file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #degad-;h4htm or #degad-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu b_/#degad_/pg#degad-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#de gad_/degad-;h4zip7 ,images of the original pages are available through ,internet ,archive4 ,see https3_/_/archive4org_/details_/practica lcinemat#jjtalbrich ,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 ,page #aea ,illustration ,fig #i contains an alphabetical list of components with ,f designating ,clock and small ,f designating ,film4 ,this latter designation for ,film has been indicated in the text by ,f4 ,,practical ,,cinematography ,,and ,,its ,,applications 99 99 99 99 99 ,,by ,,the ,,same ,,author4 ,price #fs4 net each4 ,,moving ,,pictures3 ,,how ,,they ,,are ,,made ,,and ,,worked4 ,,lightships ,,and ,,lighthouses4 ,,the ,,steamship ,,conquest ,,of ,,the ,,world4 ,,the ,,railway ,,conquest ,,of ,,the ,,world4 ,,london3 ,,william ,,heinemann4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,motograph ,co4 ,,how ,,to ,,take ,,moving-,,pictures ,,of ,,wild ,,animals ,,in ,,safety4 ,messrs4 ,newman built a huge dummy cow fifteen feet in height of papier-mch4 ,the operator stands inside with his camera and the pictures are taken through a small hinged door4 ,with this property dangerous animals can be approached closely4 ,,practical ,,cinematography ,,and ,,its ,,applications by ,,frederick ,a4 ,,talbot ,author of ,moving ,pictures etc4 ,illustration ,london ,,mcmxiii ,william ,heinemann ,copyright4 ,,preface ,this volume has been written with the express purpose of assisting the amateur--the term is used in its broadest sense as a distinction from the salaried1 attached professional worker--who is attracted towards cinematography4 ,it is not a technical treatise1 but is written in such a manner as to enable the tyro to grasp the fundamental principles of the art1 and the apparatus employed in its many varied applications4 ,while it is assumed that the reader has practised ordinary snap-shot and still-life work1 and thus is familiar with the elements of photography1 yet the subject is set forth in such a manner as to enable one who never has attempted photography to take moving-pictures4 ,at the same time it is hoped that the volume may prove of use to the expert hand1 by introducing him to what may be described as the higher branches of the craft4 ,the suggestions and descriptions concerning these applications may prove of value to any who may be tempted to labour in one or other of the various fields mentioned4 ,in the preparation of this volume ,i have received valuable assistance from several friends who have been associated intimately with the cinematographic art from its earliest days3--,j4 ,bamberger1 ,esq41 of the ,motograph ,company1 ,limited1 ,james ,williamson1 ,esq41 of the ,williamson ,kinematograph ,company1 ,limited1 ,kodak ,limited1 ,messrs4 ,jury1 ,limited1 and ,monsieur ,lucien ,bull1 the assistant-director of the ,marey ,institute1 to whom ,i am especially indebted for facilities to visit that unique institution1 and the investigation at first hand of its varied work1 the loan of the photographs of the many experiments which have been1 and still are being1 conducted at the ,french ,cradle of ,cinematography1 and considerable assistance in the preparation of the text4 ,,frederick ,a4 ,,talbot4 ,,contents ,,chap4 ,,page ,i4 ,,attractions ,,and ,,opportunities ,,of ,,the ,,art #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,cinematography #ac ,,iii4 ,,the ,,moving-,,picture ,,camera ,,and ,,its ,,mechanism #ba ,,iv4 ,,the ,,camera ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,use ,,it #ce ,v4 ,,hand ,,camera ,,cinematography #ea ,,vi4 ,,developing ,,the ,,film #fb ,,vii4 ,,printing ,,the ,,positive #gi ,,viii4 ,,aberrations ,,of ,,animated ,,photography #id ,,ix4 ,,slowing-,,down ,,rapid ,,movements #ajh ,x4 ,,speeding-,,up ,,slow ,,movements #abd ,,xi4 ,,continuous ,,cinematographic ,,records #ace ,,xii4 ,,radio-,,cinematography3 ,,how ,,the ,x-,,rays ,,are ,,used ,,in ,,conjunction ,,with ,,the ,,moving-,,picture ,,camera #adg ,,xiii4 ,,combining ,,the ,,microscope ,,and ,,the ,,ultra-,,microscope ,,with ,,the ,,moving-,,picture ,,camera #afa ,,xiv4 ,,micro-,,motion ,,study3 ,,how ,,increased ,,workshop ,,efficiency ,,is ,,obtainable ,,with ,,moving-,,pictures #agd ,,xv4 ,,the ,,motion ,,picture ,,as ,,an ,,aid ,,to ,,scientific ,,investigation #ahe ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,military ,,value ,,of ,,the ,,cinematograph #aig ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,,educational ,,films #bji ,,xviii4 ,,photo-,,plays ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,write ,,them #bbd ,,xix4 ,,recent ,,developments ,,in ,,stage ,,productions #bch ,,xx4 ,,why ,,not ,,national ,,cinematograph ,,laboratories8 #bdh ,,index #bei ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,facing ,,page ,how to take ,moving-pictures of ,wild ,animals in safety ,frontispiece ,a ,moving-picture ,expedition into the ,indian ,jungle #d ,polar ,bear ,diving #e ,a ,lion and ,lioness at ,lunch #aj ,caught6 #aa ,operator and ,camera buried in a ,hole #ad ,making ,moving-pictures of ,wild ,rabbits #ad ,nest of ,king ,regulus1 showing curious ,suspension #ae ,mother ,king ,regulus feeding her ,young #ae ,the ,jury ,moving-picture ,camera #bd ,the ,williamson ,topical ,camera and ,tripod #be ,the ,williamson ,camera threaded for ,use #db ,lens of the ,williamson ,camera #dc ,adjustable ,shutter of the ,jury ,camera #dc ,the ,aeroscope ,moving-picture ,hand ,camera #eb ,compressed ,air ,reservoirs of the ,aeroscope ,camera #ec ,lens1 ,shutter1 ,mechanism and ,gyroscope #ef ,loading the ,aeroscope ,camera #eg ,mr4 ,cherry ,kearton steadying himself upon a ,precipice #eh ,mr4 ,cherry ,kearton slung over a ,cliff #eh ,vulture preparing to ,fly #ei ,a ,well-equipped ,dark ,room showing ,arrangement of the ,trays #fd ,winding the ,developing ,frame #fe ,film transferred from ,developing ,frame to ,drying ,drum #gb ,film ,wound on ,frame and placed in ,developing ,tray #gc ,the ,jury ,combined ,camera and ,printer #gc ,the ,williamson ,printer #hd ,water ,beetle attacking a ,worm #he ,marey's ,apparatus for taking ,rapid ,movements #aab ,cinematographing the ,beat of a ,pigeon's ,wing #aac ,first ,marey ,apparatus for ,cinematographing the ,opening of a ,flower #abh ,first ,motion ,pictures of an ,opening ,flower #abi ,development of a ,colony of ,marine ,organisms #abi ,continuous ,moving-picture ,records of ,heart-beats #acf ,continuous ,moving-pictures of ,heart-beats of an ,excited ,person #acg ,continuous ,cinematography--,palpitations of a ,rabbit's ,heart #adb ,stero-motion ,orbit of a ,machinist's ,hand #adc ,lines of ,light indicating to-and-fro hand ,movements #adc ,a wonderful ,x-ray ,film made by ,m4 ,j4 ,carvallo #adh ,moving ,x-ray ,pictures of the ,digestion of a ,fowl #adi ,stomach and ,intestine of a ,trout #aeb ,digestive ,organs of the ,frog #aeb ,lizard ,digesting its ,food #aeb ,x-ray ,moving-pictures of the ,bending of the ,knee #aec ,x-ray ,film of the ,opening of the ,hand #aec ,micro-,cinematograph used at ,marey ,institute for investigating minute ,aquatic ,life #afd ,micro-cinematography3 ,the ,proboscis of the ,blow ,fly #afe ,micro-cinematograph used at the ,marey ,institute #agj ,one of ,dr4 ,comandon's ,galvanic ,experiments with ,paramoecia #aga ,micro-cinematography3 ,blow ,fly eating ,honey #agf ,the ,ingenious ,gilbreth ,clock #agg ,rack1 showing ,disposition of ,component ,parts1 for ,test #agg ,film of ,workman assembling ,machine #ahb ,film of ,rack and ,bench1 ,floor marked off into ,squares1 and ,clock #ahb ,cinematographing a ,man's ,work against ,time #ahc ,moving-pictures of a ,steam ,hammer ,ram #ahh ,dr4 ,fch's ,apparatus for taking ,moving-pictures of the ,operations of a ,steam ,hammer #ahi ,wonderful ,apparatus devised by ,mr4 ,lucien ,bull for taking #b1jjj ,pictures per second #aij ,moving-pictures of the ,ejection of a ,cartridge from an ,automatic ,pistol #aia ,motion ,photographs of the ,splintering of a ,bone by a ,bullet #aia ,soldiers ,firing at the ,life ,target #bjd ,front ,view of the ,life ,target showing ,screen ,opening #bje ,screen ,mechanism of the ,life ,target #bjf ,cinematographing ,hedge-row ,life under ,difficulties #bjg ,moorhen ,sitting on her ,nest #bab ,the ,young ,chick pierces the ,shell #bab ,chick ,emerging from the ,shell #bac ,newly ,hatched ,chick struggling to its ,feet #bac ,chick1 ,exhausted by its ,struggles1 ,rests in the ,sun #bad ,the ,chick takes to the ,water #bad ,fight between a ,lobster and an ,octopus #bae ,story of the ,water ,snail #bae ,the ,head of the ,tortoise #bah ,the ,hawk ,moth #bah ,snake ,shedding its ,skin or ,slough #bai ,the ,snake and its ,shed ,slough #bai ,exterior ,view of ,dummy ,cow #bbf ,mr4 ,frank ,newman and ,camera hidden within ,tree ,trunk #bbg ,lizard with ,spider in its ,mouth #bdj ,digestive ,organs and ,eggs of a ,water ,flea #bda ,moving-picture ,naturalist and the ,lizard at ,home #bda ,a ,novel ,hide1 with ,camera ,fifteen ,feet above ,ground #bej ,hide ,uncovered showing ,working ,platform #bea ,,in ,,text ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,mechanism of ,camera showing ,threading of ,film #bh #b4 ,the ,pin ,frame #fg #c4 ,the ,first ,picture of the ,four-spoke ,wheel #ig #d4 ,apparent ,stillness of ,spokes while ,wheel is ,moving #ih #e4 ,apparent ,backward ,motion of ,spokes while ,wheel is ,running ,forwards #ii #f4 ,when ,wheel is seen to be ,moving ,naturally #ajj #g4 ,curious ,illusion of seeing ,twice the ,number of ,spokes in the ,wheel #ajb #h4 ,mechanism of the ,nogus ,camera #aae #i4 ,the ,ingenious ,radio-cinematographic ,apparatus devised by ,monsieur ,m4 ,j4 ,carvallo #aea #aj4 ,dr4 ,comandon's ,radio-cinematographic ,apparatus #aeg ,,practical ,,cinematography ,,chapter ,i ,,attractions ,,and ,,opportunities ,,of ,,the ,,art ,profit and pleasure combine to win recruits for the art of animated photography4 ,as an entertainment offered to the public1 the moving-pictures have had no rival4 ,their popularity has been remarkable and universal4 ,it increases daily1 and1 since we are only now beginning to see the magnitude of what the cinematograph can effect1 it is not likely to diminish4 ,this development has stirred the ambition of the amateur or independent photographer because the field is so vast1 fertile1 and promising4 ,remunerative reward is obtainable practically in every phase of endeavour so long as the elements of novelty or originality are manifest4 ,the result is that it is attracting one and all4 ,animated photography can convey so fascinating and convincing a record of scenes and events that many persons--sportsmen1 explorers1 and travellers--make use of it4 ,from the commercial point of view the issue is one of magnetic importance4 ,in all quarters there is an increasing demand for films of prominent topical interest1 either of general or local significance4 ,the proprietors of picture palaces have discovered that no films draw better audiences than these4 ,if they deal with a prominent incident like a visit of royalty to the neighbourhood1 an important sporting event1 a public ceremony1 or even1 such is human nature1 with some disaster to life or property1 they will make a stronger appeal for a few days than the general film fare offered at the theatre1 because the episode which is uppermost in the mind of the public is what draws and compels public attention4 ,even1 it would seem1 when the reality itself has just been witnessed by the audience1 its photographic reproduction proves more attractive than all else4 ,the picture palace1 indeed1 is assuming the functions of the illustrated newspaper1 and is governed by like laws4 ,the more personal and immediate the news1 the more pleased are the beholders4 ,so there is an increasing effort to supply upon the screen in life and motion what the papers are recording in print and illustration4 ,one can almost hear the phrase that will soon become general1 ,animated news of the moment4 ,already the ,french are showing us the way4 ,in ,paris one is able to visit a picture palace for #be centimes at any time between noon and midnight and see1 upon the screen1 the events of the hour in photographic action4 ,as fresh items of news1 or1 rather1 fresh sections of film1 are received1 they are thrown upon the screen in the pictorial equivalent of the paragraphs in the stop press column of the newspapers1 earlier items of less interest being condensed or expunged in the true journalistic manner to allow the latest photographic intelligence to be given in a length consistent with its importance4 ,it is obvious that this branch of the business must fall largely into the hands of the unattached or independent worker1 who bears the same relation to the picture palace as the outside correspondent to the newspaper4 ,a firm engaged in supplying topical films cannot hope to succeed without amateur assistance4 ,no matter how carefully and widely it distributes its salaried photographers1 numberless events of interest are constantly happening--shipwrecks1 accidents1 fires1 sensational discoveries1 movements of prominent persons1 and the like1 at places beyond the reach of the retained cinematographer4 ,for film intelligence of these incidents the firm must rely upon the independent worker4 ,curiously enough1 in many cases1 the amateur not only executes his work better than his salaried rival1 but often outclasses him in the very important respect that he is more enterprising4 ,acting on his own responsibility1 he knows that by smartness alone can he make way against professionals4 ,only by being the first to seize a chance can he find a market for his wares4 ,thus when ,blriot crossed the ,english ,channel in his aeroplane it was the camera of an amateur that caught the record of his flight for the picture palaces1 although a corps of professionals was on the spot for the purpose4 ,true1 the successful film showed many defects4 ,but defects matter little compared with the importance of getting the picture first or exclusively4 ,similar cases exist in plenty4 ,the amateur has an excellent chance against the professional4 ,his remuneration1 too1 is on a generous scale4 ,the market is so wide and the competition is so keen1 especially in ,london1 which is the world's centre of the cinematograph industry1 that the possessor of a unique film can dictate his own terms and secure returns often twenty times as great as the prime cost of the film he has used4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,motograph ,co4 ,a ,,moving-,,picture ,,expedition ,,into ,,the ,,indian ,,jungle4 ,mr4 ,cherry ,kearton1 the famous cinematographer of wild animals1 and his outfit loaded upon an elephant4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,motograph ,co4 ,,polar ,,bear ,,diving4 ,a ,,striking ,,motion-,,picture4 ,the market is open also to travellers1 explorers1 and sportsmen4 ,these1 with a cinematograph camera and a few thousand feet of film1 can recompense themselves so well that the entire cost of an expedition may be defrayed4 ,an ,austrian sportsman who roamed and hunted in the ,north ,polar ice fields received over #f1jjj 7#cj1jjj7 for the films he brought back with him4 ,mr4 ,cherry ,kearton1 who took pictures of wild life in various parts of the world1 sold his negatives for #aj1jjj or #ej1jjj4 ,scientific investigators are in the same happy case4 ,when their researches lead them to anything that has an element of popular appeal1 there is profit awaiting them at the picture palace4 ,the life of the ant1 for instance1 or electrical experiments1 or interesting phases of chemistry1 and many other features of organic and inorganic science1 yield good returns to the scientist with a camera4 ,such films will command #bjs4 7#e7 or more per foot of negative4 ,there is another branch of the work already well established4 ,the producer of picture plays1 if his plot be tolerably good and the scenes well acted and well photographed1 and if the play itself promises some popular success1 can command a good price4 ,at the moment there are several independent producers at work throughout the world4 ,they have a large open market for the disposal of their wares and find no difficulty whatever in selling all they can produce4 ,even the largest producers1 who have huge theatres and command the services of expert scenario writers and players1 do not hesitate to purchase from outside sources4 ,a cinematograph camera1 and a little luck1 will make anyone's holiday profitable4 ,the travelling amateur penetrates into places overlooked by the professional1 and usually takes greater pains with his work4 ,afterwards he finds his market in the fact that the demand for travel pictures is so great that a good film of #cjj feet will fetch #dj 7#bjj7 and upwards4 ,at home he may exploit his ingenuity in making trick films1 a most popular feature at the picture palaces1 so long as he keeps novelty to the forefront4 ,trick films1 unfortunately1 take so long to prepare and demand such care1 skill and patience that the largest firms of producers as a rule are not eager to attempt them1 because their production disorganises the more regular and profitable work of the studio4 ,a good trick film of #hjj feet may occupy six months in preparation4 ,but the amateur may approach what the large firm fears4 ,to him time is no object1 and he is able to maintain his interest1 care1 and ingenuity to the end of the quest4 ,on the other hand the professional worker often tires of his trick subject before the task is half completed1 with the result that novelty and care are not sustained4 ,one industrious ,frenchman devoted nearly a year to the preparation of a film in which resort had to be made to every conceivable form of trickery1 and sold his product for #c1jjj or #ae1jjj4 ,he also refused an offer of #e1jjj 7#be1jjj7 for another film of pictures calculated to please children4 ,to sum up1 the amateur or independent cinematographer has a vast field available for the profitable exercise of his skill4 ,except in regard to the topical work1 which is of the rush-and-hustle order1 he must show imagination in his choice of subject and craftsmanship in the execution of his work4 ,he must1 that is to say1 be trained so far as to be no longer an amateur in the popular meaning of the word4 ,he must learn aptitude in the school of experience4 ,the reward is well worth the trouble4 ,hitherto the amateur worker has been held back by the great expense of the necessary apparatus4 ,the camera cost #ej 7#bej71 and the developing and printing operations were generally supposed to be too difficult and costly for private undertaking4 ,there was some excuse for these notions4 ,the trade at first followed narrow lines1 no welcome being held out to the amateur competitor4 ,but circumstances have been too strong for this trade1 as for others1 and it burst its bonds in due time4 ,the co-operation of the independent worker became essential as the demands of the market increased4 ,in the production of plays1 for instance1 ,england at first led the way4 ,but the ,american and ,french producers came quickly to the fore4 ,the ,english pioneers1 not being skilled in the mysteries of stage craft1 wisely retired from the producing field upon the entrance of the expert from the legitimate theatre1 who realised that the moving-picture field offered him increased opportunities for his knowledge and activity as well as bringing him more profitable financial returns for his labours4 ,the ,british fathers of the industry devoted their energies to the manufacture of cinematographic apparatus1 as they foresaw that sooner or later the amateur and independent worker must enter the industry4 ,the activity of amateurs was needed by the ,english trade as a whole1 and the manufacturer1 with great enterprise1 brought down the cost of apparatus to a very reasonable level4 ,this has been effected by methods not less advantageous to the purchaser than is the reduction of the price--by standardisation of parts and simplification of mechanism4 ,to-day a reliable camera for living pictures1 suitable for topical and other light work1 can be bought for #e or #be4 ,a more expensive camera1 the ,williamson1 costs #aj #ajs4 7#eb71 and is actually as good as other machines priced at four or five times that sum4 ,on the other hand1 so much as #aej 7#gej7 can be paid4 ,but the camera sold for this large sum demands a purchaser with something more than a long purse4 ,it demands special knowledge4 ,designed for studio work1 it has peculiarities that are difficult to master and is not to be recommended to a beginner4 ,with the cost of the camera the cost of other apparatus has fallen in proportion4 ,it was realised that the amateur's dark room and other facilities are likely to be less excellent than those of the professional and that he must be provided with compensating conveniences4 ,this problem has been solved4 ,a complete developing outfit can now be packed in a hand-bag1 and a camera and printing outfit can be carried in a knapsack no larger than is required for the whole-plate camera of the old still-life photographer4 ,simple and efficient appliances for the dark room can be purchased very cheaply4 ,there is a portable outfit for use in field work1 where it is imperative that films should be developed as soon as possible after exposure1 and this outfit is now used by the majority of travellers and field workers1 such as ,cherry ,kearton1 ,paul ,rainey1 and others4 ,distinct advantage1 it may be observed1 comes from prompt developing4 ,there may be vexatious delay1 occasionally1 but the photographer is at least able to tell quickly whether his film is a success or a failure4 ,it is better to gain this knowledge on the spot1 even compulsorily1 where another record can be taken1 than to gain it later a few hundreds of miles from the chance of trying again4 ,the capital expenditure of the cinematographer need certainly not be great4 ,a complete outfit1 the ,jury1 may now be obtained for #bj or #ajj4 ,it comprises a combined camera and printer1 developing troughs1 film-winding frames for developing and drying1 and all necessary chemicals4 ,yet it is no toy1 as might be thought1 but a thoroughly reliable outfit capable of doing first-class work4 ,anyone who is more ambitious1 or willing to spend more money1 should purchase the ,williamson outfit4 ,this costs about #dj1 or #bjj4 ,now for other difficulties that have nothing to do with money4 ,it has been assumed that the art of animated photography is a mystery demanding a long and weary apprenticeship4 ,but the impression is really quite wrong4 ,anyone who has practised still-life and snap-shot photography may become proficient in the new art within a week or two4 ,many of the problems encountered in the old photography are actually easier to solve in the new2 some are eliminated entirely2 others1 that are intensified1 are really not very hard to master4 ,illustration3 ,from the ,cinema ,college1 by permission of the ,motograph ,co4 ,a ,,lion ,,and ,,lioness ,,at ,,lunch4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,motograph ,co4 ,,caught6 ,a jungle-fowl brought down by a leopard4 ,animated photography is nothing more than a ,kodak worked by machinery4 ,instead of the shutter being actuated by hand to make an exposure1 and the film afterwards moved by turning a roller so as to bring a fresh area before the lens1 the two movements1 in the cinematograph1 are combined4 ,the rotation of the handle alternately opens and closes the lens1 and moves the film forward a defined distance after each exposure4 ,therefore1 speaking generally1 if the beginner knows how to use an ordinary camera and is familiar with subsequent operations of developing and printing1 he should be able to accustom himself quite readily1 with little waste of material1 to the different conditions of motion photography4 ,there is practically but one process that he should not at first attempt4 ,this is the perforation of the film4 ,the film is a celluloid ribbon and is punctured near either edge1 at intervals1 so as to enable it to be gripped by the claws of the mechanism and moved forward intermittently a definite distance--three quarters of an inch--through the camera4 ,this puncturing or perforation of the film is the most delicate of the whole cycle of operations4 ,it can only be done by a machine of unerring precision manipulated with extreme care4 ,the machines1 though many are on the market1 are somewhat expensive1 and it is upon them that the steadiness of the picture on the screen depends4 ,the inaccuracy in the perforation may be slight1 a minute fraction of an inch1 but it must be remembered that each picture on the film is magnified more than fifteen thousand times upon the screen1 and the errors are magnified in proportion4 ,but these considerations need not trouble the amateur4 ,he can purchase his stock1 as the unexposed film is called1 perforated ready for use4 ,in spite of the great reduction in the cost of both camera and outfit the expense of cinematography is still its drawback4 ,the film is the culprit4 ,it costs from #b;d4 to #d;d4--say1 from #d to #aj cents--a foot4 ,yet in this case1 as in others1 reduction seems to be within sight4 ,the increased demand is sure to cheapen the process of production4 ,if the price is not then lowered as much as could be hoped the cause will be in the cost of the basic materials4 ,these also1 perhaps1 will become less dear in time4 ,cinematography is an industry in revolution4 ,its possibilities are only beginning to be seen2 its followers are only beginning to be counted2 but it can hardly be doubted that the ranks of the amateur and independent workers are certain to increase considerably and rapidly4 ,the attractions and inducements to practise the craft are too alluring to be ignored4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,cinematography ,for complete success in moving-picture work it is essential to have an elementary knowledge of the principles upon which the art is based4 ,although pictures are said to be shown in motion upon the screen1 no action is reproduced as a matter of fact4 ,the eye imagines that it sees movement4 ,each picture is an isolated snap-shot taken in the fraction of a second4 ,in projection upon the screen1 however1 the images follow so rapidly one after the other and each remains in sight for so brief a period that the successive views dissolve into one another4 ,the missing parts of the motion--the parts lost while the lens is closed between the taking of each two pictures--are not detected by the eye4 ,the latter imagines that it sees the whole of the process of displacement in the moving objects4 ,in fact it sees only one-half--the half that occurred in those fractions of seconds during which the lens was open4 ,what occurred while the lens was shut is not recorded4 ,animated photography1 therefore1 is an optical illusion purely and simply4 ,the fact that an appearance of natural movement is seen under these conditions is due to a physiological phenomenon which1 for the want of a better explanation1 is termed persistence of vision4 ,this peculiarity of the eye and brain remains a scientific puzzle1 and although in one or two quarters the theory of visual persistence is ridiculed1 the iconoclasts have not yet brought conclusive testimony to upset it4 ,the whole subject of persistence of vision in its relation to moving-pictures is discussed at length by the present writer in a former book to which he would refer such readers as may wish for information on this subject4#a #a ,see ,moving ,pictures3 ,how they are made and worked1 ,chapter ,i4 ,illustration3 ,,operator ,,and ,,his ,,camera ,,buried ,,in ,a ,,hole ,,to ,,take ,,moving-,,pictures ,,of ,,small ,,animals4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,motograph ,co4 ,,making ,,moving-,,pictures ,,of ,,wild ,,rabbits4 ,mr4 ,frank ,newman with his camera concealed in the bushes4 ,illustration3 ,from the ,cinema ,college1 by permission of the ,motograph ,co4 ,,the ,,nest1 ,,showing ,,curious ,,suspension ,,by ,,four ,,strings4 ,a ,,unique ,,picture4 ,,the ,,mother ,,king ,,regulus ,,feeding ,,her ,,young4 ,motion-pictures of the ,golden-crested ,wren1 the smallest bird in the ,british ,isles4 ,the eye is about one million times faster than the most rapid sensitized emulsion which chemists have yet produced4 ,so there is nothing wrong about the popular opinion that the organ of sight is the quickest of the senses4 ,yet it is not so quick that it cannot be deceived4 ,if the pictures of a cinematograph are projected upon the screen at the rate of so many per second1 the effect upon the eye is that of perfectly natural movement4 ,the laws that govern this illusion have been discovered in a very interesting way4 ,a positive film was prepared1 but between each successive image a wide white line was inscribed4 ,this film was then passed through the projector1 and the pictures were thrown upon the screen at the speed generally accepted as being necessary to convey the effect of natural movement2 but animation could not be produced at all1 however rapidly the pictures were projected4 ,the reason was simple4 ,immediately after a picture disappeared from the screen the white flash occurred1 and notwithstanding its instantaneous character it was sufficient to wipe out the image of the picture1 which without the white line would have lingered in the brain4 ,even when the pictures were run through the projector at thirty per second1 no impression of rhythmic movement was obtained2 they appeared in the form of still-life pictures with spasmodic jumps from one to the other4 ,they failed to blend or dissolve in the brain1 notwithstanding that the white flash in some cases was only about one ten thousandth part of a second in duration4 ,another film of the same subject then was passed through the projector under conditions exactly similar except that the line dividing the pictures in this case was black instead of white4 ,when this picture was thrown upon the screen1 animation became apparent directly the speed attained sixteen pictures per second1 because after one image had vanished from the screen it persisted in the brain1 in spite of the black flash1 until the next picture appeared4 ,thus1 the requisite dissolving effect was obtained4 ,the black flash did indeed produce a defect like that which was common in the early days of cinematography and was characterised generally as flicker4 ,but it did not suffice to ruin the illusion of movement4 ,a white flash destroys apparent motion1 owing to the brain being extremely sensitive to white3 a black flash of equal duration exercises no ill effects4 ,in the latest development of the art1 one inventor has taken advantage of this peculiarity4 ,he has perfected a practical system wherewith the shutter of the camera may be abandoned because each picture is cut off from its neighbour by a very thin black line4 ,an improved mechanism jerks each picture off and brings the next one on the screen very sharply1 so that an effect is produced like that obtainable with the shutter and without any impression of flicker4 ,it may be pointed out that with this invention there are none of the aberrations described in a later chapter1 such as the spokes of a wheel appearing to move in the reverse direction to which the rim is travelling4 ,the next question is that of the speed at which it is necessary to take and to project the pictures in order to get an apparently true impression of natural movement4 ,this factor to-day is governed almost entirely by commercial considerations4 ,it has been found1 as a result of elaborate investigation1 that a speed of twelve to sixteen pictures per second is the minimum wherewith in monochrome pictures animation is obtainable4 ,but this applies only to general work1 such as records of ordinary scenes1 topical events and stage plays1 where the action of the moving objects is comparatively slow4 ,in these instances an average of sixteen pictures per second in photographing and projecting gives completely satisfactory effects4 ,but in reality the speed is a variable quantity3 it must be adapted to the subject and the character of the work in hand4 ,in other words1 strictly speaking1 the speed must be accommodated to the velocity of the subject so far as photographing is concerned1 and also1 in a lesser degree1 to the distance of the moving object from the lens4 ,for instance1 when a man1 walking four miles an hour1 is photographed at sixteen pictures per second1 the movements recorded are far from being natural or rhythmic4 ,on the screen he appears to walk with a disjointed action4 ,to obtain a lifelike result1 his pace should be slowed down #ge per cent41 or the photographing speed should be accelerated to seventy pictures per second at the least4 ,this fact is illustrated very conclusively in pictures of soldiers marching3 they appear to advance like automatons4 ,again1 in photographing animals1 a complete movement is often lost between successive pictures4 ,a cat in one picture will be seen to the right2 in the next picture it is on the left1 having sprung from one side to the other during the brief interval the lens was closed4 ,when extremely rapid movements have to be recorded1 the photographing speed has to be accelerated to an extreme degree1 up to ten thousand pictures or more per second in the case of a bullet leaving the muzzle of a rifle1 and up to two thousand pictures per second to catch the movements of a dragonfly's wings4 ,on the other hand1 in photographing very slow movements like the growth of a plant1 one picture per hour may be adequate4 ,in projection the speed can be adjusted4 ,the ten thousand pictures per second may be decelerated to sixteen per second to allow the movement to be followed1 and although the rifle bullet may appear to crawl through the air1 the movement is perfectly correct4 ,similarly the very slow motions must be accelerated to sixteen pictures per second to obtain evident animation4 ,these two extreme phases of cinematographic investigation are described at length in another part of this volume1 but are mentioned here merely to show that the photographing speed is a somewhat elastic factor1 to be adapted to circumstances in order to produce passably natural effects4 ,for everyday work1 however1 a speed of sixteen pictures per second is sufficient and represents the generally practised velocity4 ,possibly in the near future the speed will be accelerated to twenty1 twenty-two1 or twenty-four pictures per second1 as the present speed is generally admitted to be too slow4 ,the eyes of the regular picture palace patrons have become trained1 as it were1 with the result that there is an appreciable strain of the eyes1 while the disjointed character of the movements on the screen may be detected4 ,but when the taking and projecting speed is accelerated by #ej per cent4 the picture stands steadier upon the screen1 the movements are more natural1 and there is an entire absence of that automaton effect which is so characteristic of most pictures taken under prevailing conditions4 ,these considerations do not affect photo-plays produced in the studio so materially1 because there the actions of the players can be slowed down to suit the conditions4 ,one of the leading manufacturers is earnestly considering the advisability of accelerating the taking and projecting speeds up to about twenty pictures per second1 and private investigations and experiments have certainly demonstrated the value of such an improvement4 ,unfortunately two difficulties prevent its immediate realisation4 ,an increase of only four pictures per second represents an increase of #be per cent4 in the consumption of the film1 and therefore in its cost4 ,the other difficulty is more serious4 ,existing apparatus1 both cameras and projectors1 are geared to eight pictures per turn of the handle4 ,this involves two complete revolutions per second4 ,consequently the gearing of the mechanism would have to be altered1 and this is a more troublesome question than appears at first sight4 ,some time may elapse before a forward step is taken in this direction4 ,in matters of this character the cinematograph industry is notoriously conservative1 although the moment one firm courageously adopts an accelerated speed1 the higher quality of the resulting pictures will force the others to follow the example4 ,as a matter of fact the decision to adopt sixteen pictures per second was taken somewhat haphazardly without any scientific investigation4 ,when it became standardised1 film was expensive4 ,accordingly1 efforts were made to secure the requisite effect with the minimum expenditure of film4 ,machines were built to coincide with these requirements1 and the original designs have been followed slavishly in their broad outlines ever since4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,moving-,,picture ,,camera ,,and ,,its ,,mechanism ,the cinematograph camera differs entirely from the instruments used in other branches of photography4 ,while the advanced worker and the prosperous picture-play producer employ costly and elaborate machines1 the amateur1 or the independent worker1 in the particular field which he has selected for his operations1 can get equally good results with an apparatus only a fifteenth or even a twentieth part as expensive4 ,the range of operation with the cheaper instrument may be limited1 and it may be deficient in those many little refinements which are characteristic of the professional appliance1 and may lack silver-plated finish and highly-polished woodwork or morocco leather covering4 ,but the camera itself is more important than these4 ,the cameras1 both expensive and low-priced1 work upon the same fundamental principles4 ,in the latter everything is reduced to the simplest form so as to be readily and easily understood by the beginner4 ,they have the additional recommendation that the risk of breakdown is eliminated1 because the few essential component parts are substantially made1 well-proportioned1 and nicely-balanced4 ,serviceability and reliability are the outstanding features of the low-priced camera1 and it is applicable to almost every branch of the craft4 ,contrary to general belief1 taking the movies is quite as simple as snap-shot photography with a ,kodak4 ,in the latter case you press the button2 in the former you turn the handle2 the camera does the rest4 ,the rotation of the handle1 a simple operation1 performs every duty through the internal mechanism4 ,it swings the shutter across the lens1 moves the film intermittently through the instrument1 and coils up the exposed film in its dark box4 ,as has been explained1 the beginner is now able to make his selection from a wide variety of makes1 ranging in price from #e 7#be7 upwards4 ,if one desires to gain experience in the cinematographic art with the minimum capital outlay1 the ,jury1 ,new ,era1 or ,alpha cameras will suit the purpose excellently4 ,both are first-class1 well-made machines1 having perfect registration and alignment1 extremely simple and easy to handle4 ,the first-named model1 which is the cheapest1 is contained in a mahogany case measuring #i-a_/b inches square by #d-c_/d inches deep1 and in the unloaded condition weighs #e-a_/b pounds4 ,the ,alpha1 which costs a little more1 is full value for money1 and is well worth the slightly increased price4 ,this camera is fitted with a light-proof hinged front panel giving access to the adjustable shutter1 which permits the opening of the latter to be varied within wide limits and thus enables extremely rapid movements to be photographed while running the machine at the normal speed4 ,the spool boxes carry #ajj feet of film of standard gauge in each instance1 and for general all-round work1 such as the recording of topical events1 either model will be found perfectly efficient4 ,it may be mentioned that both models are supplied without the lens1 because the average beginner in motion-picture work1 having practised still-life or snap-shot photography1 has usually developed a marked fancy for some particular make of lens--,dallmeyer1 ,cooke1 ,ross1 ,zeiss-,tessar1 or ,voigtlander4 ,naturally1 being familiar with the working of his favourite and knowing what he can do with it1 he feels more at home when he is able to have it fitted to his moving-picture machine4 ,here1 again1 there is a wide selection to meet all purses1 so that the most fastidious tastes in regard to the lens may be gratified4 ,on the other hand1 if the beginner has no marked preference1 and wishes to be economical1 he can get a lens capable of doing first-class work at a remarkably low price4 ,his complete outlay upon the camera and the lens need not exceed #f #es41 or1 say1 #ca4 ,if prices are not to be so strictly considered1 and if the beginner wishes to have a machine of the finest type at a comparatively low figure1 he cannot do better than fit himself out with a ,williamson camera1 the price of which1 complete with lens1 is #aj #ajs41 say #eb4 ,except for an expert1 it is difficult to detect the difference between this machine and one which costs five times as much1 for both are designed upon the same lines1 are equally well made1 and equally capable of doing the finest work4 ,it must not be forgotten that ,mr4 ,james ,williamson1 the designer of the latter instrument1 was one of the pioneers in cinematography1 and1 in his machine1 the results of some twenty-five years varied and accumulated experience are incorporated4 ,he has been able to realise just those essentials which are required for a high-class apparatus free from complexity1 and this end has been achieved to excellent effect4 ,the camera1 finished in a brass-bound mahogany or teak case--the latter is preferable for working in tropical countries--measures #i-a_/b inches square by #d-c_/d inches deep1 is fitted with a ,zeiss-,tessar #b-;inch lens with focusing1 and iris diaphragm4 ,it weighs #g-a_/b pounds complete in loaded condition4 ,it is eminently suited for all round duties1 from the rush and tumble of topical work to the uneventful1 quiet but exacting requirements of the laboratory4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,jury ,,moving-,,picture ,,camera4 ,b4 ,driving sprocket4 ,a1 ,c4 ,upper sprocket pulleys4 ,d4 ,exposure window4 ,h4 ,gate4 ,e1 ,f4 ,lower sprocket pulleys4 ,g4 ,exposed film-box guide pulley4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,williamson ,,topical ,,camera ,,and ,,tripod4 ,a4 ,camera4 ,b4 ,handle4 ,c4 ,lens4 ,d4 ,view finder4 ,e4 ,tripod head4 ,f4 ,horizontal panoramic movement handle4 ,g4 ,vertical panoramic movement handle4 ,these machines by no means exhaust the selection4 ,other manufacturers have produced very good instruments at competitive prices1 but those which ,i have mentioned represent probably the best in their respective classes4 ,for the purpose of introduction to the art of cinematography the beginner can do no better than obtain one of them4 ,if1 after a little experience1 he comes to the conclusion that he has ventured into the wrong province1 then his monetary expenditure is not serious4 ,it will be seen that the aspirant has no lack of inducement to embark upon the moving-picture industry4 ,provided he has acquired a certain knowledge of the elements of photography1 and is possessed of average intelligence1 there is no reason why he should not be able to produce pictures with his inexpensive machine that are in all ways comparable with the product of the professional worker and the costly instrument4 ,naturally1 as the intricacies of the craft are mastered1 the tyro will wish for a more elaborate apparatus4 ,he can gratify his ambitions in accordance with his progress1 or with the improvement in his financial position4 ,the mechanism of the modern cinematograph camera is very simple in its character and very easy to understand4 ,the necessary parts are very few in number4 ,in all cameras the chief object is to effect the forward intermittent movement of the film at regular intervals and for a defined distance4 ,for this purpose the early types of camera were fitted with what is known as the ,geneva stop movement4 ,opinion is divided upon its merits1 some authorities condemning it unequivocally1 while others uphold it strenuously1 contending that it gives a steadier and freer motion4 ,there is much to be said in favour of the latter view4 ,mechanically the ,geneva stop movement is perfect4 ,so far as cinematography is concerned its advantages were proved most emphatically by ,mr4 ,robert ,paul1 the first man to bring motion pictures into commercial application in ,great ,britain4 ,he adopted this movement in his camera1 and it cannot be denied that his pictures were in every way equal to those produced to-day1 while his camera has never been excelled4 ,curiously enough1 although this movement has been superseded1 there is a tendency among expert workers to revive it1 and many cameras specially built have been fitted with it4 ,the movement more commonly used is that known as the claw4 ,it is simple1 and has the advantage of bringing the film into place for an exposure with a sharp1 quick jerk4 ,but it is a movement which requires to be designed very finely in order to perform its work smoothly and evenly1 and without inflicting any injury upon the film4 ,the claw consists of a small lever in duplicate1 which is so mounted as to have an eccentric movement and is driven direct by the main gear wheel rotated by the handle4 ,the free upper end of each arm of the lever has a projecting pointed tooth of sufficient size to engage with the perforations on either side of the film4 ,with the revolution of the wheel upon which it is mounted eccentrically the claw engages with the perforations1 and1 thus gripping the film after the manner of a ratchet and pawl1 jerks it downwards a definite distance4 ,when this downward movement is completed the claw disengages from the perforations and falls back clear of the film4 ,then the wheel1 continuing its rotary movement1 proceeds to lift the claw4 ,when it has raised it to its highest point it brings it forward smartly to re-engage with the perforations1 and causes a fresh downward movement of the film4 ,the action is intermittent and occurs at regular intervals1 while the movement of the film is always the same4 ,quick engagement and disengagement of the perforations is imperative for preventing the vibration and tearing of the film4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,mechanism of camera showing threading of film4 ,the mechanism of the camera may be understood from the diagram 7,fig4 #a71 which refers to the ,williamson instrument4 ,the sprocket ,a is driven directly by the operating handle1 which engages with the sprocket spindle4 ,this sprocket ,a is fitted with two rows of teeth1 mounted upon its periphery1 and so spaced apart1 both circumferentially and transversely1 as to coincide with the distances between the perforations of the film4 ,a pair of twin rollers1 ,d and ,e1 bear against this sprocket under the tension of a spring1 their object being to keep the film pressed firmly against the sprocket4 ,the teeth engage with the film perforations1 so that by the rotation of the handle and sprocket the film is fed forwards regularly1 smoothly and evenly1 as it is drawn from the loaded spool box ,b4 ,the film is brought into position before the lens by passing through what is known as the gate4 ,this device ,h consists of two parts of which the first is fixed irremovably while the second is hinged to the first at one side and kept flat against it by means of a spring4 ,both of the parts are provided with an aperture or window1 the exact size of a cinematograph picture--#a inch wide by #c_/d-;inch deep--through which the light passes1 after admission through the lens1 to strike upon the sensitized surface of the film4 ,there is just sufficient space between the two parts of the gate to permit the film to move easily1 and its object is to hold the film perfectly flat and steady during the period of exposure4 ,each picture is thus kept in absolute focus4 ,the feed through the gate is accomplished by the claw ,n1 which is mounted upon the eccentric ,o as already described4 ,at the instant of exposure the claw is free of the film1 or in the out position1 as it is termed1 so that the sensitized ribbon is absolutely still4 ,when an exposure has been made1 the claw1 having risen to the highest point of its travel1 re-engages with the film and jerks it down #c_/d inch1 so as to bring a fresh unexposed surface before the lens4 ,as the film emerges from the gate it is picked up once more by the sprocket ,a1 the engagement of the perforations in the film with the sprocket teeth being assured by the two rollers ,j and ,k4 ,the film then passes under the guide roller ,l1 and is wound up on the bobbin ,m in the exposed film box ,c1 the bobbin being worked through the handle that drives the mechanism4 ,the rotation of the handle also ensures1 through gearing1 the revolution of the shutter ,p1 whereby the lens is eclipsed intermittently4 ,the shutter is a ring fitted with an opaque sector which comes before the lens and shuts out the light during the movement of the film through the gate ,h by the claw ,n4 ,in the ,williamson camera this shutter is recessed into the case4 ,although the lens may be of the fixed focus class--the focussing distance varying with the stop used--focussing can be carried out independently if very critical work is required4 ,in the case of the ,williamson camera and others of this type1 focussing is accomplished by opening the shutter and the side of the camera and looking through the gate4 ,in some cameras a focussing tube is provided4 ,this passes from the gate to the rear of the instrument1 through a space provided between the superimposed film dark-boxes4 ,it is telescopic at the forward end4 ,thus1 when focussing is being carried out1 it can be extended so as to come flush with the gate1 and pushed back out of the way when all is ready for working1 so that the free movement of the film is not obstructed in any way4 ,the rear end of the tube1 which extends through the rear face of the camera box1 is fitted with a cap to save the film from being fogged by light entering from behind4 ,one conspicuous advantage of the ,williamson machine is that the whole of the mechanism is mounted upon a skeleton casting fixed to the interior of the mahogany case by means of four screws4 ,by withdrawing these the whole of the internal mechanism may be removed intact1 and much trouble is saved when inspection or repairs are necessary4 ,in some cameras the intermittent movement of the film is effected by a single claw which engages with the perforations upon one side of the film only4 ,but this movement is not perfect4 ,all the pulling strain is thrown upon one side of the film4 ,this gives it a tendency to move unevenly into the gate and also increases the risk of tearing4 ,the driving gear of the camera is so adjusted that one complete revolution of the handle completes eight exposures4 ,consequently two revolutions have to be made per second to maintain the necessary speed of sixteen pictures per second4 ,in the ,williamson camera this is emphasised as a fixed speed in ordinary working1 and any compensations demanded by the varying intensity of the light are made by altering the aperture of the lens4 ,this is a logical method1 for if the operator is required to make such compensations by varying the speed of his handle he is apt to obtain an indifferent result4 ,it requires a very skilled operator indeed to vary the speed of the handle with judgment between the narrow limits possible4 ,in some cameras this compensation for light is effected by varying the area of the opaque section of the shutter1 but this is not so simple or effective a method as the variation of the stop4 ,the latter can be accomplished while the camera is being driven1 but in the former it is necessary that the work should be stopped while the front panel camera is opened and the shutter adjusted4 ,as for the tripod1 one cannot be too careful in choosing it4 ,this apparently insignificant detail has a far-reaching effect upon the picture results4 ,any ordinary tripod used in photographic work may suffice1 but its absolute rigidity is essential4 ,a tight head1 too1 is most necessary1 without which the operator will get a side-to-side sway upon the picture4 ,it must be borne in mind that in turning the handle there is a tendency1 especially at first1 to exert an unequal pressure upon the handle side of the camera1 and1 unless the support and its head are kept absolutely rigid1 the pictures will betray evidences of the defect4 ,the telescopic ladder tripod is very handy for topical work4 ,this1 when it is extended and when the camera is fixed1 brings the lens some #g feet above the ground4 ,a cross-rail placed from #ab to #be inches above the ground1 and attached to the rear legs1 offers a platform upon which the operator can stand to work his instrument4 ,in this way both camera and operator are brought above the heads of the crowd1 and an uninterrupted view can be obtained4 ,for moving-picture work a special type of tripod head has been evolved1 which allows the camera to be moved bodily through both the horizontal and the vertical planes while exposures are being made4 ,thus it can follow a subject travelling in either of these directions4 ,the movements are upon the rack and pinion principle1 a small handle being fitted to each motion so that either can be operated independently of the other4 ,by means of this panoramic attachment the main object in the picture1 such as a carriage or an aeroplane1 may be followed in either direction4 ,but if both movements are to be completed simultaneously1 the operator will require help4 ,one person must sight the object and keep it in the picture by the manipulation of the two handles governing the respective movements of the tripod head1 while the other confines his energies to turning the camera handle4 ,although the moving-picture camera is built substantially and strongly1 its mechanism is comparatively delicate4 ,while it will withstand the hardest descriptions of legitimate work1 it succumbs readily to brutal treatment4 ,although operated by means of a handle1 it is neither a coffee mill nor a barrel organ1 but a sensitive scientific instrument1 and it must be treated as such if the finest results are to be obtained4 ,rough usage will throw out the registration and alignment4 ,if handled carefully a camera should perform its task for years without needing repair4 ,the effects of wear and tear can be mitigated very appreciably by keeping the moving parts well lubricated with good oil1 such as is used for clocks1 which neither gums nor clogs the bearings1 nor injures the mechanism in any way4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,camera ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,use ,,it ,having examined the mechanism of the moving-picture camera1 and the broad principles upon which it works1 we must now study the way to use it4 ,the first step is to load the film box1 an operation which must be carried out in the dark room4 ,the film is sold as a rule in standardised lengths1 such as #ajj1 #bjj1 #cej feet1 etc4 ,with the ordinary type of camera the #ajj or #bjj feet lengths are used4 ,for topical work either are quite adequate as a rule4 ,as has been said1 the film is supplied perforated and ready for use4 ,many firms that sell the stock1 as the unexposed film is called1 attach a blank or unsensitized lead to one end of the roll1 for the purpose of threading-up the camera4 ,if this is not supplied1 and if the operator wishes to avoid the waste of #b or #c feet of sensitized ribbon1 the deficiency can easily be remedied4 ,for the blank lead all that is required is about #c feet of useless or spoiled film which1 however1 should not be torn or cracked4 ,the emulsion at one end of this should be scraped off for a distance of about #a_/d inch4 ,a pocket knife will do this very efficiently4 ,the blank should then be laid flat upon the table1 emulsion side uppermost1 preferably upon a sheet of glass which secures a smooth1 clean1 level surface1 and a little film cement applied to the scraped end of the blank4 ,film cement can be obtained readily and cheaply in small bottles complete with cap and brush4 ,a bottle should always be kept to hand as it is often required1 especially in joining up successive lengths of film2 but if it should so happen that none is available at the moment1 glacial acetic acid may be used with equal success1 although it demands more careful handling4 ,in an emergency alcohol constitutes a first-class cement1 but it requires extreme care and skill because it is a solvent of the celluloid base4 ,after the cement has been applied to the cleaned end of the blank lead1 the end of the unexposed coil of film is laid upon it1 emulsion side uppermost1 the overlap being about #c_/d inch4 ,care must be exercised to see that the joint is made perfectly square and that the perforation holes of each piece of film come dead true1 otherwise there will be trouble in passing the joint through the camera mechanism4 ,when it has been superimposed satisfactorily1 pressure must be applied to secure perfect adhesion4 ,in order to ensure perfect jointing a film jointer should be used3 in fact it is an indispensable and inexpensive tool4 ,when attaching the blank lead every precaution must be taken to protect the spool of unexposed film from light2 only a very faint ruby glow should be used1 for the cinematograph film is extremely sensitive4 ,the cement dries rapidly1 and the joint being found to be perfect the dark box should then be loaded4 ,the coil of ribbon is slipped over the central bobbin4 ,a hole large enough for this purpose is always left in the coil4 ,the end of the lead is then passed through the velvet-faced slot near the bottom of the box4 ,in order to prevent the loose end slipping back into the box1 in which event there must be another journey to the dark room1 it should be bent back and re-entered into the slot so as to form an external loop4 ,the dark box is then closed1 and securely locked1 and is ready for insertion in the camera4 ,it is advisable to carry at least two loaded boxes1 especially if each is only of #ajj or #bjj feet capacity4 ,the camera is provided with two dark boxes1 one placed above the other4 ,the upper box carries the unexposed film1 while the lower receives the ribbon after exposure4 ,the camera may then be threaded-up1 or1 if focussing is desired1 this can be completed first4 ,with the ,williamson camera focussing is unnecessary within certain distances owing to the fixed foci of the stops4 ,these will be explained later4 ,many other manufacturers of cameras follow the same principle1 and it is most convenient for every-day work4 ,yet it may happen that the operator desires to focus critically4 ,in this event he opens the side of the camera1 lifts the pressure plate of the gate1 and inserts into the gate window a small length1 about #b inches1 of matt film1 with the matt side towards the lens4 ,the matt film serves exactly the same purpose as the ground-glass in the ordinary plate camera4 ,the handle is revolved until the lens is opened1 and the image thrown upon the matt film becomes apparent4 ,this can then be focussed by moving the milled focussing screw on the lens until the picture stands out as sharply as is desired4 ,at first the operation may appear to be somewhat awkward1 because the operator has to look upon the matt film at an angle4 ,it is easier in the case of a camera fitted with a focussing tube1 for the operator has then merely to open the side of the machine to insert the matt film and push the telescopic tube out to its fullest extent to bear against the gate4 ,by removing the cap from the tube upon the rear face of the camera1 and looking through it as if through a telescope1 he is able to look squarely upon his screen4 ,when focussing is complete the matt film is withdrawn and placed in a safe position4 ,it is a good plan to clinch it to the bottom inner surface of the camera with drawing pins1 for it can then be found when it is wanted4 ,should the piece be lost the defect can be repaired as follows4 ,take a small bit of waste film2 scrape off the gelatine emulsion2 and rough the celluloid surface with a piece of sandpaper2 or even with a rough stone surface4 ,it is well to carry a few inches of spoiled film in the pocket for such an emergency4 ,the film may now be threaded up4 ,the loop of blank projecting from the dark box is picked up and the coil within is steadily unwound as the threading proceeds4 ,the blank is first passed under the pressure roller 7marked ,d in ,fig4 ,i71 and then under the spring roller ,e1 which can be lifted for this purpose4 ,it must be seen that the teeth of the sprocket engage with the perforations in the film4 ,a loop ,g is then made and the film is threaded through the gate ,h4 ,before this can be done the claw ,n must be thrown in the out position to obtain access to the gate1 which is done by turning round the eccentric4 ,the spring part of the gate is then opened on its hinge1 and the film is slipped in from the side4 ,care must be observed that an ample loop is left above the gate4 ,when the gate is closed once more another loop ,i similar to that above the gate1 is formed4 ,the film now is passed round the under side of the sprocket ,a1 the spring roller ,j being pressed back to admit of easy entrance1 and the end of the blank is passed under the second or pressure roller ,k4 ,here again one must be careful to see that the insertion is square and that the sprocket teeth mesh with the film perforations4 ,the film is then carried under guide roller ,l and through the velvet-faced slit into the empty film box ,c4 ,this must be opened to permit the free end of the lead to be secured to the centre bobbin ,m1 on which the film is wound in after exposure4 ,the handle should be given a few turns to see that threading has been carried out properly1 and also that it is properly attached to the bobbin ,m4 ,if a sufficient length of blank is attached to the end of the unexposed film1 and a piece of gummed paper is fixed on the lead about #f inches in advance of the joint1 it is possible to continue winding in on the lower bobbin until this mark appears at the mouth of the loaded dark box4 ,if the threading has been accomplished properly the interior of the camera should be as shown in the illustration facing p4 #db4 ,here both film boxes are shown open1 though of course the upper one is kept closed during the threading process4 ,the most important part of this operation is the formation of ample loops both above and below the gate4 ,once formed they remain constant1 because of the action of the teeth on the sprocket2 for the movement of the ribbon over the sprocket is equal to that produced by the claws through the gate4 ,at first sight the necessity of these loops may not be apparent1 but when it is remembered that the film is moved through the gate intermittently1 sixteen times per second1 with a vicious jerk1 it will be seen that if there were no loop1 and the film were drawn directly from the dark box1 a great strain would be imposed upon it1 and probably it would break4 ,but by providing the loop an elastic feed is secured1 and the film is jerked into position before the lens with the minimum of vibration and without any risk of tearing or displacement4 ,threading completed the lower dark box is closed and secured1 together with the side of the camera1 so that the whole of the interior is light-proof4 ,the camera should not be re-opened after photographing has commenced until the whole of the film in the loaded box is exhausted1 or1 if the supply is not used1 until the dark-room is regained1 unless the waste of a foot or two of film is a secondary consideration4 ,should it become necessary to open the camera in the field1 the handle should be given two or three turns to make sure that the last picture taken is wound into the exposed film box and is thus secure from the light4 ,opening the side of the camera obviously ruins the whole of the unexposed film threaded through the mechanism1 so that when picture taking is resumed the handle must be given a few more turns to make sure that the whole of the light-ruined film has passed through the gate4 ,seeing that one turn of the handle represents eight exposures1 equivalent to #f inches of film1 it is a simple matter to estimate how many turns of the handle are necessary to clear the gate of spoiled film4 ,most cameras are provided with a film indicator enabling the operator to tell at a glance how many feet of film have been exposed4 ,in this case1 care must be taken to see that the indicator is returned to zero when the mechanism is threaded-up4 ,another convenience is the punch whereby it is possible to mark the film after an incident has been photographed1 so that the worker can afterwards tell in the dark room by a mere touch where the exposure ended in each case4 ,the film should be marked after every episode is finished because it is then possible1 if desired1 to develop the film in lengths4 ,indeed it is advisable to follow this practice1 and especially when the exposures have been made under varying conditions of light4 ,by developing in sections one gets lengths of uniform density--a great assistance in printing4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,williamson ,,camera ,,threaded ,,ready ,,for ,,use4 ,the film is taken from the upper unexposed film-box1 passed over the sprocket1 through the gate1 under the sprocket and wound into the lower exposed film-box4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,lens ,,of ,,the ,,williamson ,,camera4 7,for explanation see p4 #dc47 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,adjustable ,,shutter ,,of ,,the ,,jury ,,camera4 ,in cinematography1 as in ordinary photography1 the judgment of the brilliance of the light and of the right stop to use on each occasion1 is the one important factor for which mechanical provision is impossible4 ,this is because of the extreme variation of the light conditions4 ,but1 while no hard and fast rules concerning exposure can be laid down1 it is possible to give the beginner a little guidance to keep him on the safe side4 ,practice alone can make perfect1 and experience is the more necessary because the cinematograph is an all-the-year-round machine4 ,in topical work the operator is compelled to make the most of the existing weather conditions1 no matter how deplorable they may be4 ,under these circumstances it is well to have what might be termed a very flexible lens4 ,the lens1 that is to say1 should be fitted with the means of varying the size of the aperture1 and varying it within wide limits1 according to the light conditions4 ,the simplest way of achieving this is by means of what is called an iris diaphragm4 ,to illustrate the functions of the iris diaphragm we will take the ,williamson instrument4 ,this is fitted with a ,zeiss-,tessar lens of #b-;inch focus4 ,by the aid of the iris diaphragm the diameter of the aperture may be varied from approximately #c_/e to #a_/h of an inch4 ,now it is obvious that more light can be passed through the lens with the larger1 than with the smaller1 aperture4 ,while the larger aperture would do excellently for filming a football match on a dull day in mid-winter1 it would be useless for a seascape on a cloudless day in ,july4 ,for the latter the smallest aperture would suffice4 ,but the requirements between these two extremes must be met3 in other words the aperture must be adapted to intermediate demands4 ,by turning the milled ring in which the iris diaphragm is mounted the size of the aperture can be varied even to a minute degree and thus adjusted to any sort of light conditions4 ,for the guidance of the operator the total rotary travel of the ring is graduated to six different definite points or as many different sized apertures4 ,these are as follows3-- f_/#ce gives an aperture #c_/e-;inch in diameter 7nearly7 #d #a_/b-;inch #ef #a_/c-;inch #h #a_/d-;inch #aa #a_/e-;inch #af #a_/h-;inch ,although the differences between these successive apertures are very slight1 they exercise a very appreciable effect upon the volume of light passing through the lens1 and accordingly the period of the exposure4 ,thus although stop f_/#ef only decreases the size of the aperture by #a_/f of an inch over f_/#d1 yet the effect of this reduction is to necessitate twice as long an exposure as is suited for the latter stop4 ,similarly f_/#h demands twice the exposure of that required for f_/#ef1 and so on1 the exposure being doubled with every diminution of the stop up to the limits of the diaphragm4 ,yet in practice this increase of exposure between two stops is impossible1 because the handle must be turned at a definite speed4 ,it is obvious1 therefore1 that compensation must come from another quarter4 ,instead of increasing the duration of the exposure we must have a greater intensity of light for f_/#ef than for f_/#d4 ,at first sight the beginner might be disposed to think that the selection of the most favourable aperture is a matter demanding extremely fine judgment and skill1 especially when there are other factors which may upset calculations4 ,many other advantages arise from using as small an aperture as possible1 such as increased sharpness of the picture1 especially at the edges4 ,mr4 ,williamson the designer of the camera has realised this1 and as a result of his unique experience1 he has set down some very useful rules to guide the beginner1 as to which stop should be used for varying conditions of light and subject4 ,in elaborating this advice ,mr4 ,williamson rightly commences from the zero point as it were1 taking moving-pictures of a football match on a dull winter afternoon1 when1 owing to the feeble light1 the capacity of the lens and the sensitiveness of the film are strained to the utmost4 ,from this point he has graduated the diaphragm and its use as follows3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,stop4 ,subject and ,conditions4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,f_/#ce ,on a dull winter's day2 well-lighted interior3 or on a subject at any time of the year where there are heavy shadows such as under trees4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,f_/#d ,on a bright day in winter3 on dull days in spring and autumn4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,f_/#ef ,outdoor exposures during ,september1 ,october1 ,march1 and ,april4 ,dull summer weather4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,f_/#h ,street scenes in bright summer weather4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,f_/#aa ,open fields in bright sunshine4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,f_/#af ,bright sea and sky subjects4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,it must be understood that the foregoing are not set down as hard and fast guiding rules1 but they may be safely taken as some indication of what should be done under such varying conditions4 ,they may be said to apply generally to the temperate zones where the conditions are almost identical1 irrespective of geographical situation4 ,if the beginner follows them at first he will not make very serious mistakes4 ,but1 as has been said1 experience alone can finally determine the factor of lens aperture4 ,the size of the aperture has another far-reaching effect4 ,this is in regard to focussing4 ,with the #b-;inch ,zeiss-,tessar lens of the ,williamson camera when the largest aperture is used1 nothing important in the picture should be within a distance of #bj feet4 ,if it is1 it will not be in focus4 ,as the diaphragm is closed this distance decreases proportionately until the infinity1 ,,inf1 mark is reached4 ,at this point practically everything is in focus4 ,the distance when other objects are in focus at the respective stops is as follows4 f_/#ce focus distance #bj feet f_/#d #bj f_/#ef #ae f_/#h #ab f_/#aa #aj f_/#af #e ,,inf everything4 ,at first sight the fact that the camera is operated by the turning of a handle makes it seem to be absurdly simple4 ,one or two experiments however1 will prove that it is far from being as easy as it looks4 ,the salient point is to turn the handle steadily and evenly so as to complete two revolutions per second4 ,the first pictures will be found to be very unsatisfactory1 having an eccentric jerky effect instead of a smooth easy animation4 ,an even pressure must be maintained throughout the complete rotation1 and1 before the beginner attempts to take any pictures and thereby waste expensive film1 he would do well to practise handle-turning until he has become proficient4 ,if the turning movement is timed with a watch1 and one corresponding to a second is counted for each double turn1 a perfectly steady turning movement will soon be attained4 ,some cameras are fitted with an indicator which records the number of feet of film consumed4 ,but no anxiety need be felt if this convenience is absent4 ,the operator need only count one1 two1 three1 and so on1 while turning the handle1 each number representing a double turn4 ,in this way1 as #af pictures1 equivalent to one foot of film1 are made with every double turn and every one count1 the number reached at the end of the task will show how many feet of ribbon have been used1 and if this is deducted from the amount originally held by the loaded box it is easy to tell the length of film unused4 ,when the upper box has been exhausted and the lower box filled1 the latter is withdrawn and packed away to be opened in the dark room only4 ,the empty upper box is taken out and slipped into the lower position to act as a receiver from the next loaded film-box4 ,in photographing1 the operator must keep his eyes riveted upon the view finder1 to make sure that the subject he desires is in the field of the lens4 ,the movements can be followed easily1 and there should be no difficulty in keeping the most important part of the subject in the centre of the picture4 ,to follow the subject either in a horizontal or vertical plane it is necessary to turn the handle controlling the panoramic movements of the tripod head4 ,this mechanism should be turned slowly and steadily with one hand1 while the other is turning the camera handle4 ,it is by no means an easy1 simple matter to follow a subject in this way without any disconcerting jerky movement1 since it involves doing two things at once4 ,for a beginner it is particularly exacting1 as an eye must be kept fixed upon the view finder to follow the moving object4 ,but after a little experience the whole of these movements are carried out in a semi-mechanical manner4 ,in cinematography1 it is the diligent1 careful1 and persevering worker who scores successes4 ,in the beginning failures may be galling and frequent1 but practice and experience are the best teachers4 ,one can soon become adept in a fascinating art4 ,,chapter ,v ,,hand ,,camera ,,cinematography ,during the past few years competition among professional moving-picture photographers has become exceedingly keen1 especially in connection with the filming of topical events4 ,the operator often is faced with prodigious obstacles1 the subjugation of which is not always easy1 or even possible4 ,for instance1 in a dense crowd the conventional apparatus1 from its bulkiness1 weight1 and proportions1 cannot be handled1 and1 even if set upon its tripod with the lens elevated above the heads of the people1 there is the serious danger of the whole being upset by the swaying motion of the mass of spectators4 ,yet at the same time a place in the crowd constitutes an ideal point of view4 ,again1 there are many situations where the use of a tripod is impracticable1 if not dangerous4 ,take the aeroplane4 ,an operator seated in a flying machine and desirous of recording the moving scenes beneath1 cannot support his machine upon the conventional device for this purpose4 ,he has to hold it as best he can1 and so secure his pictures under extremely trying conditions4 ,although films innumerable are taken by persons seated in aeroplanes1 only a very small proportion ever come before the public eye1 for the majority are failures4 ,nowadays1 also1 the filming of aeroplane flights from a fixed point on the ground is by no means easy4 ,in order to follow the evolutions of flying machines1 more particularly at comparatively close ranges and when travelling at high speeds1 two operators are required1 one to turn the camera handle1 and the other to sight and follow the object both through its horizontal and vertical planes in such a way as to keep it in the centre of the picture4 ,to do this he has simultaneously to turn the two handles operating the panoramic and elevating gear of the tripod head1 and often in opposite directions4 ,the task must be done without the slightest jerk1 or the success of the film is marred4 ,one of the most disconcerting effects upon the screen is a jumpy panoramic movement either horizontally or up and down4 ,it worries the eye1 and more often than not reduces the picture to an almost unintelligible blur4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,aeroscope ,,moving-,,picture ,,hand ,,camera4 ,a4 ,air valve4 ,b4 ,button for varying photographing speed during exposure4 ,c4 ,exposure button4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,compressed ,,air ,,reservoirs ,,of ,,the ,,aeroscope ,,camera4 ,one charge is sufficient to expose #fjj feet of film4 ,but perhaps the most unnerving and difficult conditions under which moving-pictures can be taken are those pertaining to the filming of wild animal life at close range under natural conditions4 ,in this case a good nerve1 a steady hand1 and acute presence of mind1 are indispensable4 ,a wild elephant trumpeting madly and dashing towards the camera at full speed1 or a lion springing towards the operator may form the subject for a thrilling incident in a film1 but does not inspire confidence in the cinematographer4 ,under such conditions a tripod outfit is worse than useless4 ,it not only endangers the operator's life1 but the pictures taken under such conditions are invariably of poor quality1 even if they survive the results of the animal's mad frenzy4 ,to stand one's ground and to keep turning the camera handle steadily at two revolutions per second up to the last moment with the sang-froid of someone filming a street procession would put too great a strain on human nature4 ,even the coolest man would not obtain first-class results at uncomfortably close quarters4 ,instead of turning the handle in a steady rhythmic manner the motion would be in a series of erratic jerks1 some fast and some slow1 producing a result which the public would ridicule4 ,mr4 ,cherry ,kearton1 whose pictures of jungle life constitute some of the marvels of the cinematographic art1 considers that this branch of cinematography cannot be excelled for thrilling excitement4 ,the operator must stand his ground undismayed1 because the close-quarter pictures are always the most fascinating4 ,yet at the same time he must keep a corner of one eye fixed upon an avenue of retreat1 so that he can get clear in the nick of time when the crisis arises4 ,the attention given to the photographic work must be reduced to the absolute minimum1 so as to be practically automatic2 the camera must be as small and as compact as possible1 for the only way of escape lies often up a tree4 ,several inventors have devoted their energies to the evolution of a reliable hand-camera1 capable of fulfilling the same duty in cinematography as the snap-shot instrument in still-life work4 ,the tripod was sacrificed1 but then there arose another difficulty4 ,this was in the necessity of moving the film mechanism by means of the handle4 ,in fact1 under many conditions of working1 such as in the jungle1 it would be quite impracticable4 ,what was required was an efficient moving-picture machine1 small1 light1 and compact1 working upon the principle of you-press-the-button-and-,i'll-do-the-re st4 ,it is a perplexing problem to solve1 and the first commercially practicable idea in this direction was conceived by the ,polish scientist ,kasimir de ,proszynski4 ,he has produced a camera completely self-contained and wholly automatic in its operation4 ,dimensions and weight have been kept down4 ,in loaded condition1 with #cjj feet of film1 it is #ab inches long1 #h-a_/b inches wide1 #f-a_/b inches deep1 and weighs only #ad pounds4 ,it works upon the press-the-button system1 the film-moving mechanism and shutter running the whole time the button is depressed4 ,the power comes from cylinders of compressed air by which a tiny engine is driven4 ,all that the operator has to do is to sight his subject and to keep his finger on the button1 while he follows the object on the view finder4 ,when this camera1 known as the aeroscope1 appeared upon the market1 it aroused considerable interest1 but its reliability was doubted4 ,it was not until ,mr4 ,cherry ,kearton decided to give it a trial that it came to be regarded more seriously as a feasible moving-picture machine4 ,this naturalist-cinematographer took it with him on one of his expeditions1 and was able to record some startling incidents which would not have been possible otherwise4 ,familiarity with the camera and experience in the field convinced him of its serviceability1 provided that certain modifications were effected4 ,these were carried out1 and the camera is now regarded as an excellent instrument for work that could not be achieved by any other machine4 ,it is fitted1 as has been said1 with a small engine driven by compressed air4 ,the air is stored in six small cylinders of an aggregate capacity of #fjj feet4 ,this is sufficient to expose #fjj feet of film4 ,the cylinders are charged with air in the manner of a motor tyre and with a similar kind of pump4 ,an indicator on the side shows constantly the air pressure remaining in the reservoirs1 while a regulator enables the speed to be varied4 ,the driving mechanism is very light1 small1 and compact1 and contains but a small number of parts1 so that the risk of failure is not great4 ,though it constitutes the most delicate part of the whole mechanism1 and requires careful handling1 it works remarkably well so long as it is kept clean and well lubricated4 ,another prominent feature of the mechanism is what is termed an equilibrator4 ,practically speaking this is a small gyroscope1 and is introduced to subdue any small vibrations or tremblings which arise while the instrument is working4 ,this part of the mechanism has been criticized on the ground that a gyroscope1 to be effective1 must be of appreciable weight4 ,many operators dispute the necessity for its introduction4 ,they point out that the beneficial effects are not proportionate to the extra weight involved4 ,furthermore1 being an additional piece of mechanism1 it enhances the risk of derangement4 ,against these contentions1 however1 the operators who have worked the instrument maintain that it nullifies all the vibrations set up by the driving mechanism1 which1 though apparently slight1 would otherwise suffice to spoil the pictures4 ,seeing that the sole object of employing this camera is the elimination of a rigid support such as a tripod1 it certainly seems worth while1 even at the cost of added weight1 to gain some compensating steadiness4 ,and the vibration of the air engine increases the need4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,lens1 ,,shutter1 ,,compressed ,,air-,,driven ,,mechanism1 ,,and ,,gyroscope1 ,,which ,,counteracts ,,slight ,,vibrations1 ,,of ,,the ,,aeroscope4 ,illustration3 ,,loading ,,the ,,aeroscope ,,camera4 ,the unexposed and exposed film-boxes are mounted upon one spindle4 ,in operating this instrument the usual method is to hold the camera against the chest and one cheek1 thereby bringing the eye on a level with the sighting piece4 ,by letting the elbows rest against the body the weight is easily and steadily supported4 ,held in this position the minimum of fatigue is felt by the cinematographer1 while he is given complete control over the mechanism4 ,it can also be used when the operator is on horseback1 the method of support being virtually the same4 ,but in this case only one hand is used2 the other is left free to control the horse4 ,another advantage of the system is the ease with which the camera can be swung round in order to follow a moving object steadily4 ,photographers who use a hand-camera are familiar with the disturbances set up by the motion of the body in breathing4 ,this is often sufficient to spoil a picture if care is not displayed at the instant of exposure4 ,with the aeroscope--owing to the exposure being from #a_/cb to #a_/ej of a second1 relatively long in comparison with snap-shotting where the exposure is often only the #a_/bjj1 or even less1 of a second--these disturbances are somewhat more acute4 ,considerable practice is required before this difficulty can be overcome4 ,some operators who have used the aeroscope prefer to utilise a convenient support1 if available1 such as a wall1 or the stump of a tree1 thereby making sure of a solid rigid foundation4 ,but in cinematography the ill-effects arising from respiration are not so serious as in still-life work4 ,a picture here and there may show its effects1 but they pass unnoticed4 ,they are subdued1 as it were1 by the unblemished pictures which precede and follow4 ,another camera of this type is the ,jury ,autocam which1 as its name implies1 works upon the automatic press-the-button system4 ,this camera is fitted with a small electric motor1 driven by a small dry battery1 and brought into action by the pressure of a button4 ,a small side-lever controls the picture-taking speed1 which can be varied while the mechanism is running4 ,the camera itself is exactly similar to the ,jury ,duplex model1 the only addition being a small separate case1 about #b inches in depth1 fitted to the base of the instrument1 and a covered chain gearing on one side for transmitting the power from the motor to the camera mechanism4 ,this camera likewise is fitted with a small balancing apparatus to counteract slight vibrations4 ,illustration3 ,mr4 ,cherry ,kearton steadying himself upon a precipice to take pictures of bird life4 ,mr4 ,cherry ,kearton slung over a cliff1 showing the operation of the hand camera4 ,,the ,,aeroscope ,,camera ,,in ,,the ,,field4 ,illustration3 ,from the ,cinema ,college1 by permission of the ,motograph ,co4 ,,vulture ,,preparing ,,to ,,fly4 ,in such instruments as these the even running of the motor is a vital factor4 ,it must not run any faster when the reservoir or battery is fully charged than when it is nearly exhausted1 nor must there be any variations of speed1 for eccentricities of this sort are apt to spoil the film4 ,the governing therefore requires to be most delicate and thorough4 ,another difficulty is the incorporation of a reservoir capable of carrying a sufficient quantity of air at the necessary pressure to drive the length of film for which it is rated4 ,in the ,jury ,autocam a length of #ajj feet can be driven on a single battery charge4 ,this is adequate for many purposes1 but a length of at least #bjj feet is generally to be preferred4 ,the camera is being adapted to meet these conditions1 and it is anticipated that no more difficulty will be met in consummating this end1 than was involved in making the camera drive a #ajj feet length4 ,while it is a moot point whether the automatic cinematograph camera will ever displace the orthodox machine entirely1 it is a useful and even indispensable machine for working under difficulties4 ,it has been used in the aeroplane and has been found successful4 ,it is also of the utmost use in close-range dangerous work1 or in situations where the turning of the handle by hand is liable to be carried out imperfectly and unsteadily4 ,the aeroscope camera has been used on many notable expeditions such as those of ,paul ,rainey1 and others in ,africa1 and is used exclusively by ,mr4 ,cherry ,kearton in his daring work in tight corners4 ,many of the thrilling and exciting pictures taken in the haunts of wild animals have been secured therewith1 and these films show convincingly what can be done with the instrument when it is handled by an expert4 ,but the true province of the hand cinematograph camera undoubtedly is in connection with rush work4 ,for the filming of topical incidents it is invaluable4 ,the operator is not trammelled with a bulky outfit4 ,he carries his camera in his hand or slings it across his back in the manner of a knapsack4 ,when he wishes to film an incident he is not harassed even by the crowd4 ,he is not compelled to set up a tripod or to climb to an elevated point to get clear of the sea of heads4 ,he can hold the camera above his head1 and by means of a second and special view finder placed on the under side of the instrument he can sight and follow the subject while pressing the button4 ,thus he records the episode as easily as if he were placed in the most advantageous raised position1 and could manipulate the machine in the orthodox manner4 ,when his work is completed he can get away without any delay1 because the small box contains everything4 ,on the whole1 however1 the hand moving-picture camera is scarcely yet a suitable instrument for beginners4 ,the invention is in its infancy1 and although clever men are striving to make it more simple and reliable1 many peculiar problems still remain to be solved4 ,but in the hands of an expert operator it is capable of doing first-class work4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,developing ,,the ,,film ,the beginner1 when he handles for the first time a coil of sensitized film measuring #a-c_/h inches in width1 and perhaps #bjj feet in length1 might hesitate to attempt its development4 ,he might prefer to despatch it to a firm prepared to carry out this work for a light charge1 confident that with the facilities at their command1 and with their accumulated experience1 they would be able to bring out his work to the best advantage4 ,but the man who aspires to succeed in topical work for the local picture palace or general market1 especially if he is not within easy reach of a post office1 must be prepared to undertake the task himself4 ,as a matter of fact it is by no means so difficult as it appears at first sight1 and the rudiments of the process may be grasped readily by a person of average intelligence4 ,success1 as in other handicrafts1 only can be achieved with practice4 ,cinematography1 being a peculiar and special branch of the photographic art1 demanding the use of new and unfamiliar tools1 has been responsible for the perfection of particular devices and methods to assist and facilitate development4 ,in the early days the worker had to worry through the task1 and was compelled to undertake a host of doubtful experiments4 ,the beginner of to-day is able to profit from the mistakes of the pioneers1 and the appliances and processes at his disposal are those of approved application4 ,after one or two trials the worker will realise that the development of a #bjj-;feet length of celluloid ribbon is no more difficult than the development of an ordinary ,kodak spool4 ,one thing the beginner will do well to bear in mind4 ,he should adopt some particular brand of film1 and cling to it after he has become acquainted with its emulsion1 speed1 composition1 and peculiar characteristics4 ,there are three or four different makes of film upon the market1 but it is preferable to select a film which is easily obtainable at any time and in any part of the world4 ,i would strongly urge the beginner to select the ,eastman stock for this if for no other reason4 ,the ,eastman organisation has its tentacles spread throughout the world4 ,it has thousands of agencies in immediate touch with the different national companies4 ,the result is that this film can be purchased without difficulty in nearly all parts of the globe4 ,if a local dealer does not stock it1 he can procure it to order within a day or two4 ,moreover the film will be new and in perfect condition4 ,there are many other reasons why it is advisable to select and to adhere to this stock1 which1 although of a technical character1 are of much importance to the user4 ,it must be borne in mind that the technics and chemistry of cinematography are still in their infancy1 and the technical staff retained for the preparation of the various ingredients employed in the sensitizing of the film are striving constantly to improve and to increase the speed or sensitiveness of the emulsion4 ,the result is that the worker who uses ,eastman film keeps pace with developments4 ,the makers of this ribbon were the first to discover a base and emulsion suited to moving-picture work4 ,this was achieved only after the expenditure of enormous sums of money1 after hundreds of fruitless experiments1 and with the co-operation of the highest technical and chemical skill4 ,under these circumstances the limitations of the base and of the emulsion become thoroughly understood1 so that the film is certain to maintain the highest quality4 ,on the other hand1 those firms who have embarked upon the manufacture of the commodity only within recent years1 have still to face and to overcome many pitfalls which the older concern discovered and surmounted years ago4 ,so the film marketed by younger organisations is apt to vary in its quality4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,well-,,equipped ,,dark ,,room ,,showing ,,arrangement ,,of ,,the ,,trays4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,jury's ,kine4 ,supplies1 ,ltd4 ,,winding ,,the ,,developing ,,frame4 ,the film is transferred from the exposed film-box to a revolving frame1 emulsion side outermost4 ,before the beginner attempts development he must make sure that his dark room and accessories are adequate4 ,to seek success with makeshifts in the first instance is to court heart-rending failure4 ,many of the utensils employed in the dark room can be fashioned by any handy man4 ,they may lack finish1 but so long as they perform their work properly nothing more is necessary4 ,the dark room must be spacious1 for cramped conditions are fatal to satisfactory work4 ,an expert will perform his task successfully1 if the exigencies arise1 in a small cupboard1 but the beginner will find that the more space he has at his command the easier he will be able to complete his task4 ,the room should measure #aj feet in length by #f feet wide at least4 ,in a corner1 or at some other convenient point along the wall1 there should be an ordinary sink provided with free waste and with ample supplies of water laid on to a tap above4 ,on one or other side of this sink1 there should be a bench1 #c feet in width1 for the purpose of the developing1 fixing1 rinsing1 and other baths4 ,at least four trays will be required1 three being for solutions and one for rinsing4 ,each tray should be at least #cc inches square inside1 by about #f inches in depth4 ,these trays may be made of wood throughout1 with dove-tailed sides1 and tongued and grooved bottom1 or the bottom may be made of glass4 ,if the work of dove-tailing seems too difficult1 the sides and bottom need only be nailed or screwed together1 but in this case a lining of waterproof fabric should be fixed to the wood4 ,trays of this type are inexpensive1 and are quite as good as those of a more elaborate character4 ,in some developing works lead-lined trays are used1 but they are weighty and cumbersome to handle4 ,in order to draw off the solution when necessary it is well to fit a drain and plug in the bottom of the tray by which the contents can escape into the storage vessel placed beneath the bench4 ,sometimes a vertical tank is used4 ,this system is maintained to be the most satisfactory as it enables the solution to be kept more easily in movement4 ,the tank1 in this case1 should be #cc inches high by #cc inches wide1 and #f inches from front to back4 ,these are inside measurements4 ,it must be lined with waterproof material or with thin sheet lead in the same manner as the tray4 ,for the purposes of the small worker1 the tank process is more expensive1 owing to the greater quantity of solution that it requires2 so1 for ordinary and limited working1 the tray is recommended4 ,it should be fitted with a rocker so as to enable the solution to be kept flowing evenly over the surface of the film4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--,the ,pin ,frame4 ,the film is mounted upon a special frame4 ,a frame made of wood is most generally used4 ,this likewise a handy man can make at home1 although it is not expensive to buy4 ,the middle of each side of the frame is fitted with a short pin to serve as a spindle and to facilitate spinning round when the frame is mounted upon its stand4 ,each transverse end is provided with guide pins for winding the film4 ,the other type is known as the pin frame4 ,its design may be gathered from ,fig4 #b4 ,it is a light skeleton frame with vertical pins projecting from the four diagonal members4 ,the spool is slipped on the central spindle and the film is unwound and passed round the pin on one diagonal1 then to the relative pins on the three other members4 ,it is then taken round the second pin on the first diagonal1 followed round the relative pins on the other three members1 and so on until the whole film has been uncoiled1 the pins on the other four cross members being called into requisition as additional supports when the frame is about half covered4 ,when the film is mounted upon this frame it is in the form of an endless square spiral4 ,when the frame is laid in the bath of solution the film stands edgewise4 ,the wooden frame1 however1 is now almost exclusively used1 as it is easier and simpler to work4 ,the film can be transferred to it in a shorter space of time1 and the frame with the film upon it can be handled more safely4 ,the ruby light may be either electricity1 gas1 or oil1 but extreme care must be taken to make absolutely certain that the light is non-actinic1 and is not too powerful1 otherwise the film1 which is extremely sensitive1 will be fogged during development4 ,the safety of the light may be tested in a very simple and easy manner4 ,cut off about #f inches of film from the unexposed reel1 lay it flat upon the developing bench1 emulsion side uppermost1 in full view of the ruby light4 ,place two or three coins upon the emulsion and leave them there for a few minutes4 ,then develop the strip in a covered dish4 ,if the space surrounding the places where the coins were laid comes up grey1 then it shows that the light is unsafe1 because the exposed emulsion surrounding the coins has become fogged4 ,on the other hand1 if no signs of the position of the coins are revealed upon the developed strip1 the light is perfectly safe4 ,the trays should be placed side by side along the bench4 ,the one which is used for developing should stand furthest from the ruby light4 ,if space will allow1 the rinsing bath should be placed next to it1 but if this is impossible the fixing bath may be placed there4 ,a division board should be set up between the two trays1 rising some #aj or #ab inches above their upper edges4 ,this will prevent the fixing solution splashing into the developing bath and spoiling it4 ,various formul have been prepared for development1 each of which has certain advantages4 ,as may be supposed1 each firm has evolved a formula which it has found from experience to give the best results4 ,obviously these formul are secret4 ,but the most satisfactory for the beginner is that advocated by the ,eastman ,company4 ,it possesses the advantage of having been prepared by the chemists who are responsible for the emulsion1 who understand its particular characteristics and also its limitations4 ,the majority of other formul are based more or less upon this one1 which is applicable and adaptable to all kinds of work4 ,it has the quality of bringing the picture out to the utmost degree1 and by its means many of the errors in exposure may be corrected during development4 ,the developing solution is made up as follows3-- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,avoirdupois4 ,metric4 ------------------------------------ ,sodium sulphite 7des47 #ec oz4 #a1ege grammes ,sodium carbonate 77 #be #gej ,metol #ahj grains #ab ,hydrochinon 7hydroquinone7 #h oz4 #bcg ,potassium bromide #a oz4 #fc grains #cd ,citric acid #djj grains #bge ,potassium metabisulphite #b oz4 #fj ,water 7,imperial measure7 #h-a_/c gallons 7,united ,states 7 #aj #dj litres ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,the ingredients must be mixed in the order indicated4 ,all the chemicals are readily and cheaply obtainable at any photographic chemists and drug stores4 ,after preparation the developer will keep for a long period so long as the bottle is well stoppered and kept in a cool place4 ,only the highest grade chemicals of a reputable brand should be used4 ,a slight saving in the purchase of these essentials is false economy1 because a film costing one hundred or more times the money saved in the outlay upon chemicals may thus be ruined4 ,in cases of over-exposure1 perhaps the most common fault of the beginner who does not understand the stopping down of the lens1 a restrainer is necessary4 ,this is composed of the following3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,avoirdupois4 ,metric4 ---------------------------------------- ,potassium bromide #a oz4 #cj grammes ,water #aj oz4 #cjj cubic centimetres ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,the process of development is as follows4 ,first1 the film is transferred from the dark film-box of the camera to the frame4 ,the latter1 if it is of the wooden type1 can be spun round freely when mounted on its stand4 ,it is not advisable for the beginner to withdraw the coil of film bodily from the box until he is expert in winding the frame1 otherwise1 to his surprise and disgust1 the spool may fall out and the film be precipitated to the floor in an inextricable tangle4 ,he should let it remain in the dark box until it is removed by being drawn slowly through the velvet-lined slot4 ,the free end of the film should be fixed with a drawing pin to one end-bar of the frame1 and contained between two guide pins1 with the emulsion side outermost4 ,the emulsion side can be recognized even in the subdued light of the dark room because it has a matt surface1 while the other side is glossy4 ,the difference between the two sides can also be detected by the touch4 ,when the end of the film has been attached to one end-bar the frame is turned1 the film meanwhile being permitted to slide out of the dark box1 until the opposite end of the frame comes up4 ,the film is passed over this bar1 also between the first pair of guide pins1 and once more1 with a half-turn to the frame1 the film passes along the second side of the frame back to the first bar1 between the succeeding pair of guide pins1 over the top and back again to the opposite bar1 this process being continued until the coil of film is unrolled1 when the second extremity is likewise fixed to the bar by means of a drawing pin4 ,the film while being wound must not be drawn too tightly2 at the same time it must not be too slack4 ,when winding has been completed1 the frame and film will have the appearance shown in the illustration facing p4 #fe4 ,the guide pins in the end-bars prevent the edges from overlapping or touching4 ,the result is the presentation of two emulsion faces on either side of the frame and each face resembles the sensitized side of a dry plate4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,film ,,transferred ,,from ,,the ,,developing ,,frame ,,to ,,the ,,drying ,,drum4 ,for amateur use a small drum can be used4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,williamson ,kine4 ,co41 ,ltd4 ,,the ,,film ,,wound ,,on ,,frame ,,and ,,placed ,,in ,,the ,,developing ,,tray4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,jury's ,kine4 ,supplies1 ,ltd4 ,,the ,,jury ,,combined ,,camera ,,and ,,printer4 ,in winding the film upon the frame1 and indeed during all the operations1 the operator should be careful not to touch the gelatine coating of the ribbon with his fingers4 ,the finger nails should be kept well trimmed so that scratching may be avoided4 ,a touched film is usually marked1 for the touch leaves a deposit of grease1 which interferes with the action of the developer4 ,the frame1 with the film wound upon it1 is lifted off the stand and carefully placed in the developing bath1 into which the developing solution has already been poured4 ,if it is inserted gently no air bubbles or bells will form on the emulsion1 but if there should be any such they can be removed at once by means of a large1 flat1 soft1 camel hair brush4 ,in order to secure first-class results1 the developing solution should be kept at a temperature of #fe ,fahr4 ,the developing solution is rapid in its action and the film must be watched closely4 ,the frame must be kept rocking so that the solution may remain in movement4 ,this enables it to act upon the whole surface of the film equally4 ,should development take place too quickly--7i4e4 the images flash up almost instantly7--the frame should be removed at once from the developer and immersed in the rinsing tray to allow a few drams of the restrainer solution to be poured into1 and mixed with1 the developer4 ,on the other hand the film may be under-exposed1 and then the images will appear very slowly4 ,development proceeds exactly as in the case of a glass plate1 and the same judgment is required to determine when the process has been carried far enough4 ,when this point has been reached the frame is lifted out of the developer and placed in the rinsing tray to receive a thorough washing4 ,water is a kind friend in cinematography and should be used ungrudgingly4 ,three or four thorough flushes will suffice to rinse the film satisfactorily1 and then the frame is placed in the fixing bath4 ,this is made up as follows3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,avoirdupois4 ,metric4 ----------------------------- ,water #fd oz4 7fluid7 #b1jjj c4c4 ,hyposulphite of soda #af #dhj grammes ,sulphite #c_/d #bb ,when fully dissolved add the following hardener4 ,powdered alum #a_/b oz4 #ae grammes ,citric acid #a_/b #ae ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,during fixing the frame should be kept rocked so that every trace of undeveloped silver salts may be removed from the film4 ,then it is transferred to the washing tray and submitted to a thorough washing in frequent changes of water for some twenty minutes4 ,the film is now ready for its final treatment4 ,this is immersion in the soaking solution3-- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,avoirdupois4 ,metric4 ------------------------------ ,water #cb oz4 #a1jjj c4c4 ,glycerine #a #cj ---------------------------------------- ------ ,this final bath is not always used1 but it is desirable if the negative film is to be kept for any length of time4 ,immersion in this soaking solution prevents the gelatine coating of the film from becoming hard and horny4 ,after remaining in this bath for five minutes the frame is lifted out1 and returned to its stand1 where the excess of glycerine and water is removed by wiping with a soft cloth4 ,it will be seen that once the film is wound upon the frame it is not removed during the whole process of development1 and may be left in the same position during the drying period4 ,but if the drying is to be quickly performed the frame must be of what is known as the spring type1 so that it does not keep the same area of film constantly pressing upon the curved end-bars4 ,otherwise the film would retain this shape when it has been dried and the kink would be irremovable4 ,to avoid this defect it is just as well to transfer the film from the frame to a drum 7see illustration facing p4 #gb74 ,this is an easy matter4 ,the drum is mounted upon a stand so as to be free to revolve easily4 ,detach one end of the film from the developing frame1 and attach it to the drum by means of a drawing pin4 ,the emulsion side1 of course1 must face outwards4 ,then by unwinding the frame and rotating the drum simultaneously the film becomes wound spirally upon the drum4 ,another pin will secure the second end of the film4 ,the drum is an inexpensive and very handy accessory to the moving-picture photographer1 especially in the drying operation1 when forceful methods have to be adopted4 ,unfortunately the drying of the film cannot be accelerated to any great extent4 ,the hardening of the gelatine emulsion cannot be hastened1 as in glass plate work1 by immersion in a bath of methylated spirits or some other evaporative agent1 since the alcohol contained therein would dissolve the celluloid base4 ,the only available means is a current of warm1 dry1 clean air4 ,while the well-equipped factory is fitted with a special drying room1 such a facility is beyond the resources of the average independent worker1 who must therefore be content to revolve his frame or drum continuously1 until the gelatine has hardened sufficiently4 ,the process can be accelerated to a certain extent by revolving the drum or frame over a steam radiator1 or some other form of heating which emits no smoke or flame1 but the temperature of the air must not be raised too high or the gelatine coating will be injured4 ,if the weather is fine and calm1 the drying may be done upon a lawn in the open air1 but in any event extreme care must be observed to prevent dust settling upon the gelatine while it is wet and soft1 or irreparable injury will be inflicted4 ,so it behoves the worker to keep his dark room and drying room free from dust4 ,drying should not be done in the dark room because there are small particles of chemical dust always floating about in such surroundings4 ,if these should settle upon the emulsion they would play sad havoc with it4 ,when the gelatine has hardened the film may be transferred direct from the drum to a spool by means of a winder4 ,when the beginner has become expert he will be able to do this by hand1 but it is never a wise practice since the coating is liable to become scratched4 ,the spool-winder is inexpensive and does the work much more quickly1 while the risk of damaging the film is eliminated4 ,as has been mentioned1 it is well to develop the film as soon as possible after exposure4 ,although the exposed film is kept in a dark box1 the chemical action set up by exposure before the lens1 continues1 as in dry-plate and snap-shot photography1 and in a more rapid manner4 ,consequently the film should not be left undeveloped for more than a few days at the utmost4 ,while prompt development is usual in topical work1 there are other sorts of work in which the operator may feel tempted to put the film on one side for development at a later and more convenient time4 ,perhaps several weeks may elapse1 and then complete amazement is expressed at the result4 ,in the unexposed condition1 however1 ,eastman stock will last many months so long as it is not removed from the case in which it is packed at the works4 ,equal care must be used in storing the developed negative films4 ,they must be kept in a cool dry place1 protected from severe fluctuations in temperature and climatic effects4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,printing ,,the ,,positive ,theoretically there is no operation in the whole art of cinematography which is more complex than the preparation of the positive4 ,this is used for projecting the image on the screen1 and is the result upon which popular criticism is passed4 ,also1 in the process of printing the positive1 several short-comings in the negative can be corrected4 ,at the same time1 from the practical point of view1 the preparation of the positive is simple4 ,the beginner who has mastered the somewhat intricate process of development1 need not apprehend any greater difficulties than those he has already overcome before he essays to print his positive4 ,in practice he will soon become proficient1 though he may retain rather hazy ideas of the theory of the matter4 ,the essentials for the preparation of the positive are a printing machine and an illuminant4 ,the appliances and methods of operation differ completely from those used in any other branch of photography1 so that a new art virtually has to be mastered4 ,fortunately1 the beginner gets assistance from those masters of the craft1 who1 having left the producing for the manufacturing side of the industry1 willingly give advice to the tyro4 ,by following the few rules which these early workers lay down1 the beginner will not go far wrong1 and will not run the risk of incurring many dispiriting failures4 ,while the large professional firms use elaborate and costly printing machines1 the amateur is able to get just as good results with simpler and cheaper apparatus4 ,he could not wish for a better equipment than the ,williamson printer1 which costs only #d #ajs4 7#bb4ej71 or the ,jury ,duplex1 which is a combined camera and printer4 ,so far as the illuminant is concerned this depends upon circumstances4 ,in most towns it is possible to obtain electric light1 which is the simplest1 and taken all round1 the most reliable and satisfactory illuminant4 ,if this is not available1 gas and an incandescent mantle may be used4 ,failing either of these conveniences1 acetylene or petrol gas1 the latter with the incandescent gas mantle1 can take their place4 ,even daylight may be used4 ,success in printing depends upon a correct judgment of the intensity of the light1 and of the density of the film4 ,this enables one to estimate the exposure required4 ,obviously this knowledge can only be acquired in the school of practice4 ,the same experience is needed to estimate the length of the exposure in making lantern slides1 or in bromide printing4 ,but it must be borne in mind that in the cinematograph film one is working with a much more sensitive emulsion4 ,a very good practice for the beginner is to make experimental exposures with short lengths of film--say #ab inches--making the tests with sections of the negative which vary in density1 at various distances from the light1 and at different speeds4 ,a careful note should be made of each trial4 ,in this way one can estimate the exposure and learn how it should be varied at different points of the negative where the density varies4 ,moreover1 the knowledge will be acquired at comparatively little expense4 ,if the negative has been over-exposed or over-developed1 or both1 a common error in the first attempts1 it will naturally be very dense1 and will demand a longer exposure1 or a more powerful light1 than a negative which is exposed correctly4 ,this situation may be met either by slowing down the process of printing1 or by bringing the light nearer to the film4 ,on the other hand1 if a negative is under-exposed it had better be destroyed at once1 as it is worse than useless4 ,an over-exposed negative will yield a passable print1 possibly somewhat harsh1 but nothing can be done with a negative which is deficient in detail4 ,the only exception that may be made to this drastic policy is the topical film1 which may have been taken under adverse conditions1 during a fog1 or in heavy rain1 or on a dull day1 or at a late hour when the light was bad4 ,in the topical film it is more the interest of the event than the quality of the film that is important4 ,for absolute simplicity it would be difficult to excel the system adopted in the ,jury ,duplex camera4 ,in this case one obtains both camera and printing apparatus--without the lens--for the modest outlay of #h 7#dj74 ,there is a small bracket mounted upon the outer top face1 and near the front edge1 of the case4 ,this bracket carries the spool on which the negative film is coiled4 ,this is slipped on the bobbin and locked in position by means of a small lever4 ,the film is carried from this spool between two small guide pressure rollers and fed into the camera through a slot faced with velvet1 like that provided in the dark boxes4 ,the film is pulled down a sufficient distance to enter the gate so as to secure engagement by the claws of the camera mechanism4 ,in threading the film care must be used to bring the emulsion side facing the dark boxes and the glossy side facing the lens4 ,the positive film is inserted in the unexposed film-box of the camera and is threaded up as if for taking photographs4 ,as the emulsion side is uppermost1 when the unexposed film meets the negative in the gate1 the two films are brought together with their emulsion sides in contact4 ,as one film is laid squarely over the other1 and with the perforations in line1 it will be seen that the claws engage with both1 so that the two films are jerked together intermittently through the gate4 ,emerging from the gate the two films part company4 ,the exposed positive ribbon passes into the exposed dark box1 while the negative film passes through another velvet-lined slot in the bottom of the camera1 and then is wound up on another spool4 ,it will be seen that in this case printing is carried out in a manner similar to photographing4 ,the film is run through the camera in the ordinary way by turning the handle1 and the number of exposures per second can be varied within wide limits to suit the density of the film4 ,the camera is supplied with a second spindle and gearing upon which the handle may be slipped4 ,the ratio of this gearing is one exposure per revolution1 or as it is termed one turn per picture4 ,owing to the positive film being contained within the camera1 and therefore in a light-tight space1 the electric light or other illuminant may be mounted upon the bench within the dark room1 so that the operator can work in a lighted apartment4 ,in this arrangement1 however1 the camera should be clamped firmly to a rigid foundation1 so that it may not move during exposure4 ,this also ensures that the light should remain at a constant distance from the machine4 ,this camera can be adjusted easily and cheaply for the purpose of daylight printing4 ,all that is required is a square funnel1 about two feet in length1 made of wood and so designed that the smaller open end fits into the front recess of the camera after the shutter panel is removed or opened4 ,this funnel should be made after the manner of a ,kodak enlarger1 and blackened on the inside1 with a dull medium1 so that no reflections of light are set up4 ,when this funnel is attached it is only necessary to stand the camera on its rear face so that the opening of the funnel points directly to the clear sky overhead1 not towards the sun1 and to turn the handle upon the one turn one picture gear4 ,the printing speed will vary with the intensity of the light and the density of the film4 ,obviously the camera can be run more rapidly on a bright summer than on a dull winter day4 ,in the first case it is safe to turn the handle as fast as possible1 but in the second the speed would need to be about one picture1 or handle turn1 per second4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,williamson ,,printer4 7,for explanation see p4 #he47 ,illustration3 ,from the ,cinema ,college1 by permission of the ,motograph ,co4 ,,water ,,beetle ,,attacking ,a ,,worm4 ,one advantage of this system of printing is that the picture is printed with the camera with which the negative was obtained1 and so first-class results are inevitable4 ,the registration is assured as well as the alignment4 ,in threading up the camera it is only necessary to make sure that the image on the negative comes squarely and truly before the window in the gate4 ,once this is so1 every successive picture must be in perfect registration and alignment4 ,there could be no method of printing more suitable for those who are travelling1 or engaged on topical work1 often under trying conditions1 for the conversion from photographing to printing1 and vice vers1 may be accomplished in an instant4 ,some of the more expensive cameras costing from #bj 7#ajj7 upwards are now fitted with a printing attachment1 the printing accessory being detached when the instrument is being used for photographing purposes4 ,these cameras follow where the ,jury ,duplex led the way4 ,the ,williamson printer works upon a different principle1 being a distinct and separate machine4 ,nevertheless it is an eminently practical appliance1 and is as well adapted to the factory as to the amateur's dark room4 ,it comprises a base board on which the whole of the mechanism is mounted1 together with the stand for the light4 7,see illustration facing page #hd47 ,in this installation there must either be a dark box to contain the light1 against the face of which the base board of the printing mechanism is screwed1 or else an aperture must be provided in the wall of the dark room and the light be placed on a shelf outside4 ,the handy man1 however1 will be able to devise a light-tight box1 either for the electric light or gas4 ,in the latter case it must be fitted with a chimney with baffle plates absolutely light-tight1 to carry off the products of combustion4 ,the light-tight box should be lined either with absolutely safe ruby fabric1 or with orange and ruby fabrics superimposed4 ,if wood is used1 the light-box is apt to split under the influence of the heat within4 ,the ,williamson printer is of the simplest design conceivable4 ,there is an upper spindle ,a 7see illustration facing p4 #hd7 on which the spool containing the negative is carried4 ,immediately below is another spindle carrying the spool ,b on which is slipped the coil of unexposed film4 ,the negative film1 emulsion side outermost1 as it winds off the spool ,a is passed behind the guide roller ,c and then picks up the unexposed film of spool ,b4 ,the emulsion side of the unexposed film comes into contact with the emulsion side of the negative film4 ,passing over another guide roller ,d the films pass together between the two rollers ,e to enter the gate ,f4 ,the latter is mounted upon the rear face of a small chamber1 the aperture of which is of the size of the cinematograph film image4 ,this aperture is provided on the inside with a small hinged shutter4 ,by opening this one can see that the negative image occupies the full space of the window1 or make any other observations4 ,the film is moved intermittently through the printing gate ,f by the sprocket wheel ,g1 the teeth of which engage with the perforations in the films4 ,the engagement of the films with this sprocket is ensured by the two pressure rollers ,h4 ,the sprocket ,g is mounted upon and revolved by the handwheel ,i--a motor drive can be incorporated if desired--and after being moved beyond this sprocket wheel1 the two films divide1 the positive film being wound upon a spool or into its dark box1 while the negative is wound upon another spool4 ,the movement of the light ,k1 either towards or from the exposure window ,f1 is effected by means of the handle ,j1 which has ten stops corresponding to as many different distances4 ,the lamp moves to and fro along the support ,l4 ,it will be seen that the ,williamson is a simple1 straightforward machine4 ,it is soundly constructed and works admirably4 ,its achievements are in every way equal to those of the complicated and more expensive model manufactured by the same firm for professional use4#b ,so long as the machine works reliably1 and has perfect registration and alignment1 nothing more is required4 ,extra refinements1 and little details1 while of service to the expert1 only serve to harass the amateur4 #b ,moving ,pictures3 ,how they are ,made and ,worked1 ,chapter ,,viii41 page #hb4 ,as a matter of fact the most important duties of a printing machine are to feed the two films evenly and easily through the gate1 and to hold them flatly and tightly together1 so as to secure perfect contact while they are before the exposure window4 ,by this instrument both these duties are perfectly performed4 ,the sprocket ,g continuously revolves under the steady turning movement of the handle1 and the two films are held rigidly1 tightly and steadily together by the pressure gate ,f4 ,of course1 in printing with this machine1 the operator works in total darkness1 owing to the coil of positive film being fully exposed4 ,this is no handicap however1 because the dark-room ruby lamp supplies sufficient light to enable the necessary operations to be performed4 ,but it is not wise to use too powerful a ruby light1 or the unexposed positive film will be fogged4 ,turning the driving handle is no more difficult than turning that of the camera mechanism4 ,the gearing is so designed that six exposures are made per revolution1 representing twelve pictures per second1 when revolved at the normal speed4 ,with a negative of average density this speed is sufficient4 ,but the period of exposure can be varied according to the speed at which the handle is turned4 ,the turns of the handle should be steady and regular1 or the pictures will be of uneven density owing to the variations in exposure4 ,the electric light is easily moved by means of the handle while the ten stops give it great flexibility4 ,in order to maintain an exposure of twelve pictures per second with an average negative1 a lamp of #ej candle power should be used4 ,to ensure the best results it should be of the class known as focus lamp4 ,this type of lamp has a special filament1 with a smaller coil than is found in the ordinary incandescent electric lamp4 ,a gas burner with incandescent mantle may be used if electricity is not available1 though the operator will have to ascertain the relative value of the luminous intensity of the light as compared with the #ej candle power electric light1 and will be wise if he makes one or two trial exposures with short lengths of film before essaying the printing of a complete film4 ,while it is possible during printing to vary the distance of the light from the exposure window1 the light being manipulated with the left hand1 while the handle is turned with the right1 there is slight necessity for such a procedure4 ,the negative film should be examined to ascertain how the density varies along its length1 and then each portion of film that shows tolerable regularity of density should be printed off at the same speed4 ,in this way variations of distance need occur only with distinct lengths of film4 ,this is a far safer method1 especially for the beginner1 than the movement of the light to and fro while the films are running through the gate1 though of course with practice it becomes possible to do the two things satisfactorily at once4 ,many amateur cinematographers make the mistake of attempting artifices which they have seen practised by some experienced professional worker1 and the result is failure4 ,what is easy and simple to the expert is often beyond the powers of the beginner4 ,success in printing can only be achieved by honest and diligent work1 but patience is sure of its reward4 ,at first there may be a tendency to make the positives somewhat too dense1 and then1 when the evils of this defect are appreciated1 to fly to the opposite extreme4 ,of the two blemishes probably the latter is the worse1 as it produces a washed-out effect upon the screen4 ,the positive is developed in exactly the same way as the negative1 and with the same solutions4 ,when dry the positive1 which may have been printed in short distinct lengths1 should be connected up with the aid of cement as described in a previous chapter4 ,if titles have to be introduced they may be inserted wherever required1 merely by severing the film at that point1 and introducing the length carrying the explanation4 ,the preparation of the titles is a simple matter4 ,if printed type is used1 the letters cut out of white paper or cardboard are laid flat upon a level surface with a black background4 ,the camera is then placed overhead with the lens pointing downwards upon the centre of the title space4 ,the latter1 brilliantly illuminated1 is then photographed at the rate of sixteen pictures per second for a period of ten seconds or more according to requirements4 ,in many instances1 especially in non-topical work1 the operator need not necessarily incur the expense and trouble of printing a positive film4 ,many of the purchasers of educational and popularly scientific films will give their decision after having seen the negative passed through the projector in the manner of a positive film4 ,so long as great care is used1 this can be done without ill effects1 but of course the slightest scratch or abrasion that the negative may receive in the process will be reproduced with accentuated effect upon the positive film4 ,even with some of the topical films a positive is not necessary4 ,to submit the negative to the local theatre or prospective purchaser is often a good way of saving time and being first in the field4 ,many theatres now are being equipped with dark rooms and printing machines4 ,a glance at the negative will enable the manager to decide whether the film is serviceable or otherwise1 and if a purchase is made1 the deletion of the uninteresting parts can be made before printing4 ,incidentally1 one great advantage of this is that the film is submitted for consideration about three or four hours earlier than would be the case if the independent worker struck off his own positive1 and in these days of high pressure such a saving is important4 ,it may often be the means of forestalling a competitor4 ,even if it is intended to supply prints to two or three different picture palaces the negative offers a means of transacting business1 because the respective establishments can give their orders1 make their arrangements concerning announcements1 and be able to judge fairly accurately the hour at which the film will be available for projection4 ,in one instance an independent topical worker who had a first-class negative of a popular subject drove round from theatre to theatre with his negative and secured an order for about half-a-dozen copies4 ,he then handed over the work of printing to a professional firm4 ,four hours later he delivered the positives to the respective theatres1 and ultimately he sold the negative outright to the firm who completed his printing contracts for the supply of other markets at their disposal4 ,in another instance an enterprising amateur who had an excellent negative handed it over to a topical-film firm to print and circulate1 the firm to take fifty per cent4 of the receipts and to bear the expense of printing and other details4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,aberrations ,,of ,,animated ,,photography ,it has been pointed out in a previous chapter that cinematography is nothing more or less than an optical illusion4 ,further proof of this assertion exists in plenty4 ,when following the projection of a picture upon the screen1 one is often perplexed by a curious effect1 or a movement which appears to be in opposition to all the known laws of motion4 ,this happens not only in trick work where such odd and startling effects are introduced purposely1 but in straightforward every-day topical subjects4 ,for instance1 it must have been noticed that when a ship or railway train is in rapid movement1 and is photographed from a fixed stationary point1 such as the quay or platform1 the moving object appears to stand out in bold relief against the background4 ,one gathers a very comprehensive idea of its length1 width1 height1 and the comparative size of all its integral parts1 such as the guns on the ship's deck or the locomotive's cylinders4 ,it is a curious stereoscopic effect1 but at the same time is not truly so1 because it is only the moving object which appears to possess solidity4 ,the foreground and background remain as plane surfaces so that it is impossible to obtain an idea of distance4 ,this effect arises from the fact that what might be described as the central part of the picture is moving or continually changing1 thereby compelling all the objects attached to its length and breadth to assume relief in regard to the other parts of the picture4 ,but if the camera with which the pictures are taken is placed upon the moving object itself1 then the whole of the resulting picture stands out in a truly stereoscopic manner4 ,one gathers an impression of distance between the various objects on the screen4 ,everything is shown with form and solidity in precisely the same way as if one were looking through a hand stereoscope upon a photograph taken stereoscopically4 ,this effect is due to the fact that all the planes are moving continually4 ,but probably the most bewildering puzzle is the moving wheel4 ,a carriage or waggon is seen advancing across the screen from left to right1 but the spokes of the wheels1 on the other hand1 seem to be moving in the opposite direction4 ,at other times the spokes move in successive spasmodic jumps1 or appear to be stationary1 so that a curious skidding effect is produced1 notwithstanding that the rim itself is seen to be revolving normally4 ,there have been many explanations of this extraordinary effect1 and in one instance the higher mathematics were pressed into service without any great success4 ,the most convincing explanation known to the writer is that given him by ,monsieur ,lucien ,bull1 the assistant-director of the ,marey ,institute1 where phenomena of this class are minutely investigated1 because they accord with the work of that unique and admirable institution4 ,by ,monsieur ,bull the illusion was explained very easily1 but1 curiously enough1 in carrying out the experiments to this end1 he encountered another illusion equally strange4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--,the first picture of the four-spoke wheel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--;,during the eclipse of the lens the spokes have moved a distance equal to the angle between them1 causing the spokes apparently to stand still while the wheel is moving4 ,to reduce the explanation to its simplest form we will suppose that a wheel has four spokes spaced equidistantly1 that is1 #ij degrees apart1 and that the wheel is moving from right to left4 ,as a matter of fact such an example is not the best for the purpose1 but it shall be taken merely because it is the simplest to understand4 ,an exposure is made1 the wheel being photographed in the position shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,the lens is eclipsed by the shutter1 and the film is jerked downwards into position in the gate so as to bring a fresh unexposed surface before the lens4 ,while this operation is taking place1 we will suppose that the wheel1 continuing its forward movement1 completes one quarter of a revolution4 ,consequently when the second exposure is made spoke #a has moved #ij degrees1 which is the angle between each spoke4 ,accordingly it now occupies exactly the same position as that of spoke #b at the time of the first exposure4 ,spoke #b has moved to the position formerly occupied by spoke #c4 ,spoke #c has travelled sufficiently to take the place of spoke #d1 while #d has gone to that of #a 7,fig4 #d74 ,if four exposures are made1 and the spokes move #ij degrees each time the lens is closed1 when the four pictures are thrown successively upon the screen they will look exactly alike4 ,the spokes will appear to be quite stationary1 although the rim of the wheel will have moved a distance equal to its circumference across the screen4 ,consequently1 if a dozen1 a hundred1 or a thousand exposures are made under these conditions1 the spokes moving #ij degrees between each exposure1 a quaint skidding effect will be produced4 ,all the spokes being alike the eye is unable to detect that any displacement has taken place between one exposure and another4 ,this impression of the spokes standing still while the wheel is moving1 must arise in every case in which the wheel moves sufficiently to cause the spokes to cover a distance equal to the angle between them during the interval while the lens is eclipsed by the shutter4 ,it will happen equally whether the wheel has four1 sixteen1 or more spokes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--;,during the eclipse of the lens the spokes move less than the angle 7,,ab7 between them1 producing apparent backward motion of the spokes while the wheel is running forwards4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--;,during the eclipse of the lens the spokes move more than the angle 7,,ab7 between them1 and accordingly the wheel is seen to be moving naturally4 ,now we will suppose that the revolving speed of the wheel is retarded1 causing less than a quarter of a revolution to be completed between each exposure4 ,the spokes1 let us say1 move through an angle of #he degrees instead of #ij degrees while the lens is eclipsed4 ,the eye at first receives the impression shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,as the wheel only covers #he degrees during the eclipse1 in the second picture the eye observes that movement has occurred4 ,spoke #a is now behind the point formerly occupied by spoke #b 7shown by the dotted line in ,fig4 #e7 in the first exposure4 ,the lens is eclipsed once more1 and the spoke moves another #he degrees4 ,when the next picture is seen spoke #a has fallen still farther behind the #ij degrees mark1 and this indication of less movement than the right angle becomes accentuated with each succeeding exposure4 ,accordingly1 the spokes in the successive pictures appear to be moving at a less speed than the rim of the wheel1 and forthwith the eye imagines that the spokes are travelling backwards1 although meantime the wheel rim is seen to be advancing across the screen4 ,this remarkable effect is produced whenever the advance of the wheel is such as to cause the spokes to move less than the angle between them1 no matter what the size of the angle may be4 ,we will now suppose that the revolving speed of the wheel is accelerated so as to cause more than a quarter of a revolution to be made while the lens is eclipsed--that the spokes move forward #ie degrees between each exposure4 ,in this case1 while the first picture will show the position indicated in ,fig4 #c1 the next exposure will show spoke #a in the position shown in ,fig4 #f1 that is1 in advance of the angle of #ij degrees and in advance of the position occupied by spoke #b--7see the dotted line7--in the first exposure4 ,in the third picture the spoke will be shown still farther in advance of the right angle mark1 and the effect will be produced of the spokes apparently gaining upon one another4 ,when a series of pictures taken under such conditions is thrown upon the screen in rapid succession1 the spokes and rim will be seen to be moving harmoniously in the forward and correct direction4 ,accordingly natural movement of the wheel only can be shown when the spokes of the wheel1 irrespective of their number1 move a distance equal to more than the angle between them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--,when the spokes move slightly more 7,,ac7 or slightly less 7,,ad7 than half the angle 7,,ab7 between them1 during the eclipse of the lens1 the curious illusion of seeing twice the number of spokes in the wheel is produced4 ,in the course of elucidating this problem ,monsieur ,bull discovered another curious optical illusion produced by the moving wheel4 ,still taking the four-spoke wheel as an illustration1 we will suppose that between each exposure the spokes are displaced a little more or a little less than half the angle between them4 ,as the spokes are set #ij degrees apart1 the half-way point will be #de degrees4 ,when a succession of such pictures is thrown upon the screen1 it is not four spokes which are seen1 but eight 7,fig4 #g74 ,monsieur ,bull is engaged upon a series of experiments to ascertain why this peculiar optical illusion should prevail1 and the explanation will prove interesting4 ,another interesting and more conclusive illustration of the optically illusory properties of the cinematograph was demonstrated to me by ,monsieur ,bull4 ,in order to be absolutely positive that an apparatus which he uses in certain cinematographic investigations should maintain the speed he desires1 he has contrived a tuning-fork control for his electric motor4 ,this tuning-fork resembles a large trembler blade1 such as is used in the high-tension accumulator and coil ignition system upon motor cars4 ,this particular instrument is timed to make1 say1 #dj vibrations per second1 and at this speed1 of course1 it emits a distinctive musical note4 ,this tuning-fork controls the electric motor driving the apparatus4 ,for the purpose of illustration we will suppose it to be necessary that the speed of the motor shall not exceed #dj revolutions per second4 ,in the earliest experiments he depended upon his ear to detect whether the motor and tuning-fork were in synchrony4 ,he varied the speed of the motor until its hum was dead in tune with that of the tuning-fork4 ,but1 as he thought that his ear might not be infallible1 he devised an ingenious synchronising apparatus based upon the cinematographic principle4 ,a small disk of cardboard provided with two holes near its edge1 at opposite points of the circumference1 is mounted upon the spindle of the tiny motor4 ,behind this disk is placed a small adjustable mirror4 ,a pencil of electric light is projected horizontally in such a manner that it strikes the cardboard disk at right angles1 and1 when a hole on the disk is brought into line with it1 it passes through and falls upon the mirror4 ,the mirror is then set so as to reflect and focus the pencil of light in a small circle upon the free vibrating extremity of the tuning-fork4 ,naturally a strong shadow is thrown by the latter upon the white wall behind4 ,in the daylight the vibration of this fork is distinctly visible1 and although it is slight and rapid it can be followed without any effort4 ,but when the room is darkened1 the ray of light is thrown upon the tuning-fork from the mirror4 ,when the motor bearing the cardboard disk is set in motion a very curious effect is produced4 ,the pencil of light reflected against the tuning-fork becomes interrupted twice in every revolution of the disk1 that is #hj times per second1 so that1 looking at the background upon which the tuning-fork is silhouetted1 the effect produced is precisely similar to that observable upon the cinematograph screen1 where the passage of the light from the lantern is interrupted by the rotary action of the shutter4 ,if the revolving speed of the motor1 that is the number of revolutions per second1 is the same as the number of vibrations per second of the tuning-fork1 viz4 #dj1 the end of the fork1 as one looks at the illuminated circle on the wall against which the shadow is thrown1 appears to be at rest4 ,one only needs to touch the end of the fork1 however1 to be certain that it is vibrating4 ,now if the motor be thrown out of synchrony with the tuning-fork1 even if it makes only #ci or #da instead of #dj revolutions per second1 the disturbance is shown instantly1 because looking at the illuminated tuning-fork one observes it jumping spasmodically4 ,this movement becomes more pronounced as the harmony between the revolutions of the motor and the fork is disturbed1 the jumps of the blade at times being apparently of a very severe character4 ,moreover1 curiously enough1 under the illumination of the ray of light the erratic movements of the blade appear to be three or four times more severe than they really are4 ,but as the motor revolutions and the tuning-fork vibrations are brought into synchrony1 the movements grow quieter1 until at last the tuning-fork once more appears to be quiescent4 ,the explanation of this quasi-cinematographic illusion1 which is as interesting and as puzzling as that of the wheel1 is very simple1 for it is based indeed upon the same phenomena4 ,as the cardboard disk is provided with two small holes spaced #ahj degrees apart1 the passage of the ray of light is intercepted by the opaque section of the disk #hj times per second when the motor revolutions and the tuning-fork vibrations are in absolute synchrony4 ,the result is that at this speed the light strikes the tuning-fork each time at the instant it is at the half-way point in its oscillating travel4 ,one hole in the disk comes before the light when the blade has completed half its movement in one direction1 while the second hole comes into line with the light when the blade is at the same point on its return journey4 ,consequently the light falls upon the blade at the same spot every time1 causing the eye to imagine that it sees the blade always in the one position as if under a steady ray of continuous light4 ,hence comes its apparent quiescence4 ,but directly the speed of the motor is altered in relation to the vibration of the tuning-fork1 the rays of light catch the blade at varying points in its travel1 and these changes1 coming in quick succession1 convey the visual idea of movement4 ,acceleration of the motor so that its revolving speed per second exceeds the number of the tuning-fork vibrations1 causes the perceptible movements to be made more quickly1 while on the other hand deceleration slows them down4 ,in reality the eye imagines that it sees more than what actually takes place2 it imagines that the blade of the fork is kicking spasmodically and viciously1 whereas in fact the extent of the movement to and fro is constant and never changes4 ,while the experiment is peculiarly fascinating1 its application is extremely useful to the worker4 ,it offers a means of being absolutely certain about the speed at which the instrument utilised in a particular investigation is running1 so that the resulting calculations may be completed without the slightest error4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,slowing ,,down ,,rapid ,,movements ,during the past few years much effort has been spent upon adapting the cinematograph so that it will record exceedingly rapid movements1 such as a bullet in flight4 ,some popular films of this character have been placed on the market1 and1 in order to attract the public1 have been colloquially described as quicker-than-thought or quicker-than-the-eye movements4 ,strictly speaking both the latter designations are erroneous1 especially in regard to the eye1 inasmuch as if a bullet fired from a rifle were brilliant white the eye would be able to follow its flight with ease1 notwithstanding the fact that it may issue from the muzzle with a travelling speed of #b1jjj feet or more per second4 ,so far as the moving-picture camera is concerned it is obvious that the ordinary machine could not be operated with sufficient speed to film a bullet in flight1 or even to catch the flap of the wings of a small insect1 such as a house-fly or bee4 ,it would be impossible to jerk the film through the gate with sufficient speed to take perhaps five thousand pictures per second--the mechanism1 and more particularly the film1 would break down before a fiftieth of the number of pictures were taken in the space of one second4 ,accordingly1 great ingenuity has been displayed by cinematograph investigators in the evolution of a means of snapping such extremely rapid movements at sufficient speed to make the films interesting or scientifically useful4 ,this particular branch of the craft was developed first by ,monsieur ,lucien ,bull1 of the ,marey ,institute1 who designed a novel and ingenious camera capable of taking up to two thousand pictures per second4#c ,with this apparatus many wonderful films have been obtained1 and such a fascinating field of study has been revealed that attempts are being made in all directions to secure quicker-than-thought films that would have been thought ten years ago to be photographically impossible4 ,monsieur ,bull is developing his idea in order to be in a position to obtain longer records of a subject1 and also to take the photographs at a higher rate of speed4 ,professor ,cranz1 a ,german experimenter1 also has carried out some novel experiments on the same lines1 and has designed a system whereby he is able to take a photograph in the ten-millionth part of a second4 #c ,see ,moving ,pictures3 ,how they are ,made and ,worked1 ,chapter ,,xxiv41 page #bfd4 ,this particular phase of cinematographic investigation is wonderfully fascinating1 and from the private worker's point of view it is additionally attractive because it offers him an opportunity to display his ingenuity4 ,it is only by individual effort and the mutual communication of ideas that perfection can be achieved1 and in this one field there is great scope4 ,there are many problems which have to be solved1 many of which are peculiar to this particular study4 ,it involves a combination of the electrical and cinematographic expert1 since dependence has to be placed upon the electric spark for illumination1 and also upon electricity for operating the mechanism4 ,in such work as this the time factor is a most important feature4 ,obviously1 from the scientific point of view1 it is essential to have some reliable means of determining the fraction of a second in which each picture is taken and also the period which elapses between the successive pictures4 ,in the system devised by ,monsieur ,lucien ,bull a tuning-fork is used4 ,the vibrations of this fork per second are known1 and as the two ends of the fork are reproduced in each image1 it is by no means difficult to calculate the time factor4 ,dr4 ,e4 ,j4 ,marey insisted strongly on the importance of this registration of time4 ,it is obviously essential in many kinds of scientific work4 ,marey during his life investigated some very rapid natural movements such as those of a pigeon's wings during flight4 ,such a film would have been useless from the scientific point of view1 unless there were some means of showing in what interval of time each successive picture was taken1 and also the period which elapsed between each exposure4 ,knowledge of these two facts enables one to tell the time occupied in making a complete flap of the wing1 and the physical changes which take place in the shape of the wing to accommodate the bird to different conditions1 and it also enables the investigator to trace the motion photographically lost while the lens is eclipsed to permit the film to be moved forward4 ,to this end ,marey devised an interesting type of clock4 ,it consisted of a dial provided with one large revolving hand which was driven by ordinary clockwork4 ,the face of the dial was marked off into twenty equal divisions1 each of which corresponded to one-twentieth part of a second4 ,this chronoscope as it was called1 was placed near the object under cinematographic study1 so that both the movement of the clock-hand and that of the object were photographed simultaneously4 ,this system of timing motions it may be pointed out has been revived in a similar form by ,mr4 ,frank ,gilbreth in connection with micro-motion study described in another chapter4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of the ,marey ,institute4 ,,marey',s ,,apparatus ,,for ,,taking ,,moving-,,pictures ,,of ,,rapid ,,movements4 7,for explanation see p4 #aab47 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of the ,marey ,institute4 ,,cinematographing ,,rapid ,,movements4 ,the complete beat of a pigeon's wing secured by ,dr4 ,marey in eighteen pictures1 and taken1 according to the chronoscope in the corner1 in #c_/bjths of a second4 ,marey also evolved a means of adapting the camera so as to enable him to take the pictures at a speed exceeding sixteen per second4 ,he did not change the mechanism of the camera very radically1 but was able to secure as many as one hundred and ten pictures per second4 ,his arrangement of the camera was very simple1 as shown on the plate opposite4 ,the film travelled intermittently1 its arrest for each exposure being very abrupt4 ,in the camera were two cylinders ,c and ,c#a between which the film passed1 and these cylinders revolved in opposite directions and towards one another4 ,as the two peripheries of the cylinders were brought together the film was gripped and was moved forward by friction1 somewhat in the manner of the clutch-action which was adopted in the very first moving-picture cameras4 ,but each cylinder was provided with eight flattened sections1 of equal length1 disposed equidistantly4 ,consequently1 when two opposing flat surfaces came together the grip on the film was momentarily released1 and the film stopped1 though the cylinders continued their rotary motion4 ,by the incorporation of gear trains the number of revolutions could be varied up to about seventeen or eighteen per second4 ,in the camera1 above the lens was a small device whereby the sudden and complete stoppage of the film was assured during the periods when it was not gripped by the cylinders below4 ,another similar device was introduced at ,f above the window1 through which the mechanism at the gate was visible1 and this also pressed lightly upon the film to counteract all the vibrations set up from its quick intermittent movement4 ,the unexposed film was mounted upon a spool in the removable box ,r in the usual manner1 but before being fed into the camera it passed between two other friction disks ,d and ,k1 and was then fed through the camera mechanism and out at the bottom into a second removable spool box ,l1 where it was wound in after exposure4 ,this lower box also contained two friction disks similar to those in the unexposed film box1 and the larger of these cylinders in the lower box1 like ,d in the upper or unexposed box1 was driven by the revolving handle1 through belts and pulleys4 ,it was a very simple apparatus4 ,although it was open to the objection that the film might slip while photographs were being taken at high speed1 ,marey proved strikingly successful in his use of it1 his pictures being wonderfully steady1 even when taken at a speed of one hundred and forty per second4 ,in photographing the beat of a pigeon's wings he secured a complete cycle of motion in eighteen pictures1 which1 by reference to the chronoscope visible in the same field1 shows that they were recorded in three-twentieths of a second4 ,such an adaptation of the camera could be used successfully to-day for what might be described1 somewhat paradoxically1 as slow rapid movements4 ,but it would be better to secure a more positive and simple means of moving the film forward4 ,of course the main advantage of the friction disk system is that the film suffers no damage as it moves4 ,in an ordinary camera1 working on the conventional claw principle1 there would be a tendency to tear the perforations when the pictures exceeded sixty or so per second1 and it would prove difficult in some instances to ensure the absolute quiescence and steadiness of the film during exposure4 ,with the ,geneva stop system of moving the film1 a steady smooth movement is more easily obtained than with the claw mounted upon a sharp eccentric4 ,for such work where there is no desire to exceed two hundred pictures or so per second1 the ideal camera is that which has been perfected by ,monsieur ,m4 ,p4 ,nogus1 of the ,marey ,institute4 ,in general appearance this camera resembles the ordinary machine4 ,it was designed specially for the purpose of field work1 for which ,monsieur ,bull's camera is not suitable4 ,in ,monsieur ,bull's camera the illumination is effected by means of the electric spark1 and it is impossible by this means to light a large field4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--,mechanism of the ,nogus camera1 wherewith up to two hundred and forty pictures per second can be taken4 ,in ,monsieur ,nogus' camera there are two claws1 each mounted upon its own eccentric1 and the film passes between them4 ,the claws do not work together4 ,that is to say1 they do not engage the film simultaneously on both sides1 but work alternately4 ,when one is engaged with the film the other is in the out position4 ,without entering into a technical description of the mechanism it may be stated that there is an articulated lever system1 so designed as to give the claws an irregular ,d-shaped trajectory1 which is very rapid and abrupt1 the ascent of the claw to re-engage with the film being sharper and quicker than is possible in the orthodox design4 ,the general design of the claw mechanism and its method of operation may be gathered from a reference to ,fig4 #h1 wherein the paths described by the moving parts are indicated clearly4 ,the handle whereby the camera is operated is turned at the normal speed of two revolutions per second1 but this1 owing to the gearing1 causes ninety or more downward jerks to be imparted to the film ,f during each second4 ,this makes one hundred and eighty film movements by the two claws per second1 and consequently one hundred and eighty exposures4 ,notwithstanding the high speed at which the celluloid ribbon is moved through the camera1 there are no signs whatever of tearing4 ,furthermore1 the film1 during the brief period of exposure--from #a_/cfjth to #a_/dhjth part of a second--remains perfectly steady and quiet in the gate4 ,the first camera built on this principle had a maximum speed of one hundred and eighty pictures per second1 but by modifying certain details it was found possible to increase the velocity in a subsequent machine to two hundred and two hundred and forty pictures per second4 ,this represents a far higher speed than has ever yet been attained with the ordinary moving-picture apparatus4 ,the machine is no larger than the ordinary type1 although1 owing to the rapidity with which the pictures are taken1 the externally fitting film-box system is adopted1 so as to provide a supply of about #gjj feet of film for exposure4 ,in projection on the screen the speed is reduced to about one-twentieth or more of the rate of the exposure4 ,the results are far superior to any which have yet been seen upon the screen4 ,the movements are steadier and more continuous1 inasmuch as the proportion of lost movement is about one-twentieth of what it is with the orthodox instrument4 ,the result is that one sees upon the screen many phases of movement which otherwise escape detection or are only partially shown under present cinematographing conditions4 ,owing to the gearing and the balance of the moving parts the operation of this camera is not more fatiguing than that of the ordinary instrument2 indeed1 it runs far more easily and lightly4 ,the camera has been evolved for the express purpose of reinvestigating many of the studies conducted by ,marey1 which1 owing to the imperfect appliances at his disposal1 are possibly incomplete4 ,but it may be asked1 where is the demand for pictures taken at such a speed8 ,in reply it is only necessary to point out that such photographing speeds are indispensable in studying the motions of the smaller members of the animal kingdom4 ,for instance1 an amateur recently prepared a film showing the life and habits of lizards4 ,they were taken at the normal speed of sixteen pictures per second1 which the operator judged to be sufficient4 ,but when the pictures were shown upon the screen1 the very motions which are the most interesting1 such as the movement of the tongue1 jerk of the head1 and so forth1 were lost4 ,similarly1 another film depicted the chameleon1 but failed to catch the instantaneous throw of its tongue4 ,on the other hand1 when the pictures were taken at the accelerated speed of fifty to eighty per second1 the results were strikingly different4 ,not only were they more complete1 but they were smoother1 more continuous1 and more natural2 in fact1 they were practically identical with those which the human eye observes in the creatures themselves4 ,phases of natural movement1 capable of being recorded at speeds ranging between eighty and two hundred per second1 are the most promising spheres of moving-picture activity at the present moment4 ,nature study never fails to arouse enthusiasm1 while from the operator's point of view it is indescribably fascinating4 ,something unexpected is secured at every turn of the handle4 ,the portrayal of ,nature stirs the emotions of wonder1 it is true to fact1 and it often introduces the spectator to something about which he has read but which he never has seen4 ,consequently1 so far as life is concerned1 the pictures should never be taken at less than forty to fifty per second1 unless one is contented to have a mere distorted impression of what actually takes place4 ,even moving-pictures of the snail or tortoise1 generally considered to move very slowly1 should never be photographed at a less speed1 because these have actions which cannot be caught at sixteen pictures per second4 ,generally speaking1 the smaller the live subject under investigation1 the more rapid should be the photographing speed4 ,the movements of a bee's wings cannot be caught at sixteen or even two hundred pictures per second4 ,this was proved some time ago when ,monsieur ,lucien ,bull1 by the aid of his electric spark system1 and special camera1 obtained a series of photos showing how a bee regains its normal balance when it is upset4 ,for this purpose a bee was launched from the special apparatus used in connection with the camera1 with its equilibrium very seriously disturbed4 ,so rapid was its recovery that twenty pictures taken in succession at the above speed served to illustrate the whole operation1 the final photograph showing the bee in normal flight4 ,this was the first occasion wherein this peculiar phenomenon had been photographically recorded1 and the unique character of the achievement may be realised from the fact that the bee regained its balance in the infinitesimal period of approximately the hundredth part of a second4 ,even in photographing a man1 to show rapid walking motion1 a speed of sixteen pictures per second is far from adequate4 ,if he happens to be walking at four miles an hour quite #ge per cent4 of the motion is lost1 and the movement portrayed under these conditions is spasmodic and jerky4 ,for a natural cinematographic record of a man walking1 at the present orthodox rate of sixteen pictures per second1 his pace should not exceed a mile an hour4 ,therefore to film a man walking at four miles an hour the photographing speed should not be less than sixty-four pictures per second4 ,though the ultra-rapid movement involves the use of intricate electrical apparatus1 it is a peculiarly absorbing study4 ,the appliances required are necessarily expensive1 but1 since it is virtually an untouched province1 enormous opportunities await the patient worker4 ,it is additionally attractive because each worker is to a very great extent dependent upon his own ingenuity in the design of efficient auxiliaries and secondary apparatus4 ,it is this wide scope for individual initiative which causes rapid cinematography to be so keenly appreciated by investigators1 and1 as results have shown1 their discoveries when popularised make a very deep impression on the public4 ,of course1 in projection1 it is useless to attempt to throw the successive pictures upon the screen at anything approaching the speed at which they were snapped4 ,if the flight of a bullet recorded at say ten thousand images per second1 were projected at a corresponding speed1 nothing would be seen4 ,so1 in projection1 the speed is slowed down2 the subject photographed at two thousand pictures per second is thrown upon the screen and brought to the eye at the rate of sixteen pictures per second4 ,the bullet moves across the screen with the pace of a snail4 ,the wings of a dragon fly1 which in life make several hundred oscillations per second1 appear to move as sluggishly as those of a barn-door fowl4 ,but the detail and the complex movements are recorded2 the eye sees and follows something which has formerly been beyond its powers4 ,if it is desired to reduce the speed to its absolute slowest point1 so as to facilitate even closer study1 the operator can take advantage1 to an extreme degree1 of the phenomenon of the persistence of vision4 ,this has been done by ,monsieur ,lucien ,bull4 ,it is impossible to reduce the speed of projection to less than sixteen pictures per second1 for this is the lowest rate at which the laws of persistence will allow of an appearance of continuous motion4 ,yet there is an ingenious way of obtaining the equivalent of a speed of eight pictures per second1 and this without either disturbing the apparently lifelike movement or producing any flicker4 ,the method is by duplicating each separate picture of the negative upon the positive4 ,that is to say each negative picture is printed twice in succession upon the positive1 so that #ab inches of film1 which normally would carry sixteen successive and different pictures carries in this case only eight4 ,when projected upon the screen1 at the rate of sixteen pictures per second1 the eye fails to detect that it is seeing every picture twice4 ,this might almost be described as an optical illusion1 and it makes another interesting proof that the eye can be deluded by cinematography4 ,monsieur ,bull1 after having found that the eye did not observe that two identical pictures were shown in succession1 endeavoured to carry multiplication still farther4 ,he found1 however1 that a pair of pictures was the limit4 ,when three identical pictures were shown in succession the impression upon the eye was too long4 ,the movement from triplet to triplet gave a disjointed effect such as arises in ordinary projection when the speed is too slow4 ,,chapter ,x ,,speeding-,,up ,,slow ,,movements ,the preceding chapter described how it is possible to photograph extraordinarily rapid movements and to slow down in projection so as to enable the eye to follow them4 ,now ,i will go to the other extreme and show how the very slowest movements can be accelerated and thrown upon the screen in continuous motion4 ,this feature has proved one of the most popular in the whole range of cinematography1 for it has enabled the public to follow1 within the course of a few minutes1 such wonderful and apparently impossible studies as the growth of a plant from the germination of the seed and the appearance of the leaves to the bursting of the bloom and the formation of the seed for the propagation of the species4 ,the speeding-up of relatively slow movements has become a favourite branch of research among cinematograph workers mainly because it is simple1 inexpensive1 and comparatively easy4 ,the worker needs to develop only one special faculty4 ,that is patience1 for the recording of a single subject may easily extend over a period of a month or so1 and the camera has to be kept going night and day to produce a faithful record4 ,it is a field which the amateur can follow very profitably4 ,it puts no great tax on his skill4 ,the risk of failure is slight1 and the films thus obtained1 if worked out upon popular or instructive lines1 are certain to command a ready market4 ,for this work one may use the ordinary #e 7#be7 camera4 ,it illustrates the fact that cinematography is nothing more nor less than a string of successive snap-shots1 for the principle is that which is generally described as one turn one picture4 ,that is to say1 instead of the handle being turned continuously as in taking a topical subject1 it is moved at stated intervals1 and only sufficiently to make one exposure and to jerk the film downwards the required distance ready to receive the succeeding image4 ,it virtually resolves cinematography into ordinary snap-shot or ,kodak photography4 ,this development1 like many others widely practised in the moving-picture world to-day1 has issued from the ,marey ,institute4 ,it was there exploited in the usual manner for the study of natural movement and phenomena4 ,in the early days of the present century1 even before the picture palace came into vogue1 the workers of this institution produced a short length of film showing the opening of the blossom of a convolvulus4 ,although this film is some ten years old it would be difficult even now to improve upon it4 ,the opening movement of the petals is so steady and perfect as to suggest that the exposure was not intermittent but continuous4 ,in these particular studies success in the main depends upon the apparatus employed for the periodical exposure of the film and the judgment shown in deciding the lapse of time between the successive exposures4 ,naturally this varies according to the characteristics of the subject under investigation4 ,a mushroom1 for instance1 demands exposure at briefer intervals than would be necessary for filming the growth of a grain of wheat4 ,the timing is perhaps the most difficult part of the undertaking1 because if it is not gauged to a nicety the movement on the screen is apt to be unnatural1 the growth taking place in a series of sudden jerks instead of proceeding slowly1 steadily and gracefully4 ,many a first-class film of this character has been ruined because the interval between the exposures has been too long to bring about the necessary blending together of the motions in the successive pictures4 ,no hard and fast rule can be laid down to guide the worker4 ,experience and close study of the subject being photographed can alone enable this factor to be determined4 ,the auxiliary apparatus to ensure the exposures being made at regular intervals need not be of an intricate character4 ,the simpler the means1 the more likely is the result to be successful4 ,clockwork mechanism can be devised to open the shutter at stated intervals1 but this system suffers from one serious disadvantage4 ,the mechanism must be wound up regularly1 and when a long study is in progress1 extending over a fortnight or a month1 the worker is apt to overlook this indispensable duty4 ,there is one worker who generally uses a water motor1 and has found it very reliable2 but it cannot be safely left1 and it ceases to act if the public water supply be cut off4 ,the most reliable agent for such work is electricity4 ,when the ,marey ,institute first embarked upon these tedious subjects a very elaborate apparatus was employed4 ,it was like a gallows1 being in reality a massive wooden frame 7see illustration facing page #abh7 fitted with a pulley4 ,a rope passed over this pulley1 and to one end was attached a weight ,p4 ,the other end passed round a small winch ,t1 to which the camera ,c was connected4 ,upon the spindle connecting these two parts of the mechanism was a small wing-piece ,l1 one of the extremities of which rested upon a vertical spindle ,e connected with an electro-magnet ,f4 ,in the electro-magnet circuit was a small water-balancer ,b having two cells and a see-saw motion4 ,this was driven by a stream of water flowing from the tap of the tank ,r4 ,the flow of water from the tap could be regulated4 ,when the elevated cell of the balancer was filled1 its weight caused it to fall4 ,as it fell the electric circuit of the battery ,v was closed4 ,this caused the small vertical rod ,e to be drawn downwards by the electro-magnet ,f4 ,the descent of the rod allowed the leaf ,l to fall4 ,the make and break in the electro-magnet was instantaneous1 so that the vertical rod ,e immediately returned to its normal position1 with the result that1 when the wing came round1 after completing a revolution1 it was stopped1 and remained there until the second cell of the water-balancer1 filling and falling in its turn1 repeated the cycle of operations4 ,as the rod carrying the wing ,l was the common axis of the winch and the driving mechanism of the camera the release of the wing brought the strain of the weight ,p upon the cord1 and thereby moved the camera driving mechanism a complete revolution4 ,thus it conformed to the one-turn-one-picture movement4 ,it was a combination of weight-driven and electrical mechanism1 and1 though apparently complicated and certainly cumbersome1 it was satisfactory because it completed its work with unerring steadiness and regularity4 ,as the weight ,p descended a very small distance for each exposure a single winding-up was sufficient to drive the mechanism for several hours4 ,the intervals between the exposures could be varied by turning the tap on or off1 thereby changing the volume of water flowing into the balancer4 ,the thinner the water stream the longer the period required to fill the cell1 the longer the interval between each see-saw1 and obviously the greater the lapse of time between each exposure4 ,similarly the time intervals between each exposure could be shortened by turning on the tap so that the cell became filled more quickly4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of the ,marey ,institute4 ,,the ,,elaborate ,,apparatus ,,contrived ,,at ,,the ,,marey ,,institute ,,to ,,take ,,the ,,first ,,moving-,,pictures ,,of ,,the ,,opening ,,of ,a ,,flower4 7,for explanation see p4 #abg47 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,first ,,motion-,,pictures ,,of ,,an ,,opening ,,flower4 ,taken at the ,marey ,institute4 ,the complete opening of a convolvulus is shown in fifteen pictures4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of the ,marey ,institute4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,a ,,colony ,,of ,,marine ,,organisms4 7,read from top to bottom and left to right47 ,in the ,marey ,institute investigations with the convolvulus1 which was placed on a chair a short distance from the lens of the camera1 sixteen successive snap-shots were made in the hour4 ,these pictures1 taken at intervals of four minutes1 show the complete opening of the flower1 the phases in the successive pictures blending so well together as to convey the impression that the pictures were taken at the normal speed4 ,a striking contrast to the bulky1 weighty1 and massive apparatus employed ten years ago to photograph intermittently the opening of a flower is the latest device which is employed at this ,institute for this work4 ,it is a small1 light compact contrivance driven by a kind of carriage clock4 ,this clock actuates two levers whereby electric contacts are made at predetermined intervals to open and close the lens4 ,this mechanism can be set so as to give exposures at intervals ranging from a minute to several hours1 and will run for twenty-four hours without attention4 ,the apparatus is as accurate as it is ingenious4 ,it is obvious1 however1 in such work1 that a great deal depends upon the personality of the worker himself4 ,if he is skilful he will find no difficulty in devising a reliable timing apparatus which he can trust for hours together4 ,but the simpler the character of the appliances the more trustworthy will they prove1 because the reduction in the number of the component parts will decrease their liability to derangement and irregular action4 ,seeing that exposures have to be continued at the predetermined intervals throughout the whole twenty-four hours1 arrangements must be made for artificial illumination during the night4 ,this should not prove a difficult problem4 ,there is a wide range of illuminants--electricity1 gas1 acetylene1 etc4--from which a choice can be made according to the circumstances of the case4 ,thus a worker living in country districts may find a difficulty in obtaining electric current or coal gas1 in which case he must rely upon acetylene1 or a petrol gas flame1 in conjunction with an incandescent mantle1 or even an electric battery and flash-lamp with a reflector4 ,if electricity or coal gas are available from public supply sources there need be no anxieties whatever4 ,a metallic filament incandescent electric lamp of high power is quite sufficient for the purpose1 and if there is need for a concentrated strong light it can be obtained by mounting the lamp within a parabolic reflector1 such as is used for automobiles4 ,coal gas with an incandescent burner and mantle is just as efficient1 and concentration in this case can be managed in the same way with a reflector4 ,but it is necessary to make sure that no draughts play upon the gas flame1 as the intensity of the light might thus be greatly impoverished4 ,acetylene is a very useful and powerful illuminant when all else fails4 ,it is the nearest artificial approach to sunlight4 ,petrol gas with an incandescent mantle will be found just as good as ordinary coal gas1 while there are many cheap lamps well adapted for its use4 ,if all these alternatives are lacking there is the electric flash lamp working with the dry battery4 ,a tiny metallic filament incandescent bulb mounted within a parabolic reflector will give a light of intense brilliancy4 ,but the exhaustion of the battery causes the value of this light to diminish in a relatively short time1 so it is well not to let it burn continuously4 ,there should be a means of producing the flash only at the moment the timing apparatus makes the exposure4 ,in one application of this system the flash and the movement of the shutter are controlled by an electro-magnet1 arranged in such a manner that the lamp lights up a fraction of a second before the shutter is moved4 ,thus the object under study is in the full glare of the light before the film is exposed4 ,of course1 if a high capacity accumulator can be obtained1 such as that of the latest ,edison ,nickel type1 the light may be left burning continuously4 ,but when there is already an electrical system of actuating the shutter it is a simple matter to incorporate a means of limiting the contact in the lamp to the moment of the exposure4 ,for the average worker1 however1 the electrical system is too costly4 ,he will usually prefer a form of light which can be allowed to burn continuously through the night4 ,even the longest night will not consume a very great quantity of current or gas4 ,also1 unless some very accurate mechanism is used for controlling the intermittent operation of the light1 there is always a chance that the exposure and the illumination may fail to synchronise1 and thus an excellent film might be ruined4 ,the one-turn-one-picture movement has to be adopted for many subjects other than flowers4 ,for instance1 it is necessary in filming the movements of the star-fish1 in evolution phenomena such as the emergence of a chicken from its shell1 and in the case of certain minute organisms which can be cinematographed only with the aid of a microscope4 ,but the same broad principles apply in each case2 there is equal need for time and patience1 while complete success can only be achieved by careful observation and ingenuity4 ,there are critical moments in such work and the unexpected frequently happens4 ,unless the operator is equal to the emergency weeks of tedious labour may be wasted4 ,the study of exceedingly slow movements offers a very promising field to the patient worker4 ,a film which occupies a month to photograph1 and entails an exposure once every thirty minutes1 produces a film only #ij feet in length4 ,in projection it passes across the screen in a minute and a half4 ,this means that a process of ,nature is condensed into one thirty-seven-thousandth part of the time it actually took1 and its presentation on the screen is a remarkable triumph4 ,but at first sight the minute and a half seems a very slight return for the time and labour expended4 ,this is one of the principal reasons why the professional cinematographer displays a marked aversion to the recording of slow movements4 ,on the other hand1 it offers unique attractions to the private investigator1 for the time occupied in preparing a film that reveals the wonders of ,nature invariably commands a high price if it has the elements of popularity or novelty4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,continuous ,,cinematographic ,,records ,it has already been pointed out that the intermittent method of taking cinematograph pictures results in the loss of certain motions which occur during the interval when the lens is eclipsed by the shutter4 ,a similar loss is experienced by the eye1 in daily life1 when it blinks4 ,in the case of blinking1 of course1 the proportion of movement which escapes observation is exceedingly small4 ,but in cinematography practically one half of the movement is lost4 ,when very rapid movements are being investigated these losses become appreciable--in fact the most vital part of a motion may be missed during the #a_/cb part of a second during which the lens is covered by the shutter4 ,there are many fields in which cinematography as at present practised is quite useless owing to this intermittent eclipse of the lens4 ,suppose that the behaviour of a rapidly moving piston rod is under observation4 ,with the ordinary type of moving picture camera and process the results are quite misleading4 ,the piston travels so rapidly1 perhaps at a rate of #h1jjj lineal feet per minute1 that with sixteen pictures per second only a very small proportion of the work would be recorded4 ,this deficiency1 however1 is remedied by another development in chronophotography4 ,this is the continuous cinematographic record1 the outstanding feature of which is the elimination of the revolving shutter and the intermittent movement of the film1 in favour of a lens that is constantly open1 a sensitized ribbon that moves steadily and continuously all the time the experiment is in progress4 ,marey1 in the course of his momentous investigations with animated photography1 used this system for a number of experiments in which an intermittent exposure would not have afforded sufficiently precise results4 ,recent experiments have substantiated ,marey's contentions upon this point1 and have shown how unreliable are the results obtained with sixteen pictures per second where extraordinary precision is required4 ,an effort was made to remove the drawback of the intermittent method by writing in1 or divining1 the movement which occurred during the periods of eclipse1 but this method1 in turn1 was found to be unreliable4 ,there are some motions which it is impossible to imagine or anticipate1 even if they do occur in the one-thirty-second or one-sixty-fourth part of a second4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of the ,marey ,institute4 ,,continuous ,,moving-,,picture ,,records ,,of ,,the ,,beats ,,and ,,sounds ,,of ,,the ,,heart4 ,electro-cardiogramme of a normal person4 ,the upper line refers to the heart beats2 the lower line is a photographic record of the heart sounds4 ,these wonderful pictures are rendered possible by ,dr4 ,einthoven's string galvanometer in conjunction with ,mr4 ,lucien ,bull's ingenious camera4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of the ,marey ,institute4 ,,continuous ,,moving-,,pictures ,,of ,,the ,,heart ,,beats ,,of ,,an ,,excited ,,person4 ,the upper line shows the palpitations occurring at irregular intervals1 while the lower line is a cinematographic record of the heart sounds4 ,under these circumstances the continuous photographing system is now very extensively employed4 ,it has undergone many wonderful developments and achieved extraordinary success4 ,one of the most interesting and marvellous of its triumphs was won with the extremely sensitive string galvanometer1 which was invented by the eminent ,dutch scientist1 ,professor ,einthoven4 ,this particular apparatus has been of incalculable value to the medical profession1 and ,monsieur ,lucien ,bull has constructed a special camera with the idea of obtaining permanent and continuous cinematographic records of the experiments conducted by means of it4 ,the apparatus employed for this particular sphere of operations is of a somewhat involved character4 ,fundamentally the camera is that which was designed by ,monsieur ,bull for photographing the flight of insects at the rate of two thousand pictures per second1 but it has been modified to suit the new conditions4 ,the reason why it offers the best chance of securing a continuous record is that its sensitized ribbon is mounted upon a drum1 a single winding of which produces a photographic record about #c feet #f inches in length4 ,the principle of the ,einthoven string galvanometer may be described roughly in a few words4 ,there is a very fine conducting wire1 or fibre1 of platinum or silvered quartz1 which is stretched across the magnetic field of the galvanometer4 ,it is extremely thin1 being virtually a hair4 ,now1 when an electric current1 ever so slight1 is transmitted through this fibre1 or string1 as it is called by the inventor1 it is deflected from its position of rest1 the extent of the deviation varying with the strength of the electrical disturbance4 ,when a slight current is sent through the string it may betray the fact with no more than a slight tremor1 but a stronger current will cause it to move violently4 ,a pencil of light1 from an electric arc lamp1 is transmitted through the galvanometer in such a way that the string is brilliantly lighted4 ,an enlarged image of the string is then thrown upon the sensitized ribbon in the camera by means of a powerful microscope lens4 ,seeing that the time and distance measurements in such delicate experiments as these are of the first importance1 the sensitized surface upon which the record is printed--paper or film--is calibrated photographically while the experiment is proceeding4 ,it is divided into small squares1 the longitudinal lines referring to the time factor1 while the transverse lines indicate the extent of the movement of the quartz thread4 ,this continuous record system is of inestimable value in connection with physiological researches when details concerning the beating of the heart are desired4 ,a person who places a finger of each hand upon the extremities of the string1 witnesses the recording of his own heart beats4 ,for the brief period between each beat the string remains quiescent in its normal position1 and the record of the same1 the enlarged shadow thrown by the pencil of light through the microscope lens1 is made upon the sensitized surface within the camera in the form of a steady straight line4 ,the beat of the heart sends an impulse of electricity through the galvanometer1 and causes the string to deviate rapidly4 ,as the pencil of light is shining continuously through the microscope lens of the instrument1 it stands to reason that the slightest tremor of the thread1 accentuated in the shadow1 must be recorded4 ,no vibration is too slight to be caught4 ,not only is the extent of the vibration photographed and capable of being calculated by means of the calibration1 but1 as the sensitized ribbon is travelling continuously past the lens1 the duration of the vibration is photographed as well4 ,in the case of a normal and healthy person the number of vibrations on the record1 corresponding to heart-beats1 will average about #hj per minute1 and their extent or amplitude will remain comparatively even4 ,but if the person is in bad health1 excited1 or exhausted1 the palpitations will be depicted in the most erratic manner1 both as regards their occurrence and their force4 ,one very powerful palpitation1 for instance1 may be followed by a comparatively long interval of quiescence1 succeeded by several spasmodic short movements at brief unequal periods4 ,from the medical point of view the perfection of the system offers illimitable opportunities4 ,in the hospital1 where a patient may be lying in a critical condition1 the surgeon can have a continuous record of the state of his pulse without its being felt by hand at intervals4 ,the physician1 in unusual or baffling cases of disease1 can have a photographic record of the pulse and heart movements from the moment the symptoms develop until the patient either dies or recovers4 ,it also enables the physician to be informed as to how the invalid is responding to his treatment4 ,hitherto1 the practice has been to feel the pulse at varying specified intervals1 to commit the readings to a chart1 and then to connect the points by lines so as to show at a glance whether heart movement has accelerated or decelerated1 and to what degree4 ,such charts are satisfactory so far as they go1 but they may be erroneous1 because the action of the heart may have fluctuated between the readings4 ,with the continuous photographic system1 however1 guesswork does not enter into the issue at all4 ,the complete story is set down in an unimpeachable graphic manner4 ,perhaps the most extraordinary feature of this development is that the very sounds of the heart palpitations can be committed to a sensitized surface in a continuous manner4 ,the principle is much the same as in the case of the record of the heart's movements4 ,there is a small light disk provided with an aperture1 mounted upon a stand4 ,across this aperture is stretched a thread of platinum or quartz4 ,this instrument is placed in the horizontal path of a pencil of light1 between the camera and the source of illumination1 so that the ray passes through the aperture of the disk to enter the lens of the camera4 ,consequently the shadow of the quartz thread is thrown upon the sensitized surface in the camera4 ,a film of soapy water is spread over the aperture in the disk1 and this1 of course1 comes into contact with the quartz thread4 ,the provision of this film in reality converts the disk into a very sensitive diaphragm4 ,now a stethoscope is placed over the patient's heart1 the opposite end of which is connected to the disk in such a way as to bear upon the surface of the soap bubble4 ,when the heart beats the noise which is set up thereby is received by the stethoscope and conveyed to the soap bubble4 ,the bubble1 being very sensitive1 responds to the sound movement in greater or less degree4 ,as it vibrates1 it naturally moves the quartz thread with it1 and the moving shadow of the string is caught by the photographic film in the camera4 ,in this manner the surgeon or observer can have a permanent continuous record of the sound of the heart beats converted into movement1 and from the regularity of the oscillations he is able to tell whether the heart is beating regularly4 ,if desired1 the record of both the heart-beat as demonstrated by the galvanometer1 and the sound of the palpitation as indicated by the soap bubble diaphragm1 may be obtained upon one chart1 and1 in synchrony1 so as to set a double check upon the observations4 ,the chronophotography of continuous movement has been brought to a high stage of perfection by the searching experiments of ,professor ,einthoven4 ,from the physiological point of view he has contributed most valuable data concerning the heart1 for his experiments have been with subjects of all ages and in varying conditions of health4 ,the investigations have been extended to animals also1 showing the differences in heart beating phenomena between the various members of the animal kingdom4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of the ,marey ,institute4 ,,continuous ,,cinematography4--,,the ,,palpitations ,,of ,a ,,rabbit',s ,,heart4 ,the vertical lines indicate the extent of the heart beat1 while the horizontal lines give the time interval4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,stereo-,,motion ,,orbit ,,of ,a ,,machinist',s ,,hand4 ,,lines ,,of ,,light ,,indicating ,,to-,,and-,,fro ,,hand ,,movements4 ,the latest development in ,micro-motion ,study4 ,a small electric incandescent lamp is attached to the workman's hand1 and the lines of light photographed4 ,there is an increasing tendency to adopt continuous cinematography in preference to the intermittent motion for many other phases of particular study1 especially where very fine results are desired4 ,one mechanical engineer has applied the method to the measurement of the deflection of bridges when undergoing tests4 ,monsieur ,deslandres adopted a combination of stylography and chronophotography for recording the vibrations in metal bridges under varying conditions of traffic as far back as #ahib1 but the direct cinematograph record is to be preferred4 ,sometimes a camera has been used in combination with the existing processes of observations1 so that a photograph of the actual movement and of its extent is obtained simultaneously1 while the calibration of the sensitized surface1 or the introduction of a clock1 like that used by ,marey1 enables the time intervals to be accurately determined4 ,another ingenious form of continuous record1 which was made many years ago by ,soret and ,georges ,demeny1 the collaborator of ,marey1 has been revived in an improved form by ,mr4 ,frank ,b4 ,gilbreth1 the eminent ,american authority on motion study4 ,in this case a moving film is not absolutely essential1 but under certain conditions it is to be preferred4 ,the object of the study is the tracing of motions with a view to their improvement and expedition1 or the elimination of unnecessary actions1 so that the particular task may be achieved in less time and with reduced exertion4 ,a stationary plate may be used1 and the path of the motion is indicated by a ribbon of light from a small electric incandescent lamp which is attached to the hand or other limb of the subject4 ,in this instance the plate presents an apparent jumble of lines1 but by the aid of a magnifying glass the complete cycle of movements can be followed from end to end4 ,when the photographs are taken upon a stationary plate1 however1 it is necessary that they should be taken stereoscopically1 so that relief may be given to the picture to enable the movement to be followed correctly4 ,the hand or limb may not be visible in the photograph1 but that is a minor detail1 because the path it has described is indicated by the lines of light4 ,when the subject is continually advancing1 where it does not double back upon itself1 a slowly moving film will supply a complete and perfect graphic record of its progress4 ,but in all such experiments the timing element must be incorporated1 or the record will have little practical value1 and will provide no conclusive evidence4 ,a novel application of this method was carried out by ,demeny several years ago4 ,the scope of the investigation was the study of the characteristic walks and gaits incidental to certain maladies4 ,patients suffering from rheumatism and other complaints which interfere with the natural walking motions were taken into a darkened room4 ,incandescent electric lights were attached to their shoulders1 heads1 and other parts of their bodies1 and these were photographed as the subjects moved about the darkened room4 ,the results upon the sensitized surface were merely the paths described by the moving lights4 ,there have been many applications of the continuous record1 especially to the work of testing physical1 chemical1 or electrical phenomena4 ,the observer is certain to obtain a correct result4 ,this has been shown in certain microscopical observations where the movements are extremely rapid1 and where a graphic outline is more important than the photographic detail of the subject4 ,the great advantage of the continuous cinematographic system is that it records every movement4 ,even the slightest vibrations will be indicated1 and upon a large or small scale according to the rapidity with which the travelling sensitized surface is moved through the camera4 ,comparative investigation between this and the other systems has proved that the continuous cinematograph shows many motions which the former systems lose4 ,it has introduced the investigator to many curious phenomena of which he was previously ignorant4 ,one thing must be emphasised4 ,it is the salient difference between the ordinary cinematographic method and the continuously moving film process4 ,the first records upon the film a complete picture of the subject4 ,the second records only the path or trajectory of a single point1 or at the utmost of a number of points1 of the subject under observation4 ,this remark does not refer to the method of cinematographing with the electric spark1 which is a totally different and special application of the art4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,radio-,,cinematography3 ,,how ,,the ,x-,,rays ,,are ,,used ,,in ,,conjunction ,,with ,,the ,,moving-,,picture ,,camera ,with the perfection of radio-photography it was not surprising that the cinematograph investigator pressed this new development into service4 ,it opened up a wide and fascinating field for moving pictures4 ,when the ,rntgen rays were first introduced there was one serious handicap to photography by their means--the length of the exposure4 ,but the chemist and the scientist speedily removed this adverse factor1 and now ,x-ray photographs can be taken instantaneously--#fj per minute4 ,long before this achievement ,radio-photography had been yoked with the moving pictures4 ,it was a difficult problem1 but it was solved4 ,one scientific inventor stands out prominently in this connection4 ,this is ,monsieur ,m4 ,j4 ,carvallo who1 during his position as sub-director and secretary of the ,marey ,institute1 spared no effort to harness the ,x-rays to cinematography4 ,another illustrious worker is ,dr4 ,j4 ,comandon1 who may be said to be the pioneer of the popularisation of cinematographic science4 ,it was he who first appealed to the public with films of this character under the auspices of the well-known firm of ,path ,frres4 ,he has been responsible for the preparation of many most interesting films4 ,both of these workers have shown what can be achieved in this direction1 while the fact that they proceed upon totally different lines adds value to their work4 ,it enables their followers to decide for themselves which principle is likely to produce the most satisfactory result in each case4 ,strictly speaking1 ,monsieur ,carvallo's methods would appeal more strongly to the scientific mind1 bent upon the discovery of some abstruse phenomena1 and indifferent to the complicated process involved4 ,the methods of ,dr4 ,comandon1 on the other hand1 from their enhanced simplicity1 will attract the average worker4 ,this investigator makes a special point of accomplishing his end in as simple a manner as possible4 ,from this it will be judged that radio-cinematography may be expensive or inexpensive4 ,this is a correct assumption1 but the amateur investigator need not fear that the deeper researches are beyond his reach4 ,in justice to ,monsieur ,carvallo1 it must be mentioned that his experiments were undertaken at a time when radio-photography had not reached its present stage1 and therefore he had to contend with certain difficulties which no longer exist4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of the ,marey ,institute4 ,a ,,wonderful ,x-,,ray ,,film ,,made ,,by ,m4 ,j4 ,,carvallo4 ,the process of digestion in the intestine of a frog after its removal from the body4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of the ,marey ,institute4 ,,moving ,x-,,ray ,,pictures ,,of ,,the ,,digestion ,,of ,a ,,fowl4 ,these pictures1 taken at five per second by ,m4 ,j4 ,carvallo1 show the different phases in a complete cycle of the gizzard1 which lasts exactly five seconds4 ,monsieur ,carvallo was probably the first worker to attempt to portray in movement the elusive and peculiar features revealed by the ,rntgen rays4 ,one or two other scientists had dabbled in the art1 but their achievements were not very convincing for the simple reason that they did not employ chronophotography4 ,monsieur ,carvallo1 however1 being fully aware of the valuable work that had been carried out by ,dr4 ,e4 ,j4 ,marey1 saw the true way of applying radiography to cinematography1 and saw that it could not fail to be of scientific value4 ,he embarked upon a number of illuminating1 though tedious1 experiments1 in the effort to combine these two branches of photography4 ,carvallo's installation was of a most elaborate character1 but he accomplished some marvellous results1 the full significance of which are appreciated only to-day4 ,the complete apparatus he used in his experiments is shown in ,fig4 #i4 ,the source of energy was a small electric motor1 capable of making #b1jjj revolutions per minute with a current of only #ej volts4 ,this motor was extremely sensitive1 since it would make #cjj revolutions per minute with a current of #aj volts4 ,the control of the speed was essential to his work1 so he elaborated a simple and ingenious change-speed gear mechanism1 which enabled him to drive the camera at four different speeds without touching the motor4 ,the gear mechanism was not dissimilar from that adopted upon a larger scale in automobiles1 lathes1 and other machinery where the speed has to be varied according to the character of the work4 ,the direct drive was transmitted from the motor-shaft to that of the camera mechanism through a belt and pulleys so as to secure flexibility and immunity from shocks4 ,the three lower speeds were transmitted through gear wheels4 ,these sets of wheels were mounted upon two parallel shafts and worked upon the sliding principle1 which was found to be the simplest and most effective4 ,in order to reduce the noise arising from the meshing and working of the gears the smaller wheels were made of fibre4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--,the ingenious radio-cinematographic apparatus devised by ,monsieur ,m4 ,j4 ,carvallo4 ,a4,a4 ,film spools4 ,b4 ,crookes tube4 ,c4 ,frog being radiographed4 ,d4 ,coil4 ,f4 ,film4 ,f4 ,clock4 ,g4 ,exposure interrupter4 ,h4 ,change-speed gears4 ,by this gearing system it was possible to vary the speed of the camera from #cj revolutions per second to one turn in #ae seconds4 ,when still slower speeds were desired1 upon the one-turn-one-picture principle1 the motor was cut in and cut out intermittently so that the exposure could be varied from once in #bj seconds to once in an hour or more4 ,of course1 in those instances where the exposures only needed to be made at relatively prolonged intervals1 the driving motor was started up intermittently so as to move the shutter at the required moment4 ,a pendulum clock was introduced into the electrical circuit1 together with a novel relay4 ,the clock-face was provided with a ring around the dial1 with the hour intervals represented by contacts instead of figures4 ,the clock was fitted with one hand only4 ,one electrical lead was connected to the contact ring and the other to the pivoted end of the clock-hand4 ,when the latter came against one of the contacts the electrical circuit was completed1 the motor was set in motion1 and the camera mechanism was given one turn--sufficient to make an exposure and to jerk the film forward the desired distance through the gate for the next exposure4 ,obviously this clock system is capable of variation as desired4 ,the contacts may be disposed to coincide with intervals of a second1 a minute1 an hour1 or more between successive exposures4 ,it was necessary to ensure that the contact was of sufficient duration to complete the cycle of camera movements1 and1 on the other hand1 to prevent the motor movement being so prolonged that more than the requisite exposure and movement of the film would be made4 ,this was effected by means of a brake1 which arrested the movement of the motor after the exposure had been completed4 ,illustration3 ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,by courtesy of the ,marey ,institute4 ,,radio ,,moving-,,pictures ,,of ,,cold-,,blooded ,,animals ,,made ,,by ,m4 ,j4 ,,carvallo4 ,i4 ,the stomach and the intestine of a trout 7one exposure every #bj seconds74 ,,ii4 ,the digestive organs of the frog 7one exposure every #b seconds74 ,,iii4 ,lizard digesting its food 7one exposure every #ij seconds74 ,illustration3 #a4 #b4 ,by permission of ,path ,frres4 ,,two ,,of ,,dr4 ,j4 ,,comandon',s ,,earliest ,,investigations ,,in ,,radio-,,cinematography4 #a4 ,x-ray moving-pictures of the bending of the knee1 showing muscular movement4 #b4 ,x-ray film of the opening of the hand4 ,with this seemingly complicated apparatus it was possible to take any desired number of successive pictures and at any intervals of time with unerring precision4 ,for these particular experiments a special film was prepared1 for the pictures produced by the standard camera were not large enough4 ,monsieur ,carvallo took pictures of a depth of #b-b_/e inches instead of the usual #c_/d inch4 ,special arrangements were made also to secure extreme sensitiveness of the emulsion so that it might be more susceptible to the action of the ,x-rays4 ,the disposition of the film followed special lines1 as may be seen by reference to the diagram 7,fig4 #i74 ,the ,crookes tube1 containing the ,x-rays1 was placed beneath a table provided with an aperture upon which was laid a transparent medium1 such as glass1 to support the subject under investigation4 ,above this was placed the gate through which the film was moved intermittently1 the sensitized ribbon travelling in a horizontal direction from one spool to the other4 ,in the early experiments a ,maltese cross movement was incorporated to provide the requisite intermittent motion to the film1 but subsequently a novel claw motion devised by ,monsieur ,nogus1 the mechanician to the ,marey ,institute1 was introduced with far better results4 ,in carrying out the experiments with different live subjects extreme ingenuity was used in placing and holding the creature so that the most perfect images might be obtained4 ,monsieur ,carvallo devoted his energies largely to radio-cinematographing the functions of digestion1 and selected such subjects as fresh-water fish1 toads1 frogs1 lizards1 birds1 and mice4 ,thus he obtained comparative results from five species of the animal kingdom4 ,the subjects were fed first with a special diet1 comprising a mixture of flour1 sugar1 peptone1 sub-nitrate of bismuth1 and water or milk4 ,the chemical1 sub-nitrate of bismuth1 was used in order to give the alimentary canal the necessary opacity to secure the best results under the ,rntgen rays4 ,in the case of the trout the chemical was injected into the blood4 ,in order to obtain sharp1 clear1 and distinct pictures upon the film1 the subject under study had to be fixed in an immovable position4 ,in the case of a trout a small celluloid envelope was made1 fitted at each end with a small glass tube through which water necessary to the fish's existence was passed in a continuous stream4 ,this vessel was only just large enough to contain the fish1 so that movement was quite impossible4 ,the top of the vessel was closed with a sheet of paraffin paper1 which was placed in front of the aperture of the film gate4 ,it was a very novel and successful means of radio-cinematographing a fish under natural conditions4 ,the fish themselves appeared to suffer no ill-effects from the method adopted to keep them alive1 a trout in one instance being kept in this confined position for two consecutive days4 ,so long as an adequate supply of fresh water was passed through the celluloid vessel in which it was encased it experienced no trouble in respiration4 ,in the case of the toad and frog the subject was kept in a prone position by attaching thin ribbons to the legs and extending the latter to their utmost so that the digestive organs might be radiographed clearly1 distinctly1 and without difficulty4 ,the lizard1 which is very difficult to photograph1 was secured in a similar manner4 ,the birds likewise were attached by their legs1 and had their wings extended so that the body came directly in the path of the rays4 ,when young birds were under investigation it was necessary to maintain a circulation of warm water around their bodies so that the temperature might remain constant2 otherwise the digestive functions might have been disturbed1 thereby invalidating the value of the pictures4 ,in one investigation a fowl was placed in a plaster cast so as to hold it perfectly still and steady4 ,the photographic speed was varied according to the character of the investigation and the subject4 ,thus1 in recording the digestion in the stomach and intestine of the trout1 an exposure was made every twenty seconds4 ,in the case of the toad the speed was one in every ten seconds1 while the chicken required one in every five4 ,one of the most novel experiments which ,monsieur ,carvallo carried out in this particular field was to ascertain the extent to which digestion will continue in the intestine after it is removed from the animal4 ,the digestive tube of the frog was selected for this novel investigation and the photographs taken at the rate of one per second illustrate the fact that the digestive organ will continue its functions long after its removal from the body4 ,since the year #aijj when ,monsieur ,carvallo carried out his scientific researches with the ,rntgen rays1 radiographic science has made great strides4 ,researches of this character no longer require elaborate and expensive apparatus4 ,this has been shown by ,dr4 ,j4 ,comandon1 the well-known ,french scientist1 who1 at the laboratories of ,messrs4 ,path ,frres1 has prepared some magnificent ,x-ray films in such a manner as to make them interesting to the average patron of the picture palace4 ,dr4 ,comandon possesses the unique ability of so treating his subject as to make it appeal to the unscientific mind4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--;,dr4 ,comandon's radio-cinematographic apparatus4 ,in his system ,dr4 ,comandon does not radio-cinematograph directly in the manner of ,monsieur ,carvallo1 but has recourse to the fluorescent screen1 thereby obtaining his results much more simply and easily4 ,by this means1 also1 he is able to use the standard cinematograph camera and film without any modifications1 the images upon the sensitized celluloid ribbon being of the normal size4 ,the general arrangement of the apparatus used by this investigator is shown in the diagram 7,fig4 #aj74 ,a room is divided by a partition ,a4 ,on one side is placed a camera ,f of the conventional type4 ,on the other is the necessary electrical apparatus4 ,an aperture ,b is provided in the partition1 and this space is filled with a fluorescent screen4 ,on one side of the partition ,a centrally in regard to the fluorescent screen1 and a little distance therefrom1 is placed the ,crookes tube ,c1 the subject under investigation being placed between the tube and the screen4 ,consequently1 the radiograph is projected upon the fluorescent screen and this image is then photographed by the camera4 ,at the normal photographing speed the exposure is about #a_/cb second4 ,the fluorescent screen employed by ,dr4 ,comandon is of the type known as reinforced4 ,it is covered with tungstate of calcium1 instead of barium platino-cyanide4 ,with this screen the ,rntgen rays are intensified1 or rather are transformed1 the luminous radiation being rendered more actinic and therefore able to act more quickly upon the emulsion of bromide of silver with which the film is coated4 ,by using this fluorescent screen the exposure is reduced to about one-tenth of what would be required were the subject radiographed direct4 ,the high tension current is supplied from an apparatus of a special type ,e with which a current as high as #ajj1jjj volts can be obtained4 ,another prominent feature is the high tension interrupter ,d1 which cuts the electric circuit of the tube in and out1 in synchrony with the camera mechanism4 ,thus the ,crookes tube is active while the shutter is open but inactive while it is closed4 ,this interrupter consists of a small glass vessel1 charged with petrol1 and sealed with a cover of insulating material4 ,within the vessel1 and spaced about #b inches apart1 are two brackets1 which extend through the sides of the receptacle through hermetically sealed joints4 ,to these brackets the positive and negative wires are coupled4 ,above the brackets1 and moving within the vessel1 is an inverted ,u-shaped piece4 ,this slides up and down through apertures provided for the purpose in the insulated cover4 ,when lowered to its full extent the arms rest upon the brackets1 to which the wires are attached1 and this contact completes the electrical circuit4 ,a pulley wire is fixed to the centre of the inverted ,u-piece to allow it to be moved up and down as required4 ,the up-and-down movement serves as a make-and-break for the circuit4 ,a lift of a quarter of an inch suffices to break the circuit1 which lift is effected by the mechanism of the camera over a system of cords and pulleys4 ,thus1 when the camera handle is turned to open the shutter1 the contact piece in the interrupter is lowered1 the circuit is completed1 and the ,crookes tube is brought into use4 ,directly the shutter is closed the contact piece is raised and the tube is disconnected4 ,this simple control permits the exposure to be varied from five or six to sixteen exposures per second1 while the tube can be kept continuously at work for as many as fifty-five seconds if desired4 ,the camera is fitted with a lens made from quartz1 which permits the maximum quantity of the actinic rays to pass through to the sensitized film4 ,the film is covered with an exceptionally sensitive emulsion in order to ensure the best results possible with very short exposures4 ,in order to protect the spools of film in the camera from the actinic properties of the rays diffused from the fluorescent screen1 the boxes are covered with sheet lead1 while the operator is protected with a lead apron1 such as is used generally in ,rntgen ray investigations4 ,the many interesting films which ,dr4 ,comandon has produced offer adequate testimony to the practicability and success of the system which he has evolved4 ,undoubtedly it is the simplest and most inexpensive method of radio-cinematography which has been brought into practical operation up to the present1 and it is one which may be followed by the private investigator with such modifications as may suggest themselves in particular cases4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,combining ,,the ,,microscope ,,and ,,the ,,ultra-,,microscope ,,with ,,the ,,moving-,,picture ,,camera ,one of the most fascinating fields in the whole realm of animated photography is the filming of the infinitely small by the aid of the microscope4 ,in this manner it is possible to catch glimpses of bacterial and microbic life in natural movement1 and to throw them upon the screen1 where the extreme magnification enables one to follow with ease the motions of a living world invisible to the naked eye4 ,furthermore1 the representation upon the screen is clearer1 brighter1 more detailed1 and easier to follow1 than any image seen directly through the microscope4 ,there is an absence of that distortion and unnatural motion which often occur when the microscope alone is used4 ,micro-cinematography may be either costly or cheap4 ,as the operator in a well-equipped laboratory is able to use a camera costing #ajj 7#ejj71 it is only natural to suppose that he will also be able to command the services of the most expensive type of microscope4 ,on the other hand1 the independent worker1 forced by circumstances to be content with an inexpensive camera1 will have to do the best he can with an inexpensive microscope also4 ,yet the investigator of each class can accomplish excellent work in his own sphere4 ,i have seen some very fine films of microscopic subjects which were taken with an instrument costing less than a sovereign4 ,from the general point of view they compared very favourably with those obtained with an instrument twenty times as costly4 ,so long as the amateur does not attempt to embark upon work which is beyond the capacity of his microscope1 and is content to work with subjects of relatively large size1 there is no reason why he should not be able to take most interesting pictures4 ,in the preparation of micro-cinematographic subjects it is essential that the instruments should be mounted upon a solid base1 a heavy bench or table1 so that vibrations may be as slight as possible4 ,the camera may be turned by hand or driven by an electric motor through belts and pulleys4 ,the method of mounting the microscope in its relation to the camera may be varied according to circumstances4 ,in the simplest form the microscope is mounted horizontally with the stage on which the subject is placed set vertically1 the subject itself being in line with the middle of the cinematograph lens4 ,in working with the microscope it must be remembered that the objects are seen by transparence4 ,that is to say1 the ray of light passes directly through1 or around1 the object1 causing it to stand out darkly upon a luminous background4 ,from this arises one of the limitations of the microscope4 ,if the subjects themselves are wholly or nearly transparent1 they become wholly or nearly indistinguishable in the illuminated field in which they are placed4 ,in still-life microscopical study this disadvantage is overcome by colouring the glass slide on which the subjects are deposited1 but in cinematography this operation is ruinous to the work for the simple reason that the aniline dye used to colour the slide kills the microbe whose life and movements are to be observed4 ,it must not be forgotten that very small organisms1 as a rule1 move at a speed which is quite disproportionate to their size4 ,some will dart hither and thither across the field of the microscope with the speed of lightning1 while others will move with great deliberation4 ,in the first case a photographing speed of sixteen pictures per second will scarcely suffice to give a faithful record of movement4 ,the result will be a series of disconnected jumps4 ,on the other hand1 if the object moves slowly1 a photographing speed of sixteen pictures per second may be too rapid4 ,in this event the phase of movement between two successive pictures will be so slight that the projection on the screen will appear tame unless the express object is to indicate the slowness with which the organism moves4 ,and indeed this object can be achieved with almost equally good results by taking the pictures at a slower speed1 say eight1 four1 or even two images per second1 and thus saving a good deal of film4 ,in most cases the micro-cinematographer works in a state of ignorance4 ,he does not know whether he is obtaining a good or a bad film4 ,his subject may be moving1 or it may be quiescent1 or it may hover round the extreme edge of the luminous field1 in which case the pictures will be useless4 ,when ,mr4 ,james ,williamson and ,dr4 ,spitta were engaged on micro-cinematograph studies some years ago1 they introduced a means of following the subject through a second tube1 and in this way were able to make certain that the camera was working only during those periods when the subject was in full activity1 near the centre of the picture4 ,in this way a considerable saving in film was effected4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of the ,marey ,institute4 ,,micro-,,cinematograph ,,used ,,at ,,the ,,marey ,,institute ,,for ,,investigating ,,minute ,,aquatic ,,life4 ,a4 ,one turn one picture control mechanism4 ,b4 ,camera4 ,c4 ,microscope4 ,p4 ,small tank in which organism is placed1 through which a stream of water from tank ,f runs continually4 ,e4 ,incandescent gas jet for illuminating object4 ,illustration3 ,,micro-,,cinematography3 ,,the ,,proboscis ,,of ,,the ,,blow-,,fly4 ,another difficulty is the selection and control of the light4 ,attempts have been made to concentrate solar light by means of a parabolic reflector or lens1 and then to throw it through the microscope slide4 ,the great drawback to this system is that intense heat is thrown upon the slide containing the organisms1 and for these small creatures heat spells death4 ,the same difficulties arise with acetylene and electric light4 ,what is necessary is either to extinguish the light at intervals1 in synchrony with the closing of the lens1 or to intercept it so as to keep it off the subject until the exposure is to be made4 ,this is done in a variety of ways by different workers4 ,some years ago1 when ,messrs4 ,bull and ,pizon of the ,marey ,institute were engaged in the micro-cinema study of a colony of marine organisms1 they adopted the apparatus and method of arrangement shown in the illustration facing p4 #afd4 ,the microscope ,c was attached to the cinematograph ,b which was driven by the clock ,a4 ,in this case it was only necessary to make exposures at relatively long intervals1 and to continue them through several days and nights1 so as to obtain a complete cycle of the phases of the development of the organisms4 ,consequently the clock was introduced in order to make the exposures at the right intervals4 ,the organisms were placed in a small flat glass tank or vessel ,d1 and were illuminated by the light from an incandescent gas burner4 ,as it was unnecessary to keep the burner alight during the periods when the shutter was closed1 ,messrs4 ,bull and ,pizon introduced a means of turning the light up and down4 ,this was effected by a small electric magnet1 working in synchrony with the clock and controlling the light so that the subject was illuminated only during exposure4 ,as the studies were prolonged it was essential that the water in which the organisms were placed should be kept fresh and sweet4 ,a glass jar ,f was introduced to serve as a reservoir1 and from this a tube extended to the vessel ,d4 ,a constant flow of water was thus provided4 ,its circulation was ensured by another glass tube extending from the vessel ,p to the waste4 ,the flow of water was controlled to a nicety by means of a tap without the production of bubbles or any other disturbance in the vessel ,d4 ,in this manner the colony was preserved to the best advantage and in full activity4 ,some such system of circulation is necessary in all cases where the investigations are to last a long time4 ,in recent years the ,marey ,institute has much improved its micro-cinematographic apparatus4 ,the microscope is now carried in a vertical position in front of the support which holds the camera4 ,the camera is fitted with an external bellows which carries a prism at its outer extremity4 ,the prism is brought over the eye-piece of the microscope4 ,the rays of light striking the turning mirror on the base of the microscope are projected upwards through the object side or vessel and then through the eye-piece to the prism4 ,here the rays are bent at right angles1 and are thus directed upon the travelling film in the camera4 ,the camera is driven electrically1 the motor being mounted within the box forming the base4 ,mechanism is introduced whereby the number of photographs per second may be varied within wide limits4 ,the most interesting feature of this apparatus is the means adopted to enable the worker to follow the movements of the object so that the camera can be stopped when they are of no moment or are not sufficiently near the centre of the picture4 ,a small proportion of the light rays which have passed through the microscope are deflected from the prism mounted upon the eye-piece and thrown into a small view finder beside the camera4 ,looking into this view finder one can see exactly what is happening upon the stage of the microscope4 ,this novel attachment enables the waste of film to be reduced to almost nothing4 ,the character of the illuminant also can be varied4 ,sunlight may be caught by the mirror of the microscope and projected through the instrument as well as the beam from an electric light1 incandescent gas burner1 or what not4 ,with this effective and compact apparatus many marvellous microscopic experiments have been carried out at the ,institute1 such as the filming of the heart-beats of minute insects1 and so forth4 ,one very fascinating investigation was that carried out by ,dr4 ,j4 ,ries1 of ,switzerland1 whereby he secured a cinematographic record of the different phases of the union of the sperm and the egg1 as well as the separation of the membrane and segmentation of the sea urchin4 ,the difficulties of such a delicate study were extreme1 but the films obtained were of the utmost interest4 ,they enabled the investigator to reconstruct upon the screen the complete phenomenon of fecundation4 ,for this study the subject had to be photographed while immersed in a small vessel containing artificially prepared sea-water1 which was renewed as required4 ,the clock control enabled the camera mechanism to be so turned as to secure a regular series of exposures at the rate of seven per minute4 ,when ,dr4 ,jean ,comandon set himself to cinematograph the most minute microbes1 which are so small that two million may be found in a cube measuring only one-twenty-fifth of an inch1 he appreciated the limitations of the ordinary microscope1 and the impossibility of obtaining images clearly and distinctly therewith4 ,so he resorted to the ultra-microscope4 ,with this instrument the light is not thrown directly through the slide containing the object1 but is directed upon it by reflection from a light which stands at one side4 ,beneath the object to be examined is placed a glass prism1 or condenser1 set at right angles to the optical axis of the microscope1 the result being that the light enters the slide through the edge4 ,the objects under examination1 instead of appearing as dark objects against a luminous ground as in the direct transmission of the light1 appear luminous in themselves and stand out as bright spots against a dark background4 ,by the aid of this instrument1 particles which are beyond the scope of vision with the highest powered microscopes may be seen with ease4 ,thus this ,french investigator was able to photograph even the most minute organisms4 ,the well-known firm of ,path ,frres placed their laboratory and resources at his disposal1 so that the work might be done under the most favourable conditions4 ,even then two years passed before a successful detailed film was obtained1 and an apparatus made perfect for this class of work4 ,the complete apparatus is set upon a massive bench1 so as to secure absolute rigidity1 because vibrations are fatal to good results4 ,slight modifications are sometimes needed1 but in most cases the same appliances are used1 and in the same way4 ,the light is furnished from a #cj-;ampre electric arc lamp4 ,in front of this is arranged a series of lenses for concentrating and varying the rays1 while all excess of luminosity is cut off from the microscope by means of a diaphragm4 ,the microscope itself is set horizontally1 with its longitudinal optical axis in line with that of the camera1 and its eye-piece brought against the camera lens4 ,the camera is one of the ,path models with detachable dark-boxes4 ,the ray of light thrown from the electric lamp is concentrated and then falls upon the microscope condenser1 which deflects it so that the objects under study become illuminated1 no light entering the tube of the microscope4 ,the camera may be turned by hand1 or by a small electric motor1 the latter giving an improved rotary motion with the least possible vibration4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,micro-,,cinematograph ,,used ,,at ,,the ,,marey ,,institute4 ,a4 ,special condenser4 ,b4 ,electric arc light4 ,c4 ,camera4 ,d4 ,shutter between light and object4 ,m4 ,microscope4 ,o4 ,object under examination4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,path ,frres4 ,,one ,,of ,,dr4 ,,comandon',s ,,galvanic ,,experiments ,,with ,,paramoecia4 ,under the action of electric current the organisms perform strange evolutions4 ,one of the difficulties which harassed all the early efforts in micro-cinematography was the control of the light so that the subjects might not be killed by the heat generated by the concentrated rays4 ,at first an investigation could not be continued for more than a second or two1 because the microbes were killed by the heat4 ,seeing that the pictures were taken at the rate of sixteen per second1 an intermittent lighting system in synchrony with the opening of the lens was difficult to obtain1 as there was the risk that the maximum illumination might not be thrown upon the subject at the precise fraction of a second during which the lens was open4 ,many ingenious expedients were tested to remove this disability1 but without success1 until at last ,dr4 ,comandon conceived the idea of introducing a rotary shutter1 similar to that fitted to the camera itself4 ,this was tried1 the shutter being placed between the condensers and the stage on which the objects were set up4 ,this shutter was revolved by the same mechanism as drove the camera shutter1 and was so timed that the opaque sector interrupted the ray of light at the same moment as the camera shutter eclipsed the lens4 ,in this way the microbes were protected from the heat of the light while the lens was closed1 and it was possible to keep them alive and in full activity in the slide for a considerable time4 ,repeated experiments suggested improvements in this shutter1 and now the scientists employ one in which there are two or three opaque sectors of equal area spaced equidistantly1 so that only a flash of light is thrown upon the microbes at the instant of exposure4 ,still further to lessen the evils of the heat a water condenser has been introduced between two of the glass condensers placed near the lamp4 ,this is a small circular vessel like a big lens4 ,it is filled with cold water and provided with the means to remove the ill effects of bubbling when the temperature rises to boiling point4 ,the system is very much the same as that adopted by the ,lumire ,brothers when they first used the electric arc for the purpose of projection and with the same object--to protect the inflammable celluloid film from the heat radiated by the light4 ,with this ingenious and simplified apparatus ,dr4 ,comandon has prepared some very remarkable films which have served to introduce the picture palace patrons as well as the scientists to phases of life about which little was formerly known4 ,when thrown upon the screen the subject in some cases is magnified as many as fifty thousand times1 so that the infinitesimal organisms stand up as large as dinner plates and their movements and structure and habits can easily be followed by the eye4 ,when the earliest films prepared by ,dr4 ,comandon were shown by ,dr4 ,dastre1 of the ,sorbonne1 to the ,french ,academy of ,sciences1 it was immediately realised that this was a new and reliable means of studying bacteria1 and that many questions which heretofore had proved utterly unanswerable could now be solved with ease and precision4 ,a little later the films were introduced to the public1 and although it was feared that they would prove of only fleeting interest to the man in the street they have really interested him almost as deeply as the scientists4 ,good films of bacteria never fail to please a picture palace audience4 ,at present the preparation of these films is confined to a very small band of investigators4 ,so far as bacteriology is concerned it is expert work1 but there are many applications within the reach of the average microscopist4 ,cinematography has been of use in spreading the knowledge of the facts of health and hygiene1 and now that there are propagandist movements on these subjects the aid of the living pictures will be more than ever appreciated4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,micro-,,motion ,,study3 ,,how ,,increased ,,workshop ,,efficiency ,,is ,,obtainable ,,with ,,moving ,,pictures ,in these days of competition it is obvious that the establishment in which the machinery is most efficient1 the workmen most skilful1 and the labour most economically expended has the best chance of success in its particular line of business4 ,these are the days of scientific organisation and management1 the value of which1 developed upon rational lines1 cannot be denied4 ,but it has remained for the cinematograph to indicate the true lines along which such developments should be continued4 ,for instance1 there may be two workmen of equal skill and industry1 each of whom is given an identical job4 ,one completes his task in less time than the other1 although the two men are admittedly of equal ability4 ,they may be checked from stage to stage by the stop-watch1 but this will reveal nothing conclusive1 as the advantage from stage to stage will fluctuate between the two4 ,it is only in the aggregate that the superiority of the one over the other is seen4 ,the superiority may be so slight as to be almost negligible1 but the fact that it exists is sufficient to prove that there is something wrong somewhere4 ,where is it8 ,how can it be detected8 ,hitherto scientific management and stop-watch methods have been found wanting4 ,the riddle can be solved in one way only1 as investigations have shown1 and that is by moving pictures4 ,this new phase of scientific management has been evolved and perfected by ,mr4 ,frank ,b4 ,gilbreth1 of ,new ,york1 an eminent authority upon the subject of workshop organisation4 ,he has given it the title of ,micro-,motion ,study4 ,as the name implies it concerns the investigation of small movements by the ordinary standard cinematograph and the time measurement of each action4 ,while this particular line of study may not be entirely new1 since ,marey and his contemporaries in the study of movement indicated such a possible application1 yet ,mr4 ,gilbreth is the first to reduce it to a science4 ,therefore he is justly entitled to the credit of perfecting this most important development of scientific management4 ,everything depends upon the timing mechanism4 ,this must be of the simplest type and of unimpeachable accuracy4 ,in a previous chapter ,i have described the chronoscope which was used by ,marey4 ,mr4 ,gilbreth1 for the purposes of his work1 has evolved a clock working upon a similar principle4 ,this clock1 fitted with one hand1 is designed to make one complete revolution in six seconds4 ,the indications on its dial are as follows3 ,the larger divisions represent tenths of a revolution4 ,each of these is divided into two1 thereby showing twentieths of a revolution1 and these latter are further sub-divided into fifths1 so that the dial is divided into one hundred parts4 ,each of these divisions represents the thousandth part of a minute1 while the clock can be read easily to half-thousandths of a minute4 ,this clock1 together with one of the ordinary type1 is used in each investigation4 ,both are prominently displayed in the image so that the time interval from picture to picture may be determined exactly4 ,the ordinary clock is necessary1 as it shows the total time occupied in an operation4 ,the special clock1 on the other hand1 serves for timing the different stages or motions involved in completing the task4 ,the principle may be utilised in a variety of ways1 as has been proved at the works of the ,new ,england ,butt ,company of ,providence1 ,rhode ,island4 ,the manager of this concern1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,aldrich1 was one of the first to recognise the value and possibilities of micro-motion study4 ,illustration3 ,,micro-,,cinematography3 ,,blow-,,fly ,,eating ,,honey4 ,illustration3 ,the ingenious ,gilbreth clock1 graduated to one-thousandths of a minute4 ,the rack1 showing disposition of component parts for the assembling test4 ,,micro-,,motion ,,study3 ,,the ,,latest ,,development ,,in ,,scientific ,,management4 ,it is an establishment devoted to the manufacture of machinery for making braiding1 such as trimmings for ladies' dresses1 and so forth4 ,the machines are built for the most part from small light castings1 which are machined only slightly1 but which must fit together without the necessity of filing or finicking hand-work4 ,in order to improve the efficiency of the factory and incidentally to augment its output and profit1 experts were called in from time to time to say where modifications of process might reduce the manufacturing costs4 ,different operations in the assembling of the pieces were timed4 ,the result was the discovery of more expeditious methods of putting the pieces together4 ,such time-study investigations also supplied a basis for computing the various scales and systems of payment for work done4 ,notwithstanding the high pitch of efficiency to which the factory was brought by these methods1 ,mr4 ,aldrich felt convinced that still further speeding-up might be accomplished without over-driving the men4 ,so he called in ,mr4 ,gilbreth and his cinematographic method4 ,in order to obtain the highest results1 the most expert workman was taken as the subject of the experiment4 ,in one corner of the assembling room the wall and floor were marked off into four-inch squares4 ,in this space was placed the bench1 together with the sets of component parts4 ,here there was a slight divergence from the existing practice in the factory4 ,instead of taking the pieces from various boxes1 packets of parts were placed in convenient positions upon a rack4 ,these were placed in the proper sequence1 so that the workman was saved the task of thinking when selecting the successive pieces4 ,he was able to take them up quickly and correctly in a mechanical kind of way4 ,the timing clocks were placed in a prominent position facing the camera1 and when all was ready1 the workman was given the word to start4 ,the whole operation of fitting the pieces of a machine together were filmed in this manner so as to give a complete cinematographic record of the assembling of a machine4 ,now in micro-motion study the films are not intended for projection4 ,instead of being screened1 the pictures are studied with the aid of a magnifying glass1 the motion in each picture being closely examined to detect whether it is essential to the task1 whether it might be eliminated1 or shortened4 ,as the wall and floor are marked off into four-inch squares1 the investigator is enabled to ascertain the precise length of each movement in picking up and fitting the parts4 ,at the same time1 such marking-off enables the expert to see whether the bench and rack of packets containing the component parts of the machine are disposed most advantageously in relation to the mechanic1 and also whether the latter stands in the most convenient position before his work1 to fulfil his task in the shortest possible time and with the minimum of physical effort4 ,as might be supposed1 the individual study of each picture in a film together with the following and timing of each elementary motion is a tedious task for the expert4 ,this may be realised when it is pointed out that the time interval for each picture is only #a_/cb part of a second4 ,but the labour is not wasted4 ,the searching analysis is sure to reveal where a movement may be accelerated here1 or eased there1 why it would be preferable to set the rack in this position1 or why it would be better if the mechanic faced his work in such and such a way4 ,this is the sole object of micro-motion study4 ,nothing rivals the cinematograph for picking a movement relentlessly to pieces4 ,the most expert workman is taken for the purpose of the investigation because his skill must be dependent upon his ability to reduce movements to the minimum4 ,moreover1 he serves as an excellent model for speeding-up if such is required4 ,by the time his workmanship has been analysed and perfected by the elimination of all waste or unnecessary motions1 and by his mastery of the best methods1 the photographing in animation of his experience serves as a pattern for the benefit of all in the factory4 ,some remarkable results have been accomplished by this new phase in scientific management4 ,in the above-mentioned braiding factory the analysis of the movements incidental to a particular operation enabled the time occupied upon one task to be reduced from #cg-a_/b to #h-a_/b minutes4 ,in other words1 the workman was able to perform more than four times his previous volume of work in an eight-hour day after his motions had been analysed by the cinematograph4 ,nor is he driven harder to achieve this end3 he is able to do it because all waste motions have been eliminated4 ,the great value of micro-motion study is that it facilitates the transmission of skill from man to record4 ,it provides a reliable way of transferring experience from a man who has gained it to one who has never had it4 ,it acts as a check upon the work4 ,the establishment is provided with an unassailable record of the time occupied throughout every department1 and consequently holds a complete check upon the skill and capacity of every man4 ,if there is a decrease in the output1 showing slackness to exist somewhere1 it can be traced before material damage is inflicted4 ,every workman is kept up to concert pitch1 and the maximum work per man is obtained without resort to driving or rushing4 ,there is no limit to the applications of micro-motion study4 ,obviously1 although the best efforts of every man are required1 it is essential that the records should be taken under normal conditions1 so as to provide a fair basis4 ,to introduce special arrangements for the test is to destroy the value of the investigations1 because the other men will retort that they cannot equal the performance unless they have the same facilities4 ,the workmen are never permitted to see the moving-picture record of their work4 ,neither are they shown contrasting views of how and how not to do a thing4 ,the pictures are merely for the use of the investigator4 ,when it is necessary to communicate the results of an experiment to the workman1 he is given no opportunity for argument4 ,he is merely told how to do this or that1 according to the experience gathered from an intimate study of the photographic record4 ,this application of the cinematograph has been developed also for the benefit of apprentices4 ,a youth who is trained on the correct lines from the very commencement of his duties has the best chance of becoming an expert workman1 and for him the use of micro-motion study is invaluable4 ,he can be taken through every separate motion step by step1 the film used for this purpose being that of the most perfectly skilled man4 ,experience has shown1 moreover1 that a youth can learn his craft more quickly and intelligently by following it upon the screen than by being brought face to face with the actual work at the bench4 ,he appears to concentrate his attention better upon the moving-picture lesson than upon the practical demonstration1 although in both cases the appeal is made to the eye4 ,there is yet another valuable aspect of this work4 ,enterprising and ingenious men are constantly devising improved processes in factory equipment4 ,at times their revolutionary ideas are put into practice before they are thoroughly understood1 and the result is far from satisfactory4 ,the improvement proves to be more imaginary than real4 ,but if recourse is first had to the cinematograph1 the process can be submitted to a searching practical trial before it is installed4 ,a film can be taken and each separate image can be examined minutely with the aid of the magnifying glass1 until a pretty complete idea is gained as to the true value of the invention4 ,the pictorial time record can be compared with the best results secured under the existing practice1 and the manufacturer can ascertain what economies the new plan will effect before a penny is expended1 or the working of his factory disorganised by the alteration4 ,illustration3 ,mr4 ,frank ,b4 ,gilbreth cinematographing a man's work against time1 showing the ,gilbreth clock4 ,bench and parts arranged after test so as to secure assembling of machine with fewest and shortest motions4 ,,the ,,gilbreth ,,method ,,for ,,improving ,,factory ,,efficiency4 ,illustration3 #a #b ,,micro-,,motion ,,study3 ,,films ,,showing ,,how ,a ,,man',s ,,work ,,is ,,analysed ,,by ,,moving ,,pictures4 ,these pictures are not thrown on the screen1 but are examined by a magnifying glass4 7#a7 ,film of workman assembling machine1 showing ,gilbreth clock and ordinary timepiece alongside4 7#b7 ,film of rack and bench1 floor marked off into #d-;inch squares1 and ,gilbreth clock4 ,micro-motion study by the aid of the cinematograph is still in its infancy4 ,but it appears to have a wide field of utility4 ,the pictures can be taken at any desired speed1 according to the character of the work photographed1 but as a rule sixteen pictures per second will suffice4 ,it must be remembered that in this case the record is not obtained for the purpose of studying movement from the scientific or physiological point of view1 as with ,marey's investigations1 but purely for the purpose of discovering whether certain motions are necessary to certain tasks4 ,obviously the expert engaged in this work must possess an intimate knowledge of movement so as to be able to follow the motions closely and accurately through their natural cycles1 and must also be familiar with the work of the factory so as to tell whether a man is working to the best advantage4 ,this faculty alone demands a long apprenticeship1 for experience is the only guide4 ,mr4 ,frank ,b4 ,gilbreth1 who has brought micro-motion study prominently before the public1 has devoted years to the subject4 ,he has become an unique authority upon it4 ,now that its advantages are appreciated1 one may expect it to fill an even wider space in industrial life1 and to be applied in many directions that are as yet undreamed of4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,motion ,,pictures ,,as ,,an ,,aid ,,to ,,scientific ,,investigation ,rapid strides are being made in the utilisation of animated photography as an aid to scientific investigation4 ,it is a development useful in all fields of research where phenomena can be recorded in pictorial form4 ,dr4 ,e4 ,j4 ,marey1 the eminent ,french scientist1 was the pioneer in this work4 ,one has only to peruse his classic work ,movement#d to realise the comprehensive nature of his studies4 ,so thoroughly did he cover the ground of chronophotography1 as it was then called1 that it is difficult to conceive where any new application of the motion picture can now be made4 #d ,movement1 by ,e4 ,j4 ,marey4 ,heinemann1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,the ,aurora ,borealis always has been a subject fascinating to scientists4 ,numerous papers and brochures have been written about it1 and many elaborate drawings have been prepared to convey some idea of its characteristics and its kaleidoscopic changes4 ,the drawings1 however1 fail to convince1 and even the few still-life photographs which have been taken are uneventful4 ,realising this deficiency a ,danish professor is striving to record the ,aurora ,borealis in motion upon the celluloid film4 ,a special camera has been designed for his work1 and with this it is intended to snap the phenomena from a convenient northern point such as ,spitzbergen or ,greenland1 not only for the benefit of the scientific world but also for the general public which entertains only a hazy conception of the ,northern ,lights4 ,it need hardly be said that if this investigator should succeed in his difficult quest he will reveal upon the screen one of the most extraordinary wonders of the world4 ,while the marvellous and weird colouring effects will be missing1 the curtains of light that drape the sky1 and the strange luminous shafts and glares which light the heavens1 should provide a film of intense interest and fascination4 ,the moving-picture camera is also being applied to the recording of solar eclipses with a view to obtaining a more impressionistic and intimate idea of the activity and extent of the flames which shoot from the surface of the sun4 ,wonderful still-life pictures of these effects have been taken1 and it is only fair to assume that they should be capable of being caught by the motion-picture camera4 ,efforts are also being made to secure photographs of the heavens1 but the difficulties are very great4 ,the long exposure required in this case is a heavy drawback1 but seeing that the slowest movements of ,nature can be recorded by the cinematograph1 and may be speeded up in projection to convey the effect of animation1 there is no reason why similar moving pictures of other worlds should not be obtained by combining the moving-picture camera with the telescope4 ,the moon followed through its phases would yield an interesting study1 and1 incidentally1 a film of this character would possess considerable educational value4 ,at the present moment great activity is being manifested in the application of the cinematograph to mechanics4 ,two ,sheffield investigators have designed a steel-testing machine to which is attached a microscope and a cinematograph camera4 ,the piece of steel to be tested is placed in the machine and the cinematograph is set in motion4 ,by throwing the resulting pictures upon the screen it is possible to follow exactly what takes place in the molecular construction of the steel while it is under test4 ,the idea has been applied to many other phases of mechanics with equal success1 and there have been many discoveries of a technical nature which have had their effect upon manufacturing processes4 ,another series of technical experiments was carried out by ,dr4 ,otto ,fchs1 professor of engineering at the ,german ,technical ,high ,school of ,brnn4 ,the purpose was to elucidate some hitherto obscure points in connection with the working of steam hammers4 ,investigations in this field have hitherto proceeded on the graphic principle1 the results being recorded by a stylo continually travelling over calibrated paper4 ,it is admitted that this system leaves much to be desired because the stylo is not sufficiently sensitive1 and fails to record many of the smaller and more important movements4 ,accordingly1 ,dr4 ,fchs conceived the idea of using the moving-picture camera in the anticipation that much missing data might thus be discovered4 ,a special apparatus was designed4 ,in reality it is an ingenious combination of the moving-picture camera and the graphic method4 ,there is a paper tape that passes continuously over two rollers and has two stylos constantly bearing on it4 ,these stylos are connected with two indicators attached to the sides of the cylinder of the steam hammer1 and they supply a continuous record of the steam pressure4 ,the paper tape is moved by an electrically-driven gear1 while time intervals are indicated by means of clockwork mechanism4 ,so much for the graphic portion4 ,illustration3 ,by courteous permission of ,dr4 ,otto ,fchs4 ,,moving-,,pictures ,,of ,a ,,steam ,,hammer ,,ram4 ,an illuminated index attached to the ram moves over a graduated scale1 while an illuminated clock indicates the lapse of time4 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,,otto ,f,,chs' ,,apparatus ,,for ,,taking ,,moving-,,pictures ,,of ,,the ,,operations ,,of ,a ,,steam ,,hammer4 ,what the cinematographic portion supplies is a continuous animated record of the movement of the ram of the hammer4 ,attached to the ram is an index which moves up and down over a scale divided into centimetres4 ,both the index and the scale are illuminated so that the result given by the camera shows a series of photographic images of the oscillating motion4 ,above the illuminated finger and scale is a clock similar to ,marey's chronoscope and ,gilbreth's timepiece1 driven by clockwork1 and in synchrony with the remainder of the mechanism4 ,this scale likewise has its points of division illuminated4 ,its use is to supply the time factor without which such experiments are useless4 ,the ram1 the index-finger1 the scale and the clock are all recorded upon the film1 so that it is possible to tell the varying speeds at which the ram moves throughout its travel4 ,the photographing speed may be varied as desired1 and as a different position is caught in each picture1 the distance the ram travels between two successive exposures1 together with the time occupied in completing the cycle of movement1 may be accurately gauged4 ,the combination of the paper tape recorder with the photographic part of the apparatus affords a complete record of the ram's performance4 ,the results are naturally of a severely technical character and of interest only to persons concerned with mechanics4 ,but to these they are very important indeed4 ,the experiments which have been completed by ,dr4 ,fchs have thrown much light upon a difficult engineering problem4 ,they have served to answer questions affecting the design of the hammer and its most economical efficient operation which would otherwise have been insoluble4 ,from the public point of view the films possess no interest whatever1 inasmuch as the subject is illuminated and photographed in such a way that only the features of technical interest are brought out strongly upon the film4 ,another interesting and profitable province of the cinematograph is that concerning ballistics4 ,this has been worked out by ,monsieur ,lucien ,bull at the ,marey ,institute with his camera capable of taking two thousand pictures per second under the illumination of the electric spark4 ,while this investigator did not apply his invention directly to ballistics he indicated the manner in which such work could be carried out4 ,the success of his experiments1 however1 prompted another investigator to enter the field4 ,this was ,dr4 ,cranz1 of the ,berlin ,military ,academy4 ,the apparatus this professor evolved has been devoted exclusively to the study of the flight of projectiles and to photographing the action of the mechanism of the magazine type of firearm4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of the ,marey ,institute4 ,,the ,,wonderful ,,apparatus ,,devised ,,by ,,mr4 ,,lucien ,,bull ,,for ,,taking #b1jjj ,,pictures ,,per ,,second4 ,showing stereoscopic camera1 interrupter1 condenser1 coil1 and resistance4 ,illumination is obtained by the electric spark4 ,illustration3 7#a7 7#b7 ,,films ,,prepared ,,by ,,professor ,,cranz ,,with ,,his ,,remarkable ,,camera4 7#a7 ,moving-pictures of the ejection of a cartridge from an automatic pistol4 7#b7 ,motion photographs of the splintering of a bone by a bullet4 ,the ,cranz apparatus is somewhat more complicated than that designed by ,monsieur ,bull1 though the fundamental principle of operation is the same4 ,the film1 resembling an endless belt1 is passed round two steel cylinders1 one of which is driven by an electric motor4 ,images of standard size are produced under the illumination of the electric spark1 which concentrates the maximum amount of light upon the moving object4 ,the photograph is in silhouette1 and the disposition of the apparatus is such that five hundred consecutive pictures can be made in one-tenth of a second1 the period of exposure varying between one-millionth and one-ten-millionth of a second4 ,the outstanding feature of the installation is the special and novel type of interrupter4 ,it consists of a pendulum by which the sparking is started before the projectile is fired and made to continue until the film has been exhausted4 ,some of the results obtained by this apparatus are very remarkable4 ,when the films are projected upon the screen at the average speed of sixteen pictures per second the flight of the bullet can be followed with ease4 ,one film shows the effect of a bullet striking a suspended india-rubber ball filled with water1 and brings out the remarkable formations the ball assumes during the infinitesimal part of a second when the bullet is passing through it4 ,another interesting film shows the effect of a high velocity bullet striking a bone1 and the manner in which the bone is splintered and smashed by the force of the impact conveys a realistic impression of the destructive force of the modern rifle projectile4 ,the deadliness of the automatic pistol is well known4 ,since seven shots may be discharged in four seconds1 the movements of the mechanism are too rapid to be followed by the naked eye4 ,yet by means of the ,cranz apparatus every motion is caught1 and the whole is slowed down in projection to such a degree that the complete cycle of the firing of the shot and the expulsion of the cartridge1 which normally occupies only a fraction of a second to complete1 occupies about thirty seconds upon the screen4 ,when these pictures were exhibited for the first time a number of black specks were observed to accompany the expulsion of the spent cartridge4 ,these proved to be grains of powder which had not been ignited4 ,their existence had never before been suspected1 and the result was curious4 ,after minute examination of the pictures a change was effected in manufacture of the cartridge so that the waste of powder through non-ignition should be reduced to the minimum4 ,the success achieved in this direction was shown by the absence of non-ignited grains in subsequent pictures4 ,another wonderful series of moving pictures was prepared by an ,american ophthalmic surgeon4 ,he embarked upon elaborate researches to gain further information about the eye and its peculiarities both in sickness and in health4 ,the illumination of the eye was carried out very cleverly1 so as to obtain the greatest possible brilliancy without causing fatigue to the subject4 ,accordingly his pictures were absolutely normal4 ,in these experiments glass plates were used1 for the reason that they give results much finer and more detailed than celluloid4 ,in celluloid the grain of the base of the film is apt to be disturbing to very fine studies4 ,in this way a great deal of new information was gained4 ,one of the most remarkable discoveries was that the sensitiveness of the organ of sight is far greater than was previously supposed1 and that the eye never is absolutely still1 even when commonly regarded as being fixed and steady4 ,during the past two or three years the uses of the cinematograph in medicine have been much extended4 ,a former chapter has described its application to the study of microbic life1 but the latest innovation is to employ it in the operating room4 ,the pages of the medical papers are filled with reports of curious and unusual surgical operations1 but mere reports are necessarily somewhat imperfect4 ,in view of these circumstances it occurred to one eminent surgeon that a cinematographic record would form a first-class supplement to the technical description4 ,the initial experiment proved a complete success1 and accordingly the practice has been extended4 ,in this direction ,france1 ,germany1 and the ,united ,states are taking a very active part4 ,films of this character can be made to serve two useful purposes4 ,they are valuable for the transmission of practical information between medical men and are useful in the lecture room among the students4 ,suppose a hospital in ,new ,york has a strange and unusual case for operation4 ,only the students in that establishment have the opportunity of witnessing it4 ,but by the aid of the moving-picture camera and a lecture it can be reproduced in photographic animation upon the screen for the benefit of medical graduates in the various hospitals throughout the world4 ,in research work1 such as the study of new and unusual diseases1 especially those of a tropical nature1 it is possible to obtain a continuous record of a subject from the moment of infection through the various stages of the malady4 ,for instance1 in the study of sleeping sickness in ,uganda1 ,colonel ,bruce had formerly to content himself with a graphic record or chart of the fluctuations of a patient's condition1 with explanatory notes introduced here and there when a sudden change in the temperature or general behaviour of the patient developed4 ,with the cinematograph it is possible to obtain a pictorial record which conveys a more forceful and exact impression of the symptoms4 ,an interesting indication of what could be done in this direction was the film prepared by ,dr4 ,comandon4 ,he used a monkey for his subject1 infecting it with the microbe of sleeping sickness discovered by ,colonel ,bruce4 ,the effects which the bacteria produced upon the monkey were admirably illustrated1 together with the changes that various remedies wrought in its condition4 ,so far as concerns the application of the cinematograph to scientific research the greatest strides have been made in physiology4 ,this was due to ,marey's enthusiasm in this branch of science1 and the establishment of the ,physiological ,institute in ,paris where such investigations were carried out upon a most exhaustive scale4 ,the results of ,marey's investigations are given in several volumes and in hundreds of papers which he sent to the various ,french scientific societies4 ,there is no reason why the contributions of the cinematograph to physiological knowledge should not be equalled in other branches of science4 ,up to the present the investigation of scientific phenomena with the aid of motion-pictures has not been carried far1 but there are many signs that its sphere will be extended in the future4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,military ,,value ,,of ,,the ,,cinematograph ,among the many uses of the cinematograph1 frivolous and useful1 amusing and instructive1 perhaps none has proved so difficult or illusive as the attempt to apply it to soldiering for the purpose of improving marksmanship4 ,the motion-picture had scarcely impressed itself upon the public when the war departments of the various powers were flooded with suggestions and patents for its employment in this sphere4 ,needless to say the majority of these ideas were found to be impracticable1 and probably this is the reason why the animated target has not been seriously taken up by military authorities4 ,notwithstanding the many disabilities under which the cinematograph labours1 it is generally admitted that it has real practical value in this field up to a certain point4 ,it is able to induce the recruit to aim quickly and surely1 and this is to-day recognised as being the governing consideration whether the range be point-blank or long-distance4 ,one of the first practical developments in this direction was that perfected by ,messrs4 ,paterson and ,musgrave4 ,their wide and diversified experience of all that pertains to shooting and targets enabled them to avoid the defects of the system1 which to many experimenters were not apparent owing to a lack of knowledge4 ,the apparatus and method of operation were very simple4 ,the target consisted of an endless roll of white paper which served as the screen1 and upon which the pictures were projected from a point near the firing line4 ,a self-recording system was incorporated whereby the result of a shot was transmitted back to the firing line to inform the marksman about the value of his hit4 ,as the paper became perforated under the fusillade it was rolled up4 ,the most important feature of this invention was the mechanism placed behind the screen1 which synchronised with the movements of the objects at which the marksman aimed4 ,in cinematographic projection1 however1 the throw of the picture cannot be extended beyond certain limits1 that is1 if a clear view is to be presented to those seated farthest away from the screen4 ,in target practice this is a serious disadvantage4 ,at a range of #bjj feet marksmanship would be almost impossible1 owing to the indistinctness of the image upon the white wall4 ,at that distance one always receives an impression of flicker4 ,why this should be so is not quite apparent1 though it is evidently governed by some law of optics4 ,suppose1 for instance1 that a picture is being followed from a distance of #bjj feet1 and a straining of the eyes is experienced4 ,this may be overcome merely by looking at the screen through the reverse end of a pair of field glasses4 ,as is well known1 this usually makes the object appear to recede to a great distance1 but when it is done in connection with moving pictures it makes the images stand out more brilliantly and distinctly1 while they are far steadier1 the flickering being almost entirely eliminated4 ,in fact1 if one wishes to witness a projection to the best advantage with the minimum of eye fatigue1 this is the way to do it4 ,it is obvious1 under these circumstances1 that the distance of the marksman from the target is restricted somewhat severely4 ,from #ge to #ajj feet is considered to be the greatest distance from which shooting can be practised to advantage4 ,since the modern automatic pistol will carry about #hj yards1 while the latest types of rifles have a range of #a1jjj yards or more1 doubts may be raised as to the utility of the cinematograph in marksmanship4 ,in the ,paterson-,musgrave invention an ingenious attempt to overcome this disability was made by what might be termed a range compensation4 ,this end was achieved by making the figures of varying sizes1 according to their distance from the marksman1 so that a target of varying size was presented4 ,thus in one case the man would appear in the foreground of the picture and be of relatively large size1 corresponding to the target he would offer at a distance of #ajj yards4 ,then he would be shown somewhat smaller to represent #ejj yards1 and so on1 until at the higher distances he offered a very small target indeed4 ,from the military point of view the incidents were made as exciting as possible1 and closely analogous to actual war conditions4 ,as a case in point1 the man on the screen would be shown behind cover1 and aiming directly at the man on the firing line4 ,his movements could easily be followed4 ,he would be seen to expose himself slightly to sight his rifle and then to fire4 ,the effect upon the marksman firing at the target was thrilling in its apparent realism1 because he unconsciously developed the feeling that he had got to shoot first1 and straight1 or he would be hit4 ,the self-recording system enabled him to judge whether he had got his shot well home1 while the judge could decide whether the marksman or the photographic enemy had fired first4 ,the judicious selection of subjects for portrayal upon the screen undoubtedly served to develop a sense of smartness among the marksmen4 ,a decided improvement in quick-sighting or snap-shooting was obtained together with a concentration upon the work in hand4 ,projection was carried out upon purely automatic lines4 ,the projector was set working by a button control placed at the firing point1 and pressed by the marksman or his officer4 ,the instructor or officer had thus a complete control over the whole installation1 and was in a position to make sure that his instructions were being followed1 as well as being able to tell whether his men were quick in sighting4 ,despite the many ingenious features incorporated in this idea1 it does not appear to have met with official approval4 ,there has recently been another invention1 based upon a similar idea4 ,this is what is called the ,life ,target1 and it is ingenious1 practical1 and well thought out1 especially from the mechanical and electrical points of view4 ,the original idea was suggested by a non-commissioned ,irish officer who fought through the ,boer war4 ,his suggestion in its crude form1 however1 was scarcely feasible1 but there were three other patents available1 each of which had been designed for a different purpose1 and it was realised that a combination of the four would enable a practicable cinematographic target to be produced4 ,even then1 innumerable experiments were required before perfection was gained4 ,in this invention the salient feature is that when a shot is fired at the screen the whole of the mechanism is stopped for a very brief period1 and the hit is indicated by a bright spot of light on the target4 ,consequently the marksman is able to ascertain instantly the effect of his shot1 and has no need to remove his eye from the object at which he has aimed4 ,this is a distinct advantage1 because the marksman can keep his sight ready for the succeeding shot1 which may be fired instantly the mechanism resumes working4 ,directly the film begins to move once more the previous shot represented by the illuminated spot upon the target is extinguished4 ,the apparatus1 as described1 appears to be rather complicated1 but as a matter of fact its working is extremely simple4 ,the projector is mounted at a convenient place near the firing point1 so that a truly square picture is presented to the marksman4 ,in front of the firing line1 and above the picture1 is a very sensitive microphone or telephone receiver4 ,connected with this is a delicate relay1 which really forms the heart of the mechanism4 ,when a shot is fired the report acts upon the microphone and upon the relay in turn4 ,immediately a magnetic clutch1 which is placed upon the motor drive of the projector1 is released1 and a brake arrests the movement of the projector mechanism4 ,thus1 the passage of the film is stopped in the gate1 so that the picture remains stationary upon the screen4 ,the screen itself consists of three separate sheets of specially prepared thick paper4 ,the front sheet is coiled upon a horizontal roller which is mounted at the bottom4 ,from this it is carried up and over a second horizontal roller at the top of the screen space1 and then down again behind the front sheet1 to be coiled upon a third horizontal roller1 mounted above the first one4 ,as the lower front roller can be moved or fed the paper is free to travel upwards over the top roller1 and down again to be wound upon the third roller4 ,behind these two thicknesses of vertically travelling paper is mounted a third sheet4 ,this is coiled upon a vertical roller at one side1 passed across the back of the two front sheets1 and coiled round a second vertical roller on the opposite side4 ,it is kept very taut1 and serves to hold the two sheets in front in close proximity4 ,it is moved by hand at intervals4 ,behind the screen are a number of arc electric lights1 or other illuminants1 out of the firing line4 ,in this way the space behind the screen is brilliantly lighted4 ,as the paper remains stationary while the projector is running1 it follows that a shot must penetrate the three thicknesses of paper1 and the puncture is shown by the light from behind coming through the shot-hole4 ,thus the marksman can see where his shot has struck4 ,when the projecting mechanism has been stopped1 and the result has been read1 the shot-hole has to be obliterated before the film is able to resume its forward movement4 ,this is accomplished automatically as follows3 ,the relay1 while declutching the drive and applying the brake1 also sets in motion a plunger in a dash-pot4 ,the time of the vertical travel of this plunger is varied1 but the mechanism remains stationary1 and the shot-hole visible1 during its movement4 ,when it has reached the limit of its travel it establishes contacts which serve to set the screen mechanism in motion4 ,on the lower horizontal roller carrying the supply of paper is a ratchet and pawl movement1 actuated by a solenoid4 ,when the plunger connected with the relay closes the screen mechanism circuit1 the ratchet is moved1 and the outer sheet of paper moves upward one-eighth of an inch1 while its return forming the second sheet moves simultaneously and correspondingly downwards4 ,the displacement of these two vertically moving sheets disturbs the line of holes caused by the shot1 and through which the back light was shining1 so that the spot of light is extinguished1 and an opaque screen is presented4 ,the inclusion of the third or back paper not only serves as a stiffener1 but also acts as a means of lessening the possibility of a repeat1 especially as it is moved gradually and at long intervals in a transverse direction4 ,the movement of the travelling surfaces of paper is extremely small1 approximately the diameter of a shot-hole1 so that the consumption of paper is very low4 ,when the first roller has been exhausted it is only necessary to replace it by the roller on which the paper has been rewound1 and the paper can be used over again4 ,the possibility of three old shot-holes coming once more into line without a shot being fired is so extremely remote as not to be worth consideration4 ,illustration3 ,,soldiers ,,firing ,,at ,,the ,,life ,,target4 ,the picture on the screen is thrown from the projector at right1 and the picture is held stationary by the action of the report of the rifle caught by the microphone 7marked ,x7 upon the lantern mechanism4 ,illustration3 ,,front ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,life ,,target1 ,,showing ,,screen ,,opening4 ,from this it will be seen that the final stage in the cycle of movements arising from the action of the rifle report upon the microphone1 and the relay1 is the movement of the paper forming the screen or target4 ,the time during which the picture remains stationary may be varied within certain limits1 but normally it is about a couple of seconds4 ,when the paper has moved1 obliterating the shot-hole1 the brake on the projector is released1 the magnetic clutch re-engages1 and the film resumes its travel4 ,the ingenious means adopted for stopping and restarting the projector will be appreciated as a great feature of the invention1 and though the action may appear to be abrupt1 no damage whatever is inflicted upon the film4 ,one point about this apparatus deserves attention4 ,in the ordinary projector1 if the celluloid film is stopped in the gate for a fraction of a second1 and is exposed to the light1 it flares up instantly1 owing to the great heat emitted by the illuminant and the high inflammability of the film4 ,as it is necessary to allow the film to stand still upon the screen in this case1 after the shot has been fired1 means had to be found to keep it sufficiently cool to prevent combustion4 ,this is done by a radiator arranged around the condenser1 which in itself is a special kind of cooling tank4 ,another noteworthy point is the way in which a still-life lantern slide is thrown upon the screen when desired4 ,the projector carries two lenses1 one for animation1 and the other for still-life lantern slide work4 ,the ordinary way of bringing the latter into use is to push the front part of the projector bodily sideways so as to bring the second lens before the condenser and the light4 ,the objection to this method is that the rigidity of the projector is likely to be disturbed1 especially after a little wear1 with the result that the projection of the moving pictures is apt to become unsteady4 ,in this apparatus a mirror is placed in the lantern and set at an angle of #de degrees4 ,by this means the light can be diverted and thrown through the lantern slide lens4 ,thus it is not only possible to throw a still-life slide upon the screen at the instant when a moving-picture scene is completed1 but excellent dissolving effects can be obtained4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,screen ,,mechanism ,,of ,,the ,,life ,,target4 ,the movement of the rollers and paper forming the screen is made by means of a solenoid operated by the lantern mechanism4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,motograph ,co4 ,,cinematographing ,,hedge-,,row ,,life ,,under ,,difficulties4 ,mr4 ,frank ,newman and his camera concealed in the scrub4 ,the pictures are projected at the normal speed1 but this may be accelerated if necessary4 ,any films suited to the subject may be used1 hydroplanes1 airships1 birds1 wild animals1 and so forth1 just as successfully as the military films prepared specially for the work4 ,in fact any picture where movement is portrayed is equally applicable1 so that the marksman can become used to all sorts of conditions4 ,experience has shown1 however1 that a picture projected at the normal speed of sixteen per second is too rapid for the average man unless the object was moving slowly when photographed4 ,it has been proved that practice with this target improves quick-sighting and so teaches the art of snap-shooting which is said to be the essence of modern marksmanship4 ,after a little experience the marksman develops the tendency to sight instantaneously as he lifts his weapon4 ,for training in revolver shooting1 which is essentially short-range point-blank work1 it would be difficult to conceive a better system4 ,even if considered as a mere diversion the life target has many advantages4 ,there is a sensational realism which is lacking in the ordinary shooting gallery4 ,the man at the firing point is occupying the same relative position as that of the cinematographer when he filmed the subject1 and when1 for instance1 a tiger is springing directly out of the picture1 the man with the gun has just the same feeling as if caught at close quarters in the jungle4 ,he sights and fires quickly1 hoping to hit in a vital part1 and the instantly appearing shot-hole tells him how he would have fared had he been face to face with the animal in its native haunts4 ,so far as military shooting is concerned the system has its limitations4 ,for the reasons explained the screen cannot be more than #ajj feet from the firing line4 ,it is a pure point-blank range4 ,no allowances can be made for windage or trajectory4 ,there is yet another factor that controls the distance between the firing range line and the screen1 and that is that paper cannot be obtained in widths exceeding #i feet4 ,a single width must form the screen1 since no light must be visible from it until it is perforated by a bullet4 ,so there is a strict limit to the size of the target4 ,but it is possible to get subjects life size1 and nothing more is required4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,,educational ,,films ,although animated photography is regarded popularly as an amusement1 and the picture palace is maintained to be the poor man's theatre1 efforts are being made to lift the invention into a higher and more useful plane4 ,it is sought to adapt it to the schoolroom1 the college and the technical institute4 ,up to the present1 however1 little headway has been made in this direction1 though the market is flooded with so-called educational films4 ,unfortunately the attitude of the responsible authorities is lukewarm1 somewhat to the chagrin of those who are specializing in the preparation of these films4 ,the authorities are said to be prejudiced against the invention1 and no doubt the impression still lingers that the cinematograph is an instrument of frivolity4 ,up to a point the authorities are correct in their attitude4 ,it is the producer who is at fault4 ,the former recognise the many advantages arising from the appeal to the eye1 but unfortunately the producer looks at the question from the showman's point of view4 ,he is not content to prepare a subject which shall appeal only to pupils as such1 but is always trying to introduce an element which shall make the film popular with adults as well4 ,he seeks to arouse the enthusiasm of the schoolroom and of the picture palace at one and the same time1 though the two are as widely apart as the two poles1 and what is suited to one is by no means adapted to the other4 ,the patron of the picture palace must be entertained only4 ,education1 if any1 must be unconscious4 ,on the other hand1 the essential consideration in the school is the training and teaching of the young mind4 ,if amusement is introduced the educational value of the film is liable to be small4 ,in this attempt to supply two different markets simultaneously many producers over-reach themselves4 ,they fail to realise that a schoolroom film must be absolutely natural1 that there must be no trickery or faking4 ,there are several films on the market to-day1 aiming at the requirements of education1 wherein the most attractive incidents are nothing more nor less than examples of fake photography4 ,the educational authorities are only too well aware that trickery is one of the cinematographer's most useful tools1 and accordingly many films of an apparently astonishing character are regarded with suspicion4 ,until all traces of faking and chicanery are abandoned the authorities are certain to look coolly on the suggestion of teaching by the cinematograph4 ,nevertheless the film must be prepared in such a manner that the pupil is not bored4 ,it must be rendered interesting and fascinating or it will be no better than the old ,dry-as-dust teaching4 ,and the infusion of interest is by no means difficult4 ,every branch of science1 every item in the curriculum1 can be taught by motion pictures4 ,one producer has prepared a novel and interesting film for teaching the alphabet and the spelling of simple words with the aid of a troupe of acrobats4 ,the acrobats contort themselves into the shapes of letters upon the screen before the children's eyes4 ,the children naturally follow the process with interest1 and the finished letter at once impresses itself upon their minds4 ,the spelling of the words is carried out in the same way4 ,another producer has a novel idea for explaining the principles of addition1 subtraction1 multiplication1 and division4 ,he has devised animated scenes with teddy bears and oranges1 and the setting itself is a schoolroom4 ,the actors1 who are children1 are dressed in bear skins1 and they behave in a truly grizzly manner4 ,the very fact that this favourite toy is introduced rivets the attention of young children1 and they follow the arithmetical adventures of the oranges with the utmost fascination4 ,the bears themselves perform their parts most decorously1 without any horseplay or clowning4 ,the youngsters following the incidents upon the screen are induced to regard the projection seriously1 and it has been found that afterwards1 in their leisure hours1 they reconstruct the incidents with their own toys4 ,in this way they show that they have grasped the idea that was to be conveyed4 ,in dealing with the sciences similar methods must be practised4 ,suppose1 for instance1 that it is intended to teach physics1 chemistry1 or electricity with the aid of moving-pictures4 ,the film must commence at the very beginning of the subject4 ,the text-book should be taken as a model4 ,the producer of the film1 if he is well acquainted with his subject1 can devise experiments to suit any stage of knowledge4 ,he can vary the experiment so as to bring the pupil face to face with something which has never been illustrated by diagram in the text-book4 ,he can lead the pupil on step by step1 and the more deeply he plunges into a particular science the wider is his scope for the portrayal of fascinating experiments4 ,illustration3 7#a7 ,,moorhen ,,sitting ,,on ,,her ,,nest4 ,illustration3 7#b7 ,,the ,,young ,,chick ,,pierces ,,the ,,shell4 ,illustration3 7#c7 ,,the ,,chick ,,emerging ,,from ,,the ,,shell4 ,illustration3 7#d7 ,,the ,,newly-,,hatched ,,chick ,,struggling ,,to ,,its ,,feet4 ,the preparation of films of this character offer attractive possibilities to the independent worker1 especially if he is familiar with teaching methods4 ,the professional producer is often unable to reduce his subjects to the requisite simplicity4 ,as a rule he knows little or nothing about a schoolroom1 and the result is that he confines himself to the preparation of extremely fascinating films of a very advanced type1 suited to the student in the secondary school or to one who has mastered the rudiments of the science4 ,but it is in the laying of a solid foundation that the teacher finds his greatest difficulty4 ,as a rule he has to go over the ground repeatedly before the elementary points sink into the pupil's mind4 ,this drudgery can be greatly reduced by use of the moving-pictures1 if only the right type of film is shown4 ,the professional producer maintains that such an elementary film is useless1 merely because he looks at it from the showman's point of view4 ,another reason why the independent cinematographer should embark upon this field is that he is generally more ingenious and fertile in the preparation of experiments to suit the limitations of a lesson4 ,he will know how to be simple1 so that the pupil1 after the demonstration1 can go into the laboratory and repeat the experiments with a knowledge of what he is doing4 ,as the pupil advances the films may be varied4 ,for instance1 in the experiments with sulphur he can be shown how sulphur is obtained4 ,views can be introduced of the mines and processes as practised in ,sicily or ,louisiana1 and in this case the difference between ancient and modern methods can be brought home to him4 ,similarly in regard to the subject of common table salt it is possible to show the various methods of extraction1 from the solar evaporating system practised in the ,caucasus and ,california1 and the excavation of rock salt as in ,galicia1 to the pumping of brine and forced evaporation common to the ,wiches of ,england4 ,the film may be lightened by glimpses of bathing in the ,great ,salt ,lake or the brine baths of ,england in order to convey pictorially the difference in the density of salt and fresh water4 ,in many cases it is possible to reproduce upon the screen the processes of ,nature1 the character of the experiment varying with the stage of the pupil's knowledge4 ,attempts are being made to teach geography by moving-pictures1 but here again the same defects appear4 ,most of the so-called geographical films are merely the ,travel ,subjects of the picture palace1--another attempt to make a subject fit both the theatre and the schoolroom4 ,such films are useless except to form a pictorial interlude in text-book explanation4 ,yet there is a remarkable scope for geographical films4 ,let it be assumed that the lesson is about the birth of a river4 ,the teacher dwells at length upon the possible sources1 upon the tributaries that increase the volume of water during its journey1 upon the navigable reaches and the traffic1 and lastly upon the discharge of the waters into the ocean4 ,illustration3 7#e7 ,,exhausted ,,by ,,its ,,struggles ,,the ,,chick ,,rests ,,in ,,the ,,sun4 ,illustration3 7#f7 ,a ,,few ,,hours ,,later ,,the ,,chick ,,takes ,,to ,,the ,,water4 ,the ,birth of a ,moorhen4 ,a wonderful series of moving-pictures taken by an amateur lady cinematographer4 ,from the ,cinema ,college1 by permission of the ,motograph ,co4 ,illustration3 ,,fight ,,between ,a ,,lobster ,,and ,,an ,,octopus4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,path ,frres4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,water-,,snail4 ,cinematographically the rise and growth of the river may be shown far more graphically and attractively4 ,the pupil can see every phase4 ,the source may be an insignificant spring1 the outflow from a lake1 or the melting ice of a glacier4 ,its rapid growth can be depicted by showing the inflow of its tributaries and the many sudden changes through which it passes1 its rapids and its falls1 while the fact that water follows the path of least resistance may be illustrated by showing the evidences of erosion and the manner in which the river has cut its channel through friable soil1 or taken advantage of a breach in a rocky rampart4 ,at the same time the pupil can be introduced to the utility of the waterway1 especially upon its upper reaches1 by pictures of the craft found thereon and the traffic in which they are engaged4 ,the varying force of the current can be illustrated1 and also the flotsam and jetsam that has been brought down4 ,finally1 gaining the lower reaches1 steam and motor navigation begins1 with towns and cities on the banks1 and in conclusion the pupil may be given an idea of the immensity of the estuary together with the life and industry at this point4 ,in addition some impression of the delta can be conveyed with moving-pictures of the way in which the detritus brought down from the upper reaches1 is deposited at the mouth1 forming islands and sand-banks1 clothed with vegetation1 and1 if not developed1 inhabited by wild fowl4 ,the preparation of such a film is certain to occupy a long time1 and is somewhat expensive1 but these items must be disregarded if the schoolroom is to have what it requires4 ,a film of this character would have to be divided into certain lengths1 each of which would correspond with a lesson1 for the subject is too vast to be assimilated in a few minutes4 ,cramming by the aid of moving-pictures would be worse than under present conditions4 ,in many cases the camera will show that existing text-book teachings are erroneous or need modification4 ,some idea of the utility of the cinematograph in this one particular field has been revealed by the films of the ,shackleton and ,scott ,antarctic expeditions4 ,they have brought home more vividly than anything else the meaning of the eternal snow1 ice and cold1 associated with the ,polar regions1 and they have served to dispel many false ideas4 ,so far the greatest success achieved by the motion-pictures in the field of education is in connection with natural history4 ,many wonderful films bearing upon animal life have been prepared and have created sensations4 ,the text-books tell much about the life and habits of the various members of the animal kingdom1 but in this case the text-book often happens to be wrong4 ,mr4 ,frank ,a4 ,newman1 an industrious animal photographer1 devoted months to the preparation of a film #e1ejj feet in length dealing with certain phases of animal life4 ,he confined his efforts to the study of those creatures which are familiar to all4 ,incidentally1 he proved the value that a highly instructive film possesses in the market1 for within sixty days of its first appearance upon the screen1 over #h1jjj or #dj1jjj was realised from the disposal of the rights to exploit the film in different countries4 ,pictures dealing with animal1 bird1 fish or reptile life never fail to command high prices4 ,indescribable patience is demanded in their preparation4 ,months may pass and yield only a few hundred feet of suitable material1 and the photographer has to resort to the most extraordinary devices to take the subjects in their natural environment4 ,one worker1 who set himself the task of filming the kingfisher1 discovered the haunts of his quarry1 and then quietly commenced to establish himself in its vicinity4 ,he had to be exceedingly cunning in his movements1 masking the position he had assumed in four feet of water1 with a clump of tree boughs4 ,concealed in this ambuscade he approached the bird1 moving with extreme care1 so as to convey the impression that the boughs were drifting with the stream4 ,behind this ambush he placed his camera1 clamping it to a heavy floating base1 which was anchored4 ,in this way he was able to move undetected4 ,when he thought that the time had come for an exposure1 he commenced to turn the handle1 but the whirr of the mechanism scared the bird1 and he was forced to wait some time1 until its courage revived and it came back4 ,he then mounted a second camera on the floating base1 and this1 being empty of film1 was set in motion every time the bird returned1 until it grew accustomed to the unusual noise4 ,after a few days the bird took no further notice of the sound1 and then the pictures could be taken with comparative ease4 ,altogether some seven weeks were occupied in obtaining about #bjj feet of film1 during which time the operator had often to stand for hours at a time in four feet of water1 awaiting his opportunities4 ,how completely his strategy and patience were rewarded may be gathered from the fact that in one incident1 where the bird is shown devouring a fish it has caught1 it perched upon a branch of the ambuscade1 barely four feet from the lens1 completely unaware of the fact that its actions were being recorded4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,head ,,of ,,the ,,tortoise4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,path ,frres4 ,,the ,,hawk ,,moth4 ,illustration3 ,,snake ,,shedding ,,its ,,skin ,,or ,,slough4 ,illustration3 ,from the ,cinema ,college1 by permission of the ,motograph ,co4 ,,the ,,snake ,,and ,,its ,,shed ,,slough4 ,another indefatigable worker is ,mr4 ,j4 ,c4 ,bee ,mason1 whose speciality is the filming of insect life4 ,he has produced four films depicting the honey bee4 ,as studies they are intensely interesting1 and they bring out the characteristics of the subject in a most attractive manner4 ,the average worker might hesitate to film such a subject at close quarters4 ,the bee is very quick to resent intrusion and disturbance in a way peculiarly its own4 ,mr4 ,mason himself admits that in the early days he received very severe punishment1 but he stuck to his camera and his work with the result that in the course of time he became accustomed to the attacks of the bees and to-day a sting has no more effect upon him than upon a deal board4 ,the result of this patience is reflected in the excellence of his films which bring bee life most intimately before the spectator4 ,the bee is always an object of interest1 and in this particular case his films have brought ,mr4 ,mason over #b1jjj1 or #aj1jjj4 ,although here and there one comes upon a film which exactly meets with the requirements of the schoolroom1 the majority can make no such claim4 ,they are merely instructive1 in an amusing kind of way1 and in the picture palace they come as a welcome relief from transpontine drama and buffoonery4 ,fortunately1 at the present moment1 there is a growing tendency to make films which the schools will really welcome4 ,one concern is studying the situation very closely4 ,this is the ,motograph ,film ,company of ,london1 which has completed contracts with the most prominent ,european scientific cinematographers for their entire output of educational1 scientific and natural history subjects4 ,it is also endeavouring to persuade the eminent teachers of certain subjects to commit their work to the celluloid film instead of to printed books4 ,it is a difficult quest because the professors are apt to regard the cinematograph as a joke4 ,at the same time1 once the development becomes started upon the correct lines1 it cannot fail to meet with success4 ,the independent worker also is being encouraged by the ,motograph ,film ,company1 and the cinematographic student of scientific subjects has a very profitable market open to him4 ,the prices paid for the films naturally vary according to their merit1 but this company is prepared to pay from #bs4 #f;d4 to #bas4--from #fj cents to #e--per foot of film for subjects which meet with its approval4 ,the lengths may range from #ej to #f1jjj feet4 ,recently1 an independent lady worker1 who in her spare time had given attention to filming the ,life of a ,moorhen1 showing the building of the nest1 laying of the eggs1 hatching and rearing of the young1 submitted her film to this concern4 ,some two-and-a-half years had been expended upon this subject1 but the quality and the incidents depicted were so excellent that the #a1jjj feet of film was bought for #fej 7#c1bej74 ,this film has proved that the highest class of work must be obtained from the independent worker1 or amateur1 if that word is preferred1 for the simple reason that time is no object1 the task is not hurried1 and no effort is spared to obtain the finest results4 ,another instructive film bought by this concern shows ,big ,game ,hunting in the ,north ,pole ,icefields4 ,it introduces one to the polar bear4 ,altogether this subject extends over #h1jjj feet1 but for a selected length of #a1ijj feet the sum of #b1jjj 7#aj1jjj7 was paid4 ,in the case of another celebrated ,arctic film1 taken during the two years' imprisonment of the ,whitney expedition in the frozen zone1 and about #f1jjj feet in length1 the same company gave #c1jjj 7#ae1jjj7 for the ,english rights alone4 ,although the cinematograph has failed to make a very pronounced advance among our educational institutions1 it has proved a striking success in education of another kind4 ,this is in regard to the propaganda for improving health and hygiene4 ,this movement has reached its highest stage of development in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,swat the ,fly movement1 which declared a relentless war against the common house-fly1 was powerfully assisted by the exhibition of films depicting the fly at work in the dissemination of disease4 ,free exhibitions have been given throughout the ,united ,states for the purpose of bringing home to the public the serious menace that this insect offers to the welfare of the community4 ,one or two of the films used for the purpose were bought from ,england1 where they had been used in the picture palaces4 ,but the organisation pledged to the extermination of the fly turned them to a far more serious purpose1 and its work has met with remarkable success4 ,another series of health films bear upon the ,great ,white ,scourge4 ,they are being exhibited freely and are bringing home to the public the terrible ravages wrought by tuberculosis4 ,the dreaded bacillus is shown at its fell work1 and the different stages of the disease are pictorially represented4 ,then follow a series of photographs showing how it is transmitted1 and lastly some pictorial suggestions as to how it may be combated1 at least in its early stages1 by fresh air and sanatorium treatment4 ,the success of the fly and ,white ,scourge campaigns has resulted in the preparation of other films dealing with the public health1 while many local authorities have taken up the idea for the purpose of improving the conditions of their localities4 ,many of the films used for the purpose are prepared by amateur workers1 especially when the subject is of local importance1 and their ventures are proving highly profitable4 ,experience has proved in no uncertain manner that moving-pictures will soon be the world's most powerful educator4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,photo-,,plays ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,write ,,them ,the vogue of the picture palace has created a new profession4 ,this is the writing of plays especially for cinematographic production4 ,in the early days the handful of producers engaged in the craft had no difficulties in meeting their needs in this direction4 ,the producer conceived and worked out his own ideas4 ,the market was small1 the output was restricted1 and it did not matter whether the plots were good1 bad1 or indifferent4 ,the public was quite content with the dramatic fare supplied upon the screen1 being more impressed by the novelty of the performance than by its merits4 ,but with the rage for picture palaces the whole business underwent a transformation4 ,the public1 having outlived the era of curiosity1 and having shown by its patronage that it regarded the picture palace in the same light as a theatre or music hall1 grew more and more critical4 ,it demanded stronger plots1 improved mounting and acting1 as well as better photographic quality4 ,as new firms entered the producing field1 competition became acute1 and the whole photo-play industry automatically transferred itself from the pioneer to the accomplished master of stage-craft4 ,the producer1 unable to prepare his scenarios himself1 sought the assistance of the amateur playwright1 just as the editor of a periodical solicits contributions to fill his pages4 ,it was a golden opportunity for the unknown struggling dramatist4 ,foiled hitherto by lack of chance1 the power of the privileged few1 and the absence of enterprise displayed by theatrical managers1 he handed his work to the upstart rival1 the picture-play producer4 ,it was a wise move4 ,the dramatist did not1 indeed1 secure that measure of publicity upon the screen which might have been his lot upon the boards1 but the financial returns were more regular4 ,as he developed his inclinations1 and his work became appreciated1 he was able to anticipate a comfortable income1 owing to the steady demand that arose for his handiwork4 ,to-day the embryo dramatist never bestows a thought upon writing for the stage2 the cinematograph will absorb all that he can produce1 and as rapidly as he can complete it4 ,no longer need a budding genius starve unknown and unappreciated in a garret4 ,if his work possesses any merit the cinematograph will turn it to profitable account4 ,about three hundred picture-plays are placed upon the world's market every week1 and consequently the consumption of plots is enormous4 ,what is more important from the author's point of view is the expanding nature of this market1 where supply cannot keep pace with demand1 and the proportionate improvement that is manifest in the scale of remuneration4 ,ten years ago a plot seldom fetched more than five shillings or a dollar2 to-day the same material will command anything between #e and #ej--be to #bej4 ,in this field of activity reputation counts for nothing4 ,the play and the play only is the thing4 ,the picture palace is the poor man's theatre1 and this class of play-goer is relentlessly emphatic in condemnation1 and equally enthusiastic in praise4 ,it appreciates novelty in plot1 and that is the one point the author has to bear in mind4 ,so it is clear that the unknown playwright has everything in his favour2 in fact1 his work is generally preferred to that of the skilled writer4 ,it contains the very best efforts of its creator2 the other is probably of poor quality1 because the man with a name does not realise what the people want1 and thinks that for the cinematograph anything is good enough4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,motograph ,co4 ,,exterior ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,dummy ,,cow ,,used ,,by ,,messrs4 ,,newman ,,for ,,taking ,,moving-,,pictures ,,of ,,wild ,,animals1 ,,showing ,,door ,,at ,,side4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,motograph ,co4 ,,mr4 ,,frank ,,newman ,,and ,,his ,,camera ,,hidden ,,within ,a ,,hollow ,,tree ,,trunk4 ,the utmost concealment is necessary to secure wild-life under natural conditions4 ,the desire of the photo-play producer to encourage unknown writers has led to the inevitable result4 ,he is inundated with plots and suggestions of every description1 written by every type of man1 woman1 and child4 ,needless to say1 a large proportion of the submitted contributions are wildly impossible1 or contain plots which have been worn so thread-bare that there is no possible chance of dressing them in a new guise4 ,fortunately the task of sifting the wheat from the chaff is not exacting4 ,a hurried scan of the opening lines generally suffices to show whether the subject is excellent1 passable1 or hopeless4 ,picture-play writing is an art1 science1 or whatever one likes to call it1 which can be cultivated4 ,the average person1 at some time or other1 is sure to have an idea--it may be an idle fleeting thought--which is capable of being turned to useful account4 ,the picture-play producer knows this very well1 and accordingly holds out every inducement in the hope that sooner or later he may light upon something brilliant4 ,a suggestion need only have some small germ of possibility1 but the producer1 from his experience of the theatre1 and of the requirements of the picture palace1 can take that germ and evolve it in the most effective manner4 ,under these circumstances the question arises ,how should a photo-play be prepared8 ,while there is no golden rule1 and while each producer works in his own way1 it is possible to give a few hints to the beginner4 ,a glance at the manuscript is enough to inform the reader whether the author is a raw hand at the work or otherwise1 and although every manuscript is reviewed1 more interested attention is attracted by a contribution which is set out upon more or less methodical lines4 ,in the first place it is just as well to remember that the photo-play producer of to-day is a man of wide experience4 ,in most cases he has graduated upon the stage1 and has probably passed through all the phases between a touring company and a well-known theatre4 ,as a result of this drilling he will have assumed a wide perspective4 ,sheer ability will have brought him to the control of the cinema-studio stage1 where the work is most exacting1 and where there is a very great demand for ingenuity and resource4 ,having mastered the intricacies and possibilities of the photo-play stage1 and what can be done by photography1 he will be a thorough master of craft4 ,the greater number of the play-producers retained by the foremost firms are men who climbed to the top rung in the theatrical profession and merely went over to the motion-picture studio because it offered them greater scope for their prowess and knowledge4 ,indeed1 one might go so far as to say that1 unless a man has served his apprenticeship behind the footlights1 he is an indifferent play-producer1 because he will be ignorant of stage-craft and the technique of the profession4 ,a man of such experience and ability is able to sum up the value of a plot in an instant4 ,consequently the author is well advised to condense his plot into as few words as possible--the briefer the outline the better4 ,in some instances it is not even necessary to indicate the characters1 the period1 or the scene4 ,the plot is the only thing that is wanted3 the producer1 as he reads it1 will conjure up in his mind the period1 environment1 atmosphere1 and characters1 wherewith such and such a story may best be worked out4 ,there is one well-known ,continental producer who never asks for more than a bald statement of the plot4 ,if it can be conveyed in six lines he is more than satisfied4 ,on one occasion1 while seated at lunch1 one of the party jestingly suggested an idea4 ,without a word of comment the producer scribbled the suggestion upon the back of an envelope4 ,returning to the studio an hour or so later1 he handed a note to one of his staff1 indicated how he would like it worked out1 the colleague fitted in the characters1 evolved the scenes1 period1 and situations1 and the next morning the play was staged4 ,one of the foremost ,french picture-play producers follows a similar practice4 ,he has a staff of eight writers whose sole duty is the preparation of scenarios for production4 ,plots as they flit through the minds of these men are jotted down and pigeon-holed4 ,the outside contributions which come in with every post are scanned1 and those thought suitable are dissected1 their ideas are torn out and re-committed to paper1 for filing1 while the author is rewarded with payment according to the merit of his work4 ,at this establishment no lengthy scenario submitted by an unknown writer is considered4 ,time is too valuable when eight or ten stages have to be kept going4 ,the staff is fully occupied upon the work in hand1 and cannot wade through pages of often indecipherable hand-writing4 ,the method of this particular producer in the case of an ordinary play is to have an abstract1 prepared by the retained scenario writer1 indicating the scenes1 their sequence1 characters1 and other details1 with a brief synopsis of the plot1 the whole being set out upon a sheet of foolscap4 ,upon this material the producer works1 explaining to the company the story of the play and the situations1 as they progress step by step4 ,many producers1 however1 prefer the scenario to be submitted in a more complete form1 though requirements of brevity and terseness must be observed4 ,they like the list of characters to be given1 together with a suggested period and setting4 ,the cast should be kept as small as possible1 as a plethora of characters in a photo-play is apt to be bewildering4 ,also the producer can amplify the cast if he wishes to do so4 ,the plot should be set out in narrative form4 ,a bald synopsis is quite sufficient because the scenario expert will judge the merits of the manuscript from this alone4 ,in order to assist the producer the main points and situations may be indicated4 ,after the synopsis there should be some suggestions for working out the story scene by scene4 ,these are not essential1 but they sometimes give the reader a better impression of the story1 and help him in staging the play4 ,the chances are a hundred to one that the play never will be staged as written by the author1 yet its brief evolution is often appreciated4 ,when the author works out his plots he must steer clear of introducing wild impossibilities or hopelessly impracticable suggestions4 ,the producer is admittedly a clever man1 and is able to get wonderful effects with the aid of the camera1 nor does he hesitate to employ trickery when it will further his purpose1 but there are limitations even to trick photography4 ,there was one manuscript in which the author1 after taking his villain through adventures innumerable1 suggested a sensational means of eliminating him altogether4 ,the man was speeding across a frozen river to escape the vengeance of the hero when the ice opened up suddenly1 let him through1 and then closed on him to hide him from sight and memory4 ,needless to say1 this plot met with scanty consideration4 ,in another case the plot turned upon a lady's ring4 ,the lady was standing by a river1 and the ring slipped from her finger into the water to be caught and swallowed by a fish4 ,some days later the hero was fishing in the same stream4 ,he had a bite1 hooked his catch1 cut it open1 and found the ring4 ,it is difficult to say who experienced the most amazement1 the hero when he opened his fish1 or the producer when he read the story4 ,in the photo-play profession it is novelty of the plot which brings success4 ,the farther the author can get away from conventionality1 the bigger will be the reward4 ,this is where the average amateur shows deficiency4 ,he is content to follow the footsteps of others4 ,again1 many photo-play writers1 instead of striving to be original1 prefer to steal ideas from a novelist or short story writer4 ,this work1 needless to say1 is sheer waste of time4 ,the producer and his staff follow the periodicals and the publishing seasons very closely1 so that it is easy for them to detect a stolen plot4 ,moreover1 it must be remembered that to-day the leading producing firms have arrangements with authors1 publishers and editors1 for the exclusive use of their productions4 ,these sources form a stand-by1 as it were1 to be brought into use when the fount of original scenarios dries up4 ,when novels and magazine stories are to provide fare for the screen the producer entrusts the work of adaptation to one of his staff who has a more intimate idea of what is required1 and will perform the task far more satisfactorily than the ordinary contributor4 ,the photo-play author has one great advantage over his colleague who writes for the stage4 ,the latter has to supply dialogue1 and often the success or failure of his work turns upon this factor4 ,in writing for the screen dialogue is a lost quantity4 ,it is action which is required1 because the spectator has to follow the play from what he sees1 and not from what he hears4 ,accordingly the requirements of action must be kept in mind4 ,in the average studio the actor either extemporises dialogue to fit the part or situation1 or else the producer prompts him4 ,it is true that one or two producers stipulate that the photo-play shall be written out in detail as if it were to be played behind the footlights1 but such producers may be set down as incompetent or behind the times4 ,a few years ago one of the ,continental firms insisted that every play should be written out in full1 but a few months' experience showed the folly of this procedure4 ,plays mounted in this manner lacked that grip and movement which is necessary in photographic pantomime4 ,the audience could not retain the thread of the story1 and the interest consequently flagged4 ,the members of the company1 being compelled to learn their lines1 and to rehearse continually1 went through their parts like puppets4 ,accordingly this method of mounting and acting has been abandoned in favour of the other in which the company1 absolutely ignorant of the plot and story1 is taken through it step by step and maintained at concert pitch throughout4 ,the writer should make a point of selecting a striking or catchy title for his work4 ,often when the plot itself is useless the producer will buy the manuscript merely to apply the title to some other production4 ,a word of warning may be given to the inexperienced photo-play author4 ,advertisements are freely inserted in the various periodicals offering to teach the art of writing plays for the cinematograph1 and to submit the plots to the various producers in the manner of a literary agency4 ,no matter how speciously and attractively the advertisements are written1 the offers they contain should not be accepted4 ,the author will do best to submit his work directly to the producer and to treat with him alone4 ,the art cannot be taught by schools2 it can only be acquired by experience4 ,nor does the agency possess more favourable opportunities for getting the work accepted than the writer himself1 while the so-called expert who maintains that he can lick a plot into shape is merely a charlatan4 ,if the plot is good1 whether written by a raw or a highly trained hand1 it will command its price1 because the producer is no respecter of persons4 ,also1 by treating directly1 the author comes into touch with the producer1 and often learns points and receives encouragement which cannot be transmitted through a middle man4 ,how is the work rewarded8 ,this is a question which is often asked4 ,so far as the ,british market is concerned the photo-play author receives scant encouragement4 ,british enterprise has not risen to the level of that of the ,united ,states or the ,continent4 ,the ,british firms neither realise the value of a good plot nor the advantages of prompt and smart business methods4 ,here and there may be found a firm which is keenly alive to the value of the outside worker1 but they are few and far between4 ,on the other hand the ,american and ,continental houses give an immediate decision1 treat the outside contributor kindly1 extend profitable words of advice if the work is promising1 and pay promptly4 ,a plot for which a ,british firm considers #ajs4 #j;d4 7#b4ej7 to be an adequate remuneration will realise #be 7#e7 in the ,american market4 ,the ,british producer will consider #a 7#e7 to be a princely price for a good plot1 and so long as this impression is retained the ,british photo-plays will remain inferior to their competitors4 ,on the other hand1 the ,american firms deal liberally with their authors1 and are quite prepared to pay from #be to #aej--e to #cj4 ,fortunately signs of awakening are becoming evident among the ,british firms4 ,good plots1 like gold nuggets1 are somewhat scarce1 and one or two of the latest and most progressive establishments now pay up to #aj 7#ej74 ,picture-play producers are finding greater and greater difficulty in obtaining first-class plots4 ,the standard of excellence has been set so high1 owing to the extremely critical character of the picture palace patron1 that the highest work only now stands a chance of being accepted4 ,the rivalry among the producers has become keen1 because a strong picture-play can command a world-wide sale4 ,one ,italian firm1 in the effort to forge ahead of its competitors1 went so far as to offer a prize of #a1jjj 7#e1jjj7 for the best scenario in open competition4 ,it is admitted among the manufacturers that within the course of the next few years the royalty system must come into operation1 so that the photo-play author will be elevated to the level of his confrre writing for the theatre4 ,in ,france a society has been founded for the protection of photo-play writers4 ,this organisation protects its members by securing higher rates of payment1 by introducing the work of beginners to the film-producers1 and last1 but not least1 by advertising the writer4 ,ten years ago the picture-play author was regarded with disdain1 and was considered to be little more than an indifferent literary hack4 ,to-day he is regarded as a powerful force4 ,from the lowest and most ill-paid level he is rising to the highest rungs1 where his rewards are excellent and his opportunities unbounded4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,recent ,,developments ,,in ,,stage ,,productions ,although the mounting and staging of photo-plays has been greatly improved1 the art has still many imperfections4 ,this is partly due to the conservative character of the industry4 ,there is a lack of initiative and enterprise2 the producers are content to keep in the one groove which was established years ago4 ,no one can deny that enormous sums of money are expended upon the mounting of the productions1 nor assail them from the photographic viewpoint4 ,but there is a lack of art which at times is sadly jarring4 ,this was to be expected4 ,when the ,english pioneers embarked upon the play-producing business they knew nothing about stage-craft4 ,their ambition was rather to perfect the photographic quality of the films4 ,so rapidly did the movement advance1 however1 and so insistent was the public in its demands for better1 larger1 and more lavishly staged plays1 that the pioneer found himself out-distanced4 ,at this juncture came the man who had won his spurs in the theatre1 and who was thoroughly expert in the technique of stage-craft4 ,his professional knowledge lifted the art out of the hands of the pioneers1 who retired from the scene4 ,the introduction of the professional element commenced in ,france1 and was taken up immediately by the ,americans4 ,these two countries went ahead so rapidly that ,great ,britain was soon left behind4 ,the world became flooded with ,french and ,american productions1 and in this healthy race the latter soon went ahead and took premier position4 ,the ,french industry1 being threatened1 pulled itself together1 and taking a cue from ,american methods it overhauled its organisations and increased its expenditure1 with the result that it soon attained the level of excellence achieved by the ,united ,states4 ,at a later date the ,italian industry1 which was in a languishing condition1 followed suit4 ,money was sunk in the enterprise1 huge studios were built1 and talented artists were engaged to act before the moving-picture camera4 ,great ,britain lagged in this race1 and it is only recently that the ,british producers1 by a change of method have been able to make up the leeway4 ,the ,british movement was rather of a sporadic nature4 ,it was left to one or two enterprising firms to show the way4 ,but others have followed1 and to-day there is the keenest rivalry in producing1 nor is expense considered so long as the public gets what it wants4 ,to sink #c1jjj 7#ae1jjj7 in a single production has become quite a common venture4 ,in many cases1 however1 in spite of these changes1 photo-plays still follow the lines that prevailed ten years ago4 ,the blemishes1 defects1 and anachronisms are just as pronounced now as they were then1 though they are suffered in silence by the public4 ,many faults are hidden by the gorgeous and lavish mounting of the scenes1 while the rapid action of the players serves to distract attention from the shortcomings of the environment4 ,but the feeling of actuality1 which ought to be the great feature of the cinematograph1 is missing4 ,the scenic accessories might be left out for all the effect that they produce4 ,as a matter of fact the photo-play stage occupies to-day the position of the theatre twenty years ago4 ,the scenery is for the most part make-shift1 crudely painted in the neutral black and white1 the stock room being ransacked to discover pieces of canvas to fit the situation4 ,there is no attempt to create an artistic effect4 ,also there is an entire absence of reality or individuality4 ,a cell scene1 for instance1 bears every sign of being built of canvas and battens1 and so does the exterior of a medival castle1 or the inside of a conservatory1 and completed by a factory hand4 ,illustration3 ,from the ,cinema ,college1 by permission of the ,motograph ,co4 ,,tree ,,lizard1 ,,with ,a ,,spider1 ,,which ,,it ,,has ,,captured1 ,,in ,,its ,,mouth4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,path ,frres4 ,,the ,,digestive ,,organs ,,and ,,eggs ,,of ,a ,,water ,,flea4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,path ,frres4 ,,the ,,moving-,,picture ,,naturalist ,,and ,,the ,,lizard ,,at ,,home4 ,sometimes the shortcomings of the studio-stage are avoided by setting the plays in an outdoor surrounding1 and in this instance a far more realistic effect is produced4 ,the audience is unconsciously carried away4 ,this has been specially realised by some of the ,american1 ,danish and ,italian firms4 ,in ,france the ,gaumont ,company has shown equal enterprise4 ,so far as possible the elaborate productions of this company are acted in a scene suited to the plot1 whether it be a sixteenth century castle or a modern hotel4 ,there is ample opportunity for doing this1 and the present popularity of the photo-play proves the wisdom of the policy4 ,during the summer months as many as six different companies will be working in as many different corners of ,europe1 acting plays in the open air for the picture palaces4 ,even the interiors in ,gaumont films are often real and not merely constructed for the occasion4 ,as a rule the studio is used only during the winter when the climatic conditions are unfavourable for outdoor work4 ,this is the chief reason why the ,gaumont films to-day are in such demand1 and why the company has forced its way to the front4 ,the conveyance of players to a suitable natural setting is expensive1 but it represents all the difference between success and failure4 ,of course1 there are occasions when a natural setting demands a certain amount of artificial embellishment4 ,this was the case in the filming of ,hamlet1 as presented by ,sir ,forbes ,robertson and his company4 ,a sea background and a battlemented castle were required4 ,the former was quite easy to find1 but the combination of the two was more difficult4 ,the problem was solved by the choice of ,lulworth ,cove as the scene and by erecting a solid set to represent the castle4 ,in this case the preparation of the extemporised castle was so thorough and careful that it looks like a weather-beaten stone building4 ,the photo-play stage will be forced to emulate the current practice of the theatre4 ,it must bring the artist to bear upon the work4 ,at the moment it is merely a combination of the photographer and the stage-manager or producer4 ,the latter is not always an artist1 though he is clever at making existing facilities suit his purpose4 ,the theatre is holding its own principally because it respects the artistic side of the issue4 ,individuality is encouraged4 ,the photo-play stage will have to follow the same line of action4 ,directly this is done the picture palace will become a spirited rival of the theatre4 ,for this reason the efforts of ,sir ,hubert von ,herkomer1 the eminent ,british artist1 are being followed with interest4 ,he was attracted to the photo-play producing business owing to the artistic atrocities perpetrated by the professional producer of film plays4 ,he is not attempting to achieve any revolution1 except in the mounting and acting of plays for the camera1 but in this sphere he hopes to bring about a recognition of the part that the artist must play4 ,there is a complete absence of sensationalism about the artist-producer's work1 and in this respect he goes against the conventions4 ,he is deliberately flouting many of the accepted tenets of the photo-play production1 and his attitude is certain to meet with some hostile criticism4 ,but from the realist point of view he is correct4 ,his matter-of-fact productions give verisimilitude to the scene and story1 and brings them within the range of probability4 ,there is no straining after effect4 ,no detail is introduced unless it has a distinct bearing on the subject4 ,the costumes are faithful to the last button4 ,if a sixteenth century farmhouse is wanted1 it is built1 and built so well that in the picture it has every appearance of having been built of stone4 ,a feature which will be appreciated in the ,herkomer productions is the suppression of the harsh and distressing blacks1 greys and whites1 which under brilliant illumination often convey the impression of snow4 ,nor do the players seem to be suffering from anmia4 ,these appear to be trivial matters in themselves1 but they greatly affect the ultimate whole4 ,the robust aspect of the peasant who lives out of doors is faithfully conveyed1 and he is thrown up in sharp contrast to the white-faced townsman4 ,in the conventional picture-play1 on the other hand1 there is no individuality of facial expression1 because one and all are made up in the same way4 ,sir ,hubert von ,herkomer has commenced his work in a logical way4 ,he confesses that until he began it he knew nothing about it4 ,he was not harassed by a partial knowledge of how things are done4 ,he is essentially a pioneer1 content to work out his own ideas1 and possessed of views upon stage-craft which are not to be despised4 ,they had a good effect upon the theatre twenty or thirty years ago1 and have lately been revived by another enthusiast4 ,so ,sir ,hubert von ,herkomer is not likely to be the slave of tradition4 ,he maintains that in the average photo-play everything is sacrificed to rapid action4 ,this is true1 and it is done purposely to distract attention from the weakness of the rest4 ,the spectator must fix his attention upon the characters or he loses the thread of the story4 ,no time is given him to see the deficiency of atmosphere or environment4 ,the result is that everything is rushed through as if the villain and hero were racing the clock4 ,to realise this it is only necessary to follow the film-play of a well-known historical story4 ,familiarity with the incident here gives the spectator a chance of taking in the setting and the mounting4 ,if there are mistakes1 interest gives way to mirth and all concentration is lost4 ,the picture is followed with no more enthusiasm than a pantomime4 ,this is the main reason why producers are chary of portraying well-known historical episodes upon the screen4 ,one educational authority has described such films as burlesques1 and that is among the causes of opposition to the cinematograph as an educational medium4 ,in one instance an attempt was made to film an incident in one of ,fenimore ,cooper's stories with white actors made up as ,red ,indians4 ,it was acted in a well-kept private forest instead of in the wild woods of ,canada4 ,but young and old proved to be too familiar with this author's works4 ,they had too true a notion of the ,canadian timber wilderness to be impressed by the substitute on the screen1 and received the presentation with the ridicule it deserved4 ,the sight of a ,red ,man slouching through the bush with out-turned feet and trying to conceal himself behind a tree less than six inches in thickness1 proved to be merely comic4 ,but other things equally ridiculous are found in many of the films of to-day1 and that is the reason why the scenes are so judiciously rushed4 ,by slowing down the speed of acting1 though without reducing the sustained interest1 ,sir ,hubert von ,herkomer contends that the public will be put in a position to grasp the whole subject1 and will be able to follow it more rationally and comprehensibly4 ,at the same time the players will have time and scope to perform their parts properly4 ,there is not the least reason why this should not be achieved without allowing the action to flag or the interest to drop4 ,the lighting of the subject is another important feature to which ,sir ,hubert von ,herkomer is giving attention4 ,the illumination must be arranged to suit the situation1 and as cinematography offers the utmost latitude in this respect1 it is unnecessary to rush to violent extremes4 ,in many productions the studio stage is suffused with such an intense glare that all facial expression and shadows are sacrificed4 ,sir ,hubert has realised how great is the scope for improvement in this direction1 and is altering the whole principle of stage lighting4 ,similarly1 in outdoor work he is supplementing sunshine with arc lights1 so as to secure the steady illumination necessary for good effects4 ,the combination of brilliant daylight and artificial illumination is a novelty in photo-play production1 but when the action is taking place under trees1 where the shadows are heavy and in sharp contrast with scattered patches of brilliant sunlight1 the players are apt to present a phantom appearance4 ,sometimes they are scarcely distinguishable4 ,the introduction of auxiliary light relieves the shadowy places and softens the general effect4 ,needless to say the manipulation of powerful arc lights under such conditions demands skilful handling1 but in the ,herkomer films the improved results certainly show that the labour is not wasted4 ,whether the combination of artist and producer will prove successful time alone can show4 ,there will be a certain amount of commercial opposition1 lacking in artistic feeling1 and hostile to innovation4 ,but the appearance of the artist and his resolution to work out his schemes logically should surely be encouraged by the public4 ,the same reforms that changed and improved the theatre1 enabling it to hold its own against the all-conquering picture palace1 have a mission to the latter also4 ,they can lift it to the higher level that is its obvious destiny4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,why ,,not ,,national ,,cinematograph ,,laboratories8 ,considering the position which the motion-picture has attained in our social and industrial life1 the establishment of national cinematograph laboratories appears not only to be opportune1 but necessary4 ,at the present moment1 if one conceives an idea for the solving of some abstruse problem by means of animated photography1 one is handicapped by the lack of opportunity and facilities for carrying out the work4 ,either the apparatus required must be made specially1 or purchased1 in which case heavy expenditure may be incurred1 or1 one must go to ,paris and make use of the ,marey ,institute1 either by becoming a member of it or by serving as the representative of a contributory society4 ,there1 one is able to pursue the line of study quietly1 easily1 and economically1 and1 even if the ultimate results are disappointing1 or the cherished theories prove to be untenable1 certain benefits are sure to accrue from the experiments4 ,the time is not wasted4 ,the ,marey ,institute is unique and wonderful4 ,its operations are world-wide4 ,its founder1 ,dr4 ,e4 ,j4 ,marey1 was a prodigious worker who pursued his scientific investigations without any idea of personal gain4 ,when first he entered the arena of science he began his experiments in a large room upon the fifth floor of a house in the ,rue de l'ancienne ,comdie1 ,paris1 which formerly belonged to the ,comdie ,franaise4 ,here he fitted up as good a laboratory as he could afford1 dividing the spacious apartment1 by wooden partitions1 into working and living rooms4 ,his studies soon aroused widespread attention1 and their results were subsequently embodied in his classical work1 ,the ,graphic ,method4 ,but some ten years before this volume appeared his investigations had received recognition4 ,in #ahfg the ,minister of ,public ,instruction offered him the use of a laboratory at the ,college of ,france1 so as to be able to carry out his researches to better advantage4 ,during this period he invented numerous instruments--the sphymograph1 cardiograph1 pneumograph1 thermograph1 and odograph--with which he made invaluable contributions to scientific knowledge4 ,it was ,konig's work which attracted ,marey to animated photography1 as a handmaid of science1 the outcome being his greatest discovery1 which he named chronophotography4 ,marey was much impressed by ,jannsen's astronomical revolver with which1 in #ahgc1 a series of photographs of the transit of ,venus were taken in #gj seconds4 ,this caused him to build a photographic gun1 with which gulls in flight were secured4 ,the work of ,muybridge1 the ,english investigator residing in ,san ,francisco1 aroused his enthusiasm to the highest pitch1 and enabled him to perfect his system of taking a series of successive photographs upon a single glass plate4 ,finally1 in #ahic1 he produced his first moving-picture camera working with celluloid films4 ,but some twenty years before this last achievement he had conceived the idea for an ,international ,institution where experiments of this character1 in connection with motion photography1 might be carried out to the advantage of the sciences4 ,he realised that the elucidation of physiological phenomena was quite beyond the capacity of a single individual4 ,he outlined his scheme at the ,fourth ,physiological ,congress1 held at ,cambridge 7,england7 in the early seventies1 while ,monsieur ,h4 ,kronecker1 of ,switzerland1 a great admirer of ,marey's work1 who succeeded to the presidential chair of the ,institution after the founder's death1 urged a similar plea at an exhibition of scientific apparatus held in ,london in #ahgf4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,motograph ,co4 ,a ,,novel ,,hide ,,contrived ,,by ,,mr4 ,j4 ,t4 ,,newman ,,with ,,camera ,,fifteen ,,feet ,,above ,,the ,,ground4 ,the working platform is covered with boughs so as not to alarm the forest life being cinematographed4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,motograph ,co4 ,,the ,,hide ,,opened ,,to ,,show ,,working ,,platform1 ,,trestle ,,support1 ,,operator ,,and ,,camera ,,placed ,,fifteen ,,feet ,,above ,,the ,,ground4 ,marey's broad-mindedness met with its reward4 ,with the assistance of private friends and contemporary scientific societies throughout the world he obtained adequate funds for the establishment of the ,institution1 the necessity for which he had advanced so vigorously4 ,the ,city of ,paris gave valuable help by granting the use of a tract of land attached to its physiological station1 and here ,marey established a commodious building with spacious workrooms1 a library1 lecture hall1 and other conveniences1 for the profitable prosecution of cinematographic research4 ,since the foundation of the ,french ,cradle of ,cinematography1 innumerable and valuable contributions to scientific knowledge have been made by investigators of all nationalities1 who have gone to ,paris to take advantage of the facilities offered4 ,many extraordinary films dealing with the various branches of science have been prepared4 ,many of the most prominent scientists of all nations1 ,france1 ,great ,britain1 ,germany1 ,italy1 ,roumania1 ,switzerland1 the ,united ,states of ,america1 are numbered among its members4 ,it may be said truthfully that the ,marey ,institute has anticipated all the great developments that have been made during recent years concerning the instructional or informative side of film production4 ,unfortunately the original investigations were made so long ago1 before the possibilities of animated photography were appreciated1 that they have been forgotten by1 or are unknown to1 the present generation4 ,many an inventor1 enthusiastic about a development which he has perfected in the art1 has received a rude shock when his work became public and he learned that he had been forestalled years before at the ,marey ,institute4 ,nearly all of the so-called scientific films1 which arouse widespread interest to-day1 were prepared originally at the ,marey ,institute4 ,the combination of the cinematograph with the microscope1 the ,x-rays1 and other apparatus1 the recording of the growth of plants and animals1 the photographing of rapid movements all these were demonstrated at this establishment a generation ago4 ,surely what has been possible at a ,french establishment is not beyond the resources of other countries8 ,when one recalls the valuable assistance given to science by the ,french ,institute1 there should be no hesitation in other countries to emulate the idea1 and to establish national institutions for a similar purpose4 ,animated photography is still in its infancy4 ,its educational and scientific possibilities are scarcely yet realised4 ,there were many years during which no one realised the full advantages of ordinary photography in the provinces of investigation and experiment1 and animated photography is passing through a similar phase4 ,this is largely because of the showman1 who is enterprising1 and has captured the fort for himself4 ,probably no other industry has been responsible for the creation of so many millionaires in so short a period1 yet there is no industry which can render so great a service to science4 ,it should not be difficult to establish national institutions1 on ,marey's lines1 in every country which has great industrial and commercial interests at stake4 ,so far as ,great ,britain is concerned it might be attached to the ,national ,physical ,laboratory at ,teddington4 ,this establishment has an extensive array of scientific apparatus of all descriptions capable of being utilised in conjunction with the moving-picture camera1 so that the additional outlay would not be excessive4 ,not only would it be possible to utilise the invention in connection with existing experiments1 but independent and original investigation could be undertaken4 ,there are many points of science which can be determined only by moving-pictures4 ,although ,marey covered the ground very completely during his lifetime1 as a perusal of ,movement will show1 many new spheres of application have appeared since his time4 ,it is quite possible that if some of his investigations were repeated in the light of later knowledge1 the new results would be quite as striking as the old4 ,in ,germany the cinematographic laboratory might be attached to the world-famed testing laboratory at ,charlottenburg4 ,at present1 although the recording instruments in use are of a most modern and perfect description1 there are innumerable instances where improvement might be effected by photographic methods4 ,the ,german military authorities were not slow to appreciate the value of ,professor ,cranz's system of photographing projectiles in flight4 ,directly the initial experiments were concluded the work was taken up by the ,war ,department4 ,although certain particulars of the apparatus employed and its method of operation have been published1 the essential details have been kept secret4 ,it is admitted that the method evolved by ,cranz is imperfect in certain features1 but the authorities have the germ of a useful invention1 and are now developing it independently4 ,in ,italy also the value of the cinematograph is being appreciated in a certain direction4 ,the ,minister of ,marine has established a special department of photography and cinematography in ,rome1 after personal investigation of the utility of the invention during the naval manoeuvres4 ,the ,united ,states of ,america has been no more progressive than ,great ,britain in giving recognition to animated photography1 but there are indications that this lethargic attitude is to be abandoned4 ,certain influential interests have suggested the establishment of a cinematographic bureau of standards1 emphasising the usefulness of the invention for supplying measurements of time and work4 ,apart from this movement other independent enthusiasts have recommended the formation of moving-picture laboratories in connection with the various training institutions1 so that students might be trained on the correct lines4 ,doubtless the perfection of continuous-record cinematography1 and of cameras capable of working at the highest speeds1 will stimulate the movement1 for they provide a method of getting information which even the cinematograph has not hitherto been able to give4 ,there are a thousand problems incidental to industry and commerce which now defy solution1 but could be solved by animated photography4 ,aviation1 which at present is occupying the attention of every nation1 is a case in point4 ,the mechanical part of the science has been investigated minutely but little progress has been made in studying the effect of the air upon the planes1 so as to discover the best forms of cutting edge4 ,present endeavour is content to work upon the results obtained by ,marey with his chronophotographic apparatus some twenty years ago4 ,no attempt has been made to ascertain whether it is possible to improve upon his work1 or to determine whether the data he gathered is in need of modification4 ,another field of investigation is in regard to the testing of metals1 woods1 and other materials1 to discover their behaviour under varying degrees of strain4 ,a national cinematographic laboratory need not be expensive either to establish nor to maintain4 ,the ,marey ,institute might be taken as a model4 ,after the death of ,marey1 in #aije1 the means of carrying on the institution were completely reorganised4 ,the work it was accomplishing was recognised as being too valuable to be allowed to cease4 ,the ,french ,government took up the question and decided to grant an annual subvention of #ifj 7#d1hjj74 ,the ,german1 ,swiss1 ,russian1 and other ,governments1 as well as various scientific institutions of all nations1 also decided to subscribe regularly to its support4 ,in this way1 with the addition of some private subscriptions1 about #a1ejj 7#g1ejj7 is contributed annually4 ,other contributions are made in kind1 such as the film1 all of which is given by the firm of ,lumire4 ,considering the work accomplished by the ,marey ,institute it is maintained very economically4 ,the annual expenses average about #a1bjj or #f1jjj4 ,the paid staff comprises the assistant sub-director and an assistant1 two highly skilled mechanics1 and one or two minor officials1 the important posts being filled honorarily4 ,private investigators are encouraged to use the ,institute and its equipment4 ,the scientific institutions of the different countries are given certain facilities in return for a small payment4 ,thus an annual subscription of #dj 7#bjj7 entitles the representative of an institution to the widest use of the laboratory4 ,he is not only given free and unrestricted use of all the apparatus1 but is provided with a bedroom1 so that his expenses are reduced to disbursements upon meals and other personal requirements4 ,everything requisite for his study1 as well as accessories1 such as light1 film1 developers1 etc41 are provided free of charge4 ,the laboratory is well provided with all sorts of appliances4 ,there are cameras of various designs adapted to special classes of work1 dark rooms for developing1 rooms for experiments1 a workshop with skilled mechanics1 a library stocked with literature bearing upon cinematography and its relation to the sciences1 and a large and lofty hall furnished with a projector and screen4 ,as the ,institute stands in its own grounds of over #c1jjj square yards1 there are ample facilities for out-door investigations4 ,the experimenter at this ,institution has advantages placed at his disposal which will not be found elsewhere in any other part of the world4 ,the majority of the appliances have been designed by the staff mechanics1 and in their manufacture extreme ingenuity has been displayed4 ,much of the apparatus might possibly provide an income in the form of royalties if it were commercially exploited4 ,but it is a rule of the ,institute that no instrument may be patented4 ,its work is for the benefit of all4 ,undoubtedly the near future will see the foundation of national cinematographic laboratories in some form or other4 ,the value of animated photography is not yet appreciated4 ,directly the sciences realise its significance1 and see that it constitutes an indispensable aid to investigation and research1 the invention will be given the recognition it deserves4 ,then it will be turned into more useful channels than at present4 ,individual investigation will be encouraged1 and discoveries more wonderful than any of which we know will be made4 ,,index ,aeroscope1 the1 hand camera1 #ee-eg ,aldrich1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,g41 and the use of micro-motion1 #agf ,alpha camera1 #bb-bc ,aurora ,borealis1 attempt to film the1 #ahf ,automatic cameras4 ,see under ,cameras4 ,bruce1 ,colonel1 study of sleeping sickness1 #aie ,bull1 ,m4 ,lucien1 optical illusions explained1 #if-ajg2 experiments with a bee1 #aai-abj2 continuous-record camera1 #acg2 study of ballistics1 #aij ,cameras1 automatic1 #ed-ei2 cost of1 #g-aj1 #bb-bd2 directions for use1 #ce-ej2 hand camera1 #ej-ec2 high speed cameras1 #aji1 #aab-aaf1 #aah-abj2 mechanism explained1 #be-cd ,cardiograph1 the1 #bdi ,carvallo1 ,m4 ,m4 ,j41 #adg-adh2 apparatus described and illustrated1 #adi-aeb2 scientific experiments1 #aed-aef ,chronophotography1 #acf-adf2 discovery of1 #bdi2 the chronoscope1 #aaa-aab ,chronoscope1 the1 #aaa-aab ,cinematography-- 7a7 for the amateur1 attractions and opportunities1 #a-ab1 #ba-cd1 #ib-ic1 #abe1 #acc-acd1 #bab-bac1 #bbj-bba2 picture plays1 #bbe-bcg 7b7 scientific value of4 ,see ,scientific investigation4 7c7 ,educational value4 ,see ,educational films4 7d7 in conjunction with the ,x-rays4 ,see ,radio-cinematography4 7e7 in conjunction with the microscope4 ,see ,micro-cinematography4 ,claw1 the1 #bf-bg2 movement described1 #bi-cj2 single claw1 #ca ,comandon1 ,dr4 ,jean1 #adg-adh2 system described and illustrated #aeg-afj2 investigations with ultra-microscope described and illustrated1 #afh-agb1 #aie ,continuous records4 ,see ,records1 continuous4 ,cooke lens1 #bc ,cranz1 ,dr41 of ,berlin1 military academy1 #aji2 apparatus invented by1 #aij-aic1 #bed ,crookes' tube1 #aec ,dallmeyer lens1 #bc ,dastre1 ,dr41 of the ,sorbonne1 #agb ,demeny1 ,georges1 #adc2 investigation with the continuous record1 #add-ade ,developing4 ,see under ,film4 ,driving gear1 #ca-cb ,drum1 the1 #gf ,eastman ,company1 stock1 #fc1 #gh2 developing solution1 #gj ,educational films1 #bji-bbc ,einthoven1 ,professor 7,dutch scientist71 #acg2 chronophotography1 #adb ,equilibrator of hand camera1 #ef ,experiments and investigations3 study of bacteria1 #afh-agb2 filming of a bee1 #bai2 with continuous records1 #adj-ade2 study of functions of digestion1 #aed-aef2 flight of projectiles1 #aia-aic2 filming of a kingfisher1 #bag-bah2 in micro-motion1 #agg-ahj2 by an ophthalmic surgeon1 #aic2 growth of plants1 #abd-abi2 technical1 #ahg1 #ahh-ahi4 ,see also ,scientific investigations4 ,exposure1 length of1 #dc-dg ,film 7unexposed71 cost1 #ab2 description1 #aa2 developing1 #fe-gd1 #gh2 drying1 #ge-gg2 ,eastman stock1 #fc2 fixing1 #gd-ge2 the indicator1 #db2 loading the box1 #ce-cg2 matt film1 #ch-ci2 threading1 #bh-bi 7ill471 #ci-da2 printing1 #gi-ic2 special for ,carvallo apparatus1 #aec2 winding1 #gg ,film jointer1 #cg ,film-pictures3 prices1 #e-g1 #bag-bba ,fixing-bath1 formula1 #gd ,focus-lamp1 #hi ,focussing1 #cj-ca1 #ch2 effect of length of exposure1 #dg ,formul3 ,eastman developer1 #gj2 restrainer for over-exposed films1 #ga2 fixing bath2 #gd2 soaking solution1 #ge ,french ,cradle of ,cinematography1 #bea ,fchs1 ,dr4 ,otto1 investigations1 #ahh-aij ,gate1 the1 described1 #bi ,gaumont1 ,company1 picture plays1 #bda ,geneva stop movement1 #bf ,gilbreth1 ,mr4 ,frank ,b41 #adc2 micro-motion study1 #age-ahd ,graphic ,method1 ,the1 book by ,e4 ,j4 ,marey1 #bdi ,great ,white ,scourge1 ,the 7film71 #bbb ,gun1 photographic1 #bej ,hamlet1 filming of play1 #bdb ,hand camera4 ,see under ,cameras4 ,health films1 #bbb-bbc ,herkomer1 ,sir ,hubert von1 and picture plays1 #bdc-bdg ,high-speed cameras4 ,see under ,cameras4 ,illuminant1 #acj-acb1 #aij2 in micro-cinematography1 #afg1 #agj ,international ,institution for ,cinematographic ,research1 #bej-bea4 ,see also ,marey ,institute4 ,interrupter1 #aeh-aei2 of ,cranz apparatus1 #aia ,iris diaphragm1 use illustrated1 #de2 table of stops1 #df-dg ,jannsen's astronomical revolver1 #bdi-bej ,jury autocam1 #eh-ei ,jury duplex1 #hj2 printing apparatus1 #hb-he ,jury outfit1 #aj ,kearton1 ,mr4 ,cherry1 jungle pictures1 #e1 #ec2 use of aeroscope1 #ee ,lens1 the1 #bc-be2 iris diaphragm1 #dc-dg2 for radio-cinematography1 #afj ,life of a ,moorhen 7film71 #bba ,life ,target1 the1 apparatus1 #bja-bjg ,lumire ,brothers1 #agb1 #bef ,marey1 ,dr4 ,e4 ,j41 #aaa-aad1 #bdi-bej2 physiological research1 #aie ,marey ,institute1 founding of1 #bdh-beb2 later development1 #bef-beh2 micro-cinematography1 #aff-afh2 radio-cinematography1 #adg-aef2 slow-movement records1 #abe-acj ,mason1 ,j4 ,c4 ,bee1 films of insect life1 #bai ,matt film1 #ch-ci ,mechanics and cinematography1 #ahg-aij ,micro-cinematography1 #afa-agc ,micro-motion study1 #agd-ahd ,military value of cinematography1 #aig-bjh ,motograph ,film ,co41 educational films1 #bbj ,movement1 book by ,e4 ,j4 ,marey1 #ahe ,movement1 intermittent1 #bf-ca ,movies1 the1 #bb ,muybridge1 investigator1 #bej ,national ,cinematographic ,laboratories1 a plea for1 #bdh1 #beb-bef ,national ,physical ,laboratory at ,teddington1 #bec ,new ,england ,butt ,co41 #agf-ahj ,new ,era camera1 #bb ,newman1 ,mr4 ,frank ,a41 #bag ,nogus1 ,m4 ,m4 ,p41 camera described and illustrated1 #aad2 claw motion device1 #aec ,odograph1 the1 #bdi ,one-turn-one-picture1 principle1 #abe1 #acc ,optical illusion1 #ac-ad2 illusions described and explained1 #ie-ajg ,out-position of claw1 #bi ,over-exposed film1 restrainer for1 #ga ,paterson and ,musgrave1 ,messrs41 #aih-bja ,path ,frres1 #aef1 #afi ,paul1 ,mr4 ,robert1 #bf ,persistence of vision1 law of1 #ad1 #abb ,photographic gun1 #bej ,photo play4 ,see ,picture play4 ,physiological ,institute1 ,paris1 #aie ,picture palace as illustrated newspaper1 #b ,picture play1 #bbd-bbf2 hints on construction1 #bbg-bcd2 warning to amateurs1 #bcd-bce2 commercial value1 #bce-bcg ,pin frame1 #fg-fh 7ill47 ,pneumograph1 the1 #bdi ,printing1 #gi-ic ,proszynski1 ,kasimir de1 #ed-ee ,punch1 the1 #db ,radio-cinematography1 #adg-afj ,rainey1 ,paul1 #i ,rapid movement1 record of1 #ajh-aaf2 projection of1 #aag-abb ,records1 continuous1 #acf2 apparatus1 #acg-ach2 scientific experiments with1 #aci-adf ,reinforced screen1 #aeh ,revolver1 astronomical1 #bdi-bej ,ries1 ,dr4 ,j41 investigations1 #afh ,robertson1 ,sir ,forbes1 in picture play1 #bdb ,ross lens1 #bc ,ruby light1 the1 #fh ,scientific investigation1 #ahe-aif4 ,see also under ,experiments and investigations4 ,slow movements1 record and projection of1 #abd-acc ,soaking solution formula1 #ge ,speed1 photographic and projecting1 #af-bj2 slowing down1 #ajh-abc2 speeding up1 #abd-acd ,spitta1 ,dr41 #afd ,spoolwinder1 #gg ,sprocket1 #bh 7ill47 ,stock1 #cd ,string galvanometer1 #acg ,swat the ,fly1 health film1 #bbb ,thermograph1 the1 #bdi ,time registration1 tuning-fork1 #ajc-ajg2 chronoscope1 #aaa-aab ,trick films1 difficulties of1 #f ,tripod1 #cb-cd ,tuning-fork control1 #ajc-ajg ,view finder1 the1 #di ,williamson1 ,mr4 ,james1 #bd2 micro-cinematographic studies1 #afd ,williamson outfit1 #aj2 camera1 #h1 #bd-bh 7ill472 printer1 #hj1 #he-hg 7ill472 focussing1 #cj1 #ch1 #dg2 mounting1 #ca2 driving gear1 #cb2 iris diaphragm1 #dc-df ,x-rays and cinematography4 ,see ,radio-cinematography4 ,zeiss-,tessar lens1 #bc-bd1 #dc ,,bradbury1 ,,agnew1 ,,co4 ,,ld41 ,,printers1 ,,london ,,and ,,tonbridge4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,page #aih fusilade changed to fusillade4 7,as the paper became perforated under the fusillade it was rolled up47 ,inconsistent use of ,moor-hen and ,moorhen was standardised to ,moorhen4