,ver4#aj_/jd_/ja99;,,end99 ,this etext was produced by ,steve ,solomon 7ssolomonsoilandhealth4org74 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,soil ,from the ,basis ,of ,absolute ,science and ,real ,life ,,by ,,cyril ,g4 ,,hopkins ,author of ,soil ,fertility and ,permanent ,agriculture ,,boston #aiaa ,,to ,,my ,,wife ,,preface ,truth is better than fiction2 and this true story of the soil is written in co-operation with the ,press of ,america and in competition with popular fiction4 ,the scenes described exist2 the references given can all be found and verified2 and the data quoted are exact1 although some of the story dates antedate the scientific data4 ,as a rule the names employed are substitutes1 but the general localities are as specified4 ,if the ,story of the ,soil should ever fall into the hands of any individual who suspects that he has contributed to its information1 the author begs that he will accept as belonging to himself every gracious attribute and take it for granted that anything of opposite savor was due to autosuggestion4 ,,cyril ,g4 ,,hopkins4 ,university of ,illinois1 ,urbana4 ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,old ,,south ,,percy ,,johnston stood waiting on the broad veranda of an old-style ,southern home1 on a bright ,november day in #aijc4 ,he had just come from ,blue ,mound ,station1 three miles away1 with suit-case in hand4 ,would it be possible for me to secure room and board here for a few days8 he inquired of the elderly woman who answered his knock4 ,would it be possible8 she repeated1 apparently asking herself the question1 while she scanned the face of her visitor with kindly eyes that seemed to look beneath the surface4 ,i beg your pardon1 my name is ,johnston1--,percy ,johnston-- he said with some embarrassment and hesitation1 realizing from her speech and manner that he was not addressing a servant4 ,no pardon is needed for that name1 she interrupted2 ,johnston is a name we're mighty proud of here in the ,south4 ,but ,i am from the ,west1 he said4 ,we're proud of the ,west1 too2 and you should feel right welcome here1 for this is ',westover1' waving her hand toward the inroad fields surrounding the old mansion house4 ,i am ,mrs4 ,west1 or at least ,i used to be4 ,perhaps the title better belongs to my son's wife at the present time2 while ,i am mother1 grandma1 and great-grandmother4 ,yes1 ,sir1 you will be very welcome to share our home for a few days if you wish2 and we'll take you as a boarder4 ,we used to entertain my husband's friends from ,richmond1--and from ,washington1 too1 before the sixties2 but since then we have grown poor1 and of late years we take some summer boarders4 ,they have all returned to the city1 however1 the last of them having left only yesterday2 so you can have as many rooms as you like4 ,adelaide6 she called4 ,a rugged girl of seventeen entered the hall from a rear room4 ,this is my granddaughter1 ,adelaide1 ,mr4 ,johnston4 ,percy looked into her eyes for an instant2 then her lashes dropped4 ,he remembered afterward that they were like her grandmother's1 and he found himself repeating1 ,the eye is the window of the soul4 ,my ,dear1 will you ask ,wilkes to show ,mr4 ,johnston to the southwest room1 and to put a fire in the grate and warm water in the pitcher8 ,thank you1 that will not be necessary1 said ,percy4 ,i wish to see and learn as much as possible of the country hereabout1 and particularly of the farm lands2 and1 if ,i may leave my suit-case to be sent to my room when convenient1 ,i shall take a walk1--perhaps a long walk4 ,when should ,i be back to supper4 ,at six or half past4 ,my son ,charles has gone to ,montplain1 but he will be home for dinner4 ,he knows the lands all about here and will be glad1 ,i am sure1 to give you any information possible4 ,with rapid strides ,percy followed the private lane to the open fields of ,westover4 ,is he a cowboy1 ,grandma8 asked ,adelaide1 in a tone which did not suggest a very high regard for cowboys4 ,anyway1 she continued1 detecting a shade of disapproval in the grandmother's face1 he has a cowboy's hat1 but he doesn't wear buckskin trousers or spurs4 ,percy's hat was a relic of college life4 ,two years before he had completed the agricultural course at one of the state universities in the corn belt4 ,somewhat above the average in size1 well proportioned1 accustomed to the heaviest farm work1 and trained in football at college1 he was a sturdy young giant1-- strong as an ox and quick as lightning1 in the exaggerated language of his football admirers ,,chapter ,,ii ,,forty ,,acres ,,in ,,the ,,corn ,,belt ,,percy ,,johnston',s grandfather had gone west from ,york ,state and secured from the federal government a #afj-;acre ,claim of the rich corn belt land4 ,his father had received through inheritance only #dj acres of this2 and1 marrying his choice from the choir of the local ,lutheran congregation1 he had farmed his forty and an adjoining eighty acres1 rented on shares1 for only three years1 when he was taken with pneumonia from exposure and overwork1 and died within a week4 ,percy was scarcely a year old when his father was laid in the grave2 but to the sorrowing mother he was all that life held dear4 ,existence seemed possible to her only because she could bestow upon him her double affection1 and because the double duties which she took upon herself completely occupied her time4 ,she was not in immediate financial need1 for her husband had been able to put some money in the bank during the last year1 after having paid for his outfit2 the forty-acre farm was free from debt1 but under the law it must remain the joint property of mother and child for twenty years4 ,wisely or unwisely she rejected every opportunity presented that would have given ,percy a stepfather4 ,as daughter and wife she had learned much of the art of agriculture1 and1 after some consultation with a neighbor who seemed to be successful1 she made her own plans4 ,in her make up1 sentiment was balanced with sense4 ,even as a young wife she had sometimes driven the mower or the self-binder to help-out1 and she had found pleasure and health in such hours of out-door life4 ,i can work and not overwork1 she said to her friends2 and in any case the crops seemed to grow better under the eye of the mistress4 ,some years she employed a neighbor boy or girl1 and always hired such other help as she needed4 ,prices were sometimes low and crops were not always good2 and only widowed mothers can know the full story of her labor1 love and sacrifice4 ,with ,percy's help he was sent to school and finally to the university1 choosing for himself the agricultural college1 much to the surprise and disappointment of his devoted mother4 ,why1 she asked1 why should my son go to college to study agriculture8 ,have you not studied farming in the practical school of experience all your life8 ,surely we have done as much as could be done on our own little farm2 and you have also had the benefit of the longer experience of our best farmers hereabout1 and of the accumulated wisdom of our ancestors4 ,oh1 ,i had hoped and truly believed that you would become interested in engineering1 or in medicine1 or may be in the law4 ,i cannot understand why you should think of going to college to study farming4 ,surely you already know more than the college professors do about agriculture4 ,percy's mother had too much good sense to have raised a spoiled boy4 ,he had been taught to work and to think for himself4 ,she loved her boy far better than her own life1--loved as only a widowed mother can who has risked her life for him1 and who has given to him all her thought and all her energy from the best twenty years of her own life2 but she had never let herself enjoy that kind of selfishness which prompts a mother to do for her child what he should be taught to do for himself4 ,despite his natural love of sport and the severe trials he had often brought to her patience and perseverance during his boyhood days1 he had reached a development with the advance of youth that satisfied her high ideal4 ,his love and appreciation and tender care for her repaid her every day1 she told herself1 for all the years of watching1 working1 waiting4 ,never before had he withstood her positive wish and final judgment4 ,and yet it was she who had told him that he alone must choose his life work and his college course in preparation for that work2 but1 after the years of toil1 she had not dreamed that he would choose the farm life4 ,my darling boy1 she continued1 it leads to nothing4 ,this little farm is poorer to-day than it was when your dear father and ,i came here to live and labor4 ,to be sure1 the lower field still grows as good or better crops than ever2 but ,i can remember when that field was so wet and swampy that it could not be cultivated1 and it was in the work of ditching and tiling that field1 she sobbed1 that your father took the sickness that caused his death4 ,tears were in ,percy's eyes as he put his arm about his mother and wiped her tears away4 ,but ,i must tell you what ,i know to be the truth1 she went on quickly4 ,the older fields that your grandfather cultivated are less productive now than when he received them from our generous government4 ,indeed1 it was your father's plan to continue to farm here only for a few years longer until he could save enough to enable him1 with what we could have gotten from the sale of our own forty1 to go farther west and purchase a large farm of virgin soil4 ,he realized1 my ,son1 that even that part of his father's farm that was first put under cultivation was becoming distinctly reduced in productiveness4 ,he remembered1 too1 the stories often repeated by your grandfather of the run-down condition of the once exceedingly fertile soils of the ,mohawk ,valley and other parts of ,new ,york ,state4 ,and you know1 ,percy1 there were many ,dutch farmers settled in ,new ,york4 ,they were probably the best farmers among all who came to ,america from the ,old ,world4 ,i have heard your grandfather explain their use of crop rotation1 and they understood well the value of clover and farm fertilizers4 ,but with all of their skill and knowledge1 the land grew poor1 and now the very farm upon which ,grandpa was born is not worth as much as the actual cost of the farm buildings4 ,i hope you will consider all of this4 ,the farm life is so unpromising for you1 and there are such great opportunities for success in other lines4 ,still ,i feel that you must decide this question for yourself my ,son1 but tell me why you would choose the life and work of a farmer8 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,lincoln ,s ,,view ,,of ,,agriculture ,,percy had listened without interrupting1 grieved at her disappointment1 and open to any reasoning that might change his mind4 ,mother dearest1 he said1 it was a year ago that you said ,i would have only till this fail to decide upon my college course and that it should be a special preparation for my life work4 ,i have given much thought to it4 ,you said that ,i should choose for myself1 and ,i have not consulted much with others1 but ,i have tried to consider the matter from different points of view4 ,you know the ,christmas present you gave me of the ,lincoln books8 ,yes1 ,i know1 and you have read them so much4 ,i could not get you many books1 but ,i knew there could be nothing better for my boy to read than the thoughts of that noble man4 ,but1 ,percy dear1 ,lincoln was a lawyer1 and he rose from the lowest walk in life to the highest position in the country1 and with much less preparation than my own boy will have4 ,suppose he had remained a farmer6 ,surely no such success could ever have been reached4 ,i am not so foolish as to have any such high hopes for you4 ,percy2 but if you can only put yourself in the way of opportunity2 and make such preparation as you can to fill with credit some position of responsibility that may be offered you6 ,i had truly hoped that your study of ,lincoln's life would influence yours4 ,to me ,lincoln was the noblest of all the noble men of our history1 and ,i doubt not of all history1 save ,him who came to redeem the world4 ,percy stepped to his little homemade bookcase and took a volume from the ,lincoln set4 ,may ,i read you some words of ,lincoln8 he asked4 ,oh yes1 she answered wonderingly4 ,on ,september #cjth1 #ahei1 said ,percy1 ,lincoln gave an address at ,milwaukee1 before the ,state ,agricultural ,society of ,wisconsin1 and of all the addresses of ,lincoln it seems to me that this is the greatest1 because it deals with the greatest material problem of the ,united ,states4 ,i think ,i have scarcely heard a public address in which the speaker has not dwelt upon the fact that the farmer must feed and clothe the world2 and it seems to me that the missionaries always speak of the famines and starvation of so many people in ,india and other old countries4 ,do you remember the lecture by the medical missionary8 ,well1 would it not he better to send agricultural missionaries to ,india and ,china to teach those people how to raise crops8 ,i have read and reread this address more than any other in the ,lincoln set4 ,let me read you some of the paragraphs ,i have marked4 ,after making some introductory remarks about the value of agricultural fairs1 ,lincoln began his address as follows3 ',i presume ,i am not expected to employ the time assigned me in the mere flattery of the farmers as a class4 ,my opinion of them is that1 in proportion to numbers1 they are neither better nor worse than other people4 ,in the nature of things they are more numerous than any other class2 and ,i believe there are really more attempts at flattering them than any other1 the reason of which ,i cannot perceive1 unless it be that they can cast more votes than any other4 ,on reflection1 ,i am not quite sure that there is not cause of suspicion against you in selecting me1 in some sort a politician and in no sort a farmer1 to address you4 ',but farmers being the most numerous class1 it follows that their interest is the largest interest4 ,it also follows that that interest is most worthy of all to be cherished and cultivated--that if there be inevitable conflict between that interest and any other1 that other should yield4 ',again1 ,i suppose that it is not expected of me to impart to you much specific information on agriculture4 ,you have no reason to believe1 and do not believe1 that ,i possess it2 if that were what you seek in this address1 any one of your own number or class would be more able to furnish it4 ,you1 perhaps1 do expect me to give some general interest to the occasion1 and to make some general suggestions on practical matters4 ,i shall attempt nothing more4 ,and in such suggestions by me1 quite likely very little will be new to you1 and a large part of the rest will be possibly already known to be erroneous4 ',my first suggestion is an inquiry as to the effect of greater thoroughness in all the departments of agriculture than now prevails in the ,northwest--perhaps ,i might say in ,america4 ,to speak entirely within bounds1 it is known that fifty bushels of wheat1 or one hundred bushels of ,indian corn1 can be produced from an acre4' ,percy paused3 ,you know1 ,mother1 that our corn has averaged some less than fifty bushels per acre for the last five years1 and1 as you say1 the lower field has been much better than the old land1 and ,i think you are quite right in your belief that as an average the land is growing poorer1 although we cultivate better than we used to do1 and our seed corn is of the best variety and saved with much care4 ,but let me read further3 ',less than a year ago ,i saw it stated that a man1 by extraordinary care and labor1 had produced of wheat what was equal to two hundred bushels from an acre4 ,but take fifty of wheat1 and one hundred of corn1 to be the possibility1 and compare it with the actual crops of the country4 ,many years ago ,i saw it stated1 in a patent office report1 that eighteen bushels was the average crop throughout the ,united ,states2 and this year an intelligent farmer of ,illinois assured me that he did not believe the land harvested in that ,state this season had yielded more than an average of eight bushels to the acre2 much was cut1 and then abandoned as not worth threshing1 and much was abandoned as not worth cutting4' ,i know it is true1 said the mother1 that wheat was once very much grown in ,central and ,northern ,illinois1 but #ahei must have been an unusually poor year1 for it was grown for twenty years after that1 although it finally failed so completely that its cultivation has been practically abandoned in those sections for nearly twenty years4 ,however1 the chinch bugs were a very important factor in discouraging wheat growing and the land has been very good for corn1 especially since the tile-drainage was put in2 but on the whole is it not as ,i told you8 ,but note these statements1 said ,percy1 turning again to the book3 ',it is true that heretofore we have had better crops with no better cultivation1 but ,i believe that it is also true that the soil has never been pushed up to one-half of its capacity4 ',what would be the effect upon the farming interest to push the soil up to something near its full capacity8' ,but what can he mean1 said the mother4 ,how can anyone do better than we have done8 ,we change our crops1 and sow clover with the oats1 and return as much as we can to the land4 ,but let me hear further what ,lincoln said3 ,yes1 ,mother1 this is what he said3 ',unquestionably it will take more labor to produce fifty bushels of wheat from an acre than it will to produce ten bushels from the same acre2 but will it take more labor to produce fifty bushels from one acre than from five8 ,unquestionably thorough cultivation will require more labor to the acre2 but will it require more to the bushel8 ,if it should require just as much to the bushel1 there are some probable1 and several certain1 advantages in favor of the thorough practice4 ,it is probable it would develop those unknown causes which of late years have cut down our crops below their former average4 ,it is almost certain1 ,i think1 that by deeper plowing1 analysis of the soils1 experiments with manures and varieties of seeds1 observance of seasons1 and the like1 these causes would be discovered and remedied4 ,it is certain that thorough cultivation would spare half1 or more than half1 the cost of land1 simply because the same produce would be got from half1 or from less than half1 the quantity of land4 ,this proposition is self-evident1 and can be made no plainer by repetitions or illustrations4 ,the cost of land is a great item1 even in new countries1 and it constantly grows greater and greater1 in comparison with other items1 as the country grows older4' ,percy paused and said3 ,if ,i understand correctly these words of ,lincoln1 the land need not become poor4 ,but ,i do not know why land becomes poor4 ,i do not know what the soil contains1 nor do ,i know what corn is made of4 ,we plow the ground and plant the seed and cultivate and harvest the crop1 but ,i do not know what the corn crop1 or any crop1 takes from the soil4 ,i want to learn how to analyze the soil and crop and to find out1 if possible1 why soils become poor1 in order1 as ,lincoln suggests1 that the cause may be discovered and remedied4 ,it may be that the college professors could teach you in that way1 said the mother1 but you know the farm life is so full of work and so empty of mental culture4 ,i used to think so too1 said ,percy1 but ,i fear we have worked too much with our hands and too little with our minds2 that we have done much work in blindness as to the actual causes that control our crop yields2 and that we have not found the mental culture that may be found in the farm life4 ,let me read again4 ,these are ,lincolns words3 ',no other human occupation opens so wide a field for the profitable and agreeable combination of labor with cultivated thought1 as agriculture4 ,i know nothing so pleasant to the mind as the discovery of anything that is at once new and valuable--nothing that so lightens and sweetens toil as the hopeful pursuit of such discovery4 ,and how vast and how varied a field is agriculture for such discovery6 ,the mind1 already trained to thought in the country school1 or higher school1 cannot fail to find there an exhaustless source of enjoyment4 ,every blade of grass is a study2 and to produce two where there was but one is both a profit and a pleasure4 ,and not grass alone4 but soils1 seeds1 and seasons--hedges1 ditches1 and fences--draining1 droughts1 and irrigation--plowing1 hoeing1 and harrowing--reaping1 mowing1 and threshing--saving crops1 pests of crops1 diseases of crops1 and what will prevent or cure them--implements1 utensils1 and machines1 their relative merits1 and how to improve them--hogs1 horses1 and cattle--sheep1 goats and poultry--trees1 shrubs1 fruits1 plants1 and flowers--the thousand things of which these are specimens--each a world of study within itself4 ',in all this book learning is available4 ,a capacity and taste for reading gives access to whatever has already been discovered by others4 ,it is the key1 or one of the keys1 to the already solved problems4 ,and not only so2 it gives a relish and facility for successfully pursuing the unsolved ones4 ,the rudiments of science are available1 and highly available4 ,some knowledge of botany assists in dealing with the vegetable world--with all growing crops4 ,chemistry assists in the analysis of soils1 selection and application of manures1 and in numerous other ways4 ,the mechanical branches of natural philosophy are ready help in almost everything1 but especially in reference to implements and machinery4 ',the thought recurs that education--cultivated thought--can best be combined with agricultural labor1 on the principle of thorough work2 that careless1 half-performed1 slovenly work makes no place for such combination2 and thorough work1 again1 renders sufficient the smallest quantity of ground to each man2 and this1 again1 conforms to what must occur in a world less inclined to wars and more devoted to the arts of peace than heretofore4 ,population must increase rapidly1 more rapidly than in former times1 and ere long the most valuable of all arts will be the art of deriving a comfortable subsistence from the smallest area of soil4 ,no community whose every member possesses this art1 can ever be the victim of oppression in any of its forms4 ,such community will be alike independent of crowned kings1 money kings1 and land kings4' ,,chapter ,,iv ,,life',s ,,choice ,,percy read these words as though they were his own2 and perhaps we may say they were his own1 for1 as ,emerson says3 ,thought is the property of him who can entertain it4 ,the mother listened1 first with wonder2 then with deepened interest1 which changed to admiration for the language and for her son1 who seemed to be filled with the spirit which had led ,lincoln to see the problems and the possibilities of the farm life in a light that was wholly new4 ,surely those are noble thoughts1 she said1 from a noble and wise man4 ,i shall only hope that you will find some opportunity to make the best possible of your life4 ,we have such a small farm1 and the land hereabout is all so high in price that to enlarge the farm seems almost hopeless4 ,in part because of this difficulty it had seemed to me that greater opportunities might be open for you in other lines4 ,don't you feel that you will be greatly handicapped in the beginning8 ,perhaps1 said ,percy1 in some ways2 but not in other ways4 ,we hear on every hand that this is an age of specialists1 that the most successful man cannot take time to prepare himself well for many different lines of work2 that he must make the best possible preparation in some one line for which he may have special talent or special interest2 and then endeavor to go farther in that line than any one has gone before4 ,when ,i first wrote to the ,state ,university ,i asked how long a time would likely be required for me to complete all the subjects that are taught there1 and the registrar replied that1 if ,i could carry heavy work every year1 ,i might hope to take all the courses now offered in about seventy years4 ,in considering this point of preparation for future work1 it has seemed to me that if ,i leave the farm life and devote myself to law or to engineering1 ,i must in large measure sacrifice about ten years of valuable experience in practical agriculture4 ,i have learned enough about farming so that ,i can manage almost as well as the neighbors2 and without this knowledge1 gathered1 as you say1 in the school of experience1 ,i can see that serious mistakes would often be made4 ,you know that ,doctor ,miller bought the ,bronson farm two years ago4 ,well1 he has been giving some directions himself concerning its management4 ,he has had no experience in farming1 and last year1 after he had the new barn built1 he directed his men to put the sheaf oats in the barn so they would be safe from the weather4 ,he did not understand that oats must stand in the shock for two or three weeks to become thoroughly cured before they can safely be even stacked out of doors2 and the result was that his entire oat crop rotted in the barn4 ,people who have lived always in the city sometimes express the most amusing opinions of farm conditions so well understood even by a ten-year-old country boy4 ,i recently overheard two traveling men remarking about the differences which they could plainly observe between the corn crops in different fields as they rode past in the train4 ',some fields have twice as good corn as other adjoining fields1' one remarked4 ',how do you account for the difference1' asked the other4 'oh1 ,i suppose the one farmer was too stingy of his seed1' was the reply4 ,i am convinced that there are hundreds or perhaps thousands of valuable facts that have been acquired through experience and observation by the average farm boy of eighteen or twenty years that would be of little or no value to him in most other occupations2 and in this respect ,i should be handicapped if ,i leave the farm life and begin wholly at the bottom in some other profession4 ,perhaps agriculture is not a profession1 but ,i think it should be if the highest success is to be attained4 ,i surely hope you will be successful1 ,percy1 and your reasoning sounds all right2 but other occupations seem to lead to greater wealth than farming4 ,i very much doubt1 replied ,percy1 if there is any other occupation that is so uniformly successful as farming1 in the truest sense4 ,it provides constant employment1 a good living1 and a comfortable home for nearly all who engage in it2 and as a rule they have made no such preparation as is required for most other lines of work4 ,but there is still another side to the farm life1 ,mother dear1 or to any life for that matter4 ,your own life has taught me that to work for the love of others is a motive which directs the noblest lives4 ,if agricultural missionaries are needed in ,india1 they are also needed in parts of our own country where farm lands that were once productive are now greatly depleted and in some cases even abandoned for farming2 and4 if the older lands of the corn belt are already showing a decrease in productive power1 we need the missionary even here4 ,if ,i can learn how to make land richer and richer and lead others to follow such a system1 ,i should find much satisfaction in the effort4 ,,chapter ,v ,,worn ,,out ,,farms ,,well1 you found some mighty poor land1 ,i reckon1 was the greeting ,percy received from ,grandma ,west as he returned from his walk over ,westover and some neighboring farms4 ,i found some land that produces very poor crops1 he replied1 but ,i don't know yet whether ,i should say that the land is poor4 ,well1 ,i know it's about as poor as poor can be2 but it was not always poor1 ,i can tell you4 ,when ,i was a girl1 if this farm did not produce five or six thousands bushels of wheat1 we thought it a poor crop2 but now1 if we get five or six hundred bushels1 we think we are doing pretty well4 ,my husband's father paid sixty-eight dollars an acre for some of this land1 and it was worth more than that a few years later and1 mind you1 in those days wheat was worth less and niggers a mighty sight more than they are nowadays2 but1 somehow1 the land has just grown poor4 ,we don't know how4 ,we have worked hard1 and we have kept as much stock as we could1 but we could never produce enough fertilizer on the farm to go very far on a thousand acres4 ,yes1 ,sir1 we have just about a thousand acres here and we still own it1--and with no mortgage on it1 ,i'm mighty glad to say4 ,but1 laws1 the land is poor1 and you can get all the land you want about here for ten dollars an acre4 ,there comes ,charles1 now4 ,he can tell you all about this country for more than twenty miles1 ,i reckon4 ,wilkes6 ,a negro servant answered the call1 and took the horse as ,charles ,west stopped at the side gate4 ,wilkes was born here in slave times1 nigh sixty years ago1 she continued4 ,he is three years older than my son ,charles4 ,he has remained with us ever since the war1 except for a few months when he went away one time just to see for sure that he was free and could go4 ,but he came back mighty homesick and he'll want to stay here till he dies1 ,i reckon4 ,charles1 this is ,mr4 ,johnston1 ,percy ,johnston1 as he says2 but he thinks he is no kin of ,general ,joe or ,albert ,sidney4 ,he's been looking at the land hereabout1 but ,i don't think he'll want any of it after seeing the kind of crops we raise4 ,with this introduction1 the mother disappeared within the house1 and ,charles took her seat on the vine-covered veranda4 ,i feel that ,i owe an apology to you1 ,sir1 said ,percy1 for presenting myself here with bag and baggage1 and asking to share the hospitality of your home1 with no previous arrangements having been made2 but by chance ,i met your friend1 ,doctor ,goddard1 on the train1 and1 in answer to my inquiry as to whom ,i could go to for correct information concerning the history and present condition and value of farm lands in this section of the country1 he advised me to stop off at ,blue ,mound ,station and consult with you4 ,had ,i known that you were to be in ,montplain to-day1 of course ,i should have gone directly there4 ,your mother very graciously consented to receive me as a belated summer boarder1 a kindness which ,i greatly appreciate1 ,i assure you4 ,my mother and ,i have a small farm in ,illinois1--so small that it would be lost in such an estate as ,westover1 but the price of land is very high in the ,west at the present time2 and ,i am really considering the question of selling our little forty-acre farm and purchasing two or three hundred acres in the ,east or ,south4 ,my thought is that ,i might secure a farm that was once good land1 but that has been run down to such an extent that it can be bought for perhaps ten or twenty dollars an acre4 ,i should want the land to be nearly level so that it would not be difficult to prevent damage from surface washing4 ,i should prefer1 of course1 to purchase where there is a good road and not more than five miles from a railway station4 ,if ,i secure such a farm1 it would be my purpose to restore its fertility4 ,if possible ,i should want to make the land at least as productive as it ever was1 even in its virgin state4 ,well1 ,sir1 said ,mr4 ,west1 if you could accomplish your purpose and ultimately show a balance on the right side of the ledger1 it would be a work of very great value to this country4 ,there will be no difficulty in securing such land as you want with location and price to suit you2 but ,i think that you should know in advance that older men than you have purchased farms hereabout with very similar intentions1 but with the ultimate result that they have lost more1 financially1 than we who are native to the soil2 for1 while we were once well-to-do and are now poor1 we still own our land1 impoverished as it is4 ,however1 the farm still furnishes us a comfortable living1 supplemented1 to be sure1 with some income from other sources4 ,i am very willing to give as much information as ,i can regarding our lands and the agricultural conditions and common practices1 although ,i fear that this knowledge will discourage you from making any investments in our worn-out farms4 ,if you still decide to make the trial1 ,i surely hope you will be successful1 for we need such an object lesson above all else4 ,i assume that you will wish to locate near a town of considerable size1 in order that you can haul manures from town1 and perhaps some feed also2 and have a good market for your milk and other products4 ,no1 ,sir1 said ,percy1 ,i should prefer not to engage in dairying1 and ,i do not wish to make use of fertilizer made from my neighbors' crops4 ,we have some object lessons of that kind in my own state2 and ,i have no doubt that some can be found in this state who feed all they produce on their own land and perhaps even larger amounts of feed purchased from their neighbors1 or hauled from town1 and who1 in addition to using all of the farm fertilizer thus produced1 haul considerable amounts of such materials from the livery stables in town4 ,with much hard work1 with a good market for the products of the dairy and truck garden1 and with business skill in purchasing feed from their neighbors when prices are low1 such men succeed as individuals2 but do they furnish an object lesson which could be followed by the general farmer8 ,i had not looked at the matter from that point of view1 said ,mr4 ,west1 but it is plain to see that on the whole there can be only a small percentage of such farmers2 and in reality they are a detriment to their neighbors who permit their own hay and grain to be hauled off from their farms2 but certainly these are the methods followed by our most successful farmers1 and these are they who live on the fat of the land4 ,are they farmers or are they manufacturers8 asked ,percy4 ,it seems to me that1 in large measure1 their business is to manufacture a finished product from the raw materials produced upon other farms1 either in the immediate neighborhood or in the newer regions of the ,west4 ,as you know1 much of our surplus produce from the farms of the corn belt is shipped into the eastern and southern states1 there to be used as food for man and beast1 not only in the cities1 but also to a considerable extent in the country4 ,instead of living on the fat of the land1 such manufacturers live in the country at the expense of special city customers who may have fat jobs and are able to pay fancy prices for country produce made by the impoverishment of many farms4 ,in most cases1 if such a 'successful farmer' were compelled to pay average prices for what he buys and allowed to receive only average prices for what he sells1 his fat would have plenty of lean streaks4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,musicale ,,dinner was served at the family table1 with ,mr4 ,west at the head and his mother at the foot4 ,the eye is the window of the soul1 thought ,percy1 as he met the glance of ,adelaide sitting opposite4 ,certain he was that he had never before looked into such alluring eyes4 ,adelaide was neither a girl nor a woman and yet at times she was both4 ,with the other children she was a child that still loved to romp and play with the rest1 free as a bird4 ,her mother1 a sweet-faced woman1 some years her husband's junior1 made sisters of all her daughters1 the more naturally perhaps1 because the grandmother was still so active and so interested in all phases of homemaking that she seemed mother to them all4 ,adelaide's two older sisters were married and her brother ,charles1 also older than herself1 by three years1 was a senior in college4 ,adelaide had just finished her course in the ,academy where the long service of a maiden aunt as a teacher had secured certain appreciated privileges1 without which it is doubtful if both ,charles and ,adelaide could have been sent away to school at the same time4 ,a boy of fourteen and the eight-year old baby brother with two sisters between comprised the younger members of the family4 ,miss ,bowman1 the teacher of the district school1 also occupied a place at the table4 ,the evening meal was disposed of without delay1 for there was something of greater importance to follow4 ,a musicale in the near-by country church had been in preparation and ,percy heartily accepted an invitation to accompany the family to the evening's entertainment4 ,or rather he accompanied ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,west and the grandmother1 for all the children had walked the distance before the carriage arrived4 ,without having specialized in music1 nevertheless ,percy had improved the frequent opportunities he had had1 especially while at the university1 and he had learned to appreciate quality in the musical world4 ,consequently he was not a little surprised and greatly pleased to sit and listen to a class of music that he had never before heard rendered in country places2 but1 as he listened for ,adelaide's singing in chorus1 duet1 and solo1 he found himself wondering whether the eye or the voice more clearly revealed the soul4 ,it seemed like the old times1 said the grandmother1 with something like a sigh1 as she took her place in the carriage4 ,if our land was only like it used to be6 but it's become so mighty poor our children can't have many advantages these days4 ,the ,harcourt's and ,staunton's whom you met are descendants of ancestors once well known in this state4 ,it seems to me that the land need not have grown poor1 said ,percy4 ,if the land was once productive1 its fertility ought to be maintained by the return of the essential materials removed in crops or destroyed by cultivation4 ,surely land need not become poor2 but of course ,i know too little about this land to suggest at the present time what method could best be adopted for its improvement4 ,we can tell you what the best method is1 she quickly replied4 ,just put on plenty of ordinary farm fertilizer1 but1 laws1 we don't have enough to cover fifty acres a year4 ,for a time each seemed lost in thought1 or listening to the husband and wife who sat in the front seat quietly talking of the evening's performances4 ,percy recognized some of the names they mentioned as belonging to persons to whom he had been presented at the church4 ,it gradually dawned upon him that he had spent the evening with the aristocracy of the ,blue ,mound neighborhood4 ,culture1 refinement1 and poverty were the chief characteristics of the people who had been assembled4 ,it need not have been1 he repeated to himself2 surely1 it need not have been1 and then he wondered if these were not much sadder words than the oft repeated it might have been4 ,may ,i ask where your people came from1 ,mrs4 ,west8 he questioned4 ,where we came from8 she repeated1 ,i don't quite understand4 ,excuse me1 said ,percy1 but in the ,west it is so common to ask people where they are from4 ,you know the ,west is settled with people from all sections of the ,east1 and many from ,europe and from ,canada1 and ,i thought your ancestors may have moved here from some other state1 as from ,pennsylvania for example1 where my mother's people once lived4 ,let me advise you1 ,young ,man1 said the grandmother briskly1 and in a tone that reminded ,percy of the twinkle he had at times noticed in her eyes when she seemed young again--,let me advise you never to ask a ,virginian if he was born in ,pennsylvania4 ,that's more than most ,virginians can stand4 ,once a ,virginian1 always a ,virginian1--both now1 hereafter1 and hitherto4 ,it's mighty hard to find a ,virginian who came from anywhere except from the royal blood of ,england2 although some may condescend to acknowledge kinship to the ,scottish royalty4 ,the grandmother's voice was raised to a pitch which commanded the attention of the other members in the carriage and a hearty laugh followed her jovial wit1 to the full relief of ,percy's temporary embarrassment4 ,well1 she continued1 to answer your question3 my husband and my children are direct descendants of ,colonel ,charles ,west1 a brother of ,lord ,delaware1 who was ,sir ,thomas ,west1 whose ancestry goes back to ,henry the ,second1 of ,england1 and to ,david the ,first1 of ,scotland2 and my granddaughter is the great-granddaughter of ,patrick ,henry4 ,so now you know where we came from1 and she laughed again like a girl4 ,yes1 she added1 we have a family tree six feet from branch to branch1 but it is stored in a back room where ,i am sure it is covered with cobwebs1 for we have no time to live with the past when the summer boarders are here4 ,as the carriage stopped at the side gate1 the children's voices could be heard in the rear2 for ,mr4 ,west had been living over again his younger days with his sweet-faced wife1 and the farm team had taken its own time4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,a ,,bit ,,of ,,history ,,now1 ,i shall be at home to-day and glad to assist you in any way possible1 announced ,mr4 ,west at the breakfast table4 ,that is very kind of you1 ,percy replied4 ,i want especially to learn some of the things you know about the soils of ,westover4 ,can you show me the best land and the poorest land on the estate8 ,i think ,i can4 said ,mr4 ,west4 ,we have some land that has not grown a crop in fifty years1 and we have other land that still produces a very fair crop if properly rotated4 ,and what rotation do you practice8 ,well1 the system we have finally settled into and have followed for many years is to plow up the run-out pasture land and plant to corn4 ,the second year we usually raise a crop of wheat or oats and seed down to clover and timothy4 ,we then try to cut hay from the land for two years1 and afterward we use the field for pasture for six or eight years1 or until finally it produces only weeds and foul grass4 ,then we cover it with farm manure1 so far as we can1 and again plow the land for corn4 ,wheat and cattle are the principal products sold from the farm4 ,in this way1 said ,percy1 you grow one crop of corn on the same field about once in ten or twelve years4 ,yes1 about that1 and also one1 or sometimes two1 crops of small grain4 ,we usually have about seventy-five acres of corn1 nearly a hundred acres of small grain1 and we cut hay from somewhat more than hundred acres1 thus leaving perhaps five hundred acres of pasture land1 besides about two hundred acres of timber land which has not been cultivated for many years4 ,was the timber land that we see about here formerly cultivated8 asked ,percy4 ,oh1 yes1 nearly all of it was under cultivation when ,i was a boy1 although some had been allowed to go back to timber even before ,i was born4 ,on our own farm we have some timber land that1 so far as ,i have been able to learn1 was never under cultivation2 and the character of the trees is different on that land4 ,there you will find original pine1 but on the worn-out land the 'old-field' pine are found4 ,they are practically worthless1 while the original pine makes very valuable lumber4 ,with our system of rotation we keep about all of our farm under control2 but the smaller farms were necessarily cropped more continuously to support the family1 and they became so unproductive that many of them have been completely abandoned for agricultural purposes2 and even some of the large plantations were poorly managed1 one part having been cropped continuously until too poor to pay for cropping1 while the remainder was allowed to grow up in scrub brush and 'old-field' pine2 and1 of course1 the expense of clearing such land is about as much as the net value of the crops that could be grown until it again becomes too poor for cropping4 ,then the recleared lands are not as productive as when they were first cleared from the virgin forest8 ,oh1 by no means4 ,in the virgin state these lands grew bountiful crops almost continuously for a hundred years or more4 ,virginia was famed at home and abroad for her virgin fertility4 ,great crops of corn1 wheat1 and tobacco were grown4 ,tobacco was a valuable export crop1 and there were many ,virginians whose mothers came to ,america with passage paid for in tobacco4 ,history records1 you may remember1 that it was the custom for a time to permit a young man to pay into a general store house a hundred pounds of tobacco1--and this was later increased to one hundred fifty pounds1--to be used in payment of passage for young women who were thus enabled to come to ,america2 and there was a very distinct understanding that only those who had come forth with the tobacco were eligible as suitors for the hand of any 'imported' maiden4 ,as a matter of fact some such arrangement as this was almost a necessity1 said ,mr4 ,west1 as he noted ,adelaide's almost incredulous look4 ,among the first settlers in ,virginia1 young men greatly predominated2 and in the main the people in the home country were themselves in poverty4 ,under the hereditary laws of ,england the father's estate and title became the possession of his eldest son2 and in large measure the other children of the family were thrown absolutely upon their own resources1 so that many1 even with royal blood in their veins1 were very glad to embrace any opportunity offered to seek a new home in this land of virgin richness4 ,of course1 he continued1 smilingly and in direct answer to ,adelaide's inquiring look1 those young women were in no sense bound to accept the attention or the offer of any man2 but naturally most of them did become the wives of those who were able to offer them a husband's love and a home with more of life's comforts perhaps than they had ever known before4 ,they were at perfect liberty1 however1 to remain in the enjoyment of single blessedness if they chose1 and ,i doubt not1 he added1 with a twinkle in his eyes1 that some of them had no other choice4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,westover ,,with an auger in his hand1 by means of which a hole could be quickly bored into the soil to a depth of three or four feet1 ,percy joined ,mr4 ,west for the tramp over the plantation4 ,in general the estate called ,westover consists of undulating upland4 ,a small stream crosses one corner of the farm bordered by some twenty acres of bottom land which is subject to frequent overflow1 and used only for permanent pasture4 ,several draws or small valleys are tributary to the stream valley1 thus furnishing excellent surface drainage for the entire farm4 ,in some places the sides of these valleys are quite sloping and subject to moderate erosion when not protected by vegetation4 ,above and between these slopes the upland is nearly level4 ,as they came upon one of these level areas1 grown up with small forest trees1 ,mr4 ,west stopped and said3 ,now right here is probably as poor a piece of land as there is on the farm4 ,this land will positively not grow a crop worth harvesting unless it is well fertilized4 ,if we were in the ,illinois corn belt1 replied ,percy1 ,i should expect to find the land in this position to be the most productive on the farm4 ,our level uplands are now valued at from one hundred fifty to two hundred dollars an acre4 ,a farm of one hundred eighty acres1 five miles from town1 sold for two hundred and fourteen dollars an acre a few days before ,i started east4 ,well1 said ,mr4 ,west1 this may have been good land once1 but if so it was before my time4 ,of course most of our uplands here have been cropped for upwards of two hundred years2 and about all that has ever been done to keep up the fertility of the soil has been to rotate the crops4 ,to be sure1 the farm manure has always been used as far as it would go1 but the supply is really very small compared to the need for it4 ,do you think that the proper rotation of crops would maintain the fertility of the soil8 asked ,percy4 ,no1 ,i have tried too many rotations to think that1 but ,i suppose it is a help in that direction1 don't you8 ,i would say that crop rotation may help to maintain the supply of some important constituents of a fertile soil1 but it will certainly hasten the depletion of some other equally essential constituents4 ,well1 that's a new idea to me4 ,i may not quite grasp your meaning2 but first tell me about these tests you are making4 ,when they stopped on the area of poor land as designated by ,mr4 ,west1 ,percy had turned his auger into the earth and drawn out a sample of moist soil1 which he molded into the form of a ball4 ,he broke this in two1 inserted a piece of blue paper1 and pressed it firmly together4 ,he then laid the ball of soil aside1 secured another sample with the auger1 and formed it into a cake with a hollow in the upper surface4 ,he took from his pocket a slender box or tube of light wood1 removed the screw cap1 and drew out a glass-stoppered bottle4 ,this bottle contains hydrochloric acid1 said ,percy4 ,it is often incorrectly called 'muriatic acid4' ,it consists of two elements1 hydrogen and chlorin1 from which its name is derived4 ,but you are perhaps already familiar with the chemical elements4 ,well1 ,i heard lectures at ,william and ,mary for four years1 and they included some chemistry as it was then taught2 but they certainly did not include the application of chemistry to agriculture1 and ,i am greatly interested to know the meaning of these tests you are making here on our own farm under my own eyes4 ,you may take it for granted that ,i know absolutely nothing of such use of chemistry as you are evidently turning to some practical value4 ,any other farmer can make these tests as well as ,i can1 said ,percy4 ,this bottle of acid cost me fifteen cents and it can be duplicated for the same price at almost any drug store4 ,the acid is very concentrated1 in fact about as strong as can easily be produced1 but it need not be especially pure4 ,some care should be taken not to get it on the clothing or on the fingers1 although it is not at all dangerous to handle1 but it tends to burn the fingers unless soon removed1 either by washing with water or by rubbing it off with the moist soil4 ,i use this acid to test the soil for the presence or absence of limestone4 ,ordinary limestone consists of calcium carbonate4 ,here1 again the chemical name alone is sufficient to indicate the elements that compose this compound4 ,it is only necessary to keep in mind the fact that the ending -ate on the common chemical names signifies the presence of oxygen ,thus calcium carbonate is composed of the three primary elements1 calcium1 carbon and oxygen4 ,of course the chemical element is the simplest form of matter4 ,an element is a primary substance which cannot be divided into two or more substances ,all known matter consists of about eighty of these primary elements2 and1 as a matter of fact1 most of these are of rare occurence--many of them much more rare than the element gold4 ,about ninety-eight per cent4 of the soil consists of eight elements united in various compounds or combinations2 and only ten elements are essential for the growth and full development of corn or other plants4 ,if any one of these ten elements is lacking1 it is impossible to produce a kernel of corn1 a grain of wheat1 or a leaf of clover2 and in the main the supply is under the farmer's own control4 ,but we can discuss this matter more fully later4 ,let us see what we have here4 ,percy poured a few drops of the hydrochloric acid into the hollow of the cake of soil4 ,what should it do8 asked ,mr4 ,west4 ,if the soil contains any limestone1 the acid should produce foaming1 or effervescence1 replied ,percy2 but it is very evident that this soil contains no limestone4 ,you see the hydrochloric acid has power to decompose calcium carbonate with the formation of carbonic acid and calcium chlorid1 a kind of salt that is used to make a brine that won't freeze in the artificial ice plants4 ,the carbonic acid1 if produced at once decomposes into water and carbon dioxid4 ,now1 the liberated carbon dioxid is a gas and the rapid generation or evolution of this gas constitutes the bubbling or foaming we are looking for2 but since there is no appearance of foaming we know that this soil contains no limestone4 ,then you have already found that those three elements1--calcium1 carbon1 and oxygen1 you called them1 ,i think--you find that those elements are all lacking in this soil4 ,no1 this test does not prove that1 said ,percy4 ,it only proves that they are not present as limestone4 ,calcium may be present in other compounds1 especially in silicates1 which are the most abundant compounds in the soil and in the earth's crust2 and1 as indicated by the ending -ate1 oxygen is contained in calcium silicate as well as in calcium carbonate4 ,i see2 the subject is much more complicated than ,i thought4 ,somewhat1 perhaps1 ,percy replied2 but yet it is quite simple and very easily understood1 if we only keep in mind a few well established facts4 ,certainly the essential science of soil fertility is much less complicated than many of the political questions of the day1 such as the gold standard or free-silver basis1 the tariff issues1 and reciprocity advantages1 regarding which most farmers are fairly well informed1--at least to such an extent that they can argue these questions for hours4 ,i think you are quite right in that1 said ,mr4 ,west4 ,of course1 it is important that every citizen entitled to the privilege of voting in a democracy like ours should be able to exercise his franchise intelligently2 but the citizen who is responsible for the management of farm lands ought surely to be at least as well informed concerning the principles which underlie the maintenance of soil fertility2 provided1 of course1 that such knowledge is within his reach2 and from what you say ,i am beginning to believe that such is the case4 ,at any rate this simple test seems to show conclusively that this soil contains no limestone1 and it is common knowledge that limestone soils are good soils4 ,percy took up the ball of soil containing the slip of blue paper1 broke it in two again1 and it was seen that the paper had changed in color from blue to red ,there's a change1 for certain1 said ,mr4 ,west1 that has some meaning to you ,i suppose4 ,this is litmus paper1 said ,percy4 ,it is prepared by moistening specially prepared paper with a solution of a coloring matter called litmus1 and the paper is then dried4 ,this coloring matter has the property of turning blue in the presence of alkali and red in the presence of acid4 ,the blue paper is prepared with a trace of alkali1 and the red paper with a trace of acid4 ,if more than a trace were present the litmus paper would not be sufficiently sensitive for the test4 ,this little bottle containing two dozen slips of paper cost me five cents1 and it can be obtained at most drug stores4 ,alkali and acid are exactly opposite terms1 like hot and cold4 ,the one neutralizes the other4 ,this test with litmus paper is a test for soil acidity1 and the fact that the moisture of the soil has turned the litmus from blue to red shows that this soil is acid1 or sour4 ,the soil moisture contained enough acid to neutralize the trace of alkali contained in the blue paper and to change the paper to a distinctly light red color2 and the fact that the paper remains red even after drying1 shows that the soil contains fixed acids or acid salts1 and not merely carbonic acid1 which if present would completely volatilize as the paper dries4 ,now1 these two tests are in harmony4 ,the one shows the absence of limestone1 and the other shows the presence of acidity1 and consequently the need of limestone to correct or neutralize the acidity1 for limestone itself is an alkali4 ,but limestone soils are not alkali soils1 are they8 asked ,mr4 ,west4 ,not in the sense of containing injurious alkali1 like sodium carbonate1 the compound which is found in the 'black alkali' lands of the arid regions of the far ,west2 but chemically considered limestone is truly an alkali2 and1 as such1 it has power to neutralze this soil acidity4 ,is the acidity harmful to the crops8 ,it is not particularly harmful to the common crops of the grass family1 such as wheat1 corn1 oats1 and timothy2 but some of the most valuable crops for soil improvement will not thrive on acid soils4 ,this is especially true of clover and alfalfa4 ,that is certainly correct for clover so far as this kind of soil is concerned1 said ,mr4 ,west4 ,clover never amounts to much on this kind of land1 except where heavily fertilized4 ,when fertilized it usually grows well4 ,does the farm fertilizer neutralize the acid8 ,only to a small extent4 ,it is true that farm manures contain very appreciable amounts of lime and some other alkaline1 or basic1 substances1 but in addition to this1 and perhaps of greater importance1 is the fact that such fertilizer has power to feed the clover crop as well as other crops4 ,in other words it furnishes the essential materials of which these crops are made4 ,in addition to this the decaying organic matter has power to liberate some plant food from the soil which would not otherwise be made available although to that extent the farm manure serves as a soil stimulant1 this action tending not toward soil enrichment but toward the further depletion of the store of fertility still remaining in the soil4 ,this seems a complicated problem1 said ,mr4 ,west1 but may ,i now show you some of our more productive land8 ,as soon as ,i collect a sample of this1 replied ,percy1 and to ,mr4 ,west's surprise he proceeded to bore about twenty holes in the space of two or three acres4 ,the borings were taken to a depth of about seven inches1 and after being thoroughly mixed together an average sample of the lot was placed in a small bag bearing a number which ,percy recorded in his note book together with a description of the land4 ,i wish to have an analysis made of this sample1 remarked ,percy1 as they resumed their walk4 ,but ,i thought you had analyzed this soil1 was the reply4 ,oh1 ,i only tested for limestone and acidity1 explained ,percy4 ,i wish to have exact determinations made of the nitrogen and phosphorus1 and perhaps of the potassium1 magnesium1 and calcium4 ,all of these are absolutely essential for the growth of every agricultural plant2 and any one of them may be deficient in the soil1 although the last three are not so likely to be as the other two4 ,how long will it take to make this analysis8 was asked4 ,about a week or ten days4 ,perhaps ,i shall collect two or three other samples and send them all together to an analytical chemist4 ,it is the only way to secure positive knowledge in advance as to what these soils contain4 ,in other words1 by this means we can take an absolute invoice of the stock of fertility in the soil1 just as truly as the merchant can take an invoice of the stock of goods carried on his shelves4 ,so far as we are concerned1 this would not be an invoice in advance1 remarked ,mr4 ,west1 with a shade of sadness in his voice4 ,if we knew the contents of the crops that have been sold from this farm during the two centuries past1 we would have a fairly good invoice1 ,i fear1 of what the virgin soil contained2 but can you compare the invoice of the soil with that of the merchant's goods8 ,quite fairly so1 ,percy replied4 ,the plant food content of the plowed soil of an acre of normal land means nearly1 if not quite1 as much in the making of definite plans for a system of permanent agriculture1 as the merchant's invoice means in the future plans of his business4 ,it should not be assumed that the analysis of the soil will give information the application of which will always assure an abundant crop the following season4 ,in comparison1 it may also be said1 however1 that the merchant's invoice of ,january the first may have no relation to the sales from his store on ,january the second4 ,now1 the year with the farmer is as a day with the merchant4 ,the farmer harvests his crop but once a year2 while the merchant plants and harvests every day1 or at least every week4 ,but ,i would say that the invoice of the soil is worth as much to the farmer for the next year as the merchant's invoice is to him for the next month4 ,it should be remembered1 however1 that both must look forward1 and plans must be made by the merchant for several months1 and by the farmer for several years4 ,your twelve-year rotation is a very good example of the kind of future planning the successful farmer must do4 ,on the other hand1 some of your neighbors1 who have not practiced some such system of rotation now have 'old-field' pine on land long since abandoned1 and soil too poor to cultivate on land long cropped continuously4 ,this is a kind soil1 remarked ,mr4 ,west1 as he paused on a gently undulating part of the field4 ,that is a new use of the word to me1 said ,percy4 ,just what do you mean by a 'kind' soil8 ,well1 if we apply manure here it will show in the crop for many years4 ,it is easy to build this soil up with manure2 but1 of course1 we have too little to treat it right4 ,the soil is almost neutral1 said ,percy1 testing with litmus and acid4 ,does clover grow on this soil8 ,very little1 except where we put manure4 ,another composite sample of the soil was collected1 and they walked on4 ,now1 here1 said ,mr4 ,west1 is about the most productive upland on the farm4 ,is that possible8 asked ,percy1 the question being directed more to himself than to his host4 ,that is according to my observation for about fifty years1 he replied4 ,where we spread the farm fertilizer over this old pasture land and plow it under for corn1 we often harvest a crop of eight barrels to the acre1 while the average of the field will not be more than five barrels4--,a barrel of corn with us is five bushels4 ,they had stopped on one of the steepest slopes in the field4 ,these hillsides would be considered the poorest land on the farm if we were in the corn belt1 said ,percy1 but ,i think ,i understand the difference4 ,your level uplands when once depleted remain depleted1 because the soil that was plowed two hundred years ago is the same soil that is plowed to-day2 but these slopes lose surface soil by erosion at least as rapidly as the mineral plant food is removed by cropping2 and to that extent they afford the conditions for a permanent system of agriculture of low grade1 unless1 of course1 the erosion is more rapid than the disintegration of the underlying bed rock1 which ,i note is showing in some outcrops in the gullies4 ,i want some samples here1 he continued1 and at once proceeded to collect a composite sample of the surface soil and another of the sub-soil4 ,in the main this soil is slightly acid1 said ,percy1 after several tests1 with the hydrochloric acid and the litmus paper2 although occasionally there are traces of limestone present4 ,the mass of soil seems to be faintly acid1 but here and there are little pieces of limestone which still produce some localized benefit1 and probably prevent the development of more marked acidity throughout the soil mass4 ,if ,i can get to an express office this afternoon1 he continued1 ,i shall be glad to forward these four composite samples to an analyst4 ,if you wouldn't mind riding to ,montplain with ,adelaide when she goes for her music lesson this afternoon1 it would be very convenient1 said ,mr4 ,west4 ,with your daughter's permission that would suit me very well1 he replied4 ,i shall be glad to spend one or two days more in this vicinity1 and then ,i wish to visit other sections for a week or two1 after which ,i would be glad to stop here again on my return trip and probably ,i shall have the report of the chemist concerning these samples4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,black ,,peril ,,as ,percy stepped out of the house in the early afternoon upon the announcement from ,wilkes that ,de ca'age is ready1 he noted that the ca'age was the two-seated family carriage and that ,adelaide had already taken her place in the front seat1 as driver1 with her music roll and another bundle tucked in by her side4 ,her glance at ,percy and at the rear seat was also sufficient to indicate his place4 ,this does not seem right to me1 ,miss ,west1 said ,percy4 ,unless you prefer to drive ,i shall be very glad to do so and let you occupy this more comfortable seat4 ,no thank you1 she replied1 in a tone that left no room for argument4 ,i often drive our guests to and from the station1 and ,i much prefer this seat4 ,the rear seat was roomy and low1 so that ,percy could scarcely see the road ahead even by sitting on the opposite side from the driver4 ,aside from an occasional commonplace remark both the driver and the passenger were allowed to use the time for meditation4 ,while ,adelaide was already an experienced horsewoman1 she was rarely permitted to drive the colts to the village1 although she enjoyed riding the more spirited horses1 or driving with her brother in the buck board4 ,a mile from the village the road wound through a wooded valley1 and then climbed the opposite slope1 passing the railway station a quarter of a mile from town and the depot hotel near by4 ,here ,percy left the carriage with the bags of soil1 it being arranged that he would be waiting at the hotel when ,adelaide returned from the village4 ,adelaide's hour was from four to five1 and being the last pupil for the day1 the teacher was not prompt to close4 ,i did not realize the days were becoming so short1 said ,miss ,konster as she opened the door4 ,i'm sorry you have so far to drive4 ,oh1 ,i don't mind1 said ,adelaide1 ,i know the way home well enough4 ,you see ,i have the double carriage1 for ,i brought a guest to the depot as usual1 although he is to return with me1 and is probably very tired of waiting at the 'depot hotel4' ,it was nearly dark as ,percy took his place in the rear seat1 ,adelaide having again declined to yield her position as driver1 and now she had more packages nearly filling the seat beside her4 ,the team leisurely took the homeward way and nothing more was said except an occasional word of encouragement to the horses4 ,they passed the lowest point in the valley and began to ascend the gentle slope1 when the carriage suddenly stopped1 and ,adelaide uttered a muffled scream4 ,come1 ,honey1 said a masculine voice4 ,as ,percy half rose to his feet1 he saw that a negro had grasped ,adelaide in an effort to drag her from the carriage4 ,a blow from ,percy staggered the brute and he released his hold of ,adelaide1 but1 as he saw ,percy jump from the carriage on the opposite side1 he paused4 ,de's a man heah4 ,knock him1 ,geo'ge1 he yelled1 as he turned to again grapple with ,adelaide ,coward1 cried ,adelaide1 as she saw ,percy jump from the carriage and dart up the road4 ,facing this black brute1 she was standing alone now with one hand on the back of the seat4 ,as the negro sprang at her the second time he uttered a scream like the cry of a beast and fell sprawling on his face4 ,almost at the same moment his companion was fairly lifted from his feet and came down headlong beside the carriage4 ,look out for the horses1 called ,percy1 as he drove the heels of his heavy shoes into the moaning mass on the ground4 ,lie there1 you brute1 he cried1 don't you dare to move4 ,i have the lines1 said ,adelaide hoarsely1 but can't ,i do something more8 ,no4 they're both down1 he answered4 ,wait a minute4 ,he found himself between the negroes lying with their faces to the ground4 ,instantly he grasped each by the wrist and with an inward twist he brought forth cried for mercy4 ,it was a trick he had learned in college1 that1 by drawing the arm behind the back and twisting1 a boy could control a strong man4 ,can't ,i help you8 ,adelaide called again1 and ,percy saw that she was out of the carriage and standing near4 ,will the horses stand8 he asked4 ,oh1 yes1 they're quiet now4 ,then take the tie rope and tie their feet together4 ,use the slip knot just as you do for the hitching post1 he directed4 ,if they dare to move ,i can wrench their arms out in this position4 ,right there at the ankles4 ,tie them tight and as closely together as you can4 ,wrap it twice around if it's long enough4 ,adelaide tied one end of the rope around the ankle of one negro and wrapped the other end around the ankle of the other1 drawing their feet together and fastening the ends of the rope with a double hitch1 which she knew well how to make4 ,percy gave the rope a kick to tighten it4 ,now get onto your feet and ,i'll march you to town1 he ordered1 adding pressure to the twist upon their wrists and drawing them back upon their knees ,thus assisted1 they struggled to their feet4 ,i am afraid you will have to drive home alone1 ,miss ,west1 began ,percy1 when ,adelaide interrupted with3 ,no1 no1 if you are going back to town1 ,i will follow you4 ,i can easily turn the team and ,i will keep close behind4 ,thus tied together1 ,percy almost ran his prisoners toward the village1 still holding each firmly by the wrist4 ,as they reached the depot hotel1 he called for assistance1 and several men quickly appeared4 ,percy made a brief report of the attack as they moved on to the town house1 where the villians were placed in shackles and left in charge of the marshall4 ,will you drive1 please1 ,mr4 ,johnston8 asked ,adelaide as he stepped to the carriage2 for ,adelaide had followed almost to the door of the jail house4 ,yes1 please1 he replied1 taking the seat beside her4 ,i hope you will pardon my calling you a coward1 ,i felt so desperate1 and it seemed to me for the moment that you were leaving me4 ,adelaide's voice still had an excited tremor to it4 ,i heard you say 'coward1' said ,percy1 but ,i didn't realize that you referred to me4 ,i saw the two brutes almost at the same time1 the one who attacked you and the other on the same side near the horses' heads4 ,i struck the one as best ,i could from my position1 and as he yelled and the horses reared1 ,i ran up the slope ahead of the team and came down at the other brute with a blow in the neck1 but ,i was surprised to find them both sprawling on the ground2 and under the street lights ,i saw that one of them had an eye frightfully jammed4 ,i am sure ,i struck neither of them in the eye4 ,adelaide made no reply1 but she knew now that the piercing1 beastly cry from the negro reaching for her was brought forth because the heel of her shoe had entered the socket of the brute's eye4 ,you're mighty nigh too late for supper1 said grandma ,west1 as they stopped at the side gate4 ,adelaide hurried to her father who took her in his arms as he saw how she trembled4 ,my child6 he said4 ,yes1 child she was as she relaxed from the tension of the last hour and related the experience of the evening4 ,i cannot express our gratitude to you1 ,sir1 said ,mr4 ,west3 ,i am glad you landed the devils in jail4 ,i am only thankful ,i was there when it happened1 replied ,percy4 ,i am sure no man could have done less4 ,i have promised to return to town in the morning to serve as legal witness in the case4 ,i hope your daughter need not be called upon for that4 ,probably that will not be necessary1 ,mr4 ,west replied4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,slave ,,and ,,the ,,freedman ,,the others had retired but ,percy and his host continued their conversation far into the night4 ,there are almost as great variations among the negroes as among white people1 ,mr4 ,west was saying4 ,to a man like ,wilkes who was born and raised here on the farm1 ,i would entrust the protection of my wife and children as readily as to any white man4 ,he has been educated1 so to speak1 to a sense of duty and honor2 and negroes of his class have almost never been known to violate a trust4 ,of course there are bad niggers1 but as a rule such negroes have grown up under conditions that would develop the evil in any race of men4 ,during the ,secession it was the most common thing for the men to go to war and leave their defenseless women and children wholly in the care of their slaves2 and1 even though the federal soldiers were fighting to free the slaves and their masters to keep them in slavery1 rarely did a negro fail to remain faithful to his trust4 ,they hid from the northern soldiers the horses and mules1 cotton and corn1 clothing and provisions1 and all sorts of valuables2 and in most cases were ready to suffer themselves before they would reveal the hidden property4 ,to be sure there were masters who abused their slaves1 and some of these were naturally ready to desert at the first opportunity2 but in the main the slave owner was more kind to his human property than the considerate soldier was to his horse1 and the negro as a race is appreciative of kindness4 ,i suppose the depreciation in soil fertility and crop yields dates largely from the freeing of the slaves does it not8 asked ,percy4 ,well1 that was one factor1 but not the most potential factor4 ,much land in the south had been abandoned agriculturally long before the war1 and much land in ,new ,york and ,new ,england has been abandoned since the war4 ,the freeing of the negroes produced much less effect in the economic conditions of the south than many have supposed4 ,the great injury to the ,south from the war was due to the war itself and not to the freeing of slaves4 ,in the main it cost no more to hire the negro after the war than it cost to feed and clothe him before2 and the humane slave owner had little difficulty in getting plenty of negro help after the war4 ,very commonly his own slaves remained with him and were treated as servants1 not particularly differently than they had been treated as slaves4 ,of course there were some brutal slave holders1 just as there are brutal horse owners1 and such men suffered very much from the loss of slave labor4 ,the southern people have no regrets for the freeing of the slaves4 ,probably it was the best thing that ever happened to us2 and the ,south would have less regret for the war itself1 except that our recovery from it was greatly delayed by the reconstruction policy which was followed after the war4 ,the immediate enfranchisement of the negro1 especially in those sections where this resulted in placing all the power of the local government in the hands of the negro1 was a worse blow to the ,south than the war itself4 ,it is believed that this would not have been done if ,lincoln had lived4 ,lincoln was always the ,president of all the people of the ,united ,states1 and his death was a far greater loss to the ,south than to the ,north4 ,to place the power to govern the intelligent white of the ,south absolutely in the hands of their former ignorant slaves was undoubtedly the most abominable political blunder recorded in history2 and even this was intensified by the unprincipled white-skinned vultures who came among us to fatten upon our dead or dying conditions4 ,those years of so-called reconstruction1 constitute the blackest page in the history of modern civilization4 ,i quite agree with you1 said ,percy1 and so far as ,i know them the soldiers of the northern armies also agree with you4 ,several of my own relatives fought to free the negro slave2 but none of them fought to enslave their white brothers of the ,south by putting them absolutely under negro government4 ,and yet there is one possible justification for that abominable reconstruction policy4 ,it may have averted a subsequent war which might have lasted not for four years1 but for forty years4 ,even if this be true1 perhaps there is no credit in the policy for any man who helped to enforce it1 but you will grant that there were two important results from those bitter years of reconstruction3 ,first1 the negro learned with certainty at once and forever that he was a free man4 ,second1 he at once acquired a degree of independence effectually preventing the development of a situation throughout the ,south1 in which the negro1 though nominally free1 would have remained virtually a slave1 a situation which1 if once established1 might have required a subsequent war of many years for its complete eradication4 ,even under the conditions which have prevailed1 there have been isolated instances of peonage in the southern states since the war2 and if the education and gradual enfranchisement of the negro had been left wholly in the hands of their former masters1 from the immediate close of the war1 ,i can conceive of conditions under which slavery would essentially have been continued4 ,such a possibility is1 of course1 conceivable1 said ,mr4 ,west1 and we must all admit that there were some slave holders who would have taken advantage of any such opportunity2 but had ,lincoln lived the terms made would probably have been such that the ,south would have felt in honor bound to enforce them4 ,probably the enfranchisement would have been based upon some sort of qualification such as the southern states have very generally adopted in subsequent years2 but the idea of social equality of slave and master was so repulsive to the white people of the ,south that it could not be tolerated under any sort of government4 ,this question of social equality1 remarked ,percy1 has probably been the cause of more misunderstanding between the ,north and the ,south than all other questions relating to the negro problem4 ,i have rarely1 if ever1 talked with a southern man who did not have it firmly fixed in his mind that the common idea of the northern people is that the negro race should be made the social equal of the white race4 ,this ,i have heard from southern lecturers2 ,i have read it in southern newspapers2 and ,i have found it in books written by southern authors2 but1 ,mr4 ,west1 ,i have never yet heard that idea advanced by a man or woman of the ,north4 ,of course there have been visionary theorists or 'cranks' in all ages1 and there must have been some basis for this almost universal erroneous opinion in the ,south that the people of the ,north advocated social equality or social intercourse between the white and colored races2 and yet nothing could be farther from the truth4 ,in all my life in the ,north1 ,i think ,i have never seen a colored person dining with a white man4 ,this does not prove that there are no such occurrences1 but it certainly shows that they are extremely rare4 ,on the other hand1 in traveling through the ,south ,i have seen a white woman bring her colored maid or nurse1 to the dining car and sit at the same table with herself and husband4 ,of course there is no suggestion of social equality or social intercourse in this1 but there is a much closer relationship than is common or would be allowed in the ,north4 ,that may be true1 said ,mr4 ,west1 and there was in slave times a very intimate relationship between the negro nurses and the white children of the ,south4 ,some of our people are ready to take offense at the suggestion that we talk negro dialect1 and perhaps we would all prefer to say that the negroes have learned to talk as we talk2 but the truth is that the negroes were brought to ,america chiefly as adults2 and1 as is usually the case when adult people learn a new language1 they modified ours because their own ,african language did not contain all of the sounds of the ,english tongue4 ,similarly we hear and recognize the other nationalities when they learn to speak ,english4 ,thus we have the ,irish brogue1 the ,german brogue1 and the ,french brogue1 or dialect4 ,the negro children learned to speak the dialect as spoken by their own parents2 and as a very general rule the white children learned to talk as their negro nurses talked4 ,so far as there is a southern dialect it is due to the modification of our language by the negro4 ,you have mentioned several things1 said ,percy1 that are much to the credit of the negro who has had a fair chance to be trained along right lines2 and ,i think the modficaton of our language which his presence has brought about in the ,south is not without some credit4 ,it is generally agreed that the most pleasing ,english we hear is that of the ,southern orator4 ,referring to social conditions1 the most marked difference which ,i have noticed between the ,north and ,south1 and really1 it seems to me1 the only difference of importance1 is that the ,south has separate schools for white and colored1 whereas in the ,north the school is not looked upon as a social institution4 ,as a rule no more objection is raised to white and colored children sitting on separate seats in the same school room than to their sitting on separate seats in the same street car4 ,the school is regarded as a place for work1 where each has his own work to do1 much the same as in the shop or factory where both white and colored are employed4 ,the expense of the single school system is1 of course1 much less than where separate schools are maintained2 and perhaps an equally important point is that in the single system the same moral standards are held up by the teachers for both white and colored children4 ,that point is worthy of consideration1 said ,mr4 ,west4 ,it is very certain that a class of negroes has grown up in these more recent years that was practically unknown in slave times when white men were more largely responsible for their moral training4 ,the vile wretches who made the attack this evening probably never received any moral training4 ,it is conceivable that the moral influence of the white children over the negroes in the same school might exert a lasting benefit1 even aside from the influence of the teacher2 and the relationship of the school room could not be any real disadvantage to the white child4 ,but this could only be brought about where white teachers were employed4 ,some such arrangement would doubtless have been made had the mind of ,lincoln directed the general policy of reconstruction2 but it is doubtful now if the negro teacher will ever be wholly replaced1 although time has wrought greater changes in political lines since the black years of the reconstruction4 ,yes1 said ,percy1 and those changes which have been brought about in the ,south have the full sympathy and approval of the great majority of the ,northern people4 ,indeed1 it is extremely doubtful if the ,north will be able to completely banish such a source of vice and corruption as the open saloon until limitation is placed upon the franchise by an educational qualification4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,judgment ,,is ,,come ,,the goddess of sleep seemed to have deserted ,westover4 ,adelaide lay in her mother's arms1 either awake and restless or in fitful sleep from which she frequently awoke with a muffled scream or a physical contortion4 ,once1 as she nestled closer1 her mother heard her murmur3 ,you must pardon me4 ,percy1 from the southwest room1 was sure he heard horses feet at the side gate4 ,the murmur of low voices reached his ear1 and then he recognized that horsemen were riding away4 ,the house was astir at early dawn2 and as soon as breakfast was over ,mr4 ,west had the colts hitched to the buckboard and he drove with ,percy to ,montplain4 ,i think your testimony will not be needed this morning1 said ,mr4 ,west1 but it may be needed later1 and it is well that you should report to the officers at any rate1 since you promised to be there this morning4 ,percy pointed out the place where the attack had been made1 and he looked for a stump of a small tree or for any other object upon which the negro could have fallen with such force as to mash his eye2 but he saw nothing4 ,as soon as they reached the village1 ,mr4 ,west drove directly to the town house2 and there two black bodies were seen hanging from the limb of an old tree in the courthouse yard4 ,percy noted that his companion showed no sign of surprise2 and1 after the first shock of his complete realization of the work of the night1 he looked calmly upon the scene4 ,they had stopped almost under the tree4 ,are these the brutes who made the attack and whom you captured and delivered to the officer8 asked ,mr4 ,west4 ,they are1 he replied4 ,in your opinion have they received justice8 ,yes1 ,sir1 ,percy replied1 but ,i fear without due process of law4 ,let me tell you1 ,sir1 there is no law on the statutes under which justice could be meted out to these devils for the nameless crime which ends in death by murder or by suicide of the helpless victim1 a crime which these wretches committed only in their black hearts--thanks to you1 ,sir4 ,as he spoke1 the town marshall approached followed by the negro pastor of the local church and a few of his followers4 ,silently they lowered the bodies to the ground1 placed them upon improvised stretchers1 and carried them to the potters field outside the village1 where rough coffins and graves were ready to receive them4 ,as ,mr4 ,west and ,percy returned to ,westover they discussed the lands which in the main were lying abandoned on either side of the road4 ,here1 said ,mr4 ,west1 as he paused on the brow of a sloping hillside1 was as near to ,westover as the ,union army came4 ,the position of the breastworks may still be seen4 ,the ,southern army lay across the valley yonder4 ,these two trees are sprouts from an old stump of a tree that was shot away4 ,about seventeen hundred confederate dead were buried in trenches in the valley1 but they were later removed4 ,the federal dead were carried away as the ,union army retreated4 ,we never learned their number4 ,for three days ,westover was made headquarters of the confederate officers1 and my mother worked day and night to prepare food for them4 ,they stopped at ,westover for a few moments1 ,percy remaining in the buckboard while ,mr4 ,west reported to his family what they had seen in ,montplain4 ,our report1 said ,mr4 ,west1 hideous and horrible as it is1 will help to restore the child to calm and quiet4 ,to speak frankly1 ,sir1 occurrences of this sort1 sometimes with the worst results1 are sufficiently frequent in the ,south so that we constantly feel the added weight or burden whenever the sister1 wife1 or daughter is left without adequate protection4 ,the remaining hours of the morning were devoted to a drive over the country surrounding ,westover2 and ,mr4 ,west consented to ,adelaide's request that she be allowed to drive ,percy to the station at ,montplain1 where he was to take the afternoon train for ,richmond4 ,she chose the buckboard but insisted upon driving4 ,they talked of their school and college days1 of the books they had read1 of anything in fact except of the experiences of the past twenty-four hours4 ,even when they entered the valley no shadow crossed ,adelaide's face2 but as they neared the station her voice changed1 and as ,percy looked into her winsome1 frankly upturned face1 she said3 ,have ,i truly been pardoned for my cruel words last evening8 ,i am sure you were as manly and noble as any man could have been4 ,and ,i am sure you were the bravest little woman ,i have ever known1 replied ,percy1 and ,i admire you the more for calling me a coward when you thought ,i was running away2 so there is nothing to pardon ,i am sure4 ,she gave him her hand as a child at parting1 but he thought as he looked into her eyes that he saw the soul of a woman4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,restoration ,,percy carried with him a most interesting and attractive circular of information concerning the rapid restoration of the farm lands of the ,south4 ,it also stated that further information could be secured from a certain real estate agent in ,richmond1 who was found to be still in his office when ,percy arrived in the city late in the afternoon4 ,the agent was delighted to receive a call from the ,western man1 and assured him that he would gladly show him several plantations not far from the city which could be purchased at very reasonable prices4 ,indeed he could have his choice of these old southern homesteads for the very low price of forty dollars an acre4 ,a map of an adjoining county showed the exact location of several such farms1 some of which were of great historical interest4 ,at what time in the morning could he be ready to be shown one of these rare bargains8 ,what treatment do these lands require to restore their productiveness8 asked ,percy4 ,no treatment at all1 ,sir1 except the adoption of your western methods of farming and your system of crop rotation4 ,i tell you the results are marvelous when western farmers get hold of these famous old plantations4 ,just good farming and a change of crops1 that's all they need4 ,does clover grow well8 asked ,percy4 ,we grow that a good deal in the ,west4 ,oh1 yes1 clover will grow very well1 indeed1 but cowpeas is a much better crop than clover4 ,our best farmers prefer the cowpea2 and after a crop of cowpeas1 you can raise large crops of any kind4 ,of course you know of those who have been successful in restoring some of these old farms1 ,percy suggested4 ,oh1 yes1 ,sir1 many of them1 and they are making money hand over fist1 and their lands are increasing in value1 and no doubt will continue to increase just as your western lands have done4 ,yes1 ,sir1 the greatest opportunity for investment in land is right here and now1 and these old plantations are being snapped up very rapidly4 ,i shall be glad to know of some of these successful farmers who are using the improved methods4 ,will you name one1 just as an example1 and tell me about what he has done to restore his land8 ,well1 said the agent1 ,there's ,t4 ,o4 ,thornton1 for example4 ,mr4 ,thornton bought an old plantation of a thousand acres only six years ago at a cost of six dollars an acre4 ,he has been growing cowpeas in rotation with other crops2 and1 as ,i say1 he is making money hand over fist4 ,a few months ago he refused to consider fifty dollars an acre for his land1 but still there are some of these old plantations left that can be bought for forty dollars1 because the people don't really know what they are worth4 ,however1 our lands are all much higher than they were a few years ago4 ,where does ,mr4 ,thornton live8 asked ,percy4 ,oh1 he lives at ,blairville1 nearly a hundred miles from ,richmond4 ,yes1 he lives on his farm near ,blairville4 ,i tell you he's making good all right1 but ,i don't know of any land for sale in that section4 ,i think ,i will go out to ,blairville to see ,mr4 ,thornton's farm1 said ,percy4 ,do you know when the trains run8 ,well1 ,i'm sorry to say that the train service is very poor to ,blairvile4 ,there is only one train a day that reaches ,blairville in daylight1 and that leaves ,richmond very early in the morning4 ,that is all right1 said ,percy1 it will probably get me there in time so that ,i shall be sure to find ,mr4 ,thornton at home4 ,i thank you very much1 ,sir4 ,perhaps ,i shall be able to see you again when ,i return from ,blairville4 ,when you return from ,blairville is about the most uncertain thing in the world4 ,as ,i said1 the train service is mighty poor to ,blairville1 and it's still poorer1 you'll find1 when you want to leave ,blairville4 ,why1 a traveling man told me he had been on the road for fifteen years1 and he swore he had spent seven of 'em at ,blairville waiting for trains4 ,better take my advice and look over some of the fine old plantations right here in the next county and then you can take all the rest of the month if you wish getting in and out of ,blairville4 ,about eight o'clock the following morning ,percy might have been seen walking along the railroad which ran through ,mr4 ,thornton's farm about two miles from ,blairvile4 ,he saw a well beaten path which led from the railroad to a nearby cottage and a knock brought to the door a negro woman followed by several children4 ,can you tell me where ,mr4 ,thornton's farm is8 he inquired4 ,yes1 ,suh1 she replied4 ,this is ,mistah ,tho'nton's place1 right heah1 ,suh4 ,leastways1 it was his place2 but we done bought twenty acahs of it heah1 wheah we live1 'cept tain all paid fo' yit4 ,mistah ,tho'nton lives in the big house over theah 'bout half a mile4 ,may ,i ask what you have to pay for land here8 ,oh1 we have to pay ten dollahs an acah1 cause we can't pay cash4 ,my ol' man he wo'ks on the railroad section and we just pay ,mistah ,tho'nton foh dollahs every month4 ,my chil'n wo'k in the ga'den and tend that acah patch o' co'n4 ,do you fertilize the corn8 ,yes1 ,suh4 ,we can't grow nothin' heah without fe'tilizah4 ,we got two hundred pounds fo' three dollahs last spring and planted it with the co'n4 ,as ,percy turned in at ,mr4 ,thornton's gate he saw a white man and two negroes working at the barn4 ,pardon me1 but is this ,mr4 ,thornton8 asked ,percy as he approached4 ,that is my name4 ,well1 my name is ,johnston4 ,i am especially interested in learning all ,i can about the farm lands in this section and the best methods of farming4 ,i live in ,illinois1 and have thought some of selling our little farm out there and buying a larger one here in the ,east where the land is much cheaper than with us4 ,a real estate agent in ,richmond has told me something of the progress you are making in the improvement of your large farm4 ,i hope you will not let me interfere with your work1 ,sir4 ,oh1 this work is not much4 ,i've had a little lumber sawed at a mill which is running just now over beyond my farm1 and ,i am trying to put a shed up here over part of the barn yard so we can save more of the manure4 ,i shall be very glad to give you any information ,i can either about my own farming or about the farm lands in this section4 ,you have about a thousand acres in your farm ,i was told4 ,yes1 we still have some over nine hundred acres in the place1 but we are farming only about two hundred acres1 including the meadow and pasture land4 ,the other seven hundred acres are not fenced1 and1 as you will see1 the land is mostly grown up to scrub trees4 ,your corn appears to be a very good crop4 ,about how many acres of corn do you have this year8 ,i have only fourteen acres4 ,that is all ,i could cover with manure1 and it is hardly worth trying to raise corn without manure4 ,do you use any commercial fertilizer8 ,well1 ,i've been using some bone meal4 ,i've no use for the ordinary complete commercial fertilizer4 ,it sometimes helps a little for one year2 but it seems to leave the land poorer than ever4 ,bone meal lasts longer and doesn't seem to hurt the land4 ,i see from the agricultural papers that some of the experiment stations report good results from the use of fine-ground raw rock phosphate2 but they advise using it in connection with organic matter1 such as manure or clover plowed under4 ,i am planning to get some and mix it with the manure here under this shed4 ,do you use commercial fertilizers in ,illinois8 ,not to speak of1 but some of our farmers are beginning to use the raw phosphate4 ,our experiment station has found that our most extensive soil types are not rich in phosphorus1 and has republished for our benefit the reports from the ,maryland and ,ohio experiment stations showing that the fine-ground natural rock phosphate appears to be the most economical form to be used and that it is likely to prove much more profitable in the long run1 although it may not give very marked results the first year or two4 ,may ,i ask what products you sell from your farm1 ,mr4 ,thornton8 ,i sell cream4 ,i have a special trade in ,richmond1 and ,i ship my cream direct to the city4 ,i also sell a few hogs and some wheat4 ,i usually put wheat after corn1 and have fourteen acres of wheat seeded between the corn shocks over there4 ,sometimes ,i don't get the wheat seeded1 and then ,i put the land in cowpeas4 ,i usually raise about twenty-five acres of cowpeas1 and the rest of the cleared land ,i use for meadow and pasture4 ,i usually sow timothy after cowpeas1 and ,i like to break up as much old pasture land for corn as ,i can put manure on4 ,i was told that you had been offered fifty dollars an acre for your farm1 ,mr4 ,thornton1 but that you would not consider the offer4 ,mr4 ,thornton laughed heartily at this remark4 ,that must have come from the ,richmond land agent1 he said4 ,someone else was telling me that story a short time ago4 ,the fact is one of those real estate agents was out here last spring and he asked me if ,i would consider an offer of fifty dollars an acre for our land4 ,i told him that ,i didn't think that ,i would as long as any one who wishes to buy can get all the land he wants in this section for five or ten dollars an acre4 ,that's as near as ,i came to having an offer of fifty dollars an acre for this land4 ,the land adjoining me on the south is is for sale1 and ,i am sure you could buy that farm of about seven hundred acres for four dollars an acre after they get the timber off4 ,some of the land has not been cropped for a hundred years1 ,i guess2 and there are a few trees on it that are big enough for light saw-stuff4 ,a man has bought the timber that is worth cutting1 and he is running a saw over there now2 but he'll get out all that's good for anything in a few months4 ,may ,i ask how long you have been farming here1 ,mr4 ,thornton8 ,twelve years on this farm1 he replied4 ,you see this estate was left to my wife and her sister who still lives with us4 ,we were married twelve years ago and ,i have been working ever since to make a living for us on this old worn-out farm4 ,of course ,i have made some little improvements about the barns1 but we've sold a little land too4 ,the railroad company wanted about an acre down where that little stream crosses1 for a water supply1 and ,i got twelve hundred dollars for that4 ,now1 ,i've already taken too much of your time1 said ,percy4 ,i thank you for your kindness in giving me so much information4 ,if there is no objection ,i shall be glad to take a walk about over your farm and the adjoining land1 and perhaps ,i can see you again for a few moments when ,i return4 ,certainly1 ,mr4 ,thornton replied4 ,there is no objection whatsoever4 ,we are going to ,blairville this morning1 but we shall be back before noon and ,i shall be glad to see you then4 ,i fear you have been given some misinformation by the real estate agents4 ,some of them1 by the way1 are ,northern men who came down here and bought land and when they found they could not make a living on it1 they sold it to other land hunters1 and ,i suppose that they made so much in the deal that they stayed right here as real estate agents4 ,they are great advertisers2 but ,i reckon our ,southern real estate men can just about keep even4 ,the agent who was out here last spring told me he showed one ,northern man a farm for #ab an acre and he was afraid to buy4 ,then he took him into another county and showed him a poorer farm for #de and he bought that at once4 ,the road there runs out through the fields4 ,our land runs back to the other public road and beyond that is the farm ,i told you of where the saw mill is running4 ,i've got some pretty good cowpeas you'll pass by4 ,i haven't got them off the racks yet4 ,percy found the cowpea hay piled in large shocks over tripods made of short stout poles which served to keep the hay off the ground to some extent1 and this permitted the cowpeas to be cured in larger piles and with less danger of loss from molding4 ,i find that the soil on your farm and on the other farm is very generally acid1 said ,percy a few hours later when ,mr4 ,thornton asked what he thought of the condititons of farming4 ,have you used any lime for improving the soil8 ,yes1 ,i tried it about ten years ago1 and it helped some1 but not enough to make it pay4 ,i put ten barrels on about three acres4 ,i thought it helped the corn and wheat a little1 and it showed right to the line where ,i put cowpeas on the land1 but ,i don't think it paid1 and it's mighty disagreeable stuff to handle4 ,do you remember how much it cost8 ,percy asked4 ,yes1 ,sir4 ,the regular price was a dollar a barrel1 but by taking ten barrels ,i got the ton for eight dollars2 but ,i'd rather have eight dollars' worth of bone meal4 ,i think the lime would be a great help to clover1 said ,percy4 ,yes1 that might be4 ,they tell me that they used to grow lots of clover here2 but it played out completely1 and nobody sows clover now1 except occasionally on an old feed lot which is rich enough to grow anything4 ,it takes mighty good land to grow clover2 but cowpeas are better for us4 ,they do pretty well for this old land1 only the seed costs too much1 and they make a sight of work1 and they're mighty hard to get cured4 ,you see they aren't ready for hay till the hot weather is mostly past4 ,if we could handle them in ,june and ,july1 as we do timothy we'd have no trouble2 but we don't get cowpeas planted till ,june1 and ,september is a poor time for haying4 ,it seems to me that clover is a much more satisfactory crop1 said ,percy4 ,one can sow clover with oats in the spring1 or on wheat land in the late winter1 and there is no more trouble with it until it is ready for haying about fifteen months later1 unless the land is weedy or the clover makes such a growth the first fall that we must clip it to prevent either the weeds or the clover from seeding4 ,this means that when you are planting your ground for cowpeas the next year after wheat or oats1 we are just ready to begin harvesting our clover hay2 and besides the regular hay crop we usually have some growth the fall before which is left on the land as a fertilizer1 and then we get a second crop of clover which we save either for hay or seed4 ,even after the seed crop is harvested there is usually some later fall growth1 and some let the clover stand till it grows some more the next spring and then plow it under for corn4 ,i can see that clover would be much better than cowpeas if we could grow it2 but1 as ,i said1 it's played out here4 ,our land simply won't grow it any more4 ,not having to plow for clover would save a great deal of the work we must do for our cowpeas4 ,some of our farmers follow a three-year rotation and plow the ground only once in three years1 said ,percy4 ,they plow the ground for corn1 disk it the next spring when oats and clover are seeded1 and then leave the land in clover the next year4 ,in that way they regularly harvest four crops1 including the two clover crops1 from only one plowing2 and in exceptional seasons ,i have known an extra crop of clover hay to be harvested in the late fall on the land where the oats were grown4 ,in regard to the lime question1 ,percy continued1 ,i wonder if you know of the work the ,pennsylvania ,experiment ,station has been doing with the use of ground limestone in comparison with burned lime4 ,no1 ,i never heard of ground limestone being used4 ,i supposed it had to be burned4 ,i should think it would be very expensive to grind limestone4 ,no1 it costs much less to grind it than to burn it1 ,percy replied4 ,mills are used for grinding rock in cement manufacture1 and the rock phosphate and bone meal must all be ground before using them either for direct application or for the manufacture of acidulated fertilizers2 and limestone is not so hard to grind as some other rocks4 ,furthermore it does not need to be so very finely ground4 ,if fine enough so that it will pass through a sieve with ten meshes to the inch it does very well4 ,that you see would be a hundred meshes to the square inch2 and1 of course1 a great deal of it will be much finer than that4 ,in fact the ground limestone used in the ,pennsylvania experiments was only fine enough so that about ninety per cent4 of it would pass a sieve with ten meshes to the inch1 and yet the limestone gave decidedly better results than the burned lime1 and it is not nearly so disagreeable to handle4 ,besides this1 the ground limestone is much less expensive4 ,it can be obtained at most points in ,illinois for about a dollar and fifty cents a ton4 ,a dollar and fifty cents a ton6 exclaimed ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,well1 that is cheap1 but how about the freight and the barrels and bags8 ,freight is a big item with us4 ,the dollar and fifty cents includes the freight1 was the reply4 ,includes the cost and the freight both8 ,yes1 and the ,illinois farmers have it shipped in bulk1 so there is no expense for barrels or bags4 ,of course the supplies of both coal and limestone are very abundant1 and with a well-equipped plant the actual cost of grinding does not exceed twenty-five cents a ton4 ,the original cost of the material ground and on board cars at the works varies from about sixty cents to one dollar a ton1 and this leaves a very fair margin of profit4 ,the men who furnish the ground limestone realize that very large quantities of it are needed if the soils of ,illinois are to be kept fertile1 and they also realize that the ultimate prosperity of the country depends upon agricultural prosperity4 ,their far-sightedness and patriotism combine to lead them to try to sell carloads of limestone instead of tons of burned lime4 ,as a matter of fact five or ten dollars profit on a car of limestone1 the use of which in large quantities is thus made possible in systems of positive soil improvement1 is very much better for all concerned than a profit of half that much on a single ton of burned lime which is used as a soil stimulant in systems of soil exhaustion4 ,it is certainly true1 said ,mr4 ,thornton1 that all other great industries depend upon agriculture1 directly or indirectly4 ,i have thought of it many times4 ,it seems to me that fishing is about the only exception of importance4 ,mr4 ,thornton requested that ,percy remain for lunch in order that they might return to the field to let him see the soil acidity tests made4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,why ,,percy ,,went ,,to ,,college ,i ,,am interested to know where you learned these things about acid soils and lime and limestone1 said ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,mostly in the agricultural college1 replied ,percy1 but much of the information really comes from the investigations that are conducted by the experiment stations4 ,for example1 the best information the world affords concerning the comparative value of burned lime and ground limestone is furnished by the ,pennsylvania ,agricultural ,experiment ,station4 ,those experiments have been carried on continuously since #ahhb1 and the results of twenty years' careful investigations have recently been published4 ,a four-year rotation of crops was practiced1 including corn1 oats1 wheat1 and hay1 the hay being clover and timothy mixed4 ,with every crop the limestone has given better results than the burned lime4 ,in fact the burned lime seems to have produced injurious results of late years1 and the analysis of the soil shows that there has been large loss of humus and nitrogen where the burned lime has been used1 the actual loss being equivalent to the destruction of more than two tons of farm manure per acre per annum4 ,well1 we surely need this information1 said ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,i have always supposed that the teachers in the agricultural college knew little or nothing of practical farming4 ,i did not go to college to learn practical farming1 if we mean by that the common practice of agriculture1 replied ,percy4 ,i already knew what we call practical farming2 that is1 how to do the ordinary farm work1 including such operations as plowing1 planting1 cultivating1 and harvesting2 but it seems to me1 ,mr4 ,thornton1 that this sort of practical farming has resulted in practical ruin for most of these ,eastern lands4 ,the fact is there is a side to agriculture that ,i knew almost nothing about as a so-called practical farmer1 and ,i am coming to believe that what we commonly call practical farming is often the most impractical farming1--certainly this is true if it ultimately results in depleted and abandoned lands4 ,the truly practical farmer is the man who knows not only how to do1 but also what to do and why he does it4 ,the ,simplon railroad tunnel connecting ,switzerland with ,italy is twelve miles long1--the longest in the world4 ,it was dug from the two ends1 but under the mountain1 six miles from either end1 the two holes came together exactly1 within a limit of error of less than six inches1 and made one continuous tunnel twelve miles long4 ,now1 this was not all accomplished by the practical men who knew how to handle a spade in digging a ditch4 ,the work was controlled by science1 and it was known in advance what the results would be4 ,i do not mean that it was known how hard the digging would be1 nor how much trouble would be caused by caving or by water2 but it was known that if the practical work was done1 the final outcome would be successful4 ,i think it is even more important that we understand enough of the sciences which underlie the practice of agriculture so we may know in advance that when the practical farm work is done the soil will be richer and better rather than poorer and less productive because of our impractical farming4 ,as ,i said1 ,i did not go to the agricultural college to learn the practice or art of farming2 ,i went to learn the science of agriculture2 but1 as a matter of fact1 ,i found the college professor knew about as much of practical agriculture as ,i did and a great deal of science that ,i did not know4 ,i found that the ,dean of the college1 who is also ,director of the ,experiment ,station1 had been born and raised on the farm1 had done all kinds of farm work1 the same as other farm boys1 had gone through an agricultural college1 and after his graduation had returned to the farm and remained there for ten years doing his own work with his own hands4 ,he has had as much actual farm experience as you have had1 ,mr4 ,thornton1 and ten years more than ,i have had4 ,he was finally called from the farm to become an assistant in the college from which he was graduated1 and in a few years he was advanced to head professor in agriculture4 ,about ten years ago he was made dean and director of the agricultural college and experiment station in my own state2 and ,i have been told that he will not recommend any one for a responsible position in an agricultural college unless he has had both farm experience and scientific training4 ,he and most of his associates are owners of farms and would return to them again if they did not feel that they are of more service to agriculture as teachers and investigators4 ,i am very glad to know about this1 said ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,certainly your opinion1 based upon such knowledge as you have of your own college1 is worth more than all the common talk ,i have ever heard from those who never saw an agricultural college4 ,i wish you would tell me something more in regard to what crops are made of and about the methods of making land better even while we are taking crops from it every year4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,a ,,lesson ,,in ,,farm ,,science ,,the subject is somewhat complicated1 ,percy replied1 yet it involves no more difficult problems than have been solved in many other lines4 ,the chief trouble is that we have done too little thinking about our own real problems4 ,even in the country schools we have learned something of banking and various other lines of business1 something of the history and politics of this and other countries1 something of the great achievements in war1 in discovery and exploration1 in art1 literature1 and invention2 but we have not learned what our soils contain nor what our crops require4 ,not one farmer in a hundred knows what chemical elements are absolutely required for the production of our agricultural plants1 and one may work hard on the farm from four o'clock in the morning till nine o'clock at night for forty years and still not learn what corn is made of4 ,all agricultural plants are composed of ten chemical elements1 and the growth of any crop is absolutely dependent upon the supply of these plant food elements4 ,if the supply of any one of these plant food elements is limited1 the crop yield will also be limited4 ,the grain and grass crops1 such as corn1 oats1 wheat1 and timothy1 also the root crops and potatoes1 secure two elements from the air1 one from water1 and seven from the soil4 ,the supply of some elements is constantly renewed by natural processes1 and iron1 one of the ten1 is contained in all normal soils in absolutely inexhaustible amount2 while other elements become deficient and the supply must be renewed by man1 or crop yields decrease and farming becomes unprofitable4 ,matter is absolutely indestructible4 ,it may change its form1 but not a pound of material substance can be destroyed4 ,matter moves in cycles1 and the key to the problem of successful permanent agriculture is the circulation of plant food4 ,while some elements have a natural cycle which is amply sufficient to meet all requirements for these elements as plant food1 other elements have no such cycle1 and it is the chief business of the farmer to make these elements circulate4 ,take carbon1 for example4 ,this element is well represented by hard coal4 ,soft coal and charcoal are chiefly carbon4 ,the diamond is pure crystallized carbon1 and charcoal made from pure sugar is pure1 uncrystallized carbon4 ,this can easily be made by heating a lump of sugar on a red hot stove until only a black coal remains4 ,now these different solid materials represent carbon in the elemental form or free state4 ,but carbon may unite with other elements to form chemical compounds1 and these may be solids1 liquids1 gases4 ,thus carbon and sulfur are both solid elements1 one black and the other yellow1 as generally found4 ,if these two elements are mixed together under ordinary conditions no change occurs4 ,the result is simply a mixture of carbon and sulfur4 ,but1 if this mixture is heated in a retort which excludes the air1 the carbon and sulfur unite into a chemical compound called carbon disulfid4 ,this compound is neither black1 yellow1 nor solid2 but it is a colorless1 limpid liquid2 and yet it contains absolutely nothing except carbon and sulfur4 ,that seems strange1 remarked ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,yes1 but similar changes are going on about us all the time1 replied ,percy4 ,we put ten pounds of solid black coal in the stove and an hour later we find nothing there1 except a few ounces of ashes which represent the impurities in the coal4 ,well1 the coal is burned up and destroyed1 is it not8 ,the carbon is burned and changed1 but not destroyed4 ,in this case1 the heat has caused the carbon to unite with the element oxygen which exists in the air in the form of a gas1 and a chemical compound is formed which we call carbon dioxid4 ,this compound is a colorless gas4 ,this element oxygen enters the vent of the stove and the compound carbon dioxid passes off through the chimney4 ,if there is any smoke1 it is due to small particles of unburned carbon or other colored substances4 ,as a rule more or less sulfur is contained in coal1 wood1 and other organic matter1 and this also is burned to sulfur dioxid and carried into the air1 from which it is brought back to the soil in rain in ample amounts to supply all of the sulfur required by plants4 ,everywhere over the earth the atmosphere contains some carbon dioxid and this compound furnishes all agricultural plants their necessary supply of both carbon and oxygen4 ,in other words1 these are the two elements that plants secure from the air4 ,the gas1 carbon dioxid1 passes into the plant through the breathing pores on the under side of the leaves4 ,these are microscopic openings but very numerous4 ,a square inch of a corn leaf may have a hundred thousand breathing pores4 ,now1 as we go on1 ,i am especially anxious to get at this question of supply and demand1 said ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,i think ,i understand about iron and sulfur1 and also that these two elements1 carbon and oxygen1 are both contained in the air in the compound called carbon dioxid1 and that this must supply our crops with those two elements of plant food4 ,i'd like to know about the supply4 ,how much is there in the air and how much do the crops require8 ,as you know1 said ,percy1 the atmospheric pressure is about fifteen pounds to the square inch4 ,yes1 ,i've heard that1 ,i know4 ,well1 that means1 of course1 that there are fifteen pounds of air resting on every square inch of the earth's surface2 in other words1 that a column of air one inch square and as high as the air goes1 perhaps fifty miles or more1 weighs fifteen pounds4 ,yes1 that is very clear4 ,there is only one pound of carbon in ten thousand pounds of ordinary country air4 ,now1 there are one hundred and sixty square rods in an acre1 and since there are twelve inches in a foot and sixteen and one-half feet in a rod1 it is easy to compute that there are nearly a hundred million pounds of air on an acre1 and that the carbon in this amounts to only five tons4 ,a three-ton crop of corn or hay contains one and one-fourth tons of the element carbon2 so that the total amount of the carbon in the air over an acre of land is sufficient for only four such crops2 while a single crop of corn yielding a hundred bushels to the acre1 such as we often raise in ,illinois on old feed-lots or other pieces of well treated land would require half of the total supply of carbon contained in the air over an acre4 ,however1 the largest crop of corn ever grown1 of which there is an established authentic record1 was not raised in ,illinois1 but in the state of ,south ,carolina1 in the county of ,marlborough1 in the year #ahih1 by ,z4 ,j4 ,drake2 and1 according to the authentic report of the official committee that measured the land and saw the crop harvested and weighed1 and awarded ,drake a prize of five hundred dollars given by the ,orange ,judd ,publishing ,company1--according to this very creditable evidence1 that acre of land yielded #bci bushels of thoroughly aid-dried corn2 and such a crop1 ,mr4 ,thornton1 would require as much carbon as the total amount contained in the air over an acre of land4 ,well1 that is astonishing6 ,then there must be some other source of supply besides the air4 ,there is no other direct source from which plants secure carbon2 but of course the air is in constant motion4 ,only one-fourth of the earth's surface is land1 and perhaps only one-fourth of this land is cropped1 and the average crop is about one-fourth of three tons2 so that the total present supply of carbon in the air would be sufficient for about two hundred and fifty years4 ,but as a matter of fact the supply is permanently maintained by the carbon cycle4 ,thus the carbon of coal that is burned in the stove returns to the air in carbon dioxid2 and all combustion of coal and wood1 grass and weeds1 and all other vegetable matter returns carbon to the atmosphere4 ,all decay of organic matter1 as in the fermentation of manure in the pile and the rotting of vegetable matter in the soil1 is a form of slow combustion and carbon dioxid is the chief produce of such decay4 ,sometimes an appreciable amount of heat is developed1 as in the steaming pile of stable refuse lying in the barnyard1 while the heat evolved in the soil is too quickly disseminated to be apparent4 ,in addition to all this1 every animal exhales carbon dioxid4 ,the body heat and the animal force or energy are supplied by the combustion of organic food within the body1 and here1 too1 carbon dioxid is the chief product of combustion4 ,thus1 as a general average1 the amount of carbon removed from the atmosphere by growing plants is no greater than the amount returned to the air by these various forms of combustion or decay4 ,in like manner the supply of combined oxygen is maintained1 both carbon and oxygen being furnished to the plant m the carbon dioxid4 ,as a matter of fact1 the air consists very largely of oxygen and nitrogen1 both in the free state1 but in this form these elements cannot be utilized in the growth of agricultural plants4 ,the only apparent exception to this is in case of legume crops1 such as clover1 alfalfa1 peas1 beans1 and vetch1 which have power to utilize the free nitrogen by means of their symbiotic relationship with certain nitrogen-fixing bacteria which live1 or may live1 in tubercles on their roots4 ,carbon and oxygen constitute about ninety per cent4 of the dry matter of ordinary farm crops1 and with the addition of hydrogen very important plant constituents are produced2 such as starch1 sugar1 fiber1 or cellulose1 which constitute the carbohydrate group4 ,as the name indicates1 this group contains carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen1 the last two being present in the same proportion as in water4 ,water is composed of the two elements1 hydrogen and oxygen1 both of which are gases in the free state4 ,water is taken into the plant through the roots and decomposed in the leaves in contact with the carbon dioxid under the influence of sunlight and the life principle4 ,the oxygen from the water and part of that from the carbon dioxid is given off into the air through the breathing pores1 while the carbon1 hydrogen1 and part of the oxygen1 unite to form the carbohydrates4 ,these three elements constitute about ninety-five per cent4 of our farm crops1 and yet every one of the other seven plant food elements is just as essential to the growth and full development of the plant as are these three4 ,then so long as we have air above and moisture below1 our crops will not lack for carbon1 oxygen1 and hydrogen4 ,is that the summing up of the matter8 ,yes1 ,sir1 ,percy replied4 ,and those three elements make up ninety-five per cent4 of our farm crops4 ,is that correct8 ,yes1 ,sir1 as an average4 ,well1 now it seems to me1 if nature thus provides ninety-five per cent4 of all we need1 we ought to find some way of furnishing the other five per cent4 ,it makes me think of the young wife who told her husband she could live on bread and water1 with his love1 and he told her that if she would furnish the bread he'd skirmish around and get the water4 ,but1 say1 did that ,south ,carolina man use any fertilizer for that immense crop of corn8 ,some fertilizer1 yes4 ,he applied manure and fertilizer from ,february till ,june4 ,in all he applied #ajjj bushels 7about #cj tons7 of farm manure1 #fjj bushels of whole cotton seed1 #ijj pounds of cotton seed meal1 #ijj pounds of kainit1 #aajj pounds of guano1 #bjj pounds of bone meal1 #bjj pounds of acid phosphate1 and #djj pounds of sodium nitrate4 ,i would also like to know the facts about this nitrogen business1 said ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,i've understood that one could get some of it from the air1 and ,i would much rather get it that way than to buy it from the fertilizer agent at twenty cents a pound4 ,cowpeas don't seem to help much1 and we don't have the cotton seed1 and we never have sufficient manure to cover much land4 ,it is a remarkable fact1 said ,percy1 that of the ten essential elements of plant food1 nitrogen is the most abundant1 measured by crop requirements1 and at the same time the most expensive4 ,the air above an acre of land contains enough carbon for a hundred bushels of corn per acre for two years1 and enough nitrogen for five hundred thousand years2 and yet the nitrogen in commercial fertilizers costs from fifteen to twenty cents a pound4 ,at commercial prices for nitrogen1 every man who owns an acre of land is a millionaire4 ,you mean he has millions in the air1 amended ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,yes1 that is the better way to put it1 ,percy admitted1 but the fact is he can not only get this nitrogen for nothing by means of legume crops1 but he is paid for getting it1 because those crops are profitable to raise for their own value4 ,clover1 alfalfa1 cowpeas1 and soy beans are all profitable crops1 and they all have power to use the free nitrogen of the air4 ,there are a few important facts to be kept in mind regarding nitrogen3 ,a fifty-bushel crop of corn takes #ge pounds of nitrogen from the soil4 ,of this amount about #ej pounds are in the grain1 #bd pounds are in the stalks1 and #a pound in the cobs4 ,a fifty-bushel crop of oats takes #dh pounds of nitrogen from the soil1 #cc pounds in the grain1 and #ae in the straw4 ,a twenty-five bushel crop of wheat also takes #dh pounds of nitrogen from the soil1 #cf pounds in the grain and #ab in the straw4 ,these amounts will vary to some extent with the quality of the crops1 just as the weight of a bushel of wheat varies from perhaps #ef to #fd pounds1 although as an average wheat weighs #fj pounds to the bushel4 ,you surely remember figures well1 remarked ,mr4 ,thornton as he made some notations4 ,it is easy to remember what we think about much and often1 said ,percy2 as easy to remember that a ton of cowpea hay contains #dc pounds of nitrogen as that ,blairville is #ec miles from ,richmond4 ,i have added those figures together1 continued ,mr4 ,thornton1 and ,i find that the three crops1 corn1 oats1 and wheat1 would require #aga pounds of nitrogen4 ,now suppose we raise a crop of cowpeas the fourth year1 how much nitrogen would be added to the soil in the roots and stubble8 ,not any4 ,do you mean to say that the roots and stubble of the cowpeas would add no nitrogen to the soil8 ,surely that does not agree with the common talk4 ,it is even worse than that1 said ,percy4 ,the cowpea roots and stubble would contain less nitrogen than the cowpea crop takes from a soil capable of yielding thirty bushels of corn or oats4 ,only about one-tenth of the nitrogen contained in the cowpea plant is left in the roots and stubble when the crop is harvested4 ,suppose the yield is two tons per acre of cowpea hay6 ,such a crop would contain about #hf pounds of nitrogen1 and about #aj pounds of nitrogen per acre would be left in the roots and stubble4 ,well1 that wouldn't go far toward replacing the #aga pounds removed from the soil by the corn1 oats1 and wheat1 that's sure1 was ,mr4 ,thornton's comment4 ,it is worse than that1 ,percy repeated4 ,land that will furnish #dh pounds of nitrogen for a crop of oats or wheat will furnish more than #aj pounds for a crop of cowpeas4 ,at the end of such a four-year rotation such a soil would be about #bjj pounds poorer in nitrogen per acre than at the beginning1 if all crops were removed and nothing returned4 ,how much would it cost to put that nitrogen back in commercial fertilizer8 asked ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,that depends1 of course1 upon what kind of fertilizer is used4 ,well1 most people around here who use fertilizer buy what the agent calls two-eight-two1 and its costs about one dollar and fifty cents a hundred pounds2 but it can be bought by the ton for about twenty-five dollars4 ',two-eight-two' means that the fertilizer is guaranteed to contain two per cent4 of ammonia1 eight per cent4 of available 'phosphoric acid1' and two per cent4 of potash4 ,ammonia is the same as nitrogen1 is it not8 ,no1 it is not the same1 replied ,percy4 ,ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen4 ,in order to have a clear understanding of the relation between ammonia and nitrogen we only need to know the combining weights of the elements4 ,the smallest particle of an element is called an atom4 ,hydrogen is the lightest of all the elements and the weight of the hydrogen atom is used as the standard or unit for the measure of all other atomic weights2 thus the atom of hydrogen weighs one4 ,one what8 interrupted ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,no one knows1 replied ,percy4 ,the atom is extremely small1 much too small to be seen with the most powerful microscope2 but you know all things are relative and we always measure one thing in terms of another4 ,we say a foot is twelve inches and an inch is one-twelfth of a foot1 and there we stop with a definition of each expressed in terms of the other1 and both depending upon an arbitrary standard that somebody once adopted2 and yet1 while the foot is known in most countries1 it is rare that two countries have exactly the same standard for this measure of length4 ,we do not know the exact weight of the hydrogen atom1 but we do know its relative weight4 ,if the hydrogen atom weighs one then other atomic weights are as follows3 #ab for carbon #ad for nitrogen #af for oxygen #bd for magnesium #ca for phosphorus #cb for sulfur #ci for potassium #dj for calcium #ef for iron ,this means that the iron atom is fifty-six times as heavy as the hydrogen atom4 ,these atomic weights are absolutely necessary to a clear understanding of the compounds formed by the union or combination of two or more elements4 ,one other thing is also necessary4 ,that is to keep in mind the number of bonds1 or hands1 possessed by each atom4 ,the atom of hydrogen has only one hand1 and the same is true of potassium4 ,each atom of oxygen has two hands2 so that one oxygen atom can hold two hydrogen atoms in the chemical compound called water 7,h-,o-,h or ,h#bj74 ,other elements having two-handed atoms are magnesium and calcium4 ,strange to say1 the sulfur atom has six hands but sometimes uses only two1 the others seemingly being clasped together in pairs4 ,i will write it out for you1 thus3 ,hydrogen sulfid3 ,h-,s-,h or ,h#b,s ,sulfur dioxid3 ,o,s#j or ,s#jb ,the carbon atom has four hands1 and atoms of nitrogen and phosphorus have five hands1 but sometimes use only three4 ,thus1 in the compound called ammonia1 one atom of nitrogen always holds three atoms of hydrogen2 so1 if you buy seventeen pounds of ammonia you would get only fourteen pounds of nitrogen and three pounds of hydrogen4 ,this means that1 if the two-eight-two fertilizer contains two per cent4 of ammonia1 it contains only one and two-thirds per cent4 of the actual element nitrogen1 and a ton of such fertilizer would contain thirty-three pounds of nitrogen4 ,in other words it would take six tons of such fertilizer to replace the nitrogen removed from one acre of land in four years if the crop yields were fifty bushels of corn and oats1 twenty-five bushels of wheat1 and two tons of cowpea hay4 ,six tons6 ,why1 that would cost a hundred and fifty dollars6 ,well1 well1 ,i thought ,i knew we couldn't afford to keep up our land with commercial fertilizer2 but ,i didn't think it was that bad4 ,almost forty dollars an acre a year6 ,it need not be quite that bad1 said ,percy4 ,you see this two-eight-two fertilizer contains eight per cent4 of so-called 'phosphoric acid' and two per cent4 of potash1 and those constituents may be worth much more than the nitrogen2 but1 so far as nitrogen is concerned1 the two hundred pounds would cost from thirty to forty dollars in the best nitrogen fertilizers in the market1 such as dried blood or sodium nitrate4 ,well1 even that would be eight or ten dollars a year per acre1 and that is as much as the land is worth1 and this wouldn't include any other plant food elements1 such as 'phosphoric acid' and potash4 ,no1 that much would be required for the nitrogen alone if bought in commercial form4 ,i understand that the farmers who use this common commercial fertilizer1 apply about three hundred pounds of it to the acre perhaps twice in four years4 ,that would cost about eight dollars for the four years1 and the total nitrogen applied in the two applications would amount to #aj pounds per acre4 ,it is not quite correct to call 'phosphoric acid' and potash plant food elements4 ,they are not elements but compounds4 ,like ammonia1 which is part nitrogen and part hydrogen8 ,the problem is somewhat similar1 but not just the same1 ,percy replied4 ,these compounds contain oxygen and not hydrogen4 ,well1 ,i understand that both oxygen and hydrogen are furnished by natural processes1 the oxygen from carbon dioxid in the carbon cycle1 and the hydrogen from the water which falls in rain4 ,that is all true1 but you really do not buy the hydrogen or oxygen4 ,while they are included in the two-eight-two guarantee1 the price is adjusted for that4 ,thus the cost of nitrogen would be just the same whether you purchase the fertilizer on the basis of seventeen cents a pound for the actual element nitrogen1 or fourteen cents a pound for the ammonia4 ,yes1 ,i see how that might be1 but ,i don't see why the guarantee should be two per cent4 of ammonia instead of one and two-thirds per cent4 of nitrogen1 when the nitrogen is all that gives it value4 ,there is no good reason for it1 said ,percy4 ,it is one of those customs that are conceived in ignorance and continued in selfishness4 ,it is very much simpler to consider the whole subject on the basis of actual plant food elements1 and ,i am glad to say that many of the state laws already require the nitrogen to be guaranteed in terms of the actual element1 a few states now require the phosphorus and potassium also to be reported on the element basis4 ,that is hopeful1 at least1 said ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,now1 if ,i am not asking too many questions or keeping you here too long1 ,i shall be glad to have you explain two more points that come to my mind3 ,first1 how much of that two hundred pounds of nitrogen can ,i put back in the manure produced on the farm2 and1 second1 just what is meant by potash and phosphoric acid8 ,percy made a few computations and then replied3 ,if you sell the wheat2 feed all the corn1 oats1 and cowpea hay and half of the straw and corn fodder1 and use the other half for bedding2 and1 if you save absolutely all of the manure produced1 including both the solid and liquid excrement2 then it would be possible to recover and return to the land about #agc pounds of nitrogen during the four years1 compared with the #bjj pounds taken from the soil4 ,i can't understand that1 said ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,how can that be when one of the crops is cowpeas8 ,in average live-stock and dairy farming1 ,percy continued1 about one-fourth of the nitrogen contained in the food consumed is retained in the milk and animal growth1 and you can make the computations for yourself4 ,it should be kept in mind1 moreover1 that much of the manure produced on the average farm is wasted4 ,more than half of the nitrogen is in the liquid excrement1 and it is extremely difficult to prevent loss of the liquid manure4 ,there is also large loss of nitrogen from the fermentation of manure in piles2 and when you smell ammonia in the stable1 see the manure pile steaming1 or colored liquid soaking into the ground beneath1 or flowing away in rainy weather1 you may know that nitrogen is being lost4 ,how many tons of manure can you apply to your land under such a system of farming as we have been discussing8 ,well1 ,i've figured a good deal on manure1 was the reply1 and ,i think with four fields producing such crops as you counted on1 that ,i could possibly put ten or twelve tons to the acre on one field every year4 ,that would return from #ajj to #abj pounds of nitrogen2 said ,percy1 instead of the #agc pounds possible to be returned if there is no loss4 ,there are three methods that may be used to reduce the loss of manure3 ,one of these is to do the feeding on the fields4 ,another is to haul the manure from the stable every day or two and spread it on the land4 ,the third is to allow the manure to accumulate in deep stalls for several weeks1 using plenty of bedding to absorb the liquid and keep the animals clean1 and then haul and spread it when convenient4 ,i'm afraid that last method would not do at all for the dairy farmer1 said ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,you see we have to keep things very clean and in sanitary condition4 ,most often the cleanest and most sanitary method the average farmer has of handling the manure in dairying1 said ,percy1 is to keep it buried as much as possible under plenty of clean bedding2 and one of the worst methods is to overhaul it every day by 'cleaning' the stable1 unless you could have concrete floors throughout1 and flush them well once or twice a day1 thus losing a considerable part of the valuable excrement4 ,if you allow the manure to accumulate for several weeks at a time1 it is best to have sufficient room in the stable or shed so that the cows need not be tied4 ,if allowed to run loose they will find clean places to lie down even during the night4 ,in case of horses1 the manure can be kept buried for several weeks if some means are used to prevent the escape of ammonia4 ,cattle produce what is called a 'cold' manure1 while it is called 'hot' from horses because it decomposes so readily4 ,one of the best substances to use for the prevention of loss of ammonia in horse stables is acid phosphate1 which has power to unite with ammonia and hold it in a fixed compound4 ,about one pound of acid phosphate per day for each horse should be sprinkled over the manure4 ,of course the phosphorus contained in the acid phosphate has considerable value for its own sake1 and care should be taken that you do not lose more phosphorus from the acid phosphate applied than the value of all the ammonia saved by this means4 ,porous earth floors may absorb very considerable amounts of liquid from wet manure lying underneath the dry bedding1 and the acid phosphate sometimes injures the horses' feet2 so that1 as a rule1 it is better to clean the horse stables every day and supply phosphorus in raw phosphate at one-fourth of its cost in acid phosphate4 ,before we leave the nitrogen question1 said ,mr4 ,thornton1 ,i want to ask if you can suggest how we can get enough of the several million dollars' worth we have in the air to supply the needs of our crops and build up our land8 ,grow more legumes1 and plow more under1 either directly or in manure4 ,that sounds easy1 but can you suggest some practical system8 ,i think so4 ,i know too little of your conditions to think ,i could suggest the best system for you to adopt2 but ,i can surely suggest one that will supply nitrogen for such crop yields as we have considered3 ,suppose we change the order of the crops and grow wheat1 corn1 oats1 and cowpeas1 and grow clover with the wheat and oats1 plowing the clover under in the spring as green manure for corn and cowpeas4 ,if necessary to prevent the clover or weeds from producing seed1 the field may be clipped with the mower in the late summer when the clover has made some growth after the wheat and oats have been removed4 ,leave this season's growth lying on the land4 ,as an average it should amount to more than half a ton of hay per acre4 ,the next spring the clover is allowed to grow for several weeks4 ,it should be plowed under for corn on one field early in ,may and two or three weeks later the other field is plowed for cowpeas4 ,the spring growth should average nearly a ton of clover hay per acre4 ,in this way clover equivalent to about three tons of hay could be plowed under4 ,clover hay contains #dj pounds of nitrogen per ton2 so this would supply about #abj pounds of nitrogen in addition to the #agc pounds possible to be supplied in the manure4 ,this would make possible a total return of #bic pounds1 while we figured some #bjj pounds removed4 ,of course if you save only #ajj pounds in the manure the amount returned would be reduced to #bbj pounds4 ,there are two questionable points in this plan1 said ,mr4 ,thornton1 one is the impossibility1 or at least the difficulty1 of growing clover on this land4 ,the other point is1 ,how much of that #abj pounds of nitrogen returned in the clover is taken from the soil itself8 ,i remember you figured #hf pounds of nitrogen in two tons of cowpea hay1 but you also assumed that about #bi pounds of it would be taken from the soil4 ,yes1 that is true1 ,percy replied1 at least #bi pounds and probably more4 ,you see the cowpeas grow during the same months as corn and on land prepared in about the same manner4 ,if the soil will furnish #ge pounds of nitrogen to the corn crop1 and #dh pounds to the oats and wheat1 it would surely furnish #bi pounds to the cowpeas4 ,of course this particular amount has no special significance1 but the other definite amounts removed in corn1 oats1 and wheat aggregate #aga and the #bi pounds were added to make the round #bjj pounds4 ,perhaps #baj pounds would be nearer the truth1 in which case the soil would furnish about half as much nitrogen to the cowpea crop as to the corn crop4 ,this is reasonable considering that corn is the first crop grown after the manure is applied4 ,you will remember that only one-tenth of the total nitrogen of the cowpea plant remains in the roots and stubble8 ,yes1 that's what we figured on4 ,the cowpea is an annual plant4 ,it is planted1 produces its seed1 and dies the same season4 ,it has no need to store up material in the roots for future use4 ,consequently the substance of the root is largely taken into the tops as the plan approaches maturity4 ,it is different with the clover plant4 ,this is a biennial with some tendency toward the perennial plant4 ,it lives long and develops an extensive root system1 and its stores up material in the roots during part of its life for use at a later period4 ,about one-third of the total nitrogen content of the clover plant is contained in the roots and stubble4 ,this means that the roots and stubble of a two-ton crop of clover would contain about forty pounds of nitrogen1 or more than we assumed was taken from the soil by the cowpeas4 ,but there is still another point in favor of the clover4 ,the cowpeas make their growth during the summer months when nitrification is most active1 whereas the clover growth we have counted on occurs chiefly during the fall and spring when nitrification is much less active1 consequently the clover probably takes even a larger proportion of its nitrogen from the air than we have counted on4 ,that is rather confusing1 said ,mr4 ,thornton1 you say the cowpea grows when nitrification is most active1 and yet you say that it takes less nitrogen from the air than clover4 ,isn't that somewhat contradictory8 ,i think not1 said ,percy4 ,let me see4--,just what do you understand by nitrification8 ,getting nitrogen from the air1 is it not8 ,no1 no4 ,that explains it4 ,getting nitrogen from the air is called nitrogen fixation4 ,this action is carried on by the nitrogen-fixing bacteria1 such as the clover bacteria1 the soy bean bacteria1 the alfalfa bacteria1 which1 by the way1 are evidently the same as the bacteria of sweet clover1 or mellilotus4 ,then we also have the cowpea bacteria1 and these seem to be the same as the bacteria of the wild partridge pea1 a kind of sensitive plant with yellow flowers1 and a tiny goblet standing upright at the base of each compound leaf1--the plant called ,cassia ,chamaecrista by the botanist4 ,nitrification is an altogether-- ,well1 ,i declare6 ,excuse me1 ,sir1 but that's ,charlie calling the cows4 ,scotts1 ,i don't see where the time has gone6 ,you'll excuse me1 ,sir1 but ,i must look after separating the cream4 ,you will greatly oblige me1 ,mr4 ,johnston1 if you will have dinner with us and share our home to-night4 ,in addition to the pleasure of your company1 ,i confess that ,i am mightily interested in this subject2 and ,i would like especially to get a clear understanding of that nitrification process1 and we've not had time to discuss the potash and 'phosphoric acid1' which ,i know cost some of our farmers a good part of all they get for their crops1 and still their lands are as poor as ever4 ,i appreciate very much your kind invitation1 ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,i came to you for correct information regarding the agricultural conditions here1 and you were very kind and indulgent to answer my blunt questions1 even concerning your own farm practice and experience4 ,i feel1 ,sir1 that ,i am already greatly indebted to you1 but it will certainly be a great pleasure to me to remain with you to-night4 ,for more than two hours they had been standing1 leaning1 or sitting in a field beside a shock of cowpea hay1 ,percy toying with his soil auger1 and ,mr4 ,thornton making records now and then in his pocket note book4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,coeducation ,,percy took a lesson in turning the cream separator and after dinner ,mrs4 ,thornton assured him that she and her sister were greatly disappointed that they had not been permitted to hear the discussion concerning the use of science on the farm4 ,we have never forsaken our belief that these old farms can again be made to yield bountiful crops1 she said1 as ours did for so many years under the management of our ancestors4 ',hope springs eternal in the human breast4' ,i stop with that for ,i do not like the rest of the couplet4 ,we can see that some marked progress has been made under my husband's management1 although he feels that it is very slow work building up a run-down farm4 ,but he has raised some fine crops on the fields under cultivation1--as much as ten barrels of corn to the acre1 have you not1 ,dear8 she asked4 ,yes1 fully that much1 but even ten barrels per acre on one small field is nothing compared to the great fields of corn ,mr4 ,johnston raises in the ,west4 and it makes a mighty small show here on a nine-hundred-acre farm1 most of which hasn't been cropped for more than twenty years2 and even then it was given up because the negro tenants couldn't raise corn enough to live on4 ,i've talked some with the fertilizer agents1 but they don't know much about fertilizers1 except what they read in the testimonials published in the advertising booklets4 ,i have had some good help from the agricultural papers1 but most that is written for the papers doesn't apply to our farm1 and it's so indefinite and incomplete1 that ,i've just spent this whole evening asking ,mr4 ,johnston questions2 and ,i haven't given him a chance to answer them all yet4 ,i am sure you have not asked more questions this afternoon than ,i did this forenoon1 ,percy remarked2 and all your answers were based on authentic history or actual experience1 while my answers were only what ,i have learned from others4 ,well1 if we were more ready to learn from others1 it would be better for all of us1 said ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,experience is a mighty dear teacher and1 even if we finally learn the lesson1 it may be too everlasting late for us to apply it4 ,now we all want to learn about that process called nitrification4 ,it is an extremely interesting and important process1 said ,percy4 ,it includes the stages or steps by which the insoluble organic nitrogen of the soil is converted into soluble nitrate nitrogen1 in which form it become available as food for all of our agricultural plants4 ,excepting the legumes8 asked ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,excepting none1 ,percy replied4 ,the legume plants1 like clover1 take nitrogen from the soil so far as they can secure it in available form1 and in this respect clover is not different from corn4 ,the respect in which it is different is the power of clover to secure additional supplies of nitrogen from the air when the soil's available supply becomes inadequate to meet the needs of the growing clover4 ,if the conditions are suitable for nitrogen-fixation1 then the growth of the legume plants need not be limited by lack of nitrogen2 whereas1 nitrogen is probably the element that first limits the growth and yield of all other crops on your common soils4 ,now1 what do you think of that1 ,girls8 ,with millions of dollars' worth of nitrogen in the air over every acre1 our crops are poor just because we don't use it4 ,i wish you would tell me something about the suitable conditions for nitrogen-fixation1 ,mr4 ,johnston4 ,you understand1 ,girls1 that nitrogen-fixation is simply getting nitrogen from the inexhaustible supply in the air by means of little microscopic organisms called bacteria1 which live in little balls called tubercles attached to the roots of certain plants called legumes1 like cowpeas and clover4 ,corn and wheat and such crops can't get this nitrogen4 ,now1 ,mr4 ,johnston is telling about nitrification1 a process which is entirely different from nitrogen-fixation4 ,excuse me1 ,mr4 ,johnston1 but ,i wanted to make this plain to ,mrs4 ,thornton and ,miss ,russell4 ,i am glad you did so1 ,percy replied4 ,as ,i was saying1 nitrification has no connection whatever with the free nitrogen of the air4 ,all plants take their food in solution2 that is1 the plant food taken from the soil must be dissolved in the soil water or moisture4 ,of the essential elements of plant food1 seven are taken from the soil through the roots into the plant4 ,these seven do not include those of which water itself is composed4 ,now1 these seven plant food elements exist in the soil almost exclusively in an insoluble form4 ,in that condition they are not available to the plant for plant food2 and it is the business of the farmer to make this plant food available as fast as is needed by his growing crops4 ,the nitrogen of the soil exists in the organic matter2 that is1 in such materials as plant roots1 weeds1 and stubble1 that may have been plowed under1 or any kind of vegetable maker incorporated with the soil1 including all sorts of crop residues1 green manures1 and the common farm fertilizers from the stables4 ,when these organic materials are decomposed and disintegrated to such an extent that their structure is completely destroyed1 the resulting mass of partially decayed black organic matter is called humus4 ,the nitrogen of the soil is one of the constituents of this humus or other organic matter4 ,it is not contained in the mineral particles of the soil4 ,on the other hand the other six elements of plant food are contained largely in the mineral part of the soil1 as the clay1 silt1 and sand4 thus the iron1 calcium1 magnesium1 and potassium1 all of which are called abundant elements1 are contained in the mineral matter1 and usually in considerable amounts1 while they are found in the organic matter in very small proportion4 ,the phosphorus and sulfur are found in very limited quantities in most soils1 but they are present in both organic and mineral form4 ,practically the entire stock or store of all of the elements in the soil is insoluble and consequently unavailable for the use of growing plants2 and1 as ,i said1 some of the chief plans and efforts of the farmer should be directed to the business of making plant food available4 ,the nitrogen contained in the insoluble organic matter of the soil is made soluble and available by the process called nitrification4 ,three different kinds of bacteria are required to bring about the complete change4 ,are these bacteria different from the nitrogen fixing bacteria8 asked ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,entirely different1 ,percy replied1 and there are three distinct kinds1 one for each of the three steps in the process4 ,the first may be called ammonia bacteria4 ,they have power to convert organic nitrogen into ammonia nitrogen2 that is1 into the compound of nitrogen and hydrogen2 and this step in the process is called ammonification4 ,the other two kinds are the true nitrifying bacteria4 ,one of them converts the ammonia into nitrites1 and the other changes the nitrites into nitrates4 ,these two kinds are known as the nitrite bacteria and the nitrate bacteria4 ,technically the last two steps in the process are nitrification proper2 but1 speaking generally1 the term nitrification is used to include the three steps1 or both ammonification and nitrification proper4 ,now1 the nitrifying bacteria require certain conditions1 otherwise they will not perform their functions4 ,among these essential conditions are the presence of moisture and free oxygen1 a supply of carbonates1 certain food materials for the bacteria themselves1 and a temperature within certain limits4 ,you may remember1 ,mr4 ,thornton1 that more soil nitrogen is made available for cowpeas during the summer weather than for clover during the cooler fall and spring8 ,yes1 ,i remember that distinction4 ,i declare1 said ,miss ,russell1 ,tom talks as though he had been there and seen the things going on4 ,i haven't seen you using any microscope4 ,well1 ,i tell you1 ,i've mighty near seen 'em1 was the reply4 ,mr4 ,johnston makes everything so plain that ,i can mighty near see what he saw when he looked through the microscope4 ,i greatly enjoyed my microscopic work1 said ,percy1 and still more the work in the chemical laboratory where we finally learned to analyze soils1 to take them apart and see what they contain1--how much nitrogen how much phosphorus1 how much limestone1 or how much soil acidity1 which means that limestone is needed4 ,then ,i also enjoyed the work in the pot-culture laboratory1 where we learned not to analyze but to synthesize2 that is1 to put different materials together to make a soil4 ,thus1 we would make one soil and put in all of the essential plant food elements except nitrogen1 and another with only phosphorus lacking1 and still another with both nitrogen and phosphorus present1 and all of the other essential elements provided1 except potassium1 or magnesium1 or iron4 ,these prepared soils were put in glass jars having a hole in the bottom for drainage1 and then the same kind of seeds were planted in each jar or pot4 ,some students planted corn1 others oats or wheat or any kind of farm seeds4 ,i grew rape plants in one series of pots1 and ,i have a photograph with me which shows very well that all of the plant food elements are essential4 ,you see one pot contained no plant food and one was prepared with all of the ten essential elements provided4 ,then the other pots contained all but one of the necessary soil elements1 as indicated in the photograph4 ,why1 ,i never saw anything like that1 said ,mrs4 ,thornton4 ,but ,i have many a time1 said her husband1 right here on this old farm2 ,i don't know what's lacking1 of course1 but some years ,i've thought most everything was lacking4 ,but1 according to this pot-culture test1 you can't raise any crops if just one of these ten elements is lacking1 no matter how much you have of the other nine2 and it seems to make no difference which one is lacking1 you don't get any crop4 ,is that the fact1 ,mr4 ,johnston8 ,one pot with no plant food1 and one with all the essential elements provided1 and still others with but one element lacking4 ,all planted the same day and cared for alike4 ,yes1 ,sir1 ,percy replied4 ,where all of the elements are provided1 a fine crop is produced1 but in each case where a single element is omitted that is the only difference1 and in some cases the result is worse than where no plant food is supplied4 ,it seems to hurt the plant worse to throw its food supply completely out of balance than to leave it with nothing except what it draws from the meager store in the seed planted4 ,of course all the pots were planted with the same kind of seed at the same time1 and they were all watered uniformly every day4 ,those results are very striking1 indeed1 said ,miss ,russell1 but ,i suppose one would never see such marked differences under farm conditions8 ,only under unusual or abnormal conditions1 ,percy replied1 but the fact is that as a very general rule our crop yields are limited chiefly because the supply of available plant food is limited4 ,sometimes the clover crop is a complete failure on untreated land1 while it lives and produces a good crop if the soil is properly treated2 and in such cases the difference developed in the field is just as marked as in the pot-cultures4 ,in general we may set it down as an absolute fact that the productive power of normal land depends primarily upon the ability of the soil to feed the crop4 ,i have here a photograph of a corn field on very abnormal soil4 ,they had the negative at the ,experiment ,station and ,i secured a print from it1 in part because ,i became interested in a story connected with this experiment field1 which our professor of soil fertility reported to us4 ,this shows a field of corn growing on peaty swamp land1 of which there are several hundred thousand acres in the swamp regions of ,illinois1 ,indiana1 and ,wisconsin4 ,this peaty soil is extremely rich in humus and nitrogen1 well supplied with phosphorus and other elements1 except potassium2 but in this element it is extremely deficient4 ,this land was drained out at large expense1 and produced two or three large crops because the fresh grass roots contained some readily available potassium2 but after three or four years the corn crop became a complete failure1 as you see from the untreated check plot on the right2 while the land on the left1 where potassium was applied1 produced forty-five bushels per acre the year this photograph was taken1 and with heavier treatment from sixty to seventy-five bushels are produced4 ,seventy-five bushels would be fifteen barrels of corn per acre4 ,how's that1 ,little ,wife8 asked ,tom4 ,it's even more wonderful than the pot culture1 replied ,mrs4 ,thornton2 but how much did the potassium cost1 ,mr4 ,johnston4 ,about three dollars an acre1 replied ,percy2 but of course the land has almost no value if not treated2 and as a matter of fact the three dollars is less than half the interest on the difference in value between this land and our ordinary corn belt land4 ,these peaty swamp lands are to a large extent in scattered areas1 and commonly1 if a farmer owns some of this kind of land1 he also owns some other good land1 perhaps adjoining the swamp2 but this is not always the case1 and was not with the man in the story ,i mentioned4 ,this man lived a few miles away and his farm was practically all of this peaty swamp land type4 ,he heard of this experiment field and came with his family to see it4 ,as he stood looking1 first at the corn on the treated and untreated land1 and then at his wife and large family of children1 he broke down and cried like a child4 ,later he explained to the superintendent who was showing him the experiments1 that he had put the best of his life into that kind of land4 ',the land looked rich1' said he1--'as rich as any land ,i ever saw4 ,i bought it and drained it and built my home on a sandy knoll4 ,the first crops were fairly good1 and we hoped for better crops2 but instead they grew worse and worse4 ,we raised what we could on a small patch of sandy land1 and kept trying to find out what we could grow on this black bogus land4 ,sometimes ,i helped the neighbors and got a little money1 but my wife and ,i and my older children have wasted twenty years on this land4 ,poverty1 poverty1 always6 ,how was ,i to know that this single substance which you call potassium was all we needed to make this land productive and valuable8 ,oh1 if ,i had only known this twenty years ago1 before my wife had worked like a slave1--before my children had grown almost to manhood and womanhood1 in poverty and ignorance6' ,why wasn't the matter investigated sooner8 asked ,miss ,russell4 ,why didn't the government find out what the land needed long before8 ,i am a ,yankee1 said ,percy4 ,why have ,american statesmen ridden back and forth to the national capitol through a wilderness of depleted and abandoned farms in the eastern states for half a century or more before the first appropriation was made for the purpose of agricultural investigation8 and why1 even now1 does not this rich federal government appropriate to the agricultural experiment station in every state a fund at least equal to the aggregate salaries of the congressmen from the same state1 this fund to be used exclusively for the purpose of discovering and demonstrating profitable systems of permanent agriculture on every type of soil8 ,why do we as a nation expend five hundred million dollars annually for the development of the army and navy1 and only fifteen millions for agriculture1 the one industry whose ultimate prosperity must measure the destiny of the nation8 ,moralists sometimes tell us that the fall of the ,babylonian ,empire1 the fall of the ,egyptian ,empire1 of the ,grecian ,empire1 and the ,roman ,empire1 were all due to the development of pride and immorality among those peoples2 whereas1 we believe that civilization tends rather toward peace1 security1 and higher citizenship4 ,is not the chief explanation for the ultimate and successive fall of those great empires to be found in the exhausted or wasted agricultural resources of the country8 ,the land that once flowed with milk and honey might then support a mighty empire1 with independent resources sufficient for times of great emergencies1 but now that land seems almost barren and supports a few wandering bands of marauding ,arabs and villages of beggars4 ,the power and world influence of a nation must pass away with the passing of material resources2 for poverty is helpless1 and ignorance is the inevitable result of continued poverty4 ,only the prosperous can afford education or trained intelligence4 ,old land is poorer than new land4 ,there are exceptions1 but this is the rule4 ,the fact is known and recognized by all ,america4 ,what does it mean8 ,it means that the practice of the past and present art of agriculture leads toward land ruin1--not only in ,china1 where famine and starvation are common1 notwithstanding that thousands and thousands of ,chinese are employed constantly in saving every particle of fertilizing material1 even gathering the human excrements from every house and by-place in village and country1 as carefully as our farmers gather honey from their hives2 not only in ,india where starvation's ghost is always present1 where1 as a rule1 there are more hungry people than the total population of the ,united ,states2 not only in ,russia where famine is frequent2 but1 likewise in the ,united ,states of ,america1 the present practice of the art of agriculture tends toward land ruin4 ,nations rise and fall2 so does the productive power of vast areas of land4 ,better drainage1 better seed1 better implements1 and more thorough tillage1 all tend toward larger crops1 but they also tend toward ultimate land ruin1 for the removal of larger crops only hastens soil depletion4 ,to bring about the adoption of systems of farming that will restore our depleted ,eastern and ,southern soils1 and that will maintain or increase the productive power of our remaining fertile lands of the ,great ,central ,west1 where we are now producing half of the total corn crop of the entire world1 is not only the most important material problem of the ,united ,states2 but to bring this about is worthy of1 and will require1 the best thought of the most influential men of ,america4 ,without a prosperous agriculture here there can be no permanent prosperity for our ,american institutions4 ,while some small countries can support themselves by conducting trade1 commerce1 and manufacture1 for other countries1 ,american agriculture must not only be self-supporting1 but1 in large degree1 agriculture must support our other great industries4 ,without agriculture1 the coal and iron would remain in the earth1 the forest would be left uncut1 the railroads would be abandoned1 the cities depopulated1 and the wooded lands and water-ways would again be used only for hunting and fishing4 ,shall we not remember1 for example1 that the coal mine yields a single harvest--one crop--and is then forever abandoned2 while the soil must yield a hundred--yes1 a thousand crops1 and even then it must be richer and more productive than at the beginning1 if those who come after us are to continue to multiply and replenish the earth4 ,even the best possible system of soil improvement1 we must admit1 is not the absolute and final solution of this1 the most stupendous problem of the ,united ,states4 ,if war gives way to peace and pestilence to science1 then the time will come when the soils of ,america shall reach the limit of the highest productive power possible to be permanently maintained1 even by the general adoption of the most practical scientific methods2 and before that limit is reached1 if power1 progress1 and plenty are to continue in our beloved country1 there must be developed and enforced the law of the survival of the fittest2 otherwise there is no ultimate future for ,america different from that of ,china1 ,india1 and ,russia1 the only great agricultural countries comparable to the ,united ,states4 ,an enlightened humanity must grant to all the right to live1 but the reproduction and perpetuation of the unfit can never be an absolute and inalienable right4 ,under the present laws and customs1 a man may spend half his life in the insane asylum or in the penitentiary1 and still be the father of a dozen children with degenerate tendencies4 ,there should be no reproduction from convicted criminals1 insane persons1 and other degenerates4 ,thieves1 grafters1 bribers and bribe-takers all belong in the same class1 and it should not be left possible for them to reproduce their kind4 ,they are a burden upon the public which the public must bear1 but the public is under no obligation to permit their multiplication4 ,the children of such should never become the parents of others4 ,it is a crime against both the child and the public4 ,no doubt you will consider this extremely visionary1 and so it is2 but unless ,america can see a vision somewhat like this1 a population that is doubling three or four times each century1 and an area of depleted soils that is also increasing at a rapid rate will combine to bring our ,ship of ,state into a current against which we may battle in vain2 for there is not another ,new ,world to bring new wealth1 new prosperity1 and new life and light after another period of ',dark ,ages4' ,whether we shall ever apply any such intelligence to the possible improvement of our own race as we have in the great improvement of our cattle and corn is1 of course1 an open question2 but to some extent you will agree that the grafter and the insane1 like the poet1 are born and not made4 ,of course there are1 and always will be1 marked variations1 mutants1 or 'sports1' but1 nevertheless1 natural inheritance is the master key to the improvement of every form of life2 and it is an encouraging fact that some of the states1 as ,indiana1 for example1 have already adopted laws looking toward the reduction of the reproduction of convicted degenerates4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,past ,,self ,,redemption ,,but ,i have rambled far from the subject assigned me1 ,percy continued4 ,that's only because ,i interrupt and ask so many side questions1 replied ,mr4 ,thornton1 but ,i hope yet to learn more about those 'suitable conditions' for nitrogen-fixation and nitrification4 ,it begins to look as though the nitrogen cycle deviates a good deal from a true circle1 and nature seems to need some help from us to make that element circulate as fast as we need it4 ,i confess1 too1 that this method appeals to me much more than the twenty-cent-a-pound proposition of the fertilizer agent4 ,yes1 indeed1 added ,miss ,russell2 and if we had to spend three dollars an acre on this farm our ',slough of ,despond' would be worse than the slough1 or swamp1 ,mr4 ,johnston has told us about4 ,i fear the practical and profitable improvement of an acre of this land is more likely to cost thirty dollars than three1 said ,percy4 ,oh1 for the land's sake6 came the ejaculation4 ,yes1 'for the land's sake1' repeated ,percy2 and for the sake of those who must depend upon the land for their support for all time hereafter4 ,how ridiculous6 ,thirty dollars an acre for the improvement of land that will not bring ten dollars to begin with6 ,it is better to look at the other end of the undertaking1 said ,percy4 ,suppose you invest thirty dollars an acre and in a few years make your ten-dollar land produce as much as our two-hundred dollar land6 ,but1 ,mr4 ,johnston2 do you realize how much money it would require to expend thirty dollars an acre on nine hundred acres8 continued ,miss ,russell1 with stronger accentuation4 ,twenty-seven thousand dollars1 was the simple reply4 ,well1 ,sir1 she said1 you are welcome to this whole farm for ten thousand dollars4 ,i am not wishing for it1 he answered4 ,in fact ,i would not take this farm as a gift1 if ,i were obliged to keep it and pay the taxes and had no other property or source of income4 ,that's just the kind of talk ,i've been putting up to these girls1 said ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,by the time we live and pay about two hundred dollars a year taxes on all this land1 ,i tell you1 there is nothing left2 and we'd been worse off than we are1 except for the sale we made to the railroad company4 ,well1 the ,russells lived here very well for more than a hundred years1 she retorted1 and my grandfather supported one nigger for every ten acres of the farm1 but ,i would like to know any farmers about here who can put thirty dollars an acre1 or even ten dollars an acre1 back into their soil for improvement4 ,the problem is indeed a serious one1 said ,percy4 ,unquestionably much of the land in these older states is far past the point of possible self-redemption under the present ownership4 ,land from which the fertility has been removed by two hundred years of cropping1 until it has ceased to return a living to those who till it1 cannot have its fertility restored sufficiently to again make its cultivation profitable1 except by making some considerable investment in order to replace those essential elements the supply of which has become so limited as to limit the crop yields to a point where their value is below the cost of production4 ,even on the remaining productive lands in the ,north ,central ,states1 if we are ever to adopt systems of permanent agriculture1 it must be done while the landowners are still prosperous4 ,if the people of the corn belt repeat the history of the ,eastern ,states until their lands cease to return a profit above the total cost of production1 then they1 too1 will have nothing left to invest in the improvement of their lands4 ,but their fertility could still be restored by outside capital8 suggested ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,i know very well that is the only solution of our problem4 ,well1 ,tom1 ,i would like to know where the outside capital is coming from1 said ,miss ,russell4 ,marry rich1 he replied4 ,don't make such a blunder as your sister did4 ,i fear that ,mr4 ,johnston will suggest that we sell some more land1 remarked ,mrs4 ,thornton4 ,all right1 replied her sister2 and we will sell it to him4 ,if he won't take the whole farm as a gift1 we'll cut it to any length he wishes4 ,do you consider ',ten ,acres ,enough1' ,mr4 ,johnston2 or would you prefer ',three ,acres and ,liberty8' ,we'll do our best to enable you to enjoy ',the ,fat of the ,land4' ,just tell us how large a farm you want1 ,i know already that you do not want nine hundred acres4 ,my dear ,miss ,russell1 said ,percy4 ,this is so sudden2 whereupon ,mr4 ,thornton nearly fell from his chair and ,mrs4 ,thornton laughed heartily at the sister's expense who blushed as she might have done twenty years before4 ,however1 ,percy resumed1 if you should decide to dispose of about half of that seven hundred acres which you use only as a safety bank for most of your two hundred dollars in taxes1 please consider me a prospective taker4 ,take her1 said ,mr4 ,thornton1 and again confusion reigned4 ,tom is so anxious to get rid of his sister-in-law that he reminds me of the man whose mother-in-law died1 said ,miss ,russell4 ,he was too far from home to return to the usual funeral1 and they telegraphed him the sad news and asked if they should embalm1 cremate1 or bury the remains4 ,he wired back3 ',embalm1 cremate1 and bury' ,that matter of outside capital is by no means so substantial as it might seem1 said ,percy4 ,it is worth while to consider how little real wealth there would be in ,america if the remaining rich lands should become impoverished4 ,the railroads would at once cease to pay dividends1 and those who are now millionaires in railroad stock would find themselves on the rapid road to poverty4 ,the manufacturer of finished products from the raw materials raised on the farm1 the manufacturer of agricultural implements1 and the great urban population whose income is from the trade in raw materials and manufactured goods would soon see their wealth shrivel4 ,the great sky scrapers of the cities would be left for the owls and bats to harbor in1 if our agricultural lands ceased to yield their great harvests4 ,meanwhile the farming people would continue to live upon the meager products still produced from the impoverished soil1 even though they had no surplus food to ship into the cities4 ,human labor would replace that of domestic animals on the farm1 just as it has done in ,china and ,india1 in part because man's labor is worth more than that of the beast1 when measured only by the amount of food consumed1 and in part because a thousand bushels of grain will support five times as many people can be supported for the same time upon the animal products that could be produced by feeding the grain4 ,oh1 that is such a gloomy view to take of it1 said ,miss ,russell4 ,and all the world loves an optimist1 replied ,percy laughingly4 ,soils do not wear out2 there is no poor land2 the farms are better and the crops larger than ever before2 and we are the people of the world's greatest nation1 with an assured future glory which surposses all conception4 ,as soon as we get the canal dug1 suggested ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,yes1 we will surely be able to dig that ,panama ditch1 said ,percy2 and probably our resources will last to cut a gash or two in our own interior1 if we don't build too many battle ships4 ,you know ,egypt built three great pyramids before her resources became reduced to such an extent that the people required all their energies to secure a living4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,more ,,problems ,,now let us give ,mr4 ,johnston a chance to tell us about the nitrogen problem1 said ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,i'm pretty well satisfied with the natural circulation of carbon1 oxygen1 and hydrogen2 but ,i want to understand all ,i can of the practical methods of securing and utilizing nitrogen2 and we have heard almost nothing about the other six essential elements which the soil must furnish4 ,let me see4--,i think you said that iron1 calcium1 magnesium and potassium are usually abundant in the soil1 while phosphorus and sulfur are very limited4 ,yes1 that is the rule under general or average conditions1 but it should be stated that the amount of sulfur required by plants is very small as compared with phosphorus1 a difference which places a great distinction between them4 ,besides considerable quantities of sulfur are returned to the air in the combustion of coal and organic matter1 and this returns to the soil in rain4 ,the information thus far secured shows that sulfur rarely if ever limits the crop yields under field conditions2 and the same may be said of iron1 which is required by plants in very small amount and is contained in practically all soils in enormous quantities4 ,while normal soils contain abundance of potassium1 with about half as much calcium and one-fourth as much magnesium2 yet1 when measured by crop requirements for plant food1 the supplies of these three elements are not markedly different4 ,on the other hand1 about #cjj pounds of calcium are lost per acre per annum by leaching from good soils in humid climates1 compared with about #aj pounds of potasssium and intermediate amounts of magnesium2 so that1 of these three elements1 calcium requires by far the most consideration and potassium the least1 even aside from the use of limestone to correct or prevent soil acidity4 ,among the conditions essential for nitrification may be mentioned the presence of free oxygen and limestone2 and of course all bacteria require certain food materials1 resembling other plants in this respect4 ,are they plants8 asked ,mrs4 ,thornton4 ,i thought they were tiny little animals4 ,no1 they are classified as plants1 replied ,percy2 but the scientists have difficulty with some of the lower organism to decide whether they are plants or animals4 ,the college boys used to say that some animals were plants in the botanical department and animals again when they studied zoology4 ,orton says it is easy to tell a cow from a cabbage1 but impossible to assign any absolute1 distinctive character which will divide animal life from plant life4 ,the oxygen is essential for nitrification1 because that is an oxidation process4 ,that is1 it is a kind of combustion1 so to speak4 ,the organic matter is oxidized or converted into substances containing more oxygen than in the original form4 ,in ammonification the carbon is separated or divorced from the nitrogen and united with oxygen4 ,some of the hydrogen of the organic matter remains temporarily with the carbon1 and some is held temporarily with the nitrogen in the form of ammonia4 ,the nitrite bacteria replace two of the hydrogen atoms in ammonia with one of oxygen1 and insert another oxygen atom between the nitrogen and the remaining hydrogen1 thus forming nitrous acid2 ,h-,o-,n,o1 or ,,hno#b4 ,the nitrate bacteria then cause the direct addition of another oxygen atom1 which is held by the two extra bonds of the nitrogen atom1 which you will remember is a five-handed atom4 ,thus you will see the absolute need of free oxygen in the nitrification process2 and we can control the rate of nitrification to a considerable extent by our methods of tillage4 ,in soils deficient in organic matter1 excessive cultivation may still liberate sufficient nitrogen for a fairly satisfactory crop2 and the benefits of such excessive cultivation for potatoes and other vegetables is more often due to increased nitrification than to the conservation of moisture1 to which it is frequently ascribed by agricultural writers4 ,thus the more we cultivate1 the more we hasten the nitrification1 oxidation1 or destruction of the organic matter or humus of the soil4 ,where the soil is well supplied with decaying organic matter1 we rarely need to cultivate in a humid section like this1 except for the purpose of killing weeds4 ,the presence of carbonates in the soil is essential for nitrification1 because the bacteria will not continue the process in the presence of their own product4 ,nitrification ceases if the nitrous or nitric acid remains as such2 but1 in the presence of carbonates such as calcium carbonate 7ordinary limestone7 or the double carbonate of magnesium and calcium 7magnesian limestone1 or dolomite71 the nitrous acid or nitric acid is converted into a neutral salt of calcium or magnesium1 one of these atoms taking the place of two hydrogen atoms and forming1 say1 calcium nitrate3 ,ca7,,no#c7b4 ,at the same time the hydrogen atoms take the place of the calcium in limestone 7 ,ca,c#jc71 and form carbonic acid 7,h#b;,,co#c71 which at once decomposes into water 7,h#b,o7 and carbon dioxid 7,,co#b71 which thus escapes as a gas into the air or remains in the pores of the soil4 ,the fact that nitrification will not proceed in the presence of acid reminds us that only a certain degree of acidity can be developed in sour milk4 ,here the lactic acid bacteria produce the acid from milk sugar1 but the process stops when about seven-tenths of one per cent4 of lactic acid has developed4 ,if some basic substance1 such as lime1 is then added1 the acid is neutralized and the fermentation again proceeds4 ,in the general process of decay and oxidation of the organic matter of the soil1 the nitrogen thus passes through the forms of ammonia1 nitrous acid1 and nitric acid1 and at the same time the carbon passes into various acid compounds1 including the complex humic and ulmic acids1 and smaller amounts of acetic acid 7found in vinegar71 lactic acid1 oxalic acid 7found in oxalic71 and tartaric acid 7found in grapes74 ,the final oxidation products of the carbon and hydrogen are carbon dioxid and water1 which result from the decomposition of the carbonic acid4 ,now the various acids of carbon and nitrogen constitute one of the most important factors in soil fertility4 ,they are the means by which the farmer can dissolve and make available for the growing crops the otherwise insoluble mineral elements1 such as iron1 calcium1 magnesium1 and potassium1 all of which are contained in most soils in great abundance4 ,these elements exist in the soil chiefly in the form of insoluble silicates4 ,silicon itself is a four-handed element which bears somewhat the same relation to the mineral matter of the soil as carbon bears to the organic matter4 ,quartz sand is silicon dioxid 7,si,o#b74 ,oxygen1 which is present in nearly all substances1 including air1 water1 and most solids1 constitutes about one-half of all known matter4 ,silicon is next in abundance1 amounting to more than one-fourth of the solid crust of the earth4 ,aluminum is third in abundance 7about seven per cent71 aluminum silicate being common clay4 ,iron1 calcium1 potassium1 sodium1 and magnesium1 in this order1 complete the eight abundant elements1 which aggregate about ninety-eight per cent4 of the solid crust of the earth4 ,it is worth while to know that about two and one-half per cent4 of the earth's crust is potassium1 while about one-tenth of one per cent4 is phosphorus2 also that when a hundred bushels of corn are sold from the farm1 seventeen pounds of phosphorus1 nineteen of potassium1 and seven of magnesium are carried away4 ,the acids formed from the decaying organic matter not only liberate for the use of crops the mineral elements contained in the soil in abundance1 but they also help to make available the phosphorus of raw phosphate1 when naturally contained in the soil1 as it is to some extent in all soils1 or when applied to the soil in the fine-ground natural phosphate from the mines4 ,now the increase or decrease of organic matter in the soil is measured with a very good degree of satisfaction by the element nitrogen1 which is a regular constituent of the organic matter of the soil2 and you are already familiar1 ,mr4 ,thornton1 with the amounts of nitrogen contained in average farm manure and in some of our most common crops4 ,yes1 ,sir1 ,i have some of the figures in my note book and ,i mean to have them in my head very soon4 ,but1 say1 that organic matter seems to be a thing of tremendous importance1 and ,i'm sure we've got mighty little of it4 ,i think about the only thing we'll need to do to make this old farm productive again is to grow the vegetation and plow it under4 ,as it decays1 it will furnish the nitrogen1 and liberate the phosphorus1 potassium1 calcium1 and magnesium2 and we may have plenty of all of them just waiting to be liberated4 ,that is altogether possible1 said ,percy2 but it must be remembered that your soil is acid and consequently will not grow clover or alfalfa successfully1 or even cowpeas very satisfactorily4 ,a liberal use of ground limestone and large use of clover may be sufficient to greatly improve your soil2 but if ,i am permitted to separate ,miss ,russell and the ,thorntons --,mr4 ,thornton's hilarious ,ha1 ha cut ,percy short4 ,he crimsoned and the ladies smiled at each other with expressions that revealed nothing whatever4 ,now let me finish1 ,percy continued1 when ,mr4 ,thornton had somewhat subsided4 ,i say1 if ,i am permitted to separate ,miss ,russell and the ,thorntons from about three hundred acres of their land1 ,i shall certainly wish to know its total content of phosphorus1 potassium1 magnesium1 and calcium1 before ,i make any purchase2 and1 if you will remember the pot cultures and the peaty swamp land1 ,i think you'd agree with me4 ,well1 ,i shall be mighty glad to know that myself1 said ,mr4 ,thornton1 and we shall much appreciate it if you can tell us how to secure that information4 ,we can collect some soil to-morrow1 ,percy replied1 and send it to a chemist for analysis4 ,good1 said ,mr4 ,thornton2 now just one more question1 and ,i think ,i shall sleep better if ,i have it answered to-night4 ,just what is meant by potash and phosphoric acid8 ,potash1 said ,percy1 is a compound of potassium and oxygen4 ,the proportions are one atom of oxygen and two atoms of potassium1 which you may remember are single-handed and weigh thirty-nine1 so that seventy-eight of potassium unite with sixteen of oxygen4 ,a better name for the compound is potassium oxid3 ,k#bj4 ,the ,latin name for potassium is kalium1 and ,k is the symbol used for an atom of that element4 ,if you were to purchase potassium in the form of potassium chlorid1 which in the ,east is often called by the old incorrect name 'muriate of potash1' the salt might be guaranteed to contain a certain percentage of potash1 which1 however1 consists of eighty-three per cent4 of potassium and seventeen of oxygen4 ,just what is this potassium chlorid1 or 'muriate of potash'8 ,pure potassium chlorid contains only the two elements1 potassium and chlorin4 ,but didn't you say that it was guaranteed to contain potash and that potash is part oxygen8 ,now you say it contains only potassium and chlorin4 ,yes1 ,i am sorry to say1 that this is one of those blunders of our semi-scientific ancestors for which we still suffer4 ,the chemist understands that the meaning of the guarantee of potash is the amount of potash that the potassium present in the potassium chlorid could be converted into4 ,the best you can do is to reduce the potash guarantee to potassium by taking eighty-three per cent4 of it2 or1 to be more exact1 divide by ninety-four and multiply by seventy-eight1 in order to eliminate the sixteen parts of oxygen4 ,it may be well to keep in mind that when the druggist says potash he means potassium hydroxid1 ,,koh1 a compound of potassium1 hydrogen1 and oxygen1 as the name indicates4 ,you mentioned the word chlorin1 said ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,that is another element8 ,yes1 that is a very common element4 ,ordinary table salt is sodium chlorid3 ,na,cl4 ,sodium is called natrium in ,latin1 and ,na is the symbol used in ,english to be in harmony with all other languages1 for practically all use the same chemical symbols4 ,sodium and potassium are very similar elements in some respects1 and in the free state they are very peculiar1 apparently taking fire when thrown into water4 ,chlorin in the free state is a poisonous gas4 ,thus the change in properties is well illustrated when these two dangerous elements1 sodium and chlorin1 unite to form the harmless compound which we call common salt4 ,it is a shame1 continued ,percy1 that agricultural science has so long been burdened with such a term as 'phosphoric acid1' which serves to complicate and confuse what should be made the simplest subject to every ,american farmer and landowner4 ,as agriculture is the fundamental support of ,america and of all her other great industries1 so the fertility of the soil is the absolute support of every form of agriculture4 ,now1 if there is any one factor that can be the most important1 where so many are positively essential1 then the most important factor in the problem of adopting and maintaining permanent systems of profitable agriculture on ,american soils is the element phosphorus4 ,phosphorus in very appreciable amount is positively necessary for the growth of every organism4 ,it is an absolutely essential constituent of the nucleus of every living cell1 whether plant or animal4 ,nuclein1 itself1 which is the substance nearest to the beginning of a new cell1 contains as high as ten per cent4 of the element phosphorus4 ,on the other hand1 phosphorus is the most limited of all the plant food elements1 measured by supply and demand and circulation4 ,what is phosphoric acid8 ,well1 the professor of chemistry says it is a compound containing three atoms of hydrogen1 one of phosphorus1 and four of oxygen4 ,it is a syrupy liquid and one of the strongest mineral acids4 ,in concentrated form it is as caustic as oil of vitriol4 ,why1 here you have a ,century dictionary4 ,that should tell what phosphoric acid is4 ,this is what the ,century says3 ',it is a colorless1 odorless syrup1 with an intensely sour taste4 ,it is tribasic1 forming three distinct classes of metallic salts4 ,the three atoms of hydrogen may in like manner be replaced by alcohol radicles1 forming acid and neutral ethers4 ,phosphoric acid is used in medicine as a tonic4' ,that1 continued ,percy1 is the complete definition as given by the ,century dictionary as to what phosphoric acid is1 and ,i note that this is the latest edition of the ,century1 copyrighted in #aijb4 ,we bought it less than a month ago1 said ,mrs4 ,thornton4 ,we can have so few books that we thought the ,century would be a pretty good library in itself2 ,mr4 ,thornton has had too little time to use it much as yet4 ,well1 even if ,i had used it1 said ,mr4 ,thornton1 you see there are five volumes before ,i'd get to the ,p's4 ,but1 joking aside1 ,i don't get much out of that definition except that phosphoric acid is a sour liquid and is used in medicine4 ,the definition is entirely correct1 said ,percy ,any text on chemistry will give you a very similar definition1 and your physician and druggist will give you the same information4 ,well1 ,i know the fertilizer agents claim to sell phosphoric acid in two-hundred-pound bags which wouldn't hold any kind of liquid4 ,true1 replied ,percy1 and ,i consider it a shame that the farm boy who goes to the high school or college and is there taught exactly what phosphoric acid is1 must4 when he returns to the farm1 try to read bulletins from his agricultural experiment station in which the term 'phosphoric acid' is used for what it is not4 ,at the state agricultural college1 the professor of chemistry correctly teaches the farm boy that phosphoric acid is a liquid compound containing three atoms of hydrogen1 one of phosphorus1 and four of oxygen in the molecule2 and then the same professor1 as an experiment station investigator1 goes to the farmers' institutes and incorrectly teaches the same boy's father that phosphoric acid is a solid compound pound containing two atoms of phosphorus and five atoms of oxygen in the molecule4 ,but why do they continue to teach such confusion8 ,well1 ,sir1 if they know1 they never tell4 ,in some manner this misuse of the name was begun1 and every year doubles the difficulty of stopping it4 ,like the man that was too lazy to stop work when he had once begun1 remarked ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,yes1 said ,percy1 but it is true that some of the ,states have adopted the practice of reporting analyses of soils and fertilizers on the basis of nitrogen instead of ammonia2 and in the ,corn ,belt ,states1 phosphorus and potassium are the terms used to a large extent instead of 'phosphoric acid1' and potash4 ,the agricultural press is greatly assisting in bringing about the adoption of the simpler system1 and the laws of some ,states now require that the percentages of the actual plant food elements1 as nitrogen1 phosphorus1 and potassium1 shall be guaranteed in fertilizers offered for sale4 ,it is one of those questions that are never settled until they are settled right2 and it is only a question of time until the simple element basis will be used throughout the ,united ,states1 or at least in the ,central and ,western ,states4 ,the so-called 'phosphoric acid' of the fertilizer agent is a compound whose molecule contains two atoms of phosphorus and five atoms of oxygen2 and1 since the atomic weight of phosphorus is thirty-one and that of oxygen sixteen1 this compound contains sixty-two parts of phosphorus and eighty parts of oxygen4 ,in other words1 this phosphoric acid1 falsely so-called1 contains a trifle less than forty-four per cent4 of the actual element phosphorus4 ,is the bone phosphate of lime that the agents talk about the same as the 'phosphoric acid'8 asked ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,no1 by 'bone phosphate of lime1' which is often abbreviated ,b4 ,p4 ,l41 is meant tricalcium phosphate1 a compound which contains exactly twenty per cent4 of phosphorus4 ,thus1 you can always divide the guaranteed percentage of 'bone phosphate of lime' by five1 and the result will be the per cent4 of phosphorus4 ,as stated in your ,century dictionary1 true phosphoric acid forms three distinct classes of salts1 because either one1 two1 or all of the three hydrogen atoms may be replaced by a metallic element4 ,thus1 we have phosphoric acid itself containing the three hydrogen atoms1 one phosphorus atom1 and four oxygen atoms4 ,this might be called trihydrogen phosphate 7,h#c,,po#d74 ,now if one of the hydrogen atoms is replaced by one potassium atom1 we have potassium dihydrogen phosphate 7,,kh#b,,po#d72 with two potassium atoms and one hydrogen1 we have dipotassium hydrogen phosphate 7,k#b;,,hpo#d72 and if all hydrogen is replaced by potassium the compound is tripotassium phosphate 7,k#c,,po#d74 ,to make similar salts with two-handed metallic elements1 like calcium or magnesium1 we need to start with two molecules of phosphoric acid ,h#f7,,po#d7b2 because each atom of calcium will replace two hydrogen atoms4 ,thus we have mono calcium phosphate1 ,ca,h#d7,,po#d7b1 dicalcium phosphate1 ,ca#b;,h#b7,,po#d7b1 and tricalcium phosphate1 ,ca#c7,,po#d7b4 ,it goes without saying that monocalcium phosphate contains four atoms of hydrogen and that dicalcium phosphate contains two hydrogen atoms4 ,by knowing the atomic weights 7#dj for calcium1 #ca for phosphorus1 and #af for oxygen71 it is easy to compute that the molecule of tricalcium phosphate weighs #caj of which #fb is phosphorus4 ,this is exactly one-fifth1 or twenty per cent4 ,this compound you will remember is sometimes called 'bone phosphate of lime'4 ,it is also called simply 'bone phosphate'2 because it is the phosphorus compound contained in bones4 ,it is sometimes called lime phosphate1 although it contains no lime in the true sense1 for it has no power to neutralize acid soils1 except when the phosphorus is taken up by plants more rapidly than the calcium1 which in such case might remain in the soil to act as a base to neutralize soil acids2 but even then the effect of the small amount of calcium thus liberated from the phosphate would be very insignificant compared with a liberal application of ground limestone4 ,well1 said ,mr4 ,thornton1 stretching himself1 orange phosphate is my favorite drink but ,i fear some of these phosphate you have just been giving me are too concentrated4 ,i ought to have the dose diluted2 but ,i like the taste of it1 and if you'll write a book along this line1 in this plain way just about as you have been giving it to me straight for almost twelve hours1 ,i tell you ,i'll read it over till ,i learn to understand it a heap better than ,i do now4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,closer ,,to ,,mother ,,earth ,,the following day ,percy collected soil samples to represent the common type of soil on the farm4 ,in the main the land was nearly level and very uniform1 although here and there were small areas which varied from the main type1 and in places the variation was marked4 ,percy and his host devoted the entire day to an examination of the soils of the farm and the collection of the samples4 ,the prevailing soil type is what would be called a loam1 said ,percy1 and a single set of composite samples will fairly represent at least three-fourths of the land on this farm4 ,it seems to me that it is enough for the present to sample this prevailing type1 and later1 if you desire1 you could collect samples of the minor types1 of which there are at least three that are quite distinct4 ,a loam soil is one that includes a fair proportion of the several groups of soil materials1 including silt1 clay1 and sand4 ,what is silt8 asked ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,silt consists of the soil particles which are finer than sand1--too small in fact to be felt as soil grains by rubbing between the fingers1 and yet it is distinctly granular1 while clay is a mere plastic or sticky mass like dough4 ,what are commonly called clay soils consist largely of silt1 but contain enough true clay to bind the silt into a stiff mass4 ,in the main such soils are silt loams1 but when deficient in organic matter they are yellow in color as a rule1 and all such material is usually called clay by the farmers4 ,well1 ,i had no idea that it would take us a whole day to get enough dirt for an analysis1 remarked ,mr4 ,thornton1 as they were collecting the samples late in the afternoon4 ,five minutes would have been plenty of time for me1 before ,i saw the holes you've bored to-day4 ,the fact is1 replied ,percy1 that the most difficult work of the soil investigator is to collect the samples4 ,of course any one could fill these little bags with soil in five minutes1 but the question is1 what would the soil represent8 ,it may represent little more than the hole it came out of1 as would be the case where the soil had been disturbed by burrowing animals1 or modified by surface accumulations1 as where a stack may sometime have been burned4 ,in the one case the subsoil may have been brought up and mixed with the surface1 and in the other the mineral constituents taken from forty acres in a crop of clover may have been returned to one-tenth of an acre4 ,certainly such things have occurred on many farms1 agreed ,mr4 ,thornton1 and they may have occurred on this farm for all any one knows4 ,fifty tons of clover hay1 continued ,percy1 after making a few computations1 would contain #djj pounds of phosphorus1 #bdjj pounds of potassium1 #fbj pounds of magnesium1 and #bcdj pounds of calcium4 ,i don't see how you keep all those figures in your head1 said ,mr4 ,johnston4 ,how many pounds are there in a ton of hay8 asked ,percy4 ,two thousand4 ,how many pounds in a bushel of oats8 ,thirty in ,virginia1 but thirty-two in ,carolina4 ,how many in a bushel of wheat8 ,sixty ,corn8 ,fifty-six pounds of shelled corn1 or seventy pounds of ears4 ,potatoes8 ,eighty-six pounds1--both kinds the same1 but most ,states require sixty pounds for the ,irish potatoes4 ,percy laughed4 ,you see1 he said1 you have more figures in your head than ,i have in mine4 ,you have mentioned twice as many right here1 without a moment's hesitation1 as ,i try to remember for the plant food contained in clover4 ,i like to keep in mind the requirements of large crops1 such as it is possible to raise under our climatic conditions if we will provide the stuff the crops are made of1 so far as we need to1 and do the farm work as it should be done4 ,i never try to remember how much plant food is required for twenty-two bushels of corn per acre1 which is the average yield of ,virginia for the last ten years1 while an authentic record reports a yield of #bci bushels from an acre of land in ,south ,carolina4 ,on our little farm in ,illinois we have one field of sixteen acres1 which was used for a pasture and feed lot for many years by my grandfather and has been thoroughly tile-drained since ,i was born1 that has produced as high as #b1jae bushels of corn in one season1 thus making an average of #abf bushels per acre4 ,what ,i try to remember is the plant food requirements for such crops as we ought to try to raise1 if we do what ought to be done4 ,i try to remember the plant food required for a hundred-bushel crop of corn1 a hundred-bushel crop of oats1 a fifty-bushel crop of wheat1 and four tons of clover hay4 ,it is an easy matter to divide these amounts by two1 as ,i have really been doing here in the ,east where it is hard for people to think in terms of such crops as these lands ought to be made to produce4 ,the requirements of the clover crop ,i certainly want to have in mind as a part of my little stock of ever-ready knowledge4 ,it is not very hard to remember that a four-ton crop of clover hay1 which we ought to harvest from one acre in two cuttings1 contains3 #afj pounds of nitrogen1 #ca pounds of magnesium1 #bj pounds of phosphorus1 #abj pounds of potassium1 #aag pounds of calcium4 ,it is just as easy to think in these terms as in per cent4 or pounds of butter fat1 which ,i understand is the basis on which you sell your cream4 ,yes1 ,i believe you are right in this matter1 ,mr4 ,johnston1 but ,i have never been able to see how we could apply the figures reported from chemical analysis4 ,neither do ,i see how any one but a chemist could make much use of the reports which the analyst usually publishes4 ,such reports will usually show the percentages of moisture and so-called 'phosphoric acid1' for example1 in a sample of clover hay1 and perhaps the percentages of these constituents in a sample of soil2 but to connect the requirements of the clover crop with the invoice of the soil demand more of a mental effort than ,i was prepared for before ,i went to the agricultural college4 ,on the other hand we were taught in college that the plowed soil of an acre of our most common ,illinois corn belt land contains only #abjj pounds of phosphorus1 and that a hundred-bushel crop of corn takes twenty-three pounds of phosphorus out of the soil4 ,furthermore that about one pound of phosphorus per acre is lost annually in drainage water in humid regions4 ,by dividing #abjj by #bd it is easy to see that fifty corn crops such as we ought to try to raise would require as much phosphorus as the present supply in our soil to a depth of about seven inches4 ,of course there is some phosphorus below seven inches1 but it is the plowed soil we must depend upon to a very large extent4 ,the oldest agricultural experiment station in the world is at ,rothamsted1 ,england4 ,on two plots of ground in the same field where wheat has been grown every year for sixty years1 the soil below the plow line has practically the same composition1 but on one plot the average yield for the last fifty years has been thirteen bushels per acre1 while on the other the yield of wheat has averaged thirty-seven bushels for the same fifty years4 ,the same kind of wheat8 inquired ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,yes1 and great care has always been taken to have these two plots treated alike in all respects1 save one4 ,and what was that8 ,plant food was regularly incorporated with the plowed soil of the high-yielding plot4 ,you mean that farm manure was used8 ,no1 not a pound of farm manure has been used on that plot for more than sixty years2 and1 furthermore1 the two plots were very much alike at the beginning2 but1 to the high-yielding plot1 nitrogen1 phosphorus1 potassium1 magnesium1 calcium1 and sulfur have all been applied in suitable compounds every year4 ,that is to say1 observed ,mr4 ,thornton1 that the land itself has produced thirteen bushels of wheat per acre and the plant food applied has produced twenty four bushels1 making the total yield thirty-seven bushels on the fertilized land4 ,that is certainly a fair way to state it1 replied ,percy4 ,well1 that sounds as though something might be done with run-down lands4 ,about what part of the twenty-four bushels increase would it take to pay for the fertilizers8 ,about #aej per cent4 of it1 ,percy replied4 ,one hundred and fifty per cent6 ,why1 you can't have more than a hundred per cent4 of anything4 ,oh1 yes1 you can4 ,the twenty-four bushels are one hundred per cent4 of what the fertilizers produced1 and the land itself increased this by fifty per cent41 so that the fertilized land produced one hundred and fifty per cent4 of the increase from the plant food applied4 ,well1 that's too much college mathematics for me2 but do you mean to say that it would take the whole thirty-seven bushels to pay for the plant food that produced the increase of twenty-four bushels8 ,that is exactly what ,i mean4 ,i see that you do not like percentage any better than ,i do4 ,really the acre is the best agricultural unit4 ,we buy and sell the land itself by the acre2 we report crop yields at so many bushels or tons per acre2 we apply manure at so many loads or tons per acre2 we apply so many hundred pounds of fertilizer per acre2 sow our wheat and oats at so many pecks or bushels per acre2 and we ought to know the invoice of plant food in the plowed soil of an acre and the amounts carried off in the crops removed from an acre4 ,now1 referring again to these figures from the forty acres of clover at two tons per acre4 ,if the eighty tons were burned and the ashes mixed with the surface soil on a tenth of an acre the increase per acre would be as follows3 #d1jjj pounds of phosphorus #bd1jjj pounds of potassium #f1bjj pounds of magnesium #bc1djj pounds of calcium4 ,these1 remember1 are the amounts per acre that would be added to the soil by burning the eighty tons of clover on one-tenth of an acre4 ,now compare these figures with the total amounts of the same elements contained in the common corn belt prairie soil of ,illinois1 which are as follows3 #a1bjj pounds of phosphorus #ce1jjj pounds of potassium #h1fjj pounds of magnesium #e1djj pounds of calcium4 ,from these figures you will see that the analysis of a single sample of soil collected from a spot of ground that had sometimes received such an addition as this would be positively worse than worthless1 because it would give false information1 and that is much worse than no information4 ,the methods of chemical analysis have been developed to a high degree of accuracy1 and it is not a difficult matter to find a chemist who can make a correct analysis of the sample placed in his hands2 but the chief difficulties lie1 first1 in securing samples of soil that will truly represent the type or types of soil on the farm2 and1 second1 in the interpretation of the results of analysis with reference to the adoption of methods of soil improvement4 ,is the report of the analysis as confusing with respect to other elements as with potassium and phosphorus1 which1 ,i understand1 are likely to be reported in terms of potash and a 'phosphoric acid' that is not true phosphoric acid8 ,still worse1 ,percy replied4 ,the calcium is commonly reported in terms of lime1 or1 as you would say1 quick lime2 and vet the soil may be an acid soil1 like yours1 and contain no lime whatever1 neither as quick lime nor limestone4 ,i have seen an analysis reporting half a per cent4 of calcium oxid1 which would make five tons of quick lime in the plowed soil of an acre2 whereas the soil not only contained no lime whatever1 but was so acid that it needed five tons of ground limestone per acre to correct the acidity4 ,the trouble is that when the chemist found calcium in the soil existing in the form of acid silicate1 or calcium hydrogen silicate1 he reported calcium oxid1 or lime1 in his analytical statement1 assuming apparently that the farmer would understand that the analytical statement did not mean what it said4 ,but some soils do contain lime1 do they not8 ,some soils contain limestone1 replied ,percy1 and the analysis of such a soil should report the amount of limestone1 or calcium carbonate1 based upon the actual determination of carbonate carbon or carbon dioxid1 which is a true measure of the basic property of the soil1 even though the limestone may be somewhat magnesian in character4 ,for a set of soil samples4 ,percy collected soil from three different strata4 ,the first sample represented the surface stratum from the top to six and two-third inches2 the second sample represented the subsurface stratum from six and two-thirds to twenty inches2 and the third sample represented the subsoil from twenty to forty inches1 each sample being a composite of about twenty borings4 ,in collecting these the hole was bored to six and two-third inches and somewhat enlarged by scraping up and down with the auger1 all of the soil being put into a numbered bag4 ,then1 the hole was extended and the subsurface boring removed without touching the surface soil4 ,this boring to a depth of twenty inches was put into a second bag4 ,the hole was then enlarged to the twenty-inch depth but the additional soil removed was discarded as a mixture of the surface and subsurface strata4 ,finally the hole was extended to the forty-inch depth and the subsoil from one groove of the auger was put into a third bag4 ,in this manner about an equal quantity of soil was bagged from each stratum2 and twenty such borings taken with an auger about one inch in diameter make a sufficient quantity to furnish to the chemist4 ,of course the surface soil is by far the most important1 ,percy explained4 ,it represents just about the depth of earth that is turned by the plow in good farming on normal soils2 and it weighs about two million pounds per acre4 ,the subsurface stratum extending from six and two-thirds to twenty inches in depth represents the practical limit of subsoiling2 and this stratum weighs about four million pounds2 while the subsoil stratum weighs about six million pounds1 where the soil is normal1 such as loam1 silt loam1 clay loam1 or sandy loam4 ,pure sand soil weighs about one-fourth more1 while pure peat soil weighs only half as much as normal soil4 ,i wish you would tell me1 said ,mr4 ,thornton1 what the fertilizers cost that have been used on that ,rothamsted wheat field4 ,the annual application of nitrogen has been one hundred twenty-nine pounds per acre1 said ,percy4 ,what will it cost8 ,well1 at twenty cents a pound1 it would cost #be4hj1 was ,mr4 ,thornton's reply after he had figured a moment4 ,but why didn't they grow clover and get the nitrogen from the air8 ,for two reasons1 replied ,percy4 ,first1 when those classic experiments were begun by ,sir ,john ,lawes and ,sir ,henry ,gilbert in #ahdd1 it was not known that clover could secure the free nitrogen from the air2 and1 second1 the experiment was designed to discover for certain whether wheat must be supplied with combined nitrogen1 by ascertaining the actual effect upon the yield of wheat of the nitrogen applied4 ,and what was the actual effect of the nitrogen8 questioned ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,how much did the wheat yield when they left out the nitrogen and applied all the other elements8 ,only fifteen bushels1 was the reply4 ,only fifteen bushels6 ,only two bushels increase for all the other elements1 phosphorus1 potassium1 magnesium1 and calcium1--and ,i remember you said that sulfur also was applied4 ,why didn't they leave off all these other elements1 and just use the nitrogen alone8 ,they did on another plot in the same field4 ,oh1 they did do that8 ,what was the yield on that plot8 ,only twenty bushels4 ,only twenty bushels6 ,well1 that s mighty queer4 ,how do you account for that8 ,does ,mrs4 ,thornton sometimes make dough out of flour and milk8 asked ,percy4 ,another ,yankee question1 eh8 said ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,i told my wife once that ,i wished she could make the bread my mother used to make1 and she said she wished ,i could make the dough her father used to make4 ,yes1 my wife makes dough1 a good deal more than ,i do1 and she makes it of flour and milk1 when we aren't reduced to corn meal and water4 ,can she make dough of flour alone8 continued ,percy4 ,no1 replied ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,nor of milk alone8 ,no4 ,well1 wheat cannot be made of nitrogen alone1 nor can it be made without nitrogen4 ,on ,broadbalk field at ,rothamsted1 where the wheat is grown1 the soil is most deficient in the element nitrogen4 ,in other words1 nitrogen is the limiting element for wheat on that soil2 and practically no increase can be made in the yield of wheat unless nitrogen is added4 ,however1 some other elements are not furnished by this soil in sufficient amount for the largest yield of wheat1 and these place their limitation upon the crop at twenty bushels4 ,to remove this second limitation requires that another element1 such as phosphorus1 shall be supplied in larger amount than is anually liberated in the soil under the system of farming practiced4 ,yes1 ,i see that1 said ,mr4 ,thornton1 it's like eating pancakes and honey2 the more cakes you have the more honey you want4 ,i think ,i can almost see my way through in this matter2 we are to correct the acid with limestone1 to work the legumes for nitrogen1 and turn under everything we can to increase the organic matter1 and if we find that the soil won't furnish enough phosphorus1 potassium1 magnesium1 or calcium1 even with the help of the decaying organic matter to liberate them1 why then it is up to us to increase the supply of those elements4 ,you must remember that the calcium will be supplied in the limestone2 cautioned ,percy4 ,and1 if you use magnesian limestone1 you will thus supply both calcium and magnesium4 ,keep in mind that magnesian only means that the limestone contains some magnesium4 and that it is not a pure calcium carbonate4 ,the purest magnesian limestone consists of a double carbonate of calcium and magnesium1 called dolomite4 ,but ,i have heard that magnesian lime is bad for soils1 said ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,that is true1 ,percy replied1 and so is ordinary lime bad for soils4 ,the ,germans say3 ',lime makes the fathers rich but the children poor4' ,the ,english saying is3 ',lime and lime without manure ,will make both farm and farmer poor4' ,both of these national proverbs are correct for common1 every-day lime2 but you know1 do you not1 that limestone soils are usually very good and very durable soils8 ,that's what ,i've always heard1 replied ,mr4 ,thornton4 ,well1 there is no danger whatever from using too much limestone2 and all the information thus far secured shows that magnesian limestone is even better than the pure calcium limestone4 ,i know two ,illinois farmers who are using large quantities of ground magnesian limestone1 and one of them has applied as much as twenty tons per acre4 ,on that land his corn crop was good for eighty bushels per acre this year4 ,of course that heavy application was more than was needed1 but initial applications of four or five tons are very satisfactory1 and these should be followed by about two tons per acre every four to six years4 ,mr4 ,thornton took his guest to ,blairville that evening as they had planned and he assured ,percy that should he decide to purchase land in that section they would let him have three hundred acres of their land at ten dollars an acre4 ,i will let you know after ,i get the samples analyzed for you1 said ,percy4 ,the price is low enough and the location ideal1 but still ,i want to have the invoice before ,i buy the goods4 ,i will write you about sending the samples to the chemist after ,i hear from some ,i sent him from ,montplain4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,from ,,richmond ,,to ,,washington ,,the next day ,percy spent a few hours at the ,state ,capitol in ,richmond1 where he found the records of the ,state of much interest4 ,thus he found that in practically every county there was more or less land owned by the commonwealth1 because of its complete abandonment by former owners1 and the failure of any one to buy when sold by the state for taxes4 ,under such conditions the title to the land returns to the ,state1 and after two years it may be sold by the ,state to any one desiring to purchase and the former owner has no further right of redemption4 ,some of these lands which are owned by the ,state1 and on which the ,state has received no taxes for many years1 are still occupied by their former owners or by squatters' and may continue to be so occupied unless the land should be purchased from the ,state by some one else who would demand full possession4 ,such purchasers1 however1 are likely to be unpopular residents in the community1 if the transaction forces poor people from a place they have called home1 even though they had no legal right to occupy it4 ,percy found that the report of the ,state ,auditor showed that the clerk of the court of ,powhatan county had returned to the ,state #a4je for sales of lands purchased by the commonwealth at tax sales1 while from ,prince ,edward county the ,state received a similar revenue amounting to #ag4ci for the same year4 ,the total revenue to the commonwealth from this source amounted to #ffg4he for the year4 ,contrasted with this was the revenue from ,redemption of ,land1 amounting to #bg1dcf4ch1 suggesting something of the struggle of the man to retain possession of his home before it becomes legally possible for another to take it from him beyond redemption4 ,according to the records about a million acres of land are owned by the ,commonwealth of ,virginia alone4 ,percy decided to go to ,washington to learn what definite information he might obtain from the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture4 ,on the train for ,washington he found himself sitting beside a ,virginia farmer4 ,these lands remind me of our ,western prairies1 ,percy remarked4 ,you have some extensive areas of level or gently undulating uplands4 ,they don't remind me of the ,western prairies1 ,i can tell you1 was the reply4 ,i am a ,westerner myself1 or ,i was until eight years ago4 ,these lands look all right from the train when the crops are all off1 but ,i find that every patch of the earth's surface doesn't always make a good farm4 ,why you can go from ,danville1 ,illinois1 to ,omaha1 ,nebraska1 and stop anywhere in the darkest night and you're mighty near sure to light on a good farm where one acre is worth ten of this land along here4 ,about what is this land worth8 asked ,percy4 ,well1 ,i thought six hundred acres of it was worth #e1jjj about eight years ago1 especially as the buildings on the place were in good repair and couldn't be built to-day for less than #f1jjj3 but right now ,i think ,i paid a plenty for my land4 ,it's just back a few miles at the station where ,i got on4 ,how far is that from ,washington8 ,about fifteen miles1 ,i reckon1 as the crow flies4 ,my boy has a telescope his uncle sent him and we can see the ,monument on a clear day4 ,what monument8 asked ,percy4 ,why1 ,washington's monument4 ,haven't you ever been to ,washington8 ,no1 this is my first visit4 ,i am really thinking of buying a farm somewhere here in the ,east4 ,i have been in ,richmond and learned a great deal from the state reports1 and ,i thought ,i might get more information from the ,department of ,agriculture in ,washington4 ,perhaps1 said the man1 but my advice is to keep in mind that there is a difference between buying land and buying a farm4 ,i've got land to sell1 by the way4 ,i thought ,i'd need it all when ,i bought1 but ,i can see now that ,i'll not need more'n half of it at the most2 so1 if you want two or three hundred acres of this kind of land right close here where you kind o' neighbor with the senators and other upper tens1 and run back and forth from the ,city in an hour or so1 why ,i think ,i can accommodate you4 ,my name is ,sunderland1 ,j4 ,r4 ,sunderland1 and you'll find me at home any day4 ,how much would you sell part of your land for8 inquired ,percy4 ,well1 ,i'd kind o' hate to take less than ten dollars an acre for it2 but ,i think we can make a deal all right if you like the location4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,a ,,lesson ,,in ,,optimism ,,about nine o'clock the day following ,percy's arrival in ,washington he sent his card into the office of the ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,just step this way1 said the boy on his return4 ,the ,secretary will see you at once4 ,a gentleman who appeared to be sixty1 but was really several years older1 arose from his desk and greeted ,percy very kindly4 ,i see you are from ,illinois1 ,mr4 ,johnston4 ,i am an ,iowa man myself1 and ,i am always glad to see any one from the corn belt4 ,do you know we are going to beat the records this year8 ,it is wonderful what crops we grow in this country1 and they are getting better every year4 ,we are growing more than two-thirds of the entire corn crop of the globe1 right here in these ,united ,states4 ,yes1 ,sir1 and we are just beginning to grow corn2 and corn is only one of our important agricultural products4 ,do you know that eighty-six per cent4 of all the raw materials used in all the manufactured products of this country come from the farms of the ,united ,states2 yes1 ,sir1 eighty-six per cent4 ,now1 what can ,i do for you8 ,i am very glad you called1 and ,i will be glad to serve you in any way you desire4 ,by the way1 how is the corn turning out in your part of ,illinois8 ,bumper crop1 ,i have no doubt4 ,i think so1 said ,percy1 after seeing the crops here in the ,east4 ,that's what ,i thought1 continued the ,secretary4 ,a bumper crop1 the biggest we ever raised4 ,oh1 they don't know how to raise corn here in the ,east4 ,they just grow corn1 corn1 corn1 year after year2 and that will get any land out of fix4 ,i found that out years ago in ,iowa4 ,i am a farmer myself1 as ,i suppose you know4 ,i found you couldn't grow corn on the same land all the time4 ,but just rotate the crops2 put clover in the rotation2 and then your ground will make corn again1 as good as ever4 ,but ,i understand that clover refuses to grow on most of this eastern land1 said ,percy4 ,oh1 nonsense4 ,they don't sow it4 ,i tell you they don't sow it1 and they don't know how to raise it4 ,it takes a little manure sometimes to start it1 but it will grow all right if they would only give it half a chance4 ,why1 for years the ,iowa farmers said blue grass wouldn't grow in ,iowa4 ,yes1 ,sir1 they just knew it wouldn't grow there2 and then ,i showed them that blue grass was actually growing in ,iowa1--actually growing along the roadsides almost everywhere1--blue grass that would pasture a steer to the acre--just came in of itself without being seeded4 ,no1 ,i tell you they don't sow clover down here4 ,they just say it won't grow and keep right on planting corn1 corn1 corn1 until the corn crop amounts to nothing1 and then they let the land grow up in brush4 ,now1 ,i do not wish to take up more of your time1 said ,percy1 for ,i know how busy a man you must be1 but ,i am thinking of buying a farm1 or some land1 here in the ,east and have come to you for information4 ,we have a small farm in ,illinois and land is rather too high-priced there to think of buying more2 but ,i thought ,i could sell at a good price1 and buy a much larger farm here in the ,east with part of the money and still have enough left to build it up with2 and1 with the high price of all kinds of farm produce here1 we ought to make it pay4 ,you can do it1 said the ,secretary4 ,no doubt of it4 ,any land that ever was any good is all right yet if you'll grow clover1 and you can start that with a little manure if you need it4 ,i have done it in ,iowa1 and ,i know what ,i am talking about4 ,now my ,bureau of ,soils can give you just the information you want4 ,we are making a soil survey of the ,united ,states1 and we have soil maps of several counties right here in ,maryland4 ,you can take that map and pick out any kind of land you want1--upland or bottom land1--sandy soil1 clay soil1 loam1 silt loam1 or anything you want4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,in ,,the ,,office ,,of ,,the ,,chief ,,show this gentleman to the ,bureau of ,soils1 said the ,secretary to the boy who came as he pushed a button4 ,all the world loves an optimist1 said ,percy to himself as he followed the boy to another office where he met the ,chief of the ,bureau of ,soils1 who kindly furnished him with copies of the soil maps of several counties1 including two in ,maryland1 ,prince ,george1 which adjoins the ,district of ,columbia1 and ,st4 ,mary county1 which almost adjoins ,prince ,george on the ,south4 ,these maps were accompanied by extensive reports describing in some detail the agricultural history of the counties and the general observations that had been made by the soil surveyors4 ,i desire to learn as much as ,i can regarding the most common upland soils1 ,percy explained4 ,not the rough or broken land1 but the level or undulating lands which are best suited for cultivation4 ,i am sure these maps and reports will be a very great help to me4 ,i think you will find just what you are looking for1 said the ,chief4 ,you can spread the maps out on the table there and let me know if ,i can be of any assistance4 ,you see the legend on the margin gives you the name of every soil type1 and the soils are fully described in the reports4 ,one of the most common uplands soils in southern ,prince ,george county is the ,leonardtown loam1 and this type is also the most extensive soil type in ,st4 ,mary county4 ,the same type is found in ,virginia to some extent4 ,while the soil has been run down by improper methods of culture1 it has a very good mechanical composition and is really an excellent soil2 but it needs crop rotation and more thorough cultivation to bring it back into a high state of fertility4 ,the farmers are slow to take up advanced methods here in the ,east4 ,we have told them what they ought to do1 but they keep right on in the same old rut4 ,for two hours ,percy buried himself with the maps and reports4 ,finally the ,chief came from his inner office1 and finding ,percy still there asked if he had found such information as he desired4 ,i find much of interest and value1 but ,i do not find any complete invoice of the plant food contained in these different kinds of soil4 ,you mean an ultimate chemical analysis of the soil8 asked the ,chief4 ,yes1 a chemical analysis to ascertain the absolute amount of plant food in the soil4 ,i think of it as an invoice2 but ,i see that you do not report any such analyses4 ,no1 we do not1 answered the ,chief4 ,we have been investigating the mechanical composition of soils1 the chemistry of the soil solution1 and the adaptation of crop to soil4 ,we find that farmers are not growing the crops they should grow2 namely1 the crops to which their soils are best adapted4 ,for example1 they try to grow corn on land that is not adapted to corn4 ,it seems to me1 said ,percy1 that our farmers are always trying to find a crop that is adapted to their soil4 ,down in ',egypt1' which covers about one-third of ,illinois1 the farmers once raised so much corn that the people from the swampy prairie went down there to buy corn1 and hence the name ',egypt' became applied to ,southern ,illinois4 ,but there came a time when the soil refused to grow such crops of corn2 the farmers then found that wheat was adapted to the soil4 ,later the wheat yields decreased until the crop became unprofitable2 and the farmers sought for another crop adapted to a still more depleted soil4 ,timothy was selected1 and for many years it proved a profitable crop2 but of late years timothy likewise has decreased in yield until there must be another change2 and now whole sections of ',egypt' are growing red top as the only profitable crop4 ,after red top1 then what8 ,i don't know1 but it looks as though it would be sprouts and scrub brush1 and final land abandonment1 a repetition of the history of these old lands of ,virginia and ,maryland4 ,well1 can't they grow corn after red top8 asked the ,chief4 ,many of them try it many times1 replied ,percy1 and the yield is about twenty bushels per acre1 whereas the virgin soil easily produced sixty to eighty bushels4 ,and they can't grow wheat as they once did8 ,no1 wheat after timothy or red top now yields from five to twelve bushels per acre1 while they once grew twenty to thirty bushels of wheat per acre year after year4 ,if they rotate their crops1 they would probably yield as well as ever1 said the ,chief4 ,no1 that1 too1 has been tried1 replied ,percy4 ,the ,illinois ,experiment ,station has practiced a four-year rotation of corn1 cowpeas1 wheat1 and clover on an experiment field on the common prairie soil down in ',egypt1' and the average yield of wheat has been only twelve bushels per acre during the last four years1 but when legume crops were plowed under and limestone and phosphorus applied1 the average yield during the same four years was twenty-seven bushels per acre4 ,probably the increase was all produced by the green manure1 suggested the ,chief4 ,organic matter has a great influence on the control of the moisture supply4 ,that was tested1 said ,percy4 ,the green manure alone increased the average yield to only fourteen bushels while the green manure and limestone together raised the average wheat yield to nineteen bushels1 the further increase to twenty-seven bushels having been produced by the addition of phosphorus4 ,well1 ,sir1 said the ,chief1 we have made both extensive intensive investigations concerning the chemistry of the soil solution by very delicate and sensitive methods of analysis we have developed1 and we have also conducted culture experiments for twenty-day periods with wheat seedlings in the water extract of soils from all parts of the ,united ,states1 and the results we have obtained have changed the thought of the world as to the cause of the infertility of soils4 ,but you have not made analyses for total plant food in the soils or conducted actual field experiments with crops grown to maturity8 asked ,percy4 ,no1 we have not done that1 answered the ,chief4 ,those are old methods of investigation which have been tried for many years and yet no chemist can tell in advance what will be the effect of a given fertilizer upon a given crop on a given soil4 ,that is true1 said ,percy1 but neither can any merchant tell in advance just what effect will be produced on the next day's business by the addition of a given number of a given kind of shoes to a given stock on his shelves4 ,there are many factors involved in both cases4 ,yes1 you are right in that1 said the ,chief1 we are just beginning to understand the chemistry of the soil1 and we hope soon to have very complete proof of the advanced ideas we already have concerning the causes of the fertility and infertility of soils4 ,referring to the specific case of the ,leonardtown loam of ,maryland1 said ,percy1 ,i find the following statement on page #cc of the ,report of the ,field ,operations of the ,bureau of ,soils for #aijj4 ,after describing the ,norfolk loam of ,st4 ,mary ,county1 the writer says3 ',the ,leonardtown loam is a very much heavier type of soil4 ,it covers about forty-one per cent4 of ,st4 ,mary ,county4 ,the soil is a yellow silty soil1 resembling loess in texture1 underlaid by a clay subsoil with layers or pockets of sand4 ,this soil has been cultivated for upward of two hundred years1 but it is now little valued and is covered with oak and pine over much of its area4 ,it is worth from #a to #c per acre4 ,the cultivated areas produce small crops of corn1 wheat1 and an inferior grade of tobacco4' ,the generally low estimation in which this land is held is probably wholly unjustified1 replied the ,chief4 ,there are two or three farms in the area which1 under a high state of cultivation with intelligent methods1 will produce from twenty to thirty bushels of wheat per acre and corresponding crops of corn4 ,those farmers are a credit to the country4 ,they furnish the towns with good milk and butter and vegetables1 and they also help to keep the towns clean and sanitary by hauling out the animal excrements1 and other waste and garbage that tend to pollute the air and water of the village4 ,i can see how that might maintain the fertility of those farms1 said ,percy4 ,it seems that the general condition of this kind of land is about the same in ,prince ,george ,county4 ,on page #de of the #aija ,report of the ,field ,operations of the ,bureau of ,soils1 ,i have noted the following statement3 ',the ,leonardtown loam1 covering #de1ggj acres of the area1 is the nearest approach among the ,maryland ,coastal ,plain ,soils to the heavy clays of the limestone regions of ,western ,maryland and ,pennsylvania4 ,the surface is generally level and the drainage fair4 ,the soil is not adapted to tobacco1 and has consequently been allowed to grow up to scrub forest1 so that large portions of it are at present uncleared4 ,such unimproved lands can be bought for #a4ej to #e4jj an acre1 even within a few miles of the ,district line4 ,the soil has been badly neglected1 and when cultivated the methods have not been such as to promote fertility4 ,when properly handled1 as it is in a few places1 good yields of wheat1 corn and grass are obtained4' ,that's right1 said the ,chief1 exactly right4 ,upon the whole it is one of the most promising soils of the locality1 although it is not considered so by the resident farmers4 ,you mean that it should be handled the same as is done by the successful farmers of ,st4 ,mary ,county8 inquired ,percy4 ,yes1 it needs thorough cultivation and the rotation of crops2 and the physical condition of the soil needs to be improved by the addition of lime and manure1 or green crops turned under4 ,i have been looking over some of the other ,reports of ,field ,operations1 said ,percy4 ,i became interested in the description of a ,virginia soil called ,porters black loam4 ,i find the following statements on page #baj of the ,report for #aijb3 ',the ,porters black loam occurs in all the soil survey sheets1 extending along the top of the main portion of the ,blue ,ridge ,mountains in one continuous area4 ,this type consists of the broad rolling tops and the upper slopes of the main range of the ,blue ,ridge ,mountains4 ,locally the ,porters black loam is called black land and pippin land1 the latter term being applied because1 of all the soils of the area1 it is pre-eminently adapted to the ,newtown and ,albermarle ,pippin4 ,this black land has long been recognized as the most fertile of the mountain soils4 ,it can be worked year after year without apparent impairment of its fertility4 ,wheat winter kills1 the loose soils heaving badly under influence of frost4 ,the areas lie at too high elevations for corn4 ,oats do well1 making large yields4 ,irish potatoes1 even under ordinary culture1 will yield from two hundred to three hundred bushels per acre4 ,it seeds in blue grass naturally1 which affords excellent pasturage4 ,clover and other grasses will also grow luxuriantly upon it4 ,the areas occupied by this soil are mostly cleared4' ,yes1 ,sir1 said the ,chief1 the ,potters black loam is a fine soil--loose and porous as stated in the ,report4 ,you see it has a good physical condition4 ,there is one other description in this ,report for #aijc that is of special interest to me1 said ,percy4 ,this relates to a type of soil which the surveyors found in the low level areas of prairie land in ,mc,lean ,county1 ,illinois1 and which they have called ,miami black clay loam4 ,i think we have several acres of the same kind of soil on our own little farm4 ,i found the following statements on page #ghg3 ',when the first settlers came to ,mc,lean ,county they found the areas occupied by the ,miami black clay loam wet and swampy1 and before these areas could be brought under cultivation it was necessary to remove the excess of moisture4 ,with the exception of a few large ditches for outlets1 tile drains have taken the place of open ditches4 ,drainage systems in some instances have cost as much as #be an acre1 but the very productive character of the soil1 and the increase in the yields fully justify the expense4 ,there are few soils more productive than the ,miami black clay loam4 ,some areas have been cropped almost continuously in corn for nearly fifty years without much diminution in the yields4' ,now there you are again1 said the ,chief4 ,drainage1 that's all it needed4 ,you see it's a simple matter2 and that's what the ,leonardtown loam needs in places4 ,give it good drainage and good cultivation with a rotation of crops1 and you'll get results all right4 ,has the ,bureau of ,soils tried these methods on any of this soil near ,washington8 asked ,percy4 ,no use1 replied the ,chief4 ,we've got the scientific facts and besides1 as ,i told you1 some few farms are kept up in both ,prince ,george and ,st4 ,mary counties and they are as good demonstrations as anyone could want4 ,now ,i suggest that you meet some of our scientists4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,the ,,chemist',s ,,laboratory ,,the ,chief showed ,percy into the laboratories of the ,bureau and introduced him to the soil physicist and the soil chemist4 ,percy was greatly interested in the various lines of work in progress and gladly accepted an invitation to return after lunch and become better acquainted with the methods of investigation used4 ,in the afternoon the physicist showed him how the soil water could be removed from an ordinary moist soil by centrifugal force1 and the chemist was growing wheat seedlings in small quantities of this water and in water extracts contained in bottles4 ,the seedlings were allowed to grow for twenty days and then other seedlings were started in the same solution and also in fresh solution1 and it was very apparent that in some cases the wheat grew better in the fresh solutions4 ,the chemist explained that he also analyzed the soil solutions and water extracts from different soils and that there was no relation between the crop yields and the chemical composition of the soils4 ,but it seems to me1 said ,percy1 that your analysis refers to the plant food dissolved in the soil water only at the time when you extract it4 ,how long a time does it require to make the extraction8 ,as a rule we shake the soil with water for three minutes and then it takes twenty minutes to separate the water from the soil4 ,this gives us the plant food in solution and with the addition of more water the nitrates1 phosphoric acid1 and potash in the soil immediately dissolve sufficiently give us a nutrient solution of the same concentration as we had before4 ,thus there is always sufficient plant food in the soil so long as there is any of the original stock4 ,that is surely quick work1 said ,percy1 but ,i wonder if the corn plant might not get somewhat different results from the soil analysis which it makes4 ,how do you mean8 ,did you ever plant a field of corn and then cultivate it and watch it grow with increasing rapidity1 until along about the ,fourth of ,july every leaf seemed to nod its appreciation and thanks as you stirred the soil2 and to show its gratitude1 too1 by growing about five inches every twenty-four hours when the nights were warm8 ,no1 replied the ,chemist1 ,i have never had any experience of that sort4 ,i am devoting my life to the more scientific investigations relating to the fundamental laws which underlie these soil fertility problems4 ,well1 ,i was only thinking1 ,percy continued1 that you analyze a fraction of a pound of soil in a few minutes1 while the corn plant analyzes about a ton of soil by a sort of continuous process1 which covers twenty-four hours every day for about one hundred and twenty days1 and it takes into account every change in temperature and moisture1 the aeration with any variation produced by cultivation1 and also the changes brought about by the nitrifying bacteria and all other agencies that promote the decomposition of the soil and the liberation of plant food1 including the action upon the insoluble phosphates and other minerals of the carbonic acid exhaled by the roots of the corn plants1 the nitric acid produced by the process of nitrification1 and the various acids resulting from the decay of organic matter contained in the soil4 ,i am very familiar with the literature of the whole subject of soil fertility1 replied the ,chemist1 and our theories are being accepted everywhere4 ,i have just returned from a lecture tour extending from ,florida to ,michigan1 and our ideas and methods are being very generally adopted1 not only in this country but also in ,europe4 ,the ,chief of the ,bureau very kindly permitted me to look over the maps and reports relating to the soils of ,maryland and ,virginia1 said ,percy1 but in this literature ,i found no data as to the amount of plant food contained in the various soil types that have been found in the surveys4 ,may ,i ask if the ,bureau has made any analyses to ascertain the total amounts of the different essential plant food elements contained in these different soils8 ,no1 the ,chemist replied1 a chemical analysis gives practically no information concerning the fertility of the soil4 ,we have made no ultimate analyses of soils1 although we have used the same methods of analysis in a study of the partial composition of the soil separates1 or particles of different grades1 such as the sand1 the silt1 and the clay4 ,and have you also determined the percentages of sand1 silt1 and clay in the soils themselves8 ,oh1 yes1 the physical composition of the soil is a matter of very great importance1 and this is always determined and reported for every soil4 ,did you not see that in the ,reports you examined this morning8 ,i think ,i did notice it1 ,percy replied1 but it is so easy for the farmer himself to tell a sandy soil from a clay soil that ,i did not appreciate the value of those physical analyses4 ,in any case1 ,i shall be very glad to know what results were obtained from the chemical analysis of the soil separates to which you referred4 ,those results are all reported in ,bulletin ,no4 #ed of the ,bureau of ,soils1 said the ,chemist1 and ,i have extra copies right here and will be glad to present you with one4 ,and let me give you our ,bulletin #bb also4 ,this will enable you to get a clear idea of the principles we are developing which are solving the soil fertility problems that have completely baffled the scientists heretofore4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,mathematics ,,applied ,,to ,,agriculture ,,percy left the ,bureau of ,soils with a feeling of deep appreciation for the uniform courtesy and kindness that had been accorded him1 but with a firm conviction that the laboratory scientists were too far removed from the actual conditions existing in the cultivated field4 ,he sought the quiet of his room at the hotel in order to study the bulletins he had received4 ,even with his college training he found it difficult to form clear mental conceptions of the results of investigations reported in the bulletins4 ,sometimes the data were reported in percentages and sometimes in parts per million4 ,no reports gave the amounts of the element phosphorus2 but ,,po#d was given in some places and ,p#b,o#e in others4 ,in ,bulletin ,no4 #bb1 the potassium and calcium were reported as the elements and the nitrogen in terms of ,,no#c1 while potash 7,k#bj71 quicklime 7,ca,o71 and magnesia 7,mg,o7 were reported in ,bulletin #ed4 ,by a somewhat complicated mathematical process1 he finally succeeded in making computations from the percentages of the various compounds reported in the soil separates and from the percentages of these different separates contained in the soils themselves and from the known weights of normal soils1 until he reduced the data to amounts per acre of plowed soil4 ,he was especially pleased to find that the essential data were at hand not only for both the ,leonardtown loam and the ,porter's black loam1 but also for the ,norfolk loam1 which he had learned from one of the soil maps was the principal type of soil southwest of ,blairville on ,mr4 ,thornton's farm2 and1 furthermore1 the ,miami black clay loam of ,illinois was included4 ,percy knew the black clay loam was a rich soil1 for the teacher in college had said that the more common prairie land and most timber lands were much less durable and needed thorough investigation at once1 while the flat recently drained heavy black land could wait a few years if necessary4 ,percy first worked out the data for the ,miami black clay loam4 ,the chemist had analyzed the soil separates for only four constituents1 and they showed the following amounts per acre of plowed soil to a depth of six and two-thirds inches1 averaging two million pounds in weight3 #b1igj pounds of phosphorus #ch1ejj pounds of potassium #ah1ddj pounds of magnesium #df1bjj pounds of calcium ,he then made the computations for the average of the ,leonardtown loam of ,st4 ,mary ,county1 ,maryland1 with results as follows3 #afj pounds of phosphorus #ah1ejj pounds of potassium #c1dhj pounds of magnesium #a1jjj pounds of calcium ,percy stared at these figures when he brought them together for comparison4 ,he then checked up his computations to be sure they were right4 ,almost twenty times as much phosphorus6 he said to himself4 ,is it possible8 ,and more than forty times as much calcium6 ,let me see6 ,it takes one hundred and seventeen pounds of calcium for four tons of clover hay4 ,the total amount in the plowed soil of the ,leonardtown loam would not be sufficient for eight such crops2 and six crops of corn such as we raised one year on our sixteen acres would take more phosphorus from the land than is now left in the plowed soil of this ,leonardtown loam4 ,the magnesium is not quite so bad--about one-fifth as much as in our black soil1 and the potassium is almost one-half as much as we have4 ,percy next turned to the ,porters black loam1 which he had noticed was to be found not many miles from ,montplain4 ,he thought he might induce ,mr4 ,west to drive with him to the upper mountain slope in order that they might see that land4 ,his computations for the ,porters black loam gave the following results3 #d1fcj pounds of phosphorus #dh1cjj pounds of potassium #ab1cfj pounds of magnesium #bc1gjj pounds of calcium ,he viewed these figures a moment with evident satisfaction4 ,plenty of everything in this wonderful 'pippin land1' he thought4 ,big yields reported for everything suited to that altitude4 ',can be worked year after year without apparent impairment of its fertility1' so the ,report stated4 ,i should think it might1 especially since clover is one of the crops grown4 ,both phosphorus and potassium are way above our best black land4 ,magnesium two-thirds and calcium one-half of our flat land1 but still greater than our common prairie1 according to the average they gave us at college4 ,and no doubt there is plenty of magnesian limestone in these mountains which could be had if ever needed4 ,the soil surveyor certainly did not say too much in praise of the ,porters black loam1 considering that its physical composition is also all right4 ,he worked out the ,norfolk loam to see what he would get if he accepted ,miss ,russell's dare4 ,the following are the figures3 #faj pounds of phosphorus #ac1bjj pounds of potassium #a1bjj pounds of magnesium #c1dcj pounds of calcium ,rather low in everything1 said ,percy1 compared with any soil ,i know that has a good reputation4 ,more uniformly poor but not so extremely poor as the ,leonardtown loam4 ,he wished that the nitrogen had been determined by the chemist1 even though he knew the organic matter and the nitrogen must be very low in the poor soils1 but nowhere was any such record to be found in the bulletin4 ,he found the statement1 however1 that all data were reported on the basis of ignited soil4 ,that will reduce some of these amounts about one-tenth1 he said to himself4 ,in our physics work in college1 good soils generally lost about ten per cent4 in weight by ignition1 even after all hygroscopic moisture had been expelled2 but these very poor soils haven't much to lose1 ,i guess4 ,they surely contain no carbonates and very little organic matter1 although they may contain some combined water4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,nation',s ,,capitol ,,percy spent three days in ,washington4 ,if ,i lived here long1 he wrote his mother1 ,i think ,i should become as optimistic as the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 even though the total produce of the original thirteen states should supply a still smaller fraction of the necessities of life required by their population4 ,the ,congressional ,library is by far the finest structure ,i have ever seen4 ,i cannot help feeling proud that ,i am an ,american when ,i walk through its halls and look upon the portraits of the great men who helped to make our country truly great4 ,as ,i shook hands with the ,president of the ,united ,states at one of his public receptions held in the ',east ,room' of the ,white ,house1 ,i wondered if there was another country on the earth where the humblest subject could thus come face to face with the head of a mighty nation4 ,in the ,treasury ,building ,i was permitted to join a small party of some distinction and shared with each of them the privilege of holding in my hands for a moment eight million dollars in government bonds4 ,i have visited many of the great buildings1 the ,capitol1 of course1 and ,washington's monument1 which rises to a height of #eee feet above the surrounding land1 or practically #fjj feet above low-water level in the ,potomac4 ,there are many smaller monuments erected in honor of ,american heroes in various squares1 circles1 and parks throughout the ,city4 ,the zoological garden took a full half-day1 and ,i could have spent a much longer time there4 ,they told me of a frightful occurrence that happened only last week4 ,in a pool of water a very large alligator is kept confined by a low stout iron fence4 ,a negro woman was leaning over the fence holding her baby in her arms and looking at the monster who seemed to be asleep2 when1 without a moment's warning1 he thrust himself half out of the water and snapped the baby from her arms1 swallowing it at one gulp as he settled back into the water4 ,i fear the report is true enough1 for they have made the fence higher in a very temporary manner1 and ,i heard it mentioned by a dozen or more4 ,i leave ,washington by boat at five o'clock this afternoon1 and ,i expect to land at ,leonardtown1 ,st4 ,mary county1 ,maryland1 about six o'clock in the morning1 when the boat will be ready to leave that port4 ,it is a freight boat and stops for hours at large towns4 ,i am planning for a trip into ,new ,england next week4 ,i did not realize how easy it is to go there until ,i looked up the train service4 ,in less than twelve hours' time1 one can make the trip from the ,virginia line1 through the ,district of ,columbia1 ,maryland1 ,delaware1 ,pennsylvania1 ,new ,jersey1 ,new ,york1 ,connecticut1 ,rhode ,island1 and into ,massachusetts1--ten different states1 including the ,district4 ,the trip from ,galena to ,cairo can hardly be made in so short a time1 not even on the limited ,illinois ,central trains4 ,an hour before leaving the ,washington hotel ,percy chanced to meet a ,congressman whom he had seen on several occasions at the ,university and who had spoken at the alumni banquet at the time of ,percy's graduation4 ,i'm very glad you introduced yourself1 ,mr4 ,johnston1 said he4 ,want to get a place down here1 do you8 ,very likely ,i can help you some4 ,i've helped several friends of mine to get good places4 ,what are you after 8 ,i am thinking of getting a place of about three hundred acres1 said ,percy1 and ,i shall certainly appreciate any assistance or information you can give me4 ,whe-e-ew4 ,what are you up to8 ,want to sell us a site for the new ,government insane hospital1 or going to lay out another addition to the city8 ,neither1 replied ,percy4 ,i am looking for a piece of cheap land that ,i can build up and make into a good farm4 ,oh1 ho6 said the ,congressman4 ,that's it1 is it8 ,well1 now let me tell you that you've struck the wrong neck of the woods to find land that you can make a good farm out of4 ,the land about here is cheap enough all right--cheaper than the votes of some politicians1 but it can't be built up into good farms4 ,don't attempt the impossible1 my friend4 ,if you want cheap land for town sites or insane hospitals1 right here's the country to land in2 but if you want a good farm1 you stay right in ,illinois1 or else follow ,horace ,greeley's advice and 'go ,west4'4 ,that's a good suggestion for you1 too4 ,just go ,west and get three hundred and twenty acres of the richest soil lying out of doors4 ,there is not much land left in the ,west where the rainfall is sufficient for good crops1 said ,percy4 ,then take irrigated land4 ,the ,government is getting under way some big irrigation projects1 and you ought to get in on the ground floor on one of those tracts4 ,it is a fact that the apples from some of those irrigated farms sometimes bring more than #ejj an acre4 ,i don't doubt that1 said ,percy4 ,an illustration or example can usually be found to prove almost anything4 ,i know that the ,perrine ,brothers1 who conduct a fruit farm down in ',egypt1' actually received #hjj per acre for the apples grown on thirteen acres one year2 and there is plenty of such land in ,egypt that can be bought for less than #dj an acre1 and near to the great markets4 ,i am told1 however1 that there are from a dozen to a hundred applicants for every farm opened to settlement in the ,west in these years1 and it is estimated that all of the arid lands that can ever be put under irrigation in the ,united ,states will provide homes for no more than our regular increase in population in five years1 and that the only other remaining rich lands--the swamp areas--will be occupied by the increase of ten years in our population4 ,it has seemed to me that it is high time we came back to these partially worn-out ,eastern lands and begin to build them up4 ,here the rainfall is abundant1 the climate is fine1 and the markets are the best1 and there are millions of acres of these ,eastern lands that lie as nicely for farming as the ,western prairies4 ,why should they not be built up into good farms8 ,now1 let me give you a little fatherly advice1 said the ,congressman1 laying his hand on ,percy's shoulder4 ,i tell you this land never was any good4 ,if the ,east and ,south hadn't been settled first1 they never would have been settled4 ,poor land remains poor land1 and good land remains good land2 and if you want to farm good land1 you better stay right in the corn belt4 ,you can't grow anything on these ,eastern lands without fertilizer and the more you fertilize the more you must1 and still the land remains as poor as ever4 ,just leave off the fertilizer one year and your crop is not worth harvesting4 ,these lands never were any good and they never will be4 ,but that is hardly in accord with what the people now living on these old ,eastern farms report for the conditions of agriculture in the times of their ancestors4 ,oh1 yes1 ,i know people are always talking about their ancestors1 and especially ,virginians2 but1 ,caesar6 ,i wonder what their ancestors would think of them6 ,you can't afford to take any stock in the ancestry of these old ,virginians4 ,i call to mind that the historical records give much information along this line1 said ,percy4 ,it is recorded that mills for grinding corn and wheat were common1 that the flour of ,mount ,vernon was packed under the eye of ,washington1 and we are told that barrels of flour bearing his brand passed in the export markets without inspection4 ,history records that the plantations of ,virginia usually passed from father to son1 according to the law of entail1 and that the heads of families lived like lords1 keeping their stables of blooded horses and rolling to church or town in their coach and six1 with outriders on horseback4 ,their spacious mansions were sometimes built of imported brick2 and1 within1 the grand staircases1 the mantles1 and the wainscot reaching from floor to ceiling1 were of solid mahogany1 elaborately carved and paneled4 ,the sideboards shone with gold and silver plate1 and the tables were loaded with the luxuries from both the ,new and the ,old ,world1 and plenty of these old mansions still exist in dilapidated condition4 ,that all sounds good for history1 said the ,congressman1 but the historian probably got his information from some of these old ,virginians whose only religion is ancestral worship4 ,if the lands were ever any good they'd be good now4 ,good lands stay good4 ,as an ,illinois man1 you ought to know that4 ,my father settled in ,illinois and ,i tell you his land is better to-day than it was the day he took it from the ,government4 ,my grandfather also took land from the ,government1 said ,percy1 but the land that he first put under cultivation is not producing as good crops now as it used to1 even though-- ,then it must be you don't farm it right4 ,of course you don't want to corn your land to death4 ,i lived on the farm long enough to learn that2 but if you'll only grow two or three crops of corn and then change to a crop of oats1 you'll find your land ready for corn again2 and1 if you'll sow clover with the oats and plow the clover under the next spring1 you'll find the land will grow more corn than ever your grandfather grew on it4 ,but how can we maintain the supply of plant food in the soil by merely substituting oats for corn once in three or four years and turning under perhaps a ton of clover as green manure4 ,that amount of clover would contain no more nitrogen than #dj bushels of corn would remove from the soil1 and of course the clover has no power to add any phosphorus or other mineral elements4 ,oh1 yes4 ,i've heard all about that sort of talk4 ,you know ,i'm a ,u4 of ,i4 man myself4 ,i studied chemistry in the ,university under a man who knew more in a minute than all the 'tommy rot' you've been filled up with4 ,i also lived on an ,illinois farm1 and ,i speak from practical experience4 ,i know what ,i am talking about1 and ,i don't care a rap for all the theories that can be stacked up by your modern college professor1 who wouldn't know a pumpkin if he met one rolling down hill4 ,i tell you ,god ,almighty never made the black corn belt land to be worn out1 and he doesn't create people on this earth to let 'em starve to death4 ,don't you understand that8 ,i am afraid that ,i do not1 replied ,percy4 ,i have received no such direct communication2 but ,i saw a letter written from ,china by a missionary describing the famine-stricken districts in which he was located4 ,he wrote the letter in ,february and said that at that time the only practical thing to do in that district was to let four hundred thousand people starve and try to get seed grain for the remainder to plant the spring crops4 ,i have a ,handbook of ,indian ,agriculture written by a professor of agriculture and agricultural chemistry at one of the colleges in ,india4 ,i got it from one of the ,hindu students who attended the ,university when ,i was there4 ,this book states that famine1 local or general1 has been the order of the day in ,india1 and particularly within recent years4 ,it also states that in one of the worst famines in ,india ten million people died of starvation within nine months4 ,the average wage of the laboring man in ,india1 according to the ,governmental statistics1 is fifty cents a month1 and in famine years the price of wheat has risen to as high as #c4fj a bushel4 ,this writer states that the most recent of all famines2 namely1 that prevailing in most parts of ,india from #ahig to #aijj1 was severer than the famine of #ahgd to #ahgh4 ,no1 ,sir1 ,i am not sure that ,i understand just what ,god's intentions are concerning the corn belt1 but it is recorded that the ,lord helps him who helps himself1 and that man should earn his bread by the sweat of his brow4 ,if ,god made the common soil in ,america with a limited amount of phosphorus in it1 ,he also stored great deposits of natural rock phosphate in the mines of several ,states1 and perhaps intended that man should earn his bread by grinding that rock and applying it to the soil4 ,possibly the ,almighty intended-- ,now1 ,i'm very sorry1 ,mr4 ,johnston1 but ,i have an engagement which ,i must keep1 and you'll have to excuse me just now4 ,i'm mighty glad to have met you and ,i'd like to talk with you for an hour more along this line2 but you take my advice and stick to the corn belt land4 ,above all1 don't begin to use phosphates or any sort of commercial fertilizer2 they'll ruin any land in a few years2 that's my opinion4 ,but then1 every man has a right to his own opinion4 and perhaps you have a different notion4 ,eh8 ,i think no man has a right to an opinion which is contrary to fact1 ,percy replied4 ,this whole question is one of facts and not of opinions4 ,one fact is worth more than a wagonload of incorrect opinions4 ,but ,i must not detain you longer4 ,i am very glad to have met you here4 ,in large measure the statesmen of ,america must bear the responsibility for the future condition of agriculture and the other great industries of the ,united ,states1 all of which depend upon agriculture for their support and prosperity4 ,good bye4 ,i'll agree with you there all right2 the farmer feeds them all4 ,good bye4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,a ,,lesson ,,on ,,tobacco ,,percy found ,leonardtown almost in the center of ,st4 ,mary county1 situated on ,breton bay1 an arm of the lower ,potomac4 ,from the data recorded on the back of his map of ,maryland1 ,percy noted that a population of four hundred and fifty-four found support in this old county seat1 according to the census of ,i #ijj4 ,after spending the day in the country1 he found himself wondering how even that number of people could be supported1 and then remembered that there is one industry of some importance in the ,united ,states which exists independent of agriculture1 an industry which preceded agriculture1 and which evidently has also succeeded agriculture to a very considerable extent in some places2 namely1 fishing4 ,clams1 oysters and fish1 and in this order1 he said to himself1 apparently constitute the means of support for some of these people4 ,and yet the country was not depopulated1 although very much of the arable land was abandoned for agricultural purposes4 ,a farm of a hundred acres might have ten acres under cultivation1 this being as much as the farmer could keep up1 as was commonly stated4 ,this meant that all of the farm manure and other refuse that could be secured from the entire farm or hauled from the village1 together with what commercial fertilizer the farmer was able to buy1 would not enable him to keep more than ten acres of land in a state of productiveness that justified its cultivation4 ,tobacco1 corn1 wheat and cowpeas were the principal crops4 ,corn was the principal article of food1 with wheat bread more or less common4 ,the cowpeas and corn fodder usually kept one or more cows through the winter when they could not secure a living in the brush4 ,tobacco1 the principal money crop1 was depended on to buy clothing1 and groceries1 which included more or less fish and pork1 although some farmers raised their own meat1 in part by fattening hogs on the acorns that fell in the autumn from the scrub oak trees4 ,one farm of one hundred and ninety acres owned by an old lady1 who lived in the nearby country village was rented for #ajj a year1 which amounted to about fifty-two and one-half cents an acres as the gross income to the landowner4 ,after the taxes were paid1 about thirty cents an acre remained for repairs on buildings and fences and interest on the investment4 ,percy spent some time on a five hundred acre farm belonging to an old gentleman who still gave his name as ,f4 ,allerton ,jones1 a man whose father had been prominent in the community4 ,according to the county soil map which had been presented to ,percy by the ,bureau of ,soils1 the soil of this farm was all ,leonardtown loam1 except about forty acres which occupied the sides of a narrow valley a bend of which cut the farm on the south side4 ,my father had this whole farm under cultivation1 said ,mr4 ,jones1 except the hillsides4 ,but what's the use8 ,we get along with a good deal less work1 and ,i've found it better to cultivate less ground during the forty odd years ,i've had to meet the bills4 ,but ,i've kept up more of my land than most of my neighbors4 ,i reckon ,i've got about eighty acres of good cleared land yet on this farm1 and the leaves and pine needles we rake up where the trees grow on the old fields make a good fertilizer for the land we aim to cultivate1 and ,i get a good many loads of manure from friends who live in the village and keep a cow or a horse4 ,the last crop ,i raised on that east field1 where you see those scrub pines1 was in #ahha4 ,i finished cultivating corn there the day ,i heard about ,president ,garfield being shot2 and it was a mighty hot ,july day too4 ,my neighbor1 ,seth ,whitmore1 who died about ten years ago1 came along from the village and waited for me to come to the end of the row down by the road and he told me that ,garfield was shot4 ,we both allowed the corn would be a pretty fair crop and when ,i gathered the fodder that fall there was a right smart of a corn crop4 ,yes1 ,sir1 it's pretty good land1 but we don't need much corn1 no how1 and we can make more money out of tobacco4 ,of course it takes lots of manure and fertilizer to grow a good patch of tobacco1 but good tobacco always brings good money4 ,about how much money do you get for an acre of tobacco8 asked ,percy4 ,that varies a lot with the quality and price--sometimes #ajj--sometimes #cjj1 when the trust don't hold the price down on us4 ,we can raise good tobacco and good tobacco brings us good money4 ,we can always manure an acre or two for tobacco and get our groceries and some clothes now and then1 and that's about all anybody gets in this world1 ,i reckon4 ,but taxes are mighty high1 ,i tell you4 ,about #ge to #hj ,i have to pay4 ,are taxes high out ,west8 ,we pay about forty to fifty cents an acre in the corn belt1 ,percy replied2 but1 in a course ,i took in economics1 ,i learned that the taxes do not vary in proportion to land values4 ,poor lands1 if inhabited1 must always pay heavy taxes2 whereas1 large areas of good land carry lighter taxes compared with their earning capacity4 ,you must provide your regular expenses for county officers1 county courthouse1 jail1 and poorhouse1 about the same as we do4 ,your roads and bridges cost as much as ours2 and the schools in the ,south must cost more than ours1 for a complete double system of schools is usually provided4 ,but did you say that you paid fifty cents an acre in taxes8 asked ,mr4 ,jones4 ,yes1 about that1 in the corn belt1 replied ,percy1 but not so much in ,southern ,illinois where the land is poor4 ,i think the farmers in that section pay taxes as low as yours4 ,perhaps twenty cents an acre4 ,do you mean to say that you have poor land in ,illinois8 ,yes1 the common prairie land of ,southern ,illinois must be called poor as compared with the corn belt land4 ,there is a good deal of land in ,southern ,illinois that was put under cultivation before #ahbj1 and eighty crops must have made a heavy draft upon the store of plant food originally contained in those soils4 ,only since #ahbj8 ,why1 we began to till the soil right here1 ,young ,man1 in ,st4 ,mary ,county1 in #afcd and don't you know1 ,sir1 that we had a rebellion here as early as #afde8 ,yes1 ,sir1 that was one hundred and seventy-five years before #ahbj4 ,so you've raised only eighty crops and the land is already getting poor1 and we've raised two hundred and fifty crops--well1 maybe1 not quite so many1 for we've been giving our land a good deal of rest for the last fifty or sixty years2 but my grandfather used to raise twenty-five bushels of wheat to the acre with the help of a hundred pounds of land-plaster1 and ,i've no doubt ,i could do it again today if ,i cared to raise wheat1 but one acre of tobacco is worth ten of wheat1 so why should ,i bother with wheat8 ,twenty-five bushels of wheat per acre1 repeated ,percy1 half to himself4 ,the total supply of phosphorus still remaining in the plowed soil would be sufficient for only twenty more crops like that4 ,two hundred years of such crops would require #afjj pounds of phosphorus1 making nearly #ahjj pounds at the beginning1 if it all came from the plowed soil4 ,that is one and a half times as much as is now contained in our common corn belt prairie land4 ,more stuff in our land than in yours1 did you say8 questioned the old man4 ,i told you we had pretty good soil here1 but ,i've always allowed your soil was better1 but maybe not4 ,i tell you manure lasts on this land4 ,you can see where you put it for nigh twenty years4 ,then we rest our land some and that helps a sight1 and if the price stays up we make good money on tobacco4 ,i'm sorry your land is getting so poor out ,west1 especially if you can't raise tobacco4 ,ever tried tobacco1 ,young ,man8--gosh1 but you remind me of one of them ,government fellows who came driving along here once when ,bob and his brothers were plowing corn right here about three years ago4 ,bob's my tenant's nigger1 and he ain't no fool either1 even if he is colored2 but then1 to tell the truth1 he ain't much colored4 ,well1 ,i was sitting under a tree right here smoking and keeping an eye on the niggers unbeknownst to them when one of them ,government fellows stopped his horse as ,bob was turning the end1 and says he to ,bob3 ',your corn seems to be looking mighty yellow8' ',yes1 suh1' says ,bob4 ',yes1 suh1 we done planted yellow corn4' ',well1 ,i mean it looks as though you won't get more than half a crop1' says he4 ',i reckon not1' says ,bob4 ',the landlord1 he done gets the other half4' ,with that the fellow says to ,bob3 ',it seems to me you're mighty near a fool4' ',yes1 suh1' says ,bob1 'and ,i'm mighty feared ,i'll catch it if ,i don't get a goin'4' ,the fellow just gave his horse a cut and drove on1 but ,i liked to died4 ,he'd been here two or three times pestering me with questions about raising tobacco4 ,say1 you ain't one of them ,government fellows1 are you8 ,they were travelling all around over this county three years ago1 learning how we raised tobacco and all kinds of crops4 ,they had augers and said they were investigating soils1 but ,i never heard nothing of 'em since4 ,have you got an auger to investigate soils with8 ,percy was compelled to admit that he had an auger and that he was trying to learn all he could about the soil4 ,he had driven to ,mr4 ,jones' farm because his land happened to be situated in a large area of ,leonardtown loam1 and he felt free to stop and talk with him because he had found him leaning against the fence1 smoking a cob pipe1 apparently trying to decide what to do with some small shocks of corn scattered over a field of about fifteen acres4 ,percy stepped to the buggy and drew out his soil auger1 then returned to the corn field and begun to bore a hole near where ,mr4 ,jones was standing4 ,that's the thing1 said he1 the same kind of an auger them fellows had three years ago4 ,still boring holes1 are you8 ,want to bore around over my farm again1 do you8 ,percy replied that he would be glad to make borings in several places in order that he might see about what the soil and subsoil were like in that kind of land4 ,that's all right1 ,young ,man4 ,just bore as many holes as you please4 ,i suppose you'd rather do that than work2 but you'll have to excuse me4 ,i've got a lot to do today1 and it's already getting late4 ,i can't take time again to tell you fellows how to raise tobacco4 ,good day4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,another ,,lesson ,,on ,,tobacco ,,the old man had stuck his cob pipe in a pocket and filled his mouth with a chew of tobacco4 ,he walked by ,percy's buggy with the tobacco juice drizzling from the corners of his mouth1 and turned down the road toward the house4 ,percy finished boring the hole and then returned to the buggy4 ,christ1 that old man eats tobacco like a beast6 exclaimed the driver as ,percy approached4 ,are you speaking to me8 asked ,percy4 ,why1 certainly4 ,that is not my name1 please1 admonished ,percy1 but ,i can tell you that ,i know ,him well and that ,he is my best friend4 ,what1 old ,al ,jones8 ,no1--,christ1 replied ,percy1 with a grieved expression plainly discernible4 ,oh1 said the driver4 ,they drove past the ,jones residence and out into the field beyond4 ,the house one might have thought deserted except for the well-beaten paths and the presence of chickens in the yard4 ,it was a large structure with two and a half stories4 ,the cornice and window trimmings revealed the beauty and wealth of former days4 ,rare shrubs still grew in the spacious front yard1 and gnarled remnants of orchard trees were to be seen in the rear4 ,a dozen other buildings1 large and small1 occupied the background1 some with the roofs partly fallen1 others evidently still in use4 ,how old do you suppose these buildings are8 asked ,percy of the driver4 ,about a hundred years1 he replied1 and ,i reckon they've had no paint nor fixin' since they was built1 'cept they have to give some of 'em new shingles now and then or they'd all fall to pieces like the old barns back yonder4 ,percy examined the soil in several places on the ,jones farm and on other farms in the neighborhood4 ,they lunched on crackers and canned beans at a country store and made a more extended drive in the afternoon4 ,it is a fine soil1 ,percy said to the driver1 as they started for ,leonardtown4 ,it contains enough sand for easy tillage and quick drainage1 and enough clay to hold anything that might be applied to it4 ,that's right1 said the driver4 ,where they put plenty of manure and fertilizer they raise tobacco three foot high and fifteen hundred pounds to the acre1 but where they run the tobacco rows beyond the manured land so's to be sure and not lose any manure1 why the stuff won't grow six inches high and it just turns yellow and seems to dry up1 no matter if it rains every day4 ,say1 ,mister1 would you mind telling me if you're a preacher8 ,oh1 no1 replied ,percy1 --,i am not a preacher1 any more than every ,christian must be loyal to the name4 ,well1 anyway1 ,i've learned a lesson ,i'll try to remember4 ,i never thought before about how it might hurt other people when ,i swear4 ,i don't mean nothing by it4 ,it's just a habit2 but your saying ,christ is your friend makes me feel that ,i have no business talking about anybody's friend1 any more than ,i'd like to hear anybody else use my mother's name as a by-word4 ,i reckon nobody has any right to use ,christ's name 'cept ,christians or them as wants to be ,christians4 ,i reckon we'd never heard the name if it hadn't a been for the ,christians4 ,but ,i don't have so many bad habits4 ,i don't drink1 nor smoke1 nor chew2 and ,i don't want to4 ,my father smoked some and chewed a lot1 and ,i know the smell of tobacco used to make my mother about as sick as she could be2 but she had to stand it1 or at least she did stand it till father died2 and now she lives with me1 and ,i'm mighty glad she don't have to smell no more tobacco ,she often speaks of it--mother does2 and she says she's so thankful she's got a boy that don't use tobacco4 ,she says men that use tobacco don't know how bad it is for other folks to smell 'em4 ,why1 sometimes ,i come home when ,i've just been driving a man some place in the country1 riding along like you and ,i are now1 and he a smoking or chewing1 or at least his clothes soaked full of the vile odor2 and when ,i get home mother says1 ',my6 but you must have had an old stink pot along with you to-day4' ,she can smell it on my clothes1 and ,i just hang my coat out in the shed till the scent gets off from it4 ,no1 ,sir1 ,i don't want any tobacco for me1 and ,i don't know as ,i'd care to raise the stuff for other folks to saturate themselves with either2 and every kid is allowed to use it nowadays1 or at least most of them get it4 ,it's easy enough to get it4 ,why1 a kid can't keep away from getting these cigarettes1 if he tries4 ,they're everywhere4 ,every kid has hip pockets full2 and ,i know blamed well that some smoke so many cigarettes they get so they aren't more than half bright4 ,it's a fact1 ,sir1--plenty of 'em too2 and some old men1 like ,al ,jones1 are just so soaked in tobacco they seem about half dead4 ,course it ain't like whiskey1 but ,i think it's worse than beer if beer didn't make one want whiskey later4 ,but as ,i was saying1 ,i feel that ,i have no business saying things about1--about anybody you call your friend1 and ,i think ,i'll just swear off swearing1 if ,i can4 ,you can if you will just let ,him be your friend4 ,well1 ,i don't know much about that1 was the slow reply4 ,that takes faith1 and ,i don't have much faith in some of the church members ,i know4 ,that used to trouble me also1 said ,percy1 until one time the thought impressed itself upon me that even ,christ himself did all ,his great work with one of the twelve a traitor2 and this thought always comes to me now when self-respecting men object to uniting with organized ,christianity because of those who may be regarded as traitors or hypocrites1 but not of such flagrant character as to insure expulsion from the ,church8 ,do you believe in miracles8 asked the driver4 ,oh1 yes1 said ,percy1 in such miracles as the growth of the corn plant4 ,why1 that isn't any miracle4 ,everybody understands all about that4 ,not everybody1 replied ,percy4 ,there is only ,one who understands it4 ,there is only one great miracle1 and that is the miracle of life4 ,it is said that men adulterate coffee1 even to the extent of making the bean or berry so nearly like the natural that it requires an expert to detect the fraud2 but do you think an imitation seed would grow8 ,no1 it wouldn't grow1 said the driver4 ,not only that1 said ,percy1 but we may have a natural and perfect grain of corn and it can never be made to grow by any or all of the knowledge and skill of men1 if for a single instant the life principle has left the kernel1 which may easily result by changing its temperature a few degrees above or below the usual range4 ,the spark of life returns to ,god who gave it1 and man is as helpless to restore it as when he first walked the earth4 ,what miracle do you find hard to accept8 asked ,percy4 ,how could ,jesus know that ,lazarus had died when he was on the other side of the mountain8 ,i don't know1 ,percy replied2 perhaps by some sort of wireless message which his soul could receive4 ,i don't know how1 but it was no greater miracle than it would have been then to have done what ,i did last week4 ,the driver turned to look squarely at ,percy as though in doubt of his sanity1 but a kindly smile reassured him4 ,our train coming into ,cincinnati ran in two sections1 ,percy continued1 and the section behind us was wrecked1 three travellers being killed and about fifteen others wounded4 ,i was sure my mother would hear of the wreck before ,i could reach her with a letter1 and so ,i talked with her from ,cincinnati over the long distance 'phone1 with which we have always had connection since ,i first went away to college4 ,yes1 ,i talked with her1 and1 though separated by a distance three times the entire length of ,palestine1 ,i distinctly heard and recognized my mother's voice4 ,oh1 yes1 ,i believe in miracles2 but that is a matter of small consequence4 ,the important thing is that we have faith in ,god and faith in ,jesus ,christ1 his ,son4 ,well1 that's what troubles me1 said the driver4 ,how's one to get faith8 ,there are two methods of receiving faith1 replied ,percy4 ,faith cometh by prayer4 ,yes1 ,sir1 ,i believe that4 ,and1 faith cometh by hearing4 ,hearing what8 ,hearing by the ,word of ,god2 hearing those who have studied ,his ,word and who testify of ,him2 and hearing with an ear ready to receive the truth4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,eighteen ,,to ,,one ,,two days later ,percy was in ,rhode ,island visiting a farm owned by ,samuel ,robbins1 one of the most progressive and successful farmers of that ,state4 ,mr4 ,robbins' farm lay in what appeared to be an ancient valley1 several miles in width1 although only a small stream now winds through it to the sea seven miles away4 ,so you are from ,illinois1 said ,mr4 ,robbins1 after ,percy had introduced himself and explained the nature of his visit4 ,the papers have a good deal to say about the corn you grow in ,illinois2 but have you noticed that the ,government reports show our average yield of corn in ,new ,england is higher than yours in ,illinois8 ,yes1 ,sir1 ,percy replied1 ,i have noticed that and ,i have come to ,rhode ,island to learn how to raise more corn per acre4 ,i have noticed1 however1 that ,new ,england corn does not occupy a large acreage4 ,well1 now1 we count corn as one of our big crops1 next to hay4 ,you'll see plenty of corn fields right here in ,rhode ,island4 ,would you believe that we actually raise more corn on one farm in ,illinois than the total corn crop of ,rhode ,island8 ,you don't tell6 ,yes1 said ,percy1 the ,isaac ,funk farm in ,mc,lean ,county grows more corn on seven thousand acres a year1 with an average yield certainly above fifty bushels per acre1 and surely making a total above #cej1jjj bushels2 while the ,state of ,rhode ,island grows corn on nearly ten thousand acres with an average yield of thirty-two bushels1 making a total yield of about #cbj1jjj bushels4 ,well1 ,i'll give it up2 but ,i'd like to know how much corn you raise in the whole ,state of ,illinois4 ,our average production1 said ,percy1 is about equal to the total production of ,maine1 ,new ,hampshire1 ,vermont1 ,massachusetts1 ,rhode ,island1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1 ,pennsylvania1 ,delaware1 ,maryland1 ,virginia1 ,north and ,south ,carolina1 ,georgia1 ,florida1 ,alabama1 and ,mississippi4 ,eighteen of us6 exclaimed ,mr4 ,robbins1 who had counted on his fingers from ,new ,york to ,mississippi4 ,and you come to ,rhode ,island to learn how to raise corn8 ,yes1 ,i came to learn how you raise more than thirty-five bushels of corn per acre as an average for ,new ,england1 while we raise less than thirty-five bushels as an average in ,illinois1 and while ,georgia1 a larger ,state than ,illinois1 raises only eleven bushels per acre as a ten year average4 ,illinois is a new ,state1 but ,i call to mind that ,roger ,williams settled in ,rhode ,island in #afcf and that he was joined by many others coming not only from ,massachusetts but also from other sections4 ,i assume that much of the land in ,rhode ,island has been farmed for #bej years1 and the fact that you are still producing more than thirty bushels of corn per acre1 as an average1 is1 it seems to me1 a fact of great significance4 ,i suppose you use all the manure you can make from the crops you raise and perhaps use some commercial fertilizer also4 ,i should like to know what yield of corn you produce without any manure or fertilizer8 ,we don't produce any1 said ,mr4 ,robbins2 at least we know we wouldn't produce any corn without fertilizing the land in one way or another4 ,if you will walk over here a little ways you can see for yourself4 ,i didn't have quite enough manure to finish this field and ,i had no more time to haul seaweed so ,i planted without getting any manure on a few rods in one corner1 and the corn there wouldn't make three bushels from an acre4 ,i didn't bother to try to cut it1 but the cows will get what little fodder there is as soon as ,i can get the shocks out of the field and turn 'em in for a few days to pick up what they can4 ,percy examined the corn plants still standing in the corner of the field4 ,they had grown to a height of about two feet4 ,most of them had tassels and many of them appeared to have little ears1 but really had only husks containing no ear4 ,in a few places where the hill contained only one plant a little nubbin of corn could be found4 ,i don't mean to let any of my land get as poor as this field was1 continued ,mr4 ,robbins1 but ,i just couldn't get to it1 and ,i left it in hay about two years longer than ,i should have done4 ,last year was first class for hay but this field had been down so long it was hardly worth cutting4 ,about what yield do you get from the manured land8 inquired ,percy4 ,in a fair year ,i get about forty bushels1 and that's about what ,i am getting this year from my best fields4 ,you see there's lots of corn in these shocks4 ,there's about an average ear1 and we get five or six ears to the hill4 ,eight-row flint1 said ,percy1 as he took the ear in his hand and drew a celluloid paper knife from his vest pocket with a six-inch scale marked on one side4 ,yes1 ,sir1 our regular ,rhode ,island ,white ,cap4 ,just five inches long4 ,weight about three ounces8 ,perhaps4 ,we count on about four hundred ears to the bushel4 ,if we get four thousand hills to the acre one ear to the hill would give us ten bushels per acre1 so you see we only have to have four ears to the hill to make our forty bushels4 ,a good many hills have five to six ears1 but then of course1 some hills don't have much of any1 so ,i suppose my corn makes an average of four ears about like that4 ,i suppose you feed all of the corn you raise in order to produce as much manure as possible4 ,feed that corn6 ,not much we don't4 ,why1 corn like that brings us close on to a dollar a bushel4 ,no1 ,sir1 we don't feed this corn4 ,it's all used for meal4 ,it makes the best kind of corn meal4 ,no1 we buy corn for feed2 western corn4 ,oh1 we feed lots of corn2 three times as much as we raise2 but we don't feed dollar corn1 when we can buy western corn for seventy-five or eighty cents4 ,i sell corn and ,i sell potatoes2 that's all except the milk4 ,i keep most of my land in meadow and pasture and feed everything ,i raise except the corn and potatoes4 ,and milk is a good product with us4 ,we average about sixty cents a pound for butter fat1 and it's ready money every month2 and1 of course1 we need it every month to pay for feed4 ,then you produce on the farm all the manure you use1 suggested ,percy1 but ,i think you mentioned hauling seaweed4 ,yes1 and ,i haul some manure1 too1 when ,i can get it2 but usually there are three or four farmers ready to take every load of town manure4 ,you get it from town for the hauling8 ,well1 ,i guess not1 said ,mr4 ,robbins emphatically and with apparent astonishment at such a question4 ,i don't think ,i would haul seaweed seven miles if ,i could get manure in town for nothing4 ,manure is worth #a4ej a ton ,iying in the livery stable1 and there are plenty to take it at that right along4 ,i'd a little rather pay that than haul seaweed2 but the manure won't begin to go around1 and so there's nothing left for us but seaweed2 and1 if we couldn't get that1 the ,lord only knows what we could do4 ,how much seaweed can you haul to a load1 and about how many loads do you apply to the acre8 ,when the roads are good we haul a cord and a quarter1 and we put ten or twelve loads to the acre for corn and then use some commercial fertilizer4 ,do you know how much a cord of the seaweed would weigh8 ,yes1 a cord weighs about a ton and a half4 ,then you apply about twenty tons of seaweed to the acre for corn8 ,yes1 but some use less and some more2 probably that's about an average4 ,hauling seaweed's a big job and a bad job4 ,we have to start from home long before daylight so as to get there and get the weed while the tide is out1 and then we get back with our load about two o'clock in the afternoon2 and1 by the time we eat and feed the team1 and get the load to the field and spread1 there isn't much time left that day1 especially when you've got to pile out of bed about two o'clock the next morning and hike off for another load4 ,then you use some fertilizer in addition to the seaweed8 ,may ,i ask how much fertilizer you apply to the acre and about how much it costs per ton8 ,where we spread seaweed for corn1 we add about four hundred and fifty pounds per acre of fertilizer that costs me #bf a ton1 but ,i have the agency and get it some cheaper than most have to pay4 ,then for potatoes we apply about #aejj pounds of a special potato fertilizer that costs me #cd a ton4 ,the fertilizer costs you about #f an acre for the corn crop and #be for potatoes1 said ,percy2 and then you have the cost of the seaweed4 ,i should think you would need to count about #be or #cj an acre for the expense of hauling seaweed4 ,yes1 all of that if we had to pay for the work1 but of course we can haul seaweed more or less when the farm work isn't crowding1 and we don't count so much on the expense4 ,it doesn't take the cash1 except may be a little for a boy to drive one team when we haul two loads at a time2 and we don't use seaweed for potatoes4 ,the corn crop will generally more'n pay for it and the fertilizer too2 and the seaweed helps for three or four years1 especially for grass4 ,there's good profit in potatoes1 too1 when we get a crop1 but they're risky1 considering the money we have to pay for fertilizer4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,farmer ,,or ,,professor ,,after leaving ,rhode ,island1 ,percy spent two days in and about ,boston1 and then returned to ,connecticut for a day4 ,the weather had turned cold2 the ground had frozen and the falling snow reminded him that it was the day before ,thanksgiving4 ,from ,new ,london he took a night boat to ,new ,york1 and then took passage on a ,coast ,line vessel from ,new ,york to ,norfolk4 ,the weather had cleared and the wind decreased until it was scarcely greater than the speed of the ship4 ,whether or not the dining room service was extraordinary because of the day1 ,percy was soon convinced that the only way to travel was by boat4 ,he regretted only that his mother was not with him to enjoy that day4 ,for hours they coasted southward within easy view of the ,new ,jersey shore1 dotted here and there with cities1 towns1 and villages4 ,light houses marked the rocky points where danger once lurked for the men of the sea4 ,the sea itself was of constant interest2 and hundreds of craft were passed or met4 ,here a full-rigged sailing vessel lazily drifting with the wind2 there a giant little tug puffing in the opposite direction with a string of barges in tow loaded almost to the water's edge4 ,norfolk was reached early the next morning1 and before noon ,percy passed through ,petersburg on his way to ,montplain4 ,he changed cars at ,lynchburg and arrived at ,montplain before dark4 ,in accordance with a promise to ,mr4 ,west he had notified him of his plans4 ,would ,adelaide met him1 and if so would she have the family carriage and again insist upon his riding in the rear seat8 ,he had found these questions in his mind repeatedly since he left ,new ,london1 with no very definite purpose before him except to arrive at ,montplain at the appointed time4 ,yes1 it was the family carriage4 ,he saw the farm team tied across the street from the depot4 ,as he left the train he caught a glimpse of ,adelaide standing with the group of people who were waiting to board the train4 ,she extended her hand as he reached her side4 ,mr4 ,johnston1 meet my cousin1 ,professor ,barstow4 ,i am glad to meet you1 ,professor1 said ,percy1 as he shook hands with a tall young man about his own age4 ,percy noted his handsome face and gentlemanly bearing4 ,miss ,adelaide calls me cousin1 said ,barstow1 because my aunt married her uncle4 ,well1 ,sir1 if we're not cousins1 then ,i'm ,miss ,west and not ,miss ,adelaide4 ,is that too much for an absent-minded professor to remember8 ,i am afraid it is1 said ,barstow1 and ,i am sure ,i would rather be cousins4 ,professor ,barstow leaves on this train1 ,adelaide explained to ,percy2 excuse me1 please4 ,percy raised his hat as he stepped back from the crowd and waited for the parting of the two4 ,he was sure that ,barstow held her hand longer than was necessary1 and he also noticed that her face flushed as she rejoined him after the train started4 ,will you take the rear seat8 she asked4 as they reached the carriage4 ,if you so prefer4 ,that seat is for our guests1 so ,i don't prefer1 came her reply1 which left ,percy wholly in the dark as to her wishes4 ,then let me be your coachman rather than your guest4 ,if you so prefer1 she repeated1 and without waiting for assistance quickly mounted to the front seat1 leaving him to occupy the driver's seat beside her4 ,captain and ,mrs4 ,stone of ,montplain were with us for ,thanksgiving and ,i came with the carriage to take them home4 ,professor ,barstow has also been spending his ,thanksgiving vacation visiting with papa4 ,thank you1 said ,percy1 as he took the lines and turned the horses toward ,westover4 ,you are certainly welcome to drive this team if you enjoy it4 ,i thank you for that also1 said ,percy4 ,adelaide noted the word also1 but she only remarked that she hoped he had enjoyed his travels1 though she could not understand what pleasure he could find in visiting old worn-out farms4 ,of all things1 she continued1 it seems to me that farming is the last that anyone would want to undertake4 ,it is both the first and the last1 said ,percy4 ,as you know1 when our ancestors came to ,america1 agriculture was the first great industry they were able to develop4 ,other industries and professions follow agriculture and must be supported in large measure by the agricultural industry4 ,merchants1 lawyers1 doctors and teachers are in a sense agricultural parasites4 ,an hour before he would not have included teachers in this class2 for1 next to the mother in the home1 he felt that the teacher in the school is the greatest necessity for the highest development of the agricultural classes4 ,without agriculture1 he continued1 ,america could never have been developed1 and1 unless the prosperity of ,american agriculture can be maintained1 poverty is the only future for this great nation4 ,the soil is the greatest source of wealth1 and it is the most permanent form of wealth4 ,the ,secretary of ,agriculture at ,washington told me a few days ago that eighty-six per cent4 of the raw materials used in all our manufacturing industry are produced from the soil4 ,yes1 agriculture is certainly the first industry in this country2 and ,i am fully convinced that to restore the fertility of the depleted soils of the ,east and ,south1 and even to maintain the productive power of the great agricultural regions of the ,west1 deserves and will require the best thought of the most influential people of ,america4 ,throughout the length and breadth of this land1 the almost universal purpose of the farmers is to work the land for all they can get with practically no thought of permanency4 ,the most common remark of the corn belt farmer is that his land doesn't show much wear yet2 and it is holding up pretty well1 or as well as could be expected2 or that he thinks it will last as long as he does4 ,all recognize that the land cannot hold up under the systems of farming that are being practiced1 and these systems are essentially the same as have been followed in ,america since #afjg4 ,what the ,southern farmer did with slave labor1 the ,western farmer is now doing with the gang plow1 the two-row cultivator1 and the four-horse disks and harrows4 ,in addition he tile-drains his land which helps to insure larger crops and more rapid soil depletion4 ,he even uses clover as a soil stimulant1 and spreads the farm fertilizer as thinly as possible with a machine made for the purpose in order to secure both its plant food value and its stimulating effect4 ,positive soil enrichment is practically unknown in the great corn belt4 ,robbery is a harsh word2 and yet the farmers and landowners of ,america are and always have been soil robbers2 and they not only rob the nation of the possibility of permanent prosperity1 but they even rob themselves of the very comforts of life in their old age and their children and grandchildren of a rightful inheritance4 ,worse than all this1 or at least more lamentable1 is the fact that it need not be4 ,the soils of ,virginia need not have become worn out and abandoned2 because the earth and the air are filled with the elements of plant food that are essential to the restoration and permanent maintenance of the high productive capacity of these soils4 ,moreover there is more profit and greater prosperity for the present landowner in a possible practicable system of positive soil improvement than under any system which leads to ultimate depletion and abandonment of the land4 ,the profit in farming lies first of all in securing large crop yields4 ,it costs forty bushels of corn per acre in ,illinois to raise the crop and pay the rent for the land or interest and taxes on the investment4 ,with land worth #aej an acre1 it will require #h to pay the interest and taxes4 ,another #h will be required to raise the crop and harvest and market it1 even with very inadequate provision made for maintaining the productive power of the soil1 such as a catch crop of clover1 or a very light dressing of farm fertilizer4 ,a forty-bushel crop of corn at forty cents a bushel1 which is about the ten year average price for ,illinois1 would bring only #af an acre1 and this would leave no profit whatever4 ,a crop of fifty bushels would leave only ten bushels as profit2 but1 if we could double the yield and thus produce a hundred bushels per acre1 the profit would not be doubled only1 but it would be six times as great as from the fifty bushel crop4 ,in other words1 #ajj bushels of corn from one acre would yield practically the same profit as fifty bushels per acre from six acres1 simply because it requires the first forty bushels from each acre to pay for the fixed charges or regular expense4 ,it is not the amount of crop the farmer handles1 but the amount of actual profit that determines his prosperity4 ,it requires profit to build the new home or repair the old one1 to provide the home with the comforts and conveniences that are now to be had in the country as well as in the city2 to send the boys and girls to college2 to provide for the expense of travel and the luxuries of the home4 ,percy stopped himself with an apology4 ,i hope you will pardon me1 ,miss ,west4 ,i forget that this subject may be of no interest to you1 and ,i have completely monopolized the conversation4 ,i am glad you have told me so much1 she replied4 ,i am deeply interested in what you have been saying4 ,i never realized that agriculture could involve such very important questions in regard to our national prosperity4 ,i only know that our farm has furnished us with a living but there has been very little of what you call profit4 ,we children could never have gone away to school except that we were enabled to take advantage of some unusual opportunities4 ,my brother almost earned his expenses as commissary in a boarding club at college4 ,he felt that he could not come home for ,thanksgiving because he had a chance to earn something and ,i have missed him so much4 ,most farmers get barely enough from their farms in these parts to furnish them a modest living and pay their taxes4 ,that reminds me of your statement that farming is the last thing that you would expect anyone to undertake4 ,in a large sense that is in accordance with the history of all great agricultural countries4 ,after the great wave of easy spoilation of the land has passed1 and the farmers reach a condition under which they need most of what they produce for their own consumption1 the parasites are themselves forced to produce their own food4 ,the lands become divided into smaller holdings and the agricultural inhabitants increase rapidly in proportion to the urban population which must depend upon the profits from secondary pursuits for a living4 ,thus ninety-five per cent4 of the three hundred million people of ,india belong principally to the agricultural classes1 and the farms of ,india average about two to three acres in size4 ,farming there is in no sense a profit-yielding business1 but it is only a means of existence4 ,the people live upon what they raise1 so far as they can1 although1 as you must know1 ,india is almost never free from famine4 ,in ,russia1 the situation is but little better1 for famine follows if the yield of wheat falls two bushels below the average4 ,special agents of the ,bureau of ,statistics of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture report that at least one famine year occurs in each five year period1 and sometimes even two2 that the famine years are so frequent they are recognized as a permanent feature of ,russian agriculture4 ,but couldn't those poor starving people do some other kind of work and thus earn a better living8 asked ,adelaide4 ,no4 ,agriculture is the only hope1 said ,percy4 ,the soil is the breast of ,mother ,earth1 from which her children must always draw their nourishment1 or perish4 ,it is the 'last thing1' as you truly said4 ,aside from hunting and fishing1 there is no source of food except the soil1 and1 when this is insufficient for the people who produce it in the country1 ,god pity the poor people who live in the cities4 ,but let us not talk of this more4 ,i ought not to have taken up the time of our ride through this beautiful scenery with a subject which tends always toward the serious4 ,the leaves are all gone in ,new ,england1 but here they have only taken on their most beautiful colors4 ',what is so rare as a day in ,june8' could now well be answered1 'a day in ,november in ,piedmont1 ,virginia4' ,do you know if your father received a letter for me from the chemist to whom ,i sent the soil samples8 ,yes1 it came in ,wednesday's mail1 and there is a letter from the ,university of ,illinois and two others that ,grandma says must be from a lady4 ,papa says he is anxious to know what results would be found in the chemist's report4 ,may ,i listen while you tell papa about it8 ,indeed1 ,i am extremely interested to know if anything can be done to make our farm produce such crops as it used to when grandmother was a little girl4 ,still ,i fear you will find it a very tiresome subject1 said ,percy4 ,it is1 as a rule1 not an easy matter to adopt a system of permanent improvement on land that has been depleted by a century or more of exhaustive husbandry4 but you will be very welcome not only to listen but to counsel also4 ,my mother can measure difficulties in advance better than most men2 and ,i believe it is true that women will deliberately plan and follow a course involving greater hardship and privation than men would undertake4 ,i cannot conceive of any man doing what my mother has done for me4 ,adelaide glanced at ,percy as he spoke of his mother4 ,something in his words or voice seemed to reveal to her a depth of feeling1 a wealth of affection akin to reverence1 such as she had never recognized before4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,the ,,ultimate ,,comparison ,,wilkes was at the side gate to meet ,adelaide and ,percy1 and the grandmother stood at the door as they reached the veranda4 ,lucky for us you got back before the ,thanksgiving scraps are all gone1 she said to ,percy1 but ,i suppose even our ,thanksgiving fare will be poor picking after you've been living in ,washington and ,boston4 ,even the ,thanksgiving dinner on the boat was not equal to this1 said ,percy1 as they sat down to the table loaded with such an abundance of good things as is rarely seen except on the farmer's table4 ,the scraps1 if such there were1 had no appearance of being left-overs1 and there was monster turkey1 browned to perfection and sizzling hot1 placed before ,mr4 ,west ready for the carving knife4 ,percy had opened the letter from the chemist1 but said to ,mr4 ,west that it would take him an hour or more to compute the results to the form of the actual elements and reduce them to pounds per acre in order to make possible a direct comparison between the requirements of crops1 on the one hand1 and the invoice of the soil and application of plant food in manure and fertilizers1 on the other hand4 ,please let me help you make the computations1 said ,adelaide1 much to the surprise of her parents1 who knew that she took no interest in affairs pertaining to farming4 ,i like mathematics and will promise not to make any mistakes if you will tell me how to do some of the figuring4 ,thank you1 said ,percy4 ,with your help it will take only half the time that ,i should require alone4 ,this proved to be correct1 for in half an hour after supper they had the results in simplified form4 ,even the mother and grandmother joined the circle as ,percy began to discuss the results with ,mr4 ,west ,now here is the invoice1 said ,percy1 of the surface soil from an acre of land where we collected the first composite sample1--the land which you said had not been cropped since you could remember4 ,this soil contains plant food as follows3 #a1ddj pounds of nitrogen #chj pounds of phosphorus #ae1gfj pounds of potassium #c1cdj pounds of magnesium #aj1dbj pounds of calcium ,i'd like to know how these amounts compare with what your ,illinois soil contains1 said ,mr4 ,west4 ,we have several different kinds of soil in ,illinois1 replied ,percy4 ,the common corn belt prairie soil is called brown silt loam4 ,it contains1 as an average1 #ejjj pounds of nitrogen and #abjj pounds of phosphorus1 or nearly four times as much of each of those elements as this ,virginia soil which you say is too poor to cultivate4 ,i wrote to the ,illinois ,experiment ,station before ,i left ,washington to see if ,i could get the average composition of the heavier prairie soil1 which occupies the very flat areas that were originally swampy1 and one of the letters you had received for me gives #hjjj pounds of nitrogen and #bjjj pounds of phosphorus as the general average for that soil4 ,that is our most productive land1 and it contains about five times as much of these two very important elements as your poorest land4 ,our more common ,illinois prairie contains about #ce1jjj pounds of potassium1 #i1jjj pounds of magnesium1 and ,i #a1jjj pounds of calcium4 ,this is more than twice as much potassium and nearly three times as much magnesium as in your poorest land1 but the calcium content is about the same in your soil as in ours4 ,however1 as you will remember1 your soil is distinctly acid and consequently markedly in need of lime1 the magnesium and calcium evidently being contained in part in the form of acid silicates with no carbonates2 whereas1 our brown silt loam is a neutral soil and our black clay loam contains much calcium carbonate1 the same compound as pure limestone4 ,i am anxious to know about our best land1 said ,mr4 ,west4 ,what did the chemist find in the soil from the slope where we get the best corn after breaking up the old pastures8 ,he found the following amounts in the surface soil1 said ,percy4 #hjj pounds of nitrogen #a1ffj pounds of phosphorus #cd1 #ajj pounds of potassium #h1ejj pounds of magnesium #ac1ajj pounds of calcium ,rich in everything but nitrogen1 ,percy continued1 richer than our common prairies in phosphorus and calcium1 and nearly as rich in potassium and magnesium2 but very1 very poor in nitrogen4 ,legume plants ought to grow well on that land1 because the minerals are present in abundance1 and1 while lack of nitrogen in the soil will limit the yield of all grains and grasses1 there is no nitrogen limit for the legume plants if infected with the proper nitrogen-fixing bacteria1 provided1 of course1 that the soil is not acid4 ,you will remember1 however1 that even this sloping land is more or less acid1 although here and there we found pieces of undecomposed limestone4 ,with a liberal use of ground limestone1 any legumes suited to this soil and climate ought to grow luxuriantly on those slopes4 ,that reminds me that we are greatly troubled with ,japan clover on those slopes1 said ,mr4 ,west4 ,of course it makes good pasture for a few months1 but it doesn't come so early in the spring as blue grass and it is killed with the first heavy frost in the fall4 ,we like blue grass much better for that reason1 but when we seed down for meadow and pasture1 the ,japan clover always crowds out the timothy and blue grass on those slopes4 ,and when you plow under the ,japan clover1 you get one or two good crops of grain1 said ,percy1 because this clover has stored up some much needed nitrogen and the soil is rich in all other necessary elements4 ,have you ever tried alfalfa on that kind of land8 ,that is a crop that ought to do well there1 especially if limestone were applied4 ,yes1 ,i have tried alfalfa1 replied ,mr4 ,west1 and ,i tried it on a strip that ran across one of those steep slopes2 but it failed completely1 and1 as ,i remember it1 it was poorer on that hillside than on the more level land4 ,did you inoculate it8 ,percy asked4 ,inoculate it8 ,no4 ,i didn't do anything to it1 but just sow it the same as ,i sow red clover4 ,what does it mean to inoculate it8 asked ,adelaide4 ,it means to put some bugs on it1 said the grandmother2 some germs or microbes1 or whatever they are called4 ,don't you remember1 ,adelaide1 that ,i told you about that when ,i read it in the magazine a while ago8 ,don't you remember that somebody was making it and a man could carry enough in his vest pocket to fertilize an acre and he wanted #b a package4 ,charles said that #a4ej a hundred was more than he could afford to pay for fertilizer1 and he didn't care to pay #b for a vest pocket package4 ,isn't that the stuff1 ,mr4 ,johnston8 ,it listens like it1 as the ,swedes say1 said ,percy1 but the advertisements of these germ cultures put out by commercial interests are usually very misleading4 ,the safest and best and least expensive method of inoculating a field for alfalfa is to use infested soil taken from some old alfalfa field or from a patch of ground where the common sweet clover1 or mellilotus1 has been growing for several years4 ,i saw the sweet clover growing along the railroad near ,montplain1 and there is one patch on the roadside right where--when you enter the valley on the way to the station4 ,right where ,adelaide smashed that nigger's eye with her heel and helped ,mr4 ,johnston capture them both1 broke in the grandmother4 ,that's the only good thing ,i can say for her peg heeled shoes4 ,adelaide colored and ,percy now understood what had been a puzzle to him4 ,the same bacteria1 he went on quickly1 live upon both the sweet clover and the alfalfa1 or at least they are interchangeable4 ,these bacteria are not a fertilizer in any ordinary sense1 but they are more in the nature of a disease1 a kind of tuberculosis1 as it were2 except that they do much more good than harm4 ,they attack the very tender young roots of the alfalfa and feed upon the nutritious sap1 taking from it the phosphorus and other minerals and also the sugar or other carbohydrates needed for their own nourishment1 since they have no power to secure carbon and oxygen from the air1 as is done by all plants with green leaves4 ,on the other hand1 these bacteria have power to take the free nitrogen of the air1 which enters the pores of the soil to some extent1 and cause it to combine with food materials which are secured from the alfalfa sap1 and thus the bacteria secure for themselves both nitrogen and the other essential plant foods4 ,the alfalfa root or rootlet becomes enlarged at the point attacked by the bacteria1 and a sort of wart or tubercle is formed which resembles a tiny potato1 as large as clover seed on clover or alfalfa1 and1 singularly1 about as large as peas on cowpeas or soy beans4 ,on plants that are sparsely infected1 these tubercles develop to a large size and often in clusters4 ,while the bacteria themselves are extremely small and can be seen only by the aid of a powerful microscope1 the tubercles in which they live are easily seen1 and they are sufficient to enable us to know whether the plants are infected4 ,i wish you would tell me the difference between the words inoculated and infected1 said ,adelaide4 ,inoculated is used in the active sense and infected in the passive1 said ,percy4 ,thus the red clover growing in the field is infected if there are tubercles on its roots1 although it may never have been inoculated2 and we inoculate alfalfa because it would not be likely to become infected without direct inoculation4 ,under favorable conditions1 continued ,percy1 these bacteria multiply with tremendous rapidity1 somewhat as the germs of small pox or yellow fever multiply if allowed to do so4 ,a single tubercle may contain a million germs which if distributed uniformly over an acre would furnish more than twenty bacteria for every square foot4 ,there1 ,charles1 said the grandmother1 wouldn't a vest pocketful of those bugs or germs be a big enough dose for one acre8 ,well1 but they're not a fertilizer1 ,mother1 said ,mr4 ,west1 and besides ,mr4 ,johnston says it is better to use the infected sweet clover soil and there is no need of paying #b an acre for something we knew nothing about1 and especially on land that is not worth more than #b an acre4 ,i don't care what it's worth1 she replied1 some of it cost your grandfather #fh an acre1 and it will never be sold for any #b1 while ,i have any say so about it4 ,they waited for ,percy to proceed4 ,the individual bacteria are very short-lived1 he continued1 and products of decay soon begin to accumulate in the tubercles4 ,these products contain1 in combined form1 nitrogen which the bacteria have taken from the air1 and in this form it is taken from the tubercles and absorbed through the roots into the host plant and thus serves as a source of nitrogen for all of the agricultural legumes4 ,it should be kept in mind1 of course1 that the red clover has one kind of nitrogen-fixing bacteria1 that the cowpea has a different kind1 and that the soy bean bacteria are still different1 while a fourth kind lives on the roots of alfalfa and sweet clover4 ,how much infected sweet clover soil would ,i need to inoculate an acre of land for alfalfa8 asked ,mr4 ,west4 ,if the soil is thoroughly infected1 a hundred pounds to the acre will do very well if applied at the same time the alfalfa seed is sown and immediately harrowed in with the seed4 ,if allowed to lie for several hours or days exposed to the sunshine after being spread over the land the bacteria will be destroyed1 for like most bacteria1 such as those which lurk in milk pails to sour the milk1 they are killed by the sunshine4 ,that's right1 said the grandmother4 ,that's the way to sterilize milk pails and pans and crocks4 ,i like crocks better than pans4 ,they don't have any sort of joints to dig out4 ,of course1 continued ,percy1 a wagon load of infected soil will make a more perfect inoculation than a hundred pounds1 and where it costs nothing but the hauling it is well to use a liberal amount4 ,how deep should it be taken8 asked ,mr4 ,west4 ,about the same depth as you would plow4 ,the tubercles are mostly within six or eight inches of the surface4 ,the bacteria depend upon the nitrogen of the air and this must enter the surface soil4 ,sometimes in wet weather the tubercles can be found almost at the surface of the ground1 and when the ground cracks one can often find tubercles sticking out in the cracks an inch or two beneath the surface but protected from direct sunshine4 ,these bacteria have power to furnish very large amounts of nitrogen to such a crop as alfalfa4 ,the ,illinois ,station reports having grown eight and one-half tons of alfalfa per acre in one season4 ,it was harvested in four cuttings4 ,the hay itself was worth at least #f a ton above all expenses1 which would bring #ea an acre net profit for one year4 ,of course this was above the average1 which is only about four and one-half tons over a series of several years4 ,but suppose you can save only three tons and get #f a ton net for it1 as you could easily do by feeding it to your cattle and sheep4 ,that would bring #ah an acre or six per cent4 interest on #cjj land4 ,i am altogether confident that this could be done on your sloping hillsides1 with their rich supplies of phosphorus and other mineral foods1 provided1 of course1 that you use plenty of ground limestone and thoroughly inoculate the soil4 ,well1 ,i shall certainly try alfalfa again1 said ,mr4 ,west1 and if ,i can grow such crops of alfalfa as you think on the hillsides1 ,i can have much more farm manure produced for the improvement of the rest of the land4 ,by the way what did that chemist find in that sample you took of the other land where it does not wash so much as on the steeper slopes4 ,he found the following3 #a1jcj pounds of nitrogen #a1bgj pounds of phosphorus #af1ejj pounds of potassium #g1dfj pounds of magnesium #af1ajj pounds of calcium ,well1 the phosphorus is not so low1 said ,mr4 ,west4 ,fully equal to that in our #aej ,illinois prairie1 replied ,percy1 and again the calcium is more than ours1 with magnesium not far below1 and potassium half our supply4 ,nitrogen is plainly the most serious problem on most of this farm1 and limestone and legumes must solve that problem if properly used4 ,do you think this land could be made as valuable as the ,illinois land just by a liberal use of limestone and legumes8 asked ,adelaide4 ,i should have some doubt about that1 ,percy replied4 ,your very level uplands that neither lose nor receive material from surface washing are very deficient in phosphorus and much poorer than ours in potassium and magnesium2 and your undulating and steeply sloping lands are more or less broken1 with many rock outcrops on the points and some impassable gullies1 which as a rule compel the cultivation of the land in small irregular fields4 ,a three-cornered field of from two to fifteen acres can never have quite the same value per acre as the land where forty or eighty acres of corn can be grown in a body with no necessity of omitting a single hill4 ,then there is some unavoidable loss from surface washing1 so that to maintain the supply of organic matter and nitrogen will require a larger use of legumes than on level land of equal richness4 ,in addition to this is the initial difference in humus content4 ,this is well measured by the nitrogen content4 ,while your soil contains eight hundred pounds of nitrogen on the steeper slopes and one thousand pounds on the more gently undulating areas1 ours contains five thousand pounds in the brown silt loam and eight thousand pounds in the heavier black clay loam4 ,this means that our ,illinois prairie soil contains from five to ten times as much humus1 or organic matter1 as your best upland soil4 ,to supply this difference in humus would require the addition of from four hundred to eight hundred tons per acre of average farm manure1 or the plowing under of one hundred to two hundred tons of air-dry clover4 ,this represents the great reserve of the ,illinois prairie soils above the total supplies remaining in your soils4 ,our farmers are still producing crops very largely by drawing on this reserve4 ,of course most of this great supply of humus is very old4 ,it represents the organic residues most resistant to decomposition2 and1 where corn and oats are grown exclusively1 the soil has reached a condition on many farms under which the decomposition of the reserve organic matter is so slow that the nitrogen liberated from its own decay and the minerals liberated from the soil by the action of the decomposition products are not sufficient to meet the requirements of large crops1 and for this reason alone some of our lands that are still rich are said to be run down2 but they only require a moderate use of clover or farm manure or other fresh and active organic matter to at once restore their productiveness to a point almost equal to the yields from the virgin soil4 ,some ,illinois farmers who have discovered this apparent restoration have jumped to the conclusion that they have solved the problem of permanently maintaining the fertility of the soil2 and ,i judge from a remark made by the ,secretary of ,agriculture that some ,iowa farmers have the same mistaken notions4 ,these fresh supplies of active organic matter serve primarily as soil stimulants1 hastening the liberation of nitrogen from the organic reserve and of minerals from the inorganic soil materials4 ,where one of the ,eastern farmers has managed a farm under the rotation system with the occasional use of clover or light applications of farm manure1--where this has been continued until the great reserve is largely gone1 and the phosphorus supply greatly depleted1 then the land is truly run down1 but not until then4 ,finally1 land-plaster and quick-lime1 still more powerful soil stimulants1 are often brought into the system to bring about a more complete exhaustion of the soil reserves1 and lastly the use of small amounts of high-priced commercial fertilizers serves to put the land in suitable condition for ultimate abandonment4 ,do you mean that commercial fertilizers injure the soil8 asked ,mr4 ,west4 ,well1 to some extent they injure the soil because they tend to destroy the limestone and increase the acidity of the soil1 and also because they contain more or less manufactured land-plaster and thus serve as soil stimulants2 but the chief point to keep in mind concerning the use of the common so-called complete commercial fertilizer is that they are too expensive to permit their use in sufficient quantities to positively enrich the soil4 ,thus the farmer may apply two hundred pounds of such a fertilizer at a cost of #c4jj an acre1 and then harvest a crop of wheat1 two crops of hay1 pasture for another year or two1 plow up the grounds for corn1 apply another two hundred pounds for the corn crop1 follow with a crop of oats1 and then repeat4 ,he thus harvests five crops and pastures a year or two and applies perhaps four hundred pounds of fertilizer at a cost of #f4jj4 ,as an average of the most common commercial fertilizers sold to the farmers in the ,eastern and ,southern ,states1 the four hundred pounds would add to the soil seven pounds of nitrogen1 fourteen pounds of phosphorus and seven pounds of potassium1 while a single fifty-bushel crop of corn will remove from the soil ten times as much nitrogen1 five times as much potassium1 and nearly as much phosphorus as the total amounts applied in this six-year or seven-year rotation4 ,in this manner the farmer extends the time during which he can take from the soil crops whose value exceed their cost4 ,he applies only one-fourth or possibly one-half as much of the most deficient element as the crops harvested require1 and thus he continues for a longer time to 'work the land for all that's in it6 ' ,well1 isn't that the limit8 said ,adelaide1 with emphasis on the isn't1 for which she received a disapproving look from her mother1 so far as her almost angel-face could give such a look4 ,so far as human ingenuity has yet devised1 replied ,percy1 this system appears to be the limit2 but this limit has not yet been reached on any ,westover soil4 ,if anyone can devise a method for extending this limit he should apply it on a type of soil covering more than two-fifths of the total area of ,st4 ,mary ,county and more than #de1jjj acres of ,prince ,george ,county1 ,maryland1 some of which almost adjoins the ,district of ,columbia4 ,this soil has been reduced in fertility until it contains only one-third as much phosphorus as your poorest land4 ,i found a ,western man who had come down to ,maryland a few years ago4 ,he saw that beautiful almost level upland soil1 and it looked so good to him that he bought and kept buying until he had 'squared out' a tract of eleven hundred acres4 ,he still had left money enough to fence the farm and to put the buildings in good repair4 ,he was a live-stock farmer from the ,west who just knew from his own experience and from that of the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 in the use of a little clover or farm manure in unlocking the great reserves of an almost virgin soil1 that all his ,maryland farm needed was clover seed and live stock4 ,sheep especially he knew to be great producers of fertility4 ,he sowed the clover and grass seed and they germinated well4 ,he even secured a fine catch1 but it failed to hold1 as we say out ,west4 ,he tried again and again1 and failed as often as he tried4 ,he showed me his best clover on a field that had received some manure made from feed part of which was purchased1 and that had also received five hundred pounds per acre of hydrated lime1 which he was finally persuaded to use1 after becoming convinced that clover-growing on old abandoned land was not exactly as easy as clover-growing on a 'run-down' farm of almost virgin soil in the ,west4 ,and was the clover good after that treatment8 asked ,mr4 ,west4 ,no1 not good1 said ,percy1 but in some places where the manure had been applied to the high points1 as is the custom of the ,western farmer1 the yield of clover1 weeds1 and foul grass together must have been nearly a half ton to the acre4 ,fortunately he waited to fully stock his farm with cattle and sheep until he should have some assurance of producing sufficient feed to keep them for a time at least1 instead of making the common mistake of the less experienced farmer who goes to the country from the city1 and who imagines that1 if he has plenty of stock on the farm1 they must of necessity produce abundance of manure with which to enrich his land for the production of abundant crops4 ,well1 now you'll have to show me1 said the grandmother4 ,to my way of thinking that's a pretty good kind of a notion for a farmer to have1 and ,i'd like to know what's wrong with it4 ,again a shadow seemed to cross the sweet face as the mother's glance turned from grandma to ,adelaide4 ,the system has some merit1 replied ,percy1 but it starts at the wrong point in the circle4 ,cattle and sheep must first have feed before they can produce the fertilizer with which to enrich the soil2 and people who would raise stock on poor land should always produce a good supply of food before they procure the stock requiring to be fed4 ,there is probably no more direct route to financial disaster than for one to insist upon over-stocking a farm that is essentially worn out4 ,but doesn't pasturing enrich the soil8 asked the grandmother4 ,pasturing may enrich the soil only in a single element of plant food1 said ,percy4 ,in all other elements simple pasturing must always contribute toward soil depletion4 ,if the pasture herbage contains a sufficient proportion of legume plants so that the fixation of free nitrogen exceeds the utilization of nitrogen in animal growth1 then the soil will be enriched in that element1 although with the same growth of plants it would be enriched more rapidly without pasturing2 for animals are not made out of nothing4 ,meat1 milk1 and wool are all highly nitrogenous products4 ,on the other hand no amount of pasturing can add to the soil a single pound of any one of the six mineral elements1 and phosphorus1 which is normally the most limited of all these elements1 is abstracted from the soil and retained by the animals in very considerable amounts4 ,as an average one-fourth of the phosphorus contained in the food consumed is retained in the animal products1 especially in bone1 flesh1 and milk4 ,well1 ,i didn't know that milk contained phosphorus1 said ,mr4 ,west1 although ,i did know1 of course1 that phosphorus must be contained in bone4 ,but1 as you know1 said ,percy1 milk is the only food of young animals1 and they must secure their bone food from the milk4 ,furthermore1 the complete analysis of milk shows that it contains very considerable quantities4 ,there are also records of digestion experiments in which less than one-half of the phosphorus in the food consumed was recovered in the total manural excrements4 ,as a matter of fact there is a time in the life of the young mother1 as with the two-year old cow1 for example1 when she must abstract from the food she consumes sufficient phosphorus for the nourishment of three growing animals1--her own immature body1 a suckling calf1 and another calf as yet unborn4 ,of course the organic matter of the soil should increase under pasturing1 especially under conditions that make possible an accumulation of nitrogen2 but here too the animals make no contribution toward any such accumulation4 ,with the same growth of plants the accumulation of organic matter would be much more rapid without live stock4 ,it is known absolutely but not generally that live stock destroy about two-thirds of the organic matter contained in the food they consume4 ,with grains the proportion is higher1 and with coarse forage it is lower1 but as an average about two-thirds of the dry matter in tender young grass or clover or in a mixed1 well-balanced ration of grain and hay is digested and thus practically destroyed so far as the production of organic matter is concerned4 ,this you could easily verify yourself1 ,mr4 ,west1 by feeding two thousand pounds of any suitable ration1 such as corn and clover hay1 collecting and drying the total excrement1 which will be found to weigh about seven hundred pounds1 if it contains no higher percentage of moisture than was contained in the two thousand pounds of food consumed4 ,of course one should not forget that the liquid excrement contains more nitrogen and more potassium than the solid1 and that much of this can be saved and returned to the land by use of plenty of absorbent bedding1 and in pasturing there is no danger of any loss from this source4 ,that is one great trouble with us1 said ,mr4 ,west4 ,we never have as much bedding as we could use to advantage1 and it is altogether too expensive to permit us to think of buying straw4 ,probably it would be much less expensive for you to buy ground limestone and then use good alfalfa hay for bedding1 said ,percy4 ,i mean exactly what ,i say1 he continued4 ,of course ,i do not advise you to use good alfalfa hay in that way1 but it would be a cheap source of very valuable bedding1 and it would make an extremely valuable manure4 ,however1 ,i should not hesitate to make liberal use of partially spoiled alfalfa hay for bedding1 and you are quite likely to have more or less such hay2 for under favorable conditions1 such as you can easily have with your soil and climate1 alfalfa comes on with a rush in the spring1 and often the first crop should be cut before the weather is suitable for making hay4 ,there should be very little or no delay at this time1 because the first cutting should be removed in order that it may be out of the way of the second crop1 which comes forward still more rapidly under normal conditions4 ,some of our ,illinois farmers make strenuous objection to taking care of an alfalfa field that produces #ej worth of the richest and most valuable hay1 because it interferes too much with the proper care of a #be corn crop1 which they somehow feel requires and deserves all their time and attention4 ,some of our ,virginia farmers have sent to ,illinois for their seed corn1 said ,mr4 ,west2 and they report very good results as a rule1 especially on land that has been kept up4 ,on our poor land ,i think the native corn does better than the ,western seed4 ,perhaps that is because it is used to it1 suggested ,percy1 used to making the struggle for itself on poor land4 ,fighting for all it gets1 so to speak4 ,you know the high-bred animals cannot hold their own with the scrubs when it comes to pawing the snow off the dead wild grass for a living in the winter1 as cattle must do sometimes on the plains of the ,northwest4 ,well1 there may be something in that1 responded ,mr4 ,west1 but the western seed corn certainly looks fine4 ,yes1 that is true1 said ,percy4 ,our farmers have made marked improvement in seed corn2 they also understand very well how to grow corn4 ,they know how and when to prepare the ground1 how and when to plant2 and how and when to cultivate4 ,when ,illinois farmers go to ,iowa to buy land1 the ,iowa real estate men usually take them to see a farm that is owned and operated by a former ,illinoisan1 and they insist that there are no other farmers who know how to raise corn quite so well as the ,illinois farmer4 ,perhaps the ,illinois real estate man would tell a similar story to the ,iowa farmer if he ever came there to buy land1 but ',westward the ,course of ,empire takes its ,way' and the man once gone west knows the east no more1 except as a market for his surplus products or a good place in which to spend his surplus cash4 ,but1 here4 ,we must finish our study of the data that ,miss ,adelaide so kindly helped me to compute4 ,it was the first time that he had spoken her name in her presence2 and she met his glance as she raised her eyes4 ,what's in a name8 ,what's in a glance8 ,percy proceeded without delay2 and ,adelaide listened as before1 her drooping lashes protecting her eyes almost entirely from the view of others4 ,the father and mother heard no name spoken and saw no eyes meet1 and yet as ,percy continued speaking a second self seemed to be thinking different thoughts and he was conscious of a strong desire to look longer than an instant into those captivating eyes4 ,a side glance1 as she let her lashes droop1 revealed to ,adelaide that grandma alone had heard and seen4 ,but ,percy was a very common-place man4 ,certainly he had no such face as had held her glance for more than an instant as the afternoon train began to move from the depot platform4 ,percy was slightly above the average height and solidly built1 but he was not tall4 ,his face had often been described as a perfect blank4 ,no one saw anything of what lay within by merely looking into his eyes1 and yet there was a certain indescribable something that appealed to one from those eyes4 ,an elderly ,german lady once remarked to his mother3 ,ihr ,sohn hat so etwas gutes im ,auge4 ,percy was not polished in manner1 ,adelaide admitted4 ,professor ,barstow had said that he deliberated for half an hour as to whether he should bring his cawds1 for use on ,thanksgiving day1 because he feared that the custom in ,vi'ginia might not be the same as in ,no'th ,cahlina2 while she doubted very much if ,percy had any cards whatever4 ,she had never heard it said that he was strong as an ox and quick as lightning1 but perhaps she knew it as well as his schoolmates ever had4 ,she had not heard that one of the college professors1 noted for his short-cut expressions1 had once told his class that he wished they would all keep their thinking apparatus in as good repair as ,johnston's4 ,one thing she did know was that ,percy's voice had been trained to talk to a woman1 and that no other voice had ever spoken her name as he did4 ,reserve force8 depth of manhood8 confidence in his own words8 absolute decision8 wealth of tenderness8 persistent endurance8 unfailing loyalty8 boundless affection8 ,deep in her heart ,adelaide felt that these were among the attributes revealed in ,percy's voice4 ,when he spoke all listened4 ,his voice was low-pitched but rich in tone and volume and sincerity1--that was the word4--,the whole man seemed to feel and speak when he spoke4 ,he surely can have no secrets4 ,his mother must know all that he knows of his own self2 but were those letters from his mother8 ,the handwriting was very modern4 ,even her father made an old-fashioned ,c and ,w in signing his own name4 ,had he not looked at the writing on both those letters before he noticed the others8 and why did he remain so long in his room before coming down to dinner8 ,had he not been in college--in a great ,university where there were hundreds of the brightest girls of his own ,state8 ,but why should any girl be interested in farming8 ,teaching is such a cultured profession4 ,only a moment--just while he was sorting the papers upon which they had made the computations1 but a hundred thoughts had passed through her mind4 ,now he was speaking4 ,you remember we took a sample of the subsoil on the sloping land4 ,this soil is evidently residual1 formed in place from the disintegration of the underlying rock4 ,the soil may represent only a small part of the original rock1 because of the loss by leaching4 ,here are the amounts of plant food found in two million pounds of the subsoil3 #eij pounds of nitrogen #a1ihj pounds of phosphorus #cg1idj pounds of potassium #bd1hjh pounds of magnesium #ca1cbj pounds of calcium ,a splendid subsoil1 ,percy continued4 ,i know of none better in ,illinois1 except that we sometimes have more calcium in the form of carbonate1 and even somewhat more potassium in places2 but this must be a fine subsoil for alfalfa1 where the bed rock is not too near the surface4 ,of course there is but little nitrogen in the subsoil1 but that is true of all normal soils1 because the nitrogen is contained only in the organic matter1 and that decreases rapidly with depth and usually becomes insufficient to color the soil below #ah inches4 ,now1 began ,mr4 ,west1 from these different analyses or invoices1 and from your discussion of these results1 ,i take it that you would not advise me to purchase any commercial fertilizer for use on the land we are still using in my rotation2 but you think we should make large use of limestone and legume crops4 ,yes1 ,sir4 ,phosphorus is markedly deficient only in the very level upland which has been allowed to remain uncleared for fifty years or more1 and nitrogen is certainly the limiting element on the land you are trying to keep in your rotation4 ,while you cannot hope to put into your soil any such reserve of slow-acting organic matter as we still have in our comparatively new soils of the ,west1 we may keep in mind that a small amount of quick-acting fresh organic matter is more effective than a large supply of what we might call embalmed material that decomposes very1 very slowly unless assisted by the addition of more active organic matter4 ,it frequently happens that one soil containing a large reserve of old humus1 and hence showing more organic carbon and more nitrogen1 by the ultimate invoice1 than another soil1 is1 nevertheless1 less productive1 because the other soil contains a larger amount of fresh organic matter which decays quickly and thus furnishes more nitrogen and liberates more of the other elements from the insoluble minerals of the soil because of the greater abundance of the active products of organic decay4 ,i think you should keep in mind1 however1 that1 for every twenty-five bushels of corn you wish to produce1 you should return to the soil one ton of clover or four tons of average farm manure1 and that for one ton of produce hauled to the barns and fed1 you will probably not return to the land more than one ton of manure4 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,stone ,,soup ,,the next forenoon ,percy and ,mr4 ,west spent some time making some further tests with hydrochloric acid and litmus paper in different places on the farm2 but the result only confirmed the previous examinations4 ,i never before saw any such light as now appears1 said ,mr4 ,west4 ,it seems to me that for the first time in the history of ,westover1 covering about two centuries1 a real plan can be intelligently made based upon definite information looking toward the positive improvement of the soil4 ,while you have been away1 ,i have been looking up the lime matter4 ,i find that a lime is being advertised1 and sold in small amounts1 that is called hydrated lime1 and it is especially prepared as an agricultural lime4 ,it is recommended by some dealers as being fully equal to the ordinary commercial fertilizer which sells at about #be a ton1 while this hydrated agricultural lime can be bought for #h a ton1 and ,i think for a little less in larger amounts4 ,you mentioned also that you had seen some one who had used hydrated lime1 but it didn't seem to make much of a clover crop4 ,of course1 ,i understand from what you said that his soil contained only one hundred and sixty pounds of phosphorus1 and ,i take it that lime alone could not markedly improve his soil2 but still ,i would like to know why1 if he has one hundred and sixty pounds of phosphorus in his plowed soil1 he could not produce a few good crops of clover4 ,,how much phosphorus does it require for a ton of clover8 ,one ton of clover contains only five pounds of phosphorus1 ,percy replied1 and of course the roots must also require some phosphorus1 although after the crop is produced and removed1 the phosphorus contained in the roots remains for the benefit of subsequent crops4 ,thus we might suppose the land which contains one hundred and sixty pounds of phosphorus ought to furnish the phosphorus needed for a three ton crop of clover every year for ten years2 but in actual practice no such results are secured4 ,the invoice of the plant food in the soil is a matter of very great importance1 for it reveals the mathematical possibilities1 but another matter of almost equal importance is the problem of liberating plant food from this supply sufficient for the crops to be produced year by year4 ,decaying or active organic matter is one of the great factors in the liberation of plant food1 and undoubtedly the extension or distribution of the root system of the growing plant is another very potent factor4 ,if the root surfaces come in contact with one per cent4 of the total surface of the soil particles in the plowed soil1 then we might conceive of a relationship whereby one per cent4 of the phosphorus in that soil would be dissolved or liberated from the insoluble minerals and thus become available as food for the growing crop4 ,we know that the rate of liberation varies greatly1 with different soils and seasons1 and crops also differ in their power to assist themselves in the extraction of mineral plant food from the soil4 ,the presence of limestone encourages the development of certain soil organisms which tend to hasten some decomposition process4 ,but1 all things considered1 it may be said1 speaking very generally1 that the equivalent of about one per cent4 of the total phosphorus contained in the plowed soil does become available for the crops under average conditions4 ,on this basis one hundred and sixty pounds of phosphorus would furnish about one and one-half pounds for the crops during one season4 ,but in such a soil the phosphorus still remaining may be the most difficultly soluble1 and the supply of decaying organic matter may be extremely low1 so that possibly less than one pound per acre would become available1 and this would meet the needs of less than four hundred pounds per acre of clover hay4 ,furthermore1 the supply grows less and less with every crop removed4 ,with your ordinary soil1 carrying twelve hundred and seventy pounds of phosphorus1 perhaps you may be able by a liberal use of decaying organic matter to liberate ten or fifteen pounds of phosphorus1 or sufficient for a crop of forty to sixty bushels of corn2 and1 with a subsoil richer in phosphorus than the surface1 and with more or less of the partially depleted surface removed by erosion year by year1 the supply of phosphorus is thus permanently provided for unless the bed rock is brought too near the surface4 ,it is doubtful if the direct addition of phosphorus to your sloping lands will ever be necessary or profitable4 ,certainly such addition is not advisable until you have brought the land to as high a state of fertility as is practicable by means of limestone1 legumes1 and manure4 ,that seems clearly to be the case with most of the land now under cultivation on this farm1 said ,mr4 ,west ,can you tell me anything about this hydrated lime8 ,i can tell you it is correctly named1 ,percy replied4 ,hydrated means watered1 and an investment in hydrated lime is properly classed with other watered investments4 ,if you prefer to use hydrated lime ,i would suggest that you buy fresh burned lump lime and do the hydrating yourself1 which only requires that you add eighteen pounds of water to each fifty-six pounds of quick lime2 in other words1 that you slack the lime by adding water in the proper proportion4 ,both quick lime and hydrated lime are known as caustic lime4 ,webster says that the word caustic means 'capable of destroying the texture of anything or eating away its substance by chemical action4' ,this definition is correct for caustic lime1 as you can easily determine by keeping your hand in a bucket of slacked lime a few minutes4 ,caustic lime eats away the organic matter of the soil4 ,in an experiment conducted by the ,pennsylvania ,experiment ,station1 during a period of sixteen years1 eight tons of hydrated lime destroyed organic matter equivalent to thirty-seven tons of farm manure1 as compared with the use of equivalent applications of ground limestone2 and1 as an average of the sixteen years1 every ton of caustic lime applied liberated seven dollars' worth of organic nitrogen1 as compared with ground limestone4 ,that this much liberated nitrogen was essentially wasted and lost is evidenced by the fact that larger crops were produced where ground limestone was used than where burned lime was applied4 ,the limestone must be quarried whether used for grinding or for burning1 and the grinding can be done for twenty-five cents a ton where a large equipment with powerful machinery is used and where cheap fuel is provided1 as near the coal mining districts4 ,it need not be very finely ground4 ,if ground to pass a sieve with twelve meshes to the linear inch1 it is very satisfactory1 provided that all of the fine dust produced in the grinding is included in the product4 ,you see the soil acids are slightly soluble and they attack the limestone particles and are thus themselves destroyed or neutralized4 ,if1 however1 you ever wish to use raw rock phosphate1 insist upon its being sufficiently fine-ground that at least ninety per cent4 of it will pass through a sieve with ten thousand meshes to the square inch1 this being no finer than is required for the basic slag phosphate1 of which several million tons are now being used each year in the ,european countries4 ,like the raw rock phosphate1 the slag gives the best results only when used in connection with plenty of decaying organic matter4 ,that reminds me1 said ,mr4 ,west1 of what one of the fertilizer agents said about raw phosphate4 ,he said the use of raw phosphate with farm manure reminded him of 'stone soup1' which was made by putting a clean round stone in the kettle with some water4 ,pepper and salt were added1 then some potatoes and other vegetables1 a piece of butter and a few scraps of meat4 ',stone soup1' thus made1 was a very satisfactory soup4 ,he said that in practically all of the tests of raw phosphate conducted by the various ,state ,experiment ,stations1 manure has been used as a means of supplying organic matter to liberate the phosphorus from the raw rock1 but in such large quantity as to be entirely impracticable for the average farmer to use on his own fields2 and his opinion was that the entire benefit was due to the manure4 ,he had a little booklet entitled ',available or ,unavailable ,plant ,food--,which8' published by the ,national ,fertilizer ,association1 and said ,i could get a copy by addressing the ,secretary at ,nashville1 ,tennessee4 ,fortunately1 said ,percy1 this is not a question of opinion but one of fact2 and it has been discovered that the fertilizer agents who are long on opinions and short on facts prefer to sell four tons of complete fertilizer for #hj1 or even two tons of acid phosphate for #cj1 rather than to sell one ton of raw phosphate1 containing the same amount of phosphorus1 for #g4ej4 ,in the manufacture of acidulated fertilizers1 one ton of raw phosphate1 containing about two hundred and fifty pounds of the element phosphorus1 is mixed with one ton of sulfuric acid to make two tons of acid phosphate2 and1 as a rule1 these two tons of acid phosphate are mixed with two tons of filler to make four tons of complete fertilizer4 ,a favorite filler is dried peat1 which is taken from some of the peat bogs1 as at ,manito1 ,illinois1 and shipped in train loads to the fertilizer factories4 ,the peat is not considered worth hauling onto the land in ,illinois1 even where the farmers can get it for nothing2 but it contains some organic nitrogen1 and1 by the addition of a little potassium salt1 the agent is enabled to call the product a 'complete' fertilizer4 ,experiments with the use of raw rock phosphate have been conducted by the ,state ,agricultural ,experiment ,stations over periods of twelve years in ,maryland1 eleven years in ,rhode ,island1 twenty-one years 7in two series7 in ,massachusetts1 fourteen years 7in two series7 in ,maine1 twelve years in ,pennsylvania1 thirteen years in ,ohio1 four years in ,indiana1 and from four to six years on a dozen different experiment fields in different parts of ,illinois4 ,i have here some quotations taken from the directors of several of these experiment stations which fairly represent the opinions which they have expressed concerning their own investigations4 ,thus the ,maryland director says3 ',the results obtained with the insoluble phosphates has cost usually less than one-half as much as that with the soluble phosphates4 ,insoluble ,south ,carolina phosphate rock produced a higher total average yield than dissolved ,south ,carolina rock4' ,the ,rhode ,island director comments as follows3 ' ,with the pea1 oat1 summer squash1 crimson clover1 ,japanese millet1 golden millet1 white podded ,adzuka bean1 soy bean1 and potato1 raw phosphate gave very good results2 but with the flat turnip1 table beet1 and cabbage it was relatively very inefficient4' ,the following statement is from the ,massachusetts director3 ',it is possible to produce profitable crops of most kinds by liberal use of natural phosphates1 and in a long series of years there might be a considerable money saving in depending at least in part upon these rather than upon the higher priced dissolved phosphates4' ,the director of the ,maine ,state ,experiment ,station gives us the following3 ',for the first year the largest increase of crop was produced by soluble phosphate4 ,for the second and third years without further addition of fertilizers1 better results were obtained from the plots where stable manure and insoluble phosphates had been used4' ,the stable manure and insoluble phosphates here referred to were not applied together1 but on separate plots4 ,in deed1 the raw phosphate was not used in connection with manure either in ,maryland1 ,rhode ,island1 ,massachusetts1 ,maine1 ,pennsylvania1 or ,indiana2 and in the extensive experiments in progress in ,illinois the raw phosphate has been used1 as a rule1 not with farm manure1 but with green manures2 and wherever manure has been used in connection with the raw phosphate1 as in ,ohio1 the comparison is made with the same amounts of manure applied without phosphate4 ,the ,pennsylvania ,report for #ahie1 page #baj1 contains the following statement3 ',the yearly average for the twelve years gives us a gain per acre of #b4hc from insoluble ground bone1 #b4de from insoluble ,south ,caroline rock1 #a4fa from reverted phosphate1 and #dh cents from soluble phosphate1 thus giving us considerably better results from the two forms of insoluble phosphate than from the reverted or soluble forms4' ,the ,indiana director reports as follows3 ',it will be seen that during the first and second years the rock phosphate produced little effect1 while the acid phosphate very materially increased the yields4 ,during the third and fourth seasons1 however1 the rock produced very striking results1 even forging ahead of the acid4 ,this and very similar investigations in progress lead us to believe that rock phosphate is a cheap and effective source of phosphorus where immediate returns are not required4 ,in the ,ohio experiments eight tons of manure per acre were applied once every three years in a three-year rotation of corn1 wheat1 and clover1 three different fields being used1 so that every crop might be grown every year4 ,the average yields for the thirteen years where manure alone was used were3 #ec4a bushels of corn #bj4f bushels of wheat #a4fc tons of hay ,the average yields on the unfertilized land were3 #cb4b bushels of corn #aa4d bushels of wheat #a4af tons of hay ,if the corn is worth #ce cents a bushel1 the wheat #gj cents1 and the hay #f a ton1 in addition to the expense of harvesting and marketing1 then the total value of the manure spread on the land is #b4jg a ton4 ,where #a4bj worth of raw phosphate 7#cbj pounds7 were added in connection with the manure the average yields were as follows3 #fa4d bushels of corn #bf4c bushels of wheat #b4bc tons of hay ,and where #b4dj worth of acid phosphate 7#cbj pounds7 were used with the same amount and kind of manure the following average yields were secured3 #fj4d bushels of corn #bf4e bushels of wheat #b4af tons of hay ,these are the actual yield1 and by any method of computation yet proposed1 each dollar invested in raw phosphate has paid back much more than has a dollar invested in acid phosphate4 ,and was the use of the raw phosphate really profitable8 asked ,mr4 ,west4 ,well1 you might figure that out for yourself1 ,percy replied1 preferably using the average prices for your own locality for corn1 wheat and clover4 ,as ,i figure it at prices below the ten-year average for ,illinois1 the raw phosphate paid about eight hundred per cent4 net on the investment4 ,eight hundred per cent6 ,you must mean eight per cent4 net4 ,no1 ,sir1 ,i mean eight hundred per cent4 net1 but you had better take the data and make your own computations4 ,but does it not seem strange that1 with such positive knowledge as this available1 many of the ,illinois landowners who have managed to sell off enough of their original stock of fertility in grain or stock at good prices to enable them to more than pay for their lands1 should continue to invest their surplus in more land with hope that it will pay them eight per cent4 interest1 when they could secure many times that much interest from investing in the permanent improvement of the land they already own8 ,perhaps it is not so strange1 replied ,mr4 ,west4 ,i fear that some of their ancestors did the same thing in ,virginia and other ,eastern ,states until the land became poor1 and then of course they were 'land poor4' ,but1 say1 that 'stone soup' wouldn't be so bad for those ,ohio landowners1 would it8 ,i should think they would avail themselves of the positive information from their experiment station4 ,speaking of soup1 ,i wonder if it isn't time for lunch6 ,but tell me2 are the ,illinois farmers doing anything with raw phosphate8 ,yes1 they are doing something1 but by no means as much as they ought4 ,about two months ago a group of the leading farmers from our section of the ,state went up to ,urbana to look over the experiment fields1 some of which have been carried on since #ahgj4 ,the land is the typical corn belt prairie1 and consequently the results should be of very wide application4 ,well1 as a result of that day's inspection of the actual field results1 an even twelve carloads of raw phosphate were ordered by those farmers upon their return home2 and ,i learned of another community where ten carloads were ordered at once after a similar visit4 ,as an average of the last three years the yield of corn on those old fields has been #bc bushels per acre where corn has been grown every year without fertilizing1 #eh bushels where a three-year rotation of corn1 oats and clover is followed1 and in the same rotation where organic matter1 limestone1 and phosphorus have been applied the average yield has been #hg bushels in grain farming and #ib bushels in live-stock farming4 ,i attended the ,state ,farmers' ,institute last ,february1 and there ,i met many men who have had several years' experience with the raw rock4 ,usually they put on one ton per acre as an initial application and plow it under with a good growth of clover2 and1 afterward1 about one thousand pounds per acre every four years will be ample to gradually increase the absolute total supply of phosphorus in the soil1 even though large crops are removed4 ,a good many of our thinking farmers are now using one or two cars of raw phosphate every year1 and they are figuring hard to keep up the organic matter and nitrogen4 ,the most encouraging thing is the very marked benefit of the phosphate to the clover crop1 and of course more clover means more corn in grain farming1 and more corn and clover means more manure in live-stock farming4 ,on the ,illinois fields advantage is taken of these relations in the developing of systems of permanent agriculture4 ,you see1 if the phosphate produces more clover1 then more clover can be plowed under on that land2 or1 if the crops are fed1 then more manure can be returned to the phosphated land than to the land not treated with phosphate and not producing so large crops4 ,really the phosphate is not given full credit for what it has accomplished in the ,ohio experiments2 because1 while the land receiving phosphated manure has produced about one-fourth larger crops than the land receiving the untreated manure1 the actual amounts of manure applied have been the same1 whereas one-fourth more manure can be produced from the phosphated land and if this increased supply of manure were returned to the land it would increase the supply of nitrogen and thus make still larger crop yields possible4 ,that is surely the way it would work out in practical farming1 said ,mr4 ,west4 ,i think ,i did not tell that #d4hj a ton is the lowest quotation ,i have been able to get as yet for ground limestone delivered at ,blue ,mound ,station4 ,that would make its use prohibitive1 said ,percy4 ,you ought to get it for just one-fourth of that1 or for #a4bj a ton4 ,in ,illinois we can get it delivered a hundred miles from the quarry for #a4bj a ton4 ,it costs no more for a thirty-ton car of ground limestone than the farmer receives for a cow2 and the cost of a car of fine-ground natural phosphate is about equal to the price of one horse4 ,of course1 our limestone supplies are essentially inexhaustible1 said ,mr4 ,west1 but is that also true of our natural phosphate deposits8 ,it is not true of the high-grade phosphate1 replied ,percy2 for1 according to the information furnished by the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 it is evident that the known supplies of our high-grade phosphate will be practically exhausted in fifty years if our exportation continues to increase at the prevailing rate4 ,after that is gone we may then draw upon our low-grade phosphate deposits1 which though probably not inexhaustible are known to be exceedingly extensive4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,,theories ,,versus ,,facts ,,percy planned to walk to ,blue ,mound to take the three-thirty train that ,saturday afternoon2 but ,adelaide's parents both insisted that she would willingly drive to the station1 and the grandmother discovered that she needed a certain kind of thread which ,adelaide could then also get at the store4 ,certainly1 said ,adelaide1 with some merriment1 ,i always enjoy our departing guests to the train4 ,very well1 replied ,percy4 ,if you must go to get the thread and will permit me to be the coachman1 ,i shall be satisfied1 for you will be home early4 ,then we will take the colts and buckboard1 and ,i shall be home in less than twenty minutes after your train leaves the station4 ,i think ,i have missed several days of your beautiful ',indian ,summer1' because of my trip to the ,north1 ,percy remarked to ,mr4 ,west as they sat on the broad veranda waiting for the hour of two thirty when the colts were to be ready for the drive4 ,i wish you might have been with us while ,professor ,barstow was here1 replied ,mr4 ,west1 not only because of the mild autumn weather we have had1 but also because ,professor ,barstow has some ideas about questions of soil fertility that are very different from those you hold4 ,he says a young man from ,washington gave a lecture at his college down in ,north ,carolina1 in which he informed them that the cause of infertility of soils is a poisonous substance excreted by the plant itself1 and that this can be overcome by changing from one crop to another because the excrete of one plant1 while poisonous to that plant1 will not be poisonous to other plants of a different kind4 ,thus1 by rotation of crops1 good crops could be grown indefinitely on the same land without the addition of plant food4 ,he said that the soil water alone dissolved plenty of plant food from all soils for the production of good crops1 and that the supply of plant food will be permanently maintained1 because the plant food contained in the subsoil far below where the roots go is being brought to the surface by the rise of the capillary moisture1 and that there is in fact a steady tendency toward an accumulation of plant food in the surface soil4 ,he said that it is never necessary to apply fertilizing material to any soil for the purpose of increasing the supply of plant food in that soil4 ,he admitted that applications of fertilizers sometimes produce increased crop yields1 but that the effect was due to the power of the fertilizer to destroy the toxic substances excreted by the plants1 and this is really the principal effect of potash1 phosphates1 and nitrates1 and also of farm manure and green manures4 ,humus1 he said1 is one of the very best substances for destroying these toxic excrete although they had some other things which were as good or better than any sore of fertilizing materials4 ,he mentioned especially a substance called pyrogallol1 which cost #b4jj a pound1 and of course it could not be applied on a large scale2 but it was as good a fertilizer as anything1 although it contains nothing but carbon1 oxygen1 and hydrogen1 which1 as you explained to me when you were here before1 the plants secure in abundance from air and water4 ,this information had been secured in the laboratories at ,washington by growing wheat seedlings in water culture for twenty-day periods4 ,i have already heard something of those theories1 said ,percy1 but ,i shall be glad to have you tell me more about them4 ,as ,i understand them1 we need only to rotate and cultivate and our lands should always continue to produce bountiful crops4 ,is that correct8 ,i understand that is the theory1 replied ,mr4 ,west1 but ,i know it is not correct for my grandfather used to grow two or three times as much wheat per acre as ,i can grow1 and ,i rotate much more than he did4 ,in fact ,i can grow only ten to fifteen bushels of wheat per acre once in ten years1 whereas he grew from twenty-five to forty bushels per acre in a five-year rotation2 and ,i don't see that there is any particular connection between the growing of wheat seedlings in small pots or bottles for a few twenty-day periods and the growing of crops in soils during successive seasons4 ,no1 ,i don't take any stock in their theories4 ,i think they are watered1 or perhaps ,i should say hydrated1 in deference to science4 ,but ,i would like to know about this question of plant food coming up from below4 ,that would be a happy solution of the fertilizer problem4 ,it is true1 said ,percy1 that soluble salts are brought to the surface in the rise of moisture by capillarity in times of partial drouth2 and in the arid regions where the small amount of water that falls in rain or snow leaves the soil only by evaporation1 because there is never enough to produce underdrainage1 the salts tend to accumulate at the surface4 ,the alkali conditions in the arid or semiarid regions of the ,west are thus produced4 ,but in humid sections where more or less of the rainfall leaves the soil as underdrainage the regular loss by leaching is so much in excess of the rise by capillarity that soils which are not affected by erosion or overflow steadily decrease in fertility even under natural conditions1 with no cultivation and no removal of crops4 ,of course this applies at first only to the mineral plant foods1 as phosphorus potassium1 magnesium1 and calcium4 ,while mineral supplies are abundant in the surface soil1 there may be a large acumulation of organic matter and nitrogen1 especially because of the growth of wild legumes1 which are very numerous and in places very abundant1 especially on some of the virgin prairies of the ,west4 ,however1 as the process of leaching proceeds there comes a time when the growth of the native vegetation is limited because of a deficiency in some essential mineral plant food1 such as phosphorus1 or the limestone completely disappears and soil acidity develops which greatly lessens the growth of the legumes4 ,decomposition of organic matter begins almost as soon as any part of the plant ceases to live1 and there is certain to come a time when the rate of decomposition and loss exceeds the rate of fixation and accumulation2 and from that time on the organic matter and nitrogen as well as the mineral plant foods continue to decrease in the surface1 until finally the natural barrens are developed1 such as are found in different sections of the ,world and in some places even where the rainfall is sufficient for abundant crops4 ,yes1 ,sir1 said ,mr4 ,west4 ,i know that is true4 ,i have visited ,tennessee and ,i know there are some extensive areas there of practically level upland which have always been considered too poor to justify putting under cultivation1 and they are called the ',barrens'4 ,i know about those barren lands1 too1 said ,percy4 ,our teacher of soil fertility in college told us that a farm is more than a piece of the earth's surface4 ,he said if we only wanted to get a large level tract of upland where the climate is mild and the rainfall abundant and where all sorts of crops do well on good soil1 including the wonderful cotton crop which brings a hundred dollars for a thousand pounds1 while corn brings forty dollars for a hundred bushels1--well1 he said we could go to the ,highland ,rim of ,tennessee where1 according to analyses reported in #ahig by the ,tennessee ,experiment ,station1 the surface soil of the ',barrens' contains eighty-seven pounds of phosphorus and the subsoil sixty-one pounds of phosphorus per acre1 counting two million pounds of soil in each case4 ,he said1 if we didn't like that we might go into the ,great ,central ,basin of ,tennessee or the famous ,blue ,grass ,region of ,kentucky and find land that is still extremely productive and more valuable than ever1 even after a hundred years of cultivation1 and buy land containing from three thousand to fifteen thousand pounds of phosphorus per acre4 ,i know both of those sections very well1 said ,mr4 ,west4 ,but doesn't it seem strange that the scientists at ,washington would teach as they do8 ,why doesn't the plant food accumulate in the surface soil of those barrens8 ,surely they have been lying there long enough1 with no crops whatever removed1 so that they ought to have become very rich4 ,i wish ,i had known about their phosphorus content so ,i could have told ,professor ,barstow4 ,he was quite carried away with the ,washington theory4 ,you ought not for a moment call it the ',washington' theory1 said ,percy2 and neither is it promulgated by scientists1 but rather by two or three theorists who are upheld by our greatest living optimist4 ,science1 ,sir1 is a word to be spoken of always with the greatest respect4 ,of course you know its meaning8 ,yes1 ,i know it comes from the ,latin scire1 to know4 ,then science means knowledge2 it does not mean theory or hypothesis1 but absolute and positive knowledge4 ,is there any uncertainty as to the instant when the next eclipse will appear8 ,no1 none whatever4 ,science means knowledge1 and men are scientists only so far as they have absolute knowledge1 and to that extent every farmer is a scientist4 ,nevertheless the erroneous teaching so widely promulgated by the federal ,bureau of ,soils is undoubtedly a most potent influence against the adoption of systems of positive soil improvement in the ,united ,states1 because it is disseminated from the position of highest authority4 ,other peoples have ruined other lands1 but in no other country has the powerful factor of government influence ever been used to encourage the farmers to ruin their lands4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii ,,guessing ,,and ,,gassing ,,as we were riding to ,montplain yesterday1 said ,adelaide to ,percy1 soon after they started for ,blue ,mound1 ,professor ,barstow told me that in his opinion all that was needed to redeem these old lands of ,virginia and the ,carolinas is plenty of efficient labor1 such as he thinks we had before the war4 ,i know papa does not agree with him in that1 but ,professor said that soils do not wear out if well cultivated1 that in ,new ,england they grow as large crops as ever1 and that in ,europe1 on the oldest lands the crop yields are very much larger than in the ,united ,states2 and in fact that the ,european countries are producing about twice as large crops as they did a hundred years ago4 ,he thinks it is because they do their work more thoroughly than we do4 ,he says that 'a little farm well tilled' is the key to the solution of our difficulties4 ,that might seem to be a good guess as to the probable relation of cause and effect1 replied ,percy1 but we ought not to overlook some well known facts that have an important bearing4 ,it is exactly a hundred years since ,de,saussure of ,france1 first gave to the world a clear and correct and almost complete statement concerning the requirements of plants for plant food and the natural sources of supply4 ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 ,baron von ,liebig1 ,lawes and ,gilbert1 and ,hellriegel followed ,de,saussure and completely filled the nineteenth century with accumulated scientific facts relating to soils and plant growth4 ,sir ,john ,bennett ,lawes1 the founder of the ,rothamsted ,experiment ,station1 the oldest in the world1 on his own private estate at ,harpenden1 ,england1 began his investigations in the interest of practical agricultural science soon after coming into possession of ,rothamsted in #ahcd4 ,in #ahdc he associated with him in the work ,doctor ,joseph ,henry ,gilbert1 and for fifty-seven years those two great men labored together gathering agricultural facts4 ,sir ,john died in #aijj1 and ,sir ,henry the following year4 ,that the people of ,europe have made some use of the science thus evolved is evident from the simple fact that they are taking out of the ,united ,states every year about a million tons of our best phosphate rock for which they pay us at the point of shipment about five millions dollars2 whereas1 if this same phosphate were applied to our own soils that already suffer for want of phosphorus1 it would make possible the production of nearly a billion dollars' worth of corn above what these soils can ever produce without the addition of phosphorus4 ,and our phosphate is only a part of the phosphate imported into ,europe4 ,they also produce rock phosphate from ,european mines1 and great quantities of slag phosphate from their phosphatic iron ores4 ,they feed their own crops and large amounts of imported food stuffs1 and utilize all fertilizing materials thus provided for the improvement of their own lands4 ,legume crops are grown in great abundance and are often plowed under to help the land4 ,do you wonder why the wheat yield in ,england is more than thirty bushels per acre while that of the ,united ,states is less than fourteen bushels8 ,because ,england produces only fifty million bushels of wheat1 while she imports two hundred million bushels of wheat1 one hundred million bushels of corn1 nearly a billion pounds of oil cake1 and other food stuffs1 from which large quantities of manure are made2 and1 in addition to this1 ,england imports and uses much phosphate and other commercial plant food materials4 ,germany imports great quantities of wheat1 corn1 oil cake1 and phosphates1 and thus enriches her cultivated soil1 and ,germany's principal export is two billion pounds of sugar1 which contains no plant food of value1 but only carbon1 oxygen1 and hydrogen1 secured from air and water by the sugar beet4 ,denmark produces four million bushels of wheat1 imports five million bushels of wheat1 fifteen million bushels of corn1 fifteen million bushels of barley1 eight hundred million pounds of oil cake1 eight hundred million pounds of mill feed1 and other food stuffs1 phosphate1 etc41 and exports one hundred and seventy-five million pounds of butter1 which contains no plant food of value1 but sells for much more than these imports cost4 ,italy applies to her soils every year about a million tons of phosphates1 which contain nearly twice as much phosphorus as is removed from the land in all the crops harvested and sold from the farms of ,italy4 ,the very good yields of the crops of ,new ,england are attributable to large use of fertilizing materials1 in part made from food stuffs shipped in from the ,west2 and the high development of certain lands of ,europe and ,new ,england has been possible under the system followed only because the areas concerned are small4 ,thus1 the average acreage of corn in ,rhode ,island and ,connecticut is less than three townships1 or less than one-tenth as much corn land in the two ,states as the area of single counties in the ,illinois corn belt4 ,did you ever hear of the ',egypt' we have out ,west1 ,miss ,west8 ,out ,west1 ,miss ,west1 she repeated4 ,that is too much repetition of the same word to make a good sentence4 ,i like ',miss ,adelaide' better2 ,i do get tired of hearing ,west and ,westover over and over4 ,yes1 ,i have heard of the ',egypt' you have out ,west4 ,is it near ,illinois8 ,near ,illinois8 ,why1 ,miss ,adelaide1 ,i am surprised that you should even know about the crop yields of ,rhode ,island and not know where ',egypt' is4 ,let me inform you that ',egypt' is in ,illinois1 and our ',egypt' is a country as large as thirteen states the size of ,rhode ,island4 ,cairo is the ,capital1 and ,alexandria1 ,thebes1 and ,joppa are all near by4 ,tamm and ,buncombe1 and ,goreville and ,omega are also among our promising cities of ',egypt1' although you may not so easily associate them with the ancient world4 ,well ,i know where ,cairo is1 ,adelaide replied1 but if your ',egypt' is on the map you will have to show me4 ,i know now that ',egypt' is in ,southern ,illinois1 but how do you separate ',egypt' from the rest of the ,state8 ,we make no such separation1 said ,percy4 ,but to find ',egypt' on the map1 you need only take the ,state of ,illinois and subtract therefrom all that part of the corn belt situated between the ,mississippi ,river and the west line of ,indiana4 ,the southern point of ',egypt' is at ,cairo1 the ,capital1 and it is bounded on the east1 south1 and west1 by the ,wabash1 the ,ohio1 and the ,mississippi2 but the north line is not only imaginary1 but it is movable4 ,in fact it is always just a few miles farther south1 but ,i think all ',egyptians' will agree that a sand bar which is being formed below ,cairo between the ,ohio and the ,mississippi is truly ',egyptian ' territory4 ,if you ever visit in the ,west do not fail to see ',egypt4' ,i really hope ,i may1 sometime1 she replied4 ,we have relatives who claim to live in ,tennessee1 ,kentucky1 and ,missouri1 but ,i think possibly they may all be ',egyptians1' from what you have told me about the vast area of that great fairy empire4 ,i know ,i would dearly love to go there4 ',egypt' is the wheat belt and the fruit belt of ,illinois1 ,percy continued4 ,one of the grand old men of ,illinois1 ,colonel ,n4 ,b4 ,morrison1 who was for years a trustee of the ,state ,university1 used to be called upon for an address whenever he was present at ,convocation4 ,he always stated proudly that he lived in the ',heart of ,egypt4' ,he said the soil there was not so rich perhaps as in the corn belt1 but that with plenty of hard work they were able to live and to produce the finest fruit and the greatest men in ,america4 ,he said they had to work both the top and bottom of their soil1 and he explained that they harvested wheat and apples from the top1 and then went down about #fjj feet and harvested ten thousand tons of coal to the acre1 and still left enough to support the earth4 ,i have heard him say that when he was born there was not a mile of railroad in the ,united ,states1 and that he had during his own lifetime1 witnessed the practical agricultural ruin of almost whole ,states4 ,he used to plead for the ,university to send some of her scientific men to help them to solve the problem of restoring the fertility of their soils down in ',egypt'2 and ,i am glad to say that finally the ,state appropriated sufficient funds so that the ,illinois ,experiment ,station is rapidly securing the exact information needed to make those ,southern ,illinois lands richer than they ever were4 ,i spent several days in ',egypt' last month and ,i am planning to make another trip down there next week before deciding definitely about purchasing our poor land farm4 ,i am not sure but the land of ',egypt' is as poor as we ought to try to build up considering our limited means4 ,oh1 do you think so8 ,but ,papa's land is not so poor is it8 ,no1 it is not so poor in mineral plant food on the sloping areas1 but even there it is extremely poor in humus and nitrogen4 ,however1 ,i fear ,i could not enjoy farming in irregular patches of five or ten acres1 and the level lands of ,virginia and ,maryland are so exceedingly poor1 that much time and money and work will be required to put them on a paying basis4 ,there would be no pleasure or satisfaction in merely robbing other farms to build up mine1 as some of the prosperous truck farmers and dairymen are doing4 ,i should want to practice a system of soil improvement of unlimited application so that it would not be a curse to the agricultural people1 as is the case with the man who builds up his farm only at the expense of other farms4 ,we have been speaking of the development of agriculture on the small tracts of cultivable land in the great manufacturing ,states of ,new ,england4 ,but1 if we would make a fair comparison with a ,state like ,illinois1 we should consider some great agricultural ,state1 as ,georgia1 for example1 which is also one of the original thirteen4 ,georgia is a larger ,state than ,illinois1 and ,georgia cultivates as many acres of corn and cotton as we cultivate in corn4 ,but ,georgia land cannot be covered with fertilizer made from ,illinois corn1 nor even with seaweed and fish-scrap from the ocean4 ,her agriculture must be an independent agriculture1 just as the agriculture of ,russia1 ,india1 and ,china must be1 just as the agriculture of ,illinois must be1 and as the agriculture of all the great agricultural ,states must be4 ,what is the result to date8 ,the average yield of corn in ,georgia is down to #aa bushels per acre4 ,this is not for half of one township1 but the average of four million acres for the last ten years2 and this in spite of the fact that ,georgia out more for the common acidulated manufactured so-called complete commercial fertilizer than any other ,state4 ,that is appalling1 said ,adelaide1 but still some larger countries are building up their lands1 such as those of ,europe4 ,in large part by the same methods as the ,new ,england truckers and dairymen are following1 he replied1 and in comparison with the area and resources of their colonies and of the other great new countries upon which they draw for food and fertilizer1 they are fairly comparable with the ,new ,england ,states in this country4 ,even the ,empire of ,germany is only four-fifths as large as ,texas4 ,the only country of ,europe at all comparable with the ,united ,states is ,russia1 and in that great country the average yield of wheat for the last twenty years is eight and one-fourth bushels per acre1 even though1 as a general practice1 the land is allowed to lie fallow every third year4 ,the average yield for the five famine years that have occurred during the twenty-year period was six and one-quarter bushels of wheat per acre4 ,that is wretched1 said ,adelaide1 ,i know about the ,russian famines for we have made contributions through our church for their relief1 but that condition can surely never come to this great rich new country1 can it8 ,it will come just as certainly as we allow our soil fertility to decrease and our population to increase4 ,as a nation we have scarcely lifted a hand yet to stop the waste of fertility or to restore exhausted lands2 practically every effort put forth by the ,federal government along agricultural lines having been directed toward better seeds1 control of injurious insects and fungous diseases1 exploitation of new lands by drainage and irrigation1 popularly called 'reclamation1' although applied only to rich virgin soils which can certainly be brought under cultivation at any future time either by the ,government or by private enterprise4 ,but why should not the ,federal government make all necessary provisions to furnish ground limestone and phosphate rock at the actual cost of quarrying1 grinding1 and transporting1 in order that farmers on these old depleted soils may be encouraged to adopt systems of soil improvement2 or even compelled to adopt such systems1 just as they are compelled to build school houses1 bridges1 and battleships8 ,perhaps the ,government would do this1 said ,adelaide1 if the ,secretary of ,agriculture would recommend it4 ,i have heard of the 'big if1' ,percy replied slowly1 but ,i am afraid this if will beat the record for bigness4 ,his soil theorists continue to assure him that soils do not wear out1 no matter how heavily cropped1 if they are only rotated and cultivated2 and to support their theories they have forsaken the data from the most carefully conducted and long continued scientific investigations1 and indulged in a game of guessing that the increasing productiveness of a few small countries of ,europe is not due to any necessary addition of plant food4 ,but here is the depot1 and ,i have taken almost an hour to drive three miles4 ,if ,i had hurried1 you might have been back home by this time4 ,i am afraid ,i have been selfish in allowing the team to walk nearly all of the way1 but they will at least be fresh for the home trip which you promised to make in less than twenty minutes1 ,i remember4 ,now if you will hold the lines1 ,i will run into the store to get the thread4 ,i remember the kind2 ,i often do such errands for mother4 ,i will wait while you get your ticket and find out if the train is on time1 said ,adelaide1 as ,percy returned with the thread4 ,at least fifty minutes late1 he reported1 and the agent said he was glad of it for he would need about that time to make out such a long-jointed ticket as ,i want4 ,i am rather glad too1 for ,i can watch you to the turn in the road on the hill1 which must be a mile or more1 and ,i will time you4 ,you can have six minutes to make that corner4 ,you mean ,i can have six minutes to get out of sight1 she suggested4 ,i think you are out of sight1 he ventured4 ,adelaide reddened4 ,i shall have to tell mother what slang you use1 she said4 ,i hope you will1 he retorted1 for ,i have watched her watch you and ,i am sure she will agree with me4 ,but ,i do feel that ,i owe you a sincere apology for taking up the time we have had together with this long discussion of the things that are of such special interest to me4 ,i have been alone with my mother so much and she is always so ready and so able1 ,i may add1 to discuss any sort of business matter that ,i fear ,i have been forgetful of your forbearance4 ,but you really have not1 ,adelaide replied4 ,i keep books for papa1 and ,i am very much interested in these social and economic questions which are so fundamental to the perpetuity of our ,state and ,national prosperity4 ,i have been both entertained and instructed by these discussions2 and ,i might say1 honored1 too1 that you do not consider me too young and foolish to talk of serious subjects4 ,i am sure it is kind of you to make good excuses for me4 ,you have at any rate relieved my mind of some burden1 but ,i am sure you are the only woman ,i have ever known1 except my mother1 who could endure discussions of this sort4 ,i have so greatly enjoyed the few short visits ,i have had with you4 ,i wish ,i might write to you and ,i shall be so much interested to learn what success your father has if he begins a system of soil improvement4 ,would it be presuming to hope that ,i might hear from you also8 ,i am papa's stenographer1 she replied1 and perhaps he will dictate and ,i will write4 ,we will be glad to hear of your safe return1--and you1--you might ask papa4 ,now1 ,i shall soon be out of sight4 ,please don't1 begged ,percy4 ,it is still forty-five minutes 'at least1' before the train comes4 ,let me go a piece with you4 ,i will leave my suit case here and with nothing to carry ,i shall easily walk a mile in twenty minutes4 ,may ,i drive1 please8 ,no1 ,i will drive4 ,i want to ask you another question1 and ,i am afraid you would drive too fast4 ,you mentioned some long-continued scientific investigations which ,i assumed referred to the yield of crops4 ,what were they8 ,i meant such investigations as those at ,rothamsted and also those conducted at ,pennsylvania ,state ,college4 ,i have some of the exact data here in my note book4 ,in #ahdh1 ,sir ,john ,lawes and ,sir ,henry ,gilbert began at ,rothamsted1 ,england1 two four-year rotations4 ,one was turnips1 barley1 fallow1 and wheat2 and the other was turnips1 barley1 clover1 and wheat4 ,whenever the clover failed1 which has been frequent1 beans were substituted1 in order that a legume crop should be grown every fourth year4 ,the average of the last twenty years represents the average yields about fifty years from the beginning of this rotation4 ,in the legume system1 as an average of the last twenty years1 the use of mineral plant food has increased the yield of turnips from less than one-half ton to more than twelve tons2 increased the yield of barley from thirteen and seven-tenths bushels to twenty-two and two-tenths bushels2 increased the yield of clover 7when grown7 from less than one-half ton to almost two tons2 increased the yield of beans 7when grown7 from sixteen bushels to twenty-eight and three-tenths bushels2 and increased the yield of wheat from twenty-four and three-tenths bushels to thirty-eight and four-tenths bushels per acre4 ,in the legume system the minerals applied have more than doubled the value of the crops produced1 have paid their cost1 and made a net profit of one hundred and forty per cent4 on the investment1 in direct comparison with the unfertilized land4 ,if we compare the average yield of turnips1 barley1 clover1 and wheat of the last twenty years with the yield of turnips in #ahdh1 barley in #ahdi1 clover in #ahej and wheat in #ahea we find that on the unfertilized land in this rotation of crops in fifty years the yield of turnips has decreased from ten tons to one-half ton1 and the yield of barley has decreased from forty-six to fourteen bushels1 the yield of clover has decreased from two and eight-tenths tons per acre to less than one-half ton1 while the yield of wheat has decreased only from thirty bushels to twenty-four bushels4 ,as a general average the late yields are only one-third as large as they were fifty years before on the same land4 ,wheat grown once in four years has been the only crop worth raising on the unfertilized land during the last twenty years1 and even the wheat crop has distinctly decreased in yield2 although where mineral plant food was applied the yield has increased from thirty bushels1 in #ahhea to thirty-eight bushels as an average of the last twenty years4 ,in the fallow rotation on the unfertilized land the yield of wheat averaged thirty-four and five-tenths bushels during the first twenty years 7#ahdh to #ahfg7 and twenty-three and five-tenths bushels during the last twenty years4 ,on another ,rothamsted field the phosphorus actually removed in fifty-five crops from well-fertilized land is two-thirds as much as the total phosphorus now contained in the plowed soil of adjoining untreated land4 ,in the early #hj's the ,pennsylvania ,agricultural ,experiment ,station began a four-year crop rotation1 including corn1 oats1 wheat1 and mixed clover and timothy4 ,there are five plots in each of four different fields that have received no applications of plant food from the beginning4 ,thus1 every year the crops are carefully harvested and weighed from twenty measured plots of ground that receive no treatment except the rotation of crops4 ,the difference between the average of the first twelve years and the average of the second twelve years should represent the actual change in productive power during a period of twelve years4 ,these averages show that the yield of corn has decreased from forty-one and seven-tenths bushels to twenty-seven and seven-tenths bushels2 that the yield of oats has decreased from thirty-six and seven-tenths bushels to twenty-five bushels2 that the yield of wheat has decreased only from thirteen and three-tenths bushels to twelve and eight-tenths bushels2 and that the yield of hay has decreased from three thousand seventy pounds to two thousand one hundred and eighty pounds4 ,as a general average of these four crops the annual value of produce from one acre has decreased from #aa4je to #h4ah4 ,here we have information which is almost if not quite equal in value to that from the ,agdell rotation field at ,rothamsted4 ,while the ,rothamsted experiments cover a period of sixty years1 each crop was grown but once in four years2 whereas1 in the ,pennsylvania experiments1 there have been four different series of plots1 so that in twenty-four years there have been twenty-four crops of corn1 twenty-four crops of oats1 twenty-four crops of wheat1 and twenty-four crops of hay4 ,under this four-year rotation the value of the crops produced has decreased twenty-six per cent4 in twelve years4 ,what influence will impress that fact upon the minds of ,american landowners8 ,a loss amounting to more than one-fourth of the productive power of the land in a rotation with clover seeded every fourth year6 ,this one fact is the mathematical result of four hundred and eighty other facts obtained from twenty different pieces of measured land during a period of twenty-four years4 ,as an average of these twenty-four years1 the addition of mineral plant food produced increases in crop yields above the unfertilized land as follows3 ,corn increased forty-five per cent4 ,oats increased thirty-two per cent4 ,wheat increased forty-two per cent4 ,hay increased seventy-seven per cent4 ,as a general average of the four crops for the twenty-four years1 the produce where mineral plant food is applied1 was forty-nine per cent4 above the yields of the unfertilized land1 although the same rotation of crops was practiced in both cases4 ,those are some of the absolute facts of science secured from practical application in the adoption and development of definite systems of permanent prosperous agriculture1 and they should be made to serve this greatest and most important industry just as the established facts of mathematical and physical science are made to serve in engineering4 ,i am glad to know about those long-continued experiments1 said ,adelaide4 ,they are of fascinating interest4 ,i have been so sorry for grandma1 and for papa and mamma1 because of their increasing discouragement over our farm4 ,i do hope we may profit from this fund of accumulated information which has already been secured from long years of investigation4 ,surely we must endeavor to avoid in ,america the awful conditions that already exist in the older agricultural countries1 where the lands are depleted and the people are brought to greater poverty than even here in ,virginia4 ,but we have already reached the turn1 and you have a mile to walk4 ,how much time have you8 ,thirty minutes yet1 said ,percy4 ,wait just a moment4 ,have you read ,lincoln's stories8 ,many of them1 yes4 ,here is the best one he ever told2 ,i have copied it on a card4 ,he told it to a meeting of farmers at the close of an address in which he urged them to study the science of agriculture and to adopt better methods of farming3 ',an ,eastern monarch once charged his wise men to invent him a sentence to be ever in view1 and which should be true and appropriate in all times and situations4 ,they presented him the words1 ,and this1 too1 shall pass away4 ,how much it expresses6 ,how chastening in the hour of pride6 ,how consoling in the depths of affliction6 ,and this1 too1 shall pass away4 ,and yet1 let us hope1 it is not quite true4 ,let us hope1 rather1 that by the best cultivation of the physical world beneath and around us1 and the best intellectual and moral world within us1 we shall secure an individual1 social1 and political prosperity and happiness1 whose course shall be onward and upward1 and which1 while the earth endures1 shall not pass away4' ,i agree with you that it is his best story1 said ,adelaide1 as ,percy finished reading and placed the card in her hand4 ,now you must go or ,i shall insist upon taking you back to the station4 ,i shall stand here and time you till you reach the next turn1 he replied4 ,then you will be in sight of ,westover4 ,one6 ,two6 ,three6 ,go6 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii ,,the ,,diagnosis ,,and ,,prescription ,,winterbine1 ,,illinois1 ,december #d1 #a #ijc ,mr4 ,t4 ,o4 ,thornton1 ,blairville1 ,,va4 ,,my ,,dear ,,sir3--,i beg to report that ,i returned home a few days ago and found my mother well and busy as usual4 ,we have definitely decided that we will not accept your kind offer to sell us a part of your farm1 but we appreciate nevertheless the sacrifice1 at least from the standpoint of sentiment1 which ,mrs4 ,thornton and ,miss ,russell were willing to make1 in order to permit us to secure such a farm as we might want in a splendid situation4 ,as a matter of fact we are thinking very seriously of purchasing a farm in ,southern ,illinois4 ,my mother much prefers to remain in ,illinois1 and for some reasons ,i have the same preference on her account4 ,while in ,washington ,i was fortunate enough to find that a soil survey had been completed for your county and also that a partial ultimate analysis had been made of the common loam soil of your farm1 such as we sampled4 ,following are the number of pounds per acre for the surface soil to a depth of six and two-thirds inches1--that is1 for two million pounds of soil4 #faj pounds of phosphorus #ac1bjj pounds of potassium #a1bjj pounds of magnesium #c1dcj pounds of calcium ,as compared with a normal fertile soil1 your land is very deficient in phosphorus and magnesium1 and1 as you know1 the soil is acid4 ,it is better supplied with potassium than with any other important element4 ,i would suggest that you make liberal use of magnesian limestone1--at least two tons per acre every four or five years1--and the initial application might better be five or even ten tons per acre if you are ready to make such an investment4 ,i am sorry that the nitrogen content of the soil was not determined1 or at least not published in the bulletin4 ,there can be no doubt1 however1 that your soil is extremely deficient in organic matter and nitrogen1 and you will understand that liberal use should be made of legume crops4 ,the known nitrogen content of legumes and other crops will be a help to you in planning your crop rotation and the disposition of the crops grown4 ,as to phosphorus1 it is safe to say that in the long run fine-ground rock phosphate will prove the best investment2 but for a few years it might be best to make some use of acid phosphate in addition to the raw rock1 at least until you are ready to begin turning under more organic matter with the phosphate4 ,there is only one other suggestion3 ,if you wish to make a start toward better crops as soon as possible1 you may well use some kainit1--say six hundred pounds per acre every four or five years1 preferably applied with the phosphate4 ,in the absence of decaying organic matter1 the potassium of the soil becomes available very slowly4 ,the kainit furnishes both potassium and magnesium in soluble form and it also contains sulfur and chlorin4 ,as soon as you can provide plenty of decaying organic matter you will probably discontinue the use of both kainit and acid phosphate4 ,if you sell only grains and animal products1 the amount of potassium sold from the farm is very small compared with your supply of that element1 which would be sufficient for one hundred bushels of corn per acre for seven hundred years4 ,i have some doubt if it will be worth the expense involved to have the samples of subsurface and subsoil analyzed at this time2 but you might save them for future use if desired4 ,i shall always appreciate the kindness shown me by being permitted to enjoy your hospitality and to profit from the information you were so able to give me concerning the history and general character of your lands4 ,my mother asks to have her kind regards extended to you and yours4 ,very sincerely yours1 ,,percy ,,johnston4 ,,westover1 ,january #b1 #aijd4 ,percy ,johnston1 ,esq41 ,winterbine1 ,ill4 ,,my ,,dear ,,friend3--,we were all pleased to receive your letter informing us of your safe journey back to ,illinois4 ,i had hoped that you might find a piece of land here in the ,east which would suit you2 but ,i am not surprised that you and your mother should prefer to remain in ,illinois1 because of your former associations and your better knowledge of the ,western conditions4 ,northern men who come ,south often have serious difficulty to manage our negro labor4 ,i am surprised1 however1 that you were able to purchase1 even in ,southern ,illinois1 such prairie land as you describe for the price of #ah per acre4 ,i supposed #aij an acre for your corn belt farm was a good price1 although it is commonly reported to us that ,illinois land is selling for #aej to #bjj an acre4 ,now1 in regard to correspondence with ,adelaide1 let me say that we could have no objection whatever1 except that it might be misunderstood1 more especially1 of course1 by ,professor ,barstow4 ,i do not think ,i mentioned it to you1 but the fact is that the ,professor and ,adelaide are essentially betrothed4 ,i do not know that the final details are perfected1 but doubtless they are1 for they have been much together during the ,christmas weeks4 ,the ,barstows1 as you probably know1 are still among the most prominent people of ,north ,carolina4 ,adelaide is young yet and we respect her reticence1 but her mother and ,i have both given our consent and ,professor ,barstow has every reason to be satisfied with the reception he invariably receives from ,adelaide4 ,i only mention this matter to you that you may understand why misunderstanding might arise in case of such correspondence as you suggest1 even though1 as ,adelaide has explained1 she has very naturally become interested temporarily in some of the economic and social questions relating to agriculture1 and would unquestionably read your letters concerning these state and national problems with continued interest4 ,i shall hope1 however1 that she may still have that satisfaction1 for ,i am very deeply interested in all such questions1 and ,i am particularly interested to know more of the details of your southern ,illinois farm1 including the invoice of the soil1 which you say has been taken by your ,experiment ,station1 and especially your definite plans for the improvement of the land4 ,i hope the name you have chosen for your farm is not so appropriate as it would be for some of our old ,virginia farms4 ,i shall also be under renewed obligation to you if ,i may occasionally submit questions concerning the best plans for the restoration of ,westover to its former productiveness4 ,i have decided at least to make another trial with alfalfa next summer1 following the valuable suggestions you gave me4 ,in closing let me renew my assurance of our deep gratitude for the special service you so nobly rendered when fiendish danger threatened my daughter4 ,we shall always regard you as a gentleman of the highest type4 ,very respectfully yours1 ,,charles ,,west4 ,percy read this letter hurriedly to the end1 and then slowly reread it4 ,his mother noticed that he absent-mindedly replaced the letter in the envelope instead of reading it to her as was his custom4 ,however1 he laid the letter by her plate and talked with her about the corn-shelling which was to begin as soon as the corn sheller could be brought from the neighbor's where ,percy had been helping to haul the corn from the sheller to elevator at ,winterbine4 ,dinner finished1 he hurried out to complete the preparations for the afternoon's work4 ,we have no right to follow him4 ,his mother only saw that he went to the little granary where a few loads of corn were to be stored for future use4 ,yes1 she saw that he closed the door as he entered4 ,not even his mother could see her son again a child4 ,women and children weep1 not men4 ,the heart strings draw tight and tighter until they tear or snap4 ,the body is racked with the anguish of the mind4 ,the form reels and sinks to the floor4 ,the head bows low4 ,pent up tears fall like rain4--,no1 that cannot be4 ,men do not shed tears4 ,if they are mental cowards and physical brutes they pass from hence by a short and easy route and leave the burdens of life to their wives and mothers and disgraced families4 ,if they are ,christian men they seek the only source of help4 ,mrs4 ,johnston watched and waited--it seemed an hour1 but was only a quarter of that time till the granary door opened and she saw ,percy pass to the barn with a step which satisfied her mother's eye4 ,she drew out the letter1 and from a life habit of making sure1 pressed the envelope to see that it contained nothing more4 ,she noted a slip of crumpled paper and drew it out4 ,upon it was written in a penciled scrawl3 ,her grandma has not consented4 ,she read the letter1 stood for a moment as in meditation1 then replaced the slip and letter in the envelope1 and laid it on ,percy's desk4 ,the letter was plainly a man's handwriting4 ,the envelope was addressed in a bold hand that was clearly not ,mr4 ,west's writing4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv ,,planning ,,for ,,life ,,heart-,,of-,,egypt1 ,,illinois1 ,june #af1 #aijd4 ,mr4 ,charles ,west1 ,blue ,mound1 ,va4 ,,my ,,dear ,,sir3--,i have delayed writing to you in regard to the plans for ,poorland ,farm1 until ,i could feel that we are able at least to make an outline of tentative nature4 ,the labor problem of a farm of three hundred and twenty acres is of course very different from that on forty acres1 and we are not yet fully decided regarding our crop rotation and the disposition of the crops produced 7or hoped for74 ,i realize that to rebuild in my life what another has torn down during his life is a task the end of which can hardly be even dimly foreshadowed4 ,some friends are already beginning to ask me what results ,i am getting1 and they apparently feel that we must succeed or fail with a trial of a full season4 ,i have said to them that ,i have no objection whatever to discussing our plans at any time1 so far as we are yet able to make plans1 but that ,i shall not be ready to discuss results with anyone until we begin to secure crop yields in the third rotation4 ,this means that ,i am not expecting the benefits of a six-year rotation of crops before the rotation has been actually practiced4 ,you will understand of course that1 if all your land had been cropped with little or no change1 for all its history1 you would require six or eight years' time before you would be able to grow a crop of corn on land that had been pastured for six or eight years2 but some people seem to take it for granted that one can adopt a six-year rotation and enjoy the full benefits of it the first season4 ,i remember that you were surprised that ,i could buy a level upland farm even in this part of ,illinois for #ah an acre2 but you will probably be more surprised to learn that this farm had not paid the previous owners two per cent4 interest on #ah an acre as an average of the last five years4 ,in fact1 sixty acres of it had grown no crops for the last five years4 ,it was largely managed by tenants on the basis of share rent1 and because of this ,i have been able to secure the records of several years4 ,i at least had some satisfaction in purchasing this farm1 for the real estate men were left without a single talking point4 ,i insisted that ,i wanted the poorest prairie farm in ,egypt1 and whenever they began to tell me that the soil on a certain farm was really above the average1 or that the land had been well cared for until recently1 or that it had been fertilized a good deal1 etc41 ,i at once informed them that any advantage of that sort completely disqualified any farm for me2 and that they need not talk to me about any farms except those that represented the poorest and most abused in ,southern ,illinois4 ,i may say1 however1 that #bj an acre is about the average price of the average land4 ,i had an option on a three hundred and sixty acre farm cornering the corporation limits of the ,county ,seat for #cj an acre1 and all agreed that the farm was above the average in quality4 ,heart-of-,egypt is a small station on the double track of the ,chicago-,new ,orleans line of the ,illinois ,central1 and there are three other railroads passing through our ,county ,seat4 ,poorland ,farm is less than two miles from ,heart-of-,egypt and only five miles from the ,county ,seat1 with level roads to both4 ,as to the soil1 ,i may say that in some respects it is poorer than yours1 but in others not so poor4 ,the amount of plant food contained in six and two-thirds inches of the surface soil of an acre1 representing two million pounds of soil1 are as follows3 #b1hhj pounds of nitrogen #hdj pounds of phosphorus #bd1idj pounds of potassium #f1gdj pounds of magnesium #ad1ffj pounds of calcium ,by referring to the invoice of your most common land1 you will see that ,westover is richer in phosphorus1 in magnesium1 and in calcium1 than ,poorland ,farm4 ,but1 while your soil contains a half more of that rare element phosphorus1 ours contains a half more of the abundant element potassium4 ,in the supply of nitrogen we have a distinct advantage1 because our soil contains nearly three times as much as your most common cultivated land1 and even twice as much as your level upland soil1 which you consider too poor for farming1 but in which phosphorus and not nitrogen must be the first limiting element1 the same as with ours4 ,the fact is that the nitrogen problem in the ,east was one of the reasons why we have chosen to locate in ,southern ,illinois4 ,i am confident that the level lands ,i saw about ,blairville and over in ,maryland are more deficient in organic matter and nitrogen than your uncultivated level upland1 and probably even more deficient than your common gently sloping cultivated lands1 because of your long rotation with much opportunity for nitrogen fixation by such legumes will grow in your meadows and pastures1 including the red clover which you regularly sow1 the white clover1 which is very persistent1 and the ,japan clover1 which it seems to me has really benefited you more than the others4 ,to me a difference in nitrogen content of two thousand pounds per acre signifies a good deal4 ,it plainly signifies a hundred years' of working the soil for all that's in it1 beyond what has yet been done to our ,egypt4 ,the cost of two thousand pounds of nitrogen in sodium nitrate would be at least #cjj and even that would not include the organic matter1 which has value for its own sake because of the power of its decomposition products to liberate the mineral elements from the soil1 as witness the most common upland soils of ,st4 ,mary county1 ,maryland1 with a phosphorus content reduced to one hundred and sixty pounds per acre in two million pounds of the ignited soil4 ,the ten-inch plows of ,maryland1 the twelve-inch of ,southern ,illinois1 the fourteen-inch of the corn belt1 and the sixteen-inch of the newer regions of the ,northwest1 signify something as to the influence of organic matter upon the horsepower required in tillage2 and the organic matter also has a value because it increases the power of the soil to absorb and retain moisture and to resist surface washing and running together to form the hard surface crust4 ,to think of applying two thousand pounds of nitrogen by plowing under two hundred tons of manure or forty tons of clover per acre at least requires a big think1 as my ,swede man would say4 ,of course1 with our western life and cosmopolitan population1 where a man's a man for a' that1 mother feels that it would not be easy for us to fit into your somewhat distinctly stratified society4 ,we would not be colored if we could1 and perhaps we could not be aristocratic if we would2 and the opportunity to become1 or1 perhaps ,i should say1 to remain1 poor white trash1 though wide open1 is not very alluring4 ,i realize1 of course1 that there are some whole-souled people like the ,west's and ,thornton's1 but ,i also found some of the tribe of ,jones1 and ,i have much doubt as to the social standing of one who would feel obliged to demonstrate that he could spread more manure in a day than his hired nigger4 ,my ,swede and ,i are like brothers2 we clean stables together and talk politics1 science1 and agriculture4 ,in fact he is as much interested as ,i am in the building up of ,poorland ,farm1 and has already contributed some very practical suggestions4 ,i pay him moderate wages and a small percentage of the farm receipts after deducting certain expenses which he can help to keep as low as possible1 such as for labor1 repairs1 and purchase of feed and new tools1 but without deducting the taxes or interest on investment or the cost of any permanent improvements1 such as the expense for limestone1 phosphate1 new fences and buildings1 and breeding stock4 ,referring again to the invoice of the soil1 ,i may say that the percentage of the mineral plant foods increases with depth1 the same as in your soil1 but not to such an extent1 and with one exception4 ,the phosphorus content of our surface soil is greater than that of the subsurface1 but below the subsurface the phosphorus again increases4 ,this is probably due to the fact that the prairie grasses that grew here for centuries extracted some phosphorus from the subsurface in which their roots fed to some extent1 and left it in the organic residues which accumulated in the surface soil4 ,aside from the difference in organic matter1 the physical character of our soil is distinctly inferior to the loam soils about ,blairville and ,leonardtown4 ,we have a very satisfactory silt loam surface1 but the structure of our subsoil is quite objectionable4 ,it is a tight clay through which water passes very slowly1 so slowly that the practicability of using tile-drainage is still questioned by the ,state ,university1 although the experiments which the ,university soil investigators have already started in several counties here in ,egypt will ultimately furnish us positive knowledge along this line4 ,as for me1 ,i purpose making no experiments1 whatever4 ,i do not see how ,i or any other farmer can afford to put our limited funds into experiments1 especially when we often lack the facilities for taking the exact and complete data that are needed4 ,it takes time and labor and some equipment to make accurate measurements1 to weigh every pound of fertilizer applied and every crop carefully harvested from measured and carefully seeded areas1 especially selected because of their uniform and representative character4 ,i think this is public business and it is best done by the ,state for the benefit of all4 ,i have heard narrow politicians call it class legislation to appropriate funds for such agricultural investigations1 but the fact is that to investigate the soil and to insure an abundant use of limestone1 phosphate1 or other necessary materials required for the improvement and permanent maintenance of the fertility of the soil is legislation for all the people1 both now and hereafter4 ,would that our ,statesmen would think as much of maintaining this most important national resource1 as they do of maintaining our national honor by means of battleships and an army and navy supported at an expense of three hundred million dollars a year1 sufficient to furnish ten tons of limestone to every acre of ,virginia land1 an amount twenty times the ,nation's appropriation for agriculture2 and even this is largely used in getting new lands ready for the bleeding process1 instead of reviving those that have been practically bled to death4 ,as for me1 ,i shall simply take the results which prove profitable on the accurately conducted experiment fields of the ,university of ,illinois1 one of which is located only seven miles from ,poorland ,farm1 and on the same type of soil1 ,i shall try to profit by that positive information1 and await the accumulation of conclusive data relating to tile-drainage and other possible improvements of uncertain practicability for ,egypt4 ,say1 but our soil is acid6 ,the ,university soil survey men say that the acidity is positive in the surface1 comparative in the subsurface1 and superlative in the subsoil4 ,two of them insisted that the subsoil has an acid taste4 ,the analysis of a set of soil samples collected near ,heart-of-,egypt shows that to neutralize the acidity of the surface soil will require seven hundred and eighty pounds of limestone per acre1 while three tons are required for the first twenty inches1 and sixteen tons for the next twenty inches4 ,the tight clay stratum reaches from about twenty to thirty-six inches4 ,above this is a flour-like gray layer varying in thickness from an inch to ten inches1 but below the tight clay the subsoil seems to be more porous1 and ,i am hoping that we may lay tile just below the tight clay and then puncture that clay stratum with red clover roots and thus improve the physical condition of the soil4 ,i asked ,mr4 ,secor1 a friend who operates a coal mine1--and farms for recreation1--if he thought alfalfa could be raised on this type of soil4 ,he replied3 ,that depends on what kind of a gimlet it has on its tap root4 ,some of the farmers down here tell me confidentially that hardpan has been found on their neighbors' farms1 but ,i have not talked with any one who has any on his own farm4 ,i am very glad the ,university has settled the matter very much to the comfort of us ,egyptians1 by reporting that no true hardpan exists in ,illinois1 although there are extensive areas underlain with tight clay1 of whom1 as it were1 we are which4 ,i am glad that the nitrogen-fixing and nitrifying bacteria do business chicfly in the surface soil1 because we are not prepared to correct the acidity to any very great depth4 ,the present plan is to practice a six-year rotation on six forty-acre fields1 as follows3 ,first year--,corn 7and legume catch crop74 ,second year--,part oats or barley1 part cowpeas or soy beans4 ,third year--,wheat4 ,fourth year--,clover1 or clover and timothy4 ,fifth year--,wheat1 or clover and timothy4 ,sixth year--,clover1 or clover and timothy4 ,this plan may be a grain system where wheat is grown the fifth year1 only clover seed being harvested the fourth and sixth years1 or it may be changed to a live-stock system by having clover and timothy for pasture and meadow the last three years1 which may be best for a time1 perhaps1 if we find it too hard to care for eighty acres of wheat on poorly drained land4 ,in somewhat greater detail the system may be developed we hope about as follows3 ,first year3 ,corn1 with mixed legumes1 seeded at the time of the last cultivation1 on perhaps one-half of the field4 ,these legumes may include some cowpeas and soy beans and some sweet clover1 but that is not yet fully decided upon4 ,second year3 ,oats 7part barley1 perhaps7 on twenty acres1 cowpeas on ten acres1 and soy beans on ten acres4 ,the peas and beans are to be seeded on the twenty acres where the catch crop of legumes is to be plowed under as late in the spring as practicable4 ,third year3 ,wheat with alsike on twenty acres and red clover on the other twenty1 seeded in the early spring4 ,if necessary to prevent the clover or weeds from seeding1 the field will be clipped about the last of ,august4 ,fourth year3 ,harvest the red clover for hay and the alsike for seed1 and apply limestone after plowing early for wheat4 ,fifth year3 ,wheat1 with alsike and red clover seeded and clipped as before4 ,sixth year3 ,pasture in early summer1 then clip if necessary to secure uniformity1 and later harvest the red clover for seed4 ,manure may be applied to any part of this field from the time of wheat harvest the previous year until the close of the pasture period4 ,then it may be applied to the alsike only until the red clover seed crop is removed1 and then again to any part of the field1 which may also be used for fall pasture4 ,to this field the threshed clover straw and all other straw not needed for feed and bedding will be applied4 ,the application of raw phosphate will be made to this field1 and all of this material plowed under for corn4 ,the second six years is to be a repetition of the first1 except that the alsike and red clover will be interchanged1 so as to avoid the development of clover sickness if possible2 and to keep the soil uniform we may interchange the oats with the peas and beans4 ,this system provides for the following crops each year3 #dj acres of corn2 #bj acres of oats2 #aj acres of cowpeas for hay #aj acres of soy beans for seed #hj acres of wheat #bj acres of red clover for hay #bj acres of alsike for seed #bj acres of red clover for seed #bj acres of alsike for pasture1 except from ,june to ,august4 ,we also have some permanent pasture which we may use at any time that may seem best4 ,if necessary we may cut all the clover for hay the fourth year1 and we may pasture all summer the sixth year4 ,we can pasture the corn stalks during the fall and winter when the ground is in suitable condition4 ,we plan to raise our own horses and perhaps some to sell4 ,in addition we may raise a few dairy cows for market1 but will do little dairying ourselves4 ,we expect to sell wheat and some corn1 and if successful we shall sell some soy beans1 alsike seed1 and red clover seed4 ,how soon we shall be able to get this system fully under way ,i shall not try to predict2 but we shall work toward this end unless we think we have good reason to modify the plan4 ,i hope to make the initial application of limestone five tons per acre1 but after the first six years this will be reduced to two or three tons4 ,i also plan to apply at least one ton per acre of fine-ground raw phosphate every six years until the phosphorus content of the plowed soil approaches two thousand pounds per acre1 after which the applications will probably be reduced to about one-half ton per acre each rotation4 ,there are three things that mother and ,i are fully decided upon3 ,first1 that we shall use ground limestone in sufficient amounts to make the soil a suitable home for clover4 ,second1 that we shall apply fine-ground rock phosphate in such amounts as to positively enrich our soil in that very deficient element4 ,third1 that we shall reserve a three-rod strip across every forty-acre field as an untreated check strip to which neither limestone nor phosphate shall ever be applied1 and that we shall reserve another three-rod strip to which limestone is applied without phosphate1 while the remaining thirty-seven acres are to receive both limestone and phosphate4 ,thus we shall always have the satisfaction of seeing whatever clearly apparent effects are produced by this fundamental treatment1 even though we may not be able to bother with harvesting these check strips separate from the rest of the field4 ,we have based our decision regarding the use of ground limestone very largely upon the long-continued work of the ,pennsylvania ,agricultural ,experiment ,station as to the comparative effects of ground limestone and burned lime1 which is supported1 to be sure1 by all comparative tests so far as our ,illinois soil investigators have been able to learn4 ,the practicability and economy of using the fineground natural phosphate has been even more conclusively established1 as you already know1 by the concordant results of half a dozen state experiment stations4 ,there are only two objections to the use of the raw phosphate4 ,one of these is the short-sighted plan or policy of the average farmer1 and the other is the combined influence of about four-hundred fertilizer manufacturers who prefer to sell1 quite naturally1 perhaps1 two tons of acid phosphate for #cj1 or four tons of so-called complete fertilizer for #gj to #ij1 rather than to see the farmer buy direct from the phosphate mine one ton of fine-ground raw rock phosphate in which he receives the same amount of phosphorus1 at a cost of #g to #i4 ,until we can provide a greater abundance of decaying organic matter we may make some temporary use of kainit1 in case the experiments conducted by the state show that it is profitable to do so4 ,in a laboratory experiment1 made at college it was shown that when raw phosphate was shaken with water and then filtered1 the filtrate contained practically no dissolved phosphorus2 but1 if a dilute solution of such salts as exist in kainit was used in place of pure water1 then the filtrate would contain very appreciable amounts of phosphorus4 ,in addition to this benefit1 the kainit will furnish some readily available potassium1 magnesium1 and sulfur2 and1 by purchasing kainit in carload lots1 the potassium will cost us less than it would in the form of the more expensive potassium chlorid or potassium sulfate purchased in ton lots4 ,of course we do not need this in order to add to our total stock of potassium1 but more especially ,i think to assist in liberating phosphorus from the raw phosphate which is naturally contained in the soil and which we shall also apply to the soil1 unless the ,government permits the fertilizer trusts to get such complete control of our great natural phosphate deposits that they make it impossible for farmers to secure the fine-ground rock at a reasonable cost1 which ought not1 ,i would say1 to be more than one hundred per cent4 net profit above the expense of mining1 grinding1 and transportation4 ,we may feel safe upon the matter of transportation rates1 for the railroads are operated by men of large enough vision to see that the positive and permanent maintenance of the fertility of the soil is the key to their own continued prosperity1 and some of them are already beginning to understand that the supply of phosphorus is the master key to the whole industrial structure of ,america2 for1 with a failing supply of phosphorus1 neither agriculture nor any dependent industry can permanently prosper in this great country4 ,if we retain the straw on the farm and sell only the grain1 the supply of potassium in the surface soil of ,poorland ,farm is sufficient to meet the needs of a fifty bushel crop of wheat per acre every year for nineteen hundred and twenty years1 or longer than the time that has passed since the ,master walked among men on the earth2 whereas1 the total phosphorus content of the same soil is sufficient for only seventy such crops1 or for as long as the full life of one man4 ,keep in mind that ,poorland ,farm is near ,heart-of-,egypt1 and that this is the common soil of our ,egyptian ,empire1 which contains more cultivable land than all ,new ,england1 has the climate of ,virginia1 and a network of railroads scarcely equalled in any other section of this country1 and in addition it is more than half surrounded by great navigable rivers4 ,on ,poorland ,farm there are seven forty-acre fields which are at least as nearly level as they ought to be to permit good surface drainage1 and there is no need that a single hill of corn should be omitted on any one of these seven fields2 and ,i am confident that with an adequate supply of raw phosphate rock and magnesian limestone and a liberal use of legume crops this land can be made to pay interest on #cjj an acre4 ,why not8 ,at ,rothamsted1 ,england1 they have averaged thirty-eight and four-tenths bushels of wheat per acre during the last twenty years in an experiment extending over sixty years1 and they have done this without a forkful of manure or a pound of purchased nitrogen4 ,why not8 ,the wheat alone from eighty acres of land1 if it yielded forty bushels per acre and sold at #a a bushel1 would pay nearly five per cent4 interest on #cjj an acre for the entire two hundred and forty acres used in my suggested rotation4 ,aye1 but there is one other very essential requirement3 ,to wit1 a world of work4 ,hoping to hear from you1 and especially about your alfalfa1 ,i am1 ,very sincerely yours1 ,,percy ,,johnston4 ,,chapter ,,xxxv ,,sealed ,,lips ,no one realized more than ,percy ,johnston that toleration of life itself was possible to him only because of the world of work that he found always at hand in connection with his abiding faith and interest in the upbuilding of ,poorland ,farm4 ,he had accepted ,adelaide's sweet smile and lack of apparent disapproval with confidence that he might at least have an opportunity to try to win her love4 ,as he was permitted at the parting to look for more than an instant into those alluring eyes1 he felt so sure that they expressed something more than friendship or gratitude for him4 ,he had felt the more confidence because he thought he knew that she would not permit him to humiliate himself by asking and failing to receive from her father permission to write to her1 when she could easily in her own womanly way have discouraged such a thought at once4 ,had she not insisted upon driving slowly back to the turn in the road1 and did he not feel the absence of a previous reserve8 ,oh1 misleading imagination4 ,the will is truly the father of thought and faith4 ,percy knew as he parted from ,adelaide that he had left with her the love of heart and mind of one whose life had developed in him the character which does nothing by halves4 ,his love had multiplied with the distance as he journeyed westward1 with a great new pleasure which life seemed to hold before him and with a pardonable confidence in its achievement4 ,he had written ,mr4 ,west a week after his return in a way which would not fail of understanding if his hopes were justified4 ,the belated reply which reached him after holidays was accepted as final4 ,his pride was humiliated and the sweetest dream of his life abruptly ended4 ,he felt the more helpless and the more deeply wounded because of ,mr4 ,west's reference to his special service in the protection he had once rendered to ,adelaide4 ,it continually reminded him that1 as the highest type of gentleman1 he should do nothing that could be construed as an endeavor to take advantage of the consideration to which that act might seem to entitle him4 ,bound and buried in the deepest dungeon1 waiting only for the announcement from his of the day of his execution4 ,this was his mental attitude as the months passed and he began to receive an occasional letter from ,mr4 ,west1 in each of which he looked for the news of ,adelaide's marriage4 ,in ,mrs4 ,johnston a feeling of hatred had developed for ,adelaide4 ,she was certain that she had marred the happiness of her son4 ,the heartlessness of a flirt who could trifle with the affection of one who had a right to assume in her an honor equal to his own deserved only to be hated with even righteous hatred4 ,she saw the scrawled note which she knew ,percy had not seen1 but what did it signify8 ,an eccentric old lady's penchant for match making8 ,perhaps she was even more guilty than the girl in attempting to lead ,percy to see in ,adelaide more than he ought4 ,she might even take an old flirt's delight in the mere number of conquests made by her granddaughter4 ,or was the scrawled note slipped into the envelope by a prank- playing fourteen-year-old brother8 ,in any case was it wise that ,percy should see the note8 ,she could probably do nothing better than to leave it with the letter4 ,even if the girl were worthy1 ,percy could never hope to win one of her class1 whose pride of ancestry is their bread of life4 ,it might not have been quite so1 perhaps1 if ,percy had only selected some more respected profession4 ,why should not he have become a college professor8 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi ,,hard ,,times ,,when ,percy and his mother reached ,poorland ,farm in ,march they found a small frame house needing only shingles1 paint1 and paper to make it a fairly comfortable home1 until they should be able to add such conveniences as ,percy knew could be installed in the country as well as in the city4 ,from the sale of corn and some other produce they were able to add to the residue of #a1hdj1 which represented the difference between the cost of three hundred and twenty acres in ,egypt and the selling price of forty acres in the corn belt4 ,an even #c1jjj was left in the savings bank at ,winterbine4 ,if we can live1 said ,percy1 just as the other ',egyptians' must live1 and save our #c1jjj for limestone and phosphate1 ,i believe we shall win out4 ,through the efforts of the ,agricultural ,college and the ,governor of the ,state the convicts in the ,southern ,illinois ,penitentiary have been put to quarrying stone1 and large crushers and grinders have been installed1 and the ,state ,board of ,prison ,industries is already beginning to ship ground limestone direct to farmers at sixty cents a ton in bulk in box cars4 ,the entire ,illinois ,freight ,association gave an audience to the ,warden of the ,penitentiary and representatives from the ,agricultural ,college and a uniform freight rate has been granted of one-half cent per ton per mile4 ,this will enable us to secure ground limestone delivered at ,heart-of-,egypt for #a4bb-a_/b per ton4 ,now1 to apply five tons per acre on two hundred and forty acres will require one thousand two hundred tons and that will cost us #a1egj in cash1 less perhaps the #gj1 which we save on roads and the untreated check strips which ,i want to leave4 ,to apply one ton of phosphate per acre to the same six fields will cost about #a1fjj4 ,of course1 ,i shall not begin to apply phosphate until after ,i have applied the limestone and get some clover or manure to mix with the phosphate when ,i plow it under2 and ,i hope with the help of the limestone we shall get some clover and some increase in the other crops4 ,in any case the #c1jjj and interest we will get for what we can leave in the bank during the six or eight years it will take to get the rotation and treatment under way will pay for the initial cost of the first applications of both limestone and phosphate2 and we shall hope that by that time the farm will bring us something more than a living4 ,the carload of effects shipped from ,winterbine to ,heart-of-,egypt included two horses1 a cow1 a few breeding hogs1 and some chickens2 also a supply of corn and oats sufficient for the summer's feed grain4 ,after the expenses of shipping were paid1 less than #cej were deposited in the bank at the ,county ,seat4 ,of this #bej were used for the purchase of another team4 ,hay was bought from a neighbor and some old hay that had been discarded by the balers1 who had purchased1 baled1 and sold the previous hay crop from ,poorland ,farm1 ,percy gathered up and saved for bedding4 ,he plowed forty acres of the land that had not been cropped for five years1 and1 after some serious delays on account of wet weather1 planted the field in corn1 using the ,champion ,white ,pearl variety1 be cause the ,experiment ,station had found it to be one of the best varieties for poor land4 ,i wouldn't plant that corn if you would give me the seed1 a neighbor had said to him4 ,see how big the cob is2 and the tip is not well filled out1 and there is too much space between the rows4 ,i tell you there's too much cob in it for me4 ,i want to raise corn and not corn cob4 ,it certainly is not a good show ear1 said ,percy1 but what ,i want most is bushels of shelled corn per acre4 ,perhaps these big kernels will help to give the young plant a good start1 and perhaps the piece of cob extending from the tip will make room for more kernels if the soil can be built up so as to furnish the plant food to make them4 ,the cob is large but it is covered with grains all the way around2 and1 if those kernels of corn were putty1 we could mash them down a little and have less space between the rows1 but it would make no more corn on the ear4 ,however1 my chief reason for planting the ,champion ,white ,pearl is that this variety has produced more shelled corn per acre than any other in the ,university experiments on the gray prairie soil of ',egypt4' ,there were only sixteen acres of corn grown on the entire farm in #aijc and this yielded thirteen bushels per acre1 as ,percy learned from the share of the crop received by the previous landowner4 ,in #aijd the ,champion ,white ,pearl yielded twenty bushels per acre1 as nearly as could be determined by weighing the corn from a few shocks on a small truck scale ,percy had brought from the north4 ,he numbered his six forty-acre fields from one to six4 ,forty ,no4 #g was occupied by twelve acres of apple orchard1 eight acres of pasture1 and twenty acres of old meadow4 ,by getting eighty rods of fencing it was possible to include twenty-eight acres in the pasture1 although one hundred and ninety-two rods of fencing had been required to surround the eight-acre pasture4 ,the remainder of the farm was in patches1 including about fifteen acres on one corner crossed by a little valley and covered with trees1 a tract which ,percy and his mother treasured above any of the forty-acre fields4 ,while the week was always filled with work1 there were many hours of real pleasure found in the wood's pasture on the ,sunday afternoons4 ,forty ,no4 ,i was left to lie out1 and ,no4 #b raised only twelve acres of cowpeas4 ,no4 #c was plowed during the summer and seeded to timothy in the early fall4 ,no4 #d was in corn and ,nos4 #e and #f were left in meadow1 two patches of nine and sixteen acres previously in cowpeas and corn having been seeded to timothy in order1 as ,percy said1 to square out the forty-acre fields4 ,about fifty acres of land were cut over for about sixteen tons of hay4 ,the corn was all put in shock1 and the fodder as well as the grain used for feed1 the refuse from the fodder and poor hay serving as bedding4 ,about three tons of cowpea hay of excellent quality were secured from the twelve acres1 and fifty barrels of apples were put in storage4 ,another cow and eight calves were bought1 and during the winter1 some butter1 two small bunches of the last spring's pigs1 and the apple crop were sold4 ,a few eggs had been sold almost every week since the previous ,march4 ,in #aije ,no4 #a was rented for corn on shares and produced about six hundred bushels of which ,percy received one-third4 ,no4 #b yielded four hundred and eighty-four bushels of oats4 ,no4 #c produced fourteen tons of poor hay4 ,no4 #d was rested and prepared for wheat1 ground limestone having been applied4 ,no4 #e was fall-plowed from old meadow and well prepared and planted to corn in good time2 but1 after the second cultivation1 heavy rains set in and continued until the corn was seriously damaged on the flat areas of the field1 the more so as he had not fully understood the importance of keeping furrows open with outlets at the head-lands through which the excess surface water could pass off quickly under such weather conditions4 ,patches of the field aggregating at least five acres were so poorly surface drained that the corn was drowned out1 and fifteen acres more were so wet as to greatly injure the crop4 ,however1 on the better drained parts of the field where the corn was given further cultivation the yield was good and about #a1jjj bushels of sound corn were gathered from the forty acres4 ,a mixture of timothy1 redtop and weeds was cut for hay on ,no4 #f1 the yield being better than half a ton per acre4 ,the apples were a fair crop1 and the total sales from that crop amounted to #gej1 but about half of this had been expended for trimming and spraying the trees1 a spraying outfit1 barrels1 picking1 packing1 freight and cold storage4 ,a good bunch of hogs were sold4 ,another year passed4 ,oats were grown on ,no4 #a and on part of ,no4 #b1 yielding eleven bushels per acre4 ,no4 #c yielded one-third of a ton of hay per acre4 ,wheat was grown on ,no4 #d1 and clover1 the first the land had known in many years1 if ever1 was seeded in the spring1--twenty acres of red clover and twenty of alsike4 ,the fifty-four acres of wheat1 including fourteen acres on ,no4 #b1 yielded seven and one-half bushels per acre4 ,soy beans were planted on ,no4 #e1 but wet weather seriously interferred and only part of the field was cut for hay4 ,limestone was applied1 but heavy continued rains prevented the seeding of wheat4 ,no4 #f produced about twenty-seven bushels per acre of corn4 ,two lots of hogs were sold for about #hjj1 and some young steers increased the receipts by nearly #ajj4 ,mrs4 ,johnston continued to buy the groceries with eggs and butter2 but it was necessary to buy some hay1 and the labor bill was heavy4 ,no4 #e joined the twenty-eight acre pasture and on two other sides it joined neighbors' farms where line fences were up1 and on the other side lay ,no4 #d4 ,percy was trying to get ready to pasture the clover on ,no4 #d1 and a mile of new fencing was required4 ,the materials were bought and the fence built1 and when finished it also completed the fencing required to enclose ,no4 #e4 ,the twenty-eight acre pasture was inadequate for sixteen head of cattle and the young stock was kept in a hired pasture4 ,unless he could produce more feed1 ,percy saw that the farm would soon be overstocked1 for some colts were growing and eight cows were now giving milk4 ,his hope was in the clover1 but as the fall came on the red clover was found to have failed almost completely1 and the alsike was one-half a stand4 ,as the red clover had been seeded on the unlimed strip there was no way of knowing whether the limestone had even benefited the alsike4 ,the neighbors had seen just as good clover without putting on any of that stuff4 ,there were no apples1 but the spraying had cost as much as ever1 and some team work had been hired4 ,three years of the hardest work2 limestone on two forties1 but only twenty acres of poor clover on one and no wheat seeded on the other4 ,the neighbors knew the clover would winter kill4 ,the bills for pasturing amounted to as much as the butter had brought2 for the twenty-eight-acre pasture had been very poor4 ,the feed for the cows for winter consisted of corn fodder1 straw and poor hay1 and not enough of that4 ,they had to do it--draw #aej from the ,winterbine reserve1 besides what had been used for limestone4 ,part of it must go for clover seed1 for clover must be seeded before it could be grown4 ,the small barn must also be enlarged1 but with the least possible expense4 ,it was ,february4 ,wet snow1 water1 and almost bottomless mud covered the earth4 ,with four horses on the wagon1 ,percy had worked nearly all day bringing in two jags of poor hay from the stack in the field4 ,it was all the little mow would hold4 ,he had finished the chores late and came in with the milk4 ,put on some dry clothes and your new shoes1 said his mother1 while ,i strain the milk and take up the supper4 ,there is a letter on the table4 ,i hardly see how the mail man gets along through these roads4 ,they must be worse than ,george ,rogers ,clark found on his trip from ,kaskaskia to ,vincennes4 ,they say his route passed across only a few miles from the present site of ,heart-of-,egypt4 ,i suppose the letter is from ,mr4 ,west4 ,percy finished washing his hands1 and opened the letter4 ,two cards fell to the table as he drew the letter from the envelope4 ,he picked up one of the cards1 and read it aloud to his mother3 ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,strongworth ,barstow ,at home after ,march ,i1 #aijg #adbb ,college ,avenue ,raleigh1 ,n4 ,c4 ,with ,grandma's ,compliments1 was penciled across the top of the card4 ,percy glanced at the other card and read the plain lines3 ,announce the marriage of their daughter ,did his eyes blurr8 ,he laid the one card over the other1 scanned ,mr4 ,west's letter hurriedly1 replaced it with the cards in the envelope1 and laid the letter at his mother's plate4 ,percy replaced his rubber boots with shoes1 and his wet1 heavy coat with a dry one4 ,you remember the letter ,i had from the ,college8 he asked1 as he took his seat at the table4 ,yes1 ,i remember1 she replied1 but the ,institute was to begin to-day4 ,i know1 said ,percy1 but ,hoard and ,terry both speak to-morrow1--,terry in the morning and the ,governor in the afternoon1 and they are the men the ,professor especially wanted me to hear1 if ,i could4 ,i think ,i'll 'phone to ,bronson's and ask ,roscoe to come over and do the chores to-morrow noon4 ,i can get back by nine to-morrow night4 ,but1 ,dear1 how in the world can you get to ,olney to hear ,mr4 ,terry speak to-morrow morning8 ,there is a train east about eight o'clock1 he replied4 ,of course the roads are too awful to think of driving to the station1 especially since the mares ought not to be used much4 ,i put four on the wagon to-day and tried to be as careful as possible but it does not seem right to use them4 ,i can manage all right4 ,i will get up a little early in the morning and get things in shape so ,i can leave here by daylight and ,i am sure ,i can make the ,b4 ,o4 station by eight o'clock easily4 ,i will wear my rubber boots and carry my shoes in a bundle4 ,i can change at the depot and put my boots on again when ,i get back there at seven at night4 ,if it clears up1 ,i will have the moon to help coming home4 ,but1 ,percy1 you do not mean to walk five miles and back through all this mud and water8 ,i wish you would not worry1 ,mother4 ,there is grass along the sides most of the way1 and ,i am used to the mud and water4 ,i will spy out the best track as ,i go in the morning and just follow my own trail coming back4 ,then it is time we were asleep1 replied the mother4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvii ,,harder ,,times ,,the ,state ,superintendent of ,farmers' ,institutes called the meeting to order soon after ,percy entered the ,opera ,house at ,olney about ten o'clock the next morning4 ,divine blessing will be invoked by ,doctor ,t4 ,e4 ,sisson1 pastor of the ,first ,methodist ,church of ,olney3 ,oh1 ,thou1 whose presence bright all space doth occupy and all motion guide1 all life impart1 we come this morning in the capacity of this ,farmers' ,institute to thank thee for ,thy mercies and for ,thy blessings1 and to invoke ,thy presence and ,thy continued favor4 ,as ,thou with ,thy presence hast surrounded all forms of creation and all stages of being with the providences of welfare and development and grace1 so we pray1 our ,father1 for guidance through the sessions of this institute1 for the providences of ,thy love and ,thy wisdom divine as it reveals itself in the open field1 in the orchard1 in the garden1 bringing forth those things which replenish the earth with food and fill the mouths of our hungry ones with bread4 ,we thank ,thee for this larger knowledge which has come to the minds of men1 because they have been learning to study ,thy works and to walk closer to ,thee4 ,wilt ,thou1 ,heavenly ,father1 continue to enlighten this body of men and women that are represented in this great field of the world's busy hive so that the starving millions of the world1 now in our cities rioting for bread1 and in the vast nations where they are crying for food1 may be fed4 ,we pray ,thee1 reveal such improvement of knowledge to these who are willing to get close to ,thee to learn ,thy secrets and know ,thy wisdom1 as that unto all shall be given plenty1 for replenishing our physical needs4 ,and help us to know1 our ,father1 as we learn ,thy will and seek to do ,thy will and live in the higher courts of knowledge and wider circles of thought1 so shall ,god reveal himself unto us4 ,our ,father1 we thank ,thee for all the developments and great sources of utility that come through the means of this institute in the development of the resources of this country1 this great ,state and adjoining states through the length and breadth of this favored nation4 ,we pray1 ,heavenly ,father1 while studying all these replenishments and seeking to defend them from the inroads of evil1 of the rust and the mildew and the worm1 we pray also for the beautiful homes1 for the souls of the children given to our homes1 that we may study their mental and spiritual being in such a way as shall keep all harm and evil and wrong from this life of ours1 and so to work in the field of ,thy providences1 revealed in hand and mind and heart and relationships1 of school and church and state and farm1 and all the activities of this life's great work1 as that good shall be our inheritance4 ,we pray ,thee1 ,heavenly ,father1 to be with the officers of this institute4 ,give ,thy strength1 ,thy presence1 and ,thy discernment to these who participate in the work1 the membership and onlookers1 and those who come to learn4 ,we pray ,thee1 give us the revelation of ,thy wisdom to replenish and build up every human family1 and to ,thee all praise shall be given to-day for this blessing and for ,thy continued favor2 and not only to-day but to-morrow and the day after and through all eternity the praise shall be ,thine1 in the name of ,him who came into this world to give us the life of the knowledge of ,god4 ,amen4 ,it may be1 said the ,chairman1 that a ,state ,farmers' ,institute sometimes exercises a little arbitrary power in selecting subjects we want to speak of4 ,i think county institutes might adopt the same plan to advantage1 and assign the topic they wish discussed4 ,the topic assigned our speaker to-day is ',what ,i did and how ,i did it4' ,it may sound egotistical1 but ,i want to relieve the speaker of that imputation1 because the subject was selected by the ,institute4 ,allow me to present ,mr4 ,terry1 who needs no introduction to an audience of ,american farmers3 ,mr4 ,terry began to speak3 ,thirty-six years ago last fall1 he said1 my wife and ,i bought and moved onto the farm where we now reside4 ,we went on there in debt #c1gjj1 on which we had to pay seven per cent4 interest4 ,i had one horse1 an old one1 and it had the heaves1 a one-horse harness1 and a one-horse wagon1 three tillage implements1 and nine cows that were paid for2 and a wife and two babies1 but no money4 ,now that was the condition in which we started on this farm1 thirty-six years ago1 in debt heavily1 and no money2 but that is not the worst of it4 ,if it had been as good soil as you have in some parts of this ,state1 we should have been all right4 ,how about the soil8 ,for sixty years farmers had been running it down until it could scarcely produce anything4 ,we had a tenant on the place one year1 before we could arrange to move on1 after we got it4 ,they got eight bushels of wheat per acre1 and he said to me1 ',that is a pretty good yield1 don't you think1 for this old farm8' ,oh1 friends1 ,i didn't think so2--never ought to have bought this farm2--didn't know any better1--born and brought up in town1 my father a minister1 and ,i thought a farm was a farm4 ,but ,i learned some things after awhile4 ,that tenant mowed over probably forty acres of land4 7,we originally bought one hundred and twenty-five47 ,he put the hay in the barn4 ,it measured twelve tons4 ,half of that was weeds4 ,most of the hay he cut down in a swale4 ,there wasn't anything worth considering on the upland4 ,that was the condition of the land4 ,how about the buildings8 ,the house had been used about sixty years1 an old story-and-a-half house4 ,dilapidated1 oh1 my6 ,every time the rain came1 we had to take every pan upstairs and set it to catch the water4 ,we did not have any money to put on more shingles4 ,it was out of the question1 we couldn't do it4 ,how about the dooryard8 ,it was a cow yard4 ,they used it for a milking yard1 for years and years4 ,you can imagine how it looked4 ,the barn was in such condition that cattle were just as well off outdoors as in4 ,the roof leaked terribly4 ,the tenants had burned up the doors and any boards they could take off easily4 ,they were too lazy to take off any that came off hard4 ,they burned all the fences in reach4 ,now friends1 that was the farm we moved onto and the condition it was in4 ,some of you will know we saw some pretty hard times for a while4 ,time and again ,i was obliged to take my team1 after we got two horses 7the second ,i borrowed of a relative1 it was the only way ,i could get one71 and go to town to do some little job hauling to get some money to get something to eat4 ,that is the way we started farming4 ,i remember1 after three or four years1 meeting ,dr4 ,w4 ,i4 ,chamberlain4 ,some of you know him4 ,he said3 ',terry1 if you should get a new hat1 there wouldn't anybody know you4 ,your clothes wear like the children of ,israel's4' ,they had to wear4 ,no one knew how hard up we were4 ,it was not best to let them know4 ,that money was borrowed of a friend in ,detroit1 secured on a life insurance policy4 ,we did not let anybody know how hard up we really were4 ,my wife rode to town 7to church when she went71 in the same wagon we hauled out manure in1 for a time4 ,time and again she had been to town when she said she could not do without something any longer and came back without it4 ,credit was good4 ,we could have bought it4 ,we didn't dare to4 ,now1 friends1 a dozen years from the time we started on that farm1 under these circumstances1 we were getting from one hundred and fifty to two hundred and fifty bushels of merchantable potatoes per acre right along--not a single year1 but on the average--varying1 of course1 somewhat with the season4 ,we were getting from four to five tons of clover hay in a season1 from two cuttings1 of course1 per acre4 ,we were getting from thirty-three to thirty-eight bushels of wheat per acre1 not one year1 but for five years we averaged thirty-five bushels per acre1 and right on that same farm4 ,no fertility had been brought on to it1 practically1 from the outside4 ,a man without any money1 in debt for the land #c1gjj1 was able to do this4 ,now1 how did he do it8 ,that is the question ,i have been asked to talk upon4 ,i have told you briefly something like what we have accomplished4 ,i might say1 further1 the old house ,i told you that we lived in for fourteen years while we were building up the fertility of this soil1 we sold for #aj1 after we got through with it4 ,it is now a horse barn on the farm of our next neighbor and has been covered over4 ,eleven years from the time we started we paid the last #ejj of our debt1 all dug out of that farm1 not #be from any other source4 ,thirteen years from the time we started1 we carried off the first prize of #ej offered by the ,state ,board of ,agriculture of ,ohio1 for the best detailed report of the best and most profitably managed small farm in the state1--only thirteen years from the time we started on that rundown land1 and no fertility brought from the outside2 without any money2 and meanwhile we had to live4 ,now ,i had arranged with the tenant the first year1 before we went on there1 to seed down a certain field4 ,it had been under the plow for some time4 ,i wanted it seeded so ,i could have some land to mow and he seeded half of it4 ,it was only a little lot1 about five acres4 ,he seeded half with timothy and left the other half4 ,that was his way of doing things1 anyway4 ,when we moved onto the farm later ,i naturally wanted to finish that seeding and get that field in some sort of shape for mowing4 ,i went to my next neighbor1 who lives there yet1 and asked him what ,i had better use4 ,i didn't know anything1 practitically1 about farming1 and he advised me to try some clover seed4 ,he said3 ',so far as ,i know1 none was ever sown on that farm4 ,they have sowed timothy everlastingly1 everybody1 because it is cheap4 ,i knew timothy wouldn't grow there to amount to anything ,if ,i were in your place ,i would try some clover4' ,i got the land prepared and sowed that clover alone1 so as to give it a chance4 ,i did have sense enough to mow off the weeds when they got six or eight or ten inches high perhaps1 so that the clover could have a little better chance to grow4 ,it happened to be a very wet season4 ,i remember that distinctly4 ,this was a lot near to the barn4 ,i suppose what little manure they had hauled out had been mostly put on this land4 ,with these favoring conditions the result was fairly good4 ,of course not half what we got later1 but we got quite a little clover and when ,i came to mow it1 and to mow that timothy at the other end1 ,i could see ,i could draw the rake two or three times as far in the timothy as in the clover4 ,there was more clover on an acre4 ,a load of timothy would go in and a load of clover4 ,when ,i fed it to the cows in winter ,i noticed when feeding clover for a number of days they gave more milk4 ,i didn't know why4 ,i don't know as anybody knew why then4 ,there wasn't an experiment station in the land4 ,we were following our own notions4 ,but the cows gave more milk2 ,i could see that plainly4 ,a little later ,i had an experiment forced on me by accident4 ,i tell you just how it came about4 ,it resulted in putting a good many thousands in our pockets and ,i hope millions in the pockets of the farmers of ,america4 ,later ,i wanted to plant corn on this field1 and1 as ,i wanted to grow just as good corn as ,i could1 ,i got out what manure we saved and put it on the land preparing for plowing4 ,i knew there wouldn't be more than half enough to go over the field4 ,i said to myself1 if there was any good corn1 ,i would like it next to the road where people would see it4 ,wouldn't any of you do it8 ,i didn't have a dollar to hire any help4 ,i paid one dollar that year for help1 and it was awful hard to get that dollar4 ,i began spreading that manure next to the road4 ,the back half of the field was nearly out of sight4 ,when ,i got half way back there wasn't any manure left and the back half didn't get any4 ,now it so happened that the timothy was on the front end of the field1 and it got the manure4 ,the clover on the back half didn't get any4 ,it came about in the simple way ,i told you of4 ,naturally ,i didn't expect much corn where ,i hadn't put any manure1 but what was my surprise to find it was just about as good on that clover end of the field without any dressing as on the timothy end with what ,i had been able to put on4 ,it is only right ,i should say there wasn't much of the manure ,it was poor in quality because we couldn't get grain for the cows when we couldn't get enough for ourselves to eat4 ,there wasn't much manure and it was pretty poor1 but such as it was that was the result4 ,more hay to the acre1 better hay1 increased fertility1 some way1 by growing this clover6 ,now let us go back a little4 ,i think it was the second spring after we moved onto the place that ,i happened to be crossing the farm of my next neighbor1 ,mr4 ,holcombe1 now dead4 ,i found him plowing4 ,he had been around a piece of land1 ,i should judge five acres1 half a dozen times4 ,he was sitting on the plow1 tired out1--too old to work anyway4 ,he said1 ',i wish you would take this land and put in some crop on the shares2 ,i want to get rid of the work2 ,i can't do it1 and would like to let you have it in some way4 ,all ,i want is that it should be left so ,i can seed it down in the fall again4' ,it was an old piece of sod he had mowed in the old eastern way until it wouldn't grow anything any longer4 ,i don't suppose he got a quarter of a ton of hay to the acre4 ,he wanted it plowed so he could re-seed it4 ,i didn't know the value of the land1 but1 foolishly perhaps1 as most people thought1 offered him five dollars an acre for the use of it4 ,i hadn't enough to do at home4 ,i didn't have my land in shape so ,i could do much4 ,we were working along as fast as we could4 ,i thought ,i could do well if ,i had this job1 and could perhaps make something off it4 ,he agreed to it4 ,i went home and got my team and plow1 and finished the plowing4 ,i remember making those furrows narrow and turning the ground well1 a little deeper than it had been plowed before4 ,i didn't realize what ,i was doing1 then4 ,i simply had been brought up to do my work well4 ,i thought ,i was doing a good job1 that was all4 ,when ,i was through plowing ,i got my old harrow1 a spike-tooth1 and harrowed the ground4 ,i had a roller4 ,they were manufactured in our town4 ,the firm bursted and ,i had a chance to buy one very cheap4 ,i had a roller1 harrow1 and plow4 ,that was all the tillage implements4 ,the harrow had moved the lumps around a little4 ,i ran the roller over the lumps2 then harrowed1 rolled1 and harrowed4 ,when the harrow would not take hold1 ,i put a plank across and rode on it4 ,i worked that land alternately until ,i had the surface as fine and nice as ,i could make it1 two or three inches deep4 ,the harrow would not take hold any longer and ,i had to quit4 ,by and by a rain came4 ,i didn't know anything about how to till land1--this spring fallow business--but ,i happened to hit it right4 ,after it rained1 ,i said that harrow will take hold better now4 ,i loaded the harrow and got on it1 and tore that ground up three or four inches deep4 ,the harrow teeth were sharp4 ,i harrowed and rolled it and my neighbor said1 ',terry1 you are ruining that land1 it will never grow anything any more1 it will all blow away4' ,i reminded him of his bargain2 ,i should raise what ,i pleased and take the crop home4 ,every little while1 ,i can't remember how often1 ,i would go over and harrow and roll that land4 ,i probably plowed it the first week in ,april4 ,for two months that was a sort of savings bank for my work4 ,i would run over and work that land1 occasionally1 until1 about the first week in ,june1 ,i had it prepared just as mellow and fine and nice as it was possible to make it4 ,it was nice enough for flower seeds4 ,i builded better then than ,i knew4 ,i had no idea what the result was going to be4 ,when it was all ready1 ,i sowed ,hungarian grass seed4 ,i wish you could have seen the crop4 ,it grew four and a half or five feet high1 as thick as it could stand on the land4 ,i believe if ,i had thrown my straw hat1 it would have staid on the top4 ,it was enormous for that land4 ,i had four big loads to the acre4 ,you know what you can put on a load of ,hungarian4 ,when ,i went by the owner's house with those loads and took them to our barn1 he was out there and he looked awfully sour4 ,that man1 to my knowledge1 had never grown half as much to the acre since ,i had known of his being on the land1 probably never more than one-third as much4 ,old run-out timothy sod2 no manure1 no fertilizer1 nothing but the work1--this spring fallowing4 ,i enjoyed the matter more1 because he had told some of the neighbors he had got the start of that town fellow2 ,i would never see five dollars an acre back1 out of the land4 ,that was his opinion of what ,i could raise4 ,hay was hay that fall1 after a dry season4 ,we live in a dairy section4 ,the cows were there and had to be fed4 ,i got #ah a ton for that hay in our barn1 something like #gj per acre4 ,i think the laugh was on the other side4 ,that was my first awakening1 along this line of tillage4 ,didn't know how it came about1 didn't know anything about the fertility locked up in the soil1 just the plain facts4 ,i did so and so1 and got such and such results4 ,the next year ,charlie ,harlow1 still living there1 said1 ',i wish you would put in some ,hungarian for me this spring4' ,i said1 ',what part of the crop8--,i should want two-thirds4' ,he said he had an offer for half4 ,i said1 ',then let him have it4' ,he replied1 ',one-third of what you will raise is more than half of what he will raise4' ,he saw what ,i did on his brother-in-law's farm4 ,the following year ,i had a piece of land ready to grow corn1 ,i had cleared out the stumps and done the best ,i could to get it in shape4 ,i plowed it just as soon as the ground was dry enough1 about the first of ,april1 that is4 ,i worked it every little while just as nearly as ,i could as the ,hungarian land had been worked1 ,i harrowed and rolled1 let it rest a while1 then harrowed and rolled4 ,i kept it up until my next door neighbor1 ,mr4 ,croy1 had planted his corn1 and it was four inches high and growing pretty well4 ,ours wasn't planted4 ,a neighbor came and said1 ',i am sorry for you1 ,terry1 you don't know what you are about4 ,you are fooling away your time4 ,your corn ought to have been in before this4' ,i was harrowing and rolling4 ,i was determined to see whether ,i could do it over again4 ,some of the neighbors said it couldn't be done again4 ,the fourth or fifth of ,june--too late1 ordinarily1 to plant corn with us--,i put in the crop4 ,i wish you could have seen it grow6 ,it came up and grew from the word ',go4' ,in four weeks it was ahead of any corn about4 ,it went ahead of my neighbor's corn that was three or four inches high when ours was planted4 ,we had a crop that1 the farm in the condition that it was1 was considered as something remarkable4 ,they couldn't account for it1 neither could ,i4 ,all ,i knew was ,i had been working the ground so and so and getting such and such results4 ,let us go back once more4 ,the first year that ,i moved onto that farm1 the first fall1 we had nine cows1 and ,i wanted to save all of the manure4 ,now1 there wasn't an experimental station in the land4 ,i didn't know anything about the potassium or nitrogen in the liquid manure1 but ,i had seen where it dropped on the land and how the grass grew4 ,i thought it was plant food1 and our land was hungry4 ,i said1 ,i must try and save this manure1 and not have it wasted4 ,i hadn't a dollar4 ,what did ,i do8 ,there was an old stable there that would hold ten cows4 ,it was in terrible shape4 ,it had a plank floor that was all broken4 ,i tore it out4 ,i hauled some blue clay4 ,i filled the stable four or five inches deep with the blue clay1 wet it1 pounded it down1 shaped it off and got it level1 fixed it up around the sides1 saucer shape1 so it would hold water4 ,then ,i laid down some old boards 7,i couldn't buy new ones71 and put in a lot of straw there and put my cows in4 ,i saved all that manure the first year1 all that liquid4 ,i had twice as much1 probably more1 from the same number of cows as had been saved on that farm before1 and it was much more valuable4 ,that was the beginning the first winter1 when ,i hadn't anything4 ,for the horse stable ,i went to town and found some old billboards4 ,it was new lumber1 but had been used for billboards4 ,after the circus the owner offered to sell the boards cheap1 and to trust me4 ,he was a carpenter1 and he jointed them4 ,we put them crosswise on the old plank floor1 and when they got wet they swelled and became practically water tight4 ,i even crawled under and saw that there was no liquid manure dropping down there4 ,i drew sawdust and used for bedding4 ,i saved the liquid of the horse stable4 ,i didn't know it was worth three times as much1 pound for pound1 as the solid4 ,i didn't know it was worth two times as much in the cow stable1 pound for pound1 as the solid4 ,i found it out by experience4 ,now1 when ,i was in town1 before going on this farm1 ,i worked for ,s4 ,straight ,son1 the then great cheese and butter kings of the ,western ,reserve4 ,i was getting over a thousand dollars a year in their office4 ,they didn't want me to leave at all1 but my wife and ,i took a notion to be independent1 to work for ourselves1 and we bought this old farm4 ,we had a chance to work for ourselves1 all right4 ,the first year we worked from early in the morning until nine or ten o'clock at night1 and then we tumbled into bed1 too tired to think1 to get up and do it over again4 ,i worked in the field1 taking out stumps and doing something1 as long as ,i could see1 and then helped my wife to milk4 ,we would get our supper along about nine or ten o'clock4 ,at the end of the year we had not one single dollar1 after paying our interest and taxes1--not one dollar to show for our work4 ,do you wonder we were pretty discouraged8 ,i met ,mr4 ,straight one day4 ,he said3 ',terry1 things are not going very well in the office since you left4 ,i wish you would come back4 ,you are not doing much over on that farm that ,i can see4 ,you are having a hard time4 ,i will gladly give you #a1bjj a year if you will come back into our office4' ,it was a great temptation4 ,think what it meant4 ,to move back to town and have #ajj a month4 ,but ,i said1 ',no1 ,mr4 ,straight2 ,i can't do it4' ,i don't deserve any credit for it1 friends3 but ,i wasn't built that way4 ,i can't back out4 ,when ,i undertake anything ,i have got to go through4 ,i would have been willing enough to leave that farm1 if ,i had made a success of it1 after ,i made a success of it1 as ,i thought then2 but ,i wasn't willing to give up1 whipped--to acknowledge that ,i had undertaken that job and had to back out and go back to town to make a living4 ,some little incident sometimes will change the whole character of a man's life4 ,i remember1 when we were in very hard conditions1 we were sitting under an apple tree in our door yard one evening4 ,it is there yet4 ,two men from town went by4 ,one of them said to the other1 ',what is ,terry going to do8' ,the other said1 ',if ,terry sticks to it he will make something out of that old farm4' ,just as quick as a flash1 friends1 ,i said1 ',terry will stick to it4' ,you see what condition we were in4 ,i began to put all these matters together4 ,i had been taught how to4 ,in college ,i had been trained to study and think1 of course1--not to work with my hands4 ,when ,i got onto the work at first ,i worked myself almost to death with my hands1 and had no time to think or study2 but gradually old methods came around again and ,i began to think and study4 ,i said3 ',here1 more hay to the acre1 better hay1 increased fertility by growing that clover1 increased fertility by working that soil so much4' ,i didn't know why1 but there was the fact4 ',now1 isn't it possible to put these matters together and so work them out as to build up the fertility of this farm and make it blossom like the rose8' ,i began to work it out4 ,what was the first step8 ,i sold eight or nine cows to get a little money to start1 thus cutting off practically our whole source of income4 ,there was no other way ,i could get any money4 ,we had to do some draining4 ,a part of the land we could not do anything with until it was tile-drained4 ,it took money to buy tile4 ,i had to have a little help about the digging1 although ,i like to boast that ,i laid every tile on my farm with my own hands4 ,i buried every one and know it will stay there4 ,they were all sound and hard and good4 ,in all these years not one has ever failed1 not one drain or tile4 ,i worked day after day1 in the rain1 wet to the skin1 because it had to be done4 ,it was the foundation of our success4 ,as ,i was coming here yesterday1 and passed so much of your flat land1 in need of drainage1 ,i thought1 drainage is the foundation of success for lots of these people1 down here in southern ,illinois4 ,you can't do much until you have the water out of the land4 ,then you have a chance to do something with tillage and manure-saving and clover4 ,but you throw away your efforts when you try to do this work on land that is in need of drainage4 ,as fast as possible we fixed up this land4 ,of course1 it took years4 ,we hadn't money1 and there were many things that had to be done1--changing fields1 getting out stumps1 doing drainage1--it all took time4 ,i had my plans made and was working as fast as ,i could4 ,two things ,i did1 to keep life in our bodies until we got ready to make some money4 ,one was to cut off every bit of timber on the farm4 ,our neighbors laughed at us and prophesied rain and all that4 ,there were two things in my mind4 ,we had to have money to live on1 and ,i managed to get quite a little of it in that way4 ,in the next place we didn't have much of a farm1 and ,i wanted the land for tillage4 ,we can buy wood of the neighbors to-day1 cheaper than we sold ours1 so we never lost anything4 ,another way we got some money1 as we went along1 that helped us1 was raising forage crops4 ,i did not attempt to put in crops that required much hand labor4 ,i raised ,hungarian1 and everything ,i could to be fed to cows4 ,in our dairying section1 with feed often scarce in the fall1 farmers often had more stock than they could winter4 ,we could pick up cows cheaply on credit and hold them4 ,i could winter them for people1 and the manure we used as a top dressing1 to make the clover grow4 ,starting with a little piece of land1 we spread out more and more1 and got more and more enriched1 and more and more growing clover1 and by and by we got all the cultivated land growing it4 ,then we were ready for business4 ,i am afraid to tell you ,illinois farmers1 with your great big farms1 how large our farm was4 ,we bought one hundred and twenty-five acres4 ,we sold off all but fifty-five4 ,that didn't help us1 for the man who bought it was so poor he didn't pay us for over thirty years4 ,then the land went up in price and he was able to sell it for a good price and we got our money4 ,fifty-five acres were selected1 the best we could for our purpose4 ,twenty acres were so situated as to have no value4 ,thirty-five acres were fairly good1 tillable land1 the best we could pick out4 ,i began a system of rotation1 after we got the land ready for it1 of clover1 potatoes1 and wheat4 ,my idea was to have the clover gather fertility to grow potatoes and wheat4 ,i was going to make use of the tillage to help out all ,i could1 and sold the potatoes and wheat1 and then had clover again1 and so on around the circle4 ,everybody said1 of course ,i would fail4 ,i didn't know but ,i would4 ,it was the only chance and ,i had to take it4 ,of course it took quite a while to get this thing going4 ,the first three or four years didn't amount to much4 ,after six or eight years we were surprised at the result4 ,we were getting more than we hoped for4 ,in a dozen years the whole country was surprised4 ,i remember when a reporter was sent from ,albany1 ,new ,york1 to see what we were doing1 and reported in the ,country ,gentlemen4 ,we had visitors by the score from various states1 it made such a stir4 ,they couldn't believe it was possible for a man to take land as poor as that1 and make it produce so well4 ,we had some they could see that had not been touched4 ,as ,i told you1 in eleven years we were out of debt4 ,after about ten or eleven years we were laying up a thousand dollars a year1 above all living and running expenses1 from this land1 raising potatoes and wheat4 ,it doesn't seem possible to you1 large farmers1 but you can't get around the facts4 ,in #ahhc we laid up #a1gjj from the land4 ,but this was a little extra4 ,we wanted to build a new house4 ,we had lived in the old shell long enough4 ,we had the money to pay cash down for the new house and to pay for the furniture that went into it4 ,we paid #c1ejj cash down1 that fall1 for the house and furniture1 and every dollar taken out of the land4 ,only two or three years before that we paid the last of our debt4 ,i had not done any talking or writing to speak of1 at that time4 ,i did not begin until #ahhb ,i never went to an institute1 and never wrote an article for a paper1 except when called upon to do it4 ,i never sought such a job and prefer to stay at home on my farm4 ,it was only because ,i was called to do this work that ,i got into it4 ,for twenty-one years ,i was never at home one week during the winter season4 ,farmers called for me and ,i didn't feel that ,i could refuse to go4 ,now1 how did we do it8 ,i told some of the things4 ,let us go down to the science of the matter little1 now4 ,i didn't know anything about the science at the time4 ,that came later4 ,practice came first4 ,we know now--of course1 you all know--that clover has the ability1 through the little nodules that grow on the roots1 to take the free nitrogen out of the air to grow itself4 ,you know about four-fifths of the air you are breathing is nitrogen in the form of gas1 and clover has the ability to feed on that and make use of it4 ,the other plants have not4 ,i might illustrate it in this way3 ,you can't eat grass2 at least1 you wouldn't do very well on it4 ,but the steer eats grass and you eat the steer1 so you get the grass1 don't you8 ,your corn1 wheat1 oats1 timothy1 potatoes1 so far as we know1 can't touch free nitrogen in the air1 but clover can and then feed it to those other crops4 ,let us look into how we got the phosphorus4 ,on land that would not grow over six to eight bushels of wheat per acre we have succeeded once in growing forty-seven and three-fourths bushels to the acre1 on all the land sowed1 of wheat that sold away above the market price and weighed sixty-four pounds to the measured bushel1 and never put on a pound of phosphorus4 ,we got it from that tillage we told you about4 ,our land in northeastern ,ohio is not very good naturally4 ,it is nothing like what you have in this state4 ,most of you know that is the poorest land we have in the state in general1 but we have a fair share of clay and sand in ours4 ,that has helped us wonderfully4 ,we have clay enough so that with our tillage we can make so far all the plant food available we want4 ,now1 a little more about the tillage4 ,i told you how we worked the surface of that ground and made it fine and nice4 ,after five or six years1 perhaps1 of this kind of work1 ,i got to thinking if ,i had some tool that would stir that ground to the bottom of the plowed furrow and mix it very deeply and thoroughly1 ,i might get still better results out of the tillage4 ,i happened to be in town one morning in the fall1 when we had some wheat land 7clover sod7 plowed and prepared for wheat4 ,i had harrowed and rolled it and made it as nice as ,i could4--,it was what the neighbors would call all ready for sowing and more than ready4 ,in town ,i saw a man trying to sell a two-horse cultivator4 ,i think it was made in this ,state4 ,it was the first one ,i ever saw--you can judge how long ago4 ,it was a big1 heavy1 cumbersome thing1--a horse-killer4 ,i thought1 if ,i only had that1 ,i knew ,i could increase the fertility of our soil still more4 ,i hadn't any money4 ,we hadn't got far enough that there was a dollar to spare4 ,what did ,i do8 ,i gave my note for #ej and took that cultivator home with me4 ,i could have bought it for #ce in money1 but ,i didn't have it4 ,my wife didn't say a word when ,i got home4 ,i have heard since that she did a lot of crying to think ,i would go in debt #ej more1 and all for that thing4 ,i got home about eleven o'clock and you can well suspect that ,i couldn't eat any dinner that day4 ,i hitched up and went right to work1 and told my wife ,i couldn't stop for any dinner4 ,i rode that cultivator that day and tore up that field in a way land was never torn up in our section before4 ,there was nothing to do it with4 ,the soil would roll up and tumble over4 ,after going lengthwise ,i went crosswise4 ,a thousand hogs couldn't have made it rougher4 ,the neighbors looked on and said that ',terry would do 'most anything if you would only let him ride4' ,the worst of it was1 ,i really didn't know but what they were right1 and all he would get out of it was the riding4 ,it was a serious thing4 ,i had to wait until the harvest time before ,i could know4 ,what was the result8 ,i got ten bushels of wheat more per acre than had ever grown on the land before1 without any manure or fertilizer having been applied since it grew the previous crop in the rotation4 ,clover had been grown4 ,it was a clover sod4 ,i didn't know how much came from the clover and how much from the tillage4 ,i didn't care1 they went together to get that result4 ,i asked some of the old settlers how much had been grown there per acre during their recollection4 ,they said twenty-three bushels was the most they had known4 ,i got thirty-three4 ,the neighbors said1 ',it happened so1 you can't do it again4' ,you know how they talk1 to make out nothing can be done with an old farm4 ,i was interested in doing it again4 ,i paid that note and had a large margin of profit left1 you see1 out of the extra wheat4 ,it all came right4 ,the next year ,i took the next field in rotation and worked it in the same way1 probably more4 ,i got thirteen bushels more wheat per acre than ever grew before4 ,thirty-six bushels of wheat6 ,such a thing was never heard of in our section before2 land that would not grow anything a dozen years ago4 ,do you wonder ,i have been an enthusiast on tillage since then8 ,why1 they call me a crank sometimes4 ,it is a good crank1 as it has turned out prosperity for us4 ,after a time ,i began to think1 can't we carry this matter a little further8 ,people generally don't cultivate their crops more than two or three times in a season4 ,can ,i cultivate more to advantage8 ,i began to try it1 six or eight times1 eight or ten4 ,i think there have been dry years when ,i have cultivated our potatoes as many as fifteen times4 ,i don't believe we ever went through them when it didn't pay4 ,i remember one fall1 when it was a wet season4 ,when the tops began to die and got to the point where ,i could see the space between the rows1 ,i started the cultivators again4 ,i had money then to hire men and ,i hired plenty of them4 ,i started to cultivate between the rows4 ,people said1 ' ,what is the idiot doing now8' ,i said1 ',he is going to raise five bushels more by doing that work1 that it what he is after4' ,now1 remember1 more hay to the acre1 better hay1 increased fertility by growing clover1 increased fertility by working this land over and over in the different ways ,i have told you of4 ,they used to send for me to talk on this subject1 before ,i knew anything about it1 except that ,i had done it4 ,in ,wisconsin1 some twenty years ago1 ,i helped at the first institute held in the state4 ,they sent for me to come up4 ,i told them what ,i was doing and how ,i thought it came about1 what ,i thought clover was doing for me4 ,when ,i was through ,i asked ,professor ,henry1 who was in the audience1 to tell me1 honestly1 what he thought about my talk4 ,he said1 ',as a farmer ,i believe you are right1 but as a scientific man ,i dare not say so in public4' ,professor ,roberts came to my place one time1 to investigate a little4 ,i knew what he came for4 ,i showed him around1 and showed him the land we had not touched1 not to this day4 ,he was a surprised man4 ,i remember the second crop of clover was at its best4 ,it was above his knees4 ,he says1 ',this will make two tons of hay to the acre1 and it is the second crop4' ,he didn't say but very little4 ,i couldn't get him to talk much4 ,he went home and began that system of experiments at ,ithaca that has practically revolutionized the agriculture of the east--experiments in tillage4 ,pretty soon we had his book on the fertility of the soil4 ,i think he got his inspiration from what he saw4 ,he said to himself1 seems to me1 ',terry has something that scientific men do not know4' ,he got samples of soil all over the state4 ,they analyzed the soil and found what the average soil of ,new ,york contained4 ,they found about four thousand five hundred pounds of nitrogen1 six thousand three hundred pounds of phosphoric acid1 and twenty-four thousand pounds of potash in an average acre eight inches deep2 and they had been buying potash largely4 7,laughter47 ,the farm we moved onto was the old ,sanford homestead4 ,old ,mr4 ,sanford lived there and brought up a large family4 ,i think five of them boys4 ,every one of these boys left the farm just as soon as they could get away4 ,there wasn't anything in farming for them4 ,after we had been at work a dozen years or more and got things going nicely1 they came back 7one of them lives in ,connecticut7 and visited the old homestead4 ,i remember ,lorenzo said1 ',it seems like a miracle4 ,i don't know how you did it4 ,we worked from daylight to dark1 from one year's end to another1 and never had anything4 ,we boys used to be promised a holiday on the ,fourth of ,july if the corn was all hoed4 ,that was all we got4 ,how on earth have you done these things8' ,friends1 there were three farms we bought4 ,old ,mr4 ,sanford didn't know anything about but one4 ,there was the air and the soil and there was the subsoil4 ,he had been working only the soil1 plowing it three or four inches deep1 scratching it over1 taking what came1 and every year less and less came4 ,the land had run down until the surface had quit producing4 ,we took the same soil1 put in clover and took the fertility out of the upper farm1 the air1 and out of the lower one1 the subsoil1 and put it into the second one4 ,we plowed the surface soil a little deeper and deeper until we got it eight or nine inches deep instead of four4 ,we worked it more and more1 setting more and more of the available plant food in the soil free4 ,that is how we did it4 ,i say 'we' advisedly1 because1 friends1 if ,i hadn't had a wife fully able and willing to do her part1 and more1 ,i would not have this story to tell4 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii ,,an ,,awakening ,,dream ,,the chores are all done1 said ,mrs4 ,johnston1 as ,percy began to take down his heavy work-coat about nine o'clock that evening4 ,you ought not to have done them1 he chided as he slipped his arm around her and drew her to the sofa4 ,tell me about the ,institute1 she said1 stroking the hair from his forehead4 ,he told her of the professors who were there from the ,university and briefly reported the addresses he had heard4 ,and ,i verily believe1 he added1 that if ,terry were to wake up some morning and find himself located on the ,barrens of the ,highland ,rim of ,tennessee1 he would start out with the firm conviction that all he would need to do to become a successful farmer there would be to sow clover and then 'work the land for all that's in it4' ,but1 after all1 it is not so strange1 perhaps1 that one who has himself discovered and then utilized the power of clover and tillage to restore and increase the productive power of land rich in limestone1 phosphorus and all other essential mineral plant food1 should jump to the fixed and final conclusion that the same system of treatment is all that is needed to make any and all land productive4 ,the fact that ,terry's land 7if equal to the nearby ,new ,york land7 contained two thousand three hundred pounds of phosphorus in the plowed soil of an acre when he began to work it out1 while the soil of the ,tennessee ,barrens contains only about one hundred pounds1 does not disturb him or modify his opinion so long as his personal experience is limited to his own land4 ,terry's problem was easier than ,mr4 ,west's on his ,virginia farm1 where the soil is acid and hence limestone must be used liberally in order that clover and other legumes may be grown successfully4 ,even the supply of phosphorus and other mineral elements is probably greater in ,terry's farm in northeastern ,ohio than in the soil of ,westover4 ,our problem is even more difficult1 because we must not only increase the supply of active organic matter1 although we have a reserve of old humus far above that contained in the ,terry or ,west farms2 but in addition we need more limestone than ,mr4 ,west and then we must add the phosphorus4 ,of course the surface washing is a serious factor on ,westover1 but perhaps our tight clay subsoil is worse4 ,but ,i learned at least two things that ,i shall try to profit by4 ,one of these was from ,governor ,hoard's lecture on ',cows ,versus ,cows1 and the man behind the cow'2 and the other is that we must do more work on the land4 ,oh1 ,percy1 ,i am so sorry you went4 ,how can you possibly do more work than you have been doing8 ,i may need to hire more1 he replied2 and1 of course1 that will further increase our expenses1 but1 it will surely pay to do well what we try to do4 ,when does my boy expect to get married8 she asked1 softly1 as she gently stroked his hair4 ,i am married1 he replied4 ,she looked at him in wonder4 ,mother mine1 ,i thought that you knew ,i was married4 ,your face is blank sincerity1 as usual1 she said smiling1 but you never deceive me with your voice4 ,your voice reveals every attempt at deception4 ,tell me what you mean4 ,his voice was sincere now4 ,i am married to a farm and laboring together with ,god4 ,after hearing ,terry's talk1 ,i am more than ever determined to continue to do my part1 working in the light as ,he gives me the power to see the light4 ,percy1 dear1 she asked1 did you know the bride whose wedding cards you received yesterday8 ,don't you remember what ,i told you of ,adelaide ,west1 ,mr4 ,west's daughter8 he queried4 ,i thought so1 said the mother4 ,she stepped to ,percy's home-made desk1 and from one of the pigeon holes1 drew out a bunch of letters1 and selected the top and bottom letters from the pile4 ,here are the first and last letters you have received from ,mr4 ,west4 ,did you ever see this8 ,she drew out a crumpled piece of paper and placed it in his hand4 ,her ,grandma had not consented1 he read4 ,what does that mean8 ,i do not know and ,i did not know when ,i read it three years ago4 ,it came in your first letter from ,mr4 ,west4 ,i thought you had not found it in the envelope1 but you gave me the letter to read and ,i found it4 ,i left it in the letter1 but never till to-day did ,i feel that ,i ought to mention it to you4 ,yesterday you received a letter with two cards2 but you read only one of them to me4 ,but ,i saw the other was only the wedding announcement1 and ,i left them both in the letter for you to read4 ,and ,i read them both1 she said4 ,read this4 ,percy took the card and slowly read3 ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,clarance ,voit ,announce the marriage of their daughter ,ameila ,louise to ,professor ,paul ,strongworth ,barstow ,she watched his face but saw no sign4 ,she kissed his forehead and then pointed to the writing1 ,with ,grandma's ,compliments1 saying1 ,i do not know what this means1 but ,i thought my boy might be getting too careless1 when he fails to read even the wedding announcement of college professors1 sent to him by such a good friend as ,grandma ,west may intend to be4 ,percy looked into his mother's face as if to read her thoughts4 ,i think ,i understand what you have in mind1 he said4 ,mr4 ,west has mentioned once or twice that ,adelaide was teaching school1 but ,i supposed that she was trying to earn enough to buy her own wedding outfit4 ,perhaps that is true1 replied the mother1 and perhaps she is already married or soon to be married2 but ,i thought you ought to know that she had not married ,professor ,barstow1 lest you might allude to it in your letters to ,mr4 ,west4 ,,chapter ,,xxxix ,,honey ,,without ,,wax ,,well1 ,i reckon the cowboy's gone back to 'tend to his cows1 remarked the grandmother to ,adelaide1 as she returned from taking ,percy to ,blue ,mound and found the old lady sitting on the lawn bench apparently enjoying the mild late ,november weather4 ,did you leave him at the station or see him off8 ,neither1 ,adelaide replied1 sitting down beside her4 ,the train was late1 and he insisted on coming back with me to the first turn1 and then stood and watched till ,i came within sight of home at the next turn4 ,i doubt if he is back to the station yet4 ,he reminds me1 ,pet1 of the ,latin definition you gave for sincere1 remarked the grandmother4 ,pure honey without wax1 wasn't it8 ,oh1 no1 ,grandma4 ,not pure honey4 ,it says nothing about honey4 ,sine is the ,latin for without1 and cera means wax2 so that our word sincere1 taken literally from the ,latin1 means without wax4 ,oh1 yes1 ,i see now2 but let me tell you1 ,adelaide1 ,i think that professor of yours is right smart wax4 ,why1 ,grandma6 ,i never heard you say such a thing4 ,you know papa and mamma like ,professor ,barstow and ,i think ,i like him too1 and1--and he has papa's consent1 and mamma's consent4 ,well1 you never heard me say such a thing before and you won't ever hear it again1 but he hasn't got my consent4 ,i think he's some wax1 but ,i reckon you think he's some honey1 and ,i know he thinks he's some punk'ns4 ,of course1 your father would like an ,english or ,scottish nobleman for a son-in-law1 or at least a college professor with a string of ancestry reaching across the water2 but the ,henry's prefer to make their own reputations as they go along1 and ,i doubt if ,patrick ever saw ,england or ,scotland4 ,i tell you1 ,adelaide1 a pound of gumption will make a better husband than a shipload of ancestry1 and ,i just hope you will more than like your husband1 that's all4 ,with that the old lady arose and walked to the house4 ,,chapter ,,xl ,,inspiration ,,westover1 ,march #ad1 #aijg4 ,mr4 ,percy ,johnston1 ,heart-of-,egypt1 ,ill4 ,,my ,,dear ,friend3--,we were delighted to receive your interesting letter of ,march #b1 describing the ,farmer's ,institute4 ,i have been to two such meetings in ,virginia1 but they are devoted to fruit and truck and dairying1 and no one seems to know much about our soils4 ,i appreciate more and more every year the absolute knowledge you helped me to secure concerning ,westover1 where we had been working in the dark for two centuries4 ,i am sure you will succeed on ,poorland ,farm1--just as confident as any one can be in advance of actual achievement2 and ,i expect to see the time when ,richland ,farm will be a more appropriate name4 ,i only wish you could see my alfalfa4 ,i have been seeding more every year and now have sixty acres4 ,it has come through winter in fine condition and it will be a fine sight by ,easter4 ,here's a standing invitation to take ,easter dinner with us1 or any other dinner1 for that matter1 if you ever come ,east4 ,i am planning to sow about forty acres more alfalfa this year4 ,a writer for the ,breeder's ,gazette visited us last summer1 and he said some of our alfalfa was as good as any he had ever seen in ,california4 ,he said ground limestone was plainly what we need for alfalfa at ,westover1 but he thought some phosphorus would also help on the less rolling areas1 where the alfalfa is not so good as where you found more phosphorus4 ,lime and raw rock phosphate make the difference between clover and no clover4 ,i can get ground limestone for #b4ij a ton now1 delivered at ,blue ,mound in bulk in carload lots4 ,we are hoping to get it still lower1 and ,i think we will1 for some of the big lime manufacturers1 such as the company at ,riverton1 are making plans to furnish ground limestone2 and the railroad companies are likely to make better rates1 or the ,state will do so for them4 ,it is truly a lamentable situation1 when our hills and mountains are full of all sorts of limestone1 and our exhausted lands are crying for that more than anything else4 ,we understand1 even better than you1 that everybody is poor in a country where the land is poor2 and it should be to the greatest interest of the railroad companies as well as to all other industries1 to unite in an effort to make it possible for every landowner to apply large amounts of limestone to his land1--the more the better1--and no one should expect any large profit from the business2 but wait till the benefit is produced on the land1--wait till the farmer has his increased crops1 and some money from the sale of those crops4 ,then the railroads can make profit hauling those crops to market and hauling back the necessary supplies1 and even the luxuries1 which the farmer's money will enable him to buy and pay for4 ,then the factory wheels will turn2 for1 as you told us1 the ,secretary of ,agriculture reports that eighty-six per cent4 of all the manufactured products are made from agricultural raw materials4 ,there is no danger but what the railroads and manufacturers and commercial people will get their share out of the produce from the farms2 but it is absolutely sure that1 when the farms fail to produce1 then there is no profit for any of them1 and the last man to starve out will be the farmer himself1 for he can live on what he raises even though he has nothing left to sell4 ,we are all well4 ,my son ,charles is still bookkeeping for a ,richmond firm1 but he is becoming greatly interested in my alfalfa1 and says he sometimes wishes he had taken an agricultural course instead of the literary at college4 ,his grandmother says she reckons the agricultural college could give him about all the literature he needs keeping books for a hides and tallow wholesale company2 and ,i am coming to believe that she is about right4 ,i still remember that the dative of indirect object is used with most ,latin verbs compounded with ad1 ante1 con1 in1 inter1 ob1 post1 pre1 pro1 sub1 and super1 and sometimes circum2 but it would have been just as easy for me to have learned forty years ago that the essential elements of plant food are carbon1 oxygen1 and hydrogen2 nitrogen1 phosphorus1 and potassium2 magnesium1 calcium1 iron and sulfur2 and possibly chlorin2 and ,i am sure that the culture of ,greek roots and a knowledge of ,latin compounds have been of less value to me during the forty years than the culture of alfalfa roots and even a meager knowledge of plant-food compounds have been during the last three years4 ,adelaide is teaching2 ,frank is in the academy2 and the younger children are all in school4 ,we shall always be glad to hear from you4 ,very respectfully yours1 ,,charles ,,west4 ,that is an exceptionally good letter1 said ,mrs4 ,johnson1 as ,percy finished reading4 ,not for ,mr4 ,west1 he replied4 ,his letters are always good1 always helpful and encouraging1 almost an inspiration to me4 ,mr4 ,west is in many ways a very exceptional man4 ,if he had not been tied down all his life to a so-called worn-out farm of a thousand acres1 he might just as well have been the ,governor of the ,state4 ,even in spite of himself he has been practically forced to accept some very responsible public offices1 but the financial sacrifice was too great to permit his retaining them very long4 ,i never realized until ,i was nearly through college that the trustees of our own ,university devoted a large amount of time to that public service with no financial remuneration whatever4 ,they are merely reimbursed for their actual and necessary travelling expenses4 ,well1 if ,i were a young man about your age1 this letter would be an inspiration to me1 said his mother4 ,you mean his suggestion about changing the name of our farm8 ,no1 ,i mean his possible suggestion about changing the name of his daughter4 ,percy was silent4 ,how can ,i tell anything from your blank face8 ,why do you not speak8 ,you will have to show me1 said ,percy4 ,will you accept his invitation8 ,oh1 ,mr4 ,west always closes his letters with an invitation for me to visit them if ,i ever come ,east4 ,there is nothing exceptional or unusual in that4 ,the letter is very exceptional1 she repeated1 insomuch that if there is no understanding there is no misunderstanding1 and if there is some misunderstanding there was no intention4 ,when ,mrs4 ,barton says3 ',do come over when you can1' there is no invitation intended and no acceptance expected2 but when ,mrs4 ,mc,knight says3 ',can't you and your son come over and take supper with us ,thursday evening1'--well that is an invitation to come4 ,in the case of ,mr4 ,west's letter1 perhaps you had an invitation to spend the ,easter vacation at ,westover when his daughter will be at home1--and perhaps not4 ,percy was silent and his mother quietly waited4 ,in any case1 he said1 ,i cannot afford to go this spring4 ,we never were so short of funds4 ,i almost begrudged the railroad fare ,i paid to go to the ,institute4 ,i have agreed to agree with you regarding the matter of hiring more help on the farm if you need it1 she said2 for it is easily possible to lose by saving4 ,there are some things which should never be influenced by financial considerations4 ,it is more than three years since your ,eastern trip4 ,you need a rest and a change4 ,it would be entirely commonplace for you to spend the ,easter time in ,virginia4 ,you ought to see the country in the spring2 and you ought especially to be interested in ,mr4 ,west's sixty acres of alfalfa4 ,expectations are always followed either by realization or by disappointment1 either of which my noble son can bear4 ,her fingers passed through his hair as she kissed his forehead4 ,the only question is1 whether you would enjoy a visit to ,westover1 she continued4 ,you have insisted that the ,winterbine deposit remain in my name1 but ,i have written and signed a check against that reserve for #ajj1 and you have only to fill in the date and draw the amount at the ,county ,seat whenever you wish4 ,if you go1 express my regards to the ladies1 and especially remember me to the grandmother4 ,,chapter ,,xli ,,the ,,kindergarten ,,heart-,,of-,,egypt1 ,,illinois1 ,november #i1 #aiji4 ,hon4 ,james ,j4 ,hill1 ,great ,northern ,railroad ,company1 ,st4 ,paul1 ,minnesota4 ,,my ,,dear ,,sir3--,i have read with very great interest your article in the ,november ,world's ,work on ,what ,we ,must ,do to be ,fed4 ,i wonder if you read ,the ,american ,farm ,review6 ,in the editorial columns of that journal1 issue of ,october #bh1 #aiji1 occurs the following3 ,the pessimist always assumes that every man who quits farming for some other business does so because there is something the matter with the farm4 ,mr4 ,james ,j4 ,hill has recently considered the question and decided that1 unless the farmer and his family can be confined on the land and be compelled to do better work than they have been doing1 the balance of the population must starve to death4 ,the bug-aboo of impending decadence raised by such talk is based upon a wrong assumption1 inadequate statistics1 and a failure to comprehend the evolutional movement in agriculture4 ,the evolutional movement means1 of course1 that we are different from other people4 ,have not ,england1 ,germany and ,france run their lands down until they produce only fourteen bushels of wheat per acre and have we not steadily built ours up to an average yield of thirty bushels8 ,other peoples wear out their soil because they fail to have part in the evolutional movement2 whereas1 did we not come to ,america and at once begin to make our rich land richer than it ever was in the virgin state8 ,do you not know1 ,sir1 that the oldest lands in ,america are now the richest1 most productive1 and most valuable8 ,we admit1 of course1 that the ,bureau of ,soils of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture reports the common level upland loam soil of ,st4 ,mary country1 ,maryland1 to be valued at #a to #c an acre1 and the same kind of land in ,prince ,george county1 adjoining the ,district of ,columbia1 to be worth #a4ej to #e2 but do you not know the ,american evolutional movement could easily move all those decimal points two places and at once make those values read from #ajj to #ejj an acre4 ,and likewise1 it would be a very simple matter to change the yield of corn in ,georgia from eleven bushels per acre and have it read one hundred and ten bushels4 ,why not1 if an acre of corn in the adjoining ,state of ,south ,carolina has produced two hundred and thirty-nine bushels in one season8 ,do you not see that this simple evolution would also put plate glass in the thousands of windowless homes now inhabited by human beings1 both white and colored1 in the state of ,georgia8 ,there is another phase of this evolutional movement which should not be overlooked4 ,there is already fast developing in this country a class of people who can live and grow fat on hot air1 and they will tell you that your only trouble is poor digestion1 and they are glad that they can see the bright side of things and enjoy life in this glorious country1 assured that the future will take care of itself4 ,have not all other great agricultural countries rapidly gotten into this evolutional movement until all their people live on ,easy ,street8 ,i have a letter from a missionary in ,china1 a former schoolmate1 ,clarence ,robertson1 who resigned the position of ,assistant ,professor of mechanical engineering in ,purdue ,university in order to accept in the largest sense the ,master's specific invitation to ,go ye1 therefore1 and teach all nations4 ,this letter was written in ,february1 #aijg and contained the following statement regarding the famine district in which the writer was located3 ,at the present time the only practical thing to do is to let four hundred thousand people starve1 and try to get seed grain for the remainder to plant their spring crops4 ,i think we have failed utterly1 ,mr4 ,hill1 to lay special emphasis upon either the evolutional or the emotional in agriculture4 ,is it not probable that a superabundance of emotion would even permit the constitution to wave the bread requirement in the bread-and-water-with-love diet8 ,as a cure for pessimism the emotional tonic is strongly recommended4 ,on the other hand1 there are some people who are even too emotional1 people who are inclined to sit up and take notice when the mathematics and statistics are spread out in clear light and plainly reveal the fact that the time is near at hand when their children may lack for bread4 7,they already lack for meat and milk and eggs in many places74 ,to ally any feeling of this sort that might tend to excite those who are so emotional as even to love their own grandchildren1 some sort of soothing syrup should be administered4 ,a preparation put out by the ,chief of the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,soils and fully endorsed by the great optimist1 the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 is recommended as an article very much superior to ,mrs4 ,winslow's4 ,as a moderate dose for an adult1 read the following extracts from pages #ff1 #gh1 and #hj of ,bureau of ,soils ,bulletin #ee 7#aiji71 by the ,chief of the ,bureau3 ,the soil is the one indestructible1 immutable asset that the nation possesses4 ,it is the one resource that cannot be exhausted2 that cannot be used up4 ,from the modern conception of the nature and purpose of the soil it is evident that it cannot wear out1 that so far as the mineral food is concerned it will continue automatically to supply adequate quantities of the mineral plant foods for crops4 ,as we see it now1 the main cause of infertile soils or the deterioration of soils is the improper sanitary conditions originally present in the soil or arising from our injudicious culture and rotation of crops4 ,it is1 of course1 exceedingly difficult to work out the principles which govern the proper rotation for any particular soil4 ,as a national asset the soil is safe as a means of feeding mankind for untold ages to come4 ,so far as our investigations show1 the soil will not be exhausted of any one or all of its mineral plant food constituents4 ,if the coal and iron give out1 as it is predicted they will before long1 the soil can be depended on to furnish food1 light1 heat1 and habitation not only for the present population but for an enormously larger population than the world has at present4 ,personally1 ,i take a most hopeful view of the situation as respects the soil resources of our country and of the world at large4 ,i cannot bring myself to believe that the discouraging reports that have been issued from time to time as to the threatened deterioration of our soils1 as to the exhaustion of any particular element of fertility1 will ever be realized4 ,sweeten to taste1 and repeat the dose if necessary4 ,if you desire mathematical proof that we can always continue to take definite and measurable amounts of plant food away from the limited supplies still remaining in our ,american soils and still have enough left to supply the needs of all future crops1 let it be understood3 ,that y x ,then xy ,x#c ,and xy-y#b x#c-y#b ,or y7x-y77x y7 7x-y7 ,hence1 y x y ,thus1 y #by ,therefore1 #ab ,now cube both sides of the last equation and3 #ah ,multiply by one hundred and sixty1 the number of pounds of phosphorus still remaining in the common upland soil of ,southern ,maryland1 and behold3 #afj #abhj ,thus the soil again becomes the equal of the #bjj corn belt land1--,q4 ,e4 ,d4 ,fortunately1 ,mr4 ,hill1 you have not found it exceedingly difficult to work out the principles which govern the proper rotation that actually enriches the land4 ,seriously1 ,i hope you will permit me to take this opportunity to say that ,i deplore1 as must all right-minded and clear-thinking men1 the occasional petty criticisms which attribute to you some selfish motive for the honest and noble stand you have taken concerning the importance of immediate action and of a widespread1 far-reaching1 and generally effective movement looking toward1 not the conservation1 but the restoration1 and permanent preservation of ,american soils4 ,according to the ,scriptures1 there is a sin which ,god1 ,himself1 will not forgive2 namely1 the sin of imputing bad motives to the one who does right from motives only good and pure4 ,thoughts that deserve a place of honor in ,american history you have expressed in the following words3 ,the farm is the basis of all industry1 but for many years this country has made the mistake of unduly assisting manufacture1 commerce1 and other activities that center in cities1 at the expense of the farm4 ,the result is a neglected system of agriculture and the decline of the farming interest4 ,but all these other activities are founded upon the agricultural growth of the nation and must continue to depend upon it4 ,every manufacturer1 every merchant1 every business man1 and every good citizen is deeply interested in maintaining the growth and development of our agricultural resources4 ,herein lies the true secret of our anxious interest in agricultural methods2 because1 in the long run1 they mean life or death to future millions2 who are no strangers or invaders1 but our own children's children1 and who will pass judgment upon us according to what we have made of the world in which their lot is to be cast4 ,true and noble thoughts are these1 from the master mind of a great statesman2 for there are statesmen who neither grace nor disgrace the ,halls of ,congress4 ,your article contains twenty-eight pages of wholesome reading matter and instructive illustrations1 and1 in addition1 about one page1 ,i regret to say1 of misinformation that will do much to destroy your otherwise valuable contribution to agricultural literature4 ,briefly you have shown very clearly and very correctly that the present practice of agriculture in ,america tends toward land ruin1 and that1 with our rapidly increasing population1 with continued depletion of our vast areas of cultivated soils1 and with no possibility of any large extension of well-watered arable lands1 we are already facing the serious problem of providing sufficient food for our own people4 ,you summarize your conclusions along this line in the following words3 ,we have to provide for a contingency not distant from us by nearly a generation1 but already present4 ,the food condition presses upon us now4 ,the shortage has begun4 ,witness the great fall in wheat exports and the rise of prices4 ,obviously it is time to quit speculating about what may occur even twenty or thirty years hence1 and begin to take thought for the morrow4 ,as far as our food supply is concerned1 right now the lean years have begun4 ,it is certain that the time is near when our food supplies shall become inadequate if our present practices continue1 but the enforced reduction in animal products will at least postpone the time of actual famine in ,america4 ,i keep in mind always that we are feeding much grain to domestic animals1 an extremely wasteful practice so far as economy of human food is concerned2 because1 as an average1 animals return in meat and milk not more than onefifth as much food value as they destroy in the corresponding grain consumed2 and1 as we gradually reduce the amounts of grain that are fed to cattle1 sheep1 and swine1 we shall also gradually increase our human food supply4 ,ultimately our milk-producing and meat-producing animals will be fed only the grass grown upon the non-arable lands and possibly some refuse forage not suitable for human food or more valuable for green manure1 unless we modify our present practice and tendency1 which we can do if the proper influences are exerted by the intelligent people of this country1 and thus make possible the continuation of high standards of living for all our people4 ,i keep in mind1 too1 that much of the food taken into the average ,american kitchen is wasted1 and that progress in the science of feeding the man will ultimately prevent this waste and1 by adding to this better preparation and combination of foods1 will increase to some extent the nutritive value of our present food supply4 ,the serious fact remains1 however1 that our older lands are decreasing in productive power and1 in spite of what may be accomplished by such methods of conservation1 we are now facing a rapidly approaching shortage of food supplies for the rapidly increasing population of these ,united ,states2 and you have put me and all other ,american citizens under lasting obligations to you for your frankness1 good sense1 and true patriotism in thus pointing out n advance our great national weakness4 ,according to the statistics of the ,united ,states ,government1 a comparison of the last five years reported in this century with the last five years of the old century1 shows1 by these two five-year averages1 that our annual production of wheat has increased from about five hundred million to seven hundred million bushels3 that our annual production of corn has increased from two and one-quarter billion to two and three-quarter billion bushels2 that our wheat exports have decreased from thirty-seven per cent4 to seventeen per cent4 of our total production2 that our corn exports have decreased from nine per cent4 to three per cent4 of our total production2 and yet the average price of wheat1 by the five-year periods1 has increased thirty-one per cent41 and the average price of corn has increased ninety-one per cent41 during the same period4 ,the latest ,year ,book of the ,department of ,agriculture 7#aijh 7 furnishes the average yields of wheat and corn for four successive ten-year periods1 from #ahff to #aije4 ,by combining these into two twenty-year periods this record of forty years shows that the average yield of wheat for the ,united ,states increased one bushel per acre1 while the average yield of corn decreased one and one-half bushels per acre1 according to these two twenty-year averages4 ,if we consider only the statistics for the ,north-,central states1 extending from ,ohio to ,kansas and from ,egypt to ,canada1 the same forty-year record shows the average yield of wheat to have increased one-half bushel per acre1 while the average yield of corn decreased two bushels per acre4 ,thus1 notwithstanding the great areas of rich virgin soils brought under cultivation in the ,west and ,northwest during the last forty years1 notwithstanding the abandonment of great areas of wornout lands in the ,east and ,southeast during the same years1 notwithstanding the enormous extension of dredge ditching and tile drainage1 and1 notwithstanding the marked improvement in seed and in the implements of cultivation1 the average yield per acre of the two great grain crops of the ,united ,states has not even been maintained1 the decrease in corn being greater than the increase in wheat1 and not only for the entire ,united ,states1 but also for the great new states of the corn belt and wheat belt4 7 ,seasonal variations are so great that shorter periods than twenty-year averages cannot be considered trustworthy for yield per acre47 ,meanwhile1 the total population of the ,united ,states increased from thirty-eight millions in #ahgj to seventy-six millions in #aijj1 or an increase of one hundred per cent4 in thirty years2 and the only means by which we have been able to feed this increase in population has been by increasing our acreage of cultivated crops and by decreasing our exportation of foodstuffs2 and ,i need not remind you that the limit to our relief is near in both of these directions4 ,but have we decreased our exportation of phosphate8 ,oh1 no4 ,on the contrary1 under the soothing influence of the most pleasing and acceptable doctrine that our soil is an indestructible1 immutable asset1 which cannot be depleted1 our exportation of rock phosphate has increased during the years of the present century from six hundred and ninety thousand tons in #aijj1 to one-million three hundred and thirty thousand tons in #aijh1 an increase of practically one hundred per cent41 in accordance with the published reports of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey4 ,but ,i am writing to you1 ,mr4 ,hill1 not only to thank you for what you have said and shown in the twenty-eight pages above referred to1 but also in part to repay my obligation to you by giving you some correct information1 which ,i am altogether confident you will appreciate2 namely1 that1 while you are a graduate student or past master in your knowledge of the supply and demand of the world's markets1 you are just entering the kindergarten class in the study of soil fertility1 as witness the following extracts from the one erroneous page of your article4 ,right methods of farming1 without which no agricultural country such as this can hope to remain prosperous1 or even to escape eventual poverty1 are not complicated and are within the reach of the most modest means4 ,they include a study of soils and seeds1 so as to adapt the one to the other2 a diversification of industry1 including the cultivation of different crops and the raising of live stock2 a careful rotation of crops1 so that the land will not be worn out by successive years of single cropping2 intelligent fertilizing by the system of rotation1 by cultivating leguminous plants1 and1 above all1 by the economy and use of every particle of fertilizing material from stock barns and yards2 a careful selection of grain used for seed2 and1 first of all perhaps in importance1 the substitution of the small farm1 thoroughly tilled1 for the large farm1 with its weeds1 its neglected corners1 its abused soil1 and its thin product4 ,this will make room for the new population whose added product will help to restore our place as an exporter of foodstuffs4 ,let us set these simple principles of the new method out again in order3 ,first--,the farmer must cultivate no more land than he can till thoroughly4 ,with less labor he will get more results4 ,official statistics show that the net profit from one crop of twenty bushels of wheat to the acre is as great as that from two of sixteen1 after original cost of production has been paid4 ,second--,there must be rotation of crops4 ,ten years of single cropping will pretty nearly wear out any but the richest soil4 ,a proper three or fiveyear rotation of crops actually enriches the land4 ,third--,there must be soil renovation by fertilizing2 and the best fertilizer is that provided by nature herself--barnyard manure4 ,every farmer can and should keep some cattle1 sheep1 and hogs on his place4 ,the farmer and his land cannot prosper until stock raising becomes an inseparable part of agriculture4 ,of all forage fed to live stock at least one-third in cash value remains on the land in the form of manure that soon restores worn-out soil to fertility and keeps good land from deteriorating4 ,by this system the farm may be made and kept a source of perpetual wealth4 ,your first principle will be agreed to and emphasized by all2 but it should be kept in mind that the large farms are frequently better tilled than the small farms4 ,the #bjj land in the corn belt is usually worked for all that's in it4 ,it is tile-drained and well cultivated1 and the best of seed is used4 ,if more thorough tillage would increase the profits1 these corn-belt farmers would certainly practice it4 ,it ought to be known 7#a7 that as an average of six years the ,illinois ,experiment ,station produced seventy and three-tenths bushels of corn per acre with the ordinary four cultivation1 and only seventy-two and eight-tenths bushels with additional cultivation even up to eight times2 and 7#b7 that the average yield of corn in ,india on irrigated land varies from seven bushels in poor years to twelve bushels in good seasons1 and this is where the average farm is about three acres in size4 ,one ,illinois farmer with a four-horse team raises more corn than ten ,georgia farmers with a mule a piece on the same total acreage ,fertile soil and competent labor are the great essentials in crop production4 ,a mere increase in country population does not increase the productive power of the soil4 ,the farms down here in ,egypt average much smaller than those in the corn belt of ,illinois1 but our ,egyptian farms are nevertheless poorly tilled as a rule and some of them are already becoming abandoned for agricultural purposes4 ,certainly the land should always be well tilled1 but tillage makes the soil poorer1 not richer4 ,tillage liberates plant food but adds none4 ,a little farm well tilled is all right if well manured1 but it should not be forgotten that the men who consider ,ten ,acres ,enough are market gardeners1 or truck farmers1 who are not satisfied until in the course of six or eight years they have applied to their land about two hundred tons of manure per acre1 all made from crops grown on other lands4 ,all the manure produced in all the states would provide only thirty tons per acre for the farm lands of ,illinois4 ,in round numbers there are eighty million cattle and horses in the ,united ,states1 and our annual corn crop is harvested from one hundred million acres4 ,all the manure produced by all domestic animals would barely fertilize the corn lands with ten tons per acre if none whatever were lost or wasted2 and1 if all farm animals were figured on the basis of cattle1 there is only one head for each ten acres of farm land in the ,united ,states4 ,your second principle is1 that a proper three or five-year rotation of crops actually enriches the land4 ,i hope the ,god of truth and a long-suffering1 misguided people will forgive you for that false teaching4 ,if there is any one practice the value of which is fully understood by the farmers and landowners in the ,eastern states and in all old agricultural countries1 it is the practice of crop rotation4 ,indeed1 the rotation of crops is much more common and much better understood and much more fully appreciated in the ,east than it is in the corn belt4 ,practically all we know of crop rotation we have learned from the ,east4 ,every old depleted agricultural country has worn out the soil by good systems of crop rotation4 ,i once took a legal option of an abandoned farm in ,maryland 7beautiful location1 two miles from a railroad station1 gently undulating upland loam1 at #aj per acre7 that had been worn out under a four-year rotation of corn1 wheat1 meadow and pasture4 ,a few acres of tobacco were usually grown in one corner of the corn field1 and clover and timothy were regularly used for meadow and pasture4 ,wheat1 tobacco and livestock were sold1 and manure was applied for tobacco and so far as possible for corn also4 ,in the later years of the system the ordinary commercial fertilizer was also applied for the wheat at the usual rate of two hundred pounds per acre1 this having become a necessity toward the end of this slow but sure system of land ruin4 ,the simple principles of your new method were understood and practiced in ,roman agriculture two thousand years ago2 and they included not only thorough tillage1 careful seed selection1 regular crop rotation1 and the use of farm manure1 but also the use of green manures4 ,thus ,cato wrote3 ,take care to have your wheat weeded twice--with the hoe1 and also by hand4 ,and again ,cato wrote3 ,wherein does a good system of agriculture consist8 ,in the first place1 in thorough plowing2 in the second place1 in thorough plowing2 and1 in the third place1 in manuring4 ,varro1 who lived at the same time as ,cato1 wrote as follows3 ,the land must rest every second year1 or be sown with lighter kinds of seeds1 which prove less exhausting to the soil4 ,a field is not sown entirely for the crop which is to be obtained the same year1 but partly for the effect to be produced in the following2 because there are many plants which1 when cut down and left on the land1 improve the soil4 ,thus lupines1 for instance1 are plowed into a poor soil in lieu of manure4 ,horse manure is about the best suited for meadow land1 and so in general is that of beasts of burden fed on barley2 for manure made from this cereal makes the grass grow luxuriantly4 ,virgil wrote in his ,georgics3 ,still will the seeds1 tho chosen with toilsome pains1 ,degenerate1 if man's industrious hand ,cull not each year the largest and the best4 ,it was in #ahei that ,baron von ,liebig wrote as follows1 regarding these and similar ancient teachings3 ,all these rules had1 as history tells us1 only a temporary effect2 they hastened the decay of ,roman agriculture2 and the farmer ultimately found that he had exhausted all his expedients to keep his fields fruitful and reap remunerative crops from them4 ,even in ,columella's time1 the produce of the land was only fourfold4 ,it is not the land itself that constitutes the farmer's wealth1 but it is in the constituents of the soil1 which serve for the nutrition of plants1 that this wealth truly consists4 ,suppose1 ,mr4 ,hill1 that a successful ,american farmer should tell you that your bank account will actually increase if you will give from three to five members of your family the privilege of writing checks instead of following the single checking system4 ,but1 you will ask1 doesn't rotation produce a larger aggregate yield of crops than the single crop system8 ,certainly1 and1 likewise1 a rotation of the check book will produce a larger aggregate of the checks written2 but the ultimate effect on the bank deposit is the same as on the natural deposit of plant food in the soil1 and finally the checks will not be honored4 ,indeed1 it would be a fine sort of perpetual motion if we could actually enrich the soil by the simple rotation of crops1 and thus make something out of nothing4 ,consider1 for example1 the common three-year rotation1 corn1 wheat1 and clover4 ,a fifty-bushel crop of corn removes twelve pounds of phosphorus from the soil2 the twenty-five bushel wheat crop draws out eight pounds2 and then the two-ton crop of clover withdraws ten pounds1 making thirty pounds required for this simple rotation4 ,the most common type of land in ,st4 ,mary county1 ,maryland1 after two hundred years of farming1 contains phosphorus enough in the soil for five rotations of this simple sort4 ,mathematically that is all the further traffic in rotations that soil can bear4 ,agriculturally that soil has refused to bear any sort of traffic1 whether single or in rotations1 and has been abandoned for farm use except where fertilized4 ,these crops would remove from the soil one hundred and twenty-four pounds of nitrogen in the corn and wheat1 and the roots and stubble of the clover would contain forty pounds of nitrogen4 ,now1 if the soil furnishes seventy-six pounds of nitrogen to the corn crop and forty-eight pounds to the wheat crop1 will it furnish forty pounds to the clover crop1 or as much as remains in the roots and stubble8 ,if so1 how does the rotation actually enrich the soil in nitrogen8 ,you will be interested to know that there are many exact records of the effect upon the soil of the rotation of crops4 ,this particular three-year rotation has been followed at the ,ohio ,agricultural ,experiment ,station for thirteen years1 and the average yield of wheat has been1 not twenty bushels1 not sixteen bushels1 but eleven bushels per acre1 where no plant food was applied2 although where farm manure was used the wheat yielded twenty bushels1 and with manure and fine-ground natural rock phosphate added the average yield of wheat for the thirteen years has been more than twenty-six bushels per acre4 ,the corresponding yields for corn are thirty-two1 fifty-three and sixty-one bushels1 and for clover they are one and two-tenths1 one and six-tenths and two and two-tenths tons of hay per acre4 ,you will wish to know also that the ,ohio ,station has conducted a five-year rotation of corn1 oats1 wheat1 clover1 and timothy for the last fifteen years1 both with and without the application of commercial plant food4 ,as an average of the fifteen years the unfertilized and fertilized tracts have produced1 respectively3 #cj and #dh bushels of corn #cb and #ej bushels of oats and #bg bushels of wheat 4#i and #a4f tons of clover #a4c and #a4h tons of timothy ,in #aijh the unfertilized land produced nine-tenths ton of clover1 while land treated with farm manure produced three and two-tenths tons per acre4 ,you will welcome the information that the average yield of wheat on an ,illinois experiment field down here in ,egypt1 in a four-year rotation1 including both cowpeas and clover1 has been eleven and one-half bushels on unfertilized land1 fourteen bushels where legume crops have been plowed under1 and twenty-seven bushels where limestone and phosphorus have been added with the legume crops turned under2 and that the aggregate value of the four crops1 corn1 oats1 wheat1 and clover1 from another ,egyptian farm1 has been #be4ig per acre on unfertilized land1 and #ed4bd where limestone and phosphorus have been applied4 ,in your very busy and very successful railroad experience1 you may have overlooked the reports of the ,pennsylvania ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 showing the results of a four-year rotation of crops that has been conducted with very great care for more than a quarter of a century4 ,these1 you will agree1 are exactly such absolute data as we sorely need just now when facing the stupendous problem of changing from an agricultural system whose equal has never been known for rapidity of soil exhaustion to a system which shall actually enrich the land4 ,by averaging the results from the first twelve years and also those from the second twelve years1 in this rotation of corn1 oats1 wheat1 and hay 7clover and timothy71 we find that the yields have decreased as follows3 ,corn decreased #cd per cent4 ,oats decreased #ca per cent4 ,wheat decreased #d per cent4 ,hay decreased #bi per cent4 ,appalling1 is it not8 ,it is the best information ,america affords in answer to the question1 ,will the rotation of crops actually enrich the land8 ,no1 ,sir4 ,we cannot make crops nor bank accounts out of nothing4 ,the rotation of crops does not enrich the soil1 does not even maintain the fertility of the soil4 ,on the contrary1 the rotation of crops1 like the rotation of your check book1 actually depletes the soil more rapidly than the single system2 and1 if you ever have your choice between two farms of equal original fertility1 one of which has been cropped with wheat only1 and the other with a good three or five-year rotation1 for fifty years1 take my advice and choose the worn-out wheat farm4 ,then adopt a good system of cropping with a moderate use of clover1 and you will soon discover that your land is not worn out1 but almos' new lan as a good ,swede friend of mine reported who made a similar choice4 ,but beware of the land that has been truly worn out under a good rotation1 which avoids the insects and diseases of the single crop system1 and also furnishes regularly a moderate amount of clover roots which decay very rapidly and thus stimulate the decomposition of the old humus and the liberation of mineral plant food from the soil4 ,perhaps you have heard of ,rothamsted4 ,if not1 your kindergarten teacher is at fault4 ,a four-year rotation of crops has been followed on ,agdell field for more than sixty years4 ,an average of the crop yields of the last twenty years reveals3 7#a7 ,that the yield of turnips has decreased from ten tons to one-half ton per acre since #ahdh4 7#b7 ,that the yield of barley has decreased from forty-six bushels to fourteen bushels since #ahdi4 7#c7 ,that the yield of clover has decreased from two and eight-tenth tons to one-half ton since #ahej4 7#d7 ,that the yield of wheat has decreased from thirty bushels to twenty-four bushels since #ahea1 wheat1 grown once in four years1 being the only crop worth raising as an average of the last twenty years4 ,no1 ,sir4 ,neither optimism1 nor ignorance1 nor bigotry1 nor deception can controvert these facts4 ,do you know that the people of ,india rotate their crops8 ,they do2 and they use many legumes2 and some of their soils now contain only a trace of phosphorus1 too small to be determined in figures by the chemist4 ,do you know there are more of our own ,aryan ,race hungry in ,india than live in the ,united ,states8 ,do you know that ,russia regularly practices a three-year rotation and actually harvests only two crops in three years1 with one year of green manuring8 ,yes1 and the average yield of wheat for twenty years is only eight and one-quarter bushels per acre4 ,think on these things4 ,your third principle is1 that of all forage fed to live stock at least one-third in cash value remains on the land in the form of manure that soon restores worn-out soil to fertility and keeps good land from deteriorating4 ,by this system the farm may be made and kept a source of perpetual wealth4 ,i grieve with you2 pity 'tis1 'tis not true4 ,no1 ,sir4 ,neither crops nor animals can be made out of nothing1 and no independent system of livestock farming can add to the soil a pound of any element of plant food1 aside from nitrogen1 and even this addition is due to the legume crops grown and not to the live stock4 ,under the best system of live-stock farming about three-fourths of the nitrogen1 three-fourths of the phosphorus1 and one-third of the organic matter contained in the food consumed can be returned to the land if the total excrements1 both solid and liquid1 are saved without loss4 ,of course1 the produce used for bedding can all be returned1 but it could also be returned without live stock4 ,under a good system of crop rotation with all grain sold from the farm it is possible to return to the soil more than one-third of the phosphorus and more than one-half of the organic matter contained in the crops1 and even as much nitrogen as all of the crops remove from the land in the grain sold4 ,thus1 with a four-year rotation of wheat1 corn1 oats1 and clover1 and a catch crop of clover grown with the wheat and turned under late the following spring for corn1 we may plow under three tons of clover containing one hundred and twenty pounds of nitrogen1 in return for the one hundred and nineteen pounds removed from the soil for the twenty-five bushels of wheat1 fifty bushels of corn1 and fifty bushels of oats4 ,these amounts of grain and the two bushels of clover seed might be sold from the farm1 while the two and one-half tons of straw1 one and one-half tons of stalks1 and three tons of clover might be returned to the land4 ,these amounts aggregate seven tons of organic matter1 or the equivalent of seventeen tons of manure1 measured by the nitrogen content1 or of twenty-four tons1 measured by the content of organic matter4 ,to replace the twenty-two pounds of phosphorus sold from the farm in the grain of these four crops would require the expenditure of sixty-six cents at the present prices for raw phosphate delivered at ,heart-of-,egypt4 ,i have no doubt you will be glad to have your attention called to the fact that the world does not live wholly1 or even largely1 upon meat and milk4 ,bread is the staff of life1 and ,i note from your ,world's ,work article that you prefer to have the bread made of wheat4 ,thus1 most farmers must raise and sell grain and vegetables4 ,if no independent system of live-stock farming can add a pound of phosphorus to the one hundred and sixty pounds still remaining in the great body of the level uplands constituting forty-one per cent4 of ,st4 ,mary county1 and forty-five thousand seven hundred and seventy acres of ,prince ,george county1 ,maryland1 adjoining the ,district of ,columbia1 nor even maintain the phosphorus supply in our good lands1 then what must we do to be fed8 ,manifestly1 we should make large use of legume crops for the production of farm manure or green manure2 and1 manifestly1 ,america should stop selling every year for five million dollars enough raw phosphate for the production of more than a billion dollars' worth of wheat4 ,how long can we afford to give away a thousand millions for five millions8 ,our annual corn crop is nearly three billion bushels1 while the estimated value of all the timber on the still remaining federal lands is only one billion dollars4 ,again1 our three trillion tons of coal is sufficient for an annual consumption of half a billion tons for six thousands years1 whereas the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey has estimated that at the present rate of increase in mining and exportation our total supply of high-grade phosphate will be exhausted in fifty years4 ,it seems to me that about ninety per cent4 of the talk about conservation of natural resources is directed toward ten per cent4 of the resources1 when we remember the soil as the foundation of all agriculture and all industry4 ,do you know1 ,mr4 ,hill1 that1 at the ,second ,conservation ,conference called by the ,president of the ,united ,states1 ,doctor ,van ,hise1 of the ,university of ,wisconsin1 was the only man to raise his voice in the interests of the common soils of ,america8 ,for three days the statesman and experts discussed the forests1 forests1 forests1 and the waters1 waters1 and the coal and iron2 and for fifteen minutes ,president ,van ,hise pleaded for the conservation of phosphate1 the master key to all our material prosperity2 and he was called a crank with a hobby4 ,with deep respect1 ,i am1 ,very sincerely yours1 ,,percy ,,johnston ,,chapter ,,xlii ,,advance ,,information ,,heart-,,of-,,egypt1 ,november #ad1 #aiji4 ,,dear father and mother3 ,i can scarcely realize that ,i have been an ,egyptian for almost two years4 ,i feel that the time has been shorter than two months of school-teaching4 ,percy is so encouraged with the crops that ,i rejoice with him1 although ,i could never weep with him unless ,i weep for joy4 ,he says the crops needed only that ,i should stroll over the fields with him2 that they would grow rapidly if ,i only looked at them4 ,think of it--,i drove the mower to cut hay1--not all of the #hj acres1 to be sure1 but ,i cut where it yielded two tons per acre4 ,that is on ,no4 #d1 where ,percy applied his first cars of limestone4 ,i wish you could have seen the untreated strips--no clover and only half a ton of weedy timothy1 while the rest of ,no4 #d and ,no4 #f were clean hay of mixed alsike and timothy4 ,percy says that ,no4 #d produced as much real hay last year as all the rest of the farm has produced since he came1 and that the hay crop this year is worth as much for feed as all that has been harvested during the previous five years2 and the cattle and horses seem to agree with him4 ,we sold our main lot of hogs for #fed1 and have another lot to go later4 ,we are getting so many horses and cattle on the place1 that we are going out of the hog business4 ,percy says that hogs belong more properly in the corn belt1 than in the wheat and fruit belt4 ,you know the year ,i came the corn crop was on ,no4 ,i1 which had never grown anything but corn1 oats1 and wheat1 so far as we can learn2 and the corn was so poor the hogs ate most of it in two months' time4 ,during the same two months the price of hogs dropped from #g to #d-a_/b cents1 so that the hogs were worth no more after eating the corn crop than they were before4 ,next year we are to have corn on ,no4 #d1 and ,percy says it will be the first time that corn has had a ghost of a show to make a decent crop since he bought the place4 ,the spring before we were married he reseeded that forty1 sowing mixed alsike and timothy4 ,the clover came on finely1 evidently because the scanty growth of clover the year before had at least allowed the field to become thoroughly infected with the clover bacteria4 ,there was no clover on the unlimed strip4 ,so we say that limestone and bacteria brought clover4 ,the hay and other feed has made manure enough so that ,no4 #d has been completely covered with six tons per acre1 and the phosphate has also been applied2 so with manure and phosphate on clover ground we hope to grow corn next year1 if we have good weather4 ,the phosphate has also been put on some of the other forties4 ,i convinced him that the money will pay a higher rate of interest in phosphate than it would in the savings bank1 even if he put it on before manure and clover could be plowed under4 ,the experiments of several states show this very conclusively4 ,the corn is on ,no4 #c this year and it is the best crop in the six years4 ,percy says the ,terry ,act 7which means lots of work in preparing the land7 is some help1 but he thinks the phosphate shows against the check strips4 ,the young wheat on ,no4 #b is looking fine1 and with both limestone and phosphate on that field and the extra work on the seed bed1 we hope for a better crop than we have ever grown on a full forty2 even though we must depend solely upon our reserve stock of nitrogen for the crop4 ,we are all about as jealous of that reserve stock of organic matter and nitrogen as we are of the ,winterbine bank account4 ,i cannot forget how ,percy tried to persuade me to postpone our wedding for a year because1 as he said1 the hogs had taken his corn crop and given nothing in return for it2 and above all how he objected to my reimbursing the ,winterbine reserve from my teacher's wages to the extent of #bej1 which he had drawn in part to tide over the hard times1 and in part to come to see me that ,easter4 ,but ,i am glad to have him still insist upon it that that uncertain venture proved his best investment1 even if he does tease by adding that it paid one hundred and fifty per cent4 net profit at ,winterbine4 ,we are selling some cows this fall1--trying to weed out our herd by the ,babcock test which shows that some cows don't pay their board and keep1 to quote ,governor ,hoard's lecture on ,cows versus ,cows1 which ,percy heard at ,olney the winter ,professor ,barstow was married4 ,the versus cows are worth only #de4 ,i cannot tell you how ,i have enjoyed the summer4 ,sir ,charles ,henry is the dearest child1 and his grandmother insists upon it that it is better for me to help ,percy in the field with such light work as ,i can do1 and ,i am out for a few hours every day when the weather is good4 ,percy's mother is such a dear4 ,i am sure she could be no more sweet and loving to an own daughter4 ,she had ,percy all to herself for so long that ,i was really afraid she might not like to share him with me1 but ,percy says that it was his mother who persuaded him to make us that ,easter visit4 ,we tell her that she hasn't much use for either of us now1 and that we are likely to get jealous because ,charles ,henry gets so much of her affection4 ,i forgot to tell you of ,percy's four-acre patch of wheat4 ,he said it is so long to wait till #aiab for his first wheat crop on land that had grown clover at least once during historic times that he thought he would fix up a little patch to grow a crop of wheat1 just to see how real wheat would look2 or1 as he sometimes says1 to see how wheat grows in ,egypt when it has a ghost of a chance4 ,he treated a four-acre patch down by the wood's pasture with limestone1 phosphorus1 and farm manure1 did the ,terry ,act in preparing the seed bed1 and drilled in a good variety of wheat1 on ,october #ag1--;a little later than he likes to finish sowing wheat4 ,it came up with a good stand but did not make very much fall growth1 partly owing to the dry weather4 ,in the spring the man came across the patch and reported to ,percy that the wheat was mighty small and he guessed it was gone up1 although it seemed to be all alive4 ,percy said that he would not worry about it if it were alive because the wheat would find something to please it when it really woke up in the spring4 ,i reckon it did1 for a neighbor passed on his way to town in early ,may and called over the fence to ,percy that his patch of rye down by the woods was looking fine4 ,well the four acres yielded #abi-a_/b bushels1 or a little more than thirty-two bushels per acre4 ,percy said if he could have eighty acres of it and sell it for #a4ah a bushel1 the same as he got for the last he sold1 it would amount to twice the original cost of the land--and then some4 ,mr4 ,barton asked him if he could not raise just as good crops with good old farm manure1 and if he could not build up his whole farm with farm manure4 ,percy said yes1 but he would need three thousand tons for the first application4 ,mr4 ,barton then suggested that that was more than the whole township produced4 ,no4 #e has been in pasture for three years1 clover and grass having been seeded in #aijf1 even though the wet weather had prevented the seeding of wheat the fall before1 and the ground was left too rough for the mower4 ,percy hopes to have that forty completely covered with manure by the time he will be ready to apply the phosphate and plow it under for the #ai ,i ,i corn crop4 ,now your ,egyptian son has just read over this long1 long letter1 and he says that if ,i were a real wise old farmer ,i would not begin to talk about results before a single forty acres of grain had had a ghost of a chance to make a crop4 ,he says that every bushel of corn1 oats1 and wheat that this old farm has produced during the last six years has been wholly at the expense of the meager stock of reserve nitrogen still left in the soil after seventy-five years of almost continuous effort to work the land for all that's in it ,he says that we have no right to expect really good crops until after the second rotation is completed1 because the clover grown during the first rotation does not have a fair show1 the limestone not yet being well mixed with the soil1 the phosphorus supply being inadequate1 the inoculation or infection being imperfect1 and no provision whatever having been made to supply decaying organic matter in advance of the first clover crop4 ,i think he is right as usual and ,i promise to give no more advance information hereafter except upon inquiry1 at least not until #aiah1 when the first wheat crop will be grown on land which has been twice in clover4 ,we are mighty sorry not to be able to be with you for ,thanksgiving or ,christmas1 but really we cannot go to the expense2 our house is so small 7we just must build a larger barn7 and our home equipment is so meager that1 in the words which you will remember ,percy told us his mother credited to ,mrs4 ,barton1 ,i feel that as yet ,i must say1 ,do come over when you can4 ,your happy1 loving daughter1 ,,adelaide4 ,p4,s4--,three big oil wells1 belonging to the class called gushers1 have been struck about seven or eight miles from ,poorland ,farm4 ,we are all getting interested except ,percy4 ,he says he does not want any oil wells on his six rotation forties or in the wood's pasture1 but he might let them bore in the twelve-acre orchard1 which has never produced but one crop that paid for itself1 and the profit from that is about all gone for the later years of spraying4 ,the first oil boom in ,illinois was at ,casey where they struck oil six or eight years ago1 but they say the wells there are dry already and they have to go back to farming again to get a living4 ,of course if we could get a hundred-barrel well on every ten acres and get a royalty of #djj a day for a few years1 it would help out nicely1 but the oil business is uncertain and short-lived1 whereas1 to quote ,percy the soil is the breast of ,mother ,earth1 from which her children must always draw their nourishment4 ,some have spoken to ,percy about the coal right1 but he says if there are ten thousand tons of coal per acre under ,poorland ,farm1 he will save it for ,charles ,henry before he will allow anyone else to take it out for less than ten cents a ton4 ,he says that just because the ,united ,states ,government was generous enough to give the settler three hundred and twenty acres of land1 and foolish enough to throw in with it three million tons of coal if it happened to lie beneath1 is no reason why he should sell it to any coal company or coal trust at the rate of ten tons for one cent1 which is the same as ten dollars per acre for the coal right4 ,he says if ,uncle ,sam ever wants to assume his rightful ownership of all coal1 phosphate deposits1 or other minerals whose conservation and proper use is essential to the continued prosperity of all the people1 then our coal shall be his2 but1 if he does not want it then he will consider nothing less than leasing on the basis of a royalty of ten cents a ton to be paid to him1 his heirs1 and assigns1 etc42 but even then he wants enough coal left to hold up the earth1 so that there will be no interference with the tile drains which he expects sometime to put down at an expense exceeding the original cost of the land4 ,with much love1 ,,adelaide4 ,p4,s4--,percy sends his love to grandma and a photograph for ,papa1 from which you will see that on such land as ours no limestone or phosphate means no clover4--,a4 ,w4 ,j4 ,the author takes this occasion to say to the kind reader who has had the patience and the necessary interest in the stupendous problem now confronting the ,american people1 of devising and adopting into general practice independence systems of farming that will restore1 increase1 and permanently maintain the productive power of ,american farm lands1--to those who have read thus far the ,story of the ,soil and who may have some desire for more specific and more complete or comprehensive information upon the subject1--to all such he takes this occasion to say that this volume is based scientifically upon ,soil ,fertility and ,permanent ,agriculture4 ,this little book is intended as an introduction to the subject2 the other may be classed as technical1 but nevertheless can be understood by any one who gives it serious thought4 ,this book tells the true story of the soil1 for which the other gives a thousand proofs4 ,grateful acknowledgment is here expressed that even the measure of success thus far attained on ,poorland ,farm has been possible largely through the co-operation of a beloved brother1 ,carl ,edwin1 the man who does a world of work1 ably assisted by ,adelaide4