,transcriber's ,note3 ,minor typographical errors have been corrected without note4 ,irregularities and inconsistencies in the text have been retained as printed4 ,subscripted text is indicated with curly braces3 #b4 ,words printed in italics are marked with underlines3 italics4 ,,the ,a ,b ,c ,,of ,,mining ,a ,handbook for ,prospectors ,,treating ,,fully ,,of ,,exploratory ,,and ,,preparatory ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,physical ,,properties ,,of ,,ores1 ,,field ,,geology1 ,,the ,,occurrence ,,and ,,associations ,,of ,,minerals1 ,,methods ,,of ,,chemical ,,analysis ,,and ,,assay1 ,,blow-,,pipe ,,tests1 ,,promising ,,indications1 ,,and ,,simple ,,methods ,,of ,,working ,,valuable ,,deposits1 ,,together ,,with ,,chapters ,,on ,,quartz ,,and ,,hydraulic ,,mining ,,and ,,especial ,,detailed ,,information ,,on ,,placer ,,mining1 ,,with ,,an ,,addenda ,,on ,,camp ,,life ,,and ,,medical ,,hints4 ,,by ,,charles ,a4 ,,bramble1 ,d4,l4,s41 ,late of the ,editorial ,staff of ,the ,engineering and ,mining ,journal1 and formerly a ,crown ,lands and ,mineral ,surveyor for the ,dominion of ,canada4 ,,illustrated4 ,,chicago ,,and ,,new ,,york3 ,,rand1 ,mc,n,a,l,l,y ,,company1 ,,publishers4 ,copyright1 #ahih1 by ,rand1 ,mc,nally ,co4 ,,preface4 ,owing to recent rich discoveries in more than one mining field1 hundreds of shrewd1 intelligent men without experience in prospecting are turning their attention to that arduous pursuit--to such this book is offered as a safe guide4 ,a complex subject has been treated as simply as its nature permitted1 and when a scientific term could not be avoided1 the explanation in the glossary has been offered4 ,,charles ,a4 ,,bramble1 ,d4,l4,s4 ,,preface ,,to ,,second ,,edition4 ,a steady demand for this work has shown that it fills a want1 and serves the purpose for which it was written4 ,in issuing this second edition1 a few compositors' errors that had crept in1 owing to the author being in a very remote region while the book was going through the press1 have been corrected1 but no material changes in the text were found desirable4 ,,contents4 ,,the ,a ,b ,c ,,of ,,mining4 ,,page ,chapter ,i--,prospecting1 #g ,,ii--,how to ,test for ,minerals1 #ch ,,iii--,blow-,pipe ,tests1 #fe ,,iv--,economic ,ores and ,minerals1 #ge ,v--,mining1 #ajj ,,vi--,camp ,life1 #adc ,,vii--,surveying1 #aee ,,viii--,floating a ,company1 #afa ,,ix--,medical ,hints1 #afe ,x--,dynamite1 #afh ,,xi--,atomic ,weights1 #agj ,,xii--,odds and ,ends1 #agb ,glossary1 #aha ,a ,b ,c ,,of ,,mining4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,prospecting4 ,many men seem to think that should their destinies lead them into parts of the world where there is mineral wealth they will have little chance of discovering the deposits without the technical education of a mining engineer4 ,this is wrong4 ,the fact is that the sphere of the prospector does not cover that of the engineer4 ,the work of the one ends where that of the other begins1 and many of the most successful discoverers of metallic wealth have been entirely ignorant of the methods by which a great mine should be opened1 developed1 and worked4 ,a few simple tools and a not very deep knowledge of assaying1 with an observant eye and a brain quick to deduce inferences from what that eye has seen1 are the most valuable assets of a prospector4 ,in time he will gain experience1 and experience will teach him much that he could not learn in any college nor from any book4 ,each mining district differs from every other1 and it has been found that certain rules which hold good in one region1 and guide the seeker after wealth to the hidden treasure that has been stored up for eons of time1 do not apply in another region4 ,to show what may be done with imperfect1 improvised apparatus1 an ,australian assayer1 who has since become famous1 started up country in his youth with the following meager outfit3 ,a cheap pair of scales1 a piece of cheese cloth1 a tin ring #a-a_/b inches by #a_/b inch1 a small brass door-knob1 some powdered borax1 some carbonate of soda and argol1 a few pounds of lead lining taken from a tea chest1 an empty jam pot1 a short steel drill1 a red flower pot4 ,with this modest collection of implements he made forty assays of gold ores that turned out to be correct when repeated in a laboratory4 ,about the best advice that can be given to a man who has determined to go to some out of the way region where there is a possibility of his discovering minerals is to recommend him to visit the nearest museum and gain an acquaintance with the common rocks4 ,should he be unable to do this he had better provide himself with small1 inexpensive specimens from the shop of some dealer4 ,it is almost impossible to teach a beginner to distinguish the various rocks by any amount of printed instruction2 the only way to learn to recognize them is to handle them and note carefully their color1 weight1 and the minerals that go to make them up4 ,the explorer should be able to recognize at a glance1 or at any rate after a very short inspection1 the sedimentary rocks1 such as sandstone and limestone2 the metamorphic rocks1 that is1 rocks that have been altered by the agency of great subterranean heat in ages long past1 and which were probably stratified rocks at one period1 such as granite and gneiss1 and the truly igneous rocks--trap1 diabase1 diorite1 etc4 ,he must know also that mysterious rock which the western miner calls porphyry1 and to which is ascribed most wonderful virtues in the way of ore attraction2 while dolerite and dolomite must be to him familiar terms and substances4 ,this sounds easy enough but the student will find that a good deal of hard work is necessary before he can readily recognize each of these rocks4 ,it is even more necessary that he should learn the metals thoroughly4 ,each one differs from all the rest in some particular4 ,often this difference will be an obscure one1 but to the careful investigator the recognition of the substance will be in the end certain4 ,they may differ in weight1 in color1 in hardness1 in a dozen different ways1 so that to the man who has made a study of this subject a determination is always possible4 ,on account of the wonderful discoveries in the ,canadian ,northwest and in ,alaska1 the eyes of thousands are turned towards those fields4 ,wonderfully rich placer ground has already been found and there can be no reason to doubt that very much larger areas remain unproved4 ,where this gold comes from is an open question2 geologists1 mineralogists and chemists1 not to mention mining engineers and practical prospectors1 have disputed over the source of the gold already found1 but it must be confessed that there are almost as many theories as there are disputants4 ,could it be known with certainty how and under what conditions the gold got where it is found1 the problem of seeking for it might be made easier4 ,unfortunately this is not the case1 and all prospecting for the home of the precious metal is more or less a groping in the dark4 ,we do know that the heaviest particles of gold do not travel far from where they were first deposited1 because gold is so enormously heavy--its specific gravity being about nineteen times that of water--it seeks the bottom of the stream and stays there4 ,it is not an invariable rule that the gold increases in coarseness as the stream is ascended1 but it is a very general one4 ,on some rivers rich and poor stretches of gold-bearing gravel succeed one another as the explorer makes his way up or down stream4 ,this is difficult to account for1 but in many cases is believed to be caused by the modern river robbing the bed of some one or more ancient water-courses whose beds crossed the valley of the present stream4 ,this may or may not be the case4 ,we only know that the miners who found coarse gold on the lower regions of such rivers as the ,frazer were miserably disappointed when they reached stretches near the source and found nothing but flour gold4 ,this same feature has been noticed in some of the ,alaskan rivers4 ,it is quite within the bounds of probability that no very rich quartz veins exist in ,alaska4 ,it does not follow from the richness of the placers that the gold is derived from very rich quartz lodes1 because this amount of gold may really represent the product of a vast amount of rock that has been ground to powder and washed away in the course of ages4 ,the gold would not travel far1 and the deposits being unearthed to-day have been accumulating in these northern streams since the world was young2 water-courses are nature's ground sluices4 ,it is possible that one stream has cut through the drainage of another4 ,sometimes this has impoverished the first and enriched the second1 while in other cases the reverse has obtained4 ,upheavals have formed faults#a and fractured the strata1 and the gold may have been deposited by solution in these fractures4 ,often the soil will have been washed away from near the top of the mountain1 so that layers of stratified rock are seen to be duplicated on each side while they are covered at the summit4 ,the prospector keeps his eye open as he goes along and notes carefully the character of the fragments of rock he finds in the streams4 ,quartz1 diorite1 diabase1 and porphyry pebbles are grounds for expecting a profitable result1 but of course there is no certainty of such a happy issue4 ,as soon as the district begins to be fairly well known certain discoveries are made that invariably render prospecting easier4 ,local peculiarities are noted2 certain characters are found to be common to the ore-bearing bodies or deposits2 the lines of deposits become known1 and a good deal of light is then shed upon a very difficult problem4 ,as a rule1 when the fragments of quartz1 pyrite1 chalcopyrite1 or galena are rough1 they have not traveled far1 and the lode from which they have been derived should be close at hand4 ,water and attrition soon round these minerals on their sharp edges1 and thus show that they have come from some little distance4 #a ,dislocation of the strata4 ,in some countries1 especially where vegetation is scanty1 the outcrop of a body of mineral may be traced by a difference in the vegetation4 ,in ,south ,africa a chain of pools usually follows the course of a line fault1 which in its turn marks where an intrusive lode carrying mineral separates two different formations4 ,as a rule1 any heavy mineral is worth investigating4 ,even in remote regions silver1 mercury1 tin1 nickel1 platinum1 copper1 and several other metals are worth paying attention to4 ,if they are too far away from the railroad or the steamboat to-day they may not be so next year1 for civilization advances with giant stride in these days and never faster than when transportation companies are reaching forth to some newly discovered mineral field4 ,one of the greatest drawbacks to prospecting in the ,north is the dense growths of moss and forest that cover the ground4 ,in most of the ,western states1 in ,south ,africa1 and in ,australia this drawback does not exist and prospecting was by that much the easier4 ,however1 as a compensation1 there is abundant water in ,alaska and the ,northwest1 while it was and is almost entirely absent in several other regions that possess immense bodies of ore which are not available for this very reason4 ,quartz has been called the mother of gold1 and certainly quartz and gold are inseparably connected to-day4 ,as to where gold may be found the best reply that can be given is in the words of the old miner1 who1 when asked that question1 said3 ,where it be's2 there it be's1 and then added1 and there ben't ,i4 ,although most prospectors travel alone from sheer necessity1 there can be no doubt that three or four men forming a party and working together have the advantage4 ,they can do their work cheaper1 more thoroughly1 and more surely4 ,by co-operating they may carry a more complete outfit4 ,should any accident happen help is at hand1 whereas the solitary wanderer often dies as the result of some accident that would have been trivial had he had a companion4 ,three or four claims may be worked in conjunction with one another at far less proportionate expense than a single one could4 ,nature's preparation for the reception of great ore deposits is somewhat as follows3 ,the crust of the earth is prepared for the reception of the metals by great outbursts of igneous or melted rocks2 the metals themselves being carried in suspension in the heated water that everywhere traverses the strata4 ,these metals are deposited in the veins as soon as the waters begin to cool1 and the pressure to which they were subjected from deep down in the earth's crust is removed4 ,a great mineral country is usually marked by the outcrops of the veins being persistent in their courses and traceable for many miles1 though very probably many breaks may occur in these outcrops4 ,the rocks associated with great ore bodies are lime1 porphyry1 granite1 shales1 slates1 quartzites1 and diabase4 ,fragments of mineral and gangue1 known to the miners as float1 may be littered over the hills and encumber the courses of the stream4 ,a central line of eruption may often be traced by masses of altered rock1 and beds of lava or other volcanic products4 ,we find the granite has been melted and the limestone has acquired magnesia1 and thus become dolomatized4 ,whenever a heavy deposit of pyrites1 or mundic1 is found mineral probably exists below4 ,the cubes of pyrite are not always valueless1 they may contain gold in addition to the iron and sulphur4 ,when the pyrites decay under the influence of the weather1 and leave the quartz honeycombed1 these cavities often contain concentrated gold2 for which reason you often get a higher assay from the surface than from any point lower down in the vein4 ,in sinking the shaft soon gets below this altered quartz and the ores are then combined with sulphur4 ,they have become sulphides1 and are harder to treat4 ,the prospector should therefore act very cautiously when trying to develop a mine with a small capital behind him2 because1 although the first ore may be adapted for stamping1 he may find1 before he has gone down fifty feet1 that it can only be treated in a smelter1 and that all the money he has put into crushing apparatus is wasted4 ,without the prospector there would be no mining and the world would yet be in the stone age4 ,he is not appreciated at anything like his real worth4 ,he requires ability and experience1 push and perseverance4 ,prospecting is a search for valuable minerals4 ,he may not be very deeply learned in either geology or mineralogy1 but he must have a keen eye and good natural powers of observation4 ,there are some sixty or seventy elements in the world1 and the most common is oxygen4 ,nearly all the coloring matter of rocks comes from iron4 ,wind1 frost1 rain1 snow1 and heat1 cause a crumbling of the different rocks1 and running water wears them away1 and carries off and distributes the particles4 ,by this agency1 and by floating ice1 they are often removed to long distances4 ,the action of internal heat renews the deposits of mineral by eruption1 or by hot springs1 but this means of renewal was much more powerful in the past than it is now4 ,organic matter found in the crust of the earth was derived from animals or vegetables4 ,coal is a legacy from forests that flourished ages ago1 while petroleum is all that remains of vast schools of fishes that swarmed in ,devonian seas4 ,stratified rocks are either sand1 clay1 or calcareous1 which means lime-bearing4 ,in their natural position they were horizontal1 but owing to subsequent volcanic action they are1 in some localities1 tilted at all conceivable angles4 ,the eruptive rocks have burst through them in places1 changed their character1 divided them by intrusive masses1 and generally enriched them with mineral deposits4 ,everything now known points to the theory that the contents of veins were deposited in the lodes by infiltration4 ,in a few instances famous mines have no veins1 but are literally hills of mineral2 they are then of low grade1 but much more remunerative than average high grade mines1 owing the vast quantity of ore1 and the ease with which it can be mined4 ,the famous ,treadwell mine1 on ,douglas ,island1 ,alaska1 has ore that is worth less than four dollars a ton1 but it is quarried1 and #fdj stamps work day and night4 ,there is about a dollar a ton profit1 and hundreds of thousands of tons are treated annually4 ,the tin mine known as ,mount ,bischoff1 in ,tasmania1 and the ,burra copper mine in ,australia are other instances4 ,each of these deposits was found as an outcropping on the bare top of a low hill1 and none of them has walls4 ,a fault may throw the vein up or down1 and a good deal of exploration may have to be done before it is recovered4 ,a lenticular vein consists of a series of double pointed ore bodies like lenses which may be strung out1 overlapping1 or not4 ,the outcrop of a vein is never the same as its strike1 except on a level surface4 ,a stringer of ore branching off from the main vein is known as a chute1 shoot1 or chimney4 ,in developing a ledge or lode1 first find out what the ore is4 ,gold is shown in the mortar1 especially after roasting4 ,silver may be recognized at sight1 or by assay tests1 or blow pipe2 copper1 by its vivid colors1--green or blue for carbonate and red for oxide or metallic copper4 ,the ore often differs in various parts of the vein4 ,explore your lode along the surface1 across1 and down its dip4 ,when you find it continuous it will be time enough to think of a vertical shaft4 ,the top of a shaft must be timbered with logs1 so as to give sufficient fall to get rid of the mineral when it is hoisted4 ,the first thing the prospector has to consider is his outfit4 ,the more complete this is the better1 but ninety-nine times out of a hundred the difficulties of transportation in a wild region are so enormous that he will have to do without a great many things that he would like to have4 ,he must endeavor to make up for the lack of tools by ingenuity2 then he may get along fairly well4 ,a pan1 he must have4 ,in this he will wash carefully all his samples4 ,then1 a flask of quicksilver is more precious to him even than gold2 for1 having it1 he can resort to pan-amalgamation1 which will save the precious metal even when it is in minute particles4 ,this process may be described as follows3 ,a pound or two of the ore in powder is placed in the pan and water is added until the mass becomes a thin pulp4 ,one ounce of quicksilver and a small piece of that deadly poison1 known to the chemist as cyanide of potash1 and as prussic acid to the ordinary man1 should be added1 and the mass should be stirred thoroughly1 for two hours if you can stand it4 ,then turn in water and wash off the dirt and the amalgam will be found in the bottom of the pan4 ,this you must collect very carefully4 ,you should have a square piece of chamois skin or a piece of strong white cotton cloth4 ,in either case the amalgam is put in the center of this square and the cloth twisted until all the superfluous quicksilver is pressed out and your amalgam remains nearly free from mercury4 ,this amalgam placed on a shovel and held over a brisk fire will soon show the yellow color of gold4 ,if you have no mould you may make one of clay1 put your gold therein with a little borax1 and very soon1 the fire being hot enough1 you will have a tiny ingot of the precious metal4 ,but most prospectors are satisfied when they have obtained their sponge gold1 and do not carry their operations further in these rough and ready tests4 ,the prospector of to-day is often a very different man from his predecessor of a generation ago4 ,the old gold hunter used to sally forth armed with a pick1 shovel and pan1 and usually a very little grub4 ,in his stead men are now taking the field who have had the benefits of a thorough education1 both practical and theoretical1 and provided with all the equipment necessary for their work4 ,some of these men carry an outfit somewhat as follows3 ,an iron mortar holding half a gallon1 together with a pestle a rough scale for pulp1 a more delicate one showing troy grains and pennyweights1 a #dj-mesh sieve1 a burro furnace and muffle1 one cupel mould1 a couple of dozen scorifiers1 tongs to handle the cupel and scorifiers1 two annealing cups1 a spirit lamp1 a dozen test tubes1 a pouring mould1 five or six pounds of borax and about as much carbonate of soda1 five pounds of bone ash1 ditto of granulated lead1 a pint of nitric acid1 ditto of hydrochloric acid1 ditto sulphuric acid1 ditto of ammonia1 twice as much alcohol and two pounds or so of granulated zinc4 ,as a blow pipe outfit he will take a blow pipe1 spirit lamp1 nitrate of cobalt in solution1 cyanide of potash1 yellow prussiate of potash1 red prussiate of potash1 a sheet or two of filtering paper and a couple of three-inch glass filters4 ,with this outfit he can determine any mineral he may come across4 ,by patience and observation the man who starts out to take up prospecting as a road to fortune may easily master the rudiments of his business4 ,it will not take him long to become familiar with the commoner rocks1 and the more valuable ores4 ,his own rough tests in the field must be confirmed by competent assayers upon his return to civilization1 and in this matter he should be very guarded4 ,the most reliable assays are made either at the different government assay offices or by some of the large metallurgical works whose reputation is world wide4 ,prospecting is hard work1 but the life is healthy and full of excitement1 only the explorer should have courage1 hope1 and good temper1 for each and every one will be as necessary in his chosen vocation as his pan and pick4 ,when alluvial or placer gold has been found it is reasonable to suppose that the vein from which it was derived may also reward diligent search1 for it is undoubtedly true that most placer gold has come from quartz veins4 ,this1 however1 is believed not to be invariably the case1 a recent school of mineralogists contending that pure masses of alluvial gold have been formed from the accretion or growth of the gold deposited from certain gold salts4 ,this is in any case probably exceptional1 and the prospector who finds gold in gravel should seek in the adjacent country for the quartz lodes from which it came4 ,important deposits may be expected at or about the line of unconformability where slates1 shales1 quartzites1 sandstones1 limestones1 schists and other sedimentary deposits are pierced by intrusive masses of igneous rocks4 ,veins filling the cracks that once existed between two differing rocks are known as contact veins4 ,such veins are often very rich4 ,curiously enough large masses of true igneous rock rarely contain valuable deposits of mineral1 but where such intrusive masses cut dikes or walls of porphyry1 or diorite1 the region is worthy of careful investigation4 ,illustration3 ,,pocket ,,lens4 ,in an open country the prospector should keep to the hill tops if on the lookout for veins1 as the outcrops show more distinctly on the bare ridges1 but alluvial deposits are only found in valleys and along the borders of streams4 ,in any case1 much of the northern part of this continent can only be prospected by following the streams1 on account of the dense growth of forest with which the soil is covered4 ,the true line of strike of a vein can be determined only on a level stretch4 ,the line of strike and the line of dip are always at right angles to one another2 the outcrop may follow the strike or it may not4 ,a pick1 shovel1 and pan1 are absolutely necessary to a prospector's proper equipment4 ,a good pocket lens1 cheesecloth screen1 and small iron pestle and mortar are often useful4 ,the pan is the most essential part of the outfit1 and is always bright from use4 ,the regular gold miner's pan is #ac-c_/d inches in diameter across the top1 #aj inches across the bottom and #b-a_/h inches deep4 ,the best are made of sheet iron and have a joint around the bottom rim which is of some assistance in retaining the spangles of gold4 ,a more primitive instrument than the pan is the batea4 ,this requires more skill than the pan1 and is much in favor with ,south ,american miners4 ,it is made of hard wood1 #bj inches in diameter1 #b-a_/b inches deep in the center1 inside measurement1 and sloping gradually to nothing at the sides4 ,the horn spoon has been handed on from antiquity4 ,it is made from a black ox horn1 at least a black one is the best as it shows the gold better2 it is eight to ten inches long by three inches wide1 cut off obliquely4 ,when gold is suspected in quartz1 but there is visible to the naked eye more or less iron1 copper1 and other base metals1 it is well to crush the quartz into coarse fragments4 ,roast on a shovel or other convenient tool over a hot fire1 and finally pulverize in the mortar4 ,if panned it will now reveal much of its gold1 while1 had these measures not been taken1 the sample might have given negative results and been declared valueless4 ,after pulverizing1 the ore should be passed through the cheese cloth screen before panning4 ,if the approximate value of the ore is sought1 the sample must be dried and weighed before crushing2 and the resulting gold weighed4 ,thus3 ,sample is to #b1jjj lbs4 as gold found is to ,ans4 ,about #ac cubic feet of quartz weigh a ton before being disturbed2 when broken to medium sized lumps #bj cubic feet may be taken as representing a ton4 ,although experience teaches the miner to estimate very closely the value of his sample1 it is better for the tyro to have a small pair of scales with grain weights4 ,a grain of gold1 if tolerably pure1 is equal to four cents4 ,above all things avoid the too common error of panning the pick of the rock1 as a false estimate is bound to follow and only too probably eventual loss4 ,a yard of gravel before being dug makes one and a half yards afterwards4 ,a pan of dirt is usually about #bj pounds1 although it is not well to fill quite full in actual work4 ,many a valuable mine has been found by following up float ore4 ,float is detached fragments of the vein or gangue1 and it becomes more and more abundant as the lode is approached until it finally ceases abruptly4 ,this indicates that the vein has been reached or passed1 and a trench dug throughout the alluvial soil at right angles to the assumed line of the vein will probably reveal it4 ,the float and mineral of course drift down hill2 if the side of the mountain be saddle-shaped the float will spread out like a fan as it washes down1 but if concave the force of gravity will concentrate it within a narrow space in the ravine4 ,float found at the foot of a hill has come1 as a rule1 from that hill4 ,the nearer the vein the less worn will be the edges of the float and mineral4 ,the gangue or vein-rock in which the metal is found may be calcite or calc spar1 fluor spar1 heavy spar or baryta1 or quartz4 ,gold is almost always found in this last matrix4 ,the upper parts of most quartz lodes are usually oxidized1 that is to say1 the atmosphere has acted upon the iron pyrites1 freeing the sulphur and staining the quartz yellow1 red1 or brown1 by oxide of iron4 ,this is known as gossan or the iron hat4 ,such quartz is frequently honeycombed and rotten4 ,below the water level these veins run to sulphides in which decomposition has not set in1 and the gold contained in the quartz is no longer free milling1 i4e4 will not give up its gold to mercury without a preliminary treatment4 ,whenever the explorer comes across a mass of gossan he should sink a trial shaft to the vein1 as it is almost certain that below the oxidized sulphides a body of mineral exists likely to encourage mining operations4 ,native gold is malleable1 will flatten out under the hammer1 and a steel knife will cut it with ease4 ,it almost invariably contains silver1 sometimes to the extent of one-fifth4 ,a little practice will enable the prospector to recognize it1 for there is but one king metal4 ,much gold is derived from copper and iron pyrites1 and silver and lead ores are a very large source of supply4 ,gold is found in gravel of every variety1 from finest pipe-clay to boulders weighing tons4 ,sometimes volcanic eruptions have covered these deposits since the ancient rivers laid them down1 and in many cases their courses do not in the least agree with the valleys of the shrunken streams that have replaced them4 ,gold may be distributed through the whole thickness of a bed1 but ninety-nine times out of a hundred the richest layer of gravel is just above the bed rock upon which all the gravel rests4 ,gold may even be found among the grass roots1 especially in dry localities where there has been little water to carry it downward4 ,when the bed rock consists of upturned slates the gold frequently penetrates it for some little distance4 ,sand is nearly always poorer than gravel4 ,the experience of miners in the ,victoria gold fields is that gold is always found on the bars or points1 and not in the deep pools and bends4 ,the great difficulty with which any but the very finest particles of gold can be moved by water accounts for the value of the deposits depending largely upon the local rocks4 ,it is very fortunate that gold's specific gravity is so great1 for were it less its recovery would be much more difficult4 ,the sluices and other apparatus of the miner are really nothing but the operations of nature imitated on a much smaller scale4 ,there is one thing1 however1 time1 that nature can afford to expend in prodigious periods1 while man must not waste a single minute4 ,it not being possible to point out where the ancient river beds lie1 smothered as they are by hundreds of feet of overlying drift1 lava1 and other later deposits1 the only feasible plan is a series of boring with the diamond drill4 ,when gold has been discovered the finder must act with the greatest prudence1 for even gold may be bought too dear4 ,the surest test is a mill run1 that is passing #aj to #ej tons through all the operations of crushing1 milling1 roasting1 amalgamating1 etc41 and so ascertaining what returns are likely to be obtainable when the deposit is worked on a commercial scale4 ,true sampling is necessary4 ,all parts of the vein should be included1 and the lode cross-cut by galleries in more than one spot4 ,it is the very great necessity of these expensive preparatory explorations that has given rise to the saying1 ,quartz mining is for rich men4 ,many gold mines have been abandoned as unprofitable that could have been mined at a profit had their owners been wealthy and enterprising enough to do a great deal of expensive prospecting by diamond drill1 cross cuts1 drifts and rises4 ,in one instance that came to the writer's knowledge a clever mining engineer cleared nearly #bjj1jjj profit by leasing for a term of years a gold mine that was supposed to be exhausted4 ,a drill hole sunk less than #ej feet below the old workings revealed a pocket of ore in the vein1 and paying quartz was found for many hundred feet below4 ,with the improvements in electricity made recently a cheap power has been provided that will permit many mines to be reopened4 ,the saving in working expenses effected by introducing electricity is often very large2 after the plant is once installed the cost is almost nil where turbines can be employed to furnish the power to the generators4 ,machinery capable of delivering power at a distance of several miles from the plant1 may be operated at very reasonable cost as compared to that of other prime movers4 ,discoveries of many deposits that have in time been successfully mined were the result of chance4 ,no skill guided the finder2 he merely stumbled upon his luck just as the wayfarer once in a while hits his toe against a well-filled pocketbook4 ,for instance1 a ,south ,australian squatter picked up a piece of copper ore that a wombat had thrown out of his burrow1 and the result was the discovery of the great ,wallaroo lode4 ,the first diamond from ,south ,africa was picked up by an ignorant bush boy and kept with a lot of worthless pebbles in the private collection of the boy's master2 no suspicion existed of its value until a passing trader had carried it away and obtained #b1ejj for it in ,capetown4 ,gold was first discovered in ,california in #ahdh by the superintendent of a sawmill who saw it glistening in the flume4 ,similarly gold was discovered in both ,australia and ,brazil by the purest chance4 ,had not a tree been uprooted by the wind the vast deposits of soft hematite iron ore in the ,biwabic iron mines of the ,mesabi range1 ,minnesota1 might have remained unknown for many a long year to come4 ,in the desolate region to the northward of ,lake ,huron great stores of nickel ore exist4 ,these mines1 which may some day regulate the price of the metal all the world over1 were exposed in a railway cutting2 no one dreamed of their existence4 ,the ,redington quicksilver mine in ,california was discovered by some roadmakers4 ,tradition relates that the enormously rich silver mines of ,potosi1 in ,bolivia1 were discovered by the accidental uprooting of a bush having spangles of silver ore attached to its roots4 ,this was in #aech1 and two hundred years later a similar streak of luck revealed the wealth of the ,catorce district of ,mexico1 from which in thirty years1 ore to the value of #ce1jjj1jjj was taken4 ,moreover1 the search for one mineral often leads to the discovery of another4 ,the ,comstock lode was first worked for gold1 and the miners threw away the black sulphide of silver worth #c1jjj to the ton4 ,the ,broken ,hill mine in ,australia was claimed as a tin deposit by its finder2 it is now the greatest silver producer in ,australasia4 ,such instances could be multiplied almost indefinitely1 chance entering into a majority of mineral discoveries4 ,on the other hand1 it has happened1 not infrequently1 that purely scientific deductions and calculations have brought to light stores of mineral wealth4 ,certain minerals are likely to be found associated4 ,cassiterite goes with boron and tourmaline1 topaz1 fluor spar and lithia-mica2 all containing fluorine4 ,it is also found with wolfram1 chlorite and arsenical pyrites4 ,magnetite is often accompanied by rocks containing garnet1 epidote and hornblende4 ,zinc blend and galena may occupy the same vein1 which is likely to be of baryta or heavy spar4 ,much galena carries silver4 ,gold is associated with many metallic sulphides such as iron1 magnetic1 and copper pyrites1 mispickel1 galena1 blend1 stibnite and tetrahedrite4 ,gypsum accompanies salt4 ,surface indications may be described as3 ,form of ground1 color1 outcrop1 decomposed and detached mineral1 mineral deposits from springs1 altered or peculiar vegetation and other similar guides4 ,a hard quartz outcrop often stands up like a wall and is traceable for miles4 ,the ,rainbow silver bearing lode of ,butte1 ,montana1 stood #bj feet above the surface4 ,soft minerals1 such as clay1 are cut into and sunk below the surrounding level4 ,deposits of ,kaolin or ,china clay are usually so found4 ,any special bright coloration of the rocks of a district merits investigation4 ,copper gives green1 blue1 and red stains2 iron1 red or brown2 manganese1 black2 lead1 green1 yellow or white2 cobalt1 pink2 cinnabar or quicksilver1 vermilion4 ,the nickel deposits of ,new ,caledonia were made known to the world by the explorer ,garnier in #ahfc1 his curiosity having been aroused by the delicate green coating given the rocks by an ore containing water1 quartz1 nickel and magnesium4 ,hard beds of shale decompose on the surface into soft clay1 and a still more noticeable change is the conversion of ores containing sulphur into oxides4 ,this chemical change causes the gossan or iron hat1 for which token of underlying wealth the prospector should be eternally watchful4 ,this alteration may extend downward four or five hundred feet from the surface1 but in such cases the true weathering has ceased long before the limit of discoloration is reached1 and the change of substance is due to the filtering of surface waters through the vein4 ,gossan varies greatly in its nature4 ,galena becomes anglesite1 cerussite1 pyromorphite and mimetite4 ,copper pyrite changes into native copper1 melaconite1 cuprite1 malachite1 chessylite1 or perhaps into a phosphate1 arsenate1 or silicate of the metal4 ,carbonate of manganese gives the black oxides and silver sulphide ores are1 after weathering1 known as native silver1 kerargyrite and embolite4 ,the ore in the gossan is very generally more valuable than it will be below1 and this is especially true of gold and silver ores4 ,the gold having been set free from the close embrace in which the iron pyrite held it previous to the latter's oxidation1 it is now readily caught by quicksilver4 ,silver under similar conditions becomes chloride1 and likewise amalgamates without difficulty4 ,seams containing native sulphur often show no trace of that element on the surface1 having weathered into a soft1 white1 gray or yellowish-white granular1 or pulverulent1 variety of gypsum4 ,veins of asbestos often decompose into a white powder found in the crevices of the rocks2 fibrous asbestos existing in the interior4 ,petroleum shows in an iridescent film upon still pools1 and the odor is a sure guide to its nature4 ,a dipping-needle is valuable to the prospector on the lookout for iron ore2 by its use he may discover masses of magnetic ore and trace their extent4 ,as he carries the compass over the ground the needle dips toward any iron mass he approaches2 directly over the ore it becomes vertical4 ,illustration3 ,,miner',s ,,dipping ,,needle4 ,in a wilderness country strength of body and endurance are important qualifications4 ,the prospector must1 moreover1 have such general knowledge of geology and mineralogy as to be able to recognize all valuable minerals and confirm his conjecture by simple tests4 ,pick1 shovel and pan must be handled skillfully1 while the rifle1 shotgun and paddle must also be understood4 ,for in the unsettled parts of the country the traveler must even yet rely to some extent upon the fish and game he may be able to secure1 and every old prospector becomes a trained hunter and camper4 ,knowing how to bake bread is sometimes more valuable than much mathematics2 ability to build a rough boat is often the one hope of salvation4 ,in sinking a short shaft in a sunny country a large mirror1 inclined at a suitable angle over the shaft1 will give sufficient light4 ,lodes or veins following the general trend of the auriferous quartz are much more likely to be rich than are those that cross it4 ,gold is never distributed evenly in veins1 though it may be in great beds of low grade material2 but more often rich areas alternate with barren portions4 ,where quartz veins are small and the rich pockets separated by wide intervals of poor gangue the gravel of the district will usually be similar in character4 ,as this condition obtains in the upper ,yukon district as far as the gravels are concerned1 it will probably be found to hold good for the quartz leads1 when they shall have been discovered4 ,the more nearly the gold formation approaches to the crystalline schists1 the poorer will the quality of the gold be through the larger percentage of silver found in it4 ,in slates the proportion may be #bb gold to #a silver2 in schists it has been known to be a ratio of #a to #a4 ,with the discovery of valuable gold-bearing gravel on the bare hillsides of the ,northwest1 a vast region has been added to the area the prospector may explore to advantage4 ,no experience acquired in ordinary ,american placer grounds is likely to be of much use in detecting these higher gold-bearing gravels of the ,yukon1 but they appear to be somewhat similar in character to the ,new ,zealand terraces4 ,terrace-prospecting requires perseverance and the use of some brains1 as it is infinitely harder than creek-prospecting4 ,these terraces or benches are the remains of old river beds4 ,the whole bench must be carefully scanned over because the gold is quite as likely to be in one part as in the other4 ,sometimes it is in half a dozen different layers one above the other4 ,sometimes the old river terraces are entirely covered by landslides1 and the majority of such deposits are not likely ever to be found1 as it is almost impossible to guess at locations4 ,in ,new ,zealand gold has been found on table-lands nearly #f1jjj feet above sea level1 and according to recent information valuable claims have been discovered in ,alaska on the very summits of the rounded hills on each side of ,el ,dorado creek4 ,to understand how such deposits as those of the ,northwest may have been made1 suppose that such a vein as that of the ,idaho1 which has been worked for a depth #a1gjj feet by a width of #a1jjj feet1 and from which #ag1jjj1jjj have been taken1 to have been worn down by glacial or other forces4 ,is it not conceivable that the gold would gradually have accumulated in the nearest canyon8 ,illustration3 ,,dolly4 ,to obtain suitable samples of the vein a dolly is an efficient apparatus4 ,this is practically a very simple1 crude1 stamp mill4 ,on the end of a solid log1 firmly fixed in the ground and standing four feet or so above the surface1 a square #f-;inch hole is cut in which are fitted wrought iron bars #c inches deep by #a_/b inch wide1 and separated by equal intervals4 ,these bars taper below so as to permit free passage of the pounded mineral4 ,a wooden box surrounding the grating keeps the ore in place4 ,a block of wood1 shod with iron1 forms the stamper4 ,the miner hauls on the handles at every blow4 ,the gold is saved on the lower table4 ,no one of experience in mining would look for brown hematite in a granite range1 nor for black band1 though such might be a likely region for red hematite or magnatite4 ,the explorer should be familiar in theory at least with the locality where he may expect to find valuable minerals4 ,for instance1 should he be searching for some heavy1 detached substance that is usually found in placer deposits he will keep to the low ground and examine carefully the beds of the streams4 ,on the other hand1 should his quest be for some ore that is more properly a component of a lode or vein he will examine the side hills and summits where denudation will certainly have exposed such deposits4 ,then he must know the appearance of each ore1 and with the methods of making rough and ready tests he must be perfectly familiar4 ,gold is always more or less intimately associated with quartz4 ,oxide of tin is said never to have been found more than two miles from some granite rock1 one of the components of which was muscovite or white mica4 ,the junction of slates and schists with igneous or metamorphic rocks often proves a valuable find of mineral4 ,rocks for the purposes of the explorer may be grouped under three heads3 ,igneous2 metamorphic2 stratified4 ,the first includes lavas2 trachytes1 grayish with rough fracture and mainly glassy2 dark basalts3 and traps1 such as greenstone4 ,obsidian is a volcanic glass4 ,metamorphic rocks are thought to have once been stratified1 but to have been altered by heat4 ,they comprise granite1 of quartz feldspar and mica2 syenite1 containing hornblende instead of mica2 gneiss1 like granite1 but showing lines of stratification2 mica schist1 made up of mica and quartz and separating easily into layers2 slates4 ,stratified rocks are those deposits from water1 such as sandstone1 limestone1 clay1 etc4 ,a prospecting shaft need not be of large dimensions4 ,one #d feet square is amply large for any depth down to #cj feet1 but it must be kept plumb4 ,sometimes shafts are sunk through the pay streak in alluvial gravel1 without it being detected4 ,frequent panning will guard against this mistake4 ,in the ,klondike region it is said early prospectors missed very rich deposits1 that have since been discovered1 by stopping short of true bed rock1 being misled by a bed of harder gravel that they thought was bottom4 ,silver almost invariably carries some gold4 ,the dark ironstone hat already referred to is a good indication of silver ore beneath2 it is generally composed of conglomerates cemented by oxides of iron and manganese4 ,galena1 which is sometimes so rich in silver as to be worth working for that metal1 may often be followed by surface indications2 namely1 a white limy track with detached fragments of float ore in the surface soil4 ,the blowpipe or fire assay quickly determines silver ore4 ,tin in lode1 stream1 or alluvial deposits occurs only as an oxide1 but its appearance is varied4 ,it may be almost any color and shape4 ,it is always near granite1 containing white mica known as muscovite4 ,the minerals for which it is most easily mistaken are3 ,sp4 gravity4 ,streak4 ,wolfram #g to #g-a_/b ,red1 brown or black4 ,rutile #d4b ,light brown4 ,tourmaline #c4b ,whitish4 ,black ,jack #d4c ,yellow1 white4 ,the magnetic or dipping needle is used in ,new ,jersey1 as follows1 according to the ,state ,geologist1 ,w4 ,h4 ,scranton1 ,m4,e43 ,an attraction which is confined to a very small spot and is lost in passing a few feet from it1 is most likely to be caused by a boulder of ore or particles of magnetite with rock4 ,an attraction which continues on steadily in the direction of the strike of the rock for a distance of many feet or rods1 indicates a vein of ore2 and if it is positive and strongest towards the southwest1 it is reasonable to conclude that the vein begins with the attraction there4 ,if the attraction diminishes in going northwest1 and finally dies out without becoming negative1 it indicates that the vein has continued on without break or ending until too far off to move the compass needle4 ,if1 in passing towards the northwest1 along the line of attraction1 the south pole is drawn down1 it indicates the end of the vein or an offset4 ,if1 on continuing further1 still in the same direction1 positive attraction is found1 it shows that the vein is not ended1 but if no attraction is shown1 there is no indication as to the continuance of the ore4 ,in crossing veins of ore from southwest to northwest1 when the dip of the rock and ore is as usual to the southeast1 positive attraction is first observed to come on gradually1 and the northwest edge of the vein is indicated by the needle suddenly showing negative attraction just at the point of passing off it4 ,this change of attraction will be less marked as the depth of the vein is greater1 or as the strike is nearer north and south4 ,the steadiness and continuance of the attraction is a much better indication of ore than the strength or amount of the attraction4 ,the ore may vary in its susceptibility to the magnetic influence from impurities in its substance2 it does vary according to the position in which it lies1 that is according to its dip and strike2 and it also varies very much according to its distance beneath the surface4 ,further instructions are given in the paper from which the foregoing extract was taken1 some of which follow3 ,it is sufficient to say that the first examinations are made by passing over the ground with the compass in a northwest and southwest direction1 at intervals of a few rods1 until indications of ore are found4 ,then the ground should be examined more carefully by crossing the line of attraction at intervals of a few feet1 and marking the points upon which observations have been made1 and recording the amount of attraction4 ,observations with the ordinary compass should be made1 and the variation of the horizontal needle be noted4 ,in this way materials may soon be accumulated for staking out the line of attraction1 or for constructing a map for study or reference4 ,after sufficient exploration with the magnetic needle1 it still remains to prove the value of the vein by uncovering the ore1 examining its quality1 measuring the size of the vein1 and estimating the cost of mining and marketing it4 ,uncovering should first be done in trenches dug across the line of attraction1 and carried quite down to the rock4 ,when the ore is in this way proved to be of value regular mining may begin4 ,in places where there are offsets in the ore1 or where it has been subject to bends1 folds1 or other irregularities1 so that the miner is at fault in what direction to proceed1 explorations may be made with the diamond drill4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,how ,,to ,,test ,,for ,,minerals4 ,when the mineralogist wishes to know the names of the specimen he holds in his hand1 he1 in the case of a mineral difficult to determine1 considers all the following properties3 ,crystalline form and structure1 ,cleavage1 ,fracture1 ,tenacity1 ,hardness1 ,specific ,gravity as compared with that of water1 ,luster1 ,color and ,streak1 ,transparency or otherwise1 ,taste1 ,odor1 ,chemical ,composition tested by analysis1 ,pyrognostic characters as determined by the use of the blowpipe1 ,mode of occurrence and associated minerals4 ,crystalline ,form and ,structure4 ,unfortunately the science of crystallography is extremely complicated and long study is necessary to master it2 once acquired1 however1 it is of paramount usefulness to the student4 ,according to ,dana there are six systems1 to one of which every crystal may be referred4 ,they are3 7#a7 ,isometric2 7#b7 ,tetragonal2 7#c7 ,hexagonal or ,rhombohedral2 7#d7 ,orthorhombic2 7#e7 ,monoclinic2 7#f7 ,triclinic4 ,in the isometric system there are three equal axes at right angles to each other4 ,in the tetragonal system there are three axes at right angles to each other4 ,two of these are equal1 while the third1 or vertical angle1 is longer or shorter4 ,there are two divisions of the hexagonal system2 the hexagonal system properly so-called1 and its rhombohedral division4 ,all forms are referred to four axes1 three equal axes inclined to each other at angles #fj degrees in a common horizontal plane1 and a fourth vertical axis at right angles1 and longer or shorter4 ,the rhombohedral division comprises crystals having but three planes of symmetry1 intersecting at angles of #abj degrees in the vertical axis4 ,they are regarded as half forms of the corresponding hexagonal crystals4 ,in the orthorhombic system there are three unequal axes at right angles to each other4 ,in the monoclinic system there are three unequal axes1 of which one1 the lateral axis1 is inclined to the vertical1 while the angles between the others are right angles4 ,in the triclinic system there are three unequal axes and these intersections are all oblique4 ,the student who wishes to pursue this subject further should consult ,dana's ,system of ,mineralogy4 ,physical ,mineralogy4 ,cleavage is the line of easiest separation in a mineral4 ,it may be perfect1 imperfect1 interrupted1 etc4 ,fracture1 referring to any surface except that of a cleavage fall1 may be uneven1 conchoidal 7shell-like71 hackly 7rough71 etc4 ,tenacity refers to such qualities as brittle1 sectile1 malleable1 flexible1 or elastic4 ,hardness is represented by the difficulty with which a smooth surface is scratched4 ,the scale in general ore was devised by ,mohs4 ,it is3 #a4 ,talc4 ,scratched by the finger nail4 #b4 ,gypsum4 ,ditto1 but with more difficulty4 ,will not scratch a copper coin4 #c4 ,calcite4 ,scratched by a copper coin4 #d4 ,fluorite4 ,is not scratched by a copper coin and does not scratch glass4 #e4 ,apatite4 ,scratches glass1 but with difficulty4 ,is readily scratched by a knife4 #f4 ,feldspar4 ,scratches glass with ease4 ,is difficult to scratch by knife4 #g4 ,quartz4 ,cannot be scratched by a knife and readily scratches glass4 #h4 ,topaz4 ,harder4 #i4 ,corundum4 ,harder4 #aj4 ,diamond4 ,scratches any other substance4 ,hardness may be intermediate4 ,for instance1 any mineral that scratched quartz and is soft enough to be scratched by topaz1 in turn would be rated at #g4e4 ,specific ,gravity4 ,this is the density of mineral and other substances compared with that of water4 ,it is particularly valuable in determining heavy metals4 ,to find the specific gravity of any solid body divide its weight in air by the loss of weight in water1 at a temperature as near #fj degrees ,f4 as possible1 and the quotient will equal the specific gravity4 ,in the case of gases1 such as nitrogen1 oxygen1 etc41 hydrogen is taken as the unit4 ,luster4 ,there are seven kinds of luster1 viz3 ,metallic1 the luster of metals2 adamantine1 that of the diamond2 vitreous1 of broken glass2 resinous1 of the yellow resins2 greasy2 pearly2 silky4 ,there are five degrees of intensity of luster recognized1 viz3 ,splendent2 shining2 glistening2 glimmering2 dull4 ,color and ,streak4 ,the streak is the color of the powder of the mineral when rubbed on unglazed porcelain1 or scratched with a knife4 ,transparency4 ,minerals may be transparent1 sub-transparent1 translucent1 sub-translucent1 opaque4 ,taste4 ,minerals may be salt1 bitter1 sweet1 etc4 ,odor4 ,this test is not of much use with most minerals until heat is applied4 ,all the petroleum oils1 however1 are often detected by their odor4 ,chemical ,composition4 ,this may always be determined by suitable tests with reagents4 ,pyrognostic ,characters4 ,as a means of readily determining the nature of a specimen the blowpipe is unrivalled--if in the hands of one who understands it4 ,mode of occurrence and associated minerals4 ,a knowledge of these matters often assists in a determination4 ,a regular fire assay is not within reach of many prospectors1 for the necessary apparatus cannot1 as a rule1 be carried in the wilderness4 ,whenever possible1 however1 a fire assay gives the truest results1 especially in the case of gold and silver4 ,illustration3 ,,scale ,,for ,,weighing ,,ore4 ,the operation includes testing the ore1 sampling and pulverizing1 weighing the ore and reagents1 calcination and roasting1 reduction and fusion1 distillation and sublimation1 scorification and cupellation1 inquartation and parting the gold and silver1 weighing and tabulating4 ,notes on ,assaying by ,dr4 ,ricketts is a very useful manual to have at hand4 ,a ,,tolerably ,,complete ,,outfit ,,includes3 ,a pair of scales for weighing ore and buttons of base metal4 ,it should take #aj ounces in each pan1 and show #a_/bj of a grain4 ,a bullion scale to be kept strictly for the precious metals4 ,loaded with one gramme1 it should show #a_/bj of a milligramme4 ,illustration3 ,,assay ,,balance ,,for ,,bullion4 ,weights4 ,avoirdupois2 troy1 metric and assay4 ,assay weights save much calculation4 ,the unit of the system is a weight of #bi4aff grammes4 ,its derivation is as follows3 #bjjj lbs4 3 #a ,a4,t4 33 #a oz4 ,troy 3 #a milligramme4 ,to use this system1 weigh out one ,a4,t4 of the ore and whatever number of milligrammes of gold and silver the assay gives indicates an equal number of ,troy ounces to the ton of #bjjj lbs4 ,avoirdupois4 ,a muffle and a melting furnace1 portable and of medium size1 are handy1 though furnaces may be built of ordinary brick1 lined with fire brick1 that would be better for permanent use4 ,the fuels may be coke1 anthracite or bituminous coal1 charcoal1 oil or gas4 ,illustration3 ,,assay ,,furnace4 ,illustration3 ,,portable ,,assay ,,furnace4 ,crucibles of black lead1 ,french clay1 ,hessian sand1 and quicklime are necessary to hold the assay4 ,illustration3 ,french ,clay4 ,hessian4 ,,crucibles4 ,illustration3 ,,scorifier ,illustration3 ,,steel ,,cupel ,,mould4 ,roasting dishes1 scorifiers and cupels are required4 ,the cupel is made of the ashes of burnt bone1 and it is better to make them on the spot1 as the bone ash may be carried anywhere without damage1 whereas the cupels are very fragile4 ,the bone ash is moistened with water1 stamped in a cupel mould1 and allowed to dry slowly4 ,a good one will absorb its own weight of lead1 but it is better to calculate on its absorbing but three-quarters of that amount4 ,illustration3 ,,scorification ,,furnace4 ,illustration3 ,,scorification ,,mould4 ,the crucible1 scorification and cupel tongs1 a couple of hammers1 iron pestle and mortar1 sieves from #bj to #ajj mesh1 and scorification mould complete the requisite tools4 ,illustration3 ,,hammer4 ,illustration3 ,,horn ,,spoon4 ,illustration3 ,,steel ,,mortar4 ,illustration3 ,,alcohol ,,lamp4 ,in addition1 however1 the assayer will require quite a bulky lot of apparatus1 reagents and chemicals4 ,all dealers keep lists of assayers' supplies on hand1 and a full and complete assortment will cost about #bjj in ,new ,york or ,chicago4 ,quart bottles1 with glass stoppers2 ordinary corked bottles1 ring stands1 alcohol lamps1 wash bottles1 test tubes1 horn spoons1 iron pans1 parting flasks1 annealing cups1 glazed black paper--these will suffice1 provided the assayer has1 as well1 the outfit recommended for blow-pipe work4 ,illustration3 ,,test ,,tube4 ,dry reagents1 such as litharge1 borax 7crystallized71 silica1 cyanide of potassium1 yellow prussiate of potash1 argol1 charcoal1 starch1 metallic iron1 pure lead1 nitre1 powdered lime1 sulphur1 carbonate of ammonia and common salt are necessary4 ,as solvents and precipitants1 distilled water1 sulphuric1 nitric and hydrochloric acids1 chloride of sodium1 nitrate of silver and sulphuretted hydrogen are also indispensable4 ,this will seem rather a formidable list1 and so1 under certain conditions1 it may be2 indeed1 where means of transport is limited1 all regular assay work must be postponed until the return to civilization4 ,assaying is not1 however1 difficult1 being mostly a matter of rule of thumb1 and correct results may be arrived at without a deep knowledge of chemistry1 although such knowledge will never come amiss4 ,a preliminary examination will show what the ore probably is4 ,the blow-pipe is especially useful1 though to the skilled assayer often unnecessary4 ,the ore is first powdered1 and any metallic flakes picked out and tested separately4 ,a fair sample must be selected1 otherwise all the work will be thrown away and the result be valueless4 ,the next step is weighing the ore and the reagents4 ,moisture is drawn off by heating in a crucible1 a low heat being sufficient4 ,roasting will eliminate sulphur1 antimony1 arsenic1 etc41 and must take place in a flat dish1 so that the air may have free access4 ,the powder should be stirred frequently4 ,reduction is the operation of removing oxygen1 and it takes place usually in a crucible or scorifier4 ,scorification consists in placing the ore in an open dish with proper reagents1 and collecting all the volatile ingredients in the slag4 ,cupellation1 on the other hand1 collects them in the bone ash1 of which the cupel is composed4 ,when silver must be separated from gold1 it is sometimes convenient to increase its proportion by the addition of some known weight of the inferior metal4 ,after fusing1 the globule is placed in nitric acid1 and the silver parted from the gold1 which may then be weighed4 ,this result subtracted from the weight of the original globule gives the amount of silver4 ,to test an ore for gold1 take a pound of it1 crush in mortar and pass through a fine sieve4 ,take one-fourth ounce ,troy of the powder4 ,place in scorifier with an equal amount of litharge4 ,cover with borax that has been melted and powdered1 and put the scorifier in the muffle of the furnace4 ,a blacksmith's forge might do at a pinch4 ,heat until the mass has become a fluid1 possibly twenty or thirty minutes4 ,next pour into the scorification mould1 and1 after the slag has set1 remove it with a hammer4 ,hammer the button into a cube and place it in the cupel1 which must first have been thoroughly heated4 ,heat until all the base metal has been absorbed by the cupel and the button has brightened1 or flashed2 when this occurs1 remove the cupel to the front of the muffle1 cool1 and remove the button with pincers4 ,weigh it1 and you have the amount of gold and silver in #a_/d-ounce ,troy4 ,a simple sum in proportion gives the amount in a ton4 ,all ores containing sulphur1 arsenic1 antimony1 or zinc1 should be roasted4 ,there are three stages in the scorification process2 roasting1 fusion1 and scorification4 ,during the first1 the heat should be moderate until fumes cease to be given off2 during the second1 the heat is raised and a play of colors is seen on the surface of the lead2 in the closing stage1 the heat is lowered for a time until the slag covers the lead1 when it is again raised for a short time and the scorifier removed4 ,brittle buttons may be due to arsenic1 antimony1 zinc or litharge1 and must be re-scorified before cupellation1 with more lead4 ,take the cupel slowly from the fire to avoid spitting1 by which portions of the buttons are lost4 ,watch closely for the brightening4 ,silver is volatile at a high heat1 but when the muffle is almost white1 the metal well fused and clean1 the fumes rising slowly1 and the cupel a cherry red1 all is going smoothly4 ,if the fumes rise rapidly1 the muffle is too hot4 ,on the other hand1 dense1 falling fumes show the temperature is too low4 ,lead that is poor in silver stands the highest heat without vitiating the assay4 ,when the material in the cupel freezes1 i4e41 the absorption by the cupel stops1 reject the assay and try again1 giving more heat or more lead4 ,gold4 ,practically1 the metal most prospectors seek is gold4 ,it is so enormously valuable and constitutes so very small a percentage of any ore1 that care must be taken or it may escape detection and be lost4 ,panning is the miner's method4 ,he crushes his ore thoroughly1 and places it in the pan with water2 then1 with a motion easy to learn but difficult to describe1 he swirls the water around1 allowing a little of it to escape at each revolution1 carrying with it the rubbish1 until finally he has a little black sand and perhaps a few grains of yellow substance1 which is gold4 ,mica1 or fool's gold1 puzzles nobody but the ignoramus4 ,true1 it looks like gold in certain positions and lights1 but gold will beat out thin under the hammer1 just as lead would1 while mica will break up into a floury powder4 ,mica is very light1 while gold is very heavy2 so there is no excuse for confounding the two4 ,if an ore contains sulphurets and gold1 the latter may be coated with some sulphur or arsenic1 which would prevent the gold from amalgamating4 ,the only remedy for this is roasting4 ,no single acid will dissolve gold1 but a solution known as aqua regia1 made up of three parts of hydrochloric acid and one part of nitric acid1 dissolves it4 ,if to the solution so obtained you add some sulphate of iron1 you will get a precipitate which is metallic gold1 although it does not look like it1 as it is brown in color2 but if you place this precipitate in a crucible and heat1 you will get a yellow bead of pure gold4 ,another test for gold is to take the solution as above obtained and add thereto a solution of chloride of tin1 when you obtain a purple coloration that has been called the purple of ,cassius4 ,gold may be distinguished from all other metals by the three following tests3 ,it is yellow2 it may be flattened by the hammer2 it is not acted upon by nitric acid4 ,pure gold is soft1 and the point of a knife will scratch it deeply4 ,pounded in a mortar1 the pulverized mineral should be passed through a cheese-cloth screen stretched over a loop of wood4 ,if the course contains much pyrite1 it must be roasted before washing in the pan and amalgamating4 ,sample well1 weigh out two pounds1 put it in a black iron pan1 with four ounces of mercury1 four ounces of salt1 four ounces of soda and a half gallon of boiling water4 ,stir with a green stick1 and agitate until the mercury has been able to reach all the gold4 ,pan off into another dish so as to lose no mercury1 squeeze the amalgam through chamois leather or new calico previously wetted4 ,the pill of hard amalgam may be placed on a shovel over the fire or in a clay tobacco pipe and retorted4 ,gold is readily acted upon by the mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids known as aqua regia1 or by any solution producing chlorine4 ,some of the mixtures which attack it are bisulphate of soda1 nitrate of soda and common salt1 hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate1 and bleaching powder4 ,the action is more rapid in hot than in cold solutions1 and impure gold is more easily dissolved than pure4 ,mercury dissolves gold rapidly at ordinary temperatures1 the amalgam being solid1 pasty or liquid4 ,gold rubbed with mercury is immediately penetrated by it4 ,an amalgam containing #ij per cent4 of mercury is liquid2 #hg4e per cent41 pasty2 #he per cent41 crystalline4 ,these amalgams heated gradually to a bright red heat lose all their mercury1 and hardly any gold4 ,about one-tenth of #a per cent4 of mercury remains in the gold until it is refined by melting4 ,the veins from which the gold of the world is won do not1 on an average1 hold the precious metal in greater proportion than one part of gold in #gj1jjj parts of veinstone4 ,under favorable conditions a proportion not one-fifth as rich as this1 may yield a rich return4 ,in hydraulic mining on a large scale1 one part of gold in #ae1jjj1jjj parts of gravel has paid a dividend4 ,a test known as ,darton's is believed to be a valuable means of detecting minute quantities of gold in rocks1 ore tailings1 etc4 ,small parts are chipped from all the sides of a mass of rock1 amounting in all to about #a_/d ounce4 ,this is powdered in a steel mortar and well mixed4 ,about half is placed in a capacious test tube1 and then the tube is partly filled with a solution made by dissolving #bj gr4 of iodine and #cj gr4 of iodide of potassium1 in about #a-a_/b ounces water4 ,the mixture thus formed is shaken and warmed4 ,after all particles have subsided1 dip a piece of fine white filter paper in it2 allow it to remain for a moment2 then let it drain1 and dry it over the spirit lamp4 ,it is next placed upon a piece of platinum foil held in a pincers1 and heated to redness over the flame4 ,the paper is speedily consumed2 and after again heating to burn off all carbon1 it is allowed to cool and is then examined4 ,if at all purple1 gold is present in the ore1 and the relative amount may be approximately deduced4 ,this method takes little time1 and is trustworthy4 ,black sand1 which is iron1 often with some platinum and iridium1 sometimes interferes with the result of a gold assay4 ,attwood recommends the following method as applicable to such a case3 ,take #ajj to #ajjj grains and attack with aqua regia in a flask2 cool for about thirty minutes or more2 dilute with water and filter4 ,if gold is present1 it will now be held in solution in the filtrate4 ,remove the filter and evaporate the filtrates to dryness2 then add a little hydrochloric acid1 evaporate and re-dissolve the dry salt in warm water2 add to the solution so formed proto-sulphate of iron2 which will throw down the gold in the form of a fine1 dark precipitate4 ,the precipitate is seldom fine1 being mixed with oxides of iron1 and must now be dried in the filter paper1 and both burned over the lamp in a porcelain dish4 ,then mix the dried precipitate with three times its weight of lead2 fuse1 scorify and cupel4 ,in case platinum1 iridium1 etc41 are found associated with the gold1 an extra amount of fine silver should be added before cupellation1 and the gold button will be found pure4 ,in one of his reports the ,state ,mineralogist of ,california gives a most lucid description of a mechanical assay of gold-bearing sands1 stamped ore1 etc41 etc4 ,he states3 ,it must be understood that this is only a working test4 ,it does not give all the gold in the rock1 as shown by a careful fire assay1 but what is of equal importance to the mine-owner1 mill-man1 and practical miner1 it gives what he can reasonably expect to save in a good quartz mill4 ,it is really milling on a small scale4 ,it is generally very correct and reliable1 if a quantity of material be sampled4 ,the only operation which requires much skill is the washing1 generally well understood by those who are most likely to avail themselves of the instructions4 ,these rules apply equally to placer gravels4 ,take a quantity of the ore--the larger the better--and break it into egg-sized pieces4 ,spread on a good floor1 and with a shovel mix very thoroughly2 then shovel into three piles1 placing one shovelful upon each in succession until all is disposed of4 ,two of the piles may then be put into bags4 ,the remaining pile is spread on the floor1 mixed as before1 and shovelled in the same manner into three piles4 ,this is repeated according to the quantity sampled1 until the last pile does not contain more than #cj pounds of ore4 ,as the quantity on the floor becomes smaller1 the lumps must be broken finer until at last they should not exceed one inch in diameter4 ,the remainder is reduced by a hammer and iron ring to the size of peas4 ,the whole #cj pounds is then spread out1 and after careful mixing portions are lifted with a flat knife1 taking up the fine dust with the larger fragments1 until about #aj pounds have been gathered4 ,this quantity is then ground down fine with the muller1 and passed through a #dj-mesh sieve4 ,if the rock is rich1 the last portion will be found to contain some free gold in flattened discs1 which will not pass this sieve4 ,these must be placed with the pulverized ore1 and the whole thoroughly mixed1 if the quantity is small1 but if large must be treated separately1 and the amount of gold allotted to the whole #aj pounds and noted when the final calculation is made4 ,from the thoroughly-mixed sample1 two kilogrammes 7#bjjj grammes7 must be carefully laid out4 ,this is placed in a pan or1 better1 in a batea1 and carefully washed down until the gold begins to appear4 ,clean water is then used1 and1 when the pan and the small residue are cleaned1 most of the water is poured off and a globule of pure mercury 7which must be free from gold7 is dropped in1 a piece of cyanide of potassium being added with it4 ,as the cyanide dissolves1 a rotary motion is given the dish1 best done by holding the arms stiff and moving the body4 ,as the mercury rolls over and ploughs through the sand1 under the influence of the cyanide it will collect together all the particles of free gold4 ,when it is certain that all is collected1 the mercury may be carefully transferred to a small porcelain cup or test tube1 and boiled with strong nitric acid1 which must be pure4 ,when the mercury is all dissolved the acid is poured off1 more nitric acid applied cold1 and rejected1 and the gold is then washed with distilled water and dried4 ,the object of washing with acid the second time is to remove any nitrate of mercury which might remain with the gold1 and which is immediately precipitated if water is first used4 ,the resulting gold is not pure1 but has the composition of the natural alloy4 ,before accurate calculations of value are possible1 the gold must be obtained pure and weighed carefully4 ,to purify the gold it should be melted with silver1 rolled out or hammered thin1 boiled twice with nitric acid1 washed1 dried1 and heated to redness4 ,the method of calculating this assay is simple4 ,it will be observed that #bjjj grammes represent a ton of #bjjj pounds2 then each gramme will be the equivalent of one pound avoirdupois1 or one #bjjjth part of the whole1 and the decimals of a gramme to the decimals of a pound4 ,suppose the ore yielded by the assay just described1 fine gold weighing 4#jgb gramme1 it must be quite evident that a ton of the ore would yield the same decimal of one pound4 ,now one pound of gold is worth #cja4df1 and it is only necessary to multiply this value by the weight of gold obtained in grammes and decimals to find the value of the gold in a ton of ore--#cja4df 4#jgb--ba4gj4 ,the cyanide solution should be kept rather weak1 as gold is slightly soluble in strong solutions of cyanide of potassium4 ,cyanide is a deadly poison4 ,touchstones are useful in deciding the probable value of gold alloys4 ,several pieces of the metal under examination are cut with a cold chisel1 and the fresh edges drawn over the touchstone4 ,these streaks are touched with nitric acid on a glass rod4 ,should no reaction follow1 the gold is at least #fdj fine4 ,wipe the stone with soft linen and try with test acid1 made by mixing #ih parts of chemically pure nitric acid with two parts of hydrochloric acid1 adding #be parts distilled water by measure4 ,if this has no effect1 take a touch needle marked #gjj1 and make a similar streak on the stone samples4 ,compare1 and1 if necessary1 continue with the other needles1 using a higher number each time4 ,an approximate estimate of the sample will soon be obtained4 ,should the gold seem poorer than #fdj fine1 try with the copper or silver needle4 ,practice and a good eye soon make this method very certain in its results4 ,retorted amalgam is likely to contain mercury4 ,to test for it1 put a small fragment into a closed glass tube1 taking care that it falls quite to the bottom4 ,heat the gold over a spirit lamp1 and a deposit of mercury will soon be seen upon the colder sides of the tube above the bottom4 ,the tube may be broken and the mercury collected into a globule under water4 ,in mining regions gold dust passes current as coin1 according to what is supposed to be its value4 ,occasionally counterfeit dust is offered4 ,the readiest means by which it may be detected are as follows3 ,the dust from any one district is always much alike1 and any unusual appearance should create suspicion4 ,try any doubtful pieces on a small anvil1 remembering that gold is extremely malleable4 ,test some of the gold with nitric acid2 effervescence or evolution of red fumes1 or coloration of the acid prove impurities to be present4 ,place two watch-glasses 7most useful in chemical tests7 on paper2 the one on a white sheet1 the other on a black1 and with a glass rod convey a few drops of nitric acid from the dish to each4 ,to the glass on white paper add a drop or two of ammonia2 a blue color would indicate copper4 ,to the other add hydrochloric acid2 should a white precipitate form1 it proves silver4 ,if no action is noticed1 even after heating the dish1 the dust is genuine4 ,as dust is sometimes merely copper coated with gold1 the better plan is to cut all the larger grains in two1 so that the acid may attack the copper should it be present4 ,copper4 ,copper is a very easy mineral to test for4 ,first crush the ore and dissolve it in nitric acid by heating4 ,then dilute with some water1 and add ammonia4 ,the solution should turn dark blue4 ,the carbonate ores of copper do not extend deep in the mine4 ,their places are taken by copper pyrites4 ,sulphide ores are usually difficult to treat1 and when they are to be tested it is better to roast them before trying the tests for color4 ,test for copper may also be made as follows3 ,the sample must be pulverized4 ,take an ounce of the powder1 and place in a porcelain cup4 ,add forty drops of nitric acid1 twenty drops of sulphuric acid and twelve drops of hydrochloric acid4 ,boil over the spirit lamp until white fumes arise4 ,when cool1 mix with a little water4 ,filter and add a nail or two to the liquid4 ,the copper will be precipitated1 and may be gathered up and weighed4 ,the amount of copper in the sample multiplied by #cb1jjj will be the copper in a ton of the ore4 ,should copper be suspected1 roast the powdered ore and mix with an equal quantity of salt and candle grease or other fat2 then cast into the fire1 and the characteristic flame of copper--first blue and then green--will appear4 ,this test is better made at night4 ,coal4 ,coal is often more valuable than gold1 and the prospector should be prepared to estimate the value of any seams he may come across during his travels4 ,the following is a very rough but wonderfully effective test for coal4 ,take a clay pipe1 pulverize your sample1 weigh off twenty pennyweights1 and place it in the bowl of the pipe4 ,make a cover with some damp clay4 ,dry thoroughly1 and put the bowl upside down over a flame4 ,the gas in the coal will come out through the stem1 and may be lit with a match4 ,let the pipe cool after the gas has all escaped1 break off the covering of clay1 and if the coal was adapted for coke the result will be a lump of that substance in the bowl4 ,weigh this4 ,the difference in weight between the coke and the twenty pennyweights of coal that were placed in the bowl will represent the combustible matter forced out by the heat4 ,now take this coke and burn it on a porcelain dish over the lamp4 ,you will have more or less ash left1 and the difference in weight of the ash and the coke will be the amount of fixed carbon in the coal4 ,your test is complete1 and it need not have cost you even the pipe4 ,sulphur is a detriment to coal1 and if you notice much of it in the escaping fumes1 you may be sure your sample is not worth much4 ,mercury4 ,cinnabar1 the common ore of mercury1 is a sulphide4 ,scratch it with a knife1 and the streak will be bright crimson4 ,dissolve the ore in nitric acid1 add a solution of caustic potash1 and you have a yellow precipitate4 ,a very pretty test is to place the ore pulverized in a glass tube with some chloride of lime2 close the top of the tube1 and place a smaller one therein1 so bent that it will pass into a basin of water2 heat the bottom of the tube containing the ore and lime1 keeping the upper part and the small tube cold with wet rags1 and you will have a deposit of quicksilver in the basin4 ,silver4 ,silver ore may be detected by dissolving a small quantity in a test tube with a few drops of nitric acid4 ,boil until all the red fumes disappear4 ,let the solution cool1 and add a little water4 ,filter the whole1 and add a few drops of muriatic acid1 which will precipitate the white chloride of silver4 ,dissolve this precipitate with ammonia2 then add nitric acid once more4 ,exposed to the light1 the precipitate soon shows a violet tint4 ,pure silver is the brightest of metals1 of a brilliant white hue1 with rich luster4 ,to detect chloride of silver in a pulp1 rub harshly with a clean1 bright and wet copper cartridge or coin1 and if there be silver in the pulp the copper will be coated with it4 ,graphite will also whiten copper1 but the film is easily rubbed off4 ,nickel4 ,nickel may be determined as follows3 ,a little of the powdered ore taken up on the point of a penknife1 and dissolved in a mixture of ten drops of nitric and five drops of muriatic acid1 should be boiled over a lamp for a few minutes1 and ten or twelve drops of water added4 ,a small quantity of ferrocyanide of potash will throw down a whitish-green precipitate1 indicating nickel4 ,platinum4 ,platinum is a most refractory metal to treat1 as it must be boiled for at least two hours in the mixture of muriatic and nitric acid1 known as aqua regia4 ,a small amount of alcohol is to be added to the solution1 and the latter filtered4 ,the platinum is precipitated with ammonia chloride4 ,manganese4 ,manganese may be proved as follows3 ,a few grains of powdered ore are placed in a test-tube1 with three or four drops of sulphuric acid4 ,two or three grains of granulated lead or litharge being dropped in1 the color will become pink should manganese be in the ore4 ,a preliminary examination of a mineral may be made with a pocket lens and a penknife4 ,with the first1 any conspicuous constituents may be recognized1 while a scratch with the point of the latter will give an idea as to the softness or hardness of the mineral4 ,should much quartz 7silica7 be present1 a sharp blow with the steel will cause sparks4 ,the next test should be with some ore powdered and held over a spirit flame4 ,a drop or two of water and a drop of sulpho-cyanide of potash will reveal iron1 should such be present1 by a deep red coloration4 ,to another portion add one drop of hydrochloric acid1 and a dense1 curdy precipitate will indicate silver1 if there be any4 ,added to the same original nitric acid solution1 several drops of ammonia water would detect copper by a blue color4 ,antimony1 tin1 aluminum1 zinc1 cobalt and nickel1 uranium and titanium are best shown by the blowpipe4 ,carbonates1 that is those minerals that contain carbon and oxygen in addition to the metal1 effervesce when brought into contact with hydrochloric acid4 ,some sandstones have a small amount of lime carbonate1 and must be tried under the lens1 as the bubbles are microscopic4 ,these tests are extremely useful1 but by no means infallible1 owing to so few ores being pure4 ,when the explorer wishes to know all the constituents of the ore he has found1 he must analyze it4 ,an analysis gives every substance in the ore4 ,such examinations may be either by the dry or wet methods1 though usually the term analysis is restricted to the latter1 and fire assay is used to describe the former4 ,the wet assay for silver1 lead or mercury is effected as follows3 ,drop a little powdered ore in a test tube2 add nitric acid2 dilute with #a_/h water2 warm gently over the spirit lamp4 ,it may dissolve or it may not4 ,in the latter case1 add four times as much hydrochloric acid4 ,should all these attempts fail1 a fresh sample must be taken1 and equal parts of sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate added1 and the whole strongly heated in a platinum crucible4 ,the contents1 after cooling1 is dissolved in dilute nitric acid4 ,in any case the assay will now be dissolved1 and will be in the solution4 ,filter4 ,pour ten drops into a test tube2 add three or four drops of hydrochloric acid4 ,a precipitate appears4 ,it may be silver1 lead or mercury4 ,if silver1 it grows dark violet after exposure to sunlight1 or #cj or #dj drops of ammonia dissolves it in a few moments4 ,should it not dissolve1 it is lead or mercury4 ,test for lead by filtering1 and heating some of the precipitate on charcoal before the blow-pipe4 ,a bead and yellow incrustation indicate lead4 ,should none of these things happen1 then the metal is mercury4 ,filter2 place in glass tubes2 heat gently1 and a mirror of quicksilver will appear on the sides of the glass4 ,this is as far as the prospector1 without the various reagents and chemicals that the analyst has always at hand1 will be able to go4 ,more complex treatment must be reserved until a return to civilization4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,blow-,,pipe ,,tests4 ,illustration3 ,,blow-,,pipe4 ,as a means of readily detecting the presence of minerals in their ores the blow-pipe1 in the hands of a skillful operator1 is unrivaled4 ,nor is this skill at all hard to come by2 two or three weeks' patient study under a good master should teach a great deal1 and subsequently proficiency would come by practice in the field4 ,unfortunately1 some very clever men have become so enthusiastic as to blow-pipe work that they have devised methods by which the amount of metal in an ore as well as its nature may be determined1 but in so doing have so enlarged the amount of apparatus1 and complicated the tests so seriously that the simplicity of the blow-pipe outfit is in danger of being lost1 and its chief advantage of being forgotten2 for there are many better ways of determining the value of an ore4 ,a good assay or1 better still1 a mill run1 is worth incomparably more than any quantitative blow-pipe test1 even when conducted by a ,plattner4 ,the chemical blow-pipe is made of brass or ,german silver1 with platinum tip4 ,the best fuel1 taking everything into consideration1 is a paraffin candle in cold climates1 and a stearine candle in hot ones4 ,tallow may do in an emergency1 but it requires too much snuffing4 ,illustration3 ,,reducing ,,flame4 ,the blow-pipe can produce two flames4 ,the one known as the reducing flame1 and generally printed as ,r4,f42 and the oxidizing flame1 represented by the initials ,o4,f4 ,in the first the substance under examination is heated out of contact with the air and parts with its oxygen4 ,in the second1 it is heated in the air and absorbs oxygen4 ,illustration3 ,,oxidizing ,,flame4 ,well-burnt pine or willow charcoal in slabs #c inches by #a-c_/d inches is the material upon which the mineral to be tested is placed4 ,a small shallow depression is scraped out of one side of it and the assay placed therein4 ,platinum wire1 some #c inches long1 conveniently fused into a piece of glass tube as a handle1 is used to test the coloration of minerals in the flame4 ,this should be cleaned occasionally in dilute sulphuric acid and then washed in water4 ,a small pair of forceps with platinum points serve a great variety of purposes1 but the beginner must be careful not to heat metallic substances in them to a red heat1 as he may thereby cause an alloy of the metal with the platinum and spoil them for future use4 ,illustration3 ,,agate ,,mortar4 ,glass tubing one-twelfth to one-quarter inch in diameter and from four to six inches in length is used for a variety of purposes4 ,from this material what are known as closed tubes may be made by heating a piece of the tubing at or about its center over a spirit lamp1 and1 when the glass has fused1 pulling it apart4 ,these closed tubes are used in heating substances out of contact with the air4 ,a small agate mortar is indispensable4 ,it must be used for grinding substances softer than itself to a powder1 but it will break if rapped sharply4 ,a small jeweler's hammer is used to flatten metallic globules upon any hard surface ,a regular blow-pipe outfit would include a small anvil for this purpose1 but it is hardly necessary1 as any iron or steel surface will do4 ,illustration3 ,,magnet4 ,illustration3 ,,lens4 ,illustration3 ,,nest ,,of ,,test ,,tubes4 ,a magnet will detect the presence of any magnetic mineral1 especially if it is reduced to powder and the test made under water4 ,two small files1 one three-cornered and the other rat-tailed1 must be included in the list of requisites4 ,by means of the former1 glass tubing may be notched and pulled or pushed apart1 and the latter is necessary in fitting glass tubing to the cork of wash-bottles and other apparatus4 ,a good lens is indispensable4 ,that known as the ,coddington is as good as any4 ,a dozen test tubes of hard glass1 with stand1 in small and medium sizes1 should not be forgotten4 ,a glass funnel #b-a_/b inches in diameter is requisite in filtering4 ,the circular filter papers are folded in four and placed in the funnel1 point down1 three thicknesses of the paper being on one side of the funnel and one thickness on the other4 ,a wash-bottle is made from a flask into which a sound cork has been placed with holes in it for two pieces of glass tubing4 ,the one serves as a mouth-piece into which the operator blows1 while the other1 reaching almost to the bottom of the bottle and ending in a spout outside the cork1 permits a stream of water to be forced out of the bottle when it is blown into4 ,a few glass rods in short lengths do for stirrers4 ,a little ingenuity is better than much apparatus4 ,of reagents1 all those to be found in a well-appointed laboratory may occasionally be of service1 but the rough and ready prospector can get along fairly well with the following3 ,carbonate of soda1 borax1 microcosmic salt1 cobalt solution1 cyanide of potassium1 lead granulated1 bone ash1 test papers of blue litmus and turmeric1 the former for proving the presence of acid in a solution and the latter that of an alkali4 ,the foregoing are all dry reagents4 ,among the wet reagents are3 ,water--clean rainwater--or1 better still1 distilled water2 hydrochloric acid1 sulphuric acid1 nitric acid1 ammonia1 nitrate of cobalt4 ,heating a mineral with carbonate of soda on charcoal is accomplished as follows3 ,the pulverized mineral1 intimately mixed with three times its bulk of carbonate of soda1 is placed in the cavity on the coal4 ,tin ore1 which is very difficult to reduce1 should have a fragment of cyanide of potassium placed upon it after it has been heated for a few seconds1 and the flame is then reapplied4 ,a globule of metal should result1 and perhaps an incrustation on the coal4 ,the reaction is as follows3 ,metal4 ,globule4 ,incrustation4 ,gold4 ,yellow1 malleable4 ,none4 ,silver4 ,white1 malleable4 ,none4 ,copper4 ,red1 malleable4 ,none4 ,lead4 ,white1 malleable4 ,red when hot1 yellow when cold4 ,bismuth4 ,white1 brittle4 ,red when hot1 yellow when cold4 ,zinc4 ,none4 ,yellow when hot1 white when cold4 ,antimony4 ,white1 brittle1 fumes4 ,white4 ,a small loop is made at the end of the platinum wire1 and it is heated and dipped in borax2 heated again1 then touched while hot to the powdered mineral and heated once more4 ,the following colors are obtained3 ,,color ,,of ,,bead4 ,o4,f4 ,r4,f4 ,metal4 ,red or yellow1 hot4 ,bottle-green4 ,iron4 ,yellow or colorless1 cold4 ,blue1 hot or cold4 ,blue4 ,cobalt4 ,green1 hot2 blue1 cold4 ,red4 ,copper4 ,amethyst4 ,colorless4 ,manganese4 ,green4 ,green4 ,chromium4 ,violet1 hot2 red-brown1 cold4 ,gray4 ,nickel4 ,the substance to be tested is generally powdered and moistened1 placed in the cavity and covered or not as circumstances may demand1 with a pinch of carbonate of soda or other suitable reagent4 ,the following results may be obtained3 ,antimony4 ,place the mineral in the cavity with a little of carbonate of soda1 and blow upon it with the inner or oxidizing flame4 ,this is formed by inserting the blow-pipe an eighth of an inch into the flame and blowing steadily4 ,a white incrustation on the coal1 and a brittle button of antimony should be the result4 ,lead4 ,treat the suspected lead ore the same way1 and you will get a yellow incrustation on the coal and a button of malleable lead4 ,zinc4 ,proceed as above1 and after blowing for a few seconds moisten the incrustation with a drop of nitrate of cobalt4 ,heat once more1 but this time use the outer or reducing flame1 which is produced by keeping the point of the blow-pipe a little outside the flame and blowing more gently than before1 so that the whole flame playing upon the coal may be yellow in color4 ,a green incrustation will be an evidence of zinc4 ,copper4 ,as usual1 mix the ore and the soda into a paste and fuse it with the oxidizing flame4 ,dig the mass out of the charcoal with the point of a knife and rub it in the mortar with water4 ,now decant into a test tube1 and1 allowing the sediment to settle1 pour off the water4 ,if there was copper in the ore1 red scales will be found in the test tube4 ,arsenic4 ,heat in the inner flame for a second or two1 and if the ore contains arsenic you will notice an odor of garlic4 ,tin4 ,this is a very difficult ore to reduce1 but the addition of a little cyanide of potash to the powdered ore will make it easier4 ,fuse1 after moistening on the charcoal1 in the oxidizing flame1 and you will probably obtain small globules of tin4 ,silver4 ,make a paste of the ore with carbonate of soda2 add a small piece of lead and fuse into a button4 ,make a second paste of bone ash and water1 and after you have dried it with a gentle flame place the button of silver and lead on the bone ash1 and turn on the oxidizing flame4 ,the lead will disappear1 leaving a silver globule4 ,should it not be pure white1 but more or less tinged with yellow1 it probably contains gold2 and if the button be dissolved in nitric acid1 whatever remains behind is gold4 ,sometimes it is desirable to determine whether tellurium is present in an ore4 ,this is very easy to find out4 ,all that is required is a blow-pipe1 alcohol lamp and a porcelain dish4 ,break off a small piece of the ore1 place it in the dish previously warmed1 blow upon the ore with the blow-pipe until it is oxidized1 then drop a little sulphuric acid on the ore and dish4 ,if tellurium be present1 carmine and purple colors on the assay will proclaim the fact4 ,bismuth ores are very heavy2 usually they have more or less antimony associated with them1 which is a drawback1 as the separation is an expensive matter and the returns are less than they would be from a low grade pure ore4 ,in testing for this metal1 dissolve a crushed sample in nitric acid and then add potash in excess4 ,if the ore is one containing bismuth1 you should have a white precipitate2 if it contains cobalt1 you will get a bluish-green coloration4 ,bismuth is worth about fifty cents a pound if pure and free from antimony4 ,galena is often mistaken for other ores1 specular iron ore for instance4 ,if the ore be crushed and heated in nitric acid until dissolved1 some water added1 and an addition made to the solution of a few drops of ferrocyanide of potassium1 a dark blood-red precipitate is thrown down4 ,if the ore were galena1 there would be no coloration4 ,the so-called steel galena which carries a little zinc is generally richer in silver than the ordinary cube galena1 though the reverse is sometimes the case4 ,if lead ore be dissolved in nitric acid1 the solution diluted1 and some hydrochloric acid added1 a white precipitate is thrown down4 ,add ammonia and the precipitate remains unaltered4 ,the blow-pipe operator has to learn to breathe and blow at the same time2 the breathing he does through the nostrils1 the blowing is produced by the natural tendency of the cheeks to collapse when distended with air4 ,a skillful operator can blow for many minutes at a time without the slightest fatigue4 ,to identify cinnabar1 the ore from which quicksilver is obtained1 make a paste of the substance in powder and carbonate of soda4 ,heat in the open tube1 and a globule of mercury will result4 ,sulphur turns silver black4 ,make a paste with carbonate of soda1 heat on the charcoal1 and removing the mass with the point of a knife lay it on a silver coin and moisten4 ,a black sulphide of silver should show quickly on the coin if sulphur is present4 ,magnesia gives a faint pink color when heated and treated with nitrate of cobalt on coal4 ,alumina under the same circumstances give a blue color4 ,roasting is an oxidizing process1 the substance being heated in air1 so that it may absorb oxygen4 ,the test by reduction with soda on coal in the ,r4,f4 is particularly valuable in the case of copper ore1 as little as #a per cent4 being detected4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,economic ,,ores ,,and ,,minerals4 ,aluminum is derived from two ores1 cryolite and bauxite4 ,this metal has made rapid strides into favor during the past half-dozen years4 ,although known since #ahbg1 it remained a rare substance in the metallic form1 though it is the most abundant of any of the metals in its ore4 ,in ordinary clay there is an inexhaustible source of aluminum4 ,but the ores that yield the metal cheaply are few4 ,until recently1 cryolite1 found abundantly in ,greenland1 was the chief source of the metal1 but now bauxite is used in its place4 ,bauxite is a limonite iron ore in which a part of the iron has been replaced by aluminum4 ,it is found in ,alabama1 ,georgia and ,arkansas1 as well as in ,europe4 ,aluminum is white1 and very light in weight4 ,it does not tarnish easily4 ,the chemical composition of these ores is3 ,aluminum4 ,cryolite1 ,al#b;,f#f4f,na,f #ab4h per cent4 ,bauxite1 ,al#b,o#c4c;,h#b,o #gc4i per cent4 ,in #ahie the production of this metal in the ,united ,states was #ijj1jjj pounds4 ,in #ahii it rose to #f1ejj1jjj pounds4 ,the only firm producing aluminum is the ,pittsburg ,manufacturing ,company of ,buffalo1 ,n4,y41 who reduce the metal from bauxite1 which they obtain in the southern states4 ,one of the latest uses for this metal is for gold miners' pans4 ,the ,french seem to keep ahead of the rest of the world in finding new uses for aluminum4 ,most of the supply of cryolite comes from ,greenland1 where it occurs in veins running through gneiss rocks4 ,glass-makers use it and pay good prices for it4 ,lately makers of aluminum also buy it1 as it contains #ac per cent4 of that metal4 ,a new aluminum-bearing mineral1 discovered in ,new ,mexico and in ,ohio1 is called native alum4 ,it gives #ej4af per cent4 alumina1 and may be treated by solution in warm water1 filtration1 evaporation and roasting4 ,no estimate has yet been made of the amount available4 ,as bauxite promises to be in greater demand in the future than in the present1 owing to the ever-increasing demand for aluminum1 the prospector will do well to make himself thoroughly familiar with its appearance4 ,it is creamy white when free from iron1 and the grains are like little peas1 or pisolitic4 ,it contains water1 aluminum1 silica1 and generally iron4 ,the ,french beds near the town of ,baux are #cj miles long and #dj feet thick4 ,in the ,united ,states1 beds have been found in ,alabama1 ,georgia and ,arkansas4 ,the ,georgia beds are turning out three-fifths of the bauxite produced in ,america4 ,the ore is in beds and pockets1 and enough has been prospected to assure a supply for some years to come1 unless the demand should grow very decidedly1 in which case a scarcity might soon be felt4 ,the ,american ore is easier to work than the ,french1 and manufacturers prefer it to any they can import1 even though the cost is higher and the percentage of aluminum smaller4 ,the ,arkansas deposits are as thick as the ,french1 and only #cjj feet above the level of the tide4 ,imported bauxite cost #e to #g a ton in ,new ,york ,city4 ,american ore costs #e to #ab a long ton4 ,best selected ,georgia brings #aj4 ,should the deposits of bauxite give out1 the manufacturers of aluminum would probably fall back on cryolite4 ,at ,tvigtuk1 on the west coast of ,greenland1 it exists1 as a very heavy vein1 in gneiss4 ,it is semitransparent1 and snow-white4 ,impurities may stain it yellow or red or even black4 ,its specific gravity is #b4ie1 and its hardness #b4e to #c4 ,it is fusible in the flame of a candle1 and yields hydrofluoric acid if treated with sulphuric acid4 ,it is still used for making soda and aluminum salts1 and an imitation porcelain4 ,it is also in general use as a flux4 ,amber4 ,this is a fossil resin1 or gum1 and may often be found in lignite beds4 ,recent discoveries have been made on the coast of ,british ,columbia that are expected to supply the world4 ,all pipe-smokers know it4 ,antimony4 ,the commercial ore of this metal is the sulphide known as stibnite1 or gray antimony4 ,its composition when pure is #gb per cent4 antimony and #bh per cent4 sulphur4 ,hardness is #b2 gravity1 #d4e2 luster1 metallic2 opaque2 gray2 cleavage1 perfect4 ,fracture1 conchoidal4 ,texture1 granular to massive4 ,the ore tarnishes quickly1 is easily melted1 or dissolved in hydrochloric acid4 ,the associated minerals are generally the ores of lead1 zinc1 and carbonate of iron4 ,baryta may be the gangue or veinstone4 ,antimony is worth from #aj to #ae cents a pound4 ,although antimony occurs in many minerals1 the only commercial source is the sulphide1 stibnite4 ,antimony is used as an alloy in type metal1 pewter1 and babbitt metals4 ,it is injurious to copper1 even one-tenth of one per cent4 reducing the value of that metal very considerably4 ,the price varies greatly1 being now about #aj cents a pound4 ,the composition of stibnite is3 ,antimony4 ,stibnite1 ,sb#b,s#c #ga4h per cent4 ,the production of antimony in this country is not very large4 ,the output of #ahii was but #a1bej tons1 valued at #bda1bej4 ,the ore is worth from #dj to #ej a ton delivered at ,staten ,island1 ,n4,y4 ,apatite suffered in demand when the cheap phosphates of ,south ,carolina were discovered1 and these in turn are being ousted from the markets of the world by ,thomas slag1 an artificial phosphate1 and by the easily-mined natural phosphates of ,algeria4 ,the price varies with the quality of the rock1 from #a4ge to #aa per ton1 averaging in #ahii1 #c4hf4 ,apatite is a phosphate of lime1 containing #dc per cent4 of phosphoric acid4 ,it occurs in the old crystalline and primary rocks of ,canada1 but although still of some value it has yielded the position it once occupied to the ,carolina phosphate deposits1 which1 although not so rich in acid1 are softer1 and less expensive to utilize4 ,apatite is doubtless derived from the remains of animals or fishes that lived in the distant past4 ,the colors are often beautiful--green1 pink1 gray1 etc4--but the sheen is always white4 ,hardness of #d4h4 ,specific gravity1 #c4a4 ,asbestos4 ,this fibrous silicate of magnesia and lime is to be looked for among primary rocks near serpentine dike4 ,the fibers of this material may be woven into cloth that will be fire-proof4 ,it is of considerable1 though fluctuating1 value4 ,the demand for this material is likely to increase1 though at present the supply is fully equal to demand4 ,it is being used in ,germany to make fire-proof paper1 and in ,quebec to make asbestos plaster for covering wood-work4 ,it is generally quarried in open pits1 the rock being crushed in a rock-breaker1 and the fiber freed from adhering particles of rock and dust4 ,it is then sorted1 the longest fibers going into the first quality heap4 ,the production in #ahii in the ,united ,states was #iab tons1 value #ac1hfj2 in ,canada1 #bc1bff tons1 value #eih1gcf4 ,borax4 ,this mineral is borate of soda4 ,its composition is3 #cg per cent4 boric acid1 #af per cent4 soda1 and #dg per cent4 water4 ,its gravity is #a4g4 ,hardness1 #b4c4 ,it is white1 and has a sweetish taste4 ,borax is valuable1 but occurring as it does as an incrustation upon the ground over large areas1 a detailed description would be superfluous1 as the explorer will surely recognize it should he find it4 ,clay4 ,a good bed of clay may be of value in an accessible region4 ,brick-clay contains silica1 alumina1 iron1 etc4 ,potters' clay is made by suspending ordinary brick-clay in water1 and running off the water and fine particles suspended therein4 ,these are allowed to settle1 and1 when dry1 are fine potters' clay4 ,the better the clay1 the larger the percentage of potters' clay4 ,fire-clay should contain #fj per cent4 of silica1 and #cj per cent4 of alumina4 ,mixed with sand and burnt into bricks1 it will resist great heat4 ,light-colored clays are preferable for this purpose1 as iron is prejudicial to a good fire-brick4 ,kaolin is the finest porcelain clay1 and the best comes from ,china1 ,japan or ,france4 ,it is a product of decay in feldspar rocks4 ,the potash is washed out1 and the silica and alumina left as parts of a white clay of fine grain4 ,coal4 ,anthracite is bituminous coal that has been subjected to great heat and pressure2 in plain language1 baked4 ,it contains over #ij per cent4 of carbon4 ,specific gravity #a4e to #a4h4 ,hardness1 #b4c to #b4f4 ,the ash left after burning is white or red4 ,there is little or no sulphur in anthracite4 ,it does not coke4 ,there are three main divisions of coal1 arranged according to their carbon1 water and ash4 ,they are3 ,carbon4 ,water4 ,ash4 ,anthracite #hj-ie p4c4 #b-c p4c4 #d-aj p4c4 ,bituminous #de-hj p4c4 #a-e p4c4 #h-bj p4c4 ,lignite #g-de p4c4 #ae-cf p4c4 #f-dj p4c4 ,good bituminous coal contains about #he per cent4 of carbon1 but the composition varies greatly4 ,cannel coal is a variety of bituminous that gives off much gas4 ,it burns with a bright flame in an open grate1 igniting as easily as a candle4 ,lignite is intermediate between coal and peat4 ,all the ,rocky ,mountain coals are lignites4 ,it is a very inferior coal at its worst1 while at its best it is nearly the equal of a poor bituminous coal4 ,some coals will coke and others will not2 nothing but a trial can settle this matter in each individual case4 ,good coking coal is very valuable4 ,cobalt4 ,cobalt ores are always found in veins with other metals4 ,pure cobalt is extremely rare4 ,cobalt colors are used for porcelain painting1 glass-staining1 etc4 ,chromium4 ,all chrome is obtained from chromite1 which contains #fh per cent4 of chrome sesqui-oxide1 the remainder being iron protoxide4 ,hardness1 #e4e2 gravity1 #d4d2 luster1 sub-metallic2 opaque4 ,steel-gray to almost black4 ,harsh4 ,brittle4 ,cleavage1 imperfect4 ,fracture1 uneven4 ,texture1 massive to granular4 ,chromite in gravel looks like shot4 ,serpentine often contains it1 when it is apt to resemble a fine-grained magnetite4 ,it is used chiefly in iron and steel alloys1 and in making armor plate4 ,it is also used in dyeing fabrics and in paint manufacture4 ,but little chrome ore is produced in the ,united ,states4 ,the importation in #ahii was #ae1gic tons1 value #ah4jc per ton4 ,chromite1 ,fe,o,cr#b,o#c #dg-fh ,this ore is merchantable at #bb to #be per ton4 ,domestic ore ranges from #aj to #ab a ton1 while the pure imported ores are worth #ba a ton4 ,the yearly consumption in the ,united ,states is about #af1jjj tons1 and the ,american production #ajj tons4 ,this ore is useful as a lining for furnaces1 and the demand promises to become important4 ,newfoundland is said to contain large deposits4 ,copper4 ,native copper occurs in the ,lake ,superior region1 but the demands of commerce are supplied from chalcopyrite or copper pyrites1 and tetrahedrite or gray copper ore4 ,many different ores of copper may exist in the same vein4 ,on the surface an iron cap of gossan reveals the deposit2 immediately below may be black oxide of copper with some malachite1 lower down red oxide1 and below the water-line copper sulphides4 ,the following are the principal copper ores3 ,sp4 ,gravity4 ,hardness4 ,p4 ,c4 ,cu4 ,native copper #h4h #b4h #ajj ,chalcopyrite #d4b #c4g #ce ,enargite #d4d #c4j #dh ,tetrahedite #e4j #c4e to #d4e #ce ,chalcocite #e4f #b4g #hj ,bornite #e4j #c4j #ee ,melaconite #f4b #b4j to #c4j #hj ,cuprite #f4j #c4f #hi ,chrysocolla #b4b #c4j #de ,the common ore is native copper1 often associated with native silver1 the two remaining1 chemically1 quite distinct4 ,some masses of copper occur that are too large to handle and must be cut by cold chisels1 a method that costs more for labor than the value of the metal4 ,the ,lake ,superior mines produce #adj1jjj1jjj pounds of copper a year1 while those of ,montana made the gigantic output of #bbh1jjj1jjj pounds in #ahif4 ,the great ,anaconda mine1 of ,butte1 is the heaviest producer1 yielding more than half the state's total4 ,during #ahii the ,new ,york copper market rate varied between #ad4ge cents and #ah4df cents per pound4 ,copper is probably abundant in the shape of pyrites in many parts of ,canada1 especially in the ,northwest1 and prospectors in that region should search diligently for it4 ,the ,lake ,superior mines are unique in being deposits of native copper4 ,owing to the great demand for copper following upon the extraordinary spread of electricity1 copper properties have become so enormously valuable that1 possibly1 the explorer will be quite as fortunate in finding copper as in finding gold4 ,moreover1 with the exception of ,spain and ,chili1 the ,united ,states has no serious rivals in copper production1--,montana and ,michigan1 producing the greater part of the output4 ,the famous ,calumet and ,hecla mine1 in ,michigan1 is now down #d1jjj feet and still yields ore4 ,the most copper ores are not difficult to distinguish4 ,every one is familiar with the ruddy hue of pure copper1 the color of the native metal4 ,it may be flattened under the hammer or cut with the knife4 ,a little of the ore mixed with grease colors a flame green4 ,copper ores are heavy1 and generally of a bright color1 either red1 blue1 green1 yellow or brown4 ,corundum4 ,nine hundred and seventy tons of this abrasive were produced in the ,united ,states in #ahii2 value1 #gh1egj4 ,corundum is found in feldspar veins1 and associated with chlorites in serpentine rock4 ,north ,carolina furnishes half the corundum marketed4 ,the presence of this substance is always indicated in the ,south by serpentine1 chrysolite1 or olivine rocks2 experience being the only guide the miners have in finding new deposits4 ,the contacts of the olivine rocks with gneiss usually produce rich deposits4 ,corundum is the hardest substance known1 next to the diamond4 ,it is used as a polishing powder4 ,emery is an impure corundum containing iron4 ,corundum is composed of #ec per cent4 aluminum and #dg per cent4 oxygen4 ,specific gravity is #d4 ,hardness1 #i4 ,feldspar4 ,the ,maine1 ,pennsylvania1 ,new ,york1 and ,connecticut ores are worth #c to #f per long ton 7#b1bdj pounds7 at point of production4 ,fluorspar4 ,the ,american market is supplied by ore from ,rosiclare1 ,ill41 ,marion1 ,ky41 ,hardin ,co41 ,ill41 and ,liumpton ,co41 ,ky41 and imported spar4 ,it is worth #f a ton of #b1jjj pounds4 ,this spar is softer than quartz and of most brilliant colors1 varying through the yellows1 greens1 blues and reds1 to pure white4 ,the streak is always white4 ,specific gravity1 #c4 ,hardness1 #d4 ,it is worth mining when abundant and accessible4 ,gems4 ,gems are to be looked for in a country of crystalline rock1 such as granite1 gneiss1 dolomite1 etc4 ,topaz and ruby are generally discovered in crystalline limestones1 while turquoise is usually found in clay slate4 ,it is not likely that the ,american prospector will come upon the true oriental ruby2 he will more probably find the garnet4 ,the ruby is next to the diamond in hardness and in value1 and consists practically of pure alumina4 ,the garnet is but as hard as quartz1 and is a silicate of alumina with lime and a little iron4 ,they crystallize in different systems1 the more valuable gem belonging to the rhombohedral1 and the less valuable to the isometric system4 ,the turquoise which has lately been found in ,arizona is not a crystal4 ,the blue color which distinguishes it is derived from copper4 ,it is a phosphate of alumina with water in composition4 ,in form it is kidney shaped or stalactitic4 ,lazulite1 a far less valuable substance1 is also blue1 but as it crystallizes in the monoclinic system it should not be mistaken for turquoise4 ,moreover1 lazulite is softer and contains magnesia and lime1 which the turquoise does not4 ,lapis lazuli1 which is also occasionally mistaken for turquoise1 belongs to the regular or isometric system2 it is commonly massive or compact1 and is a silicate of alumina with some lime and iron4 ,it is found in syenite1 crystalline1 limestone1 and often associated with pyrites and mica4 ,topaz belongs to the orthorhombic system4 ,it is a silicate of alumina with fluorine4 ,powdered1 mixed1 and heated with microcosmic salt in the open tube1 fluorine is disengaged with its characteristic odor1 and etching action upon glass4 ,with the blow pipe on charcoal1 heated with the cobalt solution1 it gives the fine blue color of alumina4 ,the explorer who comes upon any hard1 brightly colored stone1 that may possibly turn out a gem1 should preserve it carefully until he returns to some city1 when it should be submitted to an expert4 ,the value of a gem depends upon so many qualities that it were hopeless for the tyro to endeavor to arrive at any just estimate of it4 ,he might ruin a superb specimen1 without becoming one bit the wiser4 ,a few of the more prominent characters of valuable gems follow3 ,name4 ,sp4 ,gravity4 ,hardness4 ,color4 ,aquamarine #b4g #g4g ,blue4 ,emerald #b4g #g4e ,green4 ,diamond #c4e #aj4j ,colorless4 ,garnet #d4a #g4j ,claret4 ,opal #b4b #f4j ,opaline4 ,ruby #c4e #h4j ,dark red4 ,tourmaline #c4a #g4c ,various4 ,turquoise #b4g #f4j ,blue1 green4 ,ultramarine #b4e #e4h ,blue to green4 ,graphite4 ,this mineral is commonly known as black lead1 or plumbago4 ,it is the same in composition as the diamond1 viz43 #ajj per cent4 carbon4 ,specific gravity1 #b to #b4b4 ,hardness1 #a4b to #a4i4 ,color1 black4 ,greasy4 ,of value when free from impurities4 ,used in making pencils1 stove polish1 crucibles1 etc4 ,found in the earlier rocks4 ,gypsum4 ,a sulphate of lime occurring in great beds4 ,burnt1 it becomes plaster of paris4 ,iron4 ,this1 the most important of all metals1 is found in various forms4 ,the ores of iron are3 ,sp4 ,gravity4 ,hardness4 ,p4 ,c4 ,fe4 ,native ore #g4g #d4e #ajj ,magnetite #e4a #f4j #gb ,hematite #d4h #f4j #gj ,limonite #c4h #e4b #fj ,siderite #c4h #d4j #fb ,pyrite #e4j #f4c #dg ,native iron is only found in meteorites that have come from space4 ,magnetite is loadstone ore2 the powder is reddish black1 and the ore1 dark brown to black4 ,it is found in the older rocks and is an important ore4 ,hematite varies from metallic to dull in luster4 ,there are many varieties of it1 known as ironstone1 ocher1 needle ore1 etc4 ,hematite may be slightly magnetic4 ,immense beds exist in the triassic sandstones1 and in the secondary rocks below the coal measures4 ,the powder and streak of limonite are always yellow2 it is an important ore4 ,siderite assumes many forms4 ,it is called spathic ore1 clay-ironstone1 carbonate of iron1 black band1 etc4 ,most of these carbonate iron ores only range between #cj and #dj per cent4 of metallic iron1 but are in demand as fluxes for other iron ores4 ,the pyritic ores of iron1 including marcasite1 pyrrhotite and mispickel1 are often taken for gold by the inexperienced4 ,in an accessible region pyrites may be valuable1 as they are bought by makers of sulphuric acid4 ,iron is so low in price that vast deposits exist which cannot be made use of because they would be too expensive to mine4 ,a deep bed1 or a narrow one1 or the slightest difficulty in transportation1 would preclude any profitable development4 ,it is known that enormous areas in northern ,labrador1 for instance1 are full of iron deposits1 yet there seems no chance of their having the slightest economic value for a long time1 if ever4 ,conditions of commerce very different to those now obtaining will have to exist before they can be utilized4 ,iron ore is most favorably situated for profitable extraction when it is near coking coal and beds of limestone2 the former for fuel1 the latter for flux4 ,occasionally such regions as that of ,lake ,superior may be able to compete successfully with others1 although they do not possess the necessary smelting facilities1 because these deficiencies are counterbalanced by inexhaustive stores of easily mined ores1 and transportation facilities unrivaled in cheapness4 ,lead4 ,the two important sources of supply are galena and cerussite4 ,the former contains #hg per cent4 of lead1 and frequently some silver and gold4 ,it is so distinctive as to be easily recognized4 ,luster1 metallic2 opaque2 lead-gray2 harsh4 ,brittle to sectile 7may be cut74 ,cleavage1 perfect4 ,fracture1 even to sub-conchoidal4 ,structure1 granular or foliated1 tabular1 or fibrous4 ,specific gravity is #g4e1 and hardness1 #b4f4 ,the carbonate cerussite contains about #gi per cent4 lead4 ,luster1 vitreous to resinous4 ,translucent4 ,color1 gray4 ,smooth4 ,brittle4 ,cleavage1 perfect to imperfect4 ,fracture1 conchoidal4 ,massive to granular4 ,rich carbonate ores look like clay1 and are undoubtedly often passed by4 ,the economic ores of lead are3 ,lead4 ,galena ,pb,s #hf4f p4c4 ,cerussite ,pb,c,o#c #gg4e p4c4 ,anglesite ,pb,s,o#d #fg4g p4c4 ,pyromorphite ,pb#c,p#b,o#h plus #a_/c ,pb,cl#b #ge4cf p4c4 ,lead ores are frequently rich in silver4 ,they occur in limestone1 sandstone1 granite and clay4 ,the commercial ores are galena1 which is easily recognized by its steel-like cubes1 and the carbonates4 ,these latter are like lightly colored clays when in powder and are very apt to be overlooked4 ,fluor spar is as favorable a gangue for lead as quartz is for gold4 ,the ,rocky ,mountains are the principal ,american sources of this metal1 but a very large amount comes from the ,mississippi valley4 ,in the mountains the ore is a by-product1 in silver smelting1 being obtained from argentiferous galena1 while in ,missouri1 ,kansas1 ,wisconsin and ,illinois lead and zinc are found free from any mixture with the precious metal4 ,the age of these deposits varies from lower silurian or cambrian to the carboniferous4 ,the ore is found in limestone rocks1--sometimes in flat openings parallel to the almost horizontal beds1 or else in gash veins almost at right angles to these4 ,as lead is often found in dolomite limestone1 that is1 limestone carrying almost as much magnesia as lime1 and this rock was undoubtedly deposited in a shallow sea1 geologists incline to the belief that therefore the lead is due to a growth of seaweeds in whose ash this metal and zinc are known to occur4 ,at any rate1 these deposits now have great economic value1 and the lead and zinc ore is easily got at4 ,galena and zinc blende frequently resemble one another1 but they may be distinguished by this infallible sign3 the powder of galena is black1 and that of blende brown1 or yellow4 ,lithographic ,stone4 ,this is a very fine grained compact limestone from ,bavaria4 ,so far nothing equal to the imported stone has been found in ,america4 ,the distinguishing qualities are3 ,gray1 drab or yellow2 porous1 yet not too soft2 of fine texture1 and free from veins and inequalities4 ,manganese4 ,manganese ores in #ahii amounted in the ,united ,states to #adc1bef tons1 value #cjf1dgf4 ,this mineral is used for bleaching and making oxygen1 and in steel manufacture4 ,pyrolusite contains #fc per cent4 manganese4 ,hardness1 #b4c4 ,specific gravity1 #d4h4 ,luster1 metallic4 ,opaque4 ,gray to bluish black4 ,harsh4 ,brittle4 ,cleavage1 imperfect4 ,fracture1 uneven4 ,granular1 massive4 ,manganite is harder1 #d4j2 its specific gravity is #d4c4 ,luster1 sub-metallic4 ,cleavage1 perfect4 ,texture1 fibrous4 ,wad is an impure ore of manganese found in bogs1 of little or no value4 ,pyrolusite ,mn,o#b #fc4b ,braunite ,mn#b,o#c #fi4fh ,psilomelane 7,variable7 8 ,franklinite1 a zinc-manganese ore1 is also a common source of supply4 ,an ore to be commercially valuable should contain from #dj to #fj per cent4 metallic manganese1 and not over #j4b to #j4be per cent4 phosphorus4 ,to determine the value of manganese ores a somewhat intricate calculation is necessary4 ,delivered at ,bessemer1 ,pa41 the ,carnegie ,steel ,company pays according to the following sliding scale3 ,per cent4 ,mn4 ,per ,unit over #di p4c4 ,fe4 ,mn4 #df #di p4c4 #f;c #bh;c #dc #df p4c4 #f;c #bg;c #dj #dc p4c4 #f;c #bf;c #cg #dj p4c4 #f;c #be;c #cd #cg p4c4 #f;c #bd;c #ca #cd p4c4 #f;c #bc;c #f;c #bb;c ,moreover1 for each one per cent4 of silica in excess of eight per cent4 a deduction of fifteen cents a ton is made1 and a deduction of one cent per unit of manganese is made for each #b_/ajj of one per cent4 of phosphorous present in excess of #a_/aj per cent4 ,from which it is evident that there can be little profit in impure deposits of manganese4 ,mercury4 ,quicksilver usually occurs in the form of cinnabar1 though occasional deposits of pure metal are found in drops and small pockets1 in limestone and the softer secondary rocks1 including shales and slates4 ,as the appearance of quicksilver must be familiar to all1 cinnabar alone needs description4 ,its specific gravity is #i4j2 its hardness1 #b4b4 ,it is a red brown earthy ore1 the powder of which is a dull red4 ,it is generally found in sandstone1 though it occasionally occurs in slates1 shales and serpentine4 ,heated gently with lime cinnabar yields quicksilver4 ,if copper be held over the fumes of mercury it will be coated with a light film of the metal4 ,an alloy with silver has been found4 ,mercury is heavy1 extremely brilliant1 and mobile4 ,the composition of cinnabar is3 ,per cent4 ,hg4 ,cinnabar ,hg,s #hf4b ,although but three ,american states have supplied this metal1 this country has held rank as second producer4 ,of these ,california is by far the most important4 ,oregon and ,utah having never had any but a small and spasmodic output4 ,judging by ,californian experience1 the prospector is most likely to find cinnabar1 the ore from which the quicksilver of commerce is derived1 in metamorphic rocks4 ,mercury is always sold in flasks of #gf-a_/b pounds4 ,the production of mercury by the ,united ,states 7,california7 was #bh1hgi flasks in #ahii1 which were valued at #a1aee1afj4 ,the following table shows the rock in which the most famous ,californian quicksilver mines are3 ,mine4 ,county4 ,rock4 ,sulphur ,creek ,colusa ,serpentine4 ,abbott ,lake ,shale-serpentine4 ,great ,western ,lake ,serpentine4 787 tna ,napa ,sandstone4 ,corona ,napa ,sandstone-serpentine4 ,aat ,hill ,napa ,sandstone4 ,new ,almaden ,santa ,clara ,shale-serpentine4 ,barton ,siskiyou ,shale-sandstone4 ,cinnabar ,king ,sonoma ,sandstone-serpentine4 ,altoona ,trinity ,porphyry-serpentine4 ,a study of the foregoing shows that serpentine is almost as intimately connected with quicksilver as is quartz with gold1 or granite with tin4 ,these are the things that prospectors should make a note of4 ,with the great increase of gold mining and the limited store of cinnabar that is available that ore seems certain to rise in value before long4 ,mica4 ,the value of ,indian mica varies from #ij a pound for sheets #d in4 #a in4 to #ac a pound for sheets #aj in4 #h in4 ,the white mica in large sheets is valuable4 ,the amber-colored1 and spotted1 are used for insulating purposes in electric plants1 while the coarser sorts are ground and used as lubricants1 or in fire-proof paint manufacture4 ,nickel4 ,this ore is never found in metallic form1 but always in combination4 ,pyrrhotite1 or magnetic pyrites1 is the source of about all the nickel of commerce4 ,this ore has been already noticed under iron4 ,rare but valuable ores of nickel are millerite1 nickelite1 glance1 and nickel bloom4 ,per cent4 nickel4 ,millerite ,ni,s #fd4d ,niccolite ,ni,as #dd4j ,some of the nickel of commerce is derived from nickelliferous pyrrhotite4 ,petroleum4 ,crude petroleum is never found in metamorphic or igneous rocks4 ,the stratified rocks of the ,devonian1 ,carboniferous and ,cretaceous ages are most likely to hold it4 ,the crude oil is almost black1 and consists of about #he per cent4 of carbon1 and #ae per cent4 of hydrogen4 ,a long iron-shod stick is all the prospector requires to take with him in his search for surface indications of oil4 ,the warmer the day the easier the search1 as the oil rises to the surface of the streams1 and is found in greater quantities than on cold days4 ,oil existing in the lower rocks ascends through them until it accumulates under some layer that will not let it pass through4 ,in this condition deep boring finds it1 the rod usually tapping gas first4 ,petroleum may be noticed oozing out of gravel banks1 or floating as a scum on the surface1 whenever abundant4 ,it has been found in rocks of widely different age1 from extremely ancient formations to some that did not precede man by so very long1 geologically speaking4 ,platinum4 ,this metal is only found native4 ,its gravity is very high1 from #af to #bb4 ,hardness1 #d to #d4e4 ,luster1 metallic4 ,opaque4 ,whitish-gray4 ,smooth4 ,ductile4 ,cleavage1 none4 ,fracture1 hackly4 ,texture1 granular1 fine4 ,platinum is unaffected by acids1 but if alloyed with #aj per cent4 of silver it dissolves in nitric acid4 ,almost infusible4 ,platinum occurs with placer gold in the beds of streams4 ,usually it is in small grains1 but one or two large nuggets are on record from ,brazil and ,siberia4 ,serpentine rocks are believed to have originally held the platinum found in the beds of rivers1 but none has been found in veins4 ,the entire product of the ,united ,states was #cjj ounces in #ahih2 valued at #c1hcg4 ,in #ahii there was none produced4 ,silver4 ,silver is generally found in serpentine1 trap1 sandstone1 limestone1 shale1 or porphyry rocks1 the gangue being quartz1 calc1 fluor1 or heavy spar4 ,all silver ores are heavy1 and many of them are sectile1 i4e41 may be cut with the knife4 ,western men test for silver by heating the ore and dipping it into water4 ,some metal comes to the surface in a greasy scum1 should silver be present4 ,native silver is found occasionally4 ,owing to the fall in value of this metal its future is not assured4 ,it has fallen1 during the past year1 once to forty-nine cents an ounce1 and this has had a most disastrous effect upon many silver mines1 forcing them to suspend operations4 ,should the fall continue1 as seems likely1 and the price of silver go down to forty cents an ounce1 little will be produced except as a by-product in the treatment of argentiferous lead ores4 ,as silver enters into chemical combination with sulphur easily1 as is seen by the black film that forms on silver articles in a room where gas is burnt1 most silver ores are sulphides4 ,the very abundance of silver has caused its great fall in value1 and it does not appear that it is ever likely to remain for long at a price exceeding fifty cents an ounce1 owing to the ease with which it may be produced1 and the large quantities that must find their way to market through it being a by-product in lead smelting4 ,from #ahei to #ahia the ,comstock lode in ,nevada produced #cbe1jjj1jjj4 ,this lode is a belt of quartz1 #aj1jjj feet long and several hundred wide1 and is a contact vein between diorite and diabase4 ,in ,america galena is the principal source of silver2 the chlorides and oxides rank next2 while1 lastly1 some silver is parted from gold when it reaches the mint1 as gold always contains more or less of that metal4 ,no precise statement as to the manner of its occurrence may be made since it is found in many different positions1 and is associated with all sorts of minerals4 ,it is never found in placer deposits1 as it breaks up under the influence of water1 air1 etc4 ,its original source is doubtless the igneous rocks1 where it occurs in association with augite1 hornblende and mica4 ,silver may be expected in mountainous regions of recent origin4 ,between #ahge and #ahia the world's product rose from #hb1jjj1jjj to #ahe1eii1fjj4 ,three quarters of this came from the western hemisphere4 ,the commercial ores of silver are3 ,silver4 ,argentite ,ag#b,s #hg4a per cent4 ,proustite #c;,ag#b,s,as#b,s#c #fe4e per cent4 ,prysagyrite #c;,ag#b,s,sb#b,s#c #ei4i per cent4 ,stephanite #e;,ag#b,s,sb#b,s#c #fh4e per cent4 ,cesargerite ,ag,cl #ge4c per cent4 ,the ,anaconda mine in ,butte is the largest producer of silver in the country4 ,in #ahif its output was #e1jjj1jjj ounces4 ,the ,anaconda is also the heaviest copper producer in the ,united ,states1 its yield of copper being #abe1cej1fic pounds4 ,sulphur4 ,brimstone is found native in the neighborhood of volcanoes1 extinct or active4 ,it is also derived from iron pyrites4 ,color1 yellow4 ,hardness1 #b4 ,specific gravity1 #b4 ,luster1 resinous4 ,smooth4 ,sectile4 ,texture1 crystalline4 ,talc4 ,the scientific name of this mineral is steatite4 ,it contains silica and magnesia4 ,its green color1 pearly luster1 and greasy feel1 are very characteristic4 ,it is not attacked by boiling sulphuric acid4 ,useful in the arts1 but of no great value4 ,tin4 ,the composition of cassiterite1 the commercial ore of tin1 is ,sn,o#b2 equal to #gh4fg per cent4 of metallic tin4 ,cassiterite or tin stone is a heavy ore which occurs in alluvial deposits or in the beds of streams4 ,it will be one of the latest ores the young prospector will find himself able to name with certainty4 ,granite1 with white mica as one of its constituents1 has so far always been associated with tin4 ,the ,american continent yields little tin1 and it is not likely the prospector in either the western states or in ,canada will stumble upon it1 though a good deposit of stream tin would enrich him in a short time1 for the metal is in great demand4 ,the streak1 when the metal is scratched with a knife point1 is whitey-gray and very distinctive4 ,tin may some day be found in the northern ,rockies1 as there is plenty of granite1 which is favorable to this metal4 ,it is worth about thirteen cents a pound1 and a vein must yield more than five per cent4 of metal to pay the cost of mining and dressing4 ,cassiterite1 the principal tin ore1 would have to be roasted4 ,most of the ,european tin mines were first worked for the copper they contained4 ,the copper was found in the capping1 but as they gained in depth they became more and more valuable for their tin4 ,some of the ,cornish mines are three-quarters of a mile in depth4 ,very lately tin has been discovered and mined in vast quantities in the ,straits ,settlements1 ,india4 ,as it is found in the streams the expense of mining is very light1 and it is killing the ,european mines4 ,the ,cornish miners put their tin ore on a shovel when they wish to test it4 ,the sample is first crushed fine and a few skillful shakes get rid of all the gangue1 leaving behind the tin and wolfram4 ,this wolfram is always associated1 in ,cornwall1 with the tin and it is got rid of by roasting4 ,australasia and ,cornwall produce most of the tin used in commerce4 ,tin is not found native4 ,specific gravity of cassiterite is #f4e to #g4 ,hardness1 #f4e to #g4 ,luster1 vitreous to adamantine4 ,translucent to opaque4 ,brown1 black1 gray1 red or yellow4 ,harsh4 ,brittle4 ,massive4 ,the appearance of this metal is so variable that nothing but a test with reagents determines it with certainty4 ,granite is frequently the country rock in which tin is found4 ,zinc4 ,this is another ore that never occurs native4 ,calamine or silicate of zinc is the great producing ore4 ,composition3 ,zinc oxide1 #fg per cent2 silicate1 #be per cent2 water1 #h per cent4 ,specific gravity1 #c to #c4g4 ,hardness1 #d4f to #e4 ,luster1 vitreous4 ,translucent4 ,white4 ,harsh4 ,brittle4 ,cleavage1 perfect4 ,fracture1 uneven4 ,texture1 granular crystalline4 ,calamine is a difficult mineral to detect without experience1 as when impure it does not look in the least like a metallic ore4 ,it would be taken for clay or shale4 ,this ore results from the decomposition of zinc blende4 ,blende contains #fg per cent4 zinc and #cc per cent4 sulphur4 ,it is often dark brown or black from iron1 otherwise it may be red1 green or bluish4 ,it is a troublesome impurity in silver ores4 ,smithsonite is a carbonate much resembling1 and often found with1 calamine4 ,other zinc ores are merely curiosities and do not affect the commercial value of the metal4 ,in the ,new ,jersey mines the zinc ores are the oxides zincite and willemite1 and the zinc-iron oxide franklinite4 ,in the ,missouri region1 on the other hand1 sphalerite and blende are the typical ores4 ,blende generally associates with the lead sulphide1 galena4 ,the ,joplin district in southwestern ,missouri and the adjoining region in ,kansas are now mainly supplying the markets of the country1 though the ,new ,jersey deposits are very valuable4 ,joplin ore assaying #eh to #fb per cent4 has varied greatly in price during the past four years4 ,the lowest quotation was #bj a ton1 the highest #ea4ej4 ,zinc is derived mainly from the following half dozen ores3 ,zinc4 ,sphalerite ,zn,s #fg4j per cent4 ,zincite ,zn,o #hj4c per cent4 ,smithsonite ,zn,o,c,o#b #ea4i per cent4 ,franklinite 7,variable7 787 #e4ed per cent4 ,willemite #b,zn,o4,,so#b #eh4e per cent4 ,calamine #b,zn,o4,si,o#b4;,,ho#b #ed4b per cent4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,mining4 ,although the scope of this work does not include the very complex problem involved in the working of a great mine1 prospecting and the simpler mining operations are so intimately connected that it would not be desirable to make mention of the one and ignore the other1 because the prospector must perforce become a miner as soon as he discovers mineral1 even though his operations should not go beyond a shallow trial shaft4 ,the simplest method of hoisting dirt or rock out of a shaft1 after it has become too deep for the sinker to throw the stuff out with a spade1 is by a bucket and windlass1 which may be either single or double1 according to the power required4 ,in northwestern ,canada1 where the present gold excitement has attracted so many thousand pioneers1 the miners have hitherto been content with a windlass4 ,for their purpose it answers well1 as they sink through gravel and not more than thirty feet at the most before reaching the bed rock4 ,the alluvial flats in which the coarse gold of the upper ,yukon has been discovered1 are composed of gravel that is invariably frozen1 summer as well as winter1 and which requires to be thawed out before it can be worked with a pick4 ,strangely enough1 dynamite cannot be used1 as the ground is so elastic under the frost that the tamping simply blows out and the required effect is not produced4 ,this peculiar condition has led the men1 who are mining in that part of the continent1 to adopt methods very similar to those used in ,siberia1 where1 also1 the ground is permanently frozen to a great depth4 ,after scratching the surface of the soil1 and removing the deep moss that invariably covers it1 they light large fires over night and in the morning remove the few inches of thawed soil underneath the ashes4 ,by this painfully slow method they eventually sink to the richer gravel1 fifteen or twenty1 or even thirty1 feet below the surface1 though there are few shafts of this depth on the ,klondike and the other gold-bearing creeks about which we have heard so much4 ,when the bed rock is reached and the few inches of decayed surface removed1 the miner builds his fire against the side of the shaft1 placing some inclined logs over it as a roof1 and goes to bed4 ,when he awakes next day several feet of the soil have fallen down over the logs1 and this he has to hoist4 ,it is at this stage that the windlass worked by his companion1 or partner1 demonstrates its value4 ,in a very short time all the gravel that the fire has thawed out is hoisted to the surface1 and added to the dump1 where it must remain until the warmth of summer shall have thawed the streams and permitted sluicing4 ,illustration3 ,,miner',s ,,gold ,,pan4 ,a sluice is really nothing more nor less than a trough1 open at the top1 in which the gold is sorted from the lighter gravel and dirt by running water4 ,the grade varies according to the coarseness of the gold4 ,very fine gold would be carried away by too swift a current1 while coarse gold will resist almost a torrent4 ,the sluice is built in joints1 usually a dozen feet in length2 the sides may be six inches or a foot deep1 and the width varies from one to two feet4 ,there is no rule in this matter1 but owing to the extravagant price of lumber--as much as a hundred and fifty dollars a thousand feet1 board measure--the tendency is to make the sluices very small and very short1 thereby saving nothing but the very coarsest gold4 ,a properly constructed sluice should be several hundred feet in length1 and the inclination should not be more than one foot in twelve1 while it may1 in a case of fine gold1 be advisable to diminish this inclination by at least a fourth4 ,riffles1 or cross-pieces1 are placed across the sluice at intervals of a few feet1 and slats are placed lengthwise1 filling up the intervals between the riffles4 ,into the crevices and interstices of these obstructions the heavy gold sinks by its own weight1 and every few days1 or weeks1 as the case may warrant1 the miner shuts off the water by closing the gate at the head of the sluice1 removes the slats and riffles1 beginning at the joint nearest the head and working towards the tail of the sluiceway1 and collects all the gold that has accumulated4 ,this is a very simple form of mining1 but it is not the simplest4 ,much gold has been recovered from the gravel in which nature has placed it by the aid of the pan1 a sheet iron dish modeled on the housewife's bread pan4 ,next to the pan the cradle is as little complicated as anything used in the winning of gold4 ,after this comes the long tom1 a considerable improvement upon the cradle1 but it necessitates more water and more men4 ,illustration3 ,,horse ,,whim4 ,the horse whim is used in developing many a western prospect4 ,the windlass does not work well below forty feet1 and where fuel and water are to be had any sensible man will use steam power for deep mining1 but there is a gap between the windlass and the steam hoist which the horse whim fills acceptably4 ,to a depth of #cjj feet a horse whim can usually handle the rock and water4 ,it is inexpensive1 in the first outlay1 and costs but little to run4 ,you can bring your bucket from a shaft a hundred and fifty feet deep in two and a half minutes1 and with a seven hundred pound capacity in the bucket1 in forty-five trips you could raise fifteen tons a day4 ,a shaft three hundred feet deep would require four hours' steady work to bring to surface the same amount4 ,a fair speed with a one-horse whim from a three hundred foot shaft is one hundred buckets per shift of ten hours1 but the prospector rarely has to figure on shafts of that depth4 ,if the mine turns out well it is likely to be in the hands of a powerful company 7of which he should be the principal shareholder7 before the three hundred foot level is reached4 ,the weight of the horse whim is about eight hundred pounds4 ,it can be taken to pieces and packed anywhere that a mule can travel2 the heaviest piece will not weigh more than a hundred pounds4 ,illustration3 ,,prospecting ,,mill ,,with ,,horse ,,power4 ,a small stamp mill1 run by horse power1 is a very favorite machine with western men1 where the ore is free milling4 ,the mortar in which the stamps work has copper plates amalgamated with mercury inside1 and copper tables with amalgamated plates over which the pulp passes after oozing through a fine screen in front of the mortar4 ,these little mills are so constructed that they can be taken apart or put together in an hour or two4 ,they require but one horse power and will do good clean work up to their capacity4 ,the following are the specifications of a good one3 ,total weight #a1ejj pounds4 ,weight of heaviest piece #cej pounds4 ,weight of stamp #ajj pounds4 ,drops per minute #fj to #hj4 ,capacity per hour #cjj to #djj pounds4 ,diameter of pulley #cj inches4 ,price1 with horse power1 about #cej4 ,a diamond drill is a most useful adjunct to exploration of a mine or deposit4 ,it is1 essentially1 a hollow drill which may be lengthened at will1 rotating rapidly and carrying a crown of bort or black diamonds at its extremity1 that eats into the strata very quickly4 ,holes #c1jjj feet deep have been driven by the diamond drill1 but such extensive investigations of the earth's crust are tremendously costly1 and may only be undertaken by governments or rich companies4 ,for a depth of #gjj feet1 however1 the expense need not exceed #b1ajj4 ,the cost of the plant for drilling would be #c1ejj more4 ,water is pumped down the hollow center of the drill1 to keep it cool4 ,the great advantage of the diamond over the percussion drill is that it permits the saving of a core1 so that the character of the rocks and minerals passed through may be known4 ,the diamond drill does better work in hard strata than it does in soft4 ,the rate1 in limestone1 may be about two feet an hour1 down to a depth of #bjj feet4 ,a complete outfit for boring with the diamond drill includes a steam engine and boiler1 diamond crown1 lining tubes1 rods1 and various minor accessories4 ,hydraulic mining is the cheapest known method of recovering gold4 ,in four years the ,north ,bloomfield ,mining ,company of ,california worked #cbe1jjj1jjj cubic yards1 which yielded only #b4i cents of gold per cubic yard1 and realized some profit4 ,very poor gravel will pay when the conditions are good4 ,cheap water1 grades of four inches in a hundred1 ample dumping room1 big banks of light gravel1 large areas of deposits1 labor at a dollar a day1 and a clever superintendent1 make a combination that will yield a profit out of three-cent gravel4 ,miners speak of surface and deep placers2 of hill claims2 of bench claims on the old river terraces2 of gulch diggings2 of bar claims on the sand bars of existing rivers2 of beach sands or those that in a few favored localities border the ocean4 ,a sluice is a long boxway to catch the gold2 a drift is a tunnel into the gold-bearing gravel2 and hydraulic diggings are those in which water under pressure is used to disintegrate the gravel4 ,a ground-sluice is a trench cut through the bed rock4 ,the roughness of the natural floor serves for riffles4 ,booming is a process requiring a large accumulation of water in a reservoir1 which may be discharged at once1 and carry all the material that has collected below the pass1 with one full tide1 into the sluices4 ,this practice is extremely ancient2 ,pliny mentions it in his ,natural ,history4 ,deep mining may be divided into drifting and hydraulic mining4 ,in the former the metal is won by means of tunnels and drifts or horizontal passageways along the length of the deposit4 ,it is usually resorted to in districts where a flow of lava has covered the gold-bearing gravel1 and made hydraulic mining impossible4 ,it is followed in ,alaska for another reason1 viz41 because the constantly frozen ground will not permit of the more remunerative method4 ,the gravel is carried to the mouth of the tunnel and there dumped to be washed in the sluices4 ,when cemented it must be broken up by stamps4 ,rich deep placers may be worked by drifting1 but whenever practicable hydraulicing is to be preferred as giving better results4 ,it yields from four to six times the amount of gold that drifting does4 ,thorough exploration should precede the expenditure of large sums in a hydraulic plant4 ,even should the explorations result in finding barren gravels the money will have been well spent in saving the cost of an unproductive plant4 ,black sand 7magnetic iron7 almost always accompanies gold1 but this alone is no sign that gold is present1 as black sand may usually be obtained by grinding and washing crystalline rocks4 ,ditches and flumes of wood or metal are used to bring the water for hydraulic mining from the region where it was impounded in a catch basin1 often a distance of many miles4 ,it is said #ajj1jjj1jjj have been invested in ditches and flumes1 mining and agricultural1 in the western states1 and new flumes are being planned every month4 ,some of them consist of wrought iron pipe carried over ravines by trestles #bej feet high4 ,in planning a ditch the miner must see to it that his water supply is at a sufficient elevation to command the ground4 ,the more pressure the water works under the better4 ,the supply should be continuous1 or at least be available during the whole working season4 ,ditches in regions of deep snow should have a southern exposure4 ,all streams crossed by the ditch should be diverted into it1 to counteract leakage and other loss4 ,waste gates must be provided every half mile4 ,ditches are better than flumes4 ,narrow1 deep1 and steep ditches are to be preferred in mountainous regions1 and the reverse in valleys with soft soil4 ,some ,californian ditches with a capacity of #hj cubic feet per second and grades of #af to #bj feet per mile have been built4 ,illustration3 ,,section ,,of ,,ditch4 ,illustration3 ,,section ,,of ,,flume4 ,sometimes the face of the country requires flumes2 they may even be hung along the face of a cliff4 ,in shattered ground and where water is scarce flumes are better than ditches4 ,the grade for a flume is usually #be to #ce feet per mile and its capacity is smaller than that of a ditch4 ,pine planking #b-a_/b inches by #ab to #bd inches1 and #ab feet long1 is the dimension stuff generally preferred4 ,a flume #b feet #f inches square requires posts1 caps1 and sills of #cd inch2 stringers #df inch4 ,great care is needed at curves to avoid slack water and splashing4 ,the boxes must be shortened and the outer side wedged up until the water flows as evenly as in the straight stretches4 ,should anchor ice form the water must be shut off at once4 ,the life of a flume seldom exceeds a dozen years1 whereas at the end of a similar period a ditch would be carrying #aj per cent more water than at first1 owing to the sides and bottom having become consolidated4 ,wrought iron pipes are employed largely in ,california to replace ditches and flumes4 ,when the pipe crosses a ravine it is known as an inverted siphon4 ,piping is also used to convey water from the pressure box to the gates and nozzle4 ,wrought iron pipes have to stand pressure varying from #cd pounds to #hjj pounds to the square inch4 ,air valves or blow-offs must be provided at intervals to allow the escape of air from the pipe while filling1 and to prevent a collapse of the pipe after a break4 ,a covering of coal-tar should be given the pipe both inside and out4 ,cost varies from one dollar to two dollars a running foot4 ,the pressure box ends the ditch and from it the water passes into the supply pipe4 ,the head of water is measured from this point4 ,a box to catch sand and gravel1 with a side opening and sunk below the level of the ditch1 is called the sand box4 ,one and a half inch plank is generally the material out of which the pressure box is made4 ,the depth of water in it is such that the mouth of the pipe is always under water4 ,a grating in front of the pipe catches all rubbish4 ,as no air must be allowed to get into the pipe the water must be kept quiet and deep at the pipe-head2 this is insured by dividing the box into compartments1 the first receiving the water and discharging it through suitable openings into the second4 ,the water supply and the discharge should be equal4 ,the water passes down the feed pipe1 iron gates distributing it to the discharge pipes4 ,water must be turned on gradually1 and the air valves must be open4 ,the piping terminates in a nozzle with knuckle-joint and lateral movement4 ,nothing but the most secure bolting to heavy timber and the heavy weighting of the last length of pipe should be relied upon to keep the hydraulic giant in its place4 ,should it once begin bucking every man within reach of the powerful column of water is in imminent danger4 ,the nozzle is directed by means of a larger deflecting nozzle1 which receives the impact of the water and causes the main nozzle to swing right or left1 up or down1 as the case may demand4 ,a derrick capable of moving heavy boulders1 and driven by water power1 is a necessity in all hydraulic mining4 ,masts #ajj feet high and booms #ij feet long are sometimes used1 the motive power coming from a hurdy gurdy direct impact wheel4 ,experiments have shown that the bucket has much to do with the power of the wheel4 ,for instance1 when the water impinged against a flat bucket the efficiency of the wheel was less than #de per cent4 of what it should have been in theory1 whereas1 with the ,pelton bucket1 it rose to #hb4f per cent4 ,there is a great amount of so-called cement1 or in other words consolidated gravel1 in all the northern placers1 and in many ,california deposits1 as well4 ,in the old ,cariboo diggings on the upper ,frazer1 strong companies are now pulverizing the ancient cements that resisted all the efforts of the #ei miners with powder and stamp mill1 and are deriving large profits therefrom4 ,black powder gives even better results than dynamite in gravel4 ,the usual allowance of powder is #bj pounds in weight for every #a1jjj cubic feet of ground to be moved4 ,make drifts ,t-shaped1 and tamp the main drift almost to the junction with the arms1 which should be parallel to the face it is required to dislodge4 ,illustration3 ,,pelton ,,water ,,wheel4 ,sluices have their maximum discharge when set straight4 ,increased grade may be given below any unavoidable curves with advantage1 and the outer side of the sluice must always be raised4 ,steps or drops in the sluices help in the recovery of the gold4 ,in general1 a grade of #f-f-a_/b inches to the #ab-;foot box is found best2 this is equal to a #d-d-a_/b per cent4 grade4 ,exceptional instances are on record1 however1 where grades ran from #a-a_/b per cent4 to #h per cent4 ,in a #d to #g per cent4 grade the water in the sluice should be #aj inches deep at least4 ,the following table gives useful details3 ,sluice4 ,grade4 ,water4 #f ft4 #cf in4 #d to #e p4c4 #b1jjj to #c1ejj m4 in4 #d ft4 #cj in4 #d p4c4 #a1hjj to #b1jjj m4 in4 #c ft4 #cj in4 #a-a_/b p4c4 #fjj to #a1jjj m4 in4 ,the longer the better1 is the sluice-builder's motto4 ,the best riffles are made of blocks of pine #h to #ac inches deep1 wedged into the bottom of the sluices4 ,they are laid in rows separated by a space of an inch or an inch and a half4 ,riffle strips keep them in position1 these latter being laid crosswise on the bottom4 ,when worn down to five inches1 the blocks should be replaced4 ,this amount of wear will probably require six months4 ,stone and longitudinal riffles running lengthwise of the box are often preferred4 ,an undercurrent is a broad sluice set at a heavy grade below the level of the main sluice4 ,the fine stuff drops through a grating1 while the coarse gravel continues on down the sluice4 ,refuse material from quartz1 hydraulic or other mines is known as tailings4 ,tailings are deposited on a dump1 which in the case of a hydraulic claim must be sufficiently spacious to receive the thousands of yards of debris deposited on it each day4 ,when available a narrow1 deep canyon1 or a tunnel1 may take the places of dumps4 ,quicksilver is used in the sluices1 #ad to #ah flasks being used every fortnight in a long sluice4 ,it is not placed in the last #cjj or #djj feet4 ,in working1 keep the face of the bank square4 ,washing should be carried on continuously4 ,watches must be set over the sluices1 or gold is likely to be missed4 ,as an extra precaution1 the sluices should be run full of gravel before shutting off the water4 ,there is no fixed custom regulating clean ups4 ,some managers do so every #bj days1 others run two or three months1 others again clean up but once in a season4 ,in large operations1 the first #b1jjj feet of sluice are cleaned up every fortnight2 the remaining boxes once a year4 ,sluices are cleaned from the head downward1 the blocks being taken up for that purpose4 ,the amalgam of gold and quicksilver is collected in sheet iron buckets4 ,the final step is reached when the amalgam is retorted and melted in a graphite crucible4 ,the principle of which the hydraulic miner takes advantage is the great specific gravity of gold as compared with water and rock4 ,to illustrate this quality it may be noted that on a smooth surface inclined at an angle of #a in #dh1 subjected to a heavy stream of water1 #ie per cent4 of the fine gold in gravel does not travel three feet4 ,the loss of quicksilver fed into sluices will vary1 even under good management1 from #aa per cent4 to #be per cent4 of the amount fed to the boxes4 ,hydraulic mines under favorable conditions are very paying investments4 ,gravel yielding #aj cents a cubic yard has been worked for #f cents a cubic yard1 at the rate of a million cubic yards a year4 ,on another large claim #fjj1jjj cubic yards were worked for #f cents a cubic yard1 yielding #ac cents a cubic yard4 ,river dredging is another form of gold winning that has been brought to a great state of perfection in ,new ,zealand4 ,although the dredge has not yet acquired the importance in ,america that was expected1 it is successful on one or two western rivers1 and as the subject becomes better understood it is conceivable that ,american mining engineers will be as successful in devising improved dredges as they have been in all other branches of their profession4 ,in ,new ,zealand the bucket dredge has proved more satisfactory than the suction dredge1 although a hasty conclusion would probably give the latter the palm4 ,at ,bannack1 ,mont41 the ,bucyrus ,company has several dredges in successful operation4 ,one is #ajb feet long1 #cf feet wide1 and draws #cf inches of water4 ,it is very substantially made1 and weighs nearly #gjj1jjj pounds4 ,before such a dredge is launched1 a dam is built across the gulch to impound sufficient water4 ,as the gravel is dredged and washed1 it is dumped astern of the dredge1 which1 in the case of a shallow creek1 moves up to the excavation made by the buckets4 ,the boilers of this dredge are double1 and together have #bej ,h4,p4 ,there are #cf buckets1 and each one has a horizontal drag of eight feet1 a capacity of five cubic feet1 and travels at the rate of fourteen feet a minute4 ,after treatment by trommels1 or revolving screens1 coppers1 and sluices1 and finally by a centrifugal pump1 the now almost valueless gravel goes overboard again1 leaving behind #ih per cent4 of the gold it once held4 ,the traction dredge is really a land-mining machine1 as it is adapted for work on land nearly flat1 where but little water is obtainable4 ,the machine travels on bogie tracks4 ,a #ej-;,h4,p4 boiler supplies the water4 ,a boom1 #dj feet long1 carries a shovel of #a4e cubic yards' capacity1 and moves #gj cubic yards each hour4 ,mr4 ,john ,w4 ,gray1 one of the best authorities1 has recently written to the ,mining and ,scientific ,press of ,san ,francisco a most interesting description of the progress made in saving the gold from the streams in ,new ,zealand4 ,he says1 in part3 ,after great effort1 numerous trials1 many failures and some large losses1 this system of gaining gold has been evolved from crude beginnings into a systematic and satisfactory method of mining4 ,dredging for gold is now attracting attention and bids fair to become an established form of mining for that metal4 ,in ,new ,zealand1 where more work of this nature has been done than elsewhere1 the evolution of the industry has been the work of years4 ,the rivers upon which dredging operations are carried on are swift-flowing streams1 subject to frequent floods1 having a considerable depth of gravel1 with boulders and runs of pay dirt interstratified4 ,the conditions are1 therefore1 not the best for economical and successful work1 and it is not surprising that many failures have occurred4 ,the runs of gold are1 however1 often extensive and rich1 and operations carried on upon such reaches have in a number of cases given satisfactory results4 ,the improved form of dredge is a double pontoon1 with ladder and chain-bucket arrangement between4 ,screens separate the coarse from the fine material4 ,wide sluicing tables catch the gold1 centrifugal pumps supply the water1 and waste material is handled by elevators4 ,the power is usually steam1 although electricity is used in a few instances1 where conditions are favorable4 ,the dredges vary in size and capacity1 but are now built of large size and great strength4 ,twenty thousand dollars is the cost of a large dredge with all the latest contrivances4 ,under favorable conditions1 material has been handled without loss that only yielded a grain of gold to the cubic yard4 ,the real cost in actual continued working is believed to be very much in excess of that figure where average conditions exist4 ,one dredge on the ,clyde side of the ,shotover1 working to a depth of twenty feet below water level1 lifted #dj tons per hour when operating4 ,the profit on eleven dredges for the four weeks ending ,july #bd1 #ahig1 was an average of #b1fhf for each dredge4 ,so far in this country 7,united ,states71 with a few exceptions1 dredging operations for gold have not been financially successful4 ,from crude beginnings1 however1 the machines have been rapidly improved and perfected1 until now1 in some localities1 dredges believed to be the most complete yet constructed are being put in operation1 and results are promised1 not yet attained1 in the way of economical working and high percentage of saving4 ,during the last few years1 a number of dredges have been operated in ,california1 ,british ,columbia1 ,idaho1 ,montana and ,colorado1 but with poor success4 ,very few prove themselves capable of paying their way4 ,some of the machines were faulty within themselves1 others were entirely unable to cope with the swift currents and large boulders of the streams upon which they were operated4 ,this latter is said to have notably proved the case with the dredges tried upon the ,frazer and ,ouesenelle rivers4 ,dredging operations on ,grasshopper ,creek1 near ,bannack1 ,mont41 are now carried on successfully upon a large scale4 ,the upper ,sacramento river1 in this state1 has a dredge doing profitable work1 and1 in a small way1 dredging is successful upon the ,kzamath4 ,a dredge upon that river1 composed of two flat boats with a large steel scoop between1 is able to cut and hoist the gravel and soft bed rock1 and to handle boulders of from four to six tons' weight4 ,the dredge is run day and night1 has a #be-;,h4,p4 engine1 and requires three men for each shift4 ,in gravel #aj to #be feet deep1 #djj cubic yards can be handled every twenty-four hours4 ,cost of dredge1 #h1jjj4 ,a large dredge of the chain-bucket variety is operating in ,northern ,mexico1 in a dry country1 where there is little water4 ,the actual capacities of these machines are #fj1 #ajj and #aej yards per hour4 ,perhaps the most interesting dredge yet brought to the notice of the public is one lately built by the ,risdon ,iron ,works1 ,san ,francisco1 and now operating upon the ,yuba river1 near ,smartsville1 ,cal4 ,it is of the elevator1 or chain-bucket1 type1 #if feet long1 composed of two pontoons1 separated by a space five feet in width1 in which is operated the ladder carrying the buckets4 ,one man controls the dredge by means of a power winch with six drums4 ,four drums carry lines from the corners of the dredge to anchorages on shore--one a head-line and one the ladder line4 ,the machine is to dredge to a depth of #de feet1 and is said to have a gross capacity of #ic cubic yards per hour4 ,the material discharges from the buckets into a revolving and perforated screen4 ,this segregates the large material1 which is then conveyed away by the tailings elevator4 ,water 7#c1jjj gallons per minute7 is supplied to the revolving screen for washing and sluicing purposes by a centrifugal pump1 and the fine stuff falls through the holes in the screen into a distributing box1 from which it passes to a set of gold-saving tables and thence to a flume4 ,the tables are covered with cocoa matting and expanded metal4 ,the top tumbler of bucket-chain is operated by a vertical compound condensing engine indicating #ce ,h4,p41 which also operates the pump4 ,it is claimed for this dredge that in any ground not deeper than #fj feet below water level or more than #bj feet above1 and which contains boulders of not more than one ton weight1 the material can be handled at from #c to #e cents per cubic yard4 ,if the capacity of the machine is given without deduction for water raised1 imperfect filling and general delays1 and the increase in volume of the gravel when broken up in filling the buckets1 the actual working capacity would be less1 and from these causes and the losses from wear and tear1 breakages and repairs1 the cost of operating would be increased4 ,the cost of the dredge complete upon the river is said to have been #be1jjj4 ,in the evolution of the dredge into the elevator or chain-bucket machine1 now the popular form1 the various kinds of dredges were given trials4 ,the dipper dredge is not adapted to dredging for gold1 and some of the gold is lost4 ,with agitation of the gravel the gold soon settles and is not recovered4 ,it is also very difficult1 if not impossible1 to construct a dipper dredge that is water-tight4 ,another objection is that the material is supplied intermittently1 thus making necessary certain undesirable arrangements for supplying the material in a continuous flow to the gold-saving tables4 ,the same objections apply with greater force to the clam-shell form of dredge4 ,it is by no means water-tight1 and loses most of the gold in the act of dredging and bringing up the gravel4 ,the objections would seem not to have the same force if applied to hard cemented gravel or to gravel with sufficient clay or other binding material to make it consistent4 ,it is well to remember that these forms of dredges are1 in many positions1 economical of operation4 ,the hydraulic dredge has had fair trials and proved a failure4 ,large storms greatly lessen the efficiency of this form of dredge1 and numerous boulders hamper the pumping work4 ,the suction force1 being intense near the pipe and decreasing rapidly a short distance away1 causes the sand and gravel to be carried off1 leaving the gold behind4 ,a centrifugal pump is therefore of little use to catch coarse gold1 or to clear a hard1 uneven bottom4 ,cutters do not remove the trouble1 since the gravel is dispersed by the cutting1 and the gold is separated therefrom4 ,these objections would not obtain under certain conditions1 and it would seem quite possible that conditions might be found existing where the suction dredges might be arranged to do good work4 ,a dredging company is now constructing1 at ,seattle1 two dredges of the suction type to operate upon the ,yukon river4 ,this would indicate that there are those who believe that deposits occur in and along that river which can be successfully worked in this way4 ,the chain-bucket machine1 the popular form for operating under average conditions1 is a combination of the following elements3 ,an excavating apparatus which clears the bottom and handles the material with little agitation and slowly and continuously delivers a regular quantity of gravel to the gold-saving appliances2 revolving screen to receive and wash the material and separate the coarse from the fine2 an elevator or contrivance for carrying off the coarse gravel and stones2 gold-saving arrangements1 or tables1 over which the fine material passes and upon which the gold is caught2 a pumping apparatus to supply water for washing and sluicing4 ,the proper capacity of a machine seems to be regulated by the capacity of the gold-saving appliances4 ,the tables should be as wide as possible1 with frequent drops1 and the fine material should be distributed over the tables in a thin film4 ,the tables are covered with plush or cocoa matting1 and sufficient water supplied to keep the material clear4 ,the material should be supplied evenly1 continuously1 and regularly to the tables4 ,care and attention are required to catch the fine gold4 ,a disregard of the foregoing directions results in great loss1 more particularly in the fine gold4 ,mechanical skill is required to properly design and construct a dredge1 and the care of a competent mechanic is necessary to see that the machine is kept in order and economically operated4 ,the saving of the gold1 however1 is what makes dredging operations a commercial success4 ,a man skilled in these matters should be in charge of running operations4 ,dredges should be built of determined capacities1 and should be designed to suit the conditions under which they are to operate4 ,careful examination and investigation of the ground to be worked should be made beforehand1 and the surrounding conditions studied1 and it goes without saying that these matters require engineering skill and experience4 ,the field for dredging for gold seems large4 ,where the proper conditions exist1 it is a system which commends itself1 and which gives promise1 in competent hands1 of being an economical method of mining4 ,there is probably a very large extent of country where dredging for gold will be carried on profitably4 ,the ground need not be in a river1 if there is seepage water sufficient to float the dredge and supply clear water for the saving of the gold4 ,dredging requires little water as compared with that required for sluicing and elevating1 and this water can1 in many dry localities1 be supplied at small expense1 where a supply for hydraulic work or elevating would cost a very large sum1 or be impossible at any cost4 ,any power suitable for driving the prime motors can be utilized to run the dredge4 ,indeed1 it would seem as if a system of mining was about to be perfected which may make possible the profitable working of many deposits not easy to be worked by other methods1 and which may1 in many instances1 solve problems regarding the successful working of deposits which hitherto have seemed most perplexing and even impossible of solution4 ,some doubt exists as to possible economical dredging operations under the water of torrential streams4 ,the strong currents1 the frequent floods1 and many large boulders found in the channels of such streams make the working of the machines difficult and costly4 ,this would not be so much the case in the long stretches of less current1 nor would it be so at all in the valley-like reaches in the lower portions of rich streams1 nor in the wide1 flat portions of country where the streams enter the plains4 ,very few gold-bearing lodes contain nothing but free gold2 on the contrary1 they carry the bulk of their values in the form of sulphurets1 having more or less gold incorporated1 and even when the gold is native and free-milling at the surface1 it is generally changed into sulphurets as depth is gained4 ,so the miner has to consider methods of recovery more complicated and expensive than simple amalgamation with mercury1 for upon gold included in pyrites mercury has no effect4 ,titanic iron1 hematite1 and tungstate of iron often hold gold1 or soft clay ores carry it in their midst1 and such combinations tax all the skill of the mining engineer merely to save a respectable percentage of the assay value4 ,sometimes chlorination and sometimes cyanization are the measures tried1 but supposing the preliminary treatment to have been by stamps in the battery1 concentrating is one of the main reliances of the mill man4 ,the blanket table is undoubtedly the oldest type of concentrating machine1 but it is very inferior to modern inventions4 ,percussion tables often do good work4 ,in this system a sharp and frequently repeated blow is given the table1 in such fashion as to make the heavy material separate from the light4 ,shaking and rocking tables are favored in some mills1 and they give better results on fine gold than any of the previously mentioned devices4 ,but the best machine so far invented is the ,frue ,vanner--an endless rubber band drawn over an inclined table1 having both revolving and side motions4 ,the lighter particles are carried off by water1 and the heavier collected in a trough4 ,illustration3 ,,frue ,,vanner4 ,veins1 lodes1 or ledges1 may be found in stratified or unstratified rocks1 and in the former they generally cut the beds at an angle4 ,veins are bounded by walls4 ,the rock in which a vein is found is a country rock4 ,smooth walls are called slickensides4 ,the upper wall of an inclined vein is the hanging wall2 the other the foot wall4 ,a layer of clay between the veins and wall is a selvage4 ,a mass of rock enclosed in the vein is a horse4 ,the vein stone1 or gangue1 is all that part of a vein that is not mineral4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,fault4 ,the throw of a fault in a vein is measured by the amount of vertical displacement4 ,when the miner comes to a fault1 he should follow the greater angle in his attempt to recover the lode4 ,for instance1 on mining along ,a ,b to the line of fault ,x ,y1 the exploration will be continued downward1 because the angle ,a ,b ,y is greater than the angle ,a ,b ,x4 ,mercury that has been sickened1 that is to say1 has lost its brightness and power of amalgamating1 may often be cured by washing with an extremely weak solution of sulphuric acid and adding a little zinc4 ,as regards the comparative merits of chlorination and cyanization1 it may be said the one is the equal of the other4 ,under certain conditions1 chlorine gives a higher percentage of gold2 under others the same may be said of cyanide4 ,a description of either process would be out of place1 however1 in a simple elementary work4 ,handed down through the centuries1 the primitive arrastra is still useful in certain contingencies4 ,it is like a cider mill in its principle1 and was probably suggested by recollections of that machine1 or else of the ,spanish wine-press4 ,a circular1 shallow pit1 a dozen feet or more in diameter1 is first paved with hard1 uncut stones of granite1 basalt1 or other hard rock4 ,this pavement is a foot thick1 and beneath it is a bed of puddled clay #f inches deep4 ,a vertical shaft with an arm1 or arms1 revolves in the center of the arrastra4 ,grinding blocks weighing #djj1 or perhaps even #a1jjj pounds1 are fastened to the arms by chains or rawhide strips4 ,the forward part of each stone is raised a couple of inches off the floor4 ,mule1 horse1 water or steam power may be used1 the speed ranging from #d to #ah turns a minute4 ,nothing can be simpler1 less expensive1 or save a greater proportion of the value in the ore than the arrastra4 ,its limited capacity is its worst fault4 ,an arrastra #aj feet in diameter will treat #ejj or #fjj pounds of ore at a charge1 and handle one ton a day of #bd hours4 ,ores that were so poor they yielded nothing to the stamp mill have paid well with the arrastra4 ,this humble device may be used to advantage1 probably in some of the poorer gold-bearing cemented gravels of the ,northwest4 ,the ore should be crushed to pigeon-egg size4 ,small quantities of mercury1 about a tablespoonful to every five tons of gravel1 has been found a satisfactory proportion in ,california4 ,in a permanent arrastra a layer of neatly-dressed and pointed stones is laid in hydraulic cement4 ,a fair-sized arrastra will require #ej pounds of quartz to charge it1 and the material must be broken into pigeon-egg size4 ,after the machine has been started1 and a little water added from time to time1 little else need to be done for four or five hours1 and this is perhaps one of the reasons for which it has always been so favored in indolent ,mexico4 ,at this stage1 the quartz and ore will be very finely pulverized1 and water should be added until the pulp is as thin as cream4 ,quicksilver must now be added in the proportion of #a-a_/d ounce for every supposed ounce of gold in the ore being treated4 ,two hours' further grinding is given1 and water then admitted until the paste is quite thin1 the speed of the arrastra being reduced at the same time so as to allow the amalgam and quicksilver to sink to the bottom4 ,a half an hour of this treatment suffices and the thin mud is run off1 leaving the gold and amalgam on the floor of the arrastra4 ,a second charge of broken quartz is put in and the operation repeated1 the clean-up not taking place oftener than every ten days1 and sometimes only at intervals of a month or so4 ,the rougher the bottom the longer the interval between clean-ups1 as all the stone work must be taken up each time and all the sand and mud between them must be washed carefully4 ,the arrastra is extremely valuable to the poor man who1 having discovered a gold-bearing vein1 wishes to transfer some of the metal into his own pocket1 at the least possible outlay4 ,its cheapness places it within reach of all1 while a stamp will cost a good deal4 ,then again the amalgamation being more perfect in the arrastra than in any other mill1 it is particularly suited for the poor1 lean ores4 ,it is1 however1 only adapted to those that are free-milling1 others not being suited to this form of apparatus1 nor1 indeed1 to any save very costly plants4 ,some arrastras have been built to treat old tailings1 and have paid well when water power could be used4 ,free-milling gold and high-grade silver and gold ores are those usually treated4 ,the flagging should be of tough1 coarse rock2 granite1 basalt or compact quartz are all good4 ,this flagging should be at the very least a foot thick4 ,when the arms of a #aj-;foot arrastra are revolving #ad times a minute1 the outer stone is traveling #djj feet a minute4 ,round holes closed by wooden plugs1 or a side gate1 lets the liquid mud out4 ,some mill men use chemicals in the arrastra2 potassium cyanide1 and wood ashes or lye are probably the most useful1 as the latter cuts grease and the former gives life to the quicksilver4 ,rich silver ores are treated with blue stone and salt4 ,when the pulp has been ground sufficiently1 quicksilver is added1 sometimes #bej pounds being put in a single charge4 ,a #ab-;foot arrastra will never treat more than two tons a day1 and often no more than one-half that4 ,one man a shift can look after a couple of arrastras1 and the owner1 in case of one arrastra that is working on tailings1 often does everything himself4 ,overshot wheels1 or turbines1 or hurdy-gurdies1 furnish the power in many cases4 ,a simple mule-power arrastra may be built for #aej4 ,a side hill should be chosen for the site of a battery4 ,ample water power is necessary1 though provision may be made for saving it in catch basins should such a course be desired4 ,moreover1 there must be plenty of room below the mill for the tailings1 as it may be desirable at some future time to put them through a second course of treatment4 ,illustration3 ,,stamp ,,battery4 ,automatic ore-feeders are always put in by good mill men4 ,in cold climates the water that goes through the mill should be heated1 and this may be done by the exhaust steam1 but care is necessary that no grease get into it1 as it would prevent the gold from amalgamating4 ,the stamps for a light mill may be #c or #e in number1 and weigh from #gjj to #hej pounds4 ,tables must be water-tight1 with half an inch to one inch drop to the foot1 according to the fineness of the gold4 ,below them tables1 having the same inclination and covered with blanketing1 are used to retain specks of gold that have passed over the plates without amalgamating4 ,illustration3 ,,three ,,stamp ,,battery4 ,after the concentrated materials1 always spoken of as the concentrates1 have passed over the tables1 they are often roasted to get rid of the sulphur1 arsenic1 etc41 and afterwards treated with quicksilver in the pan1 or tin1 with chlorine or cyanide4 ,these processes belong1 however1 to the domain of the professional chemist and metallurgist1 and require the knowledge and experience of an expert to stand a chance of success4 ,the coarseness of the mortar screens is subject to infinite variety1 according to individual preference4 ,the number of holes to the square inch ranges between #fj and #hjj in ,australia1 and between #ijj and #aj1jjj in the ,united ,states4 ,the holes1 when round1 agree in numbers with those of sewing-machine needles1 from #j to #aj4 ,when slots are preferred to holes1 they are generally #c_/h-;inch in length and ,no4 #f diameter4 ,russia sheet iron1 or sheet steel #a_/cb-;inch thick is the material of which they are made4 ,it should weigh one pound to the square foot1 be very soft and tough1 have a clean1 smooth surface1 and show no rust or flaws4 ,in ,australia #a_/af sheet copper is preferred4 ,the holes in any case must be punched in the sheet so that the rough edges are turned1 and thus any pulp that finds its way into one of the holes is certain to get out again and not clog4 ,a battery may require #ac sets of screens a year2 each screen having a surface of about #a-a_/b square feet4 ,russia iron screens endure #ae to #dj days4 ,as the work a stamp can do depends entirely upon how much pulp can escape through the screen in any given time1 the latter is evidently a very important detail of a battery4 ,prospecting stamp batteries differ from ordinary batteries1 chiefly in being of light build and weight4 ,amalgam coming from battery stamps is often mixed with all sorts of rubbish4 ,after being gathered1 it is dried with a sponge1 foreign matter picked off the surface and clean quicksilver added4 ,soft unglazed paper thrust into the mercury removes the last vestiges of water1 and then a card is drawn vertically or a piece of blanket horizontally across the mercury to clean it of iron4 ,after squeezing1 the amalgam is retorted4 ,illustration3 ,,gold ,,retort4 ,all the amalgam is placed in one large kettle and1 if possible1 the latter is put on a strong table having an inclined surface with a groove and hole at the lower end to catch any stray globules of quicksilver4 ,sodium amalgam1 one ounce to each #ge pounds of mercury1 is put in the amalgam kettle and the whole stirred4 ,this sodium amalgam is not absolutely necessary1 but is desirable4 ,after some minutes1 water is poured on the mercury and the whole stirred4 ,all dirt rises to the surface and is removed with a sponge4 ,the cleaning is continued until the mercury seems absolutely free from any impurity1 when it is dried with a sponge4 ,it is next turned into pointed bags of stout canvas and force applied until most of the quicksilver has squeezed through4 ,the amalgam remains behind4 ,the quicksilver still contains some gold1 but it had better remain if the mercury is to be used again1 as gold attracts gold2 it can always be recovered by retorting4 ,sodium amalgam is best made by the miner himself1 enough for one clean-up at a time4 ,metallic sodium and quicksilver are the necessary ingredients2 the former being kept in a wide-mouthed bottle covered with coal oil4 ,a frying-pan makes a useful mixer4 ,it must be dry and clean4 ,five pounds of clean mercury is poured into the pan1 and dried with a sponge1 and heated beyond the boiling-point of water1 but not much above1 or there will be a sensible loss of mercury4 ,a piece of sodium is wiped dry1 cut into #a_/b-;inch squares and placed with a long pair of tongs in the center of the warm quicksilver1 which1 by the way1 is now off the fire and in the open air1 the operator meanwhile keeping religiously to windward of it1 unless he courts salivation and all its attendant ills4 ,as soon as the sodium touches the mercury a flash and mild explosion will follow1 but after a few cubes have been introduced into the frying-pan1 always in the center1 this will cease4 ,as soon as a solid mass of amalgam forms in the middle of the pan1 the contents must be stirred slowly1 and a little more sodium added4 ,the whole mass now crystallizes out1 and if put into closely-stopped bottles it will keep without further protection for a little time4 ,once opened1 each bottle must be used4 ,observe all these directions faithfully1 then there will be no danger of inhaling mercurial fumes nor of being blown to atoms4 ,after the amalgam is once made1 it is safe as sugar4 ,in retorting amalgam never fill the flask too full1 and apply the heat gradually1 and always from the top of the flask downward4 ,the rocker is a box #dj inches long1 #af inches wide on the bottom1 sloped like a cradle1 and with rockers at each end4 ,illustration3 ,,cross ,,section ,,of ,,rocker4 ,a hopper #bj inches square and #d inches deep1 having an iron bottom perforated with #a_/b-;inch holes1 occupies the top4 ,a light canvas-covered frame is stretched under this1 forming a riffle4 ,riffles1 and occasionally amalgamated copper plates1 are placed in the bottom4 ,the gravel is fed into the hopper1 the cradle being then rocked by one hand while water is fed by a dipper with the other4 ,the cradle must be placed on an inclination while being worked1 and under the influence of the continued side-to-side rocking the dirt is quickly disintegrated1 passes through the riddle and falls on the apron4 ,from the apron it is conveyed to the inner end of the cradle floor1 from which it flows over the riffles1 or bars1 and out at the mouth4 ,the difference in level of the floor is generally about #b-a_/b inches1 but this may be varied according to the nature of the dirt treated4 ,large stones in the riddle or hopper must be thrown out1 but smaller ones assist in breaking up the lumps of dirt4 ,every little while the pebbles are turned out and looked over for nuggets4 ,clean-ups are necessary two or three times a day4 ,the hopper is taken off first1 then the apron is slid out1 and washed in a bucket or tub containing clean water1 and finally the gold and amalgam are collected in an iron spoon from behind the riffle bars1 and panned out4 ,gravel requires at least three times its own weight of water to wash it4 ,the most convenient way is to lead the water from a stream through a pipe discharging directly over the hopper1 but this is1 of course1 impracticable in some places4 ,more often the water is led to a little pit on the right hand side of the operator1 from which he ladles it up as required4 ,one man can wash from one to three cubic yards daily according to the character of the dirt1 but every time he stops the machine to feed it with gravel or to empty the riddle1 the sand will pack1 and must be removed before washing can go on4 ,two men can wash nearly three times as much dirt in a day as one man4 ,but in any case1 the rocker is only a primitive machine1 having a capacity but one-fifth as great as that of the ,long ,tom1 and but one-tenth that of a very poor sluice1 but as it is cheap1 requires but little water1 and saves a high percentage of coarse gold1 the rocker will continue to be used in many districts4 ,the ,long ,tom was invented many years ago by ,georgia miners4 ,illustration3 ,,long ,,tom4 ,it is a trough #ab feet by #ae to #bj inches at the upper end1 and #cj inches at the lower1 and #h inches deep4 ,the grade is usually #a in #ab4 ,a sheet iron plate forms the lower end of the trough4 ,these figures refer to the upper trough4 ,the lower or riffle-box is #ab feet long by #c feet wide1 with a fall equal to that of the trough and a sufficient depth to keep the material and water from spilling over the sides4 ,it should have four riffles4 ,for this means of saving the gold1 to work satisfactorily1 the metal must be coarse and the water plentiful4 ,illustration3 ,,sluice ,,boxes4 ,every sluice is an inclined channel through which flows a stream of water1 carrying away all the lighter matter thrown into it1 and separating it from the heavy4 ,when the operations would not be permanent enough1 or sometimes for other reasons1 a ground sluice is preferred to the ordinary box sluice made of boards4 ,ground sluicing requires1 however1 six times as much water as does a box sluice to do the same amount of work4 ,it is simply a gutter in the bed rock1 and if the bottom is hard and uneven its inequalities will arrest the gold2 if not1 a number of boulders too heavy to be moved by the stream are put into the sluice to act as riffles4 ,no mercury is used4 ,the water is turned off and the collected coarse gold washed in the pan4 ,sluice boxes may be any length1 from #cj to #e1jjj feet4 ,they vary in width from #a to #e feet1 though generally #af or #ah inches4 ,the grade is proportioned to the fineness of the gold1 varying from #h inches to #b feet to the #ab-;foot box or length4 ,the bottom should be of #a-a_/b inch plank1 and the sides of #a-;inch boards4 ,the boxes are made #d inches wider at the upper end than at the lower1 so as to telescope4 ,the best method found yet for arresting fine gold is the copper plate amalgamated with mercury on its face4 ,these plates are never used at the head of a sluice or other situation where there is much coarse gold1 as they would be superfluous in such a situation1 but are placed some distance down the sluice and are most efficacious in arresting the flour1 or excessively fine gold4 ,plates are always of copper above #a_/af inch thick1 and may be #f feet or more long1 and of a width suited to the capacity of the sluice4 ,when treated with quicksilver1 they become as brittle as glass1 and must be handled with care4 ,the copper plate is first washed with a weak solution of nitric acid1 and then mercury that has been treated with a weak nitric acid solution is rubbed on the plate4 ,as this surface of quicksilver wears off1 it may be replaced by a little fresh mercury4 ,any green slime on a plate is an evidence of copper salts in the water4 ,it must be scraped off and the spot rubbed with fresh quicksilver4 ,gold attracts gold1 therefore the plates should not be cleaned up too often4 ,copper plates may be freed from gold by heating them over a fire and causing the quicksilver to evaporate slowly4 ,the plates1 after being cooled1 are rubbed with dilute muriatic acid and covered with damp cloths for one night4 ,they are then rubbed with a solution containing salt peter and sal ammoniac1 and once more heated over some hot coals1 but not allowed to get red hot4 ,soon the gold scale rises in blisters2 the plates are then removed from the fire and scraped4 ,those parts of the plates that have not yielded up their gold must be re-treated and fired until they do so4 ,all these scales of gold are then collected in a porcelain dish1 the base metals are dissolved out with nitric acid1 and the gold is then smelted4 ,corrosive sublimate should be placed in the crucible as long as any blue flame is seen to come from it4 ,some mill men prefer to amalgamate their copper plates with silver amalgam1 claiming that silver-coated plates save a higher percentage of gold4 ,to amalgamate in this way take some silver bullion1 or silver coin1 and dissolve in weak nitric acid1 only just strong enough to act upon the silver4 7,if you use too much nitric acid you will waste mercury and make the amalgam harder than it should be for the best results47 ,after crystals have formed1 quicksilver must be added1 heating gently meanwhile1 until a thick1 pasty amalgam has formed4 ,let this new compound stand for some hours1 and squeeze through chamois as usual4 ,the proportion of silver may be about #a ounce to the square foot of copper to be plated4 ,in facing new copper plates with this amalgam1 they should be washed first with dilute nitric acid2 then in clear water2 the ball of amalgam being rubbed over their surfaces1 some little force being applied4 ,plates should not be used for #bd hours after coating4 ,porous copper plates of the best quality1 and not too heavily rolled1 should be used4 ,follow the amalgam with a swab1 and rub the alloy well into the plate4 ,zinc amalgam 7preferable when mine water containing sulphuric acid is used in the battery7 is applied to the plate after it has been cleaned with a moderately dilute mixture of sulphuric acid and water4 ,the zinc-quicksilver ball is rubbed in and applied while the plate is still wet4 ,zinc amalgam is prepared as follows3 ,cut zinc-sheet into small pieces2 wash in weak sulphuric acid2 and dissolve in mercury4 ,when the quicksilver will take no more zinc1 squeeze through chamois and rub in4 ,zinc-coated plates should stand a week before being used4 ,very weak sulphuric acid will always clean these plates of any scum that may form before they have received a gold coat4 ,sometimes the miner will be troubled with impure gold after retorting4 ,if the metal is very dark this shade may come from the presence of large amounts of iron4 ,a heavy proportion of mineral salts1 such as chloride of calcium 7,ca,cl71 sodium 7,na,cl71 and magnesium 7,ng,cl#b71 in the battery water sometimes accounts for this4 ,in such cases amalgamate1 retort1 pulverize and roast4 ,then smelt with borax1 the iron passing into the slag4 ,if necessary smelt a second time1 when the gold should be pure enough to dispose of4 ,in extreme cases1 the gold may weigh but one-fifth of the amalgam treated4 ,in districts where sufficient water for sluicing is not procurable1 dry washing is resorted to4 ,nothing but rich1 coarse gold can be worked by this method1 and the dry washer rarely delves far below the surface for his gold4 ,in the ,mexican deserts the dirt is laid on raw hide1 all the large pebbles picked out and the sand rubbed as fine as possible between the hands4 ,the sand is placed in a batea and winnowed by tossing in the air1 the lighter material being blown to leaward and the heavy gold falling into the batea4 ,a form of winnowing machine has been patented1 which may be driven by horse or hand-power1 which is said to give satisfaction4 ,it works by forcing a strong blast of air from a fan through a canvas screen4 ,the inventor claims that it will do the work of three men1 and work dirt for #b-a_/b cents a cubic yard4 ,when there is a tendency in the material to cake1 dry washing is impossible4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,camp ,,life4 ,the ,indian truthfully observes3 ,white man make heap big fire2 keep far off4 ,indian make little fire2 get close4 ,all same4 ,the small fire does best in the circular tepee tent1 made of canvas or leather1 in use on the plains4 ,the tepee is quite an institution1 but it is generally as full of smoke as a kitchen chimney1 and for that reason cannot truthfully be recommended4 ,in theory1 the smoke should all pass out of the opening in the top4 ,by using no second skin and carefully excluding all air from around the lower rim of the tepee1 it will become an admirable place to cure hams1 fish1 etc41 by the original smoke-dried process4 ,the ,scripture declares that he that tarrieth over the wine cup has red eyes next morning1 and so has he that sleeps in a smoky tepee4 ,properly made1 however1 the tepee is the thing where wood is scarce4 ,some original spirits are said to have started for ,dawson ,city1 ,n4,w4,t41 a few years ago with bicycles and push carts4 ,if these means of transport had sufficed1 the world would have learnt something1 as heretofore a canoe and a sturdy pair of legs were supposed to help the wayfarer in that region better than anything else4 ,that is in summer2 in winter1 the dog-train is the quickest mode of travel4 ,in the western states and in ,british ,columbia pack horses or mules do the most of the prospector's freighting1 and in the far north he either carries his outfit on his back or else transports it by canoe in summer1 or by dog-train after the rivers have frozen4 ,illustration3 ,,hudson',s ,,bay ,,dog ,,sled4 ,no amount of written instructions will teach a man to throw a diamond hitch1 or handle a canoe in swift water4 ,a lesson or two from an expert will1 however1 set his thoughts in the right direction1 and in time he may become proficient4 ,canoeing1 freighting and chopping are three things that are best begun in boyhood2 no one ever yet became marvelously proficient in any one of them that began after reaching adult age4 ,illustration3 ,,yukon ,,sled ,,and ,,harness4 ,dog teams are made up of from three to six dogs2 a full-sized team dragging a load of #bjj pounds forty miles a day for a week at a time4 ,in the ,hudson ,bay region the dogs are harnessed one behind the other1 but on the ,yukon each pulls by a separate trace1 and the team spreads out like a fan when at work4 ,after ,christmas the snow-shoe is generally a necessity in the north4 ,without paddles on the feet the explorer could hardly make his way through the woods1 while with them on he sails along gayly1 making a bee-line over frozen lake and water courses1 and taking windfalls and down timber in his stride4 ,the shoe in vogue in the forest is short and almost round1 and flat1 while that of the plains is very long1 upturned at the toe1 and narrow4 ,there is a reason for these modifications1 as the tyro will soon find out should he substitute the one for the other in the native habitat of either4 ,but the loop by which the shoe is fastened on the foot is always the same4 ,the string is made of moose hide2 stretched1 and greased before use4 ,caribou1 or reindeer hide1 makes the best filling1 but horse or bull hide will do at a pinch4 ,the frame is usually of ground ash1 or some other tough1 hard wood4 ,a camp kit of cooking utensils often begins and ends with a frying-pan and tin kettle4 ,certainly when traveling light1 these things should be the last to go1 as with them all things are possible1 even to amalgamating and retorting the precious metals4 ,the frying-pan must have a socket instead of a long handle1 as the latter may be cut from a bush at any time4 ,a low1 broad kettle boils in less time than a deep1 narrow one of the same cubic capacity4 ,all provisions should be kept in canvas bags4 ,matches in a leather case or safe1 or in a corked bottle4 ,blankets are never kicked off if sewn up at foot and side into a sleeping bag4 ,the existence of the prospector being passed in regions where the so-called benefits of civilization have not penetrated1 he is generally a healthy1 happy1 hopeful man4 ,especially1 hopeful4 ,i do not remember ever meeting one that was not brimful of expectation and trust in the future4 ,possibly prospectors that have become pessimistic drop out of the ranks4 ,now the man who elects to dwell with nature has only himself to thank if he does not like his lodgings4 ,he can be comfortable or wretched1 according to his knowledge of woodcraft and wilderness residence4 ,whereas the tyro starts out with the avowed intention of roughing it1 the veteran is particularly careful to take matters as smoothly as he may1 being well assured that in any case there will be enough inevitable discomfort in his lot to satisfy any reasonable craving4 ,it is just the same in other walks of life2 the sailor1 the trapper and the soldier each learns to look after his own comfort and to seize every opportunity of making life as pleasant as possible4 ,the three prime wants are food1 clothing and shelter1 and their importance is in the order named4 ,now1 food is something that is painfully scarce in many parts of the world1 and one of the great problems of wilderness travel is to provide transport for the supplies that must be carried from civilization4 ,a rigorous northern climate necessitates a large consumption of strong1 heat-producing food1 while in the tropics the explorer gets along very comfortably with rice or an occasional skinny fowl1 with plantains for dessert1 and plenty of boiled and filtered water4 ,compare such a diet with that of ,nansen1 the arctic explorer6 ,he and his companion lived and waxed fat on a diet of lean bear's meat three times a day1 washed down by draughts of melted snow water4 ,moreover1 although government expeditions1 provided with every canned and potted luxury the stores contain1 have suffered the ravages of scurvy1 these two adventurous ,norwegians1 living on the food their rifles had provided1 did not know what sickness meant4 ,other travelers have found that they fared better by copying to some extent the manner and customs of the natives4 ,fat seal blubber gives wonderful resisting power against cold1 it is said2 while a mild1 unstimulating diet of rice suits the liver better under the ,equator than the ,bass ale and roast beef galore4 ,on this continent the working man found out long ago that pork and beans suits him nicely4 ,the lumberman says3 ,it sticks to the ribs1 by which robust1 if not classical1 phrase he means that he can chop longer without feeling hungry on pork and beans than on almost any other food4 ,the laborer having found by experience that the side of a pig and a sack of beans was a good combination to have in the larder1 the man of science after a couple of hundred years or so of deliberation confirms the discovery by announcing that the flesh of a swine mixed with the fruit of the bean contains all the carbo-hydrates1 etc41 necessary to sustain life4 ,the moral of all this is that pork and beans must not be forgotten when outfitting4 ,a few other things being desirable1 the following list may be consulted to advantage by the prospective prospector4 ,this list should suffice for feeding one man for #ab months3 ,sugar #ge pounds4 ,apples 7evaporated7 #ej pounds4 ,salt #be pounds4 ,salt pork #bab pounds4 ,pepper #a pound4 ,condensed milk #a case4 ,flour #b barrels4 ,candles #a box4 ,matches #ab boxes4 ,soap #a doz4 bars4 ,tea #a_/b case4 ,beans #bjj pounds4 ,the dictates of fashion being unheard on the mountain side1 and beneath the pines1 dress resolves itself into a mere question of warmth and comfort4 ,cut is of importance truly1 but only insomuch as it allows free play to the limbs2 to the arms in digging1 and to the legs in climbing the stiff side of a canyon4 ,home-spun1 heavy tanned duck1 corduroy or moleskin1 and flannel underclothing should be the mainstays of a miner's wardrobe4 ,rubber boots and slickers are also necessary to his comfort1 while for winter use a heavy ,mackinaw overcoat1 or even fur1 for the extreme north1 is advisable4 ,when actually at work the miner is more often in his shirt sleeves than not1 and cold indeed must the day be if an old woodsman is caught traveling through the forest with his burly form encased in furs4 ,for arctic conditions akin to those found on the upper ,yukon an outfit such as the following should be chosen3 #b heavy knitted undershirts4 #b flannel shirts4 #f pairs worsted socks4 #b pairs overstockings4 #a pair miner's boots4 #a pair gum boots4 #b pairs moccasins4 #a suit homespun4 #a horsehide jacket4 #a pair moleskin trousers4 #a broad-brimmed felt hat4 #a fur cap4 #a ,mackinaw overcoat4 #b pairs flannel mitts4 #a pair fur mitts4 #a muffler4 #a suit oil slickers4 #b pairs blankets4 ,in cold weather the feet1 fingers and face require the most care4 ,the first should be stowed into two pairs of wool socks1 and a long pair of knee-high oversocks be drawn over these4 ,boots must be replaced by moccasins4 ,a pair of thick worsted mitts1 and a pair of leather mitts outside1 keep the hands warm enough even at #bj degrees below zero4 ,at #ej degrees below put on an extra pair--or go home until the weather moderates4 ,the favorite style of architecture in the wilderness is neither ,doric nor the ,gothic nor yet the ,renaissance4 ,it is called the dugout4 ,the beauty of the dugout is its extreme simplicity4 ,a hole in the side of a dry bank1 a few sods or logs for roof1 and there you have it4 ,a veteran miner goes to earth as easily as a rabbit1 and1 like bunny1 is never at a loss for an habitation4 ,next to the dugout the log cabin deserves mention1 while the wattle and daub or 'dobe certainly secures third honors4 ,the only drawback to the pre-eminence of the log cabin is that to make it you must have logs--just as the cook always insists on pigeons before she makes pigeon pie--and logs are in some districts only known as museum specimens4 ,now1 the dugout or the 'dobe only require a gravel bank1 or one of those deposits of argilite that the vulgar persist in calling clay2 were it not for this fatal ease of getting1 every miner and prospector would doubtless prefer living in a snug log hut1 there to await in peace1 comfort1 and dignity the arrival of the representative of the ,english syndicate to whom he is destined to sell his claim4 ,napoleon found1 after fighting his way across ,europe and back again1 that his troops were more healthy bivouacking in the open than sheltered in tents4 ,in truth1 the tent is a very uncomfortable and unhealthy make-shift2 cold1 hot1 and damp1 by turns1 and often badly ventilated4 ,a simple lean-to shelter1 and a roaring fire are infinitely preferable where wood is abundant4 ,but it takes a lot of wood to keep a bivouac warm on a winter's night2 as much perhaps as would feed a fair-sized family furnace for a month4 ,the trappers' fire is a most regal blaze4 ,two back logs2 a pair of hand junks and a forestick are the foundation upon which the structure is reared1 but the edifice itself often consumes a tall1 full-limbed rock maple1 or a stately birch between the setting of the sun and the rising of the same4 ,there are three ways of making a fire2 the first is suited for a wooden country2 the second is used by ,lo1 and other prairie travelers1 where fuel is scarce4 ,if overtaken by storm in any wild northern region1 do as the animals and ,indians do under like circumstances3 seek the nearest shelter and lie close until the weather has moderated4 ,the secret is to conserve your energy1 not to fritter it away fighting a power against which you may make no real headway4 ,a shallow1 brush-lined gully2 the lea of a bank1 or small clump of trees2 these and other seemingly slight protections sometimes mean life instead of death4 ,the experienced woodsman never leaves camp without matches in his pocket2 and in winter he carries a few pieces of dry birch bark in the bosom of his hunting shirt1 as he knows how vitally necessary it is on occasions to be able to kindle a blaze at very short notice4 ,a tent should never be pitched loosely1 as no matter how fine the evening the weather ere morning may be tempestuous in the extreme1 and the unpleasantness of having a tent come down about one's ears in the dark must be experienced to be realized4 ,also1 never pitch a tent with the doorway toward the northwest in winter1 because that is the quarter from which comes the cold4 ,in summer1 from ,june until mid-,august1 the mosquito1 the black fly and the midge or sand fly1 make life a burden in the north4 ,the best remedy for the mosquito and black fly is a mixture of tar and olive oil1 of the consistency of cream1 rubbed on all exposed parts of the person4 ,a dark green veil will also keep the insect pests out of the eyes1 mouth and ears1 and in winter is better than snow goggles to avert blindness4 ,but1 unfortunately1 it interferes with the enjoyment of the pipe1 and hence is not in much favor with woodsmen4 ,to make good bread it is not necessary to take either yeast cakes or mixing pan into the wilderness4 ,an old hand thinks himself rich with a few pounds of flour in his sack1 and soon has a batch of bread baking that would turn many a housewife green with envy4 ,he proceeds in this fashion3 ,a visit to the nearest hardwood ridge shows him a green parasitic lichen growing on the bark of the maples 7lungwort74 ,some of this he gathers1 and steeps it over night in warm water near the embers4 ,in the morning he mixes his flour into a paste with this decoction1 using the bag as a pan4 ,the dough is next covered with a cloth and set in a warm corner to rise2 a few hours later it is re-kneaded and baked4 ,the result should be delicious bread4 ,some of the leaven1 or raised dough1 may be kept1 and will suffice for the next batch of bread1 and so on ad infinitum4 ,making bed takes longer in camp than in the city1 but the result is just as satisfactory4 ,nothing more comforting than a couch of fir boughs has been devised by man4 ,choosing a level spot the woodsman cuts several armfuls of the feathery tips of the fir balsam4 ,these he places in layers like shingles on a roof1 beginning at the foot and laying the butt of each bough toward the head4 ,if sufficiently deep1 say a couple of feet or so1 such a bed will be soft and elastic for a night or two1 when it will require re-laying4 ,fragrant it always is1 with the delicious aroma of the fir balsam4 ,the white man stretches himself instinctively feet to the fire2 the ,indian just as instinctively reclines with his side to it--and his way is the most philosophical4 ,strange as it may seem1 the greatest danger the wanderer runs is on his return to civilization4 ,land surveyors1 engineers1 and others whose work calls them into camp for months at a stretch1 dread their first night in a feather bed4 ,they find by experience that they are lucky if they escape with nothing more serious than a heavy cold4 ,hot1 stuffy air1 and poor ventilation cause the trouble4 ,leaving the window wide open will almost always prevent these evil consequences1 and allow the constitution to become once more tolerant of a lack of oxygen4 ,in the wilderness1 notwithstanding1 wet1 cold1 and exposure1 such ills as consumption1 pneumonia1 bronchitis1 etc41 are unheard of4 ,boat building and net making are two arts that the prospector will do well to master4 ,a few weeks passed in a building yard1 and a half dozen lessons from an old fisherman will teach him all that he requires of these simple but extremely useful accomplishments4 ,the best food for sustaining life in the north is pemmican4 ,it was once made out of buffalo meat1 but now the flesh of the moose1 or caribou1 or of the deer1 is substituted4 ,the meat is cut in thin flakes and air-dried2 then a mixture is made of one-third dried meat1 one-third pure haunch fat1 and one-third service berries 7,a4 canadensis74 ,these are rammed by main force into a bag of green hide1 and pounded until as solid as a rock4 ,such a solid mass of food will keep for years in a cool climate4 ,perhaps the reader may be inclined to exclaim3 ,why so much about the ,north2 why not more about the ,east1 ,south or ,west8 ,my reply to such would be3 ,because the great finds of the future will surely be made in the ,north4 ,dr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,dawson1 the best authority on the subject1 has said there are #a1jjj1jjj square miles of virgin territory in ,canada to-day1 and no doubt a very large proportion of it contains mineral deposits4 ,this #a1jjj1jjj square miles he divides into sixteen separate areas1 some half as large as ,ireland1 others half that of ,europe1 and in none of them has the footfall of a white man yet been echoed4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,surveying4 ,a man1 to make a success of prospecting1 must have what is known as a good eye for a country4 ,given that faculty he will readily pick up the little knowledge of surveying that is sometimes almost indispensable4 ,a tape measure1 and a prismatic or surveying compass1 are all that he is likely to require in laying off to his own satisfaction the extent of his claim1 or any similar simple operation4 ,the surveying compass has two fixed sights1 and a ,jacob staff mounting1 into which a wooden support is inserted4 ,the north end of the compass is always pointed ahead1 while the needle1 which of course indicates the magnetic north1 gives the bearing of the line run toward that north4 ,now1 magnetic north is not by any means the same thing as true north1 in fact in very few localities on the earth's surface are they the same1 and then never for long4 ,in the extreme east of the ,united ,states the needle points some twenty degrees to the west of true north1 and in ,alaska it points thirty-five degrees to the eastward of it4 ,there is therefore one meridian somewhere in the central valley where the true north corresponds with the magnetic north1 but as the magnetic pole is always shifting this never remains true of the same meridian for long4 ,illustration3 ,,surveying ,,compass4 ,when there is no local magnetism from iron ores1 or rocks containing magnetite1 the needle is fairly reliable1 though never perfectly accurate1 but when such attraction exists the compass is unsatisfactory4 ,such areas of attraction1 however1 are usually limited1 and by squinting back1 taking what is known as a back sight1 a local attraction may be detected1 and in that case ranging by rods must be resorted to until the compass needle once more seeks its true position4 ,to range by rods the course of the line having been determined by retracing the route followed to the last reliable mark1 a stake is driven in at that point1 and the surveyor standing some little distance behind it on the correct line directs an assistant to place another rod in such a position that the first hides it from view4 ,it will then be on a prolongation of the line1 and this operation being continued the surveyor will1 in due time1 find himself beyond the reach of the local attraction that deflected his needle and can resume compass work4 ,a chain is #ff feet long4 ,oftentimes in mountainous or brush-covered countries a half chain of #cc feet1 made of light wire links1 is preferred4 ,two men do the chaining1 which could of course be done by means of an ordinary tape measure in an emergency1 the leader carrying ten pins of iron or wood1 and the rear man taking one up as each chain is measured off4 ,when all are used1 ten chains 7#a_/h mile7 have been covered4 ,the men exchange pins and the tally man1 usually the hind chainman1 calls out ,tally one1 and cuts a notch in a stick4 ,careful chaining is the essence of good surveying4 ,the chain must always be kept horizontal1 or else an allowance made for the inclination at which it was held when the measurement was taken1 otherwise the results will be misleading1 for all surveyors' measurements of areas are theoretically on a flat surface4 ,to ascertain the height of a tree1 tower1 etc41 fold a square of paper across1 and glancing along the hypothenuse 7longest side7 of the right angle so found1 ascertain at what point your line of sight just catches the top of the object4 ,then its height is the same distance as the distance from where you stand to its foot1 or the length of a plumb line falling from its summit1 together with the height of your eye above the ground1 added4 ,illustration ,another method is to measure the shadow of the object on a level surface1 next measure your own4 ,then ,as your shadow is to your height so is the shadow of the object to its height4 ,the area of a square is equal to the square of one of its sides4 ,the area of a triangle is equal to the base multiplied by half the height4 ,the areas of figures containing more than three sides may always be found by resolving such figures into a series of right angled triangles4 ,very frequently the surveyor is called upon to measure an inaccessible line4 ,there are many ways of solving such a problem1 but one of the simplest is as follows3 ,illustration ,supposing the required distance is that from bank to bank of a river 7,y-,x74 ,then lay off the base line ,y-,m1 driving stakes at each end2 make ,m-,p at right angles to ,y-,m4 ,sight from ,p to ,x1 and drive in a stake at ,z4 ,then3 ,z ,m 3 ,m ,p 33 ,z ,y 3 ,y ,x4 ,while these simple surveying problems are easily solved1 the prospector should never forget that mine surveying requires skill1 experience and accuracy4 ,he will do well always to call in the service of a mining engineer should his prospect ever become a full-fledged mine1 as little errors of direction are particularly costly mistakes when they occur underground4 ,should you wish to lay off a certain acreage as a square1 proceed as follows3 ,as there are ten square chains to one acre1 multiply the content in acres by #aj to reduce to square chains4 ,then find the square root of this number of square chains1 and that will be the length of a side of the square required4 ,for instance3 ,to lay off #be acres as a square3 #be times #aj equals #bej square chains4 ,whose square root is #ae4ha4 ,ans4 ,the plot must be #ae chains #ha links square4 ,seventy average paces is almost exactly equal to the side of a square acre4 ,if you know the content and length of one of the sides of a rectangular figure it is easy to lay it off4 ,thus3 ,given a claim #aj chains long1 how wide must it be to cover #e acres8 #e times #aj equals #ej square chains4 #aj divided by #ej equals #e4 ,ans4 #e chains wide4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,floating ,a ,,company4 ,should the prospector discover mineral that increases in amount as the mine is opened1 and shows that it is likely to prove a profitable deposit1 he will have little difficulty in selling out to some wealthy syndicate4 ,but if his mine is likely to become a big producer he should try rather to organize a company1 of which he should be a shareholder--the controlling one if possible--as then the output of the mine will probably make him a rich man4 ,it is rare that a prospector selling outright obtains anything but a fraction of the value of a good mine4 ,nor is it reasonable to suppose he should4 ,when he sells1 the profits of the buyers are all in the future1 and may never materialize4 ,they take all risk1 and consequently insist upon a bargain4 ,the more money a prospector can invest in the development of a good mine the better price he is likely to get when he sells4 ,business men dearly like to see great masses of ore in the shafts and cuts1 and are always more willing to pay a handsome price when they know something distinctly promising about the purchase4 ,let the prospector1 therefore1 lay open his prospect as thoroughly as he can with the means at his disposal1 and if he has faith--as he should have--in the mine he is selling1 let him take a good big block of stock in part payment4 ,he must see to it1 too1 that sufficient working capital is provided1 as there are very few mines that pay expenses from the start4 ,sometimes1 when the shareholders are very timid1 and but little money has been paid into the treasury in the first instance1 they become restive after a call or two and refuse to honor further demands4 ,this has been the ruin of many a promising venture4 ,supposing1 however1 that this mistake has been avoided1 and that sufficient funds are in the treasury to meet all likely1 legitimate drains upon it1 the question of officers remains a weighty one4 ,the board of directors should be level-headed1 shrewd men1 with common-sense1 business ideas2 the secretary should understand his work2 and the mining engineer placed in charge of the mine should be one whose professional knowledge is equal to the demands of the position4 ,the secretary must have such a knowledge of the proper price of labor1 and material1 as to detect any extravagance on the part of the manager4 ,at least one member of the board of directors should understand mining4 ,good salaries paid to the mining engineer or manager1 and to the secretary1 will be money well spent1 provided they are competent4 ,cheap men have no business in such responsible positions1 where the handling and wise expenditure of large sums of money necessitate brains and special training4 ,as to the mine manager1 he should be a miner1 surveyor1 metallurgist1 assayer1 bookkeeper and half-dozen other things rolled into one1 and that one an honest man4 ,very low grade ore would probably pay in the hands of such a paragon of perfection--but he must be sought for long and diligently1 and even then he may not be found4 ,new processes are to be shunned until they have proved their worth and ceased to be new4 ,no sooner is a mine floated than all sorts of knaves and fools appear on the scene1 with new and wonderful appliances for saving #ii4i per cent4 of all the value in the ore4 ,be rude to them4 ,drive them away with sticks and stones if necessary1 but as you value your salvation do not hearken to them4 ,let some one else do the experimenting2 when you know a process is good1 the time will have come to spend money on it4 ,there are at the present moment thousands of tons of costly machinery rusting in lonely ,rocky ,mountain canyons that were in their day novelties1 warranted to save all the values in the ore1 while the unfortunate shareholders1 whose misspent money freighted these things to their final resting place1 are now1 perchance1 touching the belated ,chicago or ,new ,york pedestrians for a nickel4 ,the only real guide to the economic value of an ore is the treatment of a large bulk of it in the mill4 ,plenty of ore should be kept blocked out ahead of the workings4 ,the more ore in sight the better for the future of the mine4 ,lastly1 remember that thieving sometimes takes place on rather a large scale1 and be on the watch to detect it4 ,but there is a bright side to mining as well as a dark1 and those fortunate men who paid #c1 #e or #h cents for the stock of a mine that now sells for #g can see it quite plainly2 and there are many such4 ,mining is not a gamble as some would have the world believe1 but a legitimate occupation1 demanding great nerve and skill1 and sometimes great patience1 but not infrequently rewarding the possessors of these admirable attributes by wealth almost inexhaustible4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,medical ,,hints4 ,miners as a rule are a healthy1 hardy lot of men1 but nevertheless they are occasionally taken ill1 and there is very seldom a doctor near at hand4 ,moreover1 by the very nature of their work they are particularly liable to accidents4 ,the so-called miner's consumption is caused by want of fresh air4 ,the miner passes most of his life in places where there is a great deficiency of oxygen4 ,deep down in the mine the air is usually very bad1 being full of smoke and damp1 and the hut in which he sleeps is too often overcrowded1 while the places in which he seeks his amusement1 should he live in a mining camp1 are usually little better4 ,the remedy for this state of affairs is to get all the fresh air possible1 then consumption is not to be feared4 ,should poison have been swallowed1 an emetic ought to be given as quickly as possible4 ,mustard1 or salt and warm water1 are tolerably efficacious1 but a dose of #fj grains of ipecac is more effectual4 ,while the emetic is acting1 the patient should drink freely of warm water or warm milk4 ,in case of apparent drowning the body should be stripped down to the waist1 rapidly dried1 placed on a flat surface with the head and shoulders raised a little1 and hot bricks applied to the feet4 ,breathing should be imitated by raising the arms above the head and turning the body on its side2 turn the body back on the face and press the arms down to the side4 ,do this about sixteen times a minute1 and keep it up half an hour if necessary4 ,in case of a wound which bleeds freely1 a distinction must be made between blood issuing from a vein and blood issuing from an artery4 ,in the first instance1 it will be nearly black1 or at least very dark2 in the second1 it will be bright red and spurt forth4 ,when from a vein1 bleeding must be controlled by pressure below the wound1 that is1 farther away from the heart1 while in the case of an artery1 which is always more dangerous1 immediate pressure must be made above the wound on the line of the artery between the wound and the heart4 ,a pebble rolled up in a handkerchief and tied around the limb1 with the stone directly above the artery1 and tightened by twisting a stick in it1 is a good rough-and-ready means to stop bleeding4 ,sometimes a pad should be placed between the handkerchief and the artery4 ,anything that excludes the air1 such as wheat flour1 or olive oil1 or boiled linseed1 or grated raw potato1 is good to spread over a burn4 ,if any considerable surface is burned the patient is in great danger1 but small burns are rarely fatal1 although they may be very painful4 ,the best application of all is linseed oil and lime water4 ,scurvy is a disease that is very much to be dreaded whenever fresh meat and vegetables are scarce4 ,it is now thought to be a condition of acid-poisoning1 and the remedy is alkaline salts1 such as carbonate of soda or carbonate of potash4 ,lime juice is also an anti-scorbutic4 ,in cold weather a diet of almost exclusively fresh fat meat will keep off scurvy4 ,pneumonia is usually most fatal in crowded camps1 where the men do not get a sufficient amount of pure1 fresh air4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,dynamite4 ,dynamite should be stored in a magazine which must be dry1 cool1 and well ventilated4 ,bricks are best1 but when built of wood1 the frame should be covered inside and out with boards allowing the air to have free circulation between the walls1 so that the inner wall may not be heated by the sun4 ,do not store your caps with your dynamite4 ,if powder was well made1 it is as good a dozen years afterwards as it was on the day it came from the mill4 ,most accidents occur in thawing dynamite4 ,dynamite freezes between #dj and #de degrees ,far41 that is1 #aj degrees above the freezing point of water1 and although it does not explode1 if heated slowly1 until #cbj degrees ,far4 is reached1 yet the quick application of dry heat may explode it at #abj degrees ,far4 ,this makes it so dangerous1 for a stick of powder hot enough to explode under certain conditions may be held in the hand with little inconvenience4 ,powder should be thawed by placing it in a water-tight vessel and the vessel set in hot water4 ,it should never be placed on or under a stove1 or in an oven1 or on a boiler wall to thaw out1 as is so often done by the unthinking4 ,frozen dynamite is especially liable to explode from heat quickly applied4 ,nevertheless1 reckless men will continue to blow themselves to pieces by foolhardy carelessness4 ,frozen powder is unfit for use4 ,it will burn or smoulder1 and some of it may be left in the drill hole to explode when it is not wanted to4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,atomic ,,weights4 ,the atomic weight of a mineral is the proportion in which its elements are united1 i4e41 they represent the weights of the different atoms in the minerals4 ,hydrogen1 being lightest1 is made the unit4 ,supposing it becomes desirable to find the proportional weights of the elements of any substance with a known chemical formula4 ,multiply the atomic weight of each element by the number of atoms of such element1 and add these products together2 this will give the weight of all4 ,the proportion of each is arrived at by a simple calculation4 ,for instance3 ,how much metallic silver is there in #ajj pounds of ,argentite1 or silver glance1 whose composition is ,ag#b,s8 ,then ,ag equals #ajh times #b1--baf4 ,s equals #cb times #a1--cb4 ,so that in every #bdh pounds of the glance there are #baf pounds of metallic silver1 and by proportion we find its percentage is #hg4a4 ,the following tables give the symbols1 atomic weights and specific gravities of certain abundant elements4 ,rare elements are omitted3 ,symbol4 ,at4 ,wt4 ,sp4 ,gr4 ,aluminum ,al #bg4e #b4ef ,antimony ,sb #abb4j #f4gj ,arsenic ,as #ge #e4gj ,barium ,ba #acg #d4jj ,bismuth ,bi #baj #i4g ,calcium ,ca #dj #a4eh ,carbon ,c #ab #c4ej ,chromium ,cr #eb4e #f4ha ,cobalt ,co #eh4h #g4gj ,copper ,cu #fc4e #h4if ,gold 7,aurum7 ,au #aif4gg #ai4cj ,hydrogen ,h #a4j #j4jfi ,iodine ,i #abg4j #d4id ,iron 7,ferrum7 ,fe #ef4j #g4gi ,lead 7,plumbum7 ,pb #bjg4j #aa4dd ,manganese ,mn #ee4j #h4a ,mercury 7,hydrargyrum7 ,hg #bjj #ac4ei ,nickel ,ni #eh4h #h4fj ,nitrogen ,n #ad4j #j4igb ,oxygen ,o #af4j #a4aje ,phosphorus ,p #ca4j #a4hc ,platinum ,pt #aig4d #ba4ec ,potassium 7,kalium7 ,k #ci4j #j4hfe ,selenium ,se #gi4e #d4gh ,silicon ,si #bh4j #b4di ,silver 7,argentum7 ,ag #ajh4j #aj4je ,sodium 7,natrium7 ,na #bc4j #j4igb ,sulphur ,s #cb4j #b4je ,tellurium ,te #abi4j #f4jb ,tin 7,stannum7 ,sn #aah4j #g4bh ,zinc ,zn #fe4j #g4ad ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,odds ,,and ,,ends4 ,,miner',s ,,inch4 ,a miner's inch of water varies in different ,states1 and is1 therefore1 not a fixed quantity4 ,in some ,states it means the quantity of water that will flow through an orifice one inch square on the bottom or side of a box under a pressure of four inches4 ,under these conditions a miner's inch will discharge #bbei cubic feet1 or #ag1fdh gallons every twenty-four hours1 which is at the rate of #ab gallons a minute4 ,fifty of these miner's inches are equal to a cubic foot of water discharged every second4 ,one cubic foot of water a second would be sufficient to supply the wants of seven thousand city dwellers4 ,in calculating the amount of water required by a stamp mill it is usual to allow #gb gallons for every stamp1 #abj gallons for every pan1 #ge gallons for every settler1 #abj gallons for every ,fruevanner1 #cj gallons for a concentrator1 #cej gallons for a jig1 and #g-a_/b gallons for every horse-power of a boiler each hour4 ,if the water after passing through the mill is impounded and used over again1 the loss will be about #be per cent4 ,,lumber ,,in ,a ,,log4 ,to ,find3 ,multiply the diameter in inches at the small end by one-half the number of inches1 and again multiply this product by the length of the log in feet2 this product divided by #ab will give the number of feet of one-inch boards the log will make4 ,,horse-,,power ,,of ,,boilers4 ,for horizontal1 tubular and flue boilers1 divide the number of feet of heating surface by #ae2 this will give the horse-power4 ,a cord of pine wood weighing #b1jjj pounds is about equal to #a1jjj pounds of soft coal for steam purposes4 ,each foot of grate should burn #bj pounds of soft coal1 or #dj of wood1 per hour1 with a natural draught4 ,,horse-,,power ,,of ,,an ,,engine4 ,multiply the area of the cylinder in square inches by the average effective pressure in pounds to the square inch1 deducting three pounds per square inch for friction4 ,multiply this remainder by the speed of the piston in feet per minute1 and divide by #cc1jjj4 ,the quotient will be the true horse-power4 ,,horse-,,power ,,of ,,pelton ,,wheel4 ,the ,pelton wheel is in high favor with ,california miners4 ,when the head of water is known in feet1 multiply by #j4jjbdadg and the product is the horse-power that one miner's inch of water will give4 ,,assaying4 ,the muffle furnaces of the ,morgan ,crucible ,company of ,battersea are favorably known4 ,the most useful size is that taking a ,d ,muffle1 #h-a_/b inches by #e inches by #c-a_/d inches4 ,a ,,cheap ,,testing ,,outfit4 ,sometimes the pioneer is forced to attempt a good many investigations with very simple apparatus4 ,should he possess the following1 he can achieve much3 ,a spirit lamp1 candle1 blow-pipe1 magnet1 a bottle of hydrochloric acid1 quart glass jar1 three test tubes with corks1 two feet of glass tubing 7hard glass71 copper wire1 two square inches of tin plate1 forceps and test paper4 ,such an outfit could certainly be bought for #a4 ,,weight ,,of ,,earth1 ,,sand1 ,,gravel1 ,,etc4 ,a ton of shingle averages #bc cubic feet4 ,a ton of pit sand averages #bb cubic feet4 ,a ton of earth averages #ba cubic feet4 ,a ton of river sand averages #ai cubic feet4 ,a ton of coarse gravel averages #ai cubic feet4 ,a ton of clay averages #ah cubic feet4 ,a ton of marl averages #ah cubic feet4 ,a ton of chalk averages #ad cubic feet4 ,,weights ,,of ,,ores ,,and ,,rocks4 ,quartz1 #afb pounds a cubic foot2 silver glance1 #dee pounds2 ruby silver1 #cfb2 brittle silver1 #chf2 horn silver1 #cde2 antimony glance1 #bhg2 cinnabar1 #edi2 copper pyrites1 #bfb2 gray copper1 #bhj2 galena1 #dfa2 zinc blende1 #bdi2 iron pyrites1 #cab2 limestone1 #agd2 clay1 #afb4 ,,california ,,pump4 ,a very useful pump1 in regions where transportation is a problem1 is the ,california pump4 ,it is a rough chain-pump4 ,a box #aj inches by #c inches1 inside measurement1 and #aj feet to #cj feet in length1 according to requirements1 forms a tube reaching from the water to be removed to the level at which it is to be discharged4 ,in this an endless band of stout canvas or leather works1 passing under a roller at the lower end1 which is immersed in the water4 ,at the higher end the belt passes around a drum worked by water1 horse1 or manual power4 ,on the belt are wooden or metal projections that fit the box1 forcing the water upward as the drum revolves4 ,,hydraulic ,,data4 ,the prospector1 and more especially the miner1 will do well to commit the following figures to memory3 ,an ,imperial gallon of water weighs #aj pounds4 ,gallons multiplied by 4#afjf equals cubic feet4 ,cubic feet multiplied by #f4bhh equals gallons4 ,gallons multiplied by #bgg4df equals cubic inches4 ,cubic inches multiplied by #j4jjcfjd equals gallons4 ,cubic feet multiplied by #fb4h equals pounds4 ,pounds multiplied by 4#jaff equals cubic feet4 ,gallons multiplied by #j4jjddfd equals tons4 ,tons multiplied by #bbd equals gallons4 ,tons multiplied by #ce4ig equals cubic feet4 ,a head of #aj feet gives a pressure of about #d-a_/c pounds to the square inch4 ,let ,h represent the head of water in feet1 and ,p the pressure to the square inch4 ,then3 ,h equals ,p times #b4caa4 ,p equals ,h times 4#dcbf4 ,a ,,fire ,,lute4 ,to make a fire-proof joint between the lid and body of a retort1 or crucible1 use the following as a lute3 ,quartz sand4 #h parts4 ,clay 7pure as possible7 #b parts4 ,horse dung #a part4 ,mix and temper like mortar4 ,,contents ,,of ,a ,,vein4 ,to find the number of cubic feet per fathom of matter in a vein1 multiply its thickness in inches by #c4 ,great care is requisite in estimating the ore in a vein or the amount of mineral in sight4 ,very clever men often make grave mistakes in such calculations4 ,a ,,make-,,shift ,,flux4 ,rough smelting may be done with powdered white glass1 though either borax or carbonate of soda is better4 ,as soon as the gold is melted and the flux fluid and still1 remove the bulk of the flux with an iron spoon1 and pour the metal into a clay mould4 ,crush the flux for gold4 ,,saving ,,blast ,,samples4 ,place a quantity of spruce boughs over a hole before firing the shot1 and very few stones will fly4 ,a ,,simple ,,retort4 ,squeeze the quicksilver amalgam containing gold through a chamois skin or piece of cotton until it is as dry as you can get it4 ,then take a large potato1 cut off one end and hollow out a piece of it large enough to receive the amalgam4 ,heat a shovel or a piece of sheet iron red hot1 hold the potato up and press the shovel to it1 covering the amalgam4 ,as soon as the potato sticks fast to the shovel1 turn it over so that the potato is on the top and place it over the fire and keep it red hot until the retorting is finished4 ,as soon as it cools1 loosen the potato with a knife1 and the gold will be underneath and the quicksilver in the potato4 ,the quicksilver may be recovered by bruising the potato to pulp in a cup with water4 ,,cleaning ,,amalgamated ,,plates4 ,illustration ,a very simple plan for getting the gold off an amalgamated copper plate is as follows3 ,take out the surface dirt for the depth of nine inches over an area a little larger than the plate to be scaled2 place six bricks around the excavation as supports for the plate4 ,make a brick fire1 and let it burn down to red hot embers4 ,lay the plate on three iron bars resting on the bricks1 and cover the face with strips of old blanket soaked in a strong solution of borax4 ,keep the blankets wet with the solution1 and when the amalgam is white1 remove the plate and scrape4 ,,calculating ,,weight ,,of ,,ore4 ,measure the cubic contents of the mass2 multiply this by the weight of one cubic foot of the mineral4 ,for small masses1 where no scales are at hand1 fill a bucket with water1 and stand it in an empty barrel4 ,fill the bucket brimful2 introduce the rock1 or ore1 and measure the water it displaces4 ,find the number of cubic inches in the overflow by reference to the following table3 #a gallon equals #bca cubic inches4 #a quart equals #eg4ge cubic inches4 #a pint equals #bh4hg cubic inches4 #a gill equals #g4ba cubic inches4 ,multiply the total so found by the specific gravity of the ore1 and the result will be the answer sought4 ,supposing the bottom of the bin to be wedge-shaped1 measure half the height from the bottom to the top and multiply the number of feet by the width and length1 both in feet4 ,this will give number of cubic feet in the bin4 ,multiply the number of cubic feet by the weight of one cubic foot of the ore1 and the result will show the number of pounds of ore the bin will hold4 ,divide by #b1jjj to reduce to tons4 ,,mining ,,regulations4 ,the mining regulations of every country differ1 and the prospector must learn by heart the provisions of the one he works under4 ,a claim notice written with a hard pencil or surveyor's marking lead on a soft pine board will last for years4 ,,weights ,,and ,,measures4 ,troy ,weight4 #bd grains #a pennyweight4 #bj pwts4 #a ounce4 #ab ounces #a pound4 ,long ,measure4 #ab inches #a foot4 #c feet #a yard4 #b yards #a fathom4 #af-a_/b feet #a rod4 #d rods #a chain4 #aj chains #a furlong4 #h furlongs #a mile4 ,square ,measure4 #i sq4 feet #a sq4 yard4 #cj-a_/d sq4 yds4 #a sq4 rod4 #dj sq4 rods #a sq4 rood4 #d sq4 roods #a sq4 acre4 #fdj sq4 acres #a sq4 mile4 ,an acre is #bji feet square4 ,land ,measure4 #g4ib inches #a link4 #be links #a rod4 #d rods #a chain4 #hj chains #a mile4 ,avoirdupois ,weight4 #af drams #a ounce4 #af ounces #a pound4 #be pounds #a quarter4 #d quarters #a cwt4 #bj cwt4 7#b1jjj pounds7 #a ton4 ,apothecary's ,weight4 #bj grains #a scruple4 #c scruples #a dram4 #h drams #a ounce4 #ab ounces #a pound4 ,,glossary4 ,adamantine--,having diamond luster4 ,adit--,a horizontal tunnel from the surface draining a mine4 ,alluvium--,deposit by streams4 ,amalgamation--,combining mercury with another metal4 ,analysis--,a chemical search whereby the nature 7qualitative7 and amount 7quantitative7 of the components of a substance are found out4 ,aqua regia--,a mixture of #c parts hydrochloric acid with #a part strong nitric acid4 ,arenaceous--,sandy4 ,argentiferous--,silver-bearing4 ,argillaceous--,clay-bearing4 ,arrastra--,a rotary and primitive mill4 ,assay--,a test4 ,assay-ton--#bi4aff #b-c grammes4 ,auriferous--,gold-bearing4 ,bar--,obstruction in the bed of a river4 ,bar-diggings--,claims in the shallows of streams4 ,base ,metals--,those not classed as precious4 ,batea--,mexican gold-washing dish4 ,battery--,a set of stamps for crushing4 ,bed--,a seam or deposit4 ,bed-rock--,solid stratum below porous material4 ,bench--,old river bed2 also called a terrace4 ,booming--,the sudden discharge of accumulated water4 ,bort--,black diamond4 ,calcite--,carbonate of lime4 ,canon--,pronounced canyon2 a gorge4 ,carat--,about #d grains ,troy4 ,cement--,compacted gravel4 ,color--,a speck of gold4 ,country ,rock--,the rock enclosing a vein4 ,cradle--,a mining apparatus2 also called a rocker4 ,cupriferous--,copper-bearing4 ,decrepitate--,crackling when hot4 ,development--,work done in opening a mine4 ,dip--,the inclination of a vein at right angles to its length4 ,dolly--,a primitive stamp-mill4 ,drift--,a horizontal gallery in a mine2 or the rubbish left by the last ice age4 ,drifting--,driving a tunnel4 ,dump--,a heap of vein stuff1 etc4 ,exploitation--,the actual mining following exploration4 ,fathom--,six feet4 ,fault--,a break in a vein or bed4 ,float-gold--,fine grains that do not sink in the water4 ,float--,veinstone or ore by which a vein is traced4 ,flume--,wooden troughs carrying water4 ,flux--,material added to help fusion4 ,foliated--,in thin layers4 ,gangue--,veinstone4 ,gouge--,a selvage of clay between vein and country rock4 ,grade--,the inclination of a ditch1 etc4 ,grating--,perforated iron sheet1 or bars with spaces4 ,gravel--,broken down1 rounded rock fragments4 ,ground ,sluice--,a gutter in which gold is washed4 ,iridescent--,showing the hues of the rainbow4 ,litharge--,proto oxide of lead4 ,long ,tom--,a machine for saving alluvial gold4 ,marl--,clay containing lime4 ,miner's ,inch--,an arbitrary measure of water regulated by local custom4 ,mundic--,iron pyrites4 ,open ,cut--,a surface working4 ,outcrop--,that part of a vein showing on the surface4 ,oxidation--,a chemical union with oxygen4 ,oxide--,combination of a metal with oxygen4 ,panning--,washing gravel1 or crushed rock1 in a gold-miner's pan to detect gold1 etc4 ,peroxide--,the oxide of any substance that is richest in oxygen4 ,placer--,a deposit of valuable metal in gravel4 ,plat--,a map from an original survey4 ,plumbago--,graphite or black lead4 ,precipitate--,matter separated from a solution4 ,pulp--,pulverized ore mixed with water4 ,quarry--,an open working4 ,quartz--,silica4 ,quartzose--,containing a large proportion of quartz4 ,reduce--,to turn ore into metal by taking away oxygen4 ,riffle--,a groove or strip to catch gold and mercury in a sluice4 ,roasting--,heating in contact with air4 ,shaft--,a pit giving access to a vein or working4 ,stratum--,bed or layer4 ,striated--,marked with parallel workings4 ,strip--,to remove overlying material from a vein4 ,sulphate--,a salt containing sulphuric acid4 ,sulphide--,a combination of sulphur and a metal4 ,sulphurets--,when the miner employs this term he usually means pyrites4 ,tailings--,the refuse matter after ore has been crushed4 ,throw--,the movements of vein caused by a fault2 it may be up or down4 ,translucent--,if light passes through a mineral1 it is translucent2 if you can see the details of an object through it1 it is transparent4 ,underlie--,the same thing as dip4 ,unstratified--,without stratification or bedding4 ,wash ,dirt--,auriferous gravel or clay4 ,whim--,a machine for hoisting by a revolving drum4 ,winze--,an interior shaft connecting the levels4 ,zinc--,white oxide of zinc4