,,the ,,christ ,,myth ,,by ,,arthur ,,drews1 ,ph4,d4 ,,professor ,,of ,,philosophy ,,in ,,the ,,techn4 ,,hochschule1 ,,karlsruhe ,,translated ,,from ,,the ,,third ,,edition 7,,revised ,,and ,,enlarged7 ,,by ,c4 ,,delisle ,,burns1 ,m4,a4 ,t4 ,,fisher ,,unwin ,,london3 #a ,,adelphi ,,terrace ,,leipzic3 ,,inselstrasse #bj ,,to ,,my ,,friend ,,wilhelm ,,von ,,schnehen ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,first ,,and ,,second ,,editions ,since ,david ,frederick ,strauss1 in his ,life of ,jesus1 attempted for the first time to trace the ,gospel stories and accounts of miracles back to myths and pious fictions1 doubts regarding the existence of an historical ,jesus have never been lulled to rest4 ,bruno ,bauer also in his ,kritik der evangelischen ,geschichte und der ,synoptiker 7#ahda-db1 #bnd ed4 #ahdf71 #a disputed the historical existence of ,jesus2 later1 in his ,christ und die ,csaren1 der ,ursprung des ,christentums aus dem rmischen ,griechentum 7#ahgg71 he attempted to show that the life of ,jesus was a pure invention of the first evangelist1 ,mark1 and to account for the whole ,christian religion from the ,stoic and ,alexandrine culture of the second century1 ascribing to ,seneca especially a material influence upon the development of the ,christian point of view4 ,but it was reserved for the present day1 encouraged by the essentially negative results of the so-called critical theology1 to take up the subject energetically1 and thereby to attain to results even bolder and more startling4 ,in ,england ,john ,m4 ,robertson1 in ,christianity and ,mythology 7#aijj71 in ,a ,short ,history of ,christianity 7#aijb71 as well as in his work ,pagan ,christs3 ,studies in ,comparative ,hierology 7#aijc71 has traced the picture of ,christ in the ,gospels to a mixture of mythological elements in heathenism and ,judaism4 ,in ,france1 as early as the end of the eighteenth century1 ,dupuis 7,l'origine de tous les cultes1 #agie7 and ,voltaire 7,les ,ruines1 #agia7 traced back the essential points of the history of the ,christian redemption to astral myths1 while mile ,burnouf 7,la science des religions1 #dth ed41 #ahhe7 and ,hochart 7tudes d'histoire religieuse1 #ahij7 collected important material for the clearing up of the origin of ,christianity1 and by their results cast considerable doubt upon the existence of an historical ,christ4 ,in ,italy ,milesbo 7,emilio ,bossi7 has attempted to prove the non-historicity of ,jesus in his book ,ges ,christo non mai esistito 7#aijd74 ,in ,holland the ,leyden ,professor of ,philosophy1 ,bolland1 handled the same matter in a series of works 7,het ,lijden en ,sterven van ,jezus ,christus1 #aijg2 ,de ,achtergrond der ,evangelin4 ,eene ,bijdrage tot de kennis van de ,wording des ,christendoms1 #aijg2 ,de evangelische ,jozua4 ,eene poging tot aanwijzing van den oorsprong des ,christendoms1 #aijg74 ,in ,poland the mythical character of the story of ,jesus has been shown by ,andrzej ,niemojewski in his book ,bg ,jezus 7#aiji71 which rests on the astral-mythological theories of ,dupuis and the school of ,winckler4 ,in ,germany the ,bremen ,pastor ,kalthoff1 in his work1 ,das ,christusproblem1 ,grundlinien zu einer ,sozialtheologie 7#aijc71 thought that the appearance of the ,christian religion could be accounted for without the help of an historical ,jesus1 simply from a social movement of the lower classes under the ,empire1 subsequently attempting to remove the one-sidedness of this view by his work ,die ,entstehung des ,christentums4 ,neue ,beitrge zum ,christusproblem 7#aijd74 7,cf4 also his work ,was wissen wir von ,jesus8 ,eine ,abrechnung mit ,professor ,d4 ,bousset1 #aijd47 ,a supplement to the works of ,kalthoff in question is furnished by ,fr4 ,steudel in ,das ,christusproblem und die ,zukunft des ,protestantismus 7,deutsche ,wiedergeburt1 #aiji74 ,finally1 the ,american1 ,william ,benjamin ,smith1 in his work1 ,the ,pre-,christian ,jesus 7#aijf71 has thrown so clear a light upon a number of important points in the rise of ,christianity1 and elucidated so many topics which give us a deeper insight into the actual correlation of events1 that we gradually commence to see clearly in this connection4 ,the time is passed1 says ,jlicher1 when among the learned the question could be put whether an 'historical' ,jesus existed at all4 #b ,the literature cited does not appear to justify this assertion4 ,on the contrary1 that time seems only commencing4 ,indeed1 an unprejudiced judge might find that even ,jlicher's own essay1 in which he treated of the so-called founder of the ,christian religion in the ,kultur der ,gegenwart1 and in which he declared it tasteless to look upon the contents of the ,gospels as a myth1 speaks rather against than for the historical reality of ,jesus4 ,for the rest1 official learning in ,germany1 and especially theology1 has1 up to the present1 remained1 we may almost say1 wholly unmoved by all the above-mentioned publications4 ,to my mind it has not yet taken up a serious position regarding ,robertson4 ,its sparing citations of his ,pagan ,christs do not give the impression that there can be any talk of its having a real knowledge of his expositions4 #c ,it has1 moreover1 passed ,kalthoff over with the mien of a better informed superiority or preferably with silent scorn1 and up to the present it has avoided with care any thoroughgoing examination of ,smith4 #d ,and yet such a distinguished theologian as ,professor ,paul ,schmiedel1 of ,zrich1 who furnished a foreword to ,smith's work1 laid such an examination upon his colleagues as a duty of all theologians making any claim to a scientific temper1 and strongly warned them against any under-estimation of ,smith's highly scientific work6 ,how can one then confidently stand by his former views1 ,schmiedel cries to his theological colleagues1 unless he investigates whether they have not in whole or in part been undermined by these new opinions8 ,or is it a question of some secondary matter merely1 and not rather of exactly what for the majority forms the fundamental part of their ,christian conviction8 ,but if these new opinions are so completely futile1 then it must be an easy matter1 indeed a mere nothing1 to show this4 ,in the meantime there are many voices which speak out against the existence of an historical ,jesus4 ,in wide circles the doubt grows as to the historical character of the picture of ,christ given in the ,gospels4 ,popular works written with a purpose1 such as the investigations of the ,frenchman ,jacolliot1 worked up by ,plange into ,jesus ein ,inder 7#ahih71 have to serve to alleviate this thirst for knowledge and confuse views more than they clear them4 ,in a short work1 ,die ,entstehung des ,christentums 7#aije71 ,promus has afforded a brief rsum of the most important matter bearing on the point1 without any working up of it on its own account1 and attacked the existence of an historical ,jesus4 ,lately ,karl ,voller1 the prematurely deceased ,jena ,orientalist1 in his valuable work1 ,die ,weltreligionen in ihrem geschichtlichen ,zusammenhange 7#aijg71 voiced the opinion that weighty reasons favour this radical myth interpretation1 and that no absolutely decisive arguments for the historicity of the person of ,jesus can be brought forward 7op4 cit4 i4 #afc74 ,another ,orientalist1 ,p4 ,jensen1 in his work ,das ,gilgamesch-,epos in der ,weltliteratur 7#aijf71 even thinks that he can show that both the main lines of the ,old ,testament story and the whole narrative of the life of ,jesus given in the ,gospels are simply variations of the ,babylonian ,gilgamesh ,epic 7about #bjjj ,b4,c471 and consequently a pure myth4 #e ,while criticism of the ,gospel documents is advancing more boldly and always leaving in existence less of an historical ,jesus1 the number of works in popular religious literature intended to glorify ,jesus the man grows enormously4 ,these endeavour to make up for the deficiency in certain historical material by sentimental phrases and the deep tone of conviction2 indeed1 the rhetoric which is disseminated with this design #f seems to find more sympathy in proportion as it works with less historical restraint4 ,and yet learning as such has long come to the point when the historical ,jesus threatens to disappear from under its hands4 ,the latest results in the province of ,oriental mythology and religion1 the advances in the comparative history of religion1 that are associated in ,england with the names of ,frazer and ,robertson especially1 and in ,germany with those of ,winckler1 ,jeremias1 ,gunkel1 ,jensen1 c41 have so much increased our knowledge of the religious position of ,nearer ,asia in the last century before ,christ1 that we are no longer obliged to rely exclusively upon the ,gospels and the other books of the ,new ,testament for the rise of ,christianity4 #g ,the critical and historical theology of ,protestantism has itself thrown so deep a light upon the origins of the ,christian religion that the question as to the historical existence of ,jesus loses all paradox which hitherto may have attached to it in the eyes of many4 ,so1 too1 ,protestant theology no longer has any grounds for becoming excited if the question is answered in a sense opposed to its own answer4 ,the author of the present work had hoped until lately that one of the historians of ,christianity would himself arise and extract the present results of the criticisms of the ,gospel1 which to-day are clear4 ,these hopes have not been fulfilled4 ,on the contrary1 in theological circles religious views continue to be quietly drawn from the fact of an historical ,jesus1 and he is considered as the impassable height in the religious development of the individual1 as though nothing has occurred and the existence of such a ,jesus was only the more clearly established by the investigations of critical theology in this connection4 ,the author has accordingly thought that he should no longer keep back his own views1 which he long since arrived at out of the works of specialists1 and has taken upon himself the thankless task of bringing together the grounds which tell against the theory of an historical ,jesus4 ,whoever1 though not a specialist1 invades the province of any science1 and ventures to express an opinion opposed to its official representatives1 must be prepared to be rejected by them with anger1 to be accused of a lack of scholarship1 dilettantism1 or want of method1 and to be treated as a complete ignoramus4 ,this has been the experience of all up to now who1 while not theologians1 have expressed themselves on the subject of an historical ,jesus4 ,the like experience was not spared the author of the present work after the appearance of its first edition4 ,he has been accused of lack of historical training1 bias1 incapacity for any real historical way of thinking1 c41 and it has been held up against him that in his investigations their result was settled beforehand--as if this was not precisely the case with theologians1 who write on the subject of a historical ,jesus1 since it is just the task of theology to defend and establish the truth of the ,new ,testament writings4 ,whoever has looked about him in the turmoil of science knows that generally each fellow-worker is accustomed to regard as method that only which he himself uses as such1 and that the famous conception of scientific method is very often ruled by points of view purely casual and personal4 #h ,thus1 for example1 we see the theologian ,clemen1 in his investigation into the method of explaining the ,new ,testament on religious-historical lines1 seriously put the question to himself whether one could not dispense himself from refuting such books as finally arrive at the unauthenticity of all the ,pauline epistles and the non-historicity of the whole1 or at least of almost the whole1 tradition concerning ,jesus2 for example1 not only that of ,bauer1 but also those of ,jensen and ,smith4 ,this same ,clemen advances the famous methodological axiom3 ,an explanation on religious-historical lines is impossible if it of necessity leads to untenable consequences or sets out from such hypotheses1 #i obviously thinking here of the denial of an historical ,christ4 ,for the rest1 the method of critical theology consists1 as is well known1 in applying an already settled picture of ,jesus to the ,gospels and undertaking the critical sifting of their contents according to this measure4 ,this picture makes the founder of the ,christian religion merely a pious preacher of morality in the sense of present-day liberalism1 the representative of the noblest individuality1 the incarnation of the modern ideal of personality1 or of some other fashionable theological view4 ,theologians commence with the conviction that the historical ,jesus was a kind of anticipation of modern religious consciousness4 ,they think that they discern the real historical import of the ,gospels in their moral-religious kernel so far as this is good for all time1 and they arrive in this manner at its strictly scientific conception of ,jesus by casting out all such features as do not fit this picture1 thus recognising only the everlasting human and the modern as historical4 #aj ,if one keeps this before his eyes he will not be particularly moved by the talk about method and lack of scientific system4 ,one could then at most wonder that it should be forbidden to philosophers particularly to have a say in theological matters4 ,as though the peace at present reigning between philosophy and theology and their mutual efforts at a rapprochement did not clearly indicate that upon one of the two sides1 or upon both1 something cannot be in order1 and that consequently it was high time1 if no one else undertakes it1 for a philosopher to notice theology in order to terminate the make-believe peace which is for both so fateful4 ,for what does ,lessing say8 ,with orthodoxy ,god be thanked one had arrived at a tolerable understanding4 ,between it and philosophy a partition had been raised behind which each could continue its way without hindering the other4 ,but what is now being done8 ,the partition is again being demolished1 and under the pretext of making us reasonable ,christians we are being made unreasonable philosophers4 ,the author of this book has been reproached with following in it tendencies merely destructive4 ,indeed1 one guardian of ,zion1 particularly inflamed with rage1 has even expressed himself to this effect1 that the author's researches do not originate in a serious desire for knowledge1 but only in a wish to deny4 ,one who1 as ,i have done1 has in all his previous work emphasised the positive nature of the ethical and religious life against the denying and destroying spirit of the age1 who has in his work ,die ,religion als ,selbst-,bewusstsein ,gottes 7#aijf7 sought to build up anew from within the shattered religious outlook upon the world1 who in the last chapter of the present work has left no doubt remaining that he regards the present falling away of religious consciousness as one of the most important phenomena of our spiritual life and as a misfortune for our whole civilisation1 should be protected against such reproaches4 ,in reality1 ,the ,christ ,myth has been written pre-eminently in the interests of religion1 from the conviction that its previous forms no longer suffice for men of to-day1 that above all the ,jesuanism of historical theology is in its deepest nature irreligious1 and that this itself forms the greatest hindrance to all real religious progress4 ,i agree with ,e4 v4 ,hartmann and ,w4 v4 ,schnehen in the opinion that this so-called ,christianity of the liberal pastors is in every direction full of internal contradiction1 that it is false through and through 7in so saying naturally no individual representative of this movement is accused of subjective untruthfulness74 ,i agree that by its moving rhetoric and its bold appearance of being scientific it is systematically undermining the simple intellectual truthfulness of our people2 and that on this account this romantic cult of ,jesus must be combated at all costs1 but that this cannot be done more effectually than by taking its basis in the theory of the historical ,jesus #aa from beneath its feet4 ,this work seeks to prove that more or less all the features of the picture of the historical ,jesus1 at any rate all those of any important religious significance1 bear a purely mythical character1 and no opening exists for seeking an historical figure behind the ,christ myth4 ,it is not the imagined historical ,jesus but1 if any one1 ,paul who is that great personality that called ,christianity into life as a new religion1 and by the speculative range of his intellect and the depth of his moral experience gave it the strength for its journey1 the strength which bestowed upon it victory over the other competing religions4 ,without ,jesus the rise of ,christianity can be quite well understood1 without ,paul not so4 ,if in spite of this any one thinks that besides the latter a ,jesus also cannot be dispensed with1 this can naturally not be opposed2 but we know nothing of this ,jesus4 ,even in the representations of historical theology he is scarcely more than the shadow of a shadow4 ,consequently it is self-deceit to make the figure of this unique and mighty personality1 to which a man may believe he must on historical grounds hold fast1 the central point of religious consciousness4 ,jesus ,christ may be great and worthy of reverence as a religious idea1 as the symbolical personification of the unity of nature in ,god and man1 on the belief in which the possibility of the redemption depends4 ,as a purely historical individual1 as liberal theology views him1 he sinks back to the level of other great historical personalities1 and from the religious point of view is exactly as unessential as they1 indeed1 more capable of being dispensed with than they1 for in spite of all rhetoric he is in the light of historical theology of to-day1 even at best only a figure swimming obscurely in the mists of tradition4 #ab ,,professor ,,dr4 ,,arthur ,,drews4 ,karlsruhe1 ,january1 #aiaj4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,third ,,edition ,the time since the appearance of the second edition was too short for any material alterations to be undertaken in the third edition now appearing4 ,however1 the phraseology here and there has been improved and many things put more strongly4 ,above all1 the famous passage in ,tacitus and the passage #a ,cor4 ii4 #bc et seq4 has been so handled that its lack of significance as regards the existence of an historical ,jesus should now appear more clearly than hitherto4 ,that ,paul in reality is not a witness for an historical ,jesus and is wrongly considered as the foundation of the faith in such a figure1 should be already established for every unprejudiced person as the result of the discussion so far on the ,christ ,myth4 ,the ,protestantenblatt finds itself now compelled to the admission that the historical image of the person of ,jesus as a matter of fact can no longer be clearly recognised 7,no4 #f1 #aiaj74 ,how then does it fare with the new bases of ,schmiedel8 ,to no refutation of the assertions which ,i represent has greater significance been hitherto ascribed on the theological side than to those supposed supports of a really scientific life of ,jesus 7in the discussions of the ,christ ,myth this has again received the strongest expression74 ,and yet these bases were advanced by their originator obviously with a view to a conception quite different from mine1 and1 as ,i have now shown1 do not affect1 generally speaking1 the view represented by me regarding the rise of the supposed historical picture of ,jesus4 ,when1 above all1 the historical references to ,jesus are supposed to be contained in them1 and these1 according to the ,protestantenblatt1 lie like blocks of granite in my path--then this is a pure illusion of the theologians4 ,as can be conceived1 my assertion that a pre-,christian cult of ,jesus existed has found the most decisive rejection4 ,this1 however1 is for the most part only due to the fact that the researches in this connection of the ,american1 ,smith1 and the ,englishman1 ,robertson1 were not known1 and1 moreover1 the opinion was held that one need not trouble about these foreigners1 who further were not specialists4 ,and yet ,gunkel1 in his work ,zum religionsgeschichtlichen ,verstndnis des ,neuen ,testaments1 had already sufficiently prepared that view1 as one might have thought1 when1 among other things1 he declares that even before ,jesus there existed in ,jewish syncretistic circles a belief in the death and resurrection of ,christ4 #ac ,again1 it can only be rejected without more ado by such as seek the traces of the pre-,christian cult of ,jesus in well-worn places and will only allow that to be proved which they have established by direct original documentary evidence before their eyes4 ,in this connection it is forgotten that we are dealing with a secret cult1 the existence of which we can decide upon only by indirect means4 ,it is forgotten also that the hypothesis of a pre-,christian cult of ,jesus1 if urged upon us from another quarter1 cannot be forthwith rejected because it does not suit the current views1 and because it may be that it is impossible for the time being to place it beyond all doubt4 ,where everything is so hypothetical1 uncertain1 and covered with darkness1 as is the case with the origins of ,christianity1 every hypothesis should be welcomed and tested which appears to be in some way or the other suitable for opening up a new point of view and clearing away the darkness4 ,for as ,dunkmann says in his sympathetic and genuine discussion of ,the ,christ ,myth3 ,irregularities and even violences of combination must be borne in science for the simple reason that our sources are too scanty and full of contradictions4 ,our hypotheses will in all such cases have something rash1 bold1 and surprising in them2 if even they are in the main correct1 i4e41 if they are irrefutable according to the method of investigation 7,der historische ,jesus1 der mythologische ,jesus1 und ,jesus der ,christ1 #aiaj1 #ee74 ,but if that very hypothesis is not established1 yet this makes no difference in the fact that there existed a pre-,christian ,jesus ,christ1 at least as a complex myth1 and this quite suffices for the explanation of the ,pauline ,christology and the so-called original community of ,jerusalem4 ,i can1 accordingly1 only regard it as a misleading of the public when the other side1 after rejecting the hypothesis of a pre-,christian cult of ,jesus1 bear themselves as though they had thereby taken away the foundations for the whole body of my views regarding an historical ,jesus4 ,meanwhile the storm which has been raised against my book in theological circles and in the ,press1 and has even led to mass meetings of protest in the ,busch ,circus and in the ,dom at ,berlin1 shows me that ,i have hit the bull's-eye with my performance and have in truth touched the sore point of ,christianity4 ,the way in which the battle is being waged1 the means by which my opponents attempt to disparage the author of ,the ,christ ,myth1 or to make me ridiculous in the eyes of the public by personal slanders1 their habit of trying to injure me by throwing doubt on my intellectual capabilities1 and to undermine my scientific honour and official position 7,bornemann1 ,beth7--all this can only make me more determined to continue the work of illumination that ,i have begun1 and only proves to me that my ,christ ,myth cannot be so absolutely unscientific and so completely a quantit ngligeable as its opponents are disposed to represent it4 ,the means by which the ,christ ,myth is opposed to-day are exactly the same as those which were employed against ,strauss's ,leben ,jesu1 without1 however1 the least result being attained4 ,i accordingly await the further attacks of the enemy with complete coolness of mind1 confident in the fact that what is true in my book will make its way of itself1 and that a work which1 like mine1 has arisen from serious motives1 and has been carried through with a disregard of personal advantages1 cannot be lost but will be serviceable to the spiritual progress of mankind4 ,the attacks which have so far come to my notice in pamphlets 7,bornemann1 v4 ,soden1 ,delbrck1 ,beth7 and in the ,press have not had the effect of making any weaker my fundamental convictions4 ,on the contrary1 they have only served to reveal to me still further the weakness of the opposing position1 which is much greater than ,i myself had hitherto imagined4 ,i am1 however1 at all times ready and pleased--and ,i have shown this too by the corrections undertaken since the first edition of this work--to give attention to real objections and to put right possible errors4 ,all that matters to me is simply the fact as such4 ,the question before us in ,the ,christ ,myth1 as it is not unnecessary to point out here once again1 is a purely scientific one4 ,for possible suggestions and advice in this direction ,i will accordingly at all times be grateful4 ,on the contrary1 ,i am left perfectly cold by personal slanders1 anonymous threats1 and pious corrections1 meetings of protest in which the ,minister of ,public ,worship takes part with obbligato trombone choirs and professions of faith1 as well as by the uproar of the multitude roused to fanaticism in this manner by the guardian of their souls4 ,they are everything except refutations4 ,,professor ,,dr4 ,,arthur ,,drews4 ,karlsruhe1 ,march1 #aiaj4 ,,contents ,,page ,preface to the ,first and ,second ,editions #g ,preface to the ,third ,edition #ba ,,the ,,pre-,,christian ,,jesus #bi ,i4 ,the ,influence of ,parseeism on the ,belief in a ,messiah #cg ,,ii4 ,the ,hellenistic ,idea of a ,mediator 7,philo7 #df ,,iii4 ,jesus as ,cult-,god in the ,creed of ,jewish ,sects #ea ,,iv4 ,the ,sufferings of the ,messiah #fd ,v4 ,the ,birth of the ,messiah4 ,the ,baptism #hh ,,vi4 ,the ,self-,offering of the ,messiah4 ,the ,supper #abh ,,vii4 ,symbols of the ,messiah4 ,the ,lamb and the ,cross #adj ,,the ,,christian ,,jesus #afc ,i4 ,the ,pauline ,jesus #afe ,,ii4 ,the ,jesus of the ,gospels #bad a4 ,the ,synoptic ,jesus #bad ,jesus in ,secular ,literature #bcj b4 ,the ,objections against a ,denial of the ,historicity of the ,synoptic ,jesus #bce c4 ,the ,true ,character of the ,synoptic ,jesus #bfe d4 ,gnosticism and the ,johannine ,jesus #bgc ,,the ,,religious ,,problem ,,of ,,the ,,present #bhc ,,the ,,christ ,,myth ,,the ,,pre-,,christian ,,jesus ,if you see a man undaunted by dangers1 undisturbed by passions1 happy when fortune frowns1 calm in the midst of storms1 will you not be filled with reverence for him8 ,will you not say that here is something too great and grand to be regarded as of the same nature as the trivial body in which it dwells8 ,a divine force has descended here--a heavenly power moves a soul so wonderful1 so calm1 one which passes through all life as though it were of small account1 and smiles at all our hopes and fears4 ,nothing so great can exist without the help of ,god1 and therefore in the main it belongs to that from which it came down4 ,just as the rays of the sun touch the earth1 but belong to that from which they are sent1 so a great and holy spirit1 sent here that we may have a more intimate knowledge of deity1 lives indeed in our midst1 but remains in contact with its source4 ,on that it depends1 thither its eyes are turned1 thither its life tends3 among men it dwells as a noble guest4 ,what then is this soul8 ,one which relies upon no goodness but its own4 ,what is proper to man is his soul and the perfect reason in the soul3 for man is a rational animal3 therefore his highest good is reached when he is filled with that of which he is born4 ,with these words the ,roman philosopher ,seneca 7#d ,b4,c4-#fe ,a4,d47 portrays the ideally great and good man that we may be moved to imitate him4 #ad ,we must choose some good man1 he says1 and always have him before our eyes2 and we must live and act as if he were watching us4 ,a great number of sins would remain uncommitted were there a witness present to those about to sin4 ,our heart must have someone whom it honours1 and by whose example its inner life can be inspired4 ,happy is he whose reverence for another enables him to fashion his life after the picture living in his memory4 ,we need some one upon whose life we may model our own3 without the rule you cannot correct what is amiss 7,ep4 #aa74 ,rely on the mind of a great man and detach yourself from the opinions of the mob4 ,hold fast to the image of the most beautiful and exalted virtue1 which must be worshipped not with crowns but with sweat and blood 7,ep4 #fg74 ,could we but gaze upon the soul of a good man1 what a beautiful picture should we see1 how worthy of our reverence in its loftiness and peace4 ,there would justice shine forth and courage and prudence and wisdom3 and humanity1 that rare virtue1 would pour its light over all4 ,every one would declare him worthy of honour and of love4 ,if any one saw that face1 more lofty and splendid than any usually found among men1 would he not stand in dumb wonder as before a ,god1 and silently pray that it might be for his good to have seen it8 ,then1 overcome by the inviting grace of the vision1 he would kneel in prayer1 and after long meditation1 filled with wondering awe1 he would break forth into ,virgil's words3 ',hail to thee1 whoe'er thou art6 ,o lighten thou our cares6' ,there is no one1 ,i repeat1 who would not be inflamed with love were it given him to gaze upon such an ideal4 ,now indeed much obscures our vision3 but if we would only make our eyes pure and remove the veil that covers them1 we should be able to behold virtue even though covered by the body1 and clouded by poverty1 lowliness and shame4 ,we should see its loveliness even through the most sordid veils 7,ep4 #aae74 ,the attitude expressed in these words was widespread in the whole of the civilised world at the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,a feeling of the uncertainty of all things human weighed like a ghastly dream upon most minds4 ,the general distress of the time1 the collapse of the nation states under the rough hand of the ,roman conquerors1 the loss of independence1 the uncertainty of political and social conditions1 the incessant warfare and the heavy death-roll it involved--all this forced men back upon their own inner life1 and compelled them to seek there for some support against the loss of outer happiness in a philosophy which raised and invigorated the soul4 ,but the ancient philosophy had spent itself4 ,the nave interplay of nature and spirit1 that ingenuous trust in external reality which had been the expression of a youthful vigour in the ,mediterranean peoples1 from which indeed the ancient civilisation was derived1 now was shattered4 ,to the eyes of men at that time ,nature and ,spirit stood opposed as hostile and irreconcilable facts4 ,all efforts to restore the shattered unity were frustrated by the impossibility of regaining the primitive attitude4 ,a fruitless scepticism which satisfied no one1 but out of which no way was known1 paralysed all joy in outward or inner activities1 and prevented men from having any pleasure in life4 ,therefore all eyes were turned towards a supernatural support1 a direct divine enlightenment1 a revelation2 and the desire arose of finding once again the lost certainty in the ordering of life by dependence upon an ideal and superhuman being4 ,many saw in the exalted person of the ,emperor the incarnation of such a divine being4 ,it was not then always pure flattery1 but often enough the expression of real gratitude towards individual ,imperial benefactors1 combined with a longing for direct proximity with and visible presence of a god1 which gave to the worship of the ,emperor its great significance throughout the whole ,roman ,empire4 ,an ,augustus who had put an end to the horrors of the civil war must1 in spite of everything1 have appeared as a prince of peace and a saviour in the uttermost extremity1 who had come to renew the world and to bring back the fair days of the ,golden ,age4 ,he had again given to mankind an aim in life and to existence some meaning4 ,as the head of the ,roman ,state religion1 a person through whose hands the threads of the policy of the whole world passed1 as the ruler of an empire such as the world had never before seen1 he might well appear to men as a ,god1 as ,jupiter himself come down to earth1 to dwell among men4 ,now at length the time is passed1 runs an inscription1 apparently of the ninth year before ,christ1 found at ,priene not long ago1 when man had to lament that he had been born4 ,that providence1 which directs all life1 has sent this man as a saviour to us and the generations to come4 ,he will put an end to all feuds1 and dispose all things nobly4 ,in his appearance are the hopes of the past fulfilled4 ,all earlier benefactors of mankind he has surpassed4 ,it is impossible that a greater should come4 ,the birthday of the ,god has brought for the world the messages of salvation 7,gospels7 which attend him4 ,from his birth a new epoch must begin4 #ae ,it was not only the longing of mankind for a new structure of society1 for peace1 justice1 and happiness upon earth1 which lay at the root of the cult of the ,emperors4 ,deeper minds sought not only an improvement in political and social circumstances1 but felt disturbed by thoughts of death and the fate of the soul after its parting from its bodily shell4 ,they trembled at the expectation of the early occurrence of a world-wide catastrophe1 which would put a terrible end to all existence4 ,the apocalyptic frame of mind was so widespread at the commencement of the ,christian era that even a ,seneca could not keep his thoughts from the early arrival of the end of the world4 ,finally1 there also grew up a superstitious fear of evil spirits and ,dmons1 which we can scarcely exaggerate4 ,and here no philosophic musings could offer a support to anxious minds1 but religion alone4 ,seldom in the history of mankind has the need for religion been so strongly felt as in the last century before and the first century after ,christ4 ,but it was not from the old hereditary national religions that deliverance was expected4 ,it was from the unrestrained commingling and unification of all existing religions1 a religious syncretism1 which was specially furthered by acquaintance with the strange1 but on that account all the more attractive1 religions of the ,east4 ,already ,rome had become a ,pantheon of almost all religions which one could believe1 while in the ,far ,east1 in ,nearer ,asia1 that breeding-place of ancient ,gods and cults1 there were continually appearing new1 more daring and secret forms of religious activity4 ,these1 too1 in a short while obtained their place in the consciousness of ,western humanity4 ,where the public worship of the recognised ,gods did not suffice1 men sought a deeper satisfaction in the numberless mystic associations of that time1 or formed themselves with others of like mind into private religious bodies or pious brotherhoods1 in order to nourish in the quiet of private ritualistic observance an individual religious life apart from the official ,state religion4 ,i ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,parseeism ,,on ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,a ,,messiah ,among no people was the longing for redemption so lively and the expectation of a speedy end of the world so strong as among the ,jews4 ,since the ,babylonian captivity 7#ehf-ecf ,b4,c47 the former ,jewish outlook upon the world had undergone a great change4 ,fifty years had been spent by the ,israelites in the land of the stranger4 ,for two hundred years after their return to their own land they were under ,persian overlordship4 ,as a consequence of this they were in close connection politically and economically with the ,achmenidean ,empire1 and this did not cease when ,alexander overthrew the ,persian power and brought the whole ,eastern world under ,greek influence4 ,during this lengthy period ,persian modes of thinking and ,persian religious views had influenced in many ways the old ,jewish opinions1 and had introduced a large number of new ideas4 ,first of all the extreme dualism of the ,persians had impressed a distinctly dual character upon ,jewish ,monotheism4 ,god and the world1 which in the old ideas had often mingled with one another1 were separated and made to stand in opposition to each other4 ,following the same train of thought1 the old national ,god ,jahwe1 in imitation of the ,persian ,ahuramazda 7,ormuzd71 had developed from a ,god of fire1 light1 and sky into a ,god of supernatural purity and holiness4 ,surrounded by light and enthroned in the ,beyond1 like ,ahuramazda1 the source of all life1 the living ,god held intercourse with his creatures upon the earth only through the instrumentality of a court of angels4 ,these messengers of ,god or intermediate beings in countless numbers moved between heaven and earth upon his service4 ,and just as ,angromainyu 7,ahriman71 the evil1 was opposed to ,ahuramazda1 the good1 and the struggle between darkness and light1 truth and falsehood1 life and death1 was1 according to ,persian ideas1 reproduced in the course of earthly events1 so the ,jews too ascribed to ,satan the rle of an adversary of ,god1 a corrupter of the divine creation1 and made him1 as ,prince of this world and leader of the forces of hell1 measure his strength with the ,king of ,heaven4 #af ,in the struggle of the two opposing worlds1 according to ,persian ideas1 ,mithras stood in the foreground1 the spirit of light1 truth1 and justice1 the divine friend of men1 the mediator1 deliverer1 and saviour of the world4 ,he shared his office with ,honover1 ,ahuramazda's ,word of creation and revelation2 and indeed in most things their attributes were mingled4 ,an incarnation of fire or the sun1 above all of the struggling1 suffering1 triumphant light1 which presses victoriously through night and darkness1 ,mithras was also connected with death and immortality1 and passed as guide of souls and judge in the under-world4 ,he was the divine son1 of whom it was said that ,ahuramazda had fashioned him as great and worthy of reverence as his own self4 ,indeed1 he was in essence ,ahuramazda himself1 proceeding from his supernatural light1 and given a concrete individuality4 ,as companion in creation and protector of the world he kept the universe standing in its struggle against its enemies4 ,at the head of the heavenly host he fought for ,god1 and with his sword of flame he drove the ,dmons of ,darkness in terror back into the shadows4 ,to take part in this combat on the side of ,god1 to build up the future kingdom of ,god by the work of a life-giving civilisation1 by the rendering fruitful of sterile wastes1 the extinction of noxious animals1 and by moral self-education1 seemed the proper end of human existence4 ,but when the time should have been fulfilled and the present epoch come to an end1 according to ,persian belief1 ,ahuramazda was then to raise up from the seed of ,zarathustra1 the founder of this religion1 the virgin's son1 ,saoshyant 7,sraosha1 ,sosiosch1 which signifies the ,saviour71 or1 as it ran according to another rendering1 ,mithras himself should descend upon the earth and in a last fierce struggle overwhelm ,angromainyu and his hosts1 and cast them down into the ,nether ,world4 ,he would then raise the dead in bodily shape1 and after a ,general ,judgment of the whole world1 in which the wicked should be condemned to the punishments of hell and the good raised to heavenly glory1 establish the millennial ,kingdom of ,peace4 ,hell itself was not to last for ever1 for a great reconciliation was to be finally held out even to the damned4 ,then ,angromainyu also would make peace with ,ahuramazda1 and upon a new earth beneath a new heaven all were to be united to one another in everlasting blessedness4 ,these ideas entered the circle of ,jewish thought and there brought about a complete transformation of the former belief in a ,messiah4 ,messiah--that is1 the ,anointed 7in ,greek1 ,christos7--originally signified the king as representative of ,jahwe before the people and of the people before ,jahwe4 ,according to #b ,sam4 vii4 #ac sq41 he was placed in the same relation of an obedient son to his father1 in which the whole people was conscious of standing4 #ag ,then the opposition between the holy dignity of the ,anointed of ,god and the humanly imperfect personality of the ,jewish kings led to the ideal of the ,messiah being transferred to the future and the complete realisation of the rule of ,jahwe over his people being expected only then4 ,in this sense the ancient prophets had already celebrated the ,messiah as an ideal ,king of the future1 who would experience in the fullest sense the high assurances of ,jahwe's favour1 of which ,david had been deemed worthy1 since he would be completely worthy of them4 ,they had described him as the ,hero1 who would be more than ,moses and ,joshua1 who would establish the promised glory of ,israel1 dispose the people anew1 and bring ,jahwe's religion even to the heathen4 #ah ,they had glorified him in that he would span the heavens afresh1 establish a new earth1 and make ,israel ,lord over all nations4 #ai ,in this they had at first understood the ,messiah only as a human being1 as a new ,david or of his seed--theocratic king1 divinely favoured prince of peace and just ruler over his people1 just as the ,persian ,saoshyant was to be a man of the seed of ,zarathustra4 ,in this sense a ,cyrus1 the deliverer of the people from the ,babylonian captivity1 the rescuer and overlord of ,israel1 had been acclaimed ,messiah4 #bj ,but just as ,saoshyant had been undesignedly transfigured in the imagination of the people into a divine being and made one with the figure of ,mithras1 #ba so also among the prophets the ,messiah was more and more assigned the part of a divine king4 ,he was called divine hero1 ,father of ,eternity1 and the prophet ,isaiah indulged in a description of his kingdom of peace1 in which the wolf would lie down by the lamb1 men would no longer die before their time1 and would enjoy the fruit of their fields without tithe1 while right and justice would reign upon earth under this king of a golden age as it had never done before4 #bb ,secret and supernatural1 as was his nature1 so should the birth of the ,messiah be4 ,though a divine child1 he was to be born in lowly state4 #bc ,the personality of the ,messiah mingled with that of ,jahwe himself1 as though it were ,god himself of whose ascending the throne and journey heavenwards the ,psalmists sing4 #bd ,these alternations of the ,messiah between a human and a divine nature appear still more clearly in the ,jewish apocalyptics of the last century before and the first century after ,christ4 ,thus the ,apocalypse of ,daniel 7about #afe ,b4,c47 speaks of one who as ,son of ,man will descend upon the clouds of heaven and will be brought before the ,ancient of ,days4 ,the whole tone of the passage leaves no doubt that the ,son of ,man 7barnasa7 is a superhuman being representing the ,deity4 ,to him the majesty and kingdom of ,god have been entrusted in order that1 at the end of the existing epoch1 he should descend upon the clouds of heaven1 surrounded by a troop of angels1 and establish an everlasting power1 a ,kingdom of ,heaven4 ,in the picture-language of ,enoch 7in the last decade before ,christ7 the ,messiah1 the ,chosen ,one1 the ,son of ,man1 appears as a supernatural pre-existing being1 who was hidden in ,god before the world was created1 whose glory continues from eternity to eternity and his might from generation to generation1 in whom the spirit of wisdom and power dwells1 who judges hidden things1 punishes the wicked1 but will save the holy and just4 #be ,indeed1 the ,apocalypse of ,esdras 7the so-called fourth ,book of ,esdras7 expressly combats the opinion that the judgment of the world will come through another than ,god1 and likewise describes the ,messiah as a kind of second ,god1 as the ,son of ,god1 as the human incarnation of the ,godhead4 #bf ,in all of this the influence of ,persian beliefs is unmistakable1 whether these arose in ,iran itself directly1 or whether the idea of a ,god-appointed king and deliverer of the world was borrowed by the ,persians from the circle of ,babylonian ideas4 ,here this conception had taken deep root and was applied at different times now to this king1 now to that4 #bg ,just as in the ,persian religion the image of ,saoshyant1 so also in the ,jewish view the picture of the ,messiah wavered between a human king of the race of ,david and a supernatural being of divine nature descended from heaven4 ,and just as in the ,persian representation of the coming of ,saoshyant and the final victory of the ,kingdom of ,light there would be a preceding period during which threatening signs would appear in the heavens1 the whole of nature would find itself in upheaval and mankind would be scourged with fearful plagues1 so also the ,jewish ,apocalypse speaks of the woes of the ,messiah and describes a period of terror which would precede the coming of the ,messiah4 ,the coming of the power of ,god was looked upon as a miraculous catastrophe suddenly breaking in from on high1 as a conflagration of the world followed by a new creation4 ,the ,jewish agreed with the ,persian view in this also1 that it made a heavenly kingdom of undisturbed bliss in the light of the everlasting life and in likeness of the angels follow the earthly world-wide empire of the ,messiah4 ,this they imagined on exactly the same lines as the ,persian ,paradise4 ,there would the holy drink of the ,water of ,life and nourish themselves on the fruit which hang upon the ,tree of ,life4 ,the wicked1 on the other hand1 would be cast into hell and suffer in fearful torments the just punishment of their sins4 #bh ,the conception of a resurrection of the dead and a last judgment had hitherto been strange to the ,jews4 ,in pre-exilic days they allowed the body to die and the soul after death to go down as a shadow without feeling into ,hades 7,sheol71 without disturbing themselves further about its fate4 ,now1 however1 with the doctrine of the destruction of the world by fire and the general judgment1 the idea of personal immortality entered the world of ,jewish thought4 ,thus it is said by ,daniel that on the day of judgment the dead will rise again1 some waking to everlasting life1 others to everlasting perdition4 ,but the teachers will shine as the brightness of heaven1 and those who led the multitude to justice as the stars for ever and ever4 #bi ,with the acceptance of personal immortality the whole tone of religious thought was deepened and enriched in the direction of thought for the individual4 ,former ,jewish morality had been essentially of a collective kind4 ,it was not so much the individual as the people viewed collectively that was looked upon as the object of divine solicitude4 ,at this point the position1 the road to which had been already prepared by the prophets1 was definitely established1 that the individual hoped for a personal religious salvation and as a consequence felt in direct personal relationship with ,jahwe4 ,god indeed remained1 as the ,persians had taught them to understand him1 the superhuman lord of heaven enthroned in pure light1 the source of all life1 the living ,god4 ,his metaphysical qualities1 however1 his dazzling glory and unconquerable might were ever more and more overshadowed by his moral attributes3 goodness1 grace1 and mercy appeared as the most prominent features in the character of ,jahwe4 ,god seemed a loving father who leads his children through life with kindly care1 and without whose consent not a hair of one of his creatures could be touched4 ,the strong tendency within ,judaism1 represented by the upper currents of pharisaic rabbinism1 continually drew the national boundaries closer1 and was ever more anxiously occupied with a painfully strict observance of the letter of the law and a conscientious observance of ritualistic ordinances4 ,ethics threatened to be extinguished under a system of conventional rules of an essentially juristic nature4 ,yet all the while a more human and natural morality was arising1 an inward piety1 warm-hearted1 popular1 and sound1 which broke through the narrow limits of ,jewish nationalism1 and sent a fresh current into the heavy atmosphere of official legality4 ,it was then that the groundwork of later ,christian ethics was laid in the purified morality of the psalms1 aphorisms1 and other edificatory writings of a ,job1 ,baruch1 ,jesus son of ,sirach1 c4 ,it was then that the ,jewish ,monotheism set itself to extend its sway beyond the boundaries of its own land and to enter into competition with the other religions of antiquity1 from which it was to draw back vanquished only before a matured ,christianity4 ,,ii ,,the ,,hellenistic ,,idea ,,of ,a ,,mediator 7,,philo7 ,with ,alexander's conquest of the ,persian ,empire ,palestine also was drawn within the circle of ,hellenistic culture4 ,it was at first a vassal state of the ,egyptian ,ptolemies1 and consequently at the commencement of the second century before ,christ came under the overlordship of the ,syrian ,seleucids4 ,the customs and intellectual life of ,greece forced their way into the quiet isolation of the priest-ruled ,jewish state and could not be expelled again1 despite the national reaction under the ,maccabees against foreign influences4 ,above all1 however1 the dispersal of the ,jews contributed to bring about a settlement of opposing views4 ,since the ,exile the ,jews had spread over all the countries of the ,east ,mediterranean4 ,some had remained in ,babylon1 others were permanently settled especially in the ports as tradesmen1 bankers1 and merchants4 ,they controlled the entire money market and trade of the ,east through their assiduous industry1 mercantile sharpness1 their lack of scruples1 and the tenacity with which they held together1 supported therein by their worship in common in the ,synagogue4 ,in the atmosphere of ,greek philosophy and morality a still further transformation and purification of ,jahwe took place4 ,all common human and material lineaments were dropped1 and he developed into a spiritual being of perfect goodness1 such as ,plato had described the ,godhead4 ,here the ,jews found themselves face to face with the same problem that had long occupied the ,greek philosophers4 ,this was the reconciliation of the supernatural loftiness and aloofness from the world of their ,god with the demands of the religious consciousness that required the immediate presence of ,godhead4 ,among the ideas which were borrowed by ,judaism from the ,persian religion belonged those connected with the mediatory ,word4 ,as the creative power of the ,godhead1 the bearer of revelation and representative of ,god upon earth1 the expression the word had already appeared in aphoristic literature4 ,under ,grco-,egyptian influence the term wisdom 7sophia7 had become the naturalised expression for it4 ,wisdom served to describe the activities in regard to man of the ,god who held aloof from the world4 ,in this connection it may be noted that according to ,persian ideas ,wisdom under the name of ,spenta ,armaiti was considered as one of the six or seven ,amesha ,spentas 7,amshaspands71 those spirits that stood as a bodyguard closest to the throne of ,god and corresponded to the ,jewish archangels4 ,she was considered by the ,persians as the daughter or spouse of ,ahuramazda4 ,already1 in the so-called ,wisdom of ,solomon1 written by an ,alexandrian ,jew in the last century before ,christ1 she was declared to be a separately existing spirit in close relation to ,god4 ,under the guise of a half-personal1 half-material being--a power controlling the whole of nature--she was described as the principle of the revelation of ,god in the creation1 maintenance1 and ruling of the world1 as the common principle of life from on high and as the intermediary organ of religious salvation4 ,just as ,plato had sought to overcome the dualism of the ideal and the material world by the conception of a world-soul1 so ,wisdom was intended to serve as an intermediary between the opposites1 the ,god of the ,jews and his creation4 ,these efforts were continued by the ,alexandrian ,jew ,philo 7#cj ,b4,c4 to #ej ,a4,d471 who tried to bring the ,perso-,jewish conception of the ,word or ,wisdom into closer accord with the ideas of ,greek philosophy than the author of the ,book of ,wisdom had already done4 ,philo1 too1 commenced with the opposition between an unknowable1 unnameable ,god1 absolutely raised above the world1 and material created existence4 ,he imagined this opposition bridged over by means of powers which1 as relatively self-existing individuals1 messengers1 servants1 and representatives of ,god1 at one time more closely resembled ,persian angels or ,greek ,dmons1 at another time the ,platonic ,ideas1 the originals and patterns of ,god in creating4 ,essentially1 however1 they bore the character of the so-called ,fructifying powers1 those creative forces which infused a soul and design into formless matter and by means of which the ,stoic philosophers sought to explain existence4 ,as the first of these intermediate forces1 or1 indeed1 as the essence of them all1 ,philo considered the ,logos1 efficacious reason or the creative word of ,god4 ,he called him the first-born son of ,god or the second ,god1 the representative1 interpreter1 ambassador1 ,archangel of ,god1 or ,prince of ,angels4 ,he considered him as the ,high ,priest1 who made intercession with ,god for the world1 the affairs of which he represented before him as the paraclete1 the advocate and consoler of the world1 who was the channel to it of the divine promises2 as the tool with which ,god had fashioned the world1 the original and ideal of it to which ,god had given effect in its creation--that which operated in all things2 in a word1 as the soul or spirit of the world1 which the ,stoics had identified with their ,god1 but which ,philo distinguished from the other-world ,divinity and looked upon as his revelation and manifestation4 ,in essence only an expression for the sum total of all divine forces and activities1 the ,logos of ,philo also was sometimes an impersonal metaphysical principle1 simply the efficacy of the ,godhead1 and sometimes an independent personality distinct from ,god4 ,just as the ,stoics had personified their world-reason in ,hermes1 the messenger of the ,gods1 so the ,egyptians had raised ,amun ,ra's magic word of creation to a self-existing personal mediatory being in ,thoth the guide of souls2 the ,babylonians1 the word of fate of the great ,god ,marduk in the shape of ,nabu2 the ,persians1 the word of ,ahuramazda in ,vohu mano as well as in the ,spenta ,armaiti1 the good thought of the creative ,god4 ,and just as according to ,persian ideas it was at one time the divine son and mediator ,mithras1 the collectivity of all divine forces1 at another the ideal man ,saoshyant who appeared as ,saviour and ,deliverer of the world1 and just as both mingled in one form1 so ,philo also at one time described the ,word as the collectivity of all creative ideas1 at another only as the unembodied idea of man1 the ideal man1 the direct divine image and immaterial pattern of the material exemplars of humanity1 that is effective therein as the subject of all religious redemption4 ,indeed1 he occasionally identified him with the tree of life in ,paradise1 since both were everlasting and stood in the middle4 ,according to ,philo1 man is unable of his own strength to free himself from the bonds of earthly existence4 ,all deliverance depends upon the emancipation of the soul from the body and its sensuous desires4 ,in conformity with his true spiritual and godlike nature1 to become as perfect as ,god1 is the highest virtue and at the same time true happiness4 ,this is attained by an insight into the divine reality of things1 by whole-hearted trust in ,god1 by grateful recognition of the goodness and love bestowed by him1 showing itself in piety towards ,god as well as in charity and justice towards other men4 ,but in addition the ,logos itself must be in us and cause for us the insight into our divine nature4 ,the ,logos must guide us1 come to the aid of our human weakness with his supernatural strength in the struggles against the world and sin and raise us up to ,god4 ,thus the apotheosis of man is the goal aimed at in all religious activity4 ,the ,logos1 however1 is the only means to this end1 in so far as we are raised through union with him in faith and love to our true origin and life's source1 the vision of ,god1 and thereby have participation in his life4 ,,iii ,,jesus ,,as ,,cult-,,god ,,in ,,the ,,creed ,,of ,,jewish ,,sects ,all religious spirits of the time longed to secure this happy vision and communion with ,god1 and to obtain even here on earth a foretaste of the heavenly life4 ,the ,jews sought to attain this end by a painfully exact observance of the ordinances of their law1 but in so doing they became entangled in a mesh of such minute and tiresome regulations that the more they applied themselves to the service of the law the more difficult it appeared4 ,it seemed to be no longer possible to reconcile the demands of everyday life with one's religious duties4 ,some therefore withdrew from the life of the world and in retirement and quiet endeavoured to devote themselves exclusively to the inner life4 ,in ,egypt the ,therapeutes or ,physicians1 a religious association composed of ,jews and their proselytes1 with their headquarters in the neighbourhood of ,alexandria1 sought in this manner1 as ,philo informs us in his work ,on the ,contemplative ,life1 to give effect to the claims of religion as expressed by ,philo himself4 #cj ,their religious observances resembled those of the ,orphic-,pythagorean sects1 as in abstinence from flesh and wine1 admiration for virginity1 voluntary poverty1 religious feasts and community singing1 and the use of white garments4 ,they made a deep study of the mystical writings of revelation that had been handed down1 and these they used as a guide in the allegorical explanation of the ,mosaic law4 ,they united a contemplative piety with a common religious observance1 and thus sought to strengthen themselves mutually in the certainty of religious salvation4 ,beyond the ,jordan the ,jewish sect of the ,essenes 7from the ,syrian word chase1 plural chasen or chasaja7 had their chief settlement4 ,these called themselves1 as is expressed by their name1 the ,pious or ,godfearing4 ,in their esteem of temperance1 celibacy1 and poverty1 their reprobation of slavery1 private property1 the taking of oaths1 and blood-sacrifice1 in the honour they paid the sun as a visible manifestation of the divine light1 they agreed with the ,therapeutes4 ,they differed from them1 however1 in their monastic organisation and the regular manner in which the life of the community was divided among different classes1 their strict subordination to superiors1 their maintenance of a novitiate of several years1 the secrecy of the traditions of the sect1 and their cultivation of the healing art and magic4 ,the ,therapeutes passed their lives in leisurely contemplation and spiritual exercises2 the ,essenes1 on the other hand1 engaged in the rearing of stock1 farming1 and bee-culture1 or they pursued a handicraft1 and in the country places or towns of ,juda1 where they often dwelt together in houses of the order1 they lived as dwellers in a desert the life of purity and sanctity4 ,both sects1 again1 were alike in expecting an early end of the world and in seeking to prepare themselves for the reception of the promises of ,god by the cultivation of brotherly dispositions amongst themselves1 by justice1 good works1 and benevolence towards their fellow-men1 finding therein the special occupation of their lives4 #ca ,of what nature were the secret traditions upon which these sects rested8 ,we know from the ,jewish historian ,josephus that the ,essenes clung to an extreme dualism of soul and body1 in which1 indeed1 they agreed with the other religious associations of antiquity4 ,like all mystical sects1 they regarded the body as the grave and prison-house of the immortal soul1 to which it had been banished from an earlier life in light and blessedness4 ,they also grounded their longing for deliverance from the world of sense and their strivings towards the glory of a better life of the soul beyond the grave upon pessimism in regard to human existence4 ,they even regarded the performance of secret rites as a necessary condition of redemption4 ,but in the opinion of the ,essenes it was essential above all to know the names of the angels and dmons who opened the passage to the different heavens1 disposed one above another4 ,this knowledge was to be revealed to men by one of the higher gods1 a god-redeemer4 ,a conception allied to that lay at the root of the ,book of ,wisdom1 as well as of ,philo's work--the belief in the magic power of the redemptive word of ,god1 mingled by the ,essenes with many strange ,egyptian1 ,persian1 and ,babylonian ingredients and removed from the sphere of philosophic thought to the region of a rankly luxuriant superstition4 ,thus the closely related ,jewish ,apocalypse had expressly supported the revelation of a secret divine wisdom4 #cb ,indeed1 we now know that this whole world of thought belonged to an exceedingly manifold syncretic religious system1 composed of ,babylonian1 ,persian1 ,jewish1 and ,greek ingredients1 which ruled the whole of ,western ,asia in the last centuries before ,christ4 ,its followers called themselves ,adoni1 after the name of its supposed founder1 ,ado 78 ,adonis74 ,it is1 however1 generally described as the ,mandaic religion1 according to another name for its followers1 the so-called ,mandi 7,gnostics74 #cc ,of the numberless sects into which this religion split only a few names have come down to us1 of which some played a part in the history of the heresies of early ,christianity2 for example1 the ,ophites or ,nassenes1 the ,ebionites1 ,perates1 ,sethianes1 ,heliognostics1 ,sampses1 c4 #cd ,we are thus much better acquainted with their fundamental ideas1 which were very fantastic and complicated4 ,they all subscribed to the belief in the redemption of the soul of man from its grave of darkness by a mediatory being1 originally hidden in ,god and then expressly awakened or appointed by him for this purpose4 ,in original ,mandaism he bore the name of ,mand de hajj--that is1 ,gnosis1 or word of life4 ,in the form of ,hibil-ziw1 the ,babylonian ,marduk or ,nabu1 he was to descend from heaven with the keys thereof1 and by means of his magic obtain the dominion of the world4 ,he was to conquer those dmons that had fallen away from ,god1 introduce the end of the world1 and lead back the souls of light to the highest ,godhead4 ,as the ,apocalyptics show1 this view had numerous adherents among the ,jews of ,palestine also4 ,all those who found no satisfaction in the literalness of the ,pharasaic beliefs and the business-like superficiality of the official ,jewish religion1 found edification in ideas of this sort1 which excited the imagination4 ,they dealt with them as mysteries1 and sought1 as may well be from fear of conflicts with traditional religion1 to keep them secret from the public4 #ce ,hence it is that we have such an incomplete knowledge of this side of the religious life of the ,jews4 ,at any rate they clothed their expected ,messiah with the attributes of the ,mandaic ,god of ,mediation1 and they appear1 as is clear from the ,apocalypse of ,daniel and that of ,john1 to have taken particular pleasure in the description of the scene where ,god calls 7awakes7 the ,redeemer to his mediatory office and installs him as ,deliverer1 ,ruler of the ,world1 and ,judge of the living and the dead4 ,we are accustomed to look upon the ,jewish religion as strictly monotheistic4 ,in truth1 it never was1 even in the ,mosaic times1 until after the return from ,exile4 ,and this is clear1 in spite of the trouble which the composers of the so-called historic books of the ,old ,testament have taken to work up the traditions in a monotheistic sense and to obliterate the traces of the early ,jewish polytheism1 by transforming the ancient gods into patriarchs1 heroes1 angels1 and servants of ,jahwe4 ,it was not entirely ,babylonian1 ,persian1 and ,greek opinions which influenced ,judaism in a polytheistic direction2 from the beginning1 besides the theory of one ,god1 emphasised by the priesthood and official world1 there existed a belief in other ,gods4 ,this constantly received fresh nourishment from foreign influences1 and it appears to have been chiefly cultivated in the secret societies4 ,on the descent of the ,israelites into ,canaan each tribe brought with it its special ,god1 under whose specific guidance it believed its deeds were accomplished4 ,by the reforms of the ,prophets these ,gods were suppressed2 but the higher grew the regard for ,jahwe 7apparently the ,god of the tribe of ,judah71 and the further he was in consequence withdrawn from the world to an unapproachable distance1 the more strongly the remembrance of the ancient ,gods again arose and assumed the form of the recognition of divine intermediate beings1 the so-called ,sons of ,god4 ,in these the longing for the direct presence and visible representation of ,god sought expression4 ,such appears to have been the ,presence1 or ,angel of ,god1 with whom ,jacob wrestled in the desert1 #cf who led the ,israelites out of ,egypt and went before them as a pillar of flame1 #cg who fought against their enemies1 drove the ,canaanites from their homes1 #ch held intercourse with the prophets ,elijah and ,ezekiel1 #ci and stood by the people of ,jahwe in every difficulty4 #dj ,he is also called the ,king 7,melech71 or ,son of ,jahwe1 #da and thus exactly resembles the ,babylonian ,marduk1 the ,persian ,mithras1 the ,phoenician ,hercules or ,moloch1 the first-born son of ,god 7,protogonos71 who also appeared among the ,orphics under the name of ,phanes 7i4e41 ,countenance71 who wrestles with ,zeus at ,olympia as ,jacob with ,jahwe1 and1 like him1 dislocates his hip in the struggle with ,hippokoon4 ,in the rabbinic theology he is compared with the mystic ,metatron1 a being related to the ,logos1 ,the ,prince of the ,presence1 ,leader of ,angels1 ,lord of ,lords1 ,king of ,kings1 ,commencement of the ,way of ,god4 ,he was also called the ,protector1 ,sentinel1 and ,advocate of ,israel1 who lays petitions before ,god1 and in whom is the name of the ,lord4 #db ,thus he is identical with that ,angel promised in the second ,book of ,moses1 in whom also is the name of ,jahwe1 who was to lead ,israel to victory over the ,amorites1 ,hittites1 ,perizzites1 ,canaanites1 ,hivites1 and ,jebusites4 #dc ,but he1 again1 is no other than ,joshua1 who was said to have overthrown these nations with ,jahwe's aid4 #dd ,but ,joshua himself is apparently an ancient ,ephraimitic ,god of the ,sun and ,fruitfulness1 who stood in close relation to the ,feast of the ,pasch and to the custom of circumcision4 #de ,now1 many signs speak in favour of the fact that ,joshua or ,jesus was the name under which the expected ,messiah was honoured in certain ,jewish sects4 ,in ,zech4 iii4 ,joshua1 who1 according to ,ezra iii4 #b1 led back the ,jews into their old homes after the ,babylonian captivity1 just as the older ,joshua brought back the ,israelites into ,canaan1 the promised land of their fathers1 was invested as ,high ,priest by the ,angel of the ,lord1 and promised the continuance of his priesthood so long as he walked in the ways of the ,lord4 ,in ,zech4 vi4 #i-ae the ,high ,priest ,joshua is crowned as ,messiah and brought into connection with the branch under which the glory of ,god's kingdom will come to pass4 ,it is true that in this passage under the title of ,messiah ,zerubbabel1 the leader of the ,jews of the race of ,david1 was originally understood4 ,in him the prophet thought he could discern that branch by which1 in accordance with ,isaiah xi4 #a1 the ,house of ,david was again to obtain the rule4 ,since1 however1 the great hopes set upon ,zerubbabel as ,messiah were not fulfilled1 a correction was made 7and this before the ,bible was translated into ,greek7 in the text of the prophet1 as follows3 ,the name of ,zerubbabel was struck out1 the plural changed into the singular1 so that ,joshua alone was represented as having been crowned1 the promises regarding the ,messiah accordingly also passing over to him 7,stade1 ,gesch4 des ,volkes ,israel1 #ahhh1 ii4 #abf1 note4 ,hhn1 ,die messianischen ,weissagungen des israel4 ,volkes1 #ahhi1 #fb et sq474 ,jesus was a name given1 as will be still more clearly shown1 not only to the ,high ,priest of ,zechariah and to the successor of ,moses1 both of whom were said to have led ,israel back into its ancient home1 both having a decidedly ,messianic character4 ,the name in ancient times also belonged to the ,healthbringer and ,patron of the ,physician--namely1 ,jasios or ,jason1 the pupil of ,chiron skilled in healing #df--who in general shows a remarkable resemblance to the ,christian ,redeemer4 ,consider also the significant fact that three times at decisive turning-points in the history of the ,israelites a ,joshua appears who leads his people into their promised home1 into ,canaan and ,jerusalem1 into the ,kingdom of ,god--the ,new ,jerusalem4 ,now1 as ,epiphanius remarks in his ,history of the ,heretics1 ,jesus bears in the ,hebrew language the same meaning as curator1 therapeutes--that is1 physician and curer4 ,but the ,therapeutes and ,essenes regarded themselves as physicians1 and1 above all1 physicians of the soul4 ,it is accordingly by no means improbable that they too honoured the ,god of their sect under this name4 #dg ,we1 moreover1 read in a ,parisian magic-papyrus recently found and published by ,wessely 7line #caai et sq473 ,i exort thee by ,jesus the ,god of the ,hebrews4 ,the words are found in an ostensibly ,hebrew ,logos of that papyrus1 the tone of which is quite ancient1 moreover shows no trace of ,christian influence1 and is ascribed by the transcriber to the ,pure1 under which name1 according to ,dieterich1 the ,essenes or ,therapeutes are to be understood4 #dh ,the ,jessaes or ,jessenes 7,jessaioi7 named themselves after ,jesus1 or after the branch from the root of ,jesse4 #di ,they were closely connected on one side with the ,essenes and on the other side with the ,jewish sect of the ,nazarenes or ,nazoraes 7,nazoraiori71 if they were not absolutely identical4 ,these were1 as ,epiphanius shows1 in existence long before ,christ1 and had no knowledge of him4 #ej ,they were1 however1 called ,nazoraes 7,nazarenes 7,nazarenos7 is only a linguistic variation of it1 cf4 ,essaes and ,essenes7 because they honoured the ,mediator ,god1 the divine son1 as a protector and guardian 7,syrian1 ,nasary2 ,hebrew1 ,ha-nsr7 7cf4 the ,protector of ,israel1 also the fact that ,mithras was honoured as ,protector of the ,world74 ,according to ,acts xxiv4 #e the first followers of ,jesus were also called ,nazoraes or ,nazarenes4 ,the expressions ,jesus and ,nazorean were therefore originally of almost like meaning1 and by the addition of the ,nazorean or ,nazarene ,jesus is not characterised as the man of ,nazareth1 as the ,evangelists represent it1 but as the ,healer and ,deliverer4 ,whether there was a place called ,nazareth in pre-,christian days must be considered as at least very doubtful4 ,such a place is not mentioned either in the ,old ,testament or in the ,talmud1 which1 however1 mentions more than sixty ,galilean towns2 nor1 again1 by the ,jewish historian ,josephus1 nor in the ,apocrypha4 ,cheyne believes himself justified by this in the conclusion that ,nazareth in the ,new ,testament is a pure geographical fiction4 #ea ,it is only in the later phases of the tradition that the name appears in the ,new ,testament as a place-name4 ,in the earlier ones the ,nazorean 7,nazarene7 only signifies the follower of a particular sect1 or is a surname of ,jesus which characterises the significance attached to him in the thoughts of his followers4 ,the ,nazorean appears here only as an integral part of the whole name of ,jesus1 as ,zeus ,xenios1 ,hermes ,psychopompos1 ,apollo ,pythios1 c41 c4 ,it is applied to ,jesus only as ,guardian of the world1 ,protector and ,deliverer of ,men from the power of sin and ,dmons1 but without any reference to a quite obscure and entirely unknown village named ,nazareth1 which is mentioned in documents beyond any dispute1 only from the fourth century on 7see ,eusebius1 ,jerome1 and ,epiphanius74 ,or where else is a sect named after the birthplace of its founder8 #eb ,moreover1 even in the ,gospels it is not ,nazareth but ,capernaum which is described as his city2 while ,nazareth does not play any part at all in the life of ,jesus4 ,for the passages ,matt4 xiii4 #ec-eh and ,mark vi4 #a-f1 according to which he had no success with his miracles in his patris on account of the unbelief of the people1 leave the question open whether under the name of patris one is to understand his father-city ,nazareth or somewhere else4 ,the corresponding passage1 ,luke iv4 #af-ca1 mentions ,nazareth1 it is true1 in connection with this incident2 but it is in discrepancy with the older versions of ,matthew and ,mark1 and it appears otherwise recognisable as a later redaction of the passages in the other ,gospels4 #ec ,now the expression nazar or netzer in the sense of twig 7sprout7 is found not only in the well-known passage ,isaiah xi4 #a1 where the ,messiah is described as the rod from the tree of ,jesse or the twig from its root4 ,in fine1 was not the twig looked upon as a symbol of the ,redeemer in his character of a ,god of vegetation and life1 as was the case in the worship of ,mithras1 of ,men1 a god of ,asia ,minor1 of ,attis1 ,apollo1 #ed c41 and did not this idea also make itself felt in the name of the ,nazareans8 ,he shall be called a ,nazarene1 #ee accordingly1 does not signify that he was to be born in the small village of ,nazareth1 which probably did not exist in the time of ,jesus1 but that he is the promised netzer or ,zemah1 who makes all new1 and restores the time when one loads the other beneath vine and fig-tree1 #ef and wonderful increase will appear4 #eg ,again1 the possibility is not excluded of the name of the ,nazareans having been confused with that of the ,nasiraes 7,nazirites71 those holy or dedicated ones1 who were a survival in ,judea from the times when the ,israelite tribes were nomads4 ,these sought to express their opposition to the higher civilisation of the conquered land by patriarchal simplicity and purity of life1 abstinence from the use of oil1 wine1 and the shears1 c4 #eh ,according to this1 ,jesus 7,joshua7 was originally a divinity1 a mediator1 and ,god of healing of those pre-,christian ,jewish sectaries1 with reference to whom we are obliged to describe the ,judaism of the time--as regards certain of its tendencies1 that is--as a syncretic religion4 #ei ,the ,revelation of ,john also appears to be a ,christian redaction of an original ,jewish work which in all likelihood belonged to a pre-,christian cult of ,jesus4 ,the ,god ,jesus which appears in it has nothing to do with the ,christian ,jesus4 ,moreover1 its whole range of ideas is so foreign even to ancient ,judaism that it can be explained only by the influence of heathen religions upon the ,jewish4 #fj ,it is exactly the same with the so-called ,doctrine of the ,twelve ,apostles4 ,this too displays a ,jewish foundation1 and speaks of a ,jesus in the context of the words of the supper1 who is in no wise the same as the ,christian ,redeemer4 #fa ,it is comprehensible that the later ,christians did all they could in order to draw the veil of forgetfulness over these things4 ,nevertheless ,smith has succeeded in his book1 ,the ,pre-,christian ,jesus1 in showing clear evidences even in the ,new ,testament of a cult of an old ,god ,jesus4 ,among other things the phrase ta peri tou ,iesou 7the things concerning ,jesus7 #fb which according to all appearance has no reference to the history of ,jesus1 but only means the doctrines concerning him1 and in any case could originally only have had this meaning1 involves a pre-,christian form of belief in a ,jesus4 ,but this point is above all supported by the circumstance that even at the earliest commencement of the ,christian propaganda we meet with the name of ,jesus used in such a manner as to point to a long history of that name4 ,for it is employed from the beginning in the driving out of evil spirits1 a fact that would be quite incomprehensible if its bearer had been merely a man4 ,now we know from the ,gospels and ,acts of the ,apostles that it was not only the disciples of the ,jesus of the ,gospels1 but also others even in his lifetime 7i4e41 even in the first commencement of the ,christian propaganda71 healed diseases1 and drove out evil spirits in the name of ,jesus4 ,from this it is to be concluded that the magic of names was associated from of old with the conception of a divine healer and protector1 and that ,jesus1 like ,marduk1 was a name for this ,god of ,healing4 #fc ,judging by this the ,persian1 but above all the ,babylonian1 religion must have influenced the views of the above-named sects4 ,for the superstition regarding names1 the belief in the magic power attributed to the name of a divine being1 as well as the belief in ,star ,gods and ,astral mythology1 which is a characteristic of ,mandaism1 all have ,babylon as their home4 ,the ,essenes also appear to have exercised the magical and healing art of which they boasted in the form of wonder-working and the driving out of evil spirits by a solemn invocation of the name of their ,god of ,healing4 #fd ,,iv ,,the ,,sufferings ,,of ,,the ,,messiah ,in the most different religions the belief in a divine ,saviour and ,redeemer is found bound up with the conception of a suffering and dying ,god1 and this idea of a suffering and dying ,messiah was by no means unknown to the ,jews4 ,it may be of no importance that in the ,apocalypse of ,esdras #fe the death of ,christ is spoken of1 since in the opinion of many this work only appeared in the first century after ,christ2 but ,deutero-,isaiah too1 during the ,exile1 describes the chosen one and messenger of ,god as the suffering servant of ,god1 as one who had already appeared1 although he had remained unknown and despised1 had died shamefully and been buried1 but as one also who would rise up again in order to fulfil the splendour of the divine promise4 #ff ,this brings to mind the suffering1 death1 and resurrection of the ,gods of ,babylon and of the whole of ,nearer ,asia2 for example1 ,tammuz1 ,mithras1 ,attis1 ,melkart1 and ,adonis1 ,dionysus1 the ,cretan ,zeus1 and the ,egyptian ,osiris4 ,the prophet ,zechariah1 moreover1 speaks of the secret murder of a ,god over which the inhabitants of ,jerusalem would raise their lament1 as in the case of ,hadad-rimmon 7,rammn7 in the valley of ,megiddon1 that is1 as at the death of ,adonis1 one of the chief figures among the ,gods believed in by the ,syrians4 #fg ,ezekiel also describes the women of ,jerusalem1 sitting before the north gate of the city and weeping over ,tammuz4 #fh ,the ancient ,israelites1 too1 were already well acquainted with the suffering and dying ,gods of the neighbouring peoples4 ,now1 indeed1 it is customary for ,isaiah's servant of ,god to be held to refer to the present sufferings and future glory of the ,jewish people1 and there is no doubt that the prophet understood the image in that sense4 ,at the same time ,gunkel rightly maintains that in the passage of ,isaiah referred to1 the figure of a ,god who dies and rises again stands in the background1 and the reference to ,israel signifies nothing more than a new symbolical explanation of the actual fate of a ,god4 #fi ,every year the forces of nature die away to reawaken to a new life only after a long period4 ,the minds of all peoples used to be deeply moved by this occurrence--the death whether of nature as a whole beneath the influence of the cold of winter1 or of vegetable growth under the parching rays of the summer sun4 ,men looked upon it as the fate of a fair young ,god whose death they deeply lamented and whose rebirth or resurrection they greeted with unrestrained rejoicing4 ,on this account from earliest antiquity there was bound up with the celebration of this ,god an imitative mystery under the form of a ritualistic representation of his death and resurrection4 ,in the primitive stages of worship1 when the boundaries between spirit and nature remained almost entirely indistinct1 and man still felt himself inwardly in a sympathetic correspondence with surrounding nature1 it was believed that one could even exercise an influence upon nature or help it in its interchange between life and death1 and turn the course of events to one's own interest4 ,for this purpose man was obliged to imitate it4 ,nowhere1 says ,frazer1 to whom we are indebted for a searching inquiry into all ideas and ritualistic customs in this connection1 were these efforts more strictly and systematically carried out than in ,western ,asia4 ,as far as names go they differed in different places1 in essence they were everywhere alike4 ,a man1 whom the unrestrained phantasy of his adorers clothed with the garments and attributes of a ,god1 used to give his life for the life of the world4 ,after he had poured from his own body into the stagnating veins of nature a fresh stream of vital energy1 he was himself delivered over to death before his own sinking strength should have brought about a general ruin of the forces of nature1 and his place was then taken by another1 who1 like all his forerunners1 played the ever-recurring drama of the divine resurrection and death4 #gj ,even in historic times this was frequently carried out with living persons4 ,these had formerly been the kings of the country or the priests of the ,god in question1 but their place was now taken by criminals4 ,in other cases the sacrifice of the deified man took place only symbolically1 as with the ,egyptian ,osiris1 the ,persian ,mithras1 the ,phrygian ,attis1 the ,syrian ,adonis1 and the ,tarsic 7,cilician7 ,sandan 7,sandes74 ,in these cases a picture of the ,god1 an effigy1 or a sacred tree-trunk took the place of the ,god man4 ,sufficient signs1 however1 still show that in such cases it was only a question of a substitute under milder forms of ritual for the former human victim4 ,thus1 for example1 the name of the ,high ,priest of ,attis1 being also ,attis1 that is1 father1 the sacrificial self-inflicted wound on the occasion of the great feast of the ,god 7,march #bbnd to #bgth71 and the sprinkling with his blood of the picture of the ,god that then took place1 makes us recognise still more plainly a later softening of an earlier custom of self-immolation4 #ga ,with the idea of revivifying dying nature by the sacrifice of a man was associated that of the scapegoat4 ,the victim did not only represent to the people their ,god1 but at the same time stood for the people before ,god and had to expiate by his death the misdeeds committed by them during the year4 #gb ,as regards the manner of death1 however1 this varied in different places between death by his own sword or that of the priest1 by the pyre or the gibbet 7gallows74 ,in this way we understand the #ecrd chapter of ,isaiah3 ,surely he hath borne our griefs1 and carried our sorrows3 yet we did esteem him stricken1 smitten of ,god1 and afflicted4 ,but he was wounded for our transgressions1 he was bruised for our iniquities3 the chastisement of our peace was upon him2 and with his stripes we are healed4 ,all we like sheep have gone astray2 we have turned every one to his own way2 and the ,lord hath laid on him the iniquity of us all4 ,he was oppressed1 yet he humbled himself1 and opened not his mouth2 as a lamb that is led to the slaughter1 and as a sheep that before her shearers is dumb2 yea1 he opened not his mouth4 ,he was cut off out of the land of the living2 for the transgression of my people was he stricken4 ,and they made his grave with the wicked and with the rich in his death2 although he had done no violence1 neither was any deceit in his mouth4 ,when thou shalt make his soul an offering for sin1 he shall see his seed1 he shall prolong his days1 and the pleasure of the ,lord shall prosper in his hand4 ,he shall see of the travail of his soul 8 sufferings1 and shall be satisfied3 by his knowledge shall my righteous servant justify many1 and he shall bear their iniquities4 ,therefore will ,i divide him a portion with the great1 and he shall divide the spoil with the strong2 because he poured out his soul unto death1 and was numbered with the transgressors2 yet he bare the sin of many1 and made intercession for the transgressors4 ,here we obviously have to do with a man who dies as an expiatory sacrifice for the sins of his people1 and by his death benefiting the lives of the others is on that account raised to be a ,god4 ,indeed1 the picture of the just man suffering1 all innocent as he is1 itself varies between a human and a divine being4 ,and now let us enter into the condition of the soul of such an unhappy one1 who as ,god man suffers death upon the gibbet1 and we understand the words of the #bbnd ,psalm3 ,my ,god1 my ,god1 why hast thou forsaken me8 ,why art thou so far from helping me1 and from the words of my roaring8 ,o my ,god1 ,i cry in the day time1 but thou answereth not2 and in the night season1 and am not silent4 ,but thou art holy1 ,o thou that inhabitest the praises of ,israel4 ,our fathers trusted in thee2 they trusted1 and thou didst deliver them4 ,they cried unto thee1 and were delivered2 they trusted in ,thee1 and were not ashamed4 ,but ,i am a worm1 and no man2 a reproach of men1 and despised of the people4 ,all they that see me laugh me to scorn3 they shoot out the lip1 they shake the lip1 saying1 ,commit thyself unto the ,lord1 let him deliver him3 let him deliver him1 seeing he delighteth in him4444 ,many bulls have compassed me3 strong bulls of ,bashan have beset me round4 ,they gape upon me with their mouth1 as a ravening and a roaring lion4 ,i am poured out like water4 ,and all my bones are out of joint3 my heart is like wax3 it is melted in the midst of my bowels4444 ,they pierced my hands and my feet4 ,i may tell all my bones4 ,they look and stare upon me3 they part my garments among them1 and upon my vesture do they cast lots4 ,but be not thou far off1 ,o ,lord3 ,o ,thou1 my succour1 haste ,thee to help me4444 ,save me from the lion's mouth1 yea1 from the horns of the wild oxen4444 ,when the poet of the psalms wished to describe helplessness in its direst extremity1 before his eyes there came the picture of a man1 who1 hanging upon the gibbet1 calls upon ,god's aid1 while round about him the people gloat over his sufferings1 which are to save them2 and the attendants who had taken part in the sacrifice divide among themselves the costly garments with which the ,god-king had been adorned4 ,the employment of such a picture presupposes that the occurrence depicted was not unknown to the poet and his public1 whether it came before their eyes from acquaintance with the religious ideas of their neighbours or because they were accustomed to see it in their own native usages4 ,as a matter of fact in ancient ,israel human sacrifices were by no means unusual4 ,this appears from numberless passages of the ,old ,testament1 and has been already exhaustively set forth by ,ghillany in his book ,die ,menschenopfer der alten ,hebrer 7#ahdb71 and by ,daumer in his ,der ,feuer- und ,molochdienst der alten ,hebrer4 ,thus we read in #b ,sam4 xxi4 #f-i of the seven sons of the ,house of ,saul1 who were delivered over by ,david to the ,gibeonites1 who hung them on the mountain before the ,lord4 ,thus was ,god appeased towards the land4 #gc ,in ,numb4 xxv4 #d ,jahwe bade ,moses hang the chiefs of the people to the ,lord before the sun1 in order that the bitter wrath of the ,lord might be turned from ,israel4 ,and according to the ,book of ,joshua this latter dedicated the inhabitants of the city of ,ain to the ,lord1 and after the capture of the city hung their king upon a tree1 #gd while in the tenth chapter 7#ae-bf7 he even hangs five kings at one time4 ,indeed1 it appears that human sacrifice formed a regular part of the ,jewish religion in the period before the ,exile2 which indeed was but to be expected1 considering the relationship between ,jahwe and the ,phoenician ,baal4 ,jahwe himself was1 moreover1 originally only another form of the old ,semitic ,fire- and ,sun-,god2 the ,god-king 7,moloch or ,melech71 who was honoured under the image of a ,bull1 was represented at this time as a smoking furnace #ge and was gratified and propitiated by human sacrifices4 #gf ,even during the ,babylonian captivity1 despite the voices raised against it by some prophets in the last years of the ,jewish state1 sacrifices of this kind were offered by the ,jews2 until they were suppressed under the rule of the ,persians1 and in the new ,jewish state were expressly forbidden4 ,but even then they continued in secret and could easily be revived at any time1 so soon as the excitement of the popular mind in some time of great need seemed to demand an extraordinary victim4 #gg ,now the putting to death of a man in the rle of a divine ruler was in ancient times very often connected with the celebration of the new year4 ,this is brought to our mind even at the present day by the ,german and ,slav custom of the bearing out of death at the beginning of spring1 when a man or an image of straw symbolising the old year or winter1 is taken round amidst lively jesting and is finally thrown into the water or ceremonially burnt1 while the ,lord of ,may1 crowned with flowers1 makes his entrance4 ,again1 the ,roman ,saturnalia1 celebrated in ,december1 during which a mock king wielded his sceptre over a world of joy and licence and unbounded folly1 and all relationships were topsy-turvy1 the masters playing the part of slaves and vice-vers1 in the most ancient times used to be held in ,march as a festival of spring4 ,and in this case1 too1 the king of the festival had to pay for his short reign with his life4 ,in fact1 the ,acts of ,st4 ,dasius1 published by ,cumont1 show that the bloody custom was still observed by the ,roman soldiers on the frontiers of the ,empire in the year #cjc ,a4,d4 #gh ,in ,babylon the ,feast of the ,sakes corresponded to the ,roman ,saturnalia4 ,it was ostensibly a memorial of the inroad of the ,scythian ,sakes into ,nearer ,asia1 and according to ,frazer was identical with the very ancient new year's festival of the ,babylonians1 the ,zakmuk4 ,this too was associated with a reversal of all usual relationships4 ,a mock king1 a criminal condemned to death1 was here also the central figure--an unhappy being1 to whom for a few days was accorded absolute freedom and every kind of pleasure1 even to the using of the royal harem1 until on the last day he was divested of his borrowed dignity1 stripped naked1 scourged1 and then burnt4 #gi ,the ,jews gained a knowledge of this feast during the ,babylonian captivity1 borrowed it from their oppressors1 and celebrated it shortly before their ,pasch under the name of the ,feast of ,purim1 ostensibly1 as the ,book of ,esther is at pains to point out1 as a memorial of a great danger from which in ,persia during the reign of ,ahasuerus 7,xerxes7 they were saved by the craft of ,esther and her uncle ,mordecai4 ,jensen1 however1 has pointed out in the ,vienna ,zeitschrift fr die ,kunde des ,morgenlandes #hj that the basis of the narrative of ,esther is an opposition between the chief ,gods of ,babylon and those of hostile ,elam4 ,according to his view under the names of ,esther and ,mordecai are hidden the names of ,istar1 the ,babylonian ,goddess of fertility1 and ,marduk1 her son and beloved4 ,at ,babylon during the ,feast of the ,sakes1 under the names of the ,elamite ,gods ,vashti and ,haman 7,humman71 they were put out of the way as representatives of the old or wintry part of the year in order that they might rise up again under their real names and bring into the new year or the summer half of the year4 #ha ,thus the ,babylonian king of the ,sakes also played the part of a ,god and suffered death as such upon the pyre4 ,now we have grounds for assuming that the later ,jewish custom at the ,feast of ,purim of hanging upon a gibbet and burning a picture or effigy representing the evil ,haman1 originally consisted1 as at ,babylon1 in the putting to death of a real man1 some criminal condemned to death4 ,here1 too1 then was seen not only a representative of ,haman1 but one also of ,mordecai1 a representative of the old as well as of the new year1 who in essence was one and the same being4 ,while the former was put to death at the ,purim feast1 the latter1 a criminal chosen by lot1 was given his freedom on this occasion1 clothed with the royal insignia of the dead man and honoured as the representative of ,mordecai rewarded by ,ahasuerus for his services4 ,mordecai1 it is said in the ,book of ,esther1 went out from the king in royal attire1 gold and white1 with a great crown of gold1 and covered with a robe of linen and purple4 ,and the town of ,susa rejoiced and was merry4 #hb ,frazer has discovered that in this description we have before us the picture of an old ,babylonian king of the ,sakes1 who represented ,marduk1 as he entered the chief town of the country side1 and thus introduced the new year4 ,at the same time it appears that in reality the procession of the mock king was less serious and impressive than the author of the ,book of ,esther would out of national vanity make us believe4 ,thus ,lagarde has drawn attention to an old ,persian custom which used to be observed every year at the beginning of spring in the early days of ,march1 which is known as the ,ride of the ,beardless ,one4 #hc ,on this occasion a beardless and1 when possible1 one-eyed yokel1 naked1 and accompanied by a royal body-guard and a troop of outriders1 was conducted in solemn pomp through the city seated upon an ass1 amidst the acclamations of the crowd1 who bore branches of palm and cheered the mock king4 ,he had the right to collect contributions from the rich people and shopkeepers along the route which he followed4 ,part of these went into the coffers of the king1 part were assigned to the collector1 and he could without more ado appropriate the property of another in case the latter refused his demands4 ,he had1 however1 to finish his progress and disappear within a strictly limited time1 for in default of this he exposed himself to the danger of being seized by the crowd and mercilessly cudgelled to death4 ,people hoped that from this procession of the ,beardless ,one an early end of winter and a good year would result4 ,from this it appears that here too we have to do with one of those innumerable and multiform spring customs1 which at all times and among the most diverse nations served to hasten the approach of the better season4 ,the ,persian ,beardless ,one corresponded with the ,babylonian king of the ,sakes1 and appears to have represented the departing winter4 ,frazer concludes from this that the criminal also who played the part of the ,jewish ,mordecai with similar pomp rode through the city like the ,beardless ,one1 and had to purchase his freedom with the amusement which he afforded the people4 ,in this connection he recalls a statement of ,philo according to which1 on the occasion of the entry of the ,jewish ,king ,agrippa into ,alexandria1 a half-crazy street sweeper was solemnly chosen by the rabble to be king4 ,after the manner of the ,beardless ,one1 covered with a robe and bearing a crown of paper upon his head and a stick in his hand for a sceptre1 he was treated by a troop of merry-makers as a real king4 #hd ,philo calls the poor wretch ,karabas4 ,this is probably only a corruption of the ,hebrew name ,barabbas1 which means ,son of the ,father4 ,it was accordingly not the name of an individual1 but the regular appellation of whoever had at the ,purim feast to play the part of ,mordecai1 the ,babylonian ,marduk1 that is1 the new year4 ,this is in accordance with the original divine character of the ,jewish mock king4 ,for as sons of the divine father all the ,gods of vegetation and fertility of ,nearer ,asia suffered death1 and the human representatives of these gods had to give their lives for the welfare of their people and the renewed growth of nature4 #he ,it thus appears that a kind of commingling of the ,babylonian ,feast of the ,sakes and the ,persian feast of the ,beardless ,one took place among the ,jews1 owing to their sojourn in ,babylon under ,persian overlordship4 ,the released criminal made his procession as ,marduk 7,mordecai7 the representative of the new life rising from the dead1 but it was made in the ridiculous rle of the ,persian ,beardless ,one--that is1 the representative of the old year--while this latter was likewise represented by another criminal1 who1 as ,haman1 had to suffer death upon the gallows4 ,in their account of the last events of the life of the ,messiah1 ,jesus1 the custom at the ,jewish ,purim feast1 already referred to1 passed through the minds of the ,evangelists4 ,they described ,jesus as the ,haman1 ,barabbas as the ,mordecai of the year1 and in so doing1 on account of the symbol of the lamb of sacrifice1 they merged the ,purim feast in the feast of ,easter1 celebrated a little later4 ,they1 however1 transferred the festive entry into ,jerusalem of the ,beardless ,one1 his hostile measures against the shopkeepers and money-changers1 and his being crowned in mockery as ,king of the ,jews1 from ,mordecai-,barabbas to ,haman-,jesus1 thus anticipating symbolically the occurrences which should only have been completed on the resurrection of the ,marduk of the new year4 #hf ,according to an old reading of ,math4 xxvii4 #ah et seq41 which1 however1 has disappeared from our texts since ,origen1 ,barabbas1 the criminal set against the ,saviour1 is called ,jesus ,barabbas--that is1 ,jesus1 the son of the ,father4 #hg ,may an indication of the true state of the facts not lie herein1 and may the figure of ,jesus ,barabbas1 the ,god of the ,year1 corresponding to both halves of the year1 that of the sun's course upwards and downwards1 not have separated into two distinct personalities on the occasion of the new year's feast8 ,the ,jewish ,pasch was a feast of spring and the new year1 on the occasion of which the firstfruits of the harvest and the first-born of men and beasts were offered to the ,god of sun and sky4 ,originally this was also associated with human sacrifices4 ,here too such a sacrifice passed1 as was universal in antiquity1 for a means of expiation1 atoning for the sins of the past year and ensuring the favour of ,jahwe for the new year4 #hh ,as representing all the souls of the first-born are given to ,god2 they are the means of union between ,jahwe and his people2 the latter can only remain for ever ,jahwe's own provided a new generation always offers its first-born in sacrifice to ,god4 ,this was the chief dogma of ancient ,judaism2 all the hopes of the people were fixed thereon2 the most far-reaching promises were grounded upon the readiness to sacrifice the first-born4 #hi ,the more valuable such a victim was1 the higher the rank which he bore in life1 so much the more pleasing was his death to ,god4 ,on this account they were kings who1 according to the ,books of ,joshua and ,samuel1 were consecrated to the ,lord4 ,indeed1 in the case of the seven sons of the house of ,saul whom ,david caused to be hung1 the connection between their death and the ,pasch is perfectly clear1 when it is said that they died before the ,lord at the time of the barley harvest 7i4e41 of the ,feast of the ,pasch74 #ij ,thus there could be no more efficacious sacrifice than when a king or ruler offered his first-born4 ,it was on this account that1 as ,justin informs us1 #ia the banished ,carthaginian general ,maleus caused his son ,cartalo1 decked out as a king and priest1 to be hung in sight of ,carthage while it was being besieged by him1 thereby casting down the besiegers so much that he captured the city after a few days4 ,it was on this account that the ,carthaginian ,hamilcar at the siege of ,agrigentum 7#djg ,b4,c47 sacrificed his own son1 and that the ,israelites relinquished the conquest of ,moab1 when the king of this country offered his first-born to the ,gods4 #ib ,here1 too1 the human victim seems to have been only the representative of a divine one1 as when1 for example1 the ,phoenicians in ,tyre until the time of the siege of that city by ,alexander sacrificed each year1 according to ,pliny1 a boy to ,kronos1 i4e41 ,melkart or ,moloch 7king74 #ic ,this ,tyrian ,melkart1 however1 is the same as he to whom1 as ,porphyry states1 a criminal was annually sacrificed at ,rhodes4 ,according to ,philo of ,byblos the ,god was called ,israel among the ,phoenicians1 and on the occasion of a great pestilence1 in order to check the mortality1 he is said to have sacrificed his first-born son ,jehud 7,judah71 i4e41 the ,only one1 having first decked him out in regal attire4 #id ,thus ,abraham also sacrificed his first-born to ,jahwe4 ,abraham 7the great father7 is1 however1 only another name for ,israel1 the mighty ,god4 ,this was the earliest designation of the ,god of the ,hebrews1 until it was displaced by the name ,jahwe1 being only employed henceforth as the name of the people belonging to him4 ,the name of his son ,isaac 7,jishk7 marks the latter out as the smiling one4 ,this however1 does not refer1 as ,goldzither #ie thinks1 to the smiling day or the morning light1 but to the facial contortions of the victim called forth by the pains he endured from the flames in the embrace of the glowing oven4 ,these contortions were anciently called sardonic laughter1 on account of the sacrifices to ,moloch in ,crete and ,sardinia4 #if ,when1 as civilisation increased1 human sacrifices were done away with in ,israel1 and with the development of monotheism the ancient ,gods were transformed into men1 the story of ,genesis xxii4 came into existence with the object of justifying historically the change from human to animal victims4 ,the ancient custom according to which amongst many peoples of antiquity1 kings1 the sons of kings1 and priests were not allowed to die a natural death1 but1 after the expiration of a certain time usually fixed by an oracle1 had to suffer death as a sacrificial victim for the good of their people1 must accordingly have been in force originally in ,israel also4 ,thus did ,moses and ,aaron also offer themselves for their people in their capacity of leader and high priest4 #ig ,but since both1 and especially ,moses1 passed as types of the ,messiah1 the opinion grew up quite naturally that the expected great and mighty leader and high priest of ,israel1 in whom ,moses should live again1 #ih had to suffer the holy death of ,moses and ,aaron as sacrificial victims4 #ii ,the view that the idea of a suffering and dying ,messiah was unknown to the ,jews cannot accordingly be maintained4 ,indeed1 in ,daniel ix4 #bf mention is made of a dying ,christ4 ,we saw above that among the ,jews of the post-exilic period the thought of the ,messiah was associated with the personality of ,cyrus4 ,now of ,cyrus the story goes that this mighty ,persian king suffered death upon the gibbet by the order of the ,scythian queen ,tomyris4 #ajj ,but in ,justin the ,jew ,trypho asserts that the ,messiah will suffer and die a death of violence4 #aja ,indeed1 what is more1 the ,talmud looks upon the death of the ,messiah 7with reference to ,isaiah liii47 as an expiatory death for the sins of his people4 ,from this it appears that in the second century after ,christ1 people were1 at any rate in certain circles of ,judaism1 familiar with the idea of a suffering ,messiah1 suffering too as an expiation for human sins4 #ajb ,the ,rabbinists separate more accurately two conceptions of the ,messiah4 ,according to one1 in the character of a descendant of ,david and a great and divine hero he was to release the ,jews from servitude1 found the promised world-wide empire1 and sit in judgment over men4 ,this is the ,jewish conception of the ,messiah1 of which ,king ,david was the ideal4 #ajc ,according to the other he was to assemble the ten tribes in ,galilee and lead them against ,jerusalem1 only to be overthrown1 however1 in the battle against ,gog and ,magog under the leadership of ,armillus on account of ,jeroboam's sin--that is1 on account of the secession of the ,israelites from the ,jews4 ,the ,talmud describes the last-mentioned ,messiah1 in distinction from the first1 as the son of ,joseph or ,ephraim4 ,this is done with reference to the fact that the kingdom of ,israel included above all the tribes of ,ephraim and ,manasseh1 and that these traced back their origin to the mythical ,joseph4 ,he is thus the ,messiah of the ,israelites who had separated from the ,jews1 and especially1 as it appears1 of the ,samaritans4 ,this ,messiah1 the son of ,joseph1 it is said1 will offer himself in sacrifice and pour forth his soul in death1 and his blood will atone for the people of ,god4 ,he himself will go to heaven4 ,then1 however1 the other ,messiah1 the son of ,david1 the ,messiah of the ,jews in a narrower sense1 will come and fulfil the promises made to them1 in which connection ,zech4 xii4 #aj sq4 and xiv4 #c sq4 seem to have influenced this whole doctrine4 #ajd ,according to ,dalman1 #aje the figure of the ,messiah ben ,joseph first appeared in the second or third century after ,christ4 ,bousset too appears to consider it a later tradition1 although he cannot deny that the ,jewish ,apocalypses of the end of the first thousand years after ,christ1 which are the first to make extensive mention of the matter1 may have contained very ancient traditions4 ,according to ,persian beliefs1 too1 ,mithras was the suffering ,redeemer and mediator between ,god and the world1 while ,saoshyant1 on the other hand1 was the judge of the world who would appear at the end of all time and obtain the victory over ,ariman 7,armillus74 ,in the same way the ,greek myth distinguished from the older ,dionysus1 ,zagreus1 the son of ,persephone1 who died a cruel death at the hands of the ,titans1 a younger ,god of the same name1 son of ,zeus and ,semele1 who was to deliver the world from the shackles of darkness4 ,precisely the same relationship exists between ,prometheus1 the suffering1 and ,heracles1 the triumphant deliverer of the world4 ,we thus obviously have to do here with a very old and wide-spread myth1 and it is scarcely necessary to point out how closely the two figures of the ,samaritan and ,jewish ,messiahs correspond to the ,haman and ,mardachai of the ,jewish ,purim feast1 in order to prove the extreme antiquity of this whole conception4 ,the ,gospel united into one the two figures of the ,messiah1 which had been originally separate4 ,from the ,messiah ben ,joseph it made the human ,messiah1 born in ,galilee1 and setting out from there with his followers for ,jerusalem1 there to succumb to his adversaries4 ,on the other hand1 from the ,messiah ben ,david it made the ,messiah of return and resurrection4 ,at the same time it elevated and deepened the whole idea of the ,messiah in the highest degree by commingling the conception of the self-sacrificing ,messiah with that of the ,paschal victim1 and this again with that of the ,god who offers his own son in sacrifice4 ,along with the ,jews it looked upon ,jesus as the son of ,king ,david1 at the same time1 however1 preserving a remembrance of the ,israelite ,messiah in that it also gave him ,joseph as father2 and while it said with respect to the first idea that he was born at ,bethlehem1 the city of ,david1 it assigned him in connection with the latter ,nazareth of ,galilee as his birthplace1 and invented the abstruse story of the journey of his parents to ,bethlehem in order to be perfectly impartial towards both views4 ,and now1 who is this ,joseph1 as son of whom the ,messiah was to be a suffering and dying creature like any ordinary man8 ,winckler has pointed out in his ,geschichte ,israels that under the figure of the ,joseph of the ,old ,testament1 just as under that of ,joshua1 an ancient ,ephraimitic tribal ,god is concealed4 ,joseph is1 as ,winckler expresses it1 the heroic offspring of ,baal of ,garizim1 an offshoot of the ,sun-,god1 to whom at the same time characteristics of ,tammuz1 the ,god of the ,spring ,sun1 are transferred4 #ajf ,just as ,tammuz had to descend into the under-world1 so was ,joseph cast into the well1 in which1 according to the ,testament of the twelve ,patriarchs1 #ajg he spent three months and five days4 ,this betokens the winter months and five additional days during which the sun remains in the under-world4 ,and again he is cast into prison2 and just as ,tammuz1 after his return from the under-world1 brings a new spring to the earth1 so does ,joseph1 after his release from confinement1 introduce a season of peace and happiness for ,egypt4 #ajh ,on this account he was called in ,egypt ,psontomphanech1 that is1 ,deliverer of the ,world1 in view of his divine nature1 and later passed among the ,jews also as a prototype of the ,messiah4 ,indeed1 it appears that the ,evangelists themselves regarded him in such a light1 for the story of the two fellow-prisoners of ,joseph1 the baker and cupbearer of ,pharaoh1 one of whom1 as ,joseph foretold1 was hanged1 #aji while the other was again received into favour by the king1 was transformed by them into the story of the two robbers who were executed at the same time as ,jesus1 one of whom mocked the ,saviour while the other besought him to remember him when he entered into his heavenly kingdom4 #aaj ,but the ,ephraimitic ,joshua too must have been a kind of ,tammuz or ,adonis4 ,his name 7,joshua1 ,syrian1 ,jeshu7 characterises him as saviour and deliverer4 ,as such he also appears in the ,old ,testament1 finally leading the people of ,israel into the promised land after long privations and sufferings4 ,according to the ,jewish ,calendar the commencement of his activity was upon the tenth of ,nisan1 on which the ,paschal lamb was chosen1 and it ended with the ,feast of the ,pasch4 ,moses introduced the custom of circumcision and the redemption of the first-born male1 and ,joshua was supposed to have revived it4 #aaa ,at the same time he is said to have replaced the child victims1 which it had been customary to offer to ,jahwe in early days1 by the offering of the foreskin of the male and thereby to have established a more humane form of sacrificial worship4 ,this brings to our mind the substitution of an animal victim for a human one in the story of ,isaac 7,jishks74 ,it also brings to mind ,jesus who offered his own body in sacrifice at the ,pasch as a substitute for the numberless bloody sacrifices of expiation of prior generations4 ,again1 according to an ancient ,arabian tradition1 the mother of ,joshua was called ,mirzam 7,marim1 ,maria71 as the mother of ,jesus was1 while the mother of ,adonis bore the similar sounding name of ,myrrha1 which also expressed the mourning of the women at the lament for ,adonis #aab and characterised the mother of the ,redeemer ,god as the mother of sorrow4 #aac ,but what is above all decisive is that the son of the ,ploughman ,jephunneh1 ,caleb 7i4e41 the ,dog71 stands by ,joshua's side as a hero of equal rank4 ,his name points in the same way to the time of the summer solstice1 when in the mouth of the lion the dog-star 7,sirius7 rises1 while his descent from ,nun1 the ,fish or ,aquarius1 indicates ,joshua as representing the winter solstice4 #aad ,just as ,joshua belonged to the tribe of ,ephraim1 to which according to the ,blessing of ,jacob the ,fishes of the the ,zodiac refer1 #aae so ,caleb belonged to the tribe of ,judah1 which ,jacob's ,blessing likened to a lion2 #aaf and while the latter as ,calub 7,chelub7 has ,shuhah for brother1 that is1 the ,sun descending into the kingdom of shadows 7the ,southern ,hemisphere71 #aag in like manner ,joshua represents the ,spring ,sun rising out of the night of winter4 ,they are thus both related to one another in the same way as the annual rise and decline of the sun1 and as1 according to ,babylonian ideas1 are ,tammuz and ,nergal1 who similarly typify the two halves of the year4 ,when ,joshua dies at ,timnath-heres1 the place of the eclipse of the ,sun 7i4e41 at the time of the summer solstice1 at which the death of the ,sun-,god was celebrated #aah71 he appears again as a kind of ,tammuz1 while the lamentation of the people at his death #aai alludes possibly to the lamentation at the death of the ,sun-,god4 #abj ,it cannot be denied after all this that the conception of a suffering and dying ,messiah was of extreme antiquity amongst the ,israelites and was connected with the earliest nature-worship1 although later it may indeed have become restricted and peculiar to certain exclusive circles4 #aba ,the ,jewish representative of ,haman suffered death at the ,feast of ,purim on account of a crime1 as a deserved punishment which had been awarded him4 ,the ,messiah ,jesus1 on the other hand1 according to the words of ,isaiah1 took the punishment upon himself1 being just4 ,he was capable of being an expiatory victim for the sins of the whole people1 precisely because he least of all deserved such a fate4 ,plato had already in his ,republic sketched the picture of a just man passing his life unknown and unhonoured amidst suffering and persecution4 ,his righteousness is put to the proof and he reaches the highest degree of virtue1 not allowing himself to be shaken in his conduct4 ,the just man is scourged1 racked1 thrown into prison1 blinded in both eyes1 and finally1 when he has endured all ills1 he is executed1 and he recognises that one should be determined not to be just but to appear so4 ,in ,pharisaic circles he passed as a just man who by his own undeserved sufferings made recompense for the sins of the others and made matters right for them before ,god1 as1 for example1 in the ,fourth ,book of the ,maccabees the blood of the martyrs is represented as the expiatory offering on account of which ,god delivered ,israel4 ,the hatred of the unjust and godless towards the just1 the reward of the just and the punishment of the unjust1 were favourite themes for aphoristic literature1 and they were fully dealt with in the ,book of ,wisdom1 the ,alexandrian author of which was presumably not unacquainted with the ,platonic picture of the just man4 ,he makes the godless appear conversing and weaving plots against the just4 ,let us then1 he makes them say1 lie in wait for the righteous2 because he is not to our liking and he is clean contrary to our doings2 he upbraideth us with our offending the law and reproacheth us with our sins against our training4 ,he professeth to have the knowledge of ,god2 and he calleth himself the child of the ,lord4 ,he proved to be to us for the reproof of our designs4 ,he is grievous unto us even to behold3 for his life is not like other men's1 his ways are of another fashion4 ,we are esteemed of him as counterfeits2 he abstaineth from our ways as from filth2 he pronounceth the end of the just to be blessed and maketh his boast that ,god is his father4 ,let us see if his words be true3 and let us prove what will happen in the end of him4 ,for if the just man be the son of ,god1 he will help him1 and deliver him from the hand of his enemies4 ,let us examine him with despitefulness and torture that we may know his meekness and prove his patience4 ,let us condemn him with a shameful death3 thus will he be known by his words4 #abb ,but the souls of the just1 continues the author of the ,book of ,wisdom1 are in the hands of ,god1 and there shall no torment touch them4 ,in the sight of the unwise they seemed to die3 and their departure is taken for misery1 and their going from us for utter destruction3 but they are in peace4 ,for though they be punished in the sight of men yet is their hopes full of immortality4 ,and having been a little chastised1 they shall be greatly rewarded3 for ,god proved them and found them worthy for himself4 ,as gold in the furnace hath he tried them1 and received them as a burnt offering4 ,and in the time of their visitation they shall shine and run to and fro like sparks among the stubble4 ,they shall judge the nations and have dominion over the people and their ,lord will rule for ever4 #abc ,it could easily be imagined that these words1 which were understood by the author of the ,book of ,wisdom of the just man in general1 referred to the just man par excellence1 the ,messiah1 the son of ,god in the highest sense of the word1 who gave his life for the sins of his people4 ,a reason was found at the same time for the shameful death of the ,messiah4 ,he died the object of the hatred of the unjust2 he accepted contempt and scorn as did the ,haman and ,barabbas of the ,feast of ,purim1 but only in order that by this deep debasement he might be raised up by ,god1 as is said of the just man in the ,book of ,wisdom3 ,that is he whom we had sometimes in derision and a proverb of reproach3 ,we fools accounted his life madness and his end to be without honour3 ,now is he numbered among the children of ,god1 and his lot is among the saints4 #abd ,now we understand how the picture of the ,messiah varied among the ,jews between that of a divine and that of a human being2 how he was accounted just among the evil-doers2 how the idea became associated with a human being that he was a ,son of ,god and at the same time ,king of the ,jews2 and how the idea could arise that in his shameful and undeserved death ,god had offered himself for mankind4 ,now too we can understand that he who died had after a short while to rise again from the dead1 and this in order to ascend into heaven in splendour and glory and to unite himself with ,god the ,father above4 ,these were ideas which long before the ,jesus of the ,gospels were spread among the ,jewish people1 and indeed throughout the whole of ,western ,asia4 ,in certain sects they were cherished as secret doctrines1 and were the principal cause that precisely in this portion of the ancient world ,christianity spread so early and with such unusual rapidity4 ,v ,,the ,,birth ,,of ,,the ,,messiah4 ,,the ,,baptism ,it is not only the idea of the just man suffering1 of the ,messiah dying upon the gibbet1 as ,king of the ,jews and a criminal1 and his rising again1 which belongs to the centuries before ,christ4 ,the stories which relate to the miraculous birth of ,jesus and to his early fortunes also date back to this time4 ,thus in the ,revelation of ,john #abe we meet with the obviously very ancient mythical idea of the birth of a divine child1 who is scarcely brought into the world before he is threatened by the ,dragon of ,darkness1 but is withdrawn in time into heaven from his pursuer2 whereupon the ,archangel ,michael renders the monster harmless4 ,gunkel thinks that this conception must be traced back to a very ancient ,babylonian myth4 #abf ,others1 as ,dupuis #abg and ,dieterich1 have drawn attention to its resemblance to the ,greek myth of ,leto1 #abh who1 before the birth of the ,light god ,apollo1 being pursued by the ,earth dragon ,pytho1 was carried by the ,wind god ,boreas to ,poseidon1 and was brought safely by the latter to the ,island of ,ortygia1 where she was able to bring forth her son unmolested by the hostile monster4 ,others again1 like ,bousset1 have compared the ,egyptian myth of ,hathor1 according to which ,hathor or ,isis sent her young son1 the ,light god ,horus1 fleeing out of ,egypt upon an ass before the pursuit of his uncle ,seth or ,typhon4 ,pompeian frescoes represent this incident in such a manner as to recall feature for feature the ,christian representations of the flight of ,mary with the ,child ,jesus into ,egypt2 and coins with the picture of the fleeing ,leto prove how diffused over the whole of ,nearer ,asia this myth must have been4 ,the ,assyrian prince ,sargon also1 being pursued by his uncle1 is said to have been abandoned on the ,euphrates in a basket made of reeds1 to have been found by a water-carrier1 and to have been brought up by him--a story which the ,jews have interwoven into the account of the life of their fabulous ,moses4 #abi ,and very similar stories are related both in ,east and ,west1 in ancient and in later times1 of other ,gods1 distinguished heroes and kings1 sons of the ,gods1 of ,zeus1 ,attis1 ,dionysus1 ,o,edipus1 ,perseus1 ,romulus and ,remus1 ,augustus1 and others4 ,as is well known1 the ,indian ,god-man ,krishna1 an incarnation of ,vishnu1 is supposed to have been sought for immediately after his birth by his uncle1 ,king ,kansa1 who had all the male children of the same age in his country put to death1 the child being only saved from a like fate by taking refuge with a poor herdsman4 #acj ,this recalls ,herodotus's story of ,cyrus1 #aca according to which ,astyages1 the grandfather of ,cyrus1 being warned by a dream1 ordered his grandson to be exposed1 the latter being saved from death1 however1 through being found by a poor herdsmen and being brought up in his house4 ,now in ,persian the word for son is ,cyrus 7,khoro1 #acb ,greek ,kyros71 and ,kyris or ,kiris is the name of ,adonis in ,cyprus4 #acc ,thus it appears that the story of the birth of ,cyrus came into existence through the transfer to ,king ,cyrus of one of the myths concerning the ,sun-,god1 the ,god in this way being confused with a human individual4 ,now since ,cyrus1 as has been said1 was in the eyes of the ,jews a kind of ,messiah and was glorified by them as such1 we can understand how the danger through which the ,messianic child is supposed to have passed found a place in the ,gospels4 ,again1 a similar story of a king1 who1 having been warned by a dream or oracle1 orders the death of the children born within a specified time1 is found in the ,antiquities of ,josephus #acd in connection with the story of the childhood of ,moses4 ,moses1 however1 passed like ,cyrus for a kind of forerunner and anticipator of ,christ2 and ,christ was regarded as a ,moses reappearing4 #ace ,again ,joab1 ,david's general1 is said to have slaughtered every male in ,edom2 the young prince ,hadad1 however1 escaped the massacre by fleeing into ,egypt4 ,here he grew up and married the sister of the king1 and after the death of his enemy ,king ,david he returned to his home4 #acf ,but ,hadad is1 like ,cyrus1 7,kyrus7 a name of the ,syrian ,adonis4 ,another name of ,adonis or ,tammuz is ,dd1 ,dodo1 ,daud1 or ,david4 ,this signifies the ,beloved and indicates the beloved son of the heavenly father1 who offers himself for mankind1 or the ,beloved of the ,queen of heaven 7,atargatis1 ,mylitta1 ,istar74 #acg ,as is well known1 ,king ,david was also called the man after the heart of ,god1 and there is no doubt that characteristics of the divine ,redeemer and ,saviour of the same name have been intermingled in the story of ,david in the same way as in that of ,cyrus4 #ach ,according to ,jeremiah xxx4 #h and ,ezekiel xxxiv4 #bb sqq4 and xxxvii4 #ba1 it was ,david himself who would appear as the ,messiah and re-establish ,israel in its ancient glory4 ,indeed1 this even appears to have been the original conception of the ,messiah4 ,the ,messiah ,david seems to have been changed into a descendant of ,david only with the progress of the monotheistic conception of ,god1 under the influence of the ,persian doctrine concerning ,saoshyant1 the man of the seed of ,zarathustra4 ,now ,david was supposed to have been born at ,bethlehem4 ,but in ,bethlehem there was1 as ,jerome informs us1 #aci an ancient grove and sanctuary of the ,syrian ,adonis1 and as ,jerome himself complains the very place where the ,saviour first saw the light resounded with the lamentations over ,tammuz4 #adj ,at ,bethlehem1 the former ,ephrata 7i4e41 ,place of ,ashes71 ,rachel is said to have brought forth the youngest of the twelve month-sons of ,jacob4 ,she herself had christened him ,benoni1 son of the woeful lament4 ,he was1 however1 usually called ,benjamin1 the ,lord or ,possessor of light4 ,in the ,blessing of ,moses he is also called a ,darling of the ,lord1 and his father ,jacob loved him especially4 #ada ,he is the ,god of the new year born of the ashes of the past1 at whose appearance lament and rejoicings are commingled one with another2 and thus he is only a form of ,tammuz 7,hadad7 bringing to mind the ,christian ,redeemer in that he presided over the month of the ,ram4 #adb ,now we understand the prophecy of the prophet ,micah3 ,thou ,bethlehem ,ephrathah1 which art little to be among the thousands of ,judah1 out of thee shall one come forth unto me that is to be a ruler in ,israel1 whose going forth is from of old1 from everlasting4 #adc ,now1 too1 the story of the slaughter of the children at ,bethlehem has its background in religious history4 ,it is said in ,matt4 ii4 #ah1 with reference to ,jer4 xxxi4 #ae1 ,a voice was heard in ,ramah1 weeping and great mourning1 ,rachel weeping for her children1 and she would not be comforted1 because they are not4 ,it is the lamentation of the women over the murdered ,adonis which was raised each year at ,bethlehem4 ,this was transformed by the ,evangelists into the lament over the murder of the children which took place at the birth of ,hadad who was honoured at ,bethlehem4 #add ,hadad-,adonis is a ,god of ,vegetation1 a ,god of the rising sap of life and of fruitfulness3 but1 as was the case with all ,gods of a similar nature1 the thought of the fate of the sun1 dying in winter and being born anew in the spring1 played its part in the conception of this season ,god of ,nearer ,asia4 ,something of this kind may well have passed before the mind of ,isaiah1 when he foretold the future glory of the people of ,god under the image of a new birth of the sun from out of the blackness of night1 with these prophetic words3 ,arise1 shine1 for thy light has come and the glory of the ,lord is risen upon thee4 ,for behold darkness shall cover the earth and gross darkness the peoples3 but the ,lord shall arise upon thee1 and his glory shall be seen upon thee4 ,and nations shall come to thy light1 and kings to the brightness of thy rising4444 ,the abundance of the sea shall be turned unto thee1 the wealth of the nations shall come unto thee4 ,the multitude of camels shall cover thee1 the dromedaries of ,midian and ,ephah4 ,they all shall come from ,sheba3 they shall bring gold and frankincence1 and shall proclaim the praises of the ,lord4 #ade ,as is well known1 later generations were continually setting out this idea in a still more exuberant form4 ,the imagination of the enslaved and impoverished ,jews feasted upon the thought that the nations and their princes would do homage to the ,messiah with gifts1 while uncounted treasures poured into the temple at ,jerusalem3 ,princes shall come out of ,egypt1 ,ethiopia shall haste to stretch out her hands unto ,god4 ,sing unto ,god ye kingdoms of the earth4 #adf ,this is the foundation of the ,gospel story of the ,magi1 who lay their treasures at the feet of the new-born ,christ and his virgin mother4 ,but that we have here in reality to do with the new birth of the sun at the time of the winter solstice appears from the connection between the ,magi1 or kings1 and the stars4 ,for these ,magi are nothing else than the three stars in the sword-belt of ,orion1 which at the winter solstice are opposed in the ,west to the constellation of the ,virgin in the ,east2 stars which according to ,persian ideas at this time seek the son of the ,queen of ,heaven--that is1 the lately rejuvenated sun1 ,mithras4 #adg ,now1 as it has been said1 ,hadad also is a name of the ,sun-,god1 and the ,hadad of the ,old ,testament returns to his original home out of ,egypt1 whither he had fled from ,david4 ,thus we can understand how ,hosea xi4 #a1 ,i called my son out of ,egypt1 could be referred to the ,messiah and how the story that ,jesus passed his early youth in ,egypt was derived from it4 #adh ,it may be fairly asked how it was that the sun came to be thus honoured by the people of ,western ,asia1 with lament at its death and rejoicing at its new birth4 ,for winter1 the time of the sun's death1 in these southern countries offered scarcely any grounds at all for lament4 ,it was precisely the best part of the year4 ,the night1 too1 having regard to its coolness after the heat of the day1 gave no occasion for desiring the new birth of the sun in the morning4 ,we are compelled to suppose that in the case of all the ,gods of this nature the idea of the dying away of vegetation during the heat of the year and its revival had become intertwined and commingled with that of the declining and reviving strength of the sun4 ,thus1 from this mingling of two distinct lines of thought1 we have to explain the variations of the double-natured character of the ,sun-,gods and ,vegetation-,gods of ,western ,asia4 #adi ,it is obvious1 however1 that the sun can only be regarded from such a tragic standpoint in a land where1 and in the myths of a people for whom1 it possesses in reality such a decisive significance that there are grounds for lamenting its absence or lack of strength during winter and for an anxious expectation of its return and revival4 #aej ,but it is chiefly in the highlands of ,iran and the mountainous hinterland of ,asia ,minor that this is the case to such an extent as to make this idea one of the central points of religious belief4 ,even here it points back to a past time when the people concerned still had their dwelling-place along with the kindred ,aryan tribes in a much more northerly locality4 #aea ,thus ,mithras1 the ,sol invictus of the ,romans1 struggling victoriously through night and darkness1 is a ,sun hero1 who must have found his way into ,persia from the north4 ,this is shown1 amongst other things1 by his birthday being celebrated on the #beth of ,december1 the day of the winter solstice4 ,again1 the birth of the infant ,dionysus1 who was so closely related to the season ,gods of ,nearer ,asia1 used to be celebrated as the feast of the new birth of the sun at about the same time1 the ,god being then honoured as ,liknites1 as the infant in the cradle 7the winnowing-fan74 ,the ,egyptians celebrated the birth of ,osiris on the #fth of ,january1 on which occasion the priests produced the figure of an infant from the sanctuary1 and showed it to the people as a picture of the new-born ,god4 #aeb ,that the ,phrygian ,attis came thither with the ,aryans who made their way from ,thrace into ,asia ,minor1 and must have had his home originally in ,northern ,europe1 appears at once from the striking resemblance of the myth concerning him with that of the northern myth of ,balder4 ,there can be no doubt that the story in ,herodotus of ,atys1 son of ,croesus1 who while out boar hunting accidently met his death from the spear of his friend1 only gives another version of the ,attis myth4 ,this story1 however1 so closely resembles that of the death of ,balder1 given in the ,edda1 that the theory of a connection between them is inevitably forced upon one's mind4 ,in the ,edda the wife of ,balder is called ,nanna4 ,but ,nanna 7i4e41 mother7 was according to ,arnobius #aec the name of the mother of the ,phrygian ,attis4 ,now the ,sun and ,summer ,god ,balder is only a form of ,odin1 the ,father of ,heaven1 with summer attributes1 and he too is said1 like ,attis1 ,adonis and ,osiris1 to have met his death through a wild boar4 ,just as anemones sprang from the blood of the slain ,adonis and violets from that of ,attis1 so also the blood of the murdered ,odin 7,hackelbernd7 is said to have been changed into spring flowers4 #aed ,at the great feast of ,attis in ,march a post or pine-tree trunk decked with violets1 on which the picture of the ,god was hung1 used to form the central point of the rite4 ,this was a reminder of the way in which in ancient times the human representative of the ,god passed from life to death1 in order by sacrifice to revive exhausted nature4 ,according to the verses of the ,eddic ,havamal1 ,odin says of himself3-- ,i know that ,i hang on the wind-rocked tree ,throughout nine nights1 ,wounded by the spear1 dedicated to ,odin1 ,i myself to myself4 #aee ,by this self-sacrifice and the agonies which he endured1 the northern ,god1 too1 obtained new strength and life4 ,for on this occasion he not only discovered the ,runes of magic power1 the knowledge of which made him lord over nature1 but he obtained possession at the same time of the poetic mead which gave him immortality and raised the ,nature ,god to be a ,god of spiritual creative power and of civilisation4 ,this is obviously the same idea as is again found in the cult of ,attis and in the belief in the death of the ,god4 ,the relationship of all these different views seems still more probable in that a sacrificial rite lay at the root of the ,balder myth also4 ,this myth is only1 so to speak1 the text of a religious drama which was performed every year for the benefit of dying nature--a drama in which a man representing the ,god was delivered over to death4 #aef ,as all this refers to the fate of a ,sun ,god1 who dies in winter to rise again in the spring1 the same idea must have been associated originally with the worship of the ,nearer ,asiatic ,gods of vegetation and fruitfulness1 and this idea was only altered under changed climatic conditions into that of the death and resurrection of the plant world1 without1 however1 losing in its new form its original connection with the sun and winter4 ,at the same time the myth of the ,sun ,god does not take us to the very basis and the real kernel of the stories of the divine child's birth4 ,the ,persian religion was not so much a religion of ,light and ,sun as of ,fire1 the most important and remarkable manifestation of which was of course the sun4 ,dionysus too1 like all ,gods of the life-warmth1 of the rising plant sap and of fruitfulness1 was in his deepest nature a ,fire ,god4 ,in the ,fire ,religion1 however1 the birth of the ,god forms the centre of all religious ideas2 and its form was more exactly fixed through the peculiar acts by means of which the priest rekindled the holy fire4 ,for the manner in which this occurred we have the oldest authentic testimony in the religious records of the ,indian ,aryans4 ,here ,agni1 as indeed his name 7ignis1 fire7 betokens1 passed for the divine representative of the ,fire ,element4 ,his mystic birth was sung in numberless passages in the hymns of the ,rigveda4 ,at dawn1 as soon as the brightening morning star in the east announced that the sun was rising1 the priest called his assistants together and kindled the fire upon a mound of earth by rubbing together two sticks 7aran7 in which the ,god was supposed to be hidden4 ,as soon as the spark shone in the maternal bosom1 the soft underpart of the wood1 it was treated as an infant child4 ,it was carefully placed upon a little heap of straw1 which at once took fire from it4 ,on one side lay the mystic cow--that is1 the milk-pail and a vessel full of butter1 as types of all animal nourishment--upon the other the holy ,soma draught1 representing the sap of plants1 the symbol of life4 ,a priest fanned it with a small fan shaped like a banner1 thereby stirring up the fire4 ,the child was then raised upon the altar4 ,the priests turned up the fire with long-handled spoons1 pouring upon the flames melted butter 7ghrita7 together with the ,soma cup4 ,from this time ,agni was called the anointed 7,akta74 ,the fire flickered high4 ,the ,god was unfolding his majesty4 ,with his flames he scared away the dmons of darkness1 and lighted up the surrounding shadows4 ,all creatures were invited to come and gaze upon the wonderful spectacle4 ,then with presents the ,gods 7kings7 hastened from heaven and the herdsmen from the fields1 cast themselves down in deep reverence before the new-born1 praying to it and singing hymns in its praise4 ,it grew visibly before their eyes4 ,the new-born ,agni already had become the teacher of all living creatures1 the wisest of the wise1 opening to mankind the secrets of existence4 ,then1 while everything around him grew bright and the sun rose over the horizon1 the ,god1 wreathed in a cloud of smoke1 with the noise of darting flames1 ascended to heaven1 and was united there with the heavenly light4 #aeg ,thus in ancient ,india the holy fire was kindled anew each morning1 and honoured with ritualistic observances 7,agnihotra74 ,this took place1 however1 with special ceremony at the time of the winter solstice1 when the days began again to increase 7,agnistoma74 ,they then celebrated the end of the time of darkness1 the ,pitryana1 or time of the ,manes1 during which the worship of the ,gods had been at a standstill4 ,then the ,angiras1 the priestly singers1 summoned the ,gods to be present1 greeting with loud song the beginning of the holy season1 the ,devayana1 with which the new light arose4 ,agni and the other ,gods again returned to men1 and the priests announced to the people the joyful tidings 7,evangelium7 that the ,light ,god had been born again4 ,as ,hillebrand has shown1 this festival also indicates the memory of an earlier home in the ,north whence the ,aryan tribes had migrated1 since in ,india1 where the shortest and longest days only differ by about four hours1 no reason exists for celebrating the return of the light4 #aeh ,indeed1 it appears that we have to do here with a rite which reaches back into the very origins of all human civilisation1 and preserves the memory of the discovery of fire in the midst of the horrors of the ,stone ,age4 ,there is no doubt that we have before us in the ,vedic ,agni ,cult the original source of all the stories of the birth of the ,fire-,gods and ,sun-,gods4 ,these ,gods usually enter life in darkness and concealment4 ,thus the ,cretan ,zeus was born in a cavern1 ,mithras1 ,dionysus1 and ,hermes in a gloomy grotto1 ,horus in the stable 7temple7 of the holy cow 7,isis7--,jesus1 too1 was born at dead of night in a lowly stable #aei at ,bethlehem4 ,the original ground for this consists in the fact that ,agni1 in the form of a spark1 comes into existence in the dark hollow of the hole bored in the stick4 ,the ,hymns of the ,rigveda often speak of this secret birth and of the concealment of ,agni4 ,they describe the ,gods as they set out in order to seek the infant4 ,they make the ,angiras discover it lying in concealment1 and it grows up in hiding4 #afj ,but the idea of the ,fire-,god being born in a stable is also foreshadowed in the ,rigveda4 ,for not only are the vessels of milk and butter ready for the anointing compared with cows1 but ,ushas1 too1 the ,goddess of ,dawn1 who is present at the birth1 is called a red milch-cow1 and of men it is said that they flocked like cows to a warm stable to see ,agni1 whom his mother held lovingly upon her lap4 #afa ,it is a common fundamental feature of all ,nature religions that they distinguish between the particular and the general1 between earthly and heavenly events1 between human acts and natural occurrences as little as they do between the spiritual and natural4 ,the ,agni ,cult shows1 as does the ,vedic religion in general1 this interplay of the earthly and heavenly world1 of the microcosmic individual and the macrocosm4 ,the kindling of the fire upon the earth at the same time betokened the rising of the great light of the skies1 the sun4 ,the fire upon the altar did not merely represent but actually was the sun1 the earthly and the heavenly ,agni were one4 ,thus it was that the nations of antiquity were able to think of transferring earthly events into heaven1 and conversely were able to read earthly events in heavenly occurrences such as the relations of the stars to one another4 ,it was on this that astrology rested4 ,even the ancient ,fire ,worship appears in very early times to have been transformed into astrology1 and what was in the beginning a simple act of worship was generalised by the priests in a macrocosmic sense and was transferred to the starry heavens as a forecast4 ,thus the altar or place of sacrifice upon which the sacred fire was kindled was enlarged into the ,vault of the ,spheres or ,grotto of the ,planets4 ,through this the sun completed its annual journey among the twelve signs of the ,zodiac1 and in so doing assumed successively the form and fulfilled the functions of that constellation with which it entered into astronomical relations4 ,the metaphorical name of stable for the place of sacrifice attains a new significance from the fact that the sun during a certain epoch of the world 7something between #cjjj and #hjj ,b4,c47 at the beginning of spring passed through the constellation of the ,bull1 and at the time of the winter solstice commenced its course between the ,ox 7,bull7 and the ,great ,bear1 which anciently was also called the ,ass4 #afb ,the birth of the ,god is said to have been in secret because it took place at night4 ,his mother is a virgin since at midnight of the winter solstice the constellation of the ,virgin is on the eastern horizon4 #afc ,shortly afterwards ,draco1 the ,dragon 7the snake ,pytho71 rises up over ,libra1 the ,balance1 and seems to pursue the ,virgin4 ,from this comes the story of the ,winter ,dragon threatening ,leto1 or ,apollo2 or1 as it is also found in the ,myth of ,osiris and the ,apocalypse of ,john1 the story of the pursuit of the child of light by a hostile principle 7,astyages1 ,herod1 c474 #afd ,unknown and in concealment the child grows up4 ,this refers to the course of the sun as it yet stands low in the heavens4 ,or like ,sargon1 ,dionysus1 or ,moses it is cast in a basket upon the waters of some great stream or of the sea1 since the sun in its wanderings through the ,zodiac has next to pass through the so-called watery region1 the signs of the ,water-carrier and the ,fishes1 the rainy season of winter4 ,thus can the fate of the new-born be read in the sky4 ,the priests 7,magi7 cast his horoscope like that of any other child4 ,they greet his birth with loud rejoicings1 bring him myrrh1 incense and costly presents1 while prophesying for him a glorious future4 ,the earthly ,agni is completely absorbed in the heavenly one2 and in the study of the great events which are portrayed in the sky1 the simple act of sacrificial worship1 which had originally furnished the opportunity for this whole range of ideas1 gradually fell into oblivion4 #afe ,it has been often maintained that ,indian influences have worked upon the development of the story of the childhood of ,jesus1 and in this connection we are accustomed to think of ,buddhism4 ,now1 as a matter of fact1 the resemblances between the ,christian and ,buddhist legends are so close that we can scarcely imagine it to be a mere coincidence4 ,jesus and ,buddha are both said to have been born of a pure virgin1 honoured by heavenly spirits at their birth1 prayed to by kings and loaded with presents4 ,happy is the whole world1 sing the ,gods under the form of young ,brahmins at the birth of the child--as we are told in the ,lalita ,vistara1 the legendary biography of ,buddha1 dating from before ,christ1 for he is indeed born who brings salvation and will establish the world in blessedness4 ,he is born who will darken sun and moon by the splendour of his merits and will put all darkness to flight4 ,the blind see1 the deaf hear1 the demented are restored to reason4 ,no natural crimes afflict us any longer1 for upon the earth men have become righteous4 ,gods and men can in future approach each other without hostility1 since he will be the guide of their pilgrimage4 #aff ,just as the significance of ,jesus was announced beforehand by ,simeon1 in the same way according to the ,buddhist legend1 the ,seer ,asita foresees in his own mind the greatness of the child and bursts into tears since he will not see him in the splendour of his maturity and will have no part in his work of redemption4 ,again1 just as ,jesus #afg even in his early youth astonished the learned by his wisdom1 so ,prince ,siddharta 7,buddha7 put all his teachers at school to shame by his superior knowledge1 and so on4 ,the ,buddhist legend itself1 however1 goes back to a still older form1 which is the ,vedic ,agni ,cult4 ,all its various features are here preserved in their simplest form and in their original relation to the sacrificial worship of the ,fire-,god4 ,this was the natural source of the ,indian and ,christian legends1 and it was the original of those myths which the ,evangelist worked up for his own purposes1 which according to ,pfleiderer belonged to the common tribal property of the national sagas of ,nearer ,asia4 #afh ,again1 it could the more easily reappear in the ,evangelists' version of the story of the childhood of ,jesus1 since the sacrificial act had been re-interpreted mythologically1 and the corresponding myths transformed into astrology1 and1 as it were1 written with starry letters upon the sky1 where they could be read without trouble by the most distant peoples of antiquity4 ,the myth of ,krishna offers a characteristic example of the manner in which in ,india a sacrificial cult is changed into a myth4 ,like ,astyages and ,herod1 in order to ward off the danger arising from his sister's son1 of which he had been warned by an oracle1 ,king ,kansa caused his sister and her husband ,vasudewa to be cast into prison4 ,here1 in the darkness of a dungeon1 ,krishna comes into the world as ,jesus did in the stable at ,bethlehem4 ,the nearer the hour of birth approaches the more beautiful the mother becomes4 ,soon the whole dungeon is filled with light4 ,rejoicing choirs sound in the air1 the waters of the rivers and brooks make sweet music4 ,the ,gods come down from heaven and blessed spirits dance and sing for joy4 ,at midnight his mother ,dewaki 7i4e41 the divine7 brings the child into the world1 at the commencement of a new epoch4 ,the parents themselves fall down before him and pray1 but a voice from heaven admonishes them to convey him from the machinations of the tyrant to ,gokala1 the land of the cow1 and to exchange him for the daughter of the herdsman ,nanda4 ,immediately the chains fall from the father's hands1 the dungeon doors are opened1 and he passes out into freedom4 ,another ,christopher1 he bears the child upon his shoulders through the river ,yamuna1 the waters of which recede in reverence before the son of ,god1 and he exchanges ,krishna for the new-born daughter of ,nanda4 ,he then returns to the dungeon1 where the chains again immediately fasten of their own accord upon his limbs4 ,kansa now makes his way into the dungeon4 ,in vain ,dewaki entreats her brother to leave her the child4 ,he is on the point of tearing it forcibly from her hands when it disappears before his eyes1 and ,kansa gives the order that all newly-born children in his country under the age of two years shall be killed4 ,at ,mathura in ,gokala ,krishna grew up unknown among poor herdsmen4 ,while yet in his cradle he had betrayed his divine origin by strangling1 like ,hercules1 a dreadful snake which crawled upon him4 ,he causes astonishment to every one by his precosity and lofty wisdom4 ,as he grows up he becomes the darling of the herdsmen and playmate of ,gopias1 the milkmaid2 he performs the most astonishing miracles4 ,when1 however1 the time had come he arose and slew ,kansa4 ,he then fought the frightful ,time ,snake ,kaliyanaga1 of the thousand heads 7the ,hydra in the myth of ,hercules1 the ,python in that of ,apollo71 which poisoned the surrounding air with its pestilential breath2 and he busied himself in word and deed as a protector of the poor and proclaimer of the most perfect teaching4 ,his greatest act1 however1 was his descent into the ,underworld4 ,here he overpowered ,yama1 the dark ,god of death1 obtained from him a recognition of his divine power1 and led back the dead with him to a new life4 ,thus he was a benefactor of mankind by his heroic strength and miraculous power1 leading the purest life1 healing the sick1 bringing the dead back to life1 disclosing the secrets of the world1 and withal humbly condescending to wash the feet of the ,brahmins4 ,krishna finally died of an arrow wound which he sustained accidentally and in an unforeseen manner on his heel--the only vulnerable part of his body 7cf4 ,achilles1 ,balder1 ,adonis1 and ,osiris74 ,while dying he delivered the prophecy that thirty-six years after his death the fourth ,epoch of the ,world1 ,caliyuga1 the ,iron ,age1 would begin1 in which men would be both unhappy and wicked4 ,but according to ,brahmin teaching ,krishna will return at the end of all time1 when bodily and moral need will have reached its highest pitch upon the earth4 ,in the clouds of heaven he will appear upon his white steed4 ,with a comet in his right hand as a sword of flame he will destroy the old earth by fire1 founding a new earth and a new heaven1 and establishing a golden age of purity and perfection in which there will be nothing but pure joy and blessedness4 ,this reminds us strongly of the ,persian ,eschatology1 of ,mithras and ,saoshyant1 and of the ,jewish ,apocalyptics4 ,but following the ancient sacred poem1 the ,barta ,chastram1 the former conception as well as the doctrine of a ,messiah rest upon a prophecy according to which ,vishnu ,jesudu 767 was to be born a ,brahmin in the city of ,skambelam4 ,he was to hold intercourse with men as a ,god1 to purify the earth from sin1 making it the abode of justice and truth1 and to offer a sacrifice 7self-sacrifice874 ,but still more striking are the resemblances of the ,krishna myth with the ,gospels4 ,does any connection between the two exist8 ,the question is hard to answer because1 owing to the uncertainty in all ,indian citation of dates1 the age of the story of ,krishna cannot be settled4 ,in the oldest ,indian literature1 the ,vedas1 ,krishna appears to be the name of a ,dmon4 ,in the ,mahbbhrata1 the great ,indian heroic epic1 he plays indeed a prominent part1 and is here on the point of assuming the place of the ,god ,indra4 ,the age of the poem1 however1 is debatable1 although it is probably of pre-,buddhist origin4 ,the chief source of the ,krishna myth is the ,puranas1 especially the ,bhagavat ,purana and ,vishnu ,parana4 ,but since the antiquity of these also is uncertain1 and their most modern portions presumably belong only to the eighth or ninth century of the ,christian era1 a decision as to the date of the appearance of the ,krishna myth can only be arrived at from internal evidence4 ,now the ,pantanjalis ,mahbhashya1 i4e41 ,great ,commentary1 of the second century before ,christ1 shows that the story of ,kansa's death at the hands of ,krishna was at that time well known in ,india1 and was even the subject of a religious drama4 ,thus the story of the birth at least of ,krishna1 who had already been raised to be a ,cult ,god of the ,hindoos1 cannot have been unknown4 ,the other portions of the myth1 however1 belong as a whole to the general circle of ,indian ideas1 and are in part only transferred from other ,gods to ,krishna4 ,thus1 for example1 the miraculous birth of the divine child in the darkness1 his precosity1 his upbringing among the herdsmen1 and his friendship with ,gopias1 remind us of ,agni1 the ,god of ,fire and ,herdsmen1 who also is described in the ,rigveda as a friend and lover of the maidens 7of the ,cloud ,women874 ,his combat with the ,time ,snake1 on the other hand1 is copied from the fight of ,indra with the wicked dragon ,vritra or ,ahi4 ,again1 in his capacity as purifier and deliverer of the world from evil and dmons the ,god bears such a striking resemblance to ,hercules1 that ,megasthenes1 the ambassador of ,seleucus at the court of the king at ,pataliputra1 in the third century before ,christ1 simply identified him with the latter4 ,no impartial critic of the matter can now doubt that the ,krishna myth was in existence and was popularised long before ,christianity appeared in the world4 ,the great importance1 however1 which the ,god possesses in present-day ,india may have been attained only during the ,christian era1 and the ,puranas may have been composed only after the appearance of the ,gospels2 for their being written down later proves nothing against the antiquity of the matter they contain4 ,it appears that even ,buddhism did not obtain its corresponding legends direct from the ,vedas1 but through the channel of the ,krishna myth4 ,since1 however1 ,buddhism is certainly at least four hundred years older than ,christianity1 it must be assumed that it was the former which introduced the ,krishna myth to ,christianity1 and not vice vers1 if we are not to consider the ,babylonian-,mandaic religion as the intermediary between ,krishna and ,christ4 #afi ,for the rest the supposition of ,indian influences in the ,gospel story is not by any means an improbable one4 ,it is pure theological prejudice1 resting upon a complete ignorance of the conditions of national intercourse in ancient times1 when it is denied1 as1 for example1 by ,clemen in his ,religionsgeschichtlichen ,erklrung des ,neuen ,testaments 7#aiji71 that the ,gospels were influenced by ,indian ideas1 or when only a dependence the other way about is allowed2 #agj and this although ,buddha left to his disciples1 as one of the highest precepts1 the practice of missionary activity1 and although as early as #djj ,b4,c4 mention is made in ,indian sources of ,buddhist missionaries in ,bactria4 ,two hundred years later we read of ,buddhist monasteries in ,persia4 ,indeed1 in the last century before the ,christian era the ,buddhist mission in ,persia had made such progress that ,alexander ,polyhistor actually speaks of a period during which ,buddhism flourished in that country1 and bears witness to the spread of the ,mendicant ,orders in the western parts of ,persia4 ,buddhism also reached ,syria and ,egypt at that time with the trade caravans2 as we have to suppose a frequent exchange of wares and ideas between ,india and the countries of the ,eastern ,mediterranean1 especially after the campaigns of ,alexander4 ,communication took place1 not only overland by way of ,persia1 but by sea as well4 ,indian thought made advances in the ,near ,east1 where ,alexandria1 the ,london and ,antwerp of antiquity1 and a headquarters of ,jewish syncretism1 favoured the exchange of ideas4 ,with the rediscovery of the ,south-west ,monsoon at the beginning of the first century after ,christ the intercourse by sea between ,india and the ,western world assumed still greater dimensions4 ,thus ,pliny speaks of great trading fleets setting out annually for ,india and of numerous ,indian merchants who had their fixed abode in ,alexandria4 ,indian embassies came to ,rome as early as the reign of ,augustus4 ,the renown of ,indian piety caused the author of the ,peregrinus ,proteus to choose the ,indian ,calanus as an example of holiness4 ,indeed1 so lively was the ,western world's interest in the intellectual life of ,india1 that the library at ,alexandria1 as early as the time of the geographer ,eratosthenes under ,ptolemy ,euergetes 7#bdf ,b4,c471 was administered with special regard to ,indian studies4 ,the monastic organisation of the ,essenes in ,palestine also very probably points to ,buddhist influence4 ,again1 although the ,rigveda1 which contains the groundwork of all ,indian religions1 may have been unknown in ,nearer ,asia1 yet the ,fire ,worship of the ,mazda religion at any rate reaches back to the time before the division between the ,indian and ,persian ,aryans4 ,certain fundamental ideas1 therefore1 of the ,fire ,religion may through ,persian influences on ,nearer ,asia have been known to the surrounding peoples4 #aga ,as a matter of fact1 the ,mandaic religion contains much that is ,indian4 ,this is the less strange considering that the headquarters and centre of ,mandaism was in ,southern ,babylonia2 and the ancient settlements of the ,mandi1 close to the ,persian ,gulf1 were easily reached by sea from ,india4 ,moreover1 from ancient times ,babylonian trade went down to ,india and ,ceylon4 #agb ,consequently it is by no means improbable that the many remarkable resemblances between the ,babylonian and ,indian religions rest upon mutual influences4 ,indeed1 in one case the borrowing of a ,mandaic idea from ,india can be looked upon as quite certain4 ,the ,lalita ,vistara begins with a description of ,buddha's ante-natal life in heaven4 ,he teaches the ,gods the law1 the eternal truth of salvation1 and announces to them his intention of descending into the bosom of an earthly woman in order to bring redemption to mankind4 ,in vain the ,gods endeavour to hold him back and cling weeping to his feet3 ,noble man1 if thou remainest here no longer1 this abode of heaven will be bright no more4 ,he leaves them1 however1 a successor1 and consecrates him solemnly to be the possessor of the future dignity of ,buddha3 ,noble man1 thou art he who will be endowed after me with the perfect intelligence of a ,buddha4 #agc ,man 7,purusha7 is thus here the usual name for the divine nature of ,buddha destined for individual incarnations4 ,it is also called the great man 7,mahapurusha7 or the victorious lord 7,cakravartin74 ,here we have the original of the ,mandaic son of man1 whom we meet with in the ,jewish ,apocalyptics 7,daniel1 ,enoch1 ,ezra71 a figure which plays so great a part in the primitive ,gospel records of ,christianity1 and has called forth so many explanations4 ,and the ,elcesaitic ,gnostics teach a like doctrine when they imagine the son of man1 or ,christ1 as a heavenly spirit and king of the world to come who became incarnate first in ,adam1 then in ,enoch1 ,noah1 ,abraham1 ,isaac1 ,jacob and so on1 in order finally to appear by a supernatural virgin-birth in the person of ,jesus1 and to illumine the dark earth by his true message of salvation4 #agd ,of all the ,gods of the ,rigveda ,agni bears the closest relationship to the ,perso-,jewish ,messiah1 and it is he also who stands closest to man's soul4 ,he is rightly called king of the universe1 as ,god of ,gods1 who created the world and called into life all beings that are upon it4 ,he is the lord of the heavenly hosts1 the guardian of the cosmic order and judge of the world1 who is present as an invisible witness of all human acts1 who as a knower of nature works in every living thing1 and as a party to all earthly secrets illuminates the unknown4 ,sent down by his father1 the ,sky-,god or ,sun-,god1 he appears as the light of the world4 ,he releases this world from the ,powers of ,darkness and returns to his father with the ,banner of ,smoke in his hand as a token of victory4 ,agni blazes forth in the lightning flash from out of the watercloud1 the sea of the sky1 in order to annihilate the ,dmons of ,darkness and to release oppressed humanity from the fear of its tormentors4 ,thus1 according to ,isaiah xi41 #d1 the ,messiah too will burn his enemies with the fiery breath of his mouth2 and in this he is clearly a ,fire-,god4 ,again1 in the ,apocalypse of ,esdras 7chap4 xiii47 the ,seer beholds the ,son of ,man 7,purusha7 rise up from out of the sea1 fly upon the clouds of heaven1 destroy the hostile forces by the stream of fire which proceeded from his mouth1 free the scattered ,israelites from their captivity and lead them back into their country4 #age ,but this first-born son of the ,sun-,god and the ,sky-,god is at the same time the father and ancestor of men1 the first man 7,purusha71 the head of the community of mankind1 the guardian of the house and of the domestic flock1 who keeps from the threshold the evil spirits and the enemies who lurk in the darkness4 ,agni enters the dwellings of men as guest1 friend 7,mitra71 companion1 brother and consoler of those who honour him4 ,he is the messenger between this world and the beyond1 communicating the wishes of men to the ,gods above1 and announcing to men the will of the ,gods4 ,he is a mediator between ,god and men who makes a report to the ,gods of everything of which he becomes aware among mankind4 ,although indeed he takes revenge for the men's faults yet he is a gracious ,god1 disposed to forgive1 in his capacity of an expiatory1 propitiatory and redeeming power1 atoning for their sins and bringing them the divine grace4 ,finally1 he is also the guide of souls--he conducts the ,gods down to the sacrifices offered by man and makes ready for men the path upon which he leads them up to ,god4 ,and when their time has come he1 as the purifying fire1 consumes their bodies and carries that which is immortal to heaven4 #agf ,agni's father is1 as has been said1 the sky1 or rather the light1 the sun1 the source of all warmth and life upon the earth4 ,he bears the name of ,savitar1 which means creator or mover1 is called the lord of creation1 the father of all life1 the living one1 or the heavenly father simply4 #agg ,at the same time ,tvashtar also passes as the father of ,agni4 ,his name characterises him simply as modeller 7world-modeller7 or work-master1 divine artist1 skilful smith1 or carpenter1 in which capacity he sharpens ,brihaspati's axe1 and1 indeed1 is himself represented with a hatchet in his hand4 #agh ,he appears to have attained this rle as being the discoverer of the artificial kindling of fire1 by means of which any fashioning 7welding71 any art in the higher sense of the word became possible1 as being the preparer of the apparatus for obtaining fire by friction or rotation--the fire cradle--which consisted of carefully chosen wood of a specified form and kind4 ,finally1 the production of fire is ascribed to ,matarivan also1 the ,god of the ,wind identical with ,vayu1 because fire cannot burn without air1 and it is the motion of the breeze which fans the glimmering spark4 #agi ,all of these different figures are identical with one another1 and can mutually take the place one of another1 for they are all only different manifestations of warmth4 ,it is this which reveals itself as well in the lightning of the sky and motion of the air1 as in the glimmering of the fire1 and not only as the principle of life1 but also as that of thought and of knowledge or the word 7,vc1 ,veda71 appearing on the one side as the productive1 life-giving1 and fructifying power of nature1 on the other as the creative1 inspiring spirit4 ,this is the reason why1 among the ancients1 the ,god of life and fertility was in his essential nature a ,fire-,god1 and why the three figures of the divine father1 son1 and spirit1 in spite of the differences of their functions1 could be looked upon without inconsistency as one and the same being4 ,as is well known1 ,jesus1 too1 had three fathers1 namely1 his heavenly father1 ,jahwe1 the ,holy ,spirit1 and also his earthly father1 ,joseph4 ,the latter is also a work-master1 artizan1 or carpenter1 as the word tekton indicates4 ,similarly1 ,kinyras1 the father of ,adonis1 is said to have been some kind of artizan1 a smith or carpenter4 ,that is to say1 he is supposed to have invented the hammer and the lever and roofing as well as mining4 ,in ,homer he appears as the maker of the ingenious coat of mail which ,agamemnon received from him as a guest-friend4 #ahj ,the father of ,hermes also is an artizan4 ,now ,hermes closely resembles ,agni as well as ,jesus4 ,he is the good messenger1 the ,euangelos2 that is1 the proclaimer of the joyful message of the redemption of souls from the power of death4 ,he is the ,god of sacrifices1 and as such mediator between heaven and earth4 ,he is the guide of souls 7,psychopompos7 and bridegroom of souls 7beloved of ,psyche74 ,he is also a ,god of fertility1 a guardian of the flocks1 who is represented in art as the good shepherd1 the bearer of the ram1 a guide upon the roads of earth1 a ,god of the door-hinge 7,strophaios7 and guardian of the door1 #aha a god of healing as well as of speech1 the model of all human reason1 in which capacity he was identified by the ,stoics with the ,logos that dwelt within the world4 #ahb ,just as in the ,rigveda ,tvashtar stands with ,savitar1 the divine father of ,agni1 and ,joseph the carpenter with ,jahwe1 as father of the divine mediator1 so the divine artificer1 ,hephaistos1 whose connection with ,tvashtar is obvious1 is looked upon together with ,zeus1 the father of heaven1 as the begetter of ,hermes4 #ahc ,now if ,joseph1 as we have already seen1 was originally a ,god1 ,mary1 the mother of ,jesus1 was a ,goddess4 ,under the name of ,maya she is the mother of ,agni1 i4e41 the principle of motherhood and creation simply1 as which she is in the ,rigveda at one time represented by the fire-producing wood1 the soft pith1 in which the fire-stick was whirled2 at another as the earth1 with which the sky has mated4 ,she appears under the same name as the mother of ,buddha as well as of the ,greek ,hermes4 ,she is identical with ,maira 7,maera7 as1 according to ,pausanias1 viii4 #ab1 #dh1 the ,pleiad ,maia1 wife of ,hephaistos1 was called4 ,she appears among the ,persians as the virgin mother of ,mithras4 ,as ,myrrha she is the mother of the ,syrian ,adonis2 as ,semiramis1 mother of the ,babylonian ,ninus 7,marduk74 ,in the ,arabic legend she appears under the name of ,mirzam as mother of the mythical saviour ,joshua1 while the ,old ,testament gives this name to the virgin sister of that ,joshua who was so closely related to ,moses2 and1 according to ,eusebius1 #ahd ,merris was the name of the ,egyptian princess who found ,moses in a basket and became his foster-mother4 ,after all this it seems rather nave to believe that the parents of the historical ,jesus were called ,joseph and ,mary1 and that his father was a carpenter4 ,in reality the whole of the family and home life of the ,messiah1 ,jesus1 took place in heaven among the ,gods4 ,it was only reduced to that of a human being in lowly circumstances by the fact that ,paul described the descent of the ,messiah upon the earth as an assumption of poverty and a relinquishment of his heavenly splendour4 #ahe ,hence1 when the myth was transformed into history1 ,christ was turned into a poor man in the economic sense of the word1 while ,joseph1 the divine artificer and father of the sun1 became an ordinary carpenter4 ,now it is a feature which recurs in all the religions of ,nearer ,asia that the son of the divine virgin mother is at the same time the beloved of this ,goddess in the sexual sense of the word4 ,this is the case not only with ,semiramis and ,ninus1 ,istar and ,tammuz1 ,atargatis 7,aphrodite7 and ,adonis1 ,cybele and ,attis1 but also with ,aphrodite 7,maia7 and ,hermes1 #ahf ,maia and ,iasios1 one of the ,cabiri1 identical with ,hermes or ,cadmus1 who was slain by his father1 ,zeus1 with a lightning stroke1 but was raised again and placed in the sky as a constellation4 #ahg ,we may conclude from the connection between ,iasios and ,joshua that a similar relationship existed between the latter and his mother ,mirzam4 ,indeed1 a glimmer of this possibly appears even in the ,gospels in the relationship of the various ,maries to ,jesus1 although1 of course1 in accordance with the character of these writings1 they are transferred into quite a different sphere and given other emotional connections4 #ahh ,now in ,hebrew the word spirit 7ruach7 is of feminine gender4 ,as a consequence of this the ,holy ,ghost was looked upon by the ,nassenes and the earliest ,christians as the mother of ,jesus4 ,indeed1 it appears that in their view the birth of the divine son was only consummated by the baptism and the descent of the ,spirit4 ,according to the ,gospels which we possess1 on the occasion of the baptism in the ,jordan a voice from above uttered these words3 ,thou art my beloved son2 in thee ,i am well pleased4 #ahi ,on the other hand1 in an older reading of the passage in question in ,luke1 which was in use as late as the middle of the fourth century1 it runs1 in agreement with ,psalm ii4 #g3 ,thou art my son1 this day have ,i begotten thee4 ,in this case the spirit who speaks these words is regarded as a female being4 ,this is shown by the dove which descends from heaven1 for this was the holy bird1 the symbol of the ,mother ,goddess of ,nearer ,asia4 #aij ,but it was not the ,nassenes alone 7,ophites7 who called the ,holy ,spirit the first word and the mother of all living things3 #aia other ,gnostic sects1 such as the ,valentinians1 regarded the ,spirit which descended in the shape of a dove as the word of the mother from above1 of wisdom4 #aib ,viewed in this sense1 baptism also passed in the ,mysteries as a new birth4 ,indeed1 its ,greek name1 photisma or photisms 7i4e41 illumination71 clearly indicates its origin in fire-worship4 ,thus1 when ,justin #aic too speaks of a flame appearing at the baptism of ,jesus1 he alludes thereby to the connection between that solemn act and the birth of a ,fire-,god4 #aid ,ephrem1 the ,syrian composer of hymns1 makes the ,baptist say to ,jesus3 ,a tongue of fire in the air awaits thee beyond the ,jordan4 ,if thou followest it and wilt be baptized1 then undertake to purify thyself1 for who can seize a burning fire with his hands8 ,thou who art all fire have mercy upon me4 #aie ,in ,luke iii4 #af and ,matt4 iii4 #aa it is said in the same sense3 ,i indeed baptize you with water2 but there cometh he that is mightier than ,i4444 ,he shall baptize you with the ,holy ,ghost and with fire4 ,and in ,luke xii4 #di sq4 we read the words3 ,i came to cast fire upon the earth3 and what will ,i1 if it is already kindled8 ,but ,i have a baptism to be baptized with4 ,here is a reference to fire falling upon the eyes and being made to blaze up by baptism1 that is1 the pouring on of a nourishing liquid1 as we have seen in the worship of ,agni4 #aif ,just as ,john1 who was closely related to the ,essenes1 baptized the penitents in the ,jordan in the open air1 so also the ,mandi1 whose connection with the ,essenes is extremely probable1 used to perform baptisms in flowing water only1 on which account they were also called the ,christians of ,john in later times4 ,this custom among them was obviously connected with the fact that ,hibil ,ziw1 who was venerated by them as a ,redeemer1 was a form of ,marduk1 and the latter was a son of the great ,water-,god1 ,ea2 he thus incorporated the healing and cleansing powers of water in himself4 ,on the other hand1 as has been already said1 the anointing of the ,god in the ,agni ,cult with milk1 melted butter1 and the fluid ,soma1 served to strengthen the vital powers of the divine child and to bring the sparks slumbering in the fire-wood to a blaze4 ,there is no doubt that this idea was also present in the baptism as it was usually practised in the mystic cults4 ,by baptism the newly admitted member was inwardly enlightened4 ,often enough1 too1 for example1 in the ,mysteries of ,mithras1 with the ceremony there was also associated the actual flashing forth of a light1 the production of the ,cult ,god himself manifested in light4 #aig ,by this means the faithful were born again1 in the same way as ,agni was baptized at his birth1 and thereby enabled to shine forth brightly and to reveal the disorder of the world hidden in the darkness4 ,the world was swallowed up1 veiled in darkness1 ,light appeared1 when ,agni was born4 #aih ,shining brightly1 ,agni flashes forth far and wide1 ,he makes everything plain in splendour4 #aii ,a complete understanding of the baptism in the ,jordan can only be attained if here1 too1 we take into consideration the translation of the baptism into astrological terms4 ,in other words1 it appears that ,john the ,baptist1 as we meet him in the ,gospels1 was not an historical personage4 ,apart from the ,gospels he is mentioned by ,josephus only1 #bjj and this passage1 although it was known to ,origen #bja in early days1 is exposed to a strong suspicion of being a forgery by some ,christian hand4 #bjb ,again1 the account in the ,gospels of the relations between ,john and ,jesus is full of obscurities and contradictions1 as has been pointed out by ,strauss4 ,these1 however1 disappear as soon as we recognise that under the name ,john1 which in ,hebrew means pleasing to ,god1 is concealed the ,babylonian ,water-,god1 ,oannes 7,ea74 ,baptism is connected with his worship1 and the baptism of ,jesus in the ,jordan represents the reflection upon earth of what originally took place among the stars4 ,that is to say1 the sun begins its yearly course with a baptism1 entering as it does1 immediately after its birth1 the constellations of the ,water-carrier and the ,fishes4 ,but this celestial ,water ,kingdom1 in which each year the day-star is purified and born again1 is the ,eridanus1 the heavenly ,jordan or ,year-,stream 7,egyptian1 iaro or iero1 the river71 wherein the original baptism of the divine ,saviour of the world takes place4 #bjc ,on this account it is said in the hymn of ,ephrem on the ,epiphany of the divine ,son3 ,john stepped forward and adored the ,son1 whose form was enveloped in a strange light1 and when ,jesus had received the baptism he immediately ascended1 and his light shone over the world4 #bjd ,in the ,syrian ,baptismal ,liturgy1 preserved to us under the name of ,severus1 we read the words3 ,i1 he said1 baptize with water1 but he who comes1 with ,fire and ,spirit1 that spirit1 namely1 which descended from on high upon his head in the shape of a dove1 who has been baptized and has arisen from the midst of the waters1 whose light has gone up over the earth4 ,according to the ,fourth ,gospel1 ,john was not himself the light2 but he gave testimony of the light1 that true light which lighteth every man coming into the world1 by whom the world was made and of whose fulness we have all received grace4 #bje ,in this the reference to the sun is unmistakable1 while the story of ,john's birth #bjf is copied from that of the ,sun-,gods ,isaac #bjg and ,samson4 #bjh ,in ,john1 the ,baptist himself is called by ,jesus a burning and shining lamp1 #bji and he himself remarks1 when he hears of the numerous following of ,jesus1 he must increase but ,i must decrease1 #baj a speech which probably at first referred to the summer solstice1 when the sun1 having reached the highest point in its course1 enters the winter hemisphere and loses strength day by day4 ,john is said to have been born six months before ,jesus4 #baa ,this1 too1 points to the fact that both are essentially identical1 that they are only the different halves of the year1 representing the sun as rising and setting1 these two phases being related to one another as ,caleb and ,joshua1 ,nergal and ,tammuz1 c4 ,john the ,baptist is represented as wearing a cloak of camel-hair1 with a leathern girdle about his loins4 #bab ,this brings to mind the garb of the prophet ,elijah1 #bac to whom ,jesus himself likened him4 #bad ,but ,elijah1 who passed among the ,jews for a forerunner of the ,messiah1 is a form of ,sun-,god transferred to history4 ,in other words1 he is the same as the ,greek ,helios1 the ,german ,heljas1 and ,ossetic ,ilia1 with whom he coincides in most important points1 or at any rate characteristics of this ,god have been transferred to the figure of the prophet4 #bae ,according to ,babylonian ideas corresponding to the baptism of water at the commencement of the efficacious power of the sun1 was the baptism of fire1 when it was at the height of its annual course1 at the time of the summer solstice1 and its passage was again inclined downwards4 #baf ,this idea1 too1 is found in the ,gospels1 in the story of the transfiguration of ,jesus upon the mountain4 #bag ,it takes precisely the same place in the context of his life-year1 as depicted by the ,evangelists1 as the ,sun's baptism of fire in the ,babylonian world system1 since it too marks the highest and turning-point in the life of the ,christian ,saviour4 ,on this occasion ,moses and ,elijah appeared with the ,saviour1 who shone like a pillar of fire1 and his garments became glistening1 exceeding white1 like unto snow1 so as no fuller on earth can whiten them4 ,and there came a cloud which overshadowed the three disciples whom ,jesus had taken with him on to the mountain4 ,and a voice came from the cloud1 saying1 ,this is my beloved ,son1 hear ye him4 ,as at the baptism1 so here1 too1 was ,jesus proclaimed by a heavenly voice as the ,son or beloved of ,god1 or rather of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,as the latter is in ,hebrew of the feminine gender1 it consequently appears that in this passage we have before us a parallel to the baptism of ,jesus in the ,jordan4 ,the incident is generally looked upon as though by it was emphasised the higher significance of ,jesus in comparison with the two chief representatives of the old order1 and as though ,jesus was extolled before ,moses and ,elijah by the transfiguration4 ,here too1 however1 the ,sun-,god1 ,helios1 is obviously concealed beneath the form of the ,israelite ,elijah4 ,on this account ,christianity changed the old places of worship of ,zeus and ,helios upon eminences into chapels of ,elijah2 and ,moses is no other than the ,moon-,god1 the ,men of ,asia ,minor4 ,and he has been introduced into the story because the divine lawgivers in almost all mythologies are the same as the moon1 the measurer of time and regulator of all that happens 7cf4 ,manu among the ,indians1 ,minos among the ,greeks1 ,men 7,min7 among the ,egyptians74 #bah ,according to ,justin1 #bai ,david is supposed to have made the prophecy that ,christ would be born before the sun and the moon4 ,the sun and moon often appear upon the pictures of the ,nearer ,asiatic ,redeemer1 ,god 7e4g41 ,mithras71 paling before the splendour of the young ,light-,god1 as we have seen in the case of ,buddha1 #bbj and as1 according to the narrative of the ,rigveda1 also happened at the birth of the ,child ,agni4 ,accordingly we have before us in the story of the transfiguration in the ,gospels only another view of the story of the birth of the ,light-,god or ,fire-,god1 such as lies at the root of the story of the baptism of the ,christian ,saviour4 #bba ,and with the thought of the new birth of the ,saviour is associated that of the baptism of ,jesus1 and particularly that of the fire-baptism1 of which the sun partakes at the height of its power4 #bbb ,,vi ,,the ,,self-,,offering ,,of ,,the ,,messiah4 ,,the ,,supper ,like ,baptism1 the sacrament of the ,supper1 the partaking of the sacred host and wine 7in place of which among certain sects water is also found71 has its precedent in the most ancient fire-worship4 ,when the sacred fire had been kindled upon the altar1 the faithful were accustomed1 as the ,rigveda shows1 to sit down in order to partake of the sacred cake prepared from meal and butter1 the symbol of all solid food1 and of the ,soma cup1 the symbol of all liquid nourishment4 ,it was thought that ,agni dwelt invisible within these substances3 in the meal as though in the concentrated heat of the sun1 in the ,soma1 since the drink in its fiery nature and invigorating power disclosed the nature of the ,god of ,fire and ,life4 ,participation therein opened to the faithful communion with ,agni4 ,thereby they were incorporated with the ,god4 ,they felt themselves transformed into him1 raised above the actuality of every day1 and as members of a common body1 as though of one heart and one soul1 inflamed by the same feeling of interdependence and brotherhood4 ,then some such hymn as follows would mount towards heaven from their breasts overflowing with thankfulness3-- ,oh great ,agni1 true-minded ,thou dost indeed unite all4 ,enkindled on the place of worship ,bring us all that is good4 ,unitedly come1 unitedly speak1 ,and let your hearts be one1 ,just as the old ,gods ,for their part are of one mind4 ,like are their designs1 like their assembly1 ,like their disposition1 united their thoughts4 ,so pray ,i also to you with like prayer1 ,and sacrifice unto you with like sacrifice4 ,the like design you have indeed1 ,and your hearts are united4 ,let your thoughts be in unison1 ,that you may be happily joined together4 #bbc ,while the faithful by partaking of the sacred cake and the fiery ,soma cup united themselves with the ,god and were filled with his spirit1 the sacrificial gifts which had been brought to him burnt upon the altars4 ,these consisted likewise of ,soma and ,sacred ,cake1 and caused the sacred banquet to be of such a kind that it was partaken of by ,agni and men together4 ,the ,god was at and present in the banquet dedicated to him4 ,he consumed the gifts1 transformed them into flame1 and in sweet-smelling smoke bore them with him up to heaven4 ,here they were partaken of by the other divine beings and finally by the ,father of ,heaven himself4 ,thus ,agni became not merely an agent at the sacrifice1 a mystic sacrificial priest1 but1 since the sacrificial gifts simply contained him in material form1 a sacrificer1 who offered his own body in sacrifice4 #bbd ,while man sacrificed ,god1 ,god at the same time sacrificed himself4 ,indeed1 this sacrifice was one in which ,god was not only the subject but also the object1 both sacrificer and sacrificed4 ,it was a common mode of thinking among the ,indians1 says ,max ,mller1 to look upon the fire on the altar as at the same time subject and object of the sacrifice4 ,the fire burnt the offering and was accordingly the priest as it were4 ,the fire bore the offering to the ,gods and was accordingly a mediator between ,god and men4 ,but the fire also represented something divine4 ,it was a ,god1 and if honour was paid to this ,god1 the fire was at once subject and object of the sacrifice4 ,out of this arose the first idea1 that ,agni sacrificed to himself1 that is1 that he brought his own offering to himself1 then1 that he brought himself as a victim--out of which the later legends grew4 #bbe ,the sacrifice of the ,god is a sacrificing of the ,god4 ,the genitive in this sentence is in one case to be understood in an objective1 in the other in a subjective sense4 ,in other words1 the sacrifice which man offers to the ,god is a sacrifice which the ,god brings1 and this sacrifice of the ,god is at the same time one in which the ,god offers himself as victim4 ,in the ,rigveda ,agni1 as ,god of ,priests and ,sacrifices1 also bears the name of ,vivakarman1 i4e41 ,consummator of ,all4 ,hymn x41 #ha also describes him as the creator of the world1 who called the world into existence1 and in so doing gave his own body in sacrifice4 ,hence1 then1 the world1 according to x4 #hb1 represents nothing existing exterior to him1 but the very manifestation of ,vivakarman1 in which at the creation he as it were appeared4 ,on the other hand1 ,purusha1 the first man1 is represented as he out of whose body the world was formed4 #bbf ,but ,purusha is1 as we have seen1 the prototype of the ,mandaic and apocalyptic son of man4 ,herein lies the confirmation of the fact that the son of man is none other than ,agni1 the most human of the ,vedic ,gods4 ,in the ,mazda religion the first mortals were called ,meshia and ,meshiane1 the ancestors of fallen mankind1 who expect their redemption at the hands of another ,meshia4 ,this meaning of the word ,messiah was not strange to the ,jews too1 when they placed the latter as the new ,adam in the middle of the ages4 ,adam1 however1 also means man4 #bbg ,the ,messiah accordingly1 as the new ,adam1 was for them too only a renewal of the first man in a loftier and better form4 ,this idea1 that mankind needed to be renewed by another typical representative of itself1 goes back in the last resort to ,india1 where1 after the dismemberment of ,purusha1 a man arose in the person of ,manu or ,manus4 ,he was to be the just king1 the first lawgiver and establisher of civilisation1 descending after his death to rule as judge in the under-world 7cf4 the ,cretan ,minos74 ,but ,manu1 whose name again meant no more than man or human being 7,manusha71 passed as son of ,agni4 ,indeed1 he was even completely identified with him1 since life1 spirit1 and fire to the mind of primitive man are interchangeable ideas1 although it is spirit and intelligence which are expressed under the name of ,manu 7,man to measure1 to examine74 #bbh ,we thus also obtain a new reason for the fact that the divine ,redeemer is a human being4 ,we also understand not only why the first-born son of ,god was1 according to the ideas of the whole of ,nearer ,asiatic syncretism1 the principle of the creation of the world1 but also why the redemption which he brought man could be for this reason looked upon as a divine self-sacrifice4 #bbi ,the sacrifice of the ,god on the part of mankind is a sacrifice of the ,god himself--it is only by this means that the community between ,god and man was completed4 ,the ,god offers sacrifice for man1 while man offers sacrifice for ,god4 ,indeed1 more than this1 he offers himself for mankind1 he gives his own body that man may reap the fruit of his sacrifice4 ,the divine son offers himself as a victim4 ,sent down by the father upon the earth in the form of light and warmth1 he enters men as the quickening and life-giving spirit under the appearance of bread and wine4 ,he consumes himself in the fire and unites man with the father above1 in that by his disposal of his own personality he removes the separation and difference between them4 ,thus ,agni extinguishes the hostility between ,god and man1 thus he consumes their sins in the glow of his fiery nature1 spiritualising and illuminating them inwardly4 ,through the invigorating power of the fire-water he raises men above the actuality of every day to the source of their existence and by his own sacrifice obtains for them a life of blessedness in heaven4 ,in the sacrifice1 too1 ,god and man are identified4 ,therein ,god descends to man and man is raised to ,god4 ,that is the common thought which had already found expression in the ,rigveda1 which later formed the special mystery of the secret cults and religious unions of ,nearer ,asia1 which lay at the root of the sacrament of the ,supper1 which guaranteed to man the certainty of a blessed life in the beyond1 and reconciled him to the thought of bodily death4 #bcj ,agni is accordingly nothing else than the bodily warmth in individuals1 and as such the subject of their motions and thoughts1 the principle of life1 their soul4 ,when the body grows cold in death the warmth of life leaves it1 the eyes of the dead go up to the sun1 his breath into the wind2 his soul1 however1 ascends towards heaven where the fathers dwell1 into the kingdom of everlasting light and life4 #bca ,indeed1 so great is the power of ,agni1 the divine physician and saviour of the soul1 #bcb that he1 as the ,god of all creative power1 can1 by merely laying on his hands1 even call the dead back to life4 #bcc ,even in the ,old ,testament we meet with the idea of a sacramental meal4 ,this is pointed to in ,genesis xiv4 #ah sqq41 when ,melchisedek1 the prince of peace 7,king of ,salem71 the priest of ,god ,most ,high1 prepares for ,abraham a meal of bread and wine1 and at it imparts to him the blessing of the ,lord ,god4 ,for ,melchisedek1 the ruler of ,salem1 the city of peace1 the ,king of ,justice1 as he is called in the ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 is even in this book plainly described as an ancient ,god3 without father1 without mother1 without genealogy1 having neither beginning of days nor end of life1 but made like unto the ,son of ,god1 he abideth a priest continually4 #bcd ,so also the ,prophet ,jeremiah speaks of holy feasts1 consisting of cake and wine1 of nightly sacrifices of burnt-offerings and liquids1 which were offered to the ,queen of ,heaven 7i4e41 the ,moon7 and other ,divinities4 #bce ,isaiah1 too1 is indignant against those who prepare a drinking-feast for ,god and make liquid offerings to ,meni4 #bcf ,now ,meni is none other than ,men1 the ,moon-,god of ,asia ,minor1 and as such is identical with ,selene-,mene1 the ,goddess of the ,moon in the ,orphic hymns4 ,like her he is a being of a dual sex1 at once ,queen and ,king of ,heaven4 ,consequently a liquid sacrifice appears to have been offered by all the people of ,nearer ,asia in honour of the ,moon4 ,as ,moon-,god 7,deus ,lunus7 and as related to ,meni1 in whose worship a sacramental meal also plays the chief part1 ,agni appears in the ,vedas under the name of ,manu1 ,manus1 or ,soma4 ,he too is a being of dual sex4 ,of this we are again reminded when ,philo1 the ,rabbinic speculation of the ,kabbala1 as well as the ,gnostics ascribe to the first man 7,adam ,kadmon7 two faces and the form of a man and woman1 until ,god separated the two sexes from one another4 #bcg ,according to this we should probably look upon the fire-worship in ,asia ,minor also as the foundation of the sacramental meal4 ,obviously we have to do with a meal of this kind in the bringing in of the so-called shew-bread4 ,every ,sabbath twelve cakes were laid by the priests upon the pure table before the ,lord1 and it shall be for ,aaron and his sons1 and they shall eat it in a holy place1 for it is most holy unto him of the offerings of the ,lord1 by a perpetual statute4 #bch ,it appears1 then1 that this meal1 presided over by the ,high ,priest as representative of ,aaron1 was partaken of by twelve other priests1 and ,robertson rightly sees herein the ,jewish prototype of the ,christian ,supper and of the number of apostles--the ,twelve--present at it4 ,but the ,high ,priest ,aaron is a personification of the ,jewish ,ark of the ,covenant1 that is1 of the visible expression of the ,covenant between ,god and man1 one of the chief prototypes of the ,messiah4 ,and if the self-offering of the ,messiah1 as we have seen above 7p4 #gh71 has its precedent in the self-offering of ,aaron1 so also the great solemnity of the ,aaronic sacrificial meal would not be wanting in the story of the ,christian ,redeemer4 ,as is well known1 ,joshua too1 the ,jesus of the ,old ,testament1 whom we have learnt to recognise as an ancient ,ephraimitic ,god of the ,sun and ,fruitfulness1 was accompanied in his passage of the ,jordan by twelve assistants1 one from each tribe4 ,and he is said after circumcising the people to have celebrated the ,paschal ,feast on the other bank4 #bci ,hence1 taking into account what has been said above concerning ,joshua1 we are probably justified in drawing the conclusion that his name was permanently connected with the partaking of the ,easter lamb4 #bdj ,in any case the so-called ,supper of ,christianity did not only later take its place as the central point of religious activity1 but from the beginning it held this central position in the cults of those sects out of which ,christianity was developed4 ,it was the point of crystallisation1 the highest point1 of the other ritualistic acts1 in a way the germ cell out of which in association with the idea of the death and resurrection of the ,god ,redeemer the ,christian outlook upon the world has grown4 ,just as in the ,vedic ,agni ,cult the sacrifice offered by men to their ,god was a self-sacrifice of this ,god as well in a subjective as in an objective sense2 just as the participating in common of the sacrificial gifts served the purpose of rendering the sacrifice in an inward sense their very own1 and thereby making them immediate participators in its efficacy1 so1 too1 the ,christian partakes in the bread of the body of his ,god and in the wine drinks his blood in order to become as it were himself ,god4 ,the ,evangelists make the ,supper coincide with the ,feast of the ,pasch1 because originally a man was immolated on this occasion2 and he1 as the first-born and most valuable of sacrificial gifts1 took the place of the ,god who offered himself in sacrifice4 #bda ,the celebration of sacramental feasts was very widespread throughout the whole of antiquity4 ,they were among the most important acts of worship in the ,mystic religions1 above all in connection with the idea of the ,saviour 7,soter7 and ,god of ,sacrifices1 who gave his life for the world4 ,thus ,mithras1 the ,persian ,agni1 is said to have celebrated in a last meal with ,helios and the other companions of his toils the end of their common struggle4 ,those initiated into the ,mysteries of ,mithras also celebrated this occurrence by common feasts in which they strove to unite themselves in a mystic manner with the ,god4 ,saos 7,saon or ,samon71 the son of ,zeus or ,hermes1 the ,god of ,healing1 and a nymph1 reminds us of the name of ,mithras1 rejuvenated and risen again1 of ,saoshyant or ,sosiosh4 ,he is said to have founded the ,mysteries in ,samothrace1 and appears to be identical with the mythical ,sabus1 who is supposed to have given his name to the ,sabines1 to have founded ,italian civilization1 and to have invented wine4 #bdb ,his name characterises him as the sacrificer 7,scr41 ,savana1 sacrifice72 and he appears to be a ,western form of ,agni1 the ,god of ,sacrifices and preparer of the ,soma1 since ,dionysus also bore the surname of ,saos or ,saotes and1 as distributor of the wine1 is supposed to have shed his blood for the salvation of the world1 to have died and to have risen again1 and thus has a prototype in the ,vedic ,agni4 ,with ,saos are connected ,iasios 7,jasion71 the son and beloved of ,demeter or ,aphrodite 7,maia71 and of ,zeus or the divine artificer ,hephaistos 7,tvashtar74 ,just as ,saos established the worship of the ,cabiri1 ,iasios is said to have established the worship of ,demeter in ,samothrace4 ,in this connection he is identified with ,hermes-,cadmus1 the divine sacrificial priest 7,kadmilos1 i4e41 ,servant of ,god7 of the ,samothracian religion 7cf4 ,adam-,kadmon of the ,kabbala and the ,gnostics1 who is connected both with ,agni-,manu and ,jesus74 ,according to ,usener his name is connected with the ,greek iasthein1 to cure1 and consequently characterises its bearer as saviour4 ,but this is also the real meaning of the name ,jason1 whose bearer1 a form of the patron of physicians1 ,asclepios 7,helios71 wanders about as a physician1 exorciser of demons and founder of holy rites1 and was venerated as ,god of ,healing in the whole of ,nearer ,asia and ,greece4 #bdc ,the myth also connects him with the establishment of the worship of the twelve ,gods4 #bdd ,now1 ,iasios 7,jason7 is only a ,greek form of the name ,joshua 7,jesus74 ,just as ,joshua crossed the ,jordan with twelve assistants and celebrated the ,pasch 7lamb7 on the further bank1 just as ,jesus in his capacity of divine physician and wonder-worker wanders through ,galilee 7the district of ,galil67 with twelve disciples1 and goes to ,jerusalem at the ,pasch in order to eat the ,easter lamb there with the ,twelve1 so does ,jason set out with twelve companions in order to fetch the golden fleece of the lamb from ,colchis4 #bde ,and just as ,jason1 after overcoming innumerable dangers1 successfully leads his companions to their goal and back again to the homes they so longed for1 so does ,joshua lead the people of ,israel into the promised land where milk and honey flow1 and so ,jesus shows his followers the way to their true home1 the kingdom of heaven1 the land of their fathers1 whence the soul originally came and whither after the completion of its journey through life it returns4 ,it can scarcely be doubted that in all of these cases we have to do with one and the same myth--the myth of the ,saving ,sun and ,rejoicer of the peoples1 as it was spread among all the peoples of antiquity1 but especially in ,nearer ,asia4 ,we can scarcely doubt that the stories in question originally referred to the annual journey of the sun through the twelve signs of the ,zodiac4 ,even the names 7,iasios1 ,jason1 ,joshua1 ,jesus2 cf4 also ,vishnu ,jesudu1 see above7 agree1 and their common root is contained also in the name ,jao 7,jahwe71 from which ,joshua is derived4 ,jao or ,jehu1 however1 was a mystical name of ,dionysus among the ,greeks1 and he1 like ,vishnu ,jesudu 7,krishna71 ,joshua1 and ,jesus1 roamed about in his capacity of travelling physician and redeemer of the world4 #bdf ,of all of these wandering ,healers1 ,physicians1 and ,deliverers it is true that they were honoured in the ,mysteries by sacramental meals and offered the faithful both the chalice of corporal and spiritual healing and the bread of life4 ,,vii ,,symbols ,,of ,,the ,,messiah3 ,,the ,,lamb ,,and ,,the ,,cross ,of a great number of modes of expression and images in the ,new ,testament we know that they originated from the common treasury of the languages of the secret sects of the ,orient1 having their source above all in ,mandaism and the ,mithraic religion4 ,thus the rock1 the water1 the bread1 the book1 or the light of life1 #bdg the second death1 the vine1 the good shepherd1 c41 are simply expressions which in part are known also by the ,rigveda and there belong to the ideas grouped about ,agni1 the ,god of ,fire1 ,life1 and ,shepherds4 ,of the latter1 too1 as of ,jesus1 it is said that he loses not a single one of the flock entrusted to his care1 #bdh for ,pushan1 to whom the hymn in this connection is addressed1 is only a form of ,agni4 ,in its symbols also the earliest ,christianity coincides with ,indian thought in such a striking manner that it can scarcely be explained as chance4 ,thus the horse1 #bdi the hare1 and the peacock1 which play so great a part in symbolic pictures of the catacombs1 point to an ultimately ,vedic origin1 where they all stand in connection with the nature of ,agni4 ,again1 the ,fish was already to be found in the ,indian ,fire ,worship and appears to have here originally represented ,agni swimming in the water of the clouds1 the ocean of heaven4 #bej ,in the hymn of the ,rigveda itself ,agni is often invoked as the ,bull4 ,this was probably originally a simple nature symbol1 the ,bull as image of the strength of the ,god2 then the ,fire-,god and ,sun-,god1 in his capacity of preparer of the ,soma cup1 was identified with the moon 7,manu71 whose crescents were taken as the horns of a bull4 ,later1 however1 the image of the ,bull was driven out by that of the ,ram4 ,as early as in the ,rigveda there is frequent mention of the ,god's banner of smoke4 ,thus he was accustomed to be represented leading a ram with a banner in his hand or simply with a banner in his hand with the picture of a ram upon it1 just as ,christ is portrayed under the shape of a ram or lamb bearing a banner like a cross4 ,about the year #hjj ,b4,c4 the sun1 the heavenly ,agni1 which had hitherto been at the commencement of spring in the constellation of the ,bull1 entered 7as a consequence of the advance of equality between day and night7 that of the ,ram4 ,thus it became1 according to astrological modes of thought1 itself a ram4 #bea ,while it had formerly1 in the shape of a bull1 opened the spring and released the world from the power of winter--an image which was still retained in the ,mithras ,cult--these functions were now transferred to the ram1 and this became a symbol of the ,god and the beast offered in expiatory sacrifices4 ,now the constellation of the ,ram was described by the ,persians in a word which could also mean lamb4 ,in other cases also the lamb often took the place of the ram in the sacrificial worship of ,nearer ,asia2 for example1 among the ,jews1 who were accustomed to consume the ,paschal lamb at the beginning of the year in spring4 ,this is the explanation of the mystical lamb in the ,revelation of ,john 7which is scarcely an original ,christian work1 but shows signs of a pre-,christian ,cult of ,jesus #beb71 being depicted by seven horns or rays in a way which rather implies the idea of a ram4 ,the fifth chapter of ,revelation describes the lamb in its quality of heavenly victim of expiation4 ,no one can open the book with the seven seals1 which ,god holds in his right hand1 in which the fate of the world appears to be written1 but the lamb alone succeeds in so doing--,in the midst of the four-and-twenty elders who1 clad in white garments and with crowns on their heads1 sit around the divine throne1 and in the midst of the four beasts who sit around it1 the lamb1 suddenly and without anything happening1 stands as though it had been slain1 having seven horns and seven eyes which are the seven spirits of ,god1 sent forth into all the earth4 ,and when he had taken the book the four living creatures and the four-and-twenty elders fell down before the lamb1 having each one a harp1 and golden bowls full of incense1 which are the prayers of the saints4 ,and they sing a new song saying1 ,worthy art thou to take the book and to open the seals thereof1 for thou wast slain and didst purchase unto ,god with thy blood men of every tribe1 and tongue1 and people1 and nation1 and madest them to be unto our ,god a kingdom and priests2 and they reign upon the earth4 #bec ,the scene recalls to mind the self-offering of ,agni in the midst of the ,gods1 ,priests1 and victims1 and the ascension of the ,god which then took place4 ,just as the sacrifice of the lamb in ,revelation refers to the entrance of the sun into the constellation of the ,ram1 and the victory of light over wintry darkness and the beginning of a new life which it heralds1 so were mystic sacrifices of bulls and rams in the other ,sun ,cults of ,nearer ,asia1 especially in those of ,attis and ,mithras1 very customary for purposes of expiation or new birth4 ,on these occasions the beast was immolated while standing1 and the blood which poured in streams from the victim was looked upon as a means of cleansing and of life-giving4 ,in any case1 throughout ,revelation the lamb plays the part of the heavenly fire revealing ,god's illuminatory nature1 unfolding his wisdom and enlightening the world4 ,as it is said of the heavenly ,jerusalem3 ,and the city needed no sun and no moon to shine upon her1 for the glory of ,god illumined her1 and her light is the lamb4 #bed ,again1 in the ,church of the first century1 at ,easter1 a lamb was solemnly slaughtered upon an altar and its blood collected in a chalice4 #bee ,accordingly in the early days of ,christianity the comparison of ,christ with the light and the lamb was a very favourite one4 ,above all the ,gospel of ,john makes the widest use of it4 ,as had already been done in the ,vedic ,cult of ,agni1 here too were identified with ,christ the creative word of ,god that had existed before the world--the life1 the light1 and the lamb4 ,and he was also called the light of the world that came to light up the darkness ruling upon the earth1 as well as the ,lamb of ,god1 who bore the sins of the world4 #bef ,and indeed the ,latin expression for lamb 7agnus7 also expresses its relation to the ancient ,fire-,god and its sanctity as a sacrificial animal4 ,for its root is connected with ignis 7,scr4 agni1 the purifying fire1 and yagna1 victim71 and also1 according to ,festus ,pompeius1 with the ,greek hagnos1 pure1 consecrated1 and hagnistes1 the expiator4 #beg ,in this sense ,agnus ,dei1 the ,lamb of ,god1 as ,christ is very frequently called1 is in fact nothing else than ,agni ,deus1 since ,agnus stands in a certain measure as the ,latin translation for ,agni4 #beh ,but in ,india at the so-called ,hulfeast1 at the spring equinox1 a ram 7lamb7 used to be solemnly burnt as an expiatory victim representing ,agni4 ,the crucifixion of ,jesus1 as will likewise appear1 is in a certain sense only the symbol of the burning of the divine lamb1 which by its death redeems man from sin4 ,in both cases the lamb refers to the lamb of the ,zodiac1 the constellation of the ,ram1 into which the sun enters at the time of the spring equinox1 and with which consequently1 in accordance with the astrological way of looking at things1 it is blended1 and which is as though burnt up by it4 ,thus were completed the victory of the ,sun ,fire 7,agni7 over the night of winter and the resurrection of nature to a new life1 this cosmic process finding its reflection in the sacrifice upon earth of a lamb 7agnus74 ,during the first century after ,christ the lamb in association with light and fire was among the most popular images in ecclesiastical language and symbolism4 ,the heathen ,romans used to hang bull round the necks of their children as amulets4 ,the ,christians used consecrated waxen lambs1 which were manufactured out of the remains of the ,easter candles of the preceding year and distributed during ,easter week4 ,the belief then attached itself to these ,agnus ,dei's1 that if they were preserved in a house they gave protection against lightning and fire4 ,above all the lamps offered a convenient opportunity for symbolising ,christ as a light1 and thus making use of the image of the lamb4 #bei ,the motif of the lamb with the cross is also found very frequently in old ,christian art upon glass bowls1 sarcophagi1 and articles of use of all kinds4 ,and indeed in such cases the cross is sometimes found upon the head or shoulder1 sometimes at the side of the lamb or even behind him1 while a nimbus in the shape of a disc of sunlight surrounds his head and points to the light nature of the lamb4 ,the nimbus1 too1 is an old ,indian symbol1 and thus indicates that the whole conception was borrowed from the circle of ,indian ideas4 ,later the lamb is also found upon the cross itself1 and indeed at the point of intersection of the two arms surrounded by the disc of sunlight4 ,this seems to point to the ,saviour's death upon the cross1 the cross here appearing to be understood as the gibbet4 ,but is it really certain that the cross in the world of ,christian thought possessed this significance from the beginning as the instrument by means of which ,jesus was put to death8 ,in the whole of ,christendom it passes as a settled matter that ,jesus died upon the cross2 but this has the shape1 as it is usually represented among painters1 of the so-called ,latin cross1 in which the horizontal crosspiece is shorter than the vertical beam4 ,on what then does the opinion rest that the cross is the gibbet8 ,the ,evangelists themselves give us no information on this point4 ,the ,jews described the instrument which they made use of in executions by the expression wood or tree4 ,under this description it often occurs in the ,greek translation of the ,old ,testament1 in which the gibbet is rendered by xlon1 the same expression being also found in the ,gospels4 ,usually1 however1 the gibbet is described as staurs 7i4e41 stake71 so much so that staurs and xlon pass for synonyms4 ,the ,latin translation of both these words is crux4 ,by this the ,romans understood any apparatus for the execution of men generally1 without thinking1 however1 as a rule of anything else than a stake or gallows 7patibulum1 stipes7 upon which1 as ,livy tells us1 the delinquent was bound with chains or ropes and so delivered over to death4 #bfj ,that the method of execution in ,palestine differed in any way from this is not in any way shown4 ,among the ,jews also the condemned used to be hanged upon a simple stake or beam1 and exposed to a lingering death from heat1 hunger1 and thirst1 as well as from the natural tension of his muscles4 ,to fasten to the cross 7stauroun1 afigere cruci7 accordingly does not mean either in ,east or ,west to crucify in our sense1 but at first simply to torture or martyr1 and later to hang upon a stake or gallows4 ,and in this connection it appears that the piercing of hands and feet with nails1 at least at the time at which the execution of ,jesus is supposed to have occurred1 was something quite unusual1 if it was ever employed at all4 ,the expressions prospassaleuein and prosloun1 moreover1 usually signify only to fasten1 to hang upon a nail1 but not at all to nail to in the special sense required4 #bfa ,there is not then the least occasion for assuming that according to original ,christian views an exception to this mode of proceeding was made at the execution of ,jesus4 ,the only place in the ,gospels where there is any mention of the marks of the nails 7viz41 ,john xx4 #be7 belongs1 as does the whole ,gospel1 to a relatively later time1 and appears1 as does so much in ,john1 as a mere strengthening and exaggeration of the original story4 ,for example1 ,luke xxiv4 #ci1 upon which ,john is based1 does not speak at all of nail-marks1 but merely of the marks of the wounds which the condemned must naturally have received as a consequence of being fastened to the stake4 ,accordingly the idea that ,christ was nailed to the cross was in the earliest ,christianity by no means the ruling one4 ,ambrose1 for example1 only speaks of the cords of the cross and the ligatures of the passion 7usque ad crucis laqueos ac retia passionis71 #bfb and consequently knew nothing of nails having been used in this case4 #bfc ,if we consider that the crucifixion of ,jesus corresponds to the hanging of ,attis1 ,osiris1 and so forth1 and that the idea of the gibbeted gods of ,nearer ,asia called forth and fixed the ,christian view2 if we remember that ,haman1 the prototype of ,jesus at the ,purim feast1 was also hanged upon a gallows1 #bfd then it becomes doubly improbable that our present ideas on the matter correspond to the views of the early ,christians4 ,for although we have no direct picture of the hanging of those ,gods1 yet we possess representations of the execution of ,marsyas by ,apollo1 in which the ,god has his rival hauled up on to a tree by ropes round his wrists1 which have been bound together4 #bfe ,but ,marsyas1 the inventor of the flute1 the friend and guide of ,cybele in the search for the lost ,attis1 is no other than the latter himself1 or at any rate a personality very near akin to ,attis4 #bff ,it is not difficult to conclude that ,attis too1 or the man who represented him in the rites1 was hung in the same manner to the stake or tree-trunk and thus put to death4 ,thus it seems that originally the manner of death of the ,jewish ,messiah was imagined in the same way1 and so the heathens too called the new ,god in scorn the ,hanged ,one4 ,how1 then1 did the idea come into existence that ,jesus did not die upon a simple gallows1 but rather upon wood having the well-known form of the cross8 ,it arose out of a misunderstanding1 from considering as the same and mingling two ideas which were originally distinct but described by the same word wood1 tree1 xlon1 lignum1 arbor4 ,this word signifies1 as we have already said1 on the one hand indeed the stake or gallows 7staurs1 crux7 upon which the criminal was executed2 but the same word1 corresponding to the ,hebrew text of the ,old ,testament1 also referred to the wood1 the tree of life1 which was supposed to stand in ,paradise4 ,according to the ,revelation of ,john it was to serve as food for the holy in the new ,paradise to come1 #bfg and it was honoured by the ,christians as the seal and guarantee of their salvation under the form of the mystic cross or ,tau4 ,in all private religious associations and secret cults of later antiquity the members made use of a secret sign of recognition or union4 ,this they carried about in the form1 in some cases1 of wooden1 bronze1 or silver amulets hung round the neck or concealed beneath the clothes1 in others woven in their garments1 or tattooed upon the forehead1 neck1 breast1 hands1 c4 ,among these signs was the cross1 and it was usually described under the name ,tau1 after the letter of the old ,phoenician alphabet4 ,such an application of the cross to mystic or religious ends reaches back into grey antiquity4 ,from of old the cross was in use in the cult of the ,egyptian ,gods1 especially of ,isis and ,horus4 ,it was also found among the ,assyrians and ,persians1 serving1 as the pictures show1 in part as the mark and ornament of distinguished persons1 such as priests and kings1 in part also as a religious attribute in the hands of the ,gods and their worshippers4 ,according to some it was the sign which ,jahwe ordered the ,israelites to paint upon their doors with the blood of the lamb when he sent the angel of death to destroy the first-born of their ,egyptian oppressors4 ,it played a similar part also in ,isaiah #bfh and ,ezekiel1 #bfi when it was a question of separating the god-fearing ,israelites from the crowd of other men whom ,jahwe purposed to destroy4 ,when the ,israelites were pressed in battle by the ,amalekites ,moses is said to have been helped by ,aaron and ,hur to stretch out his arms in the shape of that magic sign1 and thus to have rendered possible a victory for his people over their enemies4 #bgj ,among the other nations of antiquity also--the ,greeks1 ,thracians1 the ,gaulish ,druids1 and so on--the ,tau was applied in a similar manner to ritualistic and mystic ends4 ,it appears as an ornament on the images of the most different divinities and heroes--e4g41 ,apollo1 ,dionysus1 ,demeter1 ,diana 7the ,phoenician ,astarte74 ,it is also found upon innumerable ,greek1 ,roman1 ,egyptian1 and ,phoenician coins1 upon vases1 pictures1 jewellery1 c4 ,in ,alexandria the ,christians found it chiselled upon the stone when the temple of ,serapis was destroyed1 in #cia4 ,in this temple ,serapis himself was represented of superhuman size1 with arms outstretched in the form of a cross1 as though embracing the universe4 ,in ,rome the ,vestal virgins wore the cross upon a ribbon round the neck4 ,indeed1 it even served as an ornament upon the weapons of the ,roman legions and upon the standards of the cavalry long before ,constantine1 by his well-known vision1 gave occasion for its being expressly introduced under the form of the so-called ,monogram of ,christ into the army as a military sign4 #bga ,but in the ,north also we find the cross1 not only in the shape of the hooked-cross and the three-armed cross 7,triskele71 but also in the form of ,thor's hammer1 upon runic1 stones1 weapons1 utensils1 ornaments1 amulets1 c4 ,and when the heathens of the ,north1 as ,snorre informs us1 marked themselves in the hour of death with a spear1 they scratched upon their bodies one of the sacred signs that has been mentioned1 in doing which they dedicated themselves to ,god4 #bgb ,that here we have to do with a sun symbol is easily recognised wherever the simple1 equally-armed cross appears duplicated with an oblique cross having the same point of intersection with it1 eight ray star symbol1 or where it has the shape of a perpendicular which is cut symmetrically by two other lines crossing one another1 six ray star symbol4 ,and as a matter of fact this symbol of a sun shedding its rays is found upon numberless coins and illustrations1 in which it is obvious that a reference to the sun is intended--e4g41 upon the coins of the ,egyptian ,ptolemies1 of the city ,gods of ,rome1 of ,augustus and the ,flavian ,csars4 ,here the ,sun sign appears to have been adopted as a consequence of the fusing of the ,sun ,cult of later antiquity with the cult of the ,emperor4 ,much more frequent1 however1 is the simple ,tau1 sometimes1 indeed1 in a shape with equal limbs 7,greek cross71 1 sometimes with the upright below lengthened 7,latin cross71 sometimes upright1 sometimes oblique 7,st4 ,andrew's cross71 1 sometimes1 again1 like the ,greek letter ,tau1 ,t1 sometimes in the shape of the so-called mirror of ,venus1 ,venus symbol1 in which the ring plainly refers to the sun1 sometimes in that of the ,svastika1 or hooked cross1 swastika1 sometimes with1 sometimes without a circle1 and so on4 ,a form made up of the oblique and the ring cross of the ,egyptians 7so-called ,key of the ,nile7 is the cross known under the description of the ,monogram of ,christ4 ,according to the legend it was first employed by ,constantine on account of his vision2 and ecclesiastical writers1 especially on the ,catholic side1 try even to-day to support this view1 in spite of all facts4 ,for this form of the cross also is clearly of pre-,christian origin1 and had its prototype in the ancient ,bactrian ,labarum cross1 as is found1 for example1 upon the coins of the ,bactrian king ,hippostratos 7about #acj ,b4,c471 of the ,egyptian ,ptolemies1 of ,mithridates1 upon ,attic ,tetradrachma1 c4 #bgc ,after the careful investigations on this subject which have been undertaken by ,french savants especially1 there can be no doubt that we have before us in this so-called seal of the ,gods and religious personalities a symbol of the creative force of nature1 of the resurrection and the new life1 a pledge of divine protection in this world and of everlasting blessedness after4 ,as such it appears upon heathen sarcophagi and tombstones2 and on this account in some cases their ,christian character is too quickly assumed4 ,moreover1 the cross has been preserved in present-day musical notation as the sign of the raising of a note1 #bgd while its use in the ,mysteries and private ,cult associations is authority for the statement that precisely in these the thought of a new-birth and resurrection in company with the hero of the association or ,god of the union stood as a central point of faith4 ,one understands the painful feeling of the ,christians at the fact that the private sign used by them and their special sacraments were in use among all the secret cults of antiquity4 ,they could explain this to themselves only as the work of spiteful dmons and an evil imitation of ,christian usages on the heathens' part4 #bge ,in reality the symbol of the cross is much older than ,christianity2 and1 indeed1 the sign of the cross is found associated in a special manner with the cult of divinities of nature or life with its alternations of birth1 blossoming1 and decay1 representatives of the fertility and creative force of nature1 the ,light-,gods and ,sun-,gods subjected to death and triumphing victoriously over it4 ,it is only as such1 as ,gods who died and rose again1 that they were divinities of the soul and so of the ,mysteries and pious fraternities4 ,the idea of the soul1 however1 is found everywhere in nature religion considered as being connected with the warmth of life and with fire1 just as the sun was honoured as the highest divinity and1 so to speak1 as the visible manifestation of the world-soul solely on account of its fiery nature4 ,should not1 then1 the symbol of life1 which in its developed form plainly refers to the sun1 in its simplest and original shape point to the fire1 this earliest phenomenon of all religious worship8 ,naturally1 indeed1 different views can be held as to what the various forms of the cross betoken4 ,thus1 for example1 according to ,burnouf1 ,schliemann1 and others1 the ,svastika represents the fire's cradle1 i4e41 the pith of the wood1 from which in oldest times in the point of intersection of the two arms the fire was produced by whirling round an inserted stick4 #bgf ,on the other hand1 according to the view most widespread at the present day1 it simply symbolises the twirling movement when making the fire1 and on this1 too1 rests its application as symbol of the sun's course4 #bgg ,hochart considers the cross in the shape of the ,greek ,tau as the inserted stick 7pramantha7 of the ,vedic priests4 #bgh ,very likely1 however1 this form arose simply through the identity of sound between the ,greek and ,phoenician letter1 the ,greeks having interchanged the like-sounding foreign letter with their own ,tau4 ,that the cross generally speaking1 however1 is connected with the ,fire ,cult1 and that both parts of the sign originally contained a reference to the pieces of wood 7aran7 of which in most ancient times use was made to produce fire1 has been placed beyond doubt by the investigations into the matter4 ,this is confirmed inter alia by the use of the symbol in the worship of the ,vestals1 the ,roman fire-priestesses4 ,this is the explanation of the wide extent of the symbol of the cross4 ,not only among the peoples of antiquity and in ,europe1 but also in ,asia among the ,indians and ,chinese1 it is in use from ancient times4 ,in ,america1 too1 among the ,mexicans and ,incas1 it played a part in worship long before the arrival of ,europeans4 ,in the same way is explained the close association of that symbol with the priestly office and kingly dignity1 which was itself often connected with that office2 similarly the intimate relations between the sign of the cross and the ,gods of ,fertility1 ,vegetation1 and ,seasons4 ,for all of these were1 as representatives of the warmth of life and the soul's breath1 in their deepest nature1 ,fire-,gods special aspects1 closer characterisations and connections of that one divinity1 of whom the oldest form known to us is in the ,vedic ,agni1 and in whose service the priests of all peoples and times grew to their overwhelming strength4 #bgi ,julius ,firmicus ,maternus was thus quite right when he declared that ,mithras1 whose followers bore the sign of the cross upon their foreheads and at their communion-meal had the cross1 imprinted upon the holy loaf1 before their eyes1 was an ancient ,fire-,god4 #bhj ,but if the cross is the symbol of fire and also of the ,mediator ,god1 who brings earth and heaven into connection1 then the reason can be found why ,plato in the ,timus makes the ,world ,soul in the form of a ,chi1 i4e41 an oblique cross1 stretched between heaven and earth4 #bha ,then1 indeed1 it is not strange that the ,christians of the first century regarded as an inspiration of the devil ,plato's doctrine of the mediatory office of the double-natured ,world ,soul1 which1 according to that philosopher1 was formed from a mixture of ideal and sensible matter4 ,it is not strange that a ,justin1 the most foolish of the ,christian fathers 7,robertson71 could actually assert that ,plato borrowed the idea1 as well as that of a world-conflagration1 from--,moses4 #bhb ,in the ,old ,testament also1 as was shown above1 we meet the cross4 ,here it served as a mark of recognition and distinction of the ,god-fearing ,israelites from the heathen1 and as a magic sign4 ,with a similar significance we meet it again in the ,new ,testament4 ,in the ,revelation of ,john it appears as the seal 7sphrags7 of the living ,god4 ,by it here1 too1 are the chosen ones of ,israel marked off from the rest of mankind whom judgment has overtaken4 ,at the same time1 it is said that this sign is imprinted upon the foreheads of the inhabitants of the true ,jerusalem4 #bhc ,in the ,epistles to the ,galatians and ,ephesians it is said of the believers in ,christ that they were sealed before ,god by the mystic sign upon their foreheads1 hands1 or feet4 ,the sign thus serves them as a pledge of redemption4 #bhd ,again1 in the ,epistle of ,barnabas ix4 #h1 the cross contained in the letter ,t is expressly interpreted as 7charis7 grace4 ,under the form of the ,greek ,tau the cross appears during the first century of the ,christian era1 especially among the ,christians in ,egypt1 and according to many was a symbol of ,adonis or ,tammuz4 #bhe ,now since the expressions xlon and staurs1 lignum and crux1 were of double significance and denoted both the seal of religious salvation and the gibbet1 it is possible that the two different significations became of themselves identical in the minds of the faithful4 #bhf ,this was possible so much the more easily since the biblical account placed by the side of the tree of life in ,paradise a tree of death1 the fateful tree of the knowledge of good and evil1 which was supposed to have been accountable for the death of ,adam and so of the whole of mankind1 and as such made the comparison possible with the wood upon which ,jesus died4 ,we meet again with a special form of the cross in the old ,assyrian or ,babylonian so-called mystical tree of mystery1 which was also a symbol of life4 ,among the ,persians it appears to have had some reference to the holy ,haoma tree2 and here1 too1 as well as in ,india1 where it was connected with the ,bodhi tree1 under which ,sakyamuni by his devout humility rose to be a ,buddha1 it was represented in the artificial shape of a many-armed cross4 #bhg ,one and the same word1 then 7xlon1 crux71 betokens both the gibbet and the pledge of life4 ,christ himself appears as the true ,tree of ,life1 as the original of that miraculous tree the sight of which gave life to the first man in ,paradise1 which will be the food of the blessed in the world to come1 and is represented symbolically by the mystical cross4 ,it was easy to unite the ideas connected with those expressions1 to look upon the seal of ,christ 7to semeion tou staurou1 signum crucis7 as the cross upon which he suffered1 and vice-vers1 and to ascribe to the wood upon which ,jesus is supposed to have died1 the shape of the mystic sign1 the ,tau1 or cross4 ,the heathens had been accustomed to regard the stake upon which their ,gods were hanged both as the representative of the ,god in question and the symbol of life and fruitfulness4 ,for example1 the stake furnished with four oblique sticks 7like a telegraph post71 which went by the name of the tatu1 tat1 dad1 or ded and was planted at the feast of ,osiris in ,egypt1 often had a rough picture of the ,god painted upon it1 as also the pine-tree trunk of ,attis1 in which connection the idea that the seed contained in the cones of the rock-pine from of old had served men as food1 while the sap found in them was prepared into an intoxicating drink 7,soma71 played its part4 #bhh ,we are reminded also of the ,germanic custom of the planting of the may-tree4 ,this was not only a symbol of the ,spring ,god1 but also represented the life bestowed by him4 ,in the same way the cross did not appear to the ,christians originally as the form of the gibbet upon which ,god died1 but as the tree of life1 the symbol of the new birth and redemption4 ,since1 however1 the word for the mystical sign was identical with the expression for the gibbet1 the double meaning led to the gibbet of ,jesus being looked upon as the symbol of life and redemption1 and the idea of the gibbet was mingled with that of the cross1 the shape of the latter being imagined for the former4 ,as ,justin in his conversation with the ,jew ,trypho informs us1 the ,jews used to run a spit lengthwise through the whole body of the ,paschal lamb and another cross-wise through its breast1 upon which the forefeet were fastened1 so that the two spits made the shape of a cross4 ,this was to them obviously not a symbol of execution but rather the sign of reconcilement with ,jahwe and of the new life thereon depending4 ,for the ,christians1 however1 who compared their ,saviour with the ,paschal lamb1 this may have been an additional cause for the above-mentioned commingling of ideas1 and this may have strengthened them in the conception that their ,god died upon the cross4 ,the ,phrygians1 moreover1 according to ,firmicus ,maternus1 at the ,spring ,feast of ,attis1 used to fasten a ram or lamb at the foot of the fig-tree trunk on which the image of their ,god was hung4 #bhi ,in agreement with this view is the fact that the earliest representations of ,christ in connection with the cross had for their subject not the suffering and crucified1 but the miraculous ,saviour triumphing over sickness and death4 ,he appeared as a youthful ,god with the ,book of the ,law1 the ,gospel1 in his hand1 the lamb at his feet1 the cross upon his head or in his right hand1 just as the heathen ,gods1 a ,jupiter1 or some crowned ruler1 used to be depicted with a cross-shaped sceptre4 ,or ,jesus' head was placed before the cross1 and this in the orb of the sun--and exactly at the point of intersection of the arms of the cross1 thus at the place where one otherwise finds the lamb4 ,even the ,church1 probably with a right feeling of the identity of ,agnus and ,agni1 and in order to remove the connection of ideas therein contained1 in the year #fib1 by the ,quinisext ,synod 7in ,trullo71 forbade the pictures of the lamb and required the representation to be of the ,saviour's human shape4 ,in spite of this even then they did not represent the ,crucified in the present-day sense of the word1 but portrayed ,christ in the form of one standing before the cross praying with outstretched arms4 ,or he was shown risen from the grave1 or standing upon the ,gospels at the foot of the cross1 out of this arising later the support for the feet in the pictures of him crucified4 ,here he was represented with open eyes1 with his head encircled by the sun's orb4 ,in all of these different representations accordingly the cross only brought again before the eyes in symbolical form what was at the same time expressed by the figure of ,christ standing at the cross1 just as at the feasts of ,osiris or ,attis the ,god was doubly represented1 both in his true shape 7as image or puppet7 and in the symbolical form of the ,jatu or pine-tree trunk4 ,this mode of depicting ,christ lasted a long while1 even though as early as the fifth or sixth century mention is made of crucifixion1 and in arbitrary interpretation of ,psa4 xxii4 #ag he was depicted with the marks of the nails4 ,for1 as has been said1 crux betokens both the gibbet and the mystical sign1 and the marks of the nails served to symbolise the ,saviour's triumph over pain and death4 ,an ivory plate in the ,british ,museum in ,london1 mentioned and copied by ,kraus1 #bij is considered the oldest representation of a crucifixion in our present sense4 ,it is said to be of fifth-century origin4 ,this assignment of date is1 however1 just as uncertain as the other1 according to which the miniature from the ,syrian ,gospel manuscript of the monk ,rabula of the monastery of ,zagba in ,mesopotamia1 which also has the crucifixion for subject and is to be found in the ,bibliotheca ,laurenziana at ,florence1 is assigned to the year #ehf4 ,in any case1 as a general rule until the eleventh century it was not the dead but the living ,christ who was depicted before or on the cross4 ,consequently an illustration in the ,bibliotheca ,laurenziana of about the date #ajfj is considered as the first certain example of a dead crucified ,christ4 #bia ,the conception of ,christ being put to death upon the cross is1 comparatively speaking1 a late one4 ,the connection of ,christ with the cross was originally not a reproduction of the manner of his death4 ,it rather symbolises1 as in the ancient ,mysteries1 precisely the reverse--the victory of the ,christian ,cult-,god over death--the idea of resurrection and life4 ,hence it is obvious that the above-mentioned juxtaposition of the cross and lamb must have expressed the same idea4 ,here1 too1 the cross was originally only the symbol of fire and life4 ,the lamb encircled by the sun's orb refers to the ceremonial burning of the lamb at the spring equinox as an expiatory sacrifice and as a pledge of a new life4 ,it appears the more plainly to be a figure of ,agni 7,agnus71 since it is usually placed exactly at the point of intersection of the two arms--that is1 at the place whence the divine spark first issued at the kindling of the fire with the two aran4 #bib ,,the ,,christian ,,jesus ,i ,,the ,,pauline ,,jesus ,the faith in a ,jesus had been for a long time in existence among innumerable ,mandaic sects in ,asia ,minor1 which differed in many ways from each other1 before this faith obtained a definite shape in the religion of ,jesus1 and its adherents became conscious of their religious peculiarities and their divergence from the official ,jewish religion4 ,the first evidence of such a consciousness1 and also the first brilliant outline of a new religion developed with ,jesus as its central idea1 lies in the epistles of the tent-maker of ,tarsus1 the pilgrim-apostle ,paul4 ,of the epistles in his name which have been handed down to us1 that to the ,hebrews is quite certainly not ,paul's4 ,but also the two epistles to the ,thessalonians1 that to the ,ephesians1 as well as the so-called pastoral epistles 7to ,timothy1 ,titus1 and ,philemon71 are considered by the overwhelming majority of theologians to be forgeries2 and also the authenticity of the epistles to the ,colossians and ,philippians is negatived by considerations of great weight4 ,but with all the more certainty modern critical theologians believe that ,paul was the writer of the four great didactic epistles--one to the ,galatians1 two to the ,corinthians1 and one to the ,romans2 and they are wont to set aside all suspicion of these epistles as a grave error of historical hypercriticism4 ,in opposition to this view the authenticity of even these epistles is contested1 apart from ,bruno ,bauer1 especially by ,dutch theologians1 by ,pierson1 ,loman1 von ,mauen1 ,meyboom1 ,matthes1 and others2 and1 in addition1 recently the ,bern theologian ,r4 ,steck1 and ,b4 ,w4 ,smith1 ,professor of ,mathematics in the ,tulane ,university of ,new ,orleans1 with whom the late ,pastor ,albert ,kalthoff of ,bremen was associated1 have contested the traditional view with objections that deserve consideration4 ,they have attempted to prove the ,pauline epistles1 as a literary product1 to be the work of a whole school of second-century theologians1 authors who either simultaneously or successively wrote for the growing ,church4 ,this much is certain--a conclusive proof that ,paul was really the author of the epistles current in his name cannot be given4 ,with regard to this it must always remain a ground for doubt that ,luke1 who accompanied ,paul on his missionary travels1 was completely silent as to such literary activity of the apostle2 and this1 although he devoted the greatest portion of his account in the ,acts to ,paul's activities4 #bic ,also the proof given by ,smith1 that the ,pauline epistles were as yet completely unknown in the first century a4d41 that in particular the existence of the ,epistle to the ,romans is not testified to before the middle of the second century1 must speak seriously against ,paul's authorship1 and is evidence that those epistles cannot be accepted as the primary source of the ,pauline doctrines4 ,for this reason it can in no way be asserted that the critical theology of last century has scientifically and beyond question established #bid the authenticity of the ,pauline writings4 ,it is well known that the ancient world was not as yet in possession of the idea of literary individuality in our sense of the word4 ,at that time innumerable works were circulated bearing famous names1 whose authors had neither at the time nor probably at any time anything to do with the men who bore those names4 ,many such productions were circulated among the members of ,sects of antiquity1 which passed1 for example1 under the names of ,orpheus1 of ,pythagoras1 of ,zoroaster1 c41 and thereby sought to procure the canonical acceptance of their contents6 ,of the works of the ,old ,testament neither the ,psalms1 nor the ,proverbs1 nor the so-called ,preacher1 nor the ,book of ,wisdom1 can be connected with the historical kings ,david and ,solomon1 whose names they bear2 and the prophet ,daniel is just such a fictitious personality as the ,enoch and the ,ezra of the ,apocalypses known under their names4 ,even the so-called ,five ,books of ,moses are the literary product of an age much later than the one in which ,moses is supposed to have lived1 while ,joshua is the name of an old ,israelite ,god after whom the book in question is called4 #bie ,there has never anywhere been such a ,moses as the one described in the ,old ,testament4 ,the possibility of the so-called ,pauline epistles having been the work of later theologians1 and of having been christened in the name of ,paul1 the apostle of the ,gentiles1 only to increase their authority in the community1 is therefore by no means excluded2 especially when we consider how exuberantly literary falsifications and pious frauds flourished in the first century1 and at other times also1 in the interests of the ,christian ,church4 ,indeed1 at that time they even dared1 as is shown by ,christian documents of the second century1 to alter the very text of the ,old ,testament1 and thereby1 as they used to say1 to elucidate it4 ,already in the middle of the second century ,marcion1 the ,gnostic1 reproached the ,church with possessing the ,pauline epistles only in a garbled form1 and who can say whether it was a false accusation8 ,he himself undertook to restore the correct text by excisions and completions4 #bif ,but let us leave completely on one side the question of the authenticity of the ,pauline epistles1 a question absolute agreement on which will probably never be attained1 for the simple reason that we lack any certain basis for its decision4 ,instead of this let us turn rather to what we learn from these epistles concerning the historical ,jesus4 ,there we meet in the first place with the fact1 testified to by ,paul himself1 that the ,saviour revealed himself in person to him1 and at the same time caused him to enter his service 7,gal4 i4 #ab74 ,it was1 as is stated in the ,acts1 on the way to ,damascus that suddenly there shone round about him a light out of heaven1 while a voice summoned him to cease his former persecution of the community of the ,messiah1 and revealed itself to him as ,jesus4 #big ,there is no need to doubt the fact itself2 but to see in it a proof of the historical ,jesus is reserved for those theologians who have discovered the splendid conception of an objective vision1 basing the objective reality of the vision in question on ,paul's life in the desert4 ,it was obviously only an inner vision1 which the visionary and epileptic ,paul attributed to ,jesus2 and for this reason it proves nothing as to the existence of an historical ,jesus when he asks1 #a ,cor4 ix4 #a1 ,have ,i not seen our ,lord ,jesus8 and remarks1 #a ,cor4 xv4 #i1 ,last of all he appeared to me also4 ,it only proves the dilemma of theologians on the whole question that they have recently asserted that ,paul1 notwithstanding his own protestations 7,gal4 i471 must have had a personal knowledge of the historical ,jesus1 as otherwise on the occasion at ,damascus he could not have recognised the features and voice of the transfigured ,jesus1 not being already acquainted with them from some other quarter6 ,with equal justice we might assert that the heathens also1 who had visions of their ,gods1 must previously have known them personally1 as otherwise they could not have known that ,zeus or ,athene or any other definite ,god had appeared to them4 ,in the ,acts we read only of an apparition of light which ,paul saw1 and of a voice which called to him1 ,saul1 why persecutest thou me8 ,is the supposition referred to necessary to account for the fact that ,paul1 the persecutor of ,jesus1 referred the voice and the vision to ,jesus8 ,the case is similar with ,paul's testimony as to those who1 like him1 saw the ,saviour after his death4 #bih ,it is possible that the people concerned saw something1 that they saw a ,jesus risen up in heavenly transfiguration2 but that this was the ,jesus of the so-called historical theology1 whose existence is hereby established1 even its supporters would not in all probability insist upon2 for in their view the historical ,jesus had in no way risen from the dead3 but here also there would only be question of a purely subjective vision of the ecstatically excited disciples4 ,moreover1 the passage of the ,epistle to the ,corinthians in question 7#e-aa7 seems clearly to be one at least very much interpolated1 if it is not entirely an after-insertion4 ,thus1 the ,risen ,jesus is said to have been seen by more than five hundred ,brethren at once4 ,but of this the four ,gospels know nothing2 and also1 according to xv4 #e1 that the twelve had the vision1 would lead us to suspect that it was first inserted in the text at a much later date4 #bii ,paul himself never disguised the fact that he had seen ,jesus1 not with mortal eyes1 but only with those of the ,spirit1 as an inner revelation4 ,it has pleased ,god1 he says 7,gal4 i4 #af71 to reveal his ,son within me4 #cjj ,he confesses that the ,gospel preached by him was not of men1 that he neither received nor learnt it from any man1 but that he had obtained it directly from the heavenly ,christ and was inspired by the ,holy ,ghost4 #cja ,he seems also to have had no interest at all in giving accurate information as to the personality of ,jesus1 as to his fortunes and teachings4 ,when three years after his conversion he first returns to ,jerusalem1 he visits only ,peter and makes the acquaintance of ,james during the fourteen days of his stay there1 troubling himself about none of the other apostles4 #cjb ,but when1 fourteen years after1 he meets with the ,first ,apostles in the so-called ,council of the ,apostles in ,jerusalem1 he does not set about learning from them1 but teaching them and procuring from them recognition of his own missionary activity2 and he himself declares that he spoke with them only on the method of proclaiming the ,gospel1 but not on its religious content or on the personality of the historic ,jesus4 #cjc ,certainly that ,james whose acquaintance ,paul made in ,jerusalem is designated by him as the ,brother of the ,lord2 #cjd and from this it seems to follow that ,jesus must have been an historical person4 ,the expression ,brother1 however1 is possibly in this case1 as so often in the ,gospels1 #cje only a general expression to designate a follower of ,jesus1 as the members of a religious society in antiquity frequently called each other ,brother and ,sister among themselves4 #a ,cor4 ix4 #e runs3 ,have we i4e41 ,paul and ,barnabas not also right to take about with us a wife that is a sister1 even as the other ,apostles and ,brothers of the ,lord and ,cephas8 ,there it is evident that the expression by no means necessarily refers to bodily relationship1 but that ,brother serves only to designate the followers of the religion of ,jesus4 #cjf ,accordingly ,jerome seems to have hit the truth exactly when1 commenting on ,gal4 i4 #ai1 he writes3 ,james was called the ,brother of the ,lord on account of his great character though the ,pauline epistles certainly show the opposite of this1 of his incomparable faith and extraordinary wisdom4 ,the other ,apostles were as a matter of fact also called ,brothers1 but he was specially so called1 because the ,lord at his death had confided to him the sons of his mother 7i4e41 the members of the community at ,jerusalem74 #cjg ,and how then should ,paul have met with a physical brother of that very ,jesus whom1 as will be shown1 he could only treat as a myth in other respects8 ,the thing is1 considered now purely psychologically1 so improbable that no conclusion can in any case be drawn from the expression concerning ,james as the ,brother of the ,lord as to the historical existence of ,jesus2 especially in view of the fact that theologians from the second century to the present day have been unable to come to an agreement as to the true blood-relationship between ,james and ,jesus4 #cjh ,moreover1 if we consider how the glorification of ,james came into fashion in anti-,pauline circles of the second century1 and how customary it was to connect the chief of the ,jewish ,christians at ,jerusalem as closely as possible with ,jesus himself 7e4g41 ,hegesippus1 in the so-called ,epistles of ,clement1 in the ,gospel of the ,nazarenes1 c471 the suspicion forces itself on us that the ,pauline mention of ,james as the ,brother of the ,lord is perhaps only an after-insertion in the ,epistle to the ,galatians in order thereby to have the bodily relationship between ,james and ,jesus confirmed by ,paul himself4 #cji ,jesus' parents are not historical personalities 7see above1 #aag ff472 and it is probably the same with his brothers and sisters4 ,also ,paul never refers to the testimony of the brothers or of the disciples of ,jesus concerning their ,master2 though this would have been most reasonable had they really known any more of ,jesus than he himself did4 ,he bases1 as ,kalthoff justly objects1 not a single one of his most incisive polemical arguments against the adherents of the law on the ground that he had the historical ,jesus on his side2 but he gives his own detailed theological ideas without mentioning an historical ,jesus1 he gives a gospel of ,christ1 not the gospel which he had heard at first1 second1 or third hand concerning a human individual ,jesus4 #caj ,from ,paul1 therefore1 there is nothing of a detailed nature to be learnt about the historical ,jesus4 ,the apostle does indeed occasionally refer to the words and opinions of the ,lord1 as with regard to the prohibition of divorce1 #caa or to the right of the apostles to be fed by the community4 #cab ,but as the exact words are not given there is no express reference to an historical individual of the name of ,jesus2 and so we are persuaded that we here have to do with mere rules of a community such as were current and had canonical significance everywhere in the religious unions as ,words of the ,master1 i4e41 of the patrons and celebrities of the community 7cf4 the autos epha3 he himself1 viz41 the ,master1 has said it of the ,pythagoreans74 ,only once1 #a ,cor4 xi4 #bc sq41 where ,paul quotes the words at the ,last ,supper1 does the apostle apparently refer to an experience of the historical ,jesus3 ,the ,lord ,jesus1 in the night in which he was betrayed1 took bread1 c4 #cac ,unfortunately here we have to do with what is clearly a later insertion4 ,the passage is obscure throughout 7vers4 #bc-cb71 and through its violent and confusing interruption of the ,pauline line of thought may be recognised as an after-insertion in the original text1 as is even acknowledged by many on the theological side4 #cad ,paul says that he had obtained these things from the ,lord himself4 ,does this mean that they were directly revealed to him by the transfigured ,jesus8 ,it seems much more reasonable to believe that he took them from a religion already existing4 ,this could indeed refer at most only to the words of the ,last ,supper in themselves4 ,on the other hand1 the words in the night in which he was betrayed are certainly an addition4 ,they will do neither in the connection of a revelation nor of an existing religion1 but stand there completely by themselves as a reference to a real event in the life of ,jesus2 and so1 for this alone1 they form much too small a basis for testimony as to its historical truth4 #cae ,all expressions concerning ,jesus which are found in ,paul are accordingly of no consequence for the hypothesis of an historical person of that name4 ,the so-called words of the ,lord quoted by him refer to quite unimportant points in the teachings of ,jesus4 ,and1 on the other hand1 ,paul is just as silent on those points in which modern critical theology finds the particular greatness and importance of this teaching2 as1 e4g41 on ,jesus' confidence in the divine goodness of the ,father1 his command of the love of our neighbours as the fulfilment of the ,law1 his sermon about humility and charity1 his warning against the over-esteem of worldly goods1 c41 as on ,jesus' personality1 his trust in ,god1 and his activity among his people4 #caf ,paul did not give himself the least trouble to bring the ,saviour as a man nearer to his readers4 ,he seems to know nothing of any miraculous power in ,jesus4 ,he says nothing of his sympathy with the poor and oppressed1 though surely just this would have been specially adapted to turn the hearts of men towards his ,jesus and to make an impression on the multitude that sought for miracles4 ,all the moral-religious precepts and exhortations of ,jesus are neither employed by ,paul as a means of proselytising for him1 nor in any way used to place his individuality in opposition to his prophetic precursors in a right light1 as is the case in the ,christian literature of the present day4 ,thus1 just those thoughts1 which ,protestant theologians claim as the particular domain of their historical ,jesus1 appear in the epistles independently of this ,jesus1 as individual moral effusions of the apostolic consciousness2 while ,christian social rules1 which the same theologians consider additions to the story1 are introduced directly as rules of the ,lord4 ,for this reason the ,christ of the ,pauline epistles may rather be cited as a case against critical theologians than serve as a proof for the historical ,jesus in their sense4 #cag ,even so zealous a champion of this theology as ,wernle must admit3 ,we learn from ,paul least of all concerning the person and life of ,jesus4 ,were all his epistles lost we should know not much less of ,jesus than at present4 ,immediately after this1 however1 this very author consoles himself with the consideration that in a certain sense ,paul gave us even more than the most exact and the most copious records could give4 ,we learn from him that a man 787 ,jesus1 in spite of his death on the cross1 was able to develop such a power after his death1 that ,paul knew himself to be mastered1 redeemed1 and blessed by him2 and this in so marked a way that he separated his own life and the whole world into two parts3 without ,jesus1 with ,jesus4 ,this is a fact which1 explain it as we may1 purely as a fact excites our wonder 767 and compels us to think highly of ,jesus4 #cah ,what does excite our wonder is this style of historical demonstration4 ,and then how peculiar it is to read1 from the silence of an author like ,paul concerning the historical ,jesus1 an argument in its favour6 ,as if it does not rather prove the unimportance of such a personality for the genesis of ,christianity6 ,as if the fact that ,paul erected a religious-metaphysical thought construction of undoubted magnificence must necessarily be based on the overwhelming impression of the person of ,jesus1 of the same ,jesus of whom ,paul had no personal knowledge at all6 ,the disciples--who are supposed to have been in touch with ,jesus for many years--,paul strenuously avoided1 and of the existence of this ,jesus no other signs are to be found in his epistles but such as may have quite a different meaning4 ,or did ,paul1 as historical theology says1 reveal more of ,jesus in his sermons than he did in the epistles8 ,surely that could only be maintained after it was first established that in his account ,paul had in view any historical ,jesus at all4 ,this seems to be completely problematic4 ,the humanity of ,jesus stands as the central point of the ,pauline idea4 ,and yet the ,jesus painted by ,paul is not a man1 but a purely divine personality1 a heavenly spirit without flesh and blood1 an unindividual superhuman phantom4 ,he is the ,son of ,god made manifest in ,paul2 the ,messiah foretold by the ,jewish ,apocalyptics2 the pre-existing ,son of ,man of ,daniel and his followers2 the spiritual ideal man as he appeared in the minds of the ,jews influenced by ,platonic ideas2 whom also ,philo knew as the metaphysical prototype of ordinary sensual humanity and thought he had found typified to in ,gen4 i4 #bg4 ,he is the great man of the ,indian legends1 who was supposed to have appeared also in ,buddha and in other ,redeemer figures--the ,purusha of the ,vedic ,brahmans1 the ,mand de hajj and ,hibil ,ziw of the ,mandaic religion influenced by ,indian ideas1 the tribe-,god of syncretised ,judaism4 ,the knowledge which ,paul has of this ,being is for this reason not an ordinary acquaintance from teachings1 but a ,gnosis1 an immediate consciousness1 a knowledge inspired2 and all the statements which he makes concerning it fall within the sphere of theosophy1 of religious speculation or metaphysics1 but not of history4 ,as we have stated1 the belief in such a ,jesus had been for a long time the property of ,jewish sects1 when ,paul succeeded1 on the ground of his astounding personal experiences1 in drawing it into the light from the privacy of religious arcana1 and setting it up as the central point of a new religion distinct from ,judaism4 ,there was already in their minds a faith in a divine revealer1 a divine-human activity1 in salvation to be obtained through sacraments4 #cai ,among the neighbouring heathen peoples for a very long time1 and in ,jewish circles at least since the days of the prophets1 there had existed a belief in a divine mediator1 a ,son of ,god1 a ,first-born of all creation1 in whom was made all that exists1 who came down upon earth1 humbled himself in taking on a human form1 suffered for mankind a shameful death1 but rose again victorious1 and in his elevation and transfiguration simultaneously renewed and spiritualised the whole earth4 #cbj ,then ,paul appeared--in an age which was permeated as no other with a longing for redemption2 which1 overwhelmed by the gloom of its external relations1 was possessed with the fear of evil powers2 which1 penetrated with terror of the imminent end of the world1 was anxiously awaiting this event and had lost faith in the saving power of the old religion--then he gave such an expression to that belief as made it appear the only means of escape from the confusion of present existence4 ,can the assumption of an historical ,jesus in the sense of the traditional conception really be necessary1 in order to account for the fact that men fled impetuously to this new religion of ,paul's8 ,is it even probable that the intelligent populations of the sea-ports of ,asia ,minor and ,greece1 among whom in particular ,paul preached the ,gospel of ,jesus1 would have turned towards ,christianity for the reason that at some time or other1 ten or twenty years before1 an itinerant preacher of the name of ,jesus had made an overpowering impression on ignorant fisher-folk and workmen in ,galilee or ,jerusalem by his personal bearing and his teachings1 and had been believed by them to be the expected ,messiah1 the renowned divine mediator and redeemer of the world8 ,paul did not preach the man ,jesus1 but the heavenly spiritual being1 ,christ4 #cba ,the public to which ,paul turned consisted for the most part of ,gentiles2 and to these the conception of a spiritual being presented no difficulties4 ,it could have no strengthening1 no guarantee1 of its truth1 through proof of the manhood of ,jesus4 ,if the ,christians of the beginning of our own historical epoch had only been able to gain faith in the ,god ,christ through the ,man ,jesus1 ,paul would have turned his attention from that which1 to him1 particularly mattered2 he would have obscured the individual meaning of his ,gospel and brought his whole religious speculation into a false position1 by substituting a man ,jesus for the ,god-man ,jesus as he understood him4 #cbb ,paul is said to have been born in the ,greek city of ,tarsus in ,cilicia1 the son of ,jewish parents4 ,at that time ,tarsus was1 like ,alexandria1 an important seat of ,greek learning4 ,here flourished the school of the younger ,stoics1 with its mixture of old ,stoic1 ,orphic1 and ,platonic ideas4 ,here the ethical principles of that school were preached in a popular form1 in street and market-place1 by orators of the people4 ,it was not at all necessary for ,paul1 brought up in the austerity of the ,jewish religion of the ,law1 to visit the lecture-rooms of the ,stoic teachers in order to gain a knowledge of ,stoic views1 for in ,tarsus it was as though the air was filled with that doctrine4 ,paul was certainly acquainted with it4 ,it sank so deeply into his mind1 perhaps unknown to himself1 that his epistles are full of the expressions and ideas of the ,stoic philosopher ,seneca1 and to this are due the efforts which have been made to make ,seneca a pupil of ,paul's1 or the reverse1 to make ,paul a pupil of ,seneca's4 ,a correspondence exists1 which is admittedly a forgery1 pretending to have passed between the two4 ,tarsus1 in spite of its ,eastern character1 was a city saturated with ,greek learning and ways of thought1 but not these alone4 ,the religious ideas and motives of the time found also a fruitful soil there4 ,in ,tarsus the ,hittite ,sandan 7,sardanapal7 was worshipped1 a human being upon whom ,dionysus had bestowed the godhead of life and fecundity1 who was identified by the ,greeks either with ,zeus1 or with ,heracles1 the divine ,son of the ,father ,zeus4 ,he passed as the founder of the city1 and was represented as a bearded man with bunches of grapes and ears of corn1 with a double-headed axe in his right hand1 standing on a lion or a funeral pyre2 and every year it was the custom for a human representative of the ,god1 or in later times his effigy1 to be ceremoniously burnt on a pyre4 #cbc ,but ,tarsus was also at the same time a centre for the mystery-religions of the ,east4 ,the worship of ,mithras1 in particular1 flourished there1 with its doctrine of the mystic death and re-birth of those received into the communion1 who were thereby purified from the guilt of their past life and won a new immortal life in the ,spirit2 with its sacred feast1 at which the believers entered into a communion of life with ,mithra by partaking of the consecrated bread and chalice2 with its conception of the magic effect of the victim's blood1 which washed away all sins2 and with its ardent desire for redemption1 purification1 and sanctification of the soul4 #cbd ,paul was not unaffected by these and similar ideas4 ,his conception of the mystic significance of ,christ's death shows that2 in which conception the whole of this type of religious thought is expressed1 although in a new setting4 ,indeed1 the expression 7,gal4 iii4 #bg71 in which the baptized are said to have put on ,christ1 seems to be borrowed directly from the ,mithraic ,mysteries4 ,for in these1 according to a primitive animistic custom1 the initiated of different degrees used to be present in the masks of beasts1 representing ,god's existence under diverse attributes2 that is1 they used to put on the ,lord in order to place themselves in innermost communion with him4 ,again1 the ,pauline expression1 that the consecrated chalice and bread at the ,lord's ,supper are the communion of the blood and body of ,christ1 #cbe reminds us too forcibly of the method of expression in the ,mysteries for this agreement to be purely a coincidence4 #cbf ,if in such circumstances ,paul1 the citizen of ,tarsus1 heard of a ,jewish ,god of the name of ,jesus1 the ideas which were connected with him were in no way quite new and unaccustomed4 ,nearer ,asia was1 indeed1 as we have seen1 filled with the idea of a young and beautiful ,god1 who reanimated ,nature by his death2 with popular legends connected with his violent end and glorious resurrection3 and not merely in ,tarsus1 but also in ,cyprus and in countless other places of the ,western ,asiatic civilised world1 there was the yearly celebration in most impressive fashion of the feast of this ,god1 who was called ,tammuz1 ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,dionysus1 ,osiris1 c4 ,nowhere1 perhaps1 was the celebration more magnificent than at ,antioch1 the ,syrian capital4 ,but at ,antioch1 if we may believe the ,acts #cbg on this point1 the ,gospel of ,jesus had been preached even before ,paul4 ,men of ,cyprus and ,cyrene are said to have spoken there the ,word of the dead and risen ,christ1 not only to the ,jews but also to the ,greeks1 and they are said to have converted many of the heathens to the new ,lord4 ,the ,acts tells us this after it has recounted the persecution of the community of the ,messiah at ,jerusalem2 representing the spreading of the ,gospel as a consequence of the dispersion of the community that followed the persecution4 ,it seems1 however1 that ,cyprus--where ,adonis was particularly worshipped1 at ,paphos--and ,cyrene were very early centres from which missionaries carried abroad the faith in ,christ4 #cbh ,consequently the ,gospel was in origin nothing but a ,judaised and spiritualised ,adonis cult4 #cbi ,those earliest missionaries of whom we hear would not have attacked the faith of the ,syrian heathens3 they would have declared that ,christ1 the ,messiah1 the ,god of the ,jewish religions1 was ,adonis3 ,christ is the ,lord6 ,they would only have attempted to draw the old native religion of ,adonis into the ,jewish sphere of thought1 and by this means to carry on the ,jewish propaganda which they could find everywhere at work1 and which developed an efficacy about the beginning of our epoch such as it had never before possessed4 ,they would carry on the propaganda1 not in the sense of the strict standpoint of the ,law1 but of the ,jewish ,apocalypses and their religious teachings4 #ccj ,such a man as ,paul1 who had been educated in the school of ,gamaliel as a teacher of the ,law of the strict ,pharisaical sort1 could not indeed calmly look on while the heathen belief in ,adonis1 which he must surely1 even in his native city of ,tarsus1 have despised as a blasphemous superstition1 was uniting itself1 in the new religious sects1 with the ,jewish conceptions4 ,cursed is he who is hung upon the tree1 so it stood written in the ,law2 #cca and the ceremony of the purification--at which one criminal was hung1 amid the insults of the people1 as the scapegoat of the old year1 while another was set free as ,mordecai1 and driven with regal honours through the city1 being revered as representative of the new year--must have been in his eyes only another proof of the disgrace of the tree1 and of the blasphemous character of a belief that honoured in the hanged man the divine ,saviour of the world1 the ,messiah expected by the ,jews4 ,then on a sudden there came over him as it were enlightenment4 ,what if the festivals of the ,syrian ,adonis1 of the ,phrygian ,attis1 and so on1 really treated of the self-sacrifice of a ,god who laid down his life for the world8 ,the guiltless martyrdom of an upright man as expiatory means to the justification of his people was also not unknown to the adherents of the ,law since the days of the ,maccabean martyrs4 ,the suffering servant of ,god1 as ,isaiah had portrayed him1 suggests as quite probable the idea that1 just as among the heathen peoples1 in ,israel also an individual might renew the life of all others by his voluntary sacrifice4 ,might it not be true1 as the adherents of the ,jesus-religions maintained1 that the ,messiah was really a servant of ,god1 and had already accomplished the work of redemption by his own voluntary death8 ,according to the heathen view1 the people were atoned for by the vicarious sacrifice of their ,god1 and that justification of all in the sight of the ,godhead took place which the pious ,pharisee expected from the strict fulfilment of the ,jewish ,law4 ,and yet1 when ,paul compared the righteousness actually achieved by himself and others with the ideal of righteousness for which they strove1 as it was required in the ,law1 then terror at the greatness of the contrast between the ideal and the reality must have seized him2 and at the same time he might well have despaired of the divine righteousness1 which required of the people the fulfilment of the ,law1 which weighed the people down with the thought of the imminent end of the world1 and which1 through the very nature of its commands1 excluded the possibility of the ,messiah meeting on his arrival1 as he should have done1 with a righteous people4 ,were those who expected the sanctification of humanity not from the fulfilment of the ,law1 but immediately1 through an infusion of ,god himself1 really so much in the wrong8 ,it was not unusual among the heathen peoples for a man to be sacrificed1 in the place of the ,deity1 as a symbolical representative2 although already at the time of ,paul it was the custom to represent the self-sacrificing ,god only by an effigy1 instead of a real man4 ,the important point1 however1 was not this1 but the idea which lay at the foundation of this divine self-sacrifice4 ,and this was not affected by the victim's being a criminal1 who was killed in the rle of the guiltless and upright man1 and by the voluntariness of his death being completely fictitious4 ,might it not also be1 as the believers in ,jesus asserted1 that the ,messiah was not still to be expected1 and that only on the ground of human righteousness2 but that rather he had already appeared1 and had already accomplished the righteousness unattainable by the individual through his shameful death and his glorious resurrection8 ,the moment in which this idea flashed through ,paul's mind was the moment of the birth of ,christianity as ,paul's religion4 ,the form in which he grasped that conception was that of an ,incarnation of ,god2 and at the same time this form was such that he introduced with it quite a new impulse into the former mode of thought4 ,according to the heathen conception a ,god did indeed sacrifice himself for his people1 without thereby ceasing to be ,god2 and here the man sacrificed in the place of ,god was considered merely as a chance representative of the self-sacrificing ,god4 ,according to the old view of the ,jewish faith it was really the ,son of ,man1 a being of human nature1 who was to come down from heaven and effect the work of redemption1 without1 however1 being a real man and without suffering and dying in human form4 ,with ,paul1 on the contrary1 the stress lay just on this1 that the ,redeemer should be himself really a man1 and that the man sacrificed in ,god's place should be equally the ,god appearing in human form3 the man was not merely a representation of ,god's as a celestial and supernatural being1 but ,god himself appearing in human form4 ,god himself becomes man1 and thereby a man is exalted to the ,deity1 and1 as expiatory representative for his people1 can unite mankind with ,god4 #ccb ,the man who is sacrificed for his people represents on the one hand his people in the eyes of ,god1 but on the other hand the ,god sacrificing himself for mankind in the eyes of this people4 ,and thereby1 in the idea of the representative expiatory victim1 the separation between ,god and ,man is blotted out1 and both fuse directly in the conception of the ,god-man4 ,god becomes man1 and by this means mankind is enabled to become ,god4 ,the man is sacrificed as well in the place of ,god as in that of mankind1 and so unites both contradictories in a unity within himself4 ,it is evident that in reality it was merely a new setting to the old conception of the representative self-sacrifice of ,god--in which the genitive is to be taken both in its subjective and objective sense4 ,no historical personality1 who should1 so to say1 have lived as an example of the ,god-man1 was in any way necessary to produce that ,pauline development of the religion of ,jesus4 ,for the chance personalities of the men representing the ,god came under consideration just as little for ,paul as for the heathens2 and when he also1 with the other ,jews1 designated the ,messiah ,jesus as the bodily descendant of ,david according to the flesh1 #ccc i4e41 as a man2 when he treated him as born of woman1 he thought not at all of any concrete individuality1 which had at a certain time embodied the divinity within itself1 but purely of the idea of a ,messiah in the flesh2 just as the suffering servant of ,god of ,isaiah1 even in spite of the connection of this idea with an actually accomplished human sacrifice1 had possessed only an ideal imaginary or typical significance4 ,the objection is always being raised that ,paul must have conceived of ,jesus as an historical individual because he designates him as the bodily descendant of ,david1 and makes him born of woman 7,gal4 iv4 #d74 ,but how else could he have been born8 7,cf4 ,job xiv4 #a47 ,the bringing into prominence the birth from woman1 as well as the general emphasis laid by the ,apostle on the humanity of ,jesus1 is directed against the ,gnostics in the ,corinthian community1 but proves nothing whatsoever as to the historical ,jesus4 ,and the descent from ,david was part of the traditional characteristics of the ,messiah2 so that ,paul could say it of ,jesus without referring to a real descendant of ,david4 ,but even less is proved by ,paul's1 in ,gal4 iii4 #a1 reproaching the ,galatians with having seen the crucified ,christ set forth openly2 we would then have to declare also that there was an actual devil and a hell1 because these are set forth to the faithful by the caretakers of their souls when preaching4 ,here then lies the explanation for the fact that the man ,jesus remained an intangible phantom to ,paul1 and that he can speak of ,christ as a man1 without thinking of an historical personality in the sense of the liberal theology of the present day4 ,the ideal man1 as ,paul represented ,jesus to himself--the essence of all human existence--the human race considered as a person1 who represented humanity to ,god1 just as the man sacrificed in his rle had represented the ,deity to the people--the ,man on whom alone redemption depended--is and remains a metaphysical ,being--just as the ,idea of ,plato or the ,logos of ,philo are none the less metaphysical existences because of their descent into the world of the senses and of their assuming in it a definite individual corporality4 ,and what ,paul teaches concerning the man ,jesus is only a detailed development and deepening of what the ,mandi believed of their ,mand de hajj or ,hibil ,ziw1 and of what the ,jewish religions under the influence of the ,apocalypses involved in their mysterious doctrines of the ,messiah4 ,for ,paul the descent1 death1 and resurrection of ,jesus represented an eternal but not an actual story in time2 and so to search ,paul for the signs of an historical ,jesus is to misunderstand the chief point in his religious view of the world4 ,god1 the father of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 awakened his son and sent him down upon the earth for the redemption of mankind4 ,although originally one with ,god1 and for that reason himself a divine being1 ,christ nevertheless renounced his original supernatural existence4 ,in contradiction to his real ,being he changed his spiritual nature for the likeness of sinful flesh1 gave up his heavenly kingdom for the poverty and misery of human existence1 and came to mankind in the form of a servant1 being found in fashion as a man1 in order to bring redemption4 #ccd ,for man is unable to obtain religious salvation through himself alone4 ,in him the spirit is bound to the flesh1 his divine supersensible ,being is bound down to the material of sensible actuality1 and for that reason he is subject by nature to misfortune and sin4 ,all flesh is necessarily sinful flesh4 ,man is compelled to sin just in so far as he is a being of the flesh4 ,adam1 moreover1 is the originator of all human sin only for the reason that he was in the flesh--that is1 a finite ,being imprisoned in corporality4 ,probably ,god gave the ,law unto mankind1 in order to show them the right path in their obscurity2 and thereby opened the possibility of being declared righteous or justified before his court1 through the fulfilment of his commands2 but it is impossible to keep the commandments in their full severity4 ,and yet only the ceaseless fulfilment of the whole ,law can save mankind from justice4 ,we are all sinners4 #cce ,so the ,law indeed awakened the knowledge of guilt1 and brought sin to light through its violation2 but it has at the same time increased the guilt4 #ccf ,it has shown itself to be a strict teacher and taskmaster in righteousness1 without1 however1 itself leading to righteousness4 ,so little has it proved to be the desired means of salvation1 that it may equally be said of it that it was given by ,god not for the purpose of saving mankind1 but only to make it still more miserable4 ,consequently ,paul would rather attribute the mediation of the ,law of ,moses not to ,god himself but to his angels1 in order to relieve ,god of the guilt of the ,law4 #ccg ,this circumstance is of so much the more consequence for mankind1 because the sin aroused by the ,law unresistingly drew death in its train2 and that deprived them also of the last possibility of becoming equal to their higher spiritual nature4 ,so is man placed midway between light and darkness--a pitiable ,being4 ,his spirit1 that is kin with ,god1 draws him upwards2 and the evil spirit and dmons drag him downwards1 the evil spirits who rule this world and who lure him into sin--and who are at bottom nothing but mythical personifications of man's sinful and fleshly desires4 ,christ now enters this world of darkness and of sin4 ,as a man among men1 he enters the sphere over which the flesh and sin have power1 and must die as other men4 ,but for the incarnate ,god death is not what it is in the ordinary sense4 ,for him it is only the liberation from the incongruous condition of the flesh4 ,when ,christ dies1 he merely strips off the fetters of the flesh and leaves the prison of the body1 leaves the sphere over which sin1 death1 and evil spirits hold their sway4 ,he1 the ,god-man1 dies to the sin1 which was once unknown to him1 once and for all4 ,by prevailing over the power of death in his resurrection1 the ,son regains1 by means of death1 his original individual existence1 perpetual life in and with the ,father4 #cch ,thus also does he attain mastery over the ,law1 for this rules only in so far as there are fleshly men of earth1 and ceases to hold good for him at the moment when ,christ raises himself above the flesh and returns to his pure spiritual nature4 ,were there the possibility for mankind of similarly dying to their flesh1 then would they be redeemed1 as ,christ was1 from sin1 death1 and the ,law4 ,there is1 in fact1 such a possibility4 ,it lies in this3 even ,christ himself is nothing but the idea of the human race conceived as a personality1 the ,platonic idea of ,humanity personified1 the ideal man as a metaphysical essence2 and so in his fate the fate of all mankind is fulfilled4 ,in this sense the saying holds1 ,if one has died for all1 then have they all died4 #cci ,in order to become partakers of the fruit of this ,jesus' death1 it is certainly necessary that the individual man become really one with ,christ2 that he enter into an inner unity with the representative1 with the divine type of the human race1 not merely subjectively1 but objectively and actually2 and this takes place1 according to ,paul1 by means of faith4 ,faith1 as ,paul understands it1 is not a purely external belief in the actuality of ,jesus' death as a victim and of his resurrection1 but the turning of the whole man to ,jesus1 the spiritual unification with him and the divine disposition produced thereby1 from which the corresponding moral action proceeds of itself4 ,it is only in this sense that ,paul sets faith above works as demanded by the ,law4 ,an action that does not proceed from faith1 from the deepest conviction of the divine1 has no religious value1 be it ever so conformable to the letter of the ,law4 ,that is a view which ,paul completely shared with the ,stoic philosophy of his age1 and which was at that time being brought more and more to the front in the more advanced circles of the old civilisation4 ,man is justified not through the ,law1 not through works1 but through faith2 faith1 even without works1 is reckoned as righteousness4 #cdj ,it is only another expression for the same thought when ,paul says that ,god justifies man1 not according to his merit and actions1 but gratuitously1 of his grace4 ,in the conception of the ,jewish religion of the ,law the idea of justification has a purely juridical significance4 ,reward here answers exactly to merit4 ,justification is nothing but an obligation according to an irrevocable standard4 ,in ,paul's new conception it is1 on the contrary1 a natural product of ,god's mercy4 ,but mercy consists finally in this1 that ,god of his own accord sacrificed his ,son1 so that mankind may share in the effects of his work of redemption by faith in him1 and by the unity with him thus brought about4 ,but faith is only one way of becoming one with ,christ2 and real unity with him must also be externally effected4 ,baptism and the ,lord's ,supper must be added to faith4 ,there ,paul directly follows the ,mysteries and their sacramental conception of man's unification with the deity2 and shows the connection of his own doctrines with those of the heathen religions4 ,by his baptism1 his immersion and disappearance in the depths of the water1 man is buried in death with ,christ4 ,in that he rises once more from the water1 the resurrection with ,christ to a new life is fulfilled1 not merely in a symbolic but also in a magical mystic fashion4 #cda ,and ,christ is as it were put on #cdb through ,baptism1 so that henceforth the baptized is1 no longer potentially but actually1 one with ,christ2 ,christ is in him1 and he is in ,christ4 ,the ,lord's ,supper is indeed on one hand a feast of fraternal love and recollection1 in memory of the ,saviour2 just as the adherents of ,mithras used to hold their love-feasts 7,agape7 in memory of their ,god's parting feast with his own people4 #cdc ,but on the other hand it is a mystic communion of the blood and body of ,christ1 through the drinking of the sacramental chalice and the eating of the sacramental bread--a mystic communion in no other sense than that in which the heathens thought they entered into inner connection with their ,gods through sacrificial feasts1 and in which savages generally even to-day believe that through the eating of another's flesh1 be it beast's or man's1 and through the drinking of his blood1 they become partakers of the power residing in him4 #cdd ,even for ,paul baptism and the ,lord's ,supper are to such an extent purely natural processes or magic practices1 that he does not object to the heathen custom of baptizing1 by proxy1 living ,christians for dead ones2 and in his opinion unworthy eating and drinking of the ,lord's ,supper produce sickness and death4 #cde ,in this respect1 consequently1 there can be no talk of a transcending of the naturalism of the heathen mysteries in ,paul2 and to attribute to him a much higher or more spiritual conception of the sacrament than the heathens had seems difficult to reconcile with his express statements4 #cdf ,now ,christ1 as already stated1 is for ,paul only a comprehensive expression for the ideal totality of men1 which is therein represented as an individual personal being4 ,it is clearly the ,platonic idea of humanity1 and nothing else2 just as ,philo personified the divine intelligence and made this coalesce with the ideal man1 with the idea of humanity4 #cdg ,as in the ,platonic view the union of man with the ideal takes place through love1 through immediate intellectual perception on the basis of ideal knowledge1 and the contradiction between the world of sense and the world of ideas is overcome by the same means2 as also thereby man is raised to membership in the cosmos of ideas2 in just such a manner1 according to ,paul1 ,christians unite together by means of faith and the sacraments into constitutive moments of the ideal humanity4 ,thus they realise the idea of humanity1 and enter into a mystic communion with ,jesus1 who himself1 as we have already said1 represents this idea in its united compass4 ,the consequence of this is1 that all that is fulfilled in ,christ is equally experienced along with him1 in mysterious fashion1 by those men who are united with him4 ,consequently they can now be termed members of the one body of ,christ1 who is its head or ,soul2 and this indeed in the same sense as with ,plato the different ideas form but members and moments of the one world of ideas1 and their plurality is destroyed in the unity of the comprehensive and determining idea of the ,one or the ,good4 ,just what an elevation of the spirit to the world of ideas is for ,plato1 the union of mankind with ,christ is for ,paul4 ,what the man actually in possession of knowledge1 the wise man1 is for the former1 ,christ is for the latter4 ,what is there called ,eros--the mediator of the unity between the world of ideas and the sense-world1 of ,being and ,conscious ,being1 of objective and subjective thought1 and at the same time the very essence of all objective thought--is here called ,christ4 ,eros is called by ,plato the son of riches and poverty1 who bears the nature and signs of both3 ,he is quite poor1 runs around barefoot and homeless1 and must sleep on the naked earth without a roof1 in the open air1 at the doors and on the streets1 in conformity with his mother's nature4 ,as1 however1 he is neither mortal nor immortal1 at one moment he is flourishing and full of life1 at another he is weary and dies away1 and all that often on the self-same day2 but ever he rises up again in life in conformity with his father's nature4 #cdh ,so also the ,pauline ,christ contains all the fulness of the ,godhead #cdi and is himself the ,son of ,god2 yet nevertheless ,christ debases himself1 takes on the form of a servant1 becomes ,man1 and dies1 thereby placing himself in direct opposition to his real nature1 but only to rise again continually in each individual man and allow mankind to participate in his own life4 ,and as ,christ 7in #a ,tim4 ii4 #e7 is the mediator between ,god and men1 so also the ,platonic ,eros is midway between the immortal and the mortal4 ,eros1 ,o ,socrates1 is a daimon1 a great daimon1 and everything of this nature is intermediate between ,god and man4 ,the daimon transfers to the ,gods what comes from man1 and to man what comes from the ,gods2 from the one prayer and sacrifice1 from the other the orders and rewards for the sacrifice4 ,midway1 he fills the gap between the immortal and the mortal1 and everything is through him bound into one whole4 ,by his mediation is disseminated every prophecy and the religious skill which has reference to sacrifice1 sanctification1 sacred maxims1 and each prediction and magic spell4 ,god himself does not mix with mankind1 but all intercourse and all speech between ,god and man1 as well in waking as in sleep1 takes place in the way mentioned4 ,whoever has experienced this1 in him is the daimon4 ,in this connection we recall to our minds that ,eros appears in the ,timus under the name of the world-soul1 and this is supposed by ,plato to have the form of an oblique cross4 #cej ,the ,platonic ,eros is the mythical personification of the conception that the contemplation of ,being 7obj4 gen47 as such is at the same time a contemplation of ,being's 7sub4 gen472 or that in the contemplation of the ,ideas the subjective thought of the ,philosopher and the objective ideal ,reality as it were meet each other from two sides and fuse directly into a unity4 #cea ,it is thus only the scientific and theoretical formulation of the fundamental idea of the old ,aryan ,fire ,cult4 ,according to this the sacrifice of ,agni--that is1 the victim which man offers to ,god--is as such equally ,agni's sacrifice1 the victim which ,god offers1 and in which he sacrifices himself for humanity4 ,it is in agreement with this that according to ,paul the death and resurrection of ,christ1 as they take place in the consciousness of the believer1 represent a death and resurrection of ,christ as a divine personality3 man dies and lives again with ,christ1 and ,god and man are completely fused together in the believer4 ,as mankind by this means becomes a member of the ,body of ,christ1 so in the ,vedic conception the partaker of the ,fire-,god's sacrifice1 by the tasting of the blood and the eating of the sacred bread1 is associated with a mystic body1 and is infused with the one ,spirit of ,god1 which destroys his sins in its sacred fire1 and flows through him with new life-power4 ,in ,india1 from the cult of the ,fire-,god and the complete unity of ,god and man thereby attained1 ,brahmanism was developed1 and gained an influence over all the ,indian peoples4 ,in ,plato intellectual contemplation formed the basis of cognition4 ,he placed the wise man at the head of the social organism1 and regarded the philosopher as the only man fitted for the government of the world4 ,and the future development of the ,church as a ,communion of ,saints appears already in the ,pauline conception of the faithful as the ,body of ,christ1 in which the ,idea of the human race 7,christ7 is realised1 as the kingdom of ,god upon earth1 as the true humanity1 as the material appearance of the divine ideal man1 to belong to which is mankind's duty1 and without which it is impossible for man to live in his real ideal nature4 ,ancient philosophy had attempted until now in vain to overcome the contradiction between the sense-world and the world of ideas1 and to destroy the uncertainty of human thought and life which results from this contradiction4 ,from the time of ,plato it had worked at the problem of uniting1 without contradiction1 ,nature and ,spirit1 whose contradictory nature had first been brought to notice by the founder of metaphysical idealism4 ,religion1 particularly in the ,mystery ,cults1 had tried to solve in a practical way the problem that seemed insoluble by abstract means1 and had sought to secure for man a new basis and resting-place by means of devotion and revelation--a mystic sinking into the depths of ,god4 ,but ,paul's ,christianity first gave a form to all this obscure desire1 a form which united the thrills and joy of mystic ecstasy with the certainty of a comprehensive religious view of the world1 and enlightened men as to the deepest meaning of their emotional impulse towards certainty3 man obtains unity with ,god and certainty as to the true reality1 not by an abstract dialectic1 as ,plato supposed2 not by logical insight into the cosmos in the sense of an abstract knowledge attainable only by the few1 but through faith1 through the divine act of redemption4 ,to adopt this internally1 thereby to live with it directly--this alone can give man the possibility of emerging from the uncertainty and darkness of corporeal existence into the clear light of the spiritual4 ,all certainty of the true or essential being is consequently a certainty of faith1 and there is no higher certainty than that which is given to men in faith and piety4 ,as ,christ died and was thereby freed from the bonds of the body and of the world1 so also must man die in the spirit4 ,he must lay aside the burden of this body1 the real cause of all his ethical and intellectual shortcomings4 ,he must inwardly rise with ,christ and be born again1 thereby taking part in his spiritual certitude and gaining together with the ,life in the ,spirit salvation from all his present shortcomings4 ,it is true that outwardly the body still exists1 even after the inner act of redemption has taken place4 ,even when the man who died with ,christ has arisen and has become a new man1 he is nevertheless still subject to corporeal limitations4 ,the redeemed man is still in the world and must fight with its influences4 ,but what man gains in the union with the body of ,christ is the ,spirit of ,christ1 which holds the members of the body together1 shows itself to be active in everything which belongs to the body1 and acts in man as a supernatural power4 ,this spirit1 as it dwells henceforth in the redeemed man1 works and directs and drives him on to every action2 lifts man in idea far above all the limitations of his fleshly nature2 strengthens him in his weakness2 shows him existence in a new light1 so that henceforth he feels himself no longer bound2 gives him the victory over the powers of earth1 and enables him to anticipate1 even in this life1 the blessedness of his real and final redemption in a life to come4 #ceb ,but the spirit of ,christ as such is equally the divine spirit4 ,so that the redeemed1 as they receive the spirit of ,christ1 are the sons of ,god himself1 and this is expressed by saying that with the spirit they inherit the glorious freedom of the children of ,god4 #cec ,for1 as ,paul says1 the ,lord is the spirit2 but where the spirit is1 there is freedom4 #ced ,so that when the ,christian feels himself transformed into a new creature1 equipped with power of knowledge and of virtue1 blest in the consciousness of his victorious strength over carnal desires1 and wins his peace in faith1 this is only the consequence of a superhuman spirit working in him4 ,hence the ,christian virtues of ,brotherly ,love1 ,humility1 ,obedience1 c41 are necessary consequences of the possession of the ,spirit3 ,if we live by the ,spirit1 by the ,spirit let us also walk4 #cee ,and if the faithful suddenly develop a fulness of new and wonderful powers1 which exceed man's ordinary nature--such as facility in tongues1 in prophecy1 and in the healing of the sick--this is1 in the superstitious view of the age1 only to be explained by the indwelling activity of a supernatural spirit-being that has entered man from the outside4 ,certainly it does not seem clear1 in the ,pauline conception of the redemption1 how this heavenly spirit can at the same time be the spirit of man--how it can be active in man without removing the particular and original spirit of man1 and without reducing the individual to a passive tool1 to a lifeless puppet without self-determination and responsibility2 how the man possessed by such a spirit can nevertheless feel himself free and redeemed by the ,spirit4 ,for it is in truth an alien spirit1 one that does not in essence belong to him1 which enters man through the union with ,christ4 ,yet it is supposed to be the spirit1 not merely of the individual man1 but also ,christ's personal spirit4 ,one and the same spirit putting on a celestial body of light must be enthroned on the right hand of the ,father in heaven1 and must also be on earth the spirit of those who believe in it1 setting itself to work in them as the source of ,gnosis1 of full mystic knowledge2 and1 as the power of ,god1 as the spirit of salvation1 must produce in them supernatural effects4 #cef ,it must be on the one hand an objective and actual spirit-being which in ,christ becomes man1 dies1 and rises again2 and on the other hand an inner subjective power1 which produces in each individual man the extinction of the flesh and a new birth which is to be shared by the faithful as the fruit of their individual redemption4 ,that is perhaps comprehensible in the mode of thought of an age for which the idea of personality had as yet no definite meaning1 and which consequently saw no contradiction in this1 that a personal ,christ-spirit should at the same time inhabit a number of individual spirits2 and which did not differentiate between the one1 or rather the continual1 act of redemption by ,god and its continual temporal repetition in the individual4 ,we can understand this only if the ,pauline ,christ is a purely metaphysical being4 ,it is1 on the contrary1 quite incomprehensible if ,paul is supposed to have gained his idea of the mediator of salvation from any experience of an historical ,jesus and his actual death4 ,only because in his doctrine of the saving power of the ,christ-spirit ,paul had thought of no particular human personality could he imagine the immanence of the divine in the world to be mediated by that spirit4 ,only because he connected no other idea with the personality of ,jesus than the ,book of ,wisdom or ,philo did with their particular immanence principles1 does he declare that ,christ brings about salvation4 ,so that ,christ1 as the principle of redemption1 is for ,paul only an allegorical or symbolical personality and not a real one4 ,he is a personality such as were the heathen deities1 who passed as general cosmic powers without prejudice to their appearing in human form4 ,personality is for ,paul only another mode of expressing the supernatural spirituality and directed activity of the principle of redemption1 in distinction from the blindly working powers and material realities of religious naturalism4 ,it serves merely to suggest spirituality to an age which could only represent spirit as a material fluid4 ,it corresponds simply to the popular conception of the principle of redemption1 which treated this as bound up with the idea of a human being4 ,but it in no way referred to a real historical individual1 showing1 in fact1 just by the uncertainty and fluctuation of the idea1 how far the ,christ of the ,pauline doctrine of redemption was from being connected with a definite historical reality4 ,not because he so highly esteemed and revered ,jesus as an historical personality did ,paul make ,christ the bearer and mediator of redemption1 but because he knew nothing at all of an historical ,jesus1 of a human individual of this name1 to whom he would have been able to transfer the work of redemption4 ,faithful disciples1 ,wrede considers1 could not so easily believe that the man who had sat with them at table in ,capernaum1 or had journeyed over the ,sea of ,galilee with them1 was the creator of the world4 ,for ,paul this obstacle was absent4 #ceg ,but ,paul is nevertheless supposed to have met ,james1 the ,brother of the ,lord1 and to have had dealings with him which would certainly have modified his view of ,jesus1 if here there were really question of a corporeal brotherhood4 ,what a wonderful idea our theologians must have of a man like ,paul if they think that it could ever have occurred to him to connect such tremendous conceptions with a human individual ,jesus as he does with his ,christ6 ,it is true that there is a type of religious ecstasy in which the difference between man and ,god is completely lost sight of2 and1 especially at the beginning of our era1 in the period of ,csar-worship and of the deepest religious superstition1 it was not in itself unusual to deify1 after his death1 a man who was highly esteemed4 ,a great lack of reason1 a great mental confusion1 an immense flight of imagination1 would be necessary to transform a man not long dead1 who was still clearly remembered by his relatives and contemporaries1 not merely into a divine hero or demi-god1 but into the world-forming spiritual principle1 into the metaphysical mediator of redemption and the second ,god4 ,and if1 as even ,wrede acknowledges in the above-quoted words1 personal knowledge of ,jesus was really an obstacle to his apotheosis1 how is it to be explained that the ,first ,apostles at ,jerusalem took no exception to that representation of ,paul's8 ,they surely knew who ,jesus had been2 they knew the ,master through many years' continual wandering with him4 ,and however highly they may always have thought of the risen ,jesus1 however intimately they may have joined in their minds the memory of the man ,jesus with the prevailing idea of the ,messiah1 according to the prevalent theological opinion1 even they are supposed to have risen in no way to such a boundless deification of their ,lord and ,master as ,paul undertook a comparatively short while after ,jesus' death4 ,paul already believed in such a heavenly ,being1 in a divine ,christ1 before he believed in ,jesus4 #ceh ,the truth is that he never believed at all in the ,jesus of liberal theology4 ,the man ,jesus already belonged to his faith in ,christ1 so far as ,christ's act of redemption was supposed to consist in his humbling himself and becoming man--and no historical ,jesus was necessary for that4 ,for ,paul also1 just as for the whole heathen world1 the man actually sacrificed in ,god's place was at best merely a chance symbol of the ,god presenting himself as victim4 ,hence it cannot be said that the man ,jesus was but the bearer of all the great attributes1 which as such had been long since determined2 #cei or1 as ,gunkel puts it1 that the enthusiastic disciples had transferred to him all that the former ,judaism had been wont to ascribe to the ,messiah2 and that consequently the ,christology of the ,new ,testament1 in spite of its unhistorical nature1 was nevertheless a mighty hymn which ,history sings to ,jesus7674 #cfj ,if we once agree as to the existence of a pre-,christian ,jesus--and even ,gunkel1 apart from ,robertson and ,smith1 has worked for the recognition of this fact--then this can in the first place produce nothing but a strong suspicion against the historical ,jesus2 and it seems a despairing subterfuge of the critical theology to seek to find capital1 from the existence of a pre-,christian ,jesus1 for the unique significance of their historical ,jesus4 ,christ's life and death are for ,paul neither the moral achievement of a man nor in any way historical facts1 but something super-historical1 events in the supersensible world4 #cfa ,further1 the man ,jesus comes in question for ,paul1 just as did the suffering servant of ,god for ,isaiah1 exclusively as an ,idea1 and his death is1 like his resurrection1 but the purely ideal condition whereby redemption is brought about4 ,if ,christ hath not been raised1 your faith is vain4 #cfb ,on this declaration has till now been founded the chief proof that an historical ,jesus was to ,paul the pre-supposition of his doctrine4 ,but really that declaration in ,paul's mouth points to nothing but the faith of his contemporaries1 who expected natural and religious salvation from the resurrection of their ,god1 whether he were called ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,dionysus1 ,osiris1 or anything else4 ,the fact is therefore settled1 that ,paul knew nothing of an historical ,jesus2 and that even if he had known anything of him1 this ,jesus in any case plays no part for him1 and exercised no influence over the development of his religious view of the world4 ,let us consider the importance of this3 the very man from whom we derive the first written testimony as to ,christianity1 who was the first in any way to establish it as a new religion differing from ,judaism1 on whose teachings alone the whole further development of ,christian thought has depended--this ,paul knew absolutely nothing of ,jesus as an historical personality4 ,in fact1 with perfect justice from his point of view he was even compelled to excuse himself1 when others wished to enlighten him as to such a personality6 ,at the present day it will be acknowledged by all sensible people that1 as ,ed4 von ,hartmann declared more than thirty years ago1 without ,paul the ,christian movement would have disappeared in the sand1 just as the many other ,jewish religions have done--at best to afford interest to investigators as an historical curiosity--and ,paul had no knowledge of ,jesus6 ,the formation and development of the ,christian religion began long before the ,jesus of the ,gospels appeared1 and was completed independently of the historical ,jesus of theology4 ,theology has no justification for treating ,christianity merely as the ,christianity of ,christ1 as it now is sufficiently evident2 nor should it present a view of the life and doctrines of an ideal man ,jesus as the ,christian religion4 #cfc ,the question raised at the beginning1 as to what we learn from ,paul about the historical ,jesus1 has found its answer--nothing4 ,there is little value1 then1 in the objection to the disbelievers in such a ,jesus which is raised on the theological side in triumphant tones3 that the historical existence of ,jesus is most certainly established by ,paul4 ,this objection comes1 in fact1 even from such people as regard the ,new ,testament1 in other respects1 with most evidently sceptical views4 ,the truth is that the ,pauline epistles contain nothing which would force us to the belief in an historical ,jesus2 and probably no one would find such a person in them if that belief was not previously established in him4 ,it must be considered that1 if the ,pauline epistles stood in the edition of the ,new ,testament where they really belong--that is1 before the ,gospels--hardly any one would think that ,jesus1 as he there meets him1 was a real man and had wandered on the earth in flesh and blood2 but he would in all probability only find therein a detailed development of the suffering servant of ,god1 and would conclude that it was an irruption of heathen religious ideas into ,jewish thought4 ,our theologians are1 however1 so strongly convinced of it a priori--that the ,pauline representation of ,christ actually arose from the figure of ,jesus wandering on earth--that even ,m4 ,brckner confesses1 in the preface to his work1 that he had been himself astonished 767 at the result of his inquiry--the independence of the ,pauline representation of ,christ from the historical personality1 ,jesus4 #cfd ,christianity is a syncretic religion4 ,it belongs to those multiform religious movements which at the commencement of our era were struggling with one another for the mastery4 ,setting out from the ,apocalyptic idea and the expectation of the ,messiah among the ,jewish sects1 it was borne on the tide of a mighty social agitation1 which found its centre and its point of departure in the religious sects and ,mystery communities4 ,its adherents conceived the ,messiah not merely as the ,saviour of souls1 but as deliverer from slavery1 from the lot of the poor and the oppressed1 and as the bearer of a new justice4 #cfe ,it borrowed the chief part of its doctrine1 the specific point in which it differed from ordinary ,judaism1 the central idea of the ,god sacrificing himself for mankind1 from the neighbouring peoples1 who had brought down this belief into ,asia1 in connection with fire-worship1 from its earlier home in the ,north4 ,only in so far as that faith points in the end to an ,aryan origin can it be said that ,jesus was an ,aryan2 any further statements on this point1 such as1 for example1 ,chamberlain makes in his ,grundlagen des neunzehnten ,jahrhunderts1 are pure fancies1 and rest on a complete misunderstanding of the true state of affairs4 ,christianity1 as the religion of ,christ1 of the ,lord1 who secularised the ,jewish ,law by his voluntary death of expiation1 did not arise in ,jerusalem1 but1 if anywhere1 in the ,syrian capital ,antioch1 one of the principal places of the worship of ,adonis4 ,for it was at ,antioch where1 according to the ,acts1 #cff the name ,christians was first used for the adherents of the new religion1 who had till then been usually called ,nazarenes4 #cfg ,that certainly is in sharpest contradiction to tradition1 according to which ,christianity is supposed to have arisen in ,jerusalem and to have been thence spread abroad among the heathen4 ,but ,luke's testimony as to the arising of the community of the ,messiah at ,jerusalem and the spreading of the ,gospel from that place can lay no claim to historical significance4 ,even the account of the disciples' experience at ,easter and of the first appearances after the ,resurrection1 from their contradictory and confused character appear to be legendary inventions4 #cfh ,unhistorical1 and in contradiction to the information on this point given by ,matthew and ,mark1 is the statement that the disciples stayed in ,jerusalem after ,jesus' death1 which is even referred by ,luke to an express command of the dead master4 #cfi ,unhistorical is the assemblage at ,pentecost and the wonderful miracle of the outpouring of the ,holy ,ghost1 which1 as even ,clemen agrees1 probably originated from the ,jewish legends1 according to which the giving of the ,law on ,sinai was made in seventy different languages1 in order that it might be understood by all peoples4 #cgj ,but also ,stephen's execution and the consequent persecution of the community at ,jerusalem are legendary inventions4 #cga ,the great trouble which ,luke takes to represent ,jerusalem as the point whence the ,christian movement set out1 clearly betrays the tendency of the author of the ,acts to misrepresent the activity of the ,christian propaganda1 which really emanated from many centres1 as a bursting out of the ,gospel from one focus4 ,it is meant to produce the impression that the new religion spread from ,jerusalem over the whole world like an explosion2 and thus its almost simultaneous appearance in the whole of ,nearer ,asia is explained4 ,for this reason devout ,jews of all nations were assembled in ,jerusalem at ,pentecost1 and could understand each other in spite of their different languages4 ,for this reason ,stephen was stoned1 and the motive given for that persecution which in one moment scattered the faithful in all directions4 #cgb ,now it is certainly probable that there was in ,jerusalem1 just as in many other places1 a community of the ,messiah which believed in ,jesus as the ,god sacrificing himself for humanity4 ,but the question is whether this belief1 in the community at ,jerusalem1 rested on a real man ,jesus2 and whether it is correct to regard this community1 some of whose members were personally acquainted with ,jesus1 and who were the faithful companions of his wanderings1 as the original community in the sense of the first germ and point of departure of the ,christian movement4 ,we may believe1 with ,fraser1 that a ,jewish prophet and itinerant preacher1 who by chance was named ,jesus1 was seized by his opponents1 the orthodox ,jews1 on account of his revolutionary agitation1 and was beheaded as the ,haman of the current year1 thereby giving occasion for the foundation of the community at ,jerusalem4 #cgc ,against this it may be said that our informants as to the beginning of the ,christian propaganda certainly vary1 now making one assertion1 now another1 without caring whether these are contradictory2 and they all strive to make up for the lack of any certain knowledge by unmistakable inventions4 ,if the doctrine of ,jesus was1 as ,smith declares1 pre-,christian1 a religion which was spread among the ,jews and especially the ,greeks within the limits of the century #ajj ,b4,c4 to #ajj ,a4,d41 more or less secretly1 and wrapped up in ',mysteries1' then we can understand both the sudden appearance of ,christianity over so wide a sphere as almost the whole of ,nearer ,asia1 and also the fact that even the earliest informants as to the beginning of the ,christian movement had nothing certain to tell4 ,this1 however1 seems quite irreconcilable with the view of a certain1 definite1 local1 and personal point of departure for the new doctrine4 #cgd ,the objection will be raised3 what about the ,gospels8 ,they1 at least1 clearly tell the story of a human individual1 and are inexplicable1 apart from the belief in an historical ,jesus4 ,the question consequently arises as to the source from which the ,gospels derived a knowledge of this ,jesus2 for on this alone the belief in an historical ,jesus can rest4 ,,ii ,,the ,,jesus ,,of ,,the ,,gospels ,however widely views may differ even now in the sphere of ,gospel criticism1 all really competent investigators agree on one point with rare unanimity3 the ,gospels are not historical documents in the ordinary sense of the word1 but creeds1 religious books1 literary documents revealing the mind of the ,christian community4 ,their purpose is consequently not to give information as to the life and teachings of ,jesus which would correspond to reality1 but to awaken belief in ,jesus as the ,messiah sent from ,god for the redemption of his people1 to strengthen and defend that belief against attacks4 ,and as creeds they confine themselves naturally to recounting such words and events as have any significance for the faith2 and they have the greatest interest in so arranging and representing the facts as to make them accord with the content of that faith4 7a7 ,the ,synoptic ,jesus4 ,of the numerous ,gospels which were still current in the first half of the second century1 as is well known1 only four have come down to us4 ,the others were not embodied by the ,church in the ,canon of the ,new ,testament writings1 and consequently fell into oblivion4 ,of these at most a few names and isolated and insignificant fragments remain to us4 ,thus we know of a ,gospel of ,matthew1 of ,thomas1 of ,bartholomew1 ,peter1 the twelve apostles1 c4 ,of our four ,gospels1 two bear the names of apostles and two the names of companions and pupils of apostles1 viz41 ,mark and ,luke4 ,in this1 of course1 it is in no way meant that they were really written by these persons4 ,according to ,chrysostom these names were first assigned to them towards the end of the second century4 ,and the titles do not run3 ,gospel of ,matthew1 of ,mark1 and so on1 but according to ,matthew1 according to ,mark1 ,luke1 and ,john2 so that they indicate at most only the persons or schools whose particular conception of the ,gospel they represent4 ,of these ,gospels1 again1 that of ,john ranks as the latest4 ,it presupposes the others1 and shows such a dogmatic tendency1 that it cannot be considered the source of the story4 ,of the remaining ,gospels1 which on account of their similarity as to form and matter have been termed ,synoptic 7i4e41 such as must be dealt with in connection with each other and thus only give a real idea of the ,saviour's personality71 that of ,mark is generally regarded as the oldest4 ,matthew and ,luke rely on ,mark1 and all three1 according to the prevailing view1 are indebted to a common ,aramaic source1 wherein ,jesus' didactic sermons are supposed to have been contained4 ,tradition points to ,john ,mark1 the nephew of ,barnabas1 pupil of ,peter1 and ,paul's companion on his first missionary journey and later a sharer in the captivity at ,rome1 as the author of the ,gospel of ,mark4 ,it is believed that this was written shortly after the destruction of ,jerusalem 7#gj7--;i4e41 at least forty years after ,jesus' death 7674 ,this tradition depends upon a note of the ,church historian ,eusebius 7d4 about #cdj ,a4,d471 according to which ,papias1 ,bishop of ,hierapolis in ,asia ,minor1 learnt from the elder ,john that ,mark had set forth what he had heard from ,peter1 and what this latter had in turn heard from the ,lord4 ,on account of its indirect nature and of ,eusebius' notorious unreliability this note is not a very trustworthy one1 #cge and belief in it should disappear in view of the fact that the author of the ,gospel of ,mark had no idea of the spot where ,jesus is supposed to have lived4 ,and yet ,mark is supposed to have been born in ,jerusalem and to have been a missionary6 ,as ,wernle shows in his work1 ,die ,quellen des ,lebens ,jesu1 ,mark stands quite far from the life of ,jesus both in time and place7672 indeed1 he has no clear idea of ,jesus' doings and course of life4 #cgf ,and ,wrede confirms this in his work1 ,das ,messias-geheimnis 7#aija71 probably the clearest and deepest inquiry into the fundamental problem of the ,gospel of ,mark which we possess4 ,jesus is for ,mark at once the ,messiah and the ,son of ,god4 ,faith in this dogma must be aroused1 it must be established and defended4 ,the whole ,gospel is a defence4 ,mark wishes to lead all his readers1 among whom he counts the ,heathens and ,gentile ,christians1 to the recognition of what the heathen centurion said1 ',truly this man was the ,son of ,god6' #cgg ,the whole account is directed to this end4 #cgh ,mark's main proof for this purpose is that of miracles4 ,jesus' doctrines are with ,mark of so much less importance than his miracles1 that we never learn exactly what ,jesus preached4 ,consequently the historical portrait is very obscure3 ,jesus' person is distorted into the grotesque and the fantastic767 #cgi ,not only does ,mark often introduce his own thought into the tradition about ,jesus1 and so prove perfectly wrong1 and indeed absurd1 the view held1 for instance1 by ,wernle1 that ,jesus had intentionally made use of an obscure manner of speech and had spoken in parables and riddles so as not to be understood by the people2 #chj but also the connection which he has established between the accounts1 which had first gone from mouth to mouth for a long time in isolation1 is a perfectly disconnected and external one4 ,at first the stories reported by ,mark were totally disconnected with one another4 ,there is no evidence at all of their having followed each other in the present order7674 #cha ,so that only the matter1 not what ,mark made of it1 is of historical value4 #chb ,single stories1 discourses1 and phrases are bound into a whole by ,mark2 and often enough it may be seen that we have here a tradition which was first built up in the earliest ,christianity long after ,jesus' death4 ,experiences were at first gradually fashioned into a story--and the miracle-stories may especially be regarded in this way4 ,in spite of all these trimmings and alterations1 and in spite of the fact that neither in the words of ,jesus nor in the stories is it for the most part any longer possible to separate the actual from the traditional1 which for forty years was not put into writing--in spite of all this1 the historical value of the traditions given us by ,mark is very highly estimated4 ,for not only is the general impression of power1 originality1 and creation valuable1 which is given in this account of ,mark's1 but also there are so many individual phrases corresponding to reality4 ,numerous accounts1 momentary pictures and remarks1 speak for themselves4 ,the modesty and ingenuousness7671 the freshness and joy767 with which ,mark recounts all this1 show distinctly that he is here the reporter of a valid tradition1 and that he writes nothing but what eye-witnesses have told him7674 ,and so finally1 in spite of all1 this ,gospel remains an extraordinarily valuable work1 a collection of old and genuine material1 which is loosely arranged and placed under a few leading conceptions2 produced perhaps by that ,mark whom the ,new ,testament knows1 and of whom ,papias heard from the mouth of the elder ,john4 #chc ,one does not trust one's eyes with this style of attempting to set up ,mark as an even half-credible historical source4 ,this attempt will remind us only too forcibly of ,wrede's ironical remarks when he is making fun of the decisions as you like it that flourish in the study of ,jesus' life4 ,this study1 says ,wrede1 suffers from psychological suggestion1 and this is one style of historical solution4 #chd ,one believes that he can secure this1 another that1 as the historical nucleus of the ,gospel2 but neither has objective proofs for his assertions4 #che ,if we wish to work with an historical nucleus1 we must really make certain of a nucleus4 ,the whole point is1 that in an anecdote or phrase something is proved1 which makes any other explanation of the matter under consideration improbable1 or at least doubtful4 #chf ,it seems very questionable1 after his radical criticism of the historical credibility of ,mark's ,gospel1 that ,wrede saw in it such a historical kernel--though this is supposed by ,wernle to speak for itself4 ,moreover1 ,wrede's opinion of the historian ,mark is not essentially different from ,wernle's4 ,in his opinion1 for example1 ,jesus' disciples1 as the ,gospel portrays them1 with their want of intelligence bordering on idiocy1 their folly1 and their ambiguous conduct as regards their ,master1 are not real figures4 #chg ,he also concedes1 as we have stated1 that ,mark had no real idea of the historical life of ,jesus1 #chh even if pallid fragments767 of such an idea entered into his superhistorical faith-conception4 ,the ,gospel of ,mark1 he says1 has in this sense a place among the histories of dogma4 #chi ,the belief that in it the development of ,jesus' public life is still perceptible appears to be decaying4 #cij ,it would indeed be in the highest degree desirable that such a ,gospel were not the oldest4 #cia ,thus1 then1 does ,mark stand as an historical source4 ,after this we could hardly hope to be much strengthened in our belief in ,jesus' historical reality by the other two ,synoptics4 ,of these1 ,luke's ,gospel must have been written1 in the early part of the second century1 by an unknown ,gentile ,christian2 and ,matthew's is not the work of a single author1 but was produced--and unmistakably in the interests of the ,church--by various hands in the first half of the second century4 #cib ,but now both1 as we have said1 are based on ,mark4 ,and even if in their representations they have attained a certain peculiar value which is wanting in ,mark--e4g41 a greater number of ,jesus' parables and words--even if they have embellished the story of his life by the addition of legendary passages 7e4g41 of the history of the time preceding the ,saviour1 of many additions to the account of the ,passion and ,resurrection1 c471 this cannot quite establish the existence of an historical ,jesus4 ,it is true that ,wernle takes the view that in this respect old traditions have been preserved with wonderful fidelity by both the ,evangelists2 but1 on the other hand1 he concedes as to certain of ,luke's accounts that even if he had used old traditions they need not have been as yet written1 and certainly they need not have been historically reliable4 ,it seems rather peculiar when1 leaving completely on one side the historical value of the tradition1 he emphatically declares that even such a strong interest1 as in his opinion the ,evangelists had in the shaping and formation of their account1 could not in any way set aside the worth of its rich treasure of parables and stories1 through which ,jesus himself 6 speaks to us with freshness and originality 7674 ,he also strangely sums up at the end1 that the peculiar value of both ,gospels1 in spite of their very mixed nature1 has claim enough on our gratitude7674 #cic ,this surely is simply to make use of the ,gospels' literary or other value in the interest of the belief in their historical credibility4 ,but there is still the collection of sayings1 that great authority on the matter1 from which all the ,synoptics1 and especially ,luke and ,matthew1 are supposed to have derived the material for their declarations about ,jesus4 ,unfortunately this is to us a completely unknown quantity1 as we know neither what this great authority treats of1 nor the arrangement of the matter in it1 nor its text4 ,we can only say that this collection was written in the ,aramaic tongue1 and the arrangement of its matter was not apparently chronological1 but according to the similarity of its contents4 ,again1 it is doubtful whether the collection was a single work1 produced by one individual2 or whether it had had a history before it came to ,luke and ,matthew4 ,all the same1 the collection contains such a valuable number of the ,lord's words1 that in all probability an eye-witness was its author 7674 #cid ,as for the speeches of ,jesus constructed from it1 they were never really made as speeches by ,jesus1 but owe the juxtaposition of their contents entirely to the hand of the compiler4 ,thus the much admired ,sermon on the ,mount is constructed by placing together individual phrases of ,jesus1 which belong to all periods of his life1 perhaps made in the course of a year4 ,the ideas running through it and connecting the parts are not those of ,jesus1 but rather those of the original community2 nevertheless1 the historical value of these speeches is1 on the whole1 very great indeed4 ,together with the ',lord's words' of ,mark they give us the truest insight into the spirit of the ,gospel7674 #cie ,such are the authorities for the belief in an historical ,jesus6 ,if we survey all that remains of the ,gospels1 this does indeed appear quite scanty1 or1 speaking plainly1 pitiable4 ,wernle consoles himself with1 ,if only it is certain and reliable4 ,yes1 if6 ,and if only it was able to give us an answer to the chief question3 ,who was ,jesus8 #cif ,this much is certain3 a ,life of ,jesus cannot be written on the basis of the testimony before us4 ,probably all present-day theologians are agreed on this point2 which1 however1 does not prevent them producing new essays on it1 at any rate for the people1 thus making up for the lack of historical reliability by edifying effusions and rhetorical phrases4 ,there is no lack of valuable historical matter1 of stones for the construction of ,jesus' life2 they lie before us plentifully4 ,but the plan for the construction is lost and completely irretrievable1 because the oldest disciples had no occasion for such an historical connection1 but rather claimed obedience to the isolated words and acts1 so far as they aroused faith4 ,but would they have been less faith-arousing if they had been arranged connectedly1 would the credibility of the accounts of ,jesus have been diminished and not much rather increased1 if the ,evangelists had taken the trouble to give us some more information as to ,jesus' real life8 ,as things stand at present1 hardly two events are recounted in the same manner in the ,gospels1 or even in the same connection4 ,indeed1 the differences and contradictions--and this not only as to unimportant things1 such as names1 times and places1 c4--are so great that these literary documents of ,christianity can hardly be surpassed in confusion4 #cig ,but even this is1 according to ,wernle1 not so great a pity1 if only we can discover with sufficient clearness1 what ,jesus' actions and wishes were on important points4 #cih ,unfortunately we are not in a position to do even this4 ,for the ultimate source of our information1 which we arrive at in our examination of the authorities is completely unknown to us--the ,aramaic collection of sayings1 and those very old traditions from which ,mark is supposed to have derived his production1 gleanings of which have been preserved for us by ,luke and ,matthew4 ,but even if we knew these also1 we would almost certainly not have come to ,jesus himself4 ,they contain the possibility of dispute and misrepresentation4 ,they recount in the first place the faith of the oldest ,christians1 a faith which arose in the course of four hundred years1 and moreover changed much in that time4 #cii ,so that at most we know only the faith of the earliest community4 ,we see how this community sought to make clear to itself through ,jesus its belief in the ,resurrection1 how it sought to prove to itself and to others the divine nature of ,jesus by the recital of tales of miracles and the like4 ,what ,jesus himself thought1 what he did1 what he taught1 what his life was1 and--might we say it8--whether he ever lived at all--that is not to be learnt from the ,gospels1 and1 according to all the preceding discussion1 cannot be settled from them with lasting certainty4 ,of course the liberal theologian1 for whom everything is compatible with an historical ,jesus1 has many resources4 ,he explains that all the former discussion has not touched the main point1 and that this point is--,what was ,jesus' attitude to ,god1 to the world1 and to mankind8 ,what answer did he give to the questions3 ,what matters in the eyes of ,god8 and ,what is religion8 ,this should indicate that the solution of the problem is contained in what has preceded1 and that this solution is unknown to us4 ,but such is not the case4 ,wernle knows it1 and examines it in the clear light of day4 ,from his numerous parables and sermons and from countless momentary recollections it comes to us as clearly and distinctly as if ,jesus were our contemporary 64 ,no man on earth can say that it is either uncertain or obscure how ,jesus thought on this point1 which is to us viz41 to the liberal theologians even at the present day the chief point4 ,and if ,christianity has forgotten for a thousand years what its ,master desired first and before all1 to-day i4e41 after the clear solutions of critical theology it shines on us once more from the ,gospels as clearly and wonderfully1 as if the sun were newly risen1 driving before its conquering rays all the phantoms and shadows of night4 #djj ,and so ,wernle himself1 to whom we owe this consoling assurance1 has written a work1 ,die ,anfnge unserer ,religion 7#aija71 which is highly esteemed in theological circles1 and in which he has given a detailed account1 in a tone of overwhelming assurance1 of the innermost thoughts1 views1 words1 and teachings of ,jesus and of his followers1 just as if he had been actually present4 ,we must be careful of our language4 ,these are indeed the views of a man who must be taken seriously1 with whom we have been dealing above1 a shining light of his science6 ,the often cited work on ,die ,quellen des ,lebens ,jesu belongs to the series of ,popular ,books on the ,history of ,religion1 which contains the quintessence of present-day theological study1 and which is intended for the widest circles interested and instructed in religion4 ,we may suppose1 probably with justice1 that that work expresses what the liberal theology of our day wishes the members of the community subject to it to know and to believe4 ,or is it only that the popular books on the history of religion place the intellectual standard of their readers so low that they think they can strengthen the educated in their belief in an historical ,jesus by productions such as ,wernle's8 ,we consider the more scientifically elaborated works of other important theologians on the same subject4 ,we think of ,beyschlag1 ,harnack1 ,bernard ,weiss1 of ,pfleiderer1 ,jlicher1 and ,holtzmann4 ,we consult ,bousset1 who defended against ,kalthoff1 with such great determination and warmth1 the existence of an historical ,jesus4 ,everywhere there is the same half-comic1 half-pathetic drama3 on the one hand the evangelical authorities are depreciated and the information is criticised away to such an extent that hardly anything positive remains from it2 on the other hand there is a pathetic enthusiasm for the so-called historical kernel4 ,then comes praise for the so-called critical theology and its courageous truthfulness1 which1 however1 ultimately consists only in declaring evident myths and legends to be such4 ,this was known for a long time previously among the unprejudiced4 ,there usually follows a hymn to ,jesus with ecstatic raising of the eyes1 as if all the statements concerning him in the ,gospels still had validity4 ,what then does ,hausrath say8--,to conceal the miraculous parts of the evangelical accounts and then to give out the rest as historical1 has not hitherto passed as criticism4 #dja ,can we object to ,catholic theology because it looks with open pity on the whole of ,protestant criticism1 and reproaches it with the inconsistency1 incompleteness1 and lack of results1 which is the mark of all its efforts to discover the beginnings of ,christianity4 #djb ,is it not right in rejoicing at the blow which ,protestantism has sustained and from which it must necessarily suffer through all such attempts at accepting the ,gospels as basis for a belief in an historical ,jesus8 ,certainly what ,catholic theologians bring forward in favour of the historical ,jesus is so completely devoid of any criticism or even of any genuine desire to elucidate the facts1 that it would be doing them too much honour to make any more detailed examination of their works on this point4 ,for them the whole problem has a very simple solution in this3 the existence of the historical ,jesus forms the unavoidable presupposition of the ,church1 even though every historical fact should register its veto against it2 and as one of its writers has put it1 that is at bottom the long-established and unanimous view of all our inquiries into the subject under discussion3 ,the historical testimony for the authenticity of the ,gospels is as old1 as extensive1 and as well established as it is for very few other books of ancient literature 64 ,if we do not wish to be inconsistent we cannot question their authenticity4 ,their credibility is beyond question2 for their authors were eye-witnesses of the events 6 related1 or they gained their information from such2 they were as competent judges 6 as men loving the truth can well be2 they could1 and in fact were obliged to speak the truth4 #djc ,how distinguished1 as compared with this kind of theologian1 ,kalthoff seems6 ,it is true that we are obliged to allow for the one-sidedness and insufficiency of his positive working out of the origin of ,christianity1 of his attempt to explain it1 on the basis of ,mark's handling of the story1 purely on the lines of social motives1 and to represent ,christ as the mere reflection of the ,christian community and of its experiences4 ,quite certainly he is wrong in identifying the biblical ,pilate with ,pliny1 the governor of ,bithynia under ,trajan1 and in the proof based on this2 and this because in all probability ,pliny's letter to the ,emperor is a later ,christian forgery4 #djd ,but ,kalthoff is quite right in what he says about modern critical theology and its historical ,jesus4 ,the critical theologians may think themselves justified in treating this embarrassing opponent as incompetent1 or in ignoring him on account of the mistaken basis of argument2 but all the efforts made with such great perseverance and penetration by historical theologians to derive from the authorities before us proof of the existence of a man ,jesus in the traditional sense have led1 as ,kalthoff very justly says1 to a purely negative conclusion4 ,the numerous passages in the ,gospels which this theology1 in maintaining its historical ,jesus1 is obliged to place on one side and pass over1 stand from a literary point of view exactly on the same footing as those passages from which it constructs its historical ,jesus2 and consequently they claim historical value equal to these latter4 ,the ,synoptic ,christ1 in whom modern theology thinks it finds the characteristics of the historical ,jesus1 stands not a hair's breadth nearer to a human interpretation of ,christianity than the ,christ of the fourth ,gospel4 ,what the ,epigones of liberal theology think they can distil from this ,synoptic ,christ as historical essence has historical value only as a monument of masterly sophistry1 which has produced its finest examples in the name of theological science4 #dje ,historical research should not have so long set apart from all other history that of early ,christianity as the special domain of theology and handed it over to churchmen1 as if for the decision of the questions on this point quite special talent was necessary--a talent far beyond the ordinary sphere of science and one which was only possessed by the ,church theologian4 ,the world would then long since have done with the whole literature of the ,life of ,jesus4 ,the sources which give information of the origin of ,christianity are of such a kind that1 considering the present standard of historical research1 no historian would care to undertake an attempt to produce the biography of an historical ,christ4 #djf ,they are1 we can add1 of such a nature that a real historian1 who meets them without a previous conviction or expectation that he will find an historical ,jesus in it1 cannot for a moment doubt that he has here to do with religious fiction1 #djg with myth in an historical form1 which does not essentially differ from other myths and legends--such as perhaps the legend of ,tell4 ,supplement3 ,jesus in ,secular ,literature4 ,there seems to be but little hope of considerably adding to the weight of the reasons in favour of the historical existence of ,jesus by citing documents of secular literature4 ,as is well known1 only two passages of the ,jewish historian ,josephus1 and one in each of the ,roman historians1 ,tacitus and ,suetonius1 must be considered in this connection4 ,as for the testimony of ,josephus in his ,antiquities1 which was written #ic ,a4,d41 the first passage 7viz41 xviii4 #c1 #c7 is so evidently an after-insertion of a later age1 that even ,roman ,catholic theologians do not venture to declare it authentic1 though they always attempt1 with pitiful navet1 to support the credibility of pre-,christian documents of this type4 #djh ,but the other passage1 too 7xx4 #i1 #a71 which states that ,james was executed under the authority of the priest ,ananos 7,a4,d4 #fb71 and refers to him as the ,brother of ,jesus1 the so-called ,christ1 in the opinion of eminent theologians such as ,credner1 #dji ,schrer1 #daj c41 must be regarded as a forgery2 #daa but even if its authenticity were established it would still prove nothing in favour of the historical ,jesus4 ,for1 first1 it leaves it undecided whether a bodily relationship is indicated by the word ,brother1 or whether1 as is much more likely1 the reference is merely to a religious brotherhood 7see above1 #agj sq474 ,secondly1 the passage only asserts that there was a man of the name of ,jesus who was called ,christ1 and this is in no way extraordinary in view of the fact that at the time of ,josephus1 and far into the second century1 many gave themselves out as the expected ,messiah4 #dab ,the ,roman historians' testimony is in no better case than that of ,josephus4 ,it is true that ,tacitus writes in his ,annals 7xv4 #dd71 in connection with the persecution of the ,christians under ,nero 7#fd71 that the founder of this sect1 ,christ1 was executed in ,tiberius' reign by the procurator ,pontius ,pilate2 and ,suetonius states in his biography of the ,emperor ,claudius1 chap4 xxv41 that he drove out of ,rome the ,jews1 who had caused great disturbances at the instigation of ,chrestus4 ,what does this prove8 ,are we so certain that the passage cited from ,tacitus as to the persecution of the ,christians under ,nero is not after all a later insertion and falsification of the original text8 ,this is indeed the case1 judging from ,hochart's splendid and exhaustive inquiry4 ,in fact1 everything points to the idea that the first persecution of the ,christians1 which is previously mentioned by no writers1 either ,jewish or heathen1 is nothing but the product of a ,christian's imagination in the fifth century4 #dac ,but let us admit the authenticity of ,tacitus' assertion2 let us suppose also that by ,suetonius' ,chrestus is really meant ,christ and not a popular ,jewish rioter of that name2 let us suppose that the unrest of the ,jews was not connected with the expectation of the ,messiah1 or that the ,roman historian1 in his ignorance of the ,jewish dreams of the future1 did not imagine a leader of the name of ,chrestus4 #dad ,can writers of the first quarter of the second century after ,christ1 at which time the tradition was already formed and ,christianity had made its appearance in ,history as a power1 be regarded as independent authorities for facts which are supposed to have taken place long before the birth of the ,tradition8 ,tacitus can at most have heard that the ,christians were followers of a ,christ who was supposed to have been executed under ,pontius ,pilate4 ,that was probably even at that time in the ,gospels--and need not1 therefore1 be a real fact of history4 ,and if it has been proved1 according to ,mommsen1 that ,tacitus took his material from the protocols of the ,senate and imperial archives1 there has equally been1 on the other hand1 a most definite counter-assertion that he never consulted these authorities4 #dae ,lately1 ,tacitus proving to be slightly inconsistent1 it has been usual to refer to ,pliny's letter to the ,emperor ,trajan1 asserting that the historical ,jesus is certified to in this4 ,the letter hinges on the question of what ,pliny's attitude as ,governor of ,bithynia must be to the ,christians2 so that naturally the ,christians are much spoken of1 and once even there is mention of ,christ1 whose followers sing alternate hymns to him as to a ,god 7quasi deo74 ,but ,jesus as an historical person is not once mentioned in the whole letter2 and ,christ was even for ,paul a ,quasi-god1 a being fluctuating between man and ,god4 ,what then is proved by the letter of ,pliny as to the historical nature of ,jesus8 ,it only proves the liberal theologians' dilemma over the whole question1 that they think they can cite these witnesses again and again for strengthening the belief in an historical ,jesus1 as1 e4g4 ,melhorn does in his work ,wahrheit und ,dichtung im ,leben ,jesu 7in ,aus ,natur und ,geisteswelt1 #aijf71 trying to make it appear that these witnesses are in any way worthy of consideration4 ,joh4 ,weiss also--according to the newspaper account--in his lecture on ,christ in the ,berlin vacation-course of ,march1 #aiaj1 confessed that statements from secular literature as to the historical nature of ,jesus which are absolutely free of objection are very far from having been authenticated4 ,even an orthodox theologian like ,kropatscheck writes in the ,kreuzzeitung 7,april #g1 #aiaj73 ,it is well known that the non-,christian writers in a very striking way ignore the appearing of ,christ4 ,the few small notices in ,tacitus1 ,suetonius1 c41 are easily enumerated4 ,though we date our chronology from him1 his advent made no impression at all on the great historians of his age4 ,the ,talmud gives a hostile caricature of his advent which has no historical value4 ,the ,jewish historian1 ,flavius ,josephus1 from whom we might have expected information of the first rank1 is absolutely silent4 ,we are referred to our ,gospels1 as ,paul also says little of the life of ,jesus2 and we can understand how it is that attempts are always being made to remove him1 as an historical person1 from the past4 ,the objection to this1 that the secular writers1 even though they give no positive testimony for ,jesus' historical existence1 have never brought it in question1 is of very little strength4 ,for the writings considered in it1 viz41 ,justin's conversation with the ,jew ,trypho1 as well as the polemical work of ,celsus against ,christianity1 both belong to the latter half of the second century1 while the passages in the ,talmud referred to are probably of a later date1 and all these passages are merely based on the tradition4 ,so that this proof from silence is in reality no proof4 ,it is1 rather1 necessary to explain why the whole of the first century1 apart from the ,gospels1 seems to know nothing of ,jesus as an historical personality4 ,the ,frenchman ,hochart ridicules the theological attitude3 ,it seems that the most distinguished men lose a part of their brilliant character in the study of martyrology4 ,let us leave it to ,german theologians to study history in their way4 ,we ,frenchmen wish throughout our inquiries to preserve our clearness of mind and healthy common-sense4 ,let us not invent new legends about ,nero3 there are really too many already4 #daf 7b7 ,the ,objections against a ,denial of the ,historicity of the ,synoptic ,jesus4 ,there the matter ends3 we know nothing of ,jesus1 of an historical personality of that name to whom the events and speeches recorded in the ,gospels refer4 ,in default of any historical certainty the name of ,jesus has become for ,protestant theology an empty vessel1 into which that theology pours the content of its own meditations4 #dag ,and if there is any excuse for this1 it is that that name has never at any time been anything but such an empty vessel3 ,jesus1 the ,christ1 the ,deliverer1 ,saviour1 ,physician of oppressed souls1 has been from first to last a figure borrowed from myth1 to whom the desire for redemption and the nave faith of the ,western ,asiatic peoples have transferred all their conceptions of the soul's welfare4 ,the history of this ,jesus in its general characteristics had been determined even before the evangelical ,jesus4 ,even ,weinel1 one of the most zealous and enthusiastic adherents of the modern ,jesus-worship1 confesses that ,christology was almost completed before ,jesus came on earth4 #dah ,it was not1 however1 merely the general frame and outlines of the history of ,jesus which had been determined in the ,messiah-faith1 in the idea of a divine spirit sent from ,god1 of the ,son of ,man of ,daniel and the ,jewish ,apocalyptics1 c41 not merely that this vague idea was filled out with new content through the ,redeemer-worship of the neighbouring heathen peoples4 ,besides this1 many of the individual traits of the ,jesus-figure were present1 some in heathen mythology1 some in the ,old ,testament2 and they were taken thence and worked into the evangelical representation4 ,there is1 for instance1 the story of the twelve-year old ,jesus in the ,temple4 ,who would have invented this story8 asks ,jeremias4 ,nevertheless1 he thinks it probable that in this ,luke was thinking of ,philo's description of the life of ,moses2 he calls to mind that ,plutarch gives us a quite similar statement concerning ,alexander1 whose life was consciously decorated with all the traits of the ,oriental ,king-redeemer4 #dai ,perhaps1 however1 the account comes from a ,buddhist origin4 ,the account of the temptation of ,jesus also sounds very much like the temptation of ,buddha1 so far as it is not derived from the temptation of ,zarathustra by ,ahriman #dbj or the temptation of ,moses by the devil1 of which the ,rabbis told1 #dba while ,jesus is said to have entered upon his ministry in his thirtieth year1 #dbb because at that age the ,levite was fitted for his sacred office4 #dbc ,till then 7i4e41 till his baptism7 we learn nothing of ,jesus' life4 ,similarly ,isa4 liii4 #b1 jumps from the early youth of the ,servant of ,god 7,he grew up as a tender plant1 as a root out of a dry ground3 he hath no form nor comeliness1 is despised and rejected of men7 straight to his passion and death2 while the ,gospels attempt to fill in the interval from ,jesus' baptism up to his passion by painting in further so-called ,messianic passages from the ,old ,testament and ,words of ,jesus4 ,we know how the early ,christians liked to rediscover their faith in the ,scriptures and see it predicted1 and with what zeal they consequently studied the ,old ,testament and altered the history of their ,jesus to make it agree with those predictions1 thus rendering it valuable as corroboration of their own notions4 ,in this connection it has been shown above how the ride of the beardless one influenced the collection of the tribute and his direct attack on the shopkeepers and money-changers in the evangelical account of ,jesus' advent to the ,temple at ,jerusalem4 #dbd ,but the more detailed development of this scene is determined by ,zech4 ix4 #i1 ,mal4 iii4 #a-c1 and ,isa4 i4 #aj sqq41 and the words placed in ,jesus' mouth on this occasion are taken from ,isa4 lvi4 #g and ,jer4 vii4 #a sqq41 so that this most important event in ,jesus' life can lay no claim to historical actuality4 #dbe ,and again the account of the betrayal1 of the thirty pieces of silver1 and of ,judas' death1 have their source in the ,old ,testament1 viz41 in the betrayal and death of ,ahitophel4 #dbf ,to what extent in particular the figures of ,moses1 with reference to ,deut4 xviii4 #ae and xxxiv4 #aj1 of ,joshua1 of ,elijah and ,elisha1 influenced the portrayal of the evangelical ,jesus has also been traced even by the theological party4 #dbg ,jesus has to begin his activities through baptism in the ,jordan1 because ,moses had begun his leadership of ,israel with the passage through the ,red ,sea and ,joshua at the time of the ,passover led the people through the ,jordan1 and this passage 7of the sun through the watery regions of the sky7 was regarded as baptism4 #dbh ,he has to walk on the water1 even as ,moses1 ,joshua1 and ,elias walked dryshod through the water4 ,he has to awaken the dead1 like ,elijah2 #dbi to surround himself with twelve or seventy disciples and apostles1 just as ,moses had surrounded himself with twelve chiefs of the people and seventy elders1 and as ,joshua had chosen twelve assistants at the passage of the ,jordan2 #dcj he has to be transfigured1 #dca and to ascend into heaven like ,moses #dcb and ,elijah4 #dcc ,elijah 7,eli-scha7 and ,jeho-schua 7,joshua1 ,jesus7 agree even in their names1 so that on this ground alone it would not have been strange if the ,prophet of the ,old ,testament had served as prototype of his evangelical namesake4 #dcd ,now ,jesus places himself in many ways above the ,mosaic ,law1 especially above the commands as to food1 #dce and in this at least one might find a trait answering to reality4 ,but in the ,rabbinical writings we find3 ,it is written1 #dcf the ,lord sets loose that which is bound2 for every creature that passes as unclean in this world1 the ,lord will pronounce clean in the next4 #dcg ,so that similarly the disposition of the ,law belongs to the general characteristics of the ,messiah1 and cannot be historical of ,jesus1 because if it were the attitude of the ,jewish ,christians to ,paul on account of his disposition of the ,law would be incomprehensible4 #dch ,the contrary attitude1 which is likewise represented by ,jesus1 #dci was already foreseen in the ,messianic expectation4 ,for while some hoped for a lightening and amendment of the ,law by the ,messiah1 others thought of its aggravation and completion4 ,in ,micah iv4 #e the ,messiah was to exert his activity1 not merely among the ,jews1 but also among the ,gentiles1 and the welfare of the kingdom of the ,messiah was to extend also to the latter4 ,according to ,isaiah lx4 and ,zechariah xiv41 on the contrary1 the ,gentiles were to be subjected and brought to nothing1 and only the ,jews were worthy of participation in the kingdom of ,god4 ,for that reason ,jesus had to declare himself with like determination for both conceptions1 #ddj without any attempt being made to reconcile the contradiction contained in this4 #dda ,that the parents of ,jesus were called ,joseph and ,mary1 and that his father was a carpenter1 were determined by tradition1 just as the name of his birthplace1 ,nazareth1 was occasioned by the name of a sect 7,nazaraios ,protector71 or by the fact that one sect honoured the ,messiah as a branch of the root of ,jesse 7nazar ,isai74 #ddb ,it was a ,messianic tradition that he began his activity in ,galilee and wandered about as ,physician1 ,saviour1 ,redeemer1 and ,prophet1 as mediator of the union of ,israel1 and as one who brought light to the ,gentiles1 not as an impetuous oppressor full of inconsiderate strength1 but as one who assumed a loving tenderness for the weak and despairing4 #ddc ,he heals the sick1 comforts the afflicted1 and proclaims to the poor the ,gospel of the nearness of the kingdom of ,god4 ,that is connected with the wandering of the sun through the twelve ,signs of the ,zodiac 7,galil circle71 and is based on ,isa4 xxxv4 #e sqq41 xlii4 #a-g1 xlix4 #i sqq41 as well as on ,isa4 lxi4 #a1 a passage which ,jesus himself1 according to ,luke iv4 #af sqq41 began his teaching in ,nazareth by explaining4 #ddd ,he had to meet with opposition in his work of salvation1 and nevertheless endure patiently1 because of ,isa4 #a4 #e4 ,naturally ,jesus1 behind whose human nature was concealed a ,god1 and to whom the pilgrim ,saviour ,jason corresponded1 #dde was obliged to reveal his true nature by miraculous healing1 and could not take a subordinate place in this regard among the cognate heathen ,god-redeemers4 ,at most we may wonder that even in this the ,old ,testament had to stand #ddf as a model1 and that ,jesus' doings never surpass those which the heathens praise in their gods and heroes1 e4g41 ,asclepius4 ,indeed1 according to ,tacitus #ddg even the ,emperor ,vespasian accomplished such miracles at ,alexandria1 where1 on being persistently pressed by the people1 he healed both a lame man and a blind1 and this almost in the same way as ,jesus did1 by moistening their eyes and cheeks with spittle2 which information is corroborated also by ,suetonius #ddh and ,dio ,cassius4 #ddi ,but the most marvellous thing is that the miracles of ,jesus have been found worth mentioning by the critical theology1 and that there is an earnest search for an historical nucleus1 which might probably underlie them4 ,all the individual characteristics cited above are1 however1 unimportant in comparison with the account of the ,last ,supper1 of the ,passion1 death 7on the cross71 and resurrection of ,jesus4 ,and yet what is given us on these points is quite certainly unhistorical2 these parts of the ,gospels owe their origin1 as we have stated1 merely to cult-symbolism and to the myth of the dying and rising divine ,saviour of the ,western ,asiatic religions4 ,no genius was necessary for their invention1 as everything was given3 the derision1 #dej the flagellation1 both the thieves1 the crying out on the cross1 the sponge with vinegar 7,psa4 lxix4 #bb71 the piercing with a lance1 #dea the soldiers casting dice for the dead man's garments1 also the women at the place of execution and at the grave1 the grave in a rock1 are found in just the same form in the worship of ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,mithras1 and ,osiris4 ,even the ,saviour carrying his cross is copied from ,hercules 7,simon of ,cyrene71 #deb bearing the pillars crosswise1 as well as from the story of ,isaac1 who carried his own wood to the altar on which he was to be sacrificed4 #dec ,but where the authors of the ,gospels have really found something new1 e4g41 in the account of ,jesus' trial1 of the ,roman and ,jewish procedure1 they have worked it out in such an ignorant way1 and to one who knows something about it betray so significantly the purely fictitious nature of their account1 that here really there is nothing to wonder at except perhaps the navet of those who still consider that account historical1 and pique themselves a little on their historical exactness and scientific method4 #ded ,is not ,robertson perhaps right after all in considering the whole statement of the last fate of ,jesus to be the rewriting of a dramatic ,mystery-play1 which among the ,gentile ,christians of the larger cities followed the sacramental meal on ,easter ,day8 ,we know what a great rle was played by dramatic representations in numerous cults of antiquity1 and how they came into especial use in connection with the veneration of the suffering and rising ,god-redeemers4 ,thus in ,egypt the passion1 death1 and resurrection of ,osiris and the birth of ,horus2 at ,eleusis the searching and lamentation of ,demeter for her lost ,persephone and the birth of ,iacchus2 at ,lern in ,argolis and many other places the fate of ,dionysus 7,zagreus72 in ,sicyon the suffering of ,adrastos1 who threw himself on to the funeral pyre of his father ,hercules2 at ,amycl the passing away of ,nature and its new life in the fate of ,hyacinth3 these were celebrated in festal pageants and scenic representations1 to say nothing of the feasts of the death and resurrection of ,mithras1 ,attis1 and ,adonis4 ,certainly ,matthew's account1 xx4-xxviii4 7with the exception of verses #aa-ae in the last chapter71 with its connected sequence of events1 which could not possibly have actually followed each other like this--,supper1 ,gethsemane1 betrayal1 passion1 ,peter's denial1 the crucifixion1 burial1 and resurrection--throughout gives one the impression of a chain of isolated dramatic scenes4 ,and the close of the ,gospel agrees very well with this conception1 for the parting words and exhortations of ,jesus to his people are a very suitable ending to a drama4 #dee ,if we allow this1 an explanation is given of the clearness which is so generally praised in the style of the ,gospels by the theologians and their following1 and which many think sufficient by itself to prove the historical nature of the ,synoptic representation of ,jesus4 ,of course1 ,wrede has already warned us not too hastily to consider clearness a sign of historical truth4 ,a writing may have a very secondary1 even apocryphal character1 and yet show much clearness4 ,the question always is how this was obtained4 #def ,wernle and ,wrede quite agree that at least in ,mark's production the clearness is of no account at all1 while clearness in the other ,gospels is found just in those parts which admittedly belong to the sphere of legend4 ,and how clearly and concretely do not our authors of the various ,lives of ,jesus1 not to mention ,renan1 or our ministers in the pulpits describe the events of the ,gospels1 with how many small and attractive traits do they not decorate these events1 in order that they should have a greater effect on their listeners6 ,this kind of clearness and personal stamp is really nothing but a matter of the literary skill and imagination of the authors in question4 ,the writings of the ,old ,testament1 and not merely the historical writings1 are also full of a most clear ability for narration and of most individual characteristics1 which prove how much the ,rabbinical writers in ,palestine knew of this side of literary activity4 ,or is anything wanting to the clearness and individual characterisation1 to which ,kalthoff also has alluded1 of the touching story of ,ruth2 of the picture of the prophet ,jonah1 of ,judith1 ,esther1 ,job1 c8 ,and then the stories of the patriarchs--the pious ,abraham1 the good-natured1 narrow-minded ,esau1 the cunning ,jacob1 and their respective wives--or1 to take one case1 how clear is not the meeting of ,abraham's servant with ,rebecca at the well6 #deg ,or let us consider ,moses1 ,elijah1 ,samson--great figures who in their most essential traits demonstrably belong to myth and religious fable6 ,if in preaching our ministers can go so vividly into the details of the story of the ,saviour that fountains of poetry are opened and there stream forth from their lips clear accounts of ,jesus' goodness of heart1 of his heroic greatness1 and of his readiness for the sacrifice1 how much more would this have been so at first in the ,christian community1 when the new religion was still in its youth1 when the faith in the ,messiah was as yet unweakened by sceptical doubts1 and when the heart of man was still filled with the desire for immediate and final redemption8 ,and even if we are confronted with a host of minor traits1 which cannot so easily be accounted for by religious motives and poetic imagination1 must these all refer to the same real personality8 ,may they not be based on events which are very far from being necessarily experiences of the liberal theology's historical ,jesus8 ,even ,edward v4 ,hartmann1 who is generally content to adhere to the historical ,jesus1 suggests the possibility that several historical personages1 who lived at quite different times1 have contributed concrete individual characteristics to the picture of ,jesus4 #deh ,there is a great deal of talk about the uninventable in the evangelical representation4 ,von ,soden even goes so far as to base his chief proof for the historical existence of ,jesus on this individuality that cannot be invented4 #dei ,as if there was any such thing as what cannot be invented for men with imagination6 ,and as if all the significant details of ,jesus' life were not invented on the lines of the so-called ,messianic passages in the ,old ,testament1 in heathen mythology1 and in the imported conceptions of the ,messiah6 ,the part that is professedly uninventable shrinks continuously the more assiduously criticism busies itself with the ,gospels2 and the word can at present apply only to side-issues and matters of no importance4 ,we are indeed faced with the strange fact1 that all the essential part of the ,gospels1 everything which is of importance for religious faith1 such as especially the passion1 death1 and resurrection of ,jesus1 is demonstrably invented and mythical2 but such parts as can at best only be historical because of their supposed uninventable nature are of no importance for the character of the ,gospel representation6 ,now1 it has been shown that the ,gospel picture of ,jesus is not without deficiencies4 ,we may see a proof #dfj of the historical nature of the events referred to in small traits1 as1 for example1 in ,jesus' temporary inability to perform miracles1 #dfa the circumstance that he is not represented as omniscient1 #dfb the attitude of his relatives to him4 #dfc ,so the theologian ,schmiedel set up first five and then nine passages as clearly credible1 and pronounced these to be the basis of a really scientific knowledge of ,jesus4 ,the passages are ,mark x4 #ag sqq4 7,why callest thou me good871 ,matt4 xii4 #ca sqq4 7,the sin against the ,holy ,ghost shall not be forgiven71 ,mark iii4 #ba 7,he is beside himself71 ,mark xiii4 #cb 7,but the day and the hour is known to no man71 ,mark xv4 #bd 7,my ,god1 why has thou forsaken me871 ,mark vi4 #e 7,and he could there do no mighty work71 ,mark viii4 #ab 7,there shall no sign be given unto this generation71 ,mark viii4 #ad-ba 7,reproaching the disciples on the occasion of the lack of bread71 ,matt4 xi4 #e 7,the blind see1 the lame walk74 ,all these bases evidently have a firm support only on the supposition that the ,gospels are meant to paint a stainless ideal1 a ,god1 that they are at most but a conception1 such1 perhaps1 as has been set up by ,bruno ,bauer4 ,but they are useless from the point of view intended1 as portraying a man4 ,if1 however1 the ,evangelists' intention was to paint the celestial ,christ of the ,apostle ,paul1 the ,god-man1 the abstract spirit-being1 as a completely real man for the eyes of the faithful1 to place him on the ground of historical reality1 and so to treat seriously ,paul's idea of humanity1 they were obliged to give him also human characteristics4 ,and these could be either invented afresh or taken from the actual life of honoured teachers1 in which the fact is acknowledged that1 even for the noblest and best of men1 there are hours of despair and grief1 that the prophet is worth nothing in his own fatherland1 or is even unknown to his nearest relatives4 ,even the prophet ,elijah1 the ,old ,testament precursor of the ,messiah1 who has in many ways determined the picture of ,jesus1 is said to have had moments of despair in which he wanted to die1 till ,god strengthened him anew to the fulfilment of his vocation4 #dfd ,moreover1 ,mark x4 #ag was a commonplace in all ancient philosophy from the time of ,plato1 and gained that form by an alteration of the original text 7,a4 ,pott1 ,der ,text des ,neuen ,testaments nach seiner gesch4 ,entwicklung in ,aus ,natur und ,geisteswelt1 #aijf1 p4 #fc1 sq472 ,mark xiv4 #bd is taken from the #bbnd ,psalm1 which has also in other respects determined the details of the account of the crucifixion4 ,mark iii4 #ba is1 as ,schleiermacher showed and ,strauss corroborated1 a pure invention of the ,evangelist1 the words of the ,pharisees being put into their mouths1 as their opinion1 in order to explain ,jesus' answer by the assertion of his kinship 7,strauss1 ,leben ,jesu1 i4 #fib2 cf4 also ,psa4 lix4 #a3 ,i am become a stranger unto my brethren1 and an alien unto my mother's children74 ,matt4 xi4 #e is based on ,isaiah xxxv4 #e1 xlii4 #g1 xlix4 #i1 lxi4 #a1 which runs in the ,septuagint3 ,the spirit of the ,lord is upon me2 because the ,lord hath anointed me to preach good tidings unto the poor2 he hath sent me to bind up the broken-hearted1 to proclaim liberty to the captives1 and to the blind the opening of their eyes2 to proclaim the acceptable year of the ,lord1 and the day of vengeance of our ,god2 to comfort all that mourn4 #dfe ,schmiedel's nine bases consequently are at most testimony to a lost glory2 but the construction of a really scientific life of ,jesus cannot possibly arise from them4 #dff ,clearness of exposition1 then1 can never afford a proof of the historical nature of the matter concerned4 ,and how easily is not this clearness imported by us into the evangelical information6 ,we are brought up in the atmosphere of these tales1 and carry about with us1 under the influence of the surrounding ,christianity1 an imaginary picture of them1 which we unwittingly introduce into our reading of the ,gospels4 ,and how subjective and dependent on the reader's taste the impression of clearness given by the ,gospel picture of ,jesus is1 to what a great extent personal predilections come in1 is evidenced by this fact1 that a ,vollers could not discover in the ,gospels any real man of flesh and blood1 but only a shadowy image1 which he analysed into a thaumaturgical 7the miracle-worker7 and a soteriological 7the ,saviour7 part4 #dfg ,in opposition to the efforts of the historical theology to give ,jesus a unique position above that of all other founders of religions1 ,vollers justly remarks how difficult it must be for the purely historical treatment to recognise these and similar assertions4 ,the improbability1 not to say impossibility1 of the soteriological picture is too obvious4 ,at bottom this picture of critical theology is nothing but the contemporary transformation of ,schleiermacher's ideal man2 what must have a hundred years ago appeared comprehensible as the product of a refined ,moravianism1 in the atmosphere of ,fichte1 ,schelling1 and ,hegel1 is nowadays a mere avoidance of an open and honourable analysis from the point of view that prevails outside of theology1 and is principally known in the spheres of ,nature and of ,history4 ,who would deny that the tone of the catechism and of the pulpit1 that full-sounding words of many meanings1 even the concealment and glossing over of unpleasant admissions1 play a part in this sphere such as they could never have in in any other science8 ,we are then reduced to the individual maxims and sermons of ,jesus4 ,these must be proved to be intelligible only as the personal experiences and thoughts of one supreme individual4 ,unfortunately just this1 as has already been proved1 seems peculiarly doubtful4 ,as for ,jesus' sermons1 we have already understood from ,wernle that they were in any case not received from ,jesus in the form in which they have been handed down to us1 but were subsequently compiled by the ,evangelists from isolated and occasional maxims of his4 #dfh ,these single phrases and occasional utterances of ,jesus are supposed to have been taken in the last resort partly from oral tradition1 partly from the ,aramaic collection--that great source of ,wernle's--which was translated into ,greek by the ,gospels4 ,the existence of this source has been established only very indirectly1 and we know absolutely nothing more of it4 ,but it is self-evident that even in the translation from one language into another much of the originality of those words of the ,lord must have been lost2 and1 as may be shown1 the different ,evangelists have translated the same words quite differently4 ,whether it will be possible to reconstruct the original work1 as critical theology is striving to do1 from the material before us1 seems very questionable4 ,and we are given no guarantee that we have to do with actual words of the ,lord as they were contained in the ,aramaic collection4 ,even if the ,evangelist is supposed to have expressed the original meaning1 what is to assure us that this phrase was spoken by ,jesus just in this way1 and not in other connections1 if even the phrases were taken down as soon as uttered8 ,but this is admittedly supposed not to have occurred till after ,jesus' death1 after his ,messianic significance was clearly recognised1 and after people were making efforts to go back in memory to the ,master's figure and preserve of his sayings any that were serviceable4 ,bousset1 indeed1 in his work1 ,was wissen wir von ,jesus8--which was directed against ,kalthoff--has referred to the good ,oriental memory of the disciples4 ,all who know the ,east from personal experience are in tolerable agreement on one point1 viz41 how little an ,oriental is able to repeat what he has heard or experienced in a true and objective fashion4 ,consequently there are in the ,east no historical traditions in our sense of the word1 but all important events are decorated like a novel1 and are changed according to the necessities of the moment4 ,such maxims1 indeed1 as ,love your enemies1 ,to give is more blessed than to receive1 ,no one but ,god is good1 ,blessed are the poor1 ,you are the light of the world1 ,give to ,csar that which is ,csar's1 c41 once heard may be not easily forgotten1 as the theological phrase runs4 ,but also they are not of such a kind that the ,jesus of liberal theology was necessary for their invention4 ,we need not here take into consideration how many of ,jesus' expressions may have been imported into the ,gospels from the ,mystery drama1 with whose existence we must nevertheless reckon1 and from which phrases may have been changed into sayings of the historical ,jesus4 ,such obscure and high-flown passages as1 e4g41 ,matt4 x4 #cb sq42 xi4 #ae-cj1 xxvi4 #fd1 and xxviii4 #ah1 give one the impression of coming from the mouth of ,god's representative on the stage2 and this probability is further increased when we meet quite similar expressions1 such as of the light burden and the easy yoke1 in the ,mysteries of ,mithras or of ,isis4 #dfi ,bousset admits that all the individual words which have been handed down to us as expressions of ,jesus are mediated by the tradition of a community1 and have passed through many hands4 #dgj ,they are1 as ,strauss has observed1 like pebbles which the waves of tradition have rolled and polished1 setting them down here and there and uniting them to this and that mass4 ,we are1 ,steck remarks1 absolutely certain of no single word of the ,gospels--that it was spoken by ,jesus just in this way and in no other4 #dga ,it would be very difficult1 thinks ,vollers1 to refer even one expression1 one parable1 one act of this ideal man to ,jesus of ,nazareth with historical certainty1 let us say with the same certainty with which we attribute the ,epistle to the ,galatians to the ,apostle ,paul1 or explain the ,johannine ,logos as the product of ,greek philosophy4 #dgb ,even one of the leaders of ,protestant orthodoxy1 ,professor ,khler1 of ,halle1 admitted1 as was stated in the ,kirchliche ,monatsblatt fr ,rheinland und ,westfalen1 in a theological conference held in ,dortmund1 that we possess no single authentic word of ,jesus4 ,any attempt1 such as ,chamberlain has made1 to gather from the tradition a certain nucleus of words of ,jesus1 is consequently mistaken2 and if nothing is to be a criterion but one's personal feelings1 it would be better to confess at once that here there can be no talk of any kind of decision4 ,it is1 then1 settled that we cannot with certainty trace back to an historical ,jesus any single one of the expressions of the ,lord that have come down to us4 ,even the oldest authority1 the ,aramaic collection1 may have contained merely the tradition of a community4 ,can we then think that the supporters of an historical ,jesus are right in treating it as nothing more than a crude sin against all historical methods1 as something most monstrous and unscientific1 if one draws the only possible inference from the result of the criticism of the ,gospels1 and disputes the existence at any time of an historical ,jesus8 ,there may after all have been such a collection of words of the ,lord in the oldest ,christian communities2 but must we understand by this words of a definite human individual8 ,may they not rather have been words which had an authoritative and canonical acceptation in the community1 being either specially important or congenial to it1 and which were for this reason attributed to the ,lord--that is1 to the hero of the association or cult1 ,jesus8 ,it has been generally agreed that this was the case1 for example1 with the directions as to action in the case of quarrels among the members of the community #dgc and with regard to divorce4 #dgd ,let us also recall to our minds the words of the ,lord in the other cult-associations of antiquity1 the autos epha of the ,pythagoreans4 ,and how many particularly popular1 impressive1 and favourite sayings were current in antiquity bearing the names of one of the ,seven ,wise ,men1 without any one dreaming of ascribing to them an historical signification6 ,how then can it be anything but hasty and uncritical to give out the words of the ,lord in the collection1 which are the basis of ,jesus' sermons in the ,gospels1 as sayings of one definite ,rabbi--that is1 of the historical ,jesus8 ,one may have as high an opinion of ,jesus' words as one likes3 the question is whether ,jesus1 even the ,jesus of liberal theology1 is their spiritual father1 or whether they are not after all in the same position as the psalms or sayings of the ,old ,testament which are current in the names of ,david and ,solomon1 and of which we know quite positively that their authors were neither the one nor the other4 ,but perhaps those sayings and sermons of ,jesus are of such a nature that they could only arise from the historical ,jesus8 ,of a great number both of isolated sayings and parables of ,jesus--and among these indeed the most beautiful and the most admired1 for example1 the parable of the good ,samaritan1 whose moral content coincides with ,deut4 xxix4 #a-d1 of the ,prodigal ,son1 #dge of the man that sowed--we know that they were borrowed #dgf partly from ,jewish philosophy1 partly from oral tradition of the ,talmud1 and partly from other sources4 ,in any case they have no claim to originality4 #dgg ,this holds good even of the ,sermon on the ,mount1 which is1 as has been shown by ,jewish scholars in particular1 and as ,robertson has once more proved1 a mere patchwork taken from ancient ,jewish literature1 and1 together with the ,lord's ,prayer1 contains not a single thought which has not its prototype in the ,old ,testament and in the ancient philosophical maxims of the ,jewish people4 #dgh ,moreover1 the remaining portions1 whose genesis from any other quarter is at least as yet unproved1 is not at all of such a nature that it could only have arisen in the mind of such a personality as the theological ,jesus of ,nazareth4 ,at bottom1 indeed1 he neither said nor taught anything beyond the purer morality of contemporary ,judaism--to say nothing at all of the ,stoics and of the other ethical teachers of antiquity1 in particular those of the ,indians4 ,the gravest suspicion of their novelty and originality is awakened at the ,gospels' emphasising the novelty and significance of ,jesus' sayings by the ancients said--but ,i say unto you2 attempting thereby to make an artificial contradiction with the former spiritual and moral standpoint of ,judaism1 even in places where only a look at the ,old ,testament is necessary to convince us that such a contradiction does not exist1 as1 for example1 in the case of the love of ,god and of one's neighbor4 #dgi ,moreover1 our cultivated reverence for ,jesus and the overwhelming glorification of everything connected with him has surrounded a great many of the words of the ,lord with a glitter of importance which stands in no relation to their real value1 and which they would never have obtained had they been handed down to us in another connection or under some other name4 ,let us only think how much that is in itself quite trivial and insignificant has been raised to quite an unjustifiable importance merely through the use of the pulpit and the consecration of divine service4 ,even though our theologians are not already tired of extolling the uniqueness1 incomparability1 and majesty of ,jesus' words and parables1 they might nevertheless just for once consider how much that is of little worth1 how much that is mistaken1 spiritually insignificant and morally insufficient1 even absolutely doubtful1 there is in what ,jesus preached4 #dhj ,in this connection it has always been the custom to extenuate the tradition by referring to the inexactitude or to fly in the face of any genuine historical method by tortuous elucidations of the passages in question1 by unmeaning references to the temporal and educational limitations even of the superman1 and by suppression of the disagreeable parts4 ,how much trouble have not our theologians taken1 and do they not even now take1 to show even one single point in ,jesus' doctrines which may justify their declaring with a good conscience his uniqueness in the sense understood by them1 and may justify their raising their purely human ,jesus as high as possible above his own age6 ,not one of all the passages quoted to this end has been allowed to remain4 ,the ,synoptic ,jesus taught neither a new and loftier morality1 nor a new meekness1 nor a deepened consciousness of ,god2 neither the indestructible value of the individual souls of men in the present-day individualistic sense1 nor even freedom as against the ,jewish ,law1 nor the immanence of the kingdom of ,god1 nor anything else1 that surpassed the capabilities of another intellectually distinguished man of his age4 ,even the love1 the general love1 of one's neighbour1 the preaching of which is with the greater portion of the laity the chief claim to veneration possessed by the historical ,jesus1 in the ,synoptics plays no very important part in ,jesus' moral conception of life2 governing no wider sphere than had already been allowed it in the ,old ,testament4 #dha ,and if the pulpit eloquence of nineteen hundred years has nevertheless attempted to lay stress on this point1 it is because it counts on the faithful not having in mind the difference between the ,gospels1 and on their peacefully permitting the ,gospel of ,john1 the one and only gospel of love1 which1 however1 is not supposed to be historical1 to be substituted for the ,synoptic ,gospels4 ,and so we actually see the glorification of ,jesus' doctrines which1 a short time ago1 flourished so luxuriantly1 appearing recently in more and more moderate terms4 #dhb ,thus it was for a time customary in theology1 under the influence of ,holtzmann and ,harnack1 to consider the ethical deepening and return of ,god's fatherly love as the essentially new and significant point in ,jesus' glad tidings1 and to write about it in unctuous phrases4 ,recently1 even this seems to have been abandoned1 as1 for example1 ,wrede openly confesses1 with respect to the filiation to ,god1 that this conception existed in ,judaism very long before ,christ2 also that ,jesus did not especially preach ,god as the loving ,father of each individual1 that indeed he did not once place in the foreground the name of ,god as the ,father4 #dhc ,but so much the more decidedly is reference made to the enormous effects which attended ,jesus' appearance1 and the attempt is made to prove from them his surpassing greatness1 uniqueness1 and historical reality4 ,as if ,zarathustra1 ,buddha1 and ,mohammed had achieved less1 as if the effects which proceed from a person must stand in a certain relation to his human significance1 and as if those effects were to be ascribed to the historical and not rather to the mythical ,jesus--that is1 to the idea of the ,god sacrificing himself for humanity6 ,as a matter of fact1 his faith in the immediate proximity of the ,messianic kingdom of ,god1 and the demand for a change of life based on this1 which is really unique in the traditional ,jesus1 is without any religious and ethical significance for us1 and is at most only of interest for the history of civilisation4 ,on the other hand1 such part of his teaching as is still of importance to us is not unique1 and only has the reputation of being so because we are accustomed by a theological education to treat it in the light of the ,christian dogmatic metaphysics of redemption4 ,plato1 ,seneca1 ,epictetus1 ,laotse1 or ,buddha in their ethical views are not behind ,jesus with his egoistical pseudo-morals1 his basing moral action on the expectation of reward and punishment in the future1 his narrow-minded nationalism1 which theologians in vain attempt to debate away and to conceal2 and his obscure mysticism1 which strives to attain a special importance for its maxims by mysterious references to his heavenly ,father4 #dhd ,and as for the great impression which ,jesus is supposed to have made on his own people and on the following age1 and without which the history of ,christianity is supposed to be inexplicable1 ,kalthoff has shown with justice that the ,gospels do not in any way reflect the impression which a person produced1 but only such as the accounts of ,jesus' personality would have made on the members of the ,christian community4 ,even the strongest impression proves nothing as to the historical truth of these accounts4 ,even an account of a fictitious personage may produce the deepest impression on a community if it is given in historical terms4 ,what an impression ,goethe's ,werther produced1 though the whole world knew that it was only a romance6 ,yet it stirred up countless disciples and imitators4 #dhe ,in this we have at the same time a refutation of the popular objection that to deny the historical existence of ,jesus is to misunderstand the significance of personality in the historical life of peoples and religions4 ,certainly1 as ,mehlhorn says1 active devotion above all is enkindled to persons in whom this personality strikes us in an evident1 elevating1 and animating way4 #dhf ,but in order to enkindle devotion and faith in ,jesus ,christ the elevating personality of a ,paul sufficed1 whether or not he was the author of the epistles current in his name2 the missionary activity of apostles1 working1 like him1 in the service of the ,jesus-creed1 was enough1 since they moved from place to place1 and1 often undergoing great personal sacrifice and privation1 with danger to their own lives demanded adoration of the new ,god4 ,those in need of redemption could never find any real religious support outside of the faith in a divine redeemer1 they could never find satisfaction and deliverance but in the idea of the ,god sacrificing himself for mankind--the ,god whose redeeming power and whose distinct superiority to the other ,mystery-deities the apostles could portray in such a lively and striking fashion4 ,that an idea can only be effective and fruitful by means of a great personality is a barren formula4 #dhg ,in thinking they can with this argument support their faith in an historical ,jesus liberal theologians avail themselves of an irrelevant bit of modern street-philosophy without noticing that in their case it proves nothing at all4 ,where1 then1 is the great personality which gave to ,mithraism such an efficacy that in the first century of our era it was able to conquer from the ,east almost the whole of the ,west and to make it doubtful for a time whether the world was to be ,mithraic or ,christian8 ,in such influential religions as those of ,dionysus and ,osiris1 or indeed in ,brahmanism1 we cannot speak of great personalities as their founders2 and as for ,zarathustra1 the pretended founder of the ,persian1 and ,moses1 the founder of the ,israelite religion1 they are not historical persons2 while the views of different investigators differ as to the historical existence of the reputed founder of ,buddhism4 ,of course1 even in the above-mentioned religions the particular ideas would have been brought forward by brilliant individuals1 and the movements depending on them would have been first organised and rendered effective by men of energy and purpose4 ,but the question is whether persons of this type are necessarily great1 even unique1 in the sense of liberal theology1 in order to be successful4 ,so that to set aside ,paul1 whose inspiring personality gifted with a genius for organisation we know from his epistles1--to set him aside in favour of an imaginary ,jesus1 to base the importance of the ,christian religion on the uniqueness of its supposed founder1 and to base this uniqueness in turn on the importance of the religious movement which resulted from it1 is to abandon the critical standpoint and to turn about in circles4 ,it is an empty assertion1 says ,ltzelberger1 without any real foundation1 that the invention of such a person as the ,gospels give us in their ,jesus would have been quite impossible1 as we find in him such a peculiar and sharply defined character that imagination would never have been able to invent and adhere to it4 ,for the personality which meets us in the ,gospels is by no means one that is sharply drawn and true to itself2 but the story shows us rather a man who from quite different mental tendencies spoke now one way and now another1 and is perfectly different in the first and fourth ,gospels4 ,only with the greatest trouble can a homogeneous and coherent whole be formed from the descriptions in the ,gospels4 ,so that we are absolutely wrong in concluding from the originality of the person of ,christ in the ,gospels to their historical credibility4 ,the conclusion is much more justifiable that if such a person with such a life-history and such speech had stood at the beginning of the ,christian ,church1 the history of its development must have been quite a different one1 just as the history of ,judaism would have been different if a ,moses with his ,law had stood at its head4 #dhh ,and now if we compare the praises of ,buddha in the ,lalita ,vistara with the description of ,jesus' personality given in the ,new ,testament1 we will be convinced how similarly--even if we exclude the hypothesis of a direct influence--and under what like conditions the kindred religion took shape3 ,in the world of creatures1 which was long afflicted by the evils of natural corruption1 thou didst appear1 ,o king of physicians1 who redeemest us from all evil4 ,at thy approach1 ,o guide1 unrest disappears1 and gods and men are filled with health4 ,thou art the protector1 the firm foundation1 the chief1 the leader of the world1 with thy gentle and benevolent disposition4 ,thou art the best of physicians1 who bringest the perfect means of salvation and healest suffering4 ,distinguished by thy compassion and sympathy1 thou governest the things of the world4 ,distinguished by thy strength of mind and good works1 completely pure1 thou hast attained to perfection1 and1 thyself redeemed1 thou wilt1 as the prophet of the four truths1 redeem other creatures also4 ,the power of the ,evil ,one has been overcome by wisdom1 courage1 and humility4 ,thou hast brought it about1--the highest and immortal glory4 ,we greet thee as the conqueror of the army of the ,deceiver4 ,thou whose word is without fault1 who freest from error and passion1 hast trod the path of eternal life2 thou dost deserve in heaven and on earth honour and homage unparalleled4 ,thou quickenest ,gods and men with thy clear words4 ,by the beams which go forth from thee thou art the conqueror of this universe1 the ,master of ,gods and men4 ,thou didst appear1 ,light of the ,law1 destroyer of misery and ignorance1 completely filled with humility and majesty4 ,sun1 moon1 and fires no longer shine before thee and thy fulness of imperishable glory4 ,thou who teachest us to know truth from falsehood1 ghostly leader with the sweetest voice1 whose spirit is calm1 whose passions are controlled1 whose heart is perfectly at rest1 who teachest what should be taught1 who bringest about the union of gods and men3 ,i greet thee1 ,sakhyamuni1 as the greatest of men1 as the wonder of the three thousand worlds1 who deservest honour and homage in heaven and on earth1 from ,gods and men6 ,where1 then1 is the uniqueness of ,jesus1 into which the future divinity of the ,world-redeemer has disappeared for modern critical theology1 and into which it has striven to import all the sentimental considerations which once belonged to the ,god-man in the sense of the ,church dogma8 ,nothing is more negative than the result of the inquiry into the life of ,jesus4 ,the ,jesus of ,nazareth1 who appeared as the ,messiah1 who proclaimed the morals of the kingdom of ,god1 who founded the kingdom of heaven upon earth1 and died to give consecration to his acts1 never existed4 ,he is a figure which was invented by ,rationalism1 restored by ,liberalism1 and painted over with historical science by modern theologians4 ,with these words of the theologian ,schweitzer #dhi the present inquiry may be said to agree4 ,in fact1 in the ,gospels we have nothing but the expression of the consciousness of a community4 ,in this respect the view supported by ,kalthoff is completely right4 ,the life of ,jesus1 as portrayed by the ,synoptics1 merely brings to an expression in historical garb the metaphysical ideas1 religious hopes1 the outer and inner experiences of the community which had ,jesus for its cult-god4 ,his opinions1 statements1 and parables only reflect the religious-moral conceptions1 the temporary sentiments1 the casting down and the joy of victory1 the hate and the love1 the judgments and prejudices of the members of the community1 and the differences and contradictions in the ,gospels prove to be the developing material of the conception of the ,messiah in different communities and at different times4 ,christ takes just the same position in the religious-social brotherhoods which are named after him as ,attis has in the ,phrygian1 ,adonis in the ,syrian1 ,osiris in the ,egyptian1 ,dionysus1 ,hercules1 ,hermes1 ,asclepius1 c41 in the ,greek cult-associations4 ,he is but another form of these club-gods or patrons of communities1 and the cult devoted to him shows in essentials the same forms as those devoted to the divinities above named4 ,the place of the bloody expiatory sacrifice of the believers in ,attis1 wherein they underwent baptism of blood in their yearly ,march festival1 and wherein they obtained the forgiveness of their sins and were born again to a new life1 was in ,rome the ,hill of the ,vatican4 ,in fact1 the very spot on which in ,christian times the ,church of ,peter grew above the so-called grave of the apostle4 ,it was at bottom merely an alteration of the name1 not of the matter1 when the ,high ,priest of ,attis blended his rle with that of the ,high ,priest of ,christ1 and the ,christ-cult spread itself from this new point far over the other parts of the ,roman ,empire4 7c7 ,the ,true ,character of the ,synoptic ,jesus4 ,the ,synoptic ,gospels leave open the question whether they treat of a man made ,god or of a ,god made man4 ,the foregoing account has shown that the ,jesus of the ,gospels is to be understood only as a ,god made man4 ,the story of his life1 as presented in the ,gospels1 is the rendering into history of a primitive religious myth4 ,most of the great heroes of the legend1 which passes as historical1 are similar incarnate ,gods--such as ,jason1 ,hercules1 ,achilles1 ,theseus1 ,perseus1 ,siegfried1 c42 in these we have nothing but the old ,aryan sun--champion in the struggle against the powers of darkness and of death4 ,that primitive ,gods in the view of a later age should become men1 without1 however1 ceasing to be clothed with the glamour of the deity1 is to such an extent the ordinary process1 that the reverse1 the elevation of men to ,gods1 is as a rule only found in the earliest stages of human civilisation1 or in periods of moral and social decay1 when fawning servility and worthless flattery fashion a prominent man1 either during his life or after his death1 into a divine being4 ,even the so-called ,bible ,story contains numerous examples of such ,god made men3 the patriarchs1 ,joseph1 ,joshua1 ,samson1 ,esther1 ,mordecai1 ,haman1 ,simon ,magus1 the magician ,elymas1 c41 were originally pure ,gods1 and in the description of their lives old ,semitic star-myths and sun-myths obtained a historical garb4 ,if we cannot doubt that ,moses1 the founder of the old covenant1 was a fictitious figure1 and that his history was invented by the priests at ,jerusalem only for the purpose of sanctioning and basing on his authority the law of the priests named after him2 if for this end the whole history of ,israel was falsified1 and the final event in the religious development of ,israel1 i4e41 the giving of the ,law1 was placed at the beginning--why cannot what was possible with ,moses have been repeated in the case of ,jesus8 ,why may not also the founder of the new covenant as an historical person belong entirely to pious legend8 ,according to ,herodotus1 #dij the ,greeks also changed an old ,phoenician ,god1 ,hercules1 for national reasons1 into a native hero1 the son of ,amphitryon1 and incorporated him in their own sphere of ideas4 ,let us consider how strong the impulse was1 especially among ,orientals1 to make history of purely internal experiences and ideas4 ,to carry historical matter into the sphere of myth1 and to conceive myth as history1 is1 as is shown by the investigations of ,winckler1 ,schrader1 ,jensen1 c41 for the ,orientals such a matter of course1 that1 as regards the accounts in the ,old ,testament1 it is hardly possible to distinguish their genuinely historical nucleus from its quasi-historical covering4 ,and it is more especially the ,semitic thought of antiquity which proves to be completely unable to distinguish mythical phantasy from real event6 ,it is1 indeed1 too often said that the ,semite produced and possessed no mythology of his own1 as ,renan asserted2 and no doubt at all is possible that they could not preserve as such and deal with the mythical figures and events whencesoever they derived them1 but always tended to translate them into human form and to associate them with definite places and times4 ,the ,god of the ,semites is associated with place and object1 he is a ,genius loci1 says ,winckler4 #dia ,but if ever a myth required to be clothed in the garment of place and the metaphysical ideas contained in it to be separated into a series of historical events1 it was certainly the myth of the ,god sacrificing himself for humanity1 who sojourned among men in human form1 suffered with the rest of men and died1 returning1 after victoriously overcoming the dark powers of death1 to the divine seat whence he set out4 ,we understand how the ,god ,jesus1 consequent on his symbolical unification with the man sacrificed in his stead1 could come to be made human1 and how on this basis the faith in the resurrection of ,god in the form of an historical person could arise4 ,but how the reverse process could take place1 how the man ,jesus could be elevated into a ,god1 or could ever fuse with an already existing ,god of like name into the divine-human redeemer--indeed1 the ,deity--that is and remains1 as we have already said1 a psychological puzzle4 ,the only way to solve it is to refer to the inscrutable secrets of the ,divine will4 ,in what other way can we explain how that simple child of man1 as he has been described1 could so very soon after his death be elevated into that mystical being of imagination1 into that celestial ,christ1 as he meets us in the epistles of ,paul8 ,there can only have been at most seven1 probably three1 years1 according to a recent estimate hardly one year1 between the death of ,jesus and the commencement of ,paul's activity4 #dib ,and this short time is supposed to have sufficed to transform the man ,jesus into the ,pauline ,christ6 ,and not only ,paul is supposed to have been able to do this2 even ,jesus' immediate disciples1 who sat with him at the same table1 ate and drank with him1 knowing then who ,jesus was1 are supposed to have declared themselves in agreement with this1 and to have prayed to him whom they had always seen praying to the ,father6 ,certainly in antiquity the deification of a man was nothing extraordinary3 ,plato and ,aristotle were1 after their death1 honoured by their pupils as god-like beings2 ,demetrius ,poliorcetes1 ,alexander1 the ,ptolemies1 c41 had divine honours rendered to them even during their lives4 ,but this style of deification is completely different from that which is supposed to have been allotted to ,jesus4 ,it is merely an expression of personal gratitude and attachment1 of overflowing sentiment and characterless flattery1 and never obtained any detailed theological formulation4 ,it was the basis for no new religion4 ,schopenhauer has very justly pointed out the contradiction between ,paul's apotheosis of ,jesus and usual historical experience1 and remarked that from this consideration could be drawn an argument against the authenticity of the ,pauline epistles4 #dic ,in fact1 ,holtzmann considers1 with reference to this assertion of the philosopher's1 the question whether the figure of ,jesus attaining such colossal dimensions in ,paul's sight may not be taken to establish the distance between the two as that of only a few years1 if there was not immediate temporal contact1 as the question most worthy of discussion1 which the critics of the ,dutch school have propounded for consideration4 #did ,according to the prevalent view of critical theologians1 as presented even by ,pfleiderer1 the apparitions of the ,lord1 which after ,jesus' death were seen by the disciples who had fled from ,jerusalem1 the ecstatic visionary experiences1 in which they thought they saw their crucified ,master living and raised up to heavenly glory1 were the occasion of their faith in the resurrection1 and consequently of their faith in ,jesus' divine rle as ,redeemer4 #die ,pathological states of over-excited men and hysterical women are then supposed to form the historical foundation for the genesis of the ,christian religion6 ,and with such opinions they think themselves justified in looking down on the rationalist of the eighteenth-century ,enlightenment with supreme contempt1 and in boasting of the depth to which their religious-historical insight reaches6 ,but if we really admit1 with historical theology1 this more than doubtful explanation1 which degrades ,christianity into the merely chance product of mental excitement1 at once the further question arises as to how the new religion of the small community of the ,messiah at ,jerusalem was able to spread itself abroad with such astounding rapidity that1 even so soon as at most two decades after ,jesus' death1 we meet with ,christian communities not only over the whole of ,western ,asia1 but also in the islands of the ,mediterranean1 in the coast-towns of ,greece1 even in ,italy1 at ,puteoli1 and in ,rome2 and this at a time when as yet not a line had been written about the ,jewish ,rabbi4 #dif ,even the theologian ,schweitzer is obliged to confess of historical theology that until it has in some way explained how it was that1 under the influence of the ,jewish sect of the ,messiah1 ,greek and ,roman popular ,christianity appeared at all points simultaneously1 it must admit a formal right of existence to all hypotheses1 even the most extravagant1 which seek to attack and solve this problem4 #dig ,if in all this it is shown to be possible1 or even probable1 that in the ,jesus of the ,gospels we have not a deified man1 but rather a humanised ,god1 there remains but to find an answer to the question as to what external reasons led to the transplanting of the ,god ,jesus into the soil of historical actuality and the reduction of the eternal or super-historical fact of his redeeming death and of his resurrection into a series of temporal events4 ,this question is answered at once if we turn our attention to the motives present in the earliest ,christian communities known to us1 which motives appear in the ,acts and in the ,pauline epistles4 ,from these sources we know at what an early stage an opposition arose between ,paul's ,gentile ,christianity and the ,jewish ,christianity1 the chief seat of which was at ,jerusalem1 and which for this reason1 as we can understand1 claimed for itself a special authority4 ,as long as the former persecutor of the ,christian community1 over whose conversion they could not at first rejoice too much1 #dih did not obstruct others and seemed to justify his apostolic activity by his success among the ,gentiles1 they left him to go his way4 ,but when ,paul showed his independence by his reserve before the ,brothers at ,jerusalem1 and began to attract the feelings of those at ,jerusalem by his abrogation of the ,mosaic ,law1 then they commenced to treat him with suspicion1 to place every obstacle in the way of his missionary activity1 and to attempt1 led by the zealous ,james1 to bring the ,pauline communities under their own government4 ,then1 seeking a title for the practice of the apostolic vocation1 they found it in this--that every one who wished to testify to ,christ must himself have seen him after his resurrection4 ,but ,paul could very justly object that to him also the transfigured ,jesus had appeared4 #dii ,then they made the justification for the apostolic vocation consist in this1 that an apostle must not only have seen ,christ risen up1 but must also have eaten and drunk with him4 #ejj ,this indeed was not applicable in the case of ,judas1 who in the ,acts i4 #af is nevertheless counted among the apostles2 and it was also never asserted of ,matthias1 who was chosen in the former's stead1 that he had been a witness of ,jesus' resurrection4 ,much less even does he seem to have fulfilled the condition to which advance was made in the development of the original idea1 i4e41 that an apostle of ,jesus should have been personally acquainted with the living ,jesus1 that he should have belonged to the ,first ,apostles and have been present as eye-witness and hearer of ,jesus' words from the time of ,john's baptism up to the ,resurrection and ,ascension4 #eja ,now ,seufert has shown that the passage of the ,acts referred to is merely a construction1 a transference of later conditions to an earlier epoch2 and that the whole point of it is to paralyse ,paul's mission to the ,gentiles and to establish the title of the ,jew-,christians at ,jerusalem as higher than that of his followers4 ,if with this purpose1 as ,seufert showed1 the organisation of the ,apostleship of ,twelve arose--an organisation which has no satisfactory basis or foundation in the ,gospels or in the ,pauline epistles--then it is from this purpose also that we can find cause for the ,god ,jesus to become a human founder of the apostleship4 ,an apostle was to be only such an one as had seen and heard ,jesus himself1 or had learnt from those who had been his immediate disciples4 ,a literature of ,judaism arose which had at quite an early stage the closest interest in the historical determination of ,jesus' life2 and this formed the lowest stratum on which our canonical ,gospels are based4 #ejb ,judaism in general1 and the form of it at ,jerusalem in particular1 needed a legal title on which to base its commanding position as contrasted with the ,gentile ,christianity of ,paul2 and so its founders were obliged to have been companions of ,jesus in person1 and to have been selected for their vocation by him4 ,for this reason ,jesus could not remain a mere ,god1 but had to be drawn down into historical actuality4 ,seufert thinks that the tracing of the ,apostleship of ,twelve back to an historical ,jesus1 and the setting up of the demand for an apostle of ,jesus to have been a companion of his journeying1 took place in ,paul's lifetime in the sixth1 or perhaps even in the fifth decade4 #ejc ,in this he presupposes the existence of an historical ,jesus1 while the ,pauline epistles themselves contain nothing to lead one to believe that the transformation of the ,jesus-faith into history took place in ,paul's lifetime4 ,in early ,christianity exactly the same incident took place here1 on the soil of ,palestine and at ,jerusalem1 as took place later in eternal ,rome1 when the bishop of this city1 in order to establish his right of supremacy in the ,church1 proclaimed himself to be the direct successor of the ,apostle ,peter1 and caused the possession of the keys to have been given to this latter by ,jesus himself4 #ejd ,so that there were very mundane and very practical reasons which after all gave the impulse for the ,god ,jesus to be transformed into an historical individual1 and for the central point of his action1 the crisis in his life1 his death and his resurrection1 which alone affected religious considerations1 to be placed in the capital of the ,jewish state1 the ,city of ,god1 the ,holy ,city of ,david1 of the ancestors of the ,messiah1 with which now the ,jews connected religious salvation4 ,but how could this fiction succeed and maintain its ground1 so that it was able to become an absolutely vital question for the new religion1 an indestructible dogma1 a self-evident fact1 so that its very calling in question seems to the critical theologians of our time a perfect absurdity8 ,before we can answer this question we must turn our attention to the ,gnostic movement and its relations to the growing ,church4 7d7 ,gnosticism and the ,johannine ,jesus4 ,christianity was originally developed from ,gnosticism 7,mandaism74 ,the ,pauline religion was only one form of the many syncretising efforts to satisfy contemporary humanity's need of redemption by a fusion of religious conceptions derived from different sources4 ,so much the greater was the danger which threatened to spring up on this side of the youthful ,church4 ,gnosticism agreed with ,christianity in its pessimistic valuation of the world1 in its belief in the inability of man to obtain religious salvation by himself1 in the necessity for a divine mediation of ,life4 ,like ,christianity1 it expected the deliverance of the oppressed souls of men by a supernatural ,redeemer4 ,he came down from ,heaven upon earth and assumed a human form1 establishing1 through a mystic union with himself1 the connection between the spheres of heaven and earth4 ,he thereby guarantees to mankind an eternal life in a bliss to come4 ,gnosticism also involves a completely dualistic philosophy in its opposition of ,god and world1 of spirit and matter1 of soul and body1 c42 but all its efforts are directed to overcoming these contradictions by supernatural mediation and magical contrivances4 ,it treats the ,gnosis1 the knowledge1 the proper insight into the coherence of things1 as the necessary condition of redemption4 ,the individual must know that his soul comes from ,god1 that it is only temporarily confined in this prison of the body1 and that it is intended for something higher than to be lost here in the obscurity of ignorance1 of evil and of sin2 so that he is already freed from the trammels of the flesh1 and finds a new life for himself4 ,the ,god-,redeemer descended upon earth to impart this knowledge to mankind2 and ,gnosticism pledges itself1 on the basis of the revelation received directly from ,god1 to open to those who strive for the highest knowledge all the heights and depths of ,heaven and of earth4 ,this ,gnosticism of the first century after ,christ was a wonderfully opalescent and intricate structure--half religious speculation1 half religion1 a mixture of ,theosophy1 uncritical mythological superstition1 and deep religious mysticism4 ,in it ,babylonian beliefs as to ,gods and stars1 ,parsee mythology1 and ,indian doctrines of metempsychosis and ,karma were combined with ,jewish theology and ,mystery-rites of ,western ,asia2 and through the whole blew a breath of ,hellenic philosophy1 which chiefly strove to fix the fantastic creatures of speculation in a comprehensible form1 and to work up the confusion of ,oriental licence and extravagance of thought into the form of a philosophical view of the world4 ,the ,gnostics also called their mediating deity1 as we have already seen of the ,mandaic sect of the ,nassenes1 ,jesus1 and indulged in a picture rendering of his pre-worldly existence and supernatural divine majesty4 ,they agreed with the ,christians that ,jesus had been human4 ,the extravagant metaphysical conception which they had of ,jesus at the same time prevented them from dealing seriously with the idea of his manhood4 ,so that they either maintained that the celestial ,christ had attached himself to the man ,jesus in a purely external way1 and indeed1 first on the occasion of the baptism in the ,jordan1 and only temporarily1 i4e41 up to the ,passion--it being only the man ,jesus who suffered death 7,basilides1 ,cerinthus72 or they thought of ,jesus as having assumed merely a ghostly body--and consequently thought that all his human actions took place merely as pure appearance 7,saturninus1 ,valentinus1 ,marcion74 ,but how little they managed to penetrate into the centre of the ,christian doctrine of redemption and to value the fundamental significance of the ,christ-figure1 is shown by the fact that they thought of ,christ merely as one mediator among countless others4 ,it is shown also by the romantic and florid description of the spirits or ons1 who are supposed to travel backwards and forwards between heaven and earth1 leading their lives apart4 ,these played a great part in the ,gnostic systems4 ,it was a matter of course that the ,christian faith had to take exception to such a fantastic and external treatment of the idea of the ,god-man4 ,the ,pauline ,christianity was distinct from ,gnosticism1 with which it was most closely connected1 just in this1 that it was in earnest with the manhood of ,jesus4 ,it was still more serious that the ,gnostics combined with their extreme dualism an outspokenly anti-,jewish character4 ,for this in the close relationship between ,gnosticism and ,christianity would necessarily frighten the ,jews from the ,gospel1 and incite only too many against the young religion4 ,but the ,jews formed the factor with which early ,christianity had first of all to reckon4 ,in addition to this the ,gnostics1 from the standpoint of their spiritualistic conception of ,god1 turned to contempt of the world and asceticism4 ,they commended sexual continence1 rejected marriage1 and wished to know nothing either of ,christ's or of man's bodily resurrection4 ,but in the ,west no propaganda of an ascetic religion could succeed4 ,and yet even with the ,gnostics1 as is so often the case1 asceticism only too frequently degenerated into unbridled voluptuousness and libertinage1 and the spiritual pride of those chosen by ,god to knowledge1 who were raised above the ,mosaic ,law1 threatened completely to tear apart the connection with ,judaism by its radical criticism of the ,old ,testament4 ,in this ,gnosticism not only undermined the moral life of the communities1 but also brought the ,gospel into discredit in other parts of the world4 ,as an independent religion1 which expressly opposed all other worships1 and the adherents of which withdrew from the religious practices of the ,state1 even from any political activity whatsoever1 ,christianity brought on itself the suspicion of the authorities and the hate of the people1 and incurred the prohibition of new religions and secret sects 7lex ,julia majestatis74 #eje ,so that ,gnosticism1 by taking it from its ,jewish native soil1 drove ,christianity into a conflict with the ,roman civil laws4 ,all these dangers1 which threatened ,christianity from the ,gnostic movement1 were set aside in one stroke by the recognition of the true manhood of ,jesus1 the assertion of the historical ,jesus4 ,this preserved the connection1 so important for the unhindered spread of ,christianity in the ,roman ,empire1 with ,judaism and its revealed legality--the heteronomous and ritualistic character of which had indeed been shown by ,paul1 and the moral content of which was nevertheless adhered to by the ,christians even later4 ,it was made possible1 in default of any previous written documents of revelation1 even yet to regard the ,old ,testament in essentials as the authoritative book of the new faith1 and as a preparatory testimony to the final revelation which appeared in ,jesus4 ,and most of all1 it put a check on ,gnostic phantasy1 in drawing together the perplexing plurality of the ,gnostic ons into the one figure of the ,world-redeemer and ,saviour ,christ1 in making the chief dogma the redeeming sacrificial death of the ,messiah1 and in concentrating the religious man's attention on this chief turning-point of all the historical events4 ,this was the reason why the ,apologists and ,fathers of ,christianity1 ,ignatius1 ,polycarp1 ,justin1 ,irenus1 c41 spoke with such decision in favour of the actuality and true manhood of ,jesus4 ,it was not perhaps a better historical knowledge which caused them to do this1 but the life-instinct of the ,church1 which knew only too well that its own position and the prosecution of its religious task1 in contrast with the excitements of ,gnosticism and its seductive attempts to explain the world1 was dependent on the belief in an historical ,redeemer4 ,so the historical ,jesus was from the beginning a dogma1 a fiction1 caused by the religious and practical social needs1 of the growing and struggling ,christian ,church4 ,this ,jesus has1 indeed1 led it to victory2 not1 however1 as an historical reality1 but as an idea2 or1 in other words1 not an historical ,jesus1 in the proper sense of the word1 a really human individual1 but the pure idea of such a person1 is the patron-saint1 the ,genius of ecclesiastical ,christianity1 the man who enabled it to overcome ,gnosticism1 ,mithraism1 and the other religions of the ,redeemer-,gods of ,western ,asia4 ,the importance of the fourth ,gospel rests in having brought to a final close these efforts of the ,church to make history of the ,redeemer-figure ,christ4 ,begun under the visible influence of the ,gnostic conception of the process of redemption1 it meets ,gnosticism later as another ,gospel2 indeed1 it seems saturated through and through with the ,gnostic attitude and outlook4 ,to a certain degree it shares with ,gnosticism its anti-,jewish character4 ,but at the same time it adheres1 with the ,synoptics1 to ,jesus' historical activity1 and seeks to establish a kind of mediation between the essentially metaphysical conception of the ,gnostics and the essentially human conception of the ,synoptic ,gospels4 ,the author who wrote the ,gospel in the name of ,john1 the favourite disciple of ,jesus1 probably about #adj ,a4,d41 agrees with ,gnosticism in its dualistic conception of the universe4 ,on one side is the world1 the kingdom of darkness1 deceit1 and evil1 in deadly enmity to the divine kingdom of light1 the kingdom of truth and life4 ,at the head of the divine kingdom is ,god1 who is himself ,light1 ,truth1 ,life1 and ,spirit--following ,parsee thought4 ,at the head of the kingdom of earth is ,satan 7,angromainyu74 ,in the middle1 between them1 is placed man4 ,but mankind is also divided1 as all the rest of existence1 into two essentially different kinds4 ,the souls of the one part of mankind are derived from ,god1 those of the other from ,satan4 ,the children of ,god are by nature destined for the good and are fit for redemption4 ,the children of ,satan--among whom ,john1 in agreement with the ,gnostics1 counts the ,jews before all--are not susceptible of anything divine and are assigned to eternal damnation4 ,in order to accomplish redemption1 ,god1 from pure ,love for the world1 selected ,monogenes1 his only-begotten ,son1 that is1 the only being which1 as the child of ,god1 was produced not by other beings1 but by ,god himself4 ,the author of the ,gospel fuses ,monogenes with the ,philonic ,logos1 who in the ,gnostic conception was only one of countless other ons1 and was a son of ,monogenes1 the divine reason1 and so only a grandson of ,god4 ,at the same time1 he transfers the whole pleroma--the plurality of the ons into which1 in the ,gnostic conception1 the divine reality was divided--to the single principle of the ,logos1 defines the ,logos as the unique bearer of the whole fulness of divine glory1 as the pre-existent creator of the world2 and calls him also1 since he is in essence identical with ,god his ,father1 the source of life1 the light1 the truth1 and the spirit of the universe4 ,and how then does the ,logos bring about redemption8 ,he becomes flesh1 that is1 he assumes the form of the man ,jesus1 without1 however1 ceasing to be the supernatural ,logos1 and as such brings to men the ,life which he himself is1 by revealing wisdom and love4 ,as revealer of wisdom he is the light of the world2 he opens to men the secret of their filial relation to ,god2 he teaches them1 by knowing ,god1 to understand themselves and the world2 he collects about himself the children of ,god1 who are scattered through the world1 in a united and brotherly society2 and gives them1 in imitating his own personality1 the light of life--that is1 he inwardly enlightens and elevates them4 ,as revealer of love he not only assumes the human form and the renunciation of his divine bliss connected with it1 but as a good shepherd he lays down his life for his flock2 he saves them from the power of ,satan1 from the terrors of darkness1 and sacrifices himself for his people1 in order through this highest testimony of his love for men1 through the complete surrender of his life1 to regain the life which he really is1 and to return to his celestial glory4 ,this is the meaning of ,christ's work of redemption1 that men by faith and love become inwardly united with him and so with ,god2 whereby they gain the life in the higher spirit4 ,for though ,christ himself may return to ,god1 his spirit still lives on earth4 ,as the second ,paraclete or agent1 the ,spirit proceeds with the ,saviour's work of redemption1 arouses and strengthens the faith in ,christ and the love for him and for the ,brotherhood1 thereby mediating for them the ,life1 and leading them after their death into the eternal bliss4 ,in all this the influence of ,gnosticism and of the ,philonic doctrine of the ,logos is unmistakable1 and it is very probable that the author of the fourth ,gospel was influenced by the recollection1 still living at ,ephesus1 of the ,ephesian ,heraclitus' ,logos1 in his attachment to ,philo and to the latter's more detailed exposition of the ,hellenic ,logos-philosophy4 ,but he fundamentally differs from ,philo and ,gnosticism in his assertion that the ,logos was made flesh1 sojourned on earth in the figure of ,jesus of ,nazareth1 and suffered death4 ,it is true1 however1 that the ,evangelist is more persistent in this assertion than successful in delineating a real man1 notwithstanding his use of the ,synoptic accounts of the personal fate of ,jesus4 ,the idea of the divine nature of the ,saviour is the one that prevails in his writings4 ,the historical picture which came down to him was forcibly rectified1 and the personality of ,jesus was worked up into something so wonderful1 extraordinary1 and supernatural that1 if we were in possession of the fourth ,gospel alone1 in all probability the idea would hardly have occurred to any one that it was a treatment of the life-story of an historical individual4 ,and yet in this the difference between the ,johannine and the ,synoptic ,gospels is only a slight one4 ,for the ,synoptic ,jesus also is not really a man1 but a superman1 the original ,christian community's ,god-man1 cult-hero1 and mediator of salvation4 ,and if it is settled that the quarrel between the ,church teachers and the ,gnostic heretics hinged1 not on the divinity of ,christ1 in which they agreed1 but rather on the kind and degree of his humanity1 then this paradoxical fact is by itself sufficient to corroborate the assertion that the divinity of the mediator of redemption was the only originally determined and self-evident presupposition of the whole ,christian faith2 and that1 on the contrary1 his humanity was doubtful even in the earliest times1 and for this reason alone could become a subject of the bitterest strife4 ,indeed1 even the author of the fourth ,gospel did not bring about a real fusion between the human person ,jesus and the mythological person1 the ,gnostic ,son of ,god1 who with ,philo wavered1 also in the form of the ,logos1 between impersonal being and allegorical personality4 ,all the efforts to render comprehensible the interfusion of the divine and the human in the unity of the personal1 its basis 7essence7 being divine1 its appearance a human life of ,jesus1 are frustrated even with the so-called ,john by one fact4 ,this fact is that a ,logos considered as a person can never be at once a human personality and yet have as its basis and essence a divine personality1 but can only be demoniacally possessed by this latter1 and can never be this latter itself4 ,and so1 as ,pfleiderer says1 the ,johannine ,christ wavers throughout between a sublime truth and a ghostly monstrosity2 the former1 in so far as he represents the ideal of the ,son of ,god1 and so the religion of mankind1 separated from all the accidents and limits of individuality and nationality1 of space and time--and the latter so far as he is the mythical covering of a ,god sojourning on earth in human form4 #ejf ,it is true that this fusion of the ,gnostic ,son of ,god and the ,philonic ,logos with the ,synoptic ,jesus first fixed the hazy uncertainty of mythological speculation and abstract thought in the clear form and living individuality of the personal mediator of redemption4 ,it brought this personality nearer to the hearts of the faithful than any other figure of religious belief1 and thereby procured for the ,christian cult-god ,jesus1 in his pure humanity1 his overflowing goodness and benevolence1 such a predominance over his divine competitors1 ,mithras1 ,attis1 and others1 that by the side of ,jesus these faded away into empty shadows4 ,the ,gnostic ideal man1 that is1 the ,platonic idea1 and the moral ideal of man merged in him directly into a unity4 ,the miracle of the union of ,god and man1 over which the ancient world had so hotly and so fruitlessly disputed1 seemed to have found its realisation in ,christ4 ,christ was the ,wise man of the ,stoic philosophy1 in whom was united for them all that is most honourable in man2 more than this1 he was the ,god-man1 as he had been preached and demanded by ,seneca for the moral elevation of mankind4 #ejg ,the world was consequently so ready to receive and so well prepared for his fundamental ideas that we easily see why the ,church ,christianity took its stand on the human personality of its redeeming principle with almost more decision than on the divine character of ,jesus4 ,nevertheless1 in spite of the majesty and sublimity1 in spite of the immeasurable significance which the accentuation of the true humanity of ,jesus has had for the development of ,christianity1 it remains true that on the other hand it is just this which is the source of all the insoluble contradictions1 of all the insurmountable difficulties from which the ,christian view of the world suffers4 ,this is the reason why that great idea1 which ,christianity brought to the consciousness of the men of the ,west1 and through which it conquered ,judaism--the idea of the ,god-man--was utterly destroyed1 and the true content of this religion was obscured1 hidden1 and misrepresented in such disastrous fashion1 that to-day it is no longer possible to assent to its doctrine of redemption without the sacrifice of the intellect4 ,,the ,,religious ,,problem ,,of ,,the ,,present ,in the opinion of liberal theologians1 not the ,god but rather the man ,jesus forms the valuable religious essence of ,christianity4 #ejh ,in saying this it says nothing less than that the whole of ,christendom up to the present day--that is1 till the appearance of a ,harnack1 ,bousset1 ,wernle1 and others of like mind--was in error about itself1 and did not recognise its own essence4 ,for ,christianity1 as the present account shows1 from the very first conceived the ,god ,jesus1 or rather the ,god-man1 the ,incarnate1 the ,god-redeemer1 suffering with man and sacrificing himself for humanity1 as the central point of its doctrine4 ,the declaration of the real manhood of ,jesus appears1 on the other hand1 but as an after-concession of this religion to outer circumstances1 wrung from it only later by its opponents1 and so expressly championed by it only because of its forming the unavoidable condition of its permanence in history and of its practical success4 ,only the ,god1 therefore1 not the man ,jesus1 can be termed the founder of the ,christian religion4 ,it is in fact the fundamental error of the liberal theology to think that the development of the ,christian ,church took its rise from an historical individual1 from the man ,jesus4 ,the view is becoming more common that the original ,christian movement under the name of ,jesus would have remained an insignificant and transient movement within ,judaism but for ,paul1 who first gave it a religious view of the world by his metaphysics of redemption1 and who by his break with the ,jewish ,law really founded the new religion4 ,it will not be long before the further concession is found necessary1 that an historical ,jesus1 as the ,gospels portray him1 and as he lives in the minds of the liberal theologians of to-day1 never existed at all2 so that he never founded the insignificant and diminutive community of the ,messiah at ,jerusalem4 ,it will be necessary to concede that the ,christ-faith arose quite independently of any historical personality known to us2 that indeed ,jesus was in this sense a product of the religious social soul and was made by ,paul1 with the required amount of reinterpretation and reconstruction1 the chief interest of those communities founded by him4 ,the historical ,jesus is not earlier but later than ,paul2 and as such he has always existed merely as an idea1 as a pious fiction in the minds of members of the community4 ,the ,new ,testament with its four ,gospels is not previous to the ,church1 but the latter is antecedent to them2 and the ,gospels are the derivatives1 consequently forming a support for the propaganda of the ,church1 and being without any claim to historical significance4 ,nothing at all1 as ,kalthoff shows1 is to be gained for the understanding of ,christianity from the completely modern view that religion is an entirely personal life and experience4 ,religion is such personal life only in an age which is differentiated into personalities2 it is such only in so far as this differentiation has been accomplished4 ,from the very beginning religion makes its appearance as a phenomenon of social life2 it is a group-religion1 a folk-religion1 a ,state religion2 and this social character is naturally transferred to the free associations which are formed within the limits of tribe and the ,state4 ,the talk about personality as the centre of all religious life is with regard to the origin of ,christianity absurd and unhistorical1 for the reason that ,christianity grew up in religious associations1 in communities4 ,from this social religion our personal religion has only been developed in a history lasting centuries4 ,only after great struggles has personal religion been able to succeed against an essentially older form4 ,what devout people of to-day call ,christianity1 a religion of the individual1 a principle of personal salvation1 would have been an offence and an absurdity to the whole of ancient ,christendom4 ,it would have been to it the sin against the ,holy ,ghost which was never to be forgiven2 for the ,holy ,ghost was the spirit of the ,church's unity1 the connection of the religious community1 the spirit of the subordination of the flock to the shepherd4 ,for this reason individual religion existed in old ,christendom only through the medium of the association of the community of the ,church4 ,a private setting up of one's own religion was heresy1 separation from the body of ,christ4 #eji ,we cannot refuse to concede to the ,catholic ,church1 both ,roman and ,greek1 that in this respect it has most faithfully preserved the spirit of the earliest ,christendom4 ,this alone is to-day what ,christianity in essence once was--the religion of an association in the sense to which we have referred4 ,thus ,catholicism justly refers to tradition for the truth of its religious view of the world and for the correctness of its hierarchical claims4 ,but ,catholicism itself beyond doubt first established this tradition in its own interests4 ,it teaches also an historical ,jesus1 but clearly one that is historical merely by tradition1 and of whose actual historical existence not the least indication has yet been established4 ,protestantism1 on the other hand1 is completely unhistoric in passing off the ,gospels as the sources1 as the revealed basis of the faith in ,christ1 as if they had arisen independently of the ,church and represented the true beginnings of ,christianity4 ,consequently one cannot base one's religious faith on the ,gospel and wish nevertheless to stand outside of that community1 since the writings of the ,new ,testament can only pass as the expression of the community's life4 ,one cannot therefore be ,christian in the sense of the original community without obliterating one's own personality and uniting oneself as a member with the ,body of ,christ--that is1 with the ,church4 ,the spirit of obedience and humility1 which ,christ demanded of his followers1 is nothing but the spirit of subordination to the system of rules of conduct observed by the society of worship passing under his name4 ,christianity in the original sense is nothing but--,catholic ,christianity2 and this is the faith of the ,church in the work of redemption accomplished by the ,god-man ,christ in his ,church and by means of the organisation infused with his spirit4 ,on purely religious grounds the wrongly so-called ,catholicism could very probably dispense with the fiction of an historical ,jesus1 and go back to ,paul's standpoint before the origin of the ,gospels1 if it could have faith to-day in its mythological conception1 of the ,god sacrificing himself for mankind1 without that fiction4 ,in its present form1 however1 it stands or falls as a ,church with the belief in the historical truth of the ,god-redeemer2 because all the ,church's hierarchical claims and authority are based on this authority having been entrusted to her by an historical ,jesus through the apostles4 ,catholicism relies for this1 as it has been said1 on tradition4 ,but ,catholicism itself called this tradition into life1 just as the priests at ,jerusalem worked up the tradition of an historical ,moses in order to trace back to him their claim to authority4 ,it is the ,irony of ,world-,history that that very tradition soon afterwards forced the ,church1 with regard to the historical ,christ1 to conceal its real nature from the crowd1 and to forbid the laity to read the ,gospels1 on account of the contradiction between the power of the ,church and the traditional ,christ it had produced4 ,but the position of ,protestantism is even more contradictory and more desperate than that of the ,catholic ,church1 in view of our insight into the fictitious character of the ,gospels4 ,for ,protestantism has no means but history for the foundation of its religious metaphysics2 and history1 viewed impartially1 leads away from those roots of ,christianity to which ,protestantism strives1 instead of towards them4 ,if this is true of ,protestant orthodoxy it is even more true of that form of ,protestantism which thinks it can maintain ,christianity apart from its metaphysical doctrine of redemption because this doctrine is no longer suitable to the age4 ,liberal ,protestantism is and wishes to be nothing but a mere faith in the historical personality of a man who is supposed to have been born #a1ijj years ago in ,palestine1 and through his exemplary life to have become the founder of a new religion2 being crucified and dying in conflict with the authorities at ,jerusalem1 being raised up then as a ,god in the minds of his enthusiastic disciples4 ,it is a faith in the loving ,god the ,father1 because ,jesus is supposed to have believed in him2 in the personal immortality of man1 because this is supposed to have been the presupposition of ,jesus' appearance and doctrines2 in the incomparable value of moral instructions1 because they stand in a book which is supposed to have been produced under the immediate influence of the prophet of ,nazareth4 ,liberal ,protestantism supports morality on this1 that ,jesus was such a good man1 and that for this reason it is necessary for each individual man to follow the call of ,jesus4 ,but it bases the faith in ,jesus once and for all on the historical significance of the ,gospels2 though it cannot conceal from itself1 after careful consideration1 that the belief in their historical value rests on extremely weak grounds1 and that we know nothing of that ,jesus1 not even that he ever lived4 ,in any case we know nothing which could be of influential religious significance1 and which could not be put together just as well or better from other less doubtful sources4 #eaj ,it is pierced to the heart by the denial of the historical personality of ,jesus1 not1 like ,catholicism1 merely as a ,church1 but in its very essence1 as a ,religion4 ,and as to its real religious kernel it consists in a few fine-sounding phrases and some scattered references to a metaphysics which was once living1 but which is now degraded into a mere ornament for modest minds4 ,and after disposing of its would-be historical value there is left only a dimly smouldering spark of homeless sentiments1 which would suit any style of religious faith4 ,liberal ,protestantism proclaims itself as the really modern ,christianity4 ,confronted by the philosophic spirit of our day1 it lays stress upon having no philosophy4 ,it sets aside all religious speculation as ,myth1 if possible with reference to ,kant1 as this is modern1 without noticing that it is itself most deeply imbedded in mythology with its historical ,jesus4 ,it believes that1 in its exclusive reverence for the man ,jesus1 it has brought ,christianity to the height of present culture4 ,as to this ,stendel justly says3 ,of the whole apologetic art with which the modern ,jesus-theology undertakes to save ,christianity for our time1 it can be said that there is no historical religion which could not just as well be brought into accord with the modern mind as that of the ,new ,testament4 #eaa ,we have no occasion to weep for the complete collapse of such a religion4 ,this form of ,christianity has already been proved by ,hartmann to be worthless from the religious point of view2 #eab and it is only a proof of the fascinating power of phrases1 of the laxity in our creeds1 and the thoughtlessness of the mob in religious matters1 that it is even yet alive4 ,for such reasons it is even allowed1 under the lead of the so-called critical theology1 to proclaim itself as the pure ,christianity1 now known for the first time4 ,thus it finds sympathy4 ,this unsystematic collection of thoughts1 arbitrarily selected from the view of the world and of life given by the ,gospels1 which even so requires to be rhetorically puffed out and artistically modified before it is made acceptable to the present age1--this unspeculative doctrine of redemption1 which at bottom is uncertain of itself1--this sentimental1 sthetic1 ,jesus-worship of a ,harnack1 ,bousset1 and the rest on whom ,w4 v4 ,schnehen so pitilessly broke his lance2 #eac this whole so-called ,christianity of cultured pastors and a laity in need of redemption1 would have long since come to grief through its poverty of ideas1 its sickening sweetness1 if it were not considered necessary to maintain ,christianity at all costs1 were it even that of the complete deprivation of its spiritual content4 ,the recognition of the fact that the historical ,jesus has no religious interest at all1 but at most concerns historians and philologists1 is indeed at present commencing to make its way into wider circles4 #ead ,if one only knew a way out of the difficulty6 ,if one were only not afraid of following a clear lead just because one might then possibly be forced beyond the existing religion in the course of his ideas--as the example of ,kalthoff showed6 ,if only one had not such a fearful respect for the past and such a tender historic unconsciousness and such immense respect for the historical basis of existing religion6 ,the reference to history and the so-called historical continuity of the religious development is indeed on the face of it merely a way out of a difficulty1 and another way of putting the fact that one is not desired to draw the consequences of his presuppositions4 ,as if there can still be talk of a historical basis where there is no history1 but pure myth6 ,as if the preservation of historical continuity could consist in maintaining as history what are mythical fictions1 just because they have hitherto passed for historic truth1 though we have seen through their purely fictitious and unreal character6 ,as if the difficulty of the redemption of present-day civilisation from the chaos of superstition1 social deceit1 cowardice1 and intellectual servitude which are connected with the name of ,christianity1 lay in a purely spiritual sphere and not rather in the sentiment1 in the slovenly piety1 in the heavy weight of ancient tradition1 above all in the economic1 social1 and practical relations which unite our churches with the past6 ,faith in the future of ,christianity is still built not so much on the persuasive inner truth of its doctrine1 but much more on the inborn religious feeling of the members of the community1 on the religious education in school and home1 and the consequent increasing store of metaphysical and ethical ideas1 on protection by the ,state and--on the law of inertia in the spiritual life of the mob4 ,for the rest1 in pulpit1 in parish papers1 and in public life1 a method of expression is used which is not essentially different from that of orthodoxy1 but is so adapted as to allow every man to think what he deems best for himself4 ,we are enthusiastically told that thus we are able to keep the rudderless ship of ,protestantism still a while above water1 and that we have reconciled faith with modern culture in the further development of ,christianity4 ,thus nineteen hundred years of religious development were completely in error4 ,is no other course open to us but a complete break with the ,christian doctrine of redemption8 ,this doctrine1 however--such was the result of our previous examination--is independent of the belief in an historical ,jesus4 ,its centre of gravity lies in the conception of the incarnation of ,god1 who suffers in the world but is finally victorious over this suffering2 and through union with whom ,mankind also prevails over the world and gains a new life in a higher sphere of existence4 ,that the form of this divine ,redeemer of the world coalesced1 in the minds of the ,christian community1 with that of a man ,jesus2 that1 consequent on this1 the act of redemption was fixed as to time and place1 is only the consequence of the conditions under which the new religion appeared4 ,for this reason it can only claim1 in and for itself1 a transient practical significance1 and not a special religious value2 while on the other hand it has become the doom of ,christianity that just this making into history of the principle of redemption makes it impossible for us still to acknowledge this religion4 ,but then the preservation of historical continuity or the further development of ,christianity in its proper sense probably does not consist in separating this chance historical side of the ,christian doctrine of redemption from its connection with the whole ,christian view of the world and setting it up by itself1 but only in going back to the essential and fundamental idea of the ,christian religion1 and stating its metaphysical doctrine of redemption in a manner more nearly answering to the ideas of the day4 ,from the conception of a personal ,god-redeemer arose the possibility of sacrificing a man in ,god's place1 and of seeing the divine and ideal man1 that is1 the ,idea of ,man1 in an actual man4 ,from the growing ,church's desire for authority1 from its opposition to ,gnostic phantasy with its intellectual volatilising of the religious-moral kernel of the ,pauline doctrine of redemption1 and from the wish not to give up the historical connection with ,judaism on opportunist grounds1 arose the necessity of portraying the divine-human expiatory sacrifice as the sacrifice of an historical person who had arisen in ,judaism4 ,all these different reasons1 which led to the formation of the belief in an historical ,jesus1 have no force with us1 particularly after it has been shown that the personality of the principle of redemption1 this fundamental presupposition of the evangelical history1 is in the end to blame for all the contradictions and shortcomings of that religion4 ,to lead back to its real essence the ,christian doctrine of redemption can consequently mean nothing but placing the idea of the ,god-man1 as it lies at the basis of that doctrine1 in the central point of the religious view of the world1 through the stripping off of the mythical personality of the ,logos4 ,god must become man1 so that ,man can become ,god and be redeemed from the bounds of the finite4 ,the idea of ,man which is realised in the world must itself be a divine idea1 an idea of the ,deity1 and so ,god must be the common root and essence of all individual men and things2 only then may ,man attain his existence in ,god and freedom from the world1 through this consciousness of his supernatural divine essence4 ,man's consciousness of himself and of his true essence must itself be a divine consciousness4 ,man1 and indeed every man1 must be a purely finite phenomenon1 an individual limitation1 the clothing of the ,deity with a human form4 ,in possibility he is a ,god-man1 to be born again an actual ,god-man through his moral activity1 and consequently to become really one with ,god4 ,in this conception all the contradictions of ,christian dogmatism are solved1 and the kernel of its doctrine of redemption is preserved without being divested of its true significance by the introduction of mythical phantasy or of historical coincidences1 as is the case in ,christianity4 ,if we are still to use the language of the past1 and to call the divine essence of mankind the immanent ,godhead1 ,christ1 then any advance of religion can only consist in the development and working out of this inner ,christ1 that is1 of the spiritual-moral tendencies dwelling in mankind1 in the carrying of it back to its absolute and divine basis1 but not in the historical personification of this inner human nature4 ,any reality of the ,god-man consequently consists in ,christ's activity in ,man1 in the proving of his true self1 of his personal1 spiritual essence1 in the raising of one's self to personality on the ground of ,man's divine nature1 but not in the magical efficacy of an external divine personality4 ,this1 indeed1 is nothing but the religious ideal of mankind1 which men have projected on to an historical figure1 in order to assure themselves of the reality of the ideal4 ,it is not true that it is essential to the religious consciousness to consider its ideal in human form1 and that for this reason the historical ,jesus is indispensable for the religious life4 ,were this true1 religion would not be1 in principle1 in a position to raise itself above the mythical and primitive stage of ,god's externality and appearance to the senses1 and to conquer these ,gods1 working them more and more into the forms of an inner nature4 ,this1 however1 is the essence of religious development4 ,religion would otherwise be confined to a lower province in the human life of the spirit2 and it would be overthrown whenever the fiction of that projection and separation of ,god from one's own self was seen through4 ,it is only to orthodox ,christianity that it is necessary to represent the ,god in ,man as a ,god outside of ,man1 as the unique personality of a historical ,god-man2 and that because it still remains with one foot in religious naturalism and mythology1 and the historical circumstances of another age occasioned the choice of that representation and falsification of the idea of the ,god-man4 ,to think of the world's activity as ,god's activity2 of mankind's development1 filled with struggles and sufferings1 as the story of a divine struggle and ,passion2 of the world-process as the process of a ,god1 who in each individual creature fights1 suffers1 conquers and dies1 so that he may overcome the limitations of the finite in the religious consciousness of man and anticipate his future triumph over all the suffering of the world--that is the real ,christian doctrine of redemption4 ,to revive in this sense the fundamental conception from which ,christianity sprang--and which is independent of any historical reference--is1 indeed1 to return to this religious starting-point4 ,protestantism1 on the contrary1 which repudiates ,paul's religion and sets up the ,gospels as the foundation of its belief1 nevertheless does not go behind ,christianity's development into the ,church1 back to the origin of ,christianity1 but remains always within this development1 and deceives itself if it thinks that it can prevail over the ,church from the point of view of the ,gospel4 #eae ,in such an interpretation and development of the ,christian conception of redemption historical continuity is preserved just as decidedly as it is in the one-sided making into history of that thought on the side of liberal ,protestantism4 ,what is in opposition to it is1 on the one hand1 completely unhistorical belief in an historical ,jesus2 on the other hand1 the prejudice against the immanent ,god1 or against ,pantheism4 ,but this prejudice is based entirely on that fiction of an historical mediator and the hypothesis contained therein of a dualistic separation of world and ,god4 ,the representatives of the monistic conception--who began to organise themselves a short time ago--should be clearer as to the significance of that conception than they are for the most part even at the present day4 ,they must perceive that the true doctrine of unity can only be the doctrine of the all in one4 ,there must be an idealistic monism in opposition to the naturalistic monism of ,haeckel1 which is prevalent even to-day4 ,this monism must not exclude but include ,god's existence2 and its present unfruitful negation of all religion must deepen into a positive and religiously valuable view of the world4 ,then1 and not till then1 will it be able to effect a genuine separation from the ,church1 and the monistic movement1 still in its childhood1 may lead to an inner improvement and renovation of our spiritual life in general4 ,it requires much short-sightedness on the part of the exponents of a purely historical ,christianity to suppose that the soulless and poor faith in the personal1 or as it is considered better expressed to-day1 in the living ,god1 in freedom and immortality1 supported by the authority of the unique personality of a man ,jesus who died two thousand years ago1 will be in a position permanently to satisfy religious needs1 even when the metaphysic of redemption1 still connected with it at all points1 and the pious attitude based upon this are completely stripped off from it4 ,the earlier the orthodox ,christians1 by giving up their superstition in an historical ,jesus1 and the ,monists1 by sacrificing their equally fatal superstition in the sole reality of matter and in the redeeming truths of physical science which alone can give happiness1 come to a mutual reconciliation1 the better it will be for both4 ,the more surely we shall avoid the total obliteration of the religious consciousness2 and the civilised nations of ,europe will be saved from the loss of their spiritual ballast--towards which loss there seems at the present day to be a continuous movement on all sides4 ,at present there are only two possibilities--either to look on quietly while the tidal wave of naturalism1 getting ever more powerful from day to day1 sweeps away the last vestige of religious thought1 or to transfer the sinking fire of religion to the ground of ,pantheism1 in a religion independent of any ecclesiastical guardianship4 ,the time of dualistic ,theism has gone by4 ,at present all the advancing spirits1 in spheres most widely different1 concur in striving towards ,monism4 ,this striving is so deeply grounded and so well warranted1 that the ,church will not be able to suppress it for ever4 #eaf ,the chief obstacle to a monistic religion and attitude is the belief1 irreconcilable with reason or history1 in the historical reality of a unique1 ideal1 and unsurpassable ,redeemer4 ,,notes #a ,cf4 also his ,kritik der ,evangelien1 #b vols4 7#ahej-ea74 #b ,kultur d4 ,gegenwart3 ,gesch4 d4 christl4 ,religion1 #bnd ed41 #aiji1 #dg4 #c ,the same is true of ,clemen1 who1 judging by his ,religionsgeschichtl4 ,erklrung d4 ,n4,t4 7#aiji71 appears to be acquainted with ,robertson's masterpiece1 ,christianity and ,mythology1 only from a would-be witty notice of ,rville1 and furthermore only cites the author when he thinks he can demolish him with ease4 #d ,a4 ,hausrath1 in his work ,jesus u4 die neutestamentlichen ,schriftsteller1 vol4 i4 7#aijh71 offers a striking example of how light a matter our theologians make it to overthrow the attacks of the opponents of an historical ,jesus4 ,in scarcely three pages at the commencement of his compendious work he rejects the myth theory of ,bruno ,bauer with the favourite appeal to a few individual and historical features of the ,gospel tradition which are intrinsically of no significance1 finishing up this refutation with a reckless citation from ,weinel which proves nothing for the historical character of ,jesus4 #e ,cf4 also his work ,moses1 ,jesus1 ,paulus4 ,drei sagen varianten des babylonischen ,gottmenschen ,gilgamesch1 #bnd ed41 #aiji4 #f ,cf41 for example1 ,jesus ,vier ,vortrge1 geh4 in ,frankf4 #aiaj4 #g ,in other respects the progress in the province of religious history is not so great as ,i formerly believed ,i could assume4 ,that is to say1 in essentials modern learning in this connection has only brought facts to light and given a new focus to points of view which were already possessed 7cf4 ,dupuis and ,volney7 by the eighteenth century4 ,in the twenties and forties of the nineteenth century investigations1 unprejudiced and independent of theology1 had already reached in the case of some of their representatives1 such as ,gfrrer1 ,ltzelberger1 ,ghillany1 ,nork1 and others1 the point which is to-day again represented by the most advanced learning4 ,the revolution of #ahdh and the reaction consequent on it in ecclesiastical matters then again shook1 on account of their radical tendency1 those views which had been already arrived at4 ,the liberal ,protestantism1 too1 that rose as a recoil against orthodoxy in its effort to work out the historical ,jesus as the kernel of ,christianity on its part had no interest in again bringing up the old results4 ,indeed1 it actually makes it a reproach to a person of the present day if he quotes the works of those earlier investigators1 and reminds him that religious learning did not begin only with the modern ,coryphaei1 with ,holtzmann1 ,harnack1 c4 ,whoever looks upon things from this point of view can most probably agree in the melancholy reflection of a reviewer of the first edition of ,the ,christ ,myth1 when he says with reference to the latest investigations3 ,apparently the whole learning of the nineteenth century so far as relates to investigations into the moving forces of civilisation and national upheavals will be considered by future research as an arsenal of errors 7,o4 ,hauser in the ,neue ,freie ,presse1 ,august #h1 #aiji74 #h ,it has also been reckoned as a want of method in this work that ,i have often made use of a cautious and restrained mode of expression1 that ,i have spoken of mere suppositions and employed locutions such as it appears1 c41 when it has been for the time being impossible for science or myself to give complete certainty to an assertion4 ,this reproach sounds strange in the mouths of such as plume themselves upon scientific method4 ,for ,i should think that it was indeed more scientific in the given cases to express oneself in the manner chosen by me1 than by an unmeasured certainty in assertions to puff out pure suppositions into undoubted facts4 ,i must leave such a mode of proceeding to the historical theologians4 ,they work purely with hypotheses4 ,all their endeavours to obtain an historical kernel from the ,gospels rest upon conjectures simply4 ,above everything1 their explanation of the origin of ,christianity simply from an historical ,jesus is1 in spite of the certainty and self-confidence with which it comes out1 a pure hypothesis1 and that of very doubtful value4 ,for that in reality the new religion should have been called into life by the all-subduing influence of the personality of ,jesus and its accompaniments1 the visions and hallucinations of the disciples worked up into ecstasies1 is so improbable1 and the whole view is psychologically so assailable1 and1 moreover1 so futile1 that even a liberal theologian like ,gunkel declares it entirely insufficient 7,zum religionsgesichtl4 ,verstndnis d4 ,n4,t41 #hi sq474 ,with this explanation1 however1 stands or falls the whole modern ,jesus-religion4 ,for if they cannot show how the ,pauline and ,johannine ,christology could develop from the mere existence of an historical ,jesus1 if this now forms the problem of problems of ,new ,testament research 7,gunkel1 op4 cit471 then their whole conception of the rise of ,christianity disappears into air1 and they have no right to hold up against others who seek a better explanation the partially hypothetical character of the views advanced by them4 #i ,op4 cit41 #aj sq4 #aj ,cf4 ,k4 ,dunkmann1 ,der historische ,jesus1 der mythologische ,christus1 und ,jesus der ,christ 7#aiaj74 ,cf4 also ,pfleiderer1 ,das ,christusbild des urchristlichen ,glaubens in religionsgeschichtlicher ,beleuchtung 7#aijc71 #f sq4 ,here1 too1 it is pointed out that modern scientific theology in its description of the figure of ,christ proceeds in anything but an unprejudiced manner4 ,out of the belief in ,christ as contained in the ,new ,testament it only draws forth what is acceptable to present modes of thinking--passing over everything else and reading in much that is its own--in order to construct an ideal ,christ according to modern taste4 ,pfleiderer declares it a great illusion to believe that the pictures of ,christ in works such as ,harnack's ,wesen des ,christentums1 each differently drawn according to the peculiarities of their composers1 but all more or less in the modern style1 are the result of scientific historical research1 and are related to the old conceptions of ,christ like truth to error4 ,one should1 he says1 be reasonable and honourable enough to confess that both the modern and the antique conceptions of ,christ are alike creations of the common religious spirit of their times and sprung from the natural need of faith to fix its special principle in a typical figure and to illustrate it4 ,the differences between the two correspond to the differences of the times1 the former a simple mythical ,epic1 the latter a sentimental and conscious ,romance4 ,in the same sense ,alb4 ,schweitzer also characterises the famous method of historical theology as a continual experimentation according to settled hypotheses in which the leading thought rests in the last resort upon an intuition 7,von ,reimarus bis ,wrede1 #aijf74 ,indeed1 ,weinel himself1 who cannot hold up against the author with sufficient scorn his lack of method and his dilettantism has to confess that the same blemishes which in his opinion characterise dilettantism are to be found even in the most prominent representatives of historical theology1 in a ,wrede or a ,wellhausen4 ,he reproaches both of these with the fact that in their researches serious faults of a general nature and in method are present 7#ba74 ,he advises the greatest prudence in respect to ,wellhausen's ,gospel ,commentaries on account of their serious general blemishes 7#bf74 ,he objects to ,wrede that to be consistent he must himself go over to radical dilettantism 7#bb74 ,he charges ,schweitzer actually with dilettantism and blind bias which cause every literary consideration to be lacking 7#be sq474 ,indeed1 he finds himself1 in face of the dilettante endeavours to deny the historical ,jesus1 compelled even to admit that liberal theology for the future must learn to express itself with more caution and to exhibit more surely the method of religious historical comparison 7#ad74 ,he blames ,gunkel for imprudence in declaring ,christianity to be a syncretic religion1 and demands that the historical works of liberal theology should be clearer in their results and more convincing in their methods 7#af74 ,he says that the method which they employ is at present not sure and clear enough since it has been spoken of generally in very loose if not misleading terms1 and he confesses3 ,we have apparently not made the measure1 according to which we decide upon what is authentic and what not so in the tradition1 so plain that it can always be recognised with security 7#bi74 ,now1 if matters are in such a position1 we non-theologians need not take too tragically the reproach of dilettantism and lack of scientific method1 since it appears very much as though historical theology1 with the exception at most of ,herr ,weinel1 has no sure method4 #aa ,cf4 ,w4 v4 ,schnehen1 ,der moderne ,jesuskultus1 #bnd ed41 #aijg1 p4 #da1 a work with which even a ,pfleiderer has agreed in the main points2 also the same author's ,fr4 ,naumann vor dem ,bankrott des ,christentums1 #aijg4 #ab ,the excursus on ,the ,legend of ,peter which was contained in the first edition of this work1 and there appears to have been rather misunderstood1 has recently 7#aiaj7 appeared more closely worked out and reasoned in an independent form in the ,neuer ,frankfurter ,verlag under the title ,die ,petrus ,legende4 ,ein ,beitrag zur ,mythologie des ,christentums4 #ac ,op cit41 #hb4 #ad ,ep4 ad ,luc4 #da4 #ae ,e4 v4 ,mommsen and ,wilamowitz in the ,transactions of the ,german ,archological ,institute1 xxiii4 ,part iii42 ,christl4 ,welt1 #ahii1 ,no4 #eg4 ,compare as a specially characteristic expression of that period's longing for redemption the famous ,fourth ,eclogue of ,virgil4 ,also ,jeremias1 ,babylonisches im ,neuen ,testament1 #aije1 pp4 #eg sqq4 ,lietzmann1 ,der ,weltheiland1 #aiji4 #af ,it is certain that the old ,israelite ,jahwe only attained that spiritualised character for which he is nowadays extolled under the influence of the ,persians' imageless worship of ,god4 ,all efforts to construct1 in spite of this admission1 a qualitative difference between ,jahwe and ,ahuramazda1 as1 for example1 ,stave does in his work 7,der ,einfluss des ,parsismus auf das ,judentum1 #ahih1 #abb sq47 are unavailing4 ,according to ,stave1 the conception of good and evil is not grasped in ,mazdeism in all its purity and truth1 but has been confused with the natural4 ,but is that distinction grasped in all its purity in ,judaism with its ritualistic legality8 ,indeed1 has it come to a really pure realisation even in ,christianity1 in which piety and attachment to the ,church so often pass as identical ideas8 ,let us give to each religion its due1 and cease to be subtle in drawing such artificial distinctions in favour of our own--distinctions which fall into nothingness before every unprejudiced consideration4 #ag ,exod4 iv4 #bb2 ,deut4 xxxii4 #f2 ,hosea xi4 #a4 #ah ,isa4 xlix4 #f1 #h4 #ai ,id4 li4 #af4 #bj ,isa4 xliv4 #bh1 xlv4 #a sq4 #ba ,cumont1 ,textes et monuments figurs relatifs aux mystres de ,mithra1 #ahii1 vol4 i4 #ahh4 #bb ,isa4 xi4 #fe1 #ag sqq4 #bc ,isa4 ix4 #f2 ,micah v4 #a4 #bd ,psa4 xlvii4 #f1 #i1 lvii4 #ab4 #be ,ch4 xlv4-li4 #bf ,ch4 vi4 #a sqq4 #bg ,cf4 ,gunkel1 ,zum religionsgesch4 ,verstndnis des ,neuen ,testaments1 #aijc1 p4 #bc1 note #d4 #bh ,revelation xxii42 cf4 ,pfleiderer1 ,das ,urchristentum4 ,seine ,schriften und seine ,lehren1 #bnd edit41 #aijb1 vol4 ii4 #ed sqq4 #bi ,dan4 xii4 #c4 #cj ,the assertion advanced by ,grtz and ,lucius that the work mentioned is a forgery of a fourth-century ,christian foisted upon ,philo with the object of recommending the ,christian ,ascesis1 and that a sect of ,therapeutes never existed1 can now be considered disposed of1 since its refutation by ,massebiau and ,conybeare4 ,cf4 ,pfleiderer1 ,urchristentum1 ii4 #e sq4 #ca ,cf4 as regards the ,essenes1 ,schrer1 ,geschichte des jdischen ,volkes im ,zeitalter ,jesu ,christi1 #ahih1 ,,ii4 #egc-ehd4 #cb ,regarding the connection between the ,essenes and the ,apocalypse1 cf4 ,hilgenfeld1 ,die jdische ,apokalyptik1 #aheg1 p4 #bec sqq4 #cc ,on this point1 cf4 ,brandt1 ,die mandische ,religion1 #ahii2 ,realenzyklop1 f4d4 protest4 ,theologie u4 ,kirche1 xii4 #afj sqq42 ,gunkel1 op4 cit41 #ah sqq4 #cd ,cf4 ,hilgenfeld1 ,ketzergeschichte des ,urchristentums1 #ahhd4 #ce ,gunkel1 op4 cit41 #bi4 #cf ,gen4 xxxii4 #bd4 #cg ,numb4 xx4 #af2 ,exod4 xiii4 #ba4 #ch ,exod4 xxxiii4 #ad2 #b ,sam4 v4 #bc4 #ci #a ,kings i4 #c2 ,ezek4 xliii4 #e4 #dj ,isa4 lxiii4 #i sqq4 #da ,psa4 ii4 #db ,cf4 ,ghillany1 ,die ,menschenopfer der alten ,hebrer1 #ahdb1 #cbf-ccd2 ,eisenmenger1 ,entdecktes ,judentum1 #agaa1 i4 #caa1 #cie sqq4 ,also ,movers1 ,die ,phnizier1 #ahda2 i4 #cih sq4 #dc ,exod4 xxiii4 #bj sqq4 #dd ,jos4 xxiv4 #aa4 #de ,jos4 v4 #b-aj4 ,the unhistorical nature of ,joshua is admitted also by ,stade4 ,stade counts him an ,ephraimitic myth1 recalling to mind in so doing that the ,samaritans possessed an apocryphal book of the same name in place of our ,book of ,joshua 7,gesch4 d4 ,volkes ,israel1 #ahhg1 i4 #fd sqq41 #ace74 ,the ,samaritan ,book of ,joshua 7,chronicum ,samaritanum1 published #ahdh7 was written in ,arabic during the thirteenth century in ,egypt1 and is based upon an old work composed in the third century ,b4,c4 containing stories which in part do not appear in our ,book of ,joshua4 #df ,that the hypothesis of ,smith here mentioned is quite admissible from the linguistic point of view has lately been maintained by ,schmiedel in opposition to ,weinel 7,protestantenbl41 #aiaj1 ,no4 #ag1 #dch74 #dg ,epiph41 ,hresiol4 xxix4 #dh ,smith1 op4 cit41 #cg sq41 #ed4 #di ,isa4 ii4 #a4 ,cf4 ,epiphanius1 op4 cit4 #ej ,id4 xxix4 #f4 #ea ,enc4 ,bibl41 art4 ,nazareth4 #eb ,since ha-nosrm was a very usual term for guardians or protectors1 it follows that when the term or its ,greek equivalent hoi ,nazoraioi was used the adoption of its well-known meaning was unavoidable4 ,even if the name was really derived from the village of ,nazareth1 no one would have thought of it4 ,every one would have unavoidably struck at once upon the current meaning4 ,if a class of persons was called protectors1 every one would understand that as meaning that they protected something4 ,no one would hit upon it to derive their name from an otherwise unknown village named ,protection 7,smith1 op4 cit41 #dg74 #ec ,cf4 in this connection ,smith1 op4 cit41 #cf sq41 #db sqq4 #ed ,cf4 ,cumont1 op4 cit41 #aie sq4 #ee ,matt4 ii4 #be4 #ef ,zech4 iii4 #aj4 #eg ,jeremias1 op4 cit41 #ef2 cf4 also #cc and #df1 notes4 #eh ,robertson1 ,a ,short ,history of ,christianity1 #aijb1 #i sqq4 #ei ,gunkel1 op4 cit41 #cd4 #fj ,id41 op4 cit41 #ci-fc2 cf4 also ,robertson1 ,pagan ,christs1 #aijc1 #aee seq4 #fa ,cf4 ,robertson1 op4 cit41 #aef4 #fb ,mark v4 #bg2 ,luke xxiv4 #ai2 ,acts xviii4 #be1 xxviii4 #ca4 #fc ,luke ix4 #di1 x4 #ag2 ,acts iii4 #af2 ,james v4 #ad sq4 ,for more details regarding ,name magic1 see ,w4 ,heitmller1 ,im ,namen ,jesu1 #aijc4 #fd ,cf4 on whole subject ,robertson1 op4 cit41 #aec-afj4 #fe ,ch4 vii4 #bi4 #ff ,isa4 iii4 #fg ,ch4 xii4 #aj sqq42 cf4 ,movers1 op4 cit41 i4 #aif4 #fh ,ch4 viii4 #ad4 #fi ,op4 cit41 #gh4 #gj ,frazer1 ,the ,golden ,bough1 #aijj1 ii4 #aif sq4 #ga ,frazer1 ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 #aijh1 #abh sqq4 #gb ,the ,golden ,bough1 i41 iii4 #bj sq4 #gc ,verse #ad4 #gd ,op4 cit41 viii4 #bd-bi4 #ge #a ,gen4 xv4 #ag4 #gf ,ghillany1 op4 cit41 #adh1 #aie1 #bgi1 #bii1 #cah sqq4 ,cf4 especially the chapter ,der alte hebrische ,nationalgott ,jahve1 #bfd sqq4 #gg ,j4 ,m4 ,robertson1 ,pagan ,christs1 #adj-adh4 ,it cannot be sufficiently insisted upon that it was only under ,persian influence that ,jahwe was separated from the ,gods of the other ,semitic races1 from ,baal1 ,melkart1 ,moloch1 ,chemosh1 c41 with whom hitherto he had been almost completely identified2 also that it was only through being worked upon by ,hellenistic civilisation that he became that unique ,god1 of whom we usually think on hearing the name4 ,the idea of a special religious position of the ,jewish people1 the expression of which was ,jahwe1 above all belongs to those myths of religious history which one repeats to another without thought1 but which science should finally put out of the way4 #gh ,golden ,bough1 iii4 #ach-adf4 #gi ,movers1 op4 cit41 #dhj sqq4 #hj ,,vi4 #dg sqq41 #bji sqq4 #ha ,cf4 ,gunkel1 ,schpfung und ,chaos in ,urzeit und ,endzeit1 #ahie4 #cji sq4 ,e4 ,schrader1 ,die ,keilinschriften und das ,alte ,testament1 #aijb1 #ead-ebj4 #hb ,ch4 viii4 #ae4 ,cf4 also vi4 #h1 #i4 #hc ,abhandlungen d4 ,kgl4 ,ges4 d4 ,wissenschaften zu ,gttingen1 xxxiv4 #hd ,cf4 also ,p4 ,wendland1 ,ztschr4 ,hermes1 xxxiii41 #ahih1 #age sqq41 and ,robertson1 op4 cit41 #ach1 note #a4 #he ,in the same way the ,phrygian ,attis1 whose name characterises him as himself the father1 was also honoured as the son1 beloved and spouse of ,cybele1 the mother ,goddess4 ,he thus varied between a ,father ,god1 the high ,king of ,heaven1 and the divine ,son of that ,god4 #hf ,frazer1 op4 cit41 iii4 #ach-bjj4 ,cf4 also ,robertson1 ,pagan ,christs1 #acf-adj4 #hg ,keim1 ,geschichte ,jesu1 #ahgc1 #cca note4 #hh ,ghillany1 op4 cit41 #eaj sqq4 #hi ,id4 #eje4 #ij #b ,sam4 xxi4 #i2 cf4 ,lev4 xxiii4 #aj-ad4 #ia ,hist41 xviii4 #g4 #ib #b ,kings iii4 #bg4 #ic ,hist4 ,nat41 xxxiv4 #d1 #bf4 #id ,mentioned in ,eusebius1 ,praeparatio ,evangelica1 i4 #aj4 ,cf4 ,movers1 op4 cit41 #cjc sq4 #ie ,der ,mythus bei den ,hebrern1 #ahgf1 #aji-aac4 #if ,cf4 ,ghillany1 op4 cit41 #dea sqq42 ,daumer1 op4 cit41 #cd sqq41 #aaa4 #ig ,numb4 xx4 #bb sqq41 xxvii4 #ab sqq41 xxxiii4 #cg sqq41 ,deut4 xxxii4 #dh sqq4 ,cf4 ,ghillany1 op4 cit41 #gji-gba4 #ih ,deut4 xviii4 #ae4 #ii ,cf4 ,heb4 v4 #ajj ,diodorus ,siculus1 ii4 #dd4 #aja ,justin1 ,dial4 cum ,tryphone1 cap4 xc4 #ajb ,schrer1 op4 cit41 ii4 #eee4 ,cf4 also ,wnsche1 ,die ,leiden des ,messias1 #ahgj4 #ajc ,see above1 page #dj sqq4 #ajd ,cf4 ,eisenmenger1 op4 cit41 ii4 #gbj sqq42 ,gfrrer1 ,das ,jahrhundert des ,heils1 #ahch1 ii4 #bfj sqq42 ,ltzelberger1 ,die kirchl4 ,tradition ber den ,apostel ,johannes u4 s4 ,schriften1 #ahdj1 #bbd-bbi2 ,dalman1 ,der leidende und der sterbende ,messias der ,synagoge im ersten nachchristlichen ,jahrtausend1 #ahhh2 ,bousset1 ,die ,religion des ,judentums1 im neutestamentlichen ,zeitalter1 #aijc1 #bah sq42 ,jeremias1 op4 cit41 #dj sq4 #aje ,op4 cit41 #ba4 #ajf ,op4 cit41 #ga sq4 #ajg ,kautzsch1 ,pseudoepigraphen1 #ejj4 #ajh ,winckler1 op4 cit41 #fg-gg4 ,cf4 also ,jeremias1 op4 cit41 #dj1 and his ,das ,alte ,testament im ,lichte des alten ,orients1 #aijd1 #bci sq4 #aji ,gen4 xl4 #aaj ,luke xxiii4 #ci-dc2 cf4 also ,isa4 lxxx4 #ab4 #aaa ,jos4 v4 #b sqq4 #aab ,amos viii4 #aj2 cf4 ,movers1 op4 cit41 #bdc4 #aac ,cf4 ,robertson1 ,pagan ,christs1 #aeg4 #aad ,numb4 xiv4 #aae ,id4 xiii4 #i2 ,gen4 xlviii4 #af4 #aaf ,id4 xiii4 #g2 ,gen4 xlix4 #i4 #aag #a ,chron4 iv4 #aa4 #aah ,judges ii4 #i4 #aai ,id4 iv4 #abj ,cf4 ,nork1 ,realwrterbuch1 #ahdc-e1 ii4 #cja sq4 #aba ,cf4 on whole subject ,martin ,brckner1 ,der sterbende und auferstehende ,gottheiland in den orientalischen ,religionen und ihr ,verhltnis zum ,christentum4 ,religionsgesch4 ,volksbcher1 #aijh4 #abb ,ch4 ii4 #ab-bj4 #abc ,ch4 iii4 #a-h4 #abd ,ch4 v4 #c-e4 #abe ,ch4 xii4 #abf ,zum religionsgesch4 ,verst4 d4 ,n4,t41 #ed4 #abg ,l'origine de tous les cultes1 #agie1 v4 #acc4 #abh ,abraxas1 #aag4 #abi ,cf4 regarding the mythical nature of ,moses1 who is to be looked upon as an offshoot of ,jahwe and ,tammuz1 ,winckler1 op4 cit41 #hf-ie4 #acj ,cf4 also ,o4 ,pfleiderer1 ,das ,christusbild des urchristlichen ,glaubens in religionsgesch4 ,beleuchtung1 #aijc1 #cg4 ,also ,jeremias1 ,das ,a4,t4 im ,lichte des alten ,orients1 #bed4 #aca ,i4 #ajg4 #acb ,cf4 ,plutarch1 ,artaxerxes1 ch4 i4 #acc ,movers1 op4 cit41 #bbh4 #acd ,,ii4 #i1 #b4 #ace ,bousset1 ,das ,judentum1 #bbj4 #acf #a ,kings xi4 #ad sq4 #acg ,schrader1 ,die ,keilinschriften u4 d4 ,a4,t41 #bbe4 #ach ,winckler1 op4 cit41 #agb sqq41 ,jeremias1 ,das ,a4,t4 im ,lichte d4 a4 ,o41 #bnd4 ed41 #dhh sqq42 cf4 also ,baentsch1 ,david und sein ,zeitalter4 ,wissenschaft u4 ,bildung1 #aijg4 #aci ,ep4 viii4 #c4 #adj ,id4 xlii4 #eh4 #ada ,ch4 v4 #a4 #adb ,gen4 xxxv4 #aa-ai2 ,deut4 xxxiii4 #ab2 ,gen4 xliv4 #bf4 #adc ,cf4 ,nork1 ,realwrterbuch1 i4 #bdj sq4 #add ,the other famous prophecy supposed to refer to the birth of the ,messiah1 viz41 ,isaiah vii4 #ad1 is at present no longer regarded as such by many4 ,the passage obviously does not refer to the ,messiah4 ,this is shown by a glance at the text1 and it would hardly have been considered so long as bearing that meaning1 if any one had taken the trouble to read it in its context4 ,consider the situation4 ,queen ,rezin of ,syria and ,pekah of ,israel march against the ,jewish ,king ,ahaz1 who is therefore much troubled4 ,at the command of ,jahwe the prophet goes to the king in order to exhort him to courage1 and urges him to pray for a sign of the happy outcome of the fight4 ,he1 however1 refuses to tempt ,god4 ,thereupon ,isaiah himself gives him a sign4 ,behold1 he says1 a virgin shall conceive and bear a son1 and shall call his name ,immanuel1 ,god be with us4 ,before the child shall know to refuse the evil and choose the good1 the land whose two kings thou abhorrest shall be forsaken4 ,and undisturbed by the fact that this prophecy for the moment can give but little encouragement to the king1 ,isaiah goes with the help of two witnesses767 to a prophetess and gets her with child in order to make his words true7674 ,the text does not say in what relationship the woman stood to ,isaiah4 ,the ,hebrew word ,almah may mean young woman as well as virgin4 ,the ,septuagint1 however1 thoughtlessly making the passage refer to the ,messiah1 and having before its eyes very possibly the stories of the miraculous birth of the heathen ,redeemer ,gods1 translates the word straightway by virgin1 without thinking what possible light it thereby threw upon ,isaiah4 #ade ,ch4 lx4 #a sqq4 #adf ,psa4 lxviii4 #cb sq4 #adg ,dupuis1 op4 cit41 #bfh4 #adh ,matt4 i4 #ad sq4 #adi ,the feasts of the ,gods in question also correspond to this in character4 ,they fell upon the solstice 7the birthday or day of death of the sun71 so far as their connection with the sun was emphasized4 ,on the contrary1 upon the equinoxes1 so far as their connection with vegetation was concerned1 sowing and harvest were brought into prominence4 ,usually1 however1 death and reappearance were joined in one single feast1 and this was celebrated at the time in spring when day and night were of equal length1 when vegetation was at its highest1 and in the ,east the harvest was begun4 ,cf4 ,jeremias1 ,babylonisches im ,n4,t41 #aj sq4 #aej ,one should compare the description given by ,hommel of the climate of ,babylonia 7op4 cit41 #ahf7 with the picture of the natural occurrences which1 according to ,gunkel1 gave occasion for the myth of the birth of ,marduk1 and the threatening of the child by the ,winter ,dragon1 ,timat4 ,before spring descends to the earth from heaven1 winter has had its grim 767 rule upon the earth4 ,men pine away 7in the country of the two rivers67 beneath its sway1 and look up to heaven wondering if deliverance will not come4 ,the myth consoles them with the story that the ,god of spring who will overthrow winter has already been born4 ,the ,god of winter who knows for what he is destined is his enemy1 and would be very pleased if he could devour him4 ,and winter at present ruling is much stronger than the weak child4 ,but his endeavour to get rid of his enemy comes to nought4 ,do you then want to know why he is so grim8 ,he knows that he has only a short time4 ,his might is already broken although we may be yet unaware of it4 ,the year has already changed to spring4 ,the child grows up in heaven2 the days become longer1 the light of the sun stronger4 ,as soon as he is grown up he descends and overthrows his old enemy4 ',only trust in ,god without despair1 spring must come' 7,schpfung und ,chaos1 #chi sq474 #aea ,dupuis has already pointed this out1 op4 cit41 #aeb4 #aeb ,macrobius1 ,saturnal41 i4 #ah1 i4 #cd-ce4 #aec ,adversus ,nationes1 v4 #f and #ac4 #aed ,cf4 ,simrock1 ,handbuch der deutschen ,mythologie1 #dth ed41 #ahgd1 #bja and #bbe4 #aee ,op4 cit41 #ach4 ,the transfixing of the victim with the holy lance1 as we meet it in ,john xix4 #cd1 appears to be a very old sacrificial custom1 which is found among the most different races4 ,for example1 both among the ,scythian tribes in ,albania in the worship of ,astarte 7,strabo7 and in ,salamis1 on the island of ,cyprus1 in that of ,moloch 7,eusebius1 ,praep4 ,evang41 iv4 #af74 ,the lance thrust1 says ,ghillany1 with reference to the ,saviour's death1 was not given with the object of testing whether the sufferer was still alive1 but was in order to correspond with the old method of sacrificing4 ,the legs were not broken because the victim could not be mutilated4 ,in the evening the corpse had to be taken down1 just as ,joshua only allowed the kings sacrificed to the sun to remain until evening upon the cross 7op4 cit41 #eeh74 #aef ,frazer1 op4 cit41 #cde sq4 ,f4 ,kauffmann1 ,balder ,mythus u4 ,sage nach ihren dichterischen u4 religisen ,elementen untersucht1 #aijb1 #bff sq4 #aeg ,rigv4 v4 #a1 v4 #b1 iii4 #a1 vii4 #ab1 i4 #if1 c4 #aeh ,hillebrand1 ,vedische ,mythologie1 #ahia-aijb1 ii4 #ch sq4 #aei ,according to early ,christian writers1 such as ,justin and ,origen1 ,jesus also came into the world in a cave1 and ,jerome complains 7,epist4 lviii47 that in his time the heathens celebrated the feast of the birth of ,tammuz at ,bethlehem in the same cave in which ,jesus was born4 #afj ,i4 #gb1 #b2 v4 #aa1 #f2 v4 #b1 #a2 iii4 #a1 #ad2 i4 #fe1 #a2 x4 #df1 #b4 #afa ,,iii4 #a1 #g2 iii4 #i1 #g2 v4 #a1 #a2 v4 #b1 #a1 and #b2 iii4 #g1 #b2 x4 #d1 #b1 and #c4 #afb ,cf4 ,volney1 ,die ,ruinen1 #agia 7,reclam71 note #hc to chap4 xiii4 ,this is the reason why the infant ,christ was represented in early ,christian pictures lying in his mother's lap or in a cradle between an ,ox and an ,ass4 #afc ,jeremias1 ,babylonisches im ,neuen ,testament1 #ce1 note #a4 ,cf4 ,dupuis1 op4 cit41 #aaa sqq4 #afd ,dupuis1 op4 cit41 #adc sq4 #afe ,cf4 also ,winckler1 ,die babylonische ,geisteskultur ,wissenschaft u4 ,bildung1 #aijg4 ,jeremias1 ,babylonisches im ,n4,t41 #fb sqq4 ,the astral references of the ,christ myth are very beautifully shown in the ,thomakapelle at ,karlsruhe1 where the ,master has depicted in costly profusion and unconscious insight the chief points of the ,gospel history in connection with the signs of the ,zodiac and the stars--the riddle of the ,christ story and its solution6 ,as is well known1 the theological faculty in ,heidelburg conferred an honorary doctorate of theology upon the ,master4 #aff ,le ,lalita ,vistara1 traduit du sanscrit en franais1 i4 #gf sqq4 #afg ,further in ,r4 ,seydel1 ,die ,buddhalegende u4 das ,leben ,jesu1 #bnd ed41 #ahig1 and in his ,das ,evangelium von ,jesus in seinem ,verhltnis zur ,buddhasage u4 ,buddhalegende1 #ahhb4 ,also ,van den ,bergh van ,eysinga1 ,indische ,einflsse auf evang4 ,erzhlungen1 #bnd ed41 #aiji4 ,cf4 also ,o4 ,pfleiderer1 ,das ,christusbild1 #bc sqq4 #afh ,urchristentum1 i4 #daa sq4 #afi ,robertson1 ,christianity and ,mythology1 #aijj1 #abi-cjb4 #agj ,op4 cit41 #be sqq41 #bci-bdd2 cf41 on the other hand1 ,paul ,w4 ,schmidt1 ,die ,geschichte ,jesu erlutert1 #aijd1 #af4 #aga ,cf4 also ,seydel1 ,evangelium von ,jesus1 #cje sqq42 ,buddha-,legende1 #df sqq4 ,also mile ,burnouf1 ,la ,science des ,religions1 #dth ed41 #ahhe1 #aje4 #agb ,r4 ,kessler1 ,realenz4 f4 prot4 ,theol4 u4 ,kirche1 xii4 #afc4 #agc ,foucaux1 ,le ,lalita ,vistara1 i4 #dj4 #agd ,hippolytus1 op4 cit41 #i1 #aj2 ,epiphanius1 op4 cit41 #cj1 #ec4 #age ,cf4 ,pfleiderer1 ,christusbild1 #ad sq4 #agf ,cf4 also ,max ,mller1 ,natural ,religion2 ,bergaigne1 ,la religion vdique d'aprs les hymnes du ,rigveda1 #ahgh-hc2 ,holtzmann1 ,agni nach den ,vorstellungen des ,mahbhrata1 #ahgh4 #agg ,rgv4 iii4 #a1 #i1 #aj4 #agh ,id4 ii4 #bc2 i4 #g2 xcv4 #b1 #e2 x4 #b1 #g2 viii4 #bi1 #c4 #agi ,id4 iii4 #e1 #aj2 i4 #adh1 #a4 ,cf4 also ,adalb4 ,kuhn1 ,die ,herabkunft des ,feuers und des ,gttertrankes1 #bnd ed41 #ahhf-i4 ,in ,mazdeism also the light is indissolubly connected with the air1 passing as this does as its bearer4 ,cf4 ,f4 ,cumont1 ,textes et monuments1 i4 #bbh1 ii4 #hg sq41 and his ,mystres de ,mithra4 #ahj ,il41 xi4 #bj2 cf4 ,movers1 op4 cit41 #bdb sq4 #aha ,cf4 ,john x4 #c1 #g1 #i4 #ahb ,o4 ,gruppe1 ,griech4 ,mythologie1 #aijj1 ii4 #acbh1 note #aj4 #ahc ,id41 op4 cit41 #acjg4 ,according to the ,arabian legend ,father ,abraham1 also1 who here plays the part of a saviour and redeemer1 was under the name of ,thare1 a skilful master workman1 understanding how to cut arrows from any wood1 and being specially occupied with the preparation of idols 7,sepp1 ,das ,heidentum und dessen ,bedeutung fr das ,christentum1 #ahec1 iii4 #hb74 #ahd ,praep4 ,evang41 ix4 #bg4 #ahe #b ,cor4 viii4 #i4 #ahf ,gruppe1 op4 cit41 #acbb1 #acca4 #ahg ,preller1 ,griech4 ,mythol41 #ahid1 #gge sq41 #hee4 #ahh ,robertson1 ,christianity and ,mythology1 #cbb4 #ahi ,matt4 iii4 #ag2 ,mark i4 #aa2 ,luke iii4 #bb4 #aij ,phereda or ,pheredet1 the dove1 is the ,chaldaic root of the name ,aphrodite1 as the ,goddess in the car drawn by two doves was called among the ,greeks4 ,in the whole of ,nearer ,asia the cult of doves was connected with that of the ,mother ,goddess4 ,as is well known1 the dove as a symbol of innocence or purity is also the bird of the ,virgin ,mary1 who is often compared to one4 ,indeed1 in the ,protevangelium of ,james she is actually called a dove which nested in the temple1 a plain reference to the dove cult of the ,syrian ,aphrodite or ,atargatis 7,astarte1 ,astaroth74 #aia ,irenus1 i4 #bh4 #aib ,hippolytus iv4 #ce4 ,this brings to mind that1 according to ,persian ideas also1 besides the ,trinity of ,heaven 7,ahuramazda71 ,sun1 ,fire 7,mithras71 and ,air 7,spirit1 word1 ,honover1 ,spenta ,armaiti71 the earth stood as a fourth principle 7,anahita1 ,anaitis1 ,tanit74 ,this stood in the same relation to ,mithras as ,istar to ,tammuz1 ,cybele to ,attis1 ,atargatis to ,adonis1 ,maya to ,agni1 ,aphrodite to ,hermes1 ,mary to ,jesus1 c41 becoming identical1 however1 usually with the word of ,god1 the holy spirit 7,cumont1 op4 cit41 ii4 #hg sq474 #aic ,dialog41 #hh4 #aid ,one cannot therefore say1 as is usual1 that ,mark1 in whom the story of the birth given in ,matthew and ,luke is not found1 knew nothing of a supernatural birth of ,christ4 ,for the narrative of the baptism is the history of his birth1 while the corresponding narrative of the other ,evangelists only came into existence later1 when the original sense of the story of the baptism in ,mark was no longer understood4 #aie ,quoted in ,usener1 ,religionsgesch4 ,untersuchungen1 #ahhi1 i4 #fd4 #aif ,thus ,mithras also was said to have been born on the bank of a river1 just as ,jesus received baptism in or near the ,jordan4 ,on this account the ,rock-born was usually represented with a torch in his left and a sword or knife in his right hand 7,cumont1 ,myst4 d4 ,mithra1 #ig74 ,this recalls to mind the words of ,jesus in ,matt4 x4 #cd3 ,i came not to send peace1 but a sword4 #aig ,cf4 ,wobbermin1 ,religionsgesch4 ,studien zur ,frage der ,beeinflussung des ,urchristentums durch das antike ,mysterienwesen1 #ahif1 #aed sqq4 ,the ,christian ,church also surrounded the act of baptism with an unusual splendour of lights and candles4 ,not only was the ,house of ,god lit up on this occasion in a festive manner1 but each individual to be baptized had to carry a burning candle4 ,the sermons which have come down to us delivered on the feast of the ,epiphany1 the feast of the birth and baptism of the ,saviour which in earlier days fell together7671 excel in the description of the splendour of the lights2 indeed1 the day of the feast itself was actually called the day of lights or the lights 7phota74 #aih ,rgv4 x4 #hh1 #b4 #aii ,id4 v4 #b1 #i4 #bjj ,antiq41 xviii4 #e1 #b4 #bja ,contra ,celsum1 i4 #dg4 #bjb ,graetz calls it a shameless interpolation 7,gesch4 d4 ,juden1 #ahhh1 iii4 #bgh74 ,cf4 ,j4 ,chr4 ,k4 v4 ,hofmann1 ,die heiligen ,schriften des ,n4,t41 vii4 ,tl4 #c1 #ahgf1 #d2 ,schrer1 ,gesch4 den jdischen ,volkes im ,zeitalter ,jesu1 i4 #dch1 note4 #bjc ,cf4 ,sepp41 op4 cit41 i4 #afh sqq4 #bjd ,cf4 ,usener1 op4 cit41 #fb4 #bje ,i4 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #af2 cf4 ,matt4 iv4 #af4 #bjf ,luke i4 #e sqq4 #bjg ,gen4 xvii4 #af sqq4 #bjh ,judges1 xiii4 #b sqq4 #bji ,john v4 #ce4 #baj ,id4 iii4 #cj4 #baa ,luke i4 #bf4 #bab ,matt4 iii4 #d4 #bac #b ,kings i4 #h4 #bad ,matt4 xi4 #ad4 #bae ,cf4 ,nork1 ,realwrterbuch1 i4 #dea sqq4 ,the ,baptist ,john in the ,gospels also appears as the forerunner1 announcer1 herald1 and preparer of the way for ,jesus1 and it appears that the position of ,aaron in regard to ,moses1 he being given the latter as a mouthpiece or herald1 has helped in the invention of the ,baptist's figure4 ,a similar position is taken in the ,old ,testament by the ,angel of the ,countenance1 the messenger1 mediator1 ambassador1 and ,beginning of the way of ,god1 the rabbinic ,metatron1 whom we saw earlier was identical with ,joshua 7see above1 p4 #ef sq474 ,in the ,syro-,phoenician and the ,greek ,mysteries ,cadmus1 ,kadmilos1 or ,kadmiel1 a form of the divine messenger and mediator ,hermes1 also called ,iasios 7,joshua71 corresponded to him1 his name literally meaning he who goes before ,god or prophesies of him1 the announcer1 herald1 or forerunner of the coming ,god 7cf4 ,schelling1 ,die ,gottheiten von ,samothrake ,ww41 i4 #h1 #ceh1 #cib sqq474 ,ezra ii4 #dj1 #ci1 and ,nehem4 vii4 #dc1 call ,kadmiel a ,levite1 he being always named together with the ,high ,priest ,joshua4 ,it is probably only another name of the latter himself1 and characterises him as servant and herald of ,god4 ,now ,kadmiel is the discoverer of writing and the establisher of civilisation1 and in so far identical with ,oannes1 the ,babylonian ,water-man and ,baptism-,god 7,movers1 op4 cit41 #eah sqq474 ,can ,oannes 7,johannes7 the ,baptist in this way have become ,kadmiel1 the forerunner and preparer of the way of ,jesus1 who announced his near arrival1 and the ,god ,jesus1 in consequence of this1 have divided into two different figures1 that of ,joshua-,kadmiel 7,johannes7 and the ,messiah ,jesus8 ,in this regard it is certainly not without significance that the figure of the ,high ,priest ,joshua in ,zechariah wavers between the ,messiah 7,zemah7 and a mere forerunner of the latter4 ,john's question to ,jesus1 ,art thou he that cometh1 or look we for another8 7,matt4 xi4 #c7 is exactly the question which strikes the reader in reading the corresponding passage of ,zechariah4 ,possibly the presence of the dove at the baptism in the ,jordan obtains in this way a still closer explanation1 for ,semiramis1 the ,dove ,goddess1 is the spouse of ,oannes 7,ninus72 ,john and the dove accordingly are the parents1 who are present at the birth of the divine son4 ,but the violent death of ,john at ,herod's command and the head of the prophet upon the dish have prototypes in the myth of ,cadmus4 ,for the head of the latter is supposed to have been cut off by his brother and to have been buried upon a brazen shield1 a cult story which plays a part especially in the ,mysteries of the ,cabiri ,gods1 to whom ,cadmus belongs 7cf4 ,creuzer1 ,symbolik und ,mythologie der alten ,vlker1 #ahbj1 ii4 #ccc74 ,according to ,josephus 7op4 cit47 ,john was put to death because ,herod feared political disorders from his appearance1 while ,matthew makes him fall a victim to ,herod's revenge1 the latter having been censured by ,john for his criminal marriage with the wife of his brother4 ,moreover1 the prophet ,elijah1 who accuses ,ahab of having yielded to his wife ,jezebel and of having murdered ,naboth 7#a ,kings xxi471 as well as the prophet ,nathan1 who reproaches ,david for having killed ,uriah and having married his wife 7#b ,sam4 xii41 cf4 also ,esther v4 #g1 #b71 are also prototypes4 ,according to this a religious movement or sect must1 in the minds of posterity1 have been condensed into the figure of ,john the ,baptist4 ,its followers1 who closely resembled the ,essenes1 in view of the imminent nearness of the kingdom of heaven1 exhorted men to a conversion of mind1 looked upon the ,messiah in the sense of ,daniel essentially as the ,god appointed 7awakened7 judge over the living and the dead1 and sought by baptism to apply to the penitents the magic effects which should flow from the name of their ,cult ,god ,johannes 7,oannes71 the ,babylonian-,mandaic ,baptism and ,water-,god4 ,the stern and gloomy character of this sect may have been reflected in the character sketch of the ,john in the ,gospels1 and between it and the sect of ,jesus many collisions1 disagreements1 and conversions appear to have taken place 7,matt4 xi4 #a sq42 ,luke vii4 #ah sqq42 ,john i4 #cg74 ,possibly the sect of ,jesus was originally only an excrescence from1 and a development of1 the conception which the disciples of ,john had of the ,messiah1 as is indicated by the supposed blood relationship between ,jesus and ,john4 ,at any rate1 the adherents of the former in their belief in the sufferings1 death1 and resurrection of the ,messiah felt that their point of view was higher and more perfect as compared with that of ,john's disciples1 who do not appear to have risen essentially above the general ideas of the ,jewish ,apocalyptics4 ,according to ,matthew iii4 #ac ,jesus came out of ,galilee1 the ,galilee of the ,heathens1 to the baptism of ,john4 ,herein the original heathenish origin of the faith of ,jesus was pointed to4 ,the people which sat in darkness have seen a great light4 ,to them which sat in the region and shadow of death1 to them did light spring up 7,matt4 iv4 #af2 cf4 ,smith1 op4 cit41 #ie74 ,the opposition of the two different sects was1 at any rate1 so great that ,john's disciples needed a further instruction and a new baptism in the name of the ,lord ,jesus to receive the ,holy ,ghost1 in order to be received into the ,christian community4 ,for example1 the twelve at ,ephesus1 who had simply received the baptism of ,john1 as well as the eloquent and literary ,alexandrian1 ,apollo1 who none the less proclaimed the message of salvation 7ta peri tou ,iesou7 7,acts xviii4 #bd sqq41 xix4 #a-g74 #baf ,cf41 ,sepp1 ,heidentum1 i4 #agj sq41 #aij sq42 ,winckler1 ,die babylonische ,geisteskultur1 #hi1 #ajj sq4 ,by this reference of the ,gospel story to the sun's course it appears that the activity of ,jesus from his baptism in the ,jordan to his death1 according to the account of the ,synoptics1 only covered a year4 ,it is the mythological year of the sun's course through the ,watery ,region in ,january and ,february until the complete exhaustion of its strength in ,december4 #bag ,mark ix4 #b-g4 #bah ,the horns 7crescent7 which he also shares with ,jahwe1 as the ,syrian ,hadah shows 7,winckler1 ,gesch4 ,israels1 ii4 #id71 recalls to mind the ,moon nature of ,moses4 ,moses is1 as regards his name1 the ,water-drawer4 ,the moon is1 however1 according to antique views1 merely the water-star1 the dispenser of the dew and rain1 and the root ma 7mo71 which1 in the name of ,moses1 refers to water1 is also contained in the various expressions for the moon4 #bai ,contra ,tryph41 xlvi4 #bbj ,cf4 above1 #aab4 #bba ,burnouf1 op4 cit41 #aie sq4 #bbb ,that in the closer description of this occurrence ,old ,testament ideas have had their part has already been advanced by others4 ,thus in the transfiguration of ,jesus the transfiguration of ,moses upon ,sinai without doubt passed before the mind of the narrator4 ,and just as ,jesus took with him his three chief disciples on to the mount of transfiguration1 so ,moses took his three trusted followers1 ,aaron1 ,nadab1 and ,abihu1 to partake in the vision of ,jahwe 7,strauss1 ,leben ,jesu1 ii4 #bfi sqq474 #bbc ,rgv4 x4 #aia2 cf4 i4 #gb1 #e4 #bbd ,id4 iii4 #bh1 vi4 #aa4 #bbe ,max ,mller1 ,einleitung in die vergl4 ,religionswissenschaft1 note to p4 #bai4 #bbf ,rigv4 x4 #ij4 #bbg ,the ,rigveda describes ,purusha as a gigantic being 7cf4 the ,eddic ,ymir7 who covers the earth upon all sides and stretches ten fingers beyond4 ,the ,talmud1 too 7,chagiga1 xii4 #a71 ascribes to the first man ,adam a gigantic size1 reaching as he did with his head to heaven and with his feet to the end of the world4 ,indeed1 according to ,epiphanius 7,haeres4 xix4 #d71 the ,essenes made the size of ,christ too1 the second ,adam1 stretch an immeasurable distance4 #bbh ,in ,hebrew ,messiah means the anointed4 ,but ,agni too as ,god of ,sacrifices bears the name of the anointed1 akta 7above1 p4 #ii74 ,indeed1 it appears as though the ,greek ,christ1 as a translation of ,messiah1 stands in relation to ,agni4 ,for the ,god over whom at his birth was poured milk or the holy ,soma cup and sacrificial butter1 bore the surname of ,hari among the members of the cult4 ,the word signified originally the brightness produced by anointing with fat and oil4 ,it appears in the ,greek ,charis1 an epithet of ,aphrodite1 and is contained in the verb chrio1 to anoint1 of which ,christos is the participial form 7cf4 ,cox1 ,mythology of the ,aryan ,nations1 #aijc1 #bg1 #bed74 #bbi ,the ,bhagavadgta shows that the idea of a self-sacrifice was associated with ,krishna also1 whom we have already learnt to recognise as a form of ,agni1 and that his becoming man was regarded as such a sacrifice4 ,it 7ii4 #af7 runs3 ,i am the act of sacrifice1 the sacrifice of ,god and of man4 ,i am the sap of the plant1 the words1 the sacrificial butter and fire1 and at the same time the victim4 ,and in viii4 #d ,krishna says of himself3 ,my presence in nature is my transitory being1 my presence in the ,gods is ,purusha 7i4e41 my existence as ,purusha71 my presence in the sacrifices is myself incorporated in this body4 ,but ,mithras too offers himself for mankind4 ,for the bull whose death at the hands of the ,god takes the central position in all the representations of ,mithras was originally none other than the ,god himself--the sun in the constellation of the ,bull1 at the spring equinox--the sacrifice of the bull accordingly being also a symbol of the ,god who gives his own life1 in order by his death to bring a new1 richer and better life4 ,mithras1 too1 performs this self-sacrifice1 although his heart struggles against it1 at the command of the ,god of ,heaven1 which is brought to him by a raven1 the messenger of the ,god of ,gods4 7cf4 ,cumont1 op4 cit41 #ih sqq474 ,and just as according to ,vedic ideas ,purusha was torn in pieces by the ,gods and ,dmons and the world made out of his parts1 so too according to ,persian views the ,world ,bull ,abudad or the ,bull ,man ,gayomart at the beginning of creation is supposed to have shed his blood for the world1 to live again as ,mithras 7,sepp41 op4 cit41 i4 #ccj1 ii4 #f sq474 #bcj ,cumont1 ,myst4 de ,mithra1 #aja4 #bca ,rgv4 x4 #af4 #bcb ,id4 x4 #af1 #f4 #bcc ,id4 lx42 cf4 also ,burnouf1 op4 cit41 #agf sqq4 #bcd ,op4 cit41 vii4 #c4 ,he is ,jahwe1 the ,king of ,jeru-,salem itself 7,josephus1 ,ant41 x4 #b71 and corresponds to the ,phoenician ,moloch 7,melech7 ,sidyk1 who offered his only born son1 ,jehud1 to the people as an expiation4 ,cf4 supra1 p4 #gg4 #bce ,op4 cit41 xix4 #ac1 xxxii4 #bi1 xliv4 #ag1 xvi4 #be4 #bcf ,op4 cit41 lxv4 #aa4 #bcg ,as is well known1 the ,germanic first man1 ,mannus1 according to ,tacitus1 was a son of the hermaphrodite ,thuisto4 #bch ,lev4 xxiv4 #e-i4 #bci ,jos4 iv4 #a sqq42 ch4 v4 #bdj ,thus ,helios also1 the ,greek ,sun-,god1 the heavenly physician and saviour1 annually prepared the ,sun's ,table in nature1 causing the fruit to ripen1 the healing herbs to grow1 and inviting mortals to the life-giving feast4 ,this ,table of the ,sun was always spread in the land of the happy and long-living ,ethiopians2 even the twelve ,gods journeyed thither each year with ,zeus for twelve days1 i4e41 in the last ,octave of the old and new year1 as though to the feast of ,agape 7,sepp41 op4 cit41 i4 #bge74 ,for the rest the number twelve had throughout the whole of antiquity in connection with such ceremonial feasts a typical signification4 ,for example1 among the ,athenians1 whose common religious feasts were celebrated annually on the occasion of the spring sacrifices2 also among the ,jews at least twelve persons had to be assembled round the table of the ,easter ,lamb 7,sepp41 op4 cit41 ii4 #cac sqq474 #bda ,ghillany1 op4 cit41 #eaj sqq4 #bdb ,preller1 ,griech4 ,mythol41 #cih1 #hej1 and his ,rm4 ,mythol41 #bge4 #bdc ,strabo1 xi4 #b2 ,justin1 xlii4 #c4 #bdd ,preller1 ,griech4 ,mytholog41 #aaj4 #bde ,it is worth while to observe that the ,high ,priest ,joshua returned to ,jerusalem at the head of twelve elders 7,ezra ii4 #b2 ,nehem4 vii4 #g4 ,cf4 ,stade1 ,gesch4 d4 ,v4 ,israel1 ii4 #ajb74 #bdf ,cf4 ,movers1 op4 cit41 #eci sqq42 ,sepp41 ,heidentum1 #bga1 #dba4 #bdg ,cf4 ,jeremias1 ,babyl4 im ,n4,t41 #fi-hj4 #bdh ,rgv4 vi4 #ed4 #bdi ,cf4 ,the ,hymns to ,dadhikra1 iv4 #ch-dj4 #bej ,cf4 ,burnouf1 op4 cit41 #aif4 ,the connection between the ,fire-,god and water is of extreme antiquity4 ,as is well known1 in the ,edda ,loki seeks to escape the pursuit of the ,gods in the shape of a salmon2 ,hephaistos1 too1 after being cast forth from heaven remains concealed in the sea until ,dionysus brings him out2 in ,rome on the #bbnd of ,august fish from the ,tiber used to be sacrificed to ,vulcan1 being cast living into the fire in representation of the souls of men 7,preller1 ,rm4 ,mythol41 ii4 #aea74 ,it is uncertain whether or to what degree the relations of the sun to the constellation of the ,fishes have influenced these images4 ,as regards ,babylon1 where astrology underwent the most accurate development1 this can indeed be looked upon as certain4 ,here ,ea 7,oannes71 the ,god of ,water and of ,life1 the father of the ,redeemer ,god ,marduk1 was represented under the form of a fish4 ,again1 it was not only to the ,philistinian ,dagon that fish as well as doves were sacred 7above1 p4 #aah71 but also to the ,syrian ,atargatis1 the latter having borne1 as was said1 the ,ichthus1 or fish1 and the worship of fish being connected with devotion to her 7,robertson ,smith1 ,religion of the ,semites1 #agd sqq474 ,in ,egypt ,horus was the divine fish1 being represented with a fish-tail and holding a cross in the hand4 ,but the ,joshua of the ,old ,testament1 in whom we believe we see the ,israelite original of the ,christian ,saviour1 was also called a ,son of the ,fish 7,nun1 ,ninus1 a form of ,marduk1 whose spouse or beloved1 ,semiramis1 is also a ,fish ,divinity and is the same as ,derketo 7,atargatis71 the ,syrian ,mother ,goddess47 ,the ,rabbinists called the ,messiah son of ,joseph 7see above1 p4 #hj sq471 ,dag 7,dagon7 the ,fish1 and made him to be born of a fish2 that is1 they expected his birth under the constellation of the ,fishes1 on which account the ,jews were long accustomed to immolate a fish on expiatory feasts4 ,finally1 the fish is also ,vishnu's symbol1 in whose worship baptism of water takes an important place4 ,again1 the ,god is said in the form of a fish to have come to the rescue of the pious ,manu1 the only just man of his time1 the ,indian ,noah1 and to have steered the ,ark through the flood1 thus ensuring to mankind its continuation4 ,it is not difficult to suppose that this idea as well influenced the symbols of ,christianity through ,mandaic 7,gnostic7 channels4 ,at any rate1 it cannot be admitted at all that the symbol of the fish first arose out of a mere play on letters so far as the formula ,jesous ,christos ,theou ,huios ,soter represents in five words the expression of the quintessence of the ,christian faith 7cf4 van den ,bergh van ,eysinga1 ,ztschr4 d4 ,deutchen ,morgenlnd4 ,gesellschaft ,b41 ix41 #aijf1 #baj sqq474 #bea ,cf4 ,iamblichus1 ,de ,symbol4 ,aegyptiorum1 ii4 #g4 #beb ,gunkel1 op4 cit41 #cb4 sq42 ,robertson1 ,pagan ,christs1 #ace sq4 #bec ,op4 cit41 v4 #f sq4 #bed ,rev4 xxi4 #bc4 #bee ,hatch1 ,the ,influence of ,greek ,ideas and ,usages upon the ,christian ,church1 ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhh1 #cjj4 #bef ,john i4 #g1 #ab2 ix4 #e2 xii4 #cf1 #df4 #beg ,sepp41 i4 #cec4 #beh ,burnouf1 op4 cit41 #ahf sq4 #bei ,cf41 for example1 ,f4 ,x4 ,kraus1 ,geschichte d4 christl4 ,kunst1 i4 #aje4 #bfj ,hist4 ,rom41 i4 #bf4 #bfa ,cf4 ,zckler1 ,das ,kreuz ,christi1 #ahge1 #fb sqq42 ,hochart1 tudes d'histoire religieuse1 #ahij1 chap1 x41 ,la crucifix4 #bfb ,aringhi1 ,roma subterranea1 vi4 ch4 #bc1 ,de ,cervo4 #bfc ,cf4 on the other hand ,justin1 ,apol41 i4 #ce4 #bfd ,esther v4 #ad1 vii4 #aj4 #bfe ,cf4 the picture of ,marsyas hanging upon a tree-trunk in the collection of antiquities at ,karlsruhe2 also the illustrations in ,p4 ,schmidt1 ,die ,geschichte ,jesu1 erlutert1 #aijd4 #bff ,movers1 op4 cit41 #fhg2 ,nork1 ,reallexikon1 ii4 #abb sq42 ,frazer1 ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 #ahe sq4 #bfg ,rev4 ii4 #g1 xxii4 #b4 #bfh lxvi4 #ai4 #bfi ix4 #c1 #d4 #bgj ,exod4 xvii4 #aj sqq4 #bga ,for particulars see ,zckler1 op4 cit41 #g sqq42 also ,hochart1 op4 cit41 chap1 viii41 ,le symbole de la croix2 ,g4 de ,mortillet1 ,le signe de la croix avant le christianisme1 #ahff2 ,mourant ,brock1 ,la croix payenne et chrtienne1 #ahha2 ,goblet d',alviella1 ,la migration des symboles1 #ahia4 #bgb ,henry ,petersen1 ber den ,gottesdienst u4 den ,gtterglauben des ,nordens whrend der ,heidenzeit1 #ahhb1 #ci sqq4 #ie sqq4 #bgc ,zckler1 op4 cit41 #ba sqq4 #bgd ,winckler1 ,die babyl4 ,geisteskultur1 #hb4 #bge ,tertullian1 ,contra ,haereses1 #dj4 #bgf ,burnouf1 op4 cit41 #bdj4 #bgg ,goblet d',alviella1 op4 cit41 #fa4 sqq4 ,cf4 also ,ludw4 ,mller1 ,det saakaldte ,hagekors ,anvendelse og ,betydning i ,oldtiden1 #ahgg4 #bgh ,op4 cit41 #bif4 #bgi ,one feels the words of ,revelation quoted above brought to his mind3 ,and madest them to be unto our ,god a kingdom and priests2 and they reign upon the earth6 #bhj ,de errore profanae religionis1 i4 #e4 #bha ,op4 cit41 #dh4 #bhb ,apolog41 i4 ch4 #fj4 #bhc ,,iii4 #ab1 vii4 #c sqq41 ix4 #d1 xiv4 #a1 xx4 #d1 xxii4 #d4 #bhd ,gal4 vi4 #ag2 ,ephes4 i4 #ac sq4 #bhe ,mourant ,brock1 op4 cit41 #agg sqq41 #agh sqq4 #bhf ,so also in ,tertullian when1 with reference to the passage of ,ezekiel above quoted 7ix4 #e71 he describes the ,greek letter ,tau as our the ,christians' kind of cross 7nostra species crucis71 not because it had the shape of the gibbet upon which ,jesus is supposed to have died1 but because it represented the seal or sign upon the inhabitants of the ,new ,jerusalem 7,contra ,marcionem1 iii4 #bb74 ,and when in the same work 7iii4 #ah7 he explains the horns of the unicorn 7ox87 mentioned in the ,blessing of ,moses 7,deut4 xxxiii4 #ag7 as the two arms of the cross1 this happens only for the reason that the sign of union and uplifting and the gibbet became commingled in his fancy into the one and the same form 7cf4 also ,adv4 ,judaeos1 #aj1 and ,justin1 ,dial41 #ia2 also ,hochart1 op4 cit41 #cfe-cfi74 #bhg ,zckler1 op4 cit41 #ad sq4 #bhh ,frazer1 ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 #agd sq41 #bgf sqq4 #bhi ,cf4 on the whole subject ,hochart1 op4 cit41 #cei sqq42 ,p4 ,schmidt1 ,gesch4 ,jesu1 #chf-cid4 ,in spite of all his efforts ,zckler has not succeeded in proving that ,jesus was nailed to a piece of wood having the form of a four-armed cross4 ,the assertion that this form of gibbet was borrowed by the ,romans from the ,carthaginians1 and was the usual one in late pre-,christian days1 is simply a figment of the imagination4 ,all passages usually brought forward in support of this traditional view either prove nothing1 as the appeal to ,luke xxiv4 #ci1 ,john xx4 #bj and #be1 or they refer to the symbol1 not to the gibbet of the cross1 and consequently cannot serve to support the usual view of the matter 7,zckler1 op4 cit41 especially #gh2 #dca sqq474 #bij ,geschichte der christlichen ,kunst1 #agd4 #bia ,cf4 ,detzel1 ,christl4 ,ikonographie1 #ahid1 #cib sqq42 ,hochart1 op4 cit41 #cgh sqq4 #bib ,moreover1 the so-called ,flabellum1 the fan1 which in the early ,christian pictures of the birth of ,christ a servant holds before the child1 shows the connection of the ,christ ,cult and that of ,agni4 ,this fan1 which was in use in divine service of the ,western ,church as late as the fourteenth century1 cannot be for the driving away of insects or for cooling purposes1 as is usually considered1 for this would obviously be in contradiction to the winter birth of the ,saviour4 ,it refers to the fanning of the divine spark in the ancient ,indian fire-worship4 ,in this sense it has been retained until the present day in the ,greek and ,armenian rites1 in which during the ,mass the fan is waved to and fro over the altar4 ,a synopsis of all the facts and illustrations bearing on the matter are to be found in ,a4 ,malvert's ,wissenschaft und ,religion1 #aijd4 #bic ,of course the ,acts of the ,apostles is1 and remains in spite of all modern attempts at vindication 7,harnack71 a very untrustworthy historical document1 and the information it gives as to ,paul's life is for the most part mere fiction4 ,we need not go so far as ,jensen1 who disputes the existence at any time of an historical ,paul 7,moses1 ,jesus1 ,paulus4 ,drei ,sagenvarianten des babylonischen ,gottmenschen ,gilgamesch1 #b ,aufl41 #aiji71 but will nevertheless not be able to avoid the view that the description of ,paul1 as ,bruno ,bauer has already shown1 represents an original1 in any case very much worked over1 and in the opinion of many only a copy of the original1 which preceded it in the portrayal of the chief of the apostles1 ,peter 7cf41 on the historical value of the ,acts1 also ,e4 ,zeller1 ,die ,apg4 nach ihrem ,inhalt und ,ursprung kritisch untersucht1 #ahed74 #bid ,cf4 ,h4 ,jordan1 ,jesus und die modernen ,jesusbilder4 ,bibl4 ,zeit- u4 ,streitfragen1 #aiji1 #cf4 #bie ,to create authors who have never written a letter1 to forge whole series of books1 to date the most recent production back into grey antiquity1 to cause the well-known philosophers to utter opinions diametrically opposed to their real views1 these and similar things were quite common during the last century before and the first after ,christ4 ,people cared little at that time about the author of a work1 if only its contents were in harmony with the taste and needs of the age 7,e4 ,zeller1 ,vortrge u4 ,abhdlg41 #ahfe1 #bih sq474 ,it was at that time a favourite practice to write letters for famous men4 ,a collection of not less than #adh letters was attributed to the tyrant ,phalaris1 who ruled ,agrigentum in the sixth century ,b4,c4 ,beyschlag has proved that they were ascribed to him in the time of ,antoninus4 ,similarly the letters attributed to ,plato1 to ,euripides and others1 are spurious4 ,it would have been indeed strange if this custom of the age had not gained an influence over the growing ,christian literature1 for such forgery would be produced most easily in the religious sphere1 since it was here not a question of producing particular thoughts1 but of being an organ of the common religious spirit working in the individual 7,steck1 op4 cit41 #chd sq42 cf4 also ,holtzmann1 ,einl4 in das ,n4,t41 #b ,aufl41 #bbc sqq474 #bif ,e4 ,vischer1 ,die ,paulusbriefe1 ,rel4 ,volksb41 #aijd1 #fi sq4 #big ,op4 cit41 ix4 #c sqq4 #bih #a ,cor4 xv4 #e sqq4 #bii ,cf4 ,w4 ,seufert1 ,der ,ursprung und die ,bedeutung des ,apostolates in der christlichen ,kirche der ersten ,jahrhunderte1 #ahhg1 #df1 #aeg4 #cjj ,an attempt is now being made to prove the contrary1 citing #b ,cor4 v4 #af1 which runs3 ,wherefore we henceforth know no man after the flesh3 even though we have known ,christ after the flesh1 yet now we know him so no more4 ,the passage has been most differently explained4 ,according to ,baur the ,christ after the flesh refers to the ,jewish ,messiah1 the expected king and earthly ,saviour of the ,jews from political and social distress1 in whom even ,paul believed at an earlier date2 and the meaning of the passage quoted is that this sensuous and earthly conception of the ,messiah had given place in him to the spiritual conception 7,die ,christuspartei in der kor4 ,gemeinde ,tb4 ,ztschr41 #ahca1 #d ,heft1 #ij74 ,according to ,heinrici the even though we have known is not a positive assertion of a point of view which had once determined his judgment of ,christ1 but a hypothetical instance1 which excludes a false point of view without asserting anything as to its actuality 7,komment1 #bhi74 ,according to ,beyschlag the passage is to be understood as asserting that ,paul had seen ,jesus at ,jerusalem during his life on earth4 ,but with ,paul there is no talk of a mere seeing1 but rather of a knowing4 ,ltgert disproves all these different hypotheses with the argument that the words after the flesh refer not to ,christ but to the verb4 ,the apostle no longer knows any one 'after the flesh1' and so he no longer knows ,jesus thus4 ,at an earlier stage his knowledge of ,christ was 'after the flesh4' ,at that time he did not have the spirit of ,god which made him able to see in ,jesus the ,son of ,god4 ,paul then is not protecting himself from the ,jews1 who denied him a personal knowledge of ,jesus1 but from the ,pneumatics1 who denied him a pneumatic knowledge of ,jesus 7,freiheitspredigt und ,schwarmgeister in ,korinth1 #aijh1 #ee-eh74 #cja ,gal4 i4 #aa1 #ab2 #a ,cor4 ii4 #aj2 #b ,cor4 iv4 #f4 #cjb ,gal4 i4 #ag-ai4 #cjc ,gal4 ii4 #a sqq4 #cjd ,id4 i4 #ai4 #cje ,matt4 xxviii4 #aj2 ,mark xiii4 #cc sqq42 ,john xx4 #ag4 #cjf ,in the opinion of the ,dutch school of theologians1 whom ,schlger follows in his essay1 ,das ,wort krios 7,herr7 in ,seiner ,bezichung auf ,gott oder ,jesus ,christus 7,theol4 ,tijdschrift1 #cc1 #ahii1 ,part ,i471 this mention of the ,brother of the ,lord does not come from ,paul2 as according to ,schlger1 all the passages in #a ,cor41 which speak of ,jesus under the title ,kurios1 are interpolated4 ,missionary travels of ,brothers of ,jesus are unknown to us from any other quarter1 and are also in themselves improbable 7op4 cit41 #df2 cf4 also ,steck1 op4 cit41 #bgb sq474 #cjg ,similarly ,origen1 ,contra ,celsum1 i4 #ce2 cf4 ,smith1 op4 cit41 #ah sq4 #cjh ,cf4 as to this ,sieffert in ,realenzyklop4 f4 prot4 ,theol4 und ,kirche under ,james4 ,in ,ezr4 ii4 #b and #i there is also mention of ,brothers of the ,high ,priest ,joshua1 by which only the priests subordinate to him seem to be meant2 and in ,justin 7,dial c4 ,tryph41 #ajf7 the apostles are collectively spoken of as ,brothers of ,jesus4 ,similarly in ,rev4 xii4 #ag1 those who keep the word of ,god and bear testimony to ,jesus ,christ are spoken of as children of the heavenly woman and also as ,brothers and ,sisters of the ,divine ,redeemer1 whom the dragon attempts to swallow up together with his mother4 ,as ,revelation owes its origin to a pre-,christian ,jesus-cult1 the designation of pious brothers of a community as physical brothers of ,jesus seems also to have been customary in that cult1 antecedent to the ,pauline epistles and the ,gospels4 #cji ,this is actually the view of the ,dutch school of theologians4 #caj ,a4 ,kalthoff1 ,was wissen wir von ,jesus8 ,eine ,abrechnung mit ,prof4 ,d4 ,bousset1 #aijd1 #ag4 #caa #a ,cor4 vii4 #aj4 #cab ,id4 ix4 #ad4 #cac #a ,cor4 xi4 #bc4 #cad ,cf4 ,brandt1 ,die evangel4 ,geschichte u4 d4 ,ursprung d4 ,christentums1 #ahic1 #bif4 ,schlger also agrees with the ,dutch school1 and produces telling arguments in favour of the view that #a ,cor4 xi4 #bc-cb is an interpolation4 ,in our opinion1 he says1 the opening words1 ',for ,i received of the ,lord1' betray the same attempt as can be seen in vii4 #aj and ix4 #ad--;and probably the attempt of one and the same interpolator--to trace back ,church institutions and regulations to the authority of the ,lord1 of the ,kurios4 ,in the three cases in which the latter is mentioned he is called 'the ,lord1' which is a fact well worthy of consideration in view of the usual designation4 ,schlger also shows that verse #cb is a very appropriate conclusion to verse #bb2 while as they stand now the logical connection is broken in a forcible manner by the interpolation of the account of the ,last ,supper4 ,another proof of the interpolation of #bc-cb is to be found1 ,schlger thinks1 in the fact that in verse #cc as in verse #bb the ,corinthians are addressed in the second person1 while in verses #ca and #cb the first person plural is used 7op4 cit41 #da sq474 ,in view of these notorious facts we can hardly understand how ,german theologians can with such decision adhere to the authenticity of the passage1 reproaching those who contest it with faults in method4 ,as against this view of theirs ,schlger justly objects that ,references to words and events from the life of ,jesus are so isolated in the ,pauline writings that we are entitled to and forced to raise the question as to each such reference1 whether it is not the reflection of a later age1 of an age which already placed confidence in the ,gospel literature1 that brought ,jesus' authority into the text 7,schlger1 op4 cit41 #cf74 ,and the critical theologians are convinced that the writings of the ,new ,testament are worked over to a great extent1 rectified to accord with the ,church1 and in many places interpolated4 ,but when some one else brings this to publicity1 and dares to doubt the authenticity of a passage1 they immediately raise a great outcry1 and accuse him of wilfully misrepresenting the text2 as if there were even one single such passage on which the views of critics are not divergent6 #cae ,m4 ,brckner's opinion also is that the ,pauline account of the scene at the ,last ,supper is in all probability not a purely historical one1 but is a dogmatic representation of the festival4 ,and he adds3 ,in any case just on account of its religious importance this scene cannot be cited to prove ,paul's acquaintance with the details of ,jesus' life 7,die ,entstehung der paulinischen ,christologie1 #aijc1 #dd74 ,cf4 also ,robertson1 ,christianity and ,mythology1 #chh sq4 #caf ,holtzmann has1 as a matter of fact1 in an essay in the ,christliche ,welt 7,no4 #g1 #aiaj7 recently attempted to prove the contrary1 citing from ,paul a number of moral exhortations1 c41 which are in accord with ,jesus' words in the ,gospels4 ,but in this argument there is a presupposition1 which should surely be previously proved1 that the ,gospels received their corresponding content from ,jesus and not1 on the contrary1 from ,paul's epistles4 ,it is admitted that they were in many other respects influenced by ,pauline ideas4 ,moreover1 all the moral maxims cited have their parallels in contemporary ,rabbinical literature1 so that they need not necessarily be referred back to an historical ,jesus2 also1 such is their nature1 that they might be advanced by any one1 i4e41 they are mere ethical commonplaces without any individual colouring4 ,thus we find the ,rabbis in agreement with ,rom4 xiii4 #h sq4 and ,gal4 v4 #ad1 which ,holtzmann traces back to ,matt4 vii4 #ab3 ,bring not on thy neighbour that which displeases thee2 this is our whole doctrine4 ,rom4 xiii4 #g has its parallel not only in ,matt4 xxii4 #ba1 but also in the ,talmud1 which runs3 ,every one is bound to fulfil his obligations to ,god with the like exactness as those to men4 ,give to ,god his due2 for all that thou hast is from him4 ,rom4 xii4 #ba runs in the ,sanhedrin3 ,it is better to be persecuted than to persecute1 better to be calumniated by another than to slander4 ,so that the remark need not necessarily be based on ,matt4 v4 #ci2 in fact1 the last-named passage is not found at all in the standard ,,mss41 in the ,codex ,sinaiticus and ,vaticanus4 ,the phrase1 to remove mountains 7#a ,cor4 xiii4 #b74 is a general ,rabbinical one for extolling the power of a teacher's diction1 and so could easily be transferred to the power of faith4 ,so also the phrase1 ,mark ix4 #ej1 ,have salt in yourselves1 and be at peace one with another--which ,rom4 xii4 #ah is supposed to resemble--is a well-known ,rabbinical expression4 ,matt4 v4 #ci sq41 which is supposed to accord with #a ,cor4 vi4 #g1 runs in the ,talmud3 ,if any one desires thy donkey1 give him also the saddle4 ,matt4 vii4 #a-e1 on which ,rom4 ii4 #a and xiv4 #d are supposed to be based1 equally recalls the ,talmud3 ,who thinks favourably of his neighbour brings it about that fair judgments are also made of him4 ,let your judgment of your neighbour be completely good4 ,even as one measures1 with the same measure shall it also be measured unto him4 ,rom4 xiv4 #ac and #a ,cor4 viii4 #g-ac need not necessarily be an allusion to ,jesus' tender consideration for those who are ruined by scandal1 as we find in the ,talmud3 ,it would have been better that the evil-minded had been born blind1 so that they would not have brought evil into the world 7cf4 also ,nork1 ,rabbinische ,quellen und ,parallelen zu neutestamentlichen ,schriftstellen1 #ahci74 ,and does ,paul's usual phrase of greeting1 from ,god our ,father and the ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 really contain the avowal of the ,father-,god preached by ,christ8 ,for the connection of the divine ,son and bearer of salvation with the ,father-,god is a general mythological formula which occurs in all the different religions--witness the relation between ,marduk and ,ea1 ,heracles and ,zeus1 ,mithras and ,ormuzd1 ,balder and ,odin4 ,what then does it mean when ,paul speaks of the meekness and humility of ,christ1 who lived not for his own pleasure1 who made no fame for himself1 but was submissive1 assumed the form of a servant1 and was obedient to the will of his father1 even to the death of the cross8 ,all these traits are reproduced directly from the description of the suffering servant of ,god in ,isaiah1 which we know had a great part in shaping the personality of ,jesus4 ,meekness1 humility1 charitableness1 and obedience are the specific virtues of the pious of ,paul's time4 ,it was a matter of course for ,christ also1 the ideal prototype of good and pious men1 to be endowed with these characteristics4 ,abraham was obedient when he sacrificed his son ,isaac2 and so was the latter to his father1 being also submissive in himself bringing the wood to the altar and giving himself up willingly to the sacrificial knife4 ,and we know what a significant rle the story of ,isaac's sacrifice has always played in the religious ideas of the ,jews4 ,moreover1 the heathen redeemer deities--,marduk1 of the ,mandaic ,hibil ,ziw1 ,mithras and ,heracles--were also obedient in coming down upon earth at the bidding of their heavenly father1 burst the gates of death1 and gave themselves up1 in the case of ,mithras1 even to be sacrificed2 and ,heracles served mankind in the position of a servant1 fought with the monsters and horrors of hell1 and assumed the hardest tasks at the will of others4 #cag ,kalthoff1 ,die ,entstehung d4 ,christentums1 #aijd1 #ae4 #cah ,p4 ,wernle1 ,die ,quellen des ,lebens ,jesu1 ,religionsgesch4 ,volksbcher1 #b ,aufl41 #d4 #cai ,gunkel1 op4 cit41 #ic4 #cbj ,gunkel also takes the view that before ,jesus there was a belief in ,christ's death and resurrection current in ,jewish syncretic circles 7op4 cit41 #hb74 ,now we have already seen 7p4 #eg7 that the term ,christ is of very similar significance to ,jesus4 ,so that it is not at all necessary to believe1 as ,gunkel asserted in the ,darmstadt discussion1 that ,paul in speaking of ,jesus testifies to an historical figure1 because ,jesus is the name of a person4 ,jesus ,christ is simply a double expression for one and the same idea--that is1 for the idea of the ,messiah1 ,saviour1 ,physician1 and ,redeemer2 and it is not at all improbable1 as ,smith supposes1 that the contradictions in the conception of the ,messiah in two different sects or spheres of thought found their settlement in the juxtaposition of the two names4 #cba ,not the teacher1 not the miracle-worker1 not the friend of the publicans and sinners1 not the opponent of the ,pharisees1 is of importance for ,paul4 ,it is the crucified and risen ,son of ,god alone 7,wernle1 op4 cit41 #e74 #cbb ,indeed1 the historical ,jesus in the sense of the ,ritschlian school would have been for ,paul an absurdity4 ,the ,pauline theology has to do rather with the experiences of a heavenly being1 which have1 and will yet have1 extraordinary significance for humanity 7,m4 ,brckner1 ,die ,entstehung der paulinischen ,christologie1 #aijc1 #ab74 ,brckner also considers it settled that ,jesus' life on earth had no interest at all for ,paul 7op4 cit41 #df74 ,paul did not trouble himself about ,jesus' life on earth1 and what he may here and there have learnt concerning it1 with few exceptions1 remained indifferent to him 7#db74 ,brckner also shows that the passages which are cited to contradict this prove nothing as to ,paul's more detailed acquaintance with ,jesus' life on earth 7#da sqq474 ,he claims to have given the historical demonstration in his work that the ,christian religion is at bottom independent of 'uncertain historical truths' 7,preface74 ,and in spite of this he cannot as a theologian free himself from the conception of an historical ,jesus even with regard to ,paul1 though he is1 nevertheless1 not in a position to show where and to what extent the historical ,jesus had a really decided influence over ,paul4 #cbc ,movers1 op4 cit41 #dch sqq42 ,fraser1 ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 #db1 #dc1 #dg1 #fj1 #gi sq4 #cbd ,cumont1 ,textes et monuments1 c41 i4 #bdj2 ,pfleiderer1 ,urchristentum1 i4 #bi sqq4 #cbe #a ,cor4 x4 #af4 #cbf ,pfleiderer1 op4 cit41 #de4 #cbg xi4 #ai sqq4 #cbh ,smith1 op4 cit41 #ba sq4 #cbi ,cf4 ,zimmern1 ,zum ,streit um die ,christusmythe1 #bc4 #ccj ,i am the ,a and the ,o1 the beginning and the end1 the ,revelation of ,john makes the ,messiah say 7i4 #h474 ,is there not at the same time in this a concealed reference to ,adonis8 ,the ,alpha and the ,omega1 the first and last letters of the ,greek alphabet1 form together the name of ,adonis--,ao 7,aoos7 as the old ,dorians called the ,god1 whence ,cilicia is also called ,aoa4 ,a son of ,adonis and ,aphrodite 7,maia7 is said 7,schol4 ,theocr41 #ae1 #ajj7 to have been called ,golgos4 ,his name is connected with the phallic cones 7,greek1 golgoi71 as they were erected on heights in honour of the mother divinities of ,western ,asia1 who were themselves1 probably on this account1 called ,golgoi and golgon anssa 7,queens of the ,golgoi71 and is the same as the ,hebraic plural ,golgotha 7,sepp1 ,heidentum1 i4 #aeg sq474 ,finally1 was the place of skulls an old ,jebusite place of worship of ,adonis under the name of ,golgos1 and was the cone of rock1 on which statue of ,venus was erected in the time of ,hadrian1 selected for the place of execution of the ,christian ,saviour because it was connected with the remembrance of the real sacrifice of a man in the rle of ,adonis 7,tammuz78 #cca ,deut4 xxi4 #bc4 #ccb ,we notice that already in these distinctions the germs of those endless and absurd disputes concerning the nature of the ,god-man lie concealed1 which later1 in the first century ,a4,d41 tore ,christendom into countless sects and heresies1 and which gave the occasion for the rise of the ,christian dogma4 #ccc ,rom4 i4 #c4 #ccd ,rom4 viii4 #c2 #b ,cor4 viii4 #i2 ,phil4 ii4 #g sq4 #cce ,gal4 iii4 #aj sqq42 ,rom4 iii4 #i4 #ccf ,rom4 iii4 #bj1 iv4 #ae1 v4 #bj1 vii41 sqq4 #ccg ,gal4 iii4 #ai sqq4 #cch ,rom4 vi4 #i sq4 #cci ,id4 v4 #ad4 #cdj ,rom4 iv4 #c sqq4 #cda ,rom4 vi4 #c sqq4 #cdb ,gal4 iii4 #bg4 #cdc ,cf4 above1 p4 #acg4 #cdd #a ,cor4 x4 #af sqq41 xi4 #bc-bg4 #cde #a ,cor4 x4 #c sqq41 #af-ba4 #cdf ,cf41 e4g41 ,pfleiderer1 op4 cit41 #ccc4 #cdg ,cf4 above1 p4 #di sqq4 #cdh ,plato1 ,symposium1 c4 #bb4 #cdi ,col4 ii4 #i4 #cej ,op4 cit41 #hj4 #cea ,cf4 my work1 ,plotin und der ,untergang der antiken ,weltanschauung1 #aijg4 #ceb ,gal4 ii4 #bj2 ,rom4 viii4 #d1 #bf4 #cec ,id4 viii4 #ad sqq4 #ced #b ,cor4 iii4 #ag4 #cee ,gal4 v4 #bf4 #cef #a ,cor4 ii4 #i1 #ad2 ,rom4 xii4 #b4 #ceg ,op4 cit41 #hf4 #ceh ,wrede1 ,id4 #cei ,id4 #cfj ,op4 cit41 #id4 #cfa ,wrede1 op4 cit41 #he4 #cfb #a ,cor4 xv4 #ag4 #cfc ,cf4 as to the whole question my essay on ,paulus u4 ,jesus 7,das ,freie ,wort of ,december1 #aiji74 #cfd ,it is true that other theologians think differently on this point1 as1 e4g41 ,feine in his book1 ,jesus ,christus und ,paulus 7#aijb71 declares that ,paul had interested himself very much in gaining a distinct and comprehensive picture of ,jesus' activity and personality 767 7#bbi74 #cfe ,kalthoff has in his writings laid especial stress on this social significance of ,christianity4 ,cf4 also ,steudel1 ,das ,christentum und die ,zukunft des ,protestantismus 7,deutsche ,wiedergeburt1 iv41 #aiji1 #bf sq471 and ,kautsky1 ,der ,ursprung des ,christentums1 #aijh4 #cff xl4 #bf4 #cfg ,in the same way ,vollers also1 in his work on ,die ,weltreligionen 7#aijg71 seeks to explain the faith of the original ,christian sects in ,jesus' death and resurrection as a blend of the ,adonis 7,attis7 and ,christ faiths4 ,he regards this as the essence of that faith1 that the existing views of the ,messiah and the ,resurrection were transferred to one and the same person2 and shows from this of what great importance it must be that this faith met a well-prepared ground1 in ,north ,syria1 ,anatolia1 and ,egypt1 where it naturally spread4 ,but he treats the ,jewish ,diaspora of these lands as the natural mediator of the new preaching or message of ,salvation 7,gospel71 and finds a proof of his view in this1 that the sphere of the greatest density of the ,diaspora almost completely coincides with those lands where the growing and rising youthful ,god was honoured1 and that these same districts are also the places in which we meet1 only a generation after ,jesus' death1 the most numerous1 flourishing1 and fruitful communities of the new form of belief4 ,it is the ,eastern ,mediterranean or ,levantine horse-shoe shaped line which stretches from ,ephesus and ,bithynia through ,anatolia to ,tarsus and ,antioch1 thence through ,syria and ,palestine by way of the cult-centres ,bubastes and ,sais to ,alexandria4 ,almost directly in the middle of these lands lies ,aphaka1 where was the chief sanctuary of the ,lord ,adonis1 and a little south of this spot lies the country where the ,saviour of the ,gospels was born 7op4 cit41 #aeb74 #cfh ,cf4 ,o4 ,pfleiderer1 ,die ,entstehung des ,christentums1 #aije1 #aji sqq4 #cfi ,luke xxiv4 #cc1 xlix4 #eb2 ,acts i4 #d1 #h1 #ab sqq4 #cgj ,religionsgesch4 ,erklrung d4 ,n4,t41 #bfa4 ,cf4 also ,joel iii4 #a and ,isa4 xxviii4 #aa1 and the ,buddhist account of the first sermon of ,buddha3 ,gods and men streamed up to him1 and all listened breathlessly to the words of the teacher4 ,each of the countless listeners believed that the wise man looked at him and spoke to him in his own language2 though it was the dialect of ,magadha which he spoke4 ,seydel1 ,evangelium von ,jesus1 #bdh2 ,buddha-,legende1 #ib sq4 #cga ,stephen's so-called martyrdom1 whose feast falls on ,december #bfth1 the day after the birth of ,christ1 owes its existence to astrology1 and rests on the constellation of ,corona 7,gr41 ,stephanos71 which becomes visible at this time on the eastern horizon 7,dupuis1 op4 cit41 #bfg74 ,hence the well-known phrase to inherit the martyr's crown4 ,even the theologian ,baur has found it strange that the ,jewish ,sanhedrin1 which could not carry into effect any death sentence without the assent of the ,roman governor1 should completely set aside this formality in the case of ,stephen2 and he has clearly shown how the whole account of ,stephen's martyrdom is paralleled with ,christ's death 7,baur1 ,paulus1 #be sqq474 #cgb ,smith1 op4 cit41 #bc-ca4 #cgc ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 iii4 #aig4 #cgd ,smith1 op4 cit41 #cj sq4 #cge ,as to the small value of ,papias' statement1 cf4 ,gfrrer1 ,die heilige ,sage1 #ahch1 i4 #c-bc2 also ,ltzelberger1 ,die kirchl4 ,tradition ber den ,apostel ,johannes1 #gf-ic4 ,the whole story1 according to which ,mark received the essential content of the ,gospel named after him from ,peter1 is based on #a ,peter v4 #ac1 and merely serves the purpose of increasing the historical value of the ,gospel of ,mark4 ,as the first ,gospel was believed to be the work of the ,apostle ,matthew1 and the second 7,luke7 the work of an assistant of ,paul1 it was very easy to ascribe to the third 7,mark7 at least a similar origin as the second1 i4e41 to trace it back in an analogous way to ,peter2 as it would have seemed natural for the chief of the apostles1 longest dead1 to have had his own ,gospel1 one dedicated to him1 as well as ,paul4 ,the passage #a ,peter v4 #ac1 ,my son ,mark saluteth you1 gave a suitable opportunity for bestowing a name on the book1 7,gfrrer1 op4 cit41 #ae2 cf4 also ,brandt1 ,die evangelische ,geschichte u4 d4 ,ursprung des ,christentums1 #ahic1 #ece sq47 #cgf ,op4 cit41 #eh4 #cgg xv4 #ci4 #cgh #fj4 #cgi ,id4 #chj ,the proper explanation for this should lie in the fact that the ,jesus-faith was set up as a sect-faith and not for outsiders4 #cha #fc sqq4 #chb #fh4 #chc #gj4 #chd #c4 #che ,it strikes the reader1 who stands apart from the controversy1 as comical to find the matter characterised in the theological works on the subject as undoubtedly historical1 distinct historical fact1 true account of history1 and so forth2 and to consider that what holds for one as historically certain is set aside by another as quite certainly unhistorical4 ,where is the famous method of which the critical theologians are so proud in opposition to the laity1 who allow themselves to form judgments as to the historical worth or worthlessness of the ,gospels8 #chf ,wrede1 op4 cit41 #ia4 #chg #ajd4 #chh #abi4 #chi #aca4 #cij #adh4 #cia #adh4 #cib ,cf4 ,pfleiderer1 ,entstehung des ,christentums1 #bjg1 #bac4 ,all estimates as to the time at which the ,gospels were produced rest entirely on suppositions1 in which points of view quite different from that of purely historical interest generally predominate4 ,thus it has been the custom on the ,catholic side to pronounce1 not ,mark or ,luke1 but ,matthew1 to be the oldest source4 ,proofs for this are also given--naturally1 as it is indeed the ,church ,gospel3 it contains the famous passage 7xvi4 #ah1 #ai7 about ,peter's possession of the keys2 how1 then1 should this not be the oldest8 ,and lately ,harnack 7,beitrge zur ,einl4 in das ,n4,t41 iii41 ,die ,apostelgeschichte1 #aijh7 has tried to prove that the ,acts1 with the ,gospel of ,luke1 had been already produced in the early part of the year #fj ,a4,d4 ,but he does not dare to come to a real decision2 and his reasons are opposed by just as weighty ones which are against that possibility suggested by him 7op4 cit41 #bai sqq474 ,such is1 first1 the fact that all the other early ,christian writings which belong to the first century1 as the ,epistle of ,barnabas and the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 evidently know nothing of them4 ,in the ,epistle of ,barnabas1 written about #if ,a4,d41 we read that ,jesus chose as his own apostles1 as men who were to proclaim his ,gospel1 of all men the most evil1 to show that he had come to call1 not the righteous1 but sinners1 to repentance 7iv474 ,as to this ,ltzelberger very justly remarks1 ,that is more even than our ,gospels say4 ,for these are content to prove that ,jesus did not come for the righteous by saying that he ate with publicans and was anointed by women of evil life2 while in this ,epistle even the ,apostles must be most wicked sinners1 so that grace may shine forth to them4 ,this passage was quite certainly written neither by an ,apostle nor by a pupil of an ,apostle2 and also it was not written after our ,gospels1 but at a time when the learned ,masters of the ,church had still a free hand to show their spirit and ingenuity in giving form to the evangelical story 7,die hist4 ,tradition1 #bcf sq474 ,but also the so-called ,epistle of ,clement1 which must have been written at about the same time1 is completely silent as to the ,gospels1 while the ,doctrine of the ,twelve ,apostles1 which perhaps also belongs to the end of the first century1 cites ,christ's words1 such as stand in the ,gospels1 but not as sayings of ,jesus4 ,moreover1 according to ,harnack1 the ,doctrine of the ,twelve ,apostles is the ,christian elaboration of an early ,jewish document2 whence we may conclude that its ,words of ,christ have a similar origin in ,jewish thought to that from which the ,gospels obtained them4 7,cf4 ,ltzelberger1 op4 cit41 #bei-bga47 #cic #ha4 #cid #ga4 #cie #ha sq4 #cif ,id4 #cig ,the laity has1 as is well known1 but a slight suspicion of this4 ,so ,s4 ,e4 ,verus' ,vergleichende bersicht der vier ,evangelien 7#ahig71 with the commentary1 is to be recommended4 #cih #hc4 #cii #hc4 #djj #he sq4 #dja ,jesus u4 d4 neutestamentl4 ,schriftsteller1 ii4 #dc4 ,let us take the final paragraph in ,e4 ,petersen's ,die wunderbare ,geburt des ,heilandes1 which reaches the zenith in proving the mythical nature of the evangelical account of the ,saviour's birth3 ,if1 not because we wish it1 but because we are forced to do so by the necessity of ,history1 we remove the sentence1 ',conceived of the ,holy ,ghost1 born of the ,virgin ,mary'--,jesus nevertheless remains the ',son of ,god4' ,he remains such because he experienced ,god as his father1 and because he stands at ,god's side for us4 ,also1 in spite of our setting aside the miraculous birth as unhistorical1 we are quite justified in declaring ',thou art ,christ1 the ,son of the living ,god4' ,m4 ,brckner speaks similarly at the close of his otherwise excellent work4 ,der sterbende und auferstehende ,gottheiland4 ,for the person to whom such phraseology is not--futile1 there is no help4 #djb ,cf4 ,jesus ,christus1 a course of lectures delivered at the ,university of ,freiburg i4 ,b41 #aijh4 #djc ,schfer1 ,die ,evangelien und die ,evangelienkritik1 #aijh1 #abc4 ,the story of the ,church's development in the first century is a story of shameless literary falsifications1 of rough violence in matters of faith1 of unlimited trial of the credence of the masses4 ,so that for those who know history the iteration of the credibility of the ,christian writers of the age raises at most but an ironical smile4 ,cf4 ,robertson1 ,history of ,christianity1 #aiaj4 #djd ,cf4 ,hochart1 tudes au sujet de la perscution des ,chrtiens sous ,nron1 #ahhe1 cp4 #d4 #dje ,a4 ,kalthoff1 ,das ,christusproblem1 ,grundzge zu einer ,sozialtheologie1 #aijb1 #ad sq4 #djf ,kalthoff1 ,die ,entstehung des ,christentums3 ,neue ,beitrge zum ,christusproblem1 #aijd1 #h4 #djg ,if v4 ,soden 7,hat ,jesus gelebt8 vii4 #de7 has proved wrong the comparison with the ,tell-legend1 and thinks ,i have probably once more forgotten that ,schiller first transformed a very meagre legend1 which was bound up in a single incident1 from grey antiquity into a living picture1 he can know neither ,tschudi nor ,j4 v4 ,mller4 ,cf4 ,hertslet1 ,der ,treppenwitz der ,weltgeschichte1 #f ,aufl41 #aije1 #baf sqq4 #djh ,the passage runs3 ,at this time lived ,jesus1 a wise man1 if he may be called a man1 for he accomplished miracles and was a teacher of men who joyously embrace the truth1 and he found a great following among ,jews and ,greeks4 ,this one was the ,christ4 ,although at the accusation of the leading men of our people ,pilate sentenced him to the cross1 those who had first loved him remained still faithful4 ,for he appeared again to them on the third day1 risen again to a new life1 as the prophets of ,god had foretold of him1 with a thousand other prophecies4 ,after him are called the ,christians1 whose sect has not come to an end4 #dji ,einl4 ins ,n4,t41 #ahcf1 #eha4 #daj ,gesch4 d4 jd4 ,volkes1 i4 #edh4 #daa ,origen1 though he collected all ,josephus' assertions which could serve as support to the ,christian religion1 does not know the passage1 but probably another1 in which the destruction of ,jerusalem was represented as a punishment for ,james' execution1 which is certainly a forgery4 #dab ,cf4 ,kalthoff1 ,entstehung d4 ,chr41 #af sq4 ,as to the whole matter1 ,schrer1 op4 cit41 #edd-edi4 #dac ,v4 ,soden proves the contrary in his work1 ,hat ,jesus gelebt8 7#aiaj71 in order to show the reliability of ,drew's assertions1 from ,clement's letter of #if ,a4,d41 from ,dionysius of ,corinth 7about #agj7 from ,tertullion and ,eusebius 7early fourth century1 not third1 as v4 ,soden writes72 and wishes to persuade his readers that the persecution under ,nero is testified to4 ,the authenticity of the letter of ,clement is1 however1 quite uncertain1 and has been most actively combated1 from its first publication in #afcc till the present day1 by investigators of repute1 such as ,semler1 ,baur1 ,schwegler1 ,volkmar1 ,keim1 c4 ,but as for the above-cited authors1 the unimportance of their assertions on the point is so strikingly exhibited by ,hochart that we have no right to call them up as witnesses for the authenticity of the passage of ,tacitus4 #dad ,cf4 ,hochart1 op4 cit41 #bhj sqq42 ,h4 ,schiller1 ,gesch4 d4 rm4 ,kaiserzeit1 #ddg1 note4 #dae ,consulting the archives has been but little customary among ancient historians2 and ,tacitus has bestowed but little consideration on the ,acta ,diurna and the protocols of the ,senate 7,handb4 d4 klass4 ,altertumsw41 viii41 #b ,abt41 ,aft4 #b1 under ,tacitus74 ,moreover1 the difficulties of the passage from ,tacitus have been fully realised by ,german historians 7,h4 ,schiller1 op4 cit41 #ddi2 ,de4 ,gesch4 d4 rm4 ,kaiserreiches unter der ,regierung des ,nero1 #ahgb1 #dcd sqq41 #ehc sq471 even if they do not generally go as far as to say that the passage is completely unauthentic1 as ,volney did at the end of the eighteenth century 7,ruinen1 ,reclam1 #bgf74 ,cf4 also ,arnold1 ,die neronische ,christenverfolgung4 ,eine historiche ,untersuchung zur ,geschichte d4 ltesten ,kirche1 #ahhh4 ,the author does indeed adhere to the authenticity of the passage in ,tacitus1 but as a matter of fact he presupposes it rather than attempts to prove it2 while in many isolated reflections he gives an opinion against the correctness of the account given by ,tacitus1 and busies himself principally in disproving false inferences connected with that passage1 such as the connection of the ,neronic persecution with the ,book of ,revelation4 ,the conceivable possibility that the persecution actually took place1 but that at all events the sentence of ,tacitus may be a ,christian interpolation1 ,arnold seems never to have considered4 #daf ,op4 cit41 #bbg4 #dag ,kalthoff1 ,christusproblem1 #ag4 #dah ,weinel1 ,jesus im #ai ,jahrhundert1 #aijg1 #fh4 #dai ,babylonisches im ,neuen ,testament1 #aji sq4 #dbj ,zerduscht ,nameh1 ch4 xxvi4 #dba ,gfrrer1 ,jahrhundert des ,heils1 ,part ,,ii41 #chj sqq4 #dbb ,luke iii4 #bc4 #dbc ,numb4 iv4 #c4 #dbd ,matt4 xxi4 #ab sqq4 #dbe ,zech4 xiv4 #ba runs in the ,targum translation3 ,every vessel in ,jerusalem will be consecrated to the ,lord1 c41 and at that time there will no longer be shopkeepers in the ,house of the ,lord4 ,in this there may have been a further inducement for the ,evangelists to state that ,jesus chases the tradesmen from the ,temple4 #dbf #b ,sam4 xvii4 #bc2 cf4 also ,zech4 xi4 #ab sq42 ,psa4 xli4 #aj4 #dbg ,gfrrer1 ,jahr4 d4 ,heils1 ii4 #cah sqq4 #dbh ,cf4 #a ,cor4 x4 #a sq4 #dbi #b ,kings iv4 #ai sqq4 #dcj ,numb4 i4 #dd2 ,jos4 iii4 #ab2 iv4 #a sqq4 ,cf4 ,petrus-legende1 #ea sq4 #dca ,cf4 p4 #abg1 note4 #dcb ,josephus1 ,antiq41 iv4 #h1 #dh2 ,philo1 ,vita ,mos41 iii4 #dcc #b ,kings ii4 #aa4 #dcd ,e4g4 also the account of the arrest of ,jesus 7,matt4 xxvi4 #ea sqq47 cf4 #b ,kings vi4 #aj-bb4 #dce ,matt4 ix4 #aa sq41 xii4 #h sq41 xv4 #a sqq41 #aa and #bj1 xxviii4 #ah4 #dcf ,psa4 cxlvi4 #g4 #dcg ,bereshith ,rabba zu ,gen4 xli4 #a4 #dch ,cf4 esp4 ,acts xi4 #b sqq4 #dci ,matt4 v4 #ag sqq4 #ddj ,id4 viii4 #aa sqq41 x4 #e1 xxiii4 #cd sqq41 xxviii4 #ai sqq4 #dda ,cf4 ,ltzelberger1 ,jesus1 was er war und wollte1 #ahdb1 #af sqq4 #ddb ,cf4 above1 #ei sqq4 #ddc ,it is given as a reason for his appearing first in ,galilee that the ,galileans were first led into exile1 and so should first be comforted1 as all divine action conforms to the law of requital 7,gfrrer1 ,jahr4 d4 ,heils1 #bcj sq4 ,cf4 also ,isa4 viii4 #bc74 #ddd ,cf4 above1 #agc sq4 #dde ,see above1 #aga4 #ddf ,exod4 xvi4 #ag sqq42 ,numb4 xxi4 #a sqq42 ,exod4 vii4 #ag sqq4 #a ,kings xvii4 #e sqq4 #ddg ,hist41 iv4 #ha4 #ddh ,vespasian1 vii4 #ddi lxvi4 #h4 #dej ,isa4 #a4 #f sq4 #dea ,zech4 xii #aj4 #deb ,cf4 ,petruslegende1 #bd4 #dec ,gen4 xxvi4 #f2 cf4 also ,tertullian1 ,adv4 ,jud41 #aj4 #ded ,cf4 for this ,brandt1 ,die ,evangelische ,geschichte1 esp4 #ec sqq4 ,even such a cautious investigator as ,gfrrer confesses that1 after his searching examination of the historical content of the ,synoptics1 he is obliged to close with the sad admission that their testimony does not give sufficient assurance to enable us to pronounce anything they contain to be true1 so far as they are concerned1 with a good historical conscience4 ,in this it is by no means asserted that many may not think their views correct1 but only that we cannot rely on them sufficiently to rest a technically correct proof on them alone4 ,they tell us too many things which are purely legendary1 and too many others which are at least suspicious1 for a prudent historian to feel justified in a construction based on their word alone4 ,this admission may be disagreeable--it is also unpleasant to me--but it is genuine1 and it is demanded by the rules which hold everywhere before a good tribunal1 and in the sphere of history 7,die hl4 ,sage1 #ahch1 ii4 #bdc74 #dee ,this is the case with the corresponding account in ,mark1 while in ,luke the dramatic presentation seems to be more worked away1 and the coherence1 through the introduction of descriptions and episodes 7disciples at ,emmaus7 bears more the character of a simple narrative4 ,cf4 ,robertson1 ,pagan ,christs1 #ahf sqq42 ,a ,short ,history1 #hg sqq4 ,the fact that in almost all representations of this kind both the scene at ,gethsemane and the words spoken by ,jesus usually serve as signs of his personality 7e4g4 also ,bousset's ,jesus--,rel4 ,volksb41 #aijd1 #ef71 shows what we must think of the historical value of the accounts of the life of ,jesus2 especially when we consider that certainly no listeners were there1 and ,jesus cannot himself have told his experience to his disciples1 as the arrest is supposed to have taken place on the spot4 #def ,messiasgeheimnis1 #adc4 #deg ,gen4 xxiv4 #deh ,e4 v4 ,hartmann1 ,das ,christentum des ,neuen ,testaments1 #aije1 #bb4 #dei ,op4 cit4 #dfj ,cf4 ,h4 ,jordan1 ,jesus und die modernen ,jesusbilder1 ,bibl4 ,zeit- u4 ,streitfragen1 #aiji1 #ch4 #dfa ,mark vi4 #a sq4 #dfb ,mark xiii4 #cb4 #dfc ,mark iii4 #bj4 #dfd #a ,kings xix42 cf4 also ,isa4 xlii4 #d4 #dfe ,cf4 ,brandt1 op4 cit41 #eec sq4 #dff ,hertlein treats of these ,bases of ,schmiedel in the ,prot4 ,monatsheften1 #aijf1 #chf sq42 cf4 also ,schmiedel's reply4 #dfg ,op4 cit41 #ada4 #dfh ,bousset agrees with this in his work ,was wissen wir von ,jesus8 7#aija74 ,jesus' speeches are for the most part creations of the communities1 placed together by the community from isolated words of ,jesus4 ,in this1 apart from all the rest1 there was a powerful and decided alteration of the speeches 7#dg sqq474 #dfi ,cf4 ,robertson1 ,christianity and ,mythology1 #dbd sqq41 #dbi4 #dgj ,op4 cit41 #dc4 #dga ,protest4 ,monatshefte1 #aijc1 ,mrzheft4 #dgb ,op4 cit41 #afa sq4 #dgc ,matt4 xviii4 #ae sqq4 #dgd ,id4 xxix4 #c sqq4 #dge ,cf4 ,pfleiderer1 ,urchristentum1 i4 #ddg sq42 van den ,bergh van ,eysinga1 op4 cit41 #eg sqq4 #dgf ,smith1 op4 cit41 #ajg sqq4 #dgg ,cf4 ,nork1 ,rabbinische ,quellen und ,parallelen zu neutestamentlichen ,schriftstellen1 #ahci4 #dgh ,cf4 ,robertson1 ,christianity and ,mythology1 #ddj-deg4 #dgi ,cf4 v4 ,hartmann1 op4 cit41 #aca-adc4 ,it will always be a telling argument against the historical nature of the sayings of ,jesus that ,paul seems to know nothing of them1 that he never refers to them exactly2 and that even up to the beginning of the second century1 with the exception of a few remarks in ,clement and ,polycarp1 the ,apostles and ,fathers in all their admonitions1 consolations1 and reprimands1 never make use of ,jesus' sayings to give greater force to their own words4 #dhj ,v4 ,hartmann1 op4 cit41 #dd sq4 #dha ,let us hear what ,clemen says against this3 ,in its reduction of the ,law to the ,commandment of love1 though this was already prominent in the ,old ,testament 6 and even earlier had here and there 6 been characterised as the chief ,commandment1 ,christianity is completely original 64 ,and for ,jesus the subordination of religious duties to moral was consequent on this1 though in this respect he would have been equally influenced by the prophets of the ,old ,testament 7op4 cit41 #ace sq474 #dhb ,we must 7as regards the moral ideals of ,jesus7 pay just as much attention to what he does not treat of1 to what he set aside1 as to what he clung to1 indeed1 setting it in opposition to all the rest4 ,at least this wonderfully sure selection is ,jesus' own4 ,we may produce analogies for each individual thing1 but the whole is unique and cannot be invented 7v4 ,soden1 op4 cit41 #ea sq474 ,this method1 practised by liberal theology1 of extolling their ,jesus as against all other mortals1 and of raising him up to a uniqueness in the absolute sense1 can make indeed but a small impression on the impartial4 #dhc ,wrede1 ,paulus1 #ia4 #dhd ,we admit that besides the eschatological grounding of his moral demands1 ,jesus also makes use occasionally of expressions that pass beyond the idea of reward4 ,but they are quite isolated--as1 e4g41 ,matt4 v4 #dh1 ,be ye perfect1 even as your ,father in ,heaven is perfect1 a phrase which is1 moreover1 in accord with ,lev4 xi4 #dd and xix4 #c--;and without any fundamental significance4 ,in general1 and in particular even in the ,sermon on the ,mount1 that ,diamond in the ,crown of ,jesus' ethics1 the idea of reward and punishment is prevalent 7,matt4 v4 #ab and #df2 vi4 #a1 #d1 #f1 #ad1 #ah2 v4 #bj2 vi4 #ae2 vii4 #a1 c474 ,views may still differ widely as to whether it is historically correct to estimate1 as ,weinel would like to1 ,jesus' ethics in this connection really by the few sayings which go beyond that idea4 7,cf4 v4 ,hartmann1 op4 cit41 #aaf-abd47 ,the favourite declaration1 however1 is quite unhistorical1 that ,jesus was the first who introduced into the world the principle of active love2 and that the ,stoics1 as ,weinel represents1 only taught the doing away with all our passions1 even that of love2 or indeed that ,jesus1 who wished salvation only to benefit the ,jews1 who forbade his people to walk in the ways of the ,gentiles1 and who hesitated to comply with the ,canaanite woman's prayer1 raised to the highest degree of sincerity the altruistic ideal1 and that in principle he broke down the boundaries between peoples and creeds with his ,love thy enemy1 7,weinel1 op4 cit41 #ee1 #eg74 ,as against this cf4 the following passage from ,seneca3 ,everything which we must do and avoid may be reduced to this short formula of human obligation3 ,we are members of a mighty body4 ,nature has made us kindred1 having produced us from the same stuff and for the same ends4 ,she has implanted in us a mutual love1 and has arranged it socially4 ,she has founded right and equity4 ,because of her commands to do evil is worse than to suffer evil4 ,hands ready to aid are raised at her call4 ,let that verse be in our mouths and our hearts3 ,i am a man1 nothing human do ,i despise6 ,human life consists in well-doing and striving4 ,it will be cemented into a society of general aid not by fear but by mutual love4 ,what is the rightly constituted1 good and high-minded soul1 but a ,god living as a guest in a human body8 ,such a soul may appear just as well in a knight as in a freedman or in a slave4 ,we can soar upwards to heaven from any corner4 ,make this your rule1 to treat the lower classes even as you would wish the higher to treat you4 ,even if we are slaves1 we may yet be free in spirit4 ,the slaves are men1 inferior relatives1 friends2 indeed1 our fellow-slaves in a like submission to the tyranny of fate4 ,a friendship based on virtue exists between the good man and ,god1 yes1 more than a friendship1 a kinship and likeness2 for the good man is really his pupil1 imitator1 and scion1 differing from ,god only because of the continuance of time4 ,him the majestic father brings up1 a little severely1 as is the strict father's wont4 ,god cherishes a fatherly affection towards the good man1 and loves him dearly4 ,if you wish to imitate the gods1 give also to the ungrateful2 for the sun rises even on the ungodly and the seas lie open even to the pirate1 the wind blows not only in favour of the good1 and the rain falls even on the fields of the unjust4 ,if you wish to have the gods well-disposed towards you1 be good3 he has enough1 who honours and who imitates them4 ,cf4 also ,epictetus3 ,dare1 raising your eyes to ,god1 to say1 ,henceforth make use of me to what end thou wilt6 ,i assent1 ,i am thine1 ,i draw back from nothing which thy will intends4 ,lead me whithersoever thou wilt6 ,for ,i hold ,god's will to be better than mine4 7,cf4 also ,matt4 xxvi4 #ci47 #dhe ,kautsky1 ,ursprung des ,christentums1 #ag4 #dhf ,op4 cit41 #c4 #dhg ,how is it conceivable1 even ,pfleiderer asks1 that the new community should have fashioned itself from the chaos of material without some definite fact1 some foundation-giving event which could form the nucleus for the genesis of the new ideas8 ,everywhere in the case of a new historical development the powers and impulses which are present in the crowd are first directed to a definite end and fastened into an organism that can survive by the purpose-giving action of heroic personalities4 ,and so the impulse for the formation of the ,christian community must have come from some definite point1 which1 from the testimony of the ,apostle ,paul and of the earliest ,gospels1 we can only find in the life and death of ,jesus 7,entstehung des ,chr41 #aa74 ,but that the testimony for an historical ,jesus is not testimony1 and that the definite fact1 the foundation-giving event1 is to be looked for1 if anywhere1 in ,paul himself and nowhere else--such is the central point of all this analysis4 #dhh ,op4 cit41 #fa sq4 #dhi ,von ,reimarus bis ,wrede1 #cif4 #dij ii4 #dd4 #dia ,gesch4 ,israels1 ii4 #a sqq4 #dib ,holtzmann1 ,zum ,thema ',jesus und ,paulus' 7,prot4 ,monatsheft1 iv41 #aijj1 #dfe74 #dic ,parerga1 ii4 #ahj4 #did ,neutest4 ,theol4 ii4 #d4 ,cf4 ,r4 ,h4 ,grtzmacher3 ,ist das liberale ,christusbild modern8 ,bibl4 ,zeit- und ,streitfragen1 #ci sq4 #die ,pfleiderer1 ,entstehung d4 ,chr41 #ajh sqq4 #dif ,cf4 ,stendel1 op4 cit41 #bb4 #dig ,von ,reimarus bis ,wrede1 #cac4 #dih ,gal4 i4 #bd4 #dii #a ,cor4 ii4 #a2 #b ,cor4 xix4 #i4 #ejj ,acts i4 #c1 x4 #da4 #eja ,acts i4 #ba sq4 #ejb ,seufert1 ,der ,ursprung und die ,bedeutung des ,apostolates in der christlichen ,kirche der ersten ,jahrhunderte1 #ahhg1 #adc4 ,cf4 also my ,petruslegende1 in which the unhistorical nature of the disciples and apostles is shown1 #ej sqq4 #ejc ,op4 cit41 #db4 #ejd ,cf4 my work ,die ,petruslegende4 #eje ,cf4 ,hausrath1 ,jesus und die neutestamentl4 ,schriftsteller1 ii4 #bjc sqq4 #ejf ,entstehung d4 ,chr41 #bci4 #ejg ,cf4 above1 p4 #ca4 sqq4 #ejh ,cf4 ,arnold ,meyer1 ,was uns ,jesus heute ist4 ,rel4 ,volksb41 #aijg--;a very impressive presentation of the liberal ,protestant point of view2 also ,weinel1 ,jesus im #aiten ,jahrhundert4 #eji ,entstehung d4 ,chr41 #ih sq4 #eaj ,weinel1 indeed1 resolutely denies that this is a real characteristic of liberal ,protestantism1 and asserts that he has looked for it in vain in any liberal theologian's book4 ,but he need only look in ,a4 ,meyer's work1 which is cited by me1 to find my idea confirmed4 ,there it is said of ,jesus inter alia3 ,not only should we move and live in his love1 but we are as he was1 of the faith that this love will overcome the world1 that it is the meaning1 end1 and true content of the world2 that the power which uniformly and omnipotently fills and guides the world1 is nothing but the ,god in whom he believed was ,jesus then a ,pantheist81 and whom he calls his heavenly father4 ,as he believed1 so let us also1 that whoever trusts in this ,god and lives in his love has found the meaning of life and the power which preserves him in time and in eternity4 ,jesus was the founder of our religion1 of our faith1 and of our inner life 7#ca74 ,according to ,meyer1 ,jesus attracts us by his manner1 his ,being1 his love and his faith1 we feel ourselves bound to him1 become kin with him and so live by his strength2 he is called the voice of ,god to us1 our redeemer1 and so forth4 ,those are simply expressions which applied to ,god have at least a valid meaning1 but applied to the historical man ,jesus are nothing but phrases1 and are to be explained purely psychologically from the fact that liberalism in honouring the unique man ,jesus does nevertheless unwittingly allow the belief in his divinity to come into play4 ,in this atmosphere1 obscured with phrases1 the so-called theology of liberal ,protestantism moves4 ,moreover1 ,weinel himself quotes a sentence of ,herrmann with approval1 which also gives expression to the idea that ,jesus is for ,protestant liberalism a kind of demonstration of ,god 7#hj71 and he adds himself3 ,it may indeed be that our conception of the significance of ,jesus has often been expressed unskilfully enough4 ,it may be that in discourses1 lectures1 or other popular ways of speaking something is at times said which may be so clumsily put as to give occasion for such things to be said4 ,indeed1 he himself maintains regarding ,jesus3 ,whoever places the ideal of his life in him1 he experiences ,god in him 7#hd74 ,he also finds that the desire for ,god of the ,jews1 ,greeks1 ,semites1 and ,germans could be stilled in him4 ,taking into account these expressions and the whole tone which it pleases ,herr ,weinel to adopt towards the opponents of his standpoint1 it appears time to remind him once again of ,e4 v4 ,hartmann's ,die ,selbstzersetzung des ,christentums 7it is obvious he has only a third-hand acquaintance with the author whose point of view he calls ,neo-,buddhism1 counting him among the supporters of the morality of pity67 and especially of the chapter on ,die ,irreligiositt des liberalen ,protestantismus4 ,here1 in connection with the lack of metaphysics displayed by liberal ,protestantism 7and admitted even by ,weinel7 and the latter's principle of love1 he says3 ,if we transform the whole of religion into ,ethics and soften down the whole of ,ethics into love1 we thereby renounce everything that is in religion besides love1 and everything which makes love religious4 ,we thereby confess that the impulse of love is raised into religion since religion properly so called has been lost4 ,it is true religion is not a shark1 as the inquisitors thought1 but at the same time it is not a sea-nettle4 ,a shark can at least be terrifying1 a sea-nettle is always feeble4 ,liberal ,protestantism1 as ,hartmann sums it up1 consists of a shapeless1 poor1 shallow metaphysic1 which is concealed as far as possible from critical eyes2 of a worship successfully freed from all mystery1 but one that has become thereby by no means incapable of being objected to2 of an ,ethics forcibly separated from ,metaphysics and on that account irreligious4 ,it rests upon a view of the world which by its worldliness and optimistic contentment with the world is by no means in a position to give birth to a religion1 and which sooner or later will allow the remnants of religious feeling which it brought with it to be smothered in worldly ease4 #eaa ,op4 cit41 #ci4 #eab ,cf4 ,e4 v4 ,hartmann1 ,die ,selbstzersetzung des ,christentums und die ,religion der ,zukunft1 #bnd ed41 #ahgd1 especially chaps4 vi4 and vii4 #eac ,cf4 ,w4 v4 ,schnehen1 ,der moderne ,jesuskultus1 #bnd ed41 #aijf2 also ,naumann vor dem ,bankerott des ,christentums1 #aijg4 #ead ,cf4 my work1 ,die ,religion als ,selbstbewusstsein ,gottes1 #aijf1 #aii sq4 #eae ,cf4 my work1 ,die ,religion als ,selbstbewusstsein ,gottes1 in which the attempt has been made to form a general religious view of the world in the sense mentioned4 #eaf ,cf4 ,der ,monismus1 dargestellt in ,beitrgen seiner ,vertreter1 #b vols41 #aijh4