,transcriber's ,notes3 ,italic text is denoted by underscores and bold text by equal signs4 ,small uppercase have been replaced with regular uppercase4 ,characters after a carat are superscripts4 ,blank pages have been eliminated4 ,variations in spelling and hyphenation have been left as in the original4 ,a few typographical errors have been corrected4 ,,crown ,,theological ,,library ,,vol4 ,,xxxv ,,herford',s ,,pharisaism ,crown ,theological ,library ,,works ,,already ,,published ,vol4 ,i4--,,babel ,,and ,,bible4 ,by ,dr ,,friedrich ,,delitzsch4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,ii4--,,the ,,virgin ,,birth ,,of ,,christ4 ,by ,,paul ,,lobstein4 #b,s4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,iii4--,,my ,,struggle ,,for ,,light4 ,by ,r4 ,,wimmer4 #cs4 net4 ,vol4 ,,iv4--,,liberal ,,christianity4 ,by ,,jean ,r,,ville4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,v4--,,what ,,is ,,christianity8 ,by ,,adolf ,,harnack4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,vi4--,,faith ,,and ,,morals4 ,by ,w4 ,,herrmann4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,vii4--,,early ,,hebrew ,,story4 ,by ,,john ,p4 ,,peters1 ,d4,d4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,viii4--,,bible ,,problems ,,and ,,the ,,new ,,material ,,for ,,their ,,solution4 ,by ,prof4 ,t4 ,k4 ,,cheyne1 ,d4,litt41 ,d4,d4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,ix4--,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,the ,,atonement ,,and ,,its ,,historical ,,evolution1 ,,and ,,religion ,,and ,,modern ,,culture4 ,by the late ,,auguste ,,sabatier4 #ds4 net4 ,vol4 ,x4--,,the ,,early ,,christian ,,conception ,,of ,,christ3 ,its ,significance and ,value in the ,history of ,religion4 ,by ,,otto ,,pfleiderer4 #cs4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xi4--,,the ,,child ,,and ,,religion4 ,essays by ,various ,writers4 #es4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xii4--,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,religion4 ,by ,l4 ,r4 ,,farnell1 ,d4,litt4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xiii4--,,the ,,books ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,testament4 ,by ,baron ,,hermann ,,von ,,soden1 ,d4,d4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xiv4--,,jesus4 ,by ,w4 ,,bousset4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xv4--,,the ,,communion ,,of ,,the ,,christian ,,with ,,god4 ,by ,w4 ,,herrmann4 ,revised and much enlarged ,edition4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xvi4--,,hebrew ,,religion4 ,by ,w4 ,e4 ,,addis1 ,m4,a4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xvii4--,,naturalism ,,and ,,religion4 ,by ,,rudolf ,,otto4 #es4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xviii4--,,essays ,,on ,,the ,,social ,,gospel4 ,by ,dr ,,adolf ,,harnack and ,dr ,,herrmann4 #ds4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xix4--,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament4 ,by ,,karl ,,marti4 #ds4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xx4--,,luke ,,the ,,physician4 ,by ,dr ,,adolf ,,harnack4 #es4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxi4--,,the ,,historical ,,evidence ,,for ,,the ,,resurrection ,,of ,,jesus ,,christ4 ,by ,prof4 ,,kirsopp ,,lake4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxii4--,,the ,,apologetic ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,testament4 ,by ,e4 ,f4 ,,scott4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxiii4--,,the ,,sayings ,,of ,,jesus4 ,by ,dr ,,adolf ,,harnack4 #es4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxiv4--,,anglican ,,liberalism4 ,by ,,twelve ,,churchmen4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxv4--,,the ,,fundamental ,,truths ,,of ,,the ,,christian ,,religion4 ,by ,dr ,r4 ,,seeberg4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxvi4--,,the ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,spirit4 ,by ,dr ,,rudolf ,,eucken4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxvii4--,,the ,,acts ,,of ,,the ,,apostles4 ,by ,dr ,,adolf ,,harnack4 #es4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxviii4--,,monasticism ,,and ,,the ,,confessions ,,of ,,st ,,augustine4 ,by ,dr ,,adolf ,,harnack4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxix4--,,modernity ,,and ,,the ,,churches4 ,by ,professor ,,percy ,,gardner4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxx4--,,the ,,old ,,egyptian ,,faith4 ,by ,prof4 ,,edouard ,,naville4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxxi4--,,the ,,constitution ,,and ,,law ,,of ,,the ,,church ,,in ,,the ,,first ,,two ,,centuries4 ,by ,dr ,,adolf ,,harnack4 #es4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxxii4--,,the ,,scientific ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament4 ,by ,dr ,,rudolf ,,kittel4 #es4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxxiii4--,,the ,,date ,,of ,,the ,,acts ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,synoptic ,,gospels4 ,by ,dr ,,adolf ,,harnack4 #es4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxxiv4--,,the ,,religious ,,experience ,,of ,,st ,,paul4 ,by ,prof4 ,,percy ,,gardner4 #es4 net4 ,descriptive ,prospectus on ,application4 ,,pharisaism ,,its ,,aim ,,and ,,its ,,method ,,by ,r4 ,,travers ,,herford1 ,b4,a4 ,,author ,,of ,,christianity ,,in ,,talmud ,,and ,,midrash ,,williams ,,norgate #ad ,,henrietta ,,street1 ,,covent ,,garden1 ,,london ,,new ,,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons #aiab ,,preface ,most of the contents of the following pages were given as lectures in ,manchester ,college1 ,oxford1 in the autumn of #aiaa4 ,i have thought it better to confine myself within the limits of what ,i then said1 rather than to expand and recast the lectures into a complete monograph on the ,pharisees4 ,my aim throughout has been to present and make clear the ,pharisaic conception of religion1 the point of view from which they regarded it1 and the methods by which they dealt with it4 ,it is far more important that the reader1 especially the ,christian reader1 should understand the meaning of ,pharisaism than that he should be presented with a survey of all the details1 theological1 ethical1 historical1 and other1 included in the wide field of the ,pharisaic literature4 ,i am not without hope that a small book may be read where a large one would be passed by1 and that the ends of justice--in this case justice to the ,pharisees--may thereby be the better attained4 ,i have not sought to write a panegyric on them1 but1 so far as may be possible for one who is not a ,jew1 to present their case from their own standpoint1 and not1 as is so often done1 as a mere foil to the ,christian religion4 ,this is one reason why ,i have not referred to the writings of other scholars1 except in the one case of ,weber4 ,he is typical of them all in their attitude towards ,rabbinical ,judaism4 ,even the fine work of ,oesterley and ,box1 ,the ,religion and ,worship of the ,synagogue1 though it is written in a spirit of courtesy1 and with a sincere desire to understand the ,rabbinical position and to recognise whatever is good in it1 yet judges it by the standard of the ,christian religion4 ,something was still left to be done1 by way of treating ,pharisaism fairly1 that is1 without either contempt or condescension2 and that something ,i have tried to do--whether successfully or not1 the candid reader will judge4 ,in conclusion1 ,i tender my thanks to the ,hibbert ,trustees1 to whom ,i owe the opportunity of delivering the lectures1 and to the authorities of ,manchester ,college1 ,oxford1 for the invitation to do so4 ,r4 ,,travers ,,hereford4 ,,stand1 ,,manchester1 ,april #aiab4 ,,contents ,,chap4 ,,page #a4 ,,historical ,,sketch #a #b4 ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,torah #eg #c4 ,,pharisaism ,,and ,,jesus #aab #d4 ,,pharisaism ,,and ,,paul #agc #e4 ,,some ,,points ,,of ,,pharisaic ,,theology #bbf #f4 ,,pharisaism ,,as ,a ,,spiritual ,,religion #bhb ,,index #ccf ,,pharisaism ,,chapter ,i ,,historical ,,sketch ,the subject to which in the following pages ,i shall invite the reader's attention is one which may seem to promise but little of living interest1 and still less of religious worth4 ,the ,pharisees are presented in the ,new ,testament in no favourable light2 and the average ,christian has not much further acquaintance with them4 ,yet1 though the name be now disused1 the principles of ,pharisaism have been maintained down to the present day2 and it is these1 more than anything else1 which have kept ,judaism as a living religion4 ,that ,pharisaism should wear an unpleasing aspect in the ,new ,testament is not surprising2 for it was not in the nature of things that the adherents of the old religion should understand or be understood by those of the new1 in the times when they parted company4 ,and there has not been much attempt at mutual understanding in all the centuries since4 ,christianity could by no possibility have remained in union with ,pharisaism2 what ,jesus began1 and what ,paul completed1 was a severance as inevitable as it was painful4 ,but it was painful because it was the dividing1 not of the living from the dead1 but of the living from the living4 ,the ,judaism of the ,pharisees1 from which ,christianity tore itself away1 was no obsolete formalism1 but a religion having the power to satisfy the spiritual wants of those who were faithful to it4 ,the form in which its religious ideas were expressed is peculiar1 and to ,christians by no means attractive4 ,while1 therefore1 the ,christian has usually but little inclination to inquire into the real significance of ,pharisaism1 and but scanty means of informing himself even if he were so inclined1 the fact remains that such knowledge is necessary if he would rightly understand the attitude of the ,new ,testament to the older religion4 ,pharisaism is usually judged from the outside1 as seen by not very friendly eyes2 and1 even of those ,christians who have studied the ,pharisaic literature and who thus know it to some extent from the inside1 there are few who seem able to imagine what it must have been to those whose real religion it was4 ,no one but a ,jew1 of whom it may be said that the ,talmud runs in his blood1 can fully realise the spiritual meaning of ,pharisaism2 but sympathy can show even to a ,christian much of that meaning1 and it is on the strength of that sympathy that ,i rest my hope of carrying out my present task4 ,briefly1 ,i wish to show what ,pharisaism meant to the ,pharisees themselves1 as a religion having a claim to be judged on its own merits1 and not by comparison with any other4 ,the knowledge thus obtained will throw light upon many passages in the ,new ,testament2 but it will be chiefly valuable if it helps the reader to realise that the ,pharisees were men of like passions with us1 men with souls to be saved1 who cared a great deal for the things of the higher life1 men who feared ,god and worked righteousness1 and who pondered deeply upon spiritual problems1 though they did not solve them on ,christian lines1 nor state the answers in ,christian terms4 ,it ought not to be impossible to do this in compass of a small book2 and ,i hope that1 when ,i have done1 ,i shall have left with the reader some clear idea of who the ,pharisees were and what they stood for1 and a more just appreciation of them than is indicated by the word hypocrites4 ,i can at least say how they appear to me1 as the result of exploring their literature1 which has been to me the fascinating study of thirty years4 ,in this first chapter ,i shall survey the history of the development of ,pharisaism1 from its source in ,ezra to its final literary embodiment in the ,talmud4 ,the following chapter will deal with the theory of ,torah1 and ,pharisaism as the system intended to put that theory into practice4 ,then ,i shall consider ,pharisaism in reference1 firstly1 to ,jesus1 and1 secondly1 to ,paul4 ,some general points of ,pharisaic theology will be dealt with in the fifth chapter2 and in the concluding one ,i shall try to present ,pharisaism as a spiritual religion4 ,i proceed now to the historical survey of the development of ,pharisaism4 ,a great ,rabbi1 ,resh ,lakish1 who lived in the third century ,a4,d41 uttered the saying that1 when the ,torah was forgotten1 ,ezra came up from ,babylon and re-established it2 when it was forgotten again1 ,hillel came up from ,babylon and re-established it2 and when it was forgotten again1 ,r4 ija and his sons came up from ,babylon and re-established it 7b4 ,succ4 #bj74 ,the meaning of that remark is that ,pharisaism traced its origin back to ,ezra2 for it was the ,pharisaic tradition which counted ,hillel1 and ,r4 ija1 and the ,talmudic ,rabbis generally amongst its exponents4 ,and while no one would say that ,ezra was a ,pharisee1 it is true that he was the spiritual ancestor of the ,pharisees more than of any other element in post-exilic ,judaism4 ,in the time of ,christ1 ,judaism was represented by ,pharisees1 ,sadducees1 ,essenes1 ,apocalyptists1 ,hellenists2 and all could claim a share in the inheritance of ,israel4 ,but the ,sadducees had little reason to set up a descent from ,ezra2 and what was peculiar to ,apocalyptists and ,hellenists 7two terms which of course overlap7 was entirely unconnected with him4 ,pharisaism alone was the result of his work2 and ,pharisaism alone survived1 to carry down through the centuries the spiritual treasure of ,israel4 ,moreover1 of all the elements in ,judaism1 ,pharisaism is the one which was least affected by foreign influences4 ,what it borrowed1 from ,greece or ,rome1 from ,persia or ,egypt1 it fused into its own mould1 or merely treated as unimportant curiosities2 it never wavered for a moment in its allegiance to its own ground principle1 never swerved from the line of development of which ,ezra had marked the beginning1 and for which he might be said to have stated the formula4 ,the ,talmud shows the traces of contact with ,greek language and ,roman law1 gives glimpses of men of many nations1 from ,babylonians to ,goths and even ,germans 7j4 ,jom4 #de;b74 ,but1 from one end to the other1 it is the embodiment of a principle which ,ezra was the first to introduce2 and like a huge tree it has all grown from the seed which he planted4 ,if ,ezra could have looked forward and seen what the ,talmud became1 the vision would have filled him with delight2 also1 with deep thankfulness to ,god that he had been the means of giving to ,israel what ,israel needed4 ,i will reserve for the next chapter the explanation of the theory of ,torah1 which is the key to the whole system of ,pharisaism in general1 and to the work of ,ezra in particular4 ,but without some reference to that theory ,i cannot show what it was that ,ezra did1 and that the ,pharisees carried on4 ,if some of the statements ,i make appear to be unfounded or improbable1 ,i ask the reader to suspend his judgment on them till ,i come to the theory which1 as ,i believe1 justifies them4 ,ezra was the first who seriously took in hand the problem of the future of ,israel after the great convulsion of the ,exile4 ,for nearly a century after the time1 #ecf ,b4,c41 when liberty to return had been given1 the small band of ,jews in and around ,jerusalem had maintained with difficulty their place as a nation and the religion of their fathers4 ,subjects of the ,persian king1 like their neighbours1 they were exposed to dangers1 both political and religious1 against which they were ill able to guard4 ,they had the ,temple as the central point of their religion2 but the ,temple was no protection against the influence of contact with the peoples round about1 nor did the performance of its ritual give any lead in the direction of a new religious development4 ,till ,ezra came1 the ,jews did hardly more than mark time1 if indeed they were not gradually losing ground4 ,if ,ezra had not come1 it is conceivable1 and indeed highly probable1 that ,judaism would have disappeared altogether4 ,the significance of the work of ,ezra is this1 that he stopped the process by which the religious vitality of ,israel was draining away1 and he gave a lead1 opened a new line of development1 turned the thought and energy of his people into a direction where progress was possible almost without end4 ,his reformation was carried out with a severity which would have been impossible unless he had had the support of ,nehemiah1 armed as governor with the authority of the ,persian king4 ,and the success he achieved was only won in the face of bitter opposition1 and at a cost of domestic suffering and heart-burning which still makes one shudder as one reads of it in the book which bears his name4 ,it was a case in which diseases desperate grown1 by desperate appliance are relieved4 ,ezra had it clear in his mind that if ,israel was to survive at all1 it must resolutely cut itself off from all possible contact with what was not ,israel4 ,it must become a closed corporation1 a community occupying not merely a political but much more a religious and social enclosure of its own1 within which it could work out its own salvation4 ,in the catastrophe of the ,exile1 ,ezra read the lesson that indiscriminate association with neighbouring peoples had corrupted its religious life1 and brought upon a faithless nation a deserved punishment4 ,if now ,israel let itself relapse into the old way of intercourse and alliance with non-,israelites1 the result would be the final extinction of ,israel4 ,such a prospect might have been tolerable if there had been nothing left for ,israel to do4 ,some of those who opposed ,ezra may well have thought that there was nothing which could demand so hard a sacrifice as that which he would force upon them4 ,why should they not live in peace with their neighbours1 and do as they did8 ,and why could they not keep their old religion1 without making it a source of enmity abroad1 and a cause of grief at home8 ,but ,ezra had a clear perception of what there was for ,israel to do4 ,that religion1 which in former times had been mainly the collective expression of the nation's relation to ,god1 must now be realised as the personal concern of each individual4 ,what the prophets had taught about ,god had so far produced no corresponding result in personal piety and conscious service4 ,what had been declared by ,moses as the will of ,god had been by no means fully taken to heart and wrought into the acts of daily life4 ,there was divine teaching in abundance1 and had been for centuries2 now1 the task must be seriously taken in hand of applying it1 so that each individual might feel that he had a responsibility for doing the will of ,god1 and might know what that will was4 ,the great declaration3 ,hear1 ,o ,israel1 the ,lord thy ,god the ,lord is one1 was immediately followed by3 and thou shalt love the ,lord thy ,god with all thy heart1 and with all thy soul1 and with all thy might4 ,if ,israel now asked how he was to do this1 ,ezra's answer was that ,god had taught him in the ,torah1 contained in the five books of ,moses4 ,henceforth let ,israel observe to do all that is written in this book of the ,torah4 ,that solemn promulgation of the ,torah1 described in the book of ,nehemiah1 is the central point of the reformation of ,ezra1 whether it were only the ,priestly ,code which was then introduced or whether it were the ,pentateuch substantially complete4 ,what ,ezra did was to set up a written authority as the guide of personal conduct for each individual ,jew4 ,his demand was for the acceptance of this authority on the part of the nation1 and a determined loyalty in carrying out the commands of ,god which would shrink from no sacrifice4 ,it was1 no doubt1 the severity of this demand which for thirteen years delayed its acceptance2 and the opposition was only crushed by the strong hand of ,nehemiah4 ,whatever one may think of the method1 the result was that ,ezra gathered to him those who were prepared to do most and to sacrifice most for the sake of their religion2 he had weeded out the weak and the faint-hearted1 the indifferent and the lazy1 and kept those who could be fanatics1 heroes1 martyrs1 if the occasion should arise4 ,the ,jewish community having accepted the policy of ,ezra1 was in this position3--it was separated by its own act from all avoidable contact with those whom we may now call ,gentiles2 and1 within the enclosure thus as it were railed off1 it was free to work out its national life on the lines of the religion of ,torah1 free also to interpret that religion of ,torah in such ways as it might see fit4 ,ezra had secured for it a field of action and given to it the task it should perform there4 ,if ,i say that ,ezra was the second founder of the religion of ,israel1 ,i do not mean to imply that everything in the later ,judaism owed its origin to him1 still less that what survived from the pre-exilic ,judaism was only what he endorsed and gave out again4 ,the older religion had come down from a far-distant past2 the ancient writings1 prophetic1 historical1 legal1 were witnesses of ,god's former dealings with ,his people2 they still had the memory1 as they renewed after the ,exile the practice1 of the ancient customs and religious rites4 ,and the later ,judaism could1 and did1 develop in several directions1 taking up1 as it were1 suggestions from the older religion1 and not confining itself to the line which ,ezra more especially marked out4 ,but the work of ,ezra is practically the only channel by which whatever survived from the ancient religion passed into the later1 and became the ,judaism which is properly so called4 ,in some of its representatives later ,judaism departed widely from the principles of ,ezra1 and ,christianity may be said to be in part a protest against and a revolt from those principles2 but nevertheless1 if it had not been for ,ezra there would have been no ,judaism sufficiently alive to protest1 or sufficiently vigorous to produce revolt4 ,ezra saved the life of the ,jewish people1 none the less that in later times there were ,jews who cherished ideals which were far different from his4 ,i am concerned here only with one particular line of development of the later ,judaism1 the one which in an especial degree was originated by ,ezra4 ,this is the line of the religion of ,torah strictly so called1 meaning by that the religion which found expression in the intention of fulfilling1 as a personal duty1 the commands of ,god set forth in the ,scriptures1 and especially in the ,pentateuch4 ,this is not a full or an exact statement of the meaning of the religion of ,torah2 but it will serve for the present purpose1 and ,i shall go into detail about it in the next chapter4 ,judaism1 as the religion of ,torah1 required that every ,jew should be in a position to know what was contained in the ,torah and what it meant4 ,there must be someone whose business it was to study the ,torah and explain its contents1 and to show how the precepts it contained were to be applied to cases not directly provided for4 ,teaching of that kind1 to the extent at all events of giving instruction in moral and religious duties1 had been given from time immemorial1 and mainly by the priests4 ,and there were still priests who could1 and probably did1 perform the same function4 ,but the case was now different when every ,jew was expected to know the commandments of the ,torah1 and was directly concerned with their bearing upon his own actions4 ,this new necessity of the time was met by the labours of a new class of men1 viz4 the ,scribes 7,sopherim74 ,it is significant that ,ezra himself is called the priest the ,scribe4 ,it is also significant that the men who assisted him by explaining the sense1 when he first read publicly the book of the ,torah1 were not priests but ,levites4 ,it is natural to suppose that many ,levites chose to take up the important1 honourable1 and sacred work of the ,scribe1 the interpreter of the divine teaching1 rather than to perform the menial duties of serving the priests in the ,temple4 ,whether ,ezra definitely organised and founded the order of the ,scribes1 ,i do not know2 but the appearance of them is a necessary result of his policy1 and may well be attributed to him4 ,the term ,sopherim is vouched for1 as extremely ancient1 in certain phrases mentioned in the ,talmud4 ,the duties of the ,sopherim would be1 in the first instance1 to study the ,torah themselves1 then to teach it to others1 then to act as interpreters and judges in cases where appeal was made to them to know how1 under such and such circumstances1 the divine command was to be fulfilled4 ,now it is scarcely conceivable that each individual ,scribe would feel himself at liberty to expound the ,torah entirely according to his own judgment1 without reference to what other ,scribes might teach2 or that such unfettered liberty would have been allowed to him if he had tried to use it4 ,there must have been some amount of consultation of the ,scribes with each other2 and there must have been some kind of tribunal to which appeal could be made1 some central authority whose decision would be recognised as final4 ,otherwise1 the whole attempt made by ,ezra would have ended in failure almost at the outset2 and it did not end in failure4 ,now the ,talmud contains some scanty references to an assembly called ,the ,men of the ,great ,synagogue1 to which were attributed certain ancient institutions and sayings4 ,that the statements in the ,talmud about the ,great ,synagogue are all historically trustworthy is by no means the case4 ,but the ,rabbis who are responsible for those statements may well have been right in the main fact1 though not in the details4 ,the ,great ,synagogue1 as they represented it1 is clearly based upon the description of the assembly in ,neh4 x4 ,and there is nothing to show that that assembly1 or anything like it1 became a permanent institution4 ,but an assembly of some kind1 a council of men learned in the law1 is the most natural form which would be taken by such a central authority as the system instituted by ,ezra required for its successful working4 ,it must remain an open question whether such a council was permanent1 its members being chosen for life1 or whether it was such an assembly as might be called together1 ad hoc1 from time to time1 whether the number of its members was fixed1 and on what conditions and by whom they were appointed4 ,upon these points the ,rabbis of the ,talmud had no certain tradition1 perhaps no tradition at all4 ,that the conception of the ,great ,synagogue was modelled upon the pattern of the ,assembly in ,neh4 x4 only means that the ,rabbis had no better guide for their imagination in reconstructing what nevertheless must have been4 ,and the same reason which prompted the calling of that historical council1 under ,nehemiah1 would suggest that the natural tribunal from time to time would be a similar council of elders and learned men4 ,this is all that is required to give a historical basis to the traditions concerning the ,great ,synagogue4 ,less than this leaves the facts unexplained2 more than this opens the way for the discrepancies which have been used for discrediting those traditions altogether4 ,i believe we are therefore warranted in retaining the name of the ,great ,synagogue1 to mean in the first instance ,ezra and those who supported him1 and then those who in later times exercised authority on his lines and in his spirit4 ,now it is nowhere stated in the ,rabbinical literature1 so far as ,i know1 that the ,sopherim of the early times were identical with the ,men of the ,great ,synagogue4 ,but they are closely associated1 they seem to stand on the same level of antiquity1 and1 what is still more important1 no distinction is drawn between their several functions1 except that the ,men of the ,great ,synagogue ordained 7tikknu7 certain things1 while the ,sopherim only taught and expounded4 ,as just stated1 there is no agreement amongst scholars upon the question whether the ,great ,synagogue was a real body or not2 but of the existence of the ,sopherim there is no room for doubt4 ,and the ,sopherim are the key 7if ,i am right7 to the meaning of the term1 ,men of the ,great ,synagogue4 ,that term represents the ,sopherim acting together as a council to decide religious questions2 a council not necessarily permanent1 but called together from time to time as occasion might require4 ,but it would be a council of ,sopherim1 not of all the leading men of the nation4 ,the authority in public matters was1 under the ,persian governor1 in the hands of the priestly aristocracy1 whose interests lay in other directions besides that of the study of ,torah4 ,what was done by the ,sopherim1 and those with and for whom they worked1 was done privately and without official sanction4 ,the ,rabbinical tradition which mentions the ,zgth1 or pairs1 and calls one the ,nasi and the other the ,ab-beth-din1 and implies that the one was president and the other vice-president of the ,sanhedrin1 is certainly incorrect4 ,the ,nasi was never the president of the ,sanhedrin1 in times when the ,sanhedrin was still the great council of the ,state4 ,but it may very well have been the case that in the meetings of the ,sopherim1 in other words1 the ,great ,synagogue1 there were a president and a vice-president2 and that the names recorded in pairs in the ,talmud are the names of some of the later of these officers4 ,i should add that this explanation of the meaning of the term1 ,men of the ,great ,synagogue1 and the identification with them of the early ,sopherim1 is only a theory of my own2 but it is the result of long consideration of the problem4 ,in an often-quoted passage from the treatise of the ,mishnah called the ,pirk ,abth1 three sayings are ascribed to the ,men of the ,great ,synagogue3 ,be deliberate in judgment2 make many disciples2 make a hedge for the ,torah4 ,it will be of use at this point to consider these sayings1 because they throw light upon the development of the religion of ,torah in the particular direction indicated by the name ,pharisaism4 ,to prove that these dicta were actually uttered by the ,men of the ,great ,synagogue is impossible4 ,but it is admitted that they are very ancient2 and the tradition which places them at the forefront of the development of ,rabbinism has this much in its favour1 that they logically belong there4 ,either they date from a time not remote from ,ezra1 or they express the opinion of some later teacher as to the aims and methods of those who in that early time were responsible for the training of the people in the religion of ,torah4 ,this latter interpretation is possible2 but the form in which the brief statement is made clearly shows that the ,rabbis who compiled the ,mishnah had no suspicion that the dicta in question were the utterances of a later teacher4 ,if they had had such a thought they would have expressed it thus3 ,rabbi so-and-so said that the ,men of the ,great ,synagogue had said1 etc4 ,there is no hint that the three maxims are anything else but an old tradition2 and the fact that these and no more are ascribed to the ,men of the ,great ,synagogue indicates1 by its very moderation1 some reason for so ascribing them4 ,a capricious inventor would have attributed much more to so ancient an authority1 in order to obtain for his inventions the sanction of high antiquity4 ,there is really nothing improbable in the transmission1 even from the time of ,ezra1 of these bare fragments of ancient teaching4 ,their contents are in keeping with this supposition2 and1 if they were a later invention1 they nevertheless accurately describe what the men of ,ezra's time must chiefly have had at heart4 ,they are instructions to do certain things1 and are addressed to persons who had some special responsibility in reference to the ,torah4 ,we have seen that the central idea of ,ezra's reformation was to make the ,torah the inspiring and controlling influence in ,jewish life1 both national and individual4 ,to this end it was needful that the people should be taught1 that they might know what was in the ,torah1 i4e4 what ,god had given for their instruction2 also that they should be able to appeal to competent authority for the settlement of doubtful points4 ,the ,torah was the source of divine truth and divine justice1 and both must be made accessible to those whose life as a conscious service of ,god depended on them4 ,the shrine in which the divine treasure was contained must be kept safe from injury1 as if it were protected by a fence4 ,the three maxims1 ascribed to the ,men of the ,great ,synagogue1 were intended1 as it would seem1 for the guidance of teachers and expounders of ,torah4 ,they were the lines which the ,sopherim collectively agreed upon1 for their own practice as interpreters and judges4 ,deliberation in judgment is the key to the casuistry of the ,talmud1 and in the main justifies that casuistry4 ,for what does it amount to except the desire to study a question from every possible point of view1 and to take into account every possible1 even though improbable1 contingency8 ,to make disciples1 in the sense of imparting knowledge of ,torah1 has always been the aim and the practice of ,rabbinical ,judaism2 a fact to which the ,talmud bears ample witness4 ,the names1 ,torah1 ,talmud1 ,mishnah1 ,midrash1 all imply the idea of teaching and learning--study as regarded either by the student or the instructor4 ,in this larger relation1 the minor one of discipleship to a particular teacher holds but a small place4 ,equally the ancient ,scribe or the later ,rabbi was enjoined not to make adherents of himself1 but to impart to all whom he could influence the knowledge of divine truth which he possessed4 ,to make a hedge about the ,torah is a famous phrase that has been much misunderstood4 ,it certainly does not imply any intention to make a rigid system of precept in which all the spiritual freedom enjoyed by the enlightened soul in communion with ,god should be lost4 ,the ,talmudic ,rabbis1 who entirely endorsed the maxim1 never read in it any such intention1 and never supposed that they suffered any such loss of spiritual freedom4 ,as in fact they did not4 ,the notion that they did is an idea which only exists in the minds of ,christians1 misreading an experience which1 as ,christians1 they have never known4 ,what was always understood by the hedge about the ,torah was the means taken to keep the divine revelation from harm1 so that the sacred enclosure1 so to speak1 might always be free and open for the human to contemplate and commune with the divine4 ,and1 so far as the ,torah consisted of precepts1 positive and negative1 the hedge was of the nature of warnings whereby a man might be saved from transgression before it was too late4 ,the detailed mass of precept elaborated in the course of centuries1 known as the ,halachah 7see ,chapter ,,ii47 or rule of right conduct1 and finally embodied in the ,talmud1 was part of the ,torah itself made explicit1 the divine teaching so far as it related to such and such departments of conduct4 ,and even if the ,halachah were the rigid and oppressive system which it is often supposed to have been1 but which those who devised it and lived under it did not feel it to be1 it was not itself the hedge about the ,torah4 ,the religious guides of the ,jewish people1 from the early ,sopherim to the latest ,rabbi whose words are incorporated in the ,talmud1 did make a hedge about the ,torah2 and did their work so well that1 whatever else was torn from ,israel in the course of cruel centuries1 the ,torah remained1 and still remains1 the peculiar treasure of the chosen people4 ,i have dwelt at this length upon the consideration of the work of ,ezra1 and of those teachers closely associated with him known as the ,sopherim or ,men of the ,great ,synagogue1 because1 when once that is clearly understood1 all the subsequent developments are easy to follow4 ,i have not yet mentioned ,pharisaism1 except here and there in passing4 ,but1 given such a principle as is contained in ,ezra's conception of the religion of ,torah1 ,pharisaism was certain to appear sooner or later1 and the ,talmud itself was the implied1 though distant1 result of the process by which that conception was to be worked out4 ,devotion to ,torah1 and the duty of regulating life1 whether individual or national1 according to its precepts1 were of the essence of the ,judaism which took its character from ,ezra4 ,this was the principle2 and those who adhered to it sought to apply it over the whole range of action1 public as well as private4 ,the ,sopherim would have their opinion as to the way1 for instance1 in which the ,temple ritual should be performed2 but it is likely enough that the priests would keep the control of such matters in their own hands1 so that the ,sopherim would have their main influence as the teachers of the people in the ordinary walks of life4 ,through the ,synagogue1 of which ,i shall have more to say in the next chapter1 the ,sopherim came into close touch with the individual ,jew in his private capacity1 and acquired there an influence which was never afterwards shaken4 ,in this way1 the religion of ,torah1 on the lines of ,ezra1 was made the religion of the majority of the nation4 ,and1 while it was held with varying degrees of understanding and attachment1 we may note that there were two institutions or usages which mark the points where the religion of ,torah took deepest and strongest hold upon the national mind4 ,these were the rite of circumcision and the observance of the ,sabbath4 ,i do not mean that circumcision had not been practised1 nor the ,sabbath observed1 in times previous to ,ezra1 but that these became especially prominent after his time as the sine qua non of ,judaism1 essentials to be maintained at any cost4 ,the institution of the ,synagogue provided a means of developing the spiritual life of the people in a way that the ,temple ritual hardly could and certainly did not do4 ,and although1 as long as the ,temple stood1 that was regarded as the most sacred shrine and most glorious embodiment1 or rather culmination1 of the national religion1 yet the religion of ,torah learned to do without the ,temple1 but it never dreamed of doing without the ,synagogue4 ,with the ,synagogue were associated the devotional outpourings of the ,psalmists1 and the earliest liturgy1 also the regular reading of the ,scriptures4 ,these1 together with exhortation or instruction1 gave substance and meaning to the idea of public worship1 which1 in a form hitherto unknown in the ancient world1 was in itself one of the most important of ,jewish institutions4 ,the study of ,torah produced in course of time new practices which became traditional1 or gave a new sanction to old ones2 while the principles of exposition by which these results were produced--in other words1 the teachings of the ,sopherim--were accepted and recognised as legitimate by those for whose guidance they were given4 ,so far as the religion of ,torah is concerned1 the process of its development may be conceived to have gone on with no interruption1 upon such general lines1 during the centuries between ,ezra and the ,maccabees4 ,when that period was reached1 #afg ,b4,c4 and onwards1 the main lines of ,judaism were clearly defined1 and the chief things known which were incumbent upon the ,jew if he would be true to his religious profession4 ,he knew not only what he should do1 by way of service to ,god1 but why he should do it4 ,the ideal before him was the thought of that service1 not as an irksome task imposed on him1 but as a willing and glad devotion of himself and all his powers to ,god4 ,that every individual ,jew could or did rise to the height of that ideal1 no one would maintain4 ,in the nature of things the spiritual energy1 which was mighty in ,ezra1 could not continue with unimpaired force through the centuries after he was gone4 ,in fact1 there is no one to compare with him in this respect until ,r4 ,akiba1 at the end of the first ,christian century4 ,but it is far from true to say that the spiritual meaning of the religion of ,torah1 as above described1 was lost sight of1 or even greatly obscured1 in the generations which succeeded ,ezra4 ,if that had been the case1 there would have been no ,maccabean revolt4 ,for the tenacity of adhesion and the fierceness of resistance cannot be explained merely by blind loyalty to a tradition whose inner meaning was no longer understood and its spiritual power no longer felt4 ,there must have been a real allegiance to the religion of ,torah1 in principle though not extending to minor details1 on the part of the majority of the nation1 a conscious acceptance of the essentials1 though often without the zeal or perhaps the power to follow out those main principles to their conclusion4 ,there would naturally be considerable difference in the degree of attachment to the religion of ,torah1 on the part of different individuals or sections of the nation1 varying from enthusiastic devotion to a careless1 almost nominal allegiance1 that could easily transfer itself to some other religion whose demands were less severe and whose worldly advantages were greater than those of ,judaism4 ,for a considerable time after ,ezra1 the nation was1 in regard to its religion1 homogeneous in this sense1 that there was not1 unless in individuals here and there1 any question of another religion than ,judaism4 ,while the ,jews were under ,persian rule1 the ,persian religion may have influenced the ,jewish religion in some respects2 but there was never any question of a secession from ,judaism to the religion of ,persia4 ,within the range of ,judaism the worship of the ,god of ,israel was the only worship2 and while some might be zealous and others lukewarm1 some might be more concerned with the pomp and circumstance of the ,temple1 and others with the more homely piety of the ,synagogue1 yet all alike owned the religion of ,torah as their religion1 and felt themselves united as brethren in spite of fraternal discords4 ,but when1 after the fall of the ,persian ,empire 7#ccb ,b4,c471 the influence of ,greek ideas and practices began to be felt1 a serious danger arose which threatened the very existence of ,judaism4 ,whether it was the ,syrian or the ,egyptian king who for the time held possession of ,judea1 the result was the same in giving a strong impetus to the adoption of ,greek civilisation4 ,greeks settled in the chief towns in large numbers1 either as officials of the government or for trade4 ,greek art and learning had their representatives4 ,greek builders erected temples and theaters to be the visible symbols of a foreign religion1 and of practices alien to ,jewish ideas of morality4 ,the ,greek met the ,jew at every turn2 and the ,jew would not have been human if he had been wholly unaffected by that close association4 ,the brilliance of ,greek culture made it attractive both on its good and on its bad side1 its exquisite sense of beauty and its shameless gaiety of vice4 ,its natural fascination was increased by the fact that it was actively promoted by the influence of the court4 ,the road to royal favour and civil advancement lay through the adoption of ,greek manners and customs1 and even dress4 ,a ,greek sovereign might think it prudent to tolerate the peculiarities of his ,jewish subjects2 but he had no sympathy with them1 and could not understand them4 ,he would welcome every indication of a desire to replace ,jewish ideas and practices by ,greek ones1 and would use his influence accordingly4 ,during the hundred and sixty years from the fall of the ,persian ,empire to the revolt of the ,maccabees1 the virus of ,hellenism was infecting the ,jewish nation2 perhaps for good1 certainly for evil4 ,probably no class of society was wholly immune from it4 ,its effects were most conspicuous in the ranks of the wealthy and powerful1 the nobles and the priestly aristocracy who came into closest relations with the court and depended most upon the royal favour4 ,but ,hellenism had its attractions for all1 high or humble2 its outward signs could be seen all over the land1 inviting a comparison between the gaiety and freedom of ,greek life and the moral restraints and sober seriousness of the ,jewish4 ,what gradually resulted was1 not a division between the upper classes and the lower1 as if all the former went over to ,hellenism while all the latter remained faithful to ,judaism1 but a decline towards ,hellenism1 on the part of a minority in which all classes were represented4 ,probably the number of those who went entirely over to ,hellenism was only small1 compared with the whole ,jewish population4 ,but there were many whose hold upon ,judaism was more or less weakened2 and there were only a few who remained unflinching in their loyalty to the ancestral faith4 ,that this was really the case1 is shown by the fact that a special name was applied to those who thus rigidly adhered to the principles and maintained to the fullest extent the practices of ,judaism as the religion of ,torah4 ,if they had been the majority of the nation they would not have needed or received any special name4 ,these faithful few were the asidim1 the ,assideans of the ,books of ,maccabees4 ,thus ,hellenists and asidim represented the ,extreme ,left and the ,extreme ,right of the ,jewish nation1 with moderates of various shades in between4 ,the name asid1 which is a common word in ,hebrew1 indicates a type rather than a party4#a ,the use of the word in the ,psalms1 where most of the instances of its occurrence in the ,old ,testament are found1 does not warrant us1 other reasons apart1 in assuming that there is a special reference in those passages to the men who became conspicuous under ,judas ,maccabus4 #a ,a close parallel to the term asid1 as denoting a type rather than a party1 is afforded by the term ,saint in the language of the extreme ,puritans in the time of ,cromwell4 ,the rebellion against ,antiochus ,epiphanes was1 of course1 in the main a religious revolt1 and1 as such1 it had the support of all in the nation except the avowed ,hellenists4 ,but there was this difference in the motive of the insurgents1 that ,mattathias and his sons1 who started the rebellion1 were fighting for political freedom as well as for their religion4 ,the asidim only fought for their religion4 ,it was dire necessity which turned them from passive resisters into active fighters4 ,they joined ,mattathias and his companions because only by fighting could the ,torah now be defended1 for whose sake hitherto they had been willing to suffer and die4 ,mattathias rebelled because the royal power was being used to undermine the national religion1 and he wished to throw off the royal power4 ,he would not have been content with permission to practise his religion undisturbed4 ,he was as staunch1 though not as strict1 an adherent of the religion of ,torah as any of the asidim2 but he would have the ,jews free to serve ,god1 independent of any permission from a foreign ruler4 ,in the earlier stages of the war the political and the religious motives were too closely blended to be distinguished4 ,but it is to be noted that the asidim were the first to desire peace 7#a ,macc4 vii4 #ac74 ,and later on1 when the ,maccabean princes reaped the fruits of the war in successful sovereignty1 they were regarded with increasing ill-will by those to whom the religion of ,torah was of supreme importance4 ,i cannot1 of course1 attempt to follow in detail the history of the ,jewish people under the ,maccabean princes4 ,but the significance of the rebellion for my present purpose can be very soon explained4 ,the result upon the ,jewish people generally was to renew its hold upon the religion of ,torah4 ,hellenism for a time was greatly weakened4 ,there was now at the head of the ,jewish state a ,jewish prince1 able to hold his own against foreign powers4 ,the religion of ,torah was1 nominally at least1 the religion of all ,jews1 from the palace to the cottage2 and it should be observed that the special name of the asidim dropped out of use4 ,but gradually a divergence appeared1 not wholly unlike that which had led to the rebellion4 ,the princes of the ,maccabean house naturally looked for their supporters in the great families to whom belonged the chief positions of rank and wealth1 especially those connected with the ,temple4 ,the religion of ,torah was mixed up with politics to a degree which displeased those who did not belong to the governing class4 ,there was1 therefore1 again a movement towards a stricter interpretation of the ,torah and a more thorough-going obedience to its requirements1 on the part of a minority on the one side1 to correspond with the movement towards what might be called worldliness on the part of a minority on the other side4 ,these two extremes had names by which they were distinguished4 ,those who formed the governing class1 the great families and the chief priests1 were the ,sadducees4 ,those who maintained the full strictness of the religion of ,torah were the ,pharisees4 ,they were virtually the asidim over again1 under another name4 ,they were in a minority1 when compared with the whole nation2 but the sympathy of the people in general was with them as against the ,sadducees4 ,the particular reason why they were called ,pharisees 7,phershim1 separated71 was that they formed themselves into separate societies pledged to observe certain rules in the matter of meat1 drink1 clothing1 etc41 according as these were clean or unclean1 allowed or forbidden4 ,they thereby separated themselves from such as were less strict1 or who at least did not take their pledge as a guarantee of strictness4 ,but it is clear that there was practically nothing new in what the ,pharisees did or in the religion they held1 except the mere fact of association in pledged companies4 ,the religion which they thus set themselves to realise in its full extent was essentially the religion of ,torah as ,ezra had moulded it4 ,successive generations of ,sopherim had worked out into fuller detail the implicit contents of the ,torah1 as changing circumstances called for further interpretation of the original precepts4 ,but there was no breach of continuity between ,ezra and the ,pharisees1 either in principle or even in the means by which that principle was worked out4 ,for there were in every generation the teachers and expounders of the ,torah1 as there were always those who depended on the guidance of such teachers4 ,the name of the ,men of the ,great ,synagogue had passed out of use1 as it was believed that the institution itself came to an end4 ,but the ,rabbinical tradition recorded the names of those who successively handed on the teaching in which the meaning of the ,torah was unfolded1 and its application to new conditions indicated4 ,the line of this descent is through the ,pharisees and not through the ,sadducees4 ,not because the ,sadducees did not care about the religion of ,torah2 but because the ,pharisees1 strange as it may sound1 kept the religion of ,torah as a living principle1 capable of being adapted and needing to be adapted to fresh developments of religious life1 while the ,sadducees held to the letter of the original scripture1 and refused innovations4 ,the practical bearing of this appears in the fact that the ,sadducees kept in their own hands1 as long as they could1 not merely the governing authority1 but the judicial power in criminal cases4 ,and the hostility between ,pharisees and ,sadducees was expressed in a long struggle for the mastery4 ,the ,pharisees never obtained permanently the political mastery4 ,but they did gain1 for some of their representatives1 a place in the ,sanhedrin1 the great assembly of the leading men of the nation4 ,and1 what was more1 they did obtain a control over the ,temple1 to this extent that the ritual there was performed according to the requirements of the ,pharisees1 the ,sadducean priests consenting to this as the condition on which they held their office4 ,it is stated in the ,mishnah 7,joma iii4 #e7 that representatives of the ,beth-,din1 i4e4 ,pharisees1 administered an oath to the ,high ,priest on the day of atonement1 saying to him3 ',sir1 ,high ,priest1 we are the delegates of the ,beth-,din1 and thou art our delegate and the delegate of the ,beth-,din1 and we adjure thee1 by ,him whose name dwells on this house1 that thou wilt not alter a thing of all that we have said to thee1' and he departs1 weeping1 and they depart1 weeping4 ,a singular touch1 expressive1 as it would seem1 of mutual distrust4 ,the ,pharisees also succeeded at last in wresting from the ,sadducees the power of judicial decision in criminal cases2 and the ancient calendar1 known as ,megillath ,taanith1 marks the #adth ,tammuz 7,july7 as a festival1 because on that day the ,sadducean penal code was abolished4 ,this same calendar1 which is a ,pharisaic document1 contains several other anti-,sadducean references4 ,the ,pharisees1 then1 represent that element in the ,jewish nation which was most zealous for the religion of ,torah1 and most thorough-going in the application of its principles4 ,so long as the ,sadducees existed1 the name ,pharisee also remained4 ,with the downfall of the ,jewish state1 after the war of ,a4,d4 #gj1 the ,sadducees disappear from history4 ,the ,pharisees remained1 as representing all that was left alive of ,judaism2 but the name was no longer needed1 and seldom if ever used4 ,the ,jewish remnant were not indeed all ,pharisees1 in the strict sense of the term2 but they were on the whole in sympathy with them1 as they always had been4 ,if ,i have clearly indicated the relations of the ,pharisees and ,sadducees to each other1 and to the mass of the nation1 it will be easy to indicate the place of two other classes of persons bearing well-known names4 ,the ,essenes stand apart from the main body of the ,jewish people2 they were ascetics and recluses1 of more than ,pharisaic strictness 7for asceticism was not a characteristic feature of ,pharisaism either in practice or theory71 and they combined with the religion of ,torah certain mystical doctrines of their own4 ,whatever influence they may have had upon other elements in ,judaism1 they had little if any upon ,pharisaism4 ,there remains the class called ,am-ha-aretz1 or the people of the land --the people that knoweth not the law 7,john vii4 #di74 ,this title denotes1 not a definite division1 but simply those amongst the people who in fact were least influenced by the ,pharisees1 and least drawn to them4 ,such would be not only the careless and indifferent1 but also those who1 for higher reasons1 did not readily fall in with the ,pharisaic system1 or to whom religion as presented by them was not acceptable4 ,it is these mainly who are referred to when it is said that ,jesus saw the people as sheep without a shepherd 7,mark vi4 #cd74 ,and it is only likely that those would most gladly hear him who were least inclined to follow the ,pharisees4 ,from this sketch of the composition of the ,jewish nation1 in the time of ,christ and thereabouts1 it will be seen that the main line of development is represented by ,pharisaism4 ,it comes down from the time of ,ezra1 as the religion of ,torah1 expounded and administered by approved teachers1 known from the first as ,sopherim4 ,the names asidim and ,pharisee denote its most zealous representatives at two different periods2 but they imply no change of principle1 or even of method4 ,what change there was is seen in the growth of a body of teaching1 the decisions and interpretations of successive exponents of ,torah1 handed on and repeated from memory1 for the instruction of those who should come after4 ,this is what is known as the ,tradition of the ,elders1 referred to in ,mark vii4 #e and elsewhere4 ,and when ,i come to deal with the theory of ,torah in the next chapter1 ,i shall show how this ,tradition of the ,elders was a sign of the continued vitality of the religion of ,torah1 not the gradual strangling of it4 ,at present ,i am only concerned with the fact1 not with the meaning of it4 ,the ,tradition of the ,elders can be traced in the ,mishnah up to the time of the early ,sopherim1 not far distant from ,ezra2 it is the thread which binds together the development1 through asidism and ,pharisaism1 of the ,jewish religion4 ,and it marks the course of the main stream of ,judaism far on through the centuries4 ,the ,essenes vanished4 ,the ,sadducees were swept away when the ,temple was destroyed4 ,it was the ,pharisees who alone could or did weather that storm1 and carry the divine treasure of the religion of ,torah into safety4 ,already1 in the time when ,jesus was a boy1 ,hillel the ,babylonian had applied his genius to the interpretation of ,torah in ways which gave it a fresh power of ministry to spiritual wants4 ,and when1 seventy years later1 the catastrophe came1 the man was ready who should go forth from ,jerusalem1 and establish for the ancient religion a temple not made with hands4 ,joanan ben ,zaccai was that man4 ,when he saw that the city was doomed1 he went to the ,emperor ,vespasian1 and made his submission to the force that could no longer be resisted 7b4 ,gitt4 #ef;b74 ,the ,emperor asked what he should give him1 though he sought no reward4 ,give me ,jabneh and its wise men--,jabneh being a town on the coast1 where already there were some of the leading ,pharisaic teachers4 ,the request was granted1 and ,joanan b4 ,zaccai gathered in ,jabneh the remnants of the learning and wisdom of ,judaism4 ,there he and his colleagues repaired the shattered fabric of the religious life of their people1 and adjusted it to the new conditions4 ,the ,temple with all that belonged to it was gone for ever4 ,but the ,synagogue and the ,college remained1 as the home both of worship and study2 and the religion of ,torah probably gained rather than lost by being finally cut loose from association with the ,temple cultus4 ,the assembly at ,jabneh took up the task of developing the religion of ,torah1 and carrying forward the ,tradition of the ,elders1 where it had been interrupted by the war4 ,the teachers to whose hands that task was now committed were henceforth known as the ,wise2 the names ,sopherim and ,pharisee were seldom used1 but the essential features of their work remained unchanged1 and it was carried on in the ancient spirit4 ,in the interval between the capture of ,jerusalem in ,a4,d4 #gj and the almost greater disaster in ,a4,d4 #ace1 when the revolt of ,bar ,coch'ba was stamped out1 the assembly of the ,rabbis met from time to time in ,jabneh1 or ,lydda2 and even during the persecution which followed on the failure of the last rebellion1 when the ,jewish teachers were hunted up and down1 and ,akiba1 the greatest of them1 was tortured to death1 there were still left those who would carry on the tradition of their religion4 ,these were young men who received ordination as ,rabbis1 when it meant death to be a ,rabbi at all1 if he should fall into the hands of the ,romans4 ,it is told 7b4 ,sanh4 #ad7 of ,r4 ,jehudah b4 ,baba1 that he took six of his disciples into a secluded spot and there ordained them1 and that he had hardly finished before he was discovered by the soldiers1 and fell1 stabbed with ,roman spears4 ,the six young men all survived to become the teachers of the next generation4 ,they handed on what had been committed to them as a sacred trust1 the religion of ,torah1 and the tradition in which its meaning and contents were set forth in growing fulness and clearness4 ,this takes us out of the period covered by the ,new ,testament4 ,but ,i add the few words necessary to round off the bare account ,i have given of the development of ,judaism through the ,pharisees4 ,the ,tradition of the ,elders1 as ,i have said1 increased in volume and complexity as each generation of teachers added something to it4 ,the necessity1 therefore1 gradually made itself felt of arranging and systematising the great mass of traditional matter4 ,this was attempted first by the ,r4 ,akiba just mentioned1 then by ,r4 ,meir1 one of the six young men ordained in the time of the persecution4 ,but it was only carried to completion1 after long years of labour1 by ,r4 ,jehudah ha-,kadosh1 commonly called ,rabbi1 par excellence4 ,he collected all that he could find of the decisions and opinions of earlier teachers1 sorted them out under different heads1 noted those which were universally admitted and those which were doubtful1 and thus framed a code of law for the guidance of all ,jews4 ,this collection is the ,mishnah2 and the text as we have it now represents1 in the main1 the code of ,rabbi4 ,there are1 of course1 interpolations and additions to it4 ,there is another great collection known as ,tosephta1 containing a good deal of the same material2 it is nearly contemporary1 but it has never had the same authority as the ,mishnah4 ,the date of the ,mishnah can be put at about the year #baj4 ,rabbi died in #bai4 ,the ,mishnah became in its turn the subject of study in the ,rabbinical schools1 and two fresh lines of tradition begin from this point1 each of them starting with a disciple of ,rabbi4 ,one of them is the line of development of the ,mishnah in the ,palestinian schools1 of which the chief seat was ,tiberias2 the other was the line of development of that same ,mishnah in the ,babylonian schools--,sura1 ,nehardea1 ,pumbeditha1 and others4 ,the result of each process was a mass of commentary on the ,mishnah1 and not merely commentary but accretions of every kind having any sort of connection with ,judaism as a living religion4 ,this development of the ,mishnah is in each case called ,gemara4 ,and ,mishnah plus ,gemara is the ,talmud4 ,there is only one ,mishnah1 but there are two ,gemaras1 differently named according to the land of their origin4 ,and it is usual to speak of the ,palestinian ,talmud and of the ,babylonian ,talmud respectively4 ,neither of these two was ever completed4 ,the ,palestinian schools1 at the end of the fourth century1 had no one left who was capable of carrying on the work2 and in ,babylonia1 though much more was done1 a final completion was never reached4 ,after the beginning of the sixth century nothing more was ever added to the ,talmud2 and even of what was in existence then1 not all survives now4 ,in the ,talmud is contained the main source for the knowledge of what ,pharisaism meant2 because it was made the storehouse in which all1 or nearly all1 that was held to be valuable in the ,tradition of the ,elders1 the explicit religion of ,torah1 was stored up4 ,there is a huge literature contemporary with the ,talmud1 to which the general name of ,midrash is given2 all of it is traditional1 and all of it bears on the religion of ,torah1 in one way or another4 ,this is the written deposit of ,pharisaism1 the mark which it has left upon the literature of the world4 ,it is there1 and not in the writings of those who did not understand its ideals or share its hopes1 that its real meaning can alone be found4 ,those ideals and hopes first dawned in ,jewish minds under the influence of ,ezra4 ,the ,talmud is the witness to show how some of his countrymen1 some of the bravest1 some of the ablest1 some of the most pious and saintly1 and a host of unnamed faithful1 were true to those ideals and clung to those hopes2 and how1 through good report and ill report1 through shocks of disaster and the ruin of their state1 ground down by persecution1 or torn by faction1 steadily facing enemies without and enemies within1 they held on to the religion of ,torah4 ,they have not sought1 and they certainly have not found1 the praise of men for their steadfastness4 ,for these are the ,pharisees1 and the world has for them only a contemptuous gibe4 ,who was it that said3 ,for every idle word that men shall speak1 they shall give account thereof in the day of judgment8 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,torah ,in the preceding chapter ,i sketched the historical development of ,pharisaism from its source in the work of ,ezra to the time when it had found its literary expression in the ,talmud and the ,midrash4 ,i said that from first to last what was developed was the religion of ,torah4 ,it is therefore essential to the understanding of ,pharisaism that the reader should1 first1 obtain a clear conception of the meaning of ,torah1 and1 second1 that he should bear that conception always in mind in his further study of ,pharisaism4 ,it will be my task in the present chapter to show what ,torah meant1 and what form the religion of ,torah actually1 and perhaps necessarily1 assumed4 ,if ,i succeed1 then the reader will understand how it was that ,rabbinical devotion to ,torah could express itself quite naturally in terms which to the unenlightened ,gentile appear to be extravagant--as1 for instance1 when it is said that ,god studies ,torah for three hours every day 7b4 ,a4 ,zar4 #c;b74 ,there would be no particular difficulty in understanding what is meant by ,torah1 if it were not that it is commonly supposed that the word ,law is the just equivalent of it4 ,the ,greek1 alike of the ,septuagint and of the ,new ,testament1 renders ,torah by 2 and while the translators of the ,new ,testament rightly rendered by ,law1 they nevertheless perpetuated what was a misconception on the part of those who used the ,greek word to represent ,torah4 ,it is to avoid that misconception that ,i have already used1 and shall continue to use1 the word ,torah untranslated1 as a technical term whose full implication cannot be expressed in any one ,english word4 ,it is true that the word torah is simply and correctly translated by the word teaching2 but1 as used in the later ,judaism1 it denotes a particular kind of teaching1 and also the sum-total of what was taught as well as the vehicle or medium by which it was given4 ,it further denotes any particular portion of that teaching4 ,in short1 it is a word into which the ,rabbis compressed more meaning than can be found in any other word in their language2 and we shall more readily grasp that varied meaning if we keep to the word ,torah1 as being unspoiled by erroneous associations4 ,the original meaning1 then1 of the word ,torah is simply teaching1 any kind of instruction given by any person to any other person2 for instance1 ,prov4 i4 #h1 ,forsake not the 'torah' of thy mother4 ,more specifically1 it was religious teaching1 conceived as given either by ,god to ,israel1 or by man to his fellow-man4 ,thus1 ,isa4 li4 #g1 the people in whose heart is my ,torah 7where the speaker is ,god72 and1 for human instruction1 ,deut4 xvii4 #aa1 according to the tenor of the ',torah' which they shall teach thee1 they being the priests4 ,this last passage gives the clue to the further developments of the word4 ,it had been for ages the custom in ,israel for the priests to give instruction to the people upon matters connected with religion1 explanations of duty1 decisions of disputes1 intimations of the will of ,god4 ,this was1 of course1 ,torah2 and it was ,torah which was regarded as being given by ,god through human agency4 ,the ,torah which the ,lord gave by the hand of ,moses would not originally imply any code or book1 but simply such ancient sayings1 precepts or otherwise1 as were traditionally ascribed to ,moses as the great teacher of ,israel in the days of old4 ,the connection of ,torah with ,moses1 though others might have given ,torah as well as he1 had this result1 that gradually a body of traditional teaching was accumulated1 ascribed to him and bearing his name2 and the several attempts to collect and codify these are to be seen in the various strata of the ,pentateuch4 ,they are mostly in the form of precept and command1 as was only likely1 since they were intended for the guidance of conduct4 ,but that was not why they were called ,torah4 ,if ,moses had taught something that was not commandment at all1 it would still have been ,torah1 because it was taught4 ,in this sense1 ,israel had never been without ,torah2 and the prophet no less than the priest owned that in it ,god had continually taught ,his people4 ,prophecy itself was only a form of ,torah1 for the prophet spoke the word of the ,lord4 ,now1 whatever else ,ezra introduced that was new1 it was not ,torah4 ,if he had religious teaching to give1 as of course he had1 he only followed in the train of the prophets and priests from ,moses downwards4 ,and when he offered ,torah to the people1 they knew what he was referring to4 ,nor did the novelty consist in the fact that ,ezra made known to them a larger body of ,torah than they had previously been acquainted with4 ,it does not greatly matter1 for the present purpose1 whether the book which ,ezra read to the people was the ,priestly ,code1 or the whole ,pentateuch substantially1 though not finally1 complete4 ,for even if the earlier documents had not been as yet welded into one whole with the ,priestly ,code1 they were nevertheless in existence1 and were already owned as ,torah of ,moses4 ,what ,ezra did was to lay a much greater emphasis upon the need of obedience to what was contained in the book of ,torah 7or the books7 as being the duty of every ,israelite4 ,what was in fact the collected accretions of centuries1 was regarded by ,ezra1 and by all ,israel1 as ,torah from ,god communicated by ,moses1 and therefore entitled to precedence over any ,torah imparted to anyone else4 ,the book1 or books1 in which it was recorded contained all that ,god had chosen to reveal for the instruction of ,his people4 ,the five books of ,moses were the written form of the ,torah4 ,they were not the ,torah itself4 ,it is only for convenience that the ,pentateuch is often called the ,torah4 ,the two are not identical4 ,the ,pentateuch differs from the ,torah as the vessel differs from its contents1 even though there be but one unique vessel in which those contents are preserved4 ,ezra1 then1 offered for the acceptance of ,israel1 in the book that he read to them1 what he believed to be the full revelation which ,god had made4 ,but he went beyond those who had preceded him1 beyond even those who had carried through the reform of which the book of ,deuteronomy is the manifesto1 by reason of the stress which he laid upon personal and individual acceptance of it4 ,deuteronomy1 no doubt1 contained over and over again the demand1 ,thou shalt observe to do according to all these commandments1 and it enforced the demand by the appalling catalogue of curses upon the disobedient which may be read in the #bhth chapter4 ,but ,deuteronomy was written before the ,exile1 and ,ezra lived after it4 ,the priests had given ,torah1 and the prophets had proclaimed ,god's revelation of ,his nature and of man's relation to ,him and consequent duty4 ,they had been pre-eminently preachers of righteousness4 ,but yet1 in spite of the zeal of the prophets and the teaching of the priests1 the bitter lesson of the ,exile had proved that ,israel had not served his ,god as he ought to have done4 ,it was ,ezra's function to apply the lesson of the ,exile and to direct the religious life of ,israel into such lines that no similar disaster should again be experienced2 or rather1 that no such sin should again be committed as had led to that disaster4 ,ezekiel1 indeed1 had been the first to perceive the necessity of a change in the direction of ,israel's life2 but he had lived at a time too early for a real beginning to be made4 ,yet it can hardly be doubted that the seed1 which ,ezekiel sowed among the captives in ,babylonia1 bore fruit in the ideas which underlay the reformation of ,ezra4 ,when ,ezra came forward with the book of the ,torah1 he did so not in any sense as an opponent of the prophets1 or as making a breach between their ideas and his own4 ,he came forward to enforce their teaching1 to apply it1 and to get from it a larger result of practical righteousness than it had produced in their time4 ,it was just because the prophets had so splendidly revealed ,god to ,israel1 had proclaimed to him the full grandeur of his privilege1 that ,israel must now be taught to do his part as he had never done it before4 ,the greater the privilege the greater the responsibility4 ,so far from being at variance with the ideas of the prophets1 ,ezra was the one to complete them1 or at least to put his people in the way of completing them4 ,there is a difference of method between ,ezra and the prophets2 there is no difference of principle4 ,and as the ,pharisees and the later ,rabbis did but carry out the method and the principle of ,ezra1 they stand in the same line with him as the legitimate successors and continuators of the prophets4#b ,it may be said with truth that of the later types of ,judaism--,hellenism1 ,apocalyptic1 and ,rabbinism--the last1 and only the last1 carried on and handed down the inheritance which the prophets had left4 ,what ,hellenism and ,apocalyptic had to give went to ,christianity1 so far as it survived at all4 #b ,this claim is made in the ,talmud1 b4 ,b4,b4 #ab1 where it is said that prophecy was taken from the prophets and given to the ,wise1 i4e4 the ,rabbis1 and that it has not been taken from them4 ,the purpose of ,ezra was to lay stress on the embodiment1 in the practical life of the individual ,jew1 of the teaching of the prophets 7including ,moses7 concerning ,god and ,israel4 ,the main point for ,ezra was that ,god had taught certain things--knowledge of ,himself1 knowledge of ,his will4 ,what had been taught must be learned and taken to heart1 and1 so far as it was of the nature of precept1 must be carried out in practice4 ,it was not enough to know2 the ,israelite was required to do and to be4 ,the practical application of this idea needed the acceptance of it on the part of the people1 and further1 a definite undertaking to make certain changes in their manner of life4 ,and1 before all1 it was necessary that they should1 so far as possible1 separate themselves from the peoples of the lands in whose midst they found themselves1 on returning from the ,exile4 ,this is1 of course1 the meaning of the putting away of the foreign wives1 and the forbidding of such marriages for the future4 ,the general programme of the reform is set forth in ,neh4 x41 which is nothing more than the logical corollary of the acceptance of ,torah4 ,among the points there specified1 besides the prohibition of intermarriage with foreigners1 are the observance of the ,sabbath1 the payment of the tax for the service of the house of ,god1 and the duty of bringing first-fruits and tithes4 ,of course these provisions do not cover the whole duty of the ,jew1 and they were not intended to do so4 ,their purpose was to set up the ,jews as a closed corporation1 distinct from the surrounding peoples1 and to provide for the maintenance of the ,jewish cultus4 ,within the limits thus drawn1 this enclosure marked off from the ,gentile world1 the ,jew was to live his whole life1 and the ,torah was to be his guide in doing so4 ,the limits were drawn in order to make it possible for the ,jew to live up to the ,torah4 ,the limits themselves are not part of the ,torah2 and hence it follows that a ,jew could live with complete loyalty to the ,torah1 and yet be but little conscious of the limits within which he enjoyed his spiritual freedom and privileges4 ,unless occasion reminded him of the fact of separation between him and the ,gentiles1 he could give his whole mind to the immediate concerns of his religious life--meditation1 prayer1 and the doing of his duties towards ,god and man4 ,his thought was not taken up with a painful study of precepts1 but was free to range over the whole relation in which he stood towards ,god4 ,the ,torah was his guide to the whole meaning of that relation1 not merely to the performance of specified duties4 ,and therefore1 when ,ezra prevailed on the ,jews to become a separate community1 he was not condemning them to a life of barren legalism1 cutting them off from a free communion with ,god2 he was providing for them a means whereby they could enjoy that free communion1 defended against the dangers which1 in the past1 had been so disastrous to the religious life of the people4 ,it is1 of course1 true that in doing so he was at the same time cutting the ,jews off from free intercourse with their fellow-men of non-,jewish race1 and thereby restricting their development as human beings4 ,and the ,jews ever since have paid a heavy price for that separation4 ,but in ,ezra's time free intercourse with non-,jewish peoples did not seem at all a desirable thing1 if the ,jewish people were to survive4 ,it is indeed difficult to believe that they would have survived1 if the policy of ,ezra had not been carried out4 ,and if they had not1 what would have become of the ,jewish religion8 ,and how would the great spiritual treasure of the prophets 7to say nothing of the ,torah itself7 have become available for those who1 in a later age1 were to depend so largely upon it8 ,whether the policy of separation is to be for ever kept up1 is a question which the future must decide4 ,but that ,ezra saved the ,jewish religion and the ,jewish people is hardly open to dispute4 ,ezra1 then1 provided for the ,jews an enclosure1 marked off from the ,gentile world1 within which to live their religious life2 and he gave them the ,torah1 as being the full revelation which ,god had made through ,moses1 for their guide in the life they should thenceforth live there4 ,clearly1 no one would enter that enclosure1 or remain within it1 unless he really and seriously meant to live on the lines of ,torah4 ,and that is why1 from the time of ,ezra1 the importance of ,torah becomes so marked1 and insistence on it so emphatic2 why1 in short1 from that time1 the ,torah dominates the whole field of religion for those who followed the lead of ,ezra4 ,they virtually declared that they would stand or fall by the ,torah4 ,for them1 the ,torah was the medium through which religion became real to them2 as it were1 the glass through which they viewed all the dealings of ,god with their own race in the past1 and with mankind in general4 ,this will be more fully seen when we come to what the ,talmud has to say about ,torah4 ,but that is only the expansion in detail1 as pious imagination dwelt upon the theme1 of the idea which ,ezra planted in the mind of his people1 that of the supreme importance of ,torah as the revelation which ,god had made1 the perfect guide1 the source of all that could be known or required to be known1 by him who would love ,god with all his heart1 and with all his strength1 and with all his might4 ,the ,jew who followed the lead of ,ezra was1 as before1 a member of the community of ,israel2 but he was1 in a far greater degree than before1 aware of his own responsibility for the right living of his life in relation to ,god1 the doing and the being of what was pleasing to ,him4 ,the ,torah was given to ,israel2 but it was none the less addressed to each ,jew4 ,and that1 not merely in regard to particular precepts but in regard to the religious teaching as a whole4 ,it may be true that nothing in the ,pentateuch rises to the height of spiritual grandeur attained by the great prophets4 ,it may be true that their free inspiration denoted a power and fulness of religious life greater than could be developed by the ,torah as a body of teaching1 or even regarded as a final revelation4 ,but however sublime the religion of the great prophets had been1 the religion of the ordinary ,israelite had by no means attained to the same degree of power and fulness4 ,if it had done so1 there would not have been the collapse of national religious life which brought about the ,exile4 ,the effect of making the ,torah the guide of life1 the seat of authority in religion1 was to deepen the spiritual life of the ordinary ,jew2 it gave him a stronger sense of personal responsibility1 and opened out to him regions of religious experience of which he had seldom if ever been aware4 ,the effect of thus exalting the ,torah was not1 as it is so often said to have been1 to cramp and harden the spiritual nature of the ,jew1 by confining it within definite limits and oppressing it by precise commands4 ,i would not say that this never happened2 because it is not wise to assert a universal negative4 ,but it certainly was not the primary or the usual effect4 ,the ,torah made the religion of ,israel personal and individual to a far greater degree than it had been before2 and it did so by conveying to the individual ,jew not merely the legal precept but the prophetic fervour1 the joy and the inspiration of personal communion with ,god as well as the high privilege of serving ,him4 ,the introduction of the ,torah was not the signal for a decline in the national religious life1 but the beginning of a new and strenuous advance2 and whereas1 before1 the prophets had towered high above the mass of the people1 who had remained at a comparatively low level of spiritual attainment1 henceforth there is a great development of the spiritual nature of the ordinary people1 the individual ,jew4 ,there were no more prophets1 because there was no further need of any prophets4 ,their work was done2 and in respect of that part of their work where they had failed1 ,ezra and his followers succeeded4 ,the prophets had declared the full meaning of the religion of ,israel1 its glorious hopes1 its triumphant certainties1 its boundless possibilities4 ,the people had heard1 but had too little heeded4 ,ezra1 by means of the ,torah1 and expressly and intentionally by that means1 drove all this home to the heart of the individual ,jew1 and so wrought it into the very texture of his religious nature that it has remained there ever since4 ,it is high time to put away altogether1 as one of the exploded errors of history1 the notion that ,ezra1 by the exaltation of the ,torah to the supreme place in ,jewish religion1 set that religion upon the down-grade4 ,i believe it to be nearer the truth to say that after ,moses1 and ,isaiah 7or perhaps ,jeremiah71 ,ezra is the third greatest man in the ,old ,testament4 ,it can scarcely be too often repeated that the ,torah1 as ,ezra understood it1 meant divine teaching upon all and everything that concerned religion4 ,it was not confined to commands1 positive or negative1 but included everything that bore upon religion at all4 ,this is evident on the face of it2 because the contents of the ,pentateuch 7which is the written embodiment of the ,torah7 include much else beside precept4 ,as a ,rabbi pointed out1 long afterwards1 if the ,torah had been only precept1 it would have been sufficient to begin it at ,exod4 xii4 #b1 where the first precept occurs4 ,and why was it written 7,gen4 i4 #a71 ',in the beginning1 ,god created the heavens and the earth1 etc4'8 ,to show the power of ,his might 7,r4 ,jitzak1 in ,tan #d74 ,the meaning of which is that the ,torah is a revelation of more than the divine will4 ,the view that the ,torah1 as recorded in the ,pentateuch1 is the supreme revelation which ,god made to ,israel1 and that it covers the whole extent of the religious life1 theoretical as well as practical1 is implied in the position which it held in ,judaism from the time of ,ezra onwards1 and underlies all that the ,talmud says about it4 ,there is no point in the long line from ,ezra to the closing of the ,talmud1 at which it can be said3 ,here the conception of the ,torah was narrowed into the meaning of mere legal precept4 ,it was at no time thus narrowed4 ,and if1 as is often admitted1 ,judaism1 after ,ezra and before ,christ1 allowed of a considerable degree of spiritual attainment on the part of those who were under the ,torah1 there is no ground for denying the possibility of such spiritual attainment on the part of ,jews in or after the time of ,christ1 because the conception of the ,torah remained the same in essence4 ,what change there was1 between ,ezra and the ,pharisees and the later ,rabbis in the ,talmud1 was in the opposite direction to that of restriction of its meaning4 ,they realised far more than ,ezra did1 or could do1 the fulness and richness of the ,torah as a divine revelation2 and while they took a delight in glorifying it on its imperative side1 as embodying divine commands1 they never dreamed of saying that the ,torah was precept and nothing more4 ,in his well-known book1 ,die alt-synagogale ,theologie1 p4 #bd1 ,weber says3 ,if we have to admit that this praise of ,torah 7in the ,talmudic literature7 is entirely in accord with similar praise of ,torah in the ,psalms1 we must nevertheless not forget that here 7i4e4 in the ,talmud7 the ,torah is praised as ,law1 while in ,scripture the conception of ,torah is wider and includes all revelation1 alike of law and of salvation4 ,the opposition here alleged does not exist2 and the statement that it does is the cardinal error of ,weber's mischievous book4 ,for the right understanding of ,pharisaic ,judaism1 the fact that ,weber is the usually accepted guide is well-nigh fatal4 ,it will be observed1 however1 that ,weber admits the wider conception of the ,torah in the later books of the ,old ,testament1 especially in the ,psalms2 and that is all that matters at present4 ,it is of importance to realise that the spiritual life of ,israel not merely ought to have done1 but actually did increase and develop under the influence of that ,torah which ,ezra had exalted to the supreme place4 ,there are two very important indications of the truth of this statement2 one is the rise of the ,synagogue1 and the other is the growth and completion of the book of ,psalms4 ,it will be no digression1 but an appeal to evidence directly bearing on the subject1 to speak at this point of both these4 ,the origin of the ,synagogue is to this extent unknown1 that no precise date can be assigned at which it was first instituted4 ,but it did not appear in ,palestine before the time of ,ezra1 and it was already ancient and immemorial in the time of the ,maccabees4 ,it is possible1 and even probable1 that it arose amongst the captives in ,babylonia4 ,it is certain that it spread through the whole ,jewish community in ,palestine when it was introduced4 ,the ,synagogue1 ,beth-ha-keneseth1 meeting-house1 was a place where ,jews assembled for religious purposes4 ,it is reasonable to suppose that what first led to the establishment of such places1 by the captives in ,babylonia1 was the fact that they were cut off for an indefinite time from their native land1 and the ,temple of their ,god4 ,it was not only that they were prevented by distance from going up to the ,temple to pray2 it was that the ,temple itself was destroyed1 and its services no longer performed4 ,there was thus no national worship of ,god at all4 ,yet ,god was still there1 to be worshipped4 ,trust in ,him had not died out from ,jewish hearts when ,jerusalem fell4 ,what more simple and natural1 for all that it was in fact an unheard-of innovation1 than that here and there a company of brothers in exile should meet together1 and pray to the ,god of their fathers8 ,so far as ,i know1 there had never been1 in the world's history1 any form of congregational worship till the ,synagogue appeared4 ,till then1 worship had usually been performed in some temple or local shrine1 and consisted in the offering of some gift or sacrifice1 usually through the medium of a priest1 and accompanied no doubt by some prescribed prayer4 ,this was done in the ,temple in ,jerusalem1 while the ,temple yet stood4 ,and the ,synagogue did not set out to do the same thing on a small scale1 but to do something entirely different4 ,the time came when the ,temple service was restored1 and the ancient sacrifices offered again with the fullest pomp of ritual4 ,but the ,synagogue did not on that account suspend its operations1 or show the least sign of declining in popular favour4 ,the idea of the ,synagogue was twofold2 it was a place of worship1 i4e4 congregational worship1 and it was a place of teaching1 i4e4 religious teaching4 ,it has kept that twofold character ever since1 or at all events kept it till long after the ,talmudic period4 ,for the ,synagogue had come to stay1 and it has continued down to the present day4 ,of all the institutions that man has ever devised1 the one with the longest continuous history is the ,synagogue4 ,and that it answers to a real and permanent religious need is shown by the fact that the ,christian religion took over both the idea and the form of the ,synagogue1 in organising its own meetings for worship1 and has retained them ever since2 except where sacrificial ideas1 derived partly from the ,temple worship and partly from pagan ritual1 have interfered with and spoiled the simplicity of the ,synagogue type of service4 ,it is highly remarkable that the same elements which are familiar in ,christian worship--hymn1 prayer1 ,scripture reading1 and sermon--are found in the earliest ,synagogue services so far back as the records go4 ,and the reason why they have been retained1 practically unaltered1 is surely this1 that they have been found to answer their purpose so well that no change was felt to be needed4 ,whoever first devised the form of the ,synagogue service came1 no doubt unconsciously1 upon one of the fundamentals of the spiritual nature of man1 made one of the discoveries which determine the future development of the race for all time4 ,the ,synagogue perhaps grew up rather than was intentionally created2 and it was accepted because it so exactly met the needs of those who first made use of it4 ,during some twenty-three centuries it has served the purpose of common worship1 both in its ,jewish and its ,christian form2 and when it is considered how enormous has been the influence of the practice of meeting for common worship1 such as the ,synagogue first provided and made possible1 then it becomes highly significant that the ,synagogue appeared in close connection with the labours of ,ezra and the new emphasis laid on the ,torah4 ,whether1 on the supposition that the ,synagogue arose on ,babylonian soil1 it owed its origin to the conception of ,torah as ,ezra understood it1 we have no means of knowing4 ,but it is certain that its rapid spread in ,palestine took place when the idea of ,torah was already made dominant4 ,and the ,synagogue was naturally adapted to embody that idea4 ,as the ,torah was the revelation which ,god had made to ,israel1 the study of it and the practical application of it were both associated with the house of meeting4 ,to study it was to ponder the meaning of the revelation4 ,and to practise it was1 amongst other things1 to worship the ,god who had given it4 ,the ,synagogue was intended to develop through religious fellowship the whole nature of those who met there1 spiritual and moral1 and by no means only intellectual4 ,and even if the ,torah which they studied had been nothing but precepts1 yet these included a personal devotion to the service of ,god which was practically unthinkable without worship of ,him4 ,it was as natural that those who met in the ,synagogue should join in prayer together1 as that they should read or hear the book of the ,torah1 and should edify one another by expounding its contents4 ,that is what they did2 and the ,synagogue did not fail to become a most important factor in deepening and strengthening the spiritual life of the people at large4 ,now if the effect of the exaltation of ,torah1 due to ,ezra1 had been1 as it is usually said to have been1 gradually to harden and cramp the spiritual freedom of the ,jewish mind1 then either the ,synagogue would have ceased to minister in any way to spiritual needs1 or else it would have represented a protest against the deadening influence of ,torah4 ,but in actual fact there has never been1 at all events till quite recent years1 any such opposition between the ,synagogue and the religion of ,torah4 ,on the contrary1 it was precisely the religion of ,torah which the ,synagogue1 through all these centuries1 has existed to promote2 and it was the ,synagogue1 so inspired1 which served as the type and model of ,christian worship4 ,the ,synagogue is one of the first-fruits of that ,judaism which1 under the lead of ,ezra1 took its stand upon the ,torah4 ,further evidence in the same direction1 namely1 that the tendency of the religion of ,torah was not towards spiritual decline1 is afforded by the book of ,psalms4 ,that evidence would be more cogent than it is1 if it were possible to fix with certainty the date of every ,psalm4 ,that cannot be done2 but the fact remains that the collection of the ,psalms1 and the use of that collection as a lyrical expression of devotion1 belong to the time after1 and not before1 the age of ,ezra4 ,it is often said that the book of ,psalms is the hymn-book of the second ,temple2 and ,i do not challenge the general correctness of that statement4 ,but some1 at all events1 of the ,psalms seem to be less adapted to the ,temple service than to that of the ,synagogue4 ,i mean that those utterances of intensely personal devotion which make the ,psalms so wonderful a treasure of spiritual experience1 are much more in keeping with the simple worship of the ,synagogue than with the stately and official celebrations of the ,temple4 ,it might indeed be said that some of the ,psalms are too personal even for the congregational worship of the ,synagogue1 if we did not know1 from common usage1 that hymns of that character are constantly sung in ,christian worship4 ,there is hardly any one of the ,psalms which could not have been quite well sung in the ,synagogue2 while there are many which have no obvious fitness for the service of the ,temple4 ,but1 in any case1 it was not until after ,ezra had made ,torah the dominant factor in ,judaism that the book of ,psalms was collected and arranged1 and in part composed1 as we have it now4 ,it contains hymns of an older date1 in some cases perhaps a much older date4 ,and it is possible that some smaller collections had been made in times before ,ezra4 ,but there are several ,psalms which quite clearly owe their origin to the idea of ,torah as the supreme revelation1 besides others which bear witness to the influence of that idea2 while the collection of the whole is best explained as due to the need1 first brought to the ,jewish consciousness by the ,synagogue1 of some means of giving united expression to the thoughts and feelings of a worshipping multitude4 ,of course it is not here implied that the collection or production of the book of ,psalms took place immediately after the time of ,ezra4 ,the collection may have only been completed as late as the first century ,b4,c4 ,but the point is that the whole was collected1 and much of it composed1 under the influence of the religious ideas associated with ,ezra and the ,torah4 ,and it should be observed that the later be the date assigned to the composition of some of the ,psalms1 and the final collection of the whole of them1 the stronger is the evidence that the religion of ,torah was not the unspiritual formalism that it is often supposed to have been4 ,i shall have more to say about the ,psalms1 as evidence for the meaning of the religion of ,torah1 in the last chapter1 in which ,i shall deal with ,pharisaism as a spiritual religion4 ,for the present enough1 perhaps1 has been said to show that the ,judaism to which ,ezra gave its distinguishing character by raising the ,torah to its supreme place there1 was thereby enriched and not impoverished on its spiritual side2 it did not sink but rise1 it became not more shallow and poor1 but more full and deep1 with greater power than it ever had before as a determining factor in individual life4 ,it may be objected1 at this point1 ,all this may be very true1 in regard to the religion of ,ezra1 as conditioned by ,torah2 but does it hold good in regard to the religion of the ,pharisees1 of whom1 in this chapter1 nothing has as yet been said8 ,ezra may have been such as has been described2 but it is the ,pharisees who are commonly said to have been mere legalists in their ethics1 and formalists in their worship4 ,i am quite ready to meet that challenge2 and it was for the purpose of preparing to meet it that ,i have been so careful to make clear the conception of ,torah implied in the work of ,ezra1 and its effect upon the religion of those who followed his lead4 ,as has been said already1 there was no divergence in principle between ,ezra and the ,pharisees4 ,both accepted with entire assent the conception of the ,torah as the supreme revelation made by ,god to ,israel2 and they owned in like manner1 with entire assent1 the duty of conforming in thought1 word1 and deed to the divine teaching therein contained4 ,in what1 then1 did the ,pharisees differ from ,ezra8 ,in what directions was development possible from the idea of ,torah as he conceived it8 ,and in particular1 what line of development was still open to the ,pharisees when they first became a distinct element in the ,jewish national life8 ,in the time between ,ezra and the ,maccabees that provision had been made of the ,synagogue worship1 to which reference has already been made2 and within the lines of a liturgy whose simple beginnings are ascribed to the ,men of the ,great ,synagogue1 and which was further enlarged by the piety of later generations1 that piety continued to find expression in public worship4 ,private prayer never confined itself to stated forms2 and private prayer was always an essential element in the religion of ,torah4 ,it must never be forgotten1 that in all the developments of ,pharisaism and ,rabbinism on the lines of theology and the practical conduct of life1 the spiritual and devotional side is always involved4 ,the men who built up the huge fabric of ,talmudic casuistry were men who prayed to their ,father in ,heaven 7calling ,him by that name71 and who1 in simplicity of heart1 worshipped him in spirit and in truth4 ,if this is challenged1 7though it would not be challenged by anyone who really knows the ,rabbis71 then ,i ask1 were the great men who built up the equally huge fabric of ,christian doctrinal theology men in whom the spiritual nature was atrophied8 ,let ,augustine answer for his brethren among the ,christians2 and if his answer be allowed1 7and no one who has read the ,confessions will dispute it71 then let it be allowed that ,r4 ,akiba1 a double-dyed ,pharisee if there ever was one1 and a master of ,halachah1 may also have known the deep things of ,god1 and walked in the light of ,his countenance4 ,the development of the religion of ,torah from ,ezra to the ,pharisees1 and on to the ,talmud1 took place along two main lines1 it being understood that through all the spiritual and devotional side was ministered to4 ,the two lines of development are indicated by two words1 of which ,i have just mentioned one--,hlchah and ,hggdah4 ,to grasp the significance of these terms is essential for the right understanding of ,pharisaism4 ,i will not give a definition of them1 just at this point1 but will rather describe the two methods by which the ,torah was interpreted1 and for which these two names were chosen4 ,the ,torah1 as recorded in the ,pentateuch1 was set up by ,ezra as the supreme revelation made by ,god to ,israel4 ,it was ,teaching intended to be learned4 ,now one of the first things that must be learned by any man who would serve ,god is ,how he shall serve ,him4 ,what shall he refrain from doing8 ,how shall he know1 if he is in doubt1 whether he ought to do this or that8 ,and again1 many things are done as being customary2 there are usages1 observances1 ceremonial acts of which the origin is not known4 ,are these to be approved or condemned1 when tried by the standard of the right service of ,god8 ,on the lines laid down by ,ezra1 and followed by the ,pharisees and the ,rabbis1 the answer to questions such as these was to be sought in the ,torah4 ,answers to some of them were found at once4 ,in many passages1 the words were explicit3 ,thou shalt do so1 or ,thou shalt not do so4 ,in other passages1 minute directions were given for the performance of certain acts4 ,but cases would arise which were not expressly dealt with in the written ,torah2 and in such cases it became the duty of those who had most deeply studied it1 to give a decision according to what they believed to be the intention of the ,torah4 ,they would infer from what it enjoined in a given set of circumstances1 what it would enjoin in a somewhat different set of circumstances4 ,this is what the early ,sopherim did1 and probably ,ezra himself4 ,and these decisions were on the one hand interpretations of the ,torah1 and on the other hand rules of conduct1 to be applied as occasion might require4 ,on both accounts they were carefully handed down1 for the guidance and instruction of posterity4 ,this is the ,tradition of the ,elders1 and it extends from ,ezra to the closing of the ,talmud4 ,now let us examine that tradition at some suitable point1 say the beginning of our era1 when ,pharisaism was fully established4 ,the ,tradition of the ,elders had become by that time a considerable body of decisions1 originally given by way of interpreting the ,torah so as to apply it in particular cases4 ,these decisions were not written down1 but preserved in memory4 ,a ,pharisee would say that all these were part of the ,torah4 ,they were not something added on to it1 of merely human as opposed to divine authority4 ,they were successive unfoldings of what had been hidden in the ,torah from the beginning4 ,the particular teacher who had given such and such an interpretation1 thereby rendered explicit what had till then been implicit in the ,torah4 ,the ,torah was not merely the written word of the ,pentateuch1 but the divine thought behind it4 ,and to interpret the ,torah was not to read something fresh into the written word1 but to get something fresh out of it4 ,if a ,pharisee were asked1 ,where is the ,torah to be found8 he would answer3 ,the written word and the unwritten tradition together make up the ,torah4 ,and he would further say that the unwritten was more important than the written1 because the unwritten unfolded what was concealed in the written1 and extended its application4 ,but it was all the ,torah2 and however far the process might be extended1 however detailed the interpretation might come to be1 it would still all be the ,torah4 ,for the ,torah was in itself inexhaustible1 being the full revelation that ,god had made4 ,and all the drawing forth and unfolding of its meaning was but the bringing into the consciousness of men what was and had been in the ,torah from the beginning4 ,this is the theory of ,torah1 as it was certainly held by the ,pharisees1 and embodied in the ,talmud4 ,whether ,ezra himself held it1 there is no evidence to show1 and ,i do not claim that he did4 ,but it is clear that once the ,torah is made supreme1 this is one of the possible lines along which that idea could be developed4 ,there are no doubt other lines2 but the main characteristic of the ,pharisees and of the ,rabbis is that they followed this line1 and no one can say that they did not do their work thoroughly4 ,what it amounts to is this1 that the ,torah was to be made1 not merely in theory but in practice1 a complete guide to life4 ,the aim was to learn1 from what ,god had revealed1 ,his will in regard to every slightest action that a man might do4 ,that could be learned from the ,torah2 and if it could be1 it ought to be4 ,no amount of study was too great1 if1 by that means1 something more might be learned of how ,god willed that a man should live4 ,every fresh interpretation of the ,torah1 when once accepted as valid1 was an extension of its meaning1 or rather a transference of its meaning from the region of the unknown to the region of the known4 ,the result of this process was a detailed statement that such and such and such actions were to be done by anyone who would rightly serve ,god1 because they were what ,god ,himself had taught in the ,torah1 as being ,his will4 ,this detailed rule of right conduct is what is denoted by the name ,halachah4#c #c ,the meaning of the other term mentioned above1 namely1 ,haggadah1 will be explained hereafter4 ,see ,chapter ,v4 ,halachah is the most conspicuous element in ,pharisaism1 partly because it was the object of its authors' most close and continuous thought1 and partly because its results were immediately visible in the actions which it prescribed4 ,it was the ,halachah which gave rise to the common opinion that ,torah is the same as ,law4 ,it is the ,halachah which has laid the ,pharisees open to so much misrepresentation and obloquy4 ,and1 if there was one thing more than another that a ,pharisee would extol as divine1 it was the ,halachah2 because it was to him the express direction of ,god how rightly to serve ,him4 ,evidently the greatest care would be needed in the interpretation of the ,torah1 to draw from it the right conclusion4 ,if the result--the ,halachah--was to be accepted as the divine teaching1 made explicit upon such and such a point1 it could not be left to chance or caprice to determine the form in which it should be expressed4 ,it was not open to any teacher to give his own interpretation upon some point and straightway to say1 ,this is the ,halachah1 i4e4 this is the ,torah made explicit upon this subject4 ,what was to be regarded as ,halachah was only determined after careful deliberation1 guided by the recorded opinion of earlier teachers1 where known1 and also by recognised rules of interpretation4 ,the end proposed in such discussion was either to define in minuter detail some general rule of conduct derived from the ,torah1 or else to connect some already existing usage with the ,torah so as to show that it had divine sanction4 ,the masters of ,halachah were not engaged upon the construction de novo of a system of ethics or a system of law4 ,they were engaged in adjusting to the standard of ,torah all the actions of life1 so that in every one of them the divine will might be carried out4 ,and when it appeared that such and such was the real meaning of ,torah upon a given point1 the ,halachah ascertained by valid methods1 then they were not free to decide otherwise upon that point4 ,which is only to say1 what everyone must say1 that he is not entitled to go against the authority which he personally regards as supreme4 ,the ,halachah covered part of the ground which is usually occupied in a nation's life by the civil and criminal law4 ,and this is another reason for the common identification of ,torah with ,law4 ,law there must be for the regulations of social life1 the performance of contracts1 the prevention of crime1 and the like4 ,the ,jews needed a civil and criminal law1 as any civilised people needs it4 ,and though in certain respects they were subject to the ,roman law1 7at all events in the time of the ,pharisees and the ,rabbis71 yet they devised a system of their own1 because they would have their law based on the ,torah4 ,the ,roman government they obeyed from compulsion2 to the ,torah they gave the full allegiance of heart and will4 ,the ,halachah accordingly is1 to a large extent1 a system of civil and criminal law based upon1 or derived from1 the ,torah1 and resting for its sanction upon the divine revelation therein contained4 ,and if the ,halachah1 in dealing with such subjects as must be dealt with in a code of civil and criminal law1 goes into minute detail1 makes subtle distinctions1 draws very fine lines between what is and what is not lawful1 it only does what any adequate system of law is bound to do4 ,and to say that the mass of detail and minute precept of the ,halachah was1 or must have been1 oppressive to the ordinary ,jew1 is as true1 or untrue1 as to say that the ordinary ,englishman is oppressed by the mass of detail and minute precept in the body of statute and common law by which his actions as a citizen are regulated1 and which he is presumed to know4 ,in the one case1 as in the other1 certain lines are defined by a recognised authority1 for the regulation of action2 but for any given person1 it is seldom that he will be in a position to feel the constraint1 or expressly to seek the permission1 of the greater number of the laws under which he lives4 ,if he is in that position1 then the ,englishman under the statute and common law1 equally with the ,pharisee under the ,halachah1 acknowledges a rule of conduct having authority over him1 and not to be disobeyed with impunity4 ,and the main difference is that1 to the ,jew1 the authority of the ,halachah was the authority of the ,torah1 and the ,torah was the revelation of ,god4 ,so that1 to the ,jew1 the code of civil and criminal law was specifically sacred in a way that it is not to the ,englishman4 ,but the ,halachah1 as the reader will wish to remind me1 came very much more closely home to the ,jew than a code of civil and criminal law could do4 ,it was the rule of his private and domestic life1 it defined his conduct both towards ,god and his fellow-man4 ,certainly it did4 ,and the ,pharisee would say1 ,why not8 ,do ,i not need to serve ,god in everything ,i do1 however small8 ,and if the ,torah can teach me exactly--yes1 very exactly--what is most pleasing to ,him1 shall ,i not thankfully receive that teaching1 and the more of it the better8 ,on this theory1 it can easily be seen that there is no real distinction of great and small1 important and trivial1 in the things that are done in accordance with ,halachah1 because1 in each case1 what was done was regarded as a doing of ,god's will4 ,in themselves1 and apart from that1 actions were trivial or important1 great or small1 and the ,pharisees knew perfectly well that they were4 ,but the ,pharisee never regarded the mere doing of the action as sufficient2 in all and every case there must be the purpose of serving ,god1 the intention of pleasing ,him4 ,if he were assured that ,god had directed such and such a thing to be done1 in a given case1 then he would not say1 ,this is a trivial thing1 or ,this is a great thing2 but1 ,this is precisely what ,god would have me do at this moment and under these circumstances1 and he felt a joy in doing it as exactly as he could4 ,all this is widely different from what ,christians are accustomed to1 in determining their actions2 but my object is to make clear the point of view of the ,pharisees1 and to show that on the lines of their theory they were perfectly justified in those precise definitions of conduct1 even in matters which on other lines would be considered trifling4 ,however small might be the details upon which the ,halachah was defined1 it was still ,torah that enjoined the doing of the action in this way and not in that way1 though1 on the face of it1 there might seem to be no reason to do it in one way rather than another4 ,and the authority of ,halachah was the will of ,god4 ,it is easy to pick out from the ,mishnah instances of minute regulation upon points of no apparent importance--such1 for instance1 as the rules for dealing with an egg laid upon the ,sabbath4 ,if a ,pharisee were challenged upon that1 or any similar case1 he would say3 ,the ,torah1 the divine revelation1 extends over the whole of life2 and its principles1 when drawn out and applied to that particular case1 yield the results stated in the ,halachah1 bearing thereon4 ,the divine will is taught me in regard to that2 and what concerns me is the doing of the divine will1 and not the smallness of the occasion in regard to which ,i do it4 ,the duties enjoined in the ,halachah were called ,mitzvth1 i4e4 commandments4 ,and the essence of a mitzvah was that it was a thing which ,god willed to have done4 ,it was an occasion of service1 a means offered to man by which he could in a given instance please ,god4 ,therefore the ,pharisee delighted in being able to perform a mitzvah2 and it never occurred to him that he was burdened by the weight or oppressed by the number of them4 ,the ',mitzvth1' said a famous ,rabbi1 were only given in order to purify ,israel4 ,the things commanded made no difference to ,god 7,rab1 in ,ber4 ,r4 #dd1 p4 #hi74 ,they were so many opportunities given1 by the sheer kindness of ,god1 for man to do his ,maker's will4 ,why ,god should be pleased to direct that such things should be done just in that way and in no other1 it was not for man to inquire4 ,all that he had to do was to take the opportunity1 and serve ,god in the manner which ,god enjoined4 ,merely to do the action1 without the conscious assent of his will and the devotion of his heart1 was no fulfilment of his duty2 for what ,god desired was the harmony of the human soul with ,himself in willing obedience1 and not that1 for instance1 just #bjjj cubits and no more should be the extent of a ,sabbath day's walk4 ,r4 ,joanan b4 ,zaccai1 a contemporary of ,jesus1 was once asked what was the reason for performing all the ritual of the sacrifices1 and the other minuti of the ceremonial law4 ,he answered3 ,a corpse does not defile1 and waters do not cleanse4 ,but it is a decree of the ,king of kings4 ,the ,holy ,one1 blessed be ,he1 hath said1 ',i have ordained my statute2 ,i have decreed my decree4 ,man is not entitled to transgress my decree4' ,as it is written 7,num4 xix4 #b71 ',this is the decree of the ,torah' 7,pesikta #dj;b74 ,that is a far-reaching saying1 and gives the clue to the whole meaning of the ,halachah1 as the rule of right conduct deduced from the ,torah1 and applied by the ,pharisees4 ,it is obvious that a theory like that lends itself to abuse1 because it makes a severe demand for constant devotion on the part of the man who lives under it4 ,undoubtedly it could1 and in some cases it did1 lead to that mere formalism and hypocrisy which have been charged upon the ,pharisees as a class4 ,the ,pharisees themselves were perfectly well aware of the danger1 and that it was not always successfully averted4 ,but most distinctly1 such formalism and hypocrisy were only the perversion of ,pharisaism and not inherent in it4 ,and not only so1 but for the ,pharisees as a class1 on their own showing in the ,talmud1 the ,halachah1 with its abundant ,mitzvth1 was felt to be a help and not a hindrance to him who would walk with ,god1 a joy and not a burden4 ,the ,pharisees1 as was explained in the previous chapter1 were those in their time who interpreted most strictly the ,torah which in some degree all ,jews recognised4 ,it was they who worked out the ,halachah1 as it was they who carried out its principle into the minutest details of practice4 ,on their theory of ,torah1 it was clearly their duty to be as precise as they were in their food and their dress1 in the tithing of mint1 anise1 and cumin1 the wearing of their phylacteries just so and not otherwise1 in their scrupulous regard to clean and unclean1 lawful and forbidden1 and the like4 ,and it was only for the sake of being in a position to carry out more fully what they deemed to be the will of ,god1 in all these and many other matters1 that they separated themselves from those who were less careful1 and formed themselves into groups1 societies1 companionships1 as they called them 7abrth74 ,that separation is indicated by the name applied to them1 ,pherushim 7,phershim71 or ,pharishaia in the common ,aramaic speech4 ,their own name for themselves and each other was aberim1 companions1 as they were banded together for a full obedience to what ,god had enjoined in the ,torah4 ,it is easy to make ,pharisaism appear ridiculous1 a mere extravagance of punctilious formalism4 ,but that is only possible to those who look at it from a point of view which is not that of its devoted adherents1 or who judge it by a standard which they never recognised4 ,pharisaism is entitled to be judged according to what the ,pharisees themselves meant by it1 and its worth to be estimated by what they found in it1 without comparison with other and widely different conceptions of the theory or practice of the service of ,god4 ,i shall make no such comparisons1 either now or later4 ,my whole object is to present ,pharisaism as ,i believe it really to have been to the ,pharisees themselves1 who1 whatever else they were1 were in deadly earnest about it all1 and gave even to that ,halachah1 which more than anything else has brought scorn and ridicule upon them1 the patient labour of at least six centuries4 ,i believe that1 if the ,pharisees had had nothing more than the ,halachah1 they would still have made a religion out of it4 ,i mean1 if they had developed from the ,torah1 which was to them the supreme revelation1 only its ,mitzvth1 they would still have been able to find in it some satisfaction for the spiritual wants of their souls4 ,but they had much else1 as will be shown in more detail in subsequent chapters4 ,it was their task1 or rather their absorbing delight1 to elaborate the ,halachah1 to make it an ever more perfect exposition of the divine will in regard to the conduct at least of ,israel2 as it was their joy1 in the obeying of those precepts1 to walk humbly with their ,god1 as they certainly did4 ,but it should be borne in mind that in addition to the ,halachah1 with its strenuous and salutary discipline of thought and action2 there was the whole range of meditation upon divine things--speculation1 imagination1 inquiry into the mysteries of nature and human experience1 devout wonder at the ways of ,god and the marvels of ,his world1 all1 by the light which ,he had given in ,his ,torah4 ,for great as the ,halachah was1 and divine and holy1 the ,torah was greater1 for in it ,god had given all that ,he had to give4 ,greater1 said a ,rabbi1 is one single word of ,torah1 than all the ',mitzvth' contained in it4 ,and another3 ,all the world is not equivalent to one single word of ,torah 7j4 ,peah4 #ae;d71 meaning that the beholding of the perfect revelation of ,god is more than the realisation in action of a part of it4 ,again1 extravagance1 it will be said4 ,yet only the extravagance of exalting in spoken word that which is owned as supreme in thought4 ,the phrases may be to non-,jewish ears devoid of serious meaning2 but in that way the ,pharisees chose to express what in their hearts they owned as fully and perfectly divine1 that ,torah which to them was wisdom from ,god1 the revelation of all truth1 goodness1 power1 and love4 ,it was to them the very expression of the mind and thought of ,god2 and that is what they meant when they said that ,god looked upon the ,torah when ,he created the world 7,tanh4 #b;b71 or that ,he ,himself studies the ,torah every day4 ,it is ,his self-communing made known to man4 ,all this1 which covers the whole field that is occupied in other religions by doctrinal and speculative theology1 was included in the ,torah and formed part of the religion of those who owned it as supreme4 ,and all this had its place in their thought along with the ,halachah4 ,and at the heart of those same ,pharisees there was the piety which sought and found ,god in the worship of the ,synagogue and the home1 which looked to ,him with love and humble trust1 and knew ,him to be not far off but very near1 no mere abstract power1 no hard taskmaster1 but the ,heavenly ,father4 ,these things ,i believe to be true of the ,pharisees2 not of every individual1 just as one would not say of every ,christian that the full glory of his religion was realised either in him or by him1 but true as the full expression of what ,pharisaism meant1 and true in a larger measure as the experience of those who professed it4 ,beneath all that outward guise of unfamiliar phrase and uncongenial method1 so far removed from all that to ,christians seems the natural expression of religion1 there was nevertheless the communion of living souls with the living ,god2 and however different was the way in which they felt called to walk1 from that in which other men walk1 in that way they steadfastly continued2 and1 knowing in their hearts that ,god was with them1 they trusted in ,him and were not ashamed4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,pharisaism ,,and ,,jesus ,it is from the ,new ,testament that the ordinary ,christian reader gets his ideas about the ,pharisees4 ,there is mention in the ,gospels of frequent encounters between ,jesus and the ,pharisees2 and the ,epistles of ,paul contain much severe comment on the ,pharisaic conception of religion4 ,no one1 who desires to understand what the ,pharisees themselves meant by their religion1 can afford to pass by1 without careful examination1 these records of unfavourable criticism2 and he must enter upon such examination not by any means with the preconceived intention of confuting the critics or of agreeing with them1 but simply for the purpose of getting to know why there was such criticism1 and what truth lay on each side in the controversy4 ,with this object1 ,i shall devote one chapter to the study of the opposition between the ,pharisees and ,jesus1 and another to that between ,pharisaism and the teaching of ,paul4 ,incidentally1 it will be possible to find room for various points which bear upon what has been said in the foregoing chapters4 ,it will be admitted that to discuss the relation of the ,pharisees to ,jesus is to tread upon delicate ground2 for1 whatever ,jesus was1 the place which he holds in the thought and reverence of ,christians is shared by no one else2 and it is less easy to say the right thing when he is regarded as a party in a controversy than when he is contemplated as in himself supremely great4 ,it is less easy1 because the controversy was one in which sharp and bitter things were said on both sides2 and to regret that they were said1 and still more to suggest that they were said without sufficient warrant1 is to cast inevitable reflections on those who said them4 ,it is easy to say that the ,pharisees were wrong--that is only what is expected of them2 it is another thing to say that ,jesus was wrong1 that even he did less than justice to his opponents1 and1 in his intercourse with them1 showed upon occasion qualities which were extremely human but not obviously divine4 ,i yield to no one in my reverence for ,jesus2 he is1 to me1 simply the greatest man who ever lived1 in regard to his spiritual nature4 ,some may think that too little to say of him2 others may think it too much4 ,i do not stay to argue the point2 ,i only wish to make clear1 beyond any misunderstanding1 my own position4 ,what ,i have to do at present is to deal with the fact that between ,jesus1 being such as ,i have indicated1 and the ,pharisees1 there was an opposition of thought and principle too great to be resolved into harmony2 and ,i wish to study that opposition1 so as to judge fairly--that is1 without prejudice one way or the other--the real meaning of it4 ,if1 on the one side1 the verdict is expressed in the phrase1 ,scribes and ,pharisees1 hypocrites1 on the other it is summed up in the assertion1 to be found in the ,talmud1 ,jesus practised magic and led astray and deceived ,israel 7b4 ,sanh4 #ajg;b74 ,to say offhand that one of those assertions is true and the other false is merely to beg the question4 ,it is more to the purpose to understand how it came about that they were said4 ,that such a statement should be made about ,jesus is to ,christians hard to endure4 ,they feel it to be unjust and untrue4 ,that such a statement should be made about the ,pharisees is to ,jews hard to endure4 ,they feel it to be unjust and untrue4 ,they are the weaker party1 and they have the right to be heard4 ,in view of the sharp contrast expressed in the two sayings just referred to1 it might seem that the ,pharisees and ,jesus had nothing in common4 ,and indeed the final breach was inevitable and irreparable4 ,religion as the ,pharisee conceived it could not come to terms with religion as ,jesus conceived it4 ,as to that ,i will say more presently4 ,but it is well to bear in mind1 and even to emphasise1 the fact that there was nevertheless a considerable amount of common ground between them1 much more than is usually supposed4 ,with a great deal of what ,jesus said about ,god1 and about man's relation to ,him1 no ,pharisee would feel disposed to quarrel1 or1 so far as the evidence goes1 ever did quarrel4 ,the discussions in the ,gospels did not turn1 for instance1 on the question whether ,jesus should or should not have referred to ,god as the ,father in ,heaven1 or whether forgiveness was ,god's sure answer to repentance4 ,no ,pharisee ever challenged him on either point1 or on many another of the directly religious and ethical sayings which he uttered4 ,a ,pharisee could not so have challenged him without disowning his own religion4 ,modern ,jewish historians not unnaturally lay much stress upon the similarity between the teaching of ,jesus and that of the ,rabbis1 at all events the best of them2 and that similarity cannot be denied1 whatever may be the explanation of it4 ,moreover1 it is not merely a similarity of phrase1 though no doubt in some cases it is nothing more4 ,that proverbial sayings should be used alike by ,jesus and the ,rabbis is not wonderful4 ,such were1 for instance3 ,it is enough for a disciple to be as his master 7b4 ,ber4 #eh;b72 ,with what measure ye mete1 it shall be measured to you again 7,sot4 i4 #g72 ,sufficient unto the day is the evil thereof 7b4 ,ber4 #i;b72 ,physician1 heal thyself 7,ber4 ,r4 xxiii4 #d71 which ,jesus himself mentions as a familiar proverb 7,luke iv4 #bc74 ,these were part of the common stock of daily speech1 and are no evidence either for or against a similarity between the ideas of ,jesus and those of the ,pharisees4 ,but when ,jesus said1 ,repent1 for the ,kingdom of ,heaven is at hand1 he was referring to what was already familiar to his hearers1 and had been1 long before ,john the ,baptist had begun to deliver his message4 ,and when the ,sermon on the ,mount was first spoken1 it was not all strange and new to the hearers4 ,the general character of the sayings there grouped together is thoroughly ,jewish2 so much so that one could hardly imagine a ,greek saying them4 ,there are differences1 certainly1 between the sayings contained in the ,sermon on the ,mount and the ,rabbinical parallels to them2 and for some of them no ,rabbinical parallels can be found4 ,but1 take it altogether1 the ,sermon on the ,mount would seem to a ,pharisee to be very like what he believed already4 ,even the ,lord's ,prayer would not be wholly new4 ,certainly some of its phrases can be paralleled in the ,rabbinical literature2 though no less certainly there are others which cannot4 ,for the prayer as a whole1 there is no parallel in ,jewish sources--a very significant fact4 ,but ,our ,father which art in ,heaven is ,jewish2 so also1 ,hallowed be ,thy name4 ,thy ,kingdom come2 ,give us this day our daily bread2 ,forgive us our debts2 ,deliver us from the evil4 ,i am not sure about ,lead us not into temptation4 ,and if ,thy will be done means the same in the ,lord's ,prayer as it meant when uttered in ,gethsemane1 there is no parallel to it in ,jewish sources4 ,this carries us into the very heart of the religion of ,jesus4 ,and in regard to these fundamental beliefs there was no disagreement between him and the ,pharisees4 ,i am perfectly well aware that the ,rabbinical parallels1 even those most complete1 are found in literature which is later than ,jesus1 and ,i shall rightly be challenged to show on what ground ,i hold that these later ,jewish dicta represent the beliefs of the ,pharisees in the time of ,jesus4 ,i do not agree with ,jewish scholars who say that ,jesus borrowed them all from the ,rabbis of his time4 ,a man of such independent thought as ,jesus certainly was1 would hardly need to go in search of such ideas1 as not having them already himself4 ,it is inconceivable that ,jesus should never have thought of calling ,god ,our ,father in ,heaven until ,hillel or ,shammai had instructed him to do so4 ,the point scarcely needs to be laboured4 ,i put on one side altogether the theory that ,jesus was indebted to the ,rabbis of his time for the beliefs1 and the verbal forms of them1 which he shared with the ,pharisees4 ,but with no less decision must the theory be rejected according to which these various beliefs and phrases were borrowed from ,jesus4 ,if they had been1 i4e4 if ,pharisees who heard ,jesus say these things had adopted them as their own1 and even to some extent made them current in their own religious teaching1 it is perfectly certain they would never have been allowed into the ,talmud4 ,suppose1 for instance 7which is what a great many people suppose71 that ,jesus had been the first to use the phrase1 ,our ,father which art in ,heaven1 so that to ,jewish ears that had been entirely unknown until he used it4 ,in that case1 the origin of the term would have been perfectly well remembered2 and the feeling against ,jesus in ,pharisaic circles was far too strong to allow1 for a moment1 the use of a phrase known to have been coined by the ,sinner of ,israel4 ,the earliest occurrence of the term in the ,mishnah1 so far as ,i know1 is at the end of chapter ix4 of the treatise ,sotah2 and there the person who uses it is ,r4 ,eliezer b4 ,horkenos4 ,this particular ,rabbi is very well known4 ,he lived at the end of the first century of our era4 ,he got into trouble on one occasion2 and the reason of his trouble1 according to his own admission1 was that he had unwittingly praised something that was told him1 and which he afterwards learned was a saying of ,jesus4 ,he was filled with horror at the thought that he could ever have approved anything which had emanated from that teacher4 ,now ,r4 ,eliezer himself was probably too young to have seen and heard ,jesus2 but his old master1 ,r4 ,joanan b4 ,zaccai1 was a contemporary1 and must have witnessed the tragedy in ,jerusalem4 ,if ,jesus had invented the term1 ,our ,father in ,heaven1 that fact would be well within the knowledge of ,r4 ,eliezer1 and he would have cut off his right hand sooner than have used the phrase4 ,instead of that1 he used it with devout intention3 ,who is there on whom to lean1 except our ,father who is in ,heaven8 ,it was a phrase which expressed the ground of trust in ,god4 ,and neither to himself nor to anyone else did it occur that he was using a phrase either recent or suspicious in its origin4#d #d ,to this may be added the fact that certain phrases1 apparently harmless1 were forbidden to be used in the ,synagogue1 because they were in some way heretical 7,m4 ,meg4 iv4 #i74 ,christianity is not directly mentioned1 but there is good reason to suppose that ,christianity is intended4 ,all this goes to show that there cannot have been any borrowing from ,jesus on the part of those who recorded in the ,talmud sayings similar to his1 or who used phrases implying similar beliefs4 ,it is just conceivable that slight and unimportant sayings of his might have been picked up and made current amongst the ,rabbis4 ,but that phrases so important and so numerous as those which are offered as parallels to the teaching of ,jesus1 should have been borrowed from him1 is1 to anyone who knows the ,talmud at all1 a sheer impossibility4 ,there remains1 accordingly1 this alternative1 that such phrases represent what was familiar to and accepted by both ,jesus and the ,pharisees1 as ground truths about which there was no dispute4 ,jesus did not explain1 as he had no need to explain to his hearers1 why he called ,god the ,father in ,heaven4 ,he took it for granted that they knew whom he referred to and what he meant4 ,and no ,scribe ever asked him to explain his meaning4 ,it is clear that1 wherever it came from1 the term ,father in ,heaven1 as applied to ,god1 was not new in the time of ,jesus4 ,it was part of the common stock of religious ideas1 a natural element in the ,jewish religion of that time4 ,when and how it first came into use ,i do not know4 ,it is not found1 in so many words1 in the ,old ,testament or the ,apocrypha1 though there is a broad hint of it in ,isa4 lxiii4 #af1 ,surely ,thou art our ,father1 etc4 ,if it be 7and who will deny that it is87 one of the great watchwords of spiritual religion1 then observe that it can only have come into use in the time between the ,maccabees and ,jesus2 and no other source for it can be deemed so probable as the ,synagogue1 the home of the religion of ,torah4 ,and much the same argument applies to the rest of what can be shown to be similar in the religious ideas of ,jesus and those of the ,rabbis4 ,they cannot have been borrowed from ,jesus4 ,they were known in his time because he gave utterance to them1 and was not challenged for doing so4 ,they were known and devoutly believed by the ,talmudic ,pharisees2 there is no indication of their being a novelty4 ,they must therefore represent substantially what was held and believed by the ,pharisees in and before the time of ,jesus4 ,it may1 of course1 be argued that ,jesus put a deeper meaning into the common terms than the ,pharisees did4 ,but this is extremely difficult to prove2 and merely to say that he did is to beg the question4 ,who would venture to say that all ,christians put precisely the same meaning upon the common terms which they employ1 or that a given term will not mean to a deeply spiritual ,christian much more than it would to a shallow and frivolous one8 ,i do not contend that all the ,pharisees1 or any of them1 were the equals of ,jesus in spiritual depth1 just as ,i would not contend that all ,christians1 or any of them1 were his equals in that respect4 ,but there is certainly no warrant for saying that all ,pharisees understood the common phrases of their religion in a low and narrow sense1 as compared with the sense in which ,jesus understood them4 ,to say that ,our ,father in ,heaven meant for the ,pharisee only that ,god had chosen ,israel to be ,his own people1 and that the name ,father did not in the ,jewish theology lead to a deeper insight into the nature of ,god as ,love1 is one of the flagrant misrepresentations with which ,weber's book abounds 7,weber1 p4 #aej74 ,there may have been ,pharisees to whom the phrase meant nothing more2 there certainly were ,pharisees to whom it meant that ,god was near to each one of ,his children1 in love and mercy and personal care4 ,that the ,pharisee thought of ,god only1 or even mainly1 as distant and inaccessible1 or as a taskmaster whose service was hard1 is a baseless fiction4 ,even1 then1 allowing that ,jesus1 by the depth and power of his own spiritual nature1 did read into the common terms of ,jewish religion a fuller meaning than had been previously found there1 he nevertheless used those terms because they served to carry that meaning1 as they stood and without alteration4 ,we have1 then1 reached this position1 that both ,jesus and the ,pharisees shared in common a ,judaism expressed in the terms of a spiritual ,theism1 developed in the ,synagogue and the home1 and learned there alike by the ,pharisees and by ,jesus4 ,it was certainly not the creation of the ,scribes1 qu ,scribes1 so that ,jesus1 or anyone else1 would need to have sat at the feet of some ,gamaliel in order to learn it4 ,it was the spiritual inheritance of the ,jew1 into which he entered by natural piety1 and from which neither the simple and unlearned nor the ,scribe versed in the subtleties of the ,halachah was excluded4 ,i shall have more to say about this in the concluding chapter4 ,such1 then1 was the common ground which ,jesus shared with the ,pharisees4 ,we have now to study the opposition between them1 which finally drove them apart in irreconcilable antagonism4 ,the true nature of that opposition1 the cause and ground of it1 did not appear at the outset4 ,indeed1 it may be questioned whether either the ,pharisees or even ,jesus himself ever fully and consciously realised the inner meaning of it4 ,that the ,pharisees knew why they distrusted1 feared1 and finally helped to destroy ,jesus1 is true enough4 ,and ,jesus expressed1 in the plainest terms1 the ground on which he denounced the ,pharisees4 ,but whether on either side the real significance of the struggle was clearly seen1 is to my mind doubtful4 ,jesus may have seen it4 ,i do not think the ,pharisees did1 or ever have done1 from that day to this4 ,to bring out that meaning1 or what seems to me to be that meaning1 will be the point to which ,i shall lead up in the remainder of this chapter2 and with that in view ,i shall survey the main incidents of the controversy as they are recorded in the ,gospels4 ,the appearance of ,jesus as the successor of ,john the ,baptist1 taking up his message and proclaiming it with a force of his own1 was enough to draw immediate attention to ,jesus1 and to incline men to give him a favourable hearing4 ,this is to put the matter from the point of view of the people in general1 and the ,pharisees in particular1 who were in possession of a settled religion1 and to whom ,jesus was an unknown man who had to make his name4 ,that he preached repentance1 and proclaimed the near advent of the ,kingdom of ,heaven1 would be only a reason for listening to him4 ,no ,pharisee1 nor any other ,jew1 with the national history behind him1 would question for a moment that ,god might at any time raise up some messenger to proclaim ,his will4 ,what else had the prophets been1 in the old days8 ,and had not ,john the ,baptist been much like one of them8 ,that ,john1 and after him ,jesus1 had called his hearers to repent1 was no reason whatever for resenting his boldness1 or for denying his right to speak4 ,it was the natural thing for a prophet to do2 as1 in much later times1 it is natural for a revivalist to convict his hearers of sin1 and lead them to the mercy seat4 ,they do not resent being called sinners1 and are only grateful for the glad tidings of the mercy which saves them4 ,so with the ,pharisees2 there would be no disposition on their part to find fault with ,jesus for coming forward as a preacher of repentance1 let alone a herald of the ,kingdom4 ,the point at which distrust of1 and uneasiness about1 ,jesus first entered the minds of the ,pharisees1 is probably indicated by the saying that he taught as one having authority1 and not as their ,scribes 7,matt4 vii4 #bi74 ,to the conservatism which is commonly found in the adherents of a religion long established and settled in its ways1 there was added in the case of the ,pharisees a special veneration for the principle of traditional authority4 ,if at first they merely noticed that ,jesus was very independent1 and wanting in the deference which was due to the sages and elders of his people1 they could not fail before long to discover that this was something more than unconventional freedom of speech and manner4 ,if he had kept to his preaching of repentance1 and the announcement of the ,kingdom of ,heaven1 that might pass2 but he spoke of other things besides repentance1 and put forward views of his own as to what the ,kingdom implied4 ,it would seem that he was assuming the position of a teacher of religion in general1 since he touched upon subjects which were not specially connected with his mission4 ,to the ,pharisees he appeared as a sort of unregistered practitioner1 if the comparison may be allowed4 ,much of what he said they could not but agree with2 but how came he to say it8 ,some things they did not agree with1 and what right had he to set up his own opinion against the teaching commonly received and held8 ,so they began to ask1 ,whence hath this man this wisdom8 and by what authority doest thou these things8#e #e ,i only quote these questions as being what must have been asked at a very early stage of the public career of ,jesus3 ,i offer no opinion as to the chronology of the incidents in the ,gospels in connection with which those questions are introduced4 ,christians are accustomed1 and rightly1 to regard it as one of the marks of the greatness of ,jesus that he did speak out of his own mind and heart1 as having his authority within himself4 ,but ,i am trying to put the case as it presented itself to the ,pharisees1 looking at it from their own very different point of view4 ,there was not amongst them any office exactly corresponding to the position of a clergyman or a minister4 ,they were all laymen2 and if the priests had special functions1 that was only in connection with the ritual of the ,temple1 and not with the giving of religious instruction4 ,after the ,temple was destroyed1 the priest was only distinguished from the rest by certain privileges of precedence1 and certain disabilities3 he had no ministerial function as leader of a congregation4 ,neither in the time of ,jesus nor after it were the ,pharisees a priest-ridden community4 ,of far greater importance than the priest was the ,scribe3 but the ,scribe was only a layman4 ,he was not consecrated to a sacred office1 and to that extent set apart from the rest of his fellow-men3 he was indeed chosen and appointed by those who were competent to do so1 but1 in regard to what he might or might not do1 he was in just the same position as any ,pharisee who was not a ,scribe4 ,what distinguished him from the rest of his brethren was that he made it his special business to study the ,torah1 both written and unwritten1 and to qualify himself to be a teacher of it4 ,his proficiency was recognised and vouched for1 by those who were already accepted religious teachers1 by some form of ordination4 ,to become a ,scribe was not so much to take orders as to take a degree1 though that is not an exact parallel4 ,i have explained in the preceding chapter the way in which the ,torah was regarded as the embodiment of the full and final revelation which ,god had made to ,israel4 ,it was the source of all knowledge1 the supreme authority1 the regulator of all action4 ,it included within its range the whole duty of man1 his entire relation to ,god and to his fellow-men4 ,the written ,torah was contained in the ,pentateuch4 ,the other canonical books of the ,old ,testament were to be read in the light afforded by the ,torah1 and to be valued for the help they gave in illustrating its meaning1 making clear what had been left obscure in the ,pentateuch4 ,that there could be any contradiction between the secondary scriptures and the ,pentateuch was in theory impossible4 ,and when in the case of certain books1 namely1 ,ezekiel1 ,ecclesiastes1 and the ,song of ,songs1 contradictions were alleged1 the alternatives were to explain away the contradiction or to reject the books from the canon4 ,the books were retained1 by an exercise of dialectic subtlety which is graphically indicated in the statement that a certain ,rabbi burnt the midnight oil to the extent of three hundred barrels1 in his studies to reconcile the book of ,ezekiel with the standard of the ,torah 7b4 ,shabb4 #ac;b74 ,the unwritten ,torah was the explication of what was implicit in the written ,torah1 the unfolding into fuller detail or greater clearness of what was barely suggested in the ,scripture4 ,evidently1 therefore1 to know what was contained in the ,torah1 i4e4 what ,god had revealed1 it was needful to know the unwritten as well as the written ,torah1 the former even more perhaps than the latter4 ,and this could only be done by learning and remembering what had already been taught and accepted as a valid interpretation by previous teachers4 ,a ,tradition of the ,elders was a necessary result of a religion of ,torah4 ,if a ,pharisee were offered some religious teaching or were invited to do some action as a religious duty1 he would ask 7supposing it was new to him71 ,is this ,torah8 ,and he would not be satisfied until he had been shown that it was4 ,the proof would be1 either that it had already been taught by such and such a recognised teacher1 or that the instructor1 being himself a recognised teacher1 assured him that it was so4 ,this was the constant1 and even necessary1 form in which instruction was given in the meaning of ,torah4 ,and it should be carefully observed 7a point which is not usually understood7 that this method of ,tradition by no means excluded individual initiative or progressive development of thought on the part of those who handed on the ,tradition4 ,there was no finality in the ,torah2 the diligent and devout student of it was always discovering something new1 and if he could show 7as he usually could show7 that his new truth was in the ,torah1 that was an addition to its known meaning1 while yet the ,torah remained unaltered in the infinite richness and fulness of its contents1 the perfect and divine revelation4 ,i have shown that progressive development was most marked along the line of the ,halachah4 ,but there was even more of free speculation1 individual initiative of research into spiritual things1 though there was less of methodical advance1 along the line of the ,haggadah1 as will be explained more at length in the fifth chapter4 ,but there also the method1 or rather the form1 of ,tradition was the one mainly used1 presumably as being that which gave greatest security for the validity of the results obtained4 ,the ,pharisees in the time of ,jesus1 no less than the ,rabbis of the ,talmud1 were well able to think for themselves1 and in fact did so1 upon religious as upon other questions4 ,and the reason why they uniformly employed the method of ,tradition was not that they were hidebound slaves of custom1 but that their religion was the religion of ,torah4 ,as the ,torah was not a burden1 so the ,tradition of the ,elders was not a constraint4 ,christians may1 and usually do1 think that the burden and the restraint must have been felt4 ,but that is only because the religion of ,christians is not a religion of ,torah2 and one who is accustomed to the conditions and conceptions of the former1 is not likely to appreciate1 and seldom tries to understand1 the conditions and conceptions of the latter4 ,equally1 of course1 one who has grown up in the habit of thought congenial to the religion of ,torah does not easily appreciate and may seriously misunderstand the manifestations of religion1 in thought and speech1 where the ,torah is not the controlling element4 ,when1 therefore1 the ,pharisees became aware that ,jesus was one who taught as having authority1 and not as their ,scribes1 they were confronted with a fact which they were not in a position to understand1 to the meaning of which they had no clue1 and which could only appear to them as a contradiction of their own principles4 ,it would be extremely perplexing to them to know what to make of ,jesus1 and how to deal with him4 ,what he said seemed to be good2 but was it ,torah8 ,it might be2 but how could they know that8 ,some of it1 of course1 they were familiar with--the common terms of the spiritual ,judaism to which reference has already been made4 ,but some things were new4 ,their own accepted teachers1 the ,scribes1 had not taught these things1 i4e4 had not declared them to be ,torah4 ,jesus was not a ,scribe4 ,he did not say1 ,this is ,torah because ,i have learned it from so-and-so4 ,and1 not being a ,scribe1 he was not competent to declare it as from himself4 ,how could they receive his teaching1 without being unfaithful to what they already believed8 ,and if they were unfaithful to that8 ,it should be constantly remembered that the religion of ,torah meant to the ,pharisee the whole of religion1 all that was possible of communion with ,god1 and not merely of obedience to precept4 ,within its characteristic form there was room for all of that spiritual ,theism which1 as has been shown1 the ,pharisees had in common with ,jesus4 ,if he did not hold that spiritual ,theism under the form of ,torah1 they did2 and it was in its essence much the same for both4 ,they did not know that the form of ,torah1 with its corollary of ,tradition1 was not necessary to the retention of the religion which brought them close to ,god in love and obedience1 in joy and trust4 ,and it seemed to them that they risked the loss of all that1 if they tampered with the conception of ,torah1 or listened to one1 however persuasive and however eloquent1 who taught not as their ,scribes4 ,if this was the point of view from which the ,pharisees regarded ,jesus1 when they began to make closer acquaintance with him1 then it is easy to understand how their feeling towards him would be something much deeper than mere petty jealousy or the prejudice of stupid bigotry4 ,no doubt there was some of that4 ,inability to understand can express itself in ways which are mean and contemptible1 as is seen in religious polemic in every age4 ,the ,pharisees had no monopoly of ignorant spite4 ,but what ,i contend is that the attitude of the ,pharisees towards ,jesus will bear a much higher interpretation than mere arrogant jealousy against an unauthorised intruder4 ,it was a repugnance towards teaching which they could by no means bring within the frame of their religion1 and they could not imagine any other frame for it2 it was a shrinking fear of a teacher who1 with holy and good words and deeds1 seemed yet to be leading them away from the only ideal they could recognise4 ,and leading not only them but also the people1 who were less able to guard against the danger1 and who1 as they observed1 heard him gladly1 and even hung on his words listening4 ,a religion so deeply wrought into the souls of the best part of the nation as the religion of ,torah had been since the days of ,ezra1 so strongly held1 so passionately loved1 so marked in the individuality of its features1 could not enable those who clung to it to unlearn the ways of their fathers1 and to adapt its contents to a new and unfamiliar form4 ,the religion of ,torah1 for all that it had much in common with the religion of ,jesus1 could never pass over into the form which he gave to his religion4 ,and although ,christians may say it was blindness on the part of the ,pharisees1 they are not justified in saying that it was also hardness of heart1 which made them shrink from ,jesus4 ,the occasions upon which they came into conflict with him were probably numerous2 but the following may fairly be taken as representative of the rest3--,healing on the ,sabbath2 the question of divorce2 the argument about ,corban4 ,along with the first may be included the defence of his disciples for plucking the ears of corn on the ,sabbath4 ,and as a supplement to all may be taken the long invective against the ,pharisees in ,matt4 xxiii4 ,whether this list follows the chronological order ,i do not know1 and for the purpose in hand it does not matter4 ,the difference in principle is not affected by questions of date4 ,it will be noticed that ,i have not included the question of the ,messiahship of ,jesus4 ,of course the ,pharisees1 like everybody else in ,israel at that time1 speculated whether ,jesus was he that should come1 or whether they were to look for another4 ,but they did not directly challenge him on that point1 as they challenged him on the points ,i have already named4 ,their challenge about the ,messiahship was indirect4 ,their position would be that a man who set himself against the ,torah could not be the ,messiah4 ,conceivably the ,messiah might in some respects supersede the ,torah1 but he could never oppose it4 ,and when ,jesus was driven to declare that in certain points the ,torah did not represent divine truth1 it was from that moment impossible that the ,pharisees should recognise him as the ,messiah1 and inevitable that they should regard him as a dangerous heretic4 ,this may explain why the ,pharisees did not ask him1 in so many words1 whether he was the ,messiah or not1 and also did not offer objections to any supposed claim to that position made by him or on his behalf4 ,the question was only put to him directly by the ,high ,priest at the trial1 and therefore not by the ,pharisees at all4 ,and it is scarcely likely to have been put then as a challenge to argument2 it was much more an attempt to get evidence on which to convict him out of his own mouth4 ,jesus was condemned and executed on a more or less political charge1 for which the question of ,messiahship provided a useful basis2 but he was really rejected1 so far at all events as the ,pharisees were concerned1 because he undermined the authority of the ,torah1 and endangered the religion founded upon it4 ,that ,jesus really did so is beyond dispute4 ,his final position was one which could not be reconciled with recognition of ,torah as the ,pharisees regarded it4 ,but it may well have been1 and ,i think it was1 the case that he was only gradually driven to this position1 and that when he began his ministry he was not conscious of any discrepancy between what he was teaching and what the ,torah implied4 ,that is presumably what he meant when he said3 ,think not that ,i came to destroy the ,torah and the prophets2 ,i came not to destroy but to fulfil 7,matt4 v4 #ag74 ,his quarrel1 at that time1 was not with the ,torah itself1 but with the ,scribes and ,pharisees1 as being unsatisfactory exponents of it4 ,for ,i say unto you1 ,that except your righteousness shall exceed the righteousness of the ,scribes and ,pharisees1 ye shall in no wise enter the ,kingdom of ,heaven 7,matt4 v4 #ag1 #bj74 ,there is here no opposition between the conception of ,torah and that of life under the ,kingdom of ,heaven4 ,jesus also regarded the ,torah1 at this time at all events1 as being the supreme and final revelation that ,god had given to ,israel4 ,to fulfil it was not merely to obey its precepts but to make one's whole life1 in thought1 word1 and deed1 respond to that divine influence4 ,and ,jesus maintained that the ,pharisees did not go the right way to attain that end4 ,he himself came to fulfil the ,torah1 by making that complete response to its influence1 and by showing how it could and ought to be made4 ,any notion of getting rid of it after having once and for all satisfied its claims1 belongs to a circle of ideas of which it is safe to say that ,jesus never dreamed4 ,but yet1 if the explanation here offered be correct1 it is evident that what he still supposed to be ,torah1 and the religion of ,torah1 was not so in fact4 ,he had grown up with the conception of ,torah1 like any other devout ,jew2 and he did not at once become aware that what he conceived religion to be was something that could not be expressed in terms of ,torah4 ,the ,pharisees perceived the discrepancy sooner than he did2 and while he found another form for his religion1 they adhered to the old form because that was what they knew1 and they could not comprehend anything different4 ,to them1 what he was doing was not reconstruction or amplification or exaltation of the old religion1 but destruction of it4 ,and1 so far as the conception of ,torah was concerned1 they were quite right4 ,torah and ,jesus could not remain in harmony4 ,the two were fundamentally incompatible4 ,and the ,pharisees1 being determined to abide in the things they had learned1 viz4 ,torah1 were necessarily turned into opponents of ,jesus4 ,this cleavage showed itself only gradually2 and what forced it on the consciousness1 first of the ,pharisees and then of ,jesus himself1 was shown in the several occasions of dispute1 where appeal had to be made to first principles4 ,i take first the case of the cure of a sick man on the ,sabbath1 as it is recorded in ,mark iii4 #a-f3 ,and he entered again into the synagogue2 and there was a man there which had his hand withered4 ,and they watched him1 whether he would heal him on the ,sabbath day2 that they might accuse him4 ,and he saith unto the man that had his hand withered1 ,stand forth4 ,and he saith unto them1 ,is it lawful on the ,sabbath day to do good1 or to do harm8 to save a life1 or to kill8 ,but they held their peace4 ,and when he had looked round about on them with anger1 being grieved at the hardness of their hearts1 he saith unto the man1 ,stretch forth thine hand4 ,and he stretched it forth1 and his hand was restored4 ,and the ,pharisees went out1 and straightway with the ,herodians took counsel against him1 how they might destroy him4 ,it is evident that the narrator of that story did not love the ,pharisees1 and it would not be unreasonable to take a heavy discount off it on the ground of prejudice4 ,but we may leave all that out of account4 ,jesus challenged the ,pharisees to say whether1 according to the ,torah1 he might or might not cure the man on the ,sabbath4 ,if he got no answer1 it was certainly not because they had no answer to give4 ,they would say1 ,why do on the ,sabbath what could be done on another day1 if the doing of it would break the ,sabbath8 ,the ,torah says that the ,sabbath is to be kept holy2 and this is done by refraining from certain kinds of action1 in themselves perfectly right and proper4 ,we believe that the right way of fulfilling the ,torah--doing the will of ,god--is to do so-and-so4 ,and we believe that in order to save life1 when it is in danger1 it is the will of ,god that we should break the ,sabbath1 in any way that may be necessary4 ,but that we should not break it for any less urgent cause4 ,here is this man with a withered hand4 ,he is in no immediate danger4 ,certainly it is a good thing to cure him4 ,but why not have cured him before8 ,and if his cure should stand over for a day1 is that so great a harm to one who has been some time in that condition that the ,sabbath must be made to give way to it8 ,that is the sort of answer that the ,pharisees would make4 ,of course1 the rejoinder is ready to hand1 that to do good is right on any day1 ,sabbath or no ,sabbath4 ,but that is not the point4 ,the challenge of ,jesus was1 ,is it lawful8 i4e4 ,is it in accordance with ,torah8 ,and the ,pharisees were perfectly justified in holding that it was not in accordance with ,torah4 ,if ,jesus interpreted ,torah in a different sense1 that was his affair2 and they would not be the more disposed to agree with him if it be true that he looked round about on them in anger4 ,his action was in effect an attack on ,torah1 whatever his intention might be4#f #f ,the action of ,jesus in casting out devils was not in itself a ground of controversy with the ,pharisees1 since they did the same2 and moreover neither side questioned the genuineness of the exorcisms of the other4 ,but it appears from ,mark iii4 #bb-cj that the ,pharisees alleged that ,jesus performed his cures by the help of ,beelzebub the prince of the devils2 and ,jesus denounced them as guilty of the sin against the ,holy ,spirit1 for their malicious slander in ascribing to diabolic agency what was due to power from ,god4 ,then follows the famous declaration3 ,whosoever shall blaspheme against the ,holy ,spirit hath never forgiveness1 but is guilty of an eternal sin 7,mark iii4 #bi74 ,this is the foundation for the doctrine of the unpardonable sin1 in ,christian theology4 ,it rests entirely on a misunderstanding of the phrase1 hath never forgiveness1 a misunderstanding already apparent in ,matt4 xii4 #cb1 where it is said that such a one shall not be forgiven either in this world or in that which is to come4 ,the phrase in ,mark1 hath never forgiveness1 is the key to the real meaning of the saying of ,jesus4 ,the ,christian reader1 finding the phrase only in this one passage1 naturally supposes that it is very exceptional and carries some tremendous meaning4 ,but1 in fact1 it is a ,jewish idiom applicable in ordinary circumstances4 ,in the ,talmud1 j4 ,b4 ,kama #f;c1 is a passage dealing with injuries and affronts from one man to another4 ,a ,rabbi suggests a method of reconciliation2 upon which another ,rabbi comments3 ,this will do where it is not a case of slander2 but if he has put forth a bad name against his fellow-man1 he hath not forgiveness for ever4 ,there is here no question of a sin which ,god will not pardon1 but of an affront which man will not1 or does not1 pardon4 ,it is only a way of saying that slander is one of the hardest of all offences to forgive4 ,the ,rabbi who said this never dreamed of an unpardonable sin as ,christians have imagined it4 ,the unvarying doctrine in ,pharisaic theology on the subject of forgiveness is that ,god always forgives those who repent when they repent 7see on forgiveness in ,chapter ,,iv474 ,the term rendered for ever is used in the ,talmud in connections which preclude all idea of theological meaning4 ,thus1 j4 ,m4 ,kat4 #hc;d1 of the rent garments of the mourner1 ,they do not sew the pieces together for ever4 ,the declaration of ,jesus accordingly is not the intimation that there is a sin which ,god will never forgive1 but the denunciation of malicious slander by a justly indignant man4 ,the phrase1 is guilty of an eternal sin1 is only an expansion of hath never forgiveness4 ,it is worth noting in this connection that the references to ,jesus in the ,talmud do not include a charge that he was possessed by a devil or made use of the help of the prince of the devils4 ,see my ,christianity in ,talmud and ,midrash1 where all the ,rabbinical passages relating to ,jesus are collected and commented on4 ,the question of ,sabbath-breaking was raised in another form in the incident described in ,mark ii4 #bc-bh1 and elsewhere4 ,this is chiefly of importance because it is made the occasion for the declaration that the ,sabbath was made for man1 not man for the ,sabbath4 ,the action of the disciples in plucking the ears of corn on the ,sabbath was challenged by the ,pharisees4 ,jesus defended it by an appeal to ,scripture1 the relevancy of which is not obvious1 and by the declaration just quoted1 which is only a valid defence if it means that the ,sabbath can be put aside by man for his own convenience1 however slight the occasion4 ,the ,pharisees would certainly agree to the declaration about the ,sabbath 7it is found1 b4 ,joma #he;b71 but they would not admit the interpretation which ,jesus put upon it4 ,they would say that the ,sabbath was a divine institution1 intended for the benefit of man2 and that1 while for grave reason it might be sometimes right to break the ,sabbath1 yet that was not left to the caprice of anyone who chose to break it4 ,if that was allowed1 the blessing of the ,sabbath would be gone and the divine intention frustrated4 ,from the point of view of ,torah1 no other answer was possible4 ,and ,jesus1 in his treatment of the ,sabbath1 by dispensing with the obligation of the hitherto customary observance of it1 was disclosing the fact that he did not now look at the matter from the point of view of ,torah4 ,how far he was conscious of this divergence1 or rather1 when he became aware of it1 can hardly be determined4 ,but in the controversy with regard to divorce the divergence became unmistakable4 ,the controversy was strictly not about divorce in itself1 but about the attitude of the ,torah towards divorce4 ,jesus condemned divorce 7,mark x4 #b fol474 ,whether he allowed the one exception or not1 his general condemnation of the practice is not open to question4 ,but the ,pharisees also condemned divorce4 ,they could not abolish it1 but they sought to restrict what had been the immemorial freedom of the husband to put away his wife at his pleasure4 ,it is often urged against ,hillel and ,akiba that they allowed divorce for frivolous reasons1 and ,shammai is praised because he would not allow divorce except for unfaithfulness4 ,neither the blame nor the praise is justified or even called for4 ,the only difference between ,hillel and ,shammai on the subject was whether the ,torah allowed divorce for trivial reasons1 or restricted it to the one grave reason4 ,it was a question of interpretation of the authority recognised alike by ,hillel and ,shammai4 ,it was not a question of the private opinion of either of them upon the ethical character of divorce4 ,if ,hillel and ,akiba had seen their way to interpret the ,torah in accordance with their own ethical judgment1 they would certainly have done so4 ,and1 in fact1 the ,talmudic treatment of the subject is in the direction of making divorce difficult1 and of giving protection1 where possible1 to the wife against the caprice of the husband4 ,but in face of the fact that the ,torah1 the written ,torah1 expressly allowed divorce 7,deut4 xxiv4 #a71 not even ,hillel and ,akiba could establish the contrary view4 ,so far as the condemnation of divorce on its own account was concerned1 the ,pharisees would be in agreement with ,jesus1 though probably not to the extent of admitting no exception1 supposing that ,jesus himself went so far4 ,the point of controversy was in regard to the ,torah as bearing on the subject4 ,this is clear1 because ,jesus himself appealed to the ,torah4 ,he asked the ,pharisees1 ,what did ,moses command you8 ,and it appears that what he was thinking of was the passage1 ,gen4 i4 #bg1 ,male and female created he them4 ,but the ,pharisees quoted against him the express command1 ,deut4 xxiv4 #a1 ,let him write a bill of divorce1 etc4 ,so that here there was ,torah against ,torah4 ,the ,pharisees would say1 ,we agree with you that divorce ought1 so far as possible1 to be restricted and avoided2 but1 nevertheless1 we cannot condemn it outright1 because the ,torah1 which is ,god's own teaching1 expressly allows and even enjoins it4 ,but you1 who do condemn it outright1 how do you reconcile that with ,torah8 ,jesus answered that the permission to divorce was a concession made to human imperfection1 and that the real intention of ,god was expressed in the passage in ,gen4 i4 #bg4 ,but that answer implied necessarily that the written ,torah was1 in this one case at all events1 not divine and perfect1 since it contradicted itself4 ,and such an answer was fatal to a recognition of the supremacy of ,torah1 as the ,pharisees understood it4 ,to them1 the fact that ,jesus had1 in this one instance1 definitely repudiated the divine authority of ,torah1 would outweigh the fact that upon the subject of divorce itself they were to a large extent in agreement with him4 ,the result of the controversy would be a deepened impression1 alike on the ,pharisees and on ,jesus1 that his standpoint was not that of ,torah1 and that his ground principle was irreconcilable with theirs4 ,another phase of the opposition between ,jesus and the ,pharisees is shown by the incident described in ,mark vii4 #a-bc1 of which the catchword is ,corban4 ,the ,pharisees and ,scribes ask ,jesus why his disciples did not follow the ,tradition of the ,elders1 but ate their bread with unwashed hands4 ,jesus turned upon them and charged them with making void the word of ,god by their ,tradition4 ,for ,moses said1 ,honour thy father and thy mother2 and1 ,he that speaketh evil of either father or mother1 let him die the death4 ,but ye say1 ,if a man shall say to his father or mother1 ,that1 wherewith thou mightest have been profited by me1 is ,corban1 that is to say1 ,given to ,god1 ye no longer suffer him to do aught for his father or his mother2 making void the word of ,god by your ,tradition2 and many such like things ye do4 ,now1 even if the charge brought against the ,pharisees were true1 that they would not allow a man to be released from a vow in order to honour his parents1 they would not thereby be making void the word of ,god by their ,tradition4 ,on the contrary1 they would be upholding it4 ,for1 while ,exod4 ,,xx4 #ab says1 ,honour thy father and thy mother1 ,num4 xxx4 #b says1 ,when a man voweth a vow unto the ,lord1 or sweareth with an oath to bind his soul with a bond1 he shall not break his word1 he shall do according to all that proceedeth out of his mouth4 ,no provision is made for annulling vows1 except those of a wife by her husband or her father under certain conditions4 ,the practice of annulling vows generally was introduced by the ,rabbis1 and they admitted that it had no direct sanction in ,scripture4 ,if1 therefore1 in the case of a man who had made a vow to the detriment of his father and mother1 they refused to release him1 they would be upholding ,scripture against their ,tradition4 ,true1 ,scripture would be opposed to ,scripture2 but the responsibility for that rested on ,moses1 not on them2 and the practice of annulling vows would have the effect of removing that contradiction1 and was perhaps so intended4 ,however that may be1 the charge against the ,pharisees of making void the word of ,god by their ,tradition would not be borne out in this instance1 even if it were true that they refused to release a man from a vow of the kind described4 ,but the assertion that they did so refuse is contrary to the express statement of the ,mishnah1 which is the codified ,tradition2 and is moreover entirely at variance with the spirit of ,rabbinical ethics in regard to respect to parents4 ,the crucial passage is ,m4 ,nedar4 ix4 #a1 and it runs thus3 ,r4 ,eliezer says1 ',they open a way for a man on the ground of honour to his father and mother4' ,the ,wise forbid4 ,r4 ,zadok said1 ',before they open a way for him on the ground of honour to his father and mother1 they should open it for him on the ground of honour to ,god4 ,if this were so1 there would be no vows4' ,the ,wise agree with ,r4 ,eliezer1 that in a matter which is between a man and his father and mother they open a way for him on the ground of honour to his father and mother4 ,two cases are here distinguished2 in the first1 if a man makes a vow of any kind1 he is not to be released from it on the ground that it would bring reproach on his parents to have such a rash and foolish son4 ,he must be made to keep his vow4 ,but in the second case1 if a man make a vow upon a matter between himself and his parents1 i4e4 one which1 if he keep it1 will occasion injury or loss to them1 then he is to be released from it on the ground of honour to his parents4 ,the commentators on the ,mishnah all agree in this interpretation1 and there is no doubt as to the intention of the ,mishnah4 ,moreover1 there is no indication that there ever had been a different opinion1 as if the statement now made in the ,mishnah had taken the place of an earlier statement4 ,there is no evidence that the ,pharisees ever held or taught the doctrine attributed to them by ,jesus1 while it is contradicted in the most definite manner by the declarations of their own legal authorities4 ,the charge is all the more pointless because the ,pharisees1 whatever else they may have failed in1 always showed the most devoted respect to parents4 ,a more unfortunate ground of attack could hardly have been chosen than that which is taken in the ,corban incident2 and the ,pharisees would not have had the slightest difficulty in repelling the charge brought against them4 ,whether the error involved in the account of the incident be due to the ,evangelist or to ,jesus himself1 an error it remains4 ,and it is not fair1 on the strength of the ,new ,testament text1 however it came to be written1 to hold the ,pharisees guilty of denying that which they themselves expressly enjoin4 ,that is the fact4 ,how the misstatement#g came to be made1 ,i do not know and will not speculate4 ,of course this does not in any way affect the truth of the principle enunciated by ,jesus3 ,there is nothing from without the man which going into him can defile him1 etc4 ,that marks1 in practical effect1 though possibly not in theory1 a complete breach with ,pharisaism1 since the ,torah did1 in the most explicit manner1 distinguish between clean and unclean1 and did teach that outward things caused defilement4 ,the ,pharisees held by the ,torah2 ,jesus1 at this point1 threw it over4 ,yet the ,pharisees could and did say that the defilement was not caused by the outward thing itself1 but expressed the will of ,god that certain actions and contacts should be avoided4 ,why ,he had so willed1 they did not know nor inquire2 enough that ,he had so willed1 and included it in the ,torah which ,he had given4 ,if it be said1 ,so much the worse for a religion and an ethic which are based on ,torah1 the question is taken down to first principles1 and will be answered variously according to the view held of those first principles4 ,i only observe that the religion of ,torah was hampered by the fact that it applied a sublime theory to material some of which was originally quite independent of that theory and unworthy of it2 and the ,pharisees were unable to recognise that fact1 while doing their best1 and a very splendid best1 to overcome a difficulty of whose nature they were not1 and could not be1 aware4 #g ,corban does not mean ,given to ,god1 at least it does not mean that the thing in respect of which the vow was made was dedicated to sacred use4 ,corban is merely a formula prefacing a vow4 ,a man would say1 ,corban6 if you shall enter my house6 meaning1 ,i vow that you shall not enter it4 ,the opposition between ,jesus and the ,pharisees finds its most emphatic expression in the long speech contained in ,matt4 xxiii41 the keynote of which is3 ,woe unto you1 ,scribes and ,pharisees1 hypocrites6 ,it is sometimes argued that ,jesus himself did not say all the hard things in that speech1 but that they represent the hostility of the early ,church towards the men who had destroyed her founder4 ,that is possible2 and certainly the ,evangelists do not incline to a favourable view of the ,pharisees on any occasion4 ,but ,i do not feel free to evade the duty of dealing with that speech by availing myself of that argument4 ,moreover1 ,i do not see anything to make it impossible1 or even unlikely1 that ,jesus did say all those things4 ,having in effect broken with the religion of ,torah1 and being in the position of a man driven to bay1 fighting1 as the saying is1 with his back against the wall1 it is only human nature that he should so speak as to hit hard4 ,and1 if it were the case of any other man1 who would take the words spoken under such conditions as expressing the calm and deliberate judgment of the speaker upon the persons addressed1 or as weighty evidence of the truth of the statements made8 ,i am not going to go through the various charges in order to estimate the truth or the exaggeration of them4 ,i shall make no suggestions that perhaps the ,pharisees in that time were very bad1 though they were more respectable before1 and1 in a curious way1 recovered their character afterwards4 ,nor will ,i admit that it was perhaps true of the rank and file1 but that men like ,hillel and ,gamaliel and ,joanan b4 ,zaccai were honourable exceptions4 ,if it was true at all1 it was most of all true of ,hillel and ,gamaliel and their compeers1 because these represented ,pharisaism in its perfection1 and their religion was the religion of ,torah in all its height and depth and length and breadth4 ,whatever could be truly said of ,pharisaism1 either good or evil1 was true of the religion by which they lived4 ,i take all that sweeping denunciation as the final expression of irreconcilable opposition between ,jesus and the religion of ,torah4 ,and ,i shall content myself with making a few observations upon the fact and the meaning of it4 ,as for the term hypocrites1 the justice of the implied charge is not established by the fact that the charge is made4 ,that hypocrisy is possible under the religion of ,torah is undeniable2 but there is certainly no necessary connection between the two4 ,the ,pharisees themselves were quite aware that there were hypocrites in their ranks4#h ,the retort would be justified that hypocrites have been found amongst professing ,christians also4 ,but recrimination is not argument4 ,the hypocrisy question is not really difficult to understand1 if the explanation already given of the religion of ,torah be borne in mind4 ,the theory of that religion1 when put into practice1 necessarily involved the doing of many acts in a particular way4 ,even actions in themselves of little or no importance became important when the ,torah directed a specific way of doing them4 ,they were done as a fulfilment of the will of ,god upon that particular point2 and ,his will was not fulfilled unless there was1 on the part of the agent1 the conscious intention of serving ,him4 ,the mere opus operatum was worthless4 ,to the ,pharisee1 starting from ,torah as his ground principle1 the doing of a multitude of apparently trifling acts was the obvious way of putting religion into practice1 and he rejoiced in doing them4 ,but one who did not start from ,torah as a ground principle would have no clue to the understanding of what the ,pharisees did1 or why they did it4 ,if such a one took as his ground principle the immediate authority of conscience and his own direct intuition of ,god1 and if he then judged the ,pharisees by his standard and not by their own1 then he would easily draw the conclusion that they were hypocrites1 because he would see them treating as of great importance things which conscience would pay no attention to2 and he would judge that men who could be satisfied to discharge the obligations of religion in such a way1 must either be ignorant of what religion really is1 or pretenders to a piety they did not possess4 ,the religion of ,torah lays itself open to the misconstruction which charges its adherents with hypocrisy4 ,but1 apart from particular instances where the charge could be established1 the charge only shows how far those who make it are unable to comprehend the ,pharisaic conception of religion4 ,to urge that their conception of religion was defective is legitimate2 to condemn them as hypocrites on the strength of a different conception of religion is not legitimate1 no matter by whom it is done4 #h ,see the often-quoted passage describing the seven classes of ,pharisees1 b4 ,sotah #bb;b4 ,and this leads me to the conclusion of what ,i have to say about the opposition between ,jesus and the ,pharisees4 ,the conflict was one between two fundamentally different conceptions of religion1 viz4 that in which the supreme authority was ,torah1 and that in which the supreme authority was the immediate intuition of ,god in the individual soul and conscience4 ,the ,pharisees stood for the one2 ,jesus stood for the other4 ,the particular occasions of dispute1 some of which have been noticed1 mainly served to bring out this fundamental opposition2 at all events that is their chief importance4 ,the conflict was unequal1 because it was one in which an ,idea was matched against a ,person4 ,the idea of ,torah was sublime1 and deserved all the devoted loyalty that was given to its expression and defence4 ,but it was an idea1 mediated in the consciousness of those who held it4 ,jesus was a living soul1 with the spiritual force of a tremendous personality2 and against him the idea of ,torah could not prevail4 ,this was the real meaning of the fact that he taught as one having authority1 and not as their ,scribes4 ,this was the ground of his claim to forgive sins1 a claim which the ,pharisees could only interpret as blasphemy 7,mark ii4 #g74 ,and this appears in all his relations with the ,pharisees1 as the force which opposed them1 and which they could neither comprehend nor overpower4 ,they could not at the same time retain the conception of ,torah as the basis of their religion and admit the authority of ,jesus4 ,they saw no reason why they should abandon ,torah2 they could not therefore do other than reject ,jesus4 ,and when the verdict of the ,pharisees is expressed in the saying of the ,talmud1 already quoted1 ,jesus practised magic and deceived and led astray ,israel1 that contemptuous dismissal shows how completely they failed to realise that what had opposed them had been the strength of a great personality4 ,and ,i do not think that on the ,jewish side this ever has been realised from that day to this4 ,if the ,pharisees had realised it they would have met him with arguments quite different from those which they did use2 possibly they would have refrained from controversy altogether4 ,as it was1 they remained within the circle of religious ideas which they knew1 and continued to find in the ,torah the satisfaction of their spiritual wants--a real satisfaction of real wants1 such as men might feel who were not hypocrites and impostors1 but earnest and devout1 and chiefly concerned to do the will of their ,father in ,heaven1 in what they believed to be the way ,he desired4 ,if there was on the part of the ,pharisees a complete inability to comprehend the religious position of ,jesus1 there was also on his part an inability#i to comprehend the religious position of the ,pharisees4 ,if he had realised what ,torah meant to the ,pharisees1 he might1 and doubtless would1 have desired to show them a more excellent way1 but he would not have taken the line which he did of denunciation and invective1 since to do so would defeat his purpose4 #i ,i have been asked how ,i can reconcile this alleged inability on the part of ,jesus to understand the ,pharisees with the power he showed elsewhere of reading the character and comprehending the thoughts of those with whom he came into contact4 ,my answer is that ,i do not admit ,john ii4 #be as true of the historical ,jesus2 and that1 while ,i do not deny that he had deep insight into human character and thought1 such insight depends on sympathy4 ,that there was finally a complete absence of sympathy between ,jesus and the ,pharisees is plainly to be seen1 and admits of no dispute4 ,and1 that being so1 ,i submit even he did not escape the effects of that limitation1 in making him unable to comprehend the position of the ,pharisees4 ,the inability was on both sides1 and for the same reason4 ,this ,i believe to be the real truth about the inability of both the ,pharisees and ,jesus to understand each other1 or1 in other words1 the impossibility of harmony between the religion of ,torah and the religion of the individual soul1 if ,i may so describe it4 ,that incompatibility is fundamental4 ,christianity1 in all its forms1 is a religion founded on personality1 one in which the central feature is a ,person4 ,and ,judaism1 at all events since the days of the ,pharisees1 is a religion in which the central feature is not a person1 at all events not a human person1 but the ,torah4 ,it is near the truth to say that what ,christ is to the ,christian1 ,torah is to the ,jew4 ,and alike to ,christian and to ,jew it is almost impossible to comprehend the religion of the other4 ,even ,jesus could not do it4 ,and if he could not do it1 what wonder that his greatest disciple1 ,paul1 in passing from the one conception of religion to the other1 should have failed to carry with him into his new faith the remembrance of what the old faith had meant to him while he lived in it8 ,to the further consideration of this essential opposition between the religion of ,torah and the ,christian religion ,i shall proceed in the next chapter1 when ,i shall deal with the criticism of ,torah in the ,epistles of ,paul4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,pharisaism ,,and ,,paul ,if ,christians usually get their ideas about the ,pharisees from the ,gospels1 they learn their general conception of ,judaism from the ,epistles of ,paul4 ,and1 when they find that the ,judaism which he condemns is in fact the ,judaism of the ,pharisees1 they combine their information1 and rest content with the conclusion that alike in theory and practice the ,pharisees were as far as they well could be from the ,kingdom of ,heaven4 ,a verdict which claims the authority of both ,jesus and ,paul would seem1 to ,christians at least1 to leave nothing more to be said1 and to admit of no appeal4 ,and in fact it has prevailed1 and still prevails1 in spite of all the efforts of the ,jews to obtain even a hearing on the other side4 ,as1 in the preceding chapter1 ,i examined the relation of the ,pharisees to ,jesus1 and tried to explain how it was that they came to stand to each other in such sharp antagonism1 so in the present chapter ,i shall try to explain how it was that ,paul came to represent the ,pharisaic conception of religion in the way he did1 and what grounds there are for saying that his representation does not correspond with the facts4 ,pharisaic ,judaism is1 or can be1 perfectly well known2 for it is written large in the ,rabbinical literature1 by men who were remarkably honest in setting down their faults as well as their virtues4 ,it is there for anyone to study2 and no one is entitled to say that the description of it given by ,paul1 or by anybody else1 is accurate or not1 until he has studied the thing itself4 ,the fact that it can only be studied in books which are written in ,hebrew and ,aramaic 7except so far as translated7 does not exempt the student from the duty of reading them1 if he really means to learn what is true in the matter4 ,if he does not1 then what is his opinion worth8 ,the ,christian will probably say in reply3 ,did not ,paul himself know all about it8 ,was he not born and bred a ,jew8 ,was he not a ',pharisee of the ,pharisees'8 ,had he not been 'zealous beyond those of his own age in the ,jews' religion'8 ,was he not 'as touching the law blameless'8 ,who could be a better and more reliable witness upon the question what the ,jews' religion really was8 ,yes4 ,and did ,paul not abandon the ,jews' religion8 ,did he not write about it long years after he had been converted to a different religion8 ,and is it not common knowledge that a convert seldom takes the same view of the religion he has left as is taken by those who remain in it8 ,if ,paul1 while he was still a ,pharisee1 had written down his thoughts upon the worth and meaning of ,pharisaism1 that would be valuable evidence indeed2 and it would be interesting to trace the process by which he then made his way to another form of religion4 ,as it is1 what he says about ,judaism is no evidence of what he felt it to be while he was in it1 or of what those felt it to be who remained in it4 ,and if1 as is the unquestionable fact1 his representation of it differs very widely from theirs1 then we are not entitled to draw the conclusion that his presentation is correct1 whatever the other may have been 7a point on which few trouble to inquire74 ,we have rather to account1 if we can1 for the very peculiar form which his presentation of ,pharisaism took4 ,i might1 indeed1 have left ,paul out altogether from this book2 because1 in strict truth1 there is nothing to be learned directly from him upon the question what ,pharisaism really was4 ,but1 indirectly1 there is a great deal to be learned2 because1 whether his conception of ,pharisaism be correct or not1 it serves to show how it appeared to a very exceptional man1 looking at it from a point of view which was no longer ,jewish4 ,and to understand and estimate the changed appearance due to that alteration of the point of view1 is to get to the heart of the difference between ,judaism and ,christianity4 ,for the purpose of this inquiry ,i shall take the ,epistles bearing the name of ,paul1 at all events the four great ones1 as being really his4 ,i have not yet been able to persuade myself that any collections of fragments1 pieced together and interpolated1 could be so combined as to give the impression of a single great personality behind them4 ,paul may not have been either always consistent or always logical2 but how anyone can read those letters1 with their eager hurry of argument1 their passionate outpouring of devout feeling1 and still think that they are the composite patchwork of second-century nobodies1 is to me a mystery4 ,i shall therefore assume that what is written in those ,epistles is what ,paul wrote2 that what he says about himself is true2 and that what he says about ,judaism1 or anything else1 is what he believed to be true when he wrote it4 ,the effect of what he wrote1 at all events about ,judaism1 has been to inflict what ,jews feel to be a cruel injustice on their religion4 ,to ,paul himself1 ,i imagine1 it can only have appeared to be the obvious and necessary statement of the result of his changed position in religion4 ,he has left it on record that1 through his conversion1 he became a new man in ,christ 7#b ,cor4 v4 #ag74 ,and one of the implications of that fact is that he should no longer be able accurately to reproduce in his mind what the old man had felt and thought and believed2 he would retain only the distant memory of discarded things4 ,if he wrote of the religion he had left1 it would be1 not of what once had been his1 but of what he could only judge as an external thing1 variously defective when seen in the light of his present religion4 ,beyond the fact1 then1 that by his own account ,paul had been before his conversion a zealous and consistent ,pharisee1 we do not know what his earlier opinion had been upon any subject whatever4 ,he does not become known to us until after his conversion2 and the writings from which we gain the knowledge of him were not composed till twenty years or more had elapsed since that event4 ,of his conversion he says very little2 not enough to enable us to understand precisely what took place4 ,it may well be1 indeed1 that he himself could never have stated in words1 at any time1 precisely what took place1 or what1 if anything1 led up to the change4 ,this much1 however1 is beyond question1 that as a result of his conversion ,christ became to him the central element in his religion4 ,all his spiritual life depended on ,christ4 ,all his thought was conditioned by his idea of ,christ4 ,all the energy of soul which was his to give for the fulfilling of his ministry he ascribed to the immediate personal influence of ,christ upon him4 ,christ was the all and everything of his religious life2 and the lines upon which his subsequent career was laid out1 so that he became the ,apostle of the ,gentiles1 were marked out by his conception of the relation in which he believed himself to stand towards ,christ4 ,in some marvellous way1 it seemed that ,christ had entered and taken possession of him2 with the result that he became the ,paul whom we know4 ,there must have followed a process1 whether short or long1 by which he adjusted himself to his altered mental position1 estimated the effect of the change upon his previous beliefs and ideas1 and grasped the meaning of new and unfamiliar ones4 ,for it goes without saying that his conversion widened the scope of his thought so as to bring many things within the range of his inward vision that previously had been unnoticed or not understood1 as it also changed his estimate of what had been previously there4 ,but of the details and the order of that process we know nothing4 ,we cannot tell1 for instance1 whether it began with the settling of his attitude towards ,judaism1 or whether he was drawn first towards the idea of salvation for the ,gentiles4 ,we only know the results long after the process was completed1 when he had shaped in thought a more or less consistent theory of divine providence1 as shown in the history of the world4 ,the opening chapter of the ,epistle to the ,romans shows how profoundly he was impressed by the moral chaos of the ,gentile world2 but the fact is mentioned there only to give the explanation of it4 ,for an explanation was needed4 ,such a state of humanity was in terrible contrast to the perfection which should have been found in those whom the all-holy ,god had made4 ,doubtless there were differences of better and worse between this man and that2 but1 judged by the standard of perfection1 i4e4 of complete harmony with ,god1 all were alike immeasurably below what they ought to be4 ,not only the ,gentiles1 but the ,jews also1 came under this condemnation4 ,jews indeed were not guilty of the loathsome vices which made the ,gentile life so horrible2 but it was clear that1 in regard to the standard of perfection which ,god desired in man1 the ,jews wholly failed to reach it4 ,all the world over1 through all the multitude of human beings1 there was none righteous1 no not one 7,rom4 iii4 #aj74 ,yet the ,gentiles1 ,paul argued1 could have known1 and even did know1 something of ,god2 but they disowned that knowledge1 and glorified him not as ,god1 neither gave thanks2 but became vain in their reasonings1 and their senseless heart was darkened4444 ,wherefore ,god gave them up in the lusts of their hearts 444 for that they exchanged the truth of ,god for a lie1 and worshipped and served the creature rather than the ,creator 7,rom4 i4 #ba1 #bd-e74 ,and the ,jews knew well the will of ,god1 for to them ,he had revealed it through ,moses and the prophets2 with them ,he had made ,his covenant1 and had chosen them out of all the nations of the earth1 to be a peculiar people unto ,himself4 ,how was it that they too fell so far short of what was required of them8 ,must it not have been 7so ,paul reasoned7 because the divine ,law#aj that was given them was the very means and occasion of sin8 ,to fail in regard to one single precept was to break the harmony between man and ,god2 and1 when once that harmony was broken1 there was nothing in the ,law itself to restore it4 ,by its multiplication of commandments1 the ,law offered so many occasions for the breaking of that harmony2 and whereas it was holy1 and the commandment righteous and just and good1 its ideal was one that no human effort could reach4 ,its effect was to multiply sin4 ,righteousness under the ,law was impossible2 meaning by righteousness the state of perfect harmony of man with ,god4 #aj ,i use in quotations from ,paul the word ,law instead of ,torah1 because ,paul spoke of 4 ,the fact that he did so is characteristic of his whole conception of ,judaism4 ,if the ,greek language did not provide an equivalent of the word ,torah 7any more than the ,english language does71 the fact still remains that an equivalent is needed1 or the argument becomes for want of it invalid4 ,but now1 says ,paul 7,rom4 iii4 #ba fol471 apart from the law a righteousness of ,god hath been manifested1 being witnessed by the law and the prophets2 even the righteousness of ,god through faith in ,jesus ,christ unto all them that believe2 for there is no distinction2 for all have sinned1 and fall short of the glory of ,god2 being justified freely by his grace through the redemption that is in ,jesus ,christ1 etc4 ,through faith in ,jesus ,christ there was offered to sinful man the means of attaining that righteousness--harmony with ,god--which had been vainly sought under the ,law1 or lost in the darkness of ,gentile corruption4 ,and this was evidently what ,god had willed from the beginning4 ,christ was the instrument1 or the agent1 by whom this divine purpose was to be fulfilled4 ,and the meaning of what might seem to be the age-long delay of his coming was that ,god would shut up all under sin1 that he might have mercy upon all4#aa #aa ,the theory1 of course1 is conditioned by the fact of ,christ's coming when he did4 ,it is an attempt to interpret a historical fact in terms of world-history and eternal wisdom4 ,christ performed his divinely appointed mission by his death on the ,cross1 and his subsequent resurrection2 having borne and discharged the obligation of the unfulfilled ,law1 and thereby released all1 whether ,jews or ,gentiles1 from the bondage of sin4 ,righteousness was now attainable through faith in ,christ2 and ,i presume that ,paul meant by righteousness1 harmony with ,god1 resulting from such an attitude on the part of the believer towards ,christ as that in which ,paul himself stood towards him1 in other words1 a complete surrender of heart and will to ,christ1 so as to put off the old man and become a new creature4 ,those who did this would thereby attain to perfect harmony with ,god1 which is righteousness4 ,i do not stop to dwell upon the way in which ,paul explained the fact that the offer of salvation was not universally accepted4 ,for ,i do not forget that my task is not to expound the whole of ,paul's theology1 but to explain his view of ,pharisaism4 ,i leave out1 therefore1 all mention of election and reprobation1 in order to come to the question how the ,jews were dealt with in ,paul's theory4 ,for here he was confronted with the fact that the ,jews had rejected ,christ1 and not only rejected him but killed him4 ,in the most emphatic manner they had refused the means of grace which had been offered to them through him4 ,they had1 to that extent1 frustrated the purpose of ,god in sending him4 ,they1 in common with the ,gentiles1 had been1 as stated already1 shut up under sin that ,god might have mercy on them4 ,and they had spurned that mercy4 ,how was that to be explained8 ,did ,god then cast off his people8 ,paul asked 7,rom4 xi4 #a74 ,not so4 ,but a hardening in part hath befallen ,israel1 until the fulness of the ,gentiles be come in 7,rom4 xi4 #be74 ,all that ,god had willed towards ,israel1 and declared in the ancient ,scriptures1 still held good2 but its fulfilment was delayed by the disobedience of ,israel2 and that disobedience was made to serve the purpose of ,god1 in that by its means salvation should come to the ,gentiles4 ,the full development of this thought will be found in chapters ix4 to xi4 of the ,epistle to the ,romans1 and need not be given here4 ,it was ,paul's way of getting over a formidable difficulty1 namely1 the obvious fact that the attitude of the ,jews towards ,christ was not at all what was to be expected1 if his theory of the person and work of ,christ were true4 ,it must not be forgotten that the starting point of his theory was his own personal relation to ,christ1 as he felt it with an intense certainty which nothing could shake for a moment4 ,that was his foundation of absolute truth2 and that could not but be the clue by which he interpreted all that he beheld in the world1 and read in the history of man4 ,with his application of this clue to the case of the ,gentiles ,i am not now concerned4 ,but1 in applying it to the case of the ,jews1 he was reasoning from premises which were not1 and never have been1 accepted by ,jews4 ,he represented the relation of man to ,god in terms of faith in1 and communion through1 ,christ2 so that1 previous to the coming of ,christ1 both revelation and communion had been partial and defective4 ,the ,jews represented the relation of man to ,god in terms of ,torah1 in the knowledge of divine truth therein contained1 and in filial obedience to ,god whose precepts were recorded in it4 ,they found1 on the lines of ,torah1 the ground of faith in ,god and present communion with ,him2 and while they always hoped to learn more of the contents of revelation--to be shown wonderful things out of the ,torah1--and while they aspired to a closer walk with ,god1 they never felt that the ,torah needed to be replaced by any other means of revelation and communion1 as being itself only partial and defective4 ,to say of the ,torah1 as ,paul said1 that it was a means by which ,god had prepared the way for ,christ1 implied that it had only a secondary value on its own account4 ,indeed1 it was rather harmful than helpful1 if the effect of its working was to cause the trespass to abound1 and that effect was in no way justified by the alleged intention1 on the part of ,god1 that grace might abound more exceedingly4 ,a ,christian1 brought up on ,paul1 may see no difficulty in believing that the holy and righteous ,god could or would act in such a way4 ,but to a ,jew1 brought up on ,torah1 it was impossible so to believe1 and he would repudiate the suggestion with indignation2 partly by reason of his reverence for ,god1 and partly by reason of his own experience of ,torah1 and of spiritual life under it4 ,paul's theory might be valid for himself1 but it was not valid for the ,jew2 and1 arguing from his premises1 he only described an unreal ,judaism1 such as it doubtless ought to have been if his premises had been true1 but such as1 in fact and experience1 it certainly was not4#ab ,paul1 of course1 was expounding ,christianity2 and he had no concern with ,judaism1 except to account to ,christian readers for the very obvious difficulties which it placed in the way of his theory4 ,his explanation of the meaning of ,judaism is not a study of that form of religion on its own account1 but the theoretical completion of his view of the work of ,christ4 ,if ,christ came when he did1 and if he fulfilled such and such a function in the drama of ,providence1 then the ,judaism that was before him must have meant so and so1 and must have been intended by ,god to produce such and such results4 ,that seems to me to have been the real line of ,paul's argument4 ,and1 as it started from his intense personal conviction of the inward presence of ,christ1 it is not wonderful that he should fail to see that the facts of ,judaism did not at all correspond to his theory2 or that he should assign to the ,torah a function which1 if put in practice1 would have been fatal to the existence of ,judaism long before ,christ came4 ,paul argued on the religion of ,torah from the postulates of the religion of ,christ4 ,but ,torah and ,christ are incommensurable terms2 and ,paul's presentation of ,pharisaic ,judaism is1 in consequence1 at its best a distortion1 at its worst a fiction4 #ab ,i have been asked if it were not possible that there might be some section or school of the ,pharisees to whom ,paul's strictures might apply8 ,even if there were any evidence of such a school1 that would not alter the fact that ,paul himself draws no such distinction1 but condemns the whole theoretical position of which the ,halachah is the expression4 ,a ,pharisee who should repudiate the ,halachah would be a contradiction in terms4 ,my object is to set forth1 as truly as ,i can1 what ,pharisaism was1 on its own showing2 and ,i am under no obligation to find a means whereby the strictures of ,paul might be made to appear more relevant and valid than ,i have admitted them to be4 ,i shall presently offer reasons in support of that judgment1 which is not a hasty assertion but a deliberate opinion formed after years of comparing the ,judaism of the ,rabbis with ,paul's version of it4 ,before1 however1 going on to this further part of my task1 ,i will pause for a moment to consider the difference between ,paul's attitude and that of ,jesus towards the ,pharisees and their religion4 ,in the main it is this--that ,paul condemned ,pharisaism in theory1 while ,jesus condemned it in practice4 ,paul held that the whole system was radically defective1 and remained so whatever relative excellence might be produced under it in the lives and characters of those who submitted to it4 ,he condemned it1 though he had himself1 as he said1 been as touching the ,torah1 blameless4 ,jesus1 on the other hand1 charged the ,pharisees with certain specific sins and vices1 such as hypocrisy1 pride1 self-righteousness1 etc4 ,and he did not expressly denounce the systematic religion of ,torah as such1 although1 as has been shown in the preceding chapter1 he did on certain points reject the ,torah4 ,the ,pharisees themselves were quite aware that the faults he denounced were not unknown amongst them4 ,the ,talmud bears honest witness to that fact1 in the passage so often quoted 7b4 ,sotah1 #bb;b71 about the seven kinds of ,pharisees4 ,the censure of ,jesus admits of the possibility that some1 at least1 of the ,pharisees were pious and good4 ,and that ,scribe1 to whom ,jesus said1 ,thou art not far from the kingdom of ,god 7,mark xii4 #cd71 did not cease to be a ,pharisee by reason of the opinion he had expressed4 ,but ,paul's condemnation of ,pharisaism would include1 not only that ,scribe1 but all of his nation in whom goodness and piety might be thought to have shown4 ,and not only so1 but these were by so much the more to be condemned in that they gave fullest expression to the principle of ,torah4 ,if the system was wrong1 evidently those who most completely and consistently acted up to it were most deeply tainted with its error4 ,paul's universal negative challenges the contradiction of all the saints1 martyrs1 and heroes of ,israel4 ,i go on now to support the statement made above that ,paul's presentation of ,judaism is at its best a distortion and at its worst a fiction2 that1 however regarded1 it does not correspond with the facts4 ,i shall have to show that the ,torah was not such as ,paul represented it to be1 and that it did not have the effect which he ascribed to it1 in the religious experience of those who lived under it4 ,also1 that the ,pharisee living under the ,torah was not thereby debarred from such communion with ,god as ,paul claimed for the believer in ,christ2 that1 indeed1 ,pharisaism had nothing to learn in this respect from ,christianity1 at all events ,paul's ,christianity4 ,what he offered to the ,pharisees was either what they had already in a form which they preferred1 or what they had not got and did not want4 ,upon these points ,i will proceed to enlarge during the remainder of this chapter4 ,that the ,torah was not such as ,paul represented it to be is a statement which is true1 both positively and negatively4 ,he ascribed to it a character which it did not possess1 and he left out of his description features which it did possess1 and which were essential to it4 ,paul always takes ,torah in the sense of precept1 mitzvah1 1 not necessarily separate injunctions1 but a collective expression of command1 for which the term ,law is appropriate4 ,the divine will imposed this on ,israel as the moral ideal1 and1 in demanding obedience to it1 set up a goal that could never be reached4 ,the more the divineness and holiness of the ,law was recognised1 the greater must be the sin of disobeying it1 the deeper the despair resulting from such disobedience4 ,righteousness1 the harmony of the human will with the divine1 was only possible by fulfilling the whole ,law2 to fail in a single point was to break that harmony1 and thus to become unrighteous4 ,the ,law1 with its multitude of precepts1 only served to increase the occasions of sin1 and plunge the sinner in a deeper despair4 ,this is1 in brief1 ,paul's view of the ,law4#ac #ac ,the words ascribed to ,jesus1 ,john vii4 #ai1 ,did not ,moses give you the law1 and yet none of you doeth the law8 are clearly dependent on the ,pauline conception of the ,torah4 ,they are quite out of keeping with the attitude of ,jesus as set forth in the ,synoptic ,gospels4 ,and even ,paul himself never went so far as to say1 ,none of you doeth the law4 ,he only said in effect1 ,none of you keepeth the whole law4 ,that the ,gospel of ,john represents a stage in the development of anti-,jewish feeling later than that of ,paul is further shown by the statement in ,john xii4 #db1 ,nevertheless1 even of the rulers many believed on him2 but because of the ,pharisees they did not confess it1 lest they should be put out of the synagogue4 ,the policy of detecting secret adherents of ,jesus and casting them forth from the synagogue was not adopted till ,a4,d4 #hj1 or thereabouts4 ,see my ,christianity in ,talmud and ,midrash1 p4 #abe fol4 ,if1 as recorded in ,john iii41 ,nicodemus really came to ,jesus1 he need not have come secretly4 ,and1 if the name ,nicodemus be merely adapted from that of ,nakdimon1 a well-known and prominent citizen of ,jerusalem at the time of the siege1 of whom the ,evangelist might have heard1 then he did not come to ,jesus at all4 ,it is safe to say that no ,jew before ,paul ever thought of the ,torah in that way1 or ever felt the despair which1 according to this theory1 he should have felt4 ,certainly1 or let me say probably1 no ,pharisee ever completely fulfilled all the mitzvth of the ,torah2 but ,i have never come across any ,pharisee who was overwhelmed with despair on that account4 ,and1 if it be said that this only shows the blindness and conceit of the ,pharisees1 the answer is that even admitting that 7which ,i do not admit71 still the ,torah did not in fact present itself to the mind of the ,pharisee in the severe and threatening form which it wears in ,paul's description of it4 ,as1 indeed1 how should it8 ,it has already been shown1 in the second chapter1 that the meaning of ,torah1 as the ,pharisee conceived it1 was nothing less than the full revelation which ,god had made to ,israel1 partly by way of precept1 partly by way of more general instruction in divine things4 ,so far as the ,torah was expressed in the form of precept1 it offered so many occasions for serving ,god4 ,every mitzvah was an opportunity for doing some part of the divine will2 and it was because ,god loved ,israel that he had given these opportunities1 whereby might be felt the joy of faithful service4 ,the ,pharisee laid the whole emphasis on doing as much as he could in that service2 whereas1 according to ,paul1 he ought to have laid the whole emphasis upon his own inability to do all that was required4 ,he ought to have been burdened by guilt1 and haunted by the despair of ever making his peace with the ,god whose commands he had failed to obey4 ,instead1 he was full of joy that ,god had given him something that he could do for ,his sake1 eager to do as much as he could2 and though he failed or sinned1 from time to time1 he was not utterly cast down1 because he trusted that if he heartily repented ,god would forgive him1 and take him back4 ,the ,torah was not a burden to the ,pharisee1 either by reason of the number or the difficulty of its precepts1 or by the thought of the impossibility of completely satisfying its demands4 ,and if there were ever a ,pharisee in such a state of despair that he should cry1 ,o miserable man that ,i am6 who shall deliver me from the body of this death8 he would think of the ,torah not as the cause of his anguish1 but as the hope of his deliverance4 ,and it was the ,torah itself which kept him from ever falling into such despair2 for it was ,god's own word of help and guidance1 the record of ,his endless mercy1 the revelation of ,his love4 ,paul would never have ascribed to the ,torah such power to cause despair1 unless he had ceased to feel towards it as a ,pharisee would feel2 and he ceased to feel so1 because1 in his mind1 the place once filled by ,torah was now filled by ,christ4 ,for him there remained of ,torah only the shrivelled and misshapen corpse1 instead of the once glorious and living form4 ,the one is held up to reproach in the ,epistles of ,paul2 the other is the object of endless praise1 of reverent wonder1 almost adoring rapture1 in the literature of the ,pharisees4 ,but ,paul's view of ,torah is not completely described by saying that he ascribed to it a character which it did not possess and an influence which it did not exercise4 ,he leaves out of account features which it did possess1 and represents the religion founded upon it as lacking in elements which in fact were no less present there than in his own religion4 ,as already shown1 ,paul represents ,torah exclusively as precept1 1 whereas it comprised the whole revelation recorded in ,scripture and rendered explicit by the valid interpretation of ,scripture4 ,it comprised1 therefore1 the knowledge of ,god ,himself1 of ,his providence and righteousness and fatherly love1 also1 of the way of communion with ,him1 the assurance of forgiveness to the penitent1 the means of grace and the hope of glory4 ,all that belonged to his religion1 the ,pharisee found indicated in the ,torah1 somewhere2 and it was his delight to learn what ,god taught him therein4 ,now ,paul's whole case rests upon the fact that there is no power in a commandment to help a man to fulfil it4 ,the ,law was1 according to him1 laid upon ,israel with a demand for obedience1 but with no power to ensure that obedience4 ,the ,law said1 ,thou shalt2 but it gave no strength to the feeble will1 however much it might shine with pitiless light upon the frightened conscience4 ,austere messenger of the will of ,god1 it stood over its helpless slave1 pointing indeed to heaven1 but stretching forth no hand to lead him there4 ,the ,law being thus powerless to aid in the fulfilment of the divine command1 there could be no righteousness under the ,law1 no harmony between the human will and the divine4 ,even if there ever had been such harmony1 7and there had not been since the sin of ,adam71 there was no power in the ,law to restore that harmony when it had once been broken4 ,what the ,law could not do1 it was1 according to ,paul1 reserved for ,christ to do4 ,through faith in him came the power1 not indeed to do what the sinner had failed to do1 but to restore the broken harmony and reconcile man to ,god4 ,that power was the direct influence of the living mind of ,christ upon the human soul2 and the effect of it was to set it free from bondage1 so that it could of its own will turn to ,god4 ,paul here states1 in terms of ,christ1 a profound truth1 namely1 that the human soul depends1 for its power to will and desire the good1 upon ,god2 and that1 without the means of communion with its divine source1 the soul must languish and die4 ,and ,paul expounded this truth in terms of ,christ1 because in his own experience it was through ,christ that the divine help had come to him2 the force of a living personality which had set free his soul was that of ,christ4 ,to him it seemed that such was the only way by which the longed-for deliverance could be effected4 ,now the ,law was not a person1 a living spirit1 but a command1 a written word4 ,and even the ,torah1 in its wider meaning1 was still only a body of knowledge1 a revelation1 a complex idea2 it was not a living spirit1 that could give of its own life to a human soul4 ,how1 then1 could there be1 under the conditions of ,torah1 that imparting and receiving of divine influence by which alone the soul could be enabled to will the good1 or even to live at all8 ,such seems to me to be the reasoning underlying ,paul's conception of the powerlessness of the ,law to save1 its failure to impart righteousness4 ,but the ,pharisee to whom that argument might be addressed would not have the slightest difficulty in meeting it4 ,he would say1 ,certainly there must be that divine influence upon the soul1 the power imparted by one living spirit to another2 else the soul cannot live or do any good thing4 ,certainly1 also1 the ,torah is not a living spirit2 it is only a body of truth1 a revelation1 a complex idea1 or1 if you will1 a set of commands4 ,but1 what then8 ,we look for help not to the commandment1 but to ,him who gave the commandment2 not to the ,law1 but to the ,lawgiver2 not to the ,torah1 but to the wise1 holy1 and loving ,god1 of whom the ,torah is the revelation4 ,we learn1 from the teaching which ,he has given to us1 to go direct to ,him1 pray to ,him1 trust ,him1 love ,him1 find help and strength from ,him4 ,he is our ,father in heaven1 always ready to hear ,his children1 to forgive them when they repent of their sins against ,him1 and to deliver them from evil4 ,this is what any ,pharisee would reply to ,paul's argument about the impotence of the ,law to justify4 ,the difference between the ,pharisee and ,paul upon this point is1 in appearance1 very great2 but1 in fact1 is very small4 ,both are agreed that there must be the imparting of divine influence to the human soul4 ,with that influence1 the quickening of the life of the soul by the divine power and inward presence1 the soul is enabled to will the good and to love ,god4 ,without that influence it would perish4 ,the ,pharisee held that the divine influence was imparted direct from ,god to the soul1 without any intermediary4 ,it was not the ,torah that imparted it1 but ,god ,himself4 ,the ,torah was given to teach him2 having no power or life in itself1 it revealed to him the divine source of power and life1 and to that source he went4 ,paul held that the divine influence was imparted to the soul through ,christ2 and his point1 that it could not come through the ,law1 is true1 but wholly irrelevant2 for no one ever said that it could4 ,the implication that it could come only through ,christ may be relevant1 but is certainly not true2 for all the experience of ,jewish piety is witness against it4 ,when ,paul1 on the basis of his own experience1 set up his doctrine of the function of ,christ1 in the relations between ,god and man1 he did what he had every right to do2 and he has earned the gratitude of all who have found salvation through the faith in ,christ which they have learned from him4 ,but ,paul was not entitled to ignore the experience 7no less genuine than his own7 of those whose conception of religion he condemned4 ,if all that they deemed essential to religion1 not merely the idea of ,torah1 but the direct influence of the living ,god1 had been included and stated in ,paul's presentation of ,judaism1 then the comparison between the ,jewish and the ,christian conception of religion would have been more fair and equal2 and if it did not appear that there was any marked superiority of the one over the other1 there would at least have been the evidence that ,god is sought and found in more ways than one4 ,enough1 perhaps1 has been said by way of general argument to show that ,paul's version of ,judaism is incorrect and defective4 ,but it will be well1 at this point1 to indicate more particularly the evidence upon which ,i have maintained that ,pharisaism is not the barren formalism that it is usually supposed to have been1 nor the merely preparatory foil to ,christianity1 which is all that ,paul could see in it4 ,there is first of all the general fact of the existence of the ,jewish people in unswerving loyalty to the ,torah1 and in the faith and practice of the religion founded upon it--an existence and a loyalty maintained through centuries of bitter persecution at the hands of ,christians4 ,it is simply impossible that such a result could have been produced1 if the religion1 by which its adherents lived and for which they died1 had been a soulless hypocrisy1 a pious sham1 or a futile delusion4 ,if such could have been the case1 then what better guarantee is there for the truth and worth of the faith for which ,christian saints and martyrs have died and heroes fought8 ,a corrupt tree cannot bring forth good fruit4 ,and if the fruit be good1 then1 in the one case as in the other1 the tree must be good4 ,no adverse opinion of the ,judaism which has suffered and survived1 and which1 be it remembered1 is the ,judaism of the ,pharisees1 can be justified in face of the witness of ,israel to the faith once delivered to its saints4 ,there is further to be considered the fact that before the time of ,paul1 and indeed ever since1 the ,pharisees had for their spiritual nourishment the ,scriptures of the ,old ,testament1 including the prophecies and the ,psalms4 ,the study of these1 and the constant use of them in the ,synagogue1 would have been uncongenial to men whose one concern was for hair-splitting casuistry1 and would either have been discontinued or reduced to an unintelligent formality4 ,it was neither4 ,the ,scriptures were the constant study of the ,pharisee2 and the worship of the ,synagogue derived much of its power to minister to the needs of the worshippers1 through its close dependence on the devotional outpourings of the ,psalms1 and the prayers which embodied the spirit of them4 ,the ,pharisee never for a moment thought that he was growing aloof from the ,prophets and ,psalmists of the older time2 and while in the ,torah1 written and unwritten1 he believed he had a fuller and more detailed knowledge of what ,god had revealed1 it was still the revelation of the same ,god who had spoken to ,abraham1 who had shown ,his power by the ,red ,sea and on ,sinai1 who had inspired the ,prophets and been praised in the ,psalms4 ,there may be legitimate regret that ,israel cut itself off from all knowledge of and contact with the great literatures of ,greece and ,rome1 and so missed the salutary influence of variety of thought4 ,the ,pharisees chose their own line deliberately in this matter2 and when they saw what came of ,hellenism1 they might well feel that they had chosen rightly4 ,but whether or not1 if they did keep out the great ,gentile literature--the external books1 as they called them1--they most certainly did read1 mark1 learn1 and inwardly digest their own4 ,and a religion that has absorbed into itself the ideas of the ,hebrew ,scriptures1 a religion whose springs have been continually fed from that source1 and whose ruling purpose was to serve and glorify the ,god revealed in those ,scriptures1 cannot have been1 and assuredly was not1 the hard and narrow formalism which its opponents have declared it to be4 ,these considerations have weight as evidence of what ,pharisaism really was2 and their weight has by no means been sufficiently taken into account2 indeed1 it has been ignored altogether in the commonly accepted estimates of the character of ,pharisaism4 ,strong1 however1 as such general evidence is1 ,i will further strengthen it by reference to the utterances of ,pharisees themselves1 taken from their own literature4 ,and1 out of many that ,i might choose1 ,i will take such as bear more particularly upon the points raised in the strictures of ,paul4 ,first1 ,i will take the ,pharisaic doctrine#ad of repentance and restoration1 because it is on this that the antagonism of ,paul is most pronounced1 and the injury done by his method of treatment most serious4 ,there is not in the ,rabbinical literature a strict and clearly defined theological doctrine of repentance and restoration2 but there is a general belief that the way of repentance is always open1 by which a sinner may come back to ,god1 and that ,god will forgive that sinner simply because he has repented4 ,i will illustrate this by a few quotations from ,rabbinical1 that is1 ,pharisaical works4 #ad ,when ,i say the doctrine of repentance and restoration1 ,i do not mean to imply that ,rabbinical theology was an organised and consistent system of doctrines4 ,such it never was2 and it is the fundamental fallacy of ,weber's book that he has so represented it4 ,i shall go into this subject1 of the sense in which it is legitimate to speak of the theology of the ,rabbis1 in the next chapter4 ,in the ,pesikta de ,r4 ,cahana 7p4 #afe ed4 ,buber7 the following occurs3--,the ,holy ,one1 blessed be ,he1 said to ,jeremiah 7the prophet71 ',go and say to ,israel1 ,repent4' ,he went and said to ,israel 7',repent'74 ,they said to him1 ',master1 how can we repent8 ,with what face can we come before ,god8 ,have we not angered him8 ,have we not provoked him8 ,those mountains and hills upon which we have worshipped false gods1 are they not still standing8' ,jeremiah came before the ,holy ,one1 blessed be ,he1 and told ,him4 ,he answered1 ',go and say to them1 ,if ye come to me1 is it not to your ,father in ,heaven that ye come8 ,for ,i have been a father unto ,israel1 and ,ephraim is my firstborn4' ,again1 in the same work 7p4 #afc;b7 ,r4 ,eleazar says3 ,it is the custom in the world that a man will insult his neighbour publicly1 and afterwards seek to be reconciled to him4 ,the other will say to him1 ',thou didst insult me publicly1 and wouldst be reconciled between me and thee 7i4e4 privately74 ,go and bring those in whose presence thou didst insult me1 and ,i will be reconciled to thee4' ,but the ,holy ,one1 blessed be ,he1 doeth not so2 but though a man stand and revile and blaspheme him in the open street1 the ,holy ,one says to him1 ',repent between thee and me1 and ,i will receive thee4' ,a story is told 7b4 ,a4 ,zar4 #ag7 of a man who was a particularly gross sinner1 and who in the midst of his sins was struck with terror and remorse when it was said to him ,eleazar b4 ,dordaia will not be received in repentance4 ,his frantic efforts to persuade some intercessor to plead for mercy on him are described in a passage too long to quote2 but ,i translate the conclusion1 which runs thus3--,then he said1 ,the matter hangeth only upon me 7i4e4 ,i must seek mercy for myself74 ,he laid his head between his knees and groaned with weeping1 until his soul departed from him2 and there came a voice from heaven saying1 ',r4 ,eleazar b4 ,dordaia is summoned to the life of the world to come4' ,the purpose of that story is simply to teach that even the vilest sinner can repent1 and that1 if he does1 he will be forgiven4 ,it should be observed that the ,talmud means by a sinner one who does definitely wicked actions--a sinner morally1 not theologically4 ,it should also be observed that1 in the above story1 the idea of an intercessor1 by whom ,god might be moved to pardon1 is pointedly rejected4 ,the sinner does not plead either the merits of the ,fathers1 as might have been expected1 or the merits of ,christ1 as according to ,paul he ought to have done1 if his peace with ,god were to be made4 ,that he was forgiven1 and that anyone in like case would be forgiven upon repentance1 is the emphatic declaration of ,pharisaic belief4 ,the ,rabbis were fond of moralising upon the case of ,manasseh1 the idolatrous king2 and the following passage contains one of the lessons they drew from it 7j4 ,sanh4 #bh;c74 ,manasseh1 after he had been carried captive to ,babylon and sat in prison there1 said to himself3 ',i remember how my father caused me to read in the house of assembly this verse 7,deut4 iv4 #cj71 ,when thou art in tribulation1 and all these things shall befall thee1 in the latter days thou shalt return to the ,lord thy ,god and shalt hearken to ,his voice4 ,for the ,lord thy ,god is a merciful ,god2 ,he will not fail thee1 nor destroy thee1 nor forget the covenant ,he made with thy fathers4 ,lo1 ,i will say that1 now4 ,if ,god hear me1 it is well2 if not----4' ,but the ministering angels desired to shut the windows of heaven1 so that the prayer of ,manasseh might not ascend to the ,holy ,one1 blessed be ,he4 ,for they said before ,him1 ',lord of the worlds1 wilt thou receive in penitence a man who has set up an image in thy sanctuary8' ,he answered them1 ',if ,i received not him in penitence1 lo1 ,i bar the door against all penitents4' ,what1 then1 did the ,holy ,one do8 ,he made an opening beneath ,his throne of glory1 and ,he heard his prayer4 ,and this is what is written 7#b ,chron4 xxxiii4 #ac71 ',and he prayed unto ,him1 and ,he was entreated of him1 and heard his supplication and brought him again to ,jerusalem4' ,i have given these stories just as they stand1 with their quaint and childish notions1 because they reflect very clearly the fixed belief of their authors that man is not prevented from finding forgiveness and peace from ,god4 ,he can always repent2 and1 if he does1 ,god will always forgive him4 ,that this belief makes possible a sort of easy presumption of forgiveness is a danger of whose reality the ,pharisees were well aware2 and they were careful to warn against it4 ,but they never wavered in their belief that forgiveness did always follow on sincere repentance2 and that no sinner need ever remain cut off from ,god by the barrier of his sin4 ,the definite precepts of the ,torah were divine commandments1 certainly4 ,but they did not make the ,pharisee feel that if he disobeyed them there was no longer any hope for him1 any possibility of ever finding his way back to the love of ,god4 ,the passages ,i have quoted1 and there are many others1 and scores and hundreds of sayings about repentance which all teach the same lesson1 are the utterance of ,pharisees1 of men who were steeped to the lips in ,rabbinism1 who gloried in the ,torah1 who delighted in the abundance of its precepts1 and the consequent casuistry of the schools1 and who felt in their hearts that love of ,god which they did their best to show forth by serving the ,lord with gladness in the doing of ,his commandments4 ,however great be the difference between the ,pharisee and the ,christian in the form given to their respective conceptions of religion1 the contents of their spiritual experience were to this extent alike1 that for each there was1 and is1 the sense of personal relation to1 and communion with1 the ,divine ,being4 ,for the ,christian1 at least for most ,christians1 the medium of that communion is ,christ4 ,for the ,pharisee there is no medium2 but there is1 as the guide to show the way1 and the light to shine upon it1 the ,torah4 ,the ,pharisee did not bring to his religious conceptions the penetrating power of analysis which has been applied by ,christian theologians4 ,there has never been a ,pharisee who could have done what ,paul or ,augustine did in this respect1 unless it was ,maimonides4 ,there will therefore not be found in ,pharisaic literature the subtle distinctions of justification1 sanctification1 prevenient grace1 etc41 which abound in the great ,christian writers4 ,but1 none the less1 the main terms are found1 and the spiritual realities thereby signified were known in ,pharisaic experience4 ,grace was known4 ,the ,holy ,spirit was known4 ,faith was known4 ,these and other of the deep things of ,god were objects of real experience and devout contemplation4 ,pious fancy played round them1 and represented them in parable and allegory2 but they were seldom if ever made the subject of close philosophical examination1 nor were they formulated in defined doctrines4 ,much is said about the ,holy ,spirit in the ,pharisaic literature1 without any attempt to make all that is said consistent4 ,but1 behind all such utterances1 there is the unwavering belief in the direct communion of ,god with man4 ,the ,holy ,spirit was naturally most often referred to in the case of the prophets1 in whom its manifestation was most conspicuous4 ,but its influence is implied in the fact of prayer1 and is nowhere denied in regard to men in general4 ,whatever the righteous do1 they do it by the ,holy ,spirit4 ,that is the utterance of a ,pharisee 7,tan4 ,vajei1 xiii4 p4 #aaj71 and it is the key to the whole ,pharisaic conception of the relation of man to ,god4 ,so1 too1 in regard to ,faith1 while the word does not appear so often on the pages of the ,talmud as it does in the ,epistles of ,paul1 the thing was an essential element in the religion of the ,pharisees as it was in that of ,paul4 ,they never defined precisely what faith meant2 it appears as a simple and unquestioning trust in ,god2 and they thought about it after a simple fashion1 without1 however1 being thereby shown to be wanting in it4 ,great is faith1 says a ,midrash 7,mechilta ,beshall4 ii4 #f1 #cc;b74 ,for ,israel believed in ,him who spake and the world was2 and as a reward for believing in the ,lord1 the ,holy ,spirit rested on them1 and they uttered a song3 as it is written1 ',they believed on the ,lord4444 ,then sang ,moses1 etc4' 7,exod4 xiv4 #ca2 xv4 #a74 ,and so you find 7continues the ,midrash7 that ,abraham our father did not inherit this world and the world to come except by the merit of faith1 because he believed in the ,lord4 ,as it is written1 ',and ,abraham believed in the ,lord1 and ,he counted it to him for righteousness' 7,gen4 xv4 #f74 ,r4 ,nehemiah said1 ,everyone who receives even one commandment in faith is worthy that the ,holy ,spirit should rest on him4 ,so even the ,pharisees could appeal to the same ,abraham1 whom ,paul called as a witness against them2 and they did so with the most obvious sincerity1 as having a perfect right to do so1 and probably with complete ignorance that the ,christian apostle had appealed to ,abraham in support of his argument against their religion4 ,and it was well done of the compiler of the ,midrash to add the closing words of the passage ,i quoted2 for ,i know of hardly any other saying which so illumines the inner side of ,pharisaism as this1 that ,every man who receives even one commandment in faith is worthy that the ,holy ,spirit should rest on him4 ,in all that ,i have said in the course of this chapter1 ,i have had before me the purpose of showing what is true about the religion of the ,pharisees upon those points which are affected by ,paul's condemnation4 ,true1 ,paul condemned it as a whole1 as a system of thought and practice fundamentally and in principle contrary to what he regarded as the truth4 ,but he only alleged certain features of ,pharisaism as the sign and expression of its defect4 ,he alleged its reliance upon the ,law and its consequent non-reliance upon ,christ4 ,he drew certain conclusions from its alleged defects1 and his conclusions have been accepted as valid ever since4 ,i have therefore tried to show chiefly on these points what the ,pharisees themselves thought and felt and believed2 and have left out of notice other aspects of ,pharisaism which were not challenged1 and which might have been challenged with more reason than those which ,paul actually chose4 ,he might have made a strong case against the particularism of the ,pharisees in comparison with the universalism of his own ,gospel4 ,for though it can be shown that the ,pharisaic conception of religion did not exclude universalist ideas in regard to mankind in general1 yet it can hardly be questioned that such ideas were but seldom touched upon and by no means conspicuous in the ordinary thought and debate of the ,pharisees4 ,moreover1 the ,torah itself1 which was to them so all important1 was given only to ,israel1 and could serve only them as a means of salvation4 ,if the ,gentiles were to profit by it1 they must do so in fellowship with ,israel4 ,and that made real universalism impossible1 whatever might be the aspirations of this or that particular ,rabbi4 ,god offered the ,torah1 says the ,midrash1 to all the nations of the world2 and all refused it except ,israel4 ,they had their chance1 and rejected it4 ,that is for ,jews a not unnatural view1 but it does not lead to universalism4 ,yet1 if ,paul had challenged ,pharisaism on this its weakest side1 instead of aiming his blows at an unreal creation of his own brain1 he would not have been left unanswered4 ,the ,pharisees would have replied1 ,true1 we have not grasped the idea of universalism in any effective way4 ,but what does your own universalism amount to8 ,only to this1 that amongst the elect1 those whom you say ,god chooses out to be saved1 the distinction of ,jew and ,gentile does not count4 ,but neither for you nor for us is there any question of his actually saving all men4 ,there is no real universalism at all4 ,and there is this between us1 that you tell of the wrath of ,god poured out on all mankind except the elect2 you tell of ,christ who in some way is the means of saving those elect2 you hold that life in this present world is only a temporary captivity in an evil state from which there will be a speedy release at the coming of ,christ in glory4 ,to us there is no ,christ2 for we need none1 except the ,messiah1 who shall come when ,god shall please1 and who will do otherwise than he of whom you speak4 ,but we need none to save us from our ,father in ,heaven1 and none to persuade ,him to forgive when else ,he would turn away4 ,and this present life1 in this present world1 is to us not a vale of tears or a captivity in an evil state4 ,it is the scene of our service of ,god4 ,and that ,torah1 of which you have said such hard things1--you who once gloried in ,torah yourself1 and must have known1 though now you have forgotten1 how it was once the light of all your seeing1--that ,torah is to us the guide of life1 that shows us how in the small deeds of every day we can1 if we will1 do that which is pleasing to ,god4 ,yes1 we fail sometimes2 and as your own master said1 even if we did all the 'mitzvth1' we should still be but unprofitable servants1 having done only that which was our duty to do4 ,still1 we serve ,him with heart and soul1 the best we can2 and we count it nothing to have done only the mere act prescribed1 without the intention of pleasing ,him4 ,we look to ,him as our help and our shield1 our ,father and ,lord1 our strength and our redeemer4 ,and ,he does not turn away from us4 ,go you and worship ,him as you will2 and if the ,torah no longer says aught to you of what once it said1 then seek the revelation of ,god elsewhere1 and hear his voice in other tones4 ,as for us we will abide in the things we have learned1 knowing from whom we have learned them4 ,and so long as we are faithful to the trust that ,god committed to ,israel1 when ,he made him a nation1 and gave him the ,torah and raised up the prophets1 and sent psalmists and wise men to teach their brethren1 so long may the ,lord ,god be with us as ,he was with our fathers4 ,it is the ,pharisee who has kept the promise of ,israel2 and to these latest days he keeps it still4 ,,chapter ,v ,,some ,,points ,,of ,,pharisaic ,,theology ,in the second chapter it was pointed out that the development of the religion of ,torah1 in the centuries from ,ezra to the ,pharisees and on to the ,talmud1 took place along two main lines4 ,these are indicated by the two words ,halachah and ,haggadah4 ,upon the meaning of the former ,i dwelt at some length2 but1 for the sake of clear and adequate treatment1 it seemed better to defer the consideration of the latter4 ,the thread then dropped ,i shall pick up now2 for the answer to the question ,what was the theology of the ,pharisees8 is given in the ,haggadah4 ,this is true in more senses than one2 for to understand what is meant by ,haggadah is to understand the ,pharisaic mode of approaching questions of doctrinal theology1 while a comprehensive knowledge of all that they taught upon such questions could only be obtained by a survey of the whole mass of ,haggadah contained in the ,rabbinical literature4 ,to accomplish anything like that would need a very large volume4 ,weber devoted a whole book to it2 and he might well have written a second1 to include all that he had left out of the first4 ,it will meet the purpose of the present work to explain the way in which the ,pharisees dealt with doctrinal theology1 and to illustrate this by reference to some main heads of belief1 choosing such as may serve to throw light on references in the ,new ,testament to ,pharisaic doctrines4 ,i shall then be in a position to use the results obtained for an explanation1 in the final chapter1 of the remarkable difference in character and tone between the ,pharisaic religious discourse and that of the ,new ,testament teachers--a difference felt by all who are able to compare the two literatures4 ,for the purpose of the present inquiry ,i must again remind the reader that the religion of ,torah1 since the time of ,ezra1 was based upon the belief that ,god had made to ,israel a full and final revelation1 had given a body of teaching1 for their guidance and enlightenment upon all matters in which the divine and the human came into contact4 ,the vehicle of this revelation1 the written record of it1 was the ,pentateuch1 called therefore the ,torah1 par excellence4 ,but all the other ,scriptures were considered to be of divine authority1 and only subsidiary to the ,pentateuch1 because they helped to make clear its meaning4 ,further1 what was implicit in the divine revelation1 written in the ,pentateuch and amplified in the other ,scriptures1 was rendered explicit in the oral interpretation4 ,and whereas the litera scripta manebat1 unaltered in form and quantity1 the oral interpretation continually increased in amount and in multiplicity of detail1 as being an ever more full and exact exposition of the contents of the original revelation4 ,to use a mathematical simile1 the whole ,torah might be compared to the sum of an infinite series1 written in definite symbols1 and made to express a more detailed concrete result by the progressive evaluation of its terms4 ,it is evident that for the religion of ,torah the prime necessity was to know the meaning of the ,scriptures in general and of the ,pentateuch in particular4 ,the oral ,tradition started with the interpretation of ,scripture2 and never in its furthest flights of allegorical extravagance or daring imagination did it wholly forget or entirely disown its connection with the written word4 ,the connection is not always easy to trace2 but it is there1 none the less4 ,the ,tradition of the ,elders1 wherever it be examined1 and whatever be the subject of its pronouncements1 is1 from first to last1 and from its highest to its lowest1 the declaration that1 when ,god gave the ,torah to ,israel1 this and this and this is what he meant by it4 ,when ,ezra and his successors made it their chief task to study and interpret the written ,torah1 what they looked for before everything else was direction for doing the divine will4 ,the reasons why they took this line have already been explained1 and need not be repeated 7see above1 ,chapter ,,ii474 ,the effect was that in the body of tradition gradually formed1 the element of precept was the most conspicuous and the most systematically developed4 ,it was essential that the ,jew1 desiring to serve ,god1 should know exactly what he was commanded to do1 and what he was forbidden to do1 and what was the right course to take in cases where no divine command or prohibition had been explicitly given4 ,the ,halachah was the answer to these questions2 being of the nature of a comprehensive rule of right conduct1 and intended to cover every possible occasion on which a decision was called for4 ,the results1 obtained by proper methods of interpretation1 and recognised as valid by competent authority1 were clear and definite1 and could only be disputed by showing that in fact the real intention of ,scripture was otherwise4 ,hence it was possible to elaborate a consistent system of ,halachah1 and eventually to codify it all4#ae #ae ,the process of building up the system is seen in the ,talmud4 ,the ,code1 or the chief ,code1 is the ,shulan ,aruch1 compiled in the sixteenth century by ,joseph ,caro4 ,but the interpreters of ,scripture found more in its pages than precept2 the ,torah taught other things besides directions for doing the divine will4 ,it contained instruction about ,god ,himself1 about ,israel's relation to ,him1 about the creation and divine providence as shown in past history1 about human virtues and vices1 and the divine approval or disapproval of them1 and so on4 ,it was the task of the interpreters to set forth this teaching1 as well as the positive or negative precepts4 ,it is probable that the early ,sopherim described their work of interpretation as a whole by the word ,haggadah2 or1 rather1 that they used the cognate verb higgid to indicate that the ,scripture declared so and so4 ,but when they began to develop the special line of ,halachah1 the meaning of what had been the more general term was restricted so as to denote all the remainder that was not ,halachah4 ,this is1 in practice1 what ,haggadah does mean1 namely1 interpretation of ,scripture in all other directions except that of precept4#af ,as a technical term1 indeed1 the actual word ,haggadah may be no earlier than the first1 or even the second1 century of our era2 but that method or process of interpretation which it was used to describe was in practice long before4 #af ,this is ,bacher's explanation1 as given in an article in the ,j4 ,q4 ,r41 #ahib1 p4 #djf fol4 ,his argument seems to me unanswerable4 ,haggadah1 then1 covers the whole field of scriptural interpretation except so far as it relates to precept2 and this is why the contents of the ,haggadah are so much more diversified than those of the ,halachah4 ,one might truly say that the ,haggadah is the ,pharisaic comment upon life as a whole in the light of ,scripture1 the element of duty being reserved for special treatment4 ,if the ,scripture could give even a hint upon any aspect of human nature1 upon any phase of human experience1 upon any attribute of ,god1 upon any mystery of ,his providence1 then the unfolding of the true meaning of that hint is ,haggadah4 ,it will be clear1 from what has been said1 that all the subjects usually included under the term doctrinal theology would find their place under the head of ,haggadah4 ,such are the doctrine of ,god1 ,his existence and attributes2 the doctrine of sin and restoration2 the doctrine of revelation2 the doctrine of the last things1 etc4 ,and it is quite true that whatever the ,pharisees taught upon those subjects is found in the ,haggadah and not in the ,halachah4 ,but there will not be found a consistent system of doctrine upon these or any other subjects2 there will not be found a detailed scheme of heads of belief4 ,there will be found the utterances of individual teachers1 sometimes diverging widely from the opinions of other teachers upon the same subject4 ,there will be found1 not indeed a complete and unrestricted license to any man to say and teach and believe what he liked1 but a liberty to differ where each had what seemed to him good warrant for his belief4 ,uniformity of religious belief was never required by the ,pharisees2 and the most that was done in that direction was to recognise that there were certain limits beyond which a ,jew could not go and still remain within the ,jewish communion4 ,thus1 even if he claimed to prove from ,scripture that there were other gods than the ,one1 he would cease to be acknowledged as a ,jew4 ,or1 if he said that the ,torah was not from ,heaven1 i4e4 was not a divine revelation1 he would in like manner be regarded as no longer a ,jew4 ,but 7to put it generally71 if he loyally accepted the axioms and postulates of ,judaism1 then he was free to draw his own conclusions from them in regard to what he believed4 ,the ,rabbis never drew up a doctrinal creed2 and when ,maimonides did so1 in the twelfth century of our era1 he did what was felt by many to be uncongenial to the spirit of ,judaism4 ,this absence of a system of doctrinal theology is a feature of ,pharisaism which is most important for the right understanding of it2 and ,christian scholars have gone far astray through not being aware of this essential fact4 ,weber proclaims his error in the very title of his book1 ,a ,system of ,ancient ,palestinian ,synagogue ,theology4 ,there is much to be learned from ,weber's book1 and much that is extremely valuable to those who know how to use it2 but1 none the less1 the whole conception of ,pharisaic theology expounded in that book is fundamentally wrong1 because ,weber calls that a system which never was a system1 and never set out to be4 ,christian doctrinal theology is capable of being presented as a system2 and has1 in fact1 been so represented by almost every denomination of ,christians4 ,weber presumably had such a system on ,lutheran lines4 ,he took for granted that there must have been a system on ,pharisaic lines2 in other words1 that the doctrines of ,pharisaic belief were developed from fundamental principles with such logic as was admissible1 and were consistent with each other4 ,he therefore took the general scheme of his own ,christian theology1 and set down under its several heads what he could find of ,rabbinical doctrine upon each point4 ,he must have been perplexed by the want of agreement amongst his authorities1 but he got over that by regarding the more prominent doctrine as the rule1 and the other as the exception2 the former was a part of the system1 the latter was an aberration4 ,christian scholars are pathetically grateful to ,weber for having given them an orderly and methodical arrangement of the medley of ,pharisaic doctrine2 certainly he has done so2 but with as much success and as much truth as if he had described a tropical jungle1 believing it to be a nursery-garden4 ,many people have seen a nursery-garden4 ,few have seen a jungle4 ,it is easy and natural and highly convenient to identify the unfamiliar with the familiar2 but the jungle remains a jungle1 when all is said and done4 ,the meaning of which is this1 that the ,rabbis adjusted their beliefs to the ,torah2 they believed whatever they found there1 or could deduce from its plain statements and obscure hints1 or could shelter under its sanction4 ,it never troubled them that what they found in the ,torah was not always mutually consistent4 ,one teacher drew forth this lesson1 and another drew forth that1 and a third something different4 ,but what then8 ,only that the ,torah contained these various lessons2 and why should not they all be learned8 ,for had not ,god given them all8 ,what he said had many meanings1 and was not exhausted by one interpretation4#ag ,even if contradictory conclusions were drawn1 they were not on that account any the less divine truth4 ,it was said 7j4 ,ber4 #c;b71 in regard to the controversy between the school of ,hillel and the school of ,shammai1 ,the words of each are the words of the living ,god4 ,and that applies to the whole field of the ,haggadah4 ,if the results of interpretation were arrived at by legitimate methods1 and declared by competent teachers1 then they were received as valid4 ,not indeed that anyone was required to believe what was stated in them4 ,that was not the intention of the teacher4 ,haggadah was above all things meant for edification2 it presented religion under a great variety of aspects1 and by means of an extraordinary wealth of illustrations drawn from the whole field of knowledge and experience4 ,to learn this was good1 by reason of the variety2 the religious thought of the learner was enriched1 his moral nature benefited1 and his spirit continually refreshed by the contemplation of the everchanging aspects of divine truth4 ,uniformity would have made that impossible2 to have required it would have been fatal2 and to suppose that it was required is to miss the point of ,haggadah1 which is what ,christian scholars usually do4 #ag ,a ,midrash says3 ,one text issues in many meanings4444 ,the school of ,r4 ,ishmael teach 7in reference to ,jer4 xxiii4 #bi71 ',like a hammer that breaketh the rock'2 as this is divided into many sparks1 so even one text issues in many meanings4 ,for the way of the ,holy ,one1 blessed be ,he1 is not like the way of flesh and blood4 ,for flesh and blood cannot say two things at once4 ,but ,he who spake and the world was1 uttered ten words in one act of speaking1 as it is said 7,ps4 lxii4 #aa71 ',god hath spoken once4' ',and ,god spake all these words1 saying1 etc4' 7,exod4 xx4 #a74 ,yalkut ,shim'oni on ,ps4 lxii4 #aa1 #ghc4 ,if a ,jew were told by some teacher a piece of ,haggadah1 he would be impressed by the wisdom or the beauty of the thought contained in it1 or perhaps would admire the skill which drew it forth from some obscure hint of ,scripture2 but he would never say to himself1 ,i must straightway believe this2 if ,i do not1 ,i shall be in error1 and in peril of my soul4 ,he would more likely say1 ,blessed art thou1 ,abraham our father1 from whom has sprung such a teacher for ,israel4 ,and observe that ,haggadah is still ,torah4 ,it is an exposition and application of what is implicit in the divine revelation1 drawn forth and made articulate4 ,yet1 even so1 there is no demand made for the acceptance1 as an article of belief1 of each ,haggadic exposition4 ,the ,jew1 and notably the ,pharisee1 knew what faith was1 as well as the ,christian did2 but he did not make it the regulator of his attitude towards that which was taught him as the contents of revelation4 ,i have said that ,haggadah is interpretation of ,scripture in all directions except that of precept4 ,and that is true2 but the term interpretation must be taken in a very wide sense4 ,a connection of some kind there always is between ,scripture and ,haggadah2 but it is sometimes extremely slight4 ,for the ,haggadic interpreter performed his task in two ways3 either he developed what he believed to be the real teaching of ,scripture upon this or that point2 or he sought to find in ,scripture a sanction for truths which he already believed4 ,and not merely for definite truths1 but for anything which might tend to edification1--ethical principles1 mystical speculations1 meditations on providence and the wonders of creation1 the imaginings of pious fantasy1 and even the play of daring wit4 ,there was nothing that could not find a place in the ,haggadah1 if it could be linked on to some text or word or letter of ,scripture4 ,the methods employed were1 from the point of view of strict exegesis1 often wildly extravagant4 ,no freak of allegory1 of word-play1 of fantastic juggling with letters and syllables1 is without illustration in the ,haggadah4 ,and the men who employed such methods knew well that what they were setting forth was not the plain literal meaning of ,scripture4 ,what they saw1 with their inward vision1 was the divine truth1 holiness1 justice1 beauty1 goodness1 love2 they read it in their own experience1 and traced it in nature and history and man4 ,they looked to see it all mirrored in ,scripture2 for there was the divine revelation1 and there all that they believed to be divine must be4 ,some of it could be plainly seen2 for1 in essentials1 the ,haggadic teaching upon ethics and piety kept to the main lines of the ,scriptures4 ,what could not be plainly seen was inferred to be there2 and no hint was too slight to indicate its presence4 ,we say that this means reading into the text what is not there4 ,and doubtless that is the case4 ,but the ,haggadist did not so understand what he did4 ,if he was conscious of ideas1 thoughts1 beliefs1 which he felt to be variously good1 then1 since ,scripture was for him the only vehicle of divine revelation1 somewhere in ,scripture must be indicated all that various good4 ,and any method was justified by which it could be brought forth and made clear4 ,that ,i take to be the theory of the ,haggadah1 the explanation which a ,haggadist would give of the reason for his peculiar treatment of ,scripture4 ,haggadah1 like ,halachah1 is a natural1 perhaps even a necessary1 development of a religion of ,torah4 ,both are integral parts of ,torah2 and a thorough understanding of the nature and function of each is necessary for the understanding of the whole4 ,halachah and ,haggadah1 together with the personal spiritual life of the individual1 cover the whole field of the religious consciousness of the ,pharisee4 ,for it is entirely wrong to say that the ,pharisee was wholly taken up with the ,halachah1 the discipline of direct precept4 ,no ,pharisee that ever lived confined his thoughts and aspirations1 his beliefs and hopes1 within the range of ,halachah1 nor could have done if he had tried4 ,he guided his conduct by the ,halachah certainly1 because he believed that by following it he was doing the will of ,god exactly as it ought to be done4 ,but the ,halachah did not teach him1 and did not profess to teach him1 how he should think about ,god1 nor did it seek to regulate his own private communion with his ,father in heaven4 ,for this last he sought no other teacher except the promptings of his own soul and the answer of ,god to his prayers4 ,and for the knowledge of ,god's nature and ,his works in providence and human history1 he gladly learned from any wise and gifted teacher who could tell him anything1 or in any way help him to think wisely1 to worship devoutly1 to live worthily4 ,i shall have more to say about this in the concluding chapter4 ,i only mention it here1 because it was necessary to show the place which the ,haggadah occupied in the religious thought of the ,pharisee1 and how it did for him what in other religions is done by a scheme of doctrinal theology4 ,for the present ,i keep to the subject of the ,haggadah itself1 and proceed to inquire what can be learned from it as to the main heads of ,pharisaic belief1 especially in the period covered by the ,new ,testament4 ,it is mainly for the sake of this inquiry that ,i have given the foregoing explanation of the nature and intention of ,haggadah4 ,the inquiry is by no means an easy one4 ,for1 while it is only necessary to open a volume of the ,talmud1 or of one of the great ,midrashim1 to find on almost every page some ,haggadic utterance1 often indeed a great mass of ,haggadah1 it is wholly unwarranted to say this and this is what the ,pharisees believed4 ,it may be2 and1 of course1 if it were not in some way acceptable to ,pharisaic minds1 according to their canons of judgment1 it would not be found in their books4 ,but the ,haggadah does not carry its meaning on the surface1 nor yield it to the hearer or reader who has only a passing glance for it or a careless ear4 ,and thus1 what really represents the truth believed1 or the good discerned1 the element to which the mind assented1 and which it gratefully received1 is not expressed in the verbal form of the ,haggadah1 nor in its statements1--extravagant and even impossible as they sometimes are4 ,there was no idea of taking those statements as they stand1 as if they were to be accepted as true1 and believed as divine revelations4 ,when it is said by a ,haggadist that since the creation ,god has been occupied in making marriages 7,ber4 ,r41 p4 #acc;c #fh4 #d71 that does not represent as it stands what any ,pharisee1 or the ,haggadist himself1 really believed about ,god4 ,as ,george ,eliot truly says of that particular ,haggadah1 ,the levity of the saying lies in the mind of him who hears it2 and1 as she might have added1 puts a frivolous meaning on it4 ,the ,haggadah is full of such things2 but the ,haggadah is not on that account frivolous or absurd4 ,and when the unwary ,christian produces specimens of ,haggadah1 and says1 ,see what those ,rabbis believed and taught1 the foolishness which he illustrates is not that of the ,rabbis4 ,to get at the real meaning and serious purpose of ,haggadic teaching is one of the difficulties in the inquiry into what the ,pharisees believed4 ,in itself it is not a great difficulty1 but it needs to be recognised4 ,a further difficulty is presented by the question1 how far can the utterance of some individual teacher be taken to represent a generally accepted belief1 seeing that there was no requirement of uniformity of belief8 ,to that question a decisive answer is scarcely ever possible1 except within wide limits of probability4 ,if a doctrine can be formulated upon some topic of theology1 it will represent a de facto consensus of belief1 rather than the conscious acceptance of the teaching of any authority2 and those who held the belief might still prefer a different statement of it4 ,everywhere caution is necessary in drawing forth from the ,haggadah its real meaning1 and in forming conclusions as to the generality of its acceptance4 ,a still further difficulty1 and one which is of especial importance for the purpose of this book1 is that of using1 for comparison with the teaching of the ,new ,testament1 ,haggadah often of much later date4 ,of the enormous mass of ,haggadah contained in the ,rabbinical literature1 only a small proportion is contemporary with the ,gospels1 and very little indeed contemporary with ,jesus4 ,one of the most famous ,haggadists was ,r4 ,joshua b4 ,levi1 in the middle of the third century of our era4 ,if we find that he teaches some doctrine1 are we entitled to use his words as evidence that such doctrine was believed by ,pharisees in the time of ,jesus and the ,apostles8 ,if not1 then1 of course1 the appeal to the ,talmud and ,midrash1 in illustration of ,pharisaism in the ,new ,testament period1 is futile4 ,here1 again1 caution is necessary2 but1 with caution1 the answer is that the later literature may rightly be used as evidence of earlier beliefs and ideas4 ,we have already met the same question in reference to the ,halachah 7see above1 ,chapter ,,ii474 ,and the answer there was that the principle of ,halachah was accepted1 and the development of that principle was begun long before the time of ,christ4 ,what changed continuously through the centuries was the body and form of ascertained ,halachah1 determined by the gradual expansion into greater detail of its precepts1 and their application to a greater variety of cases4 ,the ,halachah1 as codified in the ,mishnah1 is much more extensive than the ,halachah as it was known to the ,pharisees in the time of ,jesus4 ,but the intention of it is the same for the earlier period as for the later4 ,wherefore it is legitimate to use the ,talmud to illustrate the principle of ,halachah as accepted in the ,new ,testament period1 as also for the periods before and after2 but it would not be safe to infer that some particular definition1 propounded by ,akiba or ,judah the ,holy1 was already regarded as ,halachah1 and taken for a rule of conduct by the contemporaries of ,hillel and ,shammai4 ,now1 with regard to the ,haggadah1 the case is somewhat different1 because1 as has been already explained1 no uniformity of belief was required1 while uniformity of practice was required4 ,but1 allowing for that difference1 what was said about the use of the later literature in regard to the ,halachah applies also to its use in regard to the ,haggadah4 ,for here1 also1 there is an element which does not change1 or not to any great extent1 over a period which includes that of the ,new ,testament and a considerable time before and after4 ,that element is the general ,pharisaic belief about ,god1 ,israel1 and the world1 about man's relation to ,god and to his fellow-men1 about virtues1 vices1 the nature of sin1 the function of prayer1 and so on4 ,what the ,haggadah did was to teach this1 illustrate it in all manner of ways1 and present it in every possible aspect1 but not in any great degree to modify it4 ,indeed1 ,i think hardly to modify it at all4 ,there is1 in ,pharisaism1 no such progressive development of doctrine as there is in ,christianity4 ,of course there could not be1 in the nature of things1 a ,pharisaic ,christology4 ,but there was no progressive doctrine of a ,messiah1 nor of the ,torah1 nor of the resurrection of the dead1 nor1 ,i think1 of any of the main subjects of belief4 ,there were general ideas commonly held upon these subjects1 beliefs upon which there was substantial agreement1 and no thought of challenge4 ,and the ,haggadah was the means by which this general body of belief was continually illustrated and illumined1 so that it might have ever renewed power to refresh the soul4 ,just as the ,halachah was the detailed application of ,torah to conduct1 on its practical side1 as the doing of the divine will1 so the ,haggadah was the detailed application of ,torah to the spiritual life generally1 so that the light which ,god had given might be shed over the things which are eternal4 ,i proceed to sketch out what ,i take to be the general beliefs of the ,pharisees which form the background1 or the substratum1 of the ,haggadah1 so far as ,i have been able to make it out4 ,afterwards ,i will give some ,haggadic illustrations upon particular points4 ,i purposely do not attempt a systematic arrangement1 because the ,pharisees themselves did not4 ,the object of worship is ,god--one1 and undivided4 ,he is the ,creator of the world and of everything in it2 and no other being shared with ,him in that work4 ,he does what ,he will2 but ,his will is always just4 ,his providence supplies the wants of ,his creatures4 ,he is good1 kind1 and merciful4 ,it is the duty of man to obey ,him4 ,he has made known ,his will2 ,he rewards those who fulfil ,his command1 and punishes those who disobey4 ,he has made all the human race2 but ,israel stands in a special relation to ,him1 because only ,israel is bound to ,him by a covenant4 ,the ,torah was offered to the other nations1 but they would not have it4 ,they are therefore outside the range of ,god's favour4 ,they can only come within it by learning from ,israel the ,torah4 ,there are1 nevertheless1 good men amongst the other nations4 ,it is the privilege of ,israel to have been found worthy to receive the ,torah1 and his highest aim is to fulfil it1 not only by doing what it sets before him as the divine will1 but by taking to heart all that it teaches him concerning sacred things4 ,the ,pharisee believed himself to be under the immediate care of ,god4 ,nothing happens to him except by the divine permission4 ,god sees1 and knows all that he does and all that he is going to do4 ,nevertheless1 his will is free4 ,he is not compelled either to obey or to disobey4 ,if he obeys1 ,god is pleased with him4 ,if he disobeys1 ,god is angry with him4 ,reward will follow in the former case1 punishment in the latter4 ,if he has sinned1 repentance will make his peace with ,god4 ,forgiveness is never refused to the penitent4 ,he can always pray to ,god1 and ,god will always hear him4 ,it is his duty to be kind towards his fellow-men1 especially towards them which are of the household of the faith--namely1 ,israel4 ,he must not wrong anyone1 whether ,jew or ,gentile4 ,he must especially do acts of charity towards the poor and the suffering4 ,he must not live an idle life2 and in all that he does he must serve ,god4 ,although at present he has much to endure1 yet there will be in the future a better time1 when the ,messiah shall come and set up the kingdom of ,god upon earth4 ,then ,israel will be freed from the oppression of the ,gentiles1 and will enjoy peace and prosperity and the fulness of the blessing of ,god4 ,when that shall be1 no one knows4 ,god will send the ,messiah when it pleases ,him to do so4 ,but the sins of ,israel hinder his coming4 ,when life on earth is over1 there is a life beyond the grave4 ,for the righteous there is ,heaven1 where they will be rewarded2 and for the wicked there is ,hell1 where they will be punished4 ,the righteous in ,heaven will live for ever4 ,the wicked in ,hell will be destroyed and made an end of4 ,there will be no chance to repent after death4 ,man is under the protection of angels1 and liable to temptation and harm from evil spirits4 ,there are many such1 and there is a prince over them4 ,the angels are ,god's messengers4 ,each man has in himself two opposing impulses or tendencies2 one towards good and the other towards evil4 ,it is his duty to control the evil impulse and strengthen the good one4 ,god will help him to obey the good1 and will not prevent him from yielding to the bad4 ,to keep his mind fixed on the ,torah1 and filled with its teaching1 is his protection against sin and his incitement to right living4 ,he is glad that the ,torah gives him so many precepts to fulfil1 because it thereby constantly reminds him of ,god1 and provides opportunities for serving ,him4 ,the ,torah is the centre and circumference of all his thoughts and beliefs about religion4 ,in it ,god has revealed everything that ,he has revealed at all4 ,it is the greatest gift ,he could make1 and ,he has bestowed it all on ,israel1 and kept nothing back4 ,such1 in bare outline1 and purposely stripped of all details1 ,i believe to have been the contents of the religious consciousness of the ,pharisees in general1 the beliefs and ideas common to them all4 ,in different periods1 according to circumstances1 there would be variety in the emphasis laid upon particular points4 ,for instance there might be1 as there certainly was1 more than one period when the group of beliefs centring on the ,messiah rose into exceptional prominence1 and were held with more than usual fervour4 ,and1 again1 the destruction of the ,temple in ,a4,d4 #gj1 and the final overthrow of the ,jewish national polity in ,a4,d4 #ace1 had a profound influence upon ,pharisaic belief1 by laying additional stress on faithfulness to the divine will1 and by causing deeper reflection upon the mystery of that will as shown in the suffering of ,israel4 ,the ,pharisees deplored1 with sincerest grief1 the loss of the ,temple and the cessation of its services4 ,but they were well able to learn the lesson of a worship and a religious life1 for which such external means were needless4 ,and they did learn it with wonderful rapidity4 ,so1 too1 for individuals according to temperament1 some elements of the general belief would have more importance than others2 and there would be1 further1 a great variation in the strength of conviction with which the beliefs were held1 as also in the character of those who held them4 ,it is clear that such a general conception of religion could open a way for the faults of pride and hypocrisy1 charged against the ,pharisees1 as it also could open the way for the virtues of humble piety and sincere devotion4 ,it probably did the one4 ,it certainly did the other4 ,there were good1 bad1 and indifferent ,pharisees1 as there are good1 bad1 and indifferent ,christians4 ,and all that ,i am concerned with at present is the general ,pharisaic consensus of belief1 thought1 and feeling upon divine things4 ,if ,i have described it correctly1 then it represents the underlying meaning of the ,haggadah2 and whatever is contained in the ,haggadah is intended to illustrate1 or enforce1 or make prominent1 some aspect of those beliefs4 ,it matters nothing that there is endless variety1 and frequent contradiction1 in what the ,haggadists say1 i4e4 in the form in which they clothe their thoughts2 nor that they make statements which are extravagant1 or impossible1 or absurd1 or grotesque1 or even occasionally1 in appearance at least1 irreverent4 ,what really was in their mind was the underlying religious truth or ethical principle which they sought to illumine4 ,that was their serious intention2 and it is not a denial of this if it be admitted that1 like all interpreters who use the method of allegory1 they occasionally let their fancy run riot1 and indulged in freaks of exposition whose connection with religion is not obvious4#ah ,trivialities of that kind1 however1 may be left out of account4 #ah ,as1 e4g4 when they give the name of ,lot's wife1 which was ,idith 7,tan4 i4 #de;b71 or are able to say that the fare which ,jonah paid to go in the ship was #djjj gold pieces 7b4 ,nedar4 #ch71 or that ,noah took with him into the ark suitable food for the different creatures3--hay for the camel1 barley for the ass1 grape-vines for the elephant1 and glass for the ostrich 7,tan4 #ae74 ,it will be of more use to take some of the points of the foregoing sketch of ,pharisaic belief1 and examine them in greater detail4 ,and the first shall be the doctrine of ,god1 and more particularly certain aspects of the doctrine of ,god4 ,between the ,pharisees and the ,new ,testament teachers there was no dispute as to the sole sovereignty of ,god1 or that ,he was the ,creator and upholder of all things4 ,but it is well to lay stress upon the ,pharisaic belief in the nearness of ,god and the directness of access to ,him2 also to make clear the fact that emphatic resistance was offered by the ,pharisees to any idea of a plurality of divine persons4 ,they would own no being who could be regarded either as in some sense a second ,god1 or as a mediator between ,god and man4 ,that the ,pharisees commonly thought of ,god as a cold abstraction1 a distant and inaccessible ,power1 is by ,christian scholars frequently but quite erroneously asserted4 ,of course1 it was never denied that ,god was the ,almighty1 the ,lord of all worlds1 supreme over everything4 ,indeed1 that was affirmed over and over again1 and is one of the axioms of ,pharisaic belief4 ,but1 whatever other ,jews may have done1 under the influence of ,hellenism1 the ,pharisees never doubted for a moment that ,god ,himself1 the one supreme ,god1 was actually near to every one of ,his people2 near1 in every kind of nearness1 as it was said 7j4 ,ber4 #ac74 ,that is the really effective belief of the ,pharisees1 as can be seen on well-nigh every page of the ,talmud and the ,midrash4 ,how it was to be reconciled1 if it needed to be reconciled1 with the belief in the abstract infinity of ,god1 was a question which the ,pharisees never troubled to answer1 even if they were aware of it4 ,there was no ,jewish philosophy of religion till long after the closing of the ,talmud4 ,and the ,pharisees most certainly did not logically develop their conception of ,god from their idea of the ,torah4 ,whether1 even if they had done so1 they would have arrived at the barren abstraction1 which ,weber declares to have been the ,pharisaic idea of ,god 7,weber1 ,system1 etc41 p4 #adi71 is open to question4 ,but they never allowed any theoretical reasoning which would prevent them from owning the love and goodness of ,god1 or which would place an impassable gulf between ,him and ,his creatures4 ,the following piece of ,haggadah illustrates this point3 ,it is said 7,exod4 xx4 #a71 ',and ,god spake all these words4' ,he doeth the whole at once 7i4e4 in one action74 ,he kills and ,he makes alive1 in one action4 ,he wounds and ,he heals1 in one action4 ,the woman in travail1 those that go down to the sea1 travellers in deserts1 captives in prison1 east and west1 north and south1 ,he hears them all1 in one act 7of hearing7 7,shem4 ,r4 p4 #ej;b74 ,and a few lines further on it is stated that ,he spoke all the ten commandments in one act 7of speaking74 ,there is here no attempt to explain how ,god1 being ,almighty1 can take particular notice of persons2 there is the unquestioning belief that ,he does so4 ,he may be high in ,heaven1 but no suffering creature of ,his suffers unseen or unheard4 ,a bird perishes not1 without ,heaven 7i4e4 except by the will of ,god72 so said a great ,pharisee1 in words that have a striking likeness to a saying of ,jesus on the same subject 7j4 ,sheb4 #ch;d1 and cp4 ,matt4 x4 #bi74 ,a story is told 7,debar4 ,r4 #ajb7 of a certain ,jew who was on board a ship1 where all the other passengers were ,gentiles4 ,the ship touched at an island1 and the sailors said to the ,jew1 ',take money and go ashore1 and buy something for us4' ,he said1 ',i am not at home here2 how shall ,i know where to go8' ,they said1 ',a ,jew is at home everywhere4 ,for whithersoever thou goest1 thy ,god goeth with thee4' 7,the reference is to ,deut4 iv4 #g1 ,what great nation hath a ,god who is so nigh to them47 ,the nearness of ,god is especially emphasised in relation to prayer4 ,he hears all who pray to ,him1 and it is ,he himself who hears and to whom prayer should alone be offered4 ,every man1 says the ,talmud1 has a 'patronus' 7a 'friend at court'74 ,if there comes trouble upon him1 he does not go direct to his patron1 but goes and stands at his door1 and calls to the servant or to a son of the house1 and he tells the patron ',so and so is standing at the door of thy court4' ,perhaps the patron has him admitted4 ,perhaps he leaves him alone4 ,but the ,holy ,one1 blessed be ,he1 is not so4 ,if trouble comes on a man 7,god says71 ',let him pray1 not to ,michael and not to ,gabriel1 but to me1 and ,i will answer him at once4' ,and this is that which is written 7,joel ii4 #cb71 ',everyone that calleth on the name of the ,lord shall be delivered' 7j4 ,ber4 #ac74 ,here we have not only the declaration of belief in direct access to ,god ,himself through prayer1 but also the repudiation of any mediator4 ,michael and ,gabriel may be servants of ,god1 but they do not come between ,god and man to keep them apart or to serve as the necessary medium of intercourse4 ,they were never1 in ,pharisaic theology1 allowed any place which might seem to impair the divine ,unity4 ,the idea of a second ,god was steadfastly resisted2 and no personification of divine attributes1 or exaltation of archangels1 was ever carried so far as to imply a plurality of persons in the ,deity4 ,as against the doctrine of the ,logos1 and the ,christian exaltation of ,christ1 the ,pharisees maintained the strict unity of ,god4 ,neither the ,memra of the ,targums1 nor the ,shechinah of the ,talmud and the ,midrash1 however personified for ,haggadic purposes1 was regarded as being in any sense a personality co-existent with ,god ,himself4 ,the ,holy ,spirit was either ,god1 or the influence of ,god1 but not a personality distinguishable from ,him4 ,metatron comes the nearest to the conception of a second ,god2 but1 whatever the later ,cabbalists may have made of ,metatron1 the ,pharisees of the ,talmud expressly rejected the notion that he was a second ,god4 ,it is told 7b4 ag4 #ae7 that the famous ,elisha b4 ,abujah1 the nearest approach to a ,jewish heretic1 went up into ,heaven 7,paradise71 and there saw ,metatron1 to whom was given power to sit and write down the merits of ,israel4 7,elisha7 said3 ,it is taught that on high there is no sitting1 no strife1 no parting1 and no joining4 ,can there be1 ,heaven forbid1 two powers8 7i4e4 two ,gods74 ,they brought out ,metatron1 and gave him sixty lashes of fire4 ,the commentator on this passage explains that ,metatron was treated in that manner in order to show that he was not superior to the other angels in kind1 and that he was subservient to ,god1 not on any sort of equality with ,him4 ,metatron1 as ,i have elsewhere maintained1#ai is the ,rabbinical reply to the ,gnostic and ,christian doctrines which seemed to threaten the divine ,unity4 ,it was perhaps with reference to ,christian doctrine that the ,rabbis laid stress on the belief that ,god has no ,son4 ,commenting on ,exod4 xx4 #b3 ,r4 ,abahu said3 ',a parable of a king of flesh and blood2 he reigns and has a father or a brother4 ,the ,holy ,one1 blessed be ,he1 saith1 ,i am not so2 7but7 7,isa4 xliv4 #f7 ,i am the first1 ,i have no father2 and ,i am the last1 ,i have no son2 and beside me there is no ,god1 ,i have no brother' 7,shem4 ,r4 #ea;b74 ,abahu lived in the third century of our era2 and most of the ,haggadic expositions of the unity of ,god1 on the lines indicated1 are later than the ,new ,testament period4 ,but1 as they were only developed in opposition to ,christian teaching1 it is not likely that in the time of ,jesus or the ,apostles the ,pharisees were divided or uncertain upon a point which had scarcely as yet been challenged4 ,jesus himself never challenged it1 so far as the ,synoptic ,gospels are evidence2 and1 upon a belief so fundamental in ,pharisaic ,judaism1 it is not to be supposed that he was more consistent than the ,pharisees themselves4 ,the challenge came not from ,jesus but from ,paul1 even though ,paul may not have intended1 or been conscious of1 any infraction of the unity of ,god in his teaching about ,christ4 ,the ,pharisees took the alarm from him2 and1 in opposition to his ,christology1 and the later ,johannine doctrine1 taught with especial emphasis the undivided sole supremacy of ,god4 ,and they had no more difficulty than ,jesus had in believing that the one ,god was both sovereign ,lord and heavenly ,father1 as in fact they called ,him4 #ai ,see my ,christianity in ,talmud and ,midrash1 pp4 #bhf-h4 ,so much for the ,pharisaic conception of ,god4 ,we will now consider another set of beliefs of theirs upon which a comparison with ,new ,testament teaching is possible and instructive--the ,pharisaic ideas about ,retribution1 reward and punishment1 merit4 ,there is no consistent ,pharisaic doctrine upon the subject1 but rather a comment upon the facts of human experience from different points of view4 ,that man's will is free is one of the axioms of ,pharisaism4 ,it was stated by ,r4 ,akiba1 ,everything is foreseen1 and freedom is given1 and the world is judged1 and all is according to the amount of work 7,m4 ,aboth4 iii4 #ae74 ,man is therefore a moral agent1 cognisant of the distinction between right and wrong1 capable of acting upon that distinction1 and liable to be judged accordingly4 ,all is in the hand of ,heaven except the fear of ,heaven1 said another teacher 7b4 ,ber4 #cc;b74 ,if1 then1 man serves ,god1 he does so not on compulsion4 ,he is therefore subject to the approval or disapproval of ,god for what he does4 ,experience1 interpreting life1 discerns evident tokens of such approval and disapproval2 and ,scripture clearly teaches that ,god distinguishes between the righteous and the sinner in ,his treatment of them4 ,whatever form ,his approval or disapproval may take1 they are ,his certain judgment on human actions1 to be looked for as the consequence of doing those actions4 ,the ,pharisees1 like other moralists1 expressed this by saying that ,god rewarded the good and punished the bad4 ,and they used that principle as a clue to the meaning of providence1 as shown in human suffering and happiness4 ,they pondered on the problem why suffering should be inflicted on the apparently innocent8 and why the obviously sinful seemed often to prosper8 ,and they suggested various partial solutions of the problem1 but wisely left it an open question4 ,it might be that there was no suffering without previous sin1 or it might be that suffering was sometimes the chastisement imposed on the righteous through the love of ,god1 as it is said3 ,whom the ,lord loveth ,he chasteneth4 ,it might be that material prosperity and adversity were the signs by which the divine approval and disapproval were shown1 the reward or the punishment for human actions2 or it might be that these were manifested only inwardly1 in the soul and not in the outward lot4 ,all these different views find varied expression in the utterance of ,pharisaic teachers1 and there is no attempt to set up one as true to the exclusion of the rest4 ,and when the ,pharisee spoke of reward and punishment1 he meant to indicate his belief that in some way it went well with the man who did good1 and ill with the man who did wrong1 and both by the divine appointment4 ,in the ,gospels1 ,jesus also speaks of reward1 as every reader knows2 and many readers have winced when they read3--,pray to thy ,father1 444 and thy ,father shall reward thee4 ,great is your reward in ,heaven4 ,if you do good to them that do good1 what reward have ye8 ,phrases like these have an unpleasant sound1 wherever they occur1 because of the notions commonly attached to the term reward4 ,no one supposes that ,jesus1 in using that term1 was appealing to low motives of self-interest2 and ,i believe that he meant exactly what ,i have given as the ,pharisaic meaning1 namely1 that there was a divinely appointed difference between the condition of the good and that of the bad1 as a consequence of their actions4 ,it is at least not justifiable to say that ,jesus must have meant what he said1 according to its best interpretation1 and that the ,pharisees must have meant what they said1 according to its worst interpretation4 ,jesus was one1 and the ,pharisees were many2 and while he remained ever on the highest plane of spiritual wisdom1 the ,pharisees represented different degrees of that wisdom4 ,some might1 and occasionally did1 interpret divine reward and punishment in terms of material welfare1 while others saw more deeply into the spiritual meaning of those terms4 ,but it is not true that the material interpretation represents the general belief of the ,pharisees1 while the spiritual interpretation is the exception4 ,the truth is that they would not reject any interpretation which might throw some light upon the problem2 and they cared nothing that different interpretations contradicted one another4 ,so far1 there is no essential difference1 that ,i can see1 between the ,pharisaic teaching and that of the ,gospels1 or the ,new ,testament generally1 about reward and punishment4 ,the difference that does exist is due to the fact that ,pharisaism was the religion of ,torah4 ,for here the divine approval or disapproval was necessarily associated in an especial degree with the ,mitzvth1 the precepts which expressed the will of ,god for the conduct of man4 ,to say that there is a reward for doing a ,mitzvah is no more out of keeping with true piety than to say there is a reward for praying to the ,father which seeth in secret4 ,in each case it only means that the act of devotion to ,god1 whatever form it take1 is acceptable to ,him1 and ,his blessing is given to the doer of it4 ,now1 the ,mitzvth were clearly-defined1 specific acts2 and the ,pharisee1 as has been already pointed out in a previous chapter1 regarded them not as irksome constraints1 but as welcome opportunities for serving ,god4 ,the more ,mitzvth he could meet with the better4 ,if1 by doing them1 he could thereby please ,god1 what more could he wish for8 ,certainly he looked for reward2 but the joy of service and the blessing of ,god was the reward he looked for4 ,that is the real mind of the ,pharisee in regard to reward4 ,and if some ,pharisees interpreted the blessing of ,god in a material sense1 to be shown in outward prosperity1 while others interpreted it in a spiritual sense1 that is only a difference of temperament as between particular ,pharisees4 ,what the reward should be1 in what way ,god would show ,his approval and give ,his blessing1 was as ,god should please4 ,the ,pharisee served ,him with gladness and zeal2 and only hoped 7as ,christians also have been invited to hope7 that ,god might say to him3 ,well done1 good and faithful servant1 enter thou into the joy of thy ,lord4 ,it was a ,pharisee who said1 ,the reward of one ,mitzvah is the opportunity to fulfil another 7,aboth4 iv4 #e72 and perhaps no words could better indicate the ,pharisaic view of reward in the service of ,god4 ,the service is everything2 the reward is ,god's way of showing that the service is acceptable4 ,moreover1 the reward1 if it were expected to be anything more than the present consciousness of divine approval1 was not looked for in this world1 but would be part of the bliss of the world to come4 ,thou wilt find1 said a ,rabbi1 no single ,mitzvah in the ,torah1 to which a reward is attached1 which does not depend on the raising of the dead4 ',honour thy father and mother1 that thou mayest prolong thy days1' and 'that it may be well with thee4'444 ',that thou mayest prolong thy days' in a world which is endless1 and 'that it may be well with thee' in a world which is wholly good 7b4 ull4 #adb74 ,and again it is taught1 ,what is that which is written 7,deut4 iv4 #g7 'which ,i command thee to do them this day8' ,to do them this day1 and not to-morrow4 ,to do them this day1 and not to receive the reward this day 7b4 ,kidd4 #ci;b72 and on the same page is the express statement1 ,reward for a ,mitzvah in this world there is none4 ,of the nature of the reward this is said3 ,the world to come is neither eating nor drinking1 nor increasing and multiplying1 nor giving and receiving1 nor jealousy1 nor hatred1 nor strife2 but the righteous sit with crowns on their heads1 and enjoy the light of the ,shechinah 7b4 ,ber4 #ag74 ,such ideas were in the minds of the ,pharisees when they spoke of the reward for doing the will of ,god2 ideas not hardened into a formal doctrine1 and perhaps by some only dimly apprehended1 but yet indicating a vision of divine things not very unlike what has floated before the gaze of ,christian souls4 ,but while the ,pharisees thus delighted to muse on the reward1 they were emphatic in teaching that the ,mitzvah was not to be done for the sake of the reward1 as if to obtain thereby some payment of what was due4 ,the distinction is somewhat fine1 especially as the reward hoped for was spiritual bliss and not material advantage4 ,but the ,pharisees drew the distinction1 nevertheless4 ,thus it is said1 in reference to ,ps4 i4 #b1 ,his delight is in the law of the ,lord4 ,r4 ,eliezer says1 ,who delighteth greatly in his commandments4 ,in his commandments 7,mitzvth71 but not in the reward of the ,mitzvth 7b4 ,a4,z4 #ai74 ,the sole reason allowable for doing a ,mitzvah is the hope of pleasing ,god thereby4 ,and then follows the well-known saying of the ancient ,antigonos of ,socho3 ,be not like servants who serve their master for a reward4 ,these are only a few instances out of many to show that the ,pharisee was not actuated by motives of the kind which are usually ascribed to him in his performance of the things commanded him4 ,if to an ideal so lofty and so austere1 the ,pharisee sometimes failed to rise1 and said what was not worthy of it1 there is no cause for wonder1 since the same may be observed amongst ,christians1 and is merely due to individual human nature4 ,but the ,pharisaic conception of religion in general1 and of this phrase of it in particular1 is entitled to be judged by the best to which it looked up1 and not to be condemned for its occasional failure to apprehend that best4 ,finally1 what about merit8 ,the ,pharisees were never afraid to talk about merit2 but what they said must be taken in the light of what has already been stated4 ,they had no fixed doctrine of merit2 and there certainly never was a general ,pharisaic belief in a system of bargaining with ,god as between debtor and creditor on business lines4 ,this or that teacher may have used the terms of such transactions by way of illustration2 but they do not represent the general mind of the ,pharisees upon the subject4 ,the ,pharisees certainly believed that to perform many ,mitzvth was better than to perform one2 and they not unnaturally concluded that there could be no more reasonable criterion for a judgment of character than the use which a man had made of the opportunities afforded by the ,mitzvth for serving ,god4 ,mitzvth1 being specific commands1 could be counted up2 and the degree of goodness shown in doing them1 or of badness in not doing them1 could be thought of quantitatively1 instead of qualitatively4 ,this is not1 for obvious reasons1 the best way of treating the matter2 and the ,pharisees have1 in consequence1 come in for a great deal of rebuke and contempt for having degraded the relation of man to ,god1 when all that they did was to use an unfortunate metaphor in order to express a real distinction4 ,it was perhaps mainly through the use of this metaphor1 this quantitative description of goodness1 that they laid themselves open to the charge of boastful self-righteousness2 and no doubt they were occasionally to blame in that respect4 ,because a ,pharisee was able to observe1 in a quite dispassionate way1 the fact that he had performed so many ,mitzvth4 ,it would have been better for him not to have learned that method of self-examination4 ,but1 nevertheless1 it is true1 though only those who know the ,pharisees can be expected to believe it1 that genuine humility could and often did go along with that candid estimate of good performed4 ,this accumulation of goodness1 through the performance of ,mitzvth1 is what the ,pharisees meant by merit1 ,zachuth4 ,and though they were not in the least ashamed of it1 nor saw why they should be1 they were careful to keep the idea of merit within limits4 ,like the reward hoped for1 the merit acquired was not a motive1 but an accessory4 ,they believed1 certainly1 that merit counted for much with ,god4 ,as has been said1 they believed that ,he judged men according to whether the goodness of their deeds or the badness was the greater2 in other words1 by the amount of merit which they possessed4 ,but they did not presume to set up a claim against ,him2 and while they pleaded merit before ,him1 they were taught that it was not their own merit they should plead1 but that of others4 ,he who pleads the merit of others is answered for his own2 and he who pleads the merit of himself is answered for that of others 7b4 ,ber4 #aj;b74 ,very often it was the merit of the ,fathers1 ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 to whose influence with ,god great effect was ascribed4 ,yet what is all this but the idea of intercession1 of the good on behalf of the less good8 ,and as between ,pharisaic and ,christian ideas on the subject1 the difference is more in the form than the substance4 ,even the appeal to the merits of the ,fathers was discouraged by many ,pharisees1 on the ground that it tended to shift responsibility for a man's own conduct on to someone else4 ,they never for long forgot that1 nor wavered in their trust that ,god was a just and loving ,god1 into whose hands they need not fear to commit themselves4 ,with simplicity of heart1 rather than with profound philosophical acumen1 they mused on their experience of life in the light of ,scripture and in the thought of service of ,god2 and if they did not get much further than the conviction that it is well with the righteous and not well with the sinner1 that ,god knows all and will deal justly with all1 that some of ,his ways are plain to be seen1 and others past finding out1 and that the whole duty of man is to fear ,god and keep ,his commandments2 and that the highest joy is to serve ,him with gladness1 and in doing justly1 and loving mercy to walk humbly with ,him1--who will say that they are very far wrong8 ,this was the practical purpose of the ,pharisees1 the aim of their serious intention1 and1 in no inconsiderable degree1 the measure of their achievement4 ,i have dwelt upon these two aspects of ,pharisaic theology as being of most importance for my main purpose in this book4 ,to include all that could be said would defeat that purpose by wearying the reader4 ,i have therefore left unnoticed such topics as the belief in the ,messiah and the group of ideas connected with ,eschatology2 and ,i have done so in order to concentrate attention upon what is of fundamental importance1 namely1 the point of view from which the ,pharisees looked upon religious belief and the truths apprehended in it1 the special character imposed upon their general conception of things divine1 by the form of ,torah in which all their religious thought was cast4 ,what has been learned in regard to the two theological topics dealt with in this chapter can be applied to others2 and1 in any case1 the general mind of the ,pharisees has1 ,i hope1 been made easier to understand4 ,if it has1 then ,i trust to be able to carry the reader with me in what ,i shall say in the concluding chapter of ,pharisaism as a spiritual religion4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,pharisaism ,,as ,a ,,spiritual ,,religion ,in this concluding chapter ,i shall make an attempt to indicate what ,pharisaism was on its spiritual side1 as the expression of the ,pharisee's personal feeling towards ,god2 or1 if ,i may put it in colloquial terms1 what the ,pharisee felt like as a religious and moral being4 ,i shall try to show the meaning of the peculiar type of character formed under the influence of the religion of ,torah1 both as regards its excellencies and its deficiencies4 ,i say its deficiencies1 for my aim throughout this book has been not to extol the ,pharisees as if they had no faults1 but to present1 as clearly and strongly as ,i could1 what they meant by their religion and what it meant to them4 ,to say that they held to it with sincere loyalty1 and that they found in it entire satisfaction1 is not to say that it had no limitations1 so that there could not be a more excellent way4 ,but it is to say that ,pharisaism was a genuine religion1 so far as it went1 able to satisfy the real wants of living souls4 ,and how far it went1 and where it stopped short1 is a question upon which the adherent of another form of faith may have a decided opinion1 and yet may be entirely mistaken4 ,the ,christian may be able1 and ,i hope that the reader will have been able1 to recognise that ,pharisaism was a genuine religion4 ,but the peculiar form in which that religion was expressed makes it exceedingly difficult for the ,christian to recognise in ,pharisaism what is familiar to him in his own religion2 and1 in consequence1 he is extremely likely to misjudge and depreciate what to the ,pharisee was right and good4 ,my task in this chapter is very far from easy2 and ,i am by no means confident that in performing it ,i could satisfy a ,pharisee that ,i have done full justice to his case4 ,the subject is somewhat intangible1 being indeed the inner consciousness of the ,pharisee in regard to religion4 ,i shall deal with it under three heads3 first1 the devotional literature available2 second1 the influence of the conception of ,torah as a factor in the formation of religious character2 and1 third1 the result of that influence4 ,the devotional literature properly so called of the ,pharisees1 at all events within the period covered by the ,talmud1 is not extensive4 ,i mean by devotional literature1 writings in the form of hymns and prayers4 ,of hymns there are1 in this period1 so far as ,i know1 none2 of prayers there are a few2 some of them included in the liturgy of the ,synagogue1 and others being individual private prayers4 ,this very meagre list may1 however1 be extended2 certainly in one direction1 and ,i believe also in another4 ,some of the ,psalms ought to be included as being lyrical expressions of the religion of ,torah1 whether the writers were technically ,pharisees or not4 ,and1 in the other direction1 the liturgy of the ,synagogue is the precipitate of ,jewish piety through many centuries1 and shows better than anything else how much of deep spiritual fervour was engendered by the religion of ,torah4 ,i shall make use of the ,psalms1 or some of them4 ,but of the ,synagogue liturgy ,i shall use only such parts as fall within the period covered by the ,talmud4 ,because my concern is with the ,pharisees of the early centuries1 not with those of the ,middle ,ages4 ,and1 though ,i believe it to be the case1 ,i could not prove that a ,pharisee of the first century of our era would feel that his thoughts about religion found due expression in the hymns of ,jehudah ha-,levi and ,ibn ,gebirol4 ,personally1 ,i believe he would2 but the fact remains that the ,pharisees in the ,talmudic period composed no hymns1 and that fact must be allowed for whatever it is worth4 ,the reappearance of devotional poetry must correspond1 one would think1 to some change in the spiritual atmosphere4 ,but1 in regard to the use of the ,psalms1 there need be no such hesitation4 ,some of the ,psalms are unmistakably due to the influence of the conception of ,torah in determining the form of religion2 and the whole ,book of ,psalms was used by the ,pharisees in the ,synagogue service1 and for their own study4 ,this latter fact does not prove very much1 because the whole of the ,old ,testament was also used and studied2 and no one would contend that the ,old ,testament is throughout an utterance of ,pharisaism4 ,still1 it should be remembered that the ,canon of the ,old ,testament was fixed by ,scribes and ,pharisees2 and that the book of ,psalms was finally completed1 and in part composed1 for use in the ,synagogue and the ,temple1 as the lyrical expression of the religion of ,torah4 ,i shall therefore make such use of the ,psalms as will help my purpose1 and will supplement the study of them by an examination of the few ,pharisaic prayers to be found in the ,talmud and the early liturgy4 ,something was said about the ,psalms in the second chapter1 and ,i shall not repeat it4 ,here ,i would go into more detail upon particular points4 ,on looking through the ,book of ,psalms1 it is seen at once that there are some which proclaim themselves unmistakably as ,torah ,psalms4 ,notably1 ,ps4 cxix4 and the second part of ,ps4 xix4 ,it is quite inconceivable that these should have been written before ,ezra had instituted the religion of ,torah4 ,ps4 i41 also1 the general introduction to the whole collection when finally completed1 evidently moves within the circle of ideas associated with ,torah4 ,occasional phrases in other ,psalms may also reveal the same fact1 even though the particular ,psalm1 as a whole1 may not be specially devoted to the thought of ,torah4 ,thus1 in ,ps4 xxv4 #aj1 the reference to covenants and testimonies1 and in ,ps4 xviii4 #bb1 statutes and judgments4 ,indications like these1 however1 cannot be safely relied on2 because1 as stated in the second chapter1 there was ,torah before ,ezra1 and such phrases as those just quoted occur in ,deuteronomy4 ,the ,psalms in which phrases are found1 such as ,torah1 covenant1 testimony1 statute1 judgment1 precept1 and the like1 may be interpreted in various ways1 and not necessarily in terms of the specific religion of ,torah due to ,ezra4 ,but there is no need to draw any hard and fast line between those which are and those which are not ,torah ,psalms2 for the religious frame of mind peculiar to the ,torah ,psalmist can be studied in detail in ,ps4 cxix4 ,that is a ,pharisee ,psalm1 beyond any question4 ,i do not mean that the writer can be shown to have been a ,pharisee in the technical sense1 a member of a pledged company of separatists4#bj ,very likely he was2 but whether he were so or not1 he looked upon the ,torah exactly as the ,pharisees did1 as the supreme and perfect revelation of ,god4 #bj ,it is worth noting in passing that the name by which the ,pharisees called themselves and each other was br1 companion2 and their societies were aburoth1 companies4 ,in ,ps4 cxix4 #fc1 the ,psalmist says1 ,i am companion1 'aber1' to all them that fear thee4 ,whether the ,psalmist used the term because he was a ,pharisee1 or whether the ,pharisees borrowed it from the ,psalm1 ,i do not know2 but there is evidently a connection between them4 ,ps4 cxix41 as everyone knows1 is made up of groups containing eight verses1 each beginning with one of the twenty-two letters of the ,hebrew alphabet4 ,there are thus one hundred and seventy-six verses in all4 ,from an artistic point of view1 the structure of the ,psalm is stiff and mechanical2 the divine name is introduced twenty-two times1 corresponding to the twenty-two groups of verses4 ,the changes are rung upon a series of ten words--,torah1 statute1 righteousness1 precept1 judgment1 way1 ordinance1 word1 saying1 and faithfulness--the number corresponding1 perhaps1 to the ten commandments given on ,sinai4 ,with one exception1 v4 #abb1 every verse contains one or other of the ten words in the list just given4 ,the result is a certain monotony1 and the ,psalm is not amongst those most generally admired and loved by the ordinary reader4 ,whether there is any progression of thought is open to question2 it would not1 apparently1 make very much difference if the verses were rearranged according to another pattern4 ,but once we get past the barrier of artificial method there is thought and feeling in abundance4 ,the one object of thought is the ,torah2 and the feeling is devout wonder in regard to it1 and adoration of ,god who gave it4 ,the ten words are only so many aspects of ,torah1 and serve mainly to give variety to the thought of the divine revelation4 ,the ,psalmist meditates upon the ,torah1 thus variously indicated1 from two points of view3 first1 that of its divine excellence and the goodness of ,god in revealing it2 and1 second1 that of his own endeavour to fulfil the precepts contained in it4 ,in reference to the first head1 it is clear that the ,psalmist was filled with delight1 gratitude1 and praise4 ,the ,torah and all connected with it inspired him with joy4 ,there is not the faintest trace of any feeling of oppression1 as if he were burdened by the precepts2 and1 for what is not precept but simply instruction1 he received it with devout rapture1 as being a precious gift which ,god had been pleased to bestow4 ,that ,god had given that revelation was to the ,psalmist the greatest of all his blessings4 ,there is in the ,psalm but little reference to the past history of ,israel1 as showing the divine providence4 ,the ,psalmist was deeply conscious of ,god in the immediate present1 and of his own close relation to ,him4 ,of course1 the ,torah1 so far as it was a written record1 included the history of all the divine dealings with ,israel1 down to the time of ,moses2 but it was not this aspect of religion which chiefly appealed to the ,psalmist4 ,the providential mercy of ,god served to give fuller and richer meaning to the thought of ,him as the object of worship4 ,the following phrases will serve to indicate the ,psalmist's attitude towards ,god3--v4 #g1 ,i will give thanks unto ,thee with uprightness of heart4 v4 #ab1 ,blessed be ,thou1 ,o ,lord2 teach me ,thy statutes4 v4 #ah1 ,open ,thou mine eyes1 that ,i may behold wondrous things out of ,thy ,torah4 v4 #da1 ,let ,thy loving kindness come unto me1 ,o ,lord2 ,thy salvation1 according to ,thy promise4 v4 #di1 ,remember ,thy word unto ,thy servant2 for ,thou hast caused me to hope4 v4 #eg1 ,thou art my portion1 ,o ,lord4 v4 #fd1 ,the earth is full of ,thy mercy1 ,o ,lord4 v4 #fh1 ,thou art good and doest good4 v4 #ge1 ,i know1 ,o ,lord1 that ,thy judgments are righteousness1 and that in faithfulness ,thou hast afflicted me4 ,let ,thy loving kindness be for my comfort1 according to ,thy promise unto ,thy servant4 ,let ,thy tender mercies come unto me1 that ,i may live4 v4 #ij1 ,thou hast established the earth and it abideth4 ,they stand this day1 obedient to ,thine ordinances2 for all beings are ,thy servants4 v4 #acb1 ,turn ,thou unto me1 and have mercy on me2 as ,thou usest to do unto those that love ,thy name4 ,and v4 #agf1 ,i am like a lost sheep2 seek ,thy servant4 ,these are only a few of the characteristic phrases of the ,psalmist4 ,he evidently feels towards ,god reverence1 trust1 and hope2 and1 no less evidently1 does not feel that ,god is far off and unapproachable1 an abstraction rather than a living presence4 ,god was1 for the ,psalmist1 the creator of the world2 but ,he was also the guide and protector of those that know ,him and keep ,his commandments4 ,and it was the privilege of such that they should have been allowed to know ,him1 and hold communion with ,him4 ,the ,torah was the means by which that privilege was made available to ,israel2 and the precepts1 ordinances1 etc41 were the particular occasions on and through which that privilege might be realised and enjoyed1 and the devout worshipper might come into communion with ,god4 ,the ,psalmist never lost sight of the purpose of the precepts1 in the mere doing of what they enjoined4 ,for him the doctrine of the opus operatum would have been a frivolous and mischievous perversion of the truth2 in modern phrase1 a soul-destroying heresy4 ,there is nothing of the taskmaster in the ,psalmist's conception of ,god2 he does not indeed call ,him the ,father in ,heaven1 but that term would more truly express his thought than any phrase of bondage and compulsion4 ,and we can see how naturally the term ,father in ,heaven would take its place in the language of devotion1 when once it had occurred to someone so to use it4 ,the ,psalmist's conception of ,god1 though it is mostly defined in relation to ,torah1 does not contradict in any way that which is set forth or implied in the rest of the ,psalms1 or in the highest teaching of the prophets4 ,compare ,ps4 ciii41 by common consent one of the noblest utterances of pure spiritual theism that the ,old ,testament contains3--,but the mercy of the ,lord is from everlasting to everlasting upon them that fear ,him1 and ,his righteousness unto children's children2 unto such as keep ,his covenant1 and to those that remember ,his precepts to do them4 ,in ,ps4 ciii41 the changeless mercy and love of ,god are especially dwelt on--,his forbearance towards human frailty2 while in ,ps4 cxix4 the main thought is of ,god as having given ,torah1 divine teaching4 ,but neither ,psalmist excludes what the other chiefly dwells upon4 ,the ,psalmist in ,ps4 cxix4 cannot be said to have narrowed the conception of ,god4 ,he was in accord with all that the prophets and the other ,psalmists had believed of the greatness and goodness of ,god4 ,what this ,psalmist did was to utter his praise of ,god1 so conceived1 from the point of view of the means of grace which ,he had given1 the conditions which ,he had appointed for personal knowledge and service of ,himself4 ,unless this be understood1 ,ps4 cxix4 is wholly misjudged2 and the fact that it appeals less than almost any other ,psalm to the reader1 at all events the ,christian reader1 is due to unfamiliarity with the ,psalmist's point of view4 ,once that is found1 the whole ,psalm shines from end to end with pure devotion and fervent1 genuine piety4 ,second1 as to the ,psalmist's feeling in regard to his own efforts to fulfil the precepts1 and to live in accordance with the ,torah4 ,as these were to him the means of realising his personal relation to ,god1 and of entering into communion with ,him1 he was not in despair when he failed in obedience4 ,he prayed for forgiveness1 believing that1 if he repented1 ,god would forgive him4 ,when he broke a precept1 he sinned and knew that he sinned2 but he was not conscious of having thereby set up an insurmountable barrier between himself and ,god4 ,a barrier certainly2 but one which penitence on his part and forgiveness on that of ,god both could and did remove4 ,all the ideas about bondage under the ,law1 to which ,christians have been accustomed1 rest upon a conception of the meaning and purpose of the ,torah which ,jews have never held1 at least those who remained ,jews4 ,the writer of ,ps4 cxix4 never held it4 ,this ,psalm is marked by careful1 sometimes almost painful1 introspection4 ,the ,psalmist is continually dwelling upon the precepts as they affect himself1 his love for them1 his desire to keep them1 his delight in them1 his longing to learn them1 and to be more perfectly in accord with them1 his fear lest he should wander from the way of them4 ,indeed1 the whole ,psalm is made up of such meditation1 in forms varied but continually repeated4 ,which goes to show that a ,psalm written under the immediate influence of the idea of ,torah could scarcely fail to be introspective4 ,and this ,psalm is an illustration1 on a fairly large scale1 of the fact that the change effected by the work of ,ezra1 in turning the religion of ,israel into the channel of ,torah1 tended to make that religion far more personal and individual than it had been before4 ,the value of ,ps4 cxix41 as evidence for the spiritual meaning of ,pharisaism1 is this1 that it shows what was possible under the religion of ,torah1 by way of piety and devotion4 ,the ,pharisees held precisely such ideas about the ,torah as are expressed in this ,psalm2 and ,i know of no ground for saying that they were without the piety and devotion with which the ,psalmist quickened those ideas4 ,as has already been said1 the ,talmudic literature does not contain any hymns by ,pharisees2 at least1 ,i have never met with any4 ,perhaps the ,pharisees felt that the ,psalms gave them all that they needed2 perhaps they lacked the gift of sacred poetry4 ,but though there are no hymns in the ,talmud and the ,midrash1 there are prayers1 both public and private2 and these will throw some light upon the spiritual side of ,pharisaism4 ,the earliest prayers of all are those which form the opening and the close of the so-called ,eighteen ,benedictions1 the ,shemoneh ,esreh4 ,these are ascribed1 in the ,rabbinical tradition1 to the ,men of the ,great ,synagogue2 and though so great an age cannot be proved for them1 it is certain that they are very old4 ,they are the earliest existing portions of the liturgy used in the ,synagogue2 and though they are somewhat bare in their unadorned simplicity1 they serve to show something of the religious spirit of the men who were making a hedge about the ,torah1 and they indicate that there was something else in that operation besides waning faith and waxing formalism4 ,i quote one or two of them3--,blessed art ,thou1 ,o ,lord our ,god and the ,god of our fathers1 the ,god of ,abraham1 of ,isaac1 and of ,jacob4 ,god most high1 creator of ,heaven and earth1 our shield and the shield of our fathers4444 ,we give thanks to ,thee1 ,o ,lord1 our ,god1 for all the benefits1 the favours1 which ,thou hast shown to us4 ,blessed art ,thou1 to whom it is good to give thanks4 ,bestow ,thy peace upon ,israel1 ,thy people1 and bless us all as one4 ,blessed art ,thou1 ,o ,lord1 who makest peace4 ,these prayers1 as they are found in the liturgy now1 are very much longer2 ,i have given what are believed to be the oldest parts of the three which ,i have quoted out of the eighteen4 ,if there is not much warmth in these prayers1 as there certainly is not1 neither is there any of the vainglory and self-righteousness which are supposed to be characteristic of the ,pharisees4 ,and it should be borne in mind that there can be no great difference in date between these prayers and ,ps4 cxix4 ,however1 ,i will come down to a time when the ,pharisees1 if they ever became such as the ,new ,testament represents them1 must have long acquired that character4 ,here is a prayer which dates from the second century of our era1 and is part of the liturgy still in daily use3--,lord of the worlds6 not trusting in our righteousness1 do we cast our entreaties down before ,thee1 but trusting in ,thine abundant mercies4 ,who are we8 ,what is our life8 ,what is our virtue8 ,what is our righteousness8 ,what is our deliverance8 ,what is our strength8 ,what is our might8 ,what shall we say before ,thee1 ,o ,lord ,god and the ,god of our fathers8 ,are not all the mighty as nothing before ,thee8 and the men of name as though they had never been8 ,and the wise are without knowledge1 and the understanding as those who are without discernment4 ,for the multitude of their deeds is nothing1 and the days of their life are a breath before ,thee 7b4 ,joma4 #hg;b1 mentioned by ,r4 ,joanan74 ,christians usually get their notion of what a ,pharisee's prayer was like from ,luke xviii4 #aa1 #ab2 and ,i do not deny that ,pharisees may sometimes have prayed after that manner4 ,nevertheless1 what ,i have just recited is more true to the real spirit of ,pharisaism than the prayer in the ,parable4 ,and even to that there is another side4 ,a well-known prayer1 still used in the liturgy1 runs thus3--,blessed art ,thou1 ,o ,lord1 our ,god1 ,king of the world1 that ,thou hast not made me a ,gentile 444 a slave 444 a woman4 ,much scorn has been poured out upon those who have offered that prayer1 as if it were nothing but the utterance of arrogant vainglory4 ,but1 however it may sound to ,gentiles1 what the ,jews meant1 and mean1 by it is this1 that ,god is thanked for having given in the ,torah the opportunity of serving ,him1 in the ,mitzvth1 which were not enjoined upon ,gentiles1 slaves1 or women4 ,it is not self-righteousness which is expressed in that prayer1 but the acknowledgment of special obligation1 a higher calling1 in no way inconsistent with humility and reverence4 ,the prayer in the ,parable was doubtless intended by its author to represent ,pharisaic piety in an unfavourable light2 but the example ,i have just given is enough to show that a ,pharisee would put a different interpretation upon it4 ,here is another prayer from the second century 7b4 ,ber4 #af;b71 and still in use3--,may it be pleasing in ,thy sight1 ,o ,lord my ,god and the ,god of my fathers1 that ,thou wilt deliver me this day and every day from the shameless and from shamelessness1 from the evil man1 from the evil companion1 from the evil neighbour1 from evil chance1 and from ,satan the destroyer2 from stern judgment and from the implacable adversary1 whether he be a son of the covenant or no4 ,this is merely a fragment of prayer1 as indeed the others are which ,i have quoted4 ,it is only a variation on the theme ,deliver us from evil1 the evil being specified in concrete forms4 ,and1 since it has been incorporated in the liturgy1 it was presumably intended for public use1 and was not the private utterance of its author1 who was ,r4 ,jehudah1 the compiler of the ,mishnah4 ,this distinction is important1 because it is often charged against the ,pharisees that they reduced prayer1 like so much else1 to a mere mechanical routine2 that they regulated1 down to the minutest detail1 the words and even the posture and the gestures of the worshipper2 and that they left nothing to the spontaneous volition of the soul that would seek ,god4 ,certainly there are many such regulations in the ,talmud1 both as regards what should be said and how it should be said4 ,but these all refer to the public worship of the congregation1 and not to the private prayer of the individual4 ,moreover1 they are indications of the process by which the liturgy was compiled1 its contents determined1 and the manner of its use appointed4 ,the worshipper1 using the liturgy1 was concerned only with the finally completed order1 and not with the stages of its preparation4 ,when the ,book of ,common ,prayer was compiled1 there were discussions as to what should be included in it and what left out2 whether this phrase or that was to be preferred2 whether at such a point the congregation should stand or kneel2 whether the minister should face the congregation or not2 and so on4 ,presumably1 votes were taken1 and resolutions passed upon hundreds of such points4 ,are these regulations a restriction upon worship8 ,does the worshipper know1 or take any interest in knowing1 the details of the process by which the liturgy was produced8 ,he accepts the final result2 and finds in it a help to his worship1 unconscious of the fact that perhaps every line has been canvassed by a committee and settled after debate4 ,much the same might be said of the preparation of any liturgy2 and what is found in the ,talmud1 which offends the piety of the ,christian1 is only the same kind of preparatory work as that necessary in the case of any liturgy4 ,if the ,pharisees were extremely careful1 as they certainly were1 in deciding what should go into their liturgy1 and how it should be used1 why are they more to be blamed than those who directed1 ,here the minister shall say so and so8 ,the ,pharisees produced a liturgy which1 gradually enlarged1 has lasted down to the present day2 and though a case may be made out for its revision1 still it has served1 for many more centuries than the ,book of ,common ,prayer can claim1 as the expression of the united worship of ,israel4 ,but1 while public prayer was thus carefully regulated1 there was never any restriction1 imposed or thought of1 upon private prayer4 ,it is expressly said 7,m4 ,aboth4 ii4 #ac71 ,when thou prayest1 make not thy prayer a fixed form1 but a prayer for mercy and an entreaty before ,god4 ,i do not think that this refers to public prayer2 but1 even if it does1 it would still show that the ,pharisees were careful to keep the spiritual intention of prayer1 while using the prescribed form4 ,but ,i believe the reference is to private prayer2 and it is certain that this was left to the spontaneous freedom of the worshipper himself4 ,prayer was always an essential element in the religious life of the ,pharisee2 not because it was required of him1 but because it was the natural instinct of his soul4 ,would that a man could pray all day1 said ,r4 ,joanan 7j4 ,ber4 #b74 ,pharisees knew what it was to withdraw to their inner chamber1 and pray to their ,father which seeth in secret4 ,and it was not a ,pharisee who added3--,thy ,father1 which seeth in secret1 shall recompense thee4 ,of such entirely private prayers there is no written record4 ,but several prayers are mentioned in the ,talmud as having been composed for their own use by famous ,rabbis4 ,here are some of them as they are found together 7j4 ,ber4 #g;d73--,may it be ,thy will1 ,o ,lord my ,god and the ,god of my fathers1 that ,thou wilt not put hatred of us into the heart of any man1 nor hatred of any man in our hearts2 and that ,thou wilt not put jealousy against us into the heart of any man1 nor jealousy of any man into our hearts4 ,and may ,thy ,torah be our employment all the days of our life2 and may our words be entreaty before ,thee4 ,to which was added by another ,rabbi3 ,and unite our heart to fear ,thy name2 and keep us far from all that ,thou hatest1 and bring us near to all that ,thou lovest1 and do with us righteousness for ,thy name's sake4 ,the disciples of ,r4 ,jannai used to say this 7on rising from sleep73--,blessed art ,thou1 ,o ,lord1 who quickenest the dead4 ,lord1 ,i have sinned against ,thee2 may it be ,thy will1 ,o ,lord my ,god1 that ,thou wouldst give me a good heart1 a good portion1 a good disposition1 a good understanding1 a good name1 a good eye1 a good hope1 a good soul1 a humble soul1 and a contrite spirit4 ,may ,thy name not be profaned among us2 and make us not a byword in the mouth of the people2 may our latter end be not to be cut off1 nor our hope the giving up of the ghost4 ,make us not to depend on human gifts1 and give us not our sustenance by the hand of men2 for their comfort is small and the shame they inflict is great4 ,and grant our lot to be in ,thy ,torah1 with those who do ,thy will4 ,build ,thy house1 ,thy temple4 ,thy city1 and ,thy sanctuary1 speedily1 in our days4 ,r4 ija b4 ,abba used to pray3--,may it be ,thy will1 ,o ,lord our ,god and the ,god of our fathers1 that ,thou wouldst put it into our hearts to offer sincere repentance before ,thee1 that we may not be ashamed before our fathers in the world to come4 ,r4 ,tanum b4 ,iscolastiki used to pray3--,may it be ,thy will1 ,o ,lord my ,god and the ,god of my fathers1 that ,thou wilt break and take away the yoke of the evil inclination from our hearts4 ,for ,thou didst create us to do ,thy will1 and we are bound to do ,thy will4 ,thou desirest1 and we desire it4 ,and what hinders us8 ,the leaven in the dough4 ,it is revealed and known before ,thee1 that there is no strength in us to withstand it4 ,but may it please ,thee1 ,o ,lord my ,god and the ,god of my fathers1 that ,thou wilt cause it to pass away from us1 and that ,thou wilt subdue it2 and we will make ,thy will our will1 with a perfect heart4 ,r4 ,joanan used to pray3--,may it be pleasing unto ,thee1 ,o ,lord my ,god and the ,god of my fathers1 that ,thou wilt cause love1 goodwill1 peace1 and friendship to dwell in our habitations2 that ,thou wilt grant us a happy end and the fulfilling of our hope2 that ,thou wilt fill our borders with disciples1 and that we may rejoice in our portion in ,paradise4 ,make us to acquire a good heart and a good friend2 and may we awake to find what our hearts have longed for1 and may there come in ,thy presence rest unto our soul4 ,i have translated these prayers as nearly literally as our language would allow1 so that the reader may have them as far as possible in their original form4 ,there is nothing very sublime about them1 none of the eloquence of fervent rapture4 ,but neither is there any of the vainglorious boasting supposed to be characteristic of the ,pharisees4 ,they are sincere1 simple1 and earnest1 so far as they go1 petitions for the granting of things necessary for the soul as well as for the body4 ,they may fairly be taken as representative of ,pharisaic piety1 in the absence of what is not within our reach1 namely1 the devotional language of the ,pharisee's prayer to ,god in the solitude of his own chamber4 ,the illustrations which have been given from the scanty remains of the literature of piety left by the ,pharisees will have been sufficient to show a very considerable difference of tone1 character1 spirit1 between what was produced under the religion of ,torah and what is found in the ,new ,testament4 ,and the impression so created is confirmed by the other citations ,i have made1 in the course of this book1 from the ,pharisaic literature4 ,to one who is accustomed to the ,new ,testament1 there is a certain flatness about the ,rabbinical literature1 a want of the sublime1 and still more of the beauty of holiness1 the fervour of faith1 the personal consecration which marks the ,new ,testament4 ,there is nothing in all the ,rabbinical literature at all like the rapt utterance in #a ,cor4 xiii4 ,that belongs unmistakably to the new dispensation1 and not to the old4 ,the same may be said of much else in the ,new ,testament4 ,if ,i may so express it1 there is a different feel about it1 quite unlike what there is about any ,rabbinical writing4 ,as to the fact of this1 ,i imagine there can be no dispute2 but it is well worth the trouble to try and get at the meaning of it4 ,for it cannot be dismissed at once as being due to the spiritual deadness of the ,pharisees1 the result of engrained hypocrisy and self-righteousness4 ,i trust that enough has been said in previous chapters to show that the ,pharisees were sincere and in earnest about their religion1 however strange to ,christians be the forms in which they expressed their ideas4 ,the very strangeness of those forms may well prevent ,christians from recognising the meaning and worth of the ideas expressed in them1 since ,christians could not use those forms for their own religious ideas4 ,the question is not whether the ,christian or the ,pharisaic conception is the better2 because1 both for ,christian and for ,pharisee alike1 that is a foregone conclusion4 ,the question is rather1 why did the conception of ,torah1 which from the time of ,ezra was the controlling factor in the development of ,pharisaism1 produce that particular type of piety and religious character generally1 of which so many illustrations have been given8 ,in what way did the influence of that conception make itself felt upon those who devotedly accepted it and shaped their lives in accordance with it8 ,here ,i get to the second main head of the present chapter4 ,the ,torah1 which1 it will be remembered1 includes both the written word and the unwritten interpretation embodied in the ,tradition1 was regarded as containing the full and final revelation which ,god had made4 ,it was a body of divine truth1 partly explicit1 partly implicit1 according as its contents had or had not been drawn forth and clothed in words4 ,but it was truth1 to be apprehended and learned1 to be received in the mind by the understanding before it could be made the guide of conduct or could minister in any way to spiritual wants4 ,the reader will remember that all the terms used in connection with the appropriation of the contents of ,torah are variations on the theme of teaching and learning4 ,talmud1 ,mishnah1 ,midrash1 all express these ideas1 and ,torah itself is divine teaching4 ,the significance of this is that the religion of ,torah had its deepest root in the intellectual1 rather than in the moral or spiritual1 region of the mind4 ,the moral and the spiritual were by no means neglected or unprovided for2 very far from that4 ,but1 if ,i may so put it1 they came in under the intellectual4 ,the moral sense of the ,pharisee was strong1 and his piety genuine1 but the exercise of both was conditioned by the contents of the ,torah1 duly interpreted4 ,he must be put in possession of certain knowledge1 in order to act either morally or devoutly4 ,for him1 the seat of authority in religion1 and also in morals1 was the ,torah2 and1 while it is quite true that to a large extent he made the ,torah the exponent of his own moral and religious conceptions1 reading into it or finding there a great deal which does not appear on the surface1 it is also true that he regarded it as an external authority to which he must submit4 ,he had no difficulty in doing this1 since he believed the ,torah to be the full and final revelation of ,god4 ,it was all good and holy and divine2 and there could be no surer guide for him in all that he had to do and all that he could think and believe in respect of his relation to ,god4 ,the function of conscience was1 for the ,pharisee1 not to pass moral judgments independent of1 still less contrary to1 the ,torah1 but to co-operate with it1 and to confirm its authority4 ,conscience would be1 in him1 clear upon the distinction between right and wrong2 but what was right and what was wrong would be decided by the authority of ,torah1 not by the immediate intuition of conscience and reason4 ,and ,i think that a ,pharisee would be quite unable to understand how any action could be right which was not in accordance with ,torah4#ba ,certainly it could not be right for him4 #ba ,cf4 what was said1 in ,chapter ,,iii41 of the position taken up by the ,pharisees in regard to the question of healing on the ,sabbath4 ,see above1 p4 #adi4 ,so1 too1 in regard to his relation to ,god and his worship of ,him1 the thoughts and feelings of the ,pharisee1 the sincere and devout utterance of his spiritual being1 would flow1 naturally and with no sense of compulsion1 in the channels provided by the ,torah1 in such forms of belief and such expressions of aspiration as were in harmony therewith4 ,i lay stress on the phrase naturally1 and with no sense of compulsion2 because it is very difficult for the ,christian1 whose supreme authority is not the ,torah1 to realise the position of the ,pharisee in this matter1 and to understand that he did not feel himself to be under constraint4 ,of course1 wherever there is authority1 there is that which on occasion will constrain2 and the ,christian is1 to that extent1 no less under constraint than the ,pharisee4 ,but it is not an oppressive burden1 though it may be a hard duty1 to submit to an authority which is owned to be supreme4 ,and the ,pharisee1 regarding the ,torah as the supreme authority1 since it was the expression of the will and mind of ,god1 did not feel himself oppressed by the duty of submitting to it4 ,he would entirely agree with what was said1 in a very different connection 7,john viii4 #cb73--,ye shall know the truth1 and the truth shall make you free4 ,he claimed that he did know the truth2 it was given him in the ,torah1 from ,god ,himself2 and in making his life and thought and action conform thereto1 he found his true freedom4 ,none is free1 says the ,talmud1 save he who is employed in the study of ,torah 7,m4 ,aboth4 vi4 #b74 ,whether the range of freedom is not wider when its limits are prescribed by direct allegiance to a person instead of to a mental conception like that of ,torah is another question altogether1 and one upon which the ,pharisee and the ,christian will have each his own opinion4 ,and while it must not be forgotten that the ,pharisee also owed allegiance to a person1 felt himself to be in immediate relation to ,god1 looked up to ,him and prayed to ,him1 yet he would expect to find the intimations of the divine will in the ,torah1 and not in his own intuitions4 ,it is not that the ,pharisee was without the essentials of a spiritual experience1 real faith in ,god1 real communion with ,him1 real devotion to ,his service2 for these he certainly had4 ,it was that these were realised by him only when expressed in terms of ,torah4 ,whatever could be so expressed took its place at once as part of his religious or moral consciousness4 ,whatever could not be so expressed remained outside1 or1 at best1 held no prominent position in his thought4 ,the principle here laid down will be sufficient1 ,i believe1 to explain the chief characteristic differences between the ,pharisaic and the ,christian type of mind1 disregarding1 of course1 individual variations4 ,it has been pointed out1 in a previous chapter 7p4 #aga71 that ,christianity in all its forms centres upon a person1 namely1 ,christ2 and that ,judaism in all its forms1 and ,pharisaism most of all1 centres upon an idea1 namely ,torah1 and will recognise no person as the object of its devotion1 save only ,god ,himself4 ,this is not a proud resistance to the appeal of a great personality2 it is simply a natural and necessary result of making the ,torah the central feature of religious thought4 ,there cannot be two centres1 two authorities both regarded as supreme4 ,if the ,torah be raised to the highest place1 as the expression of the divine will and the medium of the divine revelation1 then there can be no other to divide the allegiance4 ,and not only so1 but the demand1 or the appeal1 to recognise such a one can only appear as an infringement of the sovereign rights of the ,torah4 ,a ,pharisee might admit that it was conceivable that ,god should have chosen some other means than that of ,torah as the medium of ,his revelation4 ,he could not admit that ,god actually had done so1 without surrendering the ,torah altogether4 ,and this is the ground on which ,i said1 in the third chapter1 that the opposition between ,pharisaism and the religion of ,jesus was fundamental and irreconcilable4 ,not1 indeed1 that the religion of ,jesus himself centred on a person1 as the religion of ,paul and all later ,christians did2 but that ,jesus himself was that person2 and his personality could by no means be expressed in terms of ,torah4 ,it is evident that devotion to a ,person will produce a type of mind very different from that produced by devotion to an ,idea2 and the difference will be this1 that the seat of moral authority and the source of spiritual inspiration will be transferred from the ,torah without to the heart1 conscience1 and reason within4 ,with the result1 of course1 of imparting to these a freshness and vigour which they had not1 and could not have1 before4 ,certainly1 heart1 conscience1 and reason were by no means inactive when applied to ,torah2 but responsibility for what they did rested on ,torah and not on themselves4 ,they followed1 gladly and willingly1 the lead which ,god had given in the ,torah2 but they followed a lead4 ,but in devotion to a person1 heart1 conscience1 and reason1 so to speak1 act from themselves1 and the responsibility rests upon them4 ,and the note of the character so formed is not obedience1 but consecration of self4 ,and this1 ,i believe1 is the reason why there is such a marked difference of tone and spirit between the ,new ,testament and the ,rabbinical literature4 ,the former is the result of the quickening power of a newly awakened devotion to a person1 while the latter is the result of steadfast and most faithful devotion to an idea4 ,nor is that all4 ,the devotion to a person leads to a different form of expression1 as the experience to be clothed in words is different4 ,the ,new ,testament contains abundance of moral and religious teaching1 as the ,talmud also does2 but the ,new ,testament puts it in the form of direct appeal to the ,christian to do and be so and so1 that he may be a disciple of ,christ1 and well pleasing unto ,god4 ,the ,talmud puts it in the form of maxims of conduct1 or lessons drawn from ,scripture1 to be accepted and acted on because they are portions of ,torah1 divine truth and wisdom offered to man1 for his good1 but not making any direct appeal to him4 ,and whereas1 in the ,new ,testament1 the spiritual fervour of the teacher could utter itself in the glowing rapture of ,paul1 in the ,talmud the spiritual fervour of the teacher 7sometimes not less than that of ,paul7 was spent upon the study of ,torah3 in the one case ,god was sought and found through the person of a revealer2 in the other1 he was sought and found through the medium of a body of knowledge4 ,the watchword of the ,new ,testament is ,love4 ,the watchword of the ,talmud is ,wisdom4 ,and each can claim1 as its ideal1 the highest and fullest and noblest meaning of its own watchword4 ,i pass to the consideration of another effect produced by the conception of ,torah as the controlling factor in ,pharisaic religion4 ,within the lines of ,torah there was room for a highly developed spiritual life1 a pure morality1 a devout piety4 ,also1 for warm sympathy and generous kindness1 and in general for the virtues which make human nature lovable4 ,all these were present1 in varying degree1 as truly as they are present in ,christians4 ,but how about those who stood without the pale of the ,torah8 ,what did the ,pharisee consider to be his relation to them8 ,in practice1 of course1 this would depend largely on the individual ,pharisee2 and no doubt examples might be found of every degree of exclusiveness1 from tolerant regret for those who were deprived of the unspeakable blessing of the divine revelation down to the arrogant contempt which said 7,john vii4 #di71 ,this people that knoweth not the ,torah is accursed4 ,but ,i shall deal only with the theory1 not with the practice1 of the application of the ,torah to them that are without4 ,it was said above1 that what could not be expressed in terms of ,torah either remained outside the religious consciousness of the ,pharisee1 or1 if admitted1 held no prominent place there4 ,it goes therefore without saying1 that ,israel's possession of ,torah must influence its attitude towards the rest of mankind4 ,the ,pharisees were by no means blind to the fact that among the ,gentiles there were those who feared ,god and worked righteousness2 but1 if the ,torah was the final and complete divine revelation1 there could not be an equality1 still less a real feeling of brotherhood1 between those who did and those who did not accept the ,torah as the guide of their lives4 ,and this would remain true1 even though there were1 as there was in the best minds among the ,pharisees1 a real concern for the ,gentile1 and a desire that he too might share in the blessing vouchsafed to ,israel4 ,the ,pharisee by no means rejected the visions of the prophets as1 that the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the ,lord1 as the waters cover the sea4 ,but how could that be realised unless the ,gentiles came in by the way of ,torah1 and united themselves with ,israel8 ,it was concern for the ,gentiles1 amongst other motives1 which prompted the assertion1 to be found often in the ,midrash1 that when ,god gave the ,torah1 ,he offered it to all the nations of the world4 ,they all1 except ,israel1 rejected it2 but at least they had their chance4 ,it was no arbitrary decree of ,god which deprived them of it4 ,his will was to do them good1 if they would have it2 and presumably they might yet have it1 if they would4 ,in such ways the ,pharisee looked out across the barrier which separated him from the ,gentile1 not without the hope and the desire that all men might be saved1 but unable to see how that could be brought about1 except by the coming of the ,gentile within the lines of the ,torah4 ,to obliterate those lines was necessarily1 to the ,pharisee1 unthinkable4 ,it would be to renounce the very blessing for the sake of which they desired that the ,gentiles should come in4 ,and1 even if there were no ,gentiles1 the ,torah was still the very life and soul of ,israel2 to part with it would be death2 a fact to which ,israel has borne witness through the centuries4 ,in the nature of things1 the religion of ,torah as held by the ,pharisees could not free itself from ,particularism2 and though it could and did cherish a vision of ,universalism1 the vision was for the far future1 and only floated fitfully before the gaze of the ,pharisee4 ,it hardly counted amongst those present realities of his religion of which he was most conscious1 and to which he gave his chief thought4 ,i have tried to indicate what ,i believe to have been the effects of the conception of ,torah as the controlling factor in the religion of the ,pharisees1 having1 so far as ,i am aware1 no other purpose than to get at the real truth about them2 in other words1 to do them justice4 ,that ,i have not refrained from pointing out the deficiencies as well as the excellences of their form of religion will show that my object has not been to offer a mere panegyric upon them2 they deserve better than that4 ,i shall attempt1 in conclusion1 to describe the kind of mind and character produced by the influence of the ruling conception of ,torah1 the ,pharisaic ideal aimed at1 and more or less realised in practice4 ,individual ,pharisees1 of course1 would present many and marked variations from the type1 just as is the case among ,christians2 and ,i take no account of them1 except to say that whatever may be true in the matter of the common charges of hypocrisy1 pride1 self-righteousness1 and the like1 is due to individual defection from the ideal1 and is not an inherent quality in it4 ,for the basis of such a description of the ,pharisaic ideal1 ,i take a remarkable passage now included in the ,mishnah1 in the treatise called the ,pirk ,aboth1 or ,sayings of the ,fathers 7,m4 ,aboth4 vi4 #f74 ,the whole chapter1 which is later than the rest of the book1 is called ,the ,acquisition of ,torah4 ,this is the passage3--,greater is ,torah than ,priesthood or ,kingship4 ,for ,kingship is acquired by thirty stages 7i4e4 there are thirty qualities necessary to the ideal ,king71 and ,priesthood is acquired by twenty-four2 but ,torah is acquired by forty-eight things4 ,and these are they3--,study1 the listening ear1 ordered speech1 the discerning heart1 dread1 fear1 meekness1 cheerfulness1 purity1 attendance on the ,wise1 discussion with associates1 argument with disciples1 sedateness2 ,scripture1 ,mishnah2 having little business1 little intercourse with the world1 little luxury1 little sleep1 little conversation1 little merriment1 forbearance1 a good heart1 faith in the ,wise1 the acceptance of chastisements1 ,he is one that acknowledges ,god1 that rejoices in his lot1 that makes a fence for his words1 that claims not goodness for himself1 that is loved1 that loves ,god1 that loves mankind1 that loves deeds of charity1 that loves uprightness1 that loves reproofs1 that shuns honour i4e4 when offered to himself1 that puffs not up his heart with his learning1 that is not insolent in his teaching1 that bears the yoke along with his companion1 that judges him favourably1 that establishes him upon truth1 that establishes him on peace1 that settles his heart in his study1 that asks and answers1 that hears and adds thereto1 that learns in order to teach1 and that learns in order to do1 that makes his teacher wise1 that makes sure what he hears1 that repeats a word in the name of him who said it4 ,the remainder of the passage has no bearing on the general subject1 being only a note upon the last clause4 ,the author is unknown4 ,the list1 which includes fifty-one qualifications instead of the forty-eight announced at the beginning1 varies slightly in different editions2 but it may be taken as representing substantially the ideal character developed by and under the religion of ,torah4 ,it may usefully be compared with the enumeration of ,christian virtues in ,rom4 xii42 and1 if that comparison is made1 there will be noticed that difference of tone and spirit to which ,i have already alluded4 ,but it will also appear1 from such comparison1 that there is no contrast as between black and white1 hypocrite and holy4 ,the ,pharisaic ideal may seem to be drawn in terms of more level prose than the ,christian ideal as set forth by ,paul1 and1 moreover1 to be one more capable of being attained1 in actual life4 ,there is an element of sober matter-of-fact in ,judaism1 and especially in ,pharisaic ,judaism1 which may not be sublime1 but has great value1 nevertheless1 in the practical conduct of life1 even the religious life4 ,some of the items included in the ,pharisaic list may seem to be of but little importance1 such as those having immediate reference to the study of ,torah--argument with disciples1 attendance on the wise1 and the repeating a saying in the name of him who said it4 ,these1 and similar items1 have to be judged1 of course1 by the standard of the supreme worth of the ,torah4 ,what that meant to the ,pharisee1 how much more than the mere study of a book1 ,i do not now need to repeat1 after all that has been said in previous chapters4 ,but many of the items indicate the great and substantial virtues and graces which belong to the higher human nature alike of the ,pharisee and of the ,christian4 ,they include love to ,god1 love towards all mankind 7let it be noted especially1 that love is not restricted to ,israel alone71 sympathy1 kindness1 forbearance1 purity1 meekness1 cheerfulness1 contentment1 patience under trial1 and that which a great ,rabbi once said excelled all other qualifications for the perfect life--a good heart4 ,a man who should strive after such an ideal of character and conduct would follow no unworthy quest2 and1 however different be the form in which he expresses his religious ideas from the form familiar to ,christians1 there is no fundamental difference between them in the desire to seek ,god and serve ,him with the noblest powers that ,he has given to the human soul4 ,it is not qu man1 but qu ,pharisee that the adherent of the religion of ,torah is sundered from the ,christian4 ,there was in him the same human nature1 capable of high development in its relation both to ,god and to man4 ,and the conception of ,torah was for the ,pharisee the agent in that development2 while for the ,christian the controlling factor is personal relation to ,christ4 ,i am not concerned to judge between these two4 ,i am concerned only to maintain that the development of human nature through the agency of ,torah did in fact take place1 and did produce very great and noble results4 ,pharisaism in history has had a hard fate4 ,for there has seldom been for ,christians the opportunity to know what ,pharisaism really meant1 and perhaps still more seldom the desire to use that opportunity4 ,it has served as a foil to ,christianity1 the way for such use being prepared by the ,new ,testament4 ,its supposed blemishes have been held up to view1 in order that the excellences of the ,christian religion might shine the more brightly by comparison4 ,if learned men like ,lightfoot1 ,wagenseil1 and especially ,eisenmenger1 explored the ,rabbinical literature well-nigh from end to end1 it was mainly for the purpose of reviling what they found there4 ,and1 in our own day1 though there is no longer to be found amongst ,talmudic scholars the scurrilous rancour of an ,eisenmenger1 there is still the inveterate habit of regarding ,rabbinical ,judaism as a means of exalting ,christianity2 there is nearly always the criticism of ,judaism from the ,christian point of view1 and judgment given upon premises which it never recognised4 ,there is scarcely any attempt to learn what it really meant to those who held it as their religion1 who lived by it1 and who died by it1 and have done for two thousand years4 ,is1 then1 the ,christian religion so weak that it must be advocated by blackening the character of its oldest rival8 ,and if it should appear1 as ,i trust in some degree it has appeared1 that the religion of ,torah as held by the ,pharisees was a real expression of spiritual experience1 the inspiration of holy living and holy dying1 is the spiritual power of ,christianity in any degree made less8 ,why should the one begrudge to the other whatever is good in it8 ,especially when the one has grown great and has become the religion of many nations1 while the other has remained as the inheritance of a lonely people8 ,why should not the ,christian be glad to own that the ,jew1 even the ,pharisee1 knew more of the deep things of ,god than he had supposed1 and after a way which was not the ,christian way1 yet loved the ,lord his ,god with heart and soul and strength and mind1--yes1 and his neighbour as himself8 ,the time is surely come when ,pharisaism should be recognised as a religion entitled to be judged on its own merits and by its own standards2 a religion widely different indeed from ,christianity in its methods and its forms of expression1 but yet a living faith1 capable of ministering to the real wants of human souls2 a religion sui generis1 but none the less to be acknowledged as one among the many expressions of divine revelation on the one hand and of human seeking after ,god on the other8 ,it is in the hope of helping towards such a sympathetic and unprejudiced recognition of the intrinsic worth of ,pharisaism that ,i have written this book4 ,what ,i have written is scanty indeed1 in view of the greatness of the subject2 but it may yet have been enough to give some idea of what ,pharisaism meant to the ,pharisee1 and to show that the ,saints and ,sages of ,israel1 those more particularly who are included amongst the ,scribes and ,pharisees1 were not what they have commonly been called and usually thought to have been4 ,saints and ,sages they were1 who served ,god faithfully1 and found in the ,torah ,his full and perfect word4 ,and to me1 though not walking in their way1 nor sharing in all their beliefs1 yet drawn to them across the ages1 they have been the companions and friends of many a year4 ,,index ,abahu1 ,r41 #bfe4 ,abraham1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bci4 ,akiba1 ,r41 #cb1 #ea1 #eb1 #ij1 #aec1 #aed1 #bdi1 #bfg4 ,am-ha-aretz1 #df-dg4 ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 #ch4 ,apocalyptists1 #f4 ,augustine1 #ij1 #bag4 ,authority1 seat of1 in ,pharisaism1 #cad-cag4 ,bacher1 ,w41 #bcb n4 ,bar ,coch'ba1 #ej4 ,belief1 heads of ,pharisaic1 #bea-bee4 ,character1 ,pharisaic ideal of1 #cbf-cca4 ,christianity1 a protest and revolt1 #ad4 founded on a ,person1 #aga4 ,circumcision1 #cj4 ,common ground of ,jesus and ,pharisees1 #aaf-abg4 ,conscience1 function of1 in ,pharisaism1 #cad4 ,corban1 #ada1 #aef-afa n4 ,divorce1 #ada1 #aec-aef4 ,eighteen ,benedictions 7see ,shemoneh ,esreh74 ,eisenmenger1 #ccb4 ,elders1 ,tradition of the1 #dh1 #eb1 #ic1 #ace1 #acg1 #bbi4 ,eleazar1 ,r41 #baa4 b4 ,dordaia1 #bab4 ,eliezer b4 ,horkenos1 ,r41 #aba1 #aei4 ,elisha b4 ,abujah1 #bfd4 ,essenes1 #f1 #df1 #dh4 ,exile1 the1 #h1 #aj1 #fd4 ,ezekiel1 #fd1 #acd4 ,ezra1 #e1 #g1 #h-bh1 #fb1 #gd4 ,faith1 #bah1 #bai4 ,father in ,heaven1 #abj-abd4 ,gabriel1 #bfc4 ,gamaliel1 ,r41 #afd4 ,gemara1 #ed4 ,germans1 in the ,talmud1 #g4 ,god1 ,pharisaic conception of1 #bea-beb1 #bei-bfg4 ,goths1 in the ,talmud1 #g4 ,greece1 influence of1 #cd-ch4 aber1 #ajg1 #bhh n4 aburoth1 #ajg4 ,haggadah1 #ia1 #if n41 #bbf and ,ch4 ,v4 passim1 #bdj-bdb4 ,halachah1 #bg1 #ij1 #ia1 #if-ajd1 #ahi n41 #bcj1 #bca1 #bdc4 asidim1 #cg-dj4 ,heaven1 #bed4 ,hedge1 for the ,torah1 #bb1 #bf-bh4 ,hell1 #bed4 ,hellenism1 #f1 #cf-ch1 #bjh4 ija1 ,r41 #e1 #cjh4 ,hillel1 #e1di1 #aec1 #afd1 #bch4 ,hypocrites1 #afe-afg4 ,ibn ,gebirol1 #bhe4 ,jabneh1 #di1 #ej1 #ea4 ,jannai1 ,r41 #cjg4 ,jehudah b4 ,baba1 ,r41 #ea4 ha-,kadosh 7see ,rabbi74 ha-,levi1 #bhe4 ,jesus1 #aab and ,ch4 ,,iii4 passim4 ,joanan b4 ,zaccai1 #di1 #ajd1 #aba1 #afd4 ,r4 7third century71 #cja1 #cjf4 ,john the ,baptist1 #aag1 #abh1 #abi4 ,joshua b4 ,levi1 ,r41 #bdh4 ,kingdom of ,heaven1 #aag1 #abi1 #acj1 #add4 ,law 771 #eh1 #ahc n41 #aid1 #aie1 #bjj4 ,levites1 #af4 ,lightfoot1 #ccb4 ,logos1 the1 #bfd4 ,lord's ,prayer1 the1 #aah4 ,maccabees1 the1 #ca1 #cf1 #ch-ci4 ,maimonides1 #bag1 #bce4 ,manasseh1 ,king1 #bac-bae4 ,mattathias1 #ch1 #ci4 ,mediator1 #bei1 #bfc-bfd4 ,megillath ,taanith1 #de4 ,meir1 ,r41 #eb4 ,memra1 #bfd4 ,merit1 #bgf-bgi4 of the ,fathers1 #bac1 #bgi4 ,messiah1 the1 #adb1 #adc1 #bej1 #bec1 #bed1 #bef4 ,metatron1 #bfd-bfe4 ,michael1 #bfc4 ,midrash1 #ee4 ,mishnah1 #dh1 #ec1 #ed1 #ajb1 #aeh1 #afj4 ,mitzvah 7,mitzvth71 #ajc-ajd1 #aif1 #aig1 #bga-bgf4 ,moses1 #aa1 #fj4 ,nehemiah1 #i1 #ac1 #ai4 ,r41 #bai4 ,nicodemus1 #aif n4 ,particularism1 #cbb-cbe4 ,paul1 #agb1 ,ch4 ,,iv4 passim1 #bff4 ,pentateuch1 the1 #fc1 #id1 #aac1 #bbh4 ,persia1 #cd4 ,pharisees1 ,pharisaism1 passim4 ,prayer1 ,book of ,common1 #cjd1 #cje4 the ,lord's1 #aah4 ,prayers1 ,pharisaic1 #bih-caj4 ,priest1 the ,high1 #dd4 ,priests1 #acb4 ,prophets1 the1 #fe1 #gc4 ,psalms1 ,book of1 #hd-hg4 ,rab1 #ajd4 ,rabbi 7,jehudah ha-,kadosh71 #eb1 #bdi4 ,repentance1 #baj-baf4 ,resh ,lakish1 #e4 ,retribution1 #bfg4 ,reward1 #bfg-bgf4 ,sabbath1 #cj1 #fg1 #ajd1 #ada1 #adf-aeb4 ,sadducees1 the1 #f1 #da1 #dc1 #de1 #dh4 ,sanhedrin1 the1 #ba1 #dd4 ,scribes 7see ,sopherim74 ,separation1 policy of1 #fg-gd4 ,sermon on the ,mount1 the1 #aag-aah4 ,shammai1 #aec1 #bch4 ,shechinah1 the1 #bfd1 #bgd4 ,shemoneh ,esreh1 the1 #bih-bii4 ,shulan ,aruch1 #bca n4 ,sin1 the ,unpardonable1 #aej n4 ,sopherim 7,scribes71 #af1 #ag1 #bj1 #ba1 #bi1 #ca1 #db1 #ib1 #acb4 ,spirit1 the ,holy1 #bah-bbj1 #bfd4 ,synagogue 7place of meeting71 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 #gh-hd1 #bjg4 the ,great1 #ah-bh1 #dc1 #hi1 #bih4 ,talmud1 the1 #c1 #d1 #g1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #be1 #bf1 #bg1 #bh1 #ed1 #ee1 #gg1 #ic1 #aae1 #abj1 #abb1 #aea n41 #aed1 #bah1 #bbf1 #bca n41 #bdh1 #bdi1 #bfj1 #bfd1 #bhd1 #bhe1 #bih1 #cjc1 #cjd1 #cjf1 #cba1 #cbb4 ,tanum b4 ,iscolastiki1 #cjh4 ,temple1 the1 #h1 #cj1 #dd1 #dh1 #ej1 #hj1 #ha1 #bef4 ,theology1 ,pharisaic1 ,ch4 ,v4 passim4 ,theology1 ,pharisaic1 not a system1 #bcc-bcg4 ,torah1 passim1 but especially ,ch4 ,,ii4 meaning of the term1 #eh-fa4 ,tosephta1 #ec4 ,tradition 7see ,elders74 ,uniformity of belief1 not required1 #bcd4 ,unpardonable ,sin1 the1 #aej n4 ,vows1 #aeg-aei4 ,wagenseil1 #ccb4 ,weber1 ,f41 #gg1 #abf1 #bbg1 #bce1 #bcf1 #bfj4 ,wise1 the1 #ej1 #fe n4 ,zadok1 ,r41 #aei4 ,zugoth1 the1 #ba4 ,,old ,,testament ,,passages ,,cited ,gen4 i4 #a #ge i4 #bg #aee xv4 #f #bai ,exod4 xii4 #b #ge xiv4 #ca #bai xv4 #a #bai xx4 #a #bch n41 #bfa xx4 #b #bfe xx4 #ab #aeg ,num4 xxx4 #b #aeg ,deut4 iv4 #g #bfb1 #bgd iv4 #cj #bad xvii4 #aa #ei xxiv4 #a #aed1 xxviii4 #fc #b ,chron4 xxxiii4 #ac #bad ,neh4 x4 #h1 #ai1 #fg ,ps4 i4 #bhg i4 #b #bge xviii4 #bb #bhg xix4 #bhg xxv4 #aj #bhg lxii4 #aa #bch n4 ciii4 #bid cxix4 #bhg-big cxix4 #fc #bhh n4 ,prov4 i4 #h #ei ,isa4 xliv4 #f #bfe li4 #g #ei lxiii4 #af #abc ,jer4 xxiii4 #bi #bch n4 ,joel ii4 #cb #bfc #a ,macc4 vii4 #ac #ci ,,new ,,testament ,,passages ,,cited ,matt4 v4 #ag1 #bj #add vii4 #bi #acj x4 #bi #bfb xii4 #cb #aej n4 xxiii4 #afc #afc ,mark ii4 #g #afh iii4 #a-f #adf iii4 #bb-cj #adi n4 iii4 #bi #aej n4 vi4 #cd #dg vii4 #a-bc #aef vii4 #e #dh x4 #b #aec xii4 #cd #aib ,luke iv4 #bc #aag xviii4 #aa1 #ab #cja ,john ii4 #be #agj n4 vii4 #ai #aie n4 vii4 #di #df1 #cbc viii4 #cb #caf xii4 #db #aif ,rom4 i4 #ba1 #bd-be #ahb iii4 #aj #ahb iii4 #ba #ahc xi4 #a1 #be #ahf xii4 #cbi #a ,cor4 xiii4 #caa #b ,cor4 v4 #ag #agh ,,rabbinical ,,passages ,,cited #a4 ,,mishnah ,megillah iv4 #i #abb n4 ,joma iii4 #e #dd ,sotah i4 #g #aag ix4 #aba ,nedarim ix4 #a #aei ,aboth i4 #b #bb ii4 #ac #cje iii4 #ae #bfg iv4 #e #bgc vi4 #b #cag vi4 #f #cbg-cbh #b4 ,,babylonian ,,talmud ,berachoth #i;b #aag #aj;b #bgi #af;b #cjb #ag #bgd #cc;b #bfg ,shabbath #ac;b #acd ,joma #he;b #aeb #hg;b #cja ,succah #bj #e aggigah #ae #bfd ,kiddushin #ci;b #bgd ,sotah #bb;b #afe n4 ,gittin #ef;b #di ,nedarim #ch #beh n4 ,baba ,bathra #ab #fe n4 ,sanhedrin #ad #ea #ajg;b #aae ,abodah ,zarah #c;b #eh #ag #bab #ai #bge ullin #adb #bgd #c4 ,,jerusalem ,,talmud ,berachoth #b #cjf #c;b #bch #g;d #cjf #ac #bfj1 #bfc ,peah #ae;d #aji ,shebiith #ch;d #bfb ,joma #de;b #g ,moed ,katan #hc;d #aej n4 ,baba ,kamma #f;c #aej n4 ,sanhedrin #bh;c #bac #d4 ,,midrash ,bereshith ,rabbah #eb;b #aag #hi #ajd #acc;c #bdf ,shemoth ,rabbah #ej;b #bfa #ea;b #bfe ,debarim ,rabbah #ajb #bfb ,pesikta d4 ,r4 ,cahana #dj;b #aje #afc;b #baa #afe ibid4 ,mechilta1 ,beshalla #cc;b #bai ,tanuma1 ,bereshith #b;b #aaj #d #ge ,tanuma1 ,noah #ae #beh n4 ,tanuma1 ,vajera #de;b ibid4 ,tanuma1 ,vajei #aaj #bah ,yalkut ,shimoni 7on ,ps4 lxii1 #aa7 #ghc #bch n4 ,,editions ,,used ,mishnah1 ,amsterdam1 #afge4 ,babylonian ,talmud1 ,wilna1 #ahhj-ahhd4 ,jerusalem ,talmud1 ,krotoshin1 #ahff4 ,midrash ,rabbah1 ,wilna1 #ahhg4 ,pesikta1 edited by ,buber1 #ahfh4 ,mechilta1 edited by ,friedmann1 #ahgj4 ,tanuma1 edited by ,buber1 #ahhe4 ,yalkut ,shimoni1 ,warsaw1 #ahgf4 ,a ,,catalogue ,,of ,,williams ,,norgate',s ,,publications ,,addis 7,w4 ,e41 ,m4,a474 ,hebrew ,religion to the ,establishment of ,judaism under ,ezra4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,see ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cf4 ,,ainsworth ,,davis 7,j4 ,r47 and ,h4 ,j4 ,,fleure1 ,b4,sc4 ,patella 7the ,common ,limpet74 ,with #d ,plates4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,see ,liverpool ,marine ,biology ,committee ,memoirs1 p4 #db4 ,,allin 7,rev4 ,,thos474 ,universalism asserted as the ,hope of the ,gospel on the ,authority of ,reason1 the ,fathers1 and ,holy ,scripture4 ,with a ,preface by ,edna ,lyall1 and a ,letter from ,canon ,wilberforce4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,alviella 7,count ,,goblet ,d'74 ,lectures on the ,origin and the ,growth of the ,conception of ,god1 as ,illustrated by ,anthropology and ,history4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,p4 ,h4 ,wicksteed4 ,hibbert ,lectures #ahia4 ,cloth1 ,library ,ed41 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,popular ,ed41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,andrews 7,,charles ,m',,lean1 ,ph4,d41 ,l4,h4,d474 ,the ,colonial ,period4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,anglican ,,liberalism4 ,by ,twelve ,churchmen4 ,rev4 ,hubert ,handley1 ,prof4 ,f4 ,c4 ,burkitt1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,d41 ,rev4 ,j4 ,r4 ,wilkinson1 ,m4,a41 ,rev4 ,c4 ,r4 ,shaw ,stewart1 ,m4,a41 ,rev4 ,hastings ,rashdall1 ,d4,litt41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,prof4 ,percy ,gardner1 ,d4,litt41 ,,ll4,d41 ,sir ,c4 ,t4 ,dyke ,acland1 ,rev4 ,a4 ,j4 ,carlyle1 ,m4,a41 ,rev4 ,h4 ,g4 ,woods1 ,d4,d41 ,rev4 ,a4 ,a4 ,caldcott1 ,d4,litt41 ,d4,d41 ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,morrison1 ,,ll4,d41 ,rev4 ,a4 ,l4 ,lilley1 ,m4,a4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,,arnold 7,,james ,,loring1 ,ph4,d474 ,the ,motor and the ,dynamo4 #hvo1 pages vi #agh4 ,with #aff ,figures4 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,ashworth 7,j4 ,h41 ,d4,sc474 ,arenicola 7the ,lug-,worm74 ,with #h ,plates4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,see ,liverpool ,marine ,biology ,committee ,memoirs1 p4 #db4 ,,avebury 7,lord1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,f4,r4,s474 ,prehistoric ,times1 as ,illustrated by ,ancient ,remains and the ,manners and ,customs of ,modern ,savages4 ,seventh ,edition1 completely revised by the author just prior to his decease1 and containing much new material and many new ,illustrations of important recent discoveries4 ,large demy #hvo1 cloth4 ,with #c ,illustrations in colour and nearly #cjj other ,illustrations4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,bacon 7,professor ,b4 ,w41 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,d474 ,the ,making of the ,new ,testament4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ef in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,bacon 7,,roger71 the ,opus ,majus of4 ,edited1 with ,introduction and ,analytical ,table1 by ,john ,henry ,bridges1 ,fellow of ,royal ,college of ,physicians1 sometime ,fellow of ,oriel ,college4 ,complete in #c vols41 #cas4 #f;d42 ,vol4 ,,iii4 sold separately1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,bailey 7,,john1 ,m4,a474 ,dr ,johnson and his ,circle4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,forming ,vol4 #fd in ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,balsillie 7,,david1 ,m4,a474 ,an ,examination of ,professor ,bergson's ,philosophy4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 net4 ,,barrett 7,sir ,w4 ,f41 ,f4,r4,s474 ,psychical ,research4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #bh in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,barry 7,,william1 ,d4,d474 ,the ,papacy and ,modern ,times 7#acjc-ahgj74 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ad in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,baur 7,f4 ,c474 ,church ,history of the ,first ,three ,centuries4 ,translated from the ,third ,german ,edition4 ,edited by ,rev4 ,allan ,menzies4 #b vols4 #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 --,paul1 the ,apostle of ,jesus ,christ1 his ,life and ,work1 his ,epistles and ,doctrine4 ,a ,contribution to a ,critical ,history of ,primitive ,christianity4 ,edited by ,rev4 ,allan ,menzies4 #bnd ,edition4 #b vols4 #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 ,,bayley 7,,harold74 ,the ,lost ,language of ,symbolism4 ,with above #adjj symbols4 #b vols4 ,medium #hvo1 cloth1 #bes4 net4 ,,beard 7,rev4 ,dr ,c474 ,lectures on the ,reformation of the ,sixteenth ,century in its ,relation to ,modern ,thought and ,knowledge4 ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhc4 #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #crd ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 --,the ,universal ,christ1 and other ,sermons4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,begbie 7,,harold74 ,see ,character and ,life1 p4 #e4 ,,belloc 7,,hilaire1 ,m4,a474 ,the ,french ,revolution4 7,with ,maps47 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth4 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #c in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 --,warfare in ,england4 7,with ,maps47 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 #ea in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,benedict 7,f4 ,e41 ,ph4,d474 ,elementary ,organic ,analysis4 ,small #hvo4 ,pages vi #hb4 #ae ,illustrations4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,,bennett 7,e4 ,n41 ,m4,a474 ,problems of ,village ,life4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ha in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,bergey 7,d4 ,g474 ,handbook of ,practical ,hygiene4 ,small #hvo4 ,pages v #afd4 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,bevan 7,rev4 ,j4 ,o41 ,m4,a41 ,f4,g4,s474 ,the ,genesis and ,evolution of the ,individual ,soul scientifically ,treated4 ,including also ,problems relating to ,science and ,immortality4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,bible4 ,translated by ,samuel ,sharpe1 being a ,revision of the ,authorised ,english ,version4 #fth ,edition of the ,old1 #ajth ,edition of the ,new ,testament4 #hvo1 roan4 #es4 ,,biltz 7,,henry74 ,the ,practical ,methods of determining ,molecular ,weights4 ,translated by ,jones4 ,small #hvo4 ,pages viii #bde4 #dd ,illustrations4 #hs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,blackburn 7,,helen74 ,women's ,suffrage4 ,a ,record of the ,women's ,suffrage ,movement in the ,british ,isles1 with a ,biographical ,sketch of ,miss ,becker4 ,with portraits4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #fs4 ,,bo,,elle 7,,jas474 ,french ,composition through ,lord ,macaulay's ,english4 ,edited1 with ,notes1 ,hints1 and ,introduction1 by the late ,james ,boelle1 ,b4,a4 7,univ4 ,gall471 ,officier d',acadmie1 ,senior ,french ,master1 ,dulwich ,college1 etc41 etc4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,frederick the ,great4 #cs4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,warren ,hastings4 #cs4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,lord ,clive4 #cs4 --,see ,victor ,hugo1 ,les ,misrables and ,notre ,dame4 ,,bolton4 ,history of the ,thermometer4 #abmo4 #if pages4 #f ,illustrations4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,,bousset 7,prof4 ,,wilhelm74 ,jesus4 ,trans4 by ,janet ,penrose ,trevelyan1 and ed4 by ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,morrison1 ,,ll4,d4 ,cr4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ad in the ,cr4 ,theological ,library2 see p4 #cf4 ,,boutroux 7,,emile74 ,education and ,ethics4 ,authorised ,translation by ,fred4 ,rothwell4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 net4 ,,bradley 7,a4 ,g474 ,canada4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as1 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #cd in the ,home ,university ,library2 see list1 p4 #ci4 ,,brailsford 7,h4 ,n474 ,shelley1 ,godwin1 and their ,circle4 ,f'cap #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d1 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #gg in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci1 ,,brauns 7,dr ,,reinhard74 ,the ,mineral ,kingdom4 ,the author is the well-known ,professor of ,mineralogy in the ,university of ,bonn4 ,translated with additions by ,l4 ,j4 ,spencer1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,g4,s41 ,assistant in the ,mineral ,department of the ,british ,museum4 ,in demy #dto1 comprising #ia full page plates beautifully executed in colours1 #gc of which are chromo-lithographs1 #ah photographic reproductions1 and #bge figures in the text4 ,bound in half-morocco4 #b1 #afs4 net4 ,,bremond 7,,henri74 ,the ,mystery of ,newman4 ,with ,introduction by the late ,rev4 ,george ,tyrrell1 ,m4,a4 ,medium #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,brewster 7,h4 ,b474 ,the ,theories of ,anarchy and of ,law4 ,a ,midnight ,debate4 ,crown #hvo1 parchment4 #es4 --,the ,prison4 ,a ,dialogue4 ,crown #hvo1 parchment4 #es4 --,the ,statuette and the ,background4 ,crown #hvo1 parchment4 #ds4 ,,brewster 7,prof4 ,w4 ,t471 ,editor of ,the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 --,the ,writing of ,english4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #gc in ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,bridges 7,,john ,,henry1 ,m4,b41 ,f4,r4,c4,p474 ,the ,life and ,work of ,roger ,bacon4 ,being an ,introduction to the ,opus ,majus4 ,edited with ,additional ,notes and ,tables by ,h4 ,gordon ,jones1 ,f4,i4,c41 ,f4,c4,s4 ,,bruce 7,,alex41 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,c4,p4,e474 ,a ,topographical ,atlas of the ,spinal ,cord4 ,f'cap4 folio1 half-leather4 #b1 #bs4 net4 ,,bruce 7,dr ,w4 ,s41 ,f4,r4,s4,e474 ,polar ,exploration4 7,with ,maps47 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #h in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,burkitt 7,prof4 ,f4 ,c474 ,euphemia and the ,goth4 ,with the ,acts of ,martyrdom of the ,confessors of ,edessa4 #bas4 net4 ,see ,text and ,translation ,society1 p4 #dc4 ,,bury 7,prof4 ,j4 ,b41 ,litt4,d474 ,a ,history of ,freedom of ,thought4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs1 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #gd in ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,cameron 7,,frank ,k474 ,the ,soil ,solution3 the ,nutrient ,medium for ,plant ,growth4 #hvo1 cloth4 #c ,illustrations4 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,campbell 7,rev4 ,,colin1 ,d4,d474 ,the ,first ,three ,gospels in ,greek4 ,arranged in parallel columns4 #bnd ,edition1 ,revised4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,carpenter 7,rt4 ,rev4 ,w4 ,,boyd74 ,some ,pages of ,my ,life4 ,by the present ,canon of ,westminster and late ,bishop of ,ripon4 ,with portrait of the author as frontispiece1 and other interesting portraits4 ,medium #hvo1 cloth1 gilt top4 #aes4 net4 --,the ,spiritual ,message of ,dante4 ,with ,illus4 ,cloth4 #es4 net4 ,,carpenter 7,prof4 ,j4 ,e41 ,,ll4,d474 ,comparative ,religion4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #fh in ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,cartwright 7,captain7 and ,his ,labrador ,journal4 ,edited by ,charles ,wendell ,townsend1 ,m4,d4 ,with an ,introduction by ,dr ,wilfred ,t4 ,grenfell4 ,with ,illustrations from old engravings1 photographs and a map4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 net4 ,,catalogue ,,de ,,la ,,bibliotheque ,,de ,l'l,n,s,t,i,t,u,t ,,nobel ,,norvegien4 #bej pp4 ,sewed1 #ajs4 net4 ,,cecil 7,lord ,,hugh1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,p474 ,conservatism4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #aa in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,chadwick7,,herbert ,,clifton74 ,antedon4 ,with #g ,plates4 #bs4 #f;d1 net4 ,see ,liverpool ,marine ,biology ,memoirs1 p4 #db4 --,echinus4 ,with #e ,plates4 ,price #bs4 net4 ,see ,liverpool ,marine ,biology ,memoirs1 p4 #db4 ,,channing',s ,,complete ,,works4 ,including ,the ,perfect ,life1 with a ,memoir4 ,centennial ,edition4 #dto ,ed4 ,cloth4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,chapman 7,prof4 ,s4 ,j41 ,m4 ,a474 ,elements of ,political ,economy4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ei in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,character ,,and ,,life3 ,a ,symposium4 ,by ,dr ,alfred ,russel ,wallace1 ,john ,a4 ,hobson1 ,harold ,begbie1 ,walter ,crane1 and the late ,dr ,emil ,reich4 ,arranged by ,percy ,l4 ,parker1 ,editor of ,public ,opinion4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,chesterton 7,g4 ,k474 ,the ,victorian ,age in ,literature4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #gj in ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,cheyne 7,rev4 ,t4 ,k41 ,d4,litt41 ,d4,d474 ,bible ,problems and the ,new ,material for their ,solution4 ,a ,plea for ,thoroughness of ,investigation1 addressed to ,churchmen and ,scholars4 ,crown #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,see ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cf4 ,,child ,,and ,,religion1 ,,the4 ,essays4 ,by ,prof4 ,henry ,jones1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d41 ,university of ,glasgow2 ,c4 ,f4 ,g4 ,masterman1 ,m4,a42 ,prof4 ,george ,t4 ,ladd1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d42 ,rev4 ,f4 ,r4 ,tennant1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc42 ,rev4 ,j4 ,cynddylan ,jones1 ,d4,d42 ,rev4 ,canon ,hensley ,henson1 ,m4,a42 ,rev4 ,robert ,f4 ,horton1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,d42 ,rev4 ,g4 ,hill1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,d42 ,rev4 ,j4 ,j4 ,thornton2 ,rev4 ,rabbi ,a4 ,a4 ,green2 ,prof4 ,joseph ,agar ,beet1 ,d4,d4 ,edited by ,thomas ,stephens1 ,b4,a4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,see ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cf4 ,,clarke 7,,charles ,,baron1 ,f4,r4,s474 ,illustrations of ,cyperace4 ,royal #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,coffey 7,,george74 ,guide to the ,celtic ,antiquities of the ,christian ,period preserved in the ,national ,museum1 ,dublin4 ,second ,edition1 with #ai ,plates and #aad ,illustrations4 ,sewed1 #bs4 net2 cloth1 #cs4 net4 --,new ,grange 7,brugh na ,boinne7 and other ,incised ,tumuli in ,ireland4 ,with #i ,plates and #ie ,illustrations4 ,cloth1 #fs4 net4 ,,coit 7,,stanton1 ,ph4,d474 ,national ,idealism and a ,state ,church4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 --,national ,idealism and the ,book of ,common ,prayer4 ,an ,essay in ,re-,interpretation and ,revision4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth1 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,colby 7,,albert ,,ladd74 ,reinforced ,concrete in ,europe4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #ads4 #f;d4 net4 ,,cole 7,,frank ,j471 and ,,james ,,johnstone4 ,pleuronectes4 ,with #aa ,plates4 #gs4 net4 ,see ,liverpool ,marine ,biology ,memoirs1 p4 #db4 ,,collins 7,f4 ,h474 ,an ,epitome of ,synthetic ,philosophy4 ,with a ,preface by ,herbert ,spencer4 #eth ,edition4 ,the ,synthetic ,philosophy ,completed4 #hvo1 cloth4 ,reduced to #es4 net4 ,,common ,,prayer ,,for ,,christian ,,worship3 ,in ,ten ,services for ,morning and ,evening4 #cbmo1 cloth1 #as4 #f;d42 #hvo1 cloth1 #cs42 with ,anthems1 #ds4 ,,connolly 7,,dom4 ,r4 ,h471 and ,h4 ,w4 ,,codrington4 ,two ,commentaries on the ,jacobite ,liturgy4 ,see ,text and ,translation ,society1 p4 #dc4 ,,conybeare 7,f4 ,c41 ,m4,a474 ,the ,ring of ,pope ,xystus3 a collection of ,aphorisms and ,short ,sayings in use among ,christian ,communities in the ,second ,century4 ,beautifully printed on hand-made paper4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 --,edited by4 ,an ,ancient ,armenian ,version of the ,apocalypse of ,st ,john3 also the ,armenian ,texts of ,cyril of ,alexandria1 ,scholia de ,incarnatione1 and ,epistle to ,theodosius upon ,easter4 ,see ,text and ,translation ,society1 p4 #dc4 ,,cornill 7,prof4 ,,carl74 ,the ,introduction to the ,canonical ,books of the ,old ,testament4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,see ,theological ,translation ,library1 p4 #dd4 ,,crane 7,,walter71 contributor to ,character and ,life1 see p4 #e4 ,,creighton 7,mrs74 ,missions3 their ,rise and ,development4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,volume #fj in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,creighton 7,,chas41 ,m4,d474 ,cancer and other ,tumours of the ,breast4 ,researches showing their true seat and cause4 ,the ,author was sometime ,demonstrator of ,anatomy1 ,cambridge ,medical ,school1 and is the author of ,bovine ,tuberculosis in ,man1 etc4 ,with #bd ,lithographic ,plates containing #ach figures from the ,author's drawings4 ,royal #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 --,contributions to the ,physiological ,theory of ,tuberculosis4 ,royal #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,cussans 7,,margaret1 ,b4,sc474 ,gammarus4 ,with #d ,plates4 #bs4 net4 ,see ,liverpool ,marine ,biology ,memoirs1 p4 #dc4 ,,dakin 7,w4 ,j41 ,m4,sc474 ,pecton4 ,with #i ,plates4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,see ,liverpool ,marine ,biology ,memoirs1 p4 #dc4 ,,darbishire 7,,otto ,v474 ,chondrus4 ,with #g ,plates4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,see ,liverpool ,marine ,biology ,memoirs1 p4 #db4 ,,daudet 7,a474 ,contes ,militaires4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,see ,army ,series1 p4 #ce4 ,,davenport 7,,charles ,,benedict74 ,heredity in relation to ,eugenics4 ,the ,author is ,director1 ,department of ,experimental ,evolution1 ,cold ,spring ,harbour1 ,long ,island1 ,n4,y42 ,secretary of the ,eugenics ,section ,american ,breeders' ,association4 ,with ,diagrams and ,coloured ,plate4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #hs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,davids 7,mrs ,,rhys1 ,m4,a474 ,buddhism4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #dg in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,davids 7,t4 ,w4 ,,rhys74 ,lectures on ,some ,points in the ,history of ,indian ,buddhism4 ,the ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahha4 #bnd ,edition4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 ,library ,edition1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,davis 7,h4 ,w4 ,c41 ,m4,a474 ,medival ,europe4 7,with ,maps47 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ac in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,delbos 7,l474 ,nautical ,terms in ,english and ,french and ,french and ,english4 ,with ,notes and ,tables4 ,for the use of ,naval ,officers and ,naval ,cadets4 ,by ,leon ,delbos1 ,m4,a4 #dth ,edition1 with additional ,plates4 ,cloth4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 --,the ,student's ,graduated ,french ,reader4 ,remodelled and rewritten4 ,edited1 with ,notes and a ,complete ,vocabulary4 ,first ,year--,part ,i4 ,anecdotes1 ,tales1 and ,exercises4 ,part ,,ii4 ,tales1 ,historical ,pieces1 and ,exercises1 #as4 #f;d4 each4 ,,delitzsch 7,dr ,,friedrich74 ,babel and ,bible4 ,authorised ,translation4 ,edited1 by ,rev4 ,c4 ,h4 ,w4 ,johns4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,see ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cf4 ,,dewall 7,,johannes ,v474 ,auf ,verlornem ,posten and ,nazzarena ,danti4 #cs4 ,see ,army ,series1 p4 #ce4 ,,dibblee 7,g4 ,,binney74 ,the ,newspaper4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #fi in ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,dickson 7,h4 ,n41 ,d4,sc474 ,climate and ,weather4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #cf in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,diggle 7,rt4 ,rev4 ,j4 ,w41 ,d4,d474 ,the ,foundations of ,duty or1 ,man's ,duty to ,god1 ,his ,fellowmen1 and ,himself4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,dillmann 7,a474 ,ethiopic ,grammar4 ,translated from ,c4 ,bezold's ,second ,german ,edition4 ,by ,rev4 ,j4 ,a4 ,crichton1 ,d4,d4 ,with ,index of ,passages1 ,philological ,tables1 etc4 #a vol41 royal #hvo4 #bes4 net4 ,d,,pavamsa 7,,the73 ,a ,buddhist ,historical ,record in the ,pali ,language4 ,edited1 with an ,english ,translation1 by ,dr ,h4 ,oldenberg4 #hvo1 cloth4 #bas4 ,,dobsch,,tz 7,,ernst ,,von1 ,d4,d474 ,christian ,life in the ,primitive ,church4 ,the ,author is ,professor of ,new ,testament ,theology in the ,university of ,strassburg4 ,translated by ,rev4 ,g4 ,bremner1 and edited by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,morrison1 ,,ll4,d4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,see ,theological ,translation ,library1 ,new ,series1 p4 #dd4 ,,dole 7,,charles ,f474 ,the ,ethics of ,progress1 or the ,theory and the ,practice by which ,civilisation proceeds4 ,small demy #hvo1 cloth4 #fs4 net4 ,,drummond 7,dr ,,james1 ,,ll4,d474 ,philo ,judus2 or1 ,the ,jewish ,alexandrian ,philosophy in its ,development and ,completion4 #b vols4 #hvo1 cloth4 #bas4 --,via1 ,veritas1 ,vita4 ,lectures on ,christianity in its most ,simple and ,intelligible ,form4 ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahid4 ,demy #hvo4 ,library ,edition1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,duncan 7,,david1 ,,ll4,d474 ,the ,life and ,letters of ,herbert ,spencer4 ,with #ag ,illustrations4 ,cheap ,reissue4 #fs4 net4 ,,emery 7,f4 ,b41 ,m4,a474 ,elementary ,chemistry4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 #hs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,engelhardt 7,v474 ,the ,electrolysis of ,water4 #hvo4 ,pages x #adj4 #ij ,illustrations4 #es4 net4 ,,england ,,and ,,germany4 ,by ,leaders of ,public ,opinion in both ,empires1 among whom may be mentioned3--,rt4 ,hon4 ,arthur ,j4 ,balfour1 ,viscount ,haldane of ,cloan1 ,rt4 ,hon4 ,a4 ,bonar ,law1 ,baron ,alfred von ,rothschild1 ,rt4 ,hon4 ,herbert ,samuel1 ,sir ,rufus ,isaacs1 ,norman ,angell1 ,j4 ,ramsay ,mac,donald1 ,m4,p41 ,j4 ,a4 ,spender1 ,excell4 ,karl ,galster1 ,ernst ,basserman1 ,professor ,dr ,riesser1 ,baron ,wilhelm von ,pechmann1 ,professor ,wilhelm ,wundt1 ,dr ,walther ,rathenau1 ,august ,thyssen1 sen41 ,his ,excellency ,dr ,adolf ,wermuth1 ,excell4 von ,holleben1 etc4 ,with ,portraits4 ,stiff wrapper4 #as4 net4 ,,erskine 7,prof4 ,j47 and ,prof4 ,w4 ,p4 ,,trent4 ,great ,writers of ,america4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #eb in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,eucken 7,dr ,,rudolf1 ,jena74 ,knowledge and ,life4 ,cloth1 #es4 net4 ,see ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cf4 --,present ,day ,ethics and their ,relation to the ,spiritual ,life4 ,cloth4 #cs4 net4 ,see ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cf4 --,the ,life of the ,spirit4 ,an ,introduction to ,philosophy4 ,fourth ,impression4 #hvo1 cloth4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,see ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cf4 ---,the ,truth of ,religion4 ,translated from the latest revised ,german edition by ,rev4 ,w4 ,tudor ,jones1 ,ph4,d41 with a special preface by the ,author4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,see ,theological ,translation ,library1 ,new ,series1 p4 #dd4 ,,eug,,ne-,,fasnacht 7,g474 ,eugne's ,student's ,comparative ,grammar of the ,french ,language1 with an ,historical ,sketch of the ,formation of ,french4 ,the ,author was for many years ,french ,master1 ,westminster ,school4 ,for the use of ,public ,schools4 ,with ,exercises4 #bcrd ,edition1 thoroughly revised4 ,square crown #hvo1 cloth1 #es42 or separately1 ,grammar1 #cs42 ,exercises1 #bs4 #f;d4 --,french ,method4 ,elementary ,french ,lessons preparatory to the same ,author's ,grammar4 #ahth ,edition4 ,cloth4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,evans 7,,george74 ,an ,essay on ,assyriology4 ,with #dto ,tables of ,assyrian ,inscriptions4 #hvo1 cloth1 #es4 ,,ewald',s 7,dr ,h474 ,commentary on the ,prophets of the ,old ,testament4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,f4 ,smith4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,general ,introduction1 ,yoel1 ,amos1 ,hosea1 and ,zakharya #i-aa4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,yesaya1 ,obadya1 and ,mikah4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,nahm1 ,ssephanya1 ,habaqqq1 ,zakhrya1 ,yremya4 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,hezekiel1 ,yesaya xl4-lxvi4 ,vol4 ,v4 ,haggai1 ,zakharya1 ,malaki1 ,jona1 ,baruc1 ,daniel1 ,appendix and ,index4 #e vols4 #hvo1 cloth4 #cjs4 ,see ,theological ,translation ,library1 ,old ,series1 p4 #de4 --,commentary on the ,psalms4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,e4 ,johnson1 ,m4,a4 #b vols4 #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 --,commentary on the ,book of ,job1 with ,translation4 ,translated from the ,german by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,frederick ,smith1 #hvo1 cloth4 #fs4 ,,faguet 7,prof4 ,,emile1 of the ,french ,academy74 ,initiation into ,philosophy4 ,translated by ,sir ,home ,gordon1 ,bart4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 --,initiation into ,literature4 ,translated by ,sir ,home ,gordon1 ,bart4 ,cloth4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,farmer 7,prof4 ,j4 ,b474 ,plant ,life4 7,illustrated47 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #gb in ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,farnell 7,l4 ,r41 ,d4,litt474 ,the ,evolution of ,religion3 an ,anthropological ,study4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,see ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cf1 --,the ,higher ,aspects of ,greek ,religion4 ,lectures delivered in ,oxford and ,london4 ,being ,vol4 #a of ,new ,series of ,hibbert ,lectures4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #fs4 net4 ,see ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #ch4 ,,farquharson 7,rt4 ,hon4 ,,robert1 ,,ll4,d47 ,the ,house of ,commons from ,within1 and other ,reminiscences4 ,med4 #hvo4 ,with portrait by ,j4 ,s4 ,sargent1 ,r4,a41 never before published4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,farrie 7,,hugh74 ,highways and ,byways in ,literature4 ,a volume of original ,studies4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 net4 ,,findlay 7,prof4 ,j4 ,j41 ,m4,a41 ,ph4,d474 ,the ,school4 ,an ,introduction to the ,study of ,education4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ch in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,fischer 7,prof4 ,,emil1 of ,berlin ,university74 ,introduction to the ,preparation of ,organic ,compounds4 ,translated with the ,author's sanction from the new ,german edition by ,r4 ,v4 ,stanford1 ,b4,sc1 ,ph4,d4 ,with figures in the text4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #ds4 net4 ,,fisher 7,,herbert1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,b4,a41 ,,ll4,d471 ,editor1 ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 --,napoleon4 7,with ,maps47 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #fa in ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,four ,,gospels 7,,the7 ,,as ,,historical ,,records4 #hvo1 cloth4 #aes4 ,,fowler 7,w4 ,,warde1 ,m4,a474 ,rome4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #db in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #dj4 ,,fox 7,,frank71 ,author of ,ramparts of ,empire1 etc4 ,problems of the ,pacific4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 ,with ,map4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,fraps 7,g4 ,s41 ,ph4,d474 ,principles of ,agricultural ,chemistry4 #hvo4 ,pages x #adj4 #ij ,illustrations4 #ags4 net4 ,,fry 7,the ,rt4 ,hon4 ,sir ,,edward1 ,g4,c4,b11 etc474 ,some ,intimations of ,immortality4 ,from the ,physical and ,psychical ,nature of ,man4 ,royal #hvo1 sewed1 #as4 net4 ,,gamble 7,prof4 ,f4 ,w41 ,d4,sc41 ,f4,r4,s474 ,the ,animal ,world4 ,with ,introduction by ,sir ,oliver ,lodge4 ,many ,illustrations4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ai in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,gardner 7,prof4 ,,percy1 ,d4,litt41 ,f4,b4 ,a41 ,oxford74 ,modernity and the ,churches4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,see ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cf4 --,the ,religious ,experience of ,st ,paul4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 net4 ,see ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cf4 ,,geldart 7,w4 ,m41 ,m4,a41 ,b4,c4,l474 ,elements of ,english ,law4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #cj in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,gibbs 7,,philip74 ,the ,eighth ,year4 ,the ,dangerous ,year of ,marriage4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #bs4 net4 ,,gibson 7,r4 ,j4 ,h47 and ,,helen ,p4 ,,auld1 ,b4,sc4 ,codium4 ,with #c ,plates4 ,price #as4 #f;d4 net4 ,see ,liverpool ,marine ,biology ,memoirs1 p4 #db4 ,,giles 7,h4 ,a41 ,,ll4,d474 ,the ,civilisation of ,china4 ,by the well-known ,professor of ,chinese in the ,university of ,cambridge4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #be in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #dj4 ,,gill 7,,charles74 ,the ,book of ,enoch the ,prophet4 ,translated from an ,ethiopic ,,ms4 in the ,bodleian ,library1 by the late ,richard ,laurence1 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,archbishop of ,cashel4 ,the ,text corrected from his latest ,notes by ,charles ,gill4 ,reissue1 #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 ,,gilman 7,a4 ,f474 ,a ,laboratory ,outline for ,determinations in ,quantitative ,chemical ,analysis4 #hh pp4 ,cloth1 #ds4 net4 ,,given 7,,john ,l474 ,making a ,newspaper4 ,cloth1 above #cjj pages4 #fs4 net4 ,,gomme 7,sir ,,laurence1 ,l41 ,f4,s4,a474 ,london4 ,with number of ,plates and other ,illustrations4 #gs4 #f;d1 net4 ,,gooch 7,g4 ,p41 ,m4,a474 ,the ,history of our ,time1 #ahhe-aiac4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #bc in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,gould 7,f4 ,j474 ,noble ,pages from ,german ,history4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 ,illustrated4 #as4 #f;d4 net4 ,,gravely 7,f4 ,h41 ,m4,sc474 ,polychaet ,larvae4 ,with #d plates4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,see ,liverpool ,marine ,biology ,committee ,memoirs1 p4 #db4 ,,gray 7,rev4 ,h4 ,b41 ,d4,d474 ,the ,public ,schools and the ,empire4 ,a plea for higher education in citizenship4 ,cloth4 #fs4 net4 ,,green 7,rt4 ,rev4 ,a4 ,v41 ,d4,d41 ,bishop of ,ballarat74 ,the ,ephesian ,canonical ,writings3 ,being the ,moorhouse ,lectures for #aiaj4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 net4 ,,green 7,mrs ,j4 ,r474 ,irish ,nationality4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #f in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,gregory 7,prof4 ,j4 ,w41 ,f4,r4,s474 ,the ,making of the ,earth4 7,with #ch ,maps and ,figures47 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ec in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #da4 ,,grieben',s ,,english ,,guides4 ,practical and handy2 size1 suitable for the pocket1 #f x #d1 and bound in cloth4 ,switzerland4 ,a practical guide with seven ,maps4 ,cloth4 #cs4 net4 ,norway and ,copenhagen4 ,with six ,maps4 ,cloth4 #cs4 net4 ,ostend and other ,belgium ,watering ,places4 ,with two ,maps4 ,cloth4 #as4 #f;d4 net4 ,lakes of ,northern ,italy4 ,with ,maps4 ,cloth4 #cs4 net4 ,the ,rhine4 ,with ,maps4 ,cloth4 #cs4 net4 ,north ,sea ,watering ,places4 ,cloth4 #cs4 net4 ,belgium4 ,with ,maps4 ,cloth4 #cs4 net4 ,brussels and ,antwerp4 ,with ,maps4 ,cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 net4 ,holland4 ,with ,maps4 ,cloth4 #cs4 net4 ,the ,riviera4 ,with ,maps4 ,cloth4 #cs4 net4 ,winter ,sports in ,switzerland4 ,a practical guide for those visiting ,switzerland in the winter4 ,with ,map4 ,cloth4 #cs4 net4 ,dresden and ,environs4 ,with ,maps4 ,cloth4 #as4 #f;d4 net4 ,munich and ,environs4 ,with ,maps4 ,cloth4 #as4 #f;d4 net4 ,nuremburg and ,rothenburg on the ,tauber4 ,with #b ,maps4 #as4 #f;d4 net4 ,the ,dolomites4 ,with #c ,maps4 #cs4 net4 ,naples and ,capri4 ,with seven ,maps and three ,ground ,plans4 #as4 #f;d4 net4 ,,guild 7,f4 ,n474 ,the ,mineralogy of ,arizona4 ,pp4 #ajd4 ,illustrated4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,,guppy 7,h4 ,b41 ,m4,b41 ,f4,r4,s4,e474 ,studies in ,seeds and ,fruits4 ,an ,investigation with the ,balance4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth1 nearly #fjj pp4 #aes4 net4 ,,gwynn 7,prof4 ,,john1 ,d4,d474 ,remnants of the ,later ,syriac ,versions of the ,bible4 #bas4 net4 ,see ,text and ,translation ,society1 p4 #dc4 ,,haering 7,prof4 ,,theodor74 ,ethics of the ,christian ,life4 ,translated by ,rev4 ,j4 ,s4 ,hill1 ,b4,d41 and edited by ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,morrison4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,see ,theological ,translation ,library1 ,new ,series1 p4 #de4 ,,halligan 7,,james ,,edward74 ,soil ,fertility and ,fertilisers4 ,author is ,chemist in charge ,louisiana ,state ,experiment ,station4 ,with ,illustrations and ,tables4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #ads4 #f;d4 net4 --,fertility and ,fertiliser ,hints4 #hvo4 ,pages viii #aef4 #ab ,figures4 #es4 #f;d4 net4 --,elementary ,treatise on ,stock ,feeds and ,feeding4 #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,hannay 7,,david74 ,the ,navy and ,sea ,power4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ff in ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,hantzsch 7,a474 ,elements of ,stereochemistry4 ,translated by ,wolf4 #abmo4 ,pages viii #bjf4 #bf ,figures4 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,hardy4 ,elements of ,analytical ,geometry4 #hvo4 ,pages iv #cfe4 #afc ,figures4 #hs4 #f;d4 net4 --,infinitesimals and ,limits4 ,sm4 #abmo1 paper4 #bb pp4 #f ,figures4 #as4 net4 ,,harnack 7,,adolf1 ,d4,d474 ,the ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,being ,vol4 ,,iii4 of ,dr ,harnack's ,new ,testament ,studies4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 net4 ,vol4 #bf in the ,crown ,theological ,library2 for list1 see p4 #cf4 --,bible ,reading in the ,early ,church4 ,forming ,vol4 ,v4 of ,new ,testament ,studies4 #es4 net4 ,see ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cg4 --,the ,constitution and ,law of the ,church in the ,first ,two ,centuries4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 net4 ,vol4 #ca in the ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cg4 --,the ,date of the ,acts and of the ,synoptic ,gospels4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 ,,iv4 in ,dr ,harnack's ,new ,testament ,studies1 and ,vol4 #cc in the ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cg4 --,history of ,dogma4 ,translated from the ,third ,german ,edition4 ,edited by the late ,rev4 ,prof4 ,a4 ,b4 ,bruce1 ,d4,d4 #g vols4 #hvo1 cloth1 each #ajs4 #f;d42 half-leather1 suitable for presentation1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,see ,theological ,translation ,library1 ,new ,series1 p4 #dd4 --,letter to the ,preussische ,jahrbcher on the ,german ,emperor's ,criticism of ,prof4 ,delitzsch's ,lectures on ,babel and ,bible4 ,translated into ,english by ,thomas ,bailey ,saunders1 #f;d4 net4 --,luke1 the ,physician4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,r4 ,wilkinson1 ,m4,a4 ,being ,vol4 ,i4 of ,dr ,harnack's ,new ,testament ,studies4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 net4 ,see ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cg4 --,the ,mission and ,expansion of ,christianity in the ,first ,three ,centuries4 ,second1 revised and much enlarged ,edition4 #bes4 net4 ,forming ,vols4 #ai and #bj in ,theological ,translation ,library1 ,new ,series2 see p4 #dd4 --,monasticism3 ,its ,ideals and ,history2 and ,the ,confessions of ,st ,augustine4 ,two ,lectures4 ,translated into ,english by ,e4 ,e4 ,kellet1 ,m4,a41 and ,f4 ,h4 ,marseille1 ,ph4,d4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #bh in the ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cg4 --,the ,sayings of ,jesus4 ,being ,vol4 ,,ii4 of ,dr ,harnack's ,new ,testament ,studies4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #bc in the ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cg4 --,what is ,christianity8 ,translated by ,thomas ,bailey ,saunders4 ,third and ,revised ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #e in the ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cf4 --and ,prof4 ,w4 ,,herrmann1 of ,marburg4 ,essays on the ,social ,gospel4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #ds4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ah in the ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cf4 ,,harnack 7,,axel74 ,introduction to the ,elements of the ,differential and ,integral ,calculus4 ,from the ,german1 ,royal #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,harris 7,prof4 ,d4 ,,fraser74 ,nerves4 ,f'cap #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #gi in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,harrison 7,,jane1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,litt474 ,ancient ,art and ,ritual4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ge in ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,hart 7,,edward1 ,ph4,d474 ,chemistry for ,beginners4 ,sm4 #abmo4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,inorganic4 ,pages viii #ahh4 #ee ,illustrations and #b ,plates4 #dth ,edition4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,organic4 ,pages iv #ih4 #aa ,illustrations4 #bs4 net4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,experiments4 ,separately4 #fj pages1 #as4 net4 --,second ,year ,chemistry4 ,small #abmo4 #afe pp4 #ca ,illus4 #es4 net4 ,,hartland 7,,edwin ,,sydney1 ,f4,s4,a474 ,ritual and ,belief4 ,studies in the ,history of ,religion4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,hatch 7,rev4 ,dr74 ,lectures on the ,influence of ,greek ,ideas and ,usages upon the ,christian ,church4 ,edited by ,dr ,fairbairn4 ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhh4 #crd ,edition4 #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,hausrath 7,prof4 ,a474 ,history of the ,new ,testament ,times4 ,the ,time of the ,apostles4 ,translated by ,leonard ,huxley4 ,with a ,preface by ,mrs ,humphry ,ward4 #d vols4 #hvo1 cloth4 #dbs4 7,uniform with the ,theological ,translation ,library1 ,old ,series47 --,history of the ,new ,testament ,times4 ,the ,time of ,jesus4 ,trans4 by the ,revs4 ,c4 ,t4 ,poynting and ,p4 ,quenzer4 #b vols4 #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 ,see ,theological ,translation ,library1 ,old ,series1 p4 #de4 ,,haworth 7,,paul ,,leland74 ,reconstruction and ,union1 #ahfe-aiab4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,heath 7,,francis ,,george74 ,nervation of ,plants4 ,by the well-known ,author of ,our ,woodland ,trees1 ,the ,fern ,world1 etc4 ,well ,illustrated4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 --,all ,about ,leaves4 ,well ,illustrated1 some in colours4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,,hebrew ,,texts1 in large type for ,classes3 ,genesis4 #bnd ,edition4 #afmo1 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,psalms4 #afmo1 cloth4 #as4 ,isaiah4 #afmo1 cloth4 #as4 ,job4 #afmo1 cloth4 #as4 ,,heess 7,j4 ,k41 ,ph4,c474 ,practical ,methods of the ,iron and ,steel ,works ,chemist4 ,pp4 #fj4 ,cloth4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,,henslow 7,rev4 ,g474 ,the ,vulgate2 ,the ,source of ,false ,doctrine4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,herdman 7,w4 ,a474 ,ascidia4 ,with #e ,plates4 #bs4 net4 ,see ,liverpool ,marine ,biology ,committee ,memoirs1 p4 #db4 ,,herford 7,rev4 ,r4 ,,travers74 ,christianity in ,talmud and ,midrash4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #ahs4 net4 --,pharisaism3 ,its ,aims and its ,methods4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ce in the ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cf4 ,,herrmann 7,prof4 ,,wilhelm74 ,the ,communion of the ,christian with ,god4 ,translated from the new ,german ,edition by ,rev4 ,j4 ,s4 ,stanyon1 ,m4,a41 and ,rev4 ,r4 ,w4 ,stewart1 ,b4,d41 ,b4,sc4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ae in the ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cf4 ,,herrmann 7,prof4 ,,wilhelm74 ,faith and ,morals4 ,new ,edition4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #f in the ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cf4 ,,hewitt 7,c4 ,,gordon1 ,b4,sc474 ,ligia4 ,with #d ,plates4 #bs4 net4 ,see ,liverpool ,marine ,biology ,memoirs1 p4 #dc4 ,,hibbert ,,journal3 ,a ,quarterly ,review of ,religion1 ,theology1 and ,philosophy4 ,edited by ,l4 ,p4 ,jacks and ,g4 ,dawes ,hicks4 ,in quarterly issues1 #bs4 #f;d4 net2 or yearly volumes bound in cloth4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,annual ,subscription1 #ajs4 post free4 ,,hibbert ,,journal ,,supplement1 #aiji1 entitled ,,jesus ,,or ,,christ8 ,containing #ah ,essays by leading ,theologians and ,thinkers4 ,super royal #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 net4 ,,hickson 7,,sydney ,j41 ,d4,sc41 ,f4,r4,s474 ,alcyonium4 ,with #c ,plates4 ,price #as4 #f;d4 net4 ,see ,liverpool ,marine ,biology ,committee ,memoirs1 p4 #db4 ,,hill 7,,arthur ,e41 ,ph4,d474 ,qualitative ,analysis4 #abmo1 cloth4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,,hinds 7,j4 ,i4 ,d41 ,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d474 ,qualitative ,chemical ,analysis4 #hvo1 cloth4 ,pages viii #bff4 #hs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,hinks 7,a4 ,r41 ,m4,a474 ,astronomy4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ca in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #dj4 ,,hirst 7,f4 ,w41 ,m4,a474 ,the ,stock ,exchange4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #e in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see page #ci4 ,,hobhouse 7,prof4 ,l4 ,t41 ,m4,a474 ,liberalism4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ba in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #dj4 ,,hobson 7,j4 ,a41 ,m4,a474 ,the ,science of ,wealth4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #af in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #dj4 --,character and ,life4 ,see p4 #e4 ,h,,fer 7,e474 ,erzhlungen4 #cs4 ,see ,army ,series of ,french and ,german ,novels1 p4 #ce4 ,,hoff 7,j4 ,h4 ,,van',t74 ,studies in ,chemical ,dynamics4 ,revised and enlarged by ,dr4 ,ernst ,cohen1 ,assistant in the ,chemical ,laboratory of the ,university of ,amsterdam4 ,translated by ,thomas ,ewan1 ,m4,sc41 ,ph4,d41 ,demonstrator of ,chemistry in the ,yorkshire ,college1 ,leeds4 ,royal #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,holderness 7,sir ,t4 ,w41 ,k4,c4,s4,i474 ,peoples and ,problems of ,india4 ,the ,author is ,secretary of the ,revenue1 ,statistics1 and ,commerce ,department of the ,india ,office4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #cg in the ,home ,university ,library2 see p4 #ci4 ,,hollins 7,,dorothea74 ,the ,quest4 ,a ,romance of ,deliverance4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,,home ,,university ,,library ,,of ,,modern ,,knowledge4 ,every volume is specially written for this ,library by a recognised authority of high standing4 ,each volume is complete and independent1 but the series has been planned as a whole to form a comprehensive library of modern knowledge4 ,the ,library is published under the direction of ,professor ,gilbert ,murray and ,mr ,herbert ,fisher of ,oxford1 ,professor ,j4 ,arthur ,thomson of ,aberdeen1 and ,professor ,william ,t4 ,brewster of ,new ,york4 ,each volume consists of #bef pages and is issued bound in cloth at #as4 net1 or in leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,for list of volumes1 see p4 #ci4 ,,hornell 7,,james1 ,f4,l4,s474 ,report to the ,government of ,baroda on the ,marine ,zoology of ,okhamandal in ,kattiawar4 ,with ,supplementary ,reports on ,special ,groups by other ,zoologists4 ,demy #dto1 cloth1 with full-page ,plates4 ,part ,i4 #aes4 net4 ,,howe 7,j4 ,l41 ,washington and ,lee ,university74 ,inorganic ,chemistry for ,schools and ,colleges4 ,being a ,second ,edition of ,inorganic ,chemistry according to the ,periodic ,law4 ,by ,f4 ,p4 ,venable and ,j4 ,l4 ,howe4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,hugo 7,,victor74 ,les ,misrables3 ,les ,principaux ,episodes4 ,edited1 with ,life and ,notes1 by the late ,j4 ,boelle4 #b vols4 #fth ,edition4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 ,each #cs4 --,notre ,dame de ,paris4 ,adapted for the use of ,schools and ,colleges4 ,by the late ,j4 ,boelle4 #b vols4 #bnd ,edition4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 ,each #cs4 ,,hunter 7,rev4 ,j41 ,d4,d474 ,de ,profundis ,clamavi1 and ,other ,sermons4 ,large crown #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 net4 --,god and ,life4 ,a ,series of ,discourses4 ,uniform with ,de ,profundis ,clamavi4 ,cloth4 #es4 net4 --,the ,coming ,church4 ,a ,plea for a ,church simply ,christian4 ,cloth4 #as4 #f;d4 net4 ,,ilbert 7,sir ,c4 ,p41 ,k4,c4,b474 ,parliament4 ,its ,history1 ,constitution1 and ,practice4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #a in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,imms 7,a4 ,d41 ,b4,sc4 7,lond4774 ,anurida4 ,with #g ,plates4 #ds4 net4 ,see ,liverpool ,marine ,biology ,memoirs1 p4 #dc4 ,,isgrove 7,,annie1 ,m4,sc474 ,eledone4 ,with #aj ,plates4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,see ,liverpool ,marine ,biology ,memoirs1 p4 #db4 ,,jacks 7,l4 ,p471 ,editor of the ,hibbert ,journal4 ,mad ,shepherds1 and ,other ,human ,studies4 ,with a frontispiece drawing by ,leslie ,brooke4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 --,all ,men are ,ghosts4 #es4 net4 --,among the ,idolmakers4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 net4 --,the ,alchemy of ,thought and ,other ,essays4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,jeremias 7,prof4 ,,alfred74 ,the ,old ,testament in the ,light of the ,ancient ,east4 ,the translation is edited by ,professor ,c4 ,h4 ,w4 ,johns of ,cambridge4 ,with a large number of ,illustrations4 ,in two volumes1 demy #hvo1 at #bes4 net4 ,see ,theological ,translation ,library1 ,new ,series1 p4 #de4 ,,johnston 7,sir ,h4 ,h41 ,k4,c4,b41 ,d4,sc474 ,the ,opening-up of ,africa4 7,with ,maps47 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ab in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 --,views and ,reviews4 ,essays on ,racial1 ,political1 and ,colonial ,questions4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,johnstone 7,j474 ,british ,fisheries3 ,their ,administration and their ,problems4 ,a short account of the ,origin and ,growth of ,british ,sea ,fishery ,authorities and ,regulations4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 --,cardium4 ,with #g ,plates4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,see ,liverpool ,marine ,biology ,memoirs1 p4 #db4 ,,jones4 ,the ,freezing ,point1 ,boiling ,point1 and ,conductivity ,methods4 #abmo4 ,pages vii#fd4 #ad ,illustrations4 #cs4 net4 ,,jones 7,rev4 ,r4 ,,crompton74 ,hymns of ,duty and ,faith4 ,selected and ,arranged4 #bdg pp4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth4 #bnd ,edition4 #cs4 #f;d4 --,chants1 ,psalms1 and ,canticles4 ,selected and ,pointed for ,chanting4 #ahmo1 cloth4 #as4 #f;d4 --,anthems4 ,with ,indexes and ,references to the ,music4 #ahmo1 cloth4 #as4 #c;d4 --,the ,chants and ,anthems4 ,together in #a vol4 ,cloth4 #bs4 --,a ,book of ,prayer4 ,in ,thirty ,orders of ,worship1 with ,additional ,prayers and ,thanksgivings4 #ahmo1 cloth4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,with ,chants1 in #a vol4 #ahmo1 cloth4 #cs4 ,,jones 7,rev4 ,w4 ,,tudor1 ,ph4,d474 ,an ,interpretation of ,rudolf ,eucken's ,philosophy4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,,jordan 7,,david ,,starr74 ,the ,stability of ,truth4 ,a ,discussion of ,reality as ,related to ,thought and ,action4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,jordan 7,humpfrey ,r41 ,b4,a47 ,blaise ,pascal4 ,a ,study in ,religious ,psychology4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,,journal ,,of ,,the ,,linnean ,,society4 ,botany4 ,at various prices4 ,index to ,journal 7,botany71 #bjs4 ,zoology4 ,at various prices4 ,general ,index to the first #bj vols4 of the ,journal 7,zoology7 and the ,zoological portion of the ,proceedings1 #bjs4 ,,journal ,,of ,,the ,,quekett ,,microscopical ,,club4 ,nos4 #a-bf1 #as4 net2 ,nos4 #bg-ca1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 #ahic1 ,no4 #cb1 and following ,nos41 half-yearly1 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,journal ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,microscopical ,,society1 containing its ,transactions and ,proceedings1 with other ,microscopical ,information4 ,bi-monthly4 ,previous to #ahic at various prices2 after that date bi-monthly1 each #fs4 net4 ,,kapp 7,,gisbert1 ,d4,eng41 ,m4,i4,e4,e41 ,m4,i4,c4,e474 ,electricity4 ,the ,author is ,professor of ,electrical ,engineering in the ,university of ,birmingham4 7,illustrated47 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth4 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #eh in the ,home ,university ,library2 see p4 #da4 ,,kauffman 7,,ruth and ,r4 ,w474 ,the ,latter ,day ,saints3 ,a ,study of the ,mormons in the ,light of ,economic ,conditions4 ,medium #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,kautzsch 7,e41 ,professor74 ,an ,outline of the ,history of the ,literature of the ,old ,testament4 ,with ,chronological ,tables for the ,history of the ,israelites4 ,translated by ,john ,taylor1 ,d4,litt41 ,m4,a41 etc4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #fs4 #f;d4 ,,keim',s ,history of ,jesus of ,nazara3 ,considered in its connection with the ,national ,life of ,israel1 and related in detail4 ,translated from the ,german by ,arthur ,ransom and the ,rev4 ,e4 ,m4 ,geldart4 ,in #f vols4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #fs4 each4 ,see ,theological ,translation ,fund ,library1 p4 #df4 ,,keith 7,a41 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d474 ,the ,human ,body4 ,the ,author is ,conservator of ,museum and ,hunterian ,professor1 ,royal ,college of ,surgeons4 7,illustrated47 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #eg1 ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 --,the ,antiquity of ,man4 ,with many ,illustrations4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,kennedy 7,rev4 ,,jas474 ,introduction to ,biblical ,hebrew1 presenting ,graduated ,instruction in the ,language of the ,old ,testament4 #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 --,studies in ,hebrew ,synonyms4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 ,,ker 7,prof4 ,w4 ,p41 ,m4,a474 ,english ,literature3 ,medival4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #dc in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,kiepert',s ,wall ,maps of the ,ancient ,world-- ,wall-,map of ,ancient ,italy4 ,italia antiqua4 ,for the study of ,livy1 ,sallust1 ,cicero1 ,dionysius1 etc4 ,scale #a3hjj1jjj4 ,mounted on rollers1 varnished1 #bjs4 ,general ,wall-,map of the ,old ,world4 ,tabula orbis terrarum antiqui ad illustrandum potissimum antiquissimi vi usque ad ,alexandrum ,m4 historiam4 ,for the study of ancient history1 especially the history of the ,oriental peoples3 the ,indians1 ,medes1 ,persians1 ,babylonians1 ,assyrians1 ,egyptians1 ,phoenicians1 etc4 ,scale #a3e1djj1jjj4 ,mounted on rollers1 varnished4 #bjs4 ,general ,wall-,map of the ,roman ,empire4 ,imperii ,romani tabula geographica4 ,for the study of the development of the ,roman ,empire4 ,scale #a3cjj1jjj4 ,mounted on rollers4 #bds4 ,wall-,map of ,ancient ,latium4 ,latii ,veteris et finitimarum regionum tabula4 ,for the study of ,livy1 ,dionysius1 etc4 ,scale #a3abe1jjj4 ,with supplement3 ,environs of ,rome4 ,scale #a3be1jjj1 ,mounted on rollers1 varnished4 #ahs4 ,wall-,map of ,ancient ,greece4 ,grci ,antiqu tabula4 ,for the study of ,herodotus1 ,thucydides1 ,xenophon1 ,strabo1 ,cornelius ,nepos1 etc4 ,scale #a3ejj1jjj4 ,mounted on rollers1 varnished4 #bds4 ,wall-,map of the ,empires of the ,persians and of ,alexander the ,great4 ,imperia ,persarum et ,macedonum4 ,for the study of ,herodotus1 ,xenophon1 ,justinian1 ,arian1 ,curtius4 ,scale #a3cjj1jjj4 ,mounted on rollers and varnished4 #bjs4 ,,kiepert',s ,wall-,maps of the ,ancient ,world--continued4 ,wall-,map of ,gaul1 with ,portions of ,ancient ,britain and ,ancient ,germany4 ,galli ,cisalpin et ,transalpin cum partibus ,britanni et ,germani tabula4 ,for the study of ,csar1 ,justinian1 ,livy1 ,tacitus1 etc4 ,scale #a3a1jjj1jjj4 ,mounted on rollers and varnished #bds4 ,wall-,map of ,ancient ,asia ,minor4 ,asi ,minoris ,antiqu tabula4 ,for the study of ,herodotus1 ,xenophon1 ,justinian1 ,arian1 ,curtius1 etc4 ,scale #a3hjj1jjj4 ,mounted on rollers and varnished4 #bjs4 --,new ,atlas ,antiquus4 ,twelve ,maps of the ,ancient ,world1 for ,schools and ,colleges4 ,third hundred thousand4 #abth ,edition1 with a complete ,geographical ,index4 ,folio1 boards4 #fs4 ,strongly bound in cloth4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,king1 ,,the1 ,,to ,,his ,,people4 ,being the ,speeches and ,messages of ,his ,majesty ,george ,v4 as ,prince and ,sovereign4 ,published by permission4 ,square #hvo1 art canvas4 #es4 net4 ,,kittel 7,dr ,,rudolf1 of ,breslau74 ,a ,history of the ,hebrews4 ,in #b vols4 #hvo1 cloth4 ,each volume1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,forming ,vols4 #c and #f of the ,theological ,translation ,library1 ,new ,series2 for list1 see p4 #dd4 --,the ,scientific ,study of the ,old ,testament3 ,its ,principal ,results1 and their ,bearing upon ,religious ,instruction4 ,illustrated4 #es4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #cb in the ,crown ,theological ,library2 for list1 see p4 #cg4 ,,krause 7,g474 ,edited by4 ,birds' ,eggs4 ,oologia universalis ,palarctica4 ,containing about #bej coloured plates with letterpress4 ,english translation by ,o4 ,g4 ,pike4 ,to be completed in #aej parts1 #dto1 at #bs4 net each part4 ,parts are not sold separately4 ,,krayer 7,,peter ,j474 ,the ,use and ,care of a ,balance4 ,small mo4 ,pages iv #db4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,kuenen 7,dr ,a41 of ,leiden74 ,the ,religion of ,israel to the ,fall of the ,jewish ,state4 ,translated from the ,dutch by ,a4 ,h4 ,may4 #c vols4 #hvo1 cloth4 #ahs4 ,see ,theological ,translation ,fund ,library1 p4 #df4 --,lectures on ,national ,religions and ,universal ,religion4 #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,see ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #ch4 ,,kyriakides 7,a474 ,modern ,greek-,english ,dictionary4 ,with a ,cypriote ,vocabulary4 #bnd ,edition1 revised throughout4 ,medium #hvo4 #ibj pages4 ,cloth4 #aes4 net4 --,a ,modern ,greek-,english and ,english-,modern ,greek ,pocket ,dictionary4 ,in #b vols41 about #fej pages each4 #gs4 net each volume4 --,new ,greek-,english ,dialogues4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,lake 7,,kirsopp74 ,the ,historical ,evidence for the ,resurrection of ,jesus ,christ4 ,the ,author is ,professor of ,new ,testament ,exegesis in the ,university of ,leiden1 ,holland4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ba in the ,crown ,theological ,library2 see p4 #cf4 ,,lammasch 7,,heinrich74 ,die ,rechtskraft ,internationaler ,schiedsspruche4 ,vol4 #d of ,publications de' l',institut ,nobel ,norvgien4 #dto1 sewed4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,landolt 7,dr ,,hans74 ,the ,optical ,rotating ,power of ,organic ,substances and its ,practical ,applications4 #hvo4 ,pages xxi #gea4 #hc ,illustrations4 #cas4 #f;d4 net4 ,,laurie 7,prof4 ,,simon74 ,ethica3 or1 the ,ethics of ,reason4 ,by ,scotus ,novanticus4 #bnd ,edition4 #hvo1 cloth4 #fs4 --,metaphysica ,nova et ,vetusta3 ,a ,return to ,dualism4 #bnd ,edition4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #fs4 ,,lea 7,,henry ,,charles1 ,,ll4,d474 ,history of ,sacerdotal ,celibacy in the ,christian ,church4 #crd ,edition4 ,thoroughly ,revised and ,reset4 #b vols4 ,medium #hvo1 cloth4 #bas4 net4 ,,leavenworth 7,prof4 ,w4 ,s41 ,m4,sc474 ,inorganic ,qualitative ,chemical ,analysis for ,advanced ,schools and ,colleges4 #hvo4 ,pages vi #aed4 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,leblanc 7,dr ,,max74 ,the ,production of ,chromium and its ,compounds by the ,aid of the ,electric ,current4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 net4 ,,leipoldt 7,c4 ,,louis1 ,f4,r4,c4,s4 ,eng474 ,common-sense ,dietetics4 ,strongly bound in cloth4 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,le ,,roy 7,edouard74 ,a ,new ,philosophy3 ,henri ,bergson4 ,translated by ,vincent ,benson1 ,m4,a4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 #es4 net4 ,,lethaby 7,prof4 ,w4 ,r474 ,architecture4 ,over #dj ,illustrations4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ci in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see page #dj4 ,,lewis 7,,agnes ,,smith71 ,edited by4 ,old ,syriac ,gospels1 or ,evangelion ,da-,mepharreshe4 ,this is the ,text of the ,sinai ,palimpsest1 including the latest additions and emendations1 with the variants of the ,curetonian ,text1 corroborations from many other ,,mss41 and a list of quotations from ancient authors4 ,with #d facsimiles4 ,quarto1 bound half-leather4 #bes4 net4 --,light on the ,four ,gospels from the ,sinai ,palimpsest4 ,cloth4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,lluria 7,dr ,,enrique74 ,super-,organic ,evolution4 ,nature and the ,social ,problem4 ,with a ,preface by ,dr ,d4 ,santiago ,ramon y ,cajal4 ,large ,crown #hvo4 ,illustrated4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,lobstein 7,,paul74 ,the ,virgin ,birth of ,christ3 ,an ,historical and ,critical ,essay4 ,the ,author is ,professor of ,dogmatics in the ,university of ,strassburg4 ,edited1 with an ,introduction1 by ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,morrison1 ,,ll4,d4 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #b in the ,crown ,theological ,library2 for list1 see p4 #cf4 ,,lodge 7,sir ,o474 ,life and ,matter3 ,an ,exposition of ,part of the ,philosophy of ,science1 with ,special ,references to the ,influence of ,professor ,haeckel4 ,second ,edition1 with an ,appendix of ,definitions and ,explanations4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,popular ,edition4 ,paper ,cover4 #f;d4 net4 --,school ,teaching and ,school ,reform4 ,four ,lectures on ,school ,curricula and ,methods4 #cs4 ,,london ,,library 7,st ,james's ,square71 ,catalogue of4 xiv #afbf pages4 #dto1 bound in buckram4 #dbs4 net4 ,supplements ,i4-,,viii41 bound in buckram1 #es4 each4 --,subject ,index4 #dto1 bound in buckram1 xxxviii #abef pages4 #cas4 #f;d4 net4 ,,long 7,j4 ,h474 ,a ,text-book of ,urine ,analysis4 ,small #hvo4 ,pages v #bdi4 #ca ,illustrations4 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,loria 7,,achille74 ,les ,bases ,economiques de la ,justice ,internationale4 #dto1 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #b of ,publications de l',institut ,nobel ,norvgien4 ,,lyall 7,sir ,c4 ,j41 ,m4,a41 ,k4,c4,i4,e474 ,ancient ,arabian ,poetry1 chiefly ,pr-,islamic4 ,translations1 with an ,introduction and ,notes4 ,f'cap4 #dto1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,macan 7,r4 ,w474 ,the ,resurrection of ,jesus ,christ4 ,an ,essay in ,three ,chapters4 #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 ,,macaulay 7,,thomas ,,babington74 ,the ,lays of ,ancient ,rome4 ,with #h ,illustrations faithfully reproduced in colours1 and a number in black-and-white1 from original drawings by ,norman ,ault4 ,small #dto1 cloth4 #fs4 net4 ,cheap ,edition4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,maccoll 7,,hugh74 ,man's ,origin1 ,destiny1 and ,duty4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,,macdonald 7,j4 ,,ramsay1 ,m4,p474 ,the ,socialist ,movement4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 #aj in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #cg4 ,,macdonald 7,,william74 ,from ,jefferson to ,lincoln4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth4 #bef pp4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,mc,d,o,u,g,a,l,l 7,prof4 ,w41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,m4,b474 ,psychology3 the ,study of ,behaviour4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 #di in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #da4 ,,macfie 7,,ronald ,c41 ,m4,a41 ,m4,b474 ,science1 ,matter1 and ,immortality4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 net4 ,,macgregor 7,prof4 ,d4 ,h41 ,m4,a474 ,the ,evolution of ,industry4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 #bd in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #dj4 ,mc,k,e,n,d,r,i,c,k 7,prof4 ,j4 ,g41 ,m4,d474 ,the ,principles of ,physiology4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 #dd in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #dj4 ,,mackenzie 7,w4 ,,leslie1 ,m4,d474 ,health and ,disease4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ag in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #dj4 ,,mair 7,g4 ,h41 ,m4,a474 ,english ,literature3 ,modern4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #bg in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #dj4 --,english ,literature4 ,a ,survey from ,chaucer to the ,present ,day4 ,illustrated4 #fs4 net4 ,,marett 7,r4 ,r41 ,m4,a41 of ,oxford74 ,anthropology4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #da in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #dj4 ,,margoliouth 7,prof4 ,d4 ,s41 ,m4,a41 ,d4,litt474 ,mohammedanism4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ae in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #dj4 --,early ,development of ,mohammedanism4 ,vide ,hibbert ,lectures1 ,second ,series1 p4 #ci4 ,,markham 7,sir ,,clements1 ,k4,c4,b474 ,vocabularies of the ,general ,language of the ,incas of ,peru4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,marriner 7,,george ,r41 ,f4,r4,m4,s474 ,the ,kea3 ,a ,new ,zealand ,problem4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,marti 7,,karl1 ,professor of ,old ,testament ,exegesis1 ,bern74 ,the ,religion of the ,old ,testament3 ,its ,place among the ,religions of the ,nearer ,east4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #ds4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ai in the ,crown ,theological ,library2 for list1 see p4 #cf4 ,,martineau 7,mrs ,,philip74 ,the ,herbaceous ,garden4 ,gives full particulars how to make and arrange hardy borders1 and containing an alphabetical index of the most suitable plants4 ,with a large number of illustrations and #b plates in colour4 ,second ,impression4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,martineau 7,rev4 ,dr ,,james74 ,the ,relation between ,ethics and ,religion4 ,an ,address4 #hvo1 sewed4 #as4 --,modern ,materialism3 ,its ,attitude towards ,theology4 ,a ,critique and ,defence4 #hvo1 sewed4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,masefield 7,,john74 ,shakespeare4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #b in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,mason 7,w4 ,p474 ,notes on ,qualitative ,analysis4 ,sm4 #abmo4 #ef pp4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,mathieu 7,c474 ,para ,rubber ,cultivation4 ,manual of the ,planter in ,malasia4 #dto1 sewed4 ,with ,illustrations and ,diagrams4 ,,meade 7,,richard ,k41 ,b4,sc474 ,chemist's ,pocket ,manual4 #afmo4 ,leather4 ,pocket ,edition4 ,second ,edition4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 --,portland ,cement3 ,its ,composition1 ,raw ,materials1 ,manufacture1 ,testing1 and ,analysis4 ,second ,edition4 ,with #agj ,illustrations4 #bjs4 net4 ,,meldola 7,prof4 ,,raphael1 ,d4,sc41 ,,ll4,d474 ,chemistry4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,forming ,vol4 #fg in ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #da4 ,,melville 7,,helen and ,,lewis74 ,the ,seasons4 ,an ,anthology in ,prose and ,verse4 ,forming an attractive volume1 bound in art linen4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,mercer 7,rt4 ,rev4 ,j4 ,,edward1 ,d4,d474 ,the ,soul of ,progress4 ,being the ,moorhouse ,lectures for #aijg4 ,cr4 #hvo1 cloth4 #fs4 ,,mercier 7,dr ,c4 ,a41 ,f4,r4,c4,p474 ,crime and ,insanity4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #bb in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #dj4 ,,meredith 7,,lewis ,b474 ,rock ,gardens4 ,how to ,make and ,maintain them4 ,with an ,introduction by ,f4 ,w4 ,moore1 ,a4,l4,s41 and an ,alphabetical ,list of ,plants suitable for the ,rock ,garden1 with ,notes on the aspect and soil they require4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo1 with ,plates4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,merim,e 7,,prosper74 ,le ,coup de ,pistolet1 etc4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,see ,army ,series of ,french and ,german ,novels1 p4 #ce4 ,,mikami 7,,yoshio74 ,the ,development of ,mathematics in ,china and ,japan4 ,with #fg ,figures in the ,text4 ,royal #hvo1 cloth4 #ais4 net4 ,,milindapa,,ho1 ,,the4 ,being ,dialogues between ,king ,milinda and the ,buddhist ,sage ,ngasena 4 ,the ,pali ,text1 edited by ,v4 ,trenckner4 ,crown #hvo1 sewed4 #bas4 ,,mitchell 7,rev4 ,a4 ,f474 ,how to ,teach the ,bible4 #bnd ,edition1 thoroughly revised and reset4 ,cr4 #hvo1 cloth4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,mitchell 7,rev4 ,c4 ,w474 ,the ,refutation of ,mani1 ,marcion1 and ,bardaisan of ,st4 ,ephraim4 #bas4 net4 ,see ,text and ,translation ,society1 p4 #dc4 ,,moisson 7,,henri74 ,the ,electric ,furnace4 #hvo4 ,pages x #cje4 #da ,illustrations4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,montefiore 7,c4 ,g474 ,origin and ,growth of ,religion as ,illustrated by the ,religion of the ,ancient ,hebrews4 ,the ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahib4 #bnd ,edition4 #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,moore 7,prof4 ,,benjamin74 ,the ,origin and ,nature of ,life4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #fb in ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #da4 ,,moore 7,g4 ,e41 ,m4,a474 ,ethics4 ,the ,author is ,lecturer in ,moral ,science in ,cambridge ,university4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ed in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #da4 ,,moore 7,prof4 ,george ,f474 ,the ,literature of the ,old ,testament4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #hd in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #db4 ,,moulton 7,prof4 ,j4 ,h474 ,early ,zoroastrianism4 ,hibbert ,lectures #aiab4 ,cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,see p4 #ci4 ,,munro 7,,robert1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4,e474 ,prehistoric ,britain4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #hb of the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #db4 ,m,,nsterberg 7,prof4 ,,hugo1 of ,harvard74 ,the ,americans4 ,translated by ,edwin ,b4 ,holt1 ,ph4,d41 ,instructor at ,harvard ,university4 ,royal #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,murray 7,prof4 ,,gilbert1 ,d4,litt41 ,l4,l4,d41 ,f4,b4,a471 ,editor of the ,home ,university ,library4 ,for list1 see p4 #ci4 --,euripides and ,his ,age4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #gf of the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #cg4 ,,murray 7,sir ,,john74 ,the ,ocean4 ,a ,general ,account of the ,science of the ,sea4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #gh in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #db4 ,,myres 7,j4 ,l41 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a474 ,the ,dawn of ,history4 ,the ,author is ,wykeham ,professor of ,ancient ,history1 ,oxford4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #bi in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #dj4 ,,naville 7,,edouard1 ,ph4,d41 ,litt4,d474 ,the ,old ,egyptian ,faith4 ,translated by ,colin ,campbell1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,d4 ,illustrated4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 #cj in ,crown ,theological ,library2 for list1 see p4 #cg4 ,,nestle 7,prof4 ,,eberhard1 of ,maulbronn74 ,an ,introduction to the ,textual ,criticism of the ,greek ,new ,testament4 ,translated from the ,second ,edition1 with ,corrections and ,additions by the ,author1 by ,william ,edie1 ,b4,d41 and edited1 with a ,preface1 by ,allan ,menzies1 ,d4,d41 ,professor of ,divinity and ,biblical ,criticism in the ,university of ,st ,andrews4 ,with eleven reproductions of ,texts4 ,demy #hvo1 #ajs4 #f;d42 half-leather1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,forming ,vol4 #ac in the ,theological ,translation ,library1 ,new ,series1 p4 #da4 ,,newbigin 7,dr ,,marion74 ,modern ,geography4 ,illustrated4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net42 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #g in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,new ,,hebrew ,,school ,,of ,,poets ,,of ,,the ,,spanish-,,arabian ,,epoch4 ,selected ,texts with ,introduction1 ,notes1 and ,dictionary4 ,edited by ,h4 ,brodey1 ,ph4,d41 ,rabbi in ,lachod 7,bohemia71 and ,k4 ,albrecht1 ,ph4,d41 ,professor in ,oldenburg 7,grand ,duchy74 ,english ,translation of the ,introduction1 etc41 by ,mrs ,karl ,albrecht4 ,cloth4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,nibelungenlied4 ,the ,fall of the ,nibelungens1 otherwise ,the ,book of ,kriemhild4 ,an ,english ,translation by ,w4 ,n4 ,lettsom4 #eth ,edition4 #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 ,,nikaido 7,y41 ,b4,sc41 ,m4,a474 ,beet-,sugar ,making and its ,chemical ,control4 ,with a number of valuable ,tables and ,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,nissenson4 ,the ,arrangements of ,electrolytic ,laboratories4 ,demy #hvo4 #eb ,illustrations4 #es4 net4 ,,noldeke 7,prof4 ,,theodor74 ,compendious ,syriac ,grammar4 ,with a ,table of ,characters by ,julius ,euting4 ,translated 7with the sanction of the ,author7 from the ,second and ,improved ,german ,edition by ,rev4 ,james ,a4 ,crichton1 ,d4,d4 ,royal #hvo4 #ahs4 net4 --,delectus ,veterum ,carminum ,arabicorum ,glossarium ,confecit ,a4 ,muller4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,noyes 7,,arthur ,a41 ,ph4,d474 ,organic ,chemistry for the ,laboratory4 ,small #abmo4 ,pp4 xii #beg4 #bb ,illus4 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 --and ,,samuel ,p4 ,,mulliken1 ,ph4,d4 ,laboratory ,experiments on ,class ,reactions and ,identification of ,organic ,substances4 #hvo4 #ha pp4 #bs4 net4 ,o',,grady 7,,standish ,h474 ,silva ,gadelica 7,i4-,,xxxi474 ,a ,collection of ,tales in ,irish1 with ,extracts illustrating ,persons and ,places4 ,edited from ,,mss4 and translated4 #b vols4 royal #hvo1 cloth4 #dbs4 ,or separately1 ,vol4 #a1 ,irish ,text2 and ,vol4 #b1 ,translation and ,notes4 ,each ,vol4 #bas4 ,,oordt 7,j4 ,f4 ,,van1 ,b4,a474 ,cape ,dutch4 ,phrases and ,dialogues1 with ,translations1 preceded by short ,grammatical ,notes4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,orth 7,,samuel ,p41 ,ph4,d474 ,socialism and ,democracy in ,europe4 ,demy #hvo4 #cfj pages4 ,cloth4 #fs4 net4 ,,ostwald 7,,wilhelm74 ,natural ,philosophy4 ,translated by ,thomas ,seltzer4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #ds4 net4 ,,otto 7,prof4 ,,rudolf74 ,naturalism and ,religion4 ,translated by ,j4 ,arthur ,thomson1 ,professor of ,natural ,history in the ,university of ,aberdeen1 and ,margaret ,r4 ,thomson4 ,edited with an ,introduction by ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,morrison1 ,,ll4,d4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ag in the ,crown ,theological ,library2 see p4 #cf4 ,,parker 7,,percy ,l471 ,editor of ,public ,opinion4 ,character and ,life4 ,a ,symposium4 ,containing contributions by ,dr ,alfred ,russel ,wallace1 ,john ,a4 ,hobson1 ,walter ,crane1 ,harold ,begbie1 and the late ,dr ,emil ,reich4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,paxson 7,prof4 ,f4 ,l474 ,the ,american ,civil ,war4 ,with ,maps4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #dh in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,pearson 7,,joseph1 ,m4,sc474 ,cancer4 ,with #ac ,plates4 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,see ,liverpool ,marine ,biology ,memoirs1 p4 #dc4 ,,peddie 7,r4 ,a474 ,printing at ,brescia in the ,fifteenth ,century4 ,a ,list of the ,issues4 #es4 net4 ,,percival 7,g4 ,h474 ,the ,incarnate ,purpose4 ,essays on the ,spiritual ,unity of ,life4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,perowne 7,j4 ,t4 ,w41 ,m4,a471 ,editor of the ,army ,series of ,french and ,german ,novels4 ,for list1 see p4 #ce4 ,,perris 7,g4 ,h474 ,a ,short ,history of ,war and ,peace4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #d in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,peters 7,,john ,p41 ,d4,d474 ,early ,hebrew ,story4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #g in the ,crown ,theological ,library2 p4 #cf4 ,,petit 7,,robert74 ,how to ,build an ,aeroplane4 ,translated from the ,french1 with some additional matter1 by ,messrs ,t4 ,o',b4 ,hubbard and ,j4 ,h4 ,ledeboer4 ,with nearly #ajj ,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,pfanhauser 7,dr ,w474 ,production of ,metallic ,objects ,electrolytically4 #es4 net4 ,,pfleiderer 7,dr ,o474 ,lectures on the ,influence of the ,apostle ,paul on the ,development of ,christianity4 ,translated by ,rev4 ,j4 ,frederick ,smith4 ,being the ,hibbert ,lectures for #ahhe4 ,library ,edition4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 cloth4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,see ,the ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #cf4 ,,pfleiderer 7,dr ,o474 ,paulinism3 ,a ,contribution to the ,history of ,primitive ,christianity4 #b vols4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 ,see ,theological ,translation ,library1 ,old ,series1 p4 #df4 --,philosophy of ,religion on the ,basis of its ,history4 ,in #d vols4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #bds4 ,see ,theological ,translation ,library1 ,old ,series1 p4 #df4 ,vol4 #b quite out of print4 --,primitive ,christianity3 ,its ,writings and ,teachings in their ,historical ,connections4 #d vols4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net each4 ,see ,theological ,translation ,library1 ,new ,series1 p4 #de4 --,the ,early ,christian ,conception of ,christ3 ,its ,significance and ,value in the ,history of ,religion4 #cs4 net4 ,see ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cf4 ,,phillipps 7,v41 ,b4,a474 ,a ,short ,sketch of ,german ,literature1 for ,schools4 #bnd ,edition1 revised4 ,pott #hvo1 cloth4 #as4 ,,phillips 7,,francis ,c474 ,methods for the ,analysis of ,ores1 ,pig ,iron1 and ,steel4 #bnd ,edition4 #hvo4 ,pages viii #agj4 #c ,illustrations4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 --,chemical ,german3 ,an ,introduction to the ,study of ,german ,chemical ,literature4 ,cloth4 #hs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,picton 7,j4 ,,allanson1 ,m4,a4 ,lond474 ,man and the ,bible4 ,a ,review of the ,place of the ,bible in ,human ,history4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #fs4 net4 ,,piddington 7,,henry74 ,the ,sailors' ,horn-,book for the ,law of ,storms4 ,being a ,practical ,exposition of the ,theory of the ,law of ,storms1 and its uses to ,mariners of all ,classes in all ,parts of the ,world4 ,shown by transparent ,storm ,cards and useful ,lessons4 #gth ,edition4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,pigou 7,prof4 ,a4 ,c474 ,unemployment4 ,f'cap #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #he in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,platts 7,j4 ,t41 ,hon4 ,m4,a4 7,oxon4774 ,a ,grammar of the ,persian ,language4 ,part ,i4 ,accidence4 ,broad crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,pollard 7,prof4 ,a4 ,f41 ,m4,a474 ,the ,history of ,england3 ,a ,study in ,political ,evolution4 ,with a ,chronological ,table4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #cc in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,pranke 7,,edward ,j474 ,cyanamid 7,manufacture1 ,chemistry1 and ,uses74 #hvo4 ,pages vi #aab4 #h ,figures4 #es4 net4 ,,pray 7,dr74 ,astigmatic ,letters4 ,printed on ,millboard1 size #bb by #ad inches4 #as4 ,,proceedings ,,of ,,international ,,conference under the ,auspices of the ,american ,society for ,judicial ,settlement of ,international ,disputes1 held at ,washington1 ,dec4 #aiaj4 ,in #a vol41 sewed4 #ds4 net4 ,,proceedings ,,of ,,the ,,aristotelian ,,society ,,for ,,the ,,systematic ,,study ,,of ,,philosophy4 ,old ,series--,odd ,numbers at various prices4 ,new ,series 7yearly volumes bound in buckram7--,vols4 ,i4-,,xi4 ready1 #ajs4 #f;d4 each net4 ,,proceedings ,,of ,,the ,,optical ,,convention1 ,no4 #a1 #aije4 ,crown #dto1 cloth4 #ajs4 net4 ,,proceedings ,,and ,,papers ,,of ,,the ,,fifth ,,international ,,congress ,,of ,,free ,,christianity4 ,held at ,berlin1 #aiaj4 ,edited by ,c4 ,w4 ,wendte1 ,d4,d41 and ,v4 ,d4 ,davis1 ,b4,a4 ,medium #hvo1 cloth4 #is4 #f;d4 net4 ,sewed1 #hs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,punnett 7,r4 ,c41 ,b4,a474 ,lineus4 ,with #d ,plates4 #bs4 net4 ,see ,liverpool ,marine ,biology ,memoirs1 p4 #db4 ,r,,der 7,a474 ,l',arbitrage ,international chez les ,hellnes4 #dto1 sewed4 #ajs4 net4 ,being ,vol4 ,i4 of ,publications de l',institut ,nobel ,norvgien4 ,,reich 7,dr ,,emil71 ,contributor to ,character and ,life4 ,see p4 #e4 ,,renan 7,e474 ,on the ,influence of the ,institutions1 ,thought1 and ,culture of ,rome on ,christianity and the ,development of the ,catholic ,church4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,charles ,beard4 ,being the ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhj4 #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition 7#crd ,edition71 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,renouf 7,p4 ,,le ,,page74 ,on the ,religion of ,ancient ,egypt4 ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahgi4 #crd ,edition4 #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,r,,ville 7,dr ,a474 ,on the ,native ,religions of ,mexico and ,peru4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,p4 ,h4 ,wicksteed4 ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhd4 #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 --,prolegomena of the ,history of ,religions4 ,with an ,introduction by ,prof4 ,f4 ,max ,mller4 #hvo1 cloth4 #fs4 ,see ,theological ,translation ,library1 ,old ,series1 p4 #de4 ,r,,ville 7,prof4 ,,jean74 ,liberal ,christianity3 ,its ,origin1 ,nature1 and ,mission4 ,translated and edited by ,victor ,leuliette1 ,a4,k4,c41 ,b4-s-,l4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #d in the ,crown ,theological ,library2 for list1 see p4 #cf4 ,,rhys 7,prof4 ,j474 ,on the ,origin and ,growth of ,religion as ,illustrated by ,celtic ,heathendom4 ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhf4 #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,riedel 7,prof4 ,w47 and ,w4 ,e4 ,,crum4 ,the ,canons of ,athanasius of ,alexandria1 in ,arabic1 ,ethiopic1 and ,coptic4 #bas4 net4 ,see ,text and ,translation ,society1 p4 #dc4 ,,robertson 7,prof4 ,j4 ,g41 ,m4,a474 ,the ,literature of ,germany4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #fe in ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,roget 7,f4 ,f474 ,an ,introduction to ,old ,french4 ,history1 ,grammar1 ,chrestomathy1 and ,glossary4 #bnd ,edition4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #fs4 --,first ,steps in ,french ,history1 ,literature1 and ,philology4 ,for ,candidates for the ,scotch ,leaving ,certificate ,examinations1 the various ,universities ,local ,examinations1 and the ,army ,examinations4 #dth ,edition4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 ,,rubinow 7,i4 ,m474 ,social ,insurance4 ,the author is ,chief ,statistician ,ocean ,accident ,guarantee ,corporation4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,ruffini 7,,francesco74 ,religious ,liberty4 ,the ,author is ,ordinary ,professor at the ,royal ,university of ,turin4 ,with an ,introduction by ,prof4 ,j4 ,b4 ,bury of ,cambridge4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #cb in the ,theological ,translation ,library2 see p4 #dd4 ,,russell 7,hon4 ,,bertrand1 ,f4,r4,s474 ,the ,problems of ,philosophy4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #dj in ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,sabatier 7,late ,,auguste74 ,the ,doctrine of the ,atonement and its ,historical ,evolution2 and ,religion and ,modern ,culture4 ,translated by ,victor ,leuliette1 ,a4,k4,c41 ,b4-s-,l4 ,crown #hvo4 #ds4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #i in the ,crown ,theological ,library2 see p4 #cf4 --,the ,religions of ,authority and the ,religion of the ,spirit4 ,new impression4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,see ,theological ,translation ,library1 ,new ,series1 p4 #dd4 ,,sadler 7,rev4 ,dr74 ,prayers for ,christian ,worship4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #cs4 #f;d4 --,closet ,prayers1 ,original and ,compiled4 #ahmo1 cloth4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,sadler 7,,gilbert1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,b474 ,a ,short ,introduction to the ,bible4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,sagas ,,of ,,olaf ,,tryggvason ,,and ,,of ,,harold ,,the ,,tyrant4 ,a new translation1 well illustrated with drawings by ,erik ,werenskiold1 ,christian ,krogh1 and others of the best ,norwegian artists4 ,in small #dto1 comprising above #bjj pages1 bound with linen back and paper sides1 in box4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,saleeby 7,c4 ,w41 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s474 ,individualism and ,collectivism4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #bs4 ,,saunders 7,t4 ,,bailey74 ,professor ,harnack and his ,oxford ,critics4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 net4 ,,sayce 7,prof4 ,a4 ,h474 ,on the ,origin and ,growth of ,religion as illustrated by the ,religion of the ,ancient ,babylonians4 #eth ,edition4 ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhg4 #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,schloss 7,,david ,f474 ,methods of ,industrial ,remuneration4 #crd ,edition1 revised and enlarged4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,popular ,edition4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,schrader 7,prof4 ,e474 ,the ,cuneiform ,inscriptions and the ,old ,testament4 ,translated from the ,second ,enlarged ,edition1 with ,additions by the ,author1 and an ,introduction by the ,rev4 ,owen ,c4 ,whitehouse1 ,m4,a4 #b vols4 ,with a ,map4 #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 ,see ,theological ,translation ,library1 ,old ,series1 p4 #df4 ,,schreber 7,d4 ,g4 ,m474 ,medical ,indoor ,gymnastics1 or a ,system of ,hygienic ,exercises for ,home ,use1 to be practised anywhere1 without apparatus or assistance1 by young and old of either sex1 for the preservation of health and general activity4 ,revised and ,supplemented by ,rudolf ,graefe1 ,m4,d4 ,with a large plate and #de illustrations in the text4 ,royal #hvo1 cloth4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,schroen 7,l474 ,seven-,figure ,logarithms of ,numbers from #a to #ajh1jjj1 and of ,sines1 ,cosines1 ,tangents1 ,cotangents to every #aj ,seconds of the ,quadrant4 ,with a ,table of ,proportional ,parts4 ,by ,dr ,ludwig ,schroen1 ,director of the ,observatory of ,jena1 etc41 etc4 #eth ,edition1 corrected and stereotyped4 ,with a description of the ,tables by ,a4 ,de ,morgan1 ,professor of ,mathematics in ,university ,college1 ,london4 ,imp4 #hvo1 cloth1 printed on light green paper4 #is4 ,,schubert 7,,hans ,,von74 ,history of the ,church4 ,translated from the ,second ,german ,edition4 ,by arrangement with the ,author1 an ,additional ,chapter has been added on ,religious ,movements in ,england in the ,nineteenth ,century1 by ,miss ,alice ,gardner1 ,lecturer and ,associate of ,newnham ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,see ,theological ,translation ,library1 ,new ,series1 p4 #da4 ,,schurman 7,j4 ,,gould74 ,kantian ,ethics and the ,ethics of ,evolution4 #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 --,the ,ethical ,import of ,darwinism4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 ,,scott 7,,andrew74 ,lepeophtheirus and ,lernea4 ,with #e ,plates4 #bs4 net4 ,see ,liverpool ,marine ,biology ,committee ,memoirs on ,typical ,british ,marine ,plants and ,animals1 p4 #ci4 ,,scott 7,dr ,d4 ,h41 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s474 ,the ,evolution of ,plants4 ,fully illustrated4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #i in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,scott 7,e4 ,f41 ,m4,a474 ,the ,apologetic of the ,new ,testament4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,see ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cf4 ,,seeberg 7,prof4 ,r41 of ,berlin74 ,the ,fundamental ,truths of the ,christian ,religion4 ,sixteen ,lectures delivered before the ,students of all ,faculties in the ,university of ,berlin4 ,crown #hvo4 #cej pp4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,see ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cg4 ,,seger 7,,herman ,,august71 ,collected ,writings of4 ,papers on ,manufacture of ,pottery4 #b vols4 ,large #hvo4 #c1 #cs4 net per set4 ,,seitz 7,dr ,,adalbert71 ,edited by1 with the assistance of ,dr ,jordan 7,tring71 ,w4 ,f4 ,kirby 7,london71 ,warren 7,london71 ,hon4 ,w1 ,rothschild 7,london71 and others4 ,butterflies and ,moths4 ,the ,macrolepidoptera of the ,world4 ,a work of reference and identification1 with #ajjj coloured plates1 depicting nearly #dj1jjj specimens1 with letterpress4 ,to be completed in about #dfe parts4 #dto4 ,the work is divided into two ,divisions4 ,division ,i41 ,fauna ,palarctica1 published in #d vols1 or #aae parts at #as4 net each4 ,orders are booked for the whole division only4 ,division ,,ii41 ,fauna ,exotica1 published in #ab vols41 or #cej parts at #as4 #f;d4 net each4 ,this division is divided into ,fauna ,americana1 ,fauna ,indo-,australica1 and ,fauna ,africana4 ,each ,fauna may be subscribed for separately1 and subscriptions will also be received for any of the classified groups1 viz41 ,rhopalocera1 ,bombyces and ,sphinges1 ,noctu and ,geometr4 ,binding covers for the work can be obtained after completion of each volume4 ,the latest prospectus should be applied for4 ,,selbie 7,principal ,w4 ,b41 ,m4,a474 ,nonconformity3 ,its ,origin and ,progress4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ej in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #da4 ,,sharpe 7,,henry74 ,britain ,b4,c43 ,as ,described in ,classical ,writings4 ,with an ,inquiry into the positions of the ,cassiterides and ,thule1 and an attempt to ascertain the ancient coast-line of ,kent and ,east ,sussex4 ,with ,maps4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 net4 ,,shearman 7,a4 ,t41 ,m4,a474 ,the ,development of ,symbolic ,logic4 ,a ,critical ,historical ,study of the ,logical ,calculus4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 net4 ,,simkhovitch 7,prof4 ,v4 ,j41 ,ph4,d474 ,marxism and ,socialism4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #fs4 net4 ,,smith 7,the ,rt4 ,hon4 ,f4 ,e41 ,k4,c41 ,m4,p474 ,unionist ,policy and other ,essays4 ,large #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 net4 ,,smith 7,l4 ,,pearsall1 ,m4,a474 ,the ,english ,language4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #de in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #dj4 ,,snellen',s ,,ophthalmic ,,test ,,types4 ,best ,types for the ,determination of the ,acuteness of ,vision4 #adth ,edition1 considerably augmented and improved4 #hvo1 sewed4 #ds4 ,single ,sheets3 ,e ,t ,b1 ,m ,o ,v1 ,b ,d ,e1 ,w ,w ,w ,transcriber's note3 #c symbols that look like a letter ,e1 pointing upward1 have been replaced with ,ws1 and ,large ,clock ,sheet4 #h;d4 each4 ,small ,clock ,sheet and ,r ,t ,v ,z4 #d;d4 each4 ,,snyder 7,,harry1 ,b4,sc74 ,soils and ,fertilisers4 #bnd ,edition4 #hvo4 ,pages x #bid4 #a ,plate1 #dj ,illustrations4 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,soddy 7,f41 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s474 ,matter and ,energy4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #df in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #da4 ,,soden 7,prof4 ,h4 ,,von1 ,d4,d474 ,the ,books of the ,new ,testament4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,r4 ,wilkinson1 and edited by ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,morrison1 ,,ll4,d4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,see ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cf4 ,,soliloquies ,,of ,,st ,,augustine1 ,,the4 ,translated into ,english by ,rose ,elizabeth ,cleveland4 ,with ,notes and ,introduction by the ,translator4 ,small demy #hvo1 cloth4 #fs4 net4 ,,somerville 7,prof4 ,w41 ,d4,sc74 ,agriculture4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #bf in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,sonntag 7,c4 ,o47 ,a ,pocket ,flora of ,edinburgh and the ,surrounding ,district4 ,a ,collection and full ,description of all ,phanerogamic and the principal ,cryptogamic ,plants1 classified after the ,natural ,system1 with an artificial ,key and a ,glossary of ,botanical ,terms4 ,by the late ,c4 ,o4 ,sonntag4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 limp cloth4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,sorensen 7,s41 ,ph4,d471 ,compiled by4 ,an ,index to the ,names in the ,mahabharata4 ,with short explanations4 ,royal #dto1 in twelve parts1 which are not sold separately1 at #gs4 #f;d4 per part net4 ,parts ,i4 to ,,viii4 now ready4 ,,southwark 7,lady74 ,social and ,political ,reminiscences4 ,illustrated4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,spears 7,j4 ,r474 ,master ,mariners4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ee in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #da4 ,,spencer 7,,herbert74 ,a ,system of ,synthetic ,philosophy-- ,vol4 ,i4 ,first ,principles4 ,with an ,appendix and a ,portrait4 ,finally revised4 ,new ,edition1 large crown #hvo1 cloth4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,specially printed cheap edition1 bound in cloth4 #b vols1 of #bdj pages each4 #as4 net per volume4 ,complete in one volume4 #bs4 net4 ,vols4 ,,ii4 and ,,iii4 ,the ,principles of ,biology4 #fth ,thousand #hvo1 cloth4 ,revised and greatly enlarged4 #b vols4 #ahs4 each4 ,vols4 ,,iv4 and ,v4 ,the ,principles of ,psychology4 #eth ,thousand4 #b vols4 #hvo1 cloth4 #cfs4 ,vol4 ,,vi4 ,the ,principles of ,sociology4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,part #a1 ,the ,data of ,sociology2 ,part #b1 ,the ,inductions of ,sociology2 ,part #c1 ,domestic ,institutions4 #dth ,thousand1 revised and enlarged4 #hvo1 cloth4 #bas4 ,vol4 ,,vii4 ,the ,principles of ,sociology4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,part #d1 ,ceremonial ,institutions2 ,part #e1 ,political ,institutions4 #crd ,thousand4 #hvo1 cloth4 #afs4 ,vol4 ,,viii4 ,the ,principles of ,sociology4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,part #f1 ,ecclesiastical ,institutions2 ,part #g1 ,professional ,institutions2 ,part #h1 ,industrial ,institutions4 #bnd ,thousand4 #hvo1 cloth4 #afs4 ,vol4 ,,ix4 ,the ,principles of ,ethics4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,part #a1 ,the ,data of ,ethics2 ,part #b1 ,the ,inductions of ,ethics2 ,part #c1 ,the ,ethics of ,individual ,life4 #hvo1 cloth4 #aes4 ,vol4 ,x4 ,the ,principles of ,ethics4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,part #d1 ,justice2 ,part #e1 ,negative ,beneficence2 ,part #f1 ,positive ,beneficence2 ,appendices4 ,demy #hvo4 cloth4 #abs4 #f;d4 --,a ,rejoinder to ,professor ,weismann4 ,sewed4 #f;d4 --,data of ,ethics4 ,reset uniform with popular edition of ,first ,principles4 ,sewed1 #bs4 #f;d4 net2 cloth1 #cs4 net4 ,,spencer 7,,herbert74 ,descriptive ,sociology2 or1 ,groups of ,sociological ,facts4 ,compiled and abstracted by ,professor ,d4 ,duncan of ,madras1 ,dr ,richard ,scheppig1 and ,james ,collier4 ,folio1 boards4 ,no4 #a4 ,english4 #ahs4 ,no4 #b4 ,ancient ,american ,races4 #afs4 ,no4 #c4 ,lowest ,races1 ,negritto ,races1 ,polynesians4 #ahs4 ,no4 #d4 ,african ,races4 #afs4 ,no4 #e4 ,asiatic ,races4 #ahs4 ,no4 #f4 ,american ,races4 #ahs4 ,no4 #g4 ,hebrews and ,phoenicians4 #bas4 ,no4 #h4 ,the ,french ,civilisation4 #cjs4 ,no4 #i4 ,chinese4 ,compiled and abstracted by ,e4 ,t4 ,c4 ,werner1 ,h4,m4's ,consular ,service1 ,china4 #fcs4 ,no4 #aj4 ,greeks3 ,hellenic ,era4 ,by ,rev4 ,dr ,j4 ,p4 ,mahaffy1 and ,professor ,w4 ,a4 ,goligher1 ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin4 #bas4 --,education3 ,intellectual1 ,moral1 and ,physical4 ,popular ,edition4 ,entirely reset4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 cloth1 #as4 net4 --,essays3 ,scientific1 ,political1 and ,speculative4 ,a new ,edition1 rearranged1 with additional ,essays4 #c vols4 #hvo1 cloth4 7,each #ajs47 #cjs4 --,facts and ,comments4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #fs4 --,justice4 ,being ,part #d of the ,principles of ,ethics4 #bnd ,thousand4 #hvo1 cloth4 #fs4 --,reasons for ,dissenting from the ,philosophy of ,m4 ,comte4 ,sewed4 #f;d4 --,social ,statics4 ,abridged and revised1 together with ,the ,man v4 ,the ,state4 #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 --,the ,man versus ,the ,state4 #adth ,thousand4 ,sewed1 #as4 --,the ,study of ,sociology4 ,library ,edition 7#bast ,thousand71 with a ,postscript4 #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 --,various ,fragments4 ,uniform in ,library binding4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 ,enlarged ,edition4 #fs4 ,,statutes1 ,,the1 ,,of ,,the ,,apostles4 ,the hitherto unedited ,ethiopic and ,arabic ,texts1 with ,translations of ,ethiopic1 ,arabic1 and ,coptic ,texts1 by ,g4 ,horner1 ,m4,a4 ,,stephen 7,rev4 ,canon ,,reginald1 ,m4,a474 ,democracy and ,character4 ,being the ,moorhouse ,lectures for #aijh4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 ,,sterne 7,,laurence74 ,a ,sentimental ,journey through ,france and ,italy4 ,with #ab ,illustrations faithfully reproduced from water-colour drawings by ,everard ,hopkins4 ,cheap ,edition in crown #dto1 #fs4 net4 ,,stillman 7,,thos4 ,b41 ,m4,sc41 ,ph4,d474 ,engineering ,chemistry4 #dth ,edition4 ,the #dth edition has been mostly rewritten and altered to incorporate the latest approved methods of chemical testing4 ,medium #hvo4 ,with #adg ,figures in the text4 #bas4 net4 ,,stocker 7,r4 ,,dimsdale74 ,social ,idealism4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #cs4 net4 ,,strachey 7,g4 ,l474 ,landmarks in ,french ,literature4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth4 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ce in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,taylor 7,a4 ,,cameron74 ,general ,sir ,alexander ,taylor4 ,a ,memoir by his ,daughter4 #b vols4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #bes4 net4 ,,taylor 7,rev4 ,dr ,j474 ,the ,massoretic ,text and the ,ancient ,versions of the ,book of ,micah4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #es4 ,,ten ,,services ,,of ,,public ,,prayer1 with ,special ,collects4 #hvo1 cloth1 #cs42 or #cbmo1 cloth4 #as4 #f;d4 --,,psalms ,,and ,,canticles4 #hvo1 cloth4 #as4 #f;d4 --,,psalms ,,and ,,canticles1 with ,anthems4 #hvo1 cloth4 #bs4 --,,services ,,of ,,public ,,prayer1 taken in ,substance from the ,common ,prayer for ,christian ,worship1 with a few additional ,prayers for particular ,days4 #hvo1 cloth4 #bs4 #f;d42 or #cbmo1 cloth4 #as4 ,,tennyson 7,,alfred1 ,,lord74 ,the ,princess3 ,a ,medley4 ,with ,six ,illustrations beautifully reproduced in colours1 and a number in black-and-white1 from ,original ,drawings by ,everard ,hopkins4 ,small #dto4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,thomson 7,j4 ,,arthur1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d474 ,introduction to ,science4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth4 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #cb in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #dj4 --and ,prof4 ,,patrick ,,geddes4 ,evolution4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth4 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #bj in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #dj4 --,editor of the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,thurston 7,e4 ,,temple74 ,the ,flower of ,gloster4 ,by the well-known ,author of ,city of ,beautiful ,nonsense1 ,sally ,bishop1 etc4 ,with six ,illustrations faithfully reproduced in colours1 and other ,illus4 in black-and-white1 from drawings by ,w4 ,r4 ,dakin4 ,small #dto1 cloth4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,cheap ,edition4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,tischendorf 7,c474 ,the ,new ,testament4 ,novum ,testamentum ,grce4 #c vols4 #hvo4 #gjs4 net4 ,,tollinton 7,rev4 ,r4 ,b41 ,m4,a41 ,b4,d474 ,clement of ,alexandria4 ,a ,study in ,christian ,liberalism4 ,in two volumes4 ,medium #hvo1 cloth4 #bas4 net4 ,,tower 7,,charles74 ,germany of ,to-day4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth4 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ga in ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,tower 7,o4 ,f41 ,ph4,d474 ,the ,conductivity of ,liquids4 #hvo4 ,pages iv #aij1 #bj ,illustrations4 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,transactions ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,dublin ,,society4 ,issued in parts at various prices4 ,,transactions ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,irish ,,academy1 ,,dublin4 ,vols4 ,i4-,,xx4 #dto4 #bb1 #es4 #f;d4 ,vols4 ,,xxi4-,,xxxi4 ,various prices4 ,,transactions ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,society ,,of ,,edinburgh4 ,issued in parts at various prices4 ,general ,index to ,first ,thirty-four ,volumes 7#aghc-ahhh71 with ,history of the ,institution4 #dto1 cloth4 #bas4 ,,trenckner 7,v474 ,pali ,miscellany4 ,part ,i4 ,the ,introductory ,part of the ,milanda ,panho1 with an ,english ,translation and ,notes4 #hvo1 sewed4 #ds4 ,,trent 7,prof4 ,w4 ,p47 and ,,erskine 7,prof4 ,j474 ,great ,writers of ,america4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #eb1 ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,troeltsch 7,prof4 ,,ernest1 of ,jena74 ,protestantism and ,progress3 ,the ,significance of ,protestantism in the ,rise of the ,modern ,world4 ,translated into ,english by ,rev4 ,w4 ,montgomery1 ,b4,d4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,see ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cf4 ,,upton 7,rev4 ,c4 ,b474 ,on the ,bases of ,religious ,belief4 ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahic4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,vega4 ,logarithmic ,tables of ,numbers and ,trigonometrical ,functions4 ,translated from the #djth1 or ,dr ,bremiker's ,edition1 thoroughly revised and enlarged1 by ,w4 ,l4 ,fischer1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,fellow of ,clare ,college1 ,cambridge2 ,professor of ,natural ,philosophy in the ,university of ,st ,andrews4 #geth ,stereotyped ,edition4 ,royal #hvo1 cloth4 #gs4 ,,veiled ,,figure1 ,,the1 and other ,poems4 ,large post #hvo1 buckram1 gilt1 cover designed by ,mr ,t4 ,blake ,wirgman4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,venable 7,t4 ,c41 ,ph4,d474 ,the ,development of the ,periodic ,law4 ,small #abmo4 ,pages viii #cba4 ,illustrated4 #ajs4 #f;d4net4 --,the ,study of the ,atom4 #abmo4 ,pages vi #bij4 #hs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,vincent 7,,jacques74 ,vaillante4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,see ,army ,series of ,french and ,german ,novels1 p4 #ce4 ,,vinogradoff 7,prof4 ,p41 ,d4,c4,l474 ,common-,sense in ,law4 ,f'cap #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d1 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #hc in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,walford 7,mrs ,l4 ,b474 ,recollections of a ,scottish ,novelist4 ,with ,portraits and other ,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,wallace 7,dr ,,alfred ,,russel74 ,see ,character and ,life1 p4 #e4 ,,webster 7,a4 ,g474 ,the ,dynamics of ,particles and of ,rigid1 ,elastic1 and ,fluid ,bodies4 ,second ,edition4 ,medium #hvo1 cloth4 #ads4 net4 ,,wedmore 7,sir ,,frederick74 ,painters and ,painting4 ,illustrated4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as1 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #fc in ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #da4 ,,weinel 7,prof4 ,h41 of the ,university of ,jena74 ,st ,paul3 ,the ,man and his ,work4 ,translated by ,rev4 ,g4 ,a4 ,bienemann1 ,m4,a4 ,edited by ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,morrison1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,see ,theological ,translation ,library1 ,new ,series1 p4 #dd4 ,,weir 7,t4 ,h41 ,b4,d474 ,a ,short ,history of the ,hebrew ,text of the ,old ,testament4 ,by ,thomas ,h4 ,weir1 ,assistant to the ,professor of ,oriental ,languages in the ,university of ,glasgow4 #bnd ,edition1 with ,additions4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #fs4 ,,weisse 7,t4 ,h474 ,a ,short ,guide to ,german ,idioms3 being a ,collection of the ,idioms most in use4 ,with ,examination ,papers4 #crd ,edition4 ,cloth4 #bs4 --,elements of ,german4 ,with a ,course of ,exercises instructing in ,simpler ,composition4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #cs4 ,,weizs,,cker 7,prof4 ,,carl ,,von74 ,the ,apostolic ,age4 ,trans1 by ,james ,millar1 ,b4,d4 ,demy #hvo1 #b vols41 cloth4 ,each #ajs4 #f;d4 ,see ,theological ,translation ,library1 ,new ,series1 p4 #dd4 ,,weld 7,a4 ,g474 ,glimpses of ,tennyson and of ,some of his ,friends4 ,with an ,appendix by the late ,bertram ,tennyson4 ,illustrated with ,portraits in photogravure and colour1 and with a facsimile of a ,,ms4 poem4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 art linen4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,,werner 7,a47 and ,g4 ,,hunt4 ,elementary ,lessons in ,cape ,dutch 7,afrikander ,taal74 #afmo1 cloth4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,wernle 7,,paul74 ,the ,beginnings of ,christianity4 ,the ,author is ,professor ,extraordinary of ,modern ,church ,history at the ,university of ,basel4 ,revised by the ,author1 and translated by the ,rev4 ,g4 ,a4 ,bienemann1 ,m4,a41 and edited1 with an ,introduction1 by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,morrison1 ,,ll4,d4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 per volume4 ,see ,theological ,translation ,library1 ,new ,series1 p4 #dd4 ,,whitehead 7,a4 ,n41 ,sc4,d41 ,f4,r4,s474 ,introduction to ,mathematics4 ,with ,diagrams4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs1 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #ah in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #dj4 ,,wiley 7,,harvey ,w41 ,a4,m41 ,ph4,d474 ,principles and ,practice of ,agricultural ,chemical ,analysis4 #c vols4 #hvo4 ,new ,edition in preparation4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,soils4 ,ready4 #ahs4 net4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,fertilisers4 #bjs4 net4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,agricultural ,products4 #bfs4 net4 ,,williams 7,,aneurin1 ,m4,p474 ,co-,partnership and ,profit-,sharing4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth1 #as4 net2 leather1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,forming ,vol4 #hj in the ,home ,university ,library2 for list1 see p4 #ci4 ,,williams 7,the ,right ,rev4 ,w4 ,l41 ,d4,c4,l474 ,a ,dictionary of the ,new ,zealand ,language4 #dth ,edition4 ,edited by the ,right ,rev4 ,bishop ,w4 ,l4 ,williams1 with numerous additions and corrections4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 #f;d4 --,lessons in ,maori4 #crd ,edition4 ,f'cap4 #hvo1 cloth4 #cs4 ,,wimmer 7,r41 ,pastor of ,weisweil-am-,rhein in ,baden74 ,my ,struggle for ,light3 ,confessions of a ,preacher4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #cs4 net4 ,see ,crown ,theological ,library1 p4 #cf4 ,,winstedt 7,e4 ,o471 ,edited by4 ,coptic ,texts on ,st ,theodore the ,general1 ,st ,theodore the ,eastern1 ,chamoul and ,justus4 #bas4 net4 ,see ,text and ,translation ,society1 p4 #dc4 ,,woods 7,c4 ,e474 ,the ,gospel of ,rightness4 ,a ,study in ,pauline ,philosophy4 #cjj pages1 cloth4 #es4 net4 ,,wright 7,rev4 ,c4 ,h4 ,h474 ,light from ,egyptian ,papyri on ,jewish ,history before ,christ4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth4 #cs4 net4 ,,wright 7,g4 ,h4 ,,bateson1 ,d4,d474 ,the ,book of ,job4 ,a new critically revised ,translation1 with ,essays on ,scansion1 ,date1 etc4 #hvo1 cloth4 #fs4 --,was ,israel ever in ,egypt8 or1 ,a ,lost ,tradition4 #hvo1 art linen4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,wright 7,w4 ,,aldis1 ,,ll4,d471 ,edited by4 ,a ,rabbinic ,commentary on the ,book of ,job1 contained in a unique ,,ms4 at ,cambridge4 ,with ,translation and ,commentary4 #bas4 net4 ,see ,text and ,translation ,society1 p4 #dc4 ,,wundt 7,,wilhelm74 ,outlines of ,psychology4 ,translated1 with the co-operation of the ,author1 by ,charles ,hubbard ,judd1 ,ph4,d41 ,instructor in the ,wesleyan ,university4 #crd ,enlarged ,edition4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #hs4 net4 ,,wysor 7,,henry1 ,b4,s41 ,assistant ,professor of ,analytical ,chemistry1 ,lafayette ,college74 ,metallurgy4 ,a ,condensed ,treatise4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,younghusband 7,col4 ,sir ,,francis ,e471 ,k4,c4,i4,e4 ,within3 ,thoughts during ,convalescence4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,complete ,,list ,,of ,,libraries ,,series ,,arranged ,,in ,,alphabetical ,,order4 ,,army ,,series ,,of ,,french ,,and ,,german ,,novels4 ,edited1 with short ,notes1 by ,j4 ,t4 ,w4 ,perowne1 ,m4,a4 ,this series is equally well adapted for general reading1 and for those preparing for the ,army1 ,oxford and ,cambridge ,certificates1 and other ,examinations--in fact1 for all who wish to keep up or improve their ,french and ,german4 ,the notes are as concise as possible1 with an occasional etymology or illustration to assist the memory4 ,the books selected being by recent or living authors1 are adapted for the study of most modern ,french and ,german4 ,le ,coup de ,pistolet1 etc4 ,prosper ,merime4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,vaillante4 ,jacques ,vincent4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,auf ,verlornem ,posten and ,nazzarena ,danti4 ,johannes v4 ,dewall4 #cs4 ,contes ,militaires4 ,a4 ,daudet4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,erzhlungen4 ,e4 ,hfer4 #cs4 ,,crown ,,theological ,,library4 ,the only undertaking of its kind in the ,english language2 each writer is at liberty to express his deepest convictions with absolute freedom--a freedom which is the only ultimate security of truth4 ,vol4 ,i4--,babel and ,bible4 ,by ,dr ,friedrich ,delitzsch4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,ii4--,the ,virgin ,birth of ,christ4 ,an ,historical and ,critical ,essay4 ,by ,paul ,lobstein4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,iii4--,my ,struggle for ,light4 ,confessions of a ,preacher4 ,by ,r4 ,wimmer4 #cs4 net4 ,vol4 ,,iv4--,liberal ,christianity4 ,its ,origin1 ,nature1 and ,mission4 ,by ,jean ,rville4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,v4--,what is ,christianity8 ,by ,adolf ,harnack4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,vi4--,faith and ,morals4 ,by ,w4 ,herrmann4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,vii4--,early ,hebrew ,story4 ,a ,study of the ,origin1 the ,value1 and the ,historical ,background of the ,legends of ,israel4 ,by ,john ,p4 ,peters1 ,d4,d4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,viii4--,bible ,problems and the ,new ,material for their ,solution4 ,by ,prof4 ,t4 ,k4 ,cheyne1 ,d4,litt41 ,d4,d4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,ix4--,the ,doctrine of the ,atonement and its ,historical ,evolution1 and ,religion and ,modern ,culture4 ,by the late ,auguste ,sabatier4 #ds4 net4 ,vol4 ,x4--,the ,early ,christian ,conception of ,christ4 ,its ,significance and ,value in the ,history of ,religion4 ,by ,otto ,pfleiderer4 #cs4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xi4--,the ,child and ,religion4 ,eleven ,essays by ,various ,writers4 #es4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xii4--,the ,evolution of ,religion4 ,an ,anthropological ,study4 ,by ,l4 ,r4 ,farnell1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,litt4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xiii4--,the ,books of the ,new ,testament4 ,by ,baron ,hermann von ,soden1 ,d4,d4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xiv4--,jesus4 ,by ,w4 ,bousset4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xv4--,the ,communion of the ,christian with ,god4 ,by ,w4 ,herrmann4 ,revised and much enlarged edition4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xvi4--,hebrew ,religion4 ,to the ,establishment of ,judaism under ,ezra4 ,by ,w4 ,e4 ,addis1 ,m4,a4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xvii4--,naturalism and ,religion4 ,by ,rudolf ,otto4 #es4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xviii4--,essays on the ,social ,gospel4 ,by ,dr ,adolf ,harnack and ,dr ,herrmann4 #ds4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xix4--,the ,religion of the ,old ,testament4 ,by ,karl ,marti4 #ds4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xx4--,luke the ,physician4 ,being ,volume ,one of ,dr ,adolf ,harnack's ,new ,testament ,studies4 #es4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxi4--,the ,historical ,evidence for the ,resurrection of ,jesus ,christ4 ,by ,prof4 ,kirsopp ,lake4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxii4--,the ,apologetic of the ,new ,testament4 ,by ,e4 ,f4 ,scott4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxiii4--,the ,sayings of ,jesus4 ,being ,volume ,two of ,dr ,adolf ,harnack's ,new ,testament ,studies4 #es4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxiv4--,anglican ,liberalism4 ,by ,twelve ,churchmen4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxv4--,the ,fundamental ,truths of the ,christian ,religion4 ,by ,dr ,r4 ,seeberg4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxvi4--,the ,life of the ,spirit4 ,an ,introduction to ,philosophy4 ,by ,dr ,rudolf ,eucken4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxvii4--,the ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,being ,volume ,three of ,dr ,adolf ,harnack's ,new ,testament ,studies4 #es4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxviii4--,monasticism and the ,confessions of ,st ,augustine4 ,by ,dr ,adolf ,harnack4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxix4--,modernity and the ,churches4 ,by ,prof4 ,percy ,gardner4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxx4--,the ,old ,egyptian ,faith4 ,by ,prof4 ,edouard ,naville4 ,illustrated4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxxi4--,the ,constitution and ,law of the ,church in the ,first ,two ,centuries4 ,by ,dr ,adolf ,harnack4 #es4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxxii4--,the ,scientific ,study of the ,old ,testament4 ,illustrated4 ,by ,dr ,rudolf ,kittel4 #es4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxxiii4--,the ,date of the ,acts and of the ,synoptic ,gospels4 ,being ,volume ,four of ,dr ,adolf ,harnack's ,new ,testament ,studies4 ,cloth4 #es4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxxiv4--,the ,religious ,experience of ,st ,paul4 ,by ,prof4 ,percy ,gardner4 #es4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxxv4--,pharisaism3 ,its ,aims and its ,methods4 ,by ,r4 ,travers ,herford1 ,b4,a4 ,cloth4 #es4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxxvi4--,bible ,reading in the ,early ,church4 ,being ,volume ,five of ,dr ,adolf ,harnack's ,new ,testament ,studies4 ,cloth4 #es4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxxvii--,protestantism and ,progress4 ,by ,prof4 ,ernest ,troeltsch of ,jena4 ,cloth4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxxviii4--,present ,day ,ethics4 ,by ,prof4 ,rudolf ,eucken4 #cs4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxxix4--,knowledge and ,life4 ,by ,prof4 ,rudolf ,eucken4 #es4 net4 ,descriptive ,prospectus on ,application4 ,,the ,,hibbert ,,lectures4 ,library ,edition1 demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 per volume4 ,cheap ,popular ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 per volume4 ,alviella 7,count ,goblet ,d'74 ,lectures on the ,origin and the ,growth of the ,conception of ,god1 as illustrated by ,anthropology and ,history4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,p4 ,h4 ,wicksteed4 7,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahia47 ,cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,beard 7,rev4 ,dr ,c474 ,lectures on the ,reformation of the ,sixteenth ,century in its ,relation to ,modern ,thought and ,knowledge4 7,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhc47 #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,davids 7,t4 ,w4 ,rhys74 ,lectures on ,some ,points in the ,history of ,indian ,buddhism4 7,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahha47 #bnd ,edition4 #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,drummond 7,dr74 ,via1 ,veritas1 ,vita4 ,lectures on ,christianity in its most ,simple and ,intelligible ,form4 7,the ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahid47 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,hatch 7,rev4 ,dr74 ,lectures on the ,influence of ,greek ,ideas and ,usages upon the ,christian ,church4 ,ed4 by ,dr ,fairbairn4 7,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhh47 #crd ,ed4 #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,kuenen 7,dr ,a474 ,lectures on ,national ,religions and ,universal ,religion4 7,the ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhb47 #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,montefiore 7,c4 ,g474 ,origin and ,growth of ,religion as ,illustrated by the ,religion of the ,ancient ,hebrews4 7,the ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahib47 #bnd ,edition4 #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,pfleiderer 7,dr ,o474 ,lectures on the ,influence of the ,apostle ,paul on the ,development of ,christianity4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,frederick ,smith4 7,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhe47 #bnd ,edition4 #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,renan 7,e474 ,on the ,influence of the ,institutions1 ,thoughts and ,culture of ,rome on ,christianity1 and the ,development of the ,catholic ,church4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,charles ,beard4 7,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhj47 #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #crd ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,renouf 7,p4 ,le ,page74 ,on the ,religion of ,ancient ,egypt4 7,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahgi47 #crd ,edition4 #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,rhys 7,prof4 ,j474 ,on the ,origin and ,growth of ,religion as ,illustrated by ,celtic ,heathendom4 7,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhf47 #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,rville 7,dr ,a474 ,on the ,native ,religions of ,mexico and ,peru4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,p4 ,h4 ,wicksteed4 7,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhd47 #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,sayce 7,prof4 ,a4 ,h474 ,on the ,religion of ,ancient ,assyria and ,babylonia4 #dth ,edition4 7,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhg47 #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,upton 7,rev4 ,c4 ,b474 ,on the ,bases of ,religious ,belief4 7,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahic47 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,cheap ,edition1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,second ,series4 ,farnell 7,l4 ,r41 ,d4,litt41 ,wilde ,lecturer in the ,university of ,oxford74 ,the ,higher ,aspects of ,greek ,religion4 ,lectures delivered in ,oxford and ,london in #aiaa4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #fs4 net4 ,moulton 7,prof4 ,j4 ,h474 ,early ,zoroastrianism4 ,cloth4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,margoliouth 7,prof4 ,d4 ,s474 ,early ,development of ,mohammedanism4 ,cloth4 #fs4 net4 ,,home ,,university ,,library ,,of ,,modern ,,knowledge4 ,editors3 ,prof4 ,gilbert ,murray1 ,d4,litt41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,b4,a41 ,herbert ,fisher1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,b4,a41 ,,ll4,d41 ,professor ,j4 ,arthur ,thomson1 ,,ll4,d41 and ,professor ,wm4 ,t4 ,brewster4 ,each volume is written by an expert of the very first rank1 and consists of #bef pages4 ,issued bound in cloth at #as4 net1 or beautifully bound in leather1 levant morocco grain1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,eighty-five ,volumes ,now ,ready4 #a4 ,parliament4 ,sir ,c4 ,p4 ,ilbert1 ,k4,c4,b4 #b4 ,shakespeare4 ,john ,masefield4 #c4 ,french ,revolution4 7,with ,maps47 ,hilaire ,belloc1 ,m4,a4 #d4 ,history of ,war and ,peace4 ,g4 ,h4 ,perris4 #e4 ,stock ,exchange4 ,f4 ,w4 ,hirst1 ,m4,a4 #f4 ,irish ,nationality4 ,mrs ,j4 ,r4 ,green4 #g4 ,modern ,geography4 7,illustrated47 ,dr ,m4 ,newbigin4 #h4 ,polar ,exploration4 7,with ,maps47 ,dr ,w4 ,s4 ,bruce4 #i4 ,evolution of ,plants4 7,fully ,illustrated47 ,dr ,d4 ,h4 ,scott1 ,f4,r4,s4 #aj4 ,socialist ,movement4 ,j4 ,ramsay ,mac,donald1 ,m4,p4 #aa4 ,conservatism4 ,lord ,hugh ,cecil1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,p4 #ab4 ,opening ,up of ,africa4 7,with ,maps47 ,sir ,h4 ,h4 ,johnston1 ,g4,c4,m4,g4 #ac4 ,medival ,europe4 7,with ,maps47 ,h4 ,w4 ,c4 ,davis1 ,m4,a4 #ad4 ,the ,papacy and ,modern ,times4 ,rev4 ,dr ,w4 ,barry4 #ae4 ,mohammedanism4 ,prof4 ,d4 ,s4 ,margoliouth4 #af4 ,the ,science of ,wealth4 ,j4 ,a4 ,hobson1 ,m4,a4 #ag4 ,health and ,disease4 ,dr ,w4 ,l4 ,mackenzie4 #ah4 ,introduction to ,mathematics4 7,with ,diagrams47 ,a4 ,n4 ,whitehead1 ,sc4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 #ai4 ,the ,animal ,world4 7,with many ,illustrations47 ,prof4 ,f4 ,w4 ,gamble4 #bj4 ,evolution4 ,prof4 ,j4 ,a4 ,thomson and ,prof4 ,p4 ,geddes4 #ba4 ,liberalism4 ,prof4 ,l4 ,t4 ,hobhouse4 #bb4 ,crime and ,insanity4 ,dr ,c4 ,a4 ,mercier4 #bc4 ,history of our ,time1 #ahhe-aiac4 ,g4 ,p4 ,gooch1 ,m4,a4 #bd4 ,the ,evolution of ,industry4 ,prof4 ,d4 ,h4 ,mac,gregor4 #be4 ,the ,civilisation of ,china4 ,prof4 ,h4 ,a4 ,giles1 ,,ll4,d4 #bf4 ,agriculture4 ,prof4 ,w4 ,somerville1 ,d4,sc4 #bg4 ,english ,literature3 ,modern4 ,george ,mair1 ,m4,a4 #bh4 ,psychical ,research4 ,sir ,w4 ,f4 ,barrett1 ,f4,r4,s4 #bi4 ,the ,dawn of ,history4 ,prof4 ,j4 ,l4 ,myres4 #cj4 ,elements of ,english ,law4 ,prof4 ,w4 ,m4 ,geldart1 ,b4,c4,l4 #ca4 ,astronomy4 ,a4 ,r4 ,hinks1 ,m4,a4 #cb4 ,the ,introduction to ,science4 ,prof4 ,j4 ,arthur ,thomson1 ,m4,a4 #cc4 ,the ,history of ,england3 ,a ,study in ,political ,evolution4 ,prof4 ,a4 ,f4 ,pollard4 #cd4 ,canada4 ,a4 ,g4 ,bradley4 #ce4 ,landmarks in ,french ,literature4 ,g4 ,l4 ,strachey4 #cf4 ,climate and ,weather4 7,with ,diagrams47 ,prof4 ,h4 ,n4 ,dickson1 ,d4,sc4 #cg4 ,peoples and ,problems of ,india4 ,sir ,t4 ,w4 ,holderness1 ,k4,c4,s4,i4 #ch4 ,the ,school4 ,an ,introduction to the ,study of ,education4 ,prof4 ,j4 ,j4 ,findlay4 #ci4 ,architecture4 7,over #dj ,illustrations47 ,prof4 ,w4 ,r4 ,lethaby4 #dj4 ,problems of ,philosophy4 ,the ,hon4 ,bertrand ,russell1 ,f4,r4,s4 #da4 ,anthropology4 ,r4 ,r4 ,marett1 ,m4,a4 #db4 ,rome4 ,w4 ,warde-,fowler1 ,m4,a4 #dc4 ,english ,literature3 ,medival4 ,prof4 ,w4 ,p4 ,ker4 #dd4 ,principles of ,physiology4 ,prof4 ,j4 ,g4 ,m',kendrick4 #de4 ,the ,english ,language4 ,j4 ,pearsall ,smith1 ,m4,a4 #df4 ,matter and ,energy4 ,f4 ,soddy1 ,f4,r4,s4 #dg4 ,buddhism4 ,mrs ,rhys ,davids4 #dh4 ,the ,american ,civil ,war4 7,maps47 ,prof4 ,f4 ,l4 ,paxson4 #di4 ,psychology4 ,the ,study of ,behaviour4 ,prof4 ,w4 ,mc,dougall4 #ej4 ,nonconformity1 ,its ,origin and ,progress4 ,principal ,w4 ,b4 ,selbie4 #ea4 ,warfare in ,england4 7,with ,maps47 ,hilaire ,belloc1 ,m4,a4 #eb4 ,great ,writers of ,america4 ,profs4 ,w4 ,p4 ,trent and ,j4 ,erskine4 #ec4 ,the ,making of the ,earth4 7,with #ch ,maps and ,figures47 ,prof4 ,j4 ,w4 ,gregory1 ,f4,r4,s4 #ed4 ,ethics4 ,g4 ,e4 ,moore1 ,m4,a4 #ee4 ,master ,mariners4 ,j4 ,r4 ,spears4 #ef4 ,making of the ,new ,testament4 ,prof4 ,b4 ,w4 ,bacon1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,d4 #eg4 ,the ,human ,body 7,illustrated74 ,prof4 ,arthur ,keith1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,c4,s4 #eh4 ,electricity 7,illustrated74 ,dr ,gisbert ,kapp1 ,d4,eng41 ,m4,i4,e4,e4 #ei4 ,political ,economy4 ,prof4 ,s4 ,j4 ,chapman1 ,m4,a4 #fj4 ,missions3 ,their ,rise and ,development4 ,mrs ,creighton4 #fa4 ,napoleon4 7,maps47 ,herbert ,fisher1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,b4,a4 #fb4 ,the ,origin and ,nature of ,life4 ,prof4 ,benjamin ,moore4 #fc4 ,painters and ,painting4 7,illustrated47 ,sir ,frederick ,wedmore4 #fd4 ,dr ,johnson and his ,circle4 ,john ,bailey1 ,m4,a4 #fe4 ,the ,literature of ,germany4 ,prof4 ,j4 ,g4 ,robertson1 ,m4,a41 ,ph4,d4 #ff4 ,the ,navy and ,sea ,power4 ,david ,hannay4 #fg4 ,chemistry4 ,prof4 ,raphael ,meldola1 ,d4,sc41 ,,ll4,d4 #fh4 ,comparative ,religion4 ,prof4 ,j4 ,estlin ,carpenter1 ,,ll4,d4 #fi4 ,the ,newspaper4 7,illustrated47 ,g4 ,binney ,dibblee4 #gj4 ,the ,victorian ,age in ,literature4 ,g4 ,k4 ,chesterton4 #ga4 ,germany of ,to-day4 ,by ,charles ,tower4 #gb4 ,plant ,life 7,illustrated74 ,by ,prof4 ,j4 ,b4 ,farmer1 ,f4,r4,s4 #gc4 ,the ,writing of ,english4 ,by ,prof4 ,w4 ,t4 ,brewster4 #gd4 ,a ,history of ,freedom of ,thought4 ,by ,prof4 ,j4 ,b4 ,bury1 ,litt4,d4 #ge4 ,ancient ,art and ,ritual4 ,by ,miss ,jane ,harrison1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,litt4 #gf4 ,euripides and ,his ,age4 ,by ,gilbert ,murray1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,litt4 #gg4 ,shelley1 ,godwin1 and their ,circle4 ,h4 ,n4 ,brailsford4 #gh4 ,the ,ocean4 ,sir ,john ,murray4 #gi4 ,nerves4 ,prof4 ,d4 ,fraser ,harris4 #hj4 ,co-,partnership and ,profit-,sharing4 ,aneurin ,williams1 ,m4,p4 #ha4 ,problems of ,village ,life4 ,e4 ,n4 ,bennett1 ,m4,a4 #hb4 ,prehistoric ,britain4 ,robert ,munro1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4,e4 #hc4 ,common-,sense in ,law4 ,prof4 ,p4 ,vinogradoff1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d4 #hd4 ,literature of the ,old ,testament4 ,prof4 ,george ,f4 ,moore1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 #he4 ,unemployment4 ,prof4 ,a4 ,c4 ,pigou4 ,a ,detailed ,list1 containing ,particulars of more than ,one ,hundred ,volumes1 eighty-five of which are already issued1 to be had upon application4 ,,liverpool ,,marine ,,biology ,,committee4 ,,memoirs ,,on ,,typical ,,british ,,marine ,,plants ,,and ,,animals4 ,edited by ,w4 ,a4 ,herdman1 ,d4,sc41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,all demy #hvo1 stiff boards4 #a4 ,ascidia4 ,by ,prof4 ,w4 ,a4 ,herdman4 ,with #e ,plates4 #bs4 net4 #b4 ,cardium4 ,by ,j4 ,johnstone4 #g ,plates4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 #c4 ,echinus4 ,by ,herbert ,clifton ,chadwick1 ,curator of the ,port ,erin ,biological ,station4 ,with #e ,plates4 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7,griefswald7 and ,w4 ,e4 ,crum4 #bas4 net4 ,a ,rabbinic ,commentary on the ,book of ,job1 contained in a unique ,,ms4 at ,cambridge4 ,edited1 with ,translation and ,commentary1 by ,w4 ,aldis ,wright1 ,,ll4,d4 #bas4 net4 ,an ,ancient ,armenian ,version of the ,apocalypse of ,st ,john2 also ,the ,armenian ,texts of ,cyril of ,alexandria1 ,scholia de ,incarnatione and ,epistle to ,theodosius upon ,easter1 the former incompletely preserved in ,greek1 the latter unknown in ,greek or ,latin4 ,all edited1 with ,english versions1 etc41 by ,f4 ,c4 ,conybeare1 formerly ,fellow of ,university ,college1 ,oxford4 ,remnants of the ,later ,syriac ,versions of the ,bible4 ,part ,i4 7,sixth ,century74 ,the ,four ,minor ,catholic ,epistles4 ,reconstructed ,text1 with ,apparatus ,criticus4 ,part ,,ii4 7,seventh ,century74 ,extracts1 hitherto unedited1 from the ,syro-,hexaplar ,text of ,chronicles1 ,nehemiah1 etc4 ,all edited1 with ,greek versions1 etc41 by ,john ,gwynn1 ,d4,d41 ,regius ,professor of ,divinity1 ,dublin4 #bas4 net4 ,coptic ,texts on ,st ,theodore the ,general1 ,st ,theodore the ,eastern1 ,chamoul and ,justus4 ,edited and ,translated by ,e4 ,o4 ,winstedt1 late ,senior ,demy of ,magdalen ,college1 ,oxford4 #bas4 net4 ,the ,refutation of ,mani1 ,marcion1 and ,bardaisan of ,st ,ephraim4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,c4 ,w4 ,mitchell4 #bas4 net4 ,euphemia and the ,goth4 ,with the ,acts of ,martyrdom of the ,confessors of ,edessa4 ,edited and examined by ,prof4 ,f4 ,c4 ,burkitt4 #bas4 net4 ,two ,commentaries on the ,jacobite ,liturgy4 ,by ,george1 ,bishop of the ,arab ,tribes1 and ,moses ,br ,kph4 ,together with the ,syriac anaphora of ,st ,james and a document entitled the ,book of ,life4 ,texts and ,english translation by ,dom4 ,r4 ,h4 ,connolly1 ,m4,a41 and ,h4 ,w4 ,codrington1 ,m4,a4 #bas4 net4 ,,theological ,,translation ,,library4 ,new ,series4 ,a ,series of ,translations by which the best results of recent ,theological ,investigations on the ,continent1 conducted without reference to doctrinal considerations1 and with the sole purpose of arriving at the truth1 are placed within reach of ,english readers4 ,vols4 ,i4 and ,v4--,the ,apostolic ,age4 ,by ,prof4 ,carl von ,weizscker4 ,translated by ,james ,millar1 ,b4,d4 #b vols4 #ajs4 #f;d4 each4 ,vols4 ,,ii41 ,,vii41 ,,viii41 ,,ix41 ,x41 ,,xi41 ,,xii4--,a ,history of ,dogma4 ,by ,adolf ,harnack1 ,berlin4 ,translated from the ,third ,german ,edition4 ,edited by the late ,rev4 ,prof4 ,a4 ,b4 ,bruce1 ,d4,d4 #g vols4 #ajs4 #f;d4 each4 ,vols4 ,,iii4 and ,,vi4--,a ,history of the ,hebrews4 ,by ,k4 ,kittel1 ,ordinary ,professor of ,theology in the ,university of ,breslau4 #ajs4 #f;d4 per volume4 ,vol4 ,,iv4--,the ,communion of the ,christian with ,god3 ,a ,discussion in ,agreement with the ,view of ,luther4 ,by ,w4 ,herrmann1 ,dr ,theol41 ,professor of ,dogmatic ,theology in the ,university of ,marburg4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xiii4--,an ,introduction to the ,textual ,criticism of the ,greek ,new ,testament4 ,by ,prof4 ,eberhard ,nestle1 of ,maulbronn4 ,cloth1 #ajs4 #f;d42 half-leather1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,vols4 ,,xv4 and ,,xvii4--,the ,beginnings of ,christianity4 ,by ,paul ,wernle1 ,professor ,extraordinary of ,modern ,church ,history at the ,university of ,basel4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,the ,rise of the ,religion4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,the ,development of the ,church4 #ajs4 #f;d4 per volume4 ,vol4 ,,xvi4--,the ,religions of ,authority and the ,religion of the ,spirit4 ,by the late ,auguste ,sabatier4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,vol4 ,,xviii4--,christian ,life in the ,primitive ,church4 ,by ,ernst von ,dobschtz1 ,d4,d41 ,professor of ,new ,testament ,theology in the ,university of ,strassburg4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,vols4 ,,xix4 and ,,xx4--,the ,mission and ,expansion of ,christianity in the ,first ,three ,centuries4 ,by ,adolf ,harnack1 ,berlin4 ,second1 revised and much enlarged edition1 #bes4 net4 ,vols4 not sold separately4 ,vol4 ,,xxi4--,st ,paul3 ,the ,man and his ,work4 ,by ,prof4 ,h4 ,weinel1 of the ,university of ,jena4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,vols4 ,,xxii41 ,,xxvi41 ,,xxvii41 and ,,xxxi4--,primitive ,christianity3 ,its ,writings and ,teachings in their ,historical ,connections4 ,by ,otto ,pfleiderer1 ,professor of ,practical ,theology in the ,university of ,berlin4 #d vols4 #ajs4 #f;d4 each net4 ,vol4 ,,xxiii4--,the ,introduction to the ,canonical ,books of the ,old ,testament4 ,by ,carl ,cornill1 ,professor of ,old ,testament ,theology at the ,university of ,breslau4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxiv4--,history of the ,church4 ,by ,hans von ,schubert1 ,professor of ,church ,history at ,kiel4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxv4--,ethics of the ,christian ,life4 ,by ,theodor von ,haering1 ,professor of ,new ,testament ,dogmatics and ,ethics at ,tbingen4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,vols4 ,,xxviii4 and ,,xxix4--,the ,old ,testament in the ,light of the ,ancient ,east4 ,by ,alfred ,jeremias1 ,pastor of the ,lutherkirche1 and ,lecturer at the ,university of ,leipzig4 ,with numerous illustrations and maps1 #bes4 net4 ,vols4 not sold separately4 ,vol4 ,,xxx4--,the ,truth of ,religion4 ,by ,dr ,rudolf ,eucken1 ,senior ,professor of ,philosophy in the ,university of ,jena4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xxxii4--,religious ,liberty4 ,by ,prof4 ,francesco ,ruffini4 ,with a ,preface to the ,english ,edition by ,prof4 ,j4 ,b4 ,bury of ,cambridge4 ,demy #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,theological ,,translation ,,fund ,,library4 ,old ,series4 ,uniform ,price per ,volume1 #fs4 ,baur 7,f4 ,c474 ,church ,history of the ,first ,three ,centuries4 ,translated from the ,third ,german ,edition4 ,edited by ,rev4 ,allan ,menzies4 #b vols4 #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 ----,paul1 the ,apostle of ,jesus ,christ1 ,his ,life and ,work1 ,his ,epistles and ,doctrine4 ,a ,contribution to a ,critical ,history of ,primitive ,christianity4 ,edited by ,rev4 ,allan ,menzies4 #bnd ,edition4 #b vols4 #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 ,ewald's 7,dr ,h47 ,commentary on the ,prophets of the ,old ,testament4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,f4 ,smith4 #e vols4 #hvo1 cloth4 #cjs4 ----,commentary on the ,psalms4 ,translated by the ,rev4 ,e4 ,johnson1 ,m4,a4 #b vols4 #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 ----,commentary on the ,book of ,job1 with ,translation4 ,translated from the ,german by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,frederick ,smith4 #hvo1 cloth4 #fs4 ,hausrath 7,prof4 ,a474 ,history of the ,new ,testament ,times4 ,the ,time of ,jesus4 ,translated by the ,revs4 ,c4 ,t4 ,poynting and ,p4 ,quenzer4 #b vols4 #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 ,keim's ,history of ,jesus of ,nazara3 ,considered in its connection with the ,national ,life of ,israel1 and related in detail4 ,translated from the ,german by ,arthur ,ransom and the ,rev4 ,e4 ,m4 ,geldart4 ,complete in #f vols4 #hvo4 #cfs4 7,vol4 ,i4 only to be had when a complete set of the work is ordered47 ,kuenen 7,dr ,a474 ,the ,religion of ,israel to the ,fall of the ,jewish ,state4 ,translated from the ,dutch by ,a4 ,h4 ,may4 #c vols4 #hvo1 cloth4 #ahs4 ,pfleiderer 7,o474 ,paulinism3 ,a ,contribution to the ,history of ,primitive ,christian ,theology4 ,translated by ,e4 ,peters4 #bnd ,edition4 #b vols4 #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 ----,philosophy of ,religion on the ,basis of its ,history4 ,translated by ,prof4 ,allan ,menzies and the ,rev4 ,alex4 ,stewart4 #d vols4 #hvo1 cloth4 #bds4 7,vol4 ,i4 out of print74 ,rville 7,dr ,a474 ,prolegomena of the ,history of ,religions4 ,with an ,introduction by ,prof4 ,f4 ,max ,mller4 #hvo1 cloth4 #fs4 ,schrader 7,prof4 ,e474 ,the ,cuneiform ,inscriptions and the ,old ,testament4 ,translated from the ,second ,enlarged ,edition1 with ,additions by the ,author1 and an ,introduction by the ,rev4 ,owen ,c4 ,whitehouse1 ,m4,a4 #b vols4 ,with a ,map4 #hvo1 cloth4 #abs4 ,,list ,,of ,,periodicals1 ,,reviews1 ,,and ,,transactions ,,and ,,proceedings ,,of ,,learned ,,societies published by ,williams ,norgate4 ,the ,british ,review4 ,with which is incorporated the ,oxford and ,cambridge ,review4 ,monthly1 #as4 net4 ,postage inland1 #c;d12 ,subscription covering #ab numbers post free1 #aes4 net4 ,the ,hibbert ,journal3 ,a ,quarterly ,review of ,religion1 ,theology1 and ,philosophy4 ,single numbers1 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,subscription1 #ajs4 per annum1 post free4 ,journal of the ,federated ,malay ,states ,museums4 ,issued quarterly4 ,single numbers1 #as4 #f;d4 net4 ,subscription1 #es4 per annum4 ,journal of the ,royal ,microscopical ,society1 containing its ,transactions and ,proceedings1 with other ,microscopical ,information4 ,bi-monthly4 #fs4 net4 ,yearly subscriptions1 #cgs4 #f;d41 post free4 ,journal of the ,quekett ,microscopical ,club4 ,issued half-yearly1 ,april and ,november4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4 net4 #gs4 #f;d4 per annum1 post free4 ,linnean ,society of ,london4 ,journal of ,botany and ,journal of ,zoology4 ,published irregularly at various prices4 ,also ,transactions1 published irregularly4 ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh4 ,transactions4 ,issued irregularly at various prices4 ,liverpool ,marine ,biology ,committee4 ,memoirs4 ,i4-,,xix4 already published at various prices4 ,fauna of ,liverpool ,bay4 ,fifth ,report1 written by ,members of the ,committee and other ,naturalists4 ,cloth4 #hs4 #f;d4 net4 ,see p4 #ci4 ,publications de l',institut ,nobel ,norvgien4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,l',arbitrage ,international chez les ,hellnes4 ,par ,a4 ,raedar4 #dto4 #ajs4 net4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,les ,bases ,economiques de la ,justice ,internationale4 ,by ,achille ,loria4 #cs4 #f;d4 net4 ,vol4 ,,iii41 ,catalogue de la ,bibliothque de l',institut ,nobel ,norvgien4 #bej pages4 #ajs4 net4 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,die ,rechtskraft ,internationaler ,schiedsspruche4 ,heinrich ,lammasch4 #dto1 sewed1 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,royal ,irish ,academy4 ,transactions and ,proceedings issued irregularly2 prices vary4 ,cunningham ,memoirs4 ,vols4 ,i4-,,xi4 already issued at various prices4 ,see p4 #ca4 ,royal ,dublin ,society4 ,transactions and ,proceedings4 ,issued irregularly at various prices4 ,,index ,,of ,,titles4 ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,adolf ,harnack1 #ab4 ,acts1 ,the ,date of the4 ,adolf ,harnack1 #ab4 ,aeroplane1 ,how to ,build4 ,robert ,petit1 #bd4 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