,the ,quest of the ,historical ,jesus ,a ,critical ,study of its ,progress ,from ,reimarus to ,wrede ,by ,albert ,schweitzer ,privatdocent in ,new ,testament ,studies in the ,university of ,strassburg ,translated ,by ,w4 ,montgomery1 ,b4,a41 ,b4,d4 ,with a ,preface by ,f4 ,c4 ,burkitt1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,d4 ,norrisian ,professor of ,divinity in the ,university of ,cambridge ,second ,english ,edition ,london ,adam and ,charles ,black #aiaa ,,contents ,preface ,i4 ,the ,problem ,,ii4 ,hermann ,samuel ,reimarus ,,iii4 ,the ,lives ,of ,jesus ,of ,the ,earlier ,rationalism ,,iv4 ,the ,earliest ,fictitious ,lives ,of ,jesus ,v4 ,fully ,developed ,rationalism--,paulus ,,vi4 ,the ,last ,phase ,of ,rationalism--,hase ,and ,schleiermacher ,,vii4 ,david ,friedrich ,strauss--,the ,man ,and ,his ,fate ,,viii4 ,strauss's ,first 8,life ,of ,jesus0 ,,ix4 ,strauss's ,opponents ,and ,supporters ,x4 ,the ,marcan ,hypothesis ,,xi4 ,bruno ,bauer4 ,the ,first ,sceptical ,life ,of ,jesus ,,xii4 ,further ,imaginative ,lives ,of ,jesus ,,xiii4 ,renan ,,xiv4 ,the 8,liberal0 ,lives ,of ,jesus ,,xv4 ,the ,eschatological ,question ,,xvi4 ,the ,struggle ,against ,eschatology ,,xvii4 ,questions ,regarding ,the ,aramaic ,language1 ,rabbinic ,parallels1 ,and ,buddhistic ,influence ,,xviii4 ,the ,position ,of ,the ,subject ,at ,the ,close ,of ,the ,nineteenth ,century ,,xix4 ,thoroughgoing ,scepticism ,and ,thoroughgoing ,eschatology ,,xx4 ,results ,index ,of ,authors ,and ,works ,footnotes ,cover ,art ,first ,edition published ,march #aiaj ,,preface ,the book here translated is offered to the ,englishspeaking public in the belief that it sets before them1 as no other book has ever done1 the history of the struggle which the bestequipped intellects of the modern world have gone through in endeavouring to realise for themselves the historical personality of our ,lord4 ,every one nowadays is aware that traditional ,christian doctrine about ,jesus ,christ is encompassed with difficulties1 and that many of the statements in the ,gospels appear incredible in the light of modern views of history and nature4 ,but when the alternative of 8,jesus or ,christ0 is put forward1 as it has been in a recent publication1 or when we are bidden to choose between the ,jesus of history and the ,christ of dogma1 few except professed students know what a protean and kaleidoscopic figure the 8,jesus of history0 is4 ,like the ,christ in the ,apocryphal ,acts of ,john1 ,he has appeared in different forms to different minds4 8,we know ,him right well10 says ,professor ,weinel47#a7 ,what a claim6 ,among the many bold paradoxes enunciated in this history of the ,quest1 there is one that meets us at the outset1 about which a few words may be said here1 if only to encourage those to persevere to the end who might otherwise be repelled halfway--the paradox that the greatest attempts to write a ,life of ,jesus have been written with hate47#b7 ,it is in full accordance with this faith that ,dr4 ,schweitzer gives1 in paragraph after paragraph1 the undiluted expression of the views of men who agree only in their unflinching desire to attain historical truth4 ,we are not accustomed to be so ruthless in ,england4 ,we sometimes tend to forget that the ,gospel has moved the world1 and we think our faith and devotion to it so tender and delicate a thing that it will break1 if it be not handled with the utmost circumspection4 ,so we become dominated by phrases and afraid of them4 ,dr4 ,schweitzer is not afraid of phrases1 if only they have been beaten out by real contact with facts4 ,and those who read to the end will see that the crude sarcasm of ,reimarus and the unflinching scepticism of ,bruno ,bauer are not introduced merely to shock and by way of contrast4 ,each in his own way made a real contribution to our understanding of the greatest historical problem in the history of our race4 ,we see now that the object of attack was not the historical ,jesus after all1 but a temporary idea of ,him1 inadequate because it did not truly represent ,him or the world in which ,he lived4 ,and by hearing the writers' characteristic phrases1 uncompromising as they may be1 by looking at things for a moment from their own point of view1 different as it may be from ours1 we are able to be more just1 not only to these men of a past age1 but also to the great ,problem that occupied them1 as it also occupies us4 ,for1 as ,father ,tyrrell has been pointing out in his last most impressive message to us all1 ,christianity is at the ,cross ,roads4 ,if the ,figure of our ,lord is to mean anything for us we must realise it for ourselves4 ,most ,english readers of the ,new ,testament have been too long content with the rough and ready ,harmony of the ,four ,gospels that they unconsciously construct4 ,this kind of 8,harmony0 is not a very convincing picture when looked into1 if only because it almost always conflicts with inconvenient statements of the ,gospels themselves1 statements that have been omitted from the 8,harmony01 not on any reasoned theory1 but simply from inadvertence or the difficulty of fitting them in4 ,we treat the ,life of our ,lord too much as it is treated in the ,liturgical 8,gospels01 as a simple series of disconnected anecdotes4 ,dr4 ,schweitzer's book does not pretend to be an impartial survey4 ,he has his own solution of the problems1 and it is not to be expected that ,english students will endorse the whole of his view of the ,gospel ,history1 any more than his ,german fellowworkers have done4 ,but valuable and suggestive as ,i believe his constructive work to be in its main outlines1 ,i venture to think his grasp of the nature and complexity of the great ,quest is even more remarkable1 and his exposition of it cannot fail to stimulate us in ,england4 ,whatever we may think of ,dr4 ,schweitzer's solution or that of his opponents1 we too have to reckon with the ,son of ,man who was expected to come before the apostles had gone over the cities of ,israel1 the ,son of ,man who would come in ,his ,kingdom before some that heard our ,lord speak should taste death1 the ,son of ,man who came to give ,his life a ransom for many1 whom they would see hereafter coming with the clouds of heaven4 8,who is this ,son of ,man80 ,dr4 ,schweitzer's book is an attempt to give the full historical value and the true historical setting to these fundamental words of the ,gospel of ,jesus4 ,our first duty1 with the ,gospel as with every other ancient document1 is to interpret it with reference to its own time4 ,the true view of the ,gospel will be that which explains the course of events in the first century and the second century1 rather than that which seems to have spiritual and imaginative value for the twentieth century4 ,yet ,i cannot refrain from pointing out here one feature of the theory of thoroughgoing eschatology1 which may appeal to those who are accustomed to the venerable forms of ancient ,christian aspiration and worship4 ,it may well be that absolute truth cannot be embodied in human thought and that its expression must always be clothed in symbols4 ,it may be that we have to translate the hopes and fears of our spiritual ancestors into the language of our new world4 ,we have to learn1 as the ,church in the second century had to learn1 that the ,end is not yet1 that ,new ,jerusalem1 like all other objects of sense1 is an image of the truth rather than the truth itself4 ,but at least we are beginning to see that the apocalyptic vision1 the ,new ,age which ,god is to bring in1 is no mere embroidery of ,christianity1 but the heart of its enthusiasm4 ,and therefore the expectations of vindication and judgment to come1 the imagery of the ,messianic ,feast1 the 8other worldliness0 against which so many eloquent words were said in the nineteenth century1 are not to be regarded as regrettable accretions foisted on by superstition to the pure morality of the original ,gospel4 ,these ideas are the ,christian ,hope1 to be allegorised and 8spiritualised0 by us for our own use whenever necessary1 but not to be given up so long as we remain ,christians at all4 ,books which teach us boldly to trust the evidence of our documents1 and to accept the eschatology of the ,christian ,gospel as being historically the eschatology of ,jesus1 help us at the same time to retain a real meaning and use for the ancient phrases of the ,te ,deum1 and for the mediaeval strain of 8,jerusalem the ,golden40 ,f4 ,c4 ,burkitt4 ,cambridge1 #aiaj4 ,i4 ,,the ,,problem ,when1 at some future day1 our period of civilisation shall lie1 closed and completed1 before the eyes of later generations1 ,german theology will stand out as a great1 a unique phenomenon in the mental and spiritual life of our time4 ,for nowhere save in the ,german temperament can there be found in the same perfection the living complex of conditions and factors--of philosophic thought1 critical acumen1 historical insight1 and religious feeling--without which no deep theology is possible4 ,and the greatest achievement of ,german theology is the critical investigation of the life of ,jesus4 ,what it has accomplished here has laid down the conditions and determined the course of the religious thinking of the future4 ,in the history of doctrine its work has been negative2 it has1 so to speak1 cleared the site for a new edifice of religious thought4 ,in describing how the ideas of ,jesus were taken possession of by the ,greek spirit1 it was tracing the growth of that which must necessarily become strange to us1 and1 as a matter of fact1 has become strange to us4 ,of its efforts to create a new dogmatic we scarcely need to have the history written2 it is alive within us4 ,it is no doubt interesting to trace how modern thoughts have found their way into the ancient dogmatic system1 there to combine with eternal ideas to form new constructions2 it is interesting to penetrate into the mind of the thinker in which this process is at work2 but the real truth of that which here meets us as history we experience within ourselves4 ,as in the monad of ,leibnitz the whole universe is reflected1 so we intuitively experience within us1 even apart from any clear historical knowledge1 the successive stages of the progress of modern dogma1 from rationalism to ,ritschl4 ,this experience is true knowledge1 all the truer because we are conscious of the whole as something indefinite1 a slow and difficult movement towards a goal which is still shrouded in obscurity4 ,we have not yet arrived at any reconciliation between history and modern thought--only between halfway history and halfway thought4 ,what the ultimate goal towards which we are moving will be1 what this something is which shall bring new life and new regulative principles to coming centuries1 we do not know4 ,we can only dimly divine that it will be the mighty deed of some mighty original genius1 whose truth and rightness will be proved by the fact that we1 working at our poor half thing1 will oppose him might and main--we who imagine we long for nothing more eagerly than a genius powerful enough to open up with authority a new path for the world1 seeing that we cannot succeed in moving it forward along the track which we have so laboriously prepared4 ,for this reason the history of the critical study of the life of ,jesus is of higher intrinsic value than the history of the study of ancient dogma or of the attempts to create a new one4 ,it has to describe the most tremendous thing which the religious consciousness has ever dared and done4 ,in the study of the history of dogma ,german theology settled its account with the past2 in its attempt to create a new dogmatic1 it was endeavouring to keep a place for the religious life in the thought of the present2 in the study of the life of ,jesus it was working for the future--in pure faith in the truth1 not seeing whereunto it wrought4 ,moreover1 we are here dealing with the most vital thing in the world's history4 ,there came a ,man to rule over the world2 ,he ruled it for good and for ill1 as history testifies2 ,he destroyed the world into which ,he was born2 the spiritual life of our own time seems like to perish at ,his hands1 for ,he leads to battle against our thought a host of dead ideas1 a ghostly army upon which death has no power1 and ,himself destroys again the truth and goodness which ,his ,spirit creates in us1 so that it cannot rule the world4 ,that ,he continues1 notwithstanding1 to reign as the alone ,great and alone ,true in a world of which ,he denied the continuance1 is the prime example of that antithesis between spiritual and natural truth which underlies all life and all events1 and in ,him emerges into the field of history4 ,it is only at first sight that the absolute indifference of early ,christianity towards the life of the historical ,jesus is disconcerting4 ,when ,paul1 representing those who recognise the signs of the times1 did not desire to know ,christ after the flesh1 that was the first expression of the impulse of selfpreservation by which ,christianity continued to be guided for centuries4 ,it felt that with the introduction of the historic ,jesus into its faith1 there would arise something new1 something which had not been foreseen in the thoughts of the ,master ,himself1 and that thereby a contradiction would be brought to light1 the solution of which would constitute one of the great problems of the world4 ,primitive ,christianity was therefore right to live wholly in the future with the ,christ who was to come1 and to preserve of the historic ,jesus only detached sayings1 a few miracles1 ,his death and resurrection4 ,by abolishing both the world and the historical ,jesus it escaped the inner division described above1 and remained consistent in its point of view4 ,we1 on our part1 have reason to be grateful to the early ,christians that1 in consequence of this attitude they have handed down to us1 not biographies of ,jesus but only ,gospels1 and that therefore we possess the ,idea and the ,person with the minimum of historical and contemporary limitations4 ,but the world continued to exist1 and its continuance brought this one sided view to an end4 ,the supramundane ,christ and the historical ,jesus of ,nazareth had to be brought together into a single personality at once historical and raised above time4 ,that was accomplished by ,gnosticism and the ,logos ,christology4 ,both1 from opposite standpoints1 because they were seeking the same goal1 agreed in sublimating the historical ,jesus into the supramundane ,idea4 ,the result of this development1 which followed on the discrediting of eschatology1 was that the historical ,jesus was again introduced into the field of view of ,christianity1 but in such a way that all justification for1 and interest in1 the investigation of ,his life and historical personality were done away with4 ,greek theology was as indifferent in regard to the historical ,jesus who lives concealed in the ,gospels as was the early eschatological theology4 ,more than that1 it was dangerous to ,him2 for it created a new supernaturalhistorical ,gospel1 and we may consider it fortunate that the ,synoptics were already so firmly established that the ,fourth ,gospel could not oust them2 instead1 the ,church1 as though from the inner necessity of the antitheses which now began to be a constructive element in her thought1 was obliged to set up two antithetic ,gospels alongside of one another4 ,when at ,chalcedon the ,west overcame the ,east1 its doctrine of the two natures dissolved the unity of the ,person1 and thereby cut off the last possibility of a return to the historical ,jesus4 ,the selfcontradiction was elevated into a law4 ,but the ,manhood was so far admitted as to preserve1 in appearance1 the rights of history4 ,thus by a deception the formula kept the ,life prisoner and prevented the leading spirits of the ,reformation from grasping the idea of a return to the historical ,jesus4 ,this dogma had first to be shattered before men could once more go out in quest of the historical ,jesus1 before they could even grasp the thought of ,his existence4 ,that the historic ,jesus is something different from the ,jesus ,christ of the doctrine of the ,two ,natures seems to us now self evident4 ,we can1 at the present day1 scarcely imagine the long agony in which the historical view of the life of ,jesus came to birth4 ,and even when ,he was once more recalled to life1 ,he was still1 like ,lazarus of old1 bound hand and foot with graveclothes--the graveclothes of the dogma of the ,dual ,nature4 ,hase relates1 in the preface to his first ,life of ,jesus 7#ahbi71 that a worthy old gentleman1 hearing of his project1 advised him to treat in the first part of the human1 in the second of the divine ,nature4 ,there was a fine simplicity about that4 ,but does not the simplicity cover a presentiment of the revolution of thought for which the historical method of study was preparing the way--a presentiment which those who were engaged in the work did not share in the same measure8 ,it was fortunate that they did not2 for otherwise how could they have had the courage to go on8 ,the historical investigation of the life of ,jesus did not take its rise from a purely historical interest2 it turned to the ,jesus of history as an ally in the struggle against the tyranny of dogma4 ,afterwards when it was freed from this it sought to present the historic ,jesus in a form intelligible to its own time4 ,for ,bahrdt and ,venturini ,he was the tool of a secret order4 ,they wrote under the impression of the immense influence exercised by the ,order of the ,illuminati7#c7 at the end of the eighteenth century4 ,for ,reinhard1 ,hess1 ,paulus1 and the rest of the rationalistic writers ,he is the admirable revealer of true virtue1 which is coincident with right reason4 ,thus each successive epoch of theology found its own thoughts in ,jesus2 that was1 indeed1 the only way in which it could make ,him live4 ,but it was not only each epoch that found its reflection in ,jesus2 each individual created ,him in accordance with his own character4 ,there is no historical task which so reveals a man's true self as the writing of a ,life of ,jesus4 ,no vital force comes into the figure unless a man breathes into it all the hate or all the love of which he is capable4 ,the stronger the love1 or the stronger the hate1 the more lifelike is the figure which is produced4 ,for hate as well as love can write a ,life of ,jesus1 and the greatest of them are written with hate3 that of ,reimarus1 the ,wolfenbttel ,fragmentist1 and that of ,david ,friedrich ,strauss4 ,it was not so much hate of the ,person of ,jesus as of the supernatural nimbus with which it was so easy to surround ,him1 and with which ,he had in fact been surrounded4 ,they were eager to picture ,him as truly and purely human1 to strip from ,him the robes of splendour with which ,he had been apparelled1 and clothe ,him once more with the coarse garments in which ,he had walked in ,galilee4 ,and their hate sharpened their historical insight4 ,they advanced the study of the subject more than all the others put together4 ,but for the offence which they gave1 the science of historical theology would not have stood where it does today4 8,it must needs be that offences come2 but woe to that man by whom the offence cometh40 ,reimarus evaded that woe by keeping the offence to himself and preserving silence during his lifetime--his work1 8,the ,aims of ,jesus and ,his ,disciples10 was only published after his death1 by ,lessing4 ,but in the case of ,strauss1 who1 as a young man of twentyseven1 cast the offence openly in the face of the world1 the woe fulfilled itself4 ,his 8,life of ,jesus0 was his ruin4 ,but he did not cease to be proud of it in spite of all the misfortune that it brought him4 8,i might well bear a grudge against my book10 he writes twentyfive years later in the preface to the 8,conversations of ,ulrich von ,hutten107#d7 8for it has done me much evil 7#8,and rightly so6' the pious will exclaim74 ,it has excluded me from public teaching in which ,i took pleasure and for which ,i had perhaps some talent2 it has torn me from natural relationships and driven me into unnatural ones2 it has made my life a lonely one4 ,and yet when ,i consider what it would have meant if ,i had refused to utter the word which lay upon my soul1 if ,i had suppressed the doubts which were at work in my mind--then ,i bless the book which has doubtless done me grievous harm outwardly1 but which preserved the inward health of my mind and heart1 and1 ,i doubt not1 has done the same for many others also40 ,before him1 ,bahrdt had his career broken in consequence of revealing his beliefs concerning the ,life of ,jesus2 and after him1 ,bruno ,bauer4 ,it was easy for them1 resolved as they were to open the way even with seeming blasphemy4 ,but the others1 those who tried to bring ,jesus to life at the call of love1 found it a cruel task to be honest4 ,the critical study of the life of ,jesus has been for theology a school of honesty4 ,the world had never seen before1 and will never see again1 a struggle for truth so full of pain and renunciation as that of which the ,lives of ,jesus of the last hundred years contain the cryptic record4 ,one must read the successive ,lives of ,jesus with which ,hase followed the course of the study from the 'twenties to the 'seventies of the nineteenth century to get an inkling of what it must have cost the men who lived through that decisive period really to maintain that 8courageous freedom of investigation0 which the great ,jena professor1 in the preface to his first ,life of ,jesus1 claims for his researches4 ,one sees in him the marks of the struggle with which he gives up1 bit by bit1 things which1 when he wrote that preface1 he never dreamed he would have to surrender4 ,it was fortunate for these men that their sympathies sometimes obscured their critical vision1 so that1 without becoming insincere1 they were able to take white clouds for distant mountains4 ,that was the kindly fate of ,hase and ,beyschlag4 ,the personal character of the study is not only due1 however1 to the fact that a personality can only be awakened to life by the touch of a personality2 it lies in the essential nature of the problem itself4 ,for the problem of the life of ,jesus has no analogue in the field of history4 ,no historical school has ever laid down canons for the investigation of this problem1 no professional historian has ever lent his aid to theology in dealing with it4 ,every ordinary method of historical investigation proves inadequate to the complexity of the conditions4 ,the standards of ordinary historical science are here inadequate1 its methods not immediately applicable4 ,the historical study of the life of ,jesus has had to create its own methods for itself4 ,in the constant succession of unsuccessful attempts1 five or six problems have emerged side by side which together constitute the fundamental problem4 ,there is1 however1 no direct method of solving the problem in its complexity2 all that can be done is to experiment continuously1 starting from definite assumptions2 and in this experimentation the guiding principle must ultimately rest upon historical intuition4 ,the cause of this lies in the nature of the sources of the life of ,jesus1 and in the character of our knowledge of the contemporary religious world of thought4 ,it is not that the sources are in themselves bad4 ,when we have once made up our minds that we have not the materials for a complete ,life of ,jesus1 but only for a picture of ,his public ministry1 it must be admitted that there are few characters of antiquity about whom we possess so much indubitably historical information1 of whom we have so many authentic discourses4 ,the position is much more favourable1 for instance1 than in the case of ,socrates2 for he is pictured to us by literary men who exercised their creative ability upon the portrait4 ,jesus stands much more immediately before us1 because ,he was depicted by simple ,christians without literary gift4 ,but at this point there arises a twofold difficulty4 ,there is first the fact that what has just been said applies only to the first three ,gospels1 while the fourth1 as regards its character1 historical data1 and discourse material1 forms a world of its own4 ,it is written from the ,greek standpoint1 while the first three are written from the ,jewish4 ,and even if one could get over this1 and regard1 as has often been done1 the ,synoptics and the ,fourth ,gospel as standing in something of the same relation to one another as ,xenophon does to ,plato as sources for the life of ,socrates1 yet the complete irreconcilability of the historical data would compel the critical investigator to decide from the first in favour of one source or the other4 ,once more it is found true that 8,no man can serve two masters40 ,this stringent dilemma was not recognised from the beginning2 its emergence is one of the results of the whole course of experiment4 ,the second difficulty regarding the sources is the want of any thread of connexion in the material which they offer us4 ,while the ,synoptics are only collections of anecdotes 7in the best1 historical sense of the word71 the ,gospel of ,john--as stands on record in its closing words--only professes to give a selection of the events and discourses4 ,from these materials we can only get a ,life of ,jesus with yawning gaps4 ,how are these gaps to be filled8 ,at the worst with phrases1 at the best with historical imagination4 ,there is really no other means of arriving at the order and inner connexion of the facts of the life of ,jesus than the making and testing of hypotheses4 ,if the tradition preserved by the ,synoptists really includes all that happened during the time that ,jesus was with ,his disciples1 the attempt to discover the connexion must succeed sooner or later4 ,it becomes more and more clear that this presupposition is indispensable to the investigation4 ,if it is merely a fortuitous series of episodes that the ,evangelists have handed down to us1 we may give up the attempt to arrive at a critical reconstruction of the life of ,jesus as hopeless4 ,but it is not only the events which lack historical connexion2 we are without any indication of a thread of connexion in the actions and discourses of ,jesus1 because the sources give no hint of the character of ,his selfconsciousness4 ,they confine themselves to outward facts4 ,we only begin to understand these historically when we can mentally place them in an intelligible connexion and conceive them as the acts of a clearly defined personality4 ,all that we know of the development of ,jesus and of ,his ,messianic selfconsciousness has been arrived at by a series of working hypotheses4 ,our conclusions can only be considered valid so long as they are not found incompatible with the recorded facts as a whole4 ,it may be maintained by the aid of arguments drawn from the sources that the selfconsciousness of ,jesus underwent a development during the course of ,his public ministry2 it may1 with equally good grounds1 be denied4 ,for in both cases the arguments are based upon little details in the narrative in regard to which we do not know whether they are purely accidental1 or whether they belong to the essence of the facts4 ,in each case1 moreover1 the experimental working out of the hypothesis leads to a conclusion which compels the rejection of some of the actual data of the sources4 ,each view equally involves a violent treatment of the text4 ,furthermore1 the sources exhibit1 each within itself1 a striking contradiction4 ,they assert that ,jesus felt ,himself to be the ,messiah2 and yet from their presentation of ,his life it does not appear that ,he ever publicly claimed to be so4 ,they attribute to ,him1 that is1 an attitude which has absolutely no connexion with the consciousness which they assume that ,he possessed4 ,but once admit that the outward acts are not the natural expression of the selfconsciousness and all exact historical knowledge is at an end2 we have to do with an isolated fact which is not referable to any law4 ,this being so1 the only way of arriving at a conclusion of any value is to experiment1 to test1 by working them out1 the two hypotheses--that ,jesus felt ,himself to be the ,messiah1 as the sources assert1 or that ,he did not feel ,himself to be so1 as ,his conduct implies2 or else to try to conjecture what kind of ,messianic consciousness ,his must have been1 if it left ,his conduct and ,his discourses unaffected4 ,for one thing is certain3 the whole account of the last days at ,jerusalem would be unintelligible1 if we had to suppose that the mass of the people had a shadow of a suspicion that ,jesus held ,himself to be the ,messiah4 ,again1 whereas in general a personality is to some extent defined by the world of thought which it shares with its contemporaries1 in the case of ,jesus this source of information is as unsatisfactory as the documents4 ,what was the nature of the contemporary ,jewish world of thought8 ,to that question no clear answer can be given4 ,we do not know whether the expectation of the ,messiah was generally current or whether it was the faith of a mere sect4 ,with the ,mosaic religion as such it had nothing to do4 ,there was no organic connexion between the religion of legal observance and the future hope4 ,further1 if the eschatological hope was generally current1 was it the prophetic or the apocalyptic form of that hope8 ,we know the ,messianic expectations of the prophets2 we know the apocalyptic picture as drawn by ,daniel1 and1 following him1 by ,enoch and the ,psalms of ,solomon before the coming of ,jesus1 and by the ,apocalypses of ,ezra and ,baruch about the time of the destruction of ,jerusalem4 ,but we do not know which was the popular form2 nor1 supposing that both were combined into one picture1 what this picture really looked like4 ,we know only the form of eschatology which meets us in the ,gospels and in the ,pauline epistles2 that is to say1 the form which it took in the ,christian community in consequence of the coming of ,jesus4 ,and to combine these three--the prophetic1 the ,late,jewish apocalyptic1 and the ,christian--has not proved possible4 ,even supposing we could obtain more exact information regarding the popular ,messianic expectations at the time of ,jesus1 we should still not know what form they assumed in the selfconsciousness of ,one who knew ,himself to be the ,messiah but held that the time was not yet come for ,him to reveal ,himself as such4 ,we only know their aspect from without1 as a waiting for the ,messiah and the ,messianic ,age2 we have no clue to their aspect from within as factors in the ,messianic selfconsciousness4 ,we possess no psychology of the ,messiah4 ,the ,evangelists have nothing to tell us about it1 because ,jesus told them nothing about it2 the sources for the contemporary spiritual life inform us only concerning the eschatological expectation4 ,for the form of the ,messianic selfconsciousness of ,jesus we have to fall back upon conjecture4 ,such is the character of the problem1 and1 as a consequence1 historical experiment must here take the place of historical research4 ,that being so1 it is easy to understand that to take a survey of the study of the life of ,jesus is to be confronted1 at first sight1 with a scene of the most boundless confusion4 ,a series of experiments are repeated with constantly varying modifications suggested by the results furnished by the subsidiary sciences4 ,most of the writers1 however1 have no suspicion that they are merely repeating an experiment which has often been made before4 ,some of them discover this in the course of their work to their own great astonishment--it is so1 for instance1 with ,wrede1 who recognises that he is working out1 though doubtless with a clearer consciousness of his aim1 an idea of ,bruno ,bauer's47#e7 ,if old ,reimarus were to come back again1 he might confidently give himself out to be the latest of the moderns1 for his work rests upon a recognition of the exclusive importance of eschatology1 such as only recurs again in ,johannes ,weiss4 ,progress1 too1 is curiously fitful1 with long intervals of marking time between the advances4 ,from ,strauss down to the 'nineties there was no real progress1 if one takes into consideration only the complete ,lives of ,jesus which appeared4 ,but a number of separate problems took a more clearly defined form1 so that in the end the general problem suddenly moved forward1 as it seemed1 with a jerk4 ,there is really no common standard by which to judge the works with which we have to do4 ,it is not the most orderly narratives1 those which weave in conscientiously every detail of the text1 which have advanced the study of the subject1 but precisely the eccentric ones1 those that take the greatest liberties with the text4 ,it is not by the mass of facts that a writer sets down alongside of one another as possible--because he writes easily and there is no one there to contradict him1 and because facts on paper do not come into collision so sharply as they do in reality--it is not in that way that he shows his power of reconstructing history1 but by that which he recognises as impossible4 ,the constructions of ,reimarus and ,bruno ,bauer have no solidity2 they are mere products of the imagination4 ,but there is much more historical power in their clear grasp of a single definite problem1 which has blinded them to all else1 than there is in the circumstantial works of ,beyschlag and ,bernard ,weiss4 ,but once one has accustomed oneself to look for certain definite landmarks amid this apparent welter of confusion one begins at last to discover in vague outline the course followed1 and the progress made1 by the critical study of the life of ,jesus4 ,it falls1 immediately1 into two periods1 that before ,strauss and that after ,strauss4 ,the dominant interest in the first is the question of miracle4 ,what terms are possible between a historical treatment and the acceptance of supernatural events8 ,with the advent of ,strauss this problem found a solution1 viz41 that these events have no rightful place in the history1 but are simply mythical elements in the sources4 ,the way was thus thrown open4 ,meanwhile1 alongside of the problem of the supernatural1 other problems had been dimly apprehended4 ,reimarus had drawn attention to the contemporary eschatological views2 ,hase1 in his first ,life of ,jesus 7#ahbi71 had sought to trace a development in the selfconsciousness of ,jesus4 ,but on this point a clear view was impossible1 because all the students of the subject were still basing their operations upon the harmony of the ,synoptics and the ,fourth ,gospel2 which means that they had not so far felt the need of a historically intelligible outline of the life of ,jesus4 ,here1 too1 ,strauss was the lightbringer4 ,but the transient illumination was destined to be obscured by the ,marcan hypothesis17#f7 which now came to the front4 ,the necessity of choosing between ,john and the ,synoptists was first fully established by the ,tbingen school2 and the right relation of this question to the ,marcan hypothesis was subsequently shown by ,holtzmann4 ,while these discussions of the preliminary literary questions were in progress the main historical problem of the life of ,jesus was slowly rising into view4 ,the question began to be mooted3 what was the significance of eschatology for the mind of ,jesus8 ,with this problem was associated1 in virtue of an inner connexion which was not at first suspected1 the problem of the selfconsciousness of ,jesus4 ,at the beginning of the 'nineties it was generally felt that1 in the solution given to this dual problem1 an in some measure assured knowledge of the outward and inward course of the life of ,jesus had been reached4 ,at this point ,johannes ,weiss revived the comprehensive claim of ,reimarus on behalf of eschatology2 and scarcely had criticism adjusted its attitude to this question when ,wrede renewed the attempt of ,bauer and ,volkmar to eliminate altogether the ,messianic element from the life of ,jesus4 ,we are now once more in the midst of a period of great activity in the study of the subject4 ,on the one side we are offered a historical solution1 on the other a literary4 ,the question at issue is3 ,is it possible to explain the contradiction between the ,messianic consciousness of ,jesus and ,his non,messianic discourses and actions by means of a conception of ,his ,messianic consciousness which will make it appear that ,he could not have acted otherwise than as the ,evangelists describe2 or must we endeavour to explain the contradiction by taking the non,messianic discourses and actions as our fixed point1 denying the reality of ,his ,messianic selfconsciousness and regarding it as a later interpolation of the beliefs of the ,christian community into the life of ,jesus8 ,in the latter case the ,evangelists are supposed to have attributed these ,messianic claims to ,jesus because the early ,church held ,him to be the ,messiah1 but to have contradicted themselves by describing ,his life as it actually was1 viz41 as the life of a prophet1 not of one who held ,himself to be the ,messiah4 ,to put it briefly3 ,does the difficulty of explaining the historical personality of ,jesus lie in the history itself1 or only in the way in which it is represented in the sources8 ,this alternative will be discussed in all the critical studies of the next few years4 ,once clearly posed it compels a decision4 ,but no one can really understand the problem who has not a clear notion of the way in which it has shaped itself in the course of the investigation2 no one can justly criticise1 or appraise the value of1 new contributions to the study of this subject unless he knows in what forms they have been presented before4 ,the history of the study of the life of ,jesus has hitherto received surprisingly little attention4 ,hase1 in his ,life of ,jesus of #ahbi1 briefly records the previous attempts to deal with the subject4 ,friedrich von ,ammon1 himself one of the most distinguished students in this department1 in his 8,progress of ,christianity107#g7 gives some information 8regarding the most notable biographies of ,jesus of the last fifty years40 ,in the year #ahfe ,uhlhorn treated together the ,lives of ,jesus of ,renan1 ,schenkel1 and ,strauss2 in #ahgf ,hase1 in his 8,history of ,jesus10 gave the only complete literary history of the subject27#h7 in #ahib ,uhlhorn extended his former lecture to include the works of ,keim1 ,delff1 ,beyschlag1 and ,weiss27#i7 in #ahih ,frantzen described1 in a short essay1 the progress of the study since ,strauss27#aj7 in #ahii and #aijj ,baldensperger gave1 in the ,theologische ,rundschau1 a survey of the most recent publications27#aa7 ,weinel's book1 8,jesus in the ,nineteenth ,century10 naturally only gives an analysis of a few classical works2 ,otto ,schmiedel's lecture on the 8,main ,problems of the ,critical ,study of the ,life of ,jesus0 7#aijb7 merely sketches the history of the subject in broad outline47#ab7 ,apart from scattered notices in histories of theology this is practically all the literature of the subject4 ,there is room for an attempt to bring order into the chaos of the ,lives of ,jesus4 ,hase made ingenious comparisons between them1 but he was unable to group them according to inner principles1 or to judge them justly4 ,weisse is for him a feebler descendant of ,strauss1 ,bruno ,bauer is the victim of a fantastic imagination4 ,it would indeed have been difficult for ,hase to discover in the works of his time any principle of division4 ,but now1 when the literary and eschatological methods of solution have led to complementary results1 when the post,straussian period of investigation seems to have reached a provisional close1 and the goal to which it has been tending has become clear1 the time seems ripe for the attempt to trace genetically in the successive works the shaping of the problem as it now confronts us1 and to give a systematic historical account of the critical study of the life of ,jesus4 ,our endeavour will be to furnish a graphic description of all the attempts to deal with the subject2 and not to dismiss them with stock phrases or traditional labels1 but to show clearly what they really did to advance the formulation of the problem1 whether their contemporaries recognised it or not4 ,in accordance with this principle many famous ,lives of ,jesus which have prolonged an honoured existence through many successive editions1 will make but a poor figure1 while others1 which have received scant notice1 will appear great4 ,behind ,success comes ,truth1 and her reward is with her4 ,,ii4 ,,hermann ,,samuel ,,reimarus 8,von dem ,zwecke ,jesu und seiner ,jnger40 ,noch ein ,fragment des ,wolfenbttelschen ,ungenannten4 ,herausgegeben von ,gotthold ,ephraim ,lessing4 ,braunschweig1 #aggh1 #bgf pp4 7,the ,aims of ,jesus and ,his ,disciples4 ,a further ,instalment of the anonymous ,wolfenbttel ,fragments4 ,published by ,gotthold ,ephraim ,lessing4 ,brunswick1 #aggh47 ,johann ,salomo ,semler4 ,beantwortung der ,fragmente eines ,ungenannten insbesondere vom ,zwecke ,jesu und seiner ,jnger4 7,reply to the anonymous ,fragments1 especially to that entitled 8,the ,aims of ,jesus and ,his ,disciples407 ,halle1 #aggi1 #dcb pp4 ,before ,reimarus1 no one had attempted to form a historical conception of the life of ,jesus4 ,luther had not so much as felt that he cared to gain a clear idea of the order of the recorded events4 ,speaking of the chronology of the cleansing of the ,temple1 which in ,john falls at the beginning1 in the ,synoptists near the close1 of ,jesus' public life1 he remarks3 8,the ,gospels follow no order in recording the acts and miracles of ,jesus1 and the matter is not1 after all1 of much importance4 ,if a difficulty arises in regard to the ,holy ,scripture and we cannot solve it1 we must just let it alone40 ,when the ,lutheran theologians began to consider the question of harmonising the events1 things were still worse4 ,osiander 7#adihaeeb71 in his 8,harmony of the ,gospels10 maintained the principle that if an event is recorded more than once in the ,gospels1 in different connexions1 it happened more than once and in different connexions4 ,the daughter of ,jairus was therefore raised from the dead several times2 on one occasion ,jesus allowed the devils whom ,he cast out of a single demoniac to enter into a herd of swine1 on another occasion1 those whom ,he cast out of two demoniacs2 there were two cleansings of the ,temple1 and so forth47#ac7 ,the correct view of the ,synoptic ,gospels as being interdependent was first formulated by ,griesbach4 ,the only ,life of ,jesus written prior to the time of ,reimarus which has any interest for us1 was composed by a ,jesuit in the ,persian language4 ,the author was the ,indian missionary ,hieronymus ,xavier1 nephew of ,francis ,xavier1 and it was designed for the use of ,akbar1 the ,moghul ,emperor1 who1 in the latter part of the sixteenth century1 had become the most powerful potentate in ,hindustan4 ,in the seventeenth century the ,persian text was brought to ,europe by a merchant1 and was translated into ,latin by ,louis de ,dieu1 a theologian of the ,reformed ,church1 whose intention in publishing it was to discredit ,catholicism47#ad7 ,it is a skilful falsification of the life of ,jesus in which the omissions1 and the additions taken from the ,apocrypha1 are inspired by the sole purpose of presenting to the open minded ruler a glorious ,jesus1 in whom there should be nothing to offend him4 ,thus there had been nothing to prepare the world for a work of such power as that of ,reimarus4 ,it is true1 there had appeared earlier1 in #agfh1 a ,life of ,jesus by ,johann ,jakob ,hess7#ae7 7#agdaahbh71 written from the standpoint of the older rationalism1 but it retains so much supernaturalism and follows so much the lines of a paraphrase of the ,gospels1 that there was nothing to indicate to the world what a master stroke the spirit of the time was preparing4 ,not much is known about ,reimarus4 ,for his contemporaries he had no existence1 and it was ,strauss who first made his name known in literature47#af7 ,he was born in ,hamburg on the #bbnd of ,december1 #afid1 and spent his life there as a professor of ,oriental ,languages4 ,he died in #agfh4 ,several of his writings appeared during his lifetime1 all of them asserting the claims of rational religion as against the faith of the ,church2 one of them1 for example1 being an essay on 8,the ,leading ,truths of ,natural ,religion40 ,his magnum opus1 however1 which laid the historic basis of his attacks1 was only circulated1 during his lifetime1 among his acquaintances1 as an anonymous manuscript4 ,in #aggd ,lessing began to publish the most important portions of it1 and up to #aggh had published seven fragments1 thereby involving himself in a quarrel with ,goetze1 the ,chief ,pastor of ,hamburg4 ,the manuscript of the whole1 which runs to #djjj pages1 is preserved in the ,hamburg municipal library4 ,the following are the titles of ,fragments which he published3 ,the ,toleration of the ,deists4 ,the ,decrying of ,reason in the ,pulpit4 ,the impossibility of a ,revelation which all men should have good grounds for believing4 ,the ,passing of the ,israelites through the ,red ,sea4 ,showing that the books of the ,old ,testament were not written to reveal a ,religion4 ,concerning the story of the ,resurrection4 ,the ,aims of ,jesus and ,his disciples4 ,the monograph on the passing of the ,israelites through the ,red ,sea is one of the ablest1 wittiest1 and most acute which has ever been written4 ,it exposes all the impossibilities of the narrative in the ,priestly ,codex1 and all the inconsistencies which arise from the combination of various sources2 although ,reimarus has not the slightest inkling that the separation of these sources would afford the real solution of the problem4 ,to say that the fragment on 8,the ,aims of ,jesus and ,his ,disciples0 is a magnificent piece of work is barely to do it justice4 ,this essay is not only one of the greatest events in the history of criticism1 it is also a masterpiece of general literature4 ,the language is as a rule crisp and terse1 pointed and epigrammatic--the language of a man who is not 8engaged in literary composition0 but is wholly concerned with the facts4 ,at times1 however1 it rises to heights of passionate feeling1 and then it is as though the fires of a volcano were painting lurid pictures upon dark clouds4 ,seldom has there been a hate so eloquent1 so lofty a scorn2 but then it is seldom that a work has been written in the just consciousness of so absolute a superiority to contemporary opinion4 ,and withal1 there is dignity and serious purpose2 ,reimarus's work is no pamphlet4 ,lessing could not1 of course1 accept its standpoint4 ,his idea of revelation1 and his conception of the ,person of ,jesus1 were much deeper than those of the ,fragmentist4 ,he was a thinker2 ,reimarus only a historian4 ,but this was the first time that a really historical mind1 thoroughly conversant with the sources1 had undertaken the criticism of the tradition4 ,it was ,lessing's greatness that he grasped the significance of this criticism1 and felt that it must lead either to the destruction or to the recasting of the idea of revelation4 ,he recognised that the introduction of the historical element would transform and deepen rationalism4 ,convinced that the fateful moment had arrived1 he disregarded the scruples of ,reimarus's family and the objections of ,nicolai and ,mendelssohn1 and1 though inwardly trembling for that which he himself held sacred1 he flung the torch with his own hand4 ,semler1 at the close of his refutation of the fragment1 ridicules its editor in the following apologue4 8,a prisoner was once brought before the ,lord ,mayor of ,london on a charge of arson4 ,he had been seen coming down from the upper story of the burning house4 #8,yesterday1' so ran his defence1 #8about four o'clock ,i went into my neighbour's storeroom and saw there a burning candle which the servants had carelessly forgotten4 ,in the course of the night it would have burned down1 and set fire to the stairs4 ,to make sure that the fire should break out in the daytime1 ,i threw some straw upon it4 ,the flames burst out at the skylight1 the fireengines came hurrying up1 and the fire1 which in the night might have been dangerous1 was promptly extinguished4' #8,why did you not yourself pick up the candle and put it out8' asked the ,lord ,mayor4 #8,if ,i had put out the candle the servants would not have learned to be more careful2 now that there has been such a fuss about it1 they will not be so careless in future4' #8,odd1 very odd1' said the ,lord ,mayor1 #8he is not a criminal1 only a little weak in the head4' ,so he had him shut up in the madhouse1 and there he lies to this day40 ,the story is extraordinarily apposite--only that ,lessing was not mad2 he knew quite well what he was doing4 ,his object was to show how an unseen enemy had pushed his parallels up to the very walls1 and to summon to the defence 8some one who should be as nearly the ideal defender of religion as the ,fragmentist was the ideal assailant40 ,once1 with prophetic insight into the future1 he says3 8,the ,christian traditions must be explained by the inner truth of ,christianity1 and no written traditions can give it that inner truth1 if it does not itself possess it40 ,reimarus takes as his startingpoint the question regarding the content of the preaching of ,jesus4 8,we are justified10 he says1 8in drawing an absolute distinction between the teaching of the ,apostles in their writings and what ,jesus ,himself in ,his own lifetime proclaimed and taught40 ,what belongs to the preaching of ,jesus is clearly to be recognised4 ,it is contained in two phrases of identical meaning1 8,repent1 and believe the ,gospel10 or1 as it is put elsewhere1 8,repent1 for the ,kingdom of ,heaven is at hand40 ,the ,kingdom of ,heaven must however be understood 8according to ,jewish ways of thought40 ,neither ,jesus nor the ,baptist ever explain this expression2 therefore they must have been content to have it understood in its known and customary sense4 ,that means that ,jesus took ,his stand within the ,jewish religion1 and accepted its ,messianic expectations without in any way correcting them4 ,if ,he gives a new development to this religion it is only in so far that ,he proclaims as near at hand the realisation of ideals and hopes which were alive in thousands of hearts4 ,there was thus no need for detailed instruction regarding the nature of the ,kingdom of ,heaven2 the catechism and confession of the ,church at its commencement consisted of a single phrase4 ,belief was not difficult3 8they need only believe the ,gospel1 namely that ,jesus was about to bring in the ,kingdom of ,god407#ag7 ,as there were many among the ,jews who were already waiting for the ,kingdom of ,god1 it was no wonder that in a few days1 nay in a few hours1 some thousands believed1 although they had been told only that ,jesus was the promised prophet4 ,this was the sum total of what the disciples knew about the ,kingdom of ,god when they were sent out by their ,master to proclaim its coming4 ,their hearers would naturally think of the customary meaning of the term and the hopes which attached themselves to it4 8,the purpose of sending out such propagandists could only be that the ,jews who groaned under the ,roman yoke and had long cherished the hope of deliverance should be stirred up all over ,judaea and assemble themselves in their thousands40 ,jesus must have known1 too1 that if the people believed ,his messengers they would look about for an earthly deliverer and turn to ,him for this purpose4 ,the ,gospel1 therefore1 meant nothing more or less to all who heard it than that1 under the leadership of ,jesus1 the ,kingdom of ,messiah was about to be brought in4 ,for them there was no difficulty in accepting the belief that ,he was the ,messiah1 the ,son of ,god1 for this belief did not involve anything metaphysical4 ,the nation was the ,son of ,god2 the kings of the covenantpeople were ,sons of ,god2 the ,messiah was in a pre eminent sense the ,son of ,god4 ,thus even in ,his ,messianic claims ,jesus remained 8within the limits of humanity40 ,the fact that ,he did not need to explain to ,his contemporaries what ,he meant by the ,kingdom of ,god constitutes a difficulty for us4 ,the parables do not enlighten us1 for they presuppose a knowledge of the conception4 8,if we could not gather from the writings of the ,jews some further information as to what was understood at that time by the ,messiah and the ,kingdom of ,god1 these points of primary importance would be very obscure and incomprehensible40 8,if1 therefore1 we desire to gain a historical understanding of ,jesus' teaching1 we must leave behind what we learned in our catechism regarding the metaphysical ,divine ,sonship1 the ,trinity1 and similar dogmatic conceptions1 and go out into a wholly ,jewish world of thought4 ,only those who carry the teachings of the catechism back into the preaching of the ,jewish ,messiah will arrive at the idea that ,he was the founder of a new religion4 ,to all unprejudiced persons it is manifest that ,jesus had not the slightest intention of doing away with the ,jewish religion and putting another in its place40 ,from ,matt4 v4 #ah it is evident that ,jesus did not break with the ,law1 but took ,his stand upon it unreservedly4 ,if there was anything at all new in ,his preaching1 it was the righteousness which was requisite for the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,the righteousness of the ,law will no longer suffice in the time of the coming ,kingdom2 a new and deeper morality must come into being4 ,this demand is the only point in which the preaching of ,jesus went beyond the ideas of ,his contemporaries4 ,but this new morality does not do away with the ,law1 for ,he explains it as a fulfilment of the old commandments4 ,his followers1 no doubt1 broke with the ,law later on4 ,they did so1 however1 not in pursuance of a command of ,jesus1 but under the pressure of circumstances1 at the time when they were forced out of ,judaism and obliged to found a new religion4 ,jesus shared the ,jewish racial exclusiveness wholly and unreservedly4 ,according to ,matt4 x4 #e ,he forbade ,his disciples to declare to the ,gentiles the coming of the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,evidently1 therefore1 ,his purpose did not embrace them4 ,had it been otherwise1 the hesitation of ,peter in ,acts x4 and xi41 and the necessity of justifying the conversion of ,cornelius1 would be incomprehensible4 ,baptism and the ,lord's ,supper are no evidence that ,jesus intended to found a new religion4 ,in the first place the genuineness of the command to baptize in ,matt4 xxviii4 #ai is questionable1 not only as a saying ascribed to the risen ,jesus1 but also because it is universalistic in outlook1 and because it implies the doctrine of the ,trinity and1 consequently1 the metaphysical ,divine ,sonship of ,jesus4 ,in this it is inconsistent with the earliest traditions regarding the practice of baptism in the ,christian community1 for in the earliest times1 as we learn from the ,acts and from ,paul1 it was the custom to baptize1 not in the name of the ,trinity1 but in the name of ,jesus1 the ,messiah4 ,but1 furthermore1 it is questionable whether ,baptism really goes back to ,jesus at all4 ,he ,himself baptized no one in ,his own lifetime1 and never commanded any of ,his converts to be baptized4 ,so we cannot be sure about the origin of ,baptism1 though we can be sure of its meaning4 ,baptism in the name of ,jesus signified only that ,jesus was the ,messiah4 8,for the only change which the teaching of ,jesus made in their religion was that whereas they had formerly believed in a ,deliverer of ,israel who was to come in the future1 they now believed in a ,deliverer who was already present40 ,the 8,lord's ,supper10 again1 was no new institution1 but merely an episode at the last ,paschal ,meal of the ,kingdom which was passing away1 and was intended 8as an anticipatory celebration of the ,passover of the ,new ,kingdom40 ,a ,lord's ,supper in our sense1 8cut loose from the ,passover10 would have been inconceivable to ,jesus1 and not less so to ,his disciples4 ,it is useless to appeal to the miracles1 any more than to the 8,sacraments10 as evidence for the founding of a new religion4 ,in the first place1 we have to remember what happens in the case of miracles handed down by tradition4 ,that ,jesus effected cures1 which in the eyes of ,his contemporaries were miraculous1 is not to be denied4 ,their purpose was to prove ,him to be the ,messiah4 ,he forbade these miracles to be made known1 even in cases where they could not possibly be kept hidden1 8with the sole purpose of making people more eager to talk of them40 ,other miracles1 however1 have no basis in fact1 but owe their place in the narrative to the feeling that the miraclestories of the ,old ,testament must be repeated in the case of ,jesus1 but on a grander scale4 ,he did no really miraculous works2 otherwise1 the demands for a sign would be incomprehensible4 ,in ,jerusalem when all the people were looking eagerly for an overwhelming manifestation of ,his ,messiahship1 what a tremendous effect a miracle would have produced6 ,if only a single miracle had been publicly1 convincingly1 undeniably1 performed by ,jesus before all the people on one of the great days of the ,feast1 such is human nature that all the people would at once have flocked to ,his standard4 ,for this popular uprising1 however1 ,he waited in vain4 ,twice ,he believed that it was near at hand4 ,the first time was when ,he was sending out the disciples and said to them3 8,ye shall not have gone over the cities of ,israel before the ,son of ,man comes0 7,matt4 x4 #bc74 ,he thought that1 at the preaching of the disciples1 the people would flock to ,him from every quarter and immediately proclaim ,him ,messiah2 but ,his expectation was disappointed4 ,the second time1 ,he thought to bring about the decisive issue in ,jerusalem4 ,he made ,his entry riding on an ass's colt1 that the ,messianic prophecy of ,zechariah might be fulfilled4 ,and the people actually did cry 8,hosanna to the ,son of ,david60 ,relying on the support of ,his followers ,he might now1 ,he thought1 bid defiance to the authorities4 ,in the temple ,he arrogates to ,himself supreme power1 and in glowing words calls for an open revolt against the ,sanhedrin and the ,pharisees1 on the ground that they have shut the doors of the ,kingdom of ,heaven and forbidden others to go in4 ,there is no doubt1 now1 that ,he will carry the people with ,him6 ,confident in the success of ,his cause1 ,he closes the great incendiary harangue in ,matt4 xxiii4 with the words 8,truly from henceforth ye shall not see me again until ye shall say ,blessed is he that cometh in the name of the ,lord02 that is1 until they should hail ,him as ,messiah4 ,but the people in ,jerusalem refused to rise1 as the ,galilaeans had refused at the time when the disciples were sent out to rouse them4 ,the ,council prepared for vigorous action4 ,the voluntary concealment by which ,jesus had thought to whet the eagerness of the people became involuntary4 ,before ,his arrest ,he was overwhelmed with dread1 and on the cross ,he closed ,his life with the words 8,my ,god6 my ,god6 why hast ,thou forsaken me80 8,this avowal cannot1 without violence1 be interpreted otherwise than as meaning that ,god had not aided ,him in ,his aim and purpose as ,he had hoped4 ,that shows that it had not been ,his purpose to suffer and die1 but to establish an earthly kingdom and deliver the ,jews from political oppression--and in that ,god's help had failed ,him40 ,for the disciples this turn of affairs meant the destruction of all the dreams for the sake of which they had followed ,jesus4 ,for if they had given up anything on ,his account1 it was only in order to receive it again an hundredfold when they should openly take their places in the eyes of all the world as the friends and ministers of the ,messiah1 as the rulers of the twelve tribes of ,israel4 ,jesus never disabused them of this sensuous hope1 but1 on the contrary1 confirmed them in it4 ,when ,he put an end to the quarrel about preeminence1 and when ,he answered the request of the sons of ,zebedee1 ,he did not attack the assumption that there were to be thrones and power1 but only addressed ,himself to the question how men were in the present to establish their claims to that position of authority4 ,all this implies that the time of the fulfilment of these hopes was not thought of by ,jesus and ,his disciples as at all remote4 ,in ,matt4 xvi4 #bh1 for example1 ,he says3 8,truly ,i say unto you there are some standing here who shall not taste of death1 till they see the ,son of man coming in his kingdom40 ,there is no justification for twisting this about or explaining it away4 ,it simply means that ,jesus promises the fulfilment of all ,messianic hopes before the end of the existing generation4 ,thus the disciples were prepared for anything rather than that which actually happened4 ,jesus had never said a word to them about ,his dying and rising again1 otherwise they would not have so played the coward at ,his death1 nor have been so astonished at ,his 8resurrection40 ,the three or four sayings referring to these events must therefore have been put into ,his mouth later1 in order to make it appear that ,he had foreseen these events in ,his original plan4 ,how1 then1 did they get over this apparently annihilating blow8 ,by falling back upon the second form of the ,jewish ,messianic hope4 ,hitherto their thoughts1 like those of their ,master1 had been dominated by the political ideal of the prophets--the scion of ,david's line who should appear as the political deliverer of the nation4 ,but alongside of that there existed another ,messianic expectation which transferred everything to the supernatural sphere4 ,appearing first in ,daniel1 this expectation can still be traced in the ,apocalypses1 in ,justin's 8,dialogue with ,trypho10 and in certain ,rabbinic sayings4 ,according to these--,reimarus makes use especially of the statements of ,trypho--the ,messiah is to appear twice2 once in human lowliness1 the second time upon the clouds of heaven4 ,when the first systema1 as ,reimarus calls it1 was annihilated by the death of ,jesus1 the disciples brought forward the second1 and gathered followers who shared their expectation of a second coming of ,jesus the ,messiah4 ,in order to get rid of the difficulty of the death of ,jesus1 they gave it the significance of a spiritual redemption--which had not previously entered their field of vision or that of ,jesus ,himself4 ,but this spiritual interpretation of ,his death would not have helped them if they had not also invented the resurrection4 ,immediately after the death of ,jesus1 indeed1 such an idea was far from their thoughts4 ,they were in deadly fear and kept close within doors4 8,soon1 however1 one and another ventures to slip out4 ,they learn that no judicial search is being made for them40 ,then they consider what is to be done4 ,they did not take kindly to the idea of returning to their old haunts2 on their journeyings the companions of the ,messiah had forgotten how to work4 ,they had seen that the preaching of the ,kingdom of ,god will keep a man4 ,even when they had been sent out without wallet or money they had not lacked4 ,the women who are mentioned in ,luke viii4 #b1 #c1 had made it their business to make good provision for the ,messiah and ,his future ministers4 ,why not1 then1 continue this mode of life8 ,they would surely find a sufficient number of faithful souls who would join them in directing their hopes towards a second coming of the ,messiah1 and while awaiting the future glory1 would share their possessions with them4 ,so they stole the body of ,jesus and hid it1 and proclaimed to all the world that ,he would soon return4 ,they prudently waited1 however1 for fifty days before making this announcement1 in order that the body1 if it should be found1 might be unrecognisable4 ,what was much in their favour was the complete disorganisation of the ,jewish state4 ,had there been an efficient police administration the disciples would not have been able to plan this fraud and organise their communistic fellowship4 ,but1 as it was1 the new society was not even subjected to any annoyance in consequence of the remarkable death of a married couple who were buried from the apostles' house1 and the brotherhood was even allowed to confiscate their property to its own uses4 ,it appears1 then1 that the hope of the ,parousia was the fundamental thing in primitive ,christianity1 which was a product of that hope much more than of the teaching of ,jesus4 ,accordingly1 the main problem of primitive dogmatics was the delay of the ,parousia4 ,already in ,paul's time the problem was pressing1 and he had to set to work in #b ,thessalonians to discover all possible and impossible reasons why the ,second ,coming should be delayed4 ,reimarus mercilessly exposes the position of the apostle1 who was obliged to fob people off somehow or other4 ,the author of #b ,peter has a much clearer notion of what he would be at1 and undertakes to restore the confidence of ,christendom once for all with the sophism of the thousand years which are in the sight of ,god as one day1 ignoring the fact that in the promise the reckoning was by man's years1 not by ,god's4 8,nevertheless it served the turn of the ,apostles so well with those simple early ,christians1 that after the first believers had been bemused with it1 and the period originally fixed had elapsed1 the ,christians of later generations1 including ,fathers of the ,church1 could continue ever after to feed themselves with empty hopes40 ,the saying of ,christ about the generation which should not die out before ,his return clearly fixes this event at no very distant date4 ,but since ,jesus has not yet appeared upon the clouds of heaven 8these words must be strained into meaning1 not that generation1 but the ,jewish people4 ,thus by exegetical art they are saved for ever1 for the ,jewish race will never die out40 ,in general1 however1 8the theologians of the present day skim lightly over the eschatological material in the ,gospels because it does not chime in with their views1 and assign to the coming of ,christ upon the clouds quite a different purpose from that which it bears in the teaching of ,christ and ,his apostles40 ,inasmuch as the nonfulfilment of its eschatology is not admitted1 our ,christianity rests upon a fraud4 ,in view of this fact1 what is the evidential value of any miracle1 even if it could be held to be authentic8 8,no miracle would prove that two and two make five1 or that a circle has four angles2 and no miracles1 however numerous1 could remove a contradiction which lies on the surface of the teachings and records of ,christianity40 ,nor is there any weight in the appeal to the fulfilment of prophecy1 for the cases in which ,matthew countersigns it with the words 8that the ,scripture might be fulfilled0 are all artificial and unreal2 and for many incidents the stage was set by ,jesus1 or ,his disciples1 or the ,evangelists1 with the deliberate purpose of presenting to the people a scene from the fulfilment of prophecy4 ,the sole argument which could save the credit of ,christianity would be a proof that the ,parousia had really taken place at the time for which it was announced2 and obviously no such proof can be produced4 ,such is ,reimarus' reconstruction of the history4 ,we can well understand that his work must have given offence when it appeared1 for it is a polemic1 not an objective historical study4 ,but we have no right simply to dismiss it in a word1 as a ,deistic production1 as ,otto ,schmiedel1 for example1 does27#ah7 it is time that ,reimarus came to his own1 and that we should recognise a historical performance of no mean order in this piece of ,deistic polemics4 ,his work is perhaps the most splendid achievement in the whole course of the historical investigation of the life of ,jesus1 for he was the first to grasp the fact that the world of thought in which ,jesus moved was essentially eschatological4 ,there is some justification for the animosity which flames up in his writing4 ,this historical truth had taken possession of his mind with such overwhelming force that he could no longer understand his contemporaries1 and could not away with their profession that their beliefs were1 as they professed to be1 directly derived from the preaching of ,jesus4 ,what added to the offence was that he saw the eschatology in a wrong perspective4 ,he held that the ,messianic ideal which dominated the preaching of ,jesus was that of the political ruler1 the son of ,david4 ,all his other mistakes are the consequence of this fundamental error4 ,it was1 of course1 a mere makeshift hypothesis to derive the beginnings of ,christianity from an imposture4 ,historical science was not at that time sufficiently advanced to lead even the man who had divined the fundamentally eschatological character of the preaching of ,jesus onward to the historical solution of the problem2 it needed more than a hundred and twenty years to fill in the chasm which ,reimarus had been forced to bridge with that makeshift hypothesis of his4 ,in the light of the clear perception of the elements of the problem which ,reimarus had attained1 the whole movement of theology1 down to ,johannes ,weiss1 appears retrograde4 ,in all its work the thesis is ignored or obscured that ,jesus1 as a historical personality1 is to be regarded1 not as the founder of a new religion1 but as the final product of the eschatological and apocalyptic thought of ,late ,judaism4 ,every sentence of ,johannes ,weiss's ,die ,predigt ,jesu vom ,reiche ,gottes 7#ahib7 is a vindication1 a rehabilitation1 of ,reimarus as a historical thinker4 ,even so the traveller on the plain sees from afar the distant range of mountains4 ,then he loses sight of them again4 ,his way winds slowly upwards through the valleys1 drawing ever nearer to the peaks1 until at last1 at a turn of the path1 they stand before him1 not in the shapes which they had seemed to take from the distant plain1 but in their actual forms4 ,reimarus was the first1 after eighteen centuries of misconception1 to have an inkling of what eschatology really was4 ,then theology lost sight of it again1 and it was not until after the lapse of more than a hundred years that it came in view of eschatology once more1 now in its true form1 so far as that can be historically determined1 and only after it had been led astray1 almost to the last1 in all its historical researches by the sole mistake of ,reimarus--the assumption that the eschatology was earthly and political in character4 ,thus theology shared at least the error of the man whom it knew only as a ,deist1 not as an historian1 and whose true greatness was not recognised even by ,strauss1 though he raised a literary monument to him4 ,the solution offered by ,reimarus may be wrong2 the data of observation from which he starts out are1 beyond question1 right1 because the primary datum of all is genuinely historical4 ,he recognised that two systems of ,messianic expectation were present side by side in ,late ,judaism4 ,he endeavoured to bring them into mutual relations in order to represent the actual movement of the history4 ,in so doing he made the mistake of placing them in consecutive order1 ascribing to ,jesus the political ,sonof,david conception1 and to the ,apostles1 after ,his death1 the apocalyptic system based on ,daniel1 instead of superimposing one upon the other in such a way that the ,messianic ,king might coincide with the ,son of ,man1 and the ancient prophetic conception might be inscribed within the circumference of the ,danieldescended apocalyptic1 and raised along with it to the supersensuous plane4 ,but what matters the mistake in comparison with the fact that the problem was really grasped8 ,reimarus felt that the absence in the preaching of ,jesus of any definition of the principal term 7the ,kingdom of ,god71 in conjunction with the great and rapid success of ,his preaching constituted a problem1 and he formulated the conception that ,jesus was not a religious founder and teacher1 but purely a preacher4 ,he brought the ,synoptic and ,johannine narratives into harmony by practically leaving the latter out of account4 ,the attitude of ,jesus towards the law1 and the process by which the disciples came to take up a freer attitude1 was grasped and explained by him so accurately that modern historical science does not need to add a word1 but would be well pleased if at least half the theologians of the present day had got as far4 ,further1 he recognised that primitive ,christianity was not something which grew1 so to speak1 out of the teaching of ,jesus1 but that it came into being as a new creation1 in consequence of events and circumstances which added something to that preaching which it did not previously contain2 and that ,baptism and the ,lord's ,supper1 in the historical sense of these terms1 were not instituted by ,jesus1 but created by the early ,church on the basis of certain historical assumptions4 ,again1 ,reimarus felt that the fact that the 8event of ,easter0 was first proclaimed at ,pentecost constituted a problem1 and he sought a solution for it4 ,he recognised1 further1 that the solution of the problem of the life of ,jesus calls for a combination of the methods of historical and literary criticism4 ,he felt that merely to emphasise the part played by eschatology would not suffice1 but that it was necessary to assume a creative element in the tradition1 to which he ascribed the miracles1 the stories which turn on the fulfilment of ,messianic prophecy1 the universalistic traits and the predictions of the passion and the resurrection4 ,like ,wrede1 too1 he feels that the prescription of silence in the case of miracles of healing and of certain communications to the disciples constitutes a problem which demands solution4 ,still more remarkable is his eye for exegetical detail4 ,he has an unfailing instinct for pregnant passages like ,matt4 x4 #bc1 xvi4 #bh1 which are crucial for the interpretation of large masses of the history4 ,the fact is there are some who are historians by the grace of ,god1 who from their mother's womb have an instinctive feeling for the real4 ,they follow through all the intricacy and confusion of reported fact the pathway of reality1 like a stream which1 despite the rocks that encumber its course and the windings of its valley1 finds its way inevitably to the sea4 ,no erudition can supply the place of this historical instinct1 but erudition sometimes serves a useful purpose1 inasmuch as it produces in its possessors the pleasing belief that they are historians1 and thus secures their services for the cause of history4 ,in truth they are at best merely doing the preliminary spadework of history1 collecting for a future historian the dry bones of fact1 from which1 with the aid of his natural gift1 he can recall the past to life4 ,more often1 however1 the way in which erudition seeks to serve history is by suppressing historical discoveries as long as possible1 and leading out into the field to oppose the one true view an army of possibilities4 ,by arraying these in support of one another it finally imagines that it has created out of possibilities a living reality4 ,this obstructive erudition is the special prerogative of theology1 in which1 even at the present day1 a truly marvellous scholarship often serves only to blind the eyes to elementary truths1 and to cause the artificial to be preferred to the natural4 ,and this happens not only with those who deliberately shut their minds against new impressions1 but also with those whose purpose is to go forward1 and to whom their contemporaries look up as leaders4 ,it was a typical illustration of this fact when ,semler rose up and slew ,reimarus in the name of scientific theology47#ai7 ,reimarus had discredited progressive theology4 ,students--so ,semler tells us in his preface--became unsettled and sought other callings4 ,the great ,halle theologian--born in #agbe--the pioneer of the historical view of the ,canon1 the precursor of ,baur in the reconstruction of primitive ,christianity1 was urged to do away with the offence4 ,as ,origen of yore with ,celsus1 so ,semler takes ,reimarus sentence by sentence1 in such a way that if his work were lost it could be recovered from the refutation4 ,the fact was that ,semler had nothing in the nature of a complete or wellarticulated argument to oppose to him2 therefore he inaugurated in his reply the 8,yes1 but0 theology1 which thereafter1 for more than three generations1 while it took1 itself1 the most various modifications1 imagined that it had finally got rid of ,reimarus and his discovery4 ,reimarus--so ran the watchword of the guerrilla warfare which ,semler waged against him--cannot be right1 for he is onesided4 ,jesus and ,his disciples employed two methods of teaching3 one sensuous1 pictorial1 drawn from the sphere of ,jewish ideas1 by which they adapted their meaning to the understanding of the multitude1 and endeavoured to raise them to a higher way of thinking2 and alongside of that a purely spiritual teaching which was independent of that kind of imagery4 ,both methods of teaching continued to be used side by side1 because there were always contemporary representatives of the two degrees of capability and the two kinds of temperament4 8,this is historically so certain that the ,fragmentist's attack must inevitably be defeated at this point1 because he takes account only of the sensuous representation40 ,but his attack was not defeated4 ,what happened was that1 owing to the respect in which ,semler was held1 and the absolute incapacity of contemporary theology to overtake the long stride forward made by ,reimarus1 his work was neglected1 and the stimulus which it was capable of imparting failed to take effect4 ,he had no predecessors2 neither had he any disciples4 ,his work is one of those supremely great works which pass and leave no trace1 because they are before their time2 to which later generations pay a just tribute of admiration1 but owe no gratitude4 ,indeed it would be truer to say that ,reimarus hung a millstone about the neck of the rising theological science of his time4 ,he avenged himself on ,semler by shaking his faith in historical theology and even in the freedom of science in general4 ,by the end of the eighth decade of the century the ,halle professor was beginning to retrace his steps1 was becoming more and more disloyal to the cause which he had formerly served2 and he finally went so far as to give his approval to ,wllner's edict for the regulation of religion 7#aghh74 ,his friends attributed this change of front to senility--he died #agia4 ,thus the magnificent overture in which are announced all the motifs of the future historical treatment of the life of ,jesus breaks off with a sudden discord1 remains isolated and incomplete1 and leads to nothing further4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,lives ,,of ,,jesus ,,of ,,the ,,earlier ,,rationalism ,johann ,jakob ,hess4 ,geschichte der drei letzten ,lebensjahre ,jesu4 7,history of the ,last ,three ,years of the ,life of ,jesus47 #c vols41 #adjj pp4 ,leipzig,zurich1 #agfhaggb2 #crd ed41 #aggd ff42 #gth ed41 #ahbc ff4 ,franz ,volkmar ,reinhard4 ,versuch ber den ,plan1 welchen der ,stifter der christlichen ,religion zum ,besten der ,menschheit entwarf4 7,essay upon the ,plan which the ,founder of the ,christian ,religion adopted for the ,benefit of ,mankind47 #ejj pp4 #agha2 #dth ed41 #agih2 #eth ed41 #ahcj4 ,our account is based on the #dth ed4 ,the #eth contains supplementary matter by ,heubner4 ,ernst ,august ,opitz4 ,preacher at ,zscheppelin4 ,geschichte und ,characterzge ,jesu4 7,history of ,jesus1 with a ,delineation of ,his ,character47 ,jena and ,leipzig1 #ahab4 #dhh pp4 ,johann ,adolph ,jakobi4 ,superintendent at ,waltershausen4 ,die ,geschichte ,jesu fr denkende und gemtvolle ,leser1 #ahaf4 7,the ,history of ,jesus for thoughtful and sympathetic readers47 ,a second volume1 containing the history of the apostolic age1 followed in #ahah4 ,johann ,gottfried ,herder4 ,vom ,erlser der ,menschen4 ,nach unsern drei ersten ,evangelien4 7,the ,redeemer of men1 as portrayed in our first three ,gospels47 #agif4 ,von ,gottes ,sohn1 der ,welt ,heiland4 ,nach ,johannes ,evangelium4 7,the ,son of ,god1 the ,saviour of the ,world1 as portrayed by ,john's ,gospel47 ,accompanied by a rule for the harmonisation of our ,gospels on the basis of their origin and order4 ,riga1 published by ,hartknoch1 #agig4 ,see ,herder's complete works1 ed4 ,suphan1 vol4 xix4 ,that thoroughgoing theological rationalism which accepts only so much of religion as can justify itself at the bar of reason1 and which conceives and represents the origin of religion in accordance with this principle1 was preceded by a rationalism less complete1 as yet not wholly dissociated from a simpleminded supernaturalism4 ,its point of view is one at which it is almost impossible for the modern man to place himself4 ,here1 in a single consciousness1 orthodoxy and rationalism lie stratified in successive layers4 ,here1 to change the metaphor1 rationalism surrounds religion without touching it1 and1 like a lake surrounding some ancient castle1 mirrors its image with curious refractions4 ,this halfdeveloped rationalism was conscious of an impulse--it is the first time in the history of theology that this impulse manifests itself--to write the ,life of ,jesus2 at first without any suspicion whither this undertaking would lead it4 ,no rude hands were to be laid upon the doctrinal conception of ,jesus2 at least these writers had no intention of laying hands upon it4 ,their purpose was simply to gain a clearer view of the course of our ,lord's earthly and human life4 ,the theologians who undertook this task thought of themselves as merely writing an historical supplement to the life of the ,god,man ,jesus4 ,these 8,lives0 are1 therefore1 composed according to the prescription of the 8good old gentleman0 who in #ahbi advised the young ,hase to treat first of the divine1 and then of the human side of the life of ,jesus4 ,the battle about miracle had not yet begun4 ,but miracle no longer plays a part of any importance2 it is a firmly established principle that the teaching of ,jesus1 and religion in general1 hold their place solely in virtue of their inner reasonableness1 not by the support of outward evidence4 ,the only thing that is really rationalistic in these older works is the treatment of the teaching of ,jesus4 ,even those that retain the largest share of supernaturalism are as completely undogmatic as the more advanced in their reproduction of the discourses of the ,great ,teacher4 ,all of them make it a principle to lose no opportunity of reducing the number of miracles2 where they can explain a miracle by natural causes1 they do not hesitate for a moment4 ,but the deliberate rejection of all miracles1 the elimination of everything supernatural which intrudes itself into the life of ,jesus1 is still to seek4 ,that principle was first consistently carried through by ,paulus4 ,with these earlier writers it depends on the degree of enlightenment of the individual whether the irreducible minimum of the supernatural is larger or smaller4 ,moreover1 the period of this older rationalism1 like every period when human thought has been strong and vigorous1 is wholly unhistorical4 ,what it is looking for is not the past1 but itself in the past4 ,for it1 the problem of the life of ,jesus is solved the moment it succeeds in bringing ,jesus near to its own time1 in portraying ,him as the great teacher of virtue1 and showing that ,his teaching is identical with the intellectual truth which rationalism deifies4 ,the temporal limits of this halfandhalf rationalism are difficult to define4 ,for the historical study of the life of ,jesus the first landmark which it offers is the work of ,hess1 which appeared in #agfh4 ,but it held its ground for a long time side by side with rationalism proper1 which failed to drive it from the field4 ,a seventh edition of ,hess's ,life of ,jesus appeared as late as #ahbc2 while a fifth edition of ,reinhard's work saw the light in #ahcj4 ,and when ,strauss struck the deathblow of outand out rationalism1 the halfandhalf rationalism did not perish with it1 but allied itself with the neosupernaturalism which ,strauss's treatment of the life of ,jesus had called into being2 and it still prolongs an obscure existence in a certain section of conservative literature1 though it has lost its best characteristics1 its simplemindedness and honesty4 ,these older rationalistic ,lives of ,jesus are1 from the aesthetic point of view1 among the least pleasing of all theological productions4 ,the sentimentality of the portraiture is boundless4 ,boundless1 also1 and still more objectionable1 is the want of respect for the language of ,jesus4 ,he must speak in a rational and modern fashion1 and accordingly all ,his utterances are reproduced in a style of the most polite modernity4 ,none of the speeches are allowed to stand as they were spoken2 they are taken to pieces1 paraphrased1 and expanded1 and sometimes1 with the view of making them really lively1 they are recast in the mould of a freely invented dialogue4 ,in all these ,lives of ,jesus1 not a single one of ,his sayings retains its authentic form4 ,and yet we must not be unjust to these writers4 ,what they aimed at was to bring ,jesus near to their own time1 and in so doing they became the pioneers of the historical study of ,his life4 ,the defects of their work in regard to aesthetic feeling and historical grasp are outweighed by the attractiveness of the purposeful1 unprejudiced thinking which here awakens1 stretches itself1 and begins to move with freedom4 ,johann ,jakob ,hess was born in #agda and died in #ahbh4 ,after working as a curate for seventeen years he became one of the assistant clergy at the ,frauminster at ,zurich1 and later 8,antistes10 president1 of the cantonal synod4 ,in this capacity he guided the destinies of the ,church in ,zurich safely through the troublous times of the ,revolution4 ,he was not a deep thinker1 but was well read and not without ability4 ,as a man1 he did splendid work4 ,his ,life of ,jesus still keeps largely to the lines of a paraphrase of the ,gospels2 indeed1 he calls it a paraphrasing history4 ,it is based upon a harmonizing combination of the four ,gospels4 ,the matter of the ,synoptic narratives is1 as in all the ,lives of ,jesus prior to ,strauss--with the sole exception of ,herder's--fitted more or less arbitrarily into the intervals between the ,passovers in the fourth ,gospel4 ,in regard to miracles1 he admits that these are a stumblingblock4 ,but they are essential to the ,gospel narrative and to revelation2 had ,jesus been only a moral teacher and not the ,son of ,god they would not have been necessary4 ,we must be careful1 however1 not to prize miracles for their own sake1 but to look primarily to their ethical teaching4 ,it was1 he remarks1 the mistake of the ,jews to regard all the acts of ,jesus solely from the point of view of their strange and miraculous character1 and to forget their moral teaching2 whereas we1 from distaste for miracle as such1 run the risk of excluding from the ,gospel history events which are bound up with the ,gospel revelation4 ,above all1 we must retain the supernatural birth and the bodily resurrection1 because on the former depends the sinlessness of ,jesus1 on the latter the certainty of the general resurrection of the dead4 ,the temptation of ,jesus in the wilderness was a stratagem of ,satan by which he hoped to discover 8whether ,jesus of ,nazareth was really so extraordinary a person that he would have cause to fear ,him40 ,the resurrection of ,lazarus is authentic4 ,but the ,gospel narrative is rationalised whenever it can be done4 ,it was not the demons1 but the ,gadarene demoniacs themselves1 who rushed among the swine4 ,alarmed by their fury the whole herd plunged over the precipice into the lake and were drowned2 while by this accommodation to the fixed idea of the demoniacs1 ,jesus effected their cure4 ,perhaps1 too1 ,hess conjectures1 the ,lord desired to test the ,gadarenes1 and to see whether they would attach greater importance to the good deed done to two of their number than to the loss of their swine4 ,this explanation1 reinforced by its moral1 held its ground in theology for some sixty years and passed over into a round dozen ,lives of ,jesus4 ,this plan of 8presenting each occurrence in such a way that what is valuable and instructive in it immediately strikes the eye0 is followed out by ,hess so faithfully that all clearness of impression is destroyed4 ,the parables are barely recognisable1 swathed1 as they are1 in the mummy wrappings of his paraphrase2 and in most cases their meaning is completely travestied by the ethical or historical allusions which he finds in them4 ,the parable of the pounds is explained as referring to a man who went1 like ,archelaus1 to ,rome to obtain the kingship1 while his subjects intrigued behind his back4 ,of the peculiar beauty of the speech of ,jesus not a trace remains4 ,the parable of the ,sower1 for instance1 begins3 8,a countryman went to sow his field1 which lay beside a countryroad1 and was here and there rather rocky1 and in some places weedy1 but in general was well cultivated1 and had a good sort of soil40 ,the beatitude upon the mourners appears in the following guise3 8,happy are they who amid the adversities of the present make the best of things and submit themselves with patience2 for such men1 if they do not see better times here1 shall certainly elsewhere receive comfort and consolation40 ,the question addressed by the ,pharisees to ,john the ,baptist1 and his answer1 are given dialoguewise1 in fustian of this kind3--,the ,pharisees3 8,we are directed to enquire of you1 in the name of our president1 who you profess to be8 ,as people are at present expecting the ,messiah1 and seem not indisposed to accept you in that capacity1 we are the more anxious that you should declare yourself with regard to your vocation and person40 ,john3 8,the conclusion might have been drawn from my discourses that ,i was not the ,messiah4 ,why should people attribute such lofty pretensions to me80 etc4 ,in order to give the ,gospels the true literary flavour1 a characterisation is tacked on to each of the persons of the narrative4 ,in the case of the disciples1 for instance1 this runs3 8,they had sound common sense1 but very limited insight2 the capacity to receive teaching1 but an incapacity for reflective thought2 a knowledge of their own weakness1 but a difficulty in getting rid of old prejudices2 sensibility to right feeling1 but weakness in following out a pre determined moral plan40 ,the simplest occurrences give occasion for sentimental portraiture4 ,the saying 8,except ye become as little children0 is introduced in the following fashion3 8,jesus called a boy who was standing near4 ,the boy came4 ,jesus took his hand and told him to stand beside ,him1 nearer than any of ,his disciples1 so that he had the foremost place among them4 ,then ,jesus threw ,his arm round the boy and pressed him tenderly to ,his breast4 ,the disciples looked on in astonishment1 wondering what this meant4 ,then ,he explained to them10 etc4 ,in these expansions ,hess does not always escape the ludicrous4 ,the saying of ,jesus in ,john x4 #i1 8,i am the door10 takes on the following form3 8,no one1 whether he be sheep or shepherd1 can come into the fold 7if1 that is to say1 he follows the right way7 except in so far as he knows me and is admitted by me1 and included among the flock40 ,reinhard's work is on a distinctly higher level4 ,the author was born in #agec4 ,in #agib1 after he had worked for fourteen years as ,docent in ,wittenberg1 he was appointed ,senior ,court ,chaplain at ,dresden4 ,he died in #ahab4 8,i am1 as you know1 a very prosaic person10 writes ,reinhard to a friend1 and in these words he has given an admirable characterisation of himself4 ,the writers who chiefly appeal to him are the ancient moralists2 he acknowledges that he has learned more from them than from a 8collegium homileticum40 ,in his celebrated 8,system of ,christian ,ethics0 7#e vols41 #aghhahae7 he makes copious use of them4 ,his sermons--they fill thirtyfive volumes1 and in their day were regarded as models--show some power and depth of thought1 but are all cast in the same mould4 ,he seems to have been haunted by a fear that it might some time befall him to admit into his mind a thought which was mystical or visionary1 not justifiable by the laws of logic and the canons of the critical reason4 ,with all his philosophising and rationalising1 however1 certain pillars of the supernaturalistic view of history remain for him immovable4 ,at first sight one might be inclined to suppose that he frankly shared the belief in miracle4 ,he mentions the raising of the widow's son1 and of ,lazarus1 and accepts as an authentic saying the command of the risen ,jesus to baptize all nations4 ,but if we look more closely1 we find that he deliberately brings very few miracles into his narrative1 and the definition by which he disintegrates the conception of miracle from within leaves no doubt as to his own position4 ,what he says is this3 8,all that which we call miraculous and supernatural is to be understood as only relatively so1 and implies nothing further than an obvious exception to what can be brought about by natural causes1 so far as we know them and have experience of their capacity4 ,a cautious thinker will not venture in any single instance to pronounce an event to be so extraordinary that ,god could not have brought it about by the use of secondary causes1 but must have intervened directly40 ,the case stands similarly with regard to the divinity of ,christ4 ,reinhard assumes it1 but his 8,life0 is not directed to prove it2 it leads only to the conclusion that the ,founder of ,christianity is to be regarded as a wonderful 8divine0 teacher4 ,in order to prove ,his uniqueness1 ,reinhard has to show that ,his plan for the welfare of mankind was something incomparably higher than anything which hero or sage has ever striven for4 ,reinhard makes the first attempt to give an account of the teaching of ,jesus which should be historical in the sense that all dogmatic considerations should be excluded4 8,above all things1 let us collect and examine the indications which we find in the writings of ,his companions regarding the designs which ,he had in view40 ,the plan of ,jesus shows its greatness above all in its universality4 ,reinhard is well aware of the difficulty raised in this connexion by those sayings which assert the prerogative of ,israel1 and he discusses them at length4 ,he finds the solution in the assumption that ,jesus in ,his own lifetime naturally confined ,himself to working among ,his own people1 and was content to indicate the future universal development of ,his plan4 ,with the intention 8of introducing a universal change1 tending to the benefit of the whole human race10 ,jesus attaches ,his teaching to the ,jewish eschatology4 ,it is only the form of ,his teaching1 however1 which is affected by this1 since ,he gives an entirely different significance to the terms ,kingdom of ,heaven and ,kingdom of ,god1 referring them to a universal ethical reorganisation of mankind4 ,but ,his plan was entirely independent of politics4 ,he never based ,his claims upon ,his ,davidic descent4 ,this was1 indeed1 the reason why ,he held aloof from ,his family4 ,even the entry into ,jerusalem had no ,messianic significance4 ,his plan was so entirely non political that ,he would1 on the contrary1 have welcomed the severance of all connexion between the state and religion1 in order to avoid the risk of a conflict between these two powers4 ,reinhard explains the voluntary death of ,jesus as due to this endeavour4 8,he quitted the stage of the world by so early and shameful a death because ,he wished to destroy at once and for ever the mistaken impression that ,he was aiming at the foundation of an earthly kingdom1 and to turn the thoughts1 wishes1 and efforts of ,his disciples and companions into another channel40 ,in order to make the ,kingdom of ,god a practical reality1 it was necessary for ,him to dissociate it from all the forces of this world1 and to bring morality and religion into the closest connexion4 8,the law of love was the indissoluble bond by which ,jesus for ever united morality with religion40 8,moral instruction was the principal content and the very essence of all ,his discourses40 ,his efforts 8were directed to the establishment of a purely ethical organisation40 ,it was important1 therefore1 to overthrow superstition and to bring religion within the domain of reason4 ,first of all the priesthood must be deprived for ever of its influence4 ,then an improvement of the social condition of mankind must be introduced1 since the level of morality depends upon social conditions4 ,jesus was a social reformer4 ,through the attainment of 8the highest perfection of which ,society is capable1 universal peace0 was 8gradually to be brought about40 ,but the point of primary importance for ,him was the alliance of religion with reason4 ,reason was to maintain its freedom by the aid of religion1 and religion was not to be withdrawn from the critical judgment of reason3 all things were to be tested1 and only the best retained4 8,from these data it is easy to determine the characteristics of a religion which is to be the religion of all mankind3 it must be ethical1 intelligible1 and spiritual40 ,after the plan of ,jesus has been expounded on these lines1 ,reinhard shows1 in the second part of his work1 that1 prior to ,jesus1 no great man of antiquity had devised a plan of beneficence of a scope commensurate with the whole human race4 ,in the third part the conclusion is drawn that ,jesus is the uniquely divine ,teacher4 ,but before the author can venture to draw this conclusion1 he feels it necessary first to show that the plan of ,jesus was no chimera4 ,if we were obliged to admit its impracticability ,jesus would have to be ranked with the visionaries and enthusiasts2 and these1 however noble and virtuous1 can only injure the cause of rational religion4 8,visionary enthusiasm and enlightened reason--who that knows anything of the human mind can conceive these two as united in a single soul80 ,but ,jesus was no visionary enthusiast4 8,with what calmness1 selfmastery1 and cool determination does ,he think out and pursue ,his divine purpose80 ,by the truths which ,he revealed and declared to be divine communications ,he did not desire to put pressure upon the human mind1 but only to guide it4 8,it would be impossible to show a more conscientious respect and a more delicate consideration for the rights of human reason than is shown by ,jesus4 ,he will conquer only by convincing40 8,he is willing to bear with contradiction1 and condescends to meet the most irrational objections and the most illnatured misrepresentations with the most incredible patience40 ,it was well for ,reinhard that he had no suspicion how full of enthusiasm ,jesus was1 and how ,he trod reason under ,his feet6 ,but what kind of relation was there between this rational religion taught by ,jesus and the ,christian theology which ,reinhard accepted8 ,how does he harmonise the symbolical view of ,baptism and the ,lord's ,supper which he here expounds with ecclesiastical doctrine8 ,how does he pass from the conception of the divine teacher to that of the ,son of ,god8 ,this is a question which he does not feel himself obliged to answer4 ,for him the one circle of thought revolves freely within the other1 but they never come into contact with each other4 ,so far as concerns the presentation of the teaching1 the ,life of ,jesus by ,opitz follows the same lines as that of ,reinhard4 ,it is disfigured1 however1 by a number of lapses of taste1 and by a crass supernaturalism in the description of the miracles and experiences of the ,great ,teacher4 ,jakobi writes 8for thoughtful and sympathetic readers40 ,he recognises that much of the miraculous is a later addition to the facts1 but he has a rooted distrust of thoroughgoing rationalism1 8whose wouldbe helpful explanations are often stranger than the miracles themselves40 ,a certain amount of miracle must be maintained1 but not for the purpose of founding belief upon it3 8the miracles were not intended to authenticate the teaching of ,jesus1 but to surround ,his life with a guard of honour407#bj7 ,whether ,herder1 in his two ,lives of ,jesus1 is to be classed with the older rationalists is a question to which the answer must be 8,yes1 and ,no10 as in the case of every attempt to classify those men of lonely greatness who stand apart from their contemporaries1 but who nevertheless are not in all points in advance of them4 ,properly speaking1 he has really nothing to do with the rationalists1 since he is distinguished from them by the depth of his insight and his power of artistic apprehension1 and he is far from sharing their lack of taste4 ,further1 his horizon embraces problems of which rationalism1 even in its developed form1 never came in sight4 ,he recognises that all attempts to harmonise the ,synoptists with ,john are unavailing2 a conclusion which he had avowed earlier in his 8,letters referring to the ,study of ,theology407#ba7 ,he grasps this incompatibility1 it is true1 rather by the aid of poetic1 than of critical insight4 8,since they cannot be united10 he writes in his 8,life of ,jesus according to ,john10 8they must be left standing independently1 each evangelist with his own special merit4 ,man1 ,ox1 ,lion1 and ,eagle1 they advance together1 supporting the throne of glory1 but they refuse to coalesce into a single form1 to unite into a ,diatessaron40 ,but to him belongs the honour of being the first and the only scholar1 prior to ,strauss1 to recognise that the life of ,jesus can be construed either according to the ,synoptists1 or according to ,john1 but that a ,life of ,jesus based on the four ,gospels is a monstrosity4 ,in view of this intuitive historical grasp1 it is not surprising that the commentaries of the theologians were an abomination to him4 ,the fourth ,gospel is1 in his view1 not a primitive historical source1 but a protest against the narrowness of the 8,palestinian ,gospels40 ,it gives free play1 as the circumstances of the time demanded1 to ,greek ideas4 8,there was need1 in addition to those earlier1 purely historical ,gospels1 of a ,gospel at once theological and historical1 like that of ,john10 in which ,jesus should be presented1 not as the ,jewish ,messiah1 8but as the ,saviour of the ,world40 ,the additions and omissions of this ,gospel are alike skilfully planned4 ,it retains only those miracles which are symbols of a continuous permanent miracle1 through which the ,saviour of the ,world works constantly1 unintermittently1 among men4 ,the ,johannine miracles are not there for their own sakes4 ,the cures of demoniacs are not even represented among them4 ,these had no interest for the ,graeco,roman world1 and the ,evangelist was unwilling 8that this ,palestinian superstition should become a permanent feature of ,christianity1 to be a reproach of scoffers or a belief of the foolish40 ,his recording of the raising of ,lazarus is1 in spite of the silence of the ,synoptists1 easily explicable4 ,the latter could not yet tell the story 8without exposing a family which was still living near ,jerusalem to the fury of that hatred which had sworn with an oath to put ,lazarus to death40 ,john1 however1 could recount it without scruple1 8for by this time ,jerusalem was probably in ruins1 and the hospitable family of ,bethany were perhaps already with their ,friend in the other world40 ,this most nave of explanations is reproduced in a whole series of ,lives of ,jesus4 ,in dealing with the ,synoptists1 ,herder grasps the problem with the same intuitive insight4 ,mark is no epitomist1 but the creator of the archetype of the ,synoptic representation4 8,the ,gospel of ,mark is not an epitome2 it is an original ,gospel4 ,what the others have1 and he has not1 has been added by them1 not omitted by him4 ,consequently ,mark is a witness to an original1 shorter ,gospelscheme1 to which the additional matter of the others ought properly to be regarded as a supplement40 ,mark is the 8unornamented central column1 or plain foundation stone1 on which the others rest40 ,the birthstories of ,matthew and ,luke are 8a new growth to meet new needs40 ,the different tendencies1 also1 point to a later period4 ,mark is still comparatively friendly towards the ,jews1 because ,christianity had not yet separated itself from ,judaism4 ,matthew is more hostile towards them because his ,gospel was written at a time when ,christians had given up the hope of maintaining amicable relations with the ,jews and were groaning under the pressure of persecution4 ,it is for that reason that the ,jesus of the ,matthaean discourses lays so much stress upon ,his second coming1 and presupposes the rejection of the ,jewish nation as something already in being1 a sign of the approaching end4 ,pure history1 however1 is as little to be looked for in the first three ,gospels as in the fourth4 ,they are the sacred epic of ,jesus the ,messiah1 and model the history of their hero upon the prophetic words of the ,old ,testament4 ,in this view1 also1 ,herder is a precursor of ,strauss4 ,in essence1 however1 ,herder represents a protest of art against theology4 ,the ,gospels1 if we are to find the life of ,jesus in them1 must be read1 not with pedantic learning1 but with taste4 ,from this point of view1 miracles cease to offend4 ,neither ,old ,testament prophecies1 nor predictions of ,jesus1 nor miracles1 can be adduced as evidence for the ,gospel2 the ,gospel is its own evidence4 ,the miracles stand outside the possibility of proof1 and belong to mere 8,church belief10 which ought to lose itself more and more in the pure ,gospel4 ,yet miracles1 in a limited sense1 are to be accepted on the ground of the historic evidence4 ,to refuse to admit this is to be like the ,indian king who denied the existence of ice because he had never seen anything like it4 ,jesus1 in order to help ,his miracleloving age1 reconciled ,himself to the necessity of performing miracles4 ,but1 in any case1 the reality of a miracle is of small moment in comparison with its symbolic value4 ,in this1 therefore1 ,herder1 though in his grasp of many problems he was more than a generation in advance of his time1 belongs to the primitive rationalists4 ,he allows the supernatural to intrude into the events of the life of ,jesus1 and does not feel that the adoption of the historical standpoint involves the necessity of doing away with miracle4 ,he contributed much to the clearing up of ideas1 but by evading the question of miracle he slurred over a difficulty which needed to be faced and solved before it should be possible to entertain the hope of forming a really historical conception of the life of ,jesus4 ,in reading ,herder one is apt to fancy that it would be possible to pass straight on to ,strauss4 ,in reality1 it was necessary that a very prosaic spirit1 ,paulus1 should intervene1 and should attack the question of miracle from a purely historical standpoint1 before ,strauss could give expression to the ideas of ,herder in an effectual way1 i4e4 in such a way as to produce offence4 ,the fact is that in theology the most revolutionary ideas are swallowed quite readily so long as they smooth their passage by a few small concessions4 ,it is only when a spicule of bone stands out obstinately and causes choking that theology begins to take note of dangerous ideas4 ,strauss is ,herder with just that little bone sticking out--the absolute denial of miracle on historical grounds4 ,that is to say1 ,strauss is a ,herder who has behind him the uncompromising rationalism of ,paulus4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,earliest ,,fictitious ,,lives ,,of ,,jesus ,karl ,friedrich ,bahrdt4 ,briefe ber die ,bibel im ,volkston4 ,eine ,wochenschrift von einem ,prediger auf dem ,lande4 7,popular ,letters about the ,bible4 ,a weekly paper by a country clergyman47 ,j4 ,fr4 ,dost1 ,halle1 #aghb4 #haf pp4 ,ausfhrung des ,plans und ,zwecks ,jesu4 ,in ,briefen an ,wahrheit suchende ,leser4 7,an ,explanation of the ,plans and ,aims of ,jesus4 ,in letters addressed to readers who seek the truth47 #aa vols41 embracing #cjjj pp4 ,august ,mylius1 ,berlin1 #aghdagib4 ,this work is a sequel to the ,popular ,letters about the ,bible4 ,die smtlichen ,reden ,jesu aus den ,evangelisten ausgezogen4 7,the ,whole of the ,discourses of ,jesus1 extracted from the ,gospels47 ,berlin1 #aghf4 ,karl ,heinrich ,venturini4 ,natrliche ,geschichte des grossen ,propheten von ,nazareth4 7,a ,nonsupernatural ,history of the ,great ,prophet of ,nazareth47 ,bethlehem 7,copenhagen71 #ast ed41 #ahjjahjb2 #bnd ed41 #ahjf4 #d vols41 embracing #bgjj pp4 ,the work appeared anonymously4 ,the description given below is based on the #bnd ed41 which shows dependence1 in some of the exegetical details1 upon the then recently published commentaries of ,paulus4 ,it is strange to notice how often in the history of our subject a few imperfectly equipped freelances have attacked and attempted to carry the decisive positions before the ordered ranks of professional theology have pushed their advance to these decisive points4 ,thus1 it was the fictitious 8,lives0 of ,bahrdt and ,venturini which1 at the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth centuries1 first attempted to apply1 with logical consistency1 a nonsupernatural interpretation to the miracle stories of the ,gospel4 ,further1 these writers were the first who1 instead of contenting themselves with the simple reproduction of the successive sections of the ,gospel narrative1 endeavoured to grasp the inner connexion of cause and effect in the events and experiences of the life of ,jesus4 ,since they found no such connexion indicated in the ,gospels1 they had to supply it for themselves4 ,the particular form which their explanation takes--the hypothesis of a secret society of which ,jesus is the tool--is1 it is true1 rather a sorry makeshift4 ,yet1 in a sense1 these ,lives of ,jesus1 for all their colouring of fiction1 are the first which deserve the name4 ,the rationalists1 and even ,paulus1 confine themselves to describing the teaching of ,jesus2 ,bahrdt and ,venturini make a bold attempt to paint the portrait of ,jesus ,himself4 ,it is not surprising that their portraiture is at once crude and fantastic1 like the earliest attempts of art to represent the human figure in living movement4 ,karl ,friedrich ,bahrdt was born in #agda at ,bischofswerda4 ,endowed with brilliant abilities1 he made1 owing to a bad upbringing and an undisciplined sensuous nature1 a miserable failure4 ,after being first ,catechist and afterwards ,professor ,extraordinary of ,sacred ,philology at ,leipzig1 he was1 in #agff1 requested to resign on account of scandalous life4 ,after various adventures1 and after holding for a time a professorship at ,giessen1 he received under ,frederick's minister ,zedlitz authorisation to lecture at ,halle4 ,there he lectured to nearly nine hundred students who were attracted by his inspiring eloquence4 ,the government upheld him1 in spite of his serious failings1 with the double motive of annoying the faculty and maintaining the freedom of learning4 ,after the death of ,frederick the ,great1 ,bahrdt had to resign his post1 and took to keeping an inn at a vineyard near ,halle4 ,by ridiculing ,wllner's edict 7#aghh71 he brought on himself a year of confinement in a fortress4 ,he died in disrepute1 in #agib4 ,bahrdt had begun as an orthodox cleric4 ,in ,halle he gave up his belief in revelation1 and endeavoured to explain religion on the ground of reason4 ,to this period belong the 8,popular ,letters about the ,bible10 which were afterwards continued in the further series1 8,an ,explanation of the ,plans and ,aims of ,jesus40 ,his treatment of the life of ,jesus has been too severely censured4 ,the work is not without passages which show a real depth of feeling1 especially in the continually recurring explanations regarding the relation of belief in miracle to true faith1 in which the actual description of the life of ,jesus lies embedded4 ,and the remarks about the teaching of ,jesus are not always commonplace4 ,but the paraphernalia of dialogues of portentous length make it1 as a whole1 formless and inartistic4 ,the introduction of a galaxy of imaginary characters--,haram1 ,schimah1 ,avel1 ,limmah1 and the like--is nothing less than bewildering4 ,bahrdt finds the key to the explanation of the life of ,jesus in the appearance in the ,gospel narrative of ,nicodemus and ,joseph of ,arimathea4 ,they are not disciples of ,jesus1 but belong to the upper classes2 what rle1 then1 can they have played in the life of ,jesus1 and how came they to intercede on ,his behalf8 ,they were ,essenes4 ,this ,order had secret members in all ranks of society1 even in the ,sanhedrin4 ,it had set itself the task of detaching the nation from its sensuous ,messianic hopes and leading it to a higher knowledge of spiritual truths4 ,it had the most widespread ramifications1 extending to ,babylon and to ,egypt4 ,in order to deliver the people from the limitations of the national faith1 which could only lead to disturbance and insurrection1 they must find a ,messiah who would destroy these false ,messianic expectations4 ,they were therefore on the lookout for a claimant of the ,messiahship whom they could make subservient to their aims4 ,jesus came under the notice of the ,order immediately after ,his birth4 ,as a child ,he was watched over at every step by the ,brethren4 ,at the feasts at ,jerusalem ,alexandrian ,jews1 secret members of the ,essene ,order1 put themselves into communication with ,him1 explained to ,him the falsity of the priests1 inspired ,him with a horror of the bloody sacrifices of the ,temple1 and made him acquainted with ,socrates and ,plato4 ,this is set forth in dialogues of a hundred pages long4 ,at the story of the death of ,socrates1 the boy bursts into a tempest of sobs which ,his friends are unable to calm4 ,he longs to emulate the martyrdeath of the great ,athenian4 ,on the marketplace at ,nazareth a mysterious ,persian gives ,him two sovereign remedies--one for affections of the eye1 the other for nervous disorders4 ,his father does his best for ,him1 teaching ,him1 along with ,his cousin ,john1 afterwards the ,baptist1 about virtue and immortality4 ,a priest belonging to the ,essene ,order1 who makes their acquaintance disguised as a shepherd1 and takes part in their conversations1 leads the lads deeper into the knowledge of wisdom4 ,at twelve years old1 ,jesus is already so far advanced that ,he argues with the ,scribes in the ,temple concerning miracles1 maintaining the thesis that they are impossible4 ,when they feel themselves ready to appear in public the two cousins take counsel together how they can best help the people4 ,they agree to open the eyes of the people regarding the tyranny and hypocrisy of the priests4 ,through ,haram1 a prominent member of the ,essene ,order1 ,luke the physician is introduced to ,jesus and places all his science at ,his disposal4 ,in order to produce any effect they were obliged to practise accommodation to the superstitions of the people1 and introduce their wisdom to them under the garb of folly1 in the hope that1 beguiled by its attractive exterior1 the people would admit into their minds the revelation of rational truth1 and after a time be able to emancipate themselves from superstition4 ,jesus1 therefore1 sees ,himself obliged to appear in the rle of the ,messiah of popular expectation1 and to make up ,his mind to work by means of miracles and illusions4 ,about this ,he felt the gravest scruples4 ,he was obliged1 however1 to obey the ,order2 and ,his scruples were quieted by the reminder of the lofty end which was to be reached by these means4 ,at last1 when it is pointed out to ,him that even ,moses had followed the same plan1 ,he submits to the necessity4 ,the influential ,order undertakes the duty of stagemanaging the miracles1 and that of maintaining ,his father4 ,on the reception of ,jesus into the number of the ,brethren of the ,first ,degree of the ,order it is made known to ,him that these ,brethren are bound to face death in the cause of the ,order2 but that the ,order1 on its part1 undertakes so to use the machinery and influence at its disposal that the last extremity shall always be avoided and the ,brother mysteriously preserved from death4 ,then begins the cleverly staged drama by means of which the people are to be converted to rational religion4 ,the members of the ,order are divided into three classes3 ,the ,baptized1 ,the ,disciples1 ,the ,chosen ,ones4 ,the ,baptized receive only the usual popular teaching2 the ,disciples are admitted to further knowledge1 but are not entrusted with the highest mysteries2 the ,chosen ,ones1 who in the ,gospels are also spoken of as 8,angels10 are admitted into all wisdom4 ,as the ,apostles were only members of the ,second ,degree1 they had not the smallest suspicion of the secret machinery which was at work4 ,their part in the drama of the ,life of ,jesus was that of zealous 8supers40 ,the ,gospels which they composed therefore report1 in perfect good faith1 miracles which were really clever illusions produced by the ,essenes1 and they depict the life of ,jesus only as seen by the populace from the outside4 ,it is therefore not always possible for us to discover how the events which they record as miracles actually came about4 ,but whether they took place in one way or another--and as to this we can sometimes get a clue from a hint in the text--it is certain that in all cases the process was natural4 ,with reference to the feeding of the five thousand1 ,bahrdt remarks3 8,it is more reasonable here to think of a thousand ways by which ,jesus might have had sufficient supplies of bread at hand1 and by the distribution of it have shamed the disciples' lack of courage1 than to believe in a miracle40 ,the explanation which he himself prefers is that the ,order had collected a great quantity of bread in a cave and this was gradually handed out to ,jesus1 who stood at the concealed entrance and took some every time the apostles were occupied in distributing the former supply to the multitude4 ,the walking on the sea is to be explained by supposing that ,jesus walked towards the disciples over the surface of a great floating raft2 while they1 not being able to see the raft1 must needs suppose a miracle4 ,when ,peter tried to walk on the water he failed miserably4 ,the miracles of healing are to be attributed to the art of ,luke4 ,he also called the attention of ,jesus to remarkable cases of apparent death1 which ,he then took in hand1 and restored the apparently dead to their sorrowing friends4 ,in such cases1 however1 the ,lord never failed expressly to inform the disciples that the persons were not really dead4 ,they1 however1 did not permit this assurance to deprive them of their faith in the miracle which they felt they had themselves witnessed4 ,in teaching1 ,jesus had two methods3 one1 exoteric1 simple1 for the world2 the other1 esoteric1 mystic1 for the initiate4 8,no attentive reader of the ,bible10 says ,bahrdt1 8can fail to notice that ,jesus made use of two different styles of speech4 ,sometimes ,he spoke so plainly and in such universally intelligible language1 and declared truths so simple and so well adapted to the general comprehension of mankind that even the simplest could follow ,him4 ,at other times he spoke so mystically1 so obscurely1 and in so veiled a fashion that words and thoughts alike baffled the understandings of ordinary people1 and even by more practised minds were not to be grasped without close reflection1 so that we are told in ,john vi4 #fj that #8many of ,his disciples1 when they heard this1 said1 ,this is an hard saying2 who can hear it8' ,and ,jesus ,himself did not deny it1 but only told them that the reason of their not understanding ,his sayings lay in their prejudices1 which made them interpret everything literally and materially1 and overlook the ethical meaning which underlay ,his figurative language40 ,most of these mystical discourses are to be found in ,john1 who seems to have preserved for us the greater part of the secret teaching imparted to the initiate4 ,the key to the understanding of this esoteric teaching is to be found1 therefore1 in the prologue to ,john's ,gospel1 and in the sayings about the new birth4 8,to be born again0 is identical with the degree of perfection which was attained in the highest class of the ,brotherhood4 ,the members of the ,order met on appointed days in caves among the hills4 ,when we are told in the ,gospels that ,jesus went alone into a mountain to pray1 this means that ,he repaired to one of these secret gatherings1 but the disciples1 of course1 knew nothing about that4 ,the ,order had its hidden caves everywhere2 in ,galilee as well as in the neighbourhood of ,jerusalem4 8,only by sensuous means can sensuous ideas be overcome40 ,the ,jewish ,messiah must die and rise again1 in order that the false conceptions of the ,messiah which were cherished by the multitude might be destroyed in the moment of their fulfilment--that is1 might be spiritualised4 ,nicodemus1 ,haram1 and ,luke met in a cave in order to take counsel how they might bring about the death of ,jesus in a way favourable to their plans4 ,luke guaranteed that by the aid of powerful drugs which he would give ,him the ,lord should be enabled to endure the utmost pain and suffering and yet resist death for a long time4 ,nicodemus undertook so to work matters in the ,sanhedrin that the execution should follow immediately upon the sentence1 and the crucified remain only a short time upon the cross4 ,at this moment ,jesus rushed into the cave4 ,he had scarcely had time to replace the stone which concealed the entrance1 so closely had ,he been pursued over the rocks by hired assassins4 ,he ,himself is firmly resolved to die1 but care must be taken that ,he shall not be simply assassinated1 or the whole plan fails4 ,if ,he falls by the assassin's knife1 no resurrection will be possible4 ,in the end1 the piece is staged to perfection4 ,jesus provokes the authorities by ,his triumphal ,messianic entry4 ,the unsuspected ,essenes in the council urge on ,his arrest and secure ,his condemnation--though ,pilate almost frustrates all their plans by acquitting ,him4 ,jesus1 by uttering a loud cry and immediately afterwards bowing ,his head1 shows every appearance of a sudden death4 ,the centurion has been bribed not to allow any of ,his bones to be broken4 ,then comes ,joseph of ,ramath1 as ,bahrdt prefers to call ,joseph of ,arimathea1 and removes the body to the cave of the ,essenes1 where he immediately commences measures of resuscitation4 ,as ,luke had prepared the body of the ,messiah by means of strengthening medicines to resist the fearful illusage which ,he had gone through--the being dragged about and beaten and finally crucified--these efforts were crowned with success4 ,in the cave the most strengthening nutriment was supplied to ,him4 8,since the humours of the body were in a thoroughly healthy condition1 ,his wounds healed very readily1 and by the third day ,he was able to walk1 in spite of the fact that the wounds made by the nails were still open40 ,on the morning of the third day they forced away the stone which closed the mouth of the grave4 ,as ,jesus was descending the rocky slopes the watch awakened and took to flight in alarm4 ,one of the ,essenes appeared1 in the garb of an angel1 to the women and announced to them the resurrection of ,jesus4 ,shortly afterwards the ,lord appeared to ,mary4 ,at the sound of ,his voice she recognises ,him4 8,thereupon ,jesus tells her that ,he is going to ,his ,father 7to heaven--in the mystic sense of the word--that is to say1 to the ,chosen ,ones in their peaceful dwellings of truth and blessedness--to the circle of ,his faithful friends1 among whom ,he continued to live1 unseen by the world1 but still working for the advancement of ,his purpose74 ,he bade her tell ,his disciples that ,he was alive40 ,from ,his place of concealment ,he appeared several times to ,his disciples4 ,finally ,he bade them meet ,him at the ,mount of ,olives1 near ,bethany1 and there took leave of them4 ,after exhorting them1 and embracing each of them in turn1 ,he tore ,himself away from them and walked away up the mountain4 8,there stood those poor men1 amazed--beside themselves with sorrow--and looked after ,him as long as they could4 ,but as ,he mounted higher1 ,he entered ever deeper into the cloud which lay upon the hilltop1 until finally ,he was no longer to be seen4 ,the cloud received ,him out of their sight40 ,from the mountain ,he returned to the chief lodge of the ,brotherhood4 ,only at rare intervals did ,he again intervene in active life--as on the occasion when ,he appeared to ,paul upon the road to ,damascus4 ,but1 though unseen1 ,he continued to direct the destinies of the community until ,his death4 ,venturini's 8,nonsupernatural ,history of the ,great ,prophet of ,nazareth0 is related to ,bahrdt's work as the finished picture to the sketch4 ,karl ,heinrich ,venturini was born at ,brunswick in #agfh4 ,on the completion of his theological studies he vainly endeavoured to secure a post as ,docent in the theological faculty at ,helmstadt1 or as ,librarian at ,wolfenbttel4 ,his life was blameless and his personal piety beyond reproach1 but he was considered to be too free in his ideas4 ,the ,duke of ,brunswick was personally well disposed towards him1 but did not venture to give him a post on the teaching staff in face of the opposition of the consistories4 ,he was reduced to earning a bare pittance by literary work1 and finally in #ahjf was thankful to accept a small living in ,hordorf near ,brunswick4 ,he then abandoned theological writing and devoted his energies to recording the events of contemporary history1 of which he published a yearly chronicle--a proceeding which under the ,napoleonic rgime was not always unattended with risk1 as he more than once had occasion to experience4 ,he continued this undertaking till #ahda4 ,in #ahdi death released him from his tasks4 ,venturini's fundamental assumption is that it was impossible1 even for the noblest spirit of mankind1 to make ,himself understood by the ,judaism of ,his time except by clothing ,his spiritual teaching in a sensuous garb calculated to please the oriental imagination1 8and1 in general1 by bringing ,his higher spiritual world into such relations with the lower sensuous world of those whom ,he wished to teach as was necessary to the accomplishment of ,his aims40 8,god's ,messenger was morally bound to perform miracles for the ,jews4 ,these miracles had an ethical purpose1 and were especially designed to counteract the impression made by the supposed miracles of the deceivers of the people1 and thus to hasten the overthrow of the kingdom of ,satan40 ,for modern medical science the miracles are not miraculous4 ,he never healed without medicaments and always carried ,his 8portable medicine chest0 with ,him4 ,in the case of the ,syrophoenician woman's daughter1 for example1 we can still detect in the narrative a hint of the actual course of events4 ,the mother explains the case to ,jesus4 ,after enquiring where her dwelling was he made a sign to ,john1 and continued to hold her in conversation4 ,the disciple went to the daughter and gave her a sedative1 and when the mother returned she found her child cured4 ,the raisings from the dead were cases of coma4 ,the naturemiracles were due to a profound acquaintance with the powers of ,nature and the order of her processes4 ,they involve foreknowledge rather than control4 ,many miracle stories rest on obvious misunderstandings4 ,nothing could be simpler than the explanation of the miracle at ,cana4 ,jesus had brought with ,him as a weddinggift some jars of good wine and had put them aside in another room4 ,when the wine was finished and ,his mother became anxious1 ,he still allowed the guests to wait a little1 as the stone vessels for purification had not yet been filled with water4 ,when that had been done ,he ordered the servants to pour out some of his wine1 but to tell no one whence it came4 ,when ,john1 as an old man1 wrote his ,gospel1 he got all this rather mixed up--had not indeed observed it very closely at the time1 8had perhaps been the least thing merry himself10 says ,venturini1 and had believed in the miracle with the rest4 ,perhaps1 too1 he had not ventured to ask ,jesus for an explanation1 for he had only become ,his disciple a few days before4 ,the members of the ,essene ,order had watched over the child ,jesus even in ,egypt4 ,as ,he grew older they took charge of ,his education along with that of ,his cousin1 ,john1 and trained them both for their work as deliverers of the people4 ,whereas the nation as a whole looked to an insurrection as the means of its deliverance1 they knew that freedom could only be achieved by means of a spiritual renewal4 ,once ,jesus and ,john met a band of insurgents3 ,jesus worked on them so powerfully by ,his fervid speech that they recognised the impiousness of their purpose4 ,one of them sprang towards ,him and laid down his arms2 it was ,simon1 who afterwards became ,his disciple4 ,when ,jesus was about thirty years old1 and1 owing to the deep experiences of ,his inner life1 had really far outgrown the aims of the ,essene ,order1 ,he entered upon ,his office by demanding baptism from ,john4 ,just as this was taking place a thunderstorm broke1 and a dove1 frightened by the lightning1 fluttered round the head of ,jesus4 ,both ,jesus and ,john took this as a sign that the hour appointed by ,god had come4 ,the temptations in the wilderness1 and upon the pinnacle of the ,temple1 were due to the machinations of the ,pharisee ,zadok1 who pretended to enter into the plans of ,jesus and feigned admiration for ,him in order the more surely to entrap ,him4 ,it was ,zadok1 too1 who stirred up opposition to ,him in the ,sanhedrin4 ,but ,jesus did not succeed in destroying the old ,messianic belief with its earthly aims4 ,the hatred of the leading circles against ,him grew1 although ,he avoided everything 8that could offend their prejudices40 ,it was for this reason that ,he even forbade ,his disciples to preach the ,gospel beyond the borders of ,jewish territory4 ,he paid the templetax1 also1 although he had no fixed abode4 ,when the collector went to ,peter about it1 the following dialogue took place4 ,taxcollector 7drawing ,peter aside74 ,tell me1 ,simon1 does the ,rabbi pay the didrachma to the ,temple treasury1 or should we not trouble ,him about it8 ,peter4 ,why shouldn't ,he pay it8 ,why do you ask8 ,taxcollector4 ,it's been owing from both of you since last ,nisan1 as our books show4 ,we did not like to remind your ,master1 out of reverence4 ,peter4 ,i'll tell ,him at once4 ,he will certainly pay the tax4 ,you need have no fear about that4 ,taxcollector4 ,that's good4 ,that will put everything straight1 and we shall have no trouble over our accounts4 ,goodbye6 ,when ,jesus hears of it ,he commands ,peter to go and catch a fish1 and to take care1 in removing the hook1 not to tear its mouth1 that it may be fit for salting 767 ,in that case it will doubtless be worth a stater4 ,the time arrived when an important move must be made4 ,in full conclave of the ,secret ,society it was resolved that ,jesus should go up to ,jerusalem and there publicly proclaim ,himself as the ,messiah4 ,then ,he was to endeavour to disabuse the people of their earthly ,messianic expectations4 ,the triumphal entry succeeded4 ,the whole people hailed ,him with acclamations4 ,but when ,he tried to substitute for their picture of the ,messiah one of a different character1 and spoke of times of severe trial which should come upon all1 when ,he showed ,himself but seldom in the ,temple1 instead of taking ,his place at the head of the people1 they began to doubt ,him4 ,jesus was suddenly arrested and put to death4 ,here1 then1 the death is not1 as in ,bahrdt1 a piece of playacting1 stagemanaged by the ,secret ,society4 ,jesus really expected to die1 and only to meet ,his disciples again in the eternal life of the other world4 ,but when ,he so soon gave up the ghost1 ,joseph of ,arimathea was moved by some vague premonition to hasten at once to ,pontius ,pilate and make request for ,his body4 ,he offers the ,procurator money4 ,pilate 7sternly and emphatically73 8,dost thou also mistake me8 ,am ,i1 then1 such an insatiable miser8 ,still1 thou art a ,jew--how could this people do me justice8 ,know1 then1 that a ,roman can honour true nobility wherever he may find it4 7,he sits down and writes some words on a strip of parchment47 ,give this to the captain of the guard4 ,thou shall be permitted to remove the body4 ,i ask nothing for this4 ,it is granted to thee freely40 8,a tender embrace from his wife rewarded the noble deed of the ,roman1 while ,joseph left the ,praetorium1 and with ,nicodemus1 who was impatiently awaiting him1 hastened to ,golgotha40 ,there he received the body2 he washed it1 anointed it with spices1 and laid it on a bed of moss in the rockhewn grave4 ,from the blood which was still flowing from the wound in the side1 he ventured to draw a hopeful augury1 and sent word to the ,essene ,brethren4 ,they had a hold close by1 and promised to watch over the body4 ,in the first fourandtwenty hours no movement of life showed itself4 ,then came the earthquake4 ,in the midst of the terrible commotion a ,brother1 in the white robes of the ,order1 was making his way to the grave by a secret path4 ,when he1 illumined by a flash of lightning1 suddenly appeared above the grave1 and at the same moment the earth shook violently1 panic seized the watch1 and they fled4 ,in the morning the ,brother hears a sound from the grave3 ,jesus is moving4 ,the whole ,order hastens to the spot1 and ,jesus is removed to their ,lodge4 ,two brethren remain at the grave--these were the 8angels0 whom the women saw later4 ,jesus1 in the dress of a gardener1 is afterwards recognised by ,mary ,magdalene4 ,later1 ,he comes out at intervals from the hidingplace1 where ,he is kept by the ,brethren1 and appears to the disciples4 ,after forty days ,he took ,his leave of them3 ,his strength was exhausted4 ,the farewell scene gave rise to the mistaken impression of ,his ,ascension4 ,from the historical point of view these lives are not such contemptible performances as might be supposed4 ,there is much penetrating observation in them4 ,bahrdt and ,venturini are right in feeling that the connexion of events in the life of ,jesus has to be discovered2 the ,gospels give only a series of occurrences1 and offer no explanation why they happened just as they did4 ,and if1 in making ,jesus subservient to the plans of a secret society1 they represented ,him as not acting with perfect freedom1 but as showing a certain passivity1 this assumption of theirs was to be brilliantly vindicated1 a hundred years later1 by the eschatological school1 which asserts the same remarkable passivity on the part of ,jesus1 in that ,he allows ,his actions to be determined1 not indeed by a secret society1 but by the eschatological plan of ,god4 ,bahrdt and ,venturini were the first to see that1 of all ,jesus' acts1 ,his death was most distinctively ,his own1 because it was by this that ,he purposed to found the kingdom4 ,venturini's 8,nonsupernatural ,history of the ,great ,prophet of ,nazareth0 may almost be said to be reissued annually down to the present day1 for all the fictitious 8,lives0 go back directly or indirectly to the type which he created4 ,it is plagiarised more freely than any other ,life of ,jesus1 although practically unknown by name4 ,v4 ,,fully ,,developed ,,rationalism--,,paulus ,heinrich ,eberhard ,gottlob ,paulus4 ,das ,leben ,jesu als ,grundlage einer reinen ,geschichte des ,urchristentums4 ,heidelberg1 ,c4 ,f4 ,winter4 7,the ,life of ,jesus as the ,basis of a purely ,historical ,account of ,early ,christianity47 #ahbh4 #b vols41 #aaib pp4 ,freut euch mit ,gottesandacht1 wenn es gewhrt euch ist1 ,dem1 so kurz er war1 weltumschaffenden ,lebensgang ,nach ,jahrhunderten fern zu folgen1 ,denket1 glaubet1 folget des ,vorbildes ,spur6 7,closing words of vol4 ii47 7,rejoice with grateful devotion1 if unto you 'tis permitted1 ,after the lapse of centuries1 still to follow afar off ,that ,life which1 short as it was1 changed the course of the ages2 ,think ye well1 and believe2 follow the path of our ,pattern47 ,paulus was not the mere dryasdust rationalist that he is usually represented to have been1 but a man of very versatile abilities4 ,his limitation was that1 like ,reinhard1 he had an unconquerable distrust of anything that went outside the boundaries of logical thought4 ,that was due in part to the experiences of his youth4 ,his father1 a deacon in ,leonberg1 halfmystic1 halfrationalist1 had secret difficulties about the doctrine of immortality1 and made his wife promise on her deathbed that1 if it were possible1 she would appear to him after her death in bodily form4 ,after she was dead he thought he saw her raise herself to a sitting posture1 and again sink down4 ,from that time onwards he firmly believed himself to be in communication with departed spirits1 and he became so dominated by this idea that in #agga he had to be removed from his office4 ,his children suffered sorely from a rgime of compulsory spiritualism1 which pressed hardest upon ,heinrich ,eberhard ,gottlob1 born in #agfa1 who1 for the sake of peace1 was obliged to pretend to his father that he was in communication with his mother's spirit4 ,he himself had inherited only the rationalistic side of his father's temperament4 ,as a student at the ,tbingen ,stift 7theological institute7 he formed his views on the writings of ,semler and ,michaelis4 ,in #aghi he was called to ,jena as ,professor of ,oriental ,languages1 and succeeded in #agic to the third ordinary professorship of theology4 ,the naturalistic interpretation of miracles which he upheld in his commentary on the ,synoptic ,gospels1 published in #ahjjahjb1 aroused the indignation of the consistories of ,meiningen and ,eisenach4 ,but their petition for his removal from the professorship was unsuccessful1 since ,herder1 who was president of the consistorium1 used his influence to protect him4 ,in #agii ,paulus1 as ,prorector1 used his influence on behalf of his colleague ,fichte1 who was attacked on the ground of atheism2 but in vain1 owing to the passionate conduct of the accused4 ,with ,goethe1 ,schiller1 and ,wieland1 ,paulus and his wife1 a lively lady of some literary talents1 stood in the most friendly relations4 ,when the ,jena circle began to break up1 he accepted1 in #ahjc1 an invitation from the ,elector of ,bavaria1 ,maximilian ,joseph ,,ii41 to go to ,wrzburg as ,konsistorialrat and professor4 ,there the liberal minister1 ,montgelas1 was desirous of establishing a university founded on the principles of illuminism--,schelling1 ,hufeland1 and ,schleiermacher were among those whom he contemplated appointing as ,docents4 ,here the ,catholic theological students were obliged to attend the lectures of the ,protestant professor of theology1 as there were no ,protestants to form an audience4 ,his first course was on 8,encyclopdie0 7i4e4 introduction to the literature of theology74 ,the plan failed4 ,paulus resigned his professorship and became in #ahjg a member of the ,bavarian educational council 7,schulrat74 ,in this capacity he worked at the reorganisation of the ,bavarian school system at the time when ,hegel was similarly engaged4 ,he gave four years to this task1 which he felt to be laid upon him as a duty4 ,then1 in #ahaa1 he went to ,heidelberg as professor of theology2 and he remained there until his death1 in #ahea1 at the age of ninety4 ,one of his last sayings1 a few hours before he died1 was1 8,i am justified before ,god1 through my desire to do right40 ,his last words were1 8,there is another world40 ,the forty years of his ,heidelberg period were remarkably productive2 there was no department of knowledge on which he did not write4 ,he expressed his views about homoeopathy1 about the freedom of the ,press1 about academic freedom1 and about the duelling nuisance4 ,in #ahca1 he wrote upon the ,jewish ,question2 and there the veteran rationalist showed himself a bitter anti,semite1 and brought upon himself the scorn of ,heine4 ,on politics and constitutional questions he fought for his opinions so openly and manfully that he had to be warned to be more discreet4 ,in philosophy he took an especially keen interest4 ,when in ,jena he had1 in conjunction with ,schiller1 busied himself in the study of ,kant4 ,he did a particularly meritorious service in preparing an edition of ,spinoza's writings1 with a biography of that thinker1 in #ahjc1 at the time when neo,spinozism was making its influence felt in ,german philosophy4 ,he constituted himself the special guardian of philosophy1 and the moment he detected the slightest hint of mysticism1 he sounded the alarm4 ,his pet aversion was ,schelling1 who was born fourteen years later than he1 in the very same house at ,leonberg1 and whom he had met as colleague at ,jena and at ,wrzburg4 ,the works1 avowed and anonymous1 which he directed against this 8charlatan1 juggler1 swindler1 and obscurantist10 as he designated him1 fill an entire library4 ,in #ahda1 ,schelling was called to the chair of philosophy in ,berlin1 and in the winter of #ahdaahdb he gave his lectures on 8,the ,philosophy of ,revelation0 which caused the ,berlin reactionaries to hail him as their great ally4 ,the veteran rationalist--he was eighty years old--was transported with rage4 ,he had had the lectures taken down for him1 and he published them with critical remarks under the title 8,the ,philosophy of ,revelation at length ,revealed1 and set forth for ,general ,examination1 by ,dr4 ,h4 ,e4 ,g4 ,paulus0 7,darmstadt1 #ahdb74 ,schelling was furious1 and dragged 8the impudent scoundrel0 into a court of law on the charge of illicit publication4 ,in ,prussia the book was suppressed4 ,but the courts decided in favour of ,paulus1 who coolly explained that 8the philosophy of ,schelling appeared to him an insidious attack upon sound reason1 the unmasking of which by every possible means was a work of public utility1 nay1 even a duty40 ,he also secured the result at which he aimed2 ,schelling resigned his lectureship4 ,in his last days the veteran rationalist was an isolated survival from an earlier age into a period which no longer understood him4 ,the new men reproached him for standing in the old ways2 he accused them of a want of honesty4 ,it was just in his immobility and his onesidedness that his significance lay4 ,by his consistent carrying through of the rationalistic explanation he performed a service to theology more valuable than those who think themselves so vastly his superiors are willing to acknowledge4 ,his ,life of ,jesus is awkwardly arranged4 ,the first part gives a historical exposition of the ,gospels1 section by section4 ,the second part is a synopsis interspersed with supplementary matter4 ,there is no attempt to grasp the life of ,jesus as a connected whole4 ,in that respect he is far inferior to ,venturini4 ,strictly regarded1 his work is only a harmony of the gospels with explanatory comments1 the ground plan of which is taken from the ,fourth ,gospel47#bb7 ,the main interest centres in the explanations of the miracles1 though the author1 it must be admitted1 endeavoured to guard against this4 8,it is my chief desire10 he writes in his preface1 8that my views regarding the miracle stories should not be taken as by any means the principal thing4 ,how empty would devotion or religion be if one's spiritual wellbeing depended on whether one believed in miracles or no60 8,the truly miraculous thing about ,jesus is ,himself1 the purity and serene holiness of ,his character1 which is1 notwithstanding1 genuinely human1 and adapted to the imitation and emulation of mankind40 ,the question of miracle is therefore a subsidiary question4 ,two points of primary importance are certain from the outset3 7#a7 that unexplained alterations of the course of nature can neither overthrow nor attest a spiritual truth1 7#b7 that everything which happens in nature emanates from the omnipotence of ,god4 ,the ,evangelists intended to relate miracles2 of that there can be no doubt4 ,nor can any one deny that in their time miracles entered into the plan of ,god1 in the sense that the minds of men were to be astounded and subdued by inexplicable facts4 ,this effect1 however1 is past4 ,in periods to which the miraculous makes less appeal1 in view of the advance in intellectual culture of the nations which have been led to accept ,christianity1 the understanding must be satisfied if the success of the cause is to be maintained4 ,since that which is produced by the laws of nature is really produced by ,god1 the ,biblical miracles consist merely in the fact that eyewitnesses report events of which they did not know the secondary causes4 ,their knowledge of the laws of nature was insufficient to enable them to understand what actually happened4 ,for one who has discovered the secondary causes1 the fact remains1 as such1 but not the miracle4 ,the question of miracle1 therefore1 does not really exist1 or exists only for those 8who are under the influence of the sceptical delusion that it is possible really to think any kind of natural powers as existing apart from ,god1 or to think the ,being of ,god apart from the primal potentialities which unfold themselves in the neverceasing process of ,becoming40 ,the difficulty arises from the 8original sin0 of dissolving the inner unity of ,god and nature1 of denying the equivalence implied by ,spinoza in his 8,deus sive ,natura40 ,for the normal intelligence the only problem is to discover the secondary causes of the 8miracles0 of ,jesus4 ,it is true there is one miracle which ,paulus retains--the miracle of the birth1 or at least the possibility of it2 in the sense that it is through holy inspiration that ,mary receives the hope and the power of conceiving her exalted ,son1 in whom the spirit of the ,messiah takes up its dwelling4 ,here he indirectly denies the natural generation1 and regards the conception as an act of the self consciousness of the mother4 ,with the miracles of healing1 however1 the case is very simple4 ,sometimes ,jesus worked through ,his spiritual power upon the nervous system of the sufferer2 sometimes ,he used medicines known to ,him alone4 ,the latter applies1 for instance1 to the cures of the blind4 ,the disciples1 too1 as appears from ,mark vi4 #g and #ac1 were not sent out without medicaments1 for the oil with which they were to anoint the sick was1 of course1 of a medicinal character2 and the casting out of evil spirits was effected partly by means of sedatives4 ,diet and aftertreatment played a great part1 though the ,evangelists say little about this because directions on these points would not be given publicly4 ,thus1 the saying1 8,this kind goeth not out save by prayer and fasting10 is interpreted as an instruction to the father as to the way in which he could make the sudden cure of the epileptic into a permanent one1 viz4 by keeping him to a strict diet and strengthening his character by devotional exercises4 ,the nature miracles suggest their own explanation4 ,the walking on the water was an illusion of the disciples4 ,jesus walked along the shore1 and in the mist was taken for a ghost by the alarmed and excited occupants of the boat4 ,when ,jesus called to them1 ,peter threw himself into the water1 and was drawn to shore by ,jesus just as he was sinking4 ,immediately after taking ,jesus into the boat they doubled a headland and drew clear of the storm centre2 they therefore supposed that ,he had calmed the sea by ,his command4 ,it was the same in the case where ,he was asleep during the storm4 ,when they waked ,him ,he spoke to them about the wind and the weather4 ,at that moment they gained the shelter of a hill which protected them from the wind that swept down the valley2 and they marvelled among themselves that even the winds and the sea obeyed their ,messiah4 ,the feeding of the five thousand is explained in the following way4 ,when ,jesus saw the multitude all hungered1 ,he said to ,his disciples1 8,we will set the rich people among them a good example1 that they may share their supplies with the others10 and he began to distribute ,his own provisions1 and those of the disciples1 to the people who were sitting near them4 ,the example had its effect1 and soon there was plenty for every one4 ,the explanation of the transfiguration is somewhat more complicated4 ,while ,jesus was lingering with a few followers in this mountainous district ,he had an interview upon a high mountain at night with two dignifiedlooking men whom ,his three companions took for ,moses and ,elias4 ,these unknown persons1 as we learn from ,luke ix4 #ca1 informed ,him of the fate which awaited ,him at ,jerusalem4 ,in the early morning1 as the sun was rising1 the three disciples1 only half awake1 looked upwards from the hollow in which they had been sleeping and saw ,jesus with the two strangers upon the higher part of the mountain1 illuminated by the beams of the rising sun1 and heard them speak1 now of the fate which threatened ,him in the capital1 now of the duty of steadfastness and the hopes attached thereto1 and finally heard an exhortation addressed to themselves1 bidding them ever to hold ,jesus to be the beloved ,son of the ,deity1 whom they must obey4444 ,their drowsiness1 and the clouds which in an autumnal sunrise float to and fro over those mountains17#bc7 left them no clear recollection of what had happened4 ,this only added to the wonder of the vague undefined impression of having been in contact with apparitions from a higher sphere4 ,the three who had been with ,him on the mount never arrived at any more definite knowledge of the facts1 because ,jesus forbade them to speak of what they had seen until the end should come4 ,in dealing with the raisings from the dead the author is in his element4 ,here he is ready with the unfailing explanation taken over from ,bahrdt that they were only cases of coma4 ,these narratives should not be headed 8raisings from the dead10 but 8deliverances from premature burial40 ,in ,judaea1 interment took place three hours after death4 ,how many seemingly dead people may have returned to consciousness in their graves1 and then have perished miserably6 ,thus ,jesus1 owing to a presentiment suggested to ,him by the father's story1 saves the daughter of ,jairus from being buried while in a cataleptic trance4 ,a similar presentiment led ,him to remove the covering of the bier which ,he met at the gate of ,nain1 and to discover traces of life in the widow's son4 ,a similar instinct moved ,him to ask to be taken to the grave of ,lazarus4 ,when the stone is rolled away ,he sees ,his friend standing upright and calls to him joyfully1 8,come forth60 ,the ,jewish love of miracle 8caused everything to be ascribed immediately to the ,deity1 and secondary causes to be overlooked2 consequently no thought was unfortunately given to the question of how to prevent these horrible cases of premature burial from taking place60 ,but why does it not appear strange to ,paulus that ,jesus did not enlighten ,his countrymen as to the criminal character of overhasty burial1 instead of allowing even his closest followers to believe in miracle8 ,here the hypothesis condemns itself1 although it has a foundation of fact1 in so far as cases of premature burial are abnormally frequent in the ,east4 ,the resurrection of ,jesus must be brought under the same category if we are to hold fast to the facts that the disciples saw ,him in ,his natural body with the print of the nails in ,his hands1 and that ,he took food in their presence4 ,death from crucifixion was in fact due to a condition of rigor1 which extended gradually inwards4 ,it was the slowest of all deaths4 ,josephus mentions in his ,contra ,apionem that it was granted to him as a favour by ,titus1 at ,tekoa1 that he might have three crucified men whom he knew taken down from the cross4 ,two of them died1 but one recovered4 ,jesus1 however1 8died0 surprisingly quickly4 ,the loud cry which he uttered immediately before ,his head sank shows that ,his strength was far from being exhausted1 and that what supervened was only a deathlike trance4 ,in such trances the process of dying continues until corruption sets in4 8,this alone proves that the process is complete and that death has actually taken place40 ,in the case of ,jesus1 as in that of others1 the vital spark would have been gradually extinguished1 had not ,providence mysteriously effected on behalf of its favourite that which in the case of others was sometimes effected in more obvious ways by human skill and care4 ,the lancethrust1 which we are to think of rather as a mere surface wound1 served the purpose of a phlebotomy4 ,the cool grave and the aromatic unguents continued the process of resuscitation1 until finally the storm and the earthquake aroused ,jesus to full consciousness4 ,fortunately the earthquake also had the effect of rolling away the stone from the mouth of the grave4 ,the ,lord stripped off the graveclothes and put on a gardener's dress which ,he managed to procure4 ,that was what made ,mary1 as we are told in ,john xx4 #ae1 take ,him for the gardener4 ,through the women1 ,he sends a message to ,his disciples bidding them meet ,him in ,galilee1 and ,himself sets out to go thither4 ,at ,emmaus1 as the dusk was falling1 ,he met two of ,his followers1 who at first failed to recognise ,him because ,his countenance was so disfigured by ,his sufferings4 ,but ,his manner of giving thanks at the breaking of bread1 and the nailprints in ,his uplifted hands1 revealed to them who ,he was4 ,from them ,he learns where ,his disciples are1 returns to ,jerusalem1 and appears unexpectedly among them4 ,this is the explanation of the apparent contradiction between the message pointing to ,galilee and the appearances in ,jerusalem4 ,thomas was not present at this first appearance1 and at a later interview was suffered to put his hand into the marks of the wounds4 ,it is a misunderstanding to see a reproach in the words which ,jesus addresses to him4 ,what1 then1 is the meaning of 8,blessed are they that have not seen and have believed08 ,it is a benediction upon ,thomas for what he has done in the interests of later generations4 8,now10 ,jesus says1 8thou1 ,thomas1 art convinced because thou hast so unmistakably seen ,me4 ,it is well for those who now or in the future shall not see ,me2 for after this they can feel a firm conviction1 because thou hast convinced thyself so completely that to thee1 whose hands have touched ,me1 no possible doubt can remain of ,my corporeal reanimation40 ,had it not been for ,thomas's peculiar mental constitution we should not have known whether what was seen was a phantom or a real appearance of the reanimated ,jesus4 ,in this way ,jesus lived with them for forty days1 spending part of that time with them in ,galilee4 ,in consequence of the illtreatment which ,he had undergone1 ,he was not capable of continuous exertion4 ,he lived quietly and gathered strength for the brief moments in which ,he appeared among ,his own followers and taught them4 ,when ,he felt his end drawing near ,he returned to ,jerusalem4 ,on the ,mount of ,olives1 in the early sunlight1 ,he assembled ,his followers for the last time4 ,he lifted up ,his hands to bless them1 and with hands still raised in benediction ,he moved away from them4 ,a cloud interposes itself between them and ,him1 so that their eyes cannot follow ,him4 ,as he disappeared there stood before them1 clothed in white1 the two dignified figures whom the three disciples who were present at the transfiguration had taken for ,moses and ,elias1 but who were really among the secret adherents of ,jesus in ,jerusalem4 ,these men exhorted them not to stand waiting there but to be up and doing4 ,where ,jesus really died they never knew1 and so they came to describe ,his departure as an ascension4 ,this ,life of ,jesus is not written without feeling4 ,at times1 in moments of exaltation1 the writer even dashes into verse4 ,if only the lack of all natural aesthetic feeling did not ruin everything6 ,paulus constantly falls into a style that sets the teeth on edge4 ,the episode of the death of the ,baptist is headed 8,courtand,priest intrigues enhance themselves to a judicial murder40 ,much is spoiled by a kind of banality4 ,instead of 8disciples10 he always says 8pupils10 instead of 8faith10 8sincerity of conviction40 ,the appeal which the father of the lunatic boy addresses to ,jesus1 8,lord1 ,i believe1 help thou my unbelief10 runs 8,i am sincerely convinced2 help me1 even if there is anything lacking in the sincerity of my conviction40 ,the beautiful saying in the story of ,martha and ,mary1 8,one thing is needful10 is interpreted as meaning that a single course will be sufficient for the meal47#bd7 ,the scene in the home at ,bethany rejoices in the heading1 8,geniality of ,jesus among sympathetic friends in a hospitable family circle at ,bethany4 ,a ,messiah with no stiff solemnity about ,him40 ,the following is the explanation which ,paulus discovers for the saying about the tributemoney3 8,so long as you need the ,romans to maintain some sort of order among you10 says ,jesus1 8you must provide the means thereto4 ,if you were fit to be independent you would not need to serve any one but ,god40 ,among the historical problems1 ,paulus is especially interested in the idea of the ,messiahship1 and in the motives of the betrayal4 ,his sixtyfive pages on the history of the conception of the ,messiah are a real contribution to the subject4 ,the ,messianic idea1 he explains1 goes back to the ,davidic kingdom2 the prophets raised it to a higher religious plane2 in the times of the ,maccabees the ideal of the kingly ,messiah perished and its place was taken by that of the superearthly deliverer4 ,the only mistake which ,paulus makes is in supposing that the post,maccabean period went back to the political ideal of the ,davidic king4 ,on the other hand1 he rightly interprets the death of ,jesus as the deed by which ,he thought to win the ,messiahship proper to the ,son of ,man4 ,with reference to the question of the ,high ,priest at the trial1 he remarks that it does not refer to the metaphysical ,divine ,sonship1 but to the ,messiahship in the ancient ,jewish sense1 and accordingly ,jesus answers by pointing to the coming of the ,son of ,man4 ,the importance of eschatology in the preaching of ,jesus is clearly recognised1 but ,paulus proceeds to nullify this recognition by making the risen ,lord cut short all the questions of the disciples in regard to this subject with the admonition 8that in whatever way all this should come about1 and whether soon or late1 their business was to see that they had done their own part40 ,how did ,judas come to play the traitor8 ,he believed in the ,messiahship of ,jesus and wanted to force ,him to declare ,himself4 ,to bring about ,his arrest seemed to ,judas the best means of rousing the people to take ,his side openly4 ,but the course of events was too rapid for him4 ,owing to the ,feast the news of the arrest spread but slowly4 ,in the night 8when people were sleeping off the effects of the ,passover supper10 ,jesus was condemned2 in the morning1 before they were well awake1 ,he was hurried away to be crucified4 ,then ,judas was overcome with despair1 and went and hanged himself4 8,judas stands before us in the history of the ,passion as a warning example of those who allow their cleverness to degenerate into cunning1 and persuade themselves that it is permissible to do evil that good may come--to seek good objects1 which they really value1 by intrigue and chicanery4 ,and the underlying cause of their errors is that they have failed to overcome their passionate desire for selfadvancement40 ,such was the consistently rationalistic ,life of ,jesus1 which evoked so much opposition at the time of its appearance1 and seven years later received its deathblow at the hands of ,strauss4 ,the method is doomed to failure because the author only saves his own sincerity at the expense of that of his characters4 ,he makes the disciples of ,jesus see miracles where they could not possibly have seen them2 and makes ,jesus ,himself allow miracles to be imagined where ,he must necessarily have protested against such a delusion4 ,his exegesis1 too1 is sometimes violent4 ,but in this1 who has the right to judge him8 ,if the theologians dragged him before the ,lord1 ,he would command1 as of old1 8,let him that is without sin among you cast the first stone at him10 and ,paulus would go forth unharmed4 ,moreover1 a number of his explanations are right in principle4 ,the feeding of the multitudes and the walking on the sea must be explained somehow or other as misunderstandings of something that actually happened4 ,and how many of ,paulus' ideas are still going about in all sorts of disguises1 and crop up again and again in commentaries and ,lives of ,jesus1 especially in those of the 8antirationalists06 ,nowadays it belongs to the complete duty of the welltrained theologian to renounce the rationalists and all their works2 and yet how poor our time is in comparison with theirs--how poor in strong men capable of loyalty to an ideal1 how poor1 so far as theology is concerned1 in simple commonplace sincerity6 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,last ,,phase ,,of ,,rationalism--,,hase ,,and ,,schleiermacher ,karl ,august ,hase4 ,das ,leben ,jesu zunchst fr akademische ,studien4 7,the ,life of ,jesus1 primarily for the use of students47 #ahbi4 #bje pp4 ,this work contains a bibliography of the earliest literature of the subject4 #eth ed41 #ahfe4 ,friedrich ,ernst ,daniel ,schleiermacher4 ,das ,leben ,jesu4 #ahfd4 ,edited by ,rtenik4 ,the edition is based upon a student's notebook of a course of lectures delivered in #ahcb4 ,david ,friedrich ,strauss4 ,der ,christus des ,glaubens und der ,jesus der ,geschichte4 ,eine ,kritik des ,schleiermacher'schen ,lebens ,jesu4 7,the ,christ of ,faith and the ,jesus of ,history4 ,a criticism of ,schleiermacher's ,life of ,jesus47 #ahfe4 ,in their treatment of the life of ,jesus1 ,hase and ,schleiermacher are in one respect still wholly dominated by rationalism4 ,they still cling to the rationalistic explanation of miracle2 although they have no longer the same ingenuous confidence in it as their predecessors1 and although at the decisive cases they are content to leave a questionmark instead of offering a solution4 ,they might1 in fact1 be described as the sceptics of rationalism4 ,in another respect1 however1 they aim at something beyond the range of rationalism1 inasmuch as they endeavour to grasp the inner connexion of the events of ,jesus' ministry1 which in ,paulus had entirely fallen out of sight4 ,their ,lives of ,jesus are transitional1 in the good sense of the word as well as in the bad4 ,in respect of progress1 ,hase shows himself the greater of the two4 ,scarcely thirteen years have elapsed since the death of the great ,jena professor1 his ,excellency von ,hase1 and already we think of him as a man of the past4 ,theology has voted to inscribe his name upon its records in letters of gold--and has passed on to the order of the day4 ,he was no pioneer like ,baur1 and he does not meet the present age on the footing of a contemporary1 offering it problems raised by him and still unsolved4 ,even his 8,church ,history10 with its twelve editions1 has already had its day1 although it is still the most brilliantly written work in this department1 and conceals beneath its elegance of form a massive erudition4 ,he was more than a theologian2 he was one of the finest monuments of ,german culture1 the living embodiment of a period which for us lies under the sunset glow of the past1 in the land of 8once upon a time40 ,his path in life was unembarrassed2 he knew toil1 but not disappointment4 ,born in #ahjj1 he finished his studies at ,tbingen1 where he qualified as a ,privat,docent in #ahbc4 ,in #ahbdahbe he spent eleven months in the fortress of ,hohenasperg1 where he was confined for taking the part of the ,burschenschaften17#be7 and had leisure for meditation and literary plans4 ,in #ahcj he went to ,jena1 where1 with a yearly visit to ,italy to lay in a store of sunshine and renewed strength1 he worked until #ahij4 ,not without a certain reverence does one take this little textbook of #bje pages into one's hands4 ,this is the first attempt by a fully equipped scholar to reconstruct the life of ,jesus on a purely historical basis4 ,there is more creative power in it than in almost any of his later works4 ,it manifests already the brilliant qualities of style for which he was distinguished--clearness1 terseness1 elegance4 ,what a contrast with that of ,bahrdt1 ,venturini1 or ,paulus6 ,and yet the keynote of the work is rationalistic1 since ,hase has recourse to the rationalistic explanation of miracles wherever that appears possible4 ,he seeks to make the circumstances of the baptism intelligible by supposing the appearance of a meteor4 ,in the story of the transfiguration1 the fact which is to be retained is that ,jesus1 in the company of two unknown persons1 appeared to the disciples in unaccustomed splendour4 ,their identification of ,his companions as ,moses and ,elias is a conclusion which is not confirmed by ,jesus1 and owing to the position of the eyewitnesses1 is not sufficiently guaranteed by their testimony4 ,the abrupt breaking off of the interview by the ,master1 and the injunction of silence1 point to some secret circumstance in ,his history4 ,by this hint ,hase seems to leave room for the 8secret society0 of ,bahrdt and ,venturini4 ,he makes no difficulty about the explanation of the story of the stater4 ,it is only intended to show 8how the ,messiah avoided offence in submitting ,himself to the financial burdens of the community40 ,in regard to the stilling of the storm1 it seems uncertain whether ,jesus through ,his knowledge of nature was enabled to predict the end of the storm or whether ,he brought it about by the possession of power over nature4 ,the 8sceptic of rationalism0 thus leaves open the possibility of miracle4 ,he proceeds somewhat similarly in explaining the raisings from the dead4 ,they can be made intelligible by supposing that they were cases of coma1 but it is also possible to look upon them as supernatural4 ,for the two great ,johannine miracles1 the change of the water into wine and the increase of the loaves1 no naturalistic explanation can be admitted4 ,but how unsuccessful is his attempt to make the increase of the bread intelligible6 8,why should not the bread have been increased80 he asks4 8,if nature every year in the period between seedtime and harvest performs a similar miracle1 nature might also1 by unknown laws1 bring it about in a moment40 ,here crops up the dangerous antirationalistic intellectual supernaturalism which sometimes brings ,hase and ,schleiermacher very close to the frontiers of the territory occupied by the disingenuous reactionaries4 ,the crucial point is the explanation of the resurrection of ,jesus4 ,a stringent proof that death had actually taken place cannot1 according to ,hase1 be given1 since there is no evidence that corruption had set in1 and that is the only infallible sign of death4 ,it is possible1 therefore1 that the resurrection was only a return to consciousness after a trance4 ,but the direct impression made by the sources points rather to a supernatural event4 ,either view is compatible with the ,christian faith4 8,both the historically possible views--either that the ,creator gave new life to a body which was really dead1 or that the latent life reawakened in a body which was only seemingly dead--recognise in the resurrection a manifest proof of the care of ,providence for the cause of ,jesus1 and are therefore both to be recognised as ,christian1 whereas a third view--that ,jesus gave ,himself up to his enemies in order to defeat them by the bold stroke of a seeming death and a skilfully prepared resurrection--is as contrary to historical criticism as to ,christian faith40 ,hase1 however1 quietly lightens the difficulty of the miracle question in a way which must not be overlooked4 ,for the rationalists all miracles stood on the same footing1 and all must equally be abolished by a naturalistic explanation4 ,if we study ,hase carefully1 we find that he accepts only the ,johannine miracles as authentic1 whereas those of the ,synoptists may be regarded as resting upon a misunderstanding on the part of the authors1 because they are not reported at first hand1 but from tradition4 ,thus the discrimination of the two lines of ,gospel tradition comes to the aid of the antirationalists1 and enables them to get rid of some of the greatest difficulties4 ,half playfully1 it might almost be said1 they sketch out the ideas of ,strauss1 without ever suspecting what desperate earnest the game will become1 if the authenticity of the ,fourth ,gospel has to be given up4 ,hase surrenders the birthstory and the 8legends of the ,childhood0--the expression is his own--almost without striking a blow4 ,the same fate befalls all the incidents in which angels figure1 and the miracles at the time of the death of ,jesus4 ,he describes these as 8mythical touches40 ,the ascension is merely 8a mythical version of ,his departure to the ,father40 ,hase's conception even of the nonmiraculous portion of the history of ,jesus is not free from rationalistic traits4 ,he indulges in the following speculations with regard to the celibacy of the ,lord4 8,if the true grounds of the celibacy of ,jesus do not lie hidden in the special circumstances of ,his youth1 the conjecture may be permitted that ,he from whose religion was to go forth the ideal view of marriage1 so foreign to the ideas of antiquity1 found in ,his own time no heart worthy to enter into this covenant with ,him40 ,it is on rationalistic lines also that ,hase explains the betrayal by ,judas4 8,a purely intellectual1 worldly1 and unscrupulous character1 he desired to compel the hesitating ,messiah to found ,his ,kingdom upon popular violence4444 ,it is possible that ,judas in his terrible blindness took that last word addressed to him by ,jesus1 #8,what thou doest1 do quickly1' as giving consent to his plan40 ,but ,hase again rises superior to this rationalistic conception of the history when he refuses to explain away the ,jewish elements in the plan and preaching of ,jesus as due to mere accommodation1 and maintains the view that the ,lord really1 to a certain extent1 shared this ,jewish system of ideas4 ,according to ,hase there are two periods in the ,messianic activity of ,jesus4 ,in the first ,he accepted almost without reservation the popular ideas regarding the ,messianic age4 ,in consequence1 however1 of ,his experience of the practical results of these ideas1 ,he was led to abandon this error1 and in the second period ,he developed ,his own distinctive views4 ,here we meet for the first time the idea of two different periods in the life of ,jesus1 which1 especially through the influence of ,holtzmann and ,keim1 became the prevailing view1 and down to ,johannes ,weiss1 determined the plan of all ,lives of ,jesus4 ,hase created the modern historicopsychological picture of ,jesus4 ,the introduction of this more penetrating psychology would alone suffice to place him in advance of the rationalists4 ,another interesting point is the thorough way in which he traces out the historical and literary consequences of this idea of development4 ,the apostles1 he thinks1 did not understand this progress of thought on the part of ,jesus1 and did not distinguish between the sayings of the first and second periods4 ,they remained wedded to the eschatological view4 ,after the death of ,jesus this view prevailed so strongly in the primitive community of disciples that they interpolated their expectations into the last discourses of ,jesus4 ,according to ,hase1 the apocalyptic discourse in ,matt4 xxiv4 was originally only a prediction of the judgment upon and destruction of ,jerusalem1 but this was obscured later by the influx of the eschatological views of the apostolic community4 ,only ,john remained free from this error4 ,therefore the noneschatological ,fourth ,gospel preserves in their pure form the ideas of ,jesus in ,his second period4 ,hase rightly observes that the ,messiahship of ,jesus plays next to no part in ,his preaching1 at any rate at first1 and that1 before the incident at ,caesarea ,philippi1 it was only in moments of enthusiastic admiration1 rather than with settled conviction1 that even the disciples looked on ,him as the ,messiah4 ,this indication of the central importance of the declaration of the ,messiahship at ,caesarea ,philippi is another signpost pointing out the direction which the future study of the life of ,jesus was to follow4 ,schleiermacher's ,life of ,jesus introduces us to quite a different order of transitional ideas4 ,its value lies in the sphere of dogmatics1 not of history4 ,nowhere1 indeed1 is it so clear that the great dialectician had not really a historical mind than precisely in his treatment of the history of ,jesus4 ,from the first it was no favourable star which presided over this undertaking4 ,it is true that in #ahai ,schleiermacher was the first theologian who had ever lectured upon this subject4 ,but his ,life of ,jesus did not appear until #ahfd4 ,its publication had been so long delayed1 partly because it had to be reconstructed from students' notebooks1 partly because immediately after ,schleiermacher1 in #ahcb1 had delivered the course for the last time1 it was rendered obsolete by the work of ,strauss4 ,for the questions raised by the latter's ,life of ,jesus1 published in #ahce1 ,schleiermacher had no answer1 and for the wounds which it made1 no healing4 ,when1 in #ahfd1 ,schleiermacher's work was brought forth to view like an embalmed corse1 ,strauss accorded to the dead work of the great theologian a dignified and striking funeral oration4 ,schleiermacher is not in search of the historical ,jesus1 but of the ,jesus ,christ of his own system of theology2 that is to say1 of the historic figure which seems to him appropriate to the selfconsciousness of the ,redeemer as he represents it4 ,for him the empirical has simply no existence4 ,a natural psychology is scarcely attempted4 ,he comes to the facts with a readymade dialectic apparatus and sets his puppets in lively action4 ,schleiermacher's dialectic is not a dialectic which generates reality1 like that of ,hegel1 of which ,strauss availed himself1 but merely a dialectic of exposition4 ,in this literary dialectic he is the greatest master that ever lived4 ,the limitations of the historical ,jesus both in an upward and downward direction are those only which apply equally to the ,jesus of dogma4 ,the uniqueness of ,his ,divine selfconsciousness is not to be tampered with4 ,it is equally necessary to avoid ,ebionism which does away with the ,divine in ,him1 and ,docetism which destroys ,his humanity4 ,schleiermacher loves to make his hearers shudder by pointing out to them that the least false step entails precipitation into one or other of these abysses2 or at least would entail it for any one who was not under the guidance of his infallible dialectic4 ,in the course of this dialectic treatment1 all the historical questions involved in the life of ,jesus come into view one after another1 but none of them is posed or solved from the point of view of the historian2 they are 8moments0 in his argument4 ,he is like a spider at work4 ,the spider lets itself down from aloft1 and after making fast some supporting threads to points below1 it runs back to the centre and there keeps spinning away4 ,you look on fascinated1 and before you know it1 you are entangled in the web4 ,it is difficult even for a reader who is strong in the consciousness of possessing a sounder grasp of the history than ,schleiermacher to avoid being caught in the toils of that magical dialectic4 ,and how loftily superior the dialectician is6 ,paulus had shown that1 in view of the use of the title ,son of ,man1 the ,messianic selfconsciousness of ,jesus must be interpreted in accordance with the passage in ,daniel4 ,on this ,schleiermacher remarks3 8,i have already said that it is inherently improbable that such a predilection 7sc4 for the ,book of ,daniel7 would have been manifested by ,christ1 because the ,book of ,daniel does not belong to the prophetic writings properly socalled1 but to the third division of the ,old ,testament literature40 ,in his estimate of the importance to be attached to the story of the baptism1 too1 he falls behind the historical knowledge of his day4 8,to lay such great stress upon the baptism10 he says1 8leads either to the ,gnostic view that it was only there that the united itself with ,jesus1 or to the rationalistic view that it was only at the baptism that ,he became conscious of ,his vocation40 ,but what does history care whether a view is gnostic or rationalistic if only it is historical6 ,this dialectic1 so fatal often to sound historical views1 might have been expressly created to deal with the question of miracle4 ,compared with ,schleiermacher's discussions all that has been written since upon this subject is mere honest--or dishonest--bungling4 ,nothing new has been added to what he says1 and no one else has succeeded in saying it with the same amazing subtlety4 ,it is true1 also1 that no one else has shown the same skill in concealing how much in the way of miracle he ultimately retains and how much he rejects4 ,his solution of the problem is1 in fact1 not historical1 but dialectical1 an attempt to transcend the necessity for a rationalistic explanation of miracle which does not really succeed in getting rid of it4 ,schleiermacher arranges the miracles in an ascending scale of probability according to the degree in which they can be seen to depend on the known influence of spirit upon organic matter4 ,the most easily explained are the miracles of healing 8because we are not without analogies to show that pathological conditions of a purely functional nature can be removed by mental influence40 ,but where1 on the other hand1 the effect produced by ,christ lies outside the sphere of human life1 the difficulties involved become insoluble4 ,to get rid1 in some measure1 of these difficulties he makes use of two expedients4 ,in the first place1 he admits that in particular cases the rationalistic method may have a certain limited application2 in the second place he1 like ,hase1 recognises a difference between the miracle stories themselves1 retaining the ,johannine miracles1 but surrendering1 more or less completely1 the ,synoptic miracles as not resting on evidence of the same certainty and exactness4 ,that he is still largely under the sway of rationalism can be seen in the fact that he admits on an equal footing1 as conceptions of the resurrection of ,jesus1 a return to consciousness from a trancestate1 or a supernatural restoration to life1 thought of as a resurrection4 ,he goes so far as to say that the decision of this question has very little interest for him4 ,he fully accepts the principle of ,paulus that apart from corruption there is no certain indication of death4 8,all that we can say on this point10 he concludes1 8is that even to those whose business it was to ensure the immediate death of the crucified1 in order that the bodies might at once be taken down1 ,christ appeared to be really dead1 and this1 moreover1 although it was contrary to their expectations1 for it was a subject of astonishment4 ,it is no use going any further into the matter1 since nothing can be ascertained in regard to it40 ,what is certain is that ,jesus in ,his real body lived on for a time among ,his followers2 that the ,fourth ,gospel requires us to believe4 ,the reports of the resurrection are not based upon 8apparitions40 ,schleiermacher's own opinion is what really happened was reanimation after apparent death4 8,if ,christ had only eaten to show that ,he could eat1 while ,he really had no need of nourishment1 it would have been a pretence--something docetic4 ,this gives us a clue to all the rest1 teaching us to hold firmly to the way in which ,christ intends ,himself to be represented1 and to put down all that is miraculous in the accounts of the appearances to the prepossessions of the disciples40 ,when ,he revealed himself to ,mary ,magdalene ,he had no certainty that ,he would frequently see her again4 8,he was conscious that ,his present condition was that of genuine human life1 but ,he had no confidence in its continuance40 ,he bade ,his disciples meet ,him in ,galilee because ,he could there enjoy greater privacy and freedom from observation in ,his intercourse with them4 ,the difference between the present and the past was only that ,he no longer showed ,himself to the world4 8,it was possible that a movement in favour of an earthly ,messianic ,kingdom might break out1 and we need only take this possibility into account in order to explain completely why ,jesus remained in such close retirement40 8,it was the premonition of the approaching end of this second life which led ,him to return from ,galilee to ,jerusalem40 ,of the ascension he says3 8,here1 therefore1 something happened1 but what was seen was incomplete1 and has been conjecturally supplemented40 ,the underlying rationalistic explanation shows through6 ,but if the condition in which ,jesus lived on after ,his crucifixion was 8a condition of reanimation10 by what right does ,schleiermacher constantly speak of it as a 8resurrection10 as if resurrection and reanimation were synonymous terms8 ,further1 is it really true that faith has no interest whatever in the question whether it was as risen from the dead1 or merely as recovered from a state of suspended animation1 that ,jesus showed ,himself to ,his disciples8 ,in regard to this1 it might seem1 the rationalists were more straightforward4 ,the moment one tries to take hold of this dialectic it breaks in one's fingers4 ,schleiermacher would not indeed have ventured to play so risky a game if he had not had a second position to retire to1 based on the distinction between the ,synoptic and the ,johannine miracle stories4 ,in this respect he simplified matters for himself1 as compared with the rationalists1 even more than ,hase4 ,the miracle at the baptism is only intelligible in the narrative of the ,fourth ,gospel1 where it is not a question of an external occurrence1 but of a purely subjective experience of ,john1 with which we have nothing to do4 ,the ,synoptic story of the temptation has no intelligible meaning4 8,to change stones into bread1 if there were need for it1 would not have been a sin40 8,a leap from the ,temple could have had no attraction for any one40 ,the miracles of the birth and childhood are given up without hesitation2 they do not belong to the story of the life of ,jesus2 and it is the same with the miracles at ,his death4 ,one might fancy it was ,strauss speaking when ,schleiermacher says3 8,if we give due consideration to the fact that we have certainly found in these for the most part simple narratives of the last moments of ,christ two incidents1 such as the rending of the veil of the ,temple and the opening of the graves1 in reference to which we cannot possibly suppose that they are literal descriptions of actual facts1 then we are bound to ask the question whether the same does not apply to many other points4 ,certainly the mention of the sun's light failing and the consequent great darkness looks very much as if it had been imported by poetic imagination into the simple narrative40 ,a rebuke could have no possible effect upon the wind and sea4 ,here we must suppose either an alteration of the facts or a different causal connexion4 ,in this way ,schleiermacher--and it was for this reason that these lectures on the life of ,jesus became so celebrated--enabled dogmatics1 though not indeed history1 to take a flying leap over the miracle question4 ,what is chiefly fatal to a sound historical view is his onesided preference for the ,fourth ,gospel4 ,it is1 according to him1 only in this ,gospel that the consciousness of ,jesus is truly reflected4 ,in this connexion he expressly remarks that of a progress in the teaching of ,jesus1 and of any 8development0 in ,him1 there can be no question4 ,his development is the unimpeded organic unfolding of the idea of the ,divine ,sonship4 ,for the outline of the life of ,jesus1 also1 the ,fourth ,gospel is alone authoritative4 8,the ,johannine representation of the way in which the crisis of ,his fate was brought about is the only clear one40 ,the same applies to the narrative of the resurrection in this ,gospel4 8,accordingly1 on this point also10 so he concludes his discussion1 8,i take it as established that the ,gospel of ,john is the narrative of an eyewitness and forms an organic whole4 ,the first three ,gospels are compilations formed out of various narratives which had arisen independently2 their discourses are composite structures1 and their presentation of the history is such that one can form no idea of the grouping of events40 ,the 8crowded days10 such as that of the sermon on the mount and the day of the parables1 exist only in the imagination of the ,evangelists4 ,in reality there were no such days4 ,luke is the only one of them who has some semblance of historical order4 ,his ,gospel is compiled with much insight and critical tact out of a number of independent documents1 as ,schleiermacher believed himself to have shown convincingly in his critical study of ,luke's ,gospel1 published in #ahag4 ,it is only on the ground of such a valuation of the sources that we can arrive at a just estimate of the different representations of the locality of the life of ,jesus4 8,the contradictions10 ,schleiermacher proceeds1 8could not be explained if all our ,gospels stood equally close to ,jesus4 ,but if ,john stands closer than the others1 we may perhaps find the key in the fact that ,john1 too1 mentions it as a prevailing opinion in ,jerusalem that ,jesus was a ,galilaean1 and that ,luke1 when he has got to the end of the sections which show skilful arrangement and are united by similarity of subject1 gathers all the rest into the framework of a journey to ,jerusalem4 ,following this analogy1 and not remembering that ,jesus had occasion to go several times a year to ,jerusalem1 the other two gathered into one mass all that happened there on various occasions4 ,this could only have been done by ,hellenists407#bf7 ,schleiermacher is quite insensible to the graphic realism of the description of the last days at ,jerusalem in ,mark and ,matthew1 and has no suspicion that if only a single one of the ,jerusalem sayings in the ,synoptists is true ,jesus had never before spoken in ,jerusalem4 ,the ground of ,schleiermacher's antipathy to the ,synoptists lies deeper than a mere critical view as to their composition4 ,the fact is that their 8picture of ,christ0 does not agree with that which he wishes to insert into the history4 ,when it serves his purpose1 he does not shrink from the most arbitrary violence4 ,he abolishes the scene in ,gethsemane because he infers from the silence of ,john that it cannot have taken place4 8,the other ,evangelists10 he explains1 8give us an account of a sudden depression and deep distress of spirit which fell upon ,jesus1 and which ,he admitted to ,his disciples1 and they tell us how ,he sought relief from it in prayer1 and afterwards recovered ,his serenity and resolution4 ,john passes over this in silence1 and his narrative of what immediately precedes is not consistent with it40 ,it is evidently a symbolical story1 as the thricerepeated petition shows4 8,if they speak of such a depression of spirit1 they have given the story that form in order that the example of ,christ might be the more applicable to others in similar circumstances40 ,on these premises it is possible to write a ,life of ,christ2 it is not possible to write a ,life of ,jesus4 ,it is1 therefore1 not by accident that ,schleiermacher regularly speaks1 not of ,jesus1 but of ,christ4 ,,vii4 ,,david ,,friedrich ,,strauss--,,the ,,man ,,and ,,his ,,fate ,in order to understand ,strauss one must love him4 ,he was not the greatest1 and not the deepest1 of theologians1 but he was the most absolutely sincere4 ,his insight and his errors were alike the insight and the errors of a prophet4 ,and he had a prophet's fate4 ,disappointment and suffering gave his life its consecration4 ,it unrolls itself before us like a tragedy1 in which1 in the end1 the gloom is lightened by the mild radiance which shines forth from the nobility of the sufferer4 ,strauss was born in #ahjh at ,ludwigsburg4 ,his father was a merchant1 whose business1 however1 was unsuccessful1 so that his means steadily declined4 ,the boy took his ability from his mother1 a good1 selfcontrolled1 sensible1 pious woman1 to whom he raised a monument in his 8,memorial of a ,good ,mother0 written in #aheh1 to be given to his daughter on her confirmationday4 ,from #ahba to #ahbe he was a pupil at the 8lower seminary0 at ,blaubeuren1 along with ,friedrich ,vischer1 ,pfizer1 ,zimmermann1 ,mrklin1 and ,binder4 ,among their teachers was ,ferdinand ,christian ,baur1 whom they were to meet with again at the university4 ,his first year at the university was uninteresting1 as it was only in the following year that the reorganisation of the theological faculty took place1 in consequence of the appointment of ,baur4 ,the instruction in the philosophical faculty was almost equally unsatisfactory1 so that the friends would have gained little from the two years of philosophical propaedeutic which formed part of the course prescribed for theological students1 if they had not combined to prosecute their philosophical studies for themselves4 ,the writings of ,hegel began to exercise a powerful influence upon them4 ,for the philosophical faculty1 ,hegel's philosophy was as yet nonexistent4 ,these student friends were much addicted to poetry4 ,two journeys which ,strauss made along with his fellowstudent ,binder to ,weinsberg to see ,justinus ,kerner made a deep impression upon him4 ,he had to make a deliberate effort to escape from the dreamworld of the 8,prophetess of ,prevorst40 ,some years later1 in a ,latin note to ,binder1 he speaks of ,weinsberg as 8,mecca nostra407#bg7 ,according to ,vischer's picture of him1 the tall stripling made an impression of great charm1 though he was rather shy except with intimates4 ,he attended lectures with pedantic regularity4 ,baur was at that time still immersed in the prolegomena to his system2 but ,strauss already suspected the direction which the thoughts of his young teacher were to take4 ,when ,strauss and his student friends entered on their duties as clergymen1 the others found great difficulty in bringing their theological views into line with the popular beliefs which they were expected to preach4 ,strauss alone remained free from inner struggles4 ,in a letter to ,binder7#bh7 of the year #ahca1 he explains that in his sermons--he was then assistant at ,klein ,ingersheim near ,ludwigsburg--he did not use 8representative notions0 7,vorstellungen1 used as a philosophical technicality7 such as that of the ,devil1 which the people were already prepared to dispense with2 but others which still appeared to be indispensable1 such as those of an eschatological character1 he merely endeavoured to present in such a way that the 8intellectual concept0 7,begriff7 which lay behind1 might so far as possible shine through4 8,when ,i consider10 he continues1 8how far even in intellectual preaching the expression is inadequate to the true essence of the concept1 it does not seem to me to matter much if one goes even a step further4 ,i at least go about the matter without the least scruple1 and cannot ascribe this to a mere want of sincerity in myself40 ,that is ,hegelian logic4 ,after being for a short time ,deputyprofessor at ,maulbronn1 he took his doctor's degree with a dissertation on the 7restoration of all things1 ,acts iii4 #ba74 ,this work is lost4 ,from his letters it appears that he treated the subject chiefly from the religious historical point of view47#bi7 ,when ,binder took his doctorate with a philosophical thesis on the immortality of the soul1 ,strauss1 in #ahcb1 wrote to him expressing the opinion that the belief in personal immortality could not properly be regarded as a consequence of the ,hegelian system1 since according to ,hegel1 it was not the subjective spirit of the individual person1 but only the objective ,spirit1 the selfrealising ,idea which constantly embodies itself in new creations1 to which immortality belongs47#cj7 ,in ,october #ahca he went to ,berlin to hear ,hegel and ,schleiermacher4 ,on the #adth of ,november ,hegel1 whom he had visited shortly before1 was carried off by cholera4 ,strauss heard the news in ,schleiermacher's house1 from ,schleiermacher himself1 and is said to have exclaimed1 with a certain want of tact1 considering who his informant was3 8,and it was to hear him that ,i came to ,berlin60 ,there was no satisfactory basis for a relationship between ,schleiermacher and ,strauss4 ,they had nothing in common4 ,that did not prevent ,strauss's ,life of ,jesus being sometimes described by opponents of ,schleiermacher as a product of the latter's philosophy of religion4 ,indeed1 as late as the 'sixties1 ,tholuck thought it necessary to defend the memory of the great theologian against this reproach4 ,as a matter of fact1 the plan of the ,life of ,jesus arose during ,strauss's intercourse with ,vatke1 to whom he felt himself strongly drawn4 ,moreover1 what was first sketched out was not primarily the plan of a ,life of ,jesus1 but that of a history of the ideas of primitive ,christianity1 intended to serve as a standard by which to judge ecclesiastical dogma4 ,the ,life of ,jesus was originally designed1 it might almost be said1 as a mere prologue to this work1 the plan of which was subsequently carried out under the title1 8,christian ,theology in its ,historical ,development and in its ,antagonism with ,modern ,scientific ,knowledge0 7published in #ahdjahda74 ,when in the spring of #ahcb he returned to ,tbingen to take up the position of 8,repetent07#ca7 in the theological college 7,stift71 these plans were laid on the shelf in consequence of his preoccupation with philosophy1 and if things had gone according to ,strauss's wishes1 they would perhaps never have come to fulfilment4 ,the 8,repetents0 had the right to lecture upon philosophy4 ,strauss felt himself called upon to come forward as an apostle of ,hegel1 and lectured upon ,hegel's logic with tremendous success4 ,zeller1 who attended these lectures1 records the unforgettable impression which they made on him4 ,besides championing ,hegel1 ,strauss also lectured upon ,plato1 and upon the history of modern philosophy4 ,these were three happy semesters4 8,in my theology10 he writes in a letter of #ahcc17cb7 8philosophy occupies such a predominant position that my theological views can only be worked out to completeness by means of a more thorough study of philosophy1 and this course of study ,i am now going to prosecute uninterruptedly and without concerning myself whether it leads me back to theology or not40 ,further on he says3 8,if ,i know myself rightly1 my position in regard to theology is that what interests me in theology causes offence1 and what does not cause offence is indifferent to me4 ,for this reason ,i have refrained from delivering lectures on theology40 ,the philosophical faculty was not altogether pleased at the success of the apostle of ,hegel1 and wished to have the right of the 8,repetents0 to lecture on philosophy curtailed4 ,the latter1 however1 took their stand upon the tradition4 ,strauss was desired to intermit his lectures until the matter should be settled4 ,he would have liked best to end the situation by entering the philosophical faculty4 ,the other 8,repetents10 however1 begged him not to do so1 but to continue to champion their rights4 ,it is possible also that obstacles were placed in the way of his plan by the philosophical faculty4 ,however that may be1 it was in any case not carried through4 ,strauss was forced back upon theology4 ,according to ,hase17#cc7 ,strauss began his studies for the ,life of ,jesus by writing a detailed critical review of his 7,hase's7 textbook4 ,he sent this to ,berlin to the ,jahrbcher fr wissenschaftliche ,kritik1 which1 however1 refused it4 ,his resolve to publish first1 instead of the general work on the genesis of ,christian doctrine1 a critical study on the life of ,jesus was doubtless determined by ,schleiermacher's lectures on this subject4 ,when in ,berlin he had procured a copy of a lecture notebook1 and the reading of it incited him to opposition4 ,considering its character1 the work was rapidly produced4 ,he wrote it sitting at the window of the ,repetents' room1 which looks out upon the gatewayarch4 ,when its two volumes appeared in #ahce the name of the author was wholly unknown1 except for some critical studies upon the ,gospels4 ,this book1 into which he had poured his youthful enthusiasm1 rendered him famous in a moment--and utterly destroyed his prospects4 ,among his opponents the most prominent was ,steudel1 a member of the theological faculty1 who1 as president of the ,stift1 made representations against him to the ,ministry1 and succeeded in securing his removal from the post of 8,repetent40 ,the hopes which ,strauss had placed upon his friends were disappointed4 ,only two or three at most dared to publish anything in his defence4 ,he first accepted a transfer to the post of ,deputyprofessor at ,ludwigsburg1 but in less than a year he was glad to give it up1 and he then returned to ,stuttgart4 ,there he lived for several years1 busying himself in the preparation of new editions of the ,life of ,jesus1 and in writing answers to the attacks which were made upon him4 ,towards the end of the 'thirties he became conscious of a growing impulse towards more positive views4 ,the criticisms of his opponents had made some impression upon him4 ,the second volume of polemics was laid aside4 ,in its place appeared the third edition of the ,life of ,jesus1 #ahchahci1 containing a series of amazing concessions4 ,strauss explains that in consequence of reading de ,wette's commentary and ,neander's ,life of ,jesus he had begun to feel some hesitation about his former doubts regarding the genuineness and credibility of the ,fourth ,gospel4 ,the historic personality of ,jesus again began to take on intelligible outlines for him4 ,these inconsistencies he removed in the next edition1 acknowledging that he did not know how he could so have temporarily vacillated in his point of view4 ,the matter admits1 however1 of a psychological explanation4 ,he longed for peace1 for he had suffered more than his enemies suspected or his friends knew4 ,the ban of the outlaw lay heavy upon his soul4 ,in this spirit he composed in #ahci the monologues entitled ,vergngliches und ,bleibendes im ,christentum 78,transient and ,permanent ,elements in ,christianity071 which appeared again in the following year under the title ,friedliche ,bltter 78,leaves of ,peace074 ,for a moment it seemed as though his rehabilitation would be accomplished4 ,in ,january #ahci the nobleminded ,hitzig succeeded in getting him appointed to the vacant chair of dogmatics in ,zurich4 ,but the orthodox and pietist parties protested so vehemently that the ,government was obliged to revoke the appointment4 ,strauss was pensioned off1 without ever entering on his office4 ,about that time his mother died4 ,in #ahda he lost his father4 ,when the estate came to be settled up1 it was found that his affairs were in a less unsatisfactory condition than had been feared4 ,strauss was secure against want4 ,the success of his second great work1 his 8,christian ,theology0 7published in #ahdjda71 compensated him for his disappointment at ,zurich4 ,in conception it is perhaps even greater than the ,life of ,jesus2 and in depth of thought it is to be classed with the most important contributions to theology4 ,in spite of that it never attracted so much attention as the earlier work4 ,strauss continued to be known as the author of the ,life of ,jesus4 ,any further ground of offence which he might give was regarded as quite subsidiary4 ,and the book contains matter for offence in no common degree4 ,the point to which ,strauss applies his criticism is the way in which the ,christian theology which grew out of the ideas of the ancient world has been brought into harmony with the ,christianity of rationalism and of speculative philosophy4 ,either1 to use his own expression1 both are so finely pulverised in the process--as in the case of ,schleiermacher's combination of ,spinozism with ,christianity--that it needs a sharp eye to rediscover the elements of the mixture2 or the two are shaken together like water and oil1 in which case the semblance of combination is only maintained so long as the shaking continues4 ,for this crude procedure he desires to substitute a better method1 based upon a preliminary historical criticism of dogma1 in order that thought may no longer have to deal with the present form of ,church theology1 but with the ideas which worked as living forces in its formation4 ,this is brilliantly worked out in detail4 ,the result is not a positive1 but a negative ,hegelian theology4 ,religion is not concerned with supra mundane beings and a divinely glorious future1 but with present spiritual realities which appear as 8moments0 in the eternal being and becoming of ,absolute ,spirit4 ,at the end of the second volume1 where battle is joined on the issue of personal immortality1 all these ideas play their part in the struggle4 ,personal immortality is finally rejected in every form1 for the critical reasons which ,strauss had already set forth in the letters of #ahcb4 ,immortality is not something which stretches out into the future1 but simply and solely the present quality of the spirit1 its inner universality1 its power of rising above everything finite to the ,idea4 ,here the thought of ,hegel coincides with that of ,schleiermacher4 8,the saying of ,schleiermacher1 #8,in the midst of finitude to be one with the ,infinite1 and to be eternal in a moment1' is all that modern thought can say about immortality40 ,but neither ,schleiermacher nor ,hegel was willing to draw the natural inferences from their ultimate position1 or at least they did not give them any prominence4 ,it is not the application of the mythological explanation to the ,gospel history which irrevocably divides ,strauss from the theologians1 but the question of personal immortality4 ,it would be well for them if they had only to deal with the ,strauss of the ,life of ,jesus1 and not with the thinker who posed this question with inexorable trenchancy4 ,they might then face the future more calmly1 relieved of the anxiety lest once more ,hegel and ,schleiermacher might rise up in some pious but critical spirit1 not to speak smooth things1 but to ask the ultimate questions1 and might force theology to fight its battle with ,strauss all over again4 ,at the very time when ,strauss was beginning to breathe freely once more1 had turned his back upon all attempts at compromise1 and reconciled himself to giving up teaching2 and when1 after settling his father's affairs1 he had the certainty of being secure against penury2 at that very time he sowed for himself the seeds of a new1 immitigable suffering by his marriage with ,agnese ,schebest1 the famous singer4 ,they were not made for one another4 ,he could not look to her for any sympathy with his plans1 and she on her part was repelled by the pedantry of his disposition4 ,housekeeping difficulties and the trials of a limited income added another element of discord4 ,they removed to ,sontheim near ,heilbronn with the idea of learning to adapt themselves to one another far from the distractions of the town2 but that did not better matters4 ,they lived apart for a time1 and after some years they procured a divorce1 custody of the children being assigned to the father4 ,the lady took up her residence in ,stuttgart1 and ,strauss paid her an allowance up to her death in #ahgj4 ,what he suffered may be read between the lines in the passage in 8,the ,old ,faith and the ,new0 where he speaks of the sacredness of marriage and the admissibility of divorce4 ,the wound bled inwardly4 ,his mental powers were disabled4 ,at this time he wrote little4 ,only in the apologue 8,julian the ,apostate1 or the ,romanticist on the throne of the ,caesars0--that brilliant satire upon ,frederic ,william ,,iv41 written in #ahdg--;is there a flash of the old spirit4 ,but in spite of his antipathy to the romantic disposition of the ,king of ,prussia he entered the lists in #ahdh on behalf of the efforts of the smaller ,german states to form a united ,germany1 apart from ,austria1 under the hegemony of ,prussia4 ,he did not suffer his political acumen to be blunted either by personal antipathies or by particularism4 ,the citizens of ,ludwigsburg wished to have him as their representative in the ,frankfort parliament1 but the rural population1 who were pietistic in sympathies1 defeated his candidature4 ,instead1 his native town sent him to the ,wrtemberg ,chamber of ,deputies4 ,but here his philistinism came to the fore again4 ,the phrasemongering revolutionary party in the chamber disgusted him4 ,he saw himself more and more forced to the 8right10 and was obliged to act politically with men whose reactionary sympathies he was far from sharing4 ,his constituents1 meanwhile1 were thoroughly discontented with his attitude4 ,in the end the position became intolerable4 ,it was also painful to him to have to reside in ,stuttgart1 where he could not avoid meeting the woman who had brought so much misery into his life4 ,further--he himself mentions this point in his memoirs--he had no practice in speaking without manuscript1 and cut a poor figure as a debater4 ,then came the 8,blum ,case40 ,robert ,blum1 a revolutionary1 had been shot by court martial in ,vienna4 ,the ,wrtemberg ,chamber desired to vote a public celebration of his funeral4 ,strauss did not think there was any ground for making a hero of this agitator1 merely because he had been shot1 and was not inclined to blame the ,austrian ,government very severely for meting out summary justice to a disturber of the peace4 ,his attitude brought on him a vote of censure from his constituents4 ,when1 subsequently1 the ,president of the ,chamber called him to order for asserting that a previous speaker had 8concealed by sleight of hand0 7wegeskamotiert1 8juggled away07 an important point in the debate1 he refused to accept the vote of censure1 resigned his membership1 and ceased to attend the diets4 ,as he himself put it1 he 8jumped out of the boat40 ,then began a period of restless wandering1 during which he beguiled his time with literary work4 ,he wrote1 inter alia1 upon ,lessing1 ,hutten1 and ,reimarus1 rediscovering the lastnamed for his fellowcountrymen4 ,at the end of the 'sixties he returned once more to theology4 ,his 8,life of ,jesus adapted for the ,german ,people0 appeared in #ahfd4 ,in the preface he refers to ,renan1 and freely acknowledges the great merits of his work4 ,the ,prusso,austrian war placed him in a difficult position4 ,his historical insight made it impossible for him to share the particularism of his friends2 on the contrary1 he recognised that the way was now being prepared for the realisation of his dream of #ahdh--;an alliance of the smaller ,german ,states under the hegemony of ,prussia4 ,as he made no secret of his opinions1 he had the bitter experience of receiving the cold shoulder from men who had hitherto loyally stood by him4 ,in the year #ahgj it was granted to him to become the spokesman of the ,german people2 through a publication on ,voltaire which had appeared not long before he had become acquainted with ,renan4 ,in a letter to ,strauss1 written after the first battles1 ,renan made a passing allusion to these great events4 ,strauss seized the opportunity to explain to him1 in a vigorous 8open letter0 of the #abth of ,august1 ,germany's reason and justification for going to war4 ,receiving an answer from ,renan1 he then1 in a second letter1 of the #bith of ,september1 took occasion to defend ,germany's right to demand the cession of ,alsace1 not on the ground of its having formerly been ,german territory1 but for the defence of her natural frontiers4 ,the resounding echo evoked by these words1 inspired1 as they were1 by the enthusiasm of the moment1 compensated him for much of the obloquy which he had had to bear4 ,his last work1 8,the ,old ,faith and the ,new10 appeared in #ahgb4 ,once more1 as in the work on theology published in #ahdjahda1 he puts to himself the question1 ,what is there of permanence in this artificial compound of theology and philosophy1 faith and thought8 ,but he puts the question with a certain bitterness1 and shows himself too much under the influence of ,darwinism1 by which his mind was at that time dominated4 ,the ,hegelian system of thought1 which served as a firm basis for the work of #ahdj1 has fallen in ruins4 ,strauss is alone with his own thoughts1 endeavouring to raise himself above the new scientific worldview4 ,his powers of thought1 never1 for all his critical acumen1 strong on the creative side1 and now impaired by age1 were unequal to the task4 ,there is no force and no greatness in the book4 ,to the question1 8,are we still ,christians80 he answers1 8,no40 ,but to his second question1 8,have we still a religion80 he is prepared to give an affirmative answer1 if the assumption is granted that the feeling of dependence1 of selfsurrender1 of inner freedom1 which has sprung from the pantheistic worldview1 can be called religion4 ,but instead of developing the idea of this deep inner freedom1 and presenting religion in the form in which he had experienced it1 he believes himself obliged to offer some new construction based upon ,darwinism1 and sets himself to answer the two questions1 8,how are we to understand the world80 and 8,how are we to regulate our lives80--the form of the latter is somewhat lacking in distinction--in a quite impersonal way4 ,it is only the schoolmaster and pedant in him--who was always at the elbow of the thinker even in his greatest works--that finds expression here4 ,it was a dead book1 in spite of the many editions which it went through1 and the battle which raged over it was1 like the fiercest of the ,homeric battles1 a combat over the dead4 ,the theologians declared ,strauss bankrupt1 and felt themselves rich because they had made sure of not being ruined by a similar unimaginative honesty4 ,friedrich ,nietzsche1 from the height of his wouldbe ,schopenhauerian pessimism1 mocked at the fallen hero4 ,before the year was out ,strauss began to suffer from an internal ulcer4 ,for many months he bore his sufferings with quiet resignation and inner serenity1 until on the #hth of ,february #ahgd1 in his native town of ,ludwigsburg1 death set him free4 ,a few weeks earlier1 on the #bith of ,december #ahgc1 his sufferings and his thoughts received illuminating expression in the following poignant verses3-- ,wem ich dieses klage1 ,weiss1 ich klage nicht2 ,der ich dieses sage1 ,fhlt1 ich zage nicht4 ,heute heisst's verglimmen1 ,wie ein ,licht verglimmt1 ,in die ,luft verschwimmen1 ,wie ein ,ton verschwimmt4 ,mge schwach wie immer1 ,aber hell und rein1 ,dieser letzte ,schimmer ,dieser ,ton nur sein47#cd7 ,he was buried on a stormy ,february day4 ,,viii4 ,,strauss',s ,,first 8,,life ,,of ,,jesus0 ,first edition1 #ahce and #ahcf4 #b vols4 #adhj pp4 ,the second edition was unaltered4 ,third edition1 with alterations1 #ahchahci4 ,fourth edition1 agreeing with the first1 #ahdj4 ,considered as a literary work1 ,strauss's first ,life of ,jesus is one of the most perfect things in the whole range of learned literature4 ,in over fourteen hundred pages he has not a superfluous phrase2 his analysis descends to the minutest details1 but he does not lose his way among them2 the style is simple and picturesque1 sometimes ironical1 but always dignified and distinguished4 ,in regard to the application of the mythological explanation to ,holy ,scripture1 ,strauss points out that ,de ,wette1 ,eichhorn1 ,gabler1 and others of his predecessors had long ago freely applied it to the ,old ,testament1 and that various attempts had been made to portray the life of ,jesus in accordance with the critical assumptions upon which his undertaking was based4 ,he mentions especially ,usteri as one who had helped to prepare the way for him4 ,the distinction between ,strauss and those who had preceded him upon this path consists only in this1 that prior to him the conception of myth was neither truly grasped nor consistently applied4 ,its application was confined to the account of ,jesus' coming into the world and of ,his departure from it1 while the real kernel of the evangelical tradition--the sections from the ,baptism to the ,resurrection--was left outside the field of its application4 ,myth formed1 to use ,strauss's illustration1 the lofty gateways at the entrance to1 and at the exit from1 the ,gospel history2 between these two lofty gateways lay the narrow and crooked streets of the naturalistic explanation4 ,the principal obstacle1 ,strauss continues1 which barred the way to a comprehensive application of myth1 consisted in the supposition that two of our ,gospels1 ,matthew and ,john1 were reports of eyewitnesses2 and a further difficulty was the offence caused by the word myth1 owing to its associations with the heathen mythology4 ,but that any of our ,evangelists was an eyewitness1 or stood in such relations with eyewitnesses as to make the intrusion of myth unthinkable1 is a thesis which there is no extant evidence sufficient to prove4 ,even though the earthly life of the ,lord falls within historic times1 and even if only a generation be assumed to have elapsed between ,his death and the composition of the ,gospels2 such a period would be sufficient to allow the historical material to become intermixed with myth4 ,no sooner is a great man dead than legend is busy with his life4 ,then1 too1 the offence of the word myth disappears for any one who has gained an insight into the essential character of religious myth4 ,it is nothing else than the clothing in historic form of religious ideas1 shaped by the unconsciously inventive power of legend1 and embodied in a historic personality4 ,even on a priori grounds we are almost compelled to assume that the historic ,jesus will meet us in the garb of old ,testament ,messianic ideas and primitive ,christian expectations4 ,the main distinction between ,strauss and his predecessors consisted in the fact that they asked themselves anxiously how much of the historical life of ,jesus would remain as a foundation for religion if they dared to apply the conception of myth consistently1 while for him this question had no terrors4 ,he claims in his preface that he possessed one advantage over all the critical and learned theologians of his time without which nothing can be accomplished in the domain of history--the inner emancipation of thought and feeling in regard to certain religious and dogmatic prepossessions which he had early attained as a result of his philosophic studies4 ,hegel's philosophy had set him free1 giving him a clear conception of the relationship of idea and reality1 leading him to a higher plane of ,christological speculation1 and opening his eyes to the mystic interpenetration of finitude and infinity1 ,god and man4 ,godmanhood1 the highest idea conceived by human thought1 is actually realised in the historic personality of ,jesus4 ,but while conventional thinking supposes that this phenomenal realisation must be perfect1 true thought1 which has attained by genuine critical reasoning to a higher freedom1 knows that no idea can realise itself perfectly on the historic plane1 and that its truth does not depend on the proof of its having received perfect external representation1 but that its perfection comes about through that which the idea carries into history1 or through the way in which history is sublimated into idea4 ,for this reason it is in the last analysis indifferent to what extent ,godmanhood has been realised in the person of ,jesus2 the important thing is that the idea is now alive in the common consciousness of those who have been prepared to receive it by its manifestation in sensible form1 and of whose thought and imagination that historical personality took such complete possession1 that for them the unity of ,godhood and manhood assumed in ,him enters into the common consciousness1 and the 8moments0 which constitute the outward course of ,his life reproduce themselves in them in a spiritual fashion4 ,a purely historical presentation of the life of ,jesus was in that first period wholly impossible2 what was operative was a creative reminiscence acting under the impulse of the idea which the personality of ,jesus had called to life among mankind4 ,and this idea of ,godmanhood1 the realisation of which in every personality is the ultimate goal of humanity1 is the eternal reality in the ,person of ,jesus1 which no criticism can destroy4 ,however far criticism may go in proving the reaction of the idea upon the presentment of the historical course of the life of ,jesus1 the fact that ,jesus represented that idea and called it to life among mankind is something real1 something that no criticism can annul4 ,it is alive thenceforward--to this day1 and for ever more4 ,it is in this emancipation of spirit1 and in the consciousness that ,jesus as the creator of the religion of humanity is beyond the reach of criticism1 that ,strauss goes to work1 and batters down the rubble1 assured that his pick can make no impression on the stone4 ,he sees evidence that the time has come for this undertaking in the condition of exhaustion which characterised contemporary theology4 ,the supernaturalistic explanation of the events of the life of ,jesus had been followed by the rationalistic1 the one making everything supernatural1 the other setting itself to make all the events intelligible as natural occurrences4 ,each had said all that it had to say4 ,from their opposition now arises a new solution--the mythological interpretation4 ,this is a characteristic example of the ,hegelian method--the synthesis of a thesis represented by the supernaturalistic explanation with an antithesis represented by the rationalistic interpretation4 ,strauss's ,life of ,jesus is1 therefore1 like ,schleiermacher's1 the product of antithetic conceptions4 ,but whereas in the latter the antitheses ,docetism and ,ebionism are simply limiting conceptions1 between which his view is statically suspended1 the synthesis with which ,strauss operates represents a composition of forces1 of which his view is the dynamic resultant4 ,the dialectic is in the one case descriptive1 in the other creative4 ,this ,hegelian dialectic determines the method of the work4 ,each incident of the life of ,jesus is considered separately2 first as supernaturally explained1 and then as rationalistically explained1 and the one explanation is refuted by the other4 8,by this means10 says ,strauss in his preface1 8the incidental advantage is secured that the work is fitted to serve as a repertory of the leading views and discussions of all parts of the ,gospel history40 ,in every case the whole range of representative opinions is reviewed4 ,finally the forced interpretations necessitated by the naturalistic explanation of the narrative under discussion drives the reader back upon the supernaturalistic4 ,that had been recognised by ,hase and ,schleiermacher1 and they had felt themselves obliged to make a place for inexplicable supernatural elements alongside of the historic elements of the life of ,jesus4 ,contemporaneously there had sprung up in all directions new attempts to return by the aid of a mystical philosophy to the supernaturalistic point of view of our forefathers4 ,but in these ,strauss recognises only the last desperate efforts to make the past present and to conceive the inconceivable2 and in direct opposition to the reactionary ineptitudes by means of which critical theology was endeavouring to work its way out of rationalism1 he sets up the hypothesis that these inexplicable elements are mythical4 ,in the stories prior to the baptism1 everything is myth4 ,the narratives are woven on the pattern of ,old ,testament prototypes1 with modifications due to ,messianic or messianically interpreted passages4 ,since ,jesus and the ,baptist came into contact with one another later1 it is felt necessary to represent their parents as having been connected4 ,the attempts to construct ,davidic genealogies for ,jesus1 show us that there was a period in the formation of the ,gospel ,history during which the ,lord was simply regarded as the son of ,joseph and ,mary1 otherwise genealogical studies of this kind would not have been undertaken4 ,even in the story of the twelve yearold ,jesus in the temple1 there is scarcely more than a trace of historical material4 ,in the narrative of the baptism we may take it as certainly unhistorical that the ,baptist received a revelation of the ,messianic dignity of ,jesus1 otherwise he could not later have come to doubt this4 ,whether his message to ,jesus is historical must be left an open question2 its possibility depends on whether the nature of his confinement admitted of such communication with the outer world4 ,might not a natural reluctance to allow the ,baptist to depart this life without at least a dawning recognition of the ,messiahship of ,jesus have here led to the insertion of a legendary trait into the tradition8 ,if so1 the historical residuum would be that ,jesus was for a time one of the adherents of the ,baptist1 and was baptized by him1 and that ,he soon afterwards appeared in ,galilee with the same message which ,john had proclaimed1 and even when ,he had outgrown his influence1 never ceased to hold ,john in high esteem1 as is shown by the eulogy which ,he pronounced upon him4 ,but if the baptism of ,john was a baptism of repentance with a view to 8him who was to come10 ,jesus cannot have held ,himself to be sinless when ,he submitted to it4 ,otherwise we should have to suppose that ,he did it merely for appearance' sake4 ,whether it was in the moment of the baptism that the consciousness of ,his ,messiahship dawned upon ,him1 we cannot tell4 ,this only is certain1 that the conception of ,jesus as having been endowed with the ,spirit at ,his baptism1 was independent of1 and earlier than1 that other conception which held ,him to have been supernaturally born of the ,spirit4 ,we have1 therefore1 in the ,synoptists several different strata of legend and narrative1 which in some cases intersect and in some are superimposed one upon the other4 ,the story of the temptation is equally unsatisfactory1 whether it be interpreted as supernatural1 or as symbolical either of an inward struggle or of external events 7as for example in ,venturini's interpretation of it1 where the part of the ,tempter is played by a ,pharisee72 it is simply primitive ,christian legend1 woven together out of ,old ,testament suggestions4 ,the call of the first disciples cannot have happened as it is narrated1 without their having known anything of ,jesus beforehand2 the manner of the call is modelled upon the call of ,elisha by ,elijah4 ,the further legend attached to it--,peter's miraculous draught of fishes--has arisen out of the saying about 8fishers of men10 and the same idea is reflected1 at a different angle of refraction1 in ,john xxi4 ,the mission of the seventy is unhistorical4 ,whether the cleansing of the temple is historical1 or whether it arose out of a ,messianic application of the text1 8,my house shall be called a house of prayer10 cannot be determined4 ,the difficulty of forming a clear idea of the circumstances is not easily to be removed4 ,how freely the historical material has been worked up1 is seen in the groups of stories which have grown out of a single incident2 as1 for example1 the anointing of ,jesus at ,bethany by an unknown woman1 out of which ,luke has made an anointing by a penitent sinner1 and ,john an anointing by ,mary of ,bethany4 ,as regards the healings1 some of them are certainly historical1 but not in the form in which tradition has preserved them4 ,the recognition of ,jesus as ,messiah by the demons immediately arouses suspicion4 ,it is doubtless rather to be ascribed to the tendency which grew up later to represent ,him as receiving1 in ,his ,messianic character1 homage even from the world of evil spirits1 than to any advantage in respect of clearness of insight which distinguished the mentally deranged1 in comparison with their contemporaries4 ,the cure of the demoniac in the synagogue at ,capernaum may well be historical1 but1 in other cases1 the procedure is so often raised into the region of the miraculous that a psychical influence of ,jesus upon the sufferer no longer suffices to explain it2 the creative activity of legend must have come in to confuse the account of what really happened4 ,one cure has sometimes given rise to three or four narratives4 ,sometimes we can still recognise the influences which have contributed to mould a story4 ,when1 for example1 the disciples are unable to heal the lunatic boy during ,jesus' absence on the ,mount of ,transfiguration1 we are reminded of #b ,kings iv41 where ,elisha's servant ,gehazi tries in vain to bring the dead boy to life by using the staff of the prophet4 ,the immediate healing of leprosy has its prototype in the story of ,naaman the ,syrian4 ,the story of the ten lepers shows so clearly a didactic tendency that its historic value is thereby rendered doubtful4 ,the cures of blindness all go back to the case of the blind man at ,jericho4 ,but who can say how far this is itself historical8 ,the cures of paralytics1 too1 belong rather to the equipment of the ,messiah than to history4 ,the cures through touching clothes1 and the healings at a distance1 have myth written on their foreheads4 ,the fact is1 the ,messiah must equal1 nay1 surpass1 the deeds of the prophets4 ,that is why raisings from the dead figure among ,his miracles4 ,the nature miracles1 over a collection of which ,strauss puts the heading 8,sea,stories and ,fish,stories10 have a much larger admixture of the mythical4 ,his opponents took him severely to task for this irreverent superscription4 ,the repetition of the story of the feeding of the multitude arouses suspicion regarding the credibility of what is narrated1 and at once invalidates the hypothesis of the apostolic authorship of the ,gospel of ,matthew4 ,moreover1 the incident was so naturally suggested by ,old ,testament examples that it would have been a miracle if such a story had not found its way into the ,life of ,jesus4 ,an explanation on the analogy of an expedited process of nature1 is here1 as in the case of the miracle at ,cana also1 to be absolutely rejected4 ,strauss allows it to be laughed out of court4 ,the cursing of the figtree and its fulfilment go back in some way or other to a parable of ,jesus1 which was afterwards made into history4 ,more important than the miracles heretofore mentioned are those which have to do with ,jesus ,himself and mark the crises of ,his history4 ,the transfiguration had to find a place in the life of ,jesus1 because of the shining of ,moses' countenance4 ,in dealing with the narratives of the resurrection it is evident that we must distinguish two different strata of legend1 an older one1 represented by ,matthew1 which knew only of appearances in ,galilee1 and a later1 in which the ,galilaean appearances are excluded in favour of appearances in ,jerusalem4 ,in both cases1 however1 the narratives are mythical4 ,in any attempt to explain them we are forced on one horn of the dilemma or the other--if the resurrection was real1 the death was not real1 and vice versa4 ,that the ascension is a myth is selfevident4 ,such1 and so radical1 are the results at which ,strauss's criticism of the supernaturalistic and the rationalistic explanations of the life of ,jesus ultimately arrives4 ,in reading ,strauss's discussions one is not so much struck with their radical character1 because of the admirable dialectic skill with which he shows the total impossibility of any explanation which does not take account of myth4 ,on the whole1 the supernaturalistic explanation1 which at least represents the plain sense of the narratives1 comes off much better than the rationalistic1 the artificiality of which is everywhere remorselessly exposed4 ,the sections which we have summarised are far from having lost their significance at the present day4 ,they marked out the ground which is now occupied by modern critical study4 ,and they filled in the death certificates of a whole series of explanations which1 at first sight1 have all the air of being alive1 but are not really so4 ,if these continue to haunt presentday theology1 it is only as ghosts1 which can be put to flight by simply pronouncing the name of ,david ,friedrich ,strauss1 and which would long ago have ceased to 8walk10 if the theologians who regard ,strauss's book as obsolete would only take the trouble to read it4 ,the results so far considered do not represent the elements of the life of ,jesus which ,strauss was prepared to accept as historical4 ,he sought to make the boundaries of the mythical embrace the widest possible area2 and it is clear that he extended them too far4 ,for one thing1 he overestimates the importance of the ,old ,testament motives in reference to the creative activity of the legend4 ,he does not see that while in many cases he has shown clearly enough the source of the form of the narrative in question1 this does not suffice to explain its origin4 ,doubtless1 there is mythical material in the story of the feeding of the multitude4 ,but the existence of the story is not explained by referring to the manna in the desert1 or the miraculous feeding of a multitude by ,elisha47#ce7 ,the story in the ,gospel has far too much individuality for that1 and stands1 moreover1 in much too closely articulated an historical connexion4 ,it must have as its basis some historical fact4 ,it is not a myth1 though there is myth in it4 ,similarly with the account of the transfiguration4 ,the substratum of historical fact in the life of ,jesus is much more extensive than ,strauss is prepared to admit4 ,sometimes he fails to see the foundations1 because he proceeds like an explorer who1 in working on the ruins of an ,assyrian city1 should cover up the most valuable evidence with the rubbish thrown out from another portion of the excavations4 ,again1 he sometimes rules out statements by assuming their impossibility on purely dialectical grounds1 or by playing off the narratives one against another4 ,the ,baptist's message to ,jesus is a case in point4 ,this is connected with the fact that he often fails to realise the strong confirmation which the narratives derive from their connexion with the preceding and following context4 ,that1 however1 was only to be expected4 ,who ever discovered a true principle without pressing its application too far8 ,what really alarmed his contemporaries was not so much the comprehensive application of the mythical theory1 as the general mining and sapping operations which they were obliged to see brought to bear upon the ,gospels4 ,in section after section ,strauss crossexamines the reports on every point1 down to the minutest detail1 and then pronounces in what proportion an alloy of myth enters into each of them4 ,in every case the decision is unfavourable to the ,gospel of ,john4 ,strauss was the first to take this view4 ,it is true that1 at the end of the eighteenth century1 many doubts as to the authenticity of this ,gospel had been expressed1 and ,bretschneider1 the famous ,general ,superintendent at ,gotha 7#aggfahdh71 had made a tentative collection of them in his ,probabilia47#cf7 ,the essay made some stir at the time4 ,but ,schleiermacher threw the aegis of his authority over the authenticity of the ,gospel1 and it was the favourite ,gospel of the rationalists because it contained fewer miracles than the others4 ,bretschneider himself declared that he had been brought to a better opinion through the controversy4 ,after this episode the ,johannine question had been shelved for fifteen years4 ,the excitement was1 therefore1 all the greater when ,strauss reopened the discussion4 ,he was opposing a dogma of critical theology1 which1 even at the present day1 is wont to defend its dogmas with a tenacity beyond that of the ,church itself4 ,the luminous haze of apparent circumstantiality which had hitherto prevented men from recognising the true character of this ,gospel is completely dissipated4 ,strauss shows that the ,johannine representation of the life of ,jesus is dominated by a theory1 and that its portraiture shows the further development of the tendencies which are perceptible even in the ,synoptists4 ,he shows this1 for example1 in the case of the ,johannine narrative of the baptism of ,jesus1 in which critics had hitherto seen the most credible account of what occurred1 pointing out that it is just in this pseudosimplicity that the process of bringing ,jesus and the ,baptist into the closest possible relations reaches its limit4 ,similarly1 in regard to the call of the first disciples1 it is1 according to ,strauss1 a later postulate that they came from the ,baptist's following and were brought by him to the ,lord4 ,strauss does not scruple even to assert that ,john introduces imaginary characters4 ,if this ,gospel relates fewer miracles1 the miracles which it retains are proportionately greater2 so great1 indeed1 that their absolutely miraculous character is beyond the shadow of doubt2 and1 moreover1 a moral or symbolical significance is added4 ,here1 therefore1 it is no longer the unconscious action of legend which selects1 creates1 or groups the incidents1 but a clearlydetermined apologetic and dogmatic purpose4 ,the question regarding the different representations of the locality and chronology of the life of ,jesus1 had always been decided1 prior to ,strauss1 in favour of the ,fourth ,gospel4 ,de ,wette makes it an argument against the genuineness of ,matthew's ,gospel that it mistakenly confines the ministry of ,jesus to ,galilee4 ,strauss refuses to decide the question by simply weighing the chronological and geographical statements one against the other1 lest he should be as onesided in his own way as the defenders of the authenticity of the ,fourth ,gospel were in theirs4 ,on this point1 he contents himself with remarking that if ,jesus had really taught in ,jerusalem on several occasions1 it is absolutely unintelligible how all knowledge of this could have so completely disappeared from the ,synoptic tradition2 for ,his going up to the ,passover at which ,he met ,his death is there represented as ,his sole journey to ,jerusalem4 ,on the other hand1 it is quite conceivable that if ,jesus had only once been in ,jerusalem there would be a tendency for legend gradually to make several journeys out of this one1 on the natural assumption that ,he regularly went up to the ,feasts1 and that ,he would proclaim ,his ,gospel not merely in the remote province1 but also in the capital4 ,from the triumphal entry to the resurrection1 the difference between the ,synoptic and ,johannine narratives is so great that all attempts to harmonise them are to be rejected4 ,how are we to reconcile the statement of the ,synoptists that the ovation at the triumphal entry was offered by ,galilaeans who accompanied him1 with that of ,john1 according to which it was offered by a multitude from ,jerusalem which came out to welcome ,jesus--who1 moreover1 according to ,john1 was not coming from ,galilee and ,jericho--and escorted ,him into the city4 ,to suppose that there were two different triumphal entries is absurd4 ,but the decision between ,john and the ,synoptists is not based solely upon their representation of the facts2 the decisive consideration is found in the ideas by which they are respectively dominated4 ,john represents a more advanced stage of the mythopoeic process1 inasmuch as he has substituted for the ,jewish ,messianic conception1 the ,greek metaphysical conception of the ,divine ,sonship1 and1 on the basis of his acquaintance with the ,alexandrian ,logos doctrine1 even makes ,jesus apply to ,himself the ,greek speculative conception of preexistence4 ,the writer is aware of an already existing danger from the side of a ,gnostic docetism1 and has himself an apologetic ,christology to propound1 thus fighting the ,gnostics as a ,gnostic of another kind4 ,that he is free from eschatological conceptions is not1 from the historical point of view1 an advantage1 but very much the reverse4 ,he is not unacquainted with eschatology1 but deliberately transforms it1 endeavouring to substitute for the expectation of the ,second ,coming of ,christ1 as an external event of the future1 the thought of ,his inward presence4 ,the most decisive evidence of all is found in the farewell discourses and in the absence of all mention of the spiritual struggle in ,gethsemane4 ,the intention here is to show that ,jesus not only had a foreknowledge of ,his death1 but had long overcome it in anticipation1 and went to meet ,his tragic fate with perfect inward serenity4 ,that1 however1 is no historical narrative1 but the final stage of reverent idealisation4 ,the question is decided4 ,the ,gospel of ,john is inferior to the ,synoptics as a historical source just in proportion as it is more strongly dominated than they by theological and apologetic interests4 ,it is true that the assignment of the dominant motives is for ,strauss's criticism mainly a matter of conjecture4 ,he cannot define in detail the attitude and tendency of this ,gospel1 because the development of dogma in the second century was still to a great extent obscure4 ,he himself admits that it was only subsequently1 through the labours of ,baur1 that the positions which he had taken up in #ahce were rendered impregnable4 ,and yet it is true to say that ,johannine study has added in principle nothing new to what was said by ,strauss4 ,he recognised the decisive point4 ,with critical acumen he resigned the attempt to base a decision on a comparison of the historical data1 and allowed the theological character of the two lines of tradition to determine the question4 ,unless this is done the debate is endless1 for an able man who has sworn allegiance to ,john will always find a thousand ways in which the ,johannine data can be reconciled with those of the ,synoptists1 and is finally prepared to stake his life upon the exact point at which the missing account of the institution of the ,lord's ,supper must be inserted into the narrative4 ,this changed estimate of ,john carries with it a reversal of the order in which the ,gospels are supposed to have originated4 ,instead of ,john1 ,luke1 ,matthew1 we have ,matthew1 ,luke1 and ,john--the first is last1 and the last first4 ,strauss's unsophisticated instinct freed ,matthew from the humiliating vassalage to which ,schleiermacher's aesthetic had consigned him4 ,the practice of differentiating between ,john and the ,synoptists1 which in the hands of ,schleiermacher and ,hase had been an elegant amusement1 now received unexpected support1 and it at last became possible for the study of the life of ,jesus to go forward4 ,but no sooner had ,strauss opened up the way than he closed it again1 by refusing to admit the priority of ,mark4 ,his attitude towards this ,gospel at once provokes opposition4 ,for him ,mark is an epitomising narrator1 a mere satellite of ,matthew with no independent light4 ,his terse and graphic style makes on ,strauss an impression of artificiality4 ,he refuses to believe this ,evangelist when he says that on the first day at ,capernaum 8the whole town0 7,mark i4 #cc7 came together before ,peter's door1 and that1 on other occasions 7,mark iii4 #bj1 vi4 #ca71 the press was so great that ,jesus and ,his disciples had no leisure so much as to eat4 8,all very improbable traits10 he remarks1 8the absence of which in ,matthew is entirely to his advantage1 for what else are they than legendary exaggerations80 ,in this criticism he is at one with ,schleiermacher1 who in his essay on ,luke7#cg7 speaks of the unreal vividness of ,mark 8which often gives his ,gospel an almost apocryphal aspect40 ,this prejudice against ,mark has a twofold cause4 ,in the first place1 this ,gospel with its graphic details had rendered great service to the rationalistic explanation of miracle4 ,its description of the cure of the blind man at ,bethsaida 7,mark viii4 #bbbf7--whose eyes ,jesus first anointed with spittle1 whereupon he at first saw things dimly1 and then1 after he had felt the touch of the ,lord's hand upon his eyes a second time1 saw more clearly--was a veritable treasuretrove for rationalism4 ,as ,strauss is disposed to deal much more peremptorily with the rationalists than with the supernaturalists1 he puts ,mark upon his trial1 as their accessory before the fact1 and pronounces upon him a judgment which is not entirely unprejudiced4 ,moreover1 it is not until the ,gospels are looked at from the point of view of the plan of the history and the inner connexion of events that the superiority of ,mark is clearly realised4 ,but this way of looking at the matter does not enter into ,strauss's purview4 ,on the contrary1 he denies that there is any traceable connexion of events at all1 and confines his attention to determining the proportion of myth in the content of each separate narrative4 ,of the ,synoptic question he does not1 strictly speaking1 take any account4 ,that was partly due to the fact that when he wrote it was in a thoroughly unsatisfactory position4 ,there was a confused welter of the most various hypotheses4 ,the priority of ,mark1 which had had earlier champions in ,koppe17#ch7 ,storr17#ci7 ,gratz17#dj7 and ,herder17#da7 was now maintained by ,credner and ,lachmann1 who saw in ,matthew a combination of the logia document with ,mark4 ,the 8primitive ,gospel0 hypothesis of ,eichhorn1 according to which the first three ,gospels went back to a common source1 not identical with any of them1 had become somewhat discredited4 ,there had been much discussion and various modifications of ,griesbach's 8dependence theory10 according to which ,mark was pieced together out of ,matthew and ,luke1 and ,schleiermacher's ,diegesentheorie17#db7 which saw the primary material not in a gospel1 but in unconnected notes2 from these1 collections of narrative passages were afterwards formed1 which in the postapostolic period coalesced into continuous descriptions of the life of ,jesus such as the three which have been preserved in our ,synoptic ,gospels4 ,in this matter ,strauss is a sceptical eclectic4 ,in the main he may be said to combine ,griesbach's theory of the secondary origin of ,mark with ,schleiermacher's ,diegesentheorie1 the latter answering to his method of treating the sections separately4 ,but whereas ,schleiermacher had used the plan of ,john's ,gospel as a framework into which to fit the independent narratives1 ,strauss's rejection of the ,fourth ,gospel left him without any means of connecting the sections4 ,he makes a point1 indeed1 of sharply emphasising this want of connexion2 and it was just this that made his work appear so extreme4 ,the ,synoptic discourses1 like the ,johannine1 are composite structures1 created by later tradition out of sayings which originally belonged to different times and circumstances1 arranged under certain leading ideas so as to form connected discourses4 ,the sermon on the mount1 the discourse at the sending forth of the twelve1 the great parablediscourse1 the polemic against the ,pharisees1 have all been gradually formed like geological deposits4 ,so far as the original juxtaposition may be supposed to have been here and there preserved1 ,matthew is doubtless the most trustworthy authority for it4 8,from the comparison which we have been making10 says ,strauss in one passage1 8we can already see that the hard grit of these sayings of ,jesus 7die krnigen ,reden ,jesu7 has not indeed been dissolved by the flood of oral tradition1 but they have often been washed away from their original position and like rolling pebbles 7,gerlle7 have been deposited in places to which they do not properly belong407#dc7 ,and1 moreover1 we find this distinction between the first three ,evangelists1 viz4 that ,matthew is a skilful collector who1 while he is far from having been able always to give the original connexion1 has at least known how to bring related passages aptly together1 whereas in the other two many fragmentary sayings have been left exactly where chance had deposited them1 which was generally in the interstices between the larger masses of discourse4 ,luke1 indeed1 has in some cases made an effort to give them an artistic setting1 which is1 however1 by no means a satisfactory substitute for the natural connexion4 ,it is in his criticism of the parables that ,strauss is most extreme4 ,he starts out from the assumption that they have mutually influenced one another1 and that those which may possibly be genuine have only been preserved in a secondary form4 ,in the parable of the marriage supper of the king's son1 for example1 he confidently assumes that the conduct of the invited guests1 who finally illtreated and slew the messengers1 and the question why the guest is not wearing a weddinggarment are secondary features4 ,how external he supposes the connexion of the narratives to be is clear from the way in which he explains the juxtaposition of the story of the transfiguration with the 8discourse while descending the mountain40 ,they have1 he says1 really nothing to do with one another4 ,the disciples on one occasion asked ,jesus about the coming of ,elijah as forerunner2 ,elijah also appears in the story of the transfiguration3 accordingly tradition simply grouped the transfiguration and the discourse together under the heading 8,elijah10 and1 later on1 manufactured a connexion between them4 ,the tendency of the work to purely critical analysis1 the ostentatious avoidance of any positive expression of opinion1 and not least1 the manner of regarding the ,synoptists as mere bundles of narratives and discourses1 make it difficult--indeed1 strictly speaking1 impossible--to determine ,strauss's own distinctive conception of the life of ,jesus1 to discover what he really thinks is moving behind the curtain of myth4 ,according to the view taken in regard to this point his work becomes either a negative or a positive life of ,jesus4 ,there are1 for instance1 a number of incidental remarks which contain the suggestion of a positive construction of the life of ,jesus4 ,if they were taken out of their context and brought together they would yield a picture which would have points of contact with the latest eschatological view4 ,strauss1 however1 deliberately restricts his positive suggestions to these few detached remarks4 ,he follows out no line to its conclusion4 ,each separate problem is indeed considered1 and light is thrown upon it from various quarters with much critical skill4 ,but he will not venture on a solution of any of them4 ,sometimes1 when he thinks he has gone too far in the way of positive suggestion1 he deliberately wipes it all out again with some expression of scepticism4 ,as to the duration of the ministry he will not even offer a vague conjecture4 ,as to the connexion of certain events1 nothing can1 according to him1 be known1 since the ,johannine outline cannot be accepted and the ,synoptists arrange everything with an eye to analogies and association of ideas1 though they flattered themselves that they were giving a chronologically arranged narrative4 ,from the contents of the narratives1 however1 and from the monotonous recurrence of certain formulae of connexion1 it is evident that no clear view of an organically connected whole can be assumed to be present in their work4 ,we have no fixed points to enable us to reconstruct even in a measure the chronological order4 ,especially interesting is his discussion of the title 8,son of ,man40 ,in the saying 8the ,son of ,man is ,lord also of the ,sabbath day0 7,matt4 xii4 #h71 the expression might1 according to ,strauss1 simply denote 8man40 ,in other passages one gets the impression that ,jesus spoke of the ,son of ,man as a supernatural person1 quite distinct from ,himself1 but identified with the ,messiah4 ,this is the most natural explanation of the passage in ,matt4 x4 #bc1 where he promises the disciples1 in sending them forth1 that they shall not have gone over the cities of ,israel before the ,son of ,man shall come4 ,here ,jesus speaks of the ,messiah as if ,he ,himself were his forerunner4 ,these sayings would1 therefore1 fall in the first period1 before ,he knew ,himself to be the ,messiah4 ,strauss does not suspect the significance of this incidental remark2 it contains the germ of the solution of the problem of the ,son of ,man on the lines of ,johannes ,weiss4 ,but immediately scepticism triumphs again4 ,how can we tell1 asks ,strauss1 where the title ,son of ,man is genuine in the sayings of ,jesus1 and where it has been inserted without special significance1 merely from habit8 ,not less insoluble1 in his opinion1 is the question regarding the point of time at which ,jesus claimed the ,messianic dignity for ,himself4 8,whereas in ,john10 ,strauss remarks1 8,jesus remains constant in ,his avowal1 his disciples and followers constant in their conviction1 that ,he is the ,messiah2 in the ,synoptics1 on the other hand1 there are1 so to speak1 relapses to be observed2 so that1 in the case of the disciples and the people generally1 the conviction of ,jesus' ,messiahship expressed on earlier occasions1 sometimes1 in the course of the narrative1 disappears again and gives place to a much lower view of ,him2 and even ,jesus ,himself1 in comparison with ,his earlier unambiguous declaration1 is more reserved on later occasions40 ,the account of the confession of the ,messiahship at ,caesarea ,philippi1 where ,jesus pronounces ,peter blessed because of his confession1 and at the same time forbids the ,twelve to speak of it1 is unintelligible1 since according to this same ,gospel ,his ,messiahship had been mooted by the disciples on several previous occasions1 and had been acknowledged by the demoniacs4 ,the ,synoptists1 therefore1 contradict themselves4 ,then there are the further cases in which ,jesus forbids the making known of ,his ,messiahship1 without any reason whatever4 ,it would1 no doubt1 be historically possible to assume that it only gradually dawned upon ,him that ,he was the ,messiah--in any case not until after ,his baptism by ,john1 as otherwise ,he would have to be supposed to have made a pretence upon that occasion--and that as often as the thought that ,he might be the ,messiah was aroused in others by something that occurred1 and was suggested to ,him from without1 ,he was immediately alarmed at hearing spoken1 aloud and definitely1 that which ,he ,himself had scarcely dared to cherish as a possibility1 or in regard to which ,he had only lately attained to a clear conviction4 ,from these suggestions one thing is evident1 namely1 that for ,strauss the ,messianic consciousness of ,jesus was an historical fact1 and is not to be referred1 as has sometimes been supposed1 to myth4 ,to assert that ,strauss dissolved the life of ,jesus into myth is1 in fact1 an absurdity which1 however often it may be repeated by people who have not read his book1 or have read it only superficially1 does not become any the less absurd by repetition4 ,to come to detail1 ,jesus thought of ,his ,messiahship1 according to ,strauss1 in the form that ,he1 although of human parentage1 should after ,his earthly life be taken up into heaven1 and thence should come again to bring in ,his ,kingdom4 8,as1 moreover1 in the higher ,jewish theology1 immediately after the time of ,jesus1 the idea of the preexistence of the ,messiah was present1 the conjecture naturally suggests itself that it was also present at the time when ,jesus' thoughts were being formed1 and that consequently1 if ,he once began to think of ,himself as the ,messiah1 ,he might also have referred to ,himself this feature of the ,messianic conception4 ,whether ,jesus had been initiated1 as ,paul was1 into the wisdom of the schools in such a way that ,he could draw this conception from it1 is no doubt open to question40 ,in his treatment of the eschatology ,strauss makes a valiant effort to escape from the dilemma 8either spiritual or political0 in regard to the ,messianic plans of ,jesus1 and to make the eschatological expectation intelligible as one which did not set its hopes upon human aid1 but on ,divine intervention4 ,this is one of the most important contributions to a real understanding of the eschatological problem4 ,sometimes one almost seems to be reading ,johannes ,weiss2 as1 for example1 when ,strauss explains that ,jesus could promise ,his followers that they should sit on thrones without thinking of a political revolution1 because ,he expected a reversal of present conditions to be brought about by ,god1 and referred this judicial authority and kingly rule to the time of the 4 8,jesus1 therefore1 certainly expected to restore the throne of ,david1 and1 with ,his disciples1 to rule over a people freed from political bondage1 but in this expectation ,he did not set ,his hopes on the sword of human followers 7,luke xxii4 #ch1 ,matt4 xxvi4 #eb71 but upon the legions of angels which ,his heavenly ,father could give ,him 7,matt4 xxvi4 #ec74 ,when ,he speaks of the coming of ,his ,messianic glory1 it is with angels and heavenly powers that ,he surrounds ,himself 7,matt4 xvi4 #bg1 xxiv4 #cj ff41 xxv4 #ca74 ,before the majesty of the ,son of ,man coming in the clouds of heaven the nations will submit without striking a blow1 and at the sound of the angel's trumpetblast will1 with the dead who shall then arise1 range themselves before ,him and ,his disciples for judgment4 ,all this ,jesus did not purpose to bring about by any arbitrary action of ,his own1 but left it to ,his heavenly ,father1 who alone knew the right moment for this catastrophic change 7,mark xiii4 #cb71 to give ,him the signal of its coming2 and ,he did not waver in ,his faith even when death came upon ,him before its realisation4 ,any one who shrinks from adopting this view of the ,messianic background of ,jesus' plans1 because he fears by so doing to make ,jesus a visionary enthusiast1 must remember how exactly these hopes corresponded to the longcherished ,messianic expectation of the ,jews2 and how easily1 on the supernaturalistic assumptions of the period and among a people which preserved so strict an isolation as the ,jews1 an ideal which was in itself fantastic1 if it were the national ideal and had some true and good features1 could take possession of the mind even of one who was not inclined to fanaticism40 ,one of the principal proofs that the preaching of ,jesus was eschatologically conditioned is the ,last ,supper4 8,when10 says ,strauss1 8,he concluded the celebration with the saying1 #8,i will not drink henceforth of the fruit of the vine until ,i drink it new with you in my ,father's kingdom1' ,he would seem to have expected that in the ,messianic kingdom the ,passover would be celebrated with peculiar solemnity4 ,therefore1 in assuring them that they shall next partake of the ,feast1 not in the present age1 but in the new era1 ,he evidently expects that within a year's time the pre,messianic dispensation will have come to an end and the ,messianic age will have begun40 ,but it must be admitted1 ,strauss immediately adds1 that the definite assurance which the ,evangelists put into ,his mouth may after all only have been in reality an expression of pious hope4 ,in a similar way he qualifies his other statements regarding the eschatological ideas of ,jesus by recalling that we cannot determine the part which the expectations of primitive ,christianity may have had in moulding these sayings4 ,thus1 for example1 the opinions which he expresses on the great ,parousia discourse in ,matt4 xxiv4 are extremely cautious4 ,the detailed prophecies regarding the ,second ,coming which the ,synoptists put into the mouth of ,jesus cannot be derived from ,jesus ,himself4 ,the question suggests itself1 however1 whether ,he did not cherish the hope1 and make the promise1 that ,he would one day appear in glory as the ,messiah8 8,if in any period of ,his life ,he held ,himself to be the ,messiah--and that there was a period when ,he did so there can be no doubt--and if ,he described ,himself as the ,son of ,man1 ,he must have expected the coming in the clouds which ,daniel had ascribed to the ,son of ,man2 but it may be questioned whether ,he thought of this as an exaltation which should take place even in ,his lifetime1 or as something which was only to take place after ,his death4 ,utterances like ,matt4 x4 #bc1 xvi4 #bh rather suggest the former1 but the possibility remains that later1 when he had begun to feel that ,his death was certain1 his conception took the latter form1 and that ,matt4 xxvi4 #fd was spoken with this in view40 ,thus1 even for ,strauss1 the problem of the ,son of ,man is already the central problem in which are focused all the questions regarding the ,messiahship and eschatology4 ,from all this it may be seen how strongly he had been influenced by ,reimarus1 whom1 indeed1 he frequently mentions4 ,it would be still more evident if he had not obscured his historical views by constantly bringing the mythological explanation into play4 ,the thought of the supernatural realisation of the ,kingdom of ,god must also1 according to ,strauss1 be the startingpoint of any attempt to understand ,jesus' attitude towards the ,law and the ,gentiles1 so far as that is possible in view of the conflicting data4 ,the conservative passages must carry most weight4 ,they need not necessarily fall at the beginning of ,his ministry1 because it is questionable whether the hypothesis of a later period of increasing liberality in regard to the law and the ,gentiles can be made probable4 ,there would be more chance of proving that the conservative sayings are the only authentic ones1 for unless all the indications are misleading the terminus a quo for this change of attitude is the death of ,jesus4 ,he no doubt looked forward to the abolition of the ,law and the removal of the barriers between ,jew and ,gentile1 but only in the future ,kingdom4 8,if that be so10 remarks ,strauss1 8the difference between the views of ,jesus and of ,paul consisted only in this1 that while ,jesus expected these limitations to fall away when1 at ,his second coming1 the earth should be renewed1 ,paul believed himself justified in doing away with them in consequence of the first coming of the ,messiah1 upon the still unregenerated earth40 ,the eschatological passages are therefore the most authentic of all4 ,if there is anything historic about ,jesus1 it is ,his assertion of the claim that in the coming kingdom ,he would be manifested as the ,son of ,man4 ,on the other hand1 in the predictions of the passion and resurrection we are on quite uncertain ground4 ,the detailed statements regarding the manner of the catastrophe place it beyond doubt that we have here vaticinia ex eventu4 ,otherwise the despair of the disciples when the events occurred could not be explained4 ,yet it is possible that ,jesus had a prevision of ,his death4 ,perhaps the resolve to die was essential to ,his conception of the ,messiahship and ,he was not forced thereto by circumstances4 ,this we might be able to determine with certainty if we had more exact information regarding the conception of the suffering ,messiah in contemporary ,jewish theology2 which is1 however1 not available4 ,we do not even know whether the conception had ever existed in ,judaism4 8,in the ,new ,testament it almost looks as if no one among the ,jews had ever thought of a suffering or dying ,messiah40 ,the conception can1 however1 certainly be found in later passages of ,rabbinic literature4 ,the question is therefore insoluble4 ,we must be content to work with possibilities4 ,the result of a full discussion of the resolve to suffer and the significance attached to the suffering is summed up by ,strauss in the following sentences4 8,in view of these considerations it is possible that ,jesus might1 by a natural process of thought1 have come to see how greatly such a catastrophe would contribute to the spiritual development of ,his disciples1 and in accordance with national conceptions1 interpreted in the light of some ,old ,testament passages1 might have arrived at the idea of an atoning power in ,his ,messianic death4 ,at the same time the explicit utterance which the ,synoptists attribute to ,jesus describing ,his death as an atoning sacrifice1 might well belong rather to the system of thought which grew up after the death of ,jesus1 and the saying which the ,fourth ,gospel puts into ,his mouth regarding the relation of ,his death to the coming of the ,paraclete might seem to be prophecy after the event4 ,so that even in these sayings of ,jesus regarding the purpose of ,his death1 it is necessary to distinguish between the particular and the general40 ,strauss's 8,life of ,jesus0 has a different significance for modern theology from that which it had for his contemporaries4 ,for them it was the work which made an end of miracle as a matter of historical belief1 and gave the mythological explanation its due4 ,we1 however1 find in it also an historical aspect of a positive character1 inasmuch as the historic ,personality which emerges from the mist of myth is a ,jewish claimant of the ,messiahship1 whose world of thought is purely eschatological4 ,strauss is1 therefore1 no mere destroyer of untenable solutions1 but also the prophet of a coming advance in knowledge4 ,it was1 however1 his own fault that his merit in this respect was not recognised in the nineteenth century1 because in his 8,life of ,jesus for the ,german ,people0 7#ahfd71 where he undertook to draw a positive historic picture of ,jesus1 he renounced his better opinions of #ahce1 eliminated eschatology1 and1 instead of the historic ,jesus1 portrayed the ,jesus of liberal theology4 ,,ix4 ,,strauss',s ,,opponents ,,and ,,supporters ,david ,friedrich ,strauss4 ,streitschriften zur ,verteidigung meiner ,schrift ber das ,leben,jesu und zur ,charakteristik der gegenwrtigen ,theologie4 7,replies to criticisms of my work on the ,life of ,jesus2 with an estimate of presentday theology47 ,tbingen1 #ahcg4 ,das ,leben,jesu1 #cte verbesserte ,auflage 7#crd revised edition74 #ahchahci1 ,tbingen4 ,august ,tholuck4 ,die ,glaubwrdigkeit der evangelischen ,geschichte1 zugleich eine ,kritik des ,lebens ,jesu von ,strauss4 7,the ,credibility of the ,gospel ,history1 with an incidental criticism of ,strauss's 8,leben,jesu407 ,hamburg1 #ahcg4 ,aug4 ,wilh4 ,neander4 ,das ,leben ,jesu,christi4 ,hamburg1 #ahcg4 ,dr4 ,neanders auf hhere ,veranlassung abgefasstes ,gutachten ber das ,buch des ,dr4 ,strauss' 8,leben,jesu0 und das in ,beziehung auf die ,verbreitung desselben zu beachtende ,verfahren4 7,dr4 ,neander's report1 drawn up at the request of the authorities1 upon ,dr4 ,strauss's 8,leben,jesu0 and the measures to be adopted in regard to its circulation47 #ahcf4 ,leonhard ,hug4 ,gutachten ber das ,leben,jesu1 kritisch bearbeitet von ,d4 ,fr4 ,strauss4 7,report on ,d4 ,fr4 ,strauss's critical work upon the ,life of ,jesus47 ,freiburg1 #ahdj4 ,christian ,gottlob ,wilke4 ,tradition und ,mythe4 ,ein ,beitrag zur historischen ,kritik der kanonischen ,evangelien berhaupt1 wie insbesondere zur ,wrdigung des mythischen ,idealismus im ,leben,jesu von ,strauss4 7,tradition and ,myth4 ,a ,contribution to the ,general ,historical ,criticism of the ,gospels2 with special reference to the mythical idealism of ,strauss's 8,leben,jesu407 ,leipzig1 #ahcg4 ,august ,ebrard4 ,wissenschaftliche ,kritik der evangelischen ,geschichte4 7,scientific ,criticism of the ,gospel ,history47 ,frankfort1 #ahdb4 ,georg ,heinr4 ,aug4 ,ewald4 ,geschichte ,christus' und seiner ,zeit4 7,history of ,christ and ,his ,times47 #ahee4 ,fifth volume of the 8,geschichte des ,volkes ,israel40 ,christoph ,friedrich von ,ammon4 ,die ,geschichte des ,lebens ,jesu mit steter ,rcksicht auf die vorhandenen ,quellen4 7,history of the ,life of ,jesus with constant reference to the extant sources47 #c vols4 #ahdbahdg4 ,scarcely ever has a book let loose such a storm of controversy2 and scarcely ever has a controversy been so barren of immediate result4 ,the fertilising rain brought up a crop of toadstools4 ,of the forty or fifty essays on the subject which appeared in the next five years1 there are only four or five which are of any value1 and even of these the value is very small4 ,strauss's first idea was to deal with each of his opponents separately1 and he published in #ahcg three successive ,streitschriften47#dd7 ,in the preface to the first of these he states that he has kept silence for two years from a rooted objection to anything in the nature of reply or countercriticism1 and because he had little expectation of any good results from such controversy4 ,these essays are able1 and are often written with biting scorn1 especially that directed against his inveterate enemy1 ,steudel of ,tbingen1 the representative of intellectual supernaturalism1 and that against ,eschenmayer1 a pastor1 also of ,tbingen4 ,to a work of the latter1 8,the ,iscariotism of our ,days0 7#ahce71 he had referred in the preface to the second volume of his ,life of ,jesus in the following remark3 8,this offspring of the legitimate marriage between theological ignorance and religious intolerance1 blessed by a sleep walking philosophy1 succeeds in making itself so completely ridiculous that it renders any serious reply unnecessary40 ,but for all his sarcasm ,strauss does not show himself an adroit debater in this controversy1 any more than in later times in the ,diet4 ,it is indeed remarkable how unskilled in polemics is this man who had produced a critical work of the first importance with almost playful ease4 ,if his opponents made no effort to understand him rightly--and many of them certainly wrote without having carefully studied the fourteen hundred pages of his two volumes--,strauss on his part seemed to be stricken with a kind of uncertainty1 lost himself in a maze of detail1 and failed to keep continually reformulating the main problems which he had set up for discussion1 and so compelling his adversaries to face them fairly4 ,of these problems there were three4 ,the first was composed of the related questions regarding miracle and myth2 the second concerned the connexion of the ,christ of faith with the ,jesus of history2 the third referred to the relation of the ,gospel of ,john to the ,synoptists4 ,it was the first that attracted most attention2 more than half the critics devoted themselves to it alone4 ,even so they failed to get a thorough grasp of it4 ,the only thing that they clearly see is that ,strauss altogether denies the miracles2 the full scope of the mythological explanation as applied to the traditional records of the life of ,jesus1 and the extent of the historical material which ,strauss is prepared to accept1 is still a riddle to them4 ,that is in some measure due1 it must in fairness be said1 to the arrangement of ,strauss's own work1 in which the unconnected series of separate investigations makes the subject unnecessarily difficult even for one who wishes to do the author justice4 ,the attitude towards miracle assumed in the anti,strauss literature shows how far the antirationalistic reaction had carried professedly scientific theology in the direction of supernaturalism4 ,some significant symptoms had begun to show themselves even in ,hase and ,schleiermacher of a tendency towards the overcoming of rationalism by a kind of intellectual gymnastic which ran some risk of falling into insincerity4 ,the essential character of this new kind of historical theology first came to light when ,strauss put it to the question1 and forced it to substitute a plain yes or no for the ambiguous phrases with which this school had only too quickly accustomed itself to evade the difficulties of the problem of miracle4 ,the mottoes with which this new school of theology adorned the works which it sent forth against the untimely troubler of their peace manifest its complete perplexity1 and display the coquettish resignation with which the sacred learning of the time essayed to cover its nakedness1 after it had succumbed to the temptation of the serpent insincerity4 ,adolf ,harless of ,erlangen chose the melancholy saying of ,pascal3 8,tout tourne bien pour les lus1 jusqu'aux obscurits de l'criture1 car ils les honorent cause des clarts divines qu'ils y voient2 et tout tourne en mal aux reprouvs1 jusqu'aux clarts1 car ils les blasphment cause des obscurits qu'ils n'entendent pas407#de7 ,herr ,wilhelm ,hoffmann17#df7 deacon at ,winnenden1 selected ,bacon's aphorism3 8,animus ad amplitudinem mysteriorum pro modulo suo dilatetur1 non mysteria ad angustias animi constringantur40 7,let the mind1 so far as possible1 be expanded to the greatness of the mysteries1 not the mysteries contracted to the compass of the mind47 ,professor ,ernst ,osiander17#dg7 of the seminary at ,maulbronn1 appeals to ,cicero3 8,o magna vis veritatis1 quae contra hominum ingenia1 calliditatem1 sollertiam facillime se per ipsam defendit40 7,o mighty power of truth1 which against all the ingenious devices1 the craft and subtlety1 of men1 easily defends itself by its own strength67 ,franz ,baader1 of ,munich17#dh7 ornaments his work with the reflection3 8,il faut que les hommes soient bien loin de toi1 ,vrit6 puisque tu supporte 7sic67 leur ignorance1 leurs erreurs1 et leurs crimes40 7,men must indeed be far from thee1 ,o ,truth1 since thou art able to bear with their ignorance1 their errors1 and their crimes67 ,tholuck7#di7 girds himself with the ,catholic maxim of ,vincent of ,lerins3 8,teneamus quod semper1 quod ubique1 quod ab omnibus creditum est40 7,let us hold that which has been believed always1 everywhere1 by all47 ,the fear of ,strauss had1 indeed1 a tendency to inspire ,protestant theologians with catholicising ideas4 ,one of the most competent reviewers of his book1 ,dr4 ,ullmann in the ,studien und ,kritiken1 had expressed the wish that it had been written in ,latin to prevent its doing harm among the people47#ej7 ,an anonymous dialogue of the period shows us the schoolmaster coming in distress to the clergyman4 ,he has allowed himself to be persuaded into reading the book by his acquaintance the ,major1 and he is now anxious to get rid of the doubts which it has aroused in him4 ,when his cure has been safely accomplished1 the reverend gentleman dismisses him with the following exhortation3 8,now ,i hope that after the experience which you have had you will for the future refrain from reading books of this kind1 which are not written for you1 and of which there is no necessity for you to take any notice2 and for the refutation of which1 should that be needful1 you have no equipment4 ,you may be quite sure that anything useful or profitable for you which such books may contain will reach you in due course through the proper channel and in the right way1 and1 that being so1 you are under no necessity to jeopardise any part of your peace of mind40 ,tholuck's work professedly aims only at presenting a 8historical argument for the credibility of the miracle stories of the ,gospels40 8,even if we admit10 he says in one place1 8the scientific position that no act can have proceeded from ,christ which transcends the laws of nature1 there is still room for the mediating view of ,christ's miracleworking activity4 ,this leads us to think of mysterious powers of nature as operating in the history of ,christ--powers such as we have some partial knowledge of1 as1 for example1 those magnetic powers which have survived down to our own time1 like ghosts lingering on after the coming of day40 ,from the standpoint of this spurious rationalism he proceeds to take ,strauss to task for rejecting the miracles4 8,had this latest critic been able to approach the ,gospel miracles without prejudice1 in the ,spirit of ,augustine's declaration1 #8dandum est deo1 eum aliquid facere posse quod nos investigare non possumus1' he would certainly--since he is a man who in addition to the acumen of the scholar possesses sound common sense--have come to a different conclusion in regard to these difficulties4 ,as it is1 however1 he has approached the ,gospels with the conviction that miracles are impossible2 and on that assumption1 it was certain before the argument began that the ,evangelists were either deceivers or deceived40 ,neander1 in his ,life of ,jesus17#ea7 handles the question with more delicacy of touch1 rather in the style of ,schleiermacher4 8,christ's miracles10 he explains1 8are to be understood as an influencing of nature1 human or material40 ,he does not1 however1 give so much prominence as ,schleiermacher had done to the difficulty involved in the supposition of an influence exercised upon material nature4 ,he repeats ,schleiermacher's assertions1 but without the imposing dialectic which in ,schleiermacher's hands almost commands assent4 ,in regard to the miracle at ,cana he remarks3 8,we cannot indeed form any clear conception of an effect brought about by the introduction of a higher creative principle into the natural order1 since we have no experience on which to base such a conception1 but we are by no means compelled to take this extreme view as to what happened2 we may quite well suppose that ,christ by an immediate influence upon the water communicated to it a higher potency which enabled it to produce the effects of strong wine40 ,in the case of all the miracles he makes a point of seeking not only the explanation1 but the higher symbolical significance4 ,the miracle of the figtree--which is sui generis--has only this symbolical significance1 seeing that it is not beneficent and creative but destructive4 8,it can only be thought of as a vivid illustration of a prediction of the ,divine judgment1 after the manner of the symbolic actions of the ,old ,testament prophets40 ,with reference to the ascension and the resurrection he writes3 8,even though we can form no clear idea of the exact way in which the exaltation of ,christ from the earth took place--and indeed there is much that is obscure in regard to the earthly life of ,christ after ,his resurrection--yet1 in its place in the organic unity of the ,christian faith1 it is as certain as the resurrection1 which apart from it cannot be recognised in its true significance40 ,that extract is typical of ,neander's ,life of ,jesus1 which in its time was hailed as a great achievement1 calculated to provide a learned refutation of ,strauss's criticism1 and of which a seventh edition appeared as late as #ahgb4 ,the real piety of heart with which it is imbued cannot conceal the fact that it is a patchwork of unsatisfactory compromises4 ,it is the child of despair1 and has perplexity for godfather4 ,one cannot read it without pain4 ,neander1 however1 may fairly claim to be judged1 not by this work1 but by his personal attitude in the ,strauss controversy4 ,and here he appears as a magnanimous and dignified representative of theological science4 ,immediately after the appearance of ,strauss's book1 which1 it was at once seen1 would cause much offence1 the ,prussian ,government asked ,neander to report upon it1 with a view to prohibiting the circulation1 should there appear to be grounds for doing so4 ,he presented his report on the #aeth of ,november #ahce1 and1 an inaccurate account of it having appeared in the ,allgemeine ,zeitung1 subsequently published it47#eb7 ,in it he censures the work as being written from a too purely rationalistic point of view1 but strongly urges the ,government not to suppress it by an edict4 ,he describes it as 8a book which1 it must be admitted1 constitutes a danger to the sacred interests of the ,church1 but which follows the method of endeavouring to produce a reasoned conviction by means of argument4 ,hence any other method of dealing with it than by meeting argument with argument will appear in the unfavourable light of an arbitrary interference with the freedom of science40 ,in holding that scientific theology will be able by its own strength to overthrow whatever in ,strauss's ,life of ,jesus deserves to be overthrown1 ,neander is at one with the anonymous writer of 8,aphorisms in ,defence of ,dr4 ,strauss and his ,work107#ec7 who consoles himself with ,goethe's saying-- ,das ,tchtige1 auch wenn es falsch ist1 ,wirkt ,tag fr ,tag1 von ,haus zu ,haus2 ,das ,tchtige1 wenn's wahrhaftig ist1 ,wirkt ber alle ,zeiten hinaus47#ed7 7,strive hard1 and though your aim be wrong1 ,your work shall live its little day2 ,strive hard1 and for the truth be strong1 ,your work shall live and grow for aye47 8,dr4 ,strauss10 says this anonymous writer1 8does not represent the author's views1 and he on his part cannot undertake to defend ,dr4 ,strauss's conclusions4 ,but it is clear to him that ,dr4 ,strauss's work considered as a scientific production is more scientific than the works opposed to it from the side of religion are religious4 ,otherwise why are they so passionate1 so apprehensive1 so unjust80 ,this confidence in pure critical science was not shared by ,herr ,privat ,docent ,daniel ,schenkel of ,basle1 afterwards ,professor at ,heidelberg4 ,in a dreary work dedicated to his ,gttingen teacher ,lcke1 on 8,historical ,science and the ,church107#ee7 he looks for future salvation towards that middle region where faith and science interpenetrate1 and hails the new supernaturalism which approximates to a scientific treatment of these subjects 8as a hopeful phenomenon40 ,he rejoices in the violent opposition at ,zurich which led to the cancelling of ,strauss's appointment1 regarding it as likely to exercise an elevating influence4 ,a similarly lofty position is taken up by the anonymous author of 8,dr4 ,strauss and the ,zurich ,church107#ef7 to which ,de ,wette contributed a preface4 ,though professing great esteem for ,strauss1 and admitting that from the purely historical point of view he is in the right1 the author feels bound to congratulate the ,zurichers on having refused to admit him to the office of teacher4 ,the pure rationalists found it much more difficult than did the mediating theologians1 whether of the older or younger school1 to adjust their attitude to the new solution of the miracle question4 ,strauss himself had made it difficult for them by remorselessly exposing the absurd and ridiculous aspects of their method1 and by refusing to recognise them as allies in the battle for truth1 as they really were4 ,paulus would have been justified in bearing him a grudge4 ,but the inner greatness of that man of hard exterior comes out in the fact that he put his personal feelings in the background1 and when ,strauss became the central figure in the battle for the purity and freedom of historical science he ignored his attacks on rationalism and came to his defence4 ,in a very remarkable letter to the ,free ,canton of ,zurich1 on 8,freedom in ,theological ,teaching and in the ,choice of ,teachers for ,colleges107#eg7 he urges the council and the people to appoint ,strauss because of the principle at stake1 and in order to avoid giving any encouragement to the retrograde movement in historical science4 ,it is as though he felt that the end of rationalism had come1 but that1 in the person of the enemy who had defeated it1 the pure love of truth1 which was the only thing that really mattered1 would triumph over all the forces of reaction4 ,it would not1 however1 be true to say that ,strauss had beaten rationalism from the field4 ,in ,ammon's famous ,life of ,jesus17#eh7 in which the author takes up a very respectful attitude towards ,strauss1 there is a vigorous survival of a peculiar kind of rationalism inspired by ,kant4 ,for ,ammon1 a miraculous event can only exist when its natural causes have been discovered4 8,the sacred history is subject to the same laws as all other narratives of antiquity40 ,lcke1 in dealing with the raising of ,lazarus1 had thrown out the question whether ,biblical miracles could be thought of historically at all1 and in so doing supposed that he was putting their absolute character on a firmer basis4 8,we10 says ,ammon1 8give the opposite answer from that which is expected2 only historically conceivable miracles can be admitted40 ,he cannot away with the constant confusion of faith and knowledge found in so many writers 8who swim in an ocean of ideas in which the real and the illusory are as inseparable as salt and seawater in the actual ocean40 ,in every natural process1 he explains1 we have to suppose1 according to ,kant1 an interpenetration of natural and supernatural4 ,for that very reason the purely supernatural does not exist for our experience4 8,it is no doubt certain10 so he lays it down on the lines of ,kant's ,kritik der reinen ,vernunft1 8that every act of causation which goes forth from ,god must be immediate1 universal1 and eternal1 because it is thought as an effect of ,his will1 which is exalted above space and time and interpenetrates both of them1 but without abolishing them1 leaving them undisturbed in their continuity and succession4 ,for us men1 therefore1 all action of ,god is mediate1 because we are completely surrounded by time and space1 as the fish is by the sea or the bird by the air1 and apart from these relations we should be incapable of apperception1 and therefore of any real experience4 ,as free beings we can1 indeed1 think of miracle as immediately ,divine1 but we cannot perceive it as such1 because that would be impossible without seeing ,god1 which for wise reasons is forbidden to us40 8,in accordance with these principles1 we shall hold it to be our duty in what follows to call attention to the natural side even of the miracles of ,jesus1 since apart from this no fact can become an object of belief40 ,it is only in this intelligible sense that the cures of ,jesus are to be thought of as 8miracles40 ,the magnetic force1 with which the mediating theology makes play1 is to be rejected4 8,the cure of psychical diseases by the power of the word and of faith is the only kind of cure in which the student of natural science can find any basis for a conjecture regarding the way in which the cures of ,jesus were effected40 ,in the case of the other miracles ,ammon assumes a kind of ,occasionalism1 in the sense that it may have pleased the ,divine ,providence 8to fulfil in fact the confidently spoken promises of ,jesus1 and in that way to confirm ,his personal authority1 which was necessary to the establishment of ,his doctrine of the ,divine salvation40 ,in most cases1 however1 he is content to repeat the rationalistic explanation1 and portrays a ,jesus who makes use of medicines1 allows the demoniac himself to rush upon the herd of swine1 helps a leper1 whom he sees to be suffering only from one of the milder forms of the disease1 to secure the public recognition of his being legally clean1 and who exerts himself to prevent by word and act the premature burial of persons in a state of trance4 ,the story of the feeding of the multitude is based on some occasion when there was 8a bountiful display of hospitality1 a generous sharing of provisions1 inspired by ,jesus' prayer of thanksgiving and the example which ,he set when the disciples were inclined selfishly to hold back their own supply40 ,the story of the miracle at ,cana rests on a mere misunderstanding1 those who report it not having known that the wine which ,jesus caused to be secretly brought forth was the weddinggift which he was presenting in the name of the family4 ,as a disciple of ,kant1 however1 ,ammon feels obliged to refute the imputation that ,jesus could have done anything to promote excess1 and calculates that the present of wine which ,jesus had intended to give the bridal pair may be estimated as equivalent to not more than eighteen bottles47#ei7 ,he explains the walking on the sea by claiming for ,jesus an acquaintance with 8the art of treading water40 ,only in regard to the explanation of the resurrection does ,ammon break away from rationalism4 ,he decides that the reality of the death of ,jesus is historically proved4 ,but he does not venture to suppose a real reawakening to life1 and remains at the standpoint of ,herder4 ,but the way in which1 in spite of the deeper view of the conception of miracle which he owes to ,kant1 he constantly falls back upon the most pedestrian naturalistic explanations1 and his failure to rid himself of the prejudice that an actual1 even if not a miraculous fact must underlie all the recorded miracles1 is in itself sufficient to prove that we have here to do with a mere revival of rationalism3 that is1 with an untenable theory which ,strauss's refutation of ,paulus had already relegated to the past4 ,it was an easier task for pure supernaturalism than for pure rationalism to come to terms with ,strauss4 ,for the former ,strauss was only the enemy of the mediating theology--there was nothing to fear from him and much to gain4 ,accordingly ,hengstenberg's ,evangelische ,kirchenzeitung hailed ,strauss's book as 8one of the most gratifying phenomena in the domain of recent theological literature10 and praises the author for having carried out with logical consistency the application of the mythical theory which had formerly been restricted to the ,old ,testament and certain parts only of the ,gospel tradition4 8,all that ,strauss has done is to bring the spirit of the age to a clear consciousness of itself and of the necessary consequences which flow from its essential character4 ,he has taught it how to get rid of foreign elements which were still present in it1 and which marked an imperfect stage of its development40 ,he has been the most influential factor in the necessary process of separation4 ,there is no one with whom ,hengstenberg feels himself more in agreement than with the ,tbingen scholar4 ,had he not shown with the greatest precision how the results of the ,hegelian philosophy1 one may say1 of philosophy in general1 reacted upon ,christian faith8 8,the relation of speculation to faith has now come clearly to light40 8,two nations10 writes ,hengstenberg in #ahcf1 8are struggling in the womb of our time1 and two only4 ,they will be ever more definitely opposed to one another4 ,unbelief will more and more cast off the elements of faith to which it still clings1 and faith will cast off its elements of unbelief4 ,that will be an inestimable advantage4 ,had the ,timespirit continued to make concessions1 concessions would constantly have been made to it in return40 ,therefore the man who 8calmly and deliberately laid hands upon the ,lord's anointed1 undeterred by the vision of the millions who have bowed the knee1 and still bow the knee1 before ,his appearing10 has in his own way done a service4 ,strauss on his part escaped with relief from the musty atmosphere of the study--beloved by theology in carpetslippers--to the bracing air of ,hengstenberg's ,kirchenzeitung4 ,in his 8,replies0 he devotes to it some fiftyfour pages4 8,i must admit10 he says1 8that it is a satisfaction to me to have to do with the ,evangelische ,kirchenzeitung4 ,in dealing with it one knows where one is and what one has to expect4 ,if ,herr ,hengstenberg condemns1 he knows why he condemns1 and even one against whom he launches his anathema must admit that the attitude becomes him4 ,any one who1 like the editor of the ,evangelische ,kirchenzeitung1 has taken upon him the yoke of confessional doctrine with all its implications1 has paid a price which entitles him to the privilege of condemning those who differ from his opinions407#fj7 ,hengstenberg's only complaint against ,strauss is that he does not go far enough4 ,he would have liked to force upon him the rle of the ,wolfenbttel ,fragmentist1 and considers that if ,strauss did not1 like the latter1 go so far as to suppose the apostles guilty of deliberate deceit1 that is not so much from any regard for the historical kernel of ,christianity as in order to mask his attack4 ,even in ,catholic theology ,strauss's work caused a great sensation4 ,catholic theology in general did not at that time take up an attitude of absolute isolation from ,protestant scholarship2 it had adopted from the latter numerous rationalistic ideas1 and had been especially influenced by ,schleiermacher4 ,thus1 ,catholic scholars were almost prepared to regard ,strauss as a common enemy1 against whom it was possible to make common cause with ,protestants4 ,in #ahcg ,joseph ,mack1 one of the ,professors of the ,catholic faculty at ,tbingen1 published his 8,report on ,herr ,dr4 ,strauss's ,historical ,study of the ,life of ,jesus407#fa7 ,in #ahci appeared 8,dr4 ,strauss's ,life of ,jesus1 considered from the ,catholic point of view107#fb7 by ,dr4 ,maurus ,hagel1 ,professor of ,theology at the ,lyceum at ,dillingen2 in #ahdj that lover of hypotheses and doughty fighter1 ,johann ,leonhard ,hug17#fc7 presented his report upon the work47#fd7 ,even ,french ,catholicism gave some attention to ,strauss's work4 ,this marks an epoch--the introduction of the knowledge of ,german critical theology into the intellectual world of the ,latin nations4 ,in the ,revue des deux mondes for ,december #ahch1 ,edgar ,quinet gave a clear and accurate account of the influence of the ,hegelian philosophy upon the religious ideas of cultured ,germany47#fe7 ,in an eloquent peroration he lays bare the danger which was menacing the ,church from the nation of ,strauss and ,hegel4 ,his countrymen need not think that it could be charmed away by some ingenious formula2 a mighty effort of the ,catholic spirit was necessary1 if it was to be successfully opposed4 8,a new barbarian invasion was rolling up against sacred ,rome4 ,the barbarians were streaming from every quarter of the horizon1 bringing their strange gods with them and preparing to beleaguer the holy city4 ,as1 of yore1 ,leo went forth to meet ,attila1 so now let the ,papacy put on its purple and come forth1 while yet there is time1 to wave back with an authoritative gesture the devastating hordes into that moral wilderness which is their native home40 ,quinet might have done better still if he had advised the ,pope to issue1 as a counterblast to the unbelieving critical work of ,strauss1 the ,life of ,jesus which had been revealed to the faith of the blessed ,anna ,katharina ,emmerich47#ff7 ,how thoroughly this refuted ,strauss can be seen from the fragment issued in #ahcd1 8,the ,bitter ,sufferings of ,our ,lord ,jesus ,christ10 where even the age of ,jesus on the day of ,his death is exactly given4 ,on that ,maundy ,thursday the #acth ,nisan1 it was exactly thirtythree years and eighteen weeks less one day4 ,the 8pilgrim0 ,clement ,brentano would certainly have consented1 had he been asked1 to allow his notebooks to be used in the sacred cause1 and to have given to the world the ,life of ,jesus as it was revealed to him by this visionary from the end of ,july #ahbj day by day for three years1 instead of allowing this treasure to remain hidden for more than twenty years longer4 ,he himself ascribed to these visions the most strictly historical character1 and insisted on considering them not merely as reflections on what had happened1 but as the immediate reflex of the facts themselves1 so that the picture of the life of ,jesus is given in them as in a mirror4 ,hug1 it may be mentioned1 in his lectures1 called attention to the exact agreement of the topography of the passion story in ,katharina's vision with the description of the locality in ,josephus4 ,if he had known her complete ,life of ,jesus he would doubtless have expressed his admiration for the way in which she harmonises ,john and the ,synoptists2 and with justice1 for the harmony is really ingenious and skilfully planned4 ,apart from these merits1 too1 this ,life of ,jesus1 written1 it should be observed1 earlier than ,strauss's1 contains a wealth of interesting information4 ,john at first baptized at ,aenon1 but later was directed to remove to ,jericho4 ,the baptisms took place in 8baptismal springs40 ,peter owned three boats1 of which one was fitted up especially for the use of ,jesus1 and carried a complement of ten persons4 ,forward and aft there were coveredin spaces where all kinds of gear could be kept1 and where also they could wash their feet2 along the sides of the boat were hung receptacles for the fish4 ,when ,judas ,iscariot became a disciple of ,jesus he was twentyfive years old4 ,he had black hair and a red beard1 but could not be called really ugly4 ,he had had a stormy past4 ,his mother had been a dancingwoman1 and ,judas had been born out of wedlock1 his father being a military tribune in ,damascus4 ,as an infant he had been exposed1 but had been saved1 and later had been taken charge of by his uncle1 a tanner at ,iscariot4 ,at the time when he joined the company of ,jesus' disciples he had squandered all his possessions4 ,the disciples at first liked him well enough because of his readiness to make himself useful2 he even cleaned the shoes4 ,the fish with the stater in its mouth was so large that it made a full meal for the whole company4 ,a work to which ,jesus devoted special attention--though this is not mentioned in the ,gospels--was the reconciliation of unhappy married couples4 ,another matter which is not mentioned in the ,gospels is the voyage of ,jesus to ,cyprus1 upon which ,he entered after a farewell meal with ,his disciples at the house of the ,canaanitish woman4 ,this voyage took place during the war between ,herod and ,aretas while the disciples were making their missionary journey in ,palestine4 ,as they could not give an eyewitness report of it they were silent2 nor did they make any mention of the feast to which the ,proconsul at ,salamis invited the ,saviour4 ,in regard to another journey1 also1 which ,jesus made to the land of the wise men of the ,east1 the 8pilgrim's0 oracle has the advantage of knowing more than the ,evangelists4 ,in spite of these additional traits a certain monotony is caused by the fact that the visionary1 in order to fill in the tale of days in the three years1 makes the persons known to us from the ,gospel history meet with the ,saviour on several occasions previous to the meeting narrated in the ,gospels4 ,here the artificial character of the composition comes out too clearly1 though in general a lively imagination tends to conceal this4 ,and yet these nave embellishments and inventions have something rather attractive about them2 one cannot handle the book without a certain reverence when one thinks amid what pains these revelations were received4 ,if ,brentano had published his notes at the time of the excitement produced by ,strauss's ,life of ,jesus1 the work would have had a tremendous success4 ,as it was1 when the first two volumes appeared at the end of the 'fifties1 there were sold in one year three thousand and several hundred copies1 without reckoning the ,french edition which appeared contemporaneously4 ,in the end1 however1 all the efforts of the mediating theology1 of rationalism and supernaturalism1 could do nothing to shake ,strauss's conclusion that it was all over with supernaturalism as a factor to be reckoned with in the historical study of the ,life of ,jesus1 and that scientific theology1 instead of turning back from rationalism to supernaturalism1 must move straight onward between the two and seek out a new path for itself4 ,the ,hegelian method had proved itself to be the logic of reality4 ,with ,strauss begins the period of the nonmiraculous view of the ,life of ,jesus2 all other views exhausted themselves in the struggle against him1 and subsequently abandoned position after position without waiting to be attacked4 ,the separation which ,hengstenberg had hailed with such rejoicing was really accomplished2 but in the form that supernaturalism practically separated itself from the serious study of history4 ,it is not possible to date the stages of this process4 ,after the first outburst of excitement everything seems to go on as quietly as before2 the only difference is that the question of miracle constantly falls more and more into the background4 ,in the modern period of the study of the ,life of ,jesus1 which begins about the middle of the 'sixties1 it has lost all importance4 ,that does not mean that the problem of miracle is solved4 ,from the historical point of view it is really impossible to solve it1 since we are not able to reconstruct the process by which a series of miracle stories arose1 or a series of historical occurrences were transformed into miracle stories1 and these narratives must simply be left with a question mark standing against them4 ,what has been gained is only that the exclusion of miracle from our view of history has been universally recognised as a principle of criticism1 so that miracle no longer concerns the historian either positively or negatively4 ,scientific theologians of the present day who desire to show their 8sensibility10 ask no more than that two or three little miracles may be left to them--in the stories of the childhood1 perhaps1 or in the narratives of the resurrection4 ,and these miracles are1 moreover1 so far scientific that they have at least no relation to those in the text1 but are merely spiritless1 miserable little toydogs of criticism1 fleabitten by rationalism1 too insignificant to do historical science any harm1 especially as their owners honestly pay the tax upon them by the way in which they speak1 write1 and are silent about ,strauss4 ,but even that is better than the delusive fashion in which some writers of the present day succeed in discussing the narratives of the resurrection 8as pure historians0 without betraying by a single word whether they themselves believe it to be possible or not4 ,but the reason modern theology can allow itself these liberties is that the foundation laid by ,strauss is unshakable4 ,compared with the problem of miracle1 the question regarding the mythical explanation of the history takes a very subordinate place in the controversy4 ,few understood what ,strauss's real meaning was2 the general impression was that he entirely dissolved the life of ,jesus into myth4 ,there appeared1 indeed1 three satires ridiculing his method4 ,one showed how1 for the historical science of the future1 the life of ,luther would also become a mere myth17#fg7 the second treated the life of ,napoleon in the same way27#fh7 in the third1 ,strauss himself becomes a myth47#fi7 ,m4 ,eugne ,mussard1 8candidat au saint ministre10 made it his business to set at rest the minds of the premier faculty at ,geneva by his thesis1 ,du systme mythique appliqu l'histoire de la vie de ,jsus1 #ahch1 which bears the ingenious motto 7not 444 in cunningly devised myths1 #b ,peter i4 #af74 ,he certainly did not exaggerate the difficulties of his task1 but complacently followed up an 8,exposition of the ,mythical ,theory10 with a 8,refutation of the ,mythical ,theory as applied to the ,life of ,jesus40 ,the only writer who really faced the problem in the form in which it had been raised by ,strauss was ,wilke in his work 8,tradition and ,myth407#gj7 ,he recognises that ,strauss had given an exceedingly valuable impulse towards the overcoming of rationalism and supernaturalism and to the rejection of the abortive mediating theology4 8,a keener criticism will only establish the truth of the ,gospel1 putting what is tenable on a firmer basis1 sifting out what is untenable1 and showing up in all its nakedness the counterfeit theology of the new evangelicalism with its utter lack of understanding and sincerity40 ,again1 8the approval which ,strauss has met with1 and the excitement which he has aroused1 sufficiently show what an advantage rationalistic speculation possesses over the theological second childishness of the new evangelicals40 ,the time has come for a rational mysticism1 which shall preserve undiminished the honesty of the old rationalism1 making no concessions to supernaturalism1 but1 on the other hand1 overcoming the 8truculent rationalism of the ,kantian criticism0 by means of a religious conception in which there is more warmth and more pious feeling4 ,this rational mysticism makes it a reproach against the 8mythical idealism0 of ,strauss that in it philosophy does violence to history1 and the historic ,christ only retains ,his significance as a mere ideal4 ,a new examination of the sources is necessary to decide upon the extent of the mythical element4 ,the ,gospel of ,matthew cannot1 ,wilke agrees1 have been the work of an eyewitness4 8,the principal argument against its authenticity is the absence of the characteristic marks of an eyewitness1 which must necessarily have been present in a gospel actually composed by a disciple of the ,lord1 and which are not present here4 ,the narrative is lacking in precision1 fragmentary and legendary1 tradition everywhere manifest in its very form40 ,there are discrepancies in the legends of the first and second chapters1 as well as elsewhere1 e4g4 the stories of the baptism1 the temptation1 and the transfiguration4 ,in other cases1 where there is a basis of historic fact1 there is an admixture of legendary material1 as in the narratives of the death and resurrection of ,jesus4 ,in the ,gospel of ,mark1 ,wilke recognises the pictorial vividness of many of the descriptions1 and conjectures that in some way or other it goes back to the ,petrine tradition4 ,the author of the ,fourth ,gospel is not an eyewitness2 the 7according to7 only indicates the origin of the tradition2 the author received it1 either directly or indirectly1 from the ,apostle1 but he gave to it the gnosticising dialectical form of the ,alexandrian theology4 ,as against the ,diegesentheorie7#ga7 ,wilke defends the independence and originality of the individual ,gospels4 8,no one of the ,evangelists knew the writing of any of the others1 each produced an independent work drawn from a separate source40 ,in the remarks on points of detail in this work of ,wilke's there is evidence of a remarkable grasp of the critical data2 we already get a hint of the 8mathematician0 of the ,synoptic problem1 who1 two years later1 was to work out convincingly the literary argument for the priority of ,mark4 ,but the historian is quite subordinated to the literary critic1 and1 when all is said1 ,wilke takes up no clearly defined position in regard to ,strauss's main problem1 as is evident from his seeking to retain1 on more or less plausible grounds1 a whole series of miracles1 among them the miracle of ,cana and the resurrection4 ,for most thinkers of that period1 however1 the question 8myth or history0 yielded in interest to the philosophical question of the relation of the historical ,jesus to the ideal ,christ4 ,that was the second problem raised by ,strauss4 ,some thought to refute him by showing that his exposition of the relation of the ,jesus of history to the ideal ,christ was not justified even from the point of view of the ,hegelian philosophy1 arguing that the edifice which he had raised was not in harmony with the groundplan of the ,hegelian speculative system4 ,he therefore felt it necessary1 in his reply to the review in the ,jahrbcher fr wissenschaftliche ,kritik1 to expound 8the general relationship of the ,hegelian philosophy to theological criticism107#gb7 and to express in more precise form the thoughts upon speculative and historical ,christology which he had suggested at the close of the second volume of his 8,life of ,jesus40 ,he admits that ,hegel's philosophy is ambiguous in this matter1 since it is not clear 8whether the evangelical fact as such1 not indeed in its isolation1 but together with the whole series of manifestations of the idea 7of ,godmanhood7 in the history of the world1 is the truth2 or whether the embodiment of the idea in that single fact is only a formula of which consciousness makes use in forming its concept40 ,the ,hegelian 8right10 he says1 represented by ,marheineke and ,gschel1 emphasises the positive side of the master's religious philosophy1 implying that in ,jesus the idea of ,godmanhood was perfectly fulfilled and in a certain sense intelligibly realised4 8,if these men10 ,strauss explains1 8appeal to ,hegel and declare that he would not have recognised my book as an expression of his meaning1 they say nothing which is not in accordance with my own convictions4 ,hegel was personally no friend to historical criticism4 ,it annoyed him1 as it annoyed ,goethe1 to see the historic figures of antiquity1 on which their thoughts were accustomed lovingly to dwell1 assailed by critical doubts4 ,even if it was in some cases wreaths of mist which they took for pinnacles of rock1 they did not want to have this forced upon their attention1 nor to be disturbed in the illusion from which they were conscious of receiving an elevating influence40 ,but though prepared to admit that he had added to the edifice of ,hegel's religious philosophy an annexe of historical criticism1 of which the master would hardly have approved1 ,strauss is convinced that he is the only logical representative of ,hegel's essential view4 8,the question which can be decided from the standpoint of the philosophy of religion is not whether what is narrated in the ,gospels actually happened or not1 but whether in view of the truth of certain conceptions it must necessarily have happened4 ,and in regard to this1 what ,i assert is that from the general system of the ,hegelian philosophy it by no means necessarily follows that such an event must have happened1 but that from the standpoint of the system the truth of that history from which actually the conception arose is reduced to a matter of indifference2 it may have happened1 but it may just as well not have happened1 and the task of deciding on this point may be calmly handed over to historical criticism40 ,strauss reminds us that1 even according to ,hegel1 the belief in ,jesus as ,godmademan is not immediately given with ,his appearing in the world of sense1 but only arose after ,his death and the removal of ,his sensible presence4 ,the master himself had acknowledged the existence of mythical elements in the ,life of ,jesus2 in regard to miracle he had expressed the opinion that the true miracle was 8,spirit40 ,the conception of the resurrection and ascension as outward facts of sense was not recognised by him as true4 ,hegel's authority may1 no doubt1 fairly be appealed to by those who believe1 not only in an incarnation of ,god in a general sense1 8but also that this manifestation of ,god in flesh has taken place in this man 7,jesus7 at this definite time and place40444 8,in making the assertion10 concludes ,strauss1 8that the truth of the ,gospel narrative cannot be proved1 whether in whole or in part1 from philosophical considerations1 but that the task of inquiring into its truth must be left to historical criticism1 ,i should like to associate myself with the #8left wing' of the ,hegelian school1 were it not that the ,hegelians prefer to exclude me altogether from their borders1 and to throw me into the arms of other systems of thought--only1 it must be admitted1 to have me tossed back to them like a ball40 ,in regard to the third problem which ,strauss had offered for discussion1 the relation of the ,synoptists to ,john1 there was practically no response4 ,the only one of his critics who understood what was at stake was ,hengstenberg4 ,he alone perceived the significance of the fact that critical theology1 having admitted mythical elements first in the ,old ,testament1 and then in the beginning and end of the ,gospel history1 and having1 in consequence of the latter admission1 felt obliged to give up the first three ,gospels1 retaining only the fourth1 was now being besieged by ,strauss in its last stronghold4 8,they withdrew10 says the ,evangelische ,kirchenzeitung1 8into the ,gospel of ,john as into a fortress1 and boasted that they were safe there1 though they could not suppress a secret consciousness that they only held it at the enemy's pleasure2 now the enemy has appeared before it2 he is using the same weapons with which he was formerly victorious2 the ,gospel of ,john is in as desperate case as formerly the ,synoptists4 ,the time has come to make a bold resolve1 a decisive choice2 either they must give up everything1 or else they must successively reoccupy the more advanced positions which at an earlier date they had successively abandoned40 ,it would be impossible to give a more accurate picture of the desperate position into which ,hase and ,schleiermacher had brought the mediating theology by their ingenious expedient of giving up the ,synoptics in favour of the ,gospel of ,john4 ,before any danger threatened1 they had abandoned the outworks and withdrawn into the citadel1 oblivious of the fact that they thereby exposed themselves to the danger of having their own guns turned upon them from the positions they had abandoned1 and being obliged to surrender without striking a blow the position of which they had boasted as impregnable4 ,it is impossible to emphasise strongly enough the fact that it was not ,strauss1 but ,hase and ,schleiermacher1 who had brought the mediating theology into this hopeless position1 in which the fall of the ,fourth ,gospel carried with it the surrender of the historical tradition as a whole4 ,but there is no position so desperate that theology cannot find a way out of it4 ,the mediating theologians simply ignored the problem which ,strauss had raised4 ,as they had been accustomed to do before1 so they continued to do after1 taking the ,gospel of ,john as the authentic framework1 and fitting into it the sections of the ,synoptic narrative wherever place could best be found for them4 ,the difference between the ,johannine and ,synoptic representations of ,jesus' method of teaching1 says ,neander1 is only apparently irreconcilable1 and he calls out in support of this assertion all the reserves of old wornout expedients and artifices1 among others the argument that the ,pauline ,christology is only explicable as a combination of the ,synoptic and ,johannine views4 ,other writers who belong to the same apologetic school1 such as ,tholuck1 ,ebrard17#gc7 ,wieseler17#gd7 ,lange17#ge7 and ,ewald17#gf7 maintain the same point of view1 only that their defence is usually much less skilful4 ,the only writer who really in some measure enters into the difficulties is ,ammon4 ,he1 indeed1 is fully conscious of the difference1 and thinks we cannot rest content with merely recognising it1 but must find a solution1 even if rather a forced one1 8by subordinating the indefinite chronological data of the ,synoptists1 of whom1 after all1 only one was1 or could have been1 an eyewitness1 to the ordered narrative of ,john40 ,the fourth ,evangelist makes so brief a reference to the ,galilaean period because it was in accordance with his plan to give more prominence to the discourses of ,jesus in the ,temple and ,his dialogues with the ,scribes as compared to the parables and teaching given to the people4 ,the cleansing of the ,temple falls at the outset of ,jesus' ministry2 ,jesus begins ,his ,messianic work in ,jerusalem by this action of making an end of the unseemly chaffering in the court of the ,temple4 ,the question regarding the relative authenticity of the reports is decisively settled by a comparison of the two accounts of the triumphal entry1 because there it is quite evident that 8,matthew1 the chief authority among the ,synoptists1 adapts his narrative to his special ,jewish,messianic standpoint40 ,according to ,ammon's rationalistic view1 the work of ,jesus consisted precisely in the transformation of this ,jewish,messianic idea into the conception of a 8,saviour of the world40 ,in this lies the explanation of the fate of ,jesus3 8,the mass of the ,jewish people were not prepared to receive a ,christ so spiritual as ,jesus was1 since they were not ripe for so lofty a view of religion40 ,ammon here turns his ,kantian philosophy to account4 ,it serves especially to explain to him the consciousness of preexistence avowed by the ,jesus of the ,johannine narrative as something purely human4 ,we1 too1 he explains1 can 8after the spirit0 claim an ideal existence prior to the spatial creation without indulging any delusion1 and without1 on the other hand1 thinking of a real existence4 ,in this way ,jesus is for ,himself a ,biblical idea1 with which ,he has become identified4 8,the purer and deeper a man's selfconsciousness is1 the keener may his consciousness of ,god become1 until time disappears for him1 and his partaking in the ,divine nature fills his whole soul40 ,but ,ammon's support of the authenticity of ,john's ,gospel is1 even from a purely literary point of view1 not so unreserved as in the case of the other opponents of ,strauss4 ,in the background stands the hypothesis that our ,gospel is only a workingover of the authentic ,john1 a suggestion in regard to which ,ammon can claim priority1 since he had made it as early as #ahaa17gg7 nine years before the appearance of ,bretschneider's ,probabilia4 ,were it not for the ingenuous fashion in which he works the ,synoptic material into the ,johannine plan1 we might class him with ,alexander ,schweizer and ,weisse1 who in a similar way seek to meet the objections of ,strauss by an elaborate theory of editing47#gh7 ,the first stage of the discussion regarding the relation of ,john to the ,synoptists passed without result4 ,the mediating theology continued to hold its positions undisturbed--and1 strangest of all1 ,strauss himself was eager for a suspension of hostilities4 ,it is as though history took the trouble to countersign the genuineness of the great critical discoveries by letting the discoverers themselves attempt to cancel them4 ,as ,kant disfigures his critical idealism by making inconsistent additions in order to refute a reviewer who had put him in the same category with ,berkeley1 so ,strauss inserts additions and retractations in the third edition of his ,life of ,jesus in deference to the uncritical works of ,tholuck and ,neander6 ,wilke1 the only one of his critics from whom he might have learned something1 he ignores4 8,from the lofty vantage ground of ,tholuck's manysided knowledge ,i have sometimes1 in spite of a slight tendency to vertigo1 gained a juster point of view from which to look at one matter or another10 is the avowal which he makes in the preface to this illstarred edition4 ,it would1 indeed1 have done no harm if he had confined himself to stating more exactly here and there the extent of the mythical element1 had increased the number of possible cures1 had inclined a little less to the negative side in examining the claims of reported facts to rank as historical1 and had been a little more circumspect in pointing out the factors which produced the myths2 the serious thing was that he now began to hesitate in his denial of the historical character of the ,fourth ,gospel--the very foundation of his critical view4 ,a renewed study of it1 aided by ,de ,wette's commentary and ,neander's ,life of ,jesus1 had made him 8doubtful about his doubts regarding the genuineness and credibility of this ,gospel40 8,not that ,i am convinced of its genuineness10 he admits1 8but ,i am no longer convinced that it is not genuine40 ,he feels bound1 therefore1 to state whatever makes in its favour1 and to leave open a number of possibilities which formerly he had not recognised4 ,the adhesion of the first disciples may1 he now thinks1 have happened essentially in the form in which it is reported in the ,fourth ,gospel2 in transferring the cleansing of the ,temple to the first period of ,jesus' ministry1 ,john may be right as against the ,synoptic tradition 8which has no decisive evidence in its favour02 in regard to the question whether ,jesus had been only once1 or several times1 in ,jerusalem1 his opinion now is that 8on this point the superior circumstantiality of the ,fourth ,gospel cannot be contested40 ,as regards the prominence allowed to the eschatology also all is toned down and softened4 ,everywhere feeble compromises6 ,but what led ,strauss to place his foot upon this shelving path was the essentially just perception that the ,synoptists gave him no clearly ordered plan to set against that of the ,fourth ,gospel2 consequently he felt obliged to make some concessions to its strength in this respect4 ,yet he recognised almost immediately that the result was a mere patchwork4 ,even in the summer of #ahci he complained to ,hase in conversation that he had been deafened by the clamour of his opponents1 and had conceded too much to them47#gi7 ,in the fourth edition he retracted all his concessions4 8,the ,babel of voices of opponents1 critics1 and supporters10 he says in his preface1 8to which ,i had felt it my duty to listen1 had confused me in regard to the idea of my work2 in my diligent comparison of various views ,i had lost sight of the thing itself4 ,in this way ,i was led to make alterations which1 when ,i came to consider the matter calmly1 surprised myself2 and in making which it was obvious that ,i had done myself an injustice4 ,in all these passages the earlier text has been restored1 and my work has therefore consisted1 it might be said1 in removing from my good sword the notches which had not so much been hewn in it by the enemy as ground into it by myself40 ,strauss's vacillation had1 therefore1 not even been of any indirect advantage to him4 ,instead of endeavouring to find a purposeful connexion in the ,synoptic ,gospels by means of which he might test the plan of the ,fourth ,gospel1 he simply restores his former view unaltered1 thereby showing that in the decisive point it was incapable of development4 ,in the very year in which he prepared his improved edition1 ,weisse1 in his ,evangelische ,geschichte1 had set up the hypothesis that ,mark is the grounddocument1 and had thus carried criticism past the 8deadpoint0 which ,strauss had never been able to overcome4 ,upon ,strauss1 however1 the new suggestion made no impression4 ,he does1 it is true1 mention ,weisse's book in the preface to his third edition1 and describes it as 8in many respects a very satisfactory piece of work40 ,it had appeared too late for him to make use of it in his first volume2 but he did not use it in his second volume either4 ,he had1 indeed1 a distinct antipathy to the ,marcan hypothesis4 ,it was unfortunate that in this controversy the highly important suggestions in regard to various historical problems which had been made incidentally in the course of ,strauss's work were never discussed at all4 ,the impulse in the direction of progress which might have been given by his treatment of the relation of ,jesus to the law1 of the question regarding ,his particularism1 of the eschatological conception1 the ,son of ,man1 and the ,messiahship of ,jesus1 wholly failed to take effect1 and it was only after long and circuitous wanderings that theology again came in sight of these problems from an equally favourable point of view4 ,in this respect ,strauss shared the fate of ,reimarus2 the positive solutions of which the outlines were visible behind their negative criticism escaped observation in consequence of the offence caused by the negative side of their work2 and even the authors themselves failed to realise their full significance4 ,x4 ,,the ,,marcan ,,hypothesis ,christian ,hermann ,weisse4 ,die evangelische ,geschichte kritisch und philosophisch bearbeitet4 7,a ,critical and ,philosophical ,study of the ,gospel ,history47 #b vols4 ,leipzig1 ,breitkopf and ,hrtel1 #ahch4 ,vol4 i4 #fad pp4 ,vol4 ii4 #edc pp4 ,christian ,gottlob ,wilke4 ,der ,urevangelist4 7,the ,earliest ,evangelist47 #ahch4 ,dresden and ,leipzig4 #fid pp4 ,christian ,hermann ,weisse4 ,die ,evangelienfrage in ihrem gegenwrtigen ,stadium4 7,the ,present ,position of the ,problem of the ,gospels47 ,leipzig1 #ahef4 ,the 8,gospel ,history0 of ,weisse was written1 like ,strauss's ,life of ,jesus1 by a philosopher who had been driven out of philosophy and forced back upon theology4 ,weisse was born in #ahja at ,leipzig1 and became ,professor ,extraordinary of ,philosophy in the university there in #ahbh4 ,in #ahcg1 finding his advance to the ,ordinary ,professorship barred by the ,herbartians1 he withdrew from academic teaching and gave himself to the preparation of this work1 the plan of which he had had in mind for some time4 ,having brought it to a satisfactory completion1 he began again in #ahda as a ,privat,docent in ,philosophy1 and became ,ordinary ,professor in #ahde4 ,from #ahdh onwards he lectured on ,theology also4 ,his work on 8,philosophical ,dogmatics1 or the ,philosophy of ,christianity107#hj7 is well known4 ,he died in #ahff1 of cholera4 ,lotze and ,lipsius were both much influenced by him4 ,weisse admired ,strauss and hailed his ,life of ,jesus as a forward step towards the reconciliation of religion and philosophy4 ,he expresses his gratitude to him for clearing the ground of the primeval forest of theology1 thus rendering it possible for him 7,weisse7 to develop his views without wasting time upon polemics1 8since most of the views which have hitherto prevailed may be regarded as having received the coup de grce from ,strauss40 ,he is at one with ,strauss also in his general view of the relations of philosophy and religion1 holding that it is only if philosophy1 by following its own path1 attains independently to the conviction of the truth of ,christianity that its alliance with theology and religion can be welcomed as advantageous47#ha7 ,his work1 therefore1 like that of ,strauss1 leads up finally to a philosophical exposition in which he shows how for us the ,jesus of history becomes the ,christ of faith47#hb7 ,weisse is the direct continuator of ,strauss4 ,standing outside the limitations of the ,hegelian formulae1 he begins at the point where ,strauss leaves off4 ,his aim is to discover1 if possible1 some thread of general connexion in the narratives of the ,gospel tradition1 which1 if present1 would represent a historically certain element in the ,life of ,jesus1 and thus serve as a better standard by which to determine the extent of myth than can possibly be found in the subjective impression upon which ,strauss relies4 ,strauss1 by way of gratitude1 called him a dilettante4 ,this was most unjust1 for if any one deserved to share ,strauss's place of honour1 it was certainly ,weisse4 ,the idea that ,mark's ,gospel might be the earliest of the four1 first occurred to ,weisse during the progress of his work4 ,in ,march #ahcg1 when he reviewed ,tholuck's 8,credibility of the ,gospel ,history10 he was as innocent of this discovery as ,wilke was at the same period4 ,but when once he had observed that the graphic details of ,mark1 which had hitherto been regarded as due to an attempt to embellish an epitomising narrative1 were too insignificant to have been inserted with this purpose1 it became clear to him that only one other possibility remained open1 viz41 that their absence in ,matthew and ,luke was due to omission4 ,he illustrates this from the description of the first day of ,jesus' ministry at ,capernaum4 8,the relation of the first ,evangelist to ,mark10 he avers1 8in those portions of the ,gospel which are common to both is1 with few exceptions1 mainly that of an epitomiser40 ,the decisive argument for the priority of ,mark is1 even more than his graphic detail1 the composition and arrangement of the whole4 8,it is true1 the ,gospel of ,mark shows very distinct traces of having arisen out of spoken discourses1 which themselves were by no means ordered and connected1 but disconnected and fragmentary0--being1 he means1 in its original form based on notes of the incidents related by ,peter4 8,it is not the work of an eyewitness1 nor even of one who had had an opportunity of questioning eyewitnesses thoroughly and carefully2 nor even of deriving assistance from inquirers who1 on their part1 had made a connected study of the subject1 with a view to filling up the gaps and placing each individual part in its right position1 and so articulating the whole into an organic unity which should be neither merely inward1 nor on the other hand merely external40 ,nevertheless the ,evangelist was guided in his work by a just recollection of the general course of the life of ,jesus4 8,it is precisely in ,mark10 ,weisse explains1 8that a closer study unmistakably reveals that the incidental remarks 7referring for the most part to the way in which the fame of ,jesus gradually extended1 the way the people began to gather round ,him and the sick to besiege ,him71 far from shutting off and separating the different narratives1 tend rather to unite them with each other1 and so give the impression not of a series of anecdotes fortuitously thrown together1 but of a connected history4 ,by means of these remarks1 and by many other connecting links which he works into the narration of the individual stories1 ,mark has succeeded in conveying a vivid impression of the stir which ,jesus made in ,galilee1 and from ,galilee to ,jerusalem1 of the gradual gathering of the multitudes to ,him1 of the growing intensity of loyalty in the inner circle of disciples1 and as the counterpart of all this1 of the growing enmity of the ,pharisees and ,scribes--an impression which mere isolated narratives1 strung together without any living connexion1 would not have sufficed to produce40 ,a connexion of this kind is less clearly present in the other ,synoptists1 and is wholly lacking in ,john4 ,the ,fourth ,gospel1 by itself1 would give us a completely false conception of the relation of ,jesus to the people4 ,from the content of its narratives the reader would form the impression that the attitude of the people towards ,jesus was hostile from the very first1 and that it was only in isolated occasions1 for a brief moment1 that ,jesus by ,his miraculous acts inspired the people with astonishment rather than admiration2 that1 surrounded by a little company of disciples he contrived for a time to defy the enmity of the multitude1 and that1 having repeatedly provoked it by intemperate invective1 he finally succumbed to it4 ,the simplicity of the plan of ,mark is1 in ,weisse's opinion1 a stronger argument for his priority than the most elaborate demonstration2 one only needs to compare it with the perverse design of ,luke1 who makes ,jesus undertake a journey through ,samaria4 8,how10 asks ,weisse1 8in the case of a writer who does things of this kind can it be possible at this time of day to speak seriously of historical exactitude in the use of his sources80 ,to come down to detail1 ,weisse's argument for the priority of ,mark rests mainly on the following propositions3-- #a4 ,in the first and third ,gospels1 traces of a common plan are found only in those parts which they have in common with ,mark1 not in those which are common to them1 but not to ,mark also4 #b4 ,in those parts which the three ,gospels have in common1 the 8agreement0 of the other two is mediated through ,mark4 #c4 ,in those sections which the ,first and ,third ,gospels have1 but ,mark has not1 the agreement consists in the language and incidents1 not in the order4 ,their common source1 therefore1 the 8,logia0 of ,matthew1 did not contain any type of tradition which gave an order of narration different from that of ,mark4 #d4 ,the divergences of wording between the two other ,synoptists is in general greater in the parts where both have drawn on the ,logia document than where ,mark is their source4 #e4 ,the first ,evangelist reproduces this ,logiadocument more faithfully than ,luke does2 but his ,gospel seems to have been of later origin4 ,this historical argument for the priority of ,mark was confirmed in the year in which it appeared by ,wilke's work1 8,the ,earliest ,gospel107#hc7 which treated the problem more from the literary side1 and1 to take an illustration from astronomy1 supplied the mathematical confirmation of the hypothesis4 ,in regard to the ,gospel of ,john1 ,weisse fully shared the negative views of ,strauss4 ,what is the use1 he asks1 of keeping on talking about the plan of this ,gospel1 seeing that no one has yet succeeded in showing what that plan is8 ,and for a very good reason3 there is none4 ,one would never guess from the ,gospel of ,john that ,jesus1 until ,his departure from ,galilee1 had experienced almost unbroken success4 ,it is no good trying to explain the want of plan by saying that ,john wrote with the purpose of supplementing and correcting his predecessors1 and that his omissions and additions were determined by this purpose4 ,such a purpose is betrayed by no single word in the whole ,gospel4 ,the want of plan lies in the very plan itself4 8,it is a fixed idea1 one may say1 with the author of this ,gospel1 who had heard that ,jesus had fallen a victim in ,jerusalem to the hatred of the ,jewish rulers1 especially the ,scribes1 that he must represent ,jesus as engaged1 from ,his first appearance onward1 in an unceasing struggle with #8the ,jews'--whereas we know that the mass of the people1 even to the last1 in ,jerusalem itself1 were on the side of ,jesus2 so much so1 indeed1 that ,his enemies were only able to get ,him into their power by means of a secret betrayal40 ,in regard to the graphic descriptions in ,john1 of which so much has been made1 the case is no better4 ,it is the graphic detail of a writer who desires to work up a vivid picture1 not the natural touches of an eyewitness1 and there are1 moreover1 actual inconsistencies1 as in the case of the healing at the pool of ,bethesda4 ,the circumstantiality is due to the care of the author not to assume an acquaintance1 on the part of his readers1 with ,jewish usages or the topography of ,palestine4 8,a considerable proportion of the details are of such a character as inevitably to suggest that the narrator inserts them because of the trouble which it has cost him to orientate himself in regard to the scene of the action and the dramatis personae1 his object being to spare his readers a similar difficulty2 though he does not always go about it in the way best calculated to effect his purpose40 ,the impossibility also that the historic ,jesus can have preached the doctrine of the ,johannine ,christ1 is as clear to ,weisse as to ,strauss4 8,it is not so much a picture of ,christ that ,john sets forth1 as a conception of ,christ2 his ,christ does not speak in ,his own ,person1 but of ,his own ,person40 ,on the other hand1 however1 8the authority of the whole ,christian ,church from the second century to the nineteenth0 carries too much weight with ,weisse for him to venture altogether to deny the ,johannine origin of the ,gospel2 and he seeks a middle path4 ,he assumes that the didactic portions really1 for the most part1 go back to ,john the ,apostle4 8,john10 he explains1 8drawn on by the interest of a system of doctrine which had formed itself in his mind1 not so much as a direct reflex of the teaching of his ,master1 as on the basis of suggestions offered by that teaching in combination with a certain creative activity of his own1 endeavoured to find this system also in the teaching of his ,master40 ,accordingly1 with this purpose1 and originally for himself alone1 not with the object of communicating it to others1 he made an effort to exhibit1 in the light of this system of thought1 what his memory still retained of the discourses of the ,lord4 8,the ,johannine discourses1 therefore1 were recalled by a laborious effort of memory on the part of the disciple4 ,when he found that his memoryimage of his ,master was threatening to dissolve into a mistwraith1 he endeavoured to impress the picture more firmly in his recollection1 to connect and define its rapidly disappearing features1 reconstructing it by the aid of a theory evolved by himself or drawn from elsewhere regarding the ,person and work of the ,master40 ,for the portrait of ,christ in the ,synoptic ,gospels the mind of the disciples who describe ,him is a neutral medium2 for the portrait in ,john it is a factor which contributes to the production of the picture4 ,the same portrait is outlined by the apostle in the first epistle which bears his name4 ,these tentative 8essays10 not originally intended for publication1 came1 after the death of the apostle1 into the hands of his adherents and disciples1 and they chose the form of a complete ,life of ,jesus as that in which to give them to the world4 ,they1 therefore1 added narrative portions1 which they distributed here and there among the speeches1 often doing some violence to the latter in the process4 ,such was the origin of the ,fourth ,gospel4 ,weisse is not blind to the fact that this hypothesis of a ,johannine basis in the ,gospel is beset with the gravest--one might almost say with insuperable--difficulties4 ,here is a man who was an immediate disciple of the ,lord1 one who1 in the ,synoptic ,gospels1 in ,acts1 and in the ,pauline letters1 appears in a character which gives no hint of a coming spiritual metamorphosis1 one1 moreover1 who at a relatively late period1 when it might well have been supposed that his development was in all essentials closed 7at the time of ,paul's visit to ,jerusalem1 which falls at least fourteen years after ,paul's conversion71 was chosen1 along with ,james and ,peter1 and in contrast with the apostles of the ,gentiles1 ,paul and ,barnabas1 as an apostle of the ,jews--8how is it possible10 asks ,weisse1 8to explain and make it intelligible1 that a man of these antecedents displays in his thought and speech1 in fact in his whole mental attitude1 a thoroughly ,hellenistic stamp8 ,how came he1 the beloved disciple1 who1 according to this very ,gospel which bears his name1 was admitted more intimately than any other into the confidence of ,jesus1 how came he to clothe his ,master in this foreign garb of ,hellenistic speculation1 and to attribute to ,him this alien manner of speech8 ,but1 however difficult the explanation may be1 whatever extreme of improbability may seem to us to be involved in the assumption of the ,johannine authorship of the ,epistle and of these essential elements of the ,gospel1 it is better to assent to the improbability1 to submit to the burden of being forced to explain the inexplicable1 than to set ourselves obstinately against the weight of testimony1 against the authority of the whole ,christian ,church from the second century to the present day40 ,there could be no better argument against the genuineness of the ,fourth ,gospel than just such a defence of its genuineness as this4 ,in this form the hypothesis may well be destined to lead a harmless and neverending life4 ,what matters for the historical study of the ,life of ,jesus is simply that the ,fourth ,gospel should be ruled out4 ,and that ,weisse does so thoroughly that it is impossible to imagine its being done more thoroughly4 ,the speeches1 in spite of their apostolic authority1 are unhistorical1 and need not be taken into account in describing ,jesus' system of thought4 ,as for the unhappy redactor1 who by adding the narrative pictures created the ,gospel1 all possibility of his reports being accurate is roundly denied1 and as if that was not enough1 he must put up with being called a bungler into the bargain4 8,i have1 to tell the truth1 no very high opinion of the literary art of the editor of the ,johannine ,gospeldocument10 says ,weisse in his 8,problem of the ,gospels0 of #ahef1 which is the best commentary upon his earlier work4 ,his treatment of the ,fourth ,gospel reminds us of the story that ,frederic the ,great once appointed an importunate officeseeker to the post of 8,privy ,councillor for ,war10 on condition that he would never presume to offer a syllable of advice6 ,the hypothesis which was brought forward about the same time by ,alexander ,schweizer17#hd7 with the intention of saving the genuineness of the ,gospel of ,john1 did not make any real contribution to the subject4 ,the reading of the facts which form his startingpoint is almost the exact converse of that of ,weisse1 since he regards1 not the speeches1 but certain parts of the narrative as ,johannine4 ,that which it is possible1 in his opinion1 to refer to the apostle is an account1 not involving any miracles1 of the ministry of ,jesus at ,jerusalem1 and the discourses which ,he delivered there4 ,the more or less miraculous events which occur in the course of it--such as1 that ,jesus had seen ,nathanael under the figtree1 knew the past life of the ,samaritan woman1 and healed the sick man at the ,pool of ,bethesda--are of a simple character1 and contrast markedly with those which are represented to have occurred in ,galilee1 where ,jesus turned water into wine and fed a multitude with a few crusts of bread4 ,we must1 therefore1 suppose that this short1 authentic1 spiritual ,jerusalem,gospel has had a ,galilaean ,life of ,jesus worked into it1 and this explains the inconsistencies of the representation and the oscillation between a sensuous and a spiritual point of view4 ,this distinction1 however1 cannot be made good4 ,schweizer was obliged to ascribe the reports of a material resurrection to the ,galilaean source1 whereas these1 since they exclude the ,galilaean appearances of ,jesus1 must belong to the ,jerusalem ,gospel2 and accordingly1 the whole distinction between a spiritual and material ,gospel falls to the ground4 ,thus this hypothesis at best preserves the nominal authenticity of the ,fourth ,gospel1 only to deprive it immediately of all value as a historical source4 ,had ,strauss calmly examined the bearing of ,weisse's hypothesis1 he would have seen that it fully confirmed the line he had taken in leaving the ,fourth ,gospel out of account1 and he might have been less unjust towards the hypothesis of the priority of ,mark1 for which he cherished a blind hatred1 because1 in its fully developed form1 it first met him in conjunction with seemingly reactionary tendencies towards the rehabilitation of ,john4 ,he never in the whole course of his life got rid of the prejudice that the recognition of the priority of ,mark was identical with a retrograde movement towards an uncritical orthodoxy4 ,this is certainly not true as regards ,weisse4 ,he is far from having used ,mark unreservedly as a historical source4 ,on the contrary1 he says expressly that the picture which this ,gospel gives of ,jesus is drawn by an imaginative disciple of the faith1 filled with the glory of his subject1 whose enthusiasm is consequently sometimes stronger than his judgment4 ,even in ,mark the mythopoeic tendency is already actively at work1 so that often the task of historical criticism is to explain how such myths could have been accepted by a reporter who stands as near the facts as ,mark does4 ,of the miracula7#he7--so ,weisse denominates the 8nongenuine0 miracles1 in contradistinction to the 8genuine0--the feeding of the multitude is that which1 above all others1 cries aloud for an explanation4 ,its historical strength lies in its being firmly interwoven with the preceding and following context2 and this applies to both the ,marcan narratives4 ,it is therefore impossible to regard the story1 as ,strauss proposes to do1 as pure myth2 it is necessary to show how1 growing out of some incident belonging to that context1 it assumed its present literary form4 ,the authentic saying about the leaven of the ,pharisees1 which1 in ,mark viii4 #ad and #ae1 is connected with the two miracles of feeding the multitude1 gives ground for supposing that they rest upon a parabolic discourse repeated on two occasions1 in which ,jesus spoke1 perhaps with allusion to the manna1 of a miraculous food given through ,him4 ,these discourses were later transformed by tradition into an actual miraculous giving of food4 ,here1 therefore1 ,weisse endeavours to substitute for ,strauss's 8unhistorical0 conception of myth a different conception1 which in each case seeks to discover a sufficient historical cause4 ,the miracles at the baptism of ,jesus are based upon ,his account of a vision which ,he experienced in that moment4 ,the present form of the story of the transfiguration has a twofold origin4 ,in the first place1 it is partly based on a real experience shared by the three disciples4 ,that there is an historical fact here is evident from the way in which it is connected with the context by a definite indication of time4 ,the six days of ,mark ix4 #b cannot really be connected1 as ,strauss would have us suppose1 with ,ex4 xxiv4 #af27hf7 the meaning is simply that between the previously reported discourse of ,jesus and the event described there was an interval of six days4 ,the three disciples had a waking1 spiritual vision1 not a dreamvision1 and what was revealed in this vision was the ,messiahship of ,jesus4 ,but at this point comes in the second1 the mythico symbolical element4 ,the disciples see ,jesus accompanied1 according to the ,jewish ,messianic expectations1 by those whom the people thought of as ,his forerunners4 ,he1 however1 turns away from them1 and ,moses and ,elias1 for whom the disciples were about to build tabernacles1 for them to abide in1 disappear4 ,the mythical element is a reflection of the teaching which ,jesus imparted to them on that occasion1 in consequence of which there dawned on them the spiritual 8significance of those expectations and predictions1 which they were to recognise as no longer pointing forward to a future fulfilment1 but as already fulfilled40 ,the high mountain upon which1 according to ,mark1 the event took place is not to be understood in a literal sense1 but as symbolical of the sublimity of the revelation2 it is to be sought not on the map of ,palestine1 but in the recesses of the spirit4 ,the most striking case of the formation of myth is the story of the resurrection4 ,here1 too1 myth must have attached itself to an historical fact4 ,the fact in question is not1 however1 the empty grave4 ,this only came into the story later1 when the ,jews1 in order to counteract the ,christian belief in the resurrection1 had spread abroad the report that the body had been stolen from the grave4 ,in consequence of this report the empty grave had necessarily to be taken up into the story1 the ,christian account now making use of the fact that the body of ,jesus was not found as a proof of ,his bodily resurrection4 ,the emphasis laid on the identity of the body which was buried with that which rose again1 of which the ,fourth ,evangelist makes so much1 belongs to a time when the ,church had to oppose the ,gnostic conception of a spiritual1 incorporeal immortality4 ,the reaction against ,gnosticism is1 as ,weisse rightly remarks1 one of the most potent factors in the development of myth in the ,gospel history4 ,as an additional instance of this he might have cited the antignostic form of the ,johannine account of the baptism of ,jesus4 ,what1 then1 is the historical fact in the resurrection8 8,the historical fact10 replies ,weisse1 8is only the existence of a belief--not the belief of the later ,christian ,church in the myth of the bodily resurrection of the ,lord--but the personal belief of the ,apostles and their companions in the miraculous presence of the risen ,christ in the visions and appearances which they experienced40 8,the question whether those extraordinary phenomena which1 soon after the death of the ,lord1 actually and undeniably took place within the community of ,his disciples1 rest upon fact or illusion--that is1 whether in them the departed spirit of the ,lord1 of whose presence the disciples supposed themselves to be conscious1 was really present1 or whether the phenomena were produced by natural causes of a different kind1 spiritual and psychical1 is a question which cannot be answered without going beyond the confines of purely historical criticism40 ,the only thing which is certain is 8that the resurrection of ,jesus is a fact which belongs to the domain of the spiritual and psychic life1 and which is not related to outward corporeal existence in such a way that the body which was laid in the grave could have shared therein40 ,when the disciples of ,jesus had their first vision of the glorified body of their ,lord1 they were far from ,jerusalem1 far from the grave1 and had no thought of bringing that spiritual corporeity into any kind of relation with the dead body of the ,crucified4 ,that the earliest appearances took place in ,galilee is indicated by the genuine conclusion of ,mark1 according to which the angel charges the women with the message that the disciples were to await ,jesus in ,galilee4 ,strauss's conception of myth1 which failed to give it any point of vital connexion with the history1 had not provided any escape from the dilemma offered by the rationalistic and supernaturalistic views of the resurrection4 ,weisse prepared a new historical basis for a solution4 ,he was the first to handle the problem from a point of view which combined historical with psychological considerations1 and he is fully conscious of the novelty and the farreaching consequences of his attempt4 ,theological science did not overtake him for sixty years2 and though it did not for the most part share his onesidedness in recognising only the ,galilaean appearances1 that does not count for much1 since it was unable to solve the problem of the double tradition regarding the appearances4 ,his discussion of the question is1 both from the religious and from the historical point of view1 the most satisfying treatment of it with which we are acquainted2 the pompous and circumspect utterances of the very latest theology in regard to the 8empty grave0 look very poor in comparison4 ,weisse's psychology requires only one correction--the insertion into it of the eschatological premise4 ,it is not only the admixture of myth1 but the whole character of the ,marcan representation1 which forbids us to use it without reserve as a source for the life of ,jesus4 ,the inventor of the ,marcan hypothesis never wearies of repeating that even in the ,second ,gospel it is only the main outline of the ,life of ,jesus1 not the way in which the various sections are joined together1 which is historical4 ,he does not1 therefore1 venture to write a ,life of ,jesus1 but begins with a 8,general ,sketch of the ,gospel ,history0 in which he gives the main outlines of the ,life of ,jesus according to ,mark1 and then proceeds to explain the incidents and discourses in each several ,gospel in the order in which they occur47#hg7 ,he avoids the professedly historical forced interpretation of detail1 which later representatives of the ,marcan hypothesis1 ,schenkel in particular1 employ in such distressing fashion that ,wrede's book1 by making an end of this inquisitorial method of extracting the ,evangelist's testimony1 may be said to have released the ,marcan hypothesis from the torturechamber4 ,weisse is free from these overrefinements4 ,he refuses to divide the ,galilaean ministry of ,jesus into a period of success and a period of failure and gradual falling off of adherents1 divided by the controversy about legal purity in ,mark vii42 he does not allow this episode to counterbalance the general evidence that ,jesus' public work was accompanied by a constantly growing success4 ,nor does it occur to him to conceive the sojourn of the ,lord in ,phoenician territory1 and ,his journey to the neighbourhood of ,caesarea ,philippi1 as a compulsory withdrawal from ,galilee1 an abandonment of ,his cause in that district1 and to head the chapter1 as was usual in the second period of the exegesis of ,mark1 8,flights and ,retirements40 ,he is content simply to state that ,jesus once visited those regions1 and explicitly remarks that while the ,synoptists speak of the ,pharisees and ,scribes as working actively against ,him1 there is nowhere any hint of a hostile movement on the part of the people1 but that1 on the contrary1 in spite of the ,scribes and ,pharisees the people are always ready to approve ,him and take ,his part2 so much so that ,his enemies can only hope to get ,him into their power by a secret betrayal4 ,weisse does not admit any failure in ,jesus' work1 nor that death came upon ,him from without as an inevitable necessity4 ,he cannot1 therefore1 regard the thought of suffering as forced upon ,jesus by outward events4 ,later interpreters of ,mark have often held that the essential thing in the ,lord's resolve to die was that by ,his voluntary acceptance of a fate which was more and more clearly revealing itself as inevitable1 ,he raised it into the sphere of ethicoreligious freedom3 this was not ,weisse's view4 ,jesus1 according to him1 was not moved by any outward circumstances when ,he set out for ,jerusalem in order to die there4 ,he did it in obedience to a suprarational higher necessity4 ,we can at most venture to conjecture that a cessation of ,his miracleworking power1 of which ,he had become aware1 revealed to ,him that the hour appointed by ,god had come4 ,he did1 in fact1 no further miracle in ,jerusalem4 ,how far ,isaiah liii4 may have contributed to suggest the conception of such a death being a necessary part of ,messiah's work1 it is impossible to discover4 ,in the popular expectation there was no thought of the ,messiah as suffering4 ,the thought was conceived by ,jesus independently1 through ,his deep and penetrating spiritual insight4 ,without any external suggestion whatever ,he announces to ,his disciples that ,he is to die at ,jerusalem1 and that ,he is going thither with that end in view4 ,he journeyed1 not to the ,passover1 but to ,his death4 ,the fact that it took place at the time of the ,feast was1 so far as ,jesus was concerned1 accidental4 ,the circumstances of ,his entry were such as to suggest anything rather than the fulfilment of ,his predictions2 but though the jubilant multitude surrounded ,him day by day1 as with a wall of defence1 ,he did not let that make ,him falter in ,his purpose2 rather ,he forced the authorities to arrest ,him2 ,he preserved silence before ,pilate with the deliberate purpose of rendering ,his death inevitable4 ,the theory of later defenders of the ,marcan hypothesis that ,jesus1 giving up ,his cause in ,galilee for lost1 went up to ,jerusalem to conquer or die1 is foreign to ,weisse's conception4 ,in his view1 ,jesus1 breaking off ,his ,galilaean work while the tide of success was still flowing strongly1 journeyed to ,jerusalem1 in the scorn of consequence1 with the sole purpose of dying there4 ,it is true there are some premonitions of the later course of ,marcan exegesis4 ,the ,second ,gospel mentions no ,passover journeys as falling in the course of the public ministry of ,jesus2 consequently the most natural conclusion would be that no ,passover journeys fall within that period2 that is1 that ,jesus' ministry began after one ,passover and closed with the next1 thus lasting less than a full year4 ,weisse thinks1 however1 that it is impossible to understand the success of ,his teaching unless we assume a ministry of several years1 of more than three years1 indeed4 ,mark does not mention the ,feasts simply because ,jesus did not go up to ,jerusalem4 8,intrinsic probability is1 in our opinion1 so strongly in favour of a duration of a considerable number of years1 that we are at a loss to explain how it is that at least a few unprejudiced investigators have not found in this a sufficient reason for departing from the traditional opinion40 ,the account of the mission of the ,twelve is also1 on the ground of 8intrinsic probability10 explained in a way which is not in accordance with the plain sense of the words4 8,we do not think10 says ,weisse1 8that it is necessary to understand this in the sense that ,he sent all the twelve out at one time1 two and two1 remaining alone in the meantime2 it is much more natural to suppose that ,he only sent them out two at a time1 keeping the others about ,him4 ,the object of this mission was less the immediate spreading abroad of ,his teaching than the preparation of the disciples themselves for the independent activity which they would have to exercise after ,his death40 ,these are1 however1 the only serious liberties which he takes with the statements of ,mark4 ,when did ,jesus begin to think of ,himself as the ,messiah8 ,the baptism seems to have marked an epoch in regard to ,his ,messianic consciousness1 but that does not mean that ,he had not previously begun to have such thoughts about ,himself4 ,in any case ,he did not on that occasion arrive all at once at that point of ,his inward journey which ,he had reached at the time of ,his first public appearance4 ,we must assume a period of some duration between the baptism and the beginning of ,his ministry--a longer period than we should suppose from the ,synoptists--during which ,jesus cast off the ,messianic ideas of ,judaism and attained to a spiritual conception of the ,messiahship4 ,when ,he began to teach1 ,his 8development0 was already closed4 ,later interpreters of ,mark have generally differed from ,weisse in assuming a development in the thought of ,jesus during ,his public ministry4 ,his conception of the ,messiahship was therefore fully formed when ,he began to teach in ,capernaum2 but ,he did not allow the people to see that ,he held ,himself to be the ,messiah until ,his triumphal entry4 ,it was in order to avoid declaring ,his ,messiahship that ,he kept away from ,jerusalem4 8,it was only in ,galilee and not in the ,jewish capital that an extended period of teaching and work was possible for ,him without being obliged to make an explicit declaration whether ,he were the ,messiah or no4 ,in ,jerusalem itself the ,high ,priests and ,scribes would soon have put this question to ,him in such a way that ,he could not have avoided answering it1 whereas in ,galilee ,he doubtless on more than one occasion cut short such attempts to question ,him too closely by the incisiveness of ,his replies40 ,like ,strauss1 ,weisse recognises that the key to the explanation of the ,messianic consciousness of ,jesus lies in the selfdesignation 8,son of ,man40 8,we are most certainly justified10 he says1 with almost prophetic insight1 in his 8,problem of the ,gospels10 published in #ahef1 8in regarding the question1 what sense the ,divine ,saviour desired to attach to this predicate8--what1 in fact1 ,he intended to make known about ,himself by using the title ,son of ,man--as an essential question for the right understanding of ,his teaching1 and not of ,his teaching only1 but also of the very heart and inmost essence of ,his personality40 ,but at this point ,weisse lets in the cloven hoof of that fatal method of interpretation1 by the aid of which the defenders of the ,marcan hypothesis who succeeded him were to wage war1 with a kind of dull and dogged determination1 against eschatology1 in the interests of an original and 8spiritual0 conception of the ,messiahship supposed to be held by ,jesus4 ,under the obsession of the fixed idea that it was their mission to defend the 8originality0 of ,jesus by ascribing to ,him a modernising transformation and spiritualisation of the eschatological system of ideas1 the defenders of the ,marcan hypothesis have impeded the historical study of the ,life of ,jesus to an almost unbelievable extent4 ,the explanation of the name ,son of ,man had1 ,weisse explains1 hitherto oscillated between two extremes4 ,some had held the expression to be1 even in the mouth of ,jesus1 equivalent to 8man0 in general1 an interpretation which cannot be carried through2 others had connected it with the ,son of ,man in ,daniel1 and supposed that in using the term ,jesus was employing a ,messianic title understood by and current among the ,jews4 ,but how came ,he to employ only this unusual periphrastic name for the ,messiah8 ,further1 if this name were really a ,messianic title1 how could ,he repeatedly have refused ,messianic salutations1 and not until the triumphal entry suffered the people to hail ,him as ,messiah8 ,the questions are rightly asked2 it is therefore the more pity that they are wrongly answered4 ,it follows1 ,weisse says1 from the above considerations that ,jesus did not assume an acquaintance on the part of ,his hearers with the ,old ,testament ,messianic significance of the expression4 8,it was therefore incontestably the intention of ,jesus--and any one who considers it unworthy betrays thereby his own want of insight--that the designation should have something mysterious about it1 something which would compel ,his hearers to reflect upon ,his meaning40 ,the expression ,son of ,man was calculated to lead them on to higher conceptions of ,his nature and origin1 and therefore sums up in itself the whole spiritualisation of the ,messiahship4 ,weisse1 therefore1 passionately rejects any suggestion1 however modest1 that ,jesus' selfdesignation1 ,son of ,man1 implies any measure of acceptance of the ,jewish apocalyptic system of ideas4 ,ewald had furnished forth his ,life of ,jesus7#hh7 with a wealth of ,old ,testament learning1 and had made some halfhearted attempts to show the connexion of ,jesus' system of thought with that of postcanonical ,judaism1 but without taking the matter seriously and without having any suspicion of the real character of the eschatology of ,jesus4 ,but even these paradeground tactics excite ,weisse's indignation2 in his book1 published in #ahef1 he reproaches ,ewald with failing to understand his task4 ,the real duty of criticism is1 according to ,weisse1 to show that ,jesus had no part in those fantastic errors which are falsely attributed to ,him when a literal ,jewish interpretation is given to ,his great sayings about the future of the ,son of ,man1 and to remove all the obstacles which seem to have prevented hitherto the recognition of the novel character and special significance of the expression1 ,son of ,man1 in the mouth of ,him who1 of ,his own free choice1 applied this name to ,himself4 8,how long will it be10 he cries1 8before theology at last becomes aware of the deep importance of its task8 ,historical criticism1 exercised with all the thoroughness and impartiality which alone can produce a genuine conviction1 must free the ,master's own teaching from the imputation that lies upon it--the imputation of sharing the errors and false expectations in which1 as we cannot deny1 owing to imperfect or mistaken understanding of the suggestions of the ,master1 the ,apostles1 and with them the whole early ,christian ,church1 became involved40 ,this fundamental position determines the remainder of ,weisse's views4 ,jesus cannot have shared the ,jewish particularism4 ,he did not hold the ,law to be binding4 ,it was for this reason that ,he did not go up to the ,feasts4 ,he distinctly and repeatedly expressed the conviction that ,his doctrine was destined for the whole world4 ,in speaking of the parousia of the ,son of ,man ,he was using a figure--a figure which includes in a mysterious fashion all ,his predictions of the future4 ,he did not speak to ,his disciples of ,his resurrection1 ,his ascension1 and ,his parousia as three distinct acts1 since the event to which ,he looked forward is not identical with any of the three1 but is composed of them all4 ,the resurrection is1 at the same time1 the ascension and parousia1 and in the parousia the resurrection and the ascension are also included4 8,the one conclusion to which we believe we can point with certainty is that ,jesus spoke of the future of ,his work and ,his teaching in a way that implied the consciousness of an influence to be continued after ,his death1 whether unbrokenly or intermittently1 and the consciousness that by this influence ,his work and teaching would be preserved from destruction and the final victory assured to it40 ,the personal presence of ,jesus which the disciples experienced after ,his death was in their view only a partial fulfilment of that general promise4 ,the parousia appeared to them as still awaiting fulfilment4 ,thought of thus1 as an isolated event1 they could only conceive it from the ,jewish apocalyptic standpoint1 and they finally came to suppose that they had derived these fantastic ideas from the ,master ,himself4 ,in his determined opposition to the recognition of eschatology in ,strauss's first ,life of ,jesus1 ,weisse here lays down the lines which were to be followed by the 8liberal0 ,lives of ,jesus of the 'sixties and following years1 which only differ from him1 not always to their advantage1 in their more elaborate interpretation of the detail of ,mark4 ,the only work1 therefore1 which was a conscious continuation of ,strauss's1 takes1 in spite of its just appreciation of the character of the sources1 a wrong path1 led astray by the mistaken idea of the 8originality0 of ,jesus1 which it exalts into a canon of historical criticism4 ,only after long and devious wanderings did the study of the subject find the right road again4 ,the whole struggle over eschatology is nothing else than a gradual elimination of ,weisse's ideas4 ,it was only with ,johannes ,weiss that theology escaped from the influence of ,christian ,hermann ,weisse4 ,,xi4 ,,bruno ,,bauer4 ,,the ,,first ,,sceptical ,,life ,,of ,,jesus ,kritik der evangelischen ,geschichte des ,johannes4 7,criticism of the ,gospel ,history of ,john47 ,bremen1 #ahdj4 #dce pp4 ,kritik der evangelischen ,geschichte der ,synoptiker4 7,criticism of the ,gospel ,history of the ,synoptics47 #c vols41 ,leipzig1 #ahdaahdb2 vol4 i4 #daf pp42 vol4 ii4 #cib pp42 vol4 iii4 #cda pp4 ,kritik der ,evangelien4 7,criticism of the ,gospels47 #b vols41 #ahejahea1 ,berlin4 ,kritik der ,apostelgeschichte4 7,criticism of ,acts47 #ahej4 ,kritik der ,paulinischen ,briefe4 ,berlin1 #ahejaheb4 ,in three parts4 ,philo1 ,strauss1 ,renan und das ,urchristentum4 7,p41 ,s41 ,r41 and ,primitive ,christianity47 ,berlin1 #ahgd4 #aee pp4 ,christus und die ,csaren4 ,der ,ursprung des ,christentums aus dem rmischen ,griechentum4 7,the ,origin of ,christianity from ,graeco ,roman ,civilisation47 ,berlin1 #ahgg4 #chg pp4 ,bruno ,bauer was born in #ahji at ,eisenberg1 in the duchy of ,sachsen ,altenburg4 ,in philosophy1 he was at first associated entirely with the ,hegelian 8right40 ,like ,strauss1 he received a strong impulse from ,vatke4 ,at this stage of his development he reviewed1 in #ahce and #ahcf1 ,strauss's ,life of ,jesus in the ,jahrbcher fr wissenschaftliche ,kritik1 and wrote in #ahch a 8,criticism of the ,history of ,revelation407#hi7 ,in #ahcd he had become ,privat,docent in ,berlin1 but in #ahci he removed to ,bonn4 ,he was then in the midst of that intellectual crisis of which the evidence appeared in his critical works on ,john and the ,synoptics4 ,in ,august #ahda the ,minister1 ,eichhorn1 requested the ,faculties of the ,prussian ,universities to report on the question whether ,bauer should be allowed to retain the venia docendi4 ,most of them returned an evasive answer1 ,knigsberg replied in the affirmative1 and ,bonn in the negative4 ,in ,march #ahdb ,bauer was obliged to cease lecturing1 and retired to ,rixdorf near ,berlin4 ,in the first heat of his furious indignation over this treatment he wrote a work with the title 8,christianity ,exposed107#ij7 which1 however1 was cancelled before publication at ,zurich in #ahdc4 ,he then turned his attention to secular history and wrote on the ,french ,revolution1 on ,napoleon1 on the ,illuminism of the ,eighteenth ,century1 and on the party struggles in ,germany during the years #ahdbahdf4 ,at the beginning of the 'fifties he returned to theological subjects1 but failed to exercise any influence4 ,his work was simply ignored4 ,radical though he was in spirit1 ,bauer found himself fighting1 at the end of the 'fifties and beginning of the 'sixties1 in the ranks of the ,prussian ,conservatives--we are reminded how ,strauss in the ,wrtemberg ,chamber was similarly forced to side with the reactionaries4 ,he died in #ahhb4 ,his was a pure1 modest1 and lofty character4 ,at the time of his removal from ,berlin to ,bonn he was just at the end of the twenties1 that critical age when pupils often surprise their teachers1 when men begin to find themselves and show what they are1 not merely what they have been taught4 ,in approaching the investigation of the ,gospel history1 ,bauer saw1 as he himself tells us1 two ways open to him4 ,he might take as his starting point the ,jewish ,messianic conception1 and endeavour to answer the question how the intuitive prophetic idea of the ,messiah became a fixed reflective conception4 ,that was the historical method2 he chose1 however1 the other1 the literary method4 ,this starts from the opposite side of the question1 from the end instead of the beginning of the ,gospel history4 ,taking first the ,gospel of ,john1 in which it is obvious that reflective thought has fitted the life of the ,jewish ,messiah into the frame of the ,logos conception1 he then1 starting as it were from the embouchure of the stream1 works his way upwards to the high ground in which the ,gospel tradition takes its rise4 ,the decision in favour of the latter view determined the character of ,bauer's lifework2 it was his task to follow out1 to its ultimate consequences1 the literary solution of the problem of the life of ,jesus4 ,how far this path would lead him he did not at first suspect4 ,but he did suspect how strong was the influence upon the formation of history of a dominant idea which moulds and shapes it with a definite artistic purpose4 ,his interest was especially arrested by ,philo1 who1 without knowing or intending it1 contributed to the fulfilment of a higher task than that with which he was immediately engaged4 ,bauer's view is that a speculative principle such as ,philo's1 when it begins to take possession of men's minds1 influences them in the first glow of enthusiasm which it evokes with such overmastering power that the just claims of that which is actual and historical cannot always secure the attention which is their due4 ,in ,philo's pupil1 ,john1 we must look1 not for history1 but for art4 ,the ,fourth ,gospel is in fact a work of art4 ,this was now for the first time appreciated by one who was himself an artist4 ,schleiermacher1 indeed1 had at an earlier period taken up the aesthetic standpoint in considering this ,gospel4 ,but he had used it as an apologist1 proceeding to exalt the artistic truth which he rightly recognised into historic reality1 and his critical sense failed him1 precisely because he was an aesthete and an apologist1 when he came to deal with the ,fourth ,gospel4 ,now1 however1 there comes forward a true artist1 who shows that the depth of religious and intellectual insight which ,tholuck and ,neander1 in opposing ,strauss1 had urged on behalf of the ,fourth ,gospel1 is--,christian art4 ,in ,bauer1 however1 the aesthete is at the same time a critic4 ,although much in the ,fourth ,gospel is finely 8felt10 like the opening scenes referring to the ,baptist and to ,jesus1 which ,bauer groups together under the heading 8,the ,circle of the ,expectant10 yet his art is by no means always perfect4 ,the author who conceived those discourses1 of which the movement consists in a kind of tautological return upon itself1 and who makes the parables trail out into dragging allegories1 is no perfect artist4 8,the parable of the ,good ,shepherd10 says ,bauer1 8is neither simple1 nor natural1 nor a true parable1 but a metaphor1 which is1 nevertheless1 much too elaborate for a metaphor1 is not clearly conceived1 and1 finally1 in places shows much too clearly the skeleton of reflection over which it is stretched40 ,bauer treats1 in his work of #ahdj17ia7 the ,fourth ,gospel only4 ,the ,synoptics he deals with only in a quite incidental fashion1 8as opposing armies make demonstrations in order to provoke the enemy to a decisive conflict40 ,he breaks off at the beginning of the story of the passion1 because here it would be necessary to bring in the ,synoptic parallels4 8,from the distant heights on which the ,synoptic forces have taken up a menacing position1 we must now draw them down into the plain2 now comes the pitched battle between them and the ,fourth ,gospel1 and the question regarding the historical character of that which we have found to be the ultimate basis of the last ,gospel1 can now at length be decided40 ,if1 in the ,gospel of ,john1 no smallest particle could be found which was unaffected by the creative reflection of the author1 how will it stand with the ,synoptists8 ,when ,bauer broke off his work upon ,john in this abrupt way--for he had not originally intended to conclude it at this point--how far did he still retain a belief in the historical character of the ,synoptics8 ,it looks as if he had intended to treat then as the solid foundation1 in contrast with the fantastic structure raised upon it by the ,fourth ,gospel4 ,but when he began to use his pick upon the rock1 it crumbled away4 ,instead of a difference of kind he found only a difference of degree4 ,the 8,criticism of the ,gospel ,history of the ,synoptists0 of #ahda is built on the site which ,strauss had levelled4 8,the abiding influence of ,strauss10 says ,bauer1 8consists in the fact that he has removed from the path of subsequent criticism the danger and trouble of a collision with the earlier orthodox system40 ,bauer finds his material laid ready to his hand by ,weisse and ,wilke4 ,weisse had divined in ,mark the source from which criticism--becoming barren in the work of ,strauss--might draw a new spring of vigorous life2 and ,wilke1 whom ,bauer places above ,weisse1 had raised this happy conjecture to the level of a scientifically assured result4 ,the ,marcan hypothesis was no longer on its trial4 ,but its bearing upon the history of ,jesus had still to be determined4 ,what position do ,weisse and ,wilke take up towards the hypothesis of a tradition lying behind the ,gospel of ,mark8 ,if it be once admitted that the whole ,gospel tradition1 so far as concerns its plan1 goes back to a single writer1 who has created the connexion between the different events--for neither ,weisse nor ,wilke regards the connexion of the sections as historical--does not the possibility naturally suggest itself that the narrative of the events themselves1 not merely the connexion in which they appear in ,mark1 is to be set down to the account of the author of the ,gospel8 ,weisse and ,wilke had not suspected how great a danger arises when1 of the three witnesses who represent the tradition1 only one is allowed to stand1 and the tradition is recognised and allowed to exist in this one written form only4 ,the triple embankment held2 will a single one bear the strain8 ,the following considerations have to be taken into account4 ,the criticism of the ,fourth ,gospel compels us to recognise that a ,gospel may have a purely literary origin4 ,this discovery dawned upon ,bauer at a time when he was still disinclined to accept ,wilke's conclusions regarding ,mark4 ,but when he had recognised the truth of the latter he felt compelled by the combination of the two to accept the idea that ,mark also might be of purely literary origin4 ,for ,weisse and ,wilke the ,marcan hypothesis had not implied this result1 because they continued to combine with it the wider hypothesis of a general tradition1 holding that ,matthew and ,luke used the collection of 8,logia10 and also owed part of their supplementary matter to a free use of floating tradition1 so that ,mark1 it might almost be said1 merely supplied them with the formative principle by means of which they might order their material4 ,but what if ,papias's statement about the collection of 8,logia0 were worthless1 and could be shown to be so by the literary data8 ,in that case ,matthew and ,luke would be purely literary expansions of ,mark1 and like him1 purely literary inventions4 ,in this connexion ,bauer attaches decisive importance to the phenomena of the birthstories4 ,if these had been derived from tradition they could not differ from each other as they do4 ,if it is suggested that tradition had produced a large number of independent1 though mutually consistent1 stories of the childhood1 out of which the ,evangelists composed their opening narratives1 this also is found to be untenable1 for these narratives are not composite structures4 ,the separate stories of which each of these two histories of the childhood consists could not have been formed independently of one another2 none of them existed by itself2 each points to the others and is informed by a view which implies the whole4 ,the histories of the childhood are therefore not literary versions of a tradition1 but literary inventions4 ,if we go on to examine the discourse and narrative material1 additional to that of ,mark1 which is found in ,matthew and ,luke1 a similar result appears4 ,the same standpoint is regulative throughout1 showing that the additions do not consist of oral or written traditional material which has been worked into the ,marcan plan1 but of a literary development of certain fundamental ideas and suggestions found in the first author4 ,these developments1 as is shown by the accounts of the ,sermon on the ,mount and the charge to the ,twelve1 are not carried as far in ,luke as in ,matthew4 ,the additional material in the latter seems indeed to be worked up from suggestions in the former4 ,luke thus forms the transition stage between ,mark and ,matthew4 ,the ,marcan hypothesis1 accordingly1 now takes on the following form4 ,our knowledge of the ,gospel history does not rest upon any basis of tradition1 but only upon three literary works4 ,two of these are not independent1 being merely expansions of the first1 and the third1 ,matthew1 is also dependent upon the second4 ,consequently there is no tradition of the ,gospel history1 but only a single literary source4 ,but1 if so1 who is to assure us that this ,gospel history1 with its assertion of the ,messiahship of ,jesus1 was already a matter of common knowledge before it was fixed in writing1 and did not first become known in a literary form8 ,in the latter case1 one man would have created out of general ideas the definite historical tradition in which these ideas are embodied4 ,the only thing that could be set against this literary possibility1 as a historical counterpossibility1 would be a proof that at the period when the ,gospel history is supposed to take place a ,messianic expectation really existed among the ,jews1 so that a man who claimed to be the ,messiah and was recognised as such1 as ,mark represents ,jesus to have been1 would be historically conceivable4 ,this presupposition had hitherto been unanimously accepted by all writers1 no matter how much opposed in other respects4 ,they were all satisfied 8that before the appearance of ,jesus the expectation of a ,messiah prevailed among the ,jews02 and were even able to explain its precise character4 ,but where--apart from the ,gospels--did they get their information from8 ,where is the documentary evidence of the ,jewish ,messianic doctrine on which that of the ,gospels is supposed to be based8 ,daniel was the last of the prophets4 ,everything tends to suggest that the mysterious content of his work remained without influence in the subsequent period4 ,jewish literature ends with the ,wisdom writings1 in which there is no mention of a ,messiah4 ,in the ,,lxx there is no attempt to translate in accordance with a preconceived picture of the ,messiah4 ,in the ,apocalypses1 which are of small importance1 there is reference to a ,messianic ,kingdom2 the ,messiah ,himself1 however1 plays a quite subordinate part1 and is1 indeed1 scarcely mentioned4 ,for ,philo ,he has no existence2 the ,alexandrian does not dream of connecting ,him with his ,logos speculation4 ,there remain1 therefore1 as witnesses for the ,jewish ,messianic expectations in the time of ,tiberius1 only ,mark and his imitators4 ,this evidence1 however1 is of such a character that in certain points it contradicts itself4 ,in the first place1 if at the time when the ,christian community was forming its view of history and the religious ideas which we find in the ,gospels1 the ,jews had already possessed a doctrine of the ,messiah1 there would have been already a fixed type of interpretation of the ,messianic passages in the ,old ,testament1 and it would have been impossible for the same passages to be interpreted in a totally different way1 as referring to ,jesus and ,his work1 as we find them interpreted in the ,new ,testament4 ,next1 consider the representation of the ,baptist's work4 ,we should have expected him to connect his baptism with the preaching of 8,him who was to come0--if this were really the ,messiah--by baptizing in the name of this 8,coming ,one40 ,he1 however1 keeps them separate1 baptizing in preparation for the ,kingdom1 though referring in his discourses to 8,him who was to come40 ,the earliest ,evangelist did not venture openly to carry back into the history the idea that ,jesus had claimed to be the ,messiah1 because he was aware that in the time of ,jesus no general expectation of the ,messiah had prevailed among the people4 ,when the disciples in ,mark viii4 #bh report the opinions of the people concerning ,jesus they cannot mention any who hold ,him to be the ,messiah4 ,peter is the first to attain to the recognition of ,his ,messiahship4 ,but as soon as the confession is made the ,evangelist makes ,jesus forbid ,his disciples to tell the people who ,he is4 ,why is the attribution of the ,messiahship to ,jesus made in this surreptitious and inconsistent way8 ,it is because the writer who gave the history its form well knew that no one had ever come forward publicly on ,palestinian soil to claim the ,messiahship1 or had been recognised by the people as ,messiah4 ,the 8reflective conception of the ,messiah0 was not1 therefore1 taken over readymade from ,judaism2 that dogma first arose along with the ,christian community1 or rather the moment in which it arose was the same in which the ,christian community had its birth4 ,moreover1 how unhistorical1 even on a priori grounds1 is the mechanical way in which ,jesus at this first appearance at once sets ,himself up as the ,messiah and says1 8,behold ,i am ,he whom ye have expected40 ,in essence1 ,bauer thinks1 there is not so much difference between ,strauss and ,hengstenberg4 ,for ,hengstenberg the whole life of ,jesus is the living embodiment of the ,old ,testament picture of the ,messiah2 ,strauss1 a less reverent counterpart of ,hengstenberg1 made the image of the ,messiah into a mask which ,jesus ,himself was obliged to assume1 and which legend afterwards substituted for ,his real features4 8,we save the honour of ,jesus10 says ,bauer1 8when we restore ,his ,person to life from the state of inanition to which the apologists have reduced it1 and give it once more a living relation to history1 which it certainly possessed--that can no longer be denied4 ,if a conception was to become dominant which should unite heaven and earth1 ,god and man1 nothing more and nothing less was necessary as a preliminary condition1 than that a ,man should appear1 the very essence of whose consciousness should be the reconciliation of these antitheses1 and who should manifest this consciousness to the world1 and lead the religious mind to the sole point from which its difficulties can be solved4 ,jesus accomplished this mighty work1 but not by prematurely pointing to ,his own ,person4 ,instead ,he gradually made known to the people the thoughts which filled and entered into the very essence of ,his mind4 ,it was only in this indirect way that ,his ,person--which ,he freely offered up in the cause of ,his historical vocation and of the idea for which ,he lived--continued to live on in so far as this idea was accepted4 ,when1 in the belief of ,his followers1 ,he rose again and lived on in the ,christian community1 it was as the ,son of ,god who had overcome and reconciled the great antithesis4 ,he was that in which alone the religious consciousness found rest and peace1 apart from which there was nothing firm1 trustworthy1 and enduring40 8,it was only now that the vague1 illdefined1 prophetic representations were focused into a point2 were not only fulfilled1 but were also united together by a common bond which strengthened and gave greater value to each of them4 ,with ,his appearance and the rise of belief in ,him1 a clear conception1 a definite mental picture of the ,messiah became possible2 and thus it was that a ,christology7#ib7 first arose40 ,while1 therefore1 at the close of ,bauer's first work it might have seemed that it was only the ,gospel of ,john which he held to be a literary creation1 here the same thing is said of the original ,gospel4 ,the only difference is that we find more primitive reflection in the ,synoptics1 and later work in the representation given by the ,fourth ,evangelist2 the former is of a more practical character1 the latter more dogmatic4 ,nevertheless it is false to assert that according to ,bauer the earliest ,evangelist invented the ,gospel history and the personality of ,jesus4 ,that is to carry back the ideas of a later period and a further stage of development into the original form of his view4 ,at the moment when1 having disposed of preliminaries1 he enters on his investigation1 he still assumes that a great1 a unique ,personality1 who so impressed men by ,his character that it lived on among them in an ideal form1 had awakened into life the ,messianic idea2 and that what the original ,evangelist really did was to portray the life of this ,jesus--the ,christ of the community which ,he founded--in accordance with the ,messianic view of ,him1 just as the ,fourth ,evangelist portrayed it in accordance with the presupposition that ,jesus was the revealer of the ,logos4 ,it was only in the course of his investigations that ,bauer's opinion became more radical4 ,as he goes on1 his writing becomes illtempered1 and takes the form of controversial dialogues with 8the theologians10 whom he apostrophises in a biting and injurious fashion1 and whom he continually reproaches with not daring1 owing to their apologetic prejudices1 to see things as they really are1 and with declining to face the ultimate results of criticism from fear that the tradition might suffer more loss of historic value than religion could bear4 ,in spite of this hatred of the theologians1 which is pathological in character1 like his meaningless punctuation1 his critical analyses are always exceedingly acute4 ,one has the impression of walking alongside a man who is reasoning quite intelligently1 but who talks to himself as though possessed by a fixed idea4 ,what if the whole thing should turn out to be nothing but a literary invention--not only the incidents and discourses1 but even the ,personality which is assumed as the startingpoint of the whole movement8 ,what if the ,gospel history were only a late imaginary embodiment of a set of exalted ideas1 and these were the only historical reality from first to last8 ,this is the idea which obsesses his mind more and more completely1 and moves him to contemptuous laughter4 ,what1 he mocks1 will these apologists1 who are so sure of everything1 do then with the shreds and tatters which will be all that is left to them8 ,but at the outset of his investigations ,bauer was far from holding such views4 ,his purpose was really only to continue the work of ,strauss4 ,the conception of myth and legend of which the latter made use is1 ,bauer thinks1 much too vague to explain this deliberate 8transformation0 of a personality4 ,in the place of myth ,bauer therefore sets 8reflection40 ,the life which pulses in the ,gospel history is too vigorous to be explained as created by legend2 it is real 8experience10 only not the experience of ,jesus1 but of the ,church4 ,the representation of this experience of the ,church in the ,life of a ,person is not the work of a number of persons1 but of a single author4 ,it is in this twofold aspect--as the composition of one man1 embodying the experience of many--that the ,gospel history is to be regarded4 ,as religious art it has a profound truth4 ,when it is regarded from this point of view the difficulties which are encountered in the endeavour to conceive it as real immediately disappear4 ,we must take as our point of departure the belief in the sacrificial death and the resurrection of ,jesus4 ,everything else attaches itself to this as to its centre4 ,when the need arose to fix definitely the beginning of the manifestation of ,jesus as the ,saviour--to determine the point of time at which the ,lord issued forth from obscurity--it was natural to connect this with the work of the ,baptist2 and ,jesus comes to his baptism4 ,while this is sufficient for the earliest ,evangelist1 ,matthew and ,luke feel it to be necessary1 in view of the important consequences involved in the connexion of ,jesus with the ,baptist1 to bring them into relation once more by means of the question addressed by the ,baptist to ,jesus1 although this addition is quite inconsistent with the assumptions of the earliest ,evangelist4 ,if he had conceived the story of the baptism with the idea of introducing the ,baptist again on a later occasion1 and this time1 moreover1 as a doubter1 he would have given it a different form4 ,this is a just observation of ,bauer's2 the story of the baptism with the miracle which took place at it1 and the ,baptist's question1 understood as implying a doubt of the ,messiahship of ,jesus1 mutually exclude one another4 ,the story of the temptation embodies an experience of the early ,church4 ,this narrative represents her inner conflicts under the form of a conflict of the ,redeemer4 ,on her march through the wilderness of this world she has to fight with temptations of the devil1 and in the story composed by ,mark and ,luke1 and artistically finished by ,matthew1 she records a vow to build only on the inner strength of her constitutive principle4 ,in the sermon on the mount also1 ,matthew has carried out with greater completeness that which was more vaguely conceived by ,luke4 ,it is only when we understand the words of ,jesus as embodying experiences of the early ,church that their deeper sense becomes clear and what would otherwise seem offensive disappears4 ,the saying1 8,let the dead bury their dead10 would not have been fitting for ,jesus to speak1 and had ,he been a real man1 it could never have entered into ,his mind to create so unreal and cruel a collision of duties2 for no command1 ,divine or human1 could have sufficed to make it right for a man to contravene the ethical obligations of family life4 ,so here again1 the obvious conclusion is that the saying originated in the early ,church1 and was intended to inculcate renunciation of a world which was felt to belong to the kingdom of the dead1 and to illustrate this by an extreme example4 ,the mission of the ,twelve1 too1 is1 as an historical occurrence1 simply inconceivable4 ,it would have been different if ,jesus had given them a definite teaching1 or form of belief1 or positive conception of any kind1 to take with them as their message4 ,but how ill the charge to the ,twelve fulfils its purpose as a discourse of instruction6 ,what the disciples needed to learn1 namely1 what and how they were to teach1 they are not told2 and the discourse which ,matthew has composed1 working on the basis of ,luke1 implies quite a different set of circumstances4 ,it is concerned with the struggles of the ,church with the world and the sufferings which it must endure4 ,this is the explanation of the references to suffering which constantly recur in the discourses of ,jesus1 in spite of the fact that ,his disciples were not enduring any sufferings1 and that the ,evangelist cannot even make it conceivable as a possibility that those before whose eyes ,jesus holds up the way of the ,cross could ever come into such a position4 ,the ,twelve1 at any rate1 had no sufferings to encounter during their mission1 and if they were merely being sent by ,jesus into the surrounding districts they were not very likely to meet with kings and rulers there4 ,that it is a case of invented history is also shown by the fact that nothing is said about the doings of the disciples1 and they seem to come back again immediately1 though the earliest ,evangelist1 it is true1 to prevent this from being too apparent1 inserts at this point the story of the execution of the ,baptist4 ,all this is just and acute criticism4 ,the charge to the ,twelve is not a discourse of instruction4 ,what ,jesus there sets before the disciples they could not at that time have understood1 and the promises which ,he makes to them are not appropriate to their circumstances4 ,many of the discourses are mere bundles of heterogeneous sayings1 though this is not so much the case in ,mark as in the others4 ,he has not forgotten that effective polemic consists of short1 pointed1 incisive arguments4 ,the others1 as advanced theologians1 are of opinion that it is fitting to indulge in arguments which have nothing to do with the matter in hand1 or only the most distant connexion with it4 ,they form the transition to the discourses of the ,fourth ,gospel1 which usually degenerate into an aimless wrangle4 ,in the same connexion it is rightly observed that the discourses of ,jesus do not advance from point to point by the logical development of an idea1 the thoughts are merely strung together one after another1 the only connexion1 if connexion there is1 being due to a kind of conventional mould in which the discourse is cast4 ,the parables1 ,bauer continues1 present difficulties no less great4 ,it is an ineptitude on the part of the apologists to suggest that the parables are intended to make things clear4 ,jesus ,himself contradicts this view by saying bluntly and unambiguously to ,his disciples that to them it was given to know the mysteries of the ,kingdom of ,god1 but to the people all ,his teaching must be spoken as parables1 that 8seeing they might see and not perceive1 and hearing they might hear and not understand40 ,the parables were therefore intended only to exercise the intelligence of the disciples2 and so far from being understood by the people1 mystified and repelled them2 as if it would not have been much better to exercise the minds of the disciples in this way when ,he was alone with them4 ,the disciples1 however1 do not even understand the simple parable of the ,sower1 but need to have it interpreted to them1 so that the ,evangelist once more stultifies his own theory4 ,bruno ,bauer is right in his observation that the parables offer a serious problem1 seeing that they were intended to conceal and not to make plain1 and that ,jesus nevertheless taught only in parables4 ,the character of the difficulty1 however1 is such that even literary criticism has no explanation ready4 ,bruno ,bauer admits that he does not know what was in the mind of the ,evangelist when he composed these parables1 and thinks that he had no very definite purpose1 or at least that the suggestions which were floating in his mind were not worked up into a clearly ordered whole4 ,here1 therefore1 ,bauer's method broke down4 ,he did not1 however1 allow this to shake his confidence in his reading of the facts1 and he continued to maintain it in the face of a new difficulty which he himself brought clearly to light4 ,mark1 according to him1 is an artistic unity1 the offspring of a single mind4 ,how then is it to be explained that in addition to other less important doublets it contains two accounts of the feeding of the multitude8 ,here ,bauer has recourse to the aid of ,wilke1 who distinguishes our ,mark from an ,ur,markus17#ic7 and ascribes these doublets to later interpolation4 ,later on he became more and more doubtful about the artistic unity of ,mark1 despite the fact that this was the fundamental assumption of his theory1 and in the second edition of his 8,criticism of the ,gospels10 of #ahea1 he carried through the distinction between the canonical ,mark and the ,ur,markus4 ,but even supposing the assumption of a redaction were justified1 how could the redactor have conceived the idea of adding to the first account of the feeding of the multitude a second which is identical with it almost to the very wording8 ,in any case1 on what principle can ,mark be distinguished from ,ur,markus8 ,there are no fundamental differences to afford a ready criterion4 ,the distinction is purely one of subjective feeling1 that is to say1 it is arbitrary4 ,as soon as ,bauer admits that the artistic unity of ,mark1 on which he lays so much stress1 has been tampered with1 he cannot maintain his position except by shutting his eyes to the fact that it can only be a question of the weaving in of fragments of tradition1 not of the inventions of an imitator4 ,but if he once admits the presence of traditional materials1 his whole theory of the earliest ,evangelist's having created the ,gospel falls to the ground4 ,for the moment he succeeds in laying the spectre again1 and continues to think of ,mark as a work of art1 in which the interpolation alters nothing4 ,bauer discusses with great thoroughness those sayings of ,jesus in which ,he forbids those whom ,he had healed to noise abroad their cure4 ,in the form in which they appear these cannot1 he argues1 be historical1 for ,jesus imposes this prohibition in some cases where it is quite meaningless1 since the healing had taken place in the presence of a multitude4 ,it must therefore be derived from the ,evangelist4 ,only when it is recognised as a free creation can its meaning be discerned4 ,it finds its explanation in the inconsistent views regarding miracle which were held side by side in the early ,church4 ,no doubt was felt that ,jesus had performed miracles1 and by these miracles had given evidence of ,his ,divine mission4 ,on the other hand1 by the introduction of the ,christian principle1 the ,jewish demand for a sign had been so far limited1 and the other1 the spiritual line of evidence1 had become so important1 or at least so indispensable1 that it was no longer possible to build on the miracles only1 or to regard ,jesus merely as a wonderworker2 so in some way or other the importance ascribed to miracle must be reduced4 ,in the graphic symbolism of the ,gospel history this antithesis takes the form that ,jesus did miracles--there was no getting away from that--but on the other hand ,himself declared that ,he did not wish to lay any stress upon such acts4 ,as there are times when miracles must hide their light under a bushel1 ,jesus1 on occasion1 forbids that they should be made known4 ,the other ,synoptists no longer understood this theory of the first ,evangelist1 and introduced the prohibition in passages where it was absurd4 ,the way in which ,jesus makes known ,his ,messiahship is based on another theory of the original ,evangelist4 ,the order of ,mark can give us no information regarding the chronology of the life of ,jesus1 since this ,gospel is anything rather than a chronicle4 ,we cannot even assert that there is a deliberate logic in the way in which the sections are connected4 ,but there is one fundamental principle of arrangement which comes quite clearly to light1 viz4 that it was only at ,caesarea ,philippi1 in the closing period of ,his life1 that ,jesus made ,himself known as the ,messiah1 and that1 therefore1 ,he was not previously held to be so either by ,his disciples or by the people4 ,this is clearly shown in the answers of the disciples when ,jesus asked them whom men took ,him to be4 ,the implied course of events1 however1 is determined by art1 not history--as history it would be inconceivable4 ,could there indeed be a more absurd impossibility8 8,jesus10 says ,bauer1 8must perform these innumerable1 these astounding miracles because1 according to the view which the ,gospels represent1 ,he is the ,messiah2 ,he must perform them in order to prove ,himself to be the ,messiah--and yet no one recognises ,him as the ,messiah6 ,that is the greatest miracle of all1 that the people had not long ago recognised the ,messiah in this wonder worker4 ,jesus could only be held to be the ,messiah in consequence of doing miracles2 but ,he only began to do miracles when1 in the faith of the early ,church1 ,he rose from the dead as ,messiah1 and the facts that ,he rose as ,messiah and that ,he did miracles1 are one and the same fact40 ,mark1 however1 represents a ,jesus who does miracles and who nevertheless does not thereby reveal ,himself to be the ,messiah4 ,he was obliged so to represent ,him1 because he was conscious that ,jesus was not recognised and acknowledged as ,messiah by the people1 nor even by ,his immediate followers1 in the unhesitating fashion in which those of later times imagined ,him to have been recognised4 ,mark's conception and representation of the matter carried back into the past the later developments by which there finally arose a ,christian community for which ,jesus had become the ,messiah4 8,mark is also influenced by an artistic instinct which leads him to develop the main interest1 the origin of the faith1 gradually4 ,it is only after the ministry of ,jesus has extended over a considerable period1 and is1 indeed1 drawing towards its close1 that faith arises in the circle of the disciples2 and it is only later still1 when1 in the person of the blind man at ,jericho1 a prototype of the great company of believers that was to be has hailed the ,lord with a ,messianic salutation1 that1 at the triumphal entry into ,jerusalem1 the faith of the people suddenly ripens and finds expression40 ,it is true1 this artistic design is completely marred when ,jesus does miracles which must have made ,him known to every child as the ,messiah4 ,we cannot1 therefore1 blame ,matthew very much if1 while he retains this plan in its external outlines in a kind of mechanical way1 he contradicts it somewhat awkwardly by making ,jesus at an earlier point clearly designate ,himself as ,messiah and many recognise ,him as such4 ,and the ,fourth ,evangelist cannot be said to be destroying any very wonderful work of art when he gives the impression that from the very first any one who wished could recognise ,jesus as the ,messiah4 ,mark himself does not keep strictly to his own plan4 ,he makes ,jesus forbid ,his disciples to make known ,his ,messiahship2 how then does the multitude at ,jerusalem recognise it so suddenly1 after a single miracle which they had not even witnessed1 and which was in no way different from others which ,he had done before8 ,if that 8chance multitude0 in ,jerusalem was capable of such sudden enlightenment it must have fallen from heaven6 ,the following remarks of ,bauer1 too1 are nothing less than classical4 ,the incident at ,caesarea ,philippi is the central fact of the ,gospel history2 it gives us a fixed point from which to group and criticise the other statements of the ,gospel4 ,at the same time it introduces a complication into the plan of the life of ,jesus1 because it necessitates the carrying through of the theory--often in the face of the text--that previously ,jesus had never been regarded as the ,messiah2 and lays upon us the necessity of showing not only how ,peter had come to recognise ,his ,messiahship1 but also how ,he subsequently became ,messiah for the multitude--if indeed ,he ever did become ,messiah for them4 ,but the very fact that it does introduce this complication is in itself a proof that in this scene at ,caesarea ,philippi we have the one ray of light which history sheds upon the life of ,jesus4 ,it is impossible to explain how any one could come to reject the simple and natural idea that ,jesus claimed from the first to be the ,messiah1 if that had been the fact1 and accept this complicated representation in its place4 ,the latter1 therefore1 must be the original version4 ,in pointing this out1 ,bauer gave for the first time the real proof1 from internal evidence1 of the priority of ,mark4 ,the difficulty involved in the conception of miracle as a proof of the ,messiahship of ,jesus is another discovery of ,bauer's4 ,only here1 instead of probing the question to the bottom1 he stops halfway4 ,how do we know1 he should have gone on to ask1 that the ,messiah was expected to appear as an earthly wonderworker8 ,there is nothing to that effect in ,jewish writings4 ,and do not the ,gospels themselves prove that any one might do miracles without suggesting to a single person the idea that he might be the ,messiah8 ,accordingly the only inference to be drawn from the ,marcan representation is that miracles were not among the characteristic marks of the ,messiah1 and that it was only later1 in the ,christian community1 which made ,jesus the miracleworker into ,jesus the ,messiah1 that this connexion between miracles and ,messiahship was established4 ,in dealing with the question of the triumphal entry1 too1 ,bauer halts halfway4 ,where do we read that ,jesus was hailed as ,messiah upon that occasion8 ,if ,he had been taken by the people to be the ,messiah1 the controversy in ,jerusalem must have turned on this personal question2 but it did not even touch upon it1 and the ,sanhedrin never thinks of setting up witnesses to ,jesus' claim to be the ,messiah4 ,when once ,bauer had exposed the historical and literary impossibility of ,jesus' being hailed by the people as ,messiah1 he ought to have gone on to draw the conclusion that ,jesus did not1 according to ,mark1 make a ,messianic entry into ,jerusalem4 ,it was1 however1 a remarkable achievement on ,bauer's part to have thus set forth clearly the historical difficulties of the life of ,jesus4 ,one might suppose that between the work of ,strauss and that of ,bauer there lay not five1 but fifty years--the critical work of a whole generation4 ,the stereotyped character of the thricerepeated prediction of the passion1 which1 according to ,bauer1 betrays a certain poverty and feebleness of imagination on the part of the earliest ,evangelist1 shows clearly1 he thinks1 the unhistorical character of the utterance recorded4 ,the fact that the prediction occurs three times1 its definiteness increasing upon each occasion1 proves its literary origin4 ,it is the same with the transfiguration4 ,the group in which the heroic representatives of the ,law and the ,prophets stand as supporters of the ,saviour1 was modelled by the earliest ,evangelist4 ,in order to place it in the proper light and to give becoming splendour to its great subject1 he has introduced a number of traits taken from the story of ,moses4 ,bauer pitilessly exposes the difficulties of the journey of ,jesus from ,galilee to ,jerusalem1 and exults over the perplexities of the 8apologists40 8,the theologian10 he says1 8must not boggle at this journey1 he must just believe it4 ,he must in faith follow the footsteps of his ,lord6 ,through the midst of ,galilee and ,samaria--and at the same time1 for ,matthew also claims a hearing1 through ,judaea on the farther side of ,jordan6 ,i wish him ,bon voyage60 ,the eschatological discourses are not history1 but are merely an expansion of those explanations of the sufferings of the ,church of which we have had a previous example in the charge to the ,twelve4 ,an ,evangelist who wrote before the destruction of ,jerusalem would have referred to the ,temple1 to ,jerusalem1 and to the ,jewish people1 in a very different way4 ,the story of ,lazarus deserves special attention4 ,did not ,spinoza say that he would break his system in pieces if he could be convinced of the reality of this event8 ,this is the decisive point for the question of the relation between the ,synoptists and ,john4 ,vain are all the efforts of the apologists to explain why the ,synoptists do not mention this miracle4 ,the reason they ignore it is that it originated after their time in the mind of the ,fourth ,evangelist1 and they were unacquainted with his ,gospel4 ,and yet it is the most valuable of all1 because it shows clearly the concentric circles of progressive intensification by which the development of the ,gospel history proceeds4 8,the ,fourth ,gospel10 remarks ,bauer1 8represents a dead man as having been restored to life after having been four days under the power of death1 and having consequently become a prey to corruption2 ,luke represents the young man at ,nain as being restored to life when his body was being carried to the grave2 ,mark1 the earliest ,evangelist1 can only tell us of the restoration of a dead person who had the moment before succumbed to an illness4 ,the theologians have a great deal to say about the contrast between the canonical and the apocryphal writings1 but they might have found a similar contrast even within the four ,gospels1 if the light had not been so directly in their eyes40 ,the treachery of ,judas1 as described in the ,gospels1 is inexplicable4 ,the ,lord's ,supper1 considered as an historic scene1 is revolting and inconceivable4 ,jesus can no more have instituted it than ,he can have uttered the saying1 8,let the dead bury their dead40 ,in both cases the objectionableness arises from the fact that a tenet of the early ,church has been cast into the form of an historical saying of ,jesus4 ,a man who was present in person1 corporeally present1 could not entertain the idea of offering others his flesh and blood to eat4 ,to demand from others that they should1 while he was actually present1 imagine the bread and wine which they were eating to be his body and blood1 would be for an actual man wholly impossible4 ,it was only when ,jesus' actual bodily presence had been removed1 and only when the ,christian community had existed for some time1 that such a conception as is expressed in that formula could have arisen4 ,a point which clearly betrays the later composition of the narrative is that the ,lord does not turn to the disciples sitting with ,him at table and say1 8,this is my blood which is shed for you10 but1 since the words were invented by the early ,church1 speaks of the 8many0 for whom ,he gives ,himself4 ,the only historical fact is that the ,jewish ,passover was gradually transformed by the ,christian community into a feast which had reference to ,jesus4 ,as regards the scene in ,gethsemane1 ,mark1 according to ,bauer1 held it necessary that in the moment when the last conflict and final catastrophe were coming upon ,jesus1 ,he should show clearly by ,his actions that ,he met this fate of ,his own free will4 ,the reality of ,his choice could only be made clear by showing ,him first engaged in an inner struggle against the acceptance of ,his vocation1 before showing how ,he freely submitted to ,his fate4 ,the last words ascribed to ,jesus by ,mark1 8,my ,god1 my ,god1 why hast ,thou forsaken me80 were written without thinking of the inferences that might be drawn from them1 merely with the purpose of showing that even to the last moment of ,his passion ,jesus fulfilled the rle of the ,messiah1 the picture of whose sufferings had been revealed to the ,psalmist so long beforehand by the ,holy ,spirit4 ,it is scarcely necessary now1 ,bauer thinks1 to go into the contradictions in the story of the resurrection1 for 8the doughty ,reimarus1 with his thoroughgoing honesty1 has already fully exposed them1 and no one has refuted him40 ,the results of ,bauer's analysis may be summed up as follows3-- ,the ,fourth ,evangelist has betrayed the secret of the original ,gospel1 namely1 that it too can be explained on purely literary grounds4 ,mark has 8loosed us from the theological lie40 8,thanks to the kindly fate10 cries ,bauer1 8which has preserved to us this writing of ,mark by which we have been delivered from the web of deceit of this hellish pseudoscience60 ,in order to tear this web of falsehood the critic and historian must1 despite his repugnance1 once more take up the pretended arguments of the theologians in favour of the historicity of the ,gospel narratives and set them on their feet1 only to knock them down again4 ,in the end ,bauer's only feeling towards the theologians was one of contempt4 8,the expression of his contempt10 he declares1 8is the last weapon which the critic1 after refuting the arguments of the theologians1 has at his disposal for their discomfiture2 it is his right to use it2 that puts the finishing touch upon his task and points forward to the happy time when the arguments of the theologians shall no more be heard of40 ,these outbreaks of bitterness are to be explained by the feeling of repulsion which ,german apologetic theology inspired in every genuinely honest and thoughtful man by the methods which it adopted in opposing ,strauss4 ,hence the fiendish joy with which he snatches away the crutches of this pseudoscience1 hurls them to a distance1 and makes merry over its helplessness4 ,a furious hatred1 a fierce desire to strip the theologians absolutely bare1 carried ,bauer much farther than his critical acumen would have led him in cold blood4 ,bauer hated the theologians for still holding fast to the barbarous conception that a great man had forced himself into a stereotyped and unspiritual system1 and in that way had set in motion great ideas1 whereas he held that that would have signified the death of both the personality and the ideas2 but this hatred is only the surface symptom of another hatred1 which goes deeper than theology1 going down1 indeed1 to the very depths of the ,christian conception of the world4 ,bruno ,bauer hates not only the theologians1 but ,christianity1 and hates it because it expresses a truth in a wrong way4 ,it is a religion which has become petrified in a transitional form4 ,a religion which ought to have led on to the true religion has usurped the place of the true religion1 and in this petrified form it holds prisoner all the real forces of religion4 ,religion is the victory over the world of the selfconscious ego4 ,it is only when the ego grasps itself in its antithesis to the world as a whole1 and is no longer content to play the part of a mere 8walking gentleman0 in the worlddrama1 but faces the world with independence and reserve1 that the necessary conditions of universal religion are present4 ,these conditions came into being with the rise of the ,roman ,empire1 in which the individual suddenly found himself helpless and unarmed in face of a world in which he could no longer find free play for his activities1 but must stand prepared at any moment to be ground to powder by it4 ,the selfconscious ego1 recognising this position1 found itself faced by the necessity of breaking loose from the world and standing alone1 in order in this way to overcome the world4 ,victory over the world by alienation from the world--these were the ideas out of which ,christianity was born4 ,but it was not the true victory over the world2 ,christianity remained at the stage of violent opposition to the world4 ,miracle1 to which the ,christian religion has always appealed1 and to which it gives a quite fundamental importance1 is the appropriate symbol of this false victory over the world4 ,there are some wonderfully deep thoughts scattered through ,bauer's critical investigations4 8,man's realisation of his personality10 he says1 8is the death of ,nature1 but in the sense that he can only bring about this death by the knowledge of ,nature and its laws1 that is to say from within1 being himself essentially the annihilation and negation of ,nature4444 ,spirit honours and recognises the worth of the very thing which it negates4444 ,spirit does not fume and bluster1 and rage and rave against ,nature1 as it is supposed to do in miracle1 for that would be the denial of its inner law1 but quietly works its way through the antithesis4 ,in short the death of ,nature implied in the conscious realisation of personality is the resurrection of ,nature in a nobler form1 not the maltreatment1 mockery1 and insult to which it would be exposed by miracle40 ,not only miracle1 however1 but the portrait of ,jesus ,christ as drawn in the ,gospels1 is a stereotyping of that false idea of victory over the world4 ,the ,christ of the ,gospel history1 thought of as a really historic figure1 would be a figure at which humanity would shudder1 a figure which could only inspire dismay and horror4 ,the historical ,jesus1 if ,he really existed1 can only have been ,one who reconciled in ,his own consciousness the antithesis which obsessed the ,jewish mind1 namely the separation between ,god and ,man2 ,he cannot in the process of removing this antithesis have called into existence a new principle of religious division and alienation2 nor can ,he have shown the way of escape1 by the principle of inwardness1 from the bondage of the ,law only to impose a new set of legal fetters4 ,the ,christ of the ,gospel history1 on the other hand1 is ,man exalted by the religious consciousness to heaven1 who1 even if ,he comes down to earth to do miracles1 to teach1 and to suffer1 is no longer true man4 ,the ,son of ,man of religion1 even though ,his mission be to reconcile1 is man as alienated from himself4 ,this ,christ of the ,gospel history1 the ego exalted to heaven and become ,god1 overthrew antiquity1 and conquered the world in the sense that ,he exhausted it of all its vitality4 ,this magnified ego would have fulfilled its historical vocation if1 by means of the terrible disorganisation into which it threw the real spirit of mankind1 it had compelled the latter to come to a knowledge of itself1 to become self conscious with a thoroughness and decisiveness which had not been possible to the simple spirit of antiquity4 ,it was disastrous that the figure which stood for the first emancipation of the ego1 remained alive4 ,that transformation of the human spirit which was brought about by the encounter of the worldpower of ,rome with philosophy was represented by the ,gospels1 under the influence of the ,old ,testament1 as realised in a single historic ,personality2 and the strength of the spirit of mankind was swallowed up by the omnipotence of the pure absolute ego1 an ego which was alien from actual humanity4 ,the selfconsciousness of humanity finds itself reflected in the ,gospels1 a self1 indeed1 in alienation from itself1 and therefore a grotesque parody of itself1 but1 after all1 in some sense1 itself2 hence the magical charm which attracted mankind and enchained it1 and1 so long as it had not truly found itself1 urged it to sacrifice everything to grasp the image of itself1 to prefer it to all other and all else1 counting all1 as the apostle says1 but 8dung0 in comparison with it4 ,even when the ,roman world was no more1 and a new world had come into being1 the ,christ so created did not die4 ,the magic of ,his enchantment became only more terrible1 and as new strength came flooding into the old world1 the time arrived when it was to accomplish its greatest work of destruction4 ,spirit1 in its abstraction1 became a vampire1 the destroyer of the world4 ,sap and strength1 blood and life1 it sucked1 to the last drop1 out of humanity4 ,nature and art1 family1 nation1 state1 all were destroyed by it2 and in the ruins of the fallen world the ego1 exhausted by its efforts1 remained the only surviving power4 ,having made a desert all about it1 the ego could not immediately create anew1 out of the depths of its inner consciousness1 nature and art1 nation and state2 the awful process which now went on1 the only activity of which it was now capable1 was the absorption into itself of all that had hitherto had life in the world4 ,the ego was now everything2 and yet it was a void4 ,it had become the universal power1 and yet as it brooded over the ruins of the world it was filled with horror at itself and with despair at all that it had lost4 ,the ego which had devoured all things and was still a void now shuddered at itself4 ,under the oppression of this awful power the education of mankind has been going on2 under this grim taskmaster it has been preparing for true freedom1 preparing to rouse itself from the depths of its distress1 to escape from its opposition to itself and cast out that alien ego which is wasting its substance4 ,odysseus has now returned to his home1 not by favour of the gods1 not laid on the shore in sleep1 but awake1 by his own thought and his own strength4 ,perchance1 as of yore1 he will have need to fight with the suitors who have devoured his substance and sought to rob him of all he holds most dear4 ,odysseus must string the bow once more4 ,the baleful charm of the selfalienated ego is broken the moment any one proves to the religious sense of mankind that the ,jesus ,christ of the ,gospels is its creation and ceases to exist as soon as this is recognised4 ,the formation of the ,church and the arising of the idea that the ,jesus of the ,gospels is the ,messiah are not two different things1 they are one and the same thing1 they coincide and synchronise2 but the idea was only the imaginative conception of the ,church1 the first movement of its life1 the religious expression of its experience4 ,the question which has so much exercised the minds of men--whether ,jesus was the historic ,christ 7 ,messiah7--is answered in the sense that everything that the historical ,christ is1 everything that is said of ,him1 everything that is known of ,him1 belongs to the world of imagination1 that is1 of the imagination of the ,christian community1 and therefore has nothing to do with any man who belongs to the real world4 ,the world is now free1 and ripe for a higher religion in which the ego will overcome nature1 not by selfalienation1 but by penetrating it and ennobling it4 ,to the theologian we may fling as a gift the shreds of his former science1 when we have torn it to pieces2 that will be something to occupy himself with1 that time may not hang heavy upon his hands in the new world whose advent is steadily drawing nearer4 ,thus the task which ,bauer had set himself at the beginning of his criticism of the ,gospel history1 turned1 before he had finished1 into something different4 ,when he began1 he thought to save the honour of ,jesus and to restore ,his ,person from the state of inanition to which the apologists had reduced it1 and hoped by furnishing a proof that the historical ,jesus could not have been the ,jesus ,christ of the ,gospels1 to bring ,him into a living relation with history4 ,this task1 however1 was given up in favour of the larger one of freeing the world from the domination of the ,judaeo,roman idol1 ,jesus the ,messiah1 and in carrying out this endeavour the thesis that ,jesus ,christ is a product of the imagination of the early ,church is formulated in such a way that the existence of a historic ,jesus becomes problematical1 or1 at any rate1 quite indifferent4 ,at the end of his study of the ,gospels1 ,bauer is inclined to make the decision of the question whether there ever was a historic ,jesus depend on the result of a further investigation which he proposed to make into the ,pauline ,epistles4 ,it was not until ten years later 7#ahejahea7 that he accomplished this task17#id7 and applied the result in his new edition of the 8,criticism of the ,gospel ,history407#ie7 ,the result is negative3 there never was any historical ,jesus4 ,while criticising the four great ,pauline ,epistles1 which the ,tbingen school fondly imagined to be beyond the reach of criticism1 ,bauer shows1 however1 his inability to lay a positive historic foundation for his view of the origin of ,christianity4 ,the transference of the ,epistles to the second century is effected in so arbitrary a fashion that it refutes itself4 ,however1 this work professes to be only a preliminary study for a larger one in which the new theory was to be fully worked out4 ,this did not appear until #ahgg2 it was entitled 8,christ and the ,caesars2 ,how ,christianity originated from ,graeco ,roman ,civilisation407#if7 ,the historical basis for his theory1 which he here offers1 is even more unsatisfactory than that suggested in the preliminary work on the ,pauline ,epistles4 ,there is no longer any pretence of following an historical method1 the whole thing works out into an imaginary picture of the life of ,seneca4 ,nero's tutor had1 ,bauer thinks1 already in his inmost consciousness fully attained to inner opposition to the world4 ,there are expressions in his works which1 in their mystical emancipation from the world1 prelude the utterances of ,paul4 ,the same thoughts1 since they belong not to ,seneca only1 but to his time1 are found also in the works of the three poets of the ,neronian period1 ,persius1 ,lucan1 and ,petronius4 ,though they had but a feeble breath of the divine afflatus1 they are interesting witnesses to the spiritual condition of the time4 ,they1 too1 contributed to the making of ,christianity4 ,but ,seneca1 in spite of his inner alienation from the world1 remained in active relations with the world4 ,he desired to found a kingdom of virtue upon earth4 ,at the courts of ,claudius and ,nero he used the arts of intrigue to further his ends1 and even quietly approved deeds of violence which he thought likely to serve his cause4 ,finally1 he grasped at the supreme power2 and paid the supreme penalty4 ,stoicism had made an attempt to reform the world1 and had failed4 ,the great thinkers began to despair of exercising any influence upon history1 the ,senate was powerless1 all public bodies were deprived of their rights4 ,then a spirit of resignation came over the world4 ,the alienation from the world1 which in ,seneca had still been only half serious1 was come in earnest4 ,the time of ,nero and ,domitian was a great epoch in that hidden spiritual history which goes silently forward side by side with the noisy outward history of the world4 ,when ,stoicism1 in this development1 had been deepened by the introduction of neo,platonic ideas1 it was on its way to become the ,gospel4 ,but by itself it would not have given birth to that new thing4 ,it attached itself as a formative principle to ,judaism1 which was then just breaking loose from the limitations of nationality4 ,bauer points to ,josephus as a type of this new ,roman ,judaism4 ,this 8neo,roman0 lived in the conviction that his ,god1 who had withdrawn from ,his ,temple1 would take possession of the world1 and make the ,roman ,empire submit to ,his law4 ,josephus realised in his life that for which the way had been spiritually prepared by ,philo4 ,the latter did not merely effect a fusion of ,jewish ideas with ,greek speculations2 he took advantage of the universal dominion established by the ,romans to found upon it his spiritual world4 ,bauer had already pictured him in this rle in his work 8,philo1 ,strauss1 and ,renan1 and ,primitive ,christianity40 ,thus was the new religion formed4 ,the spirit of it came from the west1 the outward frame was furnished by ,judaism4 ,the new movement had two foci1 ,rome and ,alexandria4 ,philo's 8,therapeutae0 were real people2 they were the forerunners of ,christianity4 ,under ,trajan the new religion began to be known4 ,pliny's letter asking for instructions as to how to deal with the new movement is its certificate of birth--the original form of the letter1 it must be understood1 not the present form1 which has undergone editing at the hands of ,christians4 ,the literary process by which the origin of the movement was thrown back to an earlier date in history lasted about fifty years4 ,when this latest work of ,bauer's appeared he had long been regarded by theologians as an extinct force2 nay1 more1 had been forgotten4 ,and he had not even kept his promise4 ,he had not succeeded in showing what that higher form of victory over the world was1 which he declared superior to ,christianity2 and in place of the personality of ,jesus he had finally set up a hybrid thing1 laboriously compounded out of two personalities of so little substance as those of ,seneca and ,josephus4 ,that was the end of his great undertaking4 ,but it was a mistake to bury1 along with the ,bauer of the second period1 also the ,bauer of the first period1 the critic--for the latter was not dead4 ,it was1 indeed1 nothing less than a misfortune that ,strauss and ,bauer appeared within so short a time of one another4 ,bauer passed practically unnoticed1 because every one was preoccupied with ,strauss4 ,another unfortunate thing was that ,bauer overthrew with his powerful criticism the hypothesis which attributed real historical value to ,mark1 so that it lay for a long time disregarded1 and there ensued a barren period of twenty years in the critical study of the ,life of ,jesus4 ,the only critic with whom ,bauer can be compared is ,reimarus4 ,each exercised a terrifying and disabling influence upon his time4 ,no one else had been so keenly conscious as they of the extreme complexity of the problem offered by the life of ,jesus4 ,in view of this complexity they found themselves compelled to seek a solution outside the confines of verifiable history4 ,reimarus1 by finding the basis of the story of ,jesus in a deliberate imposture on the part of the disciples2 ,bauer1 by postulating an original ,evangelist who invented the history4 ,on this ground it was just that they should lose their case4 ,but in dismissing the solutions which they offered1 their contemporaries also dismissed the problems which had necessitated such solutions2 they dismissed them because they were as little able to grasp as to remove these difficulties4 ,but the time is past for pronouncing judgment upon ,lives of ,christ on the ground of the solutions which they offer4 ,for us the great men are not those who solved the problems1 but those who discovered them4 ,bauer's 8,criticism of the ,gospel ,history0 is worth a good dozen ,lives of ,jesus1 because his work1 as we are only now coming to recognise1 after half a century1 is the ablest and most complete collection of the difficulties of the ,life of ,jesus which is anywhere to be found4 ,unfortunately1 by the independent1 the too loftily independent way in which he developed his ideas1 he destroyed the possibility of their influencing contemporary theology4 ,the shaft which he had driven into the mountain broke down behind him1 so that it needed the work of a whole generation to lay bare once more the veins of ore which he had struck4 ,his contemporaries could not suspect that the abnormality of his solutions was due to the intensity with which he grasped the problems as problems1 and that he had become blind to history by examining it too microscopically4 ,thus for his contemporaries he was a mere eccentric4 ,but his eccentricity concealed a penetrating insight4 ,no one else had as yet grasped with the same completeness the idea that primitive ,christianity and early ,christianity were not merely the direct outcome of the preaching of ,jesus1 not merely a teaching put into practice1 but more1 much more1 since to the experience of which ,jesus was the subject there allied itself the experience of the worldsoul at a time when its body--humanity under the ,roman ,empire--lay in the throes of death4 ,since ,paul1 no one had apprehended so powerfully the mystic idea of the super sensible 4 ,bauer transferred it to the historical plane and found the 8body of ,christ0 in the ,roman ,empire4 ,,xii4 ,,further ,,imaginative ,,lives ,,of ,,jesus ,charles ,christian ,hennell4 ,untersuchungen ber den ,ursprung des ,christentums4 7,an ,inquiry concerning the ,origin of ,christianity47 #ahdj4 ,with a preface by ,david ,friedrich ,strauss4 ,english edition1 #ahch4 ,wichtige ,enthllungen ber die wirkliche ,todesart ,jesu4 ,nach einem alten zu ,alexandria gefundenen ,manuskripte von einem ,zeitgenossen ,jesu aus dem heiligen ,orden der ,esser4 7,important ,disclosures concerning the ,manner of ,jesus' ,death4 ,from an ancient ,,ms4 found at ,alexandria1 written by a contemporary of ,jesus belonging to the sacred ,order of the ,essenes47 #ahdi4 #eth ed41 ,leipzig4 7,anonymous47 ,historische ,enthllungen ber die wirklichen ,ereignisse der ,geburt und ,jugend ,jesu4 ,als ,fortsetzung der zu ,alexandria aufgefundenen alten ,urkunden aus dem ,esserorden4 7,historical ,disclosures concerning the real circumstances of the ,birth and ,youth of ,jesus4 ,a ,continuation of the ancient ,essene ,,ms4 discovered at ,alexandria47 #ahdi4 #bnd ed41 ,leipzig4 ,august ,friedrich ,gfrrer4 ,kritische ,geschichte des ,urchristentums4 7,critical ,history of ,primitive ,christianity47 ,vol4 i4 #ast ed41 #ahca2 #bnd1 #ahce4 ,part i4 #edc pp42 ,part ii4 #djf pp4 ,vol4 ii4 #ahch4 ,part i4 #deb pp42 ,part ii4 #dag pp4 ,richard von der ,alm4 7,pseudonym of ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,ghillany47 ,theologische ,briefe an die ,gebildeten der deutschen ,nation1 #ahfc4 7,theological ,letters to the ,cultured ,classes of the ,german ,people1 #ahfc47 ,vol4 i4 #ibi pp42 ,vol4 ii4 #fef pp42 ,vol4 iii4 #hjb pp4 ,ludwig ,noack4 ,die ,geschichte ,jesu auf ,grund freier geschichtlicher ,untersuchungen ber das ,evangelium und die ,evangelien4 7,the ,history of ,jesus on the ,basis of a free ,historical ,inquiry regarding the ,gospel and the ,gospels47 #bnd ed41 #ahgf1 ,mannheim4 ,book i4 #bea pp42 ,book ii4 #ahg pp42 ,book iii4 #chf pp42 ,book iv4 #bhe pp4 ,strauss can hardly be said to have done himself honour by contributing a preface to the translation of ,hennell's work1 which is nothing more than ,venturini's 8,nonmiraculous ,history of the ,great ,prophet of ,nazareth0 tricked out with a fantastic paraphernalia of learning47#ig7 ,the two series of 8,important ,disclosures0 also are really 8conveyed0 with no particular ability from that classic romance of the ,life of ,jesus1 but that did not prevent their making something of a sensation at the time when they appeared47#ih7 ,jesus1 according to his narrative1 was the son of a member of the ,essene ,order4 ,the child was watched over by the ,order and prepared for ,his future mission4 ,he entered on ,his public ministry as a tool of the ,essenes1 who after the crucifixion took ,him down from the cross and resuscitated ,him4 ,these 8,disclosures0 only preserve the more external features of ,venturini's representation4 ,his ,life of ,jesus had been more than a mere romance1 it had been an imaginative solution of problems which he had intuitively perceived4 ,it may be regarded as the ,forerunner of rationalistic criticism4 ,the problems which ,venturini had intuitively perceived were not solved either by the rationalists1 or by ,strauss1 or by ,weisse4 ,these writers had not succeeded in providing that of which ,venturini had dreamed--a living purposeful connexion between the events of the life of ,jesus--or in explaining ,his ,person and ,work as having a relation1 either positive or negative1 to the circumstances of ,late ,judaism4 ,venturini's plan1 however fantastic1 connects the life of ,jesus with ,jewish history and contemporary thought much more closely than any other ,life of ,jesus1 for that connexion is of course vital to the plot of the romance4 ,in ,weisse's 8,gospel ,history0 criticism had deliberately renounced the attempt to explain ,jesus directly from ,judaism1 finding itself unable to establish any connexion between ,his teachings and contemporary ,jewish ideas4 ,the way was therefore once more open to the imagination4 ,accordingly several imaginative ,lives preluded a new era in the study of the subject1 in so far as they endeavoured to understand ,jesus on the basis of purely ,jewish ideas1 in some cases as affirming these1 in others as opposing them in favour of a more spiritual conception4 ,in ,gfrrer1 ,richard von der ,alm1 and ,noack1 begins the skirmishing preparatory to the future battle over eschatology47#ii7 ,august ,friedrich ,gfrrer1 born in #ahjc at ,calw1 was 8,repetent0 at the ,tbingen theological seminary at the time when ,strauss was studying there4 ,after being curate at the principal church in ,stuttgart for a year he gave up1 in #ahcj1 the clerical profession in order to devote himself wholly to his clerical studies4 ,by that time he had abandoned ,christianity4 ,in the preface to the first edition of the first volume of his work1 he describes ,christianity as a system which now only maintains itself by the force of custom1 after having commended itself to antiquity 8by the hope of the mystic ,kingdom of the future world and having ruled the middle ages by the fear of the same future40 ,by enunciating this view he has made an end1 he thinks1 of all highflying ,hegelian ideas1 and being thus freed from all speculative prejudices he feels himself in a position to approach his task from a purely historical standpoint1 with a view to showing how much of ,christianity is the creation of one exceptional ,personality1 and how much belongs to the time in which it arose4 ,in the first volume he describes how the transformation of ,jewish theology in ,alexandria reacted upon ,palestinian theology1 and how it came to its climax in ,philo4 ,the great ,alexandrian anticipated1 according to ,gfrrer1 the ideas of ,paul4 ,his 8,therapeutae0 are identical with the ,essenes4 ,at the same period ,judaea was kept in a ferment by a series of risings1 to all of which the incentive was found in ,messianic expectations4 ,then ,jesus appeared4 ,the three points to be investigated in ,his history are3 what end ,he had in view2 why ,he died2 and what modifications ,his work underwent at the hands of the ,apostles4 ,the second volume1 entitled 8,the ,sacred ,legend10 does not1 however1 carry out this plan4 ,the works of ,strauss and ,weisse necessitated a new method of treatment4 ,the fame of ,strauss's achievement stirred ,gfrrer to emulation1 and ,weisse1 with his priority of ,mark and rejection of ,john1 must be refuted4 ,the work is therefore almost a polemic against ,weisse for his 8want of historic sense10 and ends in setting up views which had not entered into ,gfrrer's mind at the time when he wrote his first volume4 ,the statements of ,papias regarding the ,synoptists1 which ,weisse followed1 are not deserving of credence4 ,for a whole generation and more the tradition about ,jesus had passed from mouth to mouth1 and it had absorbed much that was legendary4 ,luke was the first--as his preface shows--who checked that process1 and undertook to separate what was genuine from what was not4 ,he is the most trustworthy of the ,evangelists1 for he keeps closely to his sources and adds nothing of his own1 in contrast with ,matthew who1 writing at a later date1 used sources of less value and invented matter of his own1 which ,gfrrer finds especially in the story of the passion in this ,gospel4 ,the lateness of ,matthew is also evident from his tendency to carry over the ,old ,testament into the ,new4 ,in ,luke1 on the other hand1 the sources are so conscientiously treated that ,gfrrer finds no difficulty in analysing the narrative into its component parts1 especially as he always has a purely instinctive feeling 8whenever a different wind begins to blow40 ,both ,gospels1 however1 were written long after the destruction of the holy city1 since they do not draw their material from the ,jerusalem tradition1 but 8from the ,christian legends which had grown up in the neighbourhood of the ,sea of ,tiberias10 and in consequence 8mistakenly transferred the scene of ,jesus' ministry to ,galilee40 ,for this reason it is not surprising 8that even down into the second century many ,christians had doubts about the truth of the ,synoptics and ventured to express their doubts40 ,such doubts only ceased when the ,church became firmly established and began to use its authority to suppress the objections of individuals4 ,mark is the earliest witness to doubts within the primitive ,christian community regarding the credibility of his predecessors4 ,luke and ,matthew are for him not yet sacred books2 he desires to reconcile their inconsistencies1 and at the same time to produce 8a ,gospel composed of materials of which the authenticity could be maintained even against the doubters40 ,for this reason he omits most of the discourses1 ignores the birthstory1 and of the miracles retains only those which were most deeply embedded in the tradition4 ,his ,gospel was probably produced between #aaj and #abj4 ,the 8non genuine0 conclusion was a later addition1 but by the ,evangelist himself4 ,thus ,mark proves that the ,synoptists contain legendary matter even though they are separated from the events which they relate only by a generation and a half1 or at most two generations4 ,to show that there is nothing strange in this1 ,gfrrer gives a long catalogue of miracles found in historians who were contemporaries of the events which they describe1 and in some cases were concerned in them--in this connexion ,cortez affords him a rich storehouse of material4 ,on the other hand1 all objections against the genuineness of the ,fourth ,gospel collapse miserably4 ,it is true that1 like the others1 it offers no historically accurate report of the discourses of ,jesus4 ,it pictures ,him as the ,logos,christ and makes ,him speak in this character2 which ,jesus certainly did not do4 ,inadvertently the author makes ,john the ,baptist speak in the same way4 ,that does not matter1 however1 for the historical conditions are rightly represented2 rightly1 because ,jerusalem was the scene of the greater part of the ministry1 and the five ,johannine miracles are to be retained4 ,the healing of the nobleman's son1 that of the lame man at the pool of ,bethesda1 and that of the man blind from birth happened just as they are told4 ,the story of the miracle at ,cana rests on a misunderstanding1 for the wine which ,jesus provided was really the weddinggift which ,he had brought with ,him4 ,in the raising of ,lazarus a real case of apparent death is combined with a polemical exaggeration of it1 the restoration to life becoming1 in the course of controversy with the ,jews1 an actual resurrection4 ,having thus won free1 dragging ,john along with him1 from the toils of the ,hegelian denial of miracle--only1 it is true1 by the aid of ,venturini--and being prepared to explain the feeding of the multitude on the most commonplace rationalistic lines1 he may well boast that he has 8driven the doubt concerning the ,fourth ,gospel into a very small corner40 8,the miserable era of negation10 cries ,gfrrer1 8is now at an end2 affirmation begins4 ,we are ascending the eastern mountains from which the pure airs of heaven breathe upon the spirit4 ,our guide shall be historical mathematics1 a science which is as yet known to few1 and has not been applied by any one to the ,new ,testament40 ,this 8mathematic0 of ,gfrrer's consists in developing his whole argument out of a single postulate4 ,let it be granted to him that all other claimants of the ,messiahship--,gfrrer1 in defiance of the evidence of ,josephus1 makes all the leaders of revolt in ,palestine claimants of the ,messiahship--were put to death by the ,romans1 whereas ,jesus was crucified by ,his own people3 it follows that the ,messiahship of ,jesus was not political1 but spiritual4 ,he had declared ,himself to be in a certain sense the longedfor ,messiah1 but in another sense ,he was not so4 ,his preaching moved in the sphere of ,philonian ideas2 although ,he did not as yet explicitly apply the ,logos doctrine1 it was implicit in ,his thought1 so that the discourses of the ,fourth ,gospel have an essential truth4 ,all ,messianic conceptions1 the ,kingdom of ,god1 the judgment1 the future world1 are sublimated into the spiritual region4 ,the resurrection of the dead becomes a present eternal life4 ,the saying in ,john v4 #bd1 8,he that heareth my word1 and believeth on ,him that sent me1 hath eternal life and cometh not into judgment2 but is passed from death into life10 is the only authentic part of that discourse4 ,the reference which follows to the coming judgment and the resurrection of the dead is a ,jewish interpolation4 ,jesus did not believe that ,he ,himself was to rise from the dead4 ,nevertheless1 the 8resurrection0 is historic2 ,joseph of ,arimathea1 a member of the ,essene ,order1 whose tool ,jesus unconsciously was1 had bribed the ,romans to make the crucifixion of ,jesus only a pretence1 and to crucify two others with ,him in order to distract attention from ,him4 ,after ,he was taken down from the cross1 ,joseph removed ,him to a tomb of his own which had been hewn out for the purpose in the neighbourhood of the cross1 and succeeded in resuscitating ,him4 ,the ,christian ,church grew out of the ,essene ,order by giving a further development to its ideas1 and it is impossible to explain the organisation of the ,church without taking account of the regulations of the ,order4 ,the work closes with a rhapsody on the ,church and its development into the ,papal system4 ,gfrrer thus works into ,venturini's plan a quantity of material drawn from ,philo4 ,his first volume would have led one to expect a more original and scientific result4 ,but the author is one of those 8epileptics of criticism0 for whom criticism is not a natural and healthy means of arriving at a result1 but who1 in consequence of the fits of criticism to which they are subject1 and which they even endeavour to intensify1 fall into a condition of exhaustion1 in which the need for some fixed point becomes so imperative that they create it for themselves by self suggestion--as they previously did their criticism--and then flatter themselves that they have really found it4 ,this need for a fixed point carried the former rival of ,strauss into ,catholicism1 for which his 8,general ,history of the ,church0 7#ahdaahdf7 already shows a strong admiration4 ,after the appearance of this work ,gfrrer became ,professor of ,history in the ,university of ,freiburg4 ,in #ahdh he was active in the ,german ,parliament in endeavouring to promote a reunion of the ,protestants with the ,catholics4 ,in #ahec he went over to the ,roman ,church4 ,his family had already gone over1 at ,strassburg1 during the revolutionary period4 ,in the conflict of the church with the ,baden ,government he vehemently supported the claims of the ,pope4 ,he died in #ahfa4 ,incomparably better and more thorough is the attempt to write a ,life of ,jesus embodied in the 8,theological ,letters to the ,cultured ,classes of the ,german ,nation40 ,their writer takes ,gfrrer's studies as his starting point1 but instead of spiritualising unjustifiably he ventures to conceive the ,jewish world of thought in which ,jesus lived in its simple realism4 ,he was the first to place the eschatology recognised by ,strauss and ,reimarus in an historical setting--that of ,venturini's plan--and to write a ,life of ,jesus entirely governed by the idea of eschatology4 ,the author1 ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,ghillany1 was born in #ahjg at ,erlangen4 ,his first studies were in theology4 ,his rationalistic views1 however1 compelled him to abandon the clerical profession4 ,he became librarian at ,nuremberg in #ahda and engaged in controversial writing of an antiorthodox character1 but distinguished himself also by historical work of outstanding merit4 ,a year after the publication of the 8,theological ,letters10 which he issued under the pseudonym of ,richard von der ,alm1 he published a collection of 8,the ,opinions of ,heathen and ,christian ,writers of the first ,christian ,centuries about ,jesus ,christ0 7#ahfd71 a work which gives evidence of a remarkable range of reading4 ,in #ahee he removed to ,munich in the hope of obtaining a post in the diplomatic service1 but in spite of his solid acquirements he did not succeed4 ,no one would venture to appoint a man of such outspoken antiecclesiastical views4 ,he died in #ahgf4 ,as regards the question of the sources1 ,ghillany occupies very nearly the ,tbingen standpoint1 except that he holds ,matthew to be later than ,luke1 and ,mark to be extracted1 not from these ,gospels in their present form1 but from their sources4 ,john is not authentic4 ,the worship offered to ,jesus after ,his death by the ,christian community is1 according to ,ghillany1 not derived from pure ,judaism1 but from a ,judaism influenced by oriental religions4 ,the influence of the cult of ,mithra1 for example1 is unmistakable4 ,in it1 as in ,christianity1 we find the virginbirth1 the star1 the wise men1 the cross1 and the resurrection4 ,were it not for the human sacrifice of the ,mithra cult1 the idea which is operative in the ,supper1 of eating and drinking the flesh and blood of the ,son of ,man1 would be inexplicable4 ,the whole ,eastern world was at that time impregnated with ,gnostic ideas1 which centred in the revelation of the ,divine in the human4 ,in this way there arose1 for example1 a ,samaritan ,gnosis1 independent of the ,christian4 ,christianity itself is a species of ,gnosis4 ,in any case the metaphysical conception of the ,divine ,sonship of ,jesus is of secondary origin4 ,if ,he was in any sense the ,son of ,god for the disciples1 they can only have thought of this sonship in a ,gnostic fashion1 and supposed that the 8highest angel10 the ,son of ,god1 had taken up ,his abode in ,him4 ,john the ,baptist had probably come forth from among the ,essenes1 and he preached a spiritualised ,kingdom of ,heaven4 ,he held himself to be ,elias4 ,jesus' aims were originally similar2 ,he came forward 8in the cause of sound religious teaching for the people40 ,he made no claim to ,davidic descent2 that is to be credited to dogmatic theology4 ,similarly ,papias is wrong in ascribing to ,jesus the crude eschatological expectations implied in the saying about the miraculous vine in the ,messianic ,kingdom4 ,it is certain1 however1 that ,jesus held ,himself to be ,messiah and expected the early coming of the ,kingdom4 ,his teaching is ,rabbinic2 all ,his ideas have their source in contemporary ,judaism1 whose world of thought we can reconstruct from the ,rabbinic writings2 for even if these only became fixed at a later period1 the thoughts on which they are based were already current in the time of ,jesus4 ,another source of great importance is ,justin's 8,dialogue with the ,jew ,trypho40 ,the startingpoint in interpreting the teaching of ,jesus is the idea of repentance4 ,in the tractate 8,sanhedrin0 we find3 8,the set time of the ,messiah is already here2 ,his coming depends now upon repentance and good works4 ,rabbi ,eleazer says1 #8,when the ,jews repent they shall be redeemed4' 0 ,the ,targum of ,jonathan observes1 on ,zech4 x4 #c1 #d17ajj7 8,the ,messiah is already born1 but remains in concealment because of the sins of the ,hebrews40 ,we find the same thoughts put into the mouth of ,trypho in ,justin4 ,in the same ,targum of ,jonathan1 ,isa4 liii4 is interpreted with reference to the sufferings of the ,messiah4 ,judaism1 therefore1 was not unacquainted with the idea of a suffering ,messiah4 ,he was not identified1 however1 with the heavenly ,messiah of ,daniel4 ,the ,rabbis distinguished two ,messiahs1 one of ,israel and one of ,judah4 ,first the ,messiah of the ,kingdom of ,israel1 denominated the ,son of ,joseph1 was to come from ,galilee to suffer death at the hands of the ,gentiles in order to make atonement for the sins of the ,hebrew nation4 ,only after that would the ,messiah predicted by ,daniel1 the son of ,david1 of the tribe of ,judah1 appear in glory upon the clouds of heaven4 ,finally1 ,he also1 after twoandsixty weeks of years1 should be taken away1 since the ,messianic ,kingdom1 even as conceived by ,paul1 was only a temporary supernatural condition of the world4 ,the ,messianic expectation1 being directed to supernatural events1 had no political character1 and one who knew ,himself to be the ,messiah could never dream of using earthly means for the attainment of ,his ends2 ,he would expect all things to be brought about by the ,divine intervention4 ,in this respect ,ghillany grasps clearly the character of the eschatology of ,jesus--more clearly than any one had ever done before4 ,the rle of the ,messiah1 who prior to ,his supernatural manifestation remains in concealment upon earth1 is therefore passive4 ,he who is conscious of a ,messianic vocation does not seek to found a ,kingdom among men4 ,he waits with confidence4 ,he issues forth from ,his passivity with the sole purpose of making atonement1 by vicarious suffering1 for the sins of the people1 in order that it may be possible for ,god to bring about the new condition of things4 ,if1 in spite of the repentance of the people and the occurrence of the signs which pointed to its being at hand1 the coming of the ,kingdom should be delayed1 the man who is conscious of a ,messianic vocation must1 by ,his death1 compel the intervention of ,god4 ,his vocation in this world is to die4 ,brought within the lines of these reflections the ,life of ,jesus shapes itself as follows4 ,jesus was the tool of a mystical sect allied to the ,essenes1 the head of which was doubtless that ,joseph of ,arimathea who makes so sudden and striking an appearance in the ,gospel narrative4 ,this party desired to bring about the coming of the ,kingdom of ,heaven by mystical means1 whereas the mass of the people1 led astray by the ,pharisees1 thought to force on its coming by means of a rising4 ,in the preacher of a spiritual ,kingdom of ,heaven1 who was resolved to go to death for ,his cause1 the mystical party discovered ,messiah the son of ,joseph1 and they recognised that ,his death was necessary to make possible the coming of the heavenly ,messiah predicted by ,daniel4 ,that ,jesus ,himself was the ,messiah of ,daniel1 that ,he would immediately rise again in order to ascend to ,his heavenly throne1 and would come thence with the hosts of heaven to establish the ,kingdom of ,heaven1 these people did not themselves believe4 ,but they encouraged ,him in this belief1 thinking that ,he would hardly commit ,himself to a sacrificial death from which there was to be no resurrection4 ,it was left uncertain to ,his mind whether ,jehovah would be content with the repentance of the people1 in so far as it had taken place1 as realising the necessary condition for the bringing in of the ,kingdom of ,heaven1 or whether an atonement by blood1 offered by the death of ,messiah the son of ,joseph1 would be needful4 ,it had been explained to ,him that when the calculated year of grace arrived1 ,he must go up to ,jerusalem and endeavour to rouse the ,jews to ,messianic enthusiasm in order to compel ,jehovah to come to their aid with ,his heavenly hosts4 ,from the action of ,jehovah it could then be discovered whether the preaching of repentance and baptism would suffice to make atonement for the people before ,god or not4 ,if ,jehovah did not appear1 a deeper atonement must be made2 ,jesus must pay the penalty of death for the sins of the ,jews1 but on the third day would rise again from the dead and ascend to the throne of ,god and come again thence to found the ,kingdom of ,heaven4 8,any one can see10 concludes ,ghillany1 8that our view affords a very natural explanation of the anxiety of the disciples1 the suspense of ,jesus ,himself1 and the prayer1 #8,if it be possible let this cup pass from me4' 0 8,it was apparently only towards the close of ,his life that ,jesus revealed to the disciples the possibility that the ,son of ,man might have to suffer and die before ,he could found the ,messianic ,kingdom40 ,with this possibility before ,him1 ,he came to ,jerusalem and there awaited the ,divine intervention4 ,meanwhile ,joseph of ,arimathea lent his aid towards securing ,his condemnation in the ,sanhedrin4 ,he must die on the day of the ,passover2 on the day of the ,preparation ,he must be at hand and ready in ,jerusalem4 ,he held1 with ,his disciples1 a lovefeast after the ,essene custom1 not a ,paschal meal1 and in doing so associated thoughts of ,his death with the breaking of bread and the pouring out of the wine4 8,he did not lay upon ,his disciples any injunction to continue the celebration of a feast of this kind until the time of ,his return1 because ,he thought of ,his resurrection and ,his heavenly glory as about to take place after three days4 ,but when ,his return was delayed the early ,christians attached these sayings of ,his about the bread and wine to their ,essene lovefeast1 and explained this common meal of the community as a commemoration of the ,last ,supper of ,jesus and ,his disciples1 a memorial ,feast in honour of their ,saviour1 the celebration of which must be continued until ,his coming40 ,when the armed band came to arrest ,him1 ,jesus surrendered to ,his fate4 ,pilate almost set ,him free1 holding ,him to be a mere enthusiast who placed ,his hopes only in the ,divine intervention4 ,joseph of ,arimathea1 however1 succeeded in averting this danger4 8,even on the cross ,jesus seems to have continued to hope for the ,divine intervention1 as is evidenced by the cry1 #8,my ,god6 ,my ,god6 why hast thou forsaken me8' 0 ,joseph of ,arimathea provided for ,his burial4 ,the belief in ,his resurrection rests upon the visions of the disciples1 which are to be explained by their intense desire for the ,parousia1 of which ,he had given them the promise4 ,after setting their affairs in order in ,galilee they returned at the ,feast of ,pentecost to ,jerusalem1 which they had left in alarm1 in order there to await the ,parousia in company with other ,galilaean believers4 ,the confession of faith of the primitive ,christian community was the simplest conceivable3 ,jesus the ,messiah had come1 not as a temporal conqueror1 but as the ,son of ,man foretold by ,daniel1 and had died for the sins of the people4 ,in other respects they were strict ,jews1 kept the ,law1 and were constantly in the ,temple4 ,only the community of goods and the brotherhoodmeal are of an ,essene character4 8,the ,christianity of the original community in ,jerusalem was thus a mixture of ,zealotism and ,mysticism which did not include any wholly new element1 and even in its conception of the ,messiah had nothing peculiar to itself except the belief that the ,son of ,man predicted by ,daniel had already come in the person of ,jesus of ,nazareth 444 that ,he was now enthroned at the right hand of ,god1 and would again appear as the expected ,son of ,man upon the clouds of heaven according to ,daniel's prophecy40 ,jesus1 therefore1 had triumphed over the mystical party who desired to make use of ,him in the character of ,messiah the son of ,joseph--their ,messiah1 the heavenly ,son of ,man1 had not come4 ,jesus1 in virtue of what ,he had done1 had taken ,his place both in heaven and in earth4 ,how much of ,venturini's plan is here retained8 ,only the 8mystical part0 which serves the purpose of setting the action of the drama in motion4 ,all the rest of it1 the rationalistic part1 has been transmuted into an historical conception4 ,miracle and trickery1 along with the stageplay resurrection1 have been purged away in the fires of ,strauss's criticism4 ,there remains only a fundamental conception which has a certain greatness--a brotherhood which looks for the coming of the ,kingdom of ,heaven appoints one of its members to undergo as ,messiah an atoning death1 that the coming of the ,kingdom1 for which the time is at hand1 may not be delayed4 ,this brotherhood is the only fictitious element in the whole construction--much as in the primitive steamengine the valves were still worked by hand while the rest of the machinery was actuated by its own motivepower4 ,so in this ,life of ,jesus the motivepower is drawn entirely from historical sources1 and the want of an automatic starting arrangement is a mere anachronism4 ,strike out the superfluous rle of ,joseph of ,arimathea1 and the distinction of the two ,messiahs1 which is not clear even in the ,rabbis1 and substitute the simple hypothesis that ,jesus1 in the course of ,his ,messianic vocation1 when ,he thinks the time for the coming of the ,kingdom has arrived1 goes freely to ,jerusalem1 and1 as it were1 compels the secular power to put ,him to death1 in order by this act of atonement to win for the world the immediate coming of the ,kingdom1 and for ,himself the glory of the ,son of ,man--make these changes1 and you have a life of ,jesus in which the motivepower is a purely historical force4 ,it is impossible to indicate briefly all the parts of which the seemingly complicated1 but in reality impressively simple1 mechanism of this ,life of ,jesus is composed4 ,the conduct of ,jesus1 alike in its resolution and in its hesitation1 becomes clear1 and not less so that of the disciples4 ,all farfetched historical ingenuity is dispensed with4 ,jesus acts 8because ,his hour is come40 ,this decisive placing of the ,life of ,jesus in the 8last time0 7cf4 #a ,peter i4 #bj 7 is an historical achievement without parallel4 ,not less so is the placing of the thought of the passion in its proper eschatological setting as an act of atonement4 ,where had the character and origin of the primitive community ever been brought into such clear connexion with the death of ,jesus8 ,who had ever before so earnestly considered the problem why the ,christian community arose in ,jerusalem and not in ,galilee8 8,but the solution is too simple1 and1 moreover1 is not founded on a severely scientific chain of reasoning1 but on historical intuition and experiment1 the simple experiment of introducing the ,life of ,jesus into the ,jewish eschatological world of thought0--so the theologians replied1 or so1 at least1 they might have replied if they had taken this curious work seriously1 if1 indeed1 they had read it at all4 ,but how were they to suspect that in a book which seemed to aim at founding a new ,deistic ,church1 and which went out with the ,wolfenbttel ,fragmentist into the desert of the most barren natural religion1 a valuable historical conception might be found8 ,it is true that no one suspected at that time that in the forgotten work of ,reimarus there lay a dangerous historical discovery1 a kind of explosive material such as can only be collected by those who stand free from every responsibility towards historical ,christianity1 who have abandoned every prejudice1 in the good sense as well as in the bad--and whose one desire in regard to the ,gospel history is to be 8spirits that constantly deny407#aja7 ,such thinkers1 if they have historical gifts1 destroy artificial history in the cause of true history and1 willing evil1 do good--if it be admitted that the discovery of truth is good4 ,if this negative work is a good thing1 the author of the 8,letters to the ,german ,people0 performed a distinguished service1 for his negation is radical4 ,the new ,church which was to be founded on this historic overcoming of historic ,christianity was to combine 8only what was according to reason in ,judaism and ,christianity40 ,from ,judaism it was to take the belief in one sole1 spiritual1 perfect ,god2 from ,christianity the requirement of brotherly love to all men4 ,on the other hand1 it was to eliminate what was contrary to reason in each3 from ,judaism the ritual system and the sacrifices2 from ,christianity the deification of ,jesus and the teaching of redemption through ,his blood4 ,how comes so completely unhistorical a temperament to be combined with so historical an intellect8 ,his ,jesus1 after all1 has no individuality2 ,he is a mere eschatological machine4 ,in accordance with the confession of faith of the new ,church of which ,ghillany dreamed1 the calendar of the ,feasts is to be transformed as follows3-- #a4 ,feast of the ,deity1 the first and second of ,january4 #b4 ,feast of the ,dignity of ,man and ,brotherly ,love1 first and second of ,april4 #c4 ,feast of the ,divine ,blessing in ,nature1 first and second of ,july4 #d4 ,feast of ,immortality1 first and second of ,october4 ,apart from these eight ,feast days1 and the ,sundays1 all the other days of the year are working days4 ,from the order of divine service we may note the following3 8,the sermon1 which should begin with instruction and exhortation and close with consolation and encouragement1 must not last longer than half an hour40 ,the series of ,lives of ,jesus which combine criticism with fiction is closed by ,noack's ,story of ,jesus4 ,a freethinker like ,ghillany1 but lacking the financial independence which a kindly fate had conferred upon the latter1 ,noack led a life which may properly be described as a constant martyrdom1 lightened only by his intense love of theological studies1 which nevertheless were responsible for all his troubles4 ,born in #ahai1 of a clerical family in ,hesse1 he became in #ahdb ,pastor's assistant and teacher of religion at ,worms in the ,hessian ,palatinate4 ,the ,darmstadt reactionaries drove him out of this position in #ahdd without his having given any ground of offence4 ,in #ahdi he became 8,repetent0 in ,philosophy at the ,university of ,giessen at a salary of four hundred gulden4 ,in #ahee he was promoted to be ,professor ,extraordinary without having his salary raised4 ,in #ahgj1 at the age of #ea1 he was appointed assistant at the ,university ,library and received at the same time the title of ,ordinary ,professor4 ,he died in #ahhe4 ,he was an extremely prolific writer1 always ingenious1 and possessed of wide knowledge1 but he never did anything of real permanent value either in philosophy or theology4 ,he was not without critical acumen1 but there was too much of the poet in him2 a critical discovery was an incitement to an imaginative reconstruction of the history4 ,in #ahgjahga he published1 after many preliminary studies1 his chief work1 8,from the ,jordan ,uplands to ,golgotha2 four books on the ,gospel and the ,gospels407#ajb7 ,it passed unnoticed4 ,attributing its failure to the excitement aroused by the war1 which ousted all other interests1 he issued a revised edition in #ahgf under the title 8,the ,history of ,jesus1 on the ,basis of ,free ,historical ,inquiry concerning the ,gospel and the ,gospels107#ajc7 but with hardly greater success4 ,and yet the fundamental critical ideas which can be detected beneath this narrative1 in spite of its having the form of fiction1 give this work a significance such as the contemporary ,lives of ,jesus which won the applause of theologians did not possess4 ,it is the only ,life of ,jesus hitherto produced which is written consistently from the ,johannine point of view from beginning to end4 ,strauss had not1 after all1 in ,noack's opinion1 conclusively shown the absolute incompatibility of the ,synoptics with the ,fourth ,gospel2 neither he nor any other critic had felt the full difficulty of the question why the ,fourth ,evangelist should be at pains to invent the numerous journeys to the ,feasts1 seeing that the development of the ,logos ,christology did not necessarily involve any alteration of the scene of the ministry2 on the contrary1 it would1 one might think1 have been the first care of the ,evangelist to inweave his novel theory with the familiar tradition in order to avoid discrediting his narrative in advance by his innovations4 ,noack's conclusion is that the inconsistency is not due to a single author2 it is the result of a long process of redaction in which various divergent tendencies have been at work4 ,but as the ,fourth ,gospel is not the logical terminus of the process of alteration1 the only alternative is to place it at the beginning4 ,what we have to seek in it is the original ,gospel from which the process of transforming the tradition started4 ,there is also another line of argument based on the contradictions in the ,gospel tradition which leads to the hypothesis that we have to do with redactions of the ,gospels4 ,either ,jesus was the ,jewish ,messiah of the ,synoptics1 or a ,son of ,god in the ,greek1 spiritual sense1 whose self consciousness must be interpreted by means of the ,logos doctrine3 ,he cannot have been both at the same time4 ,but it is inconceivable that a ,jewish claimant of the ,messiahship would have been left unmolested up to the last1 and have had virtually to force the authorities to put him to death4 ,on the other hand1 if ,he were a simple enthusiast claiming to be a ,son of ,god1 a man who lived only for his own 8selfconsciousness10 ,he might from the beginning have taken up this attitude without being in any way molested1 except by the scorn of men4 ,in this respect also1 therefore1 the primitive ,gospel which we can recover from ,john has the advantage4 ,it was only later that this 8,son of ,god0 became the ,jewish ,messiah4 ,we arrive at the primitive ,johannine writing when we cancel in the ,fourth ,gospel all ,jewish doctrine and all miracles47#ajd7 ,its date is the year #fj and it was composed by--,judas1 the beloved disciple4 ,this primitive ,gospel received little modification and still shows clearly 8the wonderful reality of its history40 ,it aims only at giving a section of ,jesus' history1 a representation of ,his attitude of mind and spirit4 ,with 8simple ingenuousness0 it gives1 8along with the kernel of the historical material of the ,gospel1 ,jesus' thoughts about ,his own ,person in the mysterious oracular sayings and deeply thoughtful and moving discourses by which the ,nazarene stirred rather than enlightened the world40 ,events of a striking character were1 however1 absent from it4 ,the feeding of the multitude was represented in it as effected by natural means4 ,it was a philanthropic feeding of a multitude which certainly did not number thousands1 the numbers are a later insertion2 ,jesus fed them with bread and fish which ,he purchased from a 8sutlerlad40 ,the healing of the lame man at the pool of ,bethesda was the unmasking of a malingerer1 whom the ,lord exposed and ordered to depart4 ,as ,he had bidden him carry his bed1 and it was on the ,sabbath1 this brought ,him into conflict with the authorities4 ,his only 8acts0 were acts of selfrevelation--mystical sayings which ,he threw out to the people4 8,the problem which meets us in ,his history is in truth a psychological problem1 how1 namely1 ,his exalted view of ,himself came to be accepted as the purest and highest truth--in ,his lifetime1 it is true1 only by a limited circle of disciples1 but after ,his departure by a constantly growing multitude of believing followers40 ,the gospel of the beloved disciple ,judas made its way quietly into the world1 understood by few1 even as ,jesus ,himself had been understood by a few only4 ,about ten years later1 according to ,noack1 appeared the original form of ,luke1 which we can reconstruct from what is known of ,marcion's ,luke47#aje7 ,this ,evangelist is under ,pauline influence1 and writes with an apologetic purpose4 ,he desires to refute the calumny that ,jesus was 8possessed of a devil10 and he does this by making ,him cast out devils4 ,it was in this way that miracle forced itself into the ,gospel history4 ,but this primitive ,luke1 as ,noack reconstructs it by combining the statements of the ,fathers regarding ,marcion's ,gospel1 knows nothing of ,jesus' journey to ,jerusalem to die4 ,this circumstance is of capital importance to ,noack1 because in the course of his attempt to bring the topography of the ,fourth ,gospel into harmony with that of the ,synoptics he had arrived at the remarkable result that the ,johannine ,christ worked in ,galilee1 not in ,judaea4 ,on the basis of the ,onomasticon of ,eusebius--which ,noack1 with the aid of topographical traditions derived from the ,crusaders and statements of ,mohammedan writers1 interprets with a recklessness which is nothing short of criminal--,cana and ,bethany 7,bethabara7 were not in the latitude of ,jerusalem1 but 8near the head waters of the ,jordan in the upper part of the ,jordan valley before it flows into the lake of ,huleh4 ,there1 in ,coele,syria1 on the southern slope of ,hermon1 was the scene of ,john the ,baptist's labours2 there ,jesus began ,his ministry2 thither ,he returned to die40 8,it is in the ,galilaean district which forms the scene of the ,song of ,solomon that the reader of this book must be prepared to find the ,golgotha of the cross40 ,that is the sentence with which ,noack's account of the ,life of ,jesus opens4 ,this alludes to an idea which had already been worked out in his 8,studies on the ,song of ,solomon107#ajf7 namely1 that the mountain country surrounding the upper ,jordan was the preexilic ,judaea1 and that the 8city of ,david0 was situated there4 ,the ,jews on their return from exile had at first endeavoured to rebuild that ,coele,syrian city of ,david with the ruins of ,solomon's ,temple1 but had been driven away from it and had then taken the desperate resolution to build the temple of ,zerubbabel upon the high plateau lying far to the south of ancient ,israel4 ,ezra the ,scribe interpolated the forgery on the ground of which this site began to be accepted as the former city of ,david4 ,under the ,syrian oppression all remembrance of the ancient city of ,david entirely disappeared4 ,this fantastic edifice1 in the construction of which the wildest etymologies play a part1 is founded on the just recognition that a reconciliation of ,john with the ,synoptists can only be effected by transferring some of the ,johannine localities to the ,north2 but this involves not only finding ,bethany1 ,arimathea and the other places1 but even the scene of ,jesus' death in this district4 ,the brook ,kedron conveniently becomes the 8brook of ,cedars40 ,for fifty years the two earliest ,evangelists1 in spite of their poverty of incident1 sufficed for the needs of the ,christians4 ,the 8fire of ,jesus0 was fed chiefly by the ,pauline ,gospel4 ,the original form of the ,gospel of ,luke accordingly became the startingpoint of the next stage of development4 ,thus arose the ,gospel of ,mark4 ,mark was not a native of ,palestine1 but a man of ,roman extraction living in ,decapolis1 who had not the slightest knowledge of the localities in which the life of ,jesus was really passed4 ,he undertook1 about the year #acj1 8in the interest of the new ,christian settlement at ,jerusalem in ,hadrian's time1 deliberately and consciously to transform the original plan of the ,gospel history and to represent the ,lord as crucified at ,jerusalem40 ,the man who from the year #acb onward1 as ,mark the ,bishop1 preached the word of the ,crucified to a ,gentile ,christian community amid the ruins of the holy city1 had previously1 as ,mark the ,evangelist1 taken care that a prophet should not perish out of ,jerusalem4 ,in composing his ,gospel he made use1 in addition to ,luke1 of a traditional source which he found in ,decapolis4 ,he deliberately omitted the frequent journeys to ,jerusalem which were still found in the original ,luke1 and inserted instead ,jesus' journey to ,his death4 ,he it was1 also1 who made the ,nazarite into the ,nazarene1 laying the scene of ,jesus' youth in ,nazareth4 ,to the cures of demoniacs he added magical acts such as the feeding of the multitude and the resurrection4 ,in ,matthew1 who appeared about #ace1 legend and fiction riot unchecked4 ,in addition1 ,jewish parables and sayings are put into the mouth of ,jesus1 whereas ,he really had nothing to do with the ,jewish world of ideas4 ,for if anything is certain1 it is that the moral maxims of the latest ,gospel are of a distinctively ,jewish origin4 ,about the middle of the second century the originals of ,john and ,luke underwent redaction4 ,the redaction of the ,logos ,gospel was completed by the addition of the twentyfirst chapter2 the last redaction of ,luke was perhaps carried out by ,justin ,martyr1 fresh from completing his 8,dialogue with ,trypho06 ,thus ,john and ,luke are1 in this final form1 which is full of contradictions1 the latest ,gospels1 and the saying is fulfilled about the first being last1 and the last first4 ,arbitrary as these suggestions are1 there is nevertheless something impressive in the attempt to explain the remarkable inconsistencies which are found within the ,gospel tradition by considerations relating to its origin and development4 ,despite all his farfetched ideas1 ,noack really stands higher than some of his contemporaries who showed more prudence in their theological enterprises1 and about that time were earning the applause of the faculty1 and quieting the minds of the laity1 by performing once more the old conjuring trick--assisted by some new feats of legerdemain--of harmonising ,john with the ,synoptists in such a way as to produce a ,life of ,jesus which could be turned to the service of ecclesiastical theology4 ,the outline of the public ,life of ,jesus1 as reconstructed by ,noack1 is as follows4 ,it lasted from early in the year #ce to the #adth ,nisan of the year #cg1 and began in the moment when ,jesus revealed ,his consciousness of what ,he was4 ,we do not know how long previously ,he had cherished it in secret4 ,it is certain that the ,baptist helped to bring about this revelation4 ,this is the only part which he plays in the ,gospel of ,john4 ,he was neither a preacher of repentance1 nor an ,elias1 nor the forerunner of ,jesus1 nor a mere signpost pointing to the ,messiah1 such as the secondary tradition makes him out to be4 ,similarly everything that is ,messianic in the consciousness of ,jesus is secondary4 ,the lines of ,his thought were guided by the ,greek ideas about sons of ,god1 for the soil of northern ,galilee was saturated with these ideas4 ,other sources which contributed something were the personification of the ,divine ,wisdom in the 8,wisdom ,literature0 and some of ,philo's doctrines4 ,jesus became the son of ,god in an ecstatic trance6 ,had not ,philo recognised ecstasy as the last and highest means of rising to union with the ,divine8 ,jesus' temperament1 according to ,noack1 was predisposed to ecstasy1 since ,he was born out of wedlock4 ,one who had this burden upon ,his spirit may well have early taken refuge in ,his own thoughts1 above the clouds1 in the presence of the ,god of ,his fathers4 ,assailed in a thousand ways by the cruelty of the world1 it would seem to ,him as though ,his ,heavenly ,father1 though unseen1 was stretching out to ,him the arms of consolation4 ,imagination1 which ever mercifully lightens for men the yoke of misery1 charmed the fatherless child out of ,his earthly sufferings and put into ,his hand a coloured glass through which ,he saw the world and life in a false light4 ,ecstatic enthusiasm had carried ,him up to the dizzy height of spiritual union with the ,father in ,heaven4 ,a hundred times ,he was cast down out of ,his dreams into the hard world of reality1 to experience once more ,his earthly distresses1 but ever anew ,he won ,his way by fasting1 vigil1 and prayer to the starry heaven of ecstasy4 8,jesus10 ,noack explains1 8had in thought projected ,himself beyond ,his earthly nativity and risen to the conception that ,his ego had been in existence before this earthly body in which ,he stood visibly upon the stage of the world4 ,he felt that ,his ego had had being and life before ,he became incarnate upon earth4444 ,this new conception of ,himself1 born of ,his solitary musings1 was incorporated into the very substance of ,his natural personal ego4 ,a new ego had superseded the old natural1 corporeally conditioned ego40 ,ambition1 too1 came into play--the high ambition to do ,god a service by the offering up of ,himself4 ,the passion of selfsacrifice is characteristic of a consciousness such as this4 ,according to the document which underlies the ,johannine ,gospel it was not in consequence of outward events that ,jesus took ,his resolve to die4 8,it was the later ,gospel tradition which exhibited ,his fate as an inevitable consequence of ,his conflict with a world impervious to spiritual impression40 ,in the original ,gospel that fate was freely embraced from the outset as belonging to the vocation of the ,son of ,god4 ,only by the constant presence of the thought of death could a life which for two years walked the razor edge of such dizzy dreams have been preserved from falling4 ,the conviction1 or perhaps rather the instinctive feeling1 that the rle of a ,son of ,god upon earth was not one to be maintained for decades was the necessary counterpoise to the enthusiasm of ,jesus' spirit4 ,from the first ,he was as much at home with the thought of death as with ,his ,heavenly ,father4 ,this ,son of ,man--according to ,noack's interpretation the title is equivalent to ,son of ,hope--requires of the multitude that they shall take ,his lofty dream for solid reality4 8,he revealed ,his message from heaven to the world at the ,paschal ,feast of the year #ce1 by throwing out a challenge to the ,sadducaean hierarchy in ,jerusalem40 ,in the time between ,john's removal from the scene and ,john's death1 there falls the visit of ,jesus to ,samaria and a sojourn in the neighbourhood of ,his ,galilaean home4 ,at the ,feast of ,tabernacles in ,jerusalem in the autumn of that year1 the healing of the lame man at the pool of ,bethesda led to a breach with the ,sabbatic regulations of the ,pharisees4 ,later on1 in consequence of ,his generous feeding of the multitude in the ,gaulonite tableland1 there is an attempt to make ,him into a ,messianic ,king2 which ,he1 however1 repudiates4 ,at the time of the ,passover in ,galilee in the year #cf1 in the synagogue at ,capernaum1 ,he tests the spiritual insight of those who may1 ,he hopes1 be ripe for the higher teaching concerning the ,son of ,god made flesh1 by the touchstone of ,his mystical words about the bread of life4 ,at the next ,feast of ,tabernacles1 in the city of ,zion1 ,he makes a last desperate attempt to move men's hearts by the parable of the ,good ,shepherd who is ready to lay down ,his life for ,his sheep1 the people of ,israel4 ,but ,his adversaries are remorseless2 they wound ,him to the very depths of ,his spirit by bringing to ,him the woman taken in adultery1 and asking ,him what they are to do with her4 ,when this question was sprung upon ,him1 ,he saw in a moment the public humiliation designed by ,his adversaries4 ,all eyes were turned upon ,him1 and for a few moments the embarrassment of ,one who was usually so selfpossessed was patent to all4 ,he stooped as though ,he desired to write with ,his finger upon the ground4 ,was it shame at ,his dishonourable birth that compelled ,him thus to lower ,his gaze8 ,but the painful silence of expectation among the spectators did not last long4 ,his adversaries repeated their question1 ,he raised ,his head and spoke the undying words3 8,let him that is without sin among you cast the first stone at her40 ,incensed by ,his constant references to ,his heavenly ,sonship1 they endeavour at last to stone ,him4 ,he flees from the ,temple and takes refuge in the ,jordan uplands4 ,his purpose is1 at the next ,passover1 that of the year #cg1 here in the mountains which were blessed as ,joseph's portion1 to offer ,his atoning death as that of the true paschal lamb1 and with this act to quit the stage of the world's history4 ,he remained in hiding in order to avoid the risk of assassination by the emissaries of the ,pharisees4 ,in ,bethany ,he receives the mysterious visit of the ,greeks1 who doubtless desired to tempt ,him to raise the standard of revolt as a claimant of the ,messiahship1 but ,he refuses to be shaken in ,his determination to die4 ,the washing of the disciples' feet signifies their baptism with water1 that they might thereafter receive the baptism of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,judas1 the disciple whom ,jesus loved1 who was a man of much resource1 helped ,him to avoid being arrested as a disturber of the peace by arranging that the 8betrayal0 should take place on the evening before the ,passover1 in order that ,jesus might die1 as ,he desired1 on the day of the ,passover4 ,for this service of love he was1 in the secondary tradition1 torn from the bosom of the ,lord and branded as a traitor4 ,,xiii4 ,,renan ,ernest ,renan4 ,la ,vie de ,jsus4 #ahfc4 ,paris1 ,michel ,lvy ,frres4 #dfb pp4 ,e4 de ,pressens4 ,jsus,christ1 son temps1 sa vie1 son uvre4 ,paris1 #ahfe4 #fhd pp4 ,ernest ,renan was born in #ahbc at ,trguier in ,brittany4 ,intended for the priesthood1 he entered the seminary of ,st4 ,sulpice in ,paris1 but there1 in consequence of reading the ,german critical theology1 he began to doubt the truth of ,christianity and of its history4 ,in ,october #ahde1 shortly before the time arrived for him to be ordained a subdeacon1 he left the seminary and began to work for his living as a private teacher4 ,in #ahdi he received a government grant to enable him to make a journey to ,italy for the prosecution of his studies1 the fruits of which appeared in his ,averros et l',averrosme 7,paris1 #aheb72 in #ahef he was made a member of the ,acadmie des ,inscriptions2 in #ahfj he received from ,napolon ,,iii4 the means to make a journey to ,phoenicia and ,syria4 ,after his return in #ahfb he obtained the professorship of ,semitic ,languages at the ,collge de ,france4 ,but the widespread indignation aroused by his ,life of ,jesus1 which appeared in the following year1 forced the ,government to remove him from his office4 ,he refused a post as ,librarian of the ,imperial ,library1 and lived in retirement until the ,republic of #ahga restored him to his professorship4 ,in politics1 as in religion1 his position was somewhat indefinite4 ,in religion he was no longer a ,catholic2 avowed freethought was too plebeian for his taste1 and in ,protestantism the multiplicity of sects repelled him4 ,similarly in politics1 in the period immediately following the fall of the ,empire1 he was in turn ,royalist1 ,republican1 and ,bonapartist4 ,at bottom he was a sceptic4 ,he died in #ahib1 already half forgotten by the public2 until his imposing funeral and interment in the ,panthon recalled him to its memory4 ,like ,strauss1 ,renan designed his ,life of ,jesus to form part of a complete account of the history and dogma of the early ,church4 ,his purpose1 however1 was purely historical2 it was no part of his project to set up1 on the basis of the history1 a new system of dogma1 as ,strauss had desired to do4 ,this plan was not only conceived1 but carried out4 ,les ,aptres appeared in #ahff2 ,st4 ,paul in #ahfi2 ,l',ant,christ in #ahgc2 ,les vangiles in #ahgg2 ,l'glise chrtienne in #ahgi2 ,marc,aurle et la fin du monde antique in #ahha4 ,several of these works were more valuable than the one which opened the series1 but for the world ,renan continued to be the author of the ,vie de ,jsus1 and of that alone4 ,he planned the work at ,gaza1 and he dedicated it to his sister ,henriette1 who died soon after1 in ,syria1 and lies buried at ,byblus4 ,this was the first ,life of ,jesus for the ,catholic world1 which had scarcely been touched--the ,latin peoples least of all--by the two and a half generations of critical study which had been devoted to the subject4 ,it is true1 ,strauss's work had been translated into ,french17#ajg7 but it had made only a passing stir1 and that only among a little circle of intellectuals4 ,now came a writer with the characteristic ,french mental accent1 who gave to the ,latin world in a single book the result of the whole process of ,german criticism4 ,but ,renan's work marked an epoch1 not for the ,catholic world only1 but for general literature4 ,he laid the problem which had hitherto occupied only theologians before the whole cultured world4 ,and not as a problem1 but as a question of which he1 by means of his historical science and aesthetic power of reviving the past1 could provide a solution4 ,he offered his readers a ,jesus who was alive1 whom he1 with his artistic imagination1 had met under the blue heaven of ,galilee1 and whose lineaments his inspired pencil had seized4 ,men's attention was arrested1 and they thought to see ,jesus1 because ,renan had the skill to make them see blue skies1 seas of waving corn1 distant mountains1 gleaming lilies1 in a landscape with the ,lake of ,gennesareth for its centre1 and to hear with him in the whispering of the reeds the eternal melody of the ,sermon on the ,mount4 ,yet the aesthetic feeling for nature which gave birth to this ,life of ,jesus was1 it must be confessed1 neither pure nor profound4 ,it is a standing enigma why ,french art1 which in painting grasps nature with a directness and vigour1 with an objectivity in the best sense of the word1 such as is scarcely to be found in the art of any other nation1 has in poetry treated it in a fashion which scarcely ever goes beyond the lyrical and sentimental1 the artificial1 the subjective1 in the worst sense of the word4 ,renan is no exception to this rule1 any more than ,lamartine or ,pierre ,loti4 ,he looks at the landscape with the eye of a decorative painter seeking a motif for a lyrical composition upon which he is engaged4 ,but that was not noticed by the many1 because they1 after all1 were accustomed to have nature dressed up for them1 and had had their taste so corrupted by a certain kind of lyricism that they had lost the power of distinguishing between truth and artificiality4 ,even those who might have noticed it were so astonished and delighted at being shown ,jesus in the ,galilaean landscape that they were content to yield to the enchantment4 ,along with this artificial feeling for nature a good many other things were accepted without question4 ,there is scarcely any other work on the subject which so abounds in lapses of taste--and those of the most distressing kind--as ,renan's ,vie de ,jsus4 ,it is ,christian art in the worst sense of the term--the art of the wax image4 ,the gentle ,jesus1 the beautiful ,mary1 the fair ,galilaeans who formed the retinue of the 8amiable carpenter10 might have been taken over in a body from the shopwindow of an ecclesiastical art emporium in the ,place ,st4 ,sulpice4 ,nevertheless1 there is something magical about the work4 ,it offends and yet it attracts4 ,it will never be quite forgotten1 nor is it ever likely to be surpassed in its own line1 for nature is not prodigal of masters of style1 and rarely is a book so directly born of enthusiasm as that which ,renan planned among the ,galilaean hills4 ,the essay on the sources of the ,life of ,jesus with which it opens is itself a literary masterpiece4 ,with a kind of effortless ease he makes his readers acquainted with the criticism of ,strauss1 of ,baur1 of ,reuss1 of ,colani4 ,he does not argue1 but simply sets the result vividly before the reader1 who finds himself at once at home in the new world of ideas4 ,he avoids any hard or glaring effects2 by means of that skilful transition from point to point which ,wagner in one of his letters praises as the highest art1 everything is surrounded with atmosphere4 ,but how much trickery and illusion there is in this art6 ,in a few strokes he indicates the relation of ,john to the ,synoptists2 the dilemma is made clear1 it seems as if one horn or the other must be chosen4 ,then he begins by artful touches to soften down the contrast4 ,the discourses of ,john are not authentic2 the historical ,jesus cannot have spoken thus4 ,but what about the statements of fact8 ,here ,renan declares himself convinced by the graphic presentment of the passion story4 ,touches like 8it was night10 8they had lighted a fire of coals10 8the coat was without seam10 cannot have been invented4 ,therefore the ,gospel must in some way go back to the disciple whom ,jesus loved4 ,it is possible1 nay certain1 that when as an old man he read the other ,gospels1 he was displeased by certain inaccuracies1 and perhaps vexed that he was given so small a place in the history4 ,he began to dictate a number of things which he had better means of knowing than the others2 partly1 too1 with the purpose of showing that in many cases where ,peter only had been mentioned he also had played a part1 and indeed the principal part4 ,sometimes his recollection was quite fresh1 sometimes it had been modified by time4 ,when he wrote down the discourses1 he had forgotten the ,lake of ,gennesareth and the winsome words which he had listened to upon its shores4 ,he was now living in quite a different world4 ,the events of the year #gj destroyed his hopes of the return of his ,master4 ,his ,jewish prejudices fell away1 and as he was still young1 he adapted himself to the syncretistic1 philosophic1 gnostic environment amid which he found himself in ,ephesus4 ,thus even ,jesus' world of thought took on a new shape for him2 although the discourses are perhaps rather to be referred to his school than to himself4 ,but1 when all is said1 ,john remains the best biographer4 ,or1 to put it more accurately1 while all the ,gospels are biographies1 they are legendary biographies1 even though they come down from the first century4 ,their texts need interpretation1 and the clue to the interpretation can be supplied by aesthetic feeling4 ,they must be subjected to a gentle pressure to bring them together1 and make them coalesce into a unity in which all the data are happily combined4 ,how this is to be done ,renan shows later in his description of the death of ,jesus4 8,suddenly10 he says1 8,jesus gave a terrible cry in which some thought they heard #8,father1 into thy hands ,i commend my spirit1' but which others1 whose thoughts were running on the fulfilment of prophecy1 reported as #8,it is finished4' 0 ,the authentic sayings of ,jesus are more or less selfevidencing4 ,coming in contact with one of them amid the welter of heterogeneous traditions1 you feel a thrill of recognition4 ,they leap forth and take their proper place1 where their vivid power becomes apparent4 ,for one who writes the life of ,jesus on ,his native soil1 the ,gospels are not so much sources of information as incentives to revelation4 8,i had10 ,renan avows1 8a fifth ,gospel before my eyes1 mutilated in parts1 but still legible1 and taking it for my guide ,i saw behind the narratives of ,matthew and ,mark1 instead of an ideal ,being of whom it might be maintained that ,he had never existed1 a glorious human countenance full of life and movement40 ,it is this ,jesus of the fifth ,gospel that he desires to portray4 ,in looking at the picture1 the reader must not allow the vexed question of miracle to distract him and disturb the proper frame of mind4 ,the author refuses to assert either the possibility or the impossibility of miracle1 but speaks only as an historian4 8,we do not say miracle is impossible1 we say only that there has never been a satisfactorily authenticated miracle40 ,in view of the method of treatment adopted by ,renan there can1 of course1 be no question of an historical plan4 ,he brings in each saying at the point where it seems most appropriate4 ,none of them is passed over1 but none of them appears in its historical setting4 ,he shifts individual incidents hither and thither in the most arbitrary fashion4 ,for example1 the coming of ,jesus' mother to seek ,him 7in the belief that ,he is beside ,himself7 must belong to the later part of ,jesus' life1 since it is out of tone with the happy innocence of the earlier period4 ,certain scenes are transposed from the later period to the earlier1 because they are not gloomy enough for the later time4 ,others again are made the basis of an unwarranted generalisation4 ,it is not enough that ,jesus once rode upon an ass while the disciples in the intoxication of joy cast their garments in the way2 according to ,renan1 ,he constantly rode about1 even in ,galilee1 upon a mule1 8that favourite ridinganimal of the ,east1 which is so docile and surefooted and whose great dark eyes1 shaded by long lashes1 are full of gentleness40 ,sometimes the disciples surrounded ,him with rustic pomp1 using their garments by way of carpeting4 ,they laid them upon the mule which carried ,him1 or spread them before ,him on the way4 ,scenes of little significance are sometimes elaborately described by ,renan while more important ones are barely touched on4 8,one day1 indeed10 he remarks in describing the first visit to ,jerusalem1 8anger seems to have1 as the saying goes1 overmastered ,him2 ,he struck some of the miserable chafferers with the scourge1 and overthrew their tables40 ,such is the incidental fashion in which the cleansing of the temple was brought in4 ,in this way it is possible to smuggle in a miracle without giving any further explanation of it4 ,the miracle at ,cana is brought1 by means of the following unobtrusive turn of phrase1 into the account of the period of success in ,galilee4 8,one of ,his miracles was done by ,jesus for the sole purpose of increasing the happiness of a weddingparty in a little country town40 ,this ,life of ,jesus is introduced by a kind of prelude4 ,jesus had been living in ,galilee before ,he came to the ,baptist2 when ,he heard of the latter's success ,he went to him with ,his little company of followers4 ,they were both young1 and ,jesus became the imitator of the ,baptist4 ,fortunately the latter soon disappeared from the scene1 for his influence on ,jesus was in some respects injurious4 ,the ,galilaean teacher was on the verge of losing the sunny religion which ,he had learned from ,his only teacher1 the glorious natural scenery which surrounded ,his home1 and of becoming a gloomy ,jewish fanatic4 ,but this influence fell away from ,him again2 when ,he returned to ,galilee ,he became ,himself once more4 ,the only thing which ,he had gained from ,john was some knowledge of the art of preaching4 ,he had learned from him how to influence masses of men4 ,from that time forward ,he preached with much more power and gained greater ascendancy over the people4 ,with the return to ,galilee begins the first act of the piece4 ,the story of the rise of ,christianity is a pastoral play4 ,bauer1 in his 8,philo1 ,strauss1 and ,renan10 writes with biting sarcasm3 8,renan1 who is at once the author of the play1 the stagemanager1 and the director of the theatre1 gives the signal to begin1 and at a sign from him the electric lights are put on full power1 the ,bengal fires flare up1 the footlights are turned higher1 and while the flutes and shawms of the orchestra strike up the overture1 the people enter and take their places among the bushes and by the shore of the ,lake40 ,and how confiding they were1 this gentle and peaceful company of ,galilaean fisher folk6 ,and ,he1 the young carpenter1 conjured the ,kingdom of ,heaven down to earth for a year1 by the spell of the infinite tenderness which radiated from ,him4 ,a company of men and women1 all of the same youthful integrity and simple innocence1 became ,his followers and constantly repeated 8,thou art the ,messiah40 ,by the women ,he was more beloved than ,he ,himself liked1 but from ,his passion for the glory of ,his ,father ,he was content to attract these 8fair creatures0 7belles cratures7 and suffered them to serve ,him1 and ,god through ,him4 ,three or four devoted ,galilaean women constantly accompanied ,him and strove with one another for the pleasure 7le plaisir7 of listening to ,his teaching and attending to ,his comfort4 ,some of them were wealthy and used their means to enable the 8amiable0 7charmant7 prophet to live without needing to practise ,his handicraft4 ,the most devoted of all was ,mary ,magdalene1 whose disordered mind had been healed by the influence of the pure and gracious beauty 7par la beaut pure et douce7 of the young ,rabbi4 ,thus ,he rode1 on ,his longeyelashed gentle mule1 from village to village1 from town to town4 ,the sweet theology of love 7la dlicieuse thologie de l'amour7 won ,him all hearts4 ,his preaching was gentle and mild 7suave et douce71 full of nature and the fragrance of the country4 ,wherever ,he went the people kept festival4 ,at marriages ,he was a welcome guest2 to the feasts which ,he gave ,he invited women who were sinners1 and publicans like the good ,zacchaeus4 8,the ,frenchman10 remarks ,noack1 8takes the mummied figure of the ,galilaean ,rabbi1 which criticism has exhumed1 endows it with life and energy1 and brings ,him upon the stage1 first amid the lustre of the earthly happiness which it was ,his pleasure to bestow1 and then in the moving aspect of one doomed to suffer40 ,when ,jesus goes up to the ,passover at the end of this first year1 ,he comes into conflict with the ,rabbis of the capital4 ,the 8winsome teacher1 who offered forgiveness to all on the sole condition of loving ,him10 found in the capital people upon whom ,his charm had no effect4 ,when ,he returned to ,galilee ,he had entirely abandoned ,his ,jewish beliefs1 and a revolutionary ardour glowed in ,his heart4 ,the second act begins4 8,the action becomes more serious and gloomy1 and the pupil of ,strauss turns down the footlights of his stage407#ajh7 ,the erstwhile 8winsome moralist0 has become a transcendental revolutionary4 ,up to this point ,he had thought to bring about the triumph of the ,kingdom of ,god by natural means1 by teaching and influencing men4 ,the ,jewish eschatology stood vaguely in the background4 ,now it becomes prominent4 ,the tension set up between ,his purely ethical ideas and these eschatological expectations gives ,his words from this time forward a special force4 ,the period of joyous simplicity is past4 ,even the character of the hero loses its simplicity4 ,in the furtherance of ,his cause ,he becomes a wonderworker4 ,it is true that even before ,he had sometimes practised innocent arts such as ,joan of ,arc made use of later47#aji7 ,he had1 for instance1 pretended to know the unspoken thoughts of one whom ,he desired to win1 had reminded him1 perhaps1 of some experience of which he cherished the memory4 ,he allowed the people to believe that ,he received knowledge of certain matters through a kind of revelation4 ,finally1 it came to be whispered that ,he had spoken with ,moses and ,elias upon the mountains4 ,but ,he now finds ,himself compelled to adopt in earnest the rle which ,he had formerly taken1 as it were1 in play4 ,against ,his will ,he is compelled to found ,his work upon miracle4 ,he must face the alternative of either renouncing ,his mission or becoming a thaumaturge4 ,he consented1 therefore1 to play an active part in many miracles4 ,in this astute friends gave ,him their aid4 ,at ,bethany something happened which could be regarded as a raising of the dead4 ,perhaps this miracle was arranged by ,lazarus himself4 ,when very ill he had allowed himself to be wrapped in the cerements of the dead and laid in the grave4 ,his sisters sent for ,jesus and brought ,him to the tomb4 ,he desired to look once more upon ,his friend1 and when1 overcome with grief1 ,he cried his name aloud1 ,lazarus came forth from the grave4 ,why should the brother and sisters have hesitated to provide a miracle for the ,master1 in whose miracleworking power they1 indeed1 believed8 ,where1 then1 was ,renan's allegiance to his 8honoured master0 ,strauss1 when he thus enrolled himself among the rationalists8 ,on these lines ,jesus played ,his part for eighteen months1 from the ,easter of #ca to the ,feast of ,tabernacles of #cb4 ,how great is the change from the gentle teacher of the ,sermon on the ,mount6 ,his discourse takes on a certain hardness of tone4 ,in the synagogue at ,capernaum ,he drives many from ,him1 offended by the saying about eating and drinking ,his flesh and blood4 ,the 8extreme materialism of the expression10 which in ,him had always been the natural counterpoise to the 8extreme idealism of the thought10 becomes more and more pronounced4 ,his 8,kingdom of ,god0 was indeed still essentially the kingdom of the poor1 the kingdom of the soul1 the great spiritual kingdom2 but ,he now preached it as the kingdom of the apocalyptic writings4 ,and yet in the very moment when ,he seems to be staking everything upon a supernatural fulfilment of ,his hopes1 ,he provides with remarkable prescience the basis of a permanent ,church4 ,he appoints the ,twelve ,apostles and institutes the fellowshipmeal4 ,it is certain1 ,renan thinks1 that the 8,supper0 was not first instituted on that last evening2 even in the second ,galilaean period ,he must have practised with ,his followers the mystic rite of the ,breaking of ,bread1 which in some way symbolised ,his death4 ,by the end of this period ,he had cast off all earthly ambitions4 ,nothing of earth existed for ,him any more4 ,a strange longing for persecution and martyrdom had taken possession of ,him4 ,it was not1 however1 the resolve to offer an atonement for the sins of ,his people which familiarised ,him with the thought of death2 it was forced upon ,him by the knowledge that ,he had entered upon a path in which it was impossible for ,him to sustain ,his rle for more than a few months1 or perhaps even weeks4 ,so ,he sets out for ,jerusalem1 outwardly a hero1 inwardly half in despair because ,he has turned aside from ,his true path4 ,the gentle1 faithful1 longeyelashed mule bears ,him1 amid the acclamations of the multitude1 through the gate of the capital4 ,the third act begins3 the stage is dark and becomes constantly darker1 until at last1 through the darkness of the scene1 there is faintly visible only the figure of a woman--of her who in her deep grief beside the grave was by her vision to call to life again ,him whom she loved4 ,there was darkness1 too1 in the souls of the disciples1 and in that of the ,master4 ,the bitter jealousy between ,judas and ,john made one of them a traitor4 ,as for ,jesus1 ,he had ,his hour of gloom to fight through in ,gethsemane4 ,for a moment ,his human nature awakened in ,him2 all that ,he thought ,he had slain and put behind ,him for ever rose up and confronted ,him as ,he knelt there upon the ground4 8,did ,he remember the clear brooks of ,galilee at which ,he might have slaked ,his thirst--the vine and the figtree beneath which ,he might have rested--the maidens who would perhaps have been willing to love ,him8 ,did ,he regret ,his too exalted nature8 ,did ,he1 a martyr to ,his own greatness1 weep that ,he had not remained the simple carpenter of ,nazareth8 ,we do not know60 ,he is dead4 ,renan1 as though he stood in ,pre ,lachaise1 commissioned to pronounce the final allocution over a member of the ,academy1 apostrophises ,him thus3 8,rest now1 amid ,thy glory1 noble pioneer4 ,thou conqueror of death1 take the sceptre of ,thy ,kingdom1 into which so many centuries of ,thy worshippers shall follow ,thee1 by the highway which ,thou hast opened up40 ,the bell rings2 the curtain begins to fall2 the swingseats tilt4 ,the epilogue is scarcely heard3 8,jesus will never have a rival4 ,his religion will again and again renew itself2 ,his story will call forth endless tears3 ,his sufferings will soften the hearts of the best2 every successive century will proclaim that among the sons of men there hath not arisen a greater than ,jesus40 ,the book passed through eight editions in three months4 ,the writings of those who opposed it had an equal vogue4 ,that of ,freppel had reached its twelfth edition in #ahfd47aaj7 ,their name was legion4 ,whatever wore a soutane and could wield a pen charged against ,renan1 the bishops leading the van4 ,the tone of these attacks was not always very elevated1 nor their logic very profound4 ,in most cases the writers were only concerned to defend the ,deity of ,christ17#aaa7 and the miracles1 and are satisfied that they have done so when they have pointed out some of the glaring inconsistencies in ,renan's work4 ,here and there1 however1 among these refutations we catch the tone of a loftier ethical spirit which has recognised the fundamental weakness of the work1 the lack of any definite ethical principles in the writer's outlook upon life47#aab7 ,there were some indeed who were not content with a refutation2 they would gladly have seen active measures taken against ,renan4 ,one of his most embittered adversaries1 ,amade ,nicolas17#aac7 reckons up in an appendix to his work the maximum penalties authorised by the existing enactments against free thought1 and would welcome the application of the law of the #beth of ,march #ahbb1 according to which five years' imprisonment could be imposed for the crime of 8insulting or making ridiculous a religion recognised by the state40 ,renan was defended by the ,sicle1 the ,dbats1 at that time the leading ,french newspaper1 and the ,temps1 in which ,scherer published five articles upon the book4 ,even the ,revue des deux mondes1 which had formerly raised a warning voice against ,strauss1 allowed itself to go with the stream1 and published in its ,august number of #ahfc a critical analysis by ,havet7#aad7 who hailed ,renan's work as a great achievement1 and criticised only the inconsistencies by which he had endeavoured to soften down the radical character of his undertaking4 ,later on the ,revue changed its attitude and sided with ,renan's opponents4 ,in the ,protestant camp there was an even keener sense of distaste than in the ,catholic for the sentimental gloss which ,renan had spread over his work to make it attractive to the multitude by its iridescent colours4 ,in four remarkable letters ,athanase ,coquerel the younger took the author to task for this47#aae7 ,from the standpoint of orthodox scholarship ,e4 de ,pressens condemned him27#aaf7 and proceeded without loss of time to refute him in a largescale ,life of ,jesus47#aag7 ,he was answered by ,albert ,rville17#aah7 who claims recognition for ,renan's services to criticism4 ,in general1 however1 the rising ,french school of critical theology was disappointed in ,renan4 ,their spokesman was ,colani4 8,this is not the ,christ of history1 the ,christ of the ,synoptics10 he writes in #ahfd in the ,revue de thologie1 8but the ,christ of the ,fourth ,gospel1 though without ,his metaphysical halo1 and painted over with a brush which has been dipped in the melancholy blue of modern poetry1 in the rose of the eighteenth century idyll1 and in the grey of a moral philosophy which seems to be derived from ,la ,rochefoucauld40 8,in expressing this opinion10 he adds1 8,i believe ,i am speaking in the name of those who belong to what is known as the new ,protestant theology1 or the ,strassburg school4 ,we opened ,m4 ,renan's book with sympathetic interest2 we closed it with deep disappointment407#aai7 ,the ,strassburg school had good cause to complain of ,renan1 for he had trampled their growing crops4 ,they had just begun to arouse some interest1 and slowly and surely to exercise an influence upon the whole spiritual life of ,france4 ,sainte,beuve had called attention to the work of ,reuss1 ,colani1 ,rville1 and ,scherer4 ,others of the school were ,michel ,nicolas of ,montauban and ,gustave d',eichthal4 ,nefftzer1 the editor of the ,temps1 who was at the same time a prophet of coming political events1 defended their cause in the ,parisian literary world4 ,the ,revue germanique of that period1 the influence of which upon ,french literature can hardly be over estimated1 was their sworn ally4 ,then came ,renan and threw public opinion into a ferment of excitement4 ,everything in the nature of criticism1 and of progress in religious thought1 was associated with his name1 and was thereby discredited4 ,by his untimely and overeasy popularisation of the ideas of the critical school he ruined their quiet work4 ,the excitement roused by his book swept away all that had been done by those noble and lofty spirits1 who now found themselves involved in a struggle with the outraged orthodoxy of ,paris1 and were hard put to it to defend themselves4 ,even down to the present day ,renan's work forms the greatest hindrance to any serious advance in ,french religious thought4 ,the excitement aroused upon the other side of the ,rhine was scarcely less than in ,paris4 ,within a year there appeared five different ,german translations1 and many of the ,french criticisms of ,renan were also translated47#abj7 ,the ,german ,catholic press was wildly excited27#aba7 the ,protestant press was more restrained1 more inclined to give the author a fair hearing1 and even ventured to express admiration of the historical merits of his performance4 ,beyschlag7#abb7 saw in ,renan an advance upon ,strauss1 inasmuch as for him the life of ,jesus as narrated in the ,gospels1 while not1 indeed1 in any sense supernatural1 is nevertheless historical4 ,for a certain school of theology1 therefore1 ,renan was a deliverer from ,strauss2 they were especially grateful to him for his defence1 sophistical though it was1 of the ,fourth ,gospel4 ,weizscker expressed his admiration4 ,strauss1 far from directing his 8,life of ,jesus for the ,german ,people10 with which he was then occupied1 against the superficial and frivolous ,french treatment of the subject--as has sometimes been alleged--hailed ,renan in his preface as a kindred spirit and ally1 and 8shook hands with him across the ,rhine40 ,luthardt17#abc7 however1 remained inexorable4 8,what is there lacking in ,renan's work80 he asks4 ,and he replies1 8,it lacks conscience40 ,that is a just judgment4 ,from this lack of conscience1 ,renan has not been scrupulous where he ought to have been so4 ,there is a kind of insincerity in the book from beginning to end4 ,renan professes to depict the ,christ of the ,fourth ,gospel1 though he does not believe in the authenticity or the miracles of that ,gospel4 ,he professes to write a scientific work1 and is always thinking of the great public and how to interest it4 ,he has thus fused together two works of disparate character4 ,the historian finds it hard to forgive him for not going more deeply into the problem of the development in the thought of ,jesus1 with which he was brought face to face by the emphasis which he laid on eschatology1 and for offering in place of a solution the highlycoloured phrases of the novelist4 ,nevertheless1 this work will always retain a certain interest1 both for ,frenchmen and for ,germans4 ,the ,german is often so completely fascinated by it as to lose his power of criticism1 because he finds in it ,german thought in a novel and piquant form4 ,conversely the ,frenchman discovers in it1 behind the familiar form1 which is here handled in such a masterly fashion1 ideas belonging to a world which is foreign to him1 ideas which he can never completely assimilate1 but which yet continually attract him4 ,in this double character of the work lies its imperishable charm4 ,and its weakness8 ,that it is written by one to whom the ,new ,testament was to the last something foreign1 who had not read it from his youth up in the mothertongue1 who was not accustomed to breathe freely in its simple and pure world1 but must perfume it with sentimentality in order to feel himself at home in it4 ,,xiv4 ,,the 8,,liberal0 ,,lives ,,of ,,jesus ,david ,friedrich ,strauss4 ,das ,leben ,jesu fr das deutsche ,volk bearbeitet4 7,a ,life of ,jesus for the ,german ,people47 ,leipzig1 #ahfd4 #fca pp4 ,der ,christus des ,glaubens und der ,jesus der ,geschichte4 ,eine ,kritik des ,schleiermacher'schen ,lebens ,jesu4 7,the ,christ of ,faith and the ,jesus of ,history1 a ,criticism of ,schleiermacher's ,life of ,jesus47 ,berlin1 #ahfe4 #bbc pp4 ,appendix1 pp4 #bbdbdj4 ,der ,schenkel'sche ,handel in ,baden4 7,the ,schenkel ,affair in ,baden47 ,a corrected reprint from ,no4 #dda of the ,national,zeitung1 of the #bast ,september #ahfd4 ,die ,halben und die ,ganzen4 7,the ,halfwayers and the ,wholeway ers47 #ahfe4 ,daniel ,schenkel4 ,das ,charakterbild ,jesu4 7,the ,portrait of ,jesus47 ,wiesbaden1 #ahfd 7ed4 #a and #b74 #dje pp4 ,fourth edition1 with a preface opposing ,strauss's 8,der alte und der neue ,glaube0 7,the ,old ,faith and the ,new71 #ahgc4 ,karl ,heinrich ,weizscker4 ,untersuchungen ber die evangelische ,geschichte1 ihre ,quellen und den ,gang ihrer ,entwicklung4 7,studies in the ,gospel ,history1 its ,sources and the ,progress of its ,development47 ,gotha1 #ahfd4 #ehj pp4 ,heinrich ,julius ,holtzmann4 ,die synoptischen ,evangelien4 ,ihr ,ursprung und geschichtlicher ,charakter4 7,the ,synoptic ,gospels4 ,their ,origin and ,historical ,character47 ,leipzig1 #ahfc4 #ead pp4 ,theodor ,keim4 ,die ,geschichte ,jesu von ,nazara4 7,the ,history of ,jesus of ,nazara47 #c vols41 ,zurich2 vol4 i41 #ahfg1 #ddf pp42 vol4 ii41 #ahga1 #faf pp42 vol4 iii41 #ahgb1 #ffg pp4 ,die ,geschichte ,jesu4 ,zurich1 #ahgb4 #cih pp4 ,karl ,hase4 ,geschichte ,jesu4 ,nach akademischen ,vorlesungen4 7,the ,history of ,jesus4 ,academic ,lectures1 revised47 ,leipzig1 #ahgf4 #fab pp4 ,willibald ,beyschlag4 ,das ,leben ,jesu4 ,first ,part3 ,preliminary ,investigations1 #ahhe1 #dej pp4 ,second ,part3 ,narrative1 #ahhf1 #die pp42 #bnd ed41 #ahhgahhh4 ,bernhard ,weiss4 ,das ,leben ,jesu4 #ast ed41 #b vols41 #ahhb2 #bnd ed41 #ahhd4 ,first vol41 down to the ,baptist's question1 #eef pp4 ,second vol41 #fag pp4 8,my hope is10 writes ,strauss in concluding the preface of his new ,life of ,jesus1 8that ,i have written a book as thoroughly well adapted for ,germans as ,renan's is for ,frenchmen40 ,he was mistaken2 in spite of its title the book was not a book for the people4 ,it had nothing new to offer1 and what it did offer was not in a form calculated to become popular4 ,it is true ,strauss1 like ,renan1 was an artist1 but he did not write1 like an imaginative novelist1 with a constant eye to effect4 ,his art was unpretentious1 even austere1 appealing to the few1 not to the many4 ,the people demand a complete and vivid picture4 ,renan had given them a figure which was theatrical no doubt1 but full of life and movement1 and they had been grateful to him for it4 ,strauss could not do that4 ,even the arrangement of the work is thoroughly unfortunate4 ,in the first part1 which bears the title 8,the ,life of ,jesus10 he attempts to combine into a harmonious portrait such of the historical data as have some claim to be considered historical2 in the second part he traces the 8,origin and ,growth of the ,mythical ,history of ,jesus40 ,first1 therefore1 he tears down from the tree the ivy and the rich growth of creepers1 laying bare the worn and corroded bark2 then he fastens the faded growths to the stem again1 and describes the nature1 origin1 and characteristics of each distinct species4 ,how vastly different1 how much more full of life1 had been the work of #ahce6 ,there ,strauss had not divided the creepers from the stem4 ,the straining strength which upheld this wealth of creepers was but vaguely suspected4 ,behind the billowy mists of legend we caught from time to time a momentary glimpse of the gigantic figure of ,jesus1 as though lit up by a lightningflash4 ,it was no complete and harmonious picture1 but it was full of suggestions1 rich in thoughts thrown out carelessly1 rich in contradictions even1 out of which the imagination could create a portrait of ,jesus4 ,it is just this wealth of suggestion that is lacking in the second picture4 ,strauss is trying now to give a definite portrait4 ,in the inevitable process of harmonising and modelling to scale he is obliged to reject the finest thoughts of the previous work because they will not fit in exactly2 some of them are altered out of recognition1 some are filed away4 ,there is wanting1 too1 that perfect freshness as of the spring which is only found when thoughts have but newly come into flower4 ,the writing is no longer spontaneous2 one feels that ,strauss is setting forth thoughts which have ripened with his mind and grown old with it1 and now along with their definiteness of form have taken on a certain stiffness4 ,there are now no hinted possibilities1 full of promise1 to dance gaily through the movement of his dialectic2 all is sober reason--a thought too sober4 ,renan had one advantage over ,strauss in that he wrote when the material was fresh to him--one might almost say strange to him--and was capable of calling up in him the response of vivid feeling4 ,for a popular book1 too1 it lacks that living interplay of reflection with narration without which the ordinary reader fails to get a grip of the history4 ,the first ,life of ,jesus had been rich in this respect1 since it had been steeped in the ,hegelian theory regarding the realisation of the ,idea4 ,in the meantime ,strauss had seen the ,hegelian philosophy fall from its high estate1 and himself had found no way of reconciling history and idea1 so that his present ,life of ,jesus was a mere objective presentment of the history4 ,it was1 therefore1 not adapted to make any impression upon the popular mind4 ,in reality it is merely an exposition1 in more or less popular form1 of the writer's estimate of what had been done in the study of the subject during the past thirty years1 and shows what he had learnt and what he had failed to learn4 ,as regards the ,synoptic question he had learnt nothing4 ,in his opinion the criticism of the ,gospels has 8run to seed40 ,he treats with a pitying contempt both the earlier and the more recent defenders of the ,marcan hypothesis4 ,weisse is a dilettante2 ,wilke had failed to make any impression on him2 ,holtzmann's work was as yet unknown to him4 ,but in the following year he discharged the vials of his wrath upon the man who had both strengthened the foundations and put on the copingstone of the new hypothesis4 8,our lions of ,st4 ,mark1 older and younger10 he says in the appendix to his criticism of ,schleiermacher's ,life of ,jesus1 8may roar as loud as they like1 so long as there are six solid reasons against the priority of ,mark to set against every one of their flimsy arguments in its favour--and they themselves supply us with a store of counterarguments in the shape of admissions of later editing and so forth4 ,the whole theory appears to me a temporary aberration1 like the 'music of the future' or the antivaccination movement2 and ,i seriously believe that it is the same order of mind which1 in different circumstances1 falls a victim to the one delusion or the other40 ,but he must not be supposed1 he says1 to take the critical molehills thrown up by ,holtzmann for veritable mountains4 ,against such opponents he does not scruple to seek aid from ,schleiermacher1 whose unbiased but decided opinion had ascribed a tertiary character to ,mark4 ,even ,gfrrer's view that ,mark adapted his ,gospel to the needs of the ,church by leaving out everything which was open to objection in ,matthew and ,luke1 is good enough to be brought to bear against the bat eyed partisans of ,mark4 ,f4 ,c4 ,baur is reproached for having given too much weight to the 8tendency0 theory in his criticism of the ,gospels2 and also for having taken suggestions of ,strauss's and worked them out1 supposing that he was offering something new when he was really only amplifying4 ,in the end he had only given a criticism of the ,gospels1 not of the ,gospel history4 ,but this irritation against his old teacher is immediately allayed when he comes to speak of the ,fourth ,gospel4 ,here the teacher has carried to a successful issue the campaign which the pupil had begun4 ,strauss feels compelled to 8express his gratitude for the work done by the ,tbingen school on the ,johannine question40 ,he himself had only been able to deal with the negative side of the question--to show that the ,fourth ,gospel was not an historical source1 but a theological invention2 they had dealt with it positively1 and had assigned the document to its proper place in the evolution of ,christian thought4 ,there is only one point with which he quarrels4 ,baur had made the ,fourth ,gospel too completely spiritual1 8whereas the fact is10 says ,strauss1 8that it is the most material of all40 ,it is true1 ,strauss explains1 that the ,evangelist starts out to interpret miracle and eschatology symbolically2 but he halts halfway and falls back upon the miraculous1 enhancing the professed fact in proportion as he makes it spiritually more significant4 ,beside the spiritual return of ,jesus in the ,paraclete he places ,his return in a material body1 bearing the marks of the wounds2 beside the inward present judgment1 a future outward judgment2 and the fact that he sees the one in the other1 finds the one present and visible in the other1 is just what constitutes the mystical character of his ,gospel4 ,this mysticism attracts the modern world4 8,the ,johannine ,christ1 who in ,his descriptions of ,himself seems to be always outdoing ,himself1 is the counterpart of the modern believer1 who in order to remain a believer must continually outdo himself2 the ,johannine miracles which are always being interpreted spiritually1 and at the same time raised to a higher pitch of the miraculous1 which are counted and documented in every possible way1 and yet must not be considered the true ground of faith1 are at once miracles and no miracles4 ,we must believe them1 and yet can believe without them2 in short they exactly meet the taste of the present day1 which delights to involve itself in contradictions and is too lethargic and wanting in courage for any clear insight or decided opinion on religious matters40 ,strictly speaking1 however1 the ,strauss of the second ,life of ,jesus has no right to criticise the ,fourth ,gospel for sublimating the history1 for he himself gives what is nothing else than a spiritualisation of the ,jesus of the ,synoptics4 ,and he does it in such an arbitrary fashion that one is compelled to ask how far he does it with a good conscience4 ,a typical case is the exposition of ,jesus' answer to the ,baptist's message4 8,is it possible10 ,jesus means1 8that you fail to find in ,me the miracles which you expect from the ,messiah8 ,and yet ,i daily open the eyes of the spiritually blind and the ears of the spiritually deaf1 make the lame walk erect and vigorous1 and even give new life to those who are morally dead4 ,any one who understands how much greater these spiritual miracles are1 will not be offended at the absence of bodily miracles2 only such an one can receive1 and is worthy of1 the salvation which ,i am bringing to mankind40 ,here the fundamental weakness of his method is clearly shown4 ,the vaunted apparatus for the evaporation of the mythical does not work quite satisfactorily4 ,the ultimate product of this process was expected to be a ,jesus who should be essential man2 the actual product1 however1 is ,jesus the historical man1 a being whose looks and sayings are strange and unfamiliar4 ,strauss is too purely a critic1 too little of the creative historian1 to recognise this strange being4 ,that ,jesus really lived in a world of ,jewish ideas and held ,himself to be ,messiah in the ,jewish sense is for the writer of the ,life of ,jesus an impossibility4 ,the deposit which resists the chemical process for the elimination of myth1 he must therefore break up with the hammer4 ,how different from the ,strauss of #ahce6 ,he had then recognised eschatology as the most important element in ,jesus' world of thought1 and in some incidental remarks had made striking applications of it4 ,he had1 for example1 proposed to regard the ,last ,supper not as the institution of a feast for coming generations1 but as a ,paschal meal1 at which ,jesus declared that ,he would next partake of the ,paschal bread and ,paschal wine along with ,his disciples in the heavenly kingdom4 ,in the second ,life of ,jesus this view is given up2 ,jesus did found a feast4 8,in order to give a living centre of unity to the society which it was ,his purpose to found1 ,jesus desired to institute this distribution of bread and wine as a feast to be constantly repeated40 ,one might be reading ,renan4 ,this change of attitude is typical of much else4 ,strauss is not in the least disquieted by finding himself at one with ,schleiermacher in these attempts to spiritualise4 ,on the contrary1 he appeals to him4 ,he shares1 he says1 ,schleiermacher's conviction 8that the unique selfconsciousness of ,jesus did not develop as a consequence of ,his conviction that ,he was the ,messiah2 on the contrary1 it was a consequence of ,his selfconsciousness that ,he arrived at the view that the ,messianic prophecies could point to no one but ,himself40 ,the moment eschatology entered into the consciousness of ,jesus it came in contact with a higher principle which overmastered it and gradually dissolved it4 8,had ,jesus applied the ,messianic idea to ,himself before ,he had had a profound religious consciousness to which to relate it1 doubtless it would have taken possession of ,him so powerfully that ,he could never have escaped from its influence40 ,we must suppose the ideality1 the concentration upon that which was inward1 the determination to separate religion1 on the one hand1 from politics1 and on the other1 from ritual1 the serene consciousness of being able to attain to peace with ,god and with ,himself by purely spiritual means--all this we must suppose to have reached a certain ripeness1 a certain security1 in the mind of ,jesus1 before ,he permitted ,himself to entertain the thought of ,his ,messiahship1 and this we may believe is the reason why ,he grasped it in so independent and individual a fashion4 ,in this1 therefore1 ,strauss has become the pupil of ,weisse4 ,even in the ,old ,testament prophecies1 he explains1 we find two conceptions1 a more ideal and a more practical4 ,jesus holds consistently to the first1 ,he describes ,himself as the ,son of ,man because this designation 8contains the suggestion of humility and lowliness1 of the human and natural40 ,at ,jerusalem1 ,jesus1 in giving ,his interpretation of ,psalm cx41 8made merry over the ,davidic descent of the ,messiah40 ,he desired 8to be ,messiah in the sense of a patient teacher exercising a quiet influence40 ,as the opposition of the people grew more intense1 ,he took up some of the features of ,isaiah liii4 into ,his conception of the ,messiah4 ,of ,his resurrection1 ,jesus can only have spoken in a metaphorical sense4 ,it is hardly credible that one who was pure man could have arrogated to himself the position of judge of the world4 ,strauss would like best to ascribe all the eschatology to the distorting medium of early ,christianity1 but he does not venture to carry this through with logical consistency4 ,he takes it as certain1 however1 that ,jesus1 even though it sometimes seems as if ,he did not expect the ,kingdom to be realised in the present1 but in a future1 worldera1 and to be brought about by ,god in a supernatural fashion1 nevertheless sets about the establishment of the ,kingdom by purely spiritual influence4 ,with this end in view ,he leaves ,galilee1 when ,he judges the time to be ripe1 in order to work on a larger scale4 8,in case of an unfavourable issue1 ,he reckons on the influence which a martyrdeath has never failed to exercise in giving momentum to a lofty idea40 ,how far ,he had advanced1 when ,he entered on the fateful journey to ,jerusalem1 in shaping ,his plan1 and especially in organising the company of adherents who had gathered about ,him1 it is impossible to determine with any exactness4 ,he permitted the triumphal entry because ,he did not desire to decline the role of the ,messiah in every aspect of it4 ,owing to this arbitrary spiritualisation of the ,synoptic ,jesus1 ,strauss's picture is in essence much more unhistorical than ,renan's4 ,the latter had not needed to deny that ,jesus had done miracles1 and he had been able to suggest an explanation of how ,jesus came in the end to fall back upon the eschatological system of ideas4 ,but at what a price6 ,by portraying ,jesus as at variance with ,himself1 a hero broken in spirit4 ,this price is too high for ,strauss4 ,arbitrary as his treatment of history is1 he never loses the intuitive feeling that in ,jesus' selfconsciousness there is a unique absence of struggle2 that ,he does not bear the scars which are found in those natures which win their way to freedom and purity through strife and conflict1 that in ,him there is no trace of the hardness1 harshness1 and gloom which cleave to such natures throughout life1 but that ,he 8is manifestly a beautiful nature from the first40 ,thus1 for all ,strauss's awkward1 arbitrary handling of the history he is greater than the rival7#abd7 who could manufacture history with such skill4 ,nevertheless1 from the point of view of theological science1 this work marks a standstill4 ,that was the net result of the thirty years of critical study of the life of ,jesus for the man who had inaugurated it so impressively4 ,this was the only fruit which followed those blossoms so full of promise of the first ,life of ,jesus4 ,it is significant that in the same year there appeared ,schleiermacher's lectures on the ,life of ,jesus1 which had not seen the light for forty years1 because1 as ,strauss himself remarked in his criticism of the resurrected work1 it had neither anodyne nor dressing for the wounds which his first ,life of ,jesus had made47#abe7 ,the wounds1 however1 had cicatrised in the meantime4 ,it is true ,strauss is a just judge1 and makes ample acknowledgment of the greatness of ,schleiermacher's achievement47#abf7 ,he blames ,schleiermacher for setting up his 8presuppositions in regard to ,christ0 as an historical canon1 and considering it a proof that a statement is unhistorical if it does not square with those presuppositions4 ,but does not the purely human1 but to a certain extent unhistorical1 man1 who is to be the ultimate product of the process of eliminating myth1 serve ,strauss as his 8theoretic ,christ0 who determines the presentment of his historical ,jesus8 ,does he not share with ,schleiermacher the erroneous1 artificial1 8double0 construction of the consciousness of ,jesus8 ,and what about their views of ,mark8 ,what fundamental difference is there1 when all is said1 between ,schleiermacher's derationalised ,life of ,jesus and ,strauss's8 ,certainly this second ,life of ,jesus would not have frightened ,schleiermacher's away into hiding for thirty years4 ,so ,schleiermacher's ,life of ,jesus might now safely venture forth into the light4 ,there was no reason why it should feel itself a stranger at this period1 and it had no need to be ashamed of itself4 ,its rationalistic birthmarks were concealed by its brilliant dialectic47#abg7 ,and the only real advance in the meantime was the general recognition that the ,life of ,jesus was not to be interpreted on rationalistic1 but on historical lines4 ,all other1 more definite1 historical results had proved more or less illusory2 there is no vitality in them4 ,the works of ,renan1 ,strauss1 ,schenkel1 ,weizscker1 and ,keim are in essence only different ways of carrying out a single groundplan4 ,to read them one after another is to be simply appalled at the stereotyped uniformity of the world of thought in which they move4 ,you feel that you have read exactly the same thing in the others1 almost in identical phrases4 ,to obtain the works of ,schenkel and ,weizscker you only need to weaken down in ,strauss the sharp discrimination between ,john and the ,synoptists so far as to allow of the ,fourth ,gospel being used to some extent as an historical source 8in the higher sense10 and to put the hypothesis of the priority of ,mark in place of the ,tbingen view adopted by ,strauss4 ,the latter is an external operation and does not essentially modify the view of the ,life of ,jesus1 since by admitting the ,johannine scheme the ,marcan plan is again disturbed1 and ,strauss's arbitrary spiritualisation of the ,synoptics comes to something not very different from the acceptance of that 8in a higher sense historical ,gospel0 alongside of them4 ,the whole discussion regarding the sources is only loosely connected with the process of arriving at the portrait of ,jesus1 since this portrait is fixed from the first1 being determined by the mental atmosphere and religious horizon of the 'sixties4 ,they all portray the ,jesus of liberal theology2 the only difference is that one is a little more conscientious in his colouring than another1 and one perhaps has a little more taste than another1 or is less concerned about the consequences4 ,the desire to escape in some way from the alternative between the ,synoptists and ,john was native to the ,marcan hypothesis4 ,weisse had endeavoured to effect this by distinguishing between the sources in the ,fourth ,gospel47#abh7 ,schenkel and ,weizscker are more modest4 ,they do not feel the need of any clear literary view of the ,fourth ,gospel1 of any critical discrimination between original and secondary elements in it2 they are content to use as historical whatever their instinct leads them to accept4 8,apart from the fourth ,gospel10 says ,schenkel1 8we should miss in the portrait of the ,redeemer the unfathomable depths and the inaccessible heights40 8,jesus10 to quote his aphorism1 8was not always thus in reality1 but ,he was so in truth40 ,since when have historians had the right to distinguish between reality and truth8 ,that was one of the bad habits which the author of this characterisation of ,jesus brought with him from his earlier dogmatic training4 ,weizscker7#abi7 expresses himself with more circumspection4 8,we possess10 he says1 8in the ,fourth ,gospel genuine apostolic reminiscences as much as in any part of the first three ,gospels2 but between the facts on which the reminiscences are based and their reproduction in literary form there lies the development of their possessor into a great mystic1 and the influence of a philosophy which here for the first time united itself in this way with the ,gospel2 they need1 therefore1 to be critically examined2 and the historical truth of this gospel1 great as it is1 must not be measured with a painful literality40 ,one wonders why both these writers appeal to ,holtzmann1 seeing that they practically abandon the ,marcan plan which he had worked out at the end of his very thorough examination of this ,gospel4 ,they do not accept as sufficient the controversy regarding the ceremonial regulations in ,mark vii4 which1 with the rejection at ,nazareth1 constitute1 in ,holtzmann's view1 the turningpoint of the ,galilaean ministry1 but find the cause of the change of attitude on the part of the people rather in the ,johannine discourse about eating and drinking the flesh and blood of the ,son of ,man4 ,the section ,mark x4xv41 which has a certain unity1 they interpret in the light of the ,johannine tradition1 finding in it traces of a previous ministry of ,jesus in ,jerusalem and interweaving with it the ,johannine story of the ,passion4 ,according to ,schenkel the last visit to ,jerusalem must have been of considerable duration4 ,when confronted with ,john1 the admission may be wrung from the ,synoptists that ,jesus did not travel straight through ,jericho to the capital1 but worked first for a considerable time in ,judaea4 ,strauss tartly observes that he cannot see what the author of the 8characterisation0 stood to gain by underwriting ,holtzmann's ,marcan hypothesis47#acj7 ,weizscker is still bolder in making interpolations from the ,johannine tradition4 ,he places the cleansing of the ,temple1 in contradiction to ,mark1 in the early period of ,jesus' ministry1 on the ground that 8it bears the character of a first appearance1 a bold deed with which to open ,his career40 ,he fails to observe1 however1 that if this act really took place at this point of time1 the whole development of the life of ,jesus which ,holtzmann had so ingeniously traced in ,mark1 is at once thrown into confusion4 ,in describing the last visit to ,jerusalem1 ,weizscker is not content to insert the ,marcan stones into the ,johannine cement2 he goes farther and expressly states that the great farewell discourses of ,jesus to ,his disciples agree with the ,synoptic discourses to the disciples spoken during the last days1 however completely they of all others bear the peculiar stamp of the ,johannine diction4 ,thus in the second period of the ,marcan hypothesis the same spectacle meets us as in the earlier4 ,the hypothesis has a literary existence1 indeed it is carried by ,holtzmann to such a degree of demonstration that it can no longer be called a mere hypothesis1 but it does not succeed in winning an assured position in the critical study of the ,life of ,jesus4 ,it is commonland not yet taken into cultivation4 ,that is due in no small measure to the fact that ,holtzmann did not work out the hypothesis from the historical side1 but rather on literary lines1 recalling ,wilke--as a kind of problem in ,synoptic arithmetic--and in his preface expresses dissent from the ,tbingen school1 who desired to leave no alternative between ,john on the one side and the ,synoptics on the other1 whereas he approves the attempt to evade the dilemma in some way or other1 and thinks he can find in the didactic narrative of the ,fourth ,gospel the traces of a development of ,jesus similar to that portrayed in the ,synoptics1 and has therefore no fundamental objection to the use of ,john alongside of the ,synoptics4 ,in taking up this position1 however1 he does not desire to be understood as meaning that 8it would be to the interests of science to throw ,synoptic and ,johannine passages together indiscriminately and thus construct a life of ,jesus out of them40 8,it would be much better first to reconstruct separately the ,synoptic and ,johannine pictures of ,christ1 composing each of its own distinctive material4 ,it is only when this has been done that it is possible to make a fruitful comparison of the two40 ,exactly the same position had been taken up sixtyseven years before by ,herder4 ,in ,holtzmann's case1 however1 the principle was stated with so many qualifications that the adherents of his view read into it the permission to combine1 in a picture treated 8in the grand style10 ,synoptic with ,johannine passages4 ,in addition to this1 the plan which ,holtzmann finally evolved out of ,mark was much too finedrawn to bear the weight of the remainder of the ,synoptic material4 ,he distinguishes seven stages in the ,galilaean ministry17#aca7 of which the really decisive one is the sixth1 in which ,jesus leaves ,galilee and goes northward1 so that ,schenkel and ,weizscker are justified in distinguishing practically only two great ,galilaean periods1 the first of which--down to the controversy about ceremonial purity--they distinguish as the period of success1 the second--down to the departure from ,judaea--as the period of decline4 ,what attracted these writers to the ,marcan hypothesis was not so much the authentification which it gave to the detail of ,mark1 though they were willing enough to accept that1 but the way in which this ,gospel lent itself to the a priori view of the course of the life of ,jesus which they unconsciously brought with them4 ,they appealed to ,holtzmann because he showed such wonderful skill in extracting from the ,marcan narrative the view which commended itself to the spirit of the age as manifested in the 'sixties4 ,holtzmann read into this ,gospel that ,jesus had endeavoured in ,galilee to found the ,kingdom of ,god in an ideal sense2 that ,he concealed ,his consciousness of being the ,messiah1 which was constantly growing more assured1 until ,his followers should have attained by inner enlightenment to a higher view of the ,kingdom of ,god and of the ,messiah2 that almost at the end of ,his ,galilaean ministry ,he declared ,himself to them as the ,messiah at ,caesarea ,philippi2 that on the same occasion ,he at once began to picture to them a suffering ,messiah1 whose lineaments gradually became more and more distinct in ,his mind amid the growing opposition which ,he encountered1 until finally1 ,he communicated to ,his disciples ,his decision to put the ,messianic cause to the test in the capital1 and that they followed ,him thither and saw how ,his fate fulfilled itself4 ,it was this fundamental view which made the success of the hypothesis4 ,holtzmann1 not less than his followers1 believed that he had discovered it in the ,gospel itself1 although ,strauss1 the passionate opponent of the ,marcan hypothesis1 took essentially the same view of the development of ,jesus' thought4 ,but the way in which ,holtzmann exhibited this characteristic view of the 'sixties as arising naturally out of the detail of ,mark1 was so perfect1 so artistically charming1 that this view appeared henceforward to be inseparably bound up with the ,marcan tradition4 ,scarcely ever has a description of the life of ,jesus exercised so irresistible an influence as that short outline--it embraces scarcely twenty pages--with which ,holtzmann closes his examination of the ,synoptic ,gospels4 ,this chapter became the creed and catechism of all who handled the subject during the following decades4 ,the treatment of the life of ,jesus had to follow the lines here laid down until the ,marcan hypothesis was delivered from its bondage to that a priori view of the development of ,jesus4 ,until then any one might appeal to the ,marcan hypothesis1 meaning thereby only that general view of the inward and outward course of development in the life of ,jesus1 and might treat the remainder of the ,synoptic material how he chose1 combining with it1 at his pleasure1 material drawn from ,john4 ,the victory1 therefore1 belonged1 not to the ,marcan hypothesis pure and simple1 but to the ,marcan hypothesis as psychologically interpreted by a liberal theology4 ,the points of distinction between the ,weissian and the new interpretation are as follows3--,weisse is sceptical as regards the detail2 the new ,marcan hypothesis ventures to base conclusions even upon incidental remarks in the text4 ,according to ,weisse there were not distinct periods of success and failure in the ministry of ,jesus2 the new ,marcan hypothesis confidently affirms this distinction1 and goes so far as to place the sojourn of ,jesus in the parts beyond ,galilee under the heading 8,flights and ,retirements407#acb7 ,the earlier ,marcan hypothesis expressly denies that outward circumstances influenced the resolve of ,jesus to die2 according to the later1 it was the opposition of the people1 and the impossibility of carrying out ,his mission on other lines which forced ,him to enter on the path of suffering47#acc7 ,the ,jesus of ,weisse's view has completed ,his development at the time of ,his appearance2 the ,jesus of the new interpretation of ,mark continues to develop in the course of ,his public ministry4 ,there is complete agreement1 however1 in the rejection of eschatology4 ,for ,holtzmann1 ,schenkel1 and ,weizscker1 as for ,weisse1 ,jesus desires 8to found an inward kingdom of repentance407#acd7 ,it was ,israel's duty1 according to ,schenkel1 to believe in the presence of the ,kingdom which ,jesus proclaimed4 ,john the ,baptist was unable to believe in it1 and it was for this reason that ,jesus censured him--for it is in this sense that ,schenkel understands the saying about the greatest among those born of women who is nevertheless the least in the ,kingdom of ,heaven4 8,so near the light and yet shutting his eyes to its beams--is there not some blame here1 an undeniable lack of spiritual and moral receptivity80 ,jesus makes ,messianic claims only in a spiritual sense4 ,he does not grasp at superhuman glory2 it is ,his purpose to bear the sin of the whole people1 and ,he undergoes baptism 8as a humble member of the national community40 ,his whole teaching consists1 when once ,he ,himself has attained to clear consciousness of ,his vocation1 in a constant struggle to root out from the hearts of ,his disciples their theocratic hopes and to effect a transformation of their traditional ,messianic ideas4 ,when1 on ,simon's hailing ,him as the ,messiah1 ,he declares that flesh and blood has not revealed it to him1 ,he means1 according to ,schenkel1 8that ,simon has at this moment overcome the false ,messianic ideas1 and has recognised in ,him the ethical and spiritual deliverer of ,israel40 8,that ,jesus predicted a personal1 bodily1 ,second ,coming1 in the brightness of ,his heavenly splendour and surrounded by the heavenly hosts1 to establish an earthly kingdom1 is not only not proved1 it is absolutely impossible40 ,his purpose is to establish a community of which ,his disciples are to be the foundation1 and by means of this community to bring about the coming of the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,he can1 therefore1 only have spoken of ,his return as an impersonal return in the ,spirit4 ,the later exponents of the ,marcan view were no doubt generally inclined to regard the return as personal and corporeal4 ,for ,schenkel1 however1 it is historically certain that the real meaning of the eschatological discourses is more faithfully preserved in the ,fourth ,gospel than in the ,synoptics4 ,in his anxiety to eliminate any enthusiastic elements from the representation of ,jesus1 he ends by drawing a bourgeois ,messiah whom he might have extracted from the oldfashioned rationalistic work of the worthy ,reinhard4 ,he feels bound to save the credit of ,jesus by showing that the entry into ,jerusalem was not intended as a provocation to the government4 8,it is only by making this supposition10 he explains1 8that we avoid casting a slur upon the character of ,jesus4 ,it was certainly a constant trait in ,his character that ,he never unnecessarily exposed ,himself to danger1 and never1 except for the most pressing reasons1 did ,he give any support to the suspicions which were arising against ,him2 ,he avoided provoking ,his opponents to drastic measures by any overt act directed against them40 ,even the cleansing of the ,temple was not an act of violence but merely an attempt at reform4 ,schenkel is able to give these explanations because he knows the most secret thoughts of ,jesus and is therefore no longer bound to the text4 ,he knows1 for example1 that immediately after ,his baptism ,he attained to the knowledge 8that the way of the ,law was no longer the way of salvation for ,his people40 ,jesus cannot therefore have uttered the saying about the permanence of the ,law in ,mark v4 #ah4 ,in the controversies about the ,sabbath 8,he proclaims freedom of worship40 ,as time went on1 ,he began to take the heathen world into the scope of ,his purpose4 8,the hard saying addressed to the ,canaanite woman represents rather the proud and exclusive spirit of ,pharisaism than the spirit of ,jesus40 ,it was a test of faith1 the success of which had a decisive influence upon ,jesus' attitude towards the heathen4 ,henceforth it is obvious that ,he is favourably disposed towards them4 ,he travels through ,samaria and establishes a community there4 ,in ,jerusalem ,he openly calls the heathen to ,him4 ,at certain feasts which they had arranged for that purpose1 some of the leaders of the people set a trap for ,him1 and betrayed ,him into liberal sayings in regard to the ,gentiles which sealed ,his fate4 ,this was the course of development of the ,master1 who1 according to ,schenkel1 8saw with a clear eye into the future history of the world10 and knew that the fall of ,jerusalem must take place in order to close the theocratic era and give the ,gentiles free access to the universal community of ,christians which ,he was to found4 8,this period ,he described as the period of ,his coming1 as in a sense ,his ,second ,advent upon earth40 ,the same general procedure is followed by ,weizscker in his 8,gospel ,history10 though his work is of a much higher quality than ,schenkel's4 ,his account of the sources is one of the clearest that has ever been written4 ,in the description of the life of ,jesus1 however1 the unhesitating combination of material from the ,fourth ,gospel with that of the ,synoptics rather confuses the picture4 ,and whereas ,renan only offers the results of the completed process1 ,weizscker works out his1 it might almost be said1 under the eyes of the reader1 which makes the arbitrary character of the proceeding only the more obvious4 ,but in his attitude towards the sources ,weizscker is wholly free from the irresponsible caprice in which ,schenkel indulges4 ,from time to time1 too1 he gives a hint of unsolved problems in the background4 ,for example1 in treating of the declaration of ,jesus to ,his judges that ,he would come as the ,son of ,man upon the clouds of heaven1 he remarks how surprising it is that ,jesus could so often have used the designation ,son of ,man on earlier occasions without being accused of claiming the ,messiahship4 ,it is true that this is a mere scraping of the keel upon a sandbank1 by which the steersman does not allow himself to be turned from his course1 for ,weizscker concludes that the name ,son of ,man1 in spite of its use in ,daniel1 8had not become a generally current or really popular designation of the ,messiah40 ,but even this faint suspicion of the difficulty is a welcome sign4 ,much emphasis1 in fact1 in practice rather too much emphasis1 is laid on the principle that in the great discourses of ,jesus the structure is not historical2 they are only collections of sayings formed to meet the needs of the ,christian community in later times4 ,in this ,weizscker is sometimes not less arbitrary than ,schenkel1 who represents the ,lord's ,prayer as given by ,jesus to the disciples only in the last days at ,jerusalem4 ,it was an axiom of the school that ,jesus could not have delivered discourses such as the ,evangelists record4 ,if ,schenkel's picture of ,jesus' character attracted much more attention than ,weizscker's work1 that is mainly due to the art of lively popular presentation by which it is distinguished4 ,the writer knows well how to keep the reader's interest awake by the use of exciting headlines4 ,catchwords abound1 and arrest the ear1 for they are the catchwords about which the religious controversies of the time revolved4 ,there is never far to look for the moral of the history1 and the ,jesus here portrayed can be imagined plunging into the midst of the debates in any ministerial conference4 ,the moralising1 it must be admitted1 sometimes becomes the occasion of the feeblest ineptitudes4 ,jesus sent out ,his disciples two and two2 this is for ,schenkel a marvellous exhibition of wisdom4 ,the ,lord designed1 thereby1 to show that in ,his opinion 8nothing is more inimical to the interests of the ,kingdom of ,god than individualism1 selfwill1 selfpleasing40 ,schenkel entirely fails to recognise the superb irony of the saying that in this life all that a man gives up for the sake of the ,kingdom of ,god is repaid a hundredfold in persecutions1 in order that in the ,coming ,age he may receive eternal life as his reward4 ,he interpreted it as meaning that the sufferer shall be compensated by love2 his fellow ,christians will endeavour to make it up to him1 and will offer him their own possessions so freely that1 in consequence of this brotherly love1 he will soon have1 for the house which he has lost1 a hundred houses1 for the lost sisters1 brothers1 and so forth1 a hundred sisters1 a hundred brothers1 a hundred fathers1 a hundred mothers1 a hundred farms4 ,schenkel forgets to add that1 if this is to be the interpretation of the saying1 the persecuted man must also receive through this compensating love1 a hundred wives47#ace7 ,this want of insight into the largeness1 the startling originality1 the selfcontradictoriness1 and the terrible irony in the thought of ,jesus1 is not a peculiarity of ,schenkel's2 it is characteristic of all the liberal ,lives of ,jesus from ,strauss's down to ,oskar ,holtzmann's47#acf7 ,how could it be otherwise8 ,they had to transpose a way of envisaging the world which belonged to a hero and a dreamer to the plane of thought of a rational bourgeois religion4 ,but in ,schenkel's representation1 with its popular appeal1 this banality is particularly obtrusive4 ,in the end1 however1 what made the success of the book was not its popular characteristics1 whether good or bad1 but the enmity which it drew down upon the author4 ,the ,basle ,privat,docent who1 in his work of #ahci1 had congratulated the ,zurichers on having rejected ,strauss1 now1 as ,professor and ,director of the ,seminary at ,heidelberg1 came very near being adjudged worthy of the martyr's crown himself4 ,he had been at ,heidelberg since #ahea1 after holding for a short time ,de ,wette's chair at ,basle4 ,at his first coming a mildly reactionary theology might have claimed him as its own4 ,he gave it a right to do so by the way in which he worked against the philosopher1 ,kuno ,fischer1 in the ,higher ,consistory4 ,but in the struggles over the constitution of the ,church he changed his position4 ,as a defender of the rights of the laity he ranged himself on the more liberal side4 ,after his great victory in the ,general ,synod of #ahfa1 in which the new constitution of the ,church was established1 he called a ,german ,protestant assembly at ,frankfort1 in order to set on foot a general movement for ,church reform4 ,this assembly met in #ahfc1 and led to the formation of the ,protestant ,association4 ,when the ,charakterbild ,jesu appeared1 friend and foe were alike surprised at the thoroughness with which ,schenkel advocated the more liberal views4 8,schenkel's book10 complained ,luthardt1 in a lecture at ,leipzig17#acg7 8has aroused a painful interest4 ,we had learnt to know him in many aspects2 we were not prepared for such an apostasy from his own past4 ,how long is it since he brought about the dismissal of ,kuno ,fischer from ,heidelberg because he saw in the pantheism of this philosopher a danger to ,church and ,state8 ,it is still fresh in our memory that it was he who in the year #aheb drew up the report of the ,theological ,faculty of ,heidelberg upon the ecclesiastical controversy raised by ,pastor ,dlon at ,bremen1 in which he denied ,dlon's ,christianity on the ground that he had assailed the doctrines of original sin1 of justification by faith1 of a living and personal ,god1 of the eternal ,divine ,sonship of ,christ1 of the ,kingdom of ,god1 and of the credibility of the holy ,scriptures40 ,and now this same ,schenkel was misusing the ,life of ,jesus as a weapon in 8party polemics06 ,the agitation against him was engineered from ,berlin1 where his successful attack upon the illiberal constitution of the ,church had not been forgiven4 ,one hundred and seventeen ,baden clerics signed a protest declaring the author unfitted to hold office as a theological teacher in the ,baden ,church4 ,throughout the whole of ,germany the pastors agitated against him4 ,it was especially demanded that he should be immediately removed from his post as ,director of the ,seminary4 ,a counterprotest was issued by the ,durlach ,conference in the ,july of #ahfd1 in which ,bluntschli and ,holtzmann vigorously defended him4 ,the ,ecclesiastical ,council supported him1 and the storm gradually died away1 especially when ,schenkel in two 8,defences0 skilfully softened down the impression made by his work1 and endeavoured to quiet the public mind by pointing out that he had only attempted to set forth one side of the truth47#ach7 ,the position of the prospective martyr was not rendered any more easy by ,strauss4 ,in an appendix to his criticism of ,schleiermacher's ,life of ,jesus he settled accounts with his old antagonist47#aci7 ,he recognises no scientific value whatever in the work4 ,none of the ideas developed in it are new4 ,one might fairly say1 he thinks1 8that the conclusions which have given offence had been carried down the ,neckar from ,tbingen to ,heidelberg1 and had there been salvaged by ,herr ,schenkel--in a somewhat sodden and deteriorated condition1 it must be admitted--and incorporated into the edifice which he was constructing40 ,further1 ,strauss censures the book for its want of frankness1 its halfandhalf character1 which manifests itself especially in the way in which the author clings to orthodox phraseology4 8,over and over again he gives criticism with one hand all that it can possibly ask1 and then takes back with the other whatever the interests of faith seem to demand2 with the constant result that what is taken back is far too much for criticism and not nearly enough for faith40 8,in the future10 he concludes1 8it will be said of the seven hundred ,durlachers that they fought like paladins to prevent the enemy from capturing a standard which was really nothing but a patched dishclout40 ,schenkel died in #ahhe after severe sufferings4 ,as a critic he lacked independence1 and was1 therefore1 always inclined to compromises2 in controversy he was vehement4 ,though he did nothing remarkable in theology1 ,german ,protestantism owes him a vast debt for acting as its tribune in the 'sixties4 ,that was the last time that any popular excitement was aroused in connexion with the critical study of the life of ,jesus2 and it was a mere storm in a teacup4 ,moreover1 it was the man and not his work that aroused the excitement4 ,henceforth public opinion was almost entirely indifferent to anything which appeared in this department4 ,the great fundamental question whether historical criticism was to be applied to the life of ,jesus had been decided in connexion with ,strauss's first work on the subject4 ,if here and there indignation aroused by a ,life of ,jesus brought inconveniences to the author and profit to the publisher1 that was connected in every case with purely external and incidental circumstances4 ,public opinion was not disquieted for a moment by ,volkmar and ,wrede1 although they are much more extreme than ,schenkel4 ,most of the ,lives of ,jesus which followed had1 it is true1 nothing very exciting about them4 ,they were mere variants of the type established during the 'sixties1 variants of which the minute differences were only discernible by theologians1 and which were otherwise exactly alike in arrangement and result4 ,as a contribution to criticism1 ,keim's7#adj7 8,history of ,jesus of ,nazara0 was the most important ,life of ,jesus which appeared in a long period4 ,it is not of much consequence that he believes in the priority of ,matthew1 since his presentment of the history follows the general lines of the ,marcan plan1 which is preserved also in ,matthew4 ,he gives it as his opinion that the life of ,jesus is to be reconstructed from the ,synoptics1 whether ,matthew has the first place or ,mark4 ,he sketches the development of ,jesus in bold lines4 ,as early as his inaugural address at ,zurich1 delivered on the #agth of ,december #ahfj1 which1 short as it was1 made a powerful impression upon ,holtzmann as well as upon others1 he had set up the thesis that the ,synoptics 8artlessly1 almost against their will1 show us unconsciously in incidental1 unobtrusive traits the progressive development of ,jesus as youth and man407#ada7 ,his later works are the development of this sketch4 ,his grandiose style gave the keynote for the artistic treatment of the portrait of ,jesus in the 'sixties4 ,his phrases and expressions became classical4 ,every one follows him in speaking of the 8,galilaean spring tide0 in the ministry of ,jesus4 ,on the ,johannine question he takes up a clearly defined position1 denying the possibility of using the ,fourth ,gospel side by side with the ,synoptics as an historical source4 ,he goes very far in finding special significance in the details of the ,synoptists1 especially when he is anxious to discover traces of want of success in the second period of ,jesus' ministry1 since the plan of his ,life of ,jesus depends on the sharp antithesis between the periods of success and failure4 ,the whole of the second half of the ,galilaean period consists for him in 8flights and retirements40 8,beset by constantly renewed alarms and hindrances1 ,jesus left the scene of ,his earlier work1 left ,his dwellingplace at ,capernaum1 and accompanied only by a few faithful followers1 in the end only by the ,twelve1 sought in all directions for places of refuge for longer or shorter periods1 in order to avoid and elude ,his enemies40 ,keim frankly admits1 indeed1 that there is not a syllable in the ,gospels to suggest that these journeys are the journeys of a fugitive4 ,but instead of allowing that to shake his conviction1 he abuses the narrators and suggests that they desired to conceal the truth4 8,these flights10 he says1 8were no doubt inconvenient to the ,evangelists4 ,matthew is here the frankest1 but in order to restore the impression of ,jesus' greatness he transfers to this period the greatest miracles4 ,the later ,evangelists are almost completely silent about these retirements1 and leave us to suppose that ,jesus made ,his journeys to ,caesarea ,philippi and the neighbourhood of ,tyre and ,sidon in the middle of winter from mere pleasure in travel1 or for the extension of the ,gospel1 and that ,he made ,his last journey to ,jerusalem without any external necessity1 entirely in consequence of ,his free decision1 even though the expectation of death which they ascribe to ,him goes far to counteract the impression of complete freedom40 ,why do they thus correct the history8 8,the motive was the same difficulty which draws from us also the question1 #8,is it possible that ,jesus should flee8' 0 ,keim answers 8,yes40 ,here the liberal psychology comes clearly to light4 8,jesus fled10 he explains1 8because ,he desired to preserve ,himself for ,god and man1 to secure the continuance of ,his ministry to ,israel1 to defeat as long as possible the dark designs of ,his enemies1 to carry ,his cause to ,jerusalem1 and there1 while acting1 as it was ,his duty to do1 with prudence and foresight in his relations with men1 to recognise clearly1 by the ,divine silence or the ,divine action1 what the ,divine purpose really was1 which could not be recognised in a moment4 ,he acts like a man who knows the duty both of examination and action1 who knows ,his own worth and what is due to ,him and ,his obligations towards ,god and man407#adb7 ,in regard to the question of eschatology1 however1 ,keim does justice to the texts47#adc7 ,he admits that eschatology1 8a ,kingdom of ,god clothed with material splendours10 forms an integral part of the preaching of ,jesus from the first2 8that ,he never rejected it1 and therefore never by a so called advance transformed the sensuous ,messianic idea into a purely spiritual one40 8,jesus does not uproot from the minds of the sons of ,zebedee their belief in the thrones on ,his right hand and ,his left2 ,he does not hesitate to make ,his entry into ,jerusalem in the character of the ,messiah2 ,he acknowledges ,his ,messiahship before the ,council without making any careful reservations2 upon the cross ,his title is ,the ,king of the ,jews2 ,he consoles ,himself and ,his followers with the thought of ,his return as an earthly ruler1 and leaves with ,his disciples1 without making any attempt to check it1 the belief1 which long survived1 in a future establishment or restoration of the ,kingdom in an ,israel delivered from bondage40 ,keim remarks with much justice 8that ,strauss had been wrong in rejecting his own earlier and more correct formula10 which combined the eschatological and spiritual elements as operating side by side in the plan of ,jesus4 ,keim1 however1 himself in the end allows the spiritual elements practically to cancel the eschatological4 ,he admits1 it is true1 that the expression ,son of ,man which ,jesus uses designated the ,messiah in the sense of ,daniel's prophecy1 but he thinks that these pictorial representations in ,daniel did not repel ,jesus because ,he interpreted them spiritually1 and 8intended to describe ,himself as belonging to mankind even in ,his ,messianic office40 ,to solve the difficulty ,keim assumes a development4 ,jesus' consciousness of ,his vocation had been strengthened both by success and by disappointment4 ,as time went on ,he preached the ,kingdom not as a future ,kingdom1 as at first1 but as one which was present in ,him and with ,him1 and ,he declares ,his ,messiahship more and more openly before the world4 ,he thinks of the ,kingdom as undergoing development1 but not with an unlimited1 infinite horizon as the moderns suppose2 the horizon is bounded by the eschatology4 8,for however easy it may be to read modern ideas into the parables of the draught of fishes1 the mustard seed and the leaven1 which1 taken by themselves1 seem to suggest the duration contemplated by the modern view1 it is nevertheless indubitable that ,jesus1 like ,paul1 by no means looks forward to so protracted an earthly development2 on the contrary1 nothing appears more clearly from the sources than that ,he thought of its term as rapidly approaching1 and of ,his victory as nigh at hand2 and looked to the last decisive events1 even to the day of judgment1 as about to occur during the lifetime of the existing generation1 including ,himself and ,his apostles40 8,it was the overmastering pressure of circumstances which held ,him prisoner within the limitations of this obsolete belief40 ,when ,his confidence in the development of ,his ,kingdom came into collision with barriers which ,he could not pass1 when ,his belief in the presence of the ,kingdom of ,god grew dim1 the purely eschatological ideas won the upper hand1 8and if we may suppose that it was precisely this thought of the imminent decisive action of ,god1 taking possession of ,his mind with renewed force at this point1 which steeled ,his human courage1 and roused ,him to a passion of selfsacrifice with the hope of saving from the judgment whatever might still be saved1 we may welcome ,his adoption of these narrower ideas as in accordance with the goodwill of ,god1 which could only by this means maintain the failing strength of its human instrument and secure the spoils of the ,divine warfare--the souls of men subdued and conquered by ,him40 ,the thought which had hovered before the mind of ,renan1 but which in his hands had become only the motive of a romance--une ficelle d roman as the ,french express it--was realised by ,keim4 ,nothing deeper or more beautiful has since been written about the development of ,jesus4 ,less critical in character is ,hase's 8,history of ,jesus107#add7 which superseded in #ahgf the various editions of the ,handbook on the ,life of ,jesus which had first appeared in #ahbi4 ,the question of the use of ,john's ,gospel side by side with the ,synoptics he leaves in suspense1 and speaks his last word on the subject in the form of a parable4 8,if ,i may be allowed to use an avowedly parabolic form of speech1 the relation of ,jesus to the two streams of ,gospel tradition may be illustrated as follows4 ,once there appeared upon earth a heavenly ,being4 ,according to ,his first three biographers ,he goes about more or less incognito1 in the long garment of a ,rabbi1 a forceful popular figure1 somewhat ,judaic in speech1 only occasionally1 almost unmarked by ,his biographers1 pointing with a smile beyond this brief interlude to ,his home4 ,in the description left by ,his favourite disciple1 ,he has thrown off the talar of the ,rabbi1 and stands before us in ,his native character1 but in bitter and angry strife with those who took offence at ,his magnificent simplicity1 and then later--it must be confessed1 more attractively--in deep emotion at parting with those whom1 during ,his pilgrimage on earth1 ,he had made ,his friends1 though they did not rightly understand ,his strange1 unearthly speech40 ,this is ,hase's way1 always to avoid a final decision4 ,the fifty years of critical study of the subject which he had witnessed and taken part in had made him circumspect1 sometimes almost sceptical4 ,but his notes of interrogation do not represent a covert supernaturalism like those in the ,life of ,jesus of #ahbi4 ,hase had been penetrated by the influence of ,strauss and had adopted from him the belief that the true life of ,jesus lies beyond the reach of criticism4 8,it is not my business10 he says to his students in an introductory lecture1 8to recoil in horror from this or that thought1 or to express it with embarrassment as being dangerous2 ,i would not forbid even the enthusiasm of doubt and destruction which makes ,strauss so strong and ,renan so seductive40 ,it is left uncertain whether ,jesus' consciousness of ,his ,messiahship reaches back to the days of ,his childhood1 or whether it arose in the ethical development of ,his ripening manhood4 ,the concealment of ,his ,messianic claims is ascribed1 as by ,schenkel and others1 to paedagogic motives2 it was necessary that ,jesus should first educate the people and the disciples up to a higher ethical view of ,his office4 ,in the stress which he lays upon the eschatology ,hase has points of affinity with ,keim1 for whom he had prepared the way in his ,life of ,jesus of #ahbi1 in which he had been the first to assert a development in ,jesus in the course of which ,he at first fully shared the ,jewish eschatological views1 but later advanced to a more spiritual conception4 ,in his ,life of ,jesus of #ahgf he is prepared to make the eschatology the dominant feature in the last period also1 and does not hesitate to represent ,jesus as dying in the enthusiastic expectation of returning upon the clouds of heaven4 ,he feels himself driven to this by the eschatological ideas in the last discourses4 8,jesus' clear and definite sayings10 he declares1 8with the whole context of the circumstances in which they were spoken and understood1 have been forcing me to this conclusion for years past40 8,that lofty ,messianic dream must therefore continue to hold its place1 since ,jesus1 influenced as much by the idea of the ,messianic glories taken over from the beliefs of ,his people as by ,his own religious exaltation1 could not think of the victory of ,his ,kingdom except as closely connected with ,his own personal action4 ,but that was only a misunderstanding due to the unconscious poesy of a highranging religious imagination1 the ethical meaning of which could only be realised by a long historical development4 ,christ certainly came again as the greatest power on earth1 and ,his power1 along with ,his word1 is constantly judging the world4 ,he faced the sufferings which lay immediately before ,him with ,his eyes fixed upon this great future40 ,the chief excellence of ,beyschlag's ,life of ,jesus consists in its arrangement47#ade7 ,he first1 in the volume of preliminary investigations1 discusses the problems1 so that the narrative is disencumbered of all explanations1 and by virtue of the author's admirable style becomes a pure work of art1 which rivets the interest of the reader and almost causes the want of a consistent historical conception to be overlooked4 ,the fact is1 however1 that in regard to the two decisive questions ,beyschlag is deliberately inconsistent4 ,although he recognises that the ,gospel of ,john has not the character of an essentially historical source1 8being1 rather1 a brilliant subjective portrait10 8a didactic1 quite as much as an historical work10 he produces his ,life of ,jesus by 8combining and mortising together ,synoptic and ,johannine elements40 ,the same uncertainty prevails in regard to the recognition of the definitely eschatological character of ,jesus' system of ideas4 ,beyschlag gives a very large place to eschatology1 so that in order to combine the spiritual with the eschatological view his ,jesus has to pass through three stages of development4 ,in the first ,he preaches the ,kingdom as something future1 a supernatural event which was to be looked forward to1 much as the ,baptist preached it4 ,then the response which was called forth on all hands by ,his preaching led ,him to believe that the ,kingdom was in some sense already present1 8that the ,father1 while ,he delays the outward manifestation of the ,kingdom1 is causing it to come even now in quiet and unnoticed ways by a humble gradual growth1 and the great thought of ,his parables1 which dominates the whole middle period of ,his public life1 the resemblance of the ,kingdom to mustard seed or leaven1 comes to birth in ,his mind40 ,as ,his failure becomes more and more certain1 8the centre of gravity of ,his thought is shifted to the world beyond the grave1 and the picture of a glorious return to conquer and to judge the world rises before ,him40 ,the peculiar interweaving of ,synoptic and ,johannine ideas leads to the result that1 between the two1 ,beyschlag in the end forms no clear conception of the eschatology1 and makes ,jesus think in a half,johannine1 half,synoptic fashion4 8,it is a consequence of ,jesus' profound conception of the ,kingdom of ,god as something essentially growing that ,he regards its final perfection not as a state of rest1 but rather as a living movement1 as a process of becoming1 and since ,he regards this process as a cosmic and supernatural process in which history finds its consummation1 and yet as arising entirely out of the ethical and historical process1 ,he combines elements from each into the same prophetic conception40 ,an eschatology of this kind is not matter for history4 ,in the acceptance of the 8miracles0 ,beyschlag goes to the utmost limits allowed by criticism2 in considering the possibility of one or another of the recorded raisings from the dead he even finds himself within the borders of rationalist territory4 ,whether ,bernhard ,weiss's7#adf7 is to be numbered with the liberal ,lives of ,jesus is a question to which we may answer 8,yes2 but along with the faults of these it has some others in addition40 ,weiss shares with the authors of the liberal 8,lives0 the assumption that ,mark designed to set forth a definite 8view of the course of development of the public ministry of ,jesus10 and on the strength of that believes himself justified in giving a very farreaching significance to the details offered by this ,evangelist4 ,the arbitrariness with which he carries out this theory is quite as unbounded as ,schenkel's1 and in his fondness for the 8argument from silence0 he even surpasses him4 ,although ,mark never allows a single word to escape him about the motives of the northern journeys1 ,weiss is so clever at reading between the lines that the motives are 8quite sufficiently0 clear to him4 ,the object of these journeys was1 according to his explanation1 8that the people might have an opportunity1 undistracted by the immediate impression of ,his words and actions1 to make up their minds in regard to the questions which they had put to ,him so pressingly and inescapably in the last days of ,his public ministry2 they must themselves draw their own conclusions alike from the declarations and from the conduct of ,jesus4 ,only by ,jesus' removing ,himself for a time from their midst could they come to a clear decision as to their attitude to ,jesus40 ,this modern psychologising1 however1 is closely combined with a dialectic which seeks to show that there is no irreconcilable opposition between the belief in the ,son of ,god and ,son of ,man which the ,church of ,christ has always confessed1 and a critical investigation of the question how far the details of ,his life have been accurately preserved by tradition1 and how they are to be historically interpreted4 ,that means that ,weiss is going to cover up the difficulties and stumblingblocks with the mantle of ,christian charity which he has woven out of the most plausible of the traditional sophistries4 ,as a dialectical performance on these lines his ,life of ,jesus rivals in importance any except ,schleiermacher's4 ,on points of detail there are many interesting historical observations4 ,when all is said1 one can only regret that so much knowledge and so much ability have been expended in the service of so hopeless a cause4 ,what was the net result of these liberal ,lives of ,jesus8 ,in the first place the clearing up of the relation between ,john and the ,synoptics4 ,that seems surprising1 since the chief representatives of this school1 ,holtzmann1 ,schenkel1 ,weizscker1 and ,hase1 took up a mediating position on this question1 not to speak of ,beyschlag and ,weiss1 for whom the possibility of reconciliation between the two lines of tradition is an accepted datum for ecclesiastical and apologetic reasons4 ,but the very attempt to hold the position made clear its inherent untenability4 ,the defence of the combination of the two traditions exhausted itself in the efforts of these its critical champions1 just as the acceptance of the supernatural in history exhausted itself in the--to judge from the approval of the many--victorious struggle against ,strauss4 ,in the course of time ,weizscker1 like ,holtzmann17#adg7 advanced to the rejection of any possibility of reconciliation1 and gave up the ,fourth ,gospel as an historical source4 ,the second demand of ,strauss's first ,life of ,jesus was now--at last--conceded by scientific criticism4 ,that does not mean1 of course1 that no further attempts at reconciliation appeared thenceforward4 ,was ever a street so closed by a cordon that one or two isolated individuals did not get through8 ,and to dodge through needs1 after all1 no special intelligence1 or special courage4 ,must we never speak of a victory so long as a single enemy remains alive8 ,individual attempts to combine ,john with the ,synoptics which appeared after this decisive point are in some cases deserving of special attention1 as for example1 ,wendt's7#adh7 acute study of the 8,teaching of ,jesus10 which has all the importance of a full treatment of the 8,life40 ,but the very way in which ,wendt grapples with his task shows that the main issue is already decided4 ,all he can do is to fight a skilful and determined rearguard action4 ,it is not the ,fourth ,gospel as it stands1 but only a 8grounddocument0 on which it is based1 which he1 in common with ,weiss1 ,alexander ,schweizer1 and ,renan1 would have to be recognised 8alongside of the ,gospel of ,mark and the ,logia of ,matthew as an historically trustworthy tradition regarding the teaching of ,jesus10 and which may be used along with those two writings in forming a picture of the ,life of ,jesus4 ,for ,wendt there is no longer any question of an interweaving and working up together of the individual sections of ,john and the ,synoptists4 ,he takes up much the same standpoint as ,holtzmann occupied in #ahfc1 but he provides a much more comprehensive and well tested basis for it4 ,in the end there is no such very great difference between ,wendt and the writers who had advanced to the conviction of the irreconcilability of the two traditions4 ,wendt refuses to give up the ,fourth ,gospel altogether2 they1 on their part1 won only a half victory because they did not as a matter of fact escape from the ,johannine interpretation of the ,synoptics4 ,by means of their psychological interpretation of the first three ,gospels they make for themselves an ideal ,fourth ,gospel1 in the interests of which they reject the existing ,fourth ,gospel4 ,they will hear nothing of the spiritualised ,johannine ,christ1 and refuse to acknowledge even to themselves that they have only deposed ,him in order to put in ,his place a spiritualised ,synoptic ,jesus ,christ1 that is1 a man who claimed to be the ,messiah1 but in a spiritual sense4 ,all the development which they discover in ,jesus is in the last analysis only an evidence of the tension between the ,synoptics1 in their natural literal sense1 and the 8,fourth ,gospel0 which is extracted from them by an artificial interpretation4 ,the fact is1 the separation between the ,synoptics and the ,fourth ,gospel is only the first step to a larger result which necessarily follows from it--the complete recognition of the fundamentally eschatological character of the teaching and influence of the ,marcan and ,matthaean ,jesus4 ,inasmuch as they suppressed this consequence1 ,holtzmann1 ,schenkel1 ,hase1 and ,weizscker1 even after their critical conversion1 still lay under the spell of the ,fourth ,gospel1 of a modern1 ideal ,fourth ,gospel4 ,it is only when the eschatological question is decided that the problem of the relation of ,john to the ,synoptics is finally laid to rest4 ,the liberal ,lives of ,jesus grasped their incompatibility only from a literary point of view1 not in its full historical significance4 ,there is another result in the acceptance of which the critical school had stopped halfway4 ,if the ,marcan plan be accepted1 it follows that1 setting aside the references to the ,son of ,man in ,mark ii4 #aj and #bh1 ,jesus had never1 previous to the incident at ,caesarea ,philippi1 given ,himself out to be the ,messiah or been recognised as such4 ,the perception of this fact marks one of the greatest advances in the study of the subject4 ,this result1 once accepted1 ought necessarily to have suggested two questions3 in the first place1 why ,jesus down to that moment had made a secret of ,his ,messiahship even to ,his disciples2 in the second place1 whether at any time1 and1 if so1 when and how1 the people were made acquainted with ,his ,messianic claims4 ,as a fact1 however1 by the application of that ill starred psychologising both questions were smothered2 that is to say1 a sham answer was given to them4 ,it was regarded as selfevident that ,jesus had concealed ,his ,messiahship from ,his disciples for so long in order in the meantime to bring them1 without their being aware of it1 to a higher spiritual conception of the ,messiah2 it was regarded as equally self evident that in the last weeks the ,messianic claims of ,jesus could no longer be hidden from the people1 but that ,he did not openly avow them1 but merely allowed them to be divined1 in order to lead up the multitude to the recognition of the higher spiritual character of the office which ,he claimed for ,himself4 ,these ingenious psychologists never seemed to perceive that there is not a word of all this in ,mark2 but that they had read it all into some of the most contradictory and inexplicable facts in the ,gospels1 and had thus created a ,messiah who both wished to be ,messiah and did not wish it1 and who in the end1 so far as the people were concerned1 both was and was not the ,messiah4 ,thus these writers had only recognised the importance of the scene at ,caesarea ,philippi1 they had not ventured to attack the general problem of ,jesus' attitude in regard to the ,messiahship1 and had not reflected further on the mutually contradictory facts that ,jesus purposed to be the ,messiah and yet did not come forward publicly in that character4 ,thus they had sidetracked the study of the subject1 and based all their hopes of progress on an intensive exegesis of the detail of ,mark4 ,they thought they had nothing to do but to occupy a conquered territory1 and never suspected that along the whole line they had only won a half victory1 never having thought out to the end either the eschatological question or the fundamental historical question of the attitude of ,jesus to the ,messiahship4 ,they were not disquieted by the obstinate persistence of the discussion on the eschatological question4 ,they thought it was merely a skirmish with a few unorganised guerrillas2 in reality it was the advanceguard of the army with which ,reimarus was threatening their flank1 and which under the leadership of ,johannes ,weiss was to bring them to so dangerous a pass4 ,and while they were endeavouring to avoid this turning movement they fell into the ambush which ,bruno ,bauer had laid in their rear3 ,wrede held up the ,marcan hypothesis and demanded the password for the theory of the ,messianic consciousness and claims of ,jesus to which it was acting as convoy4 ,the eschatological and the literary school1 finding themselves thus opposed to a common enemy1 naturally formed an alliance4 ,the object of their combined attack was not the ,marcan outline of the life of ,jesus1 which1 in fact1 they both accept1 but the modern 8psychological0 method of reading between the lines of the ,marcan narrative4 ,under the cross fire of these allies that idea of development which had been the strongest entrenchment of the liberal critical ,lives of ,jesus1 and which they had been desperately endeavouring to strengthen down to the very last1 was finally blown to atoms4 ,but the striking thing about these liberal critical ,lives of ,jesus was that they unconsciously prepared the way for a deeper historical view which could not have been reached apart from them4 ,a deeper understanding of a subject is only brought to pass when a theory is carried to its utmost limit and finally proves its own inadequacy4 ,there is this in common between rationalism and the liberal critical method1 that each had followed out a theory to its ultimate consequences4 ,the liberal critical school had carried to its limit the explanation of the connexion of the actions of ,jesus1 and of the events of ,his life1 by a 8natural0 psychology2 and the conclusions to which they had been driven had prepared the way for the recognition that the natural psychology is not here the historical psychology1 but that the latter must be deduced from certain historical data4 ,thus through the meritorious and magnificently sincere work of the liberal critical school the a priori 8natural0 psychology gave way to the eschatological4 ,that is the net result1 from the historical point of view1 of the study of the life of ,jesus in the post,straussian period4 ,,xv4 ,,the ,,eschatological ,,question ,timothe ,colani4 ,jsus,christ et les croyances messianiques de son temps4 ,strassburg1 #ahfd4 #bee pp4 ,gustav ,volkmar4 ,jesus ,nazarenus und die erste christliche ,zeit1 mit den beiden ersten ,erzhlern4 7,jesus the ,nazarene and the ,beginnings of ,christianity1 with the two earliest narrators of ,his life47 ,zurich1 #ahhb4 #djc pp4 ,wilhelm ,weiffenbach4 ,der ,wiederkunftsgedanke ,jesu4 7,jesus' ,conception of ,his ,second ,coming47 #ahgc4 #dbd pp4 ,w4 ,baldensperger4 ,das ,selbstbewusstsein ,jesu im ,lichte der messianischen ,hoffnungen seiner ,zeit4 7,the ,selfconsciousness of ,jesus in the ,light of the ,messianic ,hopes of ,his time47 ,strassburg1 #ahhh4 #bnd ed41 #ahib1 #bhb pp42 #crd ed4 pt4 i4 #bdj pp4 ,johannes ,weiss4 ,die ,predigt ,jesu vom ,reiche ,gottes4 7,the ,preaching of ,jesus concerning the ,kingdom of ,god47 #ahib4 ,gttingen4 #fg pp4 ,second revised and enlarged edition1 #aijj1 #baj pp4 ,so long as it was merely a question of establishing the distinctive character of the thought of ,jesus as compared with the ancient prophetic and ,danielic conceptions1 and so long as the only available storehouse of ,rabbinic and ,late,jewish ideas was ,lightfoot's ,horae ,hebraicae et ,talmudicae in quatuor ,evangelistas17#adi7 it was still possible to cherish the belief that the preaching of ,jesus could be conceived as something which was1 in the last analysis1 independent of all contemporary ideas4 ,but after the studies of ,hilgenfeld and ,dillmann7#aej7 had made known the ,jewish apocalyptic in its fundamental characteristics1 and the ,jewish pseudepigrapha were no longer looked on as 8forgeries10 but as representative documents of the last stage of ,jewish thought1 the necessity of taking account of them in interpreting the thought of ,jesus became more and more emphatic4 ,almost two decades were to pass1 however1 before the full significance of this material was realised4 ,it might almost have seemed as if it was to meet this attack by anticipation that ,colani wrote in #ahfd his work1 ,jsus,christ et les croyances messianiques de son temps4 ,timothe ,colani was born in #ahbd at ,lem 7,aisne71 studied in ,strassburg and became pastor there in #ahea4 ,in the year #ahfd he was appointed ,professor of ,pastoral ,theology in ,strassburg in spite of some attempted opposition to the appointment on the part of the orthodox party in ,paris1 which was then growing in strength4 ,the events of the year #ahgj left him without a post4 ,as he had no prospect of being called to a pastorate in ,france1 he became a merchant4 ,in consequence of some unfortunate business operations he lost all his property4 ,in #ahge he obtained a post as librarian at the ,sorbonne4 ,he died in #ahhh4 ,how far was ,jesus a ,jew8 ,that was the startingpoint of ,colani's study4 ,according to him there was a complete lack of homogeneity in the ,messianic hopes cherished by the ,jewish people in the time of ,jesus1 since the prophetic conception1 according to which the ,kingdom of the ,messiah belonged to the present worldorder1 and the apocalyptic1 which transferred it to the future age1 had not yet been brought into any kind of unity4 ,the general expectation was focused rather upon the ,forerunner than upon the ,messiah4 ,jesus ,himself in the first period of ,his public ministry1 up to ,mark viii41 had never designated ,himself as the ,messiah1 for the expression ,son of ,man carried no ,messianic associations for the multitude4 ,his fundamental thought was that of perfect communion with ,god2 only little by little1 as the success of the preaching of the ,kingdom more and more impressed ,his mind1 did ,his consciousness take on a ,messianic colouring4 ,in face of the undisciplined expectations of the people ,he constantly repeats in ,his parables of the growth of the ,kingdom1 the word 8patience40 ,by revealing ,himself as the ,lord of this spiritual kingdom ,he makes an end of the oscillation between the sensuous and the spiritual in the current expectations of the future blessedness4 ,he points to mankind as a whole1 not merely to the chosen people1 as the people of the ,kingdom1 and substitutes for the apocalyptic catastrophe an organic development4 ,by ,his interpretation of ,psalm cx41 in ,mark xii4 #cecg1 ,he makes known that the ,messiah has nothing whatever to do with the ,davidic kingship4 ,it was only with difficulty that ,he came to resolve to accept the title of ,messiah2 ,he knew what a weight of national prejudices and national hopes hung upon it4 ,but ,he is 8,messiah the ,son of ,man02 ,he created this expression in order thereby to make known ,his lowliness4 ,in the moment in which ,he accepted the office ,he registered the resolve to suffer4 ,his purpose is1 to be the suffering1 not the triumphant1 ,messiah4 ,it is to the influence which ,his ,passion exercises upon the souls of men that ,he looks for the firm establishment of ,his ,kingdom4 ,this spiritual conception of the ,kingdom cannot possibly be combined with the thought of a glorious ,second ,coming1 for if ,jesus had held this latter view ,he must necessarily have thought of the present life as only a kind of prologue to that second existence4 ,neither the ,jewish1 nor the ,jewish ,christian eschatology as represented in the eschatological discourses in the ,gospels1 can1 therefore1 in ,colani's opinion1 belong to the preaching of ,jesus4 ,that ,he should sometimes have made use of the imagery associated with the ,jewish expectations of the future is1 of course1 only natural4 ,but the eschatology occupies far too important a place in the tradition of the preaching of ,jesus to be explained as a mere symbolical mode of expression4 ,it forms a substantial element of that preaching4 ,a spiritualisation of it will not meet the case4 ,therefore1 if the conviction has been arrived at on other grounds that ,jesus' preaching did not follow the lines of ,jewish eschatology1 there is only one possible way of dealing with it1 and that is by excising it from the text on critical grounds4 ,the only element in the preaching of ,jesus which can1 in ,colani's opinion1 be called in any sense 8eschatological0 was the conviction that there would be a wide extension of the ,gospel even within the existing generation1 that ,gentiles should be admitted to the ,kingdom1 and that in consequence of the general want of receptivity towards the message of salvation1 judgment should come upon the nations4 ,these views of ,colani furnish him with a basis upon which to decide on the genuineness or otherwise of the eschatological discourses4 ,among the sayings put into the mouth of ,jesus which must be rejected as impossible are3 the promise1 in the discourse at the sending forth of the ,twelve1 of the imminent coming of the ,son of ,man1 ,matt4 x4 #bc2 the promise to the disciples that they should sit upon twelve thrones judging the tribes of ,israel1 ,matt4 xix4 #bh2 the saying about ,his return in ,matt4 xxiii4 #ci2 the final eschatological saying at the ,last ,supper1 ,matt4 xxvi4 #bi1 8the ,papiaslike ,chiliasm of which is unworthy of ,jesus02 and the prediction of ,his coming on the clouds of heaven with which ,he closes ,his ,messianic confession before the ,council4 ,the apocalyptic discourses in ,mark xiii41 ,matt4 xxiv41 and ,luke xxi4 are interpolated4 ,a ,jewish,christian apocalypse of the first century1 probably composed before the destruction of ,jerusalem1 has been interwoven with a short exhortation which ,jesus gave on the occasion when ,he predicted the destruction of the temple4 ,according to ,colani1 therefore1 ,jesus did not expect to come again from ,heaven to complete ,his work4 ,it was completed by ,his death1 and the purpose of the coming of the ,spirit was to make manifest its completion4 ,strauss and ,renan had entered upon the path of explaining ,jesus' preaching from the history of the time by the assumption of an intermixture in it of ,jewish ideas1 but it was now recognised 8that this path is a culdesac1 and that criticism must turn round and get out of it as quickly as possible40 ,the new feature of ,colani's view was not so much the uncompromising rejection of eschatology as the clear recognition that its rejection was not a matter to be disposed of in a phrase or two1 but necessitated a critical analysis of the text4 ,the systematic investigation of the ,synoptic apocalypse was a contribution to criticism of the utmost importance4 ,in the year #ahhb ,volkmar took up this attempt afresh1 at least in its main features47#aea7 ,his construction rests upon two main points of support2 upon his view of the sources and his conception of the eschatology of the time of ,jesus4 ,in his view the sole source for the ,life of ,jesus is the ,gospel of ,mark1 which was 8probably written exactly in the year #gc10 five years after the ,johannine apocalypse4 ,the other two of the first three ,gospels belong to the second century1 and can only be used by way of supplement4 ,luke dates from the beginning of the first decade of the century2 while ,matthew is regarded by ,volkmar1 as by ,wilke1 as being a combination of ,mark and ,luke1 and is relegated to the end of this first decade4 ,the work is in his opinion a revision of the ,gospel tradition 8in the spirit of that primitive ,christianity which1 while constantly opposing the tendency of the apostle of the ,gentiles to make light of the ,law1 was nevertheless so far universalistic that1 starting from the old legal ground1 it made the first steps towards a catholic unity40 ,once ,matthew has been set aside in this way1 the literary elimination of the eschatology follows as a matter of course2 the much smaller element of discourse in ,mark can offer no serious resistance4 ,as regards the ,messianic expectations of the time1 they were1 in ,volkmar's opinion1 such that ,jesus could not possibly have come forward with ,messianic claims4 ,the ,messianic ,son of ,man1 whose aim was to found a superearthly ,kingdom1 only arose in ,judaism under the influence of ,christian dogma4 ,the contemporaries of ,jesus knew only the political ideal of the ,messianic ,king4 ,and woe to any one who conjured up these hopes6 ,the ,baptist had done so by his too fervent preaching about repentance and the ,kingdom1 and had been promptly put out of the way by the ,tetrarch4 ,the version found even in ,mark1 which represents that it was on ,herodias' account1 and at her daughter's petition1 that ,john was beheaded1 is a later interpretation which1 according to ,volkmar1 is evidently false on chronological grounds1 since the ,baptist was dead before ,herod took ,herodias as his wife4 ,had ,jesus desired the ,messiahship1 ,he could only have claimed it in this political sense4 ,the alternative is to suppose that ,he did not desire it4 ,volkmar's contribution to the subject consists in the formulating of this cleancut alternative4 ,colani had indeed recognised the alternative1 but had not taken up a consistent attitude in regard to it4 ,here1 that way of escape from the difficulty is barred1 which suggests that ,jesus set ,himself up as ,messiah1 but in another than the popular sense4 ,what may be called ,jesus' ,messianic consciousness consisted solely 8in knowing ,himself to be firstborn among many brethren1 the ,son of ,god after the ,spirit1 and consequently feeling ,himself enabled and impelled to bring about that regeneration of ,his people which alone could make it worthy of deliverance40 ,it is in any case clearly evident from ,paul1 from the ,apocalypse1 and from ,mark1 8the three documentary witnesses emanating from the circle of the followers of ,jesus during the first century1 that it was only after ,his crucifixion that ,jesus was hailed as the ,christ2 never during ,his earthly life40 ,the elimination of the eschatology thus leads also to the elimination of the ,messiahship of ,jesus4 ,if we are told in ,mark viii4 #bi that ,simon ,peter was the first among men to hail ,jesus as the ,messiah1 it is to be noticed1 ,volkmar points out1 that the ,evangelist places this confession at a time when ,jesus' work was over and the thought of ,his ,passion first appears2 and if we desire fully to understand the author's purpose we must fix our attention on the ,lord's command not to make known ,his ,messiahship until after ,his resurrection 7,mark viii4 #cj1 ix4 #i and #aj71 which is a hint that we are to date ,jesus' ,messiahship from ,his death4 ,for ,mark is no mere nave chronicler1 but a conscious artist interpreting the history2 sometimes1 indeed1 a powerful epic writer in whose work the historical and the poetic are intermingled4 ,thus the conclusion is that ,mark1 in agreement with ,paul1 represents ,jesus as becoming the ,messiah only as a consequence of ,his resurrection4 ,he really appeared1 and ,his first appearance was to ,peter4 ,when ,peter on that night of terror fled from ,jerusalem to take refuge in ,galilee1 ,jesus1 according to the mystic prediction of ,mark xiv4 #bh and xvi4 #g1 went before him4 8,he was constantly present to his spirit1 until on the third day ,he manifested ,himself before his eyes1 in the heavenly appearance which was also vouchsafed to the last of the apostles 'as he was in the way'--and ,peter1 enraptured1 gave expression to the clear conviction with which the whole life of ,jesus had inspired him in the cry ',thou art the ,christ4'0 ,the historical ,jesus therefore founded a community of followers without advancing any claims to the ,messiahship4 ,he desired only to be a reformer1 the spiritual deliverer of the people of ,god1 to realise upon earth the ,kingdom of ,god which they were all seeking in the beyond1 and to extend the reign of ,god over all nations4 8,the ,kingdom of ,god is doubtless to win its final and decisive victory by the almighty aid of ,god2 our duty is to see to its beginnings0--that is1 according to ,volkmar1 the lesson which ,jesus teaches us in the parable of the ,sower4 ,the ethic of this ,kingdom was not yet confused by any eschatological ideas4 ,it was only when1 as the years went on1 the expectation of the ,parousia rose to a high pitch of intensity that 8marriage and the bringing up of children came to be regarded as superfluous1 and were consequently thought of as signs of an absorption in earthly interests which was out of harmony with the near approach to the goal of these hopes40 ,jesus had renewed the foundations on which 8the family0 was based and had made it1 in turn1 a corner stone of the ,kingdom of ,god1 even as ,he had consecrated the common meal by making it a love feast4 ,in most things ,jesus was conservative4 ,the ritual worship of the ,god of ,israel remained for ,him always a sacred thing4 ,but in spite of that ,he withdrew more and more from the synagogue1 the scene of ,his earliest preaching1 and taught in the houses of ,his disciples4 8,he had learned to fulfil the law as implicit in one highest commandment and supreme principle1 therefore 'in spirit and in truth'2 but ,he never1 as appears from all the evidence1 declared it to be abolished40 8,we may be equally certain1 however1 that ,jesus1 while ,he asserted the abiding validity of the ,ten ,commandments1 never explicitly declared that of the ,mosaic ,law as a whole4 ,the absence of any such saying from the tradition regarding ,jesus made it possible for ,paul to take his decisive step forward40 ,as regards the ,gospel discourses about the ,parousia1 it is easy to recognise that1 even in ,mark1 these 8are one and all the work of the narrator1 whose purpose is edification4 ,he connects his work as closely as possible with the ,apocalypse1 which had appeared some five years earlier1 in order to emphasise1 in contrast to it1 the higher truth40 ,jesus' own hope1 in all its clearness and complete originality1 is recorded in the parables of the seed growing secretly and the grain of mustard seed1 and in the saying about the immortality of ,his words4 ,nothing beyond this is in any way certain1 however remarkable the saying in ,mark ix4 #a may be1 that the lookedfor consummation is to take place during the lifetime of the existing generation4 8,it is only the fact that ,mark is preceded by 'the book of the ,birth 7and ,history7 of ,christ according to ,matthew'--not only in the ,scriptures1 but also in men's minds1 which were dominated by it as the #8first ,gospel'--which has caused it to be taken as selfevident that ,jesus1 knowing ,himself from the first to be the ,messiah1 expected ,his ,parousia solely from heaven1 and therefore with1 or in1 the clouds of heaven4444 ,but since ,he who was thought of as by birth the ,son of ,god1 is now thought of as the ,son of ,man1 born an ,israelite1 and becoming the ,son of ,god after the spirit only at ,his baptism1 the hope that looks to the clouds of heaven cannot be1 or at least ought not to be1 any longer explained otherwise than as an enthusiastic dream40 ,if1 even at the beginning of the 'eighties1 a so extreme theory on the other side could1 without opposition1 occupy all the points of vantage1 it is evident that the theory which gave eschatology its due place was making but slow progress4 ,it was not that any one had been disputing the ground with it1 but that all its operations were characterised by a nervous timidity4 ,and these hesitations are not to be laid to the account of those who did not perceive the approach of the decisive conflict1 or refused to accept battle1 like the followers of ,reuss1 for instance1 who were satisfied with the hypothesis that thoughts about the ,last ,judgment had forced their way into the authentic discourses of ,jesus about the destruction of the city27#aeb7 even those who like ,weiffenbach are fully convinced that 8the eschatological question1 and in particular the question of the ,second ,coming1 which in many quarters has up to the present been treated as a noli me tangere1 must sooner or later become the battleground of the greatest and most decisive of theological controversies0--even those who shared this conviction stopped halfway on the road on which they had entered4 ,weiffenbach's7#aec7 work1 8,jesus' ,conception of ,his ,second ,coming10 published in #ahgc1 sums up the results of the previous discussions of the subject4 ,he names as among those who ascribe the expectation of the ,parousia1 in the sensuous form in which it meets us in the documents1 to a misunderstanding of the teaching of ,jesus on the part of the disciples and the writers who were dependent upon them--,schleiermacher1 ,bleek1 ,holtzmann1 ,schenkel1 ,colani1 ,baur1 ,hase1 and ,meyer4 ,among those who maintained that the ,parousia formed an integral part of ,jesus' teaching1 he cites ,keim1 ,weizscker1 ,strauss1 and ,renan4 ,he considers that the readiest way to advance the discussion will be by undertaking a critical review of the attempt to analyse the great ,synoptic discourse about the future in which ,colani had led the way4 ,the question of the ,parousia is like1 ,weiffenbach suggests1 a vessel which has become firmly wedged between rocks4 ,any attempt to get it afloat again will be useless until a new channel is found for it4 ,his detailed discussions are devoted to endeavouring to discover the relation between the declarations regarding the ,second ,coming and the predictions of the ,passion4 ,in the course of his analysis of the great prophetic discourse he rejects the suggestion made by ,weisse in his ,evangelienfrage of #ahef1 that the eschatological character of the discourse results from the way in which it is put together2 that while the sayings in their present mosaic like combination certainly have a reference to the last things1 each of them individually in its original context might well bear a natural sense4 ,in ,colani's hypothesis of conflation the suggestion was to be rejected that it was not 8,ur,markus10 but the author of the ,synoptic apocalypse who was responsible for the working in of the 8,little ,apocalypse407#aed7 ,it was an unsatisfactory feature of ,weizscker's position7#aee7 that he insisted on regarding the 8,little ,apocalypse0 as ,jewish1 not ,jewish,christian2 ,pfleiderer had distinguished sharply what belongs to the ,evangelist from the 8,little ,apocalypse10 and had sought to prove that the purpose of the ,evangelist in thus breaking up the latter and working it into a discourse of ,jesus was to tone down the eschatological hopes expressed in the discourse1 because they had remained unfulfilled even at the fall of ,jerusalem1 and to retard the rapid development of the apocalyptic process by inserting between its successive phases passages from a different discourse47#aef7 ,weiffenbach carries this series of tentative suggestions to its logical conclusion1 advancing the view that the link of connexion between the ,jewish,christian ,apocalypse and the ,gospel material in which it is embedded is the thought of the ,second ,coming4 ,this was the thought which gave the impulse from without towards the transmutation of ,jewish into ,jewish,christian eschatology4 ,jesus must have given expression to the thought of ,his near return2 and ,jewish,christianity subsequently painted it over with the colours of ,jewish eschatology4 ,in developing this theory1 ,weiffenbach thought that he had succeeded in solving the problem which had been first critically formulated by ,keim1 who is constantly emphasising the idea that the eschatological hopes of the disciples could not be explained merely from their ,judaic pre suppositions1 but that some incentive to the formation of these hopes must be sought in the preaching of ,jesus2 otherwise primitive ,christianity and the life of ,jesus would stand side by side unconnected and unexplained1 and in that case we must give up all hope 8of distinguishing the sure word of the ,lord from ,israel's restless speculations about the future40 ,when the ,jewish,christian ,apocalypse has been eliminated1 we arrive at a discourse1 spoken on the ,mount of ,olives1 in which ,jesus exhorted ,his disciples to watchfulness1 in view of the near1 but nevertheless undefined1 hour of the return of 8the ,master of the ,house40 ,in this discourse1 therefore1 we have a standard by which criticism may test all the eschatological sayings and discourses4 ,weiffenbach has the merit of having gathered together all the eschatological material of the ,synoptics and examined it in the light of a definite principle4 ,in ,colani the material was incomplete1 and instead of a critical principle he offered only an arbitrary exegesis which permitted him1 for example1 to conceive the watchfulness on which the eschatological parables constantly insist as only a vivid expression for the sense of responsibility 8which weighs upon the life of man40 ,and yet the outcome of this attempt of ,weiffenbach's1 which begins with so much real promise1 is in the end wholly unsatisfactory4 ,the 8authentic thought of the return0 which he takes as his standard has for its sole content the expectation of a visible personal return in the near future 8free from all more or less fantastic apocalyptic and ,jewish,christian speculations about the future40 ,that is to say1 the whole of the eschatological discourses of ,jesus are to be judged by the standard of a colourless1 unreal figment of theology4 ,whatever cannot be squared with that is to be declared spurious and cut away6 ,accordingly the eschatological closing saying at the ,last ,supper is stigmatised as a 8,chiliastic,capernaitic07#aeg7 distortion of a 8normal0 promise of the ,second ,coming2 the idea of the 1 ,matt4 xix4 #bh1 is said to be wholly foreign to ,jesus' world of thought2 it is impossible1 too1 that ,jesus can have thought of ,himself as the ,judge of the world1 for the ,jewish and ,jewish,christian eschatology does not ascribe the conduct of the ,last ,judgment to the ,messiah2 that is first done by ,gentile ,christians1 and especially by ,paul4 ,it was1 therefore1 the later eschatology which set the ,son of ,man on the throne of ,his glory and prepared 8the twelve thrones of judgment for the disciples40 ,the historian ought only to admit such of the sayings about bearing rule in the ,messianic ,kingdom as can be interpreted in a spiritual1 nonsensuous fashion4 ,in the end ,weiffenbach's critical principle proves to be merely a bludgeon with which he goes sealhunting and clubs the defenceless ,synoptic sayings right and left4 ,when his work is done you see before you a desert island strewn with quivering corpses4 ,nevertheless the slaughter was not aimless1 or at least it was not without result4 ,in the first place1 it did really appear1 as a byproduct of the critical processes1 that ,jesus' discourses about the future had nothing to do with an historical prevision of the destruction of ,jerusalem1 whereas the supposition that they had1 had hitherto been taken as selfevident1 the prediction of the destruction of ,jerusalem being regarded as the historic nucleus of ,jesus' discourses regarding the future1 to which the idea of the ,last ,judgment had subsequently attached itself4 ,here1 then1 we have the introduction of the converse opinion1 which was subsequently established as correct2 namely1 that ,jesus foresaw1 indeed1 the ,last ,judgment1 but not the historical destruction of ,jerusalem4 ,in the next place1 in the course of his critical examination of the eschatological material1 ,weiffenbach stumbles upon the discourse at the sending forth of the ,twelve in ,matt4 x41 and finds himself face to face with the fact that the discourse which he was expected to regard as a discourse of instruction was really nothing of the kind1 but a collection of eschatological sayings4 ,as he had taken over along with the ,marcan hypothesis the closely connected view of the composite character of the ,synoptic discourses1 he does not allow himself to be misled1 but regards this inappropriate charge to the ,twelve as nothing else than an impossible anticipation and a bold anachronism4 ,he knows that he is at one in this with ,holtzmann1 ,colani1 ,bleek1 ,scholten1 ,meyer1 and ,keim1 who also made the discourse of instruction end at the point beyond which they find it impossible to explain it1 and regard the predictions of persecution as only possible in the later period of the life of ,jesus4 8,for these predictions10 to express ,weiffenbach's view in the words of ,keim1 8are too much at variance with the essentially gracious and happy mood which suggested the sending forth of the disciples1 and reflect instead the lurid gloom of the fierce conflicts of the later period and the sadness of the farewell discourses40 ,it was a good thing that ,bruno ,bauer did not hear this chorus4 ,if he had1 he would have asked ,weiffenbach and his allies whether the poor fragment that remained after the critical dissection of the 8charge to the ,twelve0 was 8a discourse of instruction10 and if in view of these difficulties they could not realise why he had refused1 thirty years before1 to believe in the 8discourse of instruction40 ,but ,bruno ,bauer heard nothing3 and so their blissful unconsciousness lasted for nearly a generation longer4 ,the expectation of ,his ,second ,coming1 repeatedly expressed by ,jesus towards the close of ,his life1 is on this hypothesis authentic2 it was painted over by the primitive ,christian community with the colours of its own eschatology1 in consequence of the delay of the ,parousia2 and in view of the mission to the ,gentiles a more cautious conception of the nearness of the time commended itself2 nay1 when ,jerusalem had fallen and the 8signs of the end0 which had been supposed to be discovered in the horrors of the years #fh and #fi had passed without result1 the return of ,jesus was relegated to a distant future by the aid of the doctrine that the ,gospel must first be preached to all the heathen4 ,thus the ,parousia1 which according to the ,jewish,christian eschatology belonged to the present age1 was transferred to the future4 8,with this combination and making coincident--they were not so at the first--of the ,second ,coming1 the end of the world1 and the final ,judgment1 the idea of the ,second ,coming reached the last and highest stage of its development40 ,weiffenbach's view1 as we have seen1 empties ,jesus' expectation of ,his return of almost all its content1 and to that is due the fact that his investigation did not prove so useful as it might have done4 ,his purpose is1 following suggestions thrown out by ,schleiermacher and ,weisse1 to prove the identity of the predictions of the ,second ,coming and of the ,resurrection1 and he takes as his startingpoint the observation that the conduct of the disciples after the death of ,jesus forbids us to suppose that the ,resurrection had been predicted in clear and unambiguous sayings1 and that1 on the other hand1 the announcement of the ,second ,coming coincides in point of time with the predictions of the ,resurrection1 and the predictions both of the ,second ,coming and of the ,resurrection stand in organic connexion with the announcement of ,his approaching death4 ,the two are therefore identical4 ,it was only after the death of their ,master that the disciples differentiated the thought of the ,resurrection from that of the ,second ,coming4 ,the ,resurrection did not bring them that which the ,second ,coming had promised2 but it produced the result that the eschatological hopes1 which ,jesus had with difficulty succeeded in damping1 flamed up again in the hearts of ,his disciples4 ,the spiritual presence of the ,deliverer who had manifested ,himself to them did not seem to them to be the fulfilment of the promise of the ,second ,coming2 but the expectation of the latter1 being brought into contact with the flame of eschatological hope with which their hearts were afire1 was fused1 and cast into a form quite different from that in which it had been derived from the words of ,jesus4 ,that is all finely observed4 ,for the first time it had dawned upon historical criticism that the great question is that concerning the identity or difference of the ,parousia and the ,resurrection4 ,but the man who had been the first to grasp that thought1 and who had undertaken his whole study with the special purpose of working it out1 was too much under the influence of the spiritualised eschatology of ,schleiermacher and ,weisse to be able to assign the right values in the solution of his equation4 ,and1 withal1 he is too much inclined to play the apologist as a subsidiary rle4 ,he is not content merely to render the history intelligible2 he is1 by his own confession1 urged on by the hope that perhaps a way may be found of causing that 8error0 of ,jesus to disappear and proving it to be an illusion due to the want of a sufficiently close study of ,his discourses4 ,but the historian simply must not be an apologist2 he must leave that to those who come after him and he may do so with a quiet mind1 for the apologists1 as we learn from the history of the ,lives of ,jesus1 can get the better of any historical result whatever4 ,it is1 therefore1 quite unnecessary that the historian should allow himself to be led astray by following an apologetic willo'thewisp4 ,technically regarded1 the mistake on which ,weiffenbach's investigation made shipwreck was the failure to bring the ,jewish apocalyptic material into relation with the ,synoptic data4 ,if he had done this1 it would have been impossible for him to extract an absolutely unreal and unhistorical conception of the ,second ,coming out of the discourses of ,jesus4 ,the task which ,weiffenbach had neglected remained undone--to the detriment of theology--until ,baldensperger7#aeh7 repaired the omission4 ,his book1 8,the ,selfconsciousness of ,jesus in the ,light of the ,messianic ,hopes of ,his ,time107#aei7 published in #ahhh1 made its impression by reason of the fullness of its material4 ,whereas ,colani and ,volkmar had still been able to deny the existence of a fully formed ,messianic expectation in the time of ,jesus1 the genesis of the expectation was now fully traced out1 and it was shown that the world of thought which meets us in ,daniel had won the victory1 that the 8,son of ,man0 ,messiah of the ,similitudes of ,enoch was the last product of the ,messianic hope prior to the time of ,jesus2 and that therefore the fully developed ,danielic scheme with its unbridgeable chasm between the present and the future world furnished the outline within which all further and more detailed traits were inserted4 ,the honour of having effectively pioneered the way for this discovery belongs to ,schrer47#afj7 ,baldensperger adopts his ideas1 but sets them forth in a much more direct way1 because he1 in contrast with ,schrer1 gives no system of ,messianic expectation--and there never in reality was a system--but is content to picture its manysided growth4 ,he does not1 it is true1 escape some minor inconsistencies4 ,for example1 the idea of a 8political ,messiahship10 which is really set aside by his historical treatment1 crops up here and there1 as though the author had not entirely got rid of it himself4 ,but the impression made by the book as a whole was overpowering4 ,nevertheless this book does not exactly fulfil the promise of its title1 any more than ,weiffenbach's4 ,the reader expects that now at last ,jesus' sayings about ,himself will be consistently explained in the light of the ,jewish ,messianic ideas1 but that is not done4 ,for ,baldensperger1 instead of tracing down and working out the conception of the ,kingdom of ,god held by ,jesus as a product of the ,jewish eschatology1 at least by way of trying whether that method would suffice1 takes it over direct from modern historical theology4 ,he assumes as selfevident that ,jesus' conception of the ,kingdom of ,god had a double character1 that the eschatological and spiritual elements were equally represented in it and mutually conditioned one another1 and that ,jesus therefore began1 in pursuance of this conception1 to found a spiritual invisible ,kingdom1 although ,he expected its fulfilment to be effected by supernatural means4 ,consequently there must also have been a duality in ,his religious consciousness1 in which these two conceptions had to be combined4 ,jesus' ,messianic consciousness sprang1 according to ,baldensperger1 8from a religious root02 that is to say1 the ,messianic consciousness was a special modification of a self consciousness in which a pure1 spiritual1 unique relation to ,god was the fundamental element2 and from this arises the possibility of a spiritual transformation of the ,jewish,messianic selfconsciousness4 ,in making these assumptions1 ,baldensperger does not ask himself whether it is not possible that for ,jesus the purely ,jewish consciousness of a transcendental ,messiahship may itself have been religious1 nay even spiritual1 just as well as the ,messiahship resting on a vague1 indefinite1 colourless sense of union with ,god which modern theologians arbitrarily attribute to ,him4 ,again1 instead of arriving at the two conceptions1 ,kingdom of ,god and ,messianic consciousness1 purely empirically1 by an unbiased comparison of the ,synoptic passages with the ,late,jewish conceptions1 ,baldensperger1 in this following ,holtzmann1 brings them into his theory in the dual form in which contemporary theology1 now becoming faintly tinged with eschatology1 offered them to him4 ,consequently1 everything has to be adapted to this duality4 ,jesus1 for example1 in applying to ,himself the title ,son of ,man1 thinks not only of the transcendental significance which it has in the ,jewish apocalyptic1 but gives it at the same time an ethicoreligious colouring4 ,finally1 the duality is explained by an application of the genetic method1 in which the 8course of the development of the selfconsciousness of ,jesus0 is traced out4 ,the historical psychology of the ,marcan hypothesis here shows its power of adapting itself to eschatology4 ,from the first1 to follow the course of ,baldensperger's exposition1 the eschatological view influenced ,jesus' expectation of the ,kingdom and ,his ,messianic consciousness4 ,in the wilderness1 after the dawn of ,his ,messianic consciousness at ,his baptism1 ,he had rejected the ideal of the ,messianic king of ,david's line and put away all warlike thoughts4 ,then ,he began to found the ,kingdom of ,god by preaching4 ,for a time the spiritualised idea of the ,kingdom was dominant in ,his mind1 the ,messianic eschatological idea falling rather into the background4 ,but ,his silence regarding ,his ,messianic office was partly due to paedagogic reasons1 8since ,he desired to lead ,his hearers to a more spiritual conception of the ,kingdom and so to obviate a possible political movement on their part and the consequent intervention of the ,roman government40 ,in addition to this ,he had also personal reasons for not revealing ,himself which only disappeared in the moment when ,his death and ,second ,coming became part of ,his plan2 previous to that ,he did not know how and when the ,kingdom was to come4 ,prior to the confession at ,caesarea ,philippi1 the disciples 8had only a faint and vague suspicion of the ,messianic dignity of their ,master40 ,this was 8rather the preparatory stage of ,his ,messianic work40 ,objectively1 it may be described 8as the period of growing emphasis upon the spiritual characteristics of the ,kingdom1 and of resigned waiting and watching for its outward manifestation in glory2 subjectively1 from the point of view of the selfconsciousness of ,jesus1 it may be characterised as the period of the struggle between ,his religious conviction of ,his ,messiahship and the traditional rationalistic ,messianic belief40 ,this first period opens out into a second in which ,he had attained to perfect clearness of vision and complete inner harmony4 ,by the acceptance of the idea of suffering1 ,jesus' inner peace is enhanced to the highest degree conceivable4 8,by throwing ,himself upon the thought of death ,he escaped the lingering uncertainty as to when and how ,god would fulfil ,his promise44440 8,the coming of the ,kingdom was fixed down to the ,second ,coming of the ,messiah4 ,now ,he ventured to regard ,himself as the ,son of ,man who was to be the future ,judge of the world1 for the suffering and dying ,son of ,man was closely associated with the ,son of ,man surrounded by the host of heaven4 ,would the people accept ,him as ,messiah8 ,he now1 in ,jerusalem1 put the question to them in all its sharpness and burning actuality2 and the people were moved to enthusiasm4 ,but so soon as they saw that ,he whom they had hailed with such acclamation was neither able nor willing to fulfil their ambitious dreams1 a reaction set in40 ,thus1 according to ,baldensperger1 there was an interaction between the historical and the psychological events4 ,and that is right6--if only the machinery were not so complicated1 and a 8development0 had not to be ground out of it at whatever cost4 ,but this1 and the whole manner of treatment in the second part1 encumbered as it is with parenthetic qualifications1 was rendered inevitable by the adoption of the two aforesaid not purely historical conceptions4 ,sometimes1 too1 one gets the impression that the author felt that he owed it to the school to which he belonged to advance no assertion without adding the limitations which scientifically secure it against attack4 ,thus on every page he digs himself into an entrenched position1 with palisades of footnotes--in fact the book actually ends with a footnote4 ,but the conception which underlay the whole was so full of vigour that in spite of the thoughts not being always completely worked out1 it produced a powerful impression4 ,baldensperger had persuaded theology at least to admit the hypothesis--whether it took up a positive or negative position in regard to it--that ,jesus possessed a fullydeveloped eschatology4 ,he thus provided a new basis for discussion and gave an impulse to the study of the subject such as it had not received since the 'sixties1 at least not in the same degree of energy4 ,perhaps the very limitations of the work1 due as they were to its introduction of modern ideas1 rendered it better adapted to the spirit of the age1 and consequently more influential1 than if it had been characterised by that rigorous maintenance of a single point of view which was abstractly requisite for the proper treatment of the subject4 ,it was precisely the rejection of this rigorous consistency which enabled it to gain ground for the cause of eschatology4 ,but the consistent treatment from a single point of view was bound to come2 and it came four years later4 ,in passing from ,weiffenbach and ,baldensperger to ,johannes ,weiss7#afa7 the reader feels like an explorer who after weary wanderings through billowy seas of reedgrass at length reaches a wooded tract1 and instead of swamp feels firm ground beneath his feet1 instead of yielding rushes sees around him the steadfast trees4 ,at last there is an end of 8qualifying clause0 theology1 of the 8and yet10 the 8on the other hand10 the 8notwithstanding06 ,the reader had to follow the others step by step1 making his way over every footbridge and gang plank which they laid down1 following all the meanderings in which they indulged1 and must never let go their hands if he wished to come safely through the labyrinth of spiritual and eschatological ideas which they supposed to be found in the thought of ,jesus4 ,in ,weiss there are none of these devious paths3 8behold the land lies before thee40 ,his 8,preaching of ,jesus concerning the ,kingdom of ,god107#afb7 published in #ahib1 has1 on its own lines1 an importance equal to that of ,strauss's first ,life of ,jesus4 ,he lays down the third great alternative which the study of the life of ,jesus had to meet4 ,the first was laid down by ,strauss3 either purely historical or purely supernatural4 ,the second had been worked out by the ,tbingen school and ,holtzmann3 either ,synoptic or ,johannine4 ,now came the third3 either eschatological or noneschatological6 ,progress always consists in taking one or other of two alternatives1 in abandoning the attempt to combine them4 ,the pioneers of progress have therefore always to reckon with the law of mental inertia which manifests itself in the majority--who always go on believing that it is possible to combine that which can no longer be combined1 and in fact claim it as a special merit that they1 in contrast with the 8onesided0 writers1 can do justice to the other side of the question4 ,one must just let them be1 till their time is over1 and resign oneself not to see the end of it1 since it is found by experience that the complete victory of one of two historical alternatives is a matter of two full theological generations4 ,this remark is made in order to explain why the work of ,johannes ,weiss did not immediately make an end of the mediating views4 ,another reason perhaps was that1 according to the usual canons of theological authorship1 the book was much too short--only sixtyseven pages--and too simple to allow its full significance to be realised4 ,and yet it is precisely this simplicity which makes it one of the most important works in historical theology4 ,it seems to break a spell4 ,it closes one epoch and begins another4 ,weiffenbach had failed to solve the problem of the ,second ,coming1 ,baldensperger that of the ,messianic consciousness of ,jesus1 because both of them allowed a false conception of the ,kingdom of ,god to keep its place among the data4 ,the general conception of the ,kingdom was first rightly grasped by ,johannes ,weiss4 ,all modern ideas1 he insists1 even in their subtlest forms1 must be eliminated from it2 when this is done1 we arrive at a ,kingdom of ,god which is wholly future2 as is indeed implied by the petition in the ,lord's prayer1 8,thy ,kingdom come40 ,being still to come1 it is at present purely supramundane4 ,it is present only as a cloud may be said to be present which throws its shadow upon the earth2 its nearness1 that is to say1 is recognised by the paralysis of the ,kingdom of ,satan4 ,in the fact that ,jesus casts out the demons1 the ,pharisees are bidden to recognise1 according to ,matt4 xii4 #bebh1 that the ,kingdom of ,god is already come upon them4 ,this is the only sense in which ,jesus thinks of the ,kingdom as present4 ,he does not 8establish it10 ,he only proclaims its coming4 ,he exercises no 8,messianic functions10 but waits1 like others1 for ,god to bring about the coming of the ,kingdom by supernatural means4 ,he does not even know the day and hour when this shall come to pass4 ,the missionary journey of the disciples was not designed for the extension of the ,kingdom of ,god1 but only as a means of rapidly and widely making known its nearness4 ,but it was not so near as ,jesus thought4 ,the impenitence and hardness of heart of a great part of the people1 and the implacable enmity of ,his opponents1 at length convinced ,him that the establishment of the ,kingdom of ,god could not yet take place1 that such penitence as had been shown hitherto was not sufficient1 and that a mighty obstacle1 the guilt of the people1 must first be put away4 ,it becomes clear to ,him that ,his own death must be the ransomprice4 ,he dies1 not for the community of ,his followers only1 but for the nation2 that is why ,he always speaks of ,his atoning death as 8for many10 not 8for you40 ,after ,his death ,he would come again in all the splendour and glory with which1 since the days of ,daniel1 men's imaginations had surrounded the ,messiah1 and ,he was to come1 moreover1 within the lifetime of the generation to which ,he had proclaimed the nearness of the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,the setting up of the ,kingdom was to be preceded by the ,day of ,judgment4 ,in describing the ,messianic glory ,jesus makes use of the traditional picture1 but ,he does so with modesty1 restraint1 and sobriety4 ,therein consists ,his greatness4 ,with political expectations this ,kingdom has nothing whatever to do4 8,to hope for the ,kingdom of ,god in the transcendental sense which ,jesus attaches to it1 and to raise a revolution1 are two things as different as fire and water40 ,the transcendental character of the expectation consists precisely in this1 that the ,state and all earthly institutions1 conditions1 and benefits1 as belonging to the present age1 shall either not exist at all in the coming ,kingdom1 or shall exist only in a sublimated form4 ,hence ,jesus cannot preach to men a special ethic of the ,kingdom of ,god1 but only an ethic which in this world makes men free from the world and prepared to enter unimpeded into the ,kingdom4 ,that is why ,his ethic is of so completely negative a character2 it is1 in fact1 not so much an ethic as a penitential discipline4 ,the ministry of ,jesus is therefore not in principle different from that of ,john the ,baptist3 there can be no question of a founding and development of the ,kingdom within the hearts of men4 ,what distinguishes the work of ,jesus from that of the ,baptist is only ,his consciousness of being the ,messiah4 ,he awoke to this consciousness at ,his baptism4 ,but the ,messiahship which ,he claims is not a present office2 its exercise belongs to the future4 ,on earth ,he is only a man1 a prophet1 as in the view implied in the speeches in the ,acts of the ,apostles4 8,son of ,man0 is therefore1 in the passages where it is authentic1 a purely eschatological designation of the ,messiah1 though we cannot tell whether ,his hearers understood ,him as speaking of ,himself in ,his future rank and dignity1 or whether they thought of the ,son of ,man as a being quite distinct from ,himself1 whose coming ,he was only proclaiming in advance4 8,the sole object of this argument is to prove that the ,messianic self consciousness of ,jesus1 as expressed in the title #8,son of ,man1' shares in the transcendental apocalyptic character of ,jesus' idea of the ,kingdom of ,god1 and cannot be separated from that idea40 ,the only partially correct evaluation of the factors in the problem of the ,life of ,jesus which ,baldensperger had taken over from contemporary theology1 and which had hitherto prevented historical science from obtaining a solution of that problem1 had now been corrected from the history itself1 and it was now only necessary to insert the corrected data into the calculation4 ,here is the point at which it is fitting to recall ,reimarus4 ,he was the first1 and indeed1 before ,johannes ,weiss1 the only writer who recognised and pointed out that the preaching of ,jesus was purely eschatological4 ,it is true that his conception of the eschatology was primitive1 and that he applied it not as a constructive1 but as a destructive principle of criticism4 ,but read his statement of the problem 8with the signs changed10 and with the necessary deduction for the primitive character of the eschatology1 and you have the view of ,weiss4 ,ghillany1 too1 has a claim to be remembered4 ,when ,weiss asserts that the part played by ,jesus was not the active rle of establishing the ,kingdom1 but the passive rle of waiting for the coming of the ,kingdom2 and that it was1 in a sense1 only by the acceptance of ,his sufferings that ,he emerged from that passivity2 he is only asserting what ,ghillany had maintained thirty years before with the same arguments and with the same decisiveness4 ,but ,weiss places the assertion on a scientifically unassailable basis4 ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,struggle ,,against ,,eschatology ,wilhelm ,bousset4 ,jesu ,predigt in ihrem ,gegensatz zum ,judentum4 ,ein religionsgeschichtlicher ,vergleich4 7,the ,antithesis between ,jesus' ,preaching and ,judaism4 ,a ,religious,historical ,comparison47 ,gttingen1 #ahib4 #acj pp4 ,erich ,haupt4 ,die eschatologischen ,aussagen ,jesu in den synoptischen ,evangelien4 7,the ,eschatological ,sayings of ,jesus in the ,synoptic ,gospels47 #ahie4 #afg pp4 ,paul ,wernle4 ,die ,anfnge unserer ,religion4 ,tbingen,leipzig1 #aija2 #bnd ed41 #aijd1 #daj pp4 ,emil ,schrer4 ,das messianische ,selbstbewusstsein ,jesu,christi4 #aijc4 ,akademische ,festrede4 7,the ,messianic ,selfconsciousness of ,jesus ,christ47 #bd pp4 ,wilhelm ,brandt4 ,die evangelische ,geschichte und der ,ursprung des ,christentums auf ,grund einer ,kritik der ,berichte ber das ,leiden und die ,auferstehung ,jesu4 7,the ,gospel ,history and the ,origin of ,christianity4 ,based upon a ,critical ,study of the ,narratives of the ,sufferings and ,resurrection of ,jesus47 ,leipzig1 #ahic4 #eia pp4 ,adolf ,jlicher4 ,die ,gleichnisreden ,jesu4 7,the ,parables of ,jesus47 ,vol4 i41 #ahhh1 #bia pp42 vol4 ii41 #ahii1 #fdc pp4 ,in this period the important books are short4 ,the sixtyseven pages of ,johannes ,weiss are answered by ,bousset7#afc7 in a bare hundred and thirty4 ,people began to see that the elaborate ,lives of ,jesus which had hitherto held the field1 and enjoyed an immortality of revised editions1 only masked the fact that the study of the subject was at a standstill2 and that the tedious rehandling of problems which had been solved so far as they were capable of solution only served as an excuse for not grappling with those which still remained unsolved4 ,this conviction is expressed by ,bousset at the beginning of his work4 ,the criticism of the sources1 he says1 is finished1 and its results may be regarded1 so far as the ,life of ,jesus is concerned1 as provisionally complete4 ,the separation between ,john and the ,synoptists has been secured4 ,for the ,synoptists1 the twodocument hypothesis has been established1 according to which the sources are a primitive form of ,mark1 and a collection of 8logia40 ,a certain interest might still attach to the attempt to arrive at the primitive kernel of ,mark2 but the attempt has a priori so little prospect of success that it was almost a waste of time to continue to work at it4 ,it would be a much more important thing to get rid of the feeling of uncertainty and artificiality in the ,lives of ,jesus4 ,what is now chiefly wanted1 ,bousset thinks1 is 8a firmlydrawn and life like portrait which1 with a few bold strokes1 should bring out clearly the originality1 the force1 the personality of ,jesus40 ,it is evident that the centre of the problem has now been reached4 ,that is why the writing becomes so terse4 ,the masses of thought can only be manuvred here in a close formation such as ,weiss gives them4 ,the loose order of discursive exegetical discussions of separate passages is now no longer in place4 ,the first step towards further progress was the simple one of marshalling the passages in such a way as to gain a single consistent impression from them4 ,in the first instance ,bousset is as ready as ,johannes ,weiss to admit the importance for the mind of ,jesus of the eschatological 8then0 and 8now40 ,the realistic school1 he thinks1 are perfectly right in endeavouring to relate ,jesus1 without apologetic or theological inconsistencies1 to the background of contemporary ideas4 ,later1 in #aija1 he was to make it a reproach against ,harnack's 8,what is ,christianity80 7,das ,wesen des ,christentums7 that it did not give sufficient importance to the background of contemporary thought in its account of the preaching of ,jesus47#afd7 ,he goes on to ask1 however1 whether the first enthusiasm over the discovery of this genuinely historical way of looking at things should not be followed by some 8second thoughts0 of a deeper character4 ,accepting the position laid down by ,johannes ,weiss1 we must ask1 he thinks1 whether this purely historical criticism1 by the exclusive emphasis which it has laid upon eschatology1 has not allowed the 8essential originality and power of the personality of ,jesus to slip through its fingers10 and closed its grasp instead upon contemporary conceptions and imaginations which are often of a quite special character4 ,the ,late,jewish eschatology was1 according to ,bousset1 by no means a homogeneous system of thought4 ,realistic and transcendental elements stand side by side in it1 unreconciled4 ,the genuine popular belief of ,late ,judaism still clung quite naively to the earthly realistic hopes of former times1 and had never been able to rise to the purely transcendental regions which are the characteristic habitat of apocalyptic4 ,the rejection of the world is never carried out consistently2 something of the ,jewish national ideal always remains4 ,and for this reason ,late ,judaism made no progress towards the overcoming of particularism4 ,probably1 ,bousset holds1 this ,apocalyptic thought is not even genuinely ,jewish2 as he ably argued in another work1 there was a considerable strain of ,persian influence in it47#afe7 ,the dualism1 the transference to the transcendental region of the future hope1 the conception of the world which appears in ,jewish apocalyptic1 are of ,iranian rather than ,jewish origin4 ,two thoughts are especially characteristic of ,bousset's position2 first1 that this transcendentalising of the future implied a spiritualisation of it2 secondly1 that in postexilic ,judaism there was always an undercurrent of a purer and more spontaneous piety1 the presence of which is especially to be traced in the ,psalms4 ,into a dead world1 where a kind of incubus seems to stifle all naturalness and spontaneity1 there comes a living ,man4 ,according to the formulae of ,his preaching and the designations which ,he applies to ,himself1 ,he seems at first sight to identify ,himself with this world rather than to oppose it4 ,but these conceptions and titles1 especially the ,kingdom of ,god and the ,son of ,man1 must be provisionally left in the background1 since they1 as being conceptions taken over from the past1 conceal rather than reveal what is most essential in ,his personality4 ,the primary need is to discover1 behind the phenomenal1 the real character of the personality and preaching of ,jesus4 ,the startingpoint must therefore be the simple fact that ,jesus came as a living ,man into a dead world4 ,he is living1 because in contrast with ,his contemporaries ,he has a living idea of ,god4 ,his faith in the ,fatherhood of ,god is ,jesus' most essential act4 ,it signifies a breach with the transcendental ,jewish idea of ,god1 and an unconscious inner negation of the ,jewish eschatology4 ,jesus1 therefore1 walks through a world which denies ,his own eschatology like a man who has firm ground under his feet4 ,that which on a superficial view appears to be eschatological preaching turns out to be essentially a renewal of the old prophetic preaching with its positive ethical emphasis4 ,jesus is a manifestation of that ancient spontaneous piety of which ,bousset had shown the existence in ,late ,judaism4 ,the most characteristic thing in the character of ,jesus1 according to ,bousset1 is ,his joy in life4 ,it is true that if1 in endeavouring to understand ,him1 we take primitive ,christianity as our startingpoint1 we might conceive of this joy in life as the complement of the eschatological mood1 as the extreme expression of indifference to the world1 which can as well enjoy the world as flee it4 ,but the purely eschatological attitude1 though it reappears in early ,christianity1 does not give the right clue for the interpretation of the character of ,jesus as a whole4 ,his joy in the world was real1 a genuine outcome of ,his new type of piety4 ,it prevented the eudaemonistic eschatological idea of reward1 which some think they find in ,jesus' preaching1 from ever really becoming an element in it4 ,jesus is best understood by contrasting ,him with the ,baptist4 ,john was a preacher of repentance whose eyes were fixed upon the future4 ,jesus did not allow the thought of the nearness of the end to rob ,him of ,his simplicity and spontaneity1 and was not crippled by the reflection that everything was transitory1 preparatory1 a mere means to an end4 ,his preaching of repentance was not gloomy and forbidding2 it was the proclamation of a new righteousness1 of which the watchword was1 8,ye shall be perfect as your ,father in ,heaven is perfect40 ,he desires to communicate this personal piety by personal influence4 ,in contrast with the ,baptist ,he never aims at influencing masses of men1 but rather avoids it4 ,his work was accomplished mainly among little groups and individuals4 ,he left the task of carrying the ,gospel far and wide as a legacy to the community of ,his followers4 ,the mission of the ,twelve1 conceived as a mission for the rapid and widespread extension of the ,gospel1 is not to be used to explain ,jesus' methods of teaching2 the narrative of it rests on an 8obscure and unintelligible tradition40 ,this genuine joy in life was not unnoticed by the contemporaries of ,jesus who contrasted ,him as 8a gluttonous man and a winebibber10 with the ,baptist4 ,they were vaguely conscious that the whole life of ,jesus was 8sustained by the feeling of an absolute antithesis between ,himself and ,his times40 ,he lived not in anxious expectation1 but in cheerful gladness1 because by the native strength of ,his piety ,he had brought present and future into one4 ,free from all extravagant ,jewish delusions about the future1 ,he was not paralysed by the conditions which must be fulfilled to make this future present4 ,he has a peculiar conviction of its coming which gives ,him courage to 8marry0 the present with the future4 ,the present as contrasted with the beyond is for ,him no mere shadow1 but truth and reality2 life is not for ,him a mere illusion1 but is charged with a real and valuable meaning4 ,his own time is the ,messianic time1 as ,his answer to the ,baptist's question shows4 8,and it is among the most certain things in the ,gospel that ,jesus in ,his earthly life acknowledged ,himself as ,messiah both to ,his disciples and to the ,high,priest1 and made ,his entry into ,jerusalem as such40 ,he can1 therefore1 fully recognise the worth of the present4 ,it is not true that ,he taught that this world's goods were in themselves bad2 what ,he said was only that they must not be put first4 ,indeed ,he gives a new value to life by teaching that man cannot be righteous in isolation1 but only in the fellowship of love4 ,and as1 moreover1 the righteousness which ,he preaches is one of the goods of the ,kingdom of ,god1 ,he cannot have thought of the ,kingdom as wholly transcendental4 ,the ,reign of ,god begins for ,him in the present era4 ,his consciousness of being able to cast out demons in the spirit of ,god because ,satan's kingdom on earth is at an end is only the supernaturalistic expression for something of which ,he also possesses an ethical consciousness1 namely1 that in the new social righteousness the ,kingdom of ,god is already present4 ,this presence of the ,kingdom was not1 however1 clearly explained by ,jesus1 but was set forth in paradoxes and parables1 especially in the parables of ,mark iv4 ,when we find the ,evangelist1 in immediate connexion with these parables1 asserting that the aim of the parables was to mystify and conceal1 we may conclude that the basis of this theory is the fact that these parables concerning the presence of the ,kingdom of ,god were not understood4 ,in effecting this tacit transformation ,jesus is acting in accordance with a tendency of the time4 ,apocalyptic is itself a spiritualisation of the ancient ,israelitish hopes of the future1 and ,jesus only carries this process to its completion4 ,he raises ,late ,judaism above the limitations in which it was involved1 separates out the remnant of national1 political1 and sensuous ideas which still clung to the expectation of the future in spite of its having been spiritualised by apocalyptic1 and breaks with the ,jewish particularism1 though without providing a theoretical basis for this step4 ,thus1 in spite of1 nay even because of1 ,his opposition to it1 ,jesus was the fulfiller of ,judaism4 ,in ,him were united the ancient and vigorous prophetic religion and the impulse which ,judaism itself had begun to feel towards the spiritualisation of the future hope4 ,the transcendental and the actual meet in a unity which is full of life and strength1 creative not reflective1 and therefore not needing to set aside the ancient traditional ideas by didactic explanations1 but overcoming them almost unconsciously by the truth which lies in this paradoxical union4 ,the historical formula embodied in ,bousset's closing sentence runs thus3 8,the ,gospel develops some of the deeperlying motifs of the ,old ,testament1 but it protests against the prevailing tendency of ,judaism40 ,such of the underlying assumptions of this construction as invite challenge lie open to inspection1 and do not need to be painfully disentangled from a web of exegesis2 that is one of the merits of the book4 ,the chief points to be queried are as follows3-- ,is it the case that the apocalypses mark the introduction of a process of spiritualisation applied to the ancient ,israelitish hopes8 ,a picture of the future is not spiritualised simply by being projected upon the clouds4 ,this elevation to the transcendental region signifies1 on the contrary1 the transference to a place of safety of the eudaemonistic aspirations which have not been fulfilled in the present1 and which are expected1 by way of compensation1 from the other world4 ,the apocalyptic conception is so far from being a spiritualisation of the future expectations1 that it represents on the contrary the last desperate effort of a strongly eudaemonistic popular religion to raise to heaven the earthly goods from which it cannot make up its mind to part4 ,next we must ask3 ,is it really necessary to assume the existence of so wide reaching a ,persian influence in ,jewish eschatology8 ,the ,jewish dualism and the sublimation of its hope have become historical just because1 owing to the fate of the nation1 the religious life of the present and the fair future which was logically bound up with it became more and more widely separated1 temporally and locally1 until at last only its dualism and the sublimation of its hope enabled the nation to survive its disappointment4 ,again1 is it historically permissible to treat the leading ideas of the preaching of ,jesus1 which bear so clearly the marks of the contemporary mould of thought1 as of secondary importance for the investigation1 and to endeavour to trace ,jesus' thoughts from within outwards and not from without inwards8 ,further1 is there really in ,judaism no tendency towards the overcoming of particularism8 ,has not its eschatology1 as shaped by the deuteroprophetic literature1 a universalistic outlook8 ,did ,jesus overcome particularism in principle otherwise than it is overcome in ,jewish eschatology1 that is to say1 with reference to the future8 ,what is there to prove that ,jesus' distinctive faith in the ,fatherhood of ,god ever existed independently1 and not as an alternative form of the historicallyconditioned ,messianic consciousness8 ,in other words1 what is there to show that the 8religious attitude0 of ,jesus and ,his ,messianic consciousness are anything else than identical1 temporally and conceptually1 so that the first must always be understood as conditioned by the second8 ,again1 is the saying about the gluttonous man and winebibber a sufficient basis for the contrast between ,jesus and the ,baptist8 ,is not ,jesus' preaching of repentance gloomy as well as the ,baptist's8 ,where do we read that ,he1 in contrast with the ,baptist1 avoided dealing with masses of men8 ,where did ,he give 8the community of ,his disciples0 marching orders to go far and wide in the sense required by ,bousset's argument8 ,where is there a word to tell us that ,he thought of ,his work among individuals and little groups of men as the most important feature of ,his ministry8 ,are we not told the exact contrary1 that ,he 8taught0 ,his disciples as little as ,he did the people8 ,is there any justification for characterising the missionary journey of the ,twelve1 just because it directly contradicts this view1 as 8an obscure and unintelligible tradition80 ,is it so certain that ,jesus made a ,messianic entry into ,jerusalem1 and that1 accordingly1 ,he declared ,himself to the disciples and to the ,high ,priest as ,messiah in the present1 and not in a purely future sense8 ,what are the sayings which justify us in making the attitude of opposition which ,he took up towards the ,rabbinic legalism into a 8sense of the absolute opposition between ,himself and ,his people08 ,the very 8absolute10 with its ring of ,schleiermacher1 is suspicious4 ,all these1 however1 are subsidiary positions4 ,the decisive point is3 ,can ,bousset make good the assertion that ,jesus' joy in life was a more or less unconscious inner protest against the purely eschatological world renouncing religious attitude1 the primal expression of that 8absolute0 antithesis to ,judaism8 ,is it not the case that ,his attitude towards earthly goods was wholly conditioned by eschatology8 ,that is to say1 were not earthly goods emptied of any essential value in such a way that joy in the world and indifference to the world were simply the final expression of an ironic attitude which had been sublimated into pure serenity4 ,that is the question upon the answer to which depends the decision whether ,bousset's position is tenable or not4 ,it is not in fact tenable1 for the opposite view has at its disposal inexhaustible reserves of worldrenouncing1 worldcontemning sayings1 and the few utterances which might possibly be interpreted as expressing a purely positive joy in the world1 desert and go over to the enemy1 because they textually and logically belong to the other set of sayings4 ,finally1 the promise of earthly happiness as a reward1 to which ,bousset had denied a position in the teaching of ,jesus1 also falls upon his rear1 and that in the very moment when he is seeking to prove from the saying1 8,seek ye first the ,kingdom of ,god and ,his righteousness1 and all these things shall be added unto you10 that for ,jesus this world's goods are not in themselves evil1 but are only to be given a secondary place4 ,here the eudaemonism is written on the forehead of the saying1 since the receiving of these things--we must remember1 too1 the 8hundredfold0 in another passage--is future1 not present1 and will only 8come0 at the same time as the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,all present goods1 on the other hand1 serve only to support life and render possible an undistracted attitude of waiting in pious hope for that future1 and therefore are not thought of as gains1 but purely as a gift of ,god1 to be cheerfully and freely enjoyed as a foretaste of those blessings which the elect are to enjoy in the future ,divine dispensation4 ,the loss of this position decides the further point that if there is any suggestion in the teaching of ,jesus that the future ,kingdom of ,god is in some sense present1 it is not to be understood as implying an anti eschatological acceptance of the world1 but merely as a phenomenon indicative of the extreme tension of the eschatological consciousness1 just in the same way as ,his joy in the world4 ,bousset has a kind of indirect recognition of this in his remark that the presence of the ,kingdom of ,god is only asserted by ,jesus as a kind of paradox4 ,if the assertion of its presence indicated that acceptance of the world formed part of ,jesus' system of thought1 it would be at variance with ,his eschatology4 ,but the paradoxical character of the assertion is due precisely to the fact that ,his acceptance of the world is but the last expression of the completeness with which ,he rejects it4 ,but what do critical cavils matter in the case of a book of which the force1 the influence1 the greatness1 depends upon its spirit8 ,it is great because it recognises--what is so rarely recognised in theological works--the point where the main issue really lies2 in the question1 namely1 whether ,jesus preached and worked as ,messiah1 or whether1 as follows if a prominent place is given to eschatology1 as ,colani had long ago recognised1 ,his career1 historically regarded1 was only the career of a prophet with an undercurrent of ,messianic consciousness4 ,as a consequence of grasping the question in its full significance1 ,bousset rejects all the little devices by which previous writers had endeavoured to relate ,jesus' ministry to ,his times1 each one prescribing at what point ,he was to connect ,himself with it1 and of course proceeding in his book to represent ,him as connecting ,himself with it in precisely that way4 ,bousset recognises that the supreme importance of eschatology in the teaching of ,jesus is not to be got rid of by whittling away a little point here and there1 and rubbing it smooth with critical sandpaper until it is capable of reflecting a different thought1 but only by fully admitting it1 while at the same time counteracting it by asserting a mysterious element of worldacceptance in the thought of ,jesus1 and conceiving ,his whole teaching as a kind of alternating current between positive and negative poles4 ,this is the last possible sincere attempt to limit the exclusive importance of eschatology in the preaching of ,jesus1 an attempt so gallant1 so brilliant1 that its failure is almost tragic2 one could have wished success to the book1 to which ,carlyle might have stood sponsor4 ,that it is inspired by the spirit of ,carlyle1 that it vindicates the original force of a great ,personality against the attempt to dissolve it into a congeries of contemporary conceptions1 therein lies at once its greatness and its weakness4 ,bousset vindicates ,jesus1 not for history1 but for ,protestantism1 by making ,him the heroic representative of a deeply religious acceptance of the goods of life amid an apocalyptic world4 ,his study is not unhistorical1 but suprahistorical4 ,the spirit of ,jesus was in fact worldaccepting in the sense that through the experience of centuries it advanced historically to the acceptance of the world1 since nothing can appear phenomenally which is not in some sense ideally present from the first4 ,but the teaching of the historical ,jesus was purely and exclusively worldrenouncing4 ,if1 therefore1 the problem which ,bousset has put on the blackboard for the eschatological school to solve is to be successfully solved1 the solution is to be sought on other1 more objectively historical1 lines4 ,that the decision of the question whether ,jesus' preaching of the ,kingdom of ,god is wholly eschatological or only partly eschatological1 is primarily to be sought in ,his ethical teaching1 is recognised by all the critics of ,baldensperger and ,weiss4 ,they differ only in the importance which they assign to eschatology4 ,but no other writer has grasped the problem as clearly as ,bousset4 ,the ,parisian ,ehrhardt emphasises eschatology very strongly in his work 8,the ,fundamental ,character of the ,preaching of ,jesus in ,relation to the ,messianic ,hopes of ,his ,people and ,his own ,messianic ,consciousness407#aff7 ,nevertheless he asserts the presence of a twofold ethic in ,jesus' teaching3 eschatology did not attempt to evacuate everything else of all value1 but allowed the natural and ethical goods of this world to hold their place1 as belonging to a world of thought which resisted its encroachments4 ,a much more negative attitude is taken up by ,albert ,rville in his ,jsus de ,nazareth47#afg7 ,according to him both ,apocalyptic and ,messianism are foreign bodies in the teaching of ,jesus which have been forced into it by the pressure of contemporary thought4 ,jesus would never of ,his own motion have taken up the rle of ,messiah4 ,wendt1 too1 in the second edition of his ,lehre ,jesu1 which appeared in #aijc1 held in the main to the fundamental idea of the first1 the #ahij1 edition2 namely1 that ,jesus in view of ,his purely religious relation to ,god could not do otherwise than transform1 from within outwards1 the traditional conceptions1 even though they seem to be traceable in their actual contemporary form on the surface of ,his teaching4 ,he had already1 in #ahic1 in the ,christliche ,welt clearly expounded1 and defended against ,weiss1 his view of the ,kingdom of ,god as already present for the thought of ,jesus4 ,the effect which ,baldensperger and ,weiss had upon ,weiffenbach7#afh7 was to cause him to bring out in full strength the apologetic aspect which had been somewhat held in check in his work of #ahgc by the thoroughness of his exegesis4 ,the apocalyptic of this younger school1 which was no longer willing to believe that in the mouth of ,jesus the ,parousia meant nothing more than an issuing from death clothed with power1 is on all grounds to be rejected4 ,it assumes1 since this expectation was not fulfilled1 an error on the part of ,jesus4 ,it is better to rest content with not being able to see quite clearly4 ,protected by a similar armour1 the successive editions of ,bernhard ,weiss's ,life of ,jesus went their way unmolested down to #aijb4 ,not with an apologetic purpose1 but on the basis of an original religious view1 ,titius1 in his work on the ,new ,testament doctrine of blessedness1 develops the teaching of ,jesus concerning the ,kingdom of ,god as a present good47#afi7 ,in the same year1 #ahie1 appeared ,e4 ,haupt's work on 8,the ,eschatological ,sayings of ,jesus in the ,synoptic ,gospels407#agj7 ,in contradistinction to ,bousset he takes as his startingpoint the eschatological passages1 examining each separately and modulating them back to the ,johannine key4 ,it is so delicately and ingeniously done that the reading of the book is an aesthetic pleasure which makes one in the end quite forget the apologetic motif in order to surrender oneself completely to the author's mystical system of religious thought4 ,it is1 indeed1 not the least service of the eschatological school that it compels modern theology1 which is so much preoccupied with history1 to reveal what is its own as its own4 ,eschatology makes it impossible to attribute modern ideas to ,jesus and then by way of 8,new ,testament ,theology0 take them back from ,him as a loan1 as even ,ritschl not so long ago did with such navet4 ,johannes ,weiss1 in cutting himself loose1 as an historian1 from ,ritschl1 and recognising that 8the real roots of ,ritschl's ideas are to be found in ,kant and the illuminist theology107#aga7 introduced the last decisive phase of the process of separation between historical and 8modern0 theology4 ,before the advent of eschatology1 critical theology was1 in the last resort1 without a principle of discrimination1 since it possessed no reagent capable of infallibly separating out modern ideas on the one hand and genuinely ancient ,new ,testament ideas on the other4 ,the application of the criterion has now begun4 ,what will be the issue1 the future alone can show4 ,but even now we can recognise that the separation was not only of advantage to historical theology2 for modern theology1 the manifestation of the modern spirit as it really is1 was still more important4 ,only when it became conscious of its own inmost essence and of its right to exist1 only when it freed itself from its illegitimate historical justification1 which1 leaping over the centuries1 appealed directly to an historical exposition of the ,new ,testament1 only then could it unfold its full wealth of ideas1 which had been hitherto rootbound by a false historicity4 ,it was not by chance that in ,bousset's reply a certain affirmation of life1 something expressive of the genius of ,protestantism1 cries aloud as never before in any theological work of this generation1 or that in ,haupt's work ,german mysticism interweaves its mysterious harmonies with the ,johannine motif4 ,the contribution of ,protestantism to the interpretation of the world had never been made so manifest in any work prior to ,weiss's4 ,the modern spirit is here breaking in wreaths of foam upon the sharp cliffs of the rockbound eschatological worldview of ,jesus4 ,to put it more prosaically1 modern theology is at last about to become sincere4 ,but this is so far only a prophecy of the future4 ,if we are to speak of the present it must be fully admitted that even historical science1 when it desires to continue the history of ,christianity beyond the life of ,jesus1 cannot help protesting against the onesidedness of the eschatological world of thought of the 8,founder40 ,it finds itself obliged to distinguish in the thought of ,jesus 8permanent elements and transitory elements0 which1 being interpreted1 means eschatological and not essentially eschatological materials2 otherwise it can get no farther4 ,for if ,jesus' world of thought was wholly and exclusively eschatological1 there can only have arisen out of it1 as ,reimarus long ago maintained1 an exclusively eschatological primitive ,christianity4 ,but how a community of that kind could give birth to the ,greek noneschatological theology no ,church history and no history of dogma has so far shown4 ,instead of that they all--,harnack1 with the most consummate historical ability--lay down from the very first1 alongside of the main line intended for 8contemporary views0 traffic1 a relief line for the accommodation of through trains of 8nontemporally limited ideas02 and at the point where primitive ,christian eschatology becomes of less importance they switch off the train to the relief line1 after slipping the carriages which are not intended to go beyond that station4 ,this procedure has now been rendered impossible for them by ,weiss1 who leaves no place in the teaching of ,jesus for anything but the singleline traffic of eschatology4 ,if1 during the last fifteen years1 any one had attempted to carry out in a work on a large scale the plan of ,strauss and ,renan1 linking up the history of the life of ,jesus with the history of early ,christianity1 and ,new ,testament theology with the early history of dogma1 the immense difficulties which ,weiss had raised without suspecting it1 in the course of his sixtyseven pages1 would have become clearly apparent4 ,the problem of the ,hellenisation of ,christianity took on quite a new aspect when the trestle bridge of modern ideas connecting the eschatological early ,christianity with ,greek theology broke down under the weight of the newlydiscovered material1 and it became necessary to seek within the history itself an explanation of the way in which an exclusively eschatological system of ideas came to admit ,greek influences1 and--what is much more difficult to explain--how ,hellenism1 on its part1 found any point of contact with an eschatological sect4 ,the new problem is as yet hardly recognised1 much less grappled with4 ,the few who since ,weiss's time have sought to pass over from the life of ,jesus to early ,christianity1 have acted like men who find themselves on an ice floe which is slowly dividing into two pieces1 and who leap from one to the other before the cleft grows too wide4 ,harnack1 in his 8,what is ,christianity80 almost entirely ignores the contemporary limitations of ,jesus' teaching1 and starts out with a ,gospel which carries him down without difficulty to the year #ahii4 ,the antihistorical violence of this procedure is1 if possible1 still more pronounced in ,wernle4 ,the 8,beginnings of our ,religion07#agb7 begins by putting the ,jewish eschatology in a convenient posture for the coming operation by urging that the idea of the ,messiah1 since there was no appropriate place for it in connexion with the ,kingdom of ,god or the new ,earth1 had become obsolete for the ,jews themselves4 ,the inadequateness of the ,messianic idea for the purposes of ,jesus is therefore selfevident4 8,his whole life long0--as if we knew any more of it than the few months of ,his public ministry6--8,he laboured to give a new and higher content to the ,messianic title which ,he had adopted40 ,in the course of this endeavour ,he discarded 8the ,messiah of the ,zealots0--by that is meant the political nontranscendent ,messianic ideal4 ,as if we had any knowledge of the existence of such an ideal in the time of ,jesus6 ,the statements of ,josephus suggest1 and the conduct of ,pilate at the trial of ,jesus confirms the conclusion1 that in none of the risings did a claimant of the ,messiahship come forward1 and this should be proof enough that there did not exist at that time a political eschatology alongside of the transcendental1 and indeed it could not on inner grounds subsist alongside of it4 ,that was1 after all1 the thing which ,weiss had shown most clearly6 ,jesus1 therefore1 had dismissed the ,messiah of the ,zealots2 ,he had now to turn ,himself into the 8waiting0 ,messiah of the ,rabbis4 ,yet ,he does not altogether accept this rle1 for ,he works actively as ,messiah4 ,his struggle with the ,messianic conception could not but end in transforming it4 ,this transformed conception is introduced by ,jesus to the people at ,his entry into ,jerusalem1 since ,his choice of the ass to bear ,him inscribed as a motto1 so to speak1 over the demonstration the prophecy of the ,messiah who should be a bringer of peace4 ,a few days later ,he gives the ,scribes to understand by ,his enigmatic words with reference to ,mark xii4 #cg1 that ,his ,messiahship has nothing to do with ,davidic descent and all that that implied4 ,the ,kingdom of ,god was not1 of course1 for ,him1 according to ,wernle1 a purely eschatological entity2 ,he saw in many events evidence that it had already dawned4 ,wernle's only real concession to the eschatological school is the admission that the ,kingdom always remained for ,jesus a supernatural entity4 ,the belief in the presence of the ,kingdom was1 it seems1 only a phase in the development of ,jesus4 ,when confronted with growing opposition ,he abandoned this belief again1 and the superearthly future character of the ,kingdom was all that remained4 ,at the end of ,his career ,jesus establishes a connexion between the ,messianic conception1 in its final transformation1 and the ,kingdom1 which had retained its eschatological character2 ,he goes to ,his death for the ,messiahship in its new significance1 but ,he goes on believing in ,his speedy return as the ,son of ,man4 ,this expectation of ,his ,parousia as ,son of ,man1 which only emerges immediately before ,his exit from the world--when it can no longer embarrass the author in his account of the preaching of ,jesus--is the only point in which ,jesus does not overcome the inadequacy of the ,messianic idea with which ,he had to deal4 8,at this point the fantastic conception of ,late ,judaism1 the magically transformed world of the ancient popular belief1 thrusts itself incongruously into ,jesus' great and simple consciousness of ,his vocation40 ,thus ,wernle takes with him only so much of ,apocalyptic as he can safely carry over into early ,christianity4 ,once he has got safely across1 he drags the rest over after him4 ,he shows that in and with the titles and expressions borrowed from apocalyptic thought1 ,messiah1 ,son of ,god1 ,son of ,man1 which were all at bottom so inappropriate to ,jesus1 early ,christianity slipped in again 8either the old ideas or new ones misunderstood40 ,in pointing this out he cannot refrain from the customary sigh of regret--these apocalyptic titles and expressions 8were from the first a misfortune for the new religion40 ,one may well ask how ,wernle has discovered in the preaching of ,jesus anything that can be called1 historically1 a new religion1 and what would have become of this new religion apart from its apocalyptic hopes and its apocalyptic dogma8 ,we answer3 without its intense eschatological hope the ,gospel would have perished from the earth1 crushed by the weight of historic catastrophes4 ,but1 as it was1 by the mighty power of evoking faith which lay in it1 eschatology made good in the darkest times ,jesus' sayings about the imperishability of ,his words1 and died as soon as these sayings had brought forth new life upon a new soil4 ,why then make such a complaint against it8 ,the tragedy does not consist in the modification of primitive ,christianity by eschatology1 but in the fate of eschatology itself1 which has preserved for us all that is most precious in ,jesus1 but must itself wither1 because ,he died upon the cross with a loud cry1 despairing of bringing in the new heaven and the new earth--that is the real tragedy4 ,and not a tragedy to be dismissed with a theologian's sigh1 but a liberating and lifegiving influence1 like every great tragedy4 ,for in its deathpangs eschatology bore to the ,greek genius a wonderchild1 the mystic1 sensuous1 ,early ,christian doctrine of immortality1 and consecrated ,christianity as the religion of immortality to take the place of the slowly dying civilisation of the ancient world4 ,but it is not only those who want to find a way from the preaching of ,jesus to early ,christianity who are conscious of the peculiar difficulties raised by the recognition of its purely ,jewish eschatological character1 but also those who wish to reconstruct the connexion backwards from ,jesus to ,judaism4 ,for example1 ,wellhausen and ,schrer repudiate the results arrived at by the eschatological school1 which1 on its part1 bases itself upon their researches into ,late ,judaism4 ,wellhausen1 in his 8,israelitish and ,jewish ,history107#agc7 gives a picture of ,jesus which lifts ,him out of the ,jewish frame altogether4 ,the ,kingdom which ,he desires to found becomes a present spiritual entity4 ,to the ,jewish eschatology ,his preaching stands in a quite external relation1 for what was in ,his mind was rather a fellowship of spiritual men engaged in seeking a higher righteousness4 ,he did not really desire to be the ,messiah1 and in ,his inmost heart had renounced the hopes of ,his people4 ,if ,he called ,himself ,messiah1 it was in view of a higher ,messianic ideal4 ,for the people ,his acceptance of the ,messiahship denoted the supersession of their own very differently coloured expectation4 ,the transcendental events become immanent4 ,in regard to the apocalyptic ,judgment of the ,world1 he retains only the sermon preserved by ,john about the inward and constant process of separation4 ,although not to the same extent1 ,schrer also1 in his view of the teaching of ,jesus1 is strongly influenced by the ,fourth ,gospel4 ,in an inaugural discourse of #aijc7agd7 he declares that in his opinion there is a certain opposition between ,judaism and the preaching of ,jesus1 since the latter contains something absolutely new4 ,his ,messiahship is only the temporally limited expression of a unique1 generally ethical1 consciousness of being a child of ,god1 which has a certain analogy with the relation of all ,god's children to their ,heavenly ,father4 ,the reason for ,his reserve in regard to ,his ,messiahship was1 according to ,schrer1 ,jesus' fear of kindling 8political enthusiasm02 from the same motive ,he repudiates in ,mark xii4 #cg all claim to be the ,messiah of ,david's line4 ,the ideas of the ,messiah and the ,kingdom of ,god at least underwent a transformation in ,his use of them4 ,if in ,his earlier preaching ,he only announces the ,kingdom as something future1 in ,his later preaching ,he emphasises the thought that in its beginnings it is already present4 ,that it is precisely the representatives of the study of ,late ,judaism who lift ,jesus out of the ,late,jewish world of thought1 is not in itself a surprising phenomenon4 ,it is only an expression of the fact that here something new and creative enters into an uncreative age1 and of the clear consciousness that this ,personality cannot be resolved into a complex of contemporary ideas4 ,the problem of which they are conscious is the same as ,bousset's4 ,but the question cannot be avoided whether the violent separation of ,jesus from ,late ,judaism is a real solution1 or whether the very essence of ,jesus' creative power does not consist1 not in taking out one or other of the parts of the eschatological machinery1 but in doing what no one had previously done1 namely1 in setting the whole machinery in motion by the application of an ethicoreligious motive power4 ,to perceive the unsatisfactoriness of the transformation hypothesis it is only necessary to think of all the conditions which would have to be realised in order to make it possible to trace1 even in general outline1 the evidence of such a transformation in the ,gospel narrative4 ,all these solutions of the eschatological question start from the teaching of ,jesus1 and it was1 indeed1 from this point of view that ,johannes ,weiss had stated the problem4 ,the final decision of the question is not1 however1 to be found here1 but in the examination of the whole course of ,jesus' life4 ,on which of the two presuppositions1 the assumption that ,his life was completely dominated by eschatology1 or the assumption that ,he repudiated it1 do we find it easiest to understand the connexion of events in the life of ,jesus1 ,his fate1 and the emergence of the expectation of the ,parousia in the community of ,his disciples8 ,the works which in the examination of the connexion of events follow a critical procedure are few and far between4 ,the average 8,life of ,jesus0 shows in this respect an inconceivable stupidity4 ,the first1 after ,bruno ,bauer1 to apply critical methods to this point was ,volkmar2 between ,volkmar and ,wrede the only writer who here showed himself critical1 that is sceptical1 was ,w4 ,brandt4 ,his work on the 8,gospel ,history07#age7 appeared in #ahic1 a year after ,johannes ,weiss's work and in the same year as ,bousset's reply4 ,in this book the question of the absolute1 or only partial1 dominance of eschatology is answered on the ground of the general course of ,jesus' life4 ,brandt goes to work with a truly ,cartesian scepticism4 ,he first examines all the possibilities that the reported event did not happen in the way in which it is reported before he is satisfied that it really did happen in that way4 ,before he can accept the statement that ,jesus died with a loud outcry1 he has to satisfy his critical conscience by the following consideration3 8,the statement regarding this cry1 is1 so far as ,i can see1 to be best explained by supposing that it was really uttered40 ,the burial of ,jesus owes its acceptance as history to the following reflection4 8,we hold ,joseph of ,arimathea to be an historical person2 but the only reason which the narrative has for preserving his name is that he buried ,jesus4 ,therefore the name guarantees the fact40 ,but the moment the slightest possibility presents itself that the event happened in a different way1 ,brandt declines to be held by any seductions of the text1 and makes his own 8probably0 into an historical fact4 ,for instance1 he thinks it unlikely that ,peter was the only one to smite with the sword2 so the history is immediately rectified by the phrase 8that swordstroke was doubtless not the only one1 other disciples also must have pressed to the front40 ,that ,jesus was first condemned by the ,sanhedrin at a nightsitting1 and that ,pilate in the morning confirmed the sentence1 seems to him on various grounds impossible4 ,it is therefore decided that we have here to do only with a combination devised by 8a ,christian from among the ,gentiles40 ,in this way the 8must have been's0 and 8may have been's0 exercise a veritable reign of terror throughout the book4 ,yet that does not prevent the general contribution of the book to criticism from being a very remarkable one4 ,especially in regard to the trial of ,jesus1 it brings to light a whole series of previously unsuspected problems4 ,brandt is the first writer since ,bauer who dares to assert that it is an historical absurdity to suppose that ,pilate1 when the people demanded from him the condemnation of ,jesus1 answered3 8,no1 but ,i will release you another instead of ,him40 ,as his startingpoint he takes the complete contrast between the ,johannine and ,synoptic traditions1 and the inherent impossibility of the former is proved in detail4 ,the ,synoptic tradition goes back to ,mark alone4 ,his ,gospel is1 as was also held by ,bruno ,bauer1 and afterwards by ,wrede1 a sufficient basis for the whole tradition4 ,but this ,gospel is not a purely historical source1 it is also1 and in a very much larger degree1 poetic invention4 ,of the real history of ,jesus but little is preserved in the ,gospels4 ,many of the socalled sayings of the ,lord are certainly to be pronounced spurious1 a few are probably to be recognised as genuine4 ,but the theory of the 8poetic invention0 of the earliest ,evangelist is not consistently carried out1 because ,brandt does not take as his criterion1 as ,wrede did later1 a definite principle on which ,mark is supposed to have constructed his ,gospel1 but decides each case separately4 ,consequently the most important feature of the work lies in the examination of detail4 ,jesus died and was believed to have risen again3 this is the only absolutely certain information that we have regarding ,his 8,life40 ,and accordingly this is the crucial instance for testing the worth of the ,gospel tradition4 ,it is only on the basis of an elaborate criticism of the accounts of the suffering and resurrection of ,jesus that ,brandt undertakes to give a sketch of the life of ,jesus as it really was4 ,what was1 then1 so far as appears from ,his life1 ,jesus' attitude towards eschatology8 ,it was1 according to ,brandt1 a selfcontradictory attitude4 8,he believed in the near approach of the ,kingdom of ,god1 and yet1 as though its time were still far distant1 ,he undertakes the training of disciples4 ,he was a teacher and yet is said to have held ,himself to be the ,messiah40 ,the duality lies not so much in the teaching itself2 it is rather a cleavage between ,his conviction and consciousness on the one hand1 and ,his public attitude on the other4 ,to this observation we have to add a second1 namely1 that ,jesus cannot possibly during the last few days at ,jerusalem have come forward as ,messiah4 ,critics1 with the exception1 of course1 of ,bruno ,bauer1 had only cursorily touched on this question4 ,the course of events in the last few days in ,jerusalem does not at all suggest a ,messianic claim on the part of ,jesus1 indeed it directly contradicts it4 ,only imagine what would have happened if ,jesus had come before the people with such claims1 or even if such thoughts had been so much as attributed to ,him6 ,on the other side1 of course1 we have the report of the ,messianic entry1 in which ,jesus not only accepted the homage offered to ,him as ,messiah1 but went out of ,his way to invite it2 and the people must therefore from that point onwards have regarded him as ,messiah4 ,in consequence of this contradiction in the narrative1 all ,lives of ,jesus slur over the passage1 and seem to represent that the people sometimes suspected ,jesus' ,messiahship1 sometimes did not suspect it1 or they adopt some other similar expedient4 ,brandt1 however1 rigorously drew the logical inference4 ,since ,jesus did not stand and preach in the temple as ,messiah1 ,he cannot have entered ,jerusalem as ,messiah4 ,therefore 8the wellknown ,messianic entry is not historical40 ,that is also implied by the manner of ,his arrest4 ,if ,jesus had come forward as a ,messianic claimant1 ,he would not simply have been arrested by the civil police2 ,pilate would have had to suppress a revolt by military force4 ,this admission implies the surrender of one of the most cherished prejudices of the antieschatological school1 namely1 that ,jesus raised the thoughts of the people to a higher conception of ,his ,messiahship1 and consequently to a spiritual view of the ,kingdom of ,god1 or at least tried so to raise them4 ,but we cannot assume this to have been ,his intention1 since ,he does not allow the multitude to suspect ,his ,messiahship4 ,thus the conception of a 8transformation0 becomes untenable as a means of reconciling eschatological and noneschatological elements4 ,and as a matter of fact--that is the stroke of critical genius in the book--,brandt lets the two go forward side by side without any attempt at reconciliation2 for the reconciliation which would be possible if one had only to deal with the teaching of ,jesus becomes impossible when one has to take in ,his life as well4 ,for ,brandt the life of ,jesus is the life of a ,galilaean teacher who1 in consequence of the eschatology with which the period was so fully charged1 was for a time and to a certain extent set at variance with ,himself and who met ,his fate for that reason4 ,this conception is at bottom identical with ,renan's4 ,but the stroke of genius in leaving the gap between eschatological and noneschatological elements unbridged sets this work1 as regards its critical foundation and historical presentment1 high above the smooth romance of the latter4 ,the course of ,jesus' life1 according to ,brandt1 was therefore as follows3 ,jesus was a teacher2 not only so1 but ,he took disciples in order to train them to be teachers4 8,this is in itself sufficient to show there was a period in ,his life in which ,his work was not determined by the thought of the immediate nearness of the decisive moment4 ,he sought men1 therefore1 who might become ,his fellowworkers4 ,he began to train disciples who1 if ,he did not ,himself live to see the ,day of the ,lord1 would be able after ,his death to carry on the work of educating the people along the lines which ,he had laid down40 8,then there occurred in ,judaea an event of which the rumour spread like wildfire throughout ,palestine4 ,a prophet arose--a thing which had not happened for centuries--a man who came forward as an envoy of ,god2 and this prophet proclaimed the immediate coming of the reign of ,god3 #8,repent that ye may escape the wrath of ,god4' 0 ,the ,baptist's great sermon on repentance falls1 according to ,brandt1 in the last period of the life of ,jesus4 ,we must assume1 he thinks1 that before ,john came forward in this dramatic fashion he had been a teacher1 and at that period of his life had numbered ,jesus among his pupils4 ,nevertheless his life previous to his public appearance must have been a rather obscure one4 ,when he suddenly launched out into this eschatological preaching of repentance 8he seemed like an ,elijah who had long ago been rapt away from the earth and now appeared once more40 ,from this point onwards ,jesus had to concentrate ,his activity1 for the time was short4 ,if ,he desired to effect anything and so far as possible to make the people1 before the coming of the end1 obedient to the will of ,god1 ,he must make ,jerusalem the startingpoint of ,his work4 8,only from this central position1 and only with the help of an authority which had at its disposal the whole synagogal system1 could ,he effect within a short time much1 perhaps all1 of what was needful4 ,so ,he determined on journeying to ,jerusalem with this end in view1 and with the fixed resolve there to carry into effect the will of ,god40 ,the journey to ,jerusalem was not therefore a pilgrimage of death4 8,so long as we are obliged to take the ,gospels as a true reflection of the history of ,jesus we must recognise with ,weizscker that ,jesus did not go to ,jerusalem in order to be put to death there1 nor did ,he go to keep the ,feast4 ,both suppositions are excluded by the vigour of his action in ,jerusalem1 and the bright colours of hope with which the picture of that period was painted in the recollection of those who had witnessed it40 ,we cannot therefore regard the predictions of the ,passion as historical1 or 8at most we might perhaps suppose that ,jesus in the consciousness of ,his innocence may have said to ,his disciples3 ',if ,i should die1 may ,god for the sake of ,my blood be merciful to you and to the people4'0 ,he went to ,jerusalem1 then1 to fulfil the will of ,god4 8,it was ,god's will that the preaching by which alone the people could be inwardly renewed and made into a real people of ,god should be recognised and organised by the national and religious authorities4 ,to effect this through the existing authorities1 or to realise it in some other way1 such was the task which ,jesus felt ,himself called on to perform40 ,with his eyes upon this goal1 behind which lay the near approach of the ,kingdom of ,god1 ,he set ,his face towards ,jerusalem4 8,but nothing could be more natural than that out of the belief that ,he was engaged in a work which ,god had willed1 there should arise an ever stronger belief in ,his personal vocation40 ,it was thus that the ,messianic consciousness entered into ,jesus' thoughts4 ,his conviction of ,his vocation had nothing to do with a political ,messiahship1 it was only gradually from the development of events that ,he was able to draw the inference that ,he was destined to the ,messianic sovereignty1 8it may have become more and more clear to ,him1 but it did not become a matter of absolute certainty40 ,it was only amid opposition1 in deep dejection1 in consequence of a powerful inner reaction against circumstances1 that ,he came to recognise ,himself with full conviction as the anointed of ,god4 ,when it began to be bruited about that ,he was the ,messiah1 the rulers had ,him arrested and handed ,him over to the ,procurator4 ,judas the traitor 8had only been a short time among ,his followers1 and only in those unquiet days at ,jerusalem when the ,master had scarcely any opportunity for private intercourse with him and for learning really to know him4 ,he had not been with ,jesus during the ,galilaean days1 and ,jesus was consequently nothing more to him than the future ruler of the ,kingdom of ,god40 ,after ,his death the disciples 8could not1 unless something occurred to restore their faith1 continue to believe in ,his ,messiahship40 ,jesus had taken away with ,him in ,his death the hopes which they had set upon ,him1 especially as ,he had not foretold ,his death1 much less ,his resurrection4 8,at first1 therefore1 it would be all in favour of ,his memory if the disciples remembered that ,he ,himself had never openly and definitely declared ,himself to be the ,messiah40 ,they returned to ,galilee4 8,simon ,peter1 and perhaps the son of ,zebedee1 who afterwards ranked along with him as a pillar of the ,church1 resolved to continue that preparation for their work which had been interrupted by their journey to ,jerusalem4 ,it seemed to them that if they were once more on ,galilaean soil the days which they had spent in the inhospitable ,jerusalem would cease to oppress their spirits with the leaden weight of sorrowful recollection4444 ,one might almost say that they had to make up their minds to give up ,jesus the author of the attempt to take ,jerusalem by storm2 but for ,jesus the gracious gentle ,galilaean teacher they kept a warm place in their hearts40 ,so love watched over the dead until hope was rekindled by the ,old ,testament promises and came to reawaken ,him4 8,the first who1 in an enthusiastic vision1 saw this wish fulfilled was ,simon ,peter40 ,this 8resurrection0 has nothing to do with the empty grave1 which1 like the whole narrative of the ,jerusalem appearances1 only came into the tradition later4 ,the first appearances took place in ,galilee4 ,it was there that the ,church was founded4 ,this attempt to grasp the connexion of events in the life of ,jesus from a purely historical point of view is one of the most important that have ever been made in this department of study4 ,if it had been put in a purely constructive form1 this criticism would have made an impression unequalled by any other ,life of ,jesus since ,renan's4 ,but in that case it would have lost that free play of ideas which the critical recognition of the unbridged gap admits4 ,the eschatological question is not1 it is true1 decided by this investigation4 ,it shows the impossibility of the previous attempts to establish a present ,messiahship of ,jesus1 but it shows1 too1 that the questions1 which are really historical questions1 concerning the public attitude of ,jesus1 are far from being solved by asserting the exclusively eschatological character of ,his preaching1 but that new difficulties are always presenting themselves4 ,it was perhaps not so much through these general ethicoreligious historical discussions as in consequence of certain exegetical problems which unexpectedly came to light that theologians became conscious that the old conception of the teaching of ,jesus was not tenable1 or was only tenable by violent means4 ,on the assumption of the modified eschatological character of ,his teaching1 ,jesus is still a teacher2 that is to say1 ,he speaks in order to be understood1 in order to explain1 and has no secrets4 ,but if ,his teaching is throughout eschatological1 then ,he is a prophet1 who points in mysterious speech to a coming age1 whose words conceal secrets and offer enigmas1 and are not intended to be understood always and by everybody4 ,attention was now turned to a number of passages in which the question arises whether ,jesus had any secrets to keep or not4 ,this question presents itself in connexion with the very earliest of the parables4 ,in ,mark iv4 #aa1 #ab it is distinctly stated that the parables spoken in the immediate context embody the mystery of the ,kingdom of ,god in an obscure and unintelligible form1 in order that those for whom it is not intended may hear without understanding4 ,but this is not borne out by the character of the parables themselves1 since we at least find in them the thought of the constant and victorious development of the ,kingdom from small beginnings to its perfect development4 ,after the passage had had to suffer many things from constantly renewed attempts to weaken down or explain away the statement1 ,jlicher1 in his work upon the ,parables17#agf7 released it from these tortures1 left ,jesus the parables in their natural meaning1 and put down this unintelligible saying about the purpose of the parabolic form of discourse to the account of the ,evangelist4 ,he would rather1 to use his own expression1 remove a little stone from the masonry of tradition than a diamond from the imperishable crown of honour which belongs to ,jesus4 ,yes1 but1 for all that1 it is an arbitrary assumption which damages the ,marcan hypothesis more than will be readily admitted4 ,what was the reason1 or what was the mistake which led the earliest ,evangelist to form so repellent a theory regarding the purpose of the parables8 ,is the progressive exaggeration of the contrast between veiled and open speech1 to which ,jlicher often appeals1 sufficient to account for it8 ,how can the ,evangelist have invented such a theory1 when he immediately proceeds to invalidate it by the rationalising1 rather commonplace explanation of the parable of the ,sower8 ,bernhard ,weiss1 not being so much under the influence of modern theology as to feel bound to recognise the paedagogic purpose in ,jesus1 gives the text its due1 and admits that ,jesus intended to use the parabolic form of discourse as a means of separating receptive from unreceptive hearers4 ,he does not say1 however1 what kind of secret1 intelligible only to the predestined1 was concealed in these parables which seem clear as daylight4 ,that was before ,johannes ,weiss had stated the eschatological question4 ,bousset1 in his criticism of the eschatological theory17#agg7 is obliged to fall back upon ,jlicher's method in order to justify the rationalising modern way of explaining these parables as pointing to a ,kingdom of ,god actually present4 ,it is true ,jlicher's explanation of the way in which the theory arose does not satisfy him2 he prefers to assume that the basis of this false theory of ,mark's is to be found in the fact that the parables concerning the presence of the ,kingdom remained unintelligible to the contemporaries of ,jesus4 ,but we may fairly ask that he should point out the connecting link between that failure to understand and the invention of a saying like this1 which implies so very much more6 ,if there are no better grounds than that for calling in question ,mark's theory of the parables1 then the parables of ,mark iv41 the only ones from which it is possible to extract the admission of a present ,kingdom of ,god1 remain what they were before1 namely1 mysteries4 ,the second volume of ,jlicher's 8,parables07#agh7 found the eschatological question already in possession of the field4 ,and1 as a matter of fact1 ,jlicher does abandon 8the heretofore current method of modernising the parables10 which finds in one after another of them only its own favourite conception of the slow and gradual development of the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,the ,kingdom of ,heaven is for ,jlicher a completely supernatural idea2 it is to be realised without human help and independently of the attitude of men1 by the sole power of ,god4 ,the parables of the mustard seed and the leaven are not intended to teach the disciples the necessity and wisdom of a development occupying a considerable time1 but are designed to make clear and vivid to them the idea that the period of perfecting and fulfilment will follow with superearthly necessity upon that of imperfection4 ,but in general the new problem plays no very special part in ,jlicher's exposition4 ,he takes up1 it might almost be said1 in relation to the parables1 too independent a position as a religious thinker to care to understand them against the background of a wholly different worldview1 and does not hesitate to exclude from the authentic discourses of ,jesus whatever does not suit him4 ,this is the fate1 for instance1 of the parable of the wicked husbandmen in ,mark xii4 ,he finds in it traits which read like vaticinia ex eventu1 and sees therefore in the whole thing only a prophetically expressed 8view of the history as it presented itself to an average man who had been present at the crucifixion of ,jesus and nevertheless believed in ,him as the ,son of ,god40 ,but this absolute method of explanation1 independent of any traditional order of time or events1 makes it impossible for the author to draw from the parables any general system of teaching4 ,he makes no distinction between the ,galilaean mystical parables and the polemical1 menacing ,jerusalem parables4 ,for instance1 he supposes the parable of the ,sower1 which according to ,mark was the very first of ,jesus' parabolic discourses1 to have been spoken as the result of a melancholy review of a preceding period of work1 and as expressing the conviction1 stamped upon ,his mind by the facts1 8that it was in accordance with higher laws that the word of ,god should have to reckon with defeats as well as victories40 ,accordingly he adopts in the main the explanation which the ,evangelist gives in ,mark iv4 #acbj4 ,the parable of the seed growing secretly is turned to account in favour of the 8present0 ,kingdom of ,god4 ,jlicher has an incomparable power of striking fire out of every one of the parables1 but the flame is of a different colour from that which it showed when ,jesus pronounced the parables before the enchanted multitude4 ,the problem posed by ,johannes ,weiss in connexion with the teaching of ,jesus is treated by ,jlicher only so far as it has a direct interest for the creative independence of his own religious thought4 ,alongside of the parabolic discourses of ,mark iv4 we have now to place1 as a newly discovered problem1 the discourse at the sending out of the ,twelve in ,matt4 x4 ,up to the time of ,johannes ,weiss it had been possible to rest content with transplanting the gloomy sayings regarding persecutions to the last period of ,jesus' life2 but now there was the further difficulty to be met that while so hasty a proclamation of the ,kingdom of ,god is quite reconcilable with an exclusively eschatological character of the preaching of the ,kingdom1 the moment this is at all minimised it becomes unintelligible1 not to mention the fact that in this case nothing can be made of the saying about the immediate coming of the ,son of ,man in ,matt4 x4 #bc4 ,as though he felt the stern eye of old ,reimarus upon him1 ,bousset hastens in a footnote to throw overboard the whole report of the mission of the ,twelve as an 8obscure and unintelligible tradition40 ,not content with that1 he adds3 8,perhaps the whole narrative is merely an expansion of some direction about missionising given by ,jesus to the disciples in view of a later time40 ,before1 it was only the discourse which was unhistorical2 now it is the whole account of the mission--at least if we may assume that here1 as is usual with theologians of all times1 the author's real opinion is expressed in the footnote1 and his most cherished opinion of all introduced with 8perhaps40 ,but how much historical material will remain to modern theologians in the ,gospels if they are forced to abandon it wholesale from their objection to pure eschatology8 ,if all the pronouncements of this kind to which the representatives of the ,marcan hypothesis have committed themselves were collected together1 they would make a book which would be much more damaging even than that book of ,wrede's which dropped a bomb into their midst4 ,a third problem is offered by the saying in ,matt4 xi4 #ab1 about 8the violent0 who1 since the time of ,john the ,baptist1 8take the ,kingdom of ,heaven by force10 which raises fresh difficulties for the exegetical art4 ,it is true that if art sufficed1 we should not have long to wait for the solution in this case4 ,we should be asked to content ourselves with one or other of the artificial solutions with which exegetes have been accustomed from of old to find a way round this difficulty4 ,usually the saying is claimed as supporting the 8presence0 of the ,kingdom4 ,this is the line taken by ,wendt1 ,wernle1 and ,arnold ,meyer47#agi7 ,according to the last named it means3 8,from the days of ,john the ,baptist it has been possible to get possession of the ,kingdom of ,god2 yea1 the righteous are every day earning it for their own40 ,but no explanation has heretofore succeeded in making it in any degree intelligible how ,jesus could date the presence of the ,kingdom from the ,baptist1 whom in the same breath ,he places outside of the ,kingdom1 or why1 in order to express so simple an idea1 ,he uses such entirely unnatural and inappropriate expressions as 8rape0 and 8wrest to themselves40 ,the full difficulties of the passage are first exhibited by ,johannes ,weiss47#ahj7 ,he restores it to its natural sense1 according to which it means that since that time the ,kingdom suffers1 or is subjected to1 violence1 and in order to be able to understand it literally he has to take it in a condemnatory sense4 ,following ,alexander ,schweizer17#aha7 he sums up his interpretation in the following sentence3 ,jesus describes1 and in the form of the description shows ,his condemnation of1 a violent ,zealotistic ,messianic movement which has been in progress since the days of the ,baptist47#ahb7 ,but this explanation again makes ,jesus express a very simple meaning in a very obscure phrase4 ,and what indication is there that the sense is condemnatory8 ,where do we hear anything more about a ,zealotic ,messianic movement1 of which the ,baptist formed the startingpoint8 ,his preaching certainly offered no incentive to such a movement1 and ,jesus' attitude towards the ,baptist is elsewhere1 even in ,jerusalem1 entirely one of approval4 ,moreover1 a condemnatory saying of this kind would not have been closed with the distinctive formula3 8,he that hath ears to hear let him hear0 7,matt4 xi4 #ae71 which elsewhere1 cf4 ,mark iv4 #i1 indicates a mystery4 ,we must1 therefore1 accept the conclusion that we really do not understand the saying1 that we 8have not ears to hear it10 that we do not know sufficiently well the essential character of the ,kingdom of ,god1 to understand why ,jesus describes the coming of the ,kingdom as a doing violencetoit1 which has been in progress since the days of the ,baptist1 especially as the hearers themselves do not seem to have cared1 or been able1 to understand what was the connexion of the coming with the violence2 nor do we know why ,he expects them to understand how the ,baptist is identical with ,elias4 ,but the problem which became most prominent of all the new problems raised by eschatology1 was the question concerning the ,son of ,man4 ,it had become a dogma of theology that ,jesus used the term ,son of ,man to veil ,his ,messiahship2 that is to say1 every theologian found in this term whatever meaning he attached to the ,messiahship of ,jesus1 the human1 humble1 ethical1 unpolitical1 unapocalyptic1 or whatever other character was held to be appropriate to the orthodox 8transformed0 ,messiahship4 ,the ,danielic ,son of ,man entered into the conception only so far as it could do so without endangering the other characteristics4 ,confronted with the ,similitudes of ,enoch1 theologians fell back upon the expedient of assuming them to be spurious1 or at least workedover in a ,christian sense in the ,son of ,man passages1 just as the older history of dogma got rid of the ,ignatian letters1 of which it could make nothing1 by denying their genuineness4 ,but once the ,jewish eschatology was seriously applied to the explanation of the ,son of ,man conception1 all was changed4 ,a new dilemma presented itself2 either ,jesus used the expression1 and used it in a purely ,jewish apocalyptic sense1 or ,he did not use it at all4 ,although ,baldensperger did not state the dilemma in its full trenchancy1 ,hilgenfeld thought it necessary to defend ,jesus against the suspicion of having borrowed ,his system of thought and ,his selfdesignation from ,jewish ,apocalypses47#ahc7 ,orello ,cone1 too1 will not admit that the expression ,son of ,man has only apocalyptic suggestion in the mouth of ,jesus1 but will have it interpreted according to ,mark ii4 #aj and #bh1 where ,his pure humanity is the idea which is emphasised47#ahd7 ,oort holds1 more logically1 that ,jesus did not use it1 but that the disciples took the expression from 8the ,gospel0 and put it into the mouth of ,jesus47#ahe7 ,johannes ,weiss formulated the problem clearly1 and proposed that1 with the exception of the two passages where ,son of ,man means man in general1 only those should be recognised in which the significance attached to the term in ,daniel and the ,apocalypses is demanded by the context4 ,by so doing he set theology a problem calculated to keep it occupied for many years4 ,not many indeed at first recognised the problem4 ,charles1 however1 meets it in a bold fashion1 proposing to regard the ,son of ,man1 in ,jesus' usage of the title1 as a conception in which the ,messiah of the ,book of ,enoch and the ,servant of the ,lord in ,isaiah are united into one47#ahf7 ,most writers1 however1 did not free themselves from inconsistencies4 ,they wanted at one and the same time to make the apocalyptic element dominant in the expression1 and to hold that ,jesus could not have taken the conception over unaltered1 but must have transformed it in some way4 ,these inconsistencies necessarily result from the assumption of ,weiss's opponents that ,jesus intended to designate ,himself as ,messiah in the actual present4 ,for since the expression ,son of ,man has in itself only an apocalyptic sense referring to the future1 they had to invent another sense applicable to the present1 which ,jesus might have inserted into it4 ,in all these learned discussions of the title ,son of ,man this operation is assumed to have been performed4 ,according to ,bousset1 ,jesus created1 and embodied in this term1 a new form of the ,messianic ideal which united the superearthly with the human and lowly4 ,in any case1 he thinks1 the term has a meaning applicable in this present world4 ,jesus uses it at once to conceal and to suggest ,his ,messianic dignity4 ,how conscious ,bousset1 nevertheless1 is of the difficulty is evident from the fact that in discussing the meaning of the title he remarks that the ,messianic significance must have been of subordinate importance in the estimation of ,jesus1 and cannot have formed the basis of ,his actions1 otherwise ,he would have laid more stress upon it in ,his preaching4 ,as if the term ,son of ,man had not meant for ,his contemporaries all ,he needed to say6 ,bousset's essay on ,jewish ,apocalyptic17#ahg7 published in #aijc1 seeks the solution in a rather different direction1 by postponing1 namely1 to the very last possible moment the adoption of this selfdesignation4 8,in all probability ,jesus in a few isolated sayings towards the close of ,his life hit upon this title ,son of ,man as a means of expressing1 in the face of the thought of defeat and death1 which forced itself upon ,him1 ,his confidence in the abiding victory of ,his person and ,his cause40 ,if this is so1 the emphasis must be principally on the triumphant apocalyptic aspects of the title4 ,even this belated adoption of the title ,son of ,man is more than ,brandt is willing to admit1 and he holds it to be improbable that ,jesus used the expression at all4 ,it would be more natural1 he thinks1 to suppose that the ,evangelist ,mark introduced this selfdesignation1 as he introduced so much else1 into the ,gospel on the ground of the figurative apocalyptic discourses in the ,gospel4 ,just when ingenuity appeared to have exhausted itself in attempts to solve the most difficult of the problems raised by the eschatological school1 the historical discussion suddenly seemed about to be rendered objectless4 ,philology entered a caveat4 ,in #ahif appeared ,lietzmann's essay upon 8,the ,son of ,man10 which consisted of an investigation of the linguistic basis of the enigmatic selfdesignation4 ,,xvii4 ,,questions ,,regarding ,,the ,,aramaic ,,language1 ,,rabbinic ,,parallels1 ,,and ,,buddhistic ,,influence ,arnold ,meyer4 ,jesu ,muttersprache4 7,the ,mother ,tongue of ,jesus47 ,leipzig1 #ahif4 #aff pp4 ,hans ,lietzmann4 ,der ,menschensohn4 ,ein ,beitrag zur neutestamentlichen ,theologie4 7,the ,son of ,man4 ,a ,contribution to ,new ,testament ,theology47 ,freiburg1 #ahif4 #ie pp4 ,j4 ,wellhausen4 ,israelitische und jdische ,geschichte4 7,history of ,israel and the ,jews47 #crd ed41 #ahig2 #dth ed41 #aija4 #cid pp4 ,gustaf ,dalman4 ,grammatik des jdischpalstinensischen ,aramisch4 7,grammar of ,jewish,palestinian ,aramaic47 ,leipzig1 #ahid4 ,die ,worte ,jesu4 ,mit ,bercksichtigung des nachkanonischen jdischen ,schrifttums und der aramischen ,sprache4 7,the ,sayings of ,jesus considered in connexion with the postcanonical ,jewish writings and the ,aramaic ,language47 ,i4 ,introduction and certain leading conceptions3 with an appendix on ,messianic texts4 ,leipzig1 #ahih4 #cji pp4 ,a4 ,wnsche4 ,neue ,beitrge zur ,erluterung der ,evangelien aus ,talmud und ,midrasch4 7,new ,contributions to the ,explanation of the ,gospels1 from ,talmud and ,midrash47 ,gttingen1 #ahgh4 #eff pp4 ,ferdinand ,weber4 ,system der altsynagogalen palstinensischen ,theologie4 7,system of ,theology of the ,ancient ,palestinian ,synagogue47 ,leipzig1 #ahhj4 #cii pp4 #bnd ed41 #ahig4 ,rudolf ,seydel4 ,das ,evangelium ,jesu in seinen ,verhltnissen zur ,buddha,sage und ,buddha,lehre4 7,the ,gospel of ,jesus in its relations to the ,buddha,legend and the ,teaching of ,buddha47 ,leipzig1 #ahhb4 #ccg pp4 ,die ,buddha,legende und das ,leben ,jesu nach den ,evangelien4 ,erneute ,prfung ihres gegenseitigen ,verhltnisses4 7,the ,buddha,legend and the ,life of ,jesus in the ,gospels4 ,a ,new ,examination of their ,mutual ,relations47 #bnd ed41 #ahig4 #abi pp4 ,only since the appearance of ,dalman's ,grammar of ,jewish ,palestinian ,aramaic in #ahid have we really known what was the dialect in which the ,beatitudes of the ,sermon on the ,mount were spoken4 ,this work closes a discussion which had been proceeding for centuries on a line parallel to that of theology proper1 and which1 according to the clear description of ,arnold ,meyer1 ran its course somewhat as follows47#ahh7 ,the question regarding the language spoken by ,jesus had been vigorously discussed in the sixteenth century4 ,up till that time no one had known what to make of the tradition recorded by ,eusebius that the speech of the apostles had been 8,syrian0 since the distinction between ,syrian1 ,hebrew1 and 8,chaldee0 was not understood and all three designations were used indiscriminately4 ,light was first thrown upon the question by ,joseph ,justus ,scaliger 7 #afji74 ,in the year #aeee1 ,joh4 ,alb4 ,widmanstadt1 ,chancellor of ,ferdinand ,i41 had published the ,syriac translation of the ,bible in fulfilment of the wishes of an old scholar of ,bologna1 ,theseus ,ambrosius1 who had left him the manuscript as a sacred legacy4 ,he himself and his contemporaries believed that in this they had the ,gospel in the mothertongue of ,jesus1 until ,scaliger1 in one of his letters1 gave a clear sketch of the ,syrian dialects1 distinguished ,syriac from ,chaldee1 and further drew a distinction between the ,babylonian ,chaldee and ,jewish ,chaldee of the ,targums1 and in the language of the ,targums itself distinguished an earlier from a later stratum4 ,the apostles spoke1 according to ,scaliger1 a ,galilaean dialect of ,chaldaic1 or according to the more correct nomenclature introduced later1 following a suggestion of ,scaliger's1 a dialect of ,aramaic1 and1 in addition to that1 the ,syriac of ,antioch4 ,next1 ,hugo ,grotius put in a strong plea for a distinction between ,jewish and ,antiochian ,syriac4 ,into the confusion caused at that time by the use of the term 8,hebrew0 some order was introduced by the ,leyden ,calvinistic professor ,claude ,saumaise1 who1 writing in ,french1 emphasised the point that the ,new ,testament1 and the ,early ,fathers1 when they speak of ,hebrew1 mean ,syriac1 since ,hebrew had become completely unknown to the ,jews of that period4 ,brian ,walton1 the editor of the ,london polyglot1 which was completed in #afeg1 supposed that the dialect of ,onkelos and ,jonathan was the language of ,jesus1 being under the impression that both these ,targums were written in the time of ,jesus4 ,the growing knowledge of the distinction between ,hebrew and ,aramaic did not prevent the ,vienna ,jesuit ,inchofer 7 #afdh7 from maintaining that ,jesus spoke--,latin6 ,the ,lord cannot have used any other language upon earth1 since this is the language of the saints in heaven4 ,on the ,protestant side1 ,vossius1 opposing ,richard ,simon1 endeavoured to establish the thesis that ,greek was the language of ,jesus1 being partly inspired by the apologetic purpose of preventing the authenticity of the discourses and sayings of ,jesus from being weakened by supposing them to have been translated from ,aramaic into ,greek1 but also rightly recognising the importance which the ,greek language must have assumed at that time in northern ,palestine1 through which there passed such important trade routes4 ,this view was brought up again by the ,neapolitan legal scholar1 ,dominicus ,diodati1 in his book ,de ,christo ,graece loquente1 #agfg1 who added some interesting material concerning the importance of the ,greek language at the period and in the native district of ,jesus4 ,but five years later1 in #aggb1 this view was thoroughly refuted by ,giambernardo de ,rossi17#ahi7 who argued convincingly that among a people so separate and so conservative as the ,jews the native language cannot possibly have been wholly driven out4 ,the apostles wrote ,greek for the sake of foreign readers4 ,in the year #agib1 ,johann ,adrian ,bolten1 8first collegiate pastor at the principal church in ,altona0 7 #ahjg71 made the first attempt to retranslate the sayings of ,jesus into the original tongue47#aij7 ,the certainly original ,greek of the ,epistles and the ,johannine literature was a strong argument against the attempt to recognise no language save ,aramaic as known to ,jesus and ,his disciples4 ,paulus the rationalist1 therefore1 sought a middle path1 and explained that while the ,aramaic dialect was indeed the native language of ,jesus1 ,greek had become so generally current among the population of ,galilee1 and still more of ,jerusalem1 that the founders of ,christianity could use this language when they found it needful to do so4 ,his ,catholic contemporary1 ,hug1 came to a similar conclusion4 ,in the course of the nineteenth century ,aramaic--known down to the time of ,michaelis as 8,chaldee07#aia7--was more thoroughly studied4 ,the various branches of this language and the history of its progress became more or less clearly recognisable4 ,kautzsch's grammar of ,biblical ,aramaic7#aib7 7#ahhd7 and ,dalman's7#aic7 work embody the result of these studies4 8,the ,aramaic language10 explains ,meyer1 8is a branch of the ,north ,semitic1 the linguistic stock to which also belong the ,assyrio,babylonian language in the ,east1 and the ,canaanitish languages1 including ,hebrew1 in the ,west1 while the ,south ,semitic languages--the ,arabic and ,aethiopic--form a group by themselves40 ,the users of these languages1 the ,aramaeans1 were seated in historic times between the ,babylonians and ,canaanites1 the area of their distribution extending from the foot of ,lebanon and ,hermon in a north easterly direction as far as ,mesopotamia1 where 8,aram of the two rivers0 forms their easternmost province4 ,their immigration into these regions forms the third epoch of the ,semitic migrations1 which probably lasted from #afjj ,b4,c4 down to #fjj4 ,the ,aramaic states had no great stability4 ,the most important of them was the kingdom of ,damascus1 which at a certain period was so dangerous an enemy to northern ,israel4 ,in the end1 however1 the ,aramaean dynasties were crushed1 like the two ,israelitish kingdoms1 between the upper and nether millstones of ,babylon and ,egypt4 ,in the time of the successors of ,alexander1 there arose in these regions the ,syrian kingdom2 which in turn gave place to the ,roman power4 ,but linguistically the ,aramaeans conquered the whole of ,western ,asia4 ,in the course of the first millennium ,b4,c4 ,aramaic became the language of commerce and diplomacy1 as ,babylonian had been during the second4 ,it was only the rise of ,greek as a universal language which put a term to these conquests of the ,aramaic4 ,in the year #gja ,b4,c4 ,aramaic had not yet penetrated to ,judaea4 ,when the rabshakeh 7officer7 sent by ,sennacherib addressed the envoys of ,hezekiah in ,hebrew1 they begged him to speak ,aramaic in order that the men upon the wall might not understand47#aid7 ,for the postexilic period the ,aramaic edicts in the ,book of ,ezra and inscriptions on ,persian coins show that throughout wide districts of the new empire ,aramaic had made good its position as the language of common intercourse4 ,its domain extended from the ,euxine southwards as far as ,egypt1 and even into ,egypt itself4 ,samaria and the ,hauran adopted it4 ,only the ,greek towns and ,phoenicia resisted4 ,the influence of ,aramaic upon ,jewish literature begins to be noticeable about the year #fjj4 ,jeremiah and ,ezekiel1 writing in a foreign land in an ,aramaic environment1 are the first witnesses to its supremacy4 ,in the northern part of the country1 owing to the immigration of foreign colonists after the destruction of the northern kingdom1 it had already gained a hold upon the common people4 ,in the ,book of ,daniel1 written in the year #afg ,b4,c41 the ,hebrew and ,aramaic languages alternate4 ,perhaps1 indeed1 we ought to assume an ,aramaic grounddocument as the basis of this work4 ,at what time ,aramaic became the common popular speech in the postexilic community we cannot exactly discover4 ,under ,nehemiah 8,judaean10 that is to say1 ,hebrew1 was still spoken in ,jerusalem2 in the time of the ,maccabees ,aramaic seems to have wholly driven out the ancient national language4 ,evidence for this is to be found in the occurrence of ,aramaic passages in the ,talmud1 from which it is evident that the ,rabbis used this language in the religious instruction of the people4 ,the provision that the text1 after being read in ,hebrew1 should be interpreted to the people1 may quite well reach back into the time of ,jesus4 ,the first evidence for the practice is in the ,mishna1 about ,a4,d4 #aej4 ,in the time of ,jesus three languages met in ,galilee--,hebrew1 ,aramaic1 and ,greek4 ,in what relation they stood to each other we do not know1 since ,josephus1 the only writer who could have told us1 fails us in this point1 as he so often does elsewhere4 ,he informs us that when acting as an envoy of ,titus he spoke to the people of ,jerusalem in the ancestral language1 and the word he uses is 4 ,but the very thing we should like to know--whether1 namely1 this language was ,aramaic or ,hebrew1 he does not tell us4 ,we are left in the same uncertainty by the passage in ,acts 7xxii4 #b7 which says that ,paul spoke to the people 1 thereby gaining their attention1 for there is no indication whether the language was ,aramaic or ,hebrew4 ,for the writers of that period 8,hebrew0 simply means ,jewish4 ,we cannot1 therefore1 be sure in what relation the ancient ,hebrew sacred language and the ,aramaic of ordinary intercourse stood to one another as regards religious writings and religious instruction4 ,did the ordinary man merely learn by heart a few verses1 prayers1 and psalms8 ,or was ,hebrew1 as the language of the cultus1 also current in wider circles8 ,dalman gives a number of examples of works written in ,hebrew in the century which witnessed the birth of ,christ3 8,a ,hebrew original10 he says1 8must be assumed in the case of the main part of the ,aethiopic book of ,enoch1 the ,assumption of ,moses1 the ,apocalypse of ,baruch1 ,fourth ,ezra1 the ,book of ,jubilees1 and for the ,jewish grounddocument of the ,testament of the ,twelve ,patriarchs1 of which ,m4 ,gaster has discovered a ,hebrew manuscript40 ,the first ,book of ,maccabees1 too1 seems to him to go back to a ,hebrew original4 ,nevertheless1 he holds it to be impossible that synagogue discourses intended for the people can have been delivered in ,hebrew1 or that ,jesus taught otherwise than in ,aramaic4 ,franz ,delitzsch's view1 on the other hand1 is that ,jesus and the disciples taught in ,hebrew2 and that is the opinion of ,resch also4 ,adolf ,neubauer17#aie7 ,reader in ,rabbinical ,hebrew at ,oxford1 attempted a compromise4 ,it was certainly the case1 he thought1 that in the time of ,jesus ,aramaic was spoken throughout ,palestine2 but whereas in ,galilee this language had an exclusive dominance1 and the knowledge of ,hebrew was confined to texts learned by heart1 in ,jerusalem ,hebrew had renewed itself by the adoption of ,aramaic elements1 and a kind of ,neo,hebraic language had arisen4 ,this solution at least testifies to the difficulty of the question4 ,the fact is that from the language of the ,new ,testament it is often difficult to make out whether the underlying words are ,hebrew or ,aramaic4 ,thus1 for instance1 ,dalman remarks--with reference to the question whether the statement of ,papias refers to a ,hebrew or an ,aramaic 8primitive ,matthew0--that it is difficult 8to produce proof of an ,aramaic as distinct from a ,hebrew source1 because it is often the case in ,biblical ,hebrew1 and still more often in the idiom of the ,mishna1 that the same expressions and forms of phrase are possible as in ,aramaic40 ,delitzsch's7#aif7 8retranslation0 of the ,new ,testament into ,hebrew is therefore historically justified4 ,but the question about the language of ,jesus must not be confused with the problem of the original language of the primitive form of ,matthew's ,gospel4 ,in reference to the latter1 ,dalman thinks that the tradition of the ,early ,church regarding an earlier ,aramaic form of the ,gospel must be considered as lacking confirmation4 8,it is only in the case of ,jesus' own words that an ,aramaic original form is undeniable1 and it is only for these that ,early ,church tradition asserted the existence of a ,semitic documentary source4 ,it is1 therefore1 the right and duty of ,biblical scholarship to investigate the form which the sayings of ,jesus must have taken in the original and the sense which in this form they must have conveyed to ,jewish hearers40 ,that ,jesus spoke ,aramaic1 ,meyer has shown by collecting all the ,aramaic expressions which occur in ,his preaching47#aig7 ,he considers the 8,abba0 in ,gethsemane decisive1 for this means that ,jesus prayed in ,aramaic in ,his hour of bitterest need4 ,again the cry from the cross was1 according to ,mark xv4 #cd1 also ,aramaic3 1 1 4 ,the ,old ,testament was therefore most familiar to ,him in an ,aramaic translation1 otherwise this form of the ,psalm passage would not have come to ,his lips at the moment of death4 ,it is a quite independent question whether ,jesus could speak1 or at least understand1 ,greek4 ,according to ,josephus the knowledge of ,greek in ,palestine at that time1 even among educated ,jews1 can only have been of a quite elementary character4 ,he himself had to learn it laboriously in order to be able to write in it4 ,his 8,jewish ,war0 was first written in ,aramaic for his fellowcountrymen2 the ,greek edition was1 by his own avowal1 not intended for them4 ,in another passage1 it is true1 he seems to imply a knowledge of1 and interest in1 foreign languages even among people in humble life47#aih7 ,an analogy1 which is in many respects very close1 to the linguistic conditions in ,palestine was offered by ,alsace under ,french rule in the 'sixties of the nineteenth century4 ,here1 too1 three languages met in the same district4 ,the ,high,german of ,luther's translation of the ,bible was the language of the ,church1 the ,alemannic dialect was the usual speech of the people1 while ,french was the language of culture and of government administration4 ,this remarkable analogy would be rather in favour--if analogy can be admitted to have any weight in the question--of ,delitzsch and ,resch1 since the ,biblical ,high,german1 although never spoken in social intercourse1 strongly influenced the ,alemannic dialect--although this was1 on the other hand1 quite uninfluenced by ,modern ,high,german--but did not allow it to penetrate into ,church or school1 there maintaining for itself an undivided sway4 ,french made some progress1 but only in certain circles1 and remained entirely excluded from the religious sphere4 ,the ,alsatians of the poorer classes who could at that time have repeated the ,lord's ,prayer or the ,beatitudes in ,french would not have been difficult to count4 ,the ,lutheran translation still holds its own to some extent against the ,french translation with the older generation of the ,alsatian community in ,paris1 which has in other respects become completely ,french--so strong is the influence of a former ecclesiastical language even among those who have left their native home4 ,there is one factor1 however1 which is not represented in the analogy2 the influence of the ,greekspeaking ,jews of the ,diaspora1 who gathered to the ,feasts at ,jerusalem1 upon the extension of the ,greek language in the mothercountry4 ,jesus1 then1 spoke ,galilaean ,aramaic1 which is known to us as a separate dialect from writings of the fourth to the seventh century4 ,for the ,judaean dialect we have more and earlier evidence4 ,we have literary monuments in it from the first to the third century4 8,it is very probable10 ,dalman thinks1 8that the popular dialect of ,northern ,palestine1 after the final fall of the ,judaean centre of the ,aramaic,jewish culture1 which followed on the ,bar,cochba rising1 spread over almost the whole of ,palestine40 ,the retranslations into ,aramaic are therefore justified4 ,after ,j4 ,a4 ,bolten's attempt had remained for nearly a hundred years the only one of its kind1 the experiment has been renewed in our own time by ,j4 ,t4 ,marshall1 ,e4 ,nestle1 ,j4 ,wellhausen1 ,arnold ,meyer1 and ,gustaf ,dalman2 in the case of ,marshall and ,nestle with the subsidiary purpose of endeavouring to prove the existence of an ,aramaic documentary source4 ,these retranslations first attracted their due meed of attention from theologians in connexion with the ,sonof,man question4 ,rarely1 if ever1 have theologians experienced such a surprise as was sprung upon them by ,hans ,lietzmann's essay in #ahif47aii7 ,jesus had never1 so ran the thesis of the ,bonn candidate in theology1 applied to ,himself the title ,son of ,man1 because in the ,aramaic the title did not exist1 and on linguistic grounds could not have existed4 ,in the language which ,he used1 was merely a periphrasis for 8a man40 ,that ,jesus meant ,himself when ,he spoke of the ,son of ,man1 none of ,his hearers could have suspected4 ,lietzmann had not been without predecessors47#bjj7 ,gilbert ,gnbrard1 who died ,archbishop of ,aix as long ago as #aeig1 had emphasised the point that the term ,son of ,man should not be interpreted with reference solely to ,christ1 but to the race of mankind4 ,hugo ,grotius maintained the same position even more emphatically4 ,with a quite modern onesidedness1 ,paulus the rationalist maintained in his commentaries and in his ,life of ,jesus that according to ,ezek4 ii4 #a 8,barnash0 meant man in general4 ,jesus1 he thought1 whenever ,he used the expression the ,son of ,man1 pointed to ,himself and thus gave it the sense of 8this man40 ,in taking this line he gives up the general reference to mankind as a whole for which ,mark ii4 #bh is generally cited as the classical passage4 ,the suggestion that the term ,son of ,man in its apocalyptic signification was first attributed to ,jesus at a later time and that the passages where it occurs in this sense are therefore suspicious1 was first put forward by ,fr4 ,aug4 ,fritzsche4 ,he hoped in this way to get rid of ,matt4 x4 #bc4 ,de ,lagarde1 like ,paulus1 emphatically asserted that ,son of ,man only meant man4 ,but instead of the clumsy explanation of the rationalist he gave another and a more pleasing one1 namely1 that ,jesus by choosing this title designed to ennoble mankind4 ,wellhausen1 in his 8,history of ,israel and of the ,jews0 7#ahid71 remarked on it as strange that ,jesus should have called ,himself 8the ,man40 ,b4 ,d4 ,eerdmans1 taking the apocalyptic significance of the term as his startingpoint1 attempted to carry out consistently the theory of the later interpolation of this title into the sayings of ,jesus47#bja7 ,thus ,lietzmann had predecessors2 but they were not so in any real sense4 ,they had either started out from the ,marcan passage where the ,son of ,man is described as the ,lord of the ,sabbath1 and endeavoured arbitrarily to interpret all the ,sonof,man passages in the same sense2 or they assumed without sufficient grounds that the title ,son of ,man was a later interpolation4 ,the new idea consisted in combining the two attempts1 and declaring the passages about the ,son of ,man to be linguistically and historically impossible1 seeing that1 on linguistic grounds1 8son of man0 means 8man40 ,arnold ,meyer and ,wellhausen expressed themselves in the same sense as ,lietzmann4 ,the passages where ,jesus uses the expression in an unmistakably ,messianic sense are1 according to them1 to be put down to the account of ,early ,christian theology4 ,the only passages which in their opinion are historically tenable are the two or three in which the expression denotes man in general1 or is equivalent to the simple 8,i40 ,these latter were felt to be a difficulty by the ,church when it came to think in ,greek1 since this way of speaking of oneself was strange to them2 consequently the expression appeared to them deliberately enigmatic and only capable of being interpreted in the sense which it bears in ,daniel4 ,the ,sonof,man conception1 argued ,lietzmann1 when he again approached the question two years later1 had arisen in a ,hellenistic environment17#bjb7 on the basis of ,dan4 vii4 #ac2 ,n4 ,schmidt17#bjc7 too1 saw in the apocalyptic ,bar,nasha passages which follow the revelation of the ,messiahship at ,caesarea ,philippi an interpolation from the later apocalyptic theology4 ,on the other hand1 ,p4 ,schmiedel still wished to make it a ,messianic designation1 and to take it as being historical in this sense even in passages in which the term man 8gave a possible sense407#bjd7 ,h4 ,gunkel thought that it was possible to translate ,bar,nasha simply by 8man10 and nevertheless hold to the historicity of the expression as a selfdesignation of ,jesus4 ,jesus1 he suggests1 had borrowed this enigmatic term1 which goes back to ,dan4 vii4 #ac1 from the mystical apocalyptic literature1 meaning thereby to indicate that ,he was the ,man of ,god in contrast to the ,man of ,sin47#bje7 ,holtzmann felt a kind of relief in handing over to the philologists the obstinate problem which since the time of ,baldensperger and ,weiss had caused so much trouble to theologians1 and wanted to postpone the historical discussion until the ,aramaic experts had settled the linguistic question4 ,that happened sooner than was expected4 ,in #ahih ,dalman declared in his epochmaking work 7,die ,worte ,jesu7 that he could not admit the linguistic objections to the use of the expression ,son of ,man by ,jesus4 8,biblical ,aramaic10 he says1 8does not differ in this respect from ,hebrew4 ,the simple and not is the term for man40444 ,it was only later that the ,jewish,galilaean dialect1 like the ,palestinian,christian dialect1 used for man1 though in both idioms the simple occurs in the sense of 8some one40 8,in view of the whole facts of the case10 he continues1 8what has to be said is that ,jewish,palestinian ,aramaic of the earlier period used for #8man1' and occasionally to designate a plurality of men makes use of the expression 4 ,the singular was not current1 and was only used in imitation of the ,hebrew text of the ,bible1 where belongs to the poetic diction1 and is1 moreover1 not of very frequent occurrence40 8,it is10 he says elsewhere1 8by no means a sign of a sound historical method1 instead of working patiently at the solution of the problem1 to hasten like ,oort and ,lietzmann to the conclusion that the absence of the expression in the ,new ,testament ,epistles is a proof that ,jesus did not use it either1 but that there was somewhere or other a ,hellenistic community in the ,early ,church which had a predilection for this name1 and often made ,jesus speak of ,himself in the ,gospel narrative in the third person1 in order to find an opportunity of bringing it in40 ,so the oxen turned back with the ark into the land of the ,philistines4 ,it was a case of returning to the startingpoint and deciding on historical grounds in what sense ,jesus had used the expression47#bjf7 ,but the possibilities were reduced by the way in which ,lietzmann had posed the problem1 since the interpretations according to which ,jesus had used it in a veiled ethical ,messianic sense1 to indicate the ethical and spiritual transformation of all the eschatological conceptions1 were now manifestly incapable of offering any convincing argument against the radical denial of the use of the expression4 ,baldensperger rightly remarked in a review of the whole discussion that the question which was ultimately at stake in the combat over the title ,son of ,man was the question whether ,jesus was the ,messiah or no1 and that ,dalman1 by his proof of its linguistic possibility1 had saved the ,messiahship of ,jesus47#bjg7 ,but what kind of ,messiahship8 ,is it any other kind than the future ,messiahship of the apocalyptic ,son of ,man which ,johannes ,weiss had asserted8 ,did ,jesus mean anything different by the ,son of ,man from that which was meant by the apocalyptic writers8 ,to put it otherwise3 behind the ,sonof,man problem there lies the general question whether ,jesus can have described ,himself as a present ,messiah2 for the fundamental difficulty is that ,he1 a man upon earth1 should give ,himself out to be the ,son of ,man1 and at the same time apparently give to that title a quite different sense from that which it previously possessed4 ,the champion of the linguistic possibility of this selfdesignation made the last serious attempt to render the transformation of the conception historically conceivable4 ,he argues that ,jesus cannot have used it as a mere meaningless expression1 a periphrasis for the simple ,i47#bjh7 ,on the other hand1 the term cannot have been understood by the disciples as an exalted title1 or at least only in the sense that the title indicative of exaltation is paradoxically connected with the title indicative of humility4 8,we shall be justified in saying1 that1 for the ,synoptic ,evangelists1 #8,man's ,son' was no title of honour for the ,messiah1 but--as it must necessarily appear to a ,hellenist--a veiling of ,his ,messiahship under a name which emphasises the humanity of its bearer40 ,for them it was not the references to the sufferings of 8,man's ,son0 that were paradoxical1 but the references to ,his exaltation3 that 8,man's ,son0 should be put to death is not wonderful2 what is wonderful is ,his 8coming again upon the clouds of heaven40 ,if ,jesus called ,himself the ,son of ,man1 the only conclusion which could be drawn by those that heard ,him was1 8that for some reason or other ,he desired to describe ,himself as a ,man par excellence40 ,there is no reason to think of the ,heavenly ,son of ,man of the ,similitudes of ,enoch and ,fourth ,ezra2 that conception could hardly be present to the minds of ,his auditors4 8,how was one who was now walking upon earth1 to come from heaven8 ,he would have needed first to be translated thither4 ,one who had died or been rapt away from earth might be brought back to earth again in this way1 or a being who had never before been upon earth1 might be conceived as descending thither40 ,but if1 on the one hand1 the title ,son of ,man was not to be understood apart from the reference to the passage in ,daniel1 while on the other ,jesus so designated ,himself as a man actually present upon earth1 8what was really implied was that ,he was the man in whom ,daniel's vision of #8one like unto a ,son of ,man' was being fulfilled40 ,he could not certainly expect from ,his hearers a complete understanding of the selfdesignation4 8,we are doubtless justified in saying that in using it1 ,he intentionally offered them an enigma which challenged further reflection upon ,his ,person40 ,according to ,peter's confession the name was intelligible to the disciples as coming from ,dan4 vii4 #ac1 and obviously indicating ,him who was destined to the sovereignty of the world4 ,jesus calls ,himself the ,son of ,man1 8not as meaning the lowly one1 but as a scion of the human race with its human weakness1 whom nevertheless ,god will make ,lord of the world2 and it is very probable that ,jesus found the ,son of ,man of ,dan4 vii4 in ,ps4 viii4 #e ff4 also40 ,sayings regarding humiliation and suffering could be attached to the title just as well as references to exaltation4 ,for since the 8,child of ,man0 has placed ,himself upon the throne of ,god1 ,he is in reality no longer a mere man1 but ruler over heaven and earth1 8the ,lord40 ,this attempt of ,dalman's has the same significance in regard to the question of the ,messiahship as ,bousset's had for the ethical question4 ,just as in ,bousset's view the ,kingdom of ,god was1 in a paradoxical way1 after all proclaimed as present1 so here the selfdesignation 8,son of ,man0 is retained by a paradox as conveying the sense of a present ,messiahship4 ,but the documents do not give any support to this assumption2 on the contrary they contradict it at every point4 ,according to ,dalman it was not the predictions of the passion of the ,son of ,man which sounded paradoxical to the disciples1 but the predictions of ,his exaltation4 ,but we are distinctly told that when ,he spoke of ,his passion they did not understand the saying4 ,the predictions of ,his exaltation1 however1 they understood so well that without troubling themselves further about the predictions of the sufferings1 they began to dispute who should be greatest in the ,kingdom of ,heaven1 and who should have his throne closest to the ,son of ,man4 ,and if it is once admitted that ,jesus took the designation from ,daniel1 what ground is there for asserting that the purely eschatological transcendental significance which the term had taken on in the ,similitudes of ,enoch and retains in ,fourth ,ezra had no existence for ,jesus8 ,thus1 by a long roundabout1 criticism has come back to ,johannes ,weiss47#bji7 ,his eschatological solution of the ,sonof,man question--the elements of which are to be found in ,strauss's first ,life of ,jesus--is the only possible one4 ,dalman expresses the same idea in the form of a question4 8,how could one who was actually walking the earth come down from heaven8 ,he would have needed first to be translated thither4 ,one who had died or been rapt away from earth might possibly be brought back to earth in this way40 ,having reached this point we have only to observe further that ,jesus1 from the 8confession of ,peter0 onwards1 always speaks of the ,son of ,man in connexion with death and resurrection4 ,that is to say1 that once the disciples know in what relation ,he stands to the ,son of ,man1 ,he uses this title to suggest the manner of ,his return3 as the sequel to ,his death and resurrection ,he will return to the world again as a superhuman ,personality4 ,thus the purely transcendental use of the term suggested by ,dalman as a possibility turns out to be the historical reality4 ,broadly speaking1 therefore1 the ,sonof,man problem is both historically solvable and has been solved4 ,the authentic passages are those in which the expression is used in that apocalyptic sense which goes back to ,daniel4 ,but we have to distinguish two different uses of the term according to the degree of knowledge assumed in the hearers4 ,if the secret of ,jesus is unknown to them1 then in that case they understand simply that ,jesus is speaking of the 8,son of ,man0 and ,his coming without having any suspicion that ,he and the ,son of ,man have any connexion4 ,it would be thus1 for instance1 when in sending out the disciples in ,matt4 x4 #bc1 ,he announced the imminence of the appearing of the ,son of ,man2 or when ,he pictured the judgment which the ,son of ,man would hold 7,matt4 xxv4 #cadf71 if we may imagine it to have been spoken to the people at ,jerusalem4 ,or1 on the other hand1 the secret is known to the hearers4 ,in that case they understand that the term ,son of ,man points to the position to which ,he ,himself is to be exalted when the present era passes into the age to come4 ,it was thus1 no doubt1 in the case of the disciples at ,caesarea ,philippi1 and of the ,high ,priest to whom ,jesus1 after answering his demand with the simple 8,yea0 7,mark xiv4 #fb71 goes on immediately to speak of the exaltation of the ,son of ,man to the right hand of ,god1 and of ,his coming upon the clouds of heaven4 ,jesus did not1 therefore1 veil ,his ,messiahship by using the expression ,son of ,man1 much less did ,he transform it1 but ,he used the expression to refer1 in the only possible way1 to ,his ,messianic office as destined to be realised at ,his 8coming10 and did so in such a manner that only the initiated understood that ,he was speaking of ,his own coming1 while others understood ,him as referring to the coming of a ,son of ,man who was other than ,himself4 ,the passages where the title has not this apocalyptic reference1 or where1 previous to the incident at ,caesarea ,philippi1 ,jesus in speaking to the disciples equates the ,son of ,man with ,his own 8ego10 are to be explained as of literary origin4 ,this set of secondary occurrences of the title has nothing to do with 8,early ,church theology02 it is merely a question of phenomena of translation and tradition4 ,in the saying about the ,sabbath in ,mark ii4 #bh1 and perhaps also in the saying about the right to forgive sins in ,mark ii4 #aj1 ,son of ,man doubtless stood in the original in the general sense of 8man10 but was later1 certainly by our ,evangelists1 understood as referring to ,jesus as the ,son of ,man4 ,in other passages tradition1 following the analogy of those passages in which the title is authentic1 put in place of the simple ,i--expressed in the ,aramaic by 8the man0--the selfdesignation 8,son of ,man10 as we can clearly show by comparing ,matt4 xvi4 #ac1 8,who do men say that the ,son of ,man is80 with ,mark viii4 #bg1 8,who do men say that ,i am80 ,three passages call for special discussion4 ,in the statement that a man may be forgiven for blasphemy against the ,son of ,man1 but not for blasphemy against the ,holy ,spirit1 in ,matt4 xii4 #cb1 the 8,son of ,man0 may be authentic4 ,but of course it would not1 even in that case1 give any hint that 8,son of ,man designates the ,messiah in ,his humiliation0 as ,dalman wished to infer from the passage1 but would mean that ,jesus was speaking of the ,son of ,man1 here as elsewhere1 in the third person without reference to ,himself1 and was thinking of a contemptuous denial of the ,parousia such as might have been uttered by a ,sadducee4 ,but if we take into account the parallel in ,mark iii4 #bh and #bi1 where blasphemy against the ,holy ,ghost is spoken of without any mention of blasphemy against the ,son of ,man1 it seems more natural to take the mention of the ,son of ,man as a secondary interpolation1 derived from the same line of tradition1 perhaps from the same hand1 as the 8,son of ,man0 in the question to the disciples at ,caesarea ,philippi4 ,the two other sayings1 the one about the ,son of ,man 8who hath not where to lay ,his head10 ,matt4 viii4 #bj1 and that about the ,son of ,man who must submit to the reproach of being a glutton and a winebibber1 ,matt4 xi4 #ai1 belong together4 ,if we assume it to be possible1 in conformity with the saying about the purpose of the parables in ,mark iv4 #aa and #ab1 that ,jesus sometimes spoke words which ,he did not intend to be understood1 we may--if we are unwilling to accept the supposition of a later periphrasis for the ego1 which would certainly be the most natural explanation--recognise in these sayings two obscure declarations regarding the ,son of ,man4 ,they would then be supposed to have meant in the original form1 which is no longer clearly recognisable1 that the ,son of ,man would in some way justify the conduct of ,jesus of ,nazareth4 ,but the way in which this idea is expressed was not such as to make it easy for ,his hearers to identify ,him with the ,son of ,man4 ,moreover1 it was for them a conception impossible to realise1 since ,jesus was a natural1 and the ,son of ,man a supernatural1 being2 and the eschatological scheme of things had not provided for a man who at the end of the existing era should hint to others that at the great transformation of all things ,he would be manifested as the ,son of ,man4 ,this case presented itself only in the course of history1 and it created a preparatory stage of eschatology which does not answer to any traditional scheme4 ,that act of the selfconsciousness of ,jesus by which ,he recognised ,himself in ,his earthly existence as the future ,messiah is the act in which eschatology supremely affirms itself4 ,at the same time1 since it brings1 spiritually1 that which is to come1 into the unaltered present1 into the existing era1 it is the end of eschatology4 ,for it is its 8spiritualisation10 a spiritualisation of which the ultimate consequence was to be that all its 8supersensuous0 elements were to be realised only spiritually in the present earthly conditions1 and all that is affirmed as supersensuous in the transcendental sense was to be regarded as only the ruined remains of an eschatological worldview4 ,the ,messianic secret of ,jesus is the basis of ,christianity1 since it involves the denationalising and the spiritualisation of ,jewish eschatology4 ,yet more4 ,it is the primal fact1 the startingpoint1 of a process which manifests itself1 indeed1 in ,christianity1 but cannot fully work itself out even here1 of a movement in the direction of inwardness which brings all religious magnitudes into the one indivisible spiritual present1 and which ,christian dogmatic has not ventured to carry to its completion4 ,the ,messianic consciousness of the uniquely great ,man of ,nazareth sets up a struggle between the present and the beyond1 and introduces that resolute absorption of the beyond by the present1 which in looking back we recognise as the history of ,christianity1 and of which we are conscious in ourselves as the essence of religious progress and experience--a process of which the end is not yet in sight4 ,in this sense ,jesus did 8accept the world0 and did stand in conflict with ,judaism4 ,protestantism was a step--a step on which hung weighty consequences--in the progress of that 8acceptance of the world0 which was constantly developing itself from within4 ,by a mighty revolution which was in harmony with the spirit of that great primal act of the consciousness of ,jesus1 though in opposition to some of the most certain of ,his sayings1 ethics became worldaccepting4 ,but it will be a mightier revolution still when the last remaining ruins of the supersensuous otherworldly system of thought are swept away in order to clear the site for a new spiritual1 purely real and present world4 ,all the inconsistent compromises and constructions of modern theology are merely an attempt to stave off the final expulsion of eschatology from religion1 an inevitable but a hopeless attempt4 ,that proleptic ,messianic consciousness of ,jesus1 which was in reality the only possible actualisation of the ,messianic idea1 carries these consequences with it inexorably and unfailingly4 ,at that last cry upon the cross the whole eschatological supersensuous world fell in upon itself in ruins1 and there remained as a spiritual reality only that present spiritual world1 bound as it is to sense1 which ,jesus by ,his all powerful word had called into being within the world which ,he contemned4 ,that last cry1 with its despairing abandonment of the eschatological future1 is ,his real acceptance of the world4 ,the 8,son of ,man0 was buried in the ruins of the falling eschatological world2 there remained alive only ,jesus 8the ,man40 ,thus these two ,aramaic synonyms include in themselves1 as in a symbol of reality1 all that was to come4 ,if theology has found it so hard a task to arrive at an historical comprehension of the secret of this selfdesignation1 this is due to the fact that the question is not a purely historical one4 ,in this word there lies the transformation of a whole system of thought1 the inexorable consequence of the elimination of eschatology from religion4 ,it was only in this future form1 not as actual1 that ,jesus spoke of ,his ,messiahship4 ,modern theology keeps on endeavouring to discover in the title of ,son of ,man1 which is bound up with the future1 a humanised present ,messiahship4 ,it does so in the conviction that the recognition of a purely future reference in the ,messianic consciousness of ,jesus would lead in the last result to a modification of the historic basis of our faith1 which has itself become historical1 and therefore true and selfjustifying4 ,the recognition of the claims of eschatology signifies for our dogmatic a burning of the boats by which it felt itself able to return at any moment from the time of ,jesus direct to the present4 ,one point that is worthy of notice in this connexion is the trustworthiness of the tradition4 ,the ,evangelists1 writing in ,greek1 and the ,greekspeaking ,early ,church1 can hardly have retained an understanding of the purely eschatological character of that selfdesignation of ,jesus4 ,it had become for them merely an indirect method of selfdesignation4 ,and nevertheless the ,evangelists1 especially ,mark1 record the sayings of ,jesus in such a way that the original significance and application of the designation in ,his mouth is still clearly recognisable1 and we are able to determine with certainty the isolated cases in which this selfdesignation in ,his discourses is of a secondary origin4 ,thus the use of the term ,son of ,man--which1 if we admitted the sweeping proposal of ,lietzmann and ,wellhausen to cancel it everywhere as an interpolation of ,greek ,early ,church theology1 would throw doubt on the whole of the ,gospel tradition--becomes a proof of the certainty and trustworthiness of that tradition4 ,we may1 in fact1 say that the progressive recognition of the eschatological character of the teaching and action of ,jesus carries with it a progressive justification of the ,gospel tradition4 ,a series of passages and discourses which had been endangered because from the modern theological point of view which had been made the criterion of the tradition they appeared to be without meaning1 are now secured4 ,the stone which the critics rejected has become the cornerstone of the tradition4 ,if ,aramaic scholarship appears in regard to the ,sonof,man question among the opponents of the thoroughgoing eschatological view1 it takes no other position in connexion with the retranslations and in the application of illustrative parallels from the ,rabbinic literature4 ,in looking at the earlier works in this department1 one is struck with the smallness of the result in proportion to the labour expended4 ,the names that call for mention here are those of ,john ,lightfoot1 ,christian ,schttgen1 ,joh4 ,gerh4 ,meuschen1 ,j4 ,jak4 ,wettstein1 ,f4 ,nork1 ,franz ,delitzsch1 ,carl ,siegfried1 and ,a4 ,wnsche47#baj7 ,but even a work like ,f4 ,weber's ,system der altsynagogalen palstinensischen ,theologie17#baa7 which does not confine itself to single sayings and thoughts1 but aims at exhibiting the ,rabbinic system of thought as a whole1 throws1 in the main1 but little light on the thoughts of ,jesus4 ,the ,rabbinic parables supply1 according to ,jlicher1 but little of value for the explanation of the parables of ,jesus47#bab7 ,in this method of discourse1 ,jesus is so pre eminently original1 that any other productions of the ,jewish parabolic literature are like stunted undergrowth beside a great tree2 though that has not prevented ,his originality from being challenged in this very department1 both in earlier times and at the present4 ,as early as #afdh1 ,robert ,sheringham1 of ,cambridge17#bac7 suggested that the parables in ,matt4 xx4 #a ff41 xxv4 #a ff41 and ,luke xvi41 were derived from ,talmudic sources1 an opinion against which ,j4 ,b4 ,carpzov1 the younger1 raised a protest2 in #ahci1 ,f4 ,nork asserted1 in his work on 8,rabbinic ,sources and ,parallels for the ,new ,testament ,writings10 that the best thoughts in the discourses of ,jesus are to be attributed to ,his ,jewish teachers2 in #ahhj the ,dutch ,rabbi1 ,t4 ,tal1 maintained the thesis that the parables of the ,new ,testament are all borrowed from the ,talmud47#bad7 ,theories of this kind cannot be refuted1 because they lack the foundation necessary to any theory which is to be capable of being rationally discussed--that of plain common sense47#bae7 ,we possess1 however1 really scientific attempts to define more closely the thoughts of ,jesus by the aid of the ,rabbinic language and ,rabbinic ideas in the works of ,arnold ,meyer and ,dalman4 ,it cannot indeed be said that the obscure sayings which form the problem of presentday exegesis are in all cases made clearer by them1 much as we may admire the comprehensive knowledge of these scholars4 ,sometimes1 indeed1 they become more obscure than before4 ,according to ,meyer1 for instance1 the question of ,jesus whether ,his disciples can drink of ,his cup1 and be baptized with ,his baptism means1 if put back into ,aramaic1 8,can you drink as bitter a drink as ,i2 can you eat as sharply salted meat as ,i807#baf7 ,nor does ,dalman's ,aramaic retranslation help us much with the saying about the violent who take the ,kingdom of ,heaven by force4 ,according to him1 it is not spoken of the faithful1 but of the rulers of this world1 and refers to the epoch of the ,divine rule which has been introduced by the imprisonment of the ,baptist4 ,no one can violently possess himself of the ,divine reign1 and ,jesus can therefore only mean that violence is done to it in the person of its subjects4 ,on this it must be remarked1 that if the saying really means this1 it is about as appropriate to its setting as a rock in the sky4 ,jesus is not speaking of the imprisonment of the ,baptist4 ,by the days of ,john the ,baptist ,he means the time of his public ministry4 ,it is equally open to question whether in putting that crucial question regarding the ,messiah in ,mark xii4 #cg ,he really intended to show1 as ,dalman thinks1 8that physical descent from ,david was not of decisive importance--it did not belong to the essence of the ,messiahship40 ,but a point in regard to which ,dalman's remarks are of great value for the reconstruction of the life of ,jesus is the entry into ,jerusalem4 ,dalman thinks that the simple 8,hosanna1 blessed be he that cometh in the name of the ,lord0 7,mark xi4 #i7 was what the people really shouted in acclamation1 and that the additional words in ,mark and ,matthew are simply an interpretative expansion4 ,this acclamation did not itself contain any ,messianic reference4 ,this explains 8why the entry into ,jerusalem was not made a count in the charge urged against ,him before ,pilate40 ,the events of 8,palm ,sunday0 only received their distinctively ,messianic colour later4 ,it was not the ,messiah1 but the prophet and wonderworker of ,galilee whom the people hailed with rejoicing and accompanied with invocations of blessing47#bag7 ,generally speaking1 the value of ,dalman's work lies less in the solutions which it offers than in the problems which it raises4 ,by its very thorough discussions it challenges historical theology to test its most cherished assumptions regarding the teaching of ,jesus1 and make sure whether they are really so certain and selfevident4 ,thus1 in opposition to ,schrer1 he denies that the thought of the preexistence in heaven of all the good things belonging to the ,kingdom of ,god was at all generally current in the ,late,jewish world of ideas1 and thinks that the occasional references7#bah7 to a preexisting ,jerusalem1 which shall finally be brought down to the earth1 do not suffice to establish the theory4 ,similarly1 he thinks it doubtful whether ,jesus used the terms 8this world 7age710 8the world 7age7 to come0 in the eschatological sense which is generally attached to them1 and doubts1 on linguistic grounds1 whether they can have been used at all4 ,even the use of or for 8world0 cannot be proved4 ,in the pre ,christian period there is much reason to doubt its occurrence1 though in later ,jewish literature it is frequent4 ,the expression in ,matt4 xix4 #bh1 is specifically ,greek and cannot be reproduced in either ,hebrew or ,aramaic4 ,it is very strange that the use which ,jesus makes of ,amen is unknown in the whole of ,jewish literature4 ,according to the proper idiom of the language 8 is never used to emphasise one's own speech1 but always with reference to the speech1 prayer1 benediction1 oath1 or curse of another40 ,jesus1 therefore1 if ,he used the expression in this sense1 must have given it a new meaning as a formula of asseveration1 in place of the oath which ,he forbade4 ,all these acute observations are marked by the general tendency which was observable in the interpretation of the term ,son of ,man1 that is1 by the endeavour so to weaken down the eschatological conceptions of the ,kingdom and the ,messiah1 that the hypothesis of a makingpresent and spiritualising of these conceptions in the teaching of ,jesus might appear inherently and linguistically possible and natural4 ,the polemic against the preexistent realities of the ,kingdom of ,god is intended to show that for ,jesus the ,reign of ,god is a present benefit1 which can be sought after1 given1 possessed1 and taken4 ,even before the time of ,jesus1 according to ,dalman1 a tendency had shown itself to lay less emphasis1 in connexion with the hope of the future1 upon the national ,jewish element4 ,jesus forced this element still farther into the background1 and gave a more decided prominence to the purely religious element4 8,for ,him the reign of ,god was the ,divine power1 which from this time onward was steadily to carry forward the renewal of the world1 and also the renewed world1 into which men shall one day enter1 which even now offers itself1 and therefore can be grasped and received as a present good40 ,the supernatural coming of the ,kingdom is only the final stage of the coming which is now being inwardly spiritually brought about by the preaching of ,jesus4 ,though ,he may perhaps have spoken of 8this0 world and the 8world to come10 these expressions had in ,his use of them no very special importance4 ,it is for ,him less a question of an antithesis between 8then0 and 8now10 than of establishing a connexion between them by which the transition from one to the other is to be effected4 ,it is the same in regard to ,jesus' consciousness of ,his ,messiahship4 8,in ,jesus' view10 says ,dalman1 8the period before the commencement of the ,reign of ,god was organically connected with the actual period of ,his ,reign40 ,he was the ,messiah because ,he knew ,himself to stand in a unique ethicoreligious relation to ,god4 ,his ,messiahship was not something wholly incomprehensible to those about ,him4 ,if redemption was regarded as being close at hand1 the ,messiah must be assumed to be in some sense already present4 ,therefore ,jesus is both directly and indirectly spoken of as ,messiah4 ,thus the most important work in the department of ,aramaic scholarship shows clearly the antieschatological tendency which characterised it from the beginning4 ,the work of ,lietzmann1 ,meyer1 ,wellhausen1 and ,dalman1 forms a distinct episode in the general resistance to eschatology4 ,that ,aramaic scholarship should have taken up a hostile attitude towards the eschatological system of thought of ,jesus lies in the nature of things4 ,the thoughts which it takes as its standard of comparison were only reduced to writing long after the period of ,jesus1 and1 moreover1 in a lifeless and distorted form1 at a time when the apocalyptic temper no longer existed as the living counterpoise to the legal righteousness1 and this legal righteousness had allowed only so much of ,apocalyptic to survive as could be brought into direct connexion with it4 ,in fact1 the distance between ,jesus' world of thought and this form of ,judaism is as great as that which separates it from modern ideas4 ,thus in ,dalman modernising tendencies and ,aramaic scholarship were able to combine in conducting a criticism of the eschatology in the teaching of ,jesus in which the modern man thought the thoughts and the expert in ,aramaic formulated and supported them1 yet without being able in the end to make any impression upon the wellrounded whole formed by ,jesus' eschatological preaching of the ,kingdom4 ,whether ,aramaic scholarship will contribute to the investigation of the life and teaching of ,jesus along other lines and in a direct and positive fashion1 only the future can show4 ,but certainly if theologians will give heed to the questionmarks so acutely placed by ,dalman1 and recognise it as one of their first duties to test carefully whether a thought or a connexion of thought is linguistically or inherently ,greek1 and only ,greek1 in character1 they will derive a notable advantage from what has already been done in the department of ,aramaic study4 ,but if the service rendered by ,aramaic studies has been hitherto mainly indirect1 no success whatever has attended1 or seems likely to attend1 the attempt to apply ,buddhist ideas to the explanation of the thoughts of ,jesus4 ,it could only indeed appear to have some prospect of success if we could make up our minds to follow the example of the author of one of the most recent of fictitious lives of ,christ in putting ,jesus to school to the ,buddhist priests2 in which case the six years which ,monsieur ,nicolas ,notowitsch allots to this purpose1 would certainly be none too much for the completion of the course47#bai7 ,if imagination boggles at this1 there remains no possibility of showing that ,buddhist ideas exercised any direct influence upon ,jesus4 ,that ,buddhism may have had some kind of influence upon ,late ,judaism and thus indirectly upon ,jesus is not inherently impossible1 if we are prepared to recognise ,buddhistic influence on the ,babylonian and ,persian civilisations4 ,but it is unproved1 unprovable1 and unthinkable1 that ,jesus derived the suggestion of the new and creative ideas which emerge in ,his teaching from ,buddhism4 ,the most that can be done in this direction is to point to certain analogies4 ,for the parables of ,jesus1 ,buddhist parallels were suggested by ,renan and ,havet47#bbj7 ,how little these analogies mean in the eyes of a cautious observer is evident from the attitude which ,max ,mller took up towards the question4 8,that there are startling coincidences between ,buddhism and ,christianity10 he remarks in one passage17#bba7 8cannot be denied2 and it must likewise be admitted that ,buddhism existed at least four hundred years before ,christianity4 ,i go even further and say that ,i should be extremely grateful if anybody would point out to me the historical channels through which ,buddhism had influenced early ,christianity4 ,i have been looking for such channels all my life1 but hitherto ,i have found none4 ,what ,i have found is that for some of the most startling coincidences there are historical antecedents on both sides2 and if we once know these antecedents the coincidences become far less startling40 ,a year before ,max ,mller formulated his impression in these terms1 ,rudolf ,seydel7#bbb7 had endeavoured to explain the analogies which had been noticed by supposing ,christianity to have been influenced by ,buddhism4 ,he distinguishes three distinct classes of analogies3 #a4 ,those of which the points of resemblance can without difficulty be explained as due to the influence of similar sources and motives in the two cases4 #b4 ,those which show a so special and unexpected agreement that it appears artificial to explain it from the action of similar causes1 and the dependence of one upon the other commends itself as the most natural explanation4 #c4 ,those in which there exists a reason for the occurrence of the idea only within the sphere of one of the two religions1 or in which at least it can very much more easily be conceived as originating within the one than within the other1 so that the inexplicability of the phenomenon within the one domain gives ground for seeking its source within the other4 ,this last class demands a literary explanation of the analogy4 ,seydel therefore postulates1 alongside of primitive forms of ,matthew and ,luke1 a third source1 8a poeticapocalyptic ,gospel of very early date which fitted its ,christian material into the frame of a ,buddhist type of ,gospel1 transforming1 purifying1 and ennobling the material taken from the foreign but related literature by a kind of rebirth inspired by the ,christian ,spirit40 ,matthew and ,luke1 especially ,luke1 follow this poetic ,gospel up to the point where historic sources become more abundant1 and the primitive form of ,mark begins to dominate their narrative4 ,but even in later parts the influence of this poetical source1 which as an independent document was subsequently lost1 continued to make itself felt4 ,the strongest point of support for this hypothesis1 if a mere conjecture can be described as such1 is found by ,seydel in the introductory narratives in ,luke4 ,now it is not inherently impossible that ,buddhist legends1 which in one form or another were widely current in the ,east1 may have contributed more or less to the formation of the mythical preliminary history4 ,who knows the laws of the formation of legend8 ,who can follow the course of the wind which carries the seed over land and sea8 ,but in general it may be said that ,seydel actually refutes the hypothesis which he is defending4 ,if the material which he brings forward is all that there is to suggest a relation between ,buddhism and ,christianity1 we are justified in waiting until new discoveries are made in that quarter before asserting the necessity of a ,buddhist primitive ,gospel4 ,that will not prevent a succession of theosophic ,lives of ,jesus from finding their account in ,seydel's classical work4 ,seydel indeed delivered himself into their hands1 because he did not entirely avoid the rash assumption of theosophic 8historical science0 that ,jewish eschatology can be equated with ,buddhistic4 ,eduard von ,hartmann1 in the second edition of his work1 8,the ,christianity of the ,new ,testament107#bbc7 roundly asserts that there can be no question of any relation of ,jesus to ,buddha1 nor of any indebtedness either in ,his teaching or in the later moulding of the story of ,his life1 but only of a parallel formation of myth4 ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,subject ,,at ,,the ,,close ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century ,oskar ,holtzmann4 ,das ,leben ,jesu4 ,tbingen1 #aija4 #dag pp4 ,das ,messianittsbewusstsein ,jesu und seine neueste ,bestreitung4 ,vortrag4 7,the ,messianic ,consciousness of ,jesus and the most recent denial of it4 ,a ,lecture47 #aijb4 #bf pp4 7,against ,wrede47 ,war ,jesus ,ekstatiker8 7,was ,jesus an ecstatic87 ,tbingen1 #aijc4 #aci pp4 ,paul ,wilhelm ,schmidt4 ,die ,geschichte ,jesu4 7,the ,history of ,jesus47 ,freiburg4 #ahii4 #age pp4 7#dth impression47 ,die ,geschichte ,jesu4 ,erlutert4 ,mit drei ,karten von ,prof4 ,k4 ,furrer 7,zrich74 7,the ,history of ,jesus4 ,preliminary ,discussions4 ,with three maps by ,prof4 ,k4 ,furrer of ,zurich47 ,tbingen1 #aijd4 #dad pp4 ,otto ,schmiedel4 ,die ,hauptprobleme der ,leben,jesu,forschung4 7,the main ,problems in the ,study of the ,life of ,jesus47 ,tbingen1 #aijb4 #ga pp4 #bnd ed41 #aijf4 ,hermann ,freiherr von ,soden4 ,die wichtigsten ,fragen im ,leben ,jesu4 7,the most important ,questions about the ,life of ,jesus47 ,vacation ,lectures4 ,berlin1 #aijd4 #aaa pp4 ,gustav ,frenssen4 ,hilligenlei4 ,berlin1 #aije1 pp4 #dfbeic3 8,die ,handschrift40 78,the ,manuscript0--in which a ,life of ,jesus1 written by one of the characters of the story1 is given in full47 ,otto ,pfleiderer4 ,das ,urchristentum1 seine ,schriften und ,lehren in geschichtlichem ,zusammenhang beschrieben4 7,primitive ,christianity4 ,its ,documents and ,doctrines in their ,historical ,context47 #bnd ed4 ,berlin1 #aijb4 ,vol4 i41 #fif pp4 ,die ,entstehung des ,urchristentums4 7,how ,primitive ,christianity arose47 ,munich1 #aije4 #bee pp4 ,albert ,kalthoff4 ,das ,christus,problem4 ,grundlinien zu einer ,sozialtheologie4 7,the ,christproblem4 ,the ,groundplan of a ,social ,theology47 ,leipzig1 #aijb4 #hg pp4 ,die ,entstehung des ,christentums4 ,neue ,beitrge zum ,christus ,problem4 7,how ,christianity arose4 ,new contributions to the ,christ problem47 ,leipzig1 #aijd4 #aee pp4 ,eduard von ,hartmann4 ,das ,christentum des ,neuen ,testaments4 7,the ,christianity of the ,new ,testament47 #bnd revised edition of 8,letters on the ,christian ,religion40 ,sachsainthe,harz1 #aije4 #caa pp4 ,de ,jonge4 ,jeschua4 ,der klassische jdische ,mann4 ,zerstrung des kirchlichen1 ,enthllung des jdischen ,jesus,bildes4 ,berlin1 #aijd4 #aab pp4 7,jeshua4 ,the ,classical ,jewish ,man4 ,in which the ,jewish picture of ,jesus is unveiled1 and the ecclesiastical picture destroyed47 ,wolfgang ,kirchbach4 ,was lehrte ,jesus8 ,zwei ,urevangelien4 7,what was the teaching of ,jesus8 ,two ,primitive ,gospels47 ,berlin1 #ahig4 #bdh pp4 #bnd revised and greatly enlarged edition1 #aijb1 #cci pp4 ,albert ,dulk4 ,der ,irrgang des ,lebens ,jesu4 ,in geschichtlicher ,auffassung dargestellt4 7,the ,error of the ,life of ,jesus4 ,an ,historical ,view47 #ast part1 #ahhd1 #cie pp42 #bnd part1 #ahhe1 #cjb pp4 ,paul de ,rgla4 ,jesus von ,nazareth4 ,german by ,a4 ,just4 ,leipzig1 #ahid4 #dce pp4 ,ernest ,bosc4 ,la ,vie sotrique de ,jsus de ,nazareth et les origines orientales du christianisme4 7,the secret ,life of ,jesus of ,nazareth1 and the ,oriental ,origins of ,christianity47 ,paris1 #aijb4 ,the ideal ,life of ,jesus of the close of the nineteenth century is the ,life which ,heinrich ,julius ,holtzmann did not write--but which can be pieced together from his commentary on the ,synoptic ,gospels and his ,new ,testament ,theology47#bbd7 ,it is ideal because1 for one thing1 it is unwritten1 and arises only in the idea of the reader by the aid of his own imagination1 and1 for another1 because it is traced only in the most general outline4 ,what ,holtzmann gives us is a sketch of the public ministry1 a critical examination of details1 and a full account of the teaching of ,jesus4 ,he provides1 therefore1 the plan and the prepared building material1 so that any one can carry out the construction in his own way and on his own responsibility4 ,the cement and the mortar are not provided by ,holtzmann2 every one must decide for himself how he will combine the teaching and the life1 and arrange the details within each4 ,we may recall the fact that ,weisse1 too1 the other founder of the ,marcan hypothesis1 avoided writing a ,life of ,jesus1 because the difficulty of fitting the details into the groundplan appeared to him so great1 not to say insuperable4 ,it is just this modesty which constitutes his greatness and ,holtzmann's4 ,thus the ,marcan hypothesis ends1 as it had begun1 with a certain historical scepticism47#bbe7 ,the subordinates1 it is true1 do not allow themselves to be disturbed by the change of attitude at headquarters4 ,they keep busily at work4 ,that is their right1 and therein consists their significance4 ,by keeping on trying to take the positions1 and constantly failing1 they furnish a practical proof that the plan of operations worked out by the general staff is not capable of being carried out1 and show why it is so1 and what kind of new tactics will have to be evolved4 ,the credit of having written a life of ,christ which is strictly scientific1 in its own way very remarkable1 and yet foredoomed to failure1 belongs to ,oskar ,holtzmann47#bbf7 ,he has complete confidence in the ,marcan plan1 and makes it his task to fit all the sayings of ,jesus into this framework1 to show 8what can belong to each period of the preaching of ,jesus1 and what cannot40 ,his method is to give free play to the magnetic power of the most important passages in the ,marcan text1 making other sayings of similar import detach themselves from their present connexion and come and group themselves round the main passages4 ,for example1 the controversy with the scribes at ,jerusalem regarding the charge of doing miracles by the help of ,satan 7,mark iii4 #bbcj7 belongs1 according to ,holtzmann1 as regards content and chronology1 to the same period as the controversy1 in ,mark vii41 about the ordinances of men which results in ,jesus being 8obliged to take to flight02 the woes pronounced upon ,chorazin1 ,bethsaida1 and ,capernaum1 which now follow on the eulogy upon the ,baptist 7,matt4 xi4 #babc71 and are accordingly represented as having been spoken at the time of the sending forth of the ,twelve1 are drawn by the same kind of magnetic force into the neighbourhood of ,mark vii41 and 8express very clearly the attitude of ,jesus at the time of ,his withdrawal from the scene of ,his earlier ministry40 ,the saying in ,matt4 vii4 #f about not giving that which is holy to the dogs or casting pearls before swine1 does not belong to the ,sermon on the ,mount1 but to the time when ,jesus1 after ,caesarea ,philippi1 forbids the disciples to reveal the secret of ,his ,messiahship to the multitude2 ,jesus' action in cursing the figtree so that it should henceforth bring no fruit to its owner1 who was perhaps a poor man1 is to be brought into relation with the words spoken on the evening before1 with reference to the lavish expenditure involved in ,his anointing1 8,the poor ye have always with you10 the point being that ,jesus now1 8in the clear consciousness of ,his approaching death1 feels ,his own worth10 and dismisses 8the contingency of even the poor having to lose something for ,his sake0 with the words 8it does not matter407#bbg7 ,all these transpositions and new connexions mean1 it is clear1 a great deal of internal and external violence to the text4 ,a further service rendered by this very thorough work of ,oskar ,holtzmann's1 is that of showing how much reading between the lines is necessary in order to construct a ,life of ,jesus on the basis of the ,marcan hypothesis in its modern interpretation4 ,it is thus1 for instance1 that the author must have acquired the knowledge that the controversy about the ordinances of purification in ,mark vii4 forced the people 8to choose between the old and the new religion0--in which case it is no wonder that many 8turned back from following ,jesus40 ,where are we told that there was any question of an old and a new 8religion08 ,the disciples certainly did not think of things in this way1 as is shown by their conduct at the time of ,his death and the discourses of ,peter in ,acts4 ,where do we read that the people turned away from ,jesus8 ,in ,mark vii4 #ag and #bd all that is said is1 that ,jesus left the people1 and in ,mark vii4 #cc the same multitude is still assembled when ,jesus returns from the 8banishment0 into which ,holtzmann relegates ,him4 ,oskar ,holtzmann declares that we cannot tell what was the size of the following which accompanied ,jesus in ,his journey northwards1 and is inclined to assume that others besides the ,twelve shared ,his exile4 ,the ,evangelists1 however1 say clearly that it was only the 1 that is1 the ,twelve1 who were with ,him4 ,the value which this special knowledge1 independent of the text1 has for the author1 becomes evident a little farther on4 ,after ,peter's confession ,jesus calls the 8multitude0 to ,him 7,mark viii4 #cd7 and speaks to them of ,his sufferings and of taking up the cross and following ,him4 ,this 8multitude0 ,holtzmann wants to make 8the whole company of ,jesus' followers10 8to which belonged1 not only the ,twelve whom ,jesus had formerly sent out to preach1 but many others also40 ,the knowledge drawn from outside the text is therefore required to solve a difficulty in the text4 ,but how did ,his companions in exile1 the remnant of the previous multitude1 themselves become a multitude1 the same multitude as before8 ,would it not be better to admit that we do not know how1 in a ,gentile country1 a multitude could suddenly rise out of the ground as it were1 continue with ,him until ,mark ix4 #cj1 and then disappear into the earth as suddenly as they came1 leaving ,him to pursue ,his journey towards ,galilee and ,jerusalem alone8 ,another thing which ,oskar ,holtzmann knows is that it required a good deal of courage for ,peter to hail ,jesus as ,messiah1 since the 8exile wandering about with his small following in a ,gentile country0 answered 8so badly to the general picture which people had formed of the coming of the ,messiah40 ,he knows too1 that in the moment of ,peter's confession1 8,christianity was complete0 in the sense that 8a community separate from ,judaism and centring about a new ideal1 then arose40 ,this 8community0 frequently appears from this point onwards4 ,there is nothing about it in the narratives1 which know only the ,twelve and the people4 ,oskar ,holtzmann's knowledge even extends to dialogues which are not reported in the ,gospels4 ,after the incident at ,caesarea ,philippi1 the minds of the disciples were1 according to him1 preoccupied by two questions4 8,how did ,jesus know that ,he was the ,messiah80 and 8,what will be the future fate of this ,messiah80 ,the ,lord answered both questions4 ,he spoke to them of ,his baptism1 and 8doubtless in close connexion with that0 ,he told them the story of ,his temptation1 during which ,he had laid down the lines which ,he was determined to follow as ,messiah4 ,of the transfiguration1 ,oskar ,holtzmann can state with confidence1 8that it merely represents the inner experience of the disciples at the moment of ,peter's confession40 ,how is it then that ,mark expressly dates that scene1 placing it 7ix4 #b7 six days after the discourse of ,jesus about taking up the cross and following ,him8 ,the fact is that the time indications of the text are treated as nonexistent whenever the ,marcan hypothesis requires an order determined by inner connexion4 ,the statement of ,luke that the transfiguration took place eight days after1 is dismissed in the remark 8the motive of this indication of time is doubtless to be found in the use of the ,gospel narratives for reading in public worship2 the idea was that the section about the transfiguration should be read on the ,sunday following that on which the confession of ,peter formed the lesson40 ,where did ,oskar ,holtzmann suddenly discover this information about the order of the 8,sunday lessons0 at the time when ,luke's ,gospel was written8 ,it was doubtless from the same private source of information that the author derived his knowledge regarding the gradual development of the thought of the ,passion in the consciousness of ,jesus4 8,after the confession of ,peter at ,caesarea ,philippi10 he explains1 8,jesus' death became for ,him only the necessary point of transition to the glory beyond4 ,in the discourse of ,jesus to which the request of ,salome gave occasion1 the death of ,jesus already appears as the means of saving many from death1 because ,his death makes possible the coming of the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,at the institution of the ,supper1 ,jesus regards ,his imminent death as the meritorious deed by which the blessings of the ,new ,covenant1 the forgiveness of sins and victory over sin1 are permanently secured to ,his #8community4' ,we see ,jesus constantly becoming more and more at home with the idea of ,his death and constantly giving it a deeper interpretation40 ,any one who is less skilled in reading the thoughts of ,jesus1 and more simple and natural in his reading of the text of ,mark1 cannot fail to observe that ,jesus speaks in ,mark x4 #de of ,his death as an expiation1 not as a means of saving others from death1 and that at the ,lord's ,supper there was no reference to ,his 8community10 but only to the inexplicable 8many10 which is also the word in ,mark x4 #de4 ,we ought to admit freely that we do not know what the thoughts of ,jesus about ,his death were at the time of the first prediction of the ,passion after ,peter's confession2 and to be on our guard against the 8original sin0 of theology1 that of exalting the argument from silence1 when it happens to be useful1 to the rank of positive realities4 ,is there not a certain irony in the fact that the application of 8natural0 psychology to the explanation of the thoughts of ,jesus compels the assumption of suprahistorical private information such as this8 ,bahrdt and ,venturini hardly read more subjective interpretations into the text than many modern ,lives of ,jesus2 and the hypothesis of the secret society1 which after all did recognise and do justice to the inexplicability from an external standpoint of the relation of events and of the conduct of ,jesus1 was in many respects more historical than the psychological links of connexion which our modernising historians discover without having any foundation for them in the text4 ,in the end this supplementary knowledge destroys the historicity of the simplest sections4 ,oskar ,holtzmann ventures to conjecture that the healing of the blind man at ,jericho 8is to be understood as a symbolical representation of the conversion of ,zacchaeus10 which1 of course1 is found only in ,luke4 ,here then the defender of the ,marcan hypothesis rejects the incident by which the ,evangelist explains the enthusiasm of the entry into ,jerusalem1 not to mention that ,luke tells us nothing whatever about a conversion of ,zacchaeus1 but only that ,jesus was invited to his house and graciously accepted the invitation4 ,it would be something if this almost ,alexandrian symbolical exegesis contributed in some way to the removal of difficulties and to the solution of the main question1 that1 namely1 of the present or future ,messiah1 the present or future ,kingdom4 ,oskar ,holtzmann lays great stress upon the eschatological character of the preaching of ,jesus regarding the ,kingdom1 and assumes that1 at least at the beginning1 it would not have been natural for ,his hearers to understand that ,jesus1 the herald of the ,messiah1 was ,himself the ,messiah4 ,nevertheless1 he is of opinion that1 in a certain sense1 the presence of ,jesus implied the presence of the ,kingdom1 that ,peter and the rest of the disciples1 advancing beyond the ideas of the multitude1 recognised ,him as ,messiah1 that this recognition ought to have been possible for the people also1 and1 in that case1 would have been 8the strongest incentive to abandon evil ways10 and 8that ,jesus at the time of ,his entry into ,jerusalem seems to have felt that in ,isa4 lxii4 #aa7bbh7 there was a direct command not to withhold the knowledge of ,his ,messiahship from the inhabitants of ,jerusalem40 ,but if ,jesus made a ,messianic entry ,he must thereafter have given ,himself out as ,messiah1 and the whole controversy would necessarily have turned upon this claim4 ,this1 however1 was not the case4 ,according to ,holtzmann1 all that the hearers could make out of that crucial question for the ,messiahship in ,mark xii4 #cecg was only 8that ,jesus clearly showed from the ,scriptures that the ,messiah was not in reality the son of ,david407#bbi7 ,but how was it that the ,messianic enthusiasm on the part of the people did not lead to a ,messianic controversy1 in spite of the fact that ,jesus 8from the first came forward in ,jerusalem as ,messiah08 ,this difficulty ,o4 ,holtzmann seems to be trying to provide against when he remarks in a footnote3 8,we have no evidence that ,jesus1 even during the last sojourn in ,jerusalem1 was recognised as ,messiah except by those who belonged to the inner circle of disciples4 ,the repetition by the children of the acclamations of the disciples 7,matt4 xxi4 #ae and #af7 can hardly be considered of much importance in this connexion40 ,according to this1 ,jesus entered ,jerusalem as ,messiah1 but except for the disciples and a few children no one recognised ,his entry as having a ,messianic significance6 ,but ,mark states that many spread their garments upon the way1 and others plucked down branches from the trees and strewed them in the way1 and that those that went before and those that followed after1 cried 8,hosanna60 ,the ,marcan narrative must therefore be kept out of sight for the moment in order that the ,life of ,jesus as conceived by the modern ,marcan hypothesis may not be endangered4 ,we should not1 however1 regard the evidence of supernatural knowledge and the selfcontradictions of this ,life of ,jesus as a matter for censure1 but rather as a proof of the merits of ,o4 ,holtzmann's work47#bcj7 ,he has written the last largescale ,life of ,jesus1 the only one which the ,marcan hypothesis has produced1 and aims at providing a scientific basis for the assumptions which the general lines of that hypothesis compel him to make2 and in this process it becomes clearly apparent that the connexion of events can only be carried through at the decisive passages by violent treatment1 or even by rejection of the ,marcan text in the interests of the ,marcan hypothesis4 ,these merits do not belong in the same measure to the other modern ,lives of ,jesus1 which follow more or less the same lines4 ,they are short sketches1 in some cases based on lectures1 and their brevity makes them perhaps more lively and convincing than ,holtzmann's work2 but they take for granted just what he felt it necessary to prove4 ,p4 ,w4 ,schmidt's7#bca7 ,geschichte ,jesu 7#ahii71 which as a work of literary art has few rivals among theological works of recent years1 confines itself to pure narrative4 ,the volume of prolegomena which appeared in #aijd1 and is intended to exhibit the foundations of the narrative1 treats of the sources1 of the ,kingdom of ,god1 of the ,son of ,man1 and of the ,law4 ,it makes the most of the weakening of the eschatological standpoint which is manifested in the second edition of ,johannes ,weiss's 8,preaching of ,jesus10 but it does not give sufficient prominence to the difficulties of reconstructing the public ministry of ,jesus4 ,neither ,otto ,schmiedel's 8,the ,principal ,problems of the ,study of the ,life of ,jesus10 nor von ,soden's 8,vacation ,lectures0 on 8,the ,principal ,questions in the ,life of ,jesus0 fulfils the promise of its title47#bcb7 ,they both aim rather at solving new problems proposed by themselves than at restating the old ones and adding new4 ,they hope to meet the views of ,johannes ,weiss by strongly emphasising the eschatology1 and think they can escape the critical scepticism of writers like ,volkmar and ,brand by assuming an 8,ur ,markus40 ,their view is1 therefore1 that with a few modifications dictated by the eschatological and sceptical school1 the traditional conception of the ,life of ,jesus is still tenable1 whereas it is just the a priori presuppositions of this conception1 hitherto held to be selfevident1 which constitute the main problems4 8,it is selfevident10 says von ,soden in one passage1 8in view of the inner connexion in which the ,kingdom of ,god and the ,messiah stood in the thoughts of the people 444 that in all classes the question must have been discussed1 so that ,jesus could not permanently have avoided their question1 #8,what of the ,messiah8 ,art thou not ,he8' 0 ,where1 in the ,synoptics1 is there a word to show that this is 8selfevident08 ,when the disciples in ,mark viii4 tell ,jesus 8whom men held ,him to be10 none of them suggests that any one had been tempted to regard ,him as the ,messiah4 ,and that was shortly before ,jesus set out for ,jerusalem4 ,from the day when the envoys of the ,scribes from ,jerusalem first appeared in the north1 the easily influenced ,galilaean multitude began1 according to von ,soden1 8to waver40 ,how does he know that the ,galilaeans were easily influenced8 ,how does he know they 8wavered08 ,the ,gospels tell us neither one nor the other4 ,the demand for a sign was1 to quote von ,soden again1 a demand for a proof of ,his ,messiahship4 8,yet another indication10 adds the author1 8that later ,christianity1 in putting so high a value on the miracles of ,jesus as a proof of ,his ,messiahship1 departed widely from the thoughts of ,jesus40 ,before levelling reproaches of this kind against later ,christianity1 it would be well to point to some passage of ,mark or ,matthew in which there is mention of a demand for a sign as a proof of ,his ,messiahship4 ,when the appearance of ,jesus in the south--we are still following von ,soden--aroused the ,messianic expectations of the people1 as they had formerly been aroused in ,his native country1 8they once more failed to understand the correction of them which ,jesus had made by the manner of ,his entry and ,his conduct in ,jerusalem40 ,they are unable to understand this 8transvaluation of values10 and as often as the impression made by ,his personality suggested the thought that ,he was the ,messiah1 they became doubtful again4 ,wherein consisted the correction of the ,messianic expectation given at the triumphal entry8 ,was it that ,he rode upon an ass8 ,would it not be better if modern historical theology1 instead of always making the people 8grow doubtful10 were to grow a little doubtful of itself1 and begin to look for the evidence of that 8transvaluation of values0 which1 according to them1 the contemporaries of ,jesus were not able to follow8 ,von ,soden also possesses special information about the 8peculiar history of the origin0 of the ,messianic consciousness of ,jesus4 ,he knows that it was subsidiary to a primary general religious consciousness of ,sonship4 ,the rise of this ,messianic consciousness implies1 in its turn1 the 8transformation of the conception of the ,kingdom of ,god1 and explains how in the mind of ,jesus this conception was both present and future40 ,the greatness of ,jesus is1 he thinks1 to be found in the fact that for ,him this ,kingdom of ,god was only a 8limiting conception0--the ultimate goal of a gradual process of approximation4 8,to the question whether it was to be realised here or in the beyond ,jesus would have answered1 as ,he answered a similar question1 #8,that1 no man knoweth2 no1 not the ,son4' 0 ,as if ,he had not answered that question in the petition 8,thy ,kingdom come0--supposing that such a question could ever have occurred to a contemporary--in the sense that the ,kingdom was to pass from the beyond into the present6 ,this modern historical theology will not allow ,jesus to have formed a 8theory0 to explain ,his thoughts about ,his passion4 8,for ,him the certainty was amply sufficient2 #8,my death will effect what ,my life has not been able to accomplish4' 0 ,is there then no theory implied in the saying about the 8ransom for many10 and in that about 8,my blood which is shed for many for the forgiveness of sins10 although ,jesus does not explain it8 ,how does von ,soden know what was 8amply sufficient0 for ,jesus or what was not8 ,otto ,schmiedel goes so far as to deny that ,jesus gave distinct expression to an expectation of suffering2 the most ,he can have done--and this is only a 8perhaps0--is to have hinted at it in ,his discourses4 ,in strong contrast with this confidence in committing themselves to historical conjectures stands the scepticism with which von ,soden and ,schmiedel approach the ,gospels4 8,it is at once evident10 says ,schmiedel1 8that the great groups of discourses in ,matthew1 such as the ,sermon on the ,mount1 the ,seven ,parables of the ,kingdom1 and so forth1 were not arranged in this order in the source 7the ,logia71 still less by ,jesus ,himself4 ,the order is1 doubtless1 due to the ,evangelist4 ,but what is the answer to the question1 #8,on what grounds is this 8at once0 clear8' 07#bcc7 ,von ,soden's pronouncement is even more radical4 8,in the composition of the discourses10 he says1 8no regard is paid in ,matthew1 any more than in ,john1 to the supposed audience1 or to the point of time in the life of ,jesus to which they are attributed40 ,as early as the ,sermon on the ,mount we find references to persecutions1 and warnings against false prophets4 ,similarly1 in the charge to the ,twelve1 there are also warnings1 which undoubtedly belong to a later time4 ,intimate sayings1 evidently intended for the inner circle of disciples1 have the widest publicity given to them4 ,but why should whatever is incomprehensible to us be unhistorical8 ,would it not be better simply to admit that we do not understand certain connexions of ideas and turns of expression in the discourses of ,jesus8 ,but instead even of making an analytical examination of the apparent connexions1 and stating them as problems1 the discourses of ,jesus and the sections of the ,gospels are tricked out with ingenious headings which have nothing to do with them4 ,thus1 for instance1 von ,soden heads the ,beatitudes 7,matt4 v4 #cab71 8,what ,jesus brings to men10 the following verses 7,matt4 v4 #acaf71 8,what ,he makes of men40 ,p4 ,w4 ,schmidt1 in his 8,history of ,jesus10 shows himself a past master in this art4 8,the rights of the wife0 is the title of the dialogue about divorce1 as if the question at stake had been for ,jesus the equality of the sexes1 and not simply and solely the sanctity of marriage4 8,sunshine for the children0 is his heading for the scene where ,jesus takes the children in ,his arms--as if the purpose of ,jesus had been to protest against severity in the upbringing of children4 ,again1 he brings together the stories of the man who must first bury his father1 of the rich young man1 of the dispute about precedence1 of ,zacchaeus1 and others which have equally little connexion under the heading 8,discipline for ,jesus' followers40 ,these often brilliant creations of artificial connexions of thought give a curious attractiveness to the works of ,schmidt and von ,soden4 ,the latter's survey of the ,gospels is a really delightful performance4 ,but this kind of thing is not consistent with pure objective history4 ,disposing in this lofty fashion of the connexion of events1 ,schmiedel and von ,soden do not find it difficult to distinguish between ,mark and 8,ur ,markus02 that is1 to retain just so much of the ,gospel as will fit in to their construction4 ,schmiedel feels sure that ,mark was a skilful writer1 and that the redactor was 8a ,christian of ,pauline sympathies40 ,according to 8,ur,markus10 to which ,mark iv4 #cc belongs1 the ,lord speaks in parables in order that the people may understand ,him the better2 8it was only by the redactor that the ,pauline theory about hardening their hearts 7,rom4 ix4xi47 was interpolated1 in ,mark iv4 #aj ff41 and the meaning of ,mark iv4 #cc was thus obscured40 ,it is high time that instead of merely asserting ,pauline influences in ,mark some proof of the assertion should be given4 ,what kind of appearance would ,mark have presented if it had really passed through the hands of a ,pauline ,christian8 ,von ,soden's analysis is no less confident4 ,the three outstanding miracles1 the stilling of the storm1 the casting out of the legion of devils1 the overcoming of death 7,mark iv4 #cev4 #dc71 the romantically told story of the death of the ,baptist 7,mark vi4 #agbi71 the story of the feeding of the multitudes in the desert1 of ,jesus' walking on the water1 and of the transfiguration upon an high mountain1 and the healing of the lunatic boy--all these are dashed in with a broad brush1 and offer many analogies to ,old ,testament stories1 and some suggestions of ,pauline conceptions1 and reflections of experiences of individual believers and of the ,christian community4 8,all these passages were1 doubtless1 first written down by the compiler of our ,gospel40 ,but how can ,schmiedel and von ,soden fail to see that they are heading straight for ,bruno ,bauer's position8 ,they assert that there is no distinction of principle between the way in which the ,johannine and the ,synoptic discourses are composed3 the recognition of this was ,bruno ,bauer's startingpoint4 ,they propose to find experiences of the ,christian community and ,pauline teaching reflected in the ,gospel of ,mark2 ,bruno ,bauer asserted the same4 ,the only difference is that he was consistent1 and extended his criticism to those portions of the ,gospel which do not present the stumblingblock of the supernatural4 ,why should these not also contain the theology and the experiences of the community transformed into history8 ,is it only because they remain within the limits of the natural8 ,the real difficulty consists in the fact that all the passages which von ,soden ascribes to the redactor stand1 in spite of their mythical colouring1 in a closelyknit historical connexion2 in fact1 the historical connexion is nowhere so close4 ,how can any one cut out the feeding of the multitudes and the transfiguration as narratives of secondary origin without destroying the whole of the historical fabric of the ,gospel of ,mark8 ,or was it the redactor who created the plan of the ,gospel of ,mark1 as von ,soden seems to imply87#bcd7 ,but in that case how can a modern ,life of ,jesus be founded on the ,marcan plan8 ,how much of ,mark is1 in the end1 historical8 ,why should not ,peter's confession at ,caesarea ,philippi have been derived from the theology of the primitive ,church1 just as well as the transfiguration8 ,the only difference is that the incident at ,caesarea ,philippi is more within the limits of the possible1 whereas the scene upon the mountain has a supernatural colouring4 ,but is the incident at ,philippi so entirely natural8 ,whence does ,peter know that ,jesus is the ,messiah8 ,this semiscepticism is therefore quite unjustifiable1 since in ,mark natural and supernatural both stand in an equally good and close historical connexion4 ,either1 then1 one must be completely sceptical like ,bruno ,bauer1 and challenge without exception all the facts and connexions of events asserted by ,mark2 or1 if one means to found an historical ,life of ,jesus upon ,mark1 one must take the ,gospel as a whole because of the plan which runs right through it1 accepting it as historical and then endeavouring to explain why certain narratives1 like the feeding of the multitude and the transfiguration1 are bathed in a supernatural light1 and what is the historical basis which underlies them4 ,a division between the natural and supernatural in ,mark is purely arbitrary1 because the supernatural is an essential part of the history4 ,the mere fact that he has not adopted the mythical material of the childhood stories and the postresurrection scenes ought to have been accepted as evidence that the supernatural material which he does embody belongs to a category of its own and cannot be simply rejected as due to the invention of the primitive ,christian community4 ,it must belong in some way to the original tradition4 ,oskar ,holtzmann realises that to a certain extent4 ,according to him ,mark is a writer 8who embodied the materials which he received from the tradition more faithfully than discriminatingly40 8,that which was related as a symbol of inner events1 he takes as history--in the case1 for example1 of the temptation1 the walking on the sea1 the transfiguration of ,jesus40 8,again in other cases he has made a remarkable occurrence into a supernatural miracle1 as in the case of the feeding of the multitude1 where ,jesus' courageous love and ready organising skill overcame a momentary difficulty1 whereas the ,evangelist represents it as an amazing miracle of ,divine omnipotence40 ,oskar ,holtzmann is thus more cautious than von ,soden4 ,he is inclined to see in the material which he wishes to exclude from the history1 not so much inventions of the ,church as mistaken shaping of history by ,mark1 and in this way he gets back to genuine oldfashioned rationalism4 ,in the feeding of the multitude ,jesus showed 8the confidence of a courageous housewife who knows how to provide skilfully for a great crowd of children from small resources40 ,perhaps in a future work ,oskar ,holtzmann will be less reserved1 not for the sake of theology1 but of national wellbeing1 and will inform his contemporaries what kind of domestic economy it was which made it possible for the ,lord to satisfy with five loaves and two fishes several thousand hungry men4 ,modern historical theology1 therefore1 with its threequarters scepticism1 is left at last with only a torn and tattered ,gospel of ,mark in its hands4 ,one would naturally suppose that these preliminary operations upon the source would lead to the production of a ,life of ,jesus of a similarly fragmentary character4 ,nothing of the kind4 ,the outline is still the same as in ,schenkel's day1 and the confidence with which the construction is carried out is not less complete4 ,only the catchwords with which the narrative is enlivened have been changed1 being now taken in part from ,nietzsche4 ,the liberal ,jesus has given place to the ,germanic ,jesus4 ,this is a figure which has as little to do with the ,marcan hypothesis as the 8liberal0 ,jesus had which preceded it2 otherwise it could not so easily have survived the downfall of the ,gospel of ,mark as an historical source4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that this professedly historical ,jesus is not a purely historical figure1 but one which has been artificially transplanted into history4 ,as formerly in ,renan the romantic spirit created the personality of ,jesus in its own image1 so at the present day the ,germanic spirit is making a ,jesus after its own likeness4 ,what is admitted as historic is just what the ,spirit of the time can take out of the records in order to assimilate it to itself and bring out of it a living form4 ,frenssen betrays the secret of his teachers when in ,hilligenlei he confidently superscribes the narrative drawn from the 8latest critical investigations0 with the title 8,the ,life of the ,saviour portrayed according to ,german research as the basis for a spiritual rebirth of the ,german nation407#bce7 ,as a matter of fact the ,life of ,jesus of the 8,manuscript07#bcf7 is unsatisfactory both scientifically and artistically1 just because it aims at being at once scientific and artistic4 ,if only ,frenssen1 with his strongly lifeaccepting instinct1 which gives to his thinking1 at least in his earliest writings where he reveals himself without artificiality1 such a wonderful simplicity and force1 had dared to read his ,jesus boldly from the original records1 without following modern historical theology in all its meanderings6 ,he would have been able to force his way through the underwood well enough if only he had been content to break the branches that got in his way1 instead of always waiting until some one went in front to disentwine them for him4 ,the dependence to which he surrenders himself is really distressing4 ,in reading almost every paragraph one can tell whether ,kai ,jans was looking1 as he wrote it1 into ,oskar ,holtzmann or ,p4 ,w4 ,schmidt or von ,soden4 ,frenssen resigns the dramatic scene of the healing of the blind man at ,jericho4 ,why8 ,because at this point he was listening to ,holtzmann1 who proposes to regard the healing of the blind man as only a symbolical representation of the 8conversion of ,zacchaeus40 ,frenssen's masters have robbed him of all creative spontaneity4 ,he does not permit himself to discover motifs for himself1 but confines himself to working over and treating in cruder colours those which he finds in his teachers4 ,and since he cannot veil his assumptions in the cautious1 carefully modulated language of the theologians1 the faults of the modern treatment of the life of ,jesus appear in him exaggerated an hundredfold4 ,the violent dislocation of narratives from their connexion1 and the forcing upon them of a modern interpretation1 becomes a mania with the writer and a torture to the reader4 ,the range of knowledge not drawn from the text is infinitely increased4 ,kai ,jans sees ,jesus after the temptation cowering beneath the brow of the hill 8a poor lonely man1 torn by fearful doubts1 a man in the deepest distress40 ,he knows too that there was often great danger that ,jesus would 8betray the ',father in heaven' and go back to ,his village to take up ,his handicraft again1 but now as a man with a torn and distracted soul and a conscience tortured by the gnawings of remorse40 ,the pupil is not content1 as his teachers had been1 merely to make the people sometimes believe in ,jesus and sometimes doubt ,him2 he makes the enthusiastic earthly ,messianic belief of the people 8tug and tear0 at ,jesus ,himself4 ,sometimes one is tempted to ask whether the author in his zeal 8to use conscientiously the results of the whole range of scientific criticism0 has not forgotten the main thing1 the study of the ,gospels themselves4 ,and is all this science supposed to be new87#bcg7 ,is this picture of ,jesus really the outcome of the latest criticism8 ,has it not been in existence since the beginning of the 'forties1 since ,weisse's criticism of the ,gospel history8 ,is it not in principle the same as ,renan's1 only that ,germanic lapses of taste here take the place of ,gallic1 and 8,german art for ,german people107#bch7 here quite out of place1 has done its best to remove from the picture every trace of fidelity8 ,kai ,jans' 8,manuscript0 represents the limit of the process of diminishing the personality of ,jesus4 ,weisse left ,him still some greatness1 something unexplained1 and did not venture to apply to everything the petty standards of inquisitive modern psychology4 ,in the 'sixties psychology became more confident and ,jesus smaller2 at the close of the century the confidence of psychology is at its greatest and the figure of ,jesus at its smallest--so small1 that ,frenssen ventures to let ,his life be projected and written by one who is in the midst of a love affair6 ,this human life of ,jesus is to be 8heartstirring0 from beginning to end1 and 8in no respect to go beyond human standards06 ,and this ,jesus who 8racks ,his brains and shapes ,his plans0 is to contribute to bring about a rebirth of the ,german people4 ,how could ,he8 ,he is ,himself only a phantom created by the ,germanic mind in pursuit of a religious willo'thewisp4 ,it is possible1 however1 to do injustice to ,frenssen's presentation1 and to the whole of the confident1 unconsciously modernising criticism of which he here acts as the mouthpiece4 ,these writers have the great merit of having brought certain cultured circles nearer to ,jesus and made them more sympathetic towards ,him4 ,their fault lies in their confidence1 which has blinded them to what ,jesus is and is not1 what ,he can and cannot do1 so that in the end they fail to understand 8the signs of the times0 either as historians or as men of the present4 ,if the ,jesus who owes ,his birth to the ,marcan hypothesis and modern psychology were capable of regenerating the world ,he would have done it long ago1 for ,he is nearly sixty years old and his latest portraits are much less lifelike than those drawn by ,weisse1 ,schenkel1 and ,renan1 or by ,keim1 the most brilliant painter of them all4 ,for the last ten years modern historical theology has more and more adapted itself to the needs of the man in the street4 ,more and more1 even in the best class of works1 it makes use of attractive headlines as a means of presenting its results in a lively form to the masses4 ,intoxicated with its own ingenuity in inventing these1 it becomes more and more confident in its cause1 and has come to believe that the world's salvation depends in no small measure upon the spreading of its own 8assured results0 broadcast among the people4 ,it is time that it should begin to doubt itself1 to doubt its 8historical0 ,jesus1 to doubt the confidence with which it has looked to its own construction for the moral and religious regeneration of our time4 ,its ,jesus is not alive1 however ,germanic they may make ,him4 ,it was no accident that the chief priest of 8,german art for ,german people0 found himself at one with the modern theologians and offered them his alliance4 ,since the 'sixties the critical study of the ,life of ,jesus in ,germany has been unconsciously under the influence of an imposing modern religious nationalism in art4 ,it has been deflected by it as by an underground magnetic current4 ,it was in vain that a few purely historical investigators uplifted their voices in protest4 ,the process had to work itself out4 ,for historical criticism had become1 in the hands of most of those who practised it1 a secret struggle to reconcile the ,germanic religious spirit with the ,spirit of ,jesus of ,nazareth47#bci7 ,it was concerned for the religious interests of the present4 ,therefore its error had a kind of greatness1 it was in fact the greatest thing about it2 and the severity with which the pure historian treats it is in proportion to his respect for its spirit4 ,for this ,german critical study of the ,life of ,jesus is an essential part of ,german religion4 ,as of old ,jacob wrestled with the angel1 so ,german theology wrestles with ,jesus of ,nazareth and will not let ,him go until ,he bless it--that is1 until ,he will consent to serve it and will suffer ,himself to be drawn by the ,germanic spirit into the midst of our time and our civilisation4 ,but when the day breaks1 the wrestler must let ,him go4 ,he will not cross the ford with us4 ,jesus of ,nazareth will not suffer ,himself to be modernised4 ,as an historic figure ,he refuses to be detached from ,his own time4 ,he has no answer for the question1 8,tell us ,thy name in our speech and for our day60 ,but ,he does bless those who have wrestled with ,him1 so that1 though they cannot take ,him with them1 yet1 like men who have seen ,god face to face and received strength in their souls1 they go on their way with renewed courage1 ready to do battle with the world and its powers4 ,but the historic ,jesus and the ,germanic spirit cannot be brought together except by an act of historic violence which in the end injures both religion and history4 ,a time will come when our theology1 with its pride in its historical character1 will get rid of its rationalistic bias4 ,this bias leads it to project back into history what belongs to our own time1 the eager struggle of the modern religious spirit with the ,spirit of ,jesus1 and seek in history justification and authority for its beginning4 ,the consequence is that it creates the historical ,jesus in its own image1 so that it is not the modern spirit influenced by the ,spirit of ,jesus1 but the ,jesus of ,nazareth constructed by modern historical theology1 that is set to work upon our race4 ,therefore both the theology and its picture of ,jesus are poor and weak4 ,its ,jesus1 because ,he has been measured by the petty standard of the modern man1 at variance with himself1 not to say of the modern candidate in theology who has made shipwreck2 the theologians themselves1 because instead of seeking1 for themselves and others1 how they may best bring the ,spirit of ,jesus in living power into our world1 they keep continually forging new portraits of the historical ,jesus1 and think they have accomplished something great when they have drawn an ,oh6 of astonishment from the multitude1 such as the crowds of a great city emit on catching sight of a new advertisement in coloured lights4 ,anyone who1 admiring the force and authority of genuine rationalism1 has got rid of the nave selfsatisfaction of modern theology1 which is in essence only the degenerate offspring of rationalism with a tincture of history1 rejoices in the feebleness and smallness of its professedly historical ,jesus1 rejoices in all those who are beginning to doubt the truth of this portrait1 rejoices in the overseverity with which it is attacked1 rejoices to take a share in its destruction4 ,those who have begun to doubt are many1 but most of them only make known their doubts by their silence4 ,there is one1 however1 who has spoken out1 and one of the greatest--,otto ,pfleiderer47#bdj7 ,in the first edition of his ,urchristentum1 published in #ahhg1 he still shared the current conceptions and constructions1 except that he held the credibility of ,mark to be more affected than was usually supposed by hypothetical ,pauline influences4 ,in the second edition7#bda7 his positive knowledge has been ground down in the struggle with the sceptics--it is ,brandt who has especially affected him--and with the partisans of eschatology4 ,this is the first advanceguard action of modern theology coming into touch with the troops of ,reimarus and ,bruno ,bauer4 ,pfleiderer accepts the purely eschatological conception of the ,kingdom of ,god and holds also that the ethics of ,jesus were wholly conditioned by eschatology4 ,but in regard to the question of the ,messiahship of ,jesus he takes his stand with the sceptics4 ,he rejects the hypothesis of a ,messiah who1 as being a 8spiritual ,messiah10 conceals ,his claim1 but on the other hand1 he cannot accept the eschatological ,sonof,man ,messiahship having reference to the future1 which the eschatological school finds in the utterances of ,jesus1 since it implies prophecies of ,his suffering1 death1 and resurrection which criticism cannot admit4 8,instead of finding the explanation of how the ,messianic title arose in the reflections of ,jesus about the death which lay before ,him10 he is inclined to find it 8rather in the reflection of the ,christian community upon the catastrophic death and exaltation of its ,lord after this had actually taken place40 ,even the ,marcan narrative is not history4 ,the scepticism in regard to the main source1 with which writers like ,oskar ,holtzmann1 ,schmiedel1 and von ,soden conduct a kind of intellectual flirtation1 is here erected into a principle4 8,it must be recognised10 says ,pfleiderer1 8that in respect of the recasting of the history under theological influences1 the whole of our ,gospels stand in principle on the same footing4 ,the distinction between ,mark1 the other two ,synoptists1 and ,john is only relative--a distinction of degree corresponding to different stages of theological reflection and the development of the ecclesiastical consciousness40 ,if only ,bruno ,bauer could have lived to see this triumph of his opinions6 ,pfleiderer1 however1 is conscious that scepticism1 too1 has its difficulties4 ,he wishes1 indeed1 to reject the confession of ,jesus before the ,sanhedrin 8because its historicity is not well established 7none of the disciples were present to hear it1 and the apocalyptic prophecy which is added1 ,mark xiv4 #fb1 is certainly derived from the ideas of the primitive ,church702 on the other hand1 he is inclined to admit as possibilities--though marking them with a note of interrogation--that ,jesus may have accepted the homage of the ,passover pilgrims1 and that the controversy with the ,scribes about the ,son of ,david had some kind of reference to ,jesus ,himself4 ,on the other hand1 he takes it for granted that ,jesus did not prophesy ,his death1 on the ground that the arrest1 trial1 and betrayal must have lain outside all possibility of calculation even for ,him4 ,all these1 he thinks1 came upon ,jesus quite unexpectedly4 ,the only thing that ,he might have apprehended was 8an attack by hired assassins10 and it is to this that ,he refers in the saying about the two swords in ,luke xxii4 #cf and #ch1 seeing that two swords would have sufficed as a protection against such an attack as that1 though hardly for anything further4 ,when1 however1 he remarks in this connexion that 8this has been constantly overlooked0 in the romances dealing with the ,life of ,jesus1 he does injustice to ,bahrdt and ,venturini1 since according to them the chief concern of the secret society in the later period of the life of ,jesus was to protect ,jesus from the assassination with which ,he was menaced1 and to secure ,his formal arrest and trial by the ,sanhedrin4 ,their view of the historical situation is therefore identical with ,pfleiderer's1 viz4 that assassination was possible1 but that administrative action was unexpected and is inexplicable4 ,but how is this ,jesus to be connected with primitive ,christianity8 ,how did the primitive ,church's belief in the ,messiahship of ,jesus arise8 ,to that question ,pfleiderer can give no other answer than that of ,volkmar and ,brandt1 that is to say1 none4 ,he laboriously brings together wood1 straw1 and stubble1 but where he gets the fire from to kindle the whole into the ardent faith of primitive ,christianity he is unable to make clear4 ,according to ,albert ,kalthoff17#bdb7 the fire lighted itself--,christianity arose--by spontaneous combustion1 when the inflammable material1 religious and social1 which had collected together in the ,roman ,empire1 came in contact with the ,jewish ,messianic expectations4 ,jesus of ,nazareth never existed2 and even supposing ,he had been one of the numerous ,jewish ,messiahs who were put to death by crucifixion1 ,he certainly did not found ,christianity4 ,the story of ,jesus which lies before us in the ,gospels is in reality only the story of the way in which the picture of ,christ arose1 that is to say1 the story of the growth of the ,christian community4 ,there is therefore no problem of the ,life of ,jesus1 but only a problem of the ,christ4 ,kalthoff has not indeed always been so negative4 ,when in the year #ahhj he gave a series of lectures on the ,life of ,jesus he felt himself justified 8in taking as his basis without further argument the generally accepted results of modern theology40 ,afterwards he became so completely doubtful about the ,christ after the flesh whom he had at that time depicted before his hearers that he wished to exclude ,him even from the register of theological literature1 and omitted to enter these lectures in the list of his writings1 although they had appeared in print47#bdc7 ,his quarrel with the historical ,jesus of modern theology was that he could find no connecting link between the ,life of ,jesus constructed by the latter and primitive ,christianity4 ,modern theology1 he remarks in one passage1 with great justice1 finds itself obliged to assume1 at the point where the history of the ,church begins1 8an immediate declension from1 and falsification of1 a pure original principle10 and that in so doing 8it is deserting the recognised methods of historical science40 ,if then we cannot trace the path from its beginning onwards1 we had better try to work backwards1 endeavouring first to define in the theology of the primitive ,church the values which we shall look to find again in the ,life of ,jesus4 ,in that he is right4 ,modern historical theology will not have refuted him until it has explained how ,christianity arose out of the life of ,jesus without calling in that theory of an initial 8,fall0 of which ,harnack1 ,wernle1 and all the rest make use4 ,until this modern theology has made it in some measure intelligible how1 under the influence of the ,jewish ,messiahsect1 in the twinkling of an eye1 in every direction at once1 ,graeco,roman popular ,christianity arose2 until at least it has described the popular ,christianity of the first three generations1 it must concede to all hypotheses which fairly face this problem and endeavour to solve it their formal right of existence4 ,the criticism which ,kalthoff directs against the 8positive0 accounts of the ,life of ,jesus is1 in part1 very much to the point4 8,jesus10 he says in one place1 8has been made the receptacle into which every theologian pours his own ideas40 ,he rightly remarks that if we follow 8the ,christ0 backwards from the ,epistles and ,gospels of the ,new ,testament right to the apocalyptic vision of ,daniel1 we always find in ,him superhuman traits alongside of the human4 8,never and nowhere10 he insists1 8is ,he that which critical theology has endeavoured to make out of ,him1 a purely natural man1 an indivisible historical unit40 8,the title of ',christ' had been raised by the ,messianic apocalyptic writings so completely into the sphere of the heroic that it had become impossible to apply it to a mere historical man40 ,bruno ,bauer had urged the same considerations upon the theology of his time1 declaring it to be unthinkable that a man could have arisen among the ,jews and declared 8,i am the ,messiah40 ,but the unfortunate thing is that ,kalthoff has not worked through ,bruno ,bauer's criticism1 and does not appear to assume it as a basis1 but remains standing halfway instead of thinking the questions through to the end as that keen critic did4 ,according to ,kalthoff it would appear that1 year in year out1 there was a constant succession of ,messianic disturbances among the ,jews and of crucified claimants of the ,messiahship4 8,there had been many a ',christ1'0 he says in one place1 8before there was any question of a ,jesus in connexion with this title40 ,how does ,kalthoff know that8 ,if he had fairly considered and felt the force of ,bruno ,bauer's arguments1 he would never have ventured on this assertion2 he would have learned that it is not only historically unproved1 but intrinsically impossible4 ,but ,kalthoff was in far too great a hurry to present to his readers a description of the growth of ,christianity1 and therewith of the picture of the ,christ1 to absorb thoroughly the criticism of his great predecessor4 ,he soon leads his reader away from the high road of criticism into a morass of speculation1 in order to arrive by a short cut at ,graeco,roman primitive ,christianity4 ,but the trouble is that while the guide walks lightly and safely1 the ordinary man1 weighed down by the pressure of historical considerations1 sinks to rise no more4 ,the conjectural argument which ,kalthoff follows out is in itself acute1 and forms a suitable pendant to ,bauer's reconstruction of the course of events4 ,bauer proposed to derive ,christianity from the ,graeco,roman philosophy2 ,kalthoff1 recognising that the origin of popular ,christianity constitutes the main question1 takes as his startingpoint the social movements of the time4 ,in the ,roman ,empire1 so runs his argument1 among the oppressed masses of the slaves and the populace1 eruptive forces were concentrated under high tension4 ,a communistic movement arose1 to which the influence of the ,jewish element in the proletariat gave a ,messianic,apocalyptic colouring4 ,the ,jewish synagogue influenced ,roman social conditions so that 8the crude social ferment at work in the ,roman ,empire amalgamated itself with the religious and philosophical forces of the time to form the new ,christian social movement40 ,early ,christian writers had learned in the synagogue to construct 8personifications40 ,the whole ,late,jewish literature rests upon this principle4 ,thus 8the ,christ0 became the ideal hero of the ,christian community1 8from the socioreligious standpoint the figure of ,christ is the sublimated religious expression for the sum of the social and ethical forces which were at work at a certain period40 ,the ,lord's ,supper was the memorial feast of this ideal hero4 8,as the ,christ to whose ,parousia the community looks forward this ,herogod of the community bears within ,himself the capacity for expansion into the ,god of the universe1 into the ,christ of the ,church1 who is identical in essential nature with ,god the ,father4 ,thus the belief in the ,christ brought the ,messianic hope of the future into the minds of the masses1 who had already a certain organisation1 and by directing their thoughts towards the future it won all those who were sick of the past and despairing about the present40 ,the death and resurrection of ,jesus represent experiences of the community4 8,for a ,jew crucified under ,pontius ,pilate there was certainly no resurrection4 ,all that is possible is a vague hypothesis of a vision lacking all historical reality1 or an escape into the vaguenesses of theological phraseology4 ,but for the ,christian community the resurrection was something real1 a matter of fact4 ,for the community as such was not annihilated in that persecution3 it drew from it1 rather1 new strength and life40 ,but what about the foundations of this imposing structure8 ,for what he has to tell us about the condition of the ,roman ,empire and the social organisation of the proletariat in the time of ,trajan--for it was then that the ,church first came out into the light--we may leave the responsibility with ,kalthoff4 ,but we must inquire more closely how he brings the ,jewish apocalyptic into contact with the ,roman proletariat4 ,communism1 he says1 was common to both4 ,it was the bond which united the apocalyptic 8otherworldliness0 with reality4 ,the only difficulty is that ,kalthoff omits to produce any proof out of the ,jewish apocalypses that communism was 8the fundamental economic idea of the apocalyptic writers40 ,he operates from the first with a special preparation of apocalyptic thought1 of a socialistic or ,hellenistic character4 ,messianism is supposed to have taken its rise from the ,deuteronomic reform as 8a social theory which strives to realise itself in practice40 ,the apocalyptic of ,daniel arose1 according to him1 under ,platonic influence4 8,the figure of the ,messiah thus became a human figure2 it lost its specifically ,jewish traits40 ,he is the heavenly prototypal ideal man4 ,along with this thought1 and similarly derived from ,plato1 the conception of immortality makes its appearance in apocalyptic47#bdd7 ,this ,platonic apocalyptic never had any existence1 or at least1 to speak with the utmost possible caution1 its existence must not be asserted in the absence of all proof4 ,but1 supposing it were admitted that ,jewish apocalyptic had some affinity for the ,hellenic world1 that it was ,platonic and communistic1 how are we to explain the fact that the ,gospels1 which describe the genesis of ,christ and ,christianity1 imply a ,galilaean and not a ,roman environment8 ,as a matter of fact1 ,kalthoff says1 they do imply a ,roman environment4 ,the scene of the ,gospel history is laid in ,palestine1 but it is drawn in ,rome4 ,the agrarian conditions implied in the narratives and parables are ,roman4 ,a vineyard with a winepress of its own could only be found1 according to ,kalthoff1 on the large ,roman estates4 ,so1 too1 the legal conditions4 ,the right of the creditor to sell the debtor1 with his wife and children1 is a feature of ,roman1 not of ,jewish law4 ,peter everywhere symbolises the ,church at ,rome4 ,the confession of ,peter had to be transferred to ,caesarea ,philippi because this town1 8as the seat of the ,roman administration10 symbolised for ,palestine the political presence of ,rome4 ,the woman with the issue was perhaps ,poppaea ,sabina1 the wife of ,nero1 8who in view of her strong leaning towards ,judaism might well be described in the symbolical style of the apocalyptic writings as the woman who touched the hem of ,jesus' garment40 ,the story of the unfaithful steward alludes to ,pope ,callixtus1 who1 when the slave of a ,christian in high position1 was condemned to the mines for the crime of embezzlement2 that of the woman who was a sinner refers to ,marcia1 the powerful mistress of ,commodus1 at whose intercession ,callixtus was released1 to be advanced soon afterwards to the bishopric of ,rome4 8,these two narratives1 therefore10 ,kalthoff suggests1 8which very clearly allude to events well known at that time1 and doubtless much discussed in the ,christian community1 were admitted into the ,gospel to express the views of the ,church regarding the lifestory of a ,roman bishop which had run its course under the eyes of the community1 and thereby to give to the events themselves the ,church's sanction and interpretation40 ,kalthoff does not1 unfortunately1 mention whether this is a case of simple1 ingenuous1 or of conscious1 didactic1 ,early ,christian imagination4 ,that kind of criticism is a casting out of ,satan by the aid of ,beelzebub4 ,if he was going to invent on this scale1 ,kalthoff need not have found any difficulty in accepting the figure of ,jesus evolved by modern theology4 ,one feels annoyed with him because1 while his thesis is ingenious1 and1 as against 8modern theology0 has a considerable measure of justification1 he has worked it out in so uninteresting a fashion4 ,he has no one but himself to blame for the fact that instead of leading to the right explanation1 it only introduced a wearisome and unproductive controversy47#bde7 ,in the end there remains scarcely a shade of distinction between ,kalthoff and his opponents4 ,they want to bring their 8historical ,jesus0 into the midst of our time4 ,he wants to do the same with his 8,christ40 8,a secularised ,christ10 he says1 8as the type of the selfdetermined man who amid strife and suffering carries through victoriously1 and fully realises1 ,his own personality in order to give the infinite fullness of love which ,he bears within ,himself as a blessing to mankind--a ,christ such as that can awaken to new life the antique ,christtype of the ,church4 ,he is no longer the ,christ of the scholar1 of the abstract theological thinker with his scholastic rules and methods4 ,he is the people's ,christ1 the ,christ of the ordinary man1 the figure in which all those powers of the human soul which are most natural and simple--and therefore most exalted and divine--find an expression at once sensible and spiritual40 ,but that is precisely the description of the ,jesus of modern historical theology2 why1 then1 make this long roundabout through scepticism8 ,the ,christ of ,kalthoff is nothing else than the ,jesus of those whom he combats in such a lofty fashion2 the only difference is that he draws his figure of ,christ in red ink on blottingpaper1 and because it is red in colour and smudgy in outline1 wants to make out that it is something new4 ,it is on ethical grounds that ,eduard von ,hartmann7#bdf7 refuses to accept the ,jesus of modern theology4 ,he finds fault with it because in its anxiety to retain a personality which would be of value to religion it does not sufficiently distinguish between the authentic and the 8historical0 ,jesus4 ,when criticism has removed the paintingsover and retouchings to which this authentic portrait of ,jesus has been subjected1 it reaches1 according to him1 an unrecognisable painting below1 in which it is impossible to discover any clear likeness1 least of all one of any religious use and value4 ,were it not for the tenacity and the simple fidelity of the epic tradition1 nothing whatever would have remained of the historic ,jesus4 ,what has remained is merely of historical and psychological interest4 ,at ,his first appearance the historic ,jesus was1 according to ,eduard von ,hartmann1 almost 8an impersonal being10 since ,he regarded ,himself so exclusively as the vehicle of ,his message that ,his personality hardly came into the question4 ,as time went on1 however1 ,he developed a taste for glory and for wonderful deeds1 and fell at last into a condition of 8abnormal exaltation of personality40 ,in the end ,he declares ,himself to ,his disciples and before the council as ,messiah4 8,when ,he felt ,his death drawing nigh ,he struck the balance of ,his life1 found ,his mission a failure1 ,his person and ,his cause abandoned by ,god1 and died with the unanswered question on ,his lips1 #8,my ,god1 why hast thou forsaken me8' 0 ,it is significant that ,eduard von ,hartmann has not fallen into the mistake of ,schopenhauer and many other philosophers1 of identifying the pessimism of ,jesus with the ,indian speculative pessimism of ,buddha4 ,the pessimism of ,jesus1 he says1 is not metaphysical1 it is 8a pessimism of indignation10 born of the intolerable social and political conditions of the time4 ,von ,hartmann also clearly recognises the significance of eschatology1 but he does not define its character quite correctly1 since he bases his impressions solely on the ,talmud1 hardly making any use of the ,old ,testament1 of ,enoch1 the ,psalms of ,solomon1 ,baruch1 or ,fourth ,ezra4 ,he has an irritating way of still using the name 8,jehovah40 ,like ,reimarus--von ,hartmann's positions are simply modernised ,reimarus--he is anxious to show that ,christian theology has lost the right 8to treat the ideal ,kingdom of ,god as belonging to itself40 ,jesus and ,his teaching1 so far as they have been preserved1 belong to ,judaism4 ,his ethic is for us strange and full of stumblingblocks4 ,he despises work1 property1 and the duties of family life4 ,his gospel is fundamentally plebeian1 and completely excludes the idea of any aristocracy except in so far as it consents to plebeianise itself1 and this is true not only as regards the aristocracy of rank1 property1 and fortune1 but also the aristocracy of intellect4 ,von ,hartmann cannot resist the temptation to accuse ,jesus of 8,semitic harshness10 finding the evidence of this chiefly in ,mark iv4 #ab1 where ,jesus declares that the purpose of ,his parables was to obscure ,his teaching and cause the hearts of the people to be hardened4 ,his judgment upon ,jesus is3 8,he had no genius1 but a certain talent which1 in the complete absence of any sound education1 produced in general only moderate results1 and was not sufficient to preserve ,him from numerous weaknesses and serious errors2 at heart a fanatic and a transcendental enthusiast1 who in spite of an inborn kindliness of disposition hates and despises the world and everything it contains1 and holds any interest in it to be injurious to the sole true1 transcendental interest2 an amiable and modest youth who1 through a remarkable concatenation of circumstances arrived at the idea1 which was at that time epidemic17#bdg7 that ,he was ,himself the expected ,messiah1 and in consequence of this met ,his fate40 ,it is to be regretted that a mind like ,eduard von ,hartmann's should not have got beyond the externals of the history1 and made an effort to grasp the simple and impressive greatness of the figure of ,jesus in its eschatological setting2 and that he should imagine he has disposed of the strangeness which he finds in ,jesus when he has made it as small as possible4 ,and yet in another respect there is something satisfactory about his book4 ,it is the open struggle of the ,germanic spirit with ,jesus4 ,in this battle the victory will rest with true greatness4 ,others wanted to make peace before the struggle1 or thought that theologians could fight the battle alone1 and spare their contemporaries the doubts about the historical ,jesus through which it was necessary to pass in order to reach the eternal ,jesus--and to this end they kept preaching reconciliation while fighting the battle4 ,they could only preach it on a basis of postulates1 and postulates make poor preaching6 ,thus1 ,jlicher1 for example1 in his latest sketches of the ,life of ,jesus7#bdh7 distinguishes between 8,jewish and supra,jewish0 in ,jesus1 and holds that ,jesus transferred the ideal of the ,kingdom of ,god 8to the solid ground of the present1 bringing it into the course of historical events10 and further 8associated with the ,kingdom of ,god0 the idea of development which was utterly opposed to all ,jewish ideas about the ,kingdom4 ,jlicher also desires to raise 8the strongest protest against the poor little definition of ,his preaching which makes it consist in nothing further than an announcement of the nearness of the ,kingdom1 and an exhortation to the repentance necessary as a condition for attaining the ,kingdom40 ,but when has a protest against the pure truth of history ever been of any avail8 ,why proclaim peace where there is no peace1 and attempt to put back the clock of time8 ,is it not enough that ,schleiermacher and ,ritschl succeeded again and again in making theology send on earth peace instead of a sword1 and does not the weakness of ,christian thought as compared with the general culture of our time result from the fact that it did not face the battle when it ought to have faced it1 but persisted in appealing to a court of arbitration on which all the sciences were represented1 but which it had successfully bribed in advance8 ,now there comes to join the philosophers a jurist4 ,herr ,doctor jur4 ,de ,jonge lends his aid to ,eduard von ,hartmann in 8destroying the ecclesiastical10 and 8unveiling the ,jewish picture of ,jesus407#bdi7 ,de ,jonge is a ,jew by birth1 baptized in #ahhi1 who on the #bbnd of ,november #aijb again separated himself from the ,christian communion and was desirous of being received back 8with certain evangelical reservations0 into the ,jewish community4 ,in spite of his faithful observance of the ,law1 this was refused4 ,now he is waiting 8until in the ,synagogue of the twentieth century a freedom of conscience is accorded to him equal to that which in the first century was enjoyed by ,john1 the beloved disciple of ,jeschua of ,nazareth40 ,in the meantime he beguiles the period of waiting by describing ,jesus and ,his earliest followers in the character of pattern ,jews1 and sets them to work in the interest of his 8,jewish views with evangelical reservations40 ,it is the colourless1 characterless ,jesus of the ,superintendents and ,konsistorialrats which especially arouses his enmity4 ,with this figure he contrasts his own ,jesus1 the man of holy anger1 the man of holy calm1 the man of holy melancholy1 the master of dialectic1 the imperious ruler1 the man of high gifts and practical ability1 the man of inexorable consistency and reforming vigour4 ,jesus was1 according to ,de ,jonge1 a pupil of ,hillel4 ,he demanded voluntary poverty only in special cases1 not as a general principle4 ,in the case of the rich young man1 ,he knew 8that the property which he had inherited was derived in this particular case from impure sources which must be cut off at once and for ever40 ,but how does ,de ,jonge know that ,jesus knew this8 ,a writer who is attacking the common theological picture of ,jesus1 and who displays in the process1 as ,de ,jonge does1 not only wit and address1 but historical intuition1 ought not to fall into the error of the theology with which he is at feud2 he ought to use sober history as his weapon against the supplementary knowledge which his opponents seem to find between the lines1 instead of meeting it with an esoteric historical knowledge of his own4 ,de ,jonge knows that ,jesus possessed property inherited from ,his father3 8,one proof may serve where many might be given--the hasty flight into ,egypt with his whole family to escape from ,herod1 and the long sojourn in that country40 ,de ,jonge knows--he is here1 however1 following the ,gospel of ,john1 to which he everywhere gives the preference--that ,jesus was between forty and fifty years old at the time of ,his first coming forward publicly4 ,the statement in ,luke iii4 #bc1 that ,he was thirty years old1 can only mislead those who do not remember that ,luke was a portrait painter and only meant that 8,jeschua1 in consequence of ,his glorious beauty and ,his everyouthful appearance1 looked ten years younger than ,he really was40 ,de ,jonge knows also that ,jesus1 at the time when ,he first emerged from obscurity1 was a widower and had a little son--the 8lad0 of ,john vi4 #i1 who had the five barley loaves and two fishes1 was in fact ,his son4 ,this and many other things the author finds in 8the glorious ,john40 ,according to ,de ,jonge too we ought to think of ,jesus as the aristocratic ,jew1 more accustomed to a dress coat than to a workman's blouse1 something of an expert1 as appears from some of the parables1 in matters of the table1 and conning the menu with interest when ,he dined with 8privyfinance councillor0 ,zacchaeus4 ,but this is to modernise more distressingly than even the theologians6 ,de ,jonge's onesided preference for the ,fourth ,gospel is shared by ,kirchbach's book1 8,what did ,jesus teach807#bej7 but here everything1 instead of being judaised1 is spiritualised4 ,kirchbach does not seem to have been acquainted with ,noack's 8,history of ,jesus10 otherwise he would hardly have ventured to repeat the same experiment without the latter's touch of genius and with much less skill and knowledge4 ,the teaching of ,jesus is interpreted on the lines of the ,kantian philosophy4 ,the saying1 8,no man hath seen ,god at any time10 is to be understood as if it were derived from the same system of thought as the 8,critique of ,pure ,reason40 ,jesus always used the words 8death0 and 8life0 in a purely metaphorical sense4 ,eternal life is for ,him not a life in another world1 but in the present4 ,he speaks of ,himself as the ,son of ,god1 not as the ,jewish ,messiah4 ,son of ,man is only the ethical explanation of ,son of ,god4 ,the only reason why a ,sonof,man problem has arisen1 is because ,matthew translated the ancient term ,son of ,man in the original collection of ,logia 8with extreme literality40 ,the great discourse of ,matt4 xxiii4 with its warnings and threatenings is1 according to ,kirchbach1 merely 8a patriotic oration in which ,jesus gives expression in moving words to ,his opposition to the ,pharisees and ,his inborn love of ,his native land40 ,the teaching of ,jesus is not ascetic1 it closely resembles the real teaching of ,epicurus1 8that is1 the rejection of all false metaphysics1 and the resulting condition of blessedness1 of makaria40 ,the only purpose of the demand addressed to the rich young man was to try him4 8,if the youth1 instead of slinking away dejectedly because he was called upon to sell all his goods1 had replied1 confident in the possession of a rich fund of courage1 energy1 ability1 and knowledge1 #8,right gladly4 ,it will not go to my heart to part with my little bit of property2 if ,i'm not to have it1 why then ,i can do without it1' the ,rabbi would probably in that case not have taken him at his word1 but would have said1 #8,young man1 ,i like you4 ,you have a good chance before you1 you may do something in the ,kingdom of ,god1 and in any case for ,my sake you may attach yourself to ,me by way of trial4 ,we can talk about your stocks and bonds later4' 0 ,finally1 ,kirchbach succeeds1 though only1 it must be admitted1 by the aid of some rather awkward phraseology1 in spiritualising ,john vi4 8,it is not the body10 he explains1 8of the long departed thinker1 who apparently attached no importance whatever to the question of personal survival1 that we1 who understand ,him in the right ,greek sense1 #8eat'2 in the sense which ,he intended1 we eat and drink1 and absorb into ourselves1 ,his teaching1 ,his spirit1 ,his sublime conception of life1 by constantly recalling them in connexion with the symbol of bread and flesh1 the symbol of blood1 the symbol of water407#bea7 ,worthless as ,kirchbach's ,life of ,jesus is from an historical point of view1 it is quite comprehensible as a phase in the struggle between the modern view of the world and ,jesus4 ,the aim of the work is to retain ,his significance for a metaphysical and nonascetic time2 and since it is not possible to do this in the case of the historical ,jesus1 the author denies ,his existence in favour of an apocryphal ,jesus4 ,it is1 in fact1 the characteristic feature of the ,lifeof,jesus literature on the threshold of the new century even in the productions of professedly historical and scientific theology1 to subordinate the historical interest to the interest of the general worldview4 ,and those who 8wrest the ,kingdom of ,heaven0 are beginning to wrest ,jesus ,himself along with it4 ,men who have no qualifications for the task1 whose ignorance is nothing less than criminal1 who loftily anathematise scientific theology instead of making themselves in some measure acquainted with the researches which it has carried out1 feel impelled to write a ,life of ,jesus1 in order to set forth their general religious view in a portrait of ,jesus which has not the faintest claim to be historical1 and the most farfetched of these find favour1 and are eagerly absorbed by the multitude4 ,it would be something to be thankful for if all these ,lives of ,jesus were based on as definite an idea and as acute historical observation as we find in ,albert ,dulk's 8,the ,error of the ,life of ,jesus407#beb7 ,in ,dulk the story of the fate of ,jesus is also the story of the fate of religion4 ,the ,galilaean teacher1 whose true character was marked by deep religious inwardness1 was doomed to destruction from the moment when ,he set ,himself upon the dizzy heights of the divine sonship and the eschatological expectation4 ,he died in despair1 having vainly expected1 down to the very last1 a 8telegram from heaven40 ,religion as a whole can only avoid the same fate by renouncing all transcendental elements4 ,the vast numbers of imaginative ,lives of ,jesus shrink into remarkably small compass on a close examination4 ,when one knows two or three of them1 one knows them all4 ,they have scarcely altered since ,venturini's time1 except that some of the cures performed by ,jesus are handled in the modern ,lives from the point of view of the recent investigations in hypnotism and suggestion47#bec7 ,according to ,paul de ,rgla7#bed7 ,jesus was born out of wedlock4 ,joseph1 however1 gave shelter and protection to the mother4 ,de ,rgla dwells on the beauty of the child4 8,his eyes were not exceptionally large1 but were wellopened1 and were shaded by long1 silky1 darkbrown eyelashes1 and rather deepset4 ,they were of a bluegrey colour1 which changed with changing emotions1 taking on various shades1 especially blue and brownish grey40 ,he and ,his disciples were ,essenes1 as was also the ,baptist4 ,that implies that ,he was no longer a ,jew in the strict sense4 ,his preaching dealt with the rights of man1 and put forward socialistic and communistic demands3 ,his religion in the pure consciousness of communion with ,god4 ,with eschatology ,he had nothing whatever to do1 it was first interpolated into ,his teaching by ,matthew4 ,the miracles are all to be explained by suggestion and hypnotism4 ,at the marriage at ,cana1 ,jesus noticed that the guests were taking too much1 and therefore secretly bade the servants pour out water instead of wine while ,he ,himself said1 8,drink1 this is better wine40 ,in this way ,he succeeded in suggesting to a part of the company that they were really drinking wine4 ,the feeding of the multitude is explained by striking out a couple of noughts from the numbers2 the raising of ,lazarus by supposing it a case of premature burial4 ,jesus ,himself when taken down from the cross was not dead1 and the ,essenes succeeded in reanimating ,him4 ,his work is inspired with hatred against ,catholicism1 but with a real reverence for ,jesus4 ,another mere variant of the plan of ,venturini is the fictitious ,life of ,jesus of ,pierre ,nahor47#bee7 ,the sentimental descriptions of nature and the long dialogues characteristic of the ,lives of ,jesus of a hundred years ago are here again in full force4 ,after ,john had already begun to preach in the neighbourhood of the ,dead ,sea1 ,jesus1 in company with a distinguished ,brahmin who possessed property at ,nazareth and had an influential following in ,jerusalem1 made a journey to ,egypt and was there indoctrinated into all kinds of ,egyptian1 ,essene1 and ,indian philosophy1 thus giving the author1 or rather the authoress1 an opportunity to develop her ideas on the philosophy of religion in didactic dialogues4 ,when ,he soon afterwards begins to work in ,galilee the young teacher is much aided by the fact that1 at the instance of ,his fellowtraveller1 ,he had acquired from ,egyptian mendicants a practical acquaintance with the secrets of hypnotism4 ,by ,his skill ,he healed ,mary of ,magdala1 a distinguished courtesan of ,tiberias4 ,they had met before at ,alexandria4 ,after being cured she left ,tiberias and went to live in a small house1 inherited from her mother1 at ,magdala4 ,jesus ,himself never went to ,tiberias1 but the social world of that place took an interest in ,him1 and often had itself rowed to the beach when ,he was preaching4 ,rich and pious ladies used to inquire of ,him where ,he thought of preaching to the people on a given day1 and sent baskets of bread and dried fish to the spot which ,he indicated1 that the multitude might not suffer hunger4 ,this is the explanation of the stories about the feeding of the multitudes2 the people had no idea whence ,jesus suddenly obtained the supplies which ,he caused ,his disciples to distribute4 ,when he became aware that the priests had resolved upon ,his death1 ,he made ,his friend ,joseph of ,arimathea1 a leading man among the ,essenes1 promise that he would take ,him down from the cross as soon as possible and lay ,him in the grave without other witnesses4 ,only ,nicodemus was to be present4 ,on the cross ,he put ,himself into a cataleptic trance2 ,he was taken down from the cross seemingly dead1 and came to ,himself again in the grave4 ,after appearing several times to ,his disciples he set out for ,nazareth and dragged ,his way painfully thither4 ,with a last effort ,he reaches the house of ,his mysterious old ,indian teacher4 ,at the door ,he falls helpless1 just as the morning dawns4 ,the old slavewoman recognises ,him and carries ,him into the house1 where ,he dies4 8,the serene solemn night withdrew and day broke in blinding splendour behind ,tiberias40 ,nikolas ,notowitsch7#bef7 finds in ,luke i4 #hj 78,and the child grew 444 and was in the deserts until the day of his shewing unto ,israel07 a 8gap in the life of ,jesus10 in spite of the fact that this passage refers to the ,baptist1 and proposes to fill it by putting ,jesus to school with the ,brahmins and ,buddhists from ,his thirteenth to ,his twentyninth year4 ,as evidence for this he refers to statements about ,buddhist worship of a certain ,issa which he professes to have found in the monasteries of ,little ,thibet4 ,the whole thing is1 as was shown by the experts1 a barefaced swindle and an impudent invention4 ,to the fictitious ,lives of ,jesus belong also in the main the theosophical 8,lives10 which equally play fast and loose with the history1 though here with a view to proving that ,jesus had absorbed the ,egyptian and ,indian theosophy1 and had been indoctrinated with 8occult science40 ,the theosophists1 however1 have the advantage of escaping the dilemma between reanimation after a trance and resurrection1 since they are convinced that it was possible for ,jesus to reassume ,his body after ,he had really died4 ,but in the touching up and embellishment of the ,gospel narratives they outdo even the romancers4 ,ernest ,bosc17#beg7 writing as a theosophist1 makes it the chief aim of his work to describe the oriental origin of ,christianity1 and ventures to assert that ,jesus was not a ,semite1 but an ,aryan4 ,the ,fourth ,gospel is1 of course1 the basis of his representation4 ,he does not hesitate1 however1 to appeal also to the anonymous 8,revelations0 published in #ahdi1 which are a mere plagiarism from ,venturini4 ,a work which is written with some ability and with much outoftheway learning is 8,did ,jesus live #ajj ,b4,c4807#beh7 ,the author compares the ,christian tradition with the ,jewish1 and finds in the latter a reminiscence of a ,jesus who lived in the time of ,alexander ,jannaeus 7#ajdgf ,b4,c474 ,this person was transferred by the earliest ,evangelist to the later period1 the attempt being facilitated by the fact that during the procuratorship of ,pilate a false prophet had attracted some attention4 ,the author1 however1 only professes to offer it as a hypothesis1 and apologises in advance for the offence which it is likely to cause4 ,,xix4 ,,thoroughgoing ,,scepticism ,,and ,,thoroughgoing ,,eschatology ,w4 ,wrede4 ,das ,messiasgeheimnis in den ,evangelien4 ,zugleich ein ,beitrag zum ,verstndnis des ,markusevangeliums4 7,the ,messianic ,secret in the ,gospels4 ,forming a contribution also to the understanding of the ,gospel of ,mark47 ,gttingen1 #aija4 #bhf pp4 ,albert ,schweitzer4 ,das ,messianitts und ,leidensgeheimnis4 ,eine ,skizze des ,lebens ,jesu4 7,the ,secret of the ,messiahship and the ,passion4 ,a ,sketch of the ,life of ,jesus47 ,tbingen and ,leipzig1 #aija4 #aji pp4 ,the coincidence between the work of ,wrede7#bei7 and the 8,sketch of the ,life of ,jesus0 is not more surprising in regard to the time of their appearance than in regard to the character of their contents4 ,they appeared upon the selfsame day1 their titles are almost identical1 and their agreement in the criticism of the modern historical conception of the life of ,jesus extends sometimes to the very phraseology4 ,and yet they are written from quite different standpoints1 one from the point of view of literary criticism1 the other from that of the historical recognition of eschatology4 ,it seems to be the fate of the ,marcan hypothesis that at the decisive periods its problems should always be attacked simultaneously and independently from the literary and the historical sides1 and the results declared in two different forms which corroborate each other4 ,so it was in the case of ,weisse and ,wilke2 so it is again now1 when1 retaining the assumption of the priority of ,mark1 the historicity of the hitherto accepted view of the life of ,jesus1 based upon the ,marcan narrative1 is called in question4 ,the meaning of that is that the literary and the eschatological view1 which have hitherto been marching parallel1 on either flank1 to the advance of modern theology1 have now united their forces1 brought theology to a halt1 surrounded it1 and compelled it to give battle4 ,that in the last three or four years so much has been written in which this enveloping movement has been ignored does not alter the real position of modern historical theology in the least4 ,the fact is deserving of notice that during this period the study of the subject has not made a step in advance1 but has kept moving to and fro upon the old lines with wearisome iteration1 and has thrown itself with excessive zeal into the work of popularisation1 simply because it was incapable of advancing4 ,and even if it professes gratitude to ,wrede for the very interesting historical point which he has brought into the discussion1 and is also willing to admit that thoroughgoing eschatology has advanced the solution of many problems1 these are mere demonstrations which are quite inadequate to raise the blockade of modern theology by the allied forces4 ,supposing that only a half--nay1 only a third--of the critical arguments which are common to ,wrede and the 8,sketch of the ,life of ,jesus0 are sound1 then the modern historical view of the history is wholly ruined4 ,the reader of ,wrede's book cannot help feeling that here no quarter is given2 and any one who goes carefully through the present writer's 8,sketch0 must come to see that between the modern historical and the eschatological ,life of ,jesus no compromise is possible4 ,thoroughgoing scepticism and thoroughgoing eschatology may1 in their union1 either destroy1 or be destroyed by modern historical theology2 but they cannot combine with it and enable it to advance1 any more than they can be advanced by it4 ,we are confronted with a decisive issue4 ,as with ,strauss's 8,life of ,jesus10 so with the surprising agreement in the critical basis of these two schools--we are not here considering the respective solutions which they offer--there has entered into the domain of the theology of the day a force with which it cannot possibly ally itself4 ,its whole territory is threatened4 ,it must either reconquer it step by step or else surrender it4 ,it has no longer the right to advance a single assertion until it has taken up a definite position in regard to the fundamental questions raised by the new criticism4 ,modern historical theology is no doubt still far from recognising this4 ,it is warned that the dyke is letting in water and sends a couple of masons to repair the leak2 as if the leak did not mean that the whole masonry is undermined1 and must be rebuilt from the foundation4 ,to vary the metaphor1 theology comes home to find the broker's marks on all the furniture and goes on as before quite comfortably1 ignoring the fact it will lose everything if it does not pay its debts4 ,the critical objections which ,wrede and the 8,sketch0 agree in bringing against the modern treatment of the subject are as follows4 ,in order to find in ,mark the ,life of ,jesus of which it is in search1 modern theology is obliged to read between the lines a whole host of things1 and those often the most important1 and then to foist them upon the text by means of psychological conjecture4 ,it is determined to find evidence in ,mark of a development of ,jesus1 a development of the disciples1 and a development of the outer circumstances2 and professes in so doing to be only reproducing the views and indications of the ,evangelist4 ,in reality1 however1 there is not a word of all this in the ,evangelist1 and when his interpreters are asked what are the hints and indications on which they base their assertions they have nothing to offer save argumenta e silentio4 ,mark knows nothing of any development in ,jesus2 he knows nothing of any paedagogic considerations which are supposed to have determined the conduct of ,jesus towards the disciples and the people2 he knows nothing of any conflict in the mind of ,jesus between a spiritual and a popular1 political ,messianic ideal2 he does not know1 either1 that in this respect there was any difference between the view of ,jesus and that of the people2 he knows nothing of the idea that the use of the ass at the triumphal entry symbolised a nonpolitical ,messiahship2 he knows nothing of the idea that the question about the ,messiah's being the ,son of ,david had something to do with this alternative between political and nonpolitical2 he does not know1 either1 that ,jesus explained the secret of the passion to the disciples1 nor that they had any understanding of it2 he only knows that from first to last they were in all respects equally wanting in understanding2 he does not know that the first period was a period of success and the second a period of failure2 he represents the ,pharisees and ,herodians as 7from iii4 #f onwards7 resolved upon the death of ,jesus1 while the people1 down to the very last day when ,he preached in the temple1 are enthusiastically loyal to ,him4 ,all these things of which the ,evangelist says nothing--and they are the foundations of the modern view--should first be proved1 if proved they can be2 they ought not to be simply read into the text as something self evident4 ,for it is just those things which appear so selfevident to the prevailing critical temper which are in reality the least evident of all4 ,another hitherto selfevident point--the 8historical kernel0 which it has been customary to extract from the narratives--must be given up1 until it is proved1 if it is capable of proof1 that we can and ought to distinguish between the kernel and the husk4 ,we may take all that is reported as either historical or unhistorical1 but1 in respect of the definite predictions of the passion1 death1 and resurrection1 we ought to give up taking the reference to the passion as historical and letting the rest go2 we may accept the idea of the atoning death1 or we may reject it1 but we ought not to ascribe to ,jesus a feeble1 anaemic version of this idea1 while setting down to the account of the ,pauline theology the interpretation of the passion which we actually find in ,mark4 ,whatever the results obtained by the aid of the historical kernel1 the method pursued is the same2 8it is detached from its context and transformed into something different40 8,it finally comes to this10 says ,wrede1 8that each critic retains whatever portion of the traditional sayings can be fitted into his construction of the facts and his conception of historical possibility and rejects the rest40 ,the psychological explanation of motive1 and the psychological connexion of the events and actions which such critics have proposed to find in ,mark1 simply do not exist4 ,that being so1 nothing is to be made out of his account by the application of a priori psychology4 ,a vast quantity of treasures of scholarship and erudition1 of art and artifice1 which the ,marcan hypothesis has gathered into its storehouse in the two generations of its existence to aid it in constructing its life of ,jesus has become worthless1 and can be of no further service to true historical research4 ,theology has been simplified4 ,what would become of it if that did not happen every hundred years or so8 ,and the simplification was badly needed1 for no one since ,strauss had cleared away its impedimenta4 ,thoroughgoing scepticism and thoroughgoing eschatology1 between them1 are compelling theology to read the ,marcan text again with simplicity of mind4 ,the simplicity consists in dispensing with the connecting links which it has been accustomed to discover between the sections of the narrative 7pericopes71 in looking at each one separately1 and recognising that it is difficult to pass from one to the other4 ,the material with which it has hitherto been usual to solder the sections together into a life of ,jesus will not stand the temperature test4 ,exposed to the cold air of critical scepticism it cracks2 when the furnace of eschatology is heated to a certain point the solderings melt4 ,in both cases the sections all fall apart4 ,formerly it was possible to book throughtickets at the supplementary psychologicalknowledge office which enabled those travelling in the interests of ,lifeof,jesus construction to use express trains1 thus avoiding the inconvenience of having to stop at every little station1 change1 and run the risk of missing their connexion4 ,this ticket office is now closed4 ,there is a station at the end of each section of the narrative1 and the connexions are not guaranteed4 ,the fact is1 it is not simply that there is no very obvious psychological connexion between the sections2 in almost every case there is a positive break in the connexion4 ,and there is a great deal in the ,marcan narrative which is inexplicable and even selfcontradictory4 ,in their statement of the problems raised by this want of connexion ,wrede and the 8,sketch0 are in the most exact agreement4 ,that these difficulties are not artificially constructed has been shown by our survey of the history of the attempts to write the ,life of ,jesus1 in the course of which these problems emerge one after another1 after ,bruno ,bauer had by anticipation grasped them all in their complexity4 ,how do the demoniacs know that ,jesus is the ,son of ,god8 ,why does the blind man at ,jericho address ,him as the ,son of ,david1 when no one else knows ,his ,messianic dignity8 ,how was it that these occurrences did not give a new direction to the thoughts of the people in regard to ,jesus8 ,how did the ,messianic entry come about8 ,how was it possible without provoking the interference of the ,roman garrison of occupation8 ,why is it as completely ignored in the subsequent controversies as if had never taken place8 ,why was it not brought up at the trial of ,jesus8 8,the ,messianic acclamation at the entry into ,jerusalem10 says ,wrede1 8is in ,mark quite an isolated incident4 ,it has no sequel1 neither is there any preparation for it beforehand40 ,why does ,jesus in ,mark iv4 #ajab speak of the parabolic form of discourse as designed to conceal the mystery of the ,kingdom of ,god1 whereas the explanation which ,he proceeds to give to the disciples has nothing mysterious about it8 ,what is the mystery of the ,kingdom of ,god8 ,why does ,jesus forbid ,his miracles to be made known even in cases where there is no apparent purpose for the prohibition8 ,why is ,his ,messiahship a secret and yet no secret1 since it is known1 not only to the disciples1 but to the demoniacs1 the blind man at ,jericho1 the multitude at ,jerusalem--which must1 as ,bruno ,bauer expresses it1 8have fallen from heaven0--and to the ,high ,priest8 ,why does ,jesus first reveal ,his ,messiahship to the disciples at ,caesarea ,philippi1 not at the moment when ,he sends them forth to preach8 ,how does ,peter know without having been told by ,jesus that the ,messiahship belongs to his ,master8 ,why must it remain a secret until the 8resurrection08 ,why does ,jesus indicate ,his ,messiahship only by the title ,son of ,man8 ,and why is it that this title is so far from prominent in primitive ,christian theology8 ,what is the meaning of the statement that ,jesus at ,jerusalem discovered a difficulty in the fact that the ,messiah was described as at once ,david's son and ,david's ,lord8 ,how are we to explain the fact that ,jesus had to open the eyes of the people to the greatness of the ,baptist's office1 subsequently to the mission of the ,twelve1 and to enlighten the disciples themselves in regard to it during the descent from the mount of transfiguration8 ,why should this be described in ,matt4 xi4 #ad and #ae as a mystery difficult to grasp 78,if ye can receive it0 444 8,he that hath ears to hear1 let him hear078 ,what is the meaning of the saying that he that is least in the ,kingdom of ,heaven is greater than the ,baptist8 ,does the ,baptist1 then1 not enter into the ,kingdom of ,heaven8 ,how is the ,kingdom of ,heaven subjected to violence since the days of the ,baptist8 ,who are the violent8 ,what is the ,baptist intended to understand from the answer of ,jesus8 ,what importance was attached to the miracles by ,jesus ,himself8 ,what office must they have caused the people to attribute to ,him8 ,why is the discourse at the sending out of the ,twelve filled with predictions of persecutions which experience had given no reason to anticipate1 and which did not1 as a matter of fact1 occur8 ,what is the meaning of the saying in ,matt4 x4 #bc about the imminent coming of the ,son of ,man1 seeing that the disciples after all returned to ,jesus without its being fulfilled8 ,why does ,jesus leave the people just when ,his work among them is most successful1 and journey northwards8 ,why had ,he1 immediately after the sending forth of the ,twelve1 manifested a desire to withdraw ,himself from the multitude who were longing for salvation8 ,how does the multitude mentioned in ,mark viii4 #cd suddenly appear at ,caesarea ,philippi8 ,why is its presence no longer implied in ,mark ix4 #cj8 ,how could ,jesus possibly have travelled unrecognised through ,galilee1 and how could ,he have avoided being thronged in ,capernaum although ,he stayed at 8the house08 ,how came ,he so suddenly to speak to ,his disciples of ,his suffering and dying and rising again1 without1 moreover1 explaining to them either the natural or the moral 8wherefore08 8,there is no trace of any attempt on the part of ,jesus10 says ,wrede1 8to break this strange thought gradually to ,his disciples 444 the prediction is always flung down before the disciples without preparation1 it is1 in fact1 a characteristic feature of these sayings that all attempt to aid the understanding of the disciples is lacking40 ,did ,jesus journey to ,jerusalem with the purpose of working there1 or of dying there8 ,how comes it that in ,mark x4 #ci1 ,he holds out to the sons of ,zebedee the prospect of drinking ,his cup and being baptized with ,his baptism8 ,and how can ,he1 after speaking so decidedly of the necessity of ,his death1 think it possible in ,gethsemane that the cup might yet pass from ,him8 ,who are the undefined 8many10 for whom1 according to ,mark x4 #de and xiv4 #bd1 ,his death shall serve as a ransom87#bfj7 ,how came it that ,jesus alone was arrested8 ,why were no witnesses called at ,his trial to testify that ,he had given ,himself out to be the ,messiah8 ,how is it that on the morning after ,his arrest the temper of the multitude seems to be completely changed1 so that no one stirs a finger to help ,him8 ,in what form does ,jesus conceive the resurrection1 which ,he promises to ,his disciples1 to be combined with the coming on the clouds of heaven1 to which ,he points ,his judge8 ,in what relation do these predictions stand to the prospect held out at the time of the sending forth of the ,twelve1 but not realized1 of the immediate appearance of the ,son of ,man8 ,what is the meaning of the further prediction on the way to ,gethsemane 7,mark xiv4 #bh7 that after ,his resurrection ,he will go before the disciples into ,galilee8 ,how is the other version of this saying 7,mark xvi4 #g7 to be explained1 according to which it means1 as spoken by the angel1 that the disciples are to journey to ,galilee to have their first meeting with the risen ,jesus there1 whereas1 on the lips of ,jesus1 it betokened that1 just as now as a sufferer ,he was going before them from ,galilee to ,jerusalem1 so1 after ,his resurrection1 ,he would go before them from ,jerusalem to ,galilee8 ,and what was to happen there8 ,these problems were covered up by the naturalistic psychology as by a light snowdrift4 ,the snow has melted1 and they now stand out from the narratives like black points of rock4 ,it is no longer allowable to avoid these questions1 or to solve them1 each by itself1 by softening them down and giving them an interpretation by which the reported facts acquire a quite different significance from that which they bear for the ,evangelist4 ,either the ,marcan text as it stands is historical1 and therefore to be retained1 or it is not1 and then it should be given up4 ,what is really unhistorical is any softening down of the wording1 and the meaning which it naturally bears4 ,the sceptical and eschatological schools1 however1 go still farther in company4 ,if the connexion in ,mark is really no connexion1 it is important to try to discover whether any principle can be discovered in this want of connexion4 ,can any order be brought into the chaos8 ,to this the answer is in the affirmative4 ,the complete want of connexion1 with all its selfcontradictions1 is ultimately due to the fact that two representations of the life of ,jesus1 or1 to speak more accurately1 of ,his public ministry1 are here crushed into one2 a natural and a deliberately supernatural representation4 ,a dogmatic element has intruded itself into the description of this ,life--something which has no concern with the events which form the outward course of that ,life4 ,this dogmatic element is the ,messianic secret of ,jesus and all the secrets and concealments which go along with it4 ,hence the irrational and selfcontradictory features of the presentation of ,jesus1 out of which a rational psychology can make only something which is unhistorical and does violence to the text1 since it must necessarily get rid of the constant want of connexion and selfcontradiction which belongs to the essence of the narrative1 and portray a ,jesus who was the ,messiah1 not one who at once was and was not ,messiah1 as the ,evangelist depicts ,him4 ,when rational psychology conceives ,him as one who was ,messiah1 but not in the sense expected by the people1 that is a concession to the selfcontradictions of the ,marcan representation2 which1 however1 does justice neither to the text nor to the history which it records1 since the ,gospel does not contain the faintest hint that the contradiction was of this nature4 ,up to this point--up to the complete reconstruction of the system which runs through the disconnectedness1 and the tracing back of the dogmatic element to the ,messianic secret--there extends a close agreement between thoroughgoing scepticism and thoroughgoing eschatology4 ,the critical arguments are identical1 the construction is analogous and based on the same principle4 ,the defenders of the modern psychological view cannot1 therefore1 play off one school against the other1 as one of them proposed to do1 but must deal with them both at once4 ,they differ only when they explain whence the system that runs through the disconnectedness comes4 ,here the ways divide1 as ,bauer saw long ago4 ,the inconsistency between the public life of ,jesus and ,his ,messianic claim lies either in the nature of the ,jewish ,messianic conception1 or in the representation of the ,evangelist4 ,there is1 on the one hand1 the eschatological solution1 which at one stroke raises the ,marcan account as it stands1 with all its disconnectedness and inconsistencies1 into genuine history2 and there is1 on the other hand1 the literary solution1 which regards the incongruous dogmatic element as interpolated by the earliest ,evangelist into the tradition and therefore strikes out the ,messianic claim altogether from the historical ,life of ,jesus4 ,tertium non datur4 ,but in some respects it really hardly matters which of the two 8solutions0 one adopts4 ,they are both merely wooden towers erected upon the solid main building of the consentient critical induction which offers the enigmas detailed above to modern historical theology4 ,it is interesting in this connexion that ,wrede's scepticism is just as constructive as the eschatological outline of the ,life of ,jesus in the 8,sketch40 ,bruno ,bauer chose the literary solution because he thought that we had no evidence for an eschatological expectation existing in the time of ,christ4 ,wrede1 though he follows ,johannes ,weiss in assuming the existence of a ,jewish eschatological ,messianic expectation1 finds in the ,gospel only the ,christian conception of the ,messiah4 8,if ,jesus10 he thinks1 8really knew ,himself to be the ,messiah and designated ,himself as such1 the genuine tradition is so closely interwoven with later accretions that it is not easy to recognise it40 ,in any case1 ,jesus cannot1 according to ,wrede1 have spoken of ,his ,messianic ,coming in the way which the ,synoptists report4 ,the ,messiahship of ,jesus1 as we find it in the ,gospels1 is a product of ,early ,christian theology correcting history according to its own conceptions4 ,it is therefore necessary to distinguish in ,mark between the reported events which constitute the outward course of the history of ,jesus1 and the dogmatic idea which claims to lay down the lines of its inward course4 ,the principle of division is found in the contradictions4 ,the recorded events form1 according to ,wrede1 the following picture4 ,jesus came forward as a teacher17#bfa7 first and principally in ,galilee4 ,he was surrounded by a company of disciples1 went about with them1 and gave them instruction4 ,to some of them ,he accorded a special confidence4 ,a larger multitude sometimes attached itself to ,him1 in addition to the disciples4 ,he is fond of discoursing in parables4 ,besides the teaching there are the miracles4 ,these make a stir1 and ,he is thronged by the multitudes4 ,he gives special attention to the cases of demoniacs4 ,he is in such close touch with the people that ,he does not hesitate to associate even with publicans and sinners4 ,towards the ,law ,he takes up an attitude of some freedom4 ,he encounters the opposition of the ,pharisees and the ,jewish authorities4 ,they set traps for ,him and endeavour to bring about ,his fall4 ,finally they succeed1 when ,he ventures to show ,himself not only on ,judaean soil1 but in ,jerusalem4 ,he remains passive and is condemned to death4 ,the ,roman administration supports the ,jewish authorities4 8,the texture of the ,marcan narrative as we know it10 continues ,wrede1 8is not complete until to the warp of these general historical notions there is added a strong weft of ideas of a dogmatic character10 the substance of which is that 8,jesus1 the bearer of a special office to which ,he was appointed by ,god10 becomes 8a higher1 superhuman being40 ,if this is the case1 however1 then the motives of ,his conduct are not derived from human characteristics1 human aims and necessities4 8,the one motive which runs throughout is rather a ,divine decree which lies beyond human understanding4 ,this ,he seeks to fulfil alike in ,his actions and ,his sufferings4 ,the teaching of ,jesus is accordingly supernatural40 ,on this assumption the want of understanding of the disciples to whom ,he communicates1 without commentary1 unconnected portions of this supernatural knowledge becomes natural and explicable4 ,the people are1 moreover1 essentially 8nonreceptive of revelation40 8,it is these motifs and not those which are inherently historical which give movement and direction to the ,marcan narrative4 ,it is they that give the general colour4 ,on them naturally depends the main interest1 it is to them that the thought of the writer is really directed4 ,the consequence is that the general picture offered by the ,gospel is not an historical representation of the ,life of ,jesus4 ,only some faded remnants of such an impression have been taken over into a suprahistorical religious view4 ,in this sense the ,gospel of ,mark belongs to the history of dogma40 ,the two conceptions of the ,life of ,jesus1 the natural and the supernatural1 are brought1 not without inconsistencies1 into a kind of harmony by means of the idea of intentional secrecy4 ,the ,messiahship of ,jesus is concealed in ,his life as in a closed dark lantern1 which1 however1 is not quite closed--otherwise one could not see that it was there--and allows a few bright beams to escape4 ,the idea of a secret which must remain a secret until the resurrection of ,jesus could only arise at a time when nothing was known of a ,messianic claim of ,jesus during ,his life upon earth3 that is to say1 at a time when the ,messiahship of ,jesus was thought of as beginning with the resurrection4 ,but that is a weighty piece of indirect historical evidence that ,jesus did not really profess to be the ,messiah at all4 ,the positive fact which is to be inferred from this is that the appearances of the risen ,jesus produced a sudden revolution in ,his disciples' conception of ,him4 8,the resurrection0 is for ,wrede the real ,messianic event in the ,life of ,jesus4 ,who is responsible1 then1 for introducing this singular feature1 so destructive of the real historical connexion1 into the life of ,jesus1 which was in reality that of a teacher8 ,it is quite impossible1 ,wrede argues1 that the idea of the ,messianic secret is the invention of ,mark4 8,a thing like that is not done by a single individual4 ,it must1 therefore1 have been a view which was current in certain circles1 and was held by a considerable number1 though not necessarily perhaps by a very great number of persons4 ,to say this is not to deny that ,mark had a share and perhaps a considerable share in the creation of the view which he sets forth 444 the motifs themselves are doubtless not1 in part at least1 peculiar to the ,evangelist1 but the concrete embodiment of them is certainly his own work2 and to this extent we may speak of a special ,marcan point of view which manifests itself here and there4 ,where the line is to be drawn between what is traditional and what is individual cannot always be determined even by a careful examination directed to this end4 ,we must leave it commingled1 as we find it40 ,the ,marcan narrative has therefore arisen from the impulse to give a ,messianic form to the earthly life of ,jesus4 ,this impulse was1 however1 restrained by the impression and tradition of the non,messianic character of the life of ,jesus1 which were still strong and vivid1 and it was therefore not able wholly to recast the material1 but could only bore its way into it and force it apart1 as the roots of the bramble disintegrate a rock4 ,in the ,gospel literature which arose on the basis of ,mark the ,messianic secret becomes gradually of more subordinate importance and the life of ,jesus more ,messianic in character1 until in the ,fourth ,gospel ,he openly comes before the people with ,messianic claims4 ,in estimating the value of this construction we must not attach too much importance to its a priori assumptions and difficulties4 ,in this respect ,wrede's position is much more precarious than that of his precursor ,bruno ,bauer4 ,according to the latter the interpolation of the ,messianic secret is the personal1 absolutely original act of the ,evangelist4 ,wrede thinks of it as a collective act1 representing the new conception as moulded by the tradition before it was fixed by the ,evangelist4 ,that is very much more difficult to carry through4 ,tradition alters its materials in a different way from that in which we find them altered in ,mark4 ,tradition transforms from without4 ,mark's way of drawing secret threads of a different material through the texture of the tradition1 without otherwise altering it1 is purely literary1 and could only be the work of an individual person4 ,a creative tradition would have carried out the theory of the ,messianic secret in the life of ,jesus much more boldly and logically1 that is to say1 at once more arbitrarily and more consistently4 ,the only alternative is to distinguish two stages of tradition in early ,christianity1 a naive1 freelyworking1 earlier stage1 and a more artificial later stage confined to a smaller circle of a more literary character4 ,wrede does1 as a matter of fact1 propose to find in ,mark traces of a simpler and bolder transformation which1 leaving aside the ,messianic secret1 makes ,jesus an openlyprofessed ,messiah1 and is therefore of a distinct origin from the conception of the secret ,christ4 ,to this tradition may belong1 he thinks1 the entry into ,jerusalem and the confession before the ,high ,priest1 since these narratives 8naively0 imply an openly avowed ,messiahship4 ,the word 8naively0 is out of place here2 a really naive tradition which intended to represent the entry of ,jesus as ,messianic would have done so in quite a different way from ,mark1 and would not have stultified itself so curiously as we find done even in ,matthew1 where the ,galilaean ,passover pilgrims1 after the 8,messianic entry10 answer the question of the people of ,jerusalem as to who it was whom they were acclaiming1 with the words 8,this is the ,prophet ,jesus from ,nazareth of ,galilee0 7,matt4 xxi4 #aa74 ,the tradition1 too1 which makes ,jesus acknowledge ,his ,messiahship before ,his judges is not 8naive0 in ,wrede's sense1 for1 if it were1 it would not represent the ,high ,priest's knowledge of ,jesus' ,messiahship as something so extraordinary and peculiar to himself that he can cite witnesses only for the saying about the ,temple1 not with reference to ,jesus' ,messianic claim1 and bases his condemnation only on the fact that ,jesus in answer to his question acknowledges ,himself as ,messiah--and ,jesus does so1 it should be remarked1 as in other passages1 with an appeal to a future justification of ,his claim4 ,the confession before the council is therefore anything but a 8naive representation of an openly avowed ,messiahship40 ,the ,messianic statements in these two passages present precisely the same remarkable character as in all the other cases to which ,wrede draws attention4 ,we have not here to do with a different tradition1 with a clear ,messianic light streaming in through the windowpane1 but1 just as elsewhere1 with the rays of a dark lantern4 ,the real point is that ,wrede cannot bring these two passages within the lines of the theory of secrecy1 and practically admits this by assuming the existence of a second and rather divergent line of tradition4 ,what concerns us is to note that this theory does not suffice to explain the two facts in question1 the knowledge of ,jesus' ,messiahship shown by the ,galilaean ,passover pilgrims at the time of the entry into ,jerusalem1 and the knowledge of the ,high ,priest at ,his trial4 ,we can only touch on the question whether any one who wished to date back in some way or other the ,messiahship into the life of ,jesus could not have done it much more simply by making ,jesus give ,his closest followers some hints regarding it4 ,why does the remoulder of the history1 instead of doing that1 have recourse to a supernatural knowledge on the part of the demoniacs and the disciples8 ,for ,wrede rightly remarks1 as ,bruno ,bauer and the 8,sketch0 also do1 that the incident of ,caesarea ,philippi1 as represented by ,mark1 involves a miracle1 since ,jesus does not1 as is generally supposed1 reveal ,his ,messiahship to ,peter2 it is ,peter who reveals it to ,jesus 7,mark viii4 #bi74 ,this fact1 however1 makes nonsense of the whole theory about the disciples' want of understanding4 ,it will not therefore fit into the concealment theory1 and ,wrede1 as a matter of fact1 feels obliged to give up that theory as regards this incident4 8,this scene10 he remarks1 8can hardly have been created by ,mark himself40 ,it also1 therefore1 belongs to another tradition4 ,here1 then1 is a third ,messianic fact which cannot be brought within the lines of ,wrede's 8literary0 theory of the ,messianic secret4 ,and these three facts are precisely the most important of all3 ,peter's confession1 the ,entry into ,jerusalem1 and the ,high ,priest's knowledge of ,jesus' ,messiahship6 ,in each case ,wrede finds himself obliged to refer these to tradition instead of to the literary conception of ,mark47#bfb7 ,this tradition undermines his literary hypothesis1 for the conception of a tradition always involves the possibility of genuine historical elements4 ,how greatly this inescapable intrusion of tradition weakens the theory of the literary interpolation of the ,messiahship into the history1 becomes evident when we consider the story of the passion4 ,the representation that ,jesus was publicly put to death as ,messiah because ,he had publicly acknowledged ,himself to be so1 must1 like the ,high ,priest's knowledge of ,his claim1 be referred to the other tradition which has nothing to do with the ,messianic secret1 but boldly antedates the ,messiahship without employing any finesse of that kind4 ,but that strongly tends to confirm the historicity of this tradition1 and throws the burden of proof upon those who deny it4 ,it is wholly independent of the hypothesis of secrecy1 and in fact directly opposed to it4 ,if1 on the other hand1 in spite of all the difficulties1 the representation that ,jesus was condemned to death on account of ,his ,messianic claims is dragged by main force into the theory of secrecy1 the question arises3 ,what interest had the persons who set up the literary theory of secrecy1 in representing ,jesus as having been openly put to death as ,messiah and in consequence of ,his ,messianic claims8 ,and the answer is3 8,none whatever3 quite the contrary40 ,for in doing so the theory of secrecy stultifies itself4 ,as though one were to develop a photographic plate with painful care and1 just when one had finished1 fling open the shutters1 so1 on this hypothesis1 the natural ,messianic light suddenly shines into the room which ought to be lighted only by the rays of the dark lantern4 ,here1 therefore1 the theory of secrecy abandoned the method which it had hitherto followed in regard to the traditional material4 ,for if ,jesus was not condemned and crucified at ,jerusalem as ,messiah1 a tradition must have existed which preserved the truth about the last conflicts1 and the motives of the condemnation4 ,this is supposed to have been here completely set aside by the theory of the secret ,messiahship1 which1 instead of drawing its delicate threads through the older tradition1 has simply substituted its own representation of events4 ,but in that case why not do away with the remainder of the public ministry8 ,why not at least get rid of the public appearance at ,jerusalem8 ,how can the crudeness of method shown in the case of the passion be harmonised with the skilful conservatism towards the non,messianic tradition which it is obvious that the 8,marcan circle0 has scrupulously observed elsewhere8 ,if according to the original tradition1 of which ,wrede admits the existence1 ,jesus went to ,jerusalem not to die1 but to work there1 the dogmatic view1 according to which ,he went to ,jerusalem to die1 must have struck out the whole account of ,his sojourn in ,jerusalem and ,his death1 in order to put something else in its place4 ,what we now read in the ,gospels concerning those last days in ,jerusalem cannot be derived from the original tradition1 for one who came to work1 and1 according to ,wrede1 8to work with decisive effect10 would not have cast all ,his preaching into the form of obscure parables of judgment and minatory discourses4 ,that is a style of speech which could be adopted only by one who was determined to force his adversaries to put him to death4 ,therefore the narrative of the last days of ,jesus must be1 from beginning to end1 a creation of the dogmatic idea4 ,and1 as a matter of fact1 ,wrede1 here in agreement with ,weisse1 8sees grounds for asserting that the sojourn at ,jerusalem is presented to us in the ,gospels in a very much abridged and weakened version40 ,that is a euphemistic expression1 for if it was really the dogmatic idea which was responsible for representing ,jesus as being condemned as ,messiah1 it is not a mere case of 8abridging and weakening down10 but of displacing the tradition in favour of a new one4 ,but if ,jesus was not condemned as ,messiah1 on what grounds was ,he condemned8 ,and1 again1 what interest had those whose concern was to make the ,messiahship a secret of ,his earthly life1 in making ,him die as ,messiah1 contrary to the received tradition8 ,and what interest could the tradition have had in falsifying history in that way8 ,even admitting that the prediction of the passion to the disciples is of a dogmatic character1 and is to be regarded as a creation of primitive ,christian theology1 the historic fact that ,he died would have been a sufficient fulfilment of those sayings4 ,that ,he was publicly condemned and crucified as ,messiah has nothing to do with the fulfilment of those predictions1 and goes far beyond it4 ,to take a more general point3 what interest had primitive theology in dating back the ,messiahship of ,jesus to the time of ,his earthly ministry8 ,none whatever4 ,paul shows us with what complete indifference the earthly life of ,jesus was regarded by primitive ,christianity4 ,the discourses in ,acts show an equal indifference1 since in them also ,jesus first becomes the ,messiah by virtue of ,his exaltation4 ,to date the ,messiahship earlier was not an undertaking which offered any advantage to primitive theology1 in fact it would only have raised difficulties for it1 since it involved the hypothesis of a dual ,messiahship1 one of earthly humiliation and one of future glory4 ,the fact is1 if one reads through the early literature one becomes aware that so long as theology had an eschatological orientation and was dominated by the expectation of the ,parousia the question of how ,jesus of ,nazareth 8had been0 the ,messiah not only did not exist1 but was impossible4 ,primitive theology is simply a theology of the future1 with no interest in history6 ,it was only with the decline of eschatological interest and the change in the orientation of ,christianity which was connected therewith that an interest in the life of ,jesus and the 8historical ,messiahship0 arose4 ,that is to say1 the ,gnostics1 who were the first to assert the ,messiahship of the historical ,jesus1 and who were obliged to assert it precisely because they denied the eschatological conceptions1 forced this view upon the theology of the ,early ,church1 and compelled it to create in the ,logos ,christology an un,gnostic mould in which to cast the speculative conception of the historical ,messiahship of ,jesus2 and that is what we find in the ,fourth ,gospel4 ,prior to the anti,gnostic controversies we find in the early ,christian literature no conscious dating back of the ,messiahship of ,jesus to ,his earthly life1 and no theological interest at work upon the dogmatic recasting of ,his history47#bfc7 ,it is therefore difficult to suppose that the ,messianic secret in ,mark1 that is to say1 in the very earliest tradition1 was derived from primitive theology4 ,the assertion of the ,messiahship of ,jesus was wholly independent of the latter4 ,the instinct which led ,bruno ,bauer to explain the ,messianic secret as the literary invention of ,mark himself was therefore quite correct4 ,once suppose that tradition and primitive theology have anything to do with the matter1 and the theory of the interpolation of the ,messiahship into the history becomes almost impossible to carry through4 ,but ,wrede's greatness consists precisely in the fact that he was compelled by his acute perception of the significance of the critical data to set aside the purely literary version of the hypothesis and make ,mark1 so to speak1 the instrument of the literary realisation of the ideas of a definite intellectual circle within the sphere of primitive theology4 ,the positive difficulty which confronts the sceptical theory is to explain how the ,messianic beliefs of the first generation arose1 if ,jesus1 throughout ,his life1 was for all1 even for the disciples1 merely a 8teacher10 and gave even ,his intimates no hint of the dignity which ,he claimed for ,himself4 ,it is difficult to eliminate the ,messiahship from the 8,life of ,jesus10 especially from the narrative of the passion2 it is more difficult still1 as ,keim saw long ago1 to bring it back again after its elimination from the 8,life0 into the theology of the primitive ,church4 ,in ,wrede's acute and logical thinking this difficulty seems to leap to light4 ,since the ,messianic secret in ,mark is always connected with the resurrection1 the date at which the ,messianic belief of the disciples arose must be the resurrection of ,jesus4 8,but the idea of dating the ,messiahship from the resurrection is certainly not a thought of ,jesus1 but of the primitive ,church4 ,it presupposes the ,church's experience of the appearance of the risen ,jesus40 ,the psychologist will say that the 8resurrection experiences10 however they may be conceived1 are only intelligible as based upon the expectation of the resurrection1 and this again as based on references of ,jesus to the resurrection4 ,but leaving psychology aside1 let us accept the resurrection experiences of the disciples as a pure psychological miracle4 ,even so1 how can the appearances of the risen ,jesus have suggested to the disciples the idea that ,jesus1 the crucified teacher1 was the ,messiah8 ,apart from any expectations1 how can this conclusion have resulted for them from the mere 8fact of the resurrection08 ,the fact of the appearance did not by any means imply it4 ,in certain circles1 indeed1 according to ,mark vi4 #adaf1 in the very highest quarters1 the resurrection of the ,baptist was believed in2 but that did not make ,john the ,baptist the ,messiah4 ,the inexplicable thing is that1 according to ,wrede1 the disciples began at once to assert confidently and unanimously that ,he was the ,messiah and would before long appear in glory4 ,but how did the appearance of the risen ,jesus suddenly become for them a proof of ,his ,messiahship and the basis of their eschatology8 ,that ,wrede fails to explain1 and so makes this 8event0 an 8historical0 miracle which in reality is harder to believe than the supernatural event4 ,any one who holds 8historical0 miracles to be just as impossible as any other kind1 even when they occur in a critical and sceptical work1 will be forced to the conclusion that the ,messianic eschatological significance attached to the 8resurrection experience0 by the disciples implies some kind of ,messianic eschatological references on the part of the historical ,jesus which gave to the 8resurrection0 its ,messianic eschatological significance4 ,here ,wrede himself1 though without admitting it1 postulates some ,messianic hints on the part of ,jesus1 since he conceives the judgment of the disciples upon the resurrection to have been not analytical1 but synthetic1 inasmuch as they add something to it1 and that1 indeed1 the main thing1 which was not implied in the conception of the event as such4 ,here again the merit of ,wrede's contribution to criticism consists in the fact that he takes the position as it is and does not try to improve it artificially4 ,bruno ,bauer and others supposed that the belief in the ,messiahship of ,jesus had slowly solidified out of a kind of gaseous state1 or had been forced into primitive theology by the literary invention of ,mark4 ,wrede1 however1 feels himself obliged to base it upon an historical fact1 and1 moreover1 the same historical fact which is pointed to by the sayings in the ,synoptics and the ,pauline theology4 ,but in so doing he creates an almost insurmountable difficulty for his hypothesis4 ,we can only briefly refer to the question what form the accounts of the resurrection must have taken if the historic fact which underlay them was the first surprised apprehension and recognition of the ,messiahship of ,jesus on the part of the disciples4 ,the ,messianic teaching would necessarily in that case have been somehow or other put into the mouth of the risen ,jesus4 ,it is1 however1 completely absent1 because it was already contained in the teaching of ,jesus during ,his earthly life4 ,the theory of ,messianic secrecy must therefore have remoulded not merely the story of the passion1 but also that of the resurrection1 removing the revelation of the ,messiahship to the disciples from the latter in order to insert it into the public ministry6 ,wrede1 moreover1 will only take account of the ,marcan text as it stands1 not of the historical possibility that the 8futuristic ,messiahship0 which meets us in the mysterious utterances of ,jesus goes back in some form to a sound tradition4 ,further he does not take the eschatological character of the teaching of ,jesus into his calculations1 but works on the false assumption that he can analyse the ,marcan text in and by itself and so discover the principle on which it is composed4 ,he carries out experiments on the law of crystallisation of the narrative material in this ,gospel1 but instead of doing so in the natural and historical atmosphere he does it in an atmosphere artificially neutralised1 which contains no trace of contemporary conceptions47#bfd7 ,consequently the conclusion based on the sum of his observations has in it something arbitrary4 ,everything which conflicts with the rational construction of the course of the history is referred directly to the theory of the concealment of the ,messianic secret4 ,but in the carrying out of that theory a number of self contradictions1 without which it could not subsist1 must be recognised and noted4 ,thus1 for example1 all the prohibitions17#bfe7 whatever they may refer to1 even including the command not to make known ,his miracles1 are referred to the same category as the injunction not to reveal the ,messianic secret4 ,but what justification is there for that8 ,it presupposes that according to ,mark the miracles could be taken as proofs of the ,messiahship1 an idea of which there is no hint whatever in ,mark4 8,the miracles10 ,wrede argues1 8are certainly used by the earliest ,christians as evidence of the nature and significance of ,christ4444 ,i need hardly point to the fact that ,mark1 not less than ,matthew1 ,luke1 and ,john1 must have held the opinion that the miracles of ,jesus encountered a widespread and ardent ,messianic expectation40 ,in ,john this ,messianic significance of the miracles is certainly assumed2 but then the really eschatological view of things has here fallen into the background4 ,it seems indeed as if genuine eschatology excluded the ,messianic interpretation of the miracles4 ,in ,matthew the miracles of ,jesus have nothing whatever to do with the proof of the ,messiahship1 but1 as is evident from the saying about ,chorazin and ,bethsaida1 ,matt4 xi4 #bjbd1 are only an exhibition of mercy intended to awaken repentance1 or1 according to ,matt4 xii4 #bh1 an indication of the nearness of the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,they have as little to do with the ,messianic office as in the ,acts of the ,apostles47#bff7 ,in ,mark1 from first to last1 there is not a single syllable to suggest that the miracles have a ,messianic significance4 ,even admitting the possibility that the 8miracles of ,jesus encountered an ardent ,messianic expectation10 that does not necessarily imply a ,messianic significance in them4 ,to justify that conclusion requires the pre supposition that the ,messiah was expected to be some kind of an earthly man who should do miracles4 ,this is presupposed by ,wrede1 by ,bruno ,bauer1 and by modern theology in general1 but it has not been proved1 and it is at variance with eschatology1 which pictured the ,messiah to itself as a heavenly being in a world which was already being transformed into something supramundane4 ,the assumption that the clue to the explanation of the command not to make known the miracles is to be found in the necessity of guarding the secret of the ,messiahship is1 therefore1 not justified4 ,the miracles are connected with the ,kingdom and the nearness of the ,kingdom1 not with the ,messiah4 ,but ,wrede is obliged to refer everything to the ,messianic secret1 because he leaves the preaching of the ,kingdom out of account4 ,the same process is repeated in the discussion of the veiling of the mystery of the ,kingdom of ,god in the parables of ,mark iv4 ,the mystery of the ,kingdom is for ,wrede the secret of ,jesus' ,messiahship4 8,we have learned in the meantime10 he says1 8that one main element in this mystery is that ,jesus is the ,messiah1 the ,son of ,god4 ,if ,jesus1 according to ,mark1 conceals his ,messiahship1 we are justified in interpreting the in the light of this fact40 ,that is one of the weakest points in ,wrede's whole theory4 ,where is there any hint of this in these parables8 ,and why should the secret of the ,kingdom of ,god contain within it as one of its principal features the secret of the ,messiahship of ,jesus8 8,mark's account of ,jesus' parabolic teaching10 he concludes1 8is completely unhistorical10 because it is directly opposed to the essential nature of the parables4 ,the ultimate reason1 according to ,wrede1 why this whole view of the parables arose1 was simply 8because the general opinion was already in existence that ,jesus had revealed ,himself to the disciples1 but concealed ,himself from the multitude40 ,instead of simply admitting that we are unable to discover what the mystery of the ,kingdom in ,mark iv4 is1 any more than we can understand why it must be veiled1 and numbering it among the unsolved problems of ,jesus' preaching of the ,kingdom1 ,wrede forces this chapter inside the lines of his theory of the veiled ,messiahship4 ,the desire of ,jesus to be alone1 too1 and remain unrecognised 7,mark vii4 #bd and ix4 #cj ff47 is supposed to have some kind of connexion with the veiling of the ,messiahship4 ,he even brings the multitude1 which in ,mark x4 #dg ff4 rebukes the blind beggar at ,jericho who cried out to ,jesus1 into the service of his theory 444 on the ground that the beggar had addressed ,him as ,son of ,david4 ,but all the narrative says is that they told him to hold his peace--to cease making an outcry--not that they did so because of his addressing ,jesus as 8,son of ,david40 ,in an equally arbitrary fashion the surprising introduction of the 8multitude0 in ,mark viii4 #cd1 after the incident of ,caesarea ,philippi1 is dragged into the theory of secrecy47#bfg7 ,wrede does not feel the possibility or impossibility of the sudden appearance of the multitude in this locality as an historical problem1 any more than he grasps the sudden withdrawal of ,jesus from ,his public ministry as primarily an historical question4 ,mark is for him a writer who is to be judged from a pathological point of view1 a writer who1 dominated by the fixed idea of introducing everywhere the ,messianic secret of ,jesus1 is always creating mysterious and unintelligible situations1 even when these do not directly serve the interests of his theory1 and who in some of his descriptions1 writes in a rather 8fairytale0 style4 ,when all is said1 his treatment of the history scarcely differs from that of the fourth ,evangelist4 ,the absence of historical prepossessions which ,wrede skilfully assumes in his examination of the connexion in ,mark is not really complete4 ,he is bound to refer everything inexplicable to the principle of the concealment of the ,messiahship1 which is the only principle that he recognises in the dogmatic stratum of the narrative1 and is consequently obliged to deny the historicity of such passages1 whereas in reality the veiling of the ,messiahship is only involved in a few places and is there indicated in clear and simple words4 ,he is unwilling to recognise that there is a second1 wider circle of mystery which has to do1 not with ,jesus' ,messiahship1 but with ,his preaching of the ,kingdom1 with the mystery of the ,kingdom of ,god in the wider sense1 and that within this second circle there lie a number of historical problems1 above all the mission of the ,twelve and the inexplicable abandonment of public activity on the part of ,jesus which followed soon afterwards4 ,his mistake consists in endeavouring by violent methods to subsume the more general1 the mystery of the ,kingdom of ,god1 under the more special1 the mystery of the ,messiahship1 instead of inserting the latter as the smaller circle1 within the wider1 the secret of the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,as he does not deal with the teaching of ,jesus1 he has no occasion to take account of the secret of the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,that is the more remarkable because corresponding to one fundamental idea of the ,messianic secret there is a parallel1 more general dogmatic conception in ,jesus' preaching of the ,kingdom4 ,for if ,jesus in ,matt4 x4 gives the disciples nothing to take with them on their mission but predictions of suffering2 if at the very beginning of ,his ministry ,he closes the ,beatitudes with a blessing upon the persecuted2 if in ,mark viii4 #cd ff4 ,he warns the people that they will have to choose between life and life1 between death and death2 if1 in short1 from the first1 ,he loses no opportunity of preaching about suffering and following ,him in ,his sufferings2 that is just as much a matter of dogma as ,his own sufferings and predictions of sufferings4 ,for in both cases the necessity of suffering1 the necessity of facing death1 is not 8a necessity of the historical situation10 not a necessity which arises out of the circumstances2 it is an assertion put forth without empirical basis1 a prophecy of storm while the sky is blue1 since neither ,jesus nor the people to whom ,he spoke were undergoing any persecution2 and when ,his fate overtook ,him not even the disciples were involved in it4 ,it is distinctly remarkable that1 except for a few meagre references1 the enigmatic character of ,jesus' constant predictions of suffering has not been discussed in the ,lifeof,jesus literature47#bfh7 ,what has now to be done1 therefore1 is1 in contradistinction to ,wrede1 to make a critical examination of the dogmatic element in the life of ,jesus on the assumption that the atmosphere of the time was saturated with eschatology1 that is1 to keep in even closer touch with the facts than ,wrede does1 and moreover1 to proceed1 not from the particular to the general1 but from the general to the particular1 carefully considering whether the dogmatic element is not precisely the historical element4 ,for1 after all1 why should not ,jesus think in terms of doctrine1 and make history in action1 just as well as a poor ,evangelist can do it on paper1 under the pressure of the theological interests of the primitive community4 ,once again1 however1 we must repeat that the critical analysis and the assertion of a system running through the disorder are the same in the eschatological as in the sceptical hypothesis1 only that in the eschatological analysis a number of problems come more clearly to light4 ,the two constructions are related like the bones and cartilage of the body4 ,the general structure is the same1 only that in the case of the one a solid substance1 lime1 is distributed even in the minutest portions1 giving it firmness and solidity1 while in the other case this is lacking4 ,this reinforcing substance is the eschatological worldview4 ,how is it to be explained that ,wrede1 in spite of the eschatological school1 in spite of ,johannes ,weiss1 could1 in critically investigating the connecting principle of the life of ,jesus1 simply leave eschatology out of account8 ,the blame rests with the eschatological school itself1 for it applied the eschatological explanation only to the preaching of ,jesus1 and not even to the whole of this1 but only to the ,messianic secret1 instead of using it also to throw light upon the whole public work of ,jesus1 the connexion and want of connexion between the events4 ,it represented ,jesus as thinking and speaking eschatologically in some of the most important passages of ,his teaching1 but for the rest gave as uneschatological a presentation of ,his life as modern historical theology had done4 ,the teaching of ,jesus and the history of ,jesus were set in different keys4 ,instead of destroying the modernhistorical scheme of the life of ,jesus1 or subjecting it to a rigorous examination1 and thereby undertaking the performance of a highly valuable service to criticism1 the eschatological theory confined itself within the limits of ,new ,testament ,theology1 and left it to ,wrede to reveal one after another by a laborious purely critical method the difficulties which from its point of view it might have grasped historically at a single glance4 ,it inevitably follows that ,wrede is unjust to ,johannes ,weiss and ,johannes ,weiss towards ,wrede47#bfi7 ,it is quite inexplicable that the eschatological school1 with its clear perception of the eschatological element in the preaching of the ,kingdom of ,god1 did not also hit upon the thought of the 8dogmatic0 element in the history of ,jesus4 ,eschatology is simply 8dogmatic history0--history as moulded by theological beliefs--which breaks in upon the natural course of history and abrogates4 it4 ,is it not even a priori the only conceivable view that the conduct of one who looked forward to ,his ,messianic 8,parousia0 in the near future should be determined1 not by the natural course of events1 but by that expectation8 ,the chaotic confusion of the narratives ought to have suggested the thought that the events had been thrown into this confusion by the volcanic force of an incalculable personality1 not by some kind of carelessness or freak of the tradition4 ,a very little consideration suffices to show that there is something quite incomprehensible in the public ministry of ,jesus taken as a whole4 ,according to ,mark it lasted less than a year1 for since he speaks of only one ,passoverjourney we may conclude that no other ,passover fell within the period of ,jesus' activity as a teacher4 ,if it is proposed to assume that ,he allowed a ,passover to go by without going up to ,jerusalem1 ,his adversaries1 who took ,him to task about handwashings and about rubbing the ears of corn on the ,sabbath1 would certainly have made a most serious matter of this1 and we should have to suppose that the ,evangelist for some reason or other thought fit to suppress the fact4 ,that is to say1 the burden of proof lies upon those who assert a longer duration for the ministry of ,jesus4 ,until they have succeeded in proving it1 we may assume something like the following course of events4 ,jesus1 in going up to a ,passover1 came in contact with the movement initiated by ,john the ,baptist in ,judaea1 and1 after the lapse of a little time--if we bring into the reckoning the forty days' sojourn in the wilderness mentioned in ,mark i4 #ac1 a few weeks later--appeared in ,galilee proclaiming the near approach of the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,according to ,mark ,he had known ,himself since ,his baptism to be the ,messiah1 but from the historical point of view that does not matter1 since history is concerned with the first announcement of the ,messiahship1 not with inward psychological processes47#bgj7 ,this work of preaching the ,kingdom was continued until the sending forth of the ,twelve2 that is to say1 at the most for a few weeks4 ,perhaps in the saying 8the harvest is great but the labourers are few10 with which ,jesus closes ,his work prior to sending forth the disciples1 there lies an allusion to the actual state of the natural fields4 ,the flocking of the people to ,him after the ,mission of the ,twelve1 when a great multitude thronged about ,him for several days during ,his journey along the northern shore of the lake1 can be more naturally explained if the harvest had just been brought in4 ,however that may be1 it is certain that ,jesus1 in the midst of ,his initial success1 left ,galilee1 journeyed northwards1 and only resumed ,his work as a teacher in ,judaea on the way to ,jerusalem6 ,of ,his 8public ministry10 therefore1 a large section falls out1 being cancelled by a period of inexplicable concealment2 it dwindles to a few weeks of preaching here and there in ,galilee and the few days of ,his sojourn in ,jerusalem47#bga7 ,but in that case the public life of ,jesus becomes practically unintelligible4 ,the explanation that ,his cause in ,galilee was lost1 and that ,he was obliged to flee1 has not the slightest foundation in the text47#bgb7 ,that was recognised even by ,keim1 the inventor of the successful and unsuccessful periods in the life of ,jesus1 as is shown by his suggestion that the ,evangelists had intentionally removed the traces of failure from the decisive period which led up to the northern journey4 ,the controversy over the washing of hands in ,mark vii4 #abc1 to which appeal is always made1 is really a defeat for the ,pharisees4 ,the theory of the 8desertion of the ,galilaeans10 which appears with more or less artistic variations in all modern ,lives of ,jesus1 owes its existence not to any other confirmatory fact1 but simply to the circumstance that ,mark makes the simple statement3 8,and ,jesus departed and went into the region of ,tyre0 7vii4 #bd7 without offering any explanation of this decision4 ,the only conclusion which the text warrants is that ,mark mentioned no reason because he knew of none4 ,the decision of ,jesus did not rest upon the recorded facts1 since it ignores these1 but upon considerations lying outside the history4 ,his life at this period was dominated by a 8dogmatic idea0 which rendered ,him indifferent to all else 444 even to the happy and successful work as a teacher which was opening before ,him4 ,how could ,jesus the 8teacher0 abandon at that moment a people so anxious to learn and so eager for salvation8 ,his action suggests a doubt whether ,he really felt ,himself to be a 8teacher40 ,if all the controversial discourses and sayings and answers to questions1 which were so to speak wrung from ,him1 were subtracted from the sum of ,his utterances1 how much of the didactic preaching of ,jesus would be left over8 ,but even the supposed didactic preaching is not really that of a 8teacher10 since the purpose of ,his parables was1 according to ,mark iv4 #ajab1 not to reveal1 but to conceal1 and of the ,kingdom of ,god ,he spoke only in parables 7,mark iv4 #cd74 ,perhaps1 however1 we are not justified in extending the theory of concealment1 simply because it is mentioned in connexion with the first parable1 to all the parables which ,he ever spoke1 for it is never mentioned again4 ,it could hardly indeed be applied to the parables with a moral1 like that1 for instance1 of the pearl of great price4 ,it is equally inapplicable to the parables of coming judgment uttered at ,jerusalem1 in which ,he explicitly exhorts the people to be prepared and watchful in view of the coming of judgment and of the ,kingdom4 ,but here too it is deserving of notice that ,jesus1 whenever ,he desires to make known anything further concerning the ,kingdom of ,god than just its near approach1 seems to be confined1 as it were by a higher law1 to the parabolic form of discourse4 ,it is as though1 for reasons which we cannot grasp1 ,his teaching lay under certain limitations4 ,it appears as a kind of accessory aspect of ,his vocation4 ,thus it was possible for ,him to give up ,his work as a teacher even at the moment when it promised the greatest success4 ,accordingly the fact of ,his always speaking in parables and of ,his taking this inexplicable resolution both point back to a mysterious pre supposition which greatly reduces the importance of ,jesus' work as a teacher4 ,one reason for this limitation is distinctly stated in ,mark iv4 #ajab1 viz4 predestination6 ,jesus knows that the truth which ,he offers is exclusively for those who have been definitely chosen1 that the general and public announcement of ,his message could only thwart the plans of ,god1 since the chosen are already winning their salvation from ,god4 ,only the phrase1 8,repent for the ,kingdom of ,god is at hand0 and its variants belong to the public preaching4 ,and this1 therefore1 is the only message which ,he commits to ,his disciples when sending them forth4 ,what this repentance1 supplementary to the law1 the special ethic of the interval before the coming of the ,kingdom 7,interimsethik7 is1 in its positive acceptation1 ,he explains in the ,sermon on the ,mount4 ,but all that goes beyond that simple phrase must be publicly presented only in parables1 in order that those only1 who are shown to possess predestination by having the initial knowledge which enables them to understand the parables1 may receive a more advanced knowledge1 which is imparted to them in a measure corresponding to their original degree of knowledge3 8,unto him that hath shall be given1 and from him that hath not shall be taken away even that which he hath0 7,mark iv4 #bdbe74 ,the predestinarian view goes along with the eschatology4 ,it is pushed to its utmost consequences in the closing incident of the parable of the marriage of the ,king's son 7,matt4 xxii4 #aad7 where the man who1 in response to a publicly issued invitation1 sits down at the table of the ,king1 but is recognised from his appearance as not called1 is thrown out into perdition4 8,many are called but few are chosen40 ,the ethical idea of salvation and the predestinarian limitation of acceptance to the elect are constantly in conflict in the mind of ,jesus4 ,in one case1 however1 ,he finds relief in the thought of predestination4 ,when the rich young man turned away1 not having strength to give up his possessions for the sake of following ,jesus as he had been commanded to do1 ,jesus and ,his disciples were forced to draw the conclusion that he1 like other rich men1 was lost1 and could not enter into the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,but immediately afterwards ,jesus makes the suggestion1 8,with men it is impossible1 but not with ,god1 for with ,god all things are possible0 7,mark x4 #agbg74 ,that is1 ,he will not give up the hope that the young man1 in spite of appearances1 which are against him1 will be found to have belonged to the ,kingdom of ,god1 solely in virtue of the secret allpowerful will of ,god4 ,of a 8conversion0 of the young man there is no question4 ,in the ,beatitudes1 on the other hand1 the argument is reversed2 the predestination is inferred from its outward manifestation4 ,it may seem to us inconceivable1 but they are really predestinarian in form4 ,blessed are the poor in spirit6 ,blessed are the meek6 ,blessed are the peacemakers6--that does not mean that by virtue of their being poor in spirit1 meek1 peaceloving1 they deserve the ,kingdom4 ,jesus does not intend the saying as an injunction or exhortation1 but as a simple statement of fact3 in their being poor in spirit1 in their meekness1 in their love of peace1 it is made manifest that they are predestined to the ,kingdom4 ,by the possession of these qualities they are marked as belonging to it4 ,in the case of others 7,matt4 v4 #ajab7 the predestination to the ,kingdom is made manifest by the persecutions which befall them in this world4 ,these are the light of the world1 which already shines among men for the glory of ,god 7,matt4 v4 #adae74 ,the kingdom cannot be 8earned02 what happens is that men are called to it1 and show themselves to be called to it4 ,on careful examination it appears that the idea of reward in the sayings of ,jesus is not really an idea of reward1 because it is relieved against a background of predestination4 ,for the present it is sufficient to note the fact that the eschatologico predestinarian view brings a mysterious element of dogma not merely into the teaching1 but also into the public ministry of ,jesus4 ,to take another point1 what is the mystery of the ,kingdom of ,god8 ,it must consist of something more than merely its near approach1 and something of extreme importance2 otherwise ,jesus would be here indulging in mere mysterymongering4 ,the saying about the candle which ,he puts upon the stand1 in order that what was hidden may be revealed to those who have ears to hear1 implies that ,he is making a tremendous revelation to those who understand the parables about the growth of the seed4 ,the mystery must therefore contain the explanation why the ,kingdom must now come1 and how men are to know how near it is4 ,for the general fact that it is very near had already been openly proclaimed both by the ,baptist and by ,jesus4 ,the mystery1 therefore1 must consist of something more than that4 ,in these parables it is not the idea of development1 but of the apparent absence of causation which occupies the foremost place4 ,the description aims at suggesting the question1 how1 and by what power1 incomparably great and glorious results can be infallibly produced by an insignificant fact without human aid4 ,a man sowed seed4 ,much of it was lost1 but the little that fell into good ground brought forth a harvest--thirty1 sixty1 an hundredfold--which left no trace of the loss in the sowing4 ,how did that come about8 ,a man sows seed and does not trouble any further about it--cannot indeed do anything to help it1 but he knows that after a definite time the glorious harvest which arises out of the seed will stand before him4 ,by what power is that effected8 ,an extremely minute grain of mustard seed is planted in the earth and there necessarily arises out of it a great bush1 which cannot certainly have been contained in the grain of seed4 ,how was that8 ,what the parables emphasise is1 therefore1 so to speak1 the in itself negative1 inadequate1 character of the initial fact1 upon which1 as by a miracle1 there follows in the appointed time1 through the power of ,god1 some great thing4 ,they lay stress not upon the natural1 but upon the miraculous character of such occurrences4 ,but what is the initial fact of the parables8 ,it is the sowing4 ,it is not said that by the man who sows the seed ,jesus means ,himself4 ,the man has no importance4 ,in the parable of the mustard seed he is not even mentioned4 ,all that is asserted is that the initial fact is already present1 as certainly present as the time of the sowing is past at the moment when ,jesus speaks4 ,that being so1 the ,kingdom of ,god must follow as certainly as harvest follows seedsowing4 ,as a man believes in the harvest1 without being able to explain it1 simply because the seed has been sown2 so with the same absolute confidence he may believe in the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,and the initial fact which is symbolised8 ,jesus can only mean a fact which was actually in existence--the movement of repentance evoked by the ,baptist and now intensified by ,his own preaching4 ,that necessarily involves the bringing in of the ,kingdom by the power of ,god2 as man's sowing necessitates the giving of the harvest by the same ,infinite ,power4 ,any one who knows this sees with different eyes the corn growing in the fields and the harvest ripening1 for he sees the one fact in the other1 and awaits along with the earthly harvest the heavenly1 the revelation of the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,if we look into the thought more closely we see that the coming of the ,kingdom of ,god is not only symbolically or analogically1 but also really and temporally connected with the harvest4 ,the harvest ripening upon earth is the last6 ,with it comes also the ,kingdom of ,god which brings in the new age4 ,when the reapers are sent into the fields1 the ,lord in ,heaven will cause ,his harvest to be reaped by the holy angels4 ,if the three parables of ,mark iv4 contain the mystery of the ,kingdom of ,god1 and are therefore capable of being summed up in a single formula1 this can be nothing else than the joyful exhortation3 8,ye who have eyes to see1 read1 in the harvest which is ripening upon earth1 what is being prepared in heaven60 ,the eager eschatological hope was to regard the natural process as the last of its kind1 and to see in it a special significance in view of the event of which it was to give the signal4 ,the analogical and temporal parallelism becomes complete if we assume that the movement initiated by the ,baptist began in the spring1 and notice that ,jesus1 according to ,matt4 ix4 #cg and #ch1 before sending out the disciples to make a speedy proclamation of the nearness of the ,kingdom of ,god1 uttered the remarkable saying about the rich harvest4 ,it seems like a final expression of the thought contained in the parables about the seed and its promise1 and finds its most natural explanation in the supposition that the harvest was actually at hand4 ,whatever may be thought of this attempt to divine historically the secret of the ,kingdom of ,god1 there is one thing that cannot be got away from1 viz4 that the initial fact to which ,jesus points1 under the figure of the sowing1 is somehow or other connected with the eschatological preaching of repentance1 which had been begun by the ,baptist4 ,that may be the more confidently asserted because ,jesus in another mysterious saying describes the days of the ,baptist as a time which makes preparation for the coming of the ,kingdom of ,god4 8,from the days of ,john the ,baptist10 ,he says in ,matt4 xi4 #ab1 8even until now1 the ,kingdom of ,heaven is subjected to violence1 and the violent wrest it to themselves40 ,the saying has nothing to do with the entering of individuals into the ,kingdom2 it simply asserts1 that since the coming of the ,baptist a certain number of persons are engaged in forcing on and compelling the coming of the ,kingdom4 ,jesus' expectation of the ,kingdom is an expectation based upon a fact which exercises an active influence upon the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,it was not ,he1 and not the ,baptist who 8were working at the coming of the ,kingdom02 it is the host of penitents which is wringing it from ,god1 so that it may now come at any moment4 ,the eschatological insight of ,johannes ,weiss made an end of the modern view that ,jesus founded the ,kingdom4 ,it did away with all activity1 as exercised upon the ,kingdom of ,god1 and made the part of ,jesus purely a waiting one4 ,now the activity comes back into the preaching of the ,kingdom1 but this time eschatologically conditioned4 ,the secret of the ,kingdom of ,god which ,jesus unveils in the parables about confident expectation in ,mark iv41 and declares in so many words in the eulogy on the ,baptist 7,matt4 xi471 amounts to this1 that in the movement to which the ,baptist gave the first impulse1 and which still continued1 there was an initial fact which was drawing after it the coming of the ,kingdom1 in a fashion which was miraculous1 unintelligible1 but unfailingly certain1 since the sufficient cause for it lay in the power and purpose of ,god4 ,it should be observed that ,jesus in these parables1 as well as in the related saying at the sending forth of the ,twelve1 uses the formula1 8,he that hath ears to hear1 let him hear0 7,mark iv4 #bc and ,matt4 xi4 #ae71 thereby signifying that in this utterance there lies concealed a supernatural knowledge concerning the plans of ,god1 which only those who have ears to hear--that is1 the foreordained--can detect4 ,for others these sayings are unintelligible4 ,if this genuinely 8historical0 interpretation of the mystery of the ,kingdom of ,god is correct1 ,jesus must have expected the coming of the ,kingdom at harvest time4 ,and that is just what ,he did expect4 ,it is for that reason that ,he sends out ,his disciples to make known in ,israel1 as speedily as may be1 what is about to happen4 ,that in this ,he is actuated by a dogmatic idea1 becomes clear when we notice that1 according to ,mark1 the mission of the ,twelve followed immediately on the rejection at ,nazareth4 ,the unreceptiveness of the ,nazarenes had made no impression upon ,him2 ,he was only astonished at their unbelief 7,mark vi4 #f74 ,this passage is often interpreted to mean that ,he was astonished to find ,his miracle working power fail ,him4 ,there is no hint of that in the text4 ,what ,he is astonished at is1 that in ,his native town there were so few believers1 that is1 elect1 knowing as ,he does that the ,kingdom of ,god may appear at any moment4 ,but that fact makes no difference whatever to the nearness of the coming of the ,kingdom4 ,the ,evangelist1 therefore1 places the rejection at ,nazareth and the mission of the ,twelve side by side1 simply because he found them in this temporal connexion in the tradition4 ,if he had been working by 8association of ideas10 he would not have arrived at this order4 ,the want of connexion1 the impossibility of applying any natural explanation1 is just what is historical1 because the course of the history was determined1 not by outward events1 but by the decisions of ,jesus1 and these were determined by dogmatic1 eschatological considerations4 ,to how great an extent this was the case in regard to the mission of the ,twelve is clearly seen from the 8charge0 which ,jesus gave them4 ,he tells them in plain words 7,matt4 x4 #bc71 that ,he does not expect to see them back in the present age4 ,the ,parousia of the ,son of ,man1 which is logically and temporally identical with the dawn of the ,kingdom1 will take place before they shall have completed a hasty journey through the cities of ,israel to announce it4 ,that the words mean this and nothing else1 that they ought not to be in any way weakened down1 should be sufficiently evident4 ,this is the form in which ,jesus reveals to them the secret of the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,a few days later1 ,he utters the saying about the violent who1 since the days of ,john the ,baptist1 are forcing on the coming of the ,kingdom4 ,it is equally clear1 and here the dogmatic considerations which guided the resolutions of ,jesus become still more prominent1 that this prediction was not fulfilled4 ,the disciples returned to ,him2 and the appearing of the ,son of ,man had not taken place4 ,the actual history disavowed the dogmatic history on which the action of ,jesus had been based4 ,an event of supernatural history which must take place1 and must take place at that particular point of time1 failed to come about4 ,that was for ,jesus1 who lived wholly in the dogmatic history1 the first 8historical0 occurrence1 the central event which closed the former period of ,his activity and gave the coming period a new character4 ,to this extent modern theology is justified when it distinguishes two periods in the ,life of ,jesus2 an earlier1 in which ,he is surrounded by the people1 a later in which ,he is 8deserted0 by them1 and travels about with the ,twelve only4 ,it is a sound observation that the two periods are sharply distinguished by the attitude of ,jesus4 ,to explain this difference of attitude1 which they thought themselves bound to account for on natural historical grounds1 theologians of the modern historical school invented the theory of growing opposition and waning support4 ,weisse1 no doubt1 had expressed himself in direct opposition to this theory47#bgc7 ,keim1 who gave it its place in theology1 was aware that in setting it up he was going against the plain sense of the texts4 ,later writers lost this consciousness1 just as in the first and third ,gospel the significance of the ,messianic secret in ,mark gradually faded away2 they imagined that they could find the basis of fact for the theory in the texts1 and did not realise that they only believed in the desertion of the multitude and the 8flights and retirements0 of ,jesus because they could not otherwise explain historically the alteration in ,his conduct1 ,his withdrawal from public work1 and ,his resolve to die4 ,the thoroughgoing eschatological school makes better work of it4 ,they recognise in the nonoccurrence of the ,parousia promised in ,matt4 x4 #bc1 the 8historic fact10 in the estimation of ,jesus1 which in some way determined the alteration in ,his plans1 and ,his attitude towards the multitude4 ,the whole history of 8,christianity0 down to the present day1 that is to say1 the real inner history of it1 is based on the delay of the ,parousia1 the nonoccurrence of the ,parousia1 the abandonment of eschatology1 the progress and completion of the 8deeschatologising0 of religion which has been connected therewith4 ,it should be noted that the nonfulfilment of ,matt4 x4 #bc is the first postponement of the ,parousia4 ,we have therefore here the first significant date in the 8history of ,christianity02 it gives to the work of ,jesus a new direction1 otherwise inexplicable4 ,here we recognise also why the ,marcan hypothesis1 in constructing its view of the ,life of ,jesus1 found itself obliged to have recourse more and more to the help of modern psychology1 and thus necessarily became more and more unhistorical4 ,the fact which alone makes possible an understanding of the whole1 is lacking in this ,gospel4 ,without ,matt4 x4 and xi4 everything remains enigmatic4 ,for this reason ,bruno ,bauer and ,wrede are in their own way the only consistent representatives of the ,marcan hypothesis from the point of view of historical criticism1 when they arrive at the result that the ,marcan account is inherently unintelligible4 ,keim1 with his strong sense of historical reality1 rightly felt that the plan of the ,life of ,jesus should not be constructed exclusively on the basis of ,mark4 ,the recognition that ,mark alone gives an inadequate basis1 is more important than any 8,ur,markus0 theories1 for which it is impossible to discover a literary foundation1 or find an historical use4 ,a simple induction from the 8facts0 takes us beyond ,mark4 ,in the discoursematerial of ,matthew1 which the modernhistorical school thought they could sift in here and there1 wherever there seemed to be room for it1 there lie hidden certain facts--facts which never happened but are all the more important for that4 ,why ,mark describes the events and discourses in the neighbourhood of the mission of the ,twelve with such careful authentication is a literary question which the historical study of the life of ,jesus may leave open2 the more so since1 even as a literary question1 it is insoluble4 ,the prediction of the ,parousia of the ,son of ,man is not the only one which remained unfulfilled4 ,there is the prediction of sufferings which is connected with it4 ,to put it more accurately1 the prediction of the appearing of the ,son of ,man in ,matt4 x4 #bc runs up into a prediction of sufferings1 which1 working up to a climax1 forms the remainder of the discourse at the sending forth of the disciples4 ,this prediction of sufferings has as little to do with objective history as the prediction of the ,parousia4 ,consequently1 none of the ,lives of ,jesus1 which follow the lines of a natural psychology1 from ,weisse down to ,oskar ,holtzmann1 can make anything of it47#bgd7 ,they either strike it out1 or transfer it to the last 8gloomy epoch0 of the life of ,jesus1 regard it as an unintelligible anticipation1 or put it down to the account of 8primitive theology10 which serves as a scrapheap for everything for which they cannot find a place in the 8historical life of ,jesus40 ,in the texts it is quite evident that ,jesus is not speaking of sufferings after ,his death1 but of sufferings which will befall them as soon as they have gone forth from ,him4 ,the death of ,jesus is not here presupposed1 but only the ,parousia of the ,son of ,man1 and it is implied that this will occur just after these sufferings and bring them to a close4 ,if the theology of the primitive ,church had remoulded the tradition1 as is always being asserted1 it would have made ,jesus give ,his followers directions for their conduct after ,his death4 ,that we do not find anything of this kind is the best proof that there can be no question of a remoulding of the ,life of ,jesus by primitive theology4 ,how easy it would have been for the ,early ,church to scatter here and there through the discourses of ,jesus directions which were only to be applied after ,his death6 ,but the simple fact is that it did not do so4 ,the sufferings of which the prospect is held out at the sending forth are doubly1 trebly1 nay four times over1 unhistorical4 ,in the first place--and this is the only point which modern historical theology has noticed--because there is not a shadow of a suggestion in the outward circumstances of anything which could form a natural occasion for such predictions of1 and exhortations relating to1 sufferings4 ,in the second place--and this has been overlooked by modern theology because it had already declared them to be unhistorical in its own characteristic fashion1 viz4 by striking them out--because they were not fulfilled4 ,in the third place--and this has not entered into the mind of modern theology at all--because these sayings were spoken in the closest connexion with the promise of the ,parousia and are placed in the closest connexion with that event4 ,in the fourth place1 because the description of that which is to befall the disciples is quite without any basis in experience4 ,a time of general dissension will begin1 in which brothers will rise up against brothers1 and fathers against sons and children against their parents to cause them to be put to death 7,matt4 x4 #ba74 ,and the disciples 8shall be hated of all men for ,his name's sake40 ,let them strive to hold out to the 8end10 that is1 to the coming of the ,son of ,man1 in order that they may be saved 7,matt4 x4 #bb74 ,but why should they suddenly be hated and persecuted for the name of ,jesus1 seeing that this name played no part whatever in their preaching8 ,that is simply inconceivable4 ,the relation of ,jesus to the ,son of ,man1 the fact1 that is to say1 that it is ,he who is to be manifested as ,son of ,man1 must therefore in some way or other become known in the interval2 not1 however1 through the disciples1 but by some other means of revelation4 ,a kind of supernatural illumination will suddenly make known all that ,jesus has been keeping secret regarding the ,kingdom of ,god and ,his position in the ,kingdom4 ,this illumination will arise as suddenly and without preparation as the spirit of strife4 ,and as a matter of fact ,jesus predicts to the disciples in the same discourse that to their own surprise a supernatural wisdom will suddenly speak from their lips1 so that it will be not they but the ,spirit of ,god who will answer the great ones of the earth4 ,as the ,spirit is for ,jesus and early ,christian theology something concrete which is to descend upon the elect among mankind only in consequence of a definite event--the outpouring of the ,spirit which1 according to the prophecy of ,joel1 should precede the day of judgment--,jesus must have anticipated that this would occur during the absence of the disciples1 in the midst of the time of strife and confusion4 ,to put it differently2 the whole of the discourse at the sending forth of the ,twelve1 taken in the clear sense of the words1 is a prediction of the events of the 8time of the end10 events which are immediately at hand1 in which the supernatural eschatological course of history will break through into the natural course4 ,the expectation of sufferings is therefore doctrinal and unhistorical1 as is1 precisely in the same way1 the expectation of the pouring forth of the ,spirit uttered at the same time4 ,the ,parousia of the ,son of ,man is to be preceded according to the ,messianic dogma by a time of strife and confusion--as it were1 the birth throes of the ,messiah--and the outpouring of the ,spirit4 ,it should be noticed that according to ,joel iii4 and iv4 the outpouring of the ,spirit1 along with the miraculous signs1 forms the prelude to the judgment2 and also1 that in the same context1 ,joel iii4 #ac1 the judgment is described as the harvestday of ,god47#bge7 ,here we have a remarkable parallel to the saying about the harvest in ,matt4 ix4 #ch1 which forms the introduction to the discourse at the sending forth of the disciples4 ,there is only one point in which the predicted course of eschatological events is incomplete3 the appearance of ,elias is not mentioned4 ,jesus could not prophesy to the disciples the ,parousia of the ,son of ,man without pointing them1 at the same time1 to the preeschatological events which must first occur4 ,he must open to them a part of the secret of the ,kingdom of ,god1 viz4 the nearness of the harvest1 that they might not be taken by surprise and caused to doubt by these events4 ,thus this discourse is historical as a whole and down to the smallest detail precisely because1 according to the view of modern theology1 it must be judged unhistorical4 ,it is1 in fact1 full of eschatological dogma4 ,jesus had no need to instruct the disciples as to what they were to teach2 for they had only to utter a cry4 ,but concerning the events which should supervene1 it was necessary that ,he should give them information4 ,therefore the discourse does not consist of instruction1 but of predictions of sufferings and of the ,parousia4 ,that being so1 we may judge with what right the modern psychological theology dismisses the great ,matthaean discourses offhand as mere 8composite structures40 ,just let any one try to show how the ,evangelist when he was racking his brains over the task of making a 8discourse at the sending forth of the disciples10 half by the method of piecing it together out of traditional sayings and 8primitive theology10 and half by inventing it1 lighted on the curious idea of making ,jesus speak entirely of inopportune and unpractical matters2 and of then going on to provide the evidence that they never happened4 ,the foretelling of the sufferings that belong to the eschatological distress is part and parcel of the preaching of the approach of the ,kingdom of ,god1 it embodies the secret of the ,kingdom4 ,it is for that reason that the thought of suffering appears at the end of the ,beatitudes and in the closing petition of the ,lord's ,prayer4 ,for the which is there in view is not an individual psychological temptation1 but the general eschatological time of tribulation1 from which ,god is besought to exempt those who pray so earnestly for the coming of the ,kingdom1 and not to expose them to that tribulation by way of putting them to the test4 ,there followed neither the sufferings1 nor the outpouring of the ,spirit1 nor the ,parousia of the ,son of ,man4 ,the disciples returned safe and sound and full of a proud satisfaction2 for one promise had been realised--the power which had been given them over the demons4 ,but from the moment when they rejoined ,him1 all ,his thoughts and efforts were devoted to getting rid of the people in order to be alone with them 7,mark vi4 #cjcc74 ,previously1 during their absence1 ,he had1 almost in open speech1 taught the multitude concerning the ,baptist1 concerning that which was to precede the coming of the ,kingdom1 and concerning the judgment which should come upon the impenitent1 even upon whole towns of them 7,matt4 xi4 #bjbd71 because1 in spite of the miracles which they had witnessed1 they had not recognised the day of grace and diligently used it for repentance4 ,at the same time ,he had rejoiced before them over all those whom ,god had enlightened that they might see what was going forward2 and had called them to ,his side 7,matt4 xi4 #becj74 ,and now suddenly1 the moment the disciples return1 ,his one thought is to get away from the people4 ,they1 however1 follow ,him and overtake ,him on the shores of the lake4 ,he puts the ,jordan between ,himself and them by crossing to ,bethsaida4 ,they also come to ,bethsaida4 ,he returns to ,capernaum4 ,they do the same4 ,since in ,galilee it is impossible for ,him to be alone1 and ,he absolutely must be alone1 ,he 8slips away0 to the north4 ,once more modern theology was right3 ,he really does flee2 not1 however1 from hostile ,scribes1 but from the people1 who dog ,his footsteps in order to await in ,his company the appearing of the ,kingdom of ,god and of the ,son of ,man--to await it in vain47#bgf7 ,in ,strauss's first ,life of ,jesus the question is thrown out whether1 in view of ,matt4 x4 #bc1 ,jesus did not think of ,his ,parousia as a transformation which should take place during ,his lifetime4 ,ghillany bases his work on this possibility as on an established historical fact4 ,dalman takes this hypothesis to be the necessary correlative of the interpretation of the selfdesignation ,son of ,man on the basis of ,daniel and the ,apocalypses4 ,if ,jesus1 he argues1 designated ,himself in this futuristic sense as the ,son of ,man who comes from ,heaven1 ,he must have assumed that ,he would first be transported thither4 8,a man who had died or been rapt away from the earth might perhaps be brought into the world again in this way1 or one who had never been on earth might so descend thither40 ,but as this conception of transformation and removal seems to ,dalman untenable in the case of ,jesus1 he treats it as a reductio ad absurdum of the eschatological interpretation of the title4 ,but why8 ,if ,jesus as a man walking in a natural body upon earth1 predicts to ,his disciples the ,parousia of the ,son of ,man in the immediate future1 with the secret conviction that ,he ,himself was to be revealed as the ,son of ,man1 ,he must have made precisely this assumption that ,he would first be supernaturally removed and transformed4 ,he thought of ,himself as any one must who believes in the immediate coming of the last things1 as living in two different conditions3 the present1 and the future condition into which ,he is to be transferred at the coming of the new supernatural world4 ,we learn later that the disciples on the way up to ,jerusalem were entirely possessed by the thought of what they should be when this transformation took place4 ,they contend as to who shall have the highest position 7,mark ix4 #cc72 ,james and ,john wish ,jesus to promise them in advance the thrones on ,his right hand and on ,his left 7,mark x4 #cecg74 ,he1 moreover1 does not rebuke them for indulging such thoughts1 but only tells them how much1 in the present age1 of service1 humiliation1 and suffering is necessary to constitute a claim to such places in the future age1 and that it does not in the last resort belong to ,him to allot the places on ,his left and on ,his right1 but that they shall be given to those for whom they are prepared2 therefore1 perhaps not to any of the disciples 7,mark x4 #dj74 ,at this point1 therefore1 the knowledge and will of ,jesus are thwarted and limited by the predestinarianism which is bound up with eschatology4 ,it is quite mistaken1 however1 to speak as modern theology does1 of the 8service0 here required as belonging to the 8new ethic of the ,kingdom of ,god40 ,there is for ,jesus no ethic of the ,kingdom of ,god1 for in the ,kingdom of ,god all natural relationships1 even1 for example1 the distinction of sex 7,mark xii4 #be and #bf71 are abolished4 ,temptation and sin no longer exist4 ,all is 8reign10 a 8reign0 which has gradations--,jesus speaks of the 8least in the ,kingdom of ,god0--according as it has been determined in each individual case from all eternity1 and according as each by his selfhumiliation and refusal to rule in the present age has proved his fitness for bearing rule in the future ,kingdom4 ,for the loftier stations1 however1 it is necessary to have proved oneself in persecution and suffering4 ,accordingly1 ,jesus asks the sons of ,zebedee whether1 since they claim these thrones on ,his right hand and on ,his left1 they feel themselves strong enough to drink of ,his cup and be baptized with ,his baptism 7,mark x4 #ch74 ,to serve1 to humble oneself1 to incur persecution and death1 belong to 8the ethic of the interim0 just as much as does penitence4 ,they are indeed only a higher form of penitence4 ,a vivid eschatological expectation is therefore impossible to conceive apart from the idea of a metamorphosis4 ,the resurrection is only a special case of this metamorphosis1 the form in which the new condition of things is realised in the case of those who are already dead4 ,the resurrection1 the metamorphosis1 and the ,parousia of the ,son of ,man take place simultaneously1 and are one and the same act47#bgg7 ,it is therefore quite indifferent whether a man loses his life shortly before the ,parousia in order to 8find his life10 if that is what is ordained for him2 that signifies only that he will undergo the eschatological metamorphosis with the dead instead of with the living4 ,the ,pauline eschatology recognises both conceptions side by side1 in such a way1 however1 that the resurrection is subordinated to the metamorphosis4 8,behold1 ,i shew you a mystery10 he says in #a ,cor4 xv4 #ea ff42 8we shall not all sleep1 but we shall all be changed4 ,in a moment1 in the twinkling of an eye1 at the last trump3 for the trumpet shall sound1 and the dead shall be raised incorruptible1 and we shall be changed40 ,the apostle himself desires to be one of those who live to experience the metamorphosis and to be clothed with the heavenly mode of existence 7#b ,cor4 v4 #a ff474 ,the metamorphosis1 however1 and the resurrection are1 for those who are 8in ,christ10 connected with a being caught up into the clouds of heaven 7#a ,thess4 iv4 #ae ff474 ,therefore ,paul also makes one and the same event of the metamorphosis1 resurrection1 and translation4 ,in seeking clues to the eschatology of ,jesus1 scholars have passed over the eschatology which lies closest to it1 that of ,paul4 ,but why8 ,is it not identical with that of ,jesus1 at least in so far that both are 8,jewish eschatology08 ,did not ,reimarus long ago declare that the eschatology of the primitive ,christian community was identical with the ,jewish1 and only went beyond it in claiming a definite knowledge on a single point which was unessential to the nature and course of the expected events1 in knowing1 that is1 who the ,son of ,man should be8 ,that ,christians drew no distinction between their own eschatology and the ,jewish is evident from the whole character of the earlier apocalyptic literature1 and not least from the ,apocalypse of ,john6 ,after all1 what alteration did the belief that ,jesus was the ,son of ,man who was to be revealed make in the general scheme of the course of apocalyptic events8 ,from the ,rabbinic literature little help is to be derived towards the understanding of the world of thought in which ,jesus lived1 and ,his view of ,his own ,person4 ,the latest researches may be said to have made that clear4 ,a few moral maxims1 a few halting parables--that is all that can be produced in the way of parallels4 ,even the conception which is there suggested of the hidden coming and work of the ,messiah is of little importance4 ,we find the same ideas in the mouth of ,trypho in ,justin's dialogue1 and that makes their ,jewish character doubtful4 ,that ,jesus of ,nazareth knew ,himself to be the ,son of ,man who was to be revealed is for us the great fact of ,his selfconsciousness1 which is not to be further explained1 whether there had been any kind of preparation for it in contemporary theology or not4 ,the selfconsciousness of ,jesus cannot in fact be illustrated or explained2 all that can be explained is the eschatological view1 in which the ,man who possessed that selfconsciousness saw reflected in advance the coming events1 both those of a more general character1 and those which especially related to ,himself47#bgh7 ,the eschatology of ,jesus can therefore only be interpreted by the aid of the curiously intermittent ,jewish apocalyptic literature of the period between ,daniel and the ,bar,cochba rising4 ,what else1 indeed1 are the ,synoptic ,gospels1 the ,pauline letters1 the ,christian apocalypses than products of ,jewish apocalyptic1 belonging1 moreover1 to its greatest and most flourishing period8 ,historically regarded1 the ,baptist1 ,jesus1 and ,paul are simply the culminating manifestations of ,jewish apocalyptic thought4 ,the usual representation is the exact converse of the truth4 ,writers describe ,jewish eschatology in order to illustrate the ideas of ,jesus4 ,but what is this 8,jewish eschatology0 after all8 ,it is an eschatology with a great gap in it1 because the culminating period1 with the documents which relate to it1 has been left out4 ,the true historian will describe the eschatology of the ,baptist1 of ,jesus1 and of ,paul in order to explain ,jewish eschatology4 ,it is nothing less than a misfortune for the science of ,new ,testament ,theology that no real attempt has hitherto been made to write the history of ,jewish eschatology as it really was2 that is1 with the inclusion of the ,baptist1 of ,jesus1 and of ,paul47#bgi7 ,all this has had to be said in order to justify the apparently self evident assertion that ,mark1 ,matthew1 and ,paul are the best sources for the ,jewish eschatology of the time of ,jesus4 ,they represent a phase1 which even in detail is selfexplanatory1 of that ,jewish apocalyptic hope which manifested itself from time to time4 ,we are1 therefore1 justified in first reconstructing the ,jewish apocalyptic of the time independently out of these documents1 that is to say1 in bringing the details of the discourses of ,jesus into an eschatological system1 and then on the basis of this system endeavouring to explain the apparently disconnected events in the history of ,his public life4 ,the lines of connection which run backwards towards the ,psalms of ,solomon1 ,enoch1 and ,daniel1 and forwards towards the apocalypses of ,baruch and ,enoch1 are extremely important for the understanding of certain general conceptions4 ,on the other hand1 it is impossible to overemphasise the uniqueness of the point of view from which the eschatology of the time of the ,baptist1 of ,jesus1 and of ,paul presents itself to us4 ,in the first place1 men feel themselves so close to the coming events that they only see what lies nearest to them1 the imaginative development of detail entirely ceases4 ,in the second place1 it appears to us as though seen1 so to speak1 from within1 passed through the medium of powerful minds like those of the ,baptist and ,jesus4 ,that is why it is so great and simple4 ,on the other hand1 a certain complication arises from the fact that it now intersects actual history4 ,all these are original features of it1 which are not found in the ,jewish apocalyptic writings of the preceding and following periods1 and that is why these documents give us so little help in regard to the characteristic detail of the eschatology of ,jesus and ,his contemporaries4 ,a further point to be noticed is that the eschatology of the time of ,jesus shows the influence of the eschatology of the ancient prophets in a way which is not paralleled either before or after4 ,compare the ,synoptic eschatology with that of the ,psalms of ,solomon4 ,in place of the legal righteousness1 which1 since the return from the exile1 had formed the link of connexion between the present and the future1 we find the prophetic ethic1 the demand for a general repentance1 even in the case of the ,baptist4 ,in the ,apocalypses of ,baruch and ,ezra we see1 especially in the theological character of the latter1 the persistent traces of this ethical deepening of apocalyptic4 ,but even in individual conceptions the apocalyptic of the ,baptist1 and of the period which he introduces1 reaches back to the eschatology of the prophetic writings4 ,the pouring forth of the spirit1 and the figure of ,elias1 who comes again to earth1 play a great rle in it4 ,the difficulty is1 indeed1 consciously felt of combining the two eschatologies1 and bringing the prophetic within the ,danielic4 ,how1 it is asked1 can the ,son of ,david be at the same time the ,danielic ,sonof,man ,messiah1 at once ,david's son and ,david's ,lord8 ,it is inadequate to speak of a synthesis of the two eschatologies4 ,what has happened is nothing less than the remoulding1 the elevation1 of the ,daniel,enoch apocalyptic by the spirit and conceptions belonging to the ancient prophetic hope4 ,a great simplification and deepening of eschatology begins to show itself even in the ,psalms of ,solomon4 ,the conception of righteousness which the writer applies is1 in spite of its legal aspect1 of an ethical1 prophetic character4 ,it is an eschatology associated with great historical events1 the eschatology of a ,pharisaism which is fighting for a cause1 and has therefore a certain inward greatness47#bhj7 ,between the ,psalms of ,solomon and the appearance of the ,baptist there lies the decadence of ,pharisaism4 ,at this point there suddenly appears an eschatological movement detached from ,pharisaism1 which was declining into an external legalism1 a movement resting on a basis of its own1 and thoroughly penetrated with the spirit of the ancient prophets4 ,the ultimate differentia of this eschatology is that it was not1 like the other apocalyptic movements1 called into existence by historical events4 ,the ,apocalypse of ,daniel was called forth by the religious oppression of ,antiochus27#bha7 the ,psalms of ,solomon by the civil strife at ,jerusalem and the first appearance of the ,roman power under ,pompey27#bhb7 ,fourth ,ezra and ,baruch by the destruction of ,jerusalem47#bhc7 ,the apocalyptic movement in the time of ,jesus is not connected with any historical event4 ,it cannot be said1 as ,bruno ,bauer rightly perceived1 that we know anything about the ,messianic expectations of the ,jewish people at that time47#bhd7 ,on the contrary1 the indifference shown by the ,roman administration towards the movement proves that the ,romans knew nothing of a condition of great and general ,messianic excitement among the ,jewish people4 ,the conduct of the ,pharisaic party also1 and the indifference of the great mass of the people1 show that there can have been no question at that time of a national movement4 ,what is really remarkable about this wave of apocalyptic enthusiasm is the fact that it was called forth not by external events1 but solely by the appearance of two great personalities1 and subsides with their disappearance1 without leaving among the people generally any trace1 except a feeling of hatred towards the new sect4 ,the ,baptist and ,jesus are not1 therefore1 borne upon the current of a general eschatological movement4 ,the period offers no events calculated to give an impulse to eschatological enthusiasm4 ,they themselves set the times in motion by acting1 by creating eschatological facts4 ,it is this mighty creative force which constitutes the difficulty in grasping historically the eschatology of ,jesus and the ,baptist4 ,instead of literary artifice speaking out of a distant imaginary past1 there now enter into the field of eschatology men1 living1 acting men4 ,it was the only time when that ever happened in ,jewish eschatology4 ,there is silence all around4 ,the ,baptist appears1 and cries3 8,repent1 for the ,kingdom of ,heaven is at hand40 ,soon after that comes ,jesus1 and in the knowledge that ,he is the coming ,son of ,man lays hold of the wheel of the world to set it moving on that last revolution which is to bring all ordinary history to a close4 ,it refuses to turn1 and ,he throws ,himself upon it4 ,then it does turn2 and crushes ,him4 ,instead of bringing in the eschatological conditions1 ,he has destroyed them4 ,the wheel rolls onward1 and the mangled body of the one immeasurably great ,man1 who was strong enough to think of ,himself as the spiritual ruler of mankind and to bend history to ,his purpose1 is hanging upon it still4 ,that is ,his victory and ,his reign4 ,these considerations regarding the distinctive character of the ,synoptic eschatology were necessary in order to explain the significance of the sending forth of the disciples and the discourse which ,jesus uttered upon that occasion4 ,jesus' purpose is to set in motion the eschatological development of history1 to let loose the final woes1 the confusion and strife1 from which shall issue the ,parousia1 and so to introduce the supramundane phase of the eschatological drama4 ,that is ,his task1 for which ,he has authority here below4 ,that is why ,he says in the same discourse1 8,think not that ,i am come to send peace on the earth2 ,i am not come to send peace1 but a sword0 7,matt4 x4 #cd74 ,it was with a view to this initial movement that ,he chose ,his disciples4 ,they are not ,his helpers in the work of teaching2 we never see them in that capacity1 and ,he did not prepare them to carry on that work after ,his death4 ,the very fact that ,he chooses just twelve shows that it is a dogmatic idea which ,he has in mind4 ,he chooses them as those who are destined to hurl the firebrand into the world1 and are afterwards1 as those who have been the comrades of the unrecognised ,messiah1 before ,he came to ,his ,kingdom1 to be ,his associates in ruling and judging it47#bhe7 ,but what was to be the fate of the future ,son of ,man during the ,messianic woes of the last times8 ,it appears as if it was appointed for ,him to share the persecution and the suffering4 ,he says that those who shall be saved must take their cross and follow ,him 7,matt4 x4 #ch71 that ,his followers must be willing to lose their lives for ,his sake1 and that only those who in this time of terror confess their allegiance to ,him1 shall be confessed by ,him before ,his heavenly ,father 7,matt4 x4 #cb74 ,similarly1 in the last of the ,beatitudes1 ,he had pronounced those blessed who were despised and persecuted for ,his sake 7,matt4 v4 #aa1 #ab74 ,as the future bearer of the supreme rule ,he must go through the deepest humiliation4 ,there is danger that ,his followers may doubt ,him4 ,therefore1 the last words of ,his message to the ,baptist1 just at the time when ,he had sent forth the ,twelve1 is1 8,blessed is he whosoever shall not be offended in me0 7,matt4 xi4 #f74 ,if ,he makes a point of familiarising others with the thought that in the time of tribulation they may even lose their lives1 ,he must have recognised that this possibility was still more strongly present in ,his own case4 ,it is possible that in the enigmatic saying about the disciples fasting 8when the bridegroom is taken away from them0 7,mark ii4 #bj71 there is a hint of what ,jesus expected4 ,in that case suffering1 death1 and resurrection must have been closely united in the ,messianic consciousness from the first4 ,so much1 however1 is certain1 viz4 that the thought of suffering formed part1 at the time of the sending forth the disciples1 of the mystery of the ,kingdom of ,god and of the ,messiahship of ,jesus1 and that in the form that ,jesus and all the elect were to be brought low in the at the time of the deathstruggle against the evil world power which would arise against them2 brought down1 it might be1 even to death4 ,it mattered as little in ,his own case as in that of others whether at the time of the ,parousia ,he should be one of those who should be metamorphosed1 or one who had died and risen again4 ,the question arises1 however1 how this selfconsciousness of ,jesus could remain concealed4 ,it is true the miracles had nothing to do with the ,messiahship1 since no one expected the ,messiah to come as an earthly miracleworker in the present age4 ,on the contrary1 it would have been the greatest of miracles if any one had recognised the ,messiah in an earthly miracleworker4 ,how far the cries of the demoniacs who addressed ,him as ,messiah were intelligible by the people must remain an open question4 ,what is clear is that ,his ,messiahship did not become known in this way even to ,his disciples4 ,and yet in all ,his speech and action the ,messianic consciousness shines forth4 ,one might1 indeed1 speak of the acts of ,his ,messianic consciousness4 ,the ,beatitudes1 nay1 the whole of the ,sermon on the ,mount1 with the authoritative 8,i0 for ever breaking through1 bear witness to the high dignity which ,he ascribed to ,himself4 ,did not this 8,i0 set the people thinking8 ,what must they have thought when1 at the close of this discourse1 ,he spoke of people who1 at the ,day of ,judgment1 would call upon ,him as ,lord1 and appeal to the works that they had done in ,his name1 and who yet were destined to be rejected because ,he would not recognise them 7,matt4 vii4 #babc78 ,what must they have thought of ,him when ,he pronounced those blessed who were persecuted and despised for ,his sake 7,matt4 v4 #aa1 #ab78 ,by what authority did this man forgive sins 7,mark ii4 #e ff478 ,in the discourse at the sending forth of the disciples the 8,i0 is still more prominent4 ,he demands of men that in the trials to come they shall confess ,him1 that they shall love ,him more than father or mother1 bear their cross after ,him1 and follow ,him to the death1 since it is only for such that ,he can entreat ,his ,heavenly ,father 7,matt4 x4 #cb ff474 ,admitting that the expression 8,heavenly ,father0 contained no riddle for the listening disciples1 since ,he had taught them to pray 8,our ,father which art in ,heaven10 we have still to ask who was ,he whose yea or nay should prevail with ,god to determine the fate of men at the ,judgment8 ,and yet they found it hard1 nay impossible1 to think of ,him as ,messiah4 ,they guessed ,him to be a prophet2 some thought of ,elias1 some of ,john the ,baptist risen from the dead1 as appears clearly from the answer of the disciples at ,caesarea ,philippi47#bhf7 ,the ,messiah was a supernatural personality who was to appear in the last times1 and who was not expected upon earth before that4 ,at this point a difficulty presents itself4 ,how could ,jesus be ,elias for the people8 ,did they not hold ,john the ,baptist to be ,elias8 ,not in the least6 ,jesus was the first and the only person who attributed this office to him4 ,and1 moreover1 ,he declares it to the people as something mysterious1 difficult to understand--8,if ye can receive it1 this is ,elias1 which was for to come4 ,he that hath ears to hear1 let him hear0 7,matt4 xi4 #ad1 #ae74 ,in making this revelation ,he is communicating to them a piece of supernatural knowledge1 opening up a part of the mystery of the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,therefore ,he uses the same formula of emphasis as when making known in parables the mystery of the ,kingdom of ,god 7,mark iv474 ,the disciples were not with ,him at this time1 and therefore did not learn what was the rle of ,john the ,baptist4 ,when a little later1 in descending from the mount of transfiguration ,he predicted to the three who formed the inner circle of ,his followers the resurrection of the ,son of ,man1 they came to ,him with difficulties about the rising from the dead--how could this be possible when1 according to the ,pharisees and ,scribes1 ,elias must first come8--whereupon ,jesus explains to them that the preacher of repentance whom ,herod had put to death had been ,elias 7,mark ix4 #aaac74 ,why did not the people take the ,baptist to be ,elias8 ,in the first place no doubt because he did not describe himself as such4 ,in the next place because he did no miracle6 ,he was only a natural man without any evidence of supernatural power1 only a prophet4 ,in the third place1 and that was the decisive point1 he had himself pointed forward to the coming of ,elias4 ,he who was to come1 he whom he preached1 was not the ,messiah1 but ,elias4 ,he describes him1 not as a supernatural personality1 not as a judge1 not as one who will be manifested at the unveiling of the heavenly world1 but as one who in his work shall resemble himself1 only much greater--one who1 like himself1 baptizes1 though with the ,holy ,spirit4 ,had it ever been represented as the work of the ,messiah to baptize8 ,before the ,last ,judgment1 so it was inferred from ,joel1 the great outpouring of the ,spirit was to take place2 before the ,last ,judgment1 so taught ,malachi1 ,elias was to come4 ,until these events had occurred the manifestation of the ,son of ,man was not to be looked for4 ,men's thoughts were fixed1 therefore1 not on the ,messiah1 but upon ,elias and the outpouring of the ,spirit47#bhg7 ,the ,baptist in his preaching combines both ideas1 and predicts the coming of the ,great ,one who shall 8baptize with the ,holy ,spirit10 i4e4 who brings about the outpouring of the ,spirit4 ,his own preaching was only designed to secure that at ,his coming that ,great ,one should find a community sanctified and prepared to receive the ,spirit4 ,when he heard in the prison of one who did great wonders and signs1 he desired to learn with certainty whether this was 8he who was to come40 ,if this question is taken as referring to the ,messiahship the whole narrative loses its meaning1 and it upsets the theory of the ,messianic secret1 since in this case at least one person had become aware1 independently1 of the office which belonged to ,jesus1 not to mention all the ineptitudes involved in making the ,baptist here speak in doubt and confusion4 ,moreover1 on this false interpretation of the question the point of ,jesus' discourse is lost1 for in this case it is not clear why ,he says to the people afterwards1 8,if ye can receive it1 ,john himself is ,elias40 ,this revelation presupposes that ,jesus and the people1 who had heard the question which had been addressed to ,him1 also gave it its only natural meaning1 referring it to ,jesus as the bearer of the office of ,elias4 ,that even the first ,evangelist gives the episode a ,messianic setting by introducing it with the words 8,when ,john heard in the prison of the works of the ,christ0 does not alter the facts of the body of the narrative4 ,the sequel directly contradicts the introduction4 ,and this interpretation fully explains the evasive answer of ,jesus1 in which exegesis has always recognised a certain reserve without ever being able to make it intelligible why ,jesus did not simply send him the message1 8,yes1 ,i am he0--whereto1 however1 according to modern theology1 ,he would have needed to add1 8but another kind of ,messiah from him whom you expect40 ,the fact was1 the ,baptist had put ,him in an extremely difficult position4 ,he could not answer that ,he was ,elias if ,he held ,himself to be the ,messiah2 on the other hand ,he could not1 and would not1 disclose to him1 and still less to the messengers and the listening multitude1 the secret of ,his ,messiahship4 ,therefore ,he sends this obscure message1 which only contains a confirmation of the facts which ,john had already heard and closes with a warning1 come what may1 not to be offended in ,him4 ,of this the ,baptist was to make what he could4 ,it mattered1 in fact1 little how ,john understood the message4 ,the time was much more advanced than he supposed2 the hammer of the world's clock had risen to strike the last hour4 ,all that he needed to know was that he had no cause to doubt4 ,in revealing to the people the true office of the ,baptist1 ,jesus unveiled to them almost the whole mystery of the ,kingdom of ,god1 and nearly disclosed the secret of ,his ,messiahship4 ,for if ,elias was already present1 was not the coming of the ,kingdom close at hand8 ,and if ,john was ,elias1 who was ,jesus8444 ,there could only be one answer3 the ,messiah4 ,but this seemed impossible1 because ,messiah was expected as a supernatural personality4 ,the eulogy on the ,baptist is1 historically regarded1 identical in content with the prediction of the ,parousia in the discourse at the sending forth of the disciples4 ,for after the coming of ,elias there must follow immediately the judgment and the other events belonging to the last time4 ,now we can understand why in the enumeration of the events of the last time in the discourse to the ,twelve the coming of ,elias is not mentioned4 ,we see here1 too1 how1 in the thought of ,jesus1 ,messianic doctrine forces its way into history and simply abolishes the historic aspect of the events4 ,the ,baptist had not held himself to be ,elias1 the people had not thought of attributing this office to him2 the description of ,elias did not fit him at all1 since he had done none of those things which ,elias was to do3 and yet ,jesus makes him ,elias1 simply because ,he expected ,his own manifestation as ,son of ,man1 and before that it was necessary that ,elias must first have come4 ,and even when ,john was dead ,jesus still told the disciples that in him ,elias had come1 although the death of ,elias was not contemplated in the eschatological doctrine1 and was in fact unthinkable1 ,but ,jesus must somehow drag or force the eschatological events into the framework of the actual occurrences4 ,thus the conception of the 8dogmatic element0 in the narrative widens in an unsuspected fashion4 ,and even what before seemed natural becomes on a closer examination doctrinal4 ,the ,baptist is made into ,elias solely by the force of ,jesus' ,messianic consciousness4 ,a short time afterwards1 immediately upon the return of the disciples1 ,he spoke and acted before their eyes in a way which presupposed the ,messianic secret4 ,the people had been dogging his steps2 at a lonely spot on the shores of the lake they surrounded ,him1 and ,he 8taught them about many things0 7,mark vi4 #cjcd74 ,the day was drawing to a close1 but they held closely to ,him without troubling about food4 ,in the evening1 before sending them away1 ,he fed them4 ,weisse1 long ago1 had constantly emphasised the fact that the feeding of the multitude was one of the greatest historical problems1 because this narrative1 like that of the transfiguration1 is very firmly riveted to its historical setting and1 therefore1 imperatively demands explanation4 ,how is the historical element in it to be got at8 ,certainly not by seeking to explain the apparently miraculous in it on natural lines1 by representing that at the bidding of ,jesus people brought out the baskets of provisions which they had been concealing1 and1 thus importing into the tradition a natural fact which1 so far from being hinted at in the narrative1 is actually excluded by it4 ,our solution is that the whole is historical1 except the closing remark that they were all filled4 ,jesus distributed the provisions which ,he and ,his disciples had with them among the multitude so that each received a very little1 after ,he had first offered thanks4 ,the significance lies in the giving of thanks and in the fact that they had received from ,him consecrated food4 ,because ,he is the future ,messiah1 this meal becomes without their knowledge the ,messianic feast4 ,with the morsel of bread which ,he gives ,his disciples to distribute to the people ,he consecrates them as partakers in the coming ,messianic feast1 and gives them the guarantee that they1 who had shared ,his table in the time of ,his obscurity1 would also share it in the time of ,his glory4 ,in the prayer ,he gave thanks not only for the food1 but also for the coming ,kingdom and all its blessings4 ,it is the counterpart of the ,lord's prayer1 where ,he so strangely inserts the petition for daily bread between the petitions for the coming of the ,kingdom and for deliverance from the 4 ,the feeding of the multitude was more than a lovefeast1 a fellowship meal4 ,it was from the point of view of ,jesus a sacrament of salvation4 ,we never realise sufficiently that in a period when the judgment and the glory were expected as close at hand1 one thought arising out of this expectation must have acquired special prominence--how1 namely1 in the present time a man could obtain a guarantee of coming scatheless through the judgment1 of being saved and received into the ,kingdom1 of being signed and sealed for deliverance amid the coming trial1 as the ,chosen ,people in ,egypt had a sign revealed to them from ,god by means of which they might be manifest as those who were to be spared4 ,but once we do realise this1 we can understand why the thought of signing and sealing runs through the whole of the apocalyptic literature4 ,it is found as early as the ninth chapter of ,ezekiel4 ,there1 ,god is making preparation for judgment4 ,the day of visitation of the city is at hand4 ,but first the ,lord calls unto 8the man clothed with linen who had the writer's inkhorn by his side0 and said unto him1 8,go through the midst of the city1 through the midst of ,jerusalem1 and set a mark upon the foreheads of the men that sigh and that cry for all the abominations that be done in the midst thereof40 ,only after that does ,he give command to those who are charged with the judgment to begin1 adding1 8,but come not near any man upon whom is the mark0 7,ezek4 ix4 #d and #f74 ,in the fifteenth of the ,psalms of ,solomon17#bhh7 the last eschatological writing before the movement initiated by the ,baptist1 it is expressly said in the description of the judgment that 8the saints of ,god bear a sign upon them which saves them40 ,in the ,pauline theology very striking prominence is given to the thought of being sealed unto salvation4 ,the apostle is conscious of bearing about with him in his body 8the marks of ,jesus0 7,gal4 vi4 #ag71 the 8dying0 of ,jesus 7#b ,cor4 iv4 #aj74 ,this sign is received in baptism1 since it is a baptism 8into the death of ,christ02 in this act the recipient is in a certain sense really buried with ,him1 and thenceforth walks among men as one who belongs1 even here below1 to risen humanity 7,rom4 vi4 #a ff474 ,baptism is the seal1 the earnest of the spirit1 the pledge of that which is to come 7#b ,cor i4 #bb2 ,eph4 i4 #ac1 #ad1 iv4 #cj74 ,this conception of baptism as a 8salvation0 in view of that which was to come goes down through the whole of ancient theology4 ,its preaching might really be summed up in the words1 8,keep your baptism holy and without blemish40 ,in the ,shepherd of ,hermas even the spirits of the men of the past must receive 8the seal1 which is the water0 in order that they may 8bear the name of ,god upon them40 ,that is why the tower is built over the water1 and the stones which are brought up out of the deep are rolled through the water 7,vis4 iii4 and ,sim4 ix4 #af74 ,in the ,apocalypse of ,john the thought of the sealing stands prominently in the foreground4 ,the locusts receive power to hurt those only who have not the seal of ,god on their foreheads 7,rev4 ix4 #d1 #e74 ,the beast 7,rev4 xiii4 #af ff47 compels men to bear his mark2 only those who will not accept it are to reign with ,christ 7,rev4 xx4 #d74 ,the chosen hundred and fortyfour thousand bear the name of ,god and the name of the ,lamb upon their foreheads 7,rev4 xiv4 #a74 8,assurance of salvation0 in a time of eschatological expectation demanded some kind of security for the future of which the earnest could be possessed in the present4 ,and with this the predestinarian thought of election was in complete accord4 ,if we find the thought of being sealed unto salvation previously in the ,psalms of ,solomon1 and subsequently in the same signification in ,paul1 in the ,apocalypse of ,john1 and down to the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 it may be assumed in advance that it will be found in some form or other in the so strongly eschatological teaching of ,jesus and the ,baptist4 ,it may be said1 indeed1 to dominate completely the eschatological preaching of the ,baptist1 for this preaching does not confine itself to the declaration of the nearness of the ,kingdom1 and the demand for repentance1 but leads up to an act to which it gives a special reference in relation to the forgiveness of sins and the outpouring of the spirit4 ,it is a mistake to regard baptism with water as a 8symbolic act0 in the modern sense1 and make the ,baptist decry his own wares by saying1 8,i baptize only with water1 but the other can baptize with the ,holy ,spirit40 ,he is not contrasting the two baptisms1 but connecting them--he who is baptized by him has the certainty that he will share in the outpouring of the ,spirit which shall precede the judgment1 and at the judgment shall receive forgiveness of sins1 as one who is signed with the mark of repentance4 ,the object of being baptized by him is to secure baptism with the ,spirit later4 ,the forgiveness of sins associated with baptism is proleptic2 it is to be realised at the judgment4 ,the ,baptist himself did not forgive sin47#bhi7 ,if he had done so1 how could such offence have been taken when ,jesus claimed for ,himself the right to forgive sins in the present 7,mark ii4 #aj74 ,the baptism of ,john was therefore an eschatological sacrament pointing forward to the pouring forth of the spirit and to the judgment1 a provision for 8salvation40 ,hence the wrath of the ,baptist when he saw ,pharisees and ,sadducees crowding to his baptism3 8,ye generation of vipers1 who hath warned you to flee from the wrath to come8 ,bring forth now fruits meet for repentance0 7,matt4 iii4 #g1 #h74 ,by the reception of baptism1 that is1 they are saved from the judgment4 ,as a cleansing unto salvation it is a divine institution1 a revealed means of grace4 ,that is why the question of ,jesus1 whether the baptism of ,john was from heaven or from men1 placed the ,scribes at ,jerusalem in so awkward a dilemma 7,mark xi4 #cj74 ,the authority of ,jesus1 however1 goes farther than that of the ,baptist4 ,as the ,messiah who is to come ,he can give even here below to those who gather about ,him a right to partake in the ,messianic feast1 by this distribution of food to them2 only1 they do not know what is happening to them and ,he cannot solve the riddle for them4 ,the supper at the ,lake of ,gennesareth was a veiled eschatological sacrament4 ,neither the disciples nor the multitude understood what was happening1 since they did not know who ,he was who thus made them ,his guests47#bij7 ,this meal must have been transformed by tradition into a miracle1 a result which may have been in part due to the references to the wonders of the ,messianic feast which were doubtless contained in the prayers1 not to speak of the eschatological enthusiasm which then prevailed universally4 ,did not the disciples believe that on the same evening1 when they had been commanded to take ,jesus into their ship at the mouth of the ,jordan1 to which point ,he had walked along the shore--did they not believe that they saw ,him come walking towards them upon the waves of the sea8 ,the impulse to the introduction of the miraculous into the narrative came from the unintelligible element with which the men who surrounded ,jesus were at this time confronted47#bia7 ,the ,last ,supper at ,jerusalem had the same sacramental significance as that at the lake4 ,towards the end of the meal ,jesus1 after giving thanks1 distributes the bread and wine4 ,this had as little to do with the satisfaction of hunger as the distribution to the ,galilaean believers4 ,the act of ,jesus is an end in itself1 and the significance of the celebration consists in the fact that it is ,he ,himself who makes the distribution4 ,in ,jerusalem1 however1 they understood what was meant1 and ,he explained it to them explicitly by telling them that ,he would drink no more of the fruit of the vine until ,he drank it new in the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,the mysterious images which ,he used at the time of the distribution concerning the atoning significance of ,his death do not touch the essence of the celebration1 they are only discourses accompanying it4 ,on this interpretation1 therefore1 we may think of ,baptism and the ,lord's ,supper as from the first eschatological sacraments in the eschatological movement which later detached itself from ,judaism under the name of ,christianity4 ,that explains why we find them both in ,paul and in the earliest theology as sacramental acts1 not as symbolic ceremonies1 and find them dominating the whole ,christian doctrine4 ,apart from the assumption of the eschatological sacraments1 we can only make the history of dogma begin with a 8fall0 from the earlier purer theology into the sacramental magical1 without being able to adduce a single syllable in support of the idea that after the death of ,jesus ,baptism and the ,lord's ,supper existed even for an hour as symbolical actions--,paul1 indeed1 makes this supposition wholly impossible4 ,in any case the adoption of the baptism of ,john in ,christian practice cannot be explained except on the assumption that it was the sacrament of the eschatological community1 a revealed means of securing 8salvation0 which was not altered in the slightest by the ,messiahship of ,jesus4 ,how else could we explain the fact that baptism1 without any commandment of ,jesus1 and without ,jesus' ever having baptized1 was taken over1 as a matter of course1 into ,christianity1 and was given a special reference to the receiving of the ,spirit8 ,it is no use proposing to explain it as having been instituted as a symbolical repetition of the baptism of ,jesus1 thought of as 8an anointing to the ,messiahship40 ,there is not a single passage in ancient theology to support such a theory4 ,and we may point also to the fact that ,paul never refers to the baptism of ,jesus in explaining the character of ,christian baptism1 never1 in fact1 makes any distinct reference to it4 ,and how could baptism1 if it had been a symbolical repetition of the baptism of ,jesus1 ever have acquired this magicsacramental sense of 8salvation08 ,nothing shows more clearly than the dual character of ancient baptism1 which makes it the guarantee both of the reception of the ,spirit and of deliverance from the judgment1 that it is nothing else than the eschatological baptism of ,john with a single difference4 ,baptism with water and baptism with the ,spirit are now connected not only logically1 but also in point of time1 seeing that since the day of ,pentecost the period of the outpouring of the ,spirit is present4 ,the two portions of the eschatological sacrament which in the ,baptist's preaching were distinguished in point of time--because he did not expect the outpouring of the ,spirit until some future period--are now brought together1 since one eschatological condition--the baptism with the ,spirit--is now present4 ,the 8,christianising0 of baptism consisted in this and in nothing else2 though ,paul carried it a stage farther when he formed the conception of baptism as a mystic partaking in the death and resurrection of ,jesus4 ,thus the thoroughgoing eschatological interpretation of the ,life of ,jesus puts into the hands of those who are reconstructing the history of dogma in the earliest times an explanation of the conception of the sacraments1 of which they had been able hitherto only to note the presence as an x of which the origin was undiscoverable1 and for which they possessed no equation by which it could be evaluated4 ,if ,christianity as the religion of historically revealed mysteries was able to lay hold upon ,hellenism and overcome it1 the reason of this was that it was already in its purely eschatological beginnings a religion of sacraments1 a religion of eschatological sacraments1 since ,jesus had recognised a ,divine institution in the baptism of ,john1 and had ,himself performed a sacramental action in the distribution of food at the ,lake of ,gennesareth and at the ,last ,supper4 ,this being so1 the feeding of the multitude also belongs to the dogmatic element in the history4 ,but no one had previously recognised it as what it really was1 an indirect disclosure of the ,messianic secret1 just as no one had understood the full significance of ,jesus' description of the ,baptist as ,elias4 ,but how does ,peter at ,caesarea ,philippi know the secret of his ,master8 ,what he there declares is not a conviction which had gradually dawned on him1 and slowly grown through various stages of probability and certainty4 ,the real character of this incident has been interpreted with remarkable penetration by ,wrede4 ,the incident itself1 he says1 is to be understood in quite as supernatural a fashion in ,mark as in ,matthew4 ,but on the other hand one does not receive the impression that the writer intends to represent the confession as a merit or a discovery of ,peter4 8,for according to the text of ,mark1 ,jesus shows no trace of joy or surprise at this confession4 ,his only answer consists of the command to say nothing about ,his ,messiahship40 ,keim1 whom ,wrede quotes1 had received a similar impression from the ,marcan account1 and had supposed that ,jesus had actually found the confession of ,peter inopportune4 ,how is all this to be explained--the supernatural knowledge of ,peter and the rather curt fashion in which ,jesus receives his declaration8 ,it might be worth while to put the story of the transfiguration side by side with the incident at ,caesarea ,philippi1 since there the ,divine ,sonship of ,jesus is 8a second time0 revealed to the 8three10 ,peter1 ,james1 and ,john1 and the revelation is made supernaturally by a voice from heaven4 ,it is rather striking that ,mark does not seem to be conscious that he is reporting something which the disciples knew already4 ,at the beginning of the actual transfiguration ,peter still addresses ,jesus simply as ,rabbi 7,mark ix4 #e74 ,and what does it mean when ,jesus1 during the descent from the mountain1 forbids them to speak to any man concerning that which they have seen until after the resurrection of the ,son of ,man8 ,that would exclude even the other disciples who knew only the secret of ,his ,messiahship4 ,but why should they not be told of the ,divine confirmation of that which ,peter had declared at ,caesarea ,philippi and ,jesus had 8admitted08 ,what has the transfiguration to do with the resurrection of the dead8 ,and why are the thoughts of the disciples suddenly busied1 not with what they have seen1 not with the fact that the ,son of ,man shall rise from the dead1 but simply with the possibility of the rising from the dead1 the difficulty being that ,elias was not yet present8 ,those who see in the transfiguration a projection backwards of the ,pauline theology into the ,gospel history do not realise what are the principal points and difficulties of the narrative4 ,the problem lies in the conversation during the descent4 ,against the ,messiahship of ,jesus1 against ,his rising from the dead1 they have only one objection to suggest3 ,elias had not yet come4 ,we see here1 in the first place1 the importance of the revelation which ,jesus had made to the people in declaring to them the secret that the ,baptist is ,elias4 ,from the standpoint of the eschatological expectation no one could recognise ,elias in the ,baptist1 unless he knew of the ,messiahship of ,jesus4 ,and no one could believe in the ,messiahship and 8resurrection0 of ,jesus1 that is1 in ,his ,parousia1 without presupposing that ,elias had in some way or other already come4 ,this was therefore the primary difficulty of the disciples1 the stumblingblock which ,jesus must remove for them by making the same revelation concerning the ,baptist to them as to the people4 ,it is also once more abundantly clear that expectation was directed at that time primarily to the coming of ,elias47#bib7 ,but since the whole eschatological movement arose out of the ,baptist's preaching1 the natural conclusion is that by 8him who was to come after0 and baptize with the ,holy ,spirit ,john meant1 not the ,messiah1 but ,elias4 ,but if the nonappearance of ,elias was the primary difficulty of the disciples in connexion with the ,messiahship of ,jesus and all that it implied1 why does it only strike the 8three10 and moreover1 all three of them together1 now1 and not at ,caesarea ,philippi87#bic7 ,how could ,peter there have declared it and here be still labouring with the rest over the difficulty which stood in the way of his own declaration8 ,to make the narrative coherent1 the transfiguration1 as being a revelation of the ,messiahship1 ought to precede the incident at ,caesarea ,philippi4 ,now let us look at the connexion in which it actually occurs4 ,it falls in that inexplicable section ,mark viii4 #cd;ix4 #cj in which the multitude suddenly appears in the company of ,jesus who is sojourning in a ,gentile district1 only to disappear again1 equally enigmatically1 afterwards1 when ,he sets out for ,galilee1 instead of accompanying ,him back to their own country4 ,in this section everything points to the situation during the days at ,bethsaida after the return of the disciples from their mission4 ,jesus is surrounded by the people1 while what ,he desires is to be alone with ,his immediate followers4 ,the disciples make use of the healing powers which ,he had bestowed upon them when sending them forth1 and have the experience of finding that they are not in all cases adequate 7,mark ix4 #adbi74 ,the mountain to which ,he takes the 8three0 is not a mountain in the north1 or as some have suggested1 an imaginary mountain of the ,evangelist1 but the same to which ,jesus went up to pray and to be alone on the evening of the feeding of the multitude 7,mark vi4 #df and ix4 #b74 ,the house to which ,he goes after ,his return from the transfiguration is therefore to be placed at ,bethsaida4 ,another thing which points to a sojourn at ,bethsaida after the feeding of the multitude is the story of the healing of the blind man at ,bethsaida 7,mark viii4 #bbbf74 ,the circumstances1 therefore1 which we have to presuppose are that ,jesus is surrounded and thronged by the people at ,bethsaida4 ,in order to be alone ,he once more puts the ,jordan between ,himself and the multitude1 and goes with the 8three0 to the mountain where ,he had prayed after the feeding of the five thousand4 ,this is the only way in which we can understand how the people failed to follow ,him1 and ,he was able really to carry out ,his plan4 ,but how could this story be torn out of its natural context and its scene removed to ,caesarea ,philippi1 where it is both on external and internal grounds impossible8 ,what we need to notice is the ,marcan account of the events which followed the sending forth of the disciples4 ,we have two stories of the feeding of the multitude with a crossing of the lake after each 7,mark vi4 #caef1 ,mark viii4 #abb71 two stories of ,jesus going away towards the north with the same motive1 that of being alone and unrecognised4 ,the first time1 after the controversy about the washing of hands1 ,his course is directed towards ,tyre 7,mark vii4 #bdcj71 the second time1 after the demand for a sign1 he goes into the district of ,caesarea ,philippi 7,mark viii4 #bg74 ,the scene of the controversy about the washing of hands is some locality in the plain of ,gennesareth 7,mark vi4 #ec ff72 ,dalmanutha is named as the place where the sign was demanded 7,mark viii4 #aj ff474 ,the most natural conclusion is to identify the two cases of feeding the multitude1 and the two journeys northwards4 ,in that case we should have in the section ,mark vi4 #ca;ix4 #cj1 two sets of narratives worked into one another1 both recounting how ,jesus1 after the disciples came back to ,him1 went with them from ,capernaum to the northern shore of the lake1 was there surprised by the multitude1 and after the meal which ,he gave them1 crossed the ,jordan by boat to ,bethsaida1 stayed there for a while1 and then returned again by ship to the country of ,gennesareth1 and was there again overtaken and surrounded by the people2 then after some controversial encounters with the ,scribes1 who at the report of ,his miracles had come down from ,jerusalem 7,mark vii4 #a71 left ,galilee and again went northwards47#bid7 ,the seams at the joining of the narratives can be recognised in ,mark vii4 #ca1 where ,jesus is suddenly transferred from the north to ,decapolis1 and in the saying in ,mark viii4 #ad ff41 which makes explicit reference to the two miracles of feeding the multitude4 ,whether the ,evangelist himself worked these two sets of narratives together1 or whether he found them already united1 cannot be determined1 and is not of any direct historical interest4 ,the disorder is in any case so complete that we cannot fully reconstruct each of the separate sets of narratives4 ,the external reasons why the narratives of ,mark viii4 #cd;ix4 #cj1 of which the scene is on the northern shore of the lake1 are placed in this way after the incident of ,caesarea ,philippi are not difficult to grasp4 ,the section contains an impressive discourse to the people on following ,jesus in ,his sufferings1 crucifixion1 and death 7,mark viii4 #cd;ix4 #a74 ,for this reason the whole series of scenes is attached to the revelation of the secret of the suffering of the ,son of ,man2 and the redactor did not stop to think how the people could suddenly appear1 and as suddenly disappear again4 ,the statement1 too1 8,he called the people with the disciples0 7,mark viii4 #cd71 helped to mislead him into inserting the section at this point1 although this very remark points to the circumstances of the time just after the return of the disciples1 when ,jesus was sometimes alone with the disciples1 and sometimes calls the eager multitude about ,him4 ,the whole scene belongs1 therefore1 to the days which ,he spent at ,bethsaida1 and originally followed immediately upon the crossing of the lake1 after the feeding of the multitude4 ,it was after ,jesus had been six days surrounded by the people1 not six days after the revelation at ,caesarea ,philippi1 that the 8transfiguration0 took place 7,mark ix4 #b74 ,on this assumption1 all the difficulties of the incident at ,caesarea ,philippi are cleared up in a moment2 there is no longer anything strange in the fact that ,peter declares to ,jesus who ,he really is1 while ,jesus appears neither surprised nor especially rejoiced at the insight of ,his disciple4 ,the transfiguration had1 in fact1 been the revelation of the secret of the ,messiahship to the three who constituted the inner circle of the disciples47#bie7 ,and ,jesus had not ,himself revealed it to them2 what had happened was1 that in a state of rapture common to them all1 in which they had seen the ,master in a glorious transfiguration1 they had seen ,him talking with ,moses and ,elias and had heard a voice from heaven saying1 8,this is my beloved ,son1 hear ye ,him40 ,we must always make a fresh effort to realise to ourselves1 that ,jesus and ,his immediate followers were1 at that time1 in an enthusiastic state of intense eschatological expectation4 ,we must picture them among the people1 who were filled with penitence for their sins1 and with faith in the ,kingdom1 hourly expecting the coming of the ,kingdom1 and the revelation of ,jesus as the ,son of ,man1 seeing in the eager multitude itself a sign that their reckoning of the time was correct2 thus the psychological conditions were present for a common ecstatic experience such as is described in the account of the transfiguration4 ,in this ecstasy the 8three0 heard the voice from heaven saying who ,he was4 ,therefore1 the ,matthaean report1 according to which ,jesus praises ,simon 8because flesh and blood have not revealed it to him1 but the ,father who is in heaven10 is not really at variance with the briefer ,marcan account1 since it rightly indicates the source of ,peter's knowledge4 ,nevertheless ,jesus was astonished4 ,for ,peter here disregarded the command given during the descent from the mount of transfiguration4 ,he had 8betrayed0 to the ,twelve ,jesus' consciousness of ,his ,messiahship4 ,one receives the impression that ,jesus did not put the question to the disciples in order to reveal ,himself to them as ,messiah1 and that by the impulsive speech of ,peter1 upon whose silence ,he had counted because of ,his command1 and to whom ,he had not specially addressed the question1 ,he was forced to take a different line of action in regard to the ,twelve from what ,he had intended4 ,it is probable that ,he had never had the intention of revealing the secret of ,his ,messiahship to the disciples4 ,otherwise ,he would not have kept it from them at the time of their mission1 when ,he did not expect them to return before the ,parousia4 ,even at the transfiguration the 8three0 do not learn it from ,his lips1 but in a state of ecstasy1 an ecstasy which ,he shared with them4 ,at ,caesarea ,philippi it is not ,he1 but ,peter1 who reveals ,his ,messiahship4 ,we may say1 therefore1 that ,jesus did not voluntarily give up ,his ,messianic secret2 it was wrung from ,him by the pressure of events4 ,however that may be1 from ,caesarea ,philippi onwards it was known to the other disciples through ,peter2 what ,jesus ,himself revealed to them1 was the secret of his sufferings4 ,pfleiderer and ,wrede were quite right in pointing to the clear and definite predictions of the suffering1 death1 and resurrection as the historically inexplicable element in our reports1 since the necessity of ,jesus' death1 by which modern theology endeavours to make ,his resolve and ,his predictions intelligible1 is not a necessity which arises out of the historical course of events4 ,there was not present any natural ground for such a resolve on the part of ,jesus4 ,had ,he returned to ,galilee1 ,he would immediately have had the multitudes flocking after ,him again4 ,in order to make the historical possibility of the resolve to suffer and the prediction of the sufferings in some measure intelligible1 modern theology has to ignore the prediction of the resurrection which is bound up with them1 for this is 8dogmatic40 ,that is1 however1 not permissible4 ,we must1 as ,wrede insists1 take the words as they are1 and must not even indulge in ingenious explanations of the 8three days40 ,therefore1 the resolve to suffer and to die are dogmatic2 therefore1 according to him1 they are unhistorical1 and only to be explained by a literary hypothesis4 ,but the thoroughgoing eschatological school says they are dogmatic1 and therefore historical2 because they find their explanation in eschatological conceptions4 ,wrede held that the ,messianic conception implied in the ,marcan narrative is not the ,jewish ,messianic conception1 just because of the thought of suffering and death which it involves4 ,no stress must be laid on the fact that in ,fourth ,ezra vii4 #bi the ,christ dies and rises again1 because ,his death takes place at the end of the ,messianic ,kingdom47#bif7 ,the ,jewish ,messiah is essentially a glorious being who shall appear in the last time4 ,true1 but the case in which the ,messiah should be present1 prior to the ,parousia1 should cause the final tribulations to come upon the earth1 and should ,himself undergo them1 does not arise in the ,jewish eschatology as described from without4 ,it first arises with the selfconsciousness of ,jesus4 ,therefore1 the ,jewish conception of the ,messiah has no information to give us upon this point4 ,in order to understand ,jesus' resolve to suffer1 we must first recognise that the mystery of this suffering is involved in the mystery of the ,kingdom of ,god1 since the ,kingdom cannot come until the has taken place4 ,this certainty of suffering is quite independent of the historic circumstances1 as the beatitude on the persecuted in the sermon on the mount1 and the predictions in the discourse at the sending forth of the ,twelve1 clearly show4 ,jesus' prediction of ,his own sufferings at ,caesarea ,philippi is precisely as unintelligible1 precisely as dogmatic1 and therefore precisely as historical as the prediction to the disciples at the time of their mission4 ,the 8must be0 of the sufferings is the same--the coming of the ,kingdom1 and of the ,parousia1 which are dependent upon the having first taken place4 ,in the first period ,jesus' thoughts concerning ,his own sufferings were included in the more general thought of the sufferings which formed part of the mystery of the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,the exhortations to hold steadfastly to ,him in the time of trial1 and not to lose faith in ,him1 certainly tended to suggest that ,he thought of ,himself as the central point amid these conflicts and confusions1 and reckoned on the possibility of ,his own death as much as on that of others4 ,upon this point nothing more definite can be said1 since the mystery of ,jesus' own sufferings does not detach itself from the mystery of the sufferings connected with the ,kingdom of ,god until after the ,messianic secret is made known at ,caesarea ,philippi4 ,what is certain is that1 for ,him1 suffering was always associated with the ,messianic secret1 since ,he placed ,his ,parousia at the end of the pre ,messianic tribulations in which ,he was to have ,his part4 ,the suffering1 death1 and resurrection of which the secret was revealed at ,caesarea ,philippi are not therefore in themselves new or surprising47#big7 ,the novelty lies in the form in which they are conceived4 ,the tribulation1 so far as ,jesus is concerned1 is now connected with an historic event3 ,he will go to ,jerusalem1 there to suffer death at the hands of the authorities4 ,for the future1 however1 ,he no longer speaks of the general tribulation which ,he is to bring upon the earth1 nor of the sufferings which await ,his followers1 nor of the sufferings in which they must rally round ,him4 ,in the predictions of the passion there is no word of that2 at ,jerusalem there is no word of that4 ,this thought disappears once for all4 ,in the secret of ,his passion which ,jesus reveals to the disciples at ,caesarea ,philippi the pre,messianic tribulation is for others set aside1 abolished1 concentrated upon ,himself alone1 and that in the form that they are fulfilled in ,his own passion and death at ,jerusalem4 ,that was the new conviction that had dawned upon ,him4 ,he must suffer for others 444 that the ,kingdom might come4 ,this change was due to the nonfulfilment of the promises made in the discourse at the sending forth of the ,twelve4 ,he had thought then to let loose the final tribulation and so compel the coming of the ,kingdom4 ,and the cataclysm had not occurred4 ,he had expected it also after the return of the disciples4 ,in ,bethsaida1 in speaking to the multitude which ,he had consecrated by the foretaste of the ,messianic feast1 as also to the disciples at the time of their mission1 ,he had turned their thoughts to things to come and had adjured them to be prepared to suffer with ,him1 to give up their lives1 not to be ashamed of ,him in ,his humiliation1 since otherwise the ,son of ,man would be ashamed of them when ,he came in glory 7,mark viii4 #cd;ix4 #a747bih7 ,in leaving ,galilee ,he abandoned the hope that the final tribulation would begin of itself4 ,if it delays1 that means that there is still something to be done1 and yet another of the violent must lay violent hands upon the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,the movement of repentance had not been sufficient4 ,when1 in accordance with ,his commission1 by sending forth the disciples with their message1 he hurled the firebrand which should kindle the fiery trials of the ,last ,time1 the flame went out4 ,he had not succeeded in sending the sword on earth and stirring up the conflict4 ,and until the time of trial had come1 the coming of the ,kingdom and ,his own manifestation as ,son of ,man were impossible4 ,that meant--not that the ,kingdom was not near at hand--but that ,god had appointed otherwise in regard to the time of trial4 ,he had heard the ,lord's ,prayer in which ,jesus and ,his followers prayed for the coming of the ,kingdom--and at the same time1 for deliverance from the 4 ,the time of trial was not come2 therefore ,god in ,his mercy and omnipotence had eliminated it from the series of eschatological events1 and appointed to ,him whose commission had been to bring it about1 instead to accomplish it in ,his own person4 ,as ,he who was to rule over the members of the ,kingdom in the future age1 ,he was appointed to serve them in the present1 to give ,his life for them1 the many 7,mark x4 #de and xiv4 #bd71 and to make in ,his own blood the atonement which they would have had to render in the tribulation4 ,the ,kingdom could not come until the debt which weighed upon the world was discharged4 ,until then1 not only the now living believers1 but the chosen of all generations since the beginning of the world wait for their manifestation in glory--,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob and all the countless unknown who should come from the ,east and from the ,west to sit at tables with them at the ,messianic feast 7,matt4 viii4 #aa74 ,the enigmatic for whom ,jesus dies are those predestined to the ,kingdom1 since ,his death must at last compel the ,coming of the ,kingdom47#bii7 ,this thought ,jesus found in the prophecies of ,isaiah1 which spoke of the suffering ,servant of the ,lord4 ,the mysterious description of ,him who in ,his humiliation was despised and misunderstood1 who1 nevertheless bears the guilt of others and afterwards is made manifest in what ,he has done for them1 points1 ,he feels1 to ,himself4 ,and since ,he found it there set down that ,he must suffer unrecognised1 and that those for whom ,he suffered should doubt ,him1 ,his suffering should1 nay must1 remain a mystery4 ,in that case those who doubted ,him would not bring condemnation upon themselves4 ,he no longer needs to adjure them for their own sakes to be faithful to ,him and to stand by ,him even amid reproach and humiliation2 ,he can calmly predict to ,his disciples that they shall all be offended in ,him and shall flee 7,mark xiv4 #bf1 #bg72 ,he can tell ,peter1 who boasts that he will die with ,him1 that before the dawn he shall deny ,him thrice 7,mark xiv4 #bica72 all that is so set down in the ,scripture4 ,they must doubt ,him4 ,but now they shall not lose their blessedness1 for ,he bears all sins and transgressions4 ,that1 too1 is buried in the atonement which ,he offers4 ,therefore1 also1 there is no need for them to understand ,his secret4 ,he spoke of it to them without any explanation4 ,it is sufficient that they should know why ,he goes up to ,jerusalem4 ,they1 on their part1 are thinking only of the coming transformation of all things1 as their conversation shows4 ,the prospect which ,he has opened up to them is clear enough2 the only thing that they do not understand is why ,he must first die at ,jerusalem4 ,the first time that ,peter ventured to speak to ,him about it1 ,he had turned on him with cruel harshness1 had almost cursed him 7,mark viii4 #cb1 #cc72 from that time forward they no longer dared to ask ,him anything about it4 ,the new thought of ,his own passion has its basis therefore in the authority with which ,jesus was armed to bring about the beginning of the final tribulation4 ,ethically regarded1 ,his taking the suffering upon ,himself is an act of mercy and compassion towards those who would otherwise have had to bear these tribulations1 and perhaps would not have stood the test4 ,historically regarded1 the thought of ,his sufferings involves the same lofty treatment both of history and eschatology as was manifested in the identification of the ,baptist with ,elias4 ,for now ,he identifies ,his condemnation and execution1 which are to take place on natural lines1 with the predicted pre,messianic tribulations4 ,this imperious forcing of eschatology into history is also its destruction2 its assertion and abandonment at the same time4 ,towards ,passover1 therefore1 ,jesus sets out for ,jerusalem1 solely in order to die there47#cjj7 8,it is10 says ,wrede1 8beyond question the opinion of ,mark that ,jesus went to ,jerusalem because ,he had decided to die2 that is obvious even from the details of the story40 ,it is therefore a mistake to speak of ,jesus as 8teaching0 in ,jerusalem4 ,he has no intention of doing so4 ,as a prophet ,he foretells in veiled parabolic form the offence which must come 7,mark xii4 #aab71 exhorts men to watch for the ,parousia1 pictures the nature of the judgment which the ,son of ,man shall hold1 and1 for the rest1 thinks only how ,he can so provoke the ,pharisees and the rulers that they will be compelled to get rid of ,him4 ,that is why ,he violently cleanses the ,temple1 and attacks the ,pharisees1 in the presence of the people1 with passionate invective4 ,from the revelation at ,caesarea ,philippi onward1 all that belongs to the history of ,jesus1 in the strict sense1 are the events which lead up to ,his death2 or1 to put it more accurately1 the events in which ,he ,himself is the sole actor4 ,the other things which happen1 the questions which are laid before ,him for decision1 the episodic incidents which occur in those days1 have nothing to do with the real 8,life of ,jesus10 since they contribute nothing to the decisive issue1 but merely form the anecdotic fringes of the real outward and inward event1 the deliberate bringing down of death upon ,himself4 ,it is in truth surprising that ,he succeeded in transforming into history this resolve which had its roots in dogma1 and really dying alone4 ,is it not almost unintelligible that ,his disciples were not involved in ,his fate8 ,not even the disciple who smote with the sword was arrested along with ,him 7,mark xiv4 #dg72 ,peter1 recognised in the courtyard of the ,high ,priest's house as one who had been with ,jesus the ,nazarene1 is allowed to go free4 ,for a moment indeed1 ,jesus believes that the 8three0 are destined to share ,his fate1 not from any outward necessity1 but because they had professed themselves able to suffer the last extremities with ,him4 ,the sons of ,zebedee1 when ,he asked them whether1 in order to sit at ,his right hand and ,his left1 they are prepared to drink ,his cup and be baptized with ,his baptism1 had declared that they were1 and thereupon ,he had predicted that they should do so 7,mark x4 #ch1 #ci74 ,peter again had that very night1 in spite of the warning of ,jesus1 sworn that he would go even unto death with ,him 7,mark xiv4 #cj1 #ca74 ,hence ,he is conscious of a higher possibility that these three are to go through the trial with ,him4 ,he takes them with ,him to ,gethsemane and bids them remain near ,him and watch with ,him4 ,and since they do not perceive the danger of the hour1 ,he adjures them to watch and pray4 ,they are to pray that they may not have to pass through the trial 7 7 since1 though the spirit is willing1 the flesh is weak4 ,amid ,his own sore distress ,he is anxious about them and their capacity to share ,his trial as they had declared their willingness to do47#cja7 ,here also it is once more made clear that for ,jesus the necessity of ,his death is grounded in dogma1 not in external historical facts4 ,above the dogmatic eschatological necessity1 however1 there stands the omnipotence of ,god1 which is bound by no limitations4 ,as ,jesus in the ,lord's ,prayer had taught ,his followers to pray for deliverance from the 1 and as in ,his fears for the three ,he bids them pray for the same thing1 so now ,he ,himself prays for deliverance1 even in this last moment when ,he knows that the armed band which is coming to arrest ,him is already on the way4 ,literal history does not exist for ,him1 only the will of ,god2 and this is exalted even above eschatological necessity4 ,but how did this exact agreement between the fate of ,jesus and ,his predictions come about8 ,why did the authorities strike at ,him only1 not at ,his whole following1 not even at the disciples8 ,he was arrested and condemned on account of ,his ,messianic claims4 ,but how did the ,high ,priest know that ,jesus claimed to be the ,messiah8 ,and why does he put the accusation as a direct question without calling witnesses in support of it8 ,why was the attempt first made to bring up a saying about the ,temple which could be interpreted as blasphemy in order to condemn ,him on this ground 7,mark xiv4 #egei78 ,before that again1 as is evident from ,mark's account1 they had brought up a whole crowd of witnesses in the hope of securing evidence sufficient to justify ,his condemnation2 and the attempt had not succeeded4 ,it was only after all these attempts had failed that the ,high ,priest brought his accusation concerning the ,messianic claim1 and he did so without citing the three necessary witnesses4 ,why so8 ,because he had not got them4 ,the condemnation of ,jesus depended on ,his own admission4 ,that was why they had endeavoured to convict ,him upon other charges47#cjb7 ,this wholly unintelligible feature of the trial confirms what is evident also from the discourses and attitude of ,jesus at ,jerusalem1 viz4 that ,he had not been held by the multitude to be the ,messiah1 that the idea of ,his making such claims had not for a moment occurred to them--lay in fact for them quite beyond the range of possibility4 ,therefore ,he cannot have made a ,messianic entry4 ,according to ,havet1 ,brandt1 ,wellhausen1 ,dalman1 and ,wrede the ovation at the entry had no ,messianic character whatever4 ,it is wholly mistaken1 as ,wrede quite rightly remarks1 to represent matters as if the ,messianic ovation was forced upon ,jesus--that ,he accepted it with inner repugnance and in silent passivity4 ,for that would involve the supposition that the people had for a moment regarded ,him as ,messiah and then afterwards had shown themselves as completely without any suspicion of ,his ,messiahship as though they had in the interval drunk of the waters of ,lethe4 ,the exact opposite is true3 ,jesus ,himself made the preparations for the ,messianic entry4 ,its ,messianic features were due to ,his arrangements4 ,he made a point of riding upon the ass1 not because ,he was weary1 but because ,he desired that the ,messianic prophecy of ,zech4 ix4 #i should be secretly fulfilled4 ,the entry is therefore a ,messianic act on the part of ,jesus1 an action in which ,his consciousness of ,his office breaks through1 as it did at the sending forth of the disciples1 in the explanation that the ,baptist was ,elias1 and in the feeding of the multitude4 ,but others can have had no suspicion of the ,messianic significance of that which was going on before their eyes4 ,the entry into ,jerusalem was therefore ,messianic for ,jesus1 but not ,messianic for the people4 ,but what was ,he for the people8 ,here ,wrede's theory that ,he was a teacher again refutes itself4 ,in the triumphal entry there is more than the ovation offered to a teacher4 ,the jubilations have reference to 8,him who is to come02 it is to ,him that the acclamations are offered and because of ,him that the people rejoice in the nearness of the ,kingdom1 as in ,mark1 the cries of jubilation show2 for here1 as ,dalman rightly remarks1 there is actually no mention of the ,messiah4 ,jesus therefore made ,his entry into ,jerusalem as the ,prophet1 as ,elias4 ,that is confirmed by ,matthew 7xxi4 #aa71 although ,matthew gives a ,messianic colouring to the entry itself by bringing in the acclamation in which ,he was designated the ,son of ,david1 just as1 conversely1 he reports the ,baptist's question rightly1 and introduces it wrongly1 by making the ,baptist hear of the 8works of the ,christ40 ,was ,mark conscious1 one wonders1 that it was not a ,messianic entry that he was reporting8 ,we do not know4 ,it is not inherently impossible that1 as ,wrede asserts1 8he had no real view concerning the historical life of ,jesus10 did not know whether ,jesus was recognised as ,messiah1 and took no interest in the question from an historical point of view4 ,fortunately for us6 ,for that is why he simply hands on tradition and does not write a ,life of ,jesus4 ,the ,marcan hypothesis went astray in conceiving this ,gospel as a ,life of ,jesus written with either complete or partial historical consciousness1 and interpreting it on these lines1 on the sole ground that it only brings in the name ,son of ,man twice prior to the incident at ,caesarea ,philippi4 ,the ,life of ,jesus cannot be arrived at by following the arrangement of a single ,gospel1 but only on the basis of the tradition which is preserved more or less faithfully in the earliest pair of ,synoptic ,gospels4 ,questions of literary priority1 indeed literary questions in general1 have in the last resort1 as ,keim remarked long ago1 nothing to do with the gaining of a clear idea of the course of events1 since the ,evangelists had not themselves a clear idea of it before their minds2 it can only be arrived at hypothetically by an experimental reconstruction based on the necessary inner connexion of the incidents4 ,but who could possibly have had in early times a clear conception of the ,life of ,jesus8 ,even its most critical moments were totally unintelligible to the disciples who had themselves shared in the experiences1 and who were the only sources for the tradition4 ,they were simply swept through these events by the momentum of the purpose of ,jesus4 ,that is why the tradition is incoherent4 ,the reality had been incoherent too1 since it was only the secret ,messianic selfconsciousness of ,jesus which created alike the events and their connexion4 ,every ,life of ,jesus remains therefore a reconstruction on the basis of a more or less accurate insight into the nature of the dynamic selfconsciousness of ,jesus which created the history4 ,the people1 whatever ,mark may have thought1 did not offer ,jesus a ,messianic ovation at all2 it was ,he who1 in the conviction that they were wholly unable to recognise it1 played with ,his ,messianic self consciousness before their eyes1 just as ,he did at the time after the sending forth of the disciples1 when1 as now1 ,he thought the end at hand4 ,it was in the same way1 too1 that ,he closed the invective against the ,pharisees with the words 8,i say unto you1 ye shall see me no more until ye shall say1 ,blessed is he that cometh in the name of the ,lord0 7,matt4 xxiii4 #ci74 ,this saying implies ,his ,parousia4 ,similarly ,he is playing with ,his secret in that crucial question regarding the ,messiahship in ,mark xii4 #cecg4 ,there is no question of dissociating the ,davidic ,sonship from the ,messiahship47#cjc7 ,he asks only how can the ,christ in virtue of ,his descent from ,david be1 as his son1 inferior to ,david1 and yet be addressed by ,david in the ,psalm as his ,lord8 ,the answer is2 by reason of the metamorphosis and ,parousia in which natural relationships are abolished and the scion of ,david's line who is the predestined ,son of ,man shall take possession of ,his unique glory4 ,far from rejecting the ,davidic ,sonship in this saying1 ,jesus1 on the contrary1 presupposes ,his possession of it4 ,that raises the question whether ,he did not really during ,his lifetime regard ,himself as a descendant of ,david and whether ,he was not regarded as such4 ,paul1 who otherwise shows no interest in the earthly phase of the existence of the ,lord1 certainly implies ,his descent from ,david4 ,the blind man at ,jericho1 too1 cries out to the ,nazarene prophet as 8,son of ,david0 7,mark x4 #dg74 ,but in doing so he does not mean to address ,jesus as ,messiah1 for afterwards1 when he is brought to ,him he simply calls ,him 8,rabbi0 7,mark x4 #ea74 ,and the people thought nothing further about what he had said4 ,when the expectant people bid him keep silence they do not do so because the expression ,son of ,david offends them1 but because his clamour annoys them4 ,jesus1 however1 was struck by this cry1 stood still and caused him1 as he was standing timidly behind the eager multitude1 to be brought to ,him4 ,it is possible1 of course1 that this address is a mere mistake in the tradition1 the same tradition which unsuspectingly brought in the expression ,son of ,man at the wrong place4 ,so much1 however1 is certain3 the people were not made aware of the ,messiahship of ,jesus by the cry of the blind man any more than by the outcries of the demoniacs4 ,the entry into ,jerusalem was not a ,messianic ovation4 ,all that history is concerned with is that this fact should be admitted on all hands4 ,except ,jesus and the disciples1 therefore1 no one knew the secret of ,his ,messiahship even in those days at ,jerusalem4 ,but the ,high ,priest suddenly showed himself in possession of it4 ,how8 ,through the betrayal of ,judas4 ,for a hundred and fifty years the question has been historically discussed why ,judas betrayed his ,master4 ,that the main question for history was what he betrayed was suspected by few and they touched on it only in a timid kind of way--indeed the problems of the trial of ,jesus may be said to have been nonexistent for criticism4 ,the traitorous act of ,judas cannot have consisted in informing the ,sanhedrin where ,jesus was to be found at a suitable place for an arrest4 ,they could have had that information more cheaply by causing ,jesus to be watched by spies4 ,but ,mark expressly says that ,judas when he betrayed ,jesus did not yet know of a favourable opportunity for the arrest1 but was seeking such an opportunity4 ,mark xiv4 #aj1 #aa1 8,and ,judas ,iscariot1 one of the twelve1 went unto the chief priests1 to betray him unto them4 ,and when they heard it1 they were glad1 and promised to give him money4 ,and he sought how he might conveniently betray him40 ,in the betrayal1 therefore1 there were two points1 a more general and a more special3 the general fact by which he gave ,jesus into their power1 and the undertaking to let them know of the next opportunity when they could arrest ,him quietly1 without publicity4 ,the betrayal by which he brought his ,master to death1 in consequence of which the rulers decided upon the arrest1 knowing that their cause was safe in any case1 was the betrayal of the ,messianic secret4 ,jesus died because two of ,his disciples had broken ,his command of silence3 ,peter when he made known the secret of the ,messiahship to the ,twelve at ,caesarea ,philippi2 ,judas ,iscariot by communicating it to the ,high ,priest4 ,but the difficulty was that ,judas was the sole witness4 ,therefore the betrayal was useless so far as the actual trial was concerned unless ,jesus admitted the charge4 ,so they first tried to secure ,his condemnation on other grounds1 and only when these attempts broke down did the ,high ,priest put1 in the form of a question1 the charge in support of which he could have brought no witnesses4 ,but ,jesus immediately admitted it1 and strengthened the admission by an allusion to ,his ,parousia in the near future as ,son of ,man4 ,the betrayal and the trial can only be rightly understood when it is realised that the public knew nothing whatever of the secret of the ,messiahship47#cjd7 ,it is the same in regard to the scene in the presence of ,pilate4 ,the people on that morning knew nothing of the trial of ,jesus1 but came to ,pilate with the sole object of asking the release of a prisoner1 as was the custom at the feast 7,mark xv4 #fh74 ,the idea then occurs to ,pilate1 who was just about to hand over1 willingly enough1 this troublesome fellow and prophet to the priestly faction1 to play off the people against the priests and work on the multitude to petition for the release of ,jesus4 ,in this way he would have secured himself on both sides4 ,he would have condemned ,jesus to please the priests1 and after condemning ,him would have released ,him to please the people4 ,the priests are greatly embarrassed by the presence of the multitude4 ,they had done everything so quickly and quietly that they might well have hoped to get ,jesus crucified before any one knew what was happening or had had time to wonder at ,his non appearance in the ,temple4 ,the priests therefore go among the people and induce them not to agree to the ,procurator's proposal4 ,how8 ,by telling them why ,he was condemned1 by revealing to them the ,messianic secret4 ,that makes ,him at once from a prophet worthy of honour into a deluded enthusiast and blasphemer4 ,that was the explanation of the 8fickleness0 of the ,jerusalem mob which is always so eloquently described1 without any evidence for it except this single inexplicable case4 ,at midday of the same day--it was the #adth ,nisan1 and in the evening the ,paschal lamb would be eaten--,jesus cried aloud and expired4 ,he had chosen to remain fully conscious to the last4 ,,xx4 ,,results ,those who are fond of talking about negative theology can find their account here4 ,there is nothing more negative than the result of the critical study of the ,life of ,jesus4 ,the ,jesus of ,nazareth who came forward publicly as the ,messiah1 who preached the ethic of the ,kingdom of ,god1 who founded the ,kingdom of ,heaven upon earth1 and died to give ,his work its final consecration1 never had any existence4 ,he is a figure designed by rationalism1 endowed with life by liberalism1 and clothed by modern theology in an historical garb4 ,this image has not been destroyed from without1 it has fallen to pieces1 cleft and disintegrated by the concrete historical problems which came to the surface one after another1 and in spite of all the artifice1 art1 artificiality1 and violence which was applied to them1 refused to be planed down to fit the design on which the ,jesus of the theology of the last hundred and thirty years had been constructed1 and were no sooner covered over than they appeared again in a new form4 ,the thoroughgoing sceptical and the thoroughgoing eschatological school have only completed the work of destruction by linking the problems into a system and so making an end of the ,divide et impera of modern theology1 which undertook to solve each of them separately1 that is1 in a less difficult form4 ,henceforth it is no longer permissible to take one problem out of the series and dispose of it by itself1 since the weight of the whole hangs upon each4 ,whatever the ultimate solution may be1 the historical ,jesus of whom the criticism of the future1 taking as its startingpoint the problems which have been recognised and admitted1 will draw the portrait1 can never render modern theology the services which it claimed from its own half historical1 halfmodern1 ,jesus4 ,he will be a ,jesus1 who was ,messiah1 and lived as such1 either on the ground of a literary fiction of the earliest ,evangelist1 or on the ground of a purely eschatological ,messianic conception4 ,in either case1 ,he will not be a ,jesus ,christ to whom the religion of the present can ascribe1 according to its longcherished custom1 its own thoughts and ideas1 as it did with the ,jesus of its own making4 ,nor will ,he be a figure which can be made by a popular historical treatment so sympathetic and universally intelligible to the multitude4 ,the historical ,jesus will be to our time a stranger and an enigma4 ,the study of the ,life of ,jesus has had a curious history4 ,it set out in quest of the historical ,jesus1 believing that when it had found ,him it could bring ,him straight into our time as a ,teacher and ,saviour4 ,it loosed the bands by which ,he had been riveted for centuries to the stony rocks of ecclesiastical doctrine1 and rejoiced to see life and movement coming into the figure once more1 and the historical ,jesus advancing1 as it seemed1 to meet it4 ,but ,he does not stay2 ,he passes by our time and returns to ,his own4 ,what surprised and dismayed the theology of the last forty years was that1 despite all forced and arbitrary interpretations1 it could not keep ,him in our time1 but had to let ,him go4 ,he returned to ,his own time1 not owing to the application of any historical ingenuity1 but by the same inevitable necessity by which the liberated pendulum returns to its original position4 ,the historical foundation of ,christianity as built up by rationalistic1 by liberal1 and by modern theology no longer exists2 but that does not mean that ,christianity has lost its historical foundation4 ,the work which historical theology thought itself bound to carry out1 and which fell to pieces just as it was nearing completion1 was only the brick facing of the real immovable historical foundation which is independent of any historical confirmation or justification4 ,jesus means something to our world because a mighty spiritual force streams forth from ,him and flows through our time also4 ,this fact can neither be shaken nor confirmed by any historical discovery4 ,it is the solid foundation of ,christianity4 ,the mistake was to suppose that ,jesus could come to mean more to our time by entering into it as a man like ourselves4 ,that is not possible4 ,first because such a ,jesus never existed4 ,secondly because1 although historical knowledge can no doubt introduce greater clearness into an existing spiritual life1 it cannot call spiritual life into existence4 ,history can destroy the present2 it can reconcile the present with the past2 can even to a certain extent transport the present into the past2 but to contribute to the making of the present is not given unto it4 ,but it is impossible to overestimate the value of what ,german research upon the ,life of ,jesus has accomplished4 ,it is a uniquely great expression of sincerity1 one of the most significant events in the whole mental and spiritual life of humanity4 ,what has been done for the religious life of the present and the immediate future by scholars such as ,p4 ,w4 ,schmidt1 ,bousset1 ,jlicher1 ,weinel1 ,wernle--and their pupil ,frenssen--and the others who have been called to the task of bringing to the knowledge of wider circles1 in a form which is popular without being superficial1 the results of religioushistorical study1 only becomes evident when one examines the literature and social culture of the ,latin nations1 who have been scarcely if at all touched by the influence of these thinkers4 ,and yet the time of doubt was bound to come4 ,we modern theologians are too proud of our historical method1 too proud of our historical ,jesus1 too confident in our belief in the spiritual gains which our historical theology can bring to the world4 ,the thought that we could build up by the increase of historical knowledge a new and vigorous ,christianity and set free new spiritual forces1 rules us like a fixed idea1 and prevents us from seeing that the task which we have grappled with and in some measure discharged is only one of the intellectual preliminaries of the great religious task4 ,we thought that it was for us to lead our time by a roundabout way through the historical ,jesus1 as we understood ,him1 in order to bring it to the ,jesus who is a spiritual power in the present4 ,this roundabout way has now been closed by genuine history4 ,there was a danger of our thrusting ourselves between men and the ,gospels1 and refusing to leave the individual man alone with the sayings of ,jesus4 ,there was a danger that we should offer them a ,jesus who was too small1 because we had forced ,him into conformity with our human standards and human psychology4 ,to see that1 one need only read the ,lives of ,jesus written since the 'sixties1 and notice what they have made of the great imperious sayings of the ,lord1 how they have weakened down ,his imperative worldcontemning demands upon individuals1 that ,he might not come into conflict with our ethical ideals1 and might tune ,his denial of the world to our acceptance of it4 ,many of the greatest sayings are found lying in a corner like explosive shells from which the charges have been removed4 ,no small portion of elemental religious power needed to be drawn off from ,his sayings to prevent them from conflicting with our system of religious worldacceptance4 ,we have made ,jesus hold another language with our time from that which ,he really held4 ,in the process we ourselves have been enfeebled1 and have robbed our own thoughts of their vigour in order to project them back into history and make them speak to us out of the past4 ,it is nothing less than a misfortune for modern theology that it mixes history with everything and ends by being proud of the skill with which it finds its own thoughts--even to its beggarly pseudometaphysic with which it has banished genuine speculative metaphysic from the sphere of religion--in ,jesus1 and represents ,him as expressing them4 ,it had almost deserved the reproach3 8he who putteth his hand to the plough1 and looketh back1 is not fit for the ,kingdom of ,god40 ,it was no small matter1 therefore1 that in the course of the critical study of the ,life of ,jesus1 after a resistance lasting for two generations1 during which first one expedient was tried and then another1 theology was forced by genuine history to begin to doubt the artificial history with which it had thought to give new life to our ,christianity1 and to yield to the facts1 which1 as ,wrede strikingly said1 are sometimes the most radical critics of all4 ,history will force it to find a way to transcend history1 and to fight for the lordship and rule of ,jesus over this world with weapons tempered in a different forge4 ,we are experiencing what ,paul experienced4 ,in the very moment when we were coming nearer to the historical ,jesus than men had ever come before1 and were already stretching out our hands to draw ,him into our own time1 we have been obliged to give up the attempt and acknowledge our failure in that paradoxical saying3 8,if we have known ,christ after the flesh yet henceforth know we ,him no more40 ,and further we must be prepared to find that the historical knowledge of the personality and life of ,jesus will not be a help1 but perhaps even an offence to religion4 ,but the truth is1 it is not ,jesus as historically known1 but ,jesus as spiritually arisen within men1 who is significant for our time and can help it4 ,not the historical ,jesus1 but the spirit which goes forth from ,him and in the spirits of men strives for new influence and rule1 is that which overcomes the world4 ,it is not given to history to disengage that which is abiding and eternal in the being of ,jesus from the historical forms in which it worked itself out1 and to introduce it into our world as a living influence4 ,it has toiled in vain at this undertaking4 ,as a waterplant is beautiful so long as it is growing in the water1 but once torn from its roots1 withers and becomes unrecognisable1 so it is with the historical ,jesus when ,he is wrenched loose from the soil of eschatology1 and the attempt is made to conceive ,him 8historically0 as a ,being not subject to temporal conditions4 ,the abiding and eternal in ,jesus is absolutely independent of historical knowledge and can only be understood by contact with ,his spirit which is still at work in the world4 ,in proportion as we have the ,spirit of ,jesus we have the true knowledge of ,jesus4 ,jesus as a concrete historical personality remains a stranger to our time1 but ,his spirit1 which lies hidden in ,his words1 is known in simplicity1 and its influence is direct4 ,every saying contains in its own way the whole ,jesus4 ,the very strangeness and unconditionedness in which ,he stands before us makes it easier for individuals to find their own personal standpoint in regard to ,him4 ,men feared that to admit the claims of eschatology would abolish the significance of ,his words for our time2 and hence there was a feverish eagerness to discover in them any elements that might be considered not eschatologically conditioned4 ,when any sayings were found of which the wording did not absolutely imply an eschatological connexion there was great jubilation--these at least had been saved uninjured from the coming dbcle4 ,but in reality that which is eternal in the words of ,jesus is due to the very fact that they are based on an eschatological worldview1 and contain the expression of a mind for which the contemporary world with its historical and social circumstances no longer had any existence4 ,they are appropriate1 therefore1 to any world1 for in every world they raise the man who dares to meet their challenge1 and does not turn and twist them into meaninglessness1 above his world and his time1 making him inwardly free1 so that he is fitted to be1 in his own world and in his own time1 a simple channel of the power of ,jesus4 ,modern ,lives of ,jesus are too general in their scope4 ,they aim at influencing1 by giving a complete impression of the life of ,jesus1 a whole community4 ,but the historical ,jesus1 as ,he is depicted in the ,gospels1 influenced individuals by the individual word4 ,they understood ,him so far as it was necessary for them to understand1 without forming any conception of ,his life as a whole1 since this in its ultimate aims remained a mystery even for the disciples4 ,because it is thus preoccupied with the general1 the universal1 modern theology is determined to find its worldaccepting ethic in the teaching of ,jesus4 ,therein lies its weakness4 ,the world affirms itself automatically2 the modern spirit cannot but affirm it4 ,but why on that account abolish the conflict between modern life1 with the worldaffirming spirit which inspires it as a whole1 and the worldnegating spirit of ,jesus8 ,why spare the spirit of the individual man its appointed task of fighting its way through the worldnegation of ,jesus1 of contending with ,him at every step over the value of material and intellectual goods--a conflict in which it may never rest8 ,for the general1 for the institutions of society1 the rule is3 affirmation of the world1 in conscious opposition to the view of ,jesus1 on the ground that the world has affirmed itself6 ,this general affirmation of the world1 however1 if it is to be ,christian1 must in the individual spirit be ,christianised and transfigured by the personal rejection of the world which is preached in the sayings of ,jesus4 ,it is only by means of the tension thus set up that religious energy can be communicated to our time4 ,there was a danger that modern theology1 for the sake of peace1 would deny the worldnegation in the sayings of ,jesus1 with which ,protestantism was out of sympathy1 and thus unstring the bow and make ,protestantism a mere sociological instead of a religious force4 ,there was perhaps also a danger of inward insincerity1 in the fact that it refused to admit to itself and others that it maintained its affirmation of the world in opposition to the sayings of ,jesus1 simply because it could not do otherwise4 ,for that reason it is a good thing that the true historical ,jesus should overthrow the modern ,jesus1 should rise up against the modern spirit and send upon earth1 not peace1 but a sword4 ,he was not teacher1 not a casuist2 ,he was an imperious ruler4 ,it was because ,he was so in ,his inmost being that ,he could think of ,himself as the ,son of ,man4 ,that was only the temporally conditioned expression of the fact that ,he was an authoritative ruler4 ,the names in which men expressed their recognition of ,him as such1 ,messiah1 ,son of ,man1 ,son of ,god1 have become for us historical parables4 ,we can find no designation which expresses what ,he is for us4 ,he comes to us as ,one unknown1 without a name1 as of old1 by the lake side1 ,he came to those men who knew ,him not4 ,he speaks to us the same word3 8,follow thou me60 and sets us to the tasks which ,he has to fulfil for our time4 ,he commands4 ,and to those who obey ,him1 whether they be wise or simple1 ,he will reveal ,himself in the toils1 the conflicts1 the sufferings which they shall pass through in ,his fellowship1 and1 as an ineffable mystery1 they shall learn in their own experience ,who ,he is4 ,,index ,,of ,,authors ,,and ,,works 7,including ,reference ,to ,english ,translations7 ,ammon1 ,christoph ,friedrich von4 ,fortbildung des ,christentums 7,leipzig1 #ahdj72 ,die ,geschichte des ,lebens ,jesu mit steter ,rcksicht auf die vorhandenen ,quellen 7#ahdbahdg71 #aa1 #ig1 #ajd f41 #aag f4 ,anonymous ,works-- ,das ,leben ,napoleons kritisch geprft4 ,aus dem ,englischen 7see under ,whateley7 nebst einigen ,nutzanwendungen auf das ,leben,jesu von ,strauss 7#ahcf71 #aab ,did ,jesus live #ajj ,b4,c48 7,london and ,benares1 ,theosophical ,publishing ,society1 #aijc71 #cbg ,dr4 ,strauss und die ,zricher ,kirche 7,basle1 #ahci71 #ajc ,wichtige ,enthllungen ber die wirkliche ,todesart ,jesu 7#eth ed41 ,leipzig1 #ahdi72 ,historische ,enthllungen ber die wirklichen ,ereignisse der ,geburt und ,jugend ,jesu 7#bnd ed41 ,leipzig1 #ahdi71 #afa f4 ,zwei ,gesprche ber die ,ansicht des ,herrn ,dr4 ,strauss von der evangelischen ,geschichte 7,jena1 #ahci71 #ajj ,baader1 ,franz4 ber das ,leben,jesu von ,strauss 7,munich1 #ahcf71 #ajj ,bahrdt1 ,karl ,friedrich4 ,briefe ber die ,bibel im ,volkston 7#aghb72 ,ausfhrung des ,plans und ,zwecks ,jesu 7#aghdagib72 ,die smtlichen ,reden ,jesu aus den ,evangelien ausgezogen 7#aghf71 #d1 #e1 #ch1 #ci f41 #df1 #ec1 #ei1 #bii1 #cac ,baldensperger1 ,wilhelm4 ,das ,selbstbewusstsein ,jesu im ,lichte der messianischen ,hoffnungen seiner ,zeit 7,strassburg1 #ahhh1 #bnd ed4 #ahib1 #crd ed4 pt4 i4 #aijc71 #ab1 #bccbcg1 #bej1 #bff1 #bgh f41 #cfe1 #cff ,barth1 ,fritz4 ,die ,hauptprobleme des ,lebens ,jesu 7#ast ed4 #ahii1 #bnd ed4 #aijc71 #cja ,bauer1 ,bruno4 ,kritik der evangelischen ,geschichte des ,johannes 7,bremen1 #ahdj72 ,kritik der evangelischen ,geschichte der ,synoptiker 7,leipzig1 #ahdaahdb72 ,kritik der ,evangelien und ,geschichte ihres ,ursprungs 7,berlin1 #ahejahea72 ,kritik der ,apostelgeschichte 7#ahej72 ,kritik der ,paulinischen ,briefe 7,berlin1 #ahejaheb72 ,philo1 ,strauss1 ,renan und das ,urchristentum 7,berlin1 #ahgd72 ,christus und die ,csaren 7,berlin1 #ahgg72 ,die gute ,sache der ,freiheit und meine eigene ,angelegenheit 7,zurich1 #ahdc71 #e1 #i1 #aj1 #ab1 #acgafj1 #ahf f41 #bba1 #bca1 #befbeh1 #cje f41 #cab1 #cae1 #cbh1 #ccb1 #cce f41 #cch1 #cdb1 #cdf1 #ceh1 #cfh1 #chh ,baumer1 ,friedrich4 ,schwarz1 ,strauss1 ,renan 7,leipzig1 #ahfd71 #aia ,baur1 ,ferdinand ,christian4 ,kritische ,untersuchungen ber die kanonischen ,evangelien 7,tbingen1 #ahdg71 #be1 #eh1 #fh1 #hg1 #hi1 #abd1 #ahb1 #aie1 #bja1 #bbi ,bergh van ,eysinga1 ,van den4 ,indische ,einflsse auf evangelische ,erzhlungen 7,gttingen1 #aijd71 #bij ,bernhard ter ,haar 7,utrecht74 ,zehn ,vorlesungen ber ,renans 8,leben,jesu0 7,german by ,h4 ,doermer1 ,gotha1 #ahfd71 #aia ,beyschlag1 ,willibald4 ber das ,leben,jesu von ,renan 7,berlin1 #ahfd72 ,das ,leben,jesu 7pt4 i4 #ahhe1 pt4 ii4 #ahhf1 #bnd ed4 #ahhgahhh71 #f1 #aj1 #aij1 #bae f41 #bah ,binder1 #fh1 #fi ,bleby1 ,h4 ,w4 ,the ,trial of ,jesus of ,nazareth considered as a ,judicial ,act 7#ahhj71 #cia ,bleek1 #bbi1 #bca ,bklen1 ,e4 ,die ,verwandtschaft der jdischchristlichen und der parsischen ,eschatologie 7#aijb71 #bhg ,bolten1 ,johann ,adrian4 ,der ,bericht des ,matthus von ,jesu dem ,messias 7,altona1 #agib71 #bga1 #bgf ,bosc1 ,ernest4 ,la ,vie sotrique de ,jsus de ,nazareth et les origines orientales du christianisme 7,paris1 #aijb71 #bid1 #cbg ,bousset1 ,wilhelm4 ,jesu ,predigt in ihrem ,gegensatz zum ,judentum4 ,ein religionsgeschichtlicher ,vergleich 7,gttingen1 #ahib72 ,die jdische ,apokalyptik in ihrer religionsgeschichtlichen ,herkunft und ihrer ,bedeutung fr das ,neue ,testament 7,berlin1 #aijc72 ,die ,religion des ,judentums im neutestamentlichen ,zeitalter 7#aijb72 ,was wissen wir von ,jesus8 ,vortrge im ,protestantenverein zu ,bremen 7,halle1 #aijd72 ,jesus 7,religionsgeschichtliche ,volksbcher1 herausgegeben von ,schiele1 ,halle1 #aijd7 7,english translation1 ,jesus1 by ,j4 ,p4 ,trevelyan1 ,london1 #aijf71 #bdabdi1 #bee f41 #bfb1 #bfd1 #bfg1 #bhj1 #cjj1 #cei1 #cih ,brandt1 ,wilhelm4 ,die evangelische ,geschichte und der ,ursprung des ,christentums auf ,grund einer ,kritik der ,berichte ber das ,leiden und die ,auferstehung ,jesu 7,leipzig1 #ahic71 #bda1 #befbfa1 #bfg1 #cja1 #cji1 #cab1 #cac1 #cia ,bretschneider1 ,karl ,gottlob1 #he1 #aah ,brunner1 ,sebastian4 ,der ,atheist ,renan und sein ,evangelium 7,regensburg1 #ahfd71 #aij ,bugge1 ,chr4 ,a4 ,die ,hauptparabeln ,jesu4 7,from the ,norwegian7 7,giessen1 #aijc71 #bfc ,bunsen1 ,christian ,karl ,josias1 ,ritter von4 ,das ,leben ,jesu1 vol4 ix4 of ,bunsen's 8,bibelwerk0 7published by ,holtzmann1 #ahfe71 #bjj ,cairns1 ,john4 ,falsche ,christi und der wahre ,christus1 oder ,verteidigung der evangelischen ,geschichte gegen ,strauss und ,renan4 ,aus dem ,englischen bersetzt 7,hamburg1 #ahfd7 7,false ,christ and the ,true1 ,a sermon delivered before the ,national ,bible ,society of ,scotland1 ,edinburgh1 #ahfd71 #aia ,capitaine1 ,w4 ,jesus von ,nazareth 7,regensburg1 #aije71 #bid ,cassel1 ,paulus4 ,bericht ber ,renans ,leben,jesu 7,berlin1 #ahfd71 #aia 8,casuar40 ,das ,leben ,luthers kritisch bearbeitet4 ,herausgegeben von ,jul4 ,ferd4 ,wurm 78,mexiko1 #bhcf071 #aab ,chamberlain1 ,h4 ,s4 ,worte ,christi 7#aija71 #caj ,charles1 ,r4 ,h4 8,the ,son of ,man0 7,expos4 ,times1 #ahic71 #bfg ,colani1 ,timothe4 ,examen de la vie de ,jsus de ,m4 ,renan 7,strassburg1 #ahfd72 ,jsus,christ et les croyances messianiques de son temps 7,strassburg1 #ahfd71 #ahb1 #ahi1 #bji1 #bba f41 #bbf1 #bbi1 #bcc1 #bdh1 #cgb ,cone1 ,orello4 8,jesus' ,selfdesignation in the ,synoptic ,gospels0 7,the ,new ,world1 #ahic71 #bff ,coquerel1 ,athanase 7jun471 #ahi1 #bji ,credner1 #hi ,dalman1 ,gustaf4 ,grammatik des jdischpalstinensischen ,aramisch 7,leipzig1 #ahid72 ,die ,worte ,jesu4 ,mit ,bercksichtigung des nachkanonischen ,schrifttums und der aramischen ,sprache1 ,i4 7,leipzig1 #ahih7 7authorised ,english translation by ,d4 ,m4 ,kay1 ,the ,words of ,jesus1 ,edinburgh1 #aijb71 #bfi1 #bga1 #bgcbge1 #bgh1 #bgibha1 #bhfbhi1 #cfc1 #cia f4 ,darboy1 ,georges4 ,lettre pastorale de ,monseigneur l',archevque de ,paris sur la divinit de ,jsus,christ1 et mandement pour le carme de #ahfd1 #ahh ,delff1 ,hugo4 ,geschichte des ,rabbi ,jesus von ,nazareth 7,leipzig1 #ahhi71 #aa1 #cbc ,delitzsch1 ,franz1 #bgc1 #bhe ,deutlinger1 ,martin4 ,renan und das ,wunder4 ,ein ,beitrag zur christlichen ,apologetik 7,munich1 #ahfd71 #aij ,didon1 ,le ,pre1 de l'ordre des frres prcheurs4 ,jsus ,christ 7,paris1 #ahia1 #b vols41 ,german1 #ahie7 7,english translation1 ,jesus ,christ1 #b vols41 #ahia71 #bie ,dieu1 ,louis de1 #ad ,dillmann1 #bbc ,diodati1 ,dominicus1 #bga ,dderlein4 ,fragmente und ,antifragmente 7,nuremberg1 #aggh71 #be ,dulk1 ,albert4 ,der ,irrgang des ,lebens ,jesu4 ,in geschichtlicher ,auffassung dargestellt 7pt4 i4 #ahhd1 pt4 ii4 #ahhe71 #bid1 #cbd ,dupanloup1 ,flix ,antoine ,philibert1 vque d',orlans4 ,avertissement la jeunesse et aux pres de famille sur les attaques diriges contre la religion par quelques crivains de nos jours 7,paris1 #ahfd71 #ahh ,ebrard1 ,august4 ,wissenschaftliche ,kritik der evangelischen ,geschichte 7,frankfort1 #ahdb71 #ig1 #aaf f4 ,edersheim1 ,alfred4 ,the ,life and ,times of ,jesus the ,messiah 7,london1 #ast ed4 #ahhc1 #crd ed4 #ahhf1 #b vols471 #bcc ,eerdmanns1 ,b4 ,e4 8,de ,oorsprong van de uitdrukking ',zoon des ,menschen' als evangelische ,messiastitel0 7,theol4 ,tijdschr41 #ahid71 #bgf ,ehrhardt4 ,der ,grundcharakter der ,ethik ,jesu in ,verhltnis zu den messianischen ,hoffnungen seines ,volkes und zu seinem eigenen ,messiasbewusstsein 7,freiburg1 #ahie72 ,le ,principe de la morale de ,jsus 7,paris1 #ahif71 #bdi ,eichhorn1 ,johann ,gottfried1 #gh1 #hi ,emmerich1 ,anna ,katharina4 ,das bittere ,leiden unseres ,herrn ,jesu ,christi4 ,herausgegeben von ,brentano 7#ahehahfj1 new ed4 #ahie7 7,english translation1 ,the ,dolorous ,passion of ,our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 ,london1 #ahfb72 ,das ,leben ,jesu1 #c vols4 7#ahehahfj71 #aji f41 #bie ,ewald1 ,georg ,heinrich ,august4 8,geschichte ,christus' und seiner ,zeit10 vol4 v4 of the 8,geschichte des ,volkes ,israel0 7,gttingen1 #ahee1 #bnd ed4 #aheg71 ,english translation of the ,life of ,jesus ,christ1 by ,octavius ,glover 7,london1 #ahfe72 ,die drei ersten ,evangelien 7#ahej71 #ig1 #aag1 #abd1 #ace ,fiebig1 ,paul4 ,der ,menschensohn 7,tbingen1 #aija72 ,altjdische ,gleichnisse und die ,gleichnisse ,jesu 7,tbingen1 #aijd71 #bgh1 #bhf ,frantzen1 ,wilhelm4 ,die 8,leben,jesu0 ,bewegung seit ,strauss 7,dorpat1 #ahih71 #ab ,frenssen1 ,gustav4 ,hilligenlei 7,berlin1 #aije71 pp4 #dfbeic3 8,die ,handschrift0 7,english translation1 ,holy ,land1 by ,m4 ,a4 ,hamilton1 ,london1 #aijf71 #bic1 #cjgcji1 #cih ,freppel1 ,charles ,emile4 ,examen critique de la vie de ,jesus de ,m4 ,renan 7,paris1 #ahfd7 7,german by ,kollmus1 ,vienna1 #ahfd71 #ahh1 #aij ,frick1 ,otto4 ,mythus und ,evangelium 7,heilbronn1 #ahgi71 #aab ,furrer1 ,konrad4 ,vortrge ber das ,leben ,jesu ,christi 7#aijb71 #cja ,gabler1 #gh ,gardner1 ,p4 ,exploratio ,evangelica4 ,a ,brief ,examination of the ,basis and ,origin of ,christian ,belief 7#ahii1 #bnd ed4 #aijg71 #bag ,gerlach1 ,hermann4 ,gegen ,renans ,leben,jesu #ahfd 7,berlin71 #aia ,gfrrer1 ,august ,friedrich4 ,kritische ,geschichte des ,urchristentums 7vol4 i4 #ast ed4 #ahca1 #bnd ed4 #ahce1 vol4 ii4 #ahch71 #afa1 #afcaff1 #aie ,ghillany1 ,friedrich ,wilhelm 78,richard von der ,alm074 ,theologische ,briefe an die ,gebildeten der deutschen ,nation 7#c vols4 #ahfc72 ,die ,urteile heidnischer und christlicher ,schriftsteller der vier ersten christlichen ,jahrhunderte ber ,jesus 7#ahfd71 #afa1 #affagb1 #bdj1 #cfc ,godet1 ,f4 ,das ,leben ,jesu vor seinem ffentlichen ,auftreten 7,german by ,m4 ,reineck1 ,hanover1 #ahig71 #bag ,gratz1 #hi ,greiling4 ,das ,leben ,jesu von ,nazareth 7#ahac71 #ej ,gressman1 ,hugo1 #bcd ,griesbach1 ,johann ,jakob1 #ac1 #hi ,grimm1 ,eduard4 ,die ,ethik ,jesu 7,hamburg1 #aijc71 #cbj ,grimm1 ,joseph4 ,das ,leben ,jesu 7,wrzburg1 #f vols41 #bnd ed4 #ahijaijc71 #bid ,grotius1 ,hugo1 #bgj ,gunkel1 ,hermann1 #bgg ,hagel1 ,maurus4 ,dr4 ,strauss' ,leben,jesu aus dens ,standpunkt des ,katholicismus betrachtet 7#ahci71 #ajh ,hahn1 ,werner4 ,leben,jesu 7,berlin1 #ahdd71 #aah ,haneberg1 ,daniel ,bonifacius4 ,ernest ,renans ,leben,jesu 7,regensburg1 #ahfd71 #aij ,hanson1 ,sir ,richard4 ,the ,jesus of ,history 7#ahfi71 #bjb ,harless1 ,adolf4 ,die kritische ,bearbeitung des ,lebens ,jesu von ,david ,friedrich ,strauss nach ihrem wissenschaftlichen ,werte beleuchtet 7,erlangen1 #ahcf71 #ih f4 ,harnack1 ,adolf1 #bdb1 #beb1 #cad ,hartmann1 ,eduard von4 ,das ,christentum des ,neuen ,testaments1 #bnd ed4 of the 8,briefe ber die christliche ,religion0 7,sachsainthe,harz1 #aije71 #bib1 #cahcbj ,hartmann1 ,julius4 ,leben ,jesu 7#b vols41 #ahcgahci71 #aja ,hase1 ,karl ,august von4 ,das ,leben ,jesu 7#ast ed4 #ahbi72 ,geschichte ,jesu 7,leipzig1 #ahgf71 #d1 #e1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #bh1 #eh f41 #fe1 #gb1 #ha1 #hh1 #ii1 #ajf1 #aaf1 #abj1 #afb1 #aic1 #bad f41 #bah1 #bbj1 #bbi ,haupt1 ,erich4 ,die eschatologischen ,aussagen ,jesu in den synoptischen ,evangelien 7#ahie71 #bda1 #bej f4 ,hausrath1 ,adolf4 ,neutestamentliche ,zeitgeschichte 7#ast ed41 ,munich1 #ahfh ff41 #crd ed41 vol4 i4 #ahgi7 7,english translation1 ,a ,history of the ,new ,testament ,times1 ,the ,time of ,jesus1 by ,c4 ,t4 ,poynting and ,p4 ,quenzer1 ,london1 #ahgh71 #bad ,havet1 ,ernest4 ,jsus dans l'histoire4 ,examen de la vie de ,jsus par ,m4 ,renan4 ,extrait de la ,revue des deux mondes 7,paris1 #ahfc72 ,le ,christianisme et ses origines1 #cme ptie1 ,le ,nouveau ,testament 7#ahhd71 #ahi1 #bij1 #cbh1 #cia ,hegel1 ,georg ,friedrich ,wilhelm1 #di1 #fh f41 #gi f41 #ajg1 #aaa1 #aad f41 #abb1 #acg1 #afc1 #afe1 #aid ,hengstenberg1 ,ernst ,wilhelm1 #ajf f41 #aaa1 #aae1 #adc ,hennell1 ,charles ,christian4 ,an ,inquiry concerning the ,origin of ,christianity 7,london1 #ahch7 7,untersuchungen ber den ,ursprung des ,christentums4 ,vorrede von ,david ,friedrich ,strauss1 #ahdj71 #afa ,herder1 ,johann ,gottfried4 ,vom ,erlser der ,menschen4 ,nach unsern drei ersten ,evangelien 7#agif72 ,von ,gottes ,sohn1 der ,welt ,heiland4 ,nach ,johannes ,evangelium 7#agig71 #bg1 #bi1 #cd1 #hi1 #bjc ,hess1 ,johann ,jakob4 ,geschichte der drei letzten ,lebensjahre ,jesu 7#agfh ff471 #d1 #ad1 #bgca ,hilgenfeld1 ,adolf1 #abd1 #bbb1 #bff ,hoekstra4 8,de ,christologie van het canonieke ,marcus,evangelie1 vergeleken met die van de beide andere synoptische ,evangelien0 7,theol4 ,tijdschrift1 v41 #ahga71 #cbh ,hoffmann1 ,wilhelm4 ,das ,leben,jesu kritisch bearbeitet von ,dr4 ,david ,fried4 ,strauss4 ,geprft fr ,theologen und ,nicht,theologen 7#ahcf71 #ii ,holtzmann1 ,heinrich ,julius1 #aj1 #fa1 #abe1 #aie1 #bjj1 #bjbbje1 #bji1 #bah1 #bbj1 #bbi1 #bca1 #bce1 #bcg1 #bgg1 #bid ,holtzmann1 ,oskar4 ,das ,leben ,jesu1 7#aija7 7,english translation1 ,the ,life of ,jesus1 by ,j4 ,t4 ,bealby and ,maurice ,a4 ,canney1 ,london1 #aijd72 ,das ,messianittsbewusstsein ,jesu und seine neueste ,bestreitung4 ,vortrag 7#aijb72 ,war ,jesus ,ekstatiker8 7,tbingen1 #aijc71 #bjh1 #bic1 #biecjj1 #cjf f41 #cjh1 #cab1 #cei ,hug1 ,leonhard4 ,gutachten ber das ,leben,jesu1 kritisch bearbeitet von ,d4 ,fr4 ,strauss 7,freiburg1 #ahdj71 #ig1 #ajh1 #aji1 #bga ,ingraham1 ,j4 ,h4 ,the ,prince of the ,house of ,david 7,london1 #ahei7 7,der ,frst aus ,davids ,hause1 new ed41 #ahif1 ,brunswick71 #cbf ,inchofer1 #bgj ,issel1 #bcg ,jacobi1 ,johann ,adolf4 ,die ,geschichte ,jesu fr denkende und gemtvolle ,leser 7#ahaf71 #bg1 #cd ,jonge1 ,de4 ,jeschua4 ,der klassische jdische ,mann4 ,zerstrung des kirchlichen1 ,enthllung des jdischen ,jesus,bildes 7,berlin1 #aijd71 #bic1 #cba f4 ,jlicher1 ,adolf4 ,die ,gleichnisreden ,jesu 7pt4 i4 #ahhh1 pt4 ii4 #ahii72 ,die ,kultur der ,gegenwart 7,teubner1 ,berlin1 #aije71 pp4 #djfi2 8,jesus10 #bda1 #bfbbfd1 #bhf1 #bij1 #cbj1 #cih ,kalthoff1 ,albert4 ,das ,christus,problem4 ,grundlinien zu einer ,sozialtheologie 7,leipzig1 #aijb72 ,die ,entstehung des ,christentums4 ,neue ,beitrge zum ,christus,problem 7,leipzig1 #aijd7 7,english translation1 ,the ,rise of ,christianity1 by ,joseph ,m',cabe1 ,london1 #aijg72 ,das ,leben ,jesu4 ,reden gehalten im prot4 ,reformverein zu ,berlin 7#ahhj72 ,was wissen wir von ,jesus8 ,eine ,abrechnung mit ,professor ,bousset in ,gttingen 7,berlin1 #aijd71 #bic1 #cadcah ,kant1 ,emmanuel1 #ej1 #aje1 #cbb ,kapp1 ,w4 ,das ,christusund ,christentum,problem bei ,kalthoff 7,strassburg1 #aije71 #cah ,kautzsch1 ,emil ,friedrich1 #bga ,keim1 ,theodor4 ,die ,geschichte ,jesu von ,nazara 7#c vols41 ,zurich1 pt4 i4 #ahfg1 pt4 ii4 #ahga1 pt4 iii4 #ahgb72 ,die ,geschichte ,jesu4 ,nach den ,ergebnissen heutiger ,wissenschaft fr weitere ,kreise bersichtlich erzhlt 7,zurich1 #ahgb7 7,english translation of the larger work1 ,the ,history of ,jesus of ,nazara1 by ,e4 ,m4 ,geldart and ,a4 ,ransom1 #f vols41 ,london1 #ahgcahhc71 #aa1 #fa1 #aic1 #bjj1 #bji1 #baabad1 #bca f41 #caj1 #cdc1 #cea1 #ceg1 #chj1 #cib ,kienlen1 #bbh ,kirchbach1 ,wolfgang4 ,was lehrte ,jesus8 7,berlin1 #ahig1 #bnd ed4 #aijb72 ,das ,buch ,jesus 7,berlin1 #ahig71 #bid1 #cbbcbd ,koppe1 #hi ,kstlin1 ,karl ,reinhold1 #abd ,krabbe4 ,vorlesungen ber das ,leben ,jesu fr ,theologen und ,nicht,theologen 7,hamburg1 #ahci71 #ajj ,kralik1 ,richard von4 ,jesu ,leben und ,werk 7,kempten,nrnberg1 #aijd71 #bid ,krauss1 ,s4 ,das ,leben ,jesu nach jdischen ,quellen 7#aijb71 #cbg ,krger,velthusen1 ,w4 ,leben ,jesu4 7,elberfeld1 #ahgb71 #bag ,kuhn1 ,johannes von4 ,leben ,jesu 7,tbingen1 #ahdj71 #ajh ,kunz1 ,k4 ,christus medicus 7,freiburg1 #aije71 #cbe ,lachmann1 #hi ,lamy4 ,renans ,leben,jesu vor dem ,richterstuhle der ,kritik4 bersetzt von ,aug4 ,rohling 7,mnster1 #ahfd71 #aij ,lange1 ,johann ,peter4 ,das ,leben ,jesu1 #e vols4 7#ahddahdg7 7,english translation1 ,the ,life of the ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 by ,sophia ,taylor1 ,edinburgh1 #ahfd71 #aag ,lngin1 ,g4 ,der ,christus der ,geschichte und sein ,christentum 7#b vols41 #ahigahih71 #bag ,langsdorf1 ,karl von4 ,wohlgeprfte ,darstellung des ,lebens ,jesu 7,mannheim1 #ahca71 #afb ,lasserre1 ,henri4 ,l'vangile selon ,renan 7#ahfd1 #ab editions1 ,german1 ,munich1 #ahfd71 #ahh1 #aij ,lehmann4 ,renan wider ,renan 7,zwickau1 #ahfd71 #aia ,lessing1 ,gotthold ,ephraim1 #e1 #adaf1 #ge ,levi1 ,giuseppe4 ,parabeln1 ,legenden und ,gedanken aus ,talmud und ,midrasch 7#bnd ed41 ,leipzig1 #ahgg71 #bhf ,lichtenstein1 ,wilhelm ,jakob4 ,leben des ,herrn ,jesu ,christi 7,erlangen1 #ahef71 #aja ,lietzmann1 ,hans4 ,der ,menschensohn 7,freiburg1 #ahif72 ,zur ,menschensohnfrage 7#ahih71 #bfe1 #bgf f41 #bhe1 #bhi ,lightfoot1 ,john4 ,horae ,hebraicae et ,talmudicae in quatuor ,evangelistas4 ,herausgegeben von ,j4 ,b4 ,carpzov 7,leipzig1 #afhd71 #bbb1 #bhe ,lillie1 ,a4 ,the ,influence of ,buddhism on ,primitive ,christianity 7,london1 #ahic71 #cbf ,littr1 ,m41 #aha ,loisy1 ,alfred4 ,le ,quatrime vangile 7,paris1 #aijc72 ,les vangiles synoptiques1 #b vols4 7,paris1 #aijg72 ,l'vangile et l'glise 7,paris1 #aijc7 7translated by ,c4 ,home1 ,the ,gospel and the ,church1 new ed4 with a preface by ,g4 ,tyrrell1 #aijh71 #bie ,lcke1 #ajf ,luthardt1 ,christoph ,ernst4 ,die modernen ,darstellungen des ,lebens ,jesu4 ,vortrag 7,leipzig1 #ahfd71 #aia1 #bji ,luther1 #ac ,mack1 ,joseph4 ,bericht ber des ,herrn ,dr4 ,strauss' historische ,bearbeitung des ,lebens ,jesu 7#ahcg71 #ajh ,manen1 van1 #bhf ,marius1 ,emmanuel4 ,die ,persnlichkeit ,jesu mit besonderer ,rcksicht auf die ,mythologien und ,mysterien der alten ,vlker 7,leipzig1 #ahgi71 #aab ,meinhold1 ,j4 ,jesus und das ,alte ,testament 7#ahif71 #bee ,meuschen1 ,johann ,gerhardt1 #bhe ,meyer1 ,arnold4 ,jesu ,muttersprache 7,leipzig1 #ahif71 #bbi1 #bca1 #bfe1 #bfi1 #bga1 #bgd1 #bgf1 #bhf1 #bhg1 #bhi ,michaelis1 #di1 #bga ,michelis4 ,renans ,roman vom ,leben,jesu 7,mnster1 #ahfd71 #aij ,mller1 ,a4 ,jesus ein ,arier 7,leipzig1 #aijd71 #cbg ,mller1 ,max1 #bij ,mussard1 ,eugne4 ,du systme mythique appliqu l'histoire de la vie de ,jsus 7#ahch71 #aab ,nahor1 ,pierre 7milie ,lerou71 ,jsus4 7,german by ,walther ,bloch1 ,berlin1 #aije71 #cbe ,neander1 ,august ,wilhelm4 ,das ,leben ,jesu ,christi 7,hamburg1 #ahcg7 7,english translation1 ,the ,life of ,jesus ,christ1 by ,j4 ,m',clintock and ,c4 ,e4 ,blumenthal1 ,london1 #ahea72 ,gutachten ber das ,buch des ,dr4 ,strauss'1 ,leben,jesu 7#ahcf71 #gb1 #ig1 #ajaajc1 #aaf1 #aci ,nestle1 #bgf ,neubauer1 ,adolf1 #bgc ,neumann1 ,arno4 ,jesus wie er geschichtlich war 7,freiburg1 #aijd71 #cbj ,nicolas1 ,amade4 ,renan et sa vie de ,jsus sous les rapports moral1 lgal et littraire 7,paris,marseille1 #ahfd71 #ahh ,nippold1 ,friedrich4 ,der ,entwicklungsgang des ,lebens ,jesu im ,wortlaut der drei ersten ,evangelien 7,hamburg1 #ahie72 ,die psychiatrische ,seite der ,heilsttigkeit ,jesu 7#ahhi71 #cja1 #cbd ,noack1 ,ludwig4 ,die ,geschichte ,jesu 7#bnd ed41 ,mannheim1 #ahgf72 ,aus der ,jordanwiege nach ,golgatha 7#ahgjahga71 #afa f41 #agbagi1 #ahe1 #cbb ,nork1 ,j41 #bhe1 #bhf ,notowitsch1 ,nicolas4 ,la ,vie inconnue de ,jsus,christ 7,paris1 #ahid7 7,german1 ,stuttgart1 #ahid71 #bij1 #cbf ,oort1 ,h4 ,l4 ,die ,uitdrukking in het ,nieuwe ,testament 7,leiden1 #ahic71 #bff1 #bgh1 #bhf ,opitz1 ,ernst ,august4 ,geschichte und ,characterzge ,jesu 7#ahab71 #bg1 #cd ,osiander1 ,andreas1 #ac ,osiander1 ,johann ,ernst4 ,apologie des ,lebens ,jesu gegenber dem neuesten ,versuch1 es in ,mythen aufzulsen 7#ahcg71 #ajj ,osterzee1 ,j4 ,j4 van 7,utrecht74 ,geschichte oder ,roman8 ,das ,leben,jesu von ,ernest ,renan vorlufig beleuchtet4 7,from the ,dutch7 7,hamburg1 #ahfd71 #aia ,otto1 ,rudolf4 ,leben und ,wirken ,jesu nach historischkritischer ,auffassung4 ,vortrag 7,gttingen1 #aijb71 #cja ,paul1 ,ludwig4 ,die ,vorstellung vom ,messias und vom ,gottesreich bei den ,synoptikern 7,bonn1 #ahie71 #bfe ,paulus1 ,heinrich ,eberhard ,gottlob4 ,das ,leben ,jesu als ,grundlage einer reinen ,geschichte des ,urchristentums 7#ahbh71 #d1 #bh1 #cg1 #dh f41 #ajd1 #bga1 #bgf1 #cjc ,pfleiderer1 ,otto4 ,das ,urchristentum1 seine ,schriften und ,lehren in geschichtlichem ,zusammenhang beschrieben 7#bnd ed41 ,berlin1 #aijb1 #b vols47 7,english translation1 ,primitive ,christianity1 vols4 i4 and ii4 7vol4 i4 of original71 ,london1 #aijf1 #aiji72 ,die ,entstehung des ,urchristentums 7,munich1 #aije7 7,english translation1 ,christian ,origins1 by ,d4 ,a4 ,huebsch1 ,london1 #aije71 #bbi1 #bic1 #cji1 #caacac1 #chd ,plank4 ,geschichte des ,christentums 7,gttingen1 #ahah71 #cd ,pressel1 ,theodor4 ,leben ,jesu ,christi 7#aheg71 #aja ,pressens1 ,edmond ,dehoult de4 ,jsus,christ1 son temps1 sa vie1 son uvre 7,paris1 #ahfe7 7,english translation1 ,jesus ,christ1 ,his ,times1 ,his ,life1 ,his ,work1 by ,a4 ,harwood1 #crd ed41 ,london1 #ahfi72 ,l'cole critique et ,jsus,christ1 propos de la vie de ,jsus de ,m4 ,renan1 #ahj1 #ahi ,quinet1 ,edgar1 #ajh ,rauch1 ,c4 ,jeschua ben ,joseph 7,deichert1 #ahii71 #cbf ,rgla1 ,paul de4 ,jesus von ,nazareth1 7,german by ,a4 ,just1 ,leipzig1 #ahid71 #bid1 #cbe ,reimarus1 ,hermann ,samuel4 ,von dem ,zwecke ,jesu und seiner ,jnger 7published by ,lessing1 ,brunswick1 #aggh7 7,english translation1 ,the ,object of ,jesus and ,his disciples1 as seen in the ,new ,testament1 edited by ,a4 ,voysey1 #ahgi71 #d1 #i1 #aj1 #acbf1 #ge1 #id1 #ajg1 #abj1 #aei1 #aff1 #agb1 #bba1 #bci1 #bfd1 #cjc1 #cab1 #cai1 #cde1 #cfe ,reinhard1 ,franz ,volkmar4 ,versuch ber den ,plan1 welchen der ,stifter der christlichen ,religion zum ,besten der ,menschheit entwarf 7#agih71 #d1 #ca f41 #dh1 #bjf ,renan1 ,ernest4 ,la ,vie de ,jsus 7,paris1 #ahfc71 ,german1 #ahie 7,english translation1 ,the ,life of ,jesus1 ,london1 #ahfd2 translated with an introduction by ,w4 ,g4 ,hutchison1 ,london1 #ahih71 #aa1 #ge1 #ajh1 #ahjaib1 #aic f41 #aig1 #bjj1 #bjg1 #bac f41 #bai1 #bbe1 #bbi1 #beb1 #bei1 #bij1 #bie1 #cjc1 #cji1 #caj ,resch1 #bgc ,reuss1 ,eduard1 #abd1 #ahb1 #ahi1 #bbh ,rville1 ,albert4 ,la ,vie de ,jsus de ,renan devant les orthodoxes et devant la critique 7#ahfd71 #abe1 #ahi1 #bdi ,ritschl1 ,albrecht1 #a1 #abd f41 #bej1 #cbj ,robertson1 ,j4 ,m4 ,christianity and ,mythology 7,london1 #aijj71 #bij f4 ,rogers1 ,a4 ,k4 ,the ,life and ,teachings of ,jesus3 a critical analysis1 etc4 7,london and ,new ,york1 #ahid71 #bdi ,rosegger1 ,peter4 ,frohe ,botschaft eines armen ,snders 7,leipzig1 #aijf71 #cbf ,rossi1 ,giambernardo de4 ,dissertazione della lingua propria di ,christo e degli ,ebrei nazionali della ,palestina da' tempi de' ,maccabei in disamina del sentimento di un recente scrittore italiano 7,parma1 #aggb71 #bga ,salvator4 ,jsus,christ et sa doctrine 7,paris1 #ahch1 #b vols471 #afb ,sanday1 #ij ,saumaise1 ,claude1 #bgj ,scaliger1 ,justus1 #bgj ,schegg1 ,peter4 ,sechs ,bcher des ,lebens ,jesu 7,freiburg1 #ahgdahge71 #bid ,schell1 ,hermann4 ,christus 7,mainz1 #aijc71 #bid f4 ,schenkel1 ,daniel4 ,das ,charakterbild ,jesu 7,wiesbaden1 #ast and #bnd ed4 #ahfd1 #dth ed4 #ahgc7 7,english translation1 ,a ,sketch of the ,character of ,jesus1 ,london1 #ahfi71 #aa1 #ajc1 #aca1 #aic1 #bjj1 #bjc1 #bjebaj1 #bae1 #bah1 #bbj1 #bbi1 #caj ,scherer1 ,edmond1 #ahi1 #aia1 #bji ,scherer1 ,edmond1 und ,athanase ,coquerel 7jun474 ,zwei franzsische ,stimmen ber ,renans ,leben,jesu 7,regensburg1 #ahfd71 #ahi ,schleiermacher1 ,friedrich ,ernst ,daniel4 ,das ,leben ,jesu 7#ahfd71 #di1 #eh1 #fb f41 #gj1 #gc1 #hj1 #ha1 #he1 #hh1 #hi1 #aja f41 #ajh1 #aaf1 #abg1 #aci1 #aie1 #aig1 #bah1 #bcc1 #cbj ,schmiedel1 ,otto4 ,die ,hauptprobleme der ,leben,jesu,forschung 7,tbingen1 #aijb71 #ab1 #bb1 #bic1 #cja1 #cjc1 #cje1 #cab ,schmiedel1 ,p41 #bgg ,schmidt1 ,n4 8,was a ,messianic ,title80 7,journal of the ,society for ,biblical ,literature1 xv41 #ahif71 #bgg ,schmidt1 ,paul ,wilhelm4 ,die ,geschichte ,jesu1 i4 7,freiburg1 #ahii71 ii4 7,tbingen1 #aijd71 #bfe1 #bgh1 #bic1 #cja1 #cjd1 #cjh1 #cih ,schmoller4 ber die ,lehre vom ,reiche ,gottes im ,neuen ,testament1 #bcg ,scholten1 #bca ,schttgen1 ,christian1 #bhe ,schrer1 ,emil4 ,geschichte des jdischen ,volkes ins ,zeitalter ,jesu ,christi 7#bnd ed41 #bnd pt41 #ahhf7 7,english translation1 ,history of ,jewish ,people in time of ,jesus ,christ1 ,edinburgh1 #ahhe72 ,das messianische ,selbstbewusstsein ,jesu ,christi 7#aijc71 #bcd1 #bda1 #bed f41 #bhg ,schwartzkoppf4 ,die ,weissagungen ,jesu ,christi von seinem ,tode1 seiner ,auferstehung und ,wiederkunft und ihre ,erfllung 7#ahie71 #bfg ,schweitzer1 ,albert4 ,das ,messianittsund ,leidensgeheimnis4 ,eine ,skizze des ,lebens ,jesu 7,tbingen1 #aija71 #bha1 #bhg1 #cbhccj1 #ccb f41 #ccf1 #cci f41 #cea1 #chb f4 ,schweizer1 ,alexander1 #aah1 #abg f41 #bjj1 #bai1 #bfe ,semler1 ,johann ,salomo4 ,beantwortung der ,fragmente eines ,ungenannten1 insbesondere vom ,zweck ,jesu und seiner ,jnger 7,halle1 #aggi71 #ac1 #ae1 #be f41 #di ,sepp1 ,johann ,nepomuk4 ,das ,leben ,jesu ,christi 7,regensburg1 #g vols41 #ast ed4 #ahdcahdf1 #bnd ed4 #ahecahfb71 #ajh1 #bid ,seydel1 ,rudolf4 ,das ,evangelium ,jesu in seinen ,verhltnissen zur ,buddha ,saga und ,buddha,lehre 7,leipzig1 #ahhb72 ,die ,buddha,legende und das ,leben ,jesu nach den ,evangelien 7#bnd ed4 #ahig72 ,buddha und ,christus 7,breslau1 #ahhd71 #bfi1 #bijbib ,siegfried1 ,carl1 #bhe ,simon1 ,richard1 #bgj ,soden1 ,hermann ,freiherr von4 ,die wichtigsten ,fragen im ,leben ,jesu 7,berlin1 #aijd71 #ab1 #bic1 #cjacjh1 #cab ,stalker1 ,j4 ,the ,life of ,jesus ,christ 7,edinburgh1 #ahhj7 7,german1 ,tbingen1 #ahih71 #bag ,stapfer1 ,e4 ,la ,vie de ,jsus 7pt4 i4 #ahif1 pt4 ii4 #ahig1 pt4 iii4 #ahih7 7,english translation1 ,jesus ,christ before ,his ,ministry1 by ,l4 ,s4 ,houghton1 #ahig1 ,jesus ,christ during ,his ,ministry1 by ,l4 ,s4 ,houghton1 #ahig71 #bag ,stave1 #bdc ,storr1 #hi ,strauss1 ,david ,friedrich4 ,der ,christus des ,glaubens und der ,jesus der ,geschichte4 ,eine ,kritik des ,schleiermacher'schen ,lebens ,jesu 7,berlin1 #ahfe72 ,das ,leben ,jesu 7#ast ed4 #ahce and #ahcf1 #b vols41 #crd ed41 revised1 #ahch and #ahci1 #dth ed4 #ahdj7 7,the ,life of ,jesus ,critically ,examined1 translated from the #dth ,german ed4 by ,george ,eliot1 ,london1 #ahdf1 #crd ed4 with a preface by ,otto ,pfleiderer1 #ahih72 ,das ,leben ,jesu fr das deutsche ,volk bearbeitet 7,leipzig1 #ahfd1 #hth ed47 7,english translation1 ,a ,new ,life of ,jesus1 ,london1 #ahfe71 #d1 #e1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ad1 #bd1 #bh1 #cecg1 #eh1 #fj1 #fb1 #fe1 #gi f41 #ig f41 #fhaba1 #abe1 #abi f41 #acf1 #ach1 #adj1 #ade1 #aea1 #aec1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afa1 #afb1 #afc1 #aff1 #aga1 #agc1 #ahj f41 #ahb1 #ahe1 #ahh1 #aij1 #aicaii1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bji f41 #bad1 #bah1 #bba1 #bbe1 #bbi1 #bcg1 #beb1 #bha1 #bid1 #cjc1 #cji1 #cbi1 #cca1 #cfc ,stricker4 ,jesus von ,nazareth 7#ahfh71 #bjb ,tal1 ,t41 #bhf ,tholuck1 ,august4 ,die ,glaubwrdigkeit der evangelischen ,geschichte1 zugleich eine ,kritik des ,lebens ,jesu von ,strauss 7,hamburg1 #ahcg7 7,english translation1 ,the ,credibility of the ,evangelical ,history1 illustrated with reference to the 8,leben,jesu0 of ,dr4 ,strauss1 ,london1 #ahdd71 #gj1 #ig1 #ajj f41 #aaf1 #aai1 #abb1 #aci ,titius1 ,arthur1 #bej ,uhlhorn1 ,johann ,gerhard ,wilhelm4 ,das ,leben ,jesu in seinen neueren ,darstellungen4 ,vortrge 7#ahib71 #e1 #aa ,ullmann1 #ajj ,usteri1 #gh ,venturini1 ,karl ,heinrich4 ,natrliche ,geschichte des grossen ,propheten von ,nazareth 7#ast ed4 #ahjjahjb1 #bnd ed4 #ahjf71 #d1 #ch1 #dd1 #de1 #ej1 #ei1 #hb1 #afb1 #agj1 #bii1 #cjc1 #cac1 #cbe1 #cbg ,veuillot1 ,louis4 ,la ,vie de notre ,seigneur ,jsus,christ 7,paris1 #ahfc71 7,german by ,waldener1 ,kln,neuss1 #ahfd71 #bie ,volkmar1 ,gustav4 ,jesus ,nazarenus und die erste christliche ,zeit1 mit den beiden ersten ,erzhlern 7,zurich1 #ahhb71 #aa1 #baj1 #bbebbh1 #bcc1 #bef1 #cja1 #cji1 #cac1 #cbh ,volz1 ,paul4 ,die jdische ,eschatologie von ,daniel bis ,akiba 7,tbingen1 #aijc71 #bcd ,vossius1 #bgj ,wallon1 ,h4 ,vie de notre ,seigneur ,jsus,christ 7,paris1 #ahfe71 #bie ,walton1 ,brian1 #bgj ,weber1 ,ferdinand4 ,system der altsynagogalen palstinensischen ,theologie 7,leipzig1 #ahhj1 #bnd ed4 #ahig71 #bfi1 #bhe f4 ,weiffenbach1 ,wilhelm4 ,der ,wiederkunftsgedanke ,jesu 7#ahgc71 #bbb1 #bbhbcc1 #bcg1 #bej ,weinel1 ,heinrich4 ,jesus im neunzehnten ,jahrhundert 7#aijd71 #ab1 #cih ,weiss1 ,bernhard4 ,das ,leben ,jesu 7#ast ed4 #b vols4 #ahhb1 #bnd ed4 #ahhd7 7,english translation1 ,the ,life of ,jesus1 by ,j4 ,w4 ,hope1 ,edinburgh1 #ahhc71 #aj1 #aic1 #bafbah1 #bej1 #bfb ,weiss1 ,johannes4 ,die ,predigt ,jesu vom ,reiche ,gottes 7#ast ed4 #ahib1 #bnd ed4 #aijj71 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #bc1 #fa1 #ia1 #ib1 #acf1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bcgbdj1 #bdi f41 #bef1 #bfb1 #bfebfg1 #bgh1 #cja1 #cji1 #ccf1 #cdi1 #chc1 #chh ,weisse1 ,christian ,hermann4 ,die evangelische ,geschichte kritisch und philosophisch bearbeitet 7#b vols41 ,leipzig1 #ahch72 ,die ,evangelienfrage in ihrem gegenwrtigen ,stadium 7,leipzig1 #ahef71 #ab1 #aah1 #abj1 #abaacf1 #adj1 #afb1 #aie1 #aih1 #bjj1 #bjd f41 #bah1 #bbi1 #bcb1 #bid1 #cji1 #cbh1 #cda1 #ceg1 #cgd1 #cgh1 #chi ,weitbrecht1 ,m4 ,g4 ,das ,leben ,jesu nach den vier ,evangelien 7#ahha71 #bag ,weizscker1 ,karl ,heinrich4 ,untersuchungen ber die evangelische ,geschichte1 ihre ,quellen und den ,gang ihrer ,entwicklung 7,gotha1 #ahfd71 #aij1 #aic1 #bjjbjb1 #bje1 #bjg1 #bah1 #bbi1 #bei ,wellhausen1 ,julius4 ,israelitische und jdische ,geschichte 7#crd ed4 #ahig1 #dth ed4 #aijb72 ,das ,evangelium ,marci 7#aijc72 ,das ,evangelium ,matthi 7#aijd72 ,das ,evangelium ,lucae 7#aijd72 ,skizzen und ,vorarbeiten 7#ahii71 #bed1 #bfi1 #bgf1 #bgg1 #bhe1 #bhg1 #bhi1 #cia ,wendt1 ,hans ,heinrich4 ,die ,lehre ,jesu 7,gttingen1 pt4 i4 #ahhf1 pt4 ii4 #ahij7 7,english translation1 ,the ,teaching of ,jesus1 by ,j4 ,wilson1 ,edinburgh1 #ahib7 7#bnd ,german ed4 #aijb1 #crd ed4 #aijc71 #bai1 #bdi1 #bfe ,wernle1 ,paul4 ,die ,anfnge unserer ,religion 7,tbingen,leipzig1 #aija1 #bnd ed4 #aijd7 7,english translation1 ,the ,beginnings of ,christianity1 by ,g4 ,a4 ,bienemann1 ,london1 #aijc72 ,die ,reichgotteshoffnung in den ltesten christlichen ,dokumenten und bei ,jesus 7#aijc71 #bda1 #bebbed1 #bfe1 #bfg1 #cad1 #cih ,wette1 ,wilhelm ,martin ,leberecht de1 #gb1 #gh1 #hf1 #ajc1 #aai1 #bjh ,wettstein1 ,johann ,jakob1 #bhe ,whateley1 ,richard4 ,historic ,doubts relative to ,napoleon ,bonaparte 7,london1 #ahai7 7adapted as ,das ,leben ,napoleons kritisch geprft71 #aab ,wieseler1 ,karl ,georg4 ,chronologische ,synopse der vier ,evangelien 7,hamburg1 #ahdc71 #aag ,wiesinger1 ,albert4 ,aphorismen gegen ,renans ,leben,jesu 7,vienna1 #ahfd71 #aag1 #aij ,widmanstadt1 ,joh4 ,alb41 #bgj ,wilke1 ,christian ,gottlob4 ,tradition und ,mythe 7,leipzig1 #ahcg72 ,der ,urevangelist 7,dresden and ,leipzig1 #ahch71 #ig1 #aabaad1 #aai1 #aba1 #abd1 #adj f41 #adh1 #aie1 #bjb1 #bbe1 #cbh ,wittichen1 ,karl4 ,leben ,jesu 7,jena1 #ahgf71 #bah ,wrede1 ,wilhelm4 ,das ,messiasgeheimnis in den ,evangelien 7,gttingen1 #aija71 #i1 #aa1 #be1 #aca1 #baj1 #bba1 #bef1 #beg1 #bfd1 #cji1 #cbhcdi1 #cej1 #ceh1 #chj1 #chd f41 #chi1 #cia f41 #cii ,wnsche1 ,august4 ,neue ,beitrge zur ,erluterung der ,evangelien aus ,talmud und ,midrasch 7,gttingen1 #ahgh72 ,jesus in seiner ,stellung zu den ,frauen 7#ahgf71 #bfi1 #bhe f4 ,xavier1 ,hieronymus4 ,historia ,christi persice conscripta 7,lugd4 #afci71 #ad ,ziegler1 ,heinrich4 ,der geschichtliche ,christus 7#ahia71 #bag ,ziegler1 ,theobald1 #fi ,,footnotes #a ,quoted by ,dr4 ,inge in the ,hibbert ,journal for ,jan4 #aiaj1 p4 #dch 7from 8,jesus or ,christ10 p4 #cb74 #b 8,quest10 p4 #d4 #c ,an order founded in #aggf by ,professor ,adam ,weishaupt of ,ingolstadt in ,bavaria4 ,its aim was the furtherance of rational religion as opposed to orthodox dogma2 its organisation was largely modelled on that of the ,jesuits4 ,at its most flourishing period it numbered over #bjjj members1 including the rulers of several ,german ,states4--,,translator4 #d ,d4 ,fr4 ,strauss1 ,gesprche von ,ulrich von ,hutten4 ,leipzig1 #ahfj4 #e ,w4 ,wrede1 ,das ,messiasgeheimnis in den ,evangelien4 7,the ,messianic ,secret in the ,gospels47 ,gttingen1 #aija1 pp4 #bhjbhb4 #f ,in the author's usage 8the ,marcan hypothesis0 means the theory that the ,gospel of ,mark is not only the earliest and most valuable source for the facts1 but differs from the other ,gospels in embodying a more or less clear and historically intelligible view of the connexion of events4 ,see ,chaps4 ,x4 and ,,xiv4 below4--,,translator4 #g ,dr4 ,christoph ,friedrich von ,ammon1 ,fortbildung des ,christentums1 ,leipzig1 #ahdj1 vol4 iv4 p4 #aef ff4 #h ,hase1 ,geschichte ,jesu1 ,leipzig1 #ahgf1 pp4 #aajafb4 ,the second edition1 published in #ahia1 carries the survey no further than the first4 #i ,das ,leben ,jesu in seinen neueren ,darstellungen1 #ahib1 five lectures4 #aj ,w4 ,frantzen1 ,die 8,leben,jesu0 ,bewegung seit ,strauss1 ,dorpat1 #ahih4 #aa ,theol4 ,rundschau1 ii4 #eifg 7#ahii72 iii4 #iai 7#aijj74 #ab ,von ,soden's study1 ,die wichtigsten ,fragen im ,leben ,jesu1 #aijd1 belongs here only in a very limited sense1 since it does not seek to show how the problems have gradually emerged in the various ,lives of ,jesus4 #ac ,hase1 ,geschichte ,jesu1 #ahgf1 pp4 #aab1 #aac4 #ad ,historia ,christi persice conscripta simulque multis modis contaminata a ,hieronymo ,xavier1 lat4 reddita et animadd1 notata a ,ludovico de ,dieu4 ,lugd4 #afci4 #ae ,johann ,jakob ,hess1 ,geschichte der drei letzten ,lebensjahre ,jesu4 7,history of the ,last ,three ,years of the ,life of ,jesus47 #c vols4 #agfh ff4 #af ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss1 ,hermann ,samuel ,reimarus und seine ,schutzschrift fr die vernnftigen ,verehrer ,gottes4 7,reimarus and his ,apology for the ,rational ,worshippers of ,god47 #ahfb4 #ag ,the quotations inserted without special introduction are1 of course1 from ,reimarus4 ,it is ,dr4 ,schweitzer's method to lead up by a paragraph of exposition to one of these characteristic phrases4--,,translator4 #ah ,otto ,schmiedel1 ,die ,hauptprobleme der ,leben,jesu,forschung4 ,tbingen1 #aijb4 #ai ,dderlein also wrote a defence of ,jesus against the ,fragmentist3 ,fragmente und ,antifragmente4 ,nuremberg1 #aggh4 #bj ,this is perhaps the place to mention the account of the life of ,jesus which is given in the first part of ,plank's ,geschichte des ,christentums4 ,gttingen1 #ahah4 #ba ,briefe das ,studium der ,theologie betreffend1 #ast ed41 #aghjagha2 #bnd ed41 #agheaghf2 ,werke1 ed4 ,suphan1 vol4 x4 #bb ,a ,life of ,jesus which is completely dependent on the ,commentaries of ,paulus is that of ,greiling1 superintendent at ,aschersleben1 ,das ,leben ,jesu von ,nazareth ,ein religises ,handbuch fr ,geist und ,herz der ,freunde ,jesu unter den ,gebildeten4 7,the ,life of ,jesus of ,nazareth1 a religious ,handbook for the ,minds and ,hearts of the ,friends of ,jesus among the ,cultured47 ,halle1 #ahac4 #bc ,paulus prided himself on a very exact acquaintance with the physical and geographical conditions of ,palestine4 ,he had a wide knowledge of the literature of ,eastern travel4--,,translator4 #bd ,this interpretation1 it ought to be remarked1 seems to be implied by the ancient reading4 8,few things are needful1 or one10 given in the margin of the ,revised ,version4--,,translator4 #be ,associations of students1 at that time of a political character4--,,translator4 #bf ,the ground of the inference is that1 according to this theory1 they did not attach much importance to the keeping of the ,feasts at ,jerusalem4 ,dr4 ,schweitzer reminds us in a footnote that a certain want of clearness is due to the fact of this work having been compiled from lecturenotes4 #bg ,see ,theobald ,ziegler1 8,zur ,biographie von ,david ,friedrich ,strauss0 7,materials for the ,biography of ,d4 ,f4 ,s471 in the ,deutsche ,revue1 ,may1 ,june1 ,july #aije4 ,the hitherto unpublished letters to ,binder throw some light on the development of ,strauss during the formative years before the publication of the ,life of ,jesus4 ,binder1 later ,director of the ,board of ,studies at ,stuttgart1 was the friend who delivered the funeral allocution at the grave of ,strauss4 ,this last act of friendship exposed him to enmity and calumny of all kinds4 ,for the text of his short address1 see the ,deutsche ,revue1 #aije1 p4 #ajg4 #bh ,deutsche ,revue1 ,may #aije1 p4 #aii4 #bi ,ibid4 p4 #bja4 #cj ,deutsche ,revue1 p4 #bjc4 #ca ,assistant lecturer4 #cb ,ibid41 ,june #aije1 p4 #cdc ff4 #cc ,see ,hase1 ,leben ,jesu1 #ahgf1 p4 #abd4 ,the 8textbook0 referred to is ,hase's first ,life of ,jesus4 #cd ,he to whom my plaint is ,knows ,i shed no tear2 ,she to whom ,i say this ,feels ,i have no fear4 ,time has come for fading1 ,like a glimmering ray1 ,or a senseevading ,strain that floats away4 ,may1 though fainter1 dimmer1 ,only1 clear and pure1 ,to the last the glimmer ,and the strain endure4 ,the persons alluded to in the first verse are his son1 who1 as a physician1 attended him in his illness1 and to whom he was deeply attached1 and a very old friend to whom the verses were addressed4--,,translator4 #ce #b ,kings iv4 #dbdd4 #cf ,probabilia de evangelii et epistolarum ,ioannis ,apostoli indole et origine eruditorum iudiciis modeste subjecit ,c4 ,th4 ,bretschneider4 ,leipzig1 #ahbj4 #cg ,dr4 ,fr4 ,schleiermacher1 ber die ,schriften des ,lukas4 ,ein kritischer ,versuch4 7,the ,writings of ,luke4 ,a critical essay47 ,c4 ,reimer1 ,berlin1 #ahag4 #ch ,koppe1 ,marcus non epitomator ,matthi1 #aghb4 #ci ,storr1 ,de ,fontibus ,evangeliorum ,mt4 et ,lc41 #agid4 #dj ,gratz1 ,neuer ,versuch1 die ,entstehung der drei ersten ,evangelien zu erklren1 #ahab4 #da ,v4 sup4 p4 #ce f4 ,for the earlier history of the question see ,f4 ,c4 ,baur1 ,krit4 ,untersuch4 ber die kanonischen ,evangelien1 ,tbingen1 #ahdg1 pp4 #agf4 #db ,so called because largely based on the reference in ,luke i4 #a1 to the 8many0 who had 8taken in hand to draw up a narrative 7740--,,translator4 #dc ,we take the translation of this striking image from ,sanday's 8,survey of the ,synoptic ,question10 ,the ,expositor1 #dth ser4 vol4 #c1 p4 #cjg4 #dd ,for general title see above4 ,first part3 8,herr ,dr4 ,steudel1 or the ,selfdeception of the ,intellectual ,supernaturalism of our ,time40 #ahb pp4 ,second part3 8,die ,herren ,eschenmayer und ,menzel40 #bdg pp4 ,third part3 8,die evangelische ,kirchenzeitung1 die ,jahrbcher fr wissenschaftliche ,kritik und ,die theologischen ,studien und ,kritiken in ihrer ,stellung zu meiner ,kritik des ,lebens ,jesu40 7,the attitude taken up by 444 in regard to my critical ,life of ,jesus47 #agi pp4 ,in the ,studien und ,kritiken two reviews had appeared3 a critical review by ,dr4 ,ullmann 7vol4 for #ahcf1 pp4 #ggjhaf7 and that of ,mller1 written from the standpoint of the 8common faith0 7vol4 for #ahcf1 pp4 #hafhij74 ,in the ,evangelische ,kirchenzeitung the articles referred to are the following3 ,vorwort 7,editorial ,survey71 #ahcf1 pp4 #af1 #iad1 #agbc1 #beca1 #ccch1 #dade2 8,the ,future of our ,theology0 7#ahcf1 pp4 #bha ff472 8,thoughts suggested by ,dr4 ,strauss's essay on #8,the ,relation of ,theological ,criticism and ,speculation to the ,church' 0 7#ahcf1 pp4 #chb ff472 ,strauss's essay had appeared in the ,allgemeine ,kirchenzeitung for #ahcf1 ,no4 #ci4 8,die kritische ,bearbeitung des ,lebens ,jesu von ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss nach ihrem wissenschaftlichen ,werte beleuchtet0 7,an ,inquiry into the ,scientific ,value of ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss's ,critical ,study of the ,life of ,jesus47 ,by ,prof4 ,dr4 ,harless4 ,erlangen1 #ahcf4 #de 8,everything turns to the advantage of the elect1 even to the obscurities of scripture1 for they treat them with reverence because of its perspicuities2 everything turns to the disadvantage of the reprobate1 even to the perspicuities of scripture1 for they blaspheme them because they cannot understand its obscurities40 ,for the title of ,harless's essay1 see end of previous note4 #df ,das ,leben,jesu kritisch bearbeitet von ,dr4 ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss4 ,geprft fr ,theologen und ,nicht,theologen1 von ,wilhelm ,hoffmann4 #ahcf4 7,strauss's ,critical ,study of the ,life of ,jesus examined for the ,benefit of ,theologians and non,theologians47 #dg ,apologie des ,lebens ,jesu gegenber dem neuesten ,versuch1 es in ,mythen aufzulsen4 7,defence of the ,life of ,jesus against the latest attempt to resolve it into myth47 ,by ,joh4 ,ernst ,osiander1 ,professor at the ,evangelical ,seminary at ,maulbronn4 #dh ber das ,leben,jesu von ,strauss1 von ,franz ,baader1 #ahcf4 ,here may be mentioned also the lectures which ,krabbe 7subsequently ,professor at ,rostock7 delivered against ,strauss3 ,vorlesungen ber das ,leben ,jesu fr ,theologen und ,nicht,theologen 7,lectures on the ,life of ,jesus for ,theologians and non,theologians71 ,hamburg1 #ahci4 ,they are more tolerable to nontheologians than to theologians4 ,the author at a later period distinguished himself by the fanatical zeal with which he urged on the deposition of his colleague1 ,michael ,baumgarten1 whose ,geschichte ,jesu1 published in #ahei1 though fully accepting the miracles1 was weighed in the balance by ,krabbe and found lightweight by the ,rostock standard4 #di ,for the title1 see head of chapter4 ,tholuck was born in #agii at ,breslau1 and became in #ahbf ,professor at ,halle1 where he worked until his death in #ahgg4 ,with the possible exception of ,neander1 he was the most distinguished representative of the mediating theology4 ,his piety was deep and his learning was wide1 but his judgment went astray in the effort to steer his freight of pietism safely between the rocks of rationalism and the shoals of orthodoxy4 #ej ,stud4 u4 ,krit41 #ahcf1 p4 #ggg4 ,in his 8,open letter to ,dr4 ,ullmann10 ,strauss examines this suggestion in a serious and dignified fashion1 and shows that nothing would be gained by such expedients4--,streitschriften1 #crd pt41 p4 #abi ff4 #ea ,das ,leben ,jesu,christi4 ,hamburg1 #ahcg4 ,aug4 ,wilhelm ,neander was born in #aghi at ,gttingen1 of ,jewish parents1 his real name being ,david ,mendel4 ,he was baptized in #ahjf1 studied theology1 and in #ahac was appointed to a professorship in ,berlin1 where he displayed a manysided activity and exercised a beneficent influence4 ,he died in #ahej4 ,the bestknown of his writings is the ,geschichte der ,pflanzung und ,leitung der christlichen ,kirche durch die ,apostel 7,history of the ,propagation and ,administration of the ,christian ,church by the ,apostles71 ,hamburg1 #ahcbahcc1 of which a reprint appeared as late as #ahij4 ,neander was a man not only of deep piety1 but also of great solidity of character4 ,strauss1 in his ,life of ,jesus of #ahfd1 passes the following judgment upon ,neander's work3 8,a book such as in these circumstances ,neander's ,life of ,jesus was bound to be calls forth our sympathy2 the author himself acknowledges in his preface that it bears upon it only too clearly the marks of the time of crisis1 division1 pain1 and distress in which it was produced40 ,of the innumerable 8positive0 ,lives of ,jesus which appeared about the end of the 'thirties we may mention that of ,julius ,hartmann 7#b vols41 #ahcgahci74 ,among the later ,lives of ,jesus of the mediating theology may be mentioned that of ,theodore ,pressel of ,tbingen1 which was much read at the time of its appearance 7#aheg1 #eib pp474 ,it aims primarily at edification4 ,we may also mention the ,leben des ,herrn ,jesu ,christi by ,wil4 ,jak4 ,lichtenstein 7,erlangen1 #ahef71 which reflects the ideas of von ,hofmann4 #eb ,for title see head of chapter4 #ec ,aphorismen zur ,apologie des ,dr4 ,strauss und seines ,werkes4 ,grimma1 #ahch4 #ed ,from the ,xame ,xenien1 p4 #bei of ,goethe's ,works1 ed4 ,hempel4 #ee ,die ,wissenschaft und die ,kirche4 ,zur ,verstndigung ber die ,straussische ,angelegenheit4 7,a contribution to the adjustment of opinion regarding the ,strauss affair47 ,by ,daniel ,schenkel1 ,licentiate in ,theology and ,privat,docent of the ,university of ,basle1 with a dedicatory letter to ,herr ,dr4 ,lcke1 ,konsistorialrat4 ,basle1 #ahci4 #ef ,dr4 ,strauss und die ,zricher ,kirche4 ,eine ,stimme aus ,norddeutschland4 ,mit einer ,vorrede von ,dr4 ,w4 ,m4 ,l4 de ,wette4 7,a voice from ,north ,germany4 ,with an introduction by ,dr4 ,w4 ,m4 ,l4 de ,wette47 ,basle1 #ahci4 #eg ber theologische ,lehrfreiheit und ,lehrerwahl fr ,hochschulen4 ,zurich1 #ahci4 #eh ,for full title see head of chapter4 ,reference may also be made to the same author's ,fortbildung des ,christentums zur ,weltreligion4 7,development of ,christianity into a ,worldreligion47 ,leipzig1 #ahccahce4 #d vols4 ,ammon was born in #agff at ,bayreuth2 became ,professor of theology at ,erlangen in #agij2 was ,professor in ,gttingen from #agid to #ahjd1 and1 after being back in ,erlangen in the meantime1 became in #ahac ,senior ,court ,chaplain and 8,oberkonsistorialrat0 at ,dresden1 where he died in #ahej4 ,he was the most distinguished representative of historicocritical rationalism4 #ei ,he is at one with ,strauss in rejecting the explanation of this miracle on the analogy of an expedited natural process1 to which ,hase had pointed1 and which was first suggested by ,augustine in ,tract viii4 in ,ioann43 8,that ,christ changed water into wine is nothing wonderful to those who consider the works of ,god4 ,what was there done in the waterpots1 ,god does yearly in the vine40 ,augustine's words are3 ,miraculum quidem ,domini nostri ,jesu ,christi1 quo de aqua vinum fecit1 non est mirum eis qui noverunt quia ,deus fecit 7i4e4 that ,he who did it was ,god74 ,ipse enim fecit vinum illo die 444 in sex hydriis1 qui omni anno facit hoc in vitibus4 ,nevertheless the poorest naturalistic explanation is at least better than the resignation of ,lcke1 who is content to wait 8until it please ,god through the further progress of ,christian thought and life to bring about the solution of this riddle in its natural and historical aspects40 ,lcke1 ,johannes,kommentar1 p4 #dgd ff4 #fj ,ernst ,wilhelm ,hengstenberg was born in #ahjb at ,frndenberg in the 8county0 7,grafschaft7 of ,mark1 became ,professor of ,theology in ,berlin in #ahbf1 and died there in #ahfi4 ,he founded the ,evangelische ,kirchenzeitung in #ahbg4 #fa ,bericht ber des ,herrn ,dr4 ,strauss' historische ,bearbeitung des ,lebens ,jesu4 #fb ,dr4 ,strauss' ,leben,jesu aus dem ,standpunkt des ,catholicismus betrachtet4 #fc ,johann ,leonhard ,hug was born in #agfe at ,constance1 and had been since #agia ,professor of ,new ,testament ,theology at ,freiburg1 where he died in #ahdf4 ,he had a wide knowledge of his own department of theology1 and his ,introduction to the ,new ,testament ,writings won him some reputation among ,protestant theologians also4 #fd ,among the ,catholic 8,leben,jesu10 of which the authors found their incentive in the desire to oppose ,strauss1 the first place belongs to that of ,kuhn of ,tbingen4 ,unfortunately only the first volume appeared 7#ahch1 #dhh pp474 ,here there is a serious and scholarly attempt to grapple with the problems raised by ,strauss4 ,of less importance is the work of the same title in seven volumes1 by the ,munich ,priest and ,professor of ,history1 ,nepomuk ,sepp 7#ahdcahdf2 #bnd ed4 #ahecahfb74 #fe ber das ,leben,jesu von ,doctor ,strauss4 ,by ,edgar ,quinet4 ,translated from the ,french by ,georg ,kleine4 ,published by ,j4 ,erdmann and ,c4 ,c4 ,mller1 #ahci4 ,in #ahdj ,strauss's book was translated into ,french by ,m4 ,littr4 ,it failed1 however1 to exercise any influence upon ,french theology or literature4 ,strauss is one of those ,german thinkers who always remain foreign and unintelligible to the ,french mind4 ,could ,renan have written his ,life of ,jesus as he did if he had had even a partial understanding of ,strauss8 #ff ,anna ,katharina ,emmerich was born in #aggd at ,flamske near ,coesfeld4 ,her parents were peasants4 ,in #ahjc she took up her abode with the ,augustinian nuns of the convent of ,agnetenberg at ,dlmen4 ,after the dissolution of the convent1 she lived in a single room in ,dlmen itself4 ,the 8stigmata0 showed themselves first in #ahab4 ,she died on the #ith of ,february #ahbd4 ,brentano had been in her neighbourhood since #ahai4 ,das bittere ,leiden unseres ,herrn ,jesu ,christi 7,the ,bitter ,sufferings of ,our ,lord ,jesus ,christ7 was issued by ,brentano himself in #ahcd4 ,the ,life of ,jesus was published on the basis of notes left by him--he died in #ahdb--;in three volumes1 #ahehahfj1 at ,regensburg1 under the sanction of the ,bishop of ,limberg4 ,first volume4--,from the death of ,st4 ,joseph to the end of the first year after the ,baptism of ,jesus in ,jordan4 ,communicated between ,may #a1 #ahba1 and ,october #a1 #ahbb4 ,second volume4--,from the beginning of the second year after the ,baptism in ,jordan to the close of the second ,passover in ,jerusalem4 ,communicated between ,october #a1 #ahbb1 and ,april #cj1 #ahbc4 ,third volume4--,from the close of the second ,passover in ,jerusalem to the ,mission of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,communicated between ,october #ba1 #ahbc1 and ,january #h1 #ahbd1 and from ,july #bi1 #ahbj1 to ,may #ahba4 ,both works have been frequently reissued1 the 8,bitter ,sufferings0 as late as #ahid4 #fg ,auszge aus der ,schrift 8,das ,leben ,luthers kritisch bearbeitet40 7,extracts from a work entitled 8,a ,critical ,study of the ,life of ,luther407 ,by ,dr4 ,casuar 78,cassowary02 ,strauss ,ostrich74 ,mexico1 #ahcf4 ,edited by ,julius ,ferdinand ,wurm4 #fh ,das ,leben ,napoleons kritisch geprft4 7,a ,critical ,examination of the ,life of ,napoleon47 ,from the ,english1 with some pertinent applications to ,strauss's ,life of ,jesus1 #ahcf4 ,the ,english original referred to seems to have been ,whateley's ,historic ,doubts relative to ,napoleon ,bonaparte1 published in #ahai1 and primarily directed against ,hume's ,essay on ,miracles4--,,translator4 #fi ,la ,vie de ,strauss4 crite en l'an #ahci4 ,paris1 #ahci4 #gj ,ch4 ,g4 ,wilke1 ,tradition und ,mythe4 ,a contribution to the historical criticism of the ,gospels in general1 and in particular to the appreciation of the treatment of myth and idealism in ,strauss's 8,life of ,jesus40 ,leipzig1 #ahcg4 ,christian ,gottlob ,wilke was born in #aghf at ,werm1 near ,zeitz1 studied theology and became pastor of ,hermannsdorf in the ,erzgebirge4 ,he resigned this office in #ahcg in order to devote himself to his studies1 perhaps also because he had become conscious of an inner unrest4 ,in #ahde he prepared the way for his conversion to ,catholicism by publishing a work entitled 8,can a ,protestant go over to the ,roman ,church with a good conscience80 ,he took the decisive step in ,august #ahdf4 ,later he removed to ,wrzburg4 ,subsequently he recast his famous ,clavis ,novi ,testamenti ,philologica--which had appeared in #ahdjahda--;in the form of a lexicon for ,catholic students of theology4 ,his ,hermeneutik des ,neuen ,testaments1 published in #ahdcahdd1 appeared in #ahec as ,biblische ,hermeneutik nach katholischen ,grundstzen 7,the ,science of ,biblical ,interpretation according to ,catholic principles74 ,he was engaged in recasting his ,clavis when he died in #ahed4 ,of later works dealing with the question of myth1 we may refer to ,emanuel ,marius1 ,die ,persnlichkeit ,jesu mit besonderer ,rcksicht auf die ,mythologien und ,mysterien der alten ,vlker 7,the ,personality of ,jesus1 with special reference to the ,mythologies and ,mysteries of ,ancient ,nations71 ,leipzig1 #ahgi1 #cie pp42 and ,otto ,frick1 ,mythus und ,evangelium 7,myth and ,gospel71 ,heilbronn1 #ahgi1 #dd pp4 #ga ,see p4 #hi above4 #gb ,streitschriften4 ,drittes ,heft1 pp4 #eeabf3 ,die ,jahrbcher fr wissenschaftliche ,kritik3 i4 ,allgemeines ,verhltnis der ,hegel'schen ,philosophie zur theologischen ,kritik3 ii4 ,hegels ,ansicht ber den historischen ,wert der evangelischen ,geschichte 7,hegel's ,view of the ,historical ,value of the ,gospel ,history72 iii4 ,verschiedene ,richtungen innerhalb der ,hegel'schen ,schule in ,betreff der ,christologie 7,various ,tendencies within the ,hegelian ,school in regard to ,christology74 #ahcg4 #gc ,wissenschaftliche ,kritik der evangelischen ,geschichte4 7,scientific ,criticism of the ,gospel ,history47 ,august ,ebrard4 ,frankfort1 #ahdb2 #crd ed41 #ahfh4 ,johannes ,heinrich ,aug4 ,ebrard was born in #ahah at ,erlangen1 was1 first1 ,professor of ,reformed ,theology at ,zurich and ,erlangen1 afterwards 7#ahec7 went to ,speyer as 8,konsistorialrat10 but was unable to cope with the ,liberal opposition there1 and returned in #ahfa to ,erlangen1 where he died in #ahhh4 ,a characteristic example of ,ebrard's way of treating the subject is his method of meeting the objection that a fish with a piece of money in its jaws could not have taken the hook4 8,the fish might very well10 he explains1 8have thrown up the piece of money from its belly into the opening of the jaws in the moment in which ,peter opened its mouth40 ,upon this ,strauss remarks3 8,the inventor of this argument tosses it down before us as who should say1 #8,i know very well it is bad1 but it is good enough for you1 at any rate so long as the ,church has livings to distribute and we ,konsistorialrats have to examine the theological candidates4' 0 ,strauss1 therefore1 characterises ,ebrard's ,life of ,jesus as 8,orthodoxy restored on a basis of impudence40 ,the pettifogging character of this work made a bad impression even in ,conservative quarters4 #gd ,chronologische ,synopse der vier ,evangelien4 7,chronological ,synopsis of the four ,gospels47 ,by ,karl ,georg ,wieseler4 ,hamburg1 #ahdc4 ,wieseler was born in #ahac at ,altencelle 7,hanover71 and was ,professor successively at ,gttingen1 ,kiel1 and ,greifswald4 ,he died in #ahhc4 #ge ,johann ,peter ,lange1 ,pastor in ,duisburg1 afterwards ,professor at ,zurich in place of ,strauss4 ,das ,leben ,jesu4 #e vols41 #ahddahdg4 #gf ,georg ,heinrich ,august ,ewald1 ,geschichte des ,volkes ,israel4 7,history of the ,people of ,israel47 #g vols4 ,gttingen1 #ahdcahei2 #crd ed41 #ahfdahgj4 ,fifth vol41 ,geschichte ,christus' und seiner ,zeit4 7,history of ,christ and ,his ,times47 #ahee2 #bnd ed41 #aheg4 ,ewald was born in #ahjc at ,gttingen1 where in #ahbg he was appointed ,professor of ,oriental ,languages4 ,having made a protest against the repeal of the fundamental law of the ,hanoverian ,constitution he was removed from his office and went to ,tbingen1 first as ,professor of philology2 in #ahda he was transferred to the theological faculty4 ,in #ahdh he returned to ,gttingen4 ,when1 in #ahff1 he refused to take the oath of allegiance to the ,king of ,prussia1 he was compulsorily retired1 and1 in consequence of imprudent expressions of opinion1 was also deprived of the right to lecture4 ,the town of ,hanover chose him as its representative in the ,north ,german and in the ,german ,reichstag1 where he sat among the ,guelph opposition1 in the middle of the centre party4 ,he died in #ahge at ,gttingen4 ,his contributions to ,new ,testament studies were much inferior to his ,oriental and ,old ,testament researches4 ,his ,life of ,jesus1 in particular1 is worthless1 in spite of the ,old ,testament and ,oriental learning with which it was furnished forth4 ,he lays great stress upon making the genitive of 8,christus0 not 8,christi10 but1 according to ,german inflection1 8,christus'40 #gg ,ammon1 ,johannem evangelii auctorem ab editore huius libri fuisse diversum1 ,erlangen1 #ahaa4 #gh ,no value whatever can be ascribed to the ,life of ,jesus by ,werner ,hahn1 ,berlin1 #ahdd1 #aif pp4 ,the 8didactic presentation of the history0 which the author offers is not designed to meet the demands of historical criticism4 ,he finds in the ,gospels no bare history1 but1 above all1 the inculcation of the principle of love4 ,he casts to the winds all attempt to draw the portrait of ,jesus as a true historian1 being only concerned with its inner truth and 8idealises artistically and scientifically0 the actual course of the outward life of ,jesus4 8,it is never the business of a history10 he explains1 8to relate only the bare truth4 ,it belongs to a mere planless and aimless chronicle to relate everything that happened in such a way that its words are a mere slavish reflection of the outward course of events40 #gi ,hase1 ,geschichte ,jesu1 #ahgf1 p4 #abh4 #hj ,philosophische ,dogmatik oder ,philosophie des ,christentums4 ,leipzig1 #aheeahfb4 #ha ,at the end of his preface he makes the striking remark3 8,i confess ,i cannot conceive of any possible way by which ,christianity can take on a form which will make it once more the truth for our time1 without having recourse to the aid of philosophy2 and ,i rejoice to believe that this opinion is shared by many of the ablest and most respected of presentday theologians40 #hb ,vol4 ii4 pp4 #dchedc4 ,philosophische ,schlussbetrachtung ber die religise ,bedeutung der ,persnlichkeit ,christi und der evangelischen berlieferung4 7,concluding ,philosophical ,estimate of the ,significance of the ,person of ,christ and of the ,gospel ,tradition47 #hc ,christian ,gottlob ,wilke1 formerly pastor of ,hermannsdorf in the ,erzgebirge4 ,der ,urevangelist1 oder eine exegetischkritische ,untersuchung des ,verwandschaftsverhltnisses der drei ersten ,evangelien4 7,the ,earliest ,evangelist1 a ,critical and ,exegetical ,inquiry into the ,relationship of the ,first ,three ,gospels47 ,the subsequent course of the discussion of the ,marcan hypothesis was as follows3-- ,in answer to ,wilke there appeared a work signed ,philosophotos ,aletheias1 ,die ,evangelien1 ihr ,geist1 ihre ,verfasser1 und ihr ,verhltnis zu einander4 7,the ,gospels1 their ,spirit1 their ,authors1 and their relation to one another47 ,leipzig1 #ahde1 #ddj pp4 ,the author sees in ,paul the evil genius of early ,christianity1 and thinks that the work of scientific criticism must be directed to detecting and weeding out the ,pauline elements in the ,gospels4 ,luke is in his opinion a partywriting1 biased by ,paulinism2 in fact ,paul had a share in its preparation1 and this is what ,paul alludes to when he speaks in ,romans ii4 #af1 xi4 #bh1 and xvi4 #be of 8his0 ,gospel4 ,his hand is especially recognisable in chapters i4iii41 vii41 ix41 xi41 xviii41 xx41 xxi41 and xxiv4 ,mark consists of extracts from ,matthew and ,luke2 ,john presupposes the other three4 ,the ,tbingen standpoint was set forth by ,baur in his work1 ,kritische ,untersuchungen ber die kanonischen ,evangelien4 7,a ,critical ,examination of the ,canonical ,gospels47 ,tbingen1 #ahdg1 #fbb pp4 ,according to him ,mark is based on ,matthew and ,luke4 ,at the same time1 however1 the irreconcilability of the ,fourth ,gospel with the ,synoptists is for the first time fully worked out1 and the refutation of its historical character is carried into detail4 ,the order ,matthew1 ,mark1 ,luke is defended by ,adolf ,hilgenfeld in his work ,die ,evangelien4 ,leipzig1 #ahed1 #cee pp4 ,karl ,reinhold ,kstlin's work1 ,der ,ursprung und die ,komposition der synoptischen ,evangelien 7,origin and ,composition of the ,synoptic ,gospels71 is rendered nugatory by obscurities and compromises4 ,stuttgart1 #ahec1 #djj pp4 ,the priority of ,mark is defended by ,edward ,reuss1 ,die ,geschichte der heiligen ,schriften des ,neuen ,testaments 7,history of the ,sacred ,writings of the ,new ,testament71 #ahdb2 ,h4 ,ewald1 ,die drei ersten ,evangelien1 #ahej2 ,a4 ,ritschl1 ,die ,entstehung der altkatholischen ,kirche 7,origin of the ancient ,catholic ,church71 #ahej2 ,a4 ,rville1 tudes critiques sur l'vangile selon ,st4 ,matthieu1 #ahfb4 ,in #ahfc the foundations of the ,marcan hypothesis were relaid1 more firmly than before1 by ,holtzmann's work1 ,die synoptischen ,evangelien4 ,leipzig1 #ahfc1 #ead pp4 #hd ,alexander ,schweizer1 ,das ,evangelium ,johannis nach seinem inneren ,werte and seiner ,bedeutung fr das ,leben ,jesu kritisch untersucht4 #ahda4 7,a ,critical ,examination of the ,intrinsic ,value of the ,gospel of ,john and of its ,importance as a ,source for the ,life of ,jesus47 ,alexander ,schweizer was born in #ahjh at ,murten1 was appointed ,professor of ,pastoral ,theology at ,zurich in #ahce1 and continued to lecture there until his death in #ahhh1 remaining loyal to the ideas of his teacher ,schleiermacher1 though handling them with a certain freedom4 ,his bestknown work is his ,glaubenslehre 7,system of ,doctrine71 #b vols41 #ahfcahgb2 #bnd ed41 #ahgg4 #he ,the ,german is ,mirakeln1 the usual word being ,wunder1 which1 though constantly used in the sense of actual 8miracles10 has1 from its obvious derivation1 a certain ambiguity4 #hf 8,and the glory of the ,lord abode upon ,mount ,sinai1 and the cloud covered it six days40 #hg ,we subjoin the titles of the divisions of this work1 which are of some interest3 ,vol4 i4 ,book i4 ,the ,sources of the ,gospel ,history4 ,vol4 i4 ,book ii4 ,the ,legends of the ,childhood4 ,vol4 i4 ,book iii4 ,general ,sketch of the ,gospel ,history4 ,vol4 i4 ,book iv4 ,the ,incidents and ,discourses according to ,mark4 ,vol4 ii4 ,book v4 ,the ,incidents and ,discourses according to ,matthew and ,luke4 ,vol4 ii4 ,book vi4 ,the ,incidents and ,discourses according to ,john4 ,vol4 ii4 ,book vii4 ,the ,resurrection and the ,ascension4 ,vol4 ii4 ,book viii4 ,concluding ,philosophical ,exposition of the ,significance of the ,person of ,christ and of the ,gospel ,tradition4 #hh ,geschichte ,christus' und seiner ,zeit4 7,history of ,christ and ,his ,times47 ,by ,heinrich ,ewald1 ,gttingen1 #ahee1 #dej pp4 #hi ,kritik der ,geschichte der ,offenbarung4 #ij ,das entdeckte ,christentum4 ,see also ,die gute ,sache der ,freiheit und meine eigene ,angelegenheit4 7,the ,good ,cause of ,freedom1 in ,connexion with my own ,case47 ,zurich1 #ahdc4 #ia ,kritik der evangelischen ,geschichte des ,johannes4 #ib ,here and elsewhere ,bauer seems to use 8,christologie0 in the sense of ,messianic doctrine1 rather than in the more general sense which is usual in theology4--,,translator4 #ic ,we retain the ,german phrase1 which has naturalised itself in ,synoptic criticism as the designation of an assumed primary gospel lying behind the canonical ,mark4 #id ,kritik der ,paulinischen ,briefe4 7,criticism of the ,pauline ,epistles47 ,berlin1 #ahejaheb4 #ie ,kritik der ,evangelien und ,geschichte ihres ,ursprungs4 7,criticism of the ,gospels and ,history of their ,origin47 #b vols41 ,berlin1 #ahejahea4 #if ,christus und die ,csaren4 ,der ,ursprung des ,christentums aus dem rmischen ,griechentum4 ,berlin1 #ahgg4 #ig ,hennell1 a ,london merchant1 withdrew himself from his business pursuits for two years in order to make the preparatory studies for this ,life of ,jesus4 ,he is best known as a friend of ,george ,eliot1 who was greatly interested and influenced by the 8,inquiry40--,,translator4 ,to the same category as ,hennell's work belongs the ,wohlgeprfte ,darstellung des ,lebens ,jesu 7,an ,account of the ,life of ,jesus based on the closest ,examination7 of the ,heidelberg mathematician1 ,karl von ,langsdorf1 ,mannheim1 #ahca4 ,supplement1 with preface to a future second edition1 #ahcc4 #ih ,hase seems not to have recognised that the 8,disclosures0 were merely a plagiarism from ,venturini4 ,he mentions them in connexion with ,bruno ,bauer and appears to make him responsible for inspiring them2 at least that is suggested by his formula of transition when he says3 8,it was primarily to him that the frivolous apocryphal hypotheses attached themselves40 ,this is quite inaccurate4 ,the anonymous epitomist of ,venturini had nothing to do with ,bauer1 and had probably not read a line of his work4 ,venturini1 whom he had read1 he does not name4 #ii ,one of the most ingenious of the followers of ,venturini was the ,french ,jew ,salvator4 ,in his ,jsus,christ et sa doctrine 7,paris1 #b vols41 #ahch71 he seeks to prove that ,jesus was the last representative of a mysticism which1 drawing its nutriment from the other ,oriental religions1 was to be traced among the ,jews from the time of ,solomon onwards4 ,in ,jesus this mysticism allied itself with ,messianic enthusiasm4 ,after ,he had lost consciousness upon the cross ,he was succoured by ,joseph of ,arimathea and ,pilate's wife1 contrary to ,his own expectation and purpose4 ,he ended ,his days among the ,essenes4 ,salvator looks to a spiritualised mystical ,mosaism as destined to be the successful rival of ,christianity4 #ajj ,the reference should be ,micah iv4 #h4--;,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #aja 8,ich bin der ,geist1 der stets verneint40--,mephistopheles in ,faust4 #ajb ,aus der ,jordanwiege nach ,golgatha2 vier ,bcher ber das ,evangelium und die ,evangelien4 #ajc ,die ,geschichte ,jesu auf ,grund freier geschichtlicher ,untersuchungen ber das ,evangelium and die ,evangelien4 #ajd ,for ,noack's reconstruction of it see ,book iii4 pp4 #aifbbe4 #aje ,for the reconstruction see ,book iii4 pp4 #cbfchf4 #ajf ,tharraqah und ,sunamith4 ,the ,song of ,solomon in its historical and topographical setting4 #ahfi4 #ajg ,la ,vie de ,jsus de ,d4 ,fr4 ,strauss4 ,traduite par ,m4 ,littr1 #ahdj4 #ajh ,bruno ,bauer in ,philo1 ,strauss1 und ,renan4 #aji ,renan does not hesitate to apply this tasteless parallel4 #aaj ,charles mile ,freppel 7,abb71 ,professeur d'loquence sacre la ,sorbonne4 ,examen critique de la vie de ,jsus de ,m4 ,renan4 ,paris1 #ahfd4 #adh pp4 ,henri ,lasserre's pamphlet1 ,l'vangile selon ,renan 7,the ,gospel according to ,renan71 reached its fourandtwentieth edition in the course of the same year4 #aaa ,lettre pastorale de ,monseigneur l',archevque de ,paris 7,georges ,darboy7 sur la divinit de ,jsus,christ1 et mandement pour le carme de #ahfd4 #aab ,see1 for example1 ,flix ,antoine ,philibert ,dupanloup1 ,bishop of ,orlans1 ,avertissement la jeunesse et aux pres de famille sur les attaques diriges contre la religion par quelques crivains de nos jours4 7,warning to the ,young1 and to ,fathers of ,families1 concerning some ,attacks directed against ,religion by some ,writers of our ,time47 ,paris1 #ahfd4 #ada pp4 #aac ,amade ,nicolas1 ,renan et sa vie de ,jsus sous les rapports moral1 lgal1 et littraire4 ,appel la raison et la conscience du monde civilis4 ,paris,marseille1 #ahfd4 #aad ,ernest ,havet1 ,professeur au ,collge de ,france1 ,jsus dans l'histoire4 ,examen de la vie de ,jsus par ,m4 ,renan4 ,extrait de la ,revue des deux mondes4 ,paris1 #ahfc4 #ga pp4 #aae ,zwei franzsische ,stimmen ber ,renans ,leben,jesu1 von ,edmond ,scherer und ,athanase ,coquerel1 d4,j4 ,ein ,beitrag zur ,kenntnis des franzsischen ,protestantismus4 ,regensburg1 #ahfd4 7,two ,french utterances in regard to ,renan's ,life of ,jesus1 by ,edmond ,scherer and ,athanase ,coquerel the younger4 ,a contribution to the understanding of ,french ,protestantism47 #aaf ,e4 de ,pressens1 ,l'cole critique et ,jsus,christ1 propos de la vie de ,jsus de ,m4 ,renan4 #aag ,e4 de ,pressens1 ,jsus,christ1 son temps1 sa vie1 son uvre4 ,paris1 #ahfe4 #fhd pp4 ,in general the plan of this work follows ,renan's4 ,he divides the ,life of ,jesus into three periods3 i4 ,the ,time of ,public ,favour2 ii4 ,the ,period of ,conflict2 iii4 ,the ,great ,week4 ,death and ,victory4 ,by way of introduction there is a long essay on the supernatural which sets forth the supernaturalistic views of the author4 #aah ,la ,vie de ,jsus de ,renan devant les orthodoxes et devant la critique4 #ahfd4 #aai ,t4 ,colani1 ,pasteur1 8,examen de la vie de ,jsus de ,m4 ,renan10 ,revue de thologie4 ,issued separately1 ,strasbourg,paris1 #ahfd4 #gd pp4 #abj ,lasserre1 ,das ,evangelium nach ,renan4 ,munich1 #ahfd4 ,freppel1 ,kritische ,beleuchtung der ,e4 ,renan'schen ,schrift4 ,translated by ,kallmus4 ,vienna1 #ahfd4 ,see also ,lamy1 ,professor of the ,theological ,faculty of the ,catholic ,university of ,louvain1 ,renans ,leben,jesu vor dem ,richterstuhle der ,kritik4 7,renan's ,life of ,jesus before the ,judgment ,seat of ,criticism47 ,translated by ,august ,rohling1 ,priest4 ,mnster1 #ahfd4 #aba ,dr4 ,michelis1 ,renans ,roman vom ,leben ,jesu4 ,eine deutsche ,antwort auf eine franzsische ,blasphemie4 7,renan's ,romance on the ,life of ,jesus4 ,a ,german answer to a ,french blasphemy47 ,mnster1 #ahfd4 ,dr4 ,sebastian ,brunner1 ,der ,atheist ,renan und sein ,evangelium4 7,the ,atheist ,renan and his ,gospel47 ,regensburg1 #ahfd4 ,albert ,wiesinger1 ,aphorismen gegen ,renans ,leben,jesu4 ,vienna1 #ahfd4 ,dr4 ,martin ,deutlinger1 ,renan und das ,wunder4 7,renan and ,miracle4 ,a contribution to ,christian ,apologetic47 ,munich1 #ahfd4 #aei pp4 ,dr4 ,daniel ,bonifacius ,haneberg1 ,ernest ,renans ,leben,jesu4 ,regensburg1 #ahfd4 #abb ,willibald ,beyschlag1 ,doctor and ,professor of ,theology1 ber das ,leben,jesu von ,renan4 ,a ,lecture delivered at ,halle1 ,january #ac1 #ahfd4 ,berlin4 #abc ,chr4 ,ernst ,luthardt1 ,doctor and ,professor of ,theology1 ,die modernen ,darstellungen des ,lebens ,jesu4 7,modern ,presentations of the ,life of ,jesus47 ,a discussion of the writings of ,strauss1 ,renan1 and ,schenkel1 and of the essays of ,coquerel the younger1 ,scherer1 ,colani1 and ,keim4 ,a ,lecture4 ,leipzig1 #ahfd4 ,of the remaining ,protestant polemics we may name3-- ,dr4 ,hermann ,gerlach1 ,gegen ,renans ,leben,jesu #ahfd4 ,berlin4 ,br4 ,lehmann1 ,renan wider ,renan4 7,renan versus ,renan47 ,a ,lecture addressed to cultured ,germans4 ,zwickau1 #ahfd4 ,friedrich ,baumer1 ,schwarz1 ,strauss1 ,renan4 ,a ,lecture4 ,leipzig1 #ahfd4 ,john ,cairns1 ,d4 ,d4 7of ,berwick74 ,falsche ,christi und der wahre ,christus1 oder ,verteidigung der evangelischen ,geschichte gegen ,strauss und ,renan4 7,false ,christs and the ,true1 a ,defence of the ,gospel ,history against ,strauss and ,renan47 ,a ,lecture delivered before the ,bible ,society4 ,translated from the ,english4 ,hamburg1 #ahfd4 ,bernhard ter ,haar1 ,doctor of ,theology and ,professor at ,utrecht1 ,zehn ,vorlesungen ber ,renans ,leben,jesu4 7,ten ,lectures on ,renan's ,life of ,jesus47 ,translated by ,h4 ,doermer4 ,gotha1 #ahfd4 ,paulus ,cassel1 ,professor and ,licentiate in ,theology1 ,bericht ber ,renans ,leben,jesu4 7,a ,report upon ,renan's ,life of ,jesus47 ,j4 ,j4 van ,oosterzee1 ,doctor and ,professor of ,theology at ,utrecht1 ,geschichte oder ,roman8 ,das ,leben,jesu von ,renan vorlufig beleuchtet4 7,history or ,fiction8 ,a ,preliminary ,examination of ,renan's ,life of ,jesus47 ,hamburg1 #ahfd4 #abd ,strauss's second ,life of ,jesus appeared in ,french in #ahfd4 #abe 8,i can now say without incurring the reproach of selfglorification1 and almost without needing to fear contradiction1 that if my ,life of ,jesus had not appeared in the year after ,schleiermacher's death1 his would not have been withheld for so long4 ,up to that time it would have been hailed by the theological world as a deliverer2 but for the wounds which my work inflicted on the theology of the day1 it had neither anodyne nor dressing2 nay1 it displayed the author as in a measure responsible for the disaster1 for the waters which he had admitted drop by drop were now1 in defiance of his prudent reservations1 pouring in like a flood40--,from the ,introduction to ,the ,christ of ,faith and the ,jesus of ,history1 #ahfe4 #abf 8,now that ,schleiermacher's ,life of ,jesus at last lies before us in print1 all parties can gather about it in heartfelt rejoicing4 ,the appearance of a work by ,schleiermacher is always an enrichment to literature4 ,any product of a mind like his cannot fail to shed light and life on the minds of others4 ,and of works of this kind our theological literature has certainly in these days no superfluity4 ,where the living are for the most part as it were dead1 it is meet that the dead should arise and bear witness4 ,these lectures of ,schleiermacher's1 when compared with the work of his pupils1 show clearly that the great theologian has let fall upon them only his mantle and not his spirit40--,ibid4 #abg ,the lines of ,schleiermacher's work were followed by ,bunsen4 ,his ,life of ,jesus forms vol4 ix4 of his ,bibelwerk4 7,edited by ,holtzmann1 #ahfe47 ,he accepts the ,fourth ,gospel as an historical source and treats the question of miracle as not yet settled4 ,christian ,karl ,josias von ,bunsen1 born in #agia at ,korbach in ,waldeck1 was ,prussian ambassador at ,rome1 ,berne1 and ,london1 and settled later in ,heidelberg4 ,he was well read in theology and philology1 and gradually came1 in spite of his friendly relations with ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,,iv41 to entertain more liberal views on religion4 ,the issue of his ,bibelwerk fr die ,gemeinde was begun in #aheh4 ,he died in #ahfj4 7,best known in ,england as the ,chevalier ,bunsen47 #abh ,ch4 ,h4 ,weisse1 ,die evangelische ,geschichte1 ,leipzig1 #ahch4 ,die ,evangelienfrage in ihrem gegenwrtigen ,stadium4 7,the ,present ,position of the ,problem of the ,gospels47 ,leipzig1 #ahef4 ,he regarded the discourses as historical1 the narrative portions as of secondary origin4 ,alexander ,schweizer1 again1 wished to distinguish a ,jerusalem source and a ,galilaean source1 the latter being unreliable4 ,das ,evangelium ,johannis nach seinem inneren ,werte und seiner ,bedeutung fr das ,leben ,jesu1 #ahda4 7,the ,gospel of ,john considered in ,relation to its ,intrinsic ,value and its ,importance as a ,source for the ,life of ,jesus47 ,see p4 #abg f4 ,renan takes the narrative portions as authentic and the discourses as secondary4 #abi ,karl ,heinrich ,weizscker was born in #ahbb at hringen in ,wrtemberg4 ,he qualified as ,privat,docent in #ahdg and1 after acting in the meantime as ,court,chaplain and ,oberkonsistorialrat at ,stuttgart1 became in #ahfa the successor of ,baur at ,tbingen4 ,he died in #ahii4 #acj ,the works of a ,dutch writer named ,stricker1 ,jesus von ,nazareth 7#ahfh71 and of the ,englishman ,sir ,richard ,hanson1 ,the ,jesus of ,history 7#ahfi71 were based on ,mark without any reference to ,john4 #aca #a1 ,mark i42 #b1 ,mark ii4 #a;iii4 #f2 #c1 ,mark iii4 #gai2 #d1 ,mark iii4 #ai;iv4 #cd2 #e1 ,mark iv4 #cevi4 #f2 #f1 ,mark vi4 #gvii4 #cg2 #g1 ,mark viii4 #a;ix4 #ej4 #acb ,holtzmann1 ,kommentar zu den ,synoptikern1 #ahhi1 p4 #ahd4 ,the form of the expression 7,fluchtwege und ,reisen7 is derived from ,keim4 #acc 8,thus the course of ,jesus' life hastened forward to its tragic close1 a close which was foreseen and predicted by ,jesus ,himself with evergrowing clearness as the sole possible close1 but also that which alone was worthy of ,himself1 and which was necessary as being foreseen and predetermined in the counsel of ,god4 ,the hatred of the ,pharisees and the indifference of the people left from the first no other prospect open4 ,that hatred could not but be called forth in the fullest measure by the ruthless severity with which ,jesus exposed all that it was and implied--a heart in which there was no room for love1 a morality inwardly riddled with decay1 an outward show of virtue1 a hypocritical arrogance4 ,between two such unyielding opponents--a man who1 to all appearance1 aimed at using the ,messianic expectations of the people for his own ends1 and a hierarchy as tenacious of its claims and as sensitive to their infringement as any that has ever existed--it was certain that the breach must soon become irreparable4 ,it was easy to foresee1 too1 that even in ,galilee only a minority of the people would dare to face with ,him the danger of such a breach4 ,there was only one thing that could have averted the death sentence which had been early determined upon--a series of vigorous1 unambiguous demonstrations on the part of the people4 ,in order to provoke such demonstrations ,jesus would have needed1 if only for the moment1 to take into ,his service the popular1 powerful1 inflammatory ,messianic ideas1 or rather1 would have needed to place ,himself at their service4 ,his refusal to enter1 by so much as a single step1 upon this course1 which from any ordinary point of view of human policy would have been legitimate1 because the only practicable one1 was the sole sufficient and allexplaining cause of ,his destruction40--,holtzmann1 ,die synoptischen ,evangelien1 #ahfc1 pp4 #dhe1 #dhf4 #acd 8,ein innerliches ,reich der ,sinnesnderung40 8,sinnesnderung0 corresponds more exactly than 8repentance0 to the ,greek 7change of mind1 change of attitude71 but the phrase is no less elliptical in ,german than in ,english4 ,the meaning is doubtless 8kingdom based upon repentance1 consisting of those who have fulfilled this condition40 #ace ,omitted in some of the best texts4--,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #acf ,oskar ,holtzmann1 ,das ,leben ,jesu1 #aija4 #acg ,die modernen ,darstellungen des ,lebens ,jesu4 7,modern ,presentments of the ,life of ,jesus47 ,a discussion of the works of ,strauss1 ,renan1 and ,schenkel1 and of the ,essays of ,coquerel the younger1 ,scherer1 ,colani1 and ,keim4 ,a lecture by ,chr4 ,ernest ,luthardt1 ,leipzig4 #ast and #bnd editions1 #ahfd4 ,luthardt was born in #ahbc at ,maroldsweisach in ,lower ,franconia1 became ,docent at ,erlangen in #ahea1 was called to ,marburg as ,professor ,extraordinary in #ahed1 and to ,leipzig as ,ordinary ,professor in #ahef4 ,he died in #aijb4 #ach ,zur ,orientierung ber meine ,schrift 8,das ,charakterbild ,jesu40 7,explanations intended to place my work 8,a ,picture of the ,character of ,jesus0 in the proper light47 #ahfd4 ,die protestantische ,freiheit in ihrem gegenwrtigen ,kampfe mit der kirchlichen ,reaktion4 7,protestant ,freedom in its present ,struggle with ,ecclesiastical ,reaction47 #ahfe4 #aci ,der ,schenkel'sche ,handel in ,baden4 7,the ,schenkel ,controversy in ,baden47 7,a corrected reprint from number #dda of the ,national ,zeitung of ,september #ba1 #ahfd47 ,an appendix to ,der ,christus des ,glaubens und der ,jesus der ,geschichte4 #ahfe4 #adj ,theodor ,keim1 ,die ,geschichte ,jesu von ,nazara1 in ihrer ,verhaltung mit dem ,gesamtleben seines ,volkes frei untersucht und ausfhrlich erzhlt4 7,the ,history of ,jesus of ,nazara in ,relation to the ,general ,life of ,his ,people1 freely examined and fully narrated47 #c vols4 ,zurich1 #ahfgahgb4 ,vol4 i4 ,the ,day of ,preparation2 vol4 ii4 ,the ,year of ,teaching in ,galilee2 vol4 iii4 ,the ,death,passover 7,todesostern7 in ,jerusalem4 ,a short account in a more popular form appeared in #ahgb1 ,geschichte ,jesu nach den ,ergebnissen heutiger ,wissenschaft fr weitere ,kreise bersichtlich erzhlt4 7,the ,history of ,jesus according to the ,results of ,presentday ,criticism1 briefly narrated for the ,general ,reader47 #bnd ed41 #ahge4 ,karl ,theodor ,keim was born in #ahbe at ,stuttgart1 was ,repetent at ,tbingen from #ahea to #ahee1 and after he had been five years in the ministry1 became ,professor at ,zurich in #ahfj4 ,in #ahgc he accepted a call to ,giessen1 where he died in #ahgh4 #ada ,die menschliche ,entwicklung ,jesu ,christi4 ,see ,holtzmann1 ,die synoptischen ,evangelien1 #ahfc1 pp4 #gi4 ,this dissertation was followed by ,der geschichtliche ,christus4 #crd ed41 #ahff4 #adb ,geschichte ,jesu4 #bnd ed41 #ahge1 pp4 #bbh and #bbi4 #adc ,the ultimate reason why ,keim deliberately gives such prominence to the eschatology is that he holds to ,matthew1 and is therefore more under the direct impression of the masses of discourse in this ,gospel1 charged1 as they are1 with eschatological ideas1 than those writers who find their primary authority in ,mark1 where these discourses are lacking4 #add ,geschichte ,jesu4 ,nach akademischen ,vorlesungen von ,dr4 ,karl ,hase4 #ahgf4 ,special mention ought also to be made of the fine sketch of the ,life of ,jesus in ,a4 ,hausrath's ,neutestamentliche ,zeitgeschichte 7,history of ,new ,testament ,times71 #ast ed41 ,munich1 #ahfh ff42 #crd ed41 #a vol41 #ahgi1 pp4 #cbeeae2 ,die zeitgeschichtlichen ,beziehungen des ,lebens ,jesu 7,the ,relations of the ,life of ,jesus to the ,history of ,his time74 ,adolf ,hausrath was born at ,karlsruhe4 ,he was appointed ,professor of ,theology at ,heidelberg in #ahfg1 and died in #aiji4 #ade ,das ,leben ,jesu1 von ,willibald ,beyschlag3 ,pt4 i4 ,preliminary ,investigations1 #ahhe1 #dej pp42 pt4 ii4 ,narrative1 #ahhf1 #die pp4 ,joh4 ,heinr4 ,christoph ,willibald ,beyschlag was born in #ahbc at ,frankfort on,main1 and went to ,halle as ,professor in #ahfj4 ,his splendid eloquence made him one of the chief spokesmen of ,german ,protestantism4 ,as a teacher he exercised a remarkable and salutary influence1 although his scientific works are too much under the dominance of an apologetic of the heart4 ,he died in #aijj4 #adf ,bernhard ,weiss1 ,das ,leben ,jesu4 #b vols4 ,berlin1 #ahhb4 ,see also ,das ,markusevangelium1 #ahgb2 ,das ,matthusevangelium1 #ahgf2 and the ,lehrbuch der neutestamentlichen ,theologie1 #eth ed41 #ahhh4 ,bernhard ,weiss was born in #ahbg at ,knigsberg1 where he qualified as ,privat,docent in #aheb4 ,in #ahfc he went as ,ordinary ,professor to ,kiel1 and was called to ,berlin in the same capacity in #ahgg4 ,among the distinctly liberal ,lives of ,jesus of an earlier date1 that of ,w4 ,krger,velthusen 7,elberfeld1 #ahgb1 #bga pp47 might be mentioned if it were not so entirely uncritical4 ,although the author does not hold the ,fourth ,gospel to be apostolic he has no hesitation in making use of it as an historical source4 ,there is more sentiment than science1 too1 in the work of ,m4 ,g4 ,weitbrecht1 ,das ,leben ,jesu nach den vier ,evangelien1 #ahha4 ,a weakness in the treatment of the ,johannine question and a want of clearness on some other points disfigures the threevolume ,life of ,jesus of the ,paris professor1 ,e4 ,stapfer1 which is otherwise marked by much acumen and real depth of feeling4 ,vol4 i4 ,jsus,christ avant son ministre 7,fischbacher1 ,paris1 #ahif72 vol4 ii4 ,jsus ,christ pendant son ministre 7#ahig72 vol4 iii4 ,la ,mort et la rsurrection de ,jsus,christ 7#ahih74 ,f4 ,godet writes of 8,the ,life of ,jesus before ,his ,public ,appearance0 7,german translation by ,m4 ,reineck1 ,leben ,jesu vor seinem ffentlichen ,auftreten4 ,hanover1 #ahig74 ,g4 ,lngin founds his ,der ,christus der ,geschichte und sein ,christentum 7,the ,christ of ,history and ,his ,christianity7 on a purely ,synoptic basis4 #b vols41 #ahigahih4 ,the ,english ,life of ,jesus ,christ1 by ,james ,stalker1 ,d4 ,d4 7now ,professor of ,church ,history in the ,united ,free ,church ,college1 ,aberdeen71 passed through numberless editions 7,german1 #ahih2 ,tbingen1 #dth ed41 #aija74 ,very pithy and interesting is ,dr4 ,percy ,gardner's ,exploratio ,evangelica4 ,a ,brief ,examination of the ,basis and ,origin of ,christian ,belief4 #ahii2 #bnd ed41 #aijg4 ,a work which is free from all compromise is ,h4 ,ziegler's ,der geschichtliche ,christus 7,the ,historical ,christ74 #ahia4 ,for this reason the five lectures1 delivered in ,liegnitz1 out of which it is composed1 attracted such unfavourable attention that the ,ecclesiastical ,council took proceedings against the author4 7,see the ,christliche ,welt1 #ahia1 pp4 #efcefh1 #hgdhgg47 #adg ,holtzmann1 ,neutestamentliche ,einleitung1 #bnd ed41 #ahhf4 ,weizscker declares himself in the ,theologische ,literaturzeitung for #ahhb1 ,no4 #bc1 and ,das apostolische ,zeitalter1 #bnd ed41 #ahij4 ,hase and ,schenkel accepted this position in principle1 but were careful to keep open a line of retreat4 ,towards the end of the 'seventies the rejection of the ,fourth ,gospel as an historical source was almost universally recognised in the critical camp4 ,it is taken for granted in the ,life of ,jesus by ,karl ,wittichen 7,jena1 #ahgf1 #cig pp471 which might be reckoned one of the most clearly conceived works of this kind based on the ,marcan hypothesis if its arrangement were not so bad4 ,it is partly in the form of a commentary1 inasmuch as the presentment of the life takes the form of a discussion of sixtyseven sections4 ,the detail is very interesting4 ,it makes an impression of navet when we find a series of sections grouped under the title1 8,the establishment of ,christianity in ,galilee40 ,no stress is laid on the significance of ,jesus' journey to the north4 ,wittichen1 also1 misled by ,luke1 asserts1 just as ,weisse had done1 that ,jesus had worked in ,judaea for some time prior to the triumphal entry4 #adh ,h4 ,h4 ,wendt1 ,die ,lehre ,jesu1 vol4 i4 ,die evangelischen ,quellenberichte ber die ,lehre ,jesu4 7,the ,record of the ,teaching of ,jesus in the ,gospel ,sources47 #ced pp4 ,gttingen1 #ahhf2 vol4 ii41 #ahij2 ,eng4 trans41 #ahib4 ,second ,german edition in one vol41 #fbf pp41 #aija4 ,see also the same writer's ,das ,johannesevangelium4 ,untersuchung seiner ,entstehung und seines geschichtlichen ,wertes1 #aijj4 7,the ,gospel of ,john3 an ,investigation of its ,origin and ,historical ,value47 ,hans ,heinrich ,wendt was born in #ahec at ,hamburg1 qualified as ,privat,docent in #ahgg at ,gttingen1 was subsequently ,extraordinary ,professor at ,kiel and ,heidelberg1 and now works at ,jena4 #adi ,johannis ,lightfooti1 ,doctoris ,angli et ,collegii ,s4 ,catharinae in ,cantabrigiensi ,academia ,praefecti1 ,horae ,hebraicae et ,talmudicae in ,quatuor ,evangelistas 444 nunc secundum in ,germania junctim cum ,indicibus locorum ,scripturae rerumque ac verborum necessariis editae e ,museo ,io4 ,benedicti ,carpzovii4 ,lipsiae4 ,anno ,,mdclxxxiv4 #aej ,the pioneer works in the study of apocalyptic were ,dillmann's ,henoch1 #ahea2 and ,hilgenfeld's ,jdische ,apokalyptik1 #aheg4 #aea ,jesus ,nazarenus und die erste christliche ,zeit1 mit den beiden ersten ,erzhlern1 von ,gustav ,volkmar1 ,zurich1 #ahhb4 ,to which must be added3 ,markus und die ,synopse der ,evangelien1 nach dem urkundlichen ,text2 und das ,geschichtliche vom ,leben ,jesu4 7,mark and ,synoptic ,material in the ,gospels1 according to the original text2 and the historical elements in the ,life of ,jesus47 ,zurich1 #ahfi2 #bnd edition1 #ahgf1 #gch pp4 ,volkmar was born in #ahji1 and was living at ,fulda as a ,gymnasium 7,high ,school7 teacher1 when in #aheb he was arrested by the ,hessian ,government on account of his political views1 and subsequently deprived of his post4 ,in #ahec he went to ,zurich1 where a new prospect opened to him as a ,docent in theology4 ,he died in #ahic4 #aeb ,kienlen1 8,die eschatologische ,rede ,jesu ,matt4 xxiv4 cum ,parall40 7,the ,eschatological ,discourse of ,jesus in ,matt4 xxiv4 with the parallel passages71 ,jahrbuch fr die ,theologie1 #ahfi1 pp4 #gjfgji4 ,analysis of other attempts directed to the same end in ,weiffenbach1 ,der ,wiederkunftsgedanke1 p4 #ca ff4 #aec ,wilhelm ,weiffenbach1 ,director of the ,seminary for ,theological ,students at ,friedberg1 was born in #ahdb at ,bornheim in ,rhenish ,hesse4 #aed ,the ,english reader will find a constructive analysis of what is known as the 8,little ,apocalypse0 in ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 art4 8,gospels10 col4 #aheg4 ,it consists of the verses ,matt4 xxiv4 #fh1 #aebb1 #bica1 #cd1 corresponding to ,mark xiii4 #gi;a1 #adbj1 #bdbg1 #cj4 ,according to the theory first sketched by ,colani these verses formed an independent ,apocalypse which was embedded in the ,gospel by the ,evangelist4--,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #aee ,untersuchungen ber die evangelische ,geschichte1 #ahfd1 pp4 #abaabf4 #aef 8ber die ,komposition der eschatologischen ,rede ,matt4 xxiv4 #d ff40 7,the ,composition of the ,eschatological ,discourse in ,matt4 xxiv4 #d ff471 ,jahrbuch f4 d4 ,theol4 vol4 xiii41 #ahfh1 pp4 #acdadi4 #aeg ,by 8,capernaitic0 ,weiffenbach apparently means literalistic2 cf4 ,john vi4 #eb f4 #aeh ,wilhelm ,baldensperger1 at present ,professor at ,giessen1 was born in #ahef at ,mlhausen in ,alsace4 #aei ,a new edition appeared in #ahia4 ,there is no fundamental alteration1 but in consequence of the polemic against opponents who had arisen in the meantime it is fuller4 ,the first part of a third edition appeared in #aijc under the title ,die messianischapokalyptischen ,hoffnungen des ,judentums4 ,see also the interesting use made of ,late,jewish and ,rabbinic ideas in ,alfred ,edersheim's ,the ,life and ,times of ,jesus the ,messiah1 #bnd ed41 ,london1 #ahhd1 #b vols4 #afj ,emil ,schrer1 ,geschichte des jdischen ,volkes im ,zeitalter ,jesu ,christi4 7,history of the ,jewish ,people in the ,time of ,christ47 #bnd ed41 part second1 #ahhf1 pp4 #dag ff4 ,here is to be found also a bibliography of the older literature of the subject4 #crd ed41 #ahhi1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #dih ff4 ,emil ,schrer was born at ,augsburg in #ahdd1 and from #ahgc onwards was successively ,professor at ,leipzig1 ,giessen1 and ,kiel1 and is now 7#aiji7 at ,gttingen4 ,the latest presentment of ,jewish apocalyptic is ,die jdische ,eschatologie von ,daniel bis ,akiba1 by ,paul ,volz1 ,pastor in ,leonberg4 ,tbingen1 #aijc4 #dab pp4 ,the material is very completely given4 ,unfortunately the author has chosen the systematic method of treating his subject1 instead of tracing the history of its development1 the only right way4 ,as a consequence ,jesus and ,paul occupy far too little space in this survey of ,jewish apocalyptic4 ,for a treatment of the origin of ,jewish eschatology from the point of view of the history of religion see ,hugo ,gressmann1 now ,professor at ,berlin1 ,der ,ursprung der israelitischjdischen ,eschatologie 7,the ,origin of the ,israelitish and ,jewish ,eschatology71 ,gttingen1 #aije4 #cgg pp4 #afa ,johannes ,weiss1 now ,professor at ,marburg1 was born at ,kiel in #ahfc4 #afb ,it may be mentioned that this work had been preceded 7in #ahia7 by two ,leiden prize dissertations1 ber die ,lehre vom ,reich ,gottes im ,neuen ,testament 7,concerning the ,kingdom of ,god in the ,new ,testament71 one of them by ,issel1 the other1 which lays especially strong emphasis upon the eschatology1 by ,schmoller4 #afc ,wilhelm ,bousset1 now ,professor in ,gttingen1 born #ahfe at ,lbeck #afd ,theol4 ,rundschau 7#aija71 #d1 pp4 #hiajc4 #afe ,w4 ,bousset1 ,die jdische ,apokalyptik in ihrer religionsgeschichtlichen ,herkunft und ihrer ,bedeutung fr das ,neue ,testament4 7,the ,origin of ,apocalyptic as indicated by ,comparative ,religion1 and its significance for the understanding of the ,new ,testament47 ,berlin1 #aijc4 #fg pp4 ,see also ,w4 ,bousset1 ,die ,religion des ,judentums im neutestamentlichen ,zeitalter1 #eab pp41 #aijb4 ,for the assertion of ,parsic influences see also ,stave1 ,der ,einfluss des ,parsismus auf das ,judentum4 ,haarlem1 #ahih4 #aff ,der ,grundcharakter der ,ethik ,jesu im ,verhltnis zu den messianischen ,hoffnungen seines ,volkes und zu seinem eigenen ,messiasbewusstsein4 ,freiburg1 #ahie1 #aai pp4 ,see also his inaugural dissertation of #ahif1 ,le ,principe de la morale de ,jsus4 ,paris1 #ahif4 ,a4 ,k4 ,rogers1 ,the ,life and ,teachings of ,jesus2 a ,critical ,analysis1 etc4 7,london and ,new ,york1 #ahid71 regards ,jesus' teaching as purely ethical1 refusing to admit any eschatology at all4 #afg ,paris1 #b vols41 #ejj and #eab pp4 #afh ,w4 ,weiffenbach1 ,die ,frage der ,wiederkunst ,jesu4 7,the ,question concerning the ,second ,coming of ,jesus47 ,friedberg1 #aija4 #afi ,a4 ,titius1 ,die neutestamentliche ,lehre von der ,seligkeit und ihre ,bedeutung fr die ,gegenwart4 ,i4 ,teil3 ,jesu ,lehre vom ,reich ,gottes4 7,the ,new ,testament ,doctrine of ,blessedness and its ,significance for the ,present4 ,pt4 ,i41 ,jesus' ,doctrine of the ,kingdom of ,god47 ,arthur ,titius1 now ,professor at ,kiel1 was born in #ahfd at ,sensburg4 #agj ,die eschatologischen ,aussagen ,jesu in den synoptischen ,evangelien1 #afg pp4 ,erich ,haupt1 now ,professor in ,halle1 was born in #ahda at ,stralsund4 #aga ,cf4 the preface to the #bnd ed4 of ,joh4 ,weiss's ,die ,predigt ,jesu vom ,reiche ,gottes4 ,gttingen1 #aijj4 #agb ,tbingen,leipzig1 #aija1 #daj pp42 #bnd ed41 #aijd4 ,paul ,wernle1 now ,professor of ,church ,history at ,basle1 was born in ,zurich1 #ahgb4 #agc ,israelitische und jdische ,geschichte1 #ast ed41 #ahid1 pp4 #afcafh2 #bnd ed41 #ahie1 pp4 #aihbjd2 #crd ed41 #ahig2 #dth ed41 #aija1 pp4 #chjcid4 ,see also his ,skizzen 7,sketches71 pp4 #f1 #ahg ff4 ,see also ,j4 ,wellhausen1 ,das ,evangelium ,marci1 #aijc1 #bnd ed41 #aiji2 ,das ,evangelium ,matthi1 #aijd2 ,das ,evangelium ,lucae1 #aijd4 ,julius ,wellhausen1 now ,professor at ,gttingen1 was born in #ahdd at ,hameln4 #agd ,emil ,schrer1 ,das messianische ,selbstbewusstsein ,jesu ,christi4 7,the ,messianic ,selfconsciousness of ,jesus ,christ47 #aijc1 #bd pp4 ,according to ,j4 ,meinhold1 too1 in ,jesus und das alte ,testament 7,jesus and the ,old ,testament71 #ahif1 ,jesus did not purpose to be the ,messiah of ,israel4 #age ,die evangelische ,geschichte und der ,ursprung des ,christentums auf ,grund einer ,kritik der ,berichte ber das ,leiden und die ,auferstehung ,jesu4 7,the ,gospel ,history and the ,origin of ,christianity considered in the light of a critical investigation of the ,reports of the ,suffering and ,resurrection of ,jesus47 ,by ,dr4 ,w4 ,brandt1 ,leipzig1 #ahic1 #ehh pp4 ,wilhelm ,brandt was born in #ahee of ,german parents in ,amsterdam and became a pastor of the ,dutch ,reformed ,church4 ,in #ahia he resigned this office and studied in ,strassburg and ,berlin4 ,in #ahic he was appointed to lecture in ,general ,history of ,religion as a member of the theological faculty of ,amsterdam4 #agf ,ad4 ,jlicher1 ,die ,gleichnisreden ,jesu4 ,vol4 i41 #ahhh4 ,the substance of it had already been published in a different form4 ,freiburg1 #ahhf4 ,adolf ,jlicher1 at present ,professor in ,marburg1 was born in #aheg at ,falkenberg4 #agg ,w4 ,bousset1 ,jesu ,predigt in ihrem ,gegensatz zum ,judentum4 ,gttingen1 #ahib4 #agh ,ad4 ,jlicher1 ,die ,gleichnisreden ,jesu1 #bnd pt4 7,exposition of the ,parables in the first three ,gospels47 ,freiburg1 #ahii1 #fda pp4 ,chr4 ,a4 ,bugge1 ,die ,hauptparabeln ,jesu 7,the most important ,parables of ,jesus71 ,german1 from the ,norwegian1 ,giessen1 #aijc1 rightly remarks on the obscure and inexplicable character of some of the parables1 but makes no attempt to deal with it from the historical point of view4 #agi ,arnold ,meyer1 ,jesu ,muttersprache1 #ahif4 ,p4 ,w4 ,schmidt1 too1 in his ,geschichte ,jesu 7,freiburg1 #ahii71 defends the same interpretation1 and seeks to explain this obscure saying by the other about the 8strait gate40 #ahj ,die ,predigt ,jesu vom ,reiche ,gottes1 #bnd ed41 #aijj1 p4 #aib ff4 #aha ,stud4 ,krit41 #ahcf1 pp4 #ijabb4 #ahb ,see also ,die ,vorstellungen vom ,messias und vom ,gottesreich bei den ,synoptikern4 7,the ,conceptions of the ,messiah and the ,kingdom of ,god in the ,synoptic ,gospels47 ,by ,ludwig ,paul4 ,bonn1 #ahie4 #acj pp4 ,this comprehensive study discusses all the problems which are referred to below4 ,matt4 xi4 #abad is discussed under the heading 8,the ,hinderers of the ,kingdom of ,god40 #ahc ,a4 ,hilgenfeld1 ,zeitschr4 f4 wiss4 ,theol41 #ahhh1 pp4 #dhhdih2 #ahib1 pp4 #ddedfd4 #ahd ,orello ,cone1 8,jesus' ,selfdesignation in the ,synoptic ,gospels10 ,the ,new ,world1 #ahic1 pp4 #dibeah4 #ahe ,h4 ,l4 ,oort1 ,die uitdrukking in het ,nieuwe ,testament4 7,the ,expression ,son of ,man in the ,new ,testament47 ,leyden1 #ahic4 #ahf ,r4 ,h4 ,charles1 8,the ,son of ,man10 ,expos4 ,times1 #ahic4 #ahg ,die jdische ,apokalyptik in ihrer religionsgeschichtlichen ,herkunft und ihrer ,bedeutung fr das ,neue ,testament4 7,jewish ,apocalyptic in its religioushistorical origin and in its significance for the ,new ,testament47 #aijc4 ,on the eschatology of ,jesus see also ,schwartzkoppf1 ,die ,weissagungen ,jesu ,christi von seinen ,tode1 seiner ,auferstehung und ,wiederkunft und ihre ,erfllung4 7,the ,predictions of ,jesus ,christ concerning ,his ,death1 ,his ,resurrection1 and ,second ,coming1 and their ,fulfilment47 #ahie4 ,p4 ,wernle1 ,die ,reichgotteshofnung in den ltesten christlichen ,dokumenten und bei ,jesus4 7,the ,hope of the ,kingdom of ,god in the most ancient ,christian ,documents and as held by ,jesus47 #ahh ,arnold ,meyer1 now ,professor of ,new ,testament ,theology and ,pastoral ,theology at ,zurich1 and formerly at ,bonn1 was born at ,wesel in #ahfa4 #ahi ,giambern4 de ,rossi1 ,dissertazione della lingua propria di ,christo e degli ,ebrei nazionali della ,palestina da' ,tempi de' ,maccabei in disamina del sentimento di un recente scrittore ,italiano4 ,parma1 #aggb4 #aij ,der ,bericht des ,matthus von ,jesu dem ,messias4 7,matthew's account of ,jesus the ,messiah47 ,altona1 #agib4 ,according to ,meyer1 p4 #aje ff41 this was a very striking performance4 #aia ,the name ,chaldee was due to the mistaken belief that the language in which parts of ,daniel and ,ezra were written was really the vernacular of ,babylonia4 ,that vernacular1 now known to us from cuneiform tablets and inscriptions1 is a ,semitic language1 but quite different from ,aramaic4--,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #aib ,emil ,friedrich ,kautzsch was born in #ahda at ,plauen in ,saxony1 and studied in ,leipzig1 where he became ,privat,docent in #ahfi4 ,in #ahgb he was called as ,professor to ,basle1 in #ahhj to ,tbingen1 in #ahhh to ,halle4 #aic ,gustaf ,dalman1 ,professor at ,leipzig1 was born in #ahfe at ,niesky4 ,in addition to the works of his named above1 see also ,der leidende und der sterbende ,messias 7,the ,suffering and ,dying ,messiah71 #ahhh2 and ,was sagt der ,talmud ber ,jesum8 7,what does the ,talmud say about ,jesus871 #ahia4 #aid #b ,kings xviii4 #bf ff4 #aie ,studia ,biblica ,i4 ,essays in ,biblical ,archology and ,criticism and ,kindred ,subjects by ,members of the ,university of ,oxford4 ,clarendon ,press1 #ahhe1 pp4 #cigd4 ,see ,meyer1 p4 #bi ff4 #aif ,franz ,delitzsch1 ,die ,bcher des ,neuen ,testaments aus dem ,griechischen ins ,hebrische bersetzt4 #ahgg4 7,the ,books of the ,n4,t4 translated from ,greek into ,hebrew47 ,this work has been circulated by thousands among ,jews throughout the whole world4 ,delitzsch was born in #ahac at ,leipzig and became ,privat,docent there in #ahdb1 went to ,rostock as ,professor in #ahdf1 to ,erlangen in #ahej1 and returned in #ahfg to ,leipzig4 ,by conviction he was a strict ,lutheran in theology4 ,he was one of the leading experts in ,late ,jewish and ,talmudic literature4 ,he died in #ahij4 #aig ,see ,meyer1 p4 #dg ff4 #aih ,see ,meyer1 p4 #fa ff4 #aii ,hans ,lietzmann1 now ,professor in ,jena1 was born in #ahge at ,dsseldorf4 ,until his call to ,jena he worked as a ,privat,docent at ,bonn4 ,he has done some very meritorious work in the publication of ,early ,christian writings4 #bjj ,see ,meyer1 p4 #ada ff4 #bja 8,de ,oorsprong van de uitdrukking ',zoon des ,menschen' als evangelische ,messiastitel10 ,theol4 ,tijdschr41 #ahid4 7,the ,origin of the ,expression 8,son of ,man0 as a ,title of the ,messiah in the ,gospels47 #bjb ,h4 ,lietzmann1 8,zur ,menschensohnfrage0 7,the ,sonof,man ,problem71 ,theol4 ,arb4 des ,rhein4 wissenschaftl4 ,predigervereins1 #ahih4 #bjc ,n4 ,schmidt1 8,was a ,messianic title80 ,journal of the ,society for ,biblical ,literature1 xv41 #ahif4 #bjd ,p4 ,schmiedel1 8,der ,name ,menschensohn und das ,messiasbewusstsein ,jesu0 7,the ,designation ,son of ,man and the ,messianic ,consciousness of ,jesus71 #ahih1 ,prot4 ,monatsh4 #b1 pp4 #bebbfg4 #bje ,h4 ,gunkel1 ,z4 w4 ,th41 #ahii1 #db1 pp4 #ehafaa4 #bjf ,for the last phase of the discussion we may name3 ,wellhausen1 ,skizzen und ,vorarbeiten 7,sketches and ,studies71 #ahii1 pp4 #ahgbae1 where he throws further light on ,dalman's philological objections2 and goes on to deny ,jesus' use of the expression4 ,w4 ,baldensperger1 8,die neueste ,forschung ber den ,menschensohn10 ,theol4 ,rundschau1 #aijj1 #c1 pp4 #bjabaj1 #bdcbee4 ,p4 ,fiebig1 ,der ,menschensohn4 ,tbingen1 #aija4 ,p4 ,w4 ,schmiedel1 8,die neueste ,auffassung des ,namens ,menschensohn10 ,prot4 ,monatsh4 #e1 pp4 #ccccea1 #aija4 7,the ,latest ,view of the ,designation ,son of ,man47 ,p4 ,w4 ,schmidt1 ,die ,geschichte ,jesu1 ii4 7,erluterungen--,explanations74 ,tbingen1 #aijd1 p4 #aeg ff4 #bjg ,dalman's reputation as an authority upon ,jewish ,aramaic is so deservedly high1 that it is necessary to point out that his solution did not1 as ,dr4 ,schweitzer seems to say1 entirely dispose of the linguistic difficulties raised by ,lietzmann as to the meaning and use of barnsh and barnsh in ,aramaic4 ,the ,english reader will find the linguistic facts well put in sections #d and #cb of ,n4 ,schmidt's article 8,son of ,man0 in ,encyclopdia ,biblica 7cols4 #dgjh1 #dgbc71 or he may consult ,prof4 ,bevan's review of ,dalman's ,worte ,jesu in the ,critical ,review for #ahii1 p4 #adh ff4 ,the main point is that and are equally legitimate translations of barnsh4 ,thus the contrast in the ,greek between and in ,mark ii4 #bg and #bh1 or again in ,mark viii4 #cf and #ch1 disappears on retranslation into the dialect spoken by ,jesus4 ,whether this linguistic fact makes the sayings in which occurs unhistorical is a further question1 upon which scholars can take1 and have taken1 opposite opinions4--,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #bjh ,see ,worte ,jesu1 #ahih1 p4 #aia ff4 7 ,e4 ,t4 p4 #bcd ff474 #bji ,see the classical discussion in ,j4 ,weiss1 ,die ,predigt ,jesus vom ,reiche ,gottes1 #ahib1 #ast ed41 p4 #eb ff4 ,in the second edition1 of #aijj1 p4 #afj ff41 he allows himself to be led astray by the 8chiefest apostles0 of modern theology to indulge in the subtleties of finespun psychology1 and explain ,jesus' way of speaking of ,himself in the third person as the ,son of ,man as due to the 8extreme modesty of ,jesus10 a modesty which did not forsake ,him in the presence of ,his judges4 ,this recent access of psychologising exegesis has not conduced to clearness of presentation1 and the preference for the ,lucan narrative does not so much contribute to throw light on the facts as to discover in the thoughts of ,jesus subtleties of which the historical ,jesus never dreamt4 ,if the ,lord always used the term ,son of ,man when speaking of ,his ,messiahship1 the reason was that this was the only way in which ,he could speak of it at all1 since the ,messiahship was not yet realised1 but was only to be so at the appearing of the ,son of ,man4 ,for a consistent1 purely historical1 nonpsychological exposition of the ,sonof,man passages see ,albert ,schweitzer1 ,das ,messianitts und ,leidensgeheimnis4 7,the ,secret of the ,messiahship and the ,passion47 ,a sketch of the ,life of ,jesus4 ,tbingen1 #aija4 #baj ,see ,dalman1 p4 #fj ff4 ,john ,lightfoot1 ,horae ,hebraicae et ,talmudicae in quatuor ,evangelistas4 ,edited by ,j4 ,b4 ,carpzov4 ,leipzig1 #afhd4 ,christian ,schttgen1 ,horae ,hebraicae et ,talmudicae in universum ,novum ,testamentum4 ,dresden,leipzig1 #agcc4 ,joh4 ,gerh4 ,meuschen1 ,novum ,testamentum ex ,talmude et antiquitatibus ,hebraeorum illustratum4 ,leipzig1 #agcf4 ,j4 ,jakob4 ,wettstein1 ,novum ,testamentum ,graecum4 ,amsterdam1 #agea and #ageb4 ,f4 ,nork1 ,rabbinische ,quellen und ,parallelen zu neutestamentlichen ,schriftstellen1 ,leipzig1 #ahci4 ,franz ,delitzsch1 8,horae ,hebraicae et ,talmudicae10 in the ,luth4 ,zeitsch41 #ahgfahgh4 ,carl ,siegfried1 ,analecta ,rabbinica1 #ahge2 8,rabbin4 ,analekten10 ,jahrb4 f4 prot4 ,theol41 #ahgf4 ,a4 ,wnsche1 ,neue ,beitrge zur ,erluterung der ,evangelien aus ,talmud und ,midrasch4 7,contributions to the ,exposition of the ,gospels from ,talmud and ,midrash47 ,gttingen1 #ahgh4 #baa ,leipzig1 #ahhj2 #bnd ed41 #ahig4 #bab ,cf4 for what follows1 ,jlicher1 ,die ,gleichnisreden ,jesu1 i41 #ahhh1 p4 #afd ff4 #bac ,robert ,sheringham of ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge1 a royalist divine1 published an edition of the ,talmudic tractate ,yoma4 ,london1 #afdh4--;,f4 ,c4 ,b4 #bad ,t4 ,tal1 ,professor ,oort und der ,talmud1 #ahhj4 ,see upon this ,van ,manen1 ,jahrb4 f4 prot4 ,theol41 #ahhd1 p4 #efi4 ,the best collection of ,talmudic parables is1 according to ,jlicher1 that of ,prof4 ,guis4 ,levi1 translated by ,l4 ,seligman as ,parabeln1 ,legenden und ,gedanken aus ,talmud und ,midrasch4 ,leipzig1 #bnd ed41 #ahgg4 #bae ,the question may be said to have been provisionally settled by ,paul ,fiebig's work1 ,altjdische ,gleichnisse und die ,gleichnisse ,jesu 7,ancient ,jewish ,parables and the ,parables of ,jesus71 ,tbingen1 #aijd1 in which he gives some fifty ,late,jewish parables1 and compares them with those of ,jesus1 the final result being to show more clearly than ever the uniqueness and absoluteness of ,his creations4 #baf ,see the explanation by means of the ,aramaic of a selection of the sayings of ,jesus in ,meyer1 pp4 #gbij4 ,a ,judaism more under ,parsee influence is assumed as explaining the origin of ,christianity by ,e4 ,bklen1 ,die ,verwandschaft der jdischchristlichen mit der parsischen ,eschatologie 7,the ,relation of ,jewish,christian to ,persian ,eschatology71 #aijb1 #eaj ff4 #bag ,the same view is expressed by ,wellhausen1 ,israelitische und jdische ,geschichte1 #crd ed41 p4 #cha1 note #b2 and by ,albert ,schweitzer1 ,das ,messianitts und ,leidensgeheimnis1 #aija4 #bah ,see the ,apocalypse of ,baruch1 and ,fourth ,ezra4 #bai ,la ,vie inconnue de ,jsus,christ1 par ,nicolas ,notowitsch4 ,paris1 #ahid4 #bbj ,see ,jlicher1 ,gleichnisreden ,jesu1 i41 #ahhh1 p4 #agb ff4 #bba ,max ,mller1 ,india1 ,what can it teach us8 ,london1 #ahhc1 p4 #bgi4 #bbb ,rudolf ,seydel1 ,professor in the ,university of ,leipzig1 ,das ,evangelium von ,jesu in seinen ,verhltnissen zu ,buddha,sage und ,buddha,lehre mit fortlaufender ,rcksicht auf andere ,religionskreise4 7,the ,gospel of ,jesus in its relation to the ,buddha ,legend and the ,teaching of ,buddha1 with constant reference to other religious groups47 ,leipzig1 #ahhb1 p4 #ccg4 ,other works by the same author are ,buddha und ,christus4 ,deutsche ,bcherei ,no4 #cc1 ,breslau1 ,schottlnder1 #ahhd4 ,die ,buddha,legende und das ,leben ,jesu nach den ,evangelien4 #bnd ed4 ,weimar1 #ahig4 7,edited by the son of the late author47 #abi pp4 ,see also on this question ,van den ,bergh van ,eysinga1 ,indische ,einflsse auf evangelische ,erzhlungen4 ,gttingen1 #aijd4 #ajd pp4 ,according to ,j4 ,m4 ,robertson1 ,christianity and ,mythology 7,london1 #aijj71 the ,christ,myth is merely a form of the ,krishna,myth4 ,the whole ,gospel tradition is to be symbolically interpreted4 #bbc ,das ,christentum des ,neuen ,testaments1 #aije4 #bbd ,heinrich ,julius ,holtzmann1 ,handkommentar4 ,die ,synoptiker4 #ast ed41 #ahhi2 #crd ed41 #aija4 ,lehrbuch der neutestamentlichen ,theologie1 #ahif1 vol4 i4 #bbe ,in the ,catholic ,church the study of the ,life of ,jesus has remained down to the present day entirely free from scepticism4 ,the reason of that is1 that in principle it has remained at a pre,straussian standpoint1 and does not venture upon an unreserved application of historical considerations either to the miracle question or to the ,johannine question1 and naturally therefore resigns the attempt to take account of and explain the great historical problems4 ,we may name the following ,lives of ,jesus produced by ,german ,catholic writers3-- ,joh4 ,nep4 ,sepp1 ,das ,leben ,jesu ,christi4 ,regensburg1 #ahdcahdf4 #g vols41 #bnd ed41 #ahecahfb4 ,peter ,schegg1 ,sechs ,bcher des ,lebens ,jesu4 7,the ,life of ,jesus in ,six ,books47 ,freiburg1 #ahgdahge4 c4 #abjj pp4 ,joseph ,grimm1 ,das ,leben ,jesu4 ,wrzburg1 #bnd ed41 #ahijaijc4 #f vols4 ,richard von ,kralik1 ,jesu ,leben und ,werk4 ,kempten,nrnberg1 #aijd4 #dha pp4 ,w4 ,capitaine1 ,jesus von ,nazareth4 ,regensburg1 #aije4 #aib pp4 ,how narrow are the limits within which the ,catholic study of the life of ,jesus moves even when it aims at scientific treatment1 is illustrated by ,hermann ,schell's ,christus 7,mainz1 #aijc4 #aeb pp474 ,after reading the fortytwo questions with which he introduces his narrative one might suppose that the author was well aware of the bearing of all the historical problems of the life of ,jesus1 and intended to supply an answer to them4 ,instead of doing so1 however1 he adopts as the work proceeds more and more the rle of an apologist1 not facing definitely either the miracle question or the ,johannine question1 but gliding over the difficulties by the aid of ingenious headings1 so that in the end his book almost takes the form of an explanatory text to the eightynine illustrations which adorn the book and make it difficult to read4 ,in ,france1 ,renan's work gave the incentive to an extensive ,catholic 8,lifeof,jesus0 literature4 ,we may name the following3-- ,louis ,veuillot1 ,la ,vie de notre ,seigneur ,jsus,christ4 ,paris1 #ahfd4 #eji pp4 ,german by ,waldeyer4 ,kln,neuss1 #ahfd4 #egc pp4 ,h4 ,wallon1 ,vie de notre ,seigneur ,jsus,christ4 ,paris1 #ahfe4 #cee pp4 ,a work which met with a particularly favourable reception was that of ,pre ,didon1 the ,dominican1 ,jsus,christ1 ,paris1 #ahia1 #b vols41 vol4 i4 #dhc pp41 vol4 ii4 #dfi pp4 ,the ,german translation is dated #ahie4 ,in the same year there appeared a new edition of the 8,bitter ,sufferings of ,our ,lord ,jesus ,christ0 7see above1 p4 #aji f47 by ,katharina ,emmerich2 the cheap popular edition of the translation of ,renan's 8,life of ,jesus02 and the eighth edition of ,strauss's 8,life of ,jesus for the ,german ,people40 ,we may quote from the ecclesiastical ,approbation printed at the beginning of ,didon's ,life of ,jesus4 8,if the author sometimes seems to speak the language of his opponents1 it is at once evident that he has aimed at defeating them on their own ground1 and he is particularly successful in doing so when he confronts their irreligious a priori theories with the positive arguments of history40 ,as a matter of fact the work is skilfully written1 but without a spark of understanding of the historical questions4 ,all honour to ,alfred ,loisy6 7,le ,quatrime vangile1 ,paris1 #aijc1 #ifj pp471 who takes a clear view on the ,johannine question1 and denies the existence of a ,johannine historical tradition4 ,but what that means for the ,catholic camp may be recognised from the excitement produced by the book and its express condemnation4 ,see also the same writer's ,l'vangile et l'glise 7,german translation1 ,munich1 #aijd1 #ahi pp471 in which ,loisy here and there makes good historical points against ,harnack's 8,what is ,christianity80 #bbf ,oskar ,holtzmann1 ,professor of ,theology at ,giessen1 was born in #ahei at ,stuttgart4 #bbg ,this suggestion reminds us involuntarily of the old rationalistic ,lives of ,jesus1 which are distressed that ,jesus should have injured the good people of the country of the ,gesarenes by sacrificing their swine in healing the demoniac4 ,a good deal of old rationalistic material crops up in the very latest ,lives of ,jesus1 as cannot indeed fail to be the case in view of the arbitrary interpretation of detail which is common to both4 ,according to ,oskar ,holtzmann the barren figtree has also a symbolical meaning4 8,it is a pledge given by ,god to ,jesus that ,his faith shall not be put to shame in the great work of ,his life40 #bbh ,isaiah lxii4 #aa1 8,say ye to the daughter of ,zion1 ,behold1 thy salvation cometh40 #bbi 8,for ,jesus ,himself10 ,oskar ,holtzmann argues1 8this discovery0--he means the antinomy which ,he had discovered in ,psalm cx4--8disposed of a doubt which had always haunted him4 ,if ,he had really known ,himself to be descended from the ,davidic line1 ,he would certainly not have publicly suggested a doubt as to the ,davidic descent of the ,messiah40 #bcj ,oskar ,holtzmann's work1 ,war ,jesus ,ekstatiker8 7,tbingen1 #aijc1 #aci pp47 is in reality a new reading of the life of ,jesus4 ,by emphasising the ecstatic element he breaks with the 8natural0 conception of the life and teaching of ,jesus2 and1 in so far1 approaches the eschatological view4 ,but he gives a very wide significance to the term ecstatic1 subsuming under it1 it might almost be said1 all the eschatological thoughts and utterances of ,jesus4 ,he explains1 for instance1 that 8the conviction of the approaching destruction of existing conditions is ecstatic40 ,at the same time1 the only purpose served by the hypothesis of ecstasy is to enable the author to attribute to ,jesus 8,the belief that in ,his own work the ,kingdom of ,god was already beginning1 and the promise of the ,kingdom to individuals2 this can only be considered ecstatic40 ,the opposites which ,bousset brings together by the conception of paradox are united by ,holtzmann by means of the hypothesis of ecstasy4 ,that is1 however1 to play fast and loose with the meaning of 8ecstasy40 ,an ecstasy is1 in the usual understanding of the word1 an abnormal1 transient condition of excitement in which the subject's natural capacity for thought and feeling1 and therewith all impressions from without1 are suspended1 being superseded by an intense mental excitation and activity4 ,jesus may possibly have been in an ecstatic state at ,his baptism and at the transfiguration4 ,what ,o4 ,holtzmann represents as a kind of permanent ecstatic state is rather an eschatological fixed idea4 ,with eschatology1 ecstasy has no essential connexion4 ,it is possible to be eschatologically minded without being an ecstatic1 and vice versa4 ,philo attributes a great importance to ecstasy in his religious life1 but he was scarcely1 if at all1 interested in eschatology4 #bca ,p4 ,w4 ,schmidt1 now ,professor in ,basle1 was born in ,berlin in #ahde4 #bcb ,otto ,schmiedel1 ,professor at the ,gymnasium at ,eisenach1 ,die ,hauptprobleme der ,leben,jesu,forschung4 ,tbingen1 #aijb4 #ga pp4 ,schmiedel was born in #aheh4 ,hermann ,freiherr von ,soden1 ,die wichtigsten ,fragen im ,leben ,jesu4 ,von ,soden1 ,professor in ,berlin1 and preacher at the ,jerusalem ,kirche1 was born in #aheb4 ,we may mention also the following works3-- ,fritz ,barth 7born #ahef1 ,professor at ,bern71 ,die ,hauptprobleme des ,lebens ,jesu4 #ast ed41 #ahii2 #bnd ed41 #aijc4 ,friedrich ,nippold's ,der ,entwicklungsgang des ,lebens ,jesu im ,wortlaut der drei ersten ,evangelien 7,the ,course of the ,life of ,jesus in the ,words of the ,first ,three ,evangelists7 7,hamburg1 #ahie1 #bac pp47 is only an arrangement of the sections4 ,konrad ,furrer's ,vortrge ber das ,leben ,jesu ,christi 7,lectures on the ,life of ,jesus ,christ7 have a special charm by reason of the author's knowledge of the country and the locality4 ,furrer1 who was born in #ahch1 is ,professor at ,zurich4 ,another work which should not be forgotten is ,r4 ,otto's ,leben und ,wirken ,jesu nach historischkritischer ,auffassung 7,life and ,work of ,jesus from the ,point of ,view of ,historical ,criticism74 ,a ,lecture4 ,gttingen1 #aijb4 ,rudolf ,otto1 born in #ahfi1 is ,privat,docent at ,gttingen4 #bcc ,schmiedel is not altogether right in making 8the ,heidelberg ,professor ,paulus0 follow the same lines as ,reimarus1 8except that his works1 of #ahjd and #ahbh1 are less malignant1 but only the more dull for that40 ,in reality the deistic ,life of ,jesus by ,reimarus1 and the rationalistic ,life by ,paulus have nothing in common4 ,paulus was perhaps influenced by ,venturini1 but not by ,reimarus4 ,the assertion that ,strauss wrote his 8,life of ,jesus for the ,german people0 because 8,renan's fame gave him no peace0 is not justified1 either by ,strauss's character or by the circumstances in which the second ,life of ,jesus was produced4 #bcd ,von ,soden gives on pp4 #bd ff4 the passages of ,mark which he supposes to be derived from the ,petrine tradition in a different order from that in which they occur in ,mark1 regrouping them freely4 ,he puts together1 for instance1 ,mark i4 #afbj1 iii4 #acai1 vi4 #gaf1 viii4 #bg;ix4 #a1 ix4 #ccdj1 under the title 8,the formation and training of the band of disciples40 ,he supposes ,mark1 the pupil of ,peter1 to have grouped in this way by a kind of association of ideas 8what he had heard ,peter relate in his missionary journeys1 when writing it down after ,peter's death1 not connectedly1 but giving as much as he could remember of it02 this would be in accordance with the statement of ,papias that ,mark wrote 8not in order40 ,papias's statement1 therefore1 refers to an 8,ur,markus10 which he found lacking in historical order4 ,but what are we to make of a representative of the early ,church thus approaching the ,gospels with the demand for historical arrangement8 ,and good1 simple old ,papias1 of all people6 ,but if the ,marcan plan was not laid down in 8,ur,markus10 there is nothing for it--since the plan was certainly not given in the collection of ,logia--but to ascribe it to the author of our ,gospel of ,mark1 to the man1 that is1 who wrote down for the first time these 8,pauline conceptions10 those reflections of experiences of individual believers and of the community1 and inserted them into the ,gospel4 ,it is proposed1 then1 to retain the outline which he has given of the life of ,jesus1 and reject at the same time what he relates4 ,that is to say1 he is to be believed where it is convenient to believe him1 and silenced where it is inconvenient4 ,no more complete refutation of the ,marcan hypothesis could possibly be given than this analysis1 for it destroys its very foundation1 the confident acceptance of the historicity of the ,marcan plan4 ,if there is to be an analysis of sources in ,mark1 then the ,marcan plan must be ascribed to 8,ur,markus10 otherwise the analysis renders the ,markan hypothesis historically useless4 ,but if 8,ur,markus0 is to be reconstructed on the basis of assigning to it the ,marcan plan1 then we cannot separate the natural from the supernatural1 for the supernatural scenes1 like the feeding of the multitude and the transfiguration1 are among the main features of the ,marcan outline4 ,no hypothetical analysis of 8,ur,markus0 has escaped this dilemma2 what it can effect by literary methods is historically useless1 and what would be historically useful cannot be attained nor 8presented0 by literary methods4 #bce ,von ,soden1 for instance1 germanises ,jesus when he writes1 8and this nature is sound to the core4 ,in spite of its inwardness there is no trace of an exaggerated sentimentality4 ,in spite of all the intensity of prayer there is nothing of ecstasy or vision4 ,no apocalyptic dreampictures find a lodgingplace in ,his soul40 ,is a man who teaches a worldrenouncing ethic which sometimes soars to the dizzy heights such as that of ,matt4 xix4 #ab1 according to our conceptions 8sound to the core08 ,and does not the life of ,jesus present a number of occasions on which ,he seems to have been in an ecstasy8 ,thus1 von ,soden has not simply read his ,jesus out of the texts1 but has added something of his own1 and that something is ,germanic in colouring4 #bcf i4e4 the ,,ms4 ,life of ,jesus written by ,kai ,jans1 one of the characters of the novel4 ,the way in which the whole lifeexperience of this character prepares him for the writing of the ,life is strikingly--if not always acceptably--worked out4--,,translator4 #bcg ,frenssen's ,kai ,jans professes to have used the 8results of the whole range of critical investigation0 in writing his work4 ,among the books which he enumerates and recommends in the afterword1 we miss the works of ,strauss1 ,weisse1 ,keim1 ,volkmar1 and ,brandt1 and1 generally speaking1 the names of those who in the past have done something really great and original4 ,of the moderns1 ,johannes ,weiss is lacking4 ,wrede is mentioned1 but is virtually ignored4 ,pfleiderer's remarkable and profound presentation of ,jesus in the ,urchristentum 7,e4 ,t4 8,primitive ,christianity10 vol4 ii41 #aiji7 is nonexistent so far as he is concerned4 #bch ,heimatkunst1 the ideal that every production of ,german art should be racy of the soil4 ,it has its relative justification as a protest against the long subservience of some departments of ,german art to ,french taste4--,,translator4 #bci ,the ,jesus of ,h4 ,s4 ,chamberlain's ,worte ,christi1 #aija1 #bhf pp41 is also modern4 ,but the modernity is not so obtrusive1 because he describes only the teaching of ,jesus1 not ,his life4 #bdj ,born in #ahci at ,stettin4 ,studied at ,tbingen1 was appointed ,professor in #ahgj at ,jena and in #ahge at ,berlin4 7,died #aijh47 #bda ,das ,urchristentum1 seine ,schriften und ,lehren in geschichtlichem ,zusammenhang beschrieben4 #bnd ed4 ,berlin1 #aijb4 ,vol4 i4 7#fif pp471 #fae ff43 ,die ,predigt ,jesu und der ,glaube der ,urgemeinde 7,english ,translation1 8,primitive ,christianity10 chap4 xvi474 ,pfleiderer's latest views are set forth in his work1 based on academic lectures1 ,die ,entstehung des ,urchristentums4 7,how ,christianity arose47 ,munich1 #aije4 #bee pp4 #bdb ,albert ,kalthoff1 ,das ,christusproblem4 ,grundlinien zu einer ,sozialtheologie4 7,the ,problem of the ,christ3 ,groundplan of a ,social ,theology47 ,leipzig1 #aijb4 #hg pp4 ,die ,entstehung des ,christentums4 ,neue ,beitrge zum ,christusproblem4 7,how ,christianity arose47 ,leipzig1 #aijd4 #aee pp4 ,albert ,kalthoff was born in #ahej at ,barmen1 and is engaged in pastoral work in ,bremen4 #bdc ,das ,leben ,jesu4 ,lectures delivered before the ,protestant ,reform ,society at ,berlin4 ,berlin1 #ahhj4 #agc pp4 #bdd ,if ,kalthoff would only have spoken of the conception of the resurrection instead of the conception of immortality6 ,then his subjective knowledge would have been more or less tolerable4 #bde ,against ,kalthoff3 ,wilhelm ,bousset1 ,was wissen wir von ,jesus8 7,what do we know about ,jesus87 ,lectures delivered before the ,protestantenverein at ,bremen4 ,halle1 #aijd4 #gc pp4 ,in reply3 ,albert ,kalthoff1 ,was wissen wir von ,jesus8 ,a settlement of accounts with ,professor ,bousset4 ,berlin1 #aijd4 #dc pp4 ,a sound historical position is set forth in the clear and trenchant lecture of ,w4 ,kapp1 ,das ,christus und ,christentumsproblem bei ,kalthoff4 7,the problem of the ,christ and of ,christianity as handled by ,kalthoff47 ,strassburg1 #aije4 #bc pp4 #bdf ,eduard von ,hartmann1 ,das ,christentum des ,neuen ,testaments4 7,the ,christianity of the ,n4,t47 #bnd1 revised and altered1 edition of the 8,letters on the ,christian ,religion40 ,sachsainthe,harz1 #aije4 #caa pp4 #bdg ,eduard von ,hartmann ought1 therefore1 to have given his assistance to the others who have made this assertion in proving that there really existed ,messianic claimants before and at the time of ,jesus4 #bdh 8,jesus10 by ,jlicher1 in ,die ,kultur der ,gegenwart4 7,an encyclopaedic publication which is appearing in parts47 ,teubner1 ,berlin1 #aije1 pp4 #djfi4 ,see also ,w4 ,bousset1 8,jesus10 ,religionsgeschichtliche ,volksbcher4 7,a series of religioushistorical monographs47 ,published by ,schiele1 ,halle1 #aijd4 ,here should be mentioned also the thoughtful book1 following very much the lines of ,jlicher1 by ,eduard ,grimm1 entitled ,die ,ethik ,jesu1 ,hamburg1 #aijc1 #bhh pp4 ,the author1 born in #ahdh1 is the chief pastor at the ,nicolaikirche in ,hamburg4 ,another work which deserves mention is ,arno ,neumann1 ,jesu wie er geschichtlich war 7,jesus as he historically existed71 ,freiburg1 #aijd1 #aih pp4 7,new ,paths to the ,old ,god71 a ,life of ,jesus distinguished by a lofty vein of natural poetry and based upon solid theological knowledge4 ,arno ,neumann is headmaster of a school at ,apolda4 #bdi ,jeschua4 ,der klassische jdische ,mann4 ,zerstrung des kirchlichen1 ,enthllung des jdischen ,jesus,bildes4 ,berlin1 #aijd1 #aab pp4 ,earlier studies of the ,life of ,jesus from the ,jewish point of view had been less ambitious4 ,dr4 ,aug4 ,wnsche had written in #ahgb on 8,jesus in ,his attitude towards women0 from the ,talmudic standpoint 7#adf pp471 and had described ,him from the same standpoint as a ,jesus who rejoiced in life1 ,der lebensfreudige ,jesus der synoptischen ,evangelien im ,gegensatz zum leidenden ,messias der ,kirche4 ,leipzig1 #ahgf1 #ddd pp4 ,the basis is so far correct1 that the eschatological1 worldrenouncing ethic which we find in ,jesus was due to temporary conditions and is therefore transitory1 and had nothing whatever to do with ,judaism as such4 ,the spirit of the ,law is the opposite of worldrenouncing4 ,but the ,talmud1 be its traditions never so trustworthy1 could teach us little about ,jesus because it has preserved scarcely a trace of that eschatological phase of ,jewish religion and ethics4 #bej ,wolfgang ,kirchbach1 ,was lehrte ,jesus8 ,zwei ,urevangelien4 ,berlin1 #ahig1 #bdh pp42 second greatly enlarged and improved edition1 #aijb1 #cci pp4 ,by the same author1 ,das ,buch ,jesus4 ,die ,urevangelien4 ,neu nachgewiesen1 neu bersetzt1 geordnet und aus der ,ursprache erklrt4 7,the ,book of ,jesus4 ,the ,primitive ,gospels4 ,newly traced1 translated1 arranged1 and explained on the basis of the original47 ,berlin1 #ahig4 #bea ,before him1 ,hugo ,delff1 in his ,history of the ,rabbi ,jesus of ,nazareth 7,leipzig1 #ahhi1 #dbh pp471 had confined himself to the ,fourth ,gospel1 and even within that ,gospel he drew some critical distinctions4 ,his ,jesus at first conceals ,his ,messiahship from the fear of arousing the political expectations of the people1 and speaks to them of the ,son of ,man in the third person4 ,at ,his second visit to ,jerusalem ,he breaks with the rulers1 is subsequently compelled1 in consequence of the conflict over the ,sabbath1 to leave ,galilee1 and then gives up ,his own people and turns to the heathen4 ,delff explains the raising of ,lazarus by supposing him to have been buried in a state of trance4 #beb ,albert ,dulk1 ,der ,irrgang des ,lebens ,jesu4 ,in geschichtlicher ,aufassung dargestellt4 ,erster ,teil3 ,die historischen ,wurzeln und die galilische ,blte1 #ahhd4 #cie pp4 ,zweiter ,teil3 ,der ,messiaseinzug und die ,erhebung ans ,kreuz1 #ahhe1 #cjb pp4 7,the ,error of the ,life of ,jesus4 ,historically apprehended and set forth4 ,pt4 i41 ,the ,historical ,roots and the ,galilaean ,blossom4 ,pt4 ii41 ,the ,messianic ,entry and the ,crucifixion47 ,the course of ,dulk's own life was somewhat erratic4 ,born in #ahai1 he came prominently forward in the revolution of #ahdh1 as a political pamphleteer and agitator4 ,later1 though almost without means1 he undertook long journeys1 even to ,sinai and to ,lapland4 ,finally1 he worked as a social democratic reformer4 ,he died in #ahhd4 #bec ,a scientific treatment of this subject is supplied by ,fr4 ,nippold1 ,die psychiatrische ,seite der ,heilsttigkeit ,jesu 7,the ,psychiatric ,side of ,jesus' ,works of ,healing71 #ahhi1 in which a luminous review of the medical material is to be found4 ,see also ,dr4 ,k4 ,kunz1 ,christus medicus1 ,freiburg in ,baden1 #aije1 #gd pp4 ,the scientific value of this work is1 however1 very much reduced by the fact that the author has no acquaintance with the preliminary questions belonging to the sphere of history and literature1 and regards all the miracles of healing as actual events1 believing himself able to explain them from the medical point of view4 ,the tendency of the work is mainly apologetic4 #bed ,jesus von ,nazareth4 ,described from the ,scientific1 ,historical1 and ,social ,point of ,view4 ,translated from the ,french 7into ,german7 by ,a4 ,just4 ,leipzig1 #ahid4 ,the author1 whose real name is ,p4 ,a4 ,desjardin1 is a practising physician4 ,de ,rgla1 too1 makes the ,fourth ,gospel the basis of his narrative4 #bee ,pierre ,nahor 7,emilie ,lerou71 ,jesus4 ,translated from the ,french by ,walter ,bloch4 ,berlin1 #aije4 ,its motto is3 ,the figure of ,jesus belongs1 like all mysterious1 heroic1 or mythical figures1 to legend and poetry4 ,in the introduction we find the statement1 8,this book is a confession of faith40 ,the narrative is based on the ,fourth ,gospel4 #bef ,la ,vie inconnue de ,jsus,christ4 ,paris1 #ahid4 #cja pp4 ,german1 under the title ,die ,lcke im ,leben ,jesu 7,the ,gap in the ,life of ,jesus74 ,stuttgart1 #ahid4 #ahf pp4 ,see ,holtzmann in the ,theol4 ,jahresbericht1 xiv4 p4 #adj4 ,in a certain limited sense the work of ,a4 ,lillie1 ,the ,influence of ,buddhism on ,primitive ,christianity 7,london1 #ahic71 is to be numbered among the fictitious works on the life of ,jesus4 ,the fictitious element consists in ,jesus being made an ,essene by the writer1 and ,essenism equated with ,buddhism4 ,among 8edifying0 romances on the life of ,jesus intended for family reading1 that of the ,english writer ,j4 ,h4 ,ingraham1 ,the ,prince of the ,house of ,david1 has had a very long lease of life4 ,it appeared in a ,german translation as early as #aheh1 and was reissued in #aijf 7,brunswick74 ,a fictitious life of ,jesus of wonderful beauty is ,peter ,rosegger's ,i4,n4,r4,i4 ,frohe ,botschaft eines armen ,snders 7,the ,glad ,tidings of a poor ,sinner74 ,leipzig1 #fth#ajth thousand1 #aijf4 #bic pp4 ,a feminine point of view reveals itself in ,c4 ,rauch's ,jeschua ben ,joseph4 ,deichert1 #ahii4 #beg ,la ,vie sotrique de ,jsu,christ et les origines orientales du christianisme4 ,paris1 #aijb4 #dde pp4 ,that ,jesus was of ,aryan race is argued by ,a4 ,mller1 who assumes a ,gaulish immigration into ,galilee4 ,jesus ein ,arier4 ,leipzig1 #aijd4 #gd pp4 #beh ,did ,jesus live #ajj ,b4,c48 ,london and ,benares4 ,theosophical ,publishing ,society1 #aijc4 #ddj pp4 ,a scientific discussion of the 8,toledoth ,jeshu10 with citations from the ,talmudic tradition concerning ,jesus1 is offered by ,s4 ,krauss1 ,das ,leben ,jesu nach jdischen ,quellen1 #aijb4 #cji pp4 ,according to him the ,toledoth ,jeshu was committed to writing in the fifth century1 and he is of opinion that the ,jewish legend is only a modified version of the ,christian tradition4 #bei ,william ,wrede1 born in #ahei at ,bcken in ,hanover1 was ,professor at ,breslau4 7,he died in #aijg47 ,wrede names as his real predecessors on the same lines ,bruno ,bauer1 ,volkmar1 and the ,dutch writer ,hoekstra 78,de ,christologie van het canonieke ,marcus,evangelie1 vergeleken met die van de beide andere synoptische ,evangelien10 ,theol4 ,tijdschrift1 v41 #ahga74 ,in a certain limited degree the work of ,ernest ,havet 7,le ,christianisme et ses origines7 has a claim to be classed in the same category4 ,his scepticism refers principally to the entry into ,jerusalem and the story of the passion4 #bfj ,these and the following questions are raised more especially in the ,sketch of the ,life of ,jesus4 #bfa ,it would perhaps be more historical to say 8as a prophet40 #bfb ,the difficulties which the incident at ,caesarea ,philippi places in the way of ,wrede's construction may be realised by placing two of his statements side by side4 ,p4 #aja3 8,from this it is evident that this incident contains no element which cannot be easily understood on the basis of ,mark's ideas40 ,p4 #bch3 8,but in another aspect this incident stands in direct contradiction to the ,marcan view of the disciples4 ,it is inconsistent with their general #8want of understanding1' and can therefore hardly have been created by ,mark himself40 #bfc ,the question of the attitude of pre,origenic theology towards the historical ,jesus1 and of the influence exercised by dogma upon the evangelical tradition regarding ,jesus in the course of the first two centuries1 is certainly deserving of a detailed examination4 #bfd ,certain of the conceptions with which ,wrede operates are simply not in accordance with the text1 because he gives them a different significance from that which they have in the narrative4 ,thus1 for example1 he always takes the 8resurrection10 when it occurs in the mouth of ,jesus1 as a reference to that resurrection which as an historical fact became a matter of apprehended experience to the apostles4 ,but ,jesus speaks without any distinction of ,his resurrection and of ,his ,parousia4 ,the conception of the resurrection1 therefore1 if one is to arrive at it inductively from the ,marcan text1 is most closely bound up with the ,parousia4 ,the ,evangelist would thus seem to have made ,jesus predict a different kind of resurrection from that which actually happened4 ,the resurrection1 according to the ,marcan text1 is an eschatological event1 and has no reference whatever to ,wrede's 8historical resurrection40 ,further1 if their resurrection experience was the first and fundamental point in the ,messianic enlightenment of the disciples1 why did they only begin to proclaim it some weeks later8 ,this is a problem which was long ago recognised by ,reimarus1 and which is not solved by merely assuming that the disciples were afraid4 #bfe ,p4 #cc ff4 ,the prohibitions in ,mark i4 #dc and #dd1 v4 #dc1 vii4 #cf1 and viii4 #bf are put on the same footing with the really ,messianic prohibitions in viii4 #cj and ix4 #i1 with which may be associated also the imposition of silence upon the demoniacs who recognise his ,messiahship in ,mark i4 #cd and iii4 #ab4 #bff ,the narrative in ,matt4 xiv4 #bbcc1 according to which the disciples1 after seeing ,jesus walk upon the sea1 hail ,him on ,his coming into the boat as the ,son of ,god1 and the description of the deeds of ,jesus as 8deeds of ,christ10 in the introduction to the ,baptist's question in ,matt4 xi4 #b1 do not cancel the old theory even in ,matthew1 because the ,synoptists1 differing therein from the fourth ,evangelist1 do not represent the demand for a sign as a demand for a ,messianic sign1 nor the cures wrought by ,jesus as ,messianic proofs of power4 ,the action of the demons in crying out upon ,jesus as the ,son of ,god betokens their recognition of ,him2 it has nothing to do with the miracles of healing as such4 #bfg ,for further examples of the pressing of the theory to its utmost limits1 see ,wrede1 p4 #acd ff4 #bfh ,it is always assumed as selfevident that ,jesus is speaking of the sufferings and persecutions which would take place after ,his death1 or that the ,evangelist1 in making ,him speak in this way1 is thinking of these later persecutions4 ,there is no hint of that in the text4 #bfi ,that the eschatological school showed a certain timidity in drawing the consequences of its recognition of the character of the preaching of ,jesus and examining the tradition from the eschatological standpoint can be seen from ,johannes ,weiss's work1 8,the ,earliest ,gospel0 7,das lteste ,evangelium71 ,gttingen1 #aijc1 #dad pp4 ,ingenious and interesting as this work is in detail1 one is surprised to find the author of the 8,preaching of ,jesus0 here endeavouring to distinguish between ,mark and 8,ur,markus10 to point to examples of ,pauline influence1 to exhibit clearly the 8tendencies0 which guided1 respectively1 the original ,evangelist and the redactor--all this as if he did not possess in his eschatological view of the preaching of ,jesus a dominant conception which gives him a clue to quite a different psychology from that which he actually applies4 ,against ,wrede he brings forward many arguments which are worthy of attention1 but he can hardly be said to have refuted him1 because it is impossible for ,weiss to treat the question in the exact form in which it was raised by ,wrede4 #bgj ,wrede certainly goes too far in asserting that even in ,mark's version the experience at the baptism is conceived as an open miracle1 perceptible to others4 ,the way in which the revelations to the prophets are recounted in the ,old ,testament does not make in favour of this4 ,otherwise we should have to suppose that the ,evangelist described the incident as a miracle which took place in the presence of a multitude without perceiving that in this case the ,messianic secret was a secret no longer4 ,if so1 the story of the baptism stands on the same footing as the story of the ,messianic entry3 it is a revelation of the ,messiahship which has absolutely no results4 #bga ,the statement of ,mark that ,jesus1 coming out of the north1 appeared for a moment again in ,decapolis and ,capernaum1 and then started off to the north once more 7,mark vii4 #caviii4 #bg71 may here provisionally be left out of account since it stands in relation with the twofold account of the feeding of the multitude4 ,so too the enigmatic appearance and disappearance of the people 7,mark viii4 #cd;ix4 #cj7 may here be passed over4 ,these statements make no difference to the fact that ,jesus really broke off his work in ,galilee shortly after the ,mission of the ,twelve1 since they imply at most a quite transient contact with the people4 #bgb ,on the theory of the successful and unsuccessful periods in the work of ,jesus see the 8,sketch10 p4 #c ff41 8,the four ,presuppositions of the ,modern ,historical ,solution40 #bgc ,weisse found that there was no hint in the sources of the desertion of the people1 since according to these1 ,jesus was opposed only by the ,pharisees1 not by the people4 ,the abandonment of the ,galilaean work1 and the departure to ,jerusalem1 must1 he thought1 have been due to some unrecorded fact which revealed to ,jesus that the time had come to act in this way4 ,perhaps1 he adds1 it was the waning of ,jesus' miracleworking power which caused the change in ,his attitude1 since it is remarkable that ,he performed no further miracles during ,his sojourn at ,jerusalem4 #bgd ,the most logical attitude in regard to it is ,bousset's1 who proposes to treat the mission and everything connected with it as a 8confused and unintelligible0 tradition4 #bge ,joel iii4 #ac1 8,put in the sickle for the harvest is ripe60 ,in the ,apocalypse of ,john1 too1 the ,last ,judgment is described as the heavenly harvest3 8,thrust in thy sickle and reap2 for the time is come for thee to reap2 for the harvest of the earth is ripe4 ,and he that sat on the cloud thrust in his sickle on the earth2 and the earth was reaped0 7,rev4 xiv4 #ae and #af74 ,the most remarkable parallel to the discourse at the sending forth of the disciples is offered by the ,syriac ,apocalypse of ,baruch3 8,behold1 the days come1 when the time of the world shall be ripe1 and the harvest of the sowing of the good and of the evil shall come1 when the ,almighty shall bring upon the earth and upon its inhabitants and upon their rulers confusion of spirit and terror that makes the heart stand still2 and they shall hate one another and provoke one another to war2 and the despised shall have power over them of reputation1 and the mean shall exalt themselves over them that are highly esteemed4 ,and the many shall be at the mercy of the few 444 and all who shall be saved and shall escape the before mentioned 7dangers7 444 shall be given into the hands of my servant1 the ,messiah40 7,cap4 lxx4 #b1 #c1 #i4 ,following the translation of ,e4 ,kautzsch47 ,the connexion between the ideas of harvest and of judgment was therefore one of the stock features of the apocalyptic writings4 ,and as the ,apocalypse of ,baruch dates from the period about ,a4,d4 #gj1 it may be assumed that this association of ideas was also current in the ,jewish apocalyptic of the time of ,jesus4 ,here is a basis for understanding the secret of the ,kingdom of ,god in the parables of sowing and reaping historically and in accordance with the ideas of the time4 ,what ,jesus did was to make known to those who understood ,him that the coming earthly harvest was the last1 and was also the token of the coming heavenly harvest4 ,the eschatological interpretation is immensely strengthened by these parallels4 #bgf ,with what right does modern critical theology tear apart even the discourse in ,matt4 xi4 in order to make the 8cry of jubilation0 into the cry with which ,jesus saluted the return of ,his disciples1 and to find lodgment for the woes upon ,chorazin and ,bethsaida somewhere else in an appropriately gloomy context8 ,is not all this apparently disconnected material held together by an inner bond of connexion--the secret of the ,kingdom of ,god which is imminently impending over ,jesus and the people8 ,or1 is ,jesus expected to preach like one who has a thesis to maintain and seeks about for the most logical arrangement8 ,does not a certain lack of orderly connexion belong to the very idea of prophetic speech8 #bgg ,if1 therefore1 ,jesus at a later point predicted to ,his disciples ,his resurrection1 ,he means by that1 not a single isolated act1 but a complex occurrence consisting of ,his metamorphosis1 translation to heaven1 and ,parousia as the ,son of ,man4 ,and with this is associated the general eschatological resurrection of the dead4 ,it is1 therefore1 one and the same thing whether ,he speaks of ,his resurrection or of ,his coming on the clouds of heaven4 #bgh ,the title of ,baldensperger's book1 ,the ,selfconsciousness of ,jesus in the ,light of the ,messianic ,hopes of ,his ,time1 really contains a promise which is impossible of fulfilment4 ,the contemporary 8,messianic hopes0 can only explain the hopes of ,jesus so far as they corresponded thereto1 not ,his view of ,his own ,person1 in which ,he is absolutely original4 #bgi ,even ,baldensperger's book1 ,die messianischapokalyptischen ,hoffnungen des ,judentums 7#aijc71 passes at a stride from the ,psalms of ,solomon to ,fourth ,ezra4 ,the coming volume is to deal with the eschatology of ,jesus4 ,that is a 8theological10 but not an historical division of the material4 ,the second volume should properly come in the middle of the first4 #bhj ,the fact that in the ,psalms of ,solomon the ,messiah is designated by the ancient prophetic name of the ,son of ,david is significant of the rising influence of the ancient prophetic literature4 ,this designation has nothing whatever to do with a political ideal of a kingly ,messiah4 ,this ,davidic ,king and his ,kingdom are1 in their character and the manner of their coming1 every whit as supernatural as the ,son of ,man and ,his coming4 ,the same historical fact was read into both ,daniel and the prophets4 #bha ,enoch is an offshoot of the ,danielic apocalyptic writings4 ,the earliest portion1 the ,apocalypse of the ,ten ,weeks1 is independent of ,daniel and of contemporary origin4 ,the ,similitudes 7capp4 xxxvii4lxix471 which1 with their description of the ,judgment of the ,son of ,man1 are so important in connexion with the thoughts of ,jesus1 may be placed in #hjgj ,b4,c4 ,they do not presuppose the taking of ,jerusalem by ,pompey4 #bhb ,the ,psalms of ,solomon are therefore a decade later than the ,similitudes4 #bhc ,the ,apocalypse of ,baruch seems to have been composed not very long after the ,fall of ,jerusalem4 ,fourth ,ezra is twenty to thirty years later4 #bhd ,the ,psalms of ,solomon form the last document of ,jewish eschatology before the coming of the ,baptist4 ,for almost a hundred years1 from #fj ,b4,c4 until ,a4,d4 #cj1 we have no information regarding eschatological movements6 ,and do the ,psalms of ,solomon really point to a deep eschatological movement at the time of the taking of ,jerusalem by ,pompey8 ,hardly1 ,i think4 ,it is to be noticed in studying the times of ,jesus that the surrounding circumstances have no eschatological character4 ,the ,fall of ,jerusalem marks the next turningpoint in the history of the apocalyptic hope1 as ,baruch and ,fourth ,ezra show4 #bhe ,jesus promises them expressly that at the appearing of the ,son of ,man they shall sit upon twelve thrones1 judging the twelve tribes of ,israel 7,matt4 xix4 #bh74 ,it is to their part in the judgment that belong also the authority to bind and to loose which ,he entrusts to them--first to ,peter personally 7,matt4 xvi4 #ai7 and afterwards to all the ,twelve 7,matt4 xviii4 #ah7--;in such a way1 too1 that their present decisions will be somehow or other binding at the ,judgment4 ,or does the 8upon earth0 refer only to the fact that the ,messianic ,last ,judgment will be held on earth8 8,i give unto thee the ,keys of the ,kingdom of ,heaven1 and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven1 and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven0 7,matt4 xvi4 #ai74 ,why should these words not be historical8 ,is it because in the same context ,jesus speaks of the 8church0 which ,he will found upon the ,rockdisciple8 ,but if one has once got a clear idea from ,paul1 a ,clement1 the ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 and the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 what the preexisting 8church0 was which was to appear in the last times1 it will no longer appear impossible that ,jesus might have spoken of the church against which the gates of hell shall not prevail4 ,of course1 if the passage is given an uneschatological reference to the ,church as we know it1 it loses all real meaning and becomes a treasuretrove to the ,roman ,catholic exegete1 and a terror to the ,protestant4 #bhf ,that he could be taken for the ,baptist risen from the dead shows how short a time before the death of the ,baptist ,his ministry had begun4 ,he only became known1 as the ,baptist's question shows1 at the time of the mission of the disciples2 ,herod first heard of ,him after the death of the ,baptist4 ,had he known anything of ,jesus beforehand1 it would have been impossible for him suddenly to identify ,him with the ,baptist risen from the dead4 ,this elementary consideration has been overlooked in all calculations of the length of the public ministry of ,jesus4 #bhg ,that had been rightly remarked by ,colani4 ,later1 however1 theology lost sight of the fact because it did not know how to make any historical use of it4 #bhh ,psal4 ,sol4 xv4 #h4 #bhi ,that the baptism of ,john was essentially an act which gave a claim to something future may be seen from the fact that ,jesus speaks of ,his sufferings and death as a special baptism1 and asks the sons of ,zebedee whether they are willing1 for the sake of gaining the thrones on ,his right hand and ,his left1 to undergo this baptism4 ,if the baptism of ,john had had no real sacramental significance it would be unintelligible that ,jesus should use this metaphor4 #bij ,the thought of the ,messianic feast is found in ,isaiah lv4 #a ff4 and lxv4 #ab ff4 ,it is very strongly marked in ,isa4 xxv4 #fh1 a passage which perhaps dates from the time of ,alexander the ,great1 8and ,jahweh of ,hosts will prepare upon this mountain for all peoples a feast of fat things1 a feast of wine on the lees1 of fat things prepared with marrow1 of wine on the lees well refined4 ,he shall destroy1 in this mountain1 among all peoples1 the veil which has veiled all peoples and the covering which has covered all nations4 ,he shall destroy death for ever1 and the ,lord ,jahweh shall wipe away the tears from off all faces2 and the reproach of ,his people shall disappear from the earth40 7,the ,german follows ,kautzsch's translation47 ,in ,enoch xxiv4 and xxv4 the conception of the ,messianic feast is connected with that of the tree of life which shall offer its fruits to the elect upon the mountain of the ,king4 ,similarly in the ,testament of ,levi1 cap4 xviii4 #aa4 ,the decisive passage is in ,enoch lxii4 #ad4 ,after the ,parousia of the ,son of ,man1 and after the ,judgment1 the elect who have been saved 8shall eat with the ,son of ,man1 shall sit down and rise up with ,him to all eternity40 ,jesus' references to the ,messianic feast are therefore not merely images1 but point to a reality4 ,in ,matt4 viii4 #aa and #ab ,he prophesies that many shall come from the ,east and from the ,west to sit at meat with ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob4 ,in ,matt4 xxii4 #aad the ,messianic feast is pictured as a royal marriage1 in ,matt4 xxv4 #aac as a marriage feast4 ,the ,apocalypse is dominated by the thought of the feast in all its forms4 ,in ,rev4 ii4 #g it appears in connexion with the thought of the tree of life2 in ii4 #ag it is pictured as a feeding with manna2 in iii4 #ba it is the feast which the ,lord will celebrate with ,his followers2 in vii4 #af1 #ag there is an allusion to the ,lamb who shall feed ,his own so that they shall no more hunger or thirst2 chapter xix4 describes the marriage feast of the ,lamb4 ,the ,messianic feast therefore played a dominant part in the conception of blessedness from ,enoch to the ,apocalypse of ,john4 ,from this we can estimate what sacramental significance a guarantee of taking part in that feast must have had4 ,the meaning of the celebration was obvious in itself1 and was made manifest in the conduct of it4 ,the sacramental effect was wholly independent of the apprehension and comprehension of the recipient4 ,therefore1 in this also the meal at the lakeside was a true sacrament4 #bia ,weisse rightly remarks that the task of the historian in dealing with ,mark must consist in explaining how such 8myths0 could be accepted by a chronicler who stood so relatively near the events as our ,mark does4 #bib ,it is to be noticed that the cry of ,jesus from the cross1 8,eli1 ,eli10 was immediately interpreted by the bystanders as referring to ,elias4 #bic ,from this difficulty we can see1 too1 how impossible it was for any of them to have 8arrived gradually at the knowledge of the ,messiahship of ,jesus40 #bid ,for the hypothesis of the two sets of narratives which have been worked into one another1 see the 8,sketch of the ,life of ,jesus10 #aija1 p4 #eb ff41 8,after the ,mission of the ,disciples4 ,literary and historical problems40 ,a theory resting on the same principle was lately worked out in detail by ,johannes ,weiss1 ,das lteste ,evangelium 7,the ,earliest ,gospel71 #aijc1 p4 #bje ff4 #bie ,it is typical of the constant agreement of the critical conclusions in thoroughgoing scepticism and thoroughgoing eschatology that ,wrede also observes3 8,the transfiguration and ,peter's confession are closely connected in content0 7p4 #abc74 ,he also clearly perceives the inconsistency in the fact that ,peter at ,caesarea ,philippi gives evidence of possessing a knowledge which he and his fellowdisciples do not show elsewhere 7p4 #aai71 but the fact that it is ,peter1 not ,jesus1 who reveals the ,messianic secret1 constitutes a very serious difficulty for ,wrede's reading of the facts1 since this assumes ,jesus to have been the revealer of it4 #bif 8,after these years shall my ,son1 the ,christ1 die1 together with all who have the breath of men4 ,then shall the ,age be changed into the primeval silence2 seven days1 as at the first beginning so that no man shall be left4 ,after seven days shall the ,age1 which now sleeps1 awake1 and perishability shall itself perish40 #big ,difficult problems are involved in the prediction of the resurrection in ,mark xiv4 #bh4 ,jesus there promises ,his disciples that ,he will 8go before them0 into ,galilee4 ,that cannot mean that ,he will go alone into ,galilee before them1 and that they shall there meet with ,him1 their risen ,master2 what ,he contemplates is that ,he shall return with them1 at their head1 from ,jerusalem to ,galilee4 ,was it that the manifestation of the ,son of ,man and of the ,judgment should take place there8 ,so much is clear3 the saying1 far from directing the disciples to go away to ,galilee1 chains them to ,jerusalem1 there to await ,him who should lead them home4 ,it should not therefore be claimed as supporting the tradition of the ,galilaean appearances4 ,we find it 8corrected0 by the saying of the 8young man0 at the grave1 who says to the women1 8,go1 tell ,his disciples and ,peter that ,he goeth before you into ,galilee4 ,there shall ye see ,him as ,he said unto you40 ,here then the idea of following in point of time is foisted upon the words 8he goeth before you10 whereas in the original the word has a purely local sense1 corresponding to the in ,mark x4 #cb4 ,but the correction is itself meaningless since the visions took place in ,jerusalem4 ,we have therefore in this passage a more detailed indication of the way in which ,jesus thought of the events subsequent to ,his ,resurrection4 ,the interpretation of this unfulfilled saying is1 however1 wholly impossible for us3 it was not less so for the earliest tradition1 as is shown by the attempt to give it a meaning by the 8correction40 #bih ,here it is evident also from the form taken by the prophecy of the sufferings that the section ,mark viii4 #cd ff4 cannot possibly come after the revelation at ,caesarea ,philippi1 since in it1 it is the thought of the general sufferings which is implied4 ,for the same reason the predictions of suffering and tribulation in the ,synoptic ,apocalypse in ,mark xiii4 cannot be derived from ,jesus4 #bii ,weisse and ,bruno ,bauer had long ago pointed out how curious it was that ,jesus in the sayings about ,his sufferings spoke of 8many0 instead of speaking of 8,his own0 or 8the believers40 ,weisse found in the words the thought that ,jesus died for the nation as a whole2 ,bruno ,bauer that the 8for many0 in the words of ,jesus was derived from the view of the later theology of the ,christian community4 ,this explanation is certainly wrong1 for so soon as the words of ,jesus come into any kind of contact with early theology the 8many0 disappear to give place to the 8believers40 ,in the ,pauline words of institution the form is3 ,my body for you 7#a ,cor4 xi4 #bd74 ,johannes ,weiss follows in the footsteps of ,weisse when he interprets the 8many0 as the nation 7,die ,predigt ,jesu vom ,reiche ,gottes1 #bnd ed41 #aiji1 p4 #bja74 ,he gives however1 quite a false turn to this interpretation by arguing that the 8many0 cannot include the disciples1 since they 8who in faith and penitence have received the tidings of the ,kingdom of ,god no longer need a special means of deliverance such as this40 ,they are the chosen1 to them the ,kingdom is assured4 ,but a ransom1 a special means of salvation1 is needful for the mass of the people1 who in their blindness have incurred the guilt of rejecting the ,messiah4 ,for this grave sin1 which is1 nevertheless1 to some extent excused as due to ignorance1 there is a unique atoning sacrifice1 the death of the ,messiah4 ,this theory is based on a distinction of which there is no hint in the teaching of ,jesus2 and it takes no account of the predestinarianism which is an integral part of eschatology1 and which1 in fact1 dominated the thoughts of ,jesus4 ,the ,lord is conscious that ,he dies only for the elect4 ,for others ,his death can avail nothing1 nor even their own repentance4 ,moreover1 ,he does not die in order that this one or that one may come into the ,kingdom of ,god2 ,he provides the atonement in order that the ,kingdom itself may come4 ,until the ,kingdom comes even the elect cannot possess it4 #cjj ,one might use it as a principle of division by which to classify the lives of ,jesus1 whether they make ,him go to ,jerusalem to work or to die4 ,here as in so many other places ,weisse's clearness of perception is surprising4 ,jesus' journey was according to him a pilgrimage to death1 not to the ,passover4 #cja 8,that ye enter not into temptation0 is the content of the prayer that they are to offer while watching with ,him4 #cjb ,as long ago as #ahhj1 ,h4 ,w4 ,bleby 7,the ,trial of ,jesus considered as a ,judicial ,act7 had emphasised this circumstance as significant4 ,the injustice in the trial of ,jesus consisted1 according to him1 in the fact that ,he was condemned on ,his own admission without any witnesses being called4 ,dalman1 it is true1 will not admit that this technical error was very serious4 ,but the really important point is not whether the condemnation was legal or not2 it is the significant fact that the ,high ,priest called no witnesses4 ,why did he not call any8 ,this question was obscured for ,bleby and ,dalman by other problems4 #cjc ,that would have been to utter a heresy which would alone have sufficed to secure ,his condemnation4 ,it would certainly have been brought up as a charge against ,him4 #cjd ,when it is assumed that the ,messianic claims of ,jesus were generally known during those last days at ,jerusalem there is a temptation to explain the absence of witnesses in regard to them by supposing that they were too much a matter of common knowledge to require evidence4 ,but in that case why should the ,high ,priest not have fulfilled the prescribed formalities8 ,why make such efforts first to establish a different charge8 ,thus the obscure and unintelligible procedure at the trial of ,jesus becomes in the end the clearest proof that the public knew nothing of the ,messiahship of ,jesus4