,barr's ,buffon4                        
--                           ,buffon's  
,natural ,history4                      
,,containing                            
,a ,,theory ,,of ,,the ,,earth1         
,a ,,general                            
,,history ,,of ,,man1                   
,,of ,,the ,,brute ,,creation1 ,,and    
,,of                                    
,,vegetables1 ,,minerals1               
c4 c4                                   
,,from ,,the ,,french4                  
,,with ,,notes ,,by ,,the ,,translator4 
,,in ,,ten ,,volumes4                   
,,vol4 ,,ii4                            
--                                      
,london3                                
,,printed ,,for ,,the ,,proprietor1     
,,sold ,,and ,,by ,h4 ,d4 ,,symonds1    
,,paternoster-,,row4                    
----                                    
#agig4                                  
,,contents                              
,,of                              ,,the 
,,second ,,volume4                      

,proof of the ,theory of the ,earth4    
,page      ,article ,,xi4    ,of ,seas  
and ,lakes                            #a
      ,article ,,xii4   ,of the ,flux   
and ,reflux                      #eh    
,article ,,xiii4  ,of the ,inequalities 
at the ,bottom of the                   
,sea1 and of ,currents                  
#ga      ,article ,,xiv4   ,of regular  
,winds                            #hf   
,article ,,xv4    ,of irregular ,winds1 
,hurricanes1 and                        
other ,phenomena1 caused by the         
,agitation                     of the   
,sea and ,air                           
#ajh      ,article ,,xvi4   ,of         
,volcanos and ,earthquakes              
#acc      ,article ,,xvii4  ,of ,new    
,islands1 ,caverns1 ,perpendicular      
,clefts1 c4                             
#aga      ,article ,,xviii4 ,of the     
,effects of ,rain--of ,marshes1         
,subterraneous ,wood and ,water         
#bje      ,article ,,xix4   ,of the     
,changes of ,land into ,sea and ,sea    

into ,land                              
#bdg      ,conclusion of the ,theory of 
the ,earth                     #bea     
,history of ,animals4      ,chapter ,i4 
,a comparison between ,animals1         
,vegetables                     and     
other ,productions of ,nature           
#bee      ,chapter ,,ii4  ,of           
,reproduction in general                
#bgb      ,chapter ,,iii4 ,of ,nutrition
 and ,growth                      #bih  
,chapter ,,iv4  ,of the ,generation of  
,animals                 #caa           
,chapter ,v4   ,exposition of the       
,systems in ,generation      #cbi       
,,buffon's                              
,,natural ,,history4                    
,,proof ,,of ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,the  
,,earth4          ,,article ,,xi4       
,,of ,,seas ,,and ,,lakes4      ,the    
ocean surrounds the earth on all sides1 
and penetrates into the  interior parts 
of different countries1 often by large  
openings1 and  frequently by small      
straits2 it forms mediterranean seas1   

some of which  participate of its       
motions of flux and reflux1 and others  
seem to have  nothing in common with it 
except the continuity of water4 ,we     
shall  follow the ocean through all its 
extent and windings1 enumerating at  the
 same time all the mediterranean seas1  
and endeavour to distinguish  them from 
those which should be only called bays1 
or gulphs1 and lakes4    ,the sea which 
washes the western coasts of ,france    
forms a gulph between  ,spain and       
,britain2 this gulph1 which mariners    
call the ,bay of ,biscay1  is very open1
 and the point which projects farthest  
inland is between  ,bayonne and ,st4    
,sebastian2 another great projection is 
between ,rochelle  and ,rochefort3 this 
gulph begins at ,cape ,ortegal1 and ends
 at ,brest1  where a strait commences   
between the south point of ,britain and 
,cape  ,lizard4 ,this strait1 which at  
first is very large1 forms a small gulph
  in ,normandy1 the most projecting     
point of which is at ,auranche2 it      

continues pretty broad until it comes to
 the channel at the foot of  ,calais1   
where it is very narrow2 afterwards it  
grows broader on a  sudden1 and ends    
between the ,texel and the coast of     
,england at ,norwich2  at the ,texel it 
forms a small mediterranean sea1 called 
,zuyder-zee1  and many other great      
canals1 which are not very deep4        
,after that the ocean forms a great     
gulph called the ,german ,ocean2 it     
begins at the northern point of         
,scotland1 runs along the eastern  coast
 of ,scotland and ,england as far as    
,norwich1 from thence to the  ,texel1   
along the coasts of ,holland and        
,germany1 ,jutland1 ,norway1 and  above 
,bergen4 ,this gulph might be taken for 
a mediterranean sea1  because the       
,orkney islands partly shut up its      
opening1 and seem  to be directed as if 
they were a continuation of the         
mountains of  ,norway4 ,it forms a large
 strait1 which begins at the southern   
point  of ,norway1 and continues very   

broad to the ,island of ,zetland1 where 
it narrows all at once1 and forms       
between the coasts of ,sweden1 the      
islands of ,denmark and ,jutland1 four  
small straits2 after which it  widens to
 a small gulph1 the most projecting     
point of which is at  ,lubec3 from      
thence it continues pretty broad to the 
southern extremity  of ,sweden1 when it 
grows broader and broader1 and forms the
 ,baltic  ,sea1 which is a              
mediterranean1 extending from south to  
north near #cjj  leagues1 comprehending 
the gulph of ,bothnia1 which is in fact 
only a  continuation of it4 ,this sea   
has two more gulphs1 that of ,livonia1  
whose most projecting point is near     
,mittau and ,riga1 and that of          
,finland1 which is an arm of the        
,baltic1 extending between ,livonia and 
,finland to ,petersburgh1 and           
communicating with the lake ,ladoga1 and
  even with the lake ,onega1 which      
communicates by the river ,onega to the 
,white ,sea4 ,all this extent of water1 

which forms the ,baltic ,sea1 the       
gulphs of ,bothnia1 ,finland1 and       
,livonia1 must be looked upon as one    
great lake1 supported by a great number 
of rivers which it receives1  as the    
,oder1 the ,vistula1 the ,niemen1 the   
,droine1 in ,germany and  ,poland2 other
 rivers in ,livonia and ,finland2 others
 still greater1  which come from        
,lapland1 ,tornea1 the ,calis1 ,lula1   
,pithea1 ,uma1 and  many others that    
come from ,sweden4 ,these rivers1 which 
are very large1  are more than #dj1     
including the rivers they receive1 which
 cannot fail  of producing a quantity of
 water sufficient to support the        
,baltic4  ,besides1 this sea has no flux
 nor reflux1 although it is very narrow 
and very salt4 ,if we consider also the 
bearing of the country1 and  the number 
of lakes and morasses in ,finland and   
,sweden1 we shall be  inclined to look  
on it not as a sea1 but as a great lake 
formed by the  abundance of waters from 
the adjacent lands1 and which has forced

 a  passage near ,denmark into the      
ocean1 where in fact1 according to the  
account of mariners1 they still continue
 to flow4    ,from the beginning of the 
gulph which forms the ,german ,sea1 and 
which  terminates above ,bergen1 the    
ocean follows the coasts of ,norway1    
,swedish ,lapland1 ,north ,lapland1 and 
,muscovy ,lapland1 at the eastern  part 
of which it forms a large strait1 which 
borders a mediterranean  called the     
,white ,sea1 which may be likewise      
regarded as a great lake2  for it       
receives #ab or #ac rivers1 all very    
considerable1 and which  are more than  
sufficient to support it2 its water is  
but a little  salt4 ,besides1 in many   
parts it is very near communicating with
 the  ,baltic ,sea2 it has even a real  
one with the gulph of ,finland1 for1  by
 ascending the river ,onega1 we come to 
a lake of the same name2  from this lake
 ,onega there are two rivers of         
communication with the  lake ,ladoga2   
this last communicates by a large arm   

with the gulph of  ,finland2 and there  
are many parts in ,swedish ,lapland1 the
 waters of  which run almost            
indifferently either into the ,white    
,sea1 or the gulphs  of ,bothnia and    
,finland2 and all this country being    
full of lakes and  morasses1 the ,baltic
 and ,white ,seas seem to be the        
receptacles of its  waters1 and which   
afterwards discharge themselves into the
 ,frozen and  ,german ,sea4    ,quitting
 the ,white ,sea1 and coasting the      
island of ,candenos and the  northern   
coasts of ,russia1 the ocean forms a    
small arm in the land at  the mouth of  
the river ,petzora4 ,this arm1 which is 
about #dj leagues  long1 by #h or #aj   
broad1 is rather a mass of water formed 
by the river  than a gulph of the sea1  
and also has but little saltness4 ,the  
land  there forms a projecting cape1    
terminated by the small islands of      
,maurice and of ,orange2 and between    
this promontory and the lands which     
border the ,strait of ,waigat to the    

south1 there is a small gulph about  #cj
 leagues depth inland4 ,this gulph      
belongs to the ocean1 and is not  formed
 by the land waters4 ,we afterwards meet
 with ,waigat's ,strait1  which is      
nearly under the #gjth degree of north  
latitude4 ,this strait is  not more than
 #h or #aj leagues long1 and            
communicates with the sea which  waters 
the northern coasts of ,siberia4 ,as    
this strait is shut up by the  ice the  
greatest part of the year1 it is very   
difficult to get into  the sea beyond   
it4 ,the passage has been attempted in  
vain by a great  number of navigators1  
and those who fortunately passed it have
 left  us no exact charts of that sea1  
which they have termed the ,pacific     
,ocean4 ,all that appears by the most   
recent charts1 and by ,senex's  globe of
 #agci1 is1 that this sea might be      
entirely mediterranean1 and  not        
communicating with the great sea of     
,tartary1 for it appears to  be enclosed
 and bounded on the south by the country

 of the ,samoides1  which is at present 
well known1 and which extends from the  
,straits of  ,waigat to the river       
,jenisca2 on the east it is bounded by  
,jelmorland1  on the west by ,nova      
,zembla2 and although we are not        
acquainted with the  extent of this sea 
to the north and north-east1 yet as     
there does not  appear any interruption 
of the lands1 there is great probability
 of  its being only a mediterranean1 and
 bounded by land on that side3 what     
indeed proves this is1 that by leaving  
,waigat's ,strait you may coast         
,nova-,zembla all along its western and 
northern coasts as far as ,cape         
,desire2 that after having past this    
cape1 keeping along the coast to  the   
east of ,nova ,zembla1 you arrive at a  
small gulph1 which is about  the #geth  
country of ,jelmorland was discovered in
 #affd1 which is only a  few leagues    
distant from ,nova ,zembla1 so that the 
only land which has  not yet been       
discovered is a small spot near this    

little gulph2 and  this part is perhaps 
not thirty leagues long2 so that if the 
,pacific  ,sea communicated with the    
ocean it must be at this little gulph1  
which  is the only way by which they can
 join2 and as this small gulph is  in   
the #geth degree1 even if the           
communication should exist1 we must     
always keep five degrees towards the    
north to gain the great sea4 ,it  is    
evident1 therefore1 that if we would    
acquire the northern route to  ,china1  
it would be much better to pass by the  
north of ,nova ,zembla1 at  the #ggth or
 #ghth degree1 where the sea is more    
open1 and has less ice1  than to attempt
 the road through the icy strait of     
,waigat1 with the  uncertainty of       
getting out of this sea1 which there is 
so much reason  to believe              
mediterranean4    ,by following1        
therefore1 the ocean along the coasts of
 ,nova ,zembla  and ,jelmorland1 these  
lands are discoverable as far as the    
mouth of  ,chotanga1 which is about the 

#gc;d degree1 beyond which there is an  
unknown coast of about #bjj leagues3 we 
have only an account of them  from the  
,muscovites1 who have travelled by land 
into those climates2  they state the    
country to be uninterrupted1 have marked
 out the rivers  in their charts1 and   
called the people populi palati4 ,this  
interval  of coasts1 still unknown1     
extends from the mouth of ,chotanga to  
that of  ,kauvoina1 in the #ffth degree 
of latitude2 the ocean there forms a    
bay1  whose most projecting point in    
land is at the mouth of the ,len1 which 
is a very considerable river4 ,this bay 
is very open1 belongs to the  ,tartarian
 sea1 and is called the ,linchidolin1   
where the ,muscovites have  a whale     
fishery4    ,from the mouth of the ,len 
we may follow the coasts of ,tartary    
more  than #ejj leagues towards the     
east1 to a peninsula inhabited by the   
,schelates4 ,this is the most northern  
extremity of ,tartary1 and is  situate  
about the #gb;d degree of latitude4 ,in 

this #ejj leagues the  ocean makes no   
interruption by bays nor arms1 only a   
considerable  elbow from the peninsula  
of the ,schelates to the mouth of the   
river  ,korvinea4 ,this point of land   
also forms the eastern extremity of the 
old continent1 and whose western is at  
,cape ,north in ,lapland2 so that  the  
old continent has about #agjj leagues   
northern coasts1 comprehending  the     
sinuosities of the bays1 from ,cape     
,north in ,lapland to the farthest      
point of land belonging to the          
,schelates1 and about #aajj leagues in a
  straight line4    ,let us now take a  
view of the eastern coasts of the old   
continent1  beginning at the farthest   
point of land which the ,schelates      
inhabit1  and descending towards the    
equator4 ,the ocean at first forms an   
elbow  between the country of the       
,schelates1 and the land inhabited by   
the  people called ,tschutschi1 which   
projects a considerable way into the    
sea4 ,to the south of this island it    

forms a small bay1 called the ,bay  of  
,suctoikret1 and afterwards another     
smaller bay1 which projects like  an arm
 #dj or #ej miles into ,kamtschatka2 the
 ocean then enters into  the land by a  
long strait1 filled with many small     
,islands between the  southern point of 
,kamtschatka and the northern point of  
,jesso1 and  forms a great              
mediterranean1 which it is proper we    
should now trace  throughout4 ,the first
 is the sea of ,kamtschatka1 in which is
 a very  considerable island1 called    
,amour1 or ,love ,island4 ,this sea has 
an arm  to the north-east2 but this arm1
 and the sea of ,kamtschatka itself1    
might possibly be1 at least in part1    
formed by the rivers1 which run         
therein1 from the lands of ,kamtschatka 
and from ,tartary4 ,be this as it  will1
 the sea of ,kamtschatka communicates   
with the sea of ,corea1 which  makes the
 second part of this mediterranean2 and 
all this sea1 which  is more than #fjj  
leagues in length1 is bounded upon the  

west and north  by ,corea and ,tartary1 
and on the east and south by            
,kamtschatka1 ,jesso1  and ,japan1      
without having any other communication  
with the ocean than  that of the        
fore-mentioned strait1 for it is not    
certain whether that  which is set down 
in some maps between ,japan and ,jesso  
really exists2  and even if this strait 
does exist1 the sea of ,kamtschatka and 
,corea  will still be regarded as       
forming a great mediterranean1 divided  
from  the ocean on every side1 and could
 not be taken for a bay1 for it has  no 
direct communication with the ocean by  
its southern strait1 but with  the sea  
of ,china1 which is rather a            
mediterranean than a gulph of the       
ocean4    ,it has been observed in the  
preceding article1 that the sea has a   
constant motion from east to west2 and  
that consequently the great  ,pacific   
,sea made continual efforts against the 
eastern countries2  an attentive        
inspection of the globe will confirm the

 consequences  which we have drawn from 
this observation2 for from ,kamtschatka 
to  ,new ,britain1 discovered in #agjj  
by ,dampier1 and which is the #dth or   
#eth degree in the south latitude1 the  
ocean appears to have washed  away part 
of the land on these coasts for upwards 
of #djj leagues1 and  consequently the  
eastern bounds of the old continent     
formerly extended  much farther than at 
present2 for it is remarkable1 that ,new
 ,britain  and ,kamtschatka1 which are  
the most projecting lands towards the   
east1  are under the same meridian4 ,all
 countries have their greatest extent   
from north to south4 ,kamtschatka       
reaches at least #afj leagues from      
north to south1 and that point which is 
washed by the ,pacific ,sea on  the     
east1 and on the other by the           
mediterranean sea above mentioned1 is   
divided in the direction1 from north to 
south by a chain of mountains4    ,after
 these the lands of ,jesso and ,japan   
form another extent of  land1 whose     

direction is also north and south1      
extending upwards of  #djj leagues1     
between the ,great ,sea and that of     
,corea4 ,the chain of  mountains of     
,jesso1 and of ,japan1 cannot fail of   
being directed from  north to south1    
since these lands1 which are #djj       
leagues in this  direction1 are not more
 than #ej or #fj from east to west4     
,therefore  the lands of ,kamtschatka1  
,jesso1 and the eastern part of ,japan1 
must  be regarded as contiguous1 and    
directed from north to south4 ,still    
pursuing the same direction1 after      
having passed ,cape ,ava at ,japan1  we 
meet with the island of ,barnevelt1 and 
three other islands1 which  are placed  
in the direction of north and south1 and
 extend about #ajj  leagues4 ,we        
afterwards meet with three other        
islands1 called the  islands of         
,callanos1 then the ,ladrones1 which are
 fourteen or fifteen  in number1 all    
placed in the same direction from north 
to south1  and all together occupying a 

space of more than #cjj leagues in this 
direction1 by so trifling a breadth1    
that its greatest does not exceed  seven
 or eight leagues from east to west4 ,it
 therefore appears to me  that          
,kamtschatka1 ,jesso1 eastern ,japan1   
the islands of ,barnevelt1 the          
,callanos1 and the ,ladrones1 are only  
the same chain of mountains1 and  the   
remains of an old country1 which the    
ocean has at one time covered  and      
gradually retired from4 ,all these      
countries in fact appear to be  only    
mountains1 and the islands to be their  
points or peaks1 while  the low lands   
are covered with the ocean4 ,what is    
related in ,lettres  ,edifiantes1       
appears1 to be true1 and that in fact a 
quantity of islands  have been          
discovered1 called the new ,philippine  
,islands1 and that their  position is   
really such as is given by ,father      
,gobien2 and it cannot be  doubted but  
that the most eastern of these islands  
are a continuation  of the chain of     

mountains which forms the ,ladrones1 for
 these eleven  eastern islands are all  
placed in the same direction from north 
to  south1 occupying a space of more    
than #bjj leagues in length1 the        
broadest of which is not more than #g or
 #h leagues from east to west4    ,but  
if these conjectures are thought too    
presumptuous1 on account of  the great  
intervals between the islands bordering 
on ,cape ,ava1 ,japan1  and the         
,callanos1 and between these islands and
 the ,ladrones1 and  between the        
,ladrones and the new ,philippines1 the 
first of which is  in fact about #afj   
leagues1 the second #ej or #fj1 and the 
third near  #abj1 ,i shall answer that  
the chains of mountains often extend    
much  farther under the waters of the   
sea1 and that these intervals are  small
 in comparison of the extent of land    
which these mountains in  the above     
direction present1 which is #aajj       
leagues1 computing them  from the       
interior part of ,kamtschatka4 ,in      

short1 if we wholly reject  this idea1  
as to the quantity of land the ocean    
must have gained on  the eastern coasts 
of the continent1 and on that suit of   
mountains1  still it must be allowed    
that ,kamtschatka1 ,jesso1 ,japan1 the  
islands  ,bonga1 ,tanaxima1 those of    
,great ,lequeo1 ,king's ,island1        
,formosa1 ,vaif1  ,basha1 ,babuyane1    
,lucca1 ,mindano1 ,gilolo1 c4 and       
lastly1 ,guinea1  which extends to ,new 
,britain1 and is situate under the same 
meridian  as ,kamtschatka1 do not form a
 continuation of land of more than #bbjj
  leagues1 interrupted only by small    
intervals1 the greatest of which        
perhaps is not more than #bj leagues1 so
 that the ocean has formed in  the lands
 of the eastern continent a great bay1  
which commences at  ,kamtschatka and    
ends at ,new ,britain4 ,this bay is     
interspersed with many  islands1 and has
 every appearance of having been gained 
from the land1  consequently we may     
suppose1 with some probability1 that the

 ocean1 by  its constant motion from    
east to west1 has by degrees acquired   
this  extent on the eastern continent1  
and has formed mediterraneans1 such  as 
,kamtschatka1 ,corea1 ,china1 and       
perhaps all the ,archipelago2 for the   
earth and sea are there so blended that 
it evidently appears to be an  inundated
 country1 of which we only see the      
eminences and high lands1  while the    
lower are hid under the waters of the   
ocean4 ,this supposition  appears to be 
in some measure confirmed by the water  
being more shallow  than in other seas1 
and the innumerable islands resembling  
the tops of  mountains4    ,if we       
particularly examine these seas1 we     
shall find the sea of ,china  forms a   
very deep bay in its northern part1     
which commences at the  island of       
,fungma1 and terminates at the frontier 
of the province of  ,pekin1 about #ej   
leagues distance from that capital of   
the ,chinese  empire4 ,this bay1 in its 
most interior and narrowest part1 is    

called  the ,gulph of ,changi4 ,it is   
very probable that this gulph1 and a    
part of  the sea of ,china1 have been   
formed by the ocean1 which has submerged
  all the ancient country1 of which only
 the islands before-mentioned  are now  
to be seen4 ,in this southern part are  
the bays of ,tonquin and  ,siam1 near   
which is the peninsula of ,malacco1     
formed by a long chain  of mountains1   
whose direction is from north to south1 
and the ,andaman  islands1 another chain
 of mountains in the same direction1 and
 which  appear to be only a succession  
of the mountains of ,sumatra4    ,the   
ocean afterwards forms the great ,gulph 
of ,bengal1 in which we may  remark1    
that the peninsula of ,indus forms a    
concave curb towards the  east1 nearly  
like the great bay of the eastern       
continent1 which seems  to have been    
also produced by the same motion of the 
ocean from east  to west4 ,in this      
peninsula are the mountains of ,gates1  
which have a  direction from north to   

south1 as far as ,cape ,comorin1 and the
 ,island  of ,ceylon seems to have been 
separated from this part of the         
continent4  ,the ,maldiva islands are   
only another chain of mountains1 whose  
direction is also the same4 ,after these
 follows the ,arabian ,gulph1  which    
sends out four arms into the country2   
the two greatest on the  western side1  
and the two smallest on the east4 ,the  
first of these arms  on the east side is
 the ,bay of ,cambaia1 which is not     
above #ej or #fj  leagues in length3    
this receives two very considerable     
rivers1 viz4 the  ,tapti and the        
,baroche1 which ,pietro de ,valle calls 
the ,mehi3 the second  arm1 towards the 
east1 is famous for the velocity and    
height of its  tides1 which are greater 
than in any other part of the world1 and
 which  extends for more than #ej       
leagues4 ,many rivers fall into this    
gulph1 as  the ,indus1 the ,padar1 c4   
which have brought so great a quantity  
of  earth and mud to their mouths as to 

raise the bottom almost to a level1  the
 inclination of which is so gentle1 that
 the tide extends to a very  great      
distance4 ,the first arm on the west    
side in the ,persian ,gulph1  which     
spreads more than #bej leagues on the   
land2 and the second is the  ,red ,sea1 
which extends more than #fhj1 computing 
it from the island  ,socotora4 ,these   
two arms should be regarded as two      
mediterranean seas1  taking them from   
beyond the straits of ,ormuz and        
,babelmandel3 they  are both subject to 
the tides1 but this is occasioned by    
their being  so near the equator1 where 
the motion of the tides is much greater 
than in any other climate2 and besides  
they are both very long and  narrow4    
,the motion of the tides is more rapid  
in the ,red ,sea than in  the ,persian  
,gulph1 because the ,red ,sea is near   
three times longer and  quite as narrow4
 ,the ,red ,sea does not receive any    
river whose motion  might oppose the    
tides1 whereas the ,persian ,gulph      

receives three very  considerable ones  
in its most projecting extremity4 ,it   
appears very  apparently that the ,red  
,sea has been formed by an eruption of  
the  ocean1 for the bearing of the lands
 are exactly similar1 the coasts  on    
each side of the straits follow the same
 direction11 and evidently  appear to   
have been cut by waters4    ,at the     
extremity of the ,red ,sea is that      
famous neck of land called the  ,isthmus
 of ,suez1 which forms a barrier to the 
,red ,sea1 and prevents  its            
communication with the ,mediterranean4  
,in a preceding article we  noticed the 
reasons which inclined us to think that 
the ,red ,sea is  higher than the       
,mediterranean1 and that if the ,isthmus
 of ,suez was  cut1 an inundation and an
 augmentation of the latter might ensue4
 ,to  which we shall subjoin1 that if   
even it should not be agreed that the   
,red ,sea is higher than the            
,mediterranean1 it cannot be denied that
  there is neither flux nor reflux in   

the ,mediterranean1 adjoining to  the   
mouths of the ,nile2 and that1 on the   
contrary1 in the ,red ,sea the  tides   
are very considerable1 and raise the    
water several feet1 which  circumstance 
alone would suffice to send a quantity  
of water into the  ,mediterranean if the
 ,isthmus was broken4 ,besides1 we have 
an example on  this subject quoted by   
,varenius1 who says in page #ajj of his 
,geography3  ,oceanus ,germanicus1 qui  
est ,atlantici pars1 inter ,frisiam     
,hollandium  se effundens1 efficit      
sinum1 qui et si parvis sit respectu    
celebrium  sinum maris1 tamen  ipse     
dicitur mare1 alluitque ,hollandi       
emporium  celeberrimum1 ,amstelodamum4  
,non procul inde abest lacus            
,harlemensis1  qui etiam mare           
,harlemense dicitur4 ,hujus altitudo non
 est minor  altitudine sinus illius     
,belgici1 quem diximus  mittit ramum ad 
urbem  ,leidam1 ubi in varias fossas    
divaricatur4 ,quoniam itaque nec lacus  
his1 neque sinus ille ,hollandici maris 

inundant adjacentes agros 7de  naturali 
constitutione loquor1 non ubi           
tempestatibus urgentur1 propter  quas   
aggeres facti sunt7 pater inde1 quod non
 sint altiores quam agri  ,hollandi4 ,at
 vero ,oceanum ,germanicum esse altiorem
 quam terras hasce1  experti sunt       
,leidenses1 cum suscepissent fossam seu 
alveum ex urbe sua  ad ,oceani          
,germanici littora1 prope ,cattorum     
vicum perducere 7distantia  est duorum  
milliarum7 ut1 recepto per alveum hunc  
mari1 possent  navigationem instituere  
in ,oceanum ,germanicum1  hinc in varias
 terr  regiones4 ,verumenimvero cum     
magnam jam alvei port em perfecissent1  
desistere coacti sunt1 quoniam turn     
demum per observationem cognitem  est1  
,oceani ,germanici aquam esse altiorem  
quam agrum inter ,leidam et  litus      
,oceani istius2 unde locus ille1 ubi    
fodere desierunt dicitur1  ,het malle   
,gat4 ,oceanus itaque ,germanicus est   
aliquantum altior quam  sinus ille      
,hollandicus1 c4 ,therefore1 as the     

,german ,sea is higher  than that of    
,holland1 there is no reason why we     
should not believe the  ,red ,sea may be
 higher than the ,mediterranean4        
,herodotus and ,diodorus  ,siculus speak
 of a canal of communication between the
 ,nile1 the  ,mediterranean1 and the    
,red ,sea1 and ,m4 ,del'isle published a
 map in  #agjd1 in which he traces one  
end of a canal to the most eastern part 
of the ,nile1 and which he judges to be 
a part of that which formerly  joined   
the ,nile with the ,red ,sea4,a    ,a   
,see ,mem4 de l',acad4 ,sciences1 #agcd4
    ,in the third part of a book        
entitled1 ,connoisance de l',ancien     
,monde1  or the ,knowledge of the ,old  
,world1 printed in #agjg1 we meet with  
the  like sentiment2 and it is there    
said1 from ,diodorus ,siculus1 that it  
was ,neco1 ,king of ,egypt1 who began   
this canal1 that ,darius1 ,king of      
,persia1 continued it1 and that it was  
finished by ,ptolemy ,,ii4 who          
conducted it as far as the city         

,arsinoe1 and that it could be opened   
and shut when they found it needful4    
,without desiring to deny these         
circumstances1 ,i must own1 that to me  
they appear doubtful4 ,i do not  know   
whether the violence and height of the  
tide in the ,red ,sea1 would  not be    
necessarily communicated to this canal2 
it appears to me1 at  least1 that it    
would have required great precautions to
 confine the  waters1 to avoid          
inundations and to preserve this canal  
in good repair4  ,though historians     
assert that this canal was undertaken   
and finished1  yet they do not tell us  
the length of its duration2 and the     
remains  which are pretended to be even 
now perceptible1 are perhaps all that   
was ever done of it4 ,the name of the   
,red ,sea has been given to this arm  of
 the ocean1 because it has the          
appearance of that colour in every  part
 where corals1 or madrepores1 are met   
with at the bottom4 ,in the  ,histoire  
,general des ,voyages1 vol4 i4 pages    

#aih and #aii1 it is said1  ,before he  
quitted the ,red ,sea1 ,d4 ,jean        
examined what might have been  the      
reason why that name was given to it by 
the ancients1 and if1 in  fact1 this sea
 differed from others in its colour4 ,he
 knew that ,pliny  had given several    
opinions on the origin of this name4    
,some derived it  from a ,king named    
,erythros1 who reigned in those parts1  
and which1 in  the ,greek language1     
signifies red4 ,others imagined that the
 reflection  of the sun produces a      
reddish colour on the surface of the    
water1 and  others that the water was   
naturally red4 ,the ,portuguese1 who had
 made  several voyages to the entrance  
of the straits1 asserted that all the   
coasts of ,arabia were very red1 and    
that the sand and dust which the  wind  
carries into the sea1 tinged the water  
of the same colour4    ,d4 ,jean1 who   
examined the nature of the water1 and   
the qualities of  the coasts as far as  
,suez1 asserts1 that far from being     

naturally red1  the water is of the same
 colour as in other seas1 and that the  
sand and  the dust having nothing red in
 themselves could not give this tinge to
  the water4 ,the earth of both         
countries1 he says1 is generally brown2 
it is even black in some places1 and in 
others white4 ,on the coasts  of        
,suaquem1 where the ,portuguese had not 
penetrated1 he saw three  mountains     
streaked with red1 but they were of a   
very hard rock1 and the  neighbouring   
country was of the common colour4       
,the truth is1 that this sea is         
throughout of an uniform colour1 which  
is easy to be demonstrated2 but it must 
also be owned1 that in some  parts it   
appears to be red through chance1 and in
 others green and  white2 the           
explanation of which phenomena is as    
follows3 ,from ,suaquem  to ,kossir1    
that is1 for the space of #acf leagues1 
the sea is filled  with shoals and rocks
 of coral2 this name is given to them1  
by reason  that their form and colour   

render them so extremely like coral1    
that  it requires great circumspection  
not to be deceived4 ,there are two      
sorts of them1 the one white and the    
other red2 in many parts they  are      
covered with a kind of gum1 or glue1 of 
a green1 and in others  with a deep     
orange4 ,now the water of this sea is so
 transparent that  the bottom may be    
seen at #bj fathoms deep1 especially    
from ,suaquem to  the extremity of the  
gulph2 it appears1 therefore1 to take   
the colour  of the matters it covers2 as
 for example1 when the rocks are covered
  with a green gum1 the water above     
appears of a deeper green than the      
rocks themselves2 and when the bottom is
 only sand1 the water appears  white3 so
 likewise when the rocks are coral1 the 
water seems to be  tinged with red2 and 
as these last coloured rocks are more   
frequently  met with there than any     
other1 ,d4 ,jean concludes1 that the    
name of the  ,red ,sea was affixed to   
the ,arabian ,gulph in preference to the

 ,green  or ,white4 ,he applauds himself
 on this discovery1 because the method  
by which he ascertained it left him no  
room for doubt4 ,he caused a  float to  
be moored against the rocks in the parts
 which were not deep  enough to permit  
vessels to approach them1 and the       
sailors could often  execute his orders 
with facility1 without the sea being    
higher than the  stomach at more than   
half a league from the rocks4 ,the      
greatest part  of the stones and pebbles
 they drew up1 in those parts where the 
water  appeared red1 was also of that   
colour3 in the water which appeared     
green1 the stones were green1 and if the
 water appeared white1 the  bottom was  
white sand1 without any other mixture4  
,the direction of the coast of the ,red 
,sea1 from ,cape ,gordafu to the  ,cape 
of ,good ,hope1 is pretty equal2 in the 
course of which there are  no bays1     
excepting an arm on the coast of        
,melinda1 that might be  supposed as    
belonging to a large one provided the   

island of ,madagascar  joined the       
continent1 which most probably was      
formerly the case1  notwithstanding it  
is now divided by the straits of        
,mosambique4 ,the  coast bears the same 
direction from the ,cape of ,good ,hope 
to ,cape ,negro  on the west side of    
,africa2 it has the appearance of being 
a chain of  high mountains1 extends     
about #ejj leagues1 but contains        
scarcely any  rivers of importance4     
,beyond ,cape ,negro however the land is
 much lower1  and is supplied by several
 considerable rivers beside the ,coanza 
and  the ,zaire2 and between that and   
,cape ,gonsalvez1 which is computed to  
be about #dbj leagues1 there are the    
mouths of no less than twenty-four      
large rivers2 from this last ,cape to   
,cape ,trois-pointes it is an open  bay1
 in about the centre of which is a      
considerable projection called  ,cape   
,formosa4 ,on the southern side are the 
islands ,fernanda1 ,st4  ,thomas1 and   
the ,prince's ,island1 and which there  

is reason to suspect  are part of a     
chain of mountains from ,rio del ,rey to
 the river ,jamoer4  ,the water turns   
somewhat into the land between ,cape    
,trois-pointes  to ,cape ,palmas1 from  
the latter of which it is an open sea to
 ,cape  ,tangrin2 beyond this ,cape     
there is a small bay towards ,sierra    
,leona1  and another in which are the   
islands of ,bisagas4 ,we then come to a 
considerable projection into the ocean  
called ,cape ,verd2 of which the        
islands of that name are supposed to be 
a continuation1 although it  is more    
probable they are so of ,cape ,blanc1   
which is both higher and  extends       
farther into the sea4 ,from ,cape ,blanc
 to ,cape ,bajador is a  mountainous and
 hard coast to which the ,canary        
,islands seem to belong4    ,turning    
from ,africa we find an open bay        
extending to ,portugal1 and in  about   
the centre of which are the straits of  
,gibraltar1 through which  the water    
runs with great rapidity into the       

,mediterranean1 which  flows almost #ijj
 leagues into the interior part of land1
 and is the  cause of many curious      
circumstances2 #ast1 it has no tides1 at
 least  that are visible1 excepting in  
the ,gulph of ,venice and what are      
almost  imperceptible at ,marseilles and
 at ,tripoli2 #b;dly1 it surrounds a    
number  of extensive islands1 for       
instance1 ,sardinia1 ,sicily1 ,corsica1 
,cyprus1  ,majorca1 and ,italy1 which is
 the largest known4 ,it has also a      
fertile  ,archipelago2 indeed it is from
 the ,mediterranean ,archipelago1 that  
all  collections of islands have been so
 denominated2 this indeed has the       
appearance of belonging more to the     
,black ,sea than the ,mediterranean2    
nor is it in the least unlikely that    
,greece was at one time covered  with   
the waters of the ,black ,sea1 which    
empties itself into the  ,marmora1 and  
from thence finds its way into the      
,mediterranean4    ,some have asserted  
there was a double current in the       

,straits of  ,gibraltar1 the one        
superior1 which carries the water of the
 ocean into  the ,mediterranean1 and the
 other inferior1 which carries them in  
the  contrary direction2 but this       
opinion is evidently false1 and contrary
  to the laws of hydrostatics3 it has   
likewise been asserted to be the  case  
in many other places1 as in the         
,bosphorus1 the strait of ,sund1 c4  and
 ,marsilli relates even experiments made
 in the ,bosphorus1 to prove  the truth 
of these opposite currents2 but the     
experiments must have  been badly made1 
since the matter is totally repugnant to
 the nature  and motions of the waters2 
besides ,greaves in his ,pyramidography1
  page #aja and #ajb1 proves1 by able   
experiments1 that there is no such      
thing as a current in the ,bosphorus1   
whose direction is opposite to  the     
superior3 what may have deceived        
,marsilli and others1 is possibly  the  
circumstance1 that in the ,bosphorus1   
the ,straits of ,gibraltar1 and  in all 

rivers which flow with rapidity1 there  
is a considerable eddy  along the       
shores1 the direction of which is       
generally contrary to the  principal    
current of the waters4    ,let us now   
shortly trace all the coasts of the new 
continent4 ,cape  ,hold-with-,hope1     
lying in the #gc;d degree north         
latitude1 is the most  northern land we 
are acquainted with in ,new ,greenland1 
and is not above  #afj or #ahj leagues  
distant from ,cape ,north in ,lapland4  
,from this cape  we may follow the coast
 of ,greenland as far as the polar      
circle1 where  the ocean forms a broad  
strait between ,iceland and ,greenland4 
,it is  pretended that this country1    
adjacent to ,iceland1 is not the ancient
  ,greenland which the ,danes formerly  
possessed as a province dependant  on   
their kingdom2 for in that there were   
civilized ,christians1 who  had bishops1
 churches1 and several towns wherein    
they carried on  their commerce4 ,the   
,danes also visited it frequently1 and  

as easily  as the ,spaniards can go to  
the ,canaries3 there still exists1 as it
 is  asserted1 laws and ordinances for  
the government of this province1 and    
those not very ancient3 nevertheless1   
without attempting to divine how  this  
country became absolutely lost1 it is   
certain not the least trace  of what we 
have related is to be met with in ,new  
,greenland4 ,the people  are wild and   
savage2 there is no vestiges of any     
edifice2 nor have  they a word in their 
language which has an affinity with the 
,danish2  in short1 there is nothing    
which might give us room to judge that  
this is the same country4 ,it is even   
almost a desert1 and surrounded  with   
ice for the greatest part of the year4  
,but as these lands are of  a vast      
extent1 and as the coasts have been but 
little frequented by  modern navigators1
 they may have missed the spot where the
 descendants  of these polished people  
inhabit2 or the ice having become more  
abundant in this sea1 may prevent any   

approach to the shore near them3        
nevertheless1 if we can rely on maps1   
this whole country has been  coasted1   
and according to them it forms nearly a 
peninsula1 and at the  extremity of     
which are the two straits of ,forbishers
 and of ,friesland1  where it is        
extremely cold1 although they are not   
higher than the  ,orkneys1 that is1 at  
#fj degrees4    ,between the west coast 
of ,greenland and that of ,labrador1 the
 ocean  forms a gulph1 and afterwards a 
large mediterranean1 which is the       
coldest of all seas1 and the coasts of  
which are pot perfectly known4  ,by     
following this tract due north1 we come 
to ,davis's ,strait1 which  leads to the
 ,christian ,sea1 and is terminated by  
,baffin's ,bay1 which  has the          
appearance of forming a kind of road    
into ,hudson's ,bay4  ,cumberland       
,strait1 which as well as ,davis's may  
lead to the ,christian  ,sea1 is        
narrower and more liable to be frozen3  
that of ,hudson1  though much more to   

the south1 is also frozen during one    
part of the  year4 ,a very strong motion
 of the tide has been remarked in these 
straits1 which is quite contrary to what
 is the case in the inland  seas of     
,europe1 as neither the ,baltic nor     
,mediterranean have any2  this          
difference seems to arise from the sea's
 motion1 which always  moving from east 
to west1 occasions high1 tides in the   
,straits1 whose  openings are turned    
towards the east2 whereas in those of   
,europe1 which  open to the west1 there 
is no motion2 the ocean by its general  
motion  enters into the first1 and      
avoids the last2 and this is the reason 
that there are such violent tides in the
 seas of ,china1 ,corea1 and            
,kamtschatka4    ,proceeding from       
,hudson's ,strait towards ,labrador1 we 
come to a narrow  opening1 in which     
,davis1 in #aehf1 sailed as far up as   
#cj leagues1  and trafficked with the   
inhabitants1 but no one has since       
attempted  a discovery of this arm of   

the sea1 and we are only acquainted with
  the country of the ,esquimaux of all  
the adjacent land4 ,the fort ,pon       
,chartrin is the only and the most      
northern habitation of this country1    
which is separated from the island of   
,newfoundland by the little strait  of  
,belleisle1 which is not much           
frequented4 ,as the eastern coast of    
,newfoundland is in the same direction  
as the coast of ,labrador1 we must      
regard the latter as a part of the      
continent1 the same as ,isle-royal      
appears to have been a part of ,arcadia4
 ,there is no very considerable  depth  
either on the great or other banks1     
where they fish for the cod2  but as    
they slant for a distance under water1  
very violent currents are  produced4    
,between ,cape ,breton and ,newfoundland
 is a very broad ,strait1  by which we  
enter a small mediterranean1 called the 
,gulph of ,st4  ,lawrence4 ,this sea has
 an arm which extends far into the      
country1 and  seems to be only the mouth

 of the river ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,the      
motion of the  tides is extremely plain 
in this arm of the sea1 and even at     
,quebec1  which projects more into the  
country1 the waters rise several feet4  
,on quitting the ,gulph of ,canada1 and 
following the coast of ,arcadia1  we    
meet with a small gulph called          
,boston-,bay1 which forms a small       
square inlet into the land4 ,but before 
we trace this coast farther1  it is just
 to remark1 that from ,newfoundland to  
the most projecting  ,antille island1   
even to ,guiana1 the ocean forms a very 
great bay1 which  reaches as far as     
,florida1 at least #ejj leagues4 ,this  
bay of the new  continent is similar to 
that of the old1 of which we have taken 
notice1  where the ocean1 after having  
made a gulph between ,kamtschatka and   
,new  ,britain1 afterwards forms a vast 
mediterranean1 which comprehends the    
seas of ,kamtschatka1 ,corea1 ,china1 c4
 so that in the new continent  the      
ocean1 after having formed a great gulph

 between ,newfoundland and  ,guiana1    
forms a very large mediterranean1       
extending from the ,antilles  to        
,mexico1 which confirms our observations
 on the motion of the sea  from east to 
west1 for it appears that the ocean has 
equally gained on  the eastern coasts of
 ,america and ,asia4 ,these great gulphs
 in the two  continents are under the   
same degrees of latitude1 and nearly of 
the  same extent4    ,if we examine the 
position of the ,antilles1 beginning at 
,trinidad1  which is the most south1 we 
cannot doubt but that ,tobago1          
,trinidad1  the ,grenades1 ,st4         
,vincent1 ,martinico1 ,mary ,galante1   
,antigua1 and  ,barbadoes1 with every   
other island adjacent1 at one time      
formed a chain  of mountains1 whose     
direction was from south to north1 like 
that of the  island of ,newfoundland1   
and the country of the ,esquimaux2      
afterwards  the direction of the        
,antilles is from east to west1         
beginning at  ,barbadoes1 then passing  

by ,st4 ,bartholomew1 ,porto ,rico1 ,st4
 ,domingo1  and ,cuba1 and nearly the   
same as ,cape ,breton1 ,acadia1 and ,new
 ,england4  ,all these islands are so   
adjacent to each other1 that they may be
  looked upon as an interrupted tract of
 land1 and as the summit of an          
overflown country now possessed by the  
sea4 ,most of them in fact are  only    
points of mountains1 and the sea which  
surrounds them is a real  mediterranean 
where the motion of the flux and reflux 
is scarcely  more sensible than in our  
,mediterranean1 although the openings   
they  present to the ocean are directly 
opposite to the motion of the waters    
from east to west1 which must contribute
 to elevate the tides in the  gulph of  
,mexico2 but as this sea is very broad1 
the flux and reflux  communicated to it 
by the ocean1 dispersing over so large a
 space1  becomes almost insensible at   
the coast of ,louisiana1 and many other 
places4    ,the old and new continent   
appear1 therefore1 both to have been    

encroached upon by the ocean in the same
 latitudes4 ,both have a vast           
mediterranean and a great number of     
islands1 which are situated nearly  in  
the same latitudes2 the only difference 
is1 that the old continent  being much  
broader than the new1 there is in the   
western part of it a  mediterranean1 of 
which nothing similar can be found in   
the new2 but  it appears that all which 
has happened to the eastern countries of
 the  old world has also happened to the
 eastern part of the new1 and that  the 
greatest revolutions are nearly in the  
middle and towards their  equators1     
where the most violent motion of the    
ocean is made4    ,the coasts of        
,guiana1 comprehended between the mouth 
of the river  ,oroonoko and the         
,amazones1 presents nothing remarkable1 
but the latter1  which is the broadest  
in the universe1 forms a considerable   
extent of  water near ,coropa1 before it
 arrives at the sea1 by the two         
different  mouths which surround the    

island of ,caviana4 ,from the mouth of  
the  ,amazones to ,cape ,st4 ,roche1 the
 coast runs almost straight east2 from  
,cape ,st4 ,roche to ,st4 ,augustine it 
runs south1 and from ,cape ,st4         
,augustine to the ,bay of ,all ,saints  
it turns towards the west1 so that  this
 part of ,brazil forms a considerable   
projection in the sea1 which  directly  
faces a like projection of land in      
,africa4 ,the ,bay of ,all  ,saints is a
 small arm of the ocean1 running about  
#ej leagues into the  land1 and is much 
frequented by navigators4 ,from this bay
 to ,cape ,st4  ,thomas the coast runs  
direct south1 and afterwards in a       
south-west  direction as far as the     
mouth of the ,plata1 where the sea forms
 an arm  projecting nearly #ajj leagues 
into land4 ,from thence to the extremity
  of ,america1 the ocean forms a great  
gulph1 terminated by the adjacent  lands
 of ,terra del ,fuega1 as ,falkland     
,island1 ,cape ,assumption1 and the     
land discovered in #afga4 ,at the bottom

 of this bay is the ,straits of         
,magellan1 which is the longest in the  
world1 and where the tides flow         
extremely high4 ,beyond ,magellan is    
that of ,la ,maire1 which is shorter1   
and at last ,cape ,horn1 which is the   
south point of ,america4    ,we must    
remark on the subject of these points   
that they all face the  south1 and most 
of them cut by straits which run from   
east to west2  the first is that of     
,south ,america1 which faces the        
southern pole1  and is cut by the       
,strait of ,magellan2 the second1 that  
of ,greenland1  which also directly     
faces the south1 and is also cut from   
east to west  by ,forbisher's ,strait2  
the third that of ,africa1 which also   
faces the  south2 and beyond the ,cape  
of ,good ,hope are banks and shoals1    
that  appear to have been divided from  
it2 the fourth1 the peninsula of        
,india1 which is cut by a strait that   
forms the island of ,ceylon1 and  facing
 the south like all the rest4 ,hitherto 

we perceive no reason to  be given for  
this similarity1 and can only remark    
such are the facts4    ,from ,terra del 
,fuega1 all along the western coast of  
,south ,america1  the ocean very        
considerably penetrates into the land2  
and this coast  seems exactly to follow 
the direction of the lofty mountains    
which  cross all ,south ,america1 from  
south to north1 from the equator to the 
,arctic ,pole4 ,near the equator the    
ocean forms a considerable gulph1       
beginning at ,cape ,st4 ,francois1 and  
reaching as far as ,panama1 the  famous 
isthmus1 which1 like that of ,suez1     
prevents the communication  of the two  
seas1 and without which there would be  
an entire separation  of the old and new
 continents4 ,from thence to ,california
 there is  nothing remarkable4 ,between 
the latter and ,new ,mexico an arm      
branches  off1 called ,vermilion ,sea1  
at least #bjj leagues in length4 ,in    
short1  the western coasts of           
,california have been followed to the   

#dc;d degree1  at which latitude ,drake1
 who was the first that made the        
discovery of  the land to the north of  
,california1 and who called it ,new     
,albion1  was obliged1 through excessive
 cold1 to change his course1 and to     
anchor in a small bay which bears his   
name1 so that these countries  have not 
been discovered beyond the #dc;d and    
#ddth degree1 any more than  the lands  
pf ,north ,america beyond ,moozemlaki   
under the #dhth degree1  and the        
,assiniboils under the #east4 ,the      
country of the first savages  extends   
much more to the west than the east4    
,all beyond1 throughout an  extent of   
more than #ajjj leagues in length1 and  
as many in breadth1  is unknown1        
excepting what the ,russians pretend to 
have discovered in  their excursions    
from ,kamtschatka to the eastern part of
 ,north ,america4    ,the ocean1        
therefore1 surrounds the whole earth    
without any  interruption1 and the tour 
of the globe may be made from the south 

point of ,america2 but it is not yet    
known whether the ocean surrounds  the  
northern part of the globe in the like  
manner2 and all mariners  who have      
attempted to go from ,europe to ,china  
by the north-east of  north-west have   
alike miscarried in their enterprises4  
,the lakes differ from the              
mediterraneans2 the first do not receive
  any water from the ocean2 on the      
contrary1 if they have communication    
with the seas1 they furnish them with   
water4 ,thus the ,black ,sea1 which     
some geographers have regarded as an arm
 of the ,mediterranean1 and             
consequently as an appendix of the      
ocean1 is only a lake1 because1  in     
place of receiving water from the       
,mediterranean1 it supplies it  with    
some1 and flows with rapidity through   
the ,bosphorus into the lake  called the
 ,sea of ,marmora1 and from thence      
through the ,strait of the  ,dardanelles
 into the ,grecian ,sea4 ,the ,black    
,sea is about #bej leagues  long by #ajj

 broad1 and it receives a great number  
of rivers1 as the  ,danube1 the ,nieper1
 the ,don1 the ,boh1 the ,donjec1 c4    
,the ,don1 which  unites with the       
,donjec1 forms1 before it arrives at the
 ,black ,sea1 a  lake1 called the ,palus
 ,meotis1 which is more than #ajj       
leagues in length  by #bj or #be broad4 
,the sea of ,marmora1 which is below the
 ,black ,sea1 is  a smaller lake than   
the ,palus ,meotis1 being not more than 
#ej leagues  long and #h or #i broad4   
,some ancients1 and among the rest      
,diodorus ,siculus1 have asserted that  
the ,euxine1 or ,black ,sea1 was        
formerly only a large river or lake1    
and had no communication with the       
,grecian sea2 but being considerably    
increased with time by the rivers which 
fell into it1 the waters  forced a      
passage at first on the side of the     
,cyanean islands1 and  afterwards on the
 side of the ,hellespont4 ,this opinion 
appears to be  very probable1 and the   
operation is easily explained2 for      

supposing the  bottom of the ,black ,sea
 was formerly lower than it is at       
present1 then  the rivers which come    
into it would have raised it by the mud 
and sand  which they brought with them1 
until the surface of the water became   
higher than the land1 when consequently 
it would have forced a passage  for     
itself1 and as the rivers still continue
 to bring sand and earth1  and at the   
same time the quantity of water         
diminishes in the rivers1  in proportion
 as the mountains from which they drew  
their sources are  lowered1 it may      
happen in a course of years that the    
,bosphorus will  be again filled up2 but
 as these effects depend on many causes1
 it is  scarcely possible to give more  
than mere conjectures thereon4 ,from    
this  testimony of the ancients1 ,mr4   
,tournefort1 in his voyage to the       
,levant1  says1 on ancient authority1   
that the ,black ,sea receiving the      
waters of  a great part of ,europe and  
,asia1 after being considerably         

increased1  opened itself a passage by  
the ,bosphorus1 and afterwards formed   
the  ,mediterranean1 or so considerably 
augmented it1 that it became a great    
sea1 and forced itself a road through   
the strait of ,gibraltar1 by which  the 
island of ,atlantis1 mentioned by       
,plato1 was entirely overflowed4  ,this 
opinion has no foundation1 since we are 
certain that it is the  ocean which     
flows into the ,mediterranean1 and not  
the ,mediterranean  into the ocean4     
,besides1 ,m4 ,tournefort has not       
combined two essential  facts1 both of  
which he mentions3 the first is1 that   
the ,black ,sea  receives nine or ten   
rivers1 not one of which but supplies it
 with more  than the ,bosphorus throws  
out3 and the second1 that the           
,mediterranean  does not receive more   
water from rivers than the ,black ,sea1 
although it  is seven or eight times    
larger1 and that what the ,bosphorus    
supplies  it with does not make the     
tenth part of what falls into the ,black

 ,sea2  how then could this tenth part  
of what falls into a small sea have     
formed not only a larger sea1 but have  
also so greatly increased the  waters1  
as to have broken down the lands at the 
strait of ,gibraltar1  and overflow an  
island larger than the whole of ,europe8
 ,it is easy to  perceive that this     
passage of ,m4 ,tournefort has not had  
due reflection4  ,the ,mediterranean    
receives at least ten times more water  
from the ocean  than from the ,black    
,sea1 because the ,bosphorus is only    
#hjj feet broad  in its narrowest part1 
whereas the strait of ,gibraltar is more
 than  #ejjj1 and that1 even supposing  
their velocity to be equal1 still the   
depth of the straits of ,gibraltar is by
 far the greatest4    ,m4 de            
,tournefort1 who ridicules ,polybius on 
his predicting that the  ,bosphorus     
would be filled up in time1 did not pay 
sufficient attention  to circumstances1 
when he asserted that event to be       
impossible4 ,this  sea receives eight or

 ten great rivers1 and as most of them  
bring sand  and mud1 must it not        
gradually be choaked up8 ,must not the  
winds and  the natural current of the   
waters towards the ,bosphorus1 convey   
thither  a part of these matters8 ,it   
is1 therefore1 very probable that in a  
course of time the ,bosphorus will be   
filled1 when the waters of the  rivers  
which come into the ,black ,sea shall be
 gradually diminished2  now all rivers  
daily diminish1 because the vapours     
collected by the  mountains being the   
first sources of rivers1 their quantity 
must  decrease as the mountains diminish
 in height4    ,the ,black ,sea in fact 
receives more water from rivers than the
  ,mediterranean1 and the same author   
observes1 the greatest rivers in        
,europe fall into the ,black ,sea1 by   
means of the ,danube1 in which the      
rivers of ,suabia1 ,franconia1 ,bavaria1
 ,austria1 ,hungary1 ,moravia1          
,corinthia1 ,croatia1 ,bothnia1 ,servia1
 ,transilvania1 ,wallachia1 empty       

themselves2 those of ,black ,russia and 
,podolia1 go into the same sea  by the  
,niester2 those of the southern and     
eastern parts of ,poland1 of  the       
northern parts of ,muscovy1 and the     
country of the ,cossacks1 enter  therein
 by the ,neiper or the ,boristhenes2 the
 ,tanais and ,copa also fall  into the  
,black ,sea by the ,cimmerian           
,bosphorus2 the rivers of ,mingrelia1   
of which ,phasis is the principal1 also 
voids itself into the ,black ,sea1  as  
does the ,casalmac1 the ,sangaris1 and  
other rivers of ,asia ,minor  which have
 their course towards the north2        
nevertheless the ,thracian  ,bosphorus1 
which is the only outlet from it1 is not
 comparable to any  of these great      
rivers4    ,these facts prove1 that     
evaporation alone carries off a very    
considerable quantity of water1 and it  
is from this great evaporation  from the
 ,mediterranean that the ocean          
continually flows thither through  the  
straits of ,gibraltar4 ,it is difficult 

to estimate the quantity  of water any  
sea receives2 we should be acquainted   
with the breadth1  depth1 and rapidity  
of all the rivers which enter therein1  
how much  they increase and diminish in 
the different seasons of the year1 and  
how much it loses by evaporation2 the   
last of which is most difficult2  for   
even supposing it proportional to the   
surfaces1 it must be more  considerable 
in a hot than in a cold climate2        
besides1 water mixed with  salt and     
bitumen1 evaporates more slowly than    
fresh water2 a troubled  sea more       
quickly than one that is tranquil2 and  
the difference of depth  has also some  
effect3 in short1 so many circumstances 
enter into this  theory of evaporation  
that it is scarcely possible to         
calculate any  exact estimations on it4 
,the water of the ,black ,sea appears to
 be less clear and less saline  than    
that of the ocean4 ,there are no islands
 in it1 and its tempests  are more      
violent and more dangerous than in the  

ocean1 because the  whole body of its   
waters being contained in a bason1 which
 has but a  small outlet1 when they are 
agitated1 they have a kind of whirling  
motion which strikes the vessels on     
every side with an insupportable        
violence4    ,next to the ,black ,sea   
the greatest lake in the universe is the
 ,caspian  ,sea1 whose extent in length 
from north to south is about #cjj       
leagues1  and scarcely more than fifty  
broad4 ,this lake receives the ,wolga   
and  some other considerable rivers1 as 
the ,kur1 the ,faie1 and the ,gempo2    
but what is singular1 it does not       
receive any on its eastern side2 the    
country on that side being only a desert
 of sand almost unknown4 ,czar  ,peter  
,i4 sent some engineers there to design 
a chart of the ,caspian  ,sea1 who      
discovered that its figure was quite    
different from that given  by former    
geographers1 who had represented it to  
be round1 whereas it  is very long and  
narrow4 ,the eastern coasts of this sea1

 as well as the  neighbouring country1  
were unknown3 even the existence of lake
 ,aral1  which is #ajj leagues distant  
from it towards the east1 was doubtful1 
or at least thought to be a part of the 
,caspian ,sea1 so that before  the      
discoveries of the ,czar there was      
unknown land in this climate  upward of 
#cjj leagues long by #ajj or #aej broad4
 ,lake ,aral is nearly  an oblong1 and  
may be #ij or #ajj leagues long1 by #ej 
or #fj broad2 it  receives two very     
considerable rivers1 the ,sideroias and 
the ,oxus1 but  as well as the ,caspian 
has no outlet for its waters2 and it    
bears the  further resemblance1 for as  
the ,caspian receives no river on the   
east1  so lake ,aral receives none on   
the west1 from which we may presume1    
that  formerly these two lakes were but 
one1 and that the rivers having1 by     
degrees1 diminished1 left a great       
quantity of sand and mud1 and which     
forms the country that now divides them4
 ,there are some small islands  in the  

,caspian1 and its waters are much less  
saline than those of the  ocean2 storms 
are here very dangerous1 and large      
vessels are not used  in it for         
navigation1 because it has many sand    
banks1 shoals and rocks  scattered under
 the surface of the water4 ,pietro della
 ,valle says1  ,the largest vessels     
employed on the ,caspian ,sea1 along the
 coasts of  ,mazanda in ,persia1 where  
the town of ,ferhabad stands1 although  
they  are called ships1 appear smaller  
than our ,tartanes4 ,their sides are    
high1 and they draw but little water1   
having a flat bottom4 ,they give  this  
form to their vessels1 not only because 
this sea is shallow1 but  because it is 
filled with shoals and sand banks2 so   
that if the vessels  were not fabricated
 in this manner they could not be used  
with safety4  ,indeed1 ,i was           
astonished1 why at ,ferhabad they fish  
only for salmon1  which are found at the
 mouth of the river1 some poor          
sturgeons1 and  other sort of fresh     

water fish1 of little value3 ,i         
attributed the cause  of it to their    
ignorance of the arts of fishing and    
navigation until  the ,cham of          
,esterabad1 whose residence is at a sea 
port1 informed me  that the waters are  
so shallow #bj and #cj leagues from     
shore that it  was impossible to cast   
the nets with the chance of taking any  
fish1 and  that it was for this reason  
they gave the above-mentioned form to   
their  vessels1 which are not mounted   
with any cannon1 as but few corsairs and
  pirates ever visit this sea4          
,struys and other travellers have       
asserted1 that in the neighbourhood  of 
,kilan1 there were two gulphs wherein   
the rivers of the ,caspian were         
ingulphed1 and carried afterwards by    
subterranean canals into the  ,persian  
,gulph4 ,de ,fer and other geographers  
have even marked out these  gulphs in   
their maps1 nevertheless we are assured 
by the people sent by  the ,czar that   
they do not exist4,b    ,b ,see ,mem4   

,acad4 ,sciences1 #agba4    ,the        
circumstance of willow leaves being seen
 in great quantities on the  ,persian   
,gulph1 and which are supposed by the   
same authors to come from  the ,caspian 
,sea because there are no such trees on 
the ,persian ,gulph1  is fully as       
improbable as their subterraneous       
gulphs1 and which ,gemelli  ,careri1 as 
well as the ,muscovites1 asserts are    
entirely imaginary3 in  fact1 the       
,caspian is near one third smaller than 
the ,black ,sea1 which  last also       
receives much more water by rivers than 
the former3 the  evaporation therefore  
is sufficient to carry off all its      
water1 nor is  it necessary to suppose  
subterraneous gulphs in the ,caspian any
 more  than in the ,black ,sea4         
,there are lakes which do not receive   
any rivers1 and from which none go  out4
 ,there are others which both receive   
and discharge and some that  only       
receive them4 ,the ,caspian ,sea1 lake  
,aral1 and the ,dead ,sea1 are  of the  

last kind2 they receive the waters of   
many rivers1 and contain  them4 ,in     
,asia ,minor there is a small lake of   
the like kind1 and one  much larger in  
,persia1 on which the town of ,marago   
stands2 its figure  is oval1 and it is  
about ten or twelve leagues long1 by six
 or seven  broad2 it receives the river 
,tauris1 which is not very considerable4
  ,there is also a similar small lake in
 ,greece1 about #ab or #ae leagues  from
 ,lepanto1 which are the only lakes of  
that kind known in ,asia4 ,in  ,europe  
there is not one which is considerable2 
in ,africa there are many  small ones1  
as those which receive the rivers ,ghir1
 ,zez1 ,touguedout1  and ,tasilet4      
,these four lakes are pretty near each  
other1 and situate  towards the         
frontiers of ,barbary near the deserts  
of ,zara2 there is  another situated in 
the country of ,kovar1 which receives   
the river  of ,berdoa4 ,in ,north       
,america1 where there are more lakes    
than in any  other part of the world1   

not one of this kind is known1 at least 
if we  except two small collections of  
water formed by rivulets1 the one near  
,guatimapo1 and the other some leagues  
from ,realnuevo1 both in ,mexico4  ,but 
in ,south ,america1 at ,peru1 there are 
two contiguous lakes1 one of  which1    
lake ,titicaca1 is very large1 and      
receives a river whose source  is not   
very remote from ,cusco1 and from which 
no river issues3 there  is one smaller  
in ,tucuman1 which receives the river   
,sala2 and another  larger in the same  
country1 which receives the river       
,santiago1 and  three or four others    
between ,tucuman and ,chili4    ,the    
lakes which receive no rivers1 and from 
which no rivers issue1  are greater in  
number than those just spoken of2 these 
lakes are  kinds of pools where the rain
 water collects2 or may proceed from    
subterraneous waters1 which issue in    
form of springs1 in low places1  where  
they cannot afterwards find any drain4  
,the rivers which overflow  may likewise

 leave stagnate waters in the country1  
which may remain  for a long time1 and  
only be replenished by other            
inundations4 ,the  sea has often        
inundated lands and formed saline lakes 
therein1 like  that at ,haarlem1 and    
many others in ,holland1 to which1 no   
other origin  can be attributed2 or by  
losing its natural motion1 might quit   
some  land1 and leaving water in the    
lowest places may have formed lakes1    
which have continued to be supported by 
rains4 ,in ,europe there are  many small
 lakes of this kind1 as in ,ireland1    
,jutland1 ,italy1 in the  country of the
 ,grisons1 ,poland1 ,muscovy1 ,finland1 
and in ,greece4 ,but  all these lakes   
are very inconsiderable4 ,in ,asia there
 is one near the  ,euphrates1 in the    
desert of ,irac1 more than #ae leagues  
long3 another  in ,persia nearly of the 
same extent1 and on which the towns of  
,kelat1  ,tetuan1 ,vastan1 and ,van1 are
 situated2 another small one in         
,chorazan  near ,ferrior2 another in    

,independent ,tartary1 called ,lake     
,levi2 two in  ,muscovy ,tartary1       
another in ,cochinchina1 and one in     
,china very large1  and not far distant 
from ,nankin2 this last1 nevertheless1  
communicates  with the adjacent sea1 by 
a canal several leagues in length4 ,in  
,africa  there is a small lake of the   
same kind in the kingdom of ,morocco2   
another near ,alexandria1 which appears 
to have been left by the sea2  another  
very considerable one formed by the rain
 in the desert ,azarad1  about the #cjth
 degree latitude2 this lake is eight or 
ten leagues long2  another still larger 
on which the town of ,gaoga is situate1 
in the #bgth  degree2 another much      
smaller1 near the town of ,kanum1 under 
the #cjth  degree2 one near the mouth of
 the river ,gambia2 many more in ,congo1
  about the #b;d or #c;d degree of south
 latitude2 two more in the country  of  
the ,caffrees1 one called the ,lake     
,rufumbo1 of no great length1 and       
another in the province of ,arbuta1     

which is perhaps the greatest lake  of  
this kind1 being about #be leagues in   
length by seven or eight in  breadth2   
there is also one of these lakes at     
,madagascar1 near the east  side1 about 
the #bith degree of south latitude4     
,in ,america there is one of these lakes
 in the middle of the peninsula  of     
,florida1 in its centre is an island    
called ,serope2 the lake of  ,mexico is 
also of this kind1 this is almost round1
 and about #aj leagues  diameter2 there 
is another still larger in ,new ,spain1 
#be leagues  distant from the coast of  
,campeachy ,bay1 and another smaller in 
the  same country near the coast of the 
,south ,sea4 ,some travellers have      
asserted that there was in the inland   
parts of ,guiana a very great lake  of  
that kind2 it is called the ,golden     
,lake1 or ,lake ,parima4 ,they have     
related surprising things of the riches 
of the neighbouring country1  and of the
 quantity of gold dust that is found in 
this lake4 ,they give  it an extent of  

more than #djj leagues in length1 and   
#abe in breadth4 ,no  river1 they say1  
goes out nor enters therein2 although   
many geographers  have marked this lake 
in their maps1 it is not probable there 
is any  such existing4    ,but the most 
general and largest lakes are those     
which receive and give  rise to other   
great rivers3 as their number is very   
great ,i shall speak  only of the most  
considerable1 or of the most remarkable4
 ,beginning  at ,europe1 we have in     
,switzerland the lake of ,geneva1       
,constance1 c42  in ,hungary1 the lake  
,balaton2 in ,lavonia1 a large lake1 and
 which  separates this province from    
,russia2 in ,finland1 the lake ,lapwert1
  which is very long1 and is divided    
into many arms1 and lake ,oula1 which   
is of a round figure2 in ,muscovy1 lake 
,ladoga1 more than #be leagues  long by 
above #ab broad4 ,lake ,onega is as     
long1 but not so broad4 ,lakes  ,ilmen  
and ,belozo1 from whence issue one of   
the sources of the ,wolga2  the         

,iwan-,osero1 from whence issues one of 
the sources of the ,don3 two  other     
lakes from whence the ,vitzogda derives 
its origin2 in ,lapland1  the lake from 
which issues the river ,kimi2 another   
much larger near the  coast of ,wardhus1
 and many others1 from whence issue the 
rivers ,lula1  ,pithea1 and ,uma4 ,these
 are not very considerable4 ,in ,norway 
two more  of nearly the same size as    
those of ,lapland3 in ,sweden1 lake     
,vener1  which is as large a lake as    
,meler1 on which ,stockholm is situated2
 and  two others less considerable2 one 
is near ,eveldal1 and the other near    
,lincopin4    ,in ,siberia1 in ,muscovy1
 and in ,independent ,tartary1 there are
 a great  number of these lakes1 the    
principal of which is the great lake    
,baraba1  which is more than #ajj       
leagues long1 and whose waters fall into
 the  ,irtis2 the great lake ,estraguel1
 the source of the same river3 many     
other smaller1 the sources of the       
,jenisca2 the great lake ,kita1 the     

source of the ,oby2 another larger1 the 
source of the ,angara2 lake  ,baical1   
which is more than #gj leagues long1 and
 is formed by the same  river ,angara2  
lake ,pehu1 from which issues the river 
,urack1 c4 ,in  ,china and ,chinese     
,tartary1 lake ,dalai1 from whence      
issues the large  river ,argus1 which   
falls into the river ,amour2 the lake of
 the three  mountains1 the source of the
 river ,helum2 the lakes ,cinhal1       
,cokmor1  and ,sorama1 the sources of   
the river ,honaho2 two other lakes      
adjacent  to the river ,nankin1 c4 ,in  
,tonquin1 lake ,guadag1 which is very   
considerable4 ,in ,india1 the lake      
,chiamat1 from whence issues the river  
,laquia1 adjacent to the sources of the 
rivers ,ava1 ,longenu1 c4 ,this  lake is
 more than #dj leagues broad by #ej     
long4 ,there is another at the  origin  
of the ,ganges2 and one bordering on    
,cashmere is the source of  the river   
,indus1 c4    ,in ,africa is lake       
,cavar1 and two or three others adjacent

 to the mouth  of ,senegal river4 ,lakes
 ,guarda and ,sigismus make but one     
lake1 of a  triangular form1 about #ajj 
leagues long by #ge broad1 and contain a
 very  considerable island4 ,in this    
lake the ,niger loses its name1 and     
takes  that of ,senegal1 in the course  
of which1 towards the source1 we meet   
with another considerable lake1 called  
,bournou1 where the ,niger again  loses 
its name1 for the river which comes     
therein is called ,gambaru4 ,in         
,ethiopia1 at the sources of the ,nile1 
is the great lake ,gambia1 upwards  of  
#ej leagues long4 ,there are also many  
lakes on the coast of ,guinea1  which   
appear to have been formed by the sea1  
and there are only a few  lesser lakes  
in the remaining part of ,africa4       
,north ,america may be styled the       
country of lakes2 the greatest are lake 
,superior1 upwards of #abe leagues long 
by #ej broad2 lake ,huron1 upwards  of  
#ajj leagues long by #dj broad2 lake    
,illionois1 which1 comprehending  the   

,bay of ,puanto1 is quite as extensive  
as lake ,huron2 lakes ,erio1 and        
,ontario1 together upwards of #hj       
leagues long1 from #bj to #be broad2 the
  lake ,mistasin1 to the north of       
,quebec1 is about #ej leagues in length2
  and lake ,champlain1 to the south of  
it1 is nearly of the same extent2  lake 
,alemipigon1 and the lake ,christinaux1 
both to the north of lake  ,superior1   
are also very considerable2 the lake    
,assiniboils contains  many islands1 and
 is upwards of #ge leagues long2 there  
are also1  independent of that of       
,mexico1 two large lakes in that        
country1 the one  called ,nicaragua1 in 
the province of that name1 which is     
upwards of #gj  leagues long4    ,in    
,south ,america there is a small lake1  
the source of the ,maragnon1 and        
another larger which is the source of   
the river ,paraguay2 also the lake      
,titicares1 which falls into the river  
,plata2 two smaller lakes which  flow   
into the same river2 and some others1   

not very considerable1 in  the inland   
part of ,chili4    ,all lakes from which
 rivers derive their origin1 those which
 fall into  the course of rivers1 and   
which carry their water thereto1 are not
  salt4 ,almost all those1 on the       
contrary1 which receive rivers without  
others issuing thereout1 are salt2 this 
seems to favour the opinion  that the   
saltness of the sea arises from the     
salts which rivers wash  from the earth1
 and continually convey into it2 for    
evaporation cannot  carry off fixed     
salts1 and consequently those which     
rivers carry into  the sea remain       
therein4 ,although river water appears  
to taste fresh1 we  well know that it   
contains a small quantity of salt1 and  
in course of  time might have acquired  
such a considerable degree1 as to       
occasion the  present saltness of the   
sea1 and which must still continue      
increasing4  ,it is thus1 therefore1 as 
,i imagine1 that the ,black ,sea1 the   
,caspian1  lake ,aral1 c4 have become   

salt4 ,with respect to lakes1 which do  
not  receive any river1 nor from which  
does any issue1 are either fresh or     
salt1 according to their different      
origins2 those near the sea are         
generally salt1 and those remote from it
 are fresh1 because the one has  been   
formed by the inundations of the sea1   
and the others proceed from  springs of 
fresh water4    ,the lakes any ways     
remarkable are the ,dead ,sea1 the      
waters of which  contain much more      
bitumen than salt3 it is called the     
,bitumen of ,judea1  but is no other    
than the ,asphaltes1 which has caused   
some authors to  call it the ,asphaltic 
,lake4 ,the lands which border this lake
 contain a  great quantity of this      
bitumen2 and many have supposed1 as the 
poets  feign of lake ,avernus1 that no  
fish could live therein1 and birds which
  attempted to fly over it were         
suffocated2 but neither of these lakes  
produce such mortal events2 fish live in
 both1 birds pass over them1  and men   

bathe therein without the least danger4 
,at ,boleslaw1 in ,bohemia1 there is    
said to be a lake1 wherein are holes1   
whose depth is unfathomable1 from which 
impetuous winds issue1 which  are       
carried over all ,bohemia1 and in winter
 raise pieces of ice of an  #ajj weight 
in the air4    ,a petrified lake in     
,iceland is also mentioned2 and lake    
,neagh1 in  ,ireland1 has also the same 
property2 but these petrifactions are no
  other than incrustations1 like those  
made by the water of ,arcueil4          
,,article ,,xii1    ,,of ,,the ,,flux   
,,and ,,reflux4      ,water has but one 
natural motion2 like other fluids it    
always descends  from the higher into   
the lower places1 unless obstructed by  
some  intervening obstacle4 ,when it    
reaches the lowest place it remains     
there calm and motionless1 at least     
without some foreign causes which       
agitates and disturbs it4 ,all the      
waters of the ocean are collected in    
the lowest parts of the surface of the  

earth1 of course the motions  of the sea
 must proceed from external causes1 the 
principal of which  is the flux and     
reflux1 which is alternatively made in a
 contrary  direction1 and from which    
results a general and continual motion  
in the  sea from east to west4 ,these   
two motions have a constant and regular 
relation with the motions of the moon4  
,when the moon is new1 or at  the full1 
this motion from east to west is more   
sensible1 as well as  that of the tides1
 which upon most shores ebb and flow    
every six hours  and a half3 that it is 
always high tide whenever the moon is at
 the  meridian1 whether above or below  
the horizon of the place2 and low tide  
when the moon rises or sets4 ,the motion
 of the sea from east to west  is       
constant and invariable1 because the    
ocean in its flux moves from  east to   
west1 and impels towards the west a     
great quantity of water1  and the reflux
 seems to be made in a contrary         
direction1 by reason of  the small      

quantity of water then driven towards   
the west2 the flux1  therefore1 must    
rather be regarded as a swelling1 and   
the reflux as a  subsiding of the water1
 which instead of its disturbing the    
motion from  east to west1 produces and 
continually restores it1 although in    
fact it  is stronger during the rise1   
and weaker during the fall1 from the    
above  reason4    ,the principal        
circumstances of this motion are1 #a4   
,that it is more  sensible when the moon
 is new1 or at the full1 than in the    
quadratures3  in spring and in autumn it
 is also more violent than at any other 
time  of the year2 and it is weaker in  
the solstices1 which1 is occasioned  by 
the combination of the attraction of the
 moon and sun4 #b4 ,the wind  often     
alters the direction and quantity of    
this motion1 particularly  that which   
constantly blows from the same quarter4 
,it is the same  with respect to large  
rivers which convey their waters into   
the sea  and produce a current there1   

often extending several leagues1 which  
is strongest when the direction of the  
wind agrees with the general  motion4   
,of this we have an example in the      
,pacific ,ocean1 where the  motion from 
east to west is constant and very       
perceptible4 #c4 ,we must  remark that  
when one part of a fluid moves1 the     
whole mass receives the  motion2 now in 
the motion of the tides a great part of 
the ocean moves  in a very sensible     
manner1 and consequently the ocean is   
agitated by  this motion throughout its 
whole extent4    ,perfectly to          
comprehend this we must attend to the   
nature of the power  which produces the 
tides4 ,we have observed that the moon  
acts upon the  earth by a power called  
attraction by some1 and by others       
gravity3  this force penetrates through 
the globe1 is exactly proportioned to   
the quantity of matter1 and decreases as
 the square of the distance  increases4 
,let us next examine what must happen to
 the waters when the  moon is at the    

meridian of any one place4--,the surface
 of the waters  being immediately under 
the moon is then nearer that planet than
 any  other part of the globe2 hence    
this part of the sea must be elevated   
towards the moon1 by forming an         
eminence1 the summit of which must  be  
opposite to the moon's centre2 for the  
formation of this eminence  the waters  
at the bottom1 as well as at the        
surface1 contribute their  share1 in    
proportion to the proximity they are in 
of the moon1 which  acts upon them in   
the inverse ratio of the squares of     
their distances3  thus the surface of   
that part of the sea is first raised2   
the surface  of the neighbouring parts  
will be likewise elevated1 but to a less
  height1 and the water at the bottom of
 all these parts will be raised  by the 
same cause2 so that all this part of the
 sea growing higher  and forming an     
eminence1 it is necessary that the water
 of the remote  parts1 and on which this
 force of attraction does not act1      

proceeds  with precipitation to replace 
the waters which are thus elevated and  
drawn towards the moon4 ,this is what   
produces the flux1 or high tide1  which 
is more or less sensible on different   
coasts1 and which agitates  the sea not 
only at its surface but even to the     
greatest depths4 ,the  reflux1 or ebb1  
happens afterwards by the natural       
inclination of the  water1 for when the 
moon no longer uses its power1 the water
 which was  raised by this foreign power
 retakes its level1 and returns to the  
shores and places it had been forced to 
quit4 ,when the moon passes to  the     
antipode1 or opposite meridian1 the same
 effect ensues1 though  from a different
 cause1 ,in the first case the waters   
rise because they  are nearer the planet
 than any other parts of the globe2 and 
in the  second it is from the contrary  
reason1 they rise because she is the    
most remote from them2 and this it is   
easily perceived must produce  the same 
effect1 for the waters of this part     

being less attracted  than those of the 
opposite hemisphere1 they will naturally
 recede  and form an eminence1 the      
summit of which will answer to the point
  of the least action that is directly  
opposite to the moon's station1  or     
where she was thirteen hours before4    
,when the moon arrives at the  horizon  
the tide is ebb1 the sea is then in its 
natural state1 and  the water in a      
direct equilibrium2 but when she is at  
the opposite  meridian this equilibrium 
can no longer exist1 since the waters of
  the part opposite to the moon being at
 the greatest distance possible  from   
her1 they are less attracted than the   
remaining part of the  globe1 and hence 
their relative weight1 which always     
retains them in  an equilibrium1 impels 
them towards the opposite point to the  
moon4  ,thus in the two cases1 when the 
moon is at the meridian of a place1 or  
at the opposite meridian1 the water must
 be raised nearly to the same  height1  
and consequently fall and rise1 when the

 moon is at the horizon  either at her  
rising or setting4 ,thus a motion1 such 
as we have just  mentioned1 necessarily 
disturbs the whole mass of the sea1 and 
agitates  it throughout its whole extent
 and depth2 and if this motion appears  
insensible in the open seas1 it is      
nevertheless no less real2 but as  the  
winds cannot ruffle the bottom in an    
equal degree with the surface1  the     
motion of the tides is necessarily more 
regular there1 although  directed       
alternately in the same manner as at the
 top4    ,from this alternative motion  
of flux and reflux there results1 as    
already observed1 a continual motion of 
the sea from east to west1  because the 
moon1 which produces the tides1 proceeds
 from east to  west1 and successively   
acting in the same direction1 the water 
follows  her course4 ,this motion is    
most considerable in all sraits2 for    
example1 at the straits of ,magellan the
 water rises nearly #bj feet1 and       
continues so for six hours1 whereas the 

reflux lasts only two,c1 and  the water 
runs towards the west4 ,this evidently  
proves that the reflux  is not equal to 
the flux1 and that from both there      
results a motion  towards the west1 much
 stronger in the time of the flux than  
in that of  the reflux4 ,this is the    
reason that in open seas1 remote from   
land1 the  tides are only felt by the   
general motion of the waters from east  
to  west4    ,c ,see ,narborough's      
,voyage4    ,the tides are stronger in  
the torrid zone between the tropics than
 in  the rest of the ocean3 they are    
also more sensible in places which      
extend from east to west1 in long and   
narrow gulphs1 and on the coasts  where 
there and isles and promontories4 ,the  
greatest known flux is at  one of the   
mouths of the river ,indus1 where the   
water rises thirty  feet4 ,it rises also
 very remarkably near ,malays1 in the   
straits of  ,sund1 in the ,red ,sea1 in 
,nelson's ,bay1 at the mouth of the     
river ,st4  ,lawrence1 on the coasts of 

,china1 ,japan1 ,banama1 in the ,gulph  
of  ,bengal1 c4    ,the motion of the   
sea from east to west is more sensible  
in particular  places4 ,mariners have   
observed it in sailing from ,india to   
,madagascar  and ,africa2 it is also    
very perceptible in the ,pacific ,sea1  
and  between the ,malaccas and ,brazil3 
but this motion is most violent in  the 
,straits2 for example1 the waters are   
carried with such great force  in that  
direction through the ,straits of       
,magellan that it is felt to  a great   
distance in the ,atlantic2 and it is    
supposed that this caused  ,magellan to 
conjecture there was a strait by which  
the two seas had a  communication4 ,in  
the ,manilla straits1 and in all the    
channels which  divide the ,maldivian   
islands1 the sea flows from east to     
west1 as well  as in the ,gulph of      
,mexico1 between ,cuba and ,jucatan4 ,in
 the gulph of  ,paria this motion is so 
violent that the strait is called the   
,dragon's  ,mouth4 ,in the ,canadian and

 ,tartarian ,seas it flows also with    
violence1  as well as in the ,strait of 
,waigat1 through which it conveys       
enormous  masses of ice into the        
northern seas of ,europe4 ,the ,pacific 
,ocean flows  from east to west1 through
 the ,straits of ,java2 the sea of      
,japan flows  towards ,china1 the       
,indian ,ocean flows towards the west1  
through the  ,straits of ,java and other
 ,indian islands2 we cannot1 therefore1 
doubt  that the sea has a constant and  
general motion from east to west1 and   
it is certain the ,atlantic flows       
towards ,america1 and that the ,pacific 
,sea goes from it1 as is evident at     
,cape ,current between ,lima and        
,panama4    ,in short1 the alternatives 
of the flux and reflux are regularly    
made  in six hours and a half on most   
coasts1 though at different hours1      
according to the climate and position of
 the lands3 thus the sea coasts  are    
continually beaten by the waves which at
 each time wash away some  small parts  

of their matters1 which they transport  
to a distance1 and  deposit at the      
bottom of the sea2 so likewise the waves
 convey1 and  leave on the lower shores1
 shells1 sands1 c4 these by degrees form
  horizontal strata1 which accumulating1
 become downs and hills1 exactly        
similar to others1 both as to form and  
internal composition4 ,from this        
constant action1 the sea naturally shuts
 itself out from the lowest  coasts1 and
 gains upon the highest4    ,to give an 
idea of the efforts of a troubled sea   
against coasts1 ,i  shall relate a fact 
which has been affirmed to me by a      
creditable  person1 and which ,i the    
readier gave credit to1 having seen     
something  nearly similar4 ,in the      
principal islands of the ,orkneys there 
are  coasts composed of rocks           
perpendicularly divided to the surface  
of the  sea1 to the height of near #bjj 
feet4 ,the tides in this place rise very
  considerable1 as is common in all     
parts where there are projecting  lands 

and islands2 but when the wind is very  
strong1 and the sea swells  at the same 
time1 the motion is so great1 and the   
agitation so violent1  that the water   
rises to the summit of these rocks1 and 
falls again in  the form of rain3 it    
throws to this great height gravel and  
stones from  the foot of the rocks1 and 
some of them even broader than the hand4
    ,in the port of ,livourne1 where the
 sea is much more calm1 ,i saw a        
tempest in ,december1 #agca1 wherein    
they were obliged to cut down  the masts
 of some vessels that had been forced   
from their anchors  by the wind1 and    
driven into the road4 ,the sea swelled  
above the  fortifications1 which were of
 a considerable height1 and as ,i was on
  one of the most projecting works1 ,i  
could not regain the town before ,i  was
 wetted by the sea-water much more than 
,i could have been by the  most         
plentiful rain4    ,these examples are  
sufficient to shew with what violence   
the sea acts  against some coasts4 ,this

 continual agitation destroys and       
diminishes  by degrees the land4 ,the   
water carries away all these matters1   
and  deposits them as soon as it arrives
 at a part where the troubled sea       
subsides into a calm4 ,in tempestuous   
weather the water is foul1 from  the    
mixture of matters detached from the    
shore and bottom of the sea1  which then
 casts on the coasts a number of things 
that it brings from a  distance1 and    
which are never met with but after      
storms2 as ambergris  on the west of    
,ireland1 and yellow amber on those of  
,pomerania1  cocoa-nuts on the coasts of
 ,india1 c4 and sometimes pumice and    
other  singular stones4 ,we can quote on
 this occasion a circumstance related   
in the new travels to the ,american     
,islands4 ,being at ,st4 ,domingo1  says
 the author1 among other things they    
gave me some light stones1  which the   
sea brought to the coast when there had 
been strong southerly  winds2 there was 
one two feet and a half long by eighteen

 broad1 and  one thick1 which did not   
quite weigh five pounds3 they are as    
white  as snow1 much harder than pumice1
 of a fine consistency1 having no       
appearance of being porous1 but when    
thrown into water1 rebounded  like a    
ball thrown on the ground1 and it was   
with great difficulty  they could be    
forced under the water with the hand4   
,the stone must  have been a very fine  
and close-grained pumice1 which had     
issued  from some volcano1 and which the
 sea had conveyed1 as it transports     
ambergris1 cocoa-nuts1 common           
pumice-stone1 seeds of plants1 rushes1  
c4 ,observations of this kind have been 
generally made on the coasts  of        
,ireland and ,scotland4 ,the sea by its 
general motion from east to  west must  
convey the productions of our coast to  
those of ,america2 and  it is by some   
irregular motions that the productions  
of the ,east and  ,west ,indies1 as well
 as the northern climates1 are brought  
upon our  shores4 ,there is a great     

appearance that the winds cause those   
effects2  large spots have often been   
observed in the high seas1 far from     
shore1  covered with pumice-stones2 they
 could only come from the volcanoes  in 
islands or on the continent1 and which  
the current had transported  to the     
middle of the seas4 ,before the southern
 part of ,america was  known1 and in the
 time when the ,india ,sea was thought  
to have no  communication with our      
ocean1 appearances of this kind afforded
 the  first supposition of it4    ,the  
alternative motion of the flux and      
reflux1 and the constant motion  of the 
sea from cast to west1 presents         
different phenomena in different        
climates1 according to the bearing of   
the land and the height of the  coasts4 
,there are parts where the general      
motion from east to west is  not        
perceptible2 there are others where the 
sea has even a contrary  motion1 as on  
the coast of ,guinea4 ,but these        
contrary motions are  occasioned by the 

winds1 by the position of the lands1 by 
the waters  of large rivers1 and by the 
disposition of the bottom of the sea2   
all  these causes produce currents which
 alter1 and often change the general    
motion in many parts of the sea2 but as 
the motion from east to west  is the    
greatest1 most general and constant1 it 
must also produce the  greatest effects1
 and all taken together1 the sea must   
gain ground  towards the west1 and lose 
it towards the east2 although it may    
happen  that on those coasts where the  
west winds blow during the greatest     
part of the year1 as in ,france and     
,england1 the sea may gain on the  east1
 yet these particular exceptions do not 
destroy the effect of the  general      
cause4          ,,article ,,xiii4       
,,of ,,the ,,inequalities ,,at ,,the    
,,bottom ,,of ,,the ,,sea1 ,,and ,,of   
,,currents4      ,the coasts of the sea 
may be distinguished into three kinds1  
#ast1 the  elevated coasts1 which are   
rocks and hard stones1 generally divided

  perpendicularly1 and which rise       
sometimes to the height of #g or #hjj   
feet4 #b;d1 ,the low coasts1 some of    
which are almost level with the  surface
 of the water1 and others rising with a 
moderate elevation1  often bounded by   
rocks at the water's edge1 forming      
shelves and  breakers1 which render the 
approach to shore very difficult and    
dangerous4 #c;dly1 ,downs1 which are    
coasts formed by sand which the sea     
accumulates1 or brought or deposited by 
rivers2 these downs form hills  more or 
less elevated1 according to the         
accumulated sand4    ,the coasts of     
,italy are bordered by several sorts of 
marble and  stone2 these rocks appear at
 a distance as so many pillars of marble
  perpendicularly divided4 ,the coasts  
of ,france from ,brest to ,bourdeaux    
are almost surrounded with rocks just at
 the water's edge1 which  occasion      
dangerous breakers4 ,the coasts of      
,england1 ,spain1 and many  others1 are 
also bordered with rocks and hard stone2

 excepting some  parts which are made   
use of for bays1 ports1 and havens4     
,the depth of water along the coasts is 
in proportion to their  elevation4 ,the 
inequalities at the bottom of the sea   
near the coasts1  correspond also with  
the inequalities of the surface of the  
ground  along the shore4 ,a celebrated  
navigator has made the following        
observations on this subject4    ,i have
 constantly remarked1 that where the    
coasts are defended  by steep rocks1 the
 sea is there very deep1 and seldom     
affords a  probability of anchoring2    
and1 on the contrary1 where the ground  
inclines from the coast to the sea1     
however elevated it may be further      
inland1 the bottom is good there1 and   
consequently admits of anchorage4       
,according to the declivity of land1 as 
it approaches the water's  edge1 so we  
generally find our anchor ground1 and   
either approach or  keep at a distance  
from shore agreeable to the steepness of
 the land2  for ,i never saw or heard of

 a coast where the land is of a         
continual  height1 without some vallies 
lying intermixed with the high-lands2   
they are the subsiding of low lands1 and
 afford good anchoring1 the  earth being
 lodged deep under water2 for this      
reason it is we find good  harbours upon
 coasts which abound with steep cliffs1 
because the land  has subsided between  
them4 ,but ,where the declensions from  
the hills is  not within land but       
towards the main sea1 as at ,chili and  
,peru1 and  the coasts are nearly       
perpendicular1 as in the countries      
running from  the ,andes1 it is very    
deep1 and has scarcely any creeks or    
harbours4  ,the coasts of ,gallicia1    
,portugal1 ,newfoundland1 the islands of
 ,juan  ,fernando and ,st4 ,helena1 c4  
are somewhat similar to those of ,peru1 
yet good harbours are not so scarce1 as 
there is always good anchorage  where   
there are short ridges of land4 ,in     
general the land under water  seems to  
be exactly proportioned to the rising of

 the contiguous part  above1 and        
therefore1 where the lands upon the     
shores are steep1 there  is but little  
security for ships1 they being very     
easily driven from  their moorings2 yet 
although steep cliffs denote this       
disadvantage1  they assure us of this   
benefit also1 that we can sail close to 
them  with safety1 besides being able to
 see them at a considerable distance2   
whereas low lands are frequently not    
discovered until we are near1 and       
always experience the hazard of running 
aground4 ,this fact of good  anchorage  
where the lands on the coast are low1   
might be illustrated by  many instances 
in the bays of ,campeachy1 ,honduras1   
,panama2 the coasts  of ,portobella1    
,carthagena1 ,guinea1 ,callifornia1     
,china1 ,coromandel1 c4  but going into 
particulars would be almost endless1 as 
,i very seldom  found it otherwise than 
that deep waters and high shores went   
together1  as well as low lands and     
shallow seas4    ,the fact therefore of 

there being considerable mountains1 and 
other  inequalities1 at the bottom of   
the sea is fully confirmed by the       
observations of navigators4 ,divers also
 assure us1 there are smaller           
inequalities formed by rocks1 and that  
it is much the coldest in the  vallies  
of the sea4 ,in general the depths in   
great seas1 as we have  already         
observed1 increase proportionably to    
their distance from shore4  ,by ,mr4    
,buache's chart of that part of the     
ocean between the coasts of  ,africa and
 ,america1 and by the divisions he has  
given of the sea from  ,cape ,tagrin to 
,rio-,grande1 there appears to be       
similar inequalities in  the ocean to   
those on land4 ,that the ,albrolhos1    
where there are some  rocks at the      
surface of the water1 are only the tops 
of very large  and lofty mountains1 of  
which ,dolphin island is one of the     
highest  peaks4 ,that the islands of    
,cape de ,verd are also the tops of     
mountains  that there are a great number

 of shoals in the sea1 which round the  
,albrolhos descends even to unknown     
depths4    ,with respect to the quality 
of the different soils which form the   
bottom of the sea1 as we must rely on   
divers and the plumb1 we can say        
nothing exact or precise concerning it2 
we only know that there are  parts      
covered with mud to a considerable      
thickness1 on which anchors  have no    
hold2 in these parts probably the mud of
 rivers are deposited4  ,in other parts 
are sands similar to those on land4 ,in 
others are  shells1 heaped up together1 
madrepores1 corals1 and other           
productions  of insects1 which begin to 
unite and appear like stones2 in others 
are  fragments of stones1 gravel1 and   
often entire stones and marble4 ,for    
example1 in the ,maldivian islands the  
buildings are made of a hard  stone     
weighed up from several fathoms under   
water4 ,at ,marseilles very  good marble
 is obtained from the bottom of the sea1
 which1 so far from  wasting and        

spoiling stone and marble1 in our       
discourse on minerals1  we shall prove  
they are formed and preserved therein2  
whereas the sun1  earth1 air1 and rain  
water1 corrupts and destroys them4      
,the bottom of the sea must be composed 
of the same matters as our  habitable   
land1 because the very same substances  
are contained in the  one as the other2 
places are found at the bottom of the   
sea1 covered  with shells1 madrepores1  
and other productions of sea matters1 as
 we  meet with on earth an infinity of  
quarries and banks of chalk and other   
matters replete with the same sort of   
shells1 madrepores1 c4 so that  in all  
respects the dry parts of the globe     
resemble those covered by  the water1   
both in composition of matters1 and     
inequalities of the  superfices4    ,it 
is to these inequalities at the bottom  
of the sea1 we must attribute  the      
origin of currents1 for if the bottom   
was equal and level1 there  would be no 
other current than the general motion   

from east to west1  and a few others    
which might be caused by the action of  
the winds2 but  a certain proof that    
most currents are produced by the flux  
and reflux1  and directed by the        
inequalities at the bottom of the sea1  
is1 that  they regularly follow the     
tides1 and change their direction at    
each ebb  and flow4 ,see ,pietra della  
,valle on the subject of the currents of
 the  gulph of ,cambay1 and the accounts
 of all navigators1 who unanimously     
assert that in those parts where the    
flux and reflux of the sea is the  most 
violent1 the currents are also most     
rapid4    ,therefore it cannot be       
doubted but that the tides produce      
currents  whose direction always answers
 that of the opposite hills and all     
mountains between which they flow4      
,currents produced by winds1 also       
follow the direction of those hills     
which are under the water1 seldom       
running opposite to the wind which      
produces them1 any more than those      

which are occasioned by the tides follow
 the direction of their  original cause4
    ,to give a clear idea of the        
productions of currents1 we shall first 
observe they are to be met with in every
 sea2 that some are rapid1  and others  
slow2 that some are of great extent1    
both in length and  breadth1 and others 
short and narrow2 that the same cause1  
whether the  wind or tides1 which       
produces these currents1 frequently     
gives to each  of them a velocity and   
direction very different2 that a north  
wind1  for example1 which should give   
the water one general motion towards    
the south1 on the contrary1 produces a  
number of currents1 separated  from each
 other1 and very different both in      
extent and direction2 some  flowing     
towards the south1 others south-east1   
and others south-west2  some are very   
rapid1 others slow2 some long and broad1
 others short  and narrow2 in fact1     
their motions are so various that we    
have no idea  left of their original    

cause4 ,when a contrary wind succeeds1  
all these  currents take an opposite    
course1 and follow in a contrary        
direction1  precisely in the same manner
 as would be the case upon land between 
two  opposite and adjacent hills1       
provided it was covered with water1 as  
is seen at the ,maldiva and all the     
islands of the ,indian seas1 where  the 
currents run1 and the winds blow1 for   
six months in a contrary  direction4    
,the same remark has been made on       
currents between shoals  and sandbanks4 
,in general all currents1 whether caused
 by the motion  of flux or reflux1 or   
the action by the wind2 have the same   
extent and  direction throughout their  
whole course1 yet differ from each other
  in most respects1 which can proceed   
only from the inequalities of the       
hills1 mountains1 and vallies1 at the   
bottom of the sea1 it being  certain    
that the current between two islands    
follows the direction of  the coasts2   
and the same is observable between banks

 of sand1 shoals1  c4 we must1          
therefore1 look on the hills and        
mountains of the bottom  of the sea as  
banks which direct the current2 and     
hence a current is a  river1 the breadth
 of which is determined by that of the  
valley through  which it flows3 its     
rapidity depends on the force which     
produces it1  combined with the breadth1
 of the interval through which it must  
pass3 and its direction is traced by the
 position of the hills and  inequalities
 between which it must take its course4 
,we shall now give a reason for the     
singular correspondence between the     
angles of mountains and hills1 which are
 to be met with in every part  of the   
world4 ,we have already remarked that   
when a river1 c4 forms an  elbow1 one of
 the borders forms on one side a        
projection inland1 and  the other forms 
a point from land1 and that through all 
the sinuosities  of their course this   
correspondence is always found4 ,this   
fact is  founded on the laws of         

hydrostatics4 ,it would be easy to      
demonstrate  the cause of this effect2  
but it is sufficient that it is general 
and  universally known1 and that all the
 world may be convinced of it by  their 
own eyes1 that when the banks of a river
 form a projection inland  to the left  
hand1 the other shore forms a projection
 from land to the  right4    ,hence the 
currents of the sea must be looked upon 
as great rivers1  subject to the some   
laws as those on land1 and will1 like   
them1 form  in the extent of their      
course many sinuosities1 whose          
projections or  angles will correspond2 
and as the banks of currents are hills  
and  mountains1 above or below the      
surface of the water1 they will have    
given these eminences the same form as  
is remarked on the shores  of rivers2   
therefore we must not be astonished that
 our hills and  mountains1 which have   
been formerly covered by the sea1 and   
formed by  the sediments which the      
waters have left1 should1 by the motion 

of  its currents1 have taken this       
regular figure1 and all the angles are  
alternately opposite2 they have been the
 shores of the currents or  rivers of   
the sea1 and have therefore necessarily 
taken a figure and  direction similar to
 those of the shores of the rivers of   
the earth4    ,this alone1 independent  
of the other proofs we have given1 would
 be  sufficient to evince that the earth
 of our continent and islands have  been
 covered with waters of the ocean1 and  
doubtless throws great light  upon the  
,theory which ,i have endeavoured to    
prove well founded2 for it  was not     
sufficient to have proved that the      
strata of the earth were  formed by the 
sediments of the sea2 that the mountains
 were elevated  by the successive       
accumulation of such sediments2 and that
 they were  composed of shells and other
 marine productions2 but it required    
also  a reason why the angles of        
mountains so exactly correspond2 this   
could  only be done by an investigation 

into the real cause1 which had not      
hitherto been attempted1 and which1     
being united with the rest1 forms a     
body of proofs as complete as may be had
 in physics1 and establishes my  ,theory
 to be founded on facts1 independent of 
all hypothesis4    ,the principal       
currents of the ocean are those observed
 in the ,atlantic  ,sea1 near ,guinea4  
,they extend from ,cape ,verd to the    
,bay of ,fernandes4  ,their motion is   
from west to east2 that is contrary to  
the general  motion of the sea4 ,these  
currents are so rapid that vessels sail 
in  two days from ,moura to ,rio de     
,benin1 a course of #aej leagues2 but   
they  require six or seven weeks to     
return2 nor would it be possible to get 
out of these climates if advantage was  
not taken of the tempestuous  winds     
which suddenly rise in them2 but there  
are entire seasons during  which vessels
 cannot stir1 the sea being continually 
calm1 excepting  what arises from the   
currents1 which is always directed      

towards the  coasts1 and never extend   
more than #bj leagues from shore4 ,near 
,sumatra  there are rapid currents1     
which flow from south to north1 and     
which  probably formed the gulph at     
,malacca4 ,there are also considerable  
currents between ,java and ,magellan1   
the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and the       
island of ,madagascar1 especially on the
 coast of ,africa1 between  ,natal and  
the ,cape4 ,in the ,pacific ,sea1 on the
 coast of ,peru1 and the  rest of       
,america1 the sea moves from south to   
north1 and a south wind  continually    
blowing there seems to be the cause4    
,the like motion  is observed on the    
coasts of ,brazil2 from ,cape ,st4      
,augustine to the  ,antilles2 from the  
mouth of the ,manilla strait to the     
,philippine  islands2 and in the port of
 ,kubuxiu at ,japan,d4    ,d ,see       
,varen4 ,geography1 page #adj4    ,there
 are violent currents in the sea        
adjacent to the ,maldivian  islands2 and
 between those islands these currents   

flow1 as already  observed1 constantly  
for six months from east to west1 and   
during the  other six months they follow
 the direction of the monsoons1 and it  
is  probable they are produced by those 
winds4    ,we speak here only of        
currents1 whose extent and rapidity are 
very  considerable1 for in every sea    
there are an infinity of currents1      
though of no great importance4 ,the flux
 and reflux1 the winds1 and all  other  
causes which agitate the waters1 produce
 currents1 more or less  perceptible1 in
 different parts4 ,we have observed that
 the bottom of  the sea1 like the       
surface of the earth1 is overspread with
 mountains  intersected with            
inequalities and divided by banks of    
sand4 ,in all  mountainous places       
currents will be violent2 in all places 
where the  bottom of the sea is level   
they will be almost imperceptible2 the  
rapidity of the current will increase in
 proportion to the obstacles  the water 
meets with1 or rather to the contraction

 of the spaces  through which they      
incline to pass4 ,between two chains of 
mountains the  current will be so much  
the stronger as the mountains are near4 
,it will  be the same between two banks 
of sand1 or two neighbouring islands4   
,it  is also remarked in the ,indian    
ocean1 which is divided with an infinity
  of islands and banks1 there are rapid 
currents throughout1 which render  the  
navigation of that sea dangerous4    ,it
 is not inequalities at the bottom of   
the sea alone which form  currents1 but 
the coasts themselves have a similar    
effect1 as the water  is repelled at    
greater or lesser distances3 this       
repulsion of the  waters is a kind of   
current which circumstances can render  
continual  and violent2 the oblique     
position of a coast1 the vicinity of a  
bay1  or of some great river1 a         
promontory2 in one word1 every          
particular  obstacle which opposes the  
general motion1 will always produce a   
current4 ,now1 as nothing is more       

irregular than the bottom and borders   
of the sea1 we must cease from being    
surprised at the great number of        
currents which every where appear4      
,all currents have a determinate        
breadth1 which depends on that of  the  
interval between the two eminences which
 serves it for a bed4  ,the currents    
flow into the sea as rivers flow on     
land1 and they  produce similar effects4
 ,they form their bed1 and give to      
eminences  corresponding angles4 ,in one
 word1 it is these currents which       
hollowed  our vallies1 formed our       
mountains1 and gave to the surface of   
the  earth1 when it was under water1 the
 form it now retains4    ,if any doubt  
of the correspondence of the angles of  
mountains remains1  ,i appeal to the    
sight of every man who makes the        
observation4 ,every  traveller1 with the
 smallest attention1 will perceive that 
the opposite  sides of a hill exactly   
correspond4 ,whenever the hills to the  
right of  the valley form a projection1 

those opposite recede to the left4      
,these  hills have also nearly the same 
elevation1 and it is very rare to see   
any great inequality of height in the   
two hills separated by a valley4  ,i can
 assert1 that the more ,i have looked on
 the circumference and  heights of      
hills1 the more ,i have been convinced  
of the correspondence  of the angles1   
and of the resemblance they have with   
the beds and  borders of rivers2 and it 
is by reiterated observations on this   
surprising regularity and resemblance   
that my first ideas of this  ,theory of 
the ,earth arose4 ,let us add to these  
observations that of the  parallel and  
horizontal situation of the strata1 that
 of the shells  being dispersed         
throughout the earth1 and incorporated  
in every matter2  and it must be        
admitted1 that on a subject like this we
 cannot have a  greater degree of       
probability4          ,,article ,,xiv4  
,,of ,,regular ,,winds4      ,nothing   
can appear more irregular and variable  

than the force and  direction of winds  
in our climates2 but there are countries
 where this  irregularity is not so     
great1 and others where the winds       
constantly  blow in one direction1 and  
with almost the same degree of strength4
    ,although the motion of the air     
depends on a great number of causes1    
there are nevertheless principal ones1  
of which it is difficult to  estimate   
the effects1 because of the             
modifications from secondary  causes4   
,the most powerful cause is the heat of 
the sun1 which produces  successively a 
considerable rarefaction in different   
parts of the  atmosphere1 and gives rise
 to an east wind that constantly blows  
between the tropics1 where rarefaction  
is the greatest4    ,the force of the   
sun's attraction1 and even that of the  
moon on the  atmosphere1 are            
inconsiderable in comparison with that  
just mentioned2  it is true1 this force 
produces in the air a motion similar to 
that  of the flux and reflux in the sea1

 yet it must not be supposed that  the  
air1 because it has a spring1 and is    
#hjj times lighter than water1          
receives1 by the action of the moon1 a  
more considerable motion than  that of  
the waters of the sea2 for the distance 
of the moon being the  same1 a sea of   
any fluid matter will have nearly the   
same motion1  because the force which   
produces it penetrates the matter1 and  
is  proportional to its quantity2 thus a
 sea of water1 air1 or quicksilver1     
would elevate itself nearly to the same 
height1 by the action of the  sun and   
moon2 hence we see that the the         
influence of the planets  in the        
atmosphere is not considerable1 and     
although it must cause a  slight motion 
of the air from east to west1 this      
motion is insensible  in comparison with
 that produced by the heat of the sun2  
but as the  rarefaction will be always  
greatest when the sun is at the zenith1 
the  current of air must follow the sun1
 and form a constant wind from east  to 

west4 ,this wind blows continually over 
the sea in the torrid zone1  and in most
 parts of the land between the tropics2 
it is this wind  we feel at the sun's   
rising2 and in general the east winds   
are more  frequent and impetuous than   
the west2 this general wind from east to
  west extends even beyond the tropics1 
and blows so constantly in the  ,pacific
 ,sea1 that vessels which sail from     
,acapulco to the ,philippines1  perform 
their voyage1 which is more than #bgjj  
leagues1 without any  risque1 and almost
 without any need of directing their    
course4 ,in the  ,atlantic1 between     
,africa and ,brazil1 this wind is also  
constant3 it is  felt also between the  
,philippines and ,africa1 but not in so 
constant a  manner1 by reason of the    
islands1 and different obstacles that   
are met  with in that sea2 for during   
the months of ,january1 ,february1      
,march1  and ,april1 it blows between   
the ,mozambique coast and ,india1 but   
during  the other months1 it gives place

 to different winds3 and although this  
east wind is less felt on the coasts    
than in the open sea1 and still  less in
 the middle of continents than on the   
coasts2 nevertheless there  are places  
where it blows almost continually1 as on
 the east coasts of  ,brazil1 on the    
coasts of ,loango1 in ,africa1 c4       
,this east wind continually blowing     
under the line1 is the cause1 that      
sailing from ,europe to ,america1 the   
course of the vessel is directed  from  
the north to the south1 along the coasts
 of ,spain and ,africa1 to  within #bj  
degrees of the equator1 where this east 
wind is met with1  which carries them   
directly to the coasts of ,america4 ,the
 voyage from  ,acapulco to the          
,philippine islands1 is made in two     
months by the favour  of this east wind3
 but the return from them to ,acapulco  
is longer and  more difficult4 ,at #bh  
or #cj degrees on this coast from the   
line1 the  western wind is nearly as    
constant1 which is the reason that      

vessels  returning from the ,east       
,indies to ,europe1 do not follow the   
same track  as in going2 those from ,new
 ,spain sail north along the coasts till
 they  arrive at the ,havannah1 and from
 thence they continue northward1 until  
they meet with the westerly winds which 
carry them to the ,azores and           
afterwards to ,spain4 ,so likewise in   
the ,south ,sea1 those which return     
from the ,philippines1 or ,china1 to    
,peru1 or ,mexico1 sail north as far  as
 ,japan1 and navigate under that        
parallel to a certain distance from     
,california1 from whence1 coasting along
 ,new ,spain1 they arrive at  ,acapulco4
 ,these winds do not always blow from   
one point1 but in general  from the     
south-east from ,april to ,november1 and
 from the north-east  from ,november to 
,april4    ,the east wind1 by its       
action1 increases the general motion of 
the  sea from east to west2 it also     
produces currents which are constant1   
some flowing from east to west1 others  

from west to east2 and from  the east to
 the south-west or north-west1 following
 the direction of  the eminencies and   
chains of mountains at the bottom of the
 sea1 the  vallies that divide them     
serving as channels to these currents4  
,the  alternative winds which blow      
sometimes from the east1 and sometimes  
from the south1 produce also currents   
which change their direction at  the    
same time with these winds4    ,the     
winds which blow continually for some   
months1 are generally  followed by      
contrary winds1 and therefore mariners  
are obliged to wait  for that which is  
favourable to their voyage4 ,when these 
winds change1  a calm or dangerous      
tempest generally ensues1 and which     
continues for  several days1 sometimes a
 month1 and has been known for more than
 two4    ,these general winds caused by 
the rarefaction of the atmosphere1 are  
differently combined and modified by    
different causes in different  climates4
 ,in that part of the ,atlantic1 under  

the temperate zone1  the north wind     
blows almost constantly during the      
months of ,october1  ,november1         
,december1 and ,january1 which makes    
those months the most  favourable to    
embark from ,europe to ,india1 in order 
to pass the line  by the aid of these   
winds2 and it is known by experience1   
that ships  which quit ,europe in the   
month of ,march frequently do not arrive
  sooner at ,brazil than those which    
sail in the ,october following4 ,the    
north wind almost continually reigns    
during winter in ,nova ,zembla1 and     
other northern coasts4 ,the south wind  
blows during the month of ,july  at     
,cape de ,verd1 when the rainy season1  
or winter of these climates  sets in4   
,at the ,cape of ,good ,hope the        
north-west wind blows during  the month 
of ,september4 ,at ,patna1 in the ,east 
,indies1 the north-west  wind blows     
during the months of ,november1         
,december1 and ,january1 and  produces  
heavy rains2 but the east wind blows    

during the other nine  months4 ,in the  
,indian ocean1 between ,africa and      
,india1 as far as the  ,malacca islands1
 the monsoons reign from east to west   
from ,january to  the beginning of      
,june1 the west winds begin in the      
months of ,august or  ,september2 during
 the interval of ,june and ,july1 there 
are dreadful  tempests generally from   
the north winds2 but on the coasts these
 winds  vary much more than in the open 
sea4    ,in the kingdom of ,guzarat1 and
 on the coasts of the neighbouring sea1 
the north winds blow from ,march till   
,september1 and during the other  months
 south winds almost always reign4 ,the  
,dutch1 to return from ,java1  generally
 set sail in the month of ,january or   
,february1 when they have  the          
assistance of an easterly wind which is 
felt as far as the #ahth  degree of     
,south latitude2 afterwards they meet   
with the south winds  which carry them  
to ,st4 ,helena,e4    ,e ,see ,varen4   
,geography1 gener4 cap4 #bj4    ,there  

are regular winds produced by the       
melting of snows1 which the  ancient    
,greeks have noticed4 ,during summer a  
north-east wind1 and  in winter one from
 the south-east1 were noticed in        
,greece1 ,thrace1  ,macedonia1 the      
,egean sea1 and as far as ,egypt and    
,africa2 the same kind  of winds have   
been remarked at ,congo1 at ,guzarat1   
and at the extremity  of ,africa1 which 
are all produced by the melting of the  
snows4 ,the flux  and reflux of the sea 
also produce regular winds which remain 
only a  few hours1 and in many places   
winds are observed to blow from the land
  during night1 and from the sea during 
the day1 as on the coasts of ,new       
,spain1 ,congo1 the ,havannah1 c4       
,the north winds are pretty regular in  
the polar circles2 but the nearer  we   
approach the equator1 the weaker they   
become3 a circumstance equally  common  
to the two poles4    ,in the ,atlantic  
and ,ethiopian ocean within the tropics 
there is an  east wind which blows all  

the year without any considerable       
variation1  excepting some few small    
places1 where it changes according to   
circumstances and the position of the   
coasts4 ,first1 near the coasts  of     
,africa1 having passed the ,canary      
islands1 about the #bhth degree  of     
north latitude1 a fresh wind blowing    
from the north-east or                  
north-north-east1 is sure to be met     
with2 this wind accompanies the  vessels
 to the #ajth degree of the same        
latitude2 about #ajj leagues  from the  
coast of ,guinea2 where at the #dth     
degree north latitude they  meet with   
calms and tornadoes4 ,secondly1 in going
 to ,america by the  ,caribbee islands1 
this wind is found to veer more and more
 to the east1  in proportion as they    
approach the coast4 ,thirdly1 the limits
 of these  variable winds in the        
,atlantic1 are greater on the ,american 
coasts than  on those of ,africa4 ,a    
south or south-west wind blows          
continually all  along the coast of     

,guinea for a space of #ejj leagues from
 ,sierra ,leona  to the island of ,st4  
,thomas2 the narrowest part of that sea 
is from  ,guinea to ,brazil1 being not  
more than #ejj leagues across4          
,nevertheless1  ships which sail from   
,guinea do not direct their course      
straight to  ,brazil1 especially when   
they sail in the months of ,july and    
,august1 for  the purpose of taking     
advantage of the south-east winds which 
reign at  that time,f4    ,f ,see       
,abridg4 ,phil4 ,tran4 vol4 ,,ii1 page  
#abi4    ,in the ,mediterranean the east
 wind blows from the land in the evening
  at the sun's setting1 and the west    
wind from the sea at its rising in  the 
morning4 ,the south wind1 which is      
commonly attended with rains1  and which
 generally blows at ,paris1 ,burgundy   
and ,champagne about the  beginning of  
,november1 gives place to mild and      
temperate breezes that  produce that    
fair weather vulgarly called the summer 
of ,st4 ,martin's4    ,doctor ,lister   

pretends that the east wind that blows  
between the  tropics all the year1 is   
produced by the vapour of the plant     
called sea  lentil1 which is extremely  
plentiful in those climates1 and that   
the  difference of the winds on the land
 proceeds only from the different       
disposition of the trees and forests2   
and he very seriously gives this        
ridiculous imagination for a cause of   
the wind1 by saying1 that at noon  the  
wind is strongest because the plants are
 hotter and respire the  most1 and that 
it blows from east to west1 because all 
plants1 somewhat  like sun-flowers1 turn
 and respire with the sun4    ,other    
authors have mentioned the motion of the
 earth on its axis as the  cause of this
 wind3 this opinion is specious2 and    
every person1 even  but little initiated
 in mechanics1 must comprehend1 that no 
fluid which  surrounds the earth can    
have a particular motion from the       
rotation  of the globe2 that the air can
 have no other motion than that of the  

earth1 and that all turning together at 
one time1 this rotative motion  must be 
as insensible in the atmosphere1 as it  
is on the surface of the  earth4    ,the
 principal cause of the winds1 as we    
have observed1 is the heat of  the sun2 
on this subject we refer to ,halley's   
,treatise in ,phil4 ,trans4  ,all causes
 which occasion rarefaction or          
condensation in the air will  produce   
winds1 whose directions will be opposite
 to the places where is  the greatest   
rarefaction or condensation4    ,the    
pressure of the clouds1 the exhalations 
of the earth1 the  inflammation of      
meteors1 c4 are causes which also       
produce considerable  agitations in the 
atmosphere4 ,each of these causes       
combining in  different manners1        
produces different effects4 ,it appears 
to me1  therefore1 a vain attempt to    
assign a theory of the winds1 for which 
reason ,i shall limit myself to the     
study of their history4    ,if we could 
have a course of observations on the    

direction1 power1  and variation of the 
wind in different climates2 if this     
course of  observations was exact and   
extensive enough for us to perceive the 
result of these vicissitudes of the air 
in every country1 we should  arrive at  
that degree of knowledge1 from which at 
present we are very  remote2 but a short
 time has passed since meteorological   
observations  have been made1 and       
possibly much more will pass before we  
know how to  employ the results of them1
 although they are the only means that  
we  have to arrive at some positive     
knowledge on this subject4    ,on the   
sea the winds are more regular than on  
land1 because the sea  is an open space1
 in which nothing opposes their         
direction1 while on  land mountains1    
forests1 and towns1 form obstacles which
 change their  course4 ,winds reflected 
by the mountains are often as impetuous 
as in  their first direction3 these     
winds are very irregular1 because their 
course depends on the size1 height1 and 

situation of the mountains  which       
reflect them4 ,the sea winds blow with  
greater power than the  land winds1 are 
not so variable1 and last longer4 ,land 
winds1 however  violent1 have moments of
 remission1 and sometimes of quiet1 but 
at sea  their currents are constant and 
continual1 without any interruption4    
,in general on the sea the east wind1   
and those which come from the  poles1   
are stronger than the west and those    
which proceed from the  equator4 ,on the
 land the west and south winds are more 
or less violent1  according to the      
situation of the climates4 ,in spring   
and autumn all  winds are more violent  
than in summer or winter1 and for these 
reasons2  first1 in spring and autumn   
are the highest tides1 and consequently 
the winds that these tides produce are  
most violent at those seasons2          
secondly1 the motion which the action of
 the sun and moon produce in  the air is
 also greater in the season of the      
equinoxes2 thirdly1 the  melting of the 

snows in spring1 and the condensation of
 the vapours  that the sun raises during
 summer1 which refall in plentiful rains
  during autumn1 produce1 or at least   
increase the wind2 fourthly1 the  change
 from heat to cold1 or from cold to     
heat1 cannot be made without  increasing
 and diminishing consequently the volume
 of air1 which alone  must produce very 
high winds4    ,contrary currents are   
often observed in the air2 some clouds  
move in  one direction1 while others1   
which are higher or lower1 move in a    
directly opposite one2 but this         
contrariety of motion does not remain1  
being commonly produced by the          
resistance of some large clouds that    
force the wind into another course1 but 
which returns again as soon as  the     
obstacle is dissipated4    ,the winds   
are more violent in mountainous places  
than in plains1 and  increase until we  
reach the common height of the clouds1  
that is to  say1 to about one quarter1  
or one third of a league perpendicular  

height2 beyond that height the sky is   
generally serene1 at least during  the  
summer1 and the wind gradually          
diminishing4 ,it is even asserted to  be
 quite insensible at the summit of the  
highest mountains2 but these  summits   
being covered with snow and ice1 it is  
natural to suppose that  this region of 
air is agitated by the wind when the    
snow falls1 and  only during summer that
 the winds are not to be perceived4 ,in 
summer  the light vapours which are     
raised above the summit of these        
mountains  fall in the form of dew1     
whereas in winter they condense and fall
 in  snow or ice1 which in winter may   
raise considerable winds1 even at that  
height4    ,a current of air increases  
in velocity where the space of its      
passage  is straitened3 the same wind   
which was moderate in an open plain     
becomes violent in passing through a    
narrow passage in a mountain1 or        
between two lofty buildings2 and its    
most violent action is at the top  of   

these structures or mountains1 for air  
being compressed by these  obstacles1   
its density and mass becomes increased1 
and as the velocity  remains1 the force 
or momentum of the wind naturally       
becomes much  stronger4 ,this is the    
cause that near a church or castle the  
winds seem  to be stronger than at a    
distance from them4 ,i have often       
remarked1  that the wind reflected from 
a lone building is more violent than the
  direct wind which produced it4 ,this  
can only be occasioned by the  impelled 
air being compressed against the        
building1 and by that means  adds to its
 force4    ,the density of the air being
 greatest at the surface of the earth1  
we  might be led to imagine that the    
greatest action of the wind should be   
there also2 and ,i indeed think this is 
really the case when the sky is  serene2
 but when it is covered with clouds1 the
 most violent action  of the wind is at 
the height of these clouds1 which       
generally fall in  rain or snow4 ,the   

strength of the wind1 therefore1 must be
 estimated1  not only by the velocity1  
but also by the density of the air2 for 
it  will often happen that one wind1    
which shall have no more velocity than  
another1 will1 nevertheless1 root up    
trees and overturn buildings1  only from
 the air impelled by this wind being    
denser2 and this evinces  the           
imperfection of the machines invented to
 measure the velocity of  the wind4     
,particular winds1 whether direct or    
reflected1 are more violent than        
general ones4 ,the interrupted action of
 land-winds depends on the  compression 
of the air1 which renders each blast    
much more violent than  if the wind     
blowed uniformly4 ,a strong continued   
wind never occasions  such disasters as 
the rage of those produce which blow1 as
 it were1 by  fits2 but we shall give   
examples thereof in the following       
article4    ,we may consider the winds1 
and their directions1 under general     
points  of view1 from which possibly we 

may derive useful instructions2 for     
example1 we might divide the winds into 
zones4 ,the east wind1 which  extends to
 about #be or #cj degrees on each side  
the equator1 exerts its  action round   
the globe in the torrid zone2 the north 
wind almost always  as constantly in the
 frigid zones4 ,therefore it may be said
 that the  east wind occupies the torrid
 zone1 the north wind the frigid zones1 
and with respect to the temperate zone1 
the winds which reign there are  merely 
currents of air produced by these two   
winds1 whose direction  tends to the    
eastern points4 ,with respect to the    
westerly winds1 which  often reign in   
the temperate zones1 both in the        
,pacific and ,atlantic  ,oceans1 they   
may be regarded as winds reflected by   
the lands of ,asia  and ,america1       
deriving their origin from the east and 
north winds4    ,although we have said  
that1 generally speaking1 the east winds
 reign  around the globe to about #be or
 #cj degrees on each side the equator1  

it is nevertheless certain1 that in some
 parts they do not extend so  far1 and  
their direction is not always from east 
to west1 for on this  side the equator  
it is east-north-east1 and beyond the   
equator it is  east-south-east1 and the 
further we remove from the equator the  
more  the direction is oblique4 ,the    
equator is the line under which the     
direction of the wind from east to west 
is the most exact2 for example1  in the 
,indian ocean1 the general wind from    
east to west scarcely  extends beyond   
#ae degrees4 ,sailing from ,goa to the  
,cape of ,good ,hope  this wind is not  
felt till we have past the equator2 but 
after arriving  at the #abth degree     
south latitude1 it continues to the     
#bhth degree4 ,in  the sea which divides
 ,africa from ,america there is an      
interval from  the #dth degree north    
latitude to the #ajth or #aath degree   
south1 where  this general wind is not  
perceivable2 but beyond the #ajth or    
#aath  degree it reigns as far as the   

#cjth4    ,there is also much exception 
with regard to the trade winds1 whose   
motion is alternative4 ,some remain a   
longer or a shorter time1 others  extend
 to greater or less distances2 others   
are more or less regular1  and more or  
less violent4 ,varenius speaks thus of a
 principal phenomena  of these winds4   
,in the ocean between ,africa and       
,india1 as far as  the ,malaccas1 the   
east winds begin to reign in ,january   
and last to  the beginning of ,june2 in 
,august or ,september the west winds    
begin  and continue during three or four
 months4 ,in the interval of these      
monsoons1 that is from the end of ,june 
to the beginning of ,august1  there is  
no wind on that sea1 but they have      
violent storms which come  from the     
north4    ,these winds are subject to   
the greatest variations near the land1  
for  ships cannot depart from the       
,malabar coast1 nor other western ports 
on  the coasts of the peninsula of      
,india1 to sail to ,africa1 ,arabia1 or 

,persia1 but from ,january to ,april or 
,may2 for from the end of ,may1 and     
during the months of ,june1 ,july1 and  
,august1 there are such violent         
tempests from the north or north-east   
that ships are not able to keep  the    
sea4 ,on the other side of this         
peninsula1 in the sea which bathes  the 
,coromandel coast1 these tempests are   
not known4    ,to sail from ,java1      
,ceylon1 and many other places1 to the  
,malacca  islands1 the month of         
,september is the most proper time1     
because the  west wind begins to blow in
 these parts2 nevertheless1 at #ae      
degrees  south of the equator1 we lose  
this west wind and meet with the general
  winds1 which blow south-east4 ,to sail
 from ,cochin to ,malacca they  depart  
in ,march1 because the west winds begin 
to blow at that time2  therefore these  
westerly winds blow at different times  
in different  parts of the ,indian sea2 
and it is necessary to sail at different
  periods in going from ,java to the    

,malaccas1 from ,cochin to ,malacca1    
from ,malacca to ,china1 and from ,china
 to ,japan4    ,at ,banda1 the west     
winds finish at the end of ,march1 calms
 reign  during ,april1 in ,may the east 
winds begin again with great violence4  
,at ,ceylon1 the west winds begin about 
the middle of ,march1 and remain  till  
the beginning of ,october1 when the east
 or rather north-east wind  returns4 ,at
 ,madagascar1 from the middle of ,april 
to the end of ,may1 the  north and      
north-west winds are constant2 but in   
,february and ,march1  the east and     
south winds reign4 ,from ,madagascar to 
the ,cape of ,good  ,hope1 the north and
 collateral winds blow during ,march and
 ,april4 ,in  the ,gulph of ,bengal1 the
 south wind prevails after the #bjth of 
,april1  before which time the          
south-west or north-west winds are      
predominant4  ,the west winds are also  
violent in the sea of ,china1 in ,june  
and ,july1  which is likewise the most  
suitable season to go from ,china to    

,japan2  but to return from ,japan to   
,china1 ,february and ,march are        
preferred1  because the east or         
north-east winds prevail4    ,there are 
winds which may be regarded as peculiar 
to certain coasts2  for example1 the    
south wind is almost continually on the 
coasts of  ,chili and ,peru2 it begins  
at the #dfth degree south latitude1 and 
extends beyond ,panama1 which renders   
the voyage from ,lima to ,panama  much  
easier performed than the return4 ,the  
west wind blows continually  on the     
,magellanic coasts1 and in the straits  
of ,le ,maire4 ,the north and           
north-west winds almost continually     
reign on the ,malabar coast4 ,the       
north-west wind is very frequent on the 
coast of ,guinea4 ,the westerly  winds  
reign on the coasts of ,japan1 in the   
months of ,november and  ,december4     
,the alternative1 or periodical winds1  
which we have just been speaking  of1   
are sea winds2 but there are also land  
winds which are periodical1  and return 

either at a certain season1 or in       
certain days1 or even at  certain hours2
 for example1 on the ,malabar coast1    
from ,september to  ,april a land wind  
blows from the eastern side2 it         
generally commences  at midnight1 and   
finishes at noon1 and is not felt beyond
 #ab or #ae  leagues from the coast2 and
 from noon till midnight a gentle wind  
blows  from the west4 ,on the coast of  
,new ,spain1 in ,america1 and on that of
  ,congo1 in ,africa1 land winds reign  
during the night1 and sea winds  during 
the day4 ,at ,jamaica the winds blow    
from all parts of the coast  at once    
during the night1 and therefore vessels 
cannot go in1 nor  depart from it with  
safety1 but in the day time4    ,in     
winter the port of ,cochin is not to be 
entered1 nor can any vessel  quit it1   
because the winds blow with such        
impetuosity1 that ships  cannot remain  
at sea2 and besides the west winds1     
which blow with such  fury1 bring to the
 mouth of the river so great a quantity 

of sand as  prevents the possibility of 
ships of any size from entering it      
during  six months of the year2 but the 
east winds which blow during the other  
six months repel these sands1 and render
 the entrance of the river  free4 ,at   
the strait of ,babelmandel there are    
south-east winds which  reign throughout
 the season1 and are always succeeded by
 north-east4 ,at  ,st4 ,domingo there   
are two different winds which regularly 
rise almost  every day1 the one a sea   
wind proceeding from the east1 and      
commences  at #aj o'clock in the        
morning2 the other a land wind comes    
from the  west1 rises at six or seven   
o'clock in the evening1 and remains all 
night4 ,there are many other facts of   
this nature to be extracted from        
travellers1 the knowledge of which might
 perhaps lead to a history  of the      
winds1 which would be a useful work     
equally to navigation and  physics4     
,,article ,,xv4      ,,of ,,irregular   
,,winds1 ,,hurricanes1 ,,and ,,other    

,,phenomena1 ,,caused ,,by ,,the        
,,agitation ,,of ,,the ,,sea ,,and      
,,air4      ,the winds are more         
irregular on the land than on the sea1  
and in high  places than in low4 ,the   
mountains not only alter the direction  
of  winds1 but even produce some which  
are either constant or variable         
according to different causes4 ,the     
melting of snow upon the summits of     
mountains1 generally produces constant  
winds1 which sometimes remain a         
considerable time2 the vapours that are 
stopt by mountains accumulate  there1   
and produce variable winds1 very        
frequent in all climates3  and there are
 as many variations in the motions of   
air1 as there  are inequalities on the  
surface of the earth4 ,we can therefore 
give  only examples1 and relate         
circumstances which are attested2 and as
 we  are deficient in a course of       
observations on the variation of winds1 
and even of the seasons in different    
countries1 we do not pretend to  explain

 all the causes of these differences1   
but confine ourselves to  those which   
appear the most probable4    ,in        
straits1 on all projecting coasts1 at   
the extremity of all  promontories1     
peninsulas and capes1 and in all narrow 
bays1 storms are  frequent2 but without 
these there are some seas much more     
tempestuous  than others4 ,the ,indian  
ocean1 the ,japan and the ,magellan     
seas1 that of  the ,african coast beyond
 the ,canaries1 and on the other side   
towards  the coast of ,natal and the    
,red ,sea1 are very liable to storms4   
,the  ,atlantic is more stormy than the 
ocean1 which from its tranquillity is   
called the ,pacific ,sea2 this sea1     
however1 is not absolutely tranquil1    
except between the tropics1 for the     
nearer we approach the poles1  the more 
we are subject to variable winds1 whose 
sudden changes are  frequently the cause
 of tempests4    ,all continents are    
subject to variable winds1 which often  
produce  singular effects2 in the       

kingdom of ,cassimir1 which is          
surrounded by  the mountain of          
,caucasus1 at the mountain ,pirepinjale1
 extraordinary  and sudden changes are  
experienced2 we pass1 in less than an   
hour's  travelling1 from summer to      
winter2 at this place are two winds1 a  
north and south1 and which1 according to
 ,bernier1 we successively feel  in less
 than #bjj feet distance from each      
other2 the position of this  mountain   
must be singular1 and merit observation4
 ,in the peninsula of  ,india1 which is 
crossed from north to south by the      
mountains of ,gate1  it is winter on one
 side1 and summer on the other at the   
same time4  ,the like difference is met 
with on the two sides of ,rozalgate     
,cape in  ,arabia2 the sea to the north 
of the cape is perfectly tranquil1 while
  in the south violent tempests are     
experienced4 ,it is the same in the     
island of ,ceylon2 winter and high winds
 are experienced in the northern  parts 
of the island1 while in the southern    

there is fine summer  weather4 ,this    
contrariety of seasons at the same time 
not only happens  in many parts of the  
,indian continent1 but also in many     
islands2 for  example1 at ,cerem1 a long
 island in the vicinage of ,amboyna1    
they  have winter in the northern part1 
and summer at the same time in the      
southern1 and the interval that divides 
the two seasons is not above  three or  
four leagues4    ,in ,egypt they have a 
south wind in summer1 so hot as to      
prevent  respiration1 and raises such   
great quantities of sand1 that the sky  
seems covered with thick clouds2 this   
sand is so fine1 and driven with  such  
force1 that it penetrates even into the 
closest chests4 ,when these  winds last 
many days they cause epidemical         
diseases1 which are often  followed by a
 great mortality4 ,it seldom rains in   
,egypt1 nevertheless  every year there  
are some days of rain in the months of  
,december1  ,january1 and ,february4    
,thick mists are more frequent there    

than rain1  especially in the environs  
of ,cairo2 these mists begin in         
,november1  and continue all the winter2
 and during the whole year there falls  
so  plentiful a dew1 even when the sky  
is serene1 that it might be taken  for a
 slight rain4    ,in ,persia winter     
begins in ,november and lasts till      
,march3 the cold  is intense enough to  
form ice3 much snow falls on the        
mountains1 and  often a little in the   
plains4 ,from ,march to ,may the winds  
blows with  great violence1 and bring   
heat with them4 ,from ,may to           
,september1 the  sky is serene1 and the 
heat moderated by fresh breezes1 which  
rise  every evening and remain till     
morning4 ,in autumn they have violent   
winds1 like those of the spring2        
nevertheless1 although these winds  are 
very violent they scarcely ever produce 
tempests or hurricanes2  but in summer  
there often arises along the ,persian   
,gulph a very  dangerous wind1 called by
 the natives ,samuel2 it is still hotter

 and  more terrible than that of ,egypt4
 ,this wind is mortal1 and acting  like 
an inflamed vapour1 it suffocates every 
person unfortunately  enveloped within  
its vortex4 ,in summer there also rises 
a wind of the  same kind along the ,red 
,sea1 which suffocates men and cattle1  
and  which conveys so great a quantity  
of sand that many persons conceive  this
 sea will in time be choaked up with    
what falls therein4 ,there  are often   
clouds of sand in ,arabia which darken  
the air and form  dangerous whirlwinds4 
,at ,veru ,cruz1 when the hot north     
winds blow1 the  houses of the town are 
almost buried under the sand4 ,in summer
 hot  winds rise also at ,negapatam1 in 
the peninsula of ,india1 likewise at    
,petapouli and ,masulapatan4 ,these     
burning winds1 which destroy people1    
are fortunately of short duration1 but  
they are very violent1 and the  greater 
swiftness they come with the more       
dreadful are their heats1  whereas all  
other winds refresh so much the more as 

their velocity is  greater4 ,this       
difference proceeds from the degree of  
heat in the air1  for while the heat of 
the air is not so great as that of the  
body of  animals1 the motion of the air 
is refreshing2 but if the heat of the   
air exceeds that of the body1 then its  
motion heats and burns4 ,at  ,goa the   
winter1 or rather the rainy and         
tempestuous season1 is ,may1  ,june1 and
 ,july1 and without which rains the heat
 would be perfectly  unsupportable in   
that country4    ,the ,cape of ,good    
,hope is famous for its tempests1 and   
the singular  cloud which produces them4
 ,this cloud appears at first like a    
small  round spot in the sky1 called by 
the sailors the ,ox's ,eye4 ,probably   
its  appearing so minute is owing to its
 exceeding great height4    ,of all     
travellers who have spoken of this      
cloud1 ,kolbe appears to have  the most 
examined it with attention2 his words   
are1 ,the cloud seen  on the mountains  
of the ,table1 or of the ,devil1 or of  

the ,wind1 is  composed1 if ,i am not   
deceived1 of an infinity of small       
particles1  impelled first against the  
mountains of the ,cape towards the east1
  by the easterly wind which blows      
during almost the whole year in the     
torrid zone2 these particles are stopt  
in their course by these high           
mountains1 and collect on their eastern 
side2 they then become visible  and form
 these assemblages of clouds1 which     
being incessantly driven  by the east   
wind1 rise to the summit of these       
mountains2 they do not  long remain     
there at rest1 but being obliged to     
advance1 they ingulph  themselves       
between the hills before them1 where    
they are bound and  confined as in a    
canal2 the wind presses them from above1
 and the  opposite sides of the two     
mountains retain them in a direct line3 
in  advancing they arrive at the foot of
 a mountain1 where the country is  a    
little more open1 they then expand1 and 
become again invisible2 but  they are   

shortly driven against other mountains1 
by clouds which are  behind them1 and   
thus proceed with much impetuosity1     
until they arrive  at the highest       
mountains of the ,cape1 which are those 
of the ,wind1 or  ,table1 where they    
have to encounter a wind blowing in an  
exact contrary  direction2 this         
occasions a dreadful conflict1 for the  
vapours being  impelled behind and      
repelled before1 produce horrible       
whirlwinds  either on the high mountains
 of the ,table1 or adjacent vallies4    
,when  the north-west wind yields1 the  
south-east increases and continues to   
blow with more or less violence for six 
months1 it reinforces itself  while the 
cloud of the ,ox's ,eye is thick1       
because the vapours collected  behind   
press forward1 and it diminishes as soon
 as its thickness is  lessened1 because 
there are fewer particles and less      
pressure1 and it  is entirely lowered   
when the ,ox's ,eye is no longer        
apparent1 because no  new or not        

sufficient vapours any longer come from 
the east4    ,all the circumstances     
attending this phenomenon lead to an    
hypothesis1  which well explains every  
part of them3 ,first1 behind the        
mountain of  the ,table we remark a     
train of light white mists1 which       
commencing on  the eastern descent of   
this mountain1 incline to the sea1 and  
occupy  the mountains of ,stone         
throughout all their extent2 ,i have    
often  contemplated this train1 which   
according to my opinion was caused by   
the rapid passage of the vapour         
above-mentioned1 from the mountains of  
,stone to that of the ,table4           
,secondly1 ,these vapours must be       
extremely embarrassed in their road1  by
 the frequent shocks and counter shocks 
caused1 not only by the  mountains1 but 
also by the south and east winds which  
reign at places  circumjacent to the    
,cape3 ,i have already spoken of the two
 mountains  called ,hanging ,lip and    
,norvege1 situate on the points of      

,false ,bay2  when the particles which  
,i conceive are impelled on these       
mountains by  the easterly winds1 they  
are repelled from them by the south1    
which  carry them on the neighbouring   
mountains2 they are stopt there and     
appear like clouds1 which is often the  
case upon the mountains of  ,false ,bay4
 ,these clouds are frequently very thick
 above the land which  the ,dutch are in
 possession of1 on the mountains of     
,stenltenborch1 of  ,drakenstein1 and   
,stone1 but particularly on the         
mountains of the ,table1  and of the    
,devil4    ,in short1 what confirms me  
in my opinion is1 that constantly two or
  three days before the south-east wind 
blows on the ,lion's ,head1 small  black
 clouds are perceived above it2 these   
clouds1 according to my  opinion1 are   
composed of the particles or vapours    
which ,i have spoken  of4 ,if the       
north-west wind prevails when they      
arrive there1 they are  stopped in their
 course1 but are never driven to a great

 distance till  the south-east winds    
commence4    ,the first mariners who    
approached the ,cape of ,good ,hope were
 ignorant  of the effects of these      
clouds1 which appear to form in the air 
so  slowly1 and without any motion1 but 
which in a moment excite the most       
dreadful storms that precipitate the    
largest vessels to the bottom of  the   
sea4 ,in the country of ,natal1 a small 
cloud similar to the ,ox's  ,eye at the 
,cape1 produces the like effects4 ,in   
the sea between ,africa  and ,america1  
especially near the equator1 these kind 
of tempests very  often arise4 ,near the
 coast of ,guinea1 three or four of     
these storms  sometimes happen in a day2
 they are also caused and announced by  
small  black clouds2 the rest of the sky
 being generally serene1 and the sea    
perfectly calm4 ,the first blast which  
issues from these clouds is  furious1   
and would sink ships in open sea1 if    
they did not take the  precaution to    
furl the sails4 ,it is principally in   

,april1 ,may1 and  ,june these tempests 
are experienced on the coast of ,guinea1
 because no  regular wind blows there4  
,the stormy season on the coasts of     
,loango is  in ,january1 ,february1     
,march1 and ,april4 ,on the other side  
of ,africa1  at ,cape of ,gardafu1 these
 kinds of tempests rise in ,may1 and the
 clouds  which produce them are         
generally in the north like those of the
 ,cape of  ,good ,hope4    ,all these   
tempests are produced by winds which    
issue from a cloud1  and which have     
directions either from north to south1  
or north-east  to south-west1 c4 but    
there are other kinds which are still   
more  violent1 and in which the winds   
seem to proceed from every quarter at   
once2 they have a whirling motion1 which
 nothing can resist4 ,a calm  generally 
precedes these horrible tempests2 but in
 an instant the fury  of the winds      
raises the waves as high as the clouds4 
,there are parts  of the sea which      
cannot be approached1 from there being  

constantly  calms and hurricanes in     
them4 ,the ,spaniards have called these 
places  ,calms and ,tornados2 the most  
considerable are near ,guinea1 at two or
  three degrees north latitude2 they are
 #cjj or #cej leagues in length by  as  
many in breadth1 which forms a space of 
more than #ajj1jjj leagues  square4     
,when contrary winds come all at once in
 the same place1 as to a centre1  they  
produce whirlwinds by the contrariety of
 their motions2 but when  these winds   
meet with others in opposition1 which   
counterbalance their  action1 they then 
revolve in a considerable circle1 and   
occasion a dead  calm1 through which it 
is impossible for vessels to make their 
way4  ,these places of the sea are      
marked in ,senex's globes4 ,i am        
inclined  to think that the contrariety 
of the winds alone could not produce    
this effect if the direction of the     
coasts1 and the particular form of  the 
bottom of the sea1 did not contribute   
thereto4 ,i imagine that the  currents  

caused by the winds1 but directed by the
 form of the coasts  and the            
inequalities of the bottom of the sea1  
end at these places1 and  that their    
opposite and contrary direction1 in a   
plain surrounded on  all sides by a     
chain of mountains1 is the real cause of
 these tornados4    ,whirlpools appear  
to be no other than the eddies of the   
water formed  by the action of two or   
more opposite currents4 ,the ,euripus1  
so famous  for the death of ,aristotle1 
alternately absorbs and rejects the     
water  seven times in twenty-four hours4
 ,this whirlpool is near the ,grecian   
coast4 ,the ,charybdis1 which is near   
the straits of ,sicily1 rejects and     
absorbs the water thrice in twenty-four 
hours4 ,we are not quite certain  as to 
the number of alternative motions in    
these whirlpools4 ,doctor  ,placentia1  
in his treatise1 says1 that the ,euripus
 has irregular  motions for eighteen or 
nineteen days every month1 and regular  
ones  for the other eleven2 that in     

general it swells about one foot1 and   
seldom two3 he says likewise that       
authors do not agree as to the tides  of
 the ,euripus2 that some assert it is   
twice1 some seven1 others  fourteen     
times in twenty-four hours1 but that    
,loirius having examined  it            
attentively1 observed it rose regularly 
every six hours1 and with so  violent a 
motion1 that it was sufficient to turn  
the wheel of a mill4    ,the greatest   
known whirlpool is that in the ,norway  
sea1 which is  affirmed to be upwards of
 twenty leagues in circumference4 ,it   
absorbs  for six hours water1 whales1   
ships1 and every thing that comes near  
it1  and afterwards returns them in the 
same quantity of time as it drew  them  
in4    ,it is not necessary to suppose  
there are holes and abysses in the      
bottom of the sea which swallow up the  
waters continually2 to assign  a reason 
for whirlpools1 it is well known that   
when water has two  contrary directions1
 the combination of these motions       

produce a  whirling1 and seem to form a 
void place in the centre4 ,it is the    
same  with respect to whirlpools in the 
sea1 they are produced by two or  three 
contrary currents2 and as the flux and  
reflux1 which run every  six hours in   
contrary directions1 are the principal  
cause of currents1  it is not           
astonishing that whirlpools1 which      
result from them1 attract  and swallow  
up all that surrounds them1 and         
afterwards reject all they  have        
absorbed in the same portion of time4   
,whirlpools1 therefore1 are produced by 
opposite currents1 and likewise  by the 
meeting of contrary winds4 ,these       
whirlwinds are common in the  sea of    
,china and ,japan1 near the ,antilles1  
and in many other parts of  the sea1    
particularly near projecting lands and  
high coasts2 but they  are still more   
frequent upon land1 and their effects   
are sometimes  prodigious4 ,i have seen1
 says ,bellarmin1 an enormous ditch dug 
up  by the wind1 and the earth thereof  

carried to a distance2 so that the      
place from whence it had been taken     
appeared a frightful hole1 and the      
village upon which it was dropped was   
entirely buried with it4    ,in the     
history of the ,french ,academy1 and in 
the ,philosophical  ,transactions1 are  
the detail of the effects of many       
hurricanes1 which  appear inconceivable 
and scarcely credible1 if the facts were
 not  attested by a great number of     
intelligent testimonies4    ,it is the  
same with respect to water-spouts1 which
 mariners never see  without fear and   
amazement2 these are very frequent near 
certain coasts  of the ,mediterranean1  
especially when the sky is cloudy and   
the wind  blows at the same time from   
various coasts4 ,they are more common   
near  the coasts of ,laodicea1 ,grecgo  
and ,carmel1 than in other parts of the 
,mediterranean4 ,most of them are large 
cylinders of water which fall  from the 
clouds1 although it appears1 when we are
 at some distance1  that the water of   

the sea rises up to the clouds4,g    ,g 
,see ,shaw's ,travels1 vol4 #b4 p4 #ef4 
,but there are two kinds of             
water-spouts1 the first of which1       
alluded to  above1 is no other than a   
thick compressed cloud1 reduced to a    
small  space by contrary winds1 which1  
blowing at the same time from many      
corners1 give it a cylindric form1 and  
causes the water to fall by its  own    
weight4 ,the quantity of water is so    
great1 and the fall so sudden  and      
precipitate1 that if unfortunately one  
of these spouts breaks  on a vessel1 it 
shatters it to pieces and sinks it in an
 instant4  ,it is asserted1 and possibly
 with foundation1 that these spouts  may
 be broken and destroyed by the         
commotion which the firing of  cannons  
excites in the air2 which answers to the
 effect of dispersing  thunder-clouds by
 the ringing of bells4    ,the other    
kind of water-spout is called a typhon1 
which many authors  have confounded with
 the hurricane1 in speaking of the      

storms of the  ,chinese sea1 which is in
 fact subject to both4 ,the typhon does 
not  descend from the clouds1 but rises 
up from the sea with great violence4    
,by whirlwinds1 sands1 earth1 houses1   
trees1 and animals1 are raised  in the  
air1 and transported to different parts2
 but typhons1 on the  contrary1 remain  
in the same place1 and can only have    
subterraneous  fires for their origin2  
for the sea is then in the greatest     
agitation1  and the air so strongly     
filled with sulphurous exhalations1 that
 the  sky appears covered with a        
copper-coloured crust1 although there   
are no  clouds1 and the sun or stars may
 be seen through the vapour4 ,it is to  
these subterraneous fires the warmth of 
the sea of ,china in winter must  be    
attributed1 as these typhons are there  
very frequent4,h    ,h ,see ,acta ,eud4 
,lips4 ,supplementum1 vol4 #a4 p4 #dje4 
,thevenot1 in his voyage to the ,levant1
 says1 we saw water-spouts in  the      
,persian gulph1 between the islands     

,quesomo1 ,lareca1 and ,ormutz4 ,i      
think few people have considered        
water-spouts with so much attention as  
,i have done4 ,i shall mention my       
remarks with all possible simplicity1   
in order to render them plain and easy  
to be comprehended4    ,the first that  
we saw appeared on the northern coast1  
between us  and the island ,quesomo1    
about a gun-shot from the ship3 we      
directly  perceived the water boiled on 
the surface of the sea1 and was raised  
about a foot3 it was whitish1 and the   
top appeared like a thick black  smoke1 
so that it properly resembled some      
burning straw1 which only  smoked4 ,it  
made a noise like a torrent that runs   
with rapidity into a  deep valley4 ,this
 noise was mixed with another1 similar  
to the hissing  of serpents3 a little   
afterwards we perceived something like a
 dark  pipe1 which resembled smoke      
ascending towards the clouds1 turning   
round with great velocity3 this appeared
 about the thickness of my  finger1 and 

the same noise still continued4 ,after  
this it disappeared1  having remained   
somewhat less than a quarter of an hour4
 ,this over1 we  perceived another on   
the south side1 which began in the same 
manner  as the preceding3 directly after
 a third made its appearance on the     
west1 and then a fourth by its side4    
,the farthest of them was not  more than
 a musket-shot from us4 ,they all       
appeared like burning heaps  of straw1 a
 foot and a half or two feet high1 and  
were attended with  the same noise as   
the first4 ,we afterwards saw three     
pipes or canals  descending from the    
clouds to the water4 ,they were broad at
 the top  and lessened downwards1       
something in the shape of a trumpet1 or 
as  the paps of an animal1 drawn        
perpendicularly down by a heavy weight4 
,these canals appeared of a darkish     
white1 occasioned1 as ,i think1 by  the 
waters which were in them2 for          
apparently they were formed before  the 
water entered1 as when they were empty  

they were no longer to be  seen1 like as
 a clear glass tube placed at some      
distance before our  eyes1 is not       
perceptible if it is not filled with    
some coloured liquor4  ,these pipes were
 not strait but crooked in some places2 
they were not  even perpendicular1 but  
from the clouds1 where they were joined1
 to  the parts which drew in the water1 
they were very much bent2 and what  is  
more particular1 the cloud1 to which the
 second of the three was  fastened1     
having been driven by the wind1 this    
pipe followed it without  breaking or   
quitting the place where it drew in the 
water1 and passing  behind the first1   
they had for some time the form of ,st4 
,andrew's  cross4 ,at the beginning     
neither of them was more than an inch in
  thickness1 excepting just at the top1 
but afterwards the first of the  three  
increased considerably4 ,the two others 
scarcely remained longer  than that     
which we saw on the north side4 ,the    
second1 on the south  side1 remained    

about a quarter of an hour1 but the     
first on that side  remained longer1 and
 gave us some apprehensions4 ,at first  
it was not  bigger than my finger1      
afterwards it swelled as thick as my    
arm1 then  as my leg1 and at last as the
 trunk of a large tree1 which a man     
might  encompass with both his arms4 ,we
 distinctly perceived water through     
this transparent body1 which ascended in
 a serpentine manner4 ,sometimes  it    
diminished in size at the top1 and      
sometimes at the bottom1 then  it       
exactly resembled a tube with some fluid
 matter pressed with the  fingers1      
either above to make this liquor        
descend1 or at bottom to  cause it to   
ascend2 and ,i am persuaded that it was 
the violence of  the wind which caused  
these changes1 pressing the pipe in a   
similar  manner4 ,after this it         
diminished less than my arm1 then       
returned as  large as my thigh1 and then
 again became very small2 at last ,i saw
 the  water that was raised from the    

surface began to lower1 and the end of  
the pipe divided from it1 when1 by the  
change of light from a cloud1  it was   
lost to our sight2 ,i continued1        
however1 to observe whether  it         
returned1 because ,i had remarked that  
the pipe of the second had  appeared to 
be broken in the middle1 and directly   
after we saw it  whole4 ,this we found  
was occasioned by the light which hid   
the half  from us1 but the last we saw  
no more4    ,these water-spouts are very
 dangerous1 for if they fall on a vessel
  they entangle in the sails so much    
that sometimes they raise it up1  and   
afterwards let it fall with such        
violence as to sink it2 at least  if    
they do not lift the vessel up1 they    
tear all the sails1 or let the  water   
they contain fall on it1 and which often
 sinks it to the bottom4  ,there cannot 
be the least doubt but it is by similar 
accidents that  many ships1 of which we 
have heard no accounts1 have been lost1 
since  there are but few examples of    

those that we have known1 from          
certainty1  to have perished in this    
manner4    ,i suspect there are many    
optical illusions in the above account1 
but  ,i have recounted them as related1 
in order that we might compare  them    
with those of other travellers4 ,the    
following description is by  ,m4        
,gentil1 in his voyage round the world4 
,at eleven o'clock in the  morning1 the 
air being filled with clouds1 we        
perceived about our  vessel1 at a       
quarter of a mile distant1 six          
water-spouts1 which made  a noise       
similar to that of water flowing in     
subterraneous canals1 and  increased    
until it resembled the whistling which  
an impetuous wind  makes among the      
cordage of a ship4 ,we at first observed
 the water to  boil up about a foot and 
a half above the surface4 ,above this   
boiling  there appeared a mixed or      
rather a thick smoke1 which formed a    
kind of  canal1 that ascended to the    
clouds4 ,these canals inclined according

 as  the wind moved the clouds to which 
they were attached1 and in spite of  the
 wind's impulsion they not only adhered 
to them1 but even lengthened  and       
shortened themselves in proportion as   
the clouds rose higher or  lower in the 
atmosphere4    ,these phenomena         
terrified us greatly1 and our sailors1  
instead of  being bolder1 fomented their
 fears by the dismal tales they told    
each  other4 ,if these spouts1 said     
they1 fall on our vessel1 they will lift
  her up1 and then she will sink by the 
violence of her fall4 ,others  contended
 in a decisive tone1 that they would not
 raise the vessel  up1 but if they met  
it in their course1 being full of water1
 the ship  would break the communication
 they had with the sea1 and the whole   
body  of the water would fall           
perpendicularly on the deck of the      
vessel and  split her to pieces4    ,to 
prevent this misfortune the cannon was  
loaded1 the sailors  pretending the     
report of a cannon1 by agitating the    

air1 dissipated  these phenomena2 but we
 had no need of having recourse to this 
remedy1  for when they had run about ten
 minutes about the ship1 some at a      
quarter of a league1 others at a less   
distance1 we perceived the canals  to   
grow narrower by degrees1 till they got 
loose from the surface of  the sea and  
then dissipated4    ,it appears from the
 description given by these two         
travellers1 that  water-spouts are      
produced1 at least in part1 by the      
action of a fire or  smoke which rises  
from the bottom of the sea with great   
force1 and that  they are quite         
different from those produced by        
contrary winds4    ,the water-spouts1   
says ,mr4 ,shaw1 which ,i had an        
opportunity of seeing1  appeared as so  
many cylinders of water1 which fell from
 the clouds1  although by the reflection
 of the columns which descend1 or by the
  drops which detach themselves from the
 water they contain1 it sometimes       
seems1 especially when we are at some   

distance1 that the water is drawn  up   
from the sea4 ,to render a reason for   
this phenomena we may suppose  that the 
clouds being collected in one part by   
opposite winds1 they  force them by     
pressing them with violence to condense 
and descend in  this manner4    ,there  
still remain many facts to be acquired  
before we can give a  complete          
explanation of these phenomena2 it      
appears to me1 that if  there are under 
the waters of the sea1 at particular    
places1 soils  mixed with sulphur1      
bitumen1 and minerals1 these matters may
 be  inflamed and produce a great       
quantity of air1 which being newly      
generated and prodigiously rarefied1    
ascends with rapidity1 and may  raise   
these water-spouts from the sea to the  
sky2 so likewise if1 by  inflammation1  
the sulphurous matters which a cloud    
contains1 a current  of air is formed1  
which descends perpendicularly from the 
clouds  towards the sea1 all its water  
may follow the current of air1 and form 

a water-spout which will fall from the  
sky upon the sea2 but it must  be       
allowed that the explanation of this    
kind of water-spout1 no more  than that 
we have given of those produced by      
contrary winds1 is not  satisfactory2   
and it might be asked why these kinds of
 water-spouts1  which fall              
perpendicularly from the clouds1 are not
 as often seen on  the land as on the   
sea8    ,the ,history of the ,academy1  
anno #agbg1 mentions a land water-spout 
which appeared at ,capestan1 near       
,beziers2 it descended from a cloud     
like a black pillar1 which diminished by
 degrees1 and at length  terminated in a
 point upon the surface of the earth4   
,it obeyed the wind  which blew from    
west to south-west4 ,it was accompanied 
with a very  thick smoke1 and made a    
similar noise to that of a troubled sea4
 ,it  tore up and carried away trees to 
the distance of forty or fifty feet1    
marking its way by a large track1 on    
which three carriages might have  passed

 each other4 ,there appeared another    
pillar of the same kind1 but  which soon
 joined the first2 and after the whole  
had disappeared1 a  great quantity of   
hail fell on the earth4    ,this kind of
 water-spout appears to be still        
different from the other  two3 it is not
 mentioned to have contained water2 and 
it seems1 by what  ,i have related1 and 
by the explanation given thereof by ,m4 
,andoque1  to the academy1 that this    
water-spout was only a whirlwind1       
rendered  visible by the dust and       
condensed vapours which it contained4   
,in the same history1 anno #agda1 a     
water-spout is spoken of1 seen on the   
lake of ,geneva2 the upper part was     
inclined to a very black cloud1 and  the
 lower1 which was narrower1 terminated a
 little above the water4  ,this         
phenomenon remained only a few minutes1 
and1 at the moment it was  dissipated1 a
 thick vapour was perceived at the part 
where it first  appeared2 the waters of 
the lake boiled and seemed to make an   

effort  to rise up4 ,the air was very   
calm during the whole time2 and when it 
disappeared neither wind nor rain       
ensued4 ,after all we are acquainted    
with1 says the historian of the academy1
 concerning water-spouts1 is  not this  
another proof that they are not formed  
by the conflict of the  winds1 but      
almost always produced by volcanos or   
subterraneous vapours1  from which we   
know the bottom of the sea is not       
exempt8 ,whirlwinds  and hurricanes1    
which we commonly thought to be the     
cause of these  appearances1 may        
possibly be only the effect1 or an      
accidental event  thereof4              
,,article ,,xvi4    ,,of ,,volcanos     
,,and ,,earthquakes4      ,the burning  
mountains1 called volcanos1 contain in  
their bowels1  sulphur1 bitumen1 and    
other matters of an inflammable nature1 
the  effects of which are more violent  
than that of gunpowder1 or even         
thunder1 and have from the earliest ages
 terrified mankind1 and  desolated the  

country4 ,a volcano is an immense       
cannon1 whose orifice is  often more    
than half a league3 from this wide mouth
 are vomited forth  torrents of smoke   
and flames1 rivers of bitumen1 sulphur1 
and melted  metals1 clouds of cinders   
and stones1 and sometimes it ejects     
enormous  rocks to many leagues         
distance1 which human powers united     
could not  move2 the conflagration is so
 terrible1 and the quantity of burnt1   
melted1 calcined1 and vitrified matters 
which the mountain throws  out1 is so   
great1 that they destroy cities and     
forests1 cover fields  an hundred and   
two hundred feet in thickness1 and      
sometimes form hills  and mountains1    
which are only heaps of these matters   
piled up together4  ,the action of this 
fire1 and the force of its explosion1 is
 so violent1  that it produces by its   
re-action1 succussions which shake the  
earth1  agitate the sea1 overthrow      
mountains1 and destroy the most solid   
towers  and edifices1 even to very      

considerable distances4    ,these       
effects1 although natural1 have been    
looked upon as prodigies2  and although 
we see in miniature1 by fire1 effects   
nearly similar to  those of volcanos1   
yet there is something in grandeur1 of  
whatever  nature it may be1 that        
invariably strikes the imagination and  
influences the mind1 and therefore ,i am
 not surprised that some authors  have  
taken them for the vents of a central   
fire1 and ignorant people  for the      
mouths of ,hell4 ,astonishment produces 
fear1 and fear is the  mother of        
superstition4 ,the natives of ,iceland  
imagine the roarings of  the volcano are
 the cries of the damned1 and its       
eruptions the effects  of the rage of   
devils1 and the despair of the wretched4
    ,all its effects1 however1 arise    
from fire and smoke3 veins of sulphur1  
bitumen1 and other inflammable matters1 
are found in the bowels of  mountains1  
as well as minerals and pyrites1 which  
ferment when exposed  to air or         

humidity1 and cause explosions          
proportionate to the quantity  of       
inflamed matters4 ,this is the just idea
 of a volcano1 and it is easy  for a    
philosopher to imitate the action of    
these subterranean fires2  for by mixing
 together a quantity of brimstone and   
iron filings1 and  burying them in the  
earth to a certain depth1 a small       
volcano may be  produced1 whose effects 
will be exactly similar2 for this       
mixture  inflames by fermentation1      
throws off the earth and stones with    
which it  is covered1 and smokes1       
flames1 and explodes like a real        
volcano4    ,in ,europe are three famous
 volcanos1 ,mount tna1 in ,sicily1      
,mount  ,hecla1 in ,iceland1 and ,mount 
,vesuvius1 near ,naples1 in ,italy4     
,mount  tna has burnt from time         
immemorial1 its eruptions are very      
violent1  and the quantity of matter it 
throws out is so great that after       
digging  #fh feet deep1 marble          
pavements1 and the vestiges of an       

ancient town  have been found buried    
under this thickness of matter1 in the  
same  manner as the city of ,herculaneum
 has been covered by the matter  thrown 
out from ,vesuvius4 ,new mouths in tna  
were opened in #afej1  #affi1 and at    
other times4 ,we see the flame and smoke
 of this volcano  from ,malta1 about #fj
 leagues distance2 it smokes            
continually1 and  there are times when  
it vomits flames1 stones1 and matters of
 every  kind with impetuosity4 ,in      
#aecg1 there was an eruption of this    
volcano1  which caused an earthquake in 
,sicily that continued for #ab days1 and
  which overthrew a number of houses and
 public structures2 it ceased  by the   
opening of a new mouth1 the lava from   
which burnt every thing  within five    
leagues of the mountain4 ,the cinders   
thrown out by the  volcano were so      
abundant1 and ejected with so much      
force1 that they  were driven as far as 
,italy2 and vessels at some distance    
from ,sicily  were incommoded by them4  

,farelli says the foot of this mountain 
is #ajj  leagues in circumference4      
,this volcano has now two principal     
mouths1 one narrower than the other2    
smoke comes continually from them1 but  
flames never issue but during  the time 
of eruptions2 it is pretended that large
 stones have been  thrown out by them to
 the distance of #fj1jjj feet4    ,in   
#afhc a violent eruption caused a       
terrible earthquake in ,sicily2 it      
entirely destroyed the town of ,catanea1
 and killed more than #fj1jjj  persons  
in that town1 besides those which were  
destroyed in the  neighbouring towns and
 villages4    ,hecla throws out its     
fires through the ice and snow of a     
frozen land2  its eruptions are         
nevertheless as violent as those of tna1
 and other  volcanos of southern        
countries4 ,it throws out cinders1 lava1
 pumice  stones1 and sometimes boiling  
water3 it is not inhabitable within  six
 leagues of this volcano1 and the whole 
island of ,iceland is very  abundant in 

sulphur4 ,the history of the violent    
eruptions of ,hecla are  recorded by    
,dithmar ,bleffken4    ,mount ,vesuvius1
 according to the historians1 did not   
begin burning till  the seventh         
,consulate of ,titus ,vespasian and     
,falvius ,domitian2 the top  being      
opened1 it at first threw out stones and
 rocks1 afterwards fire  and lava1 which
 burnt two neighbouring towns1 and      
emitted such thick  smoke that it       
obscured the light of the sun4 ,pliny   
the elder1 desirous  of examining this  
conflagration nearer1 was suffocated by 
the smoke4,i    ,i ,see the ,epistle of 
,pliny1 jun4 to ,tacitus4    ,dion      
,cassius relates1 that this eruption was
 so violent1 that cinders  and          
sulphurous smoke were driven as far as  
,rome1 and even beyond the              
,mediterranean into ,africa4 ,heraclea  
was one of the two towns burned  by this
 first conflagration of ,vesuvius1      
which1 in these latter times  has been  
discovered at more than #fj feet deep1  

the surface above which  was become1 by 
length of time1 arable land and fit for 
culture4 ,the  relation of the discovery
 of ,heraclea is in the hands of the    
public1  and we can only wish that some 
person1 versed in ,natural ,history1    
would  examine the different matters    
which compose this soil of #fj feet1    
attending to their disposition and      
situation1 the alterations they have    
produced or suffered1 the direction they
 have taken1 and the hardness  they have
 acquired4    ,there is an appearance   
that ,naples is situate on a hollow     
ground1  filled with burning materials1 
for ,vesuvius and ,solfatera seem to    
have  interior communications4 ,when    
,vesuvius casts out lava ,solfatera     
emits  flames1 and when the one ceases  
the other is extinguished4 ,the city of 
,naples is situate nearly between them4 
,one of the last and most violent       
eruptions of ,mount ,vesuvius was in the
  year #agcg4;,j ,the mountain vomited1 
by several mouths1 large torrents  of   

burning metallic matters1 which         
dispersed themselves over the  country1 
and flowed into the sea4 ,mons4         
,montealegre1 who communicated  this    
relation to the ,academy of ,sciences1  
observed1 with horror1 one of  these    
rivers of fire1 whose length1 from the  
mountain to the sea1 was  about seven   
miles1 its breadth about #fj feet1 its  
depth #be or #cj palms1  and in bottoms 
or vallies #abj3 the matter which flowed
 was like the  scum which issues from   
the furnace of a forge1 c4,k    ,j ,it  
should be remembered1 as noticed by ,mr4
 ,smellie1 that the  original of this   
work was published by our author in     
#agdi1 since when  ,vesuvius has        
undergone several eruptions4    ,k ,see 
the ,hist4 ,acad4 an4 #agcg4    ,in     
,asia1 particularly in the islands of   
the ,indian ocean1 there are  many      
volcanos2 one of the most famous is     
,mount ,albours1 near ,mount  ,taurus1  
eight leagues from ,herat2 its summit   
continually smokes1 and  it frequently  

throws out flames and burning matter in 
such quantities  that the surrounding   
country is covered with cinders4 ,in the
 island of  ,ternate there is a volcano 
which throws out matter like            
pumice-stones4  ,some travellers assert 
that this volcano is most furious at the
 time of  the equinoxes1 because certain
 winds then reign there1 which inflame  
the matter that feeds1 and has fed this 
fire for a number of years4,l    ,l ,see
 ,argensola's ,travels1 vol4 #a1 page   
#ba4    ,the island of ,ternate is but  
seven leagues round1 and is only the    
summit of a mountain2 it gradually      
ascends from the shore to the middle  of
 the island1 where the volcano rises to 
a considerable height1 to  the top of   
which it is very difficult to attain4   
,many rills of sweet  water descend     
along the ridge of this mountain1 and   
when the air is  calm1 and the season   
mild1 this burning gulph is in less     
agitation  than during storms and high  
winds4,m ,this confirms what ,i have    

said  in a former article1 and seems to 
prove that the fire of volcanos does    
not proceed from any considerable depth1
 but from the top1 or at least  not far 
distant from the summit of the mountain2
 for if it was not so1  the high winds  
could not increase their combustion4    
,there are other  volcanos in the       
,malaccas4 ,in one of the ,mauritius    
islands1 #gj leagues  from the          
,malaccas1 there is a volcano1 whose    
effects are as violent as  those of     
,mount ,ternate4 ,sorca island1 one of  
the ,malaccas1 was formerly  inhabited4 
,in the middle of this island there is a
 lofty mountain1 with  a volcano at the 
top4 ,in #afic this volcano vomited     
bitumen and inflamed  matters in such a 
great quantity as to form a burning     
lake1 and which  covered the whole      
island4,n    ,m ,see the ,travels of    
,schuten4    ,n ,see ,phil4 ,trans4 ab4 
vol4 #aa page #cia4    ,at ,japan1 and  
in the adjacent islands1 there are      
several volcanos1  which emit flames    

during the night and smoke in the day4  
,at the  ,philippine islands there are  
also burning mountains4 ,one of the most
  famous volcanos of the islands in the 
,indian ocean1 and the most  recent1 is 
that near the town of ,panarucan1 in the
 island of ,java2 it  opened in #aehf1  
and at the first eruption1 it threw out 
an enormous  quantity of sulphur1       
bitumen1 and stones4 ,the same year     
,mount ,gounapi1  in the island of      
,banda1 which continued only seventeen  
years1 opened  and ejected1 with a      
frightful noise1 rocks and matters of   
every kind4  ,there are also some other 
volcanos in ,india1 as at ,sumatra1 and 
in the  north of ,asia1 but those are   
not considerable4    ,in ,africa1 there 
is a mountain1 or rather a cavern1      
called  ,beniguazeval1 near ,fez1 which 
always emits smoke1 and sometimes       
flames4  ,one of the islands of ,cape de
 ,verd1 called the ,fuogo1 is only a    
large  mountain which burns continually2
 this volcano throws out cinders  and   

stones2 and the ,portuguese1 who have   
attempted several times to  erect       
habitations in this island1 have been   
constrained to abandon the  project     
through dread of the volcano4 ,the ,peak
 of ,teneriffe1 considered  as one of   
the highest mountains of the earth1     
throws out fire1 cinders1  and large    
stones2 from its top rivulets of melted 
sulphur flow across  the snow1 where it 
forms veins that are distinguishable at 
a great  distance4    ,in ,america there
 are a great number of volcanos1        
particularly in the  mountains of ,peru 
and ,mexico2 that of ,arequipa is one of
 the most  famous2 it often causes      
earthquakes1 which are more common in   
,peru  than in any other country in the 
world4 ,the volcano of ,carrappa and    
that of ,malahallo are1 according to the
 report of travellers1 the most         
considerable1 next to that of ,arequipa2
 but there are many others in  these    
parts of which we have no exact         
knowledge4 ,m4 ,bouguer1 in his  voyage 

to ,peru1 published in the ,memoirs of  
the ,academy of the year  #agdd1        
mentions two volcanos1 called ,cotopaxi 
and ,pichincha2 the first  at some      
distance from1 the other near the town  
of ,quito2 he was witness  of a         
conflagration of ,botopaxi in #agdb1 and
 of the orifice which was  made in that 
mountain2 this eruption did no other    
damage than melting  the snow and       
producing such torrents of water1 that  
in less than three  hours inundated a   
tract of country #ah leagues in extent1 
and overthrew  all they met with in     
their way4    ,at ,mexico the most      
considerable volcanos are               
,popochampeche1 and the  ,popoatepec2 it
 was near this last that ,cortes passed 
in his voyage  to ,mexico2 some of the  
,spaniards ascended to the top1 where   
they saw  the mouth1 which was about    
half a league in circumference4         
,sulphurous  mountains are also met with
 at ,guadaloupe1 ,tercera1 and other    
islands  of the ,azores2 and1 if we were

 to consider as volcanos all those      
mountains which smoke1 or emit flames1  
we might reckon more than sixty2  we    
have only spoken of those formidable    
volcanos1 near which no person  dares to
 inhabit4    ,these volcanos which are  
in such great numbers in the            
,cordeliers1 as ,i  have formerly said1 
cause almost continual earthquakes1     
which prevent  the natives from building
 with stone above one story high1 and to
  construct the upper stories of their  
houses with reeds and light wood4  ,in  
these mountains are also many precipices
 and large vents1 the sides  of which   
are black and burnt1 as in the precipice
 of ,mount ,ararat1 in  ,armenia1 which 
is called the ,abyss2 these abysses are 
the mouths of  extinguished volcanos4   
,there was lately an earthquake at      
,lima1 the effects of which were        
dreadful4 ,the town of ,lima and ,port  
,callao were almost entirely  swallowed 
up2 but the evil was still greater at   
,callao4 ,the sea rose  and covered     

every building in that town1 drowned all
 the inhabitants1  and left only one    
single tower remaining4 ,of twenty-five 
ships that  were in this port1 four were
 carried a league upon land1 and the    
rest  were swallowed up by the sea4 ,at 
,lima1 which was a large town1 there    
remains only twenty-seven houses        
standing2 a great number of persons     
were buried in the ruins1 particularly  
monks and religious persons1 as  their  
buildings were higher and constructed of
 more solid materials  than the other   
houses4 ,this misfortune happened at    
night1 in ,october  #agdf2 the shock    
remained fifteen minutes4    ,there was 
formerly near the port of ,pisca1 in    
,peru1 a famous city1  situate on the   
sea shore1 which was almost entirely    
destroyed by an  earthquake that        
happened the #aith of ,october #afhb1   
for the sea having  extended beyond its 
common bounds1 swallowed up this        
unfortunate place  with every person    
that was in it4    ,if we consult       

historians and travellers1 we shall find
 relations of  many earthquakes and     
eruptions of volcanos1 whose effects    
have been  as terrible as those we have 
just mentioned4 ,pesidonius1 whom       
,strabo  quotes in his first book1      
relates1 that a city in ,phoenicia1 near
  ,sidon1 was swallowed up by an        
earthquake1 with the neighbouring       
territory1 and even two thirds of       
,sidon2 this effect was not so sudden   
but that many of the inhabitants had    
time to avoid it by flight4  ,this shock
 extended throughout all ,syria1 and as 
far as the ,cyclade  islands1 and into  
,euboea1 where the fountains of         
,arethusa suddenly  stopped1 and did not
 reappear for many days after1 and then 
by many  new springs remote from the old
 ones2 that this earthquake did not     
cease from shaking the island1 sometimes
 in one part and sometimes  in another1 
until the earth opened in the valley of 
,lepanta1 and  ejected a great quantity 
of lava and other inflamed matters4     

,pliny1  in his first book1 chap4 #hd1  
relates1 that in the reign of ,tiberius 
an  earthquake happened which overthrew 
twelve towns in ,asia3 and in his       
second book he mentions a prodigy caused
 by an earthquake4 ,st4 ,augustin       
records1 that by a great earthquake     
there were towns overthrown in  ,lybia4 
,in the time of ,trajan1 the town of    
,antioch1 and a great part of  the      
adjacent country were swallowed up by an
 earthquake2 and in the  time of        
,justinian1 in #ebh1 it was a second    
time destroyed by the same  cause1 with 
upwards of #dj1jjj of its inhabitants4  
,sixty years after1  in the time of ,st4
 ,gregory1 it felt the effects of a     
third earthquake1  when #fj1jjj of its  
inhabitants perished4 ,in the time of   
,saladin1 in  #aahb1 most of the towns  
of ,syria and ,judea were destroyed by  
the same  calamity4 ,in ,calabria and   
,apulia1 there have been more           
earthquakes  than in any other part of  
,europe4 ,in the time of ,pope ,pius    

,,ii4 all the  churches and palaces of  
,naples were overthrown1 and above      
#cj1jjj of  its inhabitants killed2 the 
remainder were obliged to live in tents 
till houses were built4 ,in #afbi1 there
 were earthquakes in ,apulia1  which    
destroyed #gjjj persons1 and in #afch1  
the town of ,st4 ,euphemia  was         
swallowed up1 and there remains only a  
stinking lake in its place4  ,ragusa and
 ,smyrna1 at the same time1 were also   
almost destroyed4 ,there  was an        
earthquake in #afib1 which extended into
 ,england1 ,holland1  ,flanders1        
,germany1 and ,france2 it was chiefly   
felt on the sea coasts  and near large  
rivers2 it shook at least #bfjj square  
leagues2 it lasted  only two minutes1   
and the motion was more considerable on 
mountains  than in vallies4,o ,on the   
#ajth of ,july1 #afhh1 there was an     
earthquake  at ,smyrna1 which began by a
 motion from west to east2 the castle   
was  at first overthrown1 its four walls
 being divided and sunk six feet in  the

 sea2 this castle stood upon an isthmus1
 but is at present a real  island1 about
 #ajj paces distant from the land4 ,the 
walls from east to  west are fallen     
down1 those from north to south are yet 
standing2 the  city1 which is ten miles 
from the castle1 was destroyed shortly  
after2  in many places the earth opened1
 and subterraneous noises were heard2   
five or six shocks were felt as night   
came on1 the last continued  only half a
 minute2 the ships in the roads were    
shaken2 the ground of  the town was     
lowered about two feet2 not above a     
quarter of the town  withstood the      
shock1 and those principally the houses 
which stood on  rocks2 from #ae to      
#bj1jjj persons are computed to have    
been buried under  the ruins4,p ,in     
#afie1 an earthquake was felt at        
,bologna1 in ,italy1 and  it was        
remarked as a particular circumstance1  
that the water was much  troubled a day 
before4,q,r    ,o ,see ,ray's           
,discourses1 page #bgb4    ,p ,see the  

,hist4 of the ,acad4 des ,sciences1 anno
 #afhh4    ,q ,ibid4 anno #afif4    ,r  
,see the ,voyages of ,mandelso4    ,at  
,tercera there happened an earthquake on
 the #dth of ,may1 #afad1 which         
overthrew in the town of ,angra eleven  
churches and nine chapels1  besides     
private houses2 and in the town of      
,praya it was so terrible1  that        
scarcely an house was left standing4 ,on
 the #afth of ,june #afbh1  there was an
 earthquake in the island of ,st4       
,michael1 the effects of  which was so  
great1 that in a place where the sea was
 more than #aej  fathoms deep an island 
was thrown up more than a league and a  
half  long1 and upwards of #fj fathoms  
high4 ,another happened in #afia1 in the
  island of ,st4 ,michael1 which began  
the #fth of ,july1 and lasted till the  
#abth of the following month3 ,tercera  
and ,fayal were agitated the next       
morning with so much violence1 that they
 appeared to move2 but these  frightful 
shocks returned there only four times1  

whereas at ,st4 ,michael  they did not  
cease a moment for several days4 ,the   
islanders quitted  their houses1 which  
they saw fall before their eyes1 and    
remained all  the time in the fields    
exposed to the injuries of the weather4 
,the  whole town of ,villa ,franca was  
overthrown to its very foundation1 and  
most of the inhabitants buried under its
 ruins4 ,in many parts the  plains rose 
into hills1 and in others1 mountains    
were flattened into  vallies4 ,a spring 
of water issued from the earth1 which   
flowed for four  days1 and then ceased  
all on a sudden4 ,the air and sea1 still
 more  agitated1 resounded with a noise 
which might have been taken for the     
roaring of a number of wild animals4    
,many persons died with the fright2  the
 ships in the harbour suffered dangerous
 shocks1 and those which  were at       
anchor1 or under sail at #bj leagues    
distant from the islands1  received     
great damage4 ,earthquakes are frequent 
in the ,azores1 and  about twenty years 

before a mountain in ,st4 ,michael was  
overturned by  one of them4,s    ,s     
,hist4 of ,voyages4    ,in ,manilla1 in 
the month of ,september1 #afbg1 an      
earthquake levelled one  of the two     
mountains called ,carvallos1 in the     
province of ,cagayon2 in  #afde1 one    
third of the town was destroyed by a    
like accident1 and #cjj  persons        
perished4 ,the succeeding year it       
experienced another2 and the  ancient   
,indians say they were more terrible    
formerly1 which was the  reason they    
build their houses only of wood2 a      
custom still continued1  and which the  
,spaniards follow4,t    ,t ,see le      
,voyage de ,gemelli ,careri1 page #abj4 
,the quantity of volcanos in this island
 confirms that assertion2  because at   
certain times they vomit forth flames1  
shake the earth1 and  perform all the   
effects ,pliny attributes to those of   
,vesuvius2 that  is1 they change the    
beds of rivers1 drive back the adjacent 
sea1 fill  with cinders the neighbouring

 plains1 and throw out stones to great  
distances1 with reports louder than     
those of cannons4    ,in #afdf1 a       
mountain in the island of ,machian split
 by an earthquake1  with a dreadful     
noise2 from this opening issued a number
 of flames1  which destroyed several    
plantations with the inhabitants and all
 that  was therein4 ,in the year #afhe1 
this prodigious crack was to be seen1   
and probably is still apparent2 it is   
called the path of ,machian1  because it
 descends from the top to the bottom1   
like a road hollowed  out1 but which at 
a distance appears like a path4,u    ,u 
,see the ,hist4 of the ,conquest of the 
,malaccas1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cah4    ,the    
history of the ,french ,academy mentions
 in the following terms1 the            
earthquakes that took place in #agjb and
 #agjc4 ,the earthquakes began in       
,italy in ,october #agjb1 and continued1
 till ,july #agjc2 the country which    
suffered the most by them1 and where    
they began1 is the town of ,norcia1     

with its dependencies under the         
ecclesiastical government1 and the      
province of ,abruzzo1 which are situated
 at the foot of the ,apennines on  the  
south side4    ,they were often         
accompanied with terrible noises in the 
air1 which  also were heard without any 
dreadful effects1 when the sky was      
serene4  ,the earthquake which happened 
on the #b;d of ,february #agjc1 was the 
most  violent2 it was accompanied1 at   
least at ,rome1 with a great serenity   
of sky and calmness in the air4 ,it     
lasted at ,rome half a minute1 and  at  
,aquila the capital of ,abruzzo three   
hours4 ,it destroyed the whole  town of 
,aquila1 buried #ejjj persons under the 
ruins1 and made great  havock in the    
environs4 ,the vibration of the earth1  
according to the  observations made by  
the lamps in the churches1 was from     
south to north4    ,it opened two places
 from whence issued a great quantity of 
stones1  which entirely covered it and  
rendered it barren2 after the stones    

they  threw out water above the height  
of the trees2 this lasted half an  hour1
 and inundated the adjacent fields4 ,the
 water was whitish1 like  soap suds1 and
 had not any remarkable taste4    ,a    
mountain near ,sigillo1 a city          
twenty-two miles distant from ,aquila1  
had on its summit a very large plain    
surrounded with rocks like a wall4  ,the
 earthquake of the #b;d of ,february1   
changed this plain into a gulph  of     
unequal breadth1 whose greatest diameter
 is twenty-five fathoms and  the least  
twenty2 the depth of it has not been    
discovered1 although a  line #cjj       
fathoms has been let down in it4 ,at the
 time this opening was  made1 flames    
were seen to issue out1 and afterwards a
 great smoke which  lasted three days   
with some interruptions4    ,at ,genoa  
on the #ast and #b;d of ,july #agjc1    
there were two slight  earthquakes1 the 
last was felt only by the people on the 
pier3 at the  same time the sea in the  
port sunk six feet1 and remained so a   

quarter  of an hour4    ,the sulphurous 
water in the road from ,rome to ,tivoli 
it diminished two  feet and a half1 both
 in the bason and in the canal4 ,in many
 places  of the plain1 called ,testine1 
the springs and rivulets1 which formed  
morasses1 are all dried up4 ,the waters 
of the lake called l',enfer is  also    
lowered three feet4 ,in place of the    
ancient springs new ones have  appeared 
at above a league distance1 so that     
possibly they are the same  waters which
 have changed direction,v4    ,v ,anno  
#agjd1 page #aj4    ,the same earthquake
 which1 in #aech1 formed ,monti di      
,cinere1 near  ,pozzoli1 filled lake    
,lucrin with stones1 earth and cinders1 
so that  this lake is now a marshy      
ground4,w    ,w ,see ,ray's ,discourses1
 page #ab4    ,there are earthquakes    
also felt at some distance at sea1 says 
,mr4  ,shaw2 in #aggd1 being on board   
the ,gazella1 an ,algerine vessel1      
mounting  #ej guns1 three violent shocks
 were felt one after the other1 as if   

every time a weight of #bj or #cj tons  
had been thrown on the ballast4  ,this  
happened on a part of the ,mediterranean
 that was more than #bjj  fathom deep4  
,he relates also1 that others had felt  
earthquakes much  more considerable in  
other parts1 and one among the rest at  
#dj leagues  west from ,lisbon4,x    ,x 
,see ,shaw's ,travels4    ,schouten1    
speaking of an earthquake in the        
,malacca islands1 says1  that the       
mountains were shaken1 and the vessels  
at anchor in #cj or #dj  fathoms water  
were shook1 as if they had struck       
against rocks or banks4  ,experience1   
continues he1 teaches us every day that 
the same happens  in the open sea1 where
 no bottom is to be met with1 and that  
ships are  tossed to and fro by         
earthquakes1 even where the sea is      
tranquil4    ,gentil1 in his voyage     
round the world1 speaks of earthquakes  
in  the following terms3 ,i have1 says  
he1 made some remarks on these          
earthquakes2 first1 that half an hour   

before the earth is agitated  every     
animal is struck with fear2 horses      
snort1 break their fastenings1  and fly 
from the stable2 dogs bark2 birds1 as if
 stupified1 fly into  houses for safety2
 and rats and mice quit their holes4    
,secondly1 that  vessels at anchor are  
so violently agitated1 that every part  
of them  seems as if going to pieces1   
the cannons force themselves loose1 and 
the masts break in several places4      
,these facts ,i should scarcely have    
given credit to if many unanimous       
testimonies had not convinced me4  ,i   
know the bottom of the sea is a         
continuation of the land1 and that  if  
one is agitated it will communicate to  
the other2 but ,i could not  conceive   
how every part of a vessel1 floating in 
a fluid1 should be  affected in the same
 manner as if she was on the earth3 it  
appeared to  me that her motion should  
have been such as she experiences in a  
storm2  besides1 in the circumstance    
which ,i speak of1 the surface of the   

sea  was smooth1 and there was no wind4 
,thirdly1 that if the cavern of the     
earth1 where this subterraneous fire is 
contained1 has a direction  from north  
to south1 and if the buildings of an    
adjacent town are in a  parallel line   
with it1 all the houses are overthrown1 
whereas if this  vein or cavern executes
 its effects by the breadth of the town1
 the  devastation of the earthquake1 is 
much less considerable4,y    ,y ,see    
,gentil's ,voyages1 vol4 ,i4 page #agb1 
c4    ,in countries subject to          
earthquakes1 when a new volcano breaks  
out  earthquakes cease1 and are only    
felt in the violent eruptions of the    
volcano1 as is observed in the island of
 ,st4 ,christopher4,z    ,z ,see        
,abridgement of ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4     
,,xi4 page #cjb4    ,the enormous       
ravages produced by earthquakes have    
made some naturalists  think that       
mountains and other inequalities of the 
surface of the  globe were only the     
effects of subterraneous fires1 and that

 all the  irregularities must be        
attributed to the violent shocks which  
they have  produced4 ,this1 for example1
 is the opinion of ,mr4 ,ray2 he        
imagines  that all mountains have been  
formed by earthquakes1 or the explosion 
of volcanos1 as ,monti di ,cinere1 the  
new island near ,santorini1 c4  but he  
has not considered that the slight      
elevations formed by the  eruption of a 
volcano1 or by the action of an         
earthquake1 are not  internally composed
 of horizontal strata1 as all other     
mountains are2  for by digging in the   
,monti di ,cinere we meet with calcined 
stones1  cinders1 burnt earths1 metallic
 dross1 pumice-stones1 c4 all mixed  and
 confounded like a heap4 ,besides1 if   
earthquakes and subterraneous  fires had
 produced the great mountains of the    
earth1 as the ,cordeliers1  ,mount      
,taurus1 the ,alps1 c4 the prodigious   
force necessary to raise  these enormous
 masses might1 at the same time1 have   
destroyed a great  part of the surface  

of the globe2 and earthquakes1 requisite
 to produce  such effects1 must have    
been of inconceivable violence1 since   
the most  famous of which history makes 
mention have not had sufficient power to
  form a single mountain2 for example1  
in the time of ,valentian ,i4 an        
earthquake happened1 which was felt     
throughout all the known world2,,aa  and
 yet not a mountain was thrown up by it4
    ,,aa ,as ,ammianus ,marcellinus     
relates1 lib4 #bf4 cap4 #ad4    ,it is  
nevertheless certain1 that although we  
might be able to find an  earthquake    
sufficiently powerful to throw up the   
highest mountains1 it  would not be     
sufficient to disorder the rest of the  
globe4    ,for supposing that the chain 
of the highest mountains which cross    
,south ,america from the ,magellanic    
lands to ,new ,grenada1 and the ,gulph  
of ,darien1 had been produced by an     
earthquake1 and then let us see by      
calculations the effect of this         
explosion4 ,this chain of mountains is  

near #agjj leagues in length1 and       
commonly #dj in breadth1 comprehending  
the ,sieras1 which are not so lofty as  
the ,andes4 ,the surface therefore  is  
#fh1jjj square leagues2 ,i suppose the  
thickness of the matter  displaced by   
the earthquake to be about one league1  
that is1 the  height of these mountains 
taken from the top to the caverns1 which
  according to this hypothesis must     
support them1 is one league1 then ,i    
say1 the power of an explosion must have
 raised a quantity of earth  equal to   
#fh1jjj cubical leagues to a league in  
height4 ,now the action  being equal to 
the re-action1 this explosion must have 
communicated  the same motion to the    
rest of the globe4 ,the whole globe     
consists of  #ab1caj1ebc1hja cubical    
leagues1 from which subtracting #fh1jjj1
 there  remains #ab1caj1dee1hja cubical 
leagues1 the quantity of which motion   
will be equal to that of #fh1jjj cubical
 leagues raised one league2 from  whence
 we perceive that the force which will  

have been great enough to  elevate      
#fh1jjj cubical leagues would not have  
displaced the whole globe  a single     
inch4    ,there would therefore be no   
absolute impossibility in the           
supposition  that mountains have been   
raised by earthquakes1 if their internal
  composition as well as their external 
form were not evident proofs of  their  
being the work of the sea4 ,their       
internal parts are composed  of regular 
and parallel strata1 intermingled with  
shells1 and  their external consists of 
a figure whose angles are every where   
correspondent3 is it credible then that 
this uniform composition and  regular   
form should have been produced by       
irregular shocks and sudden  explosions8
    ,but as this opinion has prevailed  
among some philosophers1 and as the     
nature and effects of earthquakes are   
not well understood1 it may  possibly be
 pertinent to hazard a few ideas with a 
view of explaining  those intricate     
subjects4    ,the earth has undergone   

great changes on its surface2 we find at
  considerable depths1 holes1 caverns1  
subterraneous rivulets1 and  void       
places1 which sometimes communicate by  
chinks1 c4 ,there are  two kinds of     
caverns2 the first are those produced by
 the action of  subterraneous fires and 
volcanos2 the action of this fire       
uplifts1  burns1 and throws out to a    
distance the matters that are above1 and
  at the same time divides and deranges 
those which are on the sides1  and thus 
produces caverns1 grottos1 and irregular
 holes1 but which  however is only      
effected in the environs of volcanos2   
and these kinds  of caverns are more    
rare than those produced by water4 ,we  
have already  observed that the         
different strata which compose the      
terrestrial globe  are all interrupted  
by perpendicular fissures3 the waters   
which fall  on the surface descend      
through them2 collect when stopped by   
clay1  and form springs and rivulets2 by
 their natural propensities they seek   

out cavities or small vacancies1 and    
always incline to open a passage  till  
they find a vent1 carrying along with   
them sand1 gravel1 and other  matters   
they can divide and dissolve2 by        
degrees1 in the internal part  of the   
earth they form small trenches2 and at  
last issue forth in the  form of        
springs1 either at the surface of the   
earth1 or bottom of the  sea2 the       
matters which they carry along with     
them1 leave caverns whose  extent may be
 very considerable1 the origin of which 
is quite different  from those produced 
by volcanos or earthquakes4    ,there   
are two kinds of earthquakes1 the one   
caused by the action of  subterraneous  
fires1 and the explosion of volcanos    
which are only  felt at small distances 
at the time of eruptions3 when the      
matters  which form subterraneous fires 
ferment1 heat1 and inflame1 the fire    
makes an effort on every side to get    
out1 and if it does not find a  natural 
vent1 it raises the earth above and     

forces itself a passage by  throwing it 
out2 such is the beginning of a volcano 
whose effects and  continuation are in  
proportion to the quantity of           
inflammable matters  they contain4 ,if  
the quantity of matters is not          
considerable1 an  earthquake may ensue1 
without a volcano being formed4 ,the air
 rarefied  by the subterraneous fire may
 also escape through small vents1 and in
  this case there will be only a shock  
without any eruption or volcano4  ,but  
when the inflamed matter is in great    
quantities and confined by  solid and   
compressed bodies1 then a commotion and 
volcano is certain  to ensue2 but all   
these commotions form only the first    
kind of  earthquakes1 and can only shake
 a small space of ground4 ,a violent    
eruption of tna will cause1 for example1
 an earthquake throughout  the whole    
island of ,sicily2 but it will never    
extend to the distance  of three or four
 hundred leagues4 ,when any new mouth   
bursts out in  ,vesuvius1 there are     

earthquakes at ,naples1 and in the      
neighbourhood of  the volcano2 but these
 earthquakes never shake the ,alps1 nor 
extend  into ,france1 or other countries
 remote from ,vesuvius4 ,therefore      
earthquakes produced by volcanos1 are   
limited to a small space1 are  properly 
but the effects of the re-action of the 
fire2 and they shake  the earth1 as the 
explosion of a powder magazine produces 
a shock  perceptible at many leagues    
distance4    ,but there is another kind 
of earthquake very different in its     
effects1  and perhaps equally so in its 
cause2 such are felt at great distances1
  and shake a long course of ground1    
without any new volcano1 or eruption  in
 the old ones appearing4 ,we have       
instances of earthquakes being felt  at 
the same time in ,england1 ,france1     
,germany1 and even in ,hungary2  these  
earthquakes always extend more in length
 than breadth2 they shake  a zone of    
ground with greater or less violence in 
different places1  and are almost always

 accompanied with a rumbling noise like 
that of a  coach rolling over the stones
 with rapidity4    ,with respect to the 
causes of this kind of earthquake1 it   
must be  remembered that the explosion  
of all inflammable matters produces1    
like  gunpowder1 a great quantity of    
air2 that this air by the heat is in a  
state of very great rarefaction1 and    
that by its state of compression  in the
 bowels of the earth1 it must produce   
very violent effects4 ,let  us suppose1 
that at a depth of one or two hundred   
fathoms1 pyrites  and other sulphurous  
matters are collected in great          
quantities1 and  that by the            
fermentation produced by the filtration 
of the water1 or  other causes1 they    
inflame2 what must happen8 ,first these 
matters  are not placed in horizontal   
layers1 as are the ancient strata1 which
  have been formed by the sediment of   
the waters2 on the contrary1 they  are  
formed in perpendicular fissures1 in    
caverns1 and in other places  where the 

water can penetrate4 ,inflaming1 they   
produce a quantity of  air1 the spring  
of which being compressed in a small    
space1 like that  of a cavern1 will not 
only shake the ground directly above1   
but will  seek out for passages by which
 it may escape4 ,the roads which offer  
themselves are caverns and trenches1    
formed by subterraneous rivulets3  into 
these the rarefied air will precipitate 
with violence1 form in  them a strong   
wind1 the noise of which will be heard  
at the surface1  accompanied with shocks
 of the earth1 c4 this subterraneous    
wind1  produced by the fire1 will extend
 as far as the subterraneous cavities1  
and cause an agitation more or less     
violent as it is distant from  the vent1
 and finds the passages of a larger or  
lesser extent3 this  motion being made  
longitudinal1 the shock will be the     
same1 and the  earthquake be felt       
through a long zone of ground4 ,this air
 will not  produce any eruption1 or     
volcano1 because it will find sufficient

 space  to expand1 or rather because it 
will have found vents1 and issue forth  
in form of wind and vapour4 ,even should
 it not be allowed that there  exist    
internal passages1 by which the air and 
vapours can pass1 it  may be conceived  
that in the place where the first       
explosion is made1  the ground being    
lifted up to a considerable height1 that
 the most  adjoining to this spot must  
divide and split in an horizontal manner
 by  the force of its motion2 and by    
this means passages communicating one   
with the other may be opened to great   
distances2 and this explanation  agrees 
with every phenomena4 ,it is not at the 
same moment or hour that  an earthquake 
is felt in two distant places4 ,neither 
fire nor eruption  attend those         
earthquakes which are heard at a        
distance1 and the noise  always marks   
the progressive motion of this          
subterraneous wind4 ,this  theory is    
confirmed by two other facts2 it is well
 known that mines  exhale unhealthy air 

and suffocating vapours1 independent of 
the wind  produced by the current of    
water3 it is also known that there are  
holes1 abysses and deep lakes in the    
earth1 which produce winds1 as the  lake
 ,boleslaw1 in ,bohemia1 which we have  
already spoken of4    ,all this being   
considered1 ,i do not see how it can be 
imagined that  earthquakes produce      
mountains1 since the cause itself of    
these  earthquakes are mineral and      
sulphurous matters1 which are generally 
found only in perpendicular clefts of   
mountains and other cavities  of the    
earth2 the greatest number of which have
 been produced by the  operation of     
water2 since this matter by inflaming   
produces only a  momentary explosion and
 a violent wind which follows the       
subterraneous  roads of the water3 since
 the duration of the earthquakes at the 
surface of the earth is so short that   
their cause can only be explosion  and  
not a durable fire3 and in short1 since 
these earthquakes1 which  extend to a   

considerable distance1 very far from    
raising chains of  mountains1 do not    
produce the smallest hills throughout   
their whole  extent4    ,earthquakes    
are1 in fact1 most frequent in places   
near volcanos1 as  in ,sicily and       
,naples1 but it is known1 by            
observations1 that the most  violent    
earthquakes happen in the time of the   
greatest eruptions of  volcanos2 that   
they are very limited1 and cannot       
produce a chain of  mountains4    ,it   
has been sometimes observed1 that the   
matters thrown out of ,mount  tna1 after
 laying for many years and afterwards   
moistened with  the rain1 have rekindled
 and thrown out flames with such violent
  explosions as even to produce a slight
 shock4    ,in a furious eruption of tna
 in #affi1 which began the #aath of     
,march1  the summit of the mountains    
sunk considerably2,,ab which proves the 
fire of this volcano comes rather from  
the top than from the bottom of  the    
mountain4 ,borelli is of the same       

opinion1 and says1 ,that the fire  of   
volcanos does not proceed from the      
centre1 nor from the foot of the        
mountain1 but that it issues from the   
summit1 and flames kindle but at  a     
small depth4,,ac    ,,ab ,see ,trans4   
,phil4 ,abridged1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 page #chg4
    ,,ac ,borelli1 ,de incendiis ,montis
 ,etnae4    ,mount ,vesuvius in its     
eruptions1 has thrown out great         
quantities of  boiling water4 ,mr4 ,ray1
 who thinks that the volcanean fire     
proceeds  from a great depth1 says1 that
 it is the water of the sea which       
communicates by subterraneous passages  
with the foot of the mountain2  he      
gives1 as a proof of it1 the dryness of 
the summit of ,vesuvius1  and the       
agitation of the sea at the time of     
these eruptions1 which  sometimes       
retreats from the coasts1 and leaves the
 ,bay of ,naples almost  dry4 ,but1 if  
these facts are true1 they do not prove1
 in a solid  manner1 that the volcanean 
fire proceeds from a great depth2 for   

the  water which is thrown out is       
certainly rain water1 which penetrates  
through the fissure1 and collects in the
 cavities of the mountains4  ,rills and 
rivulets flow from those containing     
volcanos as well as other  lofty        
mountains1 and as they are hollow1 and  
have been more shaken1  it is not       
astonishing that the water collects in  
their caverns in  their internal part1  
and that these waters are thrown out in 
the time  of eruptions with other       
matters4 ,with respect to the motion of 
the  sea1 it proceeds solely from the   
shock communicated to the waters by  the
 explosion1 which causes them to advance
 or retreat according to  different     
circumstances4    ,the matters which    
volcanos generally throw out1 come forth
 in the form  of a torrent of melted    
minerals1 which inundates all the       
environs  of those mountains2 these     
rivers of liquified matters extend to   
considerable distances1 and in cooling  
form horizontal or inclined  strata1    

which for position are like the strata  
formed by the sediment  left by the     
waters3 but it is very easy to          
distinguish the one from the  other4    
,first1 because strata of lava are not  
throughout of an equal  thickness3      
secondly1 because they contain only     
matters which have  evidently been      
calcined1 vitrified1 or melted2 and     
thirdly1 because  they do not extend to 
any great distance4 ,as there are a     
great number  of volcanos at ,peru1 and 
as the foot of most of the mountains of 
the  ,cordeliers is covered with matters
 thrown out by eruptions1 it is not     
astonishing that marine shells are not  
met with there1 as they must  have been 
calcined and destroyed by the fire2 but 
,i am persuaded1 if  we dig in          
argilaceous earth1 which1 according to  
,m4 ,bourguet1 is the  common earth of  
the valley of ,quito1 shells would be   
found there1 as  they are in other      
places1 at least where the ground is not
 covered1  like that at the foot of the 

mountains1 with matters thrown out of a 
volcano4    ,it has often been asked1   
why volcanos are all met with at the top
 of  mountains8 ,i think ,i have partly 
given a satisfactory answer to this     
question in the preceding article1 but  
,i have thought it necessary not  to    
finish this without farther explaining  
what ,i have said on this  subject4     
,the peaks or points of mountains were  
formerly covered with sand and  earth1  
which the rain gradually washes along   
with it into the vallies1  and has left 
only the rocks and stone1 which forms   
the nucleus of  the mountain4 ,this     
being left bare will have been still    
worn by the  injuries of the air1 the   
frost will have loosened the large and  
small  parts1 which of course have      
rolled to the bottom4 ,the rocks1 at the
  base of the summit1 being left bare1  
and no longer supported by the  earth   
which surrounded them1 will have given  
way a little1 and by  dividing one from 
the other formed small intervals4 ,this 

separation  of the lower rocks could not
 be made without communicating a greater
  motion to the upper4 ,by this means   
the nucleus of the mountain would  be   
divided into an infinity of             
perpendicular clefts1 from the summit   
to the base of the lower rocks2 the rain
 will have penetrated into all  these   
clefts1 and loosened1 in the inside of  
the mountain1 all the  mineral parts and
 other matters that it could carry away 
or dissolve2  they will have formed     
pyrites and other combustible matters1  
and when  by length of time these       
matters were accumulated in great       
quantities1  they fermented1 and by     
inflaming produced explosions and other 
effects  of volcanos2 perhaps likewise1 
within the mountains1 there were masses 
of these mineral matters already formed 
before the rain could penetrate         
therein2 in that case1 as soon as holes 
and clefts were made1 which  gave       
passages to the water and air1 these    
matters inflamed and formed a  volcano4 

,none of these motions could be made in 
plains1 since all is at  rest and       
nothing can be displaced4 ,it is not    
therefore surprising that  volcanos are 
found only in high mountains4    ,when  
coal-mines are opened1 which are        
generally met with in argile  earth1 at 
a great depth1 it sometimes happens that
 the mineral  substances have taken     
fire3 there are even mines of coal in   
,scotland1  ,flanders1 c4 which have    
burnt for a number of years4 ,the       
admission of  the air suffices to       
produce this effect2 but these fires    
produce only  slight explosions1 and do 
not form volcanos1 because all being    
solid  and full in these places1 fire   
cannot be excited like that of volcanos1
  in which there are cavities and void  
places where the air penetrates1  which 
must necessarily extend the             
conflagration and augment the action  of
 the fire1 so as to produce the terrible
 effects we have just  described4       
,,article ,,xvii4    ,,of ,,new         

,,islands1 ,,caverns1 ,,perpendicular   
,,clefts1 ,c4 ,c4      ,new islands are 
formed either suddenly by the action of 
subterraneous  fires1 or gently by the  
deposit of the sediment of waters4      
,ancient  historians and modern         
travellers relate facts on this subject 
which  put it beyond all kind of doubt4 
,seneca assures us1 that in his time    
the island ,therasia appeared suddenly  
in the sea1 to the astonishment  of many
 mariners who beheld it4 ,pliny relates1
 that formerly thirteen  islands in the 
,mediterranean sprung at the same       
instant out of the  sea1 and that       
,rhodes and ,delos are the principal of 
them3 it appears1  from him1 as well as 
,ammianus ,marcellinus1 ,philo1 and     
others1 that  these thirteen islands    
were not produced by an earthquake1 nor 
by  any subterraneous explosion1 but    
that they were formerly hid under  the  
water1 which lowering left them         
uncovered4 ,delos had the name of       
,pelagia given to it1 from having       

formerly belonged to the sea4 ,whether  
the origin of these thirteen islands is 
to be attributed to the action  of      
subterraneous fires1 or to some other   
cause which might occasion  a sinking of
 the water in the ,mediterranean1 is    
uncertain4 ,but ,pliny  relates1 that   
the island ,hiera1 near ,therasia1 had  
been formed of  ferruginous masses1 and 
earth thrown from the bottom of the sea2
 and in  chapter #hi1 he speaks of other
 islands formed in the like manner2 but 
on this subject we have more clear and  
certain facts of later date4    ,on the 
#bc;d of ,may #agjg1 at the sun's       
rising1 there was seen1 at some  little 
distance from the island of ,therasia1  
or ,santorini1 something  like a        
floating rock in the sea2 some persons1 
to satisfy their  curiosity1 went       
towards it1 and found it a shoal which  
had issued  from the bottom of the sea2 
it increased under their feet1 and they 
brought with them the pumice-stone and  
oysters1 which the rock still  had      

attached to its surface4 ,there was a   
slight earthquake at ,santorini  two    
days before this shoal appeared3 it     
increased considerably till  the #adth  
of ,june1 it was then half a mile round1
 and from #bj to #cj feet  high2 the    
earth was white1 and a little           
argilaceous2 after that the sea  became 
more and more troubled2 vapours arose   
which infected the island  ,santorini2  
and on the #afth of ,july several rocks 
were seen to issue at  one time from the
 bottom of the sea1 and unite into one  
solid body4  ,this was accompanied with 
a dismal noise1 which continued upwards 
of  two months4 ,flames issued from the 
new island1 which kept increasing in    
circumference and height1 and the       
violent explosions frequently threw     
large stones to more than seven miles   
distance4 ,the island ,santorini  itself
 was deemed among the ancients as a     
modern production1 and in  #gbf1 #adbg1 
and #aegc1 it increased in size1 and    
small islands were  formed near it4,,ad 

,the same volcano1 which in the time of 
,seneca  formed the island of           
,santorini1 in that of ,pliny produced  
,hiera or  ,volcanella1 and in our time 
the shoal above-mentioned4    ,,ad ,see 
the ,hist4 of the ,acad4 #agjh1 page    
#bc1 c4    ,on the #ajth of ,october    
#agbj1 near the island ,tercera1 a very 
considerable fire arose out of the sea2 
some mariners were sent by the  order of
 the governor to take a view of it1 and 
who having come near  it1 perceived1 on 
the #aith of the same month1 an island  
which appeared  only as fire and smoke1 
with a prodigious quantity of ashes     
thrown to  a distance1 as if caused by  
the force of a volcano1 with a report   
like  that of thunder4 ,an earthquake   
happened at the same time1 which was    
felt in the circumjacent places1 and    
great quantities of pumice-stones  were 
observed floating on the sea around the 
new island2 pumice-stones  indeed have  
sometimes been seen swimming in the     
midst of the high  seas4,,ae    ,,ae    

,see ,phil4 ,trans4 ,abridg4 vol4 ,,vi4 
part ii4 page #bed4    ,the historian of
 the academy1 anno #agba1 says on this  
event1 that after  an earthquake in the 
island of ,st4 ,michael1 one of the     
,azores1 there  appeared between this   
island and ,tercera a torrent of fire1  
which gave  birth to two new shoals2 and
 the next year he gave the following    
detail3    ,m4 de l',isle has informed  
the academy of many particulars         
concerning  the new island among the    
,azores1 which he received in a letter  
from ,m4  de ,montagnac1 consul at      
,lisbon4    ,being in a vessel1 which   
was moored the #ahth of ,september      
#agba1 before  the fortress of the town 
of ,st4 ,michael1 ,m4 de ,montagnac     
learnt the  following account from the  
pilot3    ,on the #gth of ,december     
#agbj1 at night1 there was a great      
earthquake in  ,tercera and ,st4        
,michael1 which are about #ah leagues   
apart1 and between  which a new island  
sprung up3 it was remarked at the same  

time1 that  the point of the island of  
,peak1 #cj leagues distant1 and which   
before  threw out fire1 was sunk and    
emitted none2 but the new island kept   
throwing out a constant thick smoke1 and
 which ,i plainly perceived  from the   
vessel ,i was in4 ,the pilot assured us 
that he had gone round  the island1     
rowing as near it as he conceived to be 
safe4 ,on the south  side he threw a    
line of sixty fathoms without finding   
any bottom2 on  the west side the water 
was greatly changed1 appearing white1   
blue  and green1 and which extended two 
thirds of a league1 where it seemed     
ready to boil4 ,on the north-west1 the  
part from which the smoke issued1  he   
found1 at #ae fathoms1 a bottom of thick
 sand2 he threw a stone in  the sea1 and
 where it fell the water seemed to boil 
and bubble with  impetuosity2 the bottom
 was so hot that it twice melted some   
grease  fastened at the end of the      
sounding line4 ,the pilot observed also 
on  that side that smoke issued from a  

small lake bounded by a sand bank4      
,this island is almost round and high   
enough to be perceived at the  distance 
of seven or eight leagues in clear      
weather4    ,it has since been learnt   
from a letter of ,m4 ,adrian1 ,french   
consul in  the island of ,st4 ,michael1 
dated ,march #agbb1 that the new island 
had  considerably diminished1 that it   
was almost level with the water1 and    
there was every appearance it would not 
last long4    ,it is therefore by these1
 and a great number of other facts of a 
similar nature1 very evident that       
inflammable matters are enclosed in  the
 earth under the bottom of the sea1 and 
that they sometimes cause  violent      
explosions4 ,the places where this      
happens might be termed  marine         
volcanos1 and which differ from common  
volcanos only by the  shortness of the  
duration of their effects2 for the fire 
having opened  itself a passage1 the    
water must penetrate therein and        
extinguish it4  ,the elevation of new   

islands must consequently leave a void  
space which  the water would shortly    
occupy1 and this new earth1 which is    
only  composed of matters thrown out by 
the marine volcano1 must resemble  that 
of ,monti di ,cinere and other          
eminencies which terrestrial volcanos   
have formed4 ,now as the water rushes   
in1 during the violence of the          
explosion1 and fills the vacancies that 
it occasions1 that is clearly  the      
reason why these marine volcanos act    
less frequently than other  volcanos1   
although the causes of both are the     
same4    ,these subterraneous1 or       
sub-marine fires are doubtless the cause
 of all  those ebullitions of the sea1  
which sailors have remarked in various  
places1 and as well as of the           
water-spouts we have before mentioned2  
they likewise produce storms and        
earthquakes1 which are not less  felt on
 the sea than on the land4 ,islands     
formed by these sub-marine  volcanos1   
are generally composed of pumice-stone1 

and calcined rocks1  and produce1 like  
those of the land1 violent earthquakes  
and commotions4    ,fires have been     
often observed on the surface of the    
water4 ,pliny tells  us that the lake   
,thrasimenia appeared inflamed over all 
its surface4  ,agricola relates that    
when a stone was thrown into the lake   
,denstat1 in  ,thuringia1 it appeared1  
as it descended in the water1 like a    
train of  fire4    ,in short1 the       
quantities of pumice-stones which       
travellers affirm are  met with in many 
parts of the ocean1 and the             
,mediterranean1 prove  there are        
volcanos at the bottom of the sea1      
similar to those we are  acquainted     
with1 and which differ not in the least 
from them1 neither  by the matters they 
cast out1 nor by the violence of the    
explosion1 but  solely by the rarity and
 shortness of the duration of their     
effects4  ,from hence we may fairly     
infer that the bottom of the sea in     
every  respect resembles the surface of 

the earth4    ,we shall find many       
connections between land and sea        
volcanos2 both are  found at the summit 
of mountains4 ,the islands of ,azores   
and those of  the ,archipelago are only 
peaks of mountains1 some of which rise  
above  the water1 and others are        
underneath4 ,by the account of the new  
islands  among the ,azores we see that  
the part from whence the smoke issued   
was  only #ae fathoms under water1      
which1 compared with the common depth of
  the ocean1 proves that even this part 
is the summit of a mountain2 as  much   
may be said of the new island near      
,santorini1 which could not be  any     
great depth1 since oysters were found   
attached to the rocks which  rose above 
the water4 ,it appears also that        
marine-volcanos have1 like  those of the
 land1 subterraneous communications1    
since the summit of  the volcano of ,st4
 ,george1 in the island ,peak1 sunk at  
the time the new  island among the      
,azores arose4 ,it must also be         

observed1 that these new  islands never 
appear but near the old ones1 and that  
we have no example  of new islands in   
the high seas2 we must therefore look on
 them as a  continuation of the adjacent
 islands2 and when ancient islands have 
volcanos1 it is not astonishing that the
 ground adjacent should contain  matters
 proper to form them1 and which inflame1
 either by fermentation  alone1 or by   
the action of subterraneous winds4      
,islands produced by the action of fire 
and earthquakes are but few1  but there 
are an infinite number produced by the  
mud1 sand1 and earth1  which the rivers 
or the sea transport into different     
places4 ,at the  mouth of rivers earth  
and sand accumulate in such quantities  
as to form  islands of a moderate       
extent4 ,the sea1 retiring from certain 
coasts1  leaves the highest parts of the
 bottom naked1 which forms so many new  
islands2 so likewise the sea1 by        
extending itself on certain shores1     
covers the lowest parts1 and leaves the 

highest1 which appear as so  many       
islands2 and thus it is we may account  
for there being so few  islands in the  
open sea1 and so many bordering on the  
continents4    ,water and fire1 whose   
natures appear so different and so      
contrary1  produce many similar effects1
 independent of the particular          
productions  of these two elements1 some
 of which bear so striking a resemblance
  as to be mistaken for each other1 as  
glass and crystal1 natural and          
fictitious antimony1 c4 ,there are in   
nature an infinity of great  effects    
produced by them1 which are scarcely to 
be distinguished4  ,water1 as has been  
observed1 has produced mountains and    
formed most  islands1 while others owe  
their origin to fire4 ,there are        
likewise  caverns1 clefts1 holes1       
gulphs1 c4 some of which owe their      
origin to  subterraneous fires1 and     
others to waters4    ,caverns are met   
with in mountains1 and few or none in   
plains3 there  are many in the          

,archipelago1 and in other islands1     
because they are in  general only the   
tops of mountains3 caverns are formed   
like precipices1  by the sinking of     
rocks1 or large abysses1 by the action  
of the fire2  for to make a cavern form 
a precipice or abyss1 we need only      
suppose  the tops of adjacent rocks had 
fallen together and formed an arch1     
which must often happen when their      
bottoms are shaken and dislodged by     
time or earthquakes4 ,caverns may be    
produced by the same causes which       
produce holes1 the shaking and sinking  
of the earth1 and which causes  are the 
explosion of volcanos1 the action of    
subterraneous vapours and  earthquakes2 
for they occasion caverns1 holes1 and   
hollows of every  kind by their shocks  
and commotion4    ,st4 ,patrick's cavern
 in ,ireland is not so considerable as  
it is famous2  it is the same with the  
,dog's ,grotto in ,italy2 and that which
 throws  out fire1 in the mountain of   
,beniguazeval in the kingdom of ,fez4   

,in  the county of ,derby1 in ,england1 
there is a very considerable cavern1    
much larger than the famous cavern of   
,beauman1 near the ,black ,forest1  in  
,brunswick4 ,i have been informed by a  
person as respectable for his  merit as 
his name1 ,lord ,morton1 that this large
 cavern1 called the  ,devil's ,hole1 at 
first presents a very considerable      
opening1 larger  than any church door2  
that through this opening a rivulet     
flows2 that  in advancing the vault of  
the cavern becomes so low1 that persons 
who are desirous of continuing their    
road are obliged to lie flat in  a boat 
and be pushed through this narrow       
passage1 where the water  almost touches
 the roof2 but after having passed this 
part of the  vault1 the arch rises to a 
considerable height1 and continues so   
for  some distance1 when it sinks again 
so low as to touch the water1 and  where
 the cavern ends4 ,the source of the    
rivulet which issues from it  sometimes 
encreases considerably3 it transports   

and heaps up a great  quantity of sand  
in one part of the cavern1 which is     
formed like a  kind of alley1 whose     
direction is different from that of the 
principal  cavern4    ,in ,carniola1    
near ,potpechio1 is a very spacious     
cavern1 in which is  a large lake4 ,near
 ,adelsperg is a cavern1 in which we may
 travel two  ,german miles1 and where   
very deep precipices are to be met      
with4,,af  ,there are also large caverns
 and beautiful grottos under the        
mountains  of ,mendip1 in ,wales2 mines 
of lead are found near these caverns1   
and  whole oaks at fifteen fathoms deep4
 ,in the county of ,gloucester there  is
 a very large cavern1 called ,pen       
,park-hole1 at the bottom of which      
there is thirty fathoms water1 and mines
 of lead are also found4    ,,af ,see   
,act4 erud4 ,lips4 anno4 #afhi1 page    
#eeh4    ,the ,devil's ,hole1 and other 
caverns1 from whence issue large springs
 or  rivulets1 have plainly therefore   
been formed by the water1 and their     

origin cannot be considered as the      
effects either of earthquakes or        
volcanos4    ,one of the most remarkable
 and largest caverns known is that of   
,antiparos1 a description of which is   
given by ,m4 de ,tournefort4 ,we  enter 
a rustic cavern about thirty feet broad1
 divided by some natural  pillars2      
between two of which1 on the right1 the 
ground is on a gentle  slope1 and then  
becomes more steep to the bottom1 about 
twenty feet2  this is the passage to the
 grotto1 or internal cavern1 which is   
very  dark1 and cannot be entered       
without stooping and the assistance of  
torches4 ,we then descend an horrible   
precipice by the assistance of  a rope1 
fastened at the entrance1 into another  
still more frightful1  the borders of   
which are very slippery1 with dark      
abysses on the left4  ,by the assistance
 of a ladder we pass a perpendicular    
rock1 and then  continue to go through  
places somewhat less dangerous3 but when
 we  think ourselves in a safe path1 we 

are stopped short by a tremendous       
obstruction1 and are obliged to crawl on
 our hands and knees1 or slide  on our  
back1 the length of a large rock1 and   
then descend by a ladder4  ,when we are 
at the bottom of the ladder1 we still   
have to stumble over  pieces of rocks   
for some time1 and then we reach the    
celebrated grotto4  ,it is computed to  
be three hundred fathoms deep from the  
surface of the  earth1 appears to be    
forty fathoms high by fifty broad4 ,it  
is filled  with large beautiful         
stalactites of various forms1 as well   
from the  roof of the vault as on the   
bottom4,,ag    ,,ag ,see the ,voyage de 
,levant1 page #ahh1 and also ,remarks in
 a ,journey  from ,paris to             
,constantinople1 which contains a       
copious description of  this astonishing
 phenomenon4    ,in part of ,greece     
called ,livadia 7the ,achaia of the     
ancients7 there  is a large cavern in a 
mountain which was formerly famous for  
the  oracles of ,trophonius2 it is      

between the lake ,livadia and the       
adjacent  sea2 at the nearest part it is
 about forty miles2 and there are forty 
subterraneous passages across the rock1 
through which the waters  flow4,,ah     
,,ah ,see ,gordon's ,geography1 #agcc1  
page #agi4    ,in all countries which   
produce sulphur1 volcanos1 and          
earthquakes1  there are caverns4 ,the   
ground of most of the ,archipelago      
islands is  cavernous2 the islands of   
the ,indian ocean1 principally that of  
the  ,malacca's1 appear to be supported 
by vaults and cavities4 ,the land       
,azores1 the ,canaries1 the islands of  
,cape de ,verd1 and in general  almost  
every small island1 is in many parts    
hollow and cavernous2  because these    
islands are1 as we have observed1 only  
points of  mountains where considerable 
ebullitions are made1 either by the     
action  of volcanos1 of the water1 of   
frosts1 or other injuries of the        
weather4  ,in the ,cordeliers1 where    
there are many volcanos1 and where      

earthquakes  are frequent1 there are    
also a great number of caverns4    ,the 
famous labyrinth of the island of       
,candia1 is not the work of nature      
alone2 ,m4 de ,tournefort assures us    
that it has evidently been greatly      
enlarged by men2 and most likely this   
cavern is not the only one which  has   
been augmented by human labour4 ,every  
day mines and quarries are  digging1 and
 when abandoned for a long time1 it is  
not easy to discover  whether they have 
been the productions of nature1 or      
formed by the  hands of men4 ,we know of
 quarries of considerable extent2 for   
example  that of ,maestricht1 where it  
is said #ej1jjj men may conceal         
themselves1  and which is supported by  
upwards of #ajjj pillars1 twenty-four   
feet  high1 and the earth and rock above
 is more than twenty-five fathoms       
thick4,,ai    ,,ai ,see ,abridg4 ,phil4 
,trans4 vol4 ,,xi4 page #dfa4    ,the   
salt mines in ,poland form still greater
 excavations than the above4  ,there are

 generally vast quarries near large     
towns4 ,but we cannot  proceed farther  
in particulars2 besides1 the labour of  
man1 however  great1 will ever hold but 
a small place in the history of nature4 
,volcanos and waters which produce      
caverns internally1 form also  external 
clefts1 precipices1 and abysses4 ,at    
,cajeta1 in ,italy1 there  is a mountain
 which had formerly been separated by an
 earthquake1 in  a manner so as to      
appear as if the division was made by   
the hands of  men4 ,we have already     
spoken of the divisions in the island of
 ,machian1  of the abyss of mount       
,azarat1 of the gap in the ,cordeliers1 
and that  of ,thermopyle1 c4 ,to these  
may be added1 the gap in the mountain of
  ,troglodytes1 in ,arabia1 which nature
 only sketched out1 and which  ,victor  
,amadeus caused to be finished4 ,water  
as well as subterraneous  fires produce 
considerable sinking of the earth1 fall 
of rocks1 and  overthrow mountains1 of  
which we can give many examples4    ,in 

the month of ,june #agad1 a part of the 
mountain of ,diableret1 in  ,valois1    
fell suddenly1 and some time after1 the 
sky being serene1 it  appeared to have  
taken a conical figure4 ,fifty-three    
huts belonging  to the boors were       
destroyed1 together with several people 
and a great  many cattle1 covering a    
square league with the ruins it         
occasioned4 ,a  profound darkness was   
caused by the dust2 the heaps of stones 
thrown  together were above thirty      
perches in height1 stopped the currents 
of  the water1 and formed new and very  
deep lakes4 ,in all this there was  not 
the least trace of bitumen1 sulphur1    
lime1 nor consequently any              
subterraneous fire1 and apparently the  
base of this great rock was  perished   
and reduced to dust4,,aj    ,,aj        
,histoire de l',academie des ,sciences1 
anno #agae1 p4 #d4    ,we have a        
remarkable example of these sinkings    
near ,folkstone1 in  the county of      
,kent2 the hills in its environs sunk   

gradually by an  insensible motion1 and 
without any earthquake4 ,these hills    
internally  are rocks and chalk1 and by 
their sinking they have thrown into the 
sea  rocks and earth which were adjacent
 to it4 ,the relation of this fact  may 
be seen in the ,abridgment of the       
,philosophical ,transactions1 vol4      
,,vi4 page #bej4    ,in #afah1 the town 
of ,pleurs1 in ,valtelino1 was buried   
under the rocks1  at the bottom of which
 it was situated4 ,in #afgh1 there was a
 great  inundation in ,gascony1 caused  
by the sinking of some pieces of one  of
 the ,pyrennees1 which forced the water 
to spring forth that was  contained in  
the subterraneous caverns of those      
mountains4 ,in #afhj1  there happened a 
still greater in ,ireland1 by the       
sinking of a mountain  into caverns     
filled with water4 ,we may easily       
conceive the cause of  these effects4   
,it is well known there are             
subterraneous waters in an  infinity of 
places2 these waters carry off by       

degrees the sand and  earth over which  
they pass1 consequently may in time     
destroy the bed  of earth on which the  
mountain rests2 and this bed of earth   
being more  deficient on one side than  
on the other1 the mountain of course    
must be  overthrown2 but if this base is
 worn every where alike1 the mountain   
will sink and not be overthrown4        
,having remarked on the sinkings and    
other changes on the earth1  occasioned 
by what may be called the accidents of  
nature1 we ought  not to pass over the  
perpendicular clefts found throughout   
the strata  of the earth3 these clefts  
are perceptible not only in rocks and   
quarries of marble and stone1 but also  
in clays and earths of every  kind1     
which have never been removed4 ,i call  
them perpendicular clefts1  because1    
like the horizontal strata1 they are    
oblique1 by accident  only4 ,woodward   
and ,ray speak of these clefts1 but in a
 confused manner2  and they do not term 
them perpendicular clefts1 because they 

thought  they might be indifferently    
oblique or perpendicular4 ,no author has
  explained the origin of them1 although
 it is apparent that they have  been    
produced1 as we observed in a preceding 
article1 by the dryness  of the matters 
which compose horizontal beds4 ,in      
whatsoever manner  this drying happens1 
it must have produced perpendicular     
clefts2 for  the matters which compose  
the strata could not have diminished in 
size without splitting in a             
perpendicular direction to these strata4
  ,i comprehend under this name of      
perpendicular clefts all natural        
separations of rocks1 as well as those  
which may have been occasioned  by any  
convulsive accident4 ,when some         
considerable motion happens to  masses  
of rocks1 these clefts are sometimes    
found obliquely placed1  but this is    
because the mass is of itself oblique1  
and with a little  attention it is      
always easy to discover that these      
clefts are in  general perpendicular to 

the horizontal strata1 particularly in  
quarries of marble1 lime1 stones1 and   
all large chains of rocks4    ,mountains
 internally are principally composed of 
stone and rocks in  parallel beds3      
between the horizontal beds small strata
 of a softer  matter than stone is      
found1 and the perpendicular clefts are 
filled  with sand1 crystals1 minerals1  
metals1 c4 these last matters are of  a 
more modern formation than the          
horizontal beds in which we find        
sea-shells4 ,the rains have by degrees  
loosened the sand and the earth  on the 
upper parts of mountains1 and have left 
the stone and rocks  entirely naked1 in 
which we readily distinguish the        
horizontal strata  and perpendicular    
clefts3 in plains1 on the contrary1 the 
rain-water  and flood having brought a  
considerable quantity of earth1 sand1   
gravel1 and other such matters1 have    
formed a bed of tufa1 soft and          
dissoluble stone1 sand1 gravel1 and     
earth1 mixed with vegetables4 ,these    

beds contain no marine shells1 or at    
least only fragments1 which have  been  
detached from mountains1 with gravel and
 earth4 ,we must carefully  distinguish 
these new beds from the old1 where      
almost always a great  number of entire 
shells are found placed in their natural
 situation4    ,if we observe the order 
and internal disposition of matters in a
  mountain1 composed1 for example1 of   
common stones1 or calcinable  lapidific 
matters1 we generally find a bed of     
gravel under the  vegetable earth1 of   
the nature and colour of the stone which
  predominates in this ground2 and under
 the gravel we meet with stone4  ,when  
the mountain is divided by some trench1 
or deep cut1 we easily  distinguish all 
the strata of which it is composed4     
,each horizontal  stratum is separated  
by a kind of joint1 which is likewise   
horizontal1  and their thickness        
generally increase in proportion as they
 lower  from the summit of the mountain1
 and are all divided vertically by      

perpendicular clefts4 ,in common1 the   
first stratum which is met  with under  
the gravel1 and even the second1 are    
only thinner than  the beds which form  
the base of the mountain1 but are so    
divided by  perpendicular clefts1 that  
pieces of any length are not to be seen3
  they perfectly resemble the cracks of 
ground which is very dry1 but go  not   
very far1 gradually disappearing in     
proportion as they descend1 and  towards
 the bottom there are no great number   
but where they divide  the strata in a  
more regular manner4 ,these beds of     
stone are often  many leagues in extent1
 without any interruption2 we almost    
always  meet with the same kind of stone
 in the opposite mountains1 whether     
divided by a small neck or a valley2 and
 the beds of stone disappear  only in   
places where the mountain sinks and     
becomes level with some  large plain4   
,sometimes1 between the first stratum of
 vegetable earth  and that of gravel1   
marl is found1 which communicates its   

colour and  other qualities to the other
 two3 then the perpendicular clefts of  
the  quarries which are beneath are     
filled with this marl1 where it acquires
  an hardness in appearance equal to    
that of stone1 but by exposing it to    
the air it crumbles1 softens and becomes
 ductile4    ,in most quarries the beds 
of stone formed on the summit of a      
mountain  are soft1 and those near the  
base are hard2 the first is commonly    
white1 of so fine a grain as scarcely to
 be perceived2 it becomes more  grained 
and harder in proportion as it descends1
 and the lowest stone  is not only      
harder than that of the upper1 but it is
 also closer1 more  compact and heavier 
its grain is fine and glossy1 and often 
brittle1  and breaks as clear as flint4 
,the interior part of a mountain is     
therefore composed of different beds  of
 stone1 the upper of which are of soft  
stone and the lower of hard1  and much  
broader at the bottom than at the top2  
which indeed almost  necessarily        

follows1 for1 as they become so much the
 harder as they  descend1 it may be     
fairly supposed that the currents and   
other motions  of the water which have  
hollowed the vallies and given a shape  
to the  turnings of a mountain1 will    
have laterally worked on the matters of 
which the mountain is composed1 and have
 worn them away in proportion  as they  
were hard or soft4 ,now the upper strata
 being the softest1 it  will naturally  
have suffered the greatest diminution4  
,this is one of  the causes to which the
 inclination of mountains may be        
attributed1 and  this inclination will  
be still less steep in proportion as the
 earth  and gravel have been washed away
 by the rain2 and for these reasons  it 
is1 that hills and mountains composed of
 calcinable matters1 have  an           
inclination much less than those        
composed of live rock and flint  in     
large masses2 the last in general are of
 considerable heights and  nearly       
perpendicular1 because1 in these masses 

of vitrifiable matters1  the upper beds1
 as well as the lower1 are of great     
hardness1 and have  alike resisted the  
action of the waters4    ,when on the   
top of a hill1 whose summit is flat1 and
 of a pretty large  extent1 we meet with
 hard stone directly under the stratum  
of vegetable  earth1 we must remark1    
that what appears to be the summit1 is  
not so in  fact1 but only the           
continuation of some higher hill1 whose 
upper strata  are soft stone and the    
lower hard2 and it is the prolongation  
of these  last strata that we meet with 
again at the top of the first hill4     
,on the summit of mountains which are   
not surmounted by any considerable      
height it is generally only soft stone1 
and we must dig very deep to  meet with 
hard4 ,banks of marble are never found  
but between these beds  of hard stone1  
which are diversely coloured by the     
metallic earths  which the rain         
introduces into the strata by           
filtration1 and possibly  in every      

country where there is stone1 marble    
would be found if dug for  to a         
sufficient depth2 ,quoto enim loco non  
suum marmor invenitur8  says ,pliny4 ,in
 fact it is a much more common stone    
than it is thought  to be1 and differs  
from other stones only by the fineness  
of its grain1  which renders it more    
compact and susceptible of a brilliant  
polish2  and from which quality it took 
its denomination from the ancients4     
,the perpendicular fissures and joints  
of quarries are often filled  and       
incrusted with concretions1 which are   
sometimes as transparent as  crystal1 of
 a regular figure1 sometimes opaque3 the
 water flows through  the perpendicular 
clefts1 and penetrates even the compact 
texture of  the stone2 the stones which 
are porous1 imbibe so great a quantity  
of  water1 that the frost splits and    
divides them4 ,the rain by filtrating   
through the beds of marle1 stone1 and   
marble1 load themselves with  every     
matter they can take up or dissolve4    

,these waters at first run  along the   
perpendicular clefts1 afterwards        
penetrate the beds of  stone1 and       
deposit between the horizontal joints1  
as well as in the  perpendicular clefts1
 the matters they have brought with     
them1 and form  these different         
congelations according to the nature of 
the matters  they have deposited2 for   
example1 when the water filters through 
marle1  chalk1 or soft stone1 the       
matters which they deposit are a very   
pure  and fine marle1 which generally   
enters in the perpendicular cleft  of   
the rocks under the form of a porous1   
soft substance1 commonly  very white and
 light1 which naturalists have called   
,lac lunac1 or  ,medulla ,saxi4    ,when
 these streams of water1 loaded with    
lapidific matter1 flow through  the     
horizontal joints of soft stone or      
chalk1 this matter attaches  itself to  
the surface of the blocks of stone1 and 
forms white1 scaly1  light1 and spongy  
crust2 which some authors have named    

,mineral  ,agaric1 from its resemblance 
to ,vegetable ,agaric3 but if the strata
  are of common hard stone1 proper to   
make good lime1 the filter being  then  
more close1 the water will issue from it
 loaded with lapidific  matter1 more    
pure and homogeneous1 and whose         
molecules uniting more  intimately1 will
 form nearly concretions of the hardness
 of stone1  with a little transparency1 
and we shall find on the surfaces of the
  blocks in these quarries1 stony       
incrustations variously disposed1 which 
entirely fill up the horizontal joints4 
,in grottos and cavities of rocks1 which
 may be looked upon as the  basons of   
perpendicular clefts1 the diverted      
direction of the streams  of water1 give
 different forms to the concretion which
 result  therefrom4 ,they in general    
have the appearance of a cone attached  
to  the top of the vault1 although they 
may more properly be considered  as     
hollow and white cylinders1 formed by a 
concentrical surface2 these             

congelations sometimes descend1 by      
drops1 to the bottom1 and form  pillars1
 and a thousand other figures1 as       
uncouth and ridiculous as  the names    
which naturalists have been pleased to  
give them1 such as1  ,stalactites1      
,stelegmites1 ,osleocollae1 c4    ,when 
these concretic juices issue immediately
 from marble and hard  stone1 the       
lapidific matter conveyed by the water  
being rather  dissolved than loosened1  
the small constituent parts take a      
regular  figure1 and form columns1      
terminated by triangular points1 which  
are  transparent and consist of oblique 
strata2 this is called ,spar1 or        
,spall4 ,it is generally transparent and
 colourless1 but when the stone  or     
marble1 from whence it issues1 contains 
metallic parts1 this spar  is as hard as
 stone2 it dissolves1 like stone1 by    
acid spirits1 and  calcines with the    
same heat2 therefore we cannot doubt    
that it is real  stone1 and perfectly   
homogeneous4 ,it might even be said that

 it is a  pure and elementary stone1    
under its proper and specific form4     
,most naturalists nevertheless look on  
this matter as a direct  substance1     
existing independent of stone2 it is the
 lapidific or  crystalline juice which1 
according to them1 not only binds the   
parts  of common stone1 but even those  
of flint4 ,this juice1 say they1        
constantly augments the density of      
stones by reiterated filtrations1  and  
at length converts them into real flint4
 ,when this juice is fixed  in spar1 it 
continues to receive still more pure    
juices1 which increase  its density and 
hardness1 so that this matter           
successively becomes  glass1 then       
crystal1 and at last a perfect diamond4 
,but if this is true1 why1 in whole     
provinces1 does this crystalline  juice 
form only stone1 and in others nothing  
but flint8 ,will they say1  that the two
 soils are not of a like age1 and that  
this juice has not  had time to         
circulate and complete the end of its   

natural action8 ,this  is not probable4 
,besides1 from whence does this juice   
proceed8 ,if it  produces stone and     
flints1 what is it that produces this   
juice8 ,it is  apparent that it has no  
existence independent of these matters1 
which  of themselves can give to the    
water that penetrates them a petrifying 
quality1 always relative to their native
 and specific character2  insomuch that 
when it filtrates through stones it     
forms spar1 and  when it issues from    
flints1 crystal3 and there are as many  
different  kinds of this juice1 as      
matters from which they proceed4        
,experience  perfectly agrees with this 
idea4 ,the waters which filtrate through
  stone quarries1 generally form soft   
and calcinable matters like the  stones 
themselves2 on the contrary1 those which
 spring from rock and  flint form hard  
and vitrifiable congelations1 which have
 all the  other properties of flint1 as 
the first have all those of stone2 so   
the waters which have penetrated the    

beds of mineral and metallic  substances
 produce pyrites1 marcasites1 and       
grains4    ,we have observed1 that we   
might divide all matters into two great 
classes1 vitrifiable and calcinable2    
clay and flint1 marle and stone1  may be
 looked upon as the two extremes of each
 of these classes1 the  intervals of    
which are filled with an almost infinite
 variety of the  mixt matters that have 
always one or other of these substances 
for  their basis4    ,the substances of 
the first class can never acquire the   
nature and  properties of the other4    
,stone will always be as remote from the
 nature  of flint1 as potters earth is  
from marle2 no known agent will ever be 
capable of making them quit the         
combinations peculiar to their nature3  
the country which produces stone and    
marble will remain to do so as          
certainly as those wherein there is only
 flint and granate will never  have     
either stone or marble4    ,if we       
observe the order and distribution of   

matters in a hill composed  of          
vitrifiable matters1 we shall commonly  
find1 under the first bed  of vegetable 
earth1 a bed of clay1 a vitrifiable     
matter1 analogous to  flint1 and which1 
as ,i have observed1 is only a          
decomposed vitrifiable  sand3 this bed  
of argilaceous earth or sand answers to 
a bed of gravel  met with in hills      
composed of calcinable matters3 beneath 
which we meet  with some beds of        
free-stone scarcely ever more than six  
inches thick1  and divided into small   
pieces by perpendicular clefts4 ,under  
these  beds are many others of the same 
matters1 and also beds of vitrifiable   
sand1 the free-stone becomes harder and 
its blocks encrease in size  in         
proportion as we descend2 underneath    
these we find a very hard  matter which 
,i have called live rock1 or flint in   
large masses1 which  is so hard as to   
resist the file1 graver1 and acid       
spirits1 more than  vitrifiable sand1   
and even powdered glass1 on which       

aqua-fortis seems  to have some effect4 
,if struck by another hard body it emits
 sparks1  and exhales a very penetrating
 smell of sulphur4 ,this massy flint1 as
  ,i have termed it1 is generally found 
with beds of clay1 earth1 coals1  and   
vitrifiable sand1 answers to the strata 
of hard stone and marbles1  which serve 
as a base to hills composed of          
calcinable matters4    ,water1 by       
flowing through perpendicular clefts1   
and by penetrating  the strata of these 
vitrifiable sands1 clays1 and earths1   
becomes  impregnated with the fine and  
most homogeneous parts of these matters1
  and forms many different concretions1 
such as talcs1 amianthus's1 and  various
 other substances produced by           
distillations through vitrifiable       
matters4    ,flint1 notwithstanding its 
hardness and density1 has1 like common  
marble and hard stone1 its exudations1  
from whence stalactites of  different   
kinds result1 whose varieties of        
transparency1 colours and               

configuration1 are according to the     
nature of the flint which produces      
them1 and the different metallic or     
heterogeneous matters which it          
contains4 ,rock crystal1 all precious   
stones1 white or coloured1 and  even    
diamonds1 may be regarded as stalactites
 of this kind4 ,flints  in small pieces1
 whose strata are generally concentric1 
are also  stalactites1 or parasitical   
stones2 from flints of large dimensions1
  and most fine opaque stones1 are only 
species of flint4 ,matters of  a        
vitrifiable kind1 as we have observed1  
do not produce so great a  variety of   
concretions as those of the calcinable  
class2 and these  concretions1 produced 
by flints1 are almost all hard and      
precious  stones2 whereas those of the  
calcareous are only soft matters of no  
value4    ,perpendicular clefts are     
found in rocks of flint1 as well as in  
those  of marble and hard stone2 they   
are sometimes even larger there1 which  
proves that matter is still dryer than  

stone3 hills1 whether of  calcinable or 
vitrifiable matters1 are supported by   
clay or vitrifiable  sand2 these are the
 common and general matters of which the
 globe is  composed1 and which ,i look  
on as the lightest parts1 or the scoria 
of vitrified matter1 with which it is   
internally filled2 thus all  mountains  
or plains have argilaceous earth or sand
 for their common  foundation4 ,for     
example1 we see that in the pits at     
,amsterdam and ,marly  la ,ville1       
vitrifiable sand was below every other  
stratum4    ,in most naked rocks it is  
observable that the sides of the        
perpendicular clefts1 whether broad or  
narrow1 correspond as exactly as  those 
of a piece of slit wood4 ,in the large  
quarries in ,arabia1 which  are almost  
composed of granate1 these perpendicular
 separations are  very frequent2 and    
although some are twenty or thirty yards
 wide1 yet  the ridges exactly          
correspond and leave a deep cavity      
between them4,,ak  ,it is very common to

 find in perpendicular clefts shells    
broken in  half1 and each piece         
remaining fastened to the stone on the  
opposite  side2 which proves these      
shells were placed in the solid stratum1
 and  before the cleft was made4,,al    
,,ak ,see ,shaw's ,travels1 vol4 ,,ii4  
p4 #hc4    ,,al ,see ,woodward1 page    
#aih4    ,in some matters the           
perpendicular clefts are very wide1 as  
in the  quarries quoted by ,shaw1 which 
perhaps is the reason that they are not 
so frequently met with4 ,in the quarries
 of flint and granate1 the stone  may be
 cut out in very large pieces without   
the smallest inconveniency1  as the     
obelisks and pillars seen at ,rome1     
which are upwards of sixty1  eighty1 an 
hundred1 or one hundred and fifty feet  
long4 ,it appears  that these large     
pillars were raised from the quarry1 and
 that they  are to be had of any        
required thickness1 as well as some     
species of  free-stone4 ,there are other
 matters where these perpendicular      

strata  are very narrow2 as in clay1    
marl1 and chalk1 and they are wider in  
marble and most hard stones4 ,some are  
imperceptible from being filled  with a 
matter nearly similar to that of the    
stone itself1 which  nevertheless breaks
 off the continuity of the stone1 and   
are what the  workmen call hairs4 ,i    
have often remarked that in marble and  
stone  these hairs cross the blocks     
entirely1 and differ from particular    
clefts only because their separation is 
not complete2 these kind of  clefts are 
filled with a transparent matter1 which 
is a true spar4  ,there are a great     
number of considerable clefts in the    
quarries of  free-stone2 this proceeds  
from these rocks often resting on less  
solid  bases than marble or calcinable  
stones1 which generally rest on clay4   
,there are many places where free-stone 
is not to be met with in large  masses2 
and in most quarries where it is good it
 lies in the form of  cubes and parallel
 pipedes placed on each other in a very 

irregular  manner1 as in the hills of   
,fontainbleau1 which at a distance      
appear to  be the ruins of ancient      
buildings4 ,this irregular disposition  
proceeds  from the base of these hills  
being composed of sand1 which permits   
the  rocks to sink one on the other1    
particularly in places that formerly    
have been worked1 which has occasioned a
 great number of clefts and  intervals  
between the blocks2 and we may observe1 
in every country  where sand and        
free-stone abound1 that there are many  
pieces of rock  and large stones in the 
middle of plains and vallies2 whereas in
 a  country consisting chiefly of marble
 and hard stone1 these scattered        
pieces1 which have rolled from the hills
 and mountains1 are very  scarce1 which 
proceeds only from the different        
solidity of the base on  which these    
stones rest1 and from the extent of the 
banks of marble and  calcinable stone1  
which is more considerable than that of 
free-stone4          ,,article ,,xviii4 

,,of ,,the ,,effects ,,of ,,rain--,,of  
,,marshes1 ,,subterraneous ,,wood1 ,,and
 ,,water4      ,we have already observed
 that rains1 and the currents of water  
they  produce1 continually detach from  
the heights of mountains sand1 earth1   
gravel1 c4 which they carry into plains1
 from whence the rivers  convey a part  
of them into the sea4 ,plains therefore 
are successively  filled1 and by degrees
 raised higher1 while mountains daily   
diminish4  ,joseph ,blancanus relates   
various facts on this subject1 which    
were of  public notoriety in his time1  
and which prove that mountains have been
  considerably lowered4 ,in the county  
of ,derby1 in ,england1 the steeple  of 
the village ,craich was not visible in  
#aegb from a certain mountain1  on      
account of the height of another which  
intervened2 in eighty or an  hundred    
years after1 not only this steeple but  
every part of the church  became visible
 from that very spot4 ,dr4 ,plot gives a
 similar example of  a mountain between 

,sibbertoft and ,ashby1 in              
,northamptonshire4 ,the rain  waters not
 only carry with them the lightest parts
 of the mountains1 as  earth1 gravel1   
and small stones1 but even undermine and
 roll down large  rocks1 which          
considerably diminish the height of     
them4 ,the mountains of  ,wales are very
 steep and high1 and the fragments of   
these rocks are to  be seen in large    
pieces at their feet1 which as well as  
all fragments  of rocks met with in     
vallies are the works of frosts and     
water4 ,it is  not mountains of sand and
 earth alone which the rain causes to   
sink1  for they attack the hardest      
rocks1 and carry with them large        
fragments  into the vallies4 ,in a      
valley in ,nant-phrancon1 in #afhe1 a   
part of a  large rock1 which rested on a
 narrow base1 having been undermined by 
the waters1 fell and broke in many      
pieces1 the largest of which1 in        
descending1 tore up a considerable      
trench in the plain1 and crossed a      

small river on the other side of which  
it stopped4 ,it is to similar  accidents
 we must attribute the origin of all the
 large stones found  adjacent to the    
mountains4 ,we must recollect1 as before
 observed1 that  these large stones1    
scattered abroad1 are more common in    
countries  whose mountains are composed 
of sand and free-stone1 than in those   
where their composition is marble and   
clay1 because sand is a less  solid     
foundation than clay4    ,to give an    
idea of the quantity of earth which the 
rain detaches from  mountains and       
carries into the vallies1 we shall quote
 a circumstance  related by ,dr4 ,plot2 
he says1 in his ,natural ,history of    
,staffordshire1  that #ah feet deep in  
the earth a great number of pieces of   
money had  been found1 coined in the    
reign of ,edward ,,iv4 two hundred years
 before  his time1 from which he        
concludes that the ground which is      
marshy has  increased above a foot in   
eleven years1 or an inch and a twelfth  

every  year4 ,a similar observation     
occurs with respect to some trees buried
  seventeen feet deep from the surface  
under which medals of ,julius ,csar     
were found2 so the earth1 brought from  
the top of mountains by the  waters1    
considerably increases the elevation of 
the ground of plains4    ,this gravel1  
sand1 and earth which the waters from   
mountains convey  into plains form      
strata1 which must not be confounded    
with the ancient  and original strata of
 the globe4 ,in the former class must be
 placed  those of soft stone1 gravel1   
and sand1 the grains of which are washed
  and rounded2 to these may be added1   
the strata of stones which are  formed  
by a kind of incrustation2 neither of   
which owe their origin  to the motion or
 sediments of the sea4 ,in these strata 
of soft and  imperfect stones are found 
an infinity of vegetables1 leaves1 land 
and  river shells1 and small bones of   
terrestrial animals1 but never sea      
shells1 or other marine productions2    

which evidently proves1 together  with  
their want of solidity1 that these      
strata are formed on the  surface of the
 dry land2 and that they are more modern
 than those of  marble and other stones 
which contain shells1 and were          
originally  formed by the sea4 ,all     
these modern stones appear to be hard   
and solid  when they are first hewn out1
 but when1 exposed to the weather1 the  
air  and rain presently dissolve them2  
their substance is so different from    
true stone1 that when reduced into      
minute parts1 to make sand of them1     
they are converted into a kind of earth 
or clay4 ,stalactites1 and other  stony 
concretions1 which ,tournefort took for 
vegetated marble1 are not  real stones1 
no more than those formed by the        
incrustations4 ,we have  already shewn  
that tufa is not of ancient formation1  
and must not be  ranked in the class of 
stones4 ,tufa is an imperfect matter1   
differing  from stone or earth1 but     
which derives its origin from both by   

the  means of rain water1 as            
incrustations derive theirs from the    
deposit  of the water of certain        
springs2 therefore the strata of these  
matters  are not ancient1 nor been      
formed like the rest1 by the sediments  
of  the sea4 ,the strata of turf are    
also modern1 and have been produced by  
the successive assemblage of leaves and 
other perishable vegetables1  and which 
are only preserved by a bitumous earth4 
,among these modern  strata we never    
meet with any marine production2 but1 on
 the contrary1  many vegetables1 bones  
of land animals1 and land and river     
shells1 as  may be seen in the meadows1 
near ,ashby1 in the county of           
,northampton1  where a great number of  
snail shells1 plants1 herbs1 and many   
river  shells are found all in good     
preservation1 some feet deep in the     
earth1  but not a single marine shell   
among them4,,am    ,,am ,see            
,philosophical ,trans4 ,abridg4 ,,xi4   
page #bga4    ,these new strata have    

been formed by the water which runs on  
the  surface of the earth1 often        
changing situation and dispersing on    
every side4 ,part of these waters       
penetrate internally and flow across    
the clefts of rocks and stones2 and the 
reason we meet with no water  in high   
lands1 no more than on the tops of      
hills1 is1 because all  elevations are  
generally composed of stone and rocks1  
therefore to  find water we must dig    
through the rock till we come to clay1  
or firm  earth1 on which these rocks    
stand1 and we shall not meet with any   
water  until the stone is pierced to the
 bottom3 therefore1 when the thickness  
of the rock1 which must be pierced1 is  
very considerable1 as in lofty          
mountains1 where they are often upwards 
of #ajjj feet in height1 it  is         
impossible to dig to their base1 and of 
course to have any water4  ,there are   
even large parts of land where there is 
not any water1 as in  ,arabia ,petrea1  
which is a desert where no rain ever    

falls1 where the  scorching sand covers 
the whole surface of the earth1 where   
there is  scarcely any vegetable soil1  
where the few plants found are sickly1  
and  where springs and wells are so very
 scarce that only five are reckoned     
between ,cairo and ,mount ,sinai1 and   
the water of them is salt and bitter4   
,when the waters on the surface cannot  
find vent to flow they form  marshes and
 fens4 ,the most famous marshes in      
,europe are those of  ,muscovy1 at the  
source of the ,tanais2 and those of     
,savolaxia and  ,enasak1 in ,finland2   
there are also some in ,holland1        
,westphalia1 and  other low countries3  
in ,asia are the marshes of the         
,euphrates1 of  ,tartary1 and of the    
,palus ,meotis2 nevertheless there are  
fewer of them  in ,asia and ,africa than
 in ,europe but ,america may be said to 
be but one  continued marsh throughout  
all its plains1 which is a greater proof
 of  the modern date of the country1 and
 of the small number of inhabitants     

than of their want of industry4         
,there are very great bogs in ,england1 
especially near the sea in              
,lincolnshire1 which has lost much      
ground on one side and gained it on  the
 other4 ,in the ancient ground a great  
number of trees are found  buried below 
the new ground1 which has been deposited
 there by the  water4 ,the same also are
 met with in ,scotland1 particularly at 
the  mouth of the river ,ness4 ,near    
,bruges1 in ,flanders1 in digging to the
  depth of #dj or #ej feet1 a great     
quantity of trees were found1 as close  
to each other as in a forest3 the       
trunks1 branches1 and leaves1 were  so  
well preserved that the different kinds 
were easily distinguished4  ,about #ejj 
years since1 the land where these trees 
were found was  covered by the sea1 and 
before that time there is no trace or   
tradition  that it ever existed2        
nevertheless it must have been so1 when 
these  trees stood and vegetated2       
therefore this ground1 which formerly   

was  covered with wood1 has been        
overwhelmed by the sea1 the waters of   
which has1 by degrees1 deposited there  
between #dj and #ej feet of earth  upon 
the former surface1 and then retired4 ,a
 number of subterraneous  trees have    
been also found at ,youle1 in           
,yorkshire1 #ab miles below  the town1  
near the river ,humber2 there are some  
large enough for  building2 and it is   
said1 perhaps improperly1 that this wood
 is as  durable as oak4 ,the people cut 
them into long thin slips1 and sell     
them in the neighbouring towns1 where   
they are used for lighting of  pipes4   
,all these trees appear broken1 and the 
trunks are separated from  the roots as 
if they had suffered the violence of a  
hurricane1 or an  inundation4 ,this wood
 greatly resembles willow1 it has the   
same smell  when burnt1 and makes       
charcoal exactly like it4,,an ,in the   
,isle of ,man  there is a marsh six     
miles long by three broad1 it is called 
,curragh2  subterraneous trees1 like    

willows1 are found there1 and although  
they are #ah or #bj feet high1 they are1
 nevertheless1 firm on their  roots4,,ao
 ,trees are met with in almost every    
morass1 bog1 and marsh1  in ,somerset1  
,chester1 ,lancaster1 and ,stafford4    
,there are some places  where trees are 
found under the earth1 which have been  
cut1 sawed1  squared1 and worked by the 
labour of man2 and even wedges and saws 
have  likewise been found by them4      
,between ,birmingham and ,bromley1 in   
the  county of ,lincoln1 there are lofty
 hills of fine light sand1 which the    
rain and wind sweep away1 leaving       
uncovered the roots of large willow     
trees1 on which the impression of the   
axe is exceedingly plain4 ,these  hills1
 without doubt1 have been formed like   
downs1 by the accumulation  of sand1    
which the waters of the sea has brought 
there and deposited at  different       
periods4 ,a great number of these       
subterraneous trees are also  found in  
the marshy lands of ,holland1           

,friesland1 and near ,groningen1  from  
whence the turfs which they burn are    
dug4    ,,an ,see ,philosophical        
,transactions1 ,no4 #bbh4    ,,ao ,see  
,ray's ,discourses1 page #bcb4    ,in   
the earth are found trees of almost     
every kind1 as willows1 oaks1  firs1    
aspins1 beach1 yew1 ash1 hawthorn1 c4   
,in the fens of ,lincoln1  along the    
river ,ouse1 and in ,hatfield-,chace1 in
 the county of ,york1  these trees are  
as straight as we see them in a forest4 
,the oaks are  very hard and used in    
buildings2 they are said to last a long 
time1  but which ,i must doubt1 as all  
trees that are dug out of the earth1  at
 least all those which ,i have seen1    
whether oak or others1 lose1 in  drying1
 all the solidity1 which they appeared  
to have at first4 ,the ash  is tender1  
and soon crumbles to dust4 ,there are   
many trees which have  clearly been     
shaped and sawed by men1 and the        
hatchets1 sometimes found  near them1   
resemble1 in form1 the knives anciently 

used in sacrifices4  ,besides trees1    
nuts1 acorns1 c4 are met with in great  
quantities1 in  many other fenny parts  
of ,england and ,ireland1 as well as the
 morasses  of ,france1 ,sweden1 ,savoy1 
and ,italy4,,ap    ,,ap ,see            
,transactions ,philosophical ,abridg4   
,vol4 ,,iv1 page #bah1 c4    ,in the    
city of ,modena1 and four miles round1  
whatever part of the earth  is dug1 to  
the depth of sixty-three feet1 and then 
bored five more with  an auger1 the     
water springs out with such great force1
 that the well  is filled instantly2 and
 this water continues always the same1  
neither  diminishing nor increasing by  
rain nor draught4 ,what is more         
remarkable  in this ground1 when we     
reach the depth of fourteen feet1 we    
find the  ruins of an ancient town1 as  
paved streets1 houses1 different pieces 
of  mosaic work1 c4 ,after this is a    
very solid ground1 which appears to     
have never been stirred2 yet below it we
 find a moist earth mixed with          

vegetables2 and at twenty-six feet      
entire trees1 as filberds with nuts     
thereon1 and a great quantity of        
branches and leaves4 ,at twenty-eight   
feet is a stratum of chalk mixed with   
shells1 and this bed is eleven  feet in 
thickness2 after this we again meet with
 vegetables2 and so on  alternatively to
 the depth of sixty-three1 feet1 when   
there is a bed  of sand mixed with      
gravel and shells1 like those formed on 
the coasts  of the ,italian sea2 these  
successive beds are always met with in  
the  same order1 wheresoever it has been
 dug1 and very often the auger  meets   
with large trunks of trees1 which the   
workmen bore through with  much labour4 
,bones of animals1 coals1 flint1 and    
pieces of iron are  also found4         
,ramazzini1 who relates these           
circumstances1 thinks that  the gulph of
 ,venice formerly extended beyond       
,modena1 and1 that by the  sediments of 
rivers in the course of time1 assisted  
perhaps by the  inundations of the sea1 

this ground has been formed4    ,i shall
 no longer dwell on the varieties in the
 formation of modern  strata1 it        
suffices to have shewn that they have   
been produced by no  other causes than  
the running and stagnate waters1 which  
are upon the  surface of the earth1 and 
that they are neither so hard nor solid 
as  the ancient strata which are formed 
under the waters of the sea4            
,,article ,,xix4    ,,of ,,the ,,changes
 ,,of ,,land ,,into ,,sea ,,and ,,sea   
,,into ,,land4      ,by what has been   
said in the ,articles ,i1 ,,vii1 ,,viii1
 and ,,ix1 it appears  that great and   
general changes have happened to the    
terrestrial globe2  and it is as        
certain1 from what we have related in   
other articles1 that  the surface of the
 earth has undergone particular         
alterations4 ,although  the order1 or   
succession1 of these particular         
alterations is not  perfectly known1 yet
 we are acquainted with the principal   
causes2 we  can even distinguish their  

different effects2 and if we could      
collect  all the facts1 which ,natural  
and ,civil ,history furnishes on the    
subject  of the revolutions which have  
happened to the surface of the earth1 we
  do not doubt but that the ,theory of  
the ,earth which we have1 laid down     
would receive additional support4       
,one of the principal causes of these   
alterations is the motion of the  sea2 a
 motion it has endured from the earliest
 ages2 for since the  sun1 moon1 earth1 
waters1 air1 c4 have existed from the   
time of the  creation1 the effects of   
the tides1 the motion of the sea from   
east to  west1 as well as that of the   
winds and currents1 must have been felt 
for the same space2 and if even we      
should suppose the axis of the globe    
had formerly another inclination1 and   
that the continents1 as well as  the    
sea1 had another disposition1 it does   
not destroy the motion of  flux and     
reflux1 nor alter the cause and effects 
of the winds3 it is  sufficient that the

 immense quantity of waters1 which fill 
the vast  space of the sea1 is found in 
some part on the globe of the earth1 for
  wherever they had been collected they 
would have still been subject to  the   
same motions1 and produced similar      
effects4    ,when it was once supposed  
that our continent was formerly the     
bottom of  the sea1 there was soon no   
doubt remaining thereon4 ,the           
devastations  of the sea1 which are     
every where to be met with2 the         
horizontal  situation of the strata of  
the earth2 and the correspondence of    
hills  and mountains1 appear as so many 
convincing proofs2 for by examining  the
 plains1 vallies1 and hills1 we clearly 
perceive that the surface of  the earth 
has been formed by the waters4 ,it is   
equally evident1 when  we look into the 
interior parts of the earth1 that those 
stones which  contain sea-shells1 have  
been formed by the sediments of the     
waters1  since the shells are found     
filled with the same matter as that     

which  surrounds them2 and lastly1 by   
reflecting on the corresponding angles  
of opposite hills1 we cannot doubt that 
their directions are the works  of the  
currents of the sea4 ,it is true1 that  
since the earth has been  left          
uncovered1 the original form of the     
surface has been constantly  changing2  
the mountains have diminished in height2
 the plains have been  elevated2 the    
angles of hills become more obtuse2 many
 matters washed  away by floods1 or     
rivers1 have taken a round shape2 beds  
of gravel1  soft stone1 c4 have been    
formed2 but the essential matter is     
still  remaining1 the ancient form is   
still apparent1 and ,i am persuaded that
  all the world may be convinced by     
their own inspection of what has been   
advanced on this subject2 and whoever   
attends to the observations and  proofs 
,i have given1 will not doubt1 the earth
 was formerly covered  by the waters of 
the sea1 and that it is the currents of 
the sea which  have given to the surface

 of the earth1 the form we at present   
perceive4    ,the principal motion of   
the sea is1 as we have already observed1
 from  east to west4 ,it also appears   
that the sea has gained above #ejj      
leagues  of ground on the eastern coasts
 of both the old and new continents2 for
  the proofs of which we refer to those 
given in ,article ,,xi4 and shall  only 
add thereto1 that all straits which join
 two seas1 are directed  from east to   
west2 the straits of ,magellan1         
,frobisher1 of ,hudson1  of ,ceylon1 and
 those of the seas of ,corea and        
,kamtschatka have all  this direction1  
and appear to have been formed by the   
currents of the  waters1 which being    
impelled from east to west1 opened these
 passages  in the same direction1 and in
 which they preserve a more considerable
  motion than in any other2 for in these
 straits there are high and  violent    
tides1 whereas in those situated on the 
western coasts1  like that of           
,gibraltar1 ,sund1 c4 the motion of the 

tides is almost  insensible4    ,the    
inequalities of the bottom of the sea   
change the direction of the  water's    
motion2 they have been successively     
produced by the sediments  of the water1
 and by matters transported by the tides
 or other motions2  for we do not       
consider the motion of the tides as the 
sole cause of  those inequalities1 but  
only as the principal and first1 because
 it  is the most constant and acts      
without interruption2 the action of the 
winds is another cause2 the action of   
which beginning at the surface1  extends
 to considerable depths1 as is plain    
from the matters that are  loosened and 
thrown up by a storm from the bottom of 
the sea1 and which  never happens but in
 tempestuous weather4    ,we have       
already mentioned that between the      
tropics1 and even some  degrees beyond  
them1 an east wind continually blows2   
this wind1 which  contributes to the    
general motion of the sea from east to  
west1 is as  ancient as the flux and    

reflux1 since it depends on the         
rarefaction  of the air1 produced by the
 heat of the sun4 ,here then are two    
united  causes of motion1 the greatest  
of which is near the equator4 ,the      
first1  the tides which are more        
sensibly felt in southern latitudes3 and
 the  second1 the east wind which blows 
continually in the same climates4       
,these two causes have concurred1 ever  
since the formation of the globe1  to   
produce a motion in the waters from east
 to west1 and to agitate  them more in  
that part of the globe than in all the  
rest4 ,it is for  this reason that the  
greatest inequalities of the surface of 
the globe  are found between the        
tropics4 ,the part of ,africa1          
comprehended between  these two circles1
 is only a group of mountains whose     
different chains  extend for the most   
part from east to west1 as is evident   
from the  direction of the great rivers 
of this part of the world2 it is the    
same  with those parts of ,asia and     

,america which are comprised between the
  tropics4    ,from the combination of  
the general motion of the sea from east 
to  west1 with the flux and reflux of   
the currents1 and the winds1 an         
infinite number of different effects has
 resulted1 both on the bottom  of the   
sea1 and on the coasts4 ,varenius says1 
it is very probable that  the gulphs and
 straits have been formed by the        
reiterated efforts of  the ocean against
 the land2 that the ,mediterranean sea1 
the gulphs of  ,arabia1 ,bengal1 and    
,cambay1 have been formed by the        
eruption of the  waters1 as well as the 
straits between ,sicily and ,italy1     
between ,ceylon  and ,india1 between    
,greece and ,euboea1 and that it is the 
same with  respect to the straits of the
 ,manillas1 ,magellan1 c4 that one proof
  of these eruptions1 and that the sea  
has forsaken different lands is1  that  
but few islands are to be met with in   
the great seas1 and never  a great      
number of islands close to each other2  

that in the immense  space occupied by  
the ,pacific sea1 not above two or three
 small islands  are to be found towards 
the middle of it2 that in the vast      
,atlantic  ocean1 between ,africa and   
the ,brazils1 we only find the small    
islands  of ,st4 ,helena and ,ascension2
 but that all islands are near the great
  continents1 as those of the           
,archipelago1 near the continents of    
,europe  and ,asia1 the ,canaries1 near 
,africa1 all the islands of the ,indian 
sea1  near the eastern coast of ,asia2  
the ,antille islands1 close to that of  
,america1 and that only the ,azores lie 
at any great distance in the sea        
between ,europe and ,america4    ,the   
inhabitants of ,ceylon say1 that their  
island was separated from  the peninsula
 of ,india by an eruption of the ocean2 
and this popular  tradition is very     
probable4 ,it is also imagined the      
island of ,sumatra  has been separated  
from the continent1 and the great number
 of shoals  and sand banks are a strong 

proof of it4 ,the ,malabars assert1 that
  the ,maldivian islands formed a part  
of the continent of ,india1 and in      
general it may be reasonably supposed   
that all the eastern islands  have been 
divided from the continents by eruptions
 of the ocean4,,aq    ,,aq ,see         
,varenius ,geography1 page #bjc1 #bag1  
and #bbj4    ,there is an appearance    
that formerly the island of ,great      
,britain  was part of the continent1 and
 that ,england was joined to ,france2   
the similarity of the stones on the two 
coasts1 and the narrowness  of this     
strait seem plainly to indicate it4 ,by 
supposing1 says ,dr4  ,wallis1 that     
,england formerly communicated with     
,france1 by an isthmus  between ,dover  
and ,calais1 it must follow that the sea
 would be carried  against both sides of
 it with great violence by the tides    
twice in  every twenty-four hours1 the  
,german ocean1 which is between ,england
  and ,holland1 striking of it on the   
eastern side1 and that of ,france on    

the west1 would be sufficient in time to
 wear away so narrow a neck  of land1 as
 we have supposed4 ,the tides acting    
with great violence1  not only against  
this isthmus but also against the coasts
 of ,france  and ,england1 must have    
washed away a great quantity of sand1   
earth1  and clay1 from every part       
against which the sea was forced3 but1  
being  stopt in its course1 it would not
 deposite1 as might be supposed1 their  
sediments against this isthmus1 but     
transported them into the great  plain  
that now forms ,romney ,marsh1 which is 
eight miles long by four  broad2 for    
whosoever has seen this plain1 cannot   
doubt but that it  was formerly covered 
with the sea1 as it would be still      
overflowed by  spring tides if it was   
not for the ,dikes of ,dimchurch4       
,the ,german sea must have acted in the 
same manner against this isthmus1  and  
the coasts of ,england and ,flanders    
would convey its sediments into         
,holland and ,zealand1 the ground of    

which1 though formerly covered  with    
water1 is now forty feet above4 ,on the 
coast of ,england1 the  ,german sea must
 have filled up that large valley1 where
 the river  ,stour actually flows for   
more than #bj miles1 beginning at       
,sandwich1  passing ,canterbury1        
,chatham1 ,chilham as far as ,ashford4  
,at this place  the ground is much      
higher than it was formerly1 since at   
,chatham the  bones of an hippopotamus  
were found seventeen feet deep in the   
earth1  together with anchors and marine
 shells4    ,it is very probable the sea
 may form new land1 by bringing and     
depositing1 at particular places1 sand1 
earth1 mud1 c4 for in the  island of    
,orkney1 which is adjacent to ,romney   
,marsh1 there was a tract  of low land  
continually in danger of being inundated
 by the river  ,rother2 but in less than
 #fj years this ground has been         
considerably  elevated by quantities of 
earth and mud being brought thither     
every  tide1 and the channel through    

which it enters1 in less than fifty     
years  has deepened so much as to admit 
of the reception of large vessels1      
whereas at that time it was a ford over 
which people might pass4    ,in this    
manner1 the sand bank was formed which  
extends obliquely from  the coast of    
,norfolk to that of ,zealand4 ,this bank
 forms that part  where the tides of the
 ,german and ,french sea meet1 since the
 isthmus  has been broken1 and where the
 earth and sand are deposited which are 
washed away from the coasts2 nor is it  
by any means improbable but that  in the
 course of time this bank may become an 
isthmus4,,ar    ,,ar ,see ,abridgment of
 ,philosophical ,transactions1 vol4     
,,ii4 page #bbg4    ,there is a great   
appearance1 says ,ray1 that the island  
of ,great ,britain  was formerly joined 
to ,france1 and formed part of that     
continent3 but  it is not known whether 
its separation was caused by an         
earthquake1  an eruption of the ocean1  
or by the labour of man2 but that this  

island formed part of the continent is  
evident1 from the rocks and  coasts of  
both being of the same nature1 composed 
of the same matters1  and exactly of the
 same height2 the length of the rocks1  
along these  coasts1 are also nearly the
 same1 about six miles on either side4  
,the  little breadth of the channel1    
which in this part is not more than     
twenty-four ,english miles1 and its     
shallowness1 comparatively with the     
neighbouring sea1 is another reason to  
suppose that ,england has been  divided 
from ,france by accident4 ,we may add to
 these proofs1 that there  were formerly
 wolves and bears in this island2 it is 
not to be presumed  that they could swim
 over1 nor that men transported such    
destructive  animals2 for in general we 
find the noxious animals of the         
continent  in the adjacent islands1 and 
never in those which are separated from 
them by a great distance2 as the        
,spaniards remarked when they landed in 
,america4,,as    ,,as ,see ,ray's       

,discourses1 page #bjh4    ,in the reign
 of ,henry ,i4 ,king of ,england1 a     
great inundation happened  by an        
eruption of the sea in part of          
,flanders4 ,in #addf by a like  eruption
 #aj1jjj persons were drowned in the    
territory of ,dordrecht1 and  more than 
#ajj1jjj round ,dullart1 ,friezeland1   
and in ,zealand4 ,in these  last two    
provinces upwards of #cjj villages were 
overflowed2 the tops of  their towers   
and steeples are still to be seen rising
 out of the water4    ,from the coasts  
of ,france1 ,england1 ,holland and      
,germany1 the sea has  retreated in many
 parts4 ,hubert ,thomas relates1 in his 
description  of ,liege1 that the sea    
formerly surrounded the walls of the    
city of  ,tongres1 which is now more    
than #ce leagues distant from it2 this  
he  proves by many eligible reasons1    
and1 among others1 he says2 that in  his
 time the iron rings1 to which the ships
 were moored1 were to be  seen remaining
 in the walls4 ,we may likewise look on 

as lands deserted  by the sea1 the fens 
of ,lincoln in ,england1 ,provence in   
,france1 and  which has also very       
considerably retreated from the mouth of
 the ,rhone  since the year #affe4 ,in  
,italy a considerable tract of land has 
been  gained at the mouth of the ,arno2 
and ,ravenna1 formerly a sea-port1 is   
no longer a maritime town4 ,holland     
appears to be an entire new country1    
where the surface of the earth is almost
 on a level with the sea1  although the 
land is considerably elevated by the    
daily deposit of  mud and earth from the
 ,rhine1 ,maese1 c4 for it was formerly 
computed  that the ground of ,holland   
was1 in many places1 #ej feet lower than
 the  bottom of the sea4    ,it is      
asserted1 that in the year #hfj1 a      
furious tempest drove on the  coast so  
great a quantity of sand that it shut up
 the mouth of the  ,rhine1 near the     
,cat1 and that this river inundated the 
whole country1  tore up trees and       
houses1 and1 at last1 emptied itself    

into the  channel of the ,maese4 ,in    
#adba another inundation separated the  
town  of ,dordrecht from the main land1 
submerged #gb villages1 many castles1   
and drowned #ajj1jjj souls1 beside a    
great number of cattle4 ,the dyke  of   
,yssel was broken in #afch by the ice   
brought down by the ,rhine1  which1     
having shut up the passage of the water1
 made an opening of some  fathoms1 and a
 great part of the province was         
overflowed before the  breach could be  
repaired4 ,in #afhb there was a similar 
inundation in  the province of ,zealand1
 which destroyed upwards of #cj         
villages1 and  drowned a considerable   
number of people and cattle1 from their 
being  surprised by the waters in the   
night4 ,it was a fortunate circumstance 
for ,holland that a south wind opposed  
the inroad of the sea1 for it  was so   
greatly swelled that the water was #ah  
feet higher than the  highest ground of 
the province4,,at    ,,at ,see the      
,historical ,voyages of ,europe1 vol ,v4

 page #gj4    ,at ,hithe1 in the county 
of ,kent1 the harbour has filled up in  
defiance  of every expence and          
precaution that was made to prevent it4 
,a  surprising number of sea-shells1 c4 
are met with for several miles  round1  
which were formerly heaped together1 and
 which are now covered  by earth1 and   
are beautiful meadows4 ,on the other    
side the sea has  gained in several     
places1 as for instance1 the ,goodwin   
,sands1 which was  an estate belonging  
to an ,earl of that name1 but at present
 is no more  than sand covered by the   
waters of the sea3 thus the sea in many 
places  gains on the land and loses in  
others1 according to the different      
situation of the coasts1 and other      
circumstances4,,au    ,,au ,see ,abridg4
 ,philosophical ,trans4 vol4 ,,iv4 p4   
#bcd4    ,on ,mount ,stella1 in         
,portugal1 is a lake in which the wrecks
 of ships  have been found1             
notwithstanding this mountain is more   
than #ab  leagues from the sea4,,av     

,sabinius1 in his ,commentaries on      
,ovid's  ,metamorphoses1 says1 that in  
the year #adfj a ship1 with its anchors1
  was found in a mine of the ,alps4     
,,av ,see ,gordon's ,geography1 page    
#adi4    ,it is not in ,europe alone we 
meet with these vicissitudes of land    
into  sea and sea into land2 other parts
 of the world might furnish more        
remarkable1 and in a greater number1 if 
investigated with precision4    ,calecut
 was formerly a famous city and the     
capital of a kingdom of that  name2 at  
present it is only a trifling town1     
meanly built1 and but  thinly inhabited3
 the sea1 which for a century has gained
 greatly on  this coast1 has overflowed 
the greatest part of the old city1 with 
a  beautiful fortress of stone which was
 therein4 ,vessels at present moor  on  
their ruins1 and the port is filled with
 a great number of shoals1  and on which
 ships are frequently wrecked4,,aw      
,,aw ,see ,letters ,edifiantes ,recueil 
#aa4 page #ahg4    ,the province of     

,jucatan1 a peninsula in the gulph of   
,mexico1 was  formerly a part of the    
sea4 ,this neck of ground extends #ajj  
leagues in  length1 and is not more than
 #be leagues at its greatest breadth4   
,the  air is perfectly hot and moist4   
,although there are neither rivulets nor
  rivers throughout so long a space1 the
 water is every where so nigh the       
surface as to furnish plenty2 and1 by   
opening the earth1 so great a  number of
 shells are found as to leave no doubt  
that this great extent  may be regarded 
as a place which formerly was part of   
the sea4    ,the inhabitants of ,malabar
 pretend that formerly the ,maldivian   
islands  were attached to the ,indian   
continent1 and that the violence of the 
sea has divided them from it4 ,the      
number of these islands is so great1    
and some of the channels1 which separate
 them1 are so narrow1 that  the         
boltsprits of vessels which pass them   
tear off the leaves of the  trees on    
each side1 and in some places an active 

man1 by holding by the  branch of a     
tree1 may leap into another island4,,ax 
,,ax ,see the ,dutch ,travels to the    
,east-,indies1 page #bgd4    ,the       
cocoa-trees1 which are at the bottom of 
the sea1 is a proof that  the           
,maldivians were formerly part of the   
continent3 cocoa-nuts are  often        
detached from them and thrown on the    
shore by a storm4    ,it is imagined    
that the island of ,ceylon was formerly 
united to the  continent1 and that the  
currents1 which are extremely rapid in  
many  parts of ,india1 have divided that
 as well as ,rammanakoil1 and many      
other islands4,,ay ,however1 it is      
certain that the island of ,ceylon  has 
lost #cj or #dj leagues of ground       
towards the north-west side1 which  the 
sea has gained4    ,,ay ,see the ,dutch 
,travels to the ,east-,indies1 vol4     
,,ii4 p4 #dhf4    ,it appears that the  
sea has recently forsaken a great part  
of the  projecting lands and islands of 
,america4 ,we have just observed1 that  

the ground of ,jucatan is filled with   
shells4 ,it is the same with the  low   
lands of ,martinico and the other       
,antille islands4 ,the inhabitants  have
 termed the earth below the surface     
lime1 because they make  their lime with
 these shells1 considerable banks of    
which are found  immediately under the  
vegetable earth4 ,in the new voyages to 
the  islands of ,america it is said1    
lime1 which is found in the land of     
,guadaloupe1 when the earth is turned   
up1 is of the same kind as that  drawn  
out of the sea1 the reason of which is  
difficult to be assigned4  ,might it not
 be possible1 that all the extent of    
ground1 which composes  this island1    
was1 in former times1 only a high ground
 filled with  lime-plants1 which having 
grown and filled the void spaces that   
were  occupied by the water1 have raised
 up the ground1 obliged the water  to   
retire1 and leave all the superficies   
dry8 ,this conjecture1 as  extraordinary
 as at first it may appear1 has1        

nevertheless1 nothing  impossible in it2
 and if the people who reside there were
 to dig in  different parts of the earth
 they would discover what the real soil 
is1  and by that means destroy or       
strengthen my conjecture4    ,there are 
some lands which are sometimes covered  
with water and  sometimes uncovered1 as 
many islands in ,norway1 ,scotland1     
,maldivias1  the gulph of ,cambaya1 c4  
,the ,baltic has1 by little and little1 
gained  a great part of ,pomerania1 and 
covered and destroyed the famous port of
  ,vineta4 ,so likewise the sea of      
,norway has projected into the          
continent1  and formed many small       
islands4 ,the ,german sea has projected 
into  ,holland near ,cat1 insomuch that 
the ruins of an ancient citadel of  the 
,romans1 which was formerly on the      
coast1 are now very far in the  sea4    
,the marshy grounds in the ,isle of     
,ely1 in ,england1 and those in         
,provence1 in ,france1 are1 on the      
contrary1 as we have observed1 land     

which the sea has abandoned4 ,downs have
 been formed by the sea-winds1  which   
have thrown and accumulated earth1 sand1
 shells1 c4 on the  shore4 ,for example1
 on the western coast of ,france1       
,spain1 and ,africa1  durable and       
violent westerly winds reign1 which     
impel the waters  towards the shore with
 great impetuosity1 and on which coasts 
downs are  very frequent4 ,in the like  
manner the easterly winds1 when they    
remain  any long time1 so strongly drive
 the waters from the coasts of ,syria   
and ,phoenicia that the chain of rocks1 
which are covered with water  during the
 westerly winds1 are left quite dry4    
,thus downs are never  composed of      
stone1 or marble1 like mountains formed 
in the bottom of  the sea1 because they 
have not been long enough under the     
water4 ,in our  discourse on minerals we
 shall shew that the sea possesses the  
power  of petrifaction1 and that the    
stones formed in the earth are quite    
different from those formed in the sea4 

,when ,i had just finished my ,theory of
 the ,earth1 which ,i composed in       
#agdd1 ,i received from ,mons4 ,barrere1
 his dissertation on the origin of      
figured stones1 and ,i was pleased to   
find myself of the same opinion  with   
this able naturalist1 on the subject of 
the formation of downs1  and the time   
the water remained on the earth which we
 inhabit2 he  recounts many alterations 
which have happened to the sea coasts3  
,aiguis-mortes1 which is now more than a
 league and a half from the  sea1 was a 
port in the time of ,st4 ,louis3        
,psalmodi was an island in  #hae1 and at
 present it is inland two leagues from  
the sea4 ,it is the  same with respect  
to ,maguelone4 ,the greatest part of the
 vineyards of  ,agde1 was forty years   
ago covered by the sea3 and in ,spain   
the sea  has considerably retreated     
within a short space of time from       
,blancs1  ,badalona1 the mouth of the   
river ,vobregat1 ,cape ,tortosa1 along  
the  coasts of ,valentia1 c4    ,the sea

 may form hills and mountains in many   
different manners2  first1 by the       
transportations of earth1 sand1 and     
shells1 from one  place to another2     
secondly1 by depositing sediments1      
consisting of  small particles detached 
from the coasts and bottom1 and which it
  might have transported from a         
considerable distance2 and lastly1 by   
sand1 mud1 and other articles1 which the
 sea winds often drive against  coasts1 
downs and hills may be produced1 which  
the water forsaking1  by degrees1 become
 parts of the continent4 ,the downs of  
,flanders and  ,holland are of this     
kind1 being only hills composed of sand 
and shells1  which the sea winds have   
driven towards the land4 ,mons4 ,barrere
 quotes  another example which merits a 
place in this work4 ,the sea1 by its    
motion1 detaches from its bottom an     
infinity of plants1 shells1 slime1  and 
sand1 which the waves and winds         
continually drive towards the  shore4   
,now1 all these different operations    

must continually form new  strata1      
elevate the beds of earth1 gradually    
raising downs and hills1  retrenching   
the bounds of the ocean1 and by that    
means extending the  lands on the       
continents4    ,it is visible that new  
strata have been successively formed by 
the  same reiterated motion of the      
waters from the deposition of sediments 
and other constant causes from time     
immemorial2 of which ,i find strong     
proofs in the different beds of fossils1
 shells1 and other marine  productions  
found in ,roussillon near the village of
 ,naffiac1 about  seven or eight leagues
 from the sea2 these beds of shells     
which are  inclined from the west to the
 east1 and in different angles1 are     
separated from each other by banks of   
sand and earth1 are sometimes  from one 
and a half to two or three feet in      
thickness4 ,they appear  as if sprinkled
 with salt in dry weather1 and form     
together hillocks  from twenty-five to  
thirty fathoms in height3 now a long    

chain of  hills of such an height can   
only be formed gradually1 and at        
different  successions of time4 ,such   
might be the effect of an universal     
deluge1  which must have disturbed all  
nature2 but which could not have given a
  regular form to these different beds  
of fossil shells1 but would have        
jumbled them together without any order 
or regularity4    ,on this subject ,i am
 perfectly of the same opinion as ,m4   
,barrere1  excepting as to the formation
 of mountains1 which ,i cannot agree    
ought to be entirely attributed to the  
causes which occasion the  ocean to gain
 upon the land on some parts1 and lose  
it upon others4  ,as ,i am1 on the      
contrary1 of opinion1 ,i could produce  
many convincing  arguments to prove that
 most of the eminencies seen on the     
surface of  the earth have been actually
 formed in the sea itself4 ,first1      
because  they have a correspondence of  
saillant and returning angles1 which    
necessarily implies the cause we have   

assigned1 that is1 the motion of  the   
currents4 ,secondly1 because downs and  
hills1 which are formed by  the         
materials that the sea brings on its    
shores1 are not composed of  marble and 
hard stone1 like common hills2 the      
shells also in the former  are generally
 only fossils1 whereas in the latter1   
the petrifaction is  compleat2 besides  
the beds of earth are not so horizontal 
in downs  as in the hills composed of   
marble and hard stone1 but are more or  
less inclined1 as in the hills of       
,naffiac1 whereas in the hills and      
mountains1 formed under the water by the
 sediment of the sea1 the  strata are   
always parallel1 and very often         
horizontal1 and the shells  and other   
marble are entirely petrified4 ,i have  
no doubt of proving  that marble and    
other calcinable matters1 which are     
almost all composed  of madrepores1     
astroites1 and shells1 have acquired    
their hardness and  perfection at the   
bottom of the sea2 on the contrary1     

gravel1 soft  stones1 incrustations1    
stalactites1 c4 which are also          
calcinable and  found in the earth1 and 
formed since our continent has been     
discovered1  cannot acquire this degree 
of hardness and petrifaction which      
marble or  hard stones have4    ,in the 
history of the ,french ,academy for     
#agjh1 may be seen the  observations of 
,saulmon1 on the subject of the galets  
found in many  places4 ,these galets are
 round and flat flints very smooth1 and 
which  are cast on the shores by the    
sea4 ,at ,bayeux1 and at ,prutel1 which 
are a league from the sea1 we find them 
in digging wells or pits4 ,the          
mountains of ,bonneuil1 ,broie1 and     
,quesny1 which are eighteen leagues     
from the sea1 are all covered with      
galets2 they are also found in the      
valley of ,clermont in ,beauvois4 ,m4   
,saulmon likewise relates1 that a  hole1
 #af feet deep1 was bored horizontally  
into the beach of ,tresport1  which is  
soft earth1 and that it entirely        

disappeared in #cj years3 so  that if   
the sea always encroaches alike1 it     
would gain half a league in  #ab1jjj    
years4    ,the motions of the sea are   
therefore the principal causes of the   
alterations which have happened1 and    
which daily happen on the surface  of   
the globe4 ,but there are many1 other   
causes1 which1 though less              
considerable1 contribute to those       
changes4 ,running waters1 rivers1       
streams1 the melting of snow1 torrents1 
frosts1 c4 have occasioned  many        
changes2 the rains have diminished the  
height of mountains2 rivers  and        
rivulets have raised plains1 and stopped
 up the sea at their  mouths2 the       
melting of snow1 and torrents1 have dug 
hollows in vallies2  and the frosts have
 split rocks and separated them from    
their former  stations4 ,we might quote 
an infinity of examples on the          
alterations  these causes have          
occasioned4 ,varenius says1 that rivers 
convey into  the sea great quantities of

 earth1 which they deposit at a greater 
or  less distance from the coasts1      
according to the rapidity of their      
currents2 these earths fall to the      
bottom of the sea1 and1 at first1  form 
those small banks which daily encrease1 
become shoals1 and1 at  last1 form      
islands1 which are fertile and          
inhabitable4 ,this is the  manner in    
which the islands of the ,nile are      
formed1 as well as those  of ,st4       
,laurence1 the ,isle of ,landa1 situate 
on the coast of ,africa1  near the mouth
 of the river ,coanza1 the island of    
,norway1 c4,,az ,to  these may be added 
the island of ,trong ,ming1 at ,china1  
which has been  gradually formed by the 
earth that the river ,nankin has brought
 and  deposited it at its mouth4 ,this  
island is more than #bj leagues long by 
five or six broad4,,ba    ,,az ,see     
,varenni ,geograph4 page #bad4    ,,ba  
,see ,letters ,edifiantes1 ,recueil xi4 
page #bcd4    ,the ,po1 ,trento1        
,athesis1 and other rivers of ,italy1   

bring with them  great quantities of    
earths into the lakes of ,venice1       
especially during  the time of          
inundations1 which1 in course of time1  
must fill them  up4 ,in many places they
 are now dry at low water1 and1         
excepting the  canals1 which are kept up
 at a great expence1 have no depth of   
water4    ,at the mouths of the ,nile1  
the ,ganges1 the ,indus1 the ,plata1 the
  ,nankin1 and of many other rivers1 the
 earth and sand deposited form          
considerable banks4 ,loubere1 in his    
,voyage to ,siam1 says1 that the  banks 
of sand and earth daily increase at the 
mouths of the great  rivers of ,asia1   
insomuch that the navigation of them    
becomes every day  more difficult1 and  
will one day be impassable4 ,the same   
remark may  be made of the large rivers 
of ,europe1 and particularly of the     
,wolga1  which has more than #gj mouths 
in the ,caspian sea1 and of the ,danube1
  which has seven in the ,black sea1 c4 
,as it seldom rains in ,egypt the       

regular inundations of the ,nile proceed
  from the torrents which fall therein  
from ,ethiopa4 ,these annually  bring   
with them great quantities of mud1 which
 they not only deposit  on the land of  
,egypt but even throw to a considerable 
distance in the  sea1 and thus lay the  
foundation of a new land1 which1 in the 
course  of time1 arises therefrom2 for1 
by sounding with the lead1 we find1  at 
more than #bj leagues distance from the 
coast1 the mud of the ,nile  at the     
bottom of the sea1 and which is every   
year increasing4 ,lower  ,egypt1        
where,,bb ,dela at present stands1 was  
formerly a gulph of the  sea4 ,homer    
tells us that the island of ,pharos was 
#bd hours voyage from  ,egypt1 and at   
present it is almost contiguous to it4  
,the soil of ,egypt  has not the same   
depth of good ground throughout its     
extent1 it lessens  as we approach the  
sea4 ,near the borders of the ,nile     
there is sometimes  near thirty feet    
depth of good earth1 whereas at the     

extremity of the  inundation there is   
scarcely more than seven inches4,,bc    
,the town of  ,damietta1 at present more
 than #aj miles from the sea1 in #abdc  
was a  sea-port4 ,the town of ,fooah1   
which1 #cjj years ago1 was situate at   
the  mouth of the ,canopic1 a branch of 
the ,nile1 is now more than seven       
leagues from it4 ,within #dj years the  
sea has retreated half a league  from   
before ,rosetta and ,idern4    ,,bb ,see
 ,diodorus de ,suc1 lib4 #c4 ,aristotle1
 lib4 #a4 of ,meteors1 h4  xiv4         
,herodotus1 f4 #d1 #e1 c4    ,,bc ,see  
,shaw's ,travels1 vol4 ,,ii4 page #ahe1 
and #ahf4    ,the great rivers of       
,america1 and even those which have been
 but  lately discovered1 have suffered  
great alterations at their mouths4      
,charlevoix1 speaking of the river      
,mississipi1 says1 that at its mouth1   
below ,new ,orleans1 the country forms a
 point of land which does not  appear to
 be very ancient1 for by digging but a  
little into the earth  water is met     

with2 besides1 the quantity of small    
islands which have  recently been formed
 at all the mouths of this river1 leaves
 no doubt  of this neck of land being   
formed after the same manner4 ,it       
appears  certain1 says he1 that when ,m4
 de la ,salle went down the ,mississipi1
 to  the sea1 the mouth of this river   
was not as it is at this present time4  
,the nearer we approach towards the sea1
 adds he1 the more it becomes           
perceptible1 the bar has scarcely any   
water in most of the small  outlets     
which the river has opened1 and which   
have multiplied so  greatly from the    
trees that are carried along with the   
currents1 one of  which stopt in a part 
where it is shallow1 will entangle      
hundreds4 ,i  have seen1 continues he1  
#bjj leagues from ,new ,orleans1        
collections of  trees1 one of which     
would have filled all the timber-yards  
of ,paris4  ,nothing can set them free2 
the mud which the river brings down     
serves  to cement1 and1 by degrees1     

covers them4 ,each inundation leaves a  
new  stratum1 and1 after #aj years1     
shrubs and vegetables grow thereon3     
after  this manner most points and      
islands are formed1 which so often      
change  the course of rivers4,,bd       
,,bd ,see ,charlevoix ,travels1 vol4    
,,ii4 page #ddj4    ,nevertheless all   
the changes which rivers cause are very 
slow1 and  become not considerable till 
after a long series of years3 but quick 
and sudden changes have happened by     
inundations and earthquakes4  ,the      
ancient ,egyptian priests1 #fjj years   
before the birth of ,christ1  asserted1 
according to the ,timus of ,plato1 that 
there was a great  island near ,hercules
 ,pillars2 called ,atlantis1 which was  
larger than  ,lybia and ,asia taken     
together2 and that this island was      
buried under  the waters of the ocean   
after a great earthquake4 ,traditur     
,atheniensis  civitas restitisse olim   
innumeris hostium copiis qu1 ex         
,atlantico mari  profect1 prope cunctam 

,europam ,asiamque obsederunt2 tunc enim
 fretum  illud navigabile habens in ore 
et quasi vestibulo ejus insulam quam    
,herculis columnas cognominant2         
ferturque insula illa ,lybi simul et    
,asi ,major fuisse1 per quam ad alias   
proximas insulas patebat aditus1  atque 
ex insulis ad omnem continentem         
conspectu jacentem vero mari  vicinam3  
sed intr os ipsum portes augusto sinu   
traditur1 pelagus illud  verum mare1    
terra quoque illa ver erat continens1 c4
 ,post hc ingenti  terr motu jugique    
diei unius et noctis illuvione factum   
est1 ut terra  dehiscens omnis illos    
bellicosos absorberet1 et ,atlantis     
insula sub  vasto gurgite mergeretur4   
,plato in ,timus4 ,this ancient         
tradition  is not absolutely contrary to
 all probability4 ,the earths which were
  absorbed by the waters are perhaps    
those which join ,ireland to the        
,azores1 and those to the continent of  
,america2 for in ,ireland there are  the
 same fossils1 shells1 and marine       

productions as in ,america1 some of     
which are different from any found in   
other parts of ,europe1    ,eusebius    
relates two testimonies on the subject  
of deluges3 one of  which is ,melo1 who 
says that the plains of ,syria had      
formerly been  laid under water2 the    
other is ,abydenus1 who says1 that in   
the time  of ,king ,sisithrus there was 
a great deluge1 which had been predicted
  by ,saturnus1 ,plutarch ,de ,solestia 
,animalium4 ,ovid1 and other            
mythologists1 speak of the deluge of    
,deucalion1 which1 according to  them1  
was in ,thessaly1 about #gjj years from 
the universal deluge4 ,it is  also      
asserted that there had been one more   
ancient in ,attica1 in the  time of     
,ogiges1 about #bcj years before that of
 ,deucalion4    ,in the year #ajie there
 was a deluge in ,syria1 which drowned a
 number  of people4,,be ,in #aafd there 
was so considerable a one in            
,friezeland1  that all maritime coasts  
were covered1 and several thousands of  

the  inhabitants drowned4,,bf ,in #abah 
there was another inundation which      
destroyed near an hundred thousand      
people4 ,there are a multitude of  other
 examples of great inundations1 like    
that of #afjd in ,england1 and  many    
more4    ,,be ,see ,alsted4 ,chron4     
chap4 #be4    ,,bf ,see ,krank1 ,lib4   
#e1 cap4 #d4    ,a third cause of the   
change on the surface of the globe1 are 
impetuous  winds4 ,they not only form   
downs and hills on the sea shores1 but  
they  often stop and choak up rivers1   
and change their directions2 they tear  
up cultivated land1 destroy trees1      
overthrow edifices1 and cover entire    
countries with sand4 ,we have an example
 of these inundations of sand on  the   
coasts of ,britany in ,france3 the      
history of the ,royal ,academy at       
,paris1 anno #agbb1 makes mention of it 
in the following terms4    ,in the      
environs of ,st4 ,paul de ,leon1 in     
,lower ,britany1 there is a  quarter    
near the sea1 which before the year     

#afff1 was inhabited2 but  is so no     
longer1 by reason of a sand which covers
 it to the height of  more than twenty  
feet1 and which gains ground every year4
 ,reckoning  from that time it has      
proceeded upwards of six leagues into   
the  country1 and is now not more than  
about half a league from ,st4 ,paul1 so 
that according to all appearance that   
town must soon be deserted4 ,the  tops  
of some steeples and chimnies are still 
seen peeping out of this  sea of sand2  
the inhabitants of the interred villages
 have always had  sufficient time to    
quit their houses in safety4    ,an east
 or north wind increases this calamity1 
by raising up a sand of  a very fine    
nature1 which sweeps it away in such    
great quantities1 and  with such        
velocity1 that ,m4 ,deslandes1 to whom  
the academy are indebted  for this      
observation1 when walking in that       
country during an east wind1  was       
obliged1 from time to time1 to wipe it  
off his hat and cloaths they  were so   

loaded with sand1 and felt so heavy4    
,besides1 when this wind is  violent1 it
 throws this sand over a small arm of   
the sea into ,roscof1  a small port much
 frequented by foreign vessels2 the sand
 collects  in their streets to the      
height of two feet1 and the inhabitants 
are  obliged to have it carted away4    
,there are many ferruginous particles   
in this sand1 which are easily          
discovered by a magnet4    ,the coast   
which furnishes this sand extends from  
,st4 ,paul as far as  ,plouefoat1       
somewhat more than four leagues4 ,the   
disposition of the  place is such that  
only the east or the north-east wind can
 convey the  sand over the lands4 ,it is
 easy to be conceived how the sand1     
conveyed  and accumulated by the wind in
 one part1 can again be taken up by the 
same wind and carried farther1 and that 
the sand can thus advance into  and     
cover the country while the mine which  
furnishes it continues  unexhausted2 for
 without this the sand1 by advancing1   

would always  diminish in height1 and   
would cease its destructive ravages4    
,now it is  but too possible that the   
sea throws up or deposits new sand in   
the  place from whence the wind raises  
it up1 and therefore the dreadful       
effects may long continue4    ,the      
disaster is but of modern date1 possibly
 the shoal which furnishes  it has not  
yet a sufficient quantity to lift itself
 above the surface  of the sea1 or      
perhaps the sea has but just left it    
uncovered4 ,there  has been some        
alteration on the coast1 and the sea at 
present reaches1  at high water1 half a 
league beyond certain rocks that        
formerly it  never passed4    ,this     
unhappy province justifies what the     
ancient and modern travellers  relate   
concerning the tempests of sand in the  
deserts of ,arabia1 in  which cities and
 armies have been enveloped and         
destroyed4    ,mr4 ,shaw tells us that  
the ports of ,laodicea1 ,jebila1        
,tortosa1 ,rowada1  ,tripoli1 ,tyre1    

,acra1 and ,jaffa1 are all filled up    
with sand brought  thither by the great 
waves which beat on that side of the    
,mediterranean  when the west wind blows
 impetuously4,,bg    ,,bg ,see ,shaw's  
,travels1 vol4 ,,ii4    ,it is useless  
to give a greater number of examples of 
the alterations  that have happened on  
the surface of the globe4 ,fire1 air1   
and water1  produce continual changes1  
which become very considerable by time4 
,it  is not from general causes alone1  
whose effects are periodical and        
regular1 that the sea successively takes
 the place of the earth1 and  forsakes  
its own dominions4 ,there are a number  
of particular causes  which contribute  
to these mutations1 such as earthquakes1
 inundations1  sinking of mountains1 c4 
,thus the most solid thing1 at least to 
our  conception1 like the rest of       
nature1 undergoes continual and         
perpetual  vicissitudes4                
,,conclusion    ,,of ,,the    ,,theory  
,,of ,,the ,,earth4      ,by the proofs 

we have given in ,articles ,,vii4 and   
,,viii4 it appears  certain that the    
whole of the present dry land was       
formerly covered  by the sea4 ,it       
appears also as certain1 from ,article  
,,xii4 that the  flux and reflux1 and   
other motions of the ocean1 continually 
detach1  from the side and the bottom of
 the sea1 shells and matters of every   
kind1 some part of which are deposited  
in other places in form of  sediments1  
and which are the origin of the parallel
 and horizontal  strata every where to  
be met with4 ,we have proved in ,article
 ,,ix4 that  the inequalities of the    
globe have been caused by the motion of 
the  sea1 and that mountains have been  
produced by the successive masses  and  
heapings of the sediments we have just  
described4 ,it is evident by  ,article  
,,xiii4 that the currents1 which at     
first followed the direction  of these  
inequalities1 afterwards gave to them   
all the figure which  they at present   
preserve2 that is1 that alternate       

correspondence of  the saliant angles   
always opposed to the returning angles4 
,it appears  likewise by ,articles      
,,viii4 and ,,xviii4 that the greatest  
part of the  matters which the sea has  
detached from its sides and bottom were1
 when  deposited as sediments1 in form  
of a fine impalpable powder1 which      
perfectly filled the cavities of the    
shells1 whether it was of the same      
nature or only analogous to that with   
which they were composed4 ,it is        
certain1 from ,article ,,xvii4 that the 
horizontal strata which have been       
produced by the accumulation of         
sediments1 and which at first were in  a
 soft state1 acquired hardness in       
proportion as they became dry1 and  that
 this drying has produced perpendicular 
clefts1 which cross the  horizontal     
strata4    ,it is impossible to doubt1  
after perusing the facts in the         
,articles  ,x4 ,,xi4 ,,xiv4 ,,xv4 ,,xvi4
 ,,xvii4 ,,xviii4 and ,,xix4 that an    
infinite number  of revolutions1        

particular changes and alterations1 have
 happened  on the surface of the globe1 
as well from the natural motion of the  
waters of the sea as by the effects of  
rain1 frost1 running waters1  winds1    
subterraneous fires1 earthquakes1       
inundations1 c4 and that  consequently  
the sea has alternately changed places  
with the earth1  especially in the      
earliest times after the creation1 when 
the  terrestrial matters were much      
softer than they are at present4 ,it    
must  nevertheless be acknowledged1 that
 we can but very1 imperfectly judge  of 
the succession of natural revolutions2  
that we can still less judge  of the    
cause of accidents1 changes1 and        
alterations2 that the defect  of        
historical monuments deprives us of the 
knowledge of particular  facts1 and     
experience and time is deficient to us4 
,we do not pay any  consideration that1 
though the time of our existence is very
 limited1  nature proceeds in her       
regular course4 ,we would condense into 

our  momentary existence the            
transactions of ages past and to come1  
without  reflecting that this instant of
 time1 nay even human life itself1 is   
only a single fact in the history of the
 acts of the ,almighty4                 
,,history ,,of ,,animals4               
,,chapter ,i4    ,a ,,comparison        
,,between ,,animals1 ,,vegetables1 ,,and
 ,,other ,,productions ,,of  ,,nature4  
,amidst the infinite number of objects  
that offer themselves to our  view1 and 
with which the surface of the earth is  
every where covered1  ,animals hold the 
first rank both on account of their     
formation1 and  their evident           
superiority over vegetables and other   
matters4 ,animals1  by their senses1    
form1 motion1 and many other properties1
 have a  more intimate connection with  
those things which surround them than   
vegetables2 and the latter1 by their    
figure1 growth1 and variety of          
component parts1 have also a nearer     
relation with external objects1  than   

either minerals or stones1 which have   
not any kind of life or  motion4 ,by    
this number of properties it is1 that   
the animal claims  pre-eminence over the
 vegetable1 and the vegetable over the  
mineral4  ,man1 to consider him by his  
material form alone1 is only superior to
  the brute creation by possessing some 
few peculiar properties1 such as  those 
given to him by his tongue and hands2   
and although the works of  the ,creator 
are in themselves equally perfect1 the  
animal1 according to  our mode of       
perception1 is the most complete1 and   
man the most perfect  animal4    ,what  
variety of springs1 what forces1 and    
what mechanical motions  are enclosed in
 this small part of matter which        
composes the body of  an animal8 ,what  
properties1 what harmony1 and what      
correspondence  between the various     
parts8 ,how many combinations1          
arrangements1 causes1  effects1 and     
principles1 conspire to complete one    
end1 and which we  know only to be      

results so very difficult to comprehend1
 that they only  cease from being       
marvellous by the long custom of not    
reflecting on  them8    ,nevertheless1  
however admirable this work appears1 it 
is not the  individual that is the most 
wonderful2 but it is in the succession1 
reproduction1 and duration of species1  
that nature becomes  inconceivable4     
,this faculty of reproduction1 which    
resides alone in  animals and           
vegetables2 this kind of unity always   
subsisting1 and  seemingly eternal2 this
 procreative power1 which perpetually   
exercises  itself without being         
destroyed1 is a mystery1 the depth of   
which we are  not enabled to fathom4    
,inanimate bodies1 even the stones and  
dirt under our feet1 have some          
properties2 their existence alone       
supposes a great number2 and the  least 
organic matter has an infinity of       
relations with the other  parts of the  
universe4 ,we shall not say1 with some  
philosophers1 that  matter1 under       

whatever form it may be1 is sensible of 
its existence and  relative faculties4  
,this is a metaphysical question1 and of
 which we do  not here propose to treat1
 it will be sufficient to observe1 that 
not  having a perfect knowledge of our  
own relation with external objects1  we 
cannot doubt that inanimate matters are 
still more ignorant2  besides1 as our   
sensations do not in the least resemble 
the objects  which cause them1 we must  
conclude1 by analogy1 that inanimate    
matter  has neither sentiment1          
sensation1 nor a consciousness of its   
existence2  to attribute any of these   
faculties to it1 would be giving it the 
power of thought1 action1 and           
perception1 nearly in the same manner as
  we think1 act1 and feel1 which is as  
much repugnant to reason as it is  to   
religion4    ,inanimate bodies being    
formed of earth and dust1 we have1 of   
course1  some properties in common with 
them1 but they are merely relative to   
what arises from general matter1 such as

 extent1 impenetrability1  weight1 c4   
but as these properties1 purely         
material1 make no  impression of        
themselves1 as they exist entirely      
independent1 and  do not at all affect  
us1 we cannot consider them as a part of
 our  being2 it is therefore the        
organization1 the soul1 and the life1   
which  constitute our existence4        
,matter1 considered in this light1 is   
less the  principal than the accessor4  
,it is a foreign expansion1 the union of
  which is unknown1 and the presence    
hurtful to us2 and thought1 which  is   
the constituent principle of our being1 
is very probably entirely  independent4 
,we exist1 therefore1 without knowing   
how1 and we think without knowing  why2 
but whatever is the manner of our being 
or thinking1 whether our  sensations are
 true or false1 the result of them are  
not less certain4  ,this order of ideas1
 this train of thoughts1 which          
internally exist  from ourselves1       
although very different from the objects

 that cause  them1 give rise to the most
 real affections1 and occasion relations
  with external objects1 which we may   
consider as real affinities1 since  they
 are invariable1 and always the same4   
,the human species1 therefore1  may be  
said to hold the first rank in the order
 of nature1 the brute  creation the     
second1 vegetables the third1 and       
minerals the last2 for  although we     
cannot clearly distinguish between our  
animal and spiritual  qualities1 and    
although the brute creation are endowed 
with the same  senses1 possess the same 
principles of life and motion1 and      
perform  a number of actions like man1  
yet they have not the relation with     
external objects in the same extensive  
manner we have1 and consequently  the   
resemblance must fail in various        
respects4 ,the distance is greater      
between man and vegetables1 and still   
more so from minerals1 as  vegetables   
possess a degree of animation1 while    
minerals are destitute  of every        

principle that tends to organization4   
,to compose1 therefore1 the history of  
an animal1 we must first nicely  inspect
 into the general order of his          
particular relations1 and  afterwards   
distinguish those he has in common with 
vegetables and  minerals4 ,an animal has
 nothing in common with a mineral1      
excepting  general properties of matter2
 his nature and oeconomy are totally    
different3 the mineral is a mere        
senseless and inactive matter1 without  
organization1 faculties1 or power of    
reproduction2 a dead mass1 fit  only to 
be trod under foot by man and animals2  
even the most precious  metals are thus 
considered by the philosopher1 as they  
possess but  an arbitrary value1        
subordinate to the will1 and dependent  
on the  convention of men4    ,in an    
animal all the powers of nature are     
united2 the properties by  which it is  
animated are peculiar to it2 by its     
senses it can will1  act1 determine1 and
 communicate with the most distant      

objects3 its body  is a centre1 to which
 every thing is connected2 a point where
 the whole  universe is reflected2 a    
world in miniature4 ,these are the      
properties  which peculiarly belong to  
it2 those which it possesses in common  
with  vegetables are the faculties of   
growth1 expansion1 reproduction1 and    
increase4    ,the most apparent         
difference between animals and          
vegetables seems  to be the faculty of  
moving from place to place1 which       
animals are  endowed with and vegetables
 not4 ,it is true we are not acquainted 
with  any vegetable that has a single   
progressive motion2 and there are  many 
kinds of animals1 as oysters1 c4 to     
which this motion seems to  have been   
denied2 the distinction1 therefore1 is  
neither general nor  necessary4    ,a   
more essential difference might be drawn
 from the faculty of  sensation2 but    
sensation includes such a variety of    
ideas1 that we  ought not to mention the
 word without giving some explication2  

for if  by sensation we understand only 
a motion1 occasioned by a check or      
resistance1 we shall find the           
sensitive-plant is also possessed of    
it2 if1 on the contrary1 we would have  
it signify to apprehend and  compare    
ideas1 we are not certain that brute    
animals possess it2 if  it is allowed to
 dogs1 elephants1 c4 whose actions seem 
to result  from the same causes as those
 of men1 it must be denied to an        
infinite  number of others1 especially  
to those which seem to be motionless4   
,if  we could give to oysters1 for      
example1 the same faculty of sensation  
as  to dogs1 though in an inferior      
degree1 why should we not allow it to   
vegetables in a still lesser degree8    
,this difference between animals  and   
vegetables is not1 therefore1 general1  
nor well decided4    ,a third difference
 seems to arise from their method of    
feeding4  ,animals1 by the means of     
certain external organs1 seize those    
things  which are agreeable to them3    

they seek their pasture and chuse their 
food4 ,plants are reduced to the        
necessity of receiving such nutriment   
as the earth furnishes3 they have no    
diversity in the manner of  procuring   
it2 no choice in the kind1 but the      
humidity of the earth is  their only    
aliment2 nevertheless1 if we attend to  
the organization and  action of roots   
and leaves1 we shall presently discover 
that there are  in those parts external 
organs1 which vegetables make use of to 
obtain  their food2 that the root avoids
 and turns from an obstacle1 or vein  of
 bad earth1 to seek for one that is     
better2 that they divide their  fibres1 
and even go so far as to change their   
form to procure nutriment  for the      
plant4 ,the difference between animals  
and vegetables cannot1  therefore1 be   
established on the manner in which they 
receive their  nutriment4    ,this      
investigation induces us to conclude    
that there is no absolute  essential and
 general difference between animals and 

vegetables1 but  that nature descends1  
by degrees imperceptibly from an animal 
which is  the most perfect1 to that     
which is the least1 and from the latter 
to  the vegetable4 ,the water polypus   
may therefore be considered as the  line
 where the animal creation ends and that
 of plants begin4    ,if1 after having  
examined the distinctions1 we search    
after the  resemblances between animals 
and vegetables1 we shall find the power 
of  reproduction is general1 and very   
essential to both2 a faculty which      
would almost lead us to suppose that    
animals and vegetables are nearly  of   
the same order of beings4    ,a second  
resemblance may be drawn from the       
expansion of their parts1  a property   
which is common to both2 for vegetables 
grow as well as  animals1 and if the    
manner in which they expand is          
different1 it is not  totally nor       
essentially so1 since there are very    
considerable parts  in animals1 as the  
bones1 the hair1 the nails1 the horns1  

c4 whose  expansion is a perfect and    
real vegetation2 and the foetus1 at its 
first formation1 may be said rather to  
vegetate than live4    ,a third         
resemblance arises from there being some
 animals which  propagate like plants1  
and by the same method4 ,the            
multiplication of  the vine-fretter1    
which is made without copulation1 is    
like that of  plants by seeds2 and that 
of polypuses1 by cutting them1 resembles
 the  multiplication of trees by slips4 
,we can then assert with greater        
foundation1 that animals and vegetables 
are beings of the same order1 and that  
nature passes from one to the  other by 
insensible links2 since the properties  
wherein they resemble  each other are   
general and essential1 and those on     
which they differ  confined and         
particular4    ,if we compare animals   
and vegetables by other lights1 for     
example1 by  number1 situation1 size1   
form1 c4 we shall draw fresh inductions 
from  them4    ,the number of the animal

 species is much greater than that of   
plants4  ,in the class of insects alone 
there are a greater number of species   
than there are kinds of plants on the   
surface of the earth4 ,animals  likewise
 much less resemble each other than     
plants2 and it is this  resemblance     
among the latter which makes the        
difficulty of knowing and  discerning   
them1 and has given rise to so many     
botanical systems2 and  it is for this  
reason that more labour has been        
bestowed on that than  on zoology4      
,besides1 there is another advantage of 
knowing the species of animals1  and    
distinguishing them one from another1   
which is by regarding those  as one and 
the same species1 who1 by means of      
copulation1 produce and  perpetuate     
beings like themselves2 and as a        
different species1 those  from a        
connection between whom nothing is      
produced1 or whose product  are unlike  
their parents4 ,thus a fox will be a    
different species from a  dog1 if       

nothing results from a copulation of a  
male and female of these  two animals1  
and when even there should result a     
bipartite animal1  or a kind of mule1   
which cannot generate1 that will be     
sufficient to  establish the fox and dog
 of two different species4 ,there is not
 the  same advantage to be had in       
plants1 for although some have pretended
 to  discover sexes1 and although       
divisions of breeds have been           
established  by the parts of            
fecundation2 yet1 as these distinctions 
neither are so  certain1 nor so apparent
 as in animals1 and the production of   
plants is  made in many modes1 that the 
sex has no part in1 and where the parts 
of  fecundation are not necessary1 this 
idea cannot be made use of with any     
success2 it is only on a misapprehended 
analogy that this sexual method  has    
been pretended to distinguish all the   
different species of plants4            
,notwithstanding the number of animals  
is greater than that of plants1  yet    

that is not the case with respect to the
 number of individuals  in each species4
 ,in animals as well as in plants1 the  
number of  individuals is much greater  
in the small species than in the large4 
,flies are1 perhaps1 a million times    
more numerous than elephants2 so        
likewise there are more kinds of plants 
than trees2 but1 if we compare  the     
quantity of individuals in each species1
 we shall find that the  plant is more  
abundant than the animal2 for example1  
quadrupeds bring  forth but a small     
number of young1 and at considerable    
distances of  time2 trees1 on the       
contrary1 produce every year1 a great   
quantity4  ,it may be said that this    
comparison is not exact1 and to render  
it  so1 we should compare the quantity  
of seeds produced by a tree1 with  a    
quantity of germs contained in the semen
 of an animal1 and then1  perhaps1 we   
should find1 that animals are still more
 abundant in their  seed than           
vegetables4 ,but it should be considered

 that it is possible  by collecting and 
sowing all the seeds of an elm1 for     
instance1 that  we might have #ajj1jjj  
young ones from the product of a single 
year2  and that should we supply a horse
 with as many mares as he could cover   
in one year1 there would be a great     
difference between the production  of   
the animal and that of the vegetable4 ,i
 shall not examine into the  quantity of
 germs2 first1 because we are not       
acquainted with it in  the animal       
creation3 and secondly1 because possibly
 there is the same  number of seminal   
shoots in the vegetable3 for the seed of
 a vegetable  is not a germ1 being as   
perfect a production as the foetus of an
  animal1 and to which1 like that1 a    
greater expansion is only wanting4      
,to my comparison may likewise be       
opposed the prodigious multiplication   
of certain kinds of insects3 as the bee 
in particular1 one of which  will       
produce thirty or forty thousand4 ,but  
it must be observed1 that ,i  speak in  

general of animals compared with        
vegetables2 and besides1 this  example  
of bees1 which perhaps is the greatest  
multiplication among  animals1 does not 
constitute a proof against what we have 
observed2 for  of thirty or forty       
thousand flies produced by the female   
bee1 there is  but few females2 fifteen 
hundred1 or two thousand males1 and all 
the  rest moles1 or rather neutral      
flies1 without sex1 and incapable of    
procreating4    ,it must be owned1 that 
in insects1 fish1 and shell-fish1 there 
are  species which seem to be very      
abundant2 oysters1 herrings1 fleas1     
beetles1 c4 are perhaps in as great     
numbers as mosses and the most  common  
plants2 but on the whole1 the greatest  
number of the animal  species is less   
abundant than the vegetable2 and by     
comparing different  kinds of plants    
with each other1 there is not found such
 great  differences in the number1 as in
 the animal species2 some of which      
bring forth a prodigious number1 and    

others only a few2 whereas the  number  
of productions in plants is always very 
great throughout4    ,by what we have   
observed1 it appears that the smallest  
and basest  species seem to be the most 
prolific3 the most minute are the most  
plentiful as well in animals as in      
plants1 and in proportion as  the       
animals are more perfect1 they appear to
 decrease in number of  individuals4    
,can it be thought1 that certain forms  
of the body1  as those of quadrupeds and
 birds1 requisite for the perfection of 
sensation1 would cost nature more       
organic particles than the production   
of less important animals8    ,let us   
now pass to the comparison of animals   
and vegetables1 with  respect to        
situation1 form1 and size4 ,the earth is
 the only place  wherein vegetables can 
subsist4 ,the greatest number grow above
 the  surface1 and are attached to the  
soil by roots4 ,some1 as truffles1  are 
entirely covered with earth1 and a few  
grow under the water1 but  all require  

the surface of the earth to exist upon4 
,animals1 on the  contrary1 are more    
generally dispersed2 some dwell on the  
surface1 and  others in the bowels of   
the earth2 some live at the bottom1 and 
others  swim in the waters of the ocean3
 some exist in the air1 others dwell in 
the internal parts of plants1 on the    
bodies of men and other animals1        
liquors1 and even stones are not without
 them4    ,by the use of the microscope1
 a great number of new species of       
animals  have been discovered3 but      
singular as it may appear1 we have not  
found more than one or two new species  
of plants by the help of this           
instrument4 ,the small moss is1 perhaps1
 the only microscopical plant  spoken   
of2 and we might1 therefore1 imagine    
that nature refused to  produce very    
small plants1 while she formed          
animalcules with profusion2  but we     
might deceive ourselves by adopting this
 opinion without  examination1 and our  
error might arise from plants1 in fact1 

resembling  each other more than        
animals2 so that this moldiness1 which  
we only  take for a very minute moss1   
may possibly be a kind of forest or     
garden1 filled with abundance of various
 plants1 although we are unable  to mark
 the difference4    ,by comparing the   
size of animals and plants there will be
 found a great  inequality1 for the     
distance is much greater between the    
size of a  whale and one of these       
microscope animals1 than between the    
highest oak  and the moss we are now    
speaking of4 ,although bulk be only a   
relative  attribute1 it may1            
nevertheless1 be useful to inspect into 
the extreme  boundaries nature has      
allotted to her productions4 ,in bigness
 animals  and plants seem to have a near
 equality2 a large whale and a large    
tree  forms a volume not very different2
 whereas1 among the small it has been   
asserted there are animals so very      
minute that a million of them united    
together1 would not equal1 in size1 the 

smallest moss-plant ever seen4    ,the  
most general and most sensible          
difference between animals and          
vegetables is that of figure1 for the   
form of animals1 although  infinitely   
varied1 has not any resemblance to that 
of plants2 and  although the polypus    
will1 like plants1 reproduce by cutting1
 and may  be regarded as the link       
between the animal and vegetable        
kingdoms1  not only by the mode of their
 reproduction but also by their external
  form1 nevertheless the figure of the  
animal is so different from the         
external form of a plant that it is     
difficult to be deceived therein4  ,some
 animals form things resembling plants  
or flowers1 but plants never  produce   
any thing like an animal2 and those     
admirable insects which  produce and    
form the coral1 would not have been     
taken for flowers if  coral had not been
 regarded as a plant4 ,thus the errors  
wherein we  might fall1 by comparing    
plants with animals1 will never have any

  influence but on a few objects which  
compose the link between both1 and  the 
more observations we shall make the more
 we shall be convinced that  the        
,creator has not placed a fixed line    
between animals and vegetables2  that   
these two species of organized beings   
have many more common  properties than  
real differences2 that the production of
 an animal does  not require of nature  
more1 and possibly1 less exertion than  
that of  a vegetable2 that in general   
the production of organized beings does 
not require exertion1 and that1 in      
short1 the living animated nature1      
instead of composing a metaphysical     
degree of beings1 is a physical         
property1 common to all matter4         
,,chapter ,,ii4    ,,or                 
,,bh,,reproduction ,,in ,,general4      
,,bh ,this word is used by the author in
 an enlarged sense of  propagation1 for 
as generation applies to animated       
beings1 so by this  he includes the     
vegetable as well as animal system4     

,we shall now make a more minute        
inspection into this common property of 
animal and vegetable nature2 this power 
of producing its resemblance2  this     
chain of successive individuals1 which  
constitutes the real  existence of the  
species2 and without attaching ourselves
 to the  generation of man1 or to that  
of any particular kind of animal1 let   
us inspect the phenomenas of            
reproduction in general1 let us collect 
facts1 and enumerate the different      
methods nature makes use of to renew    
organized beings4 ,the first1 and as we 
think the most simple method1  is1 to   
collect in one body an infinite number  
of resembling organic  bodies1 and so to
 compose its substance1 that there is   
not a part  of it which does not contain
 a germ of the same species1 and which  
consequently of itself might become a   
whole1 resembling that of which  it     
constitutes a part4 ,this preparation   
seems to suppose a prodigious  waste1   
and to carry with it profusion2 yet it  

is a very common  munificence of nature1
 and which manifests itself even in the 
most  common and inferior kinds1 such as
 worms1 polypuses1 elms1 willows1       
gooseberry-trees1 and many other plants 
and insects1 each part of which         
contains a whole1 and by the single     
effect of expansion alone may  become a 
plant1 or an insect4 ,by considering    
organized beings in this  point of view1
 an individual is a whole1 uniformly    
organized in all  its parts2 a compound 
of an infinity of resembling figures and
 similar  parts1 an assemblage of germs1
 or small individuals of the same kind1 
which can expand in the same mode       
according to circumstances1 and form    
new bodies1 composed like those from    
whence they proceed4    ,by examining   
this idea thoroughly1 we shall discover 
a connection  between animals1          
vegetables1 and minerals1 which we could
 not expect4  ,salts1 and some other    
minerals1 are composed of parts         
resembling each  other1 and to all that 

composes them2 a grain of salt is a     
cube1  composed of an infinity of       
smaller cubes1 which we may easily      
perceive  by a microscope2 these are    
also composed of other cubes still      
smaller1  as may be perceived with a    
better microscope2 and we cannot doubt1 
but that the primitive and constituting 
particles of this salt are  likewise    
cubes so exceedingly minute as to escape
 our sight1 and our  imagination4       
,animals and plants which can multiply  
by all their parts1  are organized      
bodies1 of which the primitive and      
constituting parts are  also organic and
 similar1 of which we discern the       
aggregate quantity1  but cannot perceive
 the primitive parts only by reason and 
analogy4    ,this leads us to believe   
that there is an infinity of organic    
particles  actually existing and living 
in nature1 the substance of which is the
  same with that of organized bodies4   
,as we have just observed1 in a         
structure of a similar kind1 though of  

inanimate matter1 that it was  composed 
of an infinity of particles which have a
 perfect semblance to  the whole body1  
and as there must perhaps be millions of
 small cubes of  accumulated salts to   
form a sensible individual grain of     
sea-salt1 so  likewise millions of      
organic particles1 like the whole1 are  
required  to form one out of that       
multiplicity of germs contained in an   
elm1 or  a polypus2 and as we must      
separate1 bruise1 and dissolve a cube of
  sea-salt to perceive1 by means of     
crystallization1 the small cubes of     
which it is composed2 we must likewise  
separate the parts of an elm or  polypus
 to discover1 by means of vegetation and
 expansion1 the small  elms or polypuses
 contained in those parts4    ,the      
difficulty of giving way to this idea   
arises from a prejudice  strongly       
established1 that there is no method of 
judging of the  complex1 except by the  
simple1 and that1 to conceive the       
organic  constitution of a body we must 

reduce it to its simple and unorganized 
parts1 and that it is more easy to      
conceive how a cube is composed  of     
other cubes than how one polypus is     
composed of others2 but if we           
attentively examine what is meant by    
simple and complex1 we shall then  find 
that in this1 as in every thing else1   
the plan of nature is quite  different  
from the very rough draught of it formed
 by our ideas4    ,our senses1 as is    
well known1 do not furnish us with exact
  representations of external objects1  
insomuch that if we are desirous  of    
estimating1 judging1 comparing1         
measuring1 c4 we are obliged to  have   
recourse to foreign assistance1 to      
rules1 principles1 instruments1  c4 ,all
 these helps are the works of human     
knowledge1 and partake more  or less of 
the abstraction of our ideas2 this      
abstraction1 therefore1  is what is     
called the simple1 and the difficulty of
 reducing them to  this abstraction1 the
 complex4 ,extent1 for example1 being a 

general and  abstracted property from   
nature1 is not very complex2            
nevertheless1  to form a judgment of it1
 we have supposed extents without depth1
  without breadth1 and even points      
without any extent at all4 ,all these   
abstractions have been invented for the 
support of our judgment1 and  the few   
definitions made use of in geometry have
 occasioned a variety  of prejudices and
 false conclusions4 ,all that can be    
reduced by these  definitions are termed
 simple1 and all that cannot be readily 
reduced  are called complex2 from hence 
a triangle1 a square1 a circle1 a  cube1
 c4 are simple subjects1 as well as all 
curves1 whose geometrical  laws we are  
acquainted with2 but all that we cannot 
reduce by these  abstracted figures and 
laws are complex4 ,we do not consider   
that these  geometrical figures exist   
only in our imagination2 that they are  
not  to be found in nature1 or1 at      
least1 if they are discoverable there1  
it is because she exhibits every        

possible form1 and that it is more      
difficult and rare to find simple       
figures of an equilateral pyramid1  or  
an exact cube in nature1 than compounded
 forms of a plant or an  animal4 ,in    
everything1 therefore1 we take the      
abstract for the simple1  and the real  
for the complex4 ,in ,nature1 on the    
contrary1 the abstract  has no          
existence1 every thing is compounded2 we
 shall never1 of course1  penetrate into
 the intimate structure of bodies3 we   
cannot1 therefore1  pronounce on what is
 complex in a greater or lesser degree1 
excepting  by the greater or lesser each
 subject has to ourselves and to the    
rest  of the universe2 from which reason
 it is we judge that the animal is  more
 compounded than the vegetable1 and the 
vegetable more than the  mineral4 ,this 
notion is just with relation to us1 but 
we know not1 in  reality1 whether the   
animal1 vegetable1 or mineral1 is the   
most simple  or complex2 and we are     
ignorant whether a globule1 or a cube1  

is more  indebted for an exertion of    
nature1 than a seed or an organic       
particle4  ,if we would form conjectures
 on this subject1 we might suppose that 
the  most common and numerous things are
 the most simple but then animals  would
 be the most simple1 since the number of
 their kind far exceeds  that of plants 
or minerals4    ,but without taking up  
more time on this discussion1 it is     
sufficient  to have shewn that the      
opinions we commonly have of the simple 
and  complex are ideas of abstraction1  
that they cannot be applied to the      
compound productions of nature1 and that
 when we attempt to reduce  every being 
to elements of a regular figure1 or to  
prismatic1 cubical1  or globular        
particles1 we substitute our own        
imaginations in the place  of realities2
 that the forms of the constituting     
particles of different  bodies are      
absolutely unknown to us1 and that1     
consequently1 we can  suppose1 that an  
organized body is composed of organic   

particles1 as  well as that a cube is   
composed of other cubes4    ,we have no 
other rule to judge by than experience4 
,we perceive that a  cube of sea-salt is
 composed of other cubes1 and that an   
elm consists  of other smaller elms1    
because1 by taking an end of a branch1  
or root1  or a piece of the wood        
separated from the trunk1 or a seed1    
they will  alike produce a new tree4 ,it
 is the same with respect to polypuses1 
and some other kinds of animals1 which  
we can multiply by cutting off1  and    
separating any of the different         
parts2,,bi and since our rule for       
judging in both is the same1 why should 
we judge differently of them8    ,,bi   
,see ,supplement to this ,work1         
containing ,history of ,birds1 ,fish1   
,insects1 c4 vol4 ,v4 p4 #cgg4    ,it   
therefore appears very probable1 by the 
above reasons1 that there  really exists
 in nature a number of small organized  
beings1 alike1 in  every respect1 to the
 large organized bodies seen in the     

world2 that  these small organized      
beings are composed of living organic   
particles1  which are common to animals 
and vegetables1 and are their primitive 
and  incompatible particles1 that the   
assemblage of these particles form an   
animal or plant1 and consequently that  
reproduction1 or generation1 is  only a 
change of form made by the addition of  
these resembling parts  alone1 and that 
death or dissolution is nothing more    
than a separation  of the same          
particles4 ,of the truth of this we     
apprehend there will not  remain a      
doubt1 after reading the proofs we shall
 give in the following  chapters4       
,besides1 if we reflect on the manner in
 which trees grow1  and consider how so 
considerable a volume can arise from so 
small an  origin1 we shall be convinced 
that it proceeds from the simple        
addition  of small resembling organized 
particles4 ,a grain produces a young    
tree1  which it contained in miniature4 
,at the summit of this small tree a bud 

is formed1 which contains the young tree
 for the succeeding year1 and  this bud 
is an organic part1 resembling the young
 tree of the first  year's growth4 ,a   
similar bud appears the second year1    
containing a tree  for the third2 and   
thus1 successively1 as long as the tree 
continues  growing1 at the extremity of 
each branch new buds will form1         
containing  young trees like that of the
 first year4 ,thus it is evident1 that  
trees  are composed of small organized  
bodies1 similar to themselves1 and  that
 the whole individual is formed by the  
union of small resembling  individuals4 
,but1 it may be asked1 were not all     
these organized bodies contained  in the
 seed1 and may not the order of their   
expansion be traced from  that source1  
for the bud which first appeared was    
evidently surmounted  by another similar
 bud1 which was not expanded till the   
second year1  and soon to the third2 and
 consequently the seed may be said      
really  to contain all the buds1 or     

young trees that would be produced for a
  hundred years1 or till the dissolution
 of the tree itself8 ,this seed it  is  
also plain not only contained all the   
small organized bodies which  one day   
must constitute the individual tree1 but
 also every seed1 every  individual1 and
 every succession of seeds and          
individuals1 to the total  destruction  
of the species4    ,this is the         
principal difficulty1 and we shall      
examine it with the  strictest          
attention4 ,it is certain that the seed 
produces by the single  expansion of the
 bud1 or germ1 it contains1 a young tree
 the first  year1 and that this tree    
existed in miniature in that bud1 but it
 is  not equally certain that the bud of
 the second year1 and those of the      
succeeding1 were all contained in the   
first seed1 no more than that  every    
organized body and seed1 which must     
succeed to the end of the  world1 or to 
the destruction of the species1 were so4
 ,this opinion  supposes a progress to  

infinity1 and forms1 of each individual1
 a  source of eternal generations4 ,the 
first seed1 in that case1 must have     
contained every plant of its kind which 
have existed or ever will  exist2 and   
the first man must actually and         
individually have contained  in his     
loins every man which has or will appear
 on the face of the  earth4 ,each seed1 
and each animal1 agreeable to this      
opinion1 must  have possessed within an 
infinite posterity4 ,but the more we    
suffer  ourselves to wander into these  
kind of reasonings1 the more we lose the
  sight of truth in the labyrinth of    
infinity2 and instead of clearing up    
and solving the question1 we confuse and
 involve it in more obscurity2  it is   
placing the object out of sight1 and    
afterwards saying it is  impossible to  
see it4    ,let us investigate a little 
these ideas of infinite progression and 
expansion4 ,from whence do they arise8  
,what do they represent8 ,the ideas  of 
infinity can only spring from an idea of

 that which is limited1 for  it is in   
that manner we have an idea of an       
infinity of succession1 a  geometrical  
infinity3 each individual is an unit1   
many individuals  compose a finite      
number1 and the whole species is the    
infinite  multitude4 ,thus in the same  
manner as a geometrical infinity may be 
demonstrated not to exist1 so we may be 
assured that an infinite  progression or
 expansion does not exist2 that it is   
only an abstract  idea1 a retrenchment  
of the idea of finity1 of which we take 
away the  limits that necessarily       
terminate all size2 and that1 of course1
 we  must reject from philosophy every  
opinion which leads to an idea of the   
actual existence of geometrical or      
arithmetical infinity4    ,the          
partizans1 therefore1 of this opinion   
must acknowledge1 that  their infinity  
of succession and multiplication is1 in 
fact1 only an  indeterminate or         
indefinite number2 a number greater than
 any we can  have an idea of1 but which 

is not infinite4 ,this being granted1   
they  will tell us1 that the first seed 
of an elm1 for example1 which does  not 
weigh a grain1 really contains all the  
organic particles necessary  for the    
formation of this1 and every other tree 
of the same kind which  ever shall      
appear4 ,but what do they explain to us 
by this answer8 ,is it  not cutting the 
knot instead of untying it1 and eluding 
the question  when it should be         
resolved4    ,when we ask how beings are
 multiplied8 and it is answered that    
this  multiplication was compleatly made
 in the first body1 is it not           
acknowledging that they are ignorant how
 it is made1 and renouncing  the will of
 conceiving it8 ,the question is asked1 
how one body produces  its like8 and it 
is answered1 that the whole was created 
at once4  ,can we receive this as a     
solution8 for whether one or a million  
of  generations have passed the like    
difficulty remains1 and so far from     
explaining the supposition of an        

indefinite number of germs1 increases   
the obscurity1 and renders it           
incomprehensible4    ,i own1 that in    
this circumstance1 it is easier to start
 objections  than to establish          
probabilities1 and that the question of 
reproduction  is of such subtle nature1 
as possibly never to be fully resolved2 
but  then we should search whether it is
 totally inscrutable1 and by that       
examination1 we shall discover all that 
is possible to be known of the  subject2
 or at least1 why we must remain        
ignorant of it4    ,there are two kinds 
of questions1 some belonging to the     
first causes1  the others have only     
particular effects2 for example1 if it  
is  asked1 why matter is impenetrable8  
it must either remain unanswered1  or be
 replied to by saying1 matter is        
impenetrable1 because it is             
impenetrable4 ,it will be the same with 
respect to all the general  qualities of
 matter1 whether relative to gravity1   
extension1 motion  or rest2 no other    

reply can be given1 and we shall not be 
surprised  that such is the case1 if we 
attentively consider1 that in order to  
give a reason for a thing1 we must have 
a different subject from which  we may  
deduce a comparison1 and therefore if   
the reason of a general  cause is asked1
 that is1 of a quality which belongs to 
all in general1  and of which we have no
 subject to which it does not belong1 we
 are  consequently unable to reason upon
 it2 from thence it is demonstrable1  it
 would be useless to make such          
enquiries1 since we should go against   
the supposition that quality is general 
and universal4    ,if1 on the contrary1 
the reason of a particular effect       
depends  immediately on one of the      
general causes above mentioned1 and     
whether  it partakes of the general     
effect immediately1 or by a chain of    
other  effects1 the question will be    
equally solved1 provided we distinctly  
perceive the dependence these effects   
have on each other1 and the  connections

 there are between them4    ,but if the 
particular effect1 of which we enquire  
the reason1 does not  appear to depend  
on these general effects1 nor to have   
any analogy  with other known effects1  
then this effect1 being the only one of 
its  kind1 and having nothing in common 
with other effects1 at least known  to  
us1 the question is insolvable3 because1
 not having1 in this point1  any known  
subject which has any connection with   
that we would explain1  there is nothing
 from whence we can draw the reason     
sought after4  ,when the reason of a    
general cause is demanded1 it is        
unanswerable1  because it exists in     
every object2 and1 on the other hand1   
the reason  of a singular or isolated   
effect is not found1 because not any    
thing  known has the same qualities4 ,we
 cannot explain the reason of a general 
effect1 without discovering one more    
general2 whereas the reason of  an      
isolated effect may be explained by the 
discovery of some other  relative       

effect1 which although we are ignorant  
of at present1 chance  or experience may
 bring to light4    ,besides these1     
there is another kind of question1 which
 may be called1  the question of fact4  
,for example4 ,why do trees1 dogs1 c4   
exist8  ,all these fact questions are   
totally insoluble1 for those who answer 
them by final causes do not consider    
that they take the effect for  the      
cause2 the connection particular objects
 have with us having no  influence on   
their origin4 ,moral affinity can never 
become a physical  reason4    ,we must  
carefully distinguish these questions   
where the why is used1  from those where
 the how is employed1 and more so from  
those where  the how many is mentioned4 
,why is always relative to the cause of 
the effect1 or to the effect itself4    
,how is relative to the mode from  which
 the effect springs1 and the how many   
has relation only to the  proportionate 
quantity of the effect4    ,all these   
distinctions being explained1 let us    

proceed to examine the  question        
concerning the reproduction of bodies4  
,if it is asked1 why  animals and       
vegetables reproduce8 we shall clearly  
discover1 that this  being a question of
 fact1 it is insolvable1 and useless to 
endeavour at  the solution of it4 ,but  
if it is asked1 how animals and         
vegetables  reproduce2 we reply by      
relating the history of the generation  
of every  species of animal1 and of the 
reproduction of each distinct vegetable2
  but1 after having run over all the    
methods of an animal engendering  its   
resemblance1 accompanied even with the  
most exact observations1 we  shall find 
it has only taught us facts without     
indicating causes2 and  that the        
apparent methods which ,nature makes use
 of for reproduction1  do not appear to 
have any connection with the effects    
resulting  therefrom2 we shall be still 
obliged to ask1 what is the secret mode 
by  which she enables different bodies  
to propagate their own species8    ,this

 question is very different from the    
first and second2 it gives  liberty of  
enquiry and admits the employment of    
imagination1 and  therefore is not      
insolvable1 for it does not immediately 
belong to a  general cause2 nor is it   
entirely a question of fact1 for        
provided we  can conceive a mode of     
reproduction dependent upon1 or not     
repugnant  to1 original causes1 we shall
 have gained a satisfactory answer2 and 
the more it shall have a connection with
 other effects of nature1 the  better   
foundation will it be raised upon4      
,by the question itself it is1          
therefore1 permitted to form hypotheses1
  and to select that which shall appear 
to have the greatest analogy with  the  
other phenomena of nature4 ,but we must 
exclude from the number  all those which
 supposes the thing already done2 for   
example1 such  as suppose that all the  
germs of the same species were contained
 in  the first seed1 or that every      
reproduction is a new creation1 and     

immediate effect of the ,almighty's     
will2 because these hypotheses are      
questions of fact1 and on which it is   
impossible to reason4 ,we must  also    
reject every hypothesis which might have
 final causes for its  object2 such as1 
we might say1 that reproduction is made 
in order for  the living to supply the  
place of the dead1 that the earth may be
  always covered with vegetables1 and   
peopled with animals2 that man may  find
 plenty for his subsistence1 c4 because 
these hypotheses1 instead  of explaining
 the effects by physical causes1 are    
founded only on  arbitrary connections  
and moral agreements4 ,at the same time 
we must  not rely on these absolute     
axioms and physical problems1 which so  
many  people have improperly made use   
of1 as principles2 for example1 there   
is no fecundation made apart from the   
body1 nulla foecondatio extra  corpus2  
every living thing is produced from an  
egg2 all generation  supposes sexes1 c4 
,we must not take these maxims in an    

absolute sense1  but consider them only 
as signifying things generally performed
 in one  particular mode rather than in 
any other4    ,let us1 therefore1 search
 after an hypothesis which has not any  
of those defects1 and by which we cannot
 fall into any of these  inconveniences2
 if1 then1 we do not succeed in the     
explanation of the  mechanical power    
,nature makes use of to effect the      
reproduction of  beings1 we shall1 at   
least1 arrive at something more probable
 than what  has hitherto been advanced4 
,as we can make moulds1 by which we can 
give to the external parts of  bodies   
whatever figure we please1 let us       
suppose ,nature can form the  same1 by  
which she not only bestows on bodies the
 external figure but  also the internal4
 ,would not this be one mode by which   
reproduction may  be performed8    ,let 
us1 then1 consider on what foundation   
this supposition is raised3  let us     
examine if it contains any thing        
contradictory1 and afterwards  we shall 

discover what consequences may be       
derived from it4 ,though our  senses are
 only judges of the external parts of   
bodies1 we perfectly  comprehend        
external affection and different        
figures4 ,we can also  imitate ,nature1 
by representing external figures by     
different modes1 as  by painting1       
sculpture1 and moulds2 but although our 
senses are only  judges of external     
qualities1 we know there are internal   
qualities1  some of which are general1  
as gravity4 ,this quality1 or power1    
does  not act relatively to surfaces1   
but proportionably to the masses1 or    
quantities of matter2 there is1         
therefore1 very active qualities in     
,nature1 which even penetrate bodies to 
the most internal parts2 but we  shall  
never gain a perfect idea of these      
qualities1 because1 not being  external1
 they cannot fall within the compass of 
our senses2 but we can  compare their   
effects1 and deduce analogies therefrom1
 to answer for  the effect of similar   

qualities4    ,if our eyes1 instead of  
representing to us the surface of       
objects only1  were so formed as to shew
 us the internal parts alone1 we should 
then  have clear ideas of the latter1   
without the smallest knowledge of the   
former4 ,in this supposition the        
internal moulds1 which ,i have supposed 
to be made use of by ,nature1 might be  
as easily seen and conceived as  the    
moulds for external figures4 ,in that   
case we should have modes of  imitating 
the internal parts of bodies as we now  
have for the external4  ,these internal 
moulds1 although we cannot acquire1     
,nature may be  possessed of1 as she is 
of the qualities of gravity1 which      
penetrate  to the internal particles of 
matter4 ,the supposition of these moulds
  being formed on good analogies it only
 remains for us to examine if it        
includes any contradiction4    ,it may  
be argued that the expression of an     
internal mould includes  two            
contradictory ideas2 that the idea of a 

mould can only be related  to the       
surface1 and that the internal1         
according to this1 must have a          
connection with the whole mass1 and1    
therefore1 it might as well be  called a
 massive surface as an internal mould4  
,i admit1 that when we are about to     
represent ideas which have not  hitherto
 been expressed1 we are obliged to make 
use of terms which seem  contradictory2 
for this reason philosophers have often 
employed foreign  terms on such         
occasions1 instead of applying those in 
common use1 and  which have a received  
signification2 but this artifice is     
useless1  since we can shew the         
opposition is only in the words1 and    
that there  is nothing contradictory in 
the idea4 ,now ,i affirm that a simple  
idea  cannot contain a contradiction1   
that is1 when we can form an idea of  a 
thing2 if this idea is simple it cannot 
be compounded2 it cannot  include any   
other idea1 and1 consequently1 it will  
contain nothing  opposite nor contrary4 

,simple ideas are not only the primary  
apprehensions which strike  us by the   
senses1 but also the primary comparisons
 which form from  those apprehensions2  
for the first apprehension1 itself is   
always a  comparison4 ,the idea of the  
size of an object1 or of its remoteness1
  necessarily includes a comparison with
 bulk or distance in general2           
therefore1 when an idea only includes   
comparison it must be regarded  as      
simple1 and from that circumstance1 as  
containing nothing  contradictory4 ,such
 is the idea of the internal mould4     
,there is a  quality in ,nature1 called 
gravity1 which penetrates the internal  
parts of bodies4 ,i take the idea of    
internal mould relatively to this       
quality1 and1 therefore1 including only 
comparison1 it bears not any            
contradiction4    ,let us now see the   
consequences that may be deduced from   
this  supposition2 let us also search   
after facts corresponding therewith1 as 
it will become so much the more         

probable1 as the number of analogies    
shall be greater4 ,let us begin by      
unfolding this idea of internal  moulds1
 and by explaining in what manner we    
understand it1 we shall be  brought to  
conceive the modes of reproduction4     
,nature1 in general1 seems to have a    
greater tendency to life than  death1   
and to organize bodies as much as       
possible2 the multiplication  of germs1 
which may be infinitely encreased1 is a 
proof of it2 and  we may assert with    
safety1 that if all matter is not       
organized1 it  is because organized     
beings destroy each other2 or we can    
augment as  much as we please the       
quantity of living and vegetating       
beings1 but we  cannot augment the      
quantity of stones or other inanimate   
matters4 ,this  seems to indicate that  
the most common work of ,nature is the  
production  of the organic part1 and in 
which her power knows no bounds4    ,to 
render this intelligible1 let us make a 
calculation of what a  single germ might

 produce4 ,the seed of an elm1 which    
does not weigh  the hundredth part of an
 ounce1 at the end of #ajj years will   
produce a  tree whose volume will be #fj
 cubic feet4 ,at the tenth year this    
tree  will have produced #ajjj seeds1   
which being all sown1 at the end of #ajj
  years would each have also a volume   
equal to #fj cubic feet4 ,thus in  #aaj 
years there is produced more than       
#fj1jjj cubic feet of organized  matter2
 #aj years more there will be           
#aj1jjj1jjj of fathoms1 without         
including the #aj1jjj encreased every   
year1 which would make #ajj1jjj  more2  
and ten years after there will be three 
times that number2 thus  in #acj years a
 single shoot will produce a volume of  
organized matter1  which would fill up a
 space of #ajjj cubic leagues2 #aj years
 after it  would comprehend a           
#a1jjj1jjj1 and in #aj years more       
#a1jjj1jjj times  #a1jjj1jjj cubic      
leagues2 so that in #aej years the whole
 terrestrial  globe might be entirely   

converted into one single kind of       
organized  matter4 ,in this production  
of organized body ,nature would know no 
bounds1 if it were not for the          
resistance of matters which are not     
susceptible of organization1 and this   
proves that she does not incline  to    
form inanimate but organized beings1 and
 that in this she never  stops but when 
irresistible inconveniences are opposed 
thereto4 ,what  we have already said on 
the seed of an elm may be said of any   
other2  and it would be easy to         
demonstrate1 that if we were to hatch   
every egg  produced by hens for the     
space of #cj years1 there would be a    
sufficient  number of fowls to cover the
 whole surface of the earth4    ,these  
kind of calculations demonstrate that   
organic formation is the  most common   
work of ,nature1 and1 apparently1 that  
which costs her  the least labour4 ,but 
,i will go farther2 the general division
 which  we ought to make of matter seems
 to me to be in living and dead  matter1

 instead of organized and brute2 the    
brute is only that matter  produced by  
the death of animals or vegetables2 ,i  
could prove it by  that enormous        
quantity of shells1 and other cast-off  
matters of living  animals1 which       
compose the principal part of stones1   
marble1 chalk1  marle1 earth1 turf1 and 
other substances1 which we call brute   
matter1  and which are only the ruins of
 dead animals or vegetables2 but a      
reflection1 which seems to me well      
founded1 will1 perhaps1 make it  better 
understood4    ,having meditated on the 
activity of ,nature to produce organized
 bodies1  and seen that her power1 in   
this respect1 is not limited2 having    
proved that infinity of organic living  
particles1 which constitute  life1 must 
exist2 having shewn that the living body
 costs the least  trouble to ,nature1 ,i
 now search after the principal causes  
of death and  destruction1 and ,i find  
that bodies in general1 which have the  
power  of converting matter into their  

proper substance1 and to assimilate  the
 parts of other bodies1 are the greatest
 destroyers4 ,fire1 for  example1 turns 
into its own substance almost every     
species of matter1  and is the greatest 
means of destruction known to us4       
,animals seem to  participate of the    
qualities of flame2 their internal heat 
is a kind of  fire2 therefore1 after    
fire1 animals are the greatest          
destroyers1 and  they assimilate and    
convert into their own substance every  
matter which  may serve them for food3  
but although these two causes of        
destruction  are very considerable1 and 
their effects perpetually incline to    
the annihilation of organized beings1   
the cause of reproduction is  infinitely
 more powerful and active2 she seems to 
borrow1 even from  destruction itself1  
means to multiply1 since assimilation1  
which is one  cause of death1 is at the 
same time a necessary means of producing
 life4    ,to destroy an organized being
 is1 as we have observed1 only to       

separate  the organic particles of which
 it is composed2 these particles remain 
separated till they are re-united by    
some active power4 ,but what is  this   
active power8--,it is the power which   
animals and vegetables have  to         
assimilate the matter that serves them  
for food2 and is not this  the same1 or 
at least has it not great connection    
with that which is  the cause of        
reproduction8          ,,chapter ,,iii4 
,,of ,,nutrition ,,and ,,growth4        
,the body of an animal is a kind of     
internal mould1 in which the  nutritive 
matter assimilates itself with the whole
 in such a manner  that1 without        
changing the order and proportion of the
 parts1 each  receives an augmentation1 
and it is this augmentation of bulk     
which  some have called expansion1      
because they imagined every difficulty  
would be removed by the supposition that
 the animal was completely  formed in   
the embryo1 and that it would be easy to
 conceive that its  parts would expand1 

or unfold in proportion as it would     
increase by the  addition of accessory  
matter4    ,but if we would have a clear
 idea of this augmentation and          
expansion1  how can it be done otherwise
 than by considering the animal body1   
and each of its parts1 as so many       
internal moulds which receive the       
accessory matter in the order that      
results from the position of all  their 
parts8 ,this expansion cannot be made by
 the addition to the  surfaces alone1   
but1 on the contrary1 by an intimate    
susception which  penetrates the mass1  
and thus increases the size of the      
parts1 without  changing the form1 from 
whence it is necessary that the matter  
which  serves for this expansion should 
penetrate the internal part in all  its 
dimensions2 it is also as necessary that
 this penetration be made  in a certain 
order and proportion1 so that no one    
point can receive  more than another1   
without which some parts would expand   
quicker than  others1 and the form be   

entirely changed4 ,now what can         
prescribe this  rule to accessory       
matter1 and constrain it to arrive      
perpetually and  proportionally to every
 point of the internal parts1 except we 
conceive  an internal mould8    ,it     
therefore appears certain that the body 
of an animal or vegetable  is an        
internal mould of a constant form1 but  
where their masses may  augment         
proportionably1 by the extension of this
 mould in all its  external and internal
 dimensions4 ,that this extension also  
is made  by the intus-susception of any 
accessory or foreign matter which       
penetrates the internal part1 and       
becomes similar to the form and         
identical substance with the matter of  
the moulds themselves4    ,but of what  
nature is this matter which the animal  
or vegetable  assimilates with its own  
substance8 what can be the nature of    
that  power which gives it the activity 
and necessary motion to penetrate the   
internal mould8 and if such a power does

 exist1 must it not be similar  to that 
by which the internal mould itself would
 be produced8    ,these three questions 
include all that can be desired on this 
subject1  and seem to depend on each    
other so much1 that ,i am persuaded the 
reproduction of an animal or vegetable  
cannot be explained in a  satisfactory  
manner1 if a clear idea of the mode of  
the operation of  nutrition is not      
obtained2 we must1 therefore1 examine   
these three  questions separately1 in   
order to compare the consequences       
resulting  therefrom4    ,the first1    
which relates to the nutritive nature of
 this matter1 is  in part resolved by   
the reasons we have already given1 and  
will be  fully demonstrated in the      
succeeding chapter4 ,we will shew that  
there  exists an infinity of living     
organic particles in ,nature2 that their
  production is of little expence to    
,nature1 since their existence is       
constant and invariable1 and that the   
causes of death only separate  without  

destroying them4 ,therefore the matter  
which the animal or  vegetable          
assimilates is an organic matter of the 
same nature as the  animal or vegetable 
itself1 and which consequently can      
augment the  size without changing the  
form or quality of the matter of the    
mould1  since it is in fact of the same 
form and quality as that which it is    
constituted with4 ,thus1 in the quantity
 of aliments which the animal  takes to 
support life1 and to keep its organs in 
play1 and in the sap1  which the        
vegetable takes up by its roots and     
leaves1 there is a great  part thrown   
off by transpiration1 secretion1 and    
other excretory modes1  and only a small
 portion retained for the nourishment of
 the parts and  their expansion4 ,it is 
very probable1 that in the body of an   
animal  or vegetable there is formed a  
separation of the brute particles of    
the aliments and the organic2 that the  
first are carried off by the  causes    
just mentioned2 that only organic       

particles remain1 and that  the         
distribution of them is made by means of
 some active power which  conducts them 
to every part in an exact proportion1   
insomuch that  neither receive more or  
less than is needful for its equal      
nutrition1  growth1 or expansion4       
,the second question1 ,what can be the  
active power which causes this  organic 
matter to penetrate and incorporate     
itself with this internal  mould8 ,by   
the preceding chapter it appears1 that  
there exists in  ,nature powers relative
 to the internal part of matter1 and    
which have  no relation with its        
external qualities4 ,these powers1 as   
already  observed1 will never come under
 our cognizance1 because their action is
  made on the internal part of the body1
 whereas our senses cannot reach  beyond
 what is external2 it is therefore      
evident1 that we shall never  have a    
clear idea of the penetrating powers1   
nor of the manner by which  they act2   
but it is not less certain that they    

exist1 than that by  their means most   
effects of ,nature are produced2 we must
 attribute to  them the effects of      
nutrition and expansion1 which cannot be
 effected  by any other means than the  
penetration of the most intimate        
recesses  of the original mould3 in the 
same mode as gravity penetrates all     
parts  of matter1 so the power which    
impels or attracts the organic particles
  of food1 penetrates into the internal 
parts of organized bodies1 and  as those
 bodies have a certain form1 which we   
call the internal mould1  the organic   
particles1 impelled by the action of the
 penetrating force1  cannot enter       
therein but in a certain order relative 
to this form1  which consequently it    
cannot change1 but only augment its     
dimensions1  and thus produce the growth
 of organized bodies2 and if in the     
organized body1 expanded by this means1 
there are some particles whose  external
 and internal forms are like that of the
 whole body1 from those  reproduction   

will proceed4    ,the third question1   
,is it not by a similar power the       
internal mould  itself is reproduced8   
,it appears1 that it is not only a      
similar but  the same power which causes
 expansion and reproduction1 for in an  
organized body which expands1 if there  
is some particle like the whole1  it is 
sufficient for that particle to become  
one day an organized  body itself1      
perfectly similar to that of which it   
made a part4 ,this  particle will not at
 first present a figure striking enough 
for us to  compare with the whole body2 
but when separated from that body1 and  
receiving proper nourishment1 it will   
begin to expand1 and in a short  time   
present a similar being1 both externally
 and internally1 as the  body from which
 it had been separated3 thus a willow or
 polypus1 which  contain more organic   
particles similar to the whole than most
 other  substances1 if cut into ever    
such a number of pieces1 from each piece
  will spring a body similar to that    

from whence it was divided4    ,now in a
 body1 every particle of which is like  
itself1 the organization  is the most   
simple1 as we have observed in the first
 chapter2 for it  is only the repetition
 of the same form1 and a composition of 
similar  figures1 all organized alike4  
,it is for this reason that the most    
simple bodies1 or the most imperfect    
kinds1 are reproduced with the  greatest
 ease1 and in the greatest plenty2      
whereas1 if an organized  body contains 
only some few particles like itself1    
then1 as such alone  can arrive to the  
second expansion1 consequently the      
reproduction will  be more difficult1   
and not so abundant in number2 the      
organization  of these bodies will also 
be more compounded1 because the more the
  organized parts differ from the whole1
 the more the organization of  this body
 will be perfect1 and the more difficult
 the production will  be4               
,nourishment1 expansion1 and            
propagation1 then1 are the effects of   

one  and the same cause4 ,the organized 
body is nourished by the particles  of  
aliments analogous to it2 it expands by 
the intimate susception  of organical   
parts which agree with it1 and it       
propagates because  it contains some    
original particles which resemble       
itself4 ,it only  remains to examine1   
whether these similar organic particles 
come into  the organized body by        
nutriment1 or whether they were there   
before1  and have an independent        
existence4 ,if we suppose the latter1 we
 shall  fall in with the doctrine of the
 infinity of parts1 or similar germs    
contained one in the other2 the         
insufficiency and absurdity of which    
hypothesis we have already shewn2 we    
must therefore conclude that  similar   
parts are extracted from the food2 and  
after what has been  said1 we hope to   
explain the manner in which the organic 
molecules are  formed1 and how the      
minute particles unite4    ,there is1 as
 we have said1 a separation of the parts

 in the nutriment2  the organic from    
those analogous to the animal or        
vegetable1 by  transpiration and other  
excretory modes2 the organical remain   
and serve  for the expansion and        
nutriment of the body4 ,but these       
organic parts  must be of various kinds1
 and as each part of the body receives  
only  those similar to itself1 and that 
in due proportion1 it is very natural   
to imagine1 that the superfluity of this
 organic matter will be sent  back from 
every part of the body into one or more 
places1 where all  these organical      
molecules uniting1 form small organized 
bodies like  the first1 and to which    
nothing is wanting but the mode of      
expansion  for them to become           
individuals of the same species2 for    
every part  of the body sending back    
organized parts1 like those of which    
they  themselves are composed1 it is    
necessary1 that from the union of all   
these parts1 there should result        
organized bodies like the first4 ,this  

being admitted1 may we not conclude this
 is the reason why1 during the  time of 
expansion and growth1 organized bodies  
cannot produce1 because  the parts which
 expand absorb the whole of the organic 
molecules which  belong to them1 and not
 having any superfluous parts1          
consequently are  incapable of          
reproduction4    ,this explanation of   
nutrition and reproduction will not     
probably be  received by those who admit
 but of a certain number of mechanical  
principles1 and reject all which do not 
depend on them2 and as what  has been   
said of nutrition and expansion comes   
under the latter  description1 they will
 possibly treat it as unworthy          
dependance4 ,but  ,i am quite of a      
different opinion from these            
philosophers2 for it  appears to me     
that1 by admitting only a certain number
 of mechanical  principles1 they do not 
see how greatly they contract the bounds
 of  philosophy1 and that for one       
phenomenon that can be explained by a   

system so confined1 a thousand would be 
found exceeding its limits4    ,the idea
 of explaining every phenomenon in      
nature by mechanical  principles was    
certainly a great and beautiful         
exertion1 and which  ,descartes first   
attempted4 ,but this idea is only a     
project1 and if  properly founded1 have 
we the means of performing it8 ,these   
mechanical  principles are the extent of
 matter1 its impenetrability1 its       
motion1  its external figure1 its       
divisibility1 and the communication of  
movement by impulsion1 by elasticity1 c4
 ,the particular ideas of each  of these
 qualities we have acquired by our      
senses1 and regard them as  principles1 
because they are general and belong to  
all matter4 ,but are  we certain these  
qualities are the only ones which matter
 possesses1  or rather1 must we not     
think these qualities1 which we take for
  principles1 are only modes of         
perception2 and that if our senses were 
differently formed1 we should discover  

in matter1 qualities different  from    
those which we have enumerated8 ,to     
admit only those qualities  to matter   
which are known to us1 seems to be a    
vain and unfounded  pretension4 ,matter 
may have many general qualities which we
 shall ever  be ignorant of2 she may    
also have others that human assiduity   
may  discover1 in the same manner as has
 recently been done with respect  to    
gravity1 which alike exists in all      
matter4 ,the cause of impulsion1  and   
such other mechanical principles1 will  
always be as impossible to  find out as 
that of attraction1 or such other       
general quality4 ,from  hence is it not 
very reasonable to say1 that mechanical 
principles are  nothing but general     
effects1 which experience has pointed   
out to us in  matter1 and that every    
time a new general effect is discovered1
 either  by reflection1 comparison1     
measure1 or experience1 a new mechanical
  principle will be gained1 which may be
 used with as much certainty and        

advantage as any we are now acquainted  
with8    ,the defect of ,aristotle's    
philosophy was making use of particular 
effects as common causes2 and that of   
,descartes in making use of only  a few 
general effects as causes1 and excluding
 all the rest4 ,the  philosophy which   
appears to me would be the least        
deficient1 is that  where general       
effects are only made use of for causes1
 and seeking to  augment the number of  
them1 by endeavouring to generalize     
particular  effects4    ,in my          
explanation of expansion and            
reproduction1 ,i admit the received     
mechanical principles1 the penetrating  
force of weight1 and1 by  analogy1 ,i   
have strove to point out that there are 
other penetrating  powers existing in   
organized bodies1 which experience has  
confirmed4 ,i  have proved by facts1    
that matter inclines to organization1   
and that  there exists an infinite      
number of organic particles4 ,i have    
therefore  only generalized some        

observations1 without having advanced   
any thing  contrary to mechanical       
principles1 when that term is used as it
 ought  to be understood1 as denoting   
the general effects of ,nature4         
,,chapter ,,iv4    ,,of ,,the           
,,generation ,,of ,,animals4      ,as   
human and animal organization is the    
most perfect and compounded1  their     
propagation is also the most difficult  
and least abundant2 ,i here  except     
those animals which1 like the           
fresh-water polypus or worms1 are       
reproduced from their divided parts1 as 
trees are by slips1 or plants  by their 
divided roots or suckers2 also those    
which may be found to  multiply without 
copulation2 it appears to me that the   
nature of those  have been sufficiently 
explained in the preceding chapter2 and 
from  which1 in every kind where an     
individual produces its resemblance1 it 
is easy to deduce the explanation of the
 reproduction from expansion  and       
nutrition4    ,but how shall we apply   

this mode of reasoning to the generation
 of man  and animals distinguished by   
sexes1 and where the concurrence of two 
individuals is required8 ,we understand1
 by what has just been advanced1  how   
each individual can produce its like2   
but we do not conceive how a  male and a
 female produces a third4    ,before ,i 
answer this question1 ,i cannot avoid   
observing1 that all those  who have     
written upon this subject have confined 
their systems to the  generation of man 
and animals1 without paying any         
attention to other  kinds of generation 
which ,nature presents us with1 and     
reproduction  in general2 and as the    
generation of man and animals is the    
most  complicated of all kinds1 their   
researches have been attended with      
great disadvantages1 not only by        
attacking the most difficult point1  but
 also by having no subject of           
comparison1 from which they could draw  
a solution of the question4 ,to this it 
is that ,i principally attribute  the   

little success of their labours2 but by 
the road ,i have taken  we may arrive at
 the explanation of the phenomena of    
every kind of  generation in a          
satisfactory manner4    ,the generation 
of man will serve us for an example4 ,i 
take him in his  infancy1 and ,i        
conceive that the expansion and growth  
of the different  parts of his body     
being made by the intimate penetration  
of organic  molecules analogous to each 
of its parts1 all these organic         
molecules  are absorbed in his earliest 
years1 and serve only for the expansion 
and augmentation of his various members1
 consequently there is little  or no    
superfluity until the expansion is      
entirely completed2 and this  is the    
reason why children are incapable of    
propagation2 but when  the body has     
attained the greatest part of its       
growth1 it begins to  have no longer    
need of so great a quantity of organic  
particles1 and  the superfluity1        
therefore1 is sent back from each part  

of the body  into the destined          
reservoirs for its reception4 ,these    
reservoirs are  the testicles and       
seminal vessels1 and it is at this      
period that the  expansion of the body  
is nearly completed1 when the           
commencement of  puberty is dated1 and  
every circumstance indicates the        
superabundance  of nutriment2 the voice 
alters and takes a deeper tone2 the     
beard  begins to appear1 and other parts
 of the body are covered with hair2     
those parts which are appointed for     
generation take a quick growth2 the     
seminal liquor fills the prepared       
reservoirs1 and when the plentitude  is 
too great1 even without any provocation1
 and during the time of  sleep1 it emits
 from the body4 ,in the female this     
superabundance is  more strongly marked1
 it discovers itself by periodical      
evacuation1  which begin and end with   
the faculty of propagating1 by the quick
  growth of the breasts1 and by an      
attraction in the sexual parts1 as      

shall be explained4    ,i think1        
therefore1 that the organical molecules1
 sent from every part  of the body into 
the testicles and seminal vessels of the
 male1 and  into the ovarium of the     
female1 forms there the seminal liquor1 
which  is1 as has been observed1 in both
 sexes1 a kind of extract of every  part
 of the body4 ,these organical          
molecules1 instead of uniting and       
forming an individual1 like the one in  
which they are contained1 can  only     
unite when the seminal liquors of the   
two sexes are mixed2 and  when there is 
more organical molecules of the male    
than of the female1  in such mixture the
 produce will be a male2 and1 on the    
contrary1 when  there is more of the    
female then a female will be the result4
    ,i do not mean to say that the      
organic molecules of either could unite 
to form small organized bodies of       
themselves1 but that it is necessary  a 
mixture of the seminal fluid of both    
sexes should take place1 and  that it is

 only those formed in that mixture which
 can expand and  become individuals4    
,these small moving bodies1 called      
spermatic  animals1 are seen1 by a      
microscope1 in the seminal liquor of    
every  male1 and are1 probably1 small   
organized bodies1 proceeding from the   
individual which contains them1 but     
which cannot expand or produce any      
thing of themselves4 ,we shall evince   
that there are the same in the  seminal 
liquor of the female1 and shall indicate
 the place where this  liquor is to be  
found4    ,it is very possible that     
organical molecules are1 at first1 only 
a  kind of foetus of a small organized  
body1 in which there are only  essential
 parts4 ,we shall not enter into a      
detail of proofs1 in this  respect1 but 
content ourselves with remarking1 that  
the pretended  spermatic animals1 which 
we have been speaking of1 might possibly
 be  but imperfectly organized1 or that 
these pretended animals are only  living
 organic particles1 common both to      

animals and vegetables1 or1 at  most1   
only the first union of those particles4
    ,but let us return to our principal 
object4 ,how can we conceive1 it may  be
 asked1 that the superfluous particles  
can be sent back from every  part of the
 body1 and afterwards unite when the    
seminal liquor of the  two sexes are    
mixed8 ,besides1 is it certain that this
 mixture is made8  ,has it not been     
pretended that the female did not       
furnish any fluid of  this kind8 ,is it 
certain that the liquor of the male     
enters the matrix1  c4    ,to the first 
question ,i answer1 if what ,i have said
 on the subject  of the penetration of  
the internal mould by organic molecules1
 in  nutrition or expansion1 be well    
understood1 it will easily be conceived 
that these molecules1 not being able any
 longer to penetrate those  parts they  
did before1 they will be necessitated to
 take a different  road1 and            
consequently arrive at some part1 as the
 testicles or seminal  vessels2 for to  

explain the animal economy1 and the     
different movements  of the human body1 
solely by mechanical principles1 is the 
same as if  a man would give an account 
of a picture by shutting his eyes and   
feeling on it2 for it is evident that   
neither the circulation of the  blood1  
nor the motion of the muscles1 nor the  
animal functions1 can  be explained by  
impulsion1 nor other common laws of     
mechanics3 it is  as evident that       
nutrition1 expansion1 and reproduction1 
is made by  other laws1 why therefore   
not admit of acting and penetrating     
powers  on the masses of bodies1 since  
we have examples of it in gravity1 in   
magnetical attractions1 and in chemical 
affinities8 ,and as we are  now         
convinced by facts1 and the multitude of
 constant and uniform  observations1    
that there exists in nature powers which
 do not act by  the mode of impulsion1  
why should we not make use of those     
powers as  mechanical principles8 ,why  
should we exclude them from the         

explanations  of effects1 which we are  
convinced they produce8 ,why should we  
be  confined to employ only the power of
 impulsion8 ,is not this like  judging  
of a picture by the touch1 and          
explaining the phenomena of the  mass by
 those of the surface1 and the          
penetrating power by superficial        
action8 ,is not this making use of one  
sense instead of another2 and1  on the  
whole1 is it not confining the faculty  
of reasoning on a small  number of      
mechanical principles1 totally          
inadequate to follow the  various       
productions of nature4    ,but those    
penetrating powers being once admitted1 
is it not natural  to suppose that the  
most analogous particles will unite and 
bind  themselves intimately together2   
that each part of the body will         
appropriate the most agreeable to       
itself1 and that from the superfluity   
of all these particles there will be    
formed a seminal fluid1 which  will     
contain all the organic molecules       

necessary to form a small  organized    
body1 perfectly like that from which    
this fluid is extracted8  ,a power like 
that which was necessary to make them   
penetrate into each  part1 and produce  
expansion1 may be sufficient to collect 
them in an  organized form1 like that of
 the body in which they originated4     
,i conceive1 that in the aliments we    
take there is a great quantity  of      
organical molecules1 which needs no     
serious proof1 since we live  on animals
 and vegetables1 which are organized    
substances4 ,in the  stomach and        
intestines a separation is made of the  
gross parts1  which are thrown off by   
the excretories4 ,the chyle1 which is   
the  purest part of the aliment1 enters 
into the lacteal vessels1 and from      
thence is transported into every part of
 the body4 ,by the motion of  the       
circulation it purifies itself from all 
inorganical molecules1  which are thrown
 off by secretion and transpiration2 but
 the organic  particles remain1 because 

they are analogous to the blood1 and    
that  from thence there is a power of   
affinity which retains them afterwards2 
for as the whole mass of blood passes   
many times through the body1 ,i         
apprehend1 that in this continual       
circulation every particular part  of   
the body attracts the particles most    
analogous to it1 without  interrupting  
the course of the others4 ,in this      
manner every part is  expanded and      
nourished1 not1 as it is commonly said1 
by a simple  addition of the parts1 and 
a superficial increase1 but by an       
intimate  penetration of substance1     
produced by a power which acts on every 
point  of the mass2 and when the parts  
of the body are at a certain growth1    
and almost filled with these analogous  
particles1 as their substance is  become
 more solid1 ,i conceive they then lose 
the faculty of attracting  or receiving 
those particles1 but as the circulation 
will continue  to carry them to every   
part of the body1 which not being any   

longer  able to admit them as before1   
must necessarily be deposited in some   
particular part1 as in the testicles or 
seminal vessels4 ,this fluid  extract of
 the male1 when mixed with that of the  
female1 the similar  particles1         
possessing a penetrating force1 unite   
and form a small  organized body like   
one of the two sexes1 and no more than  
expansion  is wanting to render it a    
similar individual1 and which it        
afterwards  receives in the womb of the 
female4    ,the second question1        
,whether the female has really a seminal
 liquor  similar to the male8 demands   
some discussion4 ,i shall first observe1
  as a certain matter1 that if such a   
fluid exists1 the manner in which  the  
emission of the female is made is not so
 apparent as by the male1  being in     
general retained within the body4,,bj   
,the ancients so little  doubted of the 
female having a seminal liquor1 that it 
was by the  different mode of its       
emission that they distinguished the    

male from  the female4 ,but physicians1 
who have endeavoured to explain         
generation  by the egg1 or by spermatic 
animalcules1 insinuate that females have
 no  particular fluid1 that we have been
 deceived by taking the mucus for  the  
seminal1 and that the supposition of the
 ancients upon this subject  was        
destitute of all foundation4            
,nevertheless this fluid does exist1    
and it has only been doubted by those   
who chose to give way to systems1  and  
from the difficulty of discovering the  
parts which serve for its  reservoirs4  
,the fluid which issues from the glands 
at the neck of the  womb1 and at the    
orifice of the urethra1 has no apparent 
reservoir1  and as it flows outwardly it
 cannot be thought to be the prolific   
liquor1 since it cannot concur in the   
formation of the foetus which  is       
performed within the matrix4 ,the       
prolific fluid of the female must  have 
a reservoir in another part4 ,it flows  
even in great plenty1  although such a  

quantity is not necessary1 no more than 
in the male1  for the production of the 
embryo4 ,it is sufficient for           
propagation if  ever so little of the   
male fluid enters the matrix1 so it     
meets with  the smallest drop of that of
 the female2 therefore the observations 
of some anatomists1 who have pretended  
that the seminal liquor of  the male    
does not enter the womb1 makes nothing  
against what we have  advanced1         
especially as other anatomists1 who rely
 on observations1  have pretended the   
contrary4 ,but the subject will be      
better discussed  in the subsequent     
pages4    ,,bj ,quod intra se semen     
jacit fmina vocatur2 quod in hac jacit1 
mas1  ,aristotle1 art4 #ah de           
,animalibus4    ,having thus given      
answers to possible objections1 let us  
now look into  the reasons which may    
serve as proofs to our explanation4 ,the
 first is  derived from the analogy     
there is between expansion and          
reproduction2  expansion cannot be      

explained in a satisfactory manner1     
without  employing those penetrating    
powers1 and those affinities or         
attractions  we have already made use of
 to explain the formation of small      
organized  beings1 resembling the great 
ones which contain them4 ,a second      
analogy  is1 that nutrition and         
reproduction are both not only produced 
by  the same efficient1 but also by the 
same material cause1 the organic        
particles of the nutriment4 ,and a proof
 that it is the superfluity of  those   
particles which serves for reproduction1
 is the body not being  in a condition  
to propagate before they have done      
growing2 and we  daily see in dogs1 and 
other animals1 who more exactly follow  
the laws  of nature than we1 that they  
nearly attain their full growth before  
they attempt to copulate1 and by which  
we may know whether a dog will  increase
 any more or not2 for we may be assured 
he will not after being  in a condition 
to engender4    ,it is another proof    

that the superfluous nutriment forms the
 seminal  liquor1 that eunuchs1 and all 
mutilated animals1 grow larger or       
thicker than those who have not that    
deficiency4 ,the superabundance of      
nutriment not being able to evacuate1   
for the defect of proper organs1  alters
 the habit of the body2 the thighs and  
haunches of eunuchs grow  very large3   
the reason is evident2 after their body 
has attained the  common size1 if the   
superfluous organic molecules found an  
issue1 as  in other men1 this growth    
would no longer increase2 but as there  
are  no longer organs for the emission  
of the seminal fluid1 which is no  more 
than the superfluous matter which served
 for growth remains1 it  endeavours to  
expand the parts beyond their usual     
dimensions4 ,now it  is known1 that the 
growth of the bones is made by the      
extremities1  which are soft and spongy1
 and when they have once acquired       
solidity1  they are no longer capable of
 extension2 and for this reason1 the    

superfluous organic particles can only  
expand the spongy extremities  of bones1
 which causes the thighs1 knees1 c4 of  
eunuchs to thicken so  considerably4    
,but what more strongly proves the truth
 of our explanation1 is the  resemblance
 of children to their parents4 ,a son1  
in general1 more  resembles his father  
than his mother1 and the daughter more  
her mother  than her father2 because a  
man has a greater resemblance to a man  
than  to a woman1 and a woman resembles 
more a woman than a man1 in respect  to 
the whole habitude of the body2 but for 
the features and particular  habits1    
children sometimes resemble the father1 
sometimes the mother1  and sometimes    
both4 ,they will have1 for example1 the 
father's eyes1  and the mouth of the    
mother1 or the complexion of the latter1
 and the  size of the former2 which is  
impossible to be conceived1 unless it is
  admitted that both parents have       
contributed to the formation of the     
child1 and that consequently there was a

 mixture of the two seminal  fluids4    
,i acknowledge that resemblances raised 
many difficulties in my own  mind2      
before ,i had maturely examined the     
question of generation1 ,i  was         
prepossessed with ideas of a mixed      
system1 by which it appeared  that ,i   
could explain in a probable manner every
 phenomena1 excepting  resemblances1 and
 these ,i thought ,i had found very     
specious reasons  to doubt1 and which   
deceived me a long time1 until having   
minutely  observed1 with all the        
exactness ,i was capable of1 a great    
number  of families1 and especially the 
most numerous1 ,i have not been able  to
 resist the multiplicity of proofs2 it  
is only after being fully  convinced in 
this respect1 that ,i have began to     
think differently1 and  to credit what  
,i now believe to be the fact4          
,besides1 although ,i had found the mode
 to avoid those arguments that  would be
 made on the subject of mulattos1       
mongrels1 and mules1 ,i could  not be   

prevented from observing that every     
explanation1 where a reason  could be   
given for the phenomena1 cannot be      
satisfactory2 and ,i am  now perfectly  
convinced that the objections which     
might be used with  respect to them1 as 
well as particular parental             
resemblances1 instead  of opposing would
 confirm my explanation4    ,i now      
proceed to draw some consequences4 ,in  
youth the seminal fluid  is less        
abundant1 although more stimulating2 its
 quantity encreases  to a certain age1  
because in proportion as we approach    
that age1 the  parts of the body become 
more solid1 admit less nutriment1 send  
back a  greater quantity to the common  
reservoirs1 and consequently produce a  
greater abundance of seminal fluid4     
,when the external organs have not  been
 used1 persons of a middling age1 and   
even old men1 more easily  engender than
 young ones4 ,this is evident in the    
vegetable system1 the  older a tree is1 
the more fruit or seed it produces4     

,young people who emit1 or force        
irritation1 draw a greater quantity of  
seminal fluid towards the organs of     
generation than would naturally  arrive 
there1 the consequence is1 they cease   
from growing1 become  thin1 and fall at 
length into consumptions1 and that      
because they lose  by premature1 and too
 often reiterated evacuations1 the      
necessary  substance for the growth and 
nutrition of every part of the body4    
,those whose bodies are thin without    
emaciation1 or fleshy without being     
fat1 are the most vigorous2 as soon as  
the superabundant nutriment has  begun  
to form fat1 it is always at the expence
 of the seminal fluid1  and other       
faculties of generation4 ,when also1 not
 only the growth of  every part of the  
body is entirely completed1 but the     
bones are grown  solid1 the cartilages  
begin to ossify1 the membranes have     
received  all the solidity possible1 the
 fibres are become hard and rough1 and  
at length every part of the body can no 

longer scarcely admit of  nutriment1 the
 fat considerably increases1 and the    
quantity of seminal  fluid diminishes1  
because the superfluous particles1      
stopped in every  part of the body1 and 
the fibres1 having no longer any        
suppleness or  elasticity1 cannot return
 it into the reservoirs of generation4  
,the seminal liquor not only becomes    
more abundant till a certain age1  but  
it also becomes thicker1 and contains a 
greater quantity of matter  under the   
same bulk4 ,a person1 very observant in 
this point1 assured me  that the seminal
 fluid is as heavy again as the blood1  
and consequently  specifically heavier  
than any other fluid of the body4       
,when a man is in good health the       
evacuation of this fluid produces  an   
appetite1 and he soon feels the         
necessity of repairing1 by a new        
nutriment1 the loss of the old2 from    
whence it may be concluded1 that  the   
most efficacious check to every kind of 
luxury is abstinence and  fasting4    ,a

 number of other things remain to be    
said on this subject1 but which  ,i have
 treated of in the ,history of ,man2    
however1 before ,i entirely  close1 ,i  
shall make some few observations4 ,the  
greatest part of animals  do not seek   
for copulation until they are nearly    
arrived at their  full growth2 those    
which have only a particular season in  
the year  have only seminal liquor at   
that time4 ,a very capable observer of  
,nature,,bk not only saw this liquor    
forming in the roe of a ,calmar1 but    
even observed the spermatic animals and 
the roe itself1 which have no  existence
 till the month of ,october1 the time   
when the ,calmar spawns  on the coast of
 ,portugal1 where ,mr4 ,needham made    
these observations4  ,as soon as the    
season is over neither seminal liquor   
nor spermatic  animals are longer seen  
in the milt1 which then dries up and    
becomes  imperceptible till the season  
returns in the succeeding year1 when    
the superfluous nutriment renews the    

milt1 and fills it as before4 ,in  the  
history of the stag we have an          
opportunity of remarking on the         
different effects of rutting2 the most  
general is1 the increased size  of the  
animal2 and in those kinds of animals   
whose rutting or spawning  is only made 
at great intervals1 the extenuation of  
the body is  proportionably great4      
,,bk ,mr4 ,needham's ,new ,microscopical
 ,discoveries1 ,london1 #agde4    ,as   
women are smaller and weaker than men1  
of a more delicate  temperament1 and eat
 much less1 it is natural to imagine    
that their  superfluous organic         
particles are not so plentiful2 from    
hence their  seminal liquor will be     
weaker1 and less in quantity1 than that 
of men4  ,since1 likewise1 the seminal  
liquor of females contains fewer organic
  particles than that of males1 must    
there not result a greater number  of   
males than females from the mixture of  
these two liquors8 ,this is  really the 
case1 for which it has hitherto been    

thought impossible  to find a reason4   
,about a sixteenth more male children   
are born than  females2 and we find that
 the same cause produces the same effect
  in all kinds of animals on which we   
have been able to make this             
observation4          ,,chapter ,v4     
,,exposition ,,of ,,the ,,systems ,,in  
,,generation4      ,plato,,bl not only  
explains the generation of man1 animals1
 plants1  and elements1 but even that of
 heaven and the gods1 by reflected      
representations and images extracted    
from the ,divine ,creator1 which1  by an
 harmonic motion1 are ranged according  
to the properties of  numbers in the    
most perfect order4 ,the universe1      
according to him1  is a copy of the     
,deity3 time1 space1 motion1 and matter1
 are images  of his attributes2 and     
secondary and particular causes are     
results  of numerical and harmonical    
qualities of those representations4 ,the
  world is the most perfect being1 and  
to have a complete perfection it  was   

necessary that it contained every other 
animal1 every possible  representation1 
and every imaginable form1 of the       
creative faculty4  ,the essence of all  
generation consists in the unity and    
harmony of the  number ,three1 or of the
 triangle1 viz4 that which generates1   
that  in which generation is performed1 
and that which is engendered4  ,the     
succession of individuals in the species
 is only a fugitive image  of the       
immutable eternity of this triangular   
harmony1 the universal  prototype of    
every existence and every generation2   
for this reason  two individuals are    
required to produce a third1 and it is  
this which  constitutes the essential   
order of father1 mother1 and child4     
,,bl ,see the ,timus4    ,this          
philosopher is a painter only of ideas2 
disengaged from matter  he elevates into
 the regions of abstraction1 and1 losing
 sight  of sensible objects1 perceives  
and contemplates the intellectual       
alone4 ,one cause1 one end1 and one sole

 mode1 form the whole of his            
perceptions4 ,god is the cause1         
perfection the end1 and harmonic        
representations the modes4 ,what can be 
a more sublime idea6 ,this plan  of     
philosophy is replete with simplicity1  
and the views truly noble6  but how void
 and destitute for speculation8 ,we are 
not purely spiritual  beings1 nor have  
we the power to give a real existence to
 our ideas4  ,confined to matter1 our   
rather dependent on what causes our     
sensations1  the real substance can     
never be produced by the abstracted4 ,i 
answer  ,plato in his own language1 ,the
 ,creator realizes every thing he       
conceives2 his perceptions engender     
existence3 the created being1 on  the   
contrary1 conceives nothing by          
retrenching them but from reality1  and 
the production of his ideas do not      
amount to any thing4    ,let us then    
content ourselves with a more humble and
 more material  philosophy2 and by      
keeping within the sphere ,nature has   

allotted us1  let us examine the rash   
steps and the rapid flight of those who 
attempt  to soar beyond it4 ,all this   
,pythagorean philosophy1 which is purely
  intellectual1 turns entirely on two   
principles1 one of which is false  and  
the other precarious3 those are1 the    
real power of abstraction1  and the     
actual existence of final causes4 ,to   
take numbers for real  beings2 to say   
that unity is a general individual1     
which not only  represents every        
individual1 but even communicates       
existence to them2  to pretend that     
unity has the actual power to engender  
another unity  nearly similar to itself1
 and constituting two individuals1 two  
sides  of a triangle1 which can have no 
bound or perfection without a third     
side1 or by a third individual1 which   
they necessarily engender4 ,to  regard  
numbers1 geometrical lines1 and         
metaphysical abstractions1 as  efficient
 and real physical causes1 on which the 
formation of the  elements1 the         

generation of animals and plants1 and   
all the phenomena  of ,nature depend1   
seems to me to be the most absurd abuse 
of reason1  and the greatest obstacle   
that can be put against the advancement 
of  our knowledge4 ,besides1 what can be
 more false than such suppositions8     
,admitting1 with ,plato and             
,malebranche1 that matter does not      
exist1  that external objects are only  
ideal images of the creative faculty1   
and that we perceive every thing in the 
,deity1 must it be concluded  from      
thence that our ideas should be of the  
same order as those of the  ,creator1 or
 that they can produce existences8 ,are 
not we dependent on  our sensations8    
,whether the objects that cause them are
 real or not2  whether this cause of our
 sensations exists outwardly or         
inwardly2  whether it be the ,creator or
 matter we perceive1 what does it       
signify  to us8 ,are we less certain of 
being always affected in the same manner
  by the same causes8 ,have not our     

sensations an invariable order of       
existence1 and a necessary relation     
between them and the objects8 ,this1    
therefore1 is what must constitute the  
principles of our philosophy2  and what 
has no relation with it is vain1        
useless1 and false in the  application4 
,can a triangular harmony form the      
substance of the  elements8 ,is fire1 as
 ,plato affirms1 an acute triangle1 and 
light and  heat properties of this      
triangle8 ,air and water1 are they      
rectangular  and equilateral triangles8 
,is the form of the terrestrial element 
a  square1 because1 being the least     
perfect of all the four elements1  it   
recedes as much as possible from a      
triangle without losing its  essence8   
,do the male and female embrace only to 
complete the triangle  of generation8   
,these platonic ideas have two very     
different aspects4  ,in speculation they
 seem to flow from noble and sublime    
principles1 but  in application nothing 
but false and puerile consequences can  

be drawn  from them4    ,is it difficult
 to discover that our ideas proceed only
 from our  senses8 that the things we   
look on as real and existing are those  
of  which our senses have always        
rendered us the same testimony8 that    
those which we conceive to have certain 
existence are those which ever  present 
themselves in the same order8 that      
consequently our ideas1  very far from  
being the causes of things1 are only    
effects1 and so far  from resembling    
particular things1 become less similar  
to the objects  as they are more        
general2 that at length our mental      
abstractions are  only negative beings1 
which do not exist even intellectually  
but by the  retrenchment which we make  
of sensible qualities to real beings4   
,from hence is it not plain that        
abstractions can never become           
principles1 neither of existence nor    
real knowledge8 on the contrary1  our   
knowledge can only proceed from the     
results of properly comparing  our      

sensations4 ,these results are what is  
termed experience1 the sole  source of  
all real science4 ,the adoption of every
 other principle is an  abuse1 and every
 edifice built on abstracted ideas is a 
temple founded  on error4    ,error     
bears a much more extended signification
 in philosophy  than in morality3 in    
morals a thing may be false1 only       
because  it is misrepresented4          
,metaphysical falsehood consists not in 
misrepresentation alone1 but in         
crediting that which has no existence1  
and even in not being of any mode       
whatever4 ,it is in this kind of  error1
 of the first order1 that the           
,platonists1 the ,sceptics1 and the     
,egotists have fallen into1 their false 
suppositions have obscured the  natural 
light of truth1 clouded reason1 and     
retarded the advancement of  philosophy4
    ,the second principle made use of by
 ,plato1 and by most of the  speculative
 philosophers1 is a final cause4        
,nevertheless1 to reduce  this principle

 to its just value1 a single moment of  
reflection is  only requisite4 ,to say  
there is light because we have eyes1 and
 sounds  because we have ears1 or to say
 that we have ears and eyes because     
there is light and sound1 is it not     
exactly the same thing8 shall we  ever  
discover any thing by this mode of      
explanation8 ,is it not evident  that   
final causes are only arbitrary         
relations and moral abstractions1  which
 should impose on us still less than    
metaphysical abstractions1  because     
their origin is less noble and a more   
false supposition2 and  although        
,leibnitz has endeavoured to raise this 
principle to the  highest degree by the 
name of sufficient reason1 and ,plato   
has  represented it by the most         
flattering portrait1 under the title of 
perfection1 yet it cannot prevent our   
seeing it as trifling and  precarious4  
,are we better acquainted with the      
effects of ,nature1 from  being told    
that nothing is made without a reason1  

or that all is made  in view of         
perfection8 ,what is this sufficient    
reason8 what is this  perfection8 are   
they not moral beings created by        
intellects purely  human8 are they not  
arbitrary relations which we have       
generalized8 on  what are they founded8 
on moral affinities which1 far from     
producing  any physical or real         
existence1 only alter the reality and   
confound the  objects of our sensations1
 perceptions and knowledge1 with those  
of our  sentiments1 our passions and our
 wills4    ,i could adduce many         
arguments on this subject1 but ,i do not
 pretend to  make a treatise on         
philosophy1 and shall return to physics1
 from which  the ideas of ,plato on     
universal generation made me digress4   
,aristotle1  who was as great a         
philosopher as ,plato and a much better 
physician1  instead of losing himself in
 the region of hypotheses1 relied1 on   
the contrary1 on collected facts1 and   
speaks in a more intelligible  language4

    ,matter1 which is only a capacity of
 receiving forms1 takes in  generation a
 form like that of the individual which 
furnishes it2 and  with respect to the  
generation of animals that have sexes1  
he thinks  that the male alone furnishes
 the prolific principle1 and that the   
female affords nothing that can be      
looked upon as such4,,bm ,for though  he
 says elsewhere1 speaking of animals in 
general1 that the female  emits a       
seminal fluid within herself1 yet he    
does not regard that as a  prolific     
principle3 nevertheless1 according to   
him1 the menstrual blood  serves for the
 formation1 growth1 and nutriment of the
 foetus1 but  the efficient principles  
exist only in the seminal fluid of the  
male1  which does not act like matter1  
but as the cause4 ,averrhois1 ,avicenna1
  and other philosophers1 who followed  
the sentiments of ,aristotle1 have      
sought for reasons to prove that females
 have no prolific fluid2 they  urge1    
that as females have a menstrual fluid  

that was necessary and  sufficient for  
generation1 it does not appear natural  
to suppose they  possess any other2     
particularly because it begins to       
appear1 like the  seminal fluid in the  
males1 at the age of puberty2 besides1  
continue  they1 if females have really a
 seminal and prolific fluid1 why do they
  not produce without the approach of   
the male1 since they contain the        
prolific principle as well as the matter
 necessary for the nutriment  and growth
 of the embryo8 ,this last reason seems 
to be the only one  which merits any    
attention4 ,the menstrual blood seems to
 be necessary  for the support1         
nutriment1 and growth of the foetus1 but
 it can  have no part in the first      
formation1 which is made by the mixture 
of  two fluids alike prolific4 ,females 
therefore may have1 as well as the      
males1 a prolific fluid for the         
formation of the embryo1 besides the    
menstrual blood for its nutriment and   
expansion2 and certainly a female  being

 possessed of a prolific fluid1         
extracted from all parts of her  body1  
as well as the necessary means of       
nourishment and expansion1 it  is no    
impossible imagination that she would   
produce females without any             
communication with the male4 ,it must be
 allowed1 that this metaphysical        
reasoning which the ,aristotelians adopt
 to prove that females have no  prolific
 fluid1 may become the most considerable
 objection that can be  made against all
 systems of generation1 and particularly
 against our  explanation4    ,,bm ,see 
,aristotle1 de gen4 lib4 i4 cap4 #bj and
 lib4 xi4 cap4 #d4    ,let us suppose1  
it may be said1 as you have attempted to
 prove1 that  the superfluous organic   
molecules are sent back into the        
testicles  and seminal vessels of the   
male1 why1 by the power of your supposed
  attracting forces1 do they not form   
small organized beings1 perfectly       
resembling the male8 and for the same   
reason similar beings in the  female8   

,if you answer1 that there is an        
appearance that the liquor of  the male 
contains only males1 and that of the    
female only females1 but  that all these
 perish for want of the necessary means 
for expansion1  and that there are only 
those formed by the mixture of both     
which can  expand and come into the     
world2 may we not be asked why this mode
  of generation1 which is the most      
complicated1 difficult1 and least       
abundant1 is that which ,nature prefers 
in so striking a manner1 that  almost   
all animals multiply by this mode of    
communication of the male  with the     
female8    ,i shall content myself at   
present with answering1 that the fact is
 such  as we have represented it2 the   
objection becomes a fact question2 to   
which1 as we have observed1 there is no 
other solution to be given  than that of
 the fact itself4 ,it may be insisted1  
it is the most  complicated mode of     
production2 yet this mode1 which appears
 the most  complicated to us1 is        

certainly the most simple for nature1   
because1  as we have remarked1 what     
happens the most often1 however         
difficult  it may appear to our ideas1  
must in reality be the most simple2     
which  does not prevent us from         
conceiving it to be complex1 as we judge
 of it  according to that knowledge     
which our senses and reflections can    
give  us thereon4    ,the assertion of  
the ,aristotelians1 that females have no
 prolific  fluid1 must fall to the      
ground1 if we pay attention to the      
resemblance  of children to their       
mothers1 of mules to the female that    
produces  them1 of mongrels and         
mulattos1 all of which resemble more the
 mother  than the father4 ,if1 besides  
these1 we consider the organs of females
  are1 like those of the males1 formed  
so as to prepare and receive the        
seminal fluid1 we shall be readily      
persuaded that such a fluid must  exist1
 whether it resides in the spermatic    
vessels1 the testicles1 or  in the      

matrix3 or whether it issues1 when      
provoked1 by the passages of  de ,graaf1
 situated at the neck1 and near the     
external orifice of the  urethra4       
,but it is right here to examine the    
ideas of ,aristotle more generally  on  
the subject of generation1 because this 
great philosopher has  written the most 
on the subject1 and treated it the most 
generally4  ,he distinguishes animals   
into three classes2 first1 those which  
have  blood1 and1 excepting some few1   
multiply by copulation2 the second1     
those which have no blood1 but1 being at
 the same time both male and  female1   
produce of themselves1 and without      
copulation2 and thirdly1  those bred by 
putrefaction1 which do not owe their    
origin to parents  of any kind4 ,i shall
 first remark1 that this division must  
not be  admitted of2 for though in fact 
all kinds of animals which have blood   
are composed of males and females1 it is
 not equally true1 that animals  who    
have no blood are for the most part male

 and female in one2 for we  are only    
acquainted with the snail and worm on   
earth which are in this  state2 nor can 
we ascertain whether all shell-fish1 and
 other animals  which have no blood1 be 
hermaphrodites4 ,with respect to those  
animals  which he says proceed from     
putrefaction1 as he has not enumerated  
them1 many exceptions occur2 for most of
 the kinds which the ancients  thought  
engendered by putrefaction have been    
discovered by the moderns  to be the    
produce of eggs4    ,after this he makes
 a second division of animals2 those    
which have  the faculty of moving       
themselves progressively1 as walking1   
flying1  swimming1 and those which have 
no such faculty4 ,all animals which  can
 move1 and have blood1 have sexes2 but  
those which1 like oysters1  are         
adherent1 or who scarcely move at all1  
have no sex1 and are1 in  this respect  
like plants1 distinguished only1 as he  
says1 into males  and females by        
difference of size4 ,it is not yet      

ascertained whether  shell-fish have    
sexes or not2 there are in the          
oyster-kind fruitful  individuals1 and  
others which are not so2 those which are
 fruitful are  distinguished by a       
delicate border which surrounds the body
 of the  oyster1 and they are called    
males4,,bn    ,,bn ,see the observation 
of ,m4 ,deslandes1 in the ,tracte de la 
raine1  ,paris1 #agdg4    ,but to       
proceed1 the male1 according to         
,aristotle1 includes the  principle of  
generative1 motion1 and the female      
contains the material  parts of         
generation4 ,the organs which serve for 
this purpose are  different in the      
different kind of animals2 the principal
 are the  testicles in the males1 and   
the matrix in the females4 ,quadrupeds1 
birds1 and cetaceous animals1 have      
testicles2 fish and serpents are        
deprived of them2 but they have both    
proper conduits to receive and  prepare 
the seed4 ,these essential parts are    
always double1 both in the  male and    

female1 and serve in males to stop the  
motion of the blood1  which forms the   
seed4 ,this he proves by the example of 
birds1 whose  testicles swell in the    
season of their amours1 and diminish so 
greatly  when this season is over that  
they are scarcely perceptible4    ,all  
quadrupeds1 as horses1 oxen1 c4 which   
are clothed with hair1  and cetaceous   
fishes1 as dolphins and whales1 are     
viviparous2 but  cartilaginous animals1 
and vipers1 are not truly viviparous1   
because  they produce an egg within     
themselves before the live animal       
appears4  ,oviparous animals are of two 
kinds1 those which produce perfect eggs1
  as birds1 lizards1 turtles1 c4 and    
those which produce imperfect eggs1  as 
fishes1 whose eggs augment and come to  
perfection after they have  been laid in
 the water by the female2 and in all    
kinds of oviparous  animals1 excepting  
birds1 the females are generally larger 
than the  males1 as fishes1 lizards1 c4 
,after having mentioned these general   

varieties in animals1 ,aristotle  begins
 with examining the opinion of the      
ancient philosophers1 that the  seed1 as
 well of the male as of the female1     
proceeded from all parts of  the body2  
he declares against this opinion1       
because1 he says1 although  children    
often resemble their fathers and        
mothers1 they also sometimes  resemble  
their grandfathers2 and1 besides1 they  
resemble their parents  by the voice1   
hair1 nails1 carriage1 and manner of    
walking4 ,now the  seed1 he continues1  
cannot proceed from the hair1 voice1    
nails1 or  any external quality1 like   
that of walking2 therefore children do  
not  resemble their parents because the 
seed comes from every part of the  body1
 but for some other reason4 ,it appears 
to me unnecessary here to  point out the
 weakness of these arguments2 ,i shall  
only observe that it  appears to me this
 great man expressly sought after       
methods to separate  himself from the   
sentiments of those philosophers who    

preceded him2  and ,i am persuaded1 that
 whoever reads his treatise on          
generation with  attention1 will        
discover that a strong design of giving 
a new system1  different from that of   
the ancients1 obliged him always to give
 the  preference to the least probable  
reasons1 and to elude1 as much as he    
could1 the force of proofs1 when they   
were contrary to his general  principles
 of philosophy4    ,according to        
,aristotle the seminal liquor is        
secreted from the blood2  and the       
menstrua1 in females1 is a similar      
secretion1 and the only one  which      
serves for the purpose of generation4   
,females1 he says1 have  no other       
prolific liquor2 there is1 therefore1 no
 mixture of that of  the male with that 
of the female4 ,he pretends to prove    
this from some  women conceiving without
 receiving the least pleasure1 and      
because few  women emit this liquor     
externally during copulation2 that in   
general  those who are brown1 and have a

 masculine appearance1 do not emit at   
all1 yet engender equally with those who
 are more fair in complexion  and       
feminine in appearance1 and whose       
emissions are considerable4 ,thus  he   
concludes woman furnishes nothing but   
the menstrual4 ,this blood  is the      
matter of generation2 and the seminal   
fluid of the male does  not contribute  
as matter but as form2 it is the        
efficient cause1 the  principle of      
motion2 it is to generation what the    
sculptor is to a  block of marble3 the  
liquor of the male is the sculptor1 the 
menstrual  blood the marble1 and the    
foetus the image4    ,the menstrual     
blood receives from the male seed a kind
 of soul1 which  gives life and motion4 
,this soul is neither material nor      
immaterial1  because it can neither act 
upon matter nor enter in generation as  
matter1 the menstrual blood being all   
that is necessary for that  purpose4 ,it
 is1 says our philosopher1 a spirit1    
whose substance is  like that of the    

starry region4 ,the heart is the first  
work of this  soul2 it contains in      
itself the principle of its own growth2 
and it has  the power to arrange the    
other members4 ,the menstrual blood     
contains  every other principle of all  
the parts of the foetus3 the soul1  or  
spirit1 of the male seed1 makes the     
heart begin to act1 and that            
communicates the power of bringing the  
other viscera to action2 and  thus1     
successively1 is every part of the      
animal unfolded and brought  into       
motion4 ,all this appeared very clear to
 our philosopher2 there  only remained  
to him one doubt1 which was1 whether the
 heart was  realized before the blood2  
and in fact he had reason for this      
doubt2  for1 although he had adopted the
 opinion of the heart existing first1   
,harvey has since pretended1 by reasons 
of the same kind as those used  by      
,aristotle1 that it was not the heart   
but the blood which is first  realized4 
,this is the system that great          

philosopher has given us of generation1 
and ,i shall leave it to the opinion of 
the reader whether that of  the         
ancients1 which he rejects1 can be more 
obscure or more absurd  than his2       
nevertheless1 his system has been       
followed by most of the  learned4       
,harvey has not only adopted the ideas  
of ,aristotle1 but has  added new ones  
of the same kind4 ,as this system of    
generation is of  the same kind as the  
rest of ,aristotle's philosophy1 where  
form and  matter are the grand          
principles2 where the vegetative and    
sensitive are  the active beings in     
,nature2 and where final causes are real
 objects2  ,i am not surprised that it  
has been received by scholastic authors2
  but it is astonishing that so able a  
physician and observer of ,nature  as   
,harvey was1 should be carried away with
 the stream1 while every  physician     
followed the opinion of ,hippocrates and
 ,galen2 which we shall  explain in     
order4 ,we must not1 however1 imbibe a  

disadvantageous idea  of ,aristotle from
 the above exposition of his ,system of 
,generation4  ,it would be like judging 
of ,descartes by his ,treatise on ,man4 
,the  explanations which these two      
philosophers give of the formation of   
the  foetus should not be considered as 
complete systems on the subject  of     
generation2 they are rather general     
consequences drawn from their           
philosophical principles4      ,,end    
,,of ,,the ,,second ,,volume4           
,transcriber ,note    ,non-standard     
capitalization has been retained4       
,hyphenation was  standardized4 ,all    
obvious typographical corrections made4 
,the following  list of changes were    
also made3      ,page  ,change          
#dg  ,added missing endquote first      
paragraph      #ej  ,harleim was changed
 to ,haarlem      #eh  which was added3 
444 causes which agitates and           
disturbs it 444     #aee  ,added missing
 endquote first paragraph     #bbe      
,added missing endquote first paragraph 

#bdf  ,timaeo was changed to ,timus4