,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration ,,the ,,history1 ,,theory1 ,,and ,,practice ,,of ,,illuminating4 ,,sketched ,,by ,m4 ,,digby ,,wyatt1 ,v4,p4,r4,i4,b4,a4 ,,etc4 ,with ,illustrations by ,w4 ,r4 ,,tymms4 ,,condensed ,,from ,the ,art of ,illuminating1 ,,by ,,the ,,same ,,illustrator ,,and ,,author4 ,london3 ,,day ,,and ,,son1 ,lithographers to the ,queen1 ,,gate ,,street1 ,,lincoln',s ,,inn ,,fields4 ,,historical ,,manual4 ,,list ,,of ,,plates4 ,,plate ,i4--,from the fragments of the ,bible of ,charles the ,bald1 preserved in the ,british ,museum1 ,harleian #geea4 ,in most of the ,,mss4 of the date of ,charlemagne and his immediate successors1 the ornamental forms are generally compounded of ,anglo-,saxon and semi-classical details2 thus1 fig4 #a presents us with a lunette1 or arch-filling1 borrowed from some ,latin type2 while in figs4 #c1 #d1 #e1 the interlaced knots1 and in figs4 #b and #f the zoomorphic terminations1 are equally characteristic of ,celtic art4 ,this class of conventional design1 although apparently complicated1 is of comparatively easy execution1 and on that account forms a suitable style for the young illuminator to try his 'prentice hand upon4 ,,plate ,,ii4 gives the outline of the preceding plate1 and the beginner may make his first attempt at practical illumination in an endeavour to make it resemble ,plate ,i4 as closely as possible4 ,,plate ,,iii41 from the same source as ,plate ,i41 gives1 in figs4 #a and #d1 two alphabets1 and in fig4 #b one sentence1 in the characters in which the ,latin text of the original is written throughout the volume1 with the usual form of initial letter2 together with1 in fig4 #c1 an ornament showing1 on a largish scale1 the principle upon which the most common interlacement of the ,saxon school is usually worked out4 ,it may be here noted that1 considering it as likely to be more useful to the student1 throughout these illuminations the characters1 which in the originals express ,latin1 ,french1 or barbarous ,english1 have been arranged to exhibit ,scripture texts of simple language1 such as may be frequently desired for the embellishment of churches or schoolrooms4 ,,plate ,,iv41 from the ,british ,museum1 ,reg4 #a1 c4 vii4 ,this manuscript consists of the ,books of ,joshua1 ,judges1 and ,ruth1 in the ,vulgate version1 with ,st4 ,jerome's prologues4 ,it is probably of ,german execution1 and is attributed by ,sir ,frederick ,madden to the middle of the #abth century4 ,in its illustrations may be recognised a series of good specimens of ,romanesque forms4 ,in these the scroll may be observed as having almost entirely superseded the ,carlovingian interlacement1 while in the foliated ends of the leading stems 7more particularly in fig4 #a7 the germination of ,gothic is distinctly perceptible4 ,the student will scarcely fail to observe how entirely dependent this style of illumination is upon the steadiness with which the pen is handled for all its charm of expression4 ,,plate ,v4 gives the outline of the preceding plate1 to be coloured as a lesson in shading with the brush4 ,,plate ,,vi4 provides an alphabet of capital letters1 some initials1 and a complete sentence1 taken from the same ,,ms4 which has furnished materials for the two preceding plates4 ,,plate ,,vii4 contains fully-coloured examples from the ,british ,museum1 ,reg4 #a ,d1 fully described at pages #dg and #dh4 ,in these we meet with the plenitude of ,english medival illumination1--its freedom of drawing1 its vigour of colour1 its exquisite delicacy1 and the general facility of design its wayward lines attest4 ,in the best work there is a playfulness not to be often found in the productions of the contemporary ,european schools4 ,it needs but little ingenuity to expand such features as those which constitute figs4 #a1 #c1 #f1 #g1 #h1 from small book embellishments to large motives of elegant mural decoration4 ,,plate ,,viii4 is the corresponding outline to ,plate ,,vii4 ,,plate ,,ix4 supplies the student with models taken from the same ,,ms4 7,reg4 #a ,d71 of capital and initial letters1 and ordinary text1 suitable for combination with the rich ornaments of ,plate ,,vii4 ,in this1 as in all corresponding plates1 the object aimed at is to provide forms of lettering1 at once tolerably legible1 well-proportioned1 and adapted to harmonize1 both historically and artistically1 with the styles of pictorial illumination given in connection with them4 ,there are few faults more common in modern work1 or more offensive to the educated eye1 than the association of styles of lettering and styles of ornamentation warring with each other in the proprieties of both time and form4 ,against such it is our earnest object to guard the student1 both by precept and example4 ,,plate ,x4 furnishes some specimens of the beautiful borderings which enrich the pages of that most precious relic of the #aeth century1 the ,bedford ,missal1 or1 more properly speaking1 ,book of ,hours4 ,this exquisite volume has been so fully dwelt upon at pages #ee and #ef1 that it is necessary only to refer the reader to the notice given thereat4 ,in the examples collected on this plate1 it is manifest that the pictorial has not been allowed to usurp the proper province of the conventional element of design1 as it too frequently does in many works of the same period1 particularly in ,italy1--undoubtedly beautiful as much of the illumination of the #aeth century was in that country4 ,,plate ,,xi4 provides an outline of ,plate ,x41 for fully colouring in facsimile4 ,,plate ,,xii4 shows the general style of the lettering1 both capital and lower-case1 the initials1 and the borders which pervade this beautiful triumph of ,flemish art4 ,of these1 figs4 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 and #h are especially adapted for mural decoration1 on1 of course1 a greatly enlarged scale4 ,m4 ,d4 ,w4 #cg1 ,,tavistock ,,place1 ,,london4 ,april1 #ahfa4 ,,technical ,,manual4 ,,list ,,of ,,plates4 ,,plate ,i4 is from the ,speyer ,passavant ,charlemagne ,bible1 ,british ,museum add4 #aj1edf1 described at page #ci of the ,historical ,manual4 ,the student cannot fail to observe how distinctly legible1 and indeed how entirely ,roman in character1 the alphabet of capitals remained so long after the ,augustan period as the ninth century after ,christ4 ,in the lower-case letters1 in which the text is written1 the legibility is evident2 but the classical derivation through the uncial form of writing is not equally manifest4 ,desiring to guide the beginner in the class of exercises most likely to lead him on satisfactorily1 we have in this technical manual in every case allowed the outline illustrations of each style of writing to precede the fully-coloured specimens of the corresponding ornament of the leading epochs of the art of illumination2 enforcing thereby our conviction that the study and practice of that1 which of old fell more directly within the province of the scribe than within that of the miniature painter1 should invariably receive the student's first and chief attention--for1 let it always be remembered that good writing looks well if enhanced by little1 or the very simplest1 ornament1 while in illumination the effect of the best possible painting is irretrievably marred if the writing is irregular and badly formed or spaced4 ,,plate ,,ii41 from the same precious volume1 provides some simple but excellent conventional forms1 suitable for execution both on a small and on an enlarged scale4 ,by repeating either one of the three borders at the bottom of the plate1 very pretty margins may be produced1 suitable either for surrounding a page of writing or for enclosing a panel in mural decoration4 ,,plate ,,iii4 is an outline for practising colouring upon4 ,in using these outlines1 it may be a profitable exercise occasionally to vary the colours from those given on the corresponding plate4 ,a comparison of the effect produced by the original1 and by its copy with variations1 will tend to fix on the memory of the artist the exact degree of merit of the original and of the altered combinations of colour4 ,the practical value of an educated eye1 no less than of an educated mind1 is dependent on the force and intelligence of the memory1 and every exercise which can assist in fixing a fleeting image on the brain is no less efficacious in strengthening the one than it can be in developing the other4 ,,plate ,,iv41 from the ,harleian ,,ms4 ,no4 #b1hjd1 gives one of our usual exercises upon the main structural features of all illumination--the alphabets1 initial letters1 and small borderings4 ,these1 in this case in the ,romanesque style1 have been taken from a very remarkable ,bible formerly belonging to the church of ,st4 ,mary1 near ,worms4 ,for further notice of this and similar volumes1 see ,historical ,manual1 page #dc4 ,the main use to the student of this class of lesson is to give him steadiness of hand in the use of the pen2 a word or two of counsel upon which may not be altogether unprofitable to him4 ,firstly1 then1 let him avoid the habit of allowing the pen to touch the paper before he has clearly made up his mind where it is to go and when it is to be taken off4 ,an ill-directed line instantly reveals a listless mind1 and a careful master can generally detect the exact points in his work at which the attention of a usually diligent pupil has been abstracted from it4 ,secondly1 he should never express by half a dozen or more separate strokes forms which may be defined by a single continuous line4 ,thirdly1 let him practise moving the pen or pencil1 not up and down only1 but in every direction1 until equal facility is acquired in drawing spirals from left to right and from right to left4 ,fourthly1 it is well to hold the pen or pencil nearly vertical1 just touching1 but scarcely ever pressing heavily on1 the surface of the drawing4 ,fifthly1 he should by no means aim at dash or spirit until he is quite sure that his lines are correct3 nothing betrays the ill-educated artist more surely and readily to those who know better than a bold stroke where a delicate one would be more appropriate1 or a dark touch in the wrong place4 ,it is the ignorant only who are misled by an appearance of bravura1 vigour1 and facility4 ,,plate ,v41 fully coloured from the same source as ,plate ,,iv41 offers in figs4 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #g1 and #h1 some easy borders1 well adapted for enriching string courses or filling in long upright panels or pilasters4 ,the initial letters 7figs4 #a and #f7 are designed with great spirit1 and the student may profitably amuse himself by endeavouring to invent other capital letters made up as these are of apocryphal animals writhing in convoluted scrollwork4 ,,plate ,,vi4 gives the outline for colouring in fac simile of ,plate ,v4 ,,plate ,,vii41 from a ,latin ,bible of fine ,english illumination early in the fourteenth century 7,british ,museum1 ,reg4 #ae1 ,d4 #b71 corresponds in the general character of both its technical and chronological peculiarities with those shown on ,plates ,,vii41 ,,viii41 and ,,ix41 of the ,historical ,manual4 ,the two ,,mss41 however1 from which the two series of plates have been taken1 differ in some material respects1 and it will be well for the student to practise the leading characteristics of each4 ,one is of extraordinary delicacy1 the other of great vigour of execution4 ,the latter stamps the ,,ms4 from which the plate under consideration is taken4 ,the student is invited to observe the grace and freedom with which the floral terminations of the principal initial 7fig4 #b7 dash away1 extending to both the top and bottom of the page1 and not unfrequently in similar examples embracing1 as it were1 the text on two or more sides4 7,see ,historical ,manual1 page #dg47 ,great attention must now be bestowed upon the writing2 so that neither the true ,medival character may be destroyed1 nor so exaggerated as to lose clearness and legibility3 a little care and dexterity may preserve both4 ,,plate ,,viii4 is intended to draw out all the capabilities of the illuminator4 ,raised1 burnished1 and engraved1 or indented gold1 are essential to a proper realization of a revival of such old work2 and the student who would rival in his productions the sober richness of the brushes of the artist monks of the fourteenth century1 must carefully study the combinations of colour given in the ,mapp ,clavicula4 ,figs4 #b1 #e1 and #f1 offer examples of the tesselated burnished diaper grounds1 and fillings in1 which superseded to a great extent the flat burnished golden grounds of earlier dates4 ,such diapers are little less well adapted for walls or ceilings than they are for book decoration4 ,it can be scarcely necessary to dwell upon what must be perfectly obvious1 the great beauty of the initial letters 7figs4 #a1 #c1 and #d7 given on this sheet4 ,,plate ,,ix4 is a careful outline of the above4 ,,plate ,x41 from the ,missal of ,ferdinand and ,isabella 7,british ,museum1 ,add4 #ahea71 described at page #eg of the ,historical ,manual1 introduces us to the pictorial1 or rather miniature style1--one1 which can only be excelled in by those who are prepared to devote themselves to painting as no longer a decorative1 but as essentially a fine art4 ,far am ,i from saying that the highest possible art was not brought to bear upon much ,medival illumination2 all that ,i would convey is1 that care and neatness may produce very respectable reproductions of ordinary ornamental work1 such as was commonly used during the fourteenth1 and early in the fifteenth centuries2 but that they alone will be found quite inadequate to imitate successfully the highly modelled and fully shadowed foliage1 landscape1 architectural groups1 and figure subjects1 which incessantly recur in books illuminated at periods corresponding with the great ,renaissance of art under the ,van ,eycks and ,memlings of ,flanders1 the ,durers of ,germany1 and the ,peruginos1 ,pinturicchios1 and ,raffaelles1 of ,italy4 ,,plate ,,xi41 fully coloured from the same source as ,plate ,x41 can only be satisfactorily copied by the student1 who may have learnt to shadow with the brush from either objects in the round1 or from really good copies1 either by very great personal devotion and perseverance1 or under an experienced master4 ,,plate ,,xii4 gives a careful outline of the preceding plate4 ,m4 ,d4 ,w4 #cg1 ,,tavistock ,,place1 ,,london4 ,april1 #ahfa4 ,illustration ,,part ,i4 ,,what ,,illuminating ,,was4 ,in the following pages an attempt has been made to concentrate into limited dimensions that which has generally been treated very voluminously4 ,few authors1 who have tried both1 will feel inclined to deny1 that it is a much more difficult task to compress a great subject into a little book successfully1 than it is to expand a little subject into a great book4 ,where materials of the highest interest1 historically1 artistically1 and intellectually1 abound1 the danger is lest suppression and condensation may not break the links essential to bind a perspicuous narrative together4 ,i must1 therefore1 on these grounds claim the indulgence of the reader1 who may1 ,i trust1 be induced by the very imperfections of my story1 to recur to the pages of those more copious and learned writers on the subjects1 who have bestowed upon its elucidation long lives of exemplary and pertinacious industry4 ,before1 however1 entering on my theme1 it is my duty to point out to the reader1 that although1 for popular convenience and simplicity1 it has been deemed expedient to divide the history of the ,art of ,illuminating from the theory of its use and practice1 ,i have considered that each of the subdivided parts would be made more valuable by association1 and by being made mutually suggestive and illustrative--by being1 in fact1 cast as two parts of one work1 rather than as two separate works4 ,i have not1 therefore1 hesitated to refer in this1 the ,historical ,manual1 to the historical interest of plates contained in the technical1 nor in the ,technical ,manual to the technical interest of plates contained in the historical4 ,much1 indeed1 of the matter contained in both should be considered as common to the two4 ,thus the ancient technical processes are no less historically interesting1 than they may be likely1 by a judicious revival of such as may be worthy1 to prove practically valuable in the present day4 ,again1 whatever proficiency a student may attain in the manipulation of his or her drawing1 gilding1 or painting1 it will be in vain to hope to be enabled to produce a work of art which shall be satisfactory to the educated eye and taste1 until a very considerable acquaintance has been made with the peculiarities of the various styles in which our forefathers delighted4 ,no originality can ever be permanently agreeable which does not discard the precise conventional form of a period1 which is but a mode or transient fashion1 in favour of the principles which pervade all synchronous works of art1 and which1 transmute them as we may1 must ever remain permanent through all time4 ,historically we should remember that miniature ornament of every period reflects on a diminished scale1 and frequently in a highly concentrated form1 the leading spirit which may have pervaded the greater revolutions of monumental art4 ,owing to the license which the diminished scale afforded1 the imagination of the artist in these works was restricted by none of those material impediments which1 in the execution of the major monuments of art1 protracted the realization of the changing fashions of the day1 frequently until long after the period when the original impulse may have been communicated to the art in which those variations were possibly but transient fluctuations4 ,thus it is that in these relics of the past may frequently be traced artistic impulses destined to find no other embodiment than the form in which they are presented to us in the pages of a manuscript4 ,the copiousness1 then1 of such documentary illustrations of the invention of remote periods is one of the most valuable features of the teaching they should convey to us4 ,no revival nowadays of any historical style by the architect can be satisfactory which is not based upon a knowledge1 not of the purely architectural features of the period alone1 but of the condition and characteristics of all those decorative details which distinguished it as a living reality from the effete and denuded relic which may now only present itself for our information4 ,thus even the ,saxon and ,romanesque styles of architecture may1 through the architect's careful attention to the decorative features exhibited to us in the pages of ancient illuminated books1 be revived1 not in their rude and structural nudity1 but as glowing with those colours1 and decorated with those forms1 which we may observe as peculiarly affected in the ornamental and pictorial embellishments of the best artists of the days when those styles were the only ones popularly adopted4 ,and not only are the beautiful ornaments and decorative features of illuminated manuscripts valuable as supplying us with correct information as to the system of embellishment regarded by the best artists of each period as harmonizing most perfectly with the structural styles prevalent in their days2 but in the measure of their permanent beauty they are no less valuable to us as indications of what is excellent for all time4 ,thus1 then1 they may be used1 either as enabling us to restore the most brilliant features of the historic styles with an accuracy to be acquired from no other sources of information1 or they may be regarded as providing us with materials for that more extended system of eclectic selection which must afford the only basis of perfection and originality in any styles which we may desire now or hereafter to originate2 and the origination and perfection of which we may desire to bequeath to succeeding generations1 as testimonies that1 in the nineteenth century1 there lived men as capable of the creation of beauty as any whose happiest inventions are to be found in the pages of these ancient and most precious volumes4 ,in opening this historical sketch1 ,i need scarcely recall the facts1 that not only was that which we know as the earliest type of writing the most pictorial1 but that it was also embellished with colour from the most remote ages4 ,a glance at the pages of ,rosselini or ,lepsius will suffice to convince us that the monumental hieroglyphics of the ,egyptians were almost invariably painted with the liveliest tints2 and when similar hieroglyphics were executed on a reduced scale1 and in a more cursive form upon papyri1 or scrolls made from the leaves of the papyrus1 the common flowering rush of the ,nile1 illumination was also employed to make the leading pages more attractive to the eye4 ,nor was such illumination peculiar to hieroglyphic characters2 it prevailed also1 but not to the same extent1 in the hieratic and demotic modes of writing4 ,of such papyri notable specimens may be seen in the ,british ,museum2 the most wonderful in existence1 however1 is the remarkably interesting and graphic illustration of the funeral of a ,pharaoh1 preserved in the ,royal ,museum at ,turin4 ,extraordinary dexterity was acquired in a conventional mode of expressing complicated forms by a few rapid touches1 and the life and spirit with which familiar scenes are represented1 and ornaments executed1 in both the early and late papyri1 are truly remarkable4 ,the precise extent to which the ,greeks and ,romans were indebted to the ,egyptians for the origination and use of alphabetic symbols1 the learned have not yet agreed upon4 ,they have1 however1 concurred in recognizing the fact that ,egypt certainly supplied the principal materials by means of which writing was ordinarily practised4 ,the primitive books of the ancients were no other than rolls formed of papyri1 prepared in the following manner3--,two leaves of the rush were plastered together1 usually with the mud of the ,nile1 in such a fashion that the fibres of one leaf should cross the fibres of the other at right angles2 the ends of each being then cut off1 a square leaf was obtained1 equally capable of resisting fracture when pulled or taken hold of in any direction4 ,in this form the papyri were exported in great quantities4 ,in order to form these single leaves into the scapi1 or rolls of the ancients 7the prototypes of the rotuli of the ,middle ,ages71 about twenty were glued together end to end4 ,the writing was then executed in parallel columns a few inches wide1 running transversely to the length of the scroll4 ,to each end of the scrolls were attached round staves similar to those we use for maps4 ,to these staves1 strings1 known as umbilici1 were attached1 to the ends of which bull or weights were fixed4 ,the books when rolled up1 were bound up with these umbilici1 and were generally kept in cylindrical boxes or caps1 a term from which the ,medival capsula1 or book-cover1 was derived4 ,the mode in which the students held the rolls in order to read from them is well shown in a painting in the house of a surgeon at ,pompeii4 ,one of the staves1 with the papyrus rolled round it1 was held in each hand1 at a distance apart equal to the width of one or more of the transverse columns of writing4 ,as soon as the eye was carried down to the bottom of a column1 one hand rolled up and the other unrolled sufficient of the papyrus to bring a fresh column opposite to the reader's eye1 and so on until the whole was wound round one of the staves1 when1 of course1 the student had arrived at the end of his book4 ,eumenes1 king of ,pergamus1 being unable to procure the ,egyptian papyrus1 through the jealousy of one of the ,ptolemies1 who occupied himself in forming a rival library to the one which subsequently became so celebrated at ,pergamus1 introduced the use of parchment properly dressed for taking ink and pigments2 and hence the derivation of the word pergamena as applied to parchment or vellum2 the former substance being the prepared skin of sheep1 and the latter of calves4#a ,the sheets of parchment were joined end to end1 as the sheets of papyrus had been1 and when written upon1 on one side only1 and in narrow columns across the breadth of the scroll1 were rolled up round staves and bound with strings1 to which seals of wax were occasionally attached1 in place of the more common leaden bull4 ,the custom of dividing books into pages is said by ,suetonius to have been introduced by ,julius ,csar1 whose letters to the ,senate were so made up1 and after whose time the practice became usual for all documents either addressed to1 or issuing from1 that body1 or the emperors4 ,as that form subsequently crept into general use1 the books were known as codices2 and hence the ordinary term as applied to manuscript volumes4 ,all classes of books1 the reeds for writing in them1 the inkstands1 and the caps or scrinia1 the boxes in which the scapi or rolls were kept1 are minutely portrayed in ancient wall-paintings and ivory diptychs4 ,the inkstands are generally shown as double1 no doubt for containing both black and red ink1 with the latter of which certain portions of the text were written4#b ,nearly two thousand actual rolls were discovered at ,herculaneum1 of course in a highly-carbonized condition1 and of them some hundreds have been unrolled4 ,none appear to have been embellished with illumination2#c so that for proof of the practice of the art in classical times1 we are thrown back upon the classical authors themselves4 ,the allusions in their writings to the employment of red and black ink are frequent4 ,martial1 in his first epistle1 points out the bookseller's shop opposite the ,julian ,forum1 in which his works may be obtained smoothed with pumice-stone and decorated with purple4 ,seneca mentions books ornamented cum imaginibus4 ,varro is related by ,pliny to have illustrated his works by likenesses of more than seven hundred illustrious persons4 ,pliny again informs us that writers on medicine gave representations in their treatises of the plants which they described4 ,martial dwells on the editions of ,virgil1 with his portrait as a frontispiece4 ,the earliest recorded instance of the richer adornments of golden lettering on purple or rose-stained vellum1 is given by ,julius ,capitolinus in his life of the ,emperor ,maximinus the younger4 ,he therein mentions that the mother of the emperor presented to him1 on his return to his tutor 7early in the #crd century71 a copy of the works of ,homer1 written in gold upon purple vellum4 ,whether derived from ,egypt or the ,east1 this luxurious mode of embellishment appears to have been popular among the later ,greeks1 a class of whose scribes were denominated writers in gold4 ,from ,greece it was1 no doubt1 transplanted to ,rome1 where1 from about the #bnd century1 it1 at first slowly1 and ultimately rapidly1 acquired popularity4 ,st4 ,jerome1 indeed1 writing in the #dth century1 in a well-known passage in his preface to the ,book of ,job1 exclaims3--,habeant qui volunt veteres libros vel in membranis purpureis auro argentoque descriptos vel uncialibus1 ut vulgo aiunt1 literis1 onera magis exarata quam codices2 dummodo mihi meisque permittant pauperes habere scedulas1 et non tam pulchros codices quam emendatos4#d ,this almost pathetic appeal of the great commentator was scarcely necessary to assure us that such sumptuous volumes were executed for the rich alone1 since the value of the gold and vellum1 irrespective of the labour employed1 must necessarily have taken them1 as he indicates1 altogether out of the reach of the poor4 ,evidence indeed is not wanting1 that many of the ,fathers of the ,church laboured with their own hands to supply themselves with writings1 which no golden letters or purpled vellums could make more valuable to them or their primitive followers3 thus1 ,pamphilus1 the martyr1 who suffered in the year #cji1 possessed1 in his own handwriting1 twenty-five stitched books1 containing the works of ,origen4 ,st4 ,ambrose1 ,st4 ,fulgentius1 and others1 themselves transcribed many volumes1 precious to themselves and most edifying to the faithful4 ,whatever ornaments or pictures these volumes contained1 no doubt reproduced the style of art fostered1 if not engendered1 in the ,catacombs4 ,roman illuminated manuscripts would appear1 therefore1 to have been mainly divisible into two classes2 firstly1 those in which the text1 simply but elegantly written in perfectly-formed1 or rustic 7that is1 inclined7 capitals1 mainly in black and sparingly in red ink1 was illustrated by pictures1 usually square1 inserted in simple frames1 generally of a red border only2 and secondly1 the richer kind1 in which at first gold letters1 on white and stained vellum grounds1 and subsequently black and coloured letters and ornaments on gold grounds1 were introduced4 ,the first of these appears to have been the most ancient style1 and to have long remained popular in the ,western ,empire1 while the second1 which1 as ,sir ,frederick ,madden has observed1 no doubt came originally to the ,romans from the ,greeks1 acquired its greatest perfection under the early emperors of the ,east4 ,of both styles there are still extant some invaluable specimens1 which1 although not of the finest periods of art1 may still be regarded as typical of masterpieces which may have existed1 and which fire or flood1 ,goth or ,vandal1 may have destroyed4 ,before proceeding1 however1 to an enumeration of any of these1 it may be well to define certain terms which must be employed to designate the peculiarities of character in which the different texts were written1 some slight knowledge of which is of great assistance in arriving at a proximate knowledge of the dates at which they may have been executed4 ,such a definition cannot be more succinctly given than in the following passage1 extracted from ,mr4 ,noel ,humphrey's interesting work ,on the ,origin and ,progress of the ,art of ,writing3--#e ,nearly all the principal methods of ancient writing may be divided into square capitals1 rounded capitals1 and cursive letters2 the square capitals being termed simply capitals1 the rounded capitals uncials1 and the small letters1 or such as had changed their form during the creation of a running hand1 minuscule4 ,capitals are1 strictly speaking1 such letters as retain the earliest settled form of an alphabet2 being generally of such angular shapes as could conveniently be carved on wood or stone1 or engraved in metal1 to be stamped on coins4 ,the earliest ,latin ,,mss4 known are written entirely in capitals1 like inscriptions in metal or marble4 ,the uncial letters1 as they are termed1 appear to have arisen as writing on papyrus or vellum became common1 when many of the straight lines of the capitals1 in that kind of writing1 gradually acquired a curved form1 to facilitate their more rapid execution4 ,however this may be1 from the #fth to the #hth1 or even #ajth century1 these uncials or partly-rounded capitals prevail4 ,the modern minuscule1 differing from the ancient cursive character1 appears to have arisen in the following manner4 ,during the #fth and #gth centuries1 a kind of transition style prevailed in ,italy and some other parts of ,europe1 the letters composing which have been termed semi-uncials1 which1 in a further transition1 became more like those of the old ,roman cursive4 ,this manner1 when definitively formed1 became what is now termed the minuscule manner2 it began to prevail over uncials in a certain class of ,,mss4 about the #hth century1 and towards the #ajth its general use was1 with few exceptions1 established4 ,it is said to have been occasionally used as early as the #eth century2 but ,i am unable to cite an authentic existing monument4 ,the ,psalter of ,alfred the ,great1 written in the #ith century1 is in a small ,roman cursive hand1 which has induced ,casley to consider it the work of some ,italian ecclesiastic4 ,to return from this digression on the character of ancient handwriting1 to the examples still extant of the two great sections into which the manuscripts of classical ages may be divided1 ,i would observe1 that1 first in importance and interest of the first class may certainly be reckoned the ,vatican square ,virgil with miniatures1 which has been referred by many of the best palographers to the #crd century4 ,it is written throughout in majuscule ,roman capitals1 which1 although ,,mm4 ,champollion and ,sylvestre#f describe them as of an elegant but careless form1 appeared to me1 when ,i examined the volume minutely in #ahdf1g to exhibit great care and regularity4 ,the miniatures1 many engravings from drawings traced from which are given in ,d',agincourt's ,histoire de l',art par les ,monuments1#h are altogether classical1 both in design and in the technical handling of the colours1 which are applied with a free brush1 and apparently in the true antique manner1 i4e41 with scarcely any previous or finishing outline4 ,these miniatures have also been engraved by ,pietro ,santo ,bartoli1 but not with his usual accuracy of style4 ,a complete set of coloured tracings made by him are in the ,british ,museum 7,lansdowne ,coll471 but they even are not quite satisfactory4 ,the ,terence of the ,vatican1 which is without miniatures1 is in a somewhat similar writing1 and belongs to about the same period4 ,the third in importance of the ancient ,vatican manuscripts of this class1 is in the rustic instead of elegant capital lettering1 and is supposed to be of the #eth century2 certainly not later4 ,it is a ,virgil1 decorated throughout with pictures executed in apparent imitation of the square ,virgil1 but in a much more barbarous and lifeless style4#i ,from an entry of the #acth century contained in the volume1#aj and from our knowledge of its having been long and at a remote period1 preserved in ,france1 it would appear to have belonged to the ,parisian monastery of ,st4 ,denis1 if not to the ,saint himself4 ,so far as antiquity1 irrespective of merit in point of illumination is concerned1 the most remarkable ancient ,roman manuscript#aa existing belongs to the curious class known as ,palimpsests1 or books from which the colouring matter of an original writing has been discharged1 in order to prepare the vellum for receiving an altogether different text1 the latter being generally written at right angles to the former4#ab ,this precious document is the celebrated treatise de ,republic1 by ,cicero1 written in uncial characters1 evidently in an ,augustan period1 and was discovered by ,cardinal ,angelo ,mai1 under a copy of ,st4 ,augustine's ,commentary on the ,psalms1 made previous to the #ajth century4 ,the ,ambrosian ,library at ,milan contains a codex of ,homer1 of equal antiquity with the ,cicero1 with fifty-eight pictures1 much in the style of the ,vatican square ,virgil4 ,this important ,,ms4 has been commented upon by the same distinguished antiquary4#ac ,the ,vienna ,roman calendar1 supposed to have been executed in the #dth century1 and embellished with eight allegorical figures of the months1 is both an early and very important specimen of ,roman illumination1 not only on account of the elegance and dexterous execution of these figures1 but because it is the most ancient manuscript in which anything like ornament1 independent of pictured illustration of the author's text1 is introduced4 ,of little less note in the history of art1 is the celebrated ,dioscorides of the same imperial library1 the date of which is fixed by the fact of its being enriched with a very graceful portrait of the ,empress ,juliana ,anicia1 for whom it is known to have been written at the commencement of the #fth century4 ,both ,lambecius#ad and ,d',agincourt give various facsimiles 7omitting colour7 of the fine illustrations which decorate this remarkable volume4 ,another #eth century ,virgil of remarkable purity in the text1 although without miniatures1 is the well-known ,medicean of the ,laurentian ,library at ,florence4 ,the ,paris ,prudentius1 in elegant rustic capitals of the #fth century1 is another fine codex of the same type4 ,there are1 in addition to those already cited1 various other early texts of the classics contained in the different public libraries of ,europe2 and it is singular to remark1 that 7so far as ,i have been able to ascertain7 none of them are embellished with those richer decorations1 which appear to have been reserved after the end of the #eth century1 for the great text-books of the ,christian1 and more particularly of the ,eastern ,church4 ,of these sacred volumes1 that which is generally supposed to be the oldest complete version of the ,bible in ,greek1#ae is the ,codex ,alexandrinus of the ,british ,museum1 attributed1 by consent of all the best ,palographers1 to the commencement of the #eth century4 ,it is without gold altogether1 and has no other illumination than the occasional contrast of red and black inks1 and a line slightly flourished1 at the close of each book4#af ,the next fragment of the ,scriptures1 in point of probable date1 is the once celebrated ,cottonian ,genesis1 or at least its ghost2 for unfortunately a few charred and shrunken fragments are all that have been saved from the disastrous fire which destroyed so many of ,sir ,robert ,cotton's precious volumes in #agca4 ,in its original state1 as we know from several collations made previous to the fire1 it contained1 on #afe pages1 no less than #bej miniatures1 each about four inches square4 ,astle#ag has given a facsimile of a page1 which1 on comparison with the existing shrivelled fragments1 proves that in their present state they are just about one half their original size4 ,the paintings are in all respects antique1 and correspond in general character with contemporary secular miniatures4 ,dr4 ,waagen#ah remarks that only the hatched gold upon the borders1 the glories1 and the lights on the crimson mantle indicate the commencement of ,byzantine art4 ,the great rival to the ,codex ,cottonianus ,geneseos is the ,codex ,vindobonensis ,geneseos1 which consists of twenty-six leaves with eighty-eight miniatures4 ,it forms one of the four great lions of the ,vienna ,imperial ,library4 ,these two remarkable versions of ,genesis are supposed to be of nearly equal date1 and correspond as to the character of the truly antique miniatures very fairly2 the fact1 however1 of the text of the ,english version being in black ink with very regularly-formed letters1 while that of the ,vienna one is1 for the most part1 written in gold and silver1 and in less evenly-distributed characters1 induces a fair presumption in favour of the greater antiquity of the ,cottonian fragments4 ,in the more gorgeous details of the ,vienna ,genesis1 coupled with its square and unadorned classic pictures1 we may thus clearly recognize the transition from our first or ,latin class of ancient illumination1 to our second or purely ,byzantine style4 ,we especially designate this class as ,byzantine1 because as art in illumination1 as in all other branches1 declined in the seven-hilled city1 it rose in the seat of empire founded in the ,east by the first great ,christian emperor4 ,it is true that ideal art degenerated almost contemporaneously in the capitals of both empires2 but in decorative art1 at least1 there can be no question but that ,byzantium gained1 as ,rome lost1 ground4 ,the former no doubt drew fresh inspiration from her close intercourse with the ,persian and other nations of the ,east1 while the latter was content to produce little1 and that little in slavish reminiscence of the past4 ,italy no doubt fed the earliest monastic libraries of ,western ,europe with the quantities of texts of ancient authors we know them to have contained2 but we may fairly assume those texts to have been but rarely illustrated1 since the original styles of illumination produced in those countries to which the classic volumes travelled1 would unquestionably have betrayed an antique influence more strongly than they did1 had the means of deriving that influence been brought copiously within their reach4 ,i proceed now to a slight notice of the second class of ancient codices1 that on which the ultimate splendour of the ,byzantine school was founded4 ,fortunately1 time has spared to our days several brilliant specimens of the richest of these quasi-classic manuscripts4 ,of such1 the principal are1 as ,sir ,frederick ,madden observes1#ai the celebrated ,codex ,argenteus of ,ulphilas1 written in silver and gold letters on a purple ground1 about ,a4,d4 #cfj1 which is1 perhaps1 the most ancient existing specimen of this magnificent mode of caligraphy2 after it1 may be instanced the copy of ,genesis at ,vienna1 already mentioned1 the ,psalter of ,st4 ,germain des ,prs1 at ,paris1 and the fragment of the ,new ,testament in the ,cottonian ,library1 ,titus ,c4 xv41 all executed in the #eth and #fth centuries4 ,the first-named of these contains1 on about #afj leaves1 a considerable portion of the four gospels1 and is now preserved in the ,royal ,library of ,upsal1 in ,sweden4 ,it is the earliest version of any part of the sacred writings in the ,moesogothic or ancient ,wallachian dialect4#bj ,the second of ,sir ,frederick ,madden's notabilities has been alluded to as of transition character4 ,the third1 the ,psalter of ,st4 ,germain des ,prs1 is ascribed by ,m4 ,champollion ,figeac1 who has given a portion of it in coloured facsimile in the ,moyen ,age et la ,renaissance#ba to the #fth century4 ,it is unquestionably a beautiful specimen of gold writing on purple2 but neither in the size of the letters nor in the ample spacing of the lines1 will it bear comparison with the1 no doubt1 earlier example1 the ,cottonian1 ,titus ,c4 xv4 ,our greatest authority upon all matters connected with early illuminated versions of the ,holy ,scriptures1 ,mr4 ,westwood1 remarks1 in speaking of this last-named manuscript1 that ,codices purpureo-argentei are much rarer than those in golden writing1 the latter material being used not only on purple1 but also on white vellum2 whereas the silver letters would not easily be legible except on a dark ground4 ,the writing is in very large and massive ,greek uncials2 the words denoting ,god1 ,father1 ,jesus1 ,lord1 ,son1 and ,saviour1 being1 for dignity's sake1 written in golden letters4 ,the colour of the stain has faded into a dingy reddish purple1 and the silver is greatly tarnished and turned black4 ,this fragment is stated by ,horne to be one of the oldest 7if not the most ancient7 manuscripts of any part of the ,new ,testament that is extant1 and is generally acknowledged to have been executed at the end of the #dth1 or1 at the latest1 at the beginning of the #eth century4 ,the ,vienna gold1 silver1 and purple ,gospels1 the lettering of which corresponds closely with that last described1 may be regarded as certainly next in importance1 and are of about equal antiquity4 ,in none of these relics of magnificence are we enabled to trace the ,eastern or ,persian influence1 which unquestionably imported a previously unknown originality and character into the art of ,byzantium during the reign of ,justinian the ,great1 ,a4,d4 #ebg to #efe4 ,it is1 no doubt1 true1 as ,dr4 ,waagen remarks1#bb that the style of painting up to his time1 both in conception1 form1 and colour1 was much the same as that which has been preserved to us in the paintings at ,pompeii2 while the spirit of ,christianity1 operating upon the artistic ,greek nature1 stimulated it anew to beautiful and original inventions4 ,in a few single instances this style of art was maintained until the #ajth century2 but1 generally speaking1 a gradual degeneracy ensued1 which may be dated from ,justinian's period4 ,the proportions of the figures gradually became exaggerated1 elongated1 the forms contracted with excessive meagreness1 the motives of the drapery grew paltry1 appearing either in narrow parallel folds stiffly drawn together1 or so overladen with barbaric pearls and jewels as to exclude all indication of form4 ,the flesh assumed a dark tone1 the other colours became heavy1 gaudy1 and hard2 while in glories1 hatchings1 and grounds1 gold was called into requisition4 ,in these qualities1 united to a gloomy and ascetic character of heads1 consist the elements of the ,byzantine school4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it is ever to be remembered that the mortification of the old flesh was but a symptom of the more active life beneath it1 sloughing off the ,pagan tradition1 and gradually replacing it by that new and healthy ,christian vigour which1 for many centuries1 nourished and aided the northern and western nations of ,europe in their efforts to organize those national styles of ,christian ,art which are commonly designated as ,gothic4#bc ,to return to ,justinian1 and his direct influence on the change of style which took place during his reign1 it may be noted as a curious fact1 that the year in which the great ,church of ,sta4 ,sophia was commenced was the very year in which he concluded an eternal peace with ,chosroes ,nushirvan1 king of ,persia4 ,in one or two reigns antecedent to his1 ,greek artists had been employed in ,persia1 and there had been a friendly communication between the two countries4 ,it may be therefore assumed1 that when ,justinian proposed to build this structure in so short a time1 he not only enlisted the ability of those about him1 but that he recalled those straying ,greeks who had gone to seek their fortunes in other countries4 ,he most likely1 indeed1 employed not only his own subjects1 but foreigners2 and in that way probably a considerable portion of what no one can fail to recognize as ,oriental ,art1 was mixed with that known as ,byzantine4 ,certain it is that in many of the mosaic ornaments of ,sta4 ,sophia a very marked ,oriental character is still to be traced4 ,on a close comparison of these mosaics#bd with the unique ,eusebian ,canons on an entirely gold ground1 two leaves of which1 painted on both sides1 are preserved in the ,british ,museum 7,addit4 ,no4 #eaaa71be the student will certainly1 ,i think1 be induced rather to agree with ,sir ,frederick ,madden1 in ascribing them to the #fth century1 than with ,dr4 ,waagen1 who considers that they can scarcely be older than the #ith century4 ,to the practical illuminator1 these fragments are of far higher importance than all the others to which we have as yet alluded1 since1 while of equal archological interest1 they constitute the earliest specimens from which really decorative illumination can be studied4#bf ,another illustration of the ,eastern influence brought to bear upon ,christian manuscripts of the age of ,justinian1 is furnished by the celebrated ,syriac ,gospels of the #fth century1 written in the year #ehf 7one-and-twenty years after the emperor's death71 by ,rabula1 a scribe in the monastery of ,st4 ,john1 in ,zagba1 a city of ,mesopotamia1 and now preserved in the ,laurentian ,library at ,florence4 ,mr4 ,westwood regards this as so important a manuscript in respect to the history of the arts of illumination and design in the ,east1 and by reflection in the ,west1 that he is induced#bg to give an elaborate description of its embellishments1 from which the following is a short extract3-- ,the first illumination represents ,christ and the twelve apostles seated in a circle1 with three lamps burning beneath a wide arch supported by two plain columns1 with foliated capitals1 and with two birds at the top4 ,the second illumination represents the ,virgin and ,child standing within a double arch1 the columns supporting which are tessellated1 and the upper arch with several rows of zigzags1 and peacocks standing at the top4 ,the third represents ,eusebius and ,ammonius standing beneath a kind of tent-like canopy1 supported by three columns1 with undulated ornament1 two peacocks with expanded tails standing at the top4 ,the nineteen following plates are occupied by the tables of the ,eusebian ,canons1 arranged in columns1 between pillars supporting rounded arches1 generally enclosed between larger and more ornamented columns supporting a large rounded arch1 on the outsides of which are represented various groups of figures illustrating scriptural texts1 plants1 and birds4 ,in some of these1 however1 the smaller arches are of the horseshoe character4 ,the capitals are1 for the most part1 foliated2 but in one or two they are composed of human faces1 and a few of birds' heads4 ,the arches1 as well as the columns by which they are supported1 are ornamented with chevrons1 lozenges1 nebules1 quatrefoils1 zigzags1 flowers1 fruit1 birds1 c42 many of which singularly resemble those found in early ,anglo-,saxon manuscripts1 especially in the columns supporting the ,eusebian ,canons in the purple ,latin ,gospels of the ,british ,museum 7,,ms4 ,reg4 ,i4 ,e4 #f74 ,there is1 however1 none of the singular interlacing of the patterns so characteristic of the ,anglo-,saxon and ,irish manuscripts4 ,i have dwelt thus in detail upon these ,greek pictorial and decorative features1 because there can be no doubt that the exportation of books so adorned1 by the early missionaries1 who carried ,christianity and a degree of civilization to the ,northern and ,western countries1 supplied the original types from which1 however barbaric the imitations1 the first attempts were made to rival1 in the extreme ,west1 the arts and spiritual graces of the ,east4 ,on this plea1 ,i hope ,i may be pardoned for dwelling yet further upon some of the leading distinctions between the ,byzantine and ,latin 7that is1 between the ,eastern and ,western7 modes of working out religious conceptions1 which were1 that in the ,western or ,latin mode symbolism was universal2 the art of the ,catacombs was followed distinctly1 though frequently remotely1 developing itself in mythical and sentimental forms1 and systems of parallelism between type and prototype4 ,in the ,greek ,church1 the exposition of faith1 through art1 took a more tangible form4 ,symbolism was avoided on all possible occasions1 and the direct representation of sacred themes led to a partial transfer to the representation of the adoration due to the thing represented4 ,iconoclasm was the reaction to this abuse4 ,in the advanced periods of ,greek art1 this realistic tendency led to a painful view of the nature of religion1 more particularly in connection with the martyrdom of saints1 and the physical sufferings of our ,saviour and his followers1 which are frequently represented in the most positive and repellent forms4 ,long1 however1 before ,byzantine ,art had time to deviate much from its ancient traditions1 and even while it maintained an easy supremacy over the ,western empire1 the ,lombard kingdom1 and all the ,visi- and ,moeso-,gothic and ,frankish races1 a formidable competitor for the leadership in the ,art of ,illumination had sprung up in the extreme ,west1 in the island homes of the ,celtic races4 ,it is not necessary now to prove1 what historians have freely admitted1 that ,ireland was certainly christianized for a long time previous to the date of the mission of ,augustine to ,england4 ,the disputes which arose between the followers of that saint and the ,irish priests1 so soon as they clearly apprehended the nature of the supremacy claimed by the ,church of ,rome1 assure us of their early isolation in the ,christian world4 ,even in their1 at first entire1 and ultimately partial1 rejection of the ,vulgate text of the ,gospels1 and their retention of the older versions1 from which no doubt their formulas of faith were derived1 they steadily maintained their ,ecclesiastical freedom from the dogmatism of ,rome4 ,as their creed was independent1 so was their ,art original2 nothing resembling it can be traced previous to it4 ,before proceeding to examine the precise form assumed by this original art1 it may be well to remind the student that1 with the exception of a few manuscripts decorated in the style of the ,laurentian ,syriac ,gospels and the ,british ,museum golden fragments1 the general character of the decoration of all writings1 previous to the origination of the ,celtic style in ,ireland1 had been limited to the use of different-coloured1 golden1 and silver inks1 on stained purple and white vellum grounds1 to the occasional enlargement of1 and slight flourishing about1 initial letters2 to the introduction of pictures1 generally square1 or oblong1 enclosed in plain1 or slightly bordered1 frames2 and1 occasionally1 to the scattering about1 throughout the volumes1 of a few lines and scrolls4 ,let us now see--in the words of ,mr4 ,westwood1 who has done more than any previous writer had done to vindicate the honour of the ,irish school of caligraphy#bh--what features of novelty it was mainly reserved for that school to originate4 ,its peculiarities1#bi he states1 consist in the illumination of the first page of each of the ,sacred ,books1--the letters of the first few words1 and more especially the initial1 being represented of a very large size1 and highly ornamented in patterns of the most intricate design1 with marginal rows of red dots2 the classical ,acanthus being never represented4 ,the principles of these most elaborate ornaments are1 however1 but few in number1 and may be reduced to the four following3--#ast4 ,one or more narrow ribbons1 diagonally but symmetrically interlaced1 forming an endless variety of patterns4 #bnd4 ,one1 two1 or three slender spiral lines1 coiling one within another till they meet in the centre of the circle1 their opposite ends going off to other circles4 #crd4 ,a vast variety of lacertine animals and birds1 hideously attenuated1 and coiled one within another1 with their tails1 tongues1 and top-knots forming long narrow ribbons irregularly interlaced4 #dth4 ,a series of diagonal lines1 forming various kinds of ,chinese-like patterns4 ,these ornaments are generally introduced into small compartments1 a number of which are arranged so as to form the large initial letters and borders1 or tessellated pages1 with which the finest manuscripts are decorated4 ,the ,irish missionaries brought their national style of art with them from ,iona to ,lindisfarne in the #gth century1 as well as their fine1 large1 very characteristic style of writing2 and as these were adopted by their ,anglo-,saxon converts1 and as most of the manuscripts which have been hitherto described are of ,anglo-,saxon origin1 it has been the practice to give the name of ,anglo-,saxon to this style of art4 ,thus several of the finest facsimiles given by ,astle as ,anglo-,saxon1 are from ,irish manuscripts2 and thus ,sylvestre1 who has copied them 7without acknowledgment71 has fallen into the same error2 whilst ,wanley1 ,casley1 and others1 appear never to have had a suspicion of the existence of an ancient school of art in ,ireland4 ,the monks of ,iona1 under the great ,irish saint and scribe ,columba1 or ,columbkill1 and their ,anglo-,saxon disciples at ,lindisfarne1 under his friend ,st4 ,aidan1 together with the ,irish monks at ,glastonbury1 spread ,celtic ornament in ,england1 from whence it had1 to a great extent1 retired with the expulsion of the ancient ,british4 ,st4 ,boniface1 the principal awakener of ,germany to ,christianity1 carried with him his singularly-ornamented book of ,gospels1 which is still preserved as a relic at ,fulda4 ,similar evidence of the transmission of the ,art prevalent during the early centuries of the ,church in ,ireland1 to other lands1 by means of the missionaries who left her shores1 is to be found in the books of ,st4 ,kilian1 the apostle of ,franconia1 still preserved at ,wurtzburg2 in those of ,st4 ,gall1 now in the public library of ,st4 ,gall1 in the canton of ,switzerland which still bears his name2 and in the very important series1 of which ,muratori has given an interesting catalogue1 connected with the monastic institution founded by ,st4 ,columbanus1 at ,bobbio1 in ,italy1 and now principally in the ,ambrosian ,library at ,milan4 ,many of these pious men were themselves scribes1 and their autograph copies of the ,holy ,gospels are still in existence1 with the name of the writers1 in some cases1 identifying the volumes1 and absolutely fixing their date4 ,thus we have the ,gospels of ,st4 ,columba1 the ,leabhar ,dhimma1 or ,gospels of ,st4 ,dhimma ,mac,nathi1 and the ,mac,regol ,gospels in the ,bodleian ,library4 ,all of these are anterior to the #ith century1 and are distinguished by an elaborate style of ornament unlike any other ,european type4 ,the extent of influence exercised by these eminent men and the ,episcopi ,vagantes1 or missionaries1 is strongly insisted upon by ,m4 ,libri1 unquestionably one of the most eminent and correctly-informed bibliographers of the present day4 ,speaking of the latitudinarianism of some among these ,christian men1 he observes1 ,no doubt certain pious but narrow minds hoped to open the door to ecclesiastical literature only2 but the exclusion sometimes pronounced against the classics was never general amongst writers who1 even in their rudeness1 always showed themselves imitators of antiquity4 ,thus we find that the celebrated manuscript of ,livy1 in the ,imperial ,library at ,vienna1 belonged to ,sutbert1 an ,irish monk1 one of those wandering bishops who1 towards the close of the seventh century1 had gone to preach ,christianity1 and1 as it would seem also1 to teach ,roman history in ,belgium4 ,one cannot help remarking1 that the most celebrated of these pious missionaries1 ,st4 ,columbanus1 laid the foundations at ,luxeuil in ,france1 at ,st4 ,gall in ,switzerland1 and at ,bobbio in ,italy1 of three monasteries which afterwards became famous for their admirable manuscripts1 in many of which the influence of the ,irish and ,anglo-,saxon schools can be recognized at a glance4 ,the library of ,st4 ,gall is too celebrated to require mention4 ,the ,bobbio manuscripts are known everywhere by the discoveries which have been made in the palimpsests which once belonged to that collection4 ,as for the manuscripts of ,luxeuil1 they have been dispersed2 but the specimens of them which are to be found in the ,libri collection1 joined to what has been published on the subject by ,mabillon1 ,o',conor1 and others1 prove unanswerably that in this abbey1 as well as in that of ,stavelot in ,belgium1 and other ancient monasteries on the ,continent1 a school of writing and miniature had sprung up as remarkable for the beauty of its caligraphy1 as for the care applied to reproduce the forms of the ,anglo-,irish schools4#cj ,in delicacy of handling1 and minute but faultless execution1 the whole range of palography offers nothing comparable to these early ,irish manuscripts1 and those produced in the same style in ,england4 ,when in ,dublin1 some years ago1 ,i had the opportunity of studying very carefully the most marvellous of all--,the ,book of ,kells2 some of the ornaments of which ,i attempted to copy1 but broke down in despair4 ,of this very book1 ,mr4 ,westwood examined the pages1 as ,i did1 for hours together1 without ever detecting a false line1 or an irregular interlacement4 ,in one space of about a quarter of an inch superficial1 he counted1 with a magnifying-glass1 no less than one hundred and fifty-eight interlacements1 of a slender ribbon pattern1 formed of white lines1 edged by black ones1 upon a black ground4 ,no wonder that tradition should allege that these unerring lines should have been traced by angels4#ca ,however angelic the ornaments may be1 but little can be said in favour of the figure subjects occasionally introduced4 ,in some manuscripts1 such as the ,book of ,kells1 in pose and motive it is generally obvious that some ancient model has been held in view2 but nothing can be more barbaric than the imitation2 while in the other specimens1 such as the so-called autograph ,gospels of ,st4 ,columba1 or ,columbkill1 who died ,a4,d4 #eid1 two years before the advent of ,st4 ,augustine--the ,book of ,st4 ,chads1 or the ,gospels of ,mac,regol--no such evidence of imitation is to be met with1 and the figures are altogether abortive4 ,i was enabled some years ago1 by the kindness of the ,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,todd1 the learned librarian of ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 to compare the so-called autograph ,gospels of ,st4 ,columba1 with the ,book of ,kells1 which is traditionally supposed to have belonged to that saint1 and remained strongly impressed with the superior antiquity of the former to the latter4 ,the one may have been his property1 and the other illuminated in his honour after his death1 as was the case with the ,gospels of ,st4 ,cuthbert4 ,in none of them1 at any period1 were shadows represented otherwise than by apparent inlayings under the eyes and beside the nose2 and yet1 at the same time1 the ornaments were most intricate1 and often very beautiful1 both in form and colour4 ,the purple stain is frequently introduced1 and is of excellent quality2 but gold appears1 so far as ,i have been able to observe1 only in the ,durham ,book1 and in that even most sparingly4#cb ,it is the most celebrated production of the ,anglo-,hibernian monastery of ,lindisfarne1 founded by ,st4 ,aidan and the ,irish monks of ,iona1 or ,icolumkille1 in the year #fcd4 ,st4 ,cuthbert1 who was made bishop of ,lindisfarne in #fhe1 was renowned as well for his piety as for his learning2 he died in #fih1 and1 as a monument to his memory1 his successor1 ,bishop ,eadfrith1 caused to be written this noble volume1 generally called the ,durham ,book1 and known also as ,st4 ,cuthbert's ,gospels1 now in the ,british ,museum4 ,this manuscript1 surpassed in grandeur only by the ,book of ,kells1 in the same style1 was greatly enriched by thelwald1 bishop of ,lindisfarne1 who succeeded ,eadfrith in #gba1 and caused ,st4 ,cuthbert's book to be richly illuminated by the hermit ,bilfrith1 who prefixed an elaborate painting of an ,evangelist to each of the four ,gospels1 and also illuminated the capital letters at the commencement of each book4 ,the bishop caused the whole to be encased in a splendid binding of gold1 set with precious stones2 and in #iej1 a priest named ,aldred rendered the book still more valuable by interlining it with a ,saxon version of the original manuscript1 which is the ,latin text of ,st4 ,jerome4 ,want of space alone prevents our following ,simeon of ,durham in his touching narrative of the circumstances which attended the translation of this volume1 together with the body of the much-loved saint1 to ,durham ,cathedral1 in which both were long and profoundly venerated4 ,the peculiar importance of this volume in the history of ,illumination1 consists in its clearly establishing1 by its coincidence with earlier examples1 the class of caligraphy practised by that primitive ,church#cc and people1 to whom ,gregory the ,great despatched ,st4 ,augustine1 at the end of the #fth century4 ,with the mission1 which reached its destination1 and effected the conversion of ,ethelbert and of many of his subjects1 in the year #eig1 ,gregory forwarded certain sacred volumes1 of which the following were long preserved with the greatest veneration3--,a ,bible in two volumes2 two ,psalters2 two books of the ,gospels2 a book of ,martyrology2 apocryphal ,lives of the ,apostles1 and expositions of certain ,epistles and ,gospels4 ,the first--the ,bible--which was beautifully written on purple and rose-coloured leaves1 with rubricated capitals1 was certainly in existence in the reign of ,james ,i4 ,mr4 ,westwood 7,palographia ,sacra1 #ahdc-de7 looks upon the magnificent purple ,latin ,gospels of the ,british ,museum 7,royal ,library1 #a ,e #f7 as no other than the remains of the ,gregorian ,bible4 ,in this1 with the utmost respect for his opinion1 ,i cannot concur1 since the fragment exhibits far too many genuine ,saxon features to have been possibly executed in the ,eastern or ,western empires previous to the date of the mission of ,st4 ,augustine4 ,that it may have been produced in this country1 in imitation of the more classical original1 by the immediate followers of the saint1 is1 ,i consider1 highly probable4 ,the second--the two ,psalters--have disappeared4 ,several learned men have indeed looked upon the ,british ,museum ,cottonian ,,mss4 ,vesp4 ,a #a1 as one of these celebrated books1 but1 as ,i venture to think1 erroneously2 for it is difficult to believe that ornaments1 so entirely of the ,anglo-,irish school of ,lindisfarne1 as those which decorate this volume1 could have been executed at ,rome during either the #fth or even the #gth century4 ,nothing is more probable than that1 out of the forty persons who are believed to have constituted ,augustine's mission1 several should have been skilled1 as most ecclesiastics then were1 in writing and in the embellishment of books2 and in any school1 established by ,st4 ,augustine for the multiplication of those precious volumes1 without which ministrations and teachings in consonance with ,roman dogmas could not be carried on in the new churches and monastic institutions founded among the converts1 it is most likely that the native scribes1 on their conversion1 should be employed to write and decorate the holy texts1 with every ornament excepting those of a pictorial nature4 ,in the execution of these1 they could scarcely prove themselves as skilful as the followers of ,st4 ,augustine would1 from their retention of some classical traditions1 be likely to be4 ,thus1 and thus only1 as ,i believe1 can we account for the singular combination of semi-antique with ,saxon writing1 and of ,latin body-colour pictures1 executed almost entirely with the brush1 and regularly shadowed 7such as ,david with his ,attendants1 in the frontispiece to the ,vespasian ,a #a ,psalter71 with ornaments of an absolutely different character1 such as the arch and pilaster which form the framework for this very picture of ,king ,david4 ,another argument1 which weighs greatly in my mind against the probability of such a ,psalter as ,vespasian ,a #a being a prototype1 is the fact1 that the ,utrecht and ,harleian ,psalters1 to both of which ,i shall have occasion again to allude1 in their pictorial illustrations1 present us with evident copies1 in outline1 of some classic coloured original2 just1 in fact1 of such a manuscript of the ,psalms as the celebrated ,vatican ,roll#cd is of the book of ,joshua4 ,what more likely than that one of the venerated ,psalters brought from ,rome should have been such a manuscript1 and should have been the very one copied in the case of the ,utrecht ,psalter1 in the rustic capitals of the original1 and in the later ,harleian replica in the current ,saxon uncial8 ,as respects the third class of ,augustinian books--the ,gospels--the case is far different2 for the accredited and traditional originals are1 in every respect1 such as would be likely to have been produced at ,rome or at ,constantinople1 but most probably the former1 during the pontificate of ,gregory the ,great4 ,fragments of the most important of these ,gospels are preserved in the library of ,corpus ,christi ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,they are written in black ink generally1 with occasional lines in red1 in the ancient manner4 ,two pages only of illuminations are left1 though it is evident that the volume once contained a large and complete series4 ,the most important of these represents ,st4 ,luke1 clad in tunic and toga1 seated under just such a triumphal arch as is frequently to be met with in the ,roman ,mosaics of the #eth and #fth centuries4#ce ,the second illuminated page comprises a series of small square pictures1 framed round with the simple red line of the oldest ,latin manuscripts4 ,the other ,augustinian fragmentary ,gospel is to be found among the ,hatton manuscripts in the ,bodleian ,library1 ,oxford3 it is without any other illumination than the contrast of red and black ink1 and a few ornaments about some of the initial letters4 ,the evidence1 upon which it may be assumed that these volumes were either brought to this country by ,st4 ,augustine1 or formed some of the codices multos1#cf sent by ,gregory the ,great to the mission on its establishment1 rests not only upon the antiquity and purely ,latin character of the fragments1 but on the fact that both ,gospels contain entries in ,saxon of upwards of one thousand years old1 connecting them with the library of the ,abbey of ,st4 ,augustine at ,canterbury2 and1 furthermore1 they correspond with the description given by a monk of that monastery1 who1 writing in the reign of ,henry ,v41 dwells upon the primitie librorum totius ,ecclesie ,anglicane preserved in that library1 as the very ,gospels in the version of ,st4 ,jerome1 brought to ,england by ,st4 ,augustine himself4 ,the ,martyrology1 the apocryphal ,lives of the ,apostles1 and the ,expositions which completed the series1 cannot be now identified4 ,to rapidly multiply copies of these text-books of the ,church of ,rome1 was1 no doubt1 one of the first and most important duties of the monks of ,canterbury2 and from the traces we may detect in various manuscripts of the ,anglo-,saxon mode of writing and ornamenting writing1 combined with paintings such as the ,anglo-,saxons were incompetent to execute for some time after the close of the #fth century1 we may safely infer that the monks both worked themselves and largely employed the native scribes4 ,thus1 as ,mr4 ,westwood observes in a recent article in the ,archological ,journal1 ,we have sufficient evidence that1 soon after the settlement of the followers of ,st4 ,augustine1 there must have been established a scriptorium1 where some of the most beautiful manuscripts were written in the purest uncial or rustic capitals1 but decorated with initials in the ,anglo-,saxon or ,irish style4 ,of such ,,mss4 we can now record-- #a4 ,the purple ,gospels at ,stockholm1 written in very large uncials1 but with illuminated title-pages1 with pure ,anglo-,saxon ornaments1 and grand figures of the ,evangelists in a mixed classical and ,anglo-,saxon style4 #b4 ,the ,utrecht ,gospels4 #c4 ,the ,gospels in the ,cathedral ,library1 ,durham2 ,astle's ',origin and ,progress of ,writing1' pl4 #ad1 fig4 ,b1 p4 #hc4 #d4 ,the ,utrecht ,psalter4 #e4 ,the so-called ,psalter of ,st4 ,augustine1 ,,mss4 ,cotton41 ,vespasian1 ,a #a2 ,astle1 pl4 #i1 fig4 #b4 #f4 ,the ,bodleian ,,ms4 of the ,rule of ,st4 ,benedict1 ,lord ,hatton's ,,mss41 ,no4 #ic2 ,astle1 pl4 #i1 fig4 #a1 p4 #hb4 ,were it not for the initials1 and other illuminations in the genuine ,anglo-,saxon style1 not one of these ,,mss4 could be supposed to have been executed in ,england4 ,they are1 nevertheless1 among the finest specimens of early caligraphic art in existence4 ,one of the most important of this interesting class of manuscripts is1 unquestionably1 that of the ,psalms1 now preserved in the public library at ,utrecht4 ,it was formerly in the possession of ,sir ,robert ,cotton1 and should be now with the rest of his library in the ,british ,museum4 ,the volume contains1 besides the ,psalms1 the ,pusillus eram1 the ,credo1 and the ,canticles1 with a few leaves from the ,gospel of ,st4 ,matthew4 ,it is written upon vellum1 and each psalm has a pen-and-ink illustration1 in the same style as those in the ,harleian ,psalter1 ,no4 #fjc1 which was written in the #ajth century2 and similar also to those in the ,cambridge ,psalter of the #abth century4 ,the writing in the ,utrecht ,psalter is executed in ,roman rustic capitals2 it is arranged in three columns in each page2 and the elegance with which the letters are formed1 would place the manuscripts amongst those of the #fth or #gth century3 but the illustrations before mentioned1 with the large uncial ,b1 heightened with gold1 in the ,saxon interlaced style1 which commences the first psalm1 would give it a later date1 certainly not earlier than the #gth or #hth century2 and the pen-and-ink drawings were probably executed a century later4 ,mr4 ,westwood1 to whose highly interesting ,archological ,notes of a ,tour in ,denmark1 ,prussia1 and ,holland1 published in the ,archological ,journal1 ,i am indebted for the above information1 tells us that the date of the few pages of the ,gospel1 mentioned as being bound up in this volume1 is as uncertain as that of the ,psalter2 the text being written in a style which would place it amongst the works of the #fth or #gth century1 whilst the word ,liber1 with which it commences1 is written in large square ,roman capitals1 in gold1 with the remains of ornament similar to that in ,vespasian1 ,a #a4 ,that which gives1 however1 its greatest value to the ,utrecht ,psalter1 is the remarkable freedom and cleverness of the pen-and-ink drawings with which it is embellished4 ,in them may be recognized1 ,i believe1 the earliest trace of those peculiar fluttered draperies1 elongated proportions1 and flourished touches1 which became almost a distinct style in later ,anglo-,saxon illumination4 ,so different is it1 both from the ,anglo-,hibernian work1 prevalent in ,england up to the advent of ,st4 ,augustine1 and from the contemporary imitation of the antique1 practised by ,byzantine1 ,latin1 ,lombard1 or ,frankish illuminators1 that the conclusion seems1 as it were1 forced upon us1 that it can have been originated in no other way than by setting the already most skilful penman1 but altogether ignorant artist1 to reproduce1 as he best could1 the freely-painted miniatures of the books1 sacred and profane1 imported1 as we know1 in abundance1 from ,rome1 during the #gth and #hth centuries4 ,to so great an extent do antique types and features prevail in the earlier specimens of this class of ,anglo-,saxon volumes1 that1 until comparatively recently1 the catalogue of the ,utrecht ,library has designated the illustrations of the ,psalter now under notice1 as evidently productions of the reign of ,valentinian2#cg while the outline subjects1 in a similar style1 and of considerably later date1 which are introduced in the ,british ,museum ,aratus1 were attributed1 by even ,mr4 ,ottley's critical judgment1 to a somewhat similar period4 ,the ,harleian ,psalter 7,no4 #fjc71 to which allusion has been already made1 although written in later characters1 is decorated with many pictures1 all but identical with those in the ,utrecht manuscript1 thereby demonstrating1 with comparative certainty1 that both were taken from some popular prototype1 possibly one of the ,augustinian ,psalters already alluded to4#ch ,the ,bodleian ,cdmon's1 or pseudo-,cdmon's1 ,metrical ,paraphrase of the ,book of ,genesis1 written and illustrated in outline1#ci during the #ajth or #aath century1 and the lfric's ,heptateuch of the ,british ,museum1 ,cottonian1 ,claudius ,b iv41 of a somewhat later date1 afford excellent illustrations of the enduring popularity of this peculiar mode of outline-drawing4 ,the striking difference may1 however1 be noted between these later and the earlier specimens in the same style1 that whereas the types of the latter are1 with scarcely any exception1 antique1 those of the former are comparatively original1 and exhibit that strong inclination to caricature1 which has always formed one of the leading features of ,english illumination4 ,while1 in this class of ,anglo-,saxon manuscripts1 the influence of ,latin art may be traced on the original ,hiberno-,british school of scribes1 a corresponding change was effected1 through the introduction into this country of specimens of the more brilliant examples of ,byzantine execution or derivation4 ,thus1 as ,sir ,frederick ,madden observes1#dj ,the taste for gold and purple manuscripts seems only to have reached ,england at the close of the #gth century1 when ,wilfrid1 archbishop of ,york1 enriched his church with a copy of the ,gospels thus adorned2 and it is described by his biographer1 ,eddius 7who lived at that period or shortly after71 as 'inauditum ante seculis nostris quoddam miraculum1'--almost a miracle1 and before that time unheard of in this part of the world4 ,but in the #hth and #ith centuries the art of staining the vellum appears to have declined1 and the colour is no longer the same bright and beautiful purple1 violet1 or rose-colour of the preceding centuries4 ,it is rare also to meet with a volume stained throughout2 the artist contenting himself with colouring a certain portion1 such as the title1 preface1 or canon of the mass4 ,manuscripts written in letters of gold1 on white vellum1 are chiefly confined to the #hth1 #ith1 and #ajth centuries4 ,of these1 the ,bible and ,hours of ,charles the ,bald1 preserved in the ,royal ,library at ,paris1 and the ,gospels of the ,harleian collection1 ,no4 #bghh1 are probably the finest examples extant4 ,in ,england1 the art of writing in gold seems to have been but imperfectly understood in early times1 and the instances of it very uncommon4 ,indeed1 the only remarkable one that occurs of it is the charter of ,king ,edgar to the new minster at ,winchester1 in the year #iff4 ,this volume is written throughout in gold4 ,although but few books were thus gorgeously written1 many were sumptuously decorated2 and1 indeed1 there exist no more brilliant volumes than some of those produced by ,anglo-,saxon scribes4 ,of these several have been preserved2 but if two or three only are noticed1 it will be quite sufficient to establish the leading characteristics of the school1 which appears to have been organized under ,ethelwold1 bishop of ,winchester1 at ,new ,minster1 or ,hyde ,abbey1 near ,winchester1 during the #ajth century4 ,the names of several leading masters of that great nursery of illumination have been handed down to us4 ,thus ,ethric and ,wulfric--monks--are recorded as having been painters2 but ,godemann is spoken of as the greatest of all4 ,fortunately1 a magnificent specimen of his art is preserved in the celebrated benedictional of ,st4 ,ethelwold1 in the library of the ,duke of ,devonshire1 and engraved in extenso1 with great care1 in the twenty-fourth volume of the ,archologia4#da ,this is one of the most sumptuous manuscripts which has been executed in any age by any scribe1 and differs widely from the ,anglo-,saxon ,,mss4 previously described4 ,the text is generally enclosed within a rich framework1 formed by wide and solid bars of gold1 about and over which twine and break elegantly-shaded masses of conventional foliation4 ,in the initial letters1 and occasionally in the ornament1 the peculiarly ,saxon interlacing and knotwork is retained2 but in most of the embellishments1 a reaction can be traced from the ,carlovingian manuscripts themselves1 originally acted upon1 as will be hereafter seen1 by the ,saxon school of caligraphy4#db ,the figure subjects in this volume are cramped in style and action1 exhibit but little classical influence1 and possess1 as a leading merit1 only a singularly sustained brilliancy of tint and even execution throughout4 ,next to this great masterpiece1 and from the same fountain-head1 come the following1 several of which are exceedingly beautiful3--,the two ,rouen ,gospels2 the ,gospels of ,king ,canute1 in the ,british ,museum1 ,reg4 ,d #i2 the ,cottonian ,psalter1 ,tib4 ,c vi42 the ,hyde ,abbey ,book1 lately in the ,stowe ,library2 and the ,gospels of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,the ornaments in all these volumes are painted in thick body-colours1 and with a vehicle so viscid in texture1 that ,dr4 ,dibdin#dc infers from its character1 as evidenced in the ,benedictional1 the possibility or even probability of oil being mixed up in the colours of the more ancient illuminations4 ,in this opinion ,i do not concur1 as ,i believe the peculiar body and gloss of the pigment to be produced by the use of white of egg4 ,if the character of ,anglo-,saxon architecture and sculpture agreed with the representations of both given in the ,benedictional of ,ethelwold--as ,i have every reason to believe it did--it must have been massive and elaborate in the highest degree2 and there is no reason to suppose that a people who were capable of drawing so well as they assuredly could1 should have limited their productions in the sister arts to the rude and clumsy1 long and short1 and other similar work1 which we are in the habit of supposing1 characterized all their principal productions4 ,i have dwelt in some detail upon ,saxon illumination1 for two reasons3 firstly1 because it is a theme on which some national self-gratulation may be justifiably entertained2#dd and1 secondly1 because it is one on which1 although much has been written1 comparatively little light has as yet been thrown4 ,before leaving it1 however1 some general observations should be made upon the classes of books most in demand1 and the means by which they were multiplied in this country2 and1 indeed1 with slight local differences1 on the great continent of ,europe as well1--,byzantium1 ,ravenna1 ,rome1 ,monte ,cassino1 ,subiaco1 ,paris1 ,tours1 ,limoges1 ,arles1 ,soissons1 ,blois1 ,aix-la-,chapelle1 ,cologne1 ,hildesheim1 ,worms1 ,treves1 ,glastonbury1 ,canterbury1 ,winchester1 ,york1 ,durham1 ,lindisfarne1 ,wearmouth1 ,jarrow1 ,croyland1 and ,peterborough1 being the great centres of production4 ,from the earliest period religious zeal was much shown in its offerings to the ,church1 by laymen1 more or less pious1--the least pious being1 in fact1 sometimes the most liberal donors1--and very large sums were expended in illuminating and ornamenting manuscripts for that purpose4 ,many of these books were remarkable for the extreme beauty of the paintings and ornamental letters enriched with gold and silver1 which decorate them1 as well as for the execution of the writing1 the most precious bindings frequently adding greatly to their cost4 ,gospels1 books of anthems1 and missals1 were most frequently chosen for such gifts2 but they were not confined to sacred subjects1 including occasionally the best writings of ,greece and ,rome1 which were eagerly sought after as models of eloquence1 and1 still more1 as often being supposed to contain prophecies of the coming of ,christ1 and proofs of the truth of his doctrines4 ,the piety of individuals often led them to expend large sums in the preparation of their offerings to the ,church2 the finest and best parchment which could be procured being used for manuscripts4 ,when black ink was used in liturgical writings1 the title-page and heads of the chapters were written in red ink2 whence comes the term ,rubric4 ,green1 blue1 and yellow inks were used1 sometimes for words1 but chiefly for ornamental capital letters2 the writers and miniature-painters exercising their own taste and judgment in the decoration1 and heightening its effect with gold and the most expensive colours1 such as azure and the purest cinnabar or vermilion4 ,the greater part of these works were intrusted to monks and their clerks1 who were exhorted1 by the rules of their order1 to learn writing1 and to persevere in the work of copying manuscripts1 as being one most acceptable to ,god2 those who could not write being recommended to learn to bind books4 ,alcuin entreats all to employ themselves in copying books1 saying1 ,it is a most meritorious work1 more useful to the health than working in the fields1 which profits only a man's body1 whilst the labour of a copyist profits his soul4#de ,home production could1 however1 by no means suffice to multiply books1 and especially religious books1 with sufficient rapidity to satisfy the eager demand for them4 ,long journeys appear to have been taken to foreign countries1 by learned ecclesiastics1 for scarcely any other purpose than the collection of manuscripts2 while quantities were imported into ,england from abroad4 ,thus ,bede tells us1 that ,wilfrid1 bishop of ,wearmouth and ,jarrow1 and ,acca1 ,wilfrid's successor1 collected many books abroad for their libraries1 at the end of the seventh century4 ,thus ,theodore of ,tarsus brought back an extensive library of ,grecian and ,roman authors1 on his return to ,canterbury1 in #ffh1 from a mission to ,rome2 and thus1 as we are told by ,mr4 ,maitland1#df when ,aldhelm1 who became ,bishop of ,schireburn in the year #gje1 went to ,canterbury1 to be consecrated by his old friend and companion ,berthwold 7pariter literis studuerant1 pariterque viam religionis triverant71 the archbishop kept him there many days1 taking counsel with him about the affairs of his diocese4 ,hearing of the arrival of the ships at ,dover during this time1 he went there to inspect their unloading1 and to see if they had brought anything in his way 7si quid forte commodum ecclesiastico usui attidissent naut qui e ,gallico sinu in ,angliam1 provecti librorum copiam apportassent74 ,among many other books1 he saw one containing the whole of the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 which he at length bought3 and ,william of ,malmesbury1 who wrote his life in the twelfth century1 tells us it was still preserved at that place4 ,how deeply must all lovers of illumination regret the infinite destruction of books that has prevailed in all ages6 ,of all this librorum copiam1 how few survive4 ,even in the days of ,alfred the ,great1 the ,danes had destroyed the majority of them2 for1 as that great royal ,bibliomaniac exclaims1 in his preface to the ,pastoral of ,gregory1--,i saw1 before all were spoiled and burnt1 how the churches throughout ,britain were filled with treasures and books4 ,i now leave our own country for a while1 and return to the general continent of ,europe2 having1 ,i trust1 satisfactorily established the individuality of those three great styles of illumination1 from the fusion of which the ,romanesque1 and ultimately the ,medival1 system sprang1--viz41 the ,roman1 or pictorial2 the ,greek1 or golden2 and the ,hiberno-,saxon1 or intricate4 ,the commencement of that fusion has been traced in the later ,anglo-,saxon work1 and it now remains to observe the circumstances under which a similar1 and even more marked1 amalgamation took place on the continent1 under the auspices of ,charlemagne1 the greatest patron of the art who ever lived4 ,much has been assumed by early ,palographers1 and even some recent ones1 with respect to the influence exercised by the ,lombard ,,mss4 executed between the establishment of the ,lombard kingdom in the year #efh1 and its absorption ,a4,d4 #ggd1 in the empire of ,charlemagne1 on the class of illumination introduced under his auspices2 but the specimens which have descended to these days exhibit such an entire decrepitude of style1 as to justify the belief that1 with the exception of a peculiar broken-backed letter1 known as ,lombard bris1 the ,lombards themselves contributed little or nothing to the results which attended the efforts made by that great sovereign to raise the art of book-decoration in his day to its highest pitch4 ,it was mainly by the aid1 and through the direct instrumentality1 of the learned ,anglo-,saxon1 ,alcuin1 that ,charlemagne carried out his laudable design4 ,this industrious ecclesiastic1 who was born in the year #gce1 received his education under ,egbert and ,elbert1 successive archbishops of the see of ,york1--having been appointed at an early age custodian to the library collected by the former4 ,on the death of ,elbert1 he was sent to ,rome to receive the pallium of investiture for the new archbishop ,enbalde4 ,on his journey home1 in #ghj1 he passed through ,parma1 where ,charlemagne happened to be at the time4 ,the consequence of their meeting in that city was1 that ,alcuin received and accepted an invitation to take up his residence at the court of the ,frankish sovereign4 ,during four-and-twenty years1 until his death1 indeed1 in #hjd1 he retained the affection and respect of his royal patron1 and occupied himself in incessant labour for the advancement of learning1 and the multiplication of pure texts of the ,holy ,scriptures and other good books4 ,several of ,alcuin's letters to ,charlemagne are still extant1 in which the supremacy of the ,english schools and libraries is distinctly recognized1 as well as the direct influence exercised by them on ,frankish literature1 and1 as in those days literature and illumination were inseparable1 on illumination also4 ,thus1 in one place he begs his master to give him those exquisite books of erudition which ,i had in my own country by the good and devout industry of my master ,egbert1 the archbishop4 ,again1 referring to the same treasures of wisdom1 he proposes1--,if it shall please your wisdom1 ,i will send some of our boys1 who may copy from thence whatever is necessary1 and carry back into ,france the flowers of ,britain2 that the garden may not be shut up in ,york1 but the fruits of it may be placed in the paradise of ,tours4 ,one of the evidences of the eagerness with which this task of multiplying the sources of learning was carried on1 is to be found in the attempts made to abridge and expedite labour4 ,thus1 as ,m4 ,chassant#dg observes in his useful little manual of abbreviations#dh used during the ,middle ,ages1 the texts of all documents of importance were comparatively free from contractions from the period when ,justinian the ,great banished them1 by an imperial edict1 from all legal instruments1 until the accession of ,charlemagne1 during whose reign1 either to save time or vellum1 the scribes revived the ancient ,roman practice of using initials1 and frequently arbitrary signs1 to represent whole words of frequent recurrence4 ,it is1 however1 in the quality1 rather than the quantity1 of ,carlovingian ,,mss4 that the reader is most likely to be interested2 and ,i therefore hasten to note two or three of the most imposing specimens4 ,the earliest of the grand class is believed to be the ,evangelistiarium1 long preserved in the ,abbey of ,st4 ,servin1 at ,toulouse1 and ultimately presented to ,napoleon ,i41 on the baptism of the ,king of ,rome1 in the name of the city4 ,from contemporary entries1 it appears to have been completed1 after eight years' labour1 in the year #gha1 by the scribe ,godescalc4 ,of whatever nation ,godescalc may have been1 the volume#di exhibits far too many composite features to justify the belief that any one individual1 or even many individuals of one nation1 could have executed the whole4 ,the paintings are probably by an ,italian hand1 being executed freely with the brush1 in opaque colours1 in the antique manner4 ,many of the golden borders are quite ,greek in style1 while the initial letters1 and others of the borders1 are thoroughly ,hiberno-,saxon4 ,a nearly similar dissection would apply to most of the manuscripts executed for ,charlemagne's descendants1 to the third generation4 ,the volume contains #abg leaves1 every leaf1 not entirely filled with illumination1 being stained purple1 with a white margin1 and covered with a text1 written in golden initials1 in two columns1 separated by very graceful and delicately-executed borders4 ,our plates1 ,technical ,manual1 ,nos4 #a and #b1 taken from the great ,charlemagne ,bible of the ,british ,museum1 give a good idea of the nature of the ornament usually employed in similar ,,mss4 to fill up such borders and to form and decorate initial letters4 ,they will serve to show also the common type of the ,alphabets in use4 ,from ,charlemagne's ,scriptorium1 which was no doubt the head-quarters of the best artists of all nations in his time1 proceeded many other volumes of scarcely less interest and magnificence4 ,among these1 the most noteworthy are1 the ,gospels of ,st4 ,medard de ,soissons1#ej so called because believed to have been presented by ,charlemagne to that ,abbey2#ea the ,vienna ,psalter1 written for ,pope ,hadrian2 the ,gospels preserved in the library of the ,arsenal at ,paris1 and formerly belonging to the ,abbaye of ,st4 ,martin des ,champs2#eb the ,gospels found upon the knees of the ,emperor on opening his tomb at ,aix-la-,chapelle2 the ,harleian ,,ms4 ,no4 #cghh1 known as the ,codex ,aureus2#ec and last1 not least1 the ,bible1 known as that of ,san ,calisto1 preserved in the ,benedictine monastery of that saint at ,rome1 and formerly in the monastery of ,san ,paolo fuori le ,mura4 ,the frontispiece to this volume1 which is no less than one foot four inches high1 by one foot one inch wide1 represents a sitting emperor holding a globe1 on which are inscribed various letters1 arranged in the peculiar form adopted by ,charlemagne in his signs manual4 ,the learned have disputed hotly whether this portrait is intended for that of ,charlemagne1 or of ,charles the ,bald1 his grandson4 ,whether this manuscript1 which1 in all respects1 except beauty in the figure-subjects1 ,i look upon as the finest ,i have ever seen1 was executed in the days of the former or latter monarch1 is of no very great moment1 as its leading features would harmonize very well with accredited reliques of either4 ,it still contains no less than #cci pages1 and is one blaze of illumination from the first page to the last4#ed ,the large initial letters are quite ,saxon in form2 the borders1 of which there are endless and beautiful varieties1 are more strictly classic in character than is usual in ,caroline manuscripts2 and the pictures are in an indeterminate style1 between ,greek1 ,latin1 and that original ,frankish1 which subsequently absorbed in ,western ,europe all previous tradition1 and grew into the peculiar type of ,french #abth century work--the progenitor of the pure ,gothic of the #acth4 ,ample materials happily exist for tracing the gradual development of this ,frankish element2 at first through the works of the immediate descendants of ,charlemagne1 and subsequently through various liturgical works1 collected from suppressed abbeys1 and preserved for the most part in the ,imperial library at ,paris4 ,of these1 some of the most important are1 the ,bible of ,louis le ,debonnaire1 executed in the eighth year of his reign2 the ,gospels of the same monarch2 and the ,sacramentaire de ,metz1--all produced for sons of ,charlemagne4 ,the first-named is of the barbaric style1 on which ,alcuin and others improved2 the second contains some very curious symbolic initial letters2 and the third1 a good deal of originality1 both in ornaments and figures4 ,the principal volumes still preserved1 once belonging to the grandsons of ,charlemagne1 appear less original in several respects1 than do those executed for his sons4 ,thus1 in the case of ,louis le ,debonnaire's eldest son ,lothaire1 whose ,gospels1 written and decorated at the ,abbey of ,st4 ,martin1 at ,tours1 exhibit a mixed ,latin and ,saxon style1 with but little specifically ,frankish work1--and thus also in the person of ,lothaire's youngest brother1 ,charles the ,bald1 whose two celebrated ,bibles1 the one known as the ,bible of ,st4 ,denis1 and the other as that presented to the monarch by ,count ,vivien1 abbot of the same monastery at which the ,gospels of ,lothaire were executed1--illustrate a similar composite1 but scarcely original1 style4 ,the former manuscript is illuminated with intertwined lacertine monsters1 knotwork1 single 7but not the three-whorl7 spirals1 and rows of red dots following many of the leading outlines1 all of which may be regarded as distinctive features of the ,hiberno-,saxon school2 while the latter1 with several of the above peculiarities freely introduced1 combines an unmistakable classicality1 shown in the various figure-subjects1 and especially in the arcading which encloses the ,eusebian ,canons at the commencement of the volume4 ,the ,british ,museum is fortunate in possessing in the ,harleian ,,ms4--,no4 #geea--;a curious collection of ancient ,biblical fragments1 and amongst these are a few pages taken from a ,bible executed for ,charles the ,bald4 ,from these ,mr4 ,tymms has selected the elegant ,alphabets1 initial letters1 and ornaments which are to be found in plates #a1 #b1 and #c1 of this manual4 ,in these the student will not fail to recognize what he may have already observed in studying the specimens given from the ,charlemagne ,bible 7,technical manual1 plates #a1 #b1 and #c71 that while the form of the text and the ornamental borderings are founded on antique models1 the initial letters scarcely ever fail to exhibit in their ,celtic animals' heads and interlaced strap-work the influence of ,alcuin and the ,saxon scribes4 ,we can feel but little surprise at the production of such works at the ,abbey of ,st4 ,martin1 at ,tours1 for it was within the walls of that ,paradise1 as ,alcuin calls it1 that the ,saxon sage gave all the latter years of his life to the recension of the ,holy ,scriptures1#ee and to the organization of a scriptorium worthy of his affectionate patron4 ,the impulse given to the ,art of ,illumination in that celebrated establishment was speedily communicated to rival scriptoria in other localities2 thus from the abbeys of ,st4 ,martial1 at ,limoges1 from ,metz1 ,mans1 ,st4 ,majour in ,provence1 ,rheims1 ,st4 ,germain and ,st4 ,denis at ,paris1 issued1 from the age of ,charlemagne to the #acth century1 an almost uninterrupted series of highly-illuminated volumes1 many of which still remain to attest the vigorous efforts by which the foreign elements were gradually thrown aside in ,france1 to make way for that expressive and original outline style#ef which achieved its greatest power in the early part of the #acth century4 ,the throes and struggles by which this was achieved1 are singularly well shown by a page engraved in ,count ,bastard's splendid work from the ,apocalypse of ,st4 ,sever1 written during the first half of the #aath century4 ,the page presents a curious emblematical frontispiece1 the general form of which is perfectly ,oriental2 the border ornaments are founded on ,cufic inscriptions2 the animals which decorate the ,arabian framework are classical2 and the interlacing fretwork of several portions of the design is purely ,saxon4 ,many ,byzantine features were brought into ,french illumination through the schools at ,st4 ,martial's and the other abbeys of ,limoges1 but it was at ,paris itself that the greatest changes and improvements were effected2 thus1 at ,st4 ,germain and ,st4 ,denis were produced1 during the first half and middle of the #aath century1 two volumes1 still existing in the ,imperial ,library of ,france1 which distinctly show the budding of ,gothic4 ,the ,st4 ,germain ,mysteries of the ,life of ,christ is illustrated by many original and very spirited outline compositions1 some of which are slightly coloured2 while the ,missal of ,st4 ,denis1 of a few years later1 displays that peculiar grace and navet in the action and expression of the figures1 together with that soft elegance in foliated ornament1 which for several centuries remained a dominant excellence in the best ,french illuminations4 ,as classical tradition and ,hiberno-,saxon intricacies died out in ,france to make way for the true ,medival styles1 so did they1 although somewhat more slowly1 in ,england1 ,germany1 ,spain1 and the ,netherlands4 ,in ,italy1 a degeneracy occurred1 from which the revival at length1 under ,cimabue and ,giotto1 was as rapid and brilliant as the previous collapse appears to have been fatal4#eg ,alike from any such complete change1 complete degeneracy1 or ultimate attainment of life and perfection1 the genuine ,greek style of the ,byzantine empire was exempted4 ,that ,oriental splendour of gold and colour by which so early as the days of ,justinian the ,great1 it sought to gloss over the feebleness of its reminiscences of classical beauty1 remained the unchanged leading characteristic of its illuminations down to the final extinction of the empire in #adec4 ,in such an essay as the present1 it is quite impossible to convey any idea of the minute1 but extremely interesting varieties of type adopted in ,byzantine manuscripts2 it must suffice to state1 in general terms1--that the dispersion of many of the most skilful ,greek artists1 by the iconoclastic emperors 7commencing with ,leo the ,isaurian1 ,a4,d4 #gbf71 gave a great impetus to the arts of design in those countries in which they took refuge1 and no doubt contributed specially to the improvements effected under ,charlemagne1--that on the abandonment of such religious persecutions1 in the middle of the #ith century1 a fresh start appears to have been taken1#eh--;and that from the date of that revival1 which may be specially noted under the reign of ,basil the ,macedonian1 until about the year #abjj1 many very noble and dignified pictures#ei were executed4 ,from the last-named era1 until the taking of ,constantinople by the ,turks1 although the treatment of figure-subjects became more and more weak and mannered1 much beautiful ornament was painted upon gold grounds1 and the influence originally communicated to ,arabian art from the ,eastern ,empire1 was reflected back upon its later productions from the contemporary schools of ,saracenic and ,moorish decoration4#fj ,it is scarcely necessary to remark1 that in all these inflexions of style the ,russian1 ,syrian1 and ,armenian illuminators closely followed the example set them by the ,byzantine scribes and painters4 ,returning from the ,east to the extreme west of ,europe1 it is worthy of note how entirely the primitive ,saxon styles1 which wrought so important an influence upon the rest of ,europe1 were lost in the country from which they had been mainly promulgated4 ,the successive social and political changes wrought by the ascendancy of the ,danes1 and ultimately of the ,normans1 put an almost total stop to ,saxon illumination2 and so complete was the abandonment of the ,saxon character1 that ,ingulphus1 in describing the fire which destroyed the noble library of his abbey at ,croyland1 in the year #ajia1 after dwelling on the splendour of the chirographs written in the ,roman character1 adorned with golden crosses and most beautiful paintings1 and especially the privileges of the kings of ,mercia1 the most ancient and the best1 in like manner beautifully executed with golden illuminations1 but written in the ,saxon character1 goes on to state3 ,all our documents of this kind1 greater and less1 were about four hundred in number2 and in one moment of a most dismal night1 they were destroyed and lost to us by this lamentable misfortune4 ,a few years before1 ,i had taken from our archives a good many chirographs1 written in the ,saxon character1 because we had duplicates1 and in some cases triplicates1 of them2 and had given them to our cantor1 ,master ,fulmar1 to be kept in the cloister1 to help the juniors to learn the ,saxon character1 because that letter had for a long while been despised and neglected by reason of the ,normans1#fa and was now known only to a few of the more aged2 that so the younger ones1 being instructed to read this character1 might be more competent to use the documents of their monastery against their adversaries in their old age4 ,the ,normans1 a warlike but unlettered race1 did but little for the first century after the ,conquest1 to restore the taste for learning which they and the ,danes had displaced4 ,while ,english progress in illumination was thus comparatively paralyzed1 in ,france and ,germany new styles1 corresponding with those known in architecture as ,romanesque1 rapidly sprang into popularity4 ,of the leading decorative features of such styles1 as well as of the corresponding alphabets and initial letters1 we have endeavoured to give some elegant reductions in plates #d1 #e1 and #f of this manual1 and in plates #d1 #e1 and #f of its technical companion4 ,the illustrations in the former have been taken from the ,british ,museum1 ,reg4 #a1 ,c4 ,,vii41 a folio ,,ms41 of bold rather than beautiful execution1 but containing throughout many well-designed initial letters and ornaments4 ,the volume comprises the vulgate version of the books of ,joshua1 ,judges1 and ,ruth1 and it is believed by ,sir ,frederick ,madden1 no doubt the most competent judge in this country1 to have been executed about the middle of the #abth century4 ,the materials for the plates in the ,technical ,manual1 ,nos4 #d1 #e1 and #f have been gleaned from a manuscript of rather later date1 preserved in the ,harleian ,collection1 ,nos4 #bhjc and #bhjd4 ,there can be little doubt that the numerous ornaments which decorate this great ,bible were the work of ,german industry1 for1 independently of the evidences of style offered by the writing and illumination1 an entry in the volume informs us that it once belonged to the church of the ,blessed ,virgin1 in one of the suburbs of ,worms4 ,all of the ornaments in this series of illustrations show a manifest disposition on the part of their designers to break away from the rigidity of pure convention into a class of foliation1 which1 if not directly copied from nature1 at least recalls the general aspect of her germinating1 growing1 and1 finally1 luxuriant forms of vegetation4 ,the combination1 with reminiscences of ,carlovingian knotted ends to the initial letters1 of foliated ornament1 during the #abth century1 may be frequently found developed1 in ,germany especially1 into a fresh luxuriant1 and complete system4 ,the complicated conventionality of foliage shown in many ,teutonic manuscripts1 and greatly encouraged by the ,emperor ,frederick ,barbarossa1 ,a4,d4 #aaeb to #aaij1 was never entirely abandoned by the ,germans in their ornament2 and at the end of the #acth and early part of the #adth centuries1 when ,france and ,england were successfully imitating nature1 they continued to cling to that peculiarly crabbed style of crinkled foliation1 which they reluctantly abandoned only in the #agth century4 ,with the accession of the ,plantagenets1 in #aaed1 and especially through the marriage of ,henry ,,ii4 with ,eleanor of ,guienne1 ,french influence acquired a marked predominance in ,english illumination2 and for about one hundred years from that date1 the progress of style in ,england and ,france was parallel and almost identical4 ,gradually1 in each1 the ,romanesque features disappeared1 and by the middle of the #acth century1 the fulness of medival illumination1 as reflecting the perfection of ,gothic architecture1 was attained4 ,the rapid growth of the ,dominican and ,franciscan orders during the first half of the century1 and their eagerness to dispel the drowsiness into which the old well-to-do monastic establishments were fast slipping1 gave a new life to all arts1 including1 of course1 that of the transcription and illumination of the sources of learning1 and in those days1 consequently1 of power4 ,the present appears to be the most fitting place for a few notes1 derived chiefly from the ,consuetudines of the regulars1#fb on the general medival practice in relation to monastic libraries1 of which ,england1 ,france1 ,germany1 and ,italy possessed many during the #acth1 #adth1 and #aeth centuries1 rich1 not only in sacred and patristic1 but in profane literature as well4 ,the libraries of such establishments were placed by the abbot under the sole charge of the armarian1 an officer who was made responsible for the preservation of the volumes under his care3 he was expected frequently to examine them1 lest damp or insects should injure them2 he was to cover them with wooden covers to preserve them1 and carefully to mend and restore any damage which time or accident might cause2 he was to make a note of any book borrowed from the library1 with the name of the borrower2 but this rule applied only to the less valuable portion of it1 as the great and precious books could only be lent by the permission of the abbot himself4 ,it was also the duty of the armarian to have all the books in his charge marked with their correct titles1 and to keep a perfect list of the whole4 ,some of these catalogues are still in existence1 and are curious and interesting1 as showing the state of literature in the ,middle ,ages1 as well as giving us the names of many authors whose works have never reached us4 ,in perusing these catalogues1 it is impossible not to be struck by the assiduous collection of classical authors1 whose works sometimes equal1 and at others actually preponderate over1 the books of scholastic divinity4 ,it was also the duty of the armarian1 under the orders of his superior1 to provide the transcribers of manuscripts with the writings which they were to copy1 as well as with all the materials necessary for their labours2 to make bargains as to payment1 and to superintend the works during their progress4 ,these books were not always destined for the library of the monastery in which they were transcribed1 but were often eagerly bought by others1 or by some generous layman1 for the purpose of presenting to a monastic library2 and their sale1 particularly at an early period1 added largely to the revenues of the establishment in which they were written or illuminated4 ,the different branches of the transcribing trade were occasionally united in the same person1 but were more generally divided and practised separately1 and by secular as well as by religious copyists4 ,of the former1 there were at least three distinct branches--the illuminators1 the notarii1 and the librarii antiquarii4 ,the last-mentioned were employed chiefly in restoring and repairing old and defaced manuscripts and their bindings4 ,the public scribes were employed chiefly by monks and lawyers1 sometimes working at their own houses2 and at others1 when any valuable work was to be copied1 in that of their employer1 where they were lodged and boarded during the time of their engagement4 ,a large room1 as has been already stated1 was in most monasteries set apart for such labours1 and here the general transcribers pursued their avocation2 but there were also1 in addition1 small rooms or cells1 known also as scriptoria1 which were occupied by such monks as were considered1 from their piety and learning1 to be entitled to the indulgence1#fc and used by them for their private devotions1 as well as for the purpose of transcribing works for the use of the church or library4 ,the scriptoria were frequently enriched by donations and bequests from those who knew the value of the works carried on in them1 and large estates were often devoted to their support4 ,the tithes of ,wythessy and ,impitor1 two shillings and twopence1--and some land in ,ely1 with two parts of the tithes of the lordship of ,pampesward1 were granted by ,bishop ,nigellus to the scriptorium of the monastery of ,ely1 the charter of which still exists in the church there4 ,a ,norman named ,robert gave to the scriptorium of ,st4 ,alban's the tithes of ,redburn1 and two parts of the tithes of ,hatfield2 and that of ,st4 ,edmondesbury was endowed with two mills1 by the same person4 ,during the whole of the #abth and #acth centuries the pen played a more distinguished part than the brush in the art of illumination2 since1 not only was the former almost exclusively employed in outlining both foliage and figures1 but the use of the latter was generally limited to filling up1 and heightening with timid shadowing1 the various parts defined by the former1 and which were altogether dependent upon it for expression4 ,in fact1 it appears as if the principal patterns in #acth century illumination had been designed by stained-glass painters1 the black outlines being equivalent in artistic result to the lead lines which1 in the best specimens of grisaille and mosaic windows1 keep the forms and colours distinct and perfect4 ,this firm dark outlining was retained in ,england later than in ,france1 and was combined in the former country with a more solid and somewhat less gay tone of colour than ever prevailed in the latter4 ,so late as the #aeth century1 this correspondence between stained glass work and illumination still obtained2 thus1 as ,mr4 ,scharf remarks1 in a note to his interesting paper on the ,king's ,college1 ,cambridge1 windows1 in the ,transactions of the ,archological ,institute for #ahee1 ,the forty windows of the monastery of ,horschau contained a series of subjects minutely corresponding to those of the ,biblia ,pauperum1 c4 ,the initial letters which in ,romanesque illumination had expanded into very large proportions as a general rule1#fd diminished2 but1 in compensation1 effloresced1 as it were1 into floreated terminations1 which were at last not only carried down the side of the page1 but even made to extend right across both the top and bottom of it4 ,during the reigns of the three first ,edwards in ,england1 the tail1 as it might be called1 of the initial letter1 running down the side of the page1 gradually widened1 until at length it grew into a band of ornament1 occasionally panelled1 and with small subjects introduced into the panels4 ,in such cases1 the initial letter occupying the angle formed by the side and top ornaments of the page1 became subsidiary to the bracket-shaped bordering1 which1 in earlier examples1 had been decidedly subsidiary to the initial letter4 ,as no one can doubt that the #adth century was the period during which illumination attained its highest perfection1 not only in point of artistic spirit in design1 but in the dexterous processes of execution as well1 it has been considered that it might prove useful to the ,english student to supply him or her with as large a proportion as possible of illustration of that which we may really regard in matter of illuminating as our national style4 ,thus our plates in this manual1 ,nos4 #g1 #h1 and #i1 have been taken from a ,latin ,bible 7,b4 ,m4 ,reg4 #a1 ,d4 #a71 exquisitely written on ,uterine vellum1 about the commencement of the #adth century1 by an ,english scribe1 whose autograph at the end of the holy text declares that ,wills4 devoniensis scripsit istum librum4 ,well may the pious writer render thanks as he does1 in a paragraph just preceding the colophon1 to ,god1 to ,jesus ,christ1 to the ,blessed ,virgin ,mary1 and to all ,saints1 on the completion of such a volume1 in every respect a model of what illuminated writing may be4 ,it is somewhat deficient in pictures1 although in the prologue and in that part of the ,psalms in which ,david prophesies concerning our ,saviour1 specimens of the artist's abilities on a more extended scale than usual may be met with4 ,in these1 as in the initials and borders1 manual dexterity is pushed to perfection1 and combined with that occasional feeling for beauty and constant appreciation of humour1 which form leading characteristics of that ,english school of illumination1 of which ,william of ,devon must ever be ranked among the worthiest4 ,the expression of the little heads1 and of the hands and feet1 which are unusually well drawn for the period1 is invariably given with the pen1 scarcely any attempt being made at shading with the brush4 ,the high lights are touched on most delicately with pure white2 and deep blue1 and burnished gold grounds looking like solid metal1 are universal throughout the volume4 ,our plates1 ,technical ,manual1 ,nos4 #g1 #h1 #i1 also from a ,latin ,bible in the ,royal collection 7,no4 #ae1 ,d #b71 are of nearly the same period and style1 but not quite so delicately wrought perhaps as the illuminations are which we meet with in ,reg4 #a1 ,d #a4 ,the former offer1 however1 the least exceptional aspect of ,english illumination of the ,edwardian period--one in which vigorous but rather heavy colouring and firm but rather loaded outline dominate4 ,in these specimens we at length see natural leafage of the vine1 maple1 c41 introduced1 but scarcely yet allowed to throw itself about in ,nature's wildly wilful way4 ,from the #abth century onwards1 important illuminated manuscripts exist to the present day in such profusion as to deter me from individualizing in this necessarily brief essay4 ,i shall rather dwell upon general characteristics of style1 and upon the influence of the leading patrons of the art1 in its palmiest days1 in ,england1 ,france1 ,germany1 and the ,netherlands4 ,in these countries the infinite activity of the mendicant friars kept up a steady demand for manuscripts of all kinds3 thus ,richard de ,bury1 bishop of ,durham1 the greatest bibliophile of his age1 and the tutor when prince1 and friend while sovereign1 of ,edward ,,iii41 relates1 that in all his book-hunting travels3 ,whenever we happened to turn aside to the towns and places where the aforesaid paupers had convents1 we were not slack in visiting their chests and other repositories of books2 for there1 amidst the deepest poverty1 we found the most exalted riches treasured up2 there1 in their satchels and baskets1 we discovered not only the crumbs that fell from the masters table for the little dogs1 but1 indeed1 the show-bread without leaven1--the bread of angels1 containing in itself all that is delectable4 ,these mendicant friars were looked upon with great jealousy by the clergy1 who attributed to them the decrease in the number of students in the universities4 ,fitz ,ralph1 archbishop of ,armagh and chaplain to ,richard de ,bury1 accuses them of doing grete damage to learning3 curiously enough1 his accusation1 contained in an oration denouncing them1 bears testimony to their love of books and to their industry in collecting them4 ,for these orders of beggers1 for endeles wynnynges that thei geteth by beggyng of the foreside pryvyleges of schriftes and sepultures and othere1 thei beth now so multiplyed in conventes and in persons4 ,that many men tellith that in general studies unnethe1 is it founde to sillynge a pfitable book of ye faculte of art1 of dyvynyte1 of lawe canon1 of phisik1 other of lawe civil1 but all bookes beth y bougt of freres so that en ech convent of freres is a noble librarye and a grete1 and so that ene sech frere that hath state in schole1 siche as thei beth nowe1 hath an hughe librarye4 ,and also y sent of my sugettes to schole thre other foure persons1 and hit is said me that some of them beth come home agen for thei myst nought find to selle ovn goode ,bible2 nother othere couenable books4 ,richard de ,bury's example gave a stimulus to those who succeeded him1 both at ,durham and elsewhere4 ,as the styles of architecture varied in ,england and ,france1--agreeing in leading particulars1 but each acquiring for itself a set of distinctive characteristics1--so did the art of illumination4 ,in the purely ,gothic work1 such as prevailed from #abej to #adjj1 extreme finesse in execution1 tenderness of colour1 gentleness of expression1 piquancy of ornament1 and elegance of composition1 may be regarded as almost invariable attributes of ,french productions4 ,in ,england1 on the other hand1 the style was not so harmonious but more vigorous1 the colouring was fuller and deeper1 the action of the figures more intense1 the power of expression more concentrated1 and reaching occasionally in its energy almost to caricature1 the sense of humour always freely developed1 and a more generally active sentiment of life impressed upon design1 not only in figure subjects1 but in ornament4 ,in the latter1 monkeys and other animals1 dragons1 and comic incidents1 are very frequently intermingled with graceful foliage and heraldic embellishments4 ,in fact it is to the credit of both countries that1 with so much that is excellent in common1 they should still have displayed such free and distinctive features as marked the works of each respectively4 ,about the year #adjj1 in both countries the mechanical reproduction of the accredited types and leading incidents of ,scripture and of ,catholic faith began to be abandoned2 and1 mainly from the necessity of giving to the historical personages introduced in secular romances and chronicles individual force and vigour1 an attention to portraiture and a transcription of characteristic traits of active life are freely developed4 ,considering how few traces of the art of painting1 as exhibited either in panel pictures or in mural embellishments1 remain to attest the condition of the arts in ,england and ,france in the thirteenth1 fourteenth1 and fifteenth centuries1 it is impossible for the student of ,gothic art to overestimate the extreme interest which attaches to the chronological series of specimens of the painter's art which may be examined in the great metropolitan libraries of either country4 ,it is very fortunate for our reputation that we are enabled1 through so large a series of volumes as still exist1 to trace such distinctive and national characteristics as enable us to assert1 without fear of error1 that so far as graphic dexterity is concerned1 the ,english artificers were fully competent to execute all the artistic productions which have as yet been found upon our soil4 ,that foreigners were freely employed there can be no doubt1 but that the works which were executed by them could not have been executed by ,englishmen1 no one can with safety assert1 who has traced with any considerable care the gradual development of ,english art through a series of ,english illuminated manuscripts4 ,that illumination was excessively popular in ,england during the #adth century among the leading families1 is proved by the numbers of coats of arms emblazoned in many of the most remarkable ,english manuscripts4 ,thus in the ,salisbury ,lectionary1 in the ,douce1 in ,queen ,mary's1 and in the ,braybrooke ,psalters1 appear the ancient coats of some of the best blood in the country4 ,a most interesting contemporary illustration of the precise terms upon which these noble patrons employed the best illuminators of the day has been furnished me by a kind and learned antiquarian friend1#fe in the shape of an extract from the fabric rolls of ,york ,minster1#ff of which the following is a translation3-- ,august #bfth1 #acdf4--,there appeared ,robert ,brekeling1 scribe1 and swore that he would observe the contract made between him and ,sir ,john ,forbor1 viz41 that he the said ,robert would write one ,psalter with the ,kalender for the work of the said ,sir ,john for #es4 and #f;d42 and in the same ,psalter1 in the same character1 a ,placebo and a ,dirige1 with a ,hymnal and ,collectary1 for #ds4 and #c;d4 ,and the said ,robert will illuminate 7'luminabit'7 all the ,psalms with great gilded letters1 laid in with colours2 and all the large letters of the ,hymnal and ,collectary will he illuminate with gold and vermilion1 except the great letters of double feasts1 which shall be as the large gilt letters are in the ,psalter4 ,and all the letters at the commencement of the verses shall be illuminated with good azure and vermilion2 and all the letters at the beginning of the ,nocturns shall be great uncial 7unciales7 letters1 containing ,v4 lines1 but the ,beatus ,vir and ,dixit ,dominus shall contain ,,vi4 or ,,vii4 lines2 and for the aforesaid illumination and for colours he ,john will give #es4 #f;d41 and for gold he will give #ah;d41 and #bs4 for a cloak and fur trimming4 ,item one robe--one coverlet1 one sheet1 and one pillow4#fg ,under such contracts1 and on much more extravagant terms1 were no doubt produced the finest of those specimens of ,english miniature painting of the ,edwardian period1 which ,dr4 ,waagen considers excel those of all other nations of the time1 with the exception of the ,italian1 and are not inferior even to these4#fh ,there is probably no document in existence which better illustrates the nature1 cost1 and classification of illuminated and other manuscripts during the #adth and #aeth centuries1 than the catalogue of the library founded by ,william of ,wykeham1 himself one of the greatest ,english patrons of literature1 at the ,college of ,st4 ,mary1 near ,winchester4 ,this catalogue has been printed in extenso in the ,archological ,journal 7vol4 xv4 pp4 #fi to #gd71 with notes by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,h4 ,gunner4 ,it is essentially a catalogue raisonn1 divided into the following classes1 which give a good idea of the staple commodities in medival and monastic libraries3-- ,ordinalia1 ,antiphonaria1 ,portiphoria1 ,legend1 ,collectaria1 ,graduales1 ,manualia1 ,processionalia1 ,gradales1 ,pontificates et ,epistolares1 ,libri ,theologi1 ,doctores super ,bibliam1 ,libri ,sententiarum1 ,doctores super ,sententias1 ,libri ,historiales1 ,psalteria ,glossata1 ,libri ,augustini1 ,libri ,gregorii1 ,libri ,morales ,diversorum ,doctorum to which in many libraries might1 ,i fear1 be added1 ,libri ,immorales ,diversorum ,auctorum1 ,libri ,chronici1 ,libri ,philosophi strange to say1 a total blank in the ,winchester ,collection1 ,libri ,juris ,canonici1 ,decreta et ,doctores super ,decreta1 ,decretales1 ,libri ,sexti cum ,doctoribus1 ,clementin1 ,summ et alii ,tractatus ,diversorum ,doctorum ,juris ,canonici1 ,libri ,juris ,civilis1 and ,libri ,grammaticales4 ,most of the volumes in this library were donations from both laity and clergy1 but mainly from the former4 ,the price of every volume is given4 ,the founder himself presented one ,missal valued at #bj1 and ,john ,yve1 formerly a fellow of this ,college1 bequeathed a great ,portiphoriam for laying before the senior fellow standing on the right hand of the upper stall1 valued at an equal amount4 ,the ,york contract1 previously quoted1 shows precisely how much illumination could be obtained for much less than one pound2 and we may therefore form from it a tolerable idea of the magnificence of volumes upon the production of which such large sums were expended4 ,the student will find this catalogue well repay his careful examination4 ,during the last half of the #adth century and the beginning of the #aeth1 the art of illumination received a great impulse in ,france1 from the magnificent patronage bestowed upon it by ,jean1 ,duc de ,berri1 brother of ,charles ,v4 ,of his unique library1 which excited the envy of all the princes of his time1 and stimulated especially ,philip the ,bold1 ,duke of ,burgundy1 and the great ,duke of ,bedford1 to enter into competition with him1 many magnificent specimens still remain--such as his ,psalter1 his two ,prayer-books1 and his copy of the ,merveilles du ,monde4#fi ,french illumination attained perfection in these works1 and in some few specimens of the more decidedly ,renaissance period1 such as the unsurpassed ,hours of ,anne of ,brittany1 executed about the year #aejj3 all of these are models for the study of the illuminator of the #aith century1 since in them gaiety and charm of ornament will be found united to a style of miniature-painting of real excellence in art4 ,in the ,,mss4 of the period of ,jean de ,berri1 we meet with the perfection of that lace-like foliation known as the ,ivy pattern--one that attained an extraordinary popularity in ,france1 ,england1 and the ,netherlands4 ,in the illuminations of both ,france and ,england1 during the #adth and first half of the #aeth centuries1 the application of raised and highly-burnished gold became a leading feature1 and reached its highest pitch of perfection4 ,when used1 as it frequently was1 as a ground for miniature subjects and ornaments1 it was frequently diapered in the most brilliant and delicate manner4 ,this diapered background gave way at length to an architectural1 and1 ultimately1 under the influence of the ,italian school and that of the ,van ,eycks1 to a landscape one4 ,it may be well now to advert to those styles of illumination which1 through the ,flemings settled in this country1 greatly affected ,english art2 and which1 through the ,house of ,burgundy1 equally powerfully wrought upon the ,french styles1 not so much of ornament1 as of miniature-painting4 ,as ,m4 ,hippolyte ,fortoul#gj justly remarks1 ,the powerful school established at ,bruges by the ,van ,eycks1 at the close of the #adth century1 exercised an immense influence on all the schools of ,europe1 not excepting those of ,italy2--an influence which was1 indeed1 not altogether dissimilar from that brought to bear upon mannerism in ,art by the ,pre-,raffaelitism of the present day4 ,the foundations of the ,netherlandish school were sufficiently remote1 but may be satisfactorily traced through existing miniatures and paintings4 ,herr ,heinrich ,otte1 in his ,handbuch der ,kirchlichen ,kunst-,archologie 7p4 #ahg71 gives a chronological list of the principal ,,mss4 of ,germanic production from the ,carlovingian period to the commencement of the #acth century4 ,up to that period the ,byzantine manner prevailed1 mixed with a peculiar rudeness1 such as may be recognised in the works of the great saint and bishop1 ,bernward of ,hildesheim1 whom ,fiorillo and other writers look upon1 with ,willigis of ,mainz1 as the great animator of ,german art in the #aath century4#ga ,the conversion of this latter element into ,gothic originality appears to have taken place during the #acth century1 and a fine manuscript in the ,british ,museum 7,b4 ,r #b1 b4 #aa71 ascribed by ,dr4 ,waagen to a period between #abdj and #abfj1 illustrates the transition4#gb ,with the commencement of the #adth century appear the ,lay of the ,minnesingers1 one of the most peculiar of the ,paris manuscripts1 and others cited by ,dr4 ,kugler1 which carry on the evidence of progressive development until the power of expression obtained in painting by ,meisters ,wilhelm and ,stephen of ,cologne1 is reflected in the contemporary miniatures4 ,even did not the celebrated ,paris ,breviary1 and the ,british ,museum ,bedford ,missal1 or1 more correctly speaking1 ,book of ,hours1 both executed in part by the three ,van ,eycks1 ,hubert1 ,jan1 and ,margaretha1 for the great ,regent of ,france1 exist1 the style of the panel-pictures painted by them would be quite sufficient to show that they must have been illuminators before they became world-renowned oil-painters4 ,through their conscientious study of nature1 both in landscape and in portrait subjects1 a complete change was wrought in the miniatures of all manuscripts produced after their influence had had time to penetrate into the scriptoria and ateliers of the contemporary artist-scribes4 ,had not the invention of printing rapidly supervened1 there can be no doubt that even more extraordinary results than followed the general appreciation of their graces as illuminators would have been ensured4 ,it is not in publications such as this little manual that any attempts could be successfully made to reproduce the pictorial results achieved by such masters in such volumes2 but an attempt may certainly be made to convey some idea both of the general character of the handwriting and of the ornamental adjuncts by which its effect1 and that of the beautiful little pictures framed in by its brilliant playfulness1 was so greatly heightened4 ,in plates #aj1 #aa1 and #ab of this manual1 ,mr4 ,tymms has collected from the ,bedford ,book of ,hours much that the student will find worthy of his careful attention4 ,well1 indeed1 may the enthusiastic ,dr4 ,dibdin soar off into the most transcendental raptures over a volume which1 tested even by the ignoble touchstone of a public sale in #ahae1 was not knocked down to its eager purchaser1 the then ,marquis of ,blandford1 for a less sum than #fhg4 #aes4 ,it has now happily found a final resting-place in the ,british ,museum 7ranking as add4 #ah1hej71 of which it must always remain as1 probably1 the greatest treasure1 both from its historical association and its intrinsic excellence and beauty--containing1 as it does1 not less than fifty-nine whole-page miniatures1 and about a thousand smaller ones1 enriched throughout with gilded lace-work1 and ornaments of the description of that shown in our plates1 and commended to the student's diligent observation4 ,the later manuscripts of the ,german and ,netherlandish schools of miniature-painting generally reflect the mixed cleverness and angularities of such masters as ,rogier van der ,weyde the elder1 ,lucas van ,leyden1 ,martin ,schongauer1 c42 where1 however1 the manner of ,hemling prevailed1 spiritual beauty and refinement followed4 ,to dwell upon ,spanish illuminated manuscripts would be comparatively profitless to the practical student2 for all the peculiarities and excellencies they would appear to have at any time possessed1 may be found more perfectly developed at first in ,french1 subsequently in ,netherlandish1 and ultimately in ,italian volumes4#gc ,in one most remarkable and indeed historical volume1 the actual alliance of ,spanish writing and initial illumination with ,flemish subject-painting and ,arabesque is clearly to be recognized4 ,the result of the union is certainly most happy1 for few more beautiful books exist than the exquisite missal which in a passage of golden letters and honied words ,francesco de ,roias offers to ,isabella the ,catholic4 ,this magnificent volume1 from which our plates 7,technical ,manual7 ,nos4 #aj1 #aa1 and #ab1 have been taken1 was purchased by the authorities of the ,british ,museum1 in whose catalogue it figures as add4 #ah1hea1 of ,messrs4 ,w4 and ,t4 ,boone in #aheb4 ,in this work the brush triumphs over the pen1 its decorations are essentially pictorial1 and many of them recall1 if not the hand1 at least the style1 of ,memling and ,van ,eyck4 ,unlike volumes of earlier periods in which the illustrations are generally the work of one hand throughout1 in this elaborate volume1 a division of labour obtains4 ,in this1 as in many others of about the same period1 not only are the penman and the painter two individuals1 but the latter especially becomes half a dozen4 ,this was1 no doubt to a great extent1 occasioned by the almost universal substitution of lay for clerical illuminators in the latter part of the #aeth century1 and by the production at that date of illuminated books for dealers adopting the principles and practice of that system of economic production which ultimately permitted manufacture to almost universally supersede ,art throughout ,europe4 ,it remains now only to sketch1 with a brevity altogether out of proportion to the great interest of the subject1 the progress of the art in ,italy4 ,if the delineation of nave and graceful romantic incident1 combined with elegant foliated ornament1 reached perfection in the illuminations of the ,french school2 if blazoning on gilded grounds was carried to its most gorgeous pitch in ,oriental and ,byzantine manuscripts2 if intricate interlacements and minute elaboration may be regarded as the special characteristics of ,hiberno-,saxon scribes2 and if a noble tone of solid colour1 combined with great humour and intense energy of expression1 marked ,england's best productions1--it may be safely asserted1 that it was reserved for the ,italians to introduce into the embellishment of manuscripts those higher qualities of art1 their peculiar aptitude for which so long gave them a pre-eminence among contemporaneous schools4 ,i therefore proceed to trace the names and styles of some few of the most celebrated among their illuminators2 premising by a reminder to the student of the miserably low pitch to which art had been reduced in ,italy during the #abth century4 ,even the most enthusiastic and patriotic writers agree in the all but total dearth of native talent4 ,greeks were employed to reproduce ,byzantine mannerisms in pictures and mosaics1 and to a slight extent no doubt as scribes4 ,illumination was scarcely known or recognized as an indigenous art2 for ,dante1 even writing after the commencement of the #adth century1 speaks of it as quell' arte1 che ,alluminar chiamata a ,parisi4#gd ,probably the earliest ,italian manuscript showing signs of real art1 is the ,ordo ,officiorum ,senensis ,ecclesi1 preserved in the library of the academy at ,sienna1 and illuminated with little subjects and friezes with animals1 by a certain ,oderico1 a canon of the cathedral1 in the year #abac4 ,the ,padre della ,valle#ge expressly cautions the student against confounding this ,odericus with the ,oderigi of ,dante1#gf who died about the year #acjj4 ,the latter was unquestionably an artist of some merit1 for ,vasari#gg speaks of him as an excellente miniatore1 whose works for the ,papal library1 although in gran parte consumati dal tempo1 he had himself seen and admired4 ,some drawings by the hand of this valente uomo1 as he is styled1 ,vasari speaks of possessing in his own collection4 ,baldinucci makes out ,oderigi to have been of the ,florentine school on no other grounds than because ,vasari describes him as molto amico di ,giotto in ,roma2 and because ,dante appears to have known him well4 ,lanzi1#gh however1 more correctly classes him with the ,bolognese school1 from his teaching ,franco ,bolognese at ,bologna1 and on the strength of the direct testimony of one of the earliest commentators on ,dante--,benvenuto da ,imola4 ,this same ,franco worked much for ,benedict ,,ix41 and far surpassed his master4 ,vasari especially commends the spirit with which he drew animals1 and mentions a drawing in his own possession of a lion tearing a tree as of great merit4 ,thus ,oderigi1 the contemporary of ,cimabue1 and ,franco1 the pupil of ,oderigi and contemporary of ,giotto1 appear to have been to the ,art of ,illumination what ,cimabue and his pupil ,giotto were to the ,art of ,painting1--the pupil in both cases infinitely excelling the master4 ,to them succeeded1 about the middle of the #adth century1 a scarcely less celebrated pair--,don ,jacopo ,fiorentino1 and ,don ,silvestro1 both monks in the ,camaldolese monastery1 degli ,angeli1 at ,florence4 ,the former1 ,baldinucci tells us1 improving1 with infinite study1 every moment not devoted to his monastic duties1 acquired a style of writing greatly sought after for choral books4 ,the latter1 who was rather an artist than a scribe1 enriched the productions of his friend with miniatures so beautiful1 as to cause the books thus jointly produced to excite1 at a later period1 the special admiration of ,lorenzo the ,magnificent1 and his son1 the no less magnificent ,leo ,x4#gi ,so proud were their brother-monks of the skill of ,frati ,jacopo and ,silvestro1 that after their death they preserved their two right hands as honoured relics4 ,about a century later1 the leading illuminators were ,bartolomeo and ,gherardo1--the former abbot of ,san ,clemente1 at ,arrezzo1 and the latter a ,florentine painter and miniatore1 whom ,vasari confounds with ,attavante1 a painter1 engraver1 and mosaicist4 ,of all the ,italian artists who adopted the style of the illuminators1 if they did not themselves illuminate1 the most celebrated certainly are ,fra ,angelico da ,fiesole#hj and ,gentile da ,fabriano4 ,the majority of the works of both are little else than magnified miniatures of the highest merit4 ,the school of ,siennese illumination was scarcely less distinguished than that of ,florence4 ,m4 ,rio dwells with enthusiasm on the books of the ,kaleffi and ,leoni1 still preserved in the ,archivio delle ,riformazioni1 and especially on those decorated by ,nicolo di ,sozzo1 in #accd4 ,the greatest master of the school1 ,simone ,memmi1#ha the intimate friend of ,petrarch1 was himself an illuminator of extraordinary excellence1 as may be seen by the celebrated ,virgil of the ,ambrosian ,library at ,milan1 which contains1 amongst other beautiful miniatures by his hand1 the fine portrait of ,virgil1 and a very remarkable allegorical figure of ,poetry1 quite equal in artistic merit to any of the artist's larger and better-known works in fresco or tempera4#hb ,it is1 however1 in the library of the cathedral at ,sienna1 which retains many of the magnificent choir-books executed by ,fra ,benedetto da ,matera1 a ,benedictine of ,monte ,cassino1 and ,fra ,gabriele ,mattei of ,sienna1 that the greatest triumphs of the school are still to be recognized4 ,this series of volumes1 although much reduced from its original extent by the abstractions made by ,cardinal ,burgos1 who carried off a vast quantity to ,spain1 is still the finest belonging to any capitular establishment in ,italy1 and worthily represents the grandeur of ,italian illumination in cinque cento days4 ,the series of similar volumes next in importance to those of ,sienna1 is attached to the choir of the church and monastic establishment of the ,benedictines at ,perugia1 known as ,san de' ,casinensi4 ,of these1 nothing more need be said than that they are worthy of the stalls of the same choir1 the design of which is attributed to ,raffaelle1 and the execution to ,stefano da ,bergamo1 and ,fra ,damiano1 of the same town1 the great intarsiatore4 ,formerly1 as ,m4 ,rio observes1#hc ,ferrara could boast of possessing a series of miniatures1 executed principally in the seclusion of its convents1 from the time of the ,benedictine monk ,serrati1 who in #abdj ornamented the books of the choir with figures of a most noble character1#hd till that of ,fra ,girolamo ,fiorino1 who1 towards the beginning of the #aeth century1 devoted himself to the same occupation in the monastery of ,san ,bartolomeo1 and formed in his young disciple ,cosm a successor who was destined to surpass his master1 and to carry this branch of art to a degree of perfection till then unknown4 ,even at the present day we may see1 in the twenty-three volumes presented by the ,bishop ,bartolomeo delia ,rovere to the cathedral1 and in the twenty-eight enormous volumes removed from the ,certosa to the public library1 how much reason the ,ferrarese have to be proud of the possession of such treasures1 and to place them by the side of the manuscripts of ,tasso and ,ariosto4 ,the subjects generally treated by these mystical artists were marvellously adapted to their special vocation3 they were the life of the holy ,virgin1 the principal festivals celebrated by the ,church1 or popular objects of devotion2 in short1 all the dogmas which were susceptible of this mode of representation1 works of mercy1 the different sacraments1 the imposing ceremonies of religion1 and1 in general1 all that was most poetical in liturgy or legend4 ,in compositions of so exclusive a character1 naturalism could only be introduced in subordination to the religious element4#he ,while this was the case with the majority of illuminations executed under the auspices of the ,church1 in those of a secular nature1 undertaken for the great princes and nobles1 another set of characteristics prevailed4 ,for the ,gonzagas1 ,sforzas1 ,d',estes1 ,medici1 ,strozzi1 ,visconti1 and other great families1 the best artists were constantly employed in decorating both written and printed volumes1 in which portraiture is freely introduced1 and picturesque and historical subjects are represented with great vivacity and attention to costume and local truth4 ,thus in the truly exquisite ,grant of ,lands1 by ,ludovico il ,moro to his wife ,beatrice ,d',este1 dated ,january #bhth1 #adid1 and preserved in the ,british ,museum1 speaking portraits of both ,ludovico and ,beatrice are introduced1 with their arms and beautiful arabesques4#hf ,again1 in the ,hanrot ,sforziada1 the first page contains exquisite miniatures of three members of the princely family of the ,sforzas1 by the hand of the all-accomplished ,girolamo dai ,libri4#hg ,this artist1 a truly celebrated ,veronese and worthy fellow-townsman1 with the almost equally able ,fra ,liberale1 whose work in the manner of ,giovanni ,bellini excited the utmost envy on the part of the ,siennese illuminators1 was himself the son of a miniature-painter1 known as ,francesco dai ,libri1 and bequeathed the name and art of his father to his own son1--thus maintaining the traditions of good design acquired in the great school of ,padua1 under ,andrea ,mantegna#hh and ,squarcione1 during three generations of illuminators4 ,girolamo was by far the most celebrated of the three4 ,as a painter1 his works possess distinguished merit1 and there still remain good samples of his abilities in the churches of ,san ,zeno and ,sant' ,anastasia1 at ,verona4 ,he also derives some credit from the transcendent merits of his pupil ,giulio ,clovio4 ,vasari's description of the talents of ,girolamo#hi gives so lively a picture of the style which reached its highest vogue at the end of the #aeth1 and during the first half of the #afth centuries in ,italy1 that ,i am tempted to translate it4 ,girolamo1 he says1 executed flowers so naturally and beautifully1 and with so much care1 as to appear real to the beholder4 ,in like manner he imitated little cameos and other precious stones and jewels cut in intaglio1 so that nothing like them1 or so minute1 was ever seen4 ,among his smallest figures1 such as he represented on gems or cameos1 some might be observed no larger than little ants1 and yet in all of them might be made out every limb and muscle1 in a manner which to be believed must needs be seen4 ,mr4 ,ottley supposes that ,giulio ,clovio 7born #adih1 died #aegh7 worked previous to his receipt of the instruction of ,girolamo in a drier manner1 in which no evidence appears of that imitation of ,michael ,angelesque pose in his figures1 which in his subsequent production became so leading a characteristic of his style4 ,it is in his earlier manner that ,giulio is believed to have illuminated for ,clement ,,vii4#ij 7#aebc-aecd71 while for his successor1 ,paul ,,iii4 7#aecd-aeci71 he worked abundantly1 and gradually acquired that which is best known as his later manner1 in which he continued to labour1 according to ,vasari1 until #aegh1 at the great age of eighty years4 ,mr4 ,ottley1 however1 recognizes his hand in ,,mss4 which must have been at least five years later--during the ,pontificate of ,gregory ,,xiii4#ia ,it is obviously impossible1 in such an essay as the present1 to dwell in detail upon the merits of so accomplished a master of his art4 ,fortunately we possess in this metropolis two fine specimens of his skill1 both tolerably accessible--one in the ,soane#ib and the other in the ,british ,museum4#ic ,a third1 of great splendour1 is in the possession of ,mr4 ,towneley1 and a fourth1 in the shape of an altar-card1 attributed to him1 is to be found in the ,kensington ,museum2 and several fragments1 formerly in ,mr4 ,rogers's possession1 have passed to ,mr4 ,whitehead and to the ,british ,museum4 ,all of these exhibit a refinement of execution1 combined with a brilliancy of colour and excellence of drawing1 which has never been surpassed by any illuminator4 ,vasari gives a complete list and description of his principal works1 and proves him to have been not less industrious than able4 ,a contemporary of ,giulio's1 whose name has been overpowered by the greater brilliancy of that of the ,cellini of illumination1 was a certain ,apollonius of ,capranica1 or1 as he signs himself1 ,apollonius de ,bonfratellis de ,capranica1 ,capell et ,sacristi ,apostolic ,miniator4 ,mr4 ,ottley most justly states1#id that it is impossible to speak in too high terms of the beauty of his borders1 wherein he often introduces compartments with small figures1 representing subjects of the ,new ,testament1 which are touched with infinite delicacy and spirit4 ,his drawing1 which is of a decidedly ,michael-,angelesque character1 is of less merit when the nude is represented on a larger scale4 ,his harmony of colour is extraordinary1 rather lower in tone than ,giulio ,clovio's1 but equally glowing1 and more powerful4 ,some beautiful specimens of his handicraft remain in the possession of ,mr4 ,t4 ,m4 ,whitehead4 ,the late ,mr4 ,rogers possessed many fragments1 the most precious of which have found their way into the ,national ,collection4 ,his work is usually dated1 and the dates appear to range from #aeeh to #aegb4 ,apollonius having been official illuminator to the very institution from which ,celotti derived his richest spoils1 it may readily be imagined that his collection included an unprecedented series of beautiful examples of ,buonfratelli's style4 ,long after the invention of printing1 the ,apostolic ,chamber retained its official illuminators2 and among them one of the most noteworthy is unquestionably the artist who signs his works1 ,ant4 ,maria ,antonotius ,auximas--a native of ,osimo1 and a protg of the princely house of the ,barberini and its magnificent head1 ,urban ,,viii4 7#afbc-afdd74 ,he was a pupil of ,pietro da ,cortona1 and an artist of great skill and refinement4#ie ,for still more recent popes artists of great excellence continued to be employed1 including for ,alexander ,,vii4 the celebrated ,magdalena ,corvina1 who worked from #afee to #afeg2 and for ,innocent ,,xi 7#afgf to #afhi7 a ,german1 who signs his productions ,joann1 frid-,heribach4 ,as the popes retained their illuminators for the decoration of precious documents1 so did the doges of ,venice2 and probably the most magnificent of all illumination1 executed after the general spread of printed books had checked1 although not extinguished1 the art1 may be found in the precious ,ducales1 wrought indeed by several of the greatest ,venetian painters4#if ,i need scarcely remind the reader1 that the earliest wood-cut and printed books were made to imitate manuscripts so closely as to deceive the inexperienced eye4 ,artes moriendi1 ,specula1 ,bibli ,pauperum1 and ,donatuses1--the principal types of block books1#ig--represent illuminated manuscripts in popular demand at the date of the introduction into ,europe of ,xylographic ,art4 ,spaces were frequently left1 both in the block books and in the earliest books printed with movable type1 for the illumination1 by hand1 of initial letters1 so as to carry the illusion as far as possible4 ,this practice was abandoned as soon as the learned discovered the means by which such wonderfully cheap apparent transcripts of voluminous works could be brought into the market2 and the old decorated initial and ornamental letters were reproduced from type and wood blocks4 ,the ,mainz ,psalter of #adeg1 and other books printed by ,fust and ,schoeffer1 required only the addition of a little colour here and there to delude any inexperienced eye into the belief that they were really hand-worked throughout4 ,such imitations were but poor substitutes for the originals in point of beauty1 however excellent when regarded from a utilitarian point of view4 ,every country has more or less cause to mourn the senseless destruction of many noble old volumes which the printing-press never has1 and now1 alas6 never can replace2 but none more than ,england1 in which cupidity and intolerance destroyed recklessly4 ,thus1 after the dissolution of monastic establishments1 persons were appointed to search out all missals1 books of legends1 and such superstitious books1 and to destroy or sell them for waste paper2 reserving only their bindings1 when1 as was frequently the case1 they were ornamented with massive gold and silver1 curiously chased1 and often further enriched with precious stones2 and so industriously had these men done their work1 destroying all books in which they considered popish tendencies to be shown by illumination1 the use of red letters1 or of the ,cross1 or even by the--to them--mysterious diagrams of mathematical problems--that when1 some years after1 ,leland was appointed to examine the monastic libraries1 with a view to the preservation of what was valuable in them1 he found that those who had preceded him had left little to reward his search4 ,bale1 himself an advocate for the dissolution of monasteries1 says3 ,never had we bene offended for the losse of our lybraryes beyng so many in nombre and in so desolate places for the moste parte1 yf the chief monuments and moste notable workes of our excellent wryters had bene reserved1 yf there had bene in every shyre of ,englande but one solemyne lybrary to the preservacyon of those noble workes1 and preferrements of good learnynges in our posteryte it had bene yet somewhat4 ,but to destroye all without consyderacion is and wyll be unto ,englande for ever a most horryble infamy amonge the grave senyours of other nations4 ,a grete nombre of them wych purchased of those superstycyose mansyons reserved of those lybrarye bokes1 some to serve their jaks1 some to scoure theyr candelstyckes1 and some to rubbe theyr bootes2 some they solde to the grossers and sope sellers1 and some they sent over see to the bokebynders1 not in small nombre1 but at tymes whole shippes ful4 ,i know a merchant man1 whyche shall at thys tyme be namelesse1 that boughte the contents of two noble lybraryes for xl shyllyngs pryce1 a shame it is to be spoken4 ,thys stuffe bathe he occupyed in the stide of greye paper for the space of more than these ten years1 and yet hathe store ynough for as manye years to come4 ,a prodyguous example is thys1 and to be abhorred of all men who love theyr natyon as they shoulde do4 ,wherever the ,reformation extended throughout ,europe1 a corresponding destruction of ancient illuminated manuscripts took place1 and in localities where fanaticism failed to do its work of devastation1 indifference proved a consuming agent of almost equal energy2 and1 indeed1 there is no more forcible illustration of the untiring zeal and industry of the illuminators of old1 than the fact1 that1 after all that has been done to stamp out the sparks still lingering in their embers1 their works should still glow with such shining lights in all the great public libraries of ,europe4 ,despite all this ruthless destruction1 and the universal extension of the art of printing1 ornamental penmanship has never been altogether extinguished as a pictorial art4 ,the ,apostolic ,chamber1 as we have remarked1 retained1 until quite recently1 its official illuminator4 ,the luxuriant magnates of the court of the ,grande ,monarque still provided employment for men like ,jary and ,prvost1 while in ,england many heraldic and genealogical ,,mss4 of the #agth1 and even #ahth centuries1 still exist to prove that the ,art was dormant rather than extinct4 ,that it has a brilliant future yet in store for it no one can hesitate to believe who is enabled to recognize the power of design1 and the capability to execute--either on paper or vellum--with the brush or pen--by hand1 or by calling in the aid of the printer and lithographer for the rapid multiplication and dissemination of beautiful specimens--manifested by ,owen ,jones1 his pupil ,albert ,warren1 and many other able artists and amateurs1 still gracing this #aith century of ours with works1 many of which will doubtless survive to our honour and credit so long as ,arts and ,states may endure4 ,it is in a humble effort to assist in such a consummation that these little manuals have been written1 illustrated1 and published4 ,m4 ,,digby ,,wyatt4 ,,end ,,of ,,part ,i4 ,,what ,,illuminating ,,should ,,be ,,in ,,the ,,present ,,day4 ,illumination1 in whatever form practised1 can never be properly regarded as any other than one of the genera into which the art of ,polychromatic decoration may be subdivided4 ,what was originally termed illumination1 was simply the application of minium or red lead1 as a colour or ink1 to decorate1 or draw marked attention to1 any particular portion of a piece of writing1 the general text of which was in black ink4 ,the term was retained long after the original red lead was almost entirely superseded by the more brilliant cinnabar1 or vermilion4 ,as ornaments of all kinds were gradually superadded to the primitive distinctions1 marked in manuscripts by the use of different-coloured inks1 the term acquired a wider significance1 and1 from classical times to the present1 has always been regarded as including the practice of every description of ornamental or ornamented writing4 ,because such embellishments were1 during the early and ,middle ,ages1 and1 in fact1 until long after the invention of printing1 almost invariably executed on vellum1 there is no reason whatever why illumination should be applied to that material1 or to paper1 which has taken its place1 only2 wood1 metal1 slate1 stone1 canvass1 plaster1 all may be made to receive it4 ,again3 because ancient illumination was almost entirely executed in colours1 in the use of which water and some glutinous medium were the only vehicles1 there is no reason why modern illumination should not be worked in oil1 turpentine1 encaustic1 fresco1 tempera1 varnish1 and by every process in which decorative painting is ever wrought in these days4 ,it is in such an extension that the most valuable functions of the art are likely to consist in all time to come4 ,that utilitarian application which it1 originally and for so many centuries1 found in the production of beautiful books1 copies of which could be elaborated by no other means than hand labour1 has been1 to a great extent1 superseded by chromolithography and chromotypy4 ,no doubt a wide field for useful1 and even productive labour1 is still left to the practical illuminator on paper and vellum1 in designing and preparing exquisite originals for reproduction by those processes1 as well as in the rich and tasteful blazoning of pedigrees1 addresses1 family records and memorials1 and in the illustration for presentation1 or for private libraries1 of transcripts from favourite authors2 but1 at the same time1 an equally elegant and useful application of the art would be to enrich ceilings1 walls1 cornices1 string-courses1 panels1 labels round doors and windows1 friezes1 bands1 chimney-pieces1 and stained and painted furniture in churches1 school-rooms1 dwellings1 and public buildings of all kinds1 with beautiful and appropriate inscriptions1 of graceful form and harmonious colouring4 ,such illumination would form1 not only an agreeable1 but an eminently useful decoration4 ,how many texts and sentences1 worthy1 in every sense1 of being written in letters of gold1 might not be thus brought prominently under the eyes of youth1 manhood1 and old age1 for hope1 admonition1 and comfort4 ,no more skill1 energy1 and taste are requisite for the production of this class of illumination than are essential for satisfactory work upon vellum and paper2 and while in the one case the result of the labour may be made an incessant enjoyment for many1 in the other1 it is seldom more than a nine-days' wonder1 shut up in a book or portfolio1 and seen so seldom as scarcely to repay the amateur for the expense and trouble involved in its execution4 ,this1 if ,i may be allowed the term1 manifold application of forms1 primarily available for book decoration only1 has not been lost sight of in the selection and arrangement of the illustrations1 both in this and in the ,historical ,manual4 ,mr4 ,tymms has1 with excellent judgment1 so arranged them as to lead the student who may occupy himself in copying them1 or enlarging from them1 gradually onwards from the comparatively easy to the more difficult varieties of the art4 ,adopting1 in all cases1 the alphabet of capital letters as a starting-point1 the beginner will do well to learn to write before attempting to learn to draw3 he should copy the alphabet1 say on ,plate ,i41 fig4 #a1 on waste paper--common cartridge1 or paper-hanger's lining paper1 will be best--many time2 at first1 in fac-simile1 then twice the size as printed1 then four times1 then eight times1 until he may be able to form letters as much as six inches high1 correctly4 ,having so far mastered the capitals1 let him try in exactly the same way to produce and reproduce the same text1 or lower-case letters in which the passages from ,scripture1 say ,plate ,no4 #a1 fig4 #b1 have been written4 ,let him then try a sentence not given in the plates1 using for it the capital and lower-case letters he has been learning how to form1 and let him work out his own sentence in as many different sizes as he has previously tried ,mr4 ,tymms's in4 ,by the time he has drawn the enriched initial letters of the same plate several times1 he will find that his eye and hand will have probably gained sufficient command to justify his attempting to copy1 in outline as before1 on waste paper1 and both on a small and large scale1 the ornaments given on ,plate ,no4 #c4 ,in the intervals between his outline studies1 the young illuminator may occupy himself in mastering the instructions given in this volume1 so that he may have a general idea of the theory of the different processes before be commences an attempt to put them in practice4 ,his first lesson in colouring should then commence by his attempting to colour ,plate ,no4 #c1 in fac-simile of ,plate ,no4 #b4 ,it will be well to begin gilding and silvering with shell-gold and aluminium1 reserving for more advanced experiments the use of gold or silver paper and leaf4 ,the student may then with advantage copy in outline1 first of all the outline ,plate ,no4 #f1 inking it in so as to produce1 on fine-grained drawing paper or card1 a fac-simile of the printed plate4 ,he should next proceed to colour the printed plate to correspond with ,plate ,no4 #e4 ,avoiding any defects he may have made in this operation1 he may colour his own outline as he had done the printed one2 he will then find himself able to copy both outline and colour on a small scale4 ,in his next set of lessons a much heavier demand will be made on his capabilities4 ,to satisfactorily reproduce1 either upon the same or upon an enlarged scale1 the compact black letter of ,plate ,,vii41 and the solid brilliant colours of ,plate ,,viii41 with the golden grounds1 which should in this case be highly burnished1 will be found a much more difficult task than any yet encountered4 ,the student must not be discouraged by a little failure at first4 ,the technical operations of illumination are essentially manipulative1 and like the fingering of a musical instrument1 must be learnt by frequent and active exercise4 ,the mere degree of skill requisite to enable the artist to lay on a perfectly flat tint of very strong or of very delicate colour1 is only likely to be acquired after he may have washed some fifty different tints1 more or less cloudy and muddled4 ,few hands will be found capable of tracing out a pure1 firm1 even outline1 of equal thickness and force in every part1 with either pen1 pencil1 or brush1 which have not made many a score of ragged1 feeble1 or blotched attempts at steadiness4 ,to keep a number of lines perfectly upright1 parallel1 or evenly spaced1 demands an amount of dexterity which can only be gained by laborious practice4 ,the student must not therefore feel discouraged if at first his hand may scarcely answer to the call made upon it4 ,the failure of to-day1 with proper attention and perseverance1 may become the germ of the success of to-morrow2 all that is essential is never on one day to repeat the fault of its predecessor4 ,nothing will tend to give the beginner greater confidence than the habit of working out the same forms and processes upon various scales4 ,taking1 for instance1 such an initial letter as the ,p1 fig4 #a1 ,plate ,x42 it would be an improving lesson to copy it in pen-and-ink outline1 exactly as it is shown1 and then to copy it1 say six times the size given on the plate1 thickening the lines1 of course1 in proportion4 ,then let the student once again try to copy it in fac-simile1 and he will himself be probably surprised to find how much better and more easily he will accomplish his task than he was enabled to do on his first trial4 ,a corresponding experiment1 involving the application of gold and brilliant colours1 such as would be essential to a reproduction of figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 or #e1 of ,plate ,,ii41 on various scales1 will be found probably no less useful and satisfactory4 ,a similar technical principle to that which has governed the selection and order of the plates in this manual has also determined those in its companion1 the ,historical ,manual4 ,beginning with the simpler conventional styles of the ,carlovingian school1 in ,plates ,i41 ,,ii41 and ,,iii4 7from the fragments of the ,bible of ,charles the ,bald1 ,harleian1 #g1eea71 involving outline and flat tinting only1 the student may advance to the lightly-shaded pen-work and foliation of the ,romanesque style given in ,plates ,,iv41 ,v41 and ,,vi41 from the ,british ,museum1 ,reg4 #a1 ,c4 ,,vii4 ,in the purely medival illumination of the #adth century1 ,plates ,,vii41 ,,viii41 and ,,ix41 from the ,british ,museum 7,reg4 #a1 ,d #a71 the tints become more solid2 while the raised and embossed gold1 the complicated diapers1 and more fully-shaded foliage1 demand both considerable mechanical dexterity1 and some real artistic capability on the part of the amateur1 who would successfully revive the brilliant and powerful execution of the master-scribes of the ,edwardian age4 ,towards the end of the #aeth century1 the miniatures of the illuminated books reflected the general advance made all over ,europe in the art of painting4 ,imitative art rapidly superseded conventional1 and although much ornament is freely introduced in combination with small pictures1 it is made to participate in the general system of light and shade and arrangement of colour which dominates over the more essentially-pictorial portions of the decoration4 ,such a style of ornament is well shown in ,plates ,x41 ,,xi41 and ,,xii41 from the ,bedford 7so called7 missal1 and in the three last plates of this manual1 from the beautiful ,missal of ,ferdinand and ,isabella--,british ,museum1 add4 #ah1hea4 ,thus the student will find1 that his own progress will tally with the transitional changes of the art1 from its infancy to its most artistic phase1 and that long before he may have learnt enough to enable him to imitate successfully the miniature style of the #aeth century1 he may be in a position to produce tolerably satisfactory reproductions of the early and medival work4 ,having thus suggested the most profitable mode in which the student can1 ,i believe1 make use of the beautiful examples ,mr4 ,tymms has prepared for his assistance1 ,i consider it well to proceed to offer to his notice such counsel1 as may1 ,i trust1 tend to induce him not to rest contented with reproduction of old examples upon a small scale1 but rather to extend the sphere of his studies and operations into the origination of a fresh and expanded system of decoration1 based as a starting-point upon the labours of the most zealous masters of the craft4 ,in the few remarks ,i am about to offer in respect to what the ,art of ,illumination really should be now1 ,i propose to treat briefly1 but specifically1 of its application to each of the different substances on which it may be most satisfactorily worked1 in the following series3 vellum1 paper1 tracing-paper1 canvass1 plaster1 stone1 metal1 wood4 ,dealing with design only in this section of my essay1 ,i propose1 in the following and concluding one1 to adhere to the same order in noticing the best processes by which amateurs may carry out the class of work ,i would recommend to their notice4 ,to commence1 therefore1 with vellum3 it is obvious that good copies of ancient illuminated manuscripts can be made on this material only1 for there is a charm about the colour and texture of well-prepared calf-skin1 which no paper can be made to possess4 ,for the same reason1 and on account of its extraordinary toughness and durability1 it is especially suitable for pedigrees1 addresses1 and other documents which it may be considered desirable to preserve for future generations4 ,to transcribe on vellum and decorate the writings of ancient and modern authors so as to form unique volumes1 appears to me--nowadays1 when ,god gives to every man and woman so much good hard work to do1 if they will but do it--little else than a waste of human life4 ,in days when few could read1 and pictures drawn by hand were the only means within the reach of the priesthood1 of bringing home to the minds of the ignorant populace the realities of ,biblical history1 and of stimulating the eye of faith by exhibiting to the material eye pictures of those sufferings and triumphs of saints and martyrs1 on which the ,church of ,rome during the ,middle ,ages mainly based its assertions of supremacy1 it was all very well to spend long lives of celibacy and monastic seclusion in such labours2 but the same justification can never be pleaded again4 ,i am quite ready to admit that the exceptional manufacture of these pretty picture-books may be not only agreeable1 but even useful3 it is the abuse1 and not the occasional resort to the practice1 ,i would venture to denounce4 ,for instance1 a mother could scarcely do a thing more likely to benefit her children1 and to fix the lessons of love or piety she would desire to plant in their memories1 than to illuminate for them little volumes1 which1 from their beauty or value1 they might be inclined to treasure through life4 ,interesting her children in her work as it grew under her hand1 how many precious associations in after-life might hang about these very books4 ,again3 for young people1 the mere act of transcription1 independent of the amount of thought bestowed upon good words and pure thoughts1 and the selection of ornament to appropriately illustrate them1 would tend to an identification of the individual with the best and highest class of sentiments4 ,all that has been said with respect to illumination on vellum applies1 with equal force1 to illumination on paper4 ,there has to be borne in mind1 however1 the essential difference that exists between the relative durability of the two substances4 ,elaboration is decidedly a great element of beauty in illumination3 and neatly-wrought elaboration cannot be executed without care1 patience1 and a considerable sacrifice of time3 why1 therefore1 bestow that care1 patience1 and time upon a less permanent material1 when one only a trifle more costly1 but infinitely more lasting1 is as easily procured8 ,work on paper1 therefore1 only as you would write exercises or do sums upon a slate2 learn and practise upon paper1 but reserve all more serious efforts for vellum only4 ,no effect can be got upon the former material1 which cannot1 with a little more dexterity1 be attained upon the latter4 ,as none of the other substances mentioned as those on which illumination may be executed are available for making up into books1 before proceeding to a consideration of the special conditions under which the art may be applied to them1 ,i beg to offer the following recommendations with respect to design1 as suitable for book-illustration generally4#ih ,firstly3--,take care that your text be perfectly legible2 for1 however cramped and confused the contents of many of those volumes we most admire may now appear1 it is to be remembered that they were all written in the handwriting most easily read by the students of the periods in which they were written4 ,the old scribes never committed the solecism of which we are too often guilty1 of bestowing infinite pains on writing that which1 when written1 not one in a hundred could1 or can1 decipher4 ,secondly3--,fix the scale of your writing and ornament with reference to the size of your page1 and adhere to it throughout the volume4 ,this rule1 which was rigidly observed in all the best periods of the art1 is incessantly disregarded in the present day2 and to such an extent1 that not only does scale frequently differ1 as we turn page after page1 but the same page will frequently exhibit scroll-work1 derived from some great choral folio1 interwreathed with leafage borrowed from some pocket ,missal or ,book of ,hours4 ,thirdly3--,if you adopt any historical style or particular period as a basis on which your text1 miniatures1 or ornamentation are to be constructed1 maintain its leading features consistently1 so as to avoid letting your work appear as though it had been begun in the #ajth century1 and only completed in the #afth2 or1 as ,i have once or twice seen1 vice vers4 ,for however erratic changes of style may appear to be in ,art1 as they run one another down along the course of time1 it will be invariably found that there exists a harmony between all contemporary features1 which cannot be successfully disregarded2 and this it is which has ever rendered eclecticism in art a problem1--not impossible1 perhaps1 to solve1 but one which1 as yet at least1 has never met with a satisfactory practical solution4 ,fourthly3--,sustain your energies evenly throughout your volume2 for1 remember1 your critics will estimate your powers1 not by your best page1 but by a mean struck between your best and your worst4 ,book illumination is generally looked upon as microscopic work1 demanding the greatest exactitude2 and whatever merits any page may display1 they will go for little1 if that page is disfigured by a crooked line1 or a single leaf insufficiently or incorrectly shadowed2 and the greater the merit1 the more notable the drawback4 ,fifthly3--,rigidly avoid contrasting natural with conventional foliage4 ,adopt which you like1 for by either beautiful effects may be produced2 but mix them1 and the charm of both is gone4 ,natural foliage may be successfully combined with any other varieties of conventional ornament1 excepting those based upon natural foliage4 ,sixthly3--,take care that some at least of your dominant lines and borders are kept parallel to the rectangular sides of your pages2 for unless your flowing and wayward ornaments are corrected by this soberer contrast1 they will1 however beautiful in themselves1 have a straggling and untidy appearance in the volume4 ,where the lines of text are strongly marked1 as in black ink on a white ground1 and the page is so far filled with text as to leave but little space for ornament1 this rule may be1 to a great extent1 disregarded1 for the lines of the text will themselves supply the requisite contrast to the flowing forms2 but where the page is nearly filled with ornament1 or when the text is faint only1 as in gold lettering on a white ground1 it becomes imperative4 ,seventhly3--,be decided1 but temperate1 in your contrasts of colour4 ,it would obviously exceed the limits of these notes to attempt in them to enter upon the principles of the harmony of colour2 they must be studied from treatises specially devoted to the subject4 ,such study must1 however1 be accompanied by constant experiment and practice2 for it would be as foolish to expect a man to be a good performer upon any instrument1 because he had learnt the theory of music1 as it would be to suppose that he must necessarily paint in harmonious colouring1 because he studied the theory of balance in combination4 ,to the experienced eye and hand1 functions become intuitive1 which1 to the mere theorist1 however profound1 are toil and weariness of spirit4 ,such are a few of the rules1 by attention to which the illuminators of old achieved some of their happiest effects1 and which can never be safely disregarded by those who would emulate their efforts4 ,in taking up the class of substances on which illumination1 as applied to general decoration1 may be best executed1 we meet1 firstly1 with one occupying a somewhat intermediate position1--viz41 tracing-paper4 ,i term its position intermediate1 because1 it may be wrought upon in either oil or water colour2 and because1 when so wrought upon1 it may be either mounted on paper or card1 and so made to contribute to book or picture enrichment2 or attached to walls or other surfaces1 brought forward in oil-colours1 and be so enlisted in a general system of mural illumination4 ,how this may best be done technically will be hereafter described2 here ,i may notice only the use which may be made of this convenient material1 by many not sufficiently advanced in design or drawing to be able to invent or even copy correctly by free hand1 and yet desirous of embellishing some particular surface with decorative illumination4 ,for instance1 let it be desired to fill a rectangular panel of any given dimension with an illuminated inscription4 ,take a sheet of tracing-paper the exact size1 double it up in both directions1 and the creases will give the vertical and horizontal guidelines for keeping the writing square and even3 then set out the number of lines and spaces requisite for the inscription1 fixing upon certain initial letters or alphabets for reproduction on an enlarged scale1 from this work1 or any other of a similar kind1 and making the height of the lines correspond therewith4 ,then lay the tracing over either the original or the rough enlargement1 and trace with pen1 pencil1 or brush1 each letter in succession1 taking care to get each letter into its proper place1 in reference to the whole panel1 to the letter last traced1 and to the other letters remaining to be traced4 ,when this is completed1 trace on whatever ornaments may best fill up the open spaces and harmonize with the style of lettering4 ,when the tracing is completed1 with a steady hand pick in all the ground-tint1 keeping it as even as possible2 and heighten the letters or ornaments in any way that may be requisite to make them correspond with the models from which they may have been taken4 ,by adopting this method of working1 with care and neatness of hand1 very agreeable results may be obtained1 without its being indispensable for the illuminator to be a skilful draughtsman4 ,the tracing-paper may be ultimately attached to its proper place1 and finished off1 as will be hereafter recommended2 and1 if cleverly managed1 it will be impossible to detect that that material has ever been employed4 ,the special convenience of illuminating upon canvass is1 that instead of the operator having to work either from a ladder or scaffold1 or on a vertical or horizontal surface1 he may do all that is necessary at an easel or on a table on terra firma4 ,his work when completed may be cut out of the sheet of canvass on which it has been painted1 and may be fastened to the wall1 ceiling1 or piece of furniture for the decoration of which it may have been intended4 ,all that is essential1 with respect to the designs which may be wrought upon it1 is1 to take care that they are fitted for the situations they may be ultimately intended to occupy4 ,thus it must be obvious that it would be an entire waste of time to elaborate designs destined to be fixed many yards from the eye1 as minutely as those which would be in immediate proximity to it4 ,no branch of designing illuminated or other ornament requires greater experience to succeed in than the adjustment of the size of parts and patterns to the precise conditions of light1 distance1 foreshortening1 c41 under which they are most likely to be viewed4 ,illumination on plaster may be executed either in distemper1 if the walls or ceiling have been sized only1 or in oil if they have been brought forward in oil-colours4 ,the former is the most rapid1 but least durable process4 ,hence decoration is usually applied in oil to walls which are liable to be rubbed and brushed against1 and in distemper1 to ceilings1 which are1 comparatively speaking1 out of harm's way4 ,very pretty decorations on plaster may be executed by combining hand-worked illumination with diapered or other paper-hangings4 ,thus1 for instance1 taking one side of a room1 say about eleven feet high1 to the under-side of the plaster cornice1 mark off about a foot in depth on the wall from the bottom of the cornice1 set out the width of the wall into three or more panels1 dividing the panels by upright pilasters of the same width as the depth of the top border4 ,at the height of about four feet from the ground mark off the top edge of another horizontal band1 which make also one foot deep2 continue on the lines of the pilasters to within six inches of the top of the skirting1 and draw in a horizontal border1 six inches high1 running all round upon the top edge of the skirting3 then paint1 in a plain colour1 a margin1 three or four inches wide1 all round the panels formed by the bands and pilasters1 and let the paper-hanger fill in the panels with any pretty diapered paper which may agree with the style and colour in which you may desire to work your illumination4 ,the side of your room will then present two horizontal lines--one next the cornice1 and one at about dado-height1 suitable for the reception of illuminated inscriptions4 ,in setting these out1 care must be taken to bring a capital letter into a line with the centre of each pilaster1 so that a foliated ornament1 descending from the upper inscription1 and ascending from the lower one1 may meet and intertwine on the pilasters1 forming panelled compartments for the introduction of subjects1 if thought desirable4#ii ,it is by no means necessary for the sides of these pilasters1 or the bounding lines of the bands containing inscriptions1 to be kept straight2 they may be varied at pleasure1 so long as they are kept symmetrical in corresponding parts1 and uniformly filled up with foliation emanating from1 or connected with1 the illuminated letters4 ,agreeable results may be produced by variations of such arrangements as the one suggested4 ,frequently round doors1 windows1 fireplaces1 c41 inscriptions may be executed with very good effect1 either on label-scrolls or simple borders1 and with greater or less brilliancy of colour1 according to the circumstances of the case4 ,often simplicity and quiet have greater charms than glitter or brilliancy2 thus black and red1 on a light-coloured ground1 the most primitive combination in the history of writing1 is always sure to produce an agreeable impression3 blue1 crimson1 or marone on gold1 or vice vers1 are no less safe3 black1 white1 and gold1 counterchanged1 can hardly go wrong4 ,few amateurs will be likely to attempt illuminations upon plaster ceilings1 owing to the great difficulty they will experience in working overhead with a steady hand4 ,they will generally do wisely--to execute the principal portions on paper1 tracing-paper1 or canvas1--to fasten them up1 as will be hereafter directed1--and to confine the decoration actually painted on the ceiling1 to a few panels1 lines1 or plain bands of colour1 which may be readily executed by any clever house-painter or grainer1 even if altogether ignorant of drawing and the art of design4 ,the most beautiful illuminated ceiling of medival times ,i believe to be that of the chapel in the celebrated ,jacques ,coeur's house1 at ,bourges1 in ,france4 ,it is vaulted1 and each compartment contains inscribed labels held by floating angels4 ,the white draperies of the angels are relieved on a delicate blue ground only1 so that the stronger contrast of the black writing on the white labels gives a marked predominance to the inscriptions2 which1 being arranged symmetrically1 produce in combination agreeable geometrical figures4 ,most of the preceding remarks apply equally to stone2 but in reference to that material1 there is one point to specially enforce1--namely1 the advisability of not covering the whole of the surface with paint4 ,there is about all stone a peculiar granulation1 and in many varieties a slight silicious sparkle1 which it is always well to preserve as far as possible4 ,illuminate1 by all means1 inscriptions1 panels1 friezes1 c41 colour occasionally the hollows of mouldings1 and gild salient members sufficiently to carry the colour about the monument1 whether it may be a font1 a pulpit1 a tomb1 a reredos1 a staircase1 a screen1 or a doorway1 and prevent the highly-illuminated portion from looking spotty and unsupported2 but by no means apply paint all over4 ,it is not necessary to produce a good effect2 it destroys the surface and appearance of the stone1 making it of no more worth than if it were plaster1 and it clogs up all the fine arrises and angles of the moulded work or carving4 ,wherever stained glass is inserted in stonework1 the application of illumination1 or at any rate of coloured diaper-work of an analogous nature1 is almost an imperative necessity1 in order to balance the appearance of chill and poverty given to the stonework by its contrast with the brilliant translucent tints of the painted glass4 ,in illuminating stonework1 it seldom answers to attempt to apply decoration executed on paper or canvass2 it should in all cases 7excepting when it is at a great distance from the eye7 be done upon the stone itself4 ,the only exception is the one to which ,i shall allude in speaking of metal4 ,slate1 although from its portability and non-liability to change its shape under variations of temperature1 a convenient material for filling panels1 and forming slabs for attachment to walls1 is not to be recommended to the amateur1 owing to the difficulty he will experience in effecting a good and safe adhesion between his pigments and the surface of the slate4 ,in what is called enamelled slate1 an excellent attachment is secured by gradually and repeatedly raising the slate to a high temperature2 but the process would be far too troublesome and expensive for practice by the great majority of amateurs4 ,metal in thin sheets is liable only to the objection from which slate is free1--namely1 that it is difficult to keep its surface from undulation in changes of temperature4 ,in all other respects1 both zinc1 copper1 lead1 and iron1 bind well with any oleaginous vehicle1 and offer the great convenience that they may be cut out to any desired shape1 and attached to any other kind of material by nails1 screws1 or even by strong cements1 such as marine glue4 ,zinc is1 perhaps1 the best of all1 as it cuts more readily than copper or iron1 and keeps its shape better than lead2 care should1 however1 be always taken to hang it from such points as shall allow it to freely contract and expand4 ,if this is not attended to1 its surface will never remain flat4 ,it is a material particularly well adapted for cutting out into labels to surmount door and window arches1 or to fill the arcading of churches and chapels1 and to be illuminated with texts or other inscriptions4 ,very beautiful effects may be produced by combining illumination with the polished brass-work which is now so admirably manufactured by ,messrs4 ,hardman1 ,hart1 and others4 ,care should1 however1 be taken not to overdo any objects of this nature4 ,let the main lines of construction always remain unpainted1 so that there may be no question as to the substance in which the article is made1 and restrict the application of coloured ornament or lettering to panels1 and1 generally speaking1 to the least salient forms4 ,of course1 where it can be afforded1 enamelling offers the most legitimate mode of illuminating metal-work2 and ere long it is to be hoped that the beautiful series of processes by means of which so much durable beauty of colour was conferred on ,medival metal-work may be restored to their proper position in ,british ,industry1 and popularized as they should1 and1 ,i believe1 might readily be4 ,to woodwork1 illumination may be made a most fitting embellishment2 and the application of a very little art will speedily be found to raise the varnished deal cabinet or bookcase far above the majority of our standard institutions in the way of heavy and expensive mahogany ones1 in interest at least1 if not in money value4 ,almost every article of furniture may thus be made1 as it were1 to speak and sympathize2 for the return every decorated object makes to the decorator is always in direct proportion to the amount of life and thought he has put into his work4 ,it is a common saying1 that1 what comes from the heart goes to the heart2 and in nothing does it hold good more than in the production of works of art of all kinds1 including ,illumination1 which1 through its special dealing with written characters1 has so direct an access to the intellect and affections4 ,in all appeals the decorative artist can make to the brain through the eye1 he has open to him two distinct channels of communication in making out the scheme of his ornamentation1--the one by employing conventional forms1--and the other by introducing representations of natural objects4 ,in the former he usually eschews light1 shade1 and accidental effects altogether2 and in the latter he aims at reproducing the aspect of the object he depicts as nearly as possible as it appears to him4 ,both modes have found favour in the eyes of the great illuminators of old1 and by the best they have been frequently and successfully blended4 ,under the conventional series maybe classed all productions dependent on either an ,oriental or ,hiberno-,saxon origin2 among the natural1 the later1 ,netherlandish1 ,italian1 and ,french illuminations may be generally grouped2 and1 in a mixed style1 the majority of the book-decorations of the ,medival period4 ,to be enabled to recognize intuitively how to blend or contrast1 to adopt or avoid1 these different modes of treatment of ornament1 is given to but few1 and is revealed to those few only1 after years of study and of practice4 ,rules may assist1#ajj but can never suffice to communicate the power2 work of the most arduous kind1 and persistent observation1 can alone bestow it4 ,still1 with good models upon which to base his variations1 and goodwill1 the amateur may do much1 and will probably best succeed by recurring incessantly to ,nature1 and combining direct1 or nearly direct1 imitation of ,nature with geometrical lines and masses of colour symmetrically disposed4 ,to aid his footsteps in this direction1 ,i know no more convenient councillor than ,mr4 ,llewellyn ,jewitt1 whose historical introduction to his brother's ,manual of ,illuminated and ,missal ,painting contains some just remarks upon the subject4#aja ,having thus rapidly touched upon the series of materials upon which the ,art may be brought to bear1 and the leading principles of design suitable under different circumstances1 ,i proceed to suggest the class of legends1 as the medival decorators called them1 likely to prove most fitting for special situations4 ,no doubt many more apt and piquant may suggest themselves to some practical illuminators than the few ,i have culled 7with the assistance of one or two kind friends71 principally from old ,english writers2 but to others1 those ,i now present may not be without1 at any rate1 a convenient suggestiveness4 ,something similar to the following ,i would recommend for the embellishment of ceilings1 friezes1 string-courses1 or flat walls of the different apartments indicated4 ,of some ,i have given four lines--one1 say1 for each side of a room2 of others but a line1 such as might go over a door4 ,between the two are many suitable for panels or irregular situations2 and in one or two cases passages of many lines have been chosen1 fit for illumination on vellum or paper1 and for framing to hang up in the apartments specified1 or to be inserted in panels or furniture or on screens4 ,,for ,,drawing-,,rooms4 ,for trouble in earth take no melancholy2 ,be rich in patience1 if thou in goods be poor4 ,who lives merry1 he lives mightily2 ,without gladness avails no treasre4 ,,wm4 ,,dunbar4 ,since earthly joy abideth never1 ,work for the joy that lestis ever2 ,for other joy is all in vain2 ,all earthly joy returns in pain4 ,idem4 ,who shuts his hand hath lost his gold2 ,who opens it1 hath it twice told4 ,,george ,,herbert4 ,no bliss so great but cometh to an end2 ,no hap so hard but may in time amend4 ,,robert ,,southwell4 ,freedom all solace to man gives2 ,he lives at ease1 that freely lives4 ,,john ,,barbour4 ,that which is not good1 is not delicious ,to a well-governed and wise appetite4 ,,milton4 ,,for ,a ,,studio4 ,order is ,nature's beauty1 and the way ,to order is by rules that ,art hath found4 ,,gwillim4 ,,for ,a ,,family ,,portrait-,,gallery ,,or ,,hall4 ,boast not the titles of your ancestors1 ,brave youths3 they're their possessions1 none of yours4 ,when your own virtues equall'd have their names1 ',twill be but fair to lean upon their fames1 ,for they are strong supporters2 but till then ,the greatest are but growing gentlemen4 ,,ben ,,jonson4 ,,for ,,breakfast ,,or ,,dining ,,rooms4 ,a good digestion turneth all to health4 ,,wordsworth4 ,if anything be set to a wrong taste1 ',tis not the meat there1 but the mouth's displeased4 ,remove but that sick palate1 all is well4 ,,ben ,,jonson4 ,nature's with little pleased1 enough's a feast2 ,a sober life but a small charge requires2 ,but man1 the author of his own unrest1 ,the more he has1 the more he still requires4 ,to bread or drink1 to flesh or fish1 ,yet welcome is the best dish4 ,,john ,,heywood4 ,it is the fair acceptance1 ,sir1 creates ,the entertainment perfect1 not the cates4 ,,ben ,,jonson1 ,epigrams1 ci4 ,no simple word ,that shall be utter'd at our mirthful board1 ,shall make us sad next morning4 ,ibid4 ,to spur beyond ,its wiser will the jaded appetite1 ,is this for pleasure8 ,learn a juster taste1 ,and know that temperance is true luxury4 ,,armstrong1 ,art of ,preserving ,health1 book ii4 ,what an excellent thing did ,god bestow on man1 ,when ,he did give him a good stomach6 ,,beaumont ,,and ,,fletcher4 ,the stomach is the mainspring of our system4 ,if it be not sufficiently wound up to warm the heart and support the circulation1 we can neither ,think with precision1 ,sleep with tranquillity1 ,walk with vigour1 ,or sit down with comfort4 ,,dr4 ,,kitchener4 ,the destiny of ,nations has often depended upon the digestion of a ,prime ,minister4--,,dr4 ,,kitchener4 ,is't a time to talk ,when we should be munching8 ,,justice ,,greedy1 in ,,massinger',s ,new ,way to pay ,old ,debts4 ,no roofs of gold o'er riotous tables shining1 ,whole days and sums devoured with endless dining4 ,,crashaw',s ,religious ,house4 ,now good digestion wait on appetite1 ,and health on both4 ,,shakspere4 ,when you doubt1 abstain4 ,,zoroaster4 ,where there is no peace1 there is no feast4 ,,clarendon4 ,not meat1 but cheerfulness1 makes the feast4 ,who carves1 is kind to two2 who talks1 to all4 ,,george ,,herbert4 ,,for ,,kitchens4 ,a feast must be without a fault2 ,and if 'tis not all right1 'tis nought4 ,,king',s ,art of ,cookery4 ,good-nature will some failings overlook1 ,forgive mischance1 not errors of the cook4 ,ibid4 ,,for ,,supper-,,rooms4 ,oppress not nature sinking down to rest ,with feasts too late1 too solid1 or too full4 ,,armstrong1 ,art of ,preserving ,health4 ,as men ,do walk a mile1 women should talk an hour ,after supper3 'tis their exercise4 ,,ben ,,jonson1 ,philaster1 act #b1 sc4 #d4 ,,for ,,still-,,rooms4 ,the nature of flowers ,dame ,physic doth show2 ,she teaches them all to be known to a few4 ,,tusser1 ,five ,hundred ,points of ,good ,husbandry4 ,the knowledge of stilling is one pretty feat1 ,the waters be wholesome1 the charges not great4 ,id4 ibid4 ,,for ,a ,,store-,,room4 ,he that keeps nor crust nor crumb1 ,weary of all1 he shall want some4 ,,shakspere4 ,,for ,,music-,,rooms4 ,music removeth care1 sadness ejects1 ,declineth anger1 persuades clemency2 ,doth sweeten mirth1 and heighten piety1 ,and is to a body1 often ill inclined1 ,no less a sovereign cure than to the mind4 ,,ben ,,jonson4 ,here will we sit1 and let the sounds of music ,creep in our ears4 ,,shakspere1 ,merchant of ,venice4 ,play on and give me surfeit4 ,ibid4 ,,for ,,smoking-,,rooms4 ,tobacco's a physician1 ,good both for sound and sickly2 ',tis a hot perfume1 ,that expels cold rheum1 ,and makes it flow down quickly4 ,,barten ,,holliday4 ,tobacco hic6 ,tobacco hic6 ,if you are well1 'twill make you sick2 ,tobacco hic6 ,tobacco hic6 ,twill make you well1 if you are sick4 ,,for ,,drinking-,,rooms4 ,backe and syde goo bare goo bare1 ,both hande and fote goo colde2 ,but belly1 ,god sende the gode ale inoughe1 ,whether hyt be newe or olde4 ,,bp4 ,,still1 in ,gammer ,gurton's ,needle4 ,the first draught serveth for health1 ,the second for pleasure1 ,the third for shame1 ,the fourth for madness4 ,the greatness that would make us grave ,is but an empty thing2 ,what more than mirth would mortals have3 ,the cheerful man's a king4 ,,isaac ,,bickerstaff4 ,,for ,,public ,,coffee-,,rooms4 ,if you your lips would keep from slips1 ,five things observe with care3 ,of whom you speak1 to whom you speak1 ,and how1 and when1 and where4 ,every creature was decreed ,to aid each other's mutual need4 ,,gay4 ,,for ,,billiard-,,rooms4 ,the love of gaming is the worst of ills2 ,with ceaseless storms the blacken'd soul it fills1 ,inveighs at ,heaven1 neglects the ties of blood1 ,destroys the power and will of doing good2 ,kills health1 poisons honour1 plunges in disgrace4 ,,young1 #dth ,satire4 ,play not for gain1 but sport3 who plays for more ,than he can lose with pleasure1 stakes his heart1 ,perhaps his wife too1 and whom she hath bore4 ,,geo4 ,,herbert1 ,the ,church ,porch4 ,,for ,,bedrooms4 ,rise with the lark1 and with the lark to bed2 ,the breath of night's destructive to the hue ,of every flower that blows4 99 99 99 ,oh1 there is a charm ,which morning has1 that gives the brow of age ,a smack of youth1 and makes the life of youth ,shed perfume exquisite4 ,expect it not1 ,ye who till noon upon a down bed lie1 ,indulging feverous sleep4 ,,hurdis1 ,village ,curate4 ,watch and ward1 ,and stand on your guard4 ,,izaak ,,walton4 ,sleep is ,nature's second course4 ,,upon ,a ,,looking-,,glass4 ,since as you know1 you cannot see yourself ,so well as by reflection1 ,i your glass ,will modestly discover to yourself ,that of yourself which you yet know not of4 ,,shakspere4 ,,for ,,ladies' ,,boudoirs4 ,birth1 beauty1 wealth1 are nothing worth alone4 ,all these ,i would for good additions take3 ,tis the mind's beauty keeps the others sweet4 ,,sir ,,thomas ,,overbury1 ,the ,wife4 ',tis beauty that doth oft make women proud2 ',tis virtue that doth make them most admired2 ',tis modesty that makes them seem divine4 ,,shakspere4 ,,for ,a ,,dressing-,,room4 ,the apparel oft proclaims the man4 ,,for ,,schoolrooms4 ,extend generosity1 it is profuseness2 ,confine economy1 it is avarice2 ,unbridle courage1 it is rashness2 ,indulge sensibility1 it is weakness4 ,catch ,time by the forelock2 he's bald behind4 ,nothing is truly good that may be excell'd4 ,motto of ,king ,arthur's ,table4 ,he may do what he will that will but do what he may4 ,,arthur ,,warwick4 ,god dwelleth near about us1 ,ever within1 ,working the goodness1 ,consuming the sin4 ,,fulke ,,greville1 ,,lord ,,brooke1 born #aeed4 ,,for ,,libraries1 ,,studies1 ,,and ,,book-,,rooms4 ,reading furnishes the mind only with materials of knowledge3 it is thinking makes what we read ours4 ,we are of the ruminating kind1 and it is not enough to cram ourselves with a great load of collections3 unless we chew them over again1 they will not give us strength or nourishment4--,,locke4 ,crafty men contemn studies2 simple men admire them2 and wise men use them4--,,bacon4 ,read not to contradict and refute1 nor to believe and take for granted1 nor to find talk and discourse1 but to weigh and consider4--,idem4 ,some books are to be tasted1 others to be swallowed1 and some few to be chewed and digested3 that is1 some books are to be read only in parts2 others to be read1 but not curiously2 and some few to be read wholly1 and with diligence and attention4--,idem4 ,in reading1 we hold converse with the wise2 in the business of life1 generally with the foolish4--,,bacon4 ,that place that does ,contain my books1 the best companions1 is ,to me a glorious court1 where hourly ,i ,converse with the old sages and philosophers4 ,j4 ,,fletcher4 ,bookes are a part of man's prerogative1 ,in formal inke they thoughts and voyces hold1 ,that we to them our solitude may give1 ,and make time present travel that of old4 ,our life fame peceth longer at the end1 ,and bookes it farther backward doe extend4 ,,sir ,,thomas ,,overbury1 ,the ,wife4 ,books should for one of these four ends conduce1-- ,for wisdom1 piety1 delight1 or use4 ,,sir ,,john ,,denham4 ,cease not to learne until thou cease to live2 ,think that day lost wherein thou draw'st no letter1 ,nor gain'st no lesson1 that new grace may give ,to make thyself learneder1 wiser1 better4 ,quadrains of ,pibrac1 translated by ,,joshua ,,sylvester4 ,who readeth much and never meditates1 ,is like a greedy eater of much food1 ,who so surcloyes his stomach with his cates1 ,that commonly they do him little good4 ,ibid4 ,reading maketh a full man1 conference a ready man1 and writing an exact man4--,,bacon',s ,essays--,of ,studies4 ,calm let me live1 and every care beguile1-- ,hold converse with the great of every time1 ,the learn'd of ev'ry class1 the good of ev'ry clime4 ,,rev4 ,,samuel ,,bishop4 ,of things that be strange1 ,who loveth to read1 ,in these books let him range ,his fancy to feed4 ,,richard ,,robinson4 ,,for ,,museums ,,or ,,laboratories4 ,o mickle is the powerful grace that lies ,in herbs1 plants1 stones1 and their true qualities3 ,for nought's so vile that on the earth doth live1 ,but to the earth some special good doth give4 ,,shakspere4 ,speak to the earth1 and it shall teach thee4 ,,solomon4 ,,for ,a ,,surgical ,,museum4 ,there is no theam more plentifull to scan1 ,than is the glorious1 goodly frame of ,man4 ,,joshua ,,sylvester',s ,du ,bartas1 #fth day4 ,,for ,,justice-,,rooms4 ',tis not enough that thou do no man wrong1-- ,thou even in others must suppress the same1 ,righting the weake against th' unrighteous strong1 ,whether it touch his life1 his goods1 his name4 ,quadrains of ,pibrac1 trans4 by ,,joshua ,,sylvester4 ,upon the ,law thy ,judgments always ground1 ,and not on man3 ,for that's affection-less4 ,but man in ,passions strangely doth abound2 ,th' one all like ,god3 ,th' other too like to beasts4 ,id4 cod4 ,,for ,,casinos ,,or ,,summer-,,houses4 ,abusd mortals1 did you know ,where joy1 heart's ease1 and comfort grow1 ,you'd scorn proud towers1 ,and seek them in these bowers2 ,where winds1 perhaps1 sometimes our woods may shake1 ,but blustering care can never tempest make4 ,,sir ,,henry ,,wotton4 ,we trample grasse1 and prize the flowers of ,may2 ,yet grasse is greene when flowers doe fade away4 ,,robert ,,southwell4 ,blest who no false glare requiring1 ,nature's rural sweets admiring1 ,can1 from grosser joys retiring1 ,seek the simple and serene4 ,,isaac ,,bickerstaff4 ,,for ,a ,,counting-,,house4 ,omnia ,somnia4 ,gae1 silly worm1 drudge1 trudge1 and travell1 ,so thou maist gain ,some honour or some golden gravell3 ,but ,death the while to fill his number1 ,with sudden call ,takes thee from all1 ,to prove thy daies but dream and slumber4 ,,joshua ,,sylvester1 ,mottoes4 ,,for ,,offices ,,or ,,workshops4 ,have more than thou showest2 ,speak less than thou knowest2 ,lend more than thou owest2 ,learn more than thou trowest4 ,,shakspere4 ,a spending hand that always poureth out1 ,had need to have a bringer-in as fast2 ,and on the stone that still doth turn about ,there groweth no moss3 these proverbs yet do last4 ,,sir ,t4 ,,wyatt4 ,how many might in time have wise been made1 ,before their time1 had they not thought them so8 ,what artist e'er was master of his trade ,yer he began his prenticeship to know8 ,to some one act apply thy whole affection1 ,and in the craft of others seldom mell2 ,but in thine own strive to attain perfection1 ,for 'tis no little honour to excell4 ,quadrains of ,pibrac1 translated by ,,joshua ,,sylvester4 ,if youth knew what age would crave1 ,youth would then both get and save4 ,flee1 flee1 the idle brain2 ,flee1 flee from doing nought2 ,for never was there idle brain1 ,but bred an idle thought4 ,get to live2 then live to use it1 else it is not true that thou hast gotten4--,g4 ,,herbert4 ,to him that is willing1 ways are not wanting4 ,,for ,,shops4 ,whoso trusteth ere he know1 ,doth hurt himself and please his foe4 ,,sir ,,thomas ,,wyatt4 ,think much of a trifle1 ,though small it appear2 ,small sands make the mountain1 ,and moments the year4 ,,for ,a ,,bell-,,turret4 ,we take no note of time ,but from its loss2 to give it then a tongue ,is wise in man4 ,,young',s ,night ,thoughts4 ,,for ,a ,,bathing-,,house4 ,do not fear to put thy feet ,naked in the river sweet2 ,think nor leach1 or newt1 or toad ,will bite thy foot1 where thou hast trod4 ,,beaumont ,,and ,,fletcher1 ,faithful ,shepherdess4 ,with those still more admirable legends which may be selected from the ,bible ,i do not meddle4 ,in it golden words of comfort and admonition lie strewn so thickly1 that error cannot be made by a selector4 ,it may not be amiss1 also1 for the illuminator to remember1 that not unfrequently a verse may find him whom a sermon flies4 ,i cannot quit this portion of my theme without one word of summary1 in the way of advice1 to the designer of illumination1 on whatever material applied4 ,briefly1 then1 let him eschew quaintness1 and aim at beauty2 let him not shrink from beauty in old times because it was masked in quaintness2 but with a discriminating eye let him learn to winnow the chaff from the wheat1 and1 scattering the one to the winds1 let him garner up the other in the storehouse of his memory1 and for the sustenance of his artistic life2 and let him rest assured that the best designers1 in all ages1 have been usually those who have gathered most widely and profoundly from the failures1 successes1 and experiences of their predecessors4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,how ,,illuminating ,,may ,,be ,,practised4 ,on analysis it will be found that this section of my ,essay resolves itself into three divisions1 embracing respectively1 #astly1 the ancient processes2 #bndly1 the modern processes2 and1 #crdly1 the possible processes1 not yet introduced into common use4 ,of the last1 ,i do not propose speaking in the present work4 ,notices of the first of these might of course have been presented in the historical manual2 but1 upon reflection1 ,i considered it would be most useful to the student to introduce them1 in a collected form1 in this place2 and for the following reasons3--#astly1 ,in order that they might not interrupt the thread of the narrative2 and1 #bndly1 because ,i considered it desirable to put the ancient and modern processes in direct contrast1 so that the amateur might be the better enabled to reject what is obsolete in the former1 and to revive any which might appear to promise greater technical excellence or facility than he might be enabled to obtain through the employment of the latter4 ,i commence1 therefore1 with the ,ancient processes4 ,sir ,charles ,eastlake1 who has profoundly studied the history and theory of the subject1 has justly remarked#ajb the intimate relation which1 in the classical ages1 existed between the physician and the painter1--the former discovering1 supplying1 and frequently preparing1 the materials used by the latter4 ,this ancient connection was not broken during those ages when almost all knowledge and practice of either medicine or art were limited to the walls of the cloister4 ,the zealous fathers not only worked themselves to the best of their ability1 but delighted in training up their younger brethren to perpetuate the credit and revenue derived from their skill1 knowledge1 and labour1 by the monasteries to which they were attached4 ,nor was it merely by oral instruction that technical secrets were communicated3 the traditional and practical knowledge of the monks was condensed in short manuscript formul1 sometimes on the subject of the arts alone1 but oftener mixed up with chemical and medicinal receipts4 ,these collections1 still more heterogeneous in their contents as they received fresh additions from other hands1 were afterwards published by secular physicians1 under the title of ',secreta4' ,the earliest of such manuals serve to show the nature of the researches which were undertaken in the convents for the practical benefit of the arts4 ,various motives might induce the monks to devote themselves with zeal to such pursuits4 ,it has been seen that their chemical studies were analogous2 that their knowledge of the materials fittest for technical purposes1 derived as it was from experiments which they had abundant leisure to make1 was likely to be of the best kind4 ,painting was holy in their eyes2 and1 although the excellence of the work depended on the artist1 it was for them to ensure its durability4 ,by a singular combination of circumstances1 the employers of the artist1 the purchasers of pictures 7for such the fraternities were in the majority of cases71 were often the manufacturers of the painter's materials4 ,here1 then1 was another plain and powerful reason for furnishing the best-prepared colours and vehicles4 ,the cost of the finer pigments was1 in almost every case1 charged to the employer2 but economy could be combined with excellence of quality1 when the manufacture was undertaken by the inmates of the convent4 ,all that is asserted in this passage with respect to painting1 holds equally good with regard to the materials requisite for the practice of the ,art of ,illumination2 and the same treatises which are illustrative of art generally1 almost invariably include specific instructions with regard to the particular branch of it that ,i am now endeavouring to illustrate4 ,fortunately1 the series of these ,secreta both commences from a remote date1 and is tolerably complete from that to a quite recent period4 ,scattered allusions to the processes of art and industry may be met with in the writings of several authors of the ,alexandrian ,neo-,platonic school in the early ages of the ,church1 from whom the ,byzantine ,greeks1 no doubt1 learnt much2 but the most ancient collection on the subject is the treatise of ,heraclius1 or ,eraclius1 de ,artibus ,romanorum4#ajc ,it would appear not to have been written earlier than the #gth or later than the #ajth century1#ajd its art being1 as ,mr4 ,robert ,hendrie1 the learned translator and editor of the essay of ,theophilus1 of whom mention will presently be made1 observes1 of the school of ,pliny1 increased1 it is true1 by ,byzantine invention1 but yet essentially ,roman4#aje ,the next collection1 in point of age1 is that published by ,muratori1#ajf and well known as the ,lucca ,manuscript1 ascribed by ,mabillon to the age of ,charlemagne1 and by ,muratori himself to a period certainly not later than the #ajth century4 ,its ,latinity is barbarous1 but ,i scarcely think ,i can do wrong in following the translation of so careful a writer as ,sharon ,turner in the following extracts1 which treat of illumination1 and give us a clear insight into the practice of the school founded under the patronage of the great ,frankish emperor of the ,west4 ,the first ,i select refers to the preparation of the calf-skin4 ,put it under lime and let it lie for three days2 then stretch it1 scrape it well on both sides1 and dry it2 then stain it with the colours you wish4 ,the second directs how skins may be gilt4 ,take the red skin and carefully pumice and temper it in tepid water1 and pour the water on it till it runs off limpid2 stretch it afterwards1 and smooth it diligently with clean wood4 ,when it is dry1 take the whites of eggs and smear it therewith thoroughly2 when it is dry1 sponge it with water1 press it1 dry it again1 and polish it2 then rub it with a clean skin1 and polish it again and gild it4 ,such gilding was effected with gold leaf1 beaten out between small sheets of ,greek parchment1 which is made from linen cloth 7i4e4 paper71 enclosed in vellum4 ,white of egg was used as the mordant for fixing on the gold4 ,the following two passages instruct the student in preparing gold for writing3-- ,file gold very finely1 put it in a mortar1 and add the sharpest vinegar2 rub it till it becomes black1 and then pour it out4 ,put to it some salt or nitre1 and so it will dissolve4 ,so you may write with it2 and thus all the metals may be dissolved4 ,take thin plates of gold and silver1 rub them in a mortar with ,greek salt or nitre till it disappears4 ,pour on water and repeat it2 then add salt1 and so wash it4 ,when the gold remains even1 add a moderate portion of the flowers of copper and bullock's gall2 rub them together1 and write and burnish the letters4 ,the next and last1 alludes to the amalgam1 which appears to have been for many centuries a favourite method of applying gold to parchment and other surfaces4 ,melt some lead1 and frequently immerse it in cold water4 ,melt gold1 and pour that into the same water1 and it will become brittle4 ,then rub the gold filings carefully with quicksilver1 and purge it carefully while it is liquid4 ,before you write1 dip the pen in liquid alum1 which is best purified by salt and vinegar4 ,in these instructions the student may distinctly recognize the processes adopted in the production of those gilt texts on stained vellum grounds which were so highly prized in the ,carlovingian age4 ,in the writings of an ecclesiastic1 probably nearly contemporary with the ,norman conquest1 the monk ,rugerus1 or ,theophilus1 we arrive at a really perfect picture#ajg of the arts of the #aath century4 ,the first of the three books into which his ,schedule of different ,arts is divided1 is dedicated entirely to painting4 ,it contains forty chapters1 of which thirty refer to the preparation and application of pigments generally1 both for oil1 tempera1 and fresco painting1 and ten to the various processes connected with illumination4 ,of these1 the following are the most important3-- ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,of ,,grinding ,,gold ,,for ,,books1 ,,and ,,of ,,casting ,,the ,,mill4 ,when you have traced out figures or letters in books1 take pure gold and file it very finely in a clean cup or small basin1 and wash it with a pencil in the shell of a tortoise1 or a shell which is taken out of the water4 ,have then a mill with its pestle1 both cast from metal of copper and tin mixed together1 so that three parts may be of pure copper1 and the fourth of pure tin1 free from lead4 ,with this composition the mill is cast in the form of a small mortar1 and its pestle round about an iron in the form of a knot1 so that the iron may protrude of the thickness of a finger1 and in length a little more than half a foot1 the third part of which iron is fixed in wood carefully turned1 in length about one yard1 and pierced very straightly2 in the lower part of which1 however1 of the length of four fingers from the end1 must be a revolving wheel1 either of wood or of lead1 and in the middle of the upper part is fixed a leather strap1 by which it can be pulled1 and1 in revolving1 be drawn back4 ,then this mill is placed in a hollow1 upon a bench fitted for it1 between two small wooden pillars firmly fixed into the same bench1 upon which another piece of wood is to be inserted1 which can be taken out and replaced1 in the middle of which1 at the lower part1 is a hole in which the pestle of the mill will revolve4 ,these things thus disposed1 the gold1 carefully cleansed1 is put into the mill1 a little water added1 and the pestle placed1 and the upper piece of wood fitted1 the strap is drawn and is permitted to revolve1 again pulled1 and again it revolves1 and this must so be done for two or three hours4 ,then the upper wood is taken off1 and the pestle washed in the same water with a pencil4 ,afterwards the mill is taken up1 and the gold1 with the water1 is stirred to the bottom with the pencil1 and is left a little1 until the grosser part subsides2 the water is presently poured into a very clean basin1 and whatever gold comes away with the water is ground4 ,replacing the water and the pestle1 and wood above being placed1 again it is milled in the same way as before1 until it altogether comes away with the water4 ,in the like manner are ground silver1 brass1 and copper4 ,but gold is ground most carefully1 and must be lightly milled2 and you must often inspect it1 because it is softer than the other metals1 that it may not adhere to the mill or the pestle1 and become heaped together4 ,if through negligence this should happen1 that which is conglomerate is scraped together and taken out1 and what is left is milled until finished4 ,which being done1 pouring out the upper water with the impurities from the basin1 wash the gold carefully in a clean shell2 then pouring the water from it1 agitate it with the pencil1 and when you have had it in your hand for one hour1 pour it into another shell1 and keep that very fine part which has come away with the waters4 ,then again1 water being placed with it1 warm it and stir it over the fire1 and1 as before1 pour away the fine particles with the water1 and you may act thus until you shall have purified it entirely4 ,after this wash with water the same refined part1 and in the same manner a second and a third time1 and whatever gold you gather mix with the former4 ,in the same way you will wash silver1 brass1 and copper4 ,afterwards take the bladder of a fish which is called huso 7sturgeon71 and washing it three times in tepid water1 leave it to soften a night1 and on the morrow warm it on the fire1 so that it does not boil up until you prove with your finger if it adhere1 and when it does adhere strongly1 the glue is good4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,how ,,gold ,,and ,,silver ,,are ,,laid ,,in ,,books4 ,afterwards take pure minium 7red lead71 and add to it a third part of cinnabar 7vermilion71 grinding it upon a stone with water4 ,which being carefully ground1 beat up the clear of the white of an egg1 in summer with water1 in winter without water2 and when it is clear1 put the minium into a horn and pour the clear upon it1 and stir it a little with a piece of wood put into it1 and with a pencil fill up all places with it upon which you wish to lay gold4 ,then place a little pot with glue over the fire1 and when it is liquefied1 pour it into the shell of gold and wash it with it4 ,when you have poured which into another shell1 in which the purifying is kept1 again pour in warm glue1 and holding it in the palm of your left hand1 stir it carefully with the pencil1 and lay it on where you wish1 thick or thin1 so1 however1 that there be little glue1 because1 should it exceed1 it blackens the gold and does not receive a polish2 but after it has dried1 polish it with a tooth or bloodstone carefully filed and polished1 upon a smooth and shining horn tablet4 ,but should it happen1 through negligence of the glue not being well cooked1 that the gold pulverizes in rubbing1 or rises on account of too great thickness1 have near you some old clear of egg1 beat up without water1 and directly with a pencil paint slightly and quickly over the gold2 when it is dry again rub it with the tooth or stone4 ,lay in this manner silver1 brass1 and copper in their place and polish them4 ,the raised gold was not always produced by the mixture of red lead and white of egg recommended by ,theophilus4 ,it was1 especially in ,italy1 frequently made of a composition of gesso1 or plaster1 and in the #aeth century was often punctured all over by way of ornament4 ,it may be occasionally met with stamped over in patterns1 with intaglio punches4 ,this gesso raising1 though very brilliant1 possessed little tenacity1 and in many examples it has scaled off1 while the more ancient raising prescribed by ,theophilus has adhered perfectly4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,how ,a ,,picture ,,is ,,ornamented ,,in ,,books ,,with ,,tin ,,and ,,saffron4 ,but if you have neither of these 7gold1 silver1 brass1 or copper71 and yet wish to decorate your work in some manner1 take tin pure and finely scraped1 mill it and wash it like gold1 and apply it with the same glue1 upon letters or other places which you wish to ornament with gold or silver2 and when you have polished it with a tooth1 take saffron1 with which silk is coloured1 moistening it with clear of egg without water1 and when it has stood a night1 on the following day cover with a pencil the places which you wish to gild1 the rest holding the place of silver4 ,then make fine traits round the letters and leaves1 and flourishes from minium1 with a pen1 also the stuffs of dresses and other ornaments4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,of ,,every ,,sort ,,of ,,glue ,,for ,a ,,picture ,,of ,,gold4 ,if you have not a bladder 7of the sturgeon71 cut up thick parchment or vellum in the same manner1--wash and cook it4 ,prepare also the skin of an eel carefully scraped1 cut up and washed in the same manner4 ,prepare thus also the bones of the head of the wolf-fish washed and dried1 carefully washed in water three times4 ,to whichever of these you have prepared1 add a third part of very transparent gum1 simmer it a little1 and you can keep it as long as you wish4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,,how ,,colours ,,are ,,tempered ,,for ,,books4 ,these things thus accomplished1 make a mixture of the clearest gum and water as above1 and temper all colours except green1 and ceruse1 and minium1 and carmine4 ,salt green is worth nothing for books4 ,you will temper ,spanish green with pure wine1 and if you wish to make shadows1 add a little sap of iris1 or cabbage1 or leek4 ,you will temper minium1 and ceruse1 and carmine1 with clear of egg4 ,compose all preparations of colours for a book as above1 if you want them for painting figures4 ,all colours are laid on twice in books1 at first very thinly1 then more thickly2 but twice for letters4 ,the next extract ,i give is of great interest in the technical history of illumination1 on three accounts3 firstly1 because it guides the student to recognize in madder the purple stain and colour1 so highly prized in the early periods of the art2 secondly1 because it shows him the manner in which fugitive vegetable tints were protected from the decomposing influence of the atmosphere by an albuminous varnish2 and thirdly1 because it illustrates the ordinary modern processes of under painting1 and glazing with transparent colour4 ,the folium of the ,greek illuminators was procured from plants growing abundantly near ,athens1 while that of the ,hiberno-,saxon scribes was obtained from the norma or gorma of the ,celts4 ,mr4 ,hendrie1 in his learned notes to ,theophilus1 has traced successive recipes for the preparation of folium1 in which the identity of the base giving the colouring matter is clearly established4 ,it is curious that the collections of ,secreta should give as the only countries supplying the materials for making folium1 those two in which the use of the bright purple stain ascends to the very earliest of their decorated manuscripts4 ,the following is the description given by ,theophilus3-- ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,of ,,the ,,kinds ,,and ,,the ,,tempering ,,of ,,folium4 ,there are three kinds of folium1 one red1 another purple1 a third blue1 which you will thus temper4 ,take ashes1 and sift them through a cloth1 and1 sprinkling them with cold water1 make rolls of them in form of loaves1 and placing them in the fire1 leave them until they quite glow4 ,after they have first burnt for a very long time1 and have afterwards cooled1 place a portion of them in a vessel of clay1 pouring urine upon them and stirring with wood4 ,when it has deposed in a clear manner1 pour it upon the red folium1 and1 grinding it slightly upon a stone1 add to it a fourth part of quick lime1 and when it shall be ground and sufficiently moistened1 strain it through a cloth1 and paint with a pencil where you wish1 thinly2 afterwards more thickly4 ,and if you wish to imitate a robe in a page of a book1 with purple folium2 with the same tempering1 without the mixture of lime1 paint first with a pen1 in the same page1 flourishes or circles1 and in them birds or beasts1 or leaves2 and when it is dry1 paint red folium over all1 thinly1 then more thickly1 and a third time if necessary2 and afterwards paint over it some old clear of egg4 ,paint over also with glaire of egg1 draperies1 and all things which you have painted with folium and carmine4 ,you can likewise preserve the burned ashes which remain for a long time1 dry4 ,i conclude the series of receipts extracted from ,theophilus#ajh by one not further bearing upon the ,art of ,illumination1 than as proving the nature of the ink which has generally retained its colour so wonderfully in the ancient manuscripts4 ,,chapter ,,xl4 ,,of ,,ink4 ,to make ink1 cut for yourself wood of the thorn-trees in ,april or ,may1 before they produce flowers or leaves1 and collecting them in small bundles1 allow them to lie in the shade for two1 three1 or four weeks1 until they are somewhat dry4 ,then have wooden mallets1 with which you beat these thorns upon another piece of hardwood1 until you peel off the bark everywhere1 put which immediately into a barrelful of water4 ,when you have filled two1 or three1 or four1 or five barrels with bark and water1 allow them so to stand for eight days1 until the waters imbibe all the sap of the bark4 ,afterwards put this water into a very clean pan1 or into a cauldron1 and fire being placed under it1 boil it2 from time to time1 also1 throw into the pan some of this bark1 so that whatever sap may remain in it may be boiled out4 ,when you have cooked it a little1 throw it out1 and again put in more2 which done1 boil down the remaining water unto a third part1 and then pouring it out of this pan1 put it into one smaller1 and cook it until it grows black and begins to thicken1 add one third part of pure wine1 and putting it into two or three new pots1 cook it until you see a sort of skin show itself on the surface2 then taking these pots from the fire1 place them in the sun until the black ink purifies itself from the red dregs4 ,afterwards take small bags of parchment carefully sewn1 and bladders1 and pouring in the pure ink1 suspend them in the sun until all is quite dry2 and when dry1 take from it as much as you wish1 and temper it with wine over the fire1 and1 adding a little vitriol1 write4 ,but1 if it should happen through negligence that your ink be not black enough1 take a fragment of the thickness of a finger1 and putting it into the fire1 allow it to glow1 and throw it directly into the ink4 ,the next collection of ,secreta1 in point of importance and probably antiquity1 is the ,mapp ,clavicula1 or little key to drawing1 a manuscript treatise on the preparation of pigments1 and on various processes of the decorative arts practised during the ,middle ,ages1 in the possession of ,sir ,thomas ,phillipps1 of ,middle ,hill4#aji ,the proprietor of the volume1 ,mr4 ,hendrie1 ,sir ,charles ,eastlake1 and 7last1 not least7 ,mr4 ,albert ,way1 agree in considering it highly probable that it may be an ,english collection1 probably of about the reign of ,henry ,,ii4 ,like the ,schedula of ,theophilus1 it presents a very miscellaneous series of recipes1 and tends to prove1 what is very generally believed by the learned1 that the ,masters of ,arts of old were frequently skilled1 not in special departments of production1 such as the modern division-of-labour system has created1 but in multifarious avocations1 such as we should not now readily recognize as likely to be practised by any single individual4 ,these collections remarkably illustrate the class of knowledge likely to have been possessed by such apparently versatile geniuses as ,st4 ,dunstan1 ,st4 ,eloi1 ,bernward of ,hildesheim1 ,tutilo the monk of ,st4 ,gall1 and many others4 ,the author of the ,mapp ,clavicula1 in a few lines of poetical introduction to his teachings1 defines the first necessity for painters to be1 a knowledge of the manufacture of colours1 then a command over the various modes of mixing them1 then dexterity in using and heightening them in different kinds of work2 and1 ultimately1 he commends to their attention a variety of information for the advancement of art generally1 derived from the writings of many learned men4--,sicut liber iste docebit4 ,thus under two hundred and nine heads1 but with some tautology1 he proceeds to treat1 as ,sir ,thomas ,phillipps observes1 not only of the composition of colours1 but of a variety of other subjects1 in a concise and simple manner1 and generally very intelligibly2 as for instance1 architecture1 mensuration of altitudes1 the art of war1 c4 ,among the recipes1 in addition to those referring to pigments1 are many relating to illuminating4 ,the following1 for instance1 is curious as defining clearly what were the best and most important tints for illumination3-- ,of different ,colours4 ,these colours are clear and full-bodied for vellum3--,azorium 7azure71 ,vermiculum 7vermilion71 ,sanguis ,draconis 7dragon's blood71 ,carum 7yellow ochre71 ,minium 7red lead71 ,folium 7madder purple71 ,auripigmentum 7orpiment71 ,viride ,grcum 7acetate of copper71 ,gravetum ,indicum 7indigo71 ,brunum 7brown71 ,crocus 7yellow71 ,minium ,rubeum vel ,album 7red or white lead71 ,nigrum ,optimum ex carbone vitis 7the best black made from carbonized vine twigs72 all these colours are mixed with white of egg4 ,the mixture of colours appears to have been reduced to a perfect system1 each hue having others specially adapted and used1 for heightening and lowering the pure tint2 thus the author gives directions which are likely to be scarcely less useful to the illuminator of the present day than they were to those of old4 ,of ,mixtures4 ,if1 therefore1 you should desire to know the natures and mixtures of these the above given colours1 and which are antagonistic to each other1 lend your ear diligently4 ,mix azure with white lead1 lower with indigo1 heighten with white lead4 ,pure vermilion you may lower with brown or with dragon's blood1 and heighten with orpiment4 ,mix vermilion with white lead1 and make the colour which is called ,rosa1 lower it with vermilion1 heighten it with white lead4 ,item1 you may make a colour with dragon's blood and orpiment1 which you may lower with brown1 and heighten with orpiment4 ,yellow ochre you may lower with brown1 and heighten with red lead 7query1 with white74 ,item1 you may make ,rosam#aaj of yellow ochre and white lead1 deepen with yellow ochre1 heighten with white lead4 ,reddish purple 7folium7 may be lowered with brown1 and heightened with white lead4 ,item1 mix folium with white lead1 lower with folium1 and heighten with white lead4 ,orpiment may be lowered with vermilion1 but cannot be heightened1 because it stains all other colours4 ,of ,tempering4 ,greek green you will temper with acid1 deepen with black1 and heighten with white1 made from stag's horn 7ivory black74 ,mix green with white lead1 deepen with pure green1 and heighten with white lead4 ,greenish blue1 deepen with green1 heighten with white lead4 ,yellow1 deepen with vermilion1 heighten with white lead4 ,indigo1 deepen with black1 heighten with azure4 ,item1 mix indigo with white1 deepen with azure1 heighten with white lead4 ,brown1 deepen with black1 heighten with red lead4 ,item1 make of brown and white lead a drab 7,rosam71 lower with brown1 heighten with white lead4 ,item1 mix yellow with white lead1 lower with yellow1 heighten with white lead4 ,lower red lead with brown1 heighten with white lead4 ,item1 red lead with brown1 deepen with black1 heighten with red lead4 ,item1 you may make flesh-colour of red lead and white1 lower with vermilion1 heighten with white lead4 ,which ,colours are ,antagonistic4 ,if you wish to know in what manner colours are antagonistic1 this is it4 ,orpiment 7sulphuret of arsenic7 does not agree with purple 7folio71 nor with green 7acetate of copper71 nor with red lead1 nor white lead4 ,green does not agree with purple4#aaa ,if you wish to make grounds1 make a fine rose-colour of vermilion and white4 ,item1 make a ground of purple mixed with chalk4 ,item1 make a ground of green mixed with vinegar4 ,item1 make a ground of the same green1 and when it shall have become dry1 cover it with size 7'caule'74 ,if you wish to write in gold1 take powder of gold and moisten it with size1 made from the very same parchment on which you have to write2 and with the gold and size near to the fire2 and1 when the writing shall be dry1 burnish with a very smooth stone1 or with the tooth of a wild boar4 ,item1 if then you should wish to make a robe or a picture1 you may apply gold to the parchment1 as ,i have above directed1 and shade with ink or with indigo1 and heighten with orpiment4 ,the above are the principal passages in the ,mapp ,clavicula1 which supply deficiencies in most other books of ,secreta2 and ,i have translated them at length1 both on account of the accuracy with which ,i have found the directions followed in ancient illuminated manuscripts1 and because ,i believed that a knowledge of this ancient scale of colours might greatly facilitate accurate copying from old examples4 ,i need scarcely say1 that as the art of painting improved in ,italy and the ,netherlands1 the illuminator's palette became enriched with several new and very brilliant colours2--such as the ultramarines and carmines 7exceedingly scarce in early manuscripts7 which make the books produced at ,rome and in ,northern ,italy1 during the #afth and #agth centuries1 glow with a vivacity never previously attained4 ,every improvement made in one country was1 however1 speedily1 communicated through these very art-treatises to other countries1 and thus we find lakes and carmines freely used in ,england during the #aeth century4#aab ,ultramarine1 indeed1 forms the special subject of an essay by a ,norman1 comprised among the ,le ,bgue ,,mss4 7already referred to71 under the following title1 which proves its novelty in ,western ,europe1 at the beginning of the #aeth century3-- ,anno #adaa1 ,johannes de 444 illegible ,normannus de ,azurro novo1 lapidis lazulli ultramarini4 ,the next collection of ,secreta in importance1 and probably in date to the ,mapp ,clavicula1 is that of a ,frenchman1 ,peter de ,st4 ,audemar4 ,with this treatise1 observes ,sir ,charles ,eastlake1 may be classed a similar one in the ,british ,museum1 written in the #adth century1 but treating of a somewhat earlier practice in art4 ,the identity of the colours for1 and practice of1 painters on wall and panel1 and illuminators on vellum1 is proved by the instructions to both being almost invariably given in the same books4 ,thus1 the volume last mentioned commences--,incipit tractatus de coloribus ,illuminatorum seu ,pictorum--as though there existed no practical distinction between the two4 ,another manuscript1 of later date1 also in the ,le ,bgue collection1 exhibits1 in its title even1 a curious picture of the industry with which the ,art of ,illumination was studied in the principal countries of ,europe1--introducing the student to a scribe1 actually keeping a school at ,milan4 ,thus1 ,liber ,johannis ,acherius1 ,a4,d4 #acih4 ,ut accessit a ,jacobo ,cona1 ,flamingo pictore3--,capitula de coloribus ad illuminandum libros ab eodem ,archerio sive ,alcherio1 ut accessit ab ,antonio de compendio illuminatore librorum in ,parisiis et a ,magistro ,alberto ,pozotto perfectissimo in omnibus modis scribendi1 ,mediolani scholas tenente4 ,here we have1 in a few lines1 evidence of the concurrence of no less1 probably1 than four distinct nationalities to make up one set of instructions4 ,however illuminated manuscripts may differ in style from each other1 according to the countries in which they may have been produced1 the technical processes1 from the commencement of the #aeth century1 scarcely differed at all1 probably through the general spread of these handbooks of the ,middle ,ages4 ,from the #adth century onwards1 the treatises1 or rather probably composite transcripts from earlier treatises1 multiply greatly2 so far1 however1 as ,i have been able to make out from the able analysis made by ,sir ,c4 ,eastlake1 ,mr4 ,hendrie1 and ,mrs4 ,merrifield1 of many1 they contain little more information than is conveyed in the extracts already given4 ,some curious details1 however1 may be gathered as to the ,london practice in the #aeth century1 which may interest the reader4 ,a manuscript1 written in ,german1 as is believed at that date1 is preserved in the public library at ,strasburg1 which distinctly proves that the colours for illuminating were commonly preserved by steeping small pieces of linen in the tinted extracts1 sometimes mixed with alkaline solutions4 ,the process is minutely described in this ,,ms42 the dyes so prepared are there called tchlein varwen1 literally clothlet colours4 ,the following passage from another compendium1 a ,venetian ,,ms41 gives the result in few words3--,when the aforesaid pieces of cloth are dry1 put them in a book of cotton paper1 and keep the book under your pillow1 that it may take no damp2 and when you wish to use the colours1 cut off a small portion of the cloth1 and place it in a shell with a little water1 the evening before4 ,in the morning the tint will be ready1 the colour being extracted from the linen4 ,this practice is alluded to by ,cennini1 when he says3--,you can shade with colours1 and by means of small pieces of cloth1 according to the process of the illuminators4 ,the ,german compiler1 speaking of the preparation of a blue colour in this mode1 says1 ,if you wish to make a beautiful clothlet blue colour according to the ,london practice1 c4 ,after describing the method of preparing it1 he adds3--,these pieces of cloth may be preserved fresh and brilliant1 without any change in their tints1 for twenty years2 and this colour1 in ,paris and in ,london1 is called blue for missals1 and here in this country clothlet blue2 it is a beautiful and valuable colour4 ,the place denominated ,lampten1 mentioned together with ,paris1 can be no other than ,london4#aac ,as pursuing the subject of ancient processes further than ,i have now done1 would scarcely he profitable to the student1 ,i proceed to the second division of this part of my subject1 and accordingly take up the modern processes4 ,in offering the following details on this subject1 however1 to the amateur's attention1 ,i would not for one moment let it be supposed that a knowledge of them alone will be sufficient to make him an efficient illuminator4 ,fortunately many very excellent artists have of late devoted themselves to giving instruction in the practical manipulation of the art1 and amateurs cannot do better than place themselves at once in communication with masters1 whose addresses may be obtained at the shops of the principal artists' colourmen4 ,there will still be1 no doubt1 in different parts of the country1 many desirous of illuminating1 and yet unable to obtain the benefit of seeing a practised hand work before them1 or even to pick up information as to the modus operandi4 ,to such1 at least1 the following observations may prove useful4#aad ,the two great sections into which all the processes by which illumination of any kind may be executed1 divide themselves1 are--#ast1 those in which water and glutinous substances soluble in water form the vehicles for applying the pigments1 and causing them to adhere to the surfaces on which they may be applied2 and #bndly1 those in which oil or spirit1 and resins1 or other substances which combine readily with such fluids1 are made to perform corresponding functions4 ,the pigments1 reduced to an impalpable powder1 are the same in both classes of processes1 which are commonly known as watercolour-painting and oil-painting4 ,that which was of old the artist's greatest stumbling-block--the manufacture and preparation of his pigments--need now no longer occasion him the slightest embarrassment2 for every colour with which his palette could be enriched is to be bought1 ready prepared1 of the principal artists' colourmen4 ,in like manner every other essential for his use is now freely at his command2 and all that is required on his part is knowledge how to employ the materials which others most dexterously and carefully place at his disposal4 ,in commencing the collection of that information which ,i am now endeavouring to communicate1 ,i felt it my duty to enter into correspondence with all those manufacturers whose products ,i had at different times personally tested2 and ,i accordingly addressed myself to the following1 whose materials1 with insignificant exceptions1 ,i have invariably found satisfactory1 both in nature and quality4 ,r4 ,,ackerman1 #aia1 ,regent-street1 ,w4 ,l4 ,,barbe1 #fj1 ,quadrant1 ,regent-street1 ,w4 ,j4 ,,barnard1 #cci1 ,oxford-street1 ,w4 ,messrs4 ,,brodie ,,middleton1 #gi1 ,long-acre1 ,w4,c4 ,h4 ,,miller1 #ef1 ,long-acre1 ,w4,c4 ,j4 ,,newman1 #bd1 ,soho-square1 ,w4 ,messrs4 ,,reeves ,,sons1 #aac1 ,cheapside1 ,e4,c4 ,messrs4 ,,roberson1 #ii1 ,long-acre1 ,w4,c4 ,messrs4 ,,rowney ,,co41 #ea1 ,rathbone-place1 ,w4 ,messrs4 ,,sherborne ,,tillyer1 #cba1 ,oxford-street1 ,w4 ,messrs4 ,,winsor ,,newton1 #ch1 ,rathbone-place1 ,w4 ,from each of the above-mentioned firms ,i have obtained valuable information1 and from several1 excellent samples of their products4 ,i am glad1 therefore1 to take the present opportunity of expressing my obligations to them4 ,from ,messrs4 ,winsor ,newton1 especially1 ,i have received the kindest and most intelligent co-operation2 and ,i am happy to be the channel of making public the results of a series of experiments1 on the combinations of colours and the use of various materials for illuminating purposes1 suggested by me1 and made with great tact and judgment by ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,winsor4 ,messrs4 ,winsor ,newton and ,mr4 ,barnard have1 up to the present time1 done most to smooth away the difficulties which beset the illuminator4 ,messrs4 ,newman1 ,messrs4 ,rowney ,co41 ,messrs4 ,reeves ,sons1 and ,mr4 ,barbe1 have also recently contributed valuable improvements or special adaptations4#aae ,the colours best suited for illuminating ,i believe to be as follows3-- ,b ,lemon ,yellow ,a ,gamboge ,yellow4 ,a ,cadmium ,yellow ,d ,mars ,yellow ,b ,rose ,madder ,a ,crimson ,lake ,c ,carmine ,red4 ,c ,orange ,vermilion ,a ,vermilion ,a ,cobalt ,a ,french ,blue ,blue4 ,d ,smalt ,d ,mars ,orange ,orange4 ,b ,burnt ,sienna ,c ,burnt ,carmine ,purple4 ,d ,indian ,purple ,a ,emerald ,green ,green4 ,c ,green ,oxide of ,chromium ,b ,vandyke ,brown ,brown4 ,a ,lampblack ,black4 ,a ,chinese ,white ,white4 ,these colours are selected from the list of water-colours made at the present day 7upwards of eighty71 and will1 ,i think1 be found to be all that can well be required for illuminating4 ,the whole number is by no means indispensable1 and ,i have therefore marked by different letters of the alphabet1--#ast1 ,a1 those without which it would be useless to commence work2 #bndly1 ,b1 those which should first be added2 #crdly1 ,c1 those which are required for very great brilliancy in certain effects2 and1 #dthly1 ,d1 those which may be regarded as luxuries in the art4 ,the ,c are really important2 the ,d are much less so4 ,messrs4 ,winsor ,newton have arranged them into four different lists1 which are placed in boxes 7complete with colours and materials for working in water-colours71 of the respective retail values of #a4 #as41 #a4 #aas4 #f;d41 #b4 #bs41 and #c4 #cs4 ,boxes corresponding with1 or slightly varying from these1 in selection of colours and materials1 may be obtained from other artists' colourmen4 ,i now proceed to notice these colours seriatim1 in reference to their tints1 both when used alone and when mixed with other colours4 ,,yellows4 ,lemon ,yellow4--,a vivid high-toned yellow1 semi-opaque1 is extremely telling upon gold4 ,mixed with cadmium yellow it furnishes a range of brilliant warm yellows4 ,it mixes well with gamboge1 orange vermilion1 cobalt1 emerald green1 and oxide of chromium1 and with any of these produces clean and useful tints4 ,gamboge4--,a bright transparent yellow of light tone2 works freely1 and is very useful for glazing purposes4 ,in combination with lemon yellow it affords a range of clean tints4 ,when mixed with a little ,mars yellow it produces a clear1 warm1 transparent tone of colour4 ,cadmium ,yellow4--,a rich glowing yellow1 powerful in tint1 and semi-transparent4 ,this is a most effective colour for illuminating4 ,when judiciously toned with white1 it furnishes a series of useful shades4 ,mixed with lemon yellow it produces a range of clean vivid tints4 ,it does not1 however1 make good greens--they are dingy4 ,mixed with carmine1 or glazed with it1 it gives a series of strong luminous shades4 ,mars ,yellow4--,a semi-transparent warm yellow1 of slightly russet tone1 but clean and bright in tint4 ,useful where a quiet yellow is required2 mixes well with gamboge2 does not make good greens4 ,,reds4 ,rose ,madder4--,a light transparent pink colour of extremely pure tone4 ,it is delicate in tint1 but very effective1 on account of its purity4 ,mixed with cobalt1 it affords clean1 warm1 and cold purples4 ,the addition of a little carmine materially heightens the tone of this colour1 though at the same time it somewhat impairs its purity4 ,crimson ,lake4--,a rich crimson colour1 clean and transparent2 washes and mixes well4 ,more generally useful than carmine1 though wanting the intense depth and brilliancy of the latter colour4 ,carmine4--,a deep-toned luminous crimson1 much stronger than crimson lake2 is clean and transparent4 ,the brilliancy of this powerful colour can be increased1 by using it over a ground of gamboge4 ,orange ,vermilion4--,a high-toned opaque red1 of pure and brilliant hue1 standing in relation to ordinary vermilion as carmine to crimson lake4 ,it is extremely effective1 and answers admirably where vivid opaque red is required2 it works1 washes1 and mixes well4 ,its admixture with cadmium results in a fine range of warm luminous tints4 ,when mixed with lemon yellow1 it furnishes a series of extremely clean and pure tints2 when toned with white1 the shades are clear and effective4 ,this is a most useful colour4 ,vermilion4--,a dense1 deep-toned red1 powerful in colour1 and opaque4 ,it is not so pure in tone as orange vermilion1 and is of most service when used alone2 it can1 however1 be thinned with white and with yellows4 ,,blues4 ,cobalt ,blue4--,a light-toned blue1 clean and pure in tint1 and semi-transparent4 ,this is the lightest blue used in illuminating1 and by the addition of white can he paled to any extent1 the tints keeping clear and good4 ,mixed with lemon yellow1 it makes a clean useful green4 ,its admixture with gamboge is not so satisfactory1 and the green produced by its combination with ,mars yellow is dirty and useless4 ,with rose madder it produces middling1 warm and cold purples 7i4e41 marones1 and lilacs or violets72 with crimson lake1 strong and effective ones2 with carmine1 ditto4 ,a series of quiet neutral tints can be produced by its admixture with orange vermilion4 ,the tints in question are clean and good1 and might occasionally be useful4 ,french ,blue4--,a deep rich blue1 nearly transparent2 is the best substitute for genuine ultramarine4 ,the greens it makes with lemon yellow1 gamboge1 cadmium1 and ,mars yellow1 are not very effective or useful4 ,the violets and marones it forms with rose madder are granulous and unsatisfactory2 with carmine they are somewhat better2 but those formed with crimson lake are very good4 ,smalt4--,a brilliant1 full-toned blue2 deep in tone1 and nearly transparent2 luminous and very effective when used alone4 ,it is granulous1 and does not wash or mix well4 ,the greens it makes are not particularly useful4 ,,oranges4 ,mars ,orange4--,a brilliant orange of very pure tone1 transparent and lighter in colour than burnt sienna2 and is not so coarse or staring4 ,an effective and useful colour4 ,burnt ,sienna4--,a deep rich orange1 transparent and effective2 works well and mixes freely4 ,,purples4 ,indian ,purple4--,a rich deep-toned violet1 or cold purple colour2 most effective when used alone4 ,can be lighted with ,french blue or cobalt1 and the tints will be found useful4 ,burnt ,carmine4--,a rich deep-toned marone or warm purple colour2 transparent and brilliant2 luminous and effective when used alone2 mixed with orange vermilion1 it produces a strong rich colour1 and a quiet fleshy one when mixed with cadmium yellow4 ,,greens4 ,emerald ,green4--,an extremely vivid and high-toned green1 opaque4 ,no combination of blue and yellow will match this colour1 which is indispensable in illuminating4 ,it can be paled with white1 and the tints thus produced are pure and clean4 ,the tints afforded by its admixture with lemon-yellow are also clear and effective4 ,green ,oxide of ,chromium4--,a very rich deep green1 opaque1 but effective4 ,the tone of this green renders it extremely useful in illuminating2 mixed with emerald green1 it furnishes a series of rich semi-transparent tints4 ,mixed with lemon-yellow1 it gives quiet1 useful shades of green2 and when this combination is brightened with emerald green1 the shades are luminous and effective4 ,,brown4 ,vandyke ,brown4--,a deep1 rich1 transparent1 brown1 luminous and clear in tint2 works1 washes1 and mixes well4 ,the best of all the browns for illuminating4 ,,black4 ,lampblack4--,the most dense and deep of all the blacks1 free from any shade of brown or grey4 ,,white4 ,chinese ,white4--,a preparation of oxide of zinc1 permanent1 and the white best adapted for illuminating4 ,it is not only useful per se1 but is indispensable for toning or reducing other colours4 ,in making the list of the colours just described1 ,i have assumed as a sine qu non that the colours used in illuminating should be permanent4 ,all those enumerated are so 7in water-colours71 with the exception of carmine and crimson lake2 and these1 though theoretically not permanent1 are yet found in practice to be very lasting1 especially when not too much exposed to the light4 ,it is a curious fact1 that crimson lake1 though a weaker colour than carmine1 is yet more permanent1 in consequence of its different base1 and that it will better stand exposure to light4 ,i here take the opportunity of warning amateurs1 allured by their evident brilliancy1 against the use1 in illumination1 of the following five colours1 viz4--pure scarlet1 red lead1 chrome yellow1 deep chrome1 and orange chrome4 ,none of these are permanent2 the first-named being fugitive1 and the others in time turning black2 but this is the less to be regretted1 as there are permanent colours answering equally well for illumination4 ,of course1 these are less fugitive in books1 which are generally protected from the action of light and air1 than they would be in pictures4 ,the preceding remarks on pigments apply1 with no difference worth noting1 to colours prepared either for oil or for water-colour2 which may therefore be laid on1 by varying the vehicle for their proper application1 to the surfaces of any of those materials which have been specified in the ,second ,part of this ,essay1 as available for different kinds of illumination4 ,i now proceed to notice the special processes requisite in each case1 commencing with those which may be best employed for vellum4 ,this substance consists of calf-skin1 carefully cleansed and scraped1 and repeatedly washed in diluted sulphuric acid4 ,the surface is rubbed down with fine pumice-stone to a smooth face1 and in that condition it is fit for working upon4 ,it is sold1 prepared for use1 at all the principal shops4 ,if it has not been previously strained1 or if many tints are likely to be floated over the surface1 it will be well to strain it down upon a strainer or board before attempting to draw upon it4 ,this may be done by damping the vellum1 and then either gluing or nailing its edges down4 ,when dry1 it will be found to lie perfectly flat and smooth4 ,it may be well1 then1 to wash it over with a dilute preparation of ox gall1 to overcome any possible greasiness1 and prepare it to receive colour freely4 ,mr4 ,barnard1 and1 ,i believe1 other artists' colourmen1 supply vellum mounted in block-books1 similar to those made up of drawing-paper for sketching on2 and by providing himself with one of those1 the amateur may avoid the trouble of having to mount his own vellum4 ,as it is by no means easy to remove pencil-marks from vellum 7and indeed it is never wise to attempt it1 for the black-lead unites with the animal fat1 which can never be entirely got out of the material1 and rubs under the action of ,indian-rubber or bread into a greasy smudge71 it is always well to set out the design in the first instance upon drawing-paper4 ,the best mode for good work is to complete the outline on drawing-paper1 and then to trace it carefully with a hard pencil on a piece of tracing-paper1 about one inch larger each way than the entire surface of the vellum2 then cut out1 the exact size of the vellum1 a piece of tracing or tissue paper1 rubbed evenly over with powdered red chalk4#aaf ,lay the tracing down 7pencilled side upwards7 in its right place upon the vellum1 and fasten down one edge with pins1 gum1 or mouth-glue4 ,then slip the transfer-paper1 with the chalked side downwards1 between the vellum and the tracing until it exactly covers the former--touching the back of the transfer-paper with two or three drops of gum on its margin4 ,then lay the tracing over1 and fasten down another of its edges4 ,the gum drops will prevent the transfer-paper slipping away from the tracing-paper1 when the drawing-board or strainer is placed upon a sloping desk or easel4 ,taking care to keep a piece of stout card or pasteboard under the hand1 go over all the lines of the tracing with a blunted etching-point1 or very hard pencil cut sharp4 ,this having been done1 on removing both the tracing and the transfer-paper1 it will be found that a clear red outline has been conveyed to the surface of the vellum4 ,at this stage of the work1 as nothing dirties more readily than this material1 it will be well to fasten over the surface a clean sheet of paper with a flap cut in it1 by raising up and folding back portions of which1 the artist may get to the part of the surface upon which he may desire to work without exposing any of the rest4 ,as the effect of the writing on the page gives as it were the key-note for the general effect of the illuminated ornaments1 it will be well to complete the former before proceeding to the latter4#aag ,if the lines of the writing fixed upon are fine and delicate1 they will look best1 and work most freely with ,indian ink2 but if they are bold and solid1 involving some extent of black surface1 they will present a better appearance if wrought in lampblack2 the principal difference between the two being that ,indian ink is finer1 and1 if good1 always retains a slight gloss1 while lampblack gives a fuller tint1 and dries off quite mat1 or with a dead surface1 corresponding with that of most other body-colour tints used in illuminating4 ,great care must be taken to keep the writing evenly spaced1 upright1 and perfectly neat1 as it is almost impossible to erase without spoiling the vellum1 and as no beauty of ornament will redeem an untidy text4 ,if a portion of the writing is to be in red1 it should be in pure vermilion2 and if in gold1 it should be highly burnished1 as will be hereafter directed4 ,the writing being satisfactorily completed1 the artist may proceed to lay in his ground tints1 generally mixing them with more or less white to give them body and solidity4 ,colours prepared with water are best adapted for illumination on vellum2 and those known as moist colours are to be preferred for this work1 as they give out a greater volume of colour1 and possess more tenacity or power of adhering to the surface of the material on which they are used than the dry colours4 ,of moist colours there are two descriptions1 viz41 solid and liquid2 and of these ,i give the preference to the former1 as some colours1 such as lemon yellow and smalt1 will not keep well in tubes2 added to which1 there is waste in using them in this form where only small quantities are required1 as the colour cannot be replaced in the tube when once squeezed out4 ,the tube colours possess1 however1 the valuable property of being always clean when a bit of pure colour is required4 ,the solid moist colours are apt to get dirtied in rapid working1 and occasionally mislead an eye which is not quick at detecting a lowered tint4 ,mr4 ,barbe's body-colours1 which are of very good quality1 are prepared in powder1 combined with a glutinous substance1 on moistening which with water1 the tints are fit for application4 ,messrs4 ,winsor ,newton's body-colours are also very excellent4 ,flatness of tint is best secured by using the first colour well mixed with body1 and put on boldly2 this forms the brightest tint2 then shade with pure transparent colour1 and finish off with the high lights4 ,very useful models1 both on a small scale for book illumination1 and on an enlarged one for wall decoration1 are now prepared by several of the artists' colour-men1 for teaching amateurs the different modes of shading1 c4 ,they consist of outline plates partially coloured by hand4 ,the beginner will find it a very useful exercise to complete a few of these before trying his hand upon more original works upon vellum4 ,the greatest care must be taken to have every implement perfectly clean4 ,experience alone can teach the artist the value of what are called glazing or transparent colours1 such as the lakes1 carmine1 madders1 gamboge1 c4 ,some tints may be used either as glazing colours1 or as body-tints1 according to their preparation1 and according to the degree of thickness with which they are applied4 ,as a general principle1 all shades should be painted in transparent colour1 all lights in opaque4 ,reflected lights may often be best given by scumbling thin body-colour over transparent shade4 ,in order to prepare the tints for these operations1 it may be well to use a little of ,newman's or ,miller's preparations with them4 ,the less tints are retouched after the first application1 the more clear and brilliant they are likely to remain4 ,above all things never let the paint-brush go near the mouth1 and never attempt to correct or retouch a tint while it is in process of drying1 as doing so will infallibly make it look streaky and muddy4 ,in all these processes of manipulation1 however1 practice1 good example1 and good tuition1 must teach what the minutest directions would fail to satisfactorily convey4 ,the principal colours having been applied1 the next difficulty will be to heighten them with gold and silver4 ,any large surfaces of gilding it will be well to apply previously to commencing colouring1 and as much as possible intended for burnishing4 ,the principal metallic preparations used in illumination may be enumerated as follows3--gold leaf1 gold paper1 shell gold1 saucer gold1 gold paint1 silver leaf1 shell silver1 and shell aluminium4 ,of these1 the leaves1 paper1 and paint1 are of ,english1 and the shells and saucers of ,french manufacture4 ,occasionally gold and silver powder and ,german-metal leaf are employed1 though too rarely to make them important enough to claim general notice4 ,the first-mentioned preparation of gold--gold-leaf--is the pure metal beaten into very thin leaves1 generally #c-a_/h inches1 #c inches1 or #c-c_/h inches square2 but for illuminating purposes it should be still smaller--say #b inches square1 as it is easier to handle than a larger size4 ,for the same reason it is better to have the leaf double as thick as it is usually beaten4 ,gold leaf is sold in books1 each of which contains twenty-five gold leaves1 and for ordinary and general purposes1 it is by far the best and most useful metallic preparation2 but the difficulty of handling and laying it on deters amateurs from employing it1 and it is difficult in writing to furnish a practical description of the modus operandi4 ,the following is the usual mode3-- ,carefully open the book of gold1 and if in so doing you disturb the leaf1 gently blow it down flat again4 ,if a whole leaf be required1 take a rounded 'tip1' and quietly so place it on the leaf that the top of the tip be close to the edge of the leaf4 ,in so doing1 the sides of the tip will be brought down upon the side edges of the leaf1 which then can be securely taken up and placed where required4 ,if a small piece of gold leaf only be wanted1 cautiously take up a leaf from the book by passing a 'gilder's knife' underneath1 and place it on a 'gilders cushion2'#aah lay it flat with the knife1 with which then cut the piece of the size required4 ,if when you have laid gold leaf down with the tip it be wrinkly1 blow it down flat4 ,the gilder's tip spoken of in the above extract is a very thin camel-hair brush1 and for unskilled hands a semicircular tip is to be preferred to one of the ordinary form2 as with it a leaf of gold may be firmly laid hold of1 balanced1 adjusted1 and placed1 without needing any particular knack4 ,for long narrow pieces of gold1 the ordinary gilder's tip is probably the best4 ,gold paper consists of leaves of gold placed upon thin paper1 a sheet of which1 measuring about #ai inches by #ab inches1 requires one book of gold4 ,the mat or dead gold is most frequently used in illumination2 but1 when required1 the bright or burnished gold can be procured4 ,gold paper is usually plain at the back1 and when used1 is required to be gummed on to the work2 but it is far better to have it prepared on the back with a mixture of clear glue1 sugar1 c41 which can be laid on evenly and thickly1 and yet is very strong4 ,paper thus prepared needs only to have a wet flat camel-hair brush passed over the back2 it can then be laid down1 and will adhere very firmly4 ,in laying down gold paper1 it is well to place a piece of white glazed paper on its face1 then firmly to pass over it the edge of a flat rule or burnisher1 in order to press down all inequalities and render the surface perfectly smooth4 ,shell gold is gold powder mixed up and placed in mussel-shells for use4 ,it is removed from the shell by the application of water1 like moist colours1 and is adapted for small work and fine lines1 in which latter case a quill or reed pen will be found useful4 ,when the work is dry1 the gold can be brightened with a burnisher4 ,saucer gold only differs from shell gold in being placed in china saucers instead of shells4 ,gold paint is a preparation of bronze in imitation of gold1 and is usually sold in two bottles1 one of powder and the other of liquid2 which two ingredients1 when mixed together1 form the paint1 the use of which ,i do not recommend1 as in course of time it turns black4 ,the same objection unfortunately applies more or less1 also1 to the preparations of silver1 which1 however1 are still occasionally used in illumination4 ,silver leaf is made in the same manner as gold leaf1 and the remarks made in reference to that are generally applicable to silver leaf4 ,shell silver is not really silver1 but an amalgam of tin and mercury prepared and placed in mussel-shells1 and used with water in the same way as gold shells4 ,shell aluminium is a preparation of aluminium placed in mussel-shells for use1 and is warranted to keep its colour without tarnishing4 ,if this be the case1 it will form a valuable addition to the list of materials for illumination1 as it will be the only white metal known that can be depended upon for not tarnishing4 ,the preparation is at present a comparatively new one1 but bids fair to be very serviceable4 ,water-mat gold size is a preparation for laying down gold leaf1 i4e41 causing it to adhere to a given surface4 ,the mode of using it is as follows3--,take a small brush saturated with water1 and thoroughly charge it with the size4 ,with the brush so charged1 trace out the required form or pattern1 and upon this lay the gold leaf1 pressing it lightly down with cotton-wool4 ,when all is dry1 gently rub off the superfluous gold with cotton-wool4 ,burnish gold size is a preparation for laying down the gold leaf that is intended afterwards to be burnished 7i4e41 polished with a tooth or agate burnisher74 ,that prepared by ,messrs4 ,winsor ,newton may be used as follows3--,place the bottle in warm water to dissolve its contents1 which1 however1 must not be allowed to get hot1 but merely be made liquid4 ,stir up the preparation with a hogs-hair brush1 which then thoroughly charge with the mixture2 with it trace out the pattern required to be burnished1 then let the work dry4 ,when quite dry1 let the surface of the pattern be wetted with clean cold water1 and on it 7while damp7 place the gold leaf4 ,let all get perfectly dry1 and then burnish as required4 ,when a very bright surface is wanted1 two coats of the size should be used2 the second being put on after the first is dry4 ,the raising preparation made by the same firm1 is adapted for raising the surface of the work1 so as to obtain relief1 and is particularly required for imitating rich ,,mss4 of the #adth and #aeth centuries4 ,it is used as follows3--,place the bottle in hot water1 and when its contents are dissolved1 stir it well up with a small hogs-hair brush1 then fully charge it1 draw out the form intended to be raised1 and deposit the raising on the surface4 ,if the height thus attained be not sufficient1 wait till the preparation is dry1 and go over it again1 and so on until you gain the height you require1 when it must be allowed to become quite hard2 then go over it with the water-mat gold-size1 and while this is wet put on the gold2 press gently down with cotton-wool1 and when dry brush off the superfluous gold with cotton-wool2 when putting on the raising1 take care to keep the surface level1 unless it may be required to be hollowed or indented4 ,mr4 ,barnard has also prepared a gold size and raising preparation1 adapted for laying gold on vellum or paper1 which answers well both for mat and burnish gilding4 ,the mode of using it is as follows3--,wash a little of the gold size off with a brush dipped in water1 using it thinly for the flat parts of your design1 and in greater body for that portion of the drawing which you wish to appear raised2 after allowing it to remain for a few minutes1 till nearly dry1 apply the gold1 and press it down with a piece of cotton-wool4 ,it must now remain untouched for about an hour1 when the superfluous gold may be removed by means of the wool1 and in case of defect1 the gold size and gold must be again applied4 ,preparations of a somewhat similar nature are sold by ,messrs4 ,rowney1 ,newman1 and other artists' colourmen4#aai ,very pretty effects may be obtained by partial burnishing of the gold in patterns1 and dotting it over with the point of the sharp burnisher in indentations1 arranged in geometrical forms4 ,the best manuscripts of the ,edwardian period were often highly wrought after this fashion4 ,when finished1 it is scarcely necessary to recommend that the vellum sheet should be either put carefully away until enough of others corresponding with it are done to make up a volume1 or should be glazed so as to protect its surface4 ,one dirty or greasy finger laid upon it1 and the effect of much beautiful work1 which may have taken weeks to elaborate1 is fatally marred4 ,all the above instructions apply as well for working on paper or cardboard as on vellum4 ,the amateur who has once succeeded on vellum1 is not likely to take again to the humbler practice of working on the less noble materials1 which1 however1 will always be exceedingly useful for practising and sketching upon4 ,i have occasionally seen printed volumes gracefully illustrated by hand with borders1 and with elegant inventions1 in the form of head and tail pieces1 insertions1 c41 applicable to the subject of the volume4 ,many of the works of old ,english authors are peculiarly suited for this class of embellishment4 ,how beautiful might not a ,walton's ,angler or a ,bunyan's ,pilgrim's ,progress be made if appropriately enriched in this style4 ,tracing-paper1 and the facilities it offers to those little gifted with talents for drawing1 ,i have already noticed4 ,it remains1 however1 to observe1 that it possesses an additional practical convenience in being ready for taking colour1 either with oil1 water1 or varnish1 as vehicles1 without the previous application of any special preparation4 ,hence it may be fastened up when completed1 either by pasting as ordinary paper1 by gluing1 if for attachment to wood1 or by paying over the back with boiled oil and copal varnish1 or with white lead ground in oil with some litharge1 and then pressing down until it may be made to lie perfectly flat and adhere to any surface previously painted in oil-colour4 ,being very thin1 its edges will scarcely show at all1 even if applied to the middle of a flat panel2 but1 to make sure1 it is always well to run a line with a full brush of thick colour1 either in oil or distemper1 over the edge1 extending for one half of its width upon the tracing-paper1 and for the other half upon the surface to which it may have been applied4 ,of the remaining materials on which illumination for the decoration1 not of books but of apartments1 may be readily executed1 canvas1 stone1 metal1 and wood1 are generally wrought upon by the ordinary processes of oil-painting2 while plaster1 especially in the form of ceilings1 is more frequently treated by means of distemper-painting4 ,i propose1 therefore1 to give1 firstly1 some general directions as to the setting out work1 c41 applicable to both methods2 secondly1 a notice of the processes generally required for oil-colour illumination2 thirdly1 a brief description of the mode of working in distemper2 and fourthly1 to wind up with some instructions as to the application of varnish which may be employed to heighten and preserve illumination executed by either of the above methods4 ,the operation of setting out lines upon walls or other surfaces is by no means easy4 ,it involves care and judgment1 a quick eye1 and a very steady hand4 ,it is the indispensable preliminary before ornamental work or illumination can be executed1 as it can alone correctly give the forms of panels1 borders1 c41 for which cartoons may have to be prepared4 ,lines may be either drawn with pencil or prepared charcoal1 or chalk1 or else struck by means of a chalked string4 ,for lines which are vertical1 a weight called a plumb-bob must be attached to one end of the string4 ,the best shape for this is that of half an egg1 as the flat side will then lie close to the wall4 ,two persons are required in setting out these lines1--one working above and the other below4 ,the one at the top marks the points at the distance each line is required to be from others4 ,the string being chalked either black or white1--according as the line has to show upon a light or dark ground1--he holds it to one of the points1 and lets fall the weighted end1 which1 when quite steady1 the person who is below strains tight1 and raising the string between his finger and thumb in the middle1 lets it fall back sharply on the wall4 ,the result1 if carefully executed1 is a perfectly straight and vertical line4 ,the horizontal lines require to be drawn with a straight-edge or ruler1 and may be either set out at a true right angle to the vertical lines geometrically by the intersection of arcs of circles1 or by a large square1 or may be defined1 irrespectively of mathematical correctness1 by measuring up or down from a ceiling or floor line4 ,the distances apart are as before measured out1 but in long lines must be marked as many times as the length of the straight-edge may require4 ,this being set at each end to the points marked1 the line is drawn along it4 ,circles and curved lines may be struck from their proper centres with large wooden compasses1 one leg carrying a pencil4 ,drawing lines with the brush requires great practice4 ,a straight-edge is placed upon the chalk lines1 with the edge next the line slightly raised1 and the brush1 well filled with colour1 drawn along it1 just touching the wall1 the pressure being never increased1 and the brush refilled whenever it is near failing2 but great care must be taken that it be not too full1 as in that case it will be apt to blotch the line1 or drop the colour upon the lower portions of the wall4 ,drawing lines in colour overhead upon a ceiling is even more difficult1 and is beyond the capabilities of most amateurs4 ,the patterns of ornament are executed either by means of stencils cut in oiled paper1 according to the method which will be next described1 or else by pounces1 which are the full-sized drawings pricked along all the lines with a needle upon a flat cushion2 powdered charcoal1 tied up in a cotton bag1 is then dabbed upon the paper which has been set up on the wall1 or else the back is rubbed over with drawing-charcoal and brushed well with a flat brush1 like a stove brush4 ,in both cases the result is that the dust passes on to the walls through the pricked holes1 and forms are thus sufficiently indicated to the painter4 ,stencilling is a process by which colour is applied through interstices cut in a prepared paper1 by dabbing with a brush4 ,the design to be stencilled is drawn upon paper which has been soaked with linseed oil and well dried4 ,the pattern is then cut out with a sharp knife upon a sheet of glass1 care being taken to leave such connections as will keep the stencil together4 ,the next tint is then to be laid on in the same manner1 and so on till the darkest tint is done1 each tint being allowed to dry before a second is applied4 ,i do not purpose dwelling in detail on the preparation1 or bringing forward1 as it is called1 of surfaces to receive oil-colour2 since1 for such mechanical work1 it will be always well to employ a good house-painter4 ,i may observe1 however1 that the first operation1 where the surface is absorbent1 is to stop the suction1 either by a plentiful application of boiled oil alone1 boiled oil and red lead1 or size4 ,several successive coats of paint should then be applied1 and in order to obtain smoothness1 the surface of each should be well rubbed down4 ,the last coat should be mixed with turpentine1 and no oil1 in order to kill the gloss1 or1 as it is termed1 to flat the surface4 ,for most decoration and illumination1 the work should be brought forward in white1 as1 by shining partially through most of the pigments ultimately applied1 it will greatly add to their brilliancy4 ,zinc white will stand much better than white lead4 ,messrs4 ,roberson1 of ,long ,acre1 prepare an excellent wax medium1 which dries with a perfectly dead encaustic surface1 and answers admirably for mural-painting of all kinds4 ,i caused it to be employed for all the decoration executed under my direction at the ,sydenham ,crystal ,palace4 ,miller's glass medium will also be found very useful to artists and amateurs4 ,in laying on all ground tints1 great care should be taken to keep them flat2 and the less1 as a general rule1 tints are mixed1 worked over and over1 and messed about1 the brighter they will be4 ,the principal colours having dried1 the setting out of the lettering1 c41 may be proceeded with2 the following directions being duly attended to4 ,the ,setting-out of ,letters4#abj ,in regard to the proportion of ,roman capital letters1 it may be taken as a general rule1 that the whole of the letters1 with the exception of ,s1 ,j1 ,i1 ,f1 ,m1 and ,n1 are formed in squares4 ,the top and bottom of the letters should project the width of the thick line4 ,the letters ,i and ,j are formed in a vertical parallelogram1 half the width of the square2 the letters ,m and ,n in a horizontal parallelogram1 one third larger than the square4 ,the letters ,a1 ,b1 ,e1 ,f1 ,h1 ,x1 and ,y1 are either divided1 or have projections from the middle4 ,this rule may be varied1 and the division placed nearer the top than the base of the square4 ,capitals in the same word should have a space equal to half a square between them2 at the beginning of a word1 a whole square1 and between the divisions of a sentence two squares should be left4 ,this is the general rule for the proportions of the letters2 but they may be made longer or wider1 as may be deemed expedient4 ,the small letters are half the size of the capitals2 the long lines of the letters b1 d1 f1 h1 k1 and l1 are the same height as the capitals2 the tails of j1 p1 q1 and y1 descending in like proportion4 ,the letter s is founded on the form of two circles at a tangent to each other4 ,these rules are applicable to sloping as well as to upright letters4 ,in italic letters it is usual to make the capitals three times the height of the smaller letters1 and the long strokes of the small letters nearly equal to the capitals4 ,the letters having been duly set out1 and painted on the walls1 the amateur must next either himself encounter1 or employ some experienced hand to overcome1 the technical difficulties of successfully gilding those portions of his work he may desire to remain in gold4 ,the following directions may assist him2 but he is not likely to succeed until practice shall have given him considerable dexterity and confidence3-- ,gilding for ,walls1 c4 ,the implements with which the gilder should provide himself are not numerous1 nor are they expensive1 as they consist merely of a cushion of particular form1 a knife for cutting the gold-leaf1 a tip for transferring it1 and a cotton ball or pad for pressing it down2 these and a few brushes are all the requisites1 with the addition of an agate burnisher when burnish gilding is desired4 ,the cushion is a species of palette made of wood1 about #i inches by #f inches1 having on the upper surface a covering of leather stuffed with wool1 and on the under side a loose band1 through which the thumb being passed1 the cushion is kept firmly resting on the left hand4 ,to prevent the gold flying off 7for1 being extremely light1 this very readily takes place71 a margin of parchment is fixed on the edge of the cushion1 rising about three inches1 and enclosing it on three sides4 ,the knife very much resembles a palette-knife1 the blade is about four inches long and half an inch wide1 perfectly straight1 and cutting on one edge only4 ,the tip is the brush with which the gold-leaf is applied4 ,it is formed by placing a line of badger-hair between two thin pieces of cardboard1 and is generally about three inches wide4 ,the dabber is merely a pinch of cotton-wool1 lightly tied up in a piece of very soft rag1 or1 what is better1 the thin silk called ,persian4 ,it is often used without covering1 but is then very apt to take up the uncovered gold-size1 and so to soil the leaf already laid down4 ,camel-hair brushes are useful for intricate parts1 and for cleaning off the superfluous gold a long-haired brush1 called a softener1 is requisite4 ,there should be also at hand a small stone and muller 7these are also made in glass1 which is cleaner7 for grinding up the oil and gold-size4 ,the operator1 having stocked himself with the above tools1 may now proceed to lay the gold-leaf upon the work he desires to gild4 ,there are two methods of doing this1 known in the trade as ,oil-gilding and ,water-gilding2 and so called from the composition of the size which serves as a vehicle for making the gold-leaf adhere to the work4 ,the following is the usual process in oil-gilding3--,this method costs less and will wear much better than water-gilding1 which will be presently described2 but has not its delicate appearance and finish1 nor can it be burnished or brightened up4 ,though the oil gold-size can always be purchased of good quality1 it may be well to describe the fat oil of which it is principally composed4 ,linseed oil1 in any quantity1 is exposed during the summer in the open air1 but as much away from dust as possible1 for about two months1 during which time it must be often stirred1 and it will become as thick as treacle4 ,it is a good practice to pour into the pot a quantity of water1 so that the oil may be lifted from the bottom of it1 as all the impurities of the oil sink into the water1 and do not again mix when it is stirred4 ,when of the consistency above mentioned1 the oil is separated from the water1 and being put into a bottle1 is subjected to heat till it becomes fluid again1 when all remaining impurities will sink1 and the oil1 being carefully poured off from the sediment1 forms what is termed fat oil4 ,the gilder commences by priming the work1 should it not have been painted1 using for the purpose a small portion of yellow ochre and vermilion1 mixed with drying oil4 ,when this is quite dry1 a coat of the oil gold size1 compounded with the fat oil just described1 japanner's gold-size1 and yellow ochre1 is laid on1 and when this is perfectly dry1 a second should be given1 or even a third4 ,a superior finish is produced by going over the work1 before using the size1 with ,dutch rushes or fish-skin1 which gives a finer surface to it4 ,after the last coat of size is applied1 the work must be left for about a day1 to set1 taking care to keep it from dust2 and the proper state for receiving the gold-leaf is known by touching the size with the finger1 when it should be just tacky1 that is adhesive1 without leaving the ground on which it has been laid4 ,the gilder then1 taking on his left hand his cushion1 transfers to it the gold-leaves from the books in which they are purchased4 ,this is not very easy to a beginner1 as the gold cannot be touched except by the knife4 ,gilders manage it by breathing under the leaf in the direction it is desired to send it1 and flatten it on the cushion by the same gentle blowing or breathing4 ,it is now cut to the required shape1 and applied to the sized surfaces by means of the tip1 which1 if drawn across the hair or face each time it is used1 will slightly adhere to the gold4 ,the whole leaves are sometimes transferred from the books to the work at once2 and when there is much flat space1 it facilitates the process4 ,as the leaves are laid on the size1 they are pressed gently down with the cotton ball1 or in sunken parts with camel-hair brushes2 and when perfectly dry1 the loose leaf is removed by gently brushing over the work with the softener1 when if there should be found any places ungilt1 such spots are touched with japanners' gold-size1 and the leaf applied as before4 ,the process of oil-gilding is then complete4 ,water or burnish-gilding differs from the former in the use of parchment instead of oil size1 and has received its name from being moistened with water in rendering the size adhesive1 and also from its fitness for burnishing4 ,its superior beauty1 however1 is balanced by its being less durable than oil-gilding1 and1 unlike the latter1 unfit to be exposed to damp air2 it is therefore only used for indoor work or ornamentation4 ,the parchment size is made by boiling down slips of parchment or cuttings of glovers' leather1 till a strong jelly be formed1 the proportions being one pound of cuttings to six quarts of water1 which must be boiled till it shrinks to two quarts4 ,while hot1 the liquid should be strained through flannel2 and when cold1 the jelly required will be fit for use4 ,the work to be gilded will require several coats of composition3 the first1 or priming coat1 is made of size thinned with water1 and a little whiting2 with this the work is brushed over1 using a thicker mixture when there are defects which need to be stopped4 ,successive coats are then laid on to the number of seven or eight1 and the last1 being moistened with water1 is worked over and smoothed on the plain parts with ,dutch rushes4 ,after this is completed1 a coating is laid on1 composed of bol ammoniac #a pound1 black lead #b ounces1 ground up on the stone with #b ounces of olive oil4 ,this is one out of many receipts2 all1 however1 are diluted for use with parchment size warmed up with two-thirds water1 and forming what is called water gold-size4 ,two coats of this should be laid on2 the part about to be burnished should then be again rubbed with a soft cloth till quite even1 and care taken that each coat be perfectly dry before the subsequent one be laid on4 ,the work is now moistened in successive portions with a camel-hair brush and water1 and while moist covered with gold-leaf in precisely the same manner as described in the directions for oil-gilding1 great caution being observed in order to avoid wetting the leaf already laid down1 as a discoloration would be the result4 ,the work is now left for about four-and-twenty hours1 when the parts which are to be burnished may be tried in two or three places4 ,care should be taken not to let the work get too dry1 as in that case it would require more burnishing1 and yet not give a good result4 ,this state is known by its polishing slowly1 and if it be too wet it will peel off2 but should the places where the trials are made all polish quickly and evenly1 the work may then be finished2 for which purpose agates cut in proper forms and set into handles1 are sold at the artists' colour-shops4#aba ,the gilding satisfactorily accomplished1 the artist or amateur has only to add the finishing tints and touches to his work1 and then either to leave it alone1 or to varnish it in accordance with the directions which will be given presently4 ,if the work has been executed on canvass1 it will remain only to apply it to the surface for which it may have been destined4 ,this may be done by painting that surface with thick white lead1 in two or three coats1 and by also similarly painting the back of the canvass4 ,the latter being then pressed evenly down upon the former1 while the white lead upon both is still tacky1 and1 left for a few days1 will be found to have attached itself with the greatest tenacity4 ,scrolls and panels cut out of zinc sheets may be painted upon just as though they were cut out of canvass1 and may be fixed in their places by nails or screws4 ,in illuminating on wood1 pretty effects may be obtained by varnishing partially with transparent colours1 such as the lakes1 umber1 ,prussian blue1 burnt sienna1 c41 so as to allow the grain of the wood to show through1--restricting the use of opaque colour and gilding to a few brilliant points4 ,distempering is a method of colouring walls and ceilings in which powder colour1 ground up in water1 and mixed with sufficient size to fix the colour1 is used instead of paint made with oil4 ,the most simple employment of distemper is in whitening ceilings1 but it is also very much used in theatrical decoration and scene-painting2 and rooms are sometimes so ornamented1 the process being much less expensive than oil-painting4 ,the foundation of all the colours is whiting1 which1 having been set to soak in water and break up of itself1 is 7when the top water is poured off7 in a fit state for use2 common double size is then added1 with as much of the colour as will make the desired tint2 but as this1 when dry1 will be many shades lighter than it appears when wet1 trials should be made on paper1 and dried by the fire till the colour required be attained4 ,a gentle heat is required for melting the size4 ,old walls are prepared for distemper by being scraped and cleaned1 and a coat of clearcole given to them4 ,this is merely thin size and water with a little whiting3 it serves to wash and smooth the walls and stop suction4 ,should there be any cracks or holes1 a thick paste of size-water and whiting is laid in them with a palette-knife1 and1 when dry1 smoothed down with pumice-stone1 and another coat of clearcole given1 when the wall is in a proper state to receive the ground tint2 for new walls one coat of clearcole is sufficient4 ,if it is intended to lay on lines of various colours1 the wall is1 previous to the laying on of the ground tint1 set out as previously described2 and the appropriate colours put on in succession1 according to the design to be followed4 ,all the colours required should be ground up1 and kept ready prepared in galley-pots well covered over1 so as to be at hand at once4 ,the colour should be of the consistency of thick cream1 and should run from the brush on being raised from the pot in one thread2 if it run in several1 it is too thin4 ,if too thick1 add more size and water2 if too thin1 more whiting4 ,the pots used are the common red paint-pots4 ,,varnishing4 ,varnish is a solution of resin in oil or spirits of wine4#abb ,surfaces which are to be varnished should be of the greatest smoothness and polish which it is possible to attain4 ,dark colours are best calculated for varnishing2 the lighter colours1 such as sky-blue1 apple-green1 rose-colour1 delicate yellow1 c41 will not bear varnishing so well1 and in spite of the greatest care are liable to get dirty4 ,the best preparation for stopping suction in absorbent surfaces1 and so rendering them fit to take varnish1 is made of isinglass or parchment size2 for the darker colours it may be made of common clear glue4 ,four or five coats will be necessary for the brighter colours2 two or three will be sufficient for the darker ones4 ,great care must be taken not to wash up water or distemper colours in laying on the first coat1 nor to lay on a second coat before the first is perfectly dry2 nor must the varnishing be proceeded with before the last coat of size is thoroughly dry4 ,varnish may be applied on surfaces brought forward in oil without any special preparation1 provided the oil has become thoroughly dry and hard4 ,this process serves both to enhance and preserve the beauty of the colours1 and in some degree to counteract the destructive influence of the atmosphere and of insects4 ,varnishes suitable for the work in hand1 such as clear copal spirit varnish1 oil copal varnish1 white hard varnish1 c41 may be procured from any one who supplies drawing materials4 ,the varnishing itself requires some little care4 ,it should be performed in a place perfectly free from dust1 in a bold manner with large brushes1 steadily1 rapidly1 and uniformly1 not returning too frequently to the same spot1 more especially when using spirit varnish1 which loses its fluidity much sooner than oil varnish4 ,whichever varnish is used1 it should be very thin3 if spirit varnish1 the room must be of a moderate temperature2 for if too cold1 the varnishing is apt to be rough1 white1 and unequal2 if too hot1 it is liable to have air-bladders1 and to crumble and spoil4 ,oil varnishing may be done in a room of warmer temperature4 ,a second coat of varnish must on no account be laid on before the first coat is quite dry4 ,if the work is to be polished1 the spirit varnish must be applied from five to eight times1 oil varnish three or four2 but if the work is not to be polished1 then four coats of the former and two of the latter will generally be found sufficient4 ,when thoroughly dry1 the face of the varnish may be polished with pumice-stone1 tripoly1 water1 and sweet oil4 ,if it be an oil varnish1 procure some of the finest pulverized pumice-stone1 and mix it with water to about the consistence of cream2 with a piece of linen rag dipped in this mixture rub the work till all inequalities disappear1 and the surface is as smooth as glass2 then dry it with a cloth1 and polish once more with tripoly and sweet oil2 then dry it with a piece of soft linen1 rub it with starch reduced to a fine powder1 and finish with a clean soft linen cloth1 until the varnish assumes a dazzling appearance4 ,if it is a spirit varnish1 omit the pumice-stone1 and begin with the tripoly and water2 after this use the tripoly and sweet oil1 and finish as before described for the oil varnish4 ,the difference is so striking between the polished and unpolished surfaces1 as to amply repay the additional trouble required in the polishing4 ,the polishing powders must be kept in thoroughly clean vessels1 a single grain of sand being sufficient to spoil the polish4 ,m4 ,,digby ,,wyatt4 #cg1 ,,tavistock ,,place1 ,w4,c4 ,april1 #ahfa4 ,,footnotes4 #a ,m4 ,gabriel ,peignot1 in his ,essai sur l',histoire da ,parchemin et du ,vlin1 ,paris1 #ahab1 and in his paper on the same subject in ,le ,moyen ,age et la ,renaissance1 vol4 ii4 ,paris1 #ahdi1 produces evidence of the use of parchment for writing upon anterior to the age of ,eumenes2 and consequently limits his interpretation of ,pliny's words1 ,varro membranas ,pergami tradidit repertas1 to an assertion of the discovery of improved processes by which parchment was rendered more available for writing upon than it had been previous to the accession of ,eumenes4 #b ,a good representation of a scrinium and scapi1 from a painting in the ,casa ,falkener1 described in the ,museum of ,classical ,antiquities1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ed1 is given in one of the cubicula of the ,pompeian ,court at ,sydenham4 #c ,see ,gell's ,pompeiana ,appendix2 and the ,memoir of the ,canonico ,iorio4 #d ,let those who will have old books written in gold and silver on purple parchment1 or1 as they are commonly called1 in uncial letters1--rather ponderous loads than books1--so long as they permit me and mine to have poor copies1 and rather correct than beautiful books4 #e ,p4 #aac4 ,ingram1 ,cooke1 ,co41 ,london1 #ahec4 #f ,universal ,palography4 ,london1 ,bohn4 #g ,through the kindness of the late ,mr4 ,dennistoun1 of ,dennistoun1 and ,cardinal ,acton1 who obtained the requisite facilities for me4 #h ,tome v4 pl4 lxv42 tome iii4 p4 #bi4 #i ,d',agincourt's famous mistake in attributing these miniatures to the #abth or #acth century1 and ,ottley's ascription of those in the ,saxon ,aratus of the #ith century to the #bnd or #crd1 are among those slips of the learned which prove that even great men are fallible4 #aj ,iste liber est beati ,dionysii4 #aa ,the palimpsest ,homer of the ,british ,museum1 discovered by ,mr4 ,cureton1 is of equal importance in ,grecian palography4 #ab ,in the case of the de ,republic1 they are written in the same direction4 ,see facsimiles in ,sylvestre and ,ferdinand ,ser4 #ac ,iliadis ,fragmenta antiquissima cum ,picturis1 ed4 ,angelo ,maio4 #ad ,petri ,lambecii ,commentaria de ,bibliotheca ,vindobonensi1 vol4 ii4 #ae ,the ,bible formerly belonging to ,theodore ,beza1 now at ,cambridge1 and one in the ,vatican1 are rival claimants to this honour4 #af ,it was given to ,charles ,i4 of ,england1 by ,cyrillus ,lucaris1 ,patriarch of ,constantinople4 #ag ,in his ,origin and ,progress of ,writing4 #ah ,treasures of ,art in ,great ,britain1 vol4 i4 p4 #ig4 #ai ,text to ,shaw's ,illuminated ,ornaments1 page #d4 #bj ,for a full description1 with references to numerous commentators1 see ,westwood's ,palographia ,sacra ,pictoria1 cap4 #di4 #ba ,tome ii4 article ,manuscrits1 fig4 #ae4 #bb ,treasures of ,art in ,great ,britain1 vol4 i4 p4 #if4 #bc ,dr4 ,kugler 7,handbuch der ,kunstgeschichte1 p4#dja71 in speaking of ,anglo-,saxon illuminated manuscripts1 observes1 dass wir diese ,arbeiten als ein der ersten ,zeugnisse des germanischen ,kunstgeistes in seiner ,selbstndigkeit1 und zugleich als das ,vorspiel oder als den ersten ,beginn des romanischen ,kunststyles1 zu betrachten haben4 #bd ,as represented in the plates to ,salzenberg's fine work1 ,alt-,christliche ,baudenkmale von ,constantinopel1 vom ,v4 bis ,,xii4 ,jahrhundert4 ,folio1 ,berlin1 #ahed4 #be ,the whole are given in ,shaw's ,illuminated ,ornaments1 plates #a1 #b1 #c1 and #d4 #bf ,it is on this account that we have refrained from giving any specimens of manuscripts anterior to the #fth century4 #bg ,palographia ,sacra ,pictoria1 cap4 ,syriac ,,mss4 #bh ,o',conor and others were of course earlier in the field4 #bi ,palographia ,sacra ,pictoria1 ,book of ,kells1 page #a4 #cj ,catalogue of the ,libri collection of ,,mss41 ,introduction by ,m4 ,libri1 pages xiv4 and xxvi4 ,london1 #ahei4 #ca ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 speaking probably of this very book1 says1 ,sin autem ad perspicacius intuentum oculorum aciem invitaveris1 et longe penitus ad artis arcana transpenetraveris1 tam delicatas et subtiles1 tam actas et arctas1 tam nodosas et vinculatim colligatas1 tamque recentibus adhuc coloribus illustratas1 notare poteris intricaturas1 ut vere hc omnia angelica potius quam humana diligentia jam asseveraveris esse composita4 #cb ,it is more abundantly used in ,vesp4 ,a #a1 which1 as we shall have occasion to notice hereafter1 is in a very mixed style4 #cc ,bede expressly says1 that at ,augustine's synod1 held at the commencement of the #gth century1 the bishops and learned men attending it1 after a long disputation1 refused to comply with the entreaties1 exhortations1 or rebukes of the saint and his companions1 but preferred their own traditions before all the churches in the world1 which in ,christ agree among themselves4 #cd ,d',agincourt1 ,painting1 plates xxviii4 xxix4 xxx4 #ce ,this precious volume and its illustrations were first figured and described by ,mr4 ,westwood4 #cf ,life of ,gregory the ,great1 by ,johannes ,diaconus1 lib4 ii4 cap4 #cg4 #cg ,the words are1 qu omnia illustrantur ,romano habitu1 figuris1 et antiquitate4 ,imperatoris ,valentiniani tempora videntur attingere4 ,this mistake of the old librarian has been corrected with much care and learning by the ,baron van ,tiellandt4--,see his ,naspeuringen nopens zekeren ,codex ,psalmorum in de ,utrechtsche ,boekerij berustende1 door ,w4 ,h4 ,j4 ,baron van ,westreeinen van ,tiellandt4 #ch ,the ,,ms4 department of the ,british ,museum possesses some tracings from the ,utrecht ,psalter1 and on confronting them with the ,harleian #fjc1 it requires a sharp eye to detect the slight differences existing between several of the illustrations to each of the volumes4 ,in the ,harleian volume1 all the subjects have not been filled in2 some are left out altogether1 spaces being reserved for them in the text1 and others are faintly traced with a leaden or silver point1 preparatory to inking in3 very few artists of the present day could block in the general forms in so peculiar a style with greater freedom or more complete conveyance of expression1 by similarly slight indications4 #ci ,the whole of the illuminations are given in the twenty-fourth volume of the ,archologia4 ,the manuscript stands in the ,bodleian ,catalogue1 ,junius1 ,no4 ,,ii4 #dj ,introduction to ,shaw's ,illuminated ,ornaments1 pages #d and #e4 #da ,the following inscription1 written in letters of gold on the reverse of the fourth leaf and the bottom of the recto of the fifth1 identifies both the artist and the patron under whose auspices the volume was executed1 between the years #igj and #ihd1 the term of ,ethelwold's occupation of the see of ,winchester3-- ,presentem ,biblum jussit perscribere ,presul ,wintoni ,ds quem fecerat esse ,patronum ,magnus thelwoldus 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,atque ,patri magno jussit qui scribere librum hunc ,omnes cernentes biblum hunc semper rogitent hoc ,post meta carnis valeam celis in herere ,obnixe hoc rogitat ,scriptor supplex ,godemann4 #db ,if the celebrated coronation book of the ,anglo-,saxon kings should turn out to have been written and illuminated in this country1 it would afford a striking illustration of this reaction4 ,the general opinion1 however1 appears to be1 among the learned1 that it may have been given to ,athelstan by ,otho of ,germany1 who married his sister1 and by ,matilda1 ,otho's mother4 ,the arguments in favour of1 and against1 the ,anglo-,saxon origin of the volume would be too long to discuss in this place4 ,the writing is mainly ,carlovingian4 #dc ,bib4 ,dec4 vol4 i4 p4 cxxii4 #dd ,it is to be regretted that the propriety of those just and learned remarks of ,muratori1 in which he exhibited himself as one of the earliest foreign scholars inclined to do justice to the ancient ,irish and ,british schools1--,neque enim silenda laus ,britanni1 ,scoti1 et ,hiberni1 qu studio liberalium artium eo tempore antecellebant reliquis occidentalibus regnis2 et cura prsertim monachorum1 qui literarum gloriam1 alibi aut languentem aut depressam1 in iis regionibus impigr suscitarent atque tuebantur 7,murat4 ,antiq4 ,ital4 diss4 #dc71--should have been impugned by the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,berington in his ,literary ,history of the ,middle ,ages1 pages #ahj1 #aha4 #de ,these pious monks1 until probably some time after the ,norman conquest1 generally worked together in an apartment capable of containing many persons1 and in which many persons did1 in fact1 work together at the transcription of books4 ,the first of these points is implied in a curious document1 which is one of the very few specimens extant of ,french ,visi-,gothic ,,ms4 in uncial characters1 of the #hth century4 ,it is a short but beautiful form of consecration or benediction1 barbarously entitled ,orationem in ,scripturio1 and is to the following effect3 ,vouchsafe1 ,o ,lord1 to bless this ,scriptorium of thy servants and all that dwell therein2 that whatsoever sacred writing shall be here read or written by them1 they may receive with understanding1 and bring the same to good effect1 through our ,lord1 c4--,see ,merryweather's ,bibliomania in the ,middle ,ages4 #df ,dark ,ages1 second edition1 p4 #aic4 #dg ,librarian of the town of ,evreux4 #dh ,cornemillot1 ,evreux1 #ahdf4 #di ,du ,sommerard1 in ,les ,arts du ,moyen ,age1 has given copies of all the illuminations1 and ,mr4 ,westwood a page of specimens4 #ej ,count ,bastard gives no less than six grand facsimiles from this volume1 which is one of the greatest lions of the ,bibliothque ,impriale at ,paris4 #ea ,one of the most curious illuminations in the book1 the celebrated fontaine mystique of the church1 is altogether antique in style and execution4 #eb ,the colouring in this ,,ms4 is very elegant1 being mainly restricted to gold1 purple1 white1 and a little very brilliant vermilion2--the forms are principally ,saxon4 #ec ,described at length by ,dr4 ,waagen1 ,treasures of ,art in ,great ,britain1 pages #ajd-ajf4 #ed ,many illustrations1 but unfortunately without colour1 are given by ,d',agincourt1 ,pittura1 plates #dj to #de inclusive4 #ee ,the folio ,vulgate 7,b4 ,m4 ,addl4 ,,mss4 ,no4 #ajedf7 purchased by the ,british ,museum authorities from ,m4 ,speyer ,passavant1 of ,basle1 in #ahcf1 for #gej1 was considered by its late possessor to have been the original transcript diligently emended by ,alcuin himself1 for presentation to ,charlemagne on his coronation as ,emperor of ,rome1 in the year #hjj4 ,it is a very fine and interesting volume1 but has been referred1 by more recent authorities1 to the reign of ,charles the ,bald4 ,mr4 ,westwood1 however1 considers that it appears to have better claims than any of the several ,caroline ,bibles now in existence1 to be considered as the volume so presented4 ,its chief rival is the great ,bible of the ,fathers of ,sta4 ,maria1 in ,vallicella1 at ,rome4 ,sir ,frederick ,madden has entered into a minute analysis of the claims of the ,speyer ,passavant volume1 in a series of most learned articles in the ,gentleman's ,magazine for #ahcf4 ,see also ,westwood's ,palographia ,sacra1 and the pamphlet1 by its late possessor1 ,j4 ,h4 de ,speyer ,passavant1 ,description de la ,bible crite par ,alchuine1 c4 ,par4 #ahbi1 pp4 #aab4 #ef ,it is singular1 considering how generally ,hiberno-,saxon ornament was adopted by continental illuminators1 that the peculiar ,saxon fluttering outline never obtained a footing4 #eg ,the learned and most eloquent author of the ,posie ,chrtienne1 ,m4 ,rio 7from whom it was my privilege1 while yet a youthful student1 to receive many a valuable lesson71 in noting this total eclipse1 remarks that two rolls of parchment1 one of which is preserved in the library of the ,barbarini ,palace1 the other in the sacristy of the ,cathedral of ,pisa1 are ornamented with miniatures which may serve to give us an idea of the state into which the arts of design had fallen in ,italy in the #aath century4 ,those which were executed rather later1 in the manuscript of a poem on the ,countess ,matilda 7written by a certain ',donizo1' in #aabe71 which is preserved in the ,vatican1 display no trace either of chiaroscuro or of correct imitation of form4 ,the ,romano-,christian school ceased from this time to exist1 after having fulfilled the whole of its mission1 which had been to form the connecting link between the primitive inspirations of ,christian art and the new schools which were destined to reap the harvest of this rich inheritance1 and turn it to good account4 ,as for the ,germano-,christian school1 it may be compared to a vigorous shoot severed from a dying trunk1 to revive and flourish in a better soil4 #eh ,the ,menologion of the ,vatican1 a magnificent volume1 containing no less than #dcj miniatures of remarkable interest and excellence1 is the standing illustration of this assertion4 ,the work was engraved and published at ,urbino1 in three folio volumes1 in #agbg1 under the auspices of three pontiffs1 ,clement ,,xi41 ,innocent ,,xiii41 and ,benedict ,,xiii4 #ei ,it would be difficult to find in the production of the best ,roman age anything nobler than several of the compositions in the ,paris ,psalter1 with commentaries 7,imperial ,library1 ,gr4 ,no4 #aci71 a ,greek manuscript of the #ajth century4 ,one of the finest of the figures contained in it1 that of ,night1 ,i caused to be enlarged1 and painted on the exterior of the ,byzantine ,court at ,sydenham1 as giving a more favourable impression of ,greek art than any other pictorial representation ,i could meet with4 ,a replica of this subject occurs in the ,vatican ,prophecies of ,isaiah4 ,the two may be compared from the works of ,d',agincourt and ,ser4 ,most noteworthy also among the best of this class of ,byzantine manuscripts1 are the ,paris ,commentaries of ,gregory ,nazianzen1 the ,british ,museum ,psalter 7,egerton1 ,no4 #a4aci7 of early #abth century work1 and the ,bodleian ,codex ,ebnerianus4 #fj ,of this ornamental style the most remarkable specimens are the ,vatican ,acts of the ,apostles1 and a beautiful volume in the library of the ,duke of ,hamilton4 ,from the former1 ,i have given some facsimiles in ,the ,geometrical ,mosaics of the ,middle ,ages 7plate #bj71 in order to show the similarity of design between the gold ground mosaics of the ,greeks and early ,italians1 and the embellishments of the illuminated manuscripts of the former4 #fa ,ingulphus was at that very time indebted directly to the ,conqueror1 his early patron1 for his abbacy4 #fb ,see ,martene ,const4 ,canon4 ,reg4 in de ,ant4 ,eccl4 ,ritibus1 tom4 iii41 for full details4 #fc ,this indulgence was1 after all1 not very luxurious1 for1 as ,mr4 ,maitland remarks 7,dark ,ages1 #bnd edition1 p4 #djf71 ,many a scribe has1 ,i dare say1 felt what ,lewis1 a monk of ,wessobrun1 in ,bavaria1 records as his own experience during his sedentary and protracted labours4 ,in an inscription appended to a copy of ,jerome's ,commentary on ,daniel1 among other grounds on which he claims the sympathy and the prayers of the readers1 he says1-- ',dum scripsit friguit1 et quod cum lumine solis ,scribere non potuit1 perfecit lumine noctis4' ,for whilst he wrote he froze1 and that which by daylight he could not bring to perfection1 he worked at again by the aid of the moonlight4 #fd ,in ,italy the propensity for large letters was never relinquished4 #fe ,w4 ,h4 ,blaauw1 ,esq4 #ff ,edited by ,james ,raine1 ,jun41 for the ,surtees ,society4 #hvo4 ,durham1 #ahei4 #fg ,the same series of rolls contain many very interesting entries2 as1 for instance1-- #acic ,a4,d4 ,soluti--de #dl4 #fs4 #h;d4 sol4 hoc anno fratri ,willelmo ,ellerker pro scriptura duorum gradalium pro choro4 de #djs4 solutis domino ,ricardo de ,styrton pro eluminacione dictorum duorum gradalium--de #bbs4 #g;d4 solutis dicto ,willelmo pro pergameno empto per ipsum ,willelmum4 ,a4,d4 #acie4 ,roberto ,bukebinder pro ligatura unius magni gradalis pro choro ex convencione facta #ajs4 ,eidem pro ,,iiii4 pellibus pergameni pro eadem custodiendo #bj;d4 ,eidem pro ,i4 pelle cervi pro coopertura dicti libri #cs4 #b;d4 ,fratri ,willelmo ,ellerker pro pergameno #ds4 ,domino ,ricardo de ,styrton in plenam solucionem alumpnyng tryum gradalium1 #djs4 de #cs4 #d;d4 solutis domino ,johanni ,brignale pro ,,viii4 pellibus pergameni emptis pro magno gradali predicto4 ,domino ,ricardo de ,styrton pro alumpnacione magni gradalis novi in choro1 #bjs4 ,a4,d4 #adjb4 ,in expensis in alumpnacione magni gradalis in choro per dominum ,ricardum de ,stretton1 #bjs4 ,throughout these accounts1 and others too lengthy to note1 it will be noticed that the value of the parchment1 gold1 colours1 and current expenses1 falls not very far short of the total cost of the labour of the illuminator4 #fh ,treasures of ,art in ,great ,britain1 vol4 i4 p4 #afj4 ,the same distinguished critic1 who has made a special study of the illuminated ,,mss4 of ,europe1 and especially of the ,french 7see his ,kunstwerken und ,kunstlern in ,paris71 in describing some of the pictures in ,queen ,mary's ,psalter 7unquestionably ,english71 observes 7p4 #aff71 ,upon the whole1 ,i am acquainted with no miniatures1 either ,netherlandish1 ,german1 or ,french1 of this time 7the #adth century7 which can compare in artistic value with the pictures executed by the best hand in this manuscript4 #fi ,it is to be regretted that ,count ,bastard failed to complete more than thirty-two plates of the splendid work he announced under the title of ,librairie de ,jean de ,france1 ,duc de ,berri1 frre de ,charles ,v41 publi en son entier pour la premire fois4 ,paris1 #ahcd4 ,fol4 max4 c4 #gj ,de l',art en ,allemagne1 tome ii4 page #aec4 ,paris1 #ahdb4 #ga ,see casts from his bronze doors and columns in the ,crystal ,palace1 and his ,three ,gospels in the treasury of the ,cathedral at ,hildesheim4 ,in ,dr4 ,f4 ,h4 ,mller's ,beitrge zur teutschen ,kunst und ,geschichtskunde1 very careful engravings of the plastic art of ,bernward and ,willigis may be compared with facsimiles of contemporary ,german illumination4 #gb ,the steps of the transition are also well indicated1 and illustrated by reference to special ,,mss4 in ,kugler's ,kunstgeschichte1 in his article on the ,nord41 vornehml4 ,deutsche ,malerei der ,roman4 ,periode4 #gc ,the subject is one that ,i am unable to find has been treated with any great ability4 ,the reader may1 however1 be referred to the following old ,spanish works on the subject3--,andres ,merino de ,jesu-,cristo1 ,escuela ,palographica1 de leer ,letras universas1 antiguas y modernas1 desde la entrada de los ,godos en ,espaa 7,madrid1 #aghj1 in fol4 fig472--,estev4 de ,terreros1 ,palographia ,espaola1 que contiene todos los modos conocidos1 que ha habido de escribir en ,espaa1 desde su principio y fundacin 7,madrid1 ,ibarra1 #ageh1 in #dto4 fig472 and ,rodriguez-,christ41 ,bibliotheca ,universal de la ,polygraphia ,espaola 7,madrid1 #agch1 fol4 fig474 #gd ,that art which is called illumination in ,paris4 #ge ,lettere ,sanese1 tom4 i4 p4 #bgh4 #gf ,the well-known passage in which ,dante alludes to ,oderigi occurs in the eleventh canto of the ,paradiso1 and is as follows3-- ,oh1 dissi lui1 non se' tu ,oderisi1 ,l' onor d' ,agubbio1 e l' onor di quell' arte ,che alluminar chiamata a ,parisi8 ,frate1 diss' egli1 pi ridon le carte ,che pennelegia ,franco ,bolognese3 ,l' onor tutto or suo1 e mio in parte4 ,ben non sarei stato si cortese ,mentre ch' io vissi per lo gran disio ,dell' excellentia1 ove mio cor intese4 ,di tal superbia qui si paga il fio4 #gg ,vita di ,giotto4 #gh ,storia ,pittorica1 vol xi4 p4 #ac1 ed4 ,pisa1 #ahae2 and vol4 v4 pp4 #h1 #i1 #aj4 #gi ,lanzi speaks of these choral books as ,de' pi considerabili che abbia l',italia4 #hj ,the ,kensington ,museum possesses two splendid leaves from a great ,chorale1 which contain miniatures completely in the manner of ,fra ,angelico4 #ha ,the ,duke of ,hamilton possesses some beautiful ,,mss4 illuminated by1 or in the manner of ,memmi4 ,mr4 ,layard is the fortunate owner of one leaf of surpassing grandeur and elevation of style4 #hb ,the style1 if not the hand1 of ,taddeo ,bartolo1 another of the great early masters of the ,siennese school1 may be distinctly traced in several existing miniatures4 #hc ,poetry of ,christian ,art1 p4 #adj4 #hd ,orn i libri corali di figure nobillissime4--,cittadella1 ,catalogo dei ,pittori e ,scultori ,ferraresi1 vol4 i4 pp4 #a-bg4 #he ,rio4 ,it must be a matter of delight to all lovers of true art that that most useful society1 the ,arundel1 has been of late turning its attention to the production1 by means of chromo-lithography1 of some of the finest examples extant of ,italian quattro and cinque-cento illumination4 #hf ,a small volume1 which passed from the hands of the late ,mr4 ,dennistoun into the collection of ,lord ,ashburnham1 contains a series of arabesques and miniatures of the most interesting character1 recalling in different pages1 and in the highest perfection1 the varied styles of ,pietro ,perugino1 ,pinturicchio1 ,lo ,spagna1 and others4 ,the ,duke of ,hamilton's library is extraordinarily rich in ,italian ,,mss42 his ,grace's ,dante with outline illustrations being of great importance4 #hg ,see ,mr4 ,shaw's truly beautiful reproduction1 in that gentleman's ,illuminated ,ornaments1 c41 of a portion of ,arabesque border from this volume1 containing a medallion portrait1 ,plate ,,xxxv4 ,a very beautiful ,sforza ,,ms4 has lately been transferred from the possession of ,mr4 ,henry ,farrer to that of the ,marquis ,d',azeglio4 #hh ,that ,andrea exercised a great influence upon miniature-painting may be recognized in the works of ,girolamo3 a grand leaf from a folio1 on which is painted a seated allegorical figure of ,rome1 in the possession of ,mr4 ,t4 ,whitehead1 is so noble in every way1 and so entirely in ,andrea's manner1 that it seems almost impossible to doubt its being by his hand4 ,it may1 however1 possibly have been executed by his contemporary in the ,mantuan school1 ,giovanni dei ,russi1 who in #adee illuminated the great ,bible of the house of ,este1 for ,borso1 ,duke of ,modena4 #hi ,vita di ,fra ,giocondo e di ,liberale1 e d'altri ,veronesi4 #ij ,the ,celotti sale1 which took place at ,christie's on the #bfth of ,may1 #ahbe1 and which included by far the most important collection of ,italian illuminations ever brought to the hammer1 contained no less than nineteen beautiful specimens extracted from the choral books of that pope4 #ia ,see ,baglioni1 ,vite dei ,pittori ed ,architetti fioriti in ,roma1 dal #aegb sino al #afdb1--,vita di ,giulio ,clovio4 #ib ,facsimiles of the exquisite pages of this volume are given in ,mr4 ,noel ,humphrey's work2 they are perfect triumphs of chromolithographic skill1 and their production by ,mr4 ,owen ,jones formed what ,germans may hereafter call a standpunkt in the history of that art1 of which this volume presents no unfavourable sample4 #ic ,grenville ,collection4 #id ,in his catalogue of the sale of the ,celotti collection4 #ie ,the ,kensington ,museum possesses a beautiful specimen by this artist1 formerly in ,mr4 ,ottley's collection4 ,two others of equal excellence are treasured among other gems of art1 by ,mr4 ,ram1 of ,ramsfort1 ,ireland4 ,they all came from ,celotti4 #if ,mr4 ,whitehead's small but choice collection of specimens includes one quite worthy of the hand of ,tintoretto4 #ig ,mr4 ,s4 ,leigh ,sotheby1 in his admirable ,principia typographica1 ,dr4 ,dibdin in his ,bibliotheca ,spenceriana1 and the ,baron de ,heinecken in his ,ide gnrale d'une ,collection complte d',estampes1 c41 give the best literary and graphic illustrations of the block books of the middle ages4 #ih ,our good fortune in possessing at the present time1 and in common use1 a remarkably clear and easily intelligible set of alphabets1 was thus admirably noted in an article in the ,times newspaper of ,december #bhth1 #ahei3-- ,happily for us1 the written symbols employed by the ,romans1 which are now the chief medium of expression for all the languages of ,europe1 ,america1 ,australia1 and the greater part of civilized ,africa1 reflect exactly the rough and stalwart energy which made ,rome to ,europe what we are to the world4 ,they have bestowed on us an alphabet as practically effective1 and as suited to the capabilities of human vision1 as any that could have been devised4 ,this alphabet of ours is like an ,englishman's dress--plain and manageable2 not very artistically arranged1 it may be1 nor remarkable for copiousness or flow of outline1 but sufficiently elastic and capable of extension4 ,its symbols have certainly no graceful curves like the picturesque ,persian2 but1 better than all flourishes1 each letter has plain1 unmistakable features of its own4 ,the vowels1 which are to the rest of the alphabet what the breath1 or rather life itself1 is to the body1 are assigned their legitimate position1 and are formed to be written continuously with the consonants4 ,lastly1 though scanty in itself1 it is abundantly equipped with capital letters1 stops1 italics1 and every appliance for securing rapid legibility1 so that the eye can take in the subject of a page at a glance4 ,oriental alphabets are the very reverse of all this4 ,they are complex1 cumbersome1 unmanageable4 ,much the same might have been said of many of the medival ones4 #ii ,for excellent examples1 see plates ,technical ,manual1 ,nos4 #g and #h2 and ,historical ,manual1 ,nos4 #g and #i4 #ajj ,the best are contained in the writings of ,de ,quincy1 ,owen ,jones1 ,winkellman1 ,pugin1 and ,sir ,charles ,eastlake4 #aja ,see especially pages #bd to #bh inclusive1 from which ,i transcribe a few elegant and suggestive passages3-- ,the student should keep1 says ,mr4 ,jewitt1 both in form and colour1 as near to ,nature as possible4 ,no fantastic design can be so elegant as one copied and studied from ,nature4 ,what1 for instance1 can be more beautiful or more appropriate for intertwining with rich scroll-work than the convolvulus1 the maurandia1 the woodbine1 the tropeolum1 or the passion-flower8 ,these painted upon a rich groundwork of diapered gold1 or upon one of the beautiful grounds of the #aeth century1 composed of gold and blue or green1 in fine waved or winding lines1 crossing each other in every conceivable direction1 form truly elegant studies1 for almost all varieties of ornamentation4 ,whenever birds1 insects1 c41 are introduced1 they should1 as a general rule1 be drawn true to nature2 but they may1 nevertheless1 be turned and twisted into almost any position or shape4 ,for instance1 a lizard1 with its beautiful emerald-green back1 its yellow underparts1 and rich brown mottlings1 might be introduced with its long tail wrapped and twisted round the stem of a plant1 and its little head1 with brilliant eyes1 shown just peeping out from under one of the beautiful flowers4 ,the ladybird1 with its bright red wings1 covered with small black spots1 might also be well introduced1 creeping upon a leaf or stem4 ,hairy caterpillars1 ants1 beetles1 snails1 glow-worms1 and even spiders1 form also beautiful additions to a design1 and may be introduced in almost any form or shape4 ,butterflies and moths1 in their endless and beautiful variety1 with their wings of every conceivable colour and shade1 and of the most exquisite forms1 are truly amongst the most beautiful and appropriate objects which the student can have for his mind to dwell upon4 ,but not only these1--for occasionally a squirrel might be introduced perched upon the scroll-work2 a cat1 a goat1 a dog1 a monkey peeping out from behind a leaf2 or1 indeed1 any animal1 if artistically and naturally treated1 may be introduced with really good effect4 ,flowers1 fruits1 shells1 corn1 c41 all add their beauties to a design2 and1 indeed1 there is nothing in nature1 no1 not one object1 but which may well be introduced into ornamental designing1 and may be so translated and poeticised as to become appropriate to any subject4 #ajb ,materials for a ,history of ,oil-painting1 by ,charles ,lock ,eastlake3 ,london1 #ahdg4 #ajc ,the most copious text of ,heraclius is contained in the ,le ,bgue collection of writers on art1 brought together by ,master ,john ,le ,bgue1 of ,paris1 in the #aeth century4 #ajd ,sir ,charles ,eastlake does not place ,heraclius so early as ,raspe and ,mr4 ,hendrie do4 ,i incline to agree with the last-named critics4 #aje ,the text of ,heraclius is given not from the ,le ,bgue manuscript1 but from one less perfect1 formerly at ,cambridge1 but now in the ,british ,museum1 ,egerton #hdj ,a1 in ,raspe's work--,a ,critical ,essay on ,oil-painting4 ,london1 #agha4 #ajf ,muratori1 ,antiq4 ,ital4 ,medii vi1 p4 #bfi4 #ajg ,the title he himself gives to his work illustrates its comprehensive character--,theophili qui et ,rugerus1 ,presbyteri et ,monachi ,libri ,,iii4 de diversis ,artibus1 seu diversarum ,artium ,schedula4 ,translations1 with excellent critical comments1 have been made by the ,count de l',escalopier into ,french1 and by ,mr4 ,robert ,hendrie into ,english4 ,in the extracts here given ,i have followed the accurate text of the last-named gentleman4 #ajh ,i cannot take leave of this good old monk1 the influence exercised by whose writings during the whole of the ,middle ,ages is proved by the numerous transcripts of them executed at different periods1 still preserved in most of the chief ,european libraries1 without giving him credit for a pure and liberal philanthropy worthy of imitation in all ages4 ,nothing can be more dignified and noble than the words in which he concludes the introduction to his work4 ,after reciting the various arts he has endeavoured to illustrate1 and the sufferings and labour through which the knowledge he desires to convey to others had been acquired by himself1 he winds up by saying3-- ,when you shall have re-read this often1 and have committed it to your tenacious memory1 you shall thus recompense me for this care of instruction1 that1 as often as you shall successfully have made use of my work1 you pray for me for the pity of omnipotent ,god1 who knows that ,i have written these things which are here arranged1 neither through love of human approbation1 nor through desire of temporal reward1 nor have ,i stolen anything precious or rare through envious jealousy1 nor have ,i kept back anything reserved for myself alone2 but1 in augmentation of the honour and glory of ,his name1 ,i have consulted the progress and hastened to aid the necessities of many men4 #aji ,it will be found given in extenso in the #cbnd vol4 of ,the ,archologia1 pp4 #ahc-bdd1 with an elaborate letter from its possessor4 #aaj ,there is some confusion about this word1 for it is used to denote mixtures which would produce real rose-colour1 light warm yellow1 and a perfect drab4 #aaa ,that is1 the mineral green with the vegetable madder4 #aab ,a beautiful example may be found in ,dan ,lydgate's legends of ,st4 ,edmund and ,st4 ,fremund1 ,,ms4 ,harleian1 #bbgh4 #aac ,materials for a ,history of ,oil-painting1 by ,charles ,lock ,eastlake 7,lond4 #ahdg71 pp4 #abg1 #abh4 #aad ,mr4 ,edwin ,jewitt's little ,manual of ,illuminated and ,missal ,painting1 ,mr4 ,randle ,harrison's1 ,mr4 ,albert ,warren's1 and ,mr4 ,henry ,m4 ,lucien's1 published by ,messrs4 ,barnard1 of ,oxford-street2 ,mr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,bradley's1 and ,mr4 ,t4 ,g4 ,goodwin's1 published by ,messrs4 ,winsor ,newton1 of ,rathbone ,place2 and ,mr4 ,noel ,humphrey's hand-book on the same subject1 have no doubt proved useful to many1 and helped to produce the quantity of good illumination now executed4 #aae ,for illumination in water-colour on paper1 cardboard1 or vellum1 ,messrs4 ,winsor ,newton1 ,rowney1 ,barnard1 ,newman1 and others1 fit up boxes with special selections of all requisite materials2 including all that can be wanted for the application and burnishing of gold and other metals4 ,messrs4 ,miller's ,glass ,mediums1 ,nos4 #a and #b1 and ,newman's ,preparation for sizing albumenized papers1 are exceedingly useful for mixing with illuminating colours2 giving great hardness and body to them1 and preventing them from washing up1 in working over with glazing and other tints4 ,i have found ,mr4 ,barbe's powder body-colours give remarkably solid tints1 with great freedom in working4 #aaf ,this had better be bought ready prepared1 since some experience is requisite in so applying the red chalk as to prevent its depositing under the weight of the hand1 and yet coming off sufficiently in the line traced by the point4 #aag ,the experienced illuminator will generally do his writing before he gets in the outline of his ornament1 and he will frequently dispense with the transferring process altogether2 but it would be by no means safe for a beginner to do so4 #aah ,both the cushion and tip will be described in detail under the head of ,oil-gilding4 #aai ,the amateur may of course prepare mordants of different degrees of tenacity and body for his own use1 by the employment1 and various combinations1 of leather and parchment size1 isinglass1 red lead1 gum arabic1 sugar1 honey1 glycerine1 borax1 plaster of ,paris1 bol ammoniac1 glaire1 and similar substances2 but his time will be more profitably spent in improving himself in design than it could be 7nowadays7 in experimenting on the materia technica of art4 #abj ,this information is principally derived from ,nathaniel ,whittock's ,decorative ,painter's and ,glazier's ,guide4 ,it gives the usual practice of ,writers to the trade1 but must1 of course1 be modified according to the specialities of any of the historical styles adopted4 #aba ,japanners' gilding is a branch of oil-gilding1 the size or ground being made with #a pound of linseed oil1 to which1 while boiling1 is added gradually #d ounces of gum animi in powder1 the whole being stirred until the gum is completely dissolved1 and kept boiling till the mixture is of a thick consistence1 in which state it should be strained through a thick flannel1 and stored in a wide-mouthed stoppered bottle4 ,vermilion is ground up with the size before it is applied1 to render it opaque2 and if it does not leave the brush freely1 it should be thinned with oil of turpentine4 ,the gold powder may be either real gold1 or what is called ,dutch metal1 or imitation gold4 ,gold powder is produced by grinding the leaf gold with pure honey on the stone till it is perfectly reduced to powder1 and afterwards dissolving the mixture in water till the honey is completely removed1 and for this several waters are necessary2 the water is then poured off1 and the powder dried4 ,if this gold be mixed up with weak gum-water and spread upon cockle-shells1 it is then called shell gold1 which is used in drawings only4 ,the ,dutch gold powder is made by reducing the ,dutch leaf gold by exactly the same process2 and if well protected by varnishing1 its appearance is little inferior to the genuine metal4 ,there is another method of procuring gold powder1 which is by precipitating grain gold into powder by means of aqua regia1 which is made by dissolving four parts of pure spirit of nitre and one part of sal ammoniac in powder4 ,this process was 7as has been already stated7 well known to the medival illuminators4 ,in #d ounces of this compound1 an ounce of grain gold is dissolved under the action of a slight heat2 a solution of green vitriol1 consisting of copperas #a dram1 water #a ounce1 being gradually added4 ,when the precipitation has ceased1 the gold powder must be carefully washed and dried1 and will be found to be more brilliant than that made from leaf gold4 ,the use of japanners' gold-size is very similar to oil-gilding1 and is equally simple4 ,if the material to be gilded is brought to a smooth and clean face1 the size may be laid on at once without other preparation2 using great care1 however1 not to touch any part but what you wish to gild1 as the gold will adhere wherever there is size4 ,priming with a mixture of chalk and size is sometimes used for a first coat1 but not by the best japanners1 as the work is liable to chip off2 no material should therefore be japanned which cannot be made smooth4 ,for hard or close-grained wood1 metal1 leather1 or paper1 one or two coats of varnish will answer all requirements2 very great care being observed that each coat of varnish be perfectly dry and hard before it is again touched4 ,it is a good practice to allow the work to stand a day or two between the applications2 then the japanners' gold-size may be added1 and touching with the finger as before described will indicate the proper state for applying the gold1 whether in leaf or powder4 ,either may be employed2 but in the case of colours being intermixed and subsequently varnished1 the powder is usually adopted2 it is easily laid on by means of a camel-hair brush1 the work being set aside to get thoroughly dry1 when the superfluous metal is removed with a soft brush4 ,in case more size should have been prepared than is needed1 the remainder1 if water be poured over it1 will keep for future use4 #abb ,the superiority of the ,chinese and ,japanese varnishing is chiefly owing to the excellence of a particular species of resin found in ,china and ,japan4 ,the varnishes made with oil are longer drying than those made with spirits of wine1 but are of greater durability4 ,the spirits of wine should be highly rectified3 if oil is used1 it should be linseed4 ,it is safer to purchase the varnish ready prepared than to attempt the making of it1 as the solution of resin1 particularly in oil1 is somewhat dangerous4