,transcrib]'s note3 ,"s typographical errors 9 ! pr9t$ "w h be5 correct$3 !y are li/$ at ! end ( ! text4 ,text enclos$ by und]scores is 9 italics 7italics74 ,page numb]s enclos$ by curly braces 7example3 #be7 h be5 incorporat$ to facilitate ! use ( ! ,index4 ,images ( ! orig9al plates are available ?r\gh ,int]net ,ar*ive4 ,see https3_/_/ar*ive4org_/details_/palograph ynote#jjqu>ri* 99 99 99 99 99 ,,pal,,ography ,,notes ,,^u ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,writ+ ,,& ,,! ,,m$ieval ,,art ,,( ,,illum9ation ,,by ,,b]n>d ,,qu>it* ,ext5d$ f a ,lecture1 deliv]$ at a ,conv]sazione ( ! ,sette ( ,odd ,volumes1 at ! ,gall]ies ( ! ,royal ,in/itute ( ,pa9t]s 9 ,wat] ,col\rs1 #ab? ,decemb]1 #ahic ,london ,,privately ,,pr9t$ #ahid ,?is ,volume is ,d$icat$ to my excell5t fri5d ,,bro!r ,,alex&] ,t4 ,,holl+swor?1 ,,artific]1 & ,,presid5t ,,( ,! ,odd ,volumes1 #ahic-id1 ,,& ,,to ,,! ,,bre?r5 ,,( ,,! ,,sette ,,) ,,:i* ,i h be5 unit$ s9ce #ahgh 9 ,o4 ,v4 bond1 ,,by ,,b]n>d ,,qu>it*1 ,libr>ian to ! ,sette4 ,london1 #ae ,piccadilly1 ,m>* #ca/1 #ahid4 #a;,=eword ,( ! books :i* prec$$ ! inv5tion ( ,pr9t+1 a mu* l>g] quantity is /ill extant ?an ! _w 9 g5]al w\ld suppose1 b !y are nev]!less s widely scatt]$ & s seldom imm$iately accessible1 t only a v long exp]i5ce w enable any "o to speak or to write ab\t !m 9 o!r ?an a blund]+ fa%ion4 ,s _m qualifications are requir$1 t x may seem presumptu\s 9 me to treat ^u a matt] bri/l+ ) difficulties & unc]ta9ties4 ,! brief b admirable outl9e ( its hi/ory :i* ,mr4 ,maunde ,?ompson has lately publi%$ is likely to mislead ! inexp]i5c$ into a belief t a sci5ce def9$ ) s mu* cle>ness & app>5t ease may z easily be ma/]$4 ,no "o kn[s bett] ?an t accompli%$ s*ol> h[ h>d x w\ld be to supply sure & def9ite crit]ia = ! guidance ( palographical /ud5ts 9 all ! bran*es ( _! fasc9at+ pursuit4 ,my excuse mu/ be t ! obs]vations :i* appe> 9 ! pres5t opusculum may be useful to "s :o are unable = v>i\s reasons to give ! necess>y fulness ( #b/udy to ,mr4 ,?ompson's "w1 & :o1 :ile lov+ manuscripts z well z ,i d1 h n _h s l>ge an exp]i5ce4 ,i may v5ture to ju/ify myself by a p]sonal anecdote4 ,! au?or ( ! ,/ones ( ,v5ice once said t he 0 surpris$ by my app>5tly exact k ( ! comm]cial value ( manuscripts2 & my reply 0 t1 z ,i _h = tw5ty ye>s be5 ! buy] (1 or ! und]bidd] =1 all ! f9e examples :i* _h appe>$ 9 ! public auctions1 !re 0 no great reason = 8 wond]4 ,! foll[+ sket* w consi/ ( a numb] ( cursory rem>ks ^u ! calligraphy & ! ornam5tation ( m$ieval manuscripts2 prec$$ by an hi/orical sket*1 arrang$ 9 *ronological p>agraphs1 ( ! beg9n+s & ! gradual diffusion ( ! art ( writ+ ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,! ,beg9n+s ( ,writ+ ,palography is ! bran* ( sci5ce :i* deals ) anci5t writ+ 7,greek3 palaia graph74 ,z ! ,greek ^w = writ+ comprises a great deal m ?an ! "w ( p5 & ink1 palographical /udy w\ld be imp]fect if x did n take into consid]ation ! anci5t inscriptions ^u /one & metal :i* are usually left to numismati/s & o!r ar*ologi/s4 ,9 a small treatise l ! pres5t1 no su* ambiti\s & compreh5sive treatm5t is int5d$4 ,! object is ma9ly to summ>ise ! results ( o!r m5's lab\r1 & to give a g5]al idea ( :at is kn[n at ! pres5t day ab\t ! diffusion ( ! art ( writ+ & ! me?ods ( produc+ books be=e ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,! "n = book 9 v>i\s anci5t languages is indicative ( ! e>lie/ /age 9 ! hi/ory ( writ+4 ,! ,engli% ^w itself appe>s 9 its olde/ writt5 =m 9 ! ,go?ic ,scriptures ( ! f\r? c5tury1 9 :i* boka writ+1 & bokos ?+s writt5 books4 ,?is is #c;believ$ to be d]iv$ f ! "n ( ! tree we call bee* & ! ,g]mans bu*e1 because x is suppos$ t ! b>k or wood ( t tree 0 us$ = cutt+ runes ^u4 ,simil> to ?is is ! ,lat9 lib]1 :i* orig9ally meant ! inn] b>k ( a tree1 & aft]w>ds came to mean book1 because leaves 7 made f t inn] b>k = ! purpose ( writ+4 ,diph!ra1 9 anci5t ,ionic-,greek1 0 equival5t to book1 because x meant a poli%$ sk9 7l p>*m5t or lea!r7 us$ = writ+ ^u be=e ! ,greeks adopt$ papyrus 7byblos1 biblos7 f ! ,egyptians4 ,!n ! "n = papyrus became ! "n = a book1 & has be5 reta9$ 9 mod]n spee* 9 ! ^w ,bible4 ,! ^w diph!ra pass$ into use among ! ,p]sians ab\t five hundr$ ye>s be=e ,*ri/1 z ! mat]ial 0 borr[$ by !m f ! ,ionians = ! use ( ! scribes :o kept ! royal records1 & x /ill rema9s 9 ! spee* ( ! mod]n ,p]sians z deft] book4 ,! ,hebrew ^w seph] engrav+1 & is !re=e us$ to designate a book2 & ! same s5se und]lies ! ,arabic ^w ,kitab4 ,writ+ 0 a scrat*+ or incis+ ( symbols repres5t+ s\nds 7or ideas7 ^u /one or metal1 ^u wood1 or b>k1 or leaves 7folia71 dress$ lea!r1 p>*m5t1 papyrus1 wax tablets1 & pap]4 ,! =m 9 :i* ! %eets 7( sk91 p>*m5t1 b>k1 papyrus1 or pap]7 7 ga!r$1 may h be5 rolls 9 :i* !y 7 unit$ to =m a s+le page1 or a squ>e comb9ation ( successive leaves unit$ only at "o side4 ,! =m] 0 ( c\rse ! e>li] mode1 b ! latt] 0 also 9 use at a remote date4 ,greek & ,roman scribes _h evid5tly begun to pref] ! squ>e fa%ion dur+ ! e>ly days ( ! ,roman empire2 & we may take x to h become ! preval5t cu/om 9 ! f\r? c5tury4 ,black ink has always be5 9 use = writ+1 r$ & blue ink are ( comp>atively rec5t date4 ,! use ( gold ink1 :i* 0 ( c\rse s co/ly t x c\ld nev] be o!rwise ?an r>e1 orig9at$ probably :5 ! empire 0 z #dyet un%ak5 by b>b>ian inroads2 x 01 h[ev]1 n ext9ct 9 ,rome dur+ ! six? & sev5? c5turies1 & 0 relatively n uncommon at ! magnific5t c\rt ( ,byzantium4 ,late examples 7 produc$ 9 ,gaul = ! ,franki% pr9ces 9 ! n9? c5tury2 & 9 ^! ! simple spl5d\r ( ! ,roman /yle 0 embelli%$ ) ornam5tation *iefly drawn f ,iri% & ,anglo-,saxon models4 ,al?\gh p knew h[ to write & to read m ?an five ?\s& ye>s ago1 a read+ public1 z we und]/& ! t]m1 came into exi/5ce = ! fir/ "t 9 ,greece 9 ! fif? c5tury ,b4,c41 & aga9 9 ,rome 9 ! fir/ c5tury ,b4,c4 ,by ?is x is meant t !re 7 p :o b\ght books = ! pleasure ( read+ !m1 z di/+ui%$ f ! class :i* produc$ or us$ books z an (ficial necessity4 ,! requirem5ts ( t read+ public among ! ,greeks1 l$ to ! disuse ( sk9s = ! purpose ( writ+1 s9ce only a *eap] & m pl5tiful mat]ial c\ld satisfy ! dem&4 ,egyptian papyrus be+ bo? *eap & pl5tiful1 x 0 adopt$ & rema9$ 9 use = ov] a ?\s& ye>s among ! p :o spoke ,greek & ,lat94 ,books ^u vellum or p>*m5t--*>ta p]gam5a1 an improv$ =m ( ! old sk9s--7 only produc$ occasionally1 z luxuries1 betwe5 ! second c5tury ,b4,c4 & ! fif? c5tury ( our era4 ,at ?is latt] p]iod1 ! read+ public 0 ext+ui%$ 9 ! revolutions ( b>b>ian conque/1 & ! *eap mat]ial ceas$ to be necess>y4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( a popul> dem& = books1 & :5 only p]sons ( exceptional le>n+1 *ur*m51 /atesm51 & monks1 exp]i5c$ ! ne$ ( read+ & writ+1 ! supply ( vellum 0 suffici5t1 & ?is de>] mat]ial 0 relatively economical because ( its durability4 ,a read+ public c h>dly be said to h come into r5ew$ exi/5ce till ! fifte5? c5tury1 & !n once m vellum 0 sup]s$$ by ! *eap] mat]ial ( pap]4 ,pap]1 f l95 or rags1 _h be5 made 9 ! #e,s>ac5ic ea/ = sev]al c5turies1 b 0 little us$ 9 ,europe till ! ?irte5? c5tury1 & 0 n fabricat$ 9 ! we/ to any consid]able ext5t until ! f\rte5? c5tury4 ,writ+ 9 ,egypt #ejjj ,b4,c4 ,! orig9 ( writ+1 t is ( ! art ( transmitt+ in=mation by means ( symbols repres5t+ spee*1 is1 l ! orig9 ( e o!r inv5tion1 obscure & unc]ta94 ,x is n ! pr\d ,aryan1 nor 8 eld] bro!r ! ,semite1 :o c claim ! hon\r ( ! inv5tion4 ,x belongs nei!r to ,japhet nor to ,%em 7conv5i5t eponyms7 b to ! despis$ ,ham1 ) :om !y are unwill+ to ackn[l$ge k9%ip4 ,f\r ?\s& ye>s be=e ,*ri/ 7! v p]iod at :i*1 9 ,milton's op9ion1 ,adam & ,eve 7 bani%$ f ,p>adise7 ! p ( ! ,nile ,valley =m$ a ri* & p[]ful mon>*y1 ) an old civilisation1 & possess$ ! arts ( pa9t+1 sculpture1 ar*itecture1 & writ+4 ,_! writ+ 0 *iefly ^u /one monum5ts1 & record$ ! de$s ( _! ,k+s or ! greatness ( _! ,gods4 ,!y also wrote ^u leaves ( papyrus ! =ms ( pray] & eulogy :i* 7 buri$ ) _! dead4 ,among ! surviv+ writt5 productions ( t great mon>*y is a "w conta9+ ! ,moral ,precepts ( ,ptah-,hotep4 ,writt5 9 ! language ( ,khem 7old ,egypt71 & 9 ! hi]atic "*1 ^u papyrus1 x is ! olde/ book 9 ! _w4 ,! p]iod ( its composition is m anci5t ?an ! date ( ! writ+1 :i*1 by int]nal evid5ce1 has be5 prov$ to be ov] #bjjj ,b4,c4 ,x is n[ 9 ! ,biblio?que ,nationale1 & is kn[n by ! "n ( ! ,papyrus ,prisse4 ,z !re c be no "q t hi]oglyphic writ+ 7engrav+7 ^u /one 0 consid]ably ant]ior to ! evolution ( ! cursive hi]atic writt5 ) p5 & ink ^u papyrus2 & z !re is a hi]oglyphic inscription on /one 9 ! ,a%molean ,museum #f:i* is assign$ to #djjj ,b4,c4--we mu/ inf] t ! real age ( ,egyptian writ+ is beyond our k54 ,x mu/ be at ! lea/ six ?\s& ye>s old2 & !re are num]\s examples 9 lapid> inscriptions :i* repres5t ! mill5nium prec$+ ! date ( ! ,prisse ,papyrus4 ,) ?is book1 writt5 sev]al c5turies be=e ,moses dwelt 9 ! l& ( ,egypt1 a sket* ( ! hi/ory ( writ+ may mode/ly beg94 ,x mu/ n be imag9$ t ! dates ( ,egyptian & ,babylonian docum5ts are bas$ ^u en?usia/ic conjecture1 or ^u unaid$ calculation ( ! ye>s assign$ to ! lives & reigns ( mon>*s 9 _! newly discov]$ & deciph]$ records4 ,josephus & ,eusebius h pres]v$ fragm5ts ( old] hi/orical writ]s1 among !m portions ( ! lo/ ,*ronicles ( ,b]ossus ! ,*aldan & ,mane?o ! ,egyptian1 ^: works 7 writt5 9 ,greek 9 ! f\r? & ?ird c5turies be=e ,*ri/4 ,9 =m] days1 :5 s*ol>s 7 nurtur$ ^u ! ,*ri/ian *ronology :i* c\nt$ ! bir? ( ,*ri/ z ,a4,m4 #djjd1 or ,a4,m4 #ehgj1 accord+ z ! ,hebrew ,bible or ! ,septuag9t 0 adopt$ z ! au?ority = dates1 x 0 ! cu/om to d]ide z fabul\s ! imm5se li/s ( ,*aldean & ,egyptian dyna/ies1 :i* spoil$ ! /ory ( ,g5esis2 b ! hi]oglyphic & ! cunei=m monum5ts h yield$ up _! long-buri$ te/imony to ju/ify ! discr$it$ *ronicl]s4 ,no?+ 9 romance is m wond]ful ?an ! /ory ( ! "w ( int]pretation1 by :i* old ,egypt & old ,assyria h be5 br\ght =w>d into ! light ( au!ntic hi/ory4 ,two g5]ations ( acute & pati5t s*ol>s work+ contemporane\sly 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 ,g]many1 & ,italy1 h contriv$1 )\t diction>y1 )\t gramm>1 )\t ev5 a key to ! my/]i\s lett]s1 to deciph] & to read ! /ony records ( ^? anci5t empires4 ,_! fir/ lab\r 0 to di/+ui% ! symbols1 & to assign to !m a phonetic value1 !n to comp>e ! resultant words ) ! vocabul>y ( kn[n languages suppos$ to be ak9 to ! old #gones4 ,9 ! case ( ! hi]oglyphics1 ! ,coptic language alone (f]$ its aid1 ?is be+ ! tongue ( ,egypt z writt5 & spok5 9 ! fir/ t5 c5turies ( our era1 g5u9e ,egyptian inde$1 b necess>ily diff]+ enorm\sly f its e>lie/ phases ?\s&s ( ye>s back4 ,z to ! cunei=m inscriptions1 ! v>i\s ,semitic tongues furni%$ means ( comp>ison = ,assyrian texts1 ! ,p]sian & ,z5d = old ,p]sic & ,m$ian1 & c]ta9 cunei=m vocabul>ies 7 discov]$ :i* r5d]$ x possible to und]/& a ?ird language1 ! mo/ anci5t ( !m all1 :i* _h be5 utt]ly unkn[n ev5 by "n4 ,f ! "t ( ,*ri/1 p]haps ev5 be=e x1 d[n to sixty ye>s ago1 ! languages & monum5ts ( ,egypt & ,*alda _h nev] be5 look$ ^u by ! eye ( intellig5ce4 ,! my/]y ( ages is a my/]y no m4 ,writ+ 9 ,*alda1 #djjj ,b4,c4 ,! age ( ,*aldan writ+ 7engrav+7 is n f> beh9d t ( ! ,egyptian hi]oglyphics4 ,x is said t an inscription ( ! fir/ ,s>gon1 ,k+ ( ,akkad 79 ! squ>e or angul> "* out ( :i* ! w$ge-%ap$ or cunei=m lett]s 7 evolv$71 c>ries ! record back to #chjj ,b4,c4 ,ev5 if we take a l>ge latitude 9 disc\nt+ ! *ronology1 !re /ill rema9s a c]ta9ty t ! cunei=m "* ( ,babylonia 0 us$ ov] ! great] "p ( ,we/]n ,asia f at lea/ #bejj ,b4,c41 & 9 ,p]sia & its tribut>ies d[n to #cjj ,b4,c4 ,:ile1 ( ! ,egyptian writ+1 we h rema9s exhibit+ all ! /ages ( developm5t1 namely 7#a7 ! hi]oglyphic1 7#b7 ! hi]atic1 7#c7 ! demotic1 7#d7 ! ,coptic 9 ,greek lett]s2 ( ! cunei=m script we h only ! two phases :i* may be r\ghly said to correspond to ! ,egyptian hi]atic & demotic1 or m exactly to two /ages ( ! hi]atic4 ,we _c recon/ruct ! orig9al ,*aldan hi]oglyphics :i* mu/ h prec$$ ! ,*aldan hi]atic & #h;cunei=m2 nor d we "k 7at pres5t7 ( any truly cursive h& develop$ f ! w$ge-lett]s4 ,among ! relics ( ! ,assyrians is a great numb] ( /one tablets ( small size1 conta9+ reports to ! mon>* f prov9cial gov]nors4 ,"o ( !m1 n[ 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 is suppos$1 f a phrase :i* occurs 9 x1 to %[ t ! /one tablets 7 simply copies made = pres]vation 9 ! ar*ives1 :ile ! actually transmitt$ orig9als 7 writt5 on papyrus4 ,if t 7 ! practice1 & !re is inh]5t probability 9 ! sugge/ion1 !re w\ld assur$ly h be5 a great quantity ( papyrus us$ ?r\gh\t ! ,assyrian empire2 yet n a fragm5t ( t mat]ial has be5 discov]$4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( "s positive evid5ce1 we c b suppose x likely t ! ,assyrians us$ papyrus 7or sk9s7 = writ+ on1 z well z ! ,egyptians1 b appli$ x only to tempor>y purposes1 tru/+ r to granite & brick1 ?an to pap] or to lea!r1 :atev] 0 int5d$ = endur+ record4 ,progress ( ! ,art1 ,b4,c4 #bejj-aejj ,at ab\t #bejj ,b4,c4 all ! civilisation ( ! _w 0 conf9$ to ! regions bord]+ ! :ole l5g? ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 & ext5d+ nor?w>ds to ,arm5ia4 ,9 ! ,s\? 0 ,egypt1 a p[]ful mon>*y dom9ant at times f ,e?iopia to ,asia ,m9or1 & 9 ! ,nor? ! ,*aldee k+dom ( ,akkad dom9ant ov] ,mesopotamia & ! fronti] l&s4 ,! c\ntry ( ,egypt 0 nam$ by its p ,keme or ,kheme1 & _! language 0 call$ ! spee* ( ,keme 7out ( :i* ! ,hebrews made ,ham74 ,! "n ( ,ai-,gupt 0 giv5 to ! ,delta by its ,semitic neighb\rs & inhabitants1 :ile !y call$ ! :ole c\ntry ,mizr 7,mizraim7 or ,misr4 ,! =m] "n has prevail$ 9 ,european use1 z well z furni%$ ! words ,copt & ,coptic1 al?\gh ?is is que/ionable4 ,! ,kheme language 0 writt5 bo? 9 hi]oglyphic & 9 hi]atic #i;*>act]s at ! ye> #bejj ,b4,c4 ,! =m] 7 ! anci5t picture-symbols1 :i* 7 arrang$ 9 v]tical columns & read f top to bottom & f left to "r4 ,?is practice 0 reta9$ to ! end1 not)/&+ t ! ,egyptians _h be5 long 9 contemporane\s possession ( ! cursive hi]atic *>act]s1 writt5 9 horizontal l9es f "r to left1 j z ,hebrew & ,arabic4 ,! hi]atic "* 0 simply an abridgm5t ( ! hi]oglyphic1 a r$uction ( ! pictorial to conv5tional =ms4 ,! two scripts endur$ side by side till ,*ri/ianity sup]v5$1 & !n ! modifi$ ,greek alphabet :i* we call ! ,coptic came into exi/5ce4 ,! demotic script1 a /ill m cursive r$uction ( ! hi]atic1 _h come into use probably a ?\s& ye>s ,b4,c41 b x 0 only us$ = private m]cantile transactions1 & x di$ out on ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,coptic4 ,examples ( bo? hi]oglyphic & demotic writ+ are giv5 9 ! plates accompany+ ?is sket*4 ,! ,akkadian ,*aldee language 7to be di/+ui%$ f ! lat] ,semitic ,syro-,*aldee7 has1 l ! ,egyptian ,khemi1 no imm$iate aff9ities ) any o!r important =m ( spee*4 ,!y are bo? ( an old] type & /ock ?an ! olde/ kn[n memb]s ( ! ,aryan & ,semitic families4 ,! ,akkadian is call$ ,turanian1 z %[+ und\bt$ resemblances to ! ,turki & ,mongol languages ( ! l&s ly+ nor? & ea/ ( ,p]sia1 :i* 7 nam$ by ! ,p]sians ,turan1 z di/+ui%$ f ,iran4 ,! place ( ! ,khemi 9 philology is n s easily def9$4 ,x does n seem t any o!r language ?an t ( ,egypt 0 ev] writt5 9 ! ,egyptian script4 ,! case is some:at diff]5t ) ! ,*aldee *>act]s4 ,!y 7 adopt$ 9 v>y+ modes = writ+ ,semitic & ,aryan languages1 z well z ! native ,akkadian4 ,?is result$ f ! bl5d+ ( populations by successive conque/s4 ,! ,akkadian-,*aldees rul$ 9 ,mesopotamia till #aejj ,b4,c41 :5 !y w5t d[n be=e ! ,semites f ,nor!rn ,arabia4 #aj;,a bran* ( ^! ,semites _h already = a consid]able "t occupi$ ! ea/]n side ( ,mesopotamia & 7 9 possession ( ! region r\nd ,n9eveh1 at ! "t :5 _! ,arabian k9dr$ swept away ! old dyna/y t _h _h its *ief seat 9 ,babylonia4 ,at or ab\t #acjj ,b4,c41 ! ,n9evite ,assyrians or ,syro-,*aldans unit$ ! :ole ( ,mesopotamia by conque/1 & complet$ ! d[nfall ( ! ,akkadian ,*aldans :o 7 !nce=w>d r$uc$ to s]vitude4 ,ev5 ! lat] upris+s 9 ,babylonia 7 only ! "w ( pr9ces ( ,assyrian blood4 ,! date m5tion$ is ano!r /&po9t 9 ! hi/ory ( writ+4 ,! ,semite ,assyrians 7 n[ ! *ief us]s ( ! cunei=m script4 ,at ,babylon !y seem to h reta9$ x 9 ! same =m into :i* x _h develop$ 9 ! h&s ( ! ,akkad p4 ,at ,n9eveh1 x _h und]gone a modification2 ! comb9ations ( ! symbols be+ consid]ably alt]$1 s t "o may speak ( ,babylonian *>act]s & ( ,assyrian *>act]s z be+ two scripts1 al?\gh !y look id5tical4 ,! ,semitic ,alphabet ab\t #agjj ,b4,c4 ,?is is 79 *ronological sequ5ce7 ! place at :i* m5tion %\ld be made ( ! ,greek my? t alphabetical lett]s 7 introduc$ into ,boeotia by ,cadmus ! ,pho5ician4 ,x has always be5 accept$ z sub/antially true1 ev5 by ^? :o knew t ,cadmus 9 ,semitic spee* meant simply ,! ,anci5t1 or ,! ,ea/]n2 & has usually be5 assign$ to ab\t #aejj ,b4,c4 ,! /ory requires "s modification1 & ! date is probably a good deal out ( reckon+4 ,"h x is only ref]r$ to z %[+ ! e>ly use ( lett]s by ! ,pho5icians4 ,!re are really no extant monum5ts to prove ! ant]iority ( ! ,semite alphabet to t ( ! ,greeks1 b !re c be no "q z to ! fact4 ,! names ( ! ,greek lett]s are manife/ly borr[$ f a ,semitic spee*1 & ! ,cadmus /ory is 9 #aa;itself a suffici5t ackn[l$gm5t ( ! second>y position ( ! ,hell5es4 ,x is g5]ally held t ! ,pho5icians d]iv$ _! alphabet by means ( a selection f ! phonetic symbols ( ! ,egyptian hi]atic script4 ,:e!r ! process 0 due to ! ,pho5icians !mselves1 is n s cle>ly ass]t$4 ,mr4 ,maunde ,?ompson1 foll[+ ,l5ormant & ! ,vicomte de ,r\g1 seems to consid] t x gradually took place 9 ,egypt aft] ! ,arabs _h conqu]$ ! c\ntry1 & :5 ! ,hyksos or ,%eph]d ,k+s _h e/abli%$ _! dyna/y 7#bjjj ,b4,c474 ,dur+ ! five hundr$ ye>s ( _! rule !re mu/ h be5 a l>ge ,semitic immigration1 & x is n unlikely t ! ,semitic alphabet 0 !n d]iv$ f ! ,egyptian = ! use ( ! ,syrians & ,arabs :o dwelt 9 ,l[] ,egypt4 ,!re is1 on ! o!r h&1 a mod]n !ory t ! ,semitic alphabet 0 n evolv$ 9 ?is way1 b f ! hi]atic ,babylonian writ+4 ,x is true t simil>ities may be f\nd betwe5 !m1 & x is also demon/rable t ! ,greek names ( ! alphabet 7 drawn f ! spee*1 n ( ,pho5icia or ,pale/9e1 b ( ,aram or ,semitic ,*alda4 ,no?+ is c]ta9 z to ! orig9 ( ! ,semitic alphabet1 not)/&+ ! elaborate comp>ative tables produc$ by ,r\g & o!rs1 beyond ! fact t sev]al lett]s resemble ,egyptian 7& ,*aldo-,assyrian7 symbols hav+ sometimes ! same phonetic value4 ,! names giv5 to _! *>act]s by ! ,semites are und\bt$ly descriptive ( _! app>5t iconism1 & ! initial s\nd ( ea* "n is ! p[] ( ! lett]4 ,?is1 on ! face ( x1 w\ld imply t ! ,aramaic alphabet 0 an orig9al inv5tion4 ,! ,greeks :o fir/ receiv$ x1 mu/ h be5 ^? ( ,asia ,m9or1 n ^? ( ,hellas2 & ! fir/ transmitt]s 7 nei!r ,arabs1 nor ,jews1 nor ,pho5icians1 b ,babylonian ,aramans 9 contact ) ,cilicia & ,cappadocia4 ,! names ( ! lett]s1 z s\nd$ by ! ,syrians ( ,pale/9e 7,pho5icians1 ,israelites1 ,jews71 73 ,aleph1 ,be?1 ,gimel1 ,dale?1 ,he1 ,vau1 ,za9 7,zai71 ,hhe? 7,khe?71 ,te?1 ,yod1 #ab;,caph1 ,lam$1 ,mem 7maimwat]s71 ,nun1 ,samekh1 ,a9 7,o971 ,pe1 ,tsade1 ,koph1 ,re% 7head71 ,%91 ,tau4 ,we h no actual k ( ! ,*aldo-,aramaic s\nds ( ^! names1 b we "k t ! ,ea/]n ,syrians w\ld probably h writt5 !m ?us3-- ,alpha1 ,beta1 ,gamla1 ,dalta1 ,he1 ,vau1 ,zaita1 ,hheta1 ,teta1 ,yoda1 ,kappa1 ,lamda1 ,mu 7wat]71 ,nun 7,nu71 ,samkha 7,simkha,sigma71 ,o9 7,oi871 ,pe1 ,tsada1 ,koppa1 ,ra% 7,ro8face71 ,%51 ,tau4 ,leav+ aside = ! pres5t any consid]ation ( ! *anges & additions 9 ! ,greek alphabet1 we may assume t x pass$ f ,babylonia ?r\gh ,cilicia to ! ,phrygians & ,lydians2 & t1 :atev] int]c\rse may h tak5 place betwe5 ! ,european ,greeks & ! ,pho5icians !n or aft]w>ds1 ! ,ionians ( ,asia ,m9or _h already =mulat$ ! ,hell5ic alphabet be=e x rea*$ ! ,!bans4 ,z x seems to be ne>ly c]ta9 t ! ,phrygians possess$ x 9 ! t5? c5tury be=e ,*ri/1 ! ,aramans mu/ h _h x mu* e>li]1 & we may cr$it !m ) ! use ( writ+ z f> back z #acjj-abjj ,b4,c4 ,x is v unlikely t ! ,we/]n ,syrians 7 f> beh9d1 b ! olde/ monum5ts extant g no high] ?an ! t5? c5tury1 & are probably surpass$ 9 antiquity by "s ( ! ,saban 7,himy>ite or ,hom]ite7 inscriptions ( ,s\!rn ,arabia4 ,! ,himy>i alphabet1 :i* is ! direct ance/or ( ! mod]n ,abyss9ian1 introduces "s novel =ms1 & has less resemblance to ! ,aramaic orig9al ?an any ( ! o!rs4 ,mo/ ( ! lett]s are1 h[ev]1 ultimately traceable to ! ,aramaic1 al?\gh ! date mu/ h be5 remote1 to judge f ! l>ge div]g5ces 9 %ape :i* _h _h "t to develop !mselves be=e ! type 0 fix$4 ,ab\t1 or soon aft]1 #ajjj ,b4,c41 we f9d a consid]able portion ( ! e>?'s surface occupi$ by p kn[+ h[ to write2 namely1 ,egypt1 ,nubia1 ,abyss9ia1 ,arabia1 ! :ole ( ,asia ,m9or1 ,syria1 ,babylonia1 ,assyria1 ,arm5ia1 #ac;& ,*9a4 ,abyss9ia & ,arm5ia are includ$ because into ! "o c\ntry ,egyptian & ,himy>itic *>act]s _h be5 import$1 & into ! o!r a =m ( ,babylonian4 ,*9a is plac$ 9 ! li/1 f> bel[ h] pret5sions1 because we d n really "k ! age ( ! "* 9 :i* ,*9ese books pres]ve ! inscriptions ( ,yu4 ,x appe>s d]ivable f ! diss]tations ( ,m4 ,t]ri51 ^: sagaci\s le>n+ has attract$ _m s*ol>s1 t ! e>lie/ hi/ory record$ 9 ,*9ese annals is n geographically ,*9ese2 b t x repres5ts ! leg5ds & traditions :i* 7 c>ri$ into ,*9a by ! ance/ors ( ! race4 ,a connexion has be5 f\nd to subsi/ betwe5 ^? traditions & ! e>ly hi/ory ( ,babylonia1 :i* leads to ! inf]5ce t ! ,akkadian p ( #chjj ,b4,c4 & ! ance/ors ( ! ,*9ese 7 at "o "t unit$4 ,assum+ t ! !ory is ju/ifiable1 we may treat ! ,*9ese 9 ,*9a z hav+ inh]it$ ! art ( writ+1 h[ev] /rangely alt]$ 9 =m4 ,x is probably true t !y us$ ! lett]s out ( :i* _! pres5t *>act]s desc5d$1 9 ! c\ntry !y n[ inhabit1 at m ?an #ajjj ,b4,c4 ,! ,alphabet 9 ,european ,greece1 #hjj ,b4,c4 ,! ,european ,greeks are n includ$ 9 ! prec$+ p>agraph1 simply because !re are no means ( prov+ t !y _h ! use ( lett]s 9 ! t5? c5tury ,b4,c4 ,! probability1 h[ev]1 is t !y 7 n f> beh9d _! bre?r5 9 ,asia ,m9or4 ,! v>iations 9 ! =ms ( "s ( ! lett]s ( ! ,greek alphabet :i* are f\nd 9 inscriptions at diff]5t places bo? 9 ,asia ,m9or & 9 ,greece1 are attributable to local fa%ions & to ! fact t ! script 0 n built up all at once f a s+le model4 ,x is "h t ! tradition ab\t ,cadmus has its *ief significance2 = !re c be little d\bt t ! alphabet ( ,tyre1 n q id5tical ) its eld] ,aramaic #adsi/]1 _h "s imm$iate influ5ce 9 modify+ ! =ms borr[$ by ! ,boeotians f ! ,ionians4 ,! old] ,greek alphabet has be5 already m5tion$4 ,x 0 f\nd aft] a :ile to be bo? insuffici5t & m ?an suffici5t4 ,! ,tsade 7ts7 & ,koppa 7q7 7 n ne$$ 9 ,greek1 & 7 only reta9$ =mally z num]als4 ,z mo/ ,greek organs c\ld only give ! same s\nd 7s7 to bo? ! simkha & ! %5 7:i* !y call$ sigma & san71 "o ( ! two names 0 sup]flu\s4 ,s !y kept ! symbol = %5 z an s1 b transf]r$ to x ! "n ( ! simkha4 ,! symbol ( ! latt] !y reta9$ 9 its place1 b s\nd$ x z ks1 & call$ x ,ksi1 a "n :i* did n badly suit ! orig9al ,semitic s\nd ( ! lett] :i* 0 l hs r ?an s4 ,! unaspirat$ ,he !y call$ m]e ,e 7,e psilon72 to ! aspirat$ ,heta1 !y left its "n1 b reg>d$ x z aspirat$ ,e4 ,its orig9al ,semitic value z an aspirate 7adaptable to any v[el7 0 n :olly lo/ sight (1 & ?is idea ( its p[] surviv$ ! /age at :i* ,h _h become no?+ m ?an or ee4 ,! necessity ( mak+ aspirat$ lett]s l$ to ! prefix+ or ov]-writ+ ( ! ,h1 at fir/ 9 its full size1 !n 7s z to avoid confusion ) ,eta7 9 small1 !n 9 half %ape1 ?us -4 ,?is cu/om produc$ its complem5t 9 ! %ape ( -1 to m>k ! s(t brea?+2 until 9 ! elev5? c5tury ( our era1 ! two brea?+s 7 worn d[n into semicircul> =m1 ?us 7 1 74 ,ano!r reject$ symbol 0 ! vau1 =m$ l ! lett] ,f & s\nd$ l our ,v4 ,x dropp$ out ( usage1 & !y =got its "n1 al?\gh x _h be5 consid]ably us$ by ! old poets1 9 connexion ) :om x is usually nam$ digamma1 because ( its resemblance to a d\ble gamma1 or "o gamma sup]impos$ on ano!r4 ,x 0 f\nd necess>y to h a "* = u1 & advantage\s to use s+le symbols = d\ble lett]s frequ5tly occurr+1 su* z ph1 kh1 ps & oo 7long o74 ,! old ,ea/]n =m ( vau suppli$ ! u2 9 fact1 hav+ dropp$ ! lett] z a consonant out ( its six? place 9 #ae! alphabet1 !y put x 9 its v[el-"* at ! end4 ,! symbol ( ! disc>d$ koppa 0 us$ = ! ,ph1 :i* 0 n equival5t 9 s\nd to our ph1 b mu/ h resembl$ ! ,g]man pf4 ,! disc>d$ tsada 7a trid5t7 0 us$ to repres5t1 9 "s places ps1 9 o!rs kh1 b f9ally ! symbol fell into two di/9ct =ms1 by be+ writt5 upright z 7psi7 & lean+ sidewise z 7*i74 ,by ! "t ( ,h]odotus ! ,greek alphabet may be consid]$ z hav+ rea*$ exactly its pres5t =m 9 capital lett]s4 ,! cursive h& :i* mu/ h exi/$ at all times ( ,greek writ+ 0 simply a rapid de=mation ( ! capitals1 & consequ5tly did n atta9 to any uni=mly di/9ctive "* till mu* lat]4 ,! g5]al use ( m9uscules 9 any su* uni=m type is always ref]r$ to ! eigh? c5tury aft] ,*ri/1 b really !re is no ess5tial *ange ( =m betwe5 ! cursive lett]s a hundr$ ye>s be=e ,*ri/ & ^? ( a ?\s& ye>s aft] ,*ri/4 ,! *ief diff]5ce is 9 ! great] fre$om & flu5cy ( ! late lett]s1 an air ( practis$ famili>ity :i* is lack+ 9 ! e>li] cursive4 ,writ+ 9 ,italy f #gjj to #ajj ,b4,c4 ,! ,greeks & ! ,pho5icians _h a simil> aptitude = e/abli%+ colonies abroad to t :i* ! ,engli% h %[n dur+ ! pa/ ?ree c5turies4 ,?us ! coa/ l9e ( ! ,m$it]ranean f ,tripoli to ,morocco1 & f ,sicily & ,s\!rn ,italy to ,spa9 & ,gaul1 0 dott$ ) ,punic & ,greek settlem5ts creat$ = purely comm]cial purposes1 b ga9+ an indep5d5t importance z "t w5t on4 ,! *ief seat ( ,pho5ician dom9ation 0 at ,c>?age2 ( ,greek nationality at ,syracuse1 ,cum 7ne> ,naples71 & ,m>seilles4 ,! age at :i* ^? colonies acquir$ political greatness may be r\ghly set d[n z 9 ! f\r? c5tury be=e ,*ri/1 b x is suffici5t = our purpose to "k t !y _h be5 f\nd$ consid]ably #af;e>li]2 & t ! art ( writ+ _h be5 c>ri$ we/w>d z f> back at lea/ z ! sev5? or eigh? c5tury ,b4,c4 ,x 0 virtually ! "o alphabet1 appli$ by v>i\s races to _! v>i\s languages1 :i* 0 us$ at ,c>?age & ,cadiz1 at ,m>seilles & 9 ,sicily & ,italy1 9 ! sev5? c5tury ,b4,c4 ,italy 0 occupi$ by sev]al di/9ct sets ( p4 ,! ,umbrians1 ,lat9s1 & ,oscans occupi$ all ! middle ( ! p59sula2 ! ,pelasgic tribes :o 7 9 ! heel & toe ( ! geographical boot 7 ne>ly ,grecis$2 ! ,etruscans held ,tuscany1 & ,celts occupi$ ,lomb>dy4 ,momms5 ?\ght t ! ,greek alphabet _h rea*$ ! ,italians m ?an #acjj ye>s be=e ,*ri/2 b a m mode/ e/imate w be saf]4 ,x 0 probably ab\t sev5 hundr$ ye>s ,b4,c4 :5 ! ,etrurians receiv$ _! alphabet f ! ,greeks2 & !re is no reason = ?9k+1 z ,momms5 implies1 t _! fir/ contact ) ,greek lett]s _h be5 else:]e ?an 9 ,italy4 ,! alphabet rea*$ !m no d\bt f ,cum1 z x did ! ,lat9s1 & !re 0 suffici5t v>iation 9 ! practice ( ! ,greek colonies 9 ,italy to acc\nt = ! diff]5ces :i* m>k ,etruscan1 ,umbrian1 & ,lat9 writ+4 ,roman ,writ+4 ,! usual date ( ! f\nd+ ( ,rome is und\bt$ly correct or ne>ly s4 ,x 0 ab\t ! middle ( ! eigh? c5tury ,b4,c41 & ! rapid enl>gem5t ( ! new ,lat9 t[n on ! ,tib]1 produc$ by ! influx ( settl]s into a trade emporium ) wat]way1 mu/ h l$ to an e>ly use ( writ+4 ,?is indicates some?+ l #gjj ,b4,c4 = ! p]iod ( ! ext5sion ( t art ov] ! :ole ( ,italy4 ,! cu/om ( writ+ f "r to left & left to "r 9 alt]nate l9es 0 reta9$ = sev]al c5turies among ! v>i\s ,italic peoples1 b ! ,lat9s seem to h be5 ! fir/ to adopt ! ,greek modification by :i* #ag! lett]s took _! p]man5t %ape f ! left-"r sequ5ce4 ,9 sev]al ,greek t[ns1 ! old ,,gamma 0 replac$ by a ,c 7! result ( a cursive mode ( writ+71 & ! triangul> ,,delta _h its second & ?ird l9es repres5t$ by a s+le curve4 ,! ,,pi 0 /ill a ,symbol3 ,p n connect$ 9 ! middle1 & ! ,p _h a little /roke add$ to x 7,symbol3 ,r ) %ort tail7 = ! sake ( di/9ction4 ,! ,sigma 0 commonly writt5 ,symbol3 rev]se tilt$ ,z in/ead ( ,symbol3 rev]se #c 7,,sigma74 ,! ,lat9s omitt$ ( c\rse su* lett]s z !y f\nd sup]flu\s 7z1 ?1 k1 ph1 *1 ps1 & oo71 b 7 naturally b\nd to reta9 lett]s already becom+ sup]flu\s to ! ,greeks 7,f1 ,q74 ,! ?ird lett] ( ! alphabet 0 us$ = bo? ,k & ,g2 b lat]1 :5 ! ne$ ( "s diff]5tiation became felt1 ! useless ,z 0 replac$ by a second ,c to :i* a tail 0 add$ 7,symbol3 ,c ) diagonal tail74 ,! ,eta 7or ,heta7 0 made to reta9 its e>lie/ function z a /rong brea?+ 7,h71 al?\gh ! ,greeks 7 treat+ x z no m ?an ,,ee4 ,! ,greek confusion betwe5 ! symbols = ks1 ps1 & *1 affect$ ! ,lat9s s f> t "o ( ! ?ree lett]s1 i4e4 ,x1 0 tak5 to repres5t ! only s\nd ( ! ?ree :i* _! language ne$$1 namely ks2 & ?is be+ an aft]?\ght1 x 0 put at ! end ( ! alphabet4 ,?us 9 ! second c5tury ,b4,c4 ! ,romans _h _! alphabet completely =m$ 9 ! capital %apes1 & ) ! phonetic values1 :i* x !nce=w>d reta9$4 ,! lett]s 7 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 ,h1 ,i1 ,l1 ,m1 ,n1 ,o1 ,p1 ,q1 ,r1 ,s1 ,t1 ,v1 ,x1 ! ,f be+ s\nd$ probably z our ,v & ,f1 ! ,v z our ,u & ,w4 ,x 0 long aft]w>ds t ! ,f 0 re/rict$ to ! s\nd ( ,engli% ,f1 & ,v z a consonant took ! s\nd ( ,engli% ,v 7in/ead ( ,w47 ,! ,q 0 a m guttural lett] ?an ! ,c orig9ally1 b aft]w>ds lo/ its di/9ctiv5ess ( utt]ance4 ,:5 x became fa%ionable to le>n & quote ,greek1 9 ! "t ( ,cic]o & aft]1 ! lett]s ,,kappa1 ,,upsilon1 & ,,zeta 7 re9s]t$ 9 ! ,lat9 alphabet = =m's sake1 z ,k1 ,y1 ,z4 ,x 0 n till ! sixte5? c5tury t1 9 ! nor!rn c\ntries ( ,europe1 ! lett] ,j 0 evolv$ f ! black lett] =m #ah( ,i 7,symbol3 blacklett] ,i7 & ! lett] ,v split into ,u & ,v4 ,z = ! ,w1 x 0 ne$$ only by ,g]manic p1 & 0 consequ5tly a late intrud] into ! mod]n ,roman alphabet4 ,indian ,writ+ ab\t #cjj ,b4,c4 ,to return to ! ,ea/1 ! fir/ examples ( native ,indian writ+ appe>$ 9 ! rock-inscrib$ decrees ( ,asoka1 f\nd 9 v>i\s places ov] ! nor? ( ,india1 f ! ,indus to ! ,ganges1 & ev5 9 ! ,dekkan2 :i* c be dat$ betwe5 #bej & #bcj ,b4,c4 ,! language is ,prakrit or ,pali1 ! *>act]s 7al?\gh at fir/ sight !y seem an indep5d5t script7 7 d]iv$ l s _m o!rs f ! ,semitic sy/em1 & ! ne>e/ ( ! p>allel types is ! alphabet ( ! ,himy>ite inscriptions4 ,! ,saban mon>*y :i* rul$ ov] ,s\!rn ,arabia a ?\s& ye>s ,b4,c4 _h _h l>ge comm]cial relations ) ,india1 & x 0 probably f t s\rce t ! p ( ,bombay & ! ,nor?-,we/ acquir$ ! art ( writ+1 h[ long be=e ,asoka x w\ld be difficult to le>n4 ,out ( ! simple =ms ( ,asoka's alphabet all ! mod]n scripts ( ,indian native writ+ desc5d$1 includ+ ! artificial & elaborate ,nag>i alphabet :i* is "o ( ! late/ ( !m4 ,writ+ 9 ,c5tral ,asia f #cjj ,b4,c4 ,9 ! k+dom ( ,bactria1 ! co9s ( ! k+s :o f ab\t #aej ,b4,c4 foll[$ ! old] ,greek pr9ces1 be> inscriptions 9 ,indian ,prakrit1 b n writt5 9 ! same "* z 0 us$ by ,asoka4 ,! two scripts diff] s mu* 9 appe>ance n only f all o!rs1 b also betwe5 !mselves1 t "o does n easily recognise ! fact t !y bo? mu/ h be5 ( ,himy>itic orig94 ,!y are v diff]5t f ! ,pehlvi :i* 0 us$ by ,p>?ian sov]eigns 9 ! second c5tury aft] ,*ri/1 & by ! ,sassanide k+s 9 ! f\r?4 ,! #ai,pehlvi _h be5 evolv$ f ! lat] ,aramean1 & mu/ h be5 9 use 9 ,p]sia be=e ! "t ( ,alex&]2 b ! exi/+ specim5s are all subsequ5t to ! beg9n+ ( ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,& z = ! script :i* is call$ ,z5d1 & :i* is us$ = writ+ ! ,zoroa/rian books ( ! mo/ anci5t ,p]sian language1 !re is no?+ to prove t x is n ( mu* lat] inv5tion ?an ! ,pehlvi4 ,ori5tal ,lett]s aft] ! beg9n+ ( ! ,*ri/ian ,era ,sam>ia4--,! writ+ ( ,pale/9e 0 probably id5tical orig9ally ) t ( ! ,pho5icians1 & ! ,sam>itan script1 :i* is /ill 9 use = biblical purposes1 has reta9$ to ! pres5t day a consid]able resemblance ) t ( ,tyre & ,sidon4 ,! expatriation & p>tial repatriation ( ! ,jews & ,israelites dur+ ! sev5? & six? c5turies ,b4,c41 _h ! effect ( leav+ only a small remnant 9 ! nor? ( ! l& :o pres]v$ _! anci5t writ+4 ,f t "t to ?is "s ( ! desc5dants ( ! ,sam>ians h cont9u$ to write _! ,p5tateu* 7:i* = !m is ! :ole ( ! ,bible7 9 ! anci5t *>act]s ( ! ,hebrew language 7a specim5 is f\nd on plate #d74 ,all ! re/ ( ! ,jews1 9 :atev] "p ( ! _w !y may h be51 h reta9$ ! squ>e "* 7) its v>i\s ,rabb9ical modifications7 :i* !y le>n$ 9 ,*alda 9 ! sev5? c5tury ,b4,c4 ,b ! ,hebrew language nev] return$ to ! ,holy ,l&4 ,hebrew1 z spok5 among ! ,sam>itans1 und]w5t ! same ,aramaisation z ! language ( ! ,judans1 & f ?ree or f\r c5turies ,b4,c4 d[n to ! eigh? c5tury ( our era1 ! language ( all ,syria 0 ,syriac ) local dialects1 & ,greek 9 ! great cities4 ,! usual "* 9 :i* ,syriac 0 writt5 has already be5 m5tion$1 b ! ,sam>itans wrote ev5 _! semi-,syriac spee* 9 ! old #bj;*>act]s ( _! ,bible2 & !re is a really ,sam>itan ,p5tateu*--diff]5t f ! ,hebrew ,p5tateu* 9 ,sam>itan lett]s--:i* corresponds 9 ,sam>itan lit]ature to ! ,*aldee ,t>gums ( ! ,jews4 ,none ( ! ,hebraeo-,aramaic dialects long surviv$ 9 ,syria ! conque/ ( ! ,arabs4 ,syriac /ill liv$ on 9 ,we/]n ,p]sia & 9 ,mongolia1 & 9 ,india = a "t1 b only surviv$ z a dead liturgical language4 ,*aldo-,hebraic made its way we/w>ds to ,morocco1 ,italy1 ,spa9 & ,gaul4 ,! fai?ful 9 ,sam>ia1 n[ ne>ly ext9ct1 clung to _! ,p5tateu* & _! religion ?r\gh all vicissitudes1 & h nev] ceas$ to write ! ,bible 9 ! ,hebrew script ( anci5t ,pale/9e4 ,arabia4--,arabian writ+ be=e ! "t ( ,mohammad is only kn[n to u "u ! "n ( ,haurani & ,naba?an 9 ! ,nor?1 ( ,himy>itic 9 ! ,s\?4 ,none ( ^! scripts resembles ! ,islamic *>act]s call$ di/9ctively ,arabic4 ,! ,gospel-script 7,e/rangelo7 ( ! ,syrians is ! ne>e/ ( all ! ,aramaic h&s to t us$ by ! e>lie/ ,mohammadans1 :i* 7f its special cultivation 9 ! t[n ( ,cufa7 is call$ ,cufic4 ,b ev5 "h1 ! resemblance is n s close z to make x improbable t !re 0 a l9k betwe5 !m 9 "s lo/ script ( pre-,*ri/ian days4 ,! ,cufic writ+ :i* prevail$ = ?ree c5turies z ! mode ( writ+ ! ,koran _c /rictly be %[n to be ! "m ( ! ,naskhi :i* replac$ x & has fl\ri%$ = a ?\s& ye>s4 ,x is cle>ly old] ?an ! ,naskhi 9 its =ms1 b ! ,naskhi has be5 prov$ to h exi/$ contemporane\sly ) ! ,cufic almo/ f ! beg9n+ ( ,mohammadanism4 ,aft] ! ?ird c5tury ( ! ,hijra1 ! ,cufic 0 only reta9$ = ornam5tation & head-l9es4 ,by t "t ! ,arab conque/s _h creat$ a va/ ,mohammadan empire2 ! ,syrians1 ! ,p]sians1 & ! ,egyptians 7 oblig$ to give up _! old scripts1 & to accept t ( _! conqu]ors4 ,arabic writ+ occupi$ n only all #ba! seats 9 :i* ,pho5ician lett]s _h be5 us$ fifte5 c5turies be=e1 b ev5 a f> l>g] area4 ,! writ+ & ! language 7 us$ & kn[n f ,seville to ! fronti]s ( ,india4 ,soon aft]1 ,india likewise fell a prey2 & ,arabic lett]s h be5 us$ !re ev] s9ce by ! ,mohammadan population4 ,! elegant script call$ ,talik1 :i* 0 peculi> to ! ,p]sians 7b has be5 borr[$ 9 ,india71 0 develop$ 9 ! f\rte5? c5tury4 ,x diff]s little1 except 9 gracefulness1 f ! typical ,naskhi4 ,india & ! fur!r ,ea/4--,! *>act]s 9 :i* ! ,pracrit inscriptions ( ,nor!rn ,india 7 engrav$ on /one1 9 ! ?ird c5tury ,b4,c41 desc5d$1 ) consid]able modifications ( =m1 to ! v>i\s tribes ( ,h9dus :o develop$ ! mod]n languages ( ,india1 n[ call$ ,h9di1 ,guj>ati1 ,mahratti1 ,panjabi1 ,b5gali4 ,all ^! languages are ak91 _! diff]5ces be+ produc$ by segregation & by local contact ) aborig9al or =eign populations4 ,_! "* two ?\s& ye>s ago 7be=e local div]sities 7 p]petuat$ 9 names7 is describ$ by ! t]m ,prakrit 7,natural7 z di/+ui%$ f ! title giv5 to ano!r =m ( ! language1 namely ,sanskrit 7,artificial7 :i* is believ$ to repres5t a f> m anci5t /age ( ,indian spee*4 ,9 ?is artificial language ! e>lie/ traditions & lit]ature ( ! ,h9do-,aryan race are pres]v$1 b x is suppos$ to h di$ out ( spee* 7if ev] x 0 spok57 sev]al c5turies be=e ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,h[ev] t may be1 we h no monum5t or record to %[ t x 0 writt5 till ! t5? c5tury aft] ,*ri/1 & ! ,sanscrit alphabet is und5iably n m ?an eight or n9e c5turies old1 hav+ be5 artificially elaborat$ f ! mu* simpl] script ( ,asoka's "t4 ,! graphic sy/ems ( ,s\!rn ,india1 ,ceylon1 ,?ibet1 ,burma1 & ,siam 7 all d]iv$ f ! script ( ,aryan ,india aft] ,budhism _h begun to spread4 #bb;,9 ,nor?-,ea/]n ,asia1 ! ,mongolian script 7& out ( x1 ! ,man*urian7 7 =m$ f ! writ+ ( ! ,ne/orian ,*ri/ians :o c>ri$ _! ,syriac books to ! fronti]s ( ,*9a4 ,spa9 & ,gaul "u ! ,romans ,x has be5 already said t ,punic settlem5ts 7 made 9 ,spa9 probably z f> back z ! sev5? c5tury ,b4,c4 ,to ! ,pho5icians or ,c>?ag9ians we may ascribe ! introduction ( lett]s & _! application to co9s & inscriptions1 n only 9 ! ,punic language ( ! m5 :o held ,cadiz1 ,c>?ag5a1 & ,b>celona1 b also 9 ! ,ib]ian & ,celtib]ian language ( native pr9ces4 ,/rabo says t ! ,turdetani 7( ! pres5t ,&alusia7 boa/$ ! possession ( hi/orical & poetical books ( imm5se age 9 _! own language2 b :5 he 0 writ+1 ab\t ! "t ( ! bir? ( ,*ri/1 !y 7 all ,romanis$ & unable to speak any o!r tongue ?an ,lat94 ,!re exi/s1 h[ev]1 a great quantity ( co9s /ruck 9 ,spa9 betwe5 #djj ,b4,c4 & ! "t ( ,augu/us4 ,!re are ?ree v>ieties 7omitt+ ^? ( ,greek colonies 9 ,aragon71 namely1 ^? 9 ,punic language & ,punic lett]s1 ^? ) ,ib]ian names 9 ,punic lett]s1 & ^? ) ,celtib]ian names 9 modifi$ ,punic lett]s4 ,! lat] ,ib]ian & ,celtib]ian h sometimes ,lat9 inscriptions add$ to ! native ones4 ,9 ! fir/ c5tury aft] ,*ri/1 ! :ole ( ,spa9 0 virtually ,romanis$4 ,! ,transalp9e ,gauls reta9$ _! own spee* long] ?an ! ,spani>ds did !irs1 because ! conque/ 0 lat]2 b ! p ( ,cisalp9e ,gaul 7 ,romanis$ ev5 e>li] ?an ! ,spani>ds4 ,! indep5d5ce ( ,m>seilles z a ,greek republic came to an end 9 ! fir/ c5tury ( ! ,roman empire1 & ! ,greek language probably di$ out 9 a few g5]ations4 ,!n1 no d\bt1 ,roman lett]s took ! place ( ! ,greek1 :i*1 z ,cs> said1 7 us$ by ! ,gauls 9 8 "t4 ,h5ce=w>d1 till ! fif? c5tury1 ,spa9 & #bc;,gaul 7 simply outly+ prov9ces ( ! empire1 )\t any?+ 9 lit]ature or calligraphy to di/+ui% _! p f ! ,romanis$ ,italians4 ,x 0 n till ! six? c5tury1 :5 ! ,go?ic k+dom _h become a /able in/itution1 t any?+ l a local fa%ion ( calligraphy began to develop itself 9 ,spa94 ,gaul 0 simil>ly affect$ by ! influx fir/ ( ! ,visigo?s1 !n ( ! ,franks4 ,influ5ce ( ! ,bible ^u writ+ ,! ev5ts :i* l$ to ! compilation ( ! ,gospels 7 ( ! greate/ mom5t 9 ! hi/ory ( writ+4 ,! educational influ5ce ( ! ,bible--ap>t entirely f its claims to sup]natural importance--9 spread+ ! use ( lett]s & creat+ s*ools = ! /udy ( read+ & writ+1 has be5 incalculable4 ,! hi/orical & religi\s traditions ( ! ,jews w\ld probably h _h b little effect ^u ! _w1 if ! result ( ! v>i\s w>s by :i* ,syria 0 s (t5 desolat$ _h n be5 to expatriate ! *os5 p ( ! ,"l4 ,a l>ge ,jewi% population occupi$ ,nor!rn ,egypt at ! "t :5 ,alex&]'s conque/s revolutionis$ ! old _w4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( ,greek dyna/ies 9 t c\ntry & 9 ,syria spe$ily ,hell5is$ ! upp] classes & ! citiz5s 9 bo?2 & ! l+ui/ic subjugation ( ! ,jews 9 ,egypt 0 ev5 m complete ?an t ( _! old ma/]s4 ,_! peculi> condition facilitat$ a *ange2 = :ile !y possess$ ! sacr$ book ( ! ,law ( _! =efa!rs 9 a language t _h be5 dead = c5turies1 !y _h only translations 9 ! language ( ! c\ntry ( _! =m] exile 7,*alda72 & ?\gh !y _h ! comm]cial qualification ( bil+ualism1 _! ,*aldee & _! ,egyptian 7 probably equally weak4 ,two g5]ations 7 en\gh to ,hell5ise !m1 & sev5ty ye>s aft] ,alex&]'s dea?1 ! ,bible 0 introduc$ to ! k ( ! ,greek _w 9 an edition de/9$ to r5d] ! old ,hebrew #bdscripture intelligible to ,egyptian & ,syrian ,jews4 ,?is =tunate circum/ance drew a numb] ( p into ! ,elohi/ic fold :o w\ld nev] o!rwise h be5 f\nd !re2 & _h no small influ5ce 9 br++ ab\t ! social & moral revolution :i* signalis$ ! beg9n+ ( our era4 ,! ,septuag9t mu/ rema9 ! true ,bible ( ,*ri/5dom until ! ,hebrew text ( ! pr-,*ri/ian ages is discov]$4 ,next to x 9 importance is ! ,syriac ,bible1 & next to t1 ! ,lat9 ,vulgate4 ,all ?ree indicate ! prior exi/5ce ( a ,hebrew orig9al2 b to obta9 a critically exact k ( :at t orig9al 0 at ! "t ( ,alex&] ! ,great1 "o mu/ resort to ! ,septuag9t2 at ! "t ( ,*ri/1 to ! ,syriac2 & at ! "t ( ! ,emp]or ,julian1 to ! ,vulgate4 ,! ,hebrew text1 z we n[ h x1 und]w5t s _m *anges & corruptions dur+ ! fir/ few c5turies ( ! gr[? ( ,*ri/ianity z a y\ng] rival to ,judaism1 t ev5 ! olde/ ,hebrew ,,mss4 are preclud$ by _! comp>ative mod]nity f claim+ equal importance ) ! ?ree v]sions ref]r$ to4 ,! multiplication ( copies ( ! ,syriac ,scriptures1 betwe5 ! fir/ c5tury aft] ,*ri/ & ! sev5?1 mu/ h be5 v great2 t ( ! ,greek ,bible & ,te/am5t1 f ! fir/ to ! f\rte5? c5tury1 /ill great]2 & t ( ! ,lat9 ,vulgate1 f ! fif? to ! fifte5?1 enorm\s4 ,! e>ly mission>ies ( ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* 7 ,hell5is$ ,syrians or ,egyptians1 & !y /amp$ ! art ( _! native c\ntries ^u ! new ,biblical lit]ature 9 e c\ntry except ,italy4 ,italy 0 ! exception1 simply because x 0 ! c5tre ( political p[] & ( ,grco-,roman culture1 & ?us too le>n$ & too fa/idi\s to accept a new popul> religion or an inf]ior type ( ornam5tal art4 ,b all ! ext]nal prov9ces ( ! ,empire und]w5t ! influ5ce ( ! en?usia/ic proselytiz]s1 & ev5 ,byzantium succumb$ to x aft] ! ,empire ( ! ,we/ _h be5 ext+ui%$4 ,! types ( ornam5t creat$ = ! embelli%m5t ( ,bibles 7 ,egyptian 9 #be;design & col\r+2 & ?is is ! reason :y ! pictures 9 all ! e>ly examples ( book-illu/ration 9 ! ,we/ are suppos$ to h a ,byzant9e aspect2 ! fact be+ t :ile classical art fad$ away almo/ ) paganism 9 ,italy & ,hellas1 ! ,ori5tal sub/itute1 :i* reign$ f ,asia ,m9or to ,irel&1 0 pres]v$ 9 ,byzantium till ! d[nfall ( ! ,greek empire4 ,a few belat$ specim5s ( deg5]ate classical ornam5t are f\nd to repres5t ! ages betwe5 ,con/ant9e & ,*>les ! ,great2 b 9 g5]al t]ms x may be said t ,roman book-illu/ration di$ out 9 ! f\r? c5tury4 ,x came to life aga91 b 9 utt] metamorphosis1 9 ! decorat$ ,iri% books ( ! six?-sev5? c5tury1 :i* 7 really ! fir/ examples ( ! m$ival art ( illum9ation4 ,! ,coptic alphabet & ! ,go?ic alphabet 7 two late & artificial inv5tions1 due entirely to a holy rage = produc+ ! ,bible 9 ! language ( ! ,egyptians & ! ,go?s4 ,! two ,slavonic alphabets likewise 7 late scripts1 inv5t$ = ! purpose ( translat+ ! ,bible into ,slov5e4 ,! ,arm5ian alphabet 7& out ( x ! ,georgian7 _h a simil> orig91 & seems to h _h "s relation%ip to ! ,slav ,glagolitic4 ,!y are bo? attribut$ to ! fif? c5tury4 ,writ+ 9 ,italy dur+ ! fir/ five c5turies ( ! ,*ri/ian era ,we h n z full a k z c\ld be wi%$ = ( ! ord9>y /yles ( writ+ "u ! ,roman empire4 ,! books ( ! f\r? & fif? c5turies :i* are extant %[ t calligraphy 0 !n fl\ri%+ 9 great spl5d\r1 s f> z capitals & uncials 7 conc]n$2 & ! co9s & inscriptions ( ! ?ree prec$+ c5turies %[ u ,roman capitals at _! be/4 ,t ru/ic capitals 7 us$ 9 ! fir/ c5tury is prov$ by ! ,h]culanean rema9s1 & t ! fa%ion ( writ+ 9 squ>e capitals1 #bfru/ic capitals1 & uncials 0 /ill practis$ 9 ,italy d[n to ! eigh? c5tury1 we h suffici5t gr\nds = kn[+4 ,b z to ! /yle ( h&writ+ us$ 9 books ( :i* editions ( p]haps a few hundr$ copies 7 issu$--su*1 = example1 z ! edition ( 8 own epigrams :i* ,m>tial f\nd at ,lyons--we c only =m conjectures4 ,! semi-uncials ( ! fif? & six? c5turies1 :i* grew into ! m9uscules ( ! sev5? & eigh?1 mu/ h be5 z mu* ne$$ 9 ! fir/ c5tury z ! six?1 b !re is no trace ( !m4 ,! ,roman cursive h&1 upright or backslop$1 t appe>s 9 ! few extant tablets & wall-inscriptions ( ! fir/ & second c5turies1 w\ld h be5 too difficult = ! read]s :o b\ght books to enjoy !m1 & w\ld assur$ly h s]v$ z an ob/acle to _! sale4 ,x resembles r ! *>t] h& ( lat] days ?an ! m9uscule writ+ ( books1 b ! lett]s are unconnect$1 & !re is no trace ( any attempt at neatness4 ,x is inde$ almo/ illegible1 )\t sl[ & pa9ful deciph]m5t4 ,"o /rik+ peculi>ity is ! b1 :i* has frequ5tly ! %ape ( d1 a =m t 0 reta9$ 9 ! (ficial diplomatic h& ( ! fif? c5tury4 ,su* z x 01 h[ev]1 ! cursive h& w\ld h _h consid]able influ5ce 9 %ap+ ! semi-uncial or m9uscule writ+1 :i* mu/ h exi/$ be=e x 0 adopt$ by ! ,iri% 9 ! fif? c5tury & mo/ o!r b>b>ians 9 ! six?4 ,t semi-uncial1 al?\gh we f9d no examples ( its use 9 ! empire be=e ! end ( ! fif? c5tury1 _h evid5tly be5 ! imm$iate p>5t ( ! fir/ ,iri%1 :i* only diff]s f x 9 ! sup]ior ev5ness & regul>ity ( ! latt]4 ,x includ$ ! g1 r1 s1 t1 :i* are usually look$ ^u z special & *>act]i/ic lett]s ( ! ,iri% & ,anglo-,saxon alphabet4 ,aft] ! fif? c5tury ,italy ceas$ to be entirely ,roman4 ,9 ,rome itself1 & 9 ! region subject to ! ,popes1 ! production ( f9e manuscripts ( ! old /yle 9 capitals & uncials /ill w5t on1 sometimes writt5 9 gold #bg;& on purple vellum2 & ! modifi$ cursive h& above ref]r$ 0 appli$ to ! writ+ ( books z well z ! writ+ ( despat*es4 ,:5 ?is cu/om began is j :at we %\ld l to "k1 because x w\ld give u ! true orig9 ( all mod]n m9uscule writ+ or pr9t+4 ,a specim51 dat+ f ! sev5? c5tury1 is giv5 9 ! ,palographical ,society's facsimiles1 :i* is cle>ly ! type t 0 foll[$ & improv$ ^u 9 ,c5tral ,france1 9 ! ,c>ol9e p]iod4 ,c>elessly writt5 z x seems1 x indicates t a consid]able l5g? ( "t _h elaps$ s9ce ! p5 _h be5 tra9$ to =m alt]nate light & heavy /rokes1 & to give to ! curves ( ! lett]s an agreeable r\ndness1 :i* 0 :olly miss+ 9 ! e>li] ,roman cursive4 ,x does n seem unreasonable to suppose t su* writ+ 0 us$ 9 books long be=e ! arrival ( ! fif? c5tury2 b !re is no pro( accessible4 ,! ,briti% ,isles dur+ ! ,roman p]iod ,x w\ld h be5 correct en\gh to bracket ,brita9 along ) ,spa9 & ,gaul 9 a prec$+ p>agraph1 b we _c v5ture to claim = ?is c\ntry any k ( writ+ be=e ! arrival ( ! ,romans4 ,x is true t a great "p ( ! s\? ( ! isl& 0 ,gauli%1 & t ! ,gauls ( ,gaul1 :o knew h[ to write1 7 9 intimate relations ) ! ,britons4 ,britania 0 probably a l& ( ,celtib]ian population l ,spa91 b )\t su* traditions z ! ,turdetani4 ,x 0 ,romanis$ v effectively all ov] ! s\?1 & ) ! ,lat9 language ! p us$ ,lat9 lett]s l _! fell[s 9 ,gaul & ,spa94 ,l o!r ,roman citiz5s1 ! ,britons became ,*ri/ians1 und]w5t subjugation by pagan b>b>ians1 & lo/ _! lives or _! ,lat9ity1 ^? :o escap$ massacre be+ absorb$ by ! invad]s4 ,s f> z writ+ is conc]n$1 !y h left no?+ beyond "s lapid> inscriptions2 b ^! & :atev] else !y #bhproduc$ 9 ! =m ( ,,mss4 dur+ ! fir/ f\r c5turies 7 no d\bt z :olly ,roman z any?+ ( ! k9d 9 ,italy4 ,at s %ort a di/ance f ! %ores ( ,roman ,brita91 x is n likely t ! ,iri% rema9$ lett]less till ! fif? c5tury ( ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,x is almo/ c]ta9 t ! lab\rs ( ,/4 ,patrick 7ab\t ! middle ( t c5tury7 7 b complem5t>y to ^? ( e>li] mission>ies2 & t ! adoption ( ! ,roman alphabet 9 ,irel& may be dat$ f ! end ( ! f\r? or ! beg9n+ ( ! fif? c5tury4 ,! consummate ornam5tal beauty ( ! ,,mss4 execut$ 9 ,irel& dur+ ! sev5? c5tury1 & ! te/imony giv5 by ,/4 ,adamnan 7writ+ ab\t ,a4,d4 #fgj7 to ! exp]tness ( ,/4 ,columba z a calligraph] 7ab\t #eej7 t5d to prove t ! art _h be5 practis$ = a long "t be=e x atta9$ to su* excell5ce4 ,! p>ticul> m]it ( ! ,iri% is t !y seem to h develop$ 7out ( ,roman semi-uncials7 a h&some m9uscule =m ( writ+ e>li] ?an any o!r p4 ,! cursive ( ! ,romans _h always be5 an ugly & ill-deciph]able script2 & x 0 only 9 ! sev5? c5tury t ev5 ! ,italians1 "u b>b>ian pressure1 evolv$ a fairly good readable m9uscule4 ,! m9uscules ( ,gaul & ,we/]n ,g]many1 call$ ,m][+ian1 7 /ill 9 a =mless & primitive rud5ess at ! "t :5 ! ,iri% _h already atta9$ ! elegance ( practis$ p5man%ip4 ,! ,go?s h next to be m5tion$1 z !y & ! ,iri% 7 ! only two b>b>ian nations t adopt$ ! ,grco-,roman alphabet be=e ! break-up ( ! ,roman empire4 ,! ,go?s & ,g]mans ,! p :o 9 ! f\r? c5tury aft] ,*ri/ call$ !mselves ,gut-?iuda1 i4e4 ,go?-p1 _h be5 = _m c5turies ! mo/ ea/]ly bran* ( ! ,g]manic race4 #bi;,d[n at lea/ to ! second c5tury ,b4,c4 _! tribes occupi$ ! regions bord]+ on ! ,vi/ula & ! ,dnie/]1 ext5d+ f ! ,bay ( ,dantzig to ! ,black ,sea4 ,at ! nor?-we/]n end ( ! l9e !y 7 9 ! "t ( ,tacitus kn[n z ,gu?ones2 ^? at ! o!r end 7 call$ ,ba/>n by ,polybius & ,/rabo1 & recognis$ z ,g]mans4 ,! latt] p 7 ! fir/ ( _! race to become acqua9t$ ) civilisation4 ,! amb]-trade 0 already 9 ! "t ( ,h]odotus a vigor\s traffic1 c>ri$ on betwe5 ! ,baltic & ! ,greek settlem5ts on ! ,eux9e4 ,x pass$ ?r\gh ! l&s ( ! ,gu?ones & ! ,ba/>n1 & l$ und\bt$ly to ! gr[? ( ! =m ( notation call$ ,runes4 ,! ,runic alphabet1 inscriptions 9 :i* are num]\s 9 ,sc&9avia1 0 evid5tly de=m$ f ! ,greek1 & mu/ h orig9at$ ab\t ! ,dnie/] "s five or six c5turies be=e ,*ri/4 ,z "t w5t on1 t alphabet naturally drift$ fur!r & fur!r nor?2 ! ,go?s & ,g]mans1 ne>e/ to ! ,greeks1 hav+1 ( c\rse1 less ne$ ( x accord+ z _! k increas$4 ,f ! %ores ( ! ,baltic x 0 c>ri$ into ,sc&9avia1 & became ! e>lie/ =m ( writ+ 9 ,nor!rn ,europe4 ,mr4 ,george ,/eph5s claims = ! olde/ ( ! extant ,norse ,runes an antiquity exce$+ t ( our era1 b a m mod]ate ,sc&9avian writ] sets ! e>lie/ date at ab\t ,a4,d4 #cjj4 ,9 any case1 x mu/ be all[$ t "s =m ( writ+ 0 obta9$ by ,go?ic tribes f ,greek trad]s be=e ! "t ( ,*ri/1 & t x aft]w>ds f\nd a home 9 ,d5m>k1 ,sw$51 & ,norway4 ,! "n ( ,runes is equival5t to t ( ciph]s or riddles or my/]ies1 & we may inf] t its real orig9 0 9 ! cutt+ ( /rokes to express numb]s4 ,runic lett]s nev] rea*$ ! p5-&-ink /age ( o!r alphabets1 & _! records are h>dly m ?an inscriptions ^u tomb/ones4 ,= t & simil> purposes !y cont9u$ to be occasionally employ$1 bo? 9 ,engl& & ,sc&9avia1 long aft] ! #cjuse ( ,roman or modifi$ ,roman lett]s _h be5 e/abli%$ 9 all c\ntries4 ,! s+ul> v>iations 9 =m & numb] & value betwe5 runes ( diff]5t dates & diff]5t places1 are easily acc\nt$ = by ! circum/ance t !re c h be5 no cont9u\s practise ( su* inscriptions 9 any c\ntry 9 :i* ,*ri/ianity _h already e/abli%$ a simpl] script4 ,runes d n seem to h come into use among ! ,we/]n ,g]mans1 t is1 ! tribes :i* occupi$ ! region :i* we n[ call ,g]many4 ,hrabanus ,maurus1 9 ! t5? c5tury1 wrote ab\t ! runes ( ! ,m>comanni1 & gave figures ( !m4 ,?is has l$ ,g]man writ]s to ass]t ! exi/5ce ( ,runic lett]s among ! ,suevi 9 ! e>ly days ( ! ,roman empire2 b ,hrabanus adds to ,m>comanni ! gloss quos nos ,nor?mannos vocamus4 ,8 ,m>comanni 7 n ! ,m>*m5 ( ! ,roman p]iod4 ,b$e is also said to h =mulat$ a li/ ( ! runes ( ! ,nor?m54 ,"o reason :i* ret>d$ ! educational advancem5t ( ! ,we/]n ,g]mans 0 t !y nev] came into contact ) ! ,romans till ! beg9n+ ( ! fir/ c5tury ,b4,c41 & ev5 !n only = a %ort "t1 9 ! invasion ( ! republic by ! ,cimbri & ,teutones4 ,!y 7 %ut away f ! ,roman fronti]s by ! buff] /ates ( ,celtic c\ntries1 & x 0 only aft] ! conque/ ( ,gaul1 ,rhtia1 & ,noricum t ! ,romans came into cont9u\s conflict ) ,m>comanni & ,suevi4 ,x 0 ,cs> :o fir/ made ! "n ( ,g]mani hi/orical1 & ,tacitus :o inv5t$ ,g]mania z ! "n ( ! c\ntry4 ,! "n ,g]mani is1 z ,zeuss sugge/s1 ,gallic = ,neighb\rs1 & 0 pron\nc$ ,grmani by ! ,gauls1 :o _h fir/ be5 ask$ by ! ,romans h[ _! neighb\rs 7 call$4 ,x is curi\s t ev5 9 ?is c\ntry ! ,britons call$ ! invad+ ,engli% ,g>mani1 by :at ,b$e suppos$ to be a corruption ( spee*4 7,! ,celts 9 lat] days 7 n ,lat9is$ ,britons1 & knew no?+ ( #ca;,g]mans4 ,!y made no di/9ction betwe5 ,angles1 ,saxons1 & ,jutes1 b call$ !m all ,saxons47 ,! "n by :i* ! ,g]mans call !mselves is n a race "n1 b m]ely ! adjective mean+ national1 native1 v]nacul>4 ,j z ! ,italians aft]w>ds us$ ! phrase 9 volg>e to mean 9 ,italian1 z di/+ui%$ f ,lat91 s ! ,g]mans _h ! ^w diutisc or ?iutisc 7deuts*7 to mean vulg>1 z oppos$ to walahisc or walesc 7wels*71 :i* meant ,lat94 ,! two adjectives became 9 "t prop] names1 ) ! s5se ( ,g]man & ,roman4 ,! ,we/]n ,g]mans _h no?+ to d ) writ+ till !y conqu]$ ! ,wel%m5 ( ,gaul4 ,consequ5tly1 we proce$ to ! ,go?ic alphabet4 ,aft] repeat$ attacks on ! ,roman empire 9 ! ?ird c5tury1 & repeat$ defeats1 ! ,go?s _h ext5d$ _! seats s\?w>ds1 & 7 resid5t1 9 a p>tly ,*ri/ianis$ /ate1 9 ! l&s nor? & s\? ( ! ,danube4 ,wulfila1 or ,ulfila1 a ,go?1 said to h be5 born 9 ,cappadocia1 a man ( great ability1 :o 0 able to prea* 9 ,go?ic1 9 ,greek1 & 9 ,lat91 ?\ght ! "t _h come to ,*ri/ianise 8 c\ntrym5 completely4 ,= t purpose he translat$ ! ,bible into ! ,go?ic language1 & creat$ an uncial alphabet1 d]iv$ p>tly f ,greek1 p>tly f ,lat91 & p>tly f ,runic4 ,( 8 tw5ty-sev5 lett]s1 two are m]ely num]als4 ,9 ! tw5ty-five t 7 us$ = writ+1 ! c 7g71 d1 l1 p1 & * h _! ,greek uncial %apes1 ! a1 b1 e1 f1 h1 i1 k1 m1 n1 r1 s1 t1 & z may be call$ ,lat9 uncials2 ! q resembles our capital u1 b is pla9ly an adaptation ( ! ,greek koppa1 ! ? seems to be modifi$ f ! ,greek ph1 b may h easily be5 ! ,greek ?2 a ,roman ,g is ins]t$ 9 ! alphabet 9 ! place ( ! ,greek ,ksi1 & seems to h be5 us$ z gh or ,y consonant2 a ,greek ,y is us$ = ! ,runic angul> ,p :i* repres5t$ ! ,teutonic w2 an o ) a dot 9 ! c5tre /ood = hw2 & ! v[els ,o & ,u appe> z ,symbol3 #h )\t bottom half-loop & ,symbol3 inv]t$ ,u4 ,! ,go?ic ?1 hw1 w1 o1 #cb;& u are f\nd 9 ! ,runic alphabet1 f :i* ,ulfila mu/ h borr[$ !m4 ,s f> z x 0 possible to him he avoid$ ! lett]s ( 8 pagan ance/ors1 b = c]ta9 s\nds exi/+ 9 ,go?ic1 & n 9 ,greek or ,lat91 he 0 compell$ to fall back ^u ! ,runes4 ,j 9 a simil> way1 ! ,anglo-,saxons two hundr$ ye>s lat]1 :5 adopt+ ! ,iri%-,roman alphabet1 7 oblig$ to add ! necess>y ? & w f ! same ,runic s\rce4 ,! ,go?ic lett]s ( ,ulfila 7 us$ = ab\t two c5turies by ! s-call$ ,o/rogo?s1 all ! extant manuscripts ( ! ,go?ic ,bible hav+ be5 writt5 9 ,italy 9 ! six? c5tury1 ! fam\s ,silv] ,gospels ( ,/ockholm includ$4 ,( ! ,visigo?s :o _h prec$$ ! ,o/rogo?s 9 ,italy1 b gone onw>d !nce to fix _! rule 9 ,s\!rn ,gaul & ,spa91 we h no?+ to %[ t !y ev] made use ( ! ,ulphilan alphabet4 ,_! co9s ( ! six? & sev5? c5turies be> inscriptions 9 debas$ ,roman capitals2 & ! s-call$ ,visigo?ic writ+ 9 manuscripts ( ! eigh? to ! twelf? c5turies is simply ,spani%-,roman4 ,! use1 9 mod]n times1 ( ! ^w ,go?ic to indicate special =ms ( writ+ & ar*itecture is v absurd1 b ! phrase has become conv5i5t4 ,9 s f> z writ+ is conc]n$1 we may cont9ue to use ! ^w go?ic 7) a small g7 to d5ote ! angul> black lett] ( ! f\rte5?1 fifte5?1 & sixte5? c5turies4 ,iri% & ,briti% writ+ ,( ! v>i\s species ( national writ+ :i* 7 evolv$ f ,roman calligraphy1 & :i*1 f ! sev5? c5tury onw>ds1 are divid$ by palograph]s into ,lomb>dic & ,visigo?ic1 ,franki% 7,m][+ian71 & ,iri% 7,hib]nian & ,anglo-,saxon71 ! ,iri% 0 probably ! fir/ to atta9 a di/9ct type ( its own4 ,!re w\ld be #cc;inh]5t probability 9 ! notion t ! ,iri% alphabet & ! ,iri% /yle ( ornam5t 7 creat$ 9 ,brita9 & transf]r$ to ,irel& 9 ! fif? c5tury :5 ! ,engli% arriv$4 ,pr(essor ,we/wood seem$ to reg>d ! idea ) fav\r b hesitat$ 9 giv+ x full expression4 ,he says x may be obs]v$ t ! e>lie/ ( ! sculptur$ ,*ri/ian /ones ( ,wales exhibit ! same sy/em ( ornam5tation1 z well z ! same /yle ( writ+1 z ! ,iri% ,,mss4 :i* are1 9 all probability1 ( a some:at m rec5t date4 ,"o w naturally seek to te/ ! value ( ?is obs]vation by exam9+ ! writ]'s ,lapid>ium ,walli4 ,9 t "w1 h[ev]1 no sub/antiation w be f\nd4 ,!re are a c\ple ( in/ances 9 :i* sculptur$ /ones be>+ names1 :i* are assign$ by ,bi%op ,/ubbs to ! n9? c5tury1 are said by ,pr(4 ,we/wood to be p]haps ( ! six? or sev5?2 & t is all4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! "o sali5t fact obs]vable 9 ! ,lapid>ium is1 t all ! inscriptions ( ! ,roman & e>ly po/-,roman "t are 9 pure ,roman capitals1 :ile ! inscriptions ^u sculptur$ /ones 9 m9uscules resembl+ ! ,iri% alphabet1 all belong to ! p]iod :5 ! ,angles & ,saxons 7 9 full possession ( ,iri% calligraphic & arti/ic models--t is1 aft] ! sev5? c5tury4 ,! ,britons ( ! fif? c5tury1 at lea/ all ov] ! ,s\!rn half ( ! isl&1 7 a ,romanis$ p z mu* z ! ,gauls1 & x w\ld be ridicul\s to expect ,celtic prov9cial art 9 ! home ( ,roman culture4 ,!y 7 ext]m9at$ or absorb$ 9 ! ea/ & middle ( ! isl& by ! ,g]manic invad]s1 & !y 7 h>ri$ out ( ! we/ by _! ,cumri k9dr$ f ! nor?1 & by pirate ,scots f ,irel&4 ,! latt] "p ( ! fif? c5tury & ! :ole ( ! six? & "p ( ! sev5?1 =m$ a p]iod dur+ :i* ! inhabitants ( ,cambria c h produc$ little or no?+ 9 ! way ( lett]s or art4 ,x 0 probably n till ! beg9n+ ( ! eigh? c5tury t ! ,cumri began to id5tify !mselves ) ! #cd;anci5t ,britons1 & to ga!r up ! leg5ds & hi/orical traditions ( ! ,briti% remnant z _! own4 ,!re is a cle> te/imony t ! ,cumri & ! ,britons 7 closely ak9 z a race1 b n id5tical1 9 ! fact t names beg9n+ ) ,v 9 ,briti% use d[n to ! fif? c5tury are f\nd to beg9 ) ,gu 7,gw7 9 ! language ( ! ,wel%4 ,gu5d & ,v5d 7 ( c\rse two phases ( an old ,celtic ^w1 b ! =m] is necess>ily ! old]4 ,consequ5tly ! p :o h us$ ,gw f ! fif? to ! n9ete5? c5tury _c be ! same z ^? :o _h already rea*$ ! ,v-/age 9 ! fir/ c5tury4 ,!y 7 close relatives und\bt$ly1 b _h little 9 common beyond _! racial aff9ity & ! orig9al homog5eity ( _! spee*4 ,x may be surmis$ t ! ,briton f\nd no m k9dness 9 8 ,cumric /epbro!r1 or 8 ,iri% c\s91 ?an 9 ! fi]ce /rang]s :o call$ him a ,wel%man 7because !y f\nd him talk+ ,wel%1 i4e4 ,lat974 ,b$e1 9 spite ( 8 ,romani/ t5d5cy1 & 8 ,romani/ av]sion to ! practice ( ! ,celtic *ur* ) reg>d to ! ,pas*al fe/ival & ! tonsure1 gives cle> evid5ce t 9 ! middle ( ! sev5? c5tury _m ,engli%m5 ( ! noble & ! mean] sort resort$ to ,irel&1 & dwelt !re = ! purpose ei!r ( /udy or ( lead+ a religi\s life 7div9 lectionis vel cont95tioris vit grati71 & /ates t ! ,scots receiv$ !m all mo/ will+ly1 giv+ !m _! daily food )\t *>ge1 also books = read+1 & gratuit\s in/ruction4 ,! ,angles 7 apt pupils4 ,!y le>n$ to write & ornam5t books ( _! own 9 ! ,iri% mann]1 & !y _h ,iri% monks 9 _! new mona/]ies :o fo/]$ ! art4 ,by ! close ( ! sev5? c5tury1 !re 7 exp]t p5m5 among ! ,anglian monks1 & dur+ ! eigh? c5tury1 al?\gh ! v close adh]5ce to ,iri% models is ! feature ( mo/ ( ! ornam5tal manuscripts1 !y began to /rike out a new & *>act]i/ic l9e ( _! own 9 :i* !y soon surpass$ _! ma/]s4 ,?is 0 9 #ce;figure-draw+1 9 m9iatures pa9t$ ) a ma/]y ( design :i* 0 altoge!r unkn[n to ! ,iri%4 ,! heads or figures :i* appe>$ 9 ,iri% illum9ations 7 m]ely accessory & subord9ate to ! s*eme ( decoration1 utt]ly contemptible z del9eations ( human =m4 ,9 ! ,anglo-,saxon m9iatures ( ! p]iod :i* began--say ab\t #gej & cont9u$ to ! elev5? c5tury1 !re is a di/9ct national s*ool1 9 :i* ! ov]-anxi\s treatm5t ( drap]ies & ! /rik+ addiction to light gre5 pigm5t1 are prom95t *>act]i/ics4 ,! /yle gives a sort ( g5]al impression t x _h be5 =m$ ^u a ,byzant9e model1 b ! probability is t ! lat] classical survival 9 ,italy 9 ! sev5? c5tury _h help$ to =m ! ,anglo-,saxon ta/e z well z ! ta/e ( ! ,c>ol+ian s*ool4 ,a simil>1 b rud]1 expression ( ! same ,anglo-,saxon me?od ( illu/ration appe>$ 9 ,g]man "w ( ! t5? & elev5? c5turies2 & z ?is _h its p>5tage 9 ! ,fr5* ,c>ol+ian art ( ! n9? c5tury1 we may suspect t ! t5d5cy :i* br\ght t art to its p]fection 9 ! "t ( ,*>les ! ,bald1 _h begun 9 ,gaul be=e ! "t ( ,*>les ! ,great1 t is1 e>li] ?an ! usual date ( its sudd5 g5esis4 ,?is conjecture w\ld make ! production ( books illu/rat$ ) m9iatures syn*ronise 9 ,france & ,engl&1 & ?us obviate ! difficulty ( suppos+ t ! ,anglo-,saxons inv5t$ ! art & c>ri$ x to p]fection )9 a c5tury ( _! le>n+ h[ to write4 ,x is suffici5t glory = !m to h conv]t$ ! arti/ic movem5t ( ! "t into a national s*ool ( pa9t+ unmi/akable ) any o!r1 at a "t :5 ! calligraphical s*ools ( c5tral & ,s\!rn ,france1 "u an enlight5$ ,franki% emp]or1 & ) f> sup]ior opportunities1 7 lab\r+ = a ,gallo-,roman r5aissance4 #cf,orig9 ( ,m$ival ,illum9ation ,books 9 ! classical p]iod _h ( c\rse be5 ornam5t$ ) illu/rations1 b ! illum9ation ( books 79 ! m$ival s5se7 did n orig9ate ) ! ,grco-,roman calligraph]s ( ! ,empire4 ,we _c suppose t x sprang into life 9 ,irel&1 b c]ta9ly its fir/ ,european manife/ation 0 9 ,iri% ,,mss41 & ! art _h n be5 receiv$ by ! ,iri% f any ( ! ,european nations4 ,! only alt]native is1 h[ev]1 f> fet*$1 t ,*ri/ian mission>ies f ! ,ea/ 7or ) ,ea/]n tra9+7 _h prec$$ ,/4 ,patrick & br\ght ) !m ^? *>act]i/ics ( ,syro-,egyptian art :i* are traceable alike 9 ,iri% & 9 ,byzant9e "w4 ,! docum5t>y p]iod ( writ+ 9 ,irel& is ( c\rse lat] ?an ! actual practice ( ! art 9 t c\ntry1 b x is e>li] ?an among/ any o!r ( ! unromanis$ b>b>ians4 ,adamnan1 writ+ ab\t ,a4,d4 #fgj1 relates ! life ( ,/4 ,columba 7dead 9 #eih7 & describes ! writ+ mat]ials :i* t sa9t _h us$ 9 8 scriptorium 9 ! isl& ( ,hy4 ,z he _h le>n$ to write 9 ,irel& & _h begun 8 prie/ly c>e] !re be=e #edj1 we may place ! hi/orically asc]ta9able use ( writ+ 9 ,irel& z beg9n+ ) ! e>ly ye>s ( ! six? c5tury4 ,iri% monks c>ri$ ! art to ,brita91 to ,gaul1 to ,g]many2 & ^? elaborate & intricate patt]ns to :i* ! ,fr5* give ! names ( lettres p]les1 lettres brodes1 spirales1 noeuds1 et entrelacs1 initiales ophiomorphiques1 i*?yomorphiques1 c41 & :i* !y claim z indig5\s productions ( ,c>ol+ian ,france 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! n9? c5tury--7 fruits ( ! tea*+ ( ,iri% mission>ies1 9 ! h\ses :i* !y f\nd$ 9 ,brita9 & all ov] ! cont95t 9 ! sev5? c5tury4 ,"s ( ! rem>ks 9 ! prec$+ section w be f\nd 9 /rong disagreem5t ) ! au?ority ( ,pr(essor #cg,we/wood1 ^: "w on ! ,anglo-,saxon & ,iri% m9iatures is su* a spl5did te/imony to 8 zeal & ability4 ,8 conjectural dates are1 h[ev]1 frequ5tly mislead+4 ,an in/ance is t ( ! s-call$ ,bible ( ,/4 ,gregory1 figur$ on 8 plates #ad1 #ae4 ,9 ! text he says t ,sir ,fr$]ick ,madd5 _h decl>$ ! ,,ms4 to be unque/ionably ( ! eigh? c5tury1 b he pref]s to call x ( ! sev5?1 9 agreem5t ) ,casley & ,a/le 7:o ?\ght s 9 ! la/ c5tury674 ,he ought to h accept$ ! op9ion ( a recognis$ ma/] 9 palography l ,sir ,fr$]ick1 s f> z ! writ+ is conc]n$1 9 pref]5ce to t ( two m5 liv+ at a "t be=e ! sci5ce _h atta9$ any?+ l exactness 9 ,engl&4 ,he ought also to h se5 or felt1 :ile mak+ 8 elaborate facsimile1 t ! ne>e/ p>allel to ! /yle ( illum9ation ( 8 fir/ page ( ,luke is to be f\nd 9 ,c>ol+ian "w execut$ ab\t #hjj2 & t no great space ( "t c\ld sep>ate ! two examples4 ,! ,engli% "w 0 probably ! e>li]1 b x c h>dly h be5 accompli%$ be=e #ggj4 ,! purely ,iri% patt]ns 9 ! columns support+ ! ar*1 ) ! excell5t picture ( ,/4 ,luke t surm\nts x1 prove by _! comb9ation t ! "w is ,anglo-,saxon ( its second & f9] p]iod1 t is aft] ! phase 9 :i* x 0 m]ely & :olly imitative ( ! ,iri%4 ,) ^! consid]ations 9 view1 & a remembrance ( ,b$e's words quot$ above 9 relation to ,anglian education 9 ,irel& ab\t ,a4,d4 #fej1 ! assignm5t ( ! ,bible ( ,/4 ,gregory to ! sev5? c5tury is a pure absurdity4--,aga91 ,we/wood's facsimile f ! ,gold5 ,gospels ( ,/ockholm1 be>s ! attribution ,six? ,c5tury8 ,n9? ,c5tury8 :ile its position 9 ! book1 z ! fir/ plate1 t5ds to %[ t ,pr(essor ,we/wood lean$ to ! e>li] date4 ,yet ! book is unque/ionably n ,iri%2 its arti/ic illu/ration is a s+ul>ly f9e developm5t ( ,anglo-,saxon art--?9k ( ,anglo-,saxon art & *rysography 9 ! six? c5tury6 ,! writ+ _c be #chmi/ak5 = ,roman uncials ( ! six? c5tury2 x is pla9ly 9 ,c>ol+ian uncials ( ! latt] half ( ! eigh?4 ,! book seems to h be5 illu/rat$ by an ,anglian h&1 & writt5 by a ,franki% "o1--probably on ! cont95t r ?an 9 ,engl&4 ,books 9 ,iri% or ,saxon-,iri% writ+ are f\nd all ov] ! cont95t4 ,z !y 7 writt5 9 mona/]ies f\nd$ by ,iri% mission>ies dur+ ! sev5? & eigh? c5turies1 !y only indicate t a succession ( ,iri% or ( ,saxon monks cont9u$ to make _! way = a consid]able p]iod to ,france1 ,g]many1 & ,italy4 ,! writ+ c h>dly be said to h left any traces 9 ! v>i\s national h&s ( ^? c\ntries1 b ! ,iri% h\se at ,bobbio probably transmitt$ ! use ( ! int]lac$ ornam5tation :i* reviv$ 9 ,italy sev]al c5turies lat]4 ,mo/ ( ! motifs ( decoration 9 ! illum9at$ ,c>ol+ian1 ,visigo?ic1 & ,lomb>dic ,,ms4 7 d]iv$ f ! ,iri% me?ods ( ornam5tation introduc$ ?r\gh mona/ic h\ses & s*ools e/abli%$ by ,iri% monks on ! cont95t4 ,fr5* writ]s d5y _! indebt$ness to =eign]s = x1 s9ce1 z !y say1 ! patt]n 0 always at h& 9 ! tessellat$ & mosaic pavem5ts ( ,gallo-,roman ar*itecture4 ,b !re is some?+ ( unnecess>y vanity 9 ! d5ial4 ,! ,iri% ,,mss4 ( ! sev5? c5tury are ! fir/ 9 ,europe :i* conta9 decorative initials ( ! k9d4 ,?is fact is indisputable1 & is n affect$ by ! "q ( orig9al d]ivation1 :i* 9 my op9ion is to be s\ght = 9 ! ea/ among ^? ,hell5is$ ,syrians & ,egyptians :o 7 ! propagators ( ,*ri/ian art z well z ,*ri/ian religion 9 ! we/4 ,m][+ian1 ,lomb>dic1 ,visigo?ic ,^! names1 appli$ to v>y+ /yles ( writ+1 are )\t hi/orical exactness4 ,r\ghly speak+1 ! fir/ #cimeans ! debas$ ,roman us$ 9 ,gaul & ,we/]n ,g]many f ! six? to ! eigh? c5tury1 ! second 0 ! script ( ! l>g] "p ( ,italy 7b *iefly ! ea/ & ! s\?7 betwe5 ! n9? & ! twelf? c5turies1 ! ?ird 0 ! national h& ( ,spa9 & ,langu$oc dur+ ! eigh? to ! twelf? c5tury4 ,! names are bas$ ^u errone\s hi/orical assumptions4 ,! ,franki% k+s1 suppos$ to be desc5d$ f ,m][ig1 c>ri$ ) !m across ! ,rh9e no graphic sy/em :atev]4 ,!y f\nd 9 ,gaul ! id5tical /yles ( writ+ :i* 7 us$ 9 ,italy1 & su* ( _! p z gave up ! trade ( w>riors to assume t ( cl]ics & c\ncillors1 7 oblig$ to le>n ! arts ( ! ,gauls4 ,! circum/ances "u :i* ! new k+dom 0 e/abli%$ z a p]man5t in/itution1 7 n su* z to make ! ,franks a nation ( p5m52 & ! influ5ce ( _! bad ta/e 9 calligraphy c\ld h>dly h be5 felt till ! beg9n+ ( ! sev5? c5tury4 ,_! ,gallic und]l+s cont9u$ to write z be=e1 b 9 ! abs5ce ( enlight5$ patronage1 ! s*ools ( art no long] produc$ good "w1 except 9 ! mona/]ies ( ! ,prov9cia ,romana1 :]e less det]ioration took place ?an else:]e4 ,! ,franki% mon>*y 0 s widely ext5d$ ?r\gh\t ! t]ritories /ret*+ f ! ,loire to ! ,ma91 & along ! :ole c\rse ( ! ,rh9e f s\? to nor?1 ev5 9 ,m]ov+ian times1 t ! use ( ! ^w to designate a special /yle ( writ+ is h>dly desirable4 ,x is probable en\gh t 9 ! sev5? c5tury & ! e>ly "p ( ! eigh? a k9d ( uni=mity exi/$ 9 ! writ+ us$ 9 all ! region betwe5 ,p>is & ,m5tz1 b x 0 no?+ else ?an ,roman uncials1 semiuncials1 & m9uscules writt5 9 m or less cramp$ & graceless fa%ion2 v>y+ only 9 ! degree ( badness accord+ to ! locality4 ,x is ,roman cacography ) a ,g]manic /amp ^u x4 ,!re 0 a decid$ improvem5t 9 x :5 ! eigh? c5tury 0 9 progress4 #dj,! ,lomb>dic h& is also a ,roman h& z writt5 by or = b>b>ians :o liv$ ne>] to ! c5tre ( civilisation ?an ! ,franks did4 ,to ju/ify its "n x w\ld be necess>y to %[ t x orig9at$ & 0 practis$ 9 ! region we call ,lomb>dy 9 ! sev5? c5tury4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no trace ( its exi/5ce be=e ! n9? c5tury1 & v little %[ ( its hav+ be5 us$ to any ext5t 9 ,cisalp9e ,gaul4 ,mo/ ( ! surviv+ examples ( its employm5t z a national or local script indicate ,ea/]n & ,s\!rn ,italy z its home dur+ ! n9? to ! twelf? c5tury2 :ile mo/ ( ! manuscripts produc$ 9 ,lomb>dy & nor!rn ,italy dur+ t "t belong r to ! ,c>ol+ian type4 ,9 fact1 ! ,c>ol+ian m9uscule1 ! ,visigo?ic m9uscule1 & ! ,lomb>dic m9uscule all %[ at _! beg9n+ s mu* simil>ity t we look = examples ( ! latt] two suffici5tly e>ly to decide a d\bt :i* arises--:i* ( ! ?ree 0 ! f\nta9 head ( mod]n lett]s4 ,! *ief m>ks ( di/9ction 9 ! ,lomb>dic ?r\gh its :ole c>e] are ! t %ap$ ne>ly l a1 & ! a %ap$ l cc4 ,! ,visigo?ic t is id5tical ) ! ,lomb>dic2 & 9 ! a !re is s little unlik5ess t ! =m ( ! lett] seems to be some?+ halfway betwe5 u & cc4 7,x is equival5t to cc )\t _! beaks or initial knobs47 ,! circum/ance t two scripts s widely remov$ 9 place %\ld reta9 common peculi>ities1 d[n to ! v end ( _! sev]$ exi/5ce1 leads to a suspicion t ! s-call$ ,lomb>dic 0 probably a po/-,ulfilan ,o/rogo?ic4 ,! peculi>ities ref]r$ to1 & "s o!rs :i* ne$ n be specialis$1 are also f\nd 9 ! ,m][+ writ+ ( books produc$ we/ ( ! ,rh9e 9 ! sev5? c5tury4 ,n[ z ,c>ol+ian writ+ is q free f ^! peculi>ities1 we c safely conclude t ! ,lomb>dic & ! ,visigo?ic are bo? old] ?an ! "t ( ,*>les ! ,great4 ,x is usually suppos$ by ^? :o see ! difficulty atta*+ to ! use ( ! "n ,lomb>dic1 t ! mode #da( writ+ s /yl$ 0 us$ 9 ! k+dom ( ! ,longbe>ds1 b di$ out 9 its *ief home aft] ! conque/ by ! ,franks1 & only ma9ta9$ a cont9u$ exi/5ce 9 ! ,neapolitan du*ies held by pr9ces ( ,lomb>dic orig94 ,! suspicion h9t$ at above becomes /rong] :5 we review ^! facts4 ,! ,lomb>ds 7 a f> r\gh] & m uncultivat$ race ?an ! ,go?s1 & f\nd a ,go?ic-,roman script 9 use 9 ,italy :5 !y ent]$ to de/roy ! k+dom ( ,!odoric4 ,x 0 probably 9 ,rav5na t ! s-call$ ,lomb>dic m9uscule _h its seat dur+ ! six? c5tury1 side by side ) ! decl9+ ,go?ic uncial ( ,wulfila4 ,f ,rav5na1 its spread ov] ! ea/ & s\? ( ,italy w\ld be mu* m easily effect$ ?an f ,milan or ,pavia2 & its und5iable simil>ity to ! ,visigo?ic script ( ,spa9 leads to ! belief t ^! two 7 ! real ,go?ic writ+ ( ! e>ly ,middle ,ages1 z di/+ui%$ f ! ,moesian alphabet1 :i* _c h endur$ mu* long] ?an ! reign ( ,!odoric himself4 ,! h& :i* is call$ brok5 ,lomb>d belongs to a lat] "t4 ,its *>act]i/ic is an attempt to produce an ornam5tal wavy effect by susp5d+ ! weight ( ! p5-/roke 9 ! middle ( ea* desc5t1 b ! =ms ( ! lett]s rema9 un*ang$4 ,x 0 a fa%ion ( ,neapolitan writ+ 9 ! elev5? & twelf? c5turies1 & seems to correspond 9 its own s*ool ) t t5d5cy 9 ! s*ools ( nor!rn c\ntries :i* produc$ ! angul> go?ic ( ! ?irte5?4 ,z has be5 rem>k$ 9 ano!r p>agraph1 ! ,lomb>dic fl\ri%$ ev5 9 ,italy1 side by side ) ! pure ,c>ol+ian1 :i* _h become ! mo/ fav\r$ ( all h&writ+s s9ce ! ,empire ( ! ,we/ 0 r5ew$ 9 ! family ( ,*>les ! ,great4 ,! ,c>ol+ian1 h[ev]1 seems to h encroa*$ to no m s\!rly po9t ?an ,rome itself1 leav+ all ! region beyond to its ,lomb>dic rival4 ,( ! ,visigo?ic1 z ( ! ,lomb>dic1 x has to be said t1 s f> z extant specim5s are conc]n$1 x might #dbwell h be5 ! (fspr+ ( ! ,c>ol+ian1 r ?an an eld] =m ( writ+4 ,its k9%ip1 h[ev]1 to ,m][+ian & ,lomb>dic is und5iable1 & !re is a v fair %[ ( probability t ! ,visigo?s _h some?+ to d ) x1 not)/&+ ! fact t we only "k x 9 examples lat] ?an ! de/ruction ( ! ,go?ic mon>*y 9 ,spa94 ,:at ! t]m ,visigo?ic means we d n "k4 ,mo/ p ?9k x meant ,we/ ,go?ic1 & t is h[ x 0 int]pret$ by ,jorn&es1 :o1 z an ,italian ,o/rogo? ( ! six? c5tury1 ought to h be5 capable ( und]/&+ ! s5se ( ! ^w4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 v unc]ta92 = ,jorn&es1 ?\gh intellig5t & well-in=m$1 0 n impeccable ev5 z reg>ds 8 ,go?ic k9sm54 ,mo/ ( 8 k 0 d]iv$ f 8 ,lat9 education1 & to him probably we owe a good _m misconceptions1 aris+ f 8 acceptance ( v>i\s geographical names 9 ,lat9 & ,greek writ]s z ref]r+ to 8 own p & _! k9dr$4 ,no?+ :i* he has said has _h a m endur+ influ5ce ^u op9ion ?an ! /atem5t t ,sc&9avia1 ! vag9a g5tium1 _h br$ all ! b>b>ic tribes :i* ov]p[]$ ! ,roman empire4 ,( c\rse1 he knew no?+ ( ,sc&9avia beyond ! vague facts t ,go?s1 ,h]uli1 ,burgundians1 ,lomb>ds1 & ,cimbri inhabit$ ! s\!rn %ores ( ! ,baltic1 & t !re 0 a va/ l& beyond t sea4 ,ev]y?+ t desc5d$ f ! nor? seem$ to h come d[n f ,scania1 or ,sc&9avia4 ,he did n "k1 z we d1 t ! climate ( ,sc&9avia mu/ h be5 at t "t mu* m sev]e ?an n[1 & t ! population ( ,norway1 ,sw$51 & ,d5m>k _c h rea*$ 9 ! f\r? & fif? c5turies to any?+ l its pres5t numb]s4 ,! movem5ts ( t age1 :i* c>ri$ millions ( w>riors to ,greece1 ,italy1 ,france1 ,spa91 & ,africa1 repres5t$ a wave ( emigration1 caus$ by an ov]fl[ ( population1 beg9n+ 9 ! f> ,ea/1 on ! conf9es ( ,*9a1 ( :i* ! typical orig9ators1 s f> z #dc;,europe is conc]n$1 7 ! ,huns4 ,no su* ov]fl[ 0 possible f ,sc&9avia4 ,! ,visigo?ic script _h c]ta9ly n yet come into exi/5ce :5 ! k+dom ( ,al>ic _h its capital at ,t\l\se 9 ! fif? c5tury4 ,aft] ! ,franks _h driv5 ! ,go?s s\?w>d1 & ! mon>*y 0 e/abli%$ 9 ,spa9 7incorporat+ ! ,suabians1 :o _h held a sep>ate /ate 9 ,portugal71 we may suppose t ! ,visigo?ic h& 0 d]iv$ f t ( ! ,o/rogo?s1 & us$ 9 ! s]vice ( ! ,go?ic mon>*s until _! dyna/y 0 de/roy$ by ! ,s>ac5ic conque/ 9 #gac4 ,f t "t onw>ds to ! twelf? c5tury x 0 employ$ 9 all ! ,*ri/ian l&s ( ,spa91 al?\gh1 z 9 ,italy1 ! ,c>ol+ian script began to be introduc$ 9 ! n9? c5tury4 ,! two k9ds ( writ+ w5t on side by side1 ! ,c>ol+ian always ga9+ gr\nd z "t w5t on1 until 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury ,spa9 fell into l9e ) ! o!r c\ntries ( ,europe 9 adopt+ a sort ( ,fr5* angul> go?ic4 ,! ,c>ol+ian ,r5ewal ,! r5ewal ( art & le>n+ 9 ,gaul 9 ! second half ( ! eigh? c5tury is ascrib$ to ! patronage ( ,k>l ! ,great & 8 desc5dants4 ,he 0 a man ( extraord9>y gifts1 & few figures ( equal maje/y h ev] appe>$ on ! /age ( hi/ory4 ,k+ ( ! ,franks & ! ,lomb>ds1 ,roman ,emp]or ( ! ,we/1 a great conqu]or1 a wise /atesman1 & a man ( le>n+1 he has left 8 "n ev5 9 ! annals ( palography4 ,x c h>dly h be5 9 ! beautiful ,roman h&writ+ :i* is call$ aft] him t he transcrib$ ! ,franki% ballads or set d[n ! rules ( ,franki% gramm>1 z he is said to h done4 ,he 0 fond ( practis+ ) 8 p51 b1 z ,eg9h>t says1 ! /udy 0 begun too late 9 life to be cultivat$ ) success4 ,he _h excell5t ta/e1 h[ev]1 #dd;& be/[$ g5]\s rew>ds ^u ! calligraph]s :o work$ = him4 ,8 usual home 0 at ,aa*51 & 8 palace !re conta9$ a libr>y & a scriptorium1 9 :i* scribes 7 always busy4 ,a great] s*ool ( calligraphy 0 9 ! ,abbey ( ,/4 ,m>t9 at ,t\rs1 direct$ by ! fam\s ,alcu91 "u ! ,emp]or's patronage4 ,x 0 at ,t\rs1 und\bt$ly1 t ! ,c>ol+ian writ+ rea*$ ! /age at :i* x became ! model = all succe$+ "t1 & ,alcu9 0 almo/ c]ta9ly ! man :o introduc$ ! ,iri%-,saxon fa%ion ( decorative ornam5t1 z practis$ 9 ,york :5 he resid$ !re ) ,ar*bi%op ,egb]t4 ,a great deal ( ! le>n+ :i* 7) "s latitude ( phraseology7 has be5 attribut$ above to ! ,emp]or1 0 due to ! frequ5t lectures ^u all bran*es ( sci5ce :i* ,alcu9 0 9 ! habit ( deliv]+ :5 he & 8 patron 7 toge!r--usually at ,aa*54 ,k>l did n sp5d mu* ( 8 leisure "t 9 ! ,france :i* reg>ds him z h] own pr9ce4 ,he is believ$ to h f\nd$ ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is1 b he did n reg>d ! city on ! ,se9e z equal to ,rome or ,arles4 ,x 0 n includ$ 9 ! tw5ty-"o metropolitan cities ( 8 empire4 ,:]ev] ! movem5t arose :i* produc$ ! beauty ( ,c>ol+ian "w1 we c h no difficulty 9 decl>+ x to h be5 9 c5tral or ,s\!rn ,france1 n 9 ! ,rh5i% t]ritories4 ,t contempor>y calligraph]s w\ld h foll[$ ! lead 0 to be expect$1 :e!r !y work$ at ,aa*5 or at ,metz1 or at ,tri] or else:]e2 b ! real p]fection ( ! /yle mu/ h be5 atta9$ 9 ^? p>ts ( ,france :i* 7 mo/ ne>ly connect$ ) ,prov5ce4 ,! uncials ( ,c>ol+ian "w 7 imitat$ f ,roman "w ( ! fif? c5tury1 ! capitals f ,roman inscriptions ( ! empire1 & ! m9uscules 7 improv$ f ! two contempor>y ,italian scripts 9 :i* !y 7 f\nd1 t is ! ,papal ,roman & ! ,go?o-,lomb>d4 ,! art 0 cultivat$ 7& we may all[ t x _h be5 s cultivat$ = _m ye>s be=e ,alcu9's #de;arrival7 s c>efully t a f9e /hetic s5se _h aris51 & e lett] ( all ?ree k9ds 0 drawn ) an elegant simplicity & tru? :i* ! _w has nev] ceas$ to admire4 ,! lett]s are upright & :olly )\t angul>ities1 & are q free f ! mann]isms by :i* 9 ! two ,go?ic h&s ( ! "t c]ta9 uness5tial portions ( ! outl9e 7 dwelt ^u & made ov]-prom95t1 to ! det]ioration ( ! graphic =m4 ,f9e z ! writ+ is 9 ! "t ( ! great ,emp]or1 x is /ill f9] ?r\gh\t ! half c5tury or s :i* foll[$ 8 dea?1 9 all ! ,gallic c5tres4 ,at ! same "t1 ! decoration ( manuscripts1 o!rwise rem>kable = _! calligraphical excell5ce1 ) illum9at$ initials1 bord] ornam5tation1 & m9iatures resembl+ 9 "* ^? ( ! ,anglo-,saxon s*ool b infus$ to a great] degree ) ! feel+ & ! /yle ( late classical art1 r5d] ! ,c>ol+ian ,fr5* s*ool ( ! n9? c5tury "o ( ! mo/ spl5did 9 ! hi/ory ( palography4 ,! scripts ( ,spa9 & ,italy liv$ on = c5turies uncorrect$ 9 c]ta9 peculi>ities by ! example ( ,c>ol+ian writ+1 b gradually draw+ ne>]1 & visibly improv$ 9 mann]4 ,?is 0 br\ght ab\t by ! introduction into bo? c\ntries ( pure ,c>ol+ian "w1 practis$ simultane\sly ) ! native /yles1 & con/antly increas+ 9 influ5ce4 ,9 ,engl& ! ,c>ol+ian type won b little gr\nd1 not)/&+ ! ,romanis+ t5d5cies ( ,w9*e/] & ,cant]bury & ! ,s\!rn mona/]ies 9 g5]al4 ,x 0 n till ! t5? c5tury t c]ta9 signs ( ,c>ol+ian influ5ce are se5 9 ! writ+ ( ,lat9 *>t]s1 & x 0 only 9 ! twelf? c5tury t ! h&writ+ ( ,nor!rn ,france & ( ,engl& began to take an id5tical "*4 ,9 ,g]many1 ( c\rse1 ,c>ol+ian writ+ 0 an inh]itance1 b x 0 nev] cultivat$ ) ! same elegance z 9 ,france4 ,! lett]s began gradually to slope & gr[ #dfn>r[1 & to take small projections at ! extremities :i* by & bye became m$ieval go?ic =ms4 ,a ,review at ! /&po9t ( ! ,n9? ,c5tury ,! middle ages began ) ! e/abli%m5t ( b>b>ian mon>*ies ov] ! area ( ! ,roman empire ( ! we/2 & ) ! middle ages began ! f9al & ! mo/ important *apt] 9 ! hi/ory ( manuscripts4 ,! /udy ( manuscripts1 = mo/ p]sons1 is conf9$ to ! p]iod betwe5 ! twelf? c5tury & ! sixte5?2 s9ce x is n giv5 to ev]yone to make pilgrimages to ! museums scatt]$ ov] ,europe1 = ! purpose ( look+ at ! e>li] & r>] examples ( writ+4 ,besides1 ! *ief int]e/ ( ! /udy lies r 9 ! decoration ?an ! calligraphy ( manuscripts2 & x 0 n till ! f\rte5? c5tury t ! production ( su* "w became s l>ge & g5]al z to leave a suffici5t numb] ( specim5s readily accessible to mod]n inspection4 ,! hi/ory ( illum9at$ manuscripts beg9s 9 ,irel& 9 ! six? c5tury1 t fir/ phase be+ ! application to writt5 books ( a sy/em ( ,ori5tal decorative ornam5t :i* _h previ\sly be5 conf9$ to ar*itectural "w4 ,x spread into ,engl& 9 ! sev5? c5tury1 a little lat] into ,gaul & ,g]many1 & a new phase began 9 ! eigh? c5tury by a happy comb9ation ( ,romanesque pictorial design ) ! m purely decorative features ( b>b>ic art4 ,9 ! n9? c5tury ,engl& & c5tral ,france 7 easily ahead ( all ! o!r b>b>ian /ates4 ,9 ,g]many1 9 ,aquita9e1 9 ,spa91 & 9 ,nor!rn ,italy1 ! same sy/em 0 foll[$1 b ) a prevail+ /amp ( b>b>ism1 especially 9 ! design ( ! human figure1 :i* af=ds a /rik+ contra/ to ! ref9$ luxury ( ,c>ol+ian art & ! m sob] spl5d\r ( ,engli% "w4 ,! only p>allel 0 9 ,byzantium & ,alex&ria1 :]e a simil> comb9ation _h l$ to a ne>ly simil> #dg;effect1 ) ?is diff]5ce h[ev]1 t ! decorative illum9ation 0 a f> less prom95t feature ?an ! pictorial designs4 ,roman ,italy & ,roman ,prov5ce /ill kept alo( f ! new movem5t4 ,! classical traditions :i* surviv$ !re p]mitt$ ! production ( ,,mss4 writt5 9 gold1 & p]haps also illu/rat$ ) pictures1 su* z _h con/itut$ ! spl5d\r ( books 9 ! fir/ five c5turies2 b ! immixture ( decorative patt]ns f ar*itectural design1 :i* =m$ ! art ( illum9ation1 0 a ?+ ( ali5 "* to ! ta/e ( ! old] s*ool4 ,examples ( c\rse 7 produc$ bo? 9 ,rome itself & 9 ,prov5ce ( ! new mode ( illum9ation1 b !y are to be ascrib$ to ! b>b>ian elem5t :i* 0 encroa*+ !re z else:]e1 & :i* f9ally triumph$4 ,byzant9e ,"w ,! traditions ( classical art1 :i* _h begun to gr[ weak] 9 ,byzantium ev5 be=e ! sev5? c5tury1 _h fad$ away :5 ! ,ea/]n ,emp]or lo/ all hold ^u ,italy4 ,n ,a!ns1 nor ,rome1 b ,memphis1 seem$ to inspire ! lat] /heticism ( ,byzant9e art2 & ! ,greek emp]ors1 f ! n9? c5tury onw>ds1 appe>$ to be ! successors r ( a l9e ( ,ptolemies ?an ( ,cs>s4 ,:5 we contra/ ! sculptures ( anci5t ,greece1 ! designs ^u ,grco-,roman co9s1 & ! pictures 9 ,pompeii1 ) ! "w ( ,byzant9e illum9ators1 we are inevitably rem9d$ t ! ^w ,greek is r>ely appropriate 9 connexion ) ,,mss4 ,!re is v little ( true ,greek 9 ! arti/ic features ( ,?raco-,grcian or gypto-,grcian "w2 & x is n to real ,greeks or to real ,romans t we owe ! h&some ,roman & ! h&some ,hell5ic type 9 :i* ! texts ( ! anci5t classics are n[ pr9t$4 ,9 ! m9uscule writ+ ( ,greek1 :i* is usually #dhsuppos$ to h come into use ab\t ! end ( ! eigh? c5tury1 !re nev] 0 ! same calligraphical "* z ! uncials ( an e>li] "t _h exhibit$1 nor ! same desire to atta9 symmetrical beauty z 0 %[n ov] & ov] aga9 9 ! manuscripts ( ,we/]n ,europe4 ,! be/ writ+ ( ,greek m9uscules belongs to ! n9? & t5? c5turies ( our era1 9 :i* a suffici5t am\nt ( practice _h be5 ga9$ to ensure regul>ity ( =m4 ,a specim5 ( su* writ+1 execut$ t[>ds ! end ( ! t5? c5tury1 probably 9 ,cyprus1 w be f\nd 9 ,plate #f4 ,f ! elev5? c5tury to ! sixte5? all m9uscule writ+ 9 ,greek looks l a free cursive writt5 )\t any calligraphical ambition1 & x became m & m ungraceful z "t w5t on4 ,! value ( ,greek ,,mss41 h[ev]1 dep5ds m ^u _! cont5ts ?an ^u _! beauty1 & frequ5tly ! r\ghe/-look+ piece ( "w may comm& an int]e/ f> great] ?an atta*es to ! spl5did p5man%ip ( ! we/4 ,! rec5tly discov]$ ,gospel ( ,pet] is 9 a curi\s primitive m9uscule h&1 :i* ! editor ( ! facsimile1 ,osc> von ,gebh>dt1 ascribes hesitat+ly to ! eigh? or n9? c5tury1 z _h already be5 done by ,h4 ,omont4 ,x w\ld n be surpris+ if o!r s*ol>s 7 to assign x to ! sev5? c5tury1 & !reby ?r[ back ! age ( ,greek m9uscule writ+ to a c5tury or m beh9d ! date usually fix$ = x4 ,! m+l+ 9 t curi\s ,*ri/ian docum5t ( _m uncial =ms1 ) a set ( m9uscul> lett]s t betray a want ( famili>ity ) set m9uscules1 seems to prove t ! book is old] ?an ! eigh? c5tury4 ,?is obs]vation is made1 n f any desire to be critical1 b simply 9 ord] to %[ t ! "q ( age1 m5tion$ 9 ! prec$+ p>agraph1 is a ?+ :i* is /ill n f9ally settl$4 #di,! ,t5? ,c5tury ,! ,iri% s*ool ( writ+1 aft] its triumphs ( ! sev5?1 eigh?1 & n9? c5turies1 lo/ mu* ( its home-life 9 ! mid/ ( ! /ruggles ) ! ,norsem54 ,9 ,engl& & on ! cont95t its influ5ce 0 /ill felt = "s "t long]2 ev5 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury _m ( ! ,psalt]s produc$ by ,engli% illum9ators h ! initial lett] ,b decorat$ 9 ! /yle adopt$ f ! ,iri% six c5turies be=e4 ,iri% ,,mss4 ( any age are excessively r>e2 ev5 ! comp>atively wor?less transcripts ( ! eighte5? c5tury are 9 no inconsid]able reque/4 ,! ,engli% s*ool cont9u$ to bl5d its ,iri% /yle ( writ+ ) ! illu/rative pictures & bord]s :i* may h be5 entirely ( native production 9 ! eigh? c5tury1 z 0 seem+ly ! fact1 or may h orig9at$ f ! arti/ic t5d5cies ( ,franki% ,gaul1 z has already be5 surmis$4 ,!y 71 9 any case1 influ5c$ to "s degree by examples ( late ,roman "w1 introduc$ by ! ,italian mission>ies :o came to conv]t ! ,saxons ( ,s\? ,engl& aft] ! ,angles ( ! nor? _h be5 conv]t$ by ! ,iri% monks ( ,iona4 ,x 0 really ?is ,engli% phase ( decorative art :i* blossom$ into ,anglo-,norman 9 ! twelf? c5tury4 ,! ,fr5* s*ools 7 /ill ,c>ol+ian & spl5did1 b _! pre-em95ce 0 n ma9ta9$ aft] ! break+ up ( ! empire ( ,*>les ! ,great4 ,! revolutions ( ! n9? c5tury l$ to ! mak+ ( nations4 ,france ceas$ to be ! ,gallo-,roman prov9ce ( a ,franki% mon>*y4 ,a ,fr5* language & a ,fr5* nation em]g$ into exi/5ce 9 ! t5? c5tury1 b ! gr& ornam5tal & calligraphic "w ( ! ,franco-,gallic "t 0 no long] equall$4 ,! ,c>ol9e writ+1 :i* atta9$ its greate/ beauty ab\t ! middle ( ! #ejn9? c5tury1 gradually lo/ its elegant boldness1 t5d+ t[>ds angul>ity & crampness :5 ! elev5? c5tury _h begun4 ,sc&9avian ,writ+ ,! ,sc&9avian c\ntries h n yet be5 allud$ to specifically4 ,! imm5se quantity ( ,runic monum5ts f\nd 9 ,d5m>k1 ,sw$51 & ,norway1 ( all ages1 & 9 ,engl&1 ( & aft] ! ,norse p]iod1 proves t ,runic writ+ 0 almo/ exclusively ,sc&9avian4 ,!re is n[ no "q z to ! actual orig9 ( ! ,runic alphabets4 ,!y came into exi/5ce1 z already said1 by reason ( ! necessities ( ! amb]-traffic betwe5 ! coa/ ( ! ,baltic & ! ,crimea long be=e ! "t ( ,*ri/2 b :at has surviv$ belongs to ! monum5ts ( ! ,nor?4 ,! real age ( ! extant runes does n probably exce$ ! fif? c5tury4 ,t !y 7 priz$ z national *>act]i/ics seems to be prov$ by _! cont9u$ use among ! ,nor?m51 ev5 aft] !y _h come into collision ) a sup]ior civilisation 9 ! ,briti% isles4 ,*ri/ianity 0 n s easily adopt$ 9 ,sc&9avia z 9 "s o!r c\ntries4 ,f ! "t ( ! fir/ mission to its ultimate triumph at lea/ two c5turies elaps$1 & ! result might h be5 /ill fur!r delay$ if x _h n be5 = ! example ( two royal proselytes1 ,olaf ,trygvason & ,/4 ,olaf1 :o belong to ! fir/ half ( ! elev5? c5tury4 ,) ! fir/ introduction ( ,*ri/ianity1 ! ,norse p also receiv$ ! script :i* !y _h f\nd 9 use 9 ,engl&4 ,! colonis]s ( ,icel&1 9 ! n9? & t5? c5turies1 c>ri$ ) !m ! language & ! writ+ ( ,sc&9avia2 & x 0 probably ! remot5ess ( t isl& f ,norway :i* has caus$ ! pres]vation 9 x1 d[n to ! pres5t #ea;day1 ( ! old ,norse tongue 7little modifi$ by age7 & ! ,anglo-,saxon lett]s ( ! t5? c5tury4 ,9 ,d5m>k1 ,sw$51 & ,norway1 ! influ5ce ( ,nor? ,g]many prevail$ 9 "t ov] old national tradition1 & ! go?ic h& ( ! ?irte5? c5tury took ! place ( ! special alphabet4 ,by ! "t ( ! ,re=mation ! writ+ 9 ,sc&9avia _h be5 :olly ,teutonis$ 7) "s exceptions too slight to ne$ m5tion74 ,! mo/ rem>kable "p ( ! *ange 0 ! exclusion ( ! ? lett] f ! script ( ,sw$51 ,norway1 & ,d5m>k4 ,?is t5d5cy1 :i* _h = c5turies be5 9 gr[?1 _h ! rem>kable effect ( practically conf9+ ! old ,norse lit]ature to ,icel&1 & ( mak+ x ! app>5t home ( all ! poems & ,sagas :i* ,norway _h produc$4 ,x 0 at lea/ ! home ( mo/ ( ! lit]>y m5 :o 9 ! twelf?1 ?irte5?1 & f\rte5? c5turies wrote = ! delight ( _! k9sm51 9 bo? ,norway & ,icel&4 ,! great lit]>y activity 9 ,icel&1 at t "t & aft]w>ds1 produc$ a l>ge quantity ( ,,mss41 usually writt5 on vellum1 & rudely decorat$ ) pa9t$ initials2 b ( ^? :i* rema9$ 9 ! c\ntry mo/ h p]i%$4 ,a relatively consid]able numb] 71 h[ev]1 c>ri$ to ,d5m>k 9 ! sixte5? & lat] c5turies1 & h be5 pres]v$ 9 museums4 ,v few yet rema9 9 circulation1 unsecur$ by public appropriation4 ,! ,slavonic ,alphabet ,slavonic writ+ is said to h begun ) ,/4 ,j]ome4 ,to him is ascrib$ ! inv5tion ( ! ,glagolitic alphabet1 a set ( symbols = ,illyrian use1 :i* seem to h no aff9ity to any ( ! famili> scripts4 ,x _c h obta9$ mu* curr5cy1 not)/&+ ! ample suffici5cy ( its tw5ty-eight lett]s2 z o!rwise ! ,cyrillic alphabet 7d]iv$ f ! ,greek1 ) necess>y #eb;additions7 w\ld nev] h come into be+4 ,9 any case1 ,/4 ,cyril's alphabet1 devis$ 9 ! n9? c5tury = ! use ( ! ,slov5es 9 ,moravia1 q ov]p[]$ ! ,glagolitic ( ,dalmatia1 & :ile ! ,croats & ! ,dalmatians1 :o came "u ! influ5ce ( ! ,roman see1 reta9$ _! ,glagolitic only = liturgical use1 ! ,slavs to ! ea/ fell into communion ) ! ,greek ,*ur*1 & employ$ ! ,cyrillic lett]s z _! national type ( writ+4 ,x has la/$ to ! pres5t "t 9 its old =m1 9 biblical & liturgical books ( :i* ! texts are anci5t1 b a pla9] type1 m l ! ,greek ( to-day1 has be5 adopt$ = mod]n lit]ature4 ,! ,poles & ,bohemians1 & ! v>i\s ,slavs 9 ,g]many1 h always foll[$ ! cu/om ( ,g]many 9 writ+4 ,! ,russian alphabet is m complex ?an t ( ,s]via2 b x is only 9 mod]n "t t ! latt] has be5 simplifi$4 ,! ,bulg>ians1 s9ce ! e/abli%m5t ( _! autonomy1 h giv5 up ! old ,slov5e alphabet1 & adopt$ t ( ,s]via4 ,! ,lab\r ( ,m$ival ,scribes f ! ,n9? ,c5tury onw>ds ,! lit]ature :i* 0 to af=d mat]ial = ! ex]cise ( ! p5m5's skill 0 re/rict$ )9 ,*ri/ian b\nd>ies4 ,x 0 r>ely t a scribe condesc5d$ to make copies ( any ( ! lit]>y "w produc$ 9 pagan ,rome or ,greece4 ,occasional in/ances are f\nd :i* (f] exception to ! rule1 b z 9 ! n9? c5tury all ! m5 :o knew h[ to write 71 9 "o =m or ano!r1 s]vants ( ! ,*ur*1 x 0 n to be expect$ t _m among !m w\ld help to p]petuate ! p]nici\s books ( ! dead hea!ns4 ,consequ5tly _m ( ! treasures ( anci5t lit]ature p]i%$4 ,! ,bible 0 ! sub/itute2 & innum]able copies 7 made 9 ! ,ea/ & ! ,we/ ( ! book :i* has influ5c$ ! _w m p[]fully #ec?an any o!r production ( ! wit ( man4 ,9 ! ,ea/1 !re 0 a m logical t5d5cy to neglect ! ,old ,te/am5t & to copy only ! ,new2 9 ! ,we/1 x 0 ! cu/om to multiply transcripts ( ! complete ,lat9 ,scripture z left by ,/4 ,j]ome4 ,besides ! ,bible1 !re 7 ! liturgical monum5ts4 ,! ,sacram5t>y :i* conta9$ ! ord] ( sacrifice & adoration 9 ! mo/ solemn (fice ( ! ,*ur*1 ) all ! pray]s t prec$$ & foll[$ ! acts ( (f]+ & wor%ip1 requir$ c>eful & frequ5t copy+1 s t x %\ld n deviate 9 ! smalle/ degree f ! e/abli%$ model4 ,! slight *anges :i* con/itut$ diff]5ces ( use 9 ?is "p ( ! liturgy1 & :i* h di/+ui%$ ! s-call$ ,gallican1 ,moz>abic1 ,milanese1 & ,celtic *ur*es z at lea/ co-val ) 7& possibly old] ?an7 ! ,lat9 *ur* ( ,rome1 began to lose _! hi/oric di/9ctness 9 ! n9? c5tury & soon fad$ away4 ,! survival ( belat$ & r>e examples 7by ! grace ( papal sanction7 at ,tol$o & at ,milan1 is b an antiqu>ian curiosity )\t any significance4 ,rome triumph$ 9 ! n9? c5tury1 & ! div]sities 9 c]ta9 respects :i* h be5 dignifi$ 9 ,engl& & else:]e ) ! "n ( use s9ce !n1 are simply local v>ieties 9 unimportant p>ticul>s4 ,beyond ! e/abli%m5t ( ! supreme rite ( sacrifice on c]ta9 holy days1 ! ,*ur* began1 at an e>ly p]iod ( its exi/5ce1 to treat e day z consi/+ ( s _m h\rs ( :i* "s 7 necess>ily to be yield$ up to religi\s s]vice4 ,! use ( ! ,psalms1 & ( set pray]s1 = t purpose1 & ! fact t ! anniv]s>ies ( sa9ts' & m>tyrs' dea?s _h to be borne 9 remembrance1 l$ to ! creation ( ! ,brevi>y4 ,besides ?is1 ! (fice ( ! ,mass itself became requisite = celebration on e day z well z on ! m solemn days1 & ?us a v>iable portion 7accord+ to ! "* ( ! day7 _h to be add$ to ! inv>iable4 ,?us enl>g$1 ! volume ( ! #ed,sacram5t>y1 ) all its lessons f ! ,bible1 & its accumulations ( antiphonal phrases1 grew into ! ,missal z we "k x4 ,! ,brevi>y und]w5t simil> increase1 & ! result 0 to make ! ,liturgy s ext5sive & s complex t x gave cont9ual employm5t 9 ! scriptorium ( e *ur* & mona/]y all ov] ,europe4 ,!re 7 ,psalt]s1 ,sacram5t>ies1 ,missals1 ,brevi>ies1 ,lection>ies ( sev]al k9ds1 ,hymnals1 ,graduals 7,books ( ! *ant$ antiphonal portions ( ! ,mass71 ,antiphon>ies 7,books ( ! *ant$ antiphonal portions ( ! ,h\rs-(fices71 ,m>tyrologies1 ,homilies1 & 7at a lat] "t7 ,rituals1 ,processionals1 & ,pontificals 7(fices to be p]=m$ by ,bi%ops74 ,/4 ,gregory _h be5 ! late/ (ficial arrang] ( ! ,sacram5t>y or ,missal1 9 ! sev5? c5tury2 b its text 0 h>dly settl$ till ! twelf? c5tury1 & ! same may be said ( ! ,brevi>y4 ,9 ! n9? c5tury1 h[ev]1 ! texts _h gr[n to some?+ n v diff]5t f _! ultimate /ate4 ,"h 0 pl5ty ( "w = ! prie/ly & monki% scribes4 ,besides ! ,bible & ! ,liturgy1 !re 7 ! works ( ! fa!rs1 & by-&-by ! treatises ( ! s*oolm5 & ! *ronicles ( monki% hi/orians2 q en\gh1 9 all consci5ce1 to r5d] useless ! heavy lucubrations ( ,livy & ,trogus ,pompeius1 & ! absurd conceits ( ! hea!n poets4 ,?+s 7 n dissimil> 9 ,byzantium4 ,! ,liturgy !re 0 ev5 m complex & ext5sive ?an 9 ! ,we/1 & ! fooli% lit]ature ( old ,hellas 0 g5]ally ignor$ by ! m5 :o 7 engag$ 9 daily /udy ( ! ,eu*ologium1 ! ,horologium1 ! ,m5ologium1 ! ,ar*i]aticon1 ! ,synax>ium1 ! ,octoe*os1 c4 ,! ,biblio!ca ( ,photius %[s1 h[ev]1 t ! race ( /ud5ts :o cultivat$ ! old lit]ature 0 n :olly ext9ct4 ,at all times1 bo? 9 ! ,ea/ & ! ,we/1 ! lett]s & *>t]s ( ,k+s1 & diplomatic docum5ts ( e #eek9d1 ne$$ ! s]vice ( tra9$ p5m54 ,?is dep>tm5t ( graphic lab\r 0 n completely 9 ! h&s ( *ur*m52 & x l$ to ! creation ( a ca/e ( writ]s 9 e c\ntry :o 7 n "u ! influ5ce ( ! monki% s*ools4 ,!y c\ld n af=d to sp5d s mu* "t z ! book writ]s ov] _! "w1 & ?us a h& ( cursive "* 0 e/abli%$ 9 e *ancell]y 9 ,europe1 devot$ only to ! s]vice ( ! ,/ate & nev] employ$ = any o!r purpose4 ,x 0 ne>ly always ugly1 sometimes fanta/ic1 sometimes difficult to be read except by ! (ficials engag$ 9 su* "w4 ,f ! e>lie/ days ( diplomatic writ+1 9 ! six? c5tury 9 ,italy1 d[n to ! sev5te5? c5tury 9 ,engl&1 x pres]v$ a /range & fanciful /yle1 fir/ long1 ?9 & n>r[ lett]s look+ l a cong]ies ( w&]+ p>allel l9es indi/+ui%able )\t a glass1 & f9ally lett]s ( prop] size1 b s disguis$ 9 %ape z to be indeciph]able )\t a special tra9+4 ,at only "o p]iod1 t is1 9 ! late elev5? & 9 ! twelf? c5tury1 0 diplomatic writ+ fair & readable4 ,t 0 9 ,engl& & ,nor!rn ,france2 b ev5 "h1 ! upright /rokes ( lett]s l l1 & d1 & b1 7 elongat$ to an enorm\s ext5t1 & 9 _! sweep (f]$ to ! scribe 8 few opportunities ( ornam5tation4 ,z our bus9ess1 h[ev]1 is ) books we leave ! *>t]s & ! rescripts on "o side1 & proce$ to ! consid]ation ( ! ma9 "* ( ! calligraph]'s "w4 ,! ,bible & ! ,liturgy = *ur*m5 h be5 spok5 ( z ! *ief objects ( reproduction among ! scribes = _m c5turies4 ,x 0 n till ! twelf? c5tury t _! lab\rs requir$ to be augm5t$ = ! s]vice ( laym54 ,m5 7& wom57 :o c\ld af=d ! exp5se1 or ^: position dem&$ t !y %\ld h pray]books = _! own use1 :e!r !y c\ld read ill or well or n at all1 7 furni%$ ) ,lat9 ,psalt]s1 to :i* 7 add$1 at ! end1 ! ,a?anasian #ef;,cre$1 a ,litany ( ,sa9ts1 "s g5]al pray]s1 & ! (fice = ! ,dead4 ,!y 7 extracts f ! ,brevi>y = ! use ( p]sons :o only pray$ occasionally4 ,! gr[? ( some?+ l education1 & a religi\s desire to %>e to a some:at great] ext5t ! communion ) ,heav5 :i* 0 monopolis$ by monks & prie/s1 caus$ a fur!r ext5sion ( calligraphic lab\r t[>ds ! beg9n+ ( ! f\rte5? c5tury4 ,! ,psalt] ) its scanty additions 0 no long] suffici5t = pi\s laym54 ,a l>g] selection ( pray]s & lessons f ! ,brevi>y 0 concoct$2 ! (fices ( ! ,virg91 ( ! ,cross1 ( ! ,holy ,gho/1 & ( "s special sa9ts 7 unit$ to =m ! ,book ( ,h\rs4 ,x 0 no?+ l ! sev]e & frequ5t task ( orisons ) :i* ! monks p]=m$ _! duties at ! canonical ,h\rs ( ! day & night1 b x 0 suffici5t = ! mo/ zeal\s laym5 & laywom52 & x became ! private ,pray]book ( ! f\rte5?1 fifte5?1 & e>ly sixte5? c5turies4 ,dur+ t p]iod x 0 produc$ 9 c\ntless ?\s&s ( manuscripts 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 ,fl&]s1 ,italy1 & to a less ext5t 9 ,g]many & ,spa94 ,9 ,engl& x 0 call$ ,hor ,beat ,m>i ,virg9is1 or ,book ( ,h\rs1 or ,prim]2 9 ,france always ,hor1 or ,livre d',heures2 9 ,italy x 0 ,(ficium ,b4,v4,m41 & 9 ,fl&]s & ,holl& ,ghetijd54 ,! ,gebetbu* ( ,g]many belongs *iefly to ! fifte5? c5tury1 & 0 ne>ly always 9 ,g]man1 :ile 9 ,france1 ,fl&]s1 & ,engl&1 pray]s 9 ! v]nacul> only crept 9 gradually "h & !re4 7,9 ,italy ! book always cont9u$ to be writt5 9 ,lat9 only47 ,9 ! ,engli% ,h\rs or ,prim] ! v]nacul> portions became at la/ s important t x 0 f\nd advisable to issue _m ( ! pr9t$ ,prim]s 9 ! sixte5? c5tury 9 bil+ual =m1 ,lat9 & ,engli%2 & x 0 und\bt$ly ?is t5d5cy bo? 9 ,engl& & 9 ,g]many :i* produc$ ! ,re=mation4 ,x 0 n s mu* ! desire = a ,re=mation ( ! ,*ur*--ev5 ,boccaccio1 himself a *ur*man1 #eg;& _m o!rs ( 8 k9d _h wi%$ = t--z an inv9cible dem& = a v]nacul> liturgy1 :i* wid5$ ?r\gh opposition into an eag]ness to sweep away ev]y?+ t oppos$ x4 ,h5ce ! break ) ,rome1 :i* /ill imp]i\sly dem&$ ! uni=mity t c\ld only be ma9ta9$ by ! use ( a s+le language ?r\gh\t ,europe4 ,! few exceptions to ! rule :i* ecclesia/ical policy _h ev] all[$ 7 9 ! concession to ! affiliat$ ,greek1 ,slavonic1 & ,ori5tal congregations ( a "r to use _! own v]nacul> liturgies4 ,! antiquity ( ! ,greek & ,syriac =mulas1 on ! "o h&1 ! utt] impossibility ( mak+ ,lat9 famili> ev5 to ! prie/s ( ! ,slavic & ,ori5tal *ur*es1 & ! c]ta9ty t a d5ial ( _! ne$s w\ld ?r[ !m into ! ,byzant9e fold--acc\nt = ,papal acquiesc5ce 9 t respect4 ,b ! ,popes c\ld n see t ,engl& & ,g]many1 :i* _h f s e>ly a "t be5 ! seats ( ,roman colonies & ! homes ( ,lat9 *ur*es1 likewise ne$$ a liturgy t ! p c\ld und]/&2 & t ! ,teutonic spee* ( ! nor? _h no su* g5]ic sympa?y ) ! language ( ! ,roman liturgy z ! ru/ic ,lat9 tongues ( ,italy1 ,spa91 & ,france4 ,! ,canon ,law1 d]iv+ f ! rema9s ( ! apo/olical con/itutions & ! acts ( ! ,c\ncils1 ! ,p5it5ti>ies :i* _h be5 =mulat$ by bi%ops = ! gov]nm5t ( ,*ri/ianis$ b>b>ians1 & ! decrees ( ,popes1 began to take %ape z a ,code 9 ! elev5? & twelf? c5turies4 ,! exi/5ce ( =g$ docum5ts among ! decretals 0 a matt] ( no great importance4 ,ev]y?+ 0 suffici5tly old to be respectable2 & ! s*ools ( law1 :i* _h nev] giv5 up ! /udy & cultivation ( ! ,civil ,code 7dige/$ 9 ,ju/9ian's "t f ! v>i\s works ( ! old ,roman juri/s71 set to "w to arrange & gloss ! ,canon ,law4 ,! two ,codes1 especially ! ,ecclesia/ical1 provid$ ! scribes ( ,we/]n ,europe ) an enorm\s am\nt ( "w4 ,bologna1 #eh,padua1 ,p>is1 & ,ox=d 7 r5[n$ = _! lawy]s & _! s*ools ( law2 ) ! accompany+ armies ( /ud5ts & copyi/s4 ,*ri/ian poets1 too1 7 n lack+4 ,f ! "t ( ,lactantius onw>ds1 ! quantity ( metrical ,lat9 "w done by *ur*m5 0 v l>ge2 & ! lyrical ye>n+ inh]5t 9 all societies _h produc$ an imm5se hymnology1 :i* compris$ a great deal ( real poetry--mo/ poetical & mo/ *>m+ :5 lea/ ,cic]onian4 ,"h1 aga91 0 ri* mat]ial = ! copyi/s ( ! scriptorium2 & bo? ,hymnals & ,lawbooks l5t _! aid t[>ds ! gradual t5d5cy ( /ud5ts to g back & inve/igate ! anci5t s\rces ( lit]ature & philosophy & hi/ory4 ,pl9y _h nev] be5 :olly =gott51 ev5 9 ! mo/ anti-pagan times1 & ! treatises on natural sci5ce :i* _h appe>$ among ! s*oolm51 all /imulat$ curiosity to le>n :at _h be5 writt5 be=e ! days ( ,con/ant9e4 ,! result ( ^! intellectual t5d5cies made ! f\rte5? c5tury a dawn ( ! ,r5aissance1 & ) ! beg9n+ ( ! fifte5? a l>ge body ( hea!n lit]ature 0 annex$ to ! libr>ies ( univ]sities1 s*ol>s1 & mona/]ies1 giv+ increas$ employm5t to ! transcrib]s :o 7 at t "t busy all ov] ,europe4 ,x 0 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury t ! monks & ! prie/s lo/ _! monopoly ( ! practice ( ornam5tal writ+2 9 ! f\rte5? c5tury e great city _h its ateli]s ( calligraph]s unconnect$ ) ! ,*ur*2 & :5 ! fifte5? c5tury arriv$ ! tra9$ citiz5 p5m51 :o =m$ crafts ?r\gh\t ,europe1 7 probably n inf]ior 9 numb] to ! scribes :o work$ 9 ecclesia/ical edifices4 ,! ,illum9at$ ,,mss4 ( ! ,middle ,ages ,?is division ( our matt] is ! l>ge/1 & is also ! mo/ int]e/+ to ! majority ( /ud5ts & #ei;collectors4 ,9 beg9n+ x1 "s repetition w be necess>y 9 ord] to br+ ! subject z a :ole be=e ! read]4 ,betwe5 ! n9? c5tury & ! sixte5?1 ! multiplication ( ,,mss4 9 ,europe 0 v great1 b comp>atively few ( ! n9?1 t5?1 & elev5? h be5 pres]v$4 ,beautiful examples ( bl5d$ writ+ & decoration 7 produc$ 9 ,engl& 9 ! n9? c5tury by ,anglian & ,iri% calligraph]s 9 ! nor?1 & by ,saxon writ]s 9 ! s\?4 ,9 ,york & ,durham1 & ,l9disf>ne1 ! /yle & ! motifs ( ornam5t 7 /ill ?or\ghly ,iri%2 9 ! s\?1 al?\gh ! late ,roman _h conqu]$ ! ,celtic1 _! collision _h produc$ a s+ul>ly f9e type ( illum9ation1 rem9isc5t ( ,byzant9e "w1 b mu* m free & natural4 ,t art _h already beautifi$ ! ,c>ol+ian ,fr5* s*ool2 9 ! ,c>ol+ian ,g]man its influ5ce appe>s 9 a weak] & rud] =m4 ,:5 ) ! t5? c5tury ,france & ,g]many em]g$ z two di/9ct nations f ! *aos ( ! ,franki% empire1 _! modes ( book-decoration began to div]ge4 ,! rud5ess ( an e>li] "t rema9s1 ) a good deal ( _s1 9 ! illu/rative designs produc$ 9 ,g]many2 ! beauty ( ,fr5* "w began to decay1 :ile ! ,engli% 0 at its be/4 ,w9*e/]1 ,cant]bury1 & ,gla/onbury 7 ! real c5tres ( ,engli% art at ! middle ( ! t5? c5tury2 ! ,norsem5 hav+ de/roy$ ! ,anglo-,iri% mona/]ies 9 ! nor?4 ,?is s\? ,engli% s*ool is consid]$ to h b5efit$ mat]ially by ! te*nical sup]iority ( ,fr5* me?ods4 ,:at ! nor? ,engli% s*ools ( ,york & ,l9disf>ne _h giv5 to ,t\rs 9 ! eigh? c5tury1 came back to ,w9*e/] at ! end ( ! n9?1 ref9$ & embelli%$4 ,?us ! supremacy ( ,engli% art 0 assur$ at a "t :5 ,fr5* art 0 decl9+4 ,! great v>iety1 h[ev]1 9 all c\ntries1 ( "w done by diff]5t m51 r5d]s x difficult to draw g5]al d$uctions4 ,! calligraphic decoration ( ,visigo?ic & ,lomb>dic manuscripts dur+ ! n9?1 #fjt5?1 & elev5? c5turies is visibly ,celtic 9 orig9 & /yle4 ,_! pictorial illu/ration is sometimes v /rik+1 & indicates ! exi/5ce ( sev]al c5tral s*ools ( design 9 ,europe4 ,! ,engli%1 ! ,fr5*1 ! ,g]man1 ! ,spani%1 & ! ,italian1 _h all c]ta9 qualities 9 common1 b ! fir/ two 7 mo/ ne>ly ak94 ,! o!r ?ree s*ools produc$ 9 ! elev5? & twelf? c5turies books conta9+ pictures1 9 :i* ! composition is m rem>kable ?an ! draw+1 & ! pa9t+ is full ( b>b>ic contra/s ( col\r4 ,at all times1 f9e "w 0 to be f\nd 9 ,italy1 b only 9 isolat$ examples1 & ,italy z a :ole und]w5t ! same b>b>isation z ! o!r c\ntries4 ,f t /age ! ,engli% & ! ,fr5* 7 ! fir/ to em]ge4 ,!y c h>dly be said to h reviv$ any =m] /ate ( art 9 connexion ) books4 ,x 0 ) !m a real creation4 ,! frequ5t ref]5ce to ,byzantium z hav+ suppli$ ! models = ,european illum9at$ "w is mislead+4 ,! fir/ sign ( actual contact ) ,byzantium is 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! n9? c5tury1 :5 c]ta9 pictures produc$ 9 ,c>ol+ian ,,mss4 %[ t ! pa9t]s _h be5 made aw>e ( ! exi/5ce ( simil> ,byzant9e "w4 ,& t is actually all t c be ref]r$ to z direct imitation ( ,byzant9e art4 ,! magnific5t e>ly examples ( *rysography on purple vellum 7 n ,byzant9e b ,ea/]n-,roman1 & ! ,roman traditions ( ! ,ea/]n capital l+]$ on into ! n9? c5tury1 hav+ begun to gr[ weak] at ! end ( ! six?4 ,italy 0 ne>] & m pot5t 9 its influ5ce ^u b>b>ic art ?an ,byzantium1 & !re 0 little diff]5ce 9 book-decoration betwe5 ,ea/ ,rome & ,we/ ,rome till aft] ! "t ( ,ju/9ian2 s f> z ! cultivation ( ! arts 0 conc]n$4 ,consequ5tly !re is no ne$ to look to ,byzantium z hav+ suppli$ models = ! re/ ( ,europe to foll[4 ,!re is a diff]5ce ( k9d1 n m]ely ( degree1 betwe5 ! livres de luxe ( ! two ,roman empires1 & ^? ( ! new nations :i* began #fa) ,iri% "w ab\t ,a4,d4 #fjj1 & end$ ) ,italian & ,fr5* "w ab\t #aeej4 ,! =m] 7 books writt5 9 gold1 p]haps2 p]haps decorat$ ) r$ ink only2 illu/rat$1 maybe1 ) a picture or ) pictures4 ,! latt] 7 books ( :i* ! pr9cipal *>act]i/ic 0 n _! booki%ness b _! decorativ5ess4 ,a set s*eme ( ornam5t su/a9$ f beg9n+ to end1 ) due proportion 9 ! int]vals1 9 :i* ev5 ! pictorial designs 7 subord9ate to ! decorative plan1 con/itut$ ! value ( ! illum9at$ books ( ! ,european middle ages4 ,bibles & liturgical books 9 ! twelf? c5tury are rem>kable = _! l>ge size & ! quantity ( decoration ) :i* !y 7 produc$4 ,9 ,g]many1 ! me?od ( ornam5t /ill repeats ! ,anglo-,saxon type d]iv$ f ,c>ol+ian "w1 & ! h&writ+ is /ill ,c>ol+ian1 b ! lett]s lean =w>d in/ead ( be+ upright1 _! =ms are n>r[$ & *isell$ (f by %ort %>p t]m9al /rokes t give an appe>ance ( angul>ity4 7,an example ( ! art is giv5 on plate #ba47 ,9 ,spa91 ! beautiful r\nd ,visigo?ic lett]s are /ill reta9$1 ) l>ge initials ( int]lac$ ,celtic patt]n1 & ! illu/rative pictures 7if !re are any7 h ! same /yle z _h be5 develop$ "s c5turies e>li] 9 ,aquita9e4 ,! ,g]man & ! ,spani% h a sort ( resemblance by reason ( _! common orig91 b m especially because ( ! /rik+ comb9ation ( gre5 & yell[ 9 ! pa9t+s1 ! note ( yell[ app>5tly be+ /ronge/ 9 ! latt]1 & ( gre5 9 ! =m]4 ,! use ( gre5 t9ts pr$om9ates likewise 9 ,engli% "w ( ! eigh?-twelf? c5turies1 b became mu* m sp>+ "u ! influ5ce ( ! ,fr5* s*ool :i*1 aft] ! elev5? c5tury1 began to avoid indulg5ce 9 t col\r4 ,x nev] lo/ its fav\rite place 9 ,g]man art1 & ! ,,mss4 ( ,holl& & ,fl&]s only dropp$ x :5 !y began to assimilate ,fr5* me?ods 9 ! f\rte5? c5tury4 ,engl& 9 ! twelf? c5tury #fbproduc$ mu* f9] "w ?an ! ,fr5*4 ,9 fact ! ,engli% s*ool ( t c5tury 0 ! p>5t ( ne>ly all ! art ( ! foll[+ c5tury4 ,bo? 9 calligraphy & 9 pictorial designs1 x =e/all$ ! "w done 9 ! :ole ( ,we/]n ,europe betwe5 #abjj & #acjj1 :i* has r5d]$ ! ?irte5? c5tury ! mo/ notewor?y 9 ! hi/ory ( illu/rat$ ,,mss4 ,! mode & /yle ( draw+1 unf9i%$ by illum9ation1 :i* 7 practis$ 9 ,engl& t[>ds ! close ( ! ?irte5? c5tury1 may be exam9$ 9 plate #aj4 ,italian "w ( ! same "t is %[n 9 plate #aa to h be5 mu* m b>b>ic & unskilful4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ,engli% twelf?-c5tury "w & t ( ,europe 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury consi/$ 9 ! l>ge & ample fre$om ( h& :i* m>ks ! =m] & ! delicate m9ut5ess :i* *>act]ises alike ! writ+ & ! m9iatures ( ! latt]4 ,z = /yle & quality ( "w1 !re is sc>cely any diff]5ce betwe5 !m4 ,?is new ,engli% s*ool1 s admirable 9 ! twelf? & ?irte5? c5turies1 _h gr[n up ov] ! decl9e ( ! ,anglo-,saxon phase1 :i*1 f9e z x 01 _h /ill some:at ( a b>b>ic air ab\t x4 ,! conque/ ( ! ,saxon mon>*y by a ,duke ( ,norm&y 9 ! elev5? c5tury1 & ! succession 9 ! twelf? ( a ,c\nt ( ,anj\ :o unit$ "u 8 sceptre ,engl&1 ,norm&y1 & ,aquita9e1 made ?is c\ntry ! c5tre ( ,fr5* art & lit]ature = a consid]able p]iod4 ,h5ce ! almo/ complete id5tity ( ! modes ( writ+ & ornam5tation betwe5 ,engli% & ,fr5* "w 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,9 ,c5tral & ,s\?-ea/]n ,france ! /yle v>i$ some:at z w be se5 by comp>+ ! examples giv5 on plates #h & #i4 ,!re is no s*ool ( art m int]e/+ ?an ! ,anglo-,norman1 z x is call$1 ( t "t4 ,! illum9at$ bord] _h n yet e/abli%$ itself1 b ! initials1 drawn ^u a gr\nd ( burni%$ gold or ( diap]$ t9ts1 enclose pa9t$ m9iatures look+ l v f9e p5-&-ink designs c>efully col\r$4 ,bibles ?us decorat$ are v #fcnum]\s4 ,z !y approa* ! end ( ! c5tury1 !y exhibit n[ & !n long /raight l9es1 end+ 9 curves or fleurons1 :i* spread f ! pictur$ initial upw>ds & d[nw>ds1 & =m a simple bord] to m ?an half ! page4 ,?is incipi5t practice increas$ gradually f ! beg9n+ ( ! foll[+ c5tury onw>ds4 ,! fleurons became gold ivy-leaves1 & simil> leaves 7 figur$ z spr\t+ out f ! long /raight bord]-l9es1 ^! l9es be+ ext5d$ s z to enclose ! page on all sides4 ,/ill ! effect 0 /iff & imp]fect1 b by ! close ( ! f\rte5? c5tury1 a v spl5did k9d ( foliat$ bord] 0 us$ by ,fr5* illum9ators4 ,! gold leaves call$ ivy-leaves 7 n[ introduc$ 9 great] numb] & made to spr\t1 no long] f ! /raight bord] frame itself1 b m naturally out ( bran*es :i* fe/oon$ f ! frame4 ,! ivy-leaf bord] 9 ?is /ate 0 v mu* fav\r$ 9 ,fr5* illum9ation1 b 0 little us$ else:]e4 ,x g5]ally accompanies pictorial illu/ration ( sup]ior m]it1 & gives an air ( di/9ction & elegance to any ,,ms4 9 :i* x is f\nd4 ,! ,fr5* s*ools ( ,c5tral ,france & ( ,p>is _h by ! middle ( ! f\rte5? c5tury rega9$ _! lo/ pre-em95ce 9 art4 ,! ?irte5? c5tury 0 ! fir/ & ! f9e/ p]iod ( m$ival go?ic1 s f> z h&writ+ is conc]n$4 7,! "n is a misnom]1 b has a cle> recognis$ s5se1 & is useful47 ,! lett]s are angulat$ at _! extremities1 b ! bodies are /ill r\nd$ & p]fectly cle>4 ,! squ>e & lapid> ,go?ic 0 introduc$ 9 ! f\rte5? c5tury1 & prevail$ dur+ t & ! two succe$+ c5turies4 ,x 0 a vici\s script1 indi/9ct & difficult to read2 & al?\gh "s examples1 di/9ct1 legible1 & h&some1 7 br\ght out 9 ! fifte5? c5tury1 ! sy/em 0 g5]ally bad1 & !re is no reason to regret its ext9ction1 :i* took place 9 ,france1 ,italy1 & ,spa9 ab\t ! middle ( ! sixte5? #fd;c5tury1 & 9 ,engl& some:at lat]1 al?\gh x is l+]+ on ev5 n[ 9 ,g]many & ,d5m>k4 ,! squ>e ,go?ic ( ! f\rte5? c5tury1 h[ev] uncle> & objectionable z a script1 0 n ill adapt$ to ornam5tal purposes1 z ! va/ numb] ( pray]books = ! laity produc$ betwe5 #acej & #adjj1 & ?r\gh\t ! succe$+ c5tury1 make manife/4 ,( ^? pray]books1 :i* = a hundr$ & fifty ye>s 7 ! *ief m$ium = display+ ! skill ( ! m$ival illum9ator1 ! numb] ( copies :i* 7 made = individuals or families1 z bir?-day or w$d+ gifts1 or = :atev] reason1 0 incr$ibly l>ge4 ,! exi/5ce ( su* pray]books1 well writt5 & decorat$ ) pa9t+s1 = private p]sons1 is en\gh 9 itself to %[ t ! (fice ( calligraph] & m9iaturi/ 0 a secul> trade1 & t ! old monks1 to :om s _m p]sons ascribe ! writ+ ( ! missals1 _h long ceas$ to be ! sole produc]s ( ,,mss4 ,n _m ( ! e>li] ,books ( ,h\rs h surviv$1 t is1 ( ^? :i* 7 writt5 betwe5 #acjj & #acej2 b f ! latt] date onw>ds to #adjj !y are n uncommon1 & f #adjj onw>ds v num]\s4 ,?is /atem5t ref]s to ,fr5* & ,franco-,flemi% & ,burgundian "w4 ,( ,engli% "w1 !re are v few extant ant]ior to #adjj1 & ! same may be said ( ,dut* examples4 ,z = ^? writt5 9 ,italy & ,g]many1 x is only t[>ds ! close ( ! fifte5? c5tury t !y are met )4 ,! ,engli% & ,fr5* ,h\rs produc$ dur+ #acej-adbj are v diff]5t 9 _! mode ( ornam5tation4 ,! ,go?ic writ+ 0 pretty ne>ly ! same ev]y:]e1 & ! l>g] illum9at$ initials _h foll[$ "o model s9ce ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,^! initials 7:5 n hi/oriat$ ) little m9iatures7 7 pa9t$ 9 col\r ^u a gr\nd usually ( gold4 ,! space )9 ! lett]-=ms 0 fill$ up ) a conv5tional fl[]-patt]n1 hav+ buds ( r$ & blue t9ts4 ,at ! e>li] #fep]iod ! lett]-=m has a small ext5sion upw>ds & d[nw>ds1 9 a simple /yle resembl+ wood-c>v+4 ,9 ! f\rte5? c5tury ?is ext5sion is increas$1 & ! long /raight bord]1 ) ivy-leaves "h & !re1 0 produc$4 ,:ile t k9d ( bord] 0 9 ,france be+ develop$ into its mo/ elegant phase1 a diff]5t type 0 pref]r$ 9 ,engl&4 ,! gold gr\nd ( ! initial is prolong$ into a /em1 ar\nd :i* tw9es a correspond+ prolongation ( col\r$ foliage spr++ f ! curv$ extremities ( ! initial lett]4 ,?us !y =m a bord] :i* w\ld be pretty en\gh 9 itself1 b :i* is fur!r decorat$ ) tufts ( long fea!ry grass1 tipp$ ) buds1 :i* gr[ out ( ! /em & sweep 9 graceful curves outside ! l9e ( foliage4 ,?is fea!ry ornam5t--:i*1 except = ! little fleurons 9 col\r "h & !re1 seems drawn ) a f9e p5 9 br[n ink--is di/9ctly ,engli%1 & 0 reta9$ till late 9 ! fifte5? c5tury1 side by side ) new] me?ods borr[$ f ,france4 ,! r$ & blue1 ) :ite lights1 :i* are us$ 9 ! initials & capitals by ! ,fr5* illum9ators1 are 9 ! ,engli% ,,mss4 p9k & pale blue1 & ! :ite lights are broad]4 ,z soon z ! ivy-leaf patt]n1 ) its brilliant gold po9ts1 began to g out ( fa%ion 9 ,france1 a new k9d ( bord] came into vogue4 ,! conv5tional r$ & blue foliage /ill cont9u$ to spr+ out f ! initials & at int]vals bel[ & above2 all ! int]v5+ space 0 fill$ 9 ) curl+ & tw9+ t5drils1 drawn ) a p5 or a v f9e bru%1 =m+ a k9d ( h$ge1 9 ! mid/ ( :i* 7 scatt]$ "h & !re little natural fl[]s & fruits1 gr[+ out ( ! curl$ t5drils4 ,?is 0 9 use 9 ,fr5* & ,burgundian & ,flemi% ,,mss4 f ab\t #adbj-cj onw>ds1 & became a fav\rite me?od ( decoration 9 ,engl& t[>ds ! middle ( ! c5tury4 ,at t "t1 & 9 t /yle1 pray]books done 9 ! ?ree c\ntries are (t5 mu* alike1 & x is #ffonly ! pa9t+ ( ! m9iatures & ! diff]5ces 9 ! cal5d> & litany :i* di/+ui% !m4 ,! *ief ,liturgical ,books di/+ui%$ ,a ^w may be said "h z to ! means ( di/+ui%+ ! liturgical ,,mss41 & obta9+ an idea ( _! place ( orig94 ,x ought n to be necess>y1 b1 z a matt] ( fact1 !re are _m p]sons ( fair education1 & possess+ no inconsid]able famili>ity ) manuscripts1 :o call e ,book ( ,h\rs a ,missal1 & :o _c di/+ui% betwe5 a ,brevi>y & a ,missal4 ,! ,missal gives ! s]vice ( ! ,mass = ! :ole ye>4 ,its ess5ce lies 9 ! ,canon ( ! ,mass1 beg9n+ ) ! words ,te igitur1 :i* is prec$$ by a numb] ( prfationes 7"s ( !m g5]al1 "s ( !m appropriat$ to special occasions71 & foll[$ by ! ,communion & ! conclud+ ?anksgiv+s4 ,?is 0 9 m anci5t times ! fir/ & ! l>g] "p ( ! ,mass-book1 & 0 foll[$ by a set ( pray]s1 :i* 9 ! s]vice itself prec$$ & l$ to ! ,preface1 ^! prelim9>y pray]s be+ arrang$ "u ! fe/ivals ( ! ye> f ,decemb] to ,decemb]4 ,9 ! ,missal1 z arrang$ & enl>g$ 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury1 !re are f\r divisions3 #a4 ,de ,tempore 7,sundays & fe/ivals72 #b4 ,prefaces1 ,canon1 & ,ord9>y ( ! ,mass2 #c4 ,mass-pray]s appropriat$ to special ,sa9ts' days2 #d4 ,mass-pray]s common to all ,sa9ts' days4 ,! *ronological ord] f ,adv5t to ,adv5t 7#cj? ,novemb] to #bi? ,novemb]7 0 foll[$1 except 9 ! case ( "s ( ! mo/ solemn & anci5t commemorations1 & also ( "s special fe/ivals t _h be5 appo9t$ aft] ! orig9al compilem5t ( ! ,mass-book4 ,^! 7 incorporat$ 9 ! "p ,de ,tempore1 9 succession to ! text relat+ to ! ,adv5t4 ,at ! end ( ! f\r? "p 7 also add$ "s ( ! special (fices 9 reg>d to ! laity1 :i* _h to be #fgp]=m$ by ! prie/1 su* z matrimony1 baptism1 & burial4 ,! ess5ce ( ! ,brevi>y 0 ! ,psalt]1 :i* =m$ ! gr\ndwork ( all ! =ms ( devotion us$ at ! ,canonical ,h\rs4 ,) ! appo9t$ extracts f ! ,psalt] a numb] ( pray]s 7 us$1 & ^! 7 divid$ 9 exactly ! same way z ^? ( ! ,missal into ,temporal 7( ,sundays & fe/ivals7 9 "o sequ5ce2 & ,sanctoral1 9 two sections1 ,prop] & ,common4 ,! p]petually recurr+ rubrics ( ,mat9s1 ,lauds1 ,prime1 ,ti]ce1 ,sext1 ,none1 & ,vesp]s 7ad matut9as1 9 laudibus1 ad primam1 ad t]tiam1 ad sextam1 ad nonam1 ad vesp]as7 m>k ! h\rs ( _! use f midnight to midnight4 ,^! head+s1 repeat$ f day to day all ov] ! ye>1 ought to be suffici5t ev5 to ! lea/ obs]vant eye to indicate ! ,brevi>y4 ,x also conta9s at ! end ! (fices ( ,m>riage1 ,baptism1 ,burial1 c42 & 9 "s ( ! ,brevi>ies ! (fice ( ! ,mass itself 7n ! :ole ,missal7 is includ$4 ,! ,book ( ,h\rs 7or ,private ,pray]book7 is a selection f ! ,brevi>y1 & is likewise m>k$ ) ! rubrics ( ! h\rs 7,mat9s1 ,lauds1 ,nones1 c471 b !y are appli$ only to ! (fices select$1 & d n conta9 ! *ronological divisions1 ,temporal & ,sanctoral1 = ! ye>4 ,! (fices are usually ^? ( ! ,virg91 ( ! ,cross1 ( ! ,holy ,gho/1 ( ! ,tr9ity1 & ^!1 ) ! ,(fice = ! ,dead1 & commemorations ( "s special ,sa9ts1 =m ! *ief bulk ( ! ,hor4 ,! ,cal5d>1 :i* is f\nd at ! beg9n+1 & ! ,litany 7or ,litanies7 ( ,sa9ts1 :i* is f\nd 9 ! body1 ( ea* ( ! ?ree books1 are usually ! mo/ obvi\s s\rces ( in=mation ) reg>d to ! orig9 ( ! manuscript4 ,if ! use1 or diocesan =m ( ! liturgy1 is purely ,roman1 z is sometimes ! case ev5 9 books writt5 9 ,france1 ,fl&]s1 & ,engl&1 !n ! se>* is fru/rat$4 ,x happ5s1 h[ev]1 frequ5tly t ev5 #fh! ,roman ,cal5d> & ! ,roman ,litany are enl>g$ by ! addition ( names to :i* a special local v5]ation 0 paid1 & !n "o is able to discov] h9ts ( orig9 :i* may indicate ei!r a c\ntry or a diocese4 ,9 ! ,fr5* books1 ! numb] ( ,fr5* ,sa9ts is usually consid]able1 t is ( ,fr5* ,sa9ts :o d n appe> 9 ! ,roman cal5d>1 b !y are g5]ally ga!r$ imp>tially f all ! dioceses4 ,x is only :5 we f9d t a s+le diocese furni%es ! names ( two or ?ree canonis$ bi%ops1 or :5 a "n appe>s 9 gold 9 ! cal5d> :i* _h no special importance = ! :ole ( ! c\ntry1 b mu/ h _h a p>ticul> int]e/ 9 "o city or diocese1 t we c beg9 to ?9k ( special attributions4 ,?us1 if ,/4 ,ives 7,yvo71 ,/e4 ,g5evieve1 ,/4 ,g]ma91 ,/4 ,leufroy1 ,/4 ,l\is1 ,s4 ,f>o1 ,/4 ,urs91 ,/4 ,sa9t91 ,/4 ,saturn91 ,/e4 ,radegonde1 ,/4 ,fiacre1 ,/4 ,au/reb]t1 & _m o!rs1 are f\nd 9 ! ,cal5d>1 & any ( !m 9 ! ,litany1 x is a sure pro( ( ,fr5* orig94 ,if ,/4 ,saturn9 appe>s 9 gold 9 ! ,cal5d>1 x s]ves to indicate ,t\l\se2 if ,/4 ,sa9ct91 ,meaux2 ,m>tial1 ,limoges2 ,firm91 ,metz or ,ami5s2 & if ,,ss4 ,urs91 ,guillaume1 & ,au/regisile occur toge!r 9 ! ,litany1 !y po9t out ,b\rges--all ?ree hav+ be5 ,ar*bi%ops ( t see4 ,b 9 all cases collat]al or cumulative te/imony is requir$4 ,sa9ts ,v$a/us & ,am&us 7,vaa/ & ,am&71 al?\gh belong+ to ,fl&]s1 may occur ei!r 9 ,fr5* or ,flemi% ,cal5d>s2 b :5 !y are comb9$ ) ,bavo & ,b]t91 & ,qu9t9 & ,aldegund1 !y indicate ,gh5t or its vic9ity z ! place ( orig94 ,/4 ,piat1 ,/4 ,lehyre 7or ,eleu!rius71 & ,/4 ,guilla9 po9t to ,t\rnay4 ,/4 ,val]y or ,wal]y 7,wal>icus7 is ano!r ,flemi% ,sa9t1 z also are ,audom>1 ,gaug]icus1 ,godeleve1 ,w9noc1 & ,amelb]ga4 ,z = ,,mss4 ( ,flemi% orig91 x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! ^w ,flemi% is loosely us$ to designate all portions ( ! ,l[ ,c\ntries except ! #fipurely ,dut* prov9ces1 & t ,artois & ,pic>dy & o!r portions ( ! ,fr5* ,pays ,reconquis ( ! fifte5? & sixte5? c5turies 7 "p ( !m4 ,9 ! same way ,fran*e ,comt & ! ,du*ies ( ,burgundy & ,lorra9e 7 also outside ( ,france 9 ! fifte5? c5tury2 & ,langu$oc & ,prov5ce & ,dauph9 7 late additions to ! ,fr5* mon>*y4 ,! words ,flemi% 79 its fulle/ s5se7 & ,fr5* h !re=e to be us$ ) caution4 ,ev5 ,brittany 0 only incorporat$ at ! end ( ! fifte5? c5tury4 ,manuscript liturgies ( ,engli% orig9 ( any date are unmi/akable by reason ( ! sa9ts' names4 ,/4 ,?omas a ,becket is n "o ( ! di/9ctive ones1 = he 0 wor%ipp$ ev]y:]e2 b all ! ,engli% books1 :e!r !y be ( ,roman use1 or ( ,salisbury or ,york use1 conta9 ! names ( ,,ss4 ,alban1 ,cu?b]t1 ,aldhelm1 ,gu?lac1 ,botulph1 ,grimbald1 ,edw>d1 ,ri*>d1 ,edmund1 ,s)91 ,dun/an1 ,e!ldr$a1 ,edi?1 ,w9ifrid1 ,*ad1 ,john ( ,bev]ley4 ,! names ( ,/4 ,wilfrid1 ,/4 ,william1 ,/4 ,hilda1 ,/4 ,aidan1 ,/4 ,b$e1 & ,/4 ,ev]ilda1 are pro(s ( ,york & nor!rn use2 ,/4 ,milburga1 ,/4 ,gu?lac1 & ,/4 ,?omas ,cantilupe indicat$ ,h]e=d1 z also does ,/4 ,osy?a1 al?\gh "o "n alone is n suffici5t4 ,/4 ,wulf/an po9ts to ,worce/]1 ,/4 ,hugh to ,l9coln1 b n always4 ,aldatus1 ,k9burga1 ,egw91 & ,elw91 are only f\nd 9 books ( ,gl\ce/] or we/]n orig94 ,/4 ,erk5wald always indicates ,london or ! s\?4 ,scotti% liturgies ( ! k9d are v r>e1 & conta9 ! names ( sa9ts n else:]e met )4 ,!re c be no d\bt z to ! orig9 beyond ! bord] ( a book :i* ei!r 9 its cal5d> or its ,litany gives ! names ( ,k5tig]n1 ,n9ian1 ,aidan1 ,adamnan1 ,monan1 ,que5 ,m>g>et1 ,du?ac1 & ,modoc4 ,ev5 any "o ( ^! names is suffici5t1 al?\gh ,adamnan1 ,aidan1 & ,n9ian might possibly appe> on ?is side ( ! ,twe$1 z well z ,/4 ,adrian :o 0 likewise ,scotti%4 #gj,special ,g]man sa9ts are ,got?>d1 ,lamb]t 7n always71 ,adelb]t1 ,b]nw>d1 ,sebald1 ,swib]t1 ,cunegund1 ,h]m5egild1 ,willibald1 ,kilian1 ,h$wig1 ,wolfgang1 ,irm94 ,among ! sa9ts ( ! ,spani% cal5d> are ,isidore1 ,ildefonsus1 ,eulalia1 ,raimund1 ,leocadia1 ,gum]s9d1 ,baldom]1 ,le&]1 ,braulio1 ,turibius1 ,quit]ia1 ,froilan4 ,!re is sometimes a curi\s co9cid5ce betwe5 ! ,spani% & ! ,g]man cal5d>s4 ,! ,spani% co9cid5ces ) ! cal5d> ( ,s\!rn ,france are m easily to be acc\nt$ =4 ,! ,italian sa9ts are always ^? ( ! ,roman cal5d>1 b ,/4 ,z5obio is seldom f\nd outside ( ,tuscany4 ,,ss4 ,b]n>d9us ( ,si5a & ,nicolas ( ,tol5t9um are ,italian sa9ts ( ! fifte5? c5tury m frequ5tly f\nd 9 ,italian cal5d>s 7aft] #adej7 ?an 9 cal5d>s ( o!r c\ntries4 ,9 ! case ( ! latt] two1 _! names are sometimes useful 9 fix+ a limit = ! age ( a book1 because ,,mss4 ( ! "t ( _! canonisation are num]\s4 ,! dates ( beatification ( "s e>li] sa9ts su* z ,?omas ,becket1 ,francis1 ,dom9ic1 & ,k+ ,l\is1 are also occasionally ( s]vice2 b z a rule ! names ( ! sa9ts 9 ! cal5d>s are f> old] ?an ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,! ,f\rte5? ,c5tury 9 ,italy & ,g]many ,to g back to ! f\rte5? c5tury4 ,9 ,italy ! brok5 ,lomb>d _h giv5 way to ! g5]al adoption ( ! mod]n go?ic4 ,"s excell5t decorative "w began to appe> 9 ! bord]s & m9iatures ( ,,mss4 execut$ 9 ,nor!rn & ,c5tral ,italy4 ,z a rule 9 ! e>li] times1 ,italian m9iatures 7 rude 9 draw+1 & b>b>ic 9 col\r l ,g]man & ,spani% "w2 b 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury a di/9ct ,italian type arose1 bas$ at fir/ on imitation ( ! semi-,byzant9e art ( ,calabria & ,sicily2 b soon gr[+ m national "u ! influ5ce ( ,giotto4 ,!re is no resemblance 9 /yle or mann] betwe5 ! m9iatures & bord]s ( ,italian arti/s1 & #ga^? ( ,nor!rn ,europe4 ,! figures & faces are pa9t$ ) opaque col\r1 & a broad bru%2 giv+ altoge!r a /rong] impression ( repres5t+ real m5 & wom51 ?an ! exquisite draw+ ( ! ,fr5* arti/s1 9 :i* faces 7 wa%$ ) col\r aft] hav+ _h ! features drawn 9 ) a p5 or a f9e bru%4 7,plate #ab %[s ! /yle ( illu/ration us$ at ,v5ice 9 ! fir/ half ( ! f\rte5? c5tury1 9 :i* !re is a curi\s comb9ation ( ,fr5*-l calligraphy ) ! pa9ty m9iatures ( ! home s*ool ( art47 ,!re 0 9 fact m ( modell+ 9 ! ,italian illum9ator's "w 9 its purely national /age f ab\t #acej to #adej4 ,aft] ! lat] date a m subtle & m9ute delicacy 9 ! draw+ alt]$ ! "* ( ! pictorial "w4 ,! bord]s :i* prevail$ dur+ #acbj to #adbj are also q diff]5t f ,fr5* "w4 ,broad foliage ( ar*itectonic patt]n hangs 9 s(t t9ts ( r$ & blue f a long upright sl5d] pole l an ornam5tal curta9-rod1 & little buds or drops ( burni%$ gold fall "h & !re )9 ! l9e ( sight1 b !re is no attempt to fill up ! spaces ) any elaborate s*eme ( tw9+ bran*es & real leaves & fl[]s1 z 9 ! ,fr5* p>allels4 ,! writ+ is usually squ>e & go?ic1 b ) few ( ! oblique angles & little project+ po9ts t are se5 9 ,we/]n go?ic4 ,! ,lomb>dic h& ( ,ea/]n & ,s\!rn ,italy1 _h left no trace 9 ! script :i* succe$$ x4 ,! r\nd & beautiful ,c>ol+ian lett] ( ,nor? ,italy _h a di/9ct influ5ce 9 m\ld+ ! ,italian go?ic1 & pres]v+ its fre$om f ,teutonic angul>ities4 ,x _h la/$ long] "h ?an 9 o!r c\ntries1 b ,spani% ,visigo?ic 0 also a late l+]]1 & did n succumb to ,fr5* influ5ce till ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,9 ,g]many1 ! f\rte5? c5tury proce$$ z else:]e to produce a closely pack$ difficult ,go?ic lett]1 & also to introduce an ugly cursive :i* came g5]ally into use 9 ! next c5tury4 ,9 decoration1 ! old #gb;,g]manic /yle _h giv5 way to ! influ5ce ( ,fr5* & ,italian "w1 & a sort ( new s*ool 0 creat$1 :i* 9 ! foll[+ c5tury became di/9ctively ,g]man4 ,! cursive writ+ allud$ to 0 an ugly rapid script de=m$ f ! m9uscule1 :i* 0 v l>gely us$ 9 ! fifte5? c5tury1 & develop$ 9 "t ! h&writ+ :i* /ill prevails 9 ,g]many1 al?\gh gradually giv+ way to ! ,roman4 ,engli% ,"w 9 ! ,f\rte5? ,c5tury ,! cursive h& 9 ,engl&1 z us$ betwe5 #abej & #aeej = all purposes1 & 9 legal docum5ts = a long "t aft]w>ds1 seems to h gr[n up 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,x is q unlike ! e>li] *>t] h&1 al?\gh x mu/ h be5 d]iv$ f x4 ,= ! fir/ c5tury or m ( its use1 x is rem>kable by reason ( ! long /rokes :i* are broad & heavy above1 b tap] into ?9 l9es bel[1 ^? heavy heads be+ bifurcat$ 9 ! e>li] times & loop$ 9 ! lat]4 ,dur+ ! ?irte5? & a great "p ( ! f\rte5? c5tury x look$ h&some1 & c\ld be read )\t difficulty2 f ! late "p ( ! f\rte5? c5tury onw>ds x det]iorat$ bo? 9 aspect & 9 cle>ness4 ,no?+ resembl+ ?is ,engli% h& 0 us$ on ! cont95t1 except 79 a slight degree7 9 ! notes writt5 sometimes on ! m>g9s ( philosophical & legal books1 by means ( a h>d lead5 /ylus4 ,ano!r cursive 0 also employ$1 :i* 0 m]ely ! rapid writ+ ( ! go?ic m9uscule1 l t ( ,g]many2 b ?is appe>$ r on ! cont95t4 ,x has be5 rem>k$ t ! ,norman conque/ introduc$ a new fa%ion 9 writ+2 b ! obs]vation is too /rong4 ,t ev5t l$ gradually to ! disuse ( writ+ 9 ! angul> ,anglo-,saxon lett]s1 b _h little influ5ce on ! fa%ion ( ! script us$ = writ+ ,lat91 :i* _h become r\nd & cle> s9ce ! t5? c5tury4 ,! #gc;,c>ol+ian re=mation _h fail$ to sup]s$e ! ,anglo-,iri% h&1 b its influ5ce ext5d$ f> en\gh to improve ! %ape ev5 ( ! purely ,engli% lett]s4 ,9 ,irel&1 ! angul> "* _h fix$ its type :i* has n s9ce v>i$4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! f\rte5? c5tury1 ! ,engli%1 z has be5 said above1 began to rel9qui% ! lead 9 calligraphy & ornam5tation1 :i* !y _h held s9ce ! twelf?4 ,! ,lat9 ,bibles :i* _h be5 produc$ t[>ds ! end ( ! twelf? c5tury 7 usually folios ( good size1 writt5 9 a l>ge & f9e h&1 & decorat$ ) m9iatures ( ! type se5 9 ! ,hunt+field ,psalt]4 ,! fa%ion ( ! ?irte5? c5tury incl9$ to "w ( small] dim5sions1 & ! ,bibles came out 9 small octavo or duodecimo size until ! end ( ! c5tury approa*$1 :5 !re 0 a t5d5cy to rev]t to small folios4 ,9 ! f\rte5? c5tury1 a fav\rite size 0 qu>to or small qu>to4 ,! illu/rations 9 ,,mss4 ( bo? twelf? & ?irte5? c5turies1 & ( ! beg9n+ ( ! f\rte5?1 7 simil> 9 /yle1 b v>y+ 9 appe>ance accord+ to ! space all[$ ! arti/4 ,fr5* ,"w 9 ! ,f\rte5? ,c5tury ,! ,fr5* took ! lead 9 ! f\rte5? c5tury1 especially dur+ ! second half4 ,!re 0 n mu* to *oose 9 ! writ+ ( ! "t 9 any c\ntry1 b x 0 be/ 9 ,italy4 ,x 0 9 ! da9ty adornm5t ( _! illum9at$ ,,mss41 & 9 ! f9e & delicate beauty ( ! pictorial designs1 t ! ,fr5* s*ool n[ assum$ its place ( pre-em95ce4 ,! ,apocalypse 0 a fav\rite book 9 ! fir/ half ( ?is c5tury1 z x _h be5 9 ! twelf?1 & arti/s delight$ 9 draw+ pictures ( its /range visions4 ,^! pictures 7 seldom q orig9al 9 design1 s9ce ! e>lie/ del9eations _h acquir$ a sort ( traditional au?ority1 b !y 7 suffici5tly v>iant 9 #gdp>ticul>s to exhibit ! /r5g? ( ! arti/4 ,diap]$ & *equ]$ patt]ns came m prom95tly into fa%ion along ) ! old] use ( burni%$ gold1 = backgr\nds2 & a great deal ( excell5t "w 0 done4 ,an example f a ,fr5* ,apocalypse is giv5 on plate #ac4 ,9 mo/ cases1 ! picture 0 drawn ) a f9e bru% & ! col\rs delicately wa%$ 9 aft]w>ds4 ,fr5* arti/s atta9$ to s+ul> p]fection 9 ?is da9ty me?od ( illu/ration1 & no?+ ( ! k9d excels "s ( ! sup]ior specim5s4 ,among/ !m w be f\nd a numb] ( *>m+ ,books ( ,h\rs execut$ at ,b\rges1 ,t\rs1 & ,p>is1 = ,*>les ,v ( ,france & 8 bro!rs4 ,:atev] may be ?\ght ( ! beautiful pa9t+s 9 ,flemi% & ,italian ,,mss4 at ! end ( ! fifte5? c5tury1 x is und5iable t ! la/ ?irty ye>s ( ! f\rte5? produc$ ,fr5* "w :i* w hold its own aga9/ ! illum9ation ( any p]iod or ( any c\ntry4 ,x is curi\s z %[+ h[ little ! w>f>e aga9/ ,edw>d ,,iii _h affect$ ! progress ( art 9 ,france4 ,! ,fifte5? ,c5tury ,! second half ( ! f\rte5? c5tury saw a dyna/y ( ,fr5* pr9ces e/abli%$ 9 ! ,du*y ( ,burgundy1 & ! union ( ! /ates :i* _h belong$ to ! ,c\nts ( ,fl&]s1 to ! ,duke's dom9ions4 ,^! political circum/ances _h ! effect ( div]t+ "s ( ! be/ ,fr5* m9iaturi/s to ! c\rt ( ,philippe le ,h>di1 & ( f\nd+ a gr& ,burgundian s*ool ( art1 :i* l$ to ! creation ( ! ,flemi% "o4 ,! ,burgundian ,,mss4 ( ! fir/ half ( ! fifte5? c5tury 7 usually execut$ at ,dijon 7! capital ( ! ,du*y7 or ,besancon2 & 7 ?us simply works ( ,fr5* art1 n v diff]5t 9 /yle f ^? produc$ at ,b\rges1 ,nev]s1 & ,aux]re2 b a c]ta9 local type 0 develop$ 9 ! ornam5tal bord]s ( ! m9iatures2 & z soon z ! political c5tre ( gravity #ge0 %ift$ nor?w>ds1 by reason ( ! great] weal? & importance ( ! ,l[ ,c\ntries1 ,bruges & ,brussels became ! *ief t[ns 9 ,philip ! ,good's dom9ions1 & a new elem5t 0 introduc$ into ,burgundian art4 ,! ,flemi% arti/s ( ,bruges1 ,lille1 & ,liege _h be5 r5[n$ s9ce ! middle ( ! f\rte5? c5tury = _! skill 9 m9iature pa9t+1 & ,van ,eyck himself 0 a dep5d5t ( ,philippe le ,bon1 9 ^: s]vice he sp5t ! la/ n9e ye>s ( 8 life at ,bruges 7#adcb-addj74 ,x is suppos$ t ! e>li] ,flemi% arti/s 7 ! creators ( grisaille pa9t+1 al?\gh t beautiful mode ( pictorial illu/ration is fir/ f\nd 9 ,fr5* books ( ! middle ( ! f\rte5? c5tury4 7,a specim5 is giv5 on plate #ad47 ,! f9e/ examples ( grisaille 7 produc$ by ,flemi% arti/s at ,bruges betwe5 #addj & #adgj1 & a book ( ,h\rs1 illum9at$ = ,jaquot de ,brgilles 9 #addc1 9 ! possession ( ! writ]1 is "o ( rem>kable beauty4 ,ano!r f9e specim51 ( some:at lat] date1 is ! ,miroir ,hi/orial1 a m9iature f :i* is reproduc$ on plate #ag4 ,side by side ) ?is k9d ( *a/e "w1 spl5did illum9ation ( ! ri* ,fr5* /yle 0 practis$ 9 ,fl&]s1 & a fav\rable example is giv5 ( a ,book ( ,h\rs pa9t$ at ,t\rnay ab\t #adfj1 on plate #af4 ,grisaille pa9t+ orig9at$ evid5tly f ! sugge/ions ( c>v$ /one-"w 9 ca!dral-decoration4 ,! figures ( sa9ts occupy+ ni*es1 :i* 7 famili> to ! visitants ( *ur*es1 7 ! fir/ models t l$ to ! pa9t+ ( m9iatures ) ! figures 9 grey t9ts4 ,x mu/ h be51 = a true arti/1 delightful to triumph ov] ! difficulty ( a*iev+ ! effects ( relief & ( modell+ ) ! aid ( a s+le pigm5t only4 ,to be ! ma/] ( su* an art1 & to h&le ! mono*rome 9 su* a way z to run ) p]fect t\* ?r\gh a gamut ( gradations 9 tone1 w\ld surely h be5 m gratify+ ?an to w9 success by ! spl5d\r ( full illum9ation4 ,! arti/ did n1 h[ev]1 entirely ab/a9 #gf;f ! use ( gold2 he all[$ x to %9e on ! cr[ns ( k+s & ar\nd ! heads ( 8 sa9ts2 & col\r 0 us$ sp>+ly 9 ! backgr\nds4 ,^! backgr\nds 9 ! pictures ( e>li] date 7 ornam5tal diap]$ surfaces1 b aft] ! fir/ decade or two ( ! fifte5? c5tury1 l&scape backgr\nds made _! appe>ance4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 "s "t be=e ! m9iaturi/ succe$$ 9 realis+ effects ( di/ance1 & ?us produc+ true pictures z di/+ui%$ f ornam5tal hi/oriation4 ,! ,italians 7 ! fir/ to ga9 a tol]able k ( p]spective1 b ! ,flem+s 7 n mu* beh9d !m4 ,x 0 n1 h[ev]1 till late 9 ! fifte5? c5tury t any?+ l a fai?ful expression ( p]spective is f\nd 9 ! m9iatures ( ,,mss4 ,9 ! latt] "p ( ! fifte5? c5tury1 pure grisaille 0 ext5d$ into camaieu2 t is1 ! mono*rome might be any o!r col\r ?an grey1 s long z x 0 us$ 9 ! same mann]4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 0 usually conf9$ to p>ts ( m9iatures1 & n inconsi/5t ) a lavi% use ( gold = ! lights1 & masses ( diff]5t col\r 9 o!r portions ( ! same picture4 ,! quantity ( gold t gave magnific5ce to ! "w ( ! m9iaturi/ 9 ,fl&]s & ,france 9 ! la/ qu>t] ( ! fifte5? c5tury became excessive4 ,x 0 a relief to ! eye :5 ?is blaze ( gold rec$$ be=e ! outcome ( late ,flemi% art4 ,sc>cely any s*ool produc$ "w comp>able = delicacy & tru? to ! m9iatures pa9t$ 9 pray]books at ,bruges & ,gh5t betwe5 #adij & #aebj4 ,illum9at$ ,bord]s 9 ! ,fifte5? ,c5tury ,aft] ! ye> #adjj1 z has be5 already said1 ! private ,pray]books1 or ,books ( ,h\rs1 :i* at t "t 7 us$ 9 ,france & ,engl&1 b n to any great ext5t else:]e1 began to increase 9 numb]s & develop new /yles ( ornam5t4 ,! pages ) illum9at$ #gg;initials /ill pres]v$ ! old] bord]1 ! basis ( :i* 0 a d\ble l9e ( gold & col\r issu+ f ! initial & runn+ squ>ely r\nd ! page4 ,at ! corn]s & at int]vals gold bran*es1 be>+ gold & col\r$ ivy-leaves1 w5t =? 9 some:at /iff curves to =m ! out] decoration ( ! bord]4 ,?is 0 9 ,fr5* ,,mss4 ,9 ! ,engli% ones1 heavy masses ( gold & col\r repres5t+ conv5tional foliage appe>$ at ! corn]s1 & out ( ! bord]-l9es em]g$ ! long sweep+ tufts ( fea!ry grass ) r$ & blue buds1 :i* h be5 already allud$ to4 ,t[>ds #adcj ! ivy-leaves lo/ _! prom95ce 9 ,france1 & 7 only pres]v$ 9 portion ( ! ornam5t4 ,! /raight fram+ l9es 7 ab&on$ bo? 9 ,engl& & ,france1 & a broad] bord] 0 obta9$ by a me?odical arrangem5t ( hundr$s ( curl+ hair-l9es1 black or br[n1 out ( :i* sprung little r$ & blue fl[]s ( natural appe>ance4 ,?is patt]n 0 drawn & mass$ s z to repres5t a broad frame1 ev5 & squ>e1 enclos+ ! page4 ,?is became a cu/om>y mode ( ornam5tation 9 bo? c\ntries1 s t a l>ge proportion ( ,engli% & ,fr5* "w 0 mu* alike 9 /yle1 ?\gh n always 9 execution4 ,:5 ! middle ( ! c5tury arriv$1 a modification began to take place 9 ,fr5* ,,mss42 ! f9e black hair-l9es ( ! bord]s gave place to wrea?+ gre5 bran*es1 less num]\s1 & ?us m proportionate 9 quantity4 ,! fl[]s & leaves spr++ f !m became m num]\s1 m natural & less conv5tional4 ,by ?is "t ,burgundian & ,flemi% ,livres d',heures 7 also produc$ 9 l>ge numb]s1 & brilliant pictures ( blossoms gr[+ 9 ! ri* g>d5s ( ,burgundy add$ ! weight ( _! influ5ce to ! t5d5cy t[>ds floral decoration4 ,! fl[]s 9 ! bord]s grew m reali/ic & v>i$1 & 7 sometimes f9e l>ge examples ( _! species4 ,?is me?od 0 foll[$ 9 ,engl& z well z 9 ,france4 ,next appe>$ #gh;9 cont95tal "w backgr\nds1 ei!r ( gold or ( col\r1 to ! bord]s2 :i* _h previ\sly be5 pa9t$ on ! pla9 vellum4 ,f9ally1 9 ,france x became fa%ionable to break ! bord] into spaces 7tak+ v>i\s %apes71 ( :i* "s _h gold gr\nds & "s 7 )\t gr\nds2 or to treat ! bord] 9 su* a fa%ion t ! bran*es & fl[]s %\ld appe> p>tly on gold1 p>tly on russet1 p>tly on blue1 or 9 o!r comb9ations4 ,?is biz>re fa%ion did n take ! ta/e ei!r ( ,engli% or ( ,flemi% arti/s4 ,! ,engli% reta9$ _! cr[d$ bord] ( fl[]s & bran*es pa9t$ on ! pla9 vellum1 :ile ! ,flem+s began to pa9t ri* natural cut fl[]s ^u a mono*romatic gr\nd ( pale gold or yell[4 ,on ?is pale gr\nd1 free f all ! convolution ( tw9+ bran*es se5 9 ,fr5* & ,engli% "w1 !y 7 enabl$ to ?r[ %ad[s b5ea? ! cut fl[]s1 s t ^! appe>$ to /& out 9 /rong relief1 ) excell5t effect4 ,! new fa%ion at once f\nd copyi/s ev]y:]e2 ! celebrat$ ,h\rs ( ,anne ( ,brittany is "o ( ! f9] ,fr5* examples4 ,! imitations done 9 ,engl& 7 n v successful4 ,end ( ! ,fifte5? ,c5tury ,we n[ rea* ! la/ decade ( ! fifte5? c5tury2 9 :i* ! late ,flemi% s*ool already allud$ to arose 9 ,bruges & ,gh5t4 ,9 comb9ation ) ^? beautiful bord]s ( fre% cut fl[]s pa9t$ 9 app>5t relief ^u pale gold or yell[1 ! delicate art ( ,meml+ & ,g]>d ,david produc$ small & exquisite m9iatures ) ar*itectural & l&scape accessories2 ! l ( :i* _h n yet be5 se5 9 ! illu/ration ( books1 unless we f9d a p>allel 9 ! lovely & no less exquisite pictures 9 ,flor5t9e manuscripts ( ! same p]iod4 ,! radical diff]5ce betwe5 ! "w ( ! nor? & t ( ! #gis\?--not)/&+ t ea* ( !m betrays to "s ext5t ! influ5ce ( ! o!r--is1 t ! ,flem+ took 8 types f real life1 ! ,flor5t9e f 8 conceptions ( angelic exi/5ce4 ,all ! re/ ( ,europe 0 beh9d ! two fav\r$ c\ntries 9 :i* pictorial & decorative art n[ rea*$ _! culm9at+ po9t4 ,s5tim5tal writ]s h be51 f "t immemorial1 9 ! habit ( sc\t+ at weal? & ( p\r+ en?usia/ic praise ^u p5ury1 z ?\gh ! two conditions 7 equival5t to vice & virtue 9 morals1 to dulness & g5ius 9 intellect4 ,x is q true t an impov]i%$ /ate ( society produces bett] poetry ?an a ri* "o2 b x is equally true t ! f9e/ arti/ic "w is born amid luxuri\s surr\nd+s4 ,x 0 ! weal? ( ,gh5t1 ,bruges1 ,antw]p1 & ,brussels :i* attract$ tal5t to a w>m] air 9 :i* x c\ld gr[ & fl\ri%1 on ! bord] l& betwe5 ! ,celt & ! ,teuton1 ) all ! advantages d]ivable f ei!r side4 ,9 ! same way ! ri*es & luxury ( ,v5ice1 ,flor5ce1 ,rome1 ,naples1 ,v]ona1 ,cremona1 ,padua1 /imulat$ ! faculties ( m5 :o _h inh]it$ ! traditions ( ,grco-,roman art4 ,x 0 a brilliant autumn 9 ! annals ( illum9ation1 b a %ort "o1 by reason ( ! *anges :i* ! new art ( ,pr9t+ _h br\ght ab\t 9 all ?+s4 ,dr] visit$ ,bruges & ,v5ice2 he admir$ ! "w ( ,g]>d ,david & ( ! ,italian m9iaturi/s1 b he did n seek to imitate or to rival _! ef=ts4 ,he belong$ to ! mod]n _w1 & he gave to ! art ( engrav+ :at he w\ld1 tw5ty ye>s e>li]1 h giv5 to ! art ( illum9ation4 ,we h no?+ to d "h ) 8 pr(ession z a pa9t] ( canvases 9 :i* he foll[$ ! same t5d5cy z _h dur+ ! fifte5? c5tury s wond]fully multipli$ ! numb] ( ,giotto's desc5dants 9 ,italy4 ,we may imag9e1 if we *oose1 :at wond]ful illum9ators ( manuscripts 7 lo/ 9 ,s*ongau]1 ,dr]1 & ,lucas van ,leyd51 ?ree m5 :o ow$ #hj_! arti/ic exi/5ce & ta/e to ! atmosph]e ( ri* cities4 ,f ! ye> #adej ! c>e] ( ,calligraph] & ,illum9ator _h be5 doom$ to ext9ction4 ,its memb]s gradually retir$ f an unequal /rife ) ! clev] me*anics f ,m5tz2 "s became pr9t]s1 "s became engrav]s1 & o!rs jo9$ ! ranks ( ! canvas-pa9t]s4 ,^? :o rema9$ true to _! e>ly tra9+ a*iev$ ! mo/ brilliant triumphs ( _! pr(ession be=e x 0 ext+ui%$4 ,?is is ! reason :y we look to ! ,fl&]s1 & to ! ,italy ( #adhj-aebj1 = ! mo/ absolutely p]fect "w t 0 ev] produc$ 9 ! illum9ation ( manuscripts4 ,consid]+ t x fl\ri%$ side by side ) ! pa9t+s ( ! ,bell9is & ( ,&rea ,mantegna1 & t x 0 9 t\* ) ! times ( ,lion>do1 ( ,raphael1 ( ,mi*el ,angiolo1 ( ,titian1 & ( ,paolo ,v]onese1 we _c wond] ei!r at its m>vell\s beauty or at its sudd5 )]+4 ,( ! late ,flemi% s*ool1 c]ta9 "w done = ! ,au/rian ,ar*du*ess ,m>g>et 7resid5t 9 ,bruges ) h] bro!r ,philip1 z *ildr5 ( ,maximilian :o _h become sov]eign ( ! ,l[ ,c\ntries 9 "r ( 8 wife ,m>y ( ,burgundy71 ( :i* ! fam\s ,grimani ,brevi>y is only "o among/ "s t5 or twelve examples--0 ! f9e/ ( its k9d4 ,! pres5t writ] has possess$ "o ( !m--a little volume int]nally ju/ify+ ! tradition t x 0 illum9at$ by ,g]>d ,david = ! ,ar*du*ess 7 4 4 ,m>got la g5te demoiselle ,qu' eut deux m>is et si m\rut pucelle z %e once sugge/$ = h] own epitaph :5 9 dang] f a /orm at sea7 = pres5tation to h] si/]-9-law ,juana1 ! heiress ( ,ca/ile 7,juana la ,loca1 ! ,crazy ,jane :o has become a p]sonage 9 nurs]y lore74 ,z = ! ,italian s*ool1 x 0 ( wid] ext5t4 ,! illum9ators f\nd g5]\s patrons at ,milan1 at ,v5ice1 at ,padua1 at ,cremona1 at ,v]ona1 at ,flor5ce1 at ,bologna1 at ,rome1 & at ,naples4 ,9 ! la/ city1 ! ,k+s ( #ha;,aragonese orig9 7 noble employ]s ( tal5t1 & f\nd _! *ief rivals 9 ! ,m$icis1 & 9 ,ma?ias ,corv9us1 ! ,k+ ( ,hung>y1 :o divid$ ) !m ! patronage ( ! be/ ,italian m9iaturi/s4 ,!y also help$ to /amp on ,spani% "w ! ,italian impress :i* *>act]ises x 9 ! la/ half ( ! fifte5? c5tury1 & !reby to cont9ue ! l9e :i* 9 contact ) ,naples on ! "o h&1 ) ,bruges on ! o!r1 =m$ at ! end ( ! c5tury a r+1 unit+ ,fl&]s & ,italy z its *ief jewels4 ,! "n ( ,attavante1 s fam\s z a ,flor5t9e m9iaturi/1 rem9ds me ( a ,petr>* manuscript :i* ,i h se5 sold 9 ,p>is z illu/rat$ by him4 ,"o ( ! illum9ations conta9$ a bu/ ( a ,roman w>rior1 9 ! /yle s frequ5tly se5 9 ,italian "w ( ab\t ! ye> #aejj1 & "u x 7 ! initials ,m4,a41 int5d$ evid5tly = ,m>cus ,aurelius or ,m>cus ,antonius4 ,out ( !m1 ! catalogu]s ( two diff]5t collections ( great repute1 _h evolv$ ! idea t !y /ood = ,mae/ro ,attavante--an absurd notion = :i* !re 0 absolutely no excuse :atev]4 ,o!r fam\s ,italian m9iaturi/s 7 ,girolamo dai ,libri ( ,v]ona1 & ,sigismondo da ,c>pio4 ,i h _h examples ( ! art ( bo?4 ,"o /ill m celebrat$ 0 ,giulio ,clovio1 b he belong$ entirely to ! sixte5? c5tury & to ! late ,r5aissance1 & 8 "w is 9 n[ise t ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,x is ov]-florid & reveals ! !atrical spl5d\r :i* always accompanies decl9e4 ,i h possess$ "o ( 8 f9e/ examples1 :i* 0 =m]ly 9 ! ,t[neley libr>y4 ,dur+ ! la/ tw5ty ye>s ( ! fifte5? c5tury1 a fav\rite /yle ( bord] among ! ,italians 0 an imitation ( goldsmi?'s "w4 ,gems ( v>i\s col\rs set 9 gold1 ) cameos or m$allions ( classic bu/s1 7 ! *ief feature1 b spaces 7 always left 9 :i* ! m9iaturi/ c\ld pa9t 8 t9y exquisite figures ( ! fight betwe5 ,david & ,golia?1 or some?+ ( ! k9d4 ,v5etian #hb;examples ( su* m9iatures are rem>kably beautiful--! beauty m+l$ ) a c]ta9 gravity ( mann]2 ^? :i* are ( ,roman orig9 h an air ( ma/]ly spl5d\r2 b ^? :i* 7 produc$ at ,flor5ce betwe5 #adhj & #aeaj are s lovely z to upset our critical judgm5t 9 comp>+ !m ) "w done at ,bruges4 ,9 ! bord]-illu/ration !re nev] 0 any resemblance betwe5 ! "w ( ,italy & t ( o!r c\ntries1 & !re c be no hesitation 9 decid+ betwe5 !m 9 fav\r ( ,italy z m appropriately decorative4 ,i possess a ,psalt] writt5 & illum9at$ = ,pietro dei ,m$ici1 app>5tly ab\t #adij1 9 :i* ! fir/ two pages are /a9$ light gre51 s z to s(t5 & make delicate ! num]\s t9ts f\nd 9 ! pa9t+ & bord] ^u "o ( !m4 ,^! are ! "w probably ( ,attavante1 & c h>dly be excell$ = ! exquisite ta/e & f9i% bo? ( ! m9iature & ( ! ornam5tation4 ,i h also _h a *>m+ little ,pray]book writt5 = ,lor5zo ! ,magnific5t1 :i* 0 evid5tly f ! same h&2 & a ,si5nese ,psalt] ( k9dr$ type & ( ! same p]iod4 ,! lovel9ess ( ^! ,tuscan examples takes away all possibility ( critical fault-f9d+4 ,!y delight ! eye ) a full] satisfaction ?an ev5 ! be/ ( ! ,flemi% illum9ations4 ,! latt] we exam9e c>efully1 ) a cont9ual increase ( admiration2 :ile we enjoy ! h>moni\s beauty ( ! ,flor5t9e1 we feel t ! critic's functions are set aside4 ,! writ+ ( ! late ,italian ,,mss41 among :i* classical texts rival ! books ( pray]s 9 ! elegance ( _! adornm5t1 0 m frequ5tly ,roman ?an go?ic1 b a f9e black-lett] h& surviv$ into ! sixte5? c5tury1 especially at ,v5ice4 ,! initials decorat$ ) int]lacem5ts1 9 a /yle t ev9c$ its ,iri% orig91 :i* are f\nd 9 ,italian manuscripts aft] #acej 7 reta9$ till ne> ! end ( ! fifte5? c5tury 9 ,v5ice & ,naples1 b !y _h fall5 out ( use 9 ,tuscany #hcsome:at e>li]1 be+ h>dly appropriate to ! ri* neo-classical /yle ( ,flor5t9e bord]-decoration4 ,z = ! ,italian /yles ( writ+ aft] ! twelf? c5tury1 !y 7 v>i\s4 ,! ,c>ol+ian 9 a bold & h&some type la/$ long] 9 ,italy ?an else:]e2 b bo? x & ! ,lomb>d 7 pass+ away ab\t ! ye> #abjj4 ,! ?irte5? c5tury saw ! evolution ( ! go?ic lett] out ( ! ,c>ol+ian1 9 ,italy z well z ov] ! re/ ( ,europe1 b 9 ,italy x 0 accompani$ by a sort ( ,c>ol+ian cursive1 slightly slop$1 :i* f9ally develop$ ! two =ms n[ famili> ov] all ! _w--,roman & ,italic4 ,9 ! f\rte5? c5tury a beautiful squ>e go?ic lett] 0 9 use 9 ,italy1 & rema9$ unalt]$ 9 =m till ! end ( ! fifte5?2 b x 0 n unaccompani$ by v>i\s o!r /yles ( writ+4 ,! ,italic 0 /ill 9 its primitive /age )\t elegance1 & "s books 7 writt5 9 a go?ic lett] d]iv$ f ,fr5* & ,g]man models1 & q unlike ! squ>e ,italian go?ic4 ,! script ( ! book1 f :i* a facsimile is giv5 on plate #ab1 is an example ( ?is outl&i%ness4 ,be=e ! fifte5? c5tury arriv$ ! cursive h& _h split into its two bran*es4 ,! m elaborately writt5 lett]s 7 upright1 & t5d$ to re/ore ! ,c>ol+ian orig9al2 ! less elaborate *>act]s began to slope /ill fur!r1 & by degrees became a sep>ate script1 :i* !n became cultivat$4 ,! writ+ ( ,petr>* 7:o di$ 9 #acgd7 0 *os5 z ! model = ! fir/ ,italic types us$ 9 pr9t+ 7#aeja72 & ! upright r\nd h& us$ by num]\s ,flor5t9e & ,v5etian calligraph]s t[>ds ! middle ( ! fifte5? c5tury 0 *os5 z ! model ( ! fir/ ,roman types1 cut by ,sweynheym & ,pann>tz 9 ! ,b5$ict9e mona/]y ( ,subbiaco1 n f> f ,rome1 9 ! ye> #adfd4 ,rem>ks on ! subjects reproduc$ 9 ! plates ,! fir/ plate repres5ts portion ( a hi]oglyphical #hdtext writt5 on a roll ( papyrus :i* 0 wrapp$ up ) ! mummy ( ! man ^: virtues are record$ on x4 ,z = ! exact age & cont5ts ( ! roll1 x is beyond my capacity to say any?+ def9ite2 b !re is a delicacy 9 ! draw+ ( ! figures & 9 ! =mation ( ! lett]s :i* seem to indicate a consid]able age1 probably n less ?an twelve hundr$ ye>s ,b4,c4 ,ea* column ( ! writ+ has to be read f top to bottom1 beg9n+ ) ! fir/ column on ! left4 ,x has be5 said 9 an e>li] page t ! hi]atic & demotic scripts diff]$ f ! hi]oglyphic 9 be+ writt5 l ,hebrew 9 long horizontal l9es f "r to left4 ,! diff]5ce is1 h[ev]1 m]ely =mal4 ,if we turn ! hi]oglyphic page half r\nd1 s t ! "r side becomes ! bottom1 & ! left side ! top ( ! page1 we c see ! inscription run 9 hi]atic fa%ion f "r to left4 ,plate #b is p]haps m difficult to deciph] ?an ,plate #a4 ,we "k1 h[ev]1 t ! demotic script 0 us$ only among/ laym5 9 matt]s ( bus9ess & ( money2 & ?is no d\bt repres5ts "s comm]cial transaction t took place betwe5 #ejj & #bjj ,b4,c4 ,! demotic 0 a complex cursive evolv$ f ! hi]atic2 its inv5tion1 or at lea/ its use to any consid]able degree1 does n appe> to h be5 mu* antec$5t to #fjj ,b4,c41 & !re 0 little necessity = its cont9uance aft] ! second c5tury ,b4,c4 ,x 0 probably ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! ,*ri/ian era t ! demotic f9ally disappe>$ be=e ! ,coptic1 an alphabet d]iv$ f ! ,greek1 ( :i* ,plate #c gives an example4 ,! ,arabic head+ :i* accompanies ! ,coptic rubric above ! ,psalm t beg9s bel[ 7! #aah? ,greek3 ri71 is 9 a h& ( ! latt] "p ( ! fifte5? c5tury4 ,not)/&+ ! lat5ess ( ! specim51 ! script takes its prop] place "h z repres5t+ a script ( ! fir/ c5tury4 ,plate #d is tak5 f a copy1 writt5 on vellum at #he,nabls1 ( ! ,sam>itan ,p5tateu*4 ,bo? 9 language & 9 lett]s x repres5ts ! old ,hebrew ( ! days ( ,solomon1 long ant]ior to ! "t :5 ,ezra introduc$ f ,*alda ! squ>e *>act]s n[ call$ ,hebrew2 ! anci5t lett]s hav+ be5 pres]v$ by a small remnant 9 ,nor? ,pale/9e4 ,! writ+ resembles t ( ! ,pho5icians1 & ! example giv5 on plate #d1 not)/&+ its lat5ess1 does n exhibit a v mu* modifi$ =m ( ! "*4 ,plate #e is f an ,abyss9ian ,,ms4 ( ! sixte5? c5tury1 on ! ,life ( ! ,virg94 ,! real orig9 ( ! arti/ic decoration is unmi/akable4 ,x is :at we call ,byzant9e1 b ought r to be call$ gypto-,grecian4 ,! p ( ,abyss9ia1 :o 7 ma9ly ,s\!rn ,arabs or ,sabans1 receiv$ _! in/ruction 9 art along ) _! ,*ri/ianity a few c5turies aft] ! beg9n+ ( ! era1 & !y h nev] ab&on$ !m4 ,z = ! writ+ :i* appe>s on ! plate1 x is 9 ! old ,geez or ,e?iopic language1 & desc5d$ f t ( ! ,saban p ^: monum5tal inscriptions 9 ,himy>itic language & *>act]s are n[ attract+ consid]able int]e/4 ,plate #f is f a ,greek ,gospelbook writt5 on vellum1 :i* 0 br\ght to ,engl& f ,cyprus by ,cesnola4 ,! ornam5tal bord] at ! top is some:at fre] & less /iff 9 /yle ?an ^? :i* we f9d 9 mo/ ( ! ,byzant9e ,,mss42 & ! writ+ is neat] & less neglig5t ?an if x _h be5 execut$ 9 ! elev5? or twelf? c5tury4 ,x slopes a little backw>ds & has ! brea?+s 9 _! antique =m z halves ( ! lett] ,h4 ,h5ce ,i h assign$ x to ! latt] "p ( ! t5? c5tury4 ,on plate #g ,i h giv5 a r$uction aft] ,we/wood ( a page f an ,iri% ,,ms4 n[ 9 ! ,ar*iepiscopal ,libr>y at ,lambe?4 ,al?\gh x is ( comp>atively late date 7! n9? c5tury71 & ! writ+ is ! ,iri% script 9 its second or :olly m9uscule /age1 ! ornam5tation is #hfsuffici5t to %[ :at ,iri% "w _h be5 & /ill 04 ,! m>vell\sly elaborate convolutions & int]lacem5ts1 ! dext]\s use ( col\rs1 ! utt] abs5ce ( gold1 & ! introduction ( grotesque animal figures1 are all se5 9 ?is plate f ! ,gospelbook ( ,mac,durnan4 7,:ile ,i write ,i am rem9d$ ( a p]sonal exp]i5ce :i* ,i may be =giv5 = sett+ d[n 9 pr9t4 ,:5 ,we/wood's great book _h come out1 ,i 0 "o day speak+ ) an ,engli% lady ( high social position1 cultivat$ & accompli%$ 9 _m bran*es ( k1 to :om aft] m5tion+ ,we/wood ,i express$ my admiration ( :at ! ,iri% calligraph]s _h done 9 ! sev5? & eigh? c5turies1 :5 art 0 s l[ 9 mo/ ( ! o!r l&s ( ,europe4 ,! lady li/5$ ) pati5t good-bre$+1 till ,i paus$1 & !n said quietly1 ,i presume t y are y\rself an ,iri%man6 ,%e _h evid5tly mi/ak5 "o unfamili> acc5t = ano!r1 & h] rem>k 0 a polite criticism ^u my cr$ulity or v]acity47 ,plate #ba 7:i* ought to h be5 ins]t$ 9 succession to plate #g7 reproduces a m9iature f a ,brevi>y writt5 ab\t #aaej-fj = ,is5grim1 ,abbot ( ! ,b5$ict9e ,mona/]y at ,ott5beu]n 9 ,suabia4 ,! m9iature reproduc$ is a picture ( ! ,asc5sion1 & %[s ! ,savi\r /&+ 9 an almond-%ap$ frame1 support$ & borne al(t by f\r angels4 ,! ,virg9 & ! ,apo/les are look+ upw>ds f bel[1 & ! picture is enclos$ )9 a squ>e blue bord]1 ?is be+ light$ by ornam5tal fretwork 9 :ite4 ,! faces are g5]ally well drawn1 & ! rapt att5tion 9 ! eyes ( ! uplook]s is v skilfully depict$4 ,! col\rs us$ are blue1 gre51 yell[1 r$1 *esnut1 & :ite4 ,! :ole effect is rem9isc5t ( ,anglo-,saxon "w1 & "o might easily1 at fir/ sight1 mi/ake x = a picture out ( an ,engli% book ( ! t5? c5tury4 ,a some:at simil> design ( ! same subject is f\nd 9 ,k+ ,a!l/an's ,psalt]--an ,anglo-,saxon ,,ms4 ( ! late n9? c5tury1 n[ #hg;9 ! ,briti% ,museum2 b ! ,suabian illu/ration is decid$ly inf]ior 9 ta/e & delicacy ( treatm5t4 ,x %[s1 h[ev]1 su* a k9%ip t we are incl9$ to believe 9 a ne>] connexion betwe5 ,g]man & ,engli% art ?an betwe5 ,g]man & ,fr5* ,c>ol+ian4 ,plates #h & #i reproduce m9iatures f two manuscripts ( ! ,lat9 ,bible1--! fir/ page ( ,g5esis 9 ea*4 ,! fir/ is ei!r ,engli% or ,norman "w1 p]haps r ! latt] ?an ! =m]1 & is int]e/+ z af=d+ "o ( ! e>lie/ examples ( ! bord] ) leaves ( ! s-call$ ivy patt]n4 ,! writ+ is a beautiful e>ly go?ic ( ! transition p]iod betwe5 ! ,c>ol+ian r\nd h& & ! m$ival squ>e go?ic4 ,x is unmi/akably ,norman1 if n ,anglo-,norman1 b may h be5 ,engli%4 ,if ! r$s 9 ! t9y m9iatures _h be5 a little m p9ki%1 & ! blue a little light]1 we %\ld h _h no hesitation 9 call+ x ,engli% "w4 ,9 plate #i1 ! writ+ is some:at r\nd] & ! ink is pal]--%[+ t ! "w is nei!r ,engli% nor ,norman2 & we f9d 9 ! m9ute pictures a /yle ( design1 bo? 9 ! figures & ! drap]ies1 :i* rem9ds u ( late classical art4 ,! int]lac$ patt]n 9 ! l[e/ portion ( ! ornam5t is also a survival ( ! ,celtic mann] :i* might be f\nd 9 ,s\!rn ,france1 b :i* _h ceas$ to be us$ 9 ,engli% "w1 except 9 ! decoration ( lett]s4 ,on ! plate1 ! picture is dat$ #acaj-bj2 b we may v5ture to ?9k t x 0 execut$ 9 ,s\?-,ea/]n ,france ab\t ! ye> #acjj4 ,! design & ! writ+ on plate #aj are ?or\ghly ,engli% ( ! end ( ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,! picture is unf9i%$1 hav+ be5 left by ! arti/ 9 its sket*-condition1 uncol\r$4 ,! faces are blank1 & ! draw+ simply 9 outl9e2 b ! c>eful treatm5t ( ! folds 9 ! drap]y is rem>kable4 ,! m9iature is "o ( sev]al illu/rat+ ! ,apocalypse1 :i* 7 done 9 ! conv5t at ,eaton or ,nun-,eaton 9 ,w>wick%ire ab\t #abhj4 ,! #hh;,apocalypse is n giv5 9 its ,lat9 summ>ies1 z 0 usual1 b 9 ,fr5* quatra9s ( ,engli% orig94 ,! volume :i* conta9s ^! draw+s is int]e/+1 z hav+ be5 a sort ( omnium ga!rum1 made up = ! ladies ( ,eaton at ! end ( ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,"o ( ! pieces x conta9s is a ,be/iaire by ,william ! ,tr\vre1 an ,engli%man ( ! twelf? c5tury2 a ,fr5* poem call$ ! ,*a/el d',am\rs by ,raymond ,grossete/e2 & a popul> ,engli% poem ( ! "t1 ( :i* ano!r example has be5 lately publi%$ 9 facsimile 9 8 ,engli% ,palography by ! ,rev4 ,walt] ,w4 ,skeat4 ,! m9iature ( ! ,crucifixion :i* is reproduc$ on plate #aa is visibly ,italian "w ( ! rude/ /yle4 ,x is tak5 f a ,missal1 writt5 9 a h& :i* is also ,italian ( ! end ( ! ?irte5? c5tury1 b go?ic 9 =m4 ,! liturgical "* ( ! book is1 h[ev]1 su* t we may believe x to h be5 produc$ 9 ,engl&1 p]haps by an ,italian ,ci/]cian monk4 ,! writ+ on ! m9iature is 9 s-call$ ,lomb>dic uncials1 a script :i* 0 us$ = capitals ne>ly ev]y:]e 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,! ?ree figures 9 ! picture h r$ or auburn hair1 a fav\rite col\r at all times among ! ,italians1 ev5 aft] ! ,flem+s _h introduc$ a blackhair$ ,*ri/4 ,ano!r noticeable feature is ! build+ ) an arcade & w9d[s1 9 ! l[] backgr\nd4 ,plate #ab is an illu/ration ( ! /ory ( ,troilus & ,cressida1 tak5 f ,guido ,colonna's ,tale ( ,troy4 ,x is ,v5etian1 ( ab\t ! ye>s #accj-dj1 & exhibits ! ,italian /yle ( us+ /rong pigm5ts = _! figures4 ,:atev] ! faults ( draw+ may be1 ?is is a real pa9t+ done ) a full bru%4 ,!re is no appe>ance ( ! outl9es drawn ) a p5 or a f9e bru%1 su* z we see 9 ,fr5* & ,engli% "w1 & ! folds 9 ! drap]ies appe> to be produc$ by broad %ad[+s aft] ! ma9 body ( col\r _h be5 pa9t$4 ,9 fact1 x seems to be1 l o!r ,italian illum9ations1 ! "w ( a pa9t]1 n #hi( a m9iaturi/4 ,! place ( orig9 is reveal$ by ! calligraph]'s in/ructions to ! arti/1 :i* occur on sev]al pages 9 a m9ute h&1 & :i* are writt5 9 a pure ,v5etian dialect4 ,! manuscript is illu/rat$ ) an unusual quantity ( pictorial designs4 ,! writ+ is rem>kable z resembl+ t ( ! ,engli% *>t]s ( ! same p]iod1 b ) great] regul>ity & ev5ness 9 ! d[n/rokes4 ,plate #ac is reproduc$ f a ,fr5* ,apocalypse ( ! f\rte5? c5tury1 ) a text 9 ,fr5* prose4 ,! writ+ is go?ic1 mu* *ang$ f ! /yle ( ! ?irte5? c5tury1 & less regul> & elegant4 ,! picture is ?or\ghly ,fr5*1 ( ! "t :5 ,engli% illum9ators _h yield$ up _! supremacy to ! m5 ( ! ,fr5* s*ool4 ,we see ! f9e outl9es & features z we are accu/om$ to see !m 9 ?irte5? c5tury "w1 (f]+ 9 _! delicate /yle a curi\s contra/ to ! broad free pa9t9ess ( ! illu/ration 9 plate #ab4 ,! ,apocalypse1 f :i* ! plate is tak51 is a ,fr5* "w ( ! middle ( ! f\rte5? c5tury1 %[+ a good deal ( ! feel+ ( ! prec$+ c5tury1 b t5d+ visibly t[>ds ! mann] ( ! "t :5 ,*>les ,v ( ,france & 8 bro!rs 7 associat$ ) manuscripts ( an unusually beautiful k9d4 ,plate #ad is an example ( ,fr5* grisaille 9 its e>li] /age4 ,! f\r designs look l f9e *alk draw+s prep>$ = ! use ( an engrav]1 r ?an l f9i%$ illu/rations 9 a book4 ,!re is an ease & fre$om 9 ! figure-draw+ :i* reveal ! h& ( a true arti/1 & ! treatm5t ( ! drap]ies is excell5t2 b ! l&scape accessories 9 ! l[] two divisions are primitive 9 _! absurdity & *ildi% execution4 ,! writ+ 9 ?is example1 & 9 plate #ac also1 is typical f\rte5? c5tury go?ic2 small1 cramp$1 squ>e1 & angul>4 ,! bord] is ( ! e>ly ivy-leaf patt]n1 /iff & n natural1 b n inelegant z decoration4 ,! /yle & "* ( #ij! two plates are ess5tially ,fr5*1 & c\ld n be f\nd 9 examples ( illum9ation at ! p]iod any:]e outside ( ,france4 ,plate #ae introduces u to a totally diff]5t k9d & /yle ( ornam5t4 ,!re is no appe>ance ( /iffness "h 9 ! bord]1 ) its bold conv5tional foliage ( light blue & gre51 & ! long fea!ry l9es t sweep out f x 9 free & graceful curves4 ,! m9iature too is full ( m]it bo? 9 design & execution1 its only drawback be+ ! r ugly patt]n ( ! gre5 floor+4 ,! seat$ prie/ is 9 ! full co/ume ( a doctor or lit]atus ( ,*auc]'s "t2 & ! expression 9 8 features1 z well z 9 ^? ( ! kneel+ ,g[]1 is excell5tly r5d]$4 ,! writ+ "h is n ! squ>e angul> go?ic ( ! two prec$+ plates1 b a m r\nd$ script1 p>tak+ ( ! nature ( ! *>t] h&1 :i* 0 appropriat$ to ! ,engli% language4 ,! a is ! only lett] 9 x q id5tical ) t ( ! f\rte5? c5tury go?ic1 & ! p 7= ?7 %[s ! survival ( ,anglo-,saxon writ+1 j z ! w %[s u a mod]n ,engli% lett] at a tol]ably e>ly /age ( its gr[?4 ,! k is likewise notewor?y1 z be+ ! peculi> =m ( ! lett] :i* _h be5 evolv$ 9 ! rapid writ+ ( c\rt-scribes1 & :i* is /ill us$ 9 ,g]man manuscript4 ,plate #af %[s u ,franco-,flemi% art 9 a phase 9 :i* ! simple ma/]y ( design _h become subord9ate to ! brilliancy & magnific5ce ( decoration4 ,! inn] bord] ( int]wov5 blue & r$ l9es ^u a gr\nd ( gold is connect$ )1 & gr[s out (1 ! illum9at$ initial 9 a suitably appropriate fa%ion1 b ! out] bord] ( conv5tional foliage1 r$1 blue1 gre51 & yell[1 ) its ins]t$ figures ( a kneel+ man & a hybrid drom$>y1 has no compreh5sible aff9ity to ! re/ ( ! "w1 & is tack$ on )\t any reason beyond ! desire = spl5d\r & v>iety4 ,! /yle is n di/9ctively ,flemi%1 al?\gh ! pa9t+ 0 done at #ia,t\rnay4 ,x is r a developm5t out ( ,franco-,burgundian models1 & m sugge/ive ( ,fr5* orig9 ?an any o!r2 9 fact1 ! ext5sion ( c5tral ,fr5* influ5ce nor?w>ds ?r\gh ,burgundy4 ,9 plate #ag !re is real ,flemi% "w4 ,"h is pure grisaille at its be/2 no infusion ( extrane\s col\r 9 ! design1 except 9 ! tesselat$ pavem5t ( yell[ & :ite m>ble1 & no glitt] ( illum9ation beyond :at is giv5 by a gold cr[n 9 ! h&s ( "o figure1 & a c\ple ( gold *a9s on ! brea/s ( two o!rs4 ,?is is inde$ a true hi/orical picture broadly conceiv$1 well compos$1 & admirably execut$4 ,! p]spective is excell5t1 & we realise cle>ly ! size & dep? ( ! l>ge vault$ *amb]1 light$ only f ! doorways & ! op5 w9d[-spaces1--9 :i* ! eight p]sonages are gr\p$4 ,! manuscript f :i* ! m9iature is tak5 0 writt5 & illu/rat$1 almo/ und\bt$ly1 at ,bruges ab\t #adgj = a nobleman ( ! ,lannoy family1 a memb] n ( ! pr9cipal h\se :i* /ill fl\ri%$ 9 ,fl&]s1 b ( ! transplant$ bran* 9 ,pic>dy4 ,plate #ah is tak5 f an ,engli% manuscript ( consid]able int]e/4 ,a numb] ( armorial be>+s1 :i* are f\nd on ! m>g9s ( ! pages1 %[ t x 0 writt5 ei!r = ! ,m>quis ( ,dorset1 ,edw>d ,,iv's son-9-law1 or = "o ( 8 *ildr54 ,:i*ev] 0 ! case1 ! book 0 9 ! possession ( ,john ,grey1 dom9us de ,bliswor?1 ! son or ne> relative ( ! ,m>quis1 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! sixte5? c5tury2 & !re is a record add$ 9 ! cal5d> ( ! dea? ( ,dame ,elizabe? ,grey1 ?is ,john's wife1 ab\t #aebj-cj4 ,! m9iatures are good1 b n excell5t2 bett] 9 composition ?an 9 design1 & %[+ grave defici5cies ) reg>d to p]spective4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 well execut$ & well pa9t$2 & ! bord]s are rem>kably elegant4 ,! conv5tional l>ge foliage1 ( ar*itectonic "*1 is admirably dispos$ ^u small & appropriate fields ( gold2 & ! tw9+ #ib;bran*lets t be> t9y buds & small leaves & fl[]s are n s cr[d$ z to hide ! vellum gr\nd4 ,! bord] is inde$ a f9e decorative composition1 )\t a fault1 & ?or\ghly ,engli% 9 /yle4 ,!re is an inscription at ! foot ( ! m9iature :i* inspires curiosity to le>n :o ! writ] 04 ,%e 0 evid5tly a woman ( high position2 = only su* a p]sonage w\ld h be5 all[$ to write 9 a ,pray]book ( ! k9d4 ,! words are1 ,madame1 ,i pray y rememb] h] t ys y\rs & evv] sall be1 b ! bookb9d] has un=tunately cut (f ! signature4 ,! p]son address$ 0 no d\bt ,dame ,elizabe? ,grey4 ,! writ+ is /rangely l t ( ,h5ry ,,vii1 b _c ( c\rse h be5 84 ,x is possibly z late z #aebj4 ,plate #bb is f a ,pray]book writt5 & illum9at$ ab\t #aebj-cj = a c]ta9 ,giovanni ,b5tivoglio4 ,if ! book _h be5 a doz5 or tw5ty ye>s e>li] ?an x seems to be1 "o might h suppos$ t x 0 execut$ at ,bologna1 by ! ord] & = ! use ( ! la/ ,b5tivoglio :o rul$ 9 t city4 ,z1 h[ev]1 he di$ 9 exile & mis=tune 9 #aejh1 ! ,giovanni to :om ! pray]book belong$1 mu/ h be5 8 gr&son1 born ab\t #aeaj1 :o 0 9 ! imp]ial s]vice 9 #aecj4 ,! arti/ic m]it ( ! illum9ation is consid]able1 b !y are ov]-florid & m>k a decay ( ta/e4 ,! col\rs are vivid & h>moni\s1 gold is pl5tifully us$1 & ! beauty ( ! "w is und5iable2 b x is m]etrici\s & corrupt 9 /yle4 ,italian examples ( ! p]iod are1 h[ev]1 r>e & highly priz$4 ,on plate #ai we h a l>ge initial 7,o7 cut f an ,italian ,antiphonal or ,gradual1 writt5 probably ab\t #aedj-ej4 ,x encloses a m9iature repres5t+ ! ,adoration ( ! ?ree ,k+s1 pa9t$ ) s mu* skill z to sugge/ ! h& ( "s /ud5t ( ,titian's s*ool4 ,9 design1 composition1 & execution1 x is v good2 ! only drawback be+ ! sup]f9e air ( c\rtly elegance #ic:i* is se5 9 e figure b5ea? ! ?at*$ ro( ( ! /able4 ,!re is a !atrical "* 9 ! :ole p]=mance1 t rem9ds u ( ,f$]ico ,b>occio4 ,( simil> date is ! picture on plate #bj4 ,x comes f a ,gospel-lesson book1 writt5 9 a mitr$ abbey on ! ,g]man side ( ! ,rh9e1 probably n f> f ,cologne1 9 ! ye> #aedh4 ,! design ( ! company ( monks head$ by _! ,abbot1 all 9 :ite raim5t & kneel+ be=e an unse5 alt>1 is excell5t ,g]man "w4 ,! l&scape ) di/ant t[]s1 se5 ?r\gh ! pill>s ( an arcade beh9d w\ld look bett] ?an x does1 if x 7 n = ! float+ *]ubs :o hov] 9 ! spaces1 & support two armorial %ields4 ,! bord] is a close imitation ( ! late ,flemi% /yle4 ,on a yell[ gr\nd1 light$ ) tw9+ gold bran*lets1 cut fl[]s are vividly pa9t$1 along ) figures ( a bee1 a fox1 a bird1 a rabbit1 & a hybrid animal l an ape4 #id;,,index4 ,aa*51 metropolis ( ! ,franki% ,empire1 #dd ,abyss9ia1 writ+ 91 #ab1ac ,abyss9ian ,,ms4 ,life ( ! ,virg91 #he ,adamnan 7,/471 #bh1 #cf ,adoration ( ! ,magi1 a m9iature1 #ib ,ai-gupt1 ,semitic "n ( ! ,delta1 #h ,akkadian writ+1 #g1 #i ,alcu9 at ,t\rs & ,aa*51 #dd ,amb]-trade1 #bi ,ambrosian use 9 ! ,milanese liturgy1 #ec ,angles civiliz$1 #cd ,anglo-,saxon alphabet1 #bf1 #cb -- decoration ( ,,ms41 #ce1 #cg ,antiphonale1 #ed ,apocalypse ,,mss41 #gc1 #hi ,apocalyptic designs1 ,engli% "w1 #hg ,arabian writ+ 7,arabic71 #bj ,arabian 7,s\?7 writ+1 #ab ,arabic language1 #ba -- writ+1 #bj1 #hd ,aragonese ,k+s ( ,naples1 #hj ,araman ,*aldees1 #aa1 #ab ,asc5sion1 ,pictures ( !1 #hf ,asoka's ,rock-inscriptions1 #ah ,assyrian ,empire =m$1 #aj ,assyriology1 #f ,attavante1 "w done by1 #ha1 #hb ,babylonian mon>*ies1 #g1 #i1 #aj ,bactrian ,k+dom1 #ah ,b>b>ians1 movem5ts ( !1 #db ,b>occio 7,f$]ico71 #ic ,ba/>u1 a ,go?ic p1 #bi ,b$e1 ! ,v5]able1 #cd1 #cg ,b5tivoglio 7,giovanni71 ,pray] book1 #ib ,b]ossus1 ,assyrian ,*ronicle1 #f ,bible1 its influ5ce on writ+1 #bc -- multipli$ by scribes1 #eb -- ,greek1 #bd #ie -- ,syriac1 #bd -- ,hebrew1 #bd -- ,lat9 ,,mss41 #hg ,bologna s*ool ( law1 #eg ,book 7orig9 ( ! ^w71 #b ,bord]s 9 ,,mss41 #fb1 #fe1 #ga1 #gf ,b\/roph$on writ+1 #af ,brgilles ,livre d',heures1 #ge ,brevi>y1 f\ndation ( !1 #ec -- con/itution ( !1 #fg -- ,,ms4 writt5 at ,ott5beu]n1 #hf ,brita9 ,celtib]ian1 #bg -- ,gallic1 #bg -- ,lat91 #bg -- ,engli%1 #bg ,briti% ,isles1 age ( writ+ 91 #bg ,bruges ,,mss41 #ha1 #ia ,burgundian s*ool ( art1 #fe1 #gd1 #ia ,burmese writ+1 #ba ,byzant9e ornam5tation1 #be -- ,art n ,hell5ic1 #dg ,cadmus ! ,pho5ician1 #aj ,cal5d>s 9 ,pray] books1 #fg ,calligraphy ext+ui%$ by ,pr9t+1 #hj ,canon ,law1 #eg ,canonical ,h\rs1 #ec ,cant]bury s*ool ( writ+1 #ei ,capitals 9 writ+1 #be ,c>ol+ian art1 #ce1 #cg1 #dc1 #ei -- writ+1 #dj1 #dc ,celtic ,*ur*1 #ec ,cesnola 7,l4 ,p4 di71 #he ,*alda1 age ( writ+ 91 #g ,*aldees 7,turanian or ,akkad71 #i -- 7,araman or ,semitic71 #aa ,*>les ! ,great1 #ce1 #da1 #dc ,*>t]s1 /yle ( writ+ us$ 91 #bf1 #ed1 #ee ,*>t] h& 9 ,engl&1 #gb ,*a/el d',am\rs1 ,,ms41 #hh ,*9ese orig9s1 #ac ,*ri/ blackhair$ 9 pictures1 #hh ,*ronology ( ! ,bible1 #f #if ,*rysography1 #c1 #bf1 #fj ,*ur*es 7,e>ly ,*ri/ian71 #ec ,civil ,law1 #eg ,classic survival 9 ,italy1 #ce ,clovio 7,giulio7 ,m9iatures1 #ha ,colonna 7,guido7 ,tale ( ,troy1 #hh ,col\rs 9 m9iatures & ornam5t1 #fa ,columba 7,/471 #cf ,coptic alphabet1 #be -- writ+1 #i1 #hd ,cufic writ+1 #bj ,cursive ,roman1 #bf1 #bh ,cymry ( ,nor? ,engl&1 #cc -- settl$ 9 ,wales1 #cc ,cyril 7,/471 #eb ,cyrillic alphabet1 #ea ,david 7,g]>d7 ( ,bruges1 #gh1 #hj ,decoration ( ,,mss41 ,iri%1 #ce1 #cf -- ,anglo-,saxon1 #ce -- ,franki%1 #cg1 #dc -- ,gallo-,roman1 #dd1 #dg -- ,engli%1 #de -- ,g]man1 #de -- ,spani%1 #df -- ,italian1 #df -- ,byzant9e1 #df1 #dg ,demotic writ+ 7,egyptian71 #i1 #hd ,deuts*1 mean+ ( ! ^w1 #ca ,devanag>i alphabet1 #ah1 #ba ,diplomatic writ+1 #bf1 #ed1 #ee ,draw+ & design1 ,m$ival1 #fb ,dur] 7,alb]t71 #gi ,durham s*ool ( writ+1 #ei ,eg9h>t1 ! ,frank1 #dc ,egypt call$ ,khem1 #e1 #h -- -- ,aigupt1 #h -- -- ,mizraim1 ,misr1 #h -- ,age ( writ+ 91 #e ,egyptology1 #f ,engl& ! c5tre ( ,fr5* art & lit]ature1 #fb ,engli% ,art 9 ,,mss41 #di1 #fj1 #fb1 #gb1 #ij1 #ia -- ,cal5d>s 9 ,hor1 #fi -- illum9at$ bord]s1 #fe1 #gg1 #ij #ig -- ,,ms4 ,bible ,sec4 ,,xiii41 #hg ,e/rangelo ,syriac1 #bj ,e?iopic language1 #he -- writ+1 #ab ,etruscan alphabet1 #af ,eu*ologium1 #ed ,evangeli>ium1 ,g]man ,,ms41 #ic ,flemi% s*ool ( art1 #gd1 #gf1 #gi1 #ij1 #ia -- ,cal5d>s 9 ,hor1 #fh -- illum9at$ bord]s1 #gh ,floral bord]s1 #fe ,flor5t9e m9iatures1 #gh1 #ha ,=mation & use ( books1 #c ,france 7,c5tral7 ,,mss4 produc$ 91 #fb ,franki% empire1 #ci -- writ+1 #bh1 #cg1 #ci ,fr5* art 9 ,,mss41 #fj1 #fb1 #gc -- ,calligraphy & ornam5tation1 #di -- ,cal5d>s 9 ,hor1 #fh -- illum9at$ bord]s1 #fe1 #gg -- ,,ms4 ,lat9 ,bibles1 #acjj1 #hg ,gallic language1 #cj ,gallican use 9 liturgy1 #ec ,gaul1 ,age ( writ+ 91 #bb -- ,greek writ+ 91 #bb ,g]man ,art 9 ,,mss41 #hf -- ,cal5d> 9 liturgies1 #gj -- illum9ation1 #fa -- -- 9 ,flemi% /yle1 #ic -- writ+1 #ga ,g]many1 "n (1 #cj ,girolamo dai ,libri1 #ha ,glagolitic alphabet1 #ea ,gla/onbury s*ool ( writ+1 #ei ,gl\ce/] cal5d>1 #fi ,gospel ( ,/4 ,pet]1 #dh ,go?ic alphabet 7,wulfila's71 #be1 #bh1 #ca -- ,k+dom 9 ,spa91 #bc -- ,k+dom 9 ,italy1 #da -- m$ival writ+1 #cb1 #fe ,go?s & ,g]mans1 #bh ,g[] 7,john7 9 a m9iature ( ! ,confessio ,amantis1 #ij ,graduale ( ! missal1 #ed ,greek alphabet1 #aj1 #ac1 #ad -- ,bibles1 #ec -- ,colonies1 #ae #ih -- ,gospels1 ,,ms41 ,sec4 ,x41 #he -- writ+1 m9uscules1 #dg ,gregory 7,/471 #ed ,grey 7,?omas7 ,m>quis ( ,dorset1 #ia -- 7,john & ,elizabe?71 #ia ,grimani ,brevi>y1 #hj ,grisaille pa9t+1 #ge1 #hi1 #ia ,grossete/e 7,raymond71 #hh ,gu?ones1 #bi ,hebrew language1 #ai -- writ+ 9 squ>e lett]s1 #ai1 #hd ,hell5is$ ,ori5tal peoples1 #bc ,h]culaneum1 writ+ at1 #be ,heures d',anne de ,bretagne1 #gh ,hi]atic writ+ 9 ,egypt1 #i -- ,,ms4 on papyrus1 #hd ,hi]oglyphic writ+ 7,egyptian71 #i -- ,,ms4 on papyrus1 #hc ,himy>itic alphabet1 #ab ,hor = private pray]1 #ef1 #fg -- ( ,fr5* "w1 #gd -- ( ,engli% "w1 #fi1 #gf1 #gg1 #ij -- con/itution (1 #fg ,horologium1 #ed ,h\rs1 ! ,canonical1 #ec1 #ef ,h\rs ( ! ,virg91 see ,hor ,hrabanus ,maurus1 #cj ,hunt+field ,psalt]1 ,,ms41 #gc ,hyksos or ,%eph]d ,k+s 9 ,egypt1 #aa ,hymnals1 #ed1 #eh ,ib]ian writ+ 9 ,spa91 #bb ,icel& & its lit]ature1 #ea ,illum9ation 7,m$ival71 orig9 (1 #cf ,india1 age ( writ+ 91 #ah1 #ba ,indian languages 7mod]n71 #ba ,initials illum9at$1 #fb1 #fd ,ink us$ 9 ,,mss41 #c ,irel&1 writ+ 91 #bh1 #cb ,iri% alphabet1 #bf -- ,,ms41 #bh1 #cf -- ,mac,durnan's ,gospels1 #he -- ornam5tation 9 ,,mss41 #he -- tea*]s ( ! ,angles1 #cd ,is5grim1 ,abbot ( ,ott5beu]n1 #hf ,italian art1 #fb1 #gi1 #ib #ii -- late classical art1 #fj -- m9iatures1 #hh1 #ib -- ,picture ( ! ,crucifixion1 #hh -- ,s*ools ( ,illum9ation1 #gj -- ,sa9ts 9 ,cal5d>s1 #gj ,italic *>act]s1 #hc ,italy1 age ( writ+ 91 #ae ,italy1 v>i\s h&s us$ 91 #hc ,ivy-leaf bord]s1 #fc ,j]ome 7,/471 #ea ,jorn&es ! ,go?ic hi/orian1 #db ,juana la ,loca1 #hj ,khem1 "n ( old ,egypt1 #e1 #h ,lannoy1 ,l[ c\ntry family1 #ia ,lat9 alphabet1 orig9 ( !1 #ag ,lat9 ,bible1 #eb -- -- ,,mss41 #hg -- ,liturgies1 #ec ,lectron>ies1 #ed ,l5ormant 7,francois71 #aa ,liturgical books1 #ff -- frequ5tly transcrib$1 #ec ,liturgies 9 ! v]nacul>1 #eg ,l9disf>ne s*ool ( writ+1 #ei ,livres d',heures--see ,hor ,lomb>dic writ+1 #ch1 #dj1 #da -- uncials1 #hh ,lomb>ds1 ,! ,k+dom ( !1 #dj ,lomb>dy 7,cisalp9e ,gaul71 #bb -- "u ! ,go?s1 #dj1 #da -- "u ! ,lomb>ds1 #da -- "u ! ,franks1 #da ,mac,durnan's ,gospels1 ,iri% ,,ms41 #hf ,madd5 7,sir ,fr$]ick71 #cg ,man*u script1 #bb ,mane?o1 ,egyptian ,*ronicle1 #f ,,mss4 on purple vellum1 #bg1 #fj ,m>comanni1 #cj ,m>g>et ( ,au/ria1 #hj ,m>seilles1 ,greek colony1 #ae1 #bb ,mat]ials ( books1 #c ,ma?ias ,corv9us1 #hj #ajj ,m$ici1 patrons ( art1 #hj -- 7,lor5zo dei7 ,pray] book1 #hb -- 7,pietro dei7 ,pray] book1 #hb ,meml+ 7,hans71 #gh ,m5ologium1 ,greek ,liturgy1 #ed ,m][+ian writ+1 #bh1 #ch ,m9uscule lett]s1 #bf ,miroir ,hi/orial1 ,,ms41 #ge1 #ia ,missal1 ,,mss41 #ed -- =mation (1 #ec -- con/itution (1 #ff -- ,anglo-,italian ,,ms41 #hh ,mizraim1 ,misr1 names ( ,egypt1 #h ,moeso-,go?ic ,alphabet1 #ca1 #da ,mongolian script1 #bb ,moz>abic liturgy1 #ec ,nag>i alphabet1 #ah1 #ba ,naples1 "w done at1 #hb ,naskhi ,arabic writ+1 #bj ,norman ,conque/ ( ,engl&1 #fb ,norse ,runes1 #cj ,nuneaton ,conv5t1 "w done 91 #hg ,ornam5tation 9 ,,mss41 #fj ,oscan & ,umbrian writ+1 #af ,o/rogo?s1 #cb ,ott5beu]n ,,mss41 #hf ,ox=d ,s*ool ( ,law1 #eh ,padua ,univ]sity1 #eh ,palography 7! ^w71 #b ,papal prohibition ( v]nacul> liturgies1 #eg ,papyrus = books1 #d -- 9 ,assyria1 #h ,p>*m5t = books1 #d ,p>is ,univ]sity1 #dd1 #eh ,patrick 7,/471 #bh ,pehlvi writ+1 #ai ,p5it5tialia1 #eg ,p]sian writ+ 7,cunei=m71 #g -- ,pehlvi1 #ai -- ,talik1 #ba ,p]spective 9 m9iatures1 #gf ,petr>* ,,ms4 attribut$ to ,attavante1 #ha ,philip ,i4 ( ,ca/ile 7,ar*duke ( ,au/ria71 #hj ,pho5ician colonies1 #ae -- use ( lett]s1 #aj #aja ,photius1 ,biblio!ca1 #ed ,phrygian use ( lett]s1 #ab ,pontificale1 #ed ,prakrit language1 #ah1 #ba ,pray] books = private p]sons1 #ee1 #ef ,prim]s1 #ef ,prisse ,papyrus1 #e ,processimale1 #ed ,psalt] 9 ! ,liturgy1 #ed -- = private pray]1 #ee ,ptah ,hotep's ,precepts1 #e ,punic writ+ 9 ,spa91 #bb ,re=mation 9 ! ,*ur*1 #eg ,r5aissance ( ,lit]ature1 #eh ,roman lett]s 9 _! mod]n =ms1 #hc ,roman orig9s1 #af -- writ+1 #be ,r\g 7,vicomte ,emm4 de71 #aa ,runic lett]s1 #bi ,ru/ic capitals1 #be ,rusk9 7,john71 #b ,sabaan use ( lett]s1 #ab -- orig9 ( ,abyss9ians1 #he ,sacram5t>ies1 #ec1 #ed ,sa9ts' names 9 ,cal5d>s1 #fg1 #fh1 #fi ,sam>itan alphabet1 #ai -- ,p5tateu*1 #hd ,sanskrit language1 #ba ,s>gon1 ,k+ ( ,akkad1 #g ,s>um use1 #fi ,saxons & ,angles1 #cd ,sc&9avia1 #db ,sc&9avian writ+1 ,anglo-,saxon1 #ej -- -- ,teutonic1 #ea -- -- ,runic1 #bi1 #ej ,scots1 ,iri% pirates1 #cc ,scotti% ,liturgies1 #fi ,semitic ,alphabet1 #aa ,semi-uncials1 #bf ,septuag9t1 creation ( !1 #bc ,siamese writ+1 #ba ,sigismondo da ,c>pio1 #ha ,s+alese alphabet1 #ba ,skeat 7,rev4 ,w4 ,w471 #hh ,slavonic alphabets1 #ea ,slov5e language & script1 #eb ,spa91 ,age ( writ+ 91 #bb -- ,visigo?ic writ+ 91 #dc -- ,c>ol+ian writ+1 #dc #ajb -- m$ival ,go?ic1 #dc ,spani% ,cal5d>s 9 ,liturgies1 #gj -- ornam5tation ( ,,mss41 #fa ,/eph5s 7,george71 #bi ,/ubbs 7,bi%op71 #cc ,suevi1 #cj ,sweynheym & ,pann>tz1 #hc ,synax>ium1 #ed ,syriac language1 #ai1 #bd ,syrians1 #ab ,talik writ+ 7,p]sian71 #ba ,t]ri5 de la ,c\p]ie 7,pr(471 #ac ,teutonic1 #ca ,!odoric ! ,o/rogo?1 #da ,!otisc1 #ca ,?ibetan writ+1 #ba ,?ompson 7,e4 ,maunde71 #a1 #aa ,t\rnay ,h\rs1 #ge1 #ij ,t\rs1 ,abbey ( ,/4 ,m>t91 #dd ,troilus & ,cressida1 #hh ,troybook1 ,v5etian ,,ms41 #hh ,turdetani ( ,spa91 #bb ,ulfila--see ,wulfila ,umbrian & ,oscan writ+1 #af ,uncials 9 writ+1 #be ,vellum = books1 #d ,v5etian ,art1 ,troybook1 #hh -- m9iatures1 #ha1 #hb1 #hh ,visigo?s1 #cb -- 9 ,spa91 #bc ,visigo?ic art1 #ci -- writ+1 #ch1 #dj1 #db1 #dc ,volumes1 roll$ books1 #c ,wales1 ,briton & ,cymry1 #cd ,wel%1 mean+ ( ! ^w1 #ca ,we/wood 7,pr(essor71 #cc1 #cg ,william ! ,tr\v]e1 #hh ,w9*e/] s*ool ( writ+1 #ei ,wulfila1 ,go?ic ,bi%op1 #ca ,york s*ool ( writ+1 #dd1 #ei ,york use 9 ,liturgy1 #fi ,z5d writ+1 #ai ,illu/ration3 ,,portion ,,( ,a ,,fun]>y ,,inscription4 ,writt5 on papyrus 9 ! ,hi]oglyphic "*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,egyptian ,,inscription4 ,writt5 on papyrus 9 ! ,demotic "*4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,page ,,f ,a ,,coptic ,,liturgy4 ,writt5 9 ,egypt 9 ! fifte5? c5tury4 ,illu/ration3 ,,sam>itan ,,ms4 ,,on ,,vellum1 ,,probably ,,sec4 ,,xv4 ,leviticus1 ,x4 #af to ,,xi4 #ac4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,m9iature ,,9 ,,! ,,tamh]a ,,m>yam4 ,an ,e?iopic "w on ! life ( ! ,virg91 writt5 9 #aebb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,fir/ ,,page ,,( ,,/4 ,,john',s ,,gospel4 ,f a ,greek ,,ms4 ( ! ,t5? ,c5tury1 br\ght by ,cesnola f ,cyprus4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,page ,,f ,,macdurnan',s ,,gospels4 ,a ,,ms4 writt5 9 ,irel& 9 ! ,n9? ,c5tury1 n[ at ,lambe?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,fir/ ,,page ,,( ,,g5esis4 ,9 a ,lat9 ,bible1 writt5 probably 9 ,engl& ab\t #abij-acjj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,fir/ ,,page ,,( ,,g5esis4 ,9 a ,lat9 ,bible writt5 9 ,france ab\t #acaj-bj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,second ,,angel ,,bl[+ ,,8 ,,trumpet4 ,f a s]ies ( unf9i%$ designs illu/rat+ ! ,apocalypse2 execut$ at ,nuneaton ab\t ,a4,d4 #abhj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,m9iature ,,( ,,! ,,crucifixion4 ,9 a ,missale writt5 by an ,italian h& ab\t #abij4 ,illu/ration3 ,,criseis ,,s5t ,,back ,,to ,,! ,,greeks4 ,f a ,,ms4 ( ! ,lib] ,trojanus writt5 at ,v5ice ab\t #acbe4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,page ,,f ,,! ,,revelations4 ,9 a ,fr5* ,,ms4 ,apocalypse ,figure1 writt5 ab\t #acfj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fir/ ,,page ,,( ,,! ,,roman ,,de ,,la ,,rose4 ,,ms4 writt5 9 ,france ab\t #acgj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,john ,,g[] ,,& ,,! ,,prie/ ,,( ,,v5us4 ,f a ,,ms4 ( ,g[]'s ,confessio ,amantis1 writt5 be=e #acii4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,page ,,f ,a ,,livre ,d',,heures4 ,writt5 at ,t\rnay ab\t #adfe4 ,illu/ration3 ,,tib]ius ,,receiv+ ,,! ,,imp]ial ,,cr[n4 ,f a ,,ms4 ( ! ,miroir ,hi/orial1 writt5 probably at ,bruges ab\t #adgj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,*ri/ ,,9 ,,! ,,g>d5 ,,( ,,ge?semane4 ,f ! ,pray] book ( ,grey1 ,m>quis ( ,dorset1 ab\t #adgj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,adoration ,,( ,,! ,,magi4 ,f an ,italian ,*orale writt5 ab\t #aecj-dj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,an ,,abbot ,,& ,,monks ,,kneel+ ,,be=e ,,an ,,alt>4 ,f an ,evangeli>ium illum9at$ 9 ,flemi% /yle by a ,g]man h& 9 #aedh4 ,illu/ration3 ,,m9iature ,,( ,,! ,,asc5sion4 ,f ! ,suabian ,brevi>y writt5 at ,ott5beu]n ab\t #aafj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,fir/ ,,page ,,( ,,! ,,(fice ,,( ,,! ,,virg94 ,f ! ,b5tivoglio ,pray]book1 writt5 9 ,italy ab\t #aebj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,corrections made to pr9t$ text ,page #i3 ',! hi]atic "* 0 simply an abridgm5t ( ! hi]oglyphic' correct$ f ',! hi]atic "* 0 simply an abridgm5t ( ! hi]atic' 767 ,page #ca3 ',go?ic ?' correct$ f ',go?ie ?' ,index1 ,italy3 'v>i\s' correct$ f 'v>ions' ,index1 ,mizraim3 correct$ f ',mizzaim'