,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 ,a carat character is used to denote superscription3 a single character or bracketed group following the carat is superscripted 7examples3 xviijo ,ste74 ,images of the original plates are available through ,internet ,archive4 ,see https3_/_/archive4org_/details_/illumina tedmanu#jjmidd 99 99 99 99 99 ,,illuminated ,,manuscripts ,,in ,,classical ,,and ,,mediaeval ,,times1 ,,their ,,art ,,and ,,their ,,technique ,,by ,j4 ,,henry ,,middleton1 ,,slade ,,professor ,,of ,,fine ,,art1 ,,director ,,of ,,the ,,fitzwilliam ,,museum1 ,,and ,,fellow ,,of ,,king',s ,,college1 ,,cambridge2 ,,author ,,of ,,ancient ,,rome ,,in #ahhh1 ,,the ,,engraved ,,gems ,,of ,,classical ,,times c4 ,,cambridge3 ,,at ,,the ,,university ,,press3 #ahib ,all ,rights reserved4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,preface ,,and ,,list ,,of ,,authorities4 ,page xiii to xix4 ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,page xxi to xxiv4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,page #a to #aj4 ,,classical ,,manuscripts ,,written ,,with ,a ,,stilus4 ,survival of classical methods in mediaeval times2 epigraphy and palaeography2 manuscripts on metal plates2 lead rolls2 tin rolls2 gold amulets2 ,petelia tablet2 waxed tablets and diptychs2 tablets shown on gems and coins2 tablets found in tombs2 tablets from ,pompeii2 ,consular diptychs2 many-leaved tablets2 the form of the waxed tablets2 whitened boards used by the ,greeks2 late survival of tablets2 bidding the beads2 lists of members of guilds2 wooden book in ,norway2 ivory tablets and diptychs2 inscribed ,anglo-,saxon lead tablet2 horn-books4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,page #aa to #cj4 ,,classical ,,manuscripts ,,written ,,with ,,pen ,,and ,,ink4 ,two forms of manuscripts1 the roll and the codex2 ,egyptian ,books of the ,dead2 ,book of ,ani2 existing manuscripts on papyrus2 the library of papyrus rolls found at ,herculaneum2 ,herodotus on manuscripts2 use of parchment2 manuscripts on linen2 inscribed potsherds or ostraka2 manuscripts on leaves of trees2 ,greek libraries2 ,roman libraries2 a list of the public libraries in ,rome2 ,roman library fittings and decorations2 recently discovered library in ,rome2 authors' portraits2 closed bookcases2 booksellers' quarter2 cost of ,roman books2 slave scribes2 librarii of ,rome4 ,the technique of ancient manuscripts2 parchment and vellum2 palimpsests2 papyrus manuscripts2 process of making papyrus paper2 use of papyrus in ,greece and ,rome2 ancient papyrus manuscripts2 the qualities of papyrus paper2 the form of papyrus rolls2 the wooden roller2 inscribed titles2 coloured inks2 use of cedar oil2 black carbon ink1 its manufacture and price2 red inks and rubrics2 purple ink2 double inkstands2 pens of reeds and of metal2 ,egyptian scribes' palettes1 pen-cases1 and pens4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,page #ca to #dd4 ,,classical ,,illuminated ,,manuscripts4 ,use of minium2 ,egyptian miniatures2 illuminations in ,roman manuscripts2 ,greek illuminations2 two sources of knowledge about classical illuminations2 the ,ambrosian ,iliad2 the ,vatican ,virgil2 the style of its miniatures2 later copies of lost originals2 picture of ,orpheus in a twelfth century ,psalter2 another ,psalter with copies of classical paintings2 the value of these copied miniatures4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,page #de to #fa4 ,,byzantine ,,manuscripts4 ,the very compound character of ,byzantine art2 love of splendour2 ,gospels in purple and gold2 monotony of the ,byzantine style2 hieratic rules2 fifth century manuscript of ,genesis2 the ,dioscorides of the ,princess ,juliana2 the style of its miniatures2 imitations of enamel designs2 early picture of the ,crucifixion in the ,gospels of ,rabula2 the splendour of ,byzantine manuscripts of the ,gospels2 five chief pictures2 illuminated ,canons2 ,persian influence2 the ,altar-,textus used as a ,pax2 its magnificent gold covers2 the ,durham ,textus2 ,byzantine figure drawing1 unreal but decorative2 ,byzantine mosaics2 the iconoclast schism1 and the consequent decadence of ,byzantine art4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,page #fb to #gi4 ,,manuscripts ,,of ,,the ,,carolingian ,,period4 ,the age of ,charles the ,great2 the school of ,alcuin of ,york2 the ,gospels of ,alcuin2 the golden ,gospels of ,henry ,,viii42 the ,gospels of the scribe ,godesscalc2 ,persian influence2 technical methods2 the later ,carolingian manuscripts2 continuance of the ,northumbrian influence2 beginning of life-study2 the ,gospels of ,otho ,,ii42 period of decadence in the eleventh century4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,page #hj to #ig4 ,,the ,,celtic ,,school ,,of ,,manuscripts4 ,the ,irish ,church2 ,celtic goldsmiths2 technical processes of the metal-workers copied by illuminators of manuscripts2 the ,book of ,kells1 its perfect workmanship and microscopic illuminations2 copies of metal spiral patterns2 the trumpet pattern2 ,moslem influence2 absence of gold in the ,irish manuscripts2 the ,book of ,durrow2 the monks of ,iona2 the ,celtic missionaries to ,northumbria2 the ,gospels of ,st ,cuthbert2 the ,viking pirates2 the adventures of ,st ,cuthbert's ,gospels2 the ,anglo-,celtic school2 improved drawing and use of gold2 ,italian influence2 the early ,gospels in the ,corpus library2 the ,gospels of ,mac,durnan2 the ,book of ,deer2 the ,gospels of ,st ,chad2 the ,celtic school on the ,continent2 the ,psalter of ,st ,augustine2 ,scandinavian art2 the golden ,gospels of ,stockholm and its adventures2 the struggle between the ,celtic and the ,roman ,church2 the ,synod of ,whitby2 the ,roman victory1 and the growth of ,italian influence2 the school of ,baeda at ,durham4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,page #ih to #aje4 ,,the ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,school ,,of ,,manuscripts4 ,the ,danish invasions2 revival of art under king ,alfred2 the ,benedictional of ,aethelwold2 signs of ,carolingian influence2 the ,winchester school2 ,st ,dunstan as an illuminator2 ,anglo-,saxon drawings in coloured ink2 ,roll of ,st ,guthlac2 the great beauty of its drawings2 ,canute as a patron of art2 the ,norman ,conquest4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,page #ajf to #abe4 ,,the ,,anglo-,,norman ,,school4 ,the ,norman invasion2 development of architecture and other arts2 creation of the ,anglo-,norman school2 magnificent ,psalters2 the ,angevin kingdom2 the highest development of ,english art in the thirteenth century2 ,henry ,,iii4 as an art patron2 the rebuilding and decorating of the ,church and ,palace of ,westminster2 paintings copied from manuscripts2 the ,painted ,chamber2 ,english sculpture2 the ,fitz-,othos and ,william ,torell2 ,english needlework 7opus ,anglicanum72 the ,lateran and ,pienza copes2 ,anglo-,norman manuscripts of the ,vulgate2 the style of their illuminations2 manuscripts produced in ,benedictine monasteries2 unity of style2 various kinds of background in miniatures2 magnificent manuscripts of the ,psalter2 the ,tenison ,psalter2 manuscripts of the ,apocalypse2 their extraordinary beauty2 their contrast to machine-made art2 ,english manuscripts of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries2 the results of the ,black ,death2 the ,poyntz ,horae2 the ,lectionary of ,lord ,lovel2 the characteristics of ,english ornament2 the introduction of portrait figures2 the ,shrewsbury manuscript2 ,queen ,mary's ,prayer-book2 the works of ,dan ,lydgate2 specially ,english subjects2 manuscripts of ,chronicles and ,histories4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,page #abf to #adf4 ,,french ,,manuscripts4 ,the age of ,saint ,louis2 archaism of costume in miniatures2 ,french manuscripts of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries2 historiated ,bibles2 the ivy-pattern2 the ,horae of the ,duc de ,berri2 the treasure-book of ,origny ,abbey2 the ,anjou ,horae2 costly and magnificent ,french ,horae2 their beautiful decorations2 their numerous miniatures2 the ,bedford ,breviary2 the ,bedford ,missal2 various styles in the same manuscript2 manuscripts in ,grisaille2 manuscripts of secular works2 ,cristina of ,pisa2 ,chronicles and ,travels2 ,romances and ,poems2 ,italian influence in the south of ,france2 the growth of secular illuminators2 the inferiority of their work2 cheap and coarsely illuminated ,horae2 manuscripts of the finest style2 use of flowers and fruit in borders and initials2 influence of the ,italian ,renaissance2 the ,horae of ,jehan ,foucquet of ,tours4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,page #adg to #aec4 ,,printed ,,books ,,with ,,painted ,,illuminations4 ,horae printed on vellum in ,paris2 their woodcut decorations2 the productions of the earliest printers2 the ,mazarine ,bible2 the ,mentz ,psalter2 illuminators becoming printers2 ,italian printed books with rich illuminations2 the colophons of the early printers2 the books of ,aldus ,manutius2 invention of ,italic type2 manuscripts illustrated with woodcuts2 block-books2 the long union of the illuminators' and the printers' art4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,page #aed to #ahb4 ,,illuminated ,,manuscripts ,,of ,,the ,,teutonic ,,school ,,after ,,the ,,tenth ,,century4 ,revival of art in ,germany in the eleventh century2 the ,missal of the ,emperor ,henry ,,ii42 the designs used for stained glass2 the advance of manuscript art under ,frederic ,barbarossa2 grotesque monsters2 examples of fine ,german illuminations of the twelfth century2 their resemblance to mural paintings2 the school of the ,van ,eycks2 the ,grimani ,breviary2 ,grard ,david of ,bruges2 examples of ,flemish miniatures2 the use of gold2 grotesque figures2 the influence of manuscript art on the painters of altar-pieces2 the school of ,cologne2 triptych by the elder ,holbein2 book illuminated by ,albert ,drer2 ,dutch fifteenth century manuscripts2 their decorative beauty2 their realistic details2 illumination in pen outlines in blue and red4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,page #ahc to #bje4 ,,the ,,illuminated ,,manuscripts ,,of ,,italy ,,and ,,spain4 ,italian art slow to advance2 its degraded state in the twelfth century2 illuminators mentioned by ,dante2 ,missal in the ,chapter library of ,saint ,peter's2 the monk ,don ,silvestro in the middle of the fourteenth century2 his style of illumination2 the monk ,don ,lorenzo2 ,fra ,angelico as an illuminator2 ,italian ,pontifical in the ,fitzwilliam library2 manuscripts of the works of ,dante and ,petrarch2 motives of decoration2 ,italian manuscripts after #adec2 introduction of the ,roman hand2 great perfection of writing1 and finest quality of vellum2 the illuminators ,attavante1 ,girolamo dai ,libri1 and ,liberale of ,verona2 manuscripts of northern ,italy2 their influence on painting generally2 ,italian manuscripts of the sixteenth century1 a period of rapid decadence2 ,giulio ,clovio a typical miniaturist of his time2 the library of the ,vatican2 its records of the cost of illuminating manuscripts4 ,the manuscripts of ,spain and ,portugal2 the manuscripts of ,moslem countries1 especially ,persia4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,page #bjf to #bbc4 ,,the ,,writers ,,of ,,illuminated ,,manuscripts4 ,monastic scribes2 the great beauty of their work1 and the reasons for it2 their quiet1 monotonous life2 examples of monastic humour2 no long spells of work in a monastery2 care in the preparation of pigments2 variety of the schemes of decoration2 the scriptoria of ,benedictine monasteries2 their arrangement in one alley of the cloister2 the row of armaria2 the row of carrels2 the carrels in the ,durham cloister described in the ,rites of ,durham2 the scribes of other regular ,orders4 ,secular scribes2 the growth of the craft-guilds2 the guilds of ,bruges2 their rules1 and advantages to both buyer and seller2 the production of cheap ,horae2 wealthy patrons who paid for costly manuscripts2 women illuminators1 such as the wife of ,grard ,david2 the high estimation of fine manuscripts4 ,extract from the fourteenth century accounts of ,st ,george's at ,windsor showing the cost of six manuscripts4 ,similar extract from the ,parish books of ,st ,ewen's at ,bristol in the fifteenth century1 giving the cost of a ,lectionary4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,page #bbd to #bch4 ,,the ,,materials ,,and ,,technical ,,processes ,,of ,,the ,,illuminator4 ,the vellum used by scribes1 its cost and various qualities2 paper made of cotton1 of wool and of linen2 the dates and places of its manufacture2 its fine quality4 ,the metals and pigments used in illuminated manuscripts2 fluid gold and silver2 leaf gold1 silver and tin2 the highly burnished gold2 leaf beaten out of gold coins2 the goldsmith's art practised by many great artists2 the mordant on which the gold leaf was laid2 how it was applied2 a slow1 difficult process2 laborious use of the burnisher2 old receipts for the mordant3 the media or vehicles used with it2 tooled and stamped patterns on the gold leaf2 the use of tin instead of silver2 a cheap method of applying gold described by ,cennino ,cennini4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,page #bci to #bef4 ,,the ,,materials ,,and ,,technical ,,processes ,,of ,,the ,,illuminator 7continued74 ,the coloured pigments4 ,the vehicles used2 blue pigments1 ultramarine2 its great value2 story told by ,pliny and ,vasari2 smalto blues2 ,german blue2 ,indigo and other dye-colours2 how they were made into pigments2 green pigments2 terra verde1 verdigris1 smalt1 leek-green2 red pigments1 minium red lead1 vermilion1 red ochre 7rubrica72 murex and kermes crimson2 kermes extracted from scraps of red cloth by illuminators2 madder-red2 lake-red2 purples2 yellow pigments1 ochre1 arsenic and litharge2 white pigments1 pure lime 7,bianco di ,san ,giovanni71 white lead1 biacca or cerusa4 ,black inks1 carbon ink and iron ink 7incaustum or encaustum and atramentum72 red and purple inks2 writing in gold2 the illuminator's pens and pencils2 the lead-point and silver-point2 red chalk and amatista4 ,pens made of reeds1 and1 in later times1 of quills2 brushes of ermine1 minever and other hair1 mostly made by each illuminator for himself2 list of scribes' implements and tools4 ,miniatures representing scribes2 the various stages in the execution of an illuminated manuscript2 ruled lines2 writing of the plain text2 outline of ornament sketched in2 application of the gold leaf2 the painting of the ornaments and miniatures2 preparation for the binder4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,page #beg to #bfd4 ,,the ,,bindings ,,of ,,manuscripts4 ,costly covers of gold1 enamel and ivory2 the more usual forms of binding2 oak boards covered with parchment and strengthened by metal bosses and corners2 methods of placing the title on the cover2 pictures on wood covers2 stamped patterns on leather2 ,english stamped bindings2 bag-like bindings for portable manuscripts2 bindings of velvet with metal mounts2 the costly covers of the ,grimani ,breviary and other late manuscripts4 ,the present prices of mediaeval manuscripts2 often sold for barely the value of their vellum2 modern want of appreciation of the finest manuscripts4 ,,appendix4 ,page #bfe to #bgj4 ,directions to scribes1 from a thirteenth century manuscript at ,bury ,st ,edmund's4 ,note on ,service-books by the late ,henry ,bradshaw4 ,extract from the ,cistercian ,consuetudines4 ,illustration3 ,painting on panel by a fifteenth century artist of the ,prague school2 it represents ,st ,augustine as an ,episcopal scribe4 ,the background and the ornaments of the dress are stamped in delicate relief on the gesso ground and then gilt4 ,this picture1 which is now in the ,vienna ,gallery1 was originally part of the painted wall-panelling in the ,chapel of the ,castle of ,karlstein4 ,,preface4 ,the object of this book is to give a general account of the various methods of writing1 the different forms of manuscripts and the styles and systems of decoration that were used from the earliest times down to the sixteenth century ,a4,d41 when the invention of printing gradually put an end to the ancient and beautiful art of manuscript illumination4 ,i have attempted to give a historical sketch of the growth and development of the various styles of manuscript illumination1 and also of the chief technical processes which were employed in the preparation of pigments1 the application of gold leaf1 and other details1 to which the most unsparing amount of time and labour was devoted by the scribes and illuminators of many different countries and periods4 ,an important point with regard to this subject is the remarkable way in which technical processes lasted1 in many cases1 almost without alteration from classical times down to the latest mediaeval period1 partly owing to the existence of an unbroken chain of traditional practice1 and partly on account of the mediaeval custom of studying and obeying the precepts of such classical writers as ,vitruvius and ,pliny the ,elder4 ,to an ,english student the art-history of illuminated manuscripts should be especially interesting1 as there were two distinct periods when the productions of ,english illuminators were of unrivalled beauty and importance throughout the world#a4 ,in the latter part of this volume ,i have tried to describe the conditions under which the illuminators of manuscripts did their work1 whether they were monks who laboured in the scriptorium of a monastery1 or members of some secular guild1 such as the great painters' guilds of ,bruges or ,paris4 ,the extraordinary beauty and marvellous technical perfection of certain classes of manuscripts make it a matter of interest to learn who the illuminators were1 and under what daily conditions and for what reward they laboured with such astonishing patience and skill4 ,the intense pleasure and refreshment that can be gained by the study of a fine mediaeval illuminated manuscript depend largely on the fact that the exquisite miniatures1 borders and initial letters were the product of an age which in almost every respect differed widely from the unhappy1 machine-driven nineteenth century in which we now live4 ,with regard to the illustrations1 ,i have to thank ,mr ,john ,murray for his kindness in lending me a clich of the excellent woodcut of the scriptorium walk in the cloisters of the ,benedictine ,abbey of ,gloucester1 which was originally prepared to illustrate one of ,mr ,murray's valuable ,guides to the ,english ,cathedrals4 ,the rest of the illustrations ,i owe to the kindness of ,mr ,kegan ,paul4 ,they have previously appeared in the ,english edition of ,woltmann and ,woermann's valuable ,history of ,painting1 #ahhj-g4 ,i have to thank my friend and colleague ,mr ,m4 ,r4 ,james for his kindness in looking through the proofs of this book4 ,he is not responsible for the opinions expressed or for the errors that remain1 but he has corrected some of the grosser blunders4 ,j4 ,,henry ,,middleton4 ,,king',s ,,college1 ,,cambridge4 ,,books ,,on ,,illuminated ,,mss4 ,the following are some of the most important works on this subject1 and the most useful for the purposes of a student4 ,many others1 which deal with smaller branches of the subject1 are referred to in the following text4 ,bastard1 ,peintures et ,ornemens des ,manuscrits1 classs dans un ordre ,chronologique1 ,imper4 folio1 ,paris1 #ahce1 c42 a very magnificent book1 with #afc plates1 mostly coloured4 ,birch and ,jenner1 ,early drawings and illuminations1 ,london1 #ahgi2 this is a useful index of subjects which occur in manuscript miniatures4 ,bradley1 ,j4 ,w41 ,dictionary of ,miniaturists and ,illuminators1 #c vols4 #hvo4 ,london1 #ahhg-ahij4 ,chassant1 ,palographie des ,chartes et des ,manuscrits du ,x,ime au ,x,v,i,i,ime ,sicle1 #abmo42 a useful little handbook1 together with the companion volume1 ,dictionnaire des ,abbrviations ,latines et ,franaises1 ,paris1 #ahgf4 ,denis1 ,f41 ,histoire de l',ornementation des manuscrits2 #hvo4 ,paris1 #ahgi4 ,fleury1 ,e41 ,les ,manuscrits de la ,bibliothque de ,laon tudis au point de vue de leur illustration1 #b vols41 ,laon1 #ahfc4 ,with #ej plates4 ,humphreys1 ,noel1 ,illuminated ,books of the ,middle ,ages1 folio1 ,london1 #ahdi2 a handsome1 well-illustrated book4 ,humphreys1 ,noel1 ,the ,origin and ,progress of the ,art of ,writing2 sm4 #dto41 with #bh plates2 ,london1 #ahec4 ,kopp1 ,palaeographia ,critica1 #d vols4 #dto41 ,manheim1 #ahag-ahai2 a book of much historical value for the student of ,palaeography4 ,lamprecht1 ,k41 ,initial-,ornamentik des ,,viii4-,,xiii4 ,jahrh41 ,leipzig1 #ahhb4 ,langlois1 ,essai sur la ,calligraphie des ,manuscrits du ,moyen ,age et sur les ,ornements des premiers livres imprims1 #hvo4 ,rouen1 #ahda4 ,monte ,cassino1 ,paleografia artistica di ,monte ,cassino1 published by the ,benedictine ,monks of ,mte4 ,cassino1 #ahgj1 and still in progress4 ,this work contains a very valuable series of facsimiles and coloured reproductions of selected pages from many of the most important manuscripts in this ancient and famous library1 that of the ,mother-house of the whole ,benedictine ,order4 ,reiss1 ,h41 ,sammlung der schnsten ,miniaturen des ,mittelalters1 ,vienna1 #ahfc-e4 ,riegl1 ,a41 ,die mittelalterl4 ,kalenderillustration1 ,innsbruck1 #ahhi4 ,seghers1 ,l41 ,trsor calligraphique du ,moyen ,age1 ,paris1 #ahhd2 with #df coloured plates of illuminated initials4 ,shaw1 ,henry1 ,illuminated ,ornaments of the ,middle ,ages from the sixth to the seventeenth century2 with descriptions by ,sir ,fred4 ,madden2 #dto4 with #fj coloured plates1 ,london1 #ahcc4 ,a very fine and handsome work4 ,the ,art of ,illumination1 #dto4 ,london1 #ahgj2 with well-executed coloured plates4 ,hand-book of ,mediaeval ,alphabets and ,devices1 ,imp4 #hvo4 ,london1 #ahgg2 with #cg coloured plates4 ,silvestre1 ,palographie ,universelle1 #d vols41 ,atlas folio1 ,paris1 #ahci-ahda4 ,this is the most magnificent and costly work on the subject that has ever been produced4 ,the ,english ,edition in #b vols41 ,atlas folio1 translated and edited by ,sir ,fred4 ,madden1 ,london1 #ahej1 is very superior in point of accuracy and judgment to the original ,french work4 ,a smaller edition with #gb selected plates has also been published1 in #b vols4 #hvo4 and one fol41 ,london1 #ahej4 ,waagen1 ,g4 ,f41 ,on the ,importance of ,manuscripts with ,miniatures in the history of ,art1 #hvo4 ,london 7#ahej74 ,westwood1 ,j4 ,o41 ,palaeographia ,sacra ,pictoria1 royal #dto4 ,london1 #ahdc-e4 ,this is a very fine work1 with #ej coloured plates of manuscript illuminations selected from manuscripts of the ,bible of various dates from the fourth to the sixteenth century4 ,illuminated ,illustrations of the ,bible1 royal #dto4 ,london1 #ahdf4 ,this is a companion work to the last-mentioned book4 ,miniatures and ,ornaments of ,anglo-,saxon and ,irish ,manuscripts1 fol41 ,london1 #ahfh2 with #ed very finely executed coloured plates of remarkable fidelity in drawing4 ,the reproductions of pages from the ,book of ,kells and similar ,celtic manuscripts are specially remarkable4 ,wyatt1 ,m4 ,digby1 ,the ,art of ,illuminating as practised in ,europe from the earliest times2 #dto4 ,london1 #ahfj2 with #ajj plates in gold and colours4 ,the best work on the form of books in ancient times is ,th4 ,birt1 ,das antike ,buchwesen in seinem ,verhltniss zur ,literatur1 #hvo41 #ahhb4 ,the publications of the ,palaeographical ,society1 from the year #ahgc1 and still in progress1 are of great value for their well-selected and well-executed photographic reproductions of pages from the most important manuscripts of all countries and periods4 ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,fig4 #a1 page #cc4 ,part of the drawing engraved on the bronze cista of ,ficoroni1 dating from the early part of the fourth century ,b4,c4 ,a beautiful example of ,greek drawing4 #b #cg4 ,miniature of classical design from a twelfth century ,psalter in the ,vatican library4 #c #ci4 ,painting in the ,house of ,livia on the ,palatine ,hill in ,rome4 #d #da4 ,a ,pompeian painting of ,hellenic style1 as an example of ,greek drawing and composition4 #e #dc4 ,the ,prophet ,ezechiel from a ,byzantine manuscript of the ninth century ,a4,d4 #f #di4 ,miniature from the ,vienna manuscript of ,genesis4 #g #ea4 ,miniature from the manuscript of the work on ,botany by ,dioscorides1 executed at ,constantinople about #ejj ,a4,d4 for the ,princess ,juliana4 #h #eh4 ,mosaic of the sixth century in the apse of the church of ,,ss4 ,cosmas and ,damian in ,rome4 #i #fj4 ,miniature from a ,byzantine manuscript of the eleventh century2 a remarkable example of artistic decadence4 #aj #fc4 ,an initial ,p of the ,celtic-,carolingian type1 of the school of ,alcuin of ,york4 #aa #fd4 ,an initial ,b of the ,celtic-,carolingian type4 #ab #ff4 ,miniature of ,christ in ,majesty from a manuscript of the school of ,alcuin1 written for ,charles the ,great4 #ac #fh4 ,a cope made of silk from the loom of an ,oriental weaver4 #ad #ga4 ,king ,lothair enthroned2 a miniature from a manuscript about the year #hde ,a4,d4 #ae #gc4 ,illumination in pen outline1 from a manuscript written in the ninth century at ,st ,gallen4 ,it represents ,david riding out against his enemies4 ,figs4 #af and #ag1 pages #gd and #ge4 ,subject countries doing homage to the ,emperor ,otho ,,ii42 from a manuscript of the ,gospels4 ,fig4 #ah1 page #gg4 ,miniature of the ,evangelist ,saint ,mark2 from a manuscript of the ,gospels4 #ai #gh4 ,miniature of the ,crucifixion from a ,german manuscript of the eleventh century2 showing extreme artistic decadence4 #bj #ia4 ,miniature from the ,gospels of ,mac,durnan of the ninth century4 #ba #ajj4 ,miniature from the ,benedictional of ,aethelwold2 written and illuminated by a monastic scribe at ,winchester4 #bb #abg4 ,a page from the ,psalter of ,saint ,louis1 written about the year #abfj1 by a ,french scribe4 #bc #acj4 ,miniature representing ,king ,conrad of ,bohemia1 with an attendant1 hawking4 #bd #acb4 ,scene of the martyrdom of ,saint ,benedicta from a ,martyrology of about #acab4 #be #acd4 ,miniature of the ,birth of the ,virgin painted by the illuminator ,jacquemart de ,odin for the ,duc de ,berri4 ,the border is of the characteristic ,french or ,franco-,flemish style4 #bf #adb4 ,miniature executed for ,king ,ren of ,anjou about #adge4 #bg #ade4 ,miniature of the ,marriage of the ,b4 ,v4 ,mary from a ,french manuscript of about #adhj1 with details in the style of the ,italian ,renaissance4 #bh #adf4 ,border illumination from a ,book of ,hours by ,jacquemart de ,odin which belonged to the ,duc de ,berri2 see fig4 #be4 #bi #aee4 ,a page from the ,missal of the ,emperor ,henry ,,ii4 #cj #aef4 ,figure of ,king ,david from a stained glass window in the ,cathedral of ,augsburg1 dating from #ajfe4 #ca #aeg4 ,miniature from an eleventh century manuscript of the ,gospels1 by a ,german illuminator4 #cb #aei4 ,an initial ,s1 illuminated with foliage of the ,northumbrian type1 from a ,german manuscript of the twelfth century4 #cc #afj4 ,miniature of the ,annunciation from a ,german manuscript of the beginning of the thirteenth century4 #cd #afa4 ,page of a ,kalendar from a ,german ,psalter of about #abjj ,a4,d4 #ce #afc4 ,initial ,y from a ,german manuscript of the beginning of the thirteenth century1 with a most graceful and fanciful combination of figures and foliage4 #cf #afd4 ,paintings on the vault of the church of ,st ,michael at ,hildesheim1 closely resembling in style an illuminated page in a manuscript4 #cg #aff4 ,miniatures of ,italian style from a ,german manuscript of #acab1 showing the influence of ,florentine art on the illuminators of southern ,france4 #ch #afh4 ,miniature symbolizing the month of ,april from the ,kalendar of the ,grimani ,breviary1 executed about #adif4 #ci #agj4 ,a page from the ,book of ,hours of ,king ,ren1 painted about #adhj4 #dj #aga4 ,a page from a ,book of ,hours at ,vienna1 of the finest ,flemish style4 #da #agc4 ,marginal illumination of very beautiful and refined style from a manuscript executed for ,king ,wenzel of ,bohemia about the year #acij4 #db #agd4 ,miniature of ,duke ,baldwin1 painted about the year #adej by an illuminator of the school of the ,van ,eycks of ,bruges4 #dc #agf4 ,retable painted by ,martin ,schngauer1 in the style of a manuscript illumination4 #dd #agg4 ,an altar-piece of the ,cologne school1 showing the influence of manuscript illumination on the painters of panel-pictures1 especially retables4 #de #agi4 ,wing of a triptych1 with a figure of ,st ,elizabeth of ,hungary1 painted by the elder ,hans ,holbein2 this illustrates the influence on painting of the styles of manuscript illumination at the beginning of the sixteenth century4 #df #ahj4 ,illuminated border drawn by ,albert ,drer in #aeae4 #dg #ahe4 ,illumination from an ,italian manuscript executed for the ,countess ,matilda in the twelfth century2 this illustrates the extreme decadence of art in ,italy before the thirteenth century4 #dh #ahg4 ,miniature of ,saint ,george and the ,dragon from a ,missal1 illuminated about #accj to #acdj by a painter of the school of ,giotto4 #di #aif4 ,an illuminated border from a manuscript by ,attavante1 of characteristic north-,italian style4 #ej #aih4 ,a miniature from the ,bible of ,duke ,borso d',este1 painted between #adee and #adfa by illuminators of the school of ,ferrara4 #ea #bja4 ,a ,venetian retable by ,giovanni and ,antonio di ,murano1 in the style of an illuminated manuscript4 #eb #bjh4 ,grotesque figure from a ,french manuscript of the fourteenth century4 #ec #bji4 ,miniature of a comic subject from a ,german manuscript of the twelfth century1 representing a monastic scribe worried by a mouse4 #ed #bac4 ,view of the scriptorium alley of the cloisters at ,gloucester1 showing the recesses to hold the wooden carrels for the scribes or readers of manuscripts4 #ee #bai4 ,picture by ,quentin ,matsys of ,antwerp1 showing a lady selling or pawning an illuminated manuscript4 ,frontispiece4 ,painting on panel by a fifteenth century artist of the ,prague school2 it represents ,saint ,augustine as an ,episcopal scribe4 ,the background and the ornaments of the dress are stamped in delicate relief on the gesso ground and then gilt4 ,this picture1 which is now in the ,vienna ,gallery1 was originally part of the painted wall-panelling in the ,chapel of the ,castle of ,karlstein4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,classical ,,manuscripts ,,written ,,with ,a ,,stilus4 ,before entering upon any discussion of the styles and methods of decoration which are to be found in mediaeval manuscripts and of the various processes1 pigments and other materials which were employed by the mediaeval illuminators it will be necessary to give some account of the shapes and kinds of books which were produced among various races during the classical period4 ,survival of methods4 ,the reason of this is that classical styles of decoration and technical methods1 in the preparation of paper1 parchment1 pigments and the like1 both survived to greater extent and to a very much later period than is usually supposed to have been the case1 and1 indeed1 continued to influence both the artistic qualities and the mechanical processes of the mediaeval illuminator almost down to the time when the production of illuminated manuscripts was gradually put an end to by the invention of printing4 ,the pen and the stilus4 ,the word manuscript is usually taken to imply writing with a pen1 brush or stilus to the exclusion of inscriptions cut with the chisel or the graver in stone1 marble1 bronze or other hard substance4 ,the science of palaeography deals with the former1 while epigraphy is concerned with the latter4 ,the inscribed clay tablets of ,assyria and ,babylon might be considered a sort of link between the two1 on account of the cuneiform writing on them having been executed with a stilus in soft1 plastic clay1 which subsequently was hardened by baking in the potter's kiln1 but it will be needless to describe them here4 ,writing on metal4 ,manuscripts on metal plates4 ,another form of writing especially used by the ancient ,greeks1 which falls more definitely under the head of manuscripts1 consists of characters scratched with a sharp iron or bronze stilus on plates of soft tin1 lead or pewter1 which1 when not in use1 could be rolled up into a compact and conveniently portable cylinder4 ,a considerable number of these inscribed lead rolls have been found in the tombs of ,cyprus2 but none of them unfortunately have as yet been found to contain matter of any great interest4 ,lead rolls4 ,tin rolls4 ,for the most part they consist either of monetary accounts1 or else of formulae of imprecations1 curses devoting some enemy to punishment at the hands of the gods4 ,we know however from the evidence of classical writers that famous poems and other important literary works were occasionally preserved in the form of these inscribed tin or lead rolls4 ,pausanias1 for example1 tells us that during his visit to ,helicon in ,boeotia he was shown the original manuscript of ,hesiod's ,works and ,days written on plates of lead2 see ,paus4 ,,ix4 #ca4 ,again at ,,iv4 #bf1 ,pausanias records the discovery at ,ithome in ,messenia of a bronze urn 7hydria7 which contained a manuscript of the ,mysteries of the ,great ,deities written on a thinly beaten plate of tin1 which was rolled up like a book1 ,greek3 kassiteron ellasmenon es to leptotaton1 epeilikto de hsper ta biblia4 ,this method of writing would be quite different from the laborious method of cutting inscriptions on bronze plates with a chisel and hammer1 or with a graver4 ,a scribe could write on the soft white metal with a sharp stilus almost as easily and rapidly as if he were using pen and ink on paper1 and the manuscript thus produced would have the advantage of extreme durability4 ,we may indeed hope that even now some priceless lost work of early ,greece may be recovered by the discovery of similar lead rolls to those which ,cesnola found in ,cyprus4 ,gold amulets4 ,some very beautiful little ,greek manuscripts1 written on thin plates of gold1 have also been discovered at various places4 ,the most remarkable of these were intended for amulets1 and were rolled up in little gold or silver cylinders and worn round the neck during life4 ,after death they were placed with the body in the tomb4 ,several of these1 discovered in tombs in the district of ,sybaris in ,magna ,graecia1 are inscribed with fragments from the mystic ,orphic hymns1 and give directions to the soul as to what he will find and what he must do in the spirit-world4 ,petelia tablet4 ,the most complete of these little gold manuscripts1 usually known as the ,petelia tablet1 is preserved in the gem-room in the ,british ,museum4 ,the manuscript consists of thirteen hexameter lines written on a thin plate of pure gold measuring #a inches by #b-e_/h inches in width2 it dates from the third century ,b4,c4#b ,in classical times1 manuscripts were of two different forms2 first1 the book form1 ,greek3 pinax1 ,greek3 pinakion or ,greek3 deltion1 in ,latin codex 7older spelling caudex72 and secondly the roll1 ,greek3 kylindros1 ,greek3 biblos or ,greek3 biblion1 ,latin volumen#c4 ,waxed tablets4 ,manuscripts on tablets4 ,both the ,greeks and the ,romans used very largely tablets 7,greek3 pinakes1 ,lat4 tabulae or cerae7 of wood covered with a thin coating of coloured wax1 on which the writing was formed with a sharp-pointed stilus 7,greek3 graphis7 of wood1 ivory or bronze4 ,the wax was coloured either black or red in order that the writing scratched upon it might be clearly visible4 ,the reverse end of the stilus was made flat or in the shape of a small ball so that it could be used to make corrections by smoothing out words or letters which had been erroneously scratched in the soft wax4 ,waxed diptychs4 ,these tablets were commonly about ten to fourteen inches in length by about half that in width4 ,the main surface of each tablet was sunk from #a_/h to #a_/aj of an inch in depth to receive the wax layer1 leaving a rim all round about the size of that round a modern school-boy's slate4 ,the object of this was that two of these tablets might be placed together face to face without danger of rubbing and obliterating the writing on the wax1 which was applied in a very thin coat1 not more than #a_/af of an inch in thickness4 ,as a rule these tablets were fastened together in pairs by stout loops of leather or cord4 ,these double tablets were called by the ,greeks ,greek3 pinakes ptyktoi or ,greek3 diptycha 7from ,greek3 dis and ,greek3 ptyss7 and by the ,romans pugillares or codicilli4 ,homer 7,il4 ,,vi4 #afh7 mentions a letter written on folding tablets-- ,greek3 poren d' ho ge smata lygra ,greek3 ,grapsas en pinaki ptykt4 ,tablets on coins and gems4 ,representations of these folding tablets occur frequently both in ,greek and in ,roman art1 as1 for example on various ,sicilian coins1 where the artist's name is placed in minute letters on a double tablet1 which in some cases1 as on a tetradrachm of ,himera1 is held open by a flying figure of ,victory4 ,a gem of about #djj ,b4,c41 a large scarabaeoid in chalcedony1 recently acquired by the ,british ,museum1 is engraved with a seated figure of a lady holding a book consisting of four leaves2 she is writing lengthwise on one leaf1 while the other three hang down from their hinge4 ,some of the beautiful terra-cotta statuettes from the tombs of the ,boeotian ,tanagra represent a girl reading from a somewhat similar double folding tablet4 ,on ,greek vases and in ,roman mural paintings the pugillares are frequently shown1 though the roll form of manuscript is on the whole more usual4 ,tablets from tombs4 ,some examples of these tablets have been found in a good state of preservation in ,graeco-,egyptian tombs and during recent excavations in ,pompeii4 ,part of a poem in ,greek written in large uncial characters is still legible on the single leaf of a pair of tablets from ,memphis in ,egypt1 which is now in the ,british ,museum4 ,though the coating of wax has nearly all perished1 the sharp stilus has marked through on to the wood behind the wax1 so that the writing is still legible4 ,its date appears to be shortly before the ,christian era#d4 ,pompeian tablets4 ,some well preserved pugillares found in ,pompeii are now in the ,museum in ,naples2 the writing on them is of less interest1 consisting merely of accounts of expenditure4 ,though the wood is blackened and the wax destroyed1 the writing is still perfectly visible on the charred surface4 ,a more costly form of pugillares was made of bone or ivory#e2 in some cases the back of each ivory leaf was decorated with carving in low relief4 ,consular diptychs4 ,a good many examples of these tablets1 dating from the third to the sixth century ,a4,d41 still exist4 ,these late highly decorated pugillares are usually known as ,consular diptychs1 because1 as a rule1 they have on the carved back the name of a ,consul1 and very frequently a representation of the ,consul in his pulvinar or state box presiding over the ,games in the ,circus4 ,it is supposed that these ivory diptychs were inscribed with complimentary addresses and were sent as presents to newly appointed officials in the time of the later ,empire4 ,many-leaved tablets4 ,in some cases the ancient writing-tablets consisted of three or more leaves hinged together 7,greek3 triptycha1 ,greek3 pentaptycha c472 this was the earliest form of the codex or book in the modern sense of the word4 ,the inner leaves of these codices had sinkings to receive the wax on both sides2 only the backs of the two outer leaves being left plain or carved in relief to form the covers4 ,waxed tablets4 ,when the written matter on these tablets was no longer wanted1 a fresh surface for writing was prepared either by smoothing down the wax with the handle of the stilus1 or else by scraping it off and pouring in a fresh supply4 ,this is mentioned by ,ovid 7,ar4 ,am4 ,i4 #dcg72 cera 444 rasis infusa tabellis#f4 ,these tablets were sometimes called briefly cerae2 the phrases prima cera1 altera cera1 meaning the first page1 the second page4 ,the best sorts of wooden writing-tablets were made of box-wood1 and hence they are sometimes called ,greek3 pyxion4 ,in addition to the holes along one edge of each tablet through which the cord or wire was passed to hold the leaves together and to form the hinge1 additional holes were often made along the opposite edge in order that the letter or other writing on the tabulae might be kept private by tying a thread through these holes and then impressing a seal on the knot4 ,plautus 7,bacch4 ,,iv4 iv4 #fd7 alludes to this in mentioning the various things required to write a letter1 ,effer cito stilum1 ceram1 et tabellas et linum4 ,in some cases wooden tablets of this kind were used without a coating of wax1 but had simply a smooth surface to receive writing with ink and a reed pen4 ,many examples of these have been found in ,egypt4 ,the writing could be obliterated and a new surface prepared by sponging and rubbing with pumice-stone4 ,whitened boards4 ,among the ,greeks wooden boards1 whitened with chalk or gypsum1 were often used for writing that was intended to be of temporary use only4 ,charcoal was used to write on these boards1 which were called ,greek3 leukmata or ,greek3 grammateia leleukmena#g4 ,public advertisements and official announcements were frequently written in this way and then hung up in a conspicuous place in the agora or market-place of the city4 ,sacred accounts4 ,thus some of the inscriptions of the fourth century ,b4,c41 found at ,delos mention that every month a ,greek3 leukma was suspended in the agora1 on which was written a statement of the financial management and all the expenses of the ,temple of the ,delian ,apollo during the past month4 ,finally1 at the end of the year1 an abstract of the accounts of the ,temple was engraved as a permanent record on a marble stele4 ,this was also the custom with regard to the financial records of the ,athenian ,parthenon1 and probably most of the important ,greek temples4 ,in connection with the sacred records1 the ,delian inscriptions mention1 in addition to the ,greek3 leukmata1 other forms of tablets1 the ,greek3 deltos and the ,greek3 pinax1 and also ,greek3 chartai or writings on papyrus2 manuscripts of this last kind will be discussed in a subsequent section#h4 ,late survivals4 ,late survivals of writing on tablets4 ,before passing on to describe other forms of classical manuscripts1 it may be interesting to note that the ancient waxed tablets or pugillares continued to be used for certain purposes throughout the whole mediaeval period1 down to the sixteenth century or even later4 ,many of the principal churches1 especially in ,italy1 but also in other countries1 possessed one or more diptychs on which were inscribed the names of all those who had in any way been benefactors either to the ecclesiastical foundation or to the building4 ,in early times1 during the daily celebration of ,mass1 the list of names was read out from the diptych by the ,deacon standing in the gospel ambon2 and the congregation was requested or bid to pray for the souls of those whose names they had just heard4 ,bidding the beads4 ,the bidding prayer before ,university sermon at ,oxford and ,cambridge is a survival of this custom1 which in the fifteenth century was termed bidding the beads1 that is praying for the prayers of the congregation4 ,in some cases fine specimens of the old ivory ,consular diptychs were used for this purpose in ,italian churches till comparatively late times1 but as a rule they fell into disuse before the eleventh or twelfth century1 as the list of names became too long for the waxed leaves of a diptych1 and so by degrees vellum rolls or else codices1 often beautifully written in gold and silver letters1 were substituted4 ,one of the most splendid of these lists1 the ,liber vitae of ,durham1 is now preserved in the ,british ,museum2 ,cotton manuscripts1 ,domit4 #g4 #b4 ,for many other purposes1 both ecclesiastical and secular1 the classical waxed tablets were used in ,england and on the ,continent1 especially for lists of names1 as for example in great ,cathedral or ,abbey churches the list for the week of the various priests who were appointed to celebrate each mass at each of the numerous altars4 ,list of guild-members4 ,the ,british ,museum possesses a very interesting late example of a waxed tablet which in shape1 size and general appearance is exactly like the ,roman pugillares4 ,this is an oak tablet1 about #bj inches long by #aj inches wide1 covered with a thin layer of wax protected by the usual slightly raised margin about half an inch wide4 ,along one edge are three holes with leather loops to form the hinges2 the other leaf is lost4 ,on the wax is inscribed a list of the names of the members of a ,flemish guild2 each name is still as sharp and legible as the day it was written4 ,the form of the writing shows that it belongs to the end of the fifteenth century4 ,such tablets were used both by the trade guilds of the middle ages and by the religious guilds formed for the cult of some special ,saint4 ,wooden ,book4 ,the most interesting mediaeval example of the classical form of manuscript made up of several leaves of waxed tablets was found a few years ago in a blocked-up recess in the old wooden church at ,hopperstad in ,norway4 ,it was enclosed in a casket of wood covered with leather1 and thus it still remains in a very perfect state of preservation2 it is now in the ,university ,museum at ,christiania4 ,the book consists of six tablets of box-wood1 coated with wax within the usual raised margin1 and hinged with leather thongs4 ,the outer leaves are decorated on the back with carving mixed with inlay of different coloured woods4 ,bestiary4 ,the manuscript itself which is written on the wax is a ,bestiary1 dating1 as its style shows1 from the latter part of the thirteenth century1 though the book itself is probably older4 ,it contains lists of animals in ,latin with a ,norwegian translation1 and it is copiously illustrated with drawings of scenes from agricultural and domestic life1 executed in fine outline on the wax with a sharply pointed stilus4 ,in every detail1 except of course in the character of the writing and drawings1 this book exactly resembles an ancient ,greek or ,roman many-leaved wooden book1 ,greek3 polyptychon1 a very striking example of the unaltered survival of ancient methods for an extraordinarily long period4 ,ivory tablets4 ,during the mediaeval period1 sets of ivory tablets hinged together were frequently made for devotional purposes4 ,this form of manuscript has no layer of wax1 but the writing is executed with a pen on the thin smooth leaf of ivory4 ,each leaf has its margin raised1 like the ancient pugillares1 to prevent the two adjacent surfaces from rubbing together4 ,these ivory tablets usually contain a set of short prayers1 and they are frequently illustrated with painted miniatures of sacred subjects exactly like those in the vellum manuscripts of the same date4 ,tablet with eight leaves4 ,the ,south ,kensington ,museum possesses a very beautiful example of these ivory books2 it is of ,northern ,french workmanship dating from about the middle of the fourteenth century4 ,it consists of eight leaves of ivory1 measuring #d-a_/h inches by #b-c_/h inches in width4 ,the six inner pages are extremely thin1 no thicker than stout paper1 and have paintings on both sides1 the two covers are of thicker substance1 about a quarter of an inch1 and are decorated on the outside with beautiful carved reliefs4 ,this remarkable work of art has on the inner leaves fourteen very delicately executed miniatures of sacred subjects1 single figures of ,saints and scenes from ,christ's ,passion1 painted in gold and colours in the finest style of ,french fourteenth century art1 evidently executed by some very skilful illuminator4 ,ivory diptychs4 ,tablets like this with as many as eight ivory leaves are rare1 but a very large number of beautiful ivory diptychs still exist1 with carved reliefs on the outside of very graceful style and delicate execution4 ,most of these diptychs date from the fourteenth century1 and are of ,french workmanship1 but they were also produced in ,england at the same time and of quite equal merit in design and execution4 ,inscribed lead tablet4 ,manuscripts on lead plates1 like those of the ancient ,greeks1 were occasionally used in mediaeval times4 ,a single lead leaf of an ,anglo-,saxon manuscript from ,lord ,londesborough's collection is illustrated in ,archaeologia1 ,vol4 ,,xxxiv1 ,plate #cf1 page #dch4 ,this leaf measures #f inches by #e inches in width4 ,on it is incised with a stilus in fine bold semi-uncial writing the beginning of ,aelfric's preface to his first collection of ,homilies1 which in modern ,english runs thus3--,i1 ,aelfric1 monk and mass-priest1 was sent in ,king ,aethelred's time from ,aelfeage the ,bishop1 the successor of ,aethelwold1 to a certain minster which is called ,cernel1 c4 ,at the top of the page there is a heading in large ,runic characters4 ,aelfric was sent by ,aelfeage ,bishop of ,winchester to be ,abbot of ,cerne in #ihh or #ihi1 and this interesting page appears to be of contemporary date4 ,it was found by a labourer while digging in the precincts of the ,abbey of ,bury ,st ,edmunds4 ,along one edge of the leaden page there are three holes to receive the loops which hinged the plates together1 but the other leaves were not found4 ,horn-books4 ,horn-books4 ,one form of wooden tablet continued in use1 especially in boys' schools1 till the sixteenth century4 ,this was a wooden board1 rather smaller than an ordinary school-boy's slate1 with a long handle at the bottom2 on it was fixed a sheet of vellum or paper on which was written or 7in the latest examples7 printed the ,alphabet1 the ,creed1 the ,lord's ,prayer or such like4 ,over this a thin sheet of transparent horn was nailed1 whence these tablets were often called horn-books4 ,a good example dating from the sixteenth century is now preserved in the ,bodleian library at ,oxford4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,classical ,,manuscripts ,,written ,,with ,,pen ,,and ,,ink4 ,to return now to classical forms of manuscripts1 it appears to have been a long time before the book or codex form of manuscript was extended from the wood and ivory tablets to writings on parchment or paper4 ,the roll form of ,,ms4 ,the codex form4 ,it seems probable that throughout the ,greek period manuscripts on paper or vellum were usually1 if not always1 in the shape of a long roll2 and that it was not till about the beginning of the ,roman ,empire that leaves of parchment or paper were sometimes cut up into pages and bound together in the form of the older tablets4 ,during the first two or three centuries of the ,empire1 manuscripts were produced in both of these forms--the codex and the volumen2 but the roll form was by far the commoner1 almost till the transference of the seat of government to ,byzantium4 ,the roll form of book is the one shown in many of the wall paintings of ,pompeii2 but on some sarcophagi reliefs of the second century ,a4,d4 books both of the roll and the codex shape are represented#i4 ,writing with a pen4 ,having given some account of the various classical forms of manuscript in which the writing is incised with a sharp stilus1 we will now pass on to the other chief forms of manuscript which were written with a pen and with ink or other pigment4 ,books of the dead4 ,manuscripts on papyrus2 the oldest existing examples of this class are the so-called ,rituals of the ,dead found in the tombs of ,egypt1 especially in those of the ,theban dynasties2 the oldest of these date as far back as the sixteenth or fifteenth century ,b4,c4#aj ,they are executed with a reed pen in hieroglyphic writing on long rolls of papyrus1 and are copiously illuminated with painted miniatures illustrating the subject of the text1 drawn with much spirit and coloured in a very finely decorative way4 ,immense numbers of these ,egyptian illuminated manuscripts still exist in a more or less fragmentary condition4 ,one of the most perfect of these is the ,book of the ,dead of ,ani1 a royal scribe1 dating from the fourteenth century ,b4,c41 now in the ,british ,museum4 ,an excellent facsimile of the whole of this fine illuminated manuscript has been edited by ,dr ,budge and published by the ,trustees of the ,british ,museum in #ahij4 ,egyptian psalter4 ,manuscripts of this important class are not very accurately described as ,rituals of the ,dead2 as ,dr ,budge points out they really consist of collections of psalms or sacred hymns which vary considerably in different manuscripts4 ,they appear to have been written in large numbers and kept in stock by the ,egyptian undertakers ready for purchasers4 ,blank spaces were left for the name and titles of the dead person for whom they were bought4 ,thus we find that the names are often filled in carelessly by another hand than that of the writer of the manuscript1 and some examples exist in which the spaces for the name are still left blank4 ,another of the finest and most complete of the funereal papyri is preserved in the ,museum in ,turin2 see ,pierret1 ,le livre des ,morts des anciens ,egyptiens1 ,paris1 #ahhb4 ,use of papyrus4 ,existing ,greek ,,mss4 ,papyrus seems to have been used for manuscripts more than any other substance both by the ,greeks from the sixth century ,b4,c4 and by the ,romans down to the time of the later ,empire4 ,some very valuable ,greek manuscripts on papyrus are preserved in the ,british ,museum2 among them the most important for their early date are some fragments of ,homer's ,iliad of the third or second century ,b4,c4 ,another papyrus manuscript in the same collection dating from the first century ,b4,c4 contains four ,orations of the ,athenian ,orator ,hyperides1 a contemporary and rival of ,demosthenes4 ,in the last few years the important discovery has been made that in certain late tombs in ,egypt1 dating from the ,roman period1 the mummied bodies are packed in their coffins with large quantities of what was considered waste paper4 ,this packing in some cases has been found to consist of papyrus manuscripts1 some of which are of great importance4 ,in this way the newly discovered treatise by ,aristotle on the ,political ,constitution of ,athens1 and the ,mimes of ,herondas were saved from destruction by being used as inner wrappings for a coffin of about the year #ajj ,a4,d4#aa ,other important manuscripts may yet be found1 now that careful search is being made in this direction4 ,herculaneum library4 ,unfortunately the large library of manuscripts1 consisting of nearly #ahjj papyrus rolls1 which was discovered about the middle of the last century in the lava-buried town of ,herculaneum1 has not as yet been found to contain any works of much value or interest4 ,these rolls are all charred by the heat of the lava1 which overwhelmed the town1 and the work of unrolling and deciphering the brittle carbonized paper necessarily goes on very slowly4 ,the owner of this library appears to have been an enthusiastic student of the ,epicurean philosophy in its later development1 and his books are mainly dull1 pedantic treatises on the various sciences such as mathematics1 music and the like1 treated from the ,epicurean point of view1 or rather from that of the ,graeco-,roman followers of ,epicurus4 ,papyrus rolls4 ,all these manuscripts appear to be of about the same date1 not many years older1 that is1 than the year #gi ,a4,d41 when the eruption of ,vesuvius overwhelmed ,herculaneum and ,pompeii in the same catastrophe4 ,they are written in fine bold uncial characters without illumination or ornament of any kind on rolls of papyrus nine or ten inches in breadth4 ,in their present burnt and shrunken condition the rolls average about two inches in diameter1 but they were probably larger than that in their original state2 see ,palaeo4 ,soc4 ,pl4 #aea1 #aeb2 the other published 'facsimiles' of the ,herculaneum manuscripts are not perfectly trustworthy4 ,herodotus on ,,mss4 ,in the time of ,herodotus 7c4 #dfj ,b4,c47 papyrus paper 7,greek3 biblia or ,greek3 chartai7#ab appears to have been used by the ,greeks almost to the exclusion of parchment or other kinds of skin4 ,in his interesting section on the introduction of the art of writing into ,greece by the ,phoenicians1 ,herodotus 7v4 #eh7 remarks that the ,ionians in old times used to call papyrus rolls ,greek3 diphtherai or parchment1 because they had once been in the habit of using skins of sheep or goats for manuscripts1 at a time when papyrus paper was not to be had2 and1 ,herodotus goes on to say1 ,barbarians even now are accustomed to write their manuscripts on parchment4 ,use of parchment4 ,manuscripts on parchment2 this old use of parchment for manuscripts was again introduced among the ,greeks by ,eumenes ,,ii41 king of ,pergamus from #aig to #aei ,b4,c4 ,at this time men had forgotten that parchment had ever been used for books1 and so ,varro1 quoted by ,pliny 7,hist4 ,nat4 ,,xiii4 #gj71 tells us that ,eumenes invented this use of parchment2 the real fact being that he re-introduced an old custom1 and stimulated the careful preparation of parchment for the sake of the great library which he was anxious to make the most important collection of manuscripts in the world4 ,pergamena4 ,varro tells us that he was driven to this use of parchment by the jealousy of the ,egyptian ,king ,ptolemy ,epiphanes1 whose enormous library at ,alexandria was the only existing rival to the ,pergamene collection4 ,one of the ,greek names for parchment1 ,pergamena1 was derived from the fact of its being so largely made for the ,pergamene ,kings ,eumenes and ,attalus1 both of whom were not only great patrons of literature and collectors of ancient manuscripts1 but were also enthusiastic buyers of pictures1 statues1 rich textiles and works of art of every class4 ,the other word for parchment used for manuscripts is membrana4 ,linen ,,mss4 ,manuscripts on linen2 in ancient ,egypt hieroglyphic manuscripts with sacred hymns and portions of the so-called ,ritual of the ,dead were frequently written with a reed pen on fine linen4 ,these manuscripts1 which are often found among the mummy wrappings of burials under the ,theban ,dynasties1 are usually illustrated with pen drawings in outline1 not painted miniatures like those on the papyrus rolls4 ,these drawings are executed with much spirit and with a beautiful1 clean1 certain touch4 ,early ,,mss4 in ,italy4 ,the early ,italian races1 ,latins1 ,samnites and others1 appear to have used linen very frequently for their manuscript records and sacred books4 ,among the public records mentioned by ,livy as having once been preserved with the ,archives in the ,capitoline ,temple of ,juno ,moneta were some of these early linen manuscripts 7libri lintei72 see ,liv4 ,,iv4 #g1 #ac1 #bj4 ,livy also 7,x4 #ch7 describes an ancient manuscript1 containing an account of the ritual customs of the ,samnites1 as a liber vetus linteus4 ,in historic times1 however1 papyrus and parchment appear to have superseded linen in ancient ,rome4 ,inscribed potsherds4 ,ostraka ,manuscripts4 ,for ephemeral purposes1 such as tradesmen's accounts and other business matters1 writing was often done with a pen and ink on broken fragments of pottery 7,greek3 ostraka74 ,an enormous number of these inscribed potsherds1 mostly dating from the ,ptolemaic period1 have been found in ,egypt1 and especially on the little island of ,elephantine in the ,nile a short distance below the first cataract4 ,among the ,greeks too1 writing on potsherds was very common2 especially when the ,athenian tribes met in the ,agora to record their votes for the exile of some unpopular citizen1 whence is derived the term ostracism 7,greek3 ostrakismos74 ,the word liber as meaning a book is supposed to be derived from a primitive custom of writing on the smooth inner bark of some tree1 such as the birch1 which supplies a fine silky substance1 not at all unsuited for manuscripts4 ,,mss4 on leaves4 ,the large broad leaves of some varieties of the palm tree have also been used for manuscript purposes1 more especially among the inhabitants of ,india and ,ceylon4 ,in early times the questions asked of the ,oracle of the ,pythian ,apollo at ,delphi were said to have been written on leaves of the laurel plant4 ,pali manuscripts in ,ceylon are even now frequently written on palm-leaves2 and we have the evidence of ,pliny that this custom once existed among some of the ancient classical races3 see ,hist4 ,nat4 ,,xiii4 #fi1 ,ante non fuisse chartarum usum1 in palmarum foliis primo scriptitatum2 deinde quarundam arborum libris4 ,postea publica monumenta plumbeis voluminibus1 mox et privata linteis confici coepta aut ceris4 ,pugillarium enim usum fuisse etiam ante ,trojana tempora invenimus apud ,homerum4 ,in this passage ,pliny gives a list of all the chief materials that had been used for manuscripts in ancient times1 the leaves and bark of trees1 plates of lead1 linen cloth and waxed tablets1 he then goes on to describe at considerable length the methods of making paper from the pith of the papyrus plant2 see page #bb4 ,greek libraries4 ,ancient libraries2 among the ,greeks and ,romans of the historic period books do not appear to have been either rare or costly as they were during the greater part of the mediaeval period4 ,in the time of ,alexander1 the latter part of the fourth century ,b4,c41 large libraries had already been formed by wealthy lovers of literature1 and in the second century ,b4,c4 the rival libraries of ,ptolemy ,epiphanes at ,alexandria and of ,king ,eumenes ,,ii4 at ,pergamus were said to have contained between them nearly a million volumes4 ,roman libraries4 ,among the ,romans of the ,empire books were no less common4 ,the owner of the above mentioned library at ,herculaneum1 consisting of nearly #ahjj rolls or volumes1 does not appear to have been a man of exceptional wealth2 his house was small and his surroundings simple in character4 ,the great libraries of ,rome4 ,as early as the reign of ,augustus1 ,rome possessed several large public libraries 7bibliothecae74 ,the first of these was instituted in #cg ,b4,c4 by ,asinius ,pollio both for ,greek and ,latin manuscripts4 ,the second was the ,bibliotheca ,octaviae founded by ,augustus in the ,campus ,martius in honour of his sister4 ,the third was the magnificent double library of ,apollo ,palatinus1 which ,augustus built on the ,palatine ,hill4 ,the fourth1 also on the ,palatine1 the ,bibliotheca ,tiberiana was founded by ,tiberius4 ,the fifth was built by ,vespasian as part of the group of buildings in his new ,forum ,pacis4 ,the sixth and largest of all was the double library1 for ,greek and ,latin books built by ,trajan in his ,forum close to the ,basilica ,ulpia4 ,to some extent a classification of subjects was adopted in these great public libraries1 one being mainly legal1 another for ancient history1 a third for state papers and modern records1 but this classification appears to have been only partially adhered to4 ,parish libraries4 ,in addition to these state libraries1 ,rome also possessed a large number of smaller parish libraries in the separate vici1 and the total number1 given in the ,regionary catalogues as existing in the time of ,constantine1 is enormous2 see ,sraud1 ,les livres dans l'antiquit4 ,library fittings4 ,with regard to the arrangement and fittings of ,roman libraries1 the usual method appears to have been this4 ,cupboards 7armaria71 fitted with shelves to receive the rolls or codices and closed by doors1 were placed against the walls all round the room4 ,these armaria were usually rather low1 not more than from four to five feet in height1 and on them were placed busts of famous authors2 while the wall-space above the bookcases was decorated with similar portrait reliefs or paintings designed to fill panels or circular medallions4 ,library decorations4 ,pliny 7,hist4 ,nat4 ,,xxxv4 #i71 speaks of it being a new fashion in his time to adorn the walls of libraries with ideal portraits of ancient writers1 such as ,homer1 executed in gold1 silver or bronze relief4 ,the public library of ,asinius ,pollio was1 ,pliny says1 decorated with portraits1 but whether the great libraries of ,pergamus and ,alexandria were ornamented in this way1 ,pliny is unable to say4 ,magnificent medallion portraits in gold and silver were fixed round the walls of the two great libraries of ,apollo on the ,palatine ,hill1 and probably in the other still larger public libraries which were founded by subsequent ,emperors4 ,recent discovery4 ,authors' busts4 ,the ordinary private libraries of ,rome were decorated in a similar way1 but with reliefs of less costly materials4 ,a very interesting example of this has recently been discovered and then destroyed on the ,esquiline hill in ,rome4 ,the house in which this library was discovered was one of no very exceptional size or splendour4 ,the bibliotheca itself consisted of a handsome room2 the lower part of its walls1 against which the armaria fitted1 was left quite plain4 ,above that the walls were divided into square panels by small fluted pilasters1 and in the centre of each space there was1 or had been1 a medallion relief-portrait about two feet in diameter enclosed in a moulded frame4 ,all this was executed in fine1 hard marble-dust stucco 7opus albarium or marmoreum74 ,the names of the authors whose portraits had filled the medallions were written in red upon the frames4 ,only one was legible--,,apollonivs ,,thyan4444 ,no doubt the works of ,apollonius of ,thyana were kept in the armarium below the bust4 ,the library at ,herculaneum1 which contained the famous papyrus rolls1 was a much smaller room4 ,besides the bookcases all round the walls1 it had also an isolated armarium in the centre of the room2 and this1 no doubt1 was a usual arrangement4 ,the room at ,herculaneum was so small that there can only have been just enough space to walk between the central bookcase and the armaria ranged all round against the wall4 ,closed bookcases4 ,as the ,comm4 ,lanciani has pointed out 7,ancient ,rome1 p4 #aie71 it is interesting to note that the ancient ,roman method of arranging books in low1 closed cupboards is still preserved in the great library of the ,vatican in ,rome2 which is unlike most existing libraries in the fact that on first entering no one would guess that it was a library1 not a single book being visible4 ,of the ancient armaria themselves no example now exists4 ,they were of wood1 and therefore1 of course1 perishable4 ,but we may1 ,i think1 argue from analogy1 that the doors of the cupboards were richly ornamented with painted decorations1 thus forming an elaborate dado or podium below the row of portrait reliefs which occupied the upper part of the walls4 ,booksellers' quarter4 ,the principal quarter in ,rome for the shops of booksellers 7bibliopolae or librarii7 appears to have been the ,argiletum1 which 7in ,imperial times7 was an important street running into the ,forum ,romanum between the ,curia and the ,basilica ,aemilia2 see ,mart4 ,i4 #c1 #aagac4 ,for ancient manuscripts or autograph works of famous authors large prices were often paid4 ,aristotle is said to have given three talents 7about #gej7 for an autograph manuscript of ,speusippus1 and a manuscript of ,virgil's second book of the ,aeneid1 thought to be the author's own copy1 sold for twenty aurei1 more than #bj in modern value2 see ,aul4 ,gell4 ,,iii4 #ag1 and ,,ii4 #c4 ,cost of new books4 ,slave scribes4 ,but ordinary copies of newly published works1 even by popular authors1 appear to have been but little more expensive than books of this class are at the present day4 ,the publisher and bookseller ,tryphon could sell ,martial's first book of ,epigrams at a profit for two denarii--barely two shillings in modern value2 see ,mart4 ,,xiii4 #c4 ,it may seem strange that written manuscripts should not have been much more costly than printed books1 but when one considers how they were produced the reason is evident4 ,atticus1 the ,sosii and other chief publishers of ,rome owned a large number of slaves who were trained to be neat and rapid scribes4 ,fifty or a hundred of these slaves could write from the dictation of one reader1 and thus a small edition of a new volume of ,horace's ,odes or ,martial's ,epigrams could be produced with great rapidity and at very small cost#ad4 ,little capital would be required for the education of the slave-scribes1 and when once they were taught1 the cost of their labour would be little more than the small amount of food which was necessary to keep them alive and in working order4 ,cicero 7,att4 ,,ii4 #d7 speaks of the publisher ,atticus selling manuscripts produced in this way by slave labour on a large scale4 ,librarii4 ,the name librarius was given not only to the booksellers1 but also to slave librarians1 and to scribes1 the latter being sometimes distinguished by the name scriptores librarii4 ,librarii antiquarii were writers who were specially skilled in copying ancient manuscripts4 ,the word scriba commonly denotes a secretary rather than what we should now call a scribe4 ,in ,athens a class of booksellers1 ,greek3 bibliographoi1 appears to have existed as early as the fifth century ,b4,c42 see ,poll4 ,,vii4 #baa4 ,the name ,greek3 biblioplai was subsequently used1 and adopted by the ,romans4 ,,the ,,technique ,,of ,,ancient ,,manuscripts#ae4 ,parchment and vellum4 ,erasures4 ,parchment4 ,with regard to the preparation of parchment and other kinds of skin for writing on 7,pergamena and ,membrana7 there is little to be said4 ,the skins of many different animals have been used for this purpose both in classical and mediaeval times1 especially skins of calves1 sheep1 goats and pigs4 ,unlike manuscripts on papyrus1 parchment or vellum#af manuscripts were usually covered with writing on both sides1 since the ink does not show through from one side to the other1 as it is liable to do on the more absorbent and spongy papyrus paper4 ,for this reason complete or partial erasures were much easier to execute on vellum than on papyrus4 ,the writing was first sponged so as to remove the surface ink1 and the traces that still remained were got rid of by rubbing the surface of the vellum with pumice stone4 ,in some cases the manuscript was erased from the whole of a vellum codex or roll1 and the cleaned surface then used to receive fresh writing4 ,palimpsests4 ,palimpsests2 manuscripts of this class1 on twice-used vellum1 were called palimpsests 7,greek3 palimpsstos72 see ,cic4 ,fam4 vii4 #ah4 ,several important texts1 such as the legal work of ,gaius1 have been recovered by laboriously deciphering the not wholly obliterated writing on these palimpsests4 ,during the early mediaeval period1 when classical learning was little valued1 many a dull treatise of the schoolmen or other theological work of small interest was written over the obliterated text of some much earlier and more valuable classical author4 ,papyrus ,,mss4 ,in some cases it appears that papyrus manuscripts were made into palimpsests1 but probably not very often1 as it would be difficult to erase the ink on a roll of papyrus without seriously injuring the surface of the paper4 ,moreover as papyrus manuscripts were only written on one side of the paper1 the back was free to receive new writing without any necessity to rub out the original text4 ,the recently discovered treatise by ,aristotle on the ,political ,constitution of ,athens has some monetary accounts written on the back of the papyrus by some unphilosophical man of business not many years later than the date of the original treatise4 ,papyrus paper4 ,papyrus paper4 ,the ancient methods employed in the preparation of papyrus paper 7charta7 can be clearly made out by the evidence of existing examples aided by the minute but not wholly accurate description given by ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,,xiii4 #ga to #hc4 ,papyrus plant4 ,the papyrus plant1 the ,cyperus ,papyrus of ,linnaeus1 7,greek ,greek3 byblos7 is a very tall1 handsome variety of reed which grows in marshes and shallows along the sides of streams of water4 ,the plant has at the top a very graceful tufted bunch of foliage2 its stem averages from three to four inches in diameter1 and the total height of the plant is from ten to twelve feet4 ,it grows in many places in ,syria1 in the ,euphrates valley and in ,nubia4 ,in ,egypt itself it is now extinct1 but it was abundant there in ancient times1 especially in the ,delta of the ,nile4 ,the only spot in ,europe where the papyrus plant grows in a wild state is near ,syracuse in the little river ,anapus1 where it was probably introduced by the ,arab conquerors in the eighth or ninth century ,a4,d4 ,it grows here in great abundance and sometimes nearly blocks up the stream so that a boat can scarcely get along4 ,the stem of the papyrus consists of a soft1 white1 spongy or cellular pith surrounded by a thin1 smooth1 green rind4 ,papyrus paper 7,greek3 biblia or ,greek3 charts7 was wholly made from the cellular pith4 ,the method of manufacture was as follows4 ,process of manufacture4 ,the long stem of the plant was first cut up into convenient pieces of a foot or more in length2 the pith in each piece was then very carefully and evenly cut with a sharp knife into thin slices4 ,these slices were then laid side by side1 their edges touching but not overlapping1 on the smooth surface of a wooden table which was slightly inclined to let the superfluous sap run off1 as it was squeezed out of the slices of pith by gentle blows from a smooth wooden mallet4 ,when by repeated beating the layer of pith had been hammered down to a thinner substance1 and a great deal of the sap had drained off1 some fine paste made of wheat-flour was carefully brushed over the whole surface of the pith4 ,a second layer of slices of pith1 previously prepared by beating1 was then laid crosswise on the first layer made adhesive by the paste1 so that the slices in the second layer were at right angles to those of the first4 ,the beating process was then repeated1 the workmen being careful to get rid of all lumps or inequalities1 and the beating was continued till the various slices of pith in the two layers were thoroughly united and amalgamated together4 ,use of many layers4 ,sizes of papyrus4 ,for the best sort of papyrus these processes were repeated a third and sometimes even a fourth time1 the separate slices in each layer being cut much thinner than in the coarser sorts of paper which consisted of two layers only4 ,the next process was to dry and press the paper2 after which its surface was carefully smoothed and polished with an ivory burnisher#ag2 its rough edges were trimmed1 and it was then ready to be made up into sheets or rolls4 ,there was nothing in the method of manufacture to limit strictly the size of the papyrus sheets 7,greek3 selides1 paginae7 either in breadth or length2 the workmen could lay side by side as many slices of the pith as he liked1 and slices of great length might have been cut out of the long stem of the papyrus4 ,practically1 however1 it was found convenient to make the paper in rather small sheets2 twelve to sixteen inches are the usual widths of papyrus manuscripts4 ,union of the sheets4 ,long rolls4 ,the reason of this obviously was that it would have been impossible to cut slices of great length to the requisite thinness and evenness of substance1 and so papyrus manuscripts are always made up of a large number of separate sheets carefully pasted together4 ,this was very skilfully done by workmen who 7in ,pliny's time7 were called glutinatores2 cf4 ,cic4 ,att4 ,,iv4 #d4 ,the two adjacent edges of the sheets1 which were to be joined together by lapping1 were thinned down by careful rubbing to about half their original substance4 ,the two laps were then brushed over with paste1 accurately applied together1 and the union was then completed by beating with the wooden mallet4 ,when the pasted joint was dry it was rubbed and polished with the ivory burnisher till scarcely any mark of the joining remained4 ,in this way long rolls were formed1 often fifty feet or more in length2 as a rule1 however1 excessive length for a single roll was inconvenient4 ,pliny mentions #bj sheets as being an ordinary limit4 ,thus1 for example1 in such works as ,homer's ,iliad or ,virgil's ,aeneid1 each book would form a separate volumen or roll 7,greek ,greek3 kylindros or ,greek3 tomos74 ,the invention of papyrus paper dates from an early period in the history of ,egypt4 ,examples still exist which are as early as #bcjj ,b4,c41 and its manufacture was probably known long before that4 ,papyrus used in ,greece4 ,in later times ,egyptian papyrus was an important article of export into many countries4 ,an ,attic inscription of the year #djg ,b4,c4 tells us what the cost of paper then was in ,athens2 two sheets 7,greek3 chartai duo7 cost two drachmae and four obols1 equal in modern value to about four shillings2 see ,c4 ,i4 ,a4 ,i4 #cbd4 ,the ,greek3 chartai in this case probably mean1 not a single page1 but several sheets pasted together to form a roll4 ,papyrus made in ,rome4 ,old ,,mss4 on papyrus4 ,in ,pliny's time paper was made not only in ,egypt but also in ,rome and at other places in ,italy#ah4 ,the best kind was formerly called ,hieratica1 because it was used in ,egypt for sacred hieroglyphic writing only4 ,in later times this finest quality1 in ,rome at least1 was called ,augusta1 and the second quality ,liviana1 from ,livia the wife of ,augustus4 ,a coarse variety used for wrapping up parcels and the like was called shop-paper1 emporetica4 ,pliny also tells us that paper was manufactured of many different breadths1 varying from about four to eighteen inches4 ,the commonest width was about twelve inches2 see ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,,xiii4 #ga to #hc4 ,in the last of these paragraphs ,pliny mentions examples of old papyrus manuscripts existing in his time1 such as manuscripts in the handwriting of ,tiberius and ,gaius ,gracchus1 which were nearly two centuries old4 ,manuscripts written by ,cicero1 ,augustus and ,virgil are1 he says1 still frequently to be seen4 ,with regard to the antiquity of paper ,pliny's views are far from correct4 ,he thinks paper was first made in ,egypt in the time of ,alexander the ,great 7,hist4 ,nat4 ,,xiii4 #gi71 whereas1 as is mentioned above1 papyrus paper of fine quality was certainly made in ,egypt nearly #bjjj years before the time of ,alexander1 and probably much earlier4 ,paper of fine quality4 ,the best kinds of papyrus paper are close in texture1 with a smooth surface1 very pleasant to write upon with a reed pen1 and adapted to receive miniature paintings of great refinement and delicacy of touch4 ,to prevent the ink spreading or soaking into the paper1 it was as a final process sometimes soaked in size made of fish-bones or gum and water1 exactly as modern linen paper is sized4 ,the colour of the papyrus is a pale brown1 very pleasant to the eye1 and excellent as a background to the painted decorations4 ,fibrous texture4 ,when it was first made1 papyrus paper must have been extremely durable and tough owing to its compound structure with two or more fibrous layers placed cross-wise4 ,the parallel fibrous lines of the pith are very visible on the surface of papyrus paper2 and these regular lines served as a guide to the scribe when writing1 so that when papyrus was used it was not necessary to cover the page with ruled lines to keep the writing even1 as had to be done when the manuscript was on vellum4 ,in a papyrus manuscript the pages of writing are set side by side1 across the roll1 with a small margin between each page or column4 ,greek examples of papyrus rolls4 ,a small terra-cotta statuette#ai of about the fifth or fourth century ,b4,c4 found at ,salamis in ,cyprus in #ahij1 shows a ,greek scribe writing on a long papyrus roll placed on a low table before which he is sitting4 ,among ,greek vase paintings of the same date a not uncommon subject is the poetess ,sappho reading from a papyrus roll4 ,a fourth century vase with this subject in the ,central ,museum in ,athens shows ,sappho holding a manuscript on which the following words are inscribed 7supplying missing letters and correcting blunders7 ,greek3 ,,theoi ,,eri,n ,,epe,n ,,erchomai ,greek3 ,,angelos ,,ne,n ,,umn,n4 ,by the figure of ,sappho is inscribed the beginning of her name1 ,greek3 ,,sap in letters of archaistic form4 ,sappho reading4 ,a very similar design occurs on a beautiful gem in the ,british ,museum 7,b4,m4 ,cat4 of gems1 ,no4 #eef71 which appears to date from the latter part of the fifth century ,b4,c4 ,a very graceful female figure1 probably meant for ,sappho1 is represented seated on a chair with high curved back4 ,she is reading from a manuscript roll which she holds by the two rolled up ends1 holding one in each hand4 ,this method of holding a papyrus manuscript is shown very clearly on a vase in the ,british ,museum on which the same motive is painted4 ,the lady 7,sappho7 holds the two rolled up portions of the manuscript1 stretching tight the intermediate portion on which is the column of writing which she is reading4 ,umbilicus or roller4 ,as the reader progressed the paper was unrolled from the roll held in the right hand1 and the part just read was rolled up in the left-hand roll4 ,these ,greek representations do not usually show any stick or roller for the manuscript to be rolled round2 but in ,roman times a wooden or ivory roller 7,greek3 omphalos1 umbilicus7 was used as the core of the roll2 and the end of the long strip of papyrus by the last page or column of text was pasted on to it4 ,the ends of the umbilicus were often fitted with a round knob or boss1 which was decorated with gilding or colour4 ,the edges of the papyrus roll were smoothed with pumice-stone 7pumice mundus71 and the whole manuscript was often provided with a vellum case1 which was stained a bright colour1 red1 purple or yellow4 ,tibullus 7,el4 ,,iii4 i4 #i7 alludes to these ornamental methods1 ,lutea sed niveum involvat membrana libellum4 ,pumex et canas tondeat ante comas2 ,atque inter geminas pingantur cornua frontes4 ,the frontes are the edges of the roll1 and the cornua are the projecting portions of the two wooden rollers4 ,inscribed titles4 ,the title of the manuscript was written on a ticket or slip of vellum1 which hung down from the closed roll like the pendant seal of a mediaeval document4 ,thus when a number of manuscripts were piled on the shelf of an armarium the pendants hanging down from the ends of the rolls indicated plainly what the books were1 without the necessity of pulling them from their place4 ,small numbers of rolls1 especially manuscripts which had to be carried about1 were often kept in round drum-like boxes 7capsae or scrinia71 with loop handles to carry them by4 ,coloured inks4 ,much of the beauty of an ancient manuscript depended on the use of red or purple ink for headings1 indices and marginal glosses4 ,as ,pliny says 7,hist4 ,nat4 ,,xxxiii4 #abb7 minium in voluminum quoque scriptura usurpatur4 ,the use of purple ink for the index is mentioned by ,martial in his epigram ,ad librum suum 7,,iii4 #b7 where he sums up the various methods of decoration which in his time were applied to manuscripts1 ,cedro nunc licet ambules perunctus1 ,et frontis gemino decens honore ,pictis luxurieris umbilicis2 ,et te purpura delicata velet1 ,et cocco rubeat superbus index4 ,use of oil4 ,the oil of cedar wood1 mentioned in the first of these lines1 was smeared over the back of papyrus manuscripts to preserve them from book-worms4 ,the act of unrolling a manuscript to read it was called explicare1 and when the reader had come to the end it was opus explicitum4 ,in mediaeval times from the false analogy of the word 7hic7 incipit1 a verb explicit was invented1 and was often written at the end of codices to show that the manuscript was complete to the end1 though1 strictly speaking the word is only applicable to a roll4 ,mediaeval use of papyrus4 ,the use of papyrus paper for manuscripts to some extent continued till mediaeval times4 ,papyrus manuscripts of the sixth and seventh century ,a4,d4 are not uncommon1 and1 long after vellum had superseded papyrus paper for the writing of books1 short documents1 such as letters1 ,papal deeds and the like1 were still frequently written on papyrus4 ,papal ,briefs on papyrus still exist which were written as late as the eleventh century4 ,black ink4 ,carbon ink4 ,the black ink which was used for classical manuscripts was of the kind now known as ,indian or more correctly ,chinese ink1 which cannot be kept in a fluid state1 but has to be rubbed up with water from day to day as it is required4 ,one of the menial offices which ,aeschines when a boy had to perform in his father's school was rubbing the ink1 ,greek3 to melan tribn2 see ,demos4 ,de ,corona1 p4 #cac4 ,this kind of ink 7,greek3 melan or ,greek3 melanion1 atramentum librarium7 simply consists of finely divided particles of carbon1 mixed with gum or with size made by boiling down shreds of parchment4 ,it was obtained by burning a resinous substance and collecting the soot on a cold flat surface1 from which it could afterwards be scraped off4 ,the soot had then to be very finely ground1 mixed with a gummy medium and then moulded into shape and dried4 ,the process is described by ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,,xxxv4 #da2 and better still by ,vitruvius1 ,,vii4 #aj4 ,black pigment4 ,a variety of this carbon pigment used for pictures on stucco by wall-painters was called atramentum tectorium1 modern lamp-black2 the only difference between this and writing ink was in the kind of glutinous medium used with it4 ,careful scribes probably prepared their own ink1 as the writers of mediaeval manuscripts usually did4 ,the common commercial black ink of about #cjj ,a4,d4 was sold at a very cheap rate1 as is recorded in an inscription containing part of ,diocletian's famous edict which was found at ,megalopolis and published by ,mr ,loring 7,jour4 ,hell4 ,stud4 ,vol4 ,,xi41 #ahij1 p4 #cah1 line #df74 ,under the heading ,pens and ink1 ,greek3 ,peri kalamn kai melaniou1 the price of ink1 ,greek3 melanion1 is fixed at #ab small copper coins the pound4 ,very great skill is required to prepare carbon ink of the finest quality4 ,though it is now largely manufactured in ,europe1 none but the ,chinese can make ink of the best sort4 ,in some places sepia ink from the cuttle-fish was used in ancient times2 see ,persius1 ,sat4 ,,iii4 #ab2 and cf4 ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,,xi4 #h1 and ,,xxxii4 #ada4 ,red inks4 ,the red ink used for ancient manuscripts was of three different kinds1 namely red lead1 vermilion or sulphuret of mercury1 and red ochre4 ,the ancient names for these red pigments were used very indiscriminately1 ,greek3 miltos1 minium1 cinnabaris and rubrica4 ,in some cases ,greek3 miltos certainly means the costly vermilion2 and again the word is also used both for red lead and for the much cheaper red ochre4 ,the latter appears to be always meant by the name ,greek3 miltos ,sinpis2 see ,choisy1 ,inscrip4 ,lebadeia1 p4 #aig4 ,the ,latin words minium and rubrica are used in the same vague way2 see ,vitruv4 ,,vii4 #i2 and ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,,xxxv4 #ca to #ce4 ,in mediaeval manuscripts red ink 7rubrica7 was largely used not only for headings and glosses1 but also in ,service books for the ritual directions1 which have hence taken the name of rubrics4 ,purple ink4 ,the purple ink 7coccus71 which ,martial mentions in the passage quoted above at page #bg1 was made from the kermes beetle1 which lives on the ilex trees of ,greece and ,asia ,minor4 ,this was one of the most important of the ancient dyes for woven stuffs and it was also used as a pigment by painters2 see below1 page #bdf4 ,double inkstands4 ,the inkstands of ancient scribes were commonly made double1 to hold both black and red ink4 ,many examples of these from ,egypt and elsewhere still exist1 and they are shown in many of the ,pompeian wall-paintings4 ,they usually are in the form of two bronze cylinders linked together1 each with a lid which is attached by a little chain4 ,other inkstands are single1 little round boxes of bronze1 in shape like a large pill-box4 ,another method1 specially common in ancient ,egypt1 was for the scribe to carry about his ink1 both black and red1 in a solid form2 he then rubbed up with water just as much as he needed at the time4 ,the box and palette mentioned below was made for this use of solid inks1 except that the whole thing1 handle and all1 is made out of one piece of metal4 ,reed pens4 ,the pens used by ancient writers of manuscripts were mainly some variety of reed 7,greek3 kalamos1 calamus or canna71 cut diagonally to a point like a modern quill pen4 ,great numbers of reed pens have been found in ,egyptian tombs and also in ,pompeii2 they exactly resemble those still used in ,egypt and in ,oriental countries generally4 ,metal pens4 ,metal pens were also used by ,greek and ,roman scribes4 ,examples both in silver and bronze have been found in ,greece and in ,italy1 shaped very much like a modern steel pen#bj4 ,scribes' palettes4 ,in some cases manuscripts were written with a fine brush instead of a pen1 especially the hieroglyphic manuscripts of ancient ,egypt4 ,many combined scribes' palettes and brush cases have been found in ,egyptian tombs4 ,these are long slips of wood1 partly hollowed to hold the brushes1 and with two cup-like sinkings at one end for the writer to rub up his cakes of black and red ink4 ,in ,egyptian manuscripts red ink is used much more copiously than either in ,greek or ,latin manuscripts4 ,very often the scribe writes his columns alternately in black and red for the sake of the decorative appearance of the page4 ,pen-cases4 ,egyptian pen-cases in the form of a bronze tube about inch in diameter and #aj inches long with a tightly fitting cap have frequently been found4 ,the ,british ,museum possesses good examples of these1 and of the other writing implements here described4 ,reed pens4 ,the above-mentioned passage in the ,edict of ,diocletian 7see page #bh7 gives the prices of reed pens 7,greek3 kalamoi7 of various qualities4 ,the difference is very great between the best and the inferior kinds of pens2 the best quality appears to have been made from the long single joint of a reed4 ,there is no evidence that quill pens were used in classical times1 but it is difficult to believe that so natural an expedient never occurred to any ancient scribe1 especially when the use of vellum for manuscripts came in2 for papyrus paper the softer reed pen would be more convenient than a quill1 and indeed for all the earlier sort of ,greek and ,latin writing in large uncial characters4 ,it is only for the smaller cursive writing that a quill would be as suitable as a reed pen4 ,the inscription mentioned at p4 #bd as giving the cost of paper in ,athens in #djg ,b4,c4 is part of a record of the expenses of building the ,erechtheum4 ,it also mentions the purchase for #d drachmae of #d wooden writing-tablets1 ,greek3 chartai enthsan duo1 es has ta antigrapha enegrapsamen - - ,greek3 ,sanides tettares - - - - ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,classical ,,illuminated ,,manuscripts4 ,illumination4 ,the mediaeval phrase illuminated manuscript means a manuscript which is lighted up with coloured decoration in the form of ornamental initial-letters or painted miniatures4 ,dante speaks of ,the art which in ,paris is called illuminating1 444 quell' arte ,che alluminare chiamata in ,parisi2 ,purg4 ,,xi4 #hj4 ,use of minium4 ,the important use that was made of red paint 7minium7 in the decoration of manuscripts led to the painter being called a miniator1 whence the pictures that he executed in manuscripts were called miniature or miniatures4 ,finally the word miniature was extended in meaning to imply any painting on a minute scale#ba4 ,originally1 however1 it was only applied to the painted decorations of manuscripts4 ,egyptian miniatures4 ,the ,egyptian manuscript ,books of the ,dead are very copiously illuminated with painted miniatures1 both in the form of ornamental borders along the edge of the papyrus1 and also with larger compositions which occupy the whole depth of the roll4 ,it is difficult to say to what extent illuminated manuscripts were known to the ancient ,greeks1 but they were certainly not uncommon in ,rome towards the close of the ,republic2 and it may fairly be assumed that it was from the ,greeks that the very inartistic ,romans derived the custom of decorating manuscripts with painted miniatures4 ,illustrations in ,roman ,,mss4 ,pliny tells us 7,hist4 ,nat4 ,,xxxv4 #aa7 that a number of manuscripts in the library of ,m4 ,varro in the first century ,b4,c4 contained no less than #gjj portraits of illustrious personages4 ,that the original manuscript of ,vitruvius' work on ,architecture was illustrated with explanatory pictures is shown by the frequent reference in the text to these lost illustrations which are mentioned as being at the end of the work2 e4g4 see ,,iii41 ,praef41 #d4 ,a manuscript written in letters of gold is mentioned by ,suetonius 7,nero1 #aj72 this was a copy of ,nero's own poem which was publicly read aloud to an audience on the ,capitol1 and was then deposited in the ,temple of ,jupiter ,capitolinus4 ,writing in gold4 ,again1 two centuries later the mother of ,maximus1 who was titular ,caesar from #bce to #bch ,a4,d41 is said to have given him a manuscript of ,homer's poems written in gold letters on purple vellum2 see ,jul4 ,capit41 ,max4 ,vita4 ,there is1 in short1 abundant evidence to show that illuminated manuscripts were common among the ,romans of the ,imperial period2 and there is a very strong probability that manuscripts decorated with miniatures were no less frequent in the great libraries of the ,ptolemies and of the ,attalid kings1 in fact throughout the ,greek world from the time of ,alexander the ,great downwards1 if not earlier still4 ,greek miniatures4 ,some notion of the great beauty of the illustrations in ,greek manuscripts may perhaps be gathered from an examination of the masterly and delicately graceful drawings incised in outline which decorate the finest of the ,greek bronze cistae4 ,nothing could surpass the perfect beauty of the outline engravings on the so-called ,ficoronian cista1 which is now preserved in the ,museo del ,collegio ,romano in ,rome4 ,part of this series representing scenes from the adventures of the ,argonauts is shown on fig4 #a4 ,two sources of knowledge4 ,with regard to the general scheme of decoration in classical manuscripts1 we have the evidence of a few existing examples dating from about the time of ,constantine1 and also a large number of copies of ,roman manuscript-pictures of earlier date than the third century ,a4,d41 which are to be seen in various ,italian and ,byzantine manuscripts of the eleventh and twelfth centuries4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,part of the drawing engraved on the bronze cista of ,ficoroni1 dating from the early part of the fourth century ,b4,c4 ,a beautiful example of ,greek drawing4 ,isolated pictures4 ,mediaeval method4 ,the evidence derived from these two sources leads to the conclusion that as a rule the illuminations in classical manuscripts were treated as separate pictures1 each surrounded with a simple painted frame1 and not closely linked to the text in the characteristic mediaeval fashion4 ,the mediaeval method1 by often introducing miniature paintings within the boundary of large initial letters1 and by surrounding the page with borders of foliage which grow out of the chief initials of the text1 makes the decoration an essential part of the whole and creates a close union between the literary and the ornamental parts of the book1 which is very unlike the usual ancient system of having a plainly written text with isolated miniature paintings introduced at intervals throughout the pages of the book4 ,iliad of the #dth century4 ,manuscript of the ,iliad at ,milan2 of all existing ,greek or ,latin manuscripts none gives a better notion of the style of illuminations used in manuscripts of the best ,graeco-,roman period than the fragments of ,homer's ,iliad which are preserved in the ,biblioteca ,ambrogiana in ,milan4 ,these fragments consist of fifty-eight miniature paintings1 which have been cut out of a folio manuscript on vellum of ,homer's ,iliad1 dating probably from the latter part of the fourth century ,a4,d4 ,the mutilator of this codex seems only to have cared to preserve the pictures1 and the only portion of the text which still exists is about eight hundred not consecutive lines which happen to be written on the backs of the paintings4 ,great additional interest is given to this priceless fragment by the fact that the miniatures are much older in style than the date of the manuscript itself1 and have evidently been copied from a much earlier ,greek original4 ,older ,greek style4 ,and more than that2 these paintings take one back further still2 their rhythmical composition1 the dignity of their motives1 the simplicity of the planes1 and the general largeness of style which is specially noticeable in some of the miniatures representing fighting armies of gods and heroes1 all suggest that we have here a record1 weakened and debased though it may be1 of some grand series of mural decorations on a large scale1 dating possibly from the best period of ,greek art4 ,hellenic models4 ,as is naturally the case with copies of noble designs executed at a period of extreme decadence these paintings are very unequal in style1 combining feebleness of touch and coarseness of detail with great spirit in the action of the figures and great dignity in the compositions1 which have numerous figures crowded without confusion of line1 thus suggesting large scale though the paintings are actually miniatures only five or six inches long4 ,the treatment of gods and heroes1 especially ,zeus1 ,apollo1 ,achilles and others1 has much that recalls fine ,hellenic models4 ,and some of the personifications1 such as ,night and the river ,scamander1 possess a gracefulness of pose and beauty of form which was far beyond the conception of any fourth century artist4 ,it should1 however1 be observed that a fine ,hellenic origin is not suggested by all the fifty-eight pictures from this ,iliad4 ,some of them are obviously of later and inferior style1 with weak scattered compositions1 very unlike the nobility and decorative completeness of the best among the miniatures4 ,scheme of colour4 ,with regard to the arrangement of these pictures1 each is surrounded by a simple frame formed of bands of blue and red2 in most cases the miniatures reach across the whole width of the page4 ,the colouring is heavy1 painted in opaque tempera pigments with an undue preponderance of minium or red lead4 ,white lead1 yellow1 brown and red ochres are largely used1 together with a variety of vegetable colours and the purple-red of the kermes beetle 7coccus71 but no gold is used1 a bright yellow ochre being employed as a substitute#bb4 ,the costumes are partly ancient ,greek and partly of later ,roman fashion4 ,a nimbus encircles each deity's head1 and different colours are used to distinguish them4 ,the nimbus of ,zeus is purple1 that of ,venus is green2 those of the other gods are mostly blue4 ,to a large extent the backgrounds of the pictures are not painted1 but the creamy white of the vellum is left exposed#bc4 ,the ,vatican ,virgil4 ,the ,virgil of the ,vatican2 next in importance to the ,ambrosian ,iliad1 among the existing examples of classical illuminated manuscripts1 comes the manuscript of ,virgil's poems 7,vat4 ,no4 #cbbe7 which is supposed to have been written in the third or more probably the fourth century ,a4,d4 ,the text is written in large handsome capitals1 well formed except that all the cross lines are too short1 ,t1 for example being written thus ,symbol3 ,t with short curled arms4 ,the whole manuscript1 but especially the ,aeneid1 is decorated with pictures1 fifty in all1 each framed by a simple border of coloured bands4 ,the style of these miniatures is very different and artistically very inferior to that of the ,ambrosian ,iliad4 ,miniatures of the #eth century4 ,the whole of the designs1 in composition and drawing and in the costumes of the figures1 are those of the fourth century4 ,the details are coarse1 the attitudes devoid of spirit1 and the figures clumsy4 ,the backgrounds are painted in and the colouring is dull in tone and heavy in texture1 put in with a considerable body of pigment 7impasto74 ,gold1 not in leaf but as a fluid pigment1 is largely used for high lights on trees1 mountains1 roofs of buildings1 and for the folds of drapery1 especially where the stuff is red or purple4 ,the male figures have flesh of a reddish-brown tint like many of the ,pompeian wall paintings2 they wear short tunics with cloaks thrown over the shoulders4 ,other figures wear a long dalmatica or tunic1 ornamented with two vertical purple stripes1 closely resembling the tunics which have recently been found in such abundance in the late ,roman tombs of the ,fayoum in ,upper ,egypt4 ,period of decadence4 ,on the whole the miniatures are neither graceful nor highly decorative2 they were executed at about the low water mark of classical artistic decadence shortly before the ,byzantine revival under ,justinian4 ,much that has been written in their praise must be attributed to antiquarian enthusiasm rather than to just criticism#bd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,miniature of classical design from a twelfth century ,psalter in the ,vatican library4 ,before passing on to another class of manuscripts it should be noted that there is in existence one manuscript of the fourth or fifth century ,a4,d4 which is of special interest on account of its being ornamented1 not only with miniature pictures1 but also with some decorative designs of a stiff conventional character4 ,this is a ,roman ,kalendar1 which forms part of a manuscript in the ,imperial library in ,vienna4 ,the ornaments have but little decorative merit1 but they are of interest as showing that the illuminations in classical manuscripts were not always confined to the subject pictures4 ,copies of lost originals4 ,it has not as a rule been sufficiently noticed that the style of miniature paintings in manuscripts of a considerably earlier date than either the ,ambrosian ,iliad or the ,vatican ,virgil is very fairly represented in various manuscripts of the tenth to the twelfth century1 the illuminators of which have evidently copied1 as accurately as they were able1 miniatures in manuscripts of the first or second century ,a4,d4 ,the originals of these early ,roman manuscripts do not now exist1 and therefore the information as to their style and composition1 which is given in the mediaeval copies1 is of great interest4 ,classical design4 ,graeco-,roman design4 ,a ,greek twelfth century ,psalter in the ,vatican library 7,no4 #cha7 has one special picture which is obviously a careful copy of a miniature painting of the first century ,a4,d4 or even earlier3 see fig4 #b4 ,the subject is ,orpheus seated on a rock playing to a circle of listening beasts together with two nymphs and a youthful ,faun or shepherd4 ,these figures are arranged so as to form a very graceful composition in a landscape with hills and trees4 ,the figures are extremely graceful both in outline and in pose1 showing a considerable trace of ,greek influence4 ,the whole design closely resembles in style some of the wall paintings in the so-called ,house of ,livia on the ,palatine ,hill in ,rome1 of which fig4 #c shows the scene of ,io watched by ,argus1 and those in the now destroyed villa which was discovered by the ,tiber bank in the ,farnesina ,gardens#be1 and many of the better class of paintings on the walls of the houses of ,pompeii4 ,of the latter a good example is shown in fig4 #d1 a painting the design of which has much fine ,hellenic feeling in the grace of its form and the simplicity of the composition4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,painting in the ,house of ,livia on the ,palatine ,hill in ,rome4 ,orpheus made into ,david4 ,returning now to the above mentioned ,psalter of the ,vatican1 the scribe1 probably a ,greek monk1 who in the twelfth century painted this miniature#bf1 converted it into quite a different subject1 that of ,david playing on the harp1 by the simple device of ticketing each figure with a newly devised name4 ,orpheus is called ,david1 one of the ,nymphs who sits affectionately close to ,orpheus1 probably meant for his wife ,eurydice1 is labelled ,sophia1 wisdom2 while the other two figures are converted into local personifications to indicate the locality of the scene4 ,it is not often that a mediaeval copyist has thus preserved unaltered the composition of a whole subject of classical and pre-,christian date1 but it is not uncommon to find single figures or parts of pictorial designs of equally early date among the illuminations of the ninth to the twelfth centuries4 ,graeco-,roman personifications4 ,as an example of this we may mention one painting in a ,greek ,psalter of the tenth century in the ,paris library 7,bibl4 ,nat4 ,no4 #aci74 ,this represents the ,prophet ,isaiah standing1 gazing up to heaven1 in a very beautiful landscape with trees growing from a richly flower-spangled sward4 ,the somewhat stiff figure of the ,prophet is ,byzantine#bg rather than ,classical in style1 but the other two figures which are introduced are purely ,graeco-,roman in design4 ,on one side is a personification of ,night 7,greek3 ,,nux71 a very graceful standing female figure with part of her drapery floating in the wind1 forming a sort of curved canopy over her head1 such as is so often represented above the heads of goddesses or nymphs on the reliefs of fine ,graeco-,roman sarcophagi4 ,on the other side of the ,prophet is a winged boy1 like a youthful ,eros1 bearing a torch to symbolize the dawn4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,a ,pompeian painting of ,hellenic style1 as an example of ,greek drawing and composition4 ,classical style4 ,the bold and very decorative1 yet almost realistic treatment of the foliage of the trees and of the flowers which are sprinkled among the grass is purely classical in style1 and the whole miniature shows that the tenth century illuminator had before him some very fine manuscript of early ,imperial date4 ,from this he has selected a picture which might by omissions and modifications be adapted to his subject2 and for the figure of the ,prophet he has fallen back on another less ancient original1 but still one which must have been several centuries older than his own time4 ,this is the explanation of what at first seems so strange a union in the same painting of very graceful single figures by the side of others which are rigid and awkward2 and again1 great skill shown in the drawing of the individual figures combined with a feeble and clumsy arrangement of the whole composition4 ,byzantine style4 ,fig4 #e shows a miniature of very similar style representing the ,prophet ,ezechiel in the ,valley of dry bones4 ,it is taken from a manuscript of the ,sermons of ,saint ,gregory ,nazianzen1 which was written for the ,byzantine ,emperor ,basil who reigned from #hfg to #hhf4 ,this figure chiefly illustrates the ,byzantine1 not the ,classical element in the miniatures of this mixed style of art1 though there is also a clear trace of ,graeco-,roman influence in the finely designed drapery of the ,prophet4 ,the curious union of two utterly different styles is well exemplified in another of the miniatures in the last mentioned ,psalter4 ,here ,david is represented like a ,byzantine ,emperor crowned and wearing the richly embroidered toga picta1 and holding an open book4 ,the figure might well pass for a representation of the ,emperor ,justinian1 and the original painting was probably of that date1 of the early part of the sixth century4 ,graeco-,roman figures4 ,on each side of the ,byzantine ,david is a female figure draped with most gracefully designed folds of pure ,graeco-,roman style1 a most striking contrast to the central figure4 ,who these ladies represented in the original manuscript it is impossible to say1 but the painter who in the tenth century illuminated the ,psalter called them ,wisdom and ,prophecy1 writing by them the names ,sophia and ,prophetia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,the ,prophet ,ezechiel from a ,byzantine manuscript of the ninth century ,a4,d4 ,value of late copies4 ,many other examples might be given to show that a truer notion of classical illuminated manuscripts of the best ,graeco-,roman style can be gained from a study of the works of mediaeval copyists than from manuscripts which1 though older1 are of late and debased style like the famous illuminated ,virgil of the ,vatican#bh4 ,after ,rome had ceased to be the seat of government1 ,constantinople became the chief centre for the production of illuminated manuscripts#bi1 but nevertheless the older classical style of drawing to some extent did survive in ,italy1 though in a very debased form1 down to the thirteenth century1 when ,cimabue and his pupil ,giotto inaugurated the brilliant ,renaissance of ,italian painting4 ,classical survival4 ,the ,gospels1 for example1 which ,st ,augustine is said to have brought with him to ,britain in #eig ,a4,d41 have paintings1 enthroned figures of the ,evangelists1 which in design and colour are purely of late ,roman style1 unchanged by the then wide-spread influence of ,byzantine art4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,byzantine ,,manuscripts4 ,byzantine style4 ,the history of the origin1 development and decay of the ,byzantine style in manuscripts1 as in other branches of art1 is a long and strange one#cj4 ,the origin of the ,byzantine style dates from the time when ,christianity had become the ,state religion1 and when ,constantine transferred the ,capital of the ,world from ,rome to ,byzantium4 ,in ,russia and other eastern portions of ,europe the ,byzantine style still exists1 though in a sad state of decay1 not as an antiquarian revival1 but as the latest link in a chain of unbroken tradition1 going back without interruption to the age of ,constantine1 the early part of the fourth century after ,christ4 ,many strains of influence4 ,during the early years of the ,eastern ,empire1 ,constantinople1 or ,new ,rome as it was commonly called1 became the chief world's centre for the practice of all kinds of arts and handicrafts4 ,owing to its central position1 midway between the ,east and the ,west1 the styles and technique of both met and were fused into a new stylistic development of the most remarkable kind4 ,western ,europe1 ,asia ,minor1 ,persia and ,egypt all contributed elements both of design and of technical skill1 which combined to create the new and for a while vigorously flourishing school of ,byzantine art4 ,the dull lifeless forms of ,roman art in its extreme degradation were again quickened into new life and beauty in the hands of these ,byzantine craftsmen1 who became as it were the heirs and inheritors of the art and the technique of all the chief countries of antiquity4 ,technical skill4 ,in architecture1 in mosaic work1 in metal work of all kinds1 in textile weaving1 the craftsmen of ,new ,rome reached the highest level of technical skill and decorative beauty4 ,so also a new and brilliant school of manuscript illumination was soon formed1 and ,constantinople became for several centuries the chief centre for the production of manuscripts of all kinds4 ,the ,oriental element in ,byzantine art shows itself in a love of extreme splendour1 the most copious use of gold and silver and of the brightest colours4 ,murex purple4 ,manuscripts written in burnished gold1 on vellum stained with the brilliant purple from the murex shell1 were largely produced1 especially for the private use of the ,byzantine ,emperors4 ,this murex purple1 produced with immense expenditure of labour1 came to be considered the special mark of ,imperial rank#ca4 ,a golden inkstand containing purple ink was kept by a special official in waiting1 and no one but the ,emperor himself might1 under heavy penalties1 use for any purpose the purple ink2 and the sumptuous gold and purple manuscripts were for a long time written only for ,imperial use4 ,gold and purple gospels4 ,the principal class of manuscripts which were written either in part or wholly in this costly fashion were ,books of the ,gospels2 and of these a good many magnificent examples still exist1 dating not only from the early ,byzantine period1 but down to the ninth or tenth century4 ,in these manuscripts the burnished gold and the brilliantly coloured pigments which are used for the illuminations are still as bright and fresh in appearance as ever1 but the murex purple with which the vellum leaves were1 not painted1 but dyed1 has usually lost much of its original splendour of colour4 ,monotony of style4 ,before describing the characteristics of ,byzantine illuminated manuscripts it may be well to note that the ,byzantine style is unique in the artistic history of the world from the manner in which it rapidly was crystallized into rigidly fixed forms1 and then continued for century after century with marvellously little modification or development either in colour1 drawing or composition4 ,this absence of any real living development was due to the fact that paintings of all kinds in the ,eastern ,church1 from a colossal mural picture down to a manuscript miniature1 were produced by ecclesiastics and for the ,church1 under a strictly applied series of hieratic rules4 ,hieratic rules4 ,the drawing1 the pose1 the colours of the drapery of every ,saint1 and the scheme of composition of all sacred figure subjects came gradually to be defined by ecclesiastic rules1 which each painter was bound to obey4 ,thus it happens that during the many centuries which are covered by the ,byzantine style of art1 though there are periods of decay and revival of artistic skill1 yet in style there is the most remarkable monotony4 ,this makes it specially difficult to judge from internal evidence of the date of a ,byzantine painting4 ,in manuscripts the palaeographic1 not the artistic evidence1 is the best guide1 aided of course by various small technical peculiarities1 and also by the amount of skill and power of drawing which is displayed in the paintings4 ,absence of change4 ,long after the capture of ,constantinople by the ,ottoman ,turks in #adec1 the ,byzantine style of painting survived2 and even at the present day the monks of ,mt ,athos execute large wall paintings1 which1 as far as their style is concerned1 might appear to be the work of many centuries ago4 ,m4 ,didron found the monastic painters in one of the ,mount ,athos monasteries using a treatise called the ,greek3 ,hermneia ts zgraphiks1 in which directions are given how every figure and subject is to be treated1 and which describes the old traditional forms without any perceptible modification#cb4 ,the proportions of the human form are laid down after the characteristic slender ,byzantine models1 the complete body1 for example1 being nine heads in height4 #eth century ,,ms4 of ,genesis4 ,weak drawing4 ,the earliest ,byzantine manuscript which is now known to exist is a fragment of the ,book of ,genesis1 now in the ,imperial library of ,vienna1 which dates from the latter part of the fifth century4 ,this fragment consists of twenty-four leaves of purple-dyed vellum1 illuminated with miniatures on both sides4 ,in the main the designs are feeble in composition and weak in drawing1 belonging rather to the latest decadence of ,roman classical art than to the yet undeveloped ,byzantine style1 which was soon to grow into great artistic spirit and strong decorative power1 a completely new birth of aesthetic conceptions1 the brilliance of which is the more striking from its following so closely on the degraded1 lifeless1 worn-out art of the ,western ,empire4 ,in this manuscript of ,genesis there is but little promise of the ,renaissance that was so near at hand4 ,the drawing of each figure1 though sometimes graceful in pose1 is rather weak1 and the painter has hardly aimed at anything like real composition2 his figures merely stand in long rows1 with little or nothing to group them together4 ,fig4 #f shows examples of two of the best miniatures1 representing the story of the accusation of ,joseph by ,potiphar's wife4 ,in every way this ,genesis manuscript forms a striking contrast to the delicate beauty and strongly decorative feeling which are to be seen in a work of but a few years later1 the famous ,dioscorides of the ,princess ,juliana4 ,the ,dioscorides of c4 #ejj ,a4,d4 ,among all the existing ,byzantine manuscripts perhaps the most important for its remarkable beauty as well as its early date is this ,greek codex#cc of ,dioscorides' work on ,botany1 which is now in the ,imperial library in ,vienna#cd1 ,no4 #e in the ,catalogue4 ,the date of this manuscript can be fixed to about the year #ejj ,a4,d4 by the record which it contains of its having been written and illuminated for the ,princess ,juliana ,anicia1 the daughter of ,flavius ,anicius ,olybrius who was ,emperor for part of the year #dgb1 and his wife ,galla ,placidia3 ,juliana ,anicia died in #ebg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,miniature from the ,vienna manuscript of ,genesis4 ,this beautiful manuscript1 which was executed in ,constantinople1 contains five large and elaborate miniatures1 and a great number of vignettes representing varieties of plants4 ,the fifth of the large miniatures consists of a central group framed by two squares interlaced within a circle4 ,the plait pattern on the bands which form the framework1 and the whole design closely resemble a fine mosaic pavement of the second century ,a4,d4 ,the resemblance is far too close to be accidental2 and indeed this manuscript is not the only example we have of miniature painters copying patterns and motives from mosaic floors of earlier date4 ,portrait figure4 ,the central group in this beautiful full page painting represents ,juliana ,anicia1 for whom the manuscript was written1 enthroned between standing allegorical female figures4 ,minutely painted figures of ,cupids1 engaged in a variety of handicrafts and arts1 fill up the small spaces in the framework4 ,inferior paintings4 ,in these paintings we have a curious combination of different styles2 the enthroned figure of the ,princess is of the stiff ,byzantine style1 while the attendant figures and the little ,cupids are almost purely classical in drawing4 ,this manuscript forms a link between the classical or ,graeco-,roman and the ,christian or ,byzantine style4 ,other paintings in the same manuscript are very inferior in design1 partaking of the late ,roman decadence1 rather than of the better and earlier art of the above mentioned picture4 ,fig4 #g shows one of these4 ,it represents ,dioscorides seated on a sort of throne2 in front is a female figure ,euresis 7,discovery7 presenting to him the magic plant mandragora 7mandrake74 ,the dying dog refers to the popular belief1 given by ,josephus1 as to the manner in which the mandrake was gathered4 ,when plucked from the ground the mandrake uttered a scream which caused the death of any living creature that heard it2 it was therefore usual to tie a dog to the plant and retire to a safe distance before calling it1 and so causing the dog to drag the plant out of the ground4 ,on hearing the scream the dog dropped down dead4 ,cf4 ,shaks41 ,romeo and ,juliet1 ,,iv4 iii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,miniature from the manuscript of the work on ,botany by ,dioscorides1 executed in ,constantinople about #ejj ,a4,d4 ,colours and gold4 ,the colours used in the ,dioscorides of ,juliana are very brilliant1 especially the gorgeous ultramarine blue1 and are glossy in surface owing to the copious use of a gum medium4 ,gold is very largely and skilfully used1 especially to light up and emphasize the chief folds of the drapery1 a method which is very widely used in ,byzantine art1 both in the colossal pictures of the wall-mosaics1 and also in most of the finest class of illuminated manuscripts4 ,cloisonn enamel4 ,in this use of gold1 in thin delicate lines which strengthen the drawing1 we have a very distinct copyism of another quite different art1 that of the worker in enamelled gold1 an art which was practised in ,constantinople with wonderful taste and skill4 ,the kind of enamel which was so often imitated by the manuscript illuminator is now called cloisonn enamel from the thin slips of gold or cloisons which separate one colour from another1 and mark out the chief lines of the design4 ,so closely did many of the illuminators copy designs in this cloisonn that very often one sees manuscript miniatures which look at first sight as if they were actual pieces of enamel4 ,in other ways too the art of the goldsmith had considerable influence on ,byzantine illuminations2 and the designs of the mosaic-worker and the miniaturist acted and reacted upon each other1 so that we sometimes see an elaborate painting in a book which looks like a design for a wall-mosaic2 or again the gorgeous glass mosaics with gold grounds on the vaults and walls of ,byzantine churches frequently look like magnified leaves cut out of some gorgeously illuminated manuscript4 ,the pure ,byzantine style4 ,it was only for a short period that manuscripts were executed at ,constantinople which1 in their miniatures1 were links between the classical and the ,byzantine style4 ,thus we find that the famous ,greek manuscript of ,cosmas ,indopleustes in the ,vatican library 7,no4 #fii7 is of the pure and fully developed ,byzantine style1 with its formal attitudes1 its rigid drapery1 its lengthy proportions of figure1 and stiff monotonous schemes of composition1 such as grew to be accepted as the one sacred style1 and as such has been preserved by the ,eastern ,church down to the present century4 ,this manuscript of ,cosmas is certainly a work of ,justinian's time1 the first half of the sixth century ,a4,d41 though it has usually been attributed to the ninth century2 it really is but little later than the ,dioscorides of ,juliana1 and yet it has but little trace of the older classical style1 either in drawing1 composition or colour#ce4 ,the ,laurentian library in ,florence possesses a manuscript of the ,gospels which1 though poor as a work of art1 has several points of special interest4 ,a contemporary note in the codex records that it was written in the year #ehf by the ,priest ,rabula in the ,monastery of ,st ,john at ,zagba in ,mesopotamia4 ,early crucifixion4 ,its illuminations are weak in drawing1 coarse in execution and harsh in colouring1 but one of them1 representing the ,crucifixion of our ,lord between the two thieves1 is noticeable as being the earliest known example of this subject4 ,the primitive ,christian ,church avoided scenes representing ,christ's ,death and ,passion1 preferring to suggest them only by means of types and symbols taken from ,old ,testament ,history4 ,this and other subsequent paintings of the ,crucifixion treat the subject in a very conventional way1 and it is not till about the thirteenth century that we find the ,death of ,christ represented with anything like realism4 ,in the ,gospels of the ,priest ,rabula1 ,christ is represented crowned with gold1 not with thorns2 ,he wears a long tunic of ,imperial purple reaching to the feet4 ,the arms are stretched out horizontally1 an impossible attitude for a crucified person1 and four nails are represented piercing the hands and both feet separately4 ,oriental influence4 ,it appears to have been the gloomy ,oriental influence that gradually introduced scenes of martyrdom1 with horrors of every description into ,christian art1 which originally had been imbued with a far healthier and more cheerful spirit1 a survival from the wholesome classical treatment of death and the grave4 ,hell with its revolting horrors and hideous demons was an invention of a still later and intellectually more degraded period4 ,,mss4 of the ,gospels4 ,evangeliaria or manuscripts of the ,gospels4 ,one of the most important classes of ,byzantine manuscripts1 and the one of which the most magnificent examples now exist are the ,books of the ,gospels already mentioned at page #df as being occasionally1 either wholly or in part1 written in letters of gold on leaves of purple-dyed vellum4 ,the four ,evangelists4 ,these ,imperially magnificent manuscripts are usually decorated with five full page paintings1 placed at the beginning of the codex4 ,these five pictures represent the four ,evangelists1 each enthroned like a ,byzantine ,emperor under an arched canopy supported on ,corinthian columns of marble or porphyry4 ,each ,evangelist sits holding in his hand the manuscript of his ,gospel2 or1 in some cases1 he is represented writing it4 ,in the earlier manuscripts1 ,st ,john is correctly represented as an aged white-bearded man1 but in later times ,st ,john was always depicted as a beardless youth1 even in illuminations which represent him writing his ,gospel in the ,island of ,patmos1 as at the beginning of the fifteenth century ,books of ,hours4 ,next comes the fifth miniature representing ,christ in ,majesty1 usually enthroned within an oval or vesica-shaped aureole2 ,he sits on a rainbow1 and at ,his feet is a globe to represent the earth1 or in some cases a small figure of ,tellus or ,atlas with the same symbolical meaning4 ,the ,canons of ,eusebius4 ,sasanian style4 ,other highly decorated pages in these ,byzantine ,gospels are those which contain the ,canons of ,bishop ,eusebius1 a set of ten tables giving lists of parallel passages in the four ,gospels4 ,these tables are usually framed by columns supporting a semicircular arch1 richly decorated with architectural and floral ornaments in gold and colours4 ,frequently birds1 especially doves and peacocks1 are introduced in the spandrels over the arches2 they are often arranged in pairs drinking out of a central vase or chalice--a motive which occurs very often among the reliefs on the sarcophagi and marble screens of early ,byzantine ,churches both in ,italy and in the ,east#cf4 ,these birds appear to be purely ornamental1 in spite of the many attempts that have been made to discover symbolic meanings in them4 ,other birds1 such as cocks1 quails and partridges1 are commonly used in these decorative illuminations1 and this class of ornament was probably derived from ,persia1 under the ,sasanian ,dynasty1 when decorative art and skilful handicrafts flourished to a very remarkable extent#cg4 ,among the most sumptuous and beautiful illuminations which occur in these ,byzantine ,gospels are the headings and beginnings of books written in very large golden capitals1 so that six or seven letters frequently occupy the whole page4 ,these letters are painted over a richly decorated background covered with floreated ornament1 and the whole is framed in an elaborate border1 all glowing with the most brilliant colours1 and lighted up by burnished gold of the highest decorative beauty#ch4 ,textus for the ,high ,altar4 ,these sumptuous ,evangeliaria1 or ,textus as they were often called1 soon came to be something more than merely a magnificent book4 ,they developed into one of the most important pieces of furniture belonging to the ,high ,altar in all important ,cathedral and ,abbey churches#ci4 ,throughout the whole mediaeval period every rich church possessed one of these magnificently written ,textus or ,books of the ,gospels bound in costly covers of gold or silver thickly studded with jewels4 ,this ,textus was placed on the ,high ,altar before the celebration of ,mass1 during which it was used for the reading of the ,gospel4 ,textus used as a ,pax4 ,the jewel-studded covers had on one side a representation of ,christ's crucifixion1 executed in enamel or else in gold relief1 and the book was used to serve the purpose of a ,pax1 being handed round among the ministers of the ,altar for the ceremonial kiss of peace1 which in primitive times had been exchanged among the members of the congregation themselves4 ,one of the most magnificent examples of these ,textus is the one now in the possession of ,lord ,ashburnham1 the covers of which are among the most important and beautiful examples of the early ,english goldsmith's and jeweller's art which now exist#dj4 ,the ,textus at ,durham4 ,an interesting description of the ,textus which1 till the ,reformation1 belonged to the ,high ,altar of ,durham ,cathedral1 is given in the ,rites and ,monuments of ,durham written in #aeic by a survivor from the suppressed and plundered ,abbey#da1 who in his old age wrote down his recollections of the former glories of the ,church4 ,he writes1 the ,gospeller#db did carrye a marvelous ,,faire ,,booke1 which had the ,epistles and ,gospels in it1 and did lay it on the ,altar1 the which booke had on the outside of the coveringe the picture of our ,saviour ,christ1 all of silver1 of goldsmith's worke1 all parcell gilt1 verye fine to behould2 which booke did serve for the ,,pax in the ,masse4 ,these ,textus were not unfrequently written wholly in gold on purple stained vellum1 not only during the earliest and best period of ,byzantine art but also occasionally by the illuminators of the age of ,charles the ,great4 ,weak drawing of the figure4 ,returning now to the general question of the style of ,byzantine art1 it should be observed that1 though little knowledge of the human form is shown by the miniaturists1 yet they were able to produce highly dignified compositions1 very strong in decorative effect4 ,study of the nude form was strictly prohibited by the ,church2 and the beauty of the human figure was regarded as a snare and a danger to minds which should be fixed upon the imaginary glories of another world4 ,what grace and dignity there is in ,byzantine figure painting depends chiefly on the skilful treatment of the drapery with simple folds modelled in gracefully curving lines4 ,livid flesh colour4 ,the utmost splendour of gold and colour is lavished on this drapery1 and on the backgrounds1 border-frames and other accessories1 while the colouring of the flesh1 in faces1 hands and feet1 is commonly unpleasant2 with1 in many cases1 an excessive use of green in the shadows1 which gives an unhealthy look to the faces4 ,this copious use of green in flesh tints is especially apparent in the later ,byzantine paintings1 and again in the ,italian imitations of ,byzantine art4 ,even paintings by ,cimabue and some of his followers1 in the second half of the thirteenth century1 are disfigured by the flesh in shadow being largely painted with terra verde#dc4 ,monastic bigotry4 ,the monastic bigotry1 which prohibited study either of the living model or of the beauties of classical sculpture1 tended to foster a strongly conventional element in ,art1 which for certain decorative purposes was of the highest possible value4 ,anything like realism is quite unsuited both for colossal mural frescoes or mosaics and for miniature paintings in an illuminated manuscript4 ,fine early mosaics4 ,thus1 for example1 the existing mosaics on the west front of ,st ,mark's ,basilica in ,venice#dd1 which were copied from noble paintings by ,titian and ,tintoretto1 are immeasurably inferior to the earlier mosaics with stiff1 hieratic forms designed after ,byzantine models1 as for example the mosaics in the ,apse of ,,ss4 ,cosmas and ,damian in ,rome1 executed for ,pope ,felix ,,iv4 #ebf to #ecj2 see fig4 #h4 ,so1 again1 the skilfully drawn and modelled figures in a manuscript executed by ,giulio ,clovio in the sixteenth century are not worthy to be compared1 for true decorative beauty and fitness1 with the flat1 rigid forms1 full of dignity and simple1 rhythmical beauty which we find in any ,byzantine manuscript of a good period#de4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,mosaic of the sixth century in the apse of the church of ,,ss4 ,cosmas and ,damian in ,rome4 ,limitations of ,byzantine ,art4 ,it should1 however1 be remarked that in ,byzantine art this conventional treatment of the human form is carried too far1 and therefore1 splendid as a fine ,byzantine manuscript usually is1 it falls far short of the almost perfect beauty that may be seen in ,anglo-,norman and ,french illuminated manuscripts of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1 such marvels of beauty1 for example1 as ,french manuscripts of the ,apocalypse executed in the first half of the fourteenth century in ,northern ,france2 see below1 page #aah4 ,edict against statues4 ,till the eighth century1 ,byzantine art1 both in manuscripts and in other branches of art1 continued to advance in technical skill1 though little change or development of style took place4 ,in the eighth century the iconoclast schism1 fostered by the ,emperor ,leo ,,iii4 the ,isaurian1 an uncultured and ignorant soldier who began by issuing an edict against image-worship in the year #gbf ,a4,d41 gave a blow to ,byzantine art which brought about a very serious decadence during the ninth and tenth centuries1 more especially in ,constantinople1 which up to that time had been one of the chief literary and artistic centres of the ,christian world4 ,pictures of all kinds1 as well as statues1 were destroyed by the iconoclast fanatics1 and the cause of learning suffered almost as much as did the arts of painting and sculpture4 ,frankish ,,mss4 ,one result of this schismatic outbreak was that ,constantinople ceased to be one of the chief centres for the production of beautiful illuminated manuscripts1 and various ,frankish cities1 such as ,aix-la-,chapelle and ,tours1 took its place under the enlightened patronage of ,charles the ,great the ,emperor of the ,west1 who1 in the second half of the ninth century1 by the aid of the famous ,northumbrian scholar and scribe ,alcuin of ,york1 brought about a wonderful revival of literature and of the illuminator's art in various cities and monasteries within the ,western ,empire4 ,byzantine decadence4 ,at the end of the eleventh century ,byzantine art1 practised in its original home1 had reached the lowest possible level4 ,thus1 for example1 a manuscript of some of the works of ,st ,chrysostom 7,paris1 ,bibl4 ,nat4 ,coislin41 #gi7 contains miniatures the figures in which are mere sack-like bundles with little or no suggestion of the human form4 ,the whole skill of the artist has been expended on the painting of the elaborate patterns on the dresses2 drawing and composition he has not even attempted4 ,fig4 #i shows a miniature from this manuscript1 representing the ,greek ,emperor enthroned between four courtiers1 and two allegorical figures of ,truth and ,justice4 ,the ,emperor is ,nicephoros ,botaniates1 who reigned from #ajgh to #ajha4 ,an equally striking example of the degradation of ,byzantine art in ,germany is illustrated on page #gh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,miniature from a ,byzantine manuscript of the eleventh century2 a remarkable example of artistic decadence4 ,want of life in ,byzantine ,art4 ,after this period of decay during the tenth and eleventh centuries1 ,byzantine art began to revive1 largely under the influence of the ,west2 the original life and spirit had1 however1 passed away1 and the subsequent history of ,byzantine art is one of dull monotony and growing feebleness1 the inevitable result of a continuing copying and recopying of older models4 ,it is rather as a modifying influence on the art of the ,west that ,byzantine painting continued to possess real importance4 ,as a distinct and isolated school1 ,constantinople fell into the background at the time of the iconoclasts and never again came to the front as an artistic centre of real importance#df4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,manuscripts ,,of ,,the ,,carolingian ,,period4 ,the ,age of ,charles the ,great4 ,the age of ,charles the ,great and his successors4 ,charles the ,great1 who was elected ,king of the ,franks in #gfh1 and in the year #hjj became ,emperor of the ,west1 did much to foster all branches of art--architecture1 bronze-founding1 goldsmith's work1 and more especially the art of writing and illuminating manuscripts4 ,the ,imperial ,capital1 ,aix-la-,chapelle 7,aachen71 became a busy centre for arts and crafts of all kinds1 and various monasteries throughout the ,frankish kingdom became schools of manuscript illumination of a very high order of excellence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,an initial ,p4 of the ,celtic-,carolingian type1 of the school of ,alcuin of ,york4 ,alcuin of ,york4 ,the ,gospels of ,alcuin4 ,northumbrian influence4 ,it was specially with the aid of a famous ,english scholar and manuscript writer1 ,alcuin of ,york#dg1 that ,charles the ,great brought about so remarkable a revival both of letters and of the illuminator's art1 and created what may be called the ,anglo-,carolingian school of manuscripts4 ,from #gif till his death in #hjd ,alcuin was ,abbot of the ,benedictine monastery of ,st ,martin at ,tours2 and there he carried out various literary works for ,charles the ,great1 and superintended the production of a large number of richly illuminated manuscripts4 ,alcuin's most important literary work was the revision of the ,latin text of the ,bible1 the ,vulgate1 which since ,saint ,jerome's time had become seriously corrupted4 ,the ,british ,museum possesses 7,add4 ,manuscripts1 ,no4 #ajedf7 a magnificently illuminated copy of the ,vulgate as revised by ,alcuin1 which1 there is every reason to believe1 is the actual manuscript which was prepared for ,charles the ,great either by ,alcuin himself or under his immediate supervision4 ,this splendid manuscript is a large folio in delicate and beautifully formed minuscule characters1 with the beginnings of chapters in fine uncials2 it is written in two columns on the purest vellum4 ,the miniature paintings in this manuscript show the united influence of various schools of manuscript art4 ,the figure subjects are mainly classical in style1 with fine architectural backgrounds of ,roman style1 drawn with unusual elaboration and accuracy1 and even with fairly correct perspective4 ,the initial letters and all the conventional ornaments show the ,northern artistic strain which ,alcuin himself introduced from ,york4 ,delicate and complicated interlaced patterns1 such as were first used in the wonderful sixth and seventh century manuscripts of the ,celtic monks1 are freely introduced into the borders and large capitals4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,an initial ,b4 of the ,celtic-,carolingian type4 ,celtic influence4 ,in ,alcuin's time ,northumbria and especially ,york was one of the chief centres in the world1 for the production of manuscripts1 and the ,dean of ,york naturally introduced into ,france the style and influence of his native school1 which had grown out of a combination of two very different styles1 that of ,rome1 as introduced by ,st ,augustine1 and the ,celtic style which the monks of ,ireland and ,lindisfarne had brought to such marvellous perfection in the seventh century4 ,fig4 #aj shows an initial of the ,celtic-,carolingian type1 with a goldsmith's pattern on the shaft of the ,p1 and a bird of ,oriental type forming the loop2 and fig4 #aa gives a large initial ,b in which the ,oriental element is very strong1 cf4 fig4 #ac1 page #fh4 ,henry ,,viii's ,gospels4 ,the ,carolingian class of manuscripts in this way combined many different strains of influence--native ,frankish1 ,classical1 ,oriental and ,english1 all modified by the ,byzantine love for gorgeous colours1 shining gold and silver1 and purple-dyed vellum4 ,a considerable number of manuscripts were written in the reign of ,charles the ,great in letters of gold on purple vellum like those prepared in earlier times for the ,byzantine ,emperors4 ,a manuscript ,book of the ,gospels of this magnificent class was given by ,pope ,leo ,x4 to ,henry ,,viii4 of ,england in return for the presentation copy of his work against ,luther1 entitled ,assertio ,septem ,sacramentorum1 which the king had sent in #aeba to the ,pope as a proof of his allegiance to the ,catholic ,faith and the ,holy ,see4 ,this magnificent ,textus afterwards came into the ,hamilton collection through ,mr ,beckford of ,fonthill1 and was subsequently bought by ,mr ,quaritch#dh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,miniature of ,christ in ,majesty from a manuscript of the school of ,alcuin1 written for ,charles the ,great4 ,carolingian ,gospels4 ,gospels of ,godesscalc4 ,as was the case with the earlier ,byzantine manuscripts1 the most magnificent books produced in the ,carolingian period were this kind of ,evangeliaria or ,books of the ,gospels4 ,though differing in the details of their ornamentation1 these later ,gospels are decorated with the same set of miniature subjects that occur in the ,byzantine ,gospels4 ,the library of ,paris possesses a fine typical example of this 7,bibl4 ,nat4 ,nouv4 ,acq4 ,lat4 #aiic71 a richly decorated and signed ,evangeliarium1 which was written for ,charles the ,great in #gha by the scribe and illuminator ,godesscalc4 ,every page is sumptuously ornamented with large initials and a border in brilliant burnished gold1 and silver1 and bright colours2 and there are also six full-page miniatures1 the first four representing the four ,evangelists enthroned in the usual way4 ,the fifth has a painting of ,christ in ,majesty with one hand holding a book1 the other raised in blessing2 see fig4 #ab4 ,the sixth miniature represents the ,fountain of ,life4 ,in all these paintings the backgrounds are very rich and decorative1 with a greater variety and more fancifully designed ornament than is to be found in ,byzantine manuscripts of a similar class1 owing1 of course1 to the introduction of the many different elements of design which were combined with great taste and skill by the ,carolingian illuminators4 ,oriental influence4 ,in this and many other manuscripts of the same class a very distinct ,semitic or ,persian strain of influence can be traced in much of the rich conventional ornament4 ,very beautiful and highly decorative forms and patterns were derived from ,oriental sources#di1 owing to the active import into ,france and ,germany of fine ,persian carpets and textile stuffs from ,moslem looms in ,syria1 ,sicily 7especially ,palermo7 and from other parts of the ,arab world2 all these textiles were designed with consummate taste and skill both in colour and drawing4 ,sicilian silk cope4 ,fig4 #ac shows a fine specimen of woven silk from the ,arab looms of ,syria4 ,it was used as an ,imperial cope or mantle by various ,german ,emperors2 in the centre is a palm-tree1 and on each side a lion devouring a camel1 treated in a very decorative and masterly manner4 ,the form of the conventional foliage on the lions' bodies is imitated in many manuscript illuminations1 as1 for example1 in the ornaments of the initial ,b shown in fig4 #aa1 page #fd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,a cope made of silk from the loom of an ,oriental weaver4 ,splendour of ,,mss4 ,one important characteristic of the ,carolingian manuscripts is their extreme splendour4 ,the freely used burnished gold is often made more magnificent by the contrast of no less brilliant silver4 ,purple-stained vellum was largely used1 and all the pigments are of the most gorgeous hues that great technical skill could produce4 ,and yet in spite of all this magnificence of shining metals and bright colours the effect is never harsh or gaudy1 owing to the taste and judgment shown by the illuminators in the way they broke up their colours1 avoiding large unrelieved masses1 and in the arrangement of the colours so as to give a general effect of harmony in spite of the great chromatic force of the separate parts4 ,technical methods4 ,the somewhat realistic way of representing the ,evangelists as aged white-haired men1 which occurs in ,byzantine manuscripts1 in the ,carolingian ,gospels is replaced by a more conventional treatment1 and thus they are as a rule represented as youthful1 beardless men of an idealized type4 ,the general treatment of the figure is flat1 with little or no light and shade or modelling of any kind4 ,the drapery is represented by strong1 dark lines applied over a flatly laid wash of pigment4 ,the painter first drew in his outlines with a fine brush dipped in red1 and then filled in the intermediate spaces with a wash of colour mixed with a large proportion of gummy medium1 so that a very glossy1 lustrous surface was produced4 ,the folds of the drapery and the rest of the internal drawing of the figures were put in after the application of the flat ground colour4 ,this method very much resembles the process of the early ,greek vase-painters4 ,in order to give richness of effect by the use of a thick body of colour the illuminator commonly applied his flat tints in two or even three distinct washes1 a method which is recommended by ,theophilus#ej and other early writers on the technique of illumination4 ,gospels at ,vienna4 ,another ,book of the ,gospels which belonged to ,charles the ,great1 now preserved in the ,imperial ,treasury at ,vienna1 is decidedly inferior as a work of art to the ,paris manuscript mentioned above4 ,in it the influence of the enfeebled ,roman style is much stronger2 the detail is far less refined and decorative1 in spite of a copious use of burnished gold4 ,this inferiority is due mainly to the absence of that ,northumbrian influence1 to which the best ,carolingian manuscripts owe so much of their beauty4 ,successors of ,charles4 ,manuscripts of the later ,carolingian school4 ,under ,charles the ,great's successors the art of illuminating manuscripts continued to flourish1 and1 in the ninth century1 under his grandsons ,lothair and ,charles the ,bald1 reached the climax of its development4 ,during this century decorative splendour of a very high order was reached1 in spite of there being very little advance in the power of rendering the human form4 ,gold1 silver1 ultramarine and brilliant pigments of all kinds were skilfully used2 the subjects for miniatures became more varied1 and detail was more delicate and highly finished#ea4 ,portrait figures4 ,portraits of the kings are often introduced at the beginning of books of this period1 a fashion which in later times was extended to other than royal patrons of art and learning4 ,a great number of places1 chiefly ,benedictine monasteries in ,france1 became active centres for the production of fine illuminated manuscripts4 ,among them some of the principal places were ,paris1 ,st ,denis1 ,rheims1 ,verdun1 ,fontanelle1 and the two ,abbeys of ,st ,martin at ,tours and ,metz4 ,fig4 #ad shows a miniature from a manuscript of the ,gospels in the ,paris library representing ,king ,lothair enthroned between two guards4 ,this manuscript was written about the year #hde in the monastery of ,st ,martin at ,metz4 ,in this picture a strong classical influence is apparent2 the illuminator must have been familiar with manuscripts written in ,rome or elsewhere in ,italy4 ,celtic influence4 ,some of the finest manuscripts of this period show a strongly marked ,northern influence1 imitated from the old ,celtic illuminations of ,ireland and ,lindisfarne4 ,less gold is used in this class of manuscripts2 and the intricate interlaced patterns of the ,celtic monks are used with much skill and great beauty of effect4 ,the figures of ,christ and the ,evangelists are sometimes hardly human in form1 but are worked up into a kind of conventional scroll-pattern1 just as they are in the older ,celtic illuminations4 ,the ,paris library possesses two manuscripts of the ,gospels1 which are good examples of this revived ,celtic style 7,bibl4 ,nat4 ,lat4 ,nos4 #beg and #hhdi74 ,the borders and initial letters in these manuscripts are remarkable for their intricate delicacy of design1 and for their rich colour1 tastefully arranged2 while the figure drawing is of the purely ornamental scroll type4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,king ,lothair enthroned2 a miniature from a manuscript of about the year #hde ,a4,d4 ,classical school of ,st ,gall4 ,in the ninth century the ,benedictine monastery of ,st ,gallen in ,switzerland1 which had formerly produced manuscripts of a purely ,celtic type1 now developed a very strange school of miniature art#eb4 ,the pictures in these ,st ,gallen manuscripts have figure subjects drawn in outline and then faintly coloured with transparent washes1 very like the ,anglo-,saxon 7classical7 style of illumination during the ninth and tenth centuries4 ,these rather weak drawings1 which have but little decorative value1 show the influence of the ,roman school of illuminators1 who still mainly adhered to the old debased form of classical art1 modified by some observation and even careful study of the actual life and movement which the painters saw around them4 ,in this curious class of manuscripts1 though the figure subjects are devoid of much vigour and artistic force1 yet the decorative details of the initials and borders are extremely fine1 full of invention and delicacy of detail4 ,fig4 #ae shows a pen drawing from a ,st ,gallen manuscript of the ninth century1 the magnificent ,psalterium aureum#ec2 it represents ,david going forth to battle4 ,studies from life4 ,with regard to studies from the life1 either of men or animals1 it should be remembered that an artist is always biased by tradition and association to a degree which is now very difficult to realise4 ,even when looking at the same object two painters of different race and education might receive very different impressions on their retina4 ,thus in the very interesting sketch-book of ,villard de ,honecourt1 a ,french sculptor and architect of the thirteenth century1 there are studies of men1 lions and other animals1 which he has noted as being from the life2 and yet these drawings look to us like the purely imaginative conceptions of a heraldic draughtsman1 in spite of the fact that ,villard certainly represented them as faithfully as he was able1 putting down on his vellum the subjective visual and mental impression that he had received#ed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,illumination in pen outline1 from a manuscript written in the ninth century at ,st ,gallen4 ,it represents ,david riding out against his enemies4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #af and #ag4 ,subject countries doing homage to the ,emperor ,otho ,,ii2 from a manuscript of the ,gospels4 ,illustration ,in the same way a modern ,japanese artist evidently sees the nobler animals1 such as men and horses1 in a very subjective and distorted manner1 whereas when he is dealing with fishes1 reptiles1 plants and the like he is able to depict them with the most wonderful grace1 accuracy and realistic spirit4 ,personal equation4 ,for this reason in examining an illuminated manuscript1 or other early work of art1 to discover what use the artist has made of actual study from nature1 one should always take into account the influences which made him see each natural object in a special1 personal way1 and we must not argue that because the drawing now looks very unreal that it may not possibly have been as careful and accurate a study from life as the painter's eye and hand could produce4 ,byzantine influence4 ,during the later ,carolingian period there was a marked revival of ,byzantine influence1 which did not tend to delay the advancing decadence#ee4 ,figs4 #af and #ag show a very striking example of this1 a two-page miniature from a magnificent purple and gold manuscript of the ,gospels1 which was executed for the ,emperor ,otho ,,ii41 and is now in the ,munich library4 ,on the right-hand page is the ,emperor enthroned holding the long sceptre and the orb1 with an archbishop and some armed courtiers beside him4 ,on the opposite page1 personifications of ,rome1 ,gaul1 ,germany and ,slavonia are doing homage and offering gifts4 ,the whole motive and design is borrowed from a much earlier ,byzantine work1 such as the mosaics of ,justinian's time 7c4 #ecj ,a4,d47 in the churches of ,ravenna4 ,classical influence4 ,fig4 #ah from another fine manuscript of the ,gospels is far nobler in style2 here the influence is rather classical than ,byzantine4 ,the figure illustrates one of the usual four miniatures of the ,evangelists1 ,saint ,mark dipping his pen into the ink4 ,the ,saint is robed in the alb1 dalmatic with two stripes1 chasuble and pall as being ,archbishop of ,alexandria4 ,the figure is very dignified1 and is evidently copied from a much earlier ,italian ,textus1 such as that which ,saint ,augustine received from ,pope ,gregory or brought from ,italy to ,canterbury4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,miniature of the ,evangelist ,st ,mark2 from a manuscript of the ,gospels4 ,later ,emperors4 ,throughout the tenth century1 and especially under the patronage of the three ,emperor ,othos and ,henry the ,fowler1 fine and richly decorative manuscripts continued to be produced1 with little change in the style of ornament employed4 ,after a long period of great artistic brilliance and wonderful fertility of production the ,carolingian style of illumination came to an end when ,charles the ,great's ,empire was 7in ,france7 divided among various ,feudal ,lords4 ,then a serious decadence of art set in1 and lasted till the beginning of a most magnificent artistic revival in the twelfth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,miniature of the ,crucifixion from a ,german manuscript of the eleventh century2 showing extreme artistic decadence4 ,to a large extent the illuminations of ,french manuscripts during the latter part of the eleventh century consisted of rude pen drawings with no washes of colour4 ,the subsequent history of the illuminator's art in ,france is discussed below1 see page #abf4 ,extreme decadence4 ,fig4 #ai gives an example of the extreme artistic decadence that in many places followed the brilliant ,carolingian period4 ,this miniature of the ,crucifixion is copied from a ,german early eleventh century manuscript1 now at ,berlin4 ,the ludicrous ugliness of the drawing is not atoned for by any decorative beauty of colour2 the whole miniature is dark and heavy in tone1 with yellow and green flesh-tints of the most cadaverous hues4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,celtic ,,school ,,of ,,manuscripts4 ,one of the most extraordinary artistic developments that ever took place in the history of the world has been the ,celtic ,monastic ,school of ,art which in the seventh century reached its highest aesthetic and technical climax1 more especially in the production of exquisitely minute gold jewellery and no less minute and richly illuminated manuscripts4 ,the ,irish ,church4 ,the ,christian ,church in the east of ,ireland dated from an earlier period than the establishment of ,christianity in ,england#ef4 ,it was founded about the year #dcj ,a4,d41 and the monks of ,ireland1 owing to their remote position1 were able for a long period to develope peacefully their artistic skill1 undisturbed by such successive foreign invasions as those which for so many years kept ,britain in a constant tumult of war and massacre4 ,celtic goldsmiths4 ,gold jewellery4 ,thus it happened that by the middle or latter part of the seventh century the ,celtic monks of ,ireland had learned to produce goldsmiths' work and manuscript illuminations with such marvellous taste and skill as has never been surpassed by any age or country in the world#eg4 ,not even the finest ,greek or ,etruscan jewellery1 enriched with enamels and studded with gems1 can be said to surpass the amazing perfection shown in such a masterpiece of the goldsmith's art as the so-called ,tara brooch#eh in the ,museum of the ,royal ,irish ,academy4 ,as a rule the skill of these ,irish goldsmiths was devoted to the service of the ,church in the manufacture of such objects as croziers1 morses 7or cope-brooches71 shrines1 chalices1 textus-covers1 receptacles for ,bishops' bells1 and other pieces of ecclesiastical furniture4 ,technical processes4 ,these precious objects are decorated by a variety of technical processes1 such as applied filagree1 repouss or beaten reliefs1 enamels1 both champlev and cloisonn1 and inlay of precious stones1 especially the carbuncle in minute slices1 set in delicate gold cloisons and backed with shining gold-leaf4 ,all these and other decorative processes were employed with unrivalled skill by the monastic goldsmiths of eastern ,ireland1 a fact which it is important to notice1 since nearly all the methods and styles of ornament which occur in the ,irish illuminated manuscripts of the same period are clearly derived from prototypes in gold jewelled work4 ,it is in fact often possible to trace in a fine ,irish manuscript of the class we are now concerned with1 ornamental patterns of several quite distinct classes1 one being derived from the patterns of spiral or plaited form produced by soldering delicate gold wire on to plain surfaces of gold1 another being copied from gold champlev enamels1 and a third no less clearly derived from the inlaid rectangular bits of carbuncle framed in delicate gold strips or cloisons4 ,influence on illuminations4 ,this strongly marked influence of the technique of one art on the designs of another is due to the fact that the arts both of the goldsmith and the manuscript illuminator were carried on side by side in the same monastery or group of monastic dwellings#ei1 and in some cases we have written evidence that the scribe who wrote and illuminated an elaborate manuscript and the goldsmith who wrought and jewelled its gold cover were one and the same person#fj4 ,the ,book of ,kells4 ,it was in the second half of the seventh century that the ,celtic art of ,eastern ,ireland reached its highest point of perfection4 ,to this period belongs the famous ,book of ,kells1 now in the library of ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 which was probably written between #fhj and #gjj1 and for many years was1 with its jewelled gold covers1 the principal treasure of the cathedral church at ,kells#fa4 ,this church had been founded by ,saint ,columba1 and so in old times this marvellous manuscript was usually known as the ,great ,gospels of ,saint ,columba4 ,perfect workmanship4 ,no words can describe the intricate delicacy of the ornamentation of this book1 lavishly decorated as it is with all the different varieties of pattern mentioned above1 the most remarkable among them being the ingeniously intricate patterns formed by interlaced and knotted lines of colour1 plaited in and out1 with such amazingly complicated lines of interlacement that one cannot look at the page without astonishment at the combined taste1 patience1 unfaltering certainty of touch and imaginative ingenuity of the artist4 ,the wonderful minuteness of the work1 examined through a microscope1 fills one with wonder at the apparently superhuman eyesight of the scribe4 ,complex interlacings4 ,with regard to the intricate interlaced ornaments in which 7with the aid of a lens7 each line can be followed out in its windings and never found to break off or lead to an impossible loop of knotting1 it is evident that the artist must have enjoyed1 not only an aesthetic pleasure in the invention of his pattern1 but must also have had a distinct intellectual enjoyment in his work1 such as a skilful mathematician feels in the working out of a complicated geometrical problem4 ,microscopic intricacy4 ,the combined skill of eye and hand shown in the minute plaits of the ,book of ,kells places it among the most wonderful examples of human workmanship that the world has ever produced4 ,by the aid of a microscope ,mr ,westwood counted in the space of one inch no less than #aeh interlacements of bands or ribands1 each composed of a strip of white bordered on both sides with a black line4 ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 who visited ,ireland in #aahe as secretary to ,prince ,john1 writes in the most enthusiastic language of the splendour of a similar manuscript of the ,gospels which he saw in ,kildare ,cathedral4 ,it shows1 he says1 superhuman skill1 worthy of angels' hands1 and he was lost in wondering admiration at the sight4 ,copies of jewellery4 ,primitive spiral patterns4 ,one class of ornament in the ,book of ,kells and in other manuscripts of this class consists of bands or diapers formed with step-like lines enclosing small spaces of brilliant colour4 ,it is this class of pattern which is derived from the cloisonn inlay with bits of transparent carbuncle used in gold jewellery4 ,other ornaments consist of various spiral forms derived from the application of gold wire to flat surfaces of gold1 a class of pattern which appears to have come1 as it were1 naturally to the gold-workers of many different periods and countries4 ,many of these spiral designs in the ,irish manuscripts are almost identical with forms which occur so frequently among the gold ornaments of the ,greek ,mycenean period1 one among many examples in the art history of the world1 which show the remarkable sameness of invention in the human mind at a certain stage of development whatever the time or the place may be#fb4 ,it should moreover be noticed that this close imitation of metal-work is not limited to the separate details of the manuscripts4 ,the main lines and divisions of the decoration on whole pages are accurately copied from the enamelled and jewelled gold or silver covers in which these precious ,gospels were bound4 ,thus1 the same design might appear in delicate goldsmiths' work on the covers of a ,textus1 and also might be seen represented by the illuminator in brilliant colours on a page within4 ,trumpet pattern4 ,one form of ornament1 which occurs very frequently in the ,irish manuscripts1 is what is often called the trumpet pattern from its supposed resemblance to a curved metal trumpet4 ,this kind of spiral ornament is used not only in the ,celtic manuscripts and goldsmiths' work1 but also on bronze shields and other pieces of metal-work on a large scale4 ,this special ornament is not peculiar to the ,irish1 but was commonly used by the ,celtic tribes of ,britain from a very early date4 ,arab influence4 ,united with these purely native types of ornament1 we find in these ,celtic manuscripts one curious class of foreign ornament derived from the patterns on imported pieces of textile stuffs woven in ,arab looms#fc4 ,among many strange forms of serpents1 dragons and other monsters of northern origin1 other animals1 such as lions1 eagles and swans1 occur which resemble closely those represented with such perfect conventional skill on the rich silk stuffs and early ,oriental carpets woven in ,syria1 in the ,arab towns of ,sicily and in other ,moslem centres4 ,these beautiful stuffs were imported largely into ,northern ,europe for ecclesiastical purposes1 such as for the vestments of priests or to form wrappings round some sacred reliquary#fd4 ,the human form4 ,though these ,celtic manuscripts show such marvellous dexterity of touch and unerring firmness of line in every minute and complicated pattern1 yet the monastic artist appears to have been absolutely incapable of representing the human form4 ,the figures of ,christ and the ,saints1 which sometimes do occur in these manuscripts1 are treated in a purely ornamental and 7in its stricter sense7 conventional way2 the hair and beard1 for example1 are worked up into scrolls or spiral ornaments1 and the draperies are merely masses of varied colour1 with little or no resemblance to the folds of a dress4 ,colours without gold4 ,the pigments used by the ,celtic monks are very varied and of the most brilliant tints1 prepared with such skill that after more than a thousand years they seem as fresh and bright as ever4 ,among these pigments is included the fine murex purple which the ,irish monks used occasionally to stain sheets of vellum like those in the ,golden ,gospels of the ,byzantines4 ,we are told by the ,venerable ,bede that the ,irish monks had learnt how to extract this beautiful dye from a variety of the murex shell-fish which is not uncommon on both shores of the ,irish ,channel4 ,splendid as they are in colour1 there is one curious feature in the early ,irish manuscripts of the finest class1 such as the ,book of ,kells2 that is1 that no gold or silver either in the form of leaf or as a fluid pigment is used4 ,this seems specially strange when we remember the close connection there was between the arts of the goldsmith and of the illuminator of manuscripts among the ,irish artists4 ,celtic art in ,britain4 ,in later times1 when the ,celtic style of illumination was transplanted to ,england1 gold was to some extent introduced1 but in the finest ,irish manuscripts of the best period1 the latter half of the seventh century1 gold is completely absent4 ,nevertheless1 so great was the decorative genius of these ,irish monks that1 even without burnished gold and silver1 their illuminated pages quite equal1 not only in artistic beauty1 but even in mere splendour of effect1 any illuminations that have ever been produced4 ,the ,book of ,durrow4 ,in addition to the ,book of ,kells another manuscript of similar style and date and of almost equal splendour should be mentioned1 the ,book of ,durrow#fe1 which1 like the ,book of ,kells1 was also known as the ,gospels of ,saint ,columba1 who is said to have left behind him1 at his death in #eig1 no less than three hundred manuscripts written with his own hand4 ,it is not impossible that the ,book of ,durrow is one of these1 as it bears some signs of being earlier in date than the ,book of ,kells4 ,monks of ,iona4 ,from ,ireland the art of illuminating manuscripts was carried by monkish colonists to the ,western coasts of ,scotland1 and especially to the ,island of ,iona1 where a monastery had been founded by ,saint ,columba in the latter part of the sixth century#ff4 ,great numbers of manuscripts resembling in style the ,book of ,kells were produced in ,iona2 and offshoots from the monastery of ,iona1 established at various places on the mainland1 became similar centres for the writing of richly decorated manuscripts4 ,no less than thirteen monasteries in ,scotland and twelve in ,england were founded by ,irish monks from the mother settlement in ,iona4 ,in fact the whole of ,britain seems to have owed its ,christianity1 during the ,anglo-,saxon period1 to the ,irish missionaries from ,iona1 with the important exception of the kingdom of ,kent1 which was occupied by the ,roman mission of ,saint ,augustine4 ,celtic missionaries4 ,in the year #fce1 at the request of ,oswald ,king of ,northumbria1 the ,scottish king sent an ,irish monk from ,iona1 named ,aidan1 to preach ,christianity to the ,northumbrian worshippers of ,thor and ,odin4 ,aidan selected the little island of ,lindisfarne as the head-quarters of his missionary church1 which1 at first consisting mainly of a few ,irish monks from ,iona1 rapidly grew in size and importance4 ,in a few years1 ,saint ,aidan1 ,bishop and ,abbot of ,lindisfarne1 was able to establish a number of monastic houses throughout the ,northumbrian ,kingdom1 and his own ,abbey of ,lindisfarne became one of the chief centres of ,northern ,europe for the production of fine illuminated manuscripts of the ,celtic type4 ,after the death of ,saint ,aidan other ,irish monks succeeded him as ,bishop of ,lindisfarne1 and the school of manuscript illumination continued to flourish4 ,gospels of ,st ,cuthbert4 ,one of the most beautiful existing examples of the ,lindisfarne branch of the ,irish school of miniature work is the famous ,book of the ,gospels of ,saint ,cuthbert#fg as it is called1 now in the ,british ,museum 7,cotton manuscripts1 ,nero1 ,d4 ,,iv74 ,the history of this manuscript is a very curious one2 it was written some years after ,saint ,cuthbert's death in #fhh1 not during his lifetime as was formerly believed4 ,eadfrith1 a monk of ,lindisfarne in ,saint ,cuthbert's time1 and subsequently eighth ,bishop of ,lindisfarne 7#fih to #gba71 was the writer of these ,gospels1 in honour of ,god and of ,saint ,cuthbert1 as he records in a note4 ,the illuminations were added by the monk ,aethelwold1 afterwards ninth ,bishop of ,lindisfarne1 and the elaborate gold1 gem-studded cover of this magnificent textus was the work of a third monk of the same ,abbey named ,bilfrith4 ,viking piracy4 ,travels of the ,gospels4 ,in the ninth century the ,viking pirates were constantly harrying the shores of ,northumbria2 more than once the ,abbey of ,lindisfarne was plundered and many of the monks were slain1 till at last1 in the year #hgh1 the small remnant who had escaped the cruelty of the ,northmen decided to leave ,lindisfarne and seek a new settlement in the original home of the founders of ,lindisfarne1 the eastern coast of ,ireland4 ,in #hgh the survivors set off1 carrying with them the body of ,saint ,cuthbert1 and the magnificent manuscript of the ,gospels1 which was the chief treasure of their ,abbey1 and which had been successfully hidden in ,saint ,cuthbert's grave at the time of the invasion of the ,northmen4 ,the monks crossed to the western shore of ,northumbria1 and there took ship for ,ireland4 ,a great storm1 however1 arose2 their boat shipped a heavy sea which washed overboard the precious ,gospels of ,saint ,cuthbert1 which had been carefully packed in a wooden box4 ,eventually the little ship was driven back1 and finally was stranded on the ,northumbrian shore4 ,soon after reaching the land the fugitive monks1 wandering sadly along the beach1 found1 to their great joy1 the lost box with its precious manuscript thrown up by the waves and lying on dry land4 ,according to the chronicle of ,symeon#fh 7chapter xxvii471 the brilliant illuminations were quite uninjured by the sea-water2 this is not literally the case2 some of the pages are a good deal stained1 but wonderfully little injured considering what the book has gone through4 ,minster of ,durham4 ,when after many wanderings the successors of the exiles from ,lindisfarne found1 in #iie1 a final resting-place for the body of ,saint ,cuthbert in the ,minster which they founded at ,durham1 the manuscript of the ,gospels was laid on the coffin of the ,saint4 ,there it remained till #aajd1 when ,saint ,cuthbert's body was exhumed1 and soon after it was sent back to ,lindisfarne1 where a ,benedictine monastery had been founded in #ajic by some monks from ,durham on the site of ,saint ,cuthbert's ruined ,abbey4 ,there it was safely preserved till the dissolution of the monasteries under ,henry ,,viii4 ,the gold covers were then stripped off and melted1 but the still more precious manuscript escaped destruction2 it was subsequently acquired by ,sir ,robert ,cotton1 and is now one of the chief manuscript treasures of the ,british ,museum4 ,anglo-,celtic school4 ,in point of style the ,gospels of ,saint ,cuthbert are a characteristic example of the ,irish school of illumination1 modified by transplantation to ,english soil4 ,the intermediate stage in ,iona and other monasteries of western ,scotland seems to have introduced no change of style into the primitive ,irish method of ornament4 ,whether produced in eastern ,ireland or in western ,scotland the manuscripts were the work of the same ,celtic race1 the ,scots1 who1 at first inhabiting the north-east of ,ireland1 passed over to the not very distant shores of northern ,britain to which these ,irish settlers gave the name ,scotland4 ,improved drawing4 ,when however the ,irish monks passed from ,iona to ,northumbria the case was different2 they were surrounded with a new set of artistic influences mainly owing to the introduction into ,northumbria of fine ,byzantine and ,italian manuscripts4 ,the result of this was that though the ,lindisfarne manuscripts continued to be decorated with exactly the same class of patterns that had been used in the ,book of ,kells and other ,irish manuscripts for initials1 borders and the like1 yet in the treatment of the human figure a very distinct advance was made4 ,thus in ,saint ,cuthbert's ,gospels the seated figures of the ,evangelists are drawn with much dignity of form and with some attempt at truth in the pose1 the proportions and in the disposition of the folds of the drapery4 ,the monk ,aethelwold who painted these miniatures must have had before him some fine manuscripts of the ,gospels probably both of ,byzantine and ,italian style4 ,use of metal leaf4 ,the whole result is a very splendid one1 the ,gospels of ,saint ,cuthbert in richness of invention and minute intricacy of pattern almost equal the ,book of ,kells2 while the figure subjects1 instead of being grotesque masses of ornament1 are paintings with much beauty of line as well as extreme splendour of colour4 ,another modification is the introduction of gold and silver leaf1 which are wholly wanting in the ,book of ,kells and the other finest purely ,irish manuscripts4 ,,ms4 of ,bede4 ,italian influence4 ,other typical examples of this combined ,celtic and ,english style are the magnificent ,gospels in the ,imperial library in ,st ,petersburg1 and a manuscript of the ,commentary on the ,psalms by ,cassiodorus now in the ,chapter library at ,durham4 ,this latter manuscript1 which dates from the eighth century1 is traditionally said to have been written by ,bede himself4 ,the illuminations in this manuscript are specially rich with interlaced patterns1 dragon monsters and diapers of the most minute scale1 all purely ,celtic in style1 and all showing with special clearness their derivation from originals in goldsmiths' work4 ,not only the distinctly metallic motives of ornament are faithfully copied1 but even the manner in which the gold-workers built up their elaborate manuscript covers by the insertion of separate little plates of gold filagree and enamel side by side on a large plate or matrix is exactly reproduced by the illuminator4 ,as in the case of the ,lindisfarne ,gospels1 the figures of the ,psalmist which are introduced are very superior to any figures which occur in the purely ,irish manuscripts1 showing the distinct influence of ,italian manuscripts of debased classical style4 ,the ,corpus ,gospels4 ,another very interesting example of the ,anglo-,celtic school of illumination1 with fine initials and a painting of an eagle of the characteristic ,northern type1 is in the possession of ,corpus ,christi ,college1 ,cambridge2 ,no4 ,,cxcvii4 ,this is an imperfect manuscript of the ,gospels containing only the ,gospels of ,saint ,luke and ,saint ,john4 ,the decorative borders and initials have the interlaced ,irish class of ornament4 ,this interesting manuscript was 7in the sixteenth century7 in the library of ,archbishop ,parker1 who inserted a note stating that it was one of the manuscripts which were sent by ,pope ,gregory to ,saint ,augustine4 ,the actual date of the manuscript is probably not earlier than the eighth century1 in spite of the ancient appearance of the figure painting4 ,an earlier copy of the ,gospels in the same library has full page miniatures of the two ,evangelists of purely classical style1 surrounded with architectural framework of debased ,roman form1 very little modified from similar ,roman miniatures of the fifth century ,a4,d4 ,gospels of ,mac,durnan4 ,returning for the moment to the ,irish school of ,celtic art1 it should be observed that richly illuminated manuscripts continued to be produced in ,ireland till the ninth and tenth centuries1 but these later manuscripts1 fine as they are1 do not equal in beauty the ,book of ,kells and other works of the seventh and eighth century4 ,the ,book of the ,gospels of ,mac,durnan#fi1 who was ,archbishop of ,armagh from #hhe to #ibg1 is a good example of the later school of ,irish art1 in which the figures of the ,evangelists are no less grotesque than those in the earlier manuscripts1 while the interlaced and diapered patterns of the borders and initials are inferior in minute delicacy of execution to such masterpieces as the ,book of ,kells2 see fig4 #bj4 ,book of ,deer4 ,another still stronger proof of artistic decadence among the ,celtic illuminators of this period is afforded by the ,book of ,deer#gj in the ,cambridge ,university library4 ,this is a small octavo copy of the ,latin ,gospels after the ,itala version#ga4 ,in style it is a mere shadow of the glories of early ,irish art1 with comparatively coarse and feebly coloured decorative patterns4 ,it appears to have been written in ,scotland by an ,irish scribe during the ninth century#gb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,miniature from the ,gospels of ,mac,durnan of the ninth century4 ,gospels of ,mac,regol4 ,one of the finest of the manuscripts of the later ,irish type is the ,book of the ,gospels of ,mac,regol in the ,bodleian library 7,d4 #bd4 ,no4 #cidf7 executed in the ninth century4 ,the ornaments and the very conventional figures of the ,evangelists are of the purely ,irish type1 unmodified by any imitation of the superior figure drawing in ,byzantine and ,italian miniatures#gc4 ,gospels of ,st ,chad4 ,the manuscript ,gospels of ,saint ,chad in the ,chapter library of ,lichfield ,cathedral is another example of the ,irish school and of the same date as the last-mentioned book4 ,it is named after ,ceadda or ,chad who1 in the seventh century1 was the first ,bishop of ,lichfield1 nearly two hundred years before the date of this manuscript of the ,gospels#gd4 ,celtic school on the ,continent4 ,during the most flourishing period of ,celtic art in ,ireland its influence was by no means limited to the ,northumbrian school of illuminators4 ,the ,irish types of ornament were adopted by the scribes of ,canterbury and other places in the ,south of ,england2 and on the ,continent of ,europe ,celtic art was widely spread by ,irish missionaries such as ,saint ,columbanus1 and by the founding of ,irish monasteries during the sixth century in various countries1 as1 for example1 at ,bobbio in ,northern ,italy1 at ,st ,gallen in ,switzerland1 at ,wurtzburg in ,germany1 and at ,luxeuil in ,france4 ,in these and in other places ,irish monastic illuminators worked hard at the production of manuscripts and spread the ,celtic style of ornament over a large area of ,western ,europe4 ,the library of ,st ,gallen possesses a number of richly illuminated manuscripts of the later ,irish type1 exactly similar in style to those which during the eighth and ninth centuries were produced in the monasteries of ,ireland and ,scotland#ge4 ,psalter of ,st ,augustine4 ,the result of this spread of ,celtic influence was that borders1 initial letters and similar ornaments of pure ,irish style were used in many manuscripts in which the figures of ,saints were designed after an equally pure ,italian or debased classic style4 ,a good example of this is the so-called ,psalter of ,saint ,augustine#gf 7,brit4 ,mus4 ,cotton manuscripts ,vesp4 ,a4 i7 which for many centuries belonged to the ,cathedral of ,canterbury4 ,this is a manuscript of the eighth century2 one of its chief miniature paintings represents ,david enthroned1 playing on a harp with a group of attendant musicians and two dancing figures round his throne4 ,these figures are purely ,italian in style1 of the debased ,roman ,school2 but the arched frame which borders the picture is filled in with ornament of the ,irish metal type1 closely similar in style1 except that gold and silver are largely used1 to those in the ,book of ,kells1 though inferior in minute delicacy of execution4 ,it is of course very possible that the illuminations in this ,psalter are the work of two hands1 the figures being painted by an ,italian illuminator and the borders by an ,english or ,irish monk4 ,scandinavian art4 ,in later times1 especially during the ninth century1 the ,celtic art of ,ireland appears to have been largely introduced into ,scandinavia by means of the ,viking pirates who harried the whole circuit of the shores of ,britain and ,ireland1 and finally in the ninth century established a ,norse ,kingdom in eastern ,ireland with the newly founded ,dublin as its capital#gg4 ,the ,norsemen were far from being a literary race and it was not in the form of manuscript illuminations that ,irish art was introduced into ,norway and ,denmark1 but rather in the rich gold and silver jewellery with which the ,viking chiefs adorned themselves1 and also on a larger scale in the magnificently decorative reliefs which were carved on the wooden planks which formed the frames or architraves of the doors of the ,scandinavian wooden churches in the eleventh and twelfth centuries1 after the worship of the ,thunderer had been replaced by the ,faith of the ,white ,christ4 ,lindisfarne1 ,iona and the other chief ,irish monasteries suffered again and again from the inroads of the ,vikings1 who found rich and easily won plunder in the form of gold and silver chalices1 reliquaries and book-covers in the treasuries of the monastic churches undefended by any except unarmed and peaceful monks4 ,the ,golden ,gospels of ,stockholm4 ,one curious record of ,viking plunder is preserved in the ,royal library of ,stockholm4 ,this is a very magnificent manuscript ,book of the ,gospels of the eighth century1 commonly known as the ,codex aureus of ,stockholm4 ,it is mostly written with alternate leaves of purple vellum1 the text on which is in golden letters4 ,in general style and in the splendour of its ornaments it closely resembles the ,lindisfarne ,gospels of ,saint ,cuthbert1 described above at page #hh1 and most probably1 like the latter1 was also written in the monastery of ,lindisfarne4 ,the interlaced ornaments of the ,irish type are marvels of beauty1 while the dignified drawing of the enthroned figures of the four ,evangelists shows clearly the influence of ,continental manuscript art4 ,in this case the ,celtic or ,english illuminator must have had before him a copy of the ,gospels not of the ,italian but of the ,byzantine style1 since the ,evangelists and other figures in the book which are represented in the act of benediction do so in the ,oriental not in the ,latin fashion#gh4 ,viking robbers4 ,on the margin of the first page of ,saint ,matthew's ,gospel an interesting note has been written about the year #hej by the owner of the ,gospels1 an ,english ,ealdorman named ,aelfred2 this note records that the manuscript had been stolen by ,norse robbers and that ,aelfred had purchased it from them for a sum in pure gold in order that the sacred book might be rescued from heathen hands4 ,aelfred then presented it to the ,cathedral ,church of ,canterbury1 and new gold covers appear then to have been made for this ,textus1 as there is another note in a ninth century hand requesting the prayers of the ,church for three goldsmiths1 probably those who replaced the original gold covers which the ,viking pirates had torn off#gi4 ,the two ,churches in ,britain4 ,returning now to the manuscripts of the ,celtic ,church in ,northumbria1 in order to understand the gradual introduction into ,northern ,england of the ,italian or classical style of painting it is necessary to remember the struggle which took place during the seventh century between the adherents of the older ,celtic ,church and those who supported the ,papal claims for supremacy throughout ,britain4 ,on the one hand the ,see of ,canterbury1 founded by the ,roman ,saint ,augustine1 claimed jurisdiction in the north as well as in the south of ,britain1 in opposition to the ,celtic ,abbot of ,iona1 who was then the real ,metropolitan of the ,church in the north of ,england4 ,long struggle4 ,wilfrid of ,york and ,benedict ,biscop of ,jarrow spent many years in a series of embassies1 between #fgj and #fij1 backward and forward between ,northumbria and ,rome striving to introduce the ,papal authority1 by the aid of imported books1 relics and craftsmen skilled in building stone churches in place of the simple wooden structures which at that time were the only ecclesiastical buildings in ,northumbria#hj4 ,very large numbers of illuminated manuscripts were brought to ,england during the many journeys of ,wilfrid and ,benedict ,biscop2 and important libraries were created at ,york and at ,jarrow which led to these places becoming literary and artistic centres of great and ,european importance4 ,synod of ,whitby4 ,defeat of the ,celtic party4 ,in the end1 after many failures1 ,wilfrid1 ,archbishop#ha of ,york1 was successful in bringing ,northumbria under the supremacy of ,canterbury and ,rome4 ,in #ffd a great ,council was held at ,whitby in the presence of the ,northumbrian ,king ,oswiu4 ,bishop ,colman1 the successor of ,saint ,aidan at ,lindisfarne1 represented the ,celtic ,church and the authority of ,saint ,columba1 while ,wilfrid appeared to support the authority of ,saint ,peter and the ,bishop of ,rome4 ,after hearing that ,saint ,peter possessed the keys of ,heaven and ,hell1 while ,saint ,columba could claim no such marvellous power1 ,king ,oswiu decided in favour of the ,roman ,supremacy4 ,this decision1 though based on such fanciful grounds1 was a fortunate one for the ,english ,church1 since1 in the main1 learning1 culture and established order generally were on the side of the ,italian ,church4 ,the practical result of this ,roman victory at the ,synod of ,whitby in #ffd was that a classical influence gradually extended itself in all the ,english centres for the production of illuminated manuscripts4 ,it has already been noted that the splendid manuscripts of ,lindisfarne and other ,northumbrian monasteries1 though of ,celtic origin1 show a distinct ,roman influence in the improvement of the drawing of their figures of ,saints4 ,by degrees the ,irish element in the illuminations grew less and less2 though the interlaced patterns and fantastic dragon and serpent forms lasted for many centuries in all the chief countries of western ,europe and form an important decorative element till the thirteenth century#hb4 ,baeda of ,durham4 ,one of the chief schools of ,english manuscript illumination1 that of the ,benedictine ,abbey at ,durham1 was raised to a position of ,european importance by the ,northumbrian monk ,baeda1 afterwards called the ,venerable ,bede1 who was born in #fgc1 a few years after the ,synod of ,whitby4 ,as the author of a great ,ecclesiastical ,history of the ,english ,nation1 ,baeda ranks as the ,father of ,english ,history2 he did much to foster the study of ancient classical authors1 was himself a skilful writer of manuscripts1 and made the ,abbey of ,jarrow1 where he lived till his death in #gce1 an active centre for the production of richly illuminated manuscripts of many different literary classes4 ,northumbrian school4 ,celtic and ,classic styles4 ,in the eighth century the schools of illumination in the ,abbeys of ,jarrow1 ,wearmouth and ,york in ,northumbria1 and of ,canterbury and ,winchester in the south were among the most active and artistically important in the world#hc4 ,in these schools of miniature painting was gradually created a special ,english style of illumination1 partly formed out of a combination of two very different styles1 that of the ,irish ,celtic illuminators and that of the ,italian classical scribes4 ,this ,english ,school of illumination1 which had been partially developed before the close of the tenth century1 became1 for real artistic merit1 the first and most important in the whole of ,europe1 and for a considerable period continued to occupy this foremost position#hd4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,school ,,of ,,manuscripts#he4 ,danish invasions4 ,the ninth century in ,england was one of great turmoil and misery1 on account of the fearful havoc wrought by the ,danish ,northmen throughout the whole length and breadth of the land4 ,in ,northumbria the thriving literary and artistic school which had been raised to such preeminence by ,baeda was utterly blotted out from existence by the invading ,danes2 and when at last ,king ,alfred1 who reigned from #hga to #ija1 secured an interval of peace he was obliged to seek instructors in the art of manuscript illumination from the ,frankish kings4 ,time of ,king ,alfred4 ,in this way the wave of influence flowed back again from ,france to ,england4 ,in ,charles the ,great's time the ,carolingian school of manuscripts had been largely influenced by the ,celtic style1 which ,alcuin of ,york introduced from ,northumbria1 and now the later art of ,anglo-,saxon ,england received back from ,france the forms of ornament and the technical skill which in ,northumbria itself had become extinct4 ,alfred was an enthusiastic patron of literature and art1 especially the art of manuscript illumination1 and before long a new school of manuscript art was created in many of the ,benedictine monasteries of ,england and especially among the monks of the royal city of ,winchester1 which in the tenth century produced works of extraordinary beauty and decorative force4 ,benedictional of ,aethelwold4 ,as an example of this we may mention the famous ,benedictional of ,aethelwold1 who was ,bishop of ,winchester from #ifc to #ihdhf4 ,the writer of this sumptuously decorated manuscript was ,bishop ,aethelwold's chaplain1 a monk named ,godemann1 who afterwards1 about the year #igj1 became ,abbot of ,thorney4 ,unlike the manuscripts of earlier date in which the illuminated pictures are usually few in number1 this ,benedictional contains no less than thirty full page miniatures1 mostly consisting of scenes from the life of ,christ4 ,each picture is framed by an elaborate border1 richly decorated in gold and brilliant colours1 with conventional leaf-work of classical style4 ,the drawing of the figures is dignified1 and the drapery is usually well conceived and treated in a bold1 decorative way1 showing much artistic skill on the part of the illuminator4 ,fig4 #ba shows one of the miniatures1 representing the ,ascension2 the colouring is extremely beautiful and harmonious1 enhanced by a skilful use of burnished gold4 ,foreign influence4 ,though the figures and especially the delicately modelled faces have a character of their own1 peculiarly ,english in feeling1 yet in the general style of the miniatures1 and in their elaborate borders there are very distinct signs of a strong ,carolingian influence1 owing1 no doubt1 to the introduction of ,frankish illuminators and the purchase of ,carolingian manuscripts during the reign of ,alfred the ,great1 more than half a century before the date of this manuscript4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,miniature from the ,benedictional of ,aethelwold2 written and illuminated by a monastic scribe at ,winchester4 ,there is1 for example1 much similarity of style in the miniatures of this ,benedictional and those in a ,carolingian manuscript of the ,gospels written for ,king ,lothaire in the monastery of ,st ,martin at ,metz soon after #hdchg2 see above fig4 #ad1 p4 #ga4 ,winchester ,charter4 ,another very fine example of the ,winchester school of illumination is the manuscript ,charter which ,king ,edgar granted to the new minster at ,winchester in #iff4 ,the first page consists of a large miniature1 painted in gold and brilliant colours on a purple-stained leaf of vellum#hh1 with ,christ in ,majesty supported by four angels in the upper part of the picture1 and1 below1 standing figures of the ,b4 ,v4 ,mary and ,saint ,peter1 with ,king ,edgar in the middle offering his charter to ,christ4 ,the whole picture is very skilfully designed so as to fill the whole page in the most decorative way1 and it is framed in a border with richly devised conventional leaf-forms4 ,in artistic power this tenth century ,winchester school of illuminators appears1 for a while at least1 to have been foremost in the world4 ,both in delicacy of touch and in richness of decorative effect the productions of this school are superior to those of any contemporary ,continental country4 ,st ,dunstan as an artist4 ,saint ,dunstan1 the great ecclesiastical statesman of the ninth century1 created another school of illumination in the ,benedictine ,abbey of ,glastonbury4 ,dunstan himself was no mean artist1 as may be seen from a fine drawing of ,christ1 which he executed#hi2 the ,saint has represented himself as a small monkish figure prostrate at the feet of ,christ4 ,at the top of the page is inscribed in a twelfth century hand1 ,pictura et scriptura hujus pagine subtus visa est de propria manu sancti ,dunstani4 ,coloured ink drawings4 ,during the tenth century a large number of illuminated manuscripts were executed in the southern parts of ,england1 the miniatures in which are very unlike and1 as decoration1 very inferior to the manuscripts of the ,anglo-,carolingian style1 as represented by the magnificent ,benedictional of ,aethelwold4 ,this class of illumination consists of drawings1 often with a large number of small figures1 executed with a pen in red1 blue and brown outline4 ,the drawing of these figures is very mannered1 the heads are small1 the attitudes awkward1 and the draperies are represented in numerous small1 fluttering folds1 drawn with an apparently shaky line1 as if the artist had lacked firmness of hand4 ,this1 however1 is a mere mannerism1 as wherever he wished for a steady line1 as1 for example1 in the drawing of the faces1 the artist has drawn with the utmost decision and firmness of touch4 ,the costumes of these curious outline drawings1 the architectural accessories and other details1 all show clearly the influence of the very debased forms of classical ,roman art1 which still survived among the manuscript illuminations of ,italy#ij4 ,this degraded form of classical art was far from being a good model for the ,anglo-,saxon illuminator to imitate1 and the blue and red outline miniatures are very inferior to the sumptuous ,anglo-,carolingian manuscripts which were being produced at ,winchester by contemporary illuminators4 ,,mss4 of the ,x,i,ith century4 ,roll of ,st ,guthlac4 ,beauty of line4 ,in the eleventh century ,anglo-,saxon miniatures in coloured outline improved greatly in beauty of form and in gracefulness of pose2 till at the beginning of the twelfth century extremely fine miniatures of this class were produced4 ,a very beautiful example of this is a long vellum roll illuminated with eighteen circular miniatures1 mostly drawn with a pen in dark brown ink4 ,these outline miniatures represent scenes from the life of ,saint ,guthlac1 the ,hermit of ,crowland4 ,the series begins with a drawing of the youthful ,guthlac receiving the tonsure from ,hedda1 ,bishop of ,winchester 7#fgf to #gje71 in the presence of the ,abbess ,ebba and two nuns4 ,the whole composition is very skilfully arranged to fill the circular medallion1 and there is great dignity and even delicate beauty in the separate figures4 ,the precision of touch shown in the drawing is most admirable1 recalling the perfect purity of line seen in the finest vase-paintings of the ,greeks1 in which1 as in these miniatures1 the greatest amount of effect is produced with the fewest possible touches4 ,a few flat washes are introduced into the backgrounds1 but all the principal part of the miniatures is executed with this pure outline4 ,there are no grounds for the suggestion that these medallion drawings were intended as designs for stained glass4 ,there is much similarity of style in stained glass paintings and manuscript illuminations during the twelfth to the fourteenth century in ,england1 just as in the early ,byzantine manuscripts the same design serves for a miniature painting and a colossal wall-mosaic4 ,the same simplicity of drawing and flatness of composition were preserved in both classes of art1 and there is nothing exceptional in the fact that these miniatures of ,saint ,guthlac might have served as excellent motives for a glass-painter#ia4 ,pontifical of ,st ,dunstan4 ,the ,pontifical of ,saint ,dunstan 7,brit4 ,mus4 ,cott4 ,claud4 ,a4 #c71 executed in the early part of the eleventh century1 is a magnificent example of decorative art1 both in its noble designs and richness of colour4 ,though no gold is used1 the greatest splendour of effect is produced1 especially in a large miniature representing ,saint ,gregory enthroned under an elaborate architectural canopy1 with prostrate figures at his feet of ,archbishop ,dunstan and the ,benedictine scribe of this beautiful manuscript2 see ,westwood1 ,irish ,manuscripts1 ,pl4 #ej4 ,byzantine decadence4 ,the beauty of the best ,english manuscripts of the twelfth century is a remarkable contrast to the once splendid ,byzantine school of illumination1 which by this time had sadly degenerated from its former vigorous splendour1 and had become weak in drawing1 clumsy in pose and inharmonious in colour4 ,the ,english school on the other hand1 all through the twelfth century1 was making rapid advances towards a perfection both of design and technique which culminated in the ,anglo-,norman style of the latter part of the thirteenth century1 which for beauty of all kinds remained for a long time quite without rival in any ,european country4 ,canute a patron of art4 ,feeble colouring4 ,to return to the ,anglo-,saxon school of manuscripts in the eleventh century1 it should be observed that the ,danish ,king ,canute1 unlike his destructive predecessors1 did all that he could to encourage literature and art in ,england4 ,with a view to fostering the production of fine illuminated manuscripts he introduced into this country1 and especially into the royal and monastic libraries of ,winchester1 a large number of ,roman manuscripts with the usual illuminations of the debased classic type4 ,this1 no doubt1 helped to encourage the production of miniatures in outline such as those in the ,utrecht ,psalter#ib4 ,another variety of ,anglo-,saxon manuscript illumination1 executed during the first half of the eleventh century1 consists first of all of a pen drawing in brown outline2 to which subsequently the artist added with a brush narrow bands of blue or red laid on in a thin wash as a sort of edging to the brown outlines1 apparently with the object of giving roundness to the drawing#ic4 ,this class of illumination is1 however1 very inferior in beauty and decorative splendour to the finest works of the monks of ,winchester and ,glastonbury1 in which solid colour in great variety of tint is used1 as1 for example in the above-mentioned ,benedictional of ,aethelwold and the ,pontifical of ,saint ,dunstan4 ,the ,anglo-,norman school4 ,the ,norman conquest of ,england in #ajff soon put an end to the ,anglo-,saxon school of illumination1 with its weak imitations of the debased classical style of ,italy4 ,in place of this the magnificent ,anglo-,norman schools of miniature painting were developed on both sides of the ,british ,channel4 ,england and ,normandy became one country1 and as long as this union lasted manuscripts of precisely similar character were produced both in ,normandy and in ,england1 as is described in the following ,chapter4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,anglo-,,norman ,,school ,,of ,,manuscripts4 ,the twelfth century in ,england and ,northern ,france was a period of rapid artistic development in almost all branches of the arts1 from a miniature illumination to a great ,cathedral or ,abbey church4 ,the ,norman invasion4 ,robert of ,gloucester4 ,with regard1 however1 to the art of illuminated manuscripts and other branches of art in ,england it should be observed that though the conquered ,english and the ,norman conquerors with remarkable rapidity were amalgamated with great solidarity into one united people#id1 yet for a long period after the ,conquest it was distinctly the ,norman element that took the lead in all matters of art and literature4 ,the ,bishops1 ,abbots and ,priors of the great ,english ecclesiastical foundations were for a long period wholly or in the main men of the ,norman race1 and thus 7intellectually7 the native ,english took a lower place1 and did far less to advance the arts of ,england than did the ,normans who formed the upper and more cultivated class4 ,as ,robert of ,gloucester the ,benedictine monkish ,chronicler of the thirteenth century says1 ,of the ,normannes beth thys hey men1 that beth of thys lond1 ,and the lowe men of ,saxons1 as ych understonde#ie4 ,architectural growth4 ,in the eleventh century building in stone on a large scale for military and ecclesiastical purposes had been introduced into ,england by the ,normans in place of the frail wooden structures of the ,anglo-,saxons4 ,towards the close of the twelfth century the ,gothic style of architecture1 with its pointed arches and quadripartite vaults1 was brought to ,england by the ,cistercian monks of northern ,france1 and soon spread far and wide throughout the kingdom4 ,the artists of this century began to study the human form1 its pose and movement1 and also in their drapery learnt to depict gracefully designed folds with much truth and with a keen sense of beauty#if4 ,anglo-,norman school4 ,manuscripts of various classes were now richly illuminated with many varied series of picture subjects1 and the old hieratic canons of ,byzantine conservatism were soon completely thrown aside4 ,in the ornaments of the ,anglo-,norman manuscripts of the twelfth century rich foliage is used made of conventionalized forms which recall the old acanthus leaf1 the half expanded fronds of various ferns and other plants1 all used with great taste in their arrangement1 and wonderful life and spirit in every line and curve of the design4 ,older ,celtic motives are also used2 ingeniously devised interlaced work of straps and bands1 plaited together in complicated knots1 and terminating frequently in strange forms of serpents1 dragons and other grotesque monsters#ig4 ,these ornaments are strongly decorative both in form and colour1 and1 though delicately painted1 are treated somewhat broadly1 very unlike the microscopic minuteness of the earlier ,irish and ,anglo-,celtic school4 ,illuminated ,psalters4 ,martyrdom of ,st ,thomas4 ,at this time a large number of very magnificently illuminated ,psalters were produced2 and the use of gold leaf both for the backgrounds of pictures and in combination with brilliant pigments began to come into more frequent use4 ,a fine typical example of ,english manuscript art at the close of the twelfth century is to be seen in the so-called ,huntingfield ,psalter1 which was executed1 probably in some monastic house in ,yorkshire1 a little before #abjj ,a4,d4#ih ,it contains #fh miniatures of very fine style1 delicately painted on backgrounds partially of gold2 the subjects are taken from both the ,old and the ,new ,testament1 beginning with the ,creation of the ,world4 ,the general style of the illuminations in this ,psalter is more exclusively ,english in character and less ,norman than is usual in manuscripts of this date4 ,the book is interesting as containing one of the earliest representations of the ,martyrdom of ,thomas ,becket1 who subsequently became so popular a ,saint in ,england and ,normandy4 ,in this case the painting is not quite of the same date as the bulk of the manuscript1 but it evidently was added not many years after ,becket's death1 which occurred in #aagj2 ,saint ,thomas was canonized only two years later#ii4 ,one of the earliest representations of this subject is a miniature painted by ,matthew ,paris on the border of a page of his ,greater ,chronicle in the library of ,corpus ,christi ,college1 ,cambridge1 ,no4 xxvi4 ,the ,angevin kingdom4 ,though ,i have used the phrase ,anglo-,norman to denote the school of manuscript illumination which1 from the twelfth to the fourteenth century1 existed on both sides of the ,channel1 it should be observed that manuscripts of a similar type to those of ,normandy were produced in many places far to the south1 and indeed almost throughout the whole dominions of the ,angevin kings1 including the whole western half of ,france down to ,gascony and the ,pyrenees4 ,the fact is that to a great degree all forms of ,norman art extended throughout the whole ,angevin dominions1 so that1 for example1 we find a ,cathedral as far south as ,bayonne 7not far from the ,spanish frontier7 resembling closely both in general design and details of mouldings and carving the ecclesiastical architecture of ,canterbury and ,caen4 ,english art in the ,x,i,i,ith century4 ,english art at its highest period of development4 ,the thirteenth century was the culminating period of ,anglo-,norman art of all kinds2 and indeed for a brief period ,england occupied the foremost position in the world with regard to nearly all the principal branches of the fine arts4 ,henry ,,iii4 as an art patron4 ,the early years of the thirteenth century were a time of war and tumult1 little favourable to artistic advance1 but during the long reign of ,henry ,,iii41 which lasted from #abaf to #abgb1 progress of the most remarkable kind was made4 ,the ,king himself was an enthusiastic patron of all the arts1 ranging from manuscript illumination to the construction of such a fabric as ,westminster ,abbey2 and the lesser arts of life1 such as weaving1 embroidery1 metal work1 together with stained glass1 mural painting and other forms of decoration1 were all brought in ,england to a wonderful pitch of perfection between #abej and #acjj4 ,houses of ,henry ,,iii4 ,immense sums were spent by the ,king in improving and decorating his ,palaces and ,manor ,houses all over the kingdom with an amount of refinement and splendour that had hitherto been unknown4 ,many interesting contemporary documents still exist giving the expenses of the many works which ,henry ,,iii4 carried out4 ,he spent large sums on fitting the windows with glass casements1 laying down floors of painted tiles1 and in panelling the walls with wainscot which was richly decorated with painting in gold and colours4 ,large mural paintings were executed by a whole army of painters on the walls of the chief rooms2 and decorative art both for domestic and ecclesiastical purposes was in ,england brought to a pitch of perfection far beyond that of any continental country4 ,chief works of ,henry ,,iii4 ,the chief works of ,henry ,,iii4 were the building of a magnificent ,palace at ,westminster in place of the ruder structure of the earlier ,norman kings2 the reconstruction of ,westminster ,abbey1 and the providing for the body of ,edward the ,confessor a great shrine of pure gold1 richly studded with jewels of enormous value4 ,a long and interesting series of accounts of these and other lavish expenditures of money still exist in the ,record ,office#ajj4 ,wall-paintings at ,westminster4 ,a magnificent series of wall-paintings1 with subjects from sacred and profane history and from the ,apocryphal books of the ,old ,testament1 were executed by various artists1 both monks and laymen1 on the walls of the chief rooms in the new ,palace of ,westminster4 ,in style these paintings were very like the miniatures in an illuminated manuscript of the time2 they were simply designed1 flat in treatment1 and executed with the most minute and delicate detail4 ,great richness of effect was produced by the use of wooden stamps with which delicate diapers and other patterns were stamped over the backgrounds of the pictures on the thin coat of gesso which covered the stone wall4 ,these minutely executed reliefs were then thickly gilt1 forming rich gold backgrounds1 such as are so commonly used in the manuscripts of the ,anglo-,norman school2 see fig4 #bc1 p4 #acj4 ,paintings copied from ,,mss4 ,the close connection between these magnificent wall paintings and the illuminated miniatures in manuscripts is borne witness to by an interesting record that1 in the year #abej1 the ,king ordered ,richard de ,sanford1 ,master of the ,knights ,templars1 to lend an illuminated manuscript in ,french of ,the ,gestes of ,antioch and the ,history of the ,crusades to the painter ,edward of ,westminster1 so that he might copy the miniatures1 using the designs to paint the walls of the ,queen's low room in the new ,palace of ,westminster with a series of historical pictures4 ,from these paintings of the ,gestes of ,antioch the ,queen's room was thenceforth known as the ,antioch chamber#aja4 ,the ,painted ,chamber4 ,the largest of the halls in the ,westminster ,palace1 decorated with a marvellous series of exquisitely finished paintings1 was known as the ,painted ,chamber par excellence from its great size and the immense number of pictures which covered its walls4 ,the system of decoration adopted in the thirteenth century was not to paint large pictures in a large hall1 but simply to multiply the number of small ones1 keeping the figures as delicate in execution and small in scale as if the room had been of the most limited dimensions4 ,this had the effect of enormously adding to the apparent scale of the room1 a great contrast to the method of decoration which was employed in later times of decadence1 when large halls were dwarfed and rendered insignificant by covering the walls with figures of colossal size4 ,the sixteenth century tapestry in the great hall at ,hampton ,court is a striking example of the way in which gigantic figures may destroy the scale of an interior4 ,existing fragments4 ,the great beauty and extreme minuteness of the work can be seen in some few damaged fragments1 now in the ,british ,museum1 which were not completely destroyed when the ,royal ,palace of ,westminster1 the seat of the two ,houses of ,parliament1 was burnt in #ahcd4 ,in the second half of the thirteenth century1 during the reigns of ,henry ,,iii4 and ,edward ,i41 the painting of ,england was unrivalled by that of any other country#ajb4 ,even in ,italy1 ,cimabue and his assistants were still labouring in the fetters of ,byzantine conventionalism1 and produced no works which for jewel-like beauty of colour and grace of form were quite equal to the paintings of ,england under ,edward ,i4 ,english sculpture4 ,william ,torell4 ,in sculpture too ,england was no less pre-eminent2 no continental works of the time are equal in combined dignity and beauty1 both of the heads and of the drapery1 to the bronze effigies of ,henry ,,iii4 and ,queen ,eleanor of ,castile on the north side of ,edward the ,confessor's ,chapel at ,westminster4 ,these noble examples of bronze sculpture were the work of the goldsmith citizen of ,london ,william ,torell1 who executed them by the beautiful cire perdue process with the utmost technical skill#ajc2 see page #bcb on their gilding1 which was executed by the old mercury process4 ,the ,fitz-,othos4 ,one of the chief ,english families of the thirteenth century1 among whom the practice of various arts was hereditary1 was named ,otho or ,fitz-,otho4 ,various members of this family were goldsmiths1 manuscript illuminators1 cutters of dies for coins and makers of official seals1 as well as painters of mural decorations4 ,the elaborate gold shrine of the ,confessor1 one of the most costly works of the ,middle ,ages1 was made by the ,otho family4 ,the great royal seals of more than one king were their handiwork1 and it should be observed that the seals of ,england1 not only of the thirteenth century but almost throughout the mediaeval period1 were far the most beautiful in the world1 both for splendour and elaboration of design1 and for exquisite minuteness of detail4 ,english needlework4 ,another minor branch of art1 in which ,england during the thirteenth century far surpassed the rest of the world1 was the art of embroidering delicate pictures in silk1 especially for ecclesiastical vestments4 ,the most famous embroidered vestments now preserved in various places in ,italy are the handiwork of ,english embroiderers between the years #abej and #acjj1 though their authorship is not as a rule recognized by their present possessors#ajd4 ,the embroidered miniatures on these marvellous pieces of needlework resemble closely in style the illuminations in fine ,anglo-,norman manuscripts of the thirteenth century1 and in many cases have obviously been copied from manuscript miniatures4 ,decay of ,english art4 ,there is1 in short1 ample evidence to show that the ,anglo-,norman art of the thirteenth century1 in almost all branches1 and more especially on ,english soil1 had reached a higher pitch of perfection1 aesthetic and technical1 than had been then attained by any other country in the world4 ,in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 owing largely to the ,black ,death and the protracted ,wars of the ,roses1 the arts of ,england fell into the background1 but it should not be forgotten that there was one period1 from about #abfj to #acjj or #acbj1 when ,england occupied the foremost place in the artistic history of the world4 ,with regard to the ,anglo-,norman manuscripts of the thirteenth and early part of the fourteenth century1 the most remarkable class1 both for beauty of execution and for the extraordinary number that were produced1 consists of copies of the ,vulgate1 richly decorated with a large number of initial letters containing minute miniatures of figure subjects#aje4 ,,ms4 ,bibles4 ,historiated ,bibles4 ,these ,bibles vary in size from large quartos or folios down to the most minute codex with writing of microscopic character4 ,in the latter it appears to have been the special aim of the scribe to get the whole of the ,vulgate1 including the ,apocrypha1 the ,prologue of ,st ,jerome1 and an explanatory list of ,hebrew names1 into the smallest possible space4 ,the thinnest uterine vellum of the finest quality is used#ajf1 the text is frequently much contracted1 and the characters are of almost microscopic size#ajg4 ,in these smallest ,bibles the initials are mostly ornamented with conventional leaves and grotesque dragon monsters2 but in the larger manuscripts the initials at the beginning of every book1 about #hb in number1 are illuminated with a miniature picture of the most exquisite workmanship1 a perfect model of beauty and refined skill4 ,the drawing of the faces and hair is specially beautiful1 being executed with a fine1 crisp line with the most precise and delicate touch1 worthy of a ,greek artist of the best period4 ,the drawing of the hair and beard of the male figures is most masterly1 with waving curls full of grace and spirit1 in spite of the extreme minuteness of the scale4 ,method of execution4 ,the miniatures of this school are executed in the following manner3 first of all a slight outline is lightly sketched with a lead or silver point2 the main masses are then put in with flat1 solid colour2 the internal drawing of the folds of the drapery1 the hair and features and the like1 are then added with a delicate pointed brush1 capable of drawing the finest possible line2 and finally some shading is added to give roundness to the forms1 especially of the drapery1 a broader touch being used for this1 unlike the first drawing of the details1 which is executed with a thin1 though boldly applied line4 ,as a rule the portions which are in shadow are put in with a pure pigment2 the high lights being represented with white1 and the half lights with a mixture of white and the same pigment that is used for the dark shadows4 ,by this somewhat conventional system of colouring1 the local colour is never lost1 and the whole effect is highly decorative1 and far more suitable for painting on such a minute scale than a more realistic system of colour would have been#ajh4 ,bible of ,mainerius4 ,benedictine scribes4 ,one of the larger and more magnificent manuscripts of this class1 in the library of ,ste ,gnevive in ,paris1 is a historiated ,vulgate in three large volumes1 which is of special interest from the fact that it is signed by its scribe1 a monk named ,mainerius of the ,benedictine ,abbey of ,canterbury4 ,most of these ,bibles and other sacred manuscripts of this period appear to have been written and illuminated in the great ,benedictine ,abbeys of ,england and ,normandy4 ,on this side of the ,channel ,york1 ,norwich1 ,bury ,st ,edmunds1 ,winchester1 ,st ,albans1 and ,canterbury were specially famed for their schools of illumination#aji4 ,and probably some work of the kind was done in every ,benedictine ,house#aaj4 ,the unity of a great monastic ,order like that of ,st ,benedict1 and the fact that monks were often transferred from a monastery in one country to one of the same ,order in another country1 had an important influence on the artistic development of mediaeval ,europe4 ,monastic unity4 ,this unity of feeling was of course encouraged by the existence of a common language 7,latin7 among all the ecclesiastics of ,western ,europe2 and to a great extent the old traditions of a great ,western ,empire1 uniting various races under one system of government1 survived in the organization of the ,catholic ,church4 ,this unity of life1 of custom and of thought1 which was so striking a feature of the monastic system1 was1 to a great extent1 the cause why we find a simultaneous change of artistic style taking place at several far distant centres of production#aaa4 ,hence also it is usually impossible1 from the style of illumination in an ,anglo-,norman manuscript of the thirteenth century1 to judge whether it was executed in ,normandy or in ,england4 ,backgrounds of sheet gold4 ,one extremely magnificent class of illumination of this date and school1 specially used for ,psalters1 ,missals and other ,service-books1 has the background behind the figures formed of an unbroken sheet of burnished gold of the most sumptuously decorative effect4 ,chequer backgrounds4 ,in the fourteenth century the plain gold background was mostly superseded by delicate diapers of lozenge and chessboard form1 with alternating squares of gold and blue or red1 very rich and beautiful in effect1 and sometimes of extreme minuteness of scale1 so that each lozenge or square of the diaper is not larger than an ordinary pin's head4 ,in ,france these diapered patterns were used with great frequency1 and their use survived in some cases till the early part of the fifteenth century4 ,scroll patterns4 ,another form of background1 used in ,anglo-,norman miniatures1 consists of delicate scroll patterns or outlined diapers put in with a fine brush and with fluid gold over a ground of flat opaque colour4 ,gold scroll-work of this kind on a pink ground is specially characteristic of miniatures painted in ,england during the fourteenth and first half of the fifteenth century4 ,architectural backgrounds4 ,a fourth style of background1 used in miniature pictures of this date1 consists of architectural forms1 which frequently enshrine the whole miniature1 with background1 frame1 and canopy in one rich architectural composition4 ,this is often painted in gold1 with details in firm1 dark lines1 and1 though conventionally treated1 gives not unfrequently a representation of an exquisitely beautiful ,gothic structure#aab4 ,realistic backgrounds4 ,last of all come the realistic backgrounds1 with pictorial effects of distance and aerial perspective1 often very skilful and even beautiful in effect1 but not so strongly decorative or so perfectly suited to manuscript illumination as the more conventional backgrounds of an earlier date4 ,these realistic surroundings began to be introduced in the fourteenth century1 but are more especially characteristic of the fifteenth century4 ,in the sixteenth century1 when the illumination of manuscripts had ceased to be a real living art1 though painfully and skilfully practised by such masters of technique as ,giulio ,clovio and various ,italian and ,french painters1 the pictorial character of the backgrounds was carried to an excessive degree of elaboration and decadence4 ,psalter at ,burlington ,house4 ,among the most magnificent of the ,anglo-,norman manuscripts of the thirteenth century are copies of the ,psalter4 ,one in the library of the ,society of ,antiquaries in ,burlington ,house is of extraordinary beauty for the delicate and complicated patterns of interlaced scroll-work which fill its large initials4 ,the first letter ,b of the beginning of the ,psalms 7,beatus vir etc47 is in this and some other illuminated ,psalters of the same class1 of such size and elaboration that it occupies most of the first page4 ,among its ingeniously devised interlaced ornaments various little animals1 rabbits1 squirrels and others are playing--marvels of minute and delicate painting4 ,round the border which frames the whole are ten minute medallion pictures1 some of them representing musicians playing on various instruments1 one of which is a kind of barrel organ1 called an organistrum1 worked by two players4 ,this magnificent manuscript dates from about the middle of the thirteenth century4 ,the ,tenison ,psalter4 ,another still more beautiful ,psalter in the ,british ,museum1 called from its former owner ,archbishop ,tenison's ,psalter1 was illuminated for ,queen ,eleanor of ,castile1 the wife of ,edward ,i41 about the year #abhd4 ,it was intended as a marriage gift for their third son ,alphonso1 who1 however1 died in ,august #abhd1 a few days after the signing of his marriage contract4 ,the manuscript was for this reason unfortunately left unfinished1 and was afterwards completed by a very inferior illuminator4 ,the letter ,b on the first page is filled by an exquisite miniature of the ,royal ,psalmist2 and in the lower part of the border is the slaying by an infantile ,david1 of ,goliath1 represented as a gigantic knight in chain armour4 ,at intervals round the border are minute but very accurately painted birds of various kinds1 including the gull1 kingfisher1 woodpecker1 linnet1 crane and goldfinch4 ,in places where the text does not reach to the end of the line the space is filled up by a narrow band of ornament in gold and colours1 occupying the same space that a complete line of words would have done4 ,this method of avoiding any blank spaces in the page1 and making the whole surface one unbroken mass of beauty was employed in the finest manuscripts of this and of other classes1 especially the manuscripts of ,france and ,flanders4 ,tenison ,psalter4 ,the ,tenison ,psalter appears to have been written and illuminated in the ,monastic ,house of the ,blackfriars in ,london2 it is quite one of the noblest existing examples of ,english art during the thirteenth century1 and is unsurpassed in beauty and skilful technique by the manuscripts of any age or country#aac4 ,,mss4 of the ,apocalypse4 ,manuscripts of the ,apocalypse4 ,the ,anglo-,norman and ,french manuscripts of the ,apocalypse1 executed during the fourteenth century1 are on the whole the most beautiful class of illuminated manuscripts that the world has ever produced#aad4 ,for combined decorative splendour1 exquisite grace of drawing1 and poetry of sentiment they are quite unrivalled4 ,during several years before and after #acjj a considerable number of these copiously illustrated manuscripts of the ,apocalypse seem to have been produced with a certain uniformity of style and design1 which shows that1 as in the case of the historiated ,bibles1 one model must have been copied and passed on from hand to hand through the ,scriptoria of many different ,monastic ,houses4 ,perfect beauty4 ,no words can adequately express the refined and poetical beauty of these miniatures of ,apocalyptic scenes1 glowing with the utmost splendour of burnished gold1 ultramarine and other brilliant pigments4 ,the whole figures of the angels1 their beautiful serene faces1 their exquisitely pencilled wings with feathers of bright colours1 the simple dignified folds of their drapery1 all are executed with the most wonderful certainty of touch and the highest possible sense of romantic beauty4 ,the accessories are hardly less beautiful2 the ,gothic arches and pinnacles of the ,new ,jerusalem1 the vine plants and other trees and flowers1 designed with a perfect balance between decorative conventionalism and realistic truth1 and last of all the sumptuous backgrounds covered with delicate diapers or scroll-work in gold and blue and crimson1 all unite the whole composition into one perfect harmony1 like a mosaic of gleaming gems1 fixed in a matrix of pure1 shining gold4 ,machine-made art4 ,nothing perhaps could better exemplify the gulf that separates the artistic productions of this feverish1 steam-driven nineteenth century from the serene glories of the art of bygone days than a comparison of such a book as the ,trinity ,apocalypse with that masterpiece of commercial art called the ,victoria ,psalter1 which1 printed in a steam-press on machine-made paper1 illuminated by chromolithography1 and bound in a machine-embossed leather cover1 produces a total effect which cannot adequately be described in polite language#aae4 ,english ,monasteries4 ,the later ,english manuscripts4 ,in the fourteenth century a more distinctly ,english style of illumination began to branch off from the ,anglo-,norman style4 ,something like separate schools of painting gradually grew up in the great ,benedictine ,monasteries1 such as those at ,st ,albans1 ,norwich1 ,glastonbury and ,bury ,saint ,edmunds4 ,the type of face represented in ,english miniatures from about the middle of the fourteenth century onwards is rather different from the ,french type with its long oval face and pointed nose#aaf4 ,in ,english manuscripts the faces are rounder and plumper1 and the backgrounds are very frequently formed by gold scroll-work over a peculiar pink1 made by a mixture of red lead with a large proportion of white4 ,the ,black ,death4 ,on the whole the style of figure painting in ,english manuscripts deteriorated very distinctly after the ravages caused by the ,black ,death in the middle of the fourteenth century2 that is to say the average of excellence became lower2 and1 especially in the fifteenth century1 a good deal of very coarse and inferior manuscript illumination was produced4 ,on the other hand there were some illuminators in ,england whose work is not surpassed by that of any contemporary ,french or ,flemish artist4 ,outline drawings4 ,one very beautiful class of ,english illumination1 executed about the middle of the fourteenth century1 has very small and delicate figures1 drawn in firm outline with a pen and brown ink2 relief is then given to the figures by the partial application of transparent washes of delicate colour1 producing an effect of great beauty and refinement4 ,the ,poyntz ,book of ,hours in the ,fitzwilliam ,library has no less than #bib miniature paintings of this very beautiful style4 ,the book was written for a friend and companion of the ,black ,prince about the year #acej4 ,its delicate paintings have unfortunately1 in many places1 been coarsely touched up with gold and colours by a later hand4 ,lectionary of ,sifer ,was4 ,a very fine characteristic example of ,english art towards the close of the fourteenth century is preserved in the ,british ,museum 7,harl4 ,manuscripts #gjbf74 ,this is a noble folio manuscript ,lectionary#aag1 unfortunately imperfect1 which was written and illuminated by a monk named ,sifer ,was for ,lord ,lovel of ,tichmersh1 who died in #adjh2 it was presented by him to the ,cathedral church of ,salisbury1 as is recorded by a note which asks for prayers for the donor's soul4 ,the text is written in a magnificent large ,gothic hand1 such as was imitated by the printers of early ,missals#aah and ,psalters4 ,on the first page is a large1 beautifully painted miniature representing the scribe ,sifer ,was presenting the manuscript to ,lord ,lovel4 ,the figures are large in scale1 and the heads are carefully executed portraits1 evidently painted with great eiconic skill4 ,each page of the text has a richly decorative border with conventional foliage of the characteristically bold ,english type4 ,figures of angels are introduced at the sides1 and an exquisitely minute little painting is placed at the top1 by the initial letter of the page4 ,english foliage4 ,the ,english foliated borders and capitals in manuscripts of this type are very bold and decorative in effect1 with a simple form of leaf with few serrations1 twining in most graceful curves and broadly painted in blue and red with very good effect1 even in many manuscripts where the execution is not of the most refined kind4 ,a variety of what is commonly known as the pine-apple design#aai is frequently introduced into these very effective pieces of ornament4 ,portrait figures4 ,it should be noticed that the first growth of portrait painting in ,western ,europe seems to have arisen out of this custom of introducing portrait figures of patrons and donors at the beginning of important manuscripts4 ,in ,french and ,burgundian manuscripts especially we find many very interesting portraits of ,kings and ,princes together with those of the authors or the illuminators of richly decorated manuscripts4 ,altar-pieces4 ,donors' portraits are also commonly introduced into votive altar-pieces1 usually in the form of small kneeling figures4 ,as time went on these figures of donors gradually became more important in scale and position4 ,thus1 for example1 the magnificent altar-piece in the ,brera ,gallery in ,milan1 painted by ,piero della ,francesca about the year #adhjabj1 has1 in the most conspicuous place in the foreground1 a kneeling figure of the donor1 ,duke ,federigo da ,montefeltro of ,urbino1 which is actually larger in scale than the chief figures of the picture--the ,madonna and attendant angels4 ,during the fourteenth century1 both in altar-pictures and in manuscript illuminations1 the portraits of living people are treated in a more subordinate way4 ,portrait of ,richard ,,ii4 ,a fine example of portraiture in a manuscript is to be seen in the ,epistre au ,roy ,richard ,,ii4 d',angleterre 7,brit4 ,mus4 ,royal ,manuscripts #bj ,b4 vi7 written by a ,hermit of the ,celestin ,order in ,paris4 ,the upper half of the first page is occupied by an exquisite miniature of ,richard ,,ii4 on his throne1 surrounded by courtiers1 accepting the bound copy of the manuscript from the monastic author1 who kneels on one knee1 presenting his book with one hand1 while in the other he holds a sacred banner embroidered with the ,agnus ,dei4 ,the background is of the sumptuous chess-board pattern in gold1 blue and red1 and the whole page is surrounded with the so-called ivy-leaf border4 ,portraits of ,henry ,,vi4 and his ,queen4 ,the ,shrewsbury manuscript1 containing a collection of chivalrous ,romances 7,brit4 ,mus4 ,royal ,manuscripts #ae ,e vi71 has another beautiful example of miniature portraiture4 ,the first painting represents ,john ,talbot1 ,earl of ,shrewsbury1 for whom this interesting manuscript was illuminated1 kneeling to present the book to ,queen ,margaret of ,anjou on the occasion of her marriage with ,henry ,,vi4 ,the ,king and ,queen are represented side by side on a double throne1 and around is a group of courtier attendants4 ,the kneeling figure of ,earl ,talbot is interesting for its costume2 the mantle which the ,earl wears is powdered 7seme7 with small garters embroidered in gold2 an early but now obsolete form of state robe worn by ,knights of the ,order of the ,garter4 ,both these manuscripts1 though executed for ,english patrons1 are of ,french workmanship4 ,some of the most magnificent manuscripts of the fifteenth century and earlier were1 like ,lord ,lovel's ,lectionary1 illuminated at the cost of some wealthy layman for the purpose of presentation to a ,cathedral or ,abbey ,church4 ,in return for the gift the ,church often agreed to keep a yearly obiit or annual ,mass for the donors soul1 which in ,england was called the years mind2 and this kind of gift thus often served to provide a ,chantry of a limited kind4 ,queen ,mary's ,prayer-book4 ,one of the finest examples of ,english manuscript art in the fourteenth century is a ,psalter commonly known as ,queen ,marys ,prayer-book4 ,this exquisite manuscript1 which is in the ,british ,museum1 contains1 before the ,psalter1 a large number of miniatures of ,biblical scenes executed in outline1 treated with delicate washes of transparent colour4 ,the ,psalter is illuminated in quite a different style1 with brilliant gold and colours in all the miniatures and borders1 which are painted with wonderful delicacy of touch1 unsurpassed by the best ,french work4 ,a ,bestiary is introduced into the margins of the ,psalter2 and at the end there are beautiful paintings of ,new ,testament scenes4 ,the date of this book is c4 #accj2 in #aeec it was given to ,queen ,mary4 ,,mss4 of ,dan ,lydgate4 ,another ,english manuscript of special interest both for its text and its beautiful illuminations is a copy in the ,british ,museum of ,dan ,lydgate's ,life of ,saint ,edmund1 which was written and illuminated in #adcc by a ,monk in the ,benedictine ,monastery at ,bury ,saint ,edmunds2 it is an early and very beautiful example of a manuscript in the ,vulgar tongue4 ,in style the illuminated borders are not unlike those in ,queen ,mary's ,prayer-book4 ,another very similar manuscript both in date and style was sold at the ,perkins sale1 in ,june1 #ahgc1 for #acbjaba4 ,this is a magnificently illuminated folio of ,the ,siege of ,troye compiled by ,dann ,john ,lydgate1 ,monke of ,bury2 it contains seventy miniature paintings1 chiefly of battle scenes1 in which the combatants wear armour of the first half of the fifteenth century4 ,the illuminated borders are of the boldly decorative ,english type mentioned above1 and the miniatures are large in scale1 in many cases extending across the whole width of the page with its double column of text4 ,woodcut initials4 ,in ,england the introduction of the art of printing in #adgg seems to have brought the illuminator's art to an end more quickly than was the case in ,continental countries4 ,caxton's later books have printed initials#abb1 instead of blank spaces left for the illuminator1 as in most of the early printed books of ,germany1 ,france and ,italy2 and ,english book-buyers appear to have been soon satisfied with simple illustrations in the form of rather rudely executed woodcuts4 ,the subjects represented in ,english miniatures are for the most part the same as those in contemporary ,french manuscripts2 but the martyrdom of ,saint ,thomas of ,canterbury occurs more frequently in ,english than in any continental manuscripts#abc4 ,almost immediately after the event in #aagj this scene began to be represented2 see above1 page #ajh4 ,st ,george and the ,dragon4 ,another specially ,english subject is ,saint ,george1 who was at first the ,crusaders' ,patron and then the national ,saint of ,england4 ,he is usually represented as a ,knight on horseback slaying the dragon with a lance4 ,this subject did not come into popular use till the fourteenth century#abd4 ,both in ,england and in ,france1 during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 manuscript ,chronicles and ,histories of both ancient and modern times formed a large and important class of manuscripts2 and these were usually copiously illustrated with miniatures4 ,the ,chronicles of ,sir ,john ,froissart was justly a very favourite book on both sides of the ,channel#abe1 and many richly illuminated manuscripts of it still exist2 see below1 page #aci4 ,,ms4 ,chronicles4 ,the ,british ,museum possesses a magnificent manuscript of the ,chronicles of ,england in seven large folio volumes1 which were compiled and written at the command of ,edward ,,iv4 ,the miniatures which decorate this sumptuous work are partly ,anglo-,norman and partly ,flemish1 in the style of the school of the ,van ,eycks at ,bruges4 ,one favourite form of ,chronicle1 giving an abstract of the whole ,world's history1 was in the shape of a long parchment roll1 illuminated with miniatures in the form of circular medallions4 ,some of these great rolls were written and illuminated by ,english miniaturists1 but they appear not to have been as common in ,england as they were in ,france2 see below1 page #aci4 ,on these rolls the writing usually continues down the strip1 not at right angles to the long sides1 as on classical papyrus rolls4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,french ,,manuscripts4 ,psalter of ,st ,louis4 ,during the thirteenth century the art of illumination as it is called in ,paris#abf flourished under the ,saintly ,king ,louis ,,ix4 7#abae-abgj7 as much as it did in ,england under ,henry ,,iii4 ,manuscripts of most exquisite beauty and refinement were produced in ,paris1 in style little different from those of the ,anglo-,norman school4 ,one of the most beautiful and historically interesting is a ,psalter 7,paris1 ,bibl4 ,nat47 which is said to have been written for ,st ,louis about #abfj4 ,this is a large folio1 copiously illustrated with sacred subjects minutely painted on a ground of burnished gold enriched by tooling4 ,many of the miniatures are framed in a beautiful architectural composition of cusped arches1 with delicate open tracery supported by slender columns4 ,perfect finish4 ,fig4 #bb gives the bare design of one of the historiated initials in this lovely manuscript1 the capital ,b at the beginning of the ,psalms4 ,in the upper part is the scene of ,david watching ,bathsheba bathing2 and below is a kneeling figure of the king adoring ,christ in ,majesty4 ,no reproduction can give any notion of the exquisitely delicate painting1 or of the splendour of its burnished gold and colours4 ,the historical scenes from the ,old ,testament have1 after the usual fashion of the time1 the ,hebrew warriors and their enemies represented as mediaeval knights in armour4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,a page from the ,psalter of ,saint ,louis1 written about the year #abfj1 by a ,french scribe4 ,archaism of detail4 ,it should1 however1 be observed that in this and many other ,french and ,english miniatures of the time the ancient warriors are represented not in the armour of the actual date of the execution of the manuscript1 but with the dress and arms of a couple of generations earlier4 ,the monastic artists were not skilled archaeologists1 but they wished to suggest that the scene they were painting was one that had happened long ago1 and therefore they introduced what was probably the oldest armour they were acquainted with--that of their grandfathers' or great-grandfathers' time4 ,this is an important point1 as in many cases a wrong judgment has been formed as to the date of a manuscript from the mistaken supposition that contemporary dress and armour were represented in it4 ,it is just the same with the thirteenth century art of ,england4 ,paintings executed for ,henry ,,iii4 in his ,palace at ,westminster had representations of knights in the armour of ,william the ,conqueror's time or a little later4 ,in later times1 especially in the fifteenth century1 this nave form of archaeology was given up1 and the heroes of ancient and sacred history are represented exactly like kings and warriors of the artist's own time4 ,,ms4 ,bibles4 ,the historiated ,bibles of ,paris in the thirteenth century were equal in beauty and very similar in style to those of the ,anglo-,norman miniaturists1 but they do not appear to have been produced in such immense quantities as they were in the more northern monasteries4 ,in the fifteenth century the influence of the ,church tended to check the study of the ,bible on the part of the laity1 and very few manuscripts of the ,bible were then written4 ,their place was to some extent taken by the ,books of ,hours1 enormous numbers of which were produced in ,france and the ,netherlands1 all through the fifteenth century2 see page #ada4 ,french illuminated ,manuscripts of the ,x,i,vth and ,x,vth centuries4 ,to this class belong a great many of the magnificent manuscripts of the ,apocalypse which have been described under the head of ,anglo-,norman manuscripts4 ,no hard and fast line can be drawn between the manuscript styles of ,normandy and the northern provinces of ,france4 ,archaism of style4 ,in the fourteenth century ,paris and ,saint ,denis were important centres for the production of manuscripts of the most highly finished kind4 ,historiated ,bibles1 both in ,latin and in ,french1 continued to be produced in great number till past the middle of the fourteenth century4 ,some of these ,french translations1 executed as late as #acgj1 are what may be called archaistic in style2 that is to say1 the subjects selected and the method of their treatment and execution continued to be almost the same as that of the historiated ,vulgates of ,france and ,normandy at the beginning of the century4 ,the miniatures are very minute in scale1 and are often painted on backgrounds of the brilliant chess-board and other diapers in red1 blue and gold4 ,though extremely decorative and beautiful1 the miniatures of this class are not quite equal to those of the thirteenth century ,bibles1 either in vigour of drawing or in delicacy of touch4 ,the ivy pattern4 ,on the whole1 in the fourteenth century1 the ,french schools of illumination were the finest in the world1 and the manuscripts of ,northern ,france were the most sumptuously decorated of all4 ,one specially beautiful style of ornament was introduced early in the century and lasted with little modification for more than a hundred years4 ,this was the method of writing on a wide margined page1 and then covering the broad marginal space by delicate flowing scrolls or curves of foliage1 leaves and small blossoms of various shapes being used1 but more especially one form of triple-pointed leaf which is known commonly as the ivy or thorn-leaf pattern4 ,brilliant effect is given to these rich borders by forming some of the leaves in burnished gold2 and variety is given to the foliage by the introduction of minutely painted birds of many kinds1 song-birds1 game-birds and others1 treated with much graceful realism#abg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,miniature representing ,king ,conrad of ,bohemia1 with an attendant1 hawking2 from a manuscript of the fourteenth century1 showing the influence of ,french art4 ,fig4 #bh shows part of a border from a manuscript of this class1 a ,book of ,hours executed for the ,duke de ,berri2 the typical pointed ivy-leaves grow from each of the quatrefoils which are introduced to hold the arms and initials of the owner4 ,it comes from the same manuscript as the illumination shown in fig4 #be4 ,decorative unity4 ,these elaborate borders are usually made to grow out of the ornaments of the illuminated initials in the text1 and thus a sense of unity is given to the whole page1 the decorations of which thus become1 not an adjunct1 but an essential part of the text4 ,fig4 #bd shows a miniature from a ,french manuscript of this magnificent class1 the ,treasure-,book of the ,abbey of ,origny in ,picardy1 executed about #acab for the ,abbess ,hloise4 ,it contains fifty-four large miniatures of scenes from the life and martyrdom of ,saint ,benedicta4 ,the shaded part of the border is of the richest burnished gold1 and the whole effect is magnificently decorative4 ,the scene represented is the murder of the ,saint1 whose soul is being borne up to ,heaven by two ,angels1 held in the usual conventional loop of drapery4 ,horae of the ,duc d',anjou4 ,as an example of this class of illumination we may mention the famous ,book of ,hours of the ,duke of ,anjou 7,paris1 ,bibl4 ,nat47 illuminated about the year #achj4 ,every page has a rich and delicate border covered with the ivy foliage#abh1 and enlivened by exquisitely painted birds1 such as the goldfinch1 the thrush1 the linnet1 the jay1 the quail1 the sparrow-hawk and many others2 and at the top of the page1 at the beginning of each division of the ,horae1 is a miniature picture of most perfect grace and beauty1 the decorative value of which is enhanced by a background1 either of gold diaper1 or else of delicate scroll-work in light blue painted over a ground of deep ultramarine4 ,enormous prices were frequently paid by wealthy patrons for sumptuously illuminated manuscripts1 especially in the fifteenth century for ,books of ,hours4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,scene of the martyrdom of ,saint ,benedicta from a ,martyrology of about #acab4 ,horae of the ,duc de ,berri4 ,the ,paris library possesses 7,bibl4 ,nat4 ,lat4 #iai7 a very magnificent manuscript ,horae1 which was painted for the ,duc de ,berri at the beginning of the century by a ,french miniaturist named ,jaquemart de ,odin4 ,at the ,duke's death this ,book of ,hours was valued at no less than four thousand livres ,tournois1 equal in modern value to quite two thousand pounds4 ,it is mentioned thus in the inventory of the ,duke's personal property1 item1 unes tres belles heures tres richement enluminees et hystoriees de la main de ,jaquemart de ,odin4444 ,like all books of this class1 specially painted for a distinguished person1 the arms and badges of the owner are introduced among the foliated ornaments of the borders of many pages2 as the inventory states1 par les quarrefors des feuilles en plusieurs lieux faictes des armes et devises#abi4 ,fig4 #be shows part of a page from this lovely book1 with a miniature of the ,birth of the ,virgin1 painted by ,jacquemart de ,odin1 within a beautiful architectural framing of the finest style4 ,space will not allow any attempt to describe even in outline the many splendid classes of illuminated manuscripts which were produced by the ,french artists of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries4 ,a few notable points only can be briefly mentioned4 ,architectural framing4 ,one special beauty of ,french illumination of this date is due to the exquisite treatment of architectural frames and backgrounds which are used to enshrine the whole picture4 ,the loveliest ,gothic forms are introduced1 with the most delicate detail of tracery1 pinnacles1 canopy-work1 shafts and arches1 all being frequently executed in gold with subtle transparent shading to give an effect of relief4 ,from the technical point of view these manuscripts reach the highest pitch of perfection2 the burnished gold is thick and solid in appearance1 and is convex in surface so as to catch high lights1 and look1 not like gold leaf1 but like actual plates of the purest and most polished gold#acj4 ,the pigments are of the most brilliant colours1 so skilfully prepared and applied that they are able to defy the power of time to change their hue or even dim their splendour4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,miniature of the birth of the ,virgin painted by the illuminator ,jacquemart de ,odin for the ,duc de ,berri4 ,the border is of the characteristic ,french and ,franco-,flemish style2 see fig4 #bh on page #adf4 ,survival of style4 ,another noticeable point about the ,french and ,franco-,flemish illumination is the manner in which certain modes of decoration survived with very little alteration for more than a century4 ,thus we find the blue1 red and gold diapers used for backgrounds1 and the ivy-leaf pattern and its varieties#aca1 which had been fully developed before the middle of the fourteenth century1 still surviving in manuscripts of the second half of the fifteenth century1 and continuing in use till the growing decadence of taste caused them to be superseded by borders and backgrounds painted in a naturalistic rather than a decorative manner#acb4 ,costly ,horae4 ,the ,franco-,flemish manuscripts of the fifteenth century were in some cases remarkable for the amazing amount of laborious illumination and the enormous number of miniatures which they contain4 ,some of these1 which were executed for ,royal or ,princely patrons and liberal paymasters1 engaged the incessant labour of the illuminator for many years4 ,in these cases he was usually paid a regular salary1 and so was relieved from the incentive to hasty work which caused so much inferior illumination to be produced in the fifteenth century4 ,the ,bedford ,breviary4 ,one of the most famous examples of this lavish expenditure of time on one book is the ,breviary of the ,duke of ,bedford1 who was ,regent of ,france from #adbb to #adceacc4 ,this wonderful manuscript1 in addition to countless elaborate initials1 and borders round every page1 contains more than #bejj miniature paintings1 all delicately and richly executed in burnished gold and brilliant colours1 with backgrounds1 in many cases1 of the fourteenth century type1 with chess-board patterns and other diapers of the most elaborate and sumptuous kind4 ,the figures are of the finest ,franco-,flemish style1 showing the influence of the ,van ,eycks1 who were then becoming the most skilful painters1 technically at least1 in the world4 ,the ,bedford ,missal4 ,another no less famous manuscript is the ,bedford ,missal in the ,british ,museum1 which was painted for the ,duke of ,bedford1 and was presented by his wife to ,henry ,,vi4 of ,england1 when he was crowned ,king of ,france in ,paris in the year #adcj4 ,the ,bedford ,missal contains no less than fifty-nine large miniatures and about a thousand smaller ones1 not counting initials and borders4 ,one point of special interest about this gorgeous manuscript is that the illuminations have evidently been executed by at least three different miniaturists1 who represent three different schools1 the ,parisian-,french1 the ,franco-,flemish and the ,english4 ,,mss4 by various hands4 ,it is by no means uncommon to find the work of several different illuminators in one manuscript4 ,naturally1 when a wealthy patron ordered a magnificent book1 he was not always willing to wait several years for its completion1 as must have been necessary when the whole of a sumptuous manuscript was the work of one man4 ,again1 it was not an uncommon thing for unfinished manuscripts to be sent to ,bruges1 ,ghent and other centres of the illuminator's art from various distant towns and countries1 especially from ,france1 ,italy and ,spain1 in order that they might be decorated with borders and miniatures by one of the ,flemish miniaturists4 ,in some cases it was only the miniature subjects which were left blank2 so that we have the text with the illuminated borders and initials executed in the style of one country1 while the miniatures are of another quite different school4 ,moreover1 we find from the ,guild records of ,bruges that a certain number of ,italian and ,spanish scribes had taken up their residence in ,bruges1 and become members of the ,guild of ,saint ,john and ,saint ,luke1 so that some manuscripts actually written in ,flanders have a text which in style is ,italian or ,spanish4 ,various other combinations of style occur not unfrequently4 ,many ,english manuscripts1 for example1 have miniature paintings which are ,french or ,flemish in style1 united with bold decorative borders of the most thoroughly ,english type4 ,,mss4 in ,grisaille4 ,manuscripts in ,grisaille4 ,in addition to the illuminations glowing with gold and colour of jewel-like brilliance1 a peculiar class of miniature painting came into use in ,france during the fourteenth century and to some extent lasted till the close of the fifteenth4 ,this was a system of almost monochromatic painting in delicate bluish grey tints with high lights touched in with white or fluid gold2 this is called painting in grisaille or camaieu-gris#acd2 it frequently suggests the appearance of an onyx cameo or other delicate relief4 ,the earliest examples of grisaille1 dating from the first half of the fourteenth century1 sometimes have grounds of the brilliant gold1 red and blue diapers1 the figures themselves being painted in grisaille2 but in its fully developed form no accessories of colour are used1 and no burnished gold is introduced1 only the mat1 glossless fluid gold being used in some cases for the high lights4 ,delicacy of ,grisaille4 ,some of the miniatures of this class are extremely beautiful for the delicacy of their modelling and the great refinement of the design1 and are evidently the work of artists of the highest class4 ,this system of illumination1 being unaided by the splendours of shining gold and bright colours1 requires a rather special delicacy of treatment1 and was of course quite unsuited for the cheap and gaudy manuscripts which were mere commercial products4 ,in some cases the grisaille pictures are clearly the work of a different hand from the rest of the book1 and thus we sometimes see them combined with richly illuminated initials and ivy-leaf borders of the usual gorgeously coloured type4 ,in some late manuscripts the grisaille miniatures are distinctly intended to imitate actual bas-reliefs1 and are painted with deceptive effects of roundness4 ,this led to the introduction into manuscript ornaments of imitations of classical reliefs of gilt bronze or veined marbles1 such as occur so often in the very sculpturesque paintings of the great ,paduan1 ,andrea ,mantegna4 ,secular ,,mss4 ,till the early part of the fourteenth century the art of the illuminator had been mostly devoted to books on sacred subjects1 but at this time manuscripts of ,chronicles1 accounts of travel1 ,romances and other secular works1 often in the vulgar tongue1 were largely written and illuminated in the most sumptuous way1 especially for the royal personages of ,france and ,burgundy4 ,philip the ,bold of ,burgundy1 who died in #adjd1 was an enthusiastic patron of literature and of the miniaturists art2 as was also ,charles ,v4 of ,france 7#accg-achj74 ,a typical example of this school of manuscripts is a magnificent folio1 formerly in the ,perkins collection#ace1 of ,les cent ,histoires de ,troye1 a composition in prose and verse written by ,christina of ,pisa#acf about #acij4 ,this magnificent volume contains one hundred and fifteen delicately executed miniatures1 the first of which represents ,christina presenting her book to ,philip of ,burgundy4 ,interesting details4 ,these miniatures and others of the same class are very interesting for their accurate representations of contemporary life and customs4 ,the costumes1 the internal fittings and furniture of rooms1 views in the streets and in the country1 feasts1 tournaments1 the king amidst his courtiers1 scenes in the ,court of ,justice1 and countless other subjects are represented with much minuteness of detail and great realistic truth4 ,we have in fact in the miniatures of this class of manuscripts the first beginning of an early school of genre painting1 which in its poetic feeling and sense of real beauty ranks far higher than the ignoble realism of the later ,dutch painters4 ,,ms4 ,chronicles4 ,one rather abnormal class of manuscript1 which belongs both to this period and the following 7the fifteenth7 century1 consists of ,french or ,latin ,chronicles of the ,world beginning with the ,creation and reaching down to recent times1 written and illuminated with numerous miniature paintings on great rolls of parchment1 often measuring from fifty to sixty feet in length4 ,these are usually rather coarse in execution4 ,sir ,john ,froissart's ,chronicles1 and their continuation from the year #adjj by ,enguerrand de ,monstrelet1 were favourite manuscripts for sumptuous illumination among the courtier class both of ,france and ,england4 ,,ms4 travels4 ,among the many illuminated books of travel which were produced during the latter part of the fourteenth and the fifteenth centuries one noble example in the ,paris library may be selected as a typical example4 ,this is a large folio manuscript entitled ,les ,merveilles du ,monde1 containing accounts in ,french of the travels of ,sir ,john ,mandeville1 ,marco ,polo and others4 ,this manuscript was written about the year #adab for the ,duke of ,burgundy and was given by him to his uncle the ,duc de ,berri4 ,its numerous miniatures are very delicate and graceful1 of elaborate pictorial style1 with views of landscapes and carefully painted buildings1 street scenes and other realistic backgrounds to the figure subjects1 all executed with great patience and much artistic feeling4 ,the richly illuminated borders to the text are filled with elaborate foliage1 in which real and conventional forms are mingled with fine decorative results4 ,,ms4 poems4 ,in the fourteenth century the growing love for national poetry and the more widely spread ability to read and write1 which in previous centuries had been mostly confined to ecclesiastics1 led to the production of a large number of illuminated manuscripts of works such as the ,quest of the ,holy ,grail1 including the whole series of the ,chansons de ,geste with the ,lancelot and ,arturian romances1 the ,roman de la ,rose1 one of the most popular productions of the fourteenth century1 and a whole class of ,fabliaux or short stories in verse dealing with subjects of chivalrous and romantic character4 ,romances based on ancient history and mythology1 such as ,les cent ,histoires de ,troye written by ,christina of ,pisa#acg about #acij-acie1 became very popular among the knightly courtiers of the ,rulers of ,france and ,burgundy#ach4 ,in manuscripts of this class the miniature illuminations play a very important part1 and give great scope to the fancy and skill of the illuminator4 ,italian influence4 ,in southern ,france the style of manuscript illumination differed a good deal from that of the northern provinces4 ,during the fourteenth century there was a considerable strain of ,italian influence1 partly due to the establishment of the ,papal ,court at ,avignon1 and the introduction there of ,simone ,martini or ,memmi1 and other painters from ,florence and ,siena1 to decorate the walls of the ,pope's ,palace#aci4 ,on the whole1 however1 manuscripts were not produced in such abundance or with such skill in southern ,france as they were in the north4 ,paris1 ,burgundy and the ,french districts of ,flanders were the chief homes of the illuminator's art4 ,secular miniaturists4 ,by this time the production of illuminated manuscripts ceased to be almost wholly in the hands of monastic scribes1 as it had been in earlier days when manuscripts dealing with profane subjects were scarcely known4 ,in ,paris1 ,brussels1 ,antwerp1 ,bruges1 ,ghent1 ,arras and other ,french and ,flemish cities1 large classes of secular writers and illuminators of manuscripts grew up1 and special guilds of illuminators were formed1 exactly like the guilds of other arts and crafts#adj4 ,before long this great extension of the art of illumination1 and the fact that it became a trade1 a method of earning a livelihood1 like any other craft1 led to a serious decadence in the art4 ,though wealthy patrons were able to pay large prices for richly illuminated manuscripts1 thus keeping up the production of very elaborate and artistically valuable works of miniature art1 yet the practical result was a growing decadence of style and workmanship4 ,decay of the art4 ,no illuminator working mainly for a money reward could possibly rival the marvellous productions of the earlier monastic scribes1 who1 labouring for the glory of ,god1 and the credit to be won for themselves and for their monasteries1 could devote years of patient toil to the illumination of one book1 free from all sense of hurry1 and finding in their work the chief joy and relaxation of their lives#ada4 ,in most even of the best productions of the guild-scribes of the fifteenth century one sees occasional signs of weariness and haste2 and in the cheap manuscripts1 which were turned out by the thousand in ,france and ,flanders during the latter part of the fifteenth century1 there is a coarseness of touch and a mechanical monotony of style1 which remind one of the artistic results of the triumphant commercialism of the nineteenth century4 ,cheap ,,mss4 ,it is more especially in the cheap ,books of ,hours of the second half of the fifteenth century that the lowest artistic level is reached in ,france1 ,flanders and ,holland4 ,education had gradually been extended among various classes of laymen1 and by the middle of the fifteenth century it appears to have been usual not only for all men above the rank of artisans to be able to read1 but even women of the wealthy bourgeois class could make use of prayer-books4 ,hence arose a great demand for pictured ,books of ,hours#adb1 which appear to have been produced in enormous quantities by the trade-scribes of towns such as ,bruges1 ,paris and many others4 ,these common manuscript ,horae are monotonous in form and detail2 they nearly always have the same set of miniatures1 which are often coarse in detail and harsh in colour2 and the illuminated borders1 with which they are lavishly though cheaply decorated1 have the same forms of foliage and fruit repeated again and again in dozens of manuscripts1 which all look as if they had come out of the same workshop4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,miniature executed for ,king ,ren of ,anjou about #adge4 ,it must not however be supposed that all the later ,french manuscripts1 even of the latter half of the fifteenth century1 were of this inferior class4 ,though the best figure painting was far inferior to the glorious miniatures in the ,apocalypses of the fourteenth century1 yet in their own way1 as pictorial rather than decorative illustrations1 the ,french miniatures of this date are often very remarkable for their beauty1 their refinement and their interesting and very elaborate details4 ,king ,ren's romance4 ,some very fine manuscript illuminations of the highly pictorial type were executed for ,king ,ren of ,anjou1 who died in #adhj4 ,fig4 #bf shows a good example of this1 with a carefully painted landscape background1 one of sixteen fine miniatures in a manuscript of the ,roman de la trs douce ,mercy du ,cueur damour pris1 one of the poetical and allegorical romances which were then so popular in ,france4 ,this miniature represents the meeting of the ,knight ,humble ,requeste with the ,squire ,vif ,dsir4 ,this manuscript is now at ,vienna1 in the ,imperial library1 ,no4 #beig4 ,beauty of fruit and flowers4 ,the illuminated borders are also not unfrequently of very great merit and high decorative value2 they are formed of rich and fanciful combinations of various plants and flowers1 treated at first with just the due amount of conventionalism1 but tending1 towards the end of the fifteenth century1 to an excessive and too pictorial realism4 ,as late as the middle of the fifteenth century the ivy pattern of the previous century survived with little modification1 and very beautiful borders occur with branches of the vine1 the oak1 the maple and other trees1 together with a great variety of flowers1 such as the rose1 the daisy1 the columbine1 the clove-pink or carnation1 the pansy1 the lily1 the iris or blue flag1 the cornflower1 the anemone1 the violet1 the thistle2 and with many kinds of fruit1 especially the grape1 the strawberry1 the pomegranate and the mulberry4 ,among this wealth of fruit and foliage1 variety is given by the introduction of birds1 insects1 animals1 and grotesque monsters half beast and half human1 or else living figures growing out of flower blossoms1 all designed with much graceful fancy and decorative beauty4 ,later style4 ,imitation of relief4 ,towards the close of the fifteenth century one skilfully treated but less meritorious style of illuminated border became very common in ,france and ,flanders4 ,this consisted of isolated objects1 such as sprigs of various kinds of flowers and fruits1 especially strawberries1 together with butterflies and other insects1 shells1 reptiles and the like scattered over the margin of the page1 very frequently on a background of dull fluid gold#adc4 ,a deceptive effect of relief is commonly attempted by the painting of strong shadows1 as if each object were lying on the gold ground and casting its shadow on the flat surface4 ,this attempt at relief of course marks a great decadence of taste1 and yet it occurs in manuscripts which show much artistic feeling and great technical skill2 as1 for example1 in the magnificent ,grimani ,breviary1 mentioned below at p4 #afg1 see fig4 #ch4 ,use of fluid gold4 ,in ,french and ,flemish miniatures of this period1 gold1 applied with a brush1 is often used to touch in the high lights1 not only in the grisaille miniatures1 but also in paintings with brilliant pigments1 much in the same way as in the ,umbrian and ,florentine pictures of contemporary date4 ,many manuscripts of the early part of the sixteenth century have elaborate architectural borders1 consisting of tiers of canopied niches containing statuettes1 all executed in fluid1 mat gold4 ,harsh colours4 ,the use of a very harsh emerald green is characteristic of this period of decadence in ,france and in ,flanders2 and generally there is a want of harmony of colour in the miniatures of this time1 in which gaudiness rather than real splendour gradually becomes the main characteristic4 ,renaissance style4 ,at the end of the fifteenth century the influence of the classical ,renaissance of art in ,italy began to affect the ,french manuscript illuminations1 and especially those by ,parisian miniaturists4 ,the introduction of architectural forms of ,italian classic style into the backgrounds of miniatures was the first sign of this1 examples of which occur as early as the year #adge or #adhj4 ,fig4 #bg shows a characteristic example of a ,french miniature executed under ,italian influence4 ,this is a scene of the marriage of the ,b4 ,v4 ,mary to the elderly ,joseph1 who holds in his hand the dry rod which had blossomed4 ,one of the unsuccessful suitors is breaking his rod across his knee1 as in ,raphael's early ,sposalizio in the ,brera gallery at ,milan4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,miniature of the marriage of the ,b4 ,v4 ,mary from a ,french manuscript of about #adhj1 with details in the style of the ,italian ,renaissance4 ,horae of ,jehan ,foucquet4 ,the painting represented in ,fig4 #bg is from a manuscript ,book of ,hours illuminated by the famous miniaturist ,jehan ,foucquet of ,tours1 whose services were secured by ,louis ,,xi4 from #adgj to #adge4 ,this manuscript ,horae1 which has been horribly mutilated1 the miniatures being cut out of the text1 was originally executed for ,matre ,etienne ,chevalier4 ,foucquet and other ,french illuminators of his time were largely influenced not only by ,italian art1 but also by the ,flemish school of miniaturists who were followers of ,memlinc and ,rogier van der ,weyden2 but by the end of the fifteenth century the ,italian influence reigned supreme and soon destroyed all remaining traces of the older mediaeval or ,gothic style4 ,fig4 #bh shows part of a border from the same ,,ms4 that is illustrated in ,fig4 #be on page #acd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,border illumination from a ,book of ,hours by ,jacquemart de ,odin2 see fig4 #be4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,printed ,,books ,,with ,,painted ,,illuminations4 ,during the last few years of the fifteenth century and the first twenty or thirty years of the sixteenth century ,paris was remarkable for the production of a beautiful class of books which form a link between printed books and illuminated manuscripts4 ,paris ,horae on vellum4 ,effect of colouring4 ,these are the numerous ,books of ,hours printed on vellum1 richly decorated with wood-cut#add borders and pictures1 and frequently illuminated by painting in gold and opaque colours over the engravings4 ,one of the earliest of these vellum-printed ,horae was produced by ,pigouchet for the bookseller ,simon ,vostre in #adhgade2 the pictures and borders are very simply treated in broad outline1 which the illuminator was meant to fill in with colour1 aided only in the general design by the wood-cut#adf4 ,in #adih ,pigouchet began to execute for ,s4 ,vostre ,books of ,hours of quite a different and still finer style1 with engravings of the most exquisite beauty of design and delicacy of detail1 perfect masterpieces of the engraver's art4 ,the decorative borders in these lovely books have dotted 7crible7 backgrounds1 and the whole effect1 though merely in black and white1 is rich and decorative in the highest degree4 ,the comparatively coarse touch of the illuminator ruins the beauty of these ,horae2 but luckily a good many copies have escaped this tasteless treatment1 which must have appealed only to a very ignorant love of gold and gaudy colour on the part of the purchasers4 ,decadence of style4 ,in the early part of the sixteenth century immense numbers and varieties of these vellum-printed ,horae#adg were issued by ,pigouchet and ,vostre1 ,antoine ,verard#adh1 ,thielman ,kerver and his widow1 the brothers ,hardouyn1 and other ,paris printers and publishers4 ,the cuts from the earlier1 fifteenth century editions#adi1 were reproduced1 and a great number of new ones were cut2 but after the year #aejj there was a most rapid deterioration of style4 ,even between the cuts of #adih and those of #aejc a very marked change for the worse is apparent1 the fine mediaeval ,french style being replaced by somewhat feeble imitations of the works of the ,italian ,renaissance4 ,these ,parisian prayer-books gradually superseded the coarse manuscript ,horae which were still produced in the early part of the sixteenth century2 and the latest examples of these vellum-printed books1 the work of ,geoffroi ,tory and others as late as #aedf1 came to be sold without any assistance from the hand1 one can hardly say the art1 of the illuminator in his extreme decadence4 ,latest decadence4 ,in a feeble way the art of writing and illuminating manuscripts1 as a sort of plaything for the wealthy1 lingered on in ,paris till the seventeenth century4 ,an illuminated ,book of ,hours 7,office de la ,sainte ,vierge71 with four miniatures and many floriated head-pieces of very minute workmanship1 which was in the ,perkins collection#aej1 is signed ,n4 ,jarry ,parisinus ,scribebat1 #affj4 ,other elaborate examples of ,nicholas ,jarry's work exist in the ,paris library1 mostly painted in grisaille4 ,early printing4 ,the ,mentz ,psalter4 ,a few words on the connection between early printing and the art of manuscript illumination may not here be out of place4 ,the inventors of printing1 ,gutenberg1 ,fust and ,schoeffer1 appear to have had no idea of producing cheap books by their new art1 but that for a fixed sum they could produce a more magnificent and beautiful book than a scribe could for the same price4 ,such a finished masterpiece of art as the ,mazarine ,bible1 issued by ,gutenberg in the year #adee1 was not sold at a lower rate than the price of a manuscript ,bible2 but it was cheaper than a manuscript of equal splendour4 ,so also very few scribes of the fifteenth century could with the utmost labour have produced such a marvel of beauty as the ,mentz ,psalter of #aeei1 printed on the finest vellum and illuminated with #bhj large initials printed in blue and red--perfect marvels of technical skill in the perfect fit of the two colours1 or registration as it is now called#aea4 ,it is not known at what price this magnificent ,psalter was originally sold1 but existing records show that copies of the ,vulgate produced in #adfb at ,mentz by the same printers1 ,fust and ,schoeffer1 were sold in ,paris for no less than sixty gold crowns1 equal in modern value to double that number of sovereigns4 ,illumination and printing4 ,the various arts of the printer4 ,for this reason1 as beauty rather than cheapness was aimed at by the inventors of printing1 they left spaces for the introduction of richly illuminated and historiated initials1 which were frequently inserted by the most skilful miniaturists of the time4 ,thus the art of printing and illumination for more than half a century walked hand in hand4 ,some of the earliest printers had originally been illuminators of manuscripts1 as1 for example1 ,peter ,schoeffer de ,gernsheim#aeb1 ,mentelin of ,strasburg1 ,bmler of ,augsburg and many others#aec4 ,the workshop of an early printer included not only compositors and printers1 but also cutters and founders of type1 illuminators of borders and initials1 and skilful binders who could cover books with various qualities and kinds of binding#aed4 ,a purchaser in ,gutenberg's shop having bought1 for example1 his magnificent ,bible#aee in loose sheets would then have been asked what style of illumination or rubrication he was prepared to pay for1 and then what kind of binding and how many brass bosses and clasps he wished to have#aef4 ,early ,italian printing4 ,in ,central and ,northern ,italy especially1 the printed books of the fifteenth and first decade of the sixteenth century were decorated with illuminations of the most beautiful kind4 ,books printed in ,venice about #adgj-e by ,nicolas ,jenson of ,paris and ,vendelin of ,spires1 and ,florentine books1 even of a few years later date1 frequently contain masterpieces of the illuminator's art4 ,the ,magnificent ,lorenzo de' ,medici and others of his family were liberal patrons of this class of work2 as were also many of the ,venetian ,doges and prelates1 especially various members of the ,grimani family4 ,early colophons4 ,there are no grounds whatever for the belief that the early printed books were passed off as manuscripts1 or that ,fust was accused of having multiplied books by magical arts4 ,the early printers usually inserted a statement in their colophon to the effect that the book was produced without the aid of a pen 7either of reed1 quill or bronze71 by a new and complicated invention of printing characters4 ,many different varieties of this statement occur4 ,in the ,mentz ,psalter printed by ,fust and ,schoeffer in #adei the printer's statement at the end is1 ,presens ,psalmorum codex venustate capitalium decoratus1 rubricationibusque sufficienter distinctus1 adinvencione artificiosa imprimendi ac characterizandi2 absque ulla calami exaracione sic effigiatus et ad laudem ,dei4444 ,in the ,mentz ,catholicon of #adfj the phrase is used1 ,non calami1 stili aut penne suffragio4444 ,it was not till about half a century after the invention of printing that the new art grew into an important means for the increase of knowledge through the copious production of cheap books4 ,aldine books4 ,no other typographer did so much for the advancement of learning as ,aldus ,manutius1 a ,venetian scholar and printer1 who1 in the year #aeja1 initiated a new and cheaper form of book by the printing of his ,virgil in small #abmo4 size1 with a new and more compact form of character1 now commonly known as the ,italic type#aeg4 ,as ,aldus records in three verses at the beginning of the ,virgil1 the new ,italic fount of type was designed and cut by ,francesco ,francia1 the famous ,bolognese painter1 goldsmith and die-cutter4 ,these small italic books of ,aldus were not all intended for sale at a low rate2 many copies exist which are magnificently illuminated1 and some are even printed on vellum4 ,the issue of the cheaper ,aldine classics gave the death-blow to the illuminator's art1 which the early large and costly printed folios had done little or nothing to supersede4 ,wood-cuts in ,,mss4 ,it should also be noticed that half a century before the invention of printing with moveable types1 quite at the beginning of the fifteenth or towards the close of the fourteenth century1 some few manuscripts of a cheap and inferior sort had their miniature illustrations not drawn by hand1 but printed from rudely cut wood-blocks4 ,these prints were afterwards coloured by hand4 ,manuscripts of this class are very rare1 and are now chiefly of value as supplying the earliest known ,european examples of wood engraving#aeh4 ,one of the most notable examples of these manuscripts illustrated with wood-cuts is described by ,mr ,quaritch in his catalogue ,no4 #bia of #ahgcaei4 ,this is a ,south-,german manuscript of about the year #adjj1 containing certain pious ,weekly ,meditations written on #ag leaves of coarse vellum2 throughout the manuscript text are scattered #fi wood-cuts of ,saints and ,prophets1 with ,biblical and other sacred scenes1 averaging in size three inches by two inches and a quarter4 ,these miniature designs are all richly illuminated with gold and colours2 some of them have names and other inscriptions forming part of the engraved block4 ,block-books4 ,this method of combining printing and manuscript very soon led to the next stage1 that of ,xylographic printing or block-books2 in which not only the illustrations but the text itself was cut on blocks of wood and printed like the wood-cut pictures2 each page occupying a separate plank of wood#afj4 ,these block-book illustrations were coloured by hand in a very decorative and effective way1 very superior to the coarse gaudy painting in opaque pigments with which the ,parisian illuminators so often spoilt the exquisite miniatures and the borders in the vellum-printed ,horae4 ,the block-books are not painted over with opaque pigment1 but delicately washed in with transparent tints1 without obliterating the outlines of the printed pictures1 which1 though simple and even rude in treatment1 are often full of real beauty and great decorative charm#afa4 ,illumination and printing4 ,thus we see that as early as about the year #adjj the printer's art had begun to supplement that of the manuscript illuminator#afb2 and the two arts continued to work1 as it were1 hand in hand till after the close of the fifteenth century when the illumination of manuscripts ceased to be a real living art and gradually degenerated into a mere appendage to individual pomp and luxury4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,illuminated ,,manuscripts ,,of ,,the ,,teutonic ,,school ,,after ,,the ,,tenth ,,century4 ,german ,,mss4 of the ,x,ith century4 ,though in the main the eleventh century was a period of artistic decadence1 mentioned above as having succeeded the brilliant ,carolingian period 7see page #gh71 yet we find that in certain places in ,germany there was a very distinct beginning of artistic revival1 especially in the illumination of manuscripts1 about the middle of the eleventh century and even earlier4 ,a school of magnificently decorative art began then to be developed1 and though the drawing of the human figure was still weak1 yet effects of the noblest decorative character were produced by manuscript illuminators1 foreshadowing that marvellous climax of manuscript art which was reached in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries4 ,missal of ,henry ,,ii4 ,fig4 #bi shows a sumptuously decorative page from an eleventh century manuscript ,missal which was executed for the ,emperor ,henry ,,ii4 7now in the ,munich library74 ,on a brilliant diapered background in gold1 red and blue1 a standing figure of the ,emperor is crowned by ,christ1 who sits within a vesica aureole4 ,the ,emperor receives from two angels the great ,cross ,standard of the ,empire and a sword4 ,his arms are supported by a saint on each side1 ,saints ,ulrich and ,emmeram4 ,the whole page is a superb piece of decoration1 and is specially interesting because illuminations of this type were evidently used by the earliest painters of stained glass windows to supply them with designs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,a page from the ,missal of the ,emperor ,henry ,,ii4 ,fig4 #cj illustrates a stained glass figure of ,king ,david1 one of five lancet-windows from the ,cathedral of ,augsburg1 executed about #ajfe1 when the ,church was consecrated1 and probably about the oldest existing example of a figure in stained glass4 ,the manuscript-like type of the design is very evident4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,figure of ,king ,david from a stained glass window in the ,cathedral of ,augsburg1 dating from #ajfe4 ,gospels of the ,x,ith century4 ,fig4 #ca is from a magnificently decorated book of the ,gospels1 executed in the eleventh century for ,uota1 ,abbess of the convent of ,niedermnster1 at ,ratisbon1 in the reign of the ,emperor ,henry ,,ii4 ,the whole page is a superbly decorative composition2 in the centre is a ,crucifixion with figures of ,life and ,death at the foot of the cross4 ,in the lower angles are minute paintings of the ,rent ,veil of the ,temple1 and the opened sepulchres2 above1 at the sides1 are symbolical figures of the ,church and the ,synagogue1 or ,grace and ,law4 ,at the upper angles are the ,sun and ,moon veiling their faces before the ,passion of ,christ4 ,graceful scroll foliage1 of the ,oriental textile type1 fills in the spandrels4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,miniature from an eleventh century manuscript of the ,gospels1 by a ,german illuminator4 ,revival of art4 ,in the twelfth century the revival of manuscript art in ,germany progressed with great rapidity1 and an immense number of magnificently illuminated manuscripts were produced1 especially in the chief ,benedictine ,monasteries1 which had always been the principal homes of learning and the chief centres of the illuminator's art in ,germany as in other ,european countries#afc4 ,grotesque forms4 ,frederic ,i4 7,barbarossa71 b4 #aaba-;d4 #aaij1 imitated the example of ,charles the ,great in his patronage of art and especially of the art of the illuminator4 ,the manuscripts of his time are remarkable for the richness and fancy of their twining masses of conventional foliage1 mingled with dragons1 monkeys1 human forms and monsters of all kinds1 designed with extreme beauty in their strong sweeping curves and coloured with brilliant and yet harmonious tints in a superbly decorative way4 ,though the figure drawing of the illuminators had not reached the perfection which was attained a century later1 yet in point of decorative ornament nothing could surpass the best ,german manuscripts of the twelfth century#afd4 ,figs4 #cb and #cc give good examples of the illuminations of this date4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,an initial ,s1 illuminated with foliage of the ,northumbrian type1 from a ,german manuscript of the twelfth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,miniature of the ,annunciation from a ,german manuscript of the beginning of the thirteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,page of a ,kalendar from a ,german ,psalter of about #abjj ,a4,d4 ,fig4 #cb shows a fine initial ,s formed out of a winged dragon1 and ornamented with conventional foliage of the noblest type4 ,this initial shows the surviving ,celtic or rather ,northumbrian influence1 which in the time of ,charles the ,great had been so important in the ,german ,empire4 ,painting of the ,annunciation4 ,fig4 #cc illustrates a miniature of the ,annunciation from a fine manuscript ,evangeliarium or ,book of the ,gospels1 which is now in the library at ,carlsruhe4 ,the drawing1 though stiff in pose1 is noble in style2 and the whole miniature1 with its graceful scroll-work background1 is of high decorative value1 a prototype of the perfect style of the ,french and ,anglo-,norman illuminations of the second half of the thirteenth century4 ,in this painting1 as in many other manuscripts of early date1 the ,b4 ,v4 ,mary is represented as occupied in spinning with a distaff while the angel ,gabriel approaches to announce the birth of the ,messiah4 ,page of a ,kalendar4 ,fig4 #cd shows a very beautifully designed page of the ,kalendar at the beginning of a ,psalter executed about the year #abjj for the ,landgrave of ,thringen4 ,on the left is the space in which the scribe inserted the days of the months1 and on the right is a noble and gracefully drawn figure of ,saint ,matthew4 ,the interlaced foliage of the initial ,k is of characteristic ,german type4 ,fig4 #ce shows a very elaborate and graceful initial ,y1 from another manuscript of the same date1 decorated by a vine-plant from which a youth is gathering grapes1 while a monkey1 sitting in the branches1 is eating some of the fruit4 ,the whole design is a masterpiece of decorative beauty1 elaborately worked out in gold and colours4 ,mural paintings4 ,the fine mural paintings of this date are frequently identical in style and design with pages from illuminated manuscripts4 ,this is most remarkably the case with the late twelfth century paintings on the walls and vault of the church of ,st ,michael at ,hildesheim2 in which the figures1 the conventional foliage and the general arrangement of the whole have evidently been copied from manuscript illuminations#afe4 ,vault of ,st ,michael's4 ,fig4 #cf shows a striking example of this1 painted about #aahf on the vault of ,saint ,michael's4 ,the whole treatment of this grandly decorative painting is precisely like that of the page of an illuminated book4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,initial ,y from a ,german manuscript of the beginning of the thirteenth century1 with a most graceful and fanciful combination of figures and foliage4 ,the ,fall of ,man4 ,in the centre is the ,fall of ,man in a medallion frame with a conventionally treated tree on each side2 all round are smaller paintings1 including the great ,rivers of ,paradise and the ,jordan1 two ,evangelists and their ,symbols1 with a series of medallion busts of ,old ,testament ,saints linked together by scroll-work of foliage exactly like that in illuminations of contemporary date4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,paintings on the vault of the church of ,st ,michael at ,hildesheim1 closely resembling in style an illuminated page in a manuscript4 ,the ,german manuscripts of the thirteenth and fourteenth century are less purely national in style4 ,the finest illuminations of this date show in some cases a marked ,french influence1 and1 especially during the fourteenth century1 a strong ,italian influence was prevalent4 ,,ms4 of the ,x,i,vth century4 ,fig4 #cg gives a good example of this from a manuscript ,passionale1 written in #acab for the ,abbess of the ,convent of ,st ,george at ,prague4 ,the figures in this manuscript resemble those in some of the ,florentine illuminated manuscripts of ,dante's ,divina ,commedia1 executed about #acfj to #acij4 ,the subject of the miniatures shown in fig4 #cg is a romantic story of a bride who was carried off by brigands and flung into a blazing furnace1 from which1 by the aid of the ,b4 ,v4 ,mary1 she was rescued unhurt by the knight1 her husband4 ,school of the ,van ,eycks4 ,in the fifteenth century an important development of ,teutonic art took place under the ,van ,eycks and their pupils4 ,in ,flanders1 especially in ,bruges1 ,antwerp and ,ghent1 a very elaborate and beautiful class of illumination was produced1 in some respects different in style from the ,franco-,flemish school of art4 ,school of ,memlinc4 ,in the latter part of the century magnificent manuscripts were produced by illuminators of the ,memlinc and ,van der ,weyden school1 such as the famous ,grimani ,breviary in the ,venetian ,ducal library1 so-called from its having been bought from a ,sicilian dealer in #aeba for #ejj gold ducats by ,cardinal ,grimani1 a member of the ,venetian ,grimani family1 who were liberal patrons of this class of art2 this sum was quite equal to #bjjj in modern value4 ,the miniatures in this manuscript were ascribed by the dealer to ,hans ,memlinc1 ,grard of ,bruges and ,lieven of ,antwerp2 they were probably by the two latter illuminators1 not by ,memlinc1 who died in #adid or #adie4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,miniatures of ,italian style from a ,german manuscript of #acab1 showing the influence of ,florentine art on the illuminations of southern ,france4 ,grard ,david4 ,the ,horae of ,prince ,albert4 ,grard or ,gheeraert of ,bruges was a native of ,oudewater in ,holland2 he was born about the middle of the fifteenth century1 and settled in ,bruges in the year #adhc1 when he became a member of the ,guild of ,saint ,john and ,saint ,luke1 to which all painters and manuscript illuminators were obliged to belong4 ,grard took the surname of ,david1 and became a famous painter of triptychs and altar-pieces1 as well as a skilful illuminator of manuscripts4 ,many fine panel-paintings by him still exist in ,bruges and elsewhere#aff4 ,there are also several fine manuscripts with miniatures by his hand in addition to those in the ,grimani ,breviary4 ,among these are two ,books of ,hours in the collection of the late ,baron ,anselm ,rothschild of ,vienna1 and another manuscript ,horae1 which was written and illuminated for the ,cardinal ,prince ,albert1 ,elector of ,brandenburg1 who was consecrated ,archbishop of ,magdeburg in the year #aeac at the age of twenty-three4 ,an interesting monograph1 with photographic reproductions of the miniatures1 was written by ,mr ,w4 ,h4 ,j4 ,weale for ,mr ,f4 ,s4 ,ellis1 the owner of the manuscript4 ,this lovely manuscript is almost equal in beauty to the ,grimani ,breviary2 it is rather later in date1 having been illuminated between #aead and #aebc4 ,the ,grimani ,breviary4 ,the miniatures in the sumptuous ,grimani ,breviary1 which dates from the latter years of the fifteenth century1 probably about #adif1 are very pictorial in style1 with figures which are larger than usual1 proportionally to the size of the page4 ,in some of the miniatures the figures are shown only in half length1 so that the elaborately finished heads are painted to a large scale4 ,the borders which surround the pages1 enclosing both text and miniatures1 are of the ,franco-,flemish style1 with realistic flowers1 fruit1 insects and the like1 scattered over a flat gold ground1 as is described above at page #adc4 ,the butterflies1 dragon-flies1 strawberries1 irises and lilies are perfect marvels of naturalistic skill and beauty4 ,the month of ,april4 ,the ,grimani ,breviary4 ,fig4 #ch illustrates one of the miniatures in the ,grimani ,breviary2 it is one of the lovely series representing the characteristic occupations of the twelve months in the ,kalendar1 which commonly occur as small pictures at the tops of pages in manuscript ,kalendars of the fifteenth century1 but in this exceptionally magnificent book are full page miniatures4 ,the one copied in fig4 #ch represents the month of ,april1 a time for love-making and out-door parties of pleasure2 here illustrated by a most beautiful and dignified group of ladies and gentlemen1 enlivened by the humour of the scene in the left-hand corner1 with a little dog barking jealously at another pet dog which is being petted on a lady's lap4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,miniature symbolizing the month of ,april from the ,kalendar of the ,grimani ,breviary1 executed about #adif4 ,the background1 with trees and ,cathedral spires like those of ,antwerp or ,malines1 is specially beautiful and highly finished4 ,though marvels of minute and beautiful workmanship these late ,teutonic manuscripts belong to a period of decadence4 ,as has already been remarked1 neither in poetic feeling nor in decorative value do they approach the masterpieces of ,french art during the fourteenth century4 ,horae of ,king ,ren4 ,fig4 #ci shows a page from a ,book of ,hours 7,paris1 ,bibl4 ,nat4 ,lat4 #aj1 #ecb7 which was illuminated for ,king ,ren ,,ii4 of ,lorraine 7#adgc to #aejh74 ,the figure of the ,virgin shows the influence of ,italian art1 which about this time1 #adij1 was largely modifying and adding grace to the paintings of ,flanders4 ,the border1 with lupines or vetch-plant realistically painted on a gold ground1 is a good typical specimen of the style4 ,horae of ,anne of ,brittany4 ,the famous ,prayer-book of ,anne of ,brittany1 painted about #aejj1 after her second marriage to ,louis ,,xii41 is a work of the same magnificent style1 with an immense variety of the most exquisitely painted fruits and flowers treated with the most minute realism4 ,it is now in the ,paris library#afg4 ,fig4 #dj gives a page from a magnificent ,book of ,hours in the ,imperial ,library of ,vienna 7no4 #aheg72 the miniatures in which are of the finest ,teutonic type1 in some cases suggesting the school of ,van der ,weyden1 and in others that of ,hans ,memlinc4 ,the conventional scroll-work of foliage with long serrated leaves in the border is very characteristic of the ,german and ,dutch manuscripts of the fifteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,a page from the ,book of ,hours of ,king ,ren1 painted about #adhj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,a page from a ,book of ,hours at ,vienna1 of the finest ,flemish style4 ,technical methods4 ,in some cases this foliage is painted with fluid gold2 the high lights being touched in with white1 and the shadows with a grisaille blue4 ,another beautiful style of decoration in manuscripts of this class has conventional flower forms painted in transparent lake with white lights over a sheet of burnished gold4 ,the skilful use of gold both in the pigment form1 and in leaf on a raised enamel-like ground1 is specially characteristic of ,german and ,dutch manuscripts of the fifteenth century4 ,in some manuscripts very beautiful borders are executed in delicate scroll-work with fine lines and dots1 all of burnished gold1 the effect of which is very magnificent4 ,the borders and long marginal ornaments1 which grow out of the large illuminated initials1 are often diversified with figures of a naturalistic or grotesque type1 devised with greater fancy and variety than the similar figures of the same sort which occur in so many ,french manuscripts4 ,,ms4 of the ,emperor ,wenzel4 ,fig4 #da shows a beautiful example of this1 which dates from the last years of the fourteenth century1 c4 #acij4 ,it is an ornament at the foot of one of the pages in a manuscript which was illuminated for the ,emperor ,wenzel of ,bohemia4 ,two scenes1 a prisoner in the stocks1 and a man being bathed by two attendant girls1 are placed in the centre of the grand sweeping lines of foliage4 ,the backgrounds with their delicate scroll-work and diaper patterns are imitated from those in the fine ,french and ,anglo-,norman manuscripts of the earlier part of the fourteenth century4 ,in some marginal illuminations1 miniature figures of knights jousting are introduced charging through the scrolls of foliage2 and ,angels gracefully drawn are very frequently introduced into the elaborate borders1 as is shown on fig4 #dj4 ,grotesque figures4 ,grotesque figures were great favourites with the ,teutonic illuminators2 devils and monkeys1 pigmies fighting cranes1 or strange monsters made up 7like the ,roman grylli7 of several animals and birds united1 are of frequent occurrence in ,german and ,dutch illuminated manuscripts1 more especially in ,books of ,hours1 where such fancies were probably a relief from the gravity of the text both to the illuminator and to the owner of the book3 see below1 page #bjh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,marginal illumination of very beautiful and refined style from a manuscript executed for ,king ,wenzel of ,bohemia about the year #acij4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,miniature of ,duke ,baldwin1 painted about the year #adej by an illuminator of the school of the ,van ,eycks of ,bruges4 ,the finest ,teutonic manuscripts of the fifteenth century show in their miniatures the influence of the ,van ,eycks2 as is also the case with many of the manuscripts which fall rather under the head of the ,franco-,flemish than the ,teutonic school#afh4 ,school of the ,van ,eycks4 ,fig4 #db gives a fine example of a miniature by an illuminator who must have been an actual pupil of the ,van ,eycks4 ,it is taken from a fragment of a manuscript of the ,croniques de ,jherusalem1 now in the ,imperial library of ,vienna 7no4 #becc74 ,it represents ,duke ,baudouin 7or ,baldwin71 who was crowned ,king of ,jerusalem1 in the guise of a fifteenth century ,german knight1 under a graceful ,gothic canopy of characteristically ,german style4 ,the date of this sumptuous manuscript is about #adej4 ,influence on painting generally4 ,as is remarked below with regard to ,italian art1 it is interesting to observe the strong influence that miniature painting in manuscripts had upon the larger pictures of ,teutonic artists4 ,in many cases the ,german and ,flemish painters of altar-pieces were also illuminators of manuscripts1 like ,liberale of ,verona and ,girolamo dai libri1 who are mentioned below1 see page #aigafi4 ,and even without this reason for similarity1 it was not uncommon for the painter of a retable to borrow his composition and general decorative scheme from an illuminated manuscript by some skilful artist4 ,fig4 #dc shows a good example of this1 the central panel of a retable dated #adgc1 in the church of ,st ,martin at ,colmar1 which is almost certainly the work of ,martin ,schoen or ,schngauer4 ,the ,cologne ,school4 ,in the art of the ,cologne ,school more especially1 the relationship between the panel paintings and the miniature illuminations of manuscripts is very close1 both in the general decorative schemes and also in the extreme minuteness and delicacy of the larger paintings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,retable painted by ,martin ,schngauer1 in the style of a manuscript illumination4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,all altar-piece of the ,cologne school1 showing the influence of manuscript illumination on the painters of panel-pictures1 especially retables4 ,retable at ,cologne4 ,fig4 #dd shows a beautiful example of this1 a small panel1 now in the ,archiepiscopal ,museum at ,cologne1 representing the ,virgin and ,child seated on a flowery sward with a trellis covered with roses as a background1 and lovely child-angels playing on musical instruments all round4 ,the whole panel is a perfect gem of brilliantly decorative art of the purest and most perfect kind1 quite free from the too pictorial realism which at this time1 about #adfj1 was growing rapidly among the miniaturists of ,france and the ,netherlands4 ,half a century later1 in the early part of the sixteenth century1 the same tendency to paint pictures like a magnified manuscript illumination is frequently to be observed4 ,triptych by the elder ,holbein4 ,fig4 #de represents one wing of an altar triptych by ,hans ,holbein the elder1 painted about the year #aead4 ,this beautiful figure of ,saint ,elizabeth of ,hungary is interesting as showing the influence of ,italian art1 which at that time was widely spread throughout ,germany and ,france2 it also1 in its minutely delicate touch and in the grotesque ornaments at the top and bottom1 shows a strong tendency to use the forms and methods of the manuscript illuminator4 ,illuminations by ,a4 ,drer4 ,manuscripts of the ,teutonic school1 which are known to be by the hand of a famous painter1 are of rare occurrence2 there is therefore special interest in the book of which one of the border-illuminations is illustrated in fig4 #df4 ,the text itself 7a book of prayers7 is printed on vellum1 but forty-five of the pages are decorated with borders drawn by the masterly hand of ,albert ,drer in red1 green and violet ink1 a method possibly suggested to ,drer by the sight of one of the tenth or eleventh century manuscripts which were illuminated with outline drawings in inks of these three colours4 ,this beautiful prayer-book was decorated by ,albert ,drer in #aeae for the ,emperor ,maximilian2 it is now in the ,munich ,library#agj4 ,there is much that is grotesque and humorous introduced among the finely designed scroll-work of these borders2 and their firm strong touch1 united to much fanciful grace of form in the varied forms of leafage1 makes the whole well worthy of its illuminator's artistic fame4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,wing of a triptych1 with a figure of ,st ,elizabeth of ,hungary1 painted by the elder ,hans ,holbein2 this illustrates the influence on painting of the styles of manuscript illumination at the beginning of the sixteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,illuminated border drawn by ,albert ,drer in #aeae4 ,the border illustrated here has1 at the foot1 a spirited group of musicians1 and a beautiful background1 with a river and castle-crowned hill1 such as ,drer loved to introduce into paintings and engravings of all kinds4 ,on one of the kettledrums in the foreground are the initials of the artist and the date #aeae4 ,dutch fifteenth century manuscripts4 ,in the main the manuscripts of ,holland resemble those either of the other contemporary ,teutonic or of the ,franco-,flemish schools4 ,in the fifteenth century an enormous number of ,books of ,hours and other works for private devotion1 such as the ,book of ,christian ,belief1 ,den ,boeck van den ,kersten ,ghelove1 and others of the same class1 were produced in ,holland4 ,many of these are written in the vulgar tongue4 ,dutch methods of ornament4 ,the miniature illuminations are on the whole inferior to the exquisite paintings in ,flemish manuscripts2 but they are usually very decorative in treatment1 of a simple1 homely style1 which is not without charm4 ,the decorative initials are often very large and beautiful1 in some cases occupying a large proportion of the page2 and the borders1 which grow gracefully out of these large capitals1 are magnificently rich both in design and execution4 ,gold is used profusely and with remarkable taste and skill in these ,dutch illuminations1 which frequently have a combination of mat1 fluid gold applied with the brush over a ground of brilliantly burnished gold leaf4 ,very beautiful initials are also formed by painting with a transparent lake red over a ground of burnished gold1 which shines through the red pigment1 thus producing a brilliantly decorative effect4 ,realistic details4 ,the miniatures of the fifteenth century ,dutch manuscripts are noticeable for their realistic architectural details1 with interiors of rooms full of elaborate furniture1 bookshelves1 sideboards covered with silver plate1 or the humbler jugs and dishes of pewter1 with countless other kinds of fittings and furniture4 ,dutch miniatures with ecclesiastical scenes frequently have elaborately rendered interior views of churches1 which are usually very interesting from their illustration of the choir and altar fittings1 the retables1 the riddles or altar-curtains1 the tabernacles for the ,reserved ,host1 and many other valuable records of mediaeval church furniture and ritual#aga4 ,one very delicate and beautiful kind of illumination1 which occurs in many of the best ,dutch manuscripts1 is by no means peculiar to ,holland1 but is also found in many ,english1 ,french1 ,flemish and ,italian manuscripts4 ,skilful use of the pen4 ,this consists of capitals1 often of large size1 decorated with rich ornamentation executed wholly with thin lines of blue and red drawn with a very fine pen4 ,the firmness of touch and spirited quality of this pen illumination is often very remarkable1 showing the most perfect training of hand and eye on the part of the illuminator4 ,though not as gorgeous as the usual initials painted with gold and colours1 this line ornament is sometimes of the richest and most delicate quality that can be imagined4 ,in some cases a purple or violet ink is used1 as well as the brighter blue and red1 especially in ,italian manuscripts4 ,the form of the pen ornaments used in this class of illumination is very much the same in all the chief ,european classes of manuscripts2 a somewhat exceptional circumstance1 since1 as a rule1 each country has its own peculiar types of decoration4 ,illuminations in printed books4 ,this beautiful pen-work reached its highest point of perfection in the first half of the fifteenth century4 ,it is frequently used for the illuminated initials in the early printed books of ,germany4 ,books printed at ,strasburg by ,mentelin1 about #adfj to #adfh1 are often decorated with very elaborate and skilfully drawn ornament of this type2 in many cases probably by ,mentelin's own hand1 since he was a skilful manuscript illuminator before he began to practise the art of printing#agb4 ,the printed books of ,koburger of ,nuremberg are also remarkable for the beauty of their illuminations1 both in the blue and red pen-work and also with painted ornaments in gold and colour4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,,illuminated ,,manuscripts ,,of ,,italy ,,and ,,spain4 ,classic survival4 ,as has been already mentioned1 the old classical forms survived in the manuscript miniatures of ,italy for many centuries with but little alteration4 ,a slow1 but steady degradation in the forms of classic art began to take place about the fifth or sixth century2 the fact being that no art can for long remain stationary2 there must be either advance or decay1 and when the habit of copying older forms has once become the established rule an artistic degradation soon becomes inevitable4 ,italian decadence4 ,just as the manuscript art of the ,byzantine illuminators first lost its vitality and then rapidly deteriorated1 so in ,italy the late surviving classical style of miniature became weaker and weaker in drawing1 feebler in touch1 and duller in composition1 till in the eleventh and twelfth century a very low stage of degradation was reached1 at the very period when the illuminator's art in more northern countries was growing into the most vigorous development of power and decorative beauty4 ,the great ,renaissance of art in ,italy1 which led to such magnificent results in the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries1 in its first beginnings lagged behind the artistic movement in the north1 so that during the thirteenth century1 when ,england1 ,france and ,germany had almost reached their climax of artistic growth1 ,italy had hardly begun to advance#agc4 ,,ms4 of ,donizo4 ,as an example of the degraded state of ,italian art during the twelfth century ,i may mention a manuscript in the ,vatican library 7,vat4 #dibb7agd of a poem in honour of the ,countess ,matilda written by a monk of ,canossa named ,donizo1 which has a number of miniature illustrations4 ,these are of the lowest type1 utterly feeble in the drawing of the human form and quite without any feeling for the folds of drapery2 the figures are mere shapeless masses without any decorative beauty of colour to make up for the helpless ignorance of the draughtsman2 see fig4 #dg4 ,later on in the twelfth century1 and during the first half of the thirteenth century1 art in ,italy was mainly a feeble reflection of the then degraded art of the ,byzantines4 ,this was partly due to the introduction into ,italy of mosaic-workers from ,constantinople1 such as those who decorated the vault of the old ,cathedral of ,florence 7now the ,baptistery7 with badly drawn but grandly decorative mosaics of the ,day of ,doom#age4 ,oderisi of ,gubbio4 ,little is known of the two illuminators of manuscripts who are immortalized by ,dante 7,purg4 xi4 #gi-hc74 ,oderisi of ,gubbio1 whom ,dante calls the ,honour of the art that in ,paris is called alluminare1 is said to have been employed by ,pope ,boniface ,,viii4 to illuminate manuscripts in ,rome about the time of the great ,jubilee of #acjj1 when ,dante visited ,rome as an envoy from ,florence4 ,franco of ,bologna4 ,franco 7,francesco7 of ,bologna is the other miniaturist mentioned by ,dante as an artist of great merit2 nothing is known of him or of his works4 ,during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries ,bologna was one of the chief ,italian centres for the production of manuscripts1 partly on account of its being the seat of one of the oldest and most important ,universities of ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,illumination from an ,italian manuscript executed for the ,countess ,matilda in the twelfth century2 this illustrates the extreme decadence of art in ,italy before the thirteenth century4 ,,ms4 of ,giotto's school4 ,one of the finest manuscripts of the ,florentine school1 executed by an unknown miniatore of the school of ,giotto1 is a ,missal in the ,chapter library of the ,canons of ,saint ,peter's in ,rome4 ,the arms of the donor1 repeated several times among the floreated borders1 show that the manuscript was illuminated for ,giotto's patron ,cardinal ,gaetano ,stefaneschi1 probably between #accj and #acdj4 ,the same volume contains1 by the same illuminator's hand1 a richly illuminated ,life of ,saint ,george1 with large historiated capitals of great beauty and finely decorative colouring4 ,fig4 #dh shows one of the initials with ,saint ,george slaying the dragon1 and the ,princess ,saba kneeling at the side4 ,italian art in ,france4 ,in some cases1 especially during the fourteenth century1 skilful ,italian illuminators appear to have worked in ,france4 ,many ,french and even ,flemish manuscripts1 such as some of those executed for ,philip of ,burgundy and the ,duc de ,berri towards the end of the century1 show distinctly two styles of painting1 ,french and ,italian1 the book evidently being the work of two different artists4 ,some of these ,italian paintings in ,french manuscripts suggest the hand of a disciple of ,simone ,martini 7,memmi71 or some artist of the very decorative ,sienese school2 this was probably in many cases due to the introduction of ,italian painters into ,avignon when the ,papal court was resident there2 see page #adj4 ,late artistic revival4 ,it was1 however1 not till nearly the middle of the fourteenth century that ,italy produced many illuminated manuscripts of any remarkable beauty4 ,those executed under the immediate influence of ,giotto1 between #acjj and about #acdj1 were not as a rule to be compared to the illuminations of northern ,europe either for decorative value or for minute beauty of detail4 ,by the middle of the fourteenth century1 however1 the illuminator's art in ,italy1 and especially in ,florence1 had reached a very high degree of excellence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,miniature of ,st ,george and the ,dragon from a ,missal1 illuminated about #accj to #acdj by a painter of the school of ,giotto4 ,monastic painters4 ,don ,silvestro4 ,vasari1 in his life of ,don ,lorenzo ,monaco#agf1 mentions a ,camaldolese monk of the ,monastery of ,santa ,maria degli ,angeli near ,florence1 who1 about the year #acej1 wrote and illuminated a number of magnificent choir-books for his monastery1 which were very highly valued2 so much so that after the death of the monk1 whose name was ,don ,silvestro1 his hand was preserved in a shrine as a sacred relic of the dead monk's piety and skill#agg4 ,some of ,don ,silvestro's manuscripts are now preserved in the ,laurentian library in ,florence1 and a number of miniatures cut out of his choir-books were acquired by ,w4 ,young ,ottley#agh4 ,,mss4 of ,don ,silvestro4 ,methods of decoration4 ,the existing works of ,don ,silvestro show that the enthusiasm of his fellow monks was not exaggerated4 ,the miniatures are noble in style1 finished with the most exquisitely minute touch1 splendidly brilliant in colour1 and in every way masterpieces of the illuminator's art4 ,these choir-books are of enormous size1 being intended to be placed on the central choir lectern so that the whole body of monks standing round could chant the antiphonalia from the same book1 and the initials are proportionately large to the size of the page4 ,thus some of the figures of ,saints which fill the central spaces of the large initials are as much as from six to seven inches in height1 and yet they are painted with the minute detail of an ordinary sized miniature4 ,the grounds of these splendid figures are usually of burnished gold1 decorated by incised tooling of diapers or scroll-work2 and the floreated borders1 which surround the letters and form marginal ornaments to the pages1 consist of nobly designed conventional foliage in vermilion1 ultramarine and other fine pigments1 relieved and lighted up by bosses of burnished gold thickly sprinkled among the sumptuous coloured foliage4 ,tooled and burnished gold is also used largely for the decoration of the dresses of the figures1 their crowns1 jewelled ornaments and the apparels and orphreys of their vestments4 ,the whole effect is magnificent in the extreme1 and yet1 in spite of the dazzling brilliance of the gold and colours1 the whole effect is perfectly harmonious and free from the harsh gaudiness which disfigures so much of the late fifteenth century work of the ,french and ,flemish manuscript painters4 ,italian ornament4 ,the special style of ornament used by ,don ,silvestro survived in ,italian illumination for nearly a century and a half4 ,in ,italy realistic forms of fruit and flowers1 such as were painted with such taste and skill by the northern miniaturists1 were scarcely ever used4 ,all through the fifteenth century1 alike in the manuscripts of the ,florentine1 ,sienese and ,venetian schools1 the same purely conventional forms of foliage were used1 with great curling leaves1 alternately blue and red1 lighted up by the jewel-like studs and bosses of burnished gold4 ,the monk ,don ,lorenzo4 ,according to ,vasari1 the same ,camaldolese ,monastery produced another manuscript illuminator whose skill was hardly inferior to that of ,don ,silvestro4 ,this was ,don ,lorenzo1 who appears to have been born about #acgj1 and to have died about #adbeagi4 ,examples of his skill1 also in the form of large choir-books1 are preserved in the ,laurentian library at ,florence2 they are rich with miniatures of great beauty1 and1 like ,don ,silvestro's paintings1 show a lavish expenditure of time and patience in the exquisite minuteness with which they are finished4 ,vasari tells us that his hand also was preserved as a sacred relic in the treasury of ,santa ,maria degli ,angeli4 ,visit of ,leo ,x4 ,in later times ,pope ,leo ,x41 who1 like other members of the ,medici family1 was an enthusiastic lover of illuminated manuscripts1 when on a visit to the ,monastery1 desired to carry away to the ,basilica of ,saint ,peter in ,rome some of these choir-books by the hand of ,don ,lorenzo#ahj4 ,dominican painters4 ,the ,dominican ,convent of ,san ,marco in ,florence1 where the famous ,florentine painter ,fra ,beato ,angelico#aha was a ,friar1 possesses1 or till quite recently did possess1 a magnificent collection of choir-books richly illuminated with miniatures by various members of the ,convent4 ,some of these are said to have been painted by ,fra ,angelico himself1 others by a brother of his who was a ,friar in the same ,convent#ahb4 ,the records of the ,dominican ,convent at ,fiesole1 where ,fra ,angelico was born1 show that he was working there as a painter of illuminated manuscripts in the year #adjg and for some time subsequently4 ,fra ,angelico's style4 ,it is noticeable that ,fra ,angelico's style1 even when painting a colossal mural fresco1 was essentially that of the manuscript illuminator4 ,he is utterly unrealistic in drawing and still more so in colour2 he deals with no possible effects of light and shade1 but paints all his figures glowing with the most brilliant effects of gold and colour1 in a style far earlier than that of his own date1 and with certain technical peculiarities which1 as a rule1 are to be found only in the illuminations of manuscripts#ahc4 ,,mss4 of northern ,italy4 ,renaissance in ,italy4 ,in the fifteenth century the manuscript art of central and northern ,italy1 especially ,siena1 ,florence1 ,venice and ,milan1 rose to a pitch of beauty and perfection which left it quite without rival in any country in the world4 ,as was the case in writing of the glories of such manuscripts as the ,french ,apocalypses of the fourteenth century1 words are inadequate to describe the refined beauty of the best ,italian manuscripts of this period4 ,as has been already pointed out ,italy was late in beginning her artistic ,renaissance2 and now1 just when the rest of ,europe was sinking into a more or less rapid and complete state of decadence1 ,italy blossomed out into one of the most magnificent artistic periods that the world has ever seen#ahd4 ,the manuscripts of this period are not unworthy of the general artistic glories of the time1 and in some cases their technical qualities bear witness to an almost superhuman amount of dexterity and patience4 ,during the first half of the century1 by far the greater proportion of the manuscripts written in ,italy were for ecclesiastical purposes4 ,among the most magnificent1 but at the same time also the rarest1 are folio manuscript ,pontificals#ahe1 executed for wealthy ecclesiastics of ,episcopal rank4 ,the ,fitzwilliam ,pontifical4 ,an ,italian folio ,pontifical1 dating from early in the fifteenth century1 in the library of the ,fitzwilliam ,museum1 is of its kind1 one of the most beautiful manuscripts in the world4 ,the delicacy of execution of the figures and especially the faces is little short of miraculous1 and the numerous historiated initials1 each representing some episcopal act of ,consecration or ,benediction1 scattered thickly all through the volume1 are a remarkable proof of the patient1 unwearied skill which through years of labour must have been devoted to this one superb volume4 ,italian poems4 ,the owner's arms4 ,among the illuminated manuscripts with secular texts the most important are copies of ,dante's ,divine ,comedy1 the works of ,boccaccio and the ,poems of ,petrarch4 ,the first page of such works as these is usually richly decorated with a wide border of scroll foliage1 studded with the usual gold bosses4 ,frequently small miniatures in medallion frames are set at intervals among the conventional leafage2 and at the bottom is a shield to receive the owner's coat of arms1 surrounded with a delicately painted leafy wreath1 which is supported on each side by a graceful figure of a flying angel or ,cupid#ahf4 ,in many cases the shield is still left blank2 the book not having been written for any special purchaser and the owner having neglected to insert his arms#ahg4 ,the painting of the wreath which surrounds the shield is usually very beautiful1 and the two flying angels or amorini are models of grace4 ,this motive of the wreath held by two flying figures was largely used by the ,florentine sculptors of the fifteenth century1 such as ,ghiberti and ,luca della ,robbia2 it was suggested by the similar design1 of very inferior execution1 which occurs on so many ancient ,roman sarcophagi4 ,classical influence4 ,some of the most elaborate ,italian manuscripts of the second half of the fifteenth century are decorated with very minutely and cleverly painted copies of antique classical gems1 cameos1 coins and medals1 or reliefs in marble and bronze4 ,wonderful skill is often shown by the way in which the illuminator has given the appearance of relief and the actual texture of the metal or stone#ahh4 ,beautiful as the borders of this class are1 they belong to a period of decadence of taste1 though not of skill1 and they paved the way for the elaborate futilities of ,giulio ,clovio and other miniaturists of the sixteenth century period of decadence4 ,capture of ,constantinople4 ,the influx of ,greek exiles into ,florence1 after the conquest of ,constantinople by the ,ottoman ,turks in #adec1 led to the famous revival of classical learning1 and for a while made ,florence not only the artistic but the intellectual centre of the world4 ,many of these fugitive ,greeks brought with them both ,greek and ,latin manuscripts of ancient date1 and a new development of manuscript art took place in consequence of this4 ,copyism of early writing4 ,though manuscripts of ,service books and other sacred works continued to be written in the mediaeval ,gothic form of character1 for secular manuscripts#ahi a very beautiful kind of ,roman hand was largely used by the scribes of ,florence1 ,venice and other ,italian centres of the illuminator's art4 ,this newly developed mode of writing was based on the beautiful clear form of character which had been used by the most skilful northern scribes of the ninth and tenth century2 and at the same time a style of illumination for borders and initials was imitated or rather adapted1 with the utmost taste and skill from the characteristic interlaced patterns of ,england1 ,france and ,germany during the twelfth century4 ,celtic style of ornament4 ,this beautiful kind of ornament consists of delicately interlaced and plaited bands of white or gold1 thrown into relief by filling in the background1 or spaces between the laced bands1 with alternating colours1 blue1 red and green4 ,this style of initial was also largely used for the early printed books of ,rome1 ,florence and ,venice#aij1 many copies of which were illuminated in the most magnificent way1 quite equal to the ornaments of the finest vellum manuscripts4 ,some of the ,italian manuscripts of the second half of the fifteenth century1 for delicate beauty and for exquisite refinement of detail1 are unrivalled by the illuminated manuscripts of any other country or age4 ,italian ,horae4 ,among the greatest marvels of human skill that have ever been produced are some of the very small ,books of ,hours which were executed for the merchant princes of ,florence and ,venice and for other wealthy ,italian patrons4 ,the borders in these frequently have minute figures of ,cupid-like angels 7amorini7 playing among decorative foliage1 or birds and animals1 such as fawns1 cheetahs and the like1 designed with an amount of grace and modelled with a microscopic refinement of touch that no words can adequately describe4 ,beauty of the text4 ,and it is not only the unequalled beauty of the painted decorations and miniatures for which these late ,italian manuscripts are so remarkable2 the mere writing of the text in the most brilliant black and red ink is of striking beauty in the form of the letters and the perfect regularity of the whole4 ,last of all the vellum used by the ,italian scribes of this period is far more beautiful1 from its ivory-like perfection of tint and surface1 than that of any other class of manuscripts4 ,though not1 of course1 as exquisitely thin as the uterine vellum of the ,anglo-,norman thirteenth century scribes1 it is more beautiful in texture1 and does much to complete the artistic perfection of the manuscripts of fifteenth century ,italy1 by its exquisitely polished surface and perfect purity of tint4 ,,mss4 of ,n4 ,italy4 ,the provinces of ,florence1 ,pisa1 ,siena1 ,bologna and ,venice1 including ,verona1 were all important centres for the production of fine illuminated manuscripts4 ,on the whole ,florence was the most famous in this as in other branches of art1 and it was especially to ,florence that wealthy foreign ,princes sent their commissions when they desired to possess exceptionally beautiful manuscripts4 ,corvinus a patron of art4 ,one of the most enthusiastic art patrons of ,europe1 ,matthias ,corvinus1 ,king of ,hungary from #adeh to #adij1 had a large number of most magnificent manuscripts written and illuminated for him by various miniatori of ,florence2 some of these are now in the ,imperial library of ,vienna4 ,so also ,federigo da ,montefeltro1 ,duke of ,urbino about the same time1 purchased from a ,florentine that most superbly illuminated ,bible1 in two large folio volumes1 dated #adgh1 which is now in the ,vatican library#aia4 ,attavante the miniaturist4 ,among the miniaturists who worked for ,king ,corvinus1 the most famous was a ,florentine named ,attavante di ,gabriello1 who was born in #adeb4 ,vasari mentions him as a pupil and friend of ,fra ,angelico#aib1 and describes at great length and with much enthusiasm a sumptuous manuscript of ,silius ,italicus1 belonging to the ,dominican ,monastery of ,san ,giovanni e ,paolo in ,venice1 as being the work of ,attavante4 ,this once magnificent manuscript still exists1 but in a much mutilated state1 in the ,venetian ,biblioteca ,marciana 7,cl4 ,,xii4 ,cod4 ,,lxviii472 all the large miniatures have been cut out1 but the borders with winged ,cupids1 birds and animals among decorative scroll-work are marvels of beauty and minute delicacy of touch4 ,though quite worthy of ,attavante's fame1 this manuscript cannot be his work1 as it was executed many years too early1 in the time of ,pope ,nicholas ,v41 who reigned from #addg to #adee4 ,,mss4 at ,venice4 ,the same library does1 however1 possess real examples of ,attavante's wonderful illuminations4 ,the borders are specially remarkable for the minute medallion heads which are introduced among the conventional foliage4 ,these minute pictures occur in many of the finest manuscripts of this class2 and other miniatori painted them with a microscopic refinement of detail1 quite equal to the best illuminations of ,attavante4 ,fig4 #di gives a good typical example of this style of border1 with two ,cupid-like angels and busts of saints in quatrefoil medallions4 ,some of the borders of this class1 especially in ,venetian and ,florentine manuscripts1 are decorated with very cleverly painted representations of jewels1 such as the emerald and ruby1 set at intervals along each margin4 ,these are often wonderful examples of skilful realism1 the transparency of the gem1 and its bright reflected lights1 being rendered with an almost deceptive appearance of reality4 ,the miniaturists called dai ,libri4 ,in the fifteenth century ,verona was one of the chief ,italian centres for the production of magnificent manuscripts4 ,various members of one family1 known from their occupation as dai ,libri1 were specially famous as miniaturists4 ,stefano the eldest was born about #adbj2 he and his younger brother ,francesco were both skilled miniaturists1 and ,francesco's son ,girolamo dai ,libri 7#adgd to #aeef7 was famous not only as a miniatore1 but also as a painter of altar-pieces and other sacred pictures on a large scale#aic4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,an illuminated border from a manuscript by ,attavante of characteristic north ,italian style4 ,liberale of ,verona4 ,another ,veronese painter1 ,liberale di ,giacomo1 who was born in #adea1 was in his youth a very skilful miniaturist4 ,he spent some years in illuminating large choir-books for the ,benedictine monastery of ,monte ,oliveto near ,siena1 and then after #adfi he was for long occupied in the illumination of similar choir-books for the ,cathedral of ,siena#aid4 ,the miniatures in these great ,antiphonals are most exquisitely finished1 rich in fancy1 brilliant in colour1 but wanting decorative breadth of style4 ,with a far greater expenditure of labour and eyesight1 these wonderful illuminations are far inferior to the works of the fourteenth century ,french miniaturists1 and show signs of that decadence of taste1 which1 in the sixteenth century1 led to the destruction of the true illuminator's art#aie4 ,,mss4 of ,n4 ,italy4 ,in addition to ,venice1 ,padua and ,ferrara were both important centres of manuscript illumination of a very high order during the fifteenth century4 ,the ,paduan miniatures show strongly the influence of ,andrea ,mantegna and ,gian ,bellini1 whose styles also appear in the contemporary manuscripts of ,venice4 ,the ,british ,museum possesses a magnificent example of the work of one of the ablest miniatori of ,padua1 a ,missal by ,benedetto ,bordone1 who also illuminated the great choir-books of the ,convent of ,santa ,justina in ,padua4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,a miniature from the ,bible of ,duke ,borso d',este1 painted between #adee and #adfa by illuminators of the school of ,ferrara4 ,school of ,ferrara4 ,ferrara too produced many very beautiful manuscripts1 especially under the patronage of ,duke ,borso d',este4 ,it was for this ,duke of ,ferrara that the magnificent choir-books1 now in the ,municipal library at ,ferrara were executed4 ,fig4 #ej shows a miniature from a very splendid ,bible1 which was illuminated for ,duke ,borso d',este between #adee and #adfa by ,taddeo di ,crivelli and ,franco di ,messer ,giovanni da ,russi1 two very talented miniaturists of the ,ferrarese school1 though they were natives of the neighbouring city of ,mantua4 ,parma and ,modena4 ,parma1 ,modena and ,cremona also were thriving centres of the illuminators art2 in fact wherever in ,italy there was a school of painting a subsidiary school of manuscript miniaturists seems also to have existed4 ,the two classes of painting acted and reacted upon one another2 and in some cases1 as is indicated below#aif1 the more important art of painting on a large scale owed more to the manuscript illuminators than has commonly been acknowleged4 ,school of ,milan4 ,milan1 especially under ,duke ,ludovico and other members of the ,sforza family1 was an active centre of manuscript illumination4 ,some very beautiful late manuscripts exist with miniatures which show the influence of ,leonardo da ,vinci and his pupil ,bernardino ,luini2 a ,book of ,hours in the ,fitzwilliam ,museum is a good example of this4 ,illuminated documents4 ,one rather exceptional class of richly illuminated manuscripts was largely produced in ,italy during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries2 these were ,state documents1 ,university diplomas and licences1 patents of nobility and legal instruments of various kinds1 often very elaborately decorated with illuminations and miniatures in gold and colours4 ,in ,venice especially immense numbers of these were produced2 the most elaborate are ,appointments of ,governors1 ,commissions of officials of rank1 ,patriarchal ,briefs1 together with ,state records and documents of the most varied kinds4 ,bologna1 ,padua1 ,pisa and others of the chief ,universities of ,italy issued diplomas for ,doctors degrees1 and licences to give lectures1 which were frequently very magnificently decorated with letters of gold and richly illuminated capitals and borders4 ,retables like ,,mss4 ,before passing on to the ,italian miniatori of the last period1 it is worth while to notice the strong influence that the art of manuscript illumination had on the painters of large retables and other sacred pictures in ,italy and especially in ,venice2 just as was the case with the contemporary painters of ,germany and ,flanders#aig4 ,many of the ,venetian altar-pieces1 from their minute detail1 their use of burnished gold enriched with tooled patterns1 their decorative treatment of flowers and their architectural backgrounds and framework1 look exactly like a page from an illuminated manuscript4 ,retable at ,venice4 ,fig4 #ea shows a characteristic example of this1 a magnificent retable glowing with brilliant colours and burnished gold1 now in the ,accademia of ,venice1 which was painted in #addf in the little island of ,murano by two painters named ,johannes and ,antonius de ,murano#aih4 ,the same strongly marked influence of the decorative style of illuminated manuscripts is to be seen in nearly all the works of ,carlo ,crivelli1 another ,venetian painter of the latter part of the fifteenth century1 and in the gorgeous retables of ,gentile da ,fabriano#aii1 a follower of ,fra ,angelico's richly decorative and brilliantly coloured method of painting4 ,the ,x,v,ith century4 ,italian manuscripts of the sixteenth century4 ,by about the end of the first decade of the sixteenth century the art of manuscript illumination had ceased in ,italy to be a real living art2 and1 though it continued to be practised with great technical skill for more than half a century later1 the art1 which once had been one of the most beautiful and dignified of all branches of art1 sank into the production of costly toys to please a few ,popes and luxurious ,princes who were willing to pay very large prices for manuscripts illuminated by the skilful hands of ,giulio ,clovio and other miniaturists1 whose patience1 eyesight and technical skill were superior to their sense of what was fitting and beautiful in an illuminated manuscript4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,a ,venetian retable by ,giovanni and ,antonio di ,murano1 in the style of an illuminated manuscript4 ,giulio ,clovio4 ,of all the illuminators of this class the ,dalmatian ,giulio ,clovio#bjj 7#adih-aegh7 was the most famous and technically the most skilful4 ,he found many wealthy patrons in ,italy and was employed by ,charles ,v4 of ,france4 ,the ,soane ,museum in ,london possesses a characteristic example of his style1 a ,commentary on the ,epistles of ,saint ,paul1 executed for ,giulio's early patron1 ,cardinal ,marino ,grimani of ,venice1 the brother of the owner of the ,grimani ,breviary mentioned above4 ,clovio's miniatures are marvels of minute execution1 but not truly decorative in style1 and in design usually quite unsuited to their purpose4 ,in most cases they resemble large oil paintings reduced to a microscopic scale2 the figures are commonly feeble imitations either of large pieces of contemporary tapestry or else of painting in ,michel ,angelo's grandiose style1 both of which of course were utterly unsuited for miniatures in a manuscript#bja4 ,the ,vatican ,,mss4 ,the ,manuscripts in the ,vatican ,library4 ,the ,archives of the ,vatican library contain a number of records of the development of the library during the sixteenth century and later#bjb4 ,in mediaeval times manuscripts were rare and costly1 so that even ,kings1 ,popes and ,universities possessed libraries which in size were very insignificant compared to those of ancient ,alexandria1 ,rome and ,byzantium4 ,the ,vatican library4 ,even in ,leo ,x4's time 7#aeac-aebb7 the ,vatican library1 which was probably the largest in the world1 contained only #d1jgj manuscripts and printed books4 ,a century earlier1 before the invention of printing1 two or three hundred volumes would have constituted an enormous library4 ,as a rule even ,royal and ,public libraries were contained in a few iron-bound chests or armaria2 and borrowers had to deposit a pledge--a gold ring1 a silver cup or some other valuable article1 which was retained by the librarian till the manuscript had been restored4 ,in the ,vatican this practice survived till the sixteenth century1 and books exist among the ,archives in which were recorded the date1 the title of the book1 the borrower's name and a short description of the deposited pledge4 ,when the book was returned the word restituit was written in the margin4 ,payments to scribes4 ,the same ,archives contain a number of accounts giving the sums paid to various illuminators of manuscripts1 especially in the time of ,pope ,paul ,,iii4 7,alex4 ,farnese1 #aecd to #aeec71 who was a great patron of ,giulio ,clovio and other miniaturists4 ,in #aedj a number of scriptores et miniatores employed in the ,vatican library received as pay #d gold ducats each monthly1 of #aj ,julii to the ducat1 equal to about #bj in modern value4 ,in #aeda ,messer ,paolo received #cj gold ducats for writing and illuminating four volumes4 ,del ,piombo as an illuminator4 ,it is interesting to note that the famous painter ,sebastiano del ,piombo#bjc 7,fra ,bastiano piombator7 received payment pro libris miniatis in the year #aedf from ,pope ,paul ,,iii4 ,in #aedi ,federigo ,mario di ,perugia received #d ducats a month for his labour in scribendis et ornandis seu pingendis libris4 ,this is the same miniaturist who illuminated some choir-books for the ,roman ,monastery of ,saint' ,agostino#bjd4 ,it was especially for the great choir-books that the art of the scribe and illuminator survived1 the reason being that no printers' fount of type had characters of sufficient size to be read by a whole circle of singers4 ,thus we find ,italian and ,spanish manuscript ,antiphonals#bje and the like1 which have the grand ,gothic writing of the fifteenth century executed as late as the year #afbj or even later#bjf4 ,spanish ,,mss4 ,the ,manuscripts of ,spain1 ,portugal and the ,east4 ,little need be said about the manuscript illuminations of the ,spanish peninsula since they contain little that is native or original4 ,in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries many magnificent illuminations were produced in ,spain and ,portugal1 but they are mainly imitations either of ,italian or of ,flemish miniatures4 ,in earlier times in ,northern ,spain the influence of ,france was paramount1 and in ,southern ,spain the beautiful ,saracenic art of the ,moorish conquerors influenced all branches of the fine arts1 including that of manuscript illumination4 ,moslem influence4 ,to some extent the same ,moslem influence is apparent in the decorative borders of ,sicilian and ,venetian manuscripts1 especially during the fifteenth century4 ,the illuminations of ,oriental manuscripts do not fall within the limits of this brief treatise1 but it should be noted that during the mediaeval period1 and down to the present century1 ,persian and ,arabic manuscripts with decorative illuminations of extraordinary beauty and skilful execution have been largely produced in ,syria1 ,persia and ,india under the ,moslem conquerors4 ,for delicacy of touch1 for intricate beauty of ornament1 and for decorative splendour in the use of gold and colour1 these ,oriental manuscripts are1 in their own way1 unsurpassed4 ,persian ,,mss4 ,in the orthodox ,sunni manuscripts miniatures with figure subjects do not occur1 but are lavishly used in the manuscripts of the ,persians and other members of the ,sufi sect4 ,the drawing of the human form is without the dignity and grace that is to be seen in ,western manuscripts1 but as pieces of decoration the ,oriental miniatures are of high merit4 ,copies of the ,koran1 and the works of the favourite ,persian poets are among the most common kinds of ,oriental manuscripts4 ,it is the latter that are so often sumptuously decorated with figure subjects4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,writers ,,of ,,illuminated ,,manuscripts4 ,the beauty of ,,mss4 ,the ,monastic ,scribes4 ,it may be interesting to consider what were the causes that made the illuminated manuscripts of the mediaeval period among the most perfect and beautiful works of art that the world has ever produced4 ,no one can examine the manuscripts of any of the chief ,european countries down to the fourteenth century without a feeling of amazement at their almost unvarying perfection of execution1 the immense fertility of fancy in their design1 and the utterly unsparing labour that was lavished on their production4 ,moreover the manuscripts of this earlier period1 before their production became a commercial art in the hand of secular scribes1 are especially remarkable for their uniform excellence of workmanship1 and their complete freedom from any signs of haste or weariness on the part of their scribes and illuminators4 ,conditions of life4 ,absence of hurry4 ,now the fact is that the countless illuminated manuscripts which were produced in so many of the ,benedictine and other monastic ,houses of ,europe were executed under very exceptionally favourable circumstances#bjg4 ,in the first place the monastic scribe lived in a haven of safety and rest in the middle of a tumultuous and war-harassed world4 ,while at work in the scriptorium he was troubled with no thoughts of any necessity to complete his task within a limited time in order to earn his daily bread4 ,food and clothing of a simple though sufficient kind were secured to him1 whether he finished his manuscript in a year or in twenty years4 ,he worked for no payment1 but for the glory of ,god and the honour of his monastic foundation1 and last1 but not least1 for the intense pleasure which the varying processes of his work gave him4 ,pleasant work4 ,no one who examines a fine mediaeval manuscript can help seeing in it the strongest marks of the delight which the illuminator had in his work2 and this sort of retrospective sympathy with the pleasure of the workman in his work is an important element in the beauty of ancient works of art of many different kinds and dates1 from the simple but beautiful wheel-turned vase of the ,greek potter1 down to the carved foliage in a ,gothic church1 or the complicated ornamentation of an illuminated initial4 ,relief from monotony4 ,again1 it should be remembered that the life of a mediaeval monk was a very uneventful and monotonous one1 and even the most pious soul must at times have felt a weariness in the oft-repeated and lengthy ,offices which made him spend so large a proportion of each day within the ,choir of his monastic church4 ,thus it was that his work as an illuminator of manuscripts provided the one great relief from his otherwise grey and monotonous life1 from which he turned to revel in every variety of fanciful shape and of varied arrangement of gleaming gold and brilliant pigments4 ,here at least was no monotony1 but the fullest scope for imaginative fancy and the love of variety which is inborn in the human mind4 ,scope for humour4 ,grotesque figures4 ,in the illumination of his manuscript the monastic scribe1 even when decorating a sacred book1 could lay aside for a moment the solemn religious thoughts to which his vows had bound him2 he could sport with every variety of grotesque monster and of ,pagan imagery1 and could find vent for his repressed sense of fun and humour by the introduction of caricatures and pictorial jokes of all kinds among the foliage of his borders and initials without any fear of reproof on the part of his superiors#bjh4 ,fig4 #eb from a ,french fourteenth century manuscript shows a characteristic example of an illuminators humorous fancy1 a grotesque ,bishop1 with a mitre made out of a pair of bellows4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,grotesque figure from a ,french manuscript of the fourteenth century4 ,very frequently the jealousy which existed between the ,regular and the ,secular ,clergy is expressed in the pictorial sarcasms of the monastic illuminators4 ,this feeling1 on the ,secular side1 is vividly set forth in the amusing ,latin ,poems of ,walter ,map#bji1 who1 toward the close of the twelfth century1 was the ,parish ,priest of a little church in the ,forest of ,dean#baj4 ,walter ,map's satire is mainly directed against the ,cistercian order of monks1 with whom he was specially brought into contact owing to his parish being situated near the ,cistercian ,abbey of ,flaxley4 ,humorous scene4 ,fig4 #ec4 from a ,german manuscript of the end of the twelfth century1 now in the ,chapter library of ,prague ,cathedral1 gives an interesting example of the introduction of a humorous scene into a grave work1 ,saint ,augustine's ,de civitate ,dei4 ,the illuminator1 who was named ,hildebert1 has been worried by a mouse1 which stole his food2 and here on the last leaf of the manuscript he represents himself interrupted in his work and throwing something at the mouse which is nibbling at his food4 ,these explanatory words are written on the open page of his book1 ,a wicked mouse4 ,pessime mus1 sepius me probocas ad iram1 ut te deus perdat4 ,you wicked mouse1 too often you provoke me to anger1 may ,god destroy you4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,miniature of a comic subject from a ,german manuscript of the twelfth century1 representing a monastic scribe worried by a mouse4 ,portrait of the scribe4 ,at the feet of the scribe a lad named ,everwinus1 possibly a monastic novice1 is seated on a low stool1 drawing a piece of ornamental scroll-work4 ,the ,monk ,hildebert's desk is in the form of a lectern supported by a carved lion2 in it are holes to hold the black and red inkhorns1 and two pens or brushes4 ,in his left hand the scribe holds the usual penknife1 and another pen is stuck behind his ear4 ,short hours of labour4 ,there is yet another of the conditions under which the monastic scribe worked which was not without important effect on the unvarying excellence of his work1 and that was that he could never remain long enough at work1 at any one time1 for his hand or eye to get wearied4 ,owing to the constantly recurring ,choir services1 the ,seven ,hours1 which he had to attend1 the monastic scribe could probably never continue labouring at his illumination for more than about two hours at a time4 ,no weariness4 ,the importance of this fact is very clearly seen when we compare one of the earlier monastic manuscripts with one of the fifteenth century ,french or ,flemish ,books of ,hours1 executed by a professional secular scribe4 ,thus in the older manuscripts the firmness of line and delicate1 crisp touch never relaxes1 and the artist's evident sense of power and the joy in his manual dexterity lasts without diminution from the first to the last page of his book4 ,variety of labour4 ,additional beauty is given to the mediaeval manuscripts by the fact that each scribe commonly did much important work in the preparation of his inks and pigments2 in some cases even to the beating out of the gold leaf he was about to use in his miniatures and borders#baa4 ,no colours bought of a dealer in a commercial age could ever equal in beauty or in durability the pigments that an illuminator made or at least prepared for his own use4 ,and his command over the materials of his art would greatly enhance his pleasure in using them1 to say nothing of the relief given by the variety of his labours4 ,varied schemes of ornament4 ,all these influences1 combined with others which it might be wearisome to dwell upon1 combined to make the manuscripts of the pre-commercial period works of the most unvarying perfection of technique1 unspeakably rich in the varied wealth of fancy shown in their decorative schemes1 as well as in the minute detail of each part4 ,the illuminated ornament in one place is concentrated into a gem-like miniature within the narrow limit of a small initial letter4 ,at another place it spreads out into the splendour of a full-page picture1 which swallows up most of the text1 and covers the whole page with one mass of burnished gold and brilliant colour4 ,or again1 springing from its roots in an illuminated capital1 it grows over the margin and frames the text with a mass of richly designed and exquisitely graceful foliage4 ,every possible scheme of decoration is to be found in these manuscripts2 but in all cases the illuminator is careful to make his painted ornament grow out of and form1 as it were1 an integral part of the written text1 which thus becomes not merely a book ornamented with pictures1 but is a close combination of writing and illumination1 forming one harmonious whole in a united scheme of decorative beauty#bab4 ,monastic ,scriptoria4 ,the ,scriptoria of ,monasteries4 ,as ,i have previously mentioned1 it was more especially the ,benedictine monasteries#bac that were the centres for the production of mediaeval manuscripts#bad4 ,i will therefore describe the usual arrangements of the ,scriptorium in a ,benedictine ,house4 ,in early times1 in the eighth and ninth centuries for example1 the ,scriptorium and library appear usually to have been a separate room1 near or over the ,sacristy1 and adjoining the ,choir of the church#bae4 ,scriptoria in cloisters4 ,during most of the mediaeval period1 however1 and in ,england down to the suppression of the ,abbeys by ,henry ,,viii41 the system was to devote one whole walk or alley of the cloister1 that nearest to the church1 to the double purpose of a ,scriptorium and library4 ,this was naturally the warmest and dryest portion of the cloister1 at least in most cases when the usual arrangement was followed of placing the cloister on the south side of the nave of the ,abbey church#baf4 ,monastic library4 ,this north walk 7as it commonly was7 of the cloister faced south and so received plenty of sun2 at each end of it a screen was placed to shut it off from the rest of the cloister1 which formed a sort of common living-room for the monks#bag4 ,along one side of this alley of the cloister were fixed1 against the wall of the church1 oak cupboards 7armaria71 with strong locks and hinges1 to receive the manuscripts which formed the library of the monastery#bah4 ,at ,westminster and in other ,benedictine monasteries the marks showing where these armaria were fixed are visible on the cloister wall or rather along the wall of the church1 which forms one side of this walk of the cloister4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,view of the scriptorium alley of the cloisters at ,gloucester1 showing the recesses to hold the wooden carrels for the scribes or readers of manuscripts4 ,scribes' carrels4 ,down the middle of the alley a clear passage was left1 and the other side of the passage1 that opposite the bookcases1 was occupied1 at least in the fourteenth century1 and probably much earlier1 by a row of little wooden box-like rooms called carrels#bai1 each of which was devoted to the use of one scribe4 ,as a rule there were either two or three of these carrels to each bay or compartment of the cloister4 ,they were commonly made of wainscot oak1 about six by eight feet in plan or even less2 just big enough to hold the seated scribe and his large desk1 on which rested the manuscript he was copying1 and the one he was writing1 with some extra shelf space for his black and red inkhorns1 his colours and other implements2 see fig4 #ec on p4 #bji4 ,these little rooms were provided with wooden floors and ceilings1 so as to be warm and dry2 they were set close against the traceried windows1 which in most cloisters ran all along the internal sides of the four alleys4 ,cloister at ,gloucester4 ,the cloister of ,gloucester ,abbey#bbj has a slightly different arrangement4 ,here a series of stone recesses1 each intended to hold a carrel1 extends all along the side of this walk#bba of the cloister4 ,there are two of these recesses to each bay1 and the lower part of the outer wall1 instead of consisting of open tracery1 is of solid masonry1 pierced only by a small glazed window to give light to the scribe2 above the carrel recess there is the usual large arch filled in with tracery2 see fig4 #edbbb4 ,when provided with these and other wooden fittings1 the cloister of a ,benedictine ,abbey would not have been either in appearance or fact as cold and comfortless as such places usually look now4 ,with a small portable brazier the monastic scribe in his little wooden cell was safe from damp and probably fairly warm even in cold weather4 ,cloister at ,durham4 ,the ,rites and ,monuments of ,durham#bbc 7,cap4 ,,xli47 give the following very interesting description of the carrels with which the ,durham cloister was fitted up2 ,in the northe syde of the ,cloister1 from the corner over againste the ,church dour to the corner over againste the ,dorter 7dormitory7 dour1 was all fynely glased1 from the hight to the sole 7sill7 within a little of the ground into the ,cloister garth4 ,and in every windowe iij ,,pewes or ,,carrells1 where every one of the old ,monks had his carrell1 severall by himselfe1 that1 when they had dyned1 they did resorte to that place of ,cloister and there studyed upon there books1 every one in his carrell1 all the afternonne1 unto evensong tyme4 ,this was there exercise every daie4 ,all there pewes or carrells was all fynely wainscotted 7with oak7 and verie close1 all but the forepart which had carved wourke that gave light in at ther carrell doures of wainscott4 ,and in every carrell was a deske to lye there bookes on4 ,and the carrells was no greater then from one stanchell 7mullion7 of the windowe to another4 ,the ,durham armaria4 ,and over againste the carrells against the church wall did stande certaine great almeries 7armaria or cupboards7 of wainscott all full of ,,bookes1 with great store of ancient manuscripts to help them in their study1 wherein did lye as well the old auncyent written ,doctors of the ,church as other prophane authors1 with dyverse other holie men's wourkes1 so that every one dyd studye what ,doctor pleased them best1 havinge the ,librarie at all tymes to goe studie in besydes there carrells4 ,in the sixteenth century1 owing to the introduction of printed works1 the books in the ,benedictine monastery of ,durham had become too numerous for the row of almeries along the north walk of the cloister to hold them2 and so a separate room was provided as a second library4 ,the present library at ,durham is the old ,dormitory or ,dorter of the ,monks with all its cubicles or sleeping-carrels removed4 ,other monastic ,scriptoria4 ,in the ,houses of other religious foundations the arrangements for the writing of manuscripts were different from those of the ,benedictines4 ,in a ,convent of ,dominican ,friars1 for example1 each friar worked in his own cell where he slept1 and in a ,carthusian monastery each monk had a complete little house and garden with a small study and oratory and a larger room1 where his labours1 literary or mechanical1 were carried on4 ,the ,dominican ,house of ,san ,marco in ,florence1 of which ,fra ,beato ,angelico was a member1 throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was famous for the magnificent manuscripts that were illuminated there2 see above1 p4 #aij4 ,and various other ,convents of ,dominican ,friars in ,italy were important centres of manuscript illumination4 ,some of the ,regular ,canons were also famous as illuminators1 especially the ,austin ,canons4 ,,the ,,secular ,,scribes ,,and ,,illuminators4 ,growth of ,guilds4 ,towards the latter part of the thirteenth and throughout the fourteenth century1 secular artisans in all varieties of arts and crafts were gradually throwing off the bonds of the old feudal serfdom under which they had for long been bound4 ,the growth in number and importance of the ,trade-,guilds1 which in ,england developed so rapidly under ,henry ,,iii41 was one of the chief signs of the growing importance of the artisans of the chief towns of this and other ,european countries4 ,importance of the ,trade-,guilds4 ,at the end of the thirteenth century1 in ,london1 in ,florence1 and in many other cities no man could possess the rights of a citizen and a share in the municipal government without becoming a member of one of the established ,trade-,guilds4 ,edward ,i41 ,edward ,,iii4 and others of the ,english ,kings set the example of enrolling themselves as members of one of the ,london ,guilds#bbd2 and in ,florence it was necessary for ,dante to become a member of a ,guild#bbe before he could serve the ,republic as one of the ,priori4 ,at first the scribes and illuminators 7librorum scriptores et illuminatores#bbf7 were members of one general ,guild including craftsmen in all the decorative arts and their subsidiary processes1 such as leather-tanning1 vellum-making1 and even saddlery#bbg4 ,guilds in the ,x,vth century4 ,by degrees the ,guilds became more numerous and more specialized in character1 till their fullest development was reached in the first half or middle of the fifteenth century4 ,much interesting information about the miniaturists' ,guild in ,bruges during the second half of the century has been published by ,mr ,weale#bbh4 ,this was the ,guild of ,saint ,john and ,saint ,luke2 and every painter1 miniaturist1 illuminator1 rubricator1 copyist1 maker of vellum1 binder or seller of books who lived and worked in ,bruges was obliged to belong to this ,guild4 ,this rule1 which existed in ,ghent1 ,antwerp and most artistic centres1 had a double use2 on the one hand it protected the individual illuminator from wrong and oppression of any kind2 and1 on the other hand1 it tended to keep up a good standard of excellence in the work which was executed by the ,guild-members4 ,rules of the ,guilds4 ,no miniaturist could be admitted till he had laid before the ,dean of the ,guild a sufficiently good sample of his skill1 and all members were liable to be fined if they used inferior materials of any kind1 such as impure gold1 adulterated ultramarine or vermilion and the like4 ,in this way the officers of the ,guild acted as moderators between the artisan and his patrons1 securing reasonable pay for the artist1 and1 in return for that1 reasonably good workmanship for his employer or customer4 ,the ,guilds also prevented anything like commercial slave-driving by limiting very strictly the number of apprentices or workmen that each master might employ4 ,decadence of ,,ms4 art4 ,thus it happened that1 though fine manuscripts were still written and illuminated in many of the principal monasteries of ,europe1 a large class of secular illuminators grew up1 especially in ,paris and the chief towns of ,flanders and northern ,germany4 ,in this way the production of manuscripts1 especially illuminated ,books of ,hours1 became a regular commercial process1 with the inevitable result that a great deal of work of a very inferior character was turned out to meet the rapidly growing demand for cheap and showy books4 ,an immense number of these cheap manuscript ,horae were produced after a few fixed patterns1 with some mechanical dulness of repetition in every border and miniature with which they were decorated4 ,costly ,horae4 ,at the same time manuscripts were still produced1 mostly at the special order of some royal patron or wealthy merchant1 which1 in elaborate beauty and in unsparing labour of execution1 are hardly surpassed by the work of the earlier monastic scribes#bbi4 ,examples of this are mentioned above at pages #ace and #afi4 ,the ,dukes of ,burgundy and the ,kings of ,france1 towards the close of the fourteenth and the first half of the fifteenth century1 numbered many illuminators among their regular paid adherents4 ,in some cases the artist was permanently engaged1 and passed his whole life in the service of one ,prince2 while in other cases famous illuminators were hired for a few months or years1 when the patron wanted a specially magnificent manuscript either for his own use1 or as a royal gift on the occasion of a marriage1 a coronation or other great event4 ,women artists4 ,in some cases1 we find that women learnt to be manuscript illuminators of great skill and artistic taste4 ,for example ,cornelia1 the wife of ,grard ,david of ,bruges#bcj1 was1 like her husband1 both an illuminator of manuscripts and a painter of altar retables4 ,a fine triptych painted by ,cornelia1 in the possession of ,mr ,h4 ,willett of ,brighton1 is a work of great beauty and refinement1 which it would be difficult to distinguish from a painting by ,grard ,david himself4 ,costly gifts4 ,in the fifteenth century the commercial value of sumptuously illuminated manuscripts rose to the highest point4 ,no object was thought more suited for a magnificent wedding present to a royal personage than a costly manuscript#bca4 ,and large sums were often advanced by money-lenders or pawnbrokers on the security of a fine illuminated manuscript4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,picture by ,quentin ,matsys of ,antwerp1 showing a lady selling or pawning an illuminated manuscript4 ,painting by ,matsys4 ,fig4 #ee shows a lady of the ,bourgeois class negociating for the sale or pawn of a ,book of ,hours or some such manuscript1 illuminated with a full-page miniature of the ,virgin and ,child4 ,the money-lender appears to be weighing out to her the money4 ,this beautiful painting which is commonly called the ,money-changer and his wife is signed and dated #aead by ,quentin ,massys or ,matsys of ,antwerp4 ,it is now in the ,louvre4 ,in the sixteenth century1 especially in ,italy1 during the last decadence of the illuminator's art1 very magnificent and costly manuscripts were produced by professional miniaturists1 but these are merely monuments of wasted labour4 ,some account is given at page #bjb of ,giulio ,clovio1 the most skilful though tasteless miniaturist of his age4 ,accounts of ,st ,george's1 ,windsor4 ,mr ,j4 ,w4 ,clark1 the ,registrary of the ,university of ,cambridge1 has procured and kindly allows me to print the following very interesting record of the cost of writing and illuminating certain manuscripts during the fourteenth century4 ,the extract is taken from the manuscript records of the expenses of the ,collegiate ,church of ,st ,george at ,windsor4 ,the date is approximately given by the fact that ,john ,prust was a ,canon of ,windsor from #acgi to #ache4 ,compotus ,johannis ,prust de diuersis libris per eum factis videlicet j ,antiphonarium1 j ,textus ,evangelij1 j ,martilogium1 iij ,processionalia4 ,in primis onerat se de x li4 vj s4 viij d4 receptis de ,ricardo ,shawe per ,indenturam4 ,item onerat se de xx s4 receptis de corpore prebende ,edmundi ,clouille4 ,item onerat se de l s4 receptis de dicto ,edmundo pro officio suo videlicet ,precentoris4 ,summa totalis receptorum xiij li4 xvj s4 viij d4 ,in xix quaternionibus pergamenti vituli emptis pro libro ,euangelij precio quaternionis viij d4 xij s4 viij d4 ,item solutum pro uno botello ad imponendum ,incaustum x d4 ,item solutum pro incausto xiiij d4 ,item pro vermulione ix d4 ,item pro communibus scriptoris pro xviijo4 septimanis solutum per septimanam x d4 xv s4 ,item pro stipendio dicti scriptoris per idem tempus xiij s4 iiij d4 ,item solutum ,ade ,acton ad notandum ,liber generacionis et ,passiones in dicto libro#bcb viij d4 ,item pro examinacione et ad faciendum literas capitales gloucas for glaucas iij s4 ,item pro illuminacione dicti libri iij s4 iiij d4 ,item pro ligacione dicti libri iij s4 iiij d4 ,item auri fabro pro operacione sua xx s4 ,item in uno equo conducto pro ,petro ,jon per ij vices ,london pro dicto libro portando et querendo viij d4 ,item pro expensis dicti ,petri per ij vices xj d4 ,summa lxxv s4 viij d4 ,item in vij quaternionibus pergamenti vituli emptis pro libro ,martilogij precio quaternionis viij d4 iiij s4 viij d4 et non plures quia stauro4 ,item pro scriptura xij quaternionum precio quaternionis xv d4 xv s4 ,item pro illuminacione dicti libri v s4 x d4 ,item pro ligacione dicti libri ij s4 ij d4 ,item ad faciendum literas capitales gloucas viij d4 ,summa xxviij s4 iiij d4 ,item in xxxiiij quaternionibus pergamenti vituli emptis pro vno ,anthiphonario precio quaternionis xv d4 xlij s4 vj d4 ,item xij quaterniones de stauro ,item pro scriptura xl4 quaternionum pro nota precio quaternionis xv d4 l s4 ,item pro scriptura vj quaternionum de phalterio#bcc precio quaternionis ij s4 ij d4 xiij s4 ,item ad notandum antiphonas in phalterio vj d4 ,item ad notandum xl4 quaterniones pro antiphonis precio vj d4 xx s4 ,item ad faciendum literas capitales gloucas xij d4 ,item pro illuminacione xv s4 xj d4 ,item pro ligacione v s4 ,summa vij li4 vij s4 xj d4 ,item in xlvj quaternionibus pergamenti multonis emptis pro iij libris processionalium precio quaternionis ij d4 ob4 ix s4 vij d4 ,item pro scriptura dictarum xlvj quaternionum xv s4 ,item ad notandum dictas quaterniones vij s4 vj d4 ,item pro illuminacione ij s4 ix d4 ,item pro ligacione ij s4 vj d4 ,summa xxxvij s4 iiij d4 ,summa ,totalis ,expensarum xiiij li4 ix s4 iij d4 ,et sic debentur computanter xij s4 vij d4 probatur per auditores quos recepit de ,ricardo ,shawe tunc precentore4 ,et sic equatur4 ,from these accounts we learn that six manuscripts were written1 illuminated and bound1 one of them with gold or silver clasps or bosses1 at a total cost of #ad4 #is4 #c;d41 more than #aej in modern value4 ,the books were a ,textus or ,evangeliarium1 a ,martyrologium1 an ,antiphonale and three ,processionals4 s4 d4 ,the ,evangeliarium was written on #ai quaternions 7quires7#bcd of vellum1 costing #h;d4 each1 total #ab #h ,black ink #a #b ,a bottle to hold the ink #aj ,vermilion #i ,the scribe's commons 7food7 for eighteen weeks #ae #j ,payment to the scribe #ac #d ,corrections and adding coloured initials #c #j ,illumination #c #d ,binding #c #d ,goldsmith's work 7on the binding7 #a #j #j ,two journeys to ,london and other smaller items1 making a total of #c4 #aes4 #h;d4 ,the ,martyrologium was partly written on #g quaternions of vellum#bce1 costing #h;d4 each quaternion #d #h ,payment to the scribe #ae #j ,illumination #e #aj ,binding #b #b ,coloured initials #h ----------- ,total #a #h #d ,the ,antiphonale was written on #cd quaternions of larger and more expensive sheets of vellum1 costing #ae;d4 a quaternion#bcf #b #b #f ,payments to the scribe #c #c #j ,adding the musical notation #a #j #f ,coloured initials #a #j ,illumination #ae #aa ,binding #e #j ----------- ,total #g #g #aa ,the three ,processionals only cost #a4 #ags4 #d;d41 being written on #df quaternions of cheap parchment made of sheep-skin which cost only #b;d4 the quaternion4 ,accounts of ,st ,ewen's1 ,bristol4 ,the following extracts from the ,parish accounts of the ,church of ,st ,ewen1 in ,bristol#bcg1 give some details as to the cost of writing1 illuminating and binding a manuscript ,lectionary during the years #adfi and #adgj4 ,the total expense is #c4 #ds4 #a;d41 quite equal to #bj in modern value4 #adfh-i4 ,item1 for j dossen and v quayers of vellom to perform the legend i4e4 to write the lectionary on xs vjd ,item1 for wrytyng of the same xxvs ,item1 for ix skynnys and j quayer of velom to the same legend vs vjd ,item1 for wrytyng of the forseyd legend iiijs ijd #adgj-adga4 ,item for a red ,skynne to kever the legent vd ,also for the binding and correcting of the seid ,boke vs ,also for the lumining of the seid legent xiijs vjd ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,materials ,,and ,,technical ,,processes ,,of ,,the ,,illuminator4 ,finest vellum4 ,vellum for scribes#bch4 ,the most remarkable skill is shown by the perfection to which the art of preparing vellum#bci for the scribe was brought4 ,the exquisitely thin uterine vellum1 which was specially used for the minutely written ,anglo-,norman ,vulgates of the thirteenth century1 has been already described2 see page #aac4 ,for ivory-like beauty of colour and texture nothing could surpass the best ,italian vellum of the fifteenth century4 ,one occasional use of the very thin uterine vellum should be noted4 ,for example in a ,german twelfth century copy of the ,vulgate1 now in the ,corpus library in ,cambridge1 some of the miniature pictures have been painted on separate pieces of uterine vellum1 and then pasted into their place on the thicker vellum pages of the manuscript4 ,this1 however1 is an exceptional thing4 ,high price of vellum4 ,the vellum used for illuminated manuscripts appears to have been costly1 partly on account of the skill and labour that were required for its production1 and1 in the case of uterine vellum on account of the great number of animals' skins that were required to provide enough material for the writing of a single manuscript such as a copy of the ,vulgate4 ,cost of vellum4 ,even the commoner kind of parchment used for official documents was rather a costly thing4 ,the roll with the ,visitation expenses of ,bishop ,swinfield1 ,bishop of ,hereford from #abhb to #acag1 shows that #aej sheets of parchment cost #cs4 #d;d41 about #d in modern value#bdj4 ,the vellum used for manuscripts has a different texture on its two sides4 ,one side1 that on which the hair grew1 has a mat1 unglossy surface2 the other 7interior7 side of the skin is perfectly smooth and1 in the case of the finest vellum1 has a beautifully glossy texture like that of polished ivory4 ,in writing a manuscript the scribe was careful to arrange his pages so that two glossy and two dull pages came opposite each other#bda4 ,bad modern vellum4 ,the art of preparing vellum of the finest kind is now lost2 the vellum made in ,england is usually spoilt first by rubbing down the surface to make it unnaturally even1 and then by loading it with a sort of priming of plaster and white lead1 very much like the paper of a cheap memorandum book4 ,the best modern vellum is still made in ,italy1 especially in ,rome4 ,good1 stout1 undoctored vellum of a fine1 pure colour can be procured in ,rome1 though in limited quantities1 and at a high price#bdb1 but nothing is now made which resembles either the finest ivory-textured vellum of fifteenth century ,italian manuscripts1 or the exquisitely thin uterine vellum of the ,anglo-,norman ,bibles4 ,use of paper4 ,paper#bdc4 ,though by far the majority of the illuminated manuscripts of the ,middle ,ages are written on vellum1 yet paper was occasionally used1 long before the fifteenth century1 when its manufacture was largely developed to supply the demand created by the invention of printing4 ,paper made from the papyrus pith has been already described1 see ,chap4 ,,ii4 page #bb4 ,mode of making paper4 ,a very different process was used for the various kinds of paper which were made in mediaeval and modern times4 ,the essence of the process consists in making a fine pulp of cotton or linen rags by long-continued pounding with water sufficient to give the mixture the consistency of thick cream4 ,a handful of this fluid pulp is then spread evenly and thinly over the bottom of a fine wire sieve1 through which the superfluous water drains away1 leaving a thin1 soft mass which is then turned out of the sieve1 pressed1 dried and finally soaked with size to make the paper fit to write on4 ,this process leaves the wire-marks of the sieve indelibly printed on to the paper4 ,these marks are of two kinds1 first1 those of the stouter wires which run longitudinally along the sieve at intervals of about an inch or a little more1 and secondly1 very fine cross wires1 placed close together1 and woven in at right angles to the first-mentioned stouter wires4 ,water-marks4 ,in the fourteenth century what are called water-marks came into use1 together with the invention of linen paper4 ,some simple device indicating the city or province where the paper was made was woven with fine wire into the bottom of the sieve1 and this mark was impressed upon the paper1 like that of the other 7parallel7 wires of the sieve4 ,a double-headed eagle1 a vase1 a letter or a bull's head are among the earliest paper-marks which occur in manuscripts and books of the fifteenth century#bdd4 ,in later times1 during the sixteenth century1 each manufacturer adopted his own mark#bde2 and then still more recently the year-date has been added#bdf4 ,evidence of date4 ,these paper-marks in some cases afford useful evidence as to the origin and date of a manuscript or printed book2 but too much reliance should not be placed on such evidence1 since paper often remained for a long time in stock1 and the productions of one manufactory were frequently exported for use by the scribes and printers of more than one distant country#bdg4 ,paper of ,oriental make has no water-mark1 but the earliest linen-paper of the fourteenth century made in ,christian ,europe always has a water-mark of some kind1 very clearly visible4 ,earliest cotton paper4 ,the dates of paper manufacture4 ,the earliest paper appears to have been made in ,china at a date even before the ,christian ,era4 ,its manufacture was next extended in ,syria1 and especially to ,damascus#bdh4 ,this early paper was made of the cotton-plant1 the tree-wool of ,herodotus4 ,hence it was called charta bombycina or ,damascena1 or1 from its silky texture1 charta serica4 ,paper of this class1 almost as beautiful in texture as vellum1 is still made in the ,east and used for the fine illuminated manuscripts of ,india1 ,persia and other ,moslem countries4 ,arab ,,mss4 on paper4 ,many ,arab manuscripts written on cotton-paper of as early a date as the ninth century still exist4 ,the ,moslem conquerors of ,spain and ,sicily introduced the manufacture of this charta bombycina into western ,europe1 and to some small extent it was used for ,greek and ,latin manuscripts during the tenth and eleventh centuries4 ,it was1 however1 rarely used in ,christian ,europe till the thirteenth century4 ,wool-paper4 ,at first cotton only was used in the manufacture of paper1 but gradually a mixture first of wool and then of flax or linen was introduced4 ,peter1 who was ,abbot of ,cluny from #aabb to #aaej1 in his treatise ,adversus ,judaeos mentions manuscripts written on wool-paper1 made ex rasuris veterum pannorum4 ,linen paper4 ,in the fourteenth century linen-paper began to be made2 at first mixed with wool1 and then of pure linen4 ,this fourteenth century paper is distinguishable by its stoutness1 its close texture1 and its thick wire-marks2 the water-mark being especially clear and transparent4 ,paper was frequently used for official documents1 charters and the like before it came into use for manuscript books#bdi4 ,early ,,ms4 on paper4 ,the ,british ,museum possesses one of the oldest known books on paper 7,arundel ,manuscripts1 #bfh72 this is a collection of ,astronomical treatises written by an ,italian scribe early in the thirteenth century4 ,in the fourteenth century the ,spanish manufactories of cotton-paper were on the decline1 and the first manufactory of linen-paper was started at ,fabriano in northern ,italy4 ,in #acdj another manufactory was set up in ,padua1 and before the close of the fourteenth century paper was made in nearly all the chief cities of northern ,italy1 especially in ,milan and ,venice1 and as far south as ,florence and ,siena4 ,in ,germany paper-making began in ,mentz in about #acbj2 and in #acij a manufactory was started at ,nuremberg with the aid of ,italian workmen4 ,south ,germany1 however1 was supplied with paper from northern ,italy till the fifteenth century4 ,in ,paris and other places in ,france paper began to be made soon after the first manufactories in ,italy were started4 ,paper in ,england4 ,in ,england cotton-paper1 especially for legal documents1 was largely used in the fourteenth century4 ,in ,oxford1 in the year #acee1 a quire of paper1 small folio size1 cost five pence1 equal in modern value to eight or nine shillings4 ,in the fifteenth century its value had decreased to three pence or four pence the quire4 ,paper does not appear to have been made in ,england till the reign of ,henry ,,vii42 before that time it was mainly imported from ,germany and the ,netherlands4 ,earliest ,english paper4 ,all ,caxton's books are printed on foreign paper1 and the first book printed on paper which was made in ,england was ,wynkyn de ,worde's ,bartholomaeus1 ,de proprietatibus rerum1 printed about the year #adie1 four years after ,caxton's death1 with the following interesting colophon1 which alludes to the first paper manufactory in ,england1 set up by ,john ,tate at ,hertford4 ,this colophon1 which does not do credit to ,wynkyn de ,worde's literary style1 runs thus3 ,and also of your charyte call to remembraunce ,the soule of ,william ,caxton first prynter of this boke ,in laten tongue at ,coleyn hymself to auance ,that every wel disyosyd man may theron loke ,and ,john ,tate the yonger joye mote he broke ,whiche late hathe in ,englond doo make this paper thynne ,that now in our englyssh this boke is prynted inne4 ,during the fifteenth century the making of paper reached its highest degree of perfection1 and in the following century its excellence began to decline4 ,beauty of ,venetian paper4 ,the ,venetian paper of about #adgj1 used1 for example1 in the printed books of ,nicolas ,jenson and other printers in ,venice1 is a substance of very great beauty and durability1 inferior only in appearance to the very best sort of vellum4 ,it is very strong1 of a fine creamy tint1 and sized#bej with great skill1 so as to have a beautiful glossy texture4 ,for the illuminator's purpose it appears to have been almost as good as vellum4 ,it even receives the raised mordant for burnished gold of the highest beauty and brilliance4 ,the very small quantity of good paper that is now manufactured1 mainly for artistic purposes1 is made by hand in exactly the same way that was employed in the fourteenth or fifteenth century4 ,most paper is now made by machinery1 and as a rule contains more esparto grass than pure linen fibre4 ,,the ,,metals ,,and ,,pigments ,,used ,,in ,,illuminated ,,manuscripts#bea4 ,fluid and leaf gold4 ,gold and silver or tin4 ,the splendour of illuminated manuscripts of almost all classes1 except manuscripts of the ,irish school such as the ,book of ,kells1 is largely due to the very skilful use of gold and silver4 ,these metals were applied by the illuminator in two ways1 first1 as a fluid pigment1 and secondly in the form of leaf4 ,the fluid method appears to have been the older4 ,it is easier to apply1 but is not comparable in splendour of effect to the highly burnished leaf gold1 which was used with such perfection of skill by the illuminators of the fourteenth century4 ,method of grinding4 ,fluid gold was made by laboriously grinding the pure metal on a porphyry slab into the finest possible powder4 ,this powdered gold1 mixed with water and a little size1 was applied with a brush like any other pigment2 see ,theophilus1 ,i4 #cj to #ccbeb4 ,when dry1 it could be to some extent polished by burnishing1 but as it was laid directly on to the comparatively uneven and yielding surface of the vellum it never received a very high polish4 ,as a rule therefore fluid gold was left unburnished1 and its surface remained dull or mat in appearance4 ,dull and burnished gold4 ,for this reason it was not unfrequently used in conjunction with burnished leaf gold1 a fine decorative effect being produced by the contrast of the mat and polished surfaces4 ,thus1 for example1 in fourteenth and fifteenth century manuscripts a delicate diaper of scroll pattern is sometimes painted with a fine brush over a ground of burnished gold leaf4 ,in the fifteenth century1 during the decadence of the illuminator's art1 the use of fluid gold1 which had previously greatly diminished1 was much revived1 especially for the background of the realistic borders in ,flemish manuscripts#bec1 for touching in the high lights of miniatures1 and for many other purposes4 ,when used to cover large surfaces1 it is always unsatisfactory in effect and has little decorative value4 ,cistercian severity4 ,the preparation of this gold pigment was a very slow and laborious matter4 ,the severe ,cistercian rule regarded this process as a waste of precious time2 and indeed the use of gold in any form was prohibited in the manuscripts used in ,cistercian ,abbeys4 ,in the dialogue between a ,cistercian and a ,cluniac monk1 ,de diversis utriusque ordinis observantiis 7,thesaur4 ,nov4 ,anecdot4 ,vol4 ,v4 #afbc71 the ,cistercian asks what use there can be in grinding gold and painting large capitals with it2 aurum molere et cum illo molito magnas capitales pingere litteras1 quid est nisi inutile et otiosum opus8 ,st ,bernard himself had an even stronger objection1 not only to gold in manuscripts1 but to any ornaments with grotesque dragons and monsters1 on the ground that they did not tend to edification4 ,fluid silver4 ,fluid silver was prepared and applied in the same way1 but it was much less used than gold pigment4 ,a very beautiful effect is produced in some of the gorgeous ,carolingian manuscripts by using in the same ornament both gold and silver1 which mutually enhance each other's effect by contrast of colour4 ,leaf gold4 ,mordant ground4 ,burnished ,gold leaf4 ,the extraordinary splendour of effect produced by skilfully applied gold leaf depends mainly on the fact that it was laid1 not directly on to the vellum1 but on to a thick bed of a hard enamel-like substance1 which gradually set 7as it got dry7 and formed a ground nearly as hard and smooth as glass2 this enabled the gold leaf laid upon it to be burnished to the highest possible polish1 till in fact the gold gave a reflexion like that of a mirror4 ,this enamel-like ground1 or mordant as it was called1 was commonly as thick as stout cardboard1 and its edges were rounded off1 which has the double result of making the gold leaf laid upon it look not like a thin leaf1 but like a thick plate of gold#bed1 and at the same time the rounded edges catch the light and so greatly increase the decorative splendour of the metal4 ,convex surface4 ,thus1 for example1 the little bosses and studs of gold1 which are strewn so thickly among the foliage in the illuminated borders of ,italian manuscripts of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 are convex in shape1 like an old-fashioned watch-glass1 and each boss reflects a brilliant speck of light whatever the direction may be in which the light falls upon the page4 ,perhaps the most sumptuous use of gold leaf is to be seen in some of the early fourteenth century ,french manuscripts1 in which large miniatures are painted with an unbroken background of solid-looking burnished gold1 with a mirror-like power of reflexion4 ,it was only by slow degrees that the illuminators reached the perfect technical skill of the fourteenth century in their application of gold leaf4 ,purity of the gold4 ,in the first place the purest gold had to be beaten out1 not the alloy of gold1 silver and copper which now is used for making the gold leaf of what is called the finest quality4 ,the ,english illuminators at the close of the thirteenth and in the fourteenth century frequently got their gold in the form of the beautiful florins of ,florence1 ,lucca#bee or ,pisa1 which were struck of absolutely pure gold#bef4 ,in ,england there was no gold coinage till the series of nobles was begun by ,edward ,,iii4#beg1 but these were of quite pure gold1 like the ,italian florins1 and so answered the purpose of the illuminator4 ,another important point was that the gold leaf was not beaten to one twentieth part of the extreme tenuity of the modern leaf4 ,the leaves were very small1 about three by four inches at the most1 and not more than from fifty to a hundred of these were made out of the gold ducat of ,italy1 which weighed nearly as much as a modern sovereign#beh4 ,in many cases1 we find1 the illuminator prepared his own gold leaf1 and it was not uncommon for the crafts of the goldsmith and the illuminator to be practised by the same man4 ,for example the ,fitz-,othos1 mentioned at page #aab as a distinguished ,anglo-,norman family of artists in the thirteenth century1 were skilful both as makers of gold shrines and as illuminators of manuscripts4 ,many interesting notes about the ,fitz-,othos and other artists employed at ,westminster during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries are to be found among the royal accounts now preserved in the ,record ,office3 see ,vetusta ,monumenta1 ,vol4 ,,vi41 p4 #a seq4 ,among the accounts of the expenses of decorating with painting the royal chapel of ,saint ,stephen at ,westminster in ,edward ,,iii4's reign1 we find that ,john ,lightgrave paid for six hundred leaves of gold at the rate of five shillings the hundred1 equal to about #e or #f in modern value4 ,and ,john ,tynbeter received six shillings for six dozen leaves of tin used instead of silver1 not because it was cheap1 but because tin was not so liable to tarnish4 ,these accounts are in ,latin1 which is not always of ,ciceronian purity2 a classical purist might perhaps carp at such phrases as these1 ,item4 ,pro reparatione brushorum1 viijd1 under the date #acjg2 and1 in the following year1 ,item4 ,unum scarletum blanketum1 ijs vijd4 ,the scarlet blanket was not bought to keep the artist warm1 but to make a red pigment from1 as is described below at page #bdf4 ,goldsmith artists4 ,this close connection between the arts of the goldsmith and the illuminator had its parallel in other branches of the arts1 and with results of very considerable importance4 ,many of the chief painters and sculptors of ,italy1 during the period of highest artistic development1 were also skilful goldsmiths1 as for example ,ghiberti1 ,verrocchio1 ,ant4 ,pollaiuolo1 ,francesco ,francia and many others4 ,this habit of manipulating the precious metals gave neatness and precision of touch to the painter1 and in the art of illuminating manuscripts taught the artist to use his gold so as to produce the richest and most decorative effect4 ,the gold mordant4 ,the mordant4 ,we now come to the most difficult part of the illuminator's art1 that of producing a ground for his gold leaf of the highest hardness and smoothness of surface4 ,it is a subject dealt with at much length by all the chief writers on the technique of the illuminator1 from ,theophilus in the eleventh century1 down to ,cennino ,cennini at the beginning of the fourteenth#bei4 ,though differing in details1 the general principle of the process is much the same in all2 the finest possible sort of gesso1 plaster1 gypsum or whitening1 was very finely ground to an impalpable powder1 and then worked up with albumen or size to the consistency of cream1 so that it could be applied with a brush4 ,after the first coat was dry1 a second and a third coat were added to bring up the mordant to the requisite thickness of body1 so that it stood out in visible relief upon the surface of the vellum4 ,in order that the illuminator might see clearly where his brush was going1 and keep his mordant accurately within the required outline1 it was usual to add some colouring matter1 such as bole ,armeniac 7red ochre71 to the white gesso1 which otherwise would not have shown out very clearly on the cream-white vellum4 ,in many cases1 however1 this colouring matter is omitted4 ,application of leaf4 ,when the last coat of the gesso-mordant was dry and hard1 its surface was carefully polished with the burnisher and it was then ready to receive the gold leaf2 several days' waiting would often be required before the whole body of the mordant had set perfectly hard4 ,white of egg was then lightly brushed over the whole of the raised mordant1 and while the albumen was still moist and sticky1 the illuminator gently slid on to it the piece of gold leaf1 which he had previously cut approximately to the required shape4 ,he then softly dabbed the gold leaf with a pad or bunch of wool1 till it had completely adhered to the sticky mordant1 working it with special care so as completely to cover the rounded edges4 ,after the albumen was quite dry1 and the gold leaf firmly fixed in its place1 the artist brushed away with a stiff brush all the superfluous gold leaf2 all the leaf1 that is1 under which there was no mordant-ground to hold it fast4 ,burnishing process4 ,the gold was then ready to be polished4 ,for this purpose various forms of burnisher were used1 the best being a hard highly polished rounded pencil of crystal or stone1 such as haematite1 agate1 chalcedony and the like2 or in lack of those1 the highly enamelled tooth of a dog1 cat1 rat or other carnivorous animal was nearly as good#bfj4 ,in fact patience and labour were the chief requisites2 one receipt1 in ,jehan le ,begue's manuscript1 #aibbfa1 directs the illuminator to burnish and to go on burnishing till the sweat runs down his forehead4 ,but caution1 as well as labour1 was required2 it was very easy to scratch holes in the gold leaf1 so that the mordant showed through1 unless great care was used in the rubbing4 ,in that case the illuminator had to apply another piece of leaf to cover up the scratches1 and do his burnishing over again4 ,to secure the highest polish1 illuminators burnished the hard mordant as described above before laying on the gold leaf4 ,in most cases two layers of gold leaf were applied1 and sometimes even more1 in order to insure a perfect and unbroken surface4 ,application of gold4 ,all writers speak of this burnishing as being a very difficult and uncertain process even to a skilled hand1 requiring exactly the right temperature and amount of moisture in the air1 or else it was liable to go wrong4 ,if the gold was to be applied in minute or intricate patterns the illuminator did not attempt to cut his leaf to fit the mordant-ground1 but laid it in little patches so as to cover a portion of the ornament4 ,the superfluous gold between the lines of the pattern was then brushed away1 as the leaf only remained where it was held by the mordant4 ,with all possible care and skill1 it was hardly possible always to ensure a sharp clean outline to each patch of gold2 and so one commonly finds that the illuminator has added a black outline round the edge of each patch of gold1 in order to conceal any little raggedness of the edge4 ,receipts for the mordant4 ,as examples of mediaeval receipts for making the mordant ,i may mention the following3-- ,mix gypsum1 white marble1 and egg-shells finely powdered and coloured with red ochre or terra verde2 to be mixed with white of egg and applied in thin coats1 and to be burnished before the application of the gold4 ,when dry1 this mixture slowly set into a beautiful1 hard and yet not brittle substance1 capable of receiving a polish like that of marble1 and forming the best possible ground to receive the gold leaf4 ,much of its excellence depended on the patience of the illuminator in applying it in very thin coats2 each of which was allowed to dry completely before the next was laid on4 ,when ready to receive the gold leaf1 after the burnishing of the mordant was finished1 some purified white of egg was brushed over to make the gold leaf adhere firmly so as not to work loose or tear under the friction of the burnisher4 ,receipts for the mordant4 ,in some cases white lead 7ceruse7 was added to the gesso1 as1 for example1 in a receipt1 given by ,cennino ,cennini 7 #aca to #aci1 and #aeg17 for a mordant made of fine gypsum1 ceruse and sugar of ,candia1 that is ordinary pure white sugar#bfb4 ,this is to be ground up with white of egg1 applied in thin coats and burnished4 ,to colour the mordant ,cennino adds bole ,armeniac1 or terra verde1 or verdigris green4 ,giovanni da ,modena1 a ,bolognese illuminator1 gives the following receipt for a different gold-mordant to be used with oil instead of albumen or size#bfc4 ,instead of gesso it is to be made of a mixture of white and red lead1 red ochre1 bole ,armeniac and verdigris2 the whole is to be ground first with water1 then thoroughly dried1 and again ground up with a mixture of linseed oil and amber or mastic varnish4 ,this variety of mordant appears to have been used in a good many fifteenth century ,italian manuscripts4 ,it is not such a good mixture as the gesso and white of egg1 as the oil used to mix with it is liable to stain the vellum through to the other side of the page1 and even to print off a mark on the opposite page1 especially when the book has been severely pressed by the binder4 ,tooled patterns4 ,stamped patterns4 ,tooled patterns on gold leaf4 ,in many ,italian and ,french manuscripts1 especially of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 a very rich and brilliant effect is produced with tooled lines impressed into the surface of the flat gold4 ,diapered and scroll-work backgrounds1 the nimbi of ,saints1 the orphreys and apparels on vestments1 and many other kinds of decoration were skilfully executed with a pointed bone or ivory tool1 impressed upon the gold leaf after it was burnished1 and through the gold into the slightly elastic body of the gesso-mordant4 ,patterns were also produced by the help of minute punches1 which stamped dots or circles2 these1 when grouped together1 formed little rosettes or powderings1 like those used in the panel paintings of the same time4 ,gold treated in this way had to be of considerable thickness1 and in some cases1 when a large flat surface of mordant was to be gilt1 as many as three layers of stout gold leaf were employed to give the requisite body of metal4 ,silver leaf4 ,burnished silver leaf was occasionally used by the mediaeval illuminators1 though not very often1 as it was very liable to tarnish and blacken4 ,for this reason leaf tin was not unfrequently used instead of silver1 as tin does not oxydize in such a conspicuous way2 see above1 p4 #bcc4 ,the use of all three metals1 gold1 silver and tin1 is described by ,theophilus1 ,schedula diversarum ,artium1 ,i4 #bd1 #be and #bf4 ,theophilus speaks of laying the gold leaf directly on to the vellum with the help only of white of egg4 ,this method was not uncommon in early times1 and it was not till the end of the thirteenth century that the full splendour of effect was reached by the help of the thick1 hard mordant-ground4 ,cheap methods4 ,inferior processes were sometimes used for the cheap manuscripts of later times4 ,thus tin leaf burnished and then covered with a transparent yellow lacquer or varnish made from saffron was used instead of gold4 ,cennino and other writers describe a curious method of applying gold easily and cheaply4 ,the illuminator was first to paint his design with a mixture of size and pounded glass or crystal2 this1 when dry1 left a surface like modern sandpaper or glass-paper1 the artist was then to rub a bit of pure gold over the rough surface1 which ground off and held a sufficient amount of gold to produce the effect of gilding4 ,only a very coarse effect1 worthy of the nineteenth century1 could have been produced by this process4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,the ,,materials ,,and ,,technical ,,processes ,,of ,,the ,,illuminator 7continued74 ,vehicles used4 ,the coloured pigments of the illuminators4 ,though mediaeval manuscripts are splendid and varied in colour to the highest possible degree1 yet all this wealth of decorative effect was produced by a very few pigments1 and with the simplest of media1 such as size made by boiling down shreds of vellum or fish-bones#bfd1 or else gum-arabic1 or occasionally white of egg or a mixture both of the yoke and the white#bfe4 ,in the main the technique of manuscript illumination is the same as that of panel pictures executed in distemper 7tempera74 ,an oil medium was unsuited to manuscript work because the oil spoilt the beautiful opaque whiteness of the vellum and made the painting show through to the other side#bff4 ,ultramarine blue4 ,blue pigments4 ,the most important blue pigment1 both during classical and mediaeval times1 was the costly and very beautiful ultramarine 7azzurrum#bfg transmarinum71 which was made from lapis lazuli1 a mineral chiefly imported from ,persia4 ,this ultramarine blue was the cyanus or coeruleum of ,theophrastus and ,pliny4 ,it is not only the most magnificent of all blue pigments1 but is also the most durable1 even when exposed to light for a very long period4 ,its manufacture4 ,the general principle of the manufacture of ultramarine is very simple2 consisting merely in grinding the lapis lazuli to powder1 and then separating1 by repeated washing1 the deep blue particles from the rest of the stone#bfh4 ,the process of extracting the blue was made easier if the lapis lazuli was first calcined by heat4 ,this is the modern method1 and was occasionally done in mediaeval times1 but it injures the depth and brilliance of the pigment1 and in the finest manuscripts ultramarine was used which had been prepared by the better though more laborious process without the aid of heat4 ,its great value4 ,the proportion of pure blue in a lump of lapis lazuli is much smaller than it looks2 the stone was and is rare and costly1 and thus the finest ultramarine of the mediaeval painters was often worth considerably more than double its weight in gold#bfi4 ,both in classical and mediaeval times it was usual for the patron who had ordered a picture to supply the necessary ultramarine to the artist1 who was only expected to provide the less costly pigments in return for the sum for which he had contracted to execute the work4 ,method of theft4 ,pliny 7,hist4 ,nat4 ,,xxxiii4 #abj7 tells a story of a trick played by a painter on his employer1 who suspiciously watched the artist to see that he did not abstract any of the precious ultramarine which had been doled out to him4 ,at frequent intervals the painter washed his brush1 dipped in the ultramarine1 in a vessel of water2 the heavy pigment sank to the bottom1 and at the end of the day the artist poured off the water and secured the mass of powdered ultramarine at the bottom4 ,it is interesting to note that ,vasari1 in his life of ,perugino1 tells precisely this story about ,pietro1 who was annoyed at the suspicions expressed by a certain ,prior for whom he was painting a fresco#bgj4 ,the ,prior was in despair at the enormous amount of pigment that the thirsty wall sucked in1 and he was agreeably surprised when1 at the conclusion of the work1 ,perugino returned to him a large quantity of ultramarine1 as a lesson that he should not suspect a gentleman of being a thief4 ,ultramarine scraped off4 ,the library of ,corpus ,christi ,college1 ,cambridge1 possesses a manuscript which affords a curious proof of the great value of ultramarine to the mediaeval illuminator4 ,this is a magnificent copy of the ,vulgate by a ,german scribe of the twelfth century1 copiously illustrated with miniature pictures1 many of which had backgrounds1 either partially or wholly1 covered with ultramarine4 ,all through the book the ultramarine has in mediaeval times been very carefully and completely scraped off1 no doubt for use in another manuscript4 ,this theft has been accomplished with such skill that wonderfully little injury has been done to the beautiful illuminations1 except1 of course1 the loss of splendour caused by the abstraction of the ultramarine4 ,impasto4 ,in illuminated manuscripts ultramarine is very freely used4 ,it is specially noticeable for the thick body 7impasto7 in which it is applied1 so as very often to stand out in visible relief4 ,the reason of this is that this1 and some other blue pigments1 lose much of their depth of colour if they are ground into very fine powder4 ,hence both the ultramarine and smalto blues are always applied in comparatively coarse grained powder2 and this of course necessitates the application of a thick body of colour4 ,ancient cyanus4 ,smalto blues4 ,next in importance to the real ultramarine come the artificial smalto or enamel blues1 which were used largely in ,egypt at a very early date under the name of artificial cyanus2 see ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,,xxxvii4 #aai4 ,among the ,greeks and ,romans too this was a pigment of great importance1 and when skilfully made is but little inferior in beauty to the natural ultramarine4 ,vitreous pigment4 ,smalto blue is simply a powdered blue glass or vitreous enamel1 coloured with an oxide or carbonate of copper4 ,vitruvius 7,,vii4 xi4 #a7 describes the method of making it by fusing in a crucible the materials for ordinary bottle-glass1 mixed with a quantity of copper filings4 ,the alcaline silicate of the glass frit acts upon the copper1 which slowly combines with the glass1 giving it a deep blue colour4 ,the addition of a little oxide of tin turns it into an opaque blue enamel1 which when cold was broken up with a hammer1 and then powdered1 but not too finely1 in a mortar4 ,smalto blue is largely used for the simple blue initials which alternate with red ones in an immense number of manuscripts4 ,the glittering particles of the powdered glass can easily be distinguished by a minute examination4 ,like the ultramarine1 the smalto blue is always applied in a thick layer4 ,the monk ,theophilus 7,,ii4 #ab71 who wrote during a period of some artistic and technical decadence1 the eleventh century1 advises the glass-painter who wants a good blue to search among some ancient ,roman ruins for the fine coloured tesserae of glass mosaics1 which were so largely used by the ,romans to decorate their walls and vaults1 and then to pound them for use4 ,german blue4 ,azzurro ,tedesco or ,azzurro della ,magna1 ,german blue1 was much used by the illuminators as a cheap substitute for ultramarine4 ,this appears to have been a native compound of carbonate of copper of a brilliant blue colour4 ,it was occasionally used to adulterate the costly ultramarine1 but this fraud was easily discovered by heating a small quantity of the pigment on the blade of a knife2 it underwent no change if it was pure2 but if adulterated with ,azzurro della ,magna it showed signs of blackening#bga4 ,indigo4 ,indigo blue4 ,the above-mentioned blues are all of a mineral character1 and are durable under almost any circumstances4 ,to some extent however the vegetable indigo blue was also used for manuscript illuminations1 both alone and also to make a compound purple colour4 ,method of using dyes4 ,colours of all kinds prepared from vegetable or animal substances required a special treatment to fit them for use as pigments in solid or tempera painting4 ,though indigo and other colours of a similar class are the best and simplest of dyes for woven stuffs1 yet they are too thin in body to use alone as pigments4 ,thus both in classical and mediaeval times these dye-pigments were prepared by making a small quantity of white earth1 powdered chalk or the like absorb a large quantity of the thin dye1 which thus was brought into a concentrated and solid1 opaque form1 not a mere stain as it would otherwise have been4 ,these kinds of pigments are described by ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,,xxxv4 #dd and #df2 and by ,vitruvius1 ,,vii4 xiv4 ,eraclius in his work on technique1 ,de artibus ,romanorum1 calls them colores infectivi1 dyed colours1 an accurately expressive phrase4 ,one method1 occasionally used for the cheaper class of manuscripts1 was to paint on to the vellum with white lead1 and then to colour it by repeated application of a brush dipped in the thin dye-pigment4 ,many of the colours mentioned below belong to this class4 ,terra verde4 ,green pigments4 ,a fine soft green much used in early manuscripts is a natural earthy pigment called terra verde or green ,verona earth4 ,this needs little preparation1 except washing1 and is of the most durable kind2 it is a kind of ochre1 coloured1 not with iron1 but by the natural presence of copper4 ,verdigris green4 ,a much more brilliant green pigment was made of verdigris 7verderame7 or carbonate of copper1 produced very easily by moistening metallic copper with vinegar or by exposing it to the fumes of acetic acid in a closed earthen vessel2 see ,theophilus1 ,i4 #cg4 ,verdigris green was much used by manuscript illuminators1 especially during the fifteenth century1 when a very unpleasant harsh and gaudy green appears to have been popular4 ,when softened by an admixture of white pigment1 verdigris gives a pleasanter and softer colour4 ,chrysocolla4 ,a native carbonate of copper1 which was called by the ,romans chrysocolla#bgb1 was also used for mediaeval manuscripts4 ,it is1 however1 harsh in tint if not tempered with white4 ,both the last-named pigments were specially used with yoke of egg as a medium4 ,prasinum1 a vegetable green made by staining powdered chalk with the green of the leek1 was sometimes used4 ,cennino ,cennini also recommends a grass green made by mixing orpiment 7sulphuret of arsenic7 and indigo4 ,one of the best and most commonly used greens was made by a mixture of smalto blue and yellow ochre2 other mixtures were also used4 ,red pigments4 ,red and blue are by far the most important of the colours used in illuminated manuscripts1 and it is wonderful to see what variety of effect is often produced by the use of these two colours only4 ,vermilion and minium4 ,the chief red pigments used by illuminators are vermilion 7cinnabar or sulphuret of mercury7 and red lead 7minium71 from which the words miniator and miniature were derived1 as is explained above at page #cabgc4 ,both these pigments are very brilliant and durable reds1 the more costly vermilion is the more beautiful of the two2 it has a slightly orange tint4 ,mixed reds4 ,illuminators commonly used the two colours mixed4 ,one receipt recommends one-third of red lead combined with two-thirds of vermilion2 ,jehan le ,begue's manuscript1 #agg 7,mrs ,merrifield's edition1 ,vol4 ,i4 page #ada74 ,vermilion was prepared by slowly heating together metallic mercury with sulphur4 ,red lead 7a protoxide of lead7 was made by roasting white lead or else litharge 7ordinary lead oxide7 till it absorbed a larger proportion of oxygen4 ,ochre reds4 ,rubrica or ,indian red was a less brilliant pigment1 which also was largely used in illuminated manuscripts1 especially for headings1 notes and the like1 which were hence called rubrics4 ,rubrica is a fine variety of red ochre1 an earth naturally coloured by oxide of iron#bgd2 another variety was called bole ,armeniac4 ,in classical times the rubrica of ,sinope was specially valued for its fine colour4 ,in addition to these mineral and very permanent reds there were some more fugitive vegetable and animal scarlets and reds which were used in illuminated manuscripts4 ,murex4 ,murex4 ,one of these1 the murex shell-fish1 has already been mentioned for its use as a dye for the vellum of the magnificent ,byzantine and ,carolingian gold-written manuscripts4 ,the murex was also used as a color infectivus by concentrating it on powdered chalk#bge4 ,kermes4 ,kermes4 ,another very beautiful and important carmine-red pigment was made from the little kermes#bgf beetle 7coccus7 which lives on the ilex oaks of ,syria and the ,peloponnese4 ,it is rather like the cochineal beetle of ,mexico1 but produces a finer and more durable colour1 especially when used as a dye4 ,for the woven stuffs of classical and mediaeval times1 and in the ,east even at the present day1 the kermes is one of the most beautiful and important of all the colours used for dyeing4 ,the mediaeval name for the kermes red was rubeum de grana2 when required for use as a pigment it appears to have been usual1 not to extract the colour directly from the beetle1 but to get it out of clippings of red cloth which had been dyed with the kermes1 by boiling the cloth in a weak solution of alkali and precipitating the red pigment from the water with the help of alum4 ,the reason for this method is not apparent4 ,possibly it was first done as a means of utilizing waste clippings of the costly red cloth1 and then1 when the habit was established1 no other method was known to the colour-makers1 who in some cases bought pieces of cloth on purpose to cut them up and use in this way#bgg4 ,the scarletum blanketum mentioned at page #bcd was bought for this purpose4 ,madder4 ,madder-red was also used as a pigment by boiling the root of the madder-plant 7rubia-tinctorium71 and then using the concentrated extract to dye powdered chalk4 ,various red and purple flowers1 such as the violet1 were used in the same way as colores infectivi4 ,lac4 ,lake-red 7lacca or lac7 was made and called after a natural gum or resin1 the lach of ,india2 see ,cennino ,cennini1 #dd4 ,this is a beautiful transparent colour1 which1 in some fine manuscripts of the fifteenth century1 is used as a transparent glaze over burnished gold1 the effect of which is very magnificent1 as the metallic gleam of the gold shines through the deep transparent red of the over-painting4 ,lake was also used as an opaque1 solid pigment by mixing it with white1 which at once gave it body1 and destroyed its transparency4 ,purple of a very magnificent tint was occasionally made by a mixture of ultramarine with the carmine-red of the kermes beetle2 this was specially used by the illuminators of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries4 ,yellows4 ,yellow ochre1 a fine earth pigment coloured by iron1 was the principal yellow of the illuminators4 ,in late manuscripts orpiment 7sulphuret of arsenic71 which is a more brilliant lemon-yellow1 was occasionally used2 see ,cennino ,cennini1 #dg4 ,litharge yellow1 an oxide of lead1 was another important colour1 but more especially for the painter in oil1 who used it very largely as a drier#bgh4 ,another fine ochreous earth of a rich brown colour was the terra di ,siena or raw ,siena2 the colour of this was made warmer in tint by roasting1 thus producing burnt ,siena4 ,use of white4 ,white pigments were perhaps the most important of all to the illuminator1 who usually only used pure colours for his deepest shadows2 all lights and half tints1 both in miniature pictures and in decorative foliage1 being painted with a large admixture of white4 ,the use of this system of colouring by ,fra ,angelico and many painters of the ,sienese school has been already referred to2 see page #aij4 ,for this reason it was very important to use a pure and durable white pigment which would combine well with other colours4 ,lime white4 ,bianco di ,san ,giovanni was in all respects one of the best of the whites used by illuminators4 ,this was simply pure lime-white1 made by burning the finest white marble2 the lime was then washed in abundance of pure water1 then very fine ground and finally dried in cakes of a convenient size2 see ,cennino ,cennini1 #eh2 and ,theophilus1 ,i4 #ai4 ,the medium used with it was the purest size or gum ,arabic of the most colourless kind4 ,another white pigment was made of powdered chalk and finely ground egg-shells2 this was a less cold white than the bianco di ,san ,giovanni4 ,white lead4 ,white lead 7cerusa or biacca7 was also used#bgi1 especially by the later illuminators1 but with very unfortunate results1 since white lead is liable to turn to a metallic grey or even black if exposed to any impure sulphurous atmosphere4 ,many beautiful manuscripts have suffered much owing to the blackening of their high lights which had been touched in with white lead2 especially manuscripts exposed to the gas- and smoke-poisoned air of ,london or other large cities4 ,process of manufacture4 ,the biacca of the mediaeval illuminator was made in exactly the same way that ,vitruvius and ,pliny describe2 see ,vitr4 ,,vii4 xii42 and ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,,xxxiv4 #age4 ,a roll of lead was placed in a clay dolium or big vase1 which had a little vinegar at the bottom4 ,the top was then luted down1 and the jar was left in a warm place for a week or so1 till the fumes of the acetic acid had converted the surface of the lead into a crust of carbonate4 ,this carbonate of lead was then flaked off and purified by repeated grinding and washing4 ,in order to keep the white pigments perfectly pure1 some illuminators used to keep them under water1 so that no dust could reach them4 ,black inks4 ,two inks of quite different kinds were used for the ordinary text of mediaeval manuscripts4 ,carbon ink4 ,one of these was a pure carbon-black 7modern ,indian or ,chinese ink72 this has been described under the classical name atramentum librarium#bhj2 see above1 page #bg4 ,the great advantage of this carbon ink is that it never fades2 it is not a dye or stain1 but it consists of very minute particles of carbon which rest on the surface of the vellum4 ,iron ink4 ,the other variety was like modern black writing ink1 only of very superior quality4 ,this acts as a dye1 staining the vellum a little below the surface4 ,unfortunately it is liable to fade1 though when kept from the light 7as in most manuscripts7 it has stood the test of time very well4 ,sometimes the mediaeval illuminators distinguished these two kinds of black ink1 calling the first atramentum and the second encaustum2 but frequently the names are used indifferently for either3 see ,theophilus1 ,i4 #dj4 ,the encaustum was made by boiling oak-bark or gall-nuts1 which are rich in tannin1 in acid wine with some iron filings or vitriol 7sulphate of iron74 ,the combination of the iron and the tannin gives the inky black#bha4 ,both these black inks were used with gum ,arabic4 ,beauty of the plain text4 ,a great part of the beauty of mediaeval manuscripts is quite unconnected with their illumination4 ,the plain portion of the text1 from the exquisite forms of its letters and the beautiful glossy black of the ink on the creamy ivory-like vellum page1 lighted up here and there by the crisp touch of the rubricator's red1 is a thing of extraordinary beauty and charm4 ,this perfection of technique in the writing and beauty of the letters lasted considerably longer than did the illuminator's art4 ,hence in some of the manuscripts of the period of decadence1 executed during the fifteenth century1 the plain black and red text is very superior in style to the painted ornament2 and one cannot1 in some cases1 help regretting that the manuscript has not escaped the disfigurement of a coarse or gaudy scheme of illumination4 ,red inks were of three chief kinds1 namely the vermilion1 red lead1 and rubrica or red ochre1 which have been already mentioned4 ,purple ink4 ,purple ink was used largely1 not often for writing1 but for the delicate pen ornaments of the initials in certain classes of late ,italian and ,german manuscripts4 ,a vegetable pigment seems to have been used for this2 the lines appear to be stained1 and do not consist of a body-colour resting on the surface of the vellum4 ,gold writing is usually executed with the fluid gold pigment1 but in later manuscripts very gorgeous titles and headings are sometimes done with burnished leaf gold applied on the raised mordant1 the writing being first done with a pen dipped in the fluid mordant4 ,the pencils and pens of the ,illuminator4 ,two quite different classes of pencils were used for lightly sketching in the outline of the future floral design or miniature4 ,lead point4 ,one of these was the silver-point or lead-point#bhb1 very much like the metallic pencil of a modern pocket-book4 ,the use of the silver-point was known in classical times2 ,pliny 7,hist4 ,nat4 ,,xxxiii4 #ih7 remarks as a strange thing that a white metal like silver should make a black line when used to draw with4 ,it is1 however1 rather a faint grey than a black line that a point of pure silver makes1 especially on vellum1 and so it was more usual for illuminators to use a softer pencil of mixed lead and tin2 ,cennino recommends two parts of lead to one of tin#bhc for making the lead point1 piombino4 ,red pencil4 ,another kind of pencil was made of a soft red stone1 which owed its colour to oxide of iron4 ,from its fine blood-red tint the illuminators called it haematita1 lapis amatista or amatito1 hence an ordinary lead pencil is now called either lapis or matita in ,italy4 ,this stone is quite different from the hard haematite which was used in classical times for the early cylinder-signets of ,assyria4 ,burnisher4 ,the harder varieties of the amatista or haematite were used to burnish the gold leaf in manuscripts1 small pieces being polished and fixed in a convenient handle4 ,they were also used as a red pigment1 the stone being calcined1 quenched in water and finely ground2 see ,cennino ,cennini1 #db4 ,besides the hard red chalky stone 7amatita rossa7 used for outlines by the illuminators1 a somewhat similar black stone 7amatita nera7 was also used1 but not so commonly as the red4 ,reed pens4 ,the pens of illuminators4 ,in early times1 throughout1 that is1 the whole classical period and probably till about the time of ,justinian1 the sixth century ,a4,d41 scribes' pens were mostly made of reeds 7calamus or canna72 and occasionally silver or bronze pens were used2 see above1 page #bi4 ,but certainly as early as the eighth century ,a4,d4 and probably before that1 quill-pens came into use and superseded the blunter and softer reed-pen4 ,fine quills4 ,such exquisitely fine lines as those in many classes of mediaeval manuscripts could only have been made with some very fine and delicate instrument like a skilfully cut crow's quill or other moderately small feather4 ,the pen was a very important instrument for the illuminator1 not only when his pictures were mainly executed in pen outline1 like many of those in the later ,anglo-,saxon manuscripts1 but also in such microscopically delicate miniature work as that in the ,anglo-,norman historiated ,bibles of the thirteenth century2 in these much of the most important drawing1 such as the features and the hair of the figures1 was executed1 not with a brush1 but with a quill-pen1 which in the illuminator's skilful hand could produce a quality of line which for delicacy and crisp precision of touch has never been surpassed by the artists of any other class or age4 ,brushes4 ,brushes were1 as a rule1 made by the illuminators themselves1 so as to suit their special needs and system of working4 ,cennino 7 #fc to #ff7 and other writers give directions for the selection of the best hair and the mode of fixing it so as to give a finely pointed brush4 ,ermine1 minever and other animals of that tribe supplied the best hair for the brushes required for very minute work4 ,but a great number of other animals provided useful material to the craftsman who knew the right places to select the hair from1 and1 a still more important thing1 understood how to arrange and fix it in a bundle of the best form4 ,list of tools4 ,the implements of scribes and illuminators4 ,the following is a list of the principal tools and materials required by the illuminator of manuscripts1 including those which have been already described#bhd4 ,pens1 pencils and chalk of various sorts1 as described above4 ,brushes made of minever1 badger and other kinds of hair4 ,grinding-slabs and rubbers of porphyry or other hard stone1 and a bronze mortar4 ,sharp penknife and palette knife4 ,rulers1 and a metal ruling-pen4 ,dividers to prick out the guiding-lines of the text4 ,scissors for shaping the gold leaf4 ,burnishers1 stamps1 and stili for ornamenting the gold4 ,small horns to hold black and red ink2 see fig4 #ec on page #bji4 ,colour-box1 palette1 pigments1 gold leaf and media of various kinds4 ,sponge and pumice-stone for erasures4 ,paintings of scribes4 ,miniatures representing a scribe writing a manuscript are the commonest of all subjects in several classes of illuminated manuscripts4 ,for example the first capital of ,saint ,jerome's ,prologue in the historiated ,anglo-,norman ,vulgates almost always has a very minute painting of a monastic scribe#bhe1 seated1 writing on a sloping desk1 with his pen in one hand and his penknife in the other#bhf4 ,the scribes' processes4 ,in one respect such scenes are always treated in a conventional way2 that is1 the scribe is represented writing in a complete and bound book1 whereas both the writing of the text and the illuminations were done on loose sheets of vellum1 which could be conveniently pinned down flat on the desk or drawing-board4 ,the processes employed in the execution of an illuminated manuscript of the fourteenth or fifteenth century were the following2 ,first1 if the text were to be in one column1 four lines were ruled marking the boundaries of the patch of text and the margin4 ,these four lines usually cross at the angles and are carried to the extreme edge of the vellum#bhg4 ,ruled lines4 ,next1 the scribe1 with a pair of dividers or compasses1 pricked out at even distances the number of lines which were to be ruled to serve as a guide in writing the text4 ,these pricked holes were1 as a rule1 set at the extreme edge of the vellum1 and were intended to be cut off by the binder1 but in many manuscripts they still remain4 ,the scribe then filled the space within the first four marginal lines with parallel ruled lines at the intervals indicated by the pricks at the edge4 ,stilus lines4 ,in early manuscripts the guiding lines to keep the text even are usually ruled1 not with colour or ink1 but simply traced with a pointed stilus1 which made a sufficiently clear impressed line on the vellum1 showing through from one side to the other4 ,lead lines4 ,red lines4 ,in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the practice began of ruling the lines with a lead point2 and then1 from the fourteenth century onwards1 they were usually ruled with bright red pigment#bhh2 this has a very decorative effect in lighting up the mass of black text1 and thus we find in many early printed books#bhi these red guiding lines have been ruled in merely for the sake of their ornamental appearance4 ,this ruling was nearly always done with special metal ruling-pens1 very like those now used for architectural drawing2 and thus the lines are perfectly even in thickness throughout4 ,the plain text4 ,the next stage in the work was the writing of the plain black text4 ,in early times it appears to have been usual1 or at least not uncommon1 for the same hand to write the text and add the painted illuminations1 but when the production of illuminated manuscripts came mostly into secular hands1 the trades of the scribe and the illuminator were usually practised by different people2 and in late times a further division still took place1 and the miniaturist frequently became separated from the decorative illuminator4 ,guiding letters4 ,thus we find that in many manuscripts the scribe has introduced in the blank spaces minute guiding letters#bij to tell the illuminator what each initial was to be1 and1 especially in fifteenth century ,italian manuscripts1 instructions are added for the miniaturist1 telling him what the subject of each picture was to be4 ,these instructions were commonly written on the edge of the page so that they were cut off by the binder1 but in many cases they still exist1 not obliterated by the subsequent painting4 ,but to return to the progress of the page1 when the scribe had finished the plain text1 leaving the necessary blank spaces for the illuminated capitals and miniatures1 the work of decoration then began4 ,decoration4 ,as a rule the decorative foliage and the like was finished before the separate miniatures1 if there were any1 were begun4 ,first the illuminator lightly sketched in outline the design of the ornament1 using a lead point4 ,next1 wherever burnished gold was to be introduced1 the thick mordant-ground was laid on2 the gold leaf was then applied and finished with tooling and burnishing4 ,gold leaf4 ,the reason why the gold was applied before any of the painting was begun was this2 the long rubbing with the burnisher acted not only on the gold leaf1 but also naturally rubbed the vellum a little way all round it4 ,this would have smudged the painting round the gold if it had been applied first4 ,moreover1 the burnisher was liable to carry small particles of gold on to the surrounding vellum1 which would have given a ragged look to the design1 if the adjacent surfaces had not been subsequently covered with pigment4 ,in cases where there is an isolated gold boss there is usually a slight disfigurement from the burnisher rubbing the vellum all round the gold4 ,in these cases the outline of the gold was made clean and definite by the addition of a strong black outline1 as is mentioned above4 ,the painting4 ,when the whole of the burnished gold was finished1 the painting was then executed4 ,if any fluid gold pigment were used1 that was usually added last of all4 ,transferred patterns4 ,in some cases1 in the later and cheaper ,french and ,flemish manuscripts1 the ornaments in the borders were not specially designed and sketched in for the manuscripts but previously used outline patterns were transferred on to the vellum by a bone stilus and ordinary transfer paper1 made by rubbing red chalk all over its surface4 ,in some of the better class of manuscripts with the ivy-leaf border1 the illuminator has made the general design of one page serve for the next one in this way2 when he had drawn in the main lines of the scroll-pattern on the borders of one page1 he held the vellum up to the light and so was able to trace the pattern through from the other side of the leaf4 ,to prevent monotony he varied the design by introducing different little blossoms among the repeated scroll-work which formed the main pattern4 ,preparation for binding4 ,when the scribe1 the rubricator1 the illuminator and the miniaturist 7either as one or as several different people7 had completed the manuscript it was ready for the binder4 ,as an indication of the order in which the leaves of the manuscript were to be bound1 the scribe usually placed on the lower margin of the last page of each gathering of leaves a letter or number4 ,in the earliest printed books these guiding letters1 or signatures as they are called1 were added by hand in the same way#bia2 but in a few years the regular and more developed system of printed signatures was introduced#bib4 ,scribes' signatures4 ,scribes' signatures at the end of manuscripts are comparatively rare1 but they do occasionally occur in various interesting forms4 ,my friend ,mr ,w4 ,j4 ,loftie kindly sends me the following3 ,in a ,sarum ,missal of the fifteenth century at ,alnwick ,castle1 ,librum scribendo ,jon ,whas#bic monachus laborabat1 ,et mane surgendo multum corpus macerabat4 ,more commonly manuscripts terminate with a vague phrase invoking a blessing on the scribe1 such as this1 from a ,bible in the ,bodleian 7,no4 #ej71 ,qui scripsit hunc librum ,fiat collectum in paradisum4 ,or this1 which occurs in several manuscripts1 ,qui scripsit scribat1 ,semper cum ,deo vivat4 ,owner's name4 ,in another manuscript ,vulgate in the ,bodleian 7,no4 #ge71 the owner of the book1 who was named ,gerardus1 has recorded the fact in this fanciful way1-- ,ge ponatur et rar simul associatur ,et dus reddatur cui pertinet ita vocatur4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,bindings ,,of ,,manuscripts4 ,costly bindings4 ,for the more magnificent classes of manuscripts1 such as the ,textus 7,gospels7 used as altar ornaments1 every costly and elaborate artistic process was employed4 ,in addition to the sumptuous gold and jewelled covers mentioned above at page #ee1 manuscripts were bound in plates of carved ivory set in gold frames1 in plaques of ,limoges enamel1 especially the chamlev enamels with the heads of the figures attached in relief1 such as were produced with great skill at ,limoges during the eleventh to the thirteenth century4 ,some ,evangeliaria were bound in covers made of the ancient ,roman or ,byzantine ivory diptychs1 a custom to which we owe the preservation of the most important existing examples of these4#bid ,such costly methods of binding were of course exceptional1 and most manuscripts were covered in a much simpler manner4 ,common bindings4 ,the commonest form of binding was to make the covers of stout oak boards1 which were covered with parchment1 calf-skin1 pig-skin or some other leather4 ,five brass or bronze bosses were fixed on each cover1 arranged thus 33 and two or four stout clasps made of leather straps with brass catches were firmly nailed on to the oak4 ,the angles of the covers were often strengthened by brass or latten cornerpieces1 and in some cases metal edgings were nailed all along the edges of the oak1 making a very strong1 massive and heavy volume4 ,large pieces of rock crystal1 amethyst or other common gem were frequently set in the five bosses of the covers4 ,these were always cut in rounded form en cabochon1 not faceted as is the modern custom4 ,the small amount of decoration1 which was usually employed on early bindings1 was often limited to tooled lines joining the five bosses on the covers#bie4 ,titles of ,,mss4 ,if the title of the manuscript was placed on the binding1 a not very common practice1 it was usually written on the upper part of one of the covers4 ,in some cases the title was written on a separate slip of vellum and was protected by a transparent slice of horn1 fixed with little brass nails4 ,this appears to have been the usual system as long as books were kept in coffers or armaria2 but when open bookshelves with chained books came into use1 about the time when printing was invented1 the title of a book was usually written on the front edges of the leaves4 ,at that time books were set on the shelves in the opposite way to that now used1 so that1 not the back1 but the edge of the volume was visible4 ,painted edges4 ,towards the close of the fifteenth and throughout the sixteenth century1 the front edges of printed books and manuscripts were sometimes decorated with painted illumination1 usually a portrait figure of the author of the work or some object illustrating its subject#bif4 ,the parchment which was used to cover the oak bindings of manuscripts was often coloured by staining or painting2 red and purple being the favourite colours4 ,chaucer1 in the ,prologue to the ,canterbury ,tales1 describing the ,clerke of ,oxenford says1 ,for him was lever have at his beddes heed1 ,twenty bookes1 clothed in blak and reed ,of ,aristotil and of his philosophie ,then robes riche or fithul or sawtrie4 ,painted bindings4 ,in some cases the oak covers of manuscripts were not hidden by leather1 but were decorated by elaborate paintings4 ,a very interesting series of folio account-books of the ,cathedral of ,siena1 now preserved in the ,opera del ,duomo1 are specially remarkable for their pictured bindings4 ,these manuscripts date from about #achj to #adaj1 one volume being devoted to the expenses and records of each year4 ,on one of the covers of each is a large painting on the oak1 frequently of a view of some part of ,siena or of the interior of the ,cathedral4 ,very interesting evidence with regard to the old fittings of the high altar1 with ,duccio di ,buoninsegna's great retable1 and the original position of the magnificent pulpit are given by some of these pictured covers4 ,one volume of this ,sienese series is now in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,stamped leather4 ,in the fourteenth century bindings of books began to be decorated by stamping patterns with dies or punches on the vellum or pigskin covering of the oak board2 a method of decoration which was greatly elaborated and developed in the sixteenth century1 especially by the ,german and ,dutch bookbinders4 ,the earlier stamped designs were of a much simpler character1 usually consisting of powderings all over the surface of the cover1 with small flowers or animals1 such as lions1 eagles1 swans and dragons of heraldic character4 ,in many cases these punches1 or at least their designs1 continued in use for a long time1 and so one occasionally meets with a fifteenth century book1 the binding of which is decorated with stamps of fourteenth or even thirteenth century style4 ,stamped bindings4 ,the later class of stamped bindings1 belonging rather to printed books than to manuscripts1 is often very beautiful and decorative in character1 the whole surface of the cover being completely embossed in relief by the skilful application of a great number of punches used in various combinations1 so as to form one large and perfectly united design4 ,in these later times1 from about the middle of the sixteenth century the tendency was to cut larger designs on one punch or die2 and the leather or parchment was softened by boiling so that a large surface could be embossed at one operation4 ,this process was much aided by the invention of the screw-press1 which enabled the workman to apply a steady and long-continued pressure4 ,but in the older stamped bindings1 as a rule1 small punches were used1 and the force was simply applied by the blow of a hammer#big4 ,english bindings4 ,in ,england very fine stamped bindings of this class were made even in the first half of the fifteenth century4 ,and1 just as in earlier times the operations of the binder and the manuscript illuminator had been carried on by the same man1 or at least in the same workshop1 so we find that some of the earliest ,english printers1 such as ,julian ,notary1 were also skilful binders of their own printed books4 ,the very fine stamped bindings of ,julian ,notary and other ,english craftsmen are commonly decorated on one side with the ,tudor arms and badges supported by angels1 and on the other side with a pictorial scene of the ,annunciation of the ,b4 ,v4 ,mary with ,i4 ,n4 or other maker's initials4 ,wallet bindings4 ,returning now to the earlier bindings of manuscripts1 we should mention one system which was frequently applied to ,books of ,hours1 ,breviaries 7portiforia71 and other portable books4 ,this system was to extend the leather covering far beyond the edges of the wooden boards1 which formed the main covers of the manuscripts1 so that the book1 edges and all were protected1 very much as if it were kept in a bag4 ,in fact this sort of binding really was a leather bag to the inside of which the book was attached4 ,the mouth of the bag was closed by a running thong1 a loop or some other fastening1 and the book was thus carried about1 hung from its owner's girdle#bih4 ,in bindings of this class the leather covering was frequently dressed with the hair on4 ,corpus ,christi ,college at ,oxford possesses a very well-preserved example of this1 a manuscript of the thirteenth century in a contemporary bag-covering made of deer's skin1 with its soft brown fur in a perfect state of preservation4 ,velvet4 ,bindings of red or violet velvet were also frequently used for manuscripts4 ,plain red velvet1 with elaborate clasps and corner-pieces of chased gold or silver1 was perhaps the most usual form of binding for costly manuscripts of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries4 ,fine gems1 especially the carbuncle and turquoise1 were set in the gold mounts of some of these princely books4 ,dyed vellum4 ,vellum dyed with the murex was used to cover the oak boards of manuscripts at a time when purple-stained vellum was no longer used for the pages of manuscripts4 ,a fine green dye and other colours were also used for vellum bindings4 ,the ,vatican records of books borrowed 7and returned7 usually mention how each volume was bound4 ,among the earliest of these records1 dating from the ,pontificate of ,leo ,x4 7#aeac to #aebb7 the commonest descriptions of bindings are in tabulis1 in rubio1 in albo1 in nigro1 and in gilbo1 indicating the colour of the skin or velvet in which the manuscript was bound4 ,later bindings4 ,gold mounts4 ,in the sixteenth century1 when private luxury and pomp were taking the place of the earlier religious feelings and beliefs which had so greatly fostered the decorative arts1 bindings as costly as those of the ,altar-textus of the great ,cathedral and ,abbey churches were again made at the command of wealthy patrons4 ,thus1 for example1 ,cardinal ,grimani had his famous ,breviary#bii bound in crimson velvet1 the greater part of which is concealed by the most elaborate mounts1 clasps1 corner-pieces and borders of solid gold1 of the most exquisite workmanship1 decorated with a medallion portrait head of the ,cardinal himself4 ,so also the very similar ,horae of ,albert of ,brandenburg#cjj is decorated with clasps and other mounts of pure gold2 and an immense number of other sumptuous bindings1 rich with embossed and chased gold1 studded with precious gems1 were made to enshrine the costly manuscripts of ,giulio ,clovio and other famous miniaturists of the sixteenth century period of decadence4 ,bindings of needlework4 ,at the close of the fifteenth century or rather earlier1 the custom became popular of having ,horae and other manuscripts owned by wealthy secular personages bound in velvet1 richly decorated with embroidery in gold and silver thread and silk mixed with a great number of seed pearls4 ,the arms1 badges and initials of the owner are the commonest designs for these embroideries4 ,some of the ,german examples of this class of binding are especially elaborate and magnificent2 but on the whole this method of decoration is not at all suited for covering books4 ,works on bindings4 ,with regard to books on the subject of early bindings2 it is much to be regretted that existing works1 of which there are a great many1 especially in ,french1 all begin just about the period when bindings of the greatest interest and the truest artistic value were no longer made4 ,plenty has been written about the costly bindings in which ,grolier1 ,maioli1 and other wealthy book-buyers had their purchases encased1 but no work exists on the bindings of the mediaeval period1 when1 frequently1 the covers of a manuscript were as much a labour of love as the illuminated pages within4 ,the sixteenth century binders1 who worked for ,grolier and other rich patrons of art1 lived at the verge of a commercial epoch1 and though their works are often very pretty and technically of high merit1 yet they cannot be compared1 as true works of art1 with the bindings of the period before printing was invented4 ,small cost of ,,mss4 ,the present value of illuminated manuscripts4 ,on the whole a fine manuscript may be regarded as about the cheapest work of art of bygone days that can now be purchased by an appreciative collector4 ,many of the finest and most perfectly preserved manuscripts which now come into the market are actually sold for smaller sums than they would have cost when they were new1 in spite of the great additional value and interest which they have gained from their antiquity and comparative rarity4 ,for example1 a beautiful and perfectly preserved historiated ,anglo-,norman ,vulgate of the thirteenth century1 with its full number of eighty-two pictured initials1 written on between six and seven hundred leaves of the finest uterine vellum1 can now commonly be purchased for from #cj to #dj4 ,this hardly represents the original value of the vellum on which the manuscript is written4 ,manuscripts of a simpler character1 however beautifully written1 if they are merely decorated with blue and red initials1 commonly sell for considerably less than the original cost of their vellum#cja4 ,again1 the more costly manuscripts of fine style1 which now fetch several hundred pounds1 usually contain a wealth of pictorial decoration and laborious execution far in excess of that which could be purchased for a similar sum in any other branch of art4 ,want of taste4 ,another noticeable point is that the modern pecuniary values of manuscripts1 even those which are bought only as works of art1 are by no means in proportion to their real artistic merits4 ,manuscripts of the finest period of the illuminator's art1 the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1 are now sold for very much smaller sums than the immeasurably inferior but more showy and over-elaborated manuscripts of the period of decadence in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries4 ,modern want of taste4 ,a melancholy example of the existing want of taste and lack of appreciation of what is beautiful in art is afforded by the fact that such a thing as a manuscript signed and illuminated by ,giulio ,clovio would fetch a far larger sum than so perfect a masterpiece of poetic art as a fine example of a fourteenth century ,anglo-,norman ,apocalypse4 ,so also the late and inferior ,horae of about #adhj to #aeaj often sell for much higher prices than simpler but far more beautiful manuscripts of earlier date4 ,of course ,i am here speaking of the values of manuscripts regarded simply as works of art1 not of those which are mainly of importance from the interest of their text4 ,the result of this is that a collector with some real knowledge and appreciation of what is artistically fine can perhaps lay out his money to greater advantage in the purchase of manuscripts than by buying works of art of any other class1 either mediaeval or modern4 ,,appendix4 ,mr ,jenkinson1 the ,librarian of the ,university of ,cambridge1 has kindly supplied me with the following interesting extracts1 from a manuscript of the thirteenth century in the ,parish ,library of ,st ,james' at ,bury ,st ,edmunds 7,m #bg ,b #ceg7cjb1 which gives instructions to scribes and illuminators of manuscripts as to the various tools they are to use4 ,scriptor habeat rasorium siue nouaculam ad radendum sordes pergameni vel membrane4 ,habeat etiam pumicem mordacem et planulam ad pactandum 787 et equandum superficiem pergameni4 ,plumbum habeat et linulam quibus liniet pergamenum1 margine circumquaque tam ex parte tergi quam ex parte carnis existente libera444444 ,scriptor autem in cathedra resideat ansis utrimque eleuatis pluteum siue ait'em 787 sustinentibus1 scabello apte pedibus posito4 ,scriptor habeat epicaustorium4i4asserem centone copertum4 ,arcanum habeat quo pennam formet ut habilis sit et ydonea ad scribendum444444 ,habeat dentem canis 787 sive apri ad polliandum pergamenum444444 ,et spectaculum habeat ne ob errorem moram disspendiosam 7874 ,habeat prunas in epicausterio ut cicius in tempore nebuloso vel aquoso desicari possit444444 ,et habeat etiam mineum ad formandas literas puniceas1 vel rubeas1 vel feniceas et capitales4 ,habeat etiam fuscum pulverem2 et azuram a ,salamone repertam#cjc4 ,translation4 ,the scribe should have a sharp scraper or knife to rub down the roughnesses of his parchment or vellum4 ,he should also have a piece of 'biting' pumice-stone and a flat tool to smooth down and make even the surface of his parchment4 ,he should have a lead pencil and a ruler with which to rule lines on the parchment1 leaving a margin free 7from lines7 on both sides of the parchment1 on the back of the leaf as well as on the flesh side4444 ,the scribe should sit in an arm chair1 with arms raised on each side to support a desk or 82 a footstool should be conveniently placed under his feet4 ,the scribe should have an epicaustorium#cjd covered with leather2 he should have an arcanum 7pen-knife 87 with which to shape his pen1 so that it may be well formed and suitable for writing4444 ,he should have the tooth of a dog 787 or of a wild boar for the polishing of his parchment4444 ,and he should have spectacles lest troublesome delay be caused through blunders4 ,he should have hot coals in a brazier so that his ink may dry quickly even in cloudy or rainy weather4444 ,he should also have mineum 7minium7 for the painting of red1 crimson or purple letters and initials4 ,he should also have a dark powder 7pigment71 and the azure which was invented by ,solomon4 ,the following excellent description of the chief kinds of ,service-books which were used during the later medival period was originally written in #ahha by ,henry ,bradshaw1 the ,cambridge ,university ,librarian1 for ,the ,chronicles of ,all ,saints' ,church1 ,derby1 by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,c4 ,cox and ,mr ,w4 ,h4 ,st ,john ,hope4 ,it is by the kind permission of ,mr ,cox and ,mr ,hope that ,i am able to reprint ,mr ,bradshaw's valuable note1 which1 with admirable clearness and conciseness1 explains the character of each of the principal classes of ,service-books used in ,english ,churches and the manner in which these books became differentiated and multiplied down to the time of the ,reformation4 ,,note ,,by ,,henry ,,bradshaw4 ,the ,hours4 ,in the old ,church of ,england1 the ,services were either-- #a4 ,for the different hours 7,mattins1 ,lauds1 ,prime1 ,terce1 ,sext1 ,none1 ,vespers1 and ,compline71 said in the ,choir1 #b4 ,for ,processions1 in the ,church or ,churchyard1 #c4 ,for the ,mass1 said at the ,altar1 or #d4 ,for occasions1 such as ,marriage1 ,visitation of the ,sick1 ,burial1 c41 said as occasion required4 ,of these four all have their counterparts1 more or less1 in the ,english ,service of modern times1 as follows3 #a4 ,the ,hour-,services1 of which the principal were ,mattins and ,vespers1 correspond to our ,morning and ,evening ,prayer4 ,processions4 #b4 ,the ,procession ,services correspond to our ,hymns or ,anthems sung before the ,litany which precedes the ,communion ,service in the morning1 and after the third ,collect in the evening1 only no longer sung in the course of procession to the ,churchyard ,cross or a subordinate ,altar in the ,church2 the only relic 7in common use7 of the actual ,procession being that used on such occasions as the ,consecration of a ,church1 c4 #c4 ,the ,mass answers to our ,communion ,service4 ,occasional ,services4 #d4 ,the ,occasional ,services are either those used by a ,priest1 such as ,baptism1 ,marriage1 ,visitation and ,communion of the ,sick1 ,burial of the ,dead1 c41 or those reserved for a ,bishop1 as ,confirmation1 ,ordination1 ,consecration of ,churches1 c4 ,all these ,services but the last mentioned are contained in our ,prayer-book with all their details1 except the lessons at ,mattins and ,evensong1 which are read from the ,bible1 and the ,hymns and ,anthems1 which are1 since the sixteenth century1 at the discretion of the authorities4 ,this concentration or compression of the ,services into one book is the natural result of time1 and the further we go back the more numerous are the books which our old inventories show4 ,to take the four classes of ,services and ,service-books mentioned above3 ,the ,breviary4 #a4 ,the ,hour-,services were latterly contained1 so far as the text was concerned1 in the ,breviarium1 or ,portiforium1 as it was called by preference in ,england#cje4 ,the musical portions of this book were contained in the ,antiphonarium4 ,but the ,breviary itself was the result of a gradual amalgamation of many different books3 ,the ,breviary4 7a7 ,the ,antiphonarium1 properly so called1 containing the ,anthems 7,antiphonae7 to the ,psalms1 the ,responds 7,responsoria7 to the ,lessons 7,lectiones71 and the other odds and ends of ,verses and ,responds 7,versiculi et ,responsoria7 throughout the ,service2 7b7 ,the ,psalterium1 containing the ,psalms arranged as used at the different ,hours1 together with the ,litany as used on occasions2 7c7 ,the ,hymnarium1 or collection of ,hymns used in the different ,hour-,services2 7d7 ,the legenda1 containing the long ,lessons used at ,mattins1 as well from the ,bible1 from the ,sermologus1 and from the ,homiliarius1 used respectively at the first1 second1 and third ,nocturns at ,mattins on ,sundays and some other days1 as also from the ,passionale1 containing the acts of ,saints read on their festivals2 and 7e7 ,the ,collectarium1 containing the ,capitula1 or short ,lessons used at all the ,hour-services except ,mattins1 and the ,collect or ,orationes used at the same4 ,procession ,services4 #b4 ,the ,procession ,services were contained in the ,processionale or ,processionarium4 ,it will be remembered that the ,rubric in our ,prayer-,book concerning the ,anthem 7,in ,quires and places where they sing1 here followeth the ,anthem7 is indicative rather than imperative1 and that it was first added in #affb4 ,it states a fact2 and1 no doubt1 when processions were abolished1 with the altars to which they were made1 ,cathedral ,choirs would have found themselves in considerable danger of being swept away also1 had they not made a stand1 and been content to sing the ,processional ,anthem without moving from their position in the ,choir4 ,this alone sufficed to carry on the tradition2 and looked upon in this way the modern ,anthem ,book of our ,cathedral and ,collegiate ,churches1 and the ,hymn ,book of our parish ,churches1 are the only legitimate successors of the old ,processionale4 ,it must be borne in mind1 also1 that the ,morning and ,evening ,anthems in our ,prayer-,book do not correspond to one another so closely as might at first sight appear to be the case4 ,the ,morning ,anthem comes immediately before the ,litany which precedes the ,communion ,service1 and corresponds to the ,processional ,anthem or ,respond sung at the churchyard procession before ,mass4 ,the ,evening ,anthem1 on the other hand1 follows the third ,collect1 and corresponds to the ,processional ,anthem or ,respond sung eundo et redeundo1 in going to1 and returning from1 some subordinate altar in the church at the close of ,vespers4 ,the ,mass4 #c4 ,the ,mass1 which we call the ,communion ,service1 was contained in the ,missale1 so far as the text was concerned4 ,the ,epistles and ,gospels1 being read at separate lecterns1 would often be written in separate books1 called ,epistolaria and ,evangeliaria4 ,the musical portions of the ,altar ,service were latterly all contained in the ,graduale or ,grayle1 so called from one of the principal elements being the ,responsorium ,graduale or ,respond to the ,lectio ,epistolae4 ,in earlier times1 these musical portions of the ,missal ,service were commonly contained in two separate books1 the ,graduale and the ,troparium4 ,the ,graduale1 being in fact the ,antiphonarium of the ,altar ,service 7as indeed it was called in the earliest times71 contained all the passages of ,scripture1 varying according to the season and day1 which served as ,introits 7,antiphonae et ,psalmi ad ,introitum7 before the ,collects1 as ,gradual ,responds or ,graduals to the ,epistle1 as ,alleluia versicles before the ,gospel1 as ,offertoria at the time of the first oblation1 and as ,communiones at the time of the reception of the consecrated elements4 ,the ,troparium contained the ,tropi1 or preliminary tags to the ,introits2 the ,kyries2 the ,gloria in excelsis2 the ,sequences or ,prosae ad ,sequentiam before the ,gospel2 the ,credo in unum2 the ,sanctus and ,benedictus2 and the ,agnus ,dei2 all1 in early times1 liable to have insertions or farsur of their own1 according to the season or day1 which1 however1 were almost wholly swept away 7except those of the ,kyrie7 by the beginning of the thirteenth century4 ,even in ,lyndewode's time 7,a4,d4 #adcc71 the ,troparium was explained to be a book containing merely the ,sequences before the ,gospel at ,mass1 so completely had the other elements then disappeared or become incorporated in the ,graduale4 ,this definition of the ,troparium is the more necessary1 because so many old church inventories yet remain1 which contain books1 even at the time of writing the inventory long since disused1 so that the lists would be unintelligible without some such explanation4 ,occasional ,services4 #d4 ,the ,occasional ,services1 so far as they concerned a priest1 were of course more numerous in old days than now1 and included the ceremonies for ,candlemas1 ,ash ,wednesday1 ,palm ,sunday1 c41 besides what were formerly known as the ,sacramental ,services4 ,the book which contained these was in ,england called the ,manuale1 while on the ,continent the name ,rituale is more common4 ,no church could well be without one of these4 ,the purely episcopal offices were contained in the ,liber pontificalis or ,pontifical1 for which an ordinary church would have no need4 ,the ,ordinale4 #e4 ,besides these books of actual ,services there was another1 absolutely necessary for the right understanding and definite use of those already mentioned4 ,this was the ,ordinale1 or book containing the general rules relating to the ,ordo divini servitii4 ,it is the ,ordinarius or ,breviarius of many ,continental churches4 ,its method was to go through the year and show what was to be done2 what days were to take precedence of others2 and how1 under such circumstances1 the details of the conflicting ,services were to be dealt with4 ,the basis of such a book would be either the well-known ,sarum ,consuetudinarium1 called after ,st4 ,osmund1 but really drawn up in the first quarter of the thirteenth century1 the ,lincoln ,consuetudinarium belonging to the middle of the same century1 or other such book4 ,by the end of the fifteenth century ,clement ,maydeston's ,directorium ,sacerdotum1 or ,priests' ,guide1 had superseded all such books1 and came itself to be called the ,sarum ,ordinale1 until1 about #aejh1 the shorter ,ordinal1 under the name of ,pica ,sarum1 the rules called the ,pie1 having been cut up and re-distributed according to the seasons1 came to be incorporated in the text of all the editions of the ,sarum ,breviary4 ,h4 ,b4 ,,cambridge1 ,march #ag1 #ahha4 ,mr ,micklethwaite has kindly pointed out to me the following passage from the ,cistercian ,consuetudines 7,guignard1 ,documents indits1 ,dijon1 #ahgh1 p4 #agd71 cap4 ,,lxxii1 ,nullus ingrediatur coquinam excepto cantore et scriptoribus ad planandam tabulam1 ad liquefaciendum incaustum1 ad exsiccandum pergamenum4444 ,that is1 the kitchen fire might be used for melting the wax on the tablets1 so that a fresh list of names could be written 7see above1 p4 #h71 for liquefying frozen ink1 and for drying the vellum skins ready for writing on4 ,,cambridge3 ,,printed ,,by ,c4 ,j4 ,,clay1 ,m4,a4 ,,and ,,sons1 ,,at ,,the ,,university ,,press4 ,,some ,,publications ,,of ,the ,cambridge ,university ,press4 ,,the ,,engraved ,,gems ,,of ,,classical ,,times1 with a ,catalogue of the ,gems in the ,fitzwilliam ,museum1 by ,j4 ,,henry ,,middleton1 ,m4,a41 ,slade ,professor of ,fine ,art1 and ,director of the ,fitzwilliam ,museum1 ,cambridge4 ,royal #hvo4 ,buckram1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,lewis ,,collection ,,of ,,gems ,,and ,,rings in the possession of ,corpus ,christi ,college1 ,cambridge1 with an ,introductory ,essay on ,ancient ,gems by ,j4 ,,henry ,,middleton1 ,m4,a4 ,royal #hvo4 ,buckram1 #fs4 ,,the ,,types ,,of ,,greek ,,coins4 ,by ,,percy ,,gardner1 ,litt4,d41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,with #af ,autotype plates1 containing photographs of ,coins of all parts of the ,greek ,world4 ,impl4 #dto4 ,cloth extra1 #a4 #aas4 #f;d42 ,roxburgh 7,morocco back71 #b4 #bs4 ,,essays ,,on ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,pheidias4 ,by ,c4 ,,waldstein1 ,litt4 ,d41 ,reader in ,classical ,archology in the ,university of ,cambridge4 ,royal #hvo4 #af ,plates4 ,buckram1 #cjs4 ,a ,,catalogue ,,of ,,ancient ,,marbles ,,in ,,great ,,britain1 by ,prof4 ,,adolf ,,michaelis4 ,translated by ,c4 ,a4 ,m4 ,,fennell1 ,litt4 ,d4 ,royal #hvo4 ,roxburgh 7,morocco back71 #b4 #bs4 ,,the ,,literary ,,remains ,,of ,,albrecht ,d,,rer1 by ,w4 ,m4 ,,conway4 ,with ,transcripts from the ,british ,museum ,,mss41 and ,notes by ,,lina ,,eckenstein4 ,royal #hvo4 ,buckram1 #bas4 7,the ,edition is limited to #ejj copies47 ,,the ,,woodcutters ,,of ,,the ,,netherlands during the last quarter of the ,fifteenth ,century4 ,in #c parts4 ,i4 ,history of the ,woodcutters4 ,,ii4 ,catalogue of their ,woodcuts4 ,,iii4 ,list of ,books containing ,woodcuts4 ,by ,w4 ,m4 ,,conway4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,london3 ,c4 ,j4 ,,clay ,,and ,,sons1 ,,cambridge ,,university ,,press ,,warehouse1 ,,ave ,,maria ,,lane4 ,,notes4 #a ,see pages #ig and #aac4 #b ,see ,jour4 ,hell4 ,stud4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #aab4 #c ,it was not till quite a late period that the word ,greek3 biblos was used to mean another form of book than the roll4 ,the word ,greek3 sanis is also used for a tablet2 see p4 #cj4 #d ,a fine set of five tablets is preserved in the coin room in the ,paris ,bibliothque ,nationale2 see ,revue ,archol4 ,,viii4 p4 #dfa4 #e ,a well-preserved example of ,roman pugillares formed of two leaves of ivory1 now in the ,capitoline museum in ,rome1 is illustrated by ,baumeister1 ,denkmler1 ,i4 p4 #cee4 #f ,lucian1 who lived in the second century ,a4,d41 mentions 7,vita ,luc4 ,,ii47 that when he was a boy he was in the habit of scraping the wax off his writing-tablets and using it to model little figures of men and animals4 ,probably he was not the only ,roman school-boy who amused himself in this way4 #g ,charcoal or crayon-holders of bronze with a spring clip and sliding ring1 exactly like those now used1 have been found in ,pompeii4 ,these and other writing materials are illustrated by ,baumeister1 ,denkmler1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #aehe4 #h ,an ,athenian inscription 7,c4 ,i4 ,a4 ,i4 #cb7 mentions accounts and other documents written on ,greek3 pinakia kai grammateia4 #i ,see1 for example1 a relief on the sarcophagus of a scriba librarius or library curator which is illustrated by ,daremberg and ,saglio1 ,dict4 ,ant4 ,i4 p4 #gjh4 ,the scribe is represented seated by his book-case armarium1 on the shelves of which both volumina and codices are shown4 #aj ,the ancient method of manufacturing papyrus paper is described below1 see page #bb4 #aa ,some very interesting fragments of the ,antiope of ,euripides have been brought to ,england by ,mr ,flinders ,petrie1 and have been edited by ,dr ,mahaffy in a collection entitled ,the ,flinders ,petrie ,papyri1 ,dublin1 #ahib4 #ab ,the book-market in ,athens was called ,greek3 ta biblia1 i4e4 ,greek3 hou ta biblia nia2 see ,pollux ,,ix4 #dg4 ,lucian1 in his treatise ,adversus ,indoctum1 gives an interesting account of the ,greek book-buyers and book-sellers in his time2 see #a and #d4 #ac ,the end of the ,argiletum is shown in the plan of the ,forum ,romanum in ,middleton1 ,ancient ,rome1 #ahib1 ,vol4 ,i4 #ad ,one reason of this was that even the most popular authors did not receive large sums for the copyright of their works4 #ae ,a good deal of what is said in this section with regard to the technique of classical manuscripts will apply also to manuscripts of the mediaeval period4 ,many of the processes had been inherited in an unbroken tradition from ancient times1 and others were revived in the ,middle ,ages through a study of various classical writers on pigments and the like1 especially ,pliny and ,vitruvius4 #af ,the words parchment and vellum are used vaguely to imply many different kinds of skins4 ,strictly speaking vellum implies calf-skin1 but the word is commonly used to denote the finer and smoother qualities of skin2 the name parchment being given to the coarse varieties2 see ,peignot1 ,l'histoire du parchemin1 ,paris1 #ahab4 #ag ,in some cases the paper was sized1 before the final smoothing2 but as a rule sufficient size was supplied by the flour used to paste the layers together4 #ah ,some of the enormous ranges of store-houses for goods imported into ,rome and landed on the ,tiber quay were specially devoted to the use of paper warehouses1 horrea chartaria2 extensive remains of these have recently been discovered near ,monte ,testaccio2 see ,middleton1 ,remains of ,ancient ,rome1 #ahib1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #bfj-bfb4 #ai ,now in the ,fitzwilliam ,museum4 #bj ,a silver pen was found by ,dr ,waldstein in #ahia in the tomb of the ,aristotle family at ,chalcis4 #ba ,there is1 of course1 no etymological connection between the words miniature and minute2 the latter being derived from the ,latin minutus1 minus4 #bb ,further details with regard to these pigments are given below1 see pages #bci to #bdi4 #bc ,reproductions of these miniatures were published by ,cardinal ,mai1 ,picturae antiquissimae bellum ,iliacum repraesentantes1 ,milan1 #ahai4 ,far more accurate copies of some of the miniatures1 but without colour1 are given by ,palaeo4 ,soc41 ,plates #ci1 #dj1 #ej and #ea4 #bd ,some fairly accurate reproductions of these miniatures were published by ,bartoli1 ,antiquissimi ,virgiliani ,codicis fragmenta ,bibl4 ,vat41 ,roma1 #agda and #aghb4 ,examples from this and two other ancient but un-illuminated codices of ,virgil in the ,vatican library are given by the ,palaeo4 ,soc41 ,plates #aac to #aag4 #be ,the chief of these paintings were cut off the walls of the villa1 and are now placed in the ,museo delle ,terme in ,rome4 ,the painting shown in fig4 #c is still in situ2 that given in fig4 #d is now in the ,museum at ,naples4 #bf ,see above1 fig4 #b4 #bg ,the term ,byzantine as applied to art is commonly used to denote the style which was developed in the ,eastern empire soon after ,constantine had transferred the seat of government from ,old to ,new ,rome1 or ,constantinople as it was also called instead of ,byzantium1 which was the ancient name4 #bh ,several manuscripts of this class are described by ,h4 ,bordier1 ,manuscrits ,grecs de la ,bibliothque ,nationale1 ,paris1 #ahhc4 #bi ,a great public library was founded by ,constantine in ,new ,rome and partially stocked by manuscripts transferred from the old ,capital4 ,this library was rapidly enlarged by his sons and successors1 and it was rebuilt on a grander scale by the ,emperor ,zeno after the building had been injured by fire about the year #dhh ,a4,d4 #cj ,for a valuable account of ,byzantine manuscripts1 see ,kondakoff1 ,histoire de l',art ,byzantin1 ,paris1 #ahhf-ahia4 #ca ,the title ,porphyro-genitus1 ,born in the purple1 referred to the fact that ,byzantine ,empresses brought forth their children in a magnificent room lined with slabs of polished porphyry4 #cb ,a translation of this curious treatise was published by ,didron and ,durand1 in their ,manuel d'iconographie chrtienne2 ,paris1 #ahde4 #cc ,all manuscripts described in this book1 from the ,byzantine school onwards1 may be understood to be in the codex form and written on vellum1 unless they are otherwise described4 #cd ,published by ,lambecius1 ,comment4 sur la ,bibl4 de ,vienne1 #aggf1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 #ce ,copies of some of the miniatures in the ,vatican ,cosmas are given by ,n4 ,kondakoff1 ,histoire de l',art ,byzantin1 ,paris1 #ahhf1 ,vol4 ,i4 pp4 #adb to #aeb4 #cf ,st ,mark's in ,venice and the churches of ,ravenna and ,constantinople are full of examples of this design4 #cg ,this ,sasanian art was an inheritance from ancient ,babylon and ,assyria1 and was the progenitor of what in later times has been called ,arab art1 though the quite inartistic ,arabs appear to have derived it from the ,persians whom they conquered and forcibly converted to the ,moslem ,faith4 #ch ,the mere gold of even the finest ,byzantine manuscripts is never as sumptuous or as highly burnished as that in manuscripts of the fourteenth century1 owing to its being usually applied as a fluid pigment1 or at least not over the best kind of highly raised ground or mordant1 which is described below at p4 #bcd4 #ci ,in early times and indeed throughout the whole mediaeval period very few objects of any kind were placed upon the ,high ,altar even in the most magnificently furnished churches4 ,in addition to the chalice and paten1 and the ,textus1 the only ornaments usually allowed were a small crucifix and two candlesticks4 ,the modern system of crowding the mensa of the altar with many candles and flowers did not come in till after the ,reformation4 ,in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the ,pax was usually a separate thing1 of more convenient size and weight than the heavy1 gold-covered ,textus4 #dj ,fine coloured plates of this wonderful ,textus-cover were published in #ahhh by the ,society of ,antiquaries in their ,vetusta ,monumenta4 #da ,published in #ahdd by the ,surtees ,society of ,durham4 #db ,the ,gospeller was the officiating ,deacon2 the ,sub-deacon being called the ,epistoller4 #dc ,the remarkable artistic advance which was made by ,giotto is to be seen not only in his improved and more realistic drawing1 but also in his freedom from the long-established abuse of green in his flesh painting1 for which he substituted a warmer and healthier tint4 #dd ,of the original mosaics on the west faade of ,saint ,mark's only one remains of the original highly decorative twelfth century mosaics4 ,the rest1 shown in ,gentile ,bellini's picture of ,saint ,mark's1 have all been replaced by later mosaics4 ,inside the church1 happily1 the old mosaics still1 in most places1 exist2 see p4 #fa4 #de ,see page #bjb for an account of ,giulio ,clovio4 #df ,mr ,m4 ,r4 ,james has pointed out to me an interesting example of similar designs being used by illuminators of manuscripts and by mosaic-workers4 ,the designs of the miniatures in a fifth or sixth century manuscript of ,genesis in the ,british ,museum 7,otho1 ,b1 vi7 are in many cases identical with those of the twelfth and thirteenth century mosaics in ,saint ,mark's at ,venice2 see ,tikkanen1 ,genesisbilder1 ,berlin4 #dg ,alcuin1 when ,dean of ,york1 was sent by ,offa1 king of ,mercia1 about #ghb1 as an envoy to ,charles the ,great4 ,a large number of manuscripts were written under his guidance and influence1 not only in ,tours1 but also at ,soissons1 ,metz1 ,fulda1 and in other ,benedictine monasteries4 #dh ,it is priced in ,mr ,quaritch's catalogue of #ahij at #bejj4 ,this manuscript was probably written at ,tours in the school of ,alcuin of ,york2 see ,wattenbach1 ,die mit ,gold auf ,purpur geschriebenen ,evangelienhandschriften der ,hamilton'schen ,bibliothek1 ,berlin1 #ahhi4 #di ,see for example the beautiful patterns of the woven hangings behind the enthroned figure of ,christ shown on fig4 #ab2 cf4 also page #hd4 #ej ,theophilus1 ,schedula diversarum ,artium1 ,i4 #cd2 this work is frequently quoted in ,chapter ,,xv4 #ea ,see ,janitschek1 ,die knstlerische ,ausstattung des ,ada-,evangeliars und die ,karolingische ,buchmalerei2 fol4 ,leipzig1 #ahhi4 #eb ,see ,weidmann1 ,geschichte der ,bibliothek von ,st ,gallen1 #hvo1 ,st ,gall1 #ahda4 #ec ,see ,j4 ,r4 ,rahn1 ,das ,psalterium ,aureum von ,st ,gallen1 ein ,beitrag zur ,geschichte der ,karolingischen ,miniaturmalerei1 folio1 ,st ,gall1 #ahgh4 #ed ,an excellent edition with #gb facsimiles of ,villard de ,honecourt's ,album or sketch-book was produced by ,professor ,willis1 ,london1 #ahei2 it is superior to the ,french edition issued by ,j4 ,b4 ,lassus1 ,paris1 #aheh4 #ee ,see ,l4 ,delisle1 ,l',evangliaire d',arras et la calligraphie ,franco-,saxonne du ,,ixme sicle1 #hvo1 ,paris1 #ahhh4 #ef ,earlier that is than the conversion of the ,saxon conquerors2 to some extent a ,romano-,british ,church had been established in ,britain during the period of ,roman domination1 but this native ,church appears to have been almost wholly eradicated by the ,saxon ,conquest4 #eg ,celtic manuscripts of all periods are well illustrated by ,westwood1 ,miniatures and ,ornaments of ,anglo-,saxon and ,irish ,manuscripts1 ,london1 #ahfh2 see also ,westwood1 ,palaeographia ,sacra ,pictoria1 #ahdc-e1 and the companion volume1 ,illuminated ,illustrations of the ,bible1 #ahdf4 #eh ,tara was the ancient inland capital of ,ireland before ,dublin was founded by the ,viking pirates4 #ei ,the ,irish monasteries of this date appear1 frequently at least1 to have consisted of a group of a dozen or more separate wooden huts or stone bee-hive cells1 with one small central chapel of rectangular plan2 the whole being enclosed within a wooden fence or a stone circuit wall1 in which there was only one door of approach2 see ,arch4 ,jour4 ,,xv4 p4 #a seq4 #fj ,for example1 in an early ,cashel ,kalendar the monk ,dagaeus1 who died in #ehf1 is recorded to have been both a goldsmith 7aurifex7 and an illuminator of manuscripts4 ,westwood1 ,miniatures in ,irish ,manuscripts1 gives a number of excellent coloured reproductions of illuminations of this school and also of the ,anglo-,celtic school of ,northumbria4 #fa ,it was formerly believed that this manuscript had once belonged to ,saint ,columba1 who lived from #eba to #eig1 but it is shown by the internal evidence of its style to be a century later than ,saint ,columba's time4 #fb ,see ,westwood1 ,irish ,manuscripts1 ,plate #i4 #fc ,see fig4 #ac on page #fg4 #fd ,when the grave of ,saint ,cuthbert in ,durham ,cathedral was opened in #ahbg1 it was found that the ,saint's body had been wrapped in rich ,siculo-,arab silk of the eleventh century at the time when his body was moved1 in #aajd ,a4,d4 ,see ,raine1 ,st ,cuthbert1 ,durham1 #ahbh1 p4 #ahc seq4 #fe ,library of ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 manuscripts ,a1 iv4 #e4 #ff ,see ,jamieson1 ,history of the ,ancient ,culdees of ,iona2 ,edinburgh1 #ahaa4 #fg ,saint ,cuthbert was a monk of ,irish descent1 at first a member of the ,celtic monastery of ,melrose1 and afterwards sixth ,bishop of ,lindisfarne from #fhe to #fhh4 ,in later times his gold1 gem-studded shrine in ,durham ,cathedral was one of the most magnificent and costly in the world2 see ,rites and ,monuments of ,durham1 ,surtees ,soc41 #ahdb1 pp4 #c and #d4 #fh ,the works of ,symeon ,dunelmensis were published by the ,surtees ,society in #ahfh4 #fi ,now in the ,archbishop of ,canterbury's library at ,lambeth4 #gj ,the ,book of ,deer was first brought to light by ,mr ,henry ,bradshaw1 and has been published by the ,spalding ,club1 ,ed4 ,john ,stuart1 ,edinburgh1 #ahfi4 ,the ,monastery at ,deer in ,aberdeenshire was founded by ,saint ,columba as a branch house from ,iona4 #ga ,the so-called ,itala version is the older ,latin translation of the ,bible1 which existed previous to the recension of ,saint ,jerome4 #gb ,a very interesting ,psalter of similar style and date is preserved in the library of ,st ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge2 its ornaments are of the unmixed ,celtic style1 broad in treatment without any of the marvellous minuteness of the ,book of ,kells and the ,book of ,durrow4 #gc ,see ,westwood1 ,irish ,manuscripts1 ,pl4 #af4 #gd ,this is one of many examples of ,books being called after some earlier ,saint who was connected with the monastery where the manuscript was written2 for example the ,gospels of ,saint ,augustine in the ,corpus library at ,cambridge1 the ,gospels of ,saint ,cuthbert1 and the ,gospels of ,saint ,columba1 are all later than the dates of the ,saints they are called after4 #ge ,see ,weidmann1 ,geschichte der ,bibliothek von ,st ,gallen2 ,st ,gall1 #ahda4 #gf ,this manuscript was formerly believed to have been once in the possession of ,saint ,augustine1 but it is clearly a good deal later in date than his time4 #gg ,eventually there were three ,norse kingdoms in ,ireland1 the capitals of which were ,dublin1 ,waterford and ,limerick2 and the three chief ports of ,ireland1 ,dublin1 ,cork and ,belfast were all founded by the ,viking invaders2 see ,c4 ,f4 ,keary's valuable work1 ,the ,vikings in ,western ,christendom1 ,london1 #ahia1 pp4 #afe to #ahe4 #gh ,the blessing in the ,greek ,church is given by raising three fingers2 in the ,western ,church two fingers and the thumb are used4 #gi ,see ,westwood1 ,miniatures of ,irish ,manuscripts1 ,london1 #ahfh1 ,pl4 ,i4 and ,,ii4 #hj ,the points of difference between the ,roman and ,celtic ,churches were very trivial1 the chief being the date for the celebration of ,easter and the shape of the monastic tonsure4 #ha ,see note #b on page #ig4 #hb ,this very decorative class of ornament not only survived till the thirteenth century but was again revived in ,italy at the close of the fifteenth century2 see below1 page #aic4 #hc ,it is mentioned above1 see page #fb1 how ,alcuin of ,york in the reign of ,charles the ,great created the ,anglo-,carolingian style of illumination by introducing in the eighth century into the kingdom of the ,franks manuscripts and manuscript illuminators from the monasteries of ,northumbria4 #hd ,canon ,g4 ,f4 ,browne tells me that it is very doubtful whether ,wilfrid ever received the pall from ,rome4 ,it may therefore be more correct to speak of him as ,bishop rather than ,archbishop of ,york4 #he ,the word ,anglo-,saxon is a convenient one to use1 and is supported by various ancient authorities2 for example in a manuscript ,benedictional 7in the library of ,corpus ,college1 ,cambridge7 ,england is called ,regnum ,anglo-,saxonum1 and the ,english king is entitled ,rex ,anglorum vel ,saxonum4 #hf ,this splendid manuscript is in the possession of the ,duke of ,devonshire2 a good description of it1 with engravings of all its miniatures1 is published in ,archologia1 ,vol4 ,,xxiv4 #ahcb1 pp4 #a to #aag1 and a coloured copy of one of the miniatures is given by ,westwood1 ,irish ,manuscripts1 ,plate #de4 ,the library of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 possesses a book of the ,gospels which in style is very similar to the ,benedictional of ,aethelwold4 #hg ,the ,gospels of ,lothaire are in ,paris1 ,bibl4 ,nat4 ,lat4 #bff4 #hh ,this is one of the latest examples of the use of vellum dyed with the murex purple2 the purple grounds occasionally used in fifteenth century manuscripts are usually produced by laying on a coat of opaque purple pigment4 #hi ,now preserved in the ,bodleian library at ,oxford4 #ij ,the celebrated ,utrecht ,psalter is the best known example of a fine manuscript of this date with outline drawings of the revived classical style4 ,some northern influence is shown in the interlaced ornaments of the large initials4 ,facsimiles of some pages have been published by ,w4 ,g4 ,birch1 ,london1 #ahgf4 #ia ,this beautiful roll is now in the ,british ,museum1 ,harl41 ,roll ,y1 #f2 two of the miniatures are photographically illustrated by ,birch and ,jenner1 ,early ,drawings and ,illuminations1 ,london1 #ahgi1 p4 #adb4 #ib ,this ,psalter1 which is now in the public library at ,utrecht1 may possibly be one of the very manuscripts which ,canute brought from abroad4 ,it was certainly in ,england for many centuries before it passed into the possession of ,sir ,robert ,cotton1 from whose library it must have been stolen1 else it would have passed into the library of the ,british ,museum along with the rest of the great ,cotton collection of manuscripts4 ,the ,utrecht ,psalter has been thought to be the work of an ,anglo-,saxon artist1 but1 most probably1 it is the work of a ,french scribe1 though the miniatures are mainly of the debased classical style of ,rome1 and the character of the writing is even more distinctly classical1 differing very little in fact from that of the fourth century ,virgil of the ,vatican written several centuries earlier4 #ic ,good examples of this curious style of miniature are to be seen in a manuscript in the ,british ,museum1 ,cotton1 ,tib4 ,c4 ,,vi4 #id ,indeed it was not very long before the tables were turned and ,normandy was reconquered by an ,english army under a king1 who1 though of ,norman blood1 was distinctly an ,english king4 ,the victory of ,henry ,i4 over ,robert1 ,duke of ,normandy1 at ,tenchebray in #aaje1 went far to wipe out any feeling on the part of the ,english that they were a nation under the rule of a conqueror4 #ie ,chronicles of ,robert of ,gloucester1 ,hearne's edition1 #agbd 7reprinted in #ahaj71 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #cfc4 #if ,an interesting example of this revived study from the life is afforded by the ,sketch-book of ,villard de ,honecourt1 which is mentioned above at page #gb4 #ig ,see below1 page #aic1 on the revival of this class of ornament in ,italy in the second half of the fifteenth century4 #ih ,this beautiful manuscript is now in the possession of ,mr ,quaritch1 who prices it at #hjj in his catalogue of ,december1 #ahia4 ,it appears once to have belonged to ,sir ,roger ,huntingfield1 who died about #accg ,a4,d4 #ii ,it is noticeable that even the earliest miniatures of ,saint ,thomas' death represent him in ,mass vestments1 officiating at the ,high ,altar1 whereas he was really killed late in the afternoon1 and on the north side of the church4 #ajj ,see ,vetusta ,monumenta1 ,vol4 ,,vi4 pp4 #a to #cg1 and ,plates #bf to #ci2 illustrations are given here of the ,painted ,chamber and its decorations before the fire of #ahcd1 and a number of interesting extracts are quoted from the accounts now preserved in the ,record ,office4 #aja ,the ,gestes of ,antioch probably means the capture of ,antioch in #ajih under the ,crusader leaders ,tancred and ,godfrey of ,bouillon4 ,in the same way the ,jerusalem and ,jericho chambers in the house of the ,abbot of ,westminster were so called from the paintings on their walls4 ,the curious archaism of these paintings1 with figures of knights in the armour of the eleventh century1 is explained below2 see page #abh4 #ajb ,see1 for example1 that wonderful frontal1 covered with miniature paintings1 from the ,high ,altar of ,westminster ,abbey1 which is now preserved in the south ambulatory of the ,sanctuary4 #ajc ,various attempts have been made to show that ,torell was an ,italian1 and that the painted retable at ,westminster was the work of a foreign artist1 but there is not the slightest foundation for either of these theories4 #ajd ,as examples of this ,i may mention the famous ,lateran ,cope in ,rome1 the ,piccolomini ,cope at ,pienza1 and two others of similar date and style in the ,museums of ,florence and ,bologna4 ,on many occasions we find that the ,popes of this period1 on sending the ,pall to a newly elected ,english ,archbishop1 suggested that they would like in return embroidered vestments of ,english work1 opus ,anglicanum4 ,it should be observed that in almost all published works on the subject the above mentioned copes are wrongly described as being of ,italian workmanship4 #aje ,both before and after this period manuscripts of the ,vulgate were comparatively rare1 but between #abej and about #accj many thousands of manuscript ,bibles must have been produced1 all closely similar in style1 design1 choice of subject and character of writing4 ,there is no other large class of manuscripts in which such remarkable uniformity of style is to be seen4 #ajf ,as an example of the wonderful thinness of this uterine vellum1 ,i may mention a ,bible of about #abfj in my own possession which consists of #fdf leaves1 and yet measures barely an inch and a half in thickness4 ,in spite of its extreme thinness this vellum is sufficiently opaque to prevent the writing on one side from showing through to the other4 #ajg ,for example a ,bible of this class in the ,cambridge ,university library1 dating from about #abhj1 has from thirteen to seventeen lines to an inch6 #ajh ,this method of painting the shadows in pure colour1 and using the same pigment mixed with white for the rest1 was employed on a large scale by many of the ,sienese painters in the fourteenth century1 and by the ,florentine ,fra ,angelico in the fifteenth4 ,fra ,angelico's earliest works were manuscript illuminations1 executed about the year #adjg in the ,dominican ,convent at ,fiesole4 #aji ,the ,bodleian library 7,douce1 #cff7 possesses a specially beautiful manuscript ,psalter1 which belonged to ,robert of ,ormsby1 a monk of ,norwich ,abbey4 #aaj ,in all periods the ,benedictines were the chief monastic scribes and miniaturists2 the ,mother ,house at ,monte ,cassino was one of the chief centres in ,italy for the production of manuscripts1 and wherever the ,benedictines settled they brought with them the art of manuscript illumination2 see page #baa4 #aaa ,this is specially noticeable in the development of the architectural styles2 not only general forms1 but details of mouldings and the like seem to spring up all over ,england almost simultaneously4 #aab ,see below1 fig4 #be1 page #acc4 #aac ,the first pages of the two last-mentioned ,psalters are illustrated by ,shaw1 ,the ,art of ,illumination1 ,london1 #ahgj1 pp4 #ag to #bc4 #aad ,an example of the most marvellous beauty and perfection was presented by ,lady ,sadleir to ,trinity ,college library in ,cambridge4 #aae ,the ,victoria ,psalter is however frequently described in booksellers' catalogues1 not only in polite1 but in enthusiastic language4 ,as an example ,i may quote the following1 ,,the ,,beautiful ,,victoria ,,psalter3 ,,psalms ,,of ,,david ,,illuminated ,,by ,,owen ,,jones1 beautifully printed in large type1 on thin cardboards1 on #ajd pages1 each of which is surrounded by ,,sumptuous ,,borders in ,,gold and ,,colours1 with the ,,capitals ,,illuminated1 and some of the pages consisting of large and most beautifully illuminated texts1 columbier #dto4 elegantly bound in morocco1 the sides elaborately carved1 leathern joints1 and gilt edges 7,a ,,very ,,handsome ,,volume71 #d4 #ajs4 n4 d4 #aaf ,these same characteristics of face are very noticeable in the beautiful carved ivory diptychs and statuettes of the ,virgin and ,child made during the fourteenth century in ,france and ,england4 #aag ,a lectionary contained the ,gospels and ,epistles arranged for use at the celebration of ,mass4 #aah ,especially for the ,canon of the ,mass4 ,the famous ,mentz ,psalter of #adei is printed in characters of this size and style2 see below1 page #adi4 #aai ,the pine-apple was not known in ,europe before the discovery of ,america1 and this very decorative form1 which occurs so largely on the fine woven velvets of ,florence and ,northern ,italy1 was probably suggested by the artichoke plant1 largely assisted by the decorative invention of the designer4 #abj ,in the ,brera ,catalogue this very beautiful painting is wrongly ascribed to ,fra ,carnovale1 a pupil of ,piero della ,francesca4 #aba ,this very important ,english manuscript was bought by ,mr ,quaritch and priced at #afjj in his catalogue1 ,no4 #bia1 #ahgc4 ,it was written in or soon after #adbj when ,lydgate completed writing his work2 it may possibly have been written and illuminated by the author himself4 #abb ,caxton appears to have begun to use woodcut initials in the year #adhd or #adhe1 but most ,continental printers continued to use hand-painted capitals many years later than that4 #abc ,this scene and the name of ,saint ,thomas1 wherever it occurs1 are frequently obliterated in ,english manuscripts4 ,this was done by the special order of ,henry ,,viii41 who1 after his quarrel with the ,pope1 appears to have regarded ,thomas ,becket as a sort of personal enemy4 #abd ,see page #ahg for a fine ,italian example of this subject4 ,it is interesting to note that the popular legend of ,saint ,george and the dragon is simply a mediaeval version of the old classical myth of ,perseus and ,andromeda4 ,in the more genuine ,oriental lives of ,saint ,george this episode is not introduced4 #abe ,it should be remembered that ,norman-,french continued to be the ,court language of ,england till late in the fifteenth century1 and for certain legal purposes even later4 ,its use still survives in the ,law-,courts of ,quebec and ,montreal4 #abf ,dante1 ,purg4 ,,xi4 #hj2 see above1 p4 #ca4 #abg ,in the magnificent ,english embroideries of the thirteenth century1 such as the ,lateran and ,pienza copes1 mentioned at page #aab1 we see birds of exactly similar style and kinds introduced among the scroll-work of the grounds and borders4 #abh ,the phrase ivy pattern is a convenient one to use1 as it expresses a very common and well-defined type of ornament1 but the leaf is too conventionally treated to be recognized as that of the ivy or any other plant3 and the pattern is varied with blossoms of different forms and colours4 #abi ,see ,laborde1 ,les ,ducs de ,bourgogne1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #a1 and note to p4 #aba4 #acj ,the manner in which this splendid effect is produced is described below1 see page #bcd4 #aca ,shown1 for example1 in fig4 #be1 page #acd4 #acb ,the border from the ,grimani ,breviary shown on page #afh1 is an example1 though a very beautiful one1 of this decadence of taste4 #acc ,now in ,paris1 ,bibl4 ,nat4 ,lat4 #ag1 #bid4 ,john1 ,duke of ,bedford1 was a son of ,henry ,,iv42 he married in #adbc ,anne1 daughter of the ,duke of ,burgundy4 ,very fine portraits of the ,duke and ,duchess of ,bedford occur in the ,bedford ,missal mentioned below4 #acd ,the ,italians call it chiaro-scuro or light and shade painting2 its use in manuscripts may have been suggested by the grisaille stained glass windows which were introduced by the ,cistercian monks1 whose ,rule prohibited the use of brightly coloured figure subjects either in their windows1 on their walls1 or in their books4 #ace ,it was sold for #fej at the ,perkins sale in ,june1 #ahgc4 #acf ,christina was one of the most famous authors of her time2 she produced thirteen different works2 one of which1 ,the ,fayts of ,armes and ,chivalry1 was translated and printed by ,caxton about a century after it was written1 in #adhi4 #acg ,a fine manuscript of ,christina's ,romance is mentioned above1 see page #ach4 #ach ,these chivalrous romances were no less popular in ,england2 ,dan ,lydgate's ,boke of the siege of ,troy1 adapted and translated from ,guido de' ,colonna's romance1 was one of the most popular ,english books in the fifteenth century2 see page #abc4 #aci ,see ,muntz1 ,les ,peintres d',avignon1 #acdb-aceb1 ,tours1 #ahhe2 and ,les peintures de ,simone ,martini ,avignon1 ,paris1 #ahhe4 ,many of these paintings still exist in a good state of preservation1 especially those on the vault of the small private chapel of the ,popes4 #adj ,this subject is discussed at greater length in ,chapter ,,xiii4 #ada ,see page #bjf on the favourable conditions under which the monastic illuminators did their work4 #adb ,books of ,hours were the prayer-books of the laity1 as the breviary1 portiforium1 or portoos was the prayer-book of the priest4 #adc ,see below1 page #bcj1 for an explanation of the difference between mat gold applied as a fluid pigment with a brush1 and burnished gold leaf laid over a raised mordant or enamel-like ground4 #add ,in point of technique these beautiful miniatures are exactly like very delicate wood-cuts1 though in most cases they appear to have been cut 7in relief7 on blocks of soft metal1 treated just as if it had been wood4 #ade ,perhaps the earliest was one issued in #adhf by ,antoine ,verard4 #adf ,in these earliest ,parisian printed ,horae the backgrounds of the borders are left plain white2 unlike the later ones1 in which the borders have dotted or crible backgrounds4 #adg ,they include many different uses1 especially that of ,paris1 ,rome1 ,rouen and ,sarum4 #adh ,both ,verard and ,pigouchet produced ,horae for the publisher ,simon ,vostre4 #adi ,it is incorrect to speak of editions of these ,books of ,hours2 hardly any two copies appear to have been quite the same2 fresh arrangements and combinations of a large stock of engraved blocks were made for the printing of almost every copy1 and thus the long list given by ,brunet is very incomplete2 see the last volume of ,brunet's ,manuel du libraire1 ,paris1 #ahfe4 #aej ,sold in ,june1 #ahgc1 for #aha1 with the rest of the ,perkins library4 #aea ,a copy of this glory of the printer's art in ,mr ,quaritch's possession is priced in his catalogue of #ahia at #ebej2 only eight copies are known to exist4 #aeb ,in #addi ,schoeffer was a young illuminator of manuscripts residing in ,paris4 #aec ,mentelin was enrolled as an illuminator in the ,painters' ,guild at ,strasburg in #addg2 and ,colard ,mansion1 ,caxton's master in the art of typography1 belonged1 as a scribe and illuminator1 to the ,guild of ,st ,john and ,st ,luke at ,bruges4 ,in #adga he was elected ,warden or ,doyen of his ,guild4 #aed ,in some cases goldsmiths and engravers of coin-dies became printers owing to their knowledge of the technical process necessary for cutting the punches for type4 ,the great ,french printer ,nicolas ,jenson1 who produced the most magnificent printed books in ,venice1 was1 until the year #adfb1 ,master of the ,mint at ,tours4 ,and ,bernardo ,neri1 the printer of the ,florentine ,editio ,princeps of ,homer1 was originally a goldsmith1 and had assisted ,ghiberti in his work on the famous bronze doors of the ,florentine ,baptistery4 #aee ,the glorious copy on vellum of the ,mazarine ,bible in the ,british ,museum has illuminated borders and initial miniatures of the finest style and execution4 ,this earliest of printed books is commonly called after the copy in the library of ,cardinal ,mazarin which contains the illuminator's note that his work was finished in #adef4 ,sir ,john ,thorold's copy on paper was sold in #ahhd for #cijj4 #aef ,italian books frequently had clasps at the top and bottom as well as two at the side4 #aeg ,the first or almost the first book printed by ,aldus was the ,hero and ,leander of ,musaeus of #adid in small #dto4 ,the ,virgil of #aeja was followed rapidly by a ,juvenal and a ,martial1 issued in the same year4 #aeh ,chinese wood engravings of considerably earlier date do exist4 #aei ,see page #acgc2 this remarkable manuscript was then 7in #ahgc7 priced at #fej4 #afj ,early wood-cuts were not cut on the cross ends of the grain1 but on the plank side of a wooden board4 #afa ,the ,cantica ,canticorum of about #adce has most lovely designs1 and the ,apocalypse1 the ,ars ,moriendi1 the ,speculum ,humanae ,salvationis1 and the ,biblia ,pauperum all have wood-cut illustrations of great vigour and spirit1 produced between about #adbj and #adej4 #afb ,even before #adjj initial letters in manuscripts had been occasionally printed from wooden stamps covered with red or blue pigment4 #afc ,much of the ,german bronze-work of this period is extremely fine and skilful in execution1 such as the fonts and doors of churches at ,hildesheim1 ,augsburg and other places4 ,the bronze font at ,lige1 cast about #aaab by a sculptor of the ,german school1 is a work of most wonderful grace and beauty4 #afd ,till the thirteenth century the art of the ,netherlands and ,flanders was ,german in character2 after that ,flanders was1 artistically1 as well as politically1 partly ,teutonic and partly ,french4 #afe ,see above1 page #aaj1 for an ,english example of wall paintings being copied from manuscript miniatures4 #aff ,the ,national ,gallery in ,london possesses a magnificent panel by ,grard ,david1 a kneeling ,canon with three standing figures of ,saints1 and an exquisitely painted landscape background4 ,this is one wing of an altar triptych which was painted for ,st ,donatian at ,bruges4 ,it is numbered #ajde in the ,catalogue4 ,paintings by ,grard ,david's wife are mentioned below1 see page #bah4 #afg ,the whole of this gorgeous manuscript was published in fairly good facsimile by ,curmer1 ,le livre d',heures de la ,reine ,anne de ,bretagne1 #b ,vols4 ,imp4 #daj41 ,paris1 #ahfa2 see also ,laborde1 ,ducs de ,bourgogne1 ,vol4 #a4 p4 xxiv4 #afh ,a very interesting account of the ,flemish illuminators of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries is given by ,weale1 ,le ,beffroi1 ,vol4 iv4 #ahgc1 in which he publishes the accounts of the ,guild of ,st ,john and ,st ,luke between the years #aded and #aejj4 #afi ,grard ,david of ,bruges was a notable example of skill in both branches of art2 see above1 page #afe4 ,grard's wife also practised both these arts1 and produced manuscript illuminations and panel paintings of almost equal beauty to those of her husband2 see below1 page #bah4 #agj ,maximilian's ,prayer-book has been described 7with copies of the borders7 by ,stoeger1 ,vignettes d',albert ,drer2 ,munich1 #ahej4 #aga ,these minutely rendered ecclesiastical scenes occur frequently in other classes of ,teutonic illumination4 #agb ,the ,fitzwilliam ,library possesses a beautiful example of this class of pen illumination in a large folio volume of the ,summa of ,aquinas printed by ,mentelin about #adfe or #adff4 ,mentelin in his youth was an illuminator of manuscripts in ,paris at the same time that he was a student in the ,university2 see page #aej4 #agc ,such work as the ,pisan ,baptistery pulpit of ,niccola ,pisano1 executed in about #abfj1 was an almost isolated phenomenon1 and it was not till about half a century later that ,giotto and his pupils produced paintings of equal merit to those of ,france and ,england during the second half of the thirteenth century4 #agd ,see ,mon4 ,germ4 ,hist4 ,,xii4 p4 #cdh seq42 and ,agincourt1 ,hist4 d',art1 ,pl4 #ff4 #age ,partly owing to the necessarily decorative beauty of the glass tesserae1 ,byzantine mosaics1 even of a degraded period1 are usually fine and rich in effect4 #agf ,see ,vasari1 ,vite dei pittori1 ,edition of #aefh1 ,parte ,i4 p4 #bbi seq42 and ib4 ,milanesi's edition1 #ahgh1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #ag to #bi4 #agg ,this enshrined hand1 and another1 said to be that of a later miniatore of the same ,monastery1 ,don ,lorenzo1 still exist in the ,sacristy of the church of ,santa ,maria degli ,angeli4 #agh ,these magnificent miniatures were sold with the rest of the ,hailstone ,collection in #ahia2 one of them1 in the possession of the present writer1 is a magnificent initial ,o1 measuring eight by nine inches1 enclosing a very beautiful seated figure of ,saint ,stephen in a violet dalmatic with richly decorated gold apparels4 #agi ,see ,vasari1 ,milanesi ,ed4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #ae4 ,vasari also mentions a monk of the same monastery named ,don ,jacopo1 a contemporary of ,don ,silvestro1 who illuminated twenty large choir-books of extraordinary beauty4 #ahj ,he appears to have abstained from purchasing these choir-books because they were of the special ,camaldolese ,use1 and could not therefore be used in the ,vatican ,basilica4 #aha ,fra ,angelico's works were executed throughout the first half of the fifteenth century4 ,vasari mentions some magnificent manuscripts illuminated by him for the ,cathedral of ,florence1 but they are not now known to exist4 #ahb ,this is very doubtful4 ,fra ,angelico's brother ,fra ,benedetto da ,fiesole was a scribe rather than a miniaturist1 and probably only wrote the fine large text2 the illuminations were probably added by a pupil of ,fra ,angelico1 named ,zanobi ,strozzi1 who died in #adfh4 #ahc ,as an example of this ,i may mention ,fra ,angelico's system of painting the shadows of drapery in pure colour1 using the same colour mixed with white for the rest of the folds4 ,to some extent this method was used by the ,sienese school of painting1 which in other respects resembles in style the miniatures in illuminated manuscripts2 see above1 p4 #aad4 #ahd ,taking it all round1 in painting1 sculpture1 the medallist's art and other branches of the fine arts1 no country and no period except ,athens in the time of ,pericles can ever have quite equalled the artistic glories of ,florence under ,cosimo the ,elder and ,lorenzo de' ,medici4 #ahe ,pontificals contain such ,services as only ,bishops or ,archbishops could celebrate1 and therefore comparatively few would be required4 #ahf ,a beautiful manuscript of about #adfj in the ,fitzwilliam ,museum has its first page surrounded with a border of this class of design1 the interest of which is much increased by the minutely written signature1 ,jacopo da ,fabriano1 introduced among the leavy ornaments of the margin4 #ahg ,this kind of design1 with a blank space for the owner's arms1 is used for many of the beautiful wood-cut borders in the early printed books of ,florence and ,venice4 #ahh ,decorative accessories of this sculpturesque kind are largely used in the paintings of ,andrea ,mantegna of ,padua4 #ahi ,and to some extent for manuscripts of religious works as well4 ,this archaic form of letter was also used by ,sweynheim and ,pannartz and other prototypographers at ,subiaco and in ,rome2 hence it got the name of ,roman as opposed to ,gothic letter4 #aij ,one of the finest examples of this style of illumination is in a volume of the ,italian translation of ,pliny's ,natural ,history1 printed on vellum by ,nicolas ,jenson in ,venice in #adgf2 now in the ,bodleian at ,oxford4 #aia ,see ,wattenbach1 ,schriftwesen1 ,ed4 #b1 pp4 #daa and #dfi2 and ,romer1 ,les ,manuscrits de la ,bibl4 ,corvinienne1 in l',art1 ,vol4 ,x4 #ahgg4 #aib ,see ,vasari's life of ,fra ,giovanni da ,fiesole1 ,ed4 ,milanesi1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #ebb seq4 #aic ,the ,national ,gallery in ,london possesses 7,no4 #gdh in the ,catalogue7 a good example of ,girolamo's work1 a ,madonna altar-piece1 signed ,hieronymus a libris f4 ,no4 #aacd in the same collection is an example of a panel picture by ,liberale da ,verona4 ,the ,bodleian contains an exquisite ,book of ,hours illuminated by ,girolamo dai ,libri for the ,duke of ,urbino4 #aid ,the ,antiphonals which ,liberale illuminated at ,monte ,oliveto are now preserved in the ,chapter library at ,chiusi4 ,those which he painted at ,siena are now in the ,cathedral library4 ,records of money paid to ,liberale for these choir-books are published by ,milanesi1 ,documenti per la ,storia dell' ,arte ,sanese1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #chd-chf2 and ,milanesi's edition of ,vasari1 ,vol4 ,v4 pp4 #cbf-ccd4 #aie ,examples of ,attavante's and ,liberale's miniatures are illustrated by ,eug4 ,mntz1 ,la ,renaissance en ,italie et en ,france1 ,paris1 #ahhe1 p4 #ahh seq4 #aif ,see page #bjj1 and compare pages #afc and #age for examples of similar influence due to the manuscript illuminators of ,germany and ,italy4 #aig ,for examples of this see above1 page #age4 #aih ,each of these painters 7in some pictures7 also signs himself ,alamanus1 meaning not necessarily that they were ,germans1 but possibly natives of ,lombardy1 who were often called ,alamani by their ,italian neighbours4 #aii ,especially in his magnificently decorative altar-piece of the ,adoration of the ,magi in the ,florentine ,academy1 dated #adbc4 #bjj ,clovio is the ,italianized form of a harsh ,croatian name2 the artist adopted the name ,giulio as a compliment to his friend and teacher ,giulio ,romano1 ,raphael's favourite pupil4 ,j4 ,w4 ,bradley1 ,life of ,giulio ,clovio1 ,london1 #ahia1 gives an interesting account of him and of his times2 see also ,vasari1 ,ed4 ,milanesi1 ,vol4 ,,vii4 p4 #eeg4 #bja ,the ex-king of ,naples' library possesses a ,book of ,hours1 on the illuminations of which 7,vasari tells us7 ,giulio ,clovio spent nine years4 ,it certainly is a marvel of human patience and misdirected skill2 the text was written by a famous scribe named ,monterchi1 who was specially renowned for the beauty of his writing4 #bjb ,an interesting little volume on this subject has been published by ,eug4 ,mntz1 ,la ,bibliothque du ,vatican1 ,paris1 #ahhf2 it deals chiefly with the growth of the library during the sixteenth century4 #bjc ,fra ,sebastiano was called del ,piombo from his office as superintendant of the pendant lead seals1 piombi or bullae1 which were attached to ,papal ,briefs and other documents1 one class of which were called ,bulls from their lead bullae4 #bjd ,see ,montault1 ,livres de choeur des glises de ,rome1 ,arras1 #ahgd1 p4 #i4 #bje ,the ,fitzwilliam ,museum possesses two noble vellum choir-books of this class dated #afjd and #afje4 ,though the miniatures are poor1 the writing of the text and the music might well pass for the work of a fifteenth century scribe4 #bjf ,a valuable but by no means exhaustive list of manuscript illuminators is given by ,j4 ,w4 ,bradley1 ,dictionary of ,miniaturists1 ,illuminators and ,caligraphers1 ,london1 #ahhg4 ,the names of ,italian miniaturists are specially numerous1 partly because ,italian manuscripts are more frequently signed by their illuminators than the manuscripts of other countries4 ,see also ,bernasconi1 ,studj sopra la storia della pittura ,italiana dei secoli xiv e xv1 ,verona1 #ahfd4 #bjg ,j4 ,r4 ,green1 in his ,short ,history of the ,english ,people1 chap4 ,,iii41 gives an interesting sketch of the development of literature and the art of the scribe in the great ,monasteries of ,england1 especially from the eleventh to the fourteenth century4 #bjh ,the carvings on the misericords 7or turn-up seats7 of choir-stalls were frequently a vent for the pent-up humour and even spite of many a monastic carver4 #bji ,the ,poems of ,walter ,map were edited by ,thos4 ,wright for the ,camden ,society1 #ahda4 #baj ,walter ,map subsequently obtained various degrees of preferment1 and in #aaig became ,archdeacon of ,oxford4 #baa ,theophilus1 ,schedula diversarum ,artium1 ,i4 #cj-cc1 writes as if every illuminator had to beat out or grind his own gold4 #bab ,in this respect1 as is noted above at page #cc1 the manuscripts of classical date appear to have been inferior to those of the mediaeval period4 #bac ,monte ,cassino the first and chief of the ,benedictine monasteries1 founded by ,saint ,benedict himself1 was for many centuries one of the chief centres in ,italy for the writing and illumination of manuscripts4 #bad ,according to the severe ,cistercian ,rule richly illuminated manuscripts were not allowed to be written or even used in ,houses of that ,order1 which in ,england from the end of the twelfth century came next in size and importance to the monasteries of the parent ,benedictine ,order4 #bae ,see the plan of the ,abbey of ,st ,gallen1 published by ,prof4 ,willis1 ,arch4 ,jour41 ,vol4 v4 page #he seq4 #baf ,the ,abbey of ,westminster is a well preserved example of the typical ,benedictine plan4 #bag ,one walk of the ,benedictine cloister1 usually that on the west1 was used as the school-room where the novices repeated their ,donats and other lessons4 ,hence in many cloisters one sees the stone benches cut with marks for numerous go-bang boards--a favourite monastic game4 #bah ,no monk could borrow a book to read without the express permission of his superiors given in the ,chapter ,house4 #bai ,the word carrel is probably a corruption of the ,french carr1 from the square form of these little rooms4 #bbj ,when the great ,benedictine ,abbey of ,gloucester was suppressed1 ,henry ,,viii4 made the ,church into a ,cathedral by creating a new ,see2 and so1 happily1 the very beautiful cloister was saved from destruction4 #bba ,gloucester is exceptional in having the cloister on the north side of the ,church2 and also in having these stone recesses in the scriptorium alley4 #bbb ,the ,gloucester cloister and the carrel recesses shown in this woodcut date from the latter part of the fourteenth century4 #bbc ,published by the ,surtees ,society1 ,london1 #ahdb2 see p4 #gj4 #bbd ,frequently in the ,linen-armourers' ,guild1 that of makers of defensive armour of linen padded and quilted1 a very important protection against assassination1 which was used till the seventeenth century4 #bbe ,dante selected the ,apothecaries' and ,physicians' ,guild4 #bbf ,this phrase was used in the twelfth century by ,ordericus ,vitalis1 ,hist4 ,eccles4 ,lib4 ,,iii4 p4 #gg1 ,ed4 ,le ,prevost4 #bbg ,mediaeval saddlery1 with its cut1 gilt and stamped leather 7cuir bouill71 rich and elaborate in design1 was a decorative art of no mean character2 and in technique was akin to that of the bookbinder1 which in most places was included in the same ,guild4 #bbh ,see ,le ,beffroi1 ,bruges1 ,vol4 ,,iv4 #ahgc4 #bbi ,in poetic beauty1 however1 they cannot be compared to the glory of the ,french ,apocalypses such as that in the library of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4 #bcj ,grard ,david is mentioned above as one of the illuminators of the famous ,grimani ,breviary2 see page #afe4 #bca ,see pages #aag and #abb for examples of this4 #bcb ,that is1 for noting or writing the plain song of certain parts of the service which were sung at ,christmas and during ,holy ,week4 ,this explanation ,i owe to my friend ,mr ,j4 ,t4 ,micklethwaite4 #bcc ,evidently mis-spelt for psalterio2 and again in the next item4 #bcd ,the quaternion was a gathering of four sheets of vellum1 each folded once2 thus forming sixteen pages4 #bce ,this book was partly written on sheets of vellum which were in stauro 7in stock71 and therefore do not come into the accounts4 #bcf ,twelve quires of vellum which were in stock were also used for this ,antiphonale4 #bcg ,see ,trans4 ,bristol and ,glouces4 ,arch4 ,soc4 ,vol4 ,,xv4 #ahia1 pp4 #beg and #bfj4 #bch ,see ,peignot1 ,essai sur l'histoire du parchemin et du vlin1 ,paris1 #ahab4 #bci ,strictly speaking the word vellum should denote parchment made from calfskin1 but the word is commonly used for any of the finer qualities of parchment which were used for manuscripts4 #bdj ,quoted by ,hook1 ,lives of ,archbishops of ,canterbury1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #cec2 the ,rev4 ,canon ,g4 ,f4 ,browne kindly called my attention to this passage4 ,other examples of the cost of vellum are given in the preceding chapter4 #bda ,the same arrangement is to be seen in books printed on vellum4 #bdb ,for example1 the mere vellum required to print a small thick folio1 such as ,caxton's ,golden ,legend1 would now cost about #dj4 #bdc ,i owe many of the facts in the following account of early paper to the excellent article on that subject in the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 ninth edition1 ,vol4 ,,xviii4 by ,mr ,e4 ,maunde ,thompson4 ,see also ,e4 ,egger1 ,le papier dans l'antiquit et dans les temps modernes1 ,paris1 #ahff4 #bdd ,a good illustrated account of early water-marks is given by ,sotheby1 ,principia ,typographia1 ,london1 #aheh4 #bde ,some fifteenth century paper has a special maker's mark1 but more usually a general town or district mark was used1 such as the cross-keys1 a ,cardinal's hat1 an ,imperial crown or double-eagle4 #bdf ,what is now called foolscap paper originally took its name from a paper-mark in the form of a fool's cap and bells1 a device which was frequently used in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 #bdg ,some of ,caxton's books1 printed in ,westminster1 bear many different paper-marks of ,germany and ,flanders1 even in the same volume4 #bdh ,paper was also made at an early date in ,constantinople1 through its intimate relationship with the ,east4 ,hence the ,monk ,theophilus1 writing in the eleventh century1 calls linen-paper ,greek vellum1 pergamena ,graeca2 see ,i4 #bd4 #bdi ,this old paper is almost as stout1 tough and durable as parchment--very unlike modern machine-made paper4 #bej ,the size was made by boiling down shreds of vellum4 ,blotting-paper is paper that has not been sized4 ,a coarse grey variety was used as early as the fifteenth century1 though1 as a rule1 fine sand was used for this purpose till about the middle of the present century1 especially on the ,continent4 #bea ,modern shell gold is practically the same thing as the fluid gold of the mediaeval illuminators1 except that it is not made with the pure1 unalloyed metal4 #beb ,the following are the most useful and easily accessible books on the technical processes of the illuminator2 ,theophilus1 ,schedula diversarum ,artium1 ,hendrie's edition with a translation1 ,london1 #ahdg2 ,cennino ,cennini1 ,trattato della pittura1 #adcg1 edited1 with a translation1 by ,mrs ,merrifield1 ,london1 #ahdd2 and a large and valuable collection of early manuscripts on the same subject1 edited and translated by ,mrs ,merrifield under the title of ,original ,treatises on the ,arts of ,painting1 #b ,vols41 ,london1 #ahdi4 #bec ,see page #add4 #bed ,that is to say1 it looks as if the whole substance1 mordant and all1 were one solid mass of gold1 nearly as thick as a modern half-sovereign2 see ,theophilus1 ,i4 #bd and #be4 #bee ,so when ,william ,torell was about to gild the bronze effigy of ,queen ,eleanor in ,westminster ,abbey he procured a large number of gold florins from ,lucca4 #bef ,not even the smallest admixture of alloy was permitted in the gold coinages of the ,middle ,ages4 ,dante 7,inf4 ,,xxx4 #gc7 mentions the coiner ,maestro ,adamo who had been burnt at ,romena in #abhj for issuing florins which had scarcely more alloy than a modern sovereign4 #beg ,the gold penny of ,henry ,,iii4 and the florin and its parts of ,edward ,,iii4 were only struck as patterns4 ,the gold noble was first issued in #acda2 its value was #fs4 #h;d4 or half a mark4 ,so many nobles were destroyed to make gold leaf for illuminating1 and for other purposes1 that an ,act was passed prohibiting1 under severe penalties1 the use of the gold coinage for any except monetary purposes4 #beh ,in the same way the gold leaf used by the ,greeks was comparatively thick4 ,the famous ,erechtheum inscription of #djd ,b4,c4 gives one drachma as the cost of each leaf 7,greek3 petalon7 used for gilding the marble enrichments2 see ,cor4 ,ins4 ,att4 ,i4 #cbd1 fragment ,c1 col4 ii4 lines #ce and #db4 ,eighteen-pence will now buy #ajj leaves of gold4 #bei ,the best account of the way to make the mordant was given about #acih by a ,lombard illuminator called ,johannes ,archerius2 see ,mrs ,merrifield's interesting collection of ,treatises on ,painting1 ,vol4 ,i4 page #bei seq4 #bfj ,see ,theophilus1 ,i4 #be4 #bfa ,see ,mrs ,merrifield1 op4 cit4 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #aed4 #bfb ,in ,cennino's time1 the early part of the fourteenth century1 in ,europe1 sugar was sold by the ounce as a costly drug4 ,apothecaries1 not grocers1 dealt in it4 ,in ,persia1 ,syria and some other ,moslem countries cane sugar was made and used in comparatively large quantities throughout the mediaeval period2 but in ,europe it did not come into use as an article of food till the #afth century1 and even then it was very expensive4 #bfc ,the date of this receipt is about #adaj2 it is quoted in ,jehan de ,begue's manuscript published by ,mrs ,merrifield1 ,vol4 ,i4 pp4 #i1 #ie1 and #aed2 see also ,theophilus1 ,i4 #ca1 who speaks of burnishing fluid gold laid on a mordant of red lead and cinnabar4 #bfd ,see ,theophilus1 ,i4 #cc and #cd2 he recommends white of egg as a medium for ceruse1 minium and carmine1 and for most other pigments1 ordinary vellum size4 ,jehan le ,begue's manuscript gives the same advice as to the use of white of egg1 but advises the use of gum ,arabic with other pigments2 see #aig4 #bfe ,the ,british ,museum possesses an interesting manuscript on pigments1 entitled ,de coloribus ,illuminatorum 7,sloane manuscripts1 #aged72 see also ,eraclius1 ,de artibus ,romanorum1 published by ,raspe1 ,london1 #aghc and #ahja2 and the twelfth century ,mappae ,clavicula printed in ,archologia1 ,vol4 ,,xxxii4 pp4 #ahc to #bdd4 ,the first book of ,theophilus1 ,diversarum artium schedula1 written in the eleventh century1 contains much interesting matter on this subject2 see also the works mentioned above at page #bcj4 #bff ,the ,journal of the ,society of ,arts1 ,dec4 #be1 #ahia1 and ,jan4 #h and #ae1 #ahib1 has a valuable series of papers on ,the pigments and vehicles of the ,old ,masters by ,mr ,a4 ,p4 ,laurie1 who throws new light on the treatises edited by ,mrs ,merrifield with the help of his own chemical investigations4 #bfg ,this word is spelt in many different ways4 #bfh ,in mediaeval times this was done by first embedding the powdered stone in a lump of wax and resin1 from which the blue particles were laboriously extracted by long-continued kneading and washing4 ,the theory of this apparently was that the wax held the colourless particles and allowed the blue to be washed out2 see ,mrs ,merrifield1 ,treatises on ,painting1 ,vol4 ,i4 pp4 #di1 and #ig to #aaa4 #bfi ,the modern value of ultramarine is about equal to its weight in gold4 ,sir ,peter ,lely1 in the time of ,charles ,,ii41 paid #d4 #ajs4 an ounce for it4 #bgj ,the ,prior in question was the ,superior of the ,convent of the ,frati ,gesuati in ,florence4 #bga ,the ,german blue was also liable to turn to a bright emerald green if exposed to damp air4 ,this change has taken place in a great part of the painted ceilings of the ,villa ,madama1 which ,raphael designed for ,cardinal de' ,medici 7afterwards ,clement ,,vii47 on the slopes of ,monte ,mario1 a little distance outside the walls of ,rome4 #bgb ,because it was used by goldsmiths in soldering gold4 #bgc ,minium was largely used in the manuscripts of classical times2 this is mentioned by ,pliny 7,hist4 ,nat4 ,,xxxiii4 #abb7 who says minium in voluminum quoque scriptura usurpatur4 #bgd ,all natural earthy pigments owe their colours to the various metals1 which in combinations with different substances give a great variety of tints4 ,thus1 iron gives red1 brown1 yellow and black2 copper gives many shades of brilliant blues and greens2 and manganese gives a quiet purple1 especially in combination with an alcaline silicate4 #bge ,plutarch 7,de defec4 ,or4 #da7 mentions flour made from beans as being used with murex purple and kermes crimson to give them sufficient body for the painter's purpose4 #bgf ,kermes is the ,arabic name for this insect4 #bgg ,it should be remembered that a large number of the mediaeval receipts and processes were not based on any reasonable principle1 and endless complications were often introduced quite needlessly2 this is well shown in a very interesting paper by ,prof4 ,john ,ferguson of ,glasgow on ,some ,early ,treatises on ,technological ,chemistry1 read before the ,philos4 ,soc4 ,glasgow1 ,jan4 #f1 #ahhf4 #bgh ,the use of litharge as a drier was one of the most important improvements made in the technique of oil painting by the ,van ,eycks of ,bruges in the first half of the fifteenth century4 ,before then1 oil paintings on walls had often been laboriously dried by holding charcoal braziers close to the surface of the picture4 ,among the accounts of the expenses of painting the ,royal ,palace of ,westminster in the thirteenth century 7see above1 page #aaj7 charcoal for this purpose is an important item in the cost4 ,paintings on panel1 being moveable1 were usually dried by being placed in the sun2 but1 in every way1 a good drier like litharge answers better than heat1 either of the fire or of sunshine4 #bgi ,see ,theophilus1 ,i4 #ci4 #bhj ,see ,vitruvius1 ,,vii4 #aj2 and ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,,xxxv4 #da2 and ,dioscorides1 ,v4 #ahc4 #bha ,sometimes accidentally produced in domestic life by some overdrawn tea remaining on a steel knife4 #bhb ,the modern lead-pencil is wrongly named1 being made of graphite1 which is pure carbon4 ,this does not appear to have been used in mediaeval times4 #bhc ,the vellum was not prepared in any way to receive the silver-point drawing2 but when an artist wanted to make a finished study in silver-point he covered his vellum or paper with a priming of fine gesso1 powdered marble1 or wood-ashes2 this gave a more biting surface to the paper1 and made the silver rub off more easily and mark much more strongly4 ,in the case of manuscript illuminations a strongly marked line was not needed1 as the outline was only intended as a guide to the painter4 #bhd ,see above1 pages #bi and #cj1 on the pens and inkstands of the classical scribes4 #bhe ,usually meant for ,saint ,jerome translating or revising the ,latin edition of the ,bible4 #bhf ,again1 the first miniature in the ,french and ,flemish ,horae usually represents ,saint ,john in ,patmos writing his ,gospel4 ,the eagle stands by patiently holding the ,evangelist's inkhorn4 ,in some manuscripts the ,devil1 evidently in much awe of the eagle's beak1 makes a feeble attempt to upset the ink4 ,in the latest manuscript ,horae this scene is replaced by the one of ,saint ,john at the ,latin ,gate4 #bhg ,a two-columned page of text had1 of course1 two sets of framing lines1 one for each patch of writing4 #bhh ,in some manuscripts lines are ruled in blue or purple1 but much less frequently than in the more decorative vermilion4 #bhi ,in certain classes of books1 such as large ,bibles and ,prayer-books1 the custom of ruling red lines lasted till the present century4 #bij ,these guiding letters were used in all the early printed books which had initials painted in by an illuminator4 #bia ,as a rule these manuscript signatures in printed books were written close to the edge of the page1 and so have been cut off by the binder2 in some tall copies1 however1 they still exist4 #bib ,the next stage was the numbering of each folio or leaf1 and the last system was to number each page4 ,folios appear to have been first numbered in books printed at ,cologne about the year #adgj4 ,a further modification has recently been introduced1 namely1 in two column pages1 to number each column separately4 #bic ,the ,lectionary mentioned on p4 #abj was written and signed by a monastic scribe called ,sifer ,was4 #bid ,some fine examples of magnificently bound manuscripts are illustrated by ,libri1 ,monumens indits2 ,hist4 ,ornam4 ,paris1 #ahfb-ahfd4 #bie ,in ,geyler's ,fatuorum ,navicula1 of which many editions1 copiously illustrated with woodcuts1 were published shortly before and after the year #aejj1 the cut showing the first fool of the series1 the ,bibliomaniac1 represents him surrounded with books1 all of which are bound after this design4 #bif ,a complete sixteenth century ,venetian library1 consisting of a hundred and seventy volumes1 all with painted illuminations on their edges1 is now in the library of ,mr ,thos4 ,brooke1 at ,armitage ,bridge1 near ,huddersfield4 ,the whole collection forms a beautiful array of delicately painted miniatures1 mostly the work of ,cesare ,vecellio1 a ,venetian illuminator of the latter part of the sixteenth century2 see ,catalogue of ,mr ,brooke's library1 ,london1 #ahia1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 pp4 #ffc to #fha4 #big ,an analogous change took place in the reign of ,elizabeth in ,england when coins1 which up to that time had always been made by hammering1 were first struck by the mill and screw4 #bih ,in the miniature pictures in manuscripts of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries one often sees ladies represented with their ,horae suspended in this way from their girdle4 #bii ,see page #afg4 #cjj ,see page #afg4 #cja ,the same want of appreciation extends to bindings4 ,as a rule a book in a fine mediaeval binding sells for no more than if it were in a modern binding by ,bedford4 ,it is only the sixteenth century bindings of so-called ,grolier style and the like which add largely to the value of a book4 #cjb ,this library is now deposited in the ,guildhall2 the press-mark is probably that of an old monastic library4 #cjc ,probably a blundered version of ,pliny's statement 7,hist4 ,nat4 ,,xxxvii4 #aai7 that azure blue 7cyanus7 was invented by a king of ,egypt4 #cjd ,this is evidently a different thing from the epicausterium or brazier for hot coals mentioned below4 ,my friend ,mr ,j4 ,t4 ,micklethwaite suggests that it was a board covered with leather on which to stretch and dry vellum before writing on it4 #cje ,an explanation of the nature and constitution of the ,breviary will be found in the preface to the ,psalter-volume of the ,cambridge ,university ,press edition of the ,sarum ,breviary1 lately published4