared4 ,masculine1 feminine1 or neuter4 ,i do not care for either4 ,masculine1 feminine1 or neuter4 #fh4 ,a neuter noun may become masculine or feminine by personification 7 #fj74 ,thou who didst waken from his summer dreams ,the blue ,mediterranean4--,,shelley4 ,stern daughter of the ,voice of ,god6 ,o ,duty6--,,wordsworth4 ,nature from her seat ,sighing through all her works1 gave signs of woe4--,,milton4 #fi4 ,in speaking of certain objects1 such as a ship and the moon1 it is customary to use she and her4 ,in like manner1 he is used in speaking of the sun and of most animals1 without reference to sex1 although it often designates an insect or other small creature1 and even a very young child4 ,who and which are both used in referring to the lower animals4 ,which is the commoner1 but who is not infrequent1 especially if the animal is thought of as an intelligent being4 ,thus one would say1 8,the dog which is for sale is in that kennel10 even if one added1 8,he is a collie40 ,but which would never be used in such a sentence as1 8,i have a dog who loves children40 #gj4 ,the gender of masculine and of feminine nouns may be shown in various ways4 #a4 ,the male and the female of many kinds or classes of living beings are denoted by different words4 ,,masculine ,,feminine father mother husband wife uncle aunt king queen monk nun wizard witch lord lady horse mare gander goose drake duck cock hen ram ewe bull cow hart hind buck doe fox vixen#aj #b4 ,some masculine nouns become feminine by the addition of an ending4 ,,masculine ,,feminine heir heiress baron baroness lion lioness prince princess emperor empress tiger tigress executor executrix administrator administratrix hero heroine ,joseph ,josephine sultan sultana ,philip ,philippa ,,note4 ,the feminine gender is often indicated by the ending ess4 ,frequently the corresponding masculine form ends in or or er3 as1--actor1 actress2 governor1 governess2 waiter1 waitress4 ,the ending ess is not so common as formerly4 ,usage favors proprietor1 author1 editor1 etc41 even for the feminine 7rather than the harsher forms proprietress1 authoress1 editress71 whenever there is no special reason for emphasizing the difference of sex4 #c4 ,a few feminine words become masculine by the addition of an ending4 ,thus1--widow1 widower2 bride1 bridegroom4 #d4 ,gender is sometimes indicated by the ending man1 woman1 maid1 boy1 or girl4 ,,examples3 salesman1 saleswoman2 foreman1 forewoman2 laundryman2 milkmaid2 cash boy1 cash girl4 #e4 ,a noun or a pronoun is sometimes prefixed to a noun to indicate gender4 ,,examples3 manservant1 maidservant2 mother bird2 cock sparrow1 hen sparrow2 boy friend1 girl friend2 he-wolf1 she-wolf4 #f4 ,the gender of a noun may be indicated by some accompanying part of speech1 usually by a pronoun4 ,my cat is always washing his face4 ,the intruder shook her head4 ,i was confronted by a pitiful creature1 haggard and unshaven4 ,,note4 ,the variations in form studied under #b and #c 7above7 are often regarded as inflections4 ,in reality1 however1 the masculine and the feminine are different words4 ,thus1 baroness is not an inflectional form of baron1 but a distinct noun1 made from baron by adding the ending ess1 precisely as barony and baronage are made from baron by adding the endings y and age4 ,the process is rather that of derivation or noun-formation than that of inflection4 ,,ii4 ,,number #ga4 ,number is that property of substantives which shows whether they indicate one person1 place1 or thing or more than one4 ,there are two numbers1--the singular and the plural4 ,the singular number denotes but one person1 place1 or thing4 ,the plural number denotes more than one person1 place1 or thing4 #gb4 ,most nouns form the plural number by adding s or es to the singular4 ,,examples3 mat1 mats2 wave1 waves2 problem1 problems2 bough1 boughs2 ,john1 ,johns2 nurse1 nurses2 tense1 tenses2 bench1 benches2 dish1 dishes2 class1 classes2 fox1 foxes4 ,,special ,,rules #a4 ,if the singular ends in s1 x1 z1 ch1 or sh1 the plural ending is es4 ,,examples3 loss1 losses2 box1 boxes2 buzz1 buzzes2 match1 matches2 rush1 rushes4 #b4 ,many nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant also take the ending es in the plural4 ,,examples3 hero1 heroes2 cargo1 cargoes2 potato1 potatoes2 motto1 mottoes2 buffalo1 buffaloes2 mosquito1 mosquitoes4 #c4 ,nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel form their plural in s3 as1--cameo1 cameos2 folio1 folios4 #d4 ,the following nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant also form their plural in s3-- banjo bravo burro cantocasino chromo contralto duodecimo dynamo halo#aa junto lasso memento#aa octavo piano proviso quarto solo soprano stiletto torso tyro zero#aa #gc4 ,in some nouns the addition of the plural ending alters the spelling and even the sound of the singular form4 #a4 ,nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change y to i and add es in the plural4 ,,examples3 sky1 skies2 fly1 flies2 country1 countries2 berry1 berries4 7,contrast3 valley1 valleys2 chimney1 chimneys2 monkey1 monkeys2 boy1 boys2 day1 days47 ,most proper names ending in y1 however1 take the plural in s4 ,,examples3 ,mary1 ,marys2 ,murphy1 ,murphys2 ,daly1 ,dalys2 ,rowley1 ,rowleys2 ,may1 ,mays4 #b4 ,some nouns ending in f or fe1 change the f to v and add es or s4 ,,examples3 wharf1 wharves2 wife1 wives2 shelf1 shelves2 wolf1 wolves2 thief1 thieves2 knife1 knives2 half1 halves2 calf1 calves2 life1 lives2 self1 selves2 sheaf1 sheaves2 loaf1 loaves2 leaf1 leaves2 elf1 elves2 beef1 beeves4 #gd4 ,a few nouns form their plural in en4 ,these are3 ox1 oxen2 brother1 brethren 7or brothers72 child1 children4 ,,note4 ,ancient or poetical plurals belonging to this class are3 eyne 7for eyen1 from eye71 kine 7cows71 shoon 7shoes71 hosen 7hose74 #ge4 ,a few nouns form their plural by a change of vowel4 ,these are3 man1 men2 woman1 women2 merman1 mermen2 foot1 feet2 tooth1 teeth2 goose1 geese2 mouse1 mice2 louse1 lice4 ,also compound words ending in man or woman1 such as fireman1 firemen2 saleswoman1 saleswomen2 ,dutchman1 ,dutchmen4 ,,note4 ,german1 ,mussulman1 ,ottoman1 dragoman1 firman1 and talisman1 which are not compounds of man1 form their plurals regularly3 as1--,germans1 ,mussulmans4 ,norman also forms its plural in s4 #gf4 ,a few nouns have the same form in both singular and plural4 ,,examples3 deer1 sheep1 heathen1 ,japanese1 ,portuguese1 ,iroquois4 ,,note4 ,this class was larger in older ,english than at present4 ,it included1 for example1 year1 which in ,shakspere has two plurals3--8six thousand years10 8twelve year since40 #gg4 ,a few nouns have two plurals1 but usually with some difference in meaning4 ,,singular ,,plural brother brothers 7relatives7 brethren 7members of the same society7 horse horses 7animals7 horse 7cavalry7 foot feet 7parts of the body7 foot 7infantry7 sail sails 7on vessels7 sail 7vessels in a fleet7 head heads 7in usual sense7 head 7of cattle7 fish fishes 7individually7 fish 7collectively7 penny pennies 7single coins7 pence 7collectively7 cloth cloths 7pieces of cloth7 clothes 7garments7 die dies 7for stamping7 dice 7for gaming7 ,the pennies were arranged in neat piles4 ,english money is reckoned in pounds1 shillings1 and pence4 #gh4 ,when compound nouns are made plural1 the last part usually takes the plural form2 less often the first part2 rarely both parts4 ,,examples3 spoonful1 spoonfuls2 bathhouse1 bathhouses2 forget-me-not1 forget-me-nots2 editor-in-chief1 editors-in-chief2 maid-of-honor1 maids-of-honor2 gentleman usher1 gentlemen ushers2 ,knight ,templar1 ,knights ,templars2 ,lord ,justice1 ,lords ,justices2 manservant1 menservants4 #gi4 ,letters of the alphabet1 figures1 signs used in writing1 and words regarded merely as words take 's in the plural4 8,embarrassed0 is spelled with two r's and two s's4 ,your #c's look like #h's4 ,tell the printer to change the 's to 's4 ,don't interrupt me with your but's6 #hj4 ,foreign nouns in ,english sometimes retain their foreign plurals2 but many have an ,english plural also4 ,some of the commonest are included in the following list3#ab ,,singular ,,plural alumna 7feminine7 alumn alumnus 7masculine7 alumni amanuensis amanuenses analysis analyses animalculum animalcula#ac antithesis antitheses appendix appendices appendixes axis axes bacillus bacilli bacterium bacteria bandit banditti bandits basis bases beau beaux beaus candelabrum candelabra cumulus cumuli cherub cherubim cherubs crisis crises curriculum curricula datum data ellipsis ellipses erratum errata formula formul formulas genius genii geniuses genus genera gymnasium gymnasia gymnasiums hippopotamus hippopotami hypothesis hypotheses larva larv memorandum memoranda memorandums nebula nebul oasis oases parenthesis parentheses phenomenon phenomena radius radii seraph seraphim seraphs species species stratum strata synopsis synopses tableau tableaux tempo tempi terminus termini thesis theses trousseau trousseaux vertebra vertebr ,the two plurals sometimes differ in meaning3 as1-- ,michael ,angelo and ,raphael were geniuses4 ,spirits are sometimes called genii4 ,this book has two indices4 ,the printer uses signs called indexes4 #ha4 ,when a proper name with the title ,mr41 ,mrs41 ,miss1 or ,master1 is put into the plural1 the rules are as follows3-- #a4 ,the plural of ,mr4 is ,messrs4 7pronounced ,messers#ad74 ,the name remains in the singular4 ,thus1-- ,mr4 ,jackson1 plural ,messrs4 7or the ,messrs47 ,jackson4 #b4 ,mrs4 has no plural4 ,the name itself takes the plural form4 ,thus1-- ,mrs4 ,jackson1 plural the ,mrs4 ,jacksons4 #c4 ,in the case of ,miss1 sometimes the title is put into the plural1 sometimes the name4 ,thus1-- ,miss ,jackson1 plural the ,misses ,jackson or the ,miss ,jacksons4 ,the latter expression is somewhat informal4 ,accordingly1 it would not be used in a formal invitation or reply1 or in addressing a letter4 #d4 ,the plural of ,master is ,masters4 ,the name remains in the singular4 ,thus1-- ,master ,jackson1 plural the ,masters ,jackson4 ,other titles usually remain in the singular1 the name taking the plural form3 as1--the two ,general ,follansbys4 ,but when two or more names follow1 the title becomes plural3 as1--,generals ,rolfe and ,johnson4 #hb4 ,some nouns1 on account of their meaning1 are seldom or never used in the plural4 ,such are many names of qualities 7as cheerfulness1 mirth71 of sciences 7as chemistry#ae71 of forces 7as gravitation74 ,many nouns1 commonly used in the singular only1 may take a plural in some special sense4 ,thus1-- earth 7the globe7 earths 7kinds of soil7 ice 7frozen water7 ices 7food7 tin 7a metal7 tins 7tin dishes or cans7 nickel 7a metal7 nickels 7coins7 #hc4 ,some nouns are used in the plural only4 ,such are3 annals1 athletics1 billiards1 dregs1 eaves1 entrails1 lees1 nuptials1 oats1 obsequies1 pincers1 proceeds1 riches1 scissors1 shears1 suds1 tweezers1 tongs1 trousers1 victuals1 vitals2 and 7in certain special senses7 ashes1 goods1 links1 scales1 spectacles1 stocks4 #hd4 ,a few nouns are plural in form1 but singular in meaning4 ,such are3 gallows1 news1 measles1 mumps1 small pox 7for small pocks71 politics1 and some names of sciences 7as1 civics1 economics1 ethics1 mathematics1 physics1 optics74 ,,note4 ,these nouns were formerly plural in sense as well as in form4 ,news1 for example1 originally meant 8new things40 ,shakspere uses it both as a singular and as a plural4 ,thus1--8,this news was brought to ,richard0 7,king ,john1 v4 #c4 #ab72 8,but wherefore do ,i tell these news to thee80 7#a ,henry ,,iv1 iii4 #b4 #aba74 ,in a few words modern usage varies4 ,the following nouns are sometimes singular1 sometimes plural3 alms1 amends1 bellows1 means1 pains 7in the sense of 8effort071 tidings4 ,,iii4 ,,person #he4 ,person is that property of substantives which shows whether they denote 7#a7 the speaker1 7#b7 the person spoken to1 or 7#c7 the person spoken of4 ,a substantive is in the first person when it denotes the speaker1 in the second person when it denotes the person spoken to1 in the third person when it denotes the person or thing spoken of4 ,i1 the king1 command his presence4 ,first person4 ,you1 ,thomas1 broke the window4 ,second person4 ,charles1 come here4 ,second person4 ,he1 the fireman1 saved the train4 ,third person4 ,the diver sinks slowly from our view4 ,third person4 ,the tower suddenly collapsed4 ,third person4 ,the examples show 7#a7 that the person of a noun has nothing to do with its form1 but is indicated by the sense or connection2 7#b7 that certain pronouns denote person with precision4 ,thus1 ,i is always of the first person2 you of the second2 and he of the third4 ,these personal pronouns will be treated in ,chapter ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,,case #hf4 ,substantives have inflections of case to indicate their grammatical relations to verbs1 to prepositions1 or to other substantives4 ,there are three cases1--the nominative1 the possessive1 and the objective4 ,the possessive case is often called the genitive4 ,the nominative and the objective case of a noun are always alike in form4 ,in some pronouns1 however1 there is a difference 7as1--,i1 me2 he1 him74 ,,declension ,,of ,,nouns #hg4 ,the inflection of a substantive is called its declension4 ,to decline a noun is to give its case-forms in order1 first in the singular number and then in the plural4 ,thus1-- ,,singular ,nominative boy horse fly chimney ,possessive boy's horse's fly's chimney's ,objective boy horse fly chimney ,,plural ,nominative boys horses flies chimneys ,possessive boys' horses' flies' chimneys' ,objective boys horses flies chimneys ,,singular ,nominative calf lass man deer ,possessive calf's lass's man's deer's ,objective calf lass man deer ,,plural ,nominative calves lasses men deer ,possessive calves' lasses' men's deer's ,objective calves lasses men deer ,,nominative ,,case #hh4 ,the nominative case is used in the following constructions3 7#a7 the subject1 7#b7 the predicate nominative1 7#c7 the vocative1 7or nominative of direct address71 7#d7 the exclamatory nominative1 7#e7 appositive with a nominative1 7#f7 the nominative absolute4 #a4 ,the subject of a verb is in the nominative case4 ,water freezes4 ,charles climbed the mountain4 ,the boy's face glowed with health and exercise4 ,a thousand men were killed in this battle4 ,in the third example1 face is the simple subject2 the complete subject is the boy's face4 ,in the fourth1 men is the simple subject2 the complete subject is a thousand men4 ,both face and men are in the nominative case2 face is in the singular number2 men in the plural4 #b4 ,a substantive standing in the predicate1 but describing or defining the subject1 agrees with the subject in case and is called a predicate nominative4 ,a predicate nominative is also called a subject complement or an attribute4 ,lobsters are crustaceans4 ,a good book is a faithful friend4 ,shakspere was a native of ,stratford-on-,avon4 ,arnold proved a traitor4 ,adams was elected president4 ,the rule for the case of the predicate nominative is particularly important with respect to pronouns 7 #aai74 ,i am he4 ,are you she8 ,it is ,i4 ,it was we who did it4 ,the predicate nominative is commonest after the copula is 7in its various forms74 ,it will be further studied in connection with intransitive and passive verbs 7 #bad1 #beb74 #c4 ,a substantive used for the purpose of addressing a person directly1 and not connected with any verb1 is called a vocative4 ,a vocative is in the nominative case1 and is often called a nominative by direct address or a vocative nominative4 ,come1 ,ruth1 give me your hand4 ,turn to the right1 madam4 ,herbert1 it is your turn4 ,come with me1 my child4 ,,note4 ,a vocative word is sometimes said to be independent by direct address1 because it stands by itself1 unconnected with any verb4 ,that a vocative is really in the nominative case may be seen in the use of the pronoun thou in this construction3 as1--,i will arrest thee1 thou traitor 7see #aae74 #d4 ,a substantive used as an exclamation is called an exclamatory nominative 7or nominative of exclamation74 ,peace1 be still4 ,fortunate ,ruth6 ,a drum6 a drum6 ,macbeth doth come4 ,look6 a balloon6 ,the sun6 then we shall have a fine day4 ,certain exclamatory nominatives are sometimes classed as interjections 7 #cge74 #e4 ,a substantive added to another substantive to explain it and signifying the same person or thing1 is called an appositive and is said to be in apposition4 ,an appositive is in the same case as the substantive which it limits4 ,hence a substantive in apposition with a nominative is in the nominative case4 ,mr4 ,scott1 the grocer1 is here4 ,apposition with subject4 ,tom1 old fellow1 ,i am glad to see you4 ,apposition with vocative4 ,the discoverer of the ,pacific was ,balboa1 a ,spaniard4 ,apposition with predicate nominative4 ,,note4 ,apposition means 8attachment02 appositive means 8attached noun or pronoun40 ,an appositive modifies the noun with which it is in apposition much as an adjective might do 7compare 8,balboa1 a ,spaniard0 with 8,spanish ,balboa074 ,hence it is classed as an adjective modifier4 ,,possessive ,,case #hi4 ,the possessive case denotes ownership or possession4 ,john's yacht lies at her moorings4 ,the duck's feet are webbed4 ,the mutineer's pistol burst when he fired4 ,,note4 ,most uses of the possessive come under the general head of possession in some sense4 ,special varieties of meaning are source 7as in 8hen's eggs07 and authorship 7as in 8,wordsworth's sonnets074 ,a possessive noun or pronoun modifies the substantive to which it is attached as an adjective might do4 ,hence it is classed as an adjective modifier4 ,forms of the ,possessive ,case #ij4 ,the possessive case of most nouns has1 in the singular number1 the ending 's4 ,,examples3 the owl's feathers1 ,elizabeth's hat1 the officer's name4 ,plural nouns ending in s take no further ending for the possessive4 ,in writing1 however1 an apostrophe is put after the s to indicate the possessive case4 ,,examples3 the owls' feathers1 the officers' names1 the artists' petition1 the engineers' ball4 ,plural nouns not ending in s take 's in the possessive4 ,,examples3 the firemen's ball1 the policemen's quarters1 the children's hour4 ,,note4 ,in older ,english the possessive of most nouns was written as well as pronounced with the ending -es or -is4 ,thus1 in ,chaucer1 the possessive of child is childs or childis2 that of king is kings or kingis2 that of ,john is ,johns or ,johnis4 ,the use of an apostrophe in the possessive is a comparatively modern device1 due to a misunderstanding4 ,scholars at one time thought the s of the possessive a fragment of the pronoun his2 that is1 they took such a phrase as ,george's book for a contraction of ,george his book4 ,hence they used the apostrophe before s to signify the supposed omission of part of the word his4 ,similarly1 in the possessive plural1 there was thought to be an omission of a final es2 that is1 such a phrase as the horses' heads was thought to be a contraction of the horseses heads4 ,both these errors have long been exploded4 #ia4 ,nouns like sheep and deer1 which have the same form in both the singular and the plural1 usually take 's in the possessive plural4 ,thus1 the deer's tracks would be written1 whether one deer or more were meant4 #ib4 ,,possessive ,,singular ,,of ,,nouns ,,ending ,,in ,s4 #a4 ,monosyllabic nouns ending in s or an s-sound usually make their possessive singular by adding 's4 ,,examples3 ,charles's hat1 ,forbes's garden1 ,mr4 ,wells's daughter1 ,rice's carriage1 ,mrs4 ,dix's family1 a fox's brush4 ,,note4 ,most of these monosyllabic nouns in s are family names4 ,the rule accords with the best usage2 but it is not absolute1 for usage varies4 ,hence forms like ,charles' and ,wells' cannot be condemned as positively wrong1 though ,charles's and ,wells's are preferable4 ,in speaking1 the shorter form is often ambiguous1 for there is no difference in sound between ,dix' and ,dick's1 ,mr4 ,hills' and ,mr4 ,hill's1 ,dr4 ,childs' and ,dr4 ,child's4 #b4 ,nouns of two or more syllables ending in s or an s-sound1 and not accented on the last syllable1 may make their possessive singular by adding 's1 or may take no ending in the possessive4 ,in the latter case1 an apostrophe is added in writing1 but in sound there is no difference between the possessive and the nominative4 ,,examples3 ,burrows's 7or ,burrows'7 ,hotel1 neas's 7or neas'7 voyage1 ,beatrice's 7or ,beatrice'7 gratitude1 ,felix's 7or ,felix'7 arrival1 for conscience's 7or conscience'7 sake4 ,most of the nouns in question are proper names4 ,in speaking1 one must often use the longer form to prevent ambiguity2 for ,williams' and ,william's1 ,roberts' and ,robert's1 ,robbins' and ,robin's1 are indistinguishable in sound4 ,,note4 ,nouns of two or more syllables ending in s or an s-sound and accented on the last syllable1 follow the rule for monosyllables4 ,thus1--,laplace's mathematics 7not ,laplace'72 ,alphonse's father 7not ,alphonse'74 ,when final s is silent 7as in many ,french names71 's must of course be added in the possessive4 ,thus1--,descartes's philosophy 7pronounced ,daycrt's74 ,use of the ,possessive ,case #ic4af ,possession may be denoted by a phrase with of as well as by the possessive case4 ,the distinction between the two forms cannot be brought under rigid rules1 but the following suggestions will be of use4 ,i4 ,in older ,english and in poetry the possessive case of nouns is freely used1 but in modern prose it is rare unless the possessor is a living being4 ,a phrase with of is used instead4 ,the mayor of ,detroit 7,,not ,detroit's mayor74 ,the top of the post 7,,not the post's top74 ,the prevalence of the epidemic 7,,not the epidemic's prevalence74 ,contrast the poetic use3-- ,belgium's capital had gathered then ,her beauty and her chivalry4--,,byron4 ,other prepositions are sometimes used3 as1--8the explosion in ,new ,york0 7,,not 8,new ,york's explosion071 8the station at ,plymouth40 ,,ii4 ,when the possessor is a living being1 good usage varies4 #a4 ,if there is actual ownership or possession of some material thing1 the possessive case is generally used in the singular3 as1--8,john's hat0 7not 8the hat of ,john074 ,the possessive plural1 however1 is often replaced by a phrase with of1 to avoid ambiguity or harshness3 as1--8the jewels of the ladies0 7rather than 8the ladies' jewels07#ag1 8the wings of the geese0 7rather than 8the geese's wings074 #b4 ,with nouns denoting a quality1 an act1 or the like1 either the possessive or the of-phrase is proper3 as1--8,john's generosity10 or 8the generosity of ,john02 8,john's condition10 or 8the condition of ,john02 8the guide's efforts10 or 8the efforts of the guide02 8,csar's death10 or 8the death of ,csar40 ,when there is any choice1 it usually depends on euphony 7that is1 agreeable sound71 and is therefore a question of style4 ,sometimes1 however1 there is a distinction in sense4 8,john's fear10 for example1 indicates that ,john is afraid2 but 8the fear of ,john0 means the fear which ,john inspires in others4 ,,iii4 ,the following phrases are established idioms with the possessive4 ,in some of them1 however1 the possessive may be replaced by of and its object4 7#a7 ,the earth's surface1 the sun's rays1 the moon's reflection1 the pit's mouth1 a rope's end1 his journey's end1 at his wit's end1 the ship's keel1 the water's edge1 the cannon's mouth1 out of harm's way1 at swords' points1 for pity's sake1 for conscience' sake2 7#b7 a moment's pause1 a year's time1 a hand's breadth1 a boat's length1 a month's salary1 a week's notice1 a night's rest1 a day's work1 a stone's throw1 a feather's weight1 an hour's delay1 a dollar's worth1 not a foot's difference4 ,in the second group of phrases 78a moment's pause10 etc471 the possessive denotes not ownership1 but measure or extent4 ,,iv4 ,the possessive case of certain pronouns 7my1 our1 your1 his1 her1 its1 their7 is more freely used than that of nouns in expressions that do not denote actual ownership4 ,i know him to my sorrow4 ,compare3 to his loss1 to our detriment1 to his advantage4 ,the brass has lost its polish4 ,this question must be decided on its merits4 ,his arguments did not fail of their effect4 ,for the inflection of these pronouns1 see #aae4 ,for the use of whose1 see #aeb4 #id4 ,when a thing belongs to two or more joint owners1 the sign of the possessive is added to the last name only4 ,brown1 ,jones1 and ,richardson's factories4 ,brown1 ,jones1 and ,richardson are partners4 ,it is ,george and ,william's turn to take the boat4 ,george and ,william are to go in the boat together4 ,on the other hand1 in order to avoid ambiguity we should say1 8,brown's1 ,jones's1 and ,richardson's factories10 if each individual had a factory of his own2 and 8,george's and ,william's answers were correct10 if each boy answered independently of the other4 #ie4 ,in compound nouns the last part takes the possessive sign4 ,so also when a phrase is used as a noun4 ,my father-in-law's home is in ,easton4 ,we had a quarter of an hour's talk4 ,other examples are the following3-- ,my brother-in-law's opinion2 the commander-in-chief's orders2 the lady-in-waiting's duties2 the coal dealer's prices2 ,edward ,,vii's reign2 the ,king of ,england's portrait2 half a year's delay2 in three or four months' time2 a cable and a half's length2 the pleasure of ,major ,pendennis and ,mr4 ,arthur ,pendennis's company 7,,thackeray74 ,,note4 ,noun-phrases often contain two substantives1 the second of which is in apposition with the first4 ,in such phrases1 of is generally preferable to the possessive4 ,thus1 we may say either 8,tom the blacksmith's daughter0 or 8the daughter of ,tom the blacksmith02 but 8the son of ,mr4 ,hill the carpenter0 is both neater and clearer than 8,mr4 ,hill the carpenter's son40 ,the use of 's is also avoided with a very long phrase like 8the owner of the house on the other side of the street40 ,an objective may stand in apposition with a possessive1 the latter being equivalent to of with an object4 ,thus1--8,i am not yet of ,percy's mind of the mind of ,percy1 the ,hotspur of the ,north0 7,,shakspere74 #if4 ,the noun denoting the object possessed is often omitted when it may be readily understood1 especially in the predicate4 ,conant's shop is open until noon4 ,i buy my hats at ,bryant's shop4 ,we will dine at ,pennock's restaurant4 ,that camera is mine4 7,see #abb47 ,this construction is common in such expressions as3-- ,he was a relative of ,john's4 ,that careless tongue of ,john's will get him into trouble4 ,in the first example1 8a relative of ,john's0 means 8a relative of 7 from among7 ,john's relatives40 ,the second example shows an extension of this construction by analogy4 ,see #abb4 ,,objective ,,case #ig4 ,the objective case1 as its name implies1 is the case of the object4 ,most of its uses are covered by the following rule3-- ,the object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case4 ,the object of a preposition has already been explained and defined 7 #bj-ba74 #ih4 ,the object of a verb may be 7#a7 the direct object1 7#b7 the predicate objective1 7#c7 the indirect object1 7#d7 the cognate object4 ,of these the direct object is the most important4 ,the objective is also used 7#e7 adverbially 7 #aji71 7#f7 in apposition with another objective 7 #aaj71 and 7#g7 as the subject of an infinitive 7 #aaa74 #a4 ,direct ,object #ii4 ,some verbs may be followed by a substantive denoting that which receives the action or is produced by it4 ,these are called transitive verbs4 ,all other verbs are called intransitive4 #a4 ,that man struck my dog4 #b4 ,the arrow hit the target4 #c4 ,csar conquered ,gaul4 #d4 ,mr4 ,holland sells flour4 #e4 ,the farmer raises corn4 #f4 ,mr4 ,eaton makes stoves4 #g4 ,my grandfather built that house4 ,in ,nos4 #a-d1 the verb is followed by a noun denoting the receiver of the action4 ,thus1 in the first sentence1 the dog receives the blow2 in the second1 the target receives the action of hitting4 ,in ,nos4 #e-g1 the verb is followed by a noun denoting the product of the action4 ,for example1 the corn is produced by the action expressed by the verb raises4 ,in each example1 the noun that follows the verb completes the sense of the verb4 8,that man struck ----40 8,struck whom80 8,he struck the dog40 ,until dog is added the sense of the verb struck is incomplete4 #ajj4 ,a substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is called its direct object1 and is said to be in the objective case4 ,thus1 in the examples above1 dog is the direct object of the transitive verb struck2 target is the direct object of hit1--and so on4 ,each of these nouns is therefore in the objective case4 ,the direct object is often called the object complement1 or the object of the verb4 #aja4 ,intransitive verbs have no object4 ,the lion roared4 ,the visitor coughed gently4 ,the log drifted downstream4 ,we all listened intently4 ,compare these sentences with those in #ii4 ,we observe that the verbs 7unlike those in #ii7 admit no object1 since their meaning is complete without the addition of any noun to denote the receiver or product of the action4 8,the man struck----0 prompts the inquiry1 8,struck whom80 ,but no such question is suggested by 8,the lion roared02 for 8,roared what80 would be an absurdity4 #ajb4 ,the predicate nominative 7 #hh1 #b7 must not be confused with the direct object4 ,they resemble each other in two particulars3 7#a7 both stand in the predicate1 and 7#b7 both complete the meaning of the verb4 ,but they differ utterly in their relation to the subject of the sentence4 ,for-- ,the predicate nominative describes or defines the subject4 ,hence both substantives denote the same person or thing4 ,charles ,,subject is was became was elected captain ,,predicate ,,nominative4 ,the direct object neither describes nor defines the subject4 ,on the contrary1 it designates that upon which the subject acts4 ,hence the two substantives regularly#ah denote different persons or things4 ,charles ,,subject struck ,james ,,object4 threw a stone ,,object4 built a boat ,,object4 ,both the direct object and the predicate nominative are classed as complements1 because they are used to complete the sense of the predicate verb 7 #dhc74 #ajc4 ,a verb of asking sometimes takes two direct objects1 one denoting the person and the other the thing4 ,she asked the boy his name4 ,ask me no favors4 ,i asked the lawyer his opinion4 #b4 ,predicate ,objective #ajd4 ,verbs of choosing1 calling1 naming1 making1 and thinking may take two objects referring to the same person or thing4 ,the first of these is the direct object1 and the second1 which completes the sense of the predicate1 is called a predicate objective4 ,we chose ,oscar president4 ,oscar is the direct object of chose2 president is the predicate objective4 ,i call ,john my friend4 ,they thought the man a coward4 ,make my house your home4 ,the predicate objective is often called the complementary object or the objective attribute4 ,it is classed as a complement4 ,an adjective may serve as predicate objective4 ,i call this ship unseaworthy4 ,your letter made your sister anxious4 ,what makes ,edwin so careless8 #c4 ,indirect ,object and ,similar ,idioms #aje4 ,some verbs of giving1 telling1 refusing1 and the like1 may take two objects1 a direct object and an indirect object4 ,the indirect object denotes the person or thing toward whom or toward which is directed the action expressed by the rest of the predicate4 ,,direct ,,object ,,only ,,direct ,,object ,,and ,,indirect ,,object ,dick sold his bicycle4 ,dick sold ,john his bicycle4 ,i gave permission4 ,i gave this man permission4 ,he paid a dollar4 ,he paid the gardener a dollar4 ,she taught ,latin4 ,she taught my children ,latin4 ,most of the verbs that admit an indirect object are included in the following list3-- allot1 allow1 assign1 bequeath1 bring1 deny1 ensure1 fetch1 fling1 forbid1 forgive1 give1 grant1 guarantee1 hand1 lease1 leave1 lend1 let1 owe1 pardon1 pass1 pay1 refund1 refuse1 remit1 restore1 sell1 send1 show1 sing1 spare1 teach1 tell1 throw1 toss1 vouchsafe4 ,pronouns are commoner as indirect objects than nouns4 ,they denied her the necessities of life4 ,i guaranteed them a handsome profit4 ,the king vouchsafed them an audience4 ,it is always possible to insert the preposition to before the indirect object without changing the sense4 ,since the indirect object is equivalent to an adverbial phrase1 it is classed as a modifier of the verb4 ,thus1 in 8,dick sold ,john his bicycle10 ,john is an adverbial modifier of the predicate verb sold4 ,the indirect object is sometimes used without a direct object expressed4 ,thus1-- ,he paid the hatter4 ,here hatter may be recognized as an indirect object by inserting to before it and adding a direct object 78his bill10 8his money10 or the like74 #ajf4 ,the objective case sometimes expresses the person for whom anything is done4 ,william made his brother a kite made a kite for his brother4 ,sampson built me a boat built a boat for me4 ,this construction may be called the objective of service4 ,,note4 ,the objective of service is often included under the head of the indirect object4 ,but the two constructions differ widely in sense1 and should be carefully distinguished4 ,to do an act to a person is not the same thing as to do an act for a person4 ,contrast 8,john paid the money to me10 with 8,john paid the money for me02 8,dick sold a bicycle to me10 with 8,dick sold a bicycle for me40 #ajg4 ,the objective case is used after like1 unlike1 near1 and next1 which are really adjectives or adverbs1 though in this construction they are often regarded as prepositions4 ,she sang like a bird4 ,like is an adverb4 ,the earth is like a ball4 ,like is an adjective4 ,my office is near the station4 ,near is an adjective4 ,that answer was unlike ,joseph4 ,unlike is an adjective4 ,this man walks unlike ,joseph4 ,unlike is an adverb4 ,a stream ran near the hut4 ,near is an adverb4 ,the use of the objective after these words is a peculiar idiom similar to the indirect object 7 #aje74 ,the nature of the construction may be seen 7as in the indirect object7 by inserting to or unto 78,she sang like unto a bird074 ,,note4 ,the indirect object1 the objective of service1 and the objective after like1 unlike1 and near are all survivals of old dative constructions4 ,besides the case of the direct object 7often called accusative71 ,english once had a case 7called the dative7 which meant to or for somebody or something4 ,the dative case is easily distinguished in ,greek1 ,latin1 and ,german1 but in ,english it has long been merged in form with the ordinary objective4 #d4 ,cognate ,object #ajh4 ,a verb that is regularly intransitive sometimes takes as object a noun whose meaning closely resembles its own4 ,a noun in this construction is called the cognate object of the verb and is in the objective case4 ,he ran a race4 ,the mayor coughed a dubious1 insinuating cough4 ,a scornful laugh laughed he4 ,the trumpeter blew a loud blast4 ,she sleeps the sleep of death4 ,,note4 ,cognate means 8kindred0 or 8related40 ,the cognate object repeats the idea of the verb1 often with some modification1 and may be classed as an adverbial modifier4 ,its difference from the direct object may be seen by contrasting 8,the blacksmith struck the anvil0 with 8,the blacksmith struck a mighty blow0 7cf4 8struck mightily074 ,for the pronoun it as cognate object1 see #abj4 #e4 ,adverbial ,objective #aji4 ,a noun1 or a phrase consisting of a noun and its modifiers1 may be used adverbially4 ,such a noun is called an adverbial objective4 ,we have waited years for this reform4 ,i am years older than you are4 ,the river is miles away4 ,the water rose three feet4 ,this is an inch too long4 ,my brother is twenty years old4 ,i will stay a short time4 ,wait a moment4 ,come here this instant6 ,turn your eyes this way4 ,this silk is several shades too light4 ,a group of words consisting of an adverbial object with its modifier or modifiers forms an adverbial phrase 7 #da74 #f4 ,objective in ,apposition #aaj4 ,a substantive in apposition with an objective is itself in the objective case4 ,yesterday ,i saw ,williams the expressman4 ,apposition with the direct object of saw4 ,tom gave his friend ,john a book4 ,apposition with the indirect object friend4 ,he lives with ,andrews the blacksmith4 ,apposition with the object of the preposition with4 ,this rule follows from the general principle that an appositive is in the same case as the substantive to which it is attached 7 #hh1 #e74 #g4 ,subject of an ,infinitive #aaa4 ,the subject of an infinitive is in the objective case4 ,this construction will be treated in connection with the uses of the infinitive 7 #cbe74 ,parsing #aab4 ,to parse a word is to describe its grammatical form and to give its construction4 ,in parsing a noun1 we mention the class to which it belongs1 give its gender1 number1 person1 and case1 and tell why it is in that case4 ,thus1-- #a4 ,frank shot a wolf4 ,frank is a proper noun of the masculine gender1 in the singular number and third person4 ,it is in the nominative case1 because it is the subject of the verb shot4 ,wolf is a common noun of the masculine or feminine or common gender1 in the singular number and third person4 ,it is in the objective case1 because it is the object or direct object of the transitive verb shot4 #b4 ,jane1 come here4 ,jane is a proper noun of the feminine gender1 in the singular number and second person4 ,it is in the nominative case1 being used as a vocative 7or in direct address74 #c4 ,the rope is fifteen feet long4 ,feet is a common noun of the neuter gender1 in the plural number and third person4 ,it is in the objective case1 being used as an adverbial modifier of the adjective long4 #d4 ,edgar's boat is a sloop4 ,edgar's is a proper noun of the masculine gender1 in the singular number and third person4 ,it is in the possessive case1 modifying the noun boat4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,pronouns #aac4 ,a pronoun is a word used instead of a noun4 ,it designates a person1 place1 or thing without naming it4 ,the substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent4 ,a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender1 number1 and person 7 #aa74 ,pronouns have in general the same constructions as nouns4 #aad4 ,pronouns may be classified as 7#a7 personal1 7#b7 adjective1 7#c7 relative1 and 7#d7 interrogative4 ,under adjective pronouns are included 7a7 demonstrative pronouns and 7b7 indefinite pronouns4 ,,personal ,,pronouns #aae4 ,the personal pronouns serve to distinguish 7#a7 the speaker1 7#b7 the person spoken to1 and 7#c7 the person1 place1 or thing spoken of 7 #he74 ,they are declined as follows3-- ,,the ,,pronoun ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,person3 ,i ,,singular ,,plural ,nominative ,i ,nominative we ,possessive my or mine ,possessive our or ours ,objective me ,objective us ,,the ,,pronoun ,,of ,,the ,,second ,,person3 thou ,,singular ,,plural ,nominative thou ,nominative you or ye ,possessive thy or thine ,possessive your or yours ,objective thee ,objective you or ye ,,the ,,pronoun ,,of ,,the ,,third ,,person3 he1 she1 it ,,singular ,,plural ,,masculine ,,feminine ,,neuter ,,masculine1 ,,feminine1 and ,,neuter ,nominative he she it they ,possessive his her or hers its their or theirs ,objective him her it them ,unlike nouns1 most of the personal pronouns have distinct forms for the nominative and the objective4 ,,note4 ,the possessive case of personal pronouns never has the apostrophe4 ,thus1--its1 yours1 theirs4 ,the form it's is proper only as a contraction of it is4 ,,gender ,,and ,,number #aaf4 ,the pronouns of the first and second persons 7,i and thou7 may be either masculine or feminine4 ,the pronouns of the third person have different forms for masculine1 feminine1 and neuter in the singular 7he1 she1 it72 but in the plural the form they serves for all three genders4 ,,note4 ,in the oldest ,english his was both masculine and neuter4 ,the neuter use lasted until the seventeenth century4 ,thus1-- ,that same eye whose bend doth awe the world ,did lose his lustre4--,,shakspere1 ,julius ,csar1 i4 #b4 #abc4 #aag4 ,thou1 thy1 thine1 thee1 and ye are old forms still found in poetry and the solemn style4 ,in ordinary prose1 you1 your1 and yours are the only forms used for the second person1 whether singular or plural4 ,yet you1 even when denoting a single person1 always takes the verb-forms that go with plural subjects4 ,thus1-- ,my friend1 you were ,,not was in error4 ,hence you may best be regarded as always plural in form1 but may be described as singular in sense when it stands for one person only4 ,,note4 ,members of the ,society of ,friends 7commonly called ,quakers7 and of some other religious bodies use thee and thy in their ordinary conversation4 ,ye was formerly the regular nominative plural1 and you the objective2 but the forms were afterwards confused4 ,ye has gone out of use except in poetry and the solemn style1 and you is now the regular form for both nominative and objective4 ,where an objective form ye is found printed instead of you 7as often in ,shakspere1--8,a southwest blow on ye071 it represents an indistinct pronunciation of you rather than the old nominative ye4 ,this indistinct sound may still be heard in rapid or careless speech 78,i'll tell yer the truth074 ,ye as an abbreviation for the 7as in 8ye old town07 has nothing to do with the pronoun ye4 ,the y simply stands for the character 7an old sign for th71 and the abbreviation was pronounced the1 never ye4 #aah4 ,they1 you1 and we are often used indefinitely for 8one0 or 8people in general40 ,they say that ,joe has gone to sea4 ,to shut off the steam1 you close both valves of the radiator4 ,,note4 ,we1 our1 and us are used in editorial articles instead of ,i1 my1 and me1 because the writer represents the whole editorial staff4 ,this practice should not be followed in ordinary composition4 ,a sovereign ruler may use we1 our1 and us when speaking of himself in proclamations and other formal documents4 ,this construction is often called 8the plural of majesty40 ,thus1-- ,know that we have divided ,in three our kingdom4--,,shakspere4 ,the form 'em 7as in 8,tell me your counsels2 ,i will not disclose 'em10 in ,julius ,csar7 is not a contraction of them1 but of hem1 an old objective plural of he4 ,,case ,,of ,,personal ,,pronouns ,,nominative ,,case #aai4 ,nominative constructions of the personal pronouns are the same as those of nouns 7 #hh74 ,i am ready4 ,subject4 ,it is ,i4 ,predicate nominative4 ,here1 you rascal1 what are you about8 ,vocative1 direct address4 ,poor you6 ,nominative of exclamation4 ,general ,austin1 he and no other1 won the battle4 ,apposition4 ,for the nominative absolute1 see #cde4 ,care must be taken not to use an objective form when a predicate nominative is required4 ,it is ,i ,,not me4 ,it is we ,,not us who did it4 ,it was he ,,not him who told us4 ,it was they ,,not them who were to blame4 #abj4 ,it has several peculiar uses in the nominative4 #a4 ,it is used as the subject in many expressions like 8,it rains10 8,it snows10 8,it lightens10 8,it is cold10 where no definite subject is thought of4 ,in this use1 it is said to be impersonal4 ,,note4 ,an impersonal it also occurs as a cognate object 7 #ajh7 in colloquial language3 as1--8,hang it60 8,go it60 8,he went it40 8,he farmed it for a year40 ,other examples of the indefinite and impersonal it in various constructions are3 8,we are roughing it40 8,keep it up40 8,you'll catch it40 8,let it all go40 8,he made a poor job of it40 8,he made a success of it40 #b4 ,it often serves as grammatical subject merely to introduce the verb is1 the real subject of the thought standing in the predicate4 ,in this use it is called an expletive 7or 8filler074 ,it is he4 ,it is ,christmas4 ,it was a tiresome ride4 ,in these examples1 the subject of the thought 7he1 ,christmas1 ride7 appears as a predicate nominative4 #c4 ,the antecedent of it is often a group of words4 ,wearing tight shoes is foolish4 ,it deforms the feet4 #aba4 ,in imperative sentences the subject 7you7 is commonly omitted3 as1--8,shut the door40 ,,note4 ,the subject ,i is sometimes omitted in wishes 7as1 8,would he were here60 for 8,i would that he were here074 ,so also in 8,thank you10 8,pray tell me0 7compare prithee for 8,i pray thee074 ,expressions like 8,canst tell80 7for 8,canst thou tell8071 8,art there80 7for 8,art thou there807 are common in poetry and older ,english4 ,these come from the gradual wearing away and final disappearance of the pronoun thou 7canst thou1 canstow1 canst1 canst74 ,,possessive ,,case #abb4 ,the possessive forms my1 thy1 our1 your1 her1 and their are used when a noun follows2 mine1 thine1 ours1 yours1 hers1 and theirs cannot be followed by a noun1 and stand commonly in the predicate4 ,his may be used in either way4 ,my brother has arrived4 ,the fault is mine4 ,our work is done4 ,those seats are ours4 ,i have torn your glove4 ,this pencil is yours4 ,their turn has come4 ,that field is theirs4 ,his hair is black4 ,the book is not his4 ,examples of mine1 yours1 etc4 not in the predicate are3 ,mine was a terrier2 yours was a pointer4 ,theirs is a red motor car4 ,ours broke down last night4 ,his leaked badly4 ,his name is ,martin2 hers is ,smith4 ,in such cases the pronoun is always emphatic4 ,the construction is chiefly colloquial4 ,,note4 ,in older ,english and in poetry mine and thine are common instead of my and thy before words beginning with a vowel or h3 as1-- ,mine eyes dazzle3 she died young4--,,john ,,webster4 ,the very minute bids thee ope thine ear4--,,shakspere4 ,mine is sometimes used after a vocative noun3 as1--brother mine4 ,for expressions like 8a friend of mine10 8that unruly tongue of yours10 see #if4 #abc4 ,when two or more separate objects are spoken of as possessed1 a possessive should precede the name of each if there is danger of ambiguity4 ,i will send for our secretary and our treasurer4 ,two persons4 ,i will send for our secretary and treasurer4 ,one person4 ,i have called for my bread and my milk4 ,two things4 ,i have called for my bread and milk4 ,a mixture4 ,have you ,bacon's 8,essays and ,apophthegms08 ,one book4 ,have you ,bacon's 8,essays0 and his 8,advancement of ,learning08 ,two books4 ,,objective ,,case #abd4 ,the commonest constructions in which personal pronouns take the objective case are the following3-- #a4 ,object of a preposition 7 #ig73 as1-- ,take it from him4 #b4 ,direct object of a transitive verb 7 #ii73 as1-- ,i will find you4 #c4 ,indirect object of a transitive verb 7 #aje73 as1-- ,he gave me a dollar4 #d4 ,subject of an infinitive 7see #cbe74 ,,note4 ,in poetry the objective me is sometimes used in exclamations3 as1--8,me miserable60 7,,milton74 ,in methinks and meseems 78it seems to me071 me is a remnant of the old dative1 as in the indirect object 7see #ajg74 ,the compounds thereof1 therewith1 therefrom1 etc41 are equivalent to of it1 with it1 from it1 etc43 as1--8,proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof0 7,leviticus xxv4 #aj74 ,for the impersonal it as cognate object1 see #abj4 ,,the ,,self-,,pronouns 7,,compound ,,personal ,,pronouns7 #abe4 ,the three compound personal pronouns are made by adding the word self to certain forms of the personal pronouns4 ,thus1-- myself1 plural ourselves2 thyself or yourself1 plural yourselves2 himself1 herself1 itself1 plural themselves4 ,to these may be added the indefinite oneself1 more commonly written as two words1 one's self 7 #aci74 ,observe that yourself is singular1 and yourselves plural4 ,hisself and theirselves are incorrect forms4 ,ourself 7not ourselves7 is the compound pronoun corresponding to the royal we 7 #aah74 ,what touches us ourself shall be last served4--,,shakspere4 #abf4 #a4 ,the compound personal pronouns may be used to emphasize substantives4 ,in this use they are called intensive pronouns4 ,i myself will go4 ,king ,alfred himself took the field4 ,they did the work themselves4 ,an intensive pronoun is in apposition with the substantive to which it refers4 #b4 ,the compound personal pronouns may be used as the objects of transitive verbs or of prepositions when the object denotes the same person or thing as the subject4 ,in this use they are called reflexive pronouns4 ,i have hurt myself4 ,king ,alfred interested himself in his subjects4 ,these schemers deceived themselves4 ,mary was talking to herself4 ,he gave himself a holiday4 ,indirect object4 ,these pronouns are called reflexive 7that is1 8bending back07 because they refer back to the subject and repeat its meaning in an object construction4 ,,note4 ,a reflexive pronoun sometimes refers to a substantive in the objective case3 as1--8,our captors left us to ourselves40 ,in older ,english the simple personal pronouns me1 thee1 etc41 were often used reflexively3 as1--8,i held me myself still02 8,yield thee thyself captive02 8,they built them for themselves houses0 7see #ajf74 ,this idiom survives in colloquial language 7as1 8,i have hurt me10 8,i have bought me a rifle071 but it is avoided in writing except in a few expressions such as3 8,i must look about me02 8,we gazed about us02 8,look behind you40 #abg4 ,the adjective own is sometimes inserted between the first and the second part of the self-pronouns for emphasis4 ,,examples3 my own self1 your own self1 his own self1 our own selves1 their own selves4 ,in this use1 self is in strictness a noun limited by the possessive and by the adjective own1 but the phrases may be regarded as compound pronouns4 ,other adjectives are sometimes inserted between the possessive and self3 as1--my very self1 his worthless self4 #abh4 ,the intensive pronouns are sometimes used without a substantive4 ,thus1-- ,it is myself4 ,myself ,i myself4 ,you are hardly yourself to-day4 ,in poetry and older ,english1 the intensives are even found as subjects3 as1--8,ourself will mingle with society0 7,macbeth74 #abi4 ,the intensive pronouns should not be used as simple personal pronouns4 ,thus we should say3--8,he was kind to ,mary and me0 7,,not myself72 8,they invited my wife and me 7,,not myself740 ,,adjective ,,pronouns #acj4 ,some words are used either as adjectives or as pronouns4 ,such words are called adjective pronouns4 ,adjective pronouns are classified1 according to their meaning1 as 7#a7 demonstrative pronouns and 7#b7 indefinite pronouns4 ,i4 ,,demonstrative ,,pronouns #aca4 ,the demonstratives are this 7plural1 these71 that 7plural1 those74 ,they point out persons or things for special attention4 ,the demonstratives may be used either as adjectives or as pronouns4 ,i4 ,as adjectives3-- ,this sailor saved my life4 ,these girls are energetic4 ,be kind to this child4 ,i am not alarmed by these threats4 ,give this boy a dime4 ,these cherries are sour4 ,this fire is too hot4 ,look at these acorns4 ,that saw is dull4 ,those trees are dying4 ,we must cross that stream4 ,take those dishes away4 ,that train is late4 ,who are those strangers8 ,send that dog home4 ,do you see those rocks8 ,i am tired of that tune4 ,i am sorry for those children4 ,,ii4 ,as pronouns3-- ,this is a fine morning4#ai ,these are cowboys4 ,this is my uncle4 ,robert gave me these4 ,can you do this8 ,i never saw these before4 ,this is the road4 ,who are these8 ,look at this4 ,these are our rackets4 ,that is ,ellen in the canoe4 ,those are deer4 ,that would please him4 ,those are nasturtiums4 ,that must be he4 ,what are those8 ,what is that8 ,those are kangaroos4 ,if the demonstrative is followed by a noun which it limits 7as in 8this sailor071 it is an adjective4 ,if the demonstrative points out something which it does not name 7as in 8,this is a fine morning071 it takes the place of a noun and is therefore a pronoun4 ,the simple subject of the sentence 8,this camera is expensive0 is the noun camera1 which is modified by the adjective this4 ,the subject of the sentence 8,this is expensive0 is the pronoun this4 ,,note4 ,yon1 yond1 and yonder are common as demonstratives in older ,english and in poetry4 ,thus1--8,nerissa1 cheer yon stranger0 7,merchant of ,venice74 8,question yond man0 7,as ,you ,like ,it74 8,is not yond ,diomed80 7,troilus and ,cressida74 8,call yonder fellow hither0 7,henry ,v74 8,is yonder the man80 7,as ,you ,like ,it74 #acb4 ,demonstratives have only the inflection of number4 ,they have the same form for all three genders4 ,the nominative and objective cases are alike2 the possessive is replaced by of with the objective4 ,,singular ,,plural ,nom4 and ,obj4 this ,nom4 and ,obj4 these ,possessive of this ,possessive of these ,nom4 and ,obj4 that ,nom4 and ,obj4 those ,possessive of that ,possessive of those ,yon1 yond1 and yonder are not inflected4 #acc4 ,a demonstrative pronoun may be used to avoid the repetition of a noun4 ,my dog and that the dog of my friend ,john have been fighting4 ,compare these maps with those the maps on the blackboard4 #acd4 ,the singular forms this and that 7not the plurals these and those7 are used with the nouns kind and sort4 ,i like this kind of grapes4 ,i have met this sort of people before4 ,that kind of apples grows in ,idaho4 ,,ii4 ,,indefinite ,,pronouns #ace4 ,the indefinite pronouns point out objects less clearly or definitely than demonstratives do4 ,,examples3 each1 every1 either1 both1 neither1 some1 any1 such1 none1 other1 another1 each other1 one another4 ,each has its merits4 ,some are missing4 ,i cannot give you any4 ,either is correct4 ,he knows neither of you4 ,i like both4 #acf4 ,most indefinites may be either pronouns or adjectives4 ,but none is always a substantive in modern use1 and every is always an adjective4 #acg4 ,none may be either singular or plural4 ,when it means distinctly not one1 it is singular4 ,in many instances either construction is permissible4 ,none of us has the key4 ,none was 7or were7 left to tell the tale4 #ach4 ,each other and one another are regarded as compound pronouns4 ,they designate related persons or things4 ,my neighbor and ,i like each other4 ,we must bear with one another4 ,the relation indicated by these pronouns is that of reciprocity4 ,hence they are often called reciprocal pronouns4 ,there is no real distinction between each other and one another4 ,the rules sometimes given for such a distinction are not supported by the best usage4 #aci4 ,one 7possessive one's7 is often used as an indefinite personal pronoun4 ,thus1-- ,one does not like one's ,,not his or their motives to be doubted4 ,the use of his 7for one's7 to refer back to a preceding one is found in respectable writers1 but is contrary to the best usage4 ,for the indefinite use of we1 you1 they1 see #aah4 #adj4 ,all1 several1 few1 many1 and similar words are often classed as indefinites4 ,they may be used as adjectives or as substantives4 ,everybody1 everything1 anybody1 anything1 somewhat1 aught1 naught1#bj etc41 are called indefinite nouns4 #ada4 ,care should be taken in framing such sentences as the following3-- ,everybody has his ,,not their faults4 ,if anybody wishes to go1 he ,,not they may4 ,if anybody objects1 let him ,,not them speak4 ,every member of this class must hand in his ,,not their composition to-day4 ,each hurries toward his ,,not their home4 ,each of us must lead his ,,not their own life4 ,in sentences of this kind1 the personal pronoun 7he1 his1 him7 must be in the singular to agree with its antecedent 7everybody1 anybody1 etc47 7see #aac74 ,,note4 ,when the antecedent is of common gender 7as in the last example71 the personal pronouns 7he1 his1 him7 may be regarded as of common gender also4 ,in very precise or formal language1 one may say he or she1 his or her3 as1--8,each of us must lead his or her own life02 but this form of expression is to be avoided unless the distinction is clearly necessary4 #adb4 ,when used as adjectives1 none of the indefinites have any forms of inflection4 ,the same is true when they are pronouns1 except as follows3-- ,others is used as the plural of another4 ,the possessive forms are3--singular1 another's2 plural1 others'4 ,the other 7possessive1 the other's7 has in the plural the others 7possessive1 the others'74 ,each other and one another add 's in the possessive4 ,one has a possessive one's2 the one becomes the ones in the plural4 ,,relative ,,pronouns #adc4 ,relative pronouns have a peculiar function in the sentence1 since they serve both as pronouns and as connectives4 ,their use may be seen by comparing the two sentences that follow3-- #a4 ,this is the sailor1 and he saved my life4 #b4 ,this is the sailor who saved my life4 ,each consists of two parts or clauses 7 #dd74 ,in ,no4 #a1 the two clauses are connected by the conjunction and1 which belongs to neither2 the pronoun he1 which stands for sailor1 is the subject of the second clause4 ,in ,no4 #b1 there is no conjunction2 instead1 we find the word who1 which replaces and he4 ,this who is a pronoun1 since it stands for sailor 7precisely as he does in ,no4 #a7 and 7like he7 is the subject of the verb saved4 ,but who is also a connective1 since it joins the two parts of the sentence as and does in ,no4 #a4 ,such words 7which serve both as pronouns and as connectives7 are called relative pronouns4 ,in ,no4 #a1 the two clauses are cordinate4 ,neither serves as a modifier1 and each might stand alone as a complete sentence 78,this is the sailor40 8,he saved my life074 ,the sentence is compound 7 #dd74 ,in ,no4 #b1 on the contrary1 the clause who saved my life is a subordinate or dependent clause1 for it is used as an adjective modifier of the noun sailor1 which it limits by showing what particular sailor is meant4 ,the sentence is complex 7 #dd74 ,the dependent clause 7who saved my life7 is connected with the main clause 7this is the sailor7 by the pronoun who1 which refers to sailor4 #add4 ,relative pronouns connect dependent clauses with main clauses by referring directly to a substantive in the main clause4#ba ,this substantive is the antecedent of the relative 7 #aa74 ,thus in #adc the noun sailor is the antecedent of who4 ,relative means 8carrying back40 ,these pronouns are so called because they carry the mind back directly to the antecedent4 #ade4 ,the simple relative pronouns are who1 which1 that1 as1 and what4 ,who and which are declined as follows in both the singular and the plural3-- ,nominative who which ,possessive whose whose ,objective whom which ,that1 as1 and what are not inflected4 ,they have the same form for both nominative and objective and are not used in the possessive case4 #adf4 ,as may be used as a relative pronoun when such stands in the main clause4 ,such of you as have finished may go4 ,i have never seen such strawberries as these are4 ,use such powers as you have4 #adg4 ,as is often used as a relative after the same4 ,this color is the same as that is4 ,other relatives are also used after the same4 ,this is the same book that 7or which7 you were reading yesterday4 ,this is the same man that 7or whom7 ,i saw on the pier last ,friday4 #adh4 ,who is either masculine or feminine2 which and what are neuter2 that and as are of all three genders4 ,all who heard1 approved4 ,here is the lad whose story interested you4 ,the first woman whom ,i saw was ,mary4 ,he answered in such ,english as he could muster4 ,i saw nobody that ,i knew4 ,this is the road that leads to ,london4 ,in older ,english the which is often used for which3 as1-- ,our foster-nurse of nature is repose1 ,the which he lacks4--,,shakspere4 ,for other uses of as1 see #cfh1 #dbh-dbi4 ,for but in such sentences as 8,there was nobody but believed him10 see #cgj4 #adi4 ,a relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender1 number1 and person4 ,the sentences in #adh illustrate the agreement of the relative with its antecedent in gender4 ,since relative pronouns have the same form for both numbers and for all three persons1 their number and person must be discovered1 in each instance1 by observing the number and person of the antecedent4 ,it is ,i who am wrong4 ,first person1 singular number3 antecedent1 ,i4 ,all you who are ready may go4 ,second person plural3 antecedent1 you4 ,give help to him who needs it4 ,third person1 singular3 antecedent1 him4 ,the road that leads to the shore is sandy4 ,third person singular3 antecedent1 road4 ,the roads that lead to the shore are sandy4 ,third person plural3 antecedent1 roads4 ,to determine the number and person of a relative pronoun is particularly necessary when it is the subject of the clause1 for the form of the verb varies 7as the examples show7 according to the number and person of the subject 7 #bbb74 ,hence the rule for the agreement of a relative with its antecedent is of much practical importance4 #aej4 ,the case of a relative pronoun has nothing to do with its antecedent1 but depends on the construction of its own clause4 ,the servant who opened the door wore livery4 ,who is in the nominative case1 being the subject of opened4 ,he discharged his servant1 who immediately left town4 ,who is in the nominative case1 since it is the subject of left1 although its antecedent 7servant7 is in the objective4 ,the servant whom you discharged has returned4 ,whom is in the objective case1 since it is the direct object of discharged4 ,the antecedent 7servant7 is1 on the other hand1 in the nominative1 because it is the subject of has returned4 ,here is such money as ,i have4 ,as is in the objective case1 being the object of have4 ,the antecedent 7money7 is in the nominative4 #aea4 ,a relative pronoun in the objective case is often omitted4 ,here is the book which you wanted4 ,here is the book you wanted4 ,the noise that ,i heard was the wind4 ,the noise ,i heard was the wind4 ,the man whom ,i met was a carpenter4 ,the man ,i met was a carpenter4 ,,note4 ,in older ,english a relative in the nominative is often omitted3 as1--8,there's two or three of us have seen strange sights0 7,julius ,csar71 that is1 8,there are two or three of us who have seen10 etc4 ,the same omission is often made in rapid or careless colloquial speech4 ,it is approved in clauses with there in such sentences as 8,he is one of the best men there are in the world0 7 #bcb74 #aeb4 ,certain questions of gender call for particular attention4 #a4 ,which is commonly used in referring to the lower animals unless these are regarded as persons4 ,this is true even when he or she is used of the same animals 7 #fi74 ,this is the dog which ,i mentioned4 ,isn't he a fine fellow8 ,we have one cow which we prize highly4 ,she is a ,jersey4 #b4 ,the possessive whose may be used of any object that has life4 ,this is the man whose watch was stolen4 ,i have a cat whose name is ,tabby4 ,this is the tree whose leaves were destroyed4 ,it is quite dead4 #c4 ,in the case of things without animal life1 of which and whose are both common4 ,the tendency is to prefer of which in prose1 but whose is often used because of its more agreeable sound4 ,in poetry1 whose is especially frequent4 ,a broad river1 the name of which ,i have forgotten1 forms the northern boundary of the province4 ,jack was fishing with a bamboo rod1 to the end of which he had tied a short piece of ordinary twine4 ,she was gazing into the pool1 whose calm surface reflected her features like a mirror4 8,the surface of which0 would not sound so well4 ,,note4 ,in older ,english1 which is often used for who or whom3 as1--8,he which hath your noble father slain1 pursued my life0 7,hamlet74 ,the compounds whereof1 wherefrom1 wherewith1 etc41 are equivalent to of which1 from which1 etc4 7cf4 #abd74 ,thus1--8,esau hated ,jacob because of the blessing wherewith his father blessed him0 7,genesis xxvii4 #da74 ,,descriptive ,,and ,,restrictive ,,relatives #aec4 ,the clause introduced by a relative pronoun is an adjective clause1 since it serves as an adjective modifier of the antecedent 7 #adc74 ,there are two different ways in which the antecedent may be thus modified4 #a4 ,the ,italian1 who wore a flower in his coat1 smiled at me4 #b4 ,the ,italian who wore a flower in his coat smiled at me4 ,in the first sentence1 the italicized relative clause serves simply to describe the ,italian1 not to identify him4 ,the flower is a mere detail of the picture4 ,in the second sentence1 the relative clause serves not merely to describe the ,italian1 but also to distinguish him from all others4 ,the flower is mentioned as a means of identification4 ,the relative clause confines or restricts the meaning of the antecedent 7,italian74 #aed4 ,a relative pronoun that serves merely to introduce a descriptive fact is called a descriptive relative4 ,a relative pronoun that introduces a clause confining or limiting the application of the antecedent is called a restrictive relative4 ,thus in the first example in #aec1 who is a descriptive relative2 in the second1 it is a restrictive relative4 #aee4 ,before a descriptive relative we regularly make a pause in speaking1 but never before a restrictive relative4 ,hence the rule3-- ,a descriptive relative is preceded by a comma2 a restrictive relative is not4 ,three sailors1 who were loitering on the pier1 sprang to the rescue4 ,a clumsy weapon1 which ,i took for a blunderbuss1 hung over the fireplace4 ,i told the news to the first man that 7or whom7 ,i met4 ,the coins that 7or which7 you showed me are doubloons4 ,nothing that ,i have ever read has moved me more profoundly than the third act of 8,king ,lear40 #aef4 ,who1 which1 and that are all used as restrictive relatives2 but some writers prefer that to which1 especially in the nominative case4 ,,note4 ,that is not now employed as a descriptive relative1 though it was common in this use not very long ago4 ,thus in #ahdd ,disraeli wrote3 8,the deer1 that abounded1 lived here in a world as savage as themselves0 7,coningsby1 book iii1 chapter #e74 ,the omission of the relative 7 #aea7 is possible only when the relative is restrictive4 ,the boy whom ,i saw at your house has left town4 ,restrictive4 ,charles1 whom ,i saw yesterday1 had not heard the news4 ,descriptive4 ,,the ,,relative ,,pronoun ,,what #aeg4 ,the relative pronoun what is equivalent to that which1 and has a double construction3--7#a7 the construction of the omitted or implied antecedent 7that72 7#b7 the construction of the relative 7which74 ,what ,that which was said is true4 ,here what1 being equivalent to that which1 serves as the subject both of was said and of is4 ,tom always remembers what that which is said to him4 ,here what1 being equivalent to that which1 serves as both the object of remembers and as the subject of is said4 ,tom always remembers what that which he learns4 ,here what serves both as the object of remembers and as the object of learns4 ,in parsing what1 mention both of its constructions4 ,,note4 ,another method of dealing with the relative what is to regard the whole clause 7what was said2 what is said to him2 what he learns7 as a noun clause4 ,thus the clause what was said in the first sentence would be the subject of is2 in the second and third sentences1 the clause would be the object of remembers4 ,what1 in the first sentence1 would be parsed as the subject of was said2 in the second1 as the subject of is said2 and in the third1 as the object of learns4 ,neither view is incorrect1 and each has its special advantages4 ,the student may well be familiar with both methods1 remembering that grammar cannot be treated like mathematics4 ,,compound ,,relative ,,pronouns #aeh4 ,the compound relative pronouns are formed by adding ever or soever to who1 which1 and what4 ,they are declined as follows3-- ,,singular ,,and ,,plural ,nominative whoever 7whosoever7 whichever 7whichsoever7 ,possessive whosever 7whosesoever7 ---- ---- ,objective whomever 7whomsoever7 whichever 7whichsoever7 ,whatever 7whatsoever7 has no inflection4 ,the nominative and the objective are alike1 and the possessive is supplied by the phrase of whatever 7of whatsoever74 ,the phrase of whichever 7of whichsoever7 is used instead of whosever exactly as of which is used instead of whose 7 #aeb74 #aei4 ,the compound relative pronouns may include or imply their own antecedents and hence may have a double construction4 ,whoever calls1 he must be admitted4 ,here he1 the antecedent of whoever1 is the subject of must be admitted1 and whoever is the subject of calls4 ,whoever calls must be admitted4 ,here the antecedent he is omitted1 being implied in whoever4 ,whoever has therefore a double construction1 being the subject of both calls and must be admitted4 ,he shall have whatever he wishes4 ,i will do whichever you say4 ,in such sentences1 care should be taken to use whoever and whomever correctly4 ,the nominative 7whoever7 is required when the relative is the subject of its own clause4 ,he asked whoever came4 ,he told the story to whoever would listen4 ,he asked whomever he knew4 ,he told the story to whomever he met4 #afj4 ,the compound relatives are sometimes used without an antecedent expressed or implied4 ,whoever deserts you1 ,i will remain faithful4 ,whomever it offends1 ,i will speak the truth4 ,whatever he attempts1 he is sure to fail4 ,whichever you choose1 you will be disappointed4 ,,note4 ,this construction is closely related to that explained in #aei4 8,whoever deserts you1 ,i will remain faithful10 is practically equivalent to 8,whoever deserts you1 let him desert you6 ,i will remain faithful40 ,no antecedent1 however1 is felt by the speaker1 and hence none need be supplied in parsing4 ,compare concessive clauses 7 #dja74 #afa4 ,which1 what1 whichever1 and whatever are often used as adjectives4 ,use what 7or whatever7 powers you have4 ,whichever plan you adopt1 you have my best wishes4 #afb4 ,a noun limited by the adjectives what1 whichever1 and whatever1 may have the same double construction that these relatives have when they are used as pronouns 7 #aei74 ,thus1-- ,take whichever pen is not in use4 ,here pen is both the direct object of take1 and the subject of is4 ,whoso for whosoever and whatso for whatsoever are common in older ,english4 ,,interrogative ,,pronouns #afc4 ,the interrogative pronouns are who1 which1 and what4 ,they are used in asking questions4#bb ,who is your neighbor8 ,who goes there8 ,whom have you chosen8 ,from whom did you learn this8 ,whose voice is that8 ,which shall ,i take8 ,which is correct8 ,what did he say8 ,what is lacking8 ,with what are you so delighted8 #afd4 ,who has a possessive whose1 and an objective whom4 ,which and what are not inflected4 ,who may be either masculine or feminine2 which and what may be of any gender4 #afe4 ,the objective whom often begins a question 7as in the third example in #afc74 ,care should be taken not to write who for whom4 #aff4 ,which and what are used as interrogative adjectives4 ,which street shall ,i take8 ,what village is this8 #afg4 ,the interrogative adjective what may be used in a peculiar form of exclamatory sentence4 ,thus1-- ,what a cold night this is6 ,what courage he must have had6 ,what6 by itself often serves as an exclamation3 as1--8,what6 do you really think so80 ,in this use what may be regarded as an interjection4 #afh4 ,in parsing pronouns the following models may be used3-- #a4 ,he was my earliest friend4 ,he is a personal pronoun of the third person4 ,it is in the masculine gender1 the singular number1 and the nominative case1 being the subject of the verb was4 #b4 ,a policeman whom ,i met showed me the house4 ,whom is a relative pronoun of the masculine gender1 singular number1 and third person1 agreeing with its antecedent1 policeman4 ,it is in the objective case1 being the direct object of the transitive verb met4 #c4 ,the corporal1 whose name was ,scott1 came from ,leith4 ,whose is a relative pronoun of the masculine gender1 singular number1 and third person1 agreeing with its antecedent1 corporal4 ,it is in the possessive case1 modifying the noun name4 #d4 ,whose birthday do we celebrate in ,february8 ,whose is an interrogative pronoun in the masculine or feminine gender1 singular number1 and possessive case1 modifying the noun birthday4 #e4 ,he injured himself severely4 ,himself is a compound personal pronoun of the third person1 used reflexively4 ,it is of the masculine gender1 singular number1 and third person1 agreeing with its antecedent1 he4 ,it is in the objective case1 being the direct object of the transitive verb injured4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,adjectives ,,classification ,,of ,,adjectives #afi4 ,an adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive4 ,an adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits4 ,an adjective which describes is called a descriptive adjective2 one which points out or designates is called a definitive adjective 7 #ac74 ,most adjectives are descriptive3 as1--round1 cold1 red1 angry1 graceful1 excessive1 young1 sudden1 ,roman4 ,,note4 ,many descriptive adjectives are compound 7see #fd73 as1--steadfast1 lionlike1 fireproof1 downright1 heartsick1 everlasting1 brown-eyed1 broad-shouldered1 ill-tempered1 dear-bought1 far-fetched1 never-ending1 self-evident1 self-important4 8,he was a matter-of-fact person40 8,tom is hail-fellow-well-met with everybody40 8,this is an out-of-the-way place40 8,a dashing1 down-at-the-heel youth answered my knock40 #agj4 ,a proper noun used as an adjective1 or an adjective derived from a proper noun1 is called a proper adjective and usually begins with a capital letter4 ,,examples3 a ,panama hat1 ,florida oranges1 a ,bunsen burner2 ,virginian1 ,spenserian1 ,newtonian1 ,icelandic1 ,miltonic1 ,byronic1 ,turkish1 ,english1 ,veronese4 ,,note4 ,many so-called proper adjectives begin with a small letter because their origin is forgotten or disregarded3 as1--china dishes1 italic type1 mesmeric power1 a jovial air1 a saturnine expression1 a mercurial temperament1 a stentorian voice4 #aga4 ,definitive adjectives include3--pronouns used as adjectives 7as1 this opportunity2 those pictures2 either table2 what time is it872 numeral adjectives 7as1 two stars2 the third year72 the articles1 a 7or an7 and the4 ,pronouns used as adjectives 7often called pronominal adjectives7 have been studied under ,pronouns--demonstratives 7 #aca-acd71 indefinites 7 #ace-adb71 relatives 7 #adc-afb71 interrogatives 7 #afc-afg74 ,numeral adjectives will be treated1 along with other numerals 7nouns and adverbs71 in #bjd-bjh4 ,the articles will be treated in #agc-ahj4 #agb4 ,adjectives may be classified1 according to their position in the sentence1 as attributive1 appositive1 and predicate adjectives4 #a4 ,an attributive adjective is closely attached to its noun and regularly precedes it4 ,the angry spot doth glow on ,csar's brow4 ,o you hard hearts1 you cruel men of ,rome6 ,yond ,cassius has a lean and hungry look4 #b4 ,an appositive adjective is added to its noun to explain it1 like a noun in apposition 7 #hh1 #e74 ,,noun ,,in ,,apposition ,,appositive ,,adjective ,the castle1 a ruin1 ,the castle1 ancient and ruinous1 stood on the edge of the cliff4 stood on the edge of the cliff4 ,bertram1 the ringleader1 ,bertram1 undaunted1 refused to surrender4 refused to surrender4 #c4 ,a predicate adjective completes the meaning of the predicate verb1 but describes or limits the subject4 ,predicate adjectives are common after is 7in its various forms7 and other copulative verbs1 particularly become and seem 7 #ag74 ,the sea is rough to-day4 ,burton soon became cautious in his judgments4 ,you seem anxious about your future4 ,the air grew hot and sultry4 ,our first experiment proved unsuccessful4 ,the milk turned sour4 ,our agent proved trustworthy4 ,,note4 ,the construction of the predicate adjective is similar to that of the predicate nominative 7 #hh1 #b74 ,both are known as complements1 because they complete the meaning of a verb4 ,after look1 sound1 taste1 smell1 feel1 a predicate adjective is used to describe the subject4 ,thus1-- ,your flowers look thrifty4 ,,not3 look thriftily4 ,their voices sound shrill4 ,,not3 sound shrilly4 ,this apple tastes sweet4 ,,not3 tastes sweetly4 ,the air smells good4 ,,not3 smells well4 ,the patient feels comfortable4 ,,not3 feels comfortably4 ,for predicate adjectives after passive verbs1 see #dib4 ,for the use of an adjective as predicate objective1 see #ajd4 ,,the ,,articles #agc4 ,the adjectives a 7or an7 and the are called articles4 #a4 ,the definite article the points out one or more particular objects as distinct from others of the same kind4 ,the train is late4 ,here is the key4 ,the children are in the next room4 #b4 ,the indefinite article a 7or an7 designates an object as merely one of a general class or kind4 ,lend me a pencil4 ,i have a cold4 ,a young man answered my knock4 ,the article a is a fragment of n 7pronounced ahn71 the ancient form of the numeral one2 an keeps the n1 which a has lost4 ,the is an old demonstrative1 related to that4 #agd4 ,the with a singular noun sometimes indicates a class or kind of objects4 ,the scholar is not necessarily a dryasdust4 ,the elephant is the largest of quadrupeds4 ,the aroplane is a very recent invention4 ,resin is obtained from the pine4 ,,note4 ,in this use the is often called the generic article 7from the ,latin genus1 8kind0 or 8sort074 ,the singular number with the generic the is practically equivalent to the plural without an article4 ,thus in the first example the sense would be the same if we had1 8,scholars are not necessarily dryasdusts40 #age4 ,an adjective preceded by the may be used as a plural noun4 ,the brave are honored4 ,the rich have many cares4 ,the strong should protect the weak4 #agf4 ,an is used before words beginning with a vowel or silent h2 a before other words4 ,thus1-- an owl2 an apple2 an honest man2 a stone2 a pear4 #agg4 ,special rules for a or an are the following3-- #a4 ,before words beginning with the sound of y or w1 the form a1 not an1 is used4 ,,examples3 a union1 a university1 a yew1 a ewe1 a eulogy1 a ,utopian scheme1 such a one4 ,this rule covers all words beginning with eu and many beginning with u4 ,note that the initial sound is a consonant1 not a vowel4 ,an was formerly common before such words 7as1--an union1 such an one71 but a is now the settled form4 #b4 ,before words beginning with h and not accented on the first syllable1 an is often used4 ,thus1 we say-- a history2 ,,but1 an historical novel4 ,in such cases1 the h is very weak in sound1 and is sometimes quite silent1 so that the word practically begins with a vowel4 ,usage varies1 but careful writers favor the rule here given4 ,an was formerly more common before h than at present4 #agh4 ,with two or more connected nouns or adjectives the article should be repeated whenever clearness requires 7cf4 #abc74 ,i have consulted the secretary and the treasurer4 8,the secretary and treasurer0 would imply that the same person held both offices4 ,i found an anchor and a chain4 8,an anchor and chain0 would suggest that the chain was attached to the anchor4 ,in some towns there are separate schools for the boys and the girls2 in others the boys and girls attend the same schools4 ,he waved a red and white flag4 ,he waved a red and a white flag4 #agi4 ,a is often used distributively1 in the sense of each4 ,i paid five dollars a pair for my shoes4 ,the letter-carrier calls twice a day4 ,my class meets three times a week4 ,in such phrases a is better than per1 except in strictly commercial language4 #ahj4 ,when used with adjectives1 the articles precede1 except in a few phrases3 as1-- ,such an uproar was never heard4 ,many a man has tried in vain4 ,for the adverb the1 which is quite distinct from the article in use and meaning1 see #aie4 ,for the preposition a 7as in 8,he went a-fishing071 see #ceb4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,adjectives #aha4 ,in comparing objects with each other1 we may use three different forms of the same adjective4 ,thomas is strong4 ,william is stronger than ,thomas4 ,herbert is strongest of the three4 ,this inflection of adjectives is called comparison1 and the three forms are called degrees of comparison4 #ahb4 ,the degrees of comparison indicate by their form in what degree of intensity the quality described by the adjective exists4 ,there are three degrees of comparison1--the positive1 the comparative1 and the superlative4 #a4 ,the positive degree is the simplest form of the adjective1 and has no special ending4 ,it merely describes the quality1 without expressing or suggesting any comparison4 ,thomas is strong4 ,thus1 the positive degree of the adjective strong is strong4 #b4 ,the comparative degree of an adjective is formed by adding the termination er to the positive degree4 ,it denotes that the quality exists in the object described in a higher degree than in some other object4 ,william is stronger than ,thomas4 ,thus1 the comparative degree of the adjective strong is stronger4 #c4 ,the superlative degree is formed by adding est to the positive degree4 ,it denotes that the quality exists in the highest degree in the object described4 ,herbert is strongest of the three4 ,other examples of the comparison of adjectives are3-- ,,positive ,,degree ,,comparative ,,degree ,,superlative ,,degree rich richer richest poor poorer poorest fast faster fastest firm firmer firmest #ahc4 ,,rules ,,of ,,spelling4 #a4 ,adjectives ending in silent e drop this letter before the comparative ending er and the superlative ending est4 ,thus1-- wise1 wiser1 wisest2 pure1 purer1 purest2 handsome1 handsomer1 handsomest4 #b4 ,most adjectives ending in y change y to i before the endings er and est4 ,thus1-- silky1 silkier1 silkiest2 glossy1 glossier1 glossiest2 sorry1 sorrier1 sorriest4 #c4 ,adjectives having a short vowel and ending in a single consonant double this before the endings er and est4 ,thus1-- dim1 dimmer1 dimmest2 sad1 sadder1 saddest2 fit1 fitter1 fittest2 big1 bigger1 biggest2 red1 redder1 reddest2 hot1 hotter1 hottest4 #ahd4 ,many adjectives are compared by prefixing the adverbs more and most to the positive degree4 ,many adjectives of two syllables and most adjectives of three or more syllables are so compared4 ,thus1-- recent1 more recent1 most recent2 terrible1 more terrible1 most terrible2 triumphant1 more triumphant1 most triumphant2 economical1 more economical1 most economical4 ,some adjectives may be compared in either way4 ,,examples3 intense1 intenser1 intensest2 ,,or intense1 more intense1 most intense4 ,so also--profound1 sublime1 unkind4 ,,note4 ,the adverbs less and least may be used with an adjective1 if one wishes to run down the scale of comparison3 as1--terrible1 less terrible1 least terrible4 ,this idiom1 however1 should not be regarded as comparison of the adjective4 8,superlative0 means 8in the highest degree10 and is not applicable to least terrible1 which means 8terrible in the lowest degree40 ,,irregular ,,comparison #ahe4 ,several adjectives have irregular comparison4#bc ,,positive ,,comparative ,,superlative bad 7evil1 ill7 worse worst far farther farthest ---- further furthest good better best late later1 latter latest1 last well 7in health7 better ---- little less1 lesser least much1 many more most ,old has comparative older or elder1 superlative oldest or eldest4 ,elder or eldest may be used with certain nouns of relationship1 or in the phrases the elder and the eldest4 ,this is my elder brother4 ,my brother is older than yours4 ,jane was the eldest ,i shall wear my oldest clothes4 of six children4 ,elder is also used as a noun3 as1--8,you should respect your elders40 ,next is a superlative of nigh4 ,it is used only in the sense of 8the very nearest40 ,i live in the next street4 ,the next time he comes1 ,i shall refuse to see him4 #ahf4 ,a few superlatives end in -most4 ,with these1 one or both of the other degrees are commonly wanting4 ,,positive ,,comparative ,,superlative ---- 7former7 foremost hind hinder hindmost ---- inner inmost1 innermost 7out1 adverb7 outer outmost1 outermost 7utter7 utmost1 uttermost 7up1 adverb7 upper uppermost ---- ---- endmost ---- nether nethermost top ---- topmost ---- ---- furthermost north ---- northmost northern 7more northern7 northernmost south ---- southmost southern 7more southern7 southernmost east1 eastern 7more eastern7 easternmost west1 western 7more western7 westernmost ,,note4 ,the ending -most is not the adverb most4 ,it is a very old superlative ending -mest changed under the influence of the adverb most4 #ahg4 ,for adjectives incapable of comparison1 see #bjb4 ,for special rules for the use of comparative and superlative1 see #aii-bjc4 #ahh4 ,in parsing an adjective1 tell whether it is descriptive or definitive1 mention the substantive to which it belongs1 and specify the degree of comparison4 ,,chapter ,v ,,adverbs #ahi4 ,an adverb is a word which modifies a verb1 an adjective1 or another adverb4 ,the storm ceased suddenly4 ,a very disastrous storm swept the coast4 ,the storm ceased very suddenly4 #aij4 ,adverbs are classified according to their meaning as3 7#a7 adverbs of manner2 7#b7 adverbs of time2 7#c7 adverbs of place2 7#d7 adverbs of degree4#bd #a4 ,adverbs of manner answer the question 8,how80 8,in what way80 ,they modify verbs or adjectives1 rarely adverbs4 ,most of them are formed from adjectives by adding ly4 ,tom answered courageously4 ,the poor child looked helplessly about4 ,softly and silently fell the snow4 ,the pain was terribly severe4 ,the river rose surprisingly fast4 #b4 ,adverbs of time answer the question 8,when80 ,they usually modify verbs4 ,thus1-- ,the old castle is now a museum4 ,he was recently promoted4 ,i have been disturbed lately4 ,my friend arrives to-day4 ,james was then a boy of seven4 ,i have already rung the bell4 ,afterwards he regretted his haste4 #c4 ,adverbs of place answer the question 8,where80 ,they usually modify verbs4 ,thus1-- ,come here4 ,yonder stands the culprit4 ,an old sailor came forward4 ,my sister is out4 ,i was abroad that winter4 #d4 ,adverbs of degree answer the question 8,to what degree or extent80 ,they modify verbs1 adjectives1 and adverbs4 ,thus1-- ,arthur is rather tall4 ,father was much pleased4 ,father was very much pleased4 ,the task seemed utterly hopeless4 ,that is hardly possible4 ,that is not possible4 #aia4 ,some adverbs have the same form as the corresponding adjectives4 ,you have guessed right4 ,how fast the tide ebbs6 ,the horse was sold cheap4 ,tired men sleep sound4 ,other examples are3--wrong1 straight1 early1 late1 quick1 hard1 far1 near1 slow1 high1 low1 loud1 ill1 well1 deep1 close1 just1 very1 much1 little4 ,under this head come certain adverbs of degree used to modify adjectives4 ,his eyes were dark blue4 ,compare3 very blue4 ,that silk is light yellow4 ,compare3 rather yellow4 ,these flowers are deep purple4 ,compare3 intensely purple4 ,the water was icy cold4 ,compare3 extremely cold4 ,that dark1 light1 etc41 are adverbs in this use appears from the fact that they answer the question 8,how80 ,thus1--8,his eyes were blue40 8,how blue80 8,dark blue40 ,,note4 ,in the oldest ,english many adverbs ended in -1 as if formed directly from adjectives by means of this ending4 ,thus1 the adjective for hot was ht1 side by side with which was an adverb ht 7dissyllabic71 meaning hotly4 ,in the fourteenth century this distinction was still kept up4 ,thus1 ,chaucer used both the adjective ht and the dissyllabic adverb ht1 meaning hotly4 ,between #adjj and #aejj all weak final e's disappeared from the language4 ,in this way the adverb hot1 for example1 became simply hot4 ,thus these adverbs in - became identical in form with the corresponding adjectives4 ,hence in the time of ,shakspere there existed1 in common use1 not only the adjective hot1 but also the adverb hot 7identical in form with the adjective but really descended from the adverb hot74 ,one could say not only 8,the fire is hot0 7adjective71 but 8,the fire burns hot0 7adverb of manner74 ,the tendency in modern ,english has been to confine the form without ending to the adjective use and to restrict the adverbial function to forms in -ly4 ,thus1 a writer of the present time would not say1 in prose1 8,the fire burns hot10 but 8,the fire burns hotly40 ,nevertheless1 a number of the old adverbs without ending still remain in good use1 and must not be regarded as erroneous4 ,in poetry1 moreover1 such adverbs are freely employed2 as1--8,the boy like a gray goshawk stared wild40 ,in prose3 stared wildly4 ,for adverbial phrases1 see #da-db1 #dge4 ,for the adverbial objective1 see #aji4 #aib4 ,yes and no are peculiar adverbs used in assenting and denying4 ,thus1-- ,are you hungry8 ,no4 ,,note4 ,as now used1 yes and no stand for complete sentences4 ,originally1 however1 they were modifiers1 and hence they are still classed as adverbs4 ,the original meaning of no was 8never40 ,compare never as an emphatic negative in modern ,english3 as1--8,will you surrender80 8,never60 ,the oldest affirmative adverb was yea4 ,yes was originally a compound of yea with a form of so1 and was used in emphatic affirmatives 7like our just so674 ,other adverbs or adverbial phrases are sometimes used like yes or no4 ,such are certainly1 assuredly1 by no means1 not at all4 ,in these cases1 however1 the modifying effect of the word or phrase may easily be seen when the sentence is supplied4 ,thus1--8,will you help me80 8,certainly ,i will help you40 #aic4 ,there is often used merely to introduce a sentence in the inverted order 7 #e74 ,there is a hole in my shoe4 ,there are many strangers in town4 ,there rose a thick smoke from the volcano4 ,in this use1 there is sometimes called an expletive 7or 8filler074 ,it is unemphatic1 and has lost all its force as an adverb of place4 ,contrast 8,,there emphatic stood an ,indian under a tree0 with1 8,there unemphatic expletive stood an ,indian under a tree40 ,,relative ,,and ,,interrogative ,,adverbs #aid4 ,relative adverbs introduce subordinate clauses and are similar in their use to relative pronouns4 ,i know a farmhouse in which where we can spend the night4 ,where is an adverb of place1 modifying can spend4 ,but it also introduces the subordinate clause1 as the relative pronoun which does4 ,hence where is called a relative adverb4 #aie4 ,the principal relative adverbs are3--where1 whence1 whither1 wherever1 when1 whenever1 while1 as1 how1 why1 before1 after1 till1 until1 since4 ,because of their similarity to conjunctions1 these words are often called conjunctive adverbs4 ,he had a fever when he was in ,spain4 ,work while it is day4 ,as the ship passed1 we observed that her decks were crowded with ,malays4 ,time4 ,keep to the right1 as the law directs4 ,manner4 ,you started before ,i was ready4 ,wait until the car stops4 ,since you came1 it has rained constantly4 ,as and since in the sense of 8because10 and while in the sense of 8although10 are classed as conjunctions 7 #cfh74 ,the clauses introduced by relative adverbs may be either adjective or adverbial 7 #di-ej1 #cgi-chb74 ,,note4 ,in 8,the more you waste1 the sooner you will want0 7and similar sentences7 the is not an article1 but an old case-form of the pronoun that1 used as an adverb of degree4 ,we may expand the sentence as follows3 8,to what extent you waste more1 to that extent you will want sooner40 ,thus it appears that the first the has a relative force1 and the second the a demonstrative force4 #aif4 ,an interrogative adverb introduces a question4 ,where1 when1 whence1 whither1 how1 why1 may be used as interrogative adverbs4 ,thus1-- ,where are you going8 ,why must you go8 ,,comparison ,,of ,,adverbs #aig4 ,adverbs have three degrees of comparison1--the positive1 the comparative1 and the superlative4 #a4 ,most adverbs are compared by means of more and most4 ,john came promptly4 ,positive4 ,richard came more promptly than ,john4 ,comparative4 ,henry came most promptly of all4 ,superlative4 #b4 ,a few adverbs are compared by means of the endings er and est4 ,thus1-- ,,positive ,,comparative ,,superlative near nearer nearest soon sooner soonest ,further examples are3--cheap1 dear1 early1 fast1 hard1 high1 long1 loud1 quick1 slow1 deep4#be ,some adverbs are compared in both ways4 ,thus1-- often1 oftener or more often1 oftenest or most often4 #aih4 ,several adverbs have irregular comparison4 ,,positive ,,comparative ,,superlative far farther farthest forth further furthest ill worse worst badly nigh nigher nighest next well better best latest late later last little less least much more most ,these adverbs in the main have the same forms as the adjectives studied in #ahe above4 ,note1 however3 7#a7 that good and bad are never adverbs2 7#b7 that ill and well1 better and best1 worse and worst1 may be either adverbs or adjectives4 ,rather is now used in the comparative only4 ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,comparative ,,and ,,superlative #aii4 ,the comparative degree1 not the superlative1 is used in comparing two persons or things4 ,the superlative is used in comparing one person or thing with two or more4 ,right3 ,mary is the more agreeable of the two4 ,mary is the most agreeable of all the family4 ,wrong3 ,i like both ,mary and ,jane1 but ,i am fondest of ,mary4 ,i am studying ,latin1 history1 and geometry1 but ,i dislike the latter4 ,the same principle applies to adverbs4 ,john runs faster than ,tom4 ,here the acts of two persons are compared4 ,which of you three can run fastest8 ,here the acts of more than two are compared4 ,,note4 ,in older ,english the superlative sometimes occurs when only two objects are thought of4 ,this use is still found in a few proverbial phrases3 as1--8,put your best foot foremost40 #bjj4 ,the superlative is sometimes used merely for emphasis1 without implying any definite comparison3 as--8,my dearest ,kate60 ,the superlative of emphasis is very common with most4 ,most potent1 grave1 and reverend signiors4--,,shakspere4 ,justice had been most cruelly defrauded4--,,wordsworth4 ,excessive use of this construction 7like frequent repetition of very7 is tiresome and weakens style4 ,double comparison 7as more worthier1 most unkindest7 is common in older ,english1 but is now a gross error4 #bja4 ,when two adjectives or adverbs are contrasted by means of than1 more is used with the first4 ,such indulgence is more kind than wise4 ,this scheme is more clever than honest4 ,he acts more boldly than discreetly4 ,,note4 ,the adverb rather is often used with the first adjective or adverb 7as1--8rather kind than wise0 or 8kind rather than wise071 but in a slightly different sense4 #bjb4 ,many adjectives and adverbs are1 from their meaning1 incapable of comparison4 ,such are3-- #a4 ,adjectives expressing a quality as absolute or complete1 and adverbs derived from such adjectives4 ,,examples3 unique1 universal1 single1 matchless1 instantaneous1 triangular1 everlasting1 infinite1 mortal2 uniquely1 singly1 eternally1 mortally4 #b4 ,the adverbs here1 there1 then1 now1 when1 and the like4 ,,note4 ,words like perfect1 exact1 straight1 etc41 are commonly said to be incapable of comparison1 but this is an error4 ,for each of these words may vary in sense4 ,when perfect 7for example7 denotes absolute perfection1 it cannot be compared4 ,but perfect has also another sense3 namely1 8partaking in a higher or lower degree of the qualities that make up absolute perfection10 so that we may describe one statue as more perfect than another1 or one of three statues as the most perfect of them all4 ,in this use1 which is unobjectionable1 we simply admit that nothing in the world is absolutely flawless1 and assert that the three statues approach ideal perfection in various degrees4 #bjc4 ,an adjective phrase may sometimes be compared by means of more and most4 ,i was never more out of humor more vexed4 ,i think your last suggestion most in keeping most appropriate4 ,,numerals--,,adjectives1 ,,nouns1 ,,and ,,adverbs #bjd4 ,words indicating number are called numerals4 ,they are adjectives1 nouns1 or adverbs4 ,there are seven days in the week4 ,adjective4 ,twelve make a dozen4 ,noun4 ,i have called twice4 ,adverb4 #bje4 ,the chief classes of numerals are cardinals and ordinals4 #a4 ,cardinal numeral adjectives 7one1 two1 three1 four1 etc47 are used in counting1 and answer the question 8,how many80 ,i had to pay three dollars4 ,there were forty-two vessels in the fleet4 ,,note4 ,in such expressions as 8,the boy was sixteen10 the numeral is a predicate adjective limiting boy 7 #agb1 #c74 ,we need not expand sixteen to 8sixteen years old40 #b4 ,ordinal numeral adjectives 7first1 second1 third1 etc47 denote the position or order of a person or thing in a series4 ,carl plays the second violin4 ,your friend is sitting in the fifth row4 #bjf4 ,all the cardinal and ordinal numerals may become nouns and may take a plural ending in some of their senses4 ,one is enough4 ,four are missing4 ,the nine played an excellent game4 ,three twos are six4 ,the men formed by fours4 ,thousands perished by the way4 ,eight is two thirds of twelve4 ,so regularly in fractional parts4 ,,note4 ,hundred1 thousand1 million were originally nouns1 but are now equally common as adjectives4 ,other numeral nouns are3--twain1 couple1 pair1 brace1 trio1 quartette1 quintette1 foursome1 dozen1 score1 century4 #bjg4 ,certain numeral adjectives 7single1 double1 triple1 etc47 indicate how many times a thing is taken or of how many like parts it consists4 ,a double row of policemen stood on guard4 ,a fourfold layer of chilled steel forms the door4 ,some of these words may be used as adverbs4 ,the cabman charged double4 ,his fear increased tenfold4 #bjh4 ,certain numeral adverbs and adverbial phrases indicate how many times an action takes place4 ,once my assailant slipped4 ,i rang the bell twice4 ,the river hath thrice flow'd1 no ebb between4--,,shakspere4 ,the only adverbs of this kind in ordinary use are once and twice4 ,for larger numbers an adverbial phrase 7three times1 four times1 etc47 is employed4 ,thrice1 however1 is still common in poetry and the solemn style4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,verbs ,,classification ,,of ,,verbs #bji4 ,a verb is a word which can assert something 7usually an action7 concerning a person1 place1 or thing 7 #ad74 ,most verbs express action4 ,some1 however1 merely express state or condition4 ,thus1-- #a4 ,we jumped for joy4 ,rabbits burrow into the sides of hills4 #b4 ,while memory lasts1 ,i can never forget you4 ,this mountain belongs to the ,appalachian range4 ,a verb-phrase is a group of words that is used as a verb 7 #ae74 ,the leaves are turning4 ,the money has been found4 #baj4 ,certain verbs1 when used to make verb-phrases1 are called auxiliary 7that is1 8aiding07 verbs1 because they help other verbs to express action or state of some particular kind 7 #af74 ,the auxiliary verbs are is 7are1 was1 were1 etc471 may1 can1 must1 might1 shall1 will1 could1 would1 should1 have1 had1 do1 did4 ,i am writing4 ,we must go4 ,you will fall4 ,he has forgotten me4 ,we had failed4 ,i do see him4 ,the auxiliary verb may be separated from the rest of the verb-phrase by other words4 ,i have always liked him4 ,i shall soon send for you4 ,robert was completely bewildered4 ,he has hardly ever spoken to me4 #baa4 ,verbs are either transitive or intransitive 7 #ii74 ,some verbs may be followed by a substantive denoting that which receives the action or is produced by it4 ,these are called transitive verbs4 ,all other verbs are called intransitive4 ,a substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is called its direct object4 ,in the following sentences1 the first four verbs are transitive 7with objects71 the last five are intransitive 7without objects73-- ,lightning shattered the oak4 ,clouds darkened the sky4 ,chemists extract radium from pitchblende4 ,the orator quoted ,tennyson incorrectly4 ,look where he stands and glares6 ,the bankrupt absconded4 ,the orange sky of evening died away4 ,the words differ in a single letter4 #bab4 ,a verb which is transitive in one of its senses may be intransitive in another4 ,,transitive 7,,with ,,object7 ,,intransitive 7,,without ,,object7 ,boys fly kites4 ,birds fly4 ,the pirates sank the ship4 ,the stone sank4 ,i closed my eyes4 ,school closed yesterday4 ,tom tore his coat4 ,the cloth tore easily4 #bac4 ,many transitive verbs may be used absolutely1--that is1 merely to express action without any indication of the direct object4 ,,transitive ,,verb ,,transitive ,,verb ,,used ,,absolutely ,,with ,,object ,,expressed ,the horses drank water4 ,the horses drank from the brook4 ,the farmer plows his fields4 ,the farmer plows in the spring4 ,charles is drawing a picture4 ,charles is drawing4 ,there is a sharp contrast between a transitive verb used absolutely and a real intransitive verb4 ,to the former we can always add an object2 with the latter no object is possible4 #bad4 ,is 7in its various forms7 and several other verbs may be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in the predicate describe or define the subject 7 #ag74 ,such verbs are called copulative 7that is1 8joining07 verbs4 ,is in this use is often called the copula 7or 8link074 ,time is money4 ,grant was a tireless worker4 ,macbeth became a tyrant4 ,his swans always prove geese4 ,the current is sluggish4 ,lions are carnivorous4 ,this village looks prosperous4 ,the consul's brow grew stern4 ,the queen turned pale4 ,in the first four examples1 the copulative verb 7the simple predicate#bf7 is followed by a predicate nominative 7 #hh1 #b72 in the last five by a predicate adjective 7 #agb1 #c74 ,the copulative verbs are intransitive1 since they take no object4 ,sometimes1 however1 they are regarded as a third class distinct both from transitive and intransitive verbs4 #bae4 ,the verb is is not always a copula4 ,it is sometimes emphatic and has the sense of exist4 ,i think4 ,therefore ,i am4 ,that is1 ,i exist4 ,whatever is1 is right4 ,the second is is the copula4 ,most of the other copulative verbs may be used in some sense in which they cease to be copulative4 ,the lawyer proved his case4 ,walnut trees grow slowly4 ,mr4 ,watson grows peaches4 ,the wheel turned slowly on the axle4 ,he turned his head and looked at me4 ,,inflection ,,of ,,verbs #baf4 ,verbs have inflections of tense1 person and number1 and mood4 ,they also have the distinction of voice1 which is expressed by the help of verb-phrases4 ,tense indicates time2 person and number correspond with person and number in substantives2 mood shows the manner in which the action is expressed2 voice indicates whether the subject acts or is acted upon4 ,,tense ,,of ,,verbs #bag4 ,the tense of a verb indicates its time4#bg ,verbs have forms of tense to indicate present1 past1 or future time4 #a4 ,a verb in the present tense refers to present time4 #b4 ,a verb in the past tense refers to past time4#bh #c4 ,a verb in the future tense refers to future time4 ,the present1 the past1 and the future are called simple tenses4 ,,present ,,tense ,,past ,,tense ,,future ,,tense ,he lives here4 ,he lived here4 ,he will live here4 ,the sun shines4 ,the sun shone4 ,the sun will shine4 ,i know him4 ,i knew him4 ,i shall know him4 ,,forms ,,of ,,the ,,present ,,and ,,the ,,past #bah4 ,the present and the past tense have special forms of inflection4 ,for the moment we will consider the form which the verb has when its subject is the first personal pronoun ,i4 ,in the present tense the verb has its simplest form1 without any inflectional ending4 ,i like it4 ,i hope for the best4 ,i dwell in the wilderness4 ,i find him amusing4 #bai4 ,the past tense is formed in two ways1 and a verb is classed as weak or strong in accordance with the way in which it forms this tense4 #a4 ,weak verbs form the past tense by adding ed1 d1 or t to the present4 ,,examples3 mend1 mended2 select1 selected2 fill1 filled2 glow1 glowed2 talk1 talked2 revere1 revered2 dwell1 dwelt4 #b4 ,strong verbs form the past tense by changing the vowel of the present1 without the addition of an ending4 ,,examples3 drink1 drank2 begin1 began2 come1 came2 rise1 rose2 bind1 bound2 cling1 clung2 stick1 stuck2 wear1 wore4#bi ,weak verbs are sometimes called regular1 and strong verbs irregular verbs4 ,for a list of the strong verbs see pp4 #bia-big4 ,,note4 ,the terms strong and weak were first applied to verbs for a somewhat fanciful reason4 ,the strong verbs were so called because they seemed to form the past tense out of their own resources1 without calling to their assistance any ending4 ,the weak verbs were so called because they could not form the past tense without the aid of the ending ed1 d1 or t4 #bbj4 ,the ending that is written ed is fully pronounced only when d or t precedes 7as1--thread1 threaded2 attract1 attracted74 ,otherwise1 e is silent1 so that the ending becomes1 in pronunciation1 d or t 7as1--entered1 pronounced enter'd2 rocked1 pronounced rockt74 ,in poetry and the solemn style1 however1 the silent e in the ending ed is sometimes restored to its ancient rights4 #bba4 ,many weak verbs show special irregularities in the past tense4 #a4 ,make has made in the past1 and have has had4 #b4 ,some verbs in -nd and -ld form their past tense by changing this d to t4 ,,examples3 bend1 bent2 send1 sent2 lend1 lent2 rend1 rent2 spend1 spent2 build1 built4 #c4 ,a few verbs add d or t in the past and also change the vowel of the present4 ,thus1-- sell sold tell told shoe shod say said 7pronounced sed7 hear heard 7pronounced herd7 bring brought buy bought catch caught seek sought beseech besought teach taught methinks methought ,work has an old past tense wrought1 common in poetry2 its usual past is worked4 ,for must1 would1 etc41 see p4 #bii4 #d4 ,some verbs that have a long vowel sound in the present have in the past a short vowel sound before the ending t4 ,,examples3 creep1 crept2 keep1 kept2 sleep1 slept2 sweep1 swept2 weep1 wept2 feel1 felt2 deal1 dealt 7pronounced delt72 mean1 meant 7pronounced ment72 lose1 lost2 leave1 left4#cj #e4 ,some verbs in d or t preceded by a long vowel sound have a short vowel in the past but add no ending4 ,,examples3 bleed1 bled2 breed1 bred2 feed1 fed2 speed1 sped2 lead1 led2 read 7pronounced reed71 read 7pronounced red72 meet1 met2 light1 lit 7also lighted74 #f4 ,some verbs in d or t have in the past the same form as in the present4 ,,examples3 shed1 past shed2 spread1 past spread2 bet1 past bet2 hit1 past hit2 set1 past set2 put1 past put2 shut1 past shut2 cut1 past cut2 hurt1 past hurt2 cast1 past cast4 ,,note4 ,the verbs in #e and #f might appear to be strong verbs1 since they have no ending in the past and some of them change the vowel4 ,they are1 however1 all weak verbs4 ,their lack of ending is due to the fact that the d or t of the termination has been absorbed in the final d or t of the verb itself4 ,thus1 the past set was originally sett 7dissyllabic71 and this form1 after the loss of -1 became indistinguishable in sound from set1 the present4 ,for lists of irregular weak verbs1 see pp4 #bia-bii4 ,,person ,,and ,,number--,,the ,,personal ,,endings #bbb4 ,a verb must agree with its subject in number and person4 ,verbs1 like substantives1 have two numbers 7singular and plural7 and three persons 7first1 second1 and third74 ,the singular number denotes a single person or thing4 ,the plural number denotes more than one person or thing4 ,the first person denotes the speaker2 the second person denotes the person spoken to2 the third person denotes the person or thing spoken of4 #bbc4 ,the inflections of person and number in verbs may be seen by framing sentences with the personal pronouns as subjects4 ,thus1-- ,,present ,,tense ,,singular ,,plural #a4 ,i walk4 #a4 ,we walk4 #b4 ,thou walk-est4 #b4 ,you walk4 #c4 ,he walk-s old form1 walk-eth4 #c4 ,they walk4 ,,past ,,tense ,,singular ,,plural #a4 ,i walked4 #a4 ,we walked4 #b4 ,thou walked-st4 #b4 ,you walked4 #c4 ,he walked4 #c4 ,they walked4 ,from the sentences it is evident 7#a7 that the person and number of a verb are usually shown by its subject only1 but 7#b7 that some verb-forms have special endings which denote person and number4 #bbd4 ,the endings by means of which a verb indicates person and number are called personal endings4 #a4 ,in the present tense a verb has two personal endings1 est for the second person singular and s for the third person singular 7old form eth74 ,the first person singular and all three persons of the plural are alike4 ,the simplest form of the verb is used and no personal ending is added4 #b4 ,the past tense has but one personal ending1--est or st in the second person singular4#ca ,the forms in est or st are confined to poetry and the solemn style4 ,in ordinary language1 the second person plural is used to address a single person4 ,the following table shows the personal endings of the present and the past tense3-- ,,personal ,,endings ,,present ,,tense ,,singular ,,plural #a4 no ending #a4 #b4 -est1 -st #b4 no ending #c4 -s old1 -eth #c4 ,,past ,,tense ,,singular ,,plural #a4 no ending #a4 #b4 -est1 -st #b4 no ending #c4 no ending #c4 ,,conjugation ,,of ,,the ,,present ,,and ,,the ,,past #bbe4 ,the inflection of a verb is called its conjugation 7 #ec74 ,when we inflect a verb we are said to conjugate it4 ,,conjugation ,,of ,,the ,,weak ,,verb ,,walk ,,present ,,tense ,,singular ,,plural #a4 ,i walk4 #a4 ,we walk4 #b4 ,thou walkest4#cb #b4 ,you walk4 #c4 ,he walks4 #c4 ,they walk4 ,,past ,,tense ,,singular ,,plural #a4 ,i walked4 #a4 ,we walked4 #b4 ,thou walkedst4 #b4 ,you walked4 #c4 ,he walked4 #c4 ,they walked4 ,,conjugation ,,of ,,the ,,strong ,,verb ,,find ,,present ,,tense ,,singular ,,plural #a4 ,i find4 #a4 ,we find4 #b4 ,thou findest4 #b4 ,you find4 #c4 ,he finds4 #c4 ,they find4 ,,past ,,tense ,,singular ,,plural #a4 ,i found4 #a4 ,we found4 #b4 ,thou foundest4 #b4 ,you found4 #c4 ,he found4 #c4 ,they found4 ,,conjugation ,,of ,,the ,,copula ,,present ,,tense ,,singular ,,plural #a4 ,i am4 #a4 ,we are4 #b4 ,thou art4 #b4 ,you are4 #c4 ,he is4 #c4 ,they are4 ,,past ,,tense ,,singular ,,plural #a4 ,i was4 #a4 ,we were4 #b4 ,thou wast4 #b4 ,you were4 #c4 ,he was4 #c4 ,they were4 ,,note4 ,the ,english verb formerly had more personal endings4 ,in ,chaucer1 for instance1 the typical inflection of the present is3-- ,,singular ,,plural #a4 ,i walk4 #a4 ,we walken 7or walk74 #b4 ,thou walkest4 #b4 ,ye walken 7or walk74 #c4 ,he walketh4 #c4 ,they walken 7or walk74 ,the disappearance of all weak final e's in the fifteenth century 7 #aia7 reduced the first person singular and the whole plural to the single form walk4 ,later1 walks 7a dialect form7 was substituted for walketh1 and still later the second person singular was replaced in ordinary use by the plural4 ,the result has been that in modern speech there are only two common forms in the present tense1--walk and walks4 ,in poetry and the solemn style1 however1 walkest and walketh are still in use4 ,the plural in en is frequently adopted by ,spenser as an ancient form 7or archaism73 as1--8,you deemen the spring is come40 ,,special ,,rules ,,of ,,number ,,and ,,person #bbf4 ,when the subject is compound 7 #ch71 the number of the verb is determined by the following rules3-- #a4 ,a compound subject with and usually takes a verb in the plural number4 ,my brother and sister play tennis4 ,the governor and the mayor are cousins4 #b4 ,a compound subject with or or nor takes a verb in the singular number if the substantives are singular4 ,either my brother or my sister is sure to win4 ,neither the governor nor the mayor favors this appointment4 #c4 ,a compound subject with and expressing but a single idea sometimes takes a verb in the singular number4 ,the sum and substance gist of the matter is this4 ,,note4 ,this construction is rare in modern ,english prose4 ,it is for the most part confined to such idiomatic phrases as end and aim 7 purpose71 the long and short of it1 etc4 ,the poets1 however1 use the construction freely 7as in ,kipling's 8,the tumult and the shouting dies074 #d4 ,if the substantives connected by or or nor differ in number or person1 the verb usually agrees with the nearer4 ,either you or he is to blame4 ,neither you nor he is an ,austrian4 ,neither ,john nor we were at home4 ,neither the mayor nor the aldermen favor this law4 ,but colloquial usage varies1 and such expressions are avoided by careful writers4 ,the following sentences show how this may be done3-- ,either you are to blame1 or he is4 ,one of you two is to blame4 ,neither of you is an ,austrian4 ,he is not afraid2 neither am ,i4 ,both ,john and we were away from home4 #bbg4 ,in such expressions as the following1 the subject is not compound1 and the verb agrees with its singular subject3-- ,the governor with his staff is present4 ,john1 as well as ,mary1 is in ,london4 ,tom1 along with his friends ,dick and ,bob1 is taking a sail4 #bbh4 ,nouns that are plural in form but singular in sense commonly take a verb in the singular number 7 #hd74 ,economics is an important study4 ,the gallows has been abolished in ,massachusetts4 ,in some words usage varies4 ,thus1 pains1 in the sense of care or effort1 is sometimes regarded as a singular and sometimes as a plural4 ,great pains has 7or have7 been taken about the matter4 #bbi4 ,collective nouns take sometimes a singular and sometimes a plural verb4 ,when the persons or things denoted are thought of as individuals1 the plural should be used4 ,when the collection is regarded as a unit1 the singular should be used4#cc #a4 ,the ,senior ,class requests the pleasure of your company4 ,here the class is thought of collectively1 acting as a unit4 #b4 ,the ,senior ,class are unable to agree upon a president4 ,here the speaker has in mind the individuals of whom the class is composed4 #c4 ,the nation welcomes ,prince ,joseph4 ,the whole nation unites as a single individual to welcome a distinguished guest4 #d4 ,the ,american nation are descended from every other nation on earth4 ,the separate qualities of the individuals who constitute the nation are in the speaker's mind4 #bcj4 ,a number in the sense of 8several0 or 8many0 regularly takes the plural2 the number takes the singular4 ,a number of sailors were loitering on the pier4 ,the number of tickets is limited4 #bca4 ,half1 part1 portion1 and the like1 take either the singular or the plural according to sense4 ,half of a circle is a semicircle4 ,half of the passengers were lost4 #bcb4 ,a verb which has for its subject a relative pronoun is in the same person and number as the antecedent4 ,for examples1 see #adi4 ,errors are especially common in such sentences as1-- ,this is one of the strangest sights that ever were seen4 ,the antecedent of that is sights 7not one72 hence the relative 7that7 is plural1 and accordingly the verb is plural 7were1 not was74 ,mr4 ,winn's oration was among the most eloquent that have ,,not has been delivered in this state for many years4 ,this is one of the finest paintings there are in the hall4 ,for the omission of the relative1 see #aea4 ,,the ,,future ,,tense #bcc4 ,the future tense is a verb-phrase consisting of the auxiliary verb shall or will followed by the infinitive without to 7 #bi74 ,the following table shows the form of the future for each of the three persons 7#a7 in assertions and 7#b7 in questions3-- ,,future ,,tense ,,assertions 7,,declarative7 ,,singular ,,plural #a4 ,i shall fall4 #a4 ,we shall fall4 #b4 ,thou wilt fall4 #b4 ,you will fall4 #c4 ,he will fall4 #c4 ,they will fall4 ,,questions 7,,interrogative7 ,,singular ,,plural #a4 ,shall ,i fall8 #a4 ,shall we fall8 #b4 ,shalt thou fall8 #b4 ,shall you fall8 #c4 ,will he fall8 #c4 ,will they fall8 #bcd4 ,common errors are the use of will for shall 7#a7 in the first person in assertions and questions1 and 7#b7 in the second person in questions4 ,in the following sentences the first person of the future tense is correctly formed3-- ,i shall ,,not will drown4 ,shall ,,not will ,i drown8 ,i shall ,,not will fail4 ,shall ,,not will ,i fail8 ,we shall ,,not will sink4 ,shall ,,not will we sink8 ,the verb-phrases with shall express merely the action of the verb in future time4 ,they do not indicate any willingness or desire on the part of the subject4 ,contrast the following sentences1 in which ,i will or we will is used3-- ,i will go with you4 ,i will give you what you ask4 ,i will not endure it4 ,we will allow you to enter4 ,we will have the truth4 ,here the verb-phrases with will do not 7as in the previous examples of ,i shall7 express the action of the verb in future time4 ,they express the present willingness or desire or determination of the speaker to do something in the future4 ,hence such verb-phrases with will in the first person are not forms of the future tense4 ,they are special verb-phrases expressing willingness or desire4 #bce4 ,in the first person shall1 not will1 is the auxiliary of the future tense in both assertions and questions4 ,it denotes simple futurity1 without expressing willingness1 desire1 or determination4 ,will in the first person is used in promising1 threatening1 consenting1 and expressing resolution4 ,it never denotes simple futurity4 ,i4 ,,simple ,,futurity 7,,future ,,tense7 ,i shall be eighteen years old in ,july4 ,,not3 will be4 ,hurry1 or we shall miss our train4 ,,not3 will miss4 ,we shall be glad to see him4 ,,not3 will be4 ,,ii4 ,,promises1 ,,threats1 ,,etc4 ,i will subscribe to your fund4 ,promise4 ,we will do our best4 ,promise4 ,i will discharge you if you are late again4 ,threat4 ,we will permit you to go4 ,consent4 ,i will have obedience4 ,resolution4 ,i'll and we'll are contractions of ,i will and we will and can never stand for ,i shall and we shall4 ,i'll meet you at noon4 ,promise4 ,i'll never consent4 ,resolution4 ,we'll be revenged on you4 ,threat4 #bcf4 ,when willingness is expressed by an adjective1 ,i shall is correct2 when by an adverb1 ,i will4 ,thus1-- ,i shall be glad to help you4 ,i will gladly help you4 ,,note4 ,such expressions as ,i shall be glad1 ,i shall be willing1 ,i shall be charmed to do this1 express willingness not by means of shall but in the adjectives glad1 willing1 charmed4 ,to say1 8,i will be glad to do this10 then1 would be wrong1 for it would be to express volition twice4 ,such a sentence could only mean 8,i am determined to be glad to do this40 ,on the other hand1 in 8,i will gladly help you10 volition is expressed by the verb-phrase will help and the adverb merely modifies the phrase by emphasizing the speaker's willingness4 ,hence ,i will is correct4 #bcg4 ,will1 when emphasized1 always expresses determination on the part of the subject1 even in the second and third persons4 ,i ,,will go1 no matter what you say4 ,you ,,will ,he ,,will act foolishly1 in spite of my advice4 #bch4 ,in the second person ,shall you8 not ,will you8 is the proper form of the future tense in questions4 ,will you8 always denotes willingness1 consent1 or determination1 and never simple futurity4 ,note that in questions in the second person1 the auxiliary used is the same as that expected in the answer4 ,i4 ,,future ,,tense 7,,simple ,,futurity7 ,shall you be disappointed if he does not come8 ,i shall4 ,shall you regret his absence8 ,i shall4 ,shall you go by boat or by train8 ,i shall go by boat4 ,,ii4 ,,verb-,,phrase ,,denoting ,,willingness1 ,,etc4 ,will you write often8 ,i will4 ,will you allow me to help you8 ,i will4 ,will you be so kind as to open the window8 ,i will4 #bci4 ,shall in the second and third persons is not the sign of the future tense in declarative sentences4 ,it is used in commanding1 promising1 threatening1 and expressing resolution1 the volition being that of the speaker4 ,thou shalt not kill4 ,command4 ,you shall have the hat before ,monday4 ,promise4 ,you shall pay for this insult6 ,threat4 ,she shall not regret her generosity4 ,resolution4 ,in prophetic language1 shall is common in the second and third persons1 even when there is no idea of commanding or the like4 ,the sun shall be turned into darkness and the moon into blood4--,joel ii4 #ca4 #bdj4 ,in military orders and official communications1 custom permits the more courteous will in the place of shall in the second and third persons4 ,you will immediately report for orders4 ,heads of ,departments will submit their estimates before ,january first4 ,for shall and will in subordinate clauses1 see pp4 #acj-acb4 #bda4 ,future time may also be expressed by the present tense1 or by about or going with the infinitive 7 #cai74 ,we sail for ,havana on ,tuesday4 ,they are about to begin the study of ,greek4 ,,complete ,,or ,,compound ,,tenses #bdb4 ,completed action is denoted by special verb-phrases made by prefixing to the past participle some form of the auxiliary verb have4 ,these are called the complete or compound tenses4 ,there are three complete or compound tenses1--the perfect 7or present perfect71 the pluperfect 7or past perfect71 and the future perfect4 #a4 ,the perfect 7or present perfect7 tense denotes that the action of the verb is complete at the time of speaking4 ,it is formed by prefixing have 7hast1 has7 to the past participle4 ,i have learned my lesson4 ,he has convinced me4 ,,note4 ,with several verbs of motion the auxiliary be is sometimes used instead of have3 as1--8,my friends are gone0 7or 8have gone072 8,your time is come0 7or 8has come074 #b4 ,the pluperfect 7or past perfect7 tense denotes that the action was completed at some point in past time4 ,it is formed by prefixing had 7hadst7 to the past participle4 ,before night fell1 ,i had finished the book4 ,when ,blake had spoken1 ,allen rose to reply4 #c4 ,the future perfect tense denotes that the action will be completed at some point in future time4 ,it is formed by prefixing the future tense of have 7shall have1 etc47 to the past participle4 ,before ,i hear from you again1 ,i shall have landed at ,naples4 ,the future perfect tense is rare except in very formal writing4 #bdc4 ,the forms of the past participle will be studied in #ccd4 ,meanwhile1 the following practical rule will serve every purpose3-- ,the past participle is that verb-form which is used after ,i have4 ,,examples3 ,i have mended1 tried1 swept1 bought1 broken1 forgotten1 found1 sunk1 dug4 #bdd4 ,a verb-phrase made by prefixing having to the past participle is called the perfect participle4 ,having reached my destination1 ,i stopped4 ,a verb-phrase made by prefixing to have to the past participle is called the perfect infinitive4 ,i am sorry to have missed you4 #bde4 ,three forms of the verb are so important that they are called the principal parts4 ,these are3-- 7#a7 the first person singular of the present2 7#b7 the first person singular of the past2 7#c7 the past participle4 ,,present ,,past ,,past ,,participle 7,i7 walk 7,i7 walked walked 7,i7 think 7,i7 thought thought 7,i7 see 7,i7 saw seen 7,i7 come 7,i7 came come 7,i7 make 7,i7 made made ,,voice--,,active ,,and ,,passive #bdf4 ,voice is that property of verbs which indicates whether the subject acts or is acted upon4 ,there are two voices1 active and passive4 #a4 ,a verb is in the active voice when it represents the subject as the doer of an act4 ,richard shot the bear4 ,mr4 ,hardy builds carriages4 ,dr4 ,wilson has cured my father4 #b4 ,a verb is in the passive voice when it represents the subject as the receiver or the product of an action4 ,the bear was shot by ,richard4 ,carriages are built by ,mr4 ,hardy4 ,my father has been cured by ,dr4 ,wilson4 #bdg4 ,the passive voice of a verb is expressed by a verb-phrase made by prefixing some form of the copula 7is1 was1 etc47 to the past participle4 ,in the passive voice of the complete tenses1 the past participle been follows the proper form of the auxiliary have 7as in the third example in #bdf1 #b74 ,the passive of the infinitive is made by prefixing to be 7perfect1 to have been7 to the past participle4 ,thus1-- ,,present ,,infinitive ,,passive3 to be struck4 ,,perfect ,,infinitive ,,passive3 to have been struck4 #bdh4 ,the following table gives the conjugation of the verb strike in the active and passive of the six tenses3-- ,,active ,,voice ,,passive ,,voice ,,present ,,tense ,,singular #a4 ,i strike4 #a4 ,i am struck4 #b4 ,thou strikest4 #b4 ,thou art struck4 #c4 ,he strikes4 #c4 ,he is struck4 ,,plural #a4 ,we strike4 #a4 ,we are struck4 #b4 ,you strike4 #b4 ,you are struck4 #c4 ,they strike4 #c4 ,they are struck4 ,,past ,,tense ,,singular #a4 ,i struck4 #a4 ,i was struck4 #b4 ,thou struckest4 #b4 ,thou wast 7or wert7 struck4 #c4 ,he struck4 #c4 ,he was struck4 ,,plural #a4 ,we struck4 #a4 ,we were struck4 #b4 ,you struck4 #b4 ,you were struck4 #c4 ,they struck4 #c4 ,they were struck4 ,,future ,,tense ,,singular #a4 ,i shall strike4 #a4 ,i shall be struck4 #b4 ,thou wilt strike4 #b4 ,thou wilt be struck4 #c4 ,he will strike4 #c4 ,he will be struck4 ,,plural #a4 ,we shall strike4 #a4 ,we shall be struck4 #b4 ,you will strike4 #b4 ,you will be struck4 #c4 ,they will strike4 #c4 ,they will be struck4 ,,perfect 7,,or ,,present ,,perfect7 ,,tense ,,singular #a4 ,i have struck4 #a4 ,i have been struck4 #b4 ,thou hast struck4 #b4 ,thou hast been struck4 #c4 ,he has struck4 #c4 ,he has been struck4 ,,plural #a4 ,we have struck4 #a4 ,we have been struck4 #b4 ,you have struck4 #b4 ,you have been struck4 #c4 ,they have struck4 #c4 ,they have been struck4 ,,pluperfect 7,,or ,,past ,,perfect7 ,,tense ,,singular #a4 ,i had struck4 #a4 ,i had been struck4 #b4 ,thou hadst struck4 #b4 ,thou hadst been struck4 #c4 ,he had struck4 #c4 ,he had been struck4 ,,plural #a4 ,we had struck4 #a4 ,we had been struck4 #b4 ,you had struck4 #b4 ,you had been struck4 #c4 ,they had struck4 #c4 ,they had been struck4 ,,future ,,perfect ,,tense ,,singular #a4 ,i shall have struck4 #a4 ,i shall have been struck4 #b4 ,thou wilt have struck4 #b4 ,thou wilt have been struck4 #c4 ,he will have struck4 #c4 ,he will have been struck4 ,,plural #a4 ,we shall have struck4 #a4 ,we shall have been struck4 #b4 ,you will have struck4 #b4 ,you will have been struck4 #c4 ,they will have struck4 #c4 ,they will have been struck4 ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,passive ,,voice #bdi4 ,any sentence of which the predicate is a transitive verb followed by an object1 may be changed from the active to the passive form without affecting the sense4 ,,active4 ,richard shot the bear4 ,,passive4 ,the bear was shot by ,richard4 ,in this change1 7#a7 bear1 the object of the active verb shot1 becomes the subject of the passive verb was shot2 and 7#b7 ,richard1 the subject of the active verb shot1 becomes by ,richard1 an adverbial phrase1 modifying the passive verb was shot4 ,thus we have the rule3-- ,the object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive1 and the subject of the active verb becomes in the passive an adverbial phrase modifying the predicate verb4 ,,active ,,voice ,,passive ,,voice ,my cat caught a bird4 ,a bird was caught by my cat4 ,austin thanked ,charles4 ,charles was thanked by ,austin4 ,the bullet penetrated a tree4 ,a tree was penetrated by the bullet4 ,sargent painted that portrait4 ,that portrait was painted by ,sargent4 ,the fireman had saved the child4 ,the child had been saved by the fireman4 #bej4 ,intransitive verbs are ordinarily used in the active voice only4 ,the bystanders laughed4 ,the watchdogs bark4 ,snow is falling4 #bea4 ,an intransitive verb followed by a preposition is often used in the passive1 the object of the preposition becoming the subject of the verb4 ,,active ,,voice ,,passive ,,voice ,everybody laughed at him4 ,he was laughed at by everybody4 ,the attorney general has ,this bill has not yet not yet passed upon this bill4 been passed upon4 ,he has tampered with this lock4 ,this lock has been tampered with4 ,the cart ran over me4 ,i was run over by the cart4 ,other examples are3 talk about 7 discuss71 look or inquire into 7 investigate71 look upon 7 regard71 jeer at 7 deride71 reason with1 object to1 insist upon1 act upon4 ,,note4 ,in this idiom1 the preposition is treated like an ending attached to the verb to make it transitive4 ,in other words1 laugh at1 pass upon1 etc41 are treated as compound verbs1 and the object of the preposition is1 in effect1 the object of the compound4 ,in the passive1 this object becomes the subject and the preposition 7now lacking an object7 remains attached to the verb4 ,the passive construction is well established1 but not always graceful4 #beb4 ,the passive of some verbs of choosing1 calling1 naming1 making1 and thinking may be followed by a predicate nominative 7 #hh1 #b74 ,,active ,,voice ,,passive ,,voice 7,,predicate ,,objective7 7,,predicate ,,nominative7 ,we elected ,john president4 ,john was elected president4 ,the ,roman people called ,the chief was called the chief friend4 friend by the ,roman people4 ,the herald proclaimed him emperor4 ,he was proclaimed emperor by the herald4 ,,note4 ,in the active voice1 these verbs may take two objects referring to the same person or thing1--a direct object and a predicate objective 7 #ajd74 ,in the passive1 the direct object becomes the subject1 and the predicate objective becomes a predicate nominative1 agreeing with the subject 7 #hh1 #b74 ,,object ,,of ,,the ,,passive #bec4 ,when a verb takes both a direct and an indirect object1 one of the two is often retained after the passive1 the other becoming the subject4 ,thus1-- #a4 ,the indirect object is retained4 ,,active ,,voice ,,passive ,,voice ,my aunt gave me this watch4 ,this watch was given me by my aunt4 ,we allowed them free choice4 ,free choice was allowed them4 ,he allowed each speaker an hour4 ,an hour was allowed each speaker4 ,congress granted me a pension4 ,a pension was granted me4 ,,note4 ,the preposition to is often inserted in the passive construction1 especially with a noun2 as1--8,a small pension was granted to ,dr4 ,johnson40 #b4 ,the direct object is retained4 ,,active ,,voice ,,passive ,,voice ,we allowed them their choice4 ,they were allowed their choice4 ,he allowed each speaker an hour4 ,each speaker was allowed an hour4 ,they showed me the way4 ,i was shown the way4 ,experience has taught me wisdom4 ,i have been taught wisdom by experience4 ,the direct object after a passive verb is often called the retained object4 ,,note4 ,this construction1 though common1 is avoided by many careful writers1 except in a few well-established idioms4 ,its habitual use gives one's style a heavy and awkward air4 ,instead of 8,he was given permission10 one may say 8,he received permission02 instead of 8,i was given this watch by my aunt10 either 8,it was my aunt who gave me this watch0 or 8,this watch was a present from my aunt40 #bed4 ,the verb ask1 which may take two direct objects1--one denoting the person1 the other the thing1--sometimes retains its second object in the passive construction 7 #ajc74 ,,active4 ,we asked him his opinion4 ,,passive4 ,he was asked his opinion4 ,,progressive ,,verb-,,phrases #bee4 ,in addition to the tense-forms already described1 verbs have so-called progressive forms4 ,the progressive form of a tense represents the action of the verb as going on or continuing at the time referred to4 ,i ate my dinner4 ,i was eating my dinner4 ,while ,i was quietly reading by my fireside1 strange things were taking place in the square4 ,both ate and was eating are in the past tense4 ,but ate merely expresses a past action1 whereas was eating describes this action as continuing or in progress in past time4 #bef4 ,the progressive form is a verb-phrase made by prefixing to the present participle some form of the verb to be4 ,,progressive ,,form ,,active ,,voice ,,present ,,tense ,,singular ,,plural #a4 ,i am striking4 #a4 ,we are striking4 #b4 ,thou art striking4 #b4 ,you are striking4 #c4 ,he is striking4 #c4 ,they are striking4 ,so in the other tenses3 ,,past ,i was striking1 etc4 ,,future ,i shall be striking1 etc4 ,,perfect ,i have been striking1 etc4 ,,pluperfect ,i had been striking1 etc4 ,,future ,,perfect ,i shall have been striking1 etc4 ,,passive ,,voice ,,present ,i am being struck1 etc4 ,,past ,i was being struck1 etc4 #beg4 ,in the passive1 the progressive forms are confined to the present and the past tense4 ,he is being helped by his brother4 ,present4 ,i am being trained by ,arthur ,ray4 ,present4 ,when ,i called1 tea was being served4 ,past4 #beh4 ,in subordinate clauses1 the verb is 7in its various forms7 with its subject is often omitted in progressive phrases4 ,while waiting for the train1 ,i bought a newspaper4 ,that is1 ,while ,i was waiting4 ,though he was swimming vigorously1 he could not stem the tide4 ,when ,i am reading1 ,i like to have the light shine over my left shoulder4 ,in parsing1 the omitted words should be supplied4 #bei4 ,for such progressive forms as is building for is being built1 see #ceb4 ,,emphatic ,,verb-,,phrases #bfj4 ,the present or the past of a verb in the active voice may be expressed with emphasis by means of a verb-phrase consisting of do or did and the infinitive without to4 ,such a phrase is called the emphatic form of the present or past tense4 8,i do see you0 and 8,i did go0 differ from 8,i see you0 and 8,i went0 merely in emphasis4 ,hence do see is called the emphatic form of the present tense of see1 and did go the emphatic form of the past tense of go4 #bfa4 ,in questions and in negative statements the emphatic forms are used without the effect of emphasis4 ,did you go8 ,i did not go4 ,,note4 ,do often stands for some other verb which has just been used3 as1 8,jack swims better than ,i do10 8,you looked as tired as she did40 ,this idiom comes from the omission of the infinitive in the verb-phrase3--8,jack swims better than ,i do swim40 ,in poetry and older ,english the verb-phrase with do or did in declarative sentences often carries no emphasis1 but merely takes the place of the present or past3 as1--8,the serpent beguiled me1 and ,i did eat40 ,,mood ,,of ,,verbs #bfb4 ,mood is that property of verbs which shows the manner in which the action or state is expressed4 ,mood 7or mode7 is derived from the ,latin word modus1 8manner40 ,compare the following sentences1 noting the form of the verb in each3 ,richard is quiet4 ,is ,richard quiet8 ,if ,richard were quiet1 ,i might study4 ,richard1 be quiet4 ,in the first and second sentences1 the form is is used to assert or question a fact2 in the third1 the form were expresses a condition or supposition that is contrary to fact2 in the fourth1 the form be expresses a command or request4 ,the difference in form seen in the verb in these sentences is called a difference of mood4 #bfc4 ,there are three moods1--the indicative1 the imperative1 and the subjunctive4 #a4 ,the indicative is the mood of simple assertion or interrogation1 but it is used in other constructions also4 #b4 ,the imperative is the mood of command or request4 #c4 ,the subjunctive mood is used in certain special constructions of wish1 condition1 and the like4 ,thus1 in the examples in #bfb1 is is in the indicative1 were in the subjunctive1 and be in the imperative mood4 ,i4 ,,indicative ,,mood #bfd4 ,the ordinary forms of the indicative mood in the active and the passive voice and in all six tenses1--present1 past1 future1 perfect 7or present perfect71 pluperfect 7or past perfect71 and future perfect1--may be seen in the table on pp4 #ajh-aaj4 ,for the progressive form of the indicative1 see #bef2 for the emphatic form1 see #bfj4 #bfe4 ,the commonest uses of the indicative mood are in statements or questions as to matters of fact2 but it may express almost any other form of thought4 ,thus1 ,time and tide wait for no man4 ,assertion4 ,how goes the world with you8 ,interrogation4 ,how it rains6 ,exclamation4 ,if the river rises1 the dam will be swept away4 ,supposition4 ,i suspect that he has absconded4 ,doubt4 ,i hope that ,john will come soon4 ,desire4 ,though ,ellen dislikes algebra1 she never shirks4 ,concession4 ,you will report for duty immediately4 ,command4 ,will you allow me to use your knife8 ,request4 ,,note4 ,the indicative and the subjunctive were originally quite distinct in form1 and each had its own set of constructions4 ,but1 as our language has grown simpler in its structure1 the forms of these two moods have become almost identical1 and the uses of the indicative have been greatly multiplied at the expense of the subjunctive4 ,indeed1 there is scarcely any variety of thought expressed by the subjunctive or the imperative for which the indicative cannot also be employed4 ,it is therefore impossible to frame any satisfactory definition of the indicative4 ,its functions are too varied to be included in one general statement4 ,the indicative is often described as the mood which asserts thought as a fact1 and the subjunctive as the mood which expresses thought as supposition 7or as mere thought74 ,but the indicative1 as well as the subjunctive1 may express supposition1 condition1 doubt1 desire1 concession1 etc4 ,hence the definitions in #bfc are as exact as the facts of the language allow4 ,all the efforts of grammarians to devise more 8accurate0 definitions break down when tested by actual usage4 ,,ii4 ,,imperative ,,mood #bff4 ,the imperative is the mood of command or request4 ,hurry6 ,lie down4 ,shut the door4 ,have patience4 ,light the lamp4 ,show us the way4 ,wait a moment4 ,come to dinner4 ,the imperative has both voices1 active and passive1 but only one tense1--the present4 ,it has both numbers1 the singular and the plural1 but only one person1 the second4 ,it has the same form for both the singular and the plural4 #bfg4 #a4 ,the imperative active is the verb in its simplest form4 ,for examples1 see #bff4 ,the imperative of the verb to be is be4 ,thus1-- ,be brave4 ,be careful4 ,be sure you are right4 ,be here at noon4 #b4 ,the imperative passive is a verb-phrase consisting of be and a past participle4 ,be trusted rather than feared4 ,study your failures and be instructed by them4 #bfh4 ,the subject of an imperative is seldom expressed unless it is emphatic4 ,the subject1 when expressed1 may precede the imperative3 as1--,you sit here4 ,,note4 ,in older ,english1 the subject often followed the imperative3 as1--,go thou1 ,go you1 ,hear ye4 ,this use is now confined to the solemn style and to poetry4 #bfi4 ,the emphatic form of the imperative consists of the imperative do1 followed by the infinitive without to4 ,do tell me what he said4 ,do stand still4 ,the form with do is often used when the subject is expressed as1--,do you remain4 #bgj4 ,prohibition 7or negative command7 is commonly expressed by means of the form with do4 ,do not open a closed door without knocking4 ,do not forget to say 8thank you40 ,in poetry and the solemn style prohibition is often expressed by the simple imperative with not4 ,tell me not what too well ,i know4 ,devise not evil against thy neighbor4 ,seek not to learn my name4 #bga4 ,commands are sometimes expressed in the indicative by means of shall or will 7 #bci-bdj74 ,thou shalt not steal4 ,you will leave the room immediately4 ,for such expressions as 8,forward60 8,off with you60 and the like1 see #ecj4 ,for the imperative in conditions1 see #dah4 ,,iii3 ,,subjunctive ,,mood ,,forms ,,of ,,the ,,subjunctive #bgb4 ,the subjunctive mood is used in certain special constructions of wish1 condition1 and the like4 ,in older ,english1 the subjunctive forms were common in a variety of uses1 as they still are in poetry and the solemn style4 ,in ordinary prose1 however1 subjunctive forms are rare1 and in conversation they are hardly ever heard1 except in the case of the copula be4 ,the subjunctive forms of be are the following3-- ,,subjunctive ,,mood ,,present ,,tense ,,singular ,,plural #a4 ,if ,i be4 #a4 ,if we be4 #b4 ,if thou be4 #b4 ,if you be4 #c4 ,if he be4 #c4 ,if they be4 ,,past ,,tense ,,singular ,,plural #a4 ,if ,i were4 #a4 ,if we were4 #b4 ,if thou wert4 #b4 ,if you were4 #c4 ,if he were4 #c4 ,if they were4 ,,perfect 7,,or ,,present ,,perfect7 ,,tense ,,singular ,,plural #a4 ,if ,i have been4 #a4 ,if we have been4 #b4 ,if thou have been4 #b4 ,if you have been4 #c4 ,if he have been4 #c4 ,if they have been4 ,,pluperfect 7,,or ,,past ,,perfect7 ,,tense ,,singular ,,plural #a4 ,if ,i had been4 #a4 ,if we had been4 #b4 ,if thou hadst been4 #b4 ,if you had been4 #c4 ,if he had been4 #c4 ,if they had been4 ,if is used in the paradigm because it is in clauses beginning with if that the subjunctive is commonest in modern ,english2 but if is of course no part of the subjunctive inflection4 #bgc4 ,in other verbs1 the subjunctive active has the same forms as the indicative1 except in the second and third persons singular of the present and the perfect1 which are like the first person3-- ,,present ,,perfect #a4 ,if ,i strike4 #a4 ,if ,i have struck4 #b4 ,if thou strike4 #b4 ,if thou have struck4 #c4 ,if he strike4 #c4 ,if he have struck4 ,in the passive subjunctive1 the subjunctive forms of the copula 7 #bgb7 are used as auxiliaries3--present1 ,if ,i be struck2 past1 ,if ,i were struck2 perfect1 ,if ,i have been struck2 pluperfect1 ,if ,i had been struck4 7,see table1 p4 #cjd47 #bgd4 ,progressive verb-phrases in the subjunctive may be formed by means of the copula3--present1 ,if ,i be striking2 past1 ,if ,i were striking4 ,the present is rare2 the past is common4 ,,uses ,,of ,,the ,,subjunctive ,subjunctive in ,wishes and ,exhortations #bge4 ,the subjunctive is often used in wishes or prayers4 ,angels and ministers of grace defend us6 ,heaven help him6 ,the saints preserve us6 ,god bless you6 ,long live the king6 ,o that ,i had listened to him6 ,o that we were rid of him6 ,in the first five examples1 the wish is expressed in an independent sentence4 ,in the last two1 the construction is subordinate1--the that-clause being the object of an unexpressed 8,i wish0 7 #djg74 #bgf4 ,the subjunctive be is often omitted when it may easily be supplied4 ,peace be to his ashes6 ,honor be to his memory6 ,honor be to whom honor is due6 #bgg4 ,wishes are often introduced by may or would4 ,may you never want6 ,would that he were safe6 ,would you were with us6 ,for ,would that4 ,may and would in such expressions were originally subjunctives2 would stands for ,i would1 that is1 ,i should wish4 ,want in the first example is an infinitive without to 7 #caa74 ,for wishes expressed by the infinitive1 see #cbj4 #bgh4 ,exhortations in the first person plural sometimes take the subjunctive in elevated or poetical style4 ,hear we the king6 ,join we in a hymn of praise6 ,exhortation is ordinarily expressed by let us followed by the infinitive without to4 ,let us join hands4 ,let us have peace4 ,let's camp here4 ,let is a verb in the imperative mood1 us is its object1 and the infinitive 7join1 have1 camp7 depends on let4 ,subjunctives in ,concessions1 ,conditions1 etc4 #bgi4 ,the subjunctive is used after though1 although1 to express an admission or concession not as a fact but as a supposition4 ,though he slay me1 yet will ,i trust in him4 ,though he were to beg this on his knees1 ,i should still refuse4 ,when the concession is stated as an admitted fact1 the indicative is regular4 ,although he is a foreigner1 he speaks good ,english4 ,though he sometimes sings1 he is not now in good voice4 #bhj4 ,after if and unless1 expressing condition1 the subjunctive may be used in a variety of ways4 #a4 ,if this be gold1 our fortune is made4 ,it may or may not be gold4 #b4 ,if he confess1 ,i shall overlook the offence4 ,he may or may not confess4 #c4 ,unless he confess1 he cannot be convicted4 ,he may or may not confess4 #d4 ,if this were gold1 our fortune would be made4 ,it is not gold2 hence our fortune is not made4 #e4 ,if he stood before me at this moment1 ,i should tell him my opinion4 ,he does not stand before me2 hence ,i do not tell him4 #f4 ,if he had confessed1 ,i should have overlooked his fault4 ,he did not confess2 hence ,i did not overlook it4 #g4 ,unless he had confessed1 he could not have been convicted4 ,he did confess2 hence he was convicted4 ,in conditional clauses1 the present subjunctive denotes either present or future time4 ,it puts the supposed case doubtfully1 but not necessarily as improbable4 7,see examples #a-c47 ,the past subjunctive refers to present time4 ,it implies that the supposed case is not now a fact4 7,see examples #d and #e47 ,the pluperfect 7or past perfect7 subjunctive refers to past time4 ,it implies that the supposed case was not a fact4 7,see #f and #g47 ,for details of conditional sentences1 see pp4 #afg-agb4 #bha4 ,concession or condition may be expressed by the subjunctive without though or if1 the verb preceding the subject1 which is sometimes omitted4 ,i4 ,,concession ,try as we may1 we cannot swim to that rock4 ,say what he will1 he can never convince me4 ,come what will1 ,i'll stand my ground4 ,be that as it may1 my mind is made up4 ,,ii4 ,,condition ,were ,i asked1 ,i could tell all the facts4 ,if ,i were asked1 etc4 ,had ,i known1 ,i would have written to you4 ,if ,i had known1 etc4 ,i shall be twenty years old1 come ,tuesday4 ,if ,tuesday come1 etc4 ,i will go1 rain or shine4 ,if it rain1 or if it shine1 etc4 ,be he prince or be he pauper1 every guest is welcome here4 ,,note4 ,the subjunctive in these concessive and conditional uses is really the same as that in exhortations 7 #bgh74 8,try we as we may0 means literally1 8,let us try as hard as we can10 and this has the force of 8,however hard we try0 or 8,although we try ever so hard40 #bhb4 ,after as if 7as though71 the past subjunctive is used4 ,he looks as if he were about to speak4 ,,not3 as if he was about to speak4 ,i act as if ,i were crazy4 ,,not3 as if ,i was crazy4 #bhc4 ,the subjunctive may express not what is or was1 but what would be or would have been1 the case4 ,it were safer to travel by day4 ,it would be safer1 etc4 ,i had been wiser had ,i forded the river4 ,i should have been wiser if ,i had4 ,this construction is old-fashioned4 ,modern ,english commonly uses should 7or would7 be1 should 7or would7 have been1 instead4 #bhd4 ,the subjunctive is occasionally used after that1 lest1 before1 until1 etc41 in subordinate clauses referring to the future and commonly expressing purpose or expectation4 ,take heed that he escape not4 ,purpose4 ,give him food lest he perish4 ,purpose4 ,let us tarry until he come4 ,expectation4 ,this construction is confined to poetry and the solemn or formal style4 ,in ordinary language the indicative or a verb-phrase with may is used4 ,take heed that he does not escape4 ,give him food in order that he may not perish4 ,let us wait till he comes4 #bhe4 ,the past subjunctive had is common in had rather and similar phrases4 ,i had rather wait a day4 ,you had better leave the room4 ,he had as lief go as stay4 ,,note4 ,had in this construction is sometimes condemned as erroneous or inelegant2 but the idiom is well-established4 ,might better1 would better1 and would rather may be used instead of had better1 etc42 but would better is improper in the first person4 #bhf4 ,the subjunctive forms are often replaced by verb-phrases containing the auxiliaries may1 might1 could1 would1 should4 #a4 ,in wishes 7 #bgg74 ,may you live long and prosper6 ,may he never repent this act6 ,ah1 could ,i but live a hundred years6 #b4 ,in concessions and conditions 7 #bgi-bhj74 ,though ,i you he should fail1 there would still be hope4 ,if ,i you he should fail1 all would be lost4 #c4 ,in sentences expressing not what is or was1 but what would be or would have been1 the case 7 #bhc74 ,i should ,you would ,he would write to ,charles if ,i knew his address4 ,it would have been better to telegraph4 #d4 ,in subordinate clauses introduced by that1 lest1 before1 until1 etc4 7 #bhd74 ,i will take care that nothing may prevent4 ,i took care that nothing might should prevent4 ,the general determined to wait until fresh troops should arrive4 ,,potential ,,verb-,,phrases ,,use ,,of ,,modal ,,auxiliaries #bhg4 ,several auxiliary verbs are used to form verb-phrases indicating ability1 possibility1 obligation1 or necessity4 ,such verb-phrases are called potential phrases1 that is1 8phrases of possibility40 ,the auxiliary verbs used in potential phrases are3--may1 can1 must1 might1 could1 would1 and should4 ,they are called modal auxiliaries and are followed by the infinitive without to4 ,we may ask him a few questions4 ,i can manage a motor car4 ,you must inquire the way4 ,he might give you a chance4 ,i could show you his house if you would permit me4 ,i should enjoy a sea-voyage4 ,,note4 ,the fact that give1 etc41 in such phrases as can give1 are infinitives may be seen by comparing 8,i can strike0 with 8,i am able to strike10 8,i may strike0 with 8,i am permitted to strike10 8,i must strike0 with 8,i am obliged to strike10 and so on4 ,in earlier periods of the language1 when the infinitive had a special ending 7-an or -en71 the nature of the construction was unmistakable4 #bhh4 ,potential phrases may be arranged in tables of conjugation1 like that on pp4 #ajh-aaj4 ,they are often called1 collectively1 the potential mood4 ,,active ,,voice ,,present ,,tense ,,singular ,,plural #a4 ,i may strike4#cd #a4 ,we may strike4 #b4 ,thou mayst strike4 #b4 ,you may strike4 #c4 ,he may strike4 #c4 ,they may strike4 ,,past ,,tense #a4 ,i might strike4#ce #a4 ,we might strike4 #b4 ,thou mightst strike4 #b4 ,you might strike4 #c4 ,he might strike4 #c4 ,they might strike4 ,,perfect 7,,or ,,present ,,perfect7 ,,tense #a4 ,i may have struck4#cf #a4 ,we may have struck4 #b4 ,thou mayst have struck4 #b4 ,you may have struck4 #c4 ,he may have struck4 #c4 ,they may have struck4 ,,pluperfect 7,,or ,,past ,,perfect7 ,,tense #a4 ,i might have struck4#cg #a4 ,we might have struck4 #b4 ,thou mightst have struck4 #b4 ,you might have struck4 #c4 ,he might have struck4 #c4 ,they might have struck4 ,,passive ,,voice ,,present ,,tense ,i may be struck1 etc4 ,we may be struck1 etc4 ,,past ,,tense ,i might be struck1 etc4 ,we might be struck1 etc4 ,,perfect 7,,or ,,present ,,perfect7 ,,tense ,i may have been struck1 etc4 ,we may have been struck1 etc4 ,,pluperfect 7,,or ,,past ,,perfect7 ,,tense ,i might have been struck1 etc4 ,we might have been struck1 etc4 #bhi4 ,can 7past tense1 could7 regularly indicates that the subject is able to do something4 ,john can ride a bicycle4 ,harry could swim4 #bij4 ,may 7past tense1 might7 indicates 7#a7 permission1 7#b7 possibility or doubtful intention1 7#c7 a wish4 7#a7 ,you may borrow my pencil4 ,i told him that he might join our party4 7#b7 ,he may accept my offer4 ,you might not like it4 7#c7 ,may good fortune attend you6 #bia4 ,in asking permission1 the proper form is 8,may ,i80 not 8,can ,i80 ,with negatives1 however1 can is more common than may1 except in questions4 ,thus1-- ,,question4 ,may ,i 7or mayn't ,i7 play ball this morning8 ,,answer4 ,no1 you cannot2 but you may play this afternoon4 #bib4 ,must expresses necessity or obligation4 ,we must all die sometime4 ,you must wait for the train4 ,you must not be discouraged by failure4 ,,note4 ,must1 though originally a past tense1 is in modern ,english almost always used as a present4 ,past necessity may be expressed by had to with the infinitive3 as1--8,i had to wait for the train40 #bic4 ,ought with the present infinitive1 expresses a present duty or moral obligation2 with the perfect infinitive1 a past duty or obligation4 ,should is often used in the same sense4 ,i ought to write that letter4 ,present4 ,you ought not to object4 ,present4 ,this roof ought to be mended4 ,present4 ,i ought to have known better4 ,past4 ,your dog ought not to have been unleashed4 ,past4 ,you should be careful4 ,present4 ,the garden should have been weeded yesterday4 ,past4 ,,note4 ,ought is really an old past tense of the verb owe1 but is now always a present4 ,its former meaning may be seen in ,dame ,quickly's 8,you ought him a thousand pound0 7,,shakspere1 #a ,henry ,,iv1 iii4 #c4 #aeb74 ,had should never be prefixed to ought4 ,,correct ,,incorrect ,you ought to stay at home4 ,you had ought to stay at home4 ,we oughtn't to make so much noise4 ,we hadn't ought to make so much noise4 ,john ought to begin1 oughtn't he8 ,john ought to begin1 hadn't he8 #bid4 ,should and ought sometimes express what would certainly be expected in the case supposed4 ,three weeks should ought to suffice4 ,if the train is on time1 he should ought to arrive at six4 #bie4 ,would in all three persons sometimes indicates habitual action in the past4 ,i would gaze at the sea for hours at a time4 ,whenever we asked ,edward about his adventures1 he would begin to talk of something else4 ,,special ,,rules ,,for ,,should ,,and ,,would #bif4 ,should is the past tense of shall1 and would is the past tense of will4 ,hence the rules for should and would are similar to those for shall and will 7 #bcc-bci74 ,but there is much variation1 especially in subordinate clauses4 ,i4 ,,in ,,simple ,,sentences ,,and ,,independent ,,clauses #big4 ,except in certain kinds of subordinate clauses1 the distinction between should and would is practically the same as that between shall and will4 ,when the auxiliary verb expresses futurity without any idea of wishing1 consenting1 or the like1 the forms are as follows3-- ,,assertions 7,,declarative7 ,,singular ,,plural #a4 ,i should fall4 #a4 ,we should fall4 #b4 ,thou wouldst fall4 #b4 ,you would fall4 #c4 ,he would fall4 #c4 ,they would fall4 ,,questions 7,,interrogative7 ,,singular ,,plural #a4 ,should ,i fall8 #a4 ,should we fall8 #b4 ,shouldst thou fall8 #b4 ,should you fall8 #c4 ,would he fall8 #c4 ,would they fall8 #bih4 ,common errors are the use of ,i would for ,i should in assertions1 and that of ,would ,i8 and ,would you8 for ,should ,i8 and ,should you8 in questions4 ,the correct forms are shown in the following sentences4 ,i4 ,i should 7we should7 and ,i would 7we would7 in assertions3-- #a4 ,i should break my neck if ,i fell4 #b4 ,i should hesitate to try this experiment4 #c4 ,i shouldn't wonder if he escaped4 #d4 ,we should regret any misunderstanding4 #e4 ,i should wish to examine the plans again before deciding4 #f4 ,i should be glad to accept any fair offer4 #g4 ,i would give five dollars for a ticket4 #h4 ,i would help you if ,i could4 #i4 ,i would never agree to such a proposition4 #aj4 ,we would rather die than surrender4 #aa4 ,we would pay our bill to-day if we had the money4 #ab4 ,i would gladly accept any fair offer4 ,in the first six examples1 ,i 7or we7 should is correct1 because the auxiliary gives no suggestion of the speaker's will 7or volition74 ,in the last six1 on the contrary1 the speaker's willingness or desire is plainly expressed by the auxiliary1 and ,i 7or we7 would is therefore used4 ,,note4 ,in such sentences as the fifth1--8,i should wish to examine the plans again before deciding10--wish expresses volition4 ,hence 8,i would wish0 is incorrect1 for it expresses volition twice and can mean only 8,i desire to wish40 ,on the same principle we say 8,i should prefer10 8,i should be glad10 etc4 7see #bcf74 ,sometimes either ,i would or ,i should may be used1 but with a difference in meaning4 ,thus1 in the eighth example1 8,i should help you0 might be substituted for 8,i would help you40 ,this change1 however1 makes the remark sound less cordial and sympathetic2 for ,i should 7unlike ,i would7 gives no hint of the speaker's desire to be of service4 ,,ii4 ,should ,i 7or we78 in questions3-- #a4 ,should ,i break my neck if ,i fell8 #b4 ,should ,i be poisoned if ,i ate those berries8 #c4 ,should ,i take cold without my overcoat8 #d4 ,should ,i disturb you if ,i were to practise my music lesson8 #e4 ,should we run aground if we missed the channel8 ,,note4 ,would ,i8 is confined1 for the most part1 to questions in which one repeats the words or thought of another4 ,thus1--8,you would give five dollars for a ticket40 8,would ,i8 ,no1 ,i wouldn't60 ,in this use it is chiefly colloquial4 ,,iii4 ,should you8 and ,would you8 in questions3-- #a4 ,should you drown if the boat were to capsize8 ,yes1 ,i should drown1 for ,i do not know how to swim4 #b4 ,should you despair if this plan were a failure8 ,no1 ,i should not1 for ,i have other resources4 #c4 ,should you think that ten yards of velvet would be enough8 ,yes1 ,i should think so4 #d4 ,should you be offended if ,i were to speak frankly8 ,no1 ,i should not be offended4 #e4 ,should you wish to examine the plans again before deciding8 ,yes1 ,i should 7see note under ,i1 above74 #f4 ,would you wear a hat or a cap8 ,i would wear a cap if ,i were you4 #g4 ,would you study ,greek if you were in my place8 ,yes1 ,i would4 #h4 ,would you accept my apology if it were offered8 ,certainly1 ,i would accept it gladly4 #i4 ,would you be so kind as to lend me your compasses8 ,certainly ,i would lend them1 if ,i had not lost them4 #aj4 ,would you allow me to use your name as a reference8 ,i would4 ,the choice between should and would in these sentences corresponds to the form expected in the answer 7 #bch74 #bii4 ,the chief occasions on which ,would you8 is correct are3--7#a7 in asking advice in a matter of doubt1 and 7#b7 in asking consent or permission4 ,in examples #f and #g in #bih1 ,,iii1 the speaker asks advice2 in #h1 #i1 and #aj1 he asks consent or permission4 #cjj4 ,note that the proper forms are ,i should like1 ,should ,i like8 and ,should you like8 ,i should like to read that book4 ,should ,i like to go to ,rome8 ,indeed1 ,i should4 ,should you like to receive a copy of our catalogue8 ,i should like to receive one4 ,,note4 ,would is very common in these phrases1 even among writers of repute1 but it is still contrary to the best usage4 ,the reason for should is the same as in ,i should wish 7 #bih1 ,i1 note74 #cja4 ,i'd and we'd are contractions of ,i would and we would4 ,hence they can never stand for ,i should and we should 7 #bce74 #cjb4 ,should in the second and third persons may be used in simple declarative sentences and independent clauses to express the will of the speaker 7 #bci74 ,if ,i had my way1 you should be prosecuted4 ,that is3 ,i would take care that you were prosecuted4 ,if ,i had the money1 you should be paid immediately4 ,compare3 ,you shall be paid4 ,if ,i were you1 she should not regret her generosity4 ,compare3 ,she shall not regret it4 ,,ii4 ,,should ,,and ,,would ,,in ,,subordinate ,,clauses #cjc4 ,in some kinds of subordinate clauses1 the use of should and would differs considerably from that in simple sentences and principal clauses4 ,the following classes require attention3--7#a7 clauses of purpose or expectation 7 #cjd71 7#b7 conditional and concessive clauses 7 #cje71 7#c7 clauses expressing volition not that of the subject 7 #cjf71 7#d7 clauses stating something as an idea 7 #cjg71 7#e7 indirect discourse 7 #cjh74 #cjd4 ,in subordinate clauses expressing the purpose or expectation with which anything is done1 shall and should are used in all three persons4 ,charleton took great pains that ,i you they should understand the details of the treaty4 ,scott is was very careful that nothing shall should interfere with his plans4 ,they took every precaution lest ,i you he should suspect the plot4 ,anderson waited patiently until ,i you they should arrive with the horses4 ,we strained every nerve to reach the cave before the storm should break4 #cje4 ,in conditional or concessive clauses expressing a future supposed case doubtfully1 shall and should are used in all three persons2 but will and would are proper when the subject is thought of as wishing or consenting4 #a4 ,what would happen if ,i you he should not carry out the commander's instructions8 #b4 ,if ,i you he should miss the steamer1 our friends would be alarmed4 #c4 ,whoever shall should violate this law shall should pay the penalty4 ,that is3 ,if anybody shall violate1 etc4 #d4 ,whenever ,i you he shall find an opportunity1 let us try the experiment4 ,that is3 ,if ever ,i shall find1 etc4 #e4 ,he promised to assist you whenever you should need help4 ,whenever if ever4 #f4 ,though we you they should fail1 others would make the attempt4 ,concession4 #g4 ,though ,evans should disappoint me1 ,i should not lose confidence in him4 #h4 ,vernon will do his part if ,i you they will coperate with him4 #i4 ,if ,i you he will only make the effort1 success is certain4 #aj4 ,edmund would reveal the secret if ,i you they would assist him in his search for the treasure4 #aa4 ,if we would take pains1 our parents would be satisfied4 #ab4 ,whoever will join us may be sure of a pleasant and profitable journey4 ,that is3 ,if any one will join us1 he may be sure1 etc4 ,when a future supposed case is admitted or conceded as certain1 will may be used in the second and third persons to denote mere futurity4 ,though you he will certainly fail1 you he may make the attempt4 ,though the ship will not sink for some hours1 let us take to the boats4 #cjf4 ,shall and should are often used in the second and third persons in subordinate clauses to express volition which is not that of the subject4 ,templeton insists that you shall accompany him4 ,this letter directs where you shall station yourself4 ,we gave orders that the gates should be closed4 ,my wish is that you he should remain at home4 ,the law prescribed when and to whom the tax should be paid4 #cjg4 ,when a clause with that states something1 not as a fact but as an idea to be considered1 should is the proper auxiliary in all three persons4 ,i am not surprised that you should find your lesson rather difficult4 ,that is3 8,when ,i consider the matter1 ,i do not find the idea surprising40 ,in 8,i am not surprised that you find10 etc41 the subordinate clause makes the statement as a fact4 ,it is strange that ,tom should neglect his swimming lessons4 ,contrast3 ,it is strange that ,tom neglects4 ,that ,napoleon should have chafed at captivity is only natural4 ,contrast3 ,that ,napoleon chafed4 #cjh4 ,for shall and will1 should and would1 in indirect discourse1 see #dch-dci4 ,,the ,,infinitive #cji4 ,the infinitive is a verb-form that has some of the properties of a noun 7 #bh74 ,its two-sided character comes out clearly when it is used as the subject of a sentence4 #a4 ,to hope is our only resource4 #b4 ,to flatter is not my custom4 #c4 ,to sleep was an impossibility4 #d4 ,to surrender seemed disgraceful4 #e4 ,to choose wisely was my greatest difficulty4 #f4 ,to scale the wall was the work of a moment4 ,each of these infinitives 7to hope1 to flatter1 etc47 is a noun1 for each is the simple subject of a sentence4 ,besides1 an ordinary noun may be substituted for each infinitive with no change in meaning2 as1--8,hope is our only resource02 8,flattery is not my custom02 8,sleep was an impossibility40 ,but each of these infinitives is also a verb1--for 7#a7 it expresses action2 7#b7 it may be modified by an adverb1 as in ,no4 #e2 7#c7 it takes an object if it is transitive1 as in ,no4 #f4 ,an infinitive 7as the examples show7 has regularly no subject and therefore lacks both number and person4 ,hence it is not bound by the general rule for the agreement of a verb with its subject 7 #bbb74 ,from this fact it derives its name1 infinitive1 which means 8unrestricted0 or 8free from limitations40#ch #caj4 ,the infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun4 ,it expresses action or state in the simplest possible way1 without person or number4 ,it is commonly preceded by the preposition to1 which is called the sign of the infinitive4 ,to is not1 in strictness1 a part of the infinitive1 but it may be so regarded for convenience1 since the infinitive1 in most of its uses1 is preceded by to4 ,,note4 ,to sometimes stands for an infinitive in careless speech3 as1--8,you may go if you wish to0 7that is1 8if you wish to go074 ,such expressions are to be avoided4 ,it is better to say1 8,you may go if you wish40 #caa4 ,the infinitive often lacks to1 especially in verb-phrases with the auxiliaries will1 shall1 may1 can1 must1 might1 could1 would1 should1 do1 did4 ,for examples1 see pp4 #ajb1 #aad1 #abd4 #cab4 ,the infinitive has two tenses1--the present and the perfect4 #a4 ,the present infinitive is the verb in its simplest form1 usually preceded by to3 as1--to live1 to teach1 to bind1 to strike4 #b4 ,the perfect infinitive is made by prefixing the infinitive of the auxiliary verb have to the past participle 7 #bdc73 as1--to have lived1 to have taught1 to have bound1 to have struck4 #cac4 ,an infinitive may be modified by an adverb1 an adverbial phrase1 or an adverbial clause4 ,to write legibly is a valuable accomplishment4 ,it would be useless to search longer4 ,they allowed him to go in peace4 ,adverbial phrase4 ,to dive among those weeds would be folly4 ,theodore promises to come when ,i send for him4 ,adverbial clause4 ,no modifier should be inserted between to and the infinitive4 ,i beg you to inquire carefully into this matter4 ,,not3 to carefully inquire4 ,mr4 ,harris moved to postpone the question indefinitely4 ,,not3 to indefinitely postpone4 ,i expect always to be poor4 ,,not3 to always be poor4 ,,note4 ,careless writers pay slight attention to this rule1 and some good writers and speakers defy it1 hoping to break it down4 ,but it is unquestionably still in accord with the best usage4 #cad4 ,the infinitive may take an object if its meaning allows4 ,i long to visit ,italy4 ,my mother feared to enter the house4 ,to launch a boat was impossible4 ,to grant your request is a pleasure4 ,to give him money is useless4 ,money is the direct object of to give1 and him the indirect object4 #cae4 ,the infinitive is used in a variety of constructions1--7#a7 as a noun1 7#b7 as an adjective modifier or adverbial modifier1 7#c7 in the so-called infinitive clause4 ,i4 ,,the ,,infinitive ,,as ,,noun #caf4 ,the infinitive is used in various noun constructions1--as subject1 as predicate nominative1 as nominative of exclamation1 as appositive1 as object of certain prepositions1 as modifier4 #cag4 ,an infinitive with or without a complement or modifiers1 may be used as the subject of a sentence1 as a predicate nominative1 or as an appositive4 ,to descend was extremely difficult4 ,subject4 ,to secure a seat was impossible4 ,to sing well requires practice4 ,his delight was to travel4 ,predicate nominative4 ,the governor's policy is to wait4 ,my wish is to see you immediately4 ,to decide was to act4 ,the first infinitive is the subject1 and the second is a predicate nominative4 ,both alternatives1 to advance and to retreat1 seemed equally hazardous4 ,apposition with the subject4 ,my first plan1 to tunnel under the wall1 proved a failure4 ,he has but one aim in life1 to succeed4 ,apposition with the object4 ,i have written with a definite purpose1 to dissuade you4 ,i give you three choices1--to buy1 to lease1 or to build4 #cah4 ,an infinitive in the predicate is often in apposition with the expletive subject it4 ,it was a pleasure to see him4 ,instead of3 ,to see him was a pleasure4 ,it is easy to understand you4 ,it will be impossible to forget4 ,it proved very difficult to find evidence against him4 ,in this use the infinitive1 though grammatically in apposition with it1 is really the subject of the thought 7see #abj1 #b74 #cai4 ,the infinitive may be used as the object of the prepositions but1 except1 about4 ,there was nothing to do but walk 7or to walk74 ,he will do anything except resign 7or except to resign74 ,we are about to object4 ,an idiom expressing futurity4 ,the train is about to start4 ,,note4 ,can but and cannot but are distinct idioms4 7#a7 ,in 8,i can but thank you10 but is an adverb 7 only74 ,the sentence means3 8,i can only thank you--simply that and nothing more60 7#b7 ,in 8,i cannot but thank you10 but is a preposition 7 except74 ,the idiom is shortened from 8,i cannot choose but thank you10--that is1 8,i have no choice except to do so10 or1 in other words1 8,i cannot help it40 ,the infinitive after for 7now a gross error7 was once in good use3 as1-- ,what sweeter music can we bring ,than a carol for to sing4--,,herrick4 #cbj4 ,the infinitive may be used as a nominative of exclamation 7 #hh1 #d74 ,to sleep6 perchance to dream6 ,to suffer and be silent6 ,o to be a boy again6 ,a wish4 ,o to have lived in the brave days of old6 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,infinitive ,,as ,a ,,modifier #cba4 ,an infinitive may be used as an adjective modifier of a noun or as an adverbial modifier of an adjective4 ,in this use the infinitive is said to depend on the word which it modifies4 ,,with ,,nouns ,,with ,,adjectives 7,,adjective ,,modifier7 7,,adverbial ,,modifier7 ,an opportunity to advance ,the men are ready to advance4 came4 ,determination to win ,john is eager to win4 brings success4 ,willingness to oblige ,i shall be glad to oblige you4 makes friends4 ,i wish ,i had the ability ,we are all able to swim4 to swim4 ,his anxiety to please us ,he is anxious to please everybody4 was laughable4 ,,note4 ,this use is due to the fact that the infinitive with to is really a prepositional phrase 7 #db74 ,thus1 8determination to win0 is equivalent to 8determination for victory10 and 8eager to win0 to 8eager for victory40 ,the adjective force of the infinitive comes out clearly in 8nothing to eat10 where to eat is practically synonymous with eatable4 ,in its adjective use1 the present infinitive sometimes shows no distinction in voice1 so that the active and the passive are interchangeable3 as1--8a house to let0 or 8to be let02 8an axe to grind0 or 8to be ground40 ,in such expressions the active form is usually preferable4 #cbb4 ,the infinitive without to may be used as an adjective modifier after the direct object of see1 hear1 feel1 and some other verbs of like meaning4 ,i saw the policeman arrest him4 ,hear the sea roar6 ,can you feel the ground tremble8 ,ruth watched the tide come in4 ,in this use the infinitive is practically equivalent to a participle4 ,compare 8,i heard him shout0 with 8,i heard him shouting40 ,hence the substantive may be regarded as an object1 and the infinitive as its modifier4 ,but the construction closely approaches that of an infinitive clause 7 #cbd-cbe74 #cbc4 ,an infinitive may modify a verb 7#a7 by completing its meaning1 or 7#b7 by expressing the purpose of the action4 ,i4 ,,complementary ,,infinitive ,the ship began to roll4 ,the rain continued to fall heavily4 ,every boy desires to succeed4 ,the officer neglected to watch his men4 ,the prisoners attempted to escape4 ,you promised to come to-night4 ,after dare1 the complementary infinitive may or may not have to4 ,thus1--8,i dare not do it02 8,who will dare to speak80 ,,ii4 ,,infinitive ,,of ,,purpose ,he went to ,new ,york to study medicine4 ,he opened his lips to speak4 ,she closed her eyes to shut out the sight4 ,elsa lifted the cover to see what was inside4 ,the conductor signalled to stop the train4 ,harold waited to assist his teacher4 ,both the complementary infinitive and the infinitive of purpose may be regarded as adverbial phrases modifying the verb4 ,,note4 ,after some verbs the infinitive approaches the construction of a pure noun and is often regarded as an object4 ,thus1--8,i desire to see you0 7compare 8,i desire a sight of you074 ,it is simpler1 however1 to regard all such infinitives as complementary and to treat them as adverbial modifiers4 ,for it is impossible to distinguish the construction of the infinitive after certain adjectives 7as in 8,i am eager to see you07 from its construction after such verbs as wish and desire4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,infinitive ,,clause #cbd4 ,a peculiar infinitive construction often replaces a that-clause as the object of a verb4 ,thus1-- ,i wished that he should go4 him to go4 ,in the first sentence1 the noun clause that he should go is the object of wished2 in the second1 this clause is replaced by him to go1 but without any change in meaning4 ,this expression consists of two parts3--7#a7 him1 a pronoun in the objective case1 which replaces the subject he2 and 7#b7 an infinitive to go1 which replaces the predicate should go4 ,thus it is plain that him to go is also a noun clause1 of which him is the subject1 and to go the predicate4 ,such an expression is called an infinitive clause4 #cbe4 ,a kind of clause1 consisting of a substantive in the objective case followed by an infinitive1 may be used as the object of certain verbs4 ,such clauses are called infinitive clauses1 and the substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive4 ,the subject of an infinitive is in the objective case4 ,infinitive clauses are used 7#a7 after verbs of wishing1 commanding1 advising1 and the like1 and 7#b7 after some verbs of believing1 declaring1 and perceiving4#ci ,thus1-- ,the colonel commanded them to charge that they should charge4 ,i believe him to be trustworthy that he is trustworthy4 ,the judge declared him to be a dangerous man that he was1 etc44 ,after a few verbs the infinitive without to is used in infinitive clauses4 ,mr4 ,esmond bade his servant pack a portmanteau and get horses4 ,compare3 ordered his servant to pack1 etc4 ,what makes him cry8 ,compare3 ,what causes him to cry8 ,i let him sleep4 ,compare3 ,i allowed him to sleep4 ,,note4 ,ordinarily the infinitive cannot assert and hence has no subject 7 #cji74 ,the infinitive clause is1 therefore1 a peculiar exception1 for him to go makes an assertion as clearly as that he should go does4 ,that him is really the subject of to go and not the object of wished is manifest1 for ,i wished him makes no sense4 ,the object of wished is the whole clause 7him to go74 ,originally1 to be sure1 the noun or pronoun in the objective was felt to be the object of the main verb1 and this relation may still be felt in 8,i ordered him to go02 but even here the real object of ordered is the clause 7as may be seen in 8,i ordered the castle to be blown up074 ,the substantive has come to be the real subject of the infinitive1 and should be so treated in parsing4 #cbf4 ,a predicate pronoun after to be in an infinitive clause is in the objective case1 agreeing with the subject of the infinitive4 ,care should be taken not to confuse this construction with the predicate nominative 7 #hh1 #b74 ,,predicate ,,pronoun ,,after ,,to ,,be ,,predicate ,,nominative ,i believed it to be her4 ,i believed that it was she4 ,we know the author to be him4 ,we know that the author is he4 ,the author is known to be he4 ,he thought ,richard to be me4 ,he thought that ,richard was ,i4 ,richard was thought to be ,i4 ,we suspected the intruders ,we suspected that the intruders to be them4 were they4 ,note the case of the relatives and of the predicate pronouns in the following sentences3-- ,a boy whom ,i thought to be honest deceived me4 ,whom is the subject of the infinitive to be and is therefore in the objective case4 ,a boy who1 ,i thought1 was honest deceived me4 ,who is the subject of was and is therefore nominative4 ,i thought is parenthetical 7 #ejb74 ,a boy whom ,i believe to be him just passed me4 ,a boy who1 ,i believe1 was he1 just passed me4 #cbg4 ,an infinitive clause may be the object of the preposition for4 ,thus1-- ,i wrote for him to come4 ,the clause him to come is the object of for2 him is the subject of to come4 ,they are waiting on the shore ,for the bark to take them home4--,,noel4 ,i long for him to come back4 #cbh4 ,an infinitive clause with for may be used as a subject1 as a predicate nominative1 or as the object of a preposition4 ,for us to delay would be fatal to your enterprise4 ,compare3 ,our delay would be fatal4 ,our best plan is for the boat to shoot the rapids4 ,predicate nominative agreeing with the subject plan4 ,i see no way out of the difficulty except for them to offer an apology4 ,compare3 except the offer of an apology on their part4 ,,participles #cbi4 ,certain words unite in themselves some of the properties of adjectives with some of the properties of verbs4 ,such words are called participles 7 #ca74 ,thus1-- ,shattered and sinking1 but gallantly returning the enemy's fire1 the frigate drifted out to sea4 ,shattered1 sinking1 and returning are verb-forms which are in some respects similar to infinitives3 for 7#a7 they express action2 7#b7 they have no subject to agree with1 and hence have neither person nor number2 and 7#c7 one of them takes a direct object4 ,they differ from infinitives1 however1 in that they resemble1 not nouns1 but adjectives1 for they describe the substantive frigate to which they belong4 ,such verb-forms are called participles1 because they share 7or participate in7 the nature of adjectives4 #ccj4 ,the participle is a verb-form which has no subject1 but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive4 ,who thundering comes on blackest steed8--,,byron4 ,clinging to the horns of the altar1 voiceless she stood4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,deserted1 surrounded1 outnumbered1 and with everything at stake1 he did not even deign to stand on the defensive4--,,macaulay4 ,shrouded in such baleful vapors1 the genius of ,burns was never seen in clear azure splendor1 enlightening the world4--,,carlyle4 ,,forms ,,of ,,participles #cca4 ,verbs have three participles1--the present1 the past1 and the perfect4 #ccb4 ,the present participle ends in -ing4 ,it usually describes an action as taking place at the same time with some other action4 ,tom came sauntering up the path4 ,the beggar shambled down the steps1 grumbling4 ,reaching for the flower1 ,i lost my balance4 #ccc4 ,the present participle often refers to time preceding that denoted by the predicate verb4 ,rising from his chair1 he bowed4 ,that is1 when he had risen4 ,learning that your brother was in trouble1 ,i hastened to his aid4 #ccd4 ,the past participle is always associated with the idea of past time or completed action4 #a4 ,the past participle of a weak verb has the same form as the past tense4#dj ,,present ,,tense ,,past ,,tense ,,past ,,participle ,i mend chairs4 ,i mended the chairs4 ,the chairs are mended4 ,i sweep the rooms4 ,i swept the rooms4 ,the rooms are swept4 ,i seek treasure4 ,i sought treasure4 ,treasure is sought4 ,i lose money4 ,i lost money4 ,the money is lost4 #b4 ,the past participle of strong verbs shows a change from the vowel of the present tense4 ,all strong verbs had originally the ending en 7n7 in the past participle1 but this ending has been lost in many verbs4 ,,present ,,tense ,,past ,,tense ,,past ,,participle ,he speaks4 ,he spoke4 7,he has7 spoken4 ,he draws4 ,he drew4 7,he has7 drawn4 ,he sings4 ,he sang4 7,he has7 sung4 ,he wins4 ,he won4 7,he has7 won4 ,the forms show great variety and must be learned by practice4 7,see pp4 #bia-big for a list47 #cce4 ,the perfect participle is made by prefixing having to the past participle4 ,having mended the watch1 ,i sent it to the owner4 ,having lost his money1 ,james was forced to walk home4 #ccf4 ,the present participle is used in forming the progressive verb-phrases 7 #bee-bei74 ,the past participle is used in forming the complete tenses 7 #bdb-bdd7 and the passive voice 7 #bdg74 ,,constructions ,,of ,,participles #ccg4 ,since the participle has adjective properties1 its constructions are in the main like those of adjectives4 #cch4 ,a participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits4 ,rupert1 missing his companion1 stepped to the door4 ,the present participle missing belongs to the subject ,rupert4 ,rising1 she opened the window4 ,rising belongs to she4 ,i heard the rain falling4 ,falling belongs to the object rain4 ,tom's arm1 broken by the blow1 hung useless4 ,the past participle broken belongs to the subject arm4 ,having climbed the hill with great difficulty1 ,i stopped to rest4 ,the perfect participle having climbed belongs to the subject ,i4 #cci4 ,a participle should not be used without some substantive to which it may belong4 ,,right3 ,entering the room1 we saw a strange sight4 ,the participle entering belongs to the pronoun we4 ,,wrong3 ,entering the room1 a strange sight was seen4 ,since there is no substantive to which entering can belong1 it has no construction4 ,apparent exceptions are concerning1 considering1 pending1 generally speaking1 etc4 ,the first three may be classed as prepositions 7 #cee71 the last as an independent participle4 ,we fought every day1 and1 generally speaking1 twice every day4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,,note4 ,the rule in #cci does not apply to such phrases as on entering1 after investigating1 etc41 in which the words in -ing are not participles1 but verbal nouns 7 #cdh74 ,thus the following sentences are grammatical3--8,on entering the room1 a strange sight appeared02 8,after investigating the subject1 the plan was adopted40 ,such expressions1 however1 should be used with caution1 since they are sometimes awkward or ambiguous4 #cdj4 ,a participle may be modified by an adverb1 an adverbial phrase1 or an adverbial clause4 ,smiling brightly1 she extended her hand4 ,adverb4 ,he leaped forward1 shrieking with all his might4 ,adverbial phrase4 ,laughing until he cried1 he sank into a chair4 ,adverbial clause4 #cda4 ,a participle may take an object if its meaning allows4 ,i found the old man mending his net4 ,lifting the box1 he moved toward the door4 ,giving me a friendly nod1 he passed on4 ,here nod is the direct object of giving1 and me is the indirect object4 ,the participle1 with its modifiers and such other words as are attached to it1 is sometimes called a participial phrase4 #cdb4 ,a participle may be used as a pure adjective4 ,a grinning boy confronted me4 ,a battered hat hung on the peg4 ,kate was playing with a broken doll4 ,we could hear a rushing stream4 ,willing hands make light work4 ,he was struck by a spent ball4 #cdc4 ,the past participle is often used as a predicate adjective expressing state or condition4 ,this construction is easily confused with the passive of verbs4 ,the distinction may be seen in the following examples3-- ,the rain began to fall heavily1 and every time a gust of wind struck us we were drenched by it4 ,when the rain at last ceased1 we were drenched that is1 very wet4 ,in the first sentence1 were drenched is the past passive of the verb drench 7compare the active 8every time a gust of wind struck us1 it drenched us074 ,in the second1 the participle drenched expresses mere condition1 and is therefore a predicate adjective4 ,the distinction1 however1 is not always sharp1 and in cases of doubt the phrase may be taken together as a passive verb4 ,,note4 ,the real test is the following4 ,whenever a person or thing is distinctly present to the mind as the doer of the action1 we have a passive verb-phrase4 ,whenever1 on the other hand1 the participle merely describes condition with no thought of its being the result of an antecedent act1 the construction is that of a predicate adjective 7 #agb1 #c74 ,,nominative ,,absolute #cdd4 ,a substantive1 with the participle belonging to it1 is often used to make a peculiar form of adverbial modifying phrase3 as1-- ,the wind failing1 we lowered the sail4 ,here the wind failing is equivalent to an adverbial phrase 7on the failure of the wind7 or an adverbial clause 7when the wind failed74 ,it defines the time of the action4 ,the wind failing1 ,on the failure of the wind1 ,when the wind failed1 we lowered the sail4 #cde4 ,a substantive1 with a participle1 may express the cause1 time1 or circumstances of an action4 ,this is called the absolute construction4 ,the substantive is in the nominative case and is called a nominative absolute4 ,my knife slipping1 ,i cut myself severely4 ,the phrase my knife slipping is equivalent to because my knife slipped3 it expresses cause4 ,two days having elapsed1 we again set forward4 ,the phrase in italics is equivalent to when two days had elapsed3 it expresses time4 ,evenings he read aloud1 his wife sewing by his side4 ,the phrase expresses one of the circumstances that attended the reading4 ,this done1 proceed to business4 ,the phrase this done is equivalent to the clause since 7or when7 this is done1 and indicates cause or time4 ,,note4 ,this construction is called absolute 7that is1 8free0 or 8loosened07 because the substantive is not in any one of the constructions 7subject1 object1 apposition1 etc47 which ordinarily attach nouns grammatically to other words in the sentence4 ,nevertheless1 the whole phrase1 though standing apart from the rest of the sentence1 is in meaning an adverbial modifier of some verb4 #cdf4 ,the participle being is sometimes omitted in the absolute construction4 ,allen once mayor1 my chance of advancement would be ruined4 ,that is3 ,allen once being mayor4 ,peter stood before me1 his hands in his pockets4 ,his clothing in shreds1 he presented a sorry sight4 ,,verbal ,,nouns ,,in -,,ing 7,,participial ,,nouns7 #cdg4 ,english has a large and important class of verbal nouns that end in -ing1 and that serve as the names of actions4 ,these are identical in form with present participles1 for which they are frequently mistaken4 ,the distinction1 however1 is clear1 for the present participle is never used as the name of an action4 ,hence no such word in -ing that is a subject or an object1 or stands in any other noun construction1 can be a participle4 ,while ,i was travelling in ,mexico1 ,i met with an accident4 ,participle4 ,travelling broadens the mind4 ,verbal noun1 used as subject4 ,he enjoys travelling4 ,verbal noun1 used as object of a verb4 ,he spends his time in travelling4 ,verbal noun1 object of a preposition4 ,tom's favorite exercise is swimming4 ,verbal noun1 predicate nominative4 ,this sport1 fishing1 has been called the contemplative man's recreation4 ,verbal noun1 in apposition with sport4 ,that nouns in -ing are real nouns may be proved by putting ordinary nouns in their place4 ,travelling broadens the mind4 ,travel broadens the mind4 ,talking is useless4 ,talk is useless4 ,he is afraid of falling4 ,he is afraid of a fall4 #cdh4 ,from nearly every ,english verb there may be formed a verbal noun in -ing4 ,verbal nouns in -ing have the form of present participles1 but the construction of nouns4 ,they are often called participial nouns4 ,such nouns are freely used1 either by themselves or in a series along with ordinary nouns4 ,mining is a dangerous occupation4 ,painting and sculpture are sister arts4 ,the ,indians of ,massachusetts spent their time in hunting1 fishing1 agriculture1 and warfare4 ,reading1 writing1 and arithmetic are jocosely called 8the three r's40 #cdi4 ,verbal nouns in -ing have certain properties of the verb4 #a4 ,verbal nouns in -ing may take a direct or an indirect object if their meaning allows4 ,digging gold seems to the uninitiated like finding buried treasure4 ,lending him money is useless2 it merely fosters his unthrifty habits4 ,here the noun lending1 which is the simple subject of the sentence1 takes both a direct object 7money7 and an indirect object 7him71 precisely as the verb lend might do4 #b4 ,a verbal noun in -ing may take an adverbial modifier4 ,speaking extemporaneously is good practice4 ,here the verbal noun speaking is the simple subject2 but it is modified by the adverb extemporaneously1 precisely as if it were a verb4 ,but verbal nouns in -ing1 like other nouns1 may be modified by adjectives4 ,extemporaneous speaking is good practice4 #c4 ,to the verbal nouns being and having1 past participles may be attached1 so as to give the effect of voice and tense4 ,after being instructed in my duties1 ,i was ordered to wait on the king4 ,there were grave doubts expressed as to his having seen the mastodon4 ,after having been treated in so harsh a fashion1 ,i had no wish to repeat the interview4 ,such expressions are verbal noun-phrases4 #cej4 ,verbal nouns in -ing are similar in some of their constructions to infinitives used as nouns 7p4 #ace74 ,,infinitive ,,as ,,noun ,,verbal ,,noun ,,in -ing ,to swim was difficult4 ,swimming was difficult4 ,my business is to make shoes4 ,my business is making shoes4 ,to see is to believe4 ,seeing is believing4 ,nouns in -ing are sometimes called infinitives or gerunds4 #cea4 ,a noun in -ing may be used as an adjective1 or as the adjective element in a compound noun 7 #fd74 ,the sleeping car was completely wrecked4 ,william has plenty of spending money4 ,,note4 ,other examples are3--a working day1 an ironing board1 drinking water1 smelling salts1 marching orders1 a walking tour1 a swimming race1 a vaulting pole4 ,in such cases it makes little difference whether the two nouns are taken together as a compound1 or whether the first is regarded as an adjective modifying the second4 ,the difference between this use and that of the participle is perfectly clear4 ,a 8sleeping dog0 is a dog that sleeps2 a 8sleeping car0 is a car for sleeping4 ,sometimes1 indeed1 either explanation is possible4 ,thus1 a 8hoisting engine0 may be understood either as an 8engine that hoists10 or as an 8engine for hoisting40 ,but it is better to class these exceptions with the nouns in -ing4 #ceb4 ,when a verbal noun in -ing is preceded by an article or any other adjective1 it cannot take an object4 ,shooting song-birds ,the shooting of song-birds is forbidden4 ,launching a ship ,the launching of a ship requires care and skill4 ,drawing maps ,the drawing of maps is a useful exercise4 ,eating confectionery constantly ,constant eating of confectionery is bad for the teeth4 ,my business is driving wells4 the driving of wells4 ,observe that1 in each instance1 the object 7song-birds1 ship1 maps1 confectionery1 wells7 is replaced by a prepositional phrase when an article or other adjective precedes the verbal noun4 ,,note4 ,in such expressions as 8,i went a-fishing10 a is a shortened form of the preposition on1 and fishing is a verbal noun used as its object4 ,when a is omitted we have 8,i went fishing10 8,the house is building10 and the like1 in which the word in -ing seems to be a participle1 but is really the object of the omitted a 7 on74 #cec4 ,the possessive case of a noun or pronoun may be used to limit a verbal noun in -ing4 ,i was sure of its being he4 ,,not3 it4 ,i heard of ,allen's being elected4 ,,not3 ,allen4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,prepositions #ced4 ,a preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its relation to some other word in the sentence4 ,the substantive which follows a preposition is called its object and is in the objective case4 ,a phrase consisting of a preposition and its object1 with or without other words1 is called a prepositional phrase4 ,on the floor lay a heap of nuts4 ,he stood behind the tree for some time4 ,from morning till night he remained at his post4 ,the fire destroyed everything except a few articles of furniture4 ,a prepositional phrase may be either adjective or adverbial4 ,thus1 in the first example1 of nuts is an adjective phrase modifying the noun heap1 and on the floor is an adverbial phrase modifying the verb lay4 ,in the second sentence1 the verb stood is modified by two adverbial phrases1 behind the tree and for some time4 #cee4 ,the following list includes most of the prepositions3 aboard about above according to across after against along along with amid1 amidst among1 amongst apart from around as for1 as to at athwart barring because of before behind below beneath beside1 besides between betwixt beyond but 7 except7 by by dint of by means of by reason of by virtue of by way of concerning considering despite down during ere except1 excepting for for the sake of from from among from between from under in in accordance with in addition to in case of in compliance with in consequence of in consideration of in front of in lieu of in opposition to in place of in preference to in regard to in spite of inside 7inside of7 instead of into notwithstanding of off on on account of out of outside 7outside of7 over over against past pending regarding respecting round round about save1 saving since through throughout to1 unto touching toward1 towards under underneath until1 till up upon with within without with reference to with regard to with respect to ,,note4 ,such expressions as by means of1 in accordance with1 in spite of1 etc41 are really phrases1 but may be regarded as compound prepositions4 ,several participles like concerning1 considering1 pending1 are common in a prepositional use and are therefore included in the list 7 #cci74 ,for a 7a form of on7 in abed1 asleep1 afire1 a-fishing1 etc41 see #ceb4 ,per is confined to the strictly commercial style except in such expressions as perforce1 per cent1 per annum 7 #agi74 #cef4 ,a preposition may stand at the end of a sentence or clause4 ,whom did you ask for8 ,compare3 ,for whom did you ask8 ,the box which it came in has been destroyed4 ,compare3 ,the box in which it came4 ,,note4 ,this order1 though informal1 is common in the best authors2 but1 if carelessly used1 it may result in awkwardness of style4 ,sometimes a relative which is the object of the preposition is omitted 7see #aea74 ,thus1 in the second sentence1 which might be dropped1 and the object of in would then be 8which1 understood40 ,for 8,he was laughed at10 and the like1 see #bea4 ,in poetry a preposition sometimes follows its object directly3 as1--8,barefoot plod ,i the cold ground upon0 7,,shakspere74 #ceg4 ,certain adverbial expressions like 8on ,sunday10 8on ,march first10 occur both with and without the preposition4 ,he came ,sunday 7or1 on ,sunday74 ,we sail ,march first 7or1 on ,march first74 ,,note4 ,the forms without on are good colloquial ,english1 but are avoided in the more formal style4 ,no preposition need be supplied in parsing4 ,the noun is an adverbial objective 7 #aji74 #ceh4 ,care is required in the use of pronouns as the objects of prepositions4 ,he has been very friendly ,the old house will seem lonely ,that makes no difference to you and me4 ,,not3 you and ,i4 ,tom's carelessness makes trouble ,there are letters at the post office for you and me4 ,i have invitations for you and him4 you and her4 ,he will divide the reward between you and me4 ,whom are you waiting for8 ,whom were you speaking to8 ,,not3 who4 #cei4 ,several words are used either as adverbs or prepositions4 ,,as ,,adverb ,,as ,,preposition ,i fell down4 ,i fell down the steps4 ,stand by6 ,he stood by the window4 ,a big dog ran behind4 ,a dog ran behind the carriage4 ,keep off6 ,keep off the grass4 ,other examples are3--aboard1 above1 after1 along1 before1 below1 beneath1 beside1 between1 beyond1 ere1 in1 inside1 on1 outside1 past1 round1 since1 under1 up1 within1 without4 ,for words used either as prepositions or as conjunctions1 see pp4 #aeb-aed4 #cfj4 ,prepositions show various distinctions in use and meaning which must be learned by practice and by the study of synonyms in a large dictionary4 ,the following groups afford opportunity for such study3--at1 in2 in1 into2 between1 among1 amid2 on1 upon2 from1 off2 round1 around1 about2 to1 with2 beside1 besides2 agree with1 agree to2 change for1 change with2 disappoint in1 of2 differ with1 from2 confide in1 to2 correspond with1 to2 part from1 with2 compare to1 with2 join with1 to2 connect with1 to2 come up with1 to2 talk to1 with2 speak to1 with2 hang on1 from1 to2 live at1 in1 on2 argue with1 against2 contend with1 against2 depart from1 for1 at1 on1 in4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,conjunctions #cfa4 ,conjunctions connect words or groups of words4 ,conjunctions are either cordinate or subordinate4#da #a4 ,a cordinate conjunction connects words or groups of words that are independent of each other4 #a4 ,hay and grain are sold here4 #b4 ,will you take tea or coffee8 #c4 ,he was pale but undaunted4 #d4 ,the messenger replied courteously but firmly4 #e4 ,the troops embarked rapidly but without confusion4 #f4 ,noon came1 and the task was still unfinished4 #g4 ,we must hide here until night falls and the street is deserted4 ,in each of the first four sentences1 the conjunction 7and1 or1 but7 connects single words that are in the same construction 7subjects1 objects1 predicate adjectives1 adverbs74 ,in the fifth1 but connects an adverb with an adverbial phrase 7both being modifiers of the verb embarked74 ,in the sixth1 and joins the two cordinate clauses of a compound sentence 7 #dd74 ,in the seventh1 and joins two cordinate clauses which1 taken together1 make up the subordinate clause until 444 deserted2 this clause may therefore be called a compound subordinate clause 7see #ded74 #b4 ,a subordinate conjunction connects a subordinate clause with the clause on which it depends4 ,harmon did not quail1 though he saw the danger4 ,take this seat1 if you prefer4 ,i hesitated because ,i remembered your warning4 ,unless you reform1 your career will be ruined4 #cfb4 ,the chief cordinate conjunctions are3-- and 7both 444 and7 not only 444 but also or 7either 444 or7 nor 7neither 444 nor7 but for however moreover therefore then yet still nevertheless notwithstanding ,several of these are much used for transition1 whether from sentence to sentence or from one paragraph to another4 ,such are3--however1 moreover1 therefore1 then1 nevertheless1 notwithstanding1 yet1 still4 #cfc4 ,then is an adverb when it denotes time1 a conjunction when it denotes consequence or the like4 ,then the boat glided up to the pier4 ,time4 ,men are imperfect creatures3 we must not1 then1 expect them to be angels4 ,consequence4 #cfd4 ,yet and still are adverbs when they express time or degree1 conjunctions when they connect4 ,we have not started yet4 ,time4 ,it is still raining4 ,time4 ,this hatchet is dull1 but that is duller still4 ,degree4 ,i miss him1 yet ,i am glad he went4 ,conjunction4 ,i like dogs2 still ,i do not care to own one4 ,conjunction4 #cfe4 ,for and notwithstanding may be either prepositions or conjunctions4 ,,prepositions ,,conjunctions ,i am waiting for you4 ,we must go1 for it is late4 ,jane is coming1 ,it is a hard storm4 notwithstanding the storm4 ,she will come1 notwithstanding4 ,,note4 ,for is sometimes classified as a subordinate conjunction1 but the fact that it may be used to begin an independent sentence 7even when such a sentence opens a paragraph7 justifies its inclusion among the cordinates4 #cff4 ,the chief subordinate conjunctions are3-- although1 though as as if 7as though7 because if lest since 7 because7 than that unless whereas whether 7whether 444 or7 ,a few phrases may be regarded as compound conjunctions4 ,such are3--in order that1 so that1 provided that1 in case that1 but that1 as if1 as though1 even if4 ,provided1 and in case 7without that7 may also be used as conjunctions3 as1--8,i will go provided it doesn't rain40 #cfg4 ,the subordinate conjunction that is often omitted when it may readily be supplied4 ,he said that he was starving4 ,they feared that they were betrayed4 ,i cannot believe that you would try to injure me4 ,,note4 ,this omission is similar to that of the relative pronoun 7 #aea74 ,it is extremely common1 not only in colloquial language but also in literature1 whether prose or verse4 #cfh4 ,as and since in the sense of 8because10 and while in the sense of 8though10 are conjunctions4 ,when denoting time1 as is an adverb1 while is a noun or an adverb1 and since is an adverb or a preposition4 ,as 7or since7 you will not listen1 ,i will say no more4 ,conjunction4 ,as we crossed the bridge1 ,i looked down at the rushing stream4 ,adverb4 ,ten years have passed since my uncle went to sea4 ,adverb4 ,the house has been empty since ,christmas4 ,preposition4 #cfi4 ,conjunctions used in pairs are called correlative conjunctions4 ,the chief correlatives are3-- both 444 and not only 444 but also either 444 or neither 444 nor though 444 yet 7still7 although 444 yet 7still7 since 444 therefore if 444 then ,examples of correlatives may be seen in the following sentences3-- ,both lions and wolves are carnivorous4 ,the culprit looked both angry and ashamed4 ,william ,,ii is not only ,german ,emperor but also ,king of ,prussia4 ,either brass or copper will do4 ,neither ,keats nor ,shelley lived to be old4 ,he asked me whether ,i was an ,austrian or a ,russian4 ,though the roads were very bad1 yet he managed to reach ,utica before midnight4 ,although he has wronged me1 still ,i cannot believe he is my enemy4 ,since four is the square of two1 therefore two is the square root of four4 ,if ,allen's testimony is true1 then ,gilbert's must be false4 #cgj4 ,but is used as a subordinate conjunction in the sense of but that or unless4 ,there is no doubt but that they are murderers4--,,shelley4 ,your uncle must not know but but that you are dead4--,,shakspere4 ,ne'er may ,i look on day but unless she tells your highness the truth4--,,shakspere4 ,this use is obsolete4 ,there is not a wave of the ,seine but is associated in my mind with the first rise of the sandstones and forest pines of ,fontainebleau4--,,ruskin4 ,there was nobody but loved her4 ,,note4 ,in the last two examples the subject of the subordinate clause is omitted3--8,there is not a wave but it is associated10 8,there was nobody but he loved her40 ,in such cases1 but is sometimes regarded as a relative pronoun4 ,notwithstanding is used as a subordinate conjunction in the sense of though4 ,i shall go1 notwithstanding the road is said to be impassable4 #cga4 ,relative adverbs are similar in their use to conjunctions1 and are therefore often called conjunctive adverbs 7 #aid-aie74 ,,note4 ,most conjunctions1 historically considered1 are merely adverbs 7or adverbial phrases7 which have come to be used in so peculiar a way as to form a special class among the parts of speech4 ,thus the adverbs since and while become conjunctions when they cease to denote time2 because is a corruption of the phrase by cause2 but is developed from an old adverb meaning 8outside40 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,interjections #cgb4 ,an interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing surprise1 anger1 pleasure1 or some other emotion or feeling4 ,,examples3 ,o 7or oh71 ah1 hullo 7holloa1 halloo71 bah1 pshaw1 fie1 whew1 tut-tut1 st 7often spelled hist71 ha1 aha1 ha ha1 ho1 hey1 hum1 hem1 heigh-ho 7heigh-o71 alas1 bravo1 lo4 ,when written1 interjections are often followed by an exclamation point 7674 #cgc4 ,among interjections are properly included calls to animals 7like 8whoa607 and imitations of sounds such as 8mew60 8cock-a-doodle-do60 8ding dong60 8swish60 8tu-whit-tu-who60 #cgd4 ,interjections usually have no grammatical connection with the phrases or sentences in which they stand4 ,hence they are counted among the 8independent elements0 of a sentence 7 #eja74 ,sometimes1 however1 a substantive is connected with an interjection by means of a preposition4 ,thus1-- ,o for a camera6 ,alas for my hopes6 ,adjectives and adverbs are also found in this use3 as1--8,good for you60 8,up with it60 ,,note4 ,all such expressions are often regarded as elliptical sentences1 as if 8,o for a camera60 stood for 8,o1 ,i wish for a camera60 and 8,good for you60 for 8,that is good for you60 ,but it is better to treat them as exclamatory phrases4#db ,other exclamatory phrases are 8,dear me60 8,goodness gracious60 8,o my60 and the like4 #cge4 ,almost any part of speech may be used as an exclamation4 ,nonsense6 ,i do not believe it4 ,fire6 ,halt6 ,good6 ,i like that6 ,forward6 ,on6 ,away6 ,back1 villains6 ,i6 not a bit of it6 ,but----6 ,such words are often called interjections1 but it is better to describe them as nouns1 adjectives1 etc41 used in exclamation1 and to confine the term interjection to words which belong to no other part of speech4 ,,note4 ,thus nonsense6 and fire6 are nouns in the exclamatory nominative2 ,i6 is a pronoun in the same construction2 halt6 is a verb in the imperative 7compare hark6 hush6 behold6 look672 good6 is an adjective2 forward6 on6 away6 and back6 are adverbs2 but6 is a conjunction4 ,the following examples illustrate various exclamatory expressions1--words1 phrases1 and sentences3-- #a4 ,how late ,i shuddered on the brink6--,,young4 #b4 8,right6 right60 a thousand tongues exclaimed4--,,southey4 #c4 ,the pale stars are gone6--,,shelley4 #d4 ,poor widowed wretch6 'twas there she wept in vain4--,,campbell4 #e4 ,o heartfelt raptures6 ,bliss beyond compare6--,,burns4 #f4 ',tis done6 dread ,winter spreads his latest glooms4--,,thomson4 #g4 ,heigh-ho6 sing heigh-ho6 unto the green holly4--,,shakspere4 #h4 ,i had--ah6 have ,i now8--a friend4--,,byron4 #i4 8,to arms60 cried ,mortimer1 and couched his quivering lance4--,,gray4 #aj4 ,o for the gentleness of old ,romance6--,,keats4 #aa4 8,run60 exclaims she1 with a toss of indignant astonishment4--,,carlyle4 #ab4 ,can he keep himself still if he would6 ,oh1 not he6--,,wordsworth4 ,,chapter ,x ,,clauses ,,as ,,parts ,,of ,,speech #cgf4 ,a clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a subject and a predicate4 ,a clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause 7 #df74 #cgg4 ,a subordinate clause may be introduced by 7#a7 a relative or an interrogative pronoun1 7#b7 a relative or an interrogative adverb1 7#c7 a subordinate conjunction4 ,the relative pronouns are3 who1 which1 what1 that 7 who or which71 as 7after such or same71 and the compound relatives whoever1 whichever1 whatever4 ,their uses have already been studied 7pp4 #ff-gc74 ,the chief relative adverbs are3 where1 whence1 whither1 wherever1 when1 whenever1 while1 before1 after1 till1 until1 since1 as1 how1 why 7p4 #hf74 ,the interrogative pronouns are3 who1 which1 what 7 #afc-afe74 ,the interrogative adverbs are3 where1 when1 whence1 whither1 how1 why4 ,the most important subordinate conjunctions are3 because1 since 7 because71 though1 although1 if1 unless1 that 7in order that1 so that71 lest1 as1 as if1 as though1 than1 whether 7whether 444 or74 #cgh4 ,according to their use as parts of speech1 subordinate clauses are adjective1 adverbial1 or noun clauses4 ,i4 ,,adjective ,,clauses #cgi4 ,a subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an adjective clause 7 #dg74 ,able men ,men of ability ,men who show ability can always find employment4 ,treeless spots ,spots without trees ,spots where no trees grew were plainly visible4 ,in each of these groups1 a noun 7men1 spots7 is modified 7#a7 by an adjective1 7#b7 by an adjective phrase1 7#c7 by an adjective clause4 ,the sense remains unchanged4 #chj4 ,adjective clauses may be introduced 7#a7 by relative pronouns1 7#b7 by relative adverbs of place 7where1 whence1 whither1 etc47 or time 7when1 while1 etc474 ,,ii4 ,,adverbial ,,clauses #cha4 ,a subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial clause 7 #dg74 ,jack spoke thoughtlessly4 without thinking4 before he thought4 ,the schoolhouse stands there4 at the crossroads4 where the roads meet4 ,we pay our rent monthly4 on the first of every month4 when the first of the month comes4 ,in each of these groups1 the verb 7spoke1 stands1 pay7 is modified 7#a7 by an adverb1 7#b7 by an adverbial phrase1 7#c7 by an adverbial clause4 #chb4 ,adverbial clauses may be introduced 7#a7 by relative adverbs 7when1 where1 before1 etc472 7#b7 by subordinate conjunctions 7if1 though1 because1 etc472 7#c7 by relative or interrogative pronouns4 #chc4 ,adverbial clauses oftenest modify verbs1 but they are also common as modifiers of adjectives and adverbs4 ,angry because he had failed1 he abandoned the undertaking4 ,the clause modifies angry4 ,i am uncertain which road ,i should take4 ,the clause modifies uncertain4 ,farther than eye could see extended the waste of tossing waters4 ,the clause modifies farther4 ,here1 where the cliff was steepest1 a low wall protected the path4 ,the clause modifies here4 #chd4 ,an adverbial clause with that may be used to modify verbs and adjectives4 ,he rejoiced that the victory was won4 ,i am glad that you are coming4 ,he was positive that no harm had been done4 ,they were unwilling that the case should be brought to trial4 ,,note4 ,in this use that is equivalent either to 8because0 or to 8as to the fact that40 ,the clause may be explained as a noun clause in the adverbial objective construction 7 #aji74 ,for the classification of adverbial clauses according to their meaning 7place1 time1 cause1 concession1 etc471 see pp4 #afc-ahb4 ,,iii4 ,,noun 7,,or ,,substantive7 ,,clauses #che4 ,a subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun 7or substantive7 clause 7 #dg74 ,agreement ,to agree ,that we should agree seemed impossible4 ,victory ,to win ,that we should win was out of the question4 ,the merchant feared loss4 to lose4 that he might lose money4 ,i expect success4 to succeed4 that ,i shall succeed4 ,in each of these groups a noun 7agreement1 victory1 etc47 is replaced 7#a7 by an infinitive1 7#b7 by a noun clause4 ,in the first two examples1 the noun clause is the subject2 in the last two1 it is the object of a verb 7feared1 expect74 #chf4 ,noun clauses may be used in any of the more important constructions of nouns3--7#a7 as subject1 7#b7 as direct object of a transitive verb1 7#c7 in apposition with a substantive1 7#d7 as a predicate nominative4 ,that ,milton was spared has often caused surprise4 ,subject4 ,brutus said that ,csar was a tyrant4 ,object of said4 ,csar commanded that the prisoners should be spared4 ,object4 ,i wish that you would work harder4 ,object4 ,the traveller inquired where he could find the inn4 ,object4 ,he asked me what my name was4 ,second object of asked4 ,my fear that the bridge might fall proved groundless4 ,apposition with fear4 ,one fact is undoubted1--that the state of ,america has been kept in continual agitation4--,,burke4 ,apposition with fact4 ,the old saying is that misery loves company4 ,predicate nominative4 #chg4 ,noun clauses may be introduced 7#a7 by the subordinate conjunctions that1 whether 7whether 444 or71 and if 7in the sense of whether72 7#b7 by the interrogative pronouns who1 which1 what2 7#c7 by the interrogative adverbs where1 whence1 whither1 how1 why1 when 7 #aif74 #chh4 ,noun clauses are common as objects of verbs 7#a7 of commanding1 desiring1 etc42 7#b7 of telling1 thinking1 etc42 7#c7 of asking1 doubting1 etc4 ,see 7#a7 clauses of purpose 7 #djf72 7#b7 indirect discourse 7 #dca-dcg72 7#c7 indirect questions 7 #ddc74 ,object clauses frequently omit that 7 #cfg74 ,charles said that he was sorry4 ,i hope you will come4 ,i wish he would help me4 ,for the infinitive clause replacing a that-clause as object1 see #cbd-cbe4 #chi4 ,a noun clause may be used as the retained object of a passive verb 7 #bec74 ,,active ,,voice ,,passive ,,voice 7,,clause ,,as ,,object7 7,,retained ,,object7 ,they informed me ,i was informed that the train was late4 that the train was late4 ,charles told us ,we were told that the ice was thin4 that the ice was thin4 ,they asked me whether ,i was asked whether ,i liked tennis4 7or if7 ,i liked tennis4 #cij4 ,a noun clause may be the object of a preposition4 ,i see no reason for a lawsuit except that both parties are stubborn4 ,compare3 except the stubbornness of both4 ,she never studies1 except when she can find nothing else to do4 ,i could say nothing but except that ,i was sorry4 ,justice was well administered in his time1 save where the king was party4--,,bacon4 ,she could see me from where she stood4 ,there is a dispute as to which of the miners first staked out the claim4 ,for a noun clause used as an adverbial objective1 see #chd4 #cia4 ,noun clauses with that are common in the predicate when the expletive it is the grammatical subject 7 #abj1 #b74 ,it was plain that war was at hand4 ,it was clear that this administration would last but a very short time4 ,it must be admitted that there were many extenuating circumstances4 ,it was by slow degrees that ,fox became a brilliant and powerful debater4 ,it was under the command of a foreign general that the ,british had triumphed at ,minden4 ,in such sentences the real subject of the thought is the clause4 ,this1 however1 may be regarded as grammatically in apposition with it1 as if one said 8,it 7that war was at hand7 was plain40 ,,note4 ,this useful idiom enables us to adopt a kind of inverted order 7 #e71 and thus to shift the emphasis4 ,contrast 8,that war was at hand was plain0 with 8,it was plain that war was at hand40 ,in the former sentence1 the noun clause is made prominent2 in the latter1 the adjective plain4 #cib4 ,the following sentences1 taken from distinguished authors of different periods1 illustrate the usefulness of the noun clause in its various constructions4 #a4 ,that the king would ever again have received ,becket into favor is not to be believed4--,,southey4 #b4 ,that in education we should proceed from the simple to the complex is a truth which has always been to some extent acted on4--,,spencer4 #c4 ,how great his reputation was1 is proved by the embassies sent to him4--,,coleridge4 #d4 ,it vexed old ,hawkins that his counsel was not followed4--,,fuller4 #e4 ,it became necessary1 at last1 that ,i should arouse both master and valet to the expediency of removing the treasure4--,,poe4 #f4 ,there is no doubt that breeds may be made as different as species in many physiological characteristics4--,,huxley4 #g4 ,the main definition you could give of old ,marquis ,mirabeau is1 that he was of the pedant species4--,,carlyle4 #h4 ,the fact seems to be that we have survived the tremendous explosion4--,,brougham4 #i4 ,the question is1 whether the feigned image of poesy1 or the regular instruction of philosophy1 have the more force in teaching4--,,sidney4 #aj4 ,i feared that some serious disaster had befallen my friend4--,,poe4 #aa4 ,i think with you that the most magnificent object under heaven is the great deep4--,,cowper4 #ab4 ,aureolus soon discovered that the success of his artifices had only raised up a more determined adversary4--,,gibbon4 #ac4 ,harold alleged that he was appointed by ,edward4--,,temple4 #ad4 ,that we shall die1 we know4--,,shakspere4 #ae4 ,her ,majesty has promised that the treaty shall be laid before her ,parliament4--,,swift4 #af4 ,deerslayer proposed that they should circle the point in the canoe4--,,cooper4 #ag4 ,i remembered how soft was the hand of ,sleep4--,,landor4 #ah4 ,i cannot see what objection can justly be made to the practice4--,,reynolds4 #ai4 ,no man knew what was to be expected from this strange tribunal4--,,macaulay4 #bj4 ,we may imagine with what sensations the stupefied ,spaniards must have gazed on this horrid spectacle4--,,prescott4 #ba4 ,observe how graciously ,nature instructs her human children4--,,coleridge4 #bb4 ,my friend asked me if there would not be some danger in coming home late4--,,addison4 #bc4 ,a message came that the committee was sitting at ,kensington ,palace4--,,thackeray4 #bd4 ,jeffreys had obtained of the king a promise that he would not pardon her4--,,burnet4 #be4 ,the present age seems pretty well agreed in an opinion that the utmost scope and end of reading is amusement only4--,,fielding4 #bf4 ,he suddenly alarmed me by a startling question--whether ,i had seen the show of prize cattle that morning in ,smithfield4--,,lamb4 #bg4 ,i am told that the ,lancashire system is perfect4--,,kingsley4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,meanings ,,of ,,subordinate ,,clauses #cic4 ,subordinate clauses may be classified not only according to their use as parts of speech1 but also1 in quite a different way1 in accordance with their various meanings4 ,these distinctions in idea are of capital importance for the accurate and forcible expression of thought4 #cid4 ,the variety of meanings which subordinate clauses may express is great1 but most of these meanings come under the following heads3--7#a7 place or time1 7#b7 cause1 7#c7 concession1 7#d7 purpose1 7#e7 result1 7#f7 condition1 7#g7 comparison1#dc 7#h7 indirect discourse1 7#i7 indirect question4 ,the general meaning of the clause is usually indicated by the word which introduces it4 ,i4 ,,clauses ,,of ,,place ,,and ,,time #cie4 ,an adjective or an adverbial clause may express place or time4 ,i4 ,,adjective ,,clauses ,the house where the robbery occurred is ,no4 #ad4 ,the bridge over which we rode is in ruins4 ,there is a point beyond which you cannot go4 ,the day when 7or on which7 ,i was to sail arrived at last4 ,the day before you came was rainy4 ,his terror while it thundered was pitiable4 ,,ii4 ,,adverbial ,,clauses ,remain where ,i can see you4 ,that belongs where you found it4 ,whithersoever ,i go1 fear dogs my steps4 ,whenever the bell rings1 you must take down the receiver4 ,esmond heard the chimes as he sat in his own chamber4 ,i have lived in ,cairo since my father died4 #cif4 ,adjective clauses of place and time may be introduced by relative pronouns 7see examples above74 ,adjective and adverbial clauses of place and time may be introduced by relative adverbs4 ,thus1-- ,,place3 where1 whence1 whither1 wherever1 whithersoever1 wherefrom1 whereto1 etc4 ,,time3 when1 whenever1 while1 as1 before1 after1 until1 since4 ,for as and since in causal clauses1 see #cih2 for while in concessive clauses1 see #cii4 #cig4 ,clauses of time are sometimes shortened by the omission of the copula and its subject4 ,when he was rescued1 he was almost dead4 ,tom was attacked by cramp while swimming across the river4 ,,ii4 ,,causal ,,clauses #cih4 ,an adverbial clause may express cause4 ,causal clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions because1 since1 as1 inasmuch as1 and sometimes that4 ,i came home because ,i was tired4 ,as the day was clear1 we decided to climb the mountain4 ,since you will not relent1 you must take the consequences4 ,we were glad that the wreck was no worse4 ,tom was delighted that his friend was safe4 ,since is a preposition or an adverb when it denotes time2 as is an adverb when it denotes time4 ,both since and as are conjunctions when they express cause4 ,for as used as a relative pronoun1 see #adg4 ,,iii4 ,,concessive ,,clauses #cii4 ,an adverbial clause may express concession4 ,a concessive clause is usually introduced by a subordinate conjunction1 though1 although1 or even if4 ,it admits 7or concedes7 some fact or supposition in spite of which the assertion in the main clause is made4 ,although ,i do not like his manners1 ,i respect his character4 ,we won the game1 though we expected to lose4 ,even if you fail1 you will have gained experience4 ,even if you were a king1 you would find somebody or something more powerful than yourself4 ,though he should read books forever1 he would not grow wise4 ,,note4 ,while is often used as a weaker or more courteous synonym for although4 ,the main clause1 when it follows the concessive clause1 may be emphasized by means of yet1 still1 nevertheless4 ,although the task was heavy1 yet his courage never failed4 ,although and yet are correlative conjunctions 7 #cfi74 ,though his reputation was great at home1 yet it was greater abroad4 ,concessive clauses sometimes omit the copula and its subject4 ,though he was tired1 he was not disheartened4 ,this punishment1 though perhaps necessary1 seems rather severe4 #djj4 ,for the distinction between the indicative and the subjunctive in concessive clauses1 see #bgi2 for that between should and would1 see #cje4 #dja4 ,a concessive clause may be introduced by the conjunction as1 or by a relative pronoun or a relative adverb4 ,whatever you say1 ,whichever argument you present1 ,however much you object1 he will carry his point4 ,weak as ,i am1 ,i will make the effort4 ,gay as the scene was1 'twas but a dreary place for ,mr4 ,esmond4 ,,note4 ,the adverbial use of however is quite distinct from its use as a cordinate conjunction 7 #cfb74 #djb4 ,concession is sometimes expressed by a subjunctive clause without a conjunction to introduce it 7 #bha74 ,be it ever so humble1 there's no place like home4 ,i will help you1 cost what it may6 ,,iv-,v4 ,,clauses ,,of ,,purpose ,,and ,,of ,,result #djc4 ,a subordinate clause may express purpose or result4 ,i4 ,,clauses ,,of ,,purpose ,these men died that we might live4 ,i will take care that you are not harmed4 ,john worked day and night that the plans might be ready in time4 ,we threw our ballast overboard1 so that the airship might clear the treetops4 ,all our arrangements have been made with the utmost precision1 in order that the ship may be launched promptly and without accident4 ,,ii4 ,,clauses ,,of ,,result ,he has recovered his strength1 so that he can now work4 ,the town stood at the foot of the volcano1 so that every building was destroyed4 ,quentin started so suddenly that he almost dropped his weapon4 ,his rancor against the duke was so apparent that one saw it in the first half-hour's conversation4 ,their minds were so much embittered that they imputed to each other nothing less than deliberate villany4 ,you make such a noise that ,i cannot hear the music4 #djd4 ,clauses of purpose may be introduced by the subordinate conjunction that or by a phrase containing it 7so that1 in order that1 to the end that1 etc474 ,negative clauses of purpose may be introduced by that 444 not or by lest4 ,for lest with the subjunctive1 see #bhd4 ,take heed lest thou fall4 ,i feared lest ,i might anger thee4--,,shakspere4 #dje4 ,clauses of result may be introduced by the phrase so that1 consisting of the adverb so and the subordinate conjunction that2 or by that alone1 especially when so1 such1 or some similar word stands in the main clause4 #djf4 ,a clause of purpose or of result may be either an adverbial clause 7as in #djc7 or a substantive clause4 ,i intend that you shall be elected4 ,object4 ,my intention is that you shall be appointed4 ,predicate nominative4 ,the result is that he is bankrupt4 ,predicate nominative4 ,his exertions had this effect1 that the vote was unanimous4 ,appositive4 #djg4 ,a substantive clause of purpose is often used as the object of a verb of commanding1 desiring1 or the like4 ,the general ordered that the fort should be blown up4 ,the prisoner begged that his fetters might be struck off4 #djh4 ,for subordinate clauses with shall or should1 implying purpose or expectation1 see #cjd4 #dji4 ,purpose may be expressed by the infinitive with to or in order to1 and result by the infinitive with to or as to4 ,he abandoned his profession to or in order to become a missionary4 ,purpose4 ,he was kind enough to help me4 ,result4 ,compare3 ,he was so kind that he helped me4 ,he was so kind as to help me4 ,result4 ,negative result is often expressed by the adverb too and the infinitive4 ,iron is too heavy to float4 ,compare3 ,iron is so heavy that it does not float4 #daj4 ,purpose may be expressed by an infinitive clause 7 #cbe74 ,the teacher intended us to finish the book4 ,compare3 ,the teacher intended that we should finish the book4 ,the foreman ordered the engine to be stopped4 ,compare3 ,the foreman ordered that the engine should be stopped4 ,,vi4 ,,conditional ,,sentences #daa4 ,a clause that expresses a condition introduced by if1 or by some equivalent word or phrase1 is called a conditional clause4 ,a sentence that contains a conditional clause is called a conditional sentence4 ,if it rains1 we shall remain at home4 ,i shall attend the convention if ,i am in town4 ,i will take this book1 if you please4 #dab4 ,a conditional sentence in its simplest form consists of two parts3-- 7#a7 ,a subordinate 7adverbial7 clause1 commonly introduced by if1 and expressing the condition4 7#b7 ,a main clause expressing the conclusion1 that is1 the statement which is true in case the condition expressed in the if-clause is true4 ,thus in the first example in #daa1 the condition is if it rains2 the conclusion is we shall remain at home4 ,either the condition or the conclusion may come first4 ,the conditional clause is often called the protasis1 and the conclusion is often called the apodosis4 ,the conclusion of a conditional sentence may be declarative1 interrogative1 imperative1 or exclamatory4 ,if you go to ,philadelphia1 where shall you stay8 ,interrogative4 ,sit here1 if you wish4 ,imperative4 ,if you win the prize1 how glad ,i shall be6 ,exclamatory4 #dac4 ,a conditional clause may be introduced by provided 7or provided that71 granted that1 supposing 7or suppose71 on condition that4 ,i will permit you to go1 on condition that you come home early4 ,you may have the money1 provided you will put it in the bank4 ,supposing 7or suppose7 it rains1 what shall we do8 ,suppose is really an imperative and supposing a participle1 the clause being the object4 #dad4 ,a negative condition is commonly introduced by if 444 not or unless4 ,i will wait for him1 if you do not object4 ,unless you overcome that habit1 you will be ruined4 #dae4 ,double 7or alternative7 conditions may be introduced by whether 444 or4 ,whether he goes or stays1 he must pay a week's board4 ,compare3 ,if he goes or if he stays1 etc4 ,he is determined to buy that car1 whether you approve or not4 ,that is3 if you approve or if you do not approve4 #daf4 ,a conditional clause may be introduced by whoever1 whenever1 or some similar compound 7 #aei1 #aie74 ,whoever offends1 is punished4 ,compare3 ,if anybody offends1 he is punished4 ,whoever shall offend1 shall be punished4 ,whomever you ask1 you will be disappointed4 ,compare3 ,if you shall ask anybody4 ,he will come whenever if ever he is called4 ,,note4 ,in older ,english and in poetry1 who is common in this construction3 as1--8,who whoever steals my purse1 steals trash0 7,,shakspere74 #dag4 ,a conditional clause sometimes omits the copula and its subject4 ,i will go if it is necessary4 ,if it is possible1 come to-morrow4 ,the if-clause is sometimes used as an exclamation1 with the conclusion omitted4 ,if ,i only had a rifle6 #dah4 ,a condition may be expressed by means of an assertion1 a question1 an imperative1 or the absolute construction 7 #cde74 ,we take the receiver from the hook1 and the operator answers4 ,we replace it1 and the connection is broken4 ,compare3 ,if we take the receiver from the hook1 the operator answers1 etc4 ,press that button1 and the bell will ring4 ,do you refuse8 ,then you must take the consequences4 ,we shall sail on ,monday1 weather permitting4 ,,note4 ,in such cases1 there is no subordinate conditional clause4 ,thus1 in the first example1 we have two independent cordinate clauses1 making a compound sentence 7 #dd74 ,,forms ,,of ,,conditions #dai4 ,conditional sentences show great variety of form1 but it is easy to classify them according to the time of the supposed case and the degree of doubt that the speaker expresses4 #dbj4 ,conditions may be present1 past1 or future4 ,,present ,,and ,,past ,,conditions #dba4 ,present and past conditions may be either 7#a7 non-committal or 7#b7 contrary to fact4 #a4 ,a condition is non-committal when it implies nothing as to the truth or falsity of the case supposed4 ,if ,james is angry1 ,i am sorry4 ,perhaps ,james is angry1 perhaps not4 #b4 ,a condition is contrary to fact when it implies that the supposed case is not or was not true4 ,if ,james were angry1 ,i should be sorry4 ,james is not angry4 #dbb4 ,in a non-committal present condition1 the if-clause#dd takes the present indicative2 in a non-committal past condition1 the past1 the perfect1 or the pluperfect4 ,the conclusion may be in any form that the sense allows4 ,i4 ,,present ,,condition1 ,,non-,,committal ,if this pebble is a diamond1 it is valuable4 guard it carefully4 you have made a great discovery4 you will get a large sum for it4 why are you so careless of it8 what a prize it is6 ,if it is raining1 shut the window4 ,if ,jack lives in this house1 he is a lucky boy4 ring the bell4 he has moved since last ,may4 ,,ii4 ,,past ,,condition1 ,,non-,,committal ,if that pebble was a diamond1 it was valuable4 why did you throw it away8 go back and look for it4 ,if ,tom has apologized1 he has done his duty4 you ought to excuse him4 forgive him4 ,if ,john had reached home before we started1 he must have made a quick journey4 ,in each of these examples1 the speaker declines to commit himself as to the truth of the supposed case4 ,perhaps the pebble was a diamond1 perhaps not2 ,tom may or may not have apologized2 whether or not ,john had reached home1 we cannot tell4 #dbc4 ,in a condition contrary to fact1 the if-clause takes the past subjunctive when the condition refers to present time1 the pluperfect subjunctive when it refers to past time4 ,the conclusion regularly takes should or would 7 #bhf1 #c74 ,if ,john were here1 ,i should recognize him4 ,present condition1 present conclusion4 ,if ,john were here1 ,i should have recognized him before this4 ,present condition1 past conclusion4 ,if ,i had offended him1 ,i should have regretted it4 ,past condition1 past conclusion4 ,if ,i had then offended him1 ,i should regret it now4 ,past condition1 present conclusion4 ,in each of these sentences1 the speaker distinctly implies that the supposed case 7or condition7 is 7or was7 not a fact4 ,it follows1 of course1 that the conclusion is not a fact3--,john is not here2 therefore ,i do not recognize him4 #dbd4 ,in conditions contrary to fact1 the subjunctive without if is common4 ,in this use1 the subject follows the verb 7 #bha74 ,were he my friend1 ,i should expect his help4 ,if he were my friend4 ,present condition1 contrary to fact4 ,had he been my friend1 ,i should have expected his help4 ,if he had been my friend4 ,past condition1 contrary to fact4 ,,note4 ,in older ,english1 the subjunctive may be used in both clauses3 as1--8,he were no lion1 were not ,romans hinds0 7,,shakspere74 ,,future ,,conditions #dbe4 ,future conditions always imply doubt1 for no one can tell what may or may not happen to-morrow4 #dbf4 ,in all future conditions1 some verb-form denoting future time is used in both clauses4 #a4 ,in a future condition which suggests nothing as to the probability or improbability of the case supposed1 the present indicative is regularly used in the if-clause1 and the future indicative in the conclusion4 ,if it rains to-morrow1 ,i shall not go4 ,in very formal or exact language a verb-phrase with shall may be used in the if-clause3 as1--8,if it shall rain to-morrow1 ,i shall not go40 #b4 ,the present subjunctive is sometimes used in the if-clause4 ,this form commonly suggests more doubt than the present indicative4 ,if it rain to-morrow1 ,i shall not go4 #c4 ,in a future condition which puts the supposed case rather vaguely1 often with a considerable suggestion of doubt1 a verb-phrase with should or would is used in both clauses4 ,if it should rain to-morrow1 ,i should not go4 ,for the use of should or would in such clauses1 see #cje4 ,a phrase with were to may replace the should-phrase in the if-clause4 ,this form often emphasizes the suggestion of doubt4 ,if it were to rain to-morrow1 ,i should not go4 ,the past subjunctive may stand in the if-clause instead of the should-phrase4 ,if it rained to-morrow1 ,i should not go4 ,,note4 ,the comparative amount of doubt implied in the different kinds of future conditions cannot be defined with precision2 for it varies with the circumstances or the context1 and often depends on emphasis or the tone of the voice4 ,thus1 in 8if it should rain to-morrow10 should may be so emphasized as to make the supposed case seem highly improbable1 whereas an emphasis on to-morrow would have a very different effect4 ,as to the subjunctive1 its use is often due rather to the writer's liking for that mood than to any special doubt in his mind4 #dbg4 ,for even if in concessive clauses1 see #cii2 for as if in clauses of comparison1 see #dbh2 for if 7in the sense of whether7 in indirect questions1 see #ddb4 ,,vii4 ,,clauses ,,of ,,comparison #dbh4 ,an adverbial clause introduced by as if may express comparison4#de ,you speak as if you were angry4#df ,he breathes as if he were exhausted4 ,she cared for me as if ,i had been her son4 ,as though is also used1 but as if is now preferred by most writers4 ,the subjunctive were1 not the indicative was1 is used after as if 7 #bhb74 #dbi4 ,as and than1 as subordinate conjunctions1 introduce clauses of comparison or degree4 ,you are as old as he is4 ,i am younger than you are4 ,he weighs as much as ,i weigh4 ,i pity you more than ,i pity her4 ,when the verb is omitted1 the substantive that follows as or than is in the same case in which it would stand if the verb were expressed4 ,thus1-- ,you are stronger than he4 ,,not3 than him4 ,i see you oftener than him4 ,,not3 than he4 ,he plays a better game than ,i4 ,,not3 than me4 ,they will miss ,john more than me4 ,that is3 more than they miss me4 ,,viii4 ,,indirect ,,discourse #dcj4 ,a quotation may be direct or indirect4 ,a direct quotation repeats a speech or thought in its original form4 ,i replied3 8,i am sorry to hear it40 8,henceforth10 he explained1 8,i shall call on ,tuesdays40 8,you must see ,california10 she insisted4 8,elizabeth no longer lives here10 he said4 8,i know nothing about it10 was the witness's reply4 8,where10 thought ,i1 8are the crew80#dg ,an indirect quotation repeats a speech or thought in substance1 but usually with some change in its form4 ,an indirect quotation1 when a statement1 is a subordinate clause dependent on some word of saying or thinking1 and introduced by the conjunction that4 ,i replied that ,i was sorry to hear it4 ,direct3 ,i am sorry4 ,he explained that henceforth he should call on ,tuesdays4 ,she insisted that ,i must see ,california4 ,a direct quotation begins with a capital letter1 unless it is a fragment of a sentence4 ,it is enclosed in quotation marks4 ,an indirect quotation begins with a small letter4 ,it usually has no quotation marks4 #dca4 ,a substantive clause introduced by that may be used with verbs and other expressions of telling1 thinking1 knowing1 and perceiving1 to report the words or thought of a person in substance1 but usually with some change of form4 ,such clauses are said to be in the indirect discourse4 ,for distinction1 a remark or a thought in its original form 7as in a direct quotation7 is said to be in the direct discourse4 #dcb4 ,statements in indirect discourse1 being substantive clauses1 may be used in various noun constructions3 7#a7 as object of some verb of telling1 thinking1 or the like1 7#b7 as subject1 7#c7 as predicate nominative1 7#d7 as appositive4 ,he said that the box was empty4 ,object4 ,that the box was empty was all he could say4 ,subject4 ,my remark was that the bill is a menace4 ,predicate nominative4 ,your remark1 that the bill is a menace1 has aroused vigorous protest4 ,apposition4 #dcc4 ,the conjunction that is often omitted4 ,jack said that he was sorry4 ,i hope that you can come4 ,i know he is too busy a man to have leisure for me4--,,cowper4 #dcd4 ,in indirect discourse1 after the past or the pluperfect tense1 the present tense of the direct discourse becomes past1 and the perfect becomes pluperfect4 #a4 ,,direct3 ,i am tired4 ,,indirect3 ,john said had said that he was tired4 #b4 ,,direct3 ,i have won4 ,,indirect3 ,john said had said that he had won4 ,but a general or universal truth always remains in the present tense4 ,,direct3 ,air is a gas4 ,,indirect3 ,i told him that air is a gas4 ,,indirect3 ,i had told him a hundred times that air is a gas4 #dce4 ,the clause with that in indirect discourse is sometimes replaced by an infinitive clause 7 #cbe74 ,the jury declared him to be innocent4 ,compare3 ,the jury declared that he was innocent4 ,morton admitted them to be counterfeit4 ,compare3 ,morton admitted that they were counterfeit4 ,in these sentences1 him and them are1 of course1 the subjects of the infinitives1 not the objects of declared and admitted4 #dcf4 ,when the verb of telling or thinking is in the passive voice1 three constructions occur3-- #a4 ,a clause with that is used as the subject of the passive verb4 ,that ,rogers desires the office is commonly reported4 #b4 ,the expletive it is used as the grammatical subject1 and a that-clause follows the passive verb4 ,it is commonly reported that ,rogers desires the office4 #c4 ,the subject of the that-clause becomes the subject of the passive verb1 and the verb of the clause is replaced by an infinitive4 ,rogers is commonly reported to desire the office4 ,the choice among these three idioms is largely a matter of emphasis or euphony4 ,the first may easily become heavy or awkward1 and it is therefore less common than either of the others4 ,,note4 ,the third of these idioms is often called the personal construction1 to distinguish it from the second1 in which the grammatical subject is the impersonal it 7 #abj1 #a74 ,the infinitive in this third idiom may be regarded as a peculiar adverbial modifier of the passive verb4 ,further examples of the three constructions with passive verbs of telling1 thinking1 etc41 are the following3-- ,that in vivacity1 humor1 and eloquence1 the ,irish stand high among the nations of the world is now universally acknowledged4--,,macaulay4 ,it is admitted that the exercise of the imagination is most delightful4--,,shelley4 ,it must be owned that ,charles's life has points of some originality4--,,stevenson4 ,porto ,bello is still said to be impregnable1 and it is reported the ,dutch have declared war against us4--,,gray4 ,he was generally believed to have been a pirate4--,,lytton4 ,pope may be said to write always with his reputation in his head4--,,johnson4 ,she was observed to flutter her fan with such vehement rapidity that the elaborate delicacy of its workmanship gave way4--,,hawthorne4 ,this is said to be the only chteau in ,france in which the ancient furniture of its original age is preserved4--,,longfellow4 #dcg4 ,a substantive clause with that is common after it seems1 it is true1 it is evident1 and similar expressions4 ,it seems that ,robert has lost all his money4 ,it is true that genius does not always bring happiness with it4 ,it is evident that ,andrews tells the truth4 ,this construction is really the same as that in #dcf1 #b4 #dch4 ,the uses of shall and will1 should and would1 in indirect discourse are the same as in the direct1#dh with the following exception3-- ,when the first person with shall or should in direct discourse becomes the second or third person in the indirect1 shall or should is retained4 ,,direct3 ,you say1 8,i shall die40 ,,indirect3 ,you say that you shall die4 ,,direct3 ,you said1 8,i shall die40 ,,indirect3 ,you said that you should die4 ,,direct3 ,he says1 8,i shall die40 ,,indirect3 ,he says that he shall die4 ,,direct3 ,he said1 8,i shall die40 ,,indirect3 ,he said that he should die4 ,the reason for the retention of shall or should is that1 in such cases1 the second or third person of the indirect discourse represents the first person of the direct4 ,the change from shall 7after says7 to should 7after said7 is a mere change of tense1 according to the rule in #dcd4 ,,note4 ,the general principle is1 to retain in the indirect discourse the auxiliary of the direct1 simply changing the tense if necessary 7 #dcd74 ,this principle of course covers the use of you or he shall or should to represent ,i shall or should4 ,there is1 however1 one important exception to the general principle3 when its application would result in the use of ,i will or ,i would to express mere futurity1 ,i shall or ,i should is employed4 ,thus1 ,john says to ,charles1 8,if you fall overboard1 you will drown02 but ,charles1 reporting this1 must say1 8,john tells me that1 if ,i fall overboard1 ,i shall ,,not will drown40 ,the general rule1 then1 may be stated as follows3 ,the indirect discourse retains the auxiliary of the direct 7with a change in tense1 if necessary71 unless such retention makes will or would express simple futurity in the first person1--in that case1 shall or should is used4 #dci4 ,the following sentences illustrate the correct use of shall and will1 should and would1 in the indirect discourse3-- #a4 ,he writes me that he believes he shall be at ,eton till the middle of ,november4--,,gray4 ,direct3 ,i shall be at ,eton4 #b4 ,he that would pass the latter part of his life with honor and decency1 must1 while he is young1 consider that he shall one day be old4--,,johnson4 ,direct3 ,i shall one day be old4 #c4 ,could he but reduce the ,aztec capital1 he felt that he should be safe4--,,prescott4 ,direct3 ,i shall be safe4 #d4 ,plantagenet took it into his head that he should like to learn to play at bowls4--,,disraeli4 ,direct3 ,i should like4 #e4 ,he answered that he should be very proud of hoisting his flag under ,sir ,john's command4--,,southey4 ,direct3 ,i shall 7or should7 be1 etc4 #f4 ,he knew that if he applied himself in earnest to the work of reformation1 he should raise every bad passion in arms against him4--,,macaulay4 ,direct3 ,if ,i apply myself 4441 ,i shall raise1 etc4 #g4 ,he was pleased to say that he should like to have the author in his service4--,,carlyle4 ,direct3 ,i should like4 #h4 ,mr4 ,tristram at last declared that he was overcome with fatigue1 and should be happy to sit down4--,,henry ,,james4 ,direct3 ,i should be happy4 #i4 ,she vowed that unless he made a great match1 she should never die easy4--,,thackeray4 ,direct3 ,unless you make a great match1 ,i shall never die easy4 #aj4 ,you think now ,i shall get into a scrape at home4 ,you think ,i shall scream and plunge and spoil everything4--,,george ,,eliot4 ,direct3 ,she will get into a scrape1 etc4 #aa4 ,you in a manner impose upon them the necessity of being silent1 by declaring that you will be so yourself4--,,cowper4 ,determination3 ,i will be silent4 #ab4 ,he ,swift tells them that he will run away and leave them1 if they do not instantly make a provision for him4--,,jeffrey4 ,threat3 ,i will run away4 #ac4 ,the king declared that he would not reprieve her for one day4--,,mackintosh4 ,direct3 ,i will not4 #ad4 ,horace declares that he would not for all the world get into a boat with a man who had divulged the ,eleusinian mysteries4--,,cowper4 ,direct3 ,i would not4 #ae4 ,i called up ,sirboko1 and told him1 if he would liberate this one man to please me1 he should be no loser4--,,speke4 ,direct3 ,if you will liberate1 etc41 you shall be no loser4 #af4 ,we concluded that1 if we did not come at some water in ten days' time1 we would return4--,,de ,,foe4 ,direct3 ,if we do not1 etc41 we will return4 #ag4 ,with a theatrical gesture and the remark that ,i should see1 he opened some cages and released half a dozen cats4--,w4 ,j4 ,,locke4 ,direct3 ,you shall see4 ,,ix4 ,,indirect ,,questions #ddj4 ,a question expressed in the form actually used in asking it is called a direct question4 ,what is your name8 8,what is your name80 he asked4 ,the direct form may be retained when the question is quoted or reported1 as in the second example above4 ,often1 however1 a question is quoted or reported1 not in the direct form1 but in the form of a subordinate clause3 as1-- ,he asked what my name was4 ,such a clause is called an indirect question4 #dda4 ,an indirect question expresses the substance of a direct question in the form of a subordinate clause4 ,indirect questions depend on verbs or other expressions of asking1 doubting1 thinking1 perceiving1 and the like4 ,franklin asked where the difficulty lay4 ,direct question3 8,where does the difficulty lie80 ,the sergeant wondered how he should escape4 ,direct question3 8,how shall ,i escape80 ,i have not decided which train ,i shall take4 ,direct question3 8,which train shall ,i take80 #ddb4 ,both direct and indirect questions may be introduced 7#a7 by the interrogative pronouns who1 which1 what2 7#b7 by the interrogative adverbs when1 where1 whence1 whither1 how1 why4 ,indirect questions may be introduced by the subordinate conjunctions whether 7whether 444 or7 and if4 ,the use of tenses in indirect questions is the same as in the indirect discourse 7 #dcd74 ,the constable inquired whether 7or if7 ,i lived in ,casterbridge4 ,his question was3 ,do you live in ,casterbridge8 ,your father wishes to know if you have been playing truant4 ,direct question3 ,have you been playing truant8 ,i considered whether ,i should apply to ,kent or to ,arnold4 ,direct question3 ,shall ,i apply to ,kent or to ,arnold8 #ddc4 ,indirect questions are usually noun clauses4 ,they may be used in various noun constructions3 7#a7 as object of some verb of asking or the like1 7#b7 as subject1 7#c7 as predicate nominative1 7#d7 as appositive1 7#e7 as object of a preposition4 ,the skipper asked what had become of the cook4 ,object4 ,he was asked what his profession was4 ,retained object after the passive 7 #bec1 #chi74 ,how we could escape was a difficult question4 ,subject4 ,the problem was how they should find food4 ,predicate nominative4 ,the question who was to blame has never been settled4 ,apposition with question4 ,they all felt great perplexity as to what they should do4 ,object of a preposition4 ,an indirect question may be an adverbial clause4 ,they were uncertain what course they should take4 ,the clause modifies uncertain4 ,edmund was in doubt where he should spend the night4 ,the clause modifies the adjective phrase in doubt4 #ddd4 ,since the pronouns who1 which1 and what may be either interrogative or relative1 an indirect question may closely resemble a relative clause4 ,these two constructions1 however1 are sharply distinguished4 ,a relative clause always asserts something4 ,an indirect question1 on the contrary1 has an interrogative sense which may be seen by turning the question into the direct form4 ,the sailor who saved the child is a ,portuguese4 ,the clause who saved the child is a relative clause1 for it makes a distinct assertion about the sailor1--namely1 that he saved the child4 ,who is a relative pronoun and sailor is its antecedent4 ,i asked ,i do not know ,it is still a question ,it is doubtful who saved the child4 ,here the clause who saved the child makes no assertion4 ,on the contrary1 it expresses a question which may easily be put in a direct form with an interrogation point3 8,who saved the child80 ,who is an interrogative pronoun4 ,it has no antecedent4 ,the following examples further illustrate the difference between these two constructions3-- #a4 ,i foresee the course which he will take4 ,relative clause4 ,i foresee which course he will take4 ,indirect question4 #b4 ,i heard what he said4 ,relative clause4 ,what 8that which40 ,i wondered what he said4 ,indirect question4 ,what is an interrogative pronoun4 #c4 ,this is the man who brought the news4 ,relative clause4 ,the king asked who brought the news4 ,indirect question4 #d4 ,here is a paper which you must sign4 ,relative clause4 ,the clerk will tell you which paper you must sign4 ,indirect question4 ,,note4 ,in such a sentence as 8,tom knows who saved the child10 the indirect question may at first appear to be a relative clause with an omitted antecedent 7the man1 or the person74 ,if1 however1 we insert such an antecedent 78,tom knows the man who saved the child071 the meaning is completely changed4 ,in the original sentence1 it is stated that ,tom knows the answer to the question1 8,who saved the child80 ,in the new form of the sentence1 it is stated that ,tom is acquainted with a certain person1 and to this is added an assertion about this person in the form of a relative clause4 #dde4 ,an indirect question is sometimes expressed by means of an interrogative pronoun or adverb followed by an infinitive4 ,whom to choose is a serious question4 ,direct question3 ,whom shall we choose8 ,john asked what to do4 ,john's question was3 ,what shall ,i do8 ,i know where to go4 ,direct question3 ,where shall ,i go8 ,tell me when to strike the bell4 ,i was at a loss how to reply4 ,i am in doubt how to begin this essay4 ,in the first four examples the italicized phrase is used as a noun 7either as subject or object74 ,in the fifth1 the phrase how to reply is adverbial1 modifying the adjective phrase at a loss4 #ddf4 ,the subjunctive was formerly common in indirect questions1 and is still occasionally used after if or whether4 ,i doubt if it be true4 ,elton questioned whether the project were wise4 #ddg4 ,the rule for shall 7should7 and will 7would7 in indirect questions is1 to retain the auxiliary used in the direct question1 merely changing the tense 7shall to should2 will to would7 when necessary 7 #ddb74 ,i4 ,,mere ,,futurity #a4 ,,direct3 ,what shall ,i do8 ,,indirect3 ,i wonder what ,i shall do4 ,you ask me what you shall do4 ,he asks me what he shall do4 ,i wondered what ,i should do4 ,you asked me what you should do4 ,he asked me what he should do4 #b4 ,,direct3 ,shall you lose your position8 ,,indirect3 ,i ask ,he asks you if you shall lose your position4 ,i asked ,he asked you if you should lose your position4 #c4 ,,direct3 ,will ,charles lose his position8 ,,indirect3 ,i ask if ,charles will lose his position4 ,i ,you ,tom asked if ,charles would lose his position4 ,,ii4 ,,volition #d4 ,,direct3 ,will you help me8 ,,indirect3 ,you ask if ,i will help you4 ,he asks if ,i will help him4 ,you asked if ,i would help you4 ,he asked if ,i would help him4 ,i asked him ,you asked him ,tom asked him if he would help me4 help you4 help him4 ,,note4 ,there is a single exception to the rule in #ddg4 ,when1 in changing from a direct to an indirect question1 the third person with will or would becomes the first1 shall or should is substituted unless volition is expressed4 ,thus1 ,john says to ,thomas1 8,will ,charles die of his wound80 ,charles1 reporting ,john's question1 says1 8,john asked ,thomas whether ,i should die of my wound40 ,compare #dch1 note4 ,,part ,,three ,,analysis ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,sentences #ddh4 ,analysis is a ,greek word which means 8the act of dissolving or breaking up40 ,in grammar it is applied to the separation of a sentence into its constituent parts1 or elements4 ,to dissect a sentence in this way is to analyze it4 ,the elements which make up a sentence are3 7#a7 the simple subject2 7#b7 the simple predicate2 7#c7 modifiers2 7#d7 the complements1--direct object1 predicate objective1 predicate adjective1 predicate nominative2 and 7#e7 the so-called independent elements1--the interjection1 the vocative 7or nominative of direct address71 the exclamatory nominative1 and various parenthetical expressions 7 #eja74 #ddi4 ,the absolute essentials for a sentence are a substantive as subject and a verb as predicate 7 #ce74 ,by combining these two indispensable elements1 in various ways1 with modifiers and complements1 the sentence may be extended to any length desired4 ,indeed1 the sole limits are the constructive skill of the writer and the hearer's ability to follow the thought without losing the thread4 ,in the present chapter1 we shall consider how sentences are built up1 or constructed4 ,our starting point in this study will be the simple sentence4 ,,simple ,,sentences #dej4 ,the following statement is a simple sentence1 for it contains but one subject and one predicate 7 #df73-- ,the polar bear lives in the ,arctic regions4 ,the framework or skeleton of this simple sentence consists of the subject noun bear 7the simple subject7 and the predicate verb lives 7the simple predicate74 ,to make the complete subject1 bear takes as modifiers the two adjectives the and polar2 to make the complete predicate1 lives takes as modifier the adverbial phrase in the ,arctic regions4 ,by attaching another simple subject to bear we make a compound subject4 ,similarly1 we make a compound predicate by adding another verb 7 #ch74 ,the polar bear and the walrus live and thrive in the ,arctic regions4 ,the compound subject is bear and walrus2 the compound predicate is live and thrive4 ,both verbs are modified by the adverbial phrase in the ,arctic regions4 ,the sentence itself is still a simple sentence4 ,in each of the following simple sentences either the subject or the predicate or both are compound3-- ,games and carols closed the busy day4--,,rogers4 ,the stars leap forth1 and tremble1 and retire before the advancing moon4--,,george ,,meredith4 ,madame ,defarge knitted with nimble fingers and steady eyebrows1 and saw nothing4--,,dickens4 ,work or worry had left its traces upon his thin1 yellow face4--,,doyle4 ,crows flutter about the towers and perch on every weathercock4--,,irving4 ,he gained the door to the landing1 pulled it open1 and rushed forth4--,,lytton4 ,countrymen1 butchers1 drovers1 hawkers1 boys1 thieves1 idlers1 and vagabonds of every low grade1 were mingled together in a dense mass4--,,dickens4 ,there stood the broad-wheeled wains and the antique plows and the harrows4--,,longfellow4 ,both ,augustus and ,peters joined with him in his design and insisted upon its immediately being carried into effect4--,,poe4 ,women and children1 from garrets alike and cellars1 through infinite ,london1 look down or look up with loving eyes upon our gay ribbons and our martial laurels4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,,compound ,,sentences #dea4 ,if we attach another simple sentence to that in #dej1 the result is a compound sentence4 ,the polar bear lives in the ,arctic regions1 but it sometimes reaches temperate latitudes4 ,this is manifestly a compound sentence1 for it consists of two cordinate clauses1 joined by the conjunction but 7 #df74 ,the framework of the second clause consists of the subject it and the simple predicate reaches4 ,to make the complete predicate1 the verb reaches takes not only a modifier 7the adverb sometimes71 but a complement1--the direct object latitudes1 which completes the meaning of the verb4 ,this noun is itself modified by the adjective temperate4 ,both clauses are simple1 for each contains but one subject and one predicate4 #deb4 ,obviously1 almost any number of simple sentences may be joined 7with or without conjunctions7 to make one compound sentence4 ,the quiet ,august noon has come2 ,a slumberous silence fills the sky2 ,the fields are still1 the woods are dumb1 ,in glassy sleep the waters lie4--,,bryant4 ,states fall1 arts fade1 but ,nature does not die4--,,byron4 ,the court was sitting2 the case was heard2 the judge had finished2 and only the verdict was yet in arrear4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,he softly blushed2 he sighed2 he hoped2 he feared2 he doubted2 he sometimes yielded to the delightful idea4--,,thackeray4 ,a mob appeared before the window1 a smart rap was heard at the door1 the boys hallooed1 and the maid announced ,mr4 ,grenville4--,,cowper4 ,his health had suffered from confinement2 his high spirit had been cruelly wounded2 and soon after his liberation he died of a broken heart4--,,macaulay4 ,,complex ,,sentences #dec4 ,the simple sentence in #dej may be made complex by means of a subordinate clause used as a modifier 7 #dg74 ,the polar bear1 which lives in the ,arctic regions1 sometimes reaches temperate latitudes4 ,the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward4 ,in the first example1 the simple subject 7bear71 besides its two adjective modifiers 7the and polar71 takes a third1 the adjective clause which lives in the ,arctic regions 7 #dg74 ,the sentence1 then1 is complex3 the main clause is the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes2 the subordinate clause is which lives in the ,arctic regions4 ,the second sentence is also complex4 ,the main clause is the same as in the first 7the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes74 ,the subordinate clause is when the ice drifts southward1 an adverbial modifier of the predicate verb reaches4 ,,compound ,,and ,,complex ,,clauses #ded4 ,two or more cordinate clauses may be joined to make one compound clause4 ,the polar bear1 which lives in the ,arctic regions and whose physical constitution is wonderfully adapted to that frigid climate1 sometimes reaches temperate latitudes4 ,the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes when the floes break up and when the ice drifts southward4 ,in the first example1 the italicized words form a compound adjective clause1 modifying the noun bear4 ,it consists of two cordinate adjective clauses joined by and4 ,these clauses are cordinate because they are of the same order or rank in the sentence 7 #df71 each being 7if taken singly7 an adjective modifier of the noun4 ,in the second example1 the predicate verb reaches is modified by a compound adverbial clause1 similarly made up4 #dee4 ,a clause is complex when it contains a modifying clause4 ,the polar bear1 which lives in the ,arctic regions when it is at home1 sometimes reaches temperate latitudes4 ,here the adjective clause which lives in the ,arctic regions when it is at home is complex1 for it contains the adverbial clause when it is at home1 modifying the verb lives4 ,,compound ,,complex ,,sentences #def4 ,two or more independent complex clauses may be joined to make a compound complex sentence4 ,the brown bear1 of which there are several varieties1 is common in the temperate regions of the ,eastern ,hemisphere2 and the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward4 ,this is a compound complex sentence1 for it consists of two complex clauses joined by the cordinate conjunction and4 ,each of these two clauses is independent of the other1 for each might stand by itself as a complex sentence4 ,the first complex clause contains an adjective clause1 of which there are several varieties1 modifying bear2 the second contains an adverbial clause1 when the ice drifts southward1 modifying reaches4 #deg4 ,a sentence consisting of two or more independent clauses is also classed as a compound complex sentence if any one of these is complex4 ,the brown bear is common in the temperate regions of the ,eastern ,hemisphere2 and the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward4 ,the brown bear1 of which there are several varieties1 is common in the temperate regions of the ,eastern ,hemisphere2 and the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes4 ,both of these are compound complex sentences4 ,in one1 the first clause is simple 7 #dea7 and the second is complex4 ,in the other1 the first clause is complex and the second is simple4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,analysis ,,of ,,sentences ,,simple ,,sentences #deh4 ,in analyzing a simple sentence1 we first divide it into the complete subject and the complete predicate4 ,then we point out the simple subject with its modifiers1 and the simple predicate with its modifiers and complement 7if there is one74 ,if either the subject or the predicate is compound1 we mention the simple subjects or predicates that are joined4 #a4 ,the polar bear lives in the ,arctic regions4 ,this is a simple sentence4 ,the complete subject is the polar bear2 the complete predicate is lives in the ,arctic regions4 ,the simple subject is the noun bear2 the simple predicate is the verb lives4 ,bear is modified by the adjectives the and polar2 lives is modified by the adverbial phrase in the ,arctic regions4 ,this phrase consists of the preposition in2 its object1 the noun regions2 and the adjectives the and ,arctic1 modifying regions4 #b4 ,the polar bear and the walrus live and thrive in the ,arctic regions4 ,the complete subject is the polar bear and the walrus4 ,two simple subjects 7bear and walrus7 are joined by the conjunction and to make a compound subject1 and two simple predicates 7live and thrive7 are joined by and to make a compound predicate4 ,live and thrive are both modified by the adverbial phrase in the ,arctic regions4 ,,compound ,,sentences #dei4 ,in analyzing a compound sentence we first divide it into its cordinate clauses1 and then analyze each clause by itself4 ,thus1-- ,the polar bear lives in the ,arctic regions1 but it sometimes reaches temperate latitudes4 ,this is a compound sentence consisting of two cordinate clauses joined by the conjunction but3 7#a7 the polar bear lives in the ,arctic regions and 7#b7 it sometimes reaches temperate latitudes4 ,the complete subject of the first clause is the polar bear and so on1 as in #deh1 above4 ,the subject of the second clause is it2 the complete predicate is sometimes reaches temperate latitudes4 ,the simple predicate is reaches1 which is modified by the adverb sometimes and is completed by the direct object latitudes4 ,the complement latitudes is modified by the adjective temperate4 ,,complex ,,sentences #dfj4 ,in analyzing a complex sentence1 we first divide it into the main clause and the subordinate clause4 #a4 ,the polar bear1 which lives in the ,arctic regions1 sometimes reaches temperate latitudes4 ,this is a complex sentence4 ,the main clause is the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes2 the subordinate clause is which lives in the ,arctic regions4 ,the complete subject of the sentence is the polar bear1 which lives in the ,arctic regions2 the complete predicate is sometimes reaches temperate latitudes4 ,the simple subject is bear1 which is modified by the adjectives the and polar and by the adjective clause which lives in the ,arctic regions4 ,the simple predicate is reaches1 which is modified by the adverb sometimes and completed by the direct object latitudes4 ,this complement1 latitudes1 is modified by the adjective temperate4 ,the subordinate clause is introduced by the relative pronoun which4 ,then analyze the subordinate clause4 #b4 ,the polar bear reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward4 ,this is a complex sentence4 ,the main clause is the polar bear reaches temperate latitudes2 the subordinate clause is when the ice drifts southward4 ,the complete subject of the sentence is the polar bear2 the complete predicate is reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward4 ,the simple subject is bear1 which is modified by the adjectives the and polar4 ,the simple predicate is reaches1 which is modified by the adverbial clause when the ice drifts southward1 and completed by the noun latitudes 7the direct object of reaches74 ,the complement latitudes is modified by the adjective temperate4 ,the subordinate clause is introduced by the relative adverb when4 ,then analyze the subordinate clause4 #c4 ,the polar bear1 which lives in the ,arctic regions when it is at home1 sometimes reaches temperate latitudes4 ,this is a complex sentence4 ,the main clause is the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes2 the subordinate clause is which lives in the ,arctic regions when it is at home1 which is complex1 since it contains the adverbial clause when it is at home1 modifying the verb lives4 #d4 ,he says that the polar bear lives in the ,arctic regions4 ,this is a complex sentence4 ,the main clause is he says2 the subordinate clause is that the polar bear lives in the ,arctic regions4 ,the subject of the sentence is he1 the complete predicate is says that the polar bear lives in the ,arctic regions4 ,the simple predicate is says1 which is completed by its direct object1 the noun clause that 444 regions1 introduced by the conjunction that4 ,then analyze the subordinate clause4 #e4 ,that the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes is a familiar fact4 ,this is a complex sentence4 ,the main clause 7is a familiar fact7 appears as a predicate only1 since the subordinate clause 7that the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes7 is a noun clause used as the complete subject of the sentence4 ,the simple predicate is is1 which is completed by the predicate nominative fact4 ,this complement is modified by the adjectives a and familiar4 ,the subordinate clause1 which is used as the complete subject1 is introduced by the conjunction that4 ,then analyze this clause4 ,,compound ,,complex ,,sentences #dfa4 ,in analyzing a compound complex sentence1 we first divide it into the independent clauses 7simple or complex7 of which it consists1 and then analyze each of these as if it were a sentence by itself4 ,see the examples in #def1 #deg4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,modifiers #dfb4 ,the various kinds of modifiers and complements have all been studied in preceding chapters1--each in connection with the construction which it illustrates4 ,for purposes of analysis1 however1 it is necessary to consider modifiers as such and complements as such4 ,the topics will be taken up in the following order3--7#a7 modifiers1--of the subject1 of the predicate2 7#b7 complements2 7#c7 modifiers of complements2 7#d7 modifiers of modifiers4 #dfc4 ,a word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of another word is called a modifier 7 #ai74 ,men ,able men ,men of ability can always find employment4 ,walls ,battlemented walls ,walls with battlements usually enclosed medival cities4 ,cottages ,english cottages ,cottages in ,england are often thatched4 ,the boy listened eagerly4 with eagerness4 ,i coughed purposely4 on purpose4 ,the bullet passed harmlessly4 without doing harm4 #dfd4 ,modifiers may be attached not only to substantives and verbs1 but also to adjectives and adverbs4 ,all modifiers of substantives are called adjective modifiers2 all modifiers of verbs1 adjectives1 and adverbs are called adverbial modifiers4 ,,note4 ,the terms adjective modifier and adjective are not synonymous4 ,all adjectives are adjective modifiers1 but all adjective modifiers are not adjectives4 ,thus1 in 8,henry's skates are rusty10 the possessive noun ,henry's is an adjective modifier1 since it limits the noun skates as an adjective might do4 #dfe4 ,a group of words used as a modifier may be either a phrase or a clause 7 #dj-df74 ,able men ,men of ability ,men who have ability can always find employment4 ,i spoke thoughtlessly4 without thinking4 before ,i thought4 ,a phrase or a clause used as an adjective modifier is called an adjective phrase or clause4 ,a phrase or a clause used as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial phrase or clause4 ,adjective and adverbial clauses are always subordinate1 because they are used as parts of speech 7 #df74 ,,modifiers ,,of ,,the ,,subject #dff4 ,any substantive in the sentence may take an adjective modifier1 but modifiers of the subject are particularly important4 ,the simple subject may be modified by 7#a7 an adjective1 an adjective phrase1 or an adjective clause2 7#b7 a participle2 7#c7 an infinitive2 7#d7 a possessive2 7#e7 an appositive4 ,i4 ,,adjectives1 ,,adjective ,,phrases1 ,,adjective ,,clauses #dfg4 ,the simple subject may be modified by an adjective1 an adjective phrase1 or an adjective clause4 ,ivory trinkets ,trinkets of ivory ,trinkets which were carved from ivory lay scattered about4 ,treeless spots ,spots without trees ,spots where no trees grew were plainly visible4 ,in each of these groups of sentences1 the subject of the first sentence is modified by an adjective1 that of the second by an adjective phrase1 that of the third by an adjective clause4 ,most adjective phrases are prepositional 7 #db71 as in the examples4 #dfh4 ,an adjective clause may be introduced by a relative pronoun or a relative adverb4 ,for lists1 see #cgg4 ,i4 ,,relative ,,pronouns ,the architect who designed this church was a man of genius4 ,the painter whom ,ruskin oftenest mentions is ,turner4 ,a piece of amber which is rubbed briskly will attract bits of paper4 ,the day that ,i dreaded came at last4 ,the plain through which this river flows is marvelously fertile4 ,the book from which ,i got this information is always regarded as authoritative4 ,a friend in whom one can trust is a treasure beyond price4 ,the boys with whom he associates do him no good4 ,,ii4 ,,relative ,,adverbs ,the spot where the ,old ,guard made their last stand is marked by a bronze eagle4 ,the morning when ,i arrived in ,rome is one of my pleasantest memories4 ,the year after ,ashton left home brought fresh disaster4 ,the land whence ,scyld drifted in his magic boat will never be known4 ,,note4 ,a preposition and a relative pronoun may often replace a relative adverb4 ,thus1 in the second example1 on which might be substituted for when4 ,,ii4 ,,participles #dfi4 ,the subject may be modified by a participle 7with or without modifier or complement74 #a4 ,smiling1 the child shook his head4 #b4 ,my aunt1 reassured1 took up her book again4 #c4 ,the prisoner sank back exhausted4 #d4 ,exasperated beyond endurance1 the captain cut the rope4 #e4 ,john1 obeying a sudden impulse1 took to his heels4 #f4 ,having broken one oar1 ,robert had to scull4 #g4 ,the natives1 fearing captivity above all things1 leaped into the river4 #h4 ,albert left the room1 looking rather sullen4 ,in the fourth example the participle is modified by an adverbial phrase2 in the fifth and sixth1 it has an object2 in the seventh1 it has both an object and a modifier2 in the eighth1 it is followed by the predicate adjective sullen4 ,in analysis1 the whole participial phrase 7consisting of the participle and accompanying words7 may be treated as an adjective phrase modifying the subject2 but it is simpler to regard the participle as the modifier1 and then to enumerate its modifiers1 etc41 separately4 ,thus1 in the seventh example1 the simple subject natives is modified by the participle fearing1 which has for a complement captivity 7the direct object7 and is modified by the adverbial phrase above all things4 ,,note4 ,a participle1 though a modifier of the subject1 has at the same time a peculiar relation to the predicate1 because it may take the place of an adverbial clause4 ,thus1 in the seventh example1 fearing is practically equivalent to the clause because they feared1 which1 if substituted for the participle1 would of course modify the predicate verb leaped4 ,this dual office of the participle comes from its twofold nature as 7#a7 an adjective and 7#b7 a verb4 ,in analyzing1 we treat the participle as an adjective modifier of the noun to which it belongs2 but its function as a substitute for an adverbial clause is an important means of securing variety in style4 ,,iii4 ,,infinitives #dgj4 ,the subject may be modified by an infinitive4 ,eagerness to learn was young ,lincoln's strongest passion4 ,desire to travel made ,taylor restless4 ,the wish to succeed prompted him to do his best4 ,ability to write rapidly is a valuable accomplishment4 ,howard's unwillingness to desert a friend cost him his life4 ,in the fourth example1 the infinitive has an adverbial modifier 7rapidly72 and in the fifth1 it has a complement1 its object 7friend74 ,in such instances1 two methods of analysis are allowable1 as in the case of participial phrases 7 #dfi74 ,,iv4 ,,possessives #dga4 ,the subject may be modified by a substantive in the possessive case4 ,such a substantive may be called a possessive modifier4 ,napoleon's tomb is in ,paris4 ,a man's house is his castle4 ,one's taste in reading changes as one grows older4 ,a moment's thought would have saved me4 ,the squirrel's teeth grow rapidly4 ,the ,indians' camp was near the river4 ,his name is ,alfred4 ,your carriage has arrived4 ,in each of these examples1 a substantive in the possessive case modifies the subject by limiting its meaning precisely as an adjective would do4 ,,note4 ,an adjective phrase may often be substituted for a possessive4 ,thus1 in the first example1 instead of 8,napoleon's tomb0 one may say 8the tomb of ,napoleon0 7 #ic74 ,v4 ,,appositives #dgb4 ,the subject may be modified by a substantive in apposition 7 #hh1 #e74 ,meredith the carpenter lives in that house4 ,herbert1 our captain1 has broken his leg4 ,the idol of the ,aztecs1 a grotesque image1 was thrown down by the ,spaniards4 ,many books1 both pamphlets and bound volumes1 littered the table4 ,here the subject 7books7 is modified by two appositives4 ,appositives often have modifiers of their own4 ,thus carpenter is modified by the adjective the1 captain by the possessive our1 image by the adjectives a and grotesque4 ,in analyzing1 the whole appositive phrase 7consisting of the appositive and attached words7 may be regarded as modifying the subject4 ,it is as well1 however1 to treat the appositive as the modifier and then to enumerate the adjectives1 etc41 by which the appositive itself is modified4 #dgc4 ,a noun clause may be used as an appositive1 and so may be an adjective modifier 7 #chf74 ,the question whether ,antonio was a citizen was settled in the affirmative4 ,here the italicized clause is used as a noun in apposition with question4 ,the statement that water freezes seems absurd to a native of the torrid zone4 ,the clause that water freezes is in apposition with statement4 ,an adjective in the appositive position is often called an appositive adjective 7 #agb74 8,a sword1 keen and bright1 flashed from the soldier's scabbard40 ,,modifiers ,,of ,,the ,,predicate #dgd4 ,the simple predicate1 being a verb or verb-phrase1 can have only adverbial modifiers4 ,the simple predicate may be modified by 7#a7 an adverb1 an adverbial phrase1 or an adverbial clause1 7#b7 an infinitive1 7#c7 an adverbial objective1 7#d7 a nominative absolute1 7#e7 an indirect object1 7#f7 a cognate object4 ,i4 ,,adverb1 ,,adverbial ,,phrase1 ,,adverbial ,,clause #dge4 ,the simple predicate may be modified by an adverb1 an adverbial phrase1 or an adverbial clause4 ,the landlord collects his rents monthly4 on the first of every month4 when the first of the month comes4 ,the old schoolhouse stands there4 at the cross-roads4 where the roads meet4 ,we left the hall early4 before the last speech4 while the last speech was being delivered4 ,in each of these groups1 the simple predicate of the first sentence is modified by an adverb1 that of the second by an adverbial phrase1 and that of the third by an adverbial clause4 ,most adverbial phrases are prepositional 7 #db74 ,,adverb ,,adverbial ,,phrase speedily with speed furiously with fury lately of late instantly in an instant there in that place rapidly at a rapid rate skillfully in a skillful manner with skill promptly on the instant to-morrow on the morrow unwillingly against my will ,peculiar adverbial phrases are3-- to and fro1 now and then1 up and down1 again and again1 first and last1 full speed1 full tilt1 hit or miss1 more or less1 head first1 upside down1 inside out1 sink or swim1 cash down4 #dgf4 ,an adverbial clause that modifies a verb may be introduced by 7#a7 a relative adverb1 or 7#b7 a subordinate conjunction4 ,i4 ,,relative ,,adverbs ,our colonel was always found where the fighting was fiercest4 ,when ,i give the signal1 press the button4 ,whenever ,i call1 you refuse to see me4 ,miller arrived after the play had begun4 ,everybody listened while the vagrant told his story4 ,my uncle laughed until the tears came4 ,the prisoner has not been seen since he made his escape4 ,,ii4 ,,subordinate ,,conjunctions ,archer resigned because his health failed4 ,i will give the address if you will let me choose my subject4 ,brandon insisted on walking1 although the roads were dangerous4 ,the child ran with all her might lest she should be too late4 ,i gave you a front seat in order that you might hear4 ,the town lies at the base of a lofty cliff so that it is sheltered from the north wind4 ,,ii4 ,,infinitive #dgg4 ,the simple predicate may be modified by an infinitive 7 #cbc74 ,he lay down to rest4 ,i stopped to listen4 ,the fire continued to burn4 ,the wind began to subside4 ,jack worked hard to fell the tree4 ,will did his best to win the prize4 ,kate began to weep bitterly4 ,that draughtsman seems to be remarkably skilful4 ,the infinitive may have a complement or a modifier1 as in the last four examples4 ,,iii4 ,,adverbial ,,objective #dgh4 ,the simple predicate may be modified by an adverbial objective 7 #aji74 ,i have waited ages4 ,we have walked miles4 ,arthur practised weeks4 ,the addition of modifiers to the adverbial objective makes an adverbial phrase4 ,walter ran the entire distance4 ,he stayed a whole day4 ,i will forgive you this time4 ,he came at me full tilt4 ,the wind blew all night4 ,come with me a little way4 ,in the first sentence1 the adverbial phrase the entire distance modifies the verb ran as an adverb would do4 ,this phrase consists of the noun distance with its adjective modifiers1 the and entire4 ,,iv4 ,,nominative ,,absolute #dgi4 ,the simple predicate may be modified by a nominative absolute 7 #cde74 ,a substantive in the absolute construction makes with its modifiers an adverbial phrase4 ,the ship having arrived1 we all embarked4 ,we shall sail on ,tuesday1 weather permitting4 ,that done1 repair to ,pompey's theatre4 ,the bridge across the chasm being only a single tree trunk1 we hesitated to attempt the passage4 ,in the first sentence1 the adverbial absolute phrase1 the ship having arrived1 is equivalent to the adverbial prepositional phrase1 on the arrival of the ship1 and defines the time of the action expressed by the verb embarked4 ,v4 ,,indirect ,,object #dhj4 ,the simple predicate may be modified by an indirect object 7 #aje74 ,he gave me a watch4 ,he gave a watch to me4 ,tom told me the whole story4 ,tom told the whole story to me4 ,in these sentences1 the indirect object me1 being equivalent to a prepositional phrase1 is an adverbial modifier4 ,the objective of service 7 #ajf7 is also an adverbial modifier4 ,,vi4 ,,cognate ,,object #dha4 ,the simple predicate may be modified by a cognate object or by a phrase containing such an object 7 #ajh74 ,the officer looked daggers at me looked at me angrily4 ,the shepherd sang a merry song sang merrily4 ,the skipper laughed a scornful laugh laughed scornfully4 ,in the first sentence1 the cognate object 7daggers7 modifies the predicate verb 7looked7 as the adverb angrily would do4 ,it is therefore an adverbial modifier4 ,in the second and third sentences the modifier of the predicate verb 7sang1 laughed7 is an adverbial phrase consisting of a cognate object 7song1 laugh7 with its adjective modifiers 7a merry1 a scornful74 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,complements #dhb4 #a4 ,some verbs have a meaning that is complete in itself4 ,such a verb needs only a subject4 ,when this has been supplied1 we have a sentence1 for the mere verb1 without any additional word or words1 is capable of being a predicate4 ,birds fly4 ,fishes swim4 ,the sun shines4 ,the moon rose4 ,the man scowled4 ,the girl laughed4 ,the owls hooted4 ,the clock ticked4 ,verbs of this kind are sometimes called complete verbs1 or verbs of complete predication4 #b4 ,other verbs are not1 by themselves1 capable of serving as predicates4 ,thus1-- ,the ,indians killed ----4 ,mr4 ,harris makes ----4 ,tom is ----4 ,the man seemed ----4 ,these are not sentences1 for the predicate of each is unfinished4 ,the verb requires the addition of a substantive or an adjective to complete its sense4 ,the ,indians killed deer4 ,mr4 ,harris makes shoes4 ,tom is captain4 ,the man seemed sorry4 ,verbs of this kind are often called incomplete verbs1 or verbs of incomplete predication4 ,,note4 ,the meaning of the verb determines to which of these classes it belongs4 ,accordingly1 the same verb may belong to the first class in some of its senses and to the second in others 7 #bab-bae74 #dhc4 ,a substantive or adjective added to the predicate verb to complete its meaning is called a complement4 ,complements are of four kinds1--the direct object1 the predicate objective1 the predicate nominative1 and the predicate adjective4 ,in the examples in #dhb1 deer and shoes are direct objects1--the former denoting the receiver of the action1 the latter denoting the product2 captain is a predicate nominative1 denoting the same person as the subject ,tom 7 #hh1 #b72 sorry is a predicate adjective describing the subject man4 ,complements may1 of course1 be modified4 ,if they are substantives1 they may take adjective modifiers2 if adjectives1 they may take adverbial modifiers 7 #dfd1 #did74 #dhd4 ,for convenience1 the definitions of the four kinds of complements are here repeated1 with examples4 #a4 ,,the ,,direct ,,object #dhe4 ,some verbs may be followed by a substantive denoting that which receives the action or is produced by it4 ,these are called transitive verbs4 ,all other verbs are called intransitive4 ,a substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is called its direct object 7 #ajj74 ,the direct object is often called the object complement1 or merely the object of the verb4 ,alfred has broken his arm4 ,morse invented the electric telegraph4 ,black foxes command a high price4 ,you have accomplished a task of great difficulty4 ,have you lost the dog which your uncle gave you8 ,he asked me the news4 ,two direct objects 7 #ajc74 ,most of these objects are modified1--arm by the possessive his2 telegraph by the and electric2 price by a and high2 task by the adjective phrase of great difficulty2 dog by the and by the adjective clause which your uncle gave you4 #dhf4 ,a noun clause may be used as the direct object of a verb 7 #chf74 ,you promised that my coat should be ready to-day4 ,the mayor ordered that the street should be closed for three hours4 ,i begged that my passport might be returned to me4 ,for further examples1 see #djg1 #dcb1 #dci1 #dda4 #b4 ,,the ,,predicate ,,objective #dhg4 ,verbs of choosing1 calling1 naming1 making1 and thinking may take two objects referring to the same person or thing4 ,the first of these is the direct object1 and the second1 which completes the sense of the predicate1 is called a predicate objective 7 #ajd74 ,the predicate objective is often called the complementary object or the objective attribute4 ,the people have elected ,chamberlain governor4 ,peter calls ,richard my shadow4 ,the court has appointed you the child's guardian4 ,john thinks himself a hero4 #dhh4 ,an adjective may serve as a predicate objective4 ,thus1-- ,i thought your decision hasty4 ,i call that answer impertinent4 ,the jury found the prisoner guilty4 ,your letter made him joyful4 ,care should be taken not to confuse adverbs with adjectives in -ly serving as predicate objectives4 ,you called him sickly4 ,adjective4 ,you called him early4 ,adverb4 ,after the passive1 a predicate objective becomes a predicate nominative 7 #dhi74 #c4 ,,the ,,predicate ,,nominative #dhi4 ,a substantive standing in the predicate1 but describing or defining the subject1 agrees with the subject in case and is called a predicate nominative 7 #hh1 #b74 ,a predicate nominative is often called a subject complement or an attribute4 ,the predicate nominative is common after is and other copulative verbs1 and after certain transitive verbs in the passive voice4 ,chemistry is a useful science4 ,boston is the capital of ,massachusetts4 ,jefferson became ,president4 ,this bird is called a flamingo4 ,mr4 ,hale was appointed secretary4 ,albert has been chosen captain of the crew4 ,you are a friend upon whom ,i can rely4 ,in most of the examples1 the predicate nominative has one or more modifiers4 ,in the first sentence1 science is modified by the two adjectives a and useful2 in the second1 capital is modified by the adjective phrase of ,massachusetts2 in the last1 friend is modified by the adjective clause upon whom ,i can rely4 ,for the distinction between the predicate nominative and the direct object1 see #ajb4 #dij4 ,a noun clause may be used as a predicate nominative 7 #chf74 ,my plan is that the well should be dug to-morrow4 ,his intention was that you should remain here4 ,the result is that he is bankrupt4 ,ruth's fear was that the door might be locked4 #dia4 ,an infinitive may be used as a predicate nominative4 ,to hear is to obey4 ,my hope was to reach the summit before dark4 ,their plan was to undermine the tower4 ,my habit is to rise early4 ,the infinitive may have a complement or modifiers4 ,in the second and third examples1 it takes an object2 in the fourth it is modified by an adverb4 #d4 ,,the ,,predicate ,,adjective #dib4 ,an adjective in the predicate belonging to a noun or pronoun in the subject is called a predicate adjective4 ,a predicate adjective completes the meaning of the predicate verb and is therefore a complement 7 #agb1 #c47 ,like the predicate nominative1 the predicate adjective is common after copulative verbs and after certain transitive verbs in the passive voice 7 #agb1 #c2 #beb74 ,john was angry4 ,my knife is growing dull4 ,the task seemed very easy4 ,the report proved false in every particular4 ,the boat was thought unsafe4 ,the cover was made perfectly tight4 ,in some of these examples1 the predicate adjective has a modifier4 ,in the third1 easy is modified by the adverb very2 in the fourth1 false is modified by the adverbial phrase in every particular2 in the last1 tight is modified by perfectly4 #dic4 ,an adjective phrase may be used as a predicate adjective4 ,thus1-- ,richard was out of health4 ,compare3 ,richard was ill4 ,rachel seemed in a passion4 ,compare3 seemed angry4 ,this act is against my interests4 ,compare3 is harmful to me4 ,the adjective phrase may consist of an infinitive with or without the preposition about 7 #cai74 ,i was about to speak4 ,this house is to let4 ,i am to sail to-morrow4 ,,chapter ,v ,,modifiers ,,of ,,complements ,,and ,,of ,,modifiers ,,complements ,,modified #did4 ,complements1 being either substantives or adjectives1 may be modified in various ways1 most of which have been noted in ,chapter ,,iii4 #a4 ,a substantive used as a complement may have the same kinds of modifiers that are used with the subject 7 #dff74 #b4 ,an adjective complement admits only adverbial modifiers4 #die4 ,the following sentences illustrate the modifiers of substantive complements3-- ,herbert lost a gold watch4 ,the direct object 7watch7 is modified by the adjectives a and gold4 ,the duke built towers of marble4 ,the direct object 7towers7 is modified by the adjective phrase of marble4 ,my father built the house in which ,i was born4 ,the direct object 7house7 is modified by the adjective the and the adjective clause in which ,i was born4 ,i saw a man running across the field4 ,the direct object 7man7 is modified by the adjective a and the participle running4 ,you have forfeited your right to vote4 ,the direct object 7right7 is modified by the possessive pronoun your and the infinitive to vote4 ,i have seen ,henry's brother4 ,the direct object 7brother7 is modified by the possessive noun ,henry's4 ,i must ask my brother1 the mayor4 ,the direct object 7brother7 is modified by the possessive pronoun my and the appositive mayor4 ,the guild has elected ,walter honorary president4 ,the predicate objective 7president7 is modified by the adjective honorary4 ,her husband is an old soldier4 ,the predicate nominative 7soldier7 is modified by the adjectives an and old4 ,her sons are veterans of the ,franco-,prussian war4 ,the predicate nominative 7veterans7 is modified by the adjective phrase of the ,franco-,prussian war4 ,they are rivals in business4 ,the predicate nominative 7rivals7 is modified by the adjective phrase in business4 ,the author is ,will ,jewell1 who was formerly editor of 8,the ,pioneer40 ,the predicate nominative 7,will ,jewell7 is modified by the adjective clause who was formerly editor1 etc4 ,baldwin is the man standing under the tree4 ,the predicate nominative 7man7 is modified by the adjective the and the participle standing4 ,your chief fault is your inclination to procrastinate4 ,the predicate nominative 7inclination7 is modified by the possessive pronoun your and the infinitive to procrastinate4 ,this man is ,gretchen's brother4 ,the predicate nominative 7brother7 is modified by the possessive noun ,gretchen's4 ,the first to fall was the bugler1 ,john ,wilson4 ,the predicate nominative 7bugler7 is modified by the adjective the and the appositive ,john ,wilson4 #dif4 ,adjective clauses are very common as modifiers of substantive complements 7cf4 #dfh74 ,have you lost the watch that your cousin gave you8 ,this is the very spot where the temple of ,saturn stood4 ,the general issued an order that all non-combatants should be treated well4 ,we have abundant proof that during his stay on the ,continent1 ,bacon did not neglect literary and scientific pursuits4 #dig4 ,an adjective used as a complement may be modified by an adverb1 an adverbial phrase1 or an adverbial clause4 ,i am very sorry for you4 ,sorry is modified by the adverb very and the adverbial phrase for you4 ,charles seems rather very extremely angry4 ,the road is rough in places4 where they are repairing it4 ,the whole tribe appeared eager for war4 ,he grew envious of his successful rival4 ,be zealous in every righteous cause4 ,the chief's face looked dark with passion4 ,he was selfish beyond belief4 ,the predicate adjective 7selfish7 is modified by the adverbial phrase beyond belief4 ,ellen seemed desirous that her friends should admire her4 ,the secretary appeared unwilling to resign4 ,see #cba1 note4 ,,modifiers ,,of ,,other ,,modifiers #dih4 ,modifiers may themselves be modified4 ,the chief varieties of such modification are illustrated in the following sentences4 ,i4 ,adjectives or adjective phrases may be modified by adverbs or by words or groups of words used adverbially4 ,a very old man came to the door4 ,an exceedingly dangerous curve lay beyond the bridge4 ,this rather odd proposal interested us4 ,the quay is miles long4 ,adverbial objective 7 #aji74 ,at least five different amendments have been offered4 ,five is modified by the adverbial phrase at least4 ,the general1 wholly in the dark as to the enemy's intentions1 ordered an advance4 ,the adjective phrase in the dark is modified by wholly4 ,quite at his ease1 ,john began to speak4 ,at his ease is modified by quite4 ,her smile1 pathetic in its weariness1 quickly faded4 ,the adverbial phrase modifies pathetic ,this sleeve is a good two inches short4 ,the phrase modifies short4 ,,ii4 ,possessive nouns may be modified by adjectives or by possessives4 ,the poor man's days are numbered4 ,honest ,tom's face shone with delight4 ,the faithful animal's head drooped4 ,my uncle's barn is on fire4 ,john's brother's name is ,reginald4 ,,iii4 ,appositives may be modified by adjectives or by groups of words used as adjectives4 ,joe1 the old butler1 met me at the station4 ,sam1 the cunning rascal1 had stolen the oars4 ,her mother1 a woman of fashion1 sadly neglected her4 ,the other1 the man at the table1 laughed rudely4 ,ferdinand ,oliver1 the engineer who had charge of the construction1 proved incompetent4 ,two ,englishmen1 friends whom ,i visited last summer1 are coming to ,new ,york in ,december4 ,,iv4 ,adverbs or adverbial phrases may be modified by adverbs or by words or groups of words used adverbially4 ,jane plays very well4 ,robert spoke almost hopefully4 ,she answered quite at random4 ,i write to him at least once a year4 #dii4 ,an adjective may be modified by an infinitive 7 #cba74 ,unable to move1 ,i suffered torments of anxiety4 ,the sailors1 eager to reach the island1 plunged into the sea4 ,reluctant to act1 but unwilling to stand idle1 ,burwell was in a pitiful state of indecision4 #ejj4 ,adjective and adverbial clauses are very common as modifiers of modifiers 7cf4 #dif74 ,geronimo1 an old chief who bore the scars of many battles1 led the attack4 ,the adjective clause modifies the appositive chief4 ,the servant1 angry because he had been rebuked1 slammed the door as he went out4 ,the hunter1 confident that the deer had not heard him1 took deliberate aim4 ,the fugitive1 in a panic lest he should be overtaken1 made frantic efforts to scale the cliff4 ,the adverbial clause modifies the adjective phrase in a panic4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,independent ,,elements #eja4 ,a word or group of words that has no grammatical connection with the sentence in which it stands is called an independent element4 ,independent elements are of four kinds1--interjections1 vocatives 7or nominatives by direct address71 exclamatory nominatives1 and parenthetical expressions4 ,ah6 why did ,i undertake this task8 ,help arrived1 alas6 too late4 ,you are a strange man1 ,arthur4 ,mary1 come here6 ,poor ,charles6 ,i am sorry for him4 ,clothes6 clothes6 you are always wanting clothes4 ,lucky she6 we are all envious of her prospects4 ,the first two sentences contain interjections 7 #cgb72 the second two1 vocatives 7or nominatives by direct address7 7 #hh1 #c72 the last three1 exclamatory nominatives 7 #hh1 #d74 ,when the independent word has a modifier 7as in the fifth and seventh examples71 the whole phrase may be treated as an independent element4 #ejb4 ,a word or group of words attached to or inserted in a sentence as a mere comment1 without belonging either to the subject or the predicate1 is said to be parenthetical4 ,the market1 indeed1 was already closed4 ,peter1 to be sure1 was not very trustworthy4 ,the house1 at all events1 is safe4 ,the road is1 ,i admit1 very hilly4 ,luttrell's method1 it must be confessed1 was a little disappointing4 ,richard was not a bad fellow1 after all4 #ejc4 ,in analysis1 an independent element is mentioned by itself1 and not as a part of the complete subject or the complete predicate4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,combinations ,,of ,,clauses #ejd4 ,the use of subordinate clauses as complements and modifiers1 and as modifiers of complements and of modifiers1 may produce sentences of great length and complicated structure4 ,such sentences1 if skilfully composed1 are not hard to follow4 ,their analysis requires merely the intelligent application of a few simple principles1 which have already been explained and illustrated4 #eje4 ,these principles may be summed up as follows3-- ,i4 ,all clauses are either independent or subordinate4 ,a clause is subordinate if it is used as a part of speech 7noun1 adjective1 or adverb72 otherwise1 it is independent 7 #df74 ,,ii4 ,cordinate means 8of the same rank0 in the sentence 7 #df74 #a4 ,two or more independent clauses in the same sentence are manifestly cordinate4 ,the fire blazed and the wood crackled4 ,two declarative clauses4 ,what is your name1 and where were you born8 ,interrogative clauses4 ,sit down and tell me your story4 ,imperative clauses4 #b4 ,two or more subordinate clauses are cordinate with each other when they are used together in the same construction1--as nouns1 adjectives1 or adverbs4 ,such a group may be regarded as forming one compound subordinate clause4 ,the truth is1 that ,i have no money and that my friends have forsaken me4 ,noun clauses4 ,the ,indians1 who were armed with long lances1 and who showed great skill in using them1 made a furious attack on the cavalry4 ,adjective clauses4 ,when he had spoken1 but before a vote had been taken1 a strange tumult was heard in the outer room4 ,adverbial clauses4 ,in the first example1 we have a compound noun clause2 in the second1 a compound adjective clause2 in the third1 a compound adverbial clause4 #c4 ,cordinate clauses are either joined by cordinate conjunctions 7and1 or1 but1 etc471 or such conjunctions may be supplied without changing the sense 7 #cfb74 ,the good-natured old gentleman1 who was friendly to both parties1 ,,and who did not lack courage1 ,,and who hated a quarrel1 spoke his mind with complete frankness4 ,,iii4 ,a subordinate clause may depend on another subordinate clause4 ,the horse shied when he saw the locomotive4 ,the subordinate clause depends upon the independent 7main7 clause4 ,the horse shied when he saw the locomotive1 which was puffing violently4 ,the second subordinate clause depends upon the first1 being an adjective modifier of locomotive4 ,in such cases1 the whole group of subordinate clauses may be taken together as forming one complex subordinate clause4 ,thus1 in the second example1 when he saw the locomotive1 which was puffing violently may be regarded as a complex adverbial clause modifying shied1 and containing an adjective clause 7which was puffing violently74 #ejf4 ,from the principles summarized in #eje1 it appears that-- ,clauses 7like sentences7 may be simple1 compound1 or complex4 #a4 ,a simple clause contains but one subject and one predicate1 either or both of which may be compound 7 #dea74 #b4 ,a compound clause consists of two or more cordinate clauses 7 #ded74 #c4 ,a complex clause consists of at least two clauses1 one of which is subordinate to the other4 #ejg4 ,the unit in all combinations of clauses is clearly the simple sentence1 which1 when used as a part of a more complicated sentence1 becomes a simple clause4 ,the processes used in such combinations1 as we have seen1 are really but two in number1--cordination and subordination4 ,cordination of clauses produces compound sentences or compound clauses2 subordination of one clause to another produces complex sentences or complex clauses4 #ejh4 ,every sentence1 however long and complicated1 belongs 7in structure7 to one of the three classes1--simple1 compound1 and complex4 ,,simple ,,sentences #eji4 ,a simple sentence may have a compound subject or predicate 7or both71 and may also include a number of modifiers and complements4 ,obviously1 then1 a simple sentence need not be short4 ,it remains simple in structure so long as it contains but one simple or compound subject and one simple or compound predicate4 ,thus1-- #a4 ,you leave ,glasgow in a steamboat1 go down the ,clyde fourteen miles1 and then come to ,dumbarton ,castle1 a huge rock five or six hundred feet high1 not connected with any other high land1 and with a fortress at the top4--,,webster4 ,the length of this sentence is due partly to its compound predicate1 partly to the modifier 7and modifiers of the modifier7 attached to the noun ,dumbarton ,castle4 #b4 ,he was little disposed to exchange his lordly repose for the insecure and agitated life of a conspirator1 to be in the power of accomplices1 to live in constant dread of warrants and king's messengers1 nay1 perhaps1 to end his days on a scaffold1 or to live on alms in some back street of the ,hague4--,,macaulay4 ,this sentence is lengthened by means of a series of infinitives used as adverbial modifiers of the complement disposed 7a participle used as an adjective74 ,each of these infinitives takes a complement or a modifier 7or both74 #c4 ,the arbitrary measures of ,charles ,i1 the bold schemes of ,strafford1 and the intolerant bigotry of ,laud1 precipitated a collision between the opposite principles of government1 and divided the whole country into ,cavaliers and ,roundheads4--,,may4 ,both the subject and the predicate are compound4 ,each of the three nouns in the compound subject has modifiers4 ,the two verbs in the compound predicate have each a complement1 and the second has an adverbial modifier 7a phrase74 #d4 ,twenty of the savages now got on board and proceeded to ramble over every part of the deck and scramble about among the rigging1 making themselves much at home and examining every article with great inquisitiveness4--,,poe4 ,the predicate is compound4 ,the sentence is extended by the use of participles 7making and examining71 which modify the simple subject twenty4 #e4 ,she was tumbled early1 by accident or design1 into a spacious closet of good old ,english reading1 without much selection or prohibition1 and browsed at will upon that fair and wholesome pasturage4--,,lamb4 #f4 ,the mermaid was still seen to glide along the waters1 and mingling her voice with the sighing breeze1 was often heard to sing of subterranean wonders1 or to chant prophecies of future events4--,,scott4 #g4 ,with early dawn1 they were under arms1 and1 without waiting for the movement of the ,spaniards1 poured into the city and attacked them in their own quarters4--,,prescott4 #h4 ,arming a desperate troop of slaves and gladiators1 he overpowered the feeble guard of the domestic tranquillity of ,rome1 received the homage of the ,senate1 and1 assuming the title of ,augustus1 precariously reigned during a tumult of twenty-eight days4--,,gibbon4 ,,note4 ,a simple sentence with compound predicate often differs very slightly from a compound sentence4 ,thus in examples #d-g the insertion of a single pronoun 7they1 she7 to serve as a subject for the second verb 7proceeded1 browsed1 etc47 will make the sentence compound4 ,,compound ,,and ,,complex ,,sentences #eaj4 ,every sentence that is not simple must be either compound or complex4 ,a sentence is compound if it consists of two or more independent clauses2 complex1 if it consists of one independent 7main7 clause and one or more subordinate clauses4 #eaa4 ,an ordinary compound sentence consists of two or more cordinate simple clauses4 ,such a sentence may be of great length 7as in the last example below71 but its structure is usually transparent4 ,a cricket chirps on the hearth1 and we are reminded of ,christmas gambols long ago4--,,hazlitt4 ,the moments were numbered2 the strife was finished2 the vision was closed4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,the old king had retired to his couch that night in one of the strongest towers of the ,alhambra1 but his restless anxiety kept him from repose4--,,irving4 ,the clock has just struck two2 the expiring taper rises and sinks in the socket2 the watchman forgets his hour in slumber2 the laborious and the happy are at rest2 and nothing wakes but meditation1 guilt1 revelry1 and despair4--,,goldsmith4 ,the present1 indeed1 is not a contest for distant or contingent objects2 it is not a contest for acquisition of territory2 it is not a contest for power and glory2 as little is it carried on merely for any commercial advantage1 or any particular form of government2 but it is a contest for the security1 the tranquillity1 and the very existence of ,great ,britain1 connected with that of every established government and every country in ,europe4--,,pitt4 #eab4 ,a complex sentence1 in its most elementary form1 consists of one simple independent 7main7 clause and one simple subordinate clause4 ,the gas exploded when ,i struck a match4 ,though he is idle1 he is not lazy4 ,the carpenter who fell from the roof has recovered from his injuries4 ,their eyes were so fatigued with the eternal dazzle and whiteness1 that they lay down on their backs upon deck to relieve their sight on the blue sky4--,,keats4 ,the shouts of thousands1 their menacing gestures1 the fierce clashing of their arms1 astonished and subdued the courage of ,vetranio1 who stood1 amidst the defection of his followers1 in anxious and silent suspense4--,,gibbon4 #eac4 ,both compound sentences and complex sentences admit of much variety in structure1 according to the nature and the relations of the clauses that compose them4 ,,compound ,,complex ,,sentences #ead4 ,any or all of the cordinate clauses that make up a compound sentence may be complex4 ,in that case1 the sentence is called a compound complex sentence4 ,,note4 ,compound complex sentences form a special class or subdivision under the general head of compound sentences4#di ,old ,uncle ,venner was just coming out of his door1 with a wood-horse and saw on his shoulder2 and1 trudging along the street1 he scrupled not to keep company with ,phbe1 so far as their paths lay together2 nor1 in spite of his patched coat and rusty beaver1 and the curious fashion of his tow-cloth trousers1 could she find it in her heart to outwalk him4--,,hawthorne4 ,this sentence consists of three cordinate clauses1 each independent of the others4 ,these are joined by the cordinate conjunctions and1 nor4 ,the first and the third clause are simple1 but the second clause is complex4 ,hence the whole forms one compound complex sentence4 ,the complex clause consists of two clauses1 the second of which is subordinate to the first4 ,taken as a whole1 however1 this complex clause is manifestly cordinate with the two simple clauses1 since the three form a series joined by cordinate conjunctions4 #eae4 ,further examples of compound complex sentences are3-- #a4 ,the people drove out ,king ,athamas1 because he had killed his child2 and he roamed about in his misery1 till he came to the ,oracle in ,delphi4--,,kingsley4 #b4 ,society is the stage on which manners are shown2 novels are their literature4--,,emerson4 #c4 ,we keep no bees1 but if ,i lived in a hive ,i should scarcely have more of their music4--,,cowper4 #d4 ,the same river ran on as it had run on before1 but the cheerful faces that had once been reflected in its stream had passed away4--,,froude4 #e4 ,there are some laws and customs in this empire very peculiar2 and if they were not so directly contrary to those of my own dear country1 ,i should be tempted to say a little in their justification4--,,swift4 #f4 ,here they arrived about noon1 and ,joseph proposed to ,adams that they should rest awhile in this delightful place4--,,fielding4 #g4 ,i never saw a busier person than she seemed to be2 yet it was difficult to say what she did4--,c4 ,,bront4 #h4 ,malaga possessed a brave and numerous garrison1 and the common people were active1 hardy1 and resolute2 but the city was rich and commercial1 and under the habitual control of opulent merchants1 who dreaded the ruinous consequences of a siege4--,,irving4 #i4 ,the ,spaniards were not to be taken by surprise2 and1 before the barbarian horde had come within their lines1 they opened such a deadly fire from their heavy guns1 supported by the musketry and crossbows1 that the assailants were compelled to fall back slowly1 but fearfully mangled1 to their former position4--,,prescott4 #aj4 ,her cheeks were as pale as marble1 but of a cold1 unhealthy1 ashen white2 and my heart ached to think that they had been bleached1 most probably1 by bitter and continual tears4--,,hood4 #aa4 ,the hawk1 having in spiral motion achieved the upper flight1 fell like a thunderbolt on the raven1 stunned him with the blow1 clutched him in his talons1 folded him in his wings1 and1 the hawk undermost1 they tumbled down like a black ball1 till within a short distance from the earth4--,,trelawny4 ,in this sentence they were is understood after till4 ,,varieties ,,of ,,the ,,complex ,,sentence #eaf4 ,a complex sentence may be expanded either by compounding the main clause1 or by increasing the number of subordinate clauses4 ,both methods may be used in the same sentence4 #eag4 ,the independent 7main7 clause of a complex sentence may be compound4 ,when they saw the ship1 they shouted for joy and some of them burst into tears4 ,as they turned down from the knoll to rejoin their comrades1 the sun dipped and disappeared1 and the woods fell instantly into the gravity and grayness of the early night4--,,stevenson4 ,the eye of the young monarch kindled and his dark cheek flushed with sudden anger1 as he listened to proposals so humiliating4--,,prescott4 ,sharpe was so hated in ,scotland during his life1 and his death won him so many friends1 or pitying observers1 that it is not easy to write of him without prejudice or favor4--,a4 ,,lang4 ,as has been the case with many another good fellow of his nation1 his life was tracked and his substance wasted by crowds of hungry beggars and lazy dependents4--,,thackeray4 ,note that the subordinate clause depends on the compound main clause1 not upon either of its members4 ,thus1 in the first example1 the subordinate clause 7when they saw the ship7 depends upon the compound main clause1 they shouted for joy and some of them burst into tears4 ,it is an adverbial modifier of both shouted and burst4 #eah4 ,though a complex sentence can have but one 7simple or compound7 main clause1 there is1 in theory1 no limit to the number of subordinate clauses4 #eai4 ,subordinate clauses may be attached to the main clause 7#a7 as separate modifiers or complements2 7#b7 in a cordinate series of clauses1 all in the same construction1 and forming one compound clause2 7#c7 in a series of successively subordinate clauses1 forming one complex clause4 #ebj4 ,two or more subordinate clauses may be attached to the main clause separately1 each as a distinct modifier or complement4 ,the bridge1 which had been weakened by the ice1 fell with a crash while the locomotive was crossing it4 ,the first subordinate clause is an adjective modifier of bridge2 the second is an adverbial modifier of fell4 ,the architect who drew the plans says that the house will cost ten thousand dollars4 ,the first subordinate clause is an adjective modifier of architect2 the second is a complement1 being the object of says4 ,isabella1 whom every incident was sufficient to dismay1 hesitated whether she should proceed4--,h4 ,,walpole4 ,as the boat drew nearer to the city1 the coast which the traveller had just left sank behind him into one long1 low1 sad-colored line4--,,ruskin4 ,those dangers which1 in the vigor of youth1 we had learned to despise1 assume new terrors as we grow old4--,,goldsmith4 ,when ,farmer ,oak smiled1 the corners of his mouth spread till they were within an unimportant distance of his ears4--,,hardy4 ,as ,florian ,deleal walked1 one hot afternoon1 he overtook by the wayside a poor aged man1 and1 as he seemed weary with the road1 helped him on with the burden which he carried1 a certain distance4--,,pater4 ,while ,joe was absent on this errand1 the elder ,willet and his three companions continued to smoke with profound gravity and in a deep silence1 each having his eyes fixed on a huge copper boiler that was suspended over the fire4--,,dickens4 #eba4 ,two or more subordinate clauses in the same construction1 forming one compound clause1 may be attached to the main clause as a modifier or complement4 #a4 ,the truth was that ,leonard had overslept1 that he had missed the train1 and that he had failed to keep his appointment4 #b4 ,the guide told us that the road was impassable1 that the river was in flood1 and that the bridge had been swept away4 #c4 ,ellis1 whose pockets were empty and whose courage was at a low ebb1 stared dismally at the passing crowd4 #d4 ,before the battle was over and while the result was still in doubt1 the general ordered a retreat4 #e4 ,after we had arrived at the hotel1 but before we had engaged our rooms1 we received an invitation to stay at the castle4 #f4 ,my first thought was1 that all was lost1 and that my only chance for executing a retreat was to sacrifice my baggage4--,,de ,,quincey4 #g4 ,the author fully convinced his readers that they were a race of cowards and scoundrels1 that nothing could save them1 that they were on the point of being enslaved by their enemies1 and that they richly deserved their fate4--,,macaulay4 ,in the first and second examples1 three cordinate noun clauses are joined to make one compound clause1 which is used as a complement1--as a predicate nominative in the first sentence1 as the direct object of told in the second4 ,in the third example1 a compound adjective clause modifies ,ellis4 ,in the fourth and fifth1 a compound adverbial clause modifies the predicate verb 7ordered1 received74 ,in the seventh1 four that-clauses unite in one compound clause4 #ebb4 ,two or more successively subordinate clauses1 forming one complex clause1 may be joined to the main clause as a modifier or complement4 ,in such a series1 the first subordinate clause is attached directly to the main clause1 the second is subordinate to the first1 the third to the second1 and so on in succession4 ,in the course of my travels1 ,i met a good-natured old gentleman1 7a7 who was born in the village 7b7 where my parents lived 7c7 before they came to ,america4 ,here gentleman 7a complement in the main clause7 is modified by the adjective clause who was born in the village 7a74 ,village1 in clause a1 is modified by the adjective clause where my parents lived 7b74 ,lived1 the predicate verb of clause b1 is modified by the adverbial clause before they came to ,america 7c74 ,thus it appears that a is subordinate to the main clause1 and that b1 in turn1 is subordinate to a1 and c to b4 ,in other words1 the three clauses 7a1 b1 c7 are united to make one complex clause1--who was born in the village where my parents lived before they came to ,america4 ,this clause1 taken as a whole1 serves as an adjective modifier describing gentleman4 #ebc4 ,further examples of the successive subordination of one clause to another may be seen in the following sentences3-- ,i have passed my latter years in this city1 where ,i am frequently seen in public places1 though there are not above half-a-dozen of my select friends that know me4--,,addison4 ,in this manner they advanced by moonlight till they came within view of the two towering rocks that form a kind of portal to the valley1 at the extremity of which rose the vast ruins of ,istakar4--,,beckford4 ,the young fellow uttered this with an accent and a look so perfectly in tune to a feeling heart1 that ,i instantly made a vow ,i would give him a four-and-twenty sous piece1 when ,i got to ,marseilles4--,,sterne4 ,the conjunction that is omitted before ,i would 7 #chh74 ,three years had scarcely elapsed before the sons of ,constantine seemed impatient to convince mankind that they were incapable of contenting themselves with the dominions which they were unqualified to govern4--,,gibbon4 ,mr4 ,lewis sent me an account of ,dr4 ,arbuthnot's illness1 which is a very sensible affliction to me1 who1 by living so long out of the world1 have lost that hardness of heart contracted by years and general conversation4--,,swift4 ,,note4 ,the method of forming complex clauses by successive subordination1 if overworked1 produces long1 straggling1 shapeless sentences1 as in the following example from ,borrow3--8,i scouted the idea that ,slingsby would have stolen this blacksmith's gear2 for ,i had the highest opinion of his honesty1 which opinion ,i still retain at the present day1 which is upwards of twenty years from the time of which ,i am speaking1 during the whole of which period ,i have neither seen the poor fellow nor received any intelligence of him40 ,a famous instance of the use of this structure for comic effect is 8,the ,house that ,jack ,built40 ,,special ,,complications #ebd4 ,the processes of cordination and subordination 7 #ead-ebc7 may be so utilized in one and the same sentence as to produce a very complicated structure4 ,examples of such sentences are given below1 for reference 7 #ebe-ebf74 ,their structure1 however elaborate1 is always either complex or compound complex4 ,i4 ,,in ,,complex ,,sentences #ebe4 ,the following sentences are complex4 ,they contain either compound or complex clauses1 or both4 #a4 ,they preferred the silver with which they were familiar1 and which they were constantly passing about from hand to hand1 to the gold which they had never before seen1 and with the value of which they were unacquainted4--,,macaulay4 ,the main clause of this complex sentence is they preferred the silver to the gold4 ,to this are separately attached 7 #ebj7 two adjective clauses1 both compound3 7#a7 with which 444 hand1 modifying silver2 7#b7 which they had 444 unacquainted1 modifying gold4 #b4 ,all ,london crowded to shout and laugh round the gibbet where hung the rotting remains of a prince who had made ,england the dread of the world1 who had been the chief founder of her maritime greatness and of her colonial empire1 who had conquered ,scotland and ,ireland1 who had humbled ,holland and ,spain4--,,macaulay4 ,the sentence is complex4 ,the main clause is all ,london crowded to shout and laugh round the gibbet4 ,the rest of the sentence 7where 444 ,spain7 forms one long complex adjective clause1 modifying gibbet4 ,in this complex clause1 the first clause 7where 444 prince7 has dependent on it a compound adjective clause 7modifying prince71 made up of four cordinate clauses1 each beginning with who4 ,the subordination of this compound clause to that which precedes 7where 444 prince7 produces the long complex subordinate clause where 444 ,spain4 #c4 ,as we cannot at present get ,mr4 ,joseph out of the inn1 we shall leave him in it1 and carry our reader on after ,parson ,adams1 who1 his mind being perfectly at ease1 fell into a contemplation on a passage in schylus1 which entertained him for three miles together1 without suffering him once to reflect on his fellow-traveller4--,,fielding4 ,in this complex sentence1 two subordinate clauses are separately attached to the main clause3 7#a7 the adverbial clause as 444 inn2 7#b7 the adjective clause who 444 fellow-traveller4 ,this latter clause is complex1 since it contains the adjective clause which 444 fellow-traveller1 dependent on who 444 schylus1 and modifying passage4 #d4 ,as ,i sit by my window this summer afternoon1 hawks are circling about my clearing2 the tantivy of wild pigeons1 flying by twos and threes athwart my view1 or perching restlessly on the white pine boughs behind my house1 gives a voice to the air2 a fishhawk dimples the glassy surface of the pond and brings up a fish2 a mink steals out of the marsh before my door and seizes a frog by the shore2 the sedge is bending under the weight of the reed-birds flitting hither and hither2 and for the last half hour ,i have heard the rattle of railroad cars1 now dying away and then revving like the beat of a partridge1 conveying travellers from ,boston to the country4--,,thoreau4 ,this sentence is complex4 ,its main clause is compound1 consisting of a series of six cordinate simple clauses4 ,the whole of this long compound main clause is modified by the adverbial clause with which the sentence begins 7as 444 afternoon74 #e4 ,that they had sprung from obscurity1 that they had acquired great wealth1 that they exhibited it insolently1 that they spent it extravagantly1 that they raised the price of everything in their neighborhood1 from fresh eggs to rotten boroughs2 that their liveries outshone those of dukes1 that their coaches were finer than that of the ,lord ,mayor1 that the examples of their large and ill-governed households corrupted half the servants in the country2 that some of them1 with all their magnificence1 could not catch the tone of good society1 but in spite of the stud and the crowd of menials1 of the plate and the ,dresden china1 of the venison and the ,burgundy1 were still low men1--these were things which excited1 both in the class from which they had sprung1 and in that into which they attempted to force themselves1 that bitter aversion which is the effect of mingled envy and contempt4--,,macaulay4 ,this complex sentence1 though very long1 is perfectly easy to follow4 ,it begins with a long compound noun clause 7consisting of nine cordinate that-clauses74 ,this would be the subject of the main predicate verb were1 but for the fact that the pronoun these is inserted to act as the subject 7referring back to the compound noun clause and summing it up in a single word74 ,to the complement things is attached the adjective clause which excited 444 contempt4 ,this clause is complex1 for it contains three adjective clauses1 7#a7 from which they had sprung 7modifying class71 7#b7 into which 444 themselves 7modifying that71 and 7#c7 which is 444 contempt 7modifying aversion74 ,all three are separately attached to the clause on which they depend1 which excited that bitter aversion4 ,thus all that portion of the sentence which follows things forms one complex clause1 modifying that noun4 #f4 ,that ,i may avoid the imputation of throwing out1 even privately1 any loose1 random imputations against the public conduct of a gentleman for whom ,i once entertained a very warm affection1 and whose abilities ,i regard with the greatest admiration1 ,i will put down1 distinctly and articulately1 some of the matters of objection which ,i feel to his late doctrines and proceedings1 trusting that ,i shall be able to demonstrate to the friends whose good opinion ,i would still cultivate1 that not levity1 nor caprice1 nor less defensible motives1 but that very grave reasons1 influence my judgment4--,,burke4 ,this is a fine example of a long1 but well-constructed complex sentence4 ,the main clause is ,i will put down1 distinctly and articulately1 some of the matters of objection4 ,upon this simple clause1 everything else in the sentence depends in one way or another4 ,,ii4 ,,in ,,compound ,,complex ,,sentences #ebf4 ,any complex sentence1 however elaborate1 may be used as one of the cordinate complex clauses that make up a compound complex sentence4 #a4 ,while the king was treated at this rude rate1 ,cromwell1 with his army1 was in ,scotland1 obstructing the motions that were making in his favor2 but on the approach of the ,scots1 who were much superior in number1 he was forced to retire towards ,dunbar1 where his ships and provisions lay4--,,burnet4 ,in this compound complex sentence1 both cordinate clauses are complex4 ,in each1 the main clause has two subordinate clauses attached to it separately 7 #ebj74 #b4 ,they had seen me cut the cables1 and thought my design was only to let the ships run adrift1 or fall foul on each other2 but when they perceived the whole fleet moving in order1 and saw me pulling at the end1 they set up such a scream of grief and despair as it is almost impossible to describe or conceive4--,,swift4 ,in this compound complex sentence1 both of the two cordinate clauses are complex4 ,the first contains the noun clause that my design 444 each other1 used as the object of thought4 ,the second contains two subordinate clauses1 separately attached to the main clause 7they set 444 despair74 ,for the infinitive cut1 see #cbb4 ,the infinitive to let is used as a predicate nominative 7 #dia72 it has as its object the infinitive clause the ships 444 each other1 containing two infinitives1 run and fall 7 #cbe74 #c4 ,while things went on quietly1 while there was no opposition1 while everything was given by the favor of a small ruling junto1 ,fox had a decided advantage over ,pitt2 but when dangerous times came1 when ,europe was convulsed with war1 when ,parliament was broken up into factions1 when the public mind was violently excited1 the favorite of the people rose to supreme power4--,,macaulay4 ,this compound complex sentence consists of two complex clauses1 joined by the cordinate conjunction but4 ,in each of these1 the subordinate clause is compound 7 #eba71 consisting of several cordinate adverbial clauses introduced by relative adverbs 7while in the first1 when in the second74 #d4 ,the clear and agreeable language of his despatches had early attracted the notice of his employers2 and before the ,peace of ,breda he had1 at the request of ,arlington1 published a pamphlet on the war1 of which nothing is now known1 except that it had some vogue at the time1 and that ,charles1 not a contemptible judge1 pronounced it to be very well written4--,,macaulay4 ,in this compound complex sentence1 the first cordinate clause is simple1 the second is complex4 ,in the second1 the adjective clause of which nothing is known has dependent on it the group of words except 444 well written1 consisting of the preposition except and its object 7the compound noun clause1 that 444 time1 and that 444 well written74 ,this group serves as an adjective modifier of the noun nothing4 ,the whole passage of which 444 well written forms a complex adjective clause1 modifying pamphlet4 ,it to be very well written is a complement1 being an infinitive clause used as the object of pronounced 7 #cbe74 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,elliptical ,,sentences #ebg4 ,good usage does not demand that all sentences shall be absolutely complete4 ,it often allows 7and sometimes requires7 the omission of words that1 though necessary to the construction1 are so easily supplied by the mind that it would be mere waste of time to utter them4 #ebh4 ,the omission of a word or words necessary to the grammatical completeness of a clause or sentence is called ellipsis4 ,a clause or sentence that shows ellipsis is said to be elliptical4 ,ellipsis is a ,greek word meaning 8omission40 ,in the following examples the omitted words are supplied in brackets4 ,i thank you4 ,i pray do not you move4 ,you pass me that book4 ,her hair is light1 her eyes are dark blue4 ,some of the strangers spoke ,french1 others spoke ,spanish4 ,some of the patriots were armed with old flintlocks1 others were armed with swords1 still others were armed with pitchforks4 ,when he was a youth1 he travelled in the ,east4 ,though he is timid1 he is no coward4 ,they were amused1 though they were somewhat vexed4 ,while we were drifting downstream1 we grounded on a sand bar4 ,if it is possible1 send me word to-night4 ,you shall have the money this week1 if it is necessary4 ,they marched slowly as if they were worn out4 ,why are these tears8 ,why are you so dejected8 ,he was ten years of age1 his brother was eight years of age4 ,i have more confidence in ,james than ,i have in ,edmund4 ,mary is younger than ,george is young4 ,tom likes you better than he likes me4 ,you like him better than ,i do like him4 ,i like him better than ,charles does like him4 ,this racket is not so heavy as that is heavy4 ,you are not so old as ,i am old4 ,peace be to his memory6 ,this is the only pencil that ,i have4 ,is that the boy whom you hired yesterday8 ,they say that you are going to ,europe soon4 #ebi4 ,the examples in #ebh show that most cases of ellipsis fall under two heads3 #a4 ,to avoid repetition1 words are often omitted in one part of the sentence when they occur in another part4 #b4 ,pronouns1 the conjunction that1 and some forms of the verb is1 are often omitted when they are readily supplied4 ,under the second head come 7#a7 the ellipsis of the subject 7thou or you7 in imperative sentences 7 #bfh71 7#b7 that of relative pronouns in the objective case 7 #aea71 7#c7 that of is1 are1 etc4 7with the subject pronoun7 in subordinate clauses introduced by when1 though1 if1 and the like 7 #cig1 #cii1 #dag74 ,,note4 ,the so-called 8telegraphic style0 omits ,i with any verb or with all verbs4 ,it should be confined to telegrams1 where space is money4 #ecj4 ,adverbs indicating direction 7like forward1 back7 are often used without a verb in imperative sentences4 ,forward1 brave companions6 ,down on your knees6 ,up1 guards1 and at them6 ,,note4 ,in older ,english1 the omission of the verb of motion was common1 even in sentences not imperative1 as in the following examples from ,julius ,csar3--8,we'll along ourselves1 and meet them02 8,shall we on1 and not depend on you80 #eca4 ,the ellipsis of the subordinate conjunction that is very common1 especially in indirect discourse 7 #chh1 #dcc74 ,i know that you are my friend4 ,jack said that the boat had sunk4 ,he told me that he was sorry4 #ecb4 ,many constructions1 originally elliptical1 have become established idioms in which no ellipsis is felt4 ,in such cases it is usually better to take the sentence as it stands1 and not to supply the omitted words4 ,thus1 in 8,he eats as if he were famished0 the italicized words are properly treated as a subordinate clause modifying eats and introduced by the compound conjunction as if4 ,yet in strictness this construction is an ellipsis for 8,he eats as he would eat if he were famished40 #ecc4 ,various ellipses are illustrated in the following sentences3-- #a4 ,although in a friendly country1 they marched always as if in a land of enemies4 #b4 ,the aspect of the country was as wild and dreary as the climate4 #c4 ,do not serious and earnest men discuss ,hamlet as they would ,cromwell or ,lincoln8--,,lowell4 #d4 ,not so with the others4 #e4 ,though rather shy and distrustful of this new acquaintance1 ,rip complied with his usual alacrity4 #f4 ,arras was famed for its rich tapestries1 ,brussels for its carpets1 ,cambrai for its fine cambric1 ,lisle for its thread and the fabrics woven from it4 #g4 ,every day brings its task1 which1 if neglected1 is doubled on the morrow4 #h4 ,it is not easy to recover an art when once lost4 #i4 ,i wish you would go down with me to ,newstead4 #aj4 ,the men are all soldiers1 and war and the chase their sole occupation4 #aa4 ,while in this state of irresolution1 she was startled by a low knock4 #ab4 ,the house was tall1 the skylight small and dirty1 the day blind with fog4 #ac4 ,i little thought you would have deserted me4 #ad4 ,he is the best ,oriental scholar ,i know4 #ae4 ,cromwell was evidently laying1 though in an irregular manner1 the foundations of an admirable system4 #af4 ,he was a foot taller than ,i4 #ag4 ,this concerns you rather than me4 #ah4 ,my father loved ,sir ,rowland as his soul4 ,,exercises ,,exercise #a 7 #a-e1 pp4 #a-c7 #a4 ,tell whether each of the following sentences is declarative1 interrogative1 imperative1 or exclamatory4 ,if a sentence is both declarative and exclamatory1 mention the fact4 ,mention the subject and the predicate of each sentence4 ,note all instances of the inverted order 7 #e74 #a4 ,you need not answer this letter4 #b4 ,many surmises of evil alarm the hearts of the people4--,,longfellow4 #c4 ,here ,i am again in the land of old ,bunyan4 #d4 ,me this uncharter'd freedom tires4--,,wordsworth4 #e4 ,twilight's soft dews steal o'er the village green4--,,rogers4 #f4 ,were there many robbers in the band8 #g4 ,how will posterity the deed proclaim6--,,byron4 #h4 ,at dawn the towers of ,stirling rang4--,,scott4 #i4 ,you cannot recall the spoken word4--,,emerson4 #aj4 ,the boughs over my head seemed shadowy with solemn thoughts as well as with rustling leaves4--,,hawthorne4 #aa4 ,so you don't like ,raphael6 #ab4 ,all around lay a frightful wilderness4 #ac4 ,why does the sea moan evermore8--,,rossetti4 #ad4 ,what lonely straggler looks along the wave8--,,byron4 #ae4 ,off went his wig6 #af4 ,for some minutes he continued to scrutinize the drawing minutely4 #ag4 ,our strength grows out of our weakness4--,,emerson4 #ah4 ,rudely carved was the porch4 #ai4 ,what hopes the prince to gain by ,lacy's death8 #bj4 ,trust thyself4 #ba4 ,the rest of the men were morose and silent4 #bb4 ,here are the ruins of the emperor's palace4 #bc4 ,now rumbles along the carriage of some magnate of the city4 #bd4 ,wild was the life we led4 #be4 ,how poor1 and dull1 and sleepy1 and squalid it seemed6 #bf4 ,built are the house and the barn4 #bg4 ,with what tenderness he sings6 #bh4 ,marked ye the younger stranger's eye8 #bi4 ,one or two idlers1 of forbidding aspect1 hung about in the murky gaslight4 #cj4 ,several mountains crowned with snow shone brilliantly in the distance4 #ca4 ,follow me through this passage4 #cb4 ,stop me not at your peril4 #cc4 ,carry thou this scroll to the castle4 #b4 ,write ten interrogative sentences concerning each topic4 ,reply in declarative sentences4 7#a7 ,the ,american ,revolution2 7#b7 the ,pilgrim ,fathers2 7#c7 the history of your own state2 7#d7 the government of the ,united ,states2 7#e7 hygiene2 7#f7 the manufactures 7or other industries7 of your town or city4 #c4 ,write ten imperative sentences1 each giving an order concerning-- 7#a7 the playing of a game2 7#b7 the building or sailing of a boat2 7#c7 the care of the health2 7#d7 the manufacture of some article of common use2 7#e7 the writing of a business letter4 #d4 ,write ten exclamatory sentences4 ,tell whether each is declarative1 interrogative1 or imperative4 ,,exercise #b 7 #f-be1 pp4 #c-aa7 #a4 ,tell the parts of speech 7including verb-phrases74 #a4 ,the rain pattered upon the roof and the sky gloomed through the dusty garret windows4--,,hawthorne4 #b4 ,make yourself necessary to somebody4--,,emerson4 #c4 ,i have a regard for every man on board that ship1 from the captain down to the crew4 #d4 8,an artist10 said ,michael ,angelo1 8must have his measuring tools not in the hand1 but in the eye40--,,emerson4 #e4 ,time had wintered o'er his locks4 #f4 ,must we in all things look for the how1 and the why1 and the wherefore8 #g4 ,power dwells with cheerfulness4--,,emerson4 #h4 ,what hurrahs rang out6 #i4 ,he sneaked about with a gallows air4 #aj4 ,so6 you see things go on as when you were with us4 #aa4 ,rigby and his brother hirelings frightened them with hideous fables and ugly words4--,,disraeli4 #ab4 ,these are prize peaches4 #ac4 ,ha ha6 how vilely doth this cynic rhyme6 #ad4 ,o ,antony1 beg not your death of us4 #de4 ,wordsworth was praised to me in ,westmoreland because he afforded to his country neighbors an example of a modest household where comfort and culture were secured without display4 #af4 ,shake hands with this knot of good fellows4 #ag4 ,he had been deserted by the ,moderates4 #ah4 ,the moderate ,liberals held a meeting very early in the struggle4 #ai4 ,after a dreadful night of anxiety1 perplexity1 and peril1 the darkness1 which ,i thought had lasted an eternity1 slowly disappeared4--,,trelawny4 #b4 ,use the following words in sentences of your own3-- ,sleep 7noun1 verb72 dry 7adjective1 verb1 noun72 very 7adverb1 adjective72 express 7noun1 verb1 adjective72 bellow 7verb1 noun72 ,american 7adjective1 noun72 future 7adjective1 noun72 to-morrow 7noun1 adverb72 flower 7noun1 verb72 sovereign 7noun1 adjective72 summer 7noun1 verb1 adjective72 double 7adjective1 adverb1 verb72 well 7adjective1 adverb72 fast 7adjective1 adverb1 noun1 verb72 content 7noun1 adjective1 verb72 last 7adjective1 adverb1 verb1 noun72 down 7adverb1 preposition72 for 7preposition1 conjunction72 downright 7adjective1 adverb72 home 7noun1 adjective1 adverb72 lower 7adjective1 adverb1 verb72 iron 7noun1 adjective1 verb72 off 7adverb1 preposition1 adjective72 up 7adverb1 preposition72 high 7adjective1 adverb1 noun72 except 7verb1 preposition72 inside 7adjective1 adverb1 preposition1 noun72 past 7noun1 adjective1 preposition72 what 7adjective1 pronoun1 interjection72 round 7noun1 adjective1 verb1 preposition1 adverb72 sound 7noun1 verb1 adjective1 adverb72 black 7noun1 verb1 adjective72 all 7noun1 adjective1 adverb72 open 7noun1 adjective1 verb72 while 7noun1 verb74 ,,exercise #c 7 #bf-cc1 pp4 #aa-ac7 ,point out the infinitives and the participles4 ,tell when they occur in verb-phrases4 ,use them in sentences4 #a4 ,i did wrong to smile4 #b4 ,luttrell adjured me with mock pathos to spare his blushes4 #c4 ,i begged my friend ,sir ,roger to go with me into her hovel4 #d4 ,i was wonderfully pleased to see the workings of instinct in a hen followed by a brood of ducks4 #e4 ,a man's first care should be to avoid the reproaches of his own heart4--,,addison4 #f4 ,i was highly entertained to see the gentlemen of the county gathering about my old friend1 and striving who should compliment him most4 #g4 ,he was let loose among the woods as soon as he was able to ride on horseback4 #h4 ,plutarch says very finely that a man should not allow himself to hate even his enemies4 #i4 ,it gives me a serious concern to see such a spirit of dissension in the country4 #aj4 ,it was his intention to remain there for two or three days4 #aa4 ,every part of every carriage had been cleaned1 every horse had been groomed4 #ab4 ,liberated from the embarrassments of the city1 and issuing into the broad uncrowded avenues of the northern suburbs1 we soon begin to enter upon our natural pace of ten miles an hour4 #ac4 ,the beggar1 rearing himself against the wall1 forgets his lameness4 #ad4 ,three miles beyond ,barnet1 we see approaching another private carriage4 #ae4 ,we saw many lights moving about as we drew near4 ,,exercise #d 7 #cd-ci1 pp4 #ac-ae7 #a4 ,mention the simple subject and the simple predicate of each sentence in ,exercise #a 7p4 #bbg74 ,tell whether the simple subject is a noun or a pronoun1 and whether the simple predicate is a verb or a verb-phrase4 #b4 ,study in the same way your own sentences in ,exercise #a4 #c4 ,divide each sentence into the complete subject and the complete predicate4 ,if the sentence has a compound subject1 mention the substantives that compose it2 if the sentence has a compound predicate1 mention the verbs 7or verb-phrases74 #a4 ,the ,queen and ,prince ,albert came to ,london from ,windsor on ,saturday morning4 #b4 ,you and ,lockhart must not abandon the good cause4 #c4 ,i saw that he was weak1 and took advantage of a pause to remind him not to forget his drive4 #d4 ,two or three of my ,english biographies have something of the same historical character4 #e4 ,lord ,grey1 ,clanricarde1 ,labouchere1 ,vernon ,smith1 and ,seymour will fill up the places4 #f4 ,every change of season1 every change of weather1 indeed1 every hour of the day1 produces some change in the magical hues and shapes of these mountains4--,,irving4 #g4 ,he looked round1 and could see nothing but a crow winging its solitary flight across the mountain4 #h4 ,they suddenly desisted from their play and stared at him4 #i4 ,the sea flashes along the pebbly margin of its silver beach1 forming a thousand little bays and inlets1 or comes tumbling in among the cliffs of a rock-bound coast1 and beats against its massive barriers with a distant1 hollow1 continual roar4--,,longfellow4 #aj4 ,a wide gateway ushered the traveller into the interior of the building1 and conducted him to a low-roofed apartment1 paved with round stones4 #aa4 ,the strange visitant gruffly saluted me1 and1 after making several ineffectual efforts to urge his horse in at the door1 dismounted and followed me into the room4--,,whittier4 #ab4 ,the foolish and the dead alone never change their opinion4--,,lowell4 #ac4 ,they will slink into their kennels in disgrace1 or perchance run wild and strike a league with the wolf and the fox4--,,thoreau4 #ad4 ,strong will and keen perception overpower old manners and create new4--,,emerson4 #ae4 ,neither ,aristotle1 nor ,leibnitz1 nor ,junius1 nor ,champollion has set down the grammar-rules of this dialect4 #af4 ,his mantle and hood were of the best ,flanders cloth1 and fell in ample and not ungraceful folds4 #ag4 ,a deep fosse or ditch was drawn round the whole building4 ,,exercise #e 7 #dj-db1 p4 #af7 #a4 ,point out the noun-phrases1 verb-phrases1 adjective phrases1 and adverbial phrases4 ,which of these phrases are prepositional8 #a4 ,sometimes he spent hours together in the great libraries of ,paris4 #b4 ,he assumed the garb of a common sailor1 and in this disguise reached the ,dutch coast in safety4 #c4 ,some of the frigate's men were still endeavoring to escape4 #d4 ,was ,milton rich or at his ease when he composed 8,paradise ,lost08 #e4 ,it was a cold-blooded exhibition of marksmanship4 #f4 ,he then continued on to the place of rendezvous at ,speedwell's ,iron ,works on ,troublesome ,creek4--,,irving4 #g4 ,the gates of ,amsterdam had been barred against him4 #h4 ,they heard his confession with suspicion and disdain4 #i4 ,the stagecoach always drew up before the door of the cottage4 #aj4 ,the wind moaned through the silent streets4 #aa4 ,the clouds are scudding across the moon4 #ab4 ,steele had known ,addison from childhood4 #ac4 ,a broad ray of light fell into the garret4--,,dickens4 #ad4 ,the fate of his insulted and broken-hearted brother still rankled in his mind4 #ae4 ,all day with fruitless strife they toiled4--,,scott4 #b4 ,fill each blank with a single word4 ,substitute for the word a phrase with the same meaning4 ,mention in each instance 7#a7 the part of speech1 7#b7 the kind of phrase4 #a4 ,he spoke to me ----4 #b4 ,the grounds were shut in by a high ---- wall4 #c4 ,the fire engine ---- past4 #d4 ,the three girls were laughing ----4 #e4 ,the poor child looked ---- at the toys4 #f4 ,harold ---- the bunch of grapes4 #g4 ,the proprietor is a ---- man4 #h4 ,the archbishop placed upon the king's head a ---- crown4 #i4 ,the book which ,i hold in my hand is ----4 #aj4 ,the ---- ordered the ,conqueror to open fire4 #aa4 ,the enemy retreated ----4 #ab4 ,the rain ---- heavily all day4 #ac4 ,the rain came down ---- all day4 #ad4 ,the ---- is in his office4 #ae4 ,a ---- boy came to the door4 #af4 ,my brother is president of ----4 ,,exercise #f 7 #dc-ea1 pp4 #af-ba7 #a4 ,tell whether each sentence is simple1 compound1 or complex4 ,if the sentence is compound1 divide it into its independent clauses1 and mention the simple subject 7noun or pronoun7 and the simple predicate 7verb or verb-phrase7 of each clause4 ,if the sentence is complex1 divide it into the main 7independent7 and the subordinate clause1 and tell whether the latter is used as an adjective or as an adverb4 #a4 ,the great gate slowly opened1 and a steward and several serving-men appeared4 #b4 ,the victors set fire to the wigwams and the fort2 the whole was soon in a blaze2 many of the old men1 the women1 and the children perished in the flames4 #c4 ,night closed in1 but still no guest arrived4 #d4 ,the black waves rolled by them1 and the light at the horizon began to fade1 and the stars were coming out one by one4--,,william ,,black4 #e4 ,mr4 ,nickleby closed an account book which lay on his desk4 #f4 ,by ceaseless action all that is subsists4--,,cowper4 #g4 ,when the morning broke1 the ,moorish army had vanished4 #h4 ,at midnight1 when the town was hushed in sleep1 they all went quietly on board4 #i4 ,fortune had cast him into a cavern1 and he was groping darkly round4 #aj4 ,i paced the deserted chambers where he had composed his poem4 #aa4 ,i strove to speak2 my voice utterly failed me4 #ab4 ,the only avenue by which the town could be easily approached1 was protected by a stone wall more than twenty feet high and of great thickness4 #ac4 ,the night fell tempestuous and wild1 and no vestige of the hapless sloop was ever after seen4 #ad4 ,the simple majesty of this anecdote can gain nothing from any comment which we might make on it4 #ae4 ,raleigh speaks the language of the heart of his country when he urges the ,english statesmen to colonize ,guiana4--,,froude4 #af4 ,men1 in their youth1 go to push their fortune in the colony2 they succeed2 they acquire property there2 they return to their native land2 they continue to draw the income from their colonial estates4--,,brougham4 #ag4 ,the moonlight glistened upon traces of the gilding which had once covered both rider and steed4 #ah4 ,while this brief conversation passed1 ,donatello had once or twice glanced aside with a watchful air4 #ai4 ,pray for us1 ,hilda2 we need it4 #b4 ,divide the compound complex sentences into their cordinate clauses4 ,tell whether each of these clauses1 when standing alone1 is a simple or a complex sentence4 #a4 ,it would be dark before he could reach the village1 and he heaved a heavy sigh when he thought of encountering the terrors of ,dame ,van ,winkle4 #b4 ,language gradually varies1 and with it fade away the writings of authors who have lived their allotted time4 #c4 ,the tallest and handsomest men whom ,england could produce guarded the passage from the palace gate to the river-side1 and all seemed in readiness for the queen's coming forth1 although the hour was yet so early4 #d4 ,edward the ,confessor died on the fifth of ,january1 #ajff1 and on the following day an assembly of the thanes and prelates present in ,london1 and of the citizens of the metropolis1 declared that ,harold should be their king4 ,,exercise #g 7 #ed-fd1 pp4 #bg-cj7 #a4 ,point out all the common nouns and all the proper nouns4 ,mention all the examples of personification4 #a4 ,there ,guilt his anxious revel kept4--,,scott4 #b4 ,the first vessel we fell in with was a schooner1 which1 after a long chase1 we made out to be an ,american4 #c4 ,you will be sauntering in ,st4 ,peter's perhaps1 or standing on the ,capitol while the sun sets4 #d4 ,i am very deep in my ,aristophanes4 #e4 ,i saw a most lovely ,sir ,joshua at ,christie's a week ago4--,,fitz ,,gerald4 #f4 ,i hear there is scarce a village in ,england that has not a ,moll ,white in it4--,,addison4 #g4 ,such a spirit is ,liberty4 ,at times she takes the form of a hateful reptile4 ,she grovels1 she hisses1 she stings4 ,but woe to those who in disgust shall venture to crush her6--,,macaulay4 #h4 ,rough ,wulfstane trimmed his shafts and bow4--,,scott4 #i4 ,to-day we have been a delightful drive through ,ettrick ,forest1 and to the ruins of ,newark--the hall of ,newark1 where the ladies bent their necks of snow to hear 8,the ,lay of the ,last ,minstrel40--,,maria ,,edgeworth4 #aj4 ,the same waves wash the moles of the new-built ,californian towns1 and lave the faded but still gorgeous skirts of ,asiatic lands1 older than ,abraham2 while all between float milky-ways of coral isles1 and low-lying1 endless1 unknown ,archipelagoes and impenetrable ,japans4--,,melville4 #aa4 ,the duchess said haughtily that she had done her best for the ,esmonds4 #ab4 ,to see with one's own eyes men and countries is better than reading all the books of travel in the world4--,,thackeray4 #ac4 ,defeat and mortification had only hardened the king's heart4 #ad4 ,earth1 ,ocean1 ,air1 beloved brotherhood6--,,shelley4 #ae4 ,the iron tongue of ,st4 ,paul's has told twelve4 #af4 ,the ,indians1 brandishing their weapons1 answered only with gestures of angry defiance4 #b4 ,point out all the abstract1 all the collective1 and all the compound nouns4 #a4 ,the poet binds together by passion and knowledge the vast empire of human society4--,,wordsworth4 #b4 ,the country is now showing symptoms of greenness and warmth4 #c4 ,when the public are gone1 we at once put up the great iron shutters4 #d4 ,washington returned to headquarters at ,newbury4 #e4 ,the ,bruce's band moves swiftly on4--,,scott4 #f4 ,he shall with speed to ,england4--,,shakspere4 #g4 ,soon were dismissed the courtly throng4--,,scott4 #h4 ,sickness1 desertion1 and the loss sustained at ,guilford ,courthouse had reduced his little army4 #i4 ,a detachment was sent against them4 #aj4 ,never before this summer have the kingbirds1 handsomest of flycatchers1 built in my orchard4 #aa4 ,the young suddenly disperse on your approach1 as if a whirlwind had swept them away4--,,thoreau4 #ab4 ,this lighthouse1 known to our mariners as ,cape ,cod or ,highland ,light1 is one of our 8primary seacoast lights40 #ac4 ,we have some salt of our youth in us4--,,shakspere4 #ad4 ,thou hast nor youth nor age4--,,shakspere4 #ae4 ,the passion for hunting had revived with ,washington on returning to his old hunting grounds4 #af4 ,a circle there of merry listeners stand4--,,byron4 #ag4 ,the act of the ,congress of ,vienna remains the eternal monument of their diplomatic knowledge and political sagacity4--,,disraeli4 #ah4 ,lee undertook the task with alacrity4 #ai4 ,a row of surfboats and canoes lay along the beach4 #bj4 ,the situation he had held as aide-de-camp to the commander-in-chief had given him an opportunity of observing the course of affairs4 #ba4 ,the ground was frozen to a great depth4 #bb4 ,he was aware of his unpopularity4 #bc4 ,the stern old war-gods shook their heads4--,,emerson4 #bd4 ,freckled nest eggs thou shalt see ,hatching in the hawthorn tree4--,,keats4 #be4 ,fair morn ascends1 and sunny ,june has shed ,ambrosial odors o'er the garden-bed1 ,and wild bees seek the cherry's sweet perfume ,or cluster round the full-blown apple-bloom4--,,campbell4 #bf4 ,for in their looks divine ,the image of their glorious ,maker shone1 ,truth1 wisdom1 sanctitude severe and pure4--,,milton4 #bg4 ,steer1 helmsman1 till you steer our way ,by stars beyond the line4--,,campbell4 #bh4 ,say ,i sent thee thither3 ,i1 that have neither pity1 love1 nor fear4--,,shakspere4 ,,exercise #h 7 #ff-hd1 pp4 #ca-ci7 #a4 ,make a list containing thirty nouns1 ten in each of the three genders4 ,use each of these nouns in a sentence4 #b4 ,write ten sentences1 each containing a noun of common gender4 #c4 ,write sentences containing the masculine forms corresponding to the feminine forms in this list1 and the feminine forms corresponding to the masculine3-- earl1 abbess1 schoolmaster1 porter1 hind1 mare1 ram1 sire1 witch1 sultan1 czar1 widow1 marquis1 executor1 salesman1 tailor1 hero1 bride1 songster1 great-uncle1 nephew1 buck1 horseman1 bachelor1 belle4 #d4 ,mention the gender and the number of each noun4 ,tell whether the gender is shown by the form1 by the meaning1 or by both4 ,whenever it is possible1 give the plural of each noun that is singular1 and the singular of each noun that is plural4 #a4 ,oft ,music changed1 but never ceased her tone4--,,byron4 #b4 ,grace ,crawley was at this time living with the two ,miss ,prettymans4--,,trollope4 #c4 ,the ,catos and the ,scipios of the village had gathered in front of the hotel4 #d4 ,this gunner was an excellent mathematician1 a good scholar1 and a complete sailor4--,,defoe4 #e4 ,i was1 in fact1 in the chapel of the ,knights ,templars4--,,irving4 #f4 ,the luckless culprit was brought in1 forlorn and chapfallen1 in the custody of gamekeepers1 huntsmen1 and whippers-in1 and followed by a rabble rout of country clowns4--,,irving4 #g4 ,the hare now came still nearer to the place where she was at first started4--,,budgell4 #h4 ,the ,fairfaxes were no longer at hand4--,,irving4 #i4 ,all the peers and peeresses put on their coronets4 #aj4 ,time is no longer slow2 his sickle mows quickly in this age4--,,disraeli4 #aa4 ,under the humblest roof1 the commonest person in plain clothes sits there massive1 cheerful1 yet formidable1 like the ,egyptian colossi4--,,emerson4 #ab4 ,within forty-eight hours1 hundreds of horse and foot came by various roads to the city4 #ac4 ,the hart and hind wandered in a wilderness abounding in ferny coverts and green and stately trees4--,,disraeli4 #ad4 ,the ship had received a great deal of damage1 and it required some time to repair her4--,,defoe4 #ae4 ,when ,mary1 the nurse1 returns with the little ,miss ,smiths from ,master ,brown's birthday party1 she is narrowly questioned as to their behavior4 #af4 ,of all our fleet1 consisting of a hundred and fifty sail1 scarce twelve appeared4--,,smollett4 #ag4 ,hindoos1 ,russians1 ,chinese1 ,spaniards1 ,portuguese1 ,englishmen1 ,frenchmen1 ,genoese1 ,neapolitans1 ,venetians1 ,greeks1 ,turks1 descendants from all the builders of ,babel1 come to trade at ,marseilles1 sought the shade alike4--,,dickens4 #ah4 ,there lies the port2 the vessel puffs her sail4--,,tennyson4 #ai4 ,i had desire to see the old family seat of the ,lucys4--,,irving4 #bj4 ,the ,miss ,lambs were the belles of little ,britain4--,,irving4 #ba4 ,lord ,culloden at length appeared with his daughters1 ,ladies ,flora and ,grizell4--,,disraeli4 #bb4 ,still his honied wealth ,hymettus yields4--,,byron4 #bc4 ,josephine has been made executrix of her father's estate4 #bd4 ,georgette crouched by the fire1 reading a wonderful tale of kings1 princesses1 enchanted castles1 knights and ladies1 monks and nuns1 wizards and witches4 #be4 ,she was a vixen when she went to school4--,,shakspere4 #bf4 ,keep a gamester from the dice and a good student from his book4--,,shakspere4 #bg4 ,they are sheep and calves which seek out assurance in that4--,,shakspere4 #bh4 ,a score of good ewes may be worth ten pounds4--,,shakspere4 #bi4 ,let ay's seem no's and no's seem ay's4--,,gay4 #cj4 ,she clasps a bright child on her upgathered knee2 ,it laughs at the lightning1 it mocks the mixed thunder ,of the air and the sea4--,,shelley4 ,,exercise #i 7 #ga-hd1 pp4 #cd-ci7 #a4 ,write sentences in which the following words1 letters1 or figures are used in the plural number3-- ,german1 radius1 lens1 moose1 wharf1 index1 piano1 thesis1 #d1 #ejj1 p1 q1 and1 syllabus1 staff1 die1 s1 t1 seraph1 hero1 stimulus1 crisis1 elf1 heathen1 brother-in-law1 ,july1 ,march1 spoonful1 memorandum1 ,miss ,allen1 ,master ,allen1 ,mr4 ,hayes1 ,general ,raymond1 ,knight ,templar1 head 7of cattle71 animalcule1 potato1 valley1 formula1 penny1 curriculum1 dwarf1 man-child4 #b4 ,write sentences in which the following nouns are used in the singular number3-- strata1 phenomena1 alumn1 alumni1 candelabra1 species1 cherubim1 errata1 bacteria1 ,japanese1 beaux1 vertebr1 ,messrs41 theses1 oases4 ,,exercise #aj 7 #hh1 pp4 #da-db7 ,mention all the nouns that are in the nominative case1 and give the construction 7or syntax7 of each1--as subject1 predicate nominative1 vocative 7or nominative of direct address71 exclamatory nominative1 or nominative in apposition4#ej #a4 ,a weary lot is thine1 fair maid4--,,scott4 #b4 ,at last1 our small acquaintance1 ,ned ,higgins1 trudged up the street1 on his way to school4--,,hawthorne4 #c4 ,the soil is in general a moist and retentive clay4 #d4 ,rumors alone were their guides through a wild and desolate country4--,,longfellow4 #e4 ,young man1 have you challenged ,charles the wrestler8--,,shakspere4 #f4 ,ralph was an ,eton boy1 and hence1 being robust and shrewd1 a swimmer and a cricketer4 #g4 ,here ,harold was received a welcome guest4--,,scott4 #h4 ,the tall ,highlander remained obdurate4 #i4 ,the beams and rafters1 roughly hewn and with strips of bark still on them1 and the rude masonry of the chimneys1 made the garret look wild and uncivilized4 #aj4 ,deathlike the silence seemed4 #aa4 ,sorrow and silence are strong1 and patient endurance is godlike4--,,longfellow4 #ab4 ,fly1 fly1 detested thoughts1 forever from my view6--,,beattie4 #ac4 ,time must not be counted by calendars1 but by sensation1 by thought4--,,disraeli4 #ad4 ,this is the history of ,charlotte ,corday4 #ae4 ,the nabobs soon became a most unpopular class of men4 #af4 ,before him stretched the long1 laborious road1 dry1 empty1 and white4--,,hardy4 #ag4 ,with the great mass of mankind1 the test of integrity in a public man is consistency4--,,macaulay4 #ah4 ,these are trifles1 ,mr4 ,premium4 #ai4 ,my thanks are due to you for your trouble and care4 #bj4 ,here's my great uncle1 ,sir ,richard ,ravelin4 #ba4 ,rowley1 my old friend1 ,i am sure you congratulate me4 #bb4 ,david1 you are a coward6 #bc4 ,here come other ,pyncheons1 the whole tribe1 in their half-a-dozen generations4 #bd4 ,uncle ,venner1 trundling a wheelbarrow1 was the earliest person stirring in the neighborhood4 #be4 ,up the chimney roared the fire1 and brightened the room with its broad blaze4 #bf4 ,liberty6 freedom6 tyranny is dead6--,,shakspere4 #bg4 ,the hostess's daughter1 a plump ,flanders lass1 with long gold pendants in her ears1 was at a side window4--,,irving4 #bh4 ,horses6 can these be horses that bound off with the action and gesture of leopards8--,,de ,,quincey4 #bi4 ,peace6 silence6 ,brutus speaks4 #cj4 ,the rains1 frosts1 and tempests splinter the chalk above and the waves gnaw it away below4--,,geikie4 ,,exercise #aa 7 #hi-if1 pp4 #dc-dg7 #a4 ,point out all the nouns in the possessive case1 and parse them according to the model in #aab4 #a4 ,james's parliament contained a most unusual proportion of new ministers4 #b4 ,i live in general quietly at my brother-in-law's in ,norfolk 7see #if74 #c4 ,there is a small cottage of my father's close to the lawn gates4 #d4 ,we had found1 in that day's heap of earth1 about fifty pounds' weight of gold dust4--,,defoe4 #e4 ,much the most striking incident in ,burns's life is his journey to ,edinburgh4 #f4 ,as to freaks like this of ,miss ,brooke's1 ,mrs4 ,cadwallader had no patience with them4--,,george ,,eliot4 #g4 ,homeward they bore him through the dark woods' gloom4--,,morris4 #h4 ,the eye travels down to ,oxford's towers4--,,arnold4 #i4 ,i obeyed all my brother's military commands with the utmost docility4 #aj4 ,tellson's wanted not elbowroom1 ,tellson's wanted no light1 ,tellson's wanted no embellishment4 ,noakes ,co4's might1 or ,snooks ,brothers' might2 but ,tellson's--thank heaven6--,,dickens4 #b4 ,examine the nouns in the possessive case in #a 7above71 and tell which of the possessives might be replaced by an of-phrase4 ,mention particularly those passages in which the possessive would not be used in modern prose4 #c4 ,write sentences containing the possessive singular of-- ,henry1 ,james1 ,thomas1 ,mr4 ,fox1 child1 ,charles ,price1 ,mrs4 ,gibbs1 ,edward1 ,general ,edwards1 horse1 ,hortense1 ,miss ,bellows1 father-in-law1 ,major ,ellis1 commander-in-chief1 ,thompson and ,howard 7a firm71 ,eustis and ,morris 7a firm71 ,messrs4 ,cartwright and ,robbins1 ,apollo1 ,brutus1 ,ulysses4 #d4 ,write sentences containing the possessive plural of-- ,englishman1 fireman1 washerwoman1 fox1 sheep1 horse1 ox1 child1 emperor1 empress1 robin1 ,norman1 ,german1 hawk1 ,knight ,templar1 lady1 sailor1 heir1 heiress1 teacher1 whale1 walrus1 critic1 poet1 vireo4 #e4 ,in which of the sentences that you have written 7under #c and #d7 would it be possible to substitute an of-phrase for the possessive8 ,in which of them 7if any7 would this phrase be preferable8 ,why8 ,,exercise #ab 7 #ig-aaj1 pp4 #dg-ec7 ,parse the nouns in the objective case1 according to the model in #aab4 ,tell the particular construction in each instance1--direct object1 predicate objective1 indirect object1 etc4 #a4 ,such was the narrative of ,jack ,grant1 the mate4 #b4 ,rippling waters made a pleasant moan4--,,byron4 #c4 ,swiftly they hurried away to the forge of ,basil the blacksmith4--,,longfellow4 #d4 ,a pale fog hung over ,london4 #e4 ,so like a shattered column lay the king4--,,tennyson4 #f4 ,then sing1 ye birds1 sing1 sing a joyous song4--,,wordsworth4 #g4 ,a blighted spring makes a barren year4--,,johnson4 #h4 ,dark and neglected locks overshadowed his brow4 #i4 ,imagine the wind howling1 the sea roaring1 the rain beating4 #aj4 ,lay these vain regrets aside4 #aa4 ,birds of passage sailed through the leaden air4 #ab4 ,authority forgets a dying king4--,,tennyson4 #ac4 ,three years she grew in sun and shower4--,,wordsworth4 #ad4 ,the sound of horns came floating from the valley1 prolonged by the mountain echoes4 #ae4 ,hours had passed away like minutes4 #af4 ,your mistrust cannot make me a traitor4--,,shakspere4 #ag4 ,she halted a moment before speaking4 #ah4 ,the room opened on a terrace adorned with statues and orange trees4 #ai4 ,the sun is coming down to earth1 and the fields and the waters shout to him golden shouts4--,,meredith4 #bj4 ,england is unrivalled for two things--sports and politics4--,,disraeli4 #ba4 ,thus we lived several years in a state of much happiness4 #bb4 ,the old gentleman's whole countenance beamed with a serene look of indwelling delight4 #bc4 ,i am reading ,selwyn's 8,correspondence10 a remarkable book4 #bd4 ,i have lived my life4--,,tennyson4 #be4 ,my heart is like a singing bird4--,,christina ,,rossetti4 #bf4 ,how like a winter hath my absence been4--,,shakspere4 #bg4 ,three weeks we westward bore4--,,longfellow4 #bh4 ,it rains pitchforks4--,,fitz ,,gerald4 #bi4 ,the sublimer and more passionate poets ,i still read1 by snatches and occasionally4--,,de ,,quincey4 #cj4 ,coningsby slept the deep sleep of youth and health4--,,disraeli4 #ca4 ,thou mightst call him a goodly person4 #cb4 ,my father named me ,autolycus4 #cc4 ,a country fellow brought him a huge fish4 #cd4 ,i'll make you the queen of ,naples4 #ce4 ,you call honorable boldness impudent sauciness4--,,shakspere4 #cf4 ,sir ,roger generally goes two or three miles from his house before he beats about in search of a hare or partridge4 #cg4 ,this misconception caused ,washington some embarrassment4 #ch4 ,i now thank you for ,beattie1 the most agreeable and amiable writer ,i ever met with4--,,cowper4 ,,exercise #ac 7 #ig-aaj1 pp4 #dg-ec7 #a4 ,write fifteen sentences1 each containing a transitive verb and its direct object 7 #ii-ajj74 #b4 ,substitute a pronoun for each noun in the objective case4 #c4 ,write ten sentences containing both a direct object and a predicate objective 7 #ajd74 #d4 ,use in sentences fifteen of the verbs in the list in #aje1 each with both a direct and an indirect object4 #e4 ,for each indirect object1 substitute to with an object4 ,change the order1 if necessary4 #f4 ,write ten sentences1 each containing a cognate object 7 #ajh74 #g4 ,write ten sentences1 each containing an adverbial objective 7 #aji74 #h4 ,write ten sentences1 each containing a noun in apposition with a noun in the objective case 7 #aaj74 ,,exercise #ad 7 #ed-aab1 pp4 #bg-ed7 ,parse every noun1 according to the models in #aab4 #a4 ,pennon and banner wave no more4 #b4 ,they soon gained the utmost verge of the forest1 and entered the country inhabited by men without vice4--,,goldsmith4 #c4 ,our avenue is strewn with the whole crop of autumn's withered leaves4--,,hawthorne4 #d4 ,he is the rich man who can avail himself of all men's faculties4--,,emerson4 #e4 ,like an awakened conscience1 the sea was moaning and tossing4--,,longfellow4 #f4 ,he again called and whistled after his dog4 #g4 ,she wrote and addressed a hurried note4 #h4 ,the light and warmth of that long-vanished day live with me still4 #i4 ,violet and primrose girls1 and organ boys with military monkeys1 and systematic bands very determined in tone if not in tune1 filled the atmosphere4--,,meredith4 #aj4 ,the blood left ,wilfrid's ashen cheek4 #aa4 ,give us manners1 virtue1 freedom1 power6--,,wordsworth4 #ab4 ,a great deal of shrubbery clusters along the base of the stone wall1 and takes away the hardness of its outline4 #ac4 ,i travelled the whole four hundred miles between this and ,madras on men's shoulders4 #ad4 ,here we set up twelve little huts like soldiers' tents4 #ae4 ,swiftly they glided away1 like the shade of a cloud on the prairie4 #af4 ,athens1 even long after the decline of the ,roman empire1 still continued the seat of learning1 politeness1 and wisdom4--,,goldsmith4 #ag4 ,four times the sun had risen and set4 #ah4 ,speak6 speak6 thou fearful guest6 #ai4 ,the oak rose before me like a pillar of darkness4 #bj4 ,another long blast filled the old courts of the castle with its echoes1 and was answered by the warder from the walls4 #ba4 ,sound1 sound the clarion1 fill the fife6--,,scott4 #bb4 ,now1 ,falstaff1 where have you been all this while8 #bc4 ,sounds of a horn they heard1 and the distant lowing of cattle4 #bd4 ,homer was always his companion now4 #be4 ,forgive me these injurious suspicions4 #bf4 ,o1 pride6 pride6 it deceives me with the subtlety of a serpent4 #bg4 ,i made ,mr4 ,wright's gardener a present of fifty sorts of plant seeds4 #bh4 ,your mother and ,i last week made a trip to ,gayhurst1 the seat of ,mr4 ,wright1 about four miles off4 #bi4 ,beneath the shelter of one hut1 in the bright blaze of the same fire1 sat this varied group of adventurers4 #cj4 ,the cares of to-day are seldom the cares of to-morrow4--,,cowper4 ,,exercise #ae 7 #aae-abi1 pp4 #ee-fb7 #a4 ,parse the personal pronouns1 using the models in #afh4 #a4 ,she peeped from the window into the garden4 #b4 ,the little marquis immediately threw himself into the attitude of a man about to tell a long story4 #c4 ,it pours and it thunders1 it lightens amain4--,,scott4 #d4 ,master1 master1 look about you6 #e4 ,leontine1 with his own and his wife's fortune1 bought a farm of three hundred a year4--,,addison4 #f4 ,the ,tories carry it among the new members six to one4--,,swift4 #g4 ,i wrote to him1 but could tell him nothing4 #h4 ,on the next morning after breakfast the major went out for a walk by himself4 #i4 ,their hearts quaked within them1 at the idea of taking one step farther4 #aj4 ,mrs4 ,forrester's surprise was equal to ours4 #aa4 ,it's twenty years since he went away from home4 #ab4 ,i seated myself in a recess of a large bow window4 #ac4 ,at the last moment his heart failed him1 and he looked round him for some mode of escape4 #ad4 ,a friend of mine has been spending some time at ,sir ,walter ,scott's4 #ae4 ,send me a letter directed to me at ,mr4 ,watcham's4 #af4 ,i have lately received from my bookseller a copy of my subscribers' names4 #ag4 ,we came in our first morning's march to very good springs of fresh water4 #ah4 ,we are both of us inclined to be a little too positive4 #ai4 ,heyne's best teacher was himself4--,,carlyle4 #bj4 ,aspasia1 you have lived but few years in the world1 and with only one philosopher--yourself4 #ba4 ,i got to the side in time to see a huge liner's dim shape slide by like a street at night2 she would have been invisible but for her row of lights4 #bb4 ,the cataracts blow their trumpets from the steep4--,,wordsworth4 #bc4 ,i am he they call ,old ,care4--,,peacock4 #bd4 ,the sharp and peevish tinkle of the shop-bell made itself audible4 #be4 ,the heroes themselves say1 as often as not1 that fame is their object4 #bf4 ,he seems to himself to touch things with muffled hands4 #bg4 ,she took counsel with herself what must be done4 #bh4 ,the head of the ,pyncheons found himself involved in serious financial difficulties4 #bi4 ,ha6 here is ,hepzibah herself6 #b4 ,write sentences in which the personal pronoun of the first person is used as direct object1 as indirect object1 as predicate nominative2 in the possessive singular with a noun2 in the possessive singular without a noun4 #c4 ,fill the blanks with personal pronouns of the first or the third person4 #a4 ,he thought the burglars were ----4 #b4 ,he mistook the burglars for ----4 #c4 ,william is better at his lessons than ----4 #d4 ,it is ----4 #e4 ,these are ----4 #f4 ,nobody volunteered except ,edward and ----4 #g4 ---- boys have formed a debating club4 #h4 ,mr4 ,jones is going to give ---- boys a baseball field4 #i4 ,who is there8 ----4 #aj4 ,between you and ----1 ,i am not sorry that he has resigned4 #aa4 ,if ,i were ---- ,i would study art4 #ab4 ,arthur likes you better than ----4 #ac4 ,behind ,ruth and ---- came the guest of honor4 #ad4 ,automobiles are not for such as ----4 #ae4 ,it was ---- that ,joseph meant4 #af4 ---- two are always together4 #ag4 ,richard dislikes everybody1 ---- most of all4 #d4 ,write sentences in which myself1 yourself1 ourselves1 himself1 herself1 themselves are used 7#a7 intensively1 7#b7 reflexively as direct object1 7#c7 reflexively as indirect object4 ,,exercise #af 7 #aca-adb1 pp4 #fb-fe7 #a4 ,parse the demonstratives and the indefinites4 ,in parsing the word1 tell whether it is used as a pronoun or as an adjective4 ,if it is used as a pronoun1 tell the number and the case and give the reason for the case4 ,if it is used as an adjective1 mention the substantive which it modifies4 #a4 ,what is the meaning of all this8 #b4 ,on either side extended a ruinous wooden fence4 #c4 ,you have seen that picture1 then6 #d4 ,this very ,judge ,pyncheon was the original of the miniature4 #e4 ,twenty years ago this man was equally capable of crime or heroism2 now he is fit for neither4--,,stevenson4 #f4 ,none are all evil4 #g4 ,solitude has many a dreary hour4 #h4 ,every science has its hitherto undiscovered mysteries4--,,goldsmith4 #i4 ,the same day we visited the shores of the isle in the ship's boats4 #aj4 ,none but picked recruits were enlisted4 #aa4 ,a longing for the brightness and silence of fallen snow seizes him at such times4 #ab4 ,such were ,addison's talents for conversation4 #ac4 ,nicholas ,vedder6 why1 he is dead and gone these eighteen years6 #ad4 ,what a lamentable situation was that of the poor baron6 #ae4 ,several houses were pillaged and destroyed4 #af4 ,each warrior was a chosen man4 #ag4 ,see how yond justice rails upon yond simple thief6--,,shakspere4 #ah4 ,our naval annals owe some of their interest to the fantastic and beautiful appearance of old warships4--,,stevenson4 #ai4 ,some are too indolent to read anything till its reputation is established4--,,johnson4 #bj4 ,in both sexes1 occasionally1 this lifelong croak1 accompanying each word of joy or sorrow1 is one of the symptoms of settled melancholy4--,,hawthorne4 #ba4 ,such voices have put on mourning for dead hopes4 #bb4 ,another phenomenon was a package of lucifer matches4 #bc4 ,how few appear in those streets which but some few hours ago were crowded6 #bd4 ,this was a very different camp from that of the night before4 #be4 ,alternations of wild hope and cold despair succeeded each other4 #bf4 ,the poor know best how to console each other's sorrows4 #bg4 ,everybody has his own interpretation for that picture4 #bh4 ,i strove with none1 for none was worth my strife4--,,landor4 #bi4 ,scarcely any of the items in the above-drawn parallel occurred to ,phbe4 #cj4 ,he went about moping4 ,none spake to him4 ,no one would play with him4--,,lamb4 #ca4 ,ah1 that good ,kent6 ,he said it would be thus4 #cb4 ,how easy is the explanation to those who know6 #cc4 ,there has been a quarrel between him and ,hepzibah this many a day4 #b4 ,fill each blank with a personal pronoun 7 #ada74 #a4 ,each of us should do ---- best4 #b4 ,everybody thinks ---- own way is wise4 #c4 ,if anybody has a better plan1 now is the time for ---- to speak4 #d4 ,it was an old-fashioned picnic1 every person furnishing ---- share of the provisions4 #e4 ,when anybody is talking1 it is bad manners to interrupt ----4 ,,exercise #ag 7 #adc-aef1 pp4 #ff-ga7 #a4 ,parse the relative pronouns1 using the models in #afh4 #a4 ,the lights in the shops could hardly struggle through the heavy mist1 which thickened every moment4 #b4 ,i shall not budge from the position that ,i have taken up4 #c4 ,the land of literature is a fairy land to those who view it at a distance4--,,irving4 #d4 ,i hate people who meet ,time half-way4--,,lamb4 #e4 ,the weather1 which had been stormy and unsettled1 moderated toward the evening4 #f4 ,he that once indulges idle fears will never be at rest4--,,johnson4 #g4 ,the only ford by which the travellers could cross was guarded by a party of militia4 #h4 ,one dark unruly night she issued secretly out of a small postern gate of the castle1 which the enemy had neglected to guard4 #i4 ,i paused to contemplate a tomb on which lay the effigy of a knight in complete armor4 #aj4 ,he who loves the sea loves also the ship's routine4--,,conrad4 #aa4 ,there were two or three indefatigable men among them1 by whose courage and industry all the rest were upheld4--,,defoe4 #ab4 ,thou hadst a voice whose sound was like the sea4--,,wordsworth4 #ac4 ,they slander thee sorely who say thy vows are frail4--,,moore4 #ad4 ,the first great poet whose works have come down to us1 sang of war long before war became a science or a trade4---,,macaulay4 #ae4 ,the gusts that drove against the high house seemed ready to tear it from its foothold of rock4 #af4 ,at its western side is a deep ravine or valley1 through which a small stream rushes4 #ag4 ,a weak mother1 who perpetually threatens and never performs1 is laying up miseries both for herself and for her children4--,,spencer4 #ah4 ,as they approached1 a raven1 who sat upon the topmost stone1 black against the bright blue sky1 flapped lazily away4--,,kingsley4 #ai4 ,to such of her neighbors as needed other attention1 she would give her time1 her assistance1 her skill4 #bj4 ,it was such a battle-axe as ,rustum may have wielded in fight upon the banks of ,oxus4 #ba4 ,i may neither choose whom ,i would1 nor refuse whom ,i dislike4 #b4 ,point out the descriptive and the restrictive relatives in #a 7above74 #c4 ,write ten sentences1 each containing a descriptive relative2 ten sentences1 each containing a restrictive relative4 #d4 ,fill the blanks with relatives4 ,in the first eight sentences1 at least1 use who or whom4 #a4 ,this is the boy ---- ,i recommended4 #b4 ,the boy ---- ,i recommended is a ,swede4 #c4 ,the boy ---- brought the letter is not the one ---- ,i recommended4 #d4 ,i told ,anna1 ---- ,i knew would keep my secret4 #e4 ,i told ,anna1 ---- ,i knew ,i could trust4 #f4 ,i told ,anna1 ---- ,i knew to be trustworthy4 #g4 ,i told ,anna1 ---- ,i knew intimately4 #h4 ,no one ---- you know lives in this street4 #i4 ,all ---- ,i can say is1 ,i am sorry4 #aj4 ,give me the same horse ---- ,i had yesterday4 #aa4 ,a dog1 ---- showed his teeth and growled1 blocked the way4 #ab4 ,choose the partner ---- you like best4 #ac4 ,the policeman was leading a little child ---- had lost its mother4 #ad4 ,take such measures ---- you deem necessary4 #ae4 ,take ---- measures seem necessary4 #af4 ,take the measures ---- seem to you necessary4 #ag4 ,my hat is of the same size ---- yours4 #ah4 ,this is the picture ---- ,i am so proud of4 #ai4 ,this is the picture of ---- ,i am so proud4 #bj4 ,the man ---- is talking to ,henry is the one ---- owns this house4 #e4 ,supply the relatives that are 8understood0 7 #aea74 #a4 ,it was a bold step she had taken4 #b4 ,i am not altogether unqualified for the business ,i have in hand4 #c4 ,his taste of books is a little too just for the age he lives in4 #d4 ,censure is the tax a man pays to the public for being eminent4 #e4 ,who is the wittiest man you know8 #f4 ,morton was the only friend ,i had4 #g4 ,that sonata was the first piece ,i learned4 #h4 ,ten dollars is the price he asks4 #i4 ,are you the man ,i bought the coat of8 #aj4 ,this is the book we are reading evenings4 #aa4 ,take any seat you like4 #ab4 8,faust0 is the only opera ,i care for4 #ac4 ,i have done all ,i can4 ,,exercise #ah 7 #aeg-afb1 pp4 #ga-gc7 ,parse the relatives4 #a4 ,whatever wisdom and energy could do ,william did4 #b4 ,whatever is done skilfully appears to be done with ease4 #c4 ,we must suspect what we see1 distrust what we hear1 and doubt even what we feel6--,,miss ,,burney4 #d4 ,whoever has been in a state of nervous agitation1 must know that the longer it continues the more uncontrollable it grows4--,,irving4 #e4 ,time hath reft whate'er my soul enjoyed4--,,byron4 #f4 ,the gallant major showed no hesitation whatever4 #g4 ,whoever has made a voyage up the ,hudson must remember the ,kaatskill ,mountains4 #h4 ,a recollection of what ,i had seen and felt the preceding night still haunted my mind4 #i4 ,hard work was what he needed now4 #aj4 ,whatever regrets ,mrs4 ,thorverton might indulge in secret1 she had had the strength of mind to hide them4 #aa4 ,like all weak men1 they had recourse to what they called strong measures4 #ab4 ,we see in him a freer1 purer development of whatever is noblest in ourselves4 #ac4 ,sir ,roger was what you call a fine gentleman4 #ad4 ,sweet princes1 what ,i did1 ,i did in honor4--,,shakspere4 #ae4 ,he was really interested in what ,coningsby had seen and what he had felt4 #af4 ,what was to be seen at ,naples1 ,addison saw4 ,,exercise #ai 7 #afc-afh1 pp4 #gc-gd7 ,parse the interrogative pronouns1 mentioning gender1 number1 person1 and case4 ,if the interrogative word is an adjective1 tell what noun it limits4 #a4 ,who would not sing for ,lycidas8 #b4 ,what that sigh meant ,i cannot say4 #c4 ,columns1 arches1 pyramids1 what are they but heaps of sand8 #d4 ,which of the two was daughter to the duke8 #e4 ,whom next shall we summon from the dusty dead8--,,lamb4 #f4 ,why6 ,peggy1 what have you brought us8 #g4 ,what's fame8 ,a fancied life in others' breath4--,,pope4 #h4 ,to what shall ,i compare it8 #i4 ,and what art thou1 ,o melancholy voice8--,,shelley4 #aj4 ,proud sufferer1 who art thou8 #aa4 ,what were ,swigby's former pursuits ,i can't tell4 ,what need we care8 ,hadn't he five hundred a year8 ,ay1 that he had4--,,thackeray4 #ab4 ,what does it matter8 #ac4 ,which way have you looked for ,master ,caius8 #ad4 ,what business had they in ,prussia8 ,,exercise #bj 7 #afc-afh1 pp4 #gc-gd7 ,fill each blank with who or whom1 as the construction may require4 #a4 ,he asked me ---- was elected4 #b4 ,from ---- did she hear this news8 #c4 ,to ---- did you apply for assistance8 #d4 ---- do you regard as the better scholar of the two8 #e4 ---- shall ,i ask for the key8 #f4 ---- did you see when you called8 #g4 ---- do you think is the best physician in town8 #h4 ---- can ,i trust in such an emergency8 #i4 ,with ---- have you discussed this affair8 #aj4 ---- do you suppose this letter is from8 #aa4 ---- do you suppose ,i am8 #ab4 ---- do you suppose ,i saw8 #ac4 ---- do you think will help us8 ,,exercise #ba 7 #aac-afh1 pp4 #ee-gd7 ,point out each pronoun2 tell to what class it belongs1 and give its construction4 #a4 ,his mind now misgave him4 #b4 ,under the dark and haunted garret were attic chambers which themselves had histories4 #c4 ,passion itself is very figurative1 and often bursts out into metaphors4--,,goldsmith4 #d4 ,he had a wiry1 well-trained1 elastic figure1 a stiff military throw-back of his head1 and a springing step1 which made him appear much younger than he was4 #e4 ,it was the owl that shrieked4 #f4 ,slowly1 slowly1 slowly the days succeeded each other4 #g4 ,say nothing to the men1 but have all your wits about you4 #h4 ,he saw that it would be dark long before he could reach the village4 #i4 ,i must do myself the justice to open the work with my own history4 #aj4 ,economy in our affairs has the same effect upon our fortunes which good breeding has upon our conversations4--,,steele4 #aa4 ,it was a cloudy night1 with frequent showers of rain4 #ab4 8,fair sirs10 said ,arthur1 8wherefore sit ye here80 #ac4 ,who would be free1 themselves must strike the blow4--,,byron4 #ad4 ,this is my son1 mine own ,telemachus4--,,tennyson4 #ae4 ,richard bade them adieu4 #af4 ,ye men of ,kent1 'tis victory or death6--,,wordsworth4 #ag4 ,we dined yesterday with your friend and mine1 the most companionable and domestic ,mr4 ,c4 #ah4 ,great is the power of the man who has nothing to lose4--,,doyle4 #ai4 ,each hamlet started at the sound4 #bj4 ,look on me with thine own calm look4 #ba4 ,mr4 ,rigby was not a man who ever confessed himself at fault4 #bb4 ,they were conversing with much earnestness among themselves4 #bc4 ,he heard the deep behind him1 and a cry before4 #bd4 ,when ,deerslayer reached the fire1 he found himself surrounded by no less than eight grim savages4 #be4 ,mine hostess1 indeed1 gave me a long history how the goblet had been handed down from generation to generation4 #bf4 ,the uncle and nephew looked at each other for some seconds without speaking4 #bg4 ,we had yet seen no wild beasts1 or1 at least1 none that came very near us4--,,defoe4 #bh4 ,we envy you your sea-breezes4 #bi4 ,which is he that killed the deer8 #cj4 ,there was the choice1 and it was still open to him to take which side he pleased4 #ca4 ,there is always something to worry you4 ,it comes as regularly as sunrise4 ,,exercise #bb 7 #afi-ahh1 pp4 #ge-hb7 #a4 ,point out every adjective4 ,tell whether it is descriptive or definitive 7 #afi-aga71 and mention the substantive to which it belongs4 ,if the adjective can be compared1 give its three degrees of comparison4#ea #a4 ,the old1 unpainted shingles of the house were black with moisture4 #b4 8,my very dog10 sighed poor ,rip1 8has forgotten me60 #c4 ,loud was the lightsome tumult on the shore4--,,byron4 #d4 ,sweet are the shy recesses of the woodland4 #e4 ,rows of pewter and earthen dishes glittered along the dresser4 #f4 ,the major spoke in a matter-of-fact way4 #g4 ,the sheep and the cow have no cutting teeth1 but only a hard pad in the upper jaw4--,,huxley4 #h4 ,the faint1 foggy daylight glimmered dimly on the bare floor and stairs4 #i4 ,he wiped his serious1 perplexed face on a red bandanna handkerchief1 a shade lighter than his complexion4 #aj4 ,the yellow moonlight sleeps on all the hills4--,,beattie4 #aa4 ,the young hostess seemed to perform her office with a certain degree of desperate determination4 #ab4 ,this warning is meant in a friendly spirit4 #ac4 ,the house remained untenanted for three years4 #ad4 ,numberless torrents1 with ceaseless sound1 descend to the ocean4 #ae4 ,the contest between the two branches of the legislature lasted some days longer4 #b4 ,write five sentences containing descriptive adjectives2 five containing definitive adjectives4 #c4 ,write sentences containing demonstrative1 indefinite1 relative1 and interrogative adjectives4 #d4 ,write sentences in which the indefinite article is directly followed by-- honorable1 youthful1 yew1 ewe1 euphonious1 historical1 history1 hymn1 humble1 hilarious1 university1 express1 horticultural1 oratorio1 automatic1 heritage1 harmonious4 ,,exercise #bc 7 #aha-ahg1 pp4 #gi-hb7 ,point out the comparatives and the superlatives4 ,mention any superlatives used for emphasis 7 #bjj74 #a4 ,the ,governor-,general is the frankest and best-natured of men4 #b4 ,the company grew merrier and louder as their jokes grew duller4 #c4 ,a knock alarmed the outer gate4 #d4 ,at once there came the politest and friendliest reply4 #e4 ,many a poet has been poorer than ,burns1 but no one was ever prouder4--,,carlyle4 #f4 ,the last tyrant ever proves the worst4--,,pope4 #g4 ,the profoundest secrecy was observed in the whole transaction4 #h4 ,earth has not anything to show more fair4 #i4 ,the natural principle of war is to do the most harm to our enemy with the least harm to ourselves4--,,irving4 #aj4 ,during the rest of the journey1 ,rose was in the strangest state of mind4 #aa4 ,there's not a nobler man in ,rome than ,antony4 #ab4 ,little he ate1 and less he spake4 #ac4 ,our journey hither was through the most beautiful part of the finest country in the world4 #ad4 ,meanwhile the throng without was constantly becoming more numerous and more savage4 #ae4 ,vain are his weapons1 vainer is his force4 #af4 ,she might have been more lenient4 #ag4 ,you'll have to be more practical4 #ah4 ,how does a love of gain transform the gravest of mankind into the most contemptible and ridiculous6--,,goldsmith4 #ai4 ,most authors speak of their fame as if it were quite a priceless matter4 #bj4 ,loveliest and best6 thou little know'st ,the rank1 the honor1 thou hast lost6--,,scott4 #ba4 ,of two such lessons1 why forget ,the nobler and the manlier one8--,,byron4 ,,exercise #bd 7 #ahi-aih1 pp4 #hc-hg7 #a4 ,parse each adverb by telling whether it is an adverb of manner1 time1 place1 or degree1 and by mentioning the verb1 adjective1 or adverb which it modifies4 ,compare the adverbs which are capable of comparison4 #a4 ,a great part of the island is rather level4 #b4 ,they had worked very hard and very cheerfully4 #c4 ,when spake ,i such a word8 #d4 ,we can ill spare the commanding social benefits of cities4--,,emerson4 #e4 ,she looked up and met his eyes1 and thereupon both became very grave4 #f4 ,the silence of the prairie at night was well-nigh terrible4 #g4 ,far in the ,west there lies a desert land4 #h4 ,the whistling ploughman stalks afield4 #i4 ,swiftly they glided along4 #aj4 ,he has only just arrived in ,england4 #aa4 ,fast the white rocks faded from his view4 #ab4 ,whole ranks instantly laid down their pikes and muskets4 #ac4 ,thick clouds of dust afar appeared4 #ad4 ,bitter sobs came thick and fast4 #ae4 ,how long are you going to be in ,paris8 #af4 ,to-morrow ,i intend to hunt again4 #ag4 ,answer made ,king ,arthur1 breathing hard4 #ah4 ,some of us laughed heartily4 #ai4 ,they had spoken simply and openly about that from the very start4 #b4 ,form an adverb of manner from each of the following adjectives4 ,use each adverb in a sentence4 ,tell what it modifies4 ,proud1 careless1 vehement1 tender1 vigorous1 dainty1 brave1 formal1 courteous1 blunt1 sharp1 keen1 weary1 heavy1 true1 skilful1 legible4 #c4 ,fill each blank with an adverb of degree modifying the adjective or the adverb4 #a4 ,ogilvie was ---- lucky that day4 #b4 ,they were thought to be ---- fashionable people4 #c4 ,she made her objections ---- delicately as she could4 #d4 ,july has been ---- hot4 #e4 ,carlyle was ---- dainty about his food4 #f4 ,jack did not come early ---- to find a seat4 #g4 ,the tide runs ---- fast round this point4 #h4 ,the balloon soared ---- high that it disappeared4 #i4 ,the fugitive reached the pier ---- late to take the steamer4 #aj4 ,the bear growled ---- savagely that the dogs were frightened4 #aa4 ,you write ---- more legibly than ,i4 ,,exercise #be 7 #aid-aif1 p4 #hf7 #a4 ,point out the relative adverbs1 and mention the subordinate clause introduced by each4 ,tell whether each adverb expresses time1 place1 or manner4 #a4 ,just as the sun went down1 they heard a murmur of voices4 #b4 ,on waking1 he found himself on the green knoll whence he had first seen the old man of the glen4 #c4 ,there is no place of general resort wherein ,i do not often make my appearance4 #d4 ,wherever he determines to sleep1 there he prepares himself a sort of nest4 #e4 ,i hastened to the spot whence ,i had come4 #f4 ,where rolled the ocean1 thereon was his home4--,,byron4 #g4 ,where shineth thy spirit1 there liberty shineth too6--,,moore4 #h4 ,he will look on the world1 wheresoever he can catch a glimpse of it1 with eager curiosity4 #i4 ,until ,lady ,glenmore came to call next day1 we heard of nothing unusual4 #aj4 ,when she and ,miss ,pole left us1 we endeavored to subside into calmness4 #aa4 ,small service is true service while it lasts4 #ab4 ,long before we saw the sea1 its spray was on our lips4 #ac4 ,as they ascended1 ,rip every now and then heard long rolling peals1 like distant thunder4 #ad4 ,the village clock struck five as ,mr4 ,millbank and his guests entered the gardens of the mansion4 #ae4 ,when only a small space was left between the armies1 the ,highlanders suddenly drew their broadswords and rushed forward with a fearful yell4--,,macaulay4 #af4 ,when he rejoined his companions1 he said something to them in ,welsh4 #b4 ,point out the interrogative adverbs1 and tell what each modifies4 #a4 ,why look'st thou so8 #b4 ,whence came ye1 jolly satyrs8 whence came ye8--,,keats4 #c4 ,where now shall ,i go1 poor1 forsaken1 and blind8--,,campbell4 #d4 ,why weep ye by the tide8--,,scott4 #e4 ,see how the world its veterans rewards6--,,pope4 #f4 ,how wildly will ambition steer6--,,dryden4 #g4 ,where have you been these twenty long years8 #h4 ,here was a ,csar6 ,when comes such another8--,,shakspere4 #i4 ,when shall we three meet again8 #aj4 ,history is clarified experience1 and yet how little do men profit by it6 ,nay1 how should we expect it of those who so seldom are taught anything by their own8--,,lowell4 #aa4 ,why did you not bring what ,i asked for8 #c4 ,write ten sentences containing relative adverbs2 ten containing interrogative adverbs4 ,,exercise #bf 7 #aig-bjc1 pp4 #hg-hi7 #a4 ,point out the comparatives and superlatives4 ,tell whether each is an adjective or an adverb4 #a4 ,i thought it the most prudent method to lie still4 #b4 ,when the people observed ,i was quiet1 they discharged no more arrows4 #c4 ,you know your own feelings best4 #d4 ,he was taller than any of the other three who attended him4 #e4 ,the song and the laugh grew less and less frequent4 #f4 ,the harder ,i try to forget it1 the more it comes into my mind4 #g4 ,the night grew darker and darker2 the stars seemed to sink deeper in the sky4 #h4 ,i answered in a few words1 but in a most submissive manner4 #i4 ,their sight is much more acute than ours4 #aj4 ,the natives came by degrees to be less apprehensive of any danger from me4 #aa4 ,whoever performs his part with the most agility1 and holds out longest in leaping1 is rewarded with the blue-colored silk4 #ab4 ,it received less damage than ,i expected4 #ac4 ,long live the most puissant king of ,lilliput6 #ad4 ,fast are the flying moments1 faster are the hoofs of our horses4 #ae4 ,nigh come the strangers and more nigh4--,,scott4 #b4 ,write sentences containing either the comparative or the superlative of the following words3-- merry1 uncomfortable1 ill1 joyfully1 northern1 old 7both forms71 far1 in1 out1 early1 little 7adjective71 little 7adverb71 badly1 often1 worthy1 wonderful1 accurate1 far1 nigh1 top1 much1 severe4 #c4 ,write six sentences containing adverbs which are incapable of comparison2 six containing adjectives which are incapable of comparison4 ,,exercise #bg 7 #bjd-bjh1 pp4 #hi-ij7 #a4 ,write five sentences in which cardinal numerals are adjectives1 five in which they are nouns4 ,use the same numerals in the ordinal form as adjectives1 as nouns4 #b4 ,write five sentences1 each containing a numeral adverb2 five containing an adverbial phrase that includes a numeral4 ,,exercise #bh 7 #bji-bae1 pp4 #ia-ic7 #a4 ,point out all the verbs and verb-phrases4 ,tell whether each is transitive or intransitive4 ,tell which are copulative2 which are auxiliary4 ,mention any examples of the copula4 #a4 ,little tasks make large return4 #b4 ,we must now return to the fortress of ,tillietudlem and its inhabitants4 #c4 ,though ,i look old1 yet ,i am strong and lusty4 #d4 ,the sunshine might now be seen stealing down the front of the opposite house4 #e4 ,he sat apart from them all1 and looked at them with a melancholy1 haughty countenance2 while the rest hallooed and sang and laughed1 and the room rang4 #f4 ,you cannot relieve me1 but you may add to the torments ,i suffer4 #g4 ,one gains nothing by attempting to shut out the sprites of the weather4 ,they come in at the keyhole2 they peer through the dripping panes2 they insinuate themselves through the crevices of the casement1 or plump themselves down chimney astride of the raindrops4--,,whittier4 #h4 ,a large lamp threw a strong mass of light upon the group4 #i4 ,the baron pardoned the young couple on the spot4 #aj4 ,every now and then he would turn his head slowly round4 #aa4 ,the river sleeps along its course and dreams of the sky and of the clustering foliage4 #ab4 ,a severe gale compelled him to seek shelter4 #ac4 ,miss ,betsy ,barker dried her eyes and thanked the ,captain heartily4 #ad4 ,pray you1 look not sad4 #ae4 ,i am6 yet what ,i am who cares1 or knows8--,,clare4 #af4 ,after all1 it is a glorious pastime to find oneself in a real gale of wind1 in a big ship1 with not a rock to run against within a thousand miles4--,,kingsley4 #ag4 ,we will talk over all this another time4 #ah4 ,what is progress8 ,movement4 ,but what if it be movement in the wrong direction8--,,disraeli4 #ai4 ,they say you are a melancholy fellow4 #bj4 ,the valiant ,clifford is no more4 #ba4 ,the wreck had evidently drifted about for many months2 clusters of shellfish had fastened about it1 and long seaweed flaunted at its sides4--,,irving4 #bb4 ,times grew worse and worse with ,rip ,van ,winkle as years of matrimony rolled on4 #b4 ,frame twenty sentences1 each containing a verb-phrase4 ,use the auxiliaries mentioned in #baj4 ,let some of the sentences be interrogative4 #c4 ,make a list of twenty verbs that are transitive in one sense1 intransitive in another 7 #bab74 ,use these verbs in sentences4 #d4 ,illustrate the absolute use of transitive verbs by framing ten sentences 7 #bac74 #e4 ,make a list of six copulative verbs 7 #bad74 ,use them in sentences4 ,frame sentences in which the same verbs are not copulative 7 #bae74 #f4 ,use the copula 7 #bad7 in twenty sentences1 several of which shall illustrate its use in verb-phrases4 ,,exercise #bi 7 #bag-bbe1 pp4 #id-ii7 #a4 ,write ten sentences in each of which a weak 7or regular7 verb is used in the past tense2 ten1 in each of which a strong 7or irregular7 verb is used in the past tense4 #b4 ,construct sentences in which the past tense of each of the following verbs is used3 drink1 lie1 sow1 get1 wake1 dwell1 sing1 pay1 bid1 light1 bereave1 build1 ride1 hang1 swim1 lay1 split1 shrink1 slay1 wring1 weave1 thrive1 spin1 tread1 shake1 burst1 slink1 dive1 flee1 fly1 swing1 wet1 fling1 kneel1 let1 chide4 #c4 ,point out all the verbs 7except the copula and auxiliaries7 in ,exercise #bh1 #a1 and conjugate them in the present and the past tense4 ,tell which are weak 7regular7 and which are strong 7irregular74 ,account for the person and number4 ,,exercise #cj 7 #bbf-bcb1 pp4 #ajj-ajb7 #a4 ,fill each blank with am1 is1 or are4 #a4 ,england and the ,united ,states ---- at peace4 #b4 ,neither ,arthur nor ,john ---- right4 #c4 ,either a saw or an axe ---- necessary4 #d4 ,either you or ,dorothy ---- going4 #e4 ,you and ,i ---- going4 #f4 ,you and he ---- going4 #g4 ,is it ,mr4 ,allen or is it his children who ---- going8 #h4 ,either he ---- going or you ----4 #i4 ,either you ---- going or ,i ----4 #aj4 ,the sum and substance of the article ---- this4 #aa4 ,half the sheep ---- missing4 #ab4 ,a number of ,italians ---- present4 #ac4 ,the number of ,italians in this town ---- small4 #ad4 ,mathematics ---- my most difficult study4 #ae4 ,the number of applicants ---- not sufficient #af4 ,a number of reasons ---- alleged4 #ag4 ,the jury ---- in agreement4 #ah4 ,the jury ---- being charged by the judge4 #ai4 ,the committee ---- composed of five members4 #bj4 ,the committee ---- always wrangling with one another4 #ba4 ,i1 who ---- only a beginner1 cannot compete with ,richards1 who ---- an expert4 #bb4 ,he is one of those men who ---- always out of work4 #bc4 ,i am not a man who ---- easily frightened4 #bd4 ,walter is one of the best fellows there ---- in this town4 #be4 ,is it the king and queen who ---- coming8 #bf4 ,is it the king or the queen who ---- coming8 #bg4 ,they made me1 who ---- the shyest of mortals1 respond to a toast4 #bh4 ,a gift of four hundred books1 eighteen maps1 and ten plaster casts ---- to be made to our school4 #bi4 ,vocal and instrumental music ---- taught here4 #cj4 ,neither vocal nor instrumental music ---- taught here4 #ca4 ,neither elementary nor advanced physics ---- taught here4 #cb4 ,neither organic nor inorganic chemists ---- trained here4 #cc4 ,one or two pages ---- missing4 #cd4 ,physics1 together with algebra and ,latin1 ---- taught the first year4 #ce4 ,stevenson's 8,memories and ,portraits0 ---- lying on the table4 #cf4 ,the insurgent general with ten of his followers ---- said to have surrendered4 #cg4 ,james1 as well as his sisters1 ---- coming4 #ch4 ,six months ---- a long time to wait4 #ci4 ,a series of lectures ---- given here every winter4 #b4 ,make a list of ten collective nouns4 ,use them in sentences 7#a7 with a singular verb1 7#b7 with a plural verb4 ,explain the difference in meaning4 #c4 ,use the relative who in ten sentences in which the antecedent is in the first or the second person4 ,,exercise #ca 7 #bcc-bda1 pp4 #ajb-aje7 #a4 ,explain the use of will and shall in the following sentences4 #a4 ,we shall never forget what you have done for us4 #b4 8,you ought to know my military secretary10 said the general1 as ,lothair entered1 8and therefore ,i will introduce you40 #c4 ,i am very patient2 ,i will wait4 #d4 ,if ,i do return1 ,i will vote against them4 ,but ,i will not return4 ,i have made up my mind to that4 #e4 ,i will send you ,jennings's poem1 if you like4 #f4 ,you will of course make a drawing and an estimate1 and send them to me 7 #bdj74 #g4 ,do congratulate her for me1 will you8 #h4 ,another ,athens shall arise4--,,shelley4 #i4 8,i won't allow it60 cried ,lady ,niton1 8he sha'n't go60 #aj4 ,shall ,i find you at home if ,i call some day soon1 between five and six o'clock8 #aa4 ,you must be convinced1 and on reflection you will be convinced4 #ab4 ,before my journey to ,rochdale1 you shall have due notice where to address me4 #ac4 ,i consider myself a first-rate shot1 and you shall practise with me4 #ad4 ,shall ,i ever forget that party8 #ae4 ,shall you hunt to-morrow1 ,mr4 ,deronda8 #af4 ,when shall you be at ,cambridge8 #ag4 ,lady ,st4 ,jerome is a little indisposed--a cold caught at one of her bazaars4 ,she will hold them1 and they say that no one ever sells so much4--,,disraeli4 #ah4 ,will you be good enough to keep an account of all the manuscripts you receive1 for fear of omission8 #ai4 ,o rest ye1 brother mariners1 we will not wander more4--,,tennyson4 #bj4 ,will you forward the inclosed immediately to ,corbet1 whose address ,i do not exactly remember8 #ba4 ,byron was no common man3 yet if we examine his poetry with this view1 we shall find it far enough from faultless4--,,carlyle4 #bb4 ,i shall be in town by ,sunday next1 and will call and have some conversation on the subject of ,westall's proposed design4 #bc4 ,will you go down1 dear8 ,i will follow you in a moment4 #bd4 ,will not your trip to ,bath afford you an opportunity to take a peep at ,weston8 #be4 ,never1 as long as ,i live1 will ,i speak to you again1 nor shall ,harry1 whom you have humiliated6 #bf4 ,yet he for whom ,i grieve shall never know it4 #bg4 ,shall you let him go to ,italy8 #bh4 ,prone to the dust ,oppression shall be hurled4--,,campbell4 #bi4 ,you sha'n't go on with this affair1 ,i tell you1 ,harry4 #cj4 ,i shall probably return this evening1 but ,i will see you before ,i go4--,,trollope4 #ca4 ,in the interim ,i shall leave town2 on ,sunday ,i shall set out for ,herefordshire1 from whence1 when wanted1 ,i will return4 #cb4 ,if my father does not return with me in the spring1 it shall not be for want of urging on my part4--,,cooper4 #b4 ,fill each blank with will or shall4 #a4 ,i ---- be glad to see you4 #b4 ,we ---- be obliged to go home early4 #c4 ,i ---- help you whenever you wish4 #d4 ,i promise that he ---- not trouble you again4 #e4 ,you ---- be kind enough to take your seat4 #f4 ,we ---- miss our train1 ,i fear4 #g4 ,i must hurry or ,i ---- be late4 #h4 ,robert ---- have as much as is good for him4 #i4 ,arthur ---- disobey me in spite of all ,i can do4 #aj4 ,arthur ---- obey you1 ,i am sure4 #aa4 ,arthur ---- obey me1 or ,i ---- punish him4 #ab4 ,if we reject these offers1 we ---- regret it4 #ac4 ,i ---- no longer endure his insolence4 #ad4 ---- they return in season for dinner8 #ae4 ,i ---- have to excuse you this time1 ,i suppose4 #af4 ,i ---- gladly see you at any time4 #ag4 ,you ---- not leave this room until you have confessed4 #ah4 ,he ---- give you the money1 ,i feel confident4 #ai4 ,he ---- give you the money1 or ,i ---- have no more to do with him4 #bj4 ---- we allow them to do as they please8 #c4 ,write declarative sentences1 using will or shall in the first person 7singular or plural7 to express a threat1 a promise1 resolution1 consent1 desire1 determination1 simple futurity4 #d4 ,fill the blanks in the following questions with will or shall4 ,write sentences 7using will or shall7 in answer4 #a4 ---- you promise to do better8 #b4 ---- you make any promises if he insists8 #c4 ---- we miss our train8 #d4 ---- we go8 ,just ask us6 #e4 ---- ,i go now8 ,i fear ,i am wearying you4 #f4 ---- ,i tell you what ,i really think8 #g4 ---- you call a cab for me1 if you please8 #h4 ---- you be glad to see him8 #i4 ---- you see me if ,i call at one o'clock8 #aj4 ---- we see you this evening8 #aa4 ---- you be kind enough to open that door1 or ---- ,i8 #ab4 ---- you miss your brother8 #ac4 ---- we wait here1 or ---- you relent and let us go with you8 #ad4 ---- we allow this evil to continue8 #ae4 ---- you forgive me8 ,,exercise #cb 7 #bdb-bde1 pp4 #ajf-ajg7 #a4 ,name all the complete 7or compound7 tenses and explain their formation4 #a4 ,four long years in the times of the war had he languished a captive4--,,longfellow4 #b4 ,the adventurer has subsequently returned to his native country4 #c4 ,spiders had built their webs in the angles of the walls and ceilings4 #d4 ,whole fleets had been cast away4 ,large mansions had been blown down4 #e4 ,i am just returned from staying three days at a delightful inn by the river ,ouse1 where we always go to fish 7 #bdb1 #a1 note74--,,fitz ,,gerald4 #f4 ,in the evening we reached a village where ,i had determined to pass the night4 #g4 ,i have sent by the ,gisbornes a copy of the 8,elegy on ,keats40 #h4 ,i have really done my best4 #i4 ,our visits to the islands have been more like dreams than realities4 #aj4 ,we are here arrived at the crisis of ,burns's life4 #aa4 ,the chills of a long winter had suddenly given way2 the north wind had spent its last gasp2 and a mild air came stealing from the west4 #ab4 ,the officer at last turned away1 having satisfied himself that the room was empty4 #ac4 ,carson will have reached shelter long before this4 #b4 ,construct ten sentences in which the verbs in ,exercise #bi1 #b are used in the perfect tense4 #c4 ,turn the verbs in these sentences into the pluperfect tense2 into the future perfect tense4 ,write sentences in which the same verbs are used as perfect participles2 as perfect infinitives4 ,,exercise #cc 7 #bdf-bed1 pp4 #ajg-aab7 #a4 ,tell whether each verb is in the active or the passive voice4 #b4 ,if the verb is active1 change it to the passive1 and make such other changes as may be necessary4 ,if the verb is passive1 change it to the active4 #c4 ,conjugate each verb in the tense in which it occurs4 #a4 ,the customs of mankind are influenced in many ways by climate4 #b4 ,the door1 which was slightly ajar1 was suddenly pushed open4 #c4 ,the landlord handed the stranger the newspaper4 #d4 ,after a short pause1 my host resumed his narration4 #e4 ,during the greater part of that night my slumbers were disturbed by strange dreams4 #f4 ,not a word was spoken1 not a sound was made4 #g4 ,the great willow tree had caught and retained among its leaves a whole cataract of water4 #h4 ,early in the morning ,i was awakened by the voices of ,peter and his wife4 #i4 ,he that is loudly praised will be clamorously censured4--,,johnson4 #aj4 ,out of this story he formed a tragedy4 #aa4 ,the assailants were repulsed in their first attack1 and several of their bravest officers were shot down in the act of storming the fortress sword in hand4 #ab4 ,this fatal question has disturbed the quiet of many other minds4 #ac4 ,no genius was ever blasted by the breath of critics4--,,johnson4 #ad4 ,the jury then heard the opinion of the judge4 #ae4 ,what cruel maxims are we taught by a knowledge of the world6--,,miss ,,burney4 #af4 ,their departure made another material change at ,mansfield4 #ag4 ,the appearance of a housemaid prevented any further conversation4 #ah4 ,each word of this leave-taking was overheard by ,kezia4 #ai4 ,before nine o'clock next morning the two canoes were installed on a light country cart4 #bj4 ,an old harper was summoned from the servants' hall4 #ba4 ,he had been wounded at ,waterloo4 #bb4 ,this advice struck the disputants dumb4 #bc4 ,through the night were heard the mysterious sounds of the desert4 #bd4 ,a violent storm of rain obliged them to take shelter in an inn4 #be4 ,far was heard the fox's yell4--,,scott4 #bf4 ,adams highly commended the doctor's opinion4 #d4 ,rewrite the following sentences1 changing the form of the verbs from active to passive1 or from passive to active4 ,notice the effect upon subjects and objects4 #a4 ,i was brought up by my uncle4 #b4 ,i have found them4 #c4 ,we were delayed by the storm4 #d4 ,they were warned by the pilot4 #e4 ,she saw us4 #f4 ,that winter will never be forgotten by any of us4 #g4 ,you surprise me4 #h4 ,will you meet me8 #i4 ,was he struck by a bullet8 #aj4 ,have you forgotten me8 #aa4 ,how the crowd cheered him6 #ab4 ,tom1 the blacksmith1 makes horseshoes4 #ac4 ,the schooner was run down by the steamship4 #ad4 ,the old man has opened a little shop4 #ae4 ,mary has invited ,ellen4 #af4 ,mary might have invited ,ellen4 #ag4 ,mary will invite ,ellen4 #ah4 ,the storm has made great havoc along the coast4 #ai4 ,the children have been called home by their nurse4 #bj4 ,he vexes me4 #ba4 ,the tower was struck by lightning yesterday4 #bb4 ,a policeman helped her over the crossing4 #bc4 ,i was amused by your letter4 #e4 ,use each of the following verbs in both the active and the passive of the past1 the future1 and the perfect 7or present perfect73--send1 bring1 teach1 drink1 get1 set1 lay1 leave1 find1 forget4 #f4 ,use each of the verbs in #aje in the active voice of the past tense with both a direct and an indirect object4 ,change to the passive4 ,,exercise #cd 7 #bee-bfa1 pp4 #aac-aad7 #a4 ,point out all the progressive and all the emphatic verb-phrases4 ,mention the tense and voice of each4 ,note any instances where do and did are not emphatic4 #a4 ,thus did the long sad years glide on4 #b4 ,now pray do settle in ,england4 #c4 ,meanwhile1 ,i go about in my little ship1 where ,i do think ,i have two honest fellows to deal with4 #d4 ,i remember4 ,i do indeed remember--too well6 #e4 ,not until it was broad daylight did ,i quit the haunted house4 #f4 ,do but look on her eyes4 #g4 ,roland reached the boat just as the gang plank was being hauled in4 #h4 ,we are being entertained by the ,archers4 #i4 ,the man at our wheel was spinning his spokes desperately to avoid banging into vessels we could not see1 but whose bells were ringing everywhere about us4 #aj4 ,wild weeds are gathering on the wall4 #aa4 ,i did actually pick up a ,french crown piece1 worth about a dollar and six cents1 near high-water mark4 #ab4 ,i was loitering about the old gray cloisters of ,westminster ,abbey4 #ac4 ,the friends of ,coningsby were now hourly arriving4 #ad4 ,my eyes have been leaving me in the lurch again4 #ae4 ,they had been for some time passing through narrow gorges of the mountains1 along the edges of a tumbling stream4 #af4 ,we are just sitting down to dinner with a pleasant party4 #ag4 ,the large ,newfoundland house-dog was standing by the door4 #ah4 8,do thou10 said ,bertram1 8lead the way40--,,scott4 #ai4 ,music in his ears his beating heart did make4 #bj4 ,over the hillsides the wild knell is tolling4--,,holmes4 #b4 ,write sentences in which the verb teach is used in the present progressive1 past progressive1 future progressive1 perfect progressive1 pluperfect progressive1 and future perfect progressive tenses of the active voice4 #c4 ,write ten questions containing some form of do 7or did74 ,,exercise #ce 7 #bfb-bhf1 pp4 #aae-abc7 ,point out all the verbs in the imperative or the subjunctive mood4 ,tell the subjects of the imperatives and explain the forms and uses of the subjunctives4 #a4 ,and now dispatch we toward the court1 my lords4--,,shakspere4 #b4 ,i think you had better speak to ,lady ,corisande yourself 7 #bhe74 #c4 ,my dear boy1 ,god bless thee a thousand times over6 #d4 ,o that the desert were my dwelling place6 #e4 8,rest we here10 ,matilda said4--,,scott4 #f4 ,go where thy destiny calls thee4 #g4 ,now ,hesper guide my feet4--,,akenside4 #h4 ,o that such hills upheld a freeborn race6--,,byron4 #i4 ,perish those riches which are acquired at the expense of my honor or my humanity6--,,goldsmith4 #aj4 ,would all were well6 but that will never be4--,,shakspere4 #aa4 ,the distaff were more fitting for you4 #ab4 ,robert hesitated1 as if he were inclined to refuse4 #ac4 ,do what they might1 the hook was in their gills4--,,george ,,meredith4 #ad4 ,fare you well1 fair gentlemen4--,,shakspere4 #ae4 ,suffice it to say1 the robbers were defeated4 #af4 ,disclose thy treachery1 or die6 #ag4 ,let us not be influenced by any angry feelings4 #ah4 ,be that as it may1 ,kidd never returned to recover his wealth4 #ai4 ,i would to ,god my heart were flint1 like ,edward's4--,,shakspere4 #bj4 ,move we on4--,,scott4 #ba4 ,mark that the signal-gun be duly fired4--,,byron4 #bb4 ,the hull drives on1 though mast and sail be torn4 #bc4 ,i am glad that you liked my song1 and1 if ,i liked the others myself so well as that ,i sent you1 ,i would transcribe them for you also4--,,cowper4 #bd4 ,i beseech you1 punish me not with your hard thoughts4--,,shakspere4 #be4 ,if there be change1 no change ,i see4--,,landor4 #bf4 ,be it as thou wilt4 #bg4 ,weep you no more1 sad fountains4 #bh4 ,if thou leave thy father1 he will die4--,,wordsworth4 #bi4 ,come thou no more for ransom1 gentle herald4--,,shakspere4 #cj4 ,learn thou his purpose4 #ca4 ,come1 go we in procession to the village4--,,shakspere4 #cb4 ,the destruction of property which took place within a few weeks would be incredible1 if it were not attested by witnesses unconnected with each other and attached to very different interests4 #cc4 ,i wish ,i were as ,i have been1 ,hunting the hart in forest green4--,,scott4 #cd4 ,come what come may1 ,time and the hour runs through the roughest day4--,,shakspere4 #ce4 ,buried be all that has been done1 ,or say that naught is done amiss4--,,crabbe4 ,,exercise #cf 7 #bgb-bhf1 pp4 #aah-abc7 ,fill each blank with a verb in the appropriate form4 #a4 ,o that he ---- here6 #b4 ,would that ,i ---- there6 #c4 ,if he ---- a little older1 ,i should take him into partnership4 #d4 ---- you asked me to go1 ,i should have refused4 #e4 ---- you to ask me1 ,i should refuse4 #f4 ,if you ---- there1 ,i should have seen you4 #g4 ,i am glad ,i saw the play1 even if ,i ---- a little disappointed4 #h4 ,i should have been glad to see the play1 even if ,i ---- a little disappointed4 #i4 ,i should be glad to see the play1 even if ,i ---- a little disappointed4 #aj4 ,i shall be glad to see the play1 even if ,i ---- a little disappointed4 #aa4 ,though he ---- to increase my salary1 ,i should not remain in his employ4 ,use the copula4 #ab4 ,unless he ---- to increase my salary1 ,i should not remain in his employ4 ,use the copula4 #ac4 ,when ,tom saw you1 you looked as if you ---- angry4 ,use the copula4 #ad4 ,when ,tom sees you1 ,i suppose you will look as if you ---- angry4 #ae4 ,i must remind him to post this letter1 lest he ---- it4 ,,exercise #cg 7 #bhg-bie1 pp4 #abd-abg7 ,explain the meaning of each potential verb-phrase1 and parse the phrase4 ,in parsing such a phrase1 describe it merely as a potential verb-phrase and tell the tense1 voice1 person1 and number1 without assigning it to any mood4 #a4 ,enough6 ,you may depart4 #b4 ,men should travel4 #c4 ,what must be shall be4 ,that's a certain text4--,,shakspere4 #d4 ,at times1 with a strong effort1 he would glance at the open door which still seemed to repel his eyes4 #e4 ,nothing can bring you peace but yourself4--,,emerson4 #f4 ,it was sometimes sad enough to watch him as he sat alone4 ,he would have a book near him1 and for a while would keep it in his hands4--,,trollope4 #g4 ,o1 my friend6 may ,i believe you8 ,may ,i speak to you8 #h4 ,presently he faced ,adrian1 crying1 8,and ,i might have stopped it60 #i4 ,nothing is impossible to the man who can will4--,,emerson4 #aj4 ,a scholar may be a well-bred man1 or he may not4--,,emerson4 #aa4 8,i trust we're at liberty to enter10 said the elder lady with urbanity4 8,we were told that we might come at any time40 #ab4 ,i sent for you that ,i might have your counsel and assistance4 #ac4 ,i could no longer doubt the doom prepared for me4 #ad4 ,i am as well as ,i can expect to be under the excitement which ,i suffer4 #ae4 ,i can become a party to no such absurd proceeding4 #af4 ,i could scarcely refrain from tears4 #ag4 ,come6 we must go back4 #ah4 ,we must be strangers to each other in future4 #ai4 ,as my horse must now have eaten his provender1 ,i must needs thank you for your good cheer1 and pray you to show me this man's residence1 that ,i may have the means of proceeding on my journey4 ,,exercise #ch 7 #bhi-bia1 pp4 #abe-abf7 #a4 ,fill each blank with can or may4 #a4 ---- ,i borrow your pen8 #b4 ,yes1 you ----4 #c4 ,no1 you ---- not4 #d4 ,i ---- swim across this river some day1 for ,i know well enough that ,i ----4 #e4 ,i shall ask my father if ,i ---- swim across this river4 ,i know well enough that ,i ----4 #f4 ,my father is confident that ,i ---- swim across the river safely4 #g4 ,my father says that ,i ---- swim across the river if ,i will wait until he ---- go with me4 #h4 ---- ,i trouble you to give me that tennis racket8 #i4 ,it ---- be that you will regret this4 #aj4 ,it ---- not be that you will regret this4 #aa4 ---- you take a vacation this year1 or is permission still refused8 #ab4 ,why not ask if you ---- take a vacation8 #ac4 ,you ---- take your vacation after ,i have taken mine4 #ad4 ,the weather man says we ---- hope for sunshine to-morrow4 #ae4 ,he ---- be thankful that he escaped so easily4 #af4 ,when you are twenty-one1 you ---- have your own way4 #b4 ,write sentences asking permission in the first1 second1 and third persons4 ,write sentences 7#a7 granting these requests2 7#b7 refusing them4 ,,exercise #ci 7 #big-cjh1 pp4 #abg-acb7 #a4 ,justify the use of the auxiliary 7should or would74 ,in some of the sentences1 should might be substituted for would4 ,which are they8 #a4 ,if ,i were you1 ,i would not dwell too much on this fancy of yours4 #b4 ,i have neither servants nor clothes1 and1 if it had not been for these good people1 ,i should not have had food4 #c4 ,i should delight in having her for a sister-in-law4 #d4 ,i should hardly wish to go out before ,friday4 #e4 ,i shouldn't wonder if this made him set his teeth4 #f4 ,well1 that's over6 and ,i'm sure neither ,oliver nor ,i would go through it again for a million of money4 #g4 ,if ,i were you1 ,i would turn it over in my mind4 #h4 ,i should be afraid to express myself in this manner1 if the matter were not clear and indisputable4--,,burke4 #i4 ,i should like to remain where ,i am for another week or ten days4 #aj4 ,would you do me the favor to look at a few specimens of my portrait-painting8--,,dickens4 #aa4 8,would you come80 she said1 with a serious1 searching glance1 and in a kind of coaxing manner4--8,i should be an intruder1 my dear lady10 said ,theodore1 declining the suggestion4--,,disraeli4 #ab4 ,i should not like to be out of my seat were the ,house in session4--,w4 ,j4 ,,locke4 #ac4 ,if ,i were you ,i would not tempt ,fate by remaining here a day longer4--,w4 ,e4 ,,norris4 #ad4 ,candidates would rather1 ,i suppose1 climb in at a window than be absolutely excluded4--,,cowper4 #ae4 ,impey would not hear of mercy or delay4 #af4 ,i should not be surprised if he were here immediately4 #ag4 ,there's a plantation of sugar-canes at the foot of that rock3 should you like to look8--,,george ,,eliot4 #b4 ,explain the use of the auxiliary 7shall1 should1 or will1 would7 in each subordinate clause4 #a4 ,with this purpose in view1 he sent a skilful architect to build him such a palace as should be fit for a man of his vast wealth to live in4 #b4 ,their majesties commanded me to submit to whatever ,bobadilla should order in their name4 #c4 ,should you find yourself able to push on to ,braemar1 your visit will be most welcome4 #d4 ,it's a simple affair enough1 if you'll just leave it as it stands4 #e4 ,fearing to awaken ,joseph a second time1 lest he should again hazard all by his thoughtlessness1 he crept softly out of the wigwam4 #f4 ,i watched the grapes from day to day till they should have secreted sugar enough from the sunbeams4 #g4 ,if an old prophecy should come to pass1 we may see a man1 some time or other1 with exactly such a face as that4 #h4 ,he kept his heart continually open1 and thus was sure to catch the blessing from on high1 when it should come4--,,hawthorne4 #i4 ,this law provided that the presidency of ,bengal should exercise a control over the other possessions of the ,company4 #aj4 ,it is time that we should proceed4 #aa4 ,it is necessary that he should have some work to do4 #ab4 ,i shall be thankful if you will condescend to enlighten my ignorance4 #ac4 ,it was natural that the leading authors should affect a style of levity and derision4--,,jeffrey4 #ad4 ,i will take care that you shall not be troubled by him again4 #ae4 ,that the ,duke of ,wellington should cordially approve is singular enough4 #af4 8,boys10 interrupted ,wilder1 8it is now proper that you should know something of my future movements40--,,cooper4 #ag4 ,we all stood ready to succor them if there should be occasion4--,,defoe4 #ah4 ,you are so well qualified for the task yourself that it is impossible you should need any assistance2 at least1 it is hardly possible that ,i should afford you any4--,,cowper4 #ai4 ,the brave sufferer refused to purchase liberty1 though liberty to him would have been life1 by recognizing the authority which had confined him4 #bj4 ,i meant that he should walk off1 but he did not choose to understand me4 #ba4 ,when time shall serve1 you shall have the fruit of my labors4--,,cowper4 #bb4 ,i shall be so glad if you will tell me what to read4--,,george ,,eliot4 #bc4 ,i protest against such a combat1 until the king of ,england shall have repaid the fifty thousand bezants4--,,scott4 #bd4 ,unless something should go wrong1 ,i flatter myself that the performance will elicit your generous approbation4 #be4 ,a seat in the cabinet was offered to him1 on condition that he would give efficient support to the ministry in ,parliament4 #bf4 ,the proposition which he made was1 that ,fox should be ,secretary of ,state4 #bg4 ,that night he put forth a proclamation1 directing that the posts should be stopped1 and that no person should1 at his peril1 venture to harbor the accused members4--,,macaulay4 #bh4 ,hyde interfered1 and proposed that the question should be divided4 #bi4 ,i am sorry that you should be bothered in this way4 #cj4 ,i am sorry that ,murray should groan on my account4--,,byron4 #ca4 ,there are old brass andirons1 waiting until time shall revenge them on their paltry substitutes4 #cb4 ,should he be acquitted1 that1 ,i imagine1 should end the matter4 #cc4 ,a rumor was circulated that some new pageant was about to be exhibited1 which should put a fitting close to the splendid festivities4 #cd4 ,if this new purpose of conquest shall be abandoned1 ,richard may yet become ,king of ,jerusalem by compact4--,,scott4 #ce4 ,saladin desires no converts save those whom the holy prophet shall dispose to submit themselves to his law4 #cf4 ,pride now came to ,montezuma's aid1 and1 since he must go1 he preferred that it should appear to be with his own free will4 #cg4 ,god forbid that ,i should regret those gifts6 ,,exercise #dj 7 #cji-cbc1 pp4 #acb-acg7 #a4 ,point out each infinitive and explain its construction as noun1 as complementary infinitive1 as infinitive of purpose1 as modifier of a noun or an adjective1 or as part of a verb-phrase 7with an auxiliary74 #b4 ,point out any modifiers or objects of infinitives4 #a4 ,to advance toward ,london would have been madness4 #b4 ,to trace the exact boundary between rightful and wrongful resistance is impossible4--,,macaulay4 #c4 ,i was too young to keep any journal of this voyage4 #d4 ,the baron hastened to receive his future son-in-law4 #e4 ,it was her habit to go over to the deanery 7 #cah74 #f4 ,he could not consent to turn his back upon a party of helpless travellers4 #g4 ,the fixed purpose of these men was to break the foreign yoke4 #h4 ,here rise no cliffs the vale to shade4 #i4 ,they saw the gleaming river seaward flow 7 #cbb74 #aj4 ,she perceived one of the eyes of the portrait move4 #aa4 ,his first scheme was to seize ,bristol4 #ab4 ,the first business of the ,commons was to elect a ,speaker4 #ac4 ,the old man frequently stretched his eyes ahead to gaze over the tract that he had yet to traverse4 #ad4 ,when other things sank brooding to sleep1 the heath appeared slowly to awake and listen4--,,hardy4 #ae4 ,all were anxious to hear the story of the mysterious picture4 #af4 ,i see the lights of the village gleam through the rain and the mist4 #ag4 ,then the bishop rose from his chair to speak4 #ah4 ,to dismiss him from his high post was to emancipate him from all restraint4 #ai4 ,this is not a time to hesitate4 #bj4 ,burghers hastened to man the wall4 #ba4 ,i felt ,leslie's hand tremble on my arm4 #bb4 ,he heard a mighty bowstring twang4--,,morris4 #bc4 ,mr4 ,ralph ,nickleby sat in his private office one morning1 ready dressed to walk abroad4 #bd4 ,i put down the letters1 and began to muse over their contents4 #be4 ,waves of clear sea are1 indeed1 lovely to watch4 #bf4 ,halifax had now nothing to give4 #bg4 ,the neighborhood seemed to breathe a tranquil prosperity4 #bh4 ,it is always perilous to adopt expediency as a guide4 #bi4 ,soldiers were drawn up to keep the passage clear4 #c4 ,write sentences containing an infinitive used as subject1 as predicate nominative1 as appositive1 as the object of a preposition1 as an adjective2 a complementary infinitive2 an infinitive of purpose2 an infinitive used with shall1 with will1 with must4 #d4 ,note any modifiers or objects that you have used with the infinitives4 ,,exercise #da 7 #cbd-cbh1 pp4 #acg-aci7 #a4 ,point out each infinitive clause4 ,mention the verb of which it is the object4 ,find the subject of each infinitive4 ,when it is possible1 substitute a that-clause for the infinitive clause4 #a4 ,it might seem irreverent to make the gray cathedral and the tall time-worn palaces echo back the exuberant vociferation of the market4 #b4 ,we have made you wait4 #c4 ,we then went to ,pembroke ,college1 and waited on his old friend ,dr4 ,adams1 the master of it1 whom ,i found to be a most polite1 pleasing1 communicative man4--,,boswell4 #d4 ,the doctor expects ,captain ,starbuck to recover4 #e4 ,for a good sailor to foul the first buoy was ludicrous enough4 #f4 ,will you ask ,annie to feed the parrot8 #g4 ,i believe it to be a speaking likeness4 #h4 ,i suppose them to be utterly ignorant of their own condition4 #i4 ,hepzibah bade her young guest sit down4 #aj4 ,calamity and peril often force men to combine4 #aa4 ,he knew himself to be a liar whom nobody trusted4 #ab4 ,i must not ask the reader to suppose that he was cheerful4 #ac4 ,i felt this melancholy to be infectious4 #ad4 ,no one on seeing ,mr4 ,crawley took him to be a happy man1 or a weak man1 or an ignorant man1 or a wise man4--,,trollope4 #ae4 ,humanity impelled him to rescue the poor wretch4 #b4 ,write sentences containing infinitive clauses used after verbs of wishing1 commanding1 believing1 declaring1 perceiving4 #c4 ,fill each blank with a personal pronoun4 #a4 ,he believes the author to be ----4 ,first person4 #b4 ,he believes that the author is ----4 ,first person4 #c4 ,i knew the thief to be ----4 ,third person4 #d4 ,i thought that the thief was ----4 ,third person4 #e4 ,we thought the strangers to be ----4 ,third person4 #f4 ,we thought that the strangers were ----4 ,third person4 #d4 ,fill each blank with who or whom4 #a4 ,the man ---- ,i believe to be responsible for this accident is the engineer4 #b4 ,i believe that the man ---- is responsible for this accident is the engineer4 #c4 ,my knock was answered by a lad ---- ,i believed to be a lodger4 #d4 ,you are not the person ---- ,i believed you to be4 ,,exercise #db 7 #cbi-cdc1 pp4 #adj-adc7 #a4 ,point out all the participles1 present and past1 and tell what substantive each modifies4 ,mention such as are used as pure adjectives4 ,mention any modifiers or objects of participles4 #a4 ,the ship is anchored safe and sound1 its voyage closed and done4--,,whitman4 #b4 ,even the tight windows and the heavy silken curtains drawn close could not shut out the sound of the driving sleet4 #c4 ,godolphin was not a reading man4 #d4 ,mr4 ,sikes1 dragging ,oliver after him1 elbowed his way through the thickest of the crowd4 #e4 ,betrayed1 deserted1 disorganized1 unprovided with resources1 begirt with enemies1 the noble city was still no easy conquest4 #f4 ,thus regretted and cautioned on all hands1 ,mordaunt took leave of the hospitable household4 #g4 ,far away1 an angry white stain undulating on the surface of steely-gray waters1 shot with gleams of green1 diminished swiftly1 without a hiss1 like a patch of pure snow melting in the sun4--,,conrad4 #h4 ,i set her on my pacing steed4--,,keats4 #i4 ,but the poor traveller paused here barely for a minute1 and then went on1 stumbling through the mud1 striking his ill-covered feet against the rough stones in the dark1 sweating in his weakness1 almost tottering at times1 and calculating whether his remaining strength would serve to carry him home4--,,trollope4 #aj4 ,his teeth are set1 his hand is clenched4 #aa4 ,passing through the ravine1 they came to a hollow1 like a small amphitheatre4 #ab4 ,he found the house gone to decay--the roof fallen in1 the windows shattered1 and the doors off the hinges4 #ac4 ,and now1 sir1 when you next go to the ,british ,museum1 look for a poet named ,vaughan4 #ad4 ,a heavy sea struck us on our starboard quarter1 almost throwing us on our beam-ends4 #ae4 ,he stood chuckling and rubbing his hands1 and scarcely hearing a word the parson said4 #af4 ,the light struggles dimly through windows darkened by dust4 #ag4 ,we sailed merrily forward for several days1 meeting with nothing to interrupt us4 #b4 ,write sentences containing the past participles of six weak verbs2 of six strong verbs4 #c4 ,write sentences containing a participle used as a pure adjective2 a participle used as a predicate adjective2 a participle modified adverbially2 a participle taking an object4 #d4 ,write ten sentences each containing a perfect participle4 ,substitute for each a clause introduced by when4 ,,exercise #dc 7 #cdd-cdf1 p4 #add7 ,explain all examples of the nominative absolute4 ,substitute a modifying clause in each sentence4 #a4 ,a carriage1 drawn by half a dozen horses1 came driving at a furious rate1 the postilions smacking their whips like mad4 #b4 ,as far as the eye could reach1 the sea in every direction was of a deep blue color1 the waves running high and fresh1 and sparkling in the light4 #c4 ,for some years past there had been a difficulty about the rent1 things not having gone at the ,dragon of ,wantly as smoothly as they had used to go4 #d4 ,he began to talk rapidly1 all diffidence subdued4 #e4 ,noon coming1 and the ,doctor not returning1 ,mr4 ,lorry advised with ,lucie4 #f4 ,the second mate falling ill during the passage1 ,i was promoted to officer of the watch4 #g4 ,the dog now roused himself and sat on his haunches1 his ears moving quickly backward and forward4 #h4 ,this done1 ,mazeppa spread his cloak4 #i4 ,she was seated alone1 her arms on the table1 her head bent down4 #aj4 ,there being some time upon his hands1 he left his luggage at the cloak-room1 and went on foot along ,bedford ,street to the church4 ,,exercise #dd 7 #cdg-cec1 pp4 #ade-adg7 #a4 ,point out the present participles1 and also the verbal nouns in -ing 7participial nouns74 ,show the difference4 ,mention any modifiers or complements used with either4 #a4 ,the consternation was extreme4 ,some were for closing the gates and resisting2 some for submitting2 some for temporizing4 #b4 ,a troop of strange children ran at his heels1 hooting after him1 and pointing at his gray head4 #c4 ,the wicket opened on a stone staircase leading upward4 #d4 ,watching and toil were to me pleasure1 for my body was strong1 and my spirits winged4 #e4 ,the lingerings of decent pride were visible in her appearance4 #f4 ,his deep bass voice had a quavering in it1 his eyes looked dim1 and the lines on his face were deep4 #g4 ,there were several ,french privateers hovering on the coast4 #h4 ,he does not like talking of these matters to strangers4 #i4 ,miss ,matty cared much more for the circumstance of her being a very good card-player4 #aj4 ,his discourse was broken off by his man's telling him he had called a coach4 #aa4 ,swallows and martens skimmed twittering about the eaves4 #ab4 ,i have loved1 lived with1 and left the sea without ever seeing a ship's tall fabric of sticks1 cobwebs1 and gossamer go by the board4--,,conrad4 #ac4 ,the sexton was a meek1 acquiescing little man1 of a bowing1 lowly habit2 yet he had a pleasant twinkling in his eye4 #ad4 ,the rain always made a point of setting in just as he had some outdoor work to do4 #ae4 ,i have been employed this morning in composing a ,latin motto for the king's clock4 #af4 ,two more of the boats were lost by being stove and swamped alongside4 #ag4 ,i heard the ripple washing in the reeds4 #ah4 ,after wandering through two or three streets1 ,i found my way to ,shakspere's birthplace4 #ai4 ,rip's heart died away at hearing of these sad changes in his home and friends4 #bj4 ,the fish did not bite freely1 and we frequently changed our fishing ground without bettering our luck4 #ba4 ,lady ,niton sat blinking and speechless4 #bb4 ,i cannot help hearing things1 and reading things1 and observing things1 and they fill me with disquietude4 #bc4 ,here was circumstance after circumstance goading me onward4 #bd4 ,i sat staring at a book of my own making4 #be4 ,that thought actually drove out of my head the more pressing danger4 #b4 ,write sentences in which 7#a7 a verbal noun and 7#b7 a present participle are formed from-- run1 hunt1 leap1 swim1 strike1 find1 speak1 sing1 shout1 play1 skate1 blow1 spend1 listen1 eat1 move1 translate1 recite1 murmur1 whisper1 read1 talk1 complain1 paint1 build1 give1 breathe1 teach1 flow1 shine4 #c4 ,whenever it is possible1 substitute either a noun or an infinitive for each verbal noun in your sentences4 #d4 ,select three of these verbal nouns1 and write other sentences in which each is used 7#a7 as a subject1 7#b7 with a direct and an indirect object1 7#c7 with an adjective modifier1 7#d7 with an adverbial modifier4 ,,exercise #de 7 #ced-cga1 pp4 #adh-aed7 #a4 ,point out and parse the prepositions and conjunctions4 ,in parsing a preposition1 tell 7#a7 the object1 and 7#b7 the word to which the preposition shows the relation of the object4 ,in parsing a conjunction1 indicate the words or groups of words which it connects1 tell whether it is cordinate or subordinate1 and mention its correlative 7 #cfi7 if it has one4 #a4 ,neither witch nor warlock crossed ,mordaunt's path4 #b4 ,but ,i will be bolder1 and do not doubt to make it good1 though a paradox1 that one great reason why prose is not to be used in serious plays1 is1 because it is too near the nature of converse4--,,dryden4 #c4 ,all down that immense vista of gloomy arches there was one blaze of scarlet and gold4 #d4 ,no doubt1 something of ,shakspere's punning must be attributed to his age1 in which direct and formal combats of wit were a favorite pastime of the courtly and accomplished4--,,coleridge4 #e4 ,bodily labor is of two kinds3 either that which a man submits to for his livelihood1 or that which he undergoes for his pleasure4--,,addison4 #f4 ,early upon the morrow the march was resumed4 #g4 ,the camp was broken up1 and the troops were sent to quarters in different parts of the country4 #h4 ,my attention was called off for a moment by the cries of birds and the bleatings of sheep4 #i4 ,this is well to be weighed1 that boldness is ever blind1 for it seeth not dangers and inconveniences4--,,bacon4 #aj4 ,at a little distance from ,sir ,roger's house1 among the ruins of an old abbey1 there is a long walk of aged elms4 #aa4 ,then ,i sent you the ,greek instead of the ,persian whom you asked for8--,,fitz ,,gerald4 #ab4 ,rowland's allowance at college was barely sufficient to maintain him decently1 and1 his degree nevertheless achieved1 he was taken into his father's counting-house to do small drudgery on a proportionate stipend4 #ac4 ,though this lady never expressed an idea1 ,richard was not mistaken in her cleverness4 #ad4 ,if ,i am tired1 your letter will refresh me4 #ae4 ,the young ladies however1 and ,mr4 ,pecksniff likewise1 remained in the very best of spirits in spite of these severe trials1 though with something of a mysterious understanding among themselves4 #af4 ,he went along almost gaily1 nor felt the fatigue of the road4 #b4 ,write sentences in which1 the following words are used as indicated3-- for 7preposition1 conjunction71 then 7conjunction1 adverb71 notwithstanding 7preposition1 conjunction71 since 7preposition1 adverb1 relative adverb71 until 7preposition1 relative adverb71 as 7conjunction1 relative pronoun1 relative adverb71 that 7conjunction1 relative pronoun1 demonstrative adjective1 demonstrative pronoun71 but 7preposition1 conjunction74 #c4 ,construct sentences containing either and or1 neither and nor1 whether and or1 not only and but also1 both and and1 though1 if1 because4 #d4 ,construct six sentences containing cordinate conjunctions2 six containing subordinate conjunctions2 six containing relative adverbs4 ,,exercise #df 7 #cgb-cge1 pp4 #aee-aef7 ,point out all interjections1 all other parts of speech used here in exclamation1 and all exclamatory phrases4 #a4 ,ring the alarum-bell6 ,murder and treason6--,,shakspere4 #b4 ,kipling is by far the most promising young man who has appeared since--ahem--,i appeared4--,,stevenson4 #c4 ,o1 to be in ,england6 #d4 8,courage60 he said1 and pointed toward the land4--,,tennyson4 #e4 ,ah6 my lord ,arthur1 whither shall ,i go8 #f4 ,alas for my credulous fancy6 #g4 ,tut1 man6 we must take things as they come4 #h4 ,o day1 the last of all my bliss on earth6--,,marlowe4 #i4 ,adieu1 fair ,cadiz6 yea1 a long adieu6--,,byron4 #aj4 ,peace1 sister1 peace6 #aa4 ,fie1 fie1 my brother6 #ab4 ,how now1 ,thersites8 what1 lost in the labyrinth of thy fury8 #ac4 ,farewell for the present1 my dear sir4 #ad4 ,o ,jupiter6 how weary are my spirits6--,,shakspere4 #ae4 ,guilty1 my lord1 guilty6 ,i confess1 ,i confess6 #af4 ,hence1 you long-legg'd spinners1 hence6 #ag4 ,o monstrous6 ,o strange6 we are haunted6 #ah4 ,faith1 he is gone unto the taming school4 #ai4 ,but1 soft6 whom have we here8 #bj4 ,a ,tory6 a ,tory6 a spy6 a refugee6 hustle him6 away with him6 #ba4 ,what6 this gentleman will outtalk us all4 #bb4 ,up1 up1 ,glentarkin6 rouse thee1 ho6--,,scott4 #bc4 ,and now good-bye1 my dear fellow4 #bd4 ,ahem6 you remember1 friend8 ,grand triumphs those1 eh8 ,,exercise #dg 7 #cgf-cib1 pp4 #aeg-afb7 #a4 ,construct ten sentences in which the simple subject 7noun or pronoun7 is modified by an adjective clause2 ten in which the simple predicate is modified by an adverbial clause4 #b4 ,tell the construction 7as subject1 predicate nominative1 object1 etc47 of each noun clause in #cib4 ,mention the simple subject and predicate of each clause4 ,,exercise #dh 7 #cie-djb1 pp4 #afc-afe7 #a4 ,tell whether each of the subordinate clauses expresses place1 time1 cause1 or concession4 ,is the clause adjective or adverbial8 ,what introduces it8 ,what does it modify8 #a4 ,though often misled by prejudice and passion1 he was emphatically an honest man4 #b4 ,when a prisoner first leaves his cell1 he cannot bear the light of day4 #c4 ,as ,i walked through the wilderness of this world1 ,i lighted on a certain place where was a den4--,,bunyan4 #d4 ,he postponed his final decision till after the ,parliament should have reassembled4 #e4 ,they gave a dismal croak or two1 and hopped aside into the darkest corner1 since it was not yet their hour to flap duskily abroad4 #f4 ,calmly and sadly she waited1 until the procession approached her4 #g4 ,half the task was not done when the sun went down4 #h4 ,however ,i might be disposed to trust his probity1 ,i dare not trust his prejudices4 #i4 ,after a little more conversation we strolled to the stable1 where my horse was standing4 #aj4 ,as we approached the house1 we heard the sound of music1 and now and then a burst of laughter4 #aa4 ,his face was not cruel1 though it was desperate4 #ab4 ,we again set out for the hut1 at which we deposited our golden burdens4 #ac4 ,it will be midnight before we arrive at our inn4 #ad4 ,though ,i was not particularly well supplied with money1 ,i had enough for the expenses of my journey4 #ae4 ,the day1 though it began brightly1 had long been overcast4 #af4 ,as there were no men in the company1 the girls danced with each other4 #ag4 ,although without fear1 ,i did not neglect to use all proper precautions4 #ah4 ,when ,i return1 ,i shall find things settled4 #ai4 ,clifford1 as the company partook of their little banquet1 grew to be the gayest of them all4 #bj4 ,the mill where ,will lived with his adopted parents stood in a falling valley between pinewoods and great mountains4 #ba4 ,as ,ichabod approached this fearful tree1 he began to whistle4 #bb4 ,infected be the air whereon they ride6--,,shakspere4 #bc4 ,so they were forced to go1 because he was stronger than they4 #bd4 ,since you will not help me1 ,i must trust to myself4 #be4 ,when they beheld his face1 they recognized ,basil the blacksmith4 #bf4 ,this is the third day since we came to ,rome4 #bg4 ,amsterdam was the place where the leading ,scotch and ,english assembled4 #bh4 ,these considerations might well have made ,william uneasy1 even if all the military means of the ,united ,provinces had been at his absolute disposal4 #bi4 ,although the breeze had now utterly ceased1 we had made a great deal of way during the night4 #b4 ,illustrate clauses of place1 time1 cause1 and concession1 by constructing twenty sentences1 five for each4 #c4 ,tell whether the clauses are adjective or adverbial4 ,what does each modify8 #d4 ,see if you can replace your clauses of time by participles or adverbial phrases4 ,,exercise #di 7 #djc-daj1 pp4 #aff-afg7 #a4 ,point out the clauses of purpose and those of result4 #a4 ,the weather was so bad ,i could not embark that night4 #b4 ,she opened the casement that the cool air might blow upon her throbbing temples4 #c4 ,so intent were the servants upon their sports1 that we had to ring repeatedly before we could make ourselves heard4 #d4 ,the consequence was that1 according to the rules of the ,house1 the amendment was lost4 #e4 ,therefore ,i am going this way1 as ,i told you1 that ,i may be rid of my burden4 #f4 ,tess's friends lived so far off that none could conveniently have been present at the ceremony4 #g4 ,sometimes ,i was afraid lest ,i should be charged with ingratitude4 #h4 ,there is such an echo among the old ruins and vaults that1 if you stamp but a little louder than ordinary1 you hear the sound repeated4--,,addison4 #i4 ,they durst not speak without premeditation1 lest they should be convicted of discontent or sorrow4 #aj4 ,my purpose was1 to admit no testimony of living authors1 that ,i might not be misled by partiality1 and that none of my contemporaries might have reason to complain4--,,johnson4 #aa4 ,it is ,king ,richard's pleasure that you die undegraded4 #b4 ,write five sentences containing each a clause of purpose2 of result2 an infinitive clause expressing purpose4 #c4 ,write ten sentences in which the infinitive 7without a subject7 expresses purpose4 #d4 ,review ,exercise #dj4 ,,exercise #ej 7 #daa-dbg1 pp4 #afg-agb7 #a4 ,tell whether the conditional clauses in the following sentences are non-committal or contrary to fact1 and whether they represent present1 past1 or future condition4 #a4 ,should ,hayley be with you1 tell him ,i have given my friend ,mr4 ,rose an introductory letter to him4 #b4 ,if the judgment against him was illegal1 it ought to have been reversed4 ,if it was legal1 there was no ground for remitting any part of it4 #c4 ,if ,i ever saw horror in the human face1 it was there4 #d4 ,his affliction would have been insupportable1 had not he been comforted by the daily visits and conversations of his friend4 #e4 ,we perish if they hear a shot4--,,scott4 #f4 ,can ,freedom breathe if ,ignorance reign8--,,holmes4 #g4 ,if power be in the hands of men1 it will sometimes be abused4 #h4 ,if hopes were dupes1 fears may be liars4--,,clough4 #i4 ,if you write to ,moore1 will you tell him that ,i shall answer his letter the moment ,i can muster time and spirits8 #aj4 ,if you have any good news to tell1 it will not be unwelcome2 if any bad1 you need not be afraid4 #aa4 ,i feel quite as much bored with this foolery as it deserves1 and more than ,i should be1 if ,i had not a headache4 #ab4 ,will you let me offer you this little book8 ,if ,i had anything better1 it should be yours4 #ac4 ,i shall hope1 if we can agree as to dates1 to come to you sometime in ,may4 #ad4 ,if ,i could only get to work1 we could live here with comfort4 #ae4 ,if he had been left to himself1 he would have whistled life away in perfect contentment4 #af4 ,if this frolic should lay me up with a fit of rheumatism1 ,i shall have a blessed time with ,dame ,van ,winkle4 #ag4 ,i know that two and two make four1 and should be glad to prove it1 if ,i could1--though1 ,i must say1 if by any sort of process ,i could convert two and two into five1 it would give me much greater pleasure4--,,byron4 #ah4 ,i would not say this if ,i could help it4 #ai4 ,if you are disposed to write--write2 and if not1 ,i shall forgive your silence1 and you will not quarrel with mine4 #bj4 ,had not exercise been absolutely necessary for our well-being1 nature would not have made the body so proper for it4--,,addison4 #ba4 ,nothing will ever be attempted1 if all possible objections must first be overcome4--,,johnson4 #bb4 ,if fashion gives the word1 every distinction of beauty1 complexion1 or stature ceases4--,,goldsmith4 #b4 ,write twenty sentences1 each containing a conditional clause4 ,tell whether each condition refers to present1 past1 or future time4 ,which of them are contrary to fact8 ,,exercise #ea 7 #dbh-dbi1 p4 #agc7 #a4 ,point out the clauses of comparison and explain such forms of verbs or pronouns as may require comment4 #a4 ,dull as a flower without the sun1 he sat down upon a stone4 #b4 ,he sighed as if he would break his heart4 #c4 ,the modern steamship advances upon a still and overshadowed sea with a pulsating tremor of her frame1 an occasional clang in her depths1 as if she had an iron heart in her iron body4--,,conrad4 #d4 ,it would have been as difficult1 however1 to follow up the stream of ,donatello's ancestry to its dim source1 as travellers have found it to reach the mysterious fountains of the ,nile4 #e4 ,i will become as liberal as you4 #f4 ,the triumph was as destructive to the victorious as to the vanquished4 #g4 ,the public conduct of ,milton must be approved or condemned1 according as the resistance of the people to ,charles the ,first shall appear to be justifiable or criminal4 #h4 ,there was no one in all ,clavering who read so many novels as ,madame ,fribsby4 #i4 ,no kind of power is more formidable than the power of making men ridiculous4--,,macaulay4 #aj4 ,the leader of the orchestra was sawing away at his violin as savagely as if he were calling on his company to rush up and seize a battery of guns4--,,black4 #aa4 ,he shouts as if he were trying his voice against a northwest gale of wind4 #ab4 ,the playground seemed smaller than when ,i used to sport about it4 #ac4 ,the blood in me ran cold1 and ,i drew in my breath as if ,i had been struck4 #ad4 ,there are few things more formidable than the unwonted anger of a good-natured man4--,,miller4 #ae4 ,nor was ,lochiel less distinguished by intellectual than by bodily vigor4 #af4 ,he showed less wisdom than virtue4 #ag4 ,he was as courageous an animal as ever scoured the woods4 #ah4 ,as fierce a beak and talon as ever struck--as strong a wing as ever beat1 belonged to ,swift4--,,thackeray4 #ai4 ,homer's description of war had as much truth as poetry requires4--,,macaulay4 #bj4 ,of all the objects ,i have ever seen1 there is none which affects my imagination so much as the sea4--,,addison4 #ba4 8,somebody must go10 murmured ,mrs4 ,heathcliff1 more kindly than ,i expected4 #bb4 ,we do not so often disappoint others as ourselves4--,,johnson4 #bc4 ,the battle raged as fiercely on the lake as on the land4 #bd4 ,the young man looked down on me from the corner of his eyes1 for all the world as if there were some mortal feud unavenged between us4--,e4 ,,bront4 #b4 ,write ten sentences containing as if with a subjunctive4 #c4 ,insert personal pronouns of the first or third person4 #a4 ,you are much stronger than ----4 #b4 ,your anger hurts yourself more than it hurts ----4 #c4 ,you are not so studious as ----4 #d4 ,he was quite as much to blame as ----4 #e4 ,i blame myself rather than ----4 #f4 ,you should rather blame yourself than ----4 #g4 ,how much older are you than ----8 #h4 ,is ,jack more ambitious than ----8 #i4 ,do you wish to please yourself more than ----8 #aj4 ,your conduct was less censurable than ----4 ,,exercise #eb 7 #dcj-dcf1 pp4 #agc-agf7 #a4 ,change the direct statements to indirect discourse1 prefixing ,he said4 ,thus1-- ,supper was announced shortly after my arrival4 ,he said that supper was announced shortly after his arrival4 ,be careful to make the proper changes in person and tense4 #a4 ,supper was announced shortly after my arrival4 #b4 ,misery loves company4 #c4 ,iron floats in mercury4 #d4 ,the grime and sordidness of the ,house of the ,seven ,gables seem to have vanished4 #e4 ,nothing is to be seen4 #f4 ,straws show which way the wind blows4 #g4 ,i remained undecided whether or not to follow my servant4 #h4 ,rest of mind and body seems to have restablished my health4 #i4 ,the fortifications consist of a simple wall overgrown with grass and weeds4 #aj4 ,fire is a good servant but a bad master4 #aa4 ,not a cheer was heard2 not a member ventured to second the motion4 #ab4 ,the most rigid discipline is maintained4 #ac4 ,without our consent1 such an expedition cannot legally be undertaken4 #ad4 ,the newspapers will happily save me the trouble of relating minute particulars4 #ae4 ,the ringing of bells is at an end2 the rumbling of the carriages has ceased2 the pattering of feet is heard no more4 #af4 ,my mind has been much disturbed1 and too agitated for conversation4 #ag4 ,while all this is taking place within the ,towers1 vast bodies of people are assembling without4 #ah4 ,the spelling and handwriting are those of a man imperfectly educated4 #ai4 ,i have an unconquerable repugnance to return to my chamber4 #bj4 ,i like to see a man know his own mind4 #b4 ,change into a direct statement each clause that is in the indirect discourse4 ,mention the construction of the clause 7as subject1 object1 etc474 #a4 ,the booming of a gun told them that the last yacht had rounded the lightship4 #b4 ,all of a sudden she thought she heard something move behind her4 #c4 ,though they spoke ,french fluently1 ,i perceived that it was not their native language4 #d4 ,i soon found that1 in making the acquaintance of the young man1 ,i had indeed made a valuable acquisition4 #e4 ,i thanked him1 but said that ,dr4 ,johnson had come with me from ,london1 and ,i must return to the inn and drink tea with him2 that my name was ,boswell1 and ,i had travelled with him in the ,hebrides4 #f4 ,i discovered that he was wonderfully fond of interfering with other people's business4 #g4 ,i had heard that he had been unhappy1 that he had roamed about1 a fevered1 distempered man1 taking pleasure in nothing4 #h4 ,i had observed that the old woman for some time past had shown much less anxiety about the book4 #i4 ,i learned that times had gone hard with her4 #aj4 ,i perceived that the objects which had excited my curiosity were not trees1 but immense upright stones4 #aa4 ,that no man can legally promise what he cannot legally perform is a self-evident proposition4--,,mackintosh4 #ab4 ,that there are some duties superior to others will be denied by no one4 #ac4 ,it can hardly be doubted that the highest obligation of a citizen is that of contributing to preserve the community4 #ad4 ,reports had been brought back that six ,christians were lingering in captivity in the interior of the country4 #ae4 ,if it be true that1 by giving our confidence by halves1 we can scarcely hope to make a friend1 it is equally true that1 by withdrawing it when given1 we shall make an enemy4--,,prescott4 #af4 ,he concluded with the assurance that the whole fleet would sail on the following day4 #ag4 ,pen protested that he had not changed in the least4 #c4 ,write five sentences in which indirect discourse is expressed by an infinitive clause 7 #dce74 ,,exercise #ec 7 #dcf1 p4 #agf7 #a4 ,change each of the sentences quoted at the end of #dcf into one of the other two passive constructions described in that section4 #b4 ,write ten sentences in each of which a clause in the indirect discourse is the subject of a passive verb4 ,,exercise #ed 7 #dch-dci1 pp4 #agg-agh7 #a4 ,explain the use of shall1 should1 will1 or would in each instance4 ,change the indirect discourse to the direct4 #a4 ,i believe ,i should like to live in a small house just outside a pleasant ,english town all the days of my life4--,,fitz ,,gerald4 #b4 ,the sultan said he would oblige us with donkeys or anything else if we would only give him a few more pretty cloths4--,,speke4 #c4 ,i think that ,i should like it to be always summer4 #d4 ,he often told his friends afterwards1 that unless he had found out this piece of exercise1 he verily believed he should have lost his senses4--,,addison4 #e4 ,do you remember once saying to me that you hoped you should never leave ,brentham8 #f4 ,i knew that he would not have accepted office in #ahda-ahdb if he could have avoided it4 #g4 ,promise you will give him this little book of drawings4 #h4 ,i have often thought that there has rarely passed a life of which a judicious and faithful narrative would not be useful4--,,johnson4 #i4 ,she said1 very quietly1 that she wished to speak to him after breakfast1 and that he would find her in her sitting room4 #aj4 ,lady ,annabel had promised the children that they should some day ride together to ,marringhurst4 #aa4 ,one of them told us that he would make us a canoe4 #ab4 ,promise1 ,marion--pray promise you will not even mention my name to him when you write next4 #ac4 ,he felt that no argument of his would be of any use4 #ad4 ,i know very well that ,i shall sign my own death warrant on the day when ,i retire from business4 #ae4 ,she knew very well now that ,grandcourt would not go without her2 but if he must tyrannize over her1 he should not do it precisely in the way he would choose4 ,she would oblige him to stay in the hotel4 #af4 ,they were afraid that they should not long be able to put him off with promises4 #ag4 ,bungay replied that he should be happy to have dealings with ,mr4 ,pendennis4 #b4 ,fill the blanks with the proper auxiliary 7shall or should1 or will or would74 #a4 ,your father said that he ---- be glad to see me4 #b4 ,i told him that ,i ---- be obliged to dismiss him4 #c4 ,i wrote that we ---- gladly accept his invitation4 #d4 ,my friends believed that ,i ---- not be willing to go4 #e4 ,robert thinks that he ---- have to work evenings4 #f4 ,robert says that ,i ---- have to work evenings4 #g4 ,they say that ,robert ---- work evenings1 although he ought not4 #h4 ,i promised that ,robert ---- not work evenings4 #i4 ,i told ,mary that ,i was sure she ---- succeed4 #aj4 ,mary said she had no doubt that ,i ---- succeed4 #aa4 ,mary will say that she has no doubt ,i ---- succeed4 #ab4 ,i repeat that ,i have no doubt you ---- succeed4 #ac4 ,he declared that you ---- go1 even against your will4 #ad4 ,the report is that we ---- dissolve partnership4 #c4 ,change the indirect statements in the sentences which you have just made to direct statements4 ,,exercise #ee 7 #ddj-dde1 pp4 #agi-aha7 #a4 ,some1 but not all1 of the following sentences contain indirect questions4 ,point out these questions and tell what introduces them 7interrogative pronoun1 interrogative adverb1 subordinate conjunction74 ,mention the construction of each interrogative clause 7as subject1 object1 etc474 #b4 ,turn each indirect question into a direct question4 #c4 ,point out such relative clauses as you find in the sentences4 ,are they adjective or adverbial modifiers8 #a4 ,warrington did not know what his comrade's means were4 #b4 ,he could scarcely tell whether she was imbued with sunshine1 or whether it was a glow of happiness that shone out of her4 #c4 ,i started the question whether duelling was consistent with moral duty4--,,boswell4 #d4 ,the pilgrims then began to inquire if there was no other way to the gate4 #e4 ,he knew not what to make of the letter4 #f4 ,i hardly heard what he said4 #g4 ,every one knows practically what are the constituents of health or of virtue4--,,newman4 #h4 ,think calmly over what ,i have written4 #i4 ,then she asked him whence he was and whither he was going2 and he told her4 #aj4 ,what to expect1 he knew not4 #aa4 ,theseus wondered what this immense giant could be4 #ab4 ,hack says it was ,mrs4 ,bungay who caused all the mischief4 #ac4 ,the question was how best to extricate the army from its perilous position4 #ad4 ,addison was a delightful companion when he was at his ease4 #ae4 ,i doubt whether the wisest of us know what our own motives are4 #af4 ,i puzzled my head for some time to find out which of the two cases was the more applicable4 #ag4 ,i returned to the studies which ,i had neglected4 #ah4 ,i cannot tell how ,i dared to say what ,i did4 #ai4 ,how long he slept he could not say4 #bj4 ,fanny1 in dismay at such an unprecedented question1 did not know which way to look1 or how to be prepared for an answer4--,,miss ,,austen4 #ba4 ,what my course of life will be when ,i return to ,england is very doubtful4 #bb4 ,i cannot tell you how vaingloriously ,i walked the streets4 #bc4 ,then ,i told what a tall1 upright1 graceful person their great-grandmother ,field once was4 #bd4 ,when the bean-vines began to flower on the poles1 there was one particular variety which bore a vivid scarlet blossom4 #be4 ,i know not which way ,i must look4 #bf4 ,why she submitted1 ,mrs4 ,turpin could not have told you4 #bg4 ,i began to become conscious what a strange den that sanctum was4 #bh4 ,how ,ferguson escaped1 was1 and still is1 a mystery4 #bi4 ,how far he felt the force of this obligation will appear in the sequel4 #d4 ,write sentences containing indirect questions introduced by who1 which1 what1 when1 how1 why1 whether1 if4 #e4 ,fill the blanks with who or whom4 ,tell1 in each sentence1 whether who or whom is an interrogative or a relative pronoun4 #a4 ,i know ---- it was that broke the window4 #b4 ,i know ---- it was that you saw4 #c4 ,i know ---- you saw4 #d4 ,i know the person ---- you saw4 #e4 ,i asked if the man ---- we saw was ,douglas4 #f4 ,i asked if the boy ---- broke the window was ,archer4 #g4 ,i know ---- it was you overheard4 #h4 ,tell me ---- it is that ,i resemble4 #i4 ,tell me ---- ,i resemble4 #aj4 ,tell me ---- you think ,i resemble4 #aa4 ,tell me if ,i resemble anybody ---- you know4 #f4 ,turn all the indirect questions which you have just written into direct questions4 #g4 ,construct sentences in which each of the verbs 7or verb-phrases7 is followed by an indirect question3-- asked1 tell1 inquire1 is learning1 see1 might discover1 had heard1 have found1 doubt1 have perceived1 is thinking1 wonders1 knew1 was told1 understands1 to comprehend1 is1 could ascertain1 has reported1 will announce4 ,,exercise #ef 7 #ddg1 p4 #ahb7 #a4 ,turn each indirect question into the direct form4 ,explain the use of shall1 should1 will1 would4 #a4 8,i doubt10 said ,donatello1 8whether they will remember my voice now40 #b4 ,i did not know whether to resent his language or pursue my explanations4 #c4 ,i clambered to its apex1 and then felt much at a loss as to what should be next done4 #d4 ,how we shall live ,i cannot imagine4 #e4 ,when ,i shall get to town ,i cannot divine1 but it will be between this and ,christmas4 #f4 ,i scarcely know which of us three would be the sorriest4 #g4 ,i can feel for you1 because ,i know what ,i should feel in the same situation4 #h4 ,let us see if she will know you4 #i4 ,i wonder how you will answer me a year hence4 #aj4 ,i asked if ,georgiana would accompany her4 #aa4 ,you must see the carriage1 ,jane1 and tell me if you don't think it will suit ,mrs4 ,rochester exactly1 and whether she won't look like ,queen ,boadicea1 leaning back against those purple cushions4--,c4 ,,bront4 #ab4 ,catherine had no idea why her father should be crosser or less patient in his ailing condition than he was in his prime4 #ac4 ,mr4 ,hindley will have to proceed to extremities1--see if he won't6 #b4 ,fill the blanks with the proper auxiliary 7shall1 should1 will1 would74 ,then change each indirect question to the direct form4 #a4 ,tom asked me if ,i ---- like to go with him4 #b4 ,they inquired whether ,i ---- prefer to go or to stay4 #c4 ,she asked me if ,i ---- help her4 #d4 ,tell me whether he ---- consent or not4 #e4 ,he wishes to know if you ---- recommend him4 #f4 ,i was in doubt whether ,i ---- succeed or fail4 #g4 ,i do not know whether you ---- find her at home or at her uncle's4 #h4 ,he is in doubt whether or not he ---- get the appointment4 #i4 ,we think we ---- like to sail on the twentieth4 #aj4 ,he thinks he ---- like to be a farmer4 ,,exercise #eg 7 #ddh-dec1 pp4 #ahc-ahf7 #a4 ,mention the substantives that make up the compound subjects and the verbs that make up the compound predicates in #dej2 in ,exercise #d4 #b4 ,see if you can make any of the sentences compound by inserting personal pronouns as subjects4 #c4 ,divide each compound sentence in #deb and in ,exercise #f into the independent cordinate clauses that compose it4 #d4 ,make each sentence in #dej complex by inserting or adding a subordinate clause4 ,is your clause adjective or adverbial8 ,what does it modify8 #e4 ,divide each complex sentence in ,exercises #ag1 #be1 #ci 7#b71 #dh-ea1 into the independent 7main7 clause and the subordinate clause4 ,,exercise #eh 7 #deh-dfa1 pp4 #ahh-aij7 #a4 ,analyze 7according to the directions in #deh-dfa7 the simple sentences in ,exercise #a4 ,in analyzing1 describe each sentence as declarative1 interrogative1 etc4 ,if the sentence is imperative1 supply the subject4 #b4 ,analyze the compound and the complex sentences in ,exercises #f1 #ag1 #be1 #ci 7#b71 #dh-ea4 #c4 ,analyze the compound complex sentences in #def-deg1 #eae4 ,,exercise #ei 7 #dfb-dgc1 pp4 #aia-aif7 #a4 ,point out the adjectives used as modifiers of the subject4 ,substitute for each an adjective phrase2 an adjective clause 7 #dfg-dfh74 #a4 ,standing in the door was a tearful child4 #b4 ,a tall ,scot shut off my view4 #c4 ,an iron mask concealed the prisoner's face4 #d4 ,honorable men pay their debts4 #e4 ,a tumble-down shed stood in the hollow4 #f4 ,a three-cornered hat was cocked over one of his ears4 #g4 ,the ,american ,indians are becoming extinct4 #h4 ,an experienced stenographer should spell correctly4 #i4 ,a deep fosse or ditch was drawn round the whole building4 #aj4 ,the royal army was assembled at ,salisbury4 #aa4 ,the mid-day meal was excellent4 #ab4 ,the morning mist lies heavy upon yonder chain of islands4 #b4 ,construct sentences1 using the following adjective phrases as modifiers of the subject3-- of great height2 in a red hat2 with black hair2 from ,cairo2 to ,indianapolis2 from ,india2 with high gables2 of brilliant plumage2 on the rear platform2 in a state of intense agitation2 between the two ships2 over the mountain2 on the summit of the tower4 #c4 ,substitute 7if possible7 an adjective clause for each adjective phrase in the sentences you have just written4 #d4 ,point out all participles used as modifiers of the simple subject in ,exercise #db4 ,write ten sentences containing such modifiers 7 #dfi74 #e4 ,construct ten sentences similar to those in #dgj 7with infinitives modifying the simple subject74 #f4 ,write ten sentences containing nouns or pronouns in the possessive case used as modifiers of the subject 7 #dga74 #g4 ,write ten sentences containing nouns in apposition with the subject 7 #hh1 #e2 #dgb72 five in which a noun clause is thus used 7 #chf1 #dgc74 ,,exercise #fj 7 #dgd-dha1 pp4 #aif-aii7 #a4 ,point out all the adverbs used to modify the simple predicate4 ,substitute for each an adverbial phrase or clause4 #a4 ,the witness chose his words deliberately4 #b4 ,the old man moved slowly down the street4 #c4 ,i carefully avoided making that promise4 #d4 ,do not speak so loud4 #e4 ,i am eagerly looking forward to your visit4 #f4 ,that golf ball must have hit him hard4 #g4 ,allan has played in public twice4 #h4 ,i shall call you early4 #i4 ,we often see your eccentric friend4 #aj4 ,the priest shook his head doubtfully4 #aa4 ,your father barely escaped drowning4 #ab4 ,the next morning ,chester awoke late4 #ac4 ,the accident happened here4 #ad4 ,the captain had gone below4 #ae4 ,marion refuses to go by coach unless she can sit outside4 #af4 ,frank left home three years ago1 and has not been heard from since4 #ag4 ,look yonder and tell us where the path lies4 #ah4 ,we were then presented to ,governor ,gore4 #ai4 ,i have not been there since ,april4 #bj4 ,bruce was afterward ashamed of his discouragement4 #ba4 ,the sun will soon set4 #bb4 ,you are expected to arrive in good season hereafter4 #bc4 ,alice cannot spell correctly4 #bd4 ,the ,indian suddenly disappeared4 #be4 ,the girl laughed carelessly4 #bf4 ,the moose fell heavily to the earth4 #bg4 ,he passionately longs to see ,italy4 #bh4 ,all foreigners seem to speak rapidly4 #bi4 ,edith listened attentively4 #b4 ,write ten sentences in which the simple predicate is modified by an infinitive 7 #cbc1 #dgg72 by an adverbial objective or by a phrase containing one 7 #aji1 #dgh72 by a nominative absolute 7 #cde1 #dgi72 by an indirect object 7 #aje1 #dhj72 by a cognate object 7 #ajh1 #dha74 #c4 ,point out the complementary infinitives and the infinitives of purpose in ,exercise #dj1 and tell what verb each modifies4 ,,exercise #fa 7 #dhb-dic1 pp4 #bjj-bjd7 #a4 ,point out the complements and describe each 7as direct object1 predicate nominative1 etc474 ,analyze the sentences4 #a4 ,the most amazing wonder of the deep is its unfathomable cruelty4--,,conrad4 #b4 ,music is ,love in search of a word4--,,lanier4 #c4 ,the destination of the fleet was still a matter of conjecture4 #d4 ,the reports from the front made ,washington anxious4 #e4 ,plato says that the punishment which the wise suffer who refuse to take part in the government1 is1 to live under the government of worse men4--,,emerson4 #f4 ,i thought your book an imposture2 ,i think it an imposture still4--,,johnson4 #g4 ,moses chose able men out of all ,israel and made them heads over the people4 #h4 ,the old gray porter raised his torch4 #i4 ,this you will call impudence4 #aj4 ,firm and irrevocable is my doom4 #aa4 ,in return for mere board and lodging1 ,topham became ,mr4 ,starkey's assistant4 #ab4 ,it was they who attacked us4 #ac4 ,serene will be our days and bright4 #ad4 ,warwick thought the situation awkward1 but he held his peace4 #ae4 ,if there were not too great a risk of the dispersion of their fleet1 ,i should think their putting to sea a mere manuver to deceive4--,,irving4 #af4 ,i thought 8,aladdin0 capital fun4--,,stevenson4 #ag4 ,the faces of the father and mother had a sober gladness2 the children laughed2 the eldest daughter was the image of ,happiness at seventeen2 and the aged grandmother1 who sat knitting in the warmest place1 was the image of ,happiness grown old4 #ah4 ,his stories were what frightened people worst of all4 #ai4 ,the old man was nervous1 fidgety1 and very pale4 #bj4 ,i am growing old1 the grey hairs thicken upon me1 my joints are less supple1 and1 in mind as well as body1 ,i am less enterprising than in former years4--,,southey4 #ba4 ,i was uneasy about my letter4 #bb4 ,confidence is almost everything in war4 #bc4 ,he thinks me a troublesome fellow4 #bd4 ,at the end of this strange season1 ,burns gloomily sums up his gains and losses4 #be4 ,little fire grows great with little wind4--,,shakspere4 #bf4 ,as he rose to walk1 he found himself stiff in the joints4 #bg4 ,noise had been my native element4 #bh4 ,i caught tantalizing glimpses of green fields1 shut from me by dull lines of high-spiked palings4 #bi4 ,one house in a back street was bright with the cheerful glare of lights4 #b4 ,write ten simple sentences1 each containing the direct object of a verb2 a predicate objective2 a predicate nominative2 a predicate adjective4 ,analyze your sentences4 ,,exercise #fb 7 #did-dig1 pp4 #bje-bjf7 #a4 ,point out any modifiers of complements in the sentences called for in ,exercise #fa1 #b4 ,introduce other modifiers of complements if you can without injuring the sentences4 #b4 ,write sentences similar to those in #dib1 taking care to include in each a complement modified4 #c4 ,write ten sentences1 each containing a substantive complement modified by an adjective clause 7 #dif72 an adjective complement modified by an adverbial clause 7 #dig74 ,analyze your sentences4 #d4 ,point out all modifiers of complements in ,exercises #ab and #bb4 #e4 ,analyze the sentences in #die4 ,,exercise #fc 7 #dih-ejj1 pp4 #bjg-bjh7 #a4 ,write ten sentences illustrating adjectives 7or adjective phrases7 modified either by adverbs or by groups of words used adverbially4 #b4 ,write ten sentences1 each containing a possessive noun modified2 an appositive modified2 an adverbial phrase modified4 #c4 ,write ten sentences illustrating the use of adjective or adverbial clauses as modifiers of modifiers4 #d4 ,analyze the sentences in #dih4 ,,exercise #fd 7 #eja-ejc1 p4 #bji7 ,point out the independent elements4 ,tell whether each is an interjection1 a vocative 7nominative by direct address71 an exclamatory nominative1 or a parenthetical expression4 ,analyze the sentences4 #a4 ,the king1 ,melfort said1 was determined to be severe4 #b4 ,o ,mary1 go and call the cattle home4 #c4 ,pardon me1 my dear fellow4 #d4 ,between ourselves1 ,i shall not be sorry to have a quiet evening4 #e4 ,knowledge1 indeed1 and science express purely intellectual ideas4--,,newman4 #f4 ,oh6 oh6 pictures don't pay4 #g4 ,to make a long story short1 the company broke up4 #h4 ,true1 our friend is already in his teens4 #i4 ,to use a ready-made similitude1 we might liken universal history to a magic web4--,,carlyle4 #aj4 ,poor fellows6 they only did as they were ordered1 ,i suppose4 #aa4 ,the world1 as we said1 has been unjust to him4 #ab4 ,therefore1 good ,brutus1 be prepared to hear4 #ac4 ,peace6 count the clock4 #ad4 ,excuse1 no doubt1 is in readiness for such omission4 #ae4 ,the lord--for so ,i understood he was--looked at me with an air of surprise4 #af4 ,lo1 ,csar is afraid4 #ag4 ,delay not1 ,csar2 read it instantly4 #ah4 ,my counsel1 ,i need not say1 made full use of this hint4 #ai4 ,my small services1 you remember1 were of no use4 #bj4 ,i knew--one knows everything in dreams--that they had been slain4 #ba4 ,i knew it1 ,i say1 to be a fallacy4 #bb4 ,liberty6 freedom6 tyranny is dead6 #bc4 ,stay1 ho6 and let us hear ,mark ,antony4 ,,exercise #fe 7 #ejd-ebc1 pp4 #baj-bai7 #a4 ,analyze the simple sentences in #eji2 the compound sentences in #eaa2 the complex sentences in #eab2 the compound complex sentences in #ead-eae4 #b4 ,study the examples in #eag-ebc1 and explain their structure orally4 ,tell whether the various subordinate clauses are simple1 compound1 or complex1 and why4 ,give the construction of each4 ,analyze the sentences4 #c4 ,construct five complex sentences on the principle of #eag2 of #ebj2 of #eba2 of #ebb4 ,,exercise #ff 7 #ebd-ebf1 pp4 #bbj-bbc7 #a4 ,study the sentences in #ebe-ebf until you can explain their structure4 #b4 ,find1 in some good ,english or ,american author1 ten sentences of considerable length and explain their structure4 ,,exercise #fg 7 #ebg-ecc1 pp4 #bbd-bbf7 #a4 ,analyze the sentences in #ebh4 ,explain the ellipsis in each sentence4 #b4 ,supply the word or words omitted in each of the elliptical sentences in #ecc 7p4 #bbf74 ,explain the ellipsis in each sentence4 #c4 ,analyze the sentences in #ecc4 #d4 ,write five sentences illustrating each of the following kinds of ellipsis3--7#a7 the subject of an imperative2 7#b7 a relative pronoun2 7#c7 the conjunction that2 7#d7 the copula and its subject with while1 when1 though1 if2 7#e7 ellipsis in a clause with as or than4 ,,exercise #fh 7 #ddh-ebf1 pp4 #ahc-bbc7 ,the following compound1 complex1 and compound complex sentences will give further practice in analysis and in study of the relations of clauses4 #a4 ,deerslayer hesitated a single instant ere he plunged into the bushes4 #b4 ,the mind of man is like a clock that is always running down and requires to be as constantly wound up4--,,hazlitt4 #c4 ,he became sensible that his life was still in imminent peril4 #d4 ,a young author is apt to run into a confusion of mixed metaphors1 which leave the sense disjointed1 and distract the imagination4--,,goldsmith4 #e4 ,everybody kept his head as best he might and scrambled for whatever he could get4 #f4 ,the dialogue had been held in so very low a whisper that not a word of it had reached the young lady's ears4 #g4 ,the captain screwed his lips up1 and drummed on the table1 but he did not speak4 #h4 ,poor ,andrew ,fern had heard that his townsman's sloop had been captured by a privateer4 #i4 ,through the grounds we went1 and very pretty ,i thought them4 #aj4 ,he sometimes made doleful complaint that there were no stagecoaches1 nowadays4 #aa4 ,lights gleamed in the distance1 and people were already astir4 #ab4 ,that few men celebrated for theoretic wisdom live with conformity to their precepts1 must be readily confessed4--,,johnson4 #ac4 ,down went ,pew with a cry that rang high into the night4 #ad4 ,pluck the dog off1 lest he throttle him4 #ae4 ,i knew that the worst of men have their good points4 #af4 ,a rumor spread that the enemy was approaching in great force4 #ag4 ,mr4 ,henry went and walked at the low end of the hall without reply2 for he had an excellent gift of silence4 #ah4 ,it is a bright brisk morning1 and the loaded wagons are rolling cheerfully past my window4 #ai4 ,the musician was an old gray-headed negro1 who had been the itinerant orchestra of the neighborhood for more than half a century4 #bj4 ,after he had waited three hours1 the general's patience was exhausted1 and1 as he learned that the ,mexicans were busy in preparations for defence1 he made immediate dispositions for the assault4--,,prescott4 #ba4 ,as ,i rode along near the coast1 ,i kept a very sharp lookout in the lanes and woods4 #bb4 ,every man desires to live long1 but no man would be old4--,,swift4 #bc4 ,if my face had been pale the moment before1 it now glowed almost to burning4 #bd4 ,the sentinels who paced the ramparts announced that the vanguard of the hostile army was in sight4 #be4 ,her heart was happy and her courage rose4 #bf4 ,there is a report that ,clifford is to be secretary4 #bg4 ,the season of winter1 when1 from the shortness of the daylight1 labor becomes impossible1 is in ,zetland the time of revel1 feasting1 and merriment4 #bh4 ,every log which is carried past us by the current has come from an undiscovered country4 #bi4 ,the fair heavens shone over the windy blue seas1 and the green island of ,ulva lay basking in the sunlight4 #cj4 ,the greatest event was1 that the ,miss ,jenkynses had purchased a new carpet for the drawing room4 #ca4 ,my grandfather made a bow to the motley assemblage as he entered4 #cb4 ,talk to a man about himself1 and he is generally captivated4 #cc4 ,pen was as elated as if somebody had left him a fortune4 #cd4 ,when the morning dawned1 the king gazed with admiration at the city1 which he hoped soon to add to his dominions4--,,irving4 #ce4 ,no one doubts that the sloth and the ant-eater1 the kangaroo and the opossum1 the tiger and the badger1 the tapir and the rhinoceros1 are respectively members of the same orders4--,,huxley4 #cf4 ,the traveller1 a man of middle age1 wrapped in a gray frieze cloak1 quickened his pace when he had reached the outskirts of the town1 for a gloomy extent of nearly four miles lay between him and his home4 #cg4 ,it was a scene on which ,i had often looked down1 but where ,i had never before beheld a human figure4 #ch4 ,he found that he had undertaken a task which was beyond his power4 #ci4 ,in the ,dutch garden is a fine bronze bust of ,napoleon1 which ,lord ,holland put up in #ahag1 while ,napoleon was a prisoner at ,saint ,helena4 #dj4 ,the girl's was not one of those natures which are most attracted by what is strange and exceptional in human character4 #da4 ,mrs4 ,pendennis was sure that he would lead her dear boy into mischief1 if ,pen went to the same college with him4 #db4 ,i had been some time at sea before ,i became aware of the fact that hearing plays a perceptible part in gauging the force of the wind4 #dc4 ,the ,macedonian conqueror1 when he was once invited to hear a man that sang like a nightingale1 replied with contempt1 that he had heard the nightingale herself2 and the same treatment must every man expect1 whose praise is that he imitates another4--,,johnson4 #dd4 ,tie a couple of strings across a board and set it in your window1 and you have an instrument which no artist's harp can rival4--,,emerson4 #de4 ,i was on the point of asking what part of the country he had chosen for his retreat4 #df4 ,that no man can lawfully promise what he cannot lawfully do is a self-evident proposition4--,,mackintosh4 #dg4 ,how far the governor contributed towards the expenses of the outfit is not very clear4 #dh4 ,the next epoch in the history of ,russia was that of ,peter the ,great1 whose genius overcame the obstacles consequent on the remoteness of its situation1 and opened to its people the career of ,european industry1 arts1 and arms4--,,alison4 #di4 ,as the chase lengthens1 the sportsmen drop off1 till at last the foremost huntsman is left alone1 and his horse1 overcome with fatigue1 stumbles and dies in a rocky valley4--,,jeffrey4 #ej4 ,the ,lowland knight1 though startled1 repeats his defiance2 and ,sir ,roderick1 respecting his valor1 by a signal dismisses his men to their concealment1 and assures him anew of his safety4 #ea4 ,i stood awe-struck--,i cannot tell how long--watching how the live flame-snakes crept and hissed1 and leapt and roared1 and rushed in long horizontal jets from stack to stack before the howling wind1 and fastened their fiery talons on the barn-eaves1 and swept over the peaked roofs1 and hurled themselves in fiery flakes into the yard beyond4--,,kingsley4 #eb4 ,when ,i was at ,grand ,cairo1 ,i picked up several ,oriental manuscripts1 which ,i have still by me4--,,addison4 #ec4 ,often have ,i wondered at the temerity of my father1 who1 in spite of an habitual general respect which we all in common manifested towards him1 would venture now and then to stand up against him in some argument touching their youthful days4--,,lamb4 #ed4 ,by all means begin your folio2 even if the doctor does not give you a year1 even if he hesitates about a month1 make one brave push and see what can be accomplished in a week4--,,stevenson4 ,,appendix ,,lists ,,of ,,verbs ,in the first list1 only such verb forms are given as are indisputably correct in accordance with the best prose usage of the present day4 ,the pupil may feel perfectly safe1 therefore1 in using the forms registered in this list4#eb ,a few verbs 7marked 997 which are seldom or never used in ordinary language are included in this list4 ,these have various irregularities4 ,a few verbs are partly strong and partly weak4 ,weak verbs are printed in italics4 ,for the modal auxiliaries1 see page #bii4 ,i ,,present ,,tense ,,past ,,tense ,,past ,,participle abide abode abode am 7subjunc41 be7 was been arise arose arisen awake awoke1 awaked awaked bear bore borne1 born#ec beat beat beaten beget begot begotten begin began begun behold beheld beheld bend bent bent bereave bereft1 bereft1 bereaved bereaved#ed beseech besought besought bet bet bet bid 7command7 bade bidden bid 7money7 bid bid bind bound bound bite bit bitten bleed bled bled bless 7see p4 #bih7 blow blew blown break broke broken breed bred bred bring brought brought build built built burn 7see p4 #bih7 burst burst burst buy bought bought cast cast cast catch caught caught chide chid chidden choose chose chosen 99cleave 7split7#ee cleft1 clove cleft1 cleaved 7cloven1 adj47 cling clung clung come came come cost cost cost creep crept crept crow 7see p4 #bii7 curse 7see p4 #bih7 cut cut cut dare 7see p4 #bii7 deal dealt dealt dig dug dug do did done draw drew drawn dream 7see p4 #bih7 dress 7see p4 #bih7 drink drank drunk 7drunken1 adj47 drive drove driven dwell dwelt dwelt eat ate eaten engrave 7see p4 #bii7 fall fell fallen feed fed fed feel felt felt fight fought fought find found found flee fled fled fling flung flung fly flew flown forbear forbore forborne forget forgot forgotten forsake forsook forsaken freeze froze frozen freight 7see p4 #bii7 get got got#ef gird 7see p4 #bih7 give gave given go went gone grave 7see p4 #bii7 grind ground ground grow grew grown hang hung1 hanged#eg hung1 hanged#eg have had had hear heard heard heave hove1 heaved#eh hove1 heaved#eh hew hewed hewn hide hid hidden hit hit hit hold held held hurt hurt hurt keep kept kept kneel 7see p4 #bih7 knit 7see p4 #bih7 know knew known lade#ei laded laded1 laden lay laid laid lead led led learn 7see p4 #bih7 leave left left lend lent lent let let let lie 7recline7#fj lay lain light lighted lighted or lit#fa or lit#fa lose lost lost make made made mean meant meant meet met met mow 7see p4 #bii7 pay paid paid pen7shut up7 7see p4 #bih7 put put put quit 7see p4 #bih7 read rad rad 99reave reft1 reaved reft1 reaved reeve rove rove rend rent rent rid rid rid ride rode ridden ring rang rung rise rose risen 99rive rived riven1 rived run ran run say said said see saw seen seek sought sought 99seethe 7transitive7#fb sod1 seethed seethed 7sodden1 adj47 sell sold sold send sent sent set set set sew 7see p4 #bii7 shake shook shaken shape 7see p4 #bii7 shave shaved shaved 7shaven1 adj47 shear 7see p4 #bii7 shed shed shed shine shone shone shoe shod shod shoot shot shot show showed shown shred 7see p4 #bih7 shrink shrank shrunk 7shrunken1 adj47 99shrive shrove1 shrived shriven1 shrived shut shut shut sing sang sung sink sank sunk sit sat sat slay slew slain sleep slept slept slide slid slid1 slidden sling slung slung slink slunk slunk slit slit slit smell 7see p4 #bih7 smite smote smitten sow sowed sowed1 sown speak spoke spoken speed 7see p4 #bih7 spell 7see p4 #bii7 spend spent spent spill 7see p4 #bii7 spin spun spun spit spit spit split split split spoil 7see p4 #bii7 spread spread spread spring sprang sprung stand stood stood stave stove1 staved stove1 staved stay 7see p4 #bii7 steal stole stolen stick stuck stuck sting stung stung stink stunk stunk strew strewed strewn stride strode stridden strike struck struck 7stricken1 adj47#fc string strung strung strive strove striven swear swore sworn sweat 7see p4 #bii7 sweep swept swept swell swelled swelled1 swollen swim swam swum swing swung swung take took taken teach taught taught tear tore torn tell told told think thought thought thrive throve1 thrived thriven1 thrived throw threw thrown thrust thrust thrust tread trod trodden wake woke1 waked woke1 waked wax 7grow7 7see p4 #bii7 wear wore worn weave wove woven wed 7see p4 #bii7 weep wept wept wet wet wet win won won wind wound wound wring wrung wrung write wrote written ,bear1 break1 drive1 get 7beget1 forget71 speak1 spin1 stink1 swear1 tear1 have an archaic past tense in a3 bare1 brake1 drave1 gat1 spake1 etc4 ,beat1 beget 7forget71 bite1 break1 forsake1 hide1 ride1 shake1 speak1 weave1 write1 and some other verbs have archaic forms of the past participle like those of the past tense4 ,the participles in en1 however1 are now the accepted forms4 ,chid and trod are common participial forms4 ,begin1 drink1 ring1 shrink1 sing1 sink1 spring1 swim1 often have in poetry a u-form 7begun1 sung1 etc47 in the past tense as well as in the past participle4 ,this form 7though good old ,english7#fd should be avoided in modern speech4 ,bend1 beseech1 bet1 build1 burst1 catch1 dwell1 rend1 split1 wet1 have archaic or less usual forms in ed3 bended1 beseeched1 betted1 etc4 ,builded is common in the proverbial 8,he builded better than he knew40 ,bursted is common as an adjective3 8a bursted bubble40 ,bid1 8to command10 has sometimes bid in both the past tense and the past participle2 bid1 8to offer money10 has these forms regularly4 ,blend1 leap1 lean1 have usually blended1 leaped1 leaned2 but blent1 leapt1 leant are not uncommon4 ,clothe has commonly clothed2 but clad is common in literary use1 and is regular in the adjectives well-clad1 ill-clad 7for which ordinary speech has substituted well-dressed1 badly or poorly dressed74 ,dive has dived2 but dove 7an old form7 is common in ,america4 ,plead has past tense and past participle pleaded4 ,plead 7pronounced pld7 is avoided by careful writers and speakers4 ,prove has past tense and past participle proved4 ,the past participle proven should be avoided4 ,work has past tense and past participle worked4 ,wrought in the past tense and the past participle is archaic1 but is also modern as an adjective 7as in wrought iron74 ,some verbs have rare or archaic weak forms alongside of the strong forms2 thus digged1 shined1 past tense and past participle of dig1 shine2 showed1 past participle of show4 ,ate and eaten are preferred to eat 7pronounced t74 ,quoth1 8said10 is an old strong past tense4 ,the compound bequeath has bequeathed only4 ,miscellaneous archaisms are the past tenses sate for sat1 trode for trod1 spat for spit2 also writ for wrote and written1 rid for rode and ridden1 strewed and strown for strewn4 ,,ii ,the following verbs vary between ed and t 7d7 in the past tense and the past participle4 ,in some of them1 this variation is a mere difference of spelling4 ,in writing1 the ed forms are preferred in most cases2 in speaking1 the t forms are very common4 bless blessed1 blest#fe burn burned1 burnt#ff curse cursed1 curst#fe dare dared 7less commonly1 durst7 dream dreamed1 dreamt dress dressed1 drest gird girded1 girt#ff kneel kneeled1 knelt#ff knit knit1 knitted#ff learn learned1 learnt#fg pen 7shut up7 penned1 pent#ff quit quitted1 quit#ff shred shredded1 shred#ff smell smelled1 smelt#ff speed sped1 speeded#ff spell spelled1 spelt spill spilled1 spilt#ff spoil spoiled1 spoilt#ff stay stayed1 staid sweat sweated1 sweat#ff wed wedded 7p4p4 also wed7#ff ,,iii ,the following verbs have regular ed forms in modern prose1 but in poetry and the high style sometimes show archaic forms4 ,,present ,,tense ,,past ,,tense ,,past ,,participle crow crowed1 crew crowed1 crown freight freighted freighted1 fraught 7figurative7 grave graved graved1 graven engrave engraved engraved1 engraven mow mowed mowed1 mown sew sewed sewed1 sewn shape shaped shaped1 shapen shear sheared1 shore sheared1 shorn wax 7grow7 waxed waxed1 waxen ,,iv ,the present tense of may1 can1 shall1 is an old strong past4 ,hence the first and third persons singular are alike3--,i may1 he may4 ,the actual past tenses of these verbs are weak forms3--might1 could1 should4 ,must is the weak past tense of an obsolete mt1 and is almost always used as a present tense 7 #bib74 ,dare and owe originally belonged to this class4 ,owe has become a regular weak verb1 except for the peculiar past tense ought1 which is used in a present sense 7see #bic72 dare has in the third person dare or dares1 and in the past dared1 more rarely durst4 ,the archaic wot 8know10 past wist1 also belongs to this class4 ,will is inflected like shall1 having will in the first and third singular1 wilt in the second singular1 and would in the past4 ,,conjugation ,,of ,,the ,,verb ,,to ,,be ,,indicative ,,mood ,,present ,,tense ,,singular ,,plural #a4 ,i am4 ,we are4 #b4 ,thou art4 ,you are4 #c4 ,he is4 ,they are4 ,,past ,,tense #a4 ,i was4 ,we were4 #b4 ,thou wast 7wert74 ,you were4 #c4 ,he was4 ,they were4 ,,future ,,tense #a4 ,i shall be4 ,we shall be4 #b4 ,thou wilt be4 ,you will be4 #c4 ,he will be4 ,they will be4 ,,perfect 7,,or ,,present ,,perfect7 ,,tense #a4 ,i have been4 ,we have been4 #b4 ,thou hast been4 ,you have been4 #c4 ,he has been4 ,they have been4 ,,pluperfect 7,,or ,,past ,,perfect7 ,,tense #a4 ,i had been4 ,we had been4 #b4 ,thou hadst been4 ,you had been4 #c4 ,he had been4 ,they had been4 ,,future ,,perfect ,,tense #a4 ,i shall have been4 ,we shall have been4 #b4 ,thou wilt have been4 ,you will have been4 #c4 ,he will have been4 ,they will have been4 ,,subjunctive ,,mood ,,present ,,tense #a4 ,if ,i be4 ,if we be4 #b4 ,if thou be4 ,if you be4 #c4 ,if he be4 ,if they be4 ,,past ,,tense #a4 ,if ,i were4 ,if we were4 #b4 ,if thou wert4 ,if you were4 #c4 ,if he were4 ,if they were4 ,,perfect 7,,or ,,present ,,perfect7 ,,tense #a4 ,if ,i have been4 ,if we have been4 #b4 ,if thou have been4 ,if you have been4 #c4 ,if he have been4 ,if they have been4 ,,pluperfect 7,,or ,,past ,,perfect7 ,,tense #a4 ,if ,i had been4 ,if we had been4 #b4 ,if thou hadst been4 ,if you had been4 #c4 ,if he had been4 ,if they had been4 ,,imperative ,,mood4 ,present4 ,sing4 and ,pl4 ,be thou or you4 ,,infinitive4 ,present1 to be2 ,perfect1 to have been4 ,,participles4 ,present1 being2 ,past1 been2 ,perfect1 having been4 ,,conjugation ,,of ,,the ,,verb ,,to ,,strike ,,active ,,voice ,,indicative ,,mood ,,present ,,tense #a4 ,i strike4 ,we strike4 #b4 ,thou strikest4 ,you strike4 #c4 ,he strikes4 ,they strike4 ,,past ,,tense #a4 ,i struck4 ,we struck4 #b4 ,thou struckest4 ,you struck4 #c4 ,he struck4 ,they struck4 ,,future ,,tense #a4 ,i shall strike4 ,we shall strike4 #b4 ,thou wilt strike4 ,you will strike4 #c4 ,he will strike4 ,they will strike4 ,,perfect 7,,or ,,present ,,perfect7 ,,tense #a4 ,i have struck4 ,we have struck4 #b4 ,thou hast struck4 ,you have struck4 #c4 ,he has struck4 ,they have struck4 ,,pluperfect 7,,or ,,past ,,perfect7 ,,tense #a4 ,i had struck4 ,we had struck4 #b4 ,thou hadst struck4 ,you had struck4 #c4 ,he had struck4 ,they had struck4 ,,future ,,perfect ,,tense #a4 ,i shall have struck4 ,we shall have struck4 #b4 ,thou wilt have struck4 ,you will have struck4 #c4 ,he will have struck4 ,they will have struck4 ,,subjunctive ,,mood ,,present ,,tense #a4 ,if ,i strike4 ,if we strike4 #b4 ,if thou strike4 ,if you strike4 #c4 ,if he strike4 ,if they strike4 ,,past ,,tense #a4 ,if ,i struck4 ,if we struck4 #b4 ,if thou struck4 ,if you struck4 #c4 ,if he struck4 ,if they struck4 ,,perfect 7,,or ,,present ,,perfect7 ,,tense #a4 ,if ,i have struck4 ,if we have struck4 #b4 ,if thou have struck4 ,if you have struck4 #c4 ,if he have struck4 ,if they have struck4 ,,pluperfect 7,,or ,,past ,,perfect7 ,,tense #a4 ,if ,i had struck4 ,if we had struck4 #b4 ,if thou hadst struck4 ,if you had struck4 #c4 ,if he had struck4 ,if they had struck4 ,,imperative ,,mood4 ,present4 ,sing4 and ,pl4 ,strike thou or you4 ,,infinitive4 ,present1 to strike2 ,perfect1 to have struck4 ,,participle4 ,present1 striking2 ,past1 struck2 ,perfect1 having struck4 ,,passive ,,voice ,,indicative ,,mood ,,present ,,tense #a4 ,i am struck4 ,we are struck4 #b4 ,thou art struck4 ,you are struck4 #c4 ,he is struck4 ,they are struck4 ,,past ,,tense #a4 ,i was struck4 ,we were struck4 #b4 ,thou wast 7or wert7 struck4 ,you were struck4 #c4 ,he was struck4 ,they were struck4 ,,future ,,tense #a4 ,i shall be struck4 ,we shall be struck4 #b4 ,thou wilt be struck4 ,you will be struck4 #c4 ,he will be struck4 ,they will be struck4 ,,perfect 7,,or ,,present ,,perfect7 ,,tense #a4 ,i have been struck4 ,we have been struck4 #b4 ,thou hast been struck4 ,you have been struck4 #c4 ,he has been struck4 ,they have been struck4 ,,pluperfect 7,,or ,,past ,,perfect7 ,,tense #a4 ,i had been struck4 ,we had been struck4 #b4 ,thou hadst been struck4 ,you had been struck4 #c4 ,he had been struck4 ,they had been struck4 ,,future ,,perfect ,,tense #a4 ,i shall have been struck4 ,we shall have been struck4 #b4 ,thou wilt have been struck4 ,you will have been struck4 #c4 ,he will have been struck4 ,they will have been struck4 ,,subjunctive ,,mood ,,present ,,tense #a4 ,if ,i be struck4 ,if we be struck4 #b4 ,if thou be struck4 ,if you be struck4 #c4 ,if he be struck4 ,if they be struck4 ,,past ,,tense #a4 ,if ,i were struck4 ,if we were struck4 #b4 ,if thou wert struck4 ,if you were struck4 #c4 ,if he were struck4 ,if they were struck4 ,,perfect 7,,or ,,present ,,perfect7 ,,tense #a4 ,if ,i have been struck4 ,if we have been struck4 #b4 ,if thou have been struck4 ,if you have been struck4 #c4 ,if he have been struck4 ,if they have been struck4 ,,pluperfect 7,,or ,,past ,,perfect7 ,,tense #a4 ,if ,i had been struck4 ,if we had been struck4 #b4 ,if thou hadst been struck4 ,if you had been struck4 #c4 ,if he had been struck4 ,if they had been struck4 ,,imperative ,,mood4 ,present4 ,sing4 and ,pl4 ,be thou or you struck4 ,,infinitive4 ,present1 to be struck2 ,perfect1 to have been struck4 ,,participles4 ,present1 being struck2 ,past1 struck2 ,perfect1 having been struck4 ,,use ,,of ,,capital ,,letters #a4 ,every sentence begins with a capital letter4 #b4 ,every line of poetry begins with a capital letter4 #c4 ,the first word of every direct quotation begins with a capital letter4 ,,note4 ,this rule does not apply to quoted fragments of sentences4 #d4 ,every proper noun or abbreviation of a proper noun begins with a capital letter4 #e4 ,most adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with capital letters2 as1--,american1 ,indian1 ,swedish1 ,spenserian4 ,,note4 ,some adjectives derived from proper nouns have ceased to be closely associated in thought with the nouns from which they come1 and therefore begin with small letters4 ,thus1--voltaic1 galvanic1 mesmeric1 maudlin1 stentorian4 #f4 ,every title attached to the name of a person begins with a capital letter4 ,mr4 ,thomas ,smith ,john ,wilson1 ,esq4 ,miss ,allerton ,dr4 ,f4 ,e4 ,wilson ,c4 ,j4 ,adams1 ,m4,d4 ,president ,grant ,professor ,whitney ,sir ,walter ,raleigh #g4 ,in titles of books1 etc41 the first word1 as well as every important word that follows1 begins with a capital letter4 #h4 ,the interjection ,o and the pronoun ,i are always written in capital letters4 #i4 ,personal pronouns referring to the ,deity are often capitalized4 ,,note4 ,usage varies3 the personal pronouns are commonly capitalized when they refer to the ,deity1 the relatives less frequently4 ,the rule is often disregarded altogether when its observance would result in a multitude of capitals1 as in the ,bible and in many hymn books and works of theology4 #aj4 ,common nouns and adjectives often begin with capital letters when they designate the topics or main points of definitions or similar statements4 ,such capitals are called emphatic 7or topical7 capitals4 ,,note4 ,emphatic 7or topical7 capitals are analogous to capitals in the titles of books 7see ,rule #g71 but their use is not obligatory4 ,they are especially common in text-books and other elementary manuals4 ,,rules ,,of ,,punctuation#fh ,the common marks of punctuation are the period1 the interrogation point1 the exclamation point1 the comma1 the semicolon1 the colon1 the dash1 marks of parenthesis1 and quotation marks4 ,the hyphen and the apostrophe may be conveniently treated along with marks of punctuation4 ,i #a4 ,the period1 the interrogation point1 and the exclamation point are used at the end of sentences4 ,every complete sentence must be followed by one of these three marks4 ,the end of a declarative or an imperative sentence is marked by a period4 ,but a declarative or an imperative sentence that is likewise exclamatory may be followed by an exclamation point instead of a period4 ,the end of a direct question is marked by an interrogation point4 ,an exclamatory sentence in the form of an indirect question is followed by an exclamation point2 as1--8,how absolute the knave is60 #b4 ,a period is used after an abbreviation4 #c4 ,an exclamation point is used after an exclamatory word or phrase4 ,,note4 ,this rule is not absolute4 ,most interjections take the exclamation point4 ,with other words and with phrases1 usage differs2 if strong feeling is expressed1 the exclamation point is commonly used1 but too many such marks deface the page4 ,,ii ,the comma is used-- #a4 ,after a noun 7or a phrase7 of direct address 7a vocative nominative74 ,thus1-- ,john1 tell me the truth4 ,little boy1 what is your name8 ,,note4 ,if the noun is exclamatory1 an exclamation point may be used instead of a comma4 #b4 ,before a direct quotation in a sentence4 ,thus1-- ,the cry ran through the ranks1 8,are we never to move forward80 ,,note4 ,when the quotation is long or formal1 a colon1 or a colon and a dash1 may be used instead of a comma1 especially with the words as follows4 #c4 ,after a direct quotation when this is the subject or the object of a following verb4 ,thus1-- 8,they are coming2 the attack will be made on the center10 said ,lord ,fitzroy ,somerset4 8,i see it10 was the cool reply of the duke4 ,,note4 ,if the quotation ends with an interrogation point or an exclamation point1 no comma is used4 #d4 ,to separate words1 or groups of words1 arranged in a cordinate series1 when these are not connected by and1 or1 or nor4 ,if the conjunction is used to connect the last two members of the series but omitted with the others1 the comma may be used before the conjunction4 ,i found two saws1 an axe1 and a hammer4 ,they were so shy1 so subtle1 and so swift of foot1 that it was difficult to come at them4 ,it would make the reader pity me to tell what odd1 misshapen1 ugly things ,i made4 ,they groaned1 they stirred1 they all uprose4 ,,note #a4 ,commas may be used even when conjunctions are expressed1 if the members of the series consist of several words1 or if the writer wishes to emphasize their distinctness4 ,,note #b4 ,clauses in a series are commonly separated by semicolons unless they are short and simple 7see pp4 #cji-caj74 #e4 ,to set off words and phrases out of their regular order4 ,thus1-- ,seated on her accustomed chair1 with her usual air of apathy and want of interest in what surrounded her1 she seemed now and then mechanically to resume the motion of twirling her spindle4--,,scott4 #f4 ,to separate a long subject from the verb of the predicate4 ,thus1-- ,to have passed them over in an historical sketch of my literary life and opinions1 would have seemed to me like the denial of a debt4--,,coleridge4 #g4 ,to set off an appositive noun or an appositive adjective1 with its modifiers4 ,thus1-- ,i have had the most amusing letter from ,hogg1 the ,ettrick minstrel4 ,there was an impression upon the public mind1 natural enough from the continually augmenting velocity of the mail1 but quite erroneous1 that an outside seat on this class of carriages was a post of danger4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,,note #a4 ,many participial and other adjective phrases come under this head4 ,thus1-- ,the genius1 seeing me indulge myself on this melancholy prospect1 told me ,i had dwelt long enough upon it4--,,addison4 ,,note #b4 ,if a noun and its appositive are so closely connected as to form one idea1 no comma is used4 ,thus1-- ,my friend ,jackson lives in ,san ,francisco4 ,,note #c4 ,an intensive pronoun 7myself1 etc47 is not separated by a comma from the substantive which it emphasizes4 ,,note #d4 ,a series of words or phrases in apposition with a single substantive is sometimes set off1 as a whole1 by a comma and a dash4 #h4 ,to set off a subordinate clause1 especially one introduced by a descriptive relative4 ,thus1-- ,i am going to take a last dinner with a most agreeable family1 who have been my only neighbors ever since ,i have lived at ,weston4--,,cowper4 ,,note4 ,no comma is used before a restrictive relative4 ,thus1-- ,i want to know many things which only you can tell me4 ,perhaps ,i am the only man in ,england who can boast of such good fortune4 #i4 ,to set off a phrase containing a nominative absolute4 ,thus1-- ,they had some difficulty in passing the ferry at the riverside1 the ferryman being afraid of them4--,,defoe4 #aj4 ,to set off however1 nevertheless1 moreover1 etc41 and introductory phrases like in the first place1 on the one hand1 etc4 #aa4 ,to set off a parenthetical expression4 ,for this purpose commas1 dashes1 or marks of parenthesis may be used4 ,when the parenthetical matter is brief or closely related to the rest of the sentence1 it is generally set off by commas4 ,thus1-- ,i exercised a piece of hypocrisy for which1 ,i hope1 you will hold me excused4--,,thackeray4 ,when it is longer and more independent1 it is generally marked off by dashes1 or enclosed in marks of parenthesis4 ,the latter are less frequently used at present than formerly4 ,the connection of the mail with the state and the executive government--a connection obvious1 but yet not strictly defined--gave to the whole mail establishment an official grandeur4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,,note4 ,brackets are used to indicate insertions that are not part of the text4 ,,iii ,the clauses of a compound sentence may be separated by colons1 semicolons1 or commas4 #a4 ,the colon is used-- a4 ,to show that the second of two clauses repeats the substance of the first in another form1 or defines the first as an appositive defines a noun4 ,thus1-- ,this was the practice of the ,grecian stage4 ,but ,terence made an innovation in the ,roman3 all his plays have double actions4--,,dryden4 b4 ,to separate two groups of clauses one or both of which contain a semicolon4 ,thus1-- ,at that time1 news such as we had heard might have been long in penetrating so far into the recesses of the mountains2 but now1 as you know1 the approach is easy1 and the communication1 in summer time1 almost hourly3 nor is this strange1 for travellers after pleasure are become not less active1 and more numerous1 than those who formerly left their homes for purposes of gain4--,,wordsworth4 ,,note4 ,the colon is less used now than formerly4 ,the tendency is to use a semicolon or to begin a new sentence4 #b4 ,the semicolon is used when the clauses are of the same general nature and contribute to the same general effect1 especially if one or more of them contain commas4 ,thus1-- ,the sky was cloudless2 the sun shone out bright and warm2 the songs of birds1 and hum of myriads of summer insects filled the air2 and the cottage garden1 crowded with every rich and beautiful tint1 sparkled in the heavy dew like beds of glittering jewels4--,,dickens4 #c4 ,the comma may be used when the clauses are short and simple 7see p4 #cjg74 ,,note4 ,the choice between colon1 semicolon1 and comma is determined in many cases by the writer's feeling of the closer or the looser connection of the ideas expressed by the several clauses1 and is to some extent a matter of taste4 ,,iv #a4 ,in a complex sentence1 the dependent clause is generally separated from the main clause by a comma4 ,but when the dependent clause is short and the connection close1 the comma may be omitted4 ,,note4 ,a descriptive relative clause is preceded by a comma1 a restrictive relative clause is not 7see p4 #gj74 #b4 ,the clauses of a series1 when in the same dependent construction1 are often separated by semicolons to give more emphasis to each4 ,thus1-- ,mrs4 ,battle was none of your lukewarm gamesters1 your half-and-half players1 who have no objection to take a hand if you want one to make up a rubber2 who affirm that they have no pleasure in winning2 that they like to win one game and lose another2 that they can while away an hour very agreeably at a card table1 but are indifferent whether they play or no2 and will desire an adversary who has slipped a wrong card1 to take it up and play another4--,,lamb4 ,v #a4 ,a direct quotation is enclosed in quotation marks4 ,,note4 ,if the quotation stands by itself and is printed in different type1 the marks may be omitted4 #b4 ,a quotation within a quotation is usually enclosed in single quotation marks4 #c4 ,in a quotation consisting of several paragraphs1 quotation marks are put at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end of the last4 ,,note4 ,for the punctuation before a quotation1 see p4 #cjg4 #d4 ,when a book1 poem1 or the like1 is referred to1 the title may be enclosed in quotation marks or italicized4 ,,vi #a4 ,sudden changes in thought and feeling or breaks in speech are indicated by dashes4 ,thus1-- ,eh6--what--why--upon my life1 and so it is--,charley1 my boy1 so it's you1 is it8--,,lever4 #b4 ,parenthetical expressions may be set off by dashes 7see p4 #cjh74 #c4 ,a colon1 or colon and dash1 may precede an enumeration1 a direct quotation1 or a statement formally introduced1--especially with as follows1 namely1 and the like4 ,before an enumeration a comma and a dash may be used4 ,thus1-- ,there are eight parts of speech3--nouns1 pronouns1 adjectives1 verbs1 adverbs1 prepositions1 conjunctions1 and interjections4 ,,or-- ,there are eight parts of speech1--nouns1 pronouns1 etc4 #d4 ,the dash is sometimes used to strengthen a comma 7as in the last paragraph but one74 ,,vii #a4 ,the apostrophe is used-- a4 ,to mark the omission of a letter or letters in contractions4 b4 ,as a sign of the possessive or genitive4 c4 ,to indicate the plural of letters1 signs1 etc4 #b4 ,the hyphen is used-- a4 ,when the parts of a word are separated in writing4 b4 ,between the parts of some compound words4 7,see the dictionary in each case47 ,,rules ,,of ,,syntax #a4 ,the subject of a verb is in the nominative case 7p4 #da74 #b4 ,a substantive standing in the predicate1 but describing or defining the subject1 agrees with the subject in case and is called a predicate nominative 7p4 #da74 #c4 ,a substantive used for the purpose of addressing a person directly1 and not connected with any verb1 is called a vocative4 ,a vocative is in the nominative case1 and is often called a nominative by direct address or a vocative nominative 7p4 #db74 #d4 ,a substantive used as an exclamation is called an exclamatory nominative or a nominative of exclamation 7p4 #db74 #e4 ,a substantive1 with a participle1 may express the cause1 time1 or circumstances of an action4 ,this is called the absolute construction4 ,the substantive is in the nominative case and is called a nominative absolute 7p4 #add74 #f4 ,the possessive case denotes ownership or possession 7p4 #dc74 #g4 ,the object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case 7p4 #dg74 #h4 ,a substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is called its direct object1 and is said to be in the objective case 7p4 #dh74 #i4 ,a verb of asking sometimes takes two direct objects1 one denoting the person and the other the thing 7p4 #ej74 #aj4 ,verbs of choosing1 calling1 naming1 making1 and thinking may take two objects referring to the same person or thing4 ,the first of these is the direct object1 and the second1 which completes the sense of the predicate1 is called a predicate objective 7pp4 #ej1 #aaa74 #aa4 ,some verbs of giving1 telling1 refusing1 and the like1 may take two objects1 a direct object and an indirect object4 ,the indirect object denotes the person or thing toward whom or toward which is directed the action expressed by the rest of the predicate 7p4 #ej74 #ab4 ,a verb that is regularly intransitive sometimes takes as object a noun whose meaning closely resembles its own4 ,a noun in this construction is called the cognate object of the verb and is in the objective case 7p4 #eb74 #ac4 ,a noun1 or a group of words consisting of a noun and its modifiers1 may be used adverbially4 ,such a noun is called an adverbial objective 7p4 #ec74 #ad4 ,an appositive is in the same case as the substantive which it limits 7p4 #db74 #ae4 ,a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender1 number1 and person 7p4 #ee74 #af4 ,relative pronouns connect dependent clauses with main clauses by referring directly to a substantive in the main clause4 ,this substantive is the antecedent of the relative 7p4 #ff74 ,a relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender1 number1 and person4 ,the case of a relative pronoun has nothing to do with its antecedent1 but depends on the construction of its own clause 7p4 #fh74 #ag4 ,a relative pronoun in the objective case is often omitted 7p4 #fi74 #ah4 ,the relative pronoun what is equivalent to that which1 and has a double construction3--7#a7 the construction of the omitted or implied antecedent that2 7#b7 the construction of the relative which 7p4 #ga74 #ai4 ,the compound relative pronouns may include or imply their own antecedents and hence may have a double construction 7p4 #gb74 ,the compound relatives are sometimes used without an antecedent expressed or implied 7p4 #gb74 #bj4 ,an adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits 7pp4 #e1 #ge74 #ba4 ,adjectives may be classified1 according to their position in the sentence1 as attributive1 appositive1 and predicate adjectives 7p4 #gf74 #a4 ,an attributive adjective is closely attached to its noun and regularly precedes it4 #b4 ,an appositive adjective is added to its noun to explain it1 like a noun in apposition4 #c4 ,a predicate adjective completes the meaning of the predicate verb1 but describes or limits the subject4 ,for the use of an adjective as predicate objective1 see #dhh4 #bb4 ,the comparative degree1 not the superlative1 is used in comparing two persons or things4 ,the superlative is used in comparing one person or thing with two or more 7p4 #hh74 #bc4 ,relative adverbs introduce subordinate clauses and are similar in their use to relative pronouns 7p4 #hf74 #bd4 ,a verb must agree with its subject in number and person 7p4 #ig74 #be4 ,a compound subject with and usually takes a verb in the plural number 7p4 #ajj74 #bf4 ,a compound subject with or or nor takes a verb in the singular number if the substantives are singular 7p4 #ajj74 #bg4 ,nouns that are plural in form but singular in sense commonly take a verb in the singular number 7p4 #aja74 #bh4 ,collective nouns take sometimes a singular and sometimes a plural verb4 ,when the persons or things denoted are thought of as individuals1 the plural should be used4 ,when the collection is regarded as a unit1 the singular should be used 7p4 #aja74 #bi4 ,a verb is in the active voice when it represents the subject as the doer of an act 7p4 #ajg74 #cj4 ,a verb is in the passive voice when it represents the subject as the receiver or the product of an action 7p4 #ajg74 ,the object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive1 and the subject of the active verb becomes in the passive an adverbial phrase modifying the predicate verb 7p4 #aaj74 #ca4 ,when a verb takes both a direct and an indirect object1 one of the two is often retained after the passive1 the other becoming the subject 7p4 #aab74 #cb4 ,the indicative is the mood of simple assertion or interrogation1 but it is used in other constructions also 7p4 #aae74 #cc4 ,the imperative is the mood of command or request 7p4 #aae74 #cd4 ,the subject of an imperative is seldom expressed unless it is emphatic4 ,the subject1 when expressed1 may precede the imperative3 as1--,you go1 ,you read 7p4 #aag74 #ce4 ,the subjunctive mood is used in certain special constructions of wish1 condition1 and the like 7pp4 #aae1 #aah74 ,for particulars and examples1 see pp4 #aai-abc4 ,for modal auxiliaries1 see pp4 #abd-acb4 #cf4 ,an infinitive1 with or without a complement or modifiers1 may be used as the subject of a sentence1 as a predicate nominative1 or as an appositive 7pp4 #acd1 #ace74 #cg4 ,an infinitive may be used as the object of the prepositions but1 except1 about1 7p4 #ace74 #ch4 ,the infinitive may be used as a nominative of exclamation 7p4 #acf74 #ci4 ,an infinitive may modify a verb by completing its meaning1 or by expressing the purpose of the action 7p4 #acg74 #dj4 ,an infinitive may be used as an adjective modifier of a noun or as an adverbial modifier of an adjective4 ,in this use the infinitive is said to depend on the word which it modifies 7p4 #acf74 #da4 ,a kind of clause1 consisting of a substantive in the objective case followed by an infinitive1 may be used as the object of certain verbs4 ,such clauses are called infinitive clauses1 and the substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive4 ,the subject of an infinitive is in the objective case4 ,infinitive clauses are used 7#a7 after verbs of wishing1 commanding1 advising1 and the like1 and 7#b7 after some verbs of believing1 declaring1 and perceiving 7p4 #ach74 ,an infinitive clause may be the object of the preposition for4 ,an infinitive clause with for may be used as a subject1 as a predicate nominative1 or as the object of a preposition 7pp4 #ach-aci74 #db4 ,the participle is a verb-form which has no subject1 but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive 7pp4 #ab1 #adj74 #dc4 ,a participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits 7pp4 #ab1 #adb74 #dd4 ,a participle should not be used without some substantive to which it may belong 7p4 #adb74 #de4 ,an infinitive or a participle1 like any other verb-form1 may take an object if its meaning allows 7pp4 #acd1 #adc74 #df4 ,infinitives and participles1 like other verb-forms1 may be modified by adverbs1 adverbial phrases1 or adverbial clauses 7pp4 #acd1 #adb74 #dg4 ,verbal 7or participial7 nouns in -ing have the form of present participles1 but the construction of nouns 7p4 #ade74 #dh4 ,verbal nouns in -ing have certain properties of the verb 7p4 #adf74 #a4 ,verbal nouns in -ing may take a direct or an indirect object if their meaning allows4 #b4 ,a verbal noun in -ing may take an adverbial modifier4 ,but verbal nouns in -ing1 like other nouns1 may be modified by adjectives4 #di4 ,a noun in -ing may be used as an adjective1 or as the adjective element in a compound noun 7p4 #adf74 #ej4 ,the substantive which follows a preposition is called its object and is in the objective case 7p4 #adh74 #ea4 ,a cordinate conjunction connects words or groups of words that are independent of each other 7p4 #aea74 #eb4 ,a subordinate conjunction connects a subordinate clause with the clause on which it depends 7p4 #aea74 #ec4 ,interjections usually have no grammatical connection with the phrases or sentences in which they stand4 ,sometimes1 however1 a substantive is connected with an interjection by means of a preposition 7p4 #aee74 ,,the ,,english ,,language ,english is a member of the great ,indo-,european ,family of languages1 which is so called because it includes well-nigh all the languages of ,europe and the most important of those found in ,india4 ,within this family1 ,english belongs to the ,teutonic 7or ,germanic7 ,group1 which contains also ,german1 ,dutch1 the ,scandinavian tongues 7,icelandic1 ,danish1 ,norwegian1 ,swedish71 and some others4 ,english of the oldest period is called either ,anglo-,saxon or ,old ,english4 ,this was the speech of certain piratical tribes whose home was in northern ,germany1 on the eastern and southern shores of the ,north ,sea1 but who invaded ,britain about ,a4,d4 #dej1 and subdued the ,celtic inhabitants of the island in a series of fierce wars4 ,the most considerable of the invading tribes were the ,angles and the ,saxons4 ,their dominion was well assured by the beginning of the seventh century1 and their language1 which they usually called 8,english0 7that is1 8the tongue of the ,angles071 gradually spread through ,england and most of ,scotland4 ,in ,wales1 however1 the native ,britons have maintained their own ,celtic speech to the present day2 and in the ,scottish ,highlands1 ,gaelic--which is akin to ,welsh and practically identical with the native language of ,ireland--is still extensively used4 ,at the time of the invasion1 the ,angles and ,saxons were heathen1 and the ,britons1 who had been for four centuries under the sway of the ,roman ,empire1 were ,christians1 and much more highly civilized than their conquerors4 ,indeed1 they had adopted many features of ,roman culture1 and ,latin was spoken to some extent1 at least in the larger towns4 ,by the end of the seventh century1 however1 the ,anglo-,saxons also had embraced ,christianity and had made remarkable advances in literature and learning4 ,the language of the ,britons exerted but slight influence upon that of the ,anglo-,saxons4 ,the ,celtic words in ,english are few in number1 and most of them were borrowed in comparatively recent times4 ,the ,norman ,conquest 7#ajff7 marks a highly significant date in the history of our language4 ,the ,normans were a ,scandinavian tribe who had been in possession of ,normandy 7in northern ,france7 for about a hundred and fifty years4 ,they had abandoned their native tongue1 and spoke a dialect of ,french4 ,from #ajff to about the year #adjj1 two languages were therefore common in ,england1--,english1 which was employed by the vast majority of the people1 and ,french1 which was the language of the court and the higher orders4 ,french1 however1 was never a serious rival of ,english for supremacy in the island4 ,it was the speech of a class1 not of the nation1 and its use gradually died out1 except as an accomplishment4 ,by the time of ,chaucer 7who was born about #acdj and died in #adjj71 it was clear that the ,english tongue was henceforth to be regarded as the only natural language for ,englishmen1 whether they were of ,anglo-,saxon or of ,norman origin4 ,still1 the ,norman conquest had a profound influence upon ,english4 ,it is not true--though often asserted--that the multitude of ,french words which our language contains were derived from the ,norman dialect4 ,comparatively few of them came into ,english until after #acjj1 when ,normandy had been lost to the ,english crown for a hundred years4 ,since #acjj we have borrowed freely--not from ,norman1 however1 but from ,central 7or ,parisian7 ,french1 which had become the standard to which the ,english descendants of the ,normans endeavored to conform4 ,the effect of the ,conquest1 then1 was not to fill ,english with ,norman terms4 ,it was rather to bring ,england into close social and literary relations with ,france1 and thus to facilitate the adoption of words and constructions from ,central ,french4 ,further1 since literature was in the middle ages dependent in the main upon private patronage1 the existence of a ruling class whose interest was in ,french1 discouraged the maintenance of any national or general standard of ,english composition4 ,every ,english writer had recourse to his local dialect1 and one dialect was felt to be as good as another4 ,by #acej1 however1 the dialect of ,london and the vicinity had come1 apparently1 to be regarded as somewhat more elegant and polished than the others4 ,all that was needed was the appearance of some writer of supreme genius to whom this dialect should be native4 ,chaucer was such a writer1 for he was born in ,london4 ,to be sure1 ,chaucer did not 8make modern ,english40 ,none the less1 he was a powerful agent in settling the language4 ,since his time1 at all events1 the fact of a 8standard of literary usage0 has been undisputed4 ,dialects still exist1 but they are not regarded as authoritative4 ,educated speakers and writers of ,english1 the world over1 use the language with substantial uniformity4#fi ,meantime1 however1 the ,english of the ,anglo-,saxons had undergone many changes before ,chaucer was born4 ,most of its inflections had been lost1 and still others have been discarded since4 ,further1 there had been extensive borrowing from ,french and ,latin1 and this continued throughout the fourteenth century4 ,the habit1 once formed1 has proved lasting4 ,our vocabulary has received contributions from many languages1 and is still receiving them4 ,greek may be mentioned in particular as the source of many words1 especially in the various departments of science4 ,but ,french and ,latin remain the chief foreign elements in ,english4 ,in the following extract from ,scott1 most of the words printed in ,roman type are of ,anglo-,saxon origin1 whereas the italicized words are derived from ,latin or ,french4 ,it was not until evening was nearly closed that ,ivanhoe was restored to consciousness of his situation4 ,he awoke from a broken slumber1 under the confused impressions which are naturally attendant on the recovery from a state of insensibility4 ,he was unable for some time to recall exactly to memory the circumstances which had preceded his fall in the lists1 or to make out any connected chain of the events in which he had been engaged upon the yesterday4 ,a sense of wounds and injury1 joined to great weakness and exhaustion1 was mingled with the recollection of blows dealt and received1 of steeds rushing upon each other1 overthrowing and overthrown1 of shouts and clashing of arms1 and all the heady tumult of a confused fight4 ,an effort to draw aside the curtain of his couch was in some degree successful1 although rendered difficult by the pain of his wound4 ,english has also adopted a good many ,scandinavian words1 though they form no such proportion of its vocabulary as ,french or ,latin4 ,danish and ,norwegian pirates began to harry the coast in the eighth century4 ,permanent settlements followed1 as well as wars of conquest1 and for about thirty years 7#ajac-ajdb7 a ,danish family occupied the ,english throne4 ,these events explain the ,scandinavian element in our language4 ,despite the freedom with which ,english has adopted words from abroad1 it is still essentially a ,germanic speech4 ,its structure is still the native structure4 ,the borrowings have enriched its vocabulary1 but have had comparatively little effect upon its syntax4 ,the foreign words have been naturalized1 and their presence in no wise interferes with the unity and general consistency of the ,english language4 ,it is a strange error to regard ,english as a combination of ,anglo-,saxon and ,norman ,french4 ,as for the loss or decay of inflections1 that is not due to a mixture of dialects4 ,it is a natural tendency1 which may be seen1 for example1 in ,dutch and ,danish1 though there was no ,norman ,conquest in ,holland or ,denmark4 ,the loss1 indeed1 is really a gain1 for it is progress in the direction of simplicity4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon or ,old ,english ,period comes down to about a century1 or a century and a half1 after the ,norman ,conquest4 ,its extreme limit may be set at #abjj4 ,the period from #abjj to #aejj is usually known as the ,middle ,english ,period4 ,from #aejj to the present time may be regarded as the ,modern ,period1 though within these boundaries ,english has changed enormously in pronunciation and in vocabulary1 very largely in syntax1 and to some extent in inflection4 ,the almost complete abandonment of the subjunctive in common speech is one of the latest of these changes4 ,this1 too1 is in the direction of simplicity4 ,the people of ,great ,britain have long been famous as travellers1 explorers1 and colonizers4 ,their language1 once the dialect 7or dialects7 of a handful of ,germanic adventurers1 has spread to all parts of the world1 so that now it is not merely the language of ,england1 but1 to a considerable extent1 that of ,scotland1 ,ireland1 ,north ,america1 ,india1 ,australasia1 and ,south ,africa4 ,in this vast area1 numerous varieties of pronunciation and of idiom of course occur1 but1 on the whole1 the uniformity of the language is surprisingly well preserved4 ,,footnotes #a ,for a brief history of the ,english language1 see p4 #caf4 #b ,compare pp4 #caf-cag4 #c ,in this book1 well-established colloquial idioms or constructions are mentioned from time to time1 but always with a note as to their actual status in the language4 #d ,in this book1 several old forms and constructions which the student is constantly encountering in the ,english classics are treated in their proper places1--always with an indication of their difference from the modern standard4 #e ,in the technical language of grammar an adjective is said to describe a substantive when it describes the object which the substantive denotes4 #f ,definitive adjectives are often called limiting adjectives4 ,all adjectives1 however1 limit1 even those that also describe4 #g ,the usual brief definition of a verb is1 8,a verb is a word which asserts40 ,but this definition in strictness applies only to verbs in declarative sentences4 #h ,for full inflection see pp4 #cjj-cja4 #i ,compound complex sentences are also called complex compound sentences4 ,for further treatment of such sentences1 see pp4 #ahg1 #aij1 #bae-baf4 #aj ,vixen is really formed from fox 7compare the ,german ,fchsin from ,fuchs74 #aa ,halo1 memento1 zero also form a plural in es 7haloes1 etc474 #ab ,this list is intended for reference4 #ac ,the ,english word animalcule 7plural animalcules7 is preferable4 ,the plural animalcul is erroneous4 #ad ,messrs4 is an abbreviation of the ,french messieurs4 #ae ,when such nouns as chemistry refer to textbooks1 they may be used in the plural3 as1--8,bring your chemistries to-morrow40 #af ,this section is intended chiefly for reference4 #ag ,note the ambiguity to the ear though not to the eye4 #ah ,the only exception is in reflexive action1 where the object is a compound personal pronoun 78,charles deceived himself074 ,see #abf4 #ai ,the pupil should not 8supply nouns0 in such sentences as these4 ,for example1 it is unscientific to expand the first sentence into 8,this morning is a fine morning10 and then to parse this as an adjective4 ,it is even more objectionable to expand the fifth sentence by inserting thing or the like after this4 ,the plan of 8supplying0 unexpressed words 7as being 8understood07 tends to confuse real distinctions of language1 and should never be resorted to when it can be avoided4 #bj ,the negative not 7 #aij1 #d7 is merely a shortened form of naught4 #ba ,because of their use as connectives1 relative pronouns are sometimes called conjunctive pronouns4 #bb ,for indirect questions1 see #dda4 #bc ,in some of these cases the comparative and superlative are really different words from the positive4 #bd ,the four classes are not absolute1 for the same adverb may be used in different senses and thus belong to different classes4 ,sometimes1 too1 there is room for difference of opinion4 ,thus in the fourth and fifth examples under #a1 terribly and surprisingly are equivalent to 8in a terrible 7or surprising7 manner10 and therefore are classified as adverbs of manner2 but they may also be regarded as adverbs of degree4 #be ,many comparatives and superlatives in er and est that are no longer allowable in prose are still used in poetry4 #bf ,many grammarians regard is and the noun or adjective that follows it 7is money1 etc47 as the simple predicate2 but the nomenclature here adopted is equally scientific and more convenient4 #bg ,the word tense is simply an ,english form of the ,french word for time4 #bh ,the past tense is often called the preterite 7from a ,latin word meaning 8gone by074 ,preterite is in some ways a better name for the tense than past1 since both the perfect and the pluperfect tenses also refer to past time4 #bi ,silent final e is not counted as an ending4 #cj ,notice also the change from v to f before t4 #ca ,the ending ed indicates tense1 not person or number4 #cb ,the second person singular is often given as 8,thou walkest or ,you walk10 but it is simpler to regard ,you walk in this use as a plural in a singular sense 7 #bbd74 #cc ,this rule is not absolute4 ,sometimes the distinction is unimportant1 and the feeling of the moment often determines the number of the verb4 #cd ,so ,i can strike1 etc4 #ce ,so ,i could strike1 etc4 #cf ,so ,i can have struck1 etc4 #cg ,so ,i could have struck1 etc4 #ch ,for the so-called infinitive clause1 in which the infinitive has a subject of a peculiar kind1 see #cbd-cbh4 #ci ,after verbs of wishing1 etc41 they express purpose 7 #djc72 after verbs of believing1 etc41 they are in indirect discourse 7 #dca74 #dj ,the only exceptions are trifling differences in spelling4 #da ,cordinate conjunctions are also called cordinating1 and subordinate conjunctions are also called subordinating4 #db ,compare the exclamatory sentence 7 #c7 and the exclamatory nominative 7 #hh1 #d74 #dc ,including clauses of manner and degree 7 #dbh-dbi74 #dd ,by 8if-clause0 is meant the protasis1 whatever the conjunction4 #de ,clauses introduced by as are often called clauses of manner4 #df ,such sentences are elliptical in origin4 ,thus1 8,the man acts as if he were crazy0 is equivalent to 8,the man acts as he would act if he were crazy40 ,but it is not necessary to supply the ellipsis in analyzing4 #dg ,in analyzing1 the direct quotation may be regarded as the object of the verb of saying1 etc4 7or the subject1 if that verb is passive72 and if it forms a complete sentence1 this may be analyzed as if it stood by itself4 ,it is not proper to regard the direct quotation as a subordinate clause4 #dh ,see pp4 #ajb-aje1 #abg-acb4 #di ,instead of compound complex1 the term complex compound is often used4 ,the terms are synonymous1 both meaning 8compound in general structure1 but complex in one or more members40 #ej ,or parse the nominatives according to the models in #aab4 #ea ,for exercises in the use of the comparative and the superlative1 see pp4 #bdi-bej1 #beb4 #eb ,the omission of a form from the list1 then1 does not necessarily indicate that it is wrong or even objectionable4 ,there is considerable diversity of usage with regard to the strong verbs1 and to state the facts at length would take much space4 ,an attempt to include archaic1 poetical1 and rare forms in the same list with the usual modern forms is sure to mislead the pupil4 ,hence the list here presented is confined to forms about whose correctness there can be no difference of opinion4 ,archaic and poetical tense-forms are treated later 7pp4 #big-bii74 #ec ,born is used only in the passive sense of 8born into the world40 #ed ,the adjective form is bereaved3 as1 8,the bereaved father40 #ee ,cleave1 8to adhere10 has cleaved in both the past tense and the past participle1 and also an archaic past form clave4 #ef ,the archaic participle gotten is used in the compounds begotten and forgotten1 and as an adjective 78ill-gotten gains074 ,many good speakers also use it instead of the past participle got1 but got is the accepted modern form4 #eg ,hanged is used only of execution by hanging4 #eh ,usage varies with the context4 ,we say1 8,the crew hove the cargo overboard10 but ,,not 8,she hove a sigh40 #ei ,load has loaded in both the past tense and the past participle4 ,laden is sometimes used as the past participle of load4 #fj ,lie1 8to tell a falsehood10 has lied in both the past tense and the past participle4 #fa ,so both light1 8to kindle10 and light1 8to alight40 ,the verb alight has usually alighted in both the past tense and the past participle4 #fb ,seethe1 intransitive1 has usually seethed in both the past tense and the past participle4 ,it is in rather common literary use4 #fc ,stricken is also used as a participle in a figurative sense4 ,thus we say1 8,the community was stricken with pestilence10--but 8,the dog was struck with a stick40 #fd ,it is a remnant of the old past plural4 ,in ,anglo-,saxon the principal parts of begin were3 present1 beginne2 past1 began2 past plural1 begunnon2 past participle1 begunnen4 #fe ,the adjectives are usually pronounced blessd1 cursd4 ,compare also the adjective accursd4 #ff ,both forms are in good use4 #fg ,both forms are in good use4 ,the adjective is pronounced learnd4 #fh ,the main rules of punctuation are well fixed and depend on important distinctions in sentence structure and consequently in thought4 ,in detail1 however1 there is much variety of usage1 and care should be taken not to insist on such uniformity in the pupils' practice as is not found in the printed books which they use4 ,if young writers can be induced to indicate the ends of their sentences properly1 much has been accomplished4 #fi ,it is not meant1 of course1 that an ,american or ,australian of the present day should exert himself to imitate the speech of a modern ,londoner4 ,the point is1 that what we now call 8,english0 is1 in most respects1 the direct descendant of the ,london dialect of the fourteenth century4 ,,index ,references are to pages2 f4 signifies 8and following page02 ff4 signifies 8and following pages40 ,a for on 7a-fishing71 #adg1 #adi4 ,a or an1 #gg ff42 distributive1 #gi4 ,about1 with infinitive1 #aje1 #ace4 ,absolute construction1 #add4 ,see ,nominative4 ,absolute use of transitive verbs1 #ib4 ,abstract nouns1 #bi f4 ,accusative1 #eb4 ,action1 nouns in -ing1 #ade ff4 ,active voice1 #ajg ff4 ,see ,passive4 ,adjective1 #e1 #ge ff42 descriptive and definitive1 #e1 #ge f42 proper1 #ge2 compound1 #ge2 pronominal1 #gf 7cf4 #fb ff472 attributive1 appositive1 predicate1 #gf f42 articles1 #gg ff2 comparison1 #gi ff41 #hh f42 numerals1 #hi f42 noun as adjective1 adjective as noun1 #i1 #gh2 participle as1 #adc2 adjective in exclamations1 #aee f42 as modifier of subject1 #aib f4 ,see ,adjective pronoun1 ,predicate adjective4 ,adjective clauses1 #bj1 #ff1 #hf1 #aeg f42 place or time1 #afc f42 as modifiers of subject1 #aib f42 of complement1 #bjf4 ,adjective phrases1 #af1 #aeg2 comparison of1 #hi2 as modifiers of subject1 #aib f42 as complements1 #bjd2 as modifiers of modifiers1 #bjg4 ,adjective pronouns1 #fb ff42 demonstrative1 #fb ff42 indefinite1 #fd f4 ,adverb1 defined1 #g2 classification1 forms1 and use1 #hc ff42 relative or conjunctive1 #hf2 interrogative1 #hf2 comparison1 #hg ff42 numeral1 #hi f42 in exclamations1 #aee f42 as modifier1 #aif f41 #bjf1 #bjh4 ,adverbial clauses1 #bj f41 #hf1 #aeh f42 place or time1 #afc f42 causal1 #afd2 concessive1 #afd f42 purpose or result1 #aff f42 conditional1 #afg ff42 comparison1 degree1 manner1 #agc2 indirect question1 #ahj2 as modifiers of predicate1 #aif f42 of complement1 #bjf2 of modifiers1 #bjg f4 ,adverbial objective1 #ec2 clause as1 #aeh f42 as modifier1 #aih4 ,adverbial phrases1 #af1 #ec1 #adb1 #aeh2 numeral1 #ij2 as modifiers of predicate1 #aif f41 #aih ff42 of complement1 #bjf2 of modifiers1 #bjg f4 ,advising1 verbs of1 with infinitive clause1 #ach4 ,affirmative1 #he4 ,a-fishing1 etc41 #adg1 #adi4 ,after1 preposition1 #adh2 relative adverb1 #hf1 #aeg1 #afd4 ,agreement1 of predicate nominative with subject1 #da1 #eg f42 of appositive1 #db1 #dg1 #ec1 #eg2 of pronoun with antecedent1 #ee1 #fe2 of relative with antecedent1 #fh1 #ajb2 of verb with subject1 #ig1 #ajj ff4 ,all1 #fe4 ,alternative conditions1 #afh2 questions1 #agi4 ,although4 ,see ,though4 ,analysis1 #ahc ff42 structure of sentences1 #ahc ff42 analysis1 with models1 #ahh ff42 simple sentences1 #ahh2 compound1 #ahh f42 complex1 #ahi f42 compound complex1 #aij2 modifiers1 #aia ff42 complements1 #bjj ff42 modifiers of complements and of modifiers1 #bje ff42 independent elements1 #bji2 combinations of clauses1 #baj ff42 elliptical sentences1 #bbd ff4 ,see further under these several heads4 ,anglo-,saxon1 xv1 #caf f4 ,animals1 names of1 gender1 #cb2 pronouns1 #fi4 ,another1 #fd f4 ,antecedent of pronoun1 #d2 agreement1 #ee1 #fe1 #fh1 #ajb2 unexpressed1 #ga ff42 what1 #ga2 compound relatives1 #gb f4 ,any1 anything1 #fd f4 ,apodosis1 #afh4 ,apostrophe1 #dc ff41 #ef1 #caa4 ,appear1 with predicate nominative or adjective1 #f f41 #gf1 #ic4 ,apposition1 #db4 ,see ,appositive4 ,appositive1 case of1 #db1 #dg1 #ec1 #eg2 with possessive1 #dg2 infinitive as1 #acd f42 clause as1 #aei ff41 #afg1 #agd1 #ahj1 #aif2 appositive as modifier1 #aie f41 #bjg4 ,appositive adjective1 #gf4 ,appositive phrase1 #aie4 ,archaisms1 xvii4 ,see ,old4 ,articles1 #gg ff42 generic1 #gg2 repeated1 #gh2 with verbal noun1 #adg4 ,as1 relative pronoun1 #fg2 relative adverb1 #hf1 #aec2 conjunction1 #aec2 in concession1 #afe2 in clauses of degree1 #agc4 ,as if1 as though1 #abb1 #aec1 #agc2 as to1 with infinitive1 #afg4 ,asking1 verb of1 two objects1 #ej2 retained object1 #aab2 with indirect question1 #agi ff4 7cf4 #afj74 ,assertion1 #b1 #e1 #ac4 ,attribute4 ,see ,predicate adjective1 ,predicate objective4 ,attributive adjective1 #gf4 ,aught1 naught1 #fe4 ,authorship1 #dc4 ,auxiliary verbs1 #f1 #ia2 in future1 #ajb ff42 in compound tenses1 #ajf2 in passive1 #ajh ff42 in progressive form1 #aac f42 in emphatic form1 #aad2 replacing subjunctive1 #abc2 in potential verb-phrases1 #abd ff4 ,be1 #f f41 #ic2 conjugation1 #ii1 #aah f41 #cjj f42 auxiliary of passive1 #ajh ff42 of progressive form1 #aac2 ellipsis of1 #aad1 #add1 #afd f41 #afi1 #bbd f42 predicate pronoun after1 #aci4 ,see ,predicate nominative4 ,become1 with predicate nominative or adjective1 #f f41 #gf1 #ic4 ,before1 preposition1 #adh2 relative adverb1 #hf1 #aeg1 #afc f42 with subjunctive1 #abb2 with should1 #acj4 ,believing1 verbs of1 with infinitive clause1 #ach4 ,biblical style4 ,see ,solemn4 ,bid1 with infinitive1 #ach4 ,both1 pronoun1 #fd4 ,both 444 and1 #ae1 #aec4 ,but1 adverb1 #ace4 ,but1 cordinate conjunction1 #aeb2 subordinate1 #aec f42 elliptical constructions1 #aed4 ,but1 preposition1 #adh2 with infinitive1 #ace4 ,calling1 verbs of1 two objects1 #ej2 predicate nominative after passive1 #aaa4 ,can1 could1 #abd ff41 #bii4 ,capital letters1 #bg ff41 #ge2 rules1 #cje4 ,cardinal numerals1 #hi f4 ,case1 #dj ff42 nominative1 #dj ff42 possessive1 #dc ff42 objective1 #dg ff42 of appositives1 #db1 #dg1 #ec1 #eg4 ,see ,pronouns4 ,cause1 clauses of1 #afd2 nominative absolute1 #add4 ,chaucer1 xv1 #dc1 #di1 #he1 #cag f4 ,choosing1 verbs of1 two objects1 #ej2 predicate nominative after passive1 #aaa4 ,clauses1 independent and subordinate1 #af ff42 as parts of speech1 #ai ff41 #aeg ff42 infinitive1 #acg ff42 simple1 compound1 complex1 #baj ff42 combination of1 #baj ff4 ,see ,adjective1 ,adverbial1 ,noun1 ,infinitive clause4 ,clauses1 subordinate1 classified according to meaning1 #afc ff42 place and time1 #afc f42 cause1 #afd2 concession1 #afd f42 purpose and result1 #aff f42 conditional1 #afg ff42 comparison and manner1 #agc2 indirect discourse1 #agc ff42 indirect questions1 #agi ff4 ,cognate object1 #eb2 it as1 #eh2 as modifier1 #aii4 ,collective nouns1 #bi f42 verbs with1 #aja f4 ,colloquial forms and constructions1 xvi1 #ch1 #eg ff41 #fa1 #fi1 #ajj1 #aab1 #abj1 #adi1 #aee4 ,colon1 #cji f4 ,color1 adjectives of1 #hd4 ,combinations of clauses1 #baj ff4 ,come1 have 7or am7 come1 #ajg4 ,comma1 #gj1 #cjf ff4 ,command1 with shall or will1 #aje1 #aah2 as condition1 #afi2 verbs of1 with infinitive clause1 #ach2 with noun clause1 #afj1 #afg4 ,see ,imperative4 ,common gender1 #ca4 ,common nouns1 #bg ff42 personification1 #bh f4 ,comparative and superlative1 of adjectives1 #gi ff41 #hh f42 of adverbs1 #hg ff42 use1 #hh f42 comparative with the1 #hf4 ,comparison1 clauses of1 #agc4 ,comparison of adjectives1 #gi ff41 #hh f42 of adverbs1 #hg ff42 use of1 #hh f4 ,complementary infinitive1 #acg4 ,complementary object1 #ej4 ,see ,predicate objective4 ,complements4 ,see ,object1 ,predicate objective1 ,predicate nominative1 ,predicate adjective4 ,complements1 classified1 #bjj ff42 direct object1 #bja2 predicate objective1 #bjb2 predicate nominative1 #bjb f42 predicate adjective1 #bjc f4 ,complements1 modifiers of1 #bje f4 ,complete predicate4 ,see ,predicate4 ,complete predication1 #bjj4 ,complete subject4 ,see ,subject4 ,complete tenses1 #ajf f4 ,complete verbs1 #bjj4 ,complex clauses1 #ah1 #ahg1 #baa f41 #bae f41 #bai ff4 ,complex compound4 ,see ,compound complex4 ,complex sentences1 #ag ff41 #ahf2 analyzed1 #ahi f42 varieties of1 #baf ff4 ,compound adjectives1 #ge4 ,compound clauses1 #aea1 #ahf1 #baj ff4 ,compound complex sentences1 #ah1 #ahg1 #bae f42 analyzed1 #aij1 #bbb f4 ,compound conjunctions1 #aec4 ,compound nouns1 #cj1 #adf f42 plural1 #cf2 possessive1 #df f4 ,compound personal pronouns1 #fj ff42 intensive and reflexive1 #fa f42 relatives1 #gb f4 ,compound predicate1 #ae1 #ahd f41 #bab f4 ,compound sentences1 #ag ff41 #ahe2 analyzed1 #ahh f42 elaboration of1 #bac f4 ,compound subject1 #ae1 #ahd f41 #bab f42 agreement1 #ajj f4 ,compound tenses1 #ajf f4 ,concerning1 #adb1 #adi4 ,concession1 moods in1 #abj ff42 should and would in1 #abc1 #aca2 clauses of1 #afd ff4 ,conclusion1 #afh4 ,conditional clauses and sentences1 moods in1 #abj ff41 #agj ff42 forms and meaning1 #afg ff42 classification1 #afi ff42 past and present1 #agj f42 non-committal and contrary to fact1 #agj f42 future1 #aga f42 shall1 will1 should1 would1 #acj f4 ,conjugation1 #be1 #id ff42 indicative present and past1 #ih f42 future1 #ajb2 active and passive1 #ajh ff42 progressive1 #aac f42 potential verb-phrases1 #abd f42 tables of1 #cjj ff4 ,conjunction1 defined1 #h2 classification and use1 #aea ff42 cordinate or cordinating1 #aea f42 subordinate or subordinating1 #aea1 #aec f42 correlative1 #aec f42 adverb1 preposition1 and1 #aeb f42 and adverb1 #aej4 ,conjunctive adverbs and pronouns4 ,see ,relative4 ,considering1 #adb1 #adi4 ,construction1 xiv1 #be ff4 ,contractions3 it's1 #ef2 ,i'll1 we'll1 #ajd2 let's1 #abj2 may n't1 ought n't1 #abf2 ,i'd1 we'd1 #acj4 ,contrary to fact1 conditions1 #agj f4 ,cordinate 7cordinating7 conjunctions1 #aea f4 ,cordinate clauses1 #ag ff41 #ahe ff41 #baj ff4 ,cordination in sentences1 #baj ff4 ,see ,cordinate4 ,copula4 ,see ,be4 ,copulative verbs1 #f f41 #gf1 #ic4 ,see ,be4 ,correlative conjunctions1 #aec f4 ,could4 ,see ,can4 ,dare1 #acg1 #bii4 ,dash1 #caj4 ,dative1 #eb1 #fj4 ,declarative sentences1 #b4 ,declaring1 verbs of1 with infinitive clause1 #ach4 ,declension of nouns1 #dj2 of personal pronouns1 #ee f42 of self-pronouns1 #fj2 of demonstratives1 #fc2 of relatives1 #fg2 of compound relatives1 #gb2 of interrogatives1 #gc4 ,defective verbs1 #bii4 ,definite article1 #gg ff4 ,definitive adjectives1 #e1 #ge f4 ,degree1 adverbs of1 #hd2 clauses of1 #agc4 ,see ,comparison4 ,deity1 words for the1 #cje4 ,demonstrative pronouns and adjectives1 #fb ff4 ,dependent4 ,see ,subordinate4 ,descriptive adjectives1 #d1 #ge2 relatives1 #gj f4 ,desiring1 verbs of1 with infinitive1 #acg2 with noun clause1 #afj1 #afg4 ,did4 ,see ,do4 ,direct address1 nominative in1 #db2 independent element1 #bji4 ,direct discourse1 #agd ff4 ,direct object4 ,see ,object4 ,direct quotations1 #agc f42 questions1 #agi4 ,do1 did1 in questions1 #aad2 in emphatic verb-phrases1 #aad2 in imperative1 #aag2 as substitute for some other verb1 #aad4 ,double comparison1 #hh2 conditions1 #afh4 ,doubting1 verb of1 with indirect question1 #agi 7cf4 #afj74 ,each1 each other1 #fd f4 ,editorial we1 #eg4 ,either1 #fd2 either 444 or1 #ae1 #aec4 ,elder1 eldest1 #ha4 ,elements4 ,see ,subject1 ,predicate1 ,modifiers1 ,complements1 ,independent4 ,ellipsis1 understood words1 etc41 #c1 #dg1 #eh1 #fc1 #fi1 #ga1 #aad1 #aag1 #ai f41 #aba f41 #acc1 #add1 #adi1 #aec f41 #aee1 #afj1 #afd f41 #afi1 #agc1 #age1 #bbd ff4 ,elliptical sentences1 #bbd ff4 'em1 #eg4 ,emphasis1 superlative of1 #hh4 ,emphatic verb-phrases1 #aad2 imperative1 #aag4 -en1 plural ending of nouns1 #ce2 old plural ending of verbs1 #ii4 ,endings1 in inflection1 #be2 gender1 #cc2 number1 #cd ff42 case1 #dj2 possessive1 #dc f42 comparison1 #hj ff41 #hg2 adverbs1 #hc ff42 tense1 #ie f42 personal endings1 #ig f4 ,english language1 xi ff42 history of1 #caf ff4 ,errors of speech1 #cg1 #de1 #ef1 #eh1 #fj1 #fb1 #fd f41 #gd1 #gg1 #hh1 #ajb ff41 #abf1 #abh ff41 #acc ff41 #aci1 #adg4 ,even if1 #aec1 #afd f4 ,every1 everybody1 everything1 #fd f4 ,except1 with infinitive1 #ace4 ,exclamation1 nominative in1 #db1 #eg1 #aef2 objective me1 #fj2 infinitive1 #acf2 various parts of speech1 #aee f42 phrases1 #aee f42 clauses1 #afi2 as independent element1 #bji4 ,see ,interjection4 ,exclamation point1 #aee1 #cjf4 ,exclamatory sentences1 #b f41 #gd2 phrases1 #aee f42 expressions1 #aee f41 #bji4 ,see ,exclamation1 ,interjection4 ,exercises1 #bbg-bij4 ,see ,table of ,contents1 v4 ,exhortations1 #abj4 ,expectation1 subjunctive1 #abb f42 should1 #acj4 ,expletive4 ,see ,it1 ,there4 ,extent1 possessive of1 #df4 ,eyne1 #ce4 ,feel1 with predicate adjective1 #gg2 with infinitive1 #acf4 ,feminine4 ,see ,gender4 ,few1 #fe4 ,figures1 plural of1 #cf4 ,for1 conjunction1 #aeb4 ,for1 preposition1 #adh1 #aeb2 with infinitive1 #ace2 with infinitive clause1 #aci4 ,foreign plurals1 #cg4 ,fractional parts1 #ij4 ,future conditions1 #aga f4 ,future perfect tense1 #ajf4 ,future tense1 #id1 #ajb ff4 ,see ,shall1 will4 ,gender1 #ca ff42 of nouns and pronouns1 #ca2 special rules for nouns1 #cb ff42 of pronouns1 #ef2 of relatives1 #fg ff4 ,see ,personification4 ,generally speaking1 #adb4 ,generic article1 #gg4 ,genitive4 ,see ,possessive4 ,gerund1 #adf4 ,giving1 verbs of1 direct and indirect object1 #ej2 retained object1 #aab4 ,go4 ,see ,motion4 ,going to1 #aje4 ,grammar1 nature and principles of1 xi ff4 ,granted that1 #afh4 ,habitual action1 #abg4 ,had rather1 etc41 #abc2 had to1 #abf4 ,half1 #ajb4 ,have1 had1 #f1 #ie2 auxiliary in compound tenses1 #ajf ff41 #ada4 ,he1 #ef2 for he or she1 #fe4 ,hear1 with infinitive1 #acf4 ,hem1 old pronoun1 #eg4 ,his1 as neuter1 #ef4 ,hosen1 #ce4 ,how1 #hf4 ,however1 #aeb2 in concessions1 #afe4 ,hyphen1 #cj1 #caa4 ,i'd1 we'd1 #acj4 ,idioms1 nature of1 xv4 ,if1 #aec2 in conditions1 #afh ff42 in wishes1 #afi2 in indirect questions1 #agi4 ,ill1 #ha1 #hg4 ,i'll1 we'll1 #ajd4 ,imperative mood1 #aaf ff42 in exclamations1 #aef2 as a condition1 #afi4 ,imperative sentences1 #b f41 #aaf ff42 subject of1 #b1 #aag4 ,impersonal it1 #eh4 ,see ,it4 ,in case that1 #aec2 in order that1 #aec1 #aff2 in order to1 #afg4 ,incomplete predication1 #bjj2 verbs1 #bjj4 ,indefinite article1 #gg ff42 pronouns and adjectives1 #fd f42 nouns1 #fe2 relatives 7whoever1 etc471 #gb f4 ,independent clauses1 #ag f4 ,see ,clauses4 ,independent elements1 #bji4 ,independent participles1 #adb4 ,indicative mood1 #aae f42 variety of use1 #aaf2 in statements and questions of fact1 #aaf2 in commands1 #aje1 #aah2 in concessions1 #aba2 in conditions1 #agj1 #agb4 ,indirect discourse1 #agc ff42 tenses in1 #age2 passive1 #age f42 shall1 should1 will1 would1 #agg f4 ,indirect object1 #ej f42 retained with passive1 #aab2 of participial nouns1 #adf2 as modifier1 #aii4 ,indirect questions1 #agi ff42 infinitive in1 #aha2 subjunctive in1 #aha2 shall1 should1 will1 would1 #ahb4 ,indirect quotations1 #agc ff4 ,infinitive1 #aa ff41 #acb ff42 forms1 #ajg1 #acc2 object and modifiers1 #acd2 uses1 #acd ff42 as noun1 #aa ff41 #acd2 as object1 #ace2 as nominative of exclamation1 #acf2 as modifier1 #acf f41 #aid1 #aig f42 with see1 hear1 feel1 #acf2 complementary1 #acg2 of purpose1 #acg1 #afg2 in verb-phrases1 #ab2 in future1 #ajb2 in emphatic forms1 #aad1 #aag2 in potential verb-phrases1 #abd ff42 with ought1 tenses1 #abf2 in indirect questions1 #aha2 in verb-phrases1 see ,future1 ,future perfect1 ,emphatic1 ,potential4 ,infinitive clause1 #acg ff42 as object1 #ach f42 as subject1 #aci2 predicate pronoun in1 #aci2 expressing purpose1 #afg2 indirect discourse1 #age4 ,infinitive phrase1 #aid4 ,inflection1 nature and function of1 xiii f41 #be2 summary of1 #bf2 of nouns1 #cj ff42 of pronouns1 #ee ff42 of adjectives1 #gi ff42 of verbs1 #id ff42 lists of verb-forms1 #bia ff4 -ing1 verbal nouns in1 #ade ff4 ,see ,participial nouns4 ,intensive pronouns1 #fa f4 ,interjections1 defined1 #h2 use1 #aee f42 as independent elements1 #bji4 ,interrogation point1 #cjf4 ,interrogative adverbs1 #hf2 with clauses1 #aeg2 in indirect questions1 #agi2 with infinitive1 #aha4 ,interrogative pronouns1 #gc f42 as adjectives1 #gd2 with prepositions1 #aej2 with clauses1 #aeg2 in indirect questions1 #agi ff42 with infinitive1 #aha4 ,interrogative sentences1 #b f42 order in1 #c2 do1 did in1 #aad2 direct and indirect questions1 #agi ff4 ,intransitive verbs1 #dh f41 #ib f42 voice1 #aaa2 in passive with preposition1 #aaa4 ,inverted order1 #c1 #he1 #aba f41 #afa4 ,irregular verbs1 #ie1 #ii2 participles1 #ada2 lists1 #bia ff4 ,is4 ,see ,be4 ,it1 #ef2 impersonal1 #eh2 expletive1 #eh1 #ace1 #afa1 #age f42 cognate object1 #eh4 ,kind1 sort1 #fd4 ,kine1 #ce4 ,knowing1 verbs of1 indirect discourse1 #agd2 indirect question1 #agi4 ,language1 nature of1 xi ff42 ,english1 #caf ff4 ,less1 least1 #ha1 #hg4 ,lest1 with subjunctive1 #abb2 purpose1 #abb1 #aff4 ,let1 with infinitive1 #ach2 let us1 #abj4 ,letters1 plural of1 #cf4 ,like1 should like1 #abi4 ,like1 with objective1 #eb4 ,limiting adjectives1 #e4 ,see ,definitive4 ,look1 with predicate adjective1 #gg4 ,main clause1 #ag f42 analysis1 #ahd ff41 #bac ff42 compound1 #baf f4 ,majesty1 plural of1 #eg4 ,make1 with infinitive1 #ach4 ,making1 verbs of1 two objects1 #ej2 predicate nominative after passive1 #aaa4 -man1 words ending in1 plural of1 #ce4 ,manner1 adverbs of1 #hc2 clauses of1 #agc4 ,many1 #fe4 ,masculine4 ,see ,gender4 ,may1 might1 auxiliary1 #abj ff42 replacing subjunctive1 #abc2 form1 #bii4 ,measure or extent1 possessive of1 #df4 ,meseems1 methinks1 #fj4 ,might1 auxiliary1 #abc ff42 replacing subjunctive1 #abc2 might better1 #abc4 ,see ,may4 ,modal auxiliaries1 use and meaning1 #abd ff4 ,mode4 ,see ,mood4 ,models for parsing1 analysis1 #ed1 #gd1 #hb1 #ahh ff41 #bdc1 #bej f41 #bfb1 #bgj4 ,see ,exercises4 ,modifiers1 #g2 classified1 #aia ff42 of subject1 #aib ff42 adjectives1 adjective phrases1 adjective clauses1 #aib f42 participles1 #aic f42 infinitives1 #aid2 possessives1 #aie2 appositives1 #aie f42 of predicate1 #aif ff42 adverbs1 adverbial phrases1 adverbial clauses1 #aif f42 infinitives1 #aig f42 adverbial objectives1 #aih2 nominative absolute1 #aih f42 indirect object1 #aii2 cognate object1 #aii4 ,modifiers of complements1 #bje f4 ,modifiers of modifiers1 #bjg f4 ,mood1 #aae ff42 indicative1 #aae f42 imperative1 #aaf ff42 subjunctive1 #aah ff42 potential1 #abd4 ,see ,indicative1 ,subjunctive1 etc4 ,more1 most1 in comparison1 #ha1 #hg ff4 -most1 superlative suffix1 #hb4 ,motion1 verbs of1 with have or be1 #ajg2 ellipsis1 #bbe4 ,must1 auxiliary1 #abd ff41 #bii4 ,my1 mine1 #ei4 ,naming1 verbs of1 two objects1 #ej2 predicate nominative after passive1 #aaa4 ,naught1 not1 #fe4 ,near1 with objective1 #eb4 ,negative1 neither1 #fd1 #aeb2 none1 #fd2 not1 #fe2 no1 #he2 statements and questions1 #aad2 commands1 #aag2 purpose or result1 #aff f42 condition1 #afh4 ,neither1 pronoun1 #fd2 conjunction1 with nor1 #ae1 #aeb ff42 number with1 #ajj4 ,neuter4 ,see ,gender4 ,next1 #eb1 #hb1 #hg4 ,nigh1 next1 #hb4 ,no1 yes1 #he4 ,nominative case1 #da f42 subject1 #da2 predicate1 #da2 direct address 7vocative71 #db2 in exclamation1 #db2 absolute1 #add1 #aih f4 ,non-committal conditions1 #agj f4 ,none1 #fd4 ,nor1 neither 444 nor1 number with1 #ajj4 ,not1 #fe4 ,notwithstanding1 preposition or conjunction1 #aeb1 #aed4 ,noun1 defined1 #d2 classification1 #bg ff42 common and proper1 #bg ff42 abstract and collective1 #bi f42 compound1 #cj1 #cf1 #dg1 #adf f42 inflection1 #cj ff42 gender1 #ca ff42 number1 #cd ff42 person1 #ci2 case1 #dj ff42 numeral1 #hi f42 verbal 7participial71 #ade ff4 ,see ,infinitive4 ,noun clauses1 #bj1 #aei ff42 construction1 as subject1 object1 etc41 #aei ff42 purpose and result1 #aff f42 indirect discourse1 #agd ff42 indirect questions1 #ahj ff42 analysis1 #aij2 as complement1 #bja ff42 direct object1 #bja2 predicate objective1 #bjb2 predicate nominative1 #bjc4 ,noun-phrases1 #af1 #bh2 possessive of1 #dg2 verbal noun-phrases1 #adf4 ,number1 a 7or the71 #aja4 ,number of nouns1 #cd ff42 of pronouns1 #ef f41 #fj1 #fc ff41 #fg f41 #gb2 of verbs1 #ig ff41 #ajj ff42 agreement in1 #ee1 #fe1 #fh1 #ig1 #ajj ff4 ,numerals1 #hi f4 ,o or oh1 #h1 #aee2 in wishes1 #aee4 ,object1 of preposition1 #h1 #dg1 #adh2 of verb1 direct1 #dh ff42 predicate objective1 #ej2 indirect1 #ej f42 for whom1 #ea2 cognate1 #eb2 retained1 #aab2 of infinitive1 #acd2 of verbal 7participial7 noun1 #adf f42 infinitive as1 #ace2 infinitive clause as1 #ach f42 noun-clause as1 #aei ff41 #afg1 #agd ff41 #ahj f4 ,see ,complements1 ,modifiers4 ,object clauses4 ,see ,noun clauses4 ,objective attribute1 #ej4 ,objective case1 #dg ff42 of service1 #ea f42 adverbial1 #ec2 in apposition1 #ec2 of pronouns1 #ee f41 #fj1 #fc1 #fg1 #fi1 #gb1 #gc f42 in exclamation1 #fj2 subject of infinitive1 #ach f4 ,see ,object4 ,objective complement1 #ej4 ,see ,predicate objective4 ,obsolete words1 etc41 xvi f4 ,see ,old4 ,of mine1 #dg1 #ei4 ,of-phrase1 #de4 ,old or poetical forms and constructions1 #bh f41 #cb1 #ce1 #ci1 #dc1 #de1 #eb1 #ef ff41 #ei ff41 #fb f41 #fg1 #fi1 #gc1 #gh1 #hb1 #hd f41 #hh1 #ij1 #ie ff41 #ii1 #ajj1 #aje1 #aad1 #aaf f41 #aah1 #abj1 #abb1 #abd1 #abf1 #ace1 #adi1 #aed1 #bbe1 #bic1 #big ff4 ,on condition that1 #afh4 ,one1 one's1 one's self1 #fj1 #fe2 one another1 #fd f4 ,or1 either 444 or1 #ae1 #aec f42 number with or1 nor1 #ajj4 ,order4 ,see ,inverted4 ,orders1 will in1 #aje4 ,see ,command4 ,ordinal numerals1 #hi f4 ,other1 another1 #fd f4 ,ought1 #abf f4 ,ourself1 #fj4 ,owe1 ought1 #abf1 #bii4 ,own1 #fa4 ,pains1 #aja4 ,parsing1 models for1 #ed1 #gd1 #hb1 #bdc1 #bej f41 #bfb1 #bgj4 ,part1 portion1 #ajb4 ,participial nouns1 #ade ff42 object of1 #adf f42 modifiers of1 #adf2 as adjective1 #adf f42 with article1 #adg4 ,participial phrase1 #aid4 ,participles1 #aa f41 #adj ff42 present1 past1 perfect1 #ab1 #ajf f41 #adj f42 constructions1 #adb ff42 object and modifiers of1 #adb f42 as prepositions1 #adb1 #adi2 as adjectives1 #adc2 with nominative absolute1 #ade2 as modifiers1 #aic f41 #bje4 ,parts of speech1 defined1 #c ff42 same word as different1 #i ff42 substitutes for1 #ae ff4 7see ,phrases1 ,clauses72 inflection and syntax1 #be ff4 ,see ,noun1 ,pronoun1 etc4 ,passive voice1 #ajg ff42 form of1 #ajh ff42 use of1 #aaj ff42 predicate nominative with1 #aaa2 retained object with1 #aab2 in progressive form1 #aad2 in imperative1 #aag2 in subjunctive1 #aai2 intransitive verbs with preposition1 #aaa2 passive distinguished from be with participle used as adjective1 #adc2 clause as retained object1 #afj2 indirect discourse1 #age f4 ,past conditions1 #afi ff42 non-committal1 #agj f42 contrary to fact1 #aga4 ,past participle1 #ajf1 #adj f42 as predicate adjective1 #adc4 ,past perfect tense1 #ajf1 #aji2 subjunctive1 #aba f41 #aga2 progressive1 #abe2 in conditions1 #aba1 #agj f42 in indirect discourse1 #age4 ,past tense1 #id ff42 personal endings1 #ig ff42 passive1 #ajh2 progressive1 #aac f42 emphatic1 #aad2 subjunctive1 #aah1 #aba ff41 #aga f42 indicative and subjunctive in conditions1 #agj ff42 in indirect discourse1 #age4 ,pending1 #adb1 #adi4 ,per1 per cent1 etc41 #gi1 #adi4 ,perceiving1 verbs of1 with infinitive clause1 #ach2 indirect discourse1 #agd2 indirect question1 #agi4 ,perfect infinitive1 #ajg1 #acc2 with ought1 #abf2 participle1 #ajg1 #adj f4 ,perfect 7or present perfect7 tense1 #ajf4 ,period1 #cjf4 ,permission1 #abe f41 #abi4 ,person of substantives1 #ci2 of pronouns1 #ee ff42 of relatives1 #fh2 of verbs1 #ig ff41 #ajj ff4 ,personal construction1 #agf4 ,personal endings1 #ig f4 ,personal pronouns1 #ee ff42 inflection1 #ee ff42 gender and number1 #ef f42 case1 #eg ff42 self-pronouns1 #fj ff42 as predicate nominative1 #da4 ,personification1 #bh f41 #cb4 ,phrases1 #af2 kinds of1 #af 7see ,noun-phrases1 ,adjective phrases1 ,adverbial phrases1 ,verb-phrases72 as prepositions1 #adi2 as conjunctions1 #aec2 exclamatory1 #aee2 in analysis1 #aia ff42 as modifiers of subject1 #aib f42 of predicate1 #aif f42 as complements1 #bjd2 as modifiers of complements1 #bje f42 of other modifiers1 #bjg f4 ,see ,progressive1 ,emphatic1 ,potential1 ,appositive1 ,infinitive1 ,participial1 ,prepositional1 ,verbal noun-phrases4 ,place and time1 adverbs of1 #hc ff42 clauses of1 #afc f4 ,pluperfect tense1 #ajf1 #aji2 subjunctive1 #aba f41 #aga2 progressive1 #abe2 in conditions1 #aba1 #agj f42 in indirect discourse1 #age4 ,plural of nouns1 #cd ff42 irregular1 #ce ff42 of compounds1 #cf2 of foreign nouns1 #cg2 of proper names and titles1 #ce1 #ch2 of possessive1 #dc f42 of pronouns1 #ef f41 #fj1 #fb ff42 of relatives1 #fg f42 of verbs1 #ig ff42 plural of majesty1 #eg4 ,poetical forms and constructions1 xvii4 ,see ,old4 ,portion1 part1 #ajb4 ,positive degree1 #gi1 #hg4 ,possessive case of nouns1 #dc ff42 use1 #de ff42 of measure1 #df2 of compound nouns and of phrases1 #df f42 apposition with1 #dg2 of personal pronouns1 #ee f41 #ei2 of definite pronouns1 #fe2 of relatives1 #fg1 #fi1 #gb2 of interrogatives1 #gc2 possessive nouns modified1 #bjg4 ,possessive modifiers1 #aie1 #bje1 #bjg4 ,possessive pronouns1 #ee f41 #ei2 my1 mine1 etc41 use of1 #ei2 one's1 #fe2 whose1 #fg1 #fi1 #gb1 #gc4 ,potential verb-phrases1 #abd ff42 mood1 #abd ff4 ,pray1 #eh4 ,prayers1 subjunctive1 #aai f4 ,predicate1 #b2 inverted order1 #c1 #he1 #aba f41 #afa2 simple and complete1 #ad f41 #ahc f42 compound1 #ae1 #ahd f41 #bab f42 possessive in1 #ei2 analysis1 #ahc ff42 modifiers of1 #aif ff42 complements1 #bjj ff4 ,see ,complements1 ,modifiers4 ,predicate adjective1 #gf f41 #ic2 participle as1 #adc2 analysis1 #bjc f42 as complement1 #bjc f42 phrase as1 #bjd2 modifiers of1 #bjf4 ,predicate nominative1 #da1 #di1 #ic2 of pronouns1 #eh2 after passive1 #aaa2 infinitive as1 #acd f42 infinitive clause as1 #aci2 noun clause as1 #aei f41 #agd1 #ahj2 in analysis1 #bjb f42 as complement1 #bjb f42 modifiers of1 #bje f4 ,predicate objective1 #ej1 #aaa2 adjective as1 #ej2 in analysis1 #bjb2 as complement1 #bjb2 modified1 #bje4 ,predicate pronoun after to be1 #aci4 ,predication1 complete and incomplete1 #bjj4 ,preposition1 defined1 #h2 list and uses1 #adh ff42 object of1 #h1 #dg1 #aej ff42 with intransitive verb1 #aaa2 with passive1 #aaa2 phrase used as1 #adi2 at end of clause1 #adi2 following the object1 #adi2 omitted1 #adi2 participle as1 #adi2 infinitive as object of1 #ace2 clause as object of1 #afa1 #ahj4 ,prepositional phrases1 #af1 #adh4 ,present conditions1 #agj ff42 non-committal1 #agj f42 contrary to fact1 #aga4 ,present infinitive1 #acc2 with ought1 #abf4 ,present participle1 #ab1 #adj f42 in verb-phrases1 #ac1 #aac f41 #acj f42 with nominative absolute1 #add4 ,present perfect tense1 #ajf4 ,present tense form1 #id2 personal endings1 #ig f42 conjugation1 #ih f42 in future sense1 #aje2 in future conditions1 #agb2 passive1 #ajh2 progressive1 #aac f42 emphatic1 #aad2 imperative1 #aaf f42 subjunctive1 #aah f41 #abj ff42 indicative and subjunctive in conditions1 #agj f42 participle1 #ab1 #add ff42 infinitive1 #acc4 ,preterite1 #id4 ,see ,past4 ,preterite-present verbs1 #bii4 ,principal clause4 ,see ,main clause4 ,principal parts1 #ajg2 list1 #bia ff4 ,prithee1 #eh4 ,progressive verb-phrases1 #aac f42 in subjunctive1 #aai4 ,prohibition1 #aag4 ,pronominal adjectives4 ,see ,adjective pronouns2 ,demonstrative1 ,indefinite1 ,relative1 ,interrogative4 ,pronoun defined1 #d2 antecedent of1 #d2 classification1 forms1 and uses1 #ee ff42 predicate nominative1 #da1 #eh4 ,see ,personal1 ,adjective1 ,demonstrative1 ,indefinite1 ,relative1 ,interrogative1 ,intensive1 ,reflexive1 ,reciprocal1 ,gender4 ,pronoun1 predicate1 after to be1 #aci4 ,proper nouns1 #bg ff42 plural1 #ce1 #ch2 possessive1 #dd2 adjectives1 #ge4 ,prophecy1 shall1 #aje4 ,protasis1 #afh4 ,provided 7that71 #aec1 #afh4 ,punctuation1 rules of1 #cjf ff4 ,purpose1 subjunctive and indicative1 #abb f42 infinitive of1 #acg1 #afg2 clauses of1 #aff f42 infinitive clause1 #afg4 ,questions1 #c f42 shall and will in1 #ajb ff42 should and would in1 #abg ff42 do1 did1 #aad2 may1 #abf2 as condition1 #afi2 direct and indirect1 #agi ff4 ,see ,interrogative4 ,quotation marks1 #caj4 ,quotations1 direct and indirect1 #agc ff4 ,rather1 #hg2 had rather1 #abc4 ,reciprocal pronouns1 #fd f4 ,reflexive pronouns1 #fa2 simple personal pronouns as1 #fa4 ,refusing1 verbs of1 direct and indirect object1 #ej2 retained object1 #aab4 ,regular verbs1 #ie ff42 participles1 #ada4 ,relative adjectives1 #gc4 ,relative adverbs1 #hf2 with subjunctive1 #abb2 introducing clauses1 #aeg f42 place and time1 #afd2 concession1 #afe2 conditions1 #afi4 ,relative pronouns1 #ff ff42 forms1 #fg2 gender1 #fg ff42 agreement1 #fh1 #ajb2 case1 #fh f41 #aci2 omitted1 #fi2 descriptive and restrictive1 #gj f42 what1 #ga2 compound relatives1 #gb f42 relatives introducing clauses1 #ff1 #aeg f42 place and time1 #afc f42 concession1 #aca1 #afe2 condition1 #aca1 #afi4 ,restrictive relatives1 #gj f4 ,result1 clause of1 #aff f42 infinitive1 #afg2 negative1 #afg4 ,retained object1 #aab2 clause as1 #afj4 ,royal we1 #eg1 #fj4 ,same 7the7 as1 #fg4 ,saying4 ,see ,telling4 ,see1 with infinitive1 #acf4 ,seem1 with predicate nominative or adjective1 #f f41 #gf1 #ic2 it seems that1 #agf4 ,self-pronouns1 #fj ff4 ,semicolon1 #cji f4 ,sentences1 #a ff42 kinds of1 #b f42 parts of speech in1 #c ff41 #ac ff42 essential elements in1 #b1 #ad2 simple and complete subject and predicate1 #ad f42 clauses in1 #af ff42 simple1 compound1 complex1 #ag ff42 compound complex1 #ah4 ,sentences1 analysis1 #ahc ff42 structure and elements1 #ahc2 of simple sentences1 #ahd f42 of compound1 #ahe2 of complex1 #ahf2 of compound and complex clauses1 #ahf f42 of compound complex sentences1 #ahg2 models for analysis of simple1 compound1 complex1 compound complex sentences1 #ahh ff42 modifiers1 #aia ff42 complements1 #bjj ff42 modifiers of complements and of modifiers1 #bje ff42 independent elements1 #bji2 combinations of clauses making sentences of various forms1 #baj ff42 special complications1 #bbj ff42 elliptical sentences1 #bbd ff4 ,see ,subject1 ,compound1 ,complex1 ,modifiers1 etc4 ,sequence of tenses1 #age1 #agi4 ,service1 objective of1 #ea f4 ,several1 #fe4 ,shakspere1 forms and constructions in1 #ce1 #ci1 #dg1 #ef1 #eg1 #ei1 #fj1 #fb1 #fc1 #fg1 #fi1 #hh1 #ij1 #abf1 #adi1 #aed1 #aff1 #afi1 #aga1 #bbe4 ,shall and will1 #ajb ff42 in assertions and questions1 #ajb ff42 in subordinate clauses1 #acj ff42 indirect discourse1 #agg f42 indirect questions1 #ahb2 forms1 #bii4 ,see ,should4 ,ship1 gender1 #cb4 ,shoon1 #ce4 ,should and would1 in simple sentences and independent clauses1 #abg ff42 in subordinate clauses1 #acj ff42 in indirect discourse1 #agg f42 in indirect questions1 #ahb4 ,see ,shall4 ,should and would1 special senses1 #abf f42 replacing subjunctive1 #abc2 in clauses of purpose1 #acj2 concessions1 #aca2 in conditional sentences1 #aca1 #aga f4 ,signs1 plural of1 #cf4 ,simple clauses4 ,see ,clauses4 ,simple sentences1 #ag ff41 #ahd f42 analyzed1 #ahh f42 elaboration of1 #bab f4 ,see ,sentences4 ,since1 adverb1 preposition1 conjunction1 #hf1 #aec4 ,singular4 ,see ,number4 ,smell1 with predicate adjective1 #gg4 ,so as to1 #afg2 so that1 #aec1 #aff4 ,solemn 7or ,biblical7 style1 xvii1 #ef f41 #fj1 #fi1 #ij1 #ie1 #ih f41 #aje1 #aag1 #abj1 #abb1 #agb4 ,some1 #fd2 somewhat1 #fe4 ,sort1 kind1 #fd4 ,sound1 with predicate adjective1 #gg4 ,split infinitive1 #acd4 ,still1 yet1 adverbs or conjunctions1 #aeb4 ,strong verbs1 #ie1 #ii2 participles1 #ada2 list1 #bia ff4 ,style and grammar1 xvi f4 ,subject1 #b2 inverted order1 #c2 omitted1 #c1 #eh1 #aad1 #aag1 #aba1 #afd f41 #afi1 #bbd ff42 simple and complete1 #ad f42 compound1 #ae1 #ahd f42 infinitive as1 #aa1 #acd f42 clause as1 #bj1 #aci1 #aei f41 #agd f41 #ahj1 #aij2 case1 #da2 agreement with verb1 #ig1 #ajj ff42 modifiers of1 #aib ff42 subject of infinitive1 #ach4 ,see ,predicate nominative4 ,subject and predicate1 #b1 #ac ff41 #ahc ff41 #aia ff4 ,subject complement1 #da4 ,see ,predicate nominative4 ,subjunctive mood1 #aae f41 #aah ff42 forms1 #aah f42 uses1 #aai ff42 in wishes1 etc41 #aai f42 concessions1 #abj f42 conditions1 #abj ff41 #agj ff42 clauses of purpose or expectation1 #abb1 #aff2 with as if1 #abb1 #agc2 in indirect questions1 #aha2 auxiliaries replacing subjunctive1 #abc4 ,subordinate clauses1 #ag ff42 as parts of speech1 #ai ff41 #aeg ff42 analysis1 #ahf ff41 #ahi ff42 combinations of1 #baj2 variety of use1 #baf ff42 special complications1 #bbj ff4 ,see ,noun1 ,adjective1 ,adverbial1 ,indicative1 ,subjunctive4 ,subordinate clauses1 meanings of1 #afc ff42 place and time1 #afc f42 cause1 #afd2 concession1 #afd f42 purpose and result1 #aff f42 conditional1 #afg ff42 comparison and manner1 #agc2 indirect discourse1 #agc ff42 indirect questions1 #agi ff4 ,subordinate 7or subordinating7 conjunctions1 #aea1 #aec f41 #aeg4 ,substantive1 #d4 ,see ,noun1 ,pronoun4 ,substantive clauses4 ,see ,noun clauses4 ,such1 #fd2 such 444 as1 #fg4 ,superlative of emphasis1 #hh4 ,see ,comparison4 ,suppose1 supposing1 #afh4 ,syntax1 xiv1 #be ff42 summary of rules1 #caa ff4 ,taste1 with predicate adjective1 #gg4 ,telling1 verbs of1 direct and indirect object1 #ej2 retained object1 #aab2 object clause1 #afj2 indirect discourse1 #agd4 ,tense1 #id ff4 ,see ,present1 ,past1 ,future1 ,compound tenses4 ,tenses1 use in conditions1 #aba1 #agj ff42 with ought1 #abf2 in indirect discourse1 #age1 #agg ff42 in indirect questions1 #agi1 #ahb4 ,termination4 ,see ,endings4 ,than1 #hg2 case after1 #agc2 clauses1 #agc4 ,that1 conjunction with subordinate clause1 #bj f41 #acb1 #acg1 #aec1 #aeg ff41 #afj ff42 in clauses of purpose1 #abb f41 #acj1 #aff f42 result1 #aff f42 indirect discourse1 #agd ff42 omitted1 #aec1 #afj1 #age1 #bbe4 ,that1 demonstrative1 #fb ff42 relative1 #fg ff42 omitted1 #fi4 ,the1 article1 #gg ff42 abbreviated to ye1 #eg2 the which1 #fg2 adverb with comparative1 #hf4 ,then1 adverb or conjunction1 #aeb4 ,there1 expletive1 #he4 ,thereof1 therewith1 etc41 #fj4 ,they1 indefinite use1 #eg4 ,thinking1 verbs of1 two objects1 #ej2 predicate nominative after passive1 #aaa2 object clause1 #afj2 indirect discourse1 #agd2 indirect question1 #agi4 ,this1 these1 #fb ff4 ,thou1 ye1 you1 #ef f4 ,though1 although1 #ba2 mood after1 #abj f4 ,see ,concession4 ,till1 until1 relative adverb1 #hf2 with subjunctive1 #abb f42 with should1 #abc1 #acj2 preposition1 #adi4 ,time1 adverbs of1 #hc2 clauses of1 #afc f42 nominative absolute1 #add4 ,titles1 plural1 #ch4 ,to1 with infinitive1 #aa1 #acb ff42 standing for infinitive1 #acc2 expressing purpose1 #afg2 to let1 #acf2 to the end that1 #aff4 ,too 444 to1 #afg4 ,transition1 #aeb4 ,transitive verbs1 #dh ff41 #ib2 used absolutely1 #ib2 passive use of1 #aaj ff4 ,see ,object4 ,unless1 #aba ff41 #afh4 ,unlike1 objective with1 #eb4 ,until4 ,see ,till4 ,usage and grammar1 xv ff4 ,verb1 #e ff42 inflection and syntax1 #ia ff42 classification1 #ia ff42 inflection1 #id ff41 #ajb ff42 person and number1 #ig ff42 agreement with subject1 #ig1 #ajj ff42 voice1 #ajg ff42 progressive form1 #aac f42 emphatic form1 #aad2 mood1 #aae ff42 potential verb-phrases1 #abd ff42 infinitive1 #aa f41 #acb ff42 participles1 #aa f41 #adj ff42 lists of verbs1 #bia ff4 ,see ,predicate1 ,transitive1 ,tense1 etc4 ,verbal noun in -ing1 #ade ff4 ,see ,participial nouns4 ,verbal noun-phrases1 #adf4 ,verb-phrases1 #e1 #af1 #ia2 to supply inflection1 see ,future1 ,complete tenses1 ,passive1 ,progressive1 ,potential1 ,subjunctive4 ,vocal organs1 xi4 ,vocabulary of ,english1 #cah f4 ,vocative 7direct address71 nominative1 #db2 as independent element1 #bji4 ,voice1 #ajg ff4 ,see ,passive4 ,we1 indefinite use1 #eg2 royal and editorial we1 #eg4 ,weak verbs1 #ie ff41 #ih f42 participles1 #ada2 lists1 #bia ff4 ,we'd1 #acj4 ,well1 #ha1 #hg4 ,we'll1 #ajd4 ,were to1 #agb4 ,what1 relative1 #ga2 double construction1 #ga1 #gc2 as adjective1 #gc2 interrogative1 #gc f42 as adjective1 #gd2 in exclamatory sentences1 #gd2 interjection1 #gd4 ,whatever1 whatsoever1 #gb f42 in concession1 #afe2 in conditions1 #afi4 ,whatso1 #gc4 ,when1 whenever1 #hf2 in conditions1 #afi4 ,whence1 #hf4 ,where1 wherever1 #hf4 ,whereof1 wherefrom1 etc41 #fi4 ,whether1 whether 444 or1 #aec1 #afh1 #agi4 ,which1 relative1 #fg ff42 gender1 #fg ff42 for who1 whom1 #fi2 as adjective1 #gc2 the which1 #fg2 interrogative1 #gc2 as adjective1 #gd4 ,whichever1 #gb f4 ,while1 noun1 adverb1 conjunction1 #hf1 #aec4 ,whither1 #hf4 ,who1 whose1 whom1 relative1 #ff ff42 gender1 #fg ff42 interrogative1 #gc f41 #aej4 ,whoever1 whosoever1 whoso1 #gb f42 in concession1 #afe2 in condition1 #afi4 ,why1 #hf1 #agi4 ,will1 in orders1 #aje2 in future1 see ,shall4 ,wish1 subjunctive in1 #aai f41 #abc2 may1 #abe f42 verbs of1 with infinitive or infinitive clause1 #acg f42 with object clause1 #afj1 #afg2 ,o in a wish1 #aee2 if1 #afi4 ,words1 nature and use of1 xi ff4 ,wot1 wist1 #bii4 ,would1 in wishes1 #abj2 habitual action1 #abg2 would better 7rather71 #abc4 ,see ,should4 ,written and spoken language1 xi ff4 ,ye1 old uses1 #eg2 abbreviation1 #eg4 ,yes1 no1 #he4 ,yet1 still1 adverbs or conjunctions1 #aeb4 ,yon1 yond1 yonder1 #fc4 ,you and thou1 #ef f42 indefinite you1 #eg4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,variant spelling and hyphenation have been preserved as printed2 simple typographical errors have been corrected4 ,punctuation has been standardised1 and unbalanced quotation marks and parentheses have been repaired4 ,the following changes have also been made3 ,page vi1 ,contents3 ,person #ci #bch changed to ,person #ci #bcf ,page #bf3 ,number 7,verb agrees with ,subject7 was printed with a brace spanning ,number and ,person ,page #ih1 ,personal ,endings3 repeated no-ending in each cell instead of replicating the book's row-spanning braces ,page #beh changed word order3 ,if the verb is active1 change it to the passive1 and make such other changes as may be necessary4 ,if the verb is active1 change it to the passive4 ,if the verb is active1 change it to the passive1 and make such other changes as may be necessary4 ,if the verb is passive1 change it to the active4 ,footnote #ff3 ,the table spanned pages #bih to #bii1 and the footnote was repeated across the page break2 the transcriber omitted duplicate note4