,transcribers' ,note3 ,greek            
transliterations were added by the      
transcribers and enclosed in curly      
braces4          ,,great ,,facts4       
,illustration3 ,,the ,,great ,,eastern  
,,steamship1 ,,launched #aheh4          
,,great ,,facts3      ,a    ,,popular   
,,history ,,and ,,description    ,,of   
,,the ,,most    ,,remarkable            
,,inventions    ,,during ,,the ,,present
 ,,century4        ,,by    ,,frederick  
,c4 ,,bakewell1    ,,author ,,of        
,,philosophical ,,conversations1        
,,manual ,,of ,,electricity1 ,,etc4     
,,illustrated ,,with ,,numerous         
,,engravings4        ,,new ,,york3      
,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company1    #cdf 
#cdh ,,broadway4    #ahfj4              
,,preface4      ,the conveniences1 the  
comforts1 and luxuries conferred on     
,society by  the many important         
,inventions of the present century1 must
 naturally  excite a desire to know the 
origin and progress of the application  
of  scientific principles1 by which such

 advantages have been gained4           
,practically considered1 those          
,inventions are of much greater value   
than the discoveries of ,science on     
which most of them depend2 and the      
scientific inquirer who confines his    
views to abstract principles1  without  
looking beyond them to the varied       
methods of their application  to useful 
purposes1 may be compared to a traveller
 who1 having toiled  arduously to gain  
the top of a mountain1 then shuts his   
eyes on the  prospect that lies before  
him4    ,to the inquiring youth1 more   
particularly1 it is desirable that he   
should be enabled to satisfy his wish to
 know by what means such  wonders as    
,steam ,navigation1 ,locomotion on      
,railways1 the ,electric  ,telegraph1   
and ,photography have been gradually    
developed2 and in  becoming acquainted  
with the successive steps by which they 
have  advanced towards their present    
perfection1 he will at the same time    
learn a useful lesson of perseverance   

under difficulties1 and will have  his  
mind impressed with many valuable       
scientific truths4 ,the knowledge  to be
 gained by such inquiry is eminently    
practical1 and of a kind  which those   
engaged in any of the pursuits of life  
can scarcely fail to  require4    ,a    
,history of ,inventions almost          
necessarily implies a description of    
the mechanisms and processes by which   
they are effected2 so far1 at  least1 as
 to render the principles on which their
 actions depend  understood4 ,it would  
be impossible1 however1 in a work of    
this limited  size to enter minutely    
into explanations of mechanisms1 and    
into the  applications of scientific    
discoveries1 which would require a      
separate  treatise for each2 but it has 
been the ,author's endeavour to give a  
succinct1 intelligible account1 free    
from technicalities1 of the manner  in  
which they operate1 so as to be         
comprehensible to all classes of        
readers4    ,by thus giving a popular   

character to the work1 to make it       
acceptable  to the young1 it is hoped   
that it will not be found less worthy1  
on  that account1 the perusal of those  
more advanced in life4    ,when ,beckman
 wrote his ,history of ,inventions1     
towards the close  of last century1     
scarcely any of the wonderful           
discoveries and  contrivances that now  
form parts of our social system were    
known2  and the table of contents of his
 two large volumes affords a curious    
insight to the nature and limited extent
 of such contrivances as were  then     
considered most important4 ,the         
introduction into his history  of such  
subjects as canary birds1 carp1 the     
adulteration of wine1  apothecaries1    
cock-fighting1 and juggling1 lead us to 
infer that the  ,historian of           
,inventions at that time must have had  
some difficulty to  find appropriate    
matter wherewith to fill his volumes4   
,the opposite  difficulty now presents  
itself4 ,the numerous important1        

wonderful1  and curious accomplishments 
of human skill and ingenuity during the 
present century render preference       
perplexing1 where so many deserve       
description4 ,from among the number that
 press for notice1 the ,author  has     
endeavoured to select those that are    
either the most important1 the  most    
remarkable1 or that seem to possess the 
germs of future progress2  and he trusts
 that the selection he has made1 and the
 mode in which the  subjects have been  
treated1 will render this volume        
interesting and  instructive4           
,f4 ,c4 ,b4      #f ,haverstock         
,terrace1 ,hampstead1        ,november1 
#aheh4          ,,contents4             
,,page    ,,the ,,progress ,,of         
,,invention                             
#a    ,,steam ,,navigation              
#f    ,,steam ,,carriages ,,and         
,,railways                              
#cb    ,,the ,,air ,,engine             
#fj    ,,photography                    
#fg    ,,dissolving ,,views             

#hf    ,,the ,,kaleidoscope             
#ib    ,,the ,,magic ,,disc             
#ih    ,,the ,,diorama                  
#ajc    ,,the ,,stereoscope             
#aab    ,,the ,,electric ,,telegraph    
#abd    ,,electro-,,magnetic ,,clocks   
#agb    ,,electro-,,metallurgy          
#agi    ,,gas ,,lighting                
#ahh    ,,the ,,electric ,,light        
#bji    ,,instantaneous ,,lights        
#bad    ,,paper ,,making ,,machinery    
#bba    ,,printing ,,machines           
#bcj    ,,lithography                   
#bdi    ,,aerated ,,waters              
#beh    ,,revolvers ,,and ,,mini        
,,rifles                                
#bff    ,,centrifugal ,,pumps           
#bge    ,,tubular ,,bridges             
#bhb    ,,self-,,acting ,,engines1      
,,including ,,the ,,nasmyth ,,steam     
,,hammer      #bie          ,,great     
,,facts4          ,,the ,,progress ,,of 
,,invention4      ,the inventive faculty
 of man tends more directly than any    
other  intellectual power he possesses  

to raise him in the scale of creation   
above the brutes4 ,nearly every advance 
he makes beyond the exercise of  his    
natural instincts is caused by          
invention--by that power of the mind    
which combines known properties in      
different ways to obtain new results4   
,when an ,indian clothes himself with   
the skins of animals1 and when  he      
collects the dried leaves of the forest 
for his bed1 he is either  an original  
inventor1 or he is profiting by the     
inventions of  others4 ,those simple    
contrivances--the first steps in the    
progress  of invention--are succeeded by
 the more labored efforts of inventive  
genius1 such as contriving means of     
shelter from rain1 or from  the heat of 
the sun1 when caves cannot be found to  
creep into1 or  the overhanging foliage 
fails to afford sufficient covering4    
,the  construction of places of shelter 
is an imitation of the protection       
formed by ,nature2 and the rudest hut   
and the most magnificent palaces  have  

their prototypes in caverns and in the  
interlacing branches of  trees4         
,nature also supplies knowledge of the  
means by which inventors are  enabled to
 work4 ,the savage who seizes hold of a 
broken bough is  in possession of the   
lever1 the uses of which he learns by   
the  facility it affords in moving other
 objects4 ,he ascends to the top of  a  
precipice by walking up the sloping hill
 behind1 and he thus becomes            
practically acquainted with the         
principle of the inclined plane4  ,the  
elements of all the mechanical powers   
are then at his command1 to  be applied 
by degrees in administering to his      
wants1 as his inventive  faculties1     
guided by observation and experience1   
suggest4 ,an accidental  kick against a 
loose stone shows the action of         
propulsive force2 and  the stone that he
 has struck with his foot1 he learns to 
throw with his  hand4 ,the bending of   
the boughs of trees to and fro by the   
wind teaches  the action of springs2 and

 in the course of time the bow is bent  
by a  strip of hide1 and the relaxation 
of the spring1 after farther bending1   
propels the arrow4 ,observation and     
imitation thus lead to invention1  and  
every new invention forms the foundation
 of further progress4    ,it has been so
 with every invention at present known1 
and must so  continue to the end of     
time3--,there is nothing new under the  
sun4 ,gas  lighting1 ,steam locomotion1 
and the ,electric ,telegraph have each  
sprung  from some source old as the     
hills1 though so modified by gradually  
progressive changes1 that the giant we  
now see bears no resemblance to  the    
infant of ages past4    ,the observation
 that light particles floating in the   
air are attracted  by amber when rubbed1
 which was made known six centuries     
before the  ,christian era1 was the     
origin of the invention by which        
communications  are now transmitted1    
with the rapidity of lightning1 from one
 part of  the world to another4 ,there  

is no apparent relation between effects 
so dissimilar2 yet the steps of progress
 can be distinctly traced1  from the    
attraction of a feather to the          
development of the electric  telegraph4 
,whenever the history of an invention   
can be thus tracked backward to  its    
source1 it will be found to have        
advanced to its present state by        
progressive steps1 each additional      
advance having been dependent on  the   
help given by the progress before made4 
,sometimes these onward  movements are  
greater and more remarkable than others1
 and the persons  who made them have    
become distinguished for their inventive
 genius1  and are considered the        
benefactors of mankind2 yet they were   
but the  followers of those who had gone
 before and shown the way4    ,many of  
the most remarkable inventions are      
attributable to accidents  noted by     
observing and inventive minds4 ,not     
unfrequently also have  important       
discoveries of truth been made in       

endeavouring to establish  error2 and   
new light is being constantly thrown on 
the path of  invention by unsuccessful  
experiments4    ,this view of the means 
by which inventions originate and are   
brought  to perfection may appear to    
detract from the merit of inventors1    
since  it regards them as founding their
 conceptions altogether on the works  of
 others1 or on chance4 ,but instead of  
diminishing their claims to  approbation
 and reward1 it places those claims on a
 more substantial  foundation than that 
of abstract original ideas4 ,the man who
 has the  faculty to perceive that by a 
different application of well-known     
principles he can produce useful effects
 before unknown1 directly  benefits     
mankind far more than the discoverer of 
the principles which  had till then lain
 dormant2 and the numerous difficulties 
which ever  arise before an invention   
can be practically operative1 frequently
  afford exercise for reasoning powers  
of the highest kind1 which may  develop 

new arrangements1 that exhibit as much  
originality and research  as were       
displayed by the discoverers of the     
principles on which the  invention      
depends4    ,the dependence of every    
invention on preceding ones produces    
very  frequently conflicting claims     
among inventors1 who1 forgetting how    
much they were indebted to others1 do   
not hesitate to charge those1  who make 
still further improvements1 with        
imitation and piracy4 ,it is1  indeed1  
sometimes difficult to determine whether
 the alterations made  in well-known    
contrivances are1 or are not1 of        
sufficient importance  to constitute    
inventions2 and there can be no doubt   
that there is too  great facility       
afforded1 by the indiscriminate grant of
 letters patent1  for the establishment 
of monopolies that often serve to       
obstruct  further improvements4 ,at the 
same time1 it must be observed that a   
very trifling addition or change        
occasionally gives practical value to   

an invention1 which had been useless    
without it4 ,in such cases1 though  the 
individual merit of the inventor is     
small1 the benefit conferred  may be    
important1 and may operate influentially
 in promoting the  progress of          
civilization4    ,scientific discovery  
goes hand in hand with invention1 and   
they  mutually assist each other's      
progress4 ,every discovery in science   
may be applicable to some new purpose1  
or give greater efficiency to  what is  
old4 ,those new and improved instruments
 and processes provide  science with the
 means of extending its researches into 
other fields of  discovery2 and thus1 as
 every truth revealed1 supplies         
inventive genius  with fresh matter to  
mould into new forms1 those creations   
become in  their turn agents in         
promoting further discoveries4    ,the  
action and reaction thus constantly at  
work1 tend to give  accelerating impulse
 to invention1 and are continually      
enlarging its  sphere of operations4    

,instead1 therefore1 of supposing1 as   
some do1  that invention and discovery  
have nearly reached their limits1 there 
is  more reason to infer that they are  
only at the commencement of their       
careers2 and that1 great as have been   
the wonders accomplished by the         
applications of science during the first
 half of the present century1  they will
 be at least equalled1 if not surpassed1
 by those to be  achieved before its    
close4          ,,steam ,,navigation4   
,ships1 propelled by some mysterious    
power against wind and against  tide1   
cutting their ways through the water    
without apparent impulse  and like      
things of life1 were not unfrequently   
seen gliding along in  the regions of   
fancy1 ages before the realization of   
such objects on  geographical seas and  
rivers was looked upon as in the        
slightest degree  possible4 ,even at the
 beginning of the present century1 it   
seemed to  be more probable that man    
would be able to navigate the air at    

will1  than that he should be able1     
without wind or current1 and in         
opposition  to both1 to propel and steer
 large ships over the waves2 yet1 within
  twenty years afterwards1 ,steam       
,navigation had ceased to be a wonder4  
,if we look back into the records of    
past ages1 we find that inventive       
genius was active in the earliest times1
 in endeavouring to find other  means of
 propelling boats than by manual labour 
and the uncertain wind1  some of which  
contrivances point to the method        
subsequently adopted by  the            
constructors of steam-vessels4    ,to   
enable us to appreciate properly the    
gradual advances that have  been made in
 perfecting any invention1 it is        
necessary to consider its               
distinguishing features1 and the        
difficulties which inventors have had   
successively to contend against4 ,on    
taking this view of the progress  of    
,steam ,navigation1 it will be found    
that the amount of novelty to  which    

each inventor has a claim is very small1
 and that his principal  merit consists 
in the application of other inventions  
to accomplish  his special object4 ,the 
same remark will indeed apply to most   
other  inventions2 for the utmost that  
inventive genius can accomplish1 is to  
put together in new forms1 and with     
different applications1 preceding       
contrivances and discoveries1 which were
 also the results of antecedent         
knowledge1 labour1 and skill4    ,when1 
for instance1 we look upon an ordinary  
steam-boat1 the most  remarkable and the
 most important feature is the          
paddle-wheel1 by the  action of which   
against the water the boat is propelled4
 ,yet that  method of propelling boats  
was practised by the ,egyptians hundreds
 of  years before steam power was       
thought of2 and the ancient ,romans made
  use of similar wheels1 worked by hand1
 as substitutes for oars4 ,it  would    
seem1 therefore1 to be only a small step
 in inventive progress1  after the      

discovery of the steam engine1 to apply 
that motive power to  turn the          
paddle-wheels which had been previously 
used2 and now that we  see the perfected
 invention1 it may surprise those who   
are unacquainted  with the difficulties 
which attend any new appliance1 that    
,steam  ,navigation did not sooner      
become an accomplished fact4    ,in a   
book called ,inventions and ,devices1 by
 ,william ,bourne1 published  in #aegh1 
it was proposed to make a boat go by    
paddle-wheels1 to be  turned by some    
provision4 ,the ,marquis of ,worcester1 
in his ,century  of ,inventions1 also   
speaks vaguely of a mode of propelling  
ships4 ,but  ,capt4 ,savery1 the        
inventor of the earliest working steam  
engine1 was  the first to suggest the   
application of steam to navigation2 and 
,dr4  ,papin1 who contended with ,savery
 for priority of the invention1 also    
suggested about the same time the       
application of the elastic force of     
steam to that purpose4    ,these crude  

notions1 however1 do not deserve to be  
considered as  inventions1 though they  
probably assisted in suggesting the idea
 of  the plan proposed by ,mr4 ,jonathan
 ,hulls1 who in #agcf took out a patent 
for a steam-boat1 and in the following  
year published a description of  his    
invention1 illustrated by a drawing1    
entitled1 ,a description and  draught of
 a new-invented machine for carrying    
vessels or ships out  of or into any    
harbour1 port1 or river1 against wind or
 tide1 or in a  calm4    ,the greater   
part of this publication is occupied    
with answers to  objections that he     
supposed might be raised to the scheme1 
and in the  preface he makes the        
following observations on the treatment 
inventors  were exposed to in his day1  
which we fear will apply equally at the 
present time4 ,there is1 he says1 one   
great hardship lies too  commonly on    
those who purpose to advance some new   
though useful scheme  for the public    
benefit4 ,the world abounding more in   

rash censure than  in candid and        
unprejudiced estimation of things1 if a 
person does not  answer their           
expectations in every point1 instead of 
friendly treatment  for his good        
intentions1 he too often meets with     
ridicule and contempt4    ,illustration 
,at the time of ,mr4 ,hulls' invention1 
,watt had not made his improvements  in 
the steam engine1 and the kind of engine
 ,hulls employed was similar  to        
,newcomen's1 in which the steam was     
condensed in the cylinder1  and the     
piston1 after being forced down by the  
direct pressure of  the atmosphere1 was 
drawn upwards again by a weight4 ,the   
paddle1 or  vanes1 as he called them1   
were placed at the stern1 between two   
wheels1 which were turned by ropes      
passing over their peripheries4  ,the   
alternate motion of the piston was      
ingeniously converted into a  continuous
 rotary movement1 by connection with    
other ropes attached to  the piston and 
to the weight1 the backward movement    

being prevented by  a catch or click4   
,the woodcut which lays before you is a 
reduced copy of ,hulls'  draught of his 
steam-boat1 as given in his book1 a copy
 of which is  preserved in the ,british 
,museum4    ,the utmost application of  
steam power to navigation contemplated  
by  ,hulls was to tow large vessels into
 or out of harbour1 in calm weather1  by
 means of a separate steam tug-boat1 as 
he considered the cumbersome  mechanism 
would be found objectionable on board   
the ships to be thus  propelled4 ,it    
does not appear that this plan was      
effectually tried1  nor was the         
arrangement of the mechanism1 nor the   
imperfect condition  of the steam engine
 at that period1 calculated to make the 
effort  successful4    ,for some years  
after ,mr4 ,hulls' plan had been        
published1 and had  proved abortive1 no 
further attempt seems to have been made1
 until the  improvements in the steam   
engine1 by ,watt1 rendered it more      
applicable  for the purpose of          

navigation4 ,the ,french claim for the  
,marquis de  ,jouffroy the honour of    
having been the first who successfully  
applied  steam power to propel boats1 in
 #aghb2 though another ,french nobleman1
  the ,comte d',auxiron1 and ,m4        
,perier1 had eight years previously made
  some experiments with steam-boats on  
the ,seine4 ,the ,marquis de            
,jouffroy's steam-boat1 which was #ade  
feet long1 was tried on the ,soane1     
near ,lyons1 with good promise of       
success4 ,the marquis was1 however1     
obliged to leave ,france by the fury of 
the ,revolution1 and when he  returned  
in #agif1 he found that a patent had    
been granted to ,m4 le  ,blanc1 for     
building steam-boats in ,france4 ,he    
protested against the  monopoly1 but the
 patent remained in force1 and the plan 
received  no further development1 either
 from the ,marquis de ,jouffroy1 or the 
patentee4    ,about five years later1   
,mr4 ,patrick ,miller1 of ,dalswinton1  
in ,scotland1  directed his attention to

 the propulsion of boats by mechanical  
means1  and contrived different kinds of
 paddles1 and other propellers to be    
worked by hand1 which were tried on     
boats on ,dalswinton ,lake4 ,the  great 
labour required to work these machines  
induced ,mr4 ,james ,taylor1  a tutor in
 ,mr4 ,miller's family1 to suggest the  
use of steam power to  turn them1 and he
 recommended ,mr4 ,miller to obtain the 
assistance of  ,william ,symington1 an  
engineer1 who was at that time          
endeavouring to  make a steam locomotive
 carriage4 ,among the first difficulties
 that  suggested themselves1 was the    
danger of setting fire to the boat by   
the engine furnace4 ,this difficulty was
 overcome by ,mr4 ,taylor1 and  the     
arrangements were completed1 and the    
experiment was tried in #aghh4  ,the    
steam engine and mechanism were applied 
to a double pleasure-boat2  the engine  
being placed on one side1 the boiler on 
the other1 and the  paddle-wheel in the 
centre4 ,the cylinders of the steam     

engine were only  four inches in        
diameter2 but with this engine the boat 
was propelled  across ,dalswinton ,lake 
at a speed of five miles an hour4       
,the success of this experiment induced 
,mr4 ,miller to have a larger  boat     
built1 expressly adapted for the        
introduction of a steam engine4  ,it was
 constructed under the superintendence  
of ,symington1 and was  tried           
successfully on the ,forth and ,clyde   
,canal in #aghi1 when it was  propelled 
at the rate of seven miles an hour4     
,in the arrangement of the mechanism of 
this boat1 the cylinder was  placed     
horizontally1 for the purpose of making 
connection between the  paddle-wheel and
 the piston1 without the working beam4  
,the piston was  supported in its       
position by friction wheels1 and        
communicated motion  to the paddles by a
 crank4 ,the paddles were placed in the 
middle of the  boat1 near the stern2 and
 there was a double rudder1 connected   
together  by rods which were moved by a 

winch at the head of the vessel4    ,it 
is not very clear why ,mr4 ,miller did  
not follow up this success4  ,objection1
 indeed1 was made by the proprietors of 
the canal on account  of the agitation  
of the water1 which it was feared would 
injure  the banks4 ,it would appear also
 that a misunderstanding took place     
between ,miller and ,symington1 which   
gave the former a distaste to the       
undertaking2 and having shown that such 
a plan was practicable1 he left  others 
to carry it into practical effect4      
,several methods of propelling boats1   
otherwise than by paddles1 had  some    
years previously been suggested2 among  
which were two that have  been again and
 again tried by succeeding inventors1   
down to the present  day4    ,one of    
these is an imitation of the duck's     
foot1 which expands when it  strikes the
 water1 and collapses when it is        
withdrawn4 ,the other is  the ejection  
of a stream of water at the stern1 or on
 both sides of  the boat1 so as to      

produce a forward movement by reaction4 
,both these  plans of propulsion seem   
feasible in design2 but they have       
hitherto  failed in practice4 ,a pastor 
at ,berne1 named ,j4 ,a4 ,genevois1 has 
the  credit of having invented the      
duck-feet propeller in #agee2 and in    
#agie1  six years after ,mr4 ,miller's  
successful experiments1 ,earl ,stanhope 
had  a steam-boat built on that         
principle4 ,it was so far a failure1    
that it  was not propelled faster than  
three miles an hour4 ,the other method  
of  propulsion1 though of older date1   
was patented in #ahjj by ,mr4 ,linnaker1
  who proposed to draw the water in at  
the head of the vessel1 and eject  it at
 the stern1 and thus to obtain a double 
action on the water for  propelling2 but
 the plan was not found to answer4      
,in #ahja1 ,lord ,dundas revived ,mr4   
,miller's project1 and availed himself  
of ,mr4 ,symington's increased          
experience and the further improvements 
in  the steam engine1 to construct a    

much more perfect steam-boat than any   
that had been made4 ,he spent #c1jjj in 
the experiments1 and in ,march1  #ahjb1 
his vessel1 called the ,charlotte       
,dundas1 was tried on the same  scene of
 action1 the ,forth and ,clyde ,canal4  
,this boat1 according to  ,symington's  
report1 towed two vessels1 each of      
seventy tons burthen1 a  distance of    
nineteen miles and a half in six hours1 
against a strong  wind4 ,the threatened 
injury to the banks of the canal by the 
great  agitation of the water prevented 
the use of this boat1 which was         
consequently laid aside2 for the views  
of the inventors of steam-boats  in the 
first instance were limited to their    
employment to drag boats  along canals4 
,we now approach a period when more     
decided advances and more rapid         
progress were made towards realizing    
steam navigation as a practical  fact4  
,mr4 ,fulton1 an ,american1 residing in 
,france1 after making a  number of      
experiments1 under the sanction and with

 the assistance of  ,mr4 ,livingstone1  
the ,american ,ambassador1 launched a   
small steam-boat  on the ,seine in      
#ahjc1 but the weight of the engine     
proved too great for  the strength of   
the boat1 which broke in the middle1 and
 immediately  went to the bottom4       
,not disheartened by this failure he    
built another one1 longer and  stronger1
 and this he succeeded in propelling by 
steam power1 though  very slowly4 ,it   
was1 indeed1 a much less successful     
effort than the  attempts of ,mr4       
,miller and ,lord ,dundas4 ,having been 
threatened with  opposition by ,m4 le   
,blanc1 the patentee of steam-boats in  
,france1  ,fulton determined to return  
to his native country1 where the large  
navigable rivers and lakes offered ample
 scope for the development of  steam    
navigation4 ,having heard of the success
 of ,symington's boats1  he visited     
,scotland for the purpose of profiting  
by his experience2  and he induced      
,symington1 by promises of great        

advantages if the  invention succeeded  
in ,america1 to show him the ,charlotte 
,dundas at  work1 and to enter into full
 explanations of every part4 ,thus      
primed  with the facts1 and with the    
further suggestions of ,symington1      
,fulton  repaired to ,new ,york4 ,mr4   
,livingstone1 who had assisted ,fulton  
in his  experiments1 was himself an     
inventor of several plans of propelling 
vessels by steam1 and in #agih he       
obtained a patent in the ,state of  ,new
 ,york1 for twenty years1 on condition  
that he should produce a  steam-boat by 
the #gth of ,march1 #agii1 that would go
 at the rate of  four miles an hour4    
,having failed to fulfil that condition1
 the  patent privilege was left open1   
and was promised to the first inventor  
who succeeded in propelling a boat by   
steam power at the proposed  speed of   
four miles an hour4 ,fulton1 who had    
entered into partnership  with ,mr4     
,livingstone1 possessed advantages in   
the construction of the  vessel he built

 in ,america1 far greater than any      
previous inventor4 ,he  had not only    
gained knowledge by his former failures1
 but he was able  to profit by the      
experience of others1 and he had secured
 a superior  steam engine1 manufactured 
by ,boulton and ,watt1 of twenty-horse  
power4  ,this was a much more powerful  
engine than any that had been used in   
any former experiment2 the one employed 
by ,mr4 ,livingstone having had  only   
five-horse power4 ,this steam-vessel was
 launched at ,new ,york in  #ahjg1 and  
was called the ,clermont1 the name of   
,mr4 ,livingstone's  residence on the   
banks of the ,hudson4 ,its length was   
#acc feet1 depth #g  feet1 and breadth  
#ah feet4 ,the boiler was #bj feet long1
 #g feet deep1  and #h feet broad4      
,there was only one steam cylinder1     
which was #b feet  in diameter1 with a  
length of stroke of #d feet4 ,the       
paddle-wheels were  #ae feet in         
diameter1 and #e feet broad2 and the    
burthen of the vessel  was #afj tons4   

,crowds of spectators assembled to see  
the boat start on  its first            
experimental voyage4 ,the general       
impression1 even of those  who were     
friendly to ,fulton1 was that it would  
fail1 and an accident  which occurred   
when the vessel was under way confirmed 
this opinion4  ,the foreboders of evil  
exclaimed immediately that they had     
foreseen  something of the kind2 and    
observed it was a pity so much expense  
had been incurred for nothing6 ,the     
required repairs were1 however1  soon   
made4 ,the vessel when again tried cut  
her way bravely through  the water1 to  
the astonishment of all1 and the doubts1
 and fears1 and  lamentations were      
quickly changed into congratulations4   
,as the ,clermont urged its way up the  
,hudson1 its chimney emitting           
innumerable sparks from the dried pine  
wood used as fuel1 it excited  great    
alarm among those who were not prepared 
for such an apparition4  ,an ,american  
paper of that day thus described the    

effect produced on  the crews of other  
ships in the river3--,notwithstanding   
the wind and  tide were adverse to its  
approach1 they saw with astonishment    
that  it was rapidly coming towards     
them2 and when it came so near that  the
 noise of the machinery and paddles was 
heard1 the crews1 in some  instances1   
shrunk beneath their decks from the     
terrific sight1 or left  their vessels  
to go on shore2 whilst others prostrated
 themselves and  besought ,providence to
 protect them from the approach of the  
horrible  monster which was marching on 
the waves1 and lighting its path by the 
fires which it vomited4    ,during the  
time that ,fulton was building his      
steam-boat ,mr4 ,r4 ,l4  ,stevens1 of   
,hoboken1 in the ,state of ,new ,jersey1
 was also engaged in a  similar         
undertaking4 ,though his name is        
comparatively little heard of  in the   
history of ,steam ,navigation1 his      
efforts were more successful  than any  
that had been made previously1 and but  

for the fortunate  chance to ,fulton    
that he was able to launch and put his  
boat in action  a few days before       
,stevens had completed his1 all1 and    
more than all1  the merit that is now   
ascribed to the former would have been  
attributed  to ,stevens4 ,the previous  
successful experiment of ,fulton having 
fulfilled the conditions imposed by the 
,state of ,new ,york1 he obtained  the  
exclusive right of steam navigation on  
the rivers and along the  coast of that 
,state2 therefore1 after ,stevens had   
launched his boat on  the ,hudson1 he   
was unable to employ it there4 ,in this 
predicament he  ventured on the         
hazardous experiment of taking his      
steam-vessel by sea1  and successfully  
accomplished his voyage from ,new ,york 
to ,delaware4  ,this was the first      
attempt to put to sea in a steam-boat4  
,mr4 ,stevens introduced many important 
improvements4 ,he increased the  length 
of stroke of the engines2 he applied    
upright guides for the  piston-rod1 to  

supply the place of the parallel motion2
 and he divided  the paddle-wheel by    
boards1 by which means a more uniform   
motion was  obtained4 ,by these         
improvements he succeeded in raising the
 speed of  steam-vessels to thirteen    
miles an hour4    ,whilst ,steam        
,navigation was making such progress in 
,america1 it was not  neglected in this 
country4 ,mr4 ,henry ,bell1 of ,glasgow1
 a man of great  ingenuity1 had for some
 time directed his attention to the     
subject1  and had given some useful     
hints to ,fulton4 ,seeing1 as he        
afterwards  said1 no reason why others  
should profit by his plans without his  
participation in the fame and the       
profits1 he determined to build a       
steam-boat himself1 which was completed 
and launched in #ahaa4 ,bell  called his
 boat the ,comet1 in commemoration of   
the remarkable  eccentric luminary which
 was at that time frightening ,europe   
from  its propriety4 ,the boat was #be  
tons burthen1 with an engine of about   

#c-;horse power4 ,it plied on the ,frith
 of ,forth for a distance of #bg  miles1
 which in ordinary weather it           
accomplished in #c hours4 ,the  ,comet  
is generally supposed to have been the  
first steam-boat that  plied regularly  
in ,europe2 and its construction was so 
perfect1 that  no boat built for many   
years afterwards surpassed it1 taking   
into  consideration its size and the    
small power of its engine4 ,bell1 though
  he had done so much to advance ,steam 
,navigation in this country1 was        
allowed to suffer neglect and penury in 
his old age1 till the town of  ,glasgow 
granted him a small annuity for his     
services4    ,a claim has been preferred
 on behalf of ,messrs4 ,furnace and     
,ashton1 of  ,hull1 to priority in      
building the first steam-vessel that was
 worked  in ,england4 ,it is stated1    
that about the year #aghg1 experiments  
were  made on the river ,hull1 by       
,furnace and ,ashton1 on the propulsion 
of vessels by steam power4 ,furnace and 

,ashton built a boat1 which  plied on   
the river1 between ,hull and ,beverley1 
for some time1 and  answered exceedingly
 well4 ,in consequence of the good      
results of their  experiments1 they     
built a much larger vessel and engine1  
and sent the  whole to ,london1 to be   
put together and finished2 after which  
it was  subjected to the severest tests1
 and gave the greatest satisfaction4    
,the vessel was bought by the ,prince   
,regent 7afterwards ,george ,,iv471  who
 had it fitted and furnished as a       
pleasure yacht2 but it was soon         
afterwards burnt1 having1 it is         
supposed1 been wilfully set on fire  by 
persons who were afraid that such an    
invention would be injurious  to their  
calling4 ,the ,prince was so much       
pleased with the invention  and         
ingenuity of ,furnace and ,ashton1 that 
he granted them a pension  for their    
lives of #gj a year each4#a ,this       
steamer was on the  paddle-wheel        
principle1 propelled by a steam engine1 

to which was  attached a copper boiler4 
,from this time forward the progress of 
,steam ,navigation was very  rapid4     
,steam-ships were built longer and      
larger1 and with more  powerful engines2
 and the most skilful builders rivalled 
each other  in the construction and     
adaptation of their vessels and engines1
 so  as to attain the highest possible  
speed4 ,the locality in which ,steam    
,navigation may be said to have had its 
birth continued for a long time  to be  
pre-eminent1 and steam-boats built on   
the ,clyde still rank very  high1 if not
 the highest1 in the scale of           
excellence4    ,the ordinary land steam 
engine required considerable alterations
 to  adapt it to marine purposes2 nor   
was it till great experience had been   
gained in propelling vessels by steam   
power1 that the more essentially        
requisite modifications were adopted4   
,it was found important1 in the  first  
place1 to reduce the space occupied by  
the machinery as much as  possible4 ,the

 boilers were consequently made of less 
dimensions1 but  more extensive in their
 heating surface4 ,it was also found    
desirable  to employ two engines instead
 of one1 the pistons being made to rise 
and descend alternately4 ,by this means 
the motion was rendered more  equable1  
and by placing the cranks of the common 
shaft at right angles1  the dead points 
were passed more readily1 and the want  
of a fly wheel  was thus compensated4   
,the steam-boats employed in this       
country were1 almost from the first1    
and continue with few exceptions to be1 
on the low-pressure condensing          
principle2 the whole of the machinery   
being placed below the deck4 ,this      
renders it necessary to diminish the    
height of the engines as much  as       
possible2 and in all marine steam       
engines1 till within the last  twenty   
years1 instead of having a working beam 
over the cylinders1  a cross-head was   
placed at the top of the piston-rod1 the
 action of  which was conveyed by       

parallel motions to cross beams on each 
side1  which were situated at the bottom
 part of each engine4 ,the motion1      
compared with that of an ordinary land  
engine1 was thus inverted4 ,the         
proportions of the cylinders were also  
different2 the length of stroke  being  
shorter1 to diminish the height1 and the
 diameter consequently  greater4 ,the   
valves1 and the gearing connected with  
them1 the air pump1  the condenser1 and 
other subsidiary parts1 do not differ   
essentially  from those of land engines2
 but the governor is omitted1 as it is  
found  impracticable to work a marine   
engine with great regularity4           
,latterly1 many engineers have          
introduced1 with much success1          
arrangements for communicating the      
action directly from the piston-rod  to 
the crank1 without the intervention of  
the beam and parallel  motions4 ,this is
 generally done by causing the          
piston-rod to work  between guides1 and 
a jointed arm connects it with the      

crank4 ,one  method of producing the    
same effect is to make the cylinders    
oscillate  on pivots1 as contrived by   
,mr4 ,murdoch1 in the first model steam 
carriage1 made in #aghd4 ,this principle
 has been successfully carried  into    
operation by ,messrs4 ,penn1 of         
,greenwich4 ,the oscillating cylinders  
accommodate themselves to the varying   
directions of the cranks1 and  the      
strain occasioned by guide rods is      
diminished2 but when very large         
cylinders are required1 the friction and
 the pressure on the pivots  must tend  
to counterbalance the advantage         
otherwise obtained4    ,in the ordinary 
paddle-wheel steam-boats1 the floats of 
the  paddle-wheels are fixed at equal   
distances round the rim1 radiating  from
 the centre2 therefore they enter and   
come out of the water  obliquely4 ,there
 is1 consequently1 a considerable loss  
of power  attending the use of such     
paddle-wheels1 as only one float at a   
time  can be acting vertically on the   

water1 and exerting the propelling      
force in a direct line4 ,several        
attempts have been made to remedy this  
defect1 and to produce what is called   
feathering floats1 every one  of which  
will act against the water at right     
angles4 ,the mechanism  required for    
making this adjustment is1 however1     
liable to get out  of order1 and the    
introduction of vertically acting floats
 has  consequently been very limited4   
,the large projecting paddle-boxes are  
objectionable in sea-going  ships1 as   
they present so large a surface to the  
action of the wind1  and either impede  
the course of the ship1 or make it      
unweatherly4  ,this inconvenience was   
experienced in the early progress of    
,steam  ,navigation1 and many attempts  
were made to overcome it1 by            
substituting  a different kind of       
propeller4 ,recourse was had to the     
inventions of  the ancients1 from whom  
the paddle-wheel was taken1 to find some
 other  means of propulsion4 ,a method  

of propulsion1 similar in principle to  
the action of sculls at the back of a   
boat1 had been contrived long  before   
the inconvenience of paddle-wheels in   
,steam ,navigation was  experienced4 ,in
 #aghd1 ,mr4 ,bramah obtained a patent  
for a propeller  similar in its forms to
 the vanes of a windmill1 which by      
acting  obliquely on the water as it    
revolved1 pushed the boat forward4 ,ten 
years afterwards1 an aquatic propeller  
was patented by ,mr4 ,william           
,lyttleton1 a merchant in ,london4 ,it  
consisted of a single convolution  of a 
three-threaded screw1 and may be        
considered to be the first screw        
propeller invented4 ,numerous other     
ingenious persons1 among whom were      
,tredgold1 ,trevethick1 ,maceroni1 and  
,millington1 afterwards invented        
propellers on the screw principle2 but  
none of them were sufficiently          
satisfactory in their results to come   
into practical use4    ,in #ahcf1 ,mr4  
,smith and ,mr4 ,ericsson obtained a    

patent for a screw  propeller1 which    
nearly resembled ,mr4 ,lyttleton's      
original contrivance2  and by           
perseverance in struggling against the  
many obstacles with  which he had to    
contend1 ,mr4 ,smith succeeded1 though  
all previous  efforts had failed4 ,his  
partner1 however1 became disheartened by
 the  obstacles thrown in their way1 and
 left this country for ,america before  
the success of the screw was            
established4    ,the first ship fitted  
with the screw propeller was called the 
,archimedes4 ,it was a vessel of #bcg   
tons burthen1 with a draught of  water  
of #i feet #d inches4 ,the screw        
projected at the stern1 and being       
turned rapidly round by the steam       
engine1 the oblique action of the       
thread of the screw against the water   
impelled the vessel forward4    ,the    
,archimedes was originally fitted with a
 single-threaded screw1  the threads of 
which were #h feet apart1 and there were
 two convolutions  of the screw round   

the shaft4 ,one convolution of the screw
 having  been accidentally broken off1  
the ship was found to go faster in      
consequence2 and1 following the course  
of investigation suggested by  the      
accident1 ,mr4 ,smith at last adopted a 
double-threaded screw1 with  only half a
 convolution4 ,the average performance  
of the engines was #bf  strokes per     
minute1 and the number of revolutions of
 the screw in the  same time was #ach4  
,the pitch of the screw was #h feet2    
that is1 the  space across one entire   
convolution of the thread would have    
measured  #h feet2 consequently1 had it 
been acting against a solid body1 as a  
cork-screw when entering a cork1 one    
revolution of the shaft would have      
advanced the vessel #h feet1 and the    
speed would have been #ab miles an      
hour2 but the utmost speed the          
,archimedes obtained was #i nautical    
miles4 ,the difference was owing to the 
screw slipping in the water1  because   
the fluid yielded to the oblique action 

of the blades4    ,illustration    ,the 
results of the working of that          
experimental ship were so  satisfactory1
 that other ships were soon built1 with 
modifications  of the form of the       
propeller4 ,it was found disadvantageous
 to have  an entire convolution of the  
thread of the screw2 for one part of it 
worked in the wake of the other1 and    
resistance was produced by the          
backwater4 ,after numerous experiments1 
in which the dimensions of the  screw   
were successively diminished1 the       
propeller was at length reduced  to two 
oblique blades4 ,experiments on a large 
scale were conducted by  ,captain       
,carpenter1 to determine the size and   
angle of inclination best  adapted for  
the purpose of propulsion2 and nearly   
all the ships now  built for the ,royal 
,navy are fitted with propellers on his 
principle4  ,the annexed diagram        
represents on a scale of one-eighth of  
an inch to a  foot1 the form of the     
propeller of the ,agamemnon1 of         

#fjf-;horse power1  which was recently  
engaged in successfully laying down the 
,atlantic  ,telegraph cable4 ,the       
diameter of the screw is #ah feet1 and  
the pitch #bj  feet4    ,the screw      
propeller possesses great advantages in 
ships of war1 as  it is not exposed to  
damage by shot1 and it leaves the entire
 deck  clear for mounting guns4 ,it has 
also the further advantage of not       
interfering with the working of sails1  
and is1 therefore1 admirably  adapted   
for sea-going ships that economize fuel 
by alternately steaming  and sailing1 as
 the wind is adverse or favourable4 ,the
 commotion in  the water made by        
paddle-wheels1 which is an objection to 
their use in  narrow rivers1 is avoided 
by screw propellers1 which being        
immersed  under the water1 make little  
agitation on the surface1 and the ships 
move along without any apparent         
impelling power4    ,the speed of ships 
with the best constructed screw         
propellers is fully  equal to that of   

paddle-wheel vessels2 and when two      
vessels of the same  size1 and with     
engines of equal power1 one fitted with 
paddles1 and the  other with the screw1 
are fastened stem and stern together1 in
 a trial  of strength1 the screw        
propeller has been found to have the    
advantage1  and to pull its antagonist  
along at the rate of one or two miles an
  hour4    ,the difficulty at first     
experienced in the application of the   
screw  propeller was to communicate a   
sufficiently rapid motion to the shaft  
to which it is fixed2 but1 by the       
employment of direct-acting engines1    
this difficulty has been for the most   
part overcome4 ,the power is  generally 
first applied to drive a large          
cog-wheel1 the teeth of which  take into
 the teeth of a smaller cog-wheel fixed 
to the propeller  shaft1 and in this    
manner the velocity is sufficiently     
increased4    ,in #aheb the proportion  
of screw to paddle-wheel vessels        
building  in the ,clyde was as #dc to   

#cj4 ,the advantages of the propeller   
are  becoming every year more           
appreciated1 and it is rapidly          
superseding the  paddle-wheel4    ,in   
the steam-boats of the ,united ,states  
the engines are constructed on  the     
high-pressure principle2 and by working 
with steam of the pressure  of #ajj     
pounds on the square inch1 and with     
larger paddle-wheels1 their  boats      
attain a speed exceeding sixteen miles  
an hour4 ,but numerous  explosions of   
boilers on the ,north ,american rivers  
have operated  as a caution against the 
introduction of high-pressure engines in
  steam-boats in this country4 ,the     
dread of high-pressure steam was early  
impressed by the destructive explosion  
of the boiler of a steam-vessel  at     
,norwich in #ahag1 which led to a long  
parliamentary inquiry into  the subject2
 and the subsequent loss of life by the 
explosion of the  ,cricket on the       
,thames1 has tended to strengthen the   
apprehension  of high-pressure steam    

engines4 ,for river use1 however1 when  
fresh  water is always at command for   
generating the steam1 there appears to  
be no more cause for fear of            
high-pressure engines in boats than on  
railways1 provided the boilers are      
constructed with sufficient care4  ,the 
experiments made by ,mr4 ,fairbairn on  
the strength of boilers1  the results of
 which were communicated at the meeting 
of the ,british  ,association in #ahec1 
prove1 that by increasing the number and
 strength  of the stays1 or internal    
supports1 of the boilers1 they may be   
made1  if sufficiently strong1 to resist
 any possible pressure2 and that the    
square shape1 which was supposed to be  
the weakest1 offers1 on the  contrary1  
peculiar facilities for giving increased
 strength4 ,in one  of these experiments
 made to determine the ultimate strength
 of the  flat surfaces of boilers1 when 
divided into squares of sixteen inches  
area1 the boiler did not give way until 
it had sustained the enormous  pressure 

of #a1fbe pounds on the square inch4    
,it might be desirable1 in the          
construction of steam boilers1 to adopt 
the same principle that is introduced in
 the building of gunpowder  mills1      
one-half of which is built in strong    
masonry1 whilst the other  is made of   
wood4 ,by this means1 when an explosion 
does occur1 much  less damage is done1  
for the lighter part only is blown away1
 which  does little injury4 ,in the same
 manner1 steam engine boilers might  be 
constructed with a small portion        
comparatively weaker1 so that if  it    
gave way there would not be much damage 
done4 ,safety-valves are  intended to   
act in that manner2 and if they were    
properly constructed1  they would       
sufficiently answer the purpose1 and    
guard against the  possibility of       
danger2 but the numerous accidents that 
occur with  boilers provided with       
imperfect safety-valves1 show that there
 is  a necessity for some more effectual
 protection4 ,engineers are not         

sufficiently alive to the importance of 
improvements in this respect4  ,they    
supply an engine with safety-valves1    
which would answer the  purpose if kept 
in proper condition2 but they do not    
make effectual  provision against       
careless management and reckless        
misconduct4 ,some  years since1 a       
gentleman in ,america sent to the author
 a description1  with drawings1 of a    
safety-valve that combined the          
principles of the  safety-plug without  
its inconvenience2 it being so contrived
 that  when the boiler became too hot1  
it melted some fusible metal which      
previously held down the valve1 and then
 a weight pulled it open to  allow an   
ample escape of steam2 but when the heat
 was lowered1 the  valve again closed4  
,this was shown to an eminent engineer  
for his  opinion4 ,he pronounced it to  
be very ingenious1 and that it would1 no
  doubt1 answer the purpose2 but he     
said1 ,an improved safety-valve is  not 
wanted1 those in use being quite        

sufficient for the purpose4    ,in      
steam-ships1 where salt water is used   
for generating the steam1 the           
incrustation on the sides of the boilers
 becomes a serious annoyance4  ,it      
obstructs the communication of heat from
 the furnace to the water1  and the     
metal is thus liable to become red-hot4 
,numerous plans have  been adopted for  
the purpose of preventing the           
accumulation of salt  on the sides of   
the boiler1 the most common of which is 
to allow the  water1 when saturated with
 saline matter1 to escape1 and then to  
fill  the boiler afresh4 ,among other   
contrivances for effecting the same     
purpose1 without the waste of heating   
power which the change of  water        
occasions1 is ,mr4 ,hall's plan of      
condensing the steam in dry  condensers1
 cooled externally1 so that the         
distilled water may be used  again and  
again4 ,this plan though theoretically  
good1 is not much  adopted2 for the     
condensation of steam cannot be so well 

accomplished  by that means as when a   
jet of cold water is thrown directly    
into the  condenser4 ,the principle of  
the dry condenser has1 however1 been    
lately  made available in a new kind of 
engine1 wherein the combined action of  
steam and of spirit vapour is applied as
 the propelling power4    ,steam-boats  
had been for many years in extensive use
 on the rivers and  seas of ,europe and 
,america before it was thought          
practicable to make  voyages in them    
across the ,atlantic4 ,at the meeting of
 the ,british  ,association at          
,liverpool in #ahcg1 that subject was   
brought forward for  consideration1 and 
it was then attempted to be shown1 by   
calculations  of the quantities of coal 
requisite for such a voyage1 that steam 
communication with ,america would not be
 profitable1 if it could be             
accomplished1 as the coal would occupy  
so much of the tonnage as to  leave     
scarcely any space for passengers and   
goods4 ,within a few months  afterwards 

those calculations were set at nought by
 the ,sirius and  the ,great ,western1  
which successfully crossed the ,atlantic
 with  passengers and cargo1 the former 
in nineteen days from ,cork1 and the    
latter in sixteen4 ,at the present time1
 steam-packets are constantly  crossing 
from ,new ,york to ,liverpool in eleven 
days4    ,steam-ships now find their way
 to ,india and even to ,australia1      
though  the necessity of taking in coals
 at depts supplied from ,england  not   
only prolongs the time1 but adds so     
materially to the cost1 as  to render   
steam communication with those distant  
places scarcely  practicable with       
profit1 since no freight can pay for the
 expense of  coaling under such         
circumstances4 ,to overcome that        
difficulty1 it  was proposed to build   
ships large enough to carry a supply of 
coals  sufficient for the voyage there  
and back4 ,one of those ships has  been 
built for the ,eastern ,steam           
,navigation ,company by ,mr4 ,j4 ,scott 

,russell1 from the plans of ,mr4        
,brunel1 which is #fge feet long1 #hc   
feet  broad1 and #fj feet deep4 ,it is  
adapted to carry #f1jjj tons burthen1   
in addition to the engines and requisite
 quantity of fuel1 and to  accommodate  
#b1jjj passengers4 ,this monster ship   
has been built on what  is called the   
wave principle of ship-building1 with   
long concave  bows4 ,it is to be        
propelled by the combined powers of the 
paddle-wheel  and the screw4 ,the       
engines for the former consist of #d    
oscillating  cylinders1 #af feet long   
and #gd inches in diameter1 and the     
screw is  to be worked by #d separate   
engines1 with cylinders of #hd inches in
  diameter4 ,the speed which the ,great 
,eastern is estimated to attain  is #bd 
miles an hour1 and it is calculated that
 the voyage to ,australia  will be      
accomplished in #cj days4 ,there seems1 
at present1 but small  prospect of those
 calculations being realized1 for the   
great cost  incurred in launching the   

vessel and other expenses have exhausted
 the  funds of the company by whom the  
ship was constructed4    ,another       
company has1 however1 been formed for   
the purpose of  completing1 if possible1
 this great experiment in ,steam        
,navigation2  and the opinion so        
strongly expressed by ,mr4 ,fairbairn at
 the recent  meeting of the ,british    
,association at ,leeds1 of the strength 
of the  monster ship1 will give         
additional stimulus to their exertions4 
,the  ship is built on the same         
principle of construction as the        
,britannia  ,bridge over the ,menai     
,straits1 and it was stated by ,mr4     
,fairbairn that  it might be supported  
out of water1 either in the centre or at
 each  end1 without injury4             
,,steam ,,carriages ,,and ,,railways4   
,no invention of the present century has
 produced so great a social  change as  
,steam ,locomotion on railways4 ,not    
only have places that were  formerly    
more than a day's journey from each     

other been made accessible  in a few    
hours1 but the cost of travelling has   
been so much reduced1  that the expense 
has in a great degree ceased to operate 
as a bar to  communication by railway   
for business or pleasure4    ,though the
 coaching system in this country had    
attained the highest  degree of         
perfection1 a journey from ,london to   
,liverpool1 previously  to the formation
 of railways1 was considered a serious  
undertaking4  ,the fast coach1 which    
left ,london at one o'clock in the day1 
did not  profess to arrive in ,liverpool
 till six o'clock the following evening1
  and sometimes it did not reach there  
till ten o'clock at night2 and the  fare
 inside was four guineas1 besides fees  
to coachmen and guards4 ,the  same      
distance is now performed in six hours1 
at one-third the expense1  and at       
one-fourth the fatigue and              
inconvenience4    ,railway ,locomotion1 
however1 forms no exception to the rule1
 that  most modern inventions have their

 prototypes in the contrivances  of ages
 past4 ,they were used upwards of two   
hundred years before  locomotive engines
 were known1 or before the steam engine 
itself was  invented4 ,the manifest     
advantage of an even track for the      
wheels  long ago suggested the idea of  
laying down wood and other hard1  smooth
 surfaces for carriages to run upon4    
,they were first applied  to facilitate 
the traffic of the heavily laden waggons
 from the coal  pits2 the tramways1 as  
they were called1 being formed of timber
  about six inches square and six feet  
long1 fixed to transverse timbers  or   
sleepers1 which were laid on the road4  
,these original railways  were made     
sufficiently wide for the wheels of the 
waggons to run upon  without slipping   
off2 the plan of having edgings to the  
rails1 or  flanges to the wheels1 not   
having been adopted till a later period4
  ,to protect the wood from wearing     
away1 broad plates of iron were         
afterwards fixed on the tramways4       

,cast iron plate rails were first used  
in #agfg4 ,the flat plates on which  the
 wheels ran were made about three inches
 wide1 with edges two inches  high1 cast
 on the near side1 to keep the wheels of
 the trams on the  tracks4 ,these iron  
plates were usually cast in lengths of  
six feet1 and  they were secured to     
transverse wooden sleepers by spikes and
 oaken  pegs4 ,the tramways were laid   
down on the surface of the country      
without  much regard to hills and       
valleys1 the horses that drew the trains
 being  whipped to extra exertion when  
they came to a hill1 and in descending  
some of the steep inclines1 the animals 
were removed1 and the loaded  waggons   
were allowed to descend the hills by    
their own gravity1 the  velocity being  
checked by a break put on by a man who  
accompanied them4    ,the chief use of  
the tramways was to facilitate the      
conveyance of  coals from the pits to   
the boats2 and as the level of the pit's
  mouth was higher than that of the     

water1 it was an object1 in laying  down
 a tramway1 to make a continuous        
descent1 if possible1 for the  loaded   
trains to run down1 the dragging back of
 the empty ones being  comparatively    
easy4 ,thus1 though engineering         
difficulties were  not much considered  
in the construction of those early      
railways1  engineering contrivances were
 adopted to diminish the draught1 by    
making the gradients incline in one     
direction4    ,soon after the invention 
of the ,steam ,engine had been          
practically  applied to mining purposes1
 its power was directed to draw the coal
  waggons on railways4 ,this was done   
about the year #ahjh2 and1 in  the first
 instance1 the application of steam     
power was limited to  drawing the loaded
 waggons up steep inclines4 ,a          
stationary engine was  erected at the   
top of the incline1 and the waggons were
 drawn up by a  rope wound round a large
 drum4 ,this mode of traction was       
afterwards  extended1 in many instances1

 along the whole railway1 so as to      
supersede the use of horse power4 ,the  
employment of stationary engines  in    
this manner was continued1 even after   
the invention of locomotive  steam      
engines1 to draw the trains up inclines 
that were too steep for  the power of   
the small locomotives at first used to  
surmount2 nor has  this plan been yet   
altogether abandoned4    ,the           
application of steam to the direct      
propulsion of carriages was  a          
comparatively slow process4 ,it was1    
indeed1 contemplated by ,watt1  as a    
substitute for horse power on common    
roads1 though he does not  seem to have 
contrived any means by which it might be
 done4 ,the first  known application of 
the kind was made by ,mr4 ,murdoch1 an  
engineer in  the employment of ,messrs4 
,boulton and ,watt1 who in #aghd        
constructed a  working model of a steam 
carriage1 still preserved1 and which    
formed  one of the most interesting     
objects in the ,great ,exhibition of    

#ahea4  ,the boiler of this model       
locomotive is made of a short length of 
brass  tube1 closed with flat ends4 ,the
 furnace to generate the steam consists 
of a spirit lamp4 ,the steam is         
conducted directly from the boiler to a 
single cylinder1 which is mounted on a  
pivot near the centre1 so that  by the  
movement of the cylinder the piston-rod 
may adapt itself to the  varying        
positions of the crank4 ,the two hind   
wheels are fixed to the  axle1 and on   
the latter is the crank1 attached to the
 piston-rod4 ,a  single wheel in front  
serves to guide the carriage1 which is  
propelled  by the rotation of the two   
hind wheels4 ,the elastic force of the  
steam  is directly applied as the moving
 power2 and after it has done its work  
in the cylinder1 it is allowed to escape
 into the air4    ,this first known     
application of steam as a locomotive    
power is more  perfect in its general   
arrangements than many steam carriages  
that  were subsequently brought into    

operation2 and in the plan of balancing 
the cylinder on pivots1 we perceive the 
origin of the oscillating  engines1     
which have been recently introduced with
 much success in ,steam  ,navigation4   
,by that arrangement there is attained  
the most direct  application of the     
piston-rod to the crank1 with the least 
loss of  power4    ,mr4 ,murdoch's      
intention was to employ such carriages  
on common roads1  but he did not proceed
 to put his plan into operation4        
,several other  engineers1 among whom   
was ,symington--who1 as we have before  
seen1  took an active part in the       
invention of ,steam                     
,navigation--afterwards  endeavoured to 
realize ,mr4 ,murdoch's ideas on a      
working scale2 but the  first who       
succeeded in making a locomotive engine1
 that ran with any  success1 were       
,messrs4 ,trevethick and ,vivian4 ,in   
#ahjd they constructed a  locomotive    
engine1 which was employed on a mineral 
railway at ,merthyr  ,tydvil1 in ,south 

,wales4 ,the boiler of their engine     
resembled the one  in ,mr4 ,murdoch's   
model1 in having circular flat ends2    
but1 to increase  the heating surface1 a
 flue was introduced in the middle of   
the boiler1  which passed through it and
 back again1 in the shape of the letter 
,u4 ,the lower part of the tube formed  
the furnace1 and the upper part         
returned through the boiler into the    
chimney4 ,the steam was admitted  into  
and escaped from the cylinder by the    
working of a four-way cock1  the        
contrivance of the slide-valve being    
then unknown4 ,on the axle of  the crank
 a cog-wheel was fixed1 and1 by means of
 the usual gearing1 it  communicated    
motion to the hind wheels1 which were   
fixed to the axle1  so that when the    
wheels revolved the carriage was        
propelled4    ,it is a remarkable fact  
that this engine of ,mr4 ,trevethick's  
presents  the first practical           
application of high-pressure steam as a 
motive  power4 ,watt had1 indeed1       

suggested the application of the        
impulsive  power of steam1 and ,mr4     
,murdoch's model locomotive was         
necessarily  constructed on that        
principle2 but until ,mr4 ,trevethick's 
locomotive  engine was in action1 no    
application of high-pressure steam had  
been  made on a working scale4    ,the  
projectors of locomotive engines were   
for many years possessed with  the      
notion that it was necessary to have    
some contrivance to prevent  the wheels 
from slipping on the road1 as it was    
supposed that otherwise  the wheels     
would be turned without moving the      
carriage4 ,numerous plans  were devised 
for overcoming this imaginary           
difficulty2 and though  experience      
proved that even on railways the        
adhesion of the wheels was1  in ordinary
 circumstances1 sufficient1 yet various 
schemes continued  to be tried for the  
purpose of facilitating the ascent of   
hills4  ,the imitation of the action of 
horses' hoofs was one of the means      

attempted1 but such additional aids were
 eventually found to be of no  avail1   
and were discontinued4    ,all the      
endeavours that were made1 in the first 
instance1 to apply  steam power to      
locomotion1 had in view the propulsion  
of carriages  on common roads1 the idea 
of constructing level railways through  
the  country1 for facilitating the      
general traffic1 being looked upon as   
too visionary a project to be realized4 
,the inventors of locomotive  engines   
consequently directed their attention   
almost exclusively to the  arrangement  
that would best apply steam power to    
overcome the varying  obstacles and     
undulations of common roads4    ,it is  
very curious and interesting1 in tracing
 the progress of an  invention1 to      
observe the different phases through    
which it has passed1  before it has been
 brought into the state in which it is  
ultimately  applied4 ,it not            
unfrequently happens that the original  
purpose sinks  into insignificance1 and 

is almost lost sight of1 as the         
invention  becomes more fully developed4
 ,other objects1 that were not          
perceived1  or were considered          
altogether impracticable1 present       
themselves1 and  are then pursued2 and  
the invention1 when perfected1 is very  
different  from its original design4    
,thus the endeavours of the first       
inventors of  ,steam ,navigation were   
confined to the construction of         
steam-tugs that  would propel the boats 
along canals1 or take a ship into       
harbour1 the  notion of fitting a steam 
engine into a ship to propel it across  
the  sea not having been thought of4 ,in
 the same manner1 the invention of      
,steam locomotion on railways was either
 not contemplated in the first          
instance1 or was considered very        
subordinate to the construction of      
carriages to be propelled by steam power
 on common roads4    ,among the most    
successful of those engineers1 who      
constructed steam  carriages to run on  

roads1 were ,mr4 ,gurney1 ,mr4          
,birstall1 ,mr4  ,trevethick1 ,mr4      
,handcock1 and ,colonel ,maceroni4 ,mr4 
,gurney was one of  the first on the    
road4 ,his steam carriage completed     
several journeys  very successfully1 and
 proved the practicability of employing 
steam  power in locomotive engines many 
years before the first passenger        
railway was brought into operation4     
,this1 like all other new  inventions1  
was1 however1 beset with difficulties1  
among which the  most annoying was the  
determined obstruction the plan met with
 from  the trustees of public roads1 who
 levied heavy tolls on the carriages1   
and laid loose stones on the roads to   
stop them from running1 as the  driving 
wheels were found to be destructive to  
the roads4 ,there was  also considerable
 danger in running steam carriages on   
the same roads  on which ordinary       
traffic was conducted1 because the      
strange appearance  of the engines1     
their noise1 and the issuing steam1     

frightened the  horses4                 
,notwithstanding these difficulties1 the
 importance of applying steam  as a     
locomotive power for passenger traffic  
became so apparent1 that a  ,committee  
of the ,house of ,commons was appointed 
in #ahca1 to consider  whether the plan 
could be adopted with safety on common  
roads1 and  whether it should not be    
encouraged by passing an ,act of        
,parliament for  regulating the tolls   
chargeable on such carriages1 and for   
preventing  the obstructions to which   
they had been exposed4 ,the evidence    
given  before the ,committee was greatly
 in favor of steam carriages1 and       
tended to show that there was no        
insuperable difficulty to the general   
adoption of them4 ,the ,committee       
accordingly reported as follows3--      
,sufficient evidence has been adduced to
 convince your ,committee--    #ast4    
,that carriages can be propelled by     
steam on common roads at an  average    
speed of ten miles an hour4    #bnd4    

,that at that rate they have conveyed   
upwards fourteen passengers4    #crd4   
,that their weight1 including engines1  
fuel1 water1 and  attendants1 may be    
under three tons4    #dth4 ,that they   
can ascend and descend hills of         
considerable elevation1  with facility  
and safety4    #eth4 ,that they are     
perfectly safe for passengers4    #fth4 
,that they are not 7or need not be1 if  
properly constructed7  nuisances to the 
public4    #gth4 ,that they will become 
a speedier and cheaper mode of          
conveyance  than carriages drawn by     
horses4    #hth4 ,that as they admit of 
greater breadth of tire than other      
carriages1 and as the roads are not     
acted upon so injuriously as by the     
feet of horses in common draught1 such  
carriages will cause less wear  of roads
 than coaches drawn by horses4    #ith4 
,that rates of toll have been imposed on
 steam carriages which  would prohibit  
them being used on several lines of     
roads1 were such  charges permitted to  

remain unaltered4    ,in defiance of    
this favourable report1 experience      
proved that there  were defects in that 
system of locomotion greater than its   
advocates  were disposed to admit1 and  
that the mechanism was frequently broken
  or disarranged by the constant jarring
 caused by the roughness of  the road4  
,the alarm of the horses drawing other  
carriages was also  calculated to       
produce fearful accidents4    ,so far1  
indeed1 as regarded the power of        
locomotion1 the steam  carriages were   
successful4 ,the author was witness of  
this success  during a short excursion  
in ,colonel ,maceroni's carriage1 which 
ascended  hills and ran over rough roads
 with great ease1 and at a speed of     
twelve miles an hour4 ,the practical    
difficulties1 however1 were so  great1  
that steam carriages have not been able 
to compete with horse  power2 for the   
original cost of the boiler and engine1 
the necessary  repairs1 and the expense 
of fuel1 amounted to more than the cost 

and  keep of horses4 ,the plan was      
practically tried for several weeks1 in 
#ahca1 by running a steam carriage for  
hire from ,paddington to the ,bank  of  
,england4 ,the carriage1 of which the   
annexed diagram is an outline1  was one 
of those constructed by ,mr4 ,handcock4 
,the engine was placed  behind the      
carriage1 which was capable of          
containing sixteen persons1  besides the
 engineer and guide4 ,the latter was    
seated in front1 and  guided the        
carriage by means of a handle1 which    
turned the fore wheels4  ,the carriage  
was under perfect control1 and could be 
turned within  the space of four yards4 
,with this carriage1 ,mr4 ,handcock     
stated he  accomplished one mile up hill
 at the rate of seventeen miles an hour4
  ,the carriage loaded very well at     
fares which would now be considered     
exorbitant1 but the frequent necessity  
for repairs rendered the  enterprise    
unsuccessful1 and the steam carriage was
 taken off the road4    ,illustration   

,the successful establishment of        
railways1 and the great advantages      
arising from them compared with the     
ordinary means of conveyance1  still    
further reduced the chance of           
establishing ,steam ,locomotion  on     
roads1 and the plan is now in abeyance1 
at least1 if it has not  been abandoned4
 ,it is very possible1 however1 that in 
the progress of  invention1             
modifications may be made in the steam  
engine1 to adapt it  more successfully  
to the purpose2 or more suitable motive 
powers may be  discovered1 that may     
bring mechanical locomotion on roads    
again into  favour4    ,the successful  
application of ,steam ,locomotion on    
railways cannot be  dated more than     
thirty years ago2 yet in that short     
period its progress  has been so rapid1 
that but few traces of the old mode of  
travelling by  stage coaches are now to 
be seen4    ,some locomotive steam      
carriages had1 indeed1 been introduced  
on the  ,stockton and ,darlington coal  

railway1 by ,mr4 ,george ,stephenson1 in
  #ahbe1 but their results were not so  
satisfactory as to induce the  extension
 of the plan to the other railways that 
were then laid down  in the coal        
districts of ,england4 ,the cylinders of
 those engines were  vertical1 and each 
of the four wheels acted propulsively on
 the rails  by means of an endless chain
 running along cog-wheels fixed on the  
axles4 ,the utmost speed that could be  
obtained by this means was eight  miles 
an hour2 and so little were these       
engines calculated to solve  the problem
 of the practicability of steam         
locomotive engines1 that  when the first
 passenger railway was projected1 from  
,liverpool to  ,manchester1 it was      
proposed to propel the carriages by the 
traction  of ropes1 put in motion by    
stationary steam engines4 ,the          
directors1  before finally determining  
on the system of locomotion to be       
adopted1  offered a premium of #ejj for 
the best locomotive engine to run on    

that  line4 ,the stipulations proposed1 
and the conditions which the required   
engines were to fulfil1 may be regarded 
as a curious exposition of the  limited 
views then taken of the capabilities of 
,steam ,locomotion on  railways4 ,the   
engine was to consume its own smoke2 to 
be capable of  drawing three times its  
own weight at #aj miles an hour1 with a 
pressure  on the boiler not exceeding   
#ej pounds on the square inch2 the whole
 to  be proved to bear three times its  
working pressure--a pressure guage  to  
be provided2 to have two safety-valves1 
one locked up2 the engine  and boiler to
 be supported on springs1 and rested on 
six wheels1 if  the weight should exceed
 #d tons2 height to the top of the      
chimney not  to exceed #ae feet2 weight1
 including water in boiler1 not to      
exceed #f  tons1 or less1 if possible2  
the cost of the engine not to exceed    
#eej4    ,an engine1 called the ,rocket1
 constructed by ,messrs4 ,booth and     
,stephenson1 was the successful         

competitor for the prize4 ,it so far    
exceeded the required conditions as to  
speed1 that1 when unattached to  any    
carriages1 it ran at the rate of #cj    
miles an hour4 ,the principal  cause of 
its successful action was the           
introduction of a boiler  perforated    
lengthwise by many tubes1 through which 
the heated air of  the furnace passed to
 the chimney1 and by this means a much  
larger  evaporating surface was obtained
 than in the boilers previously         
employed1 with a single flue passing    
through the centre4 ,the tubes were  of 
copper1 three inches in diameter1 one   
end of each communicating with  the     
chimney1 and the other with the furnace4
 ,there were twenty-five of  these tubes
 passing through the boiler1 and fixed  
water-tight at each  end4    ,the boiler
 was #c feet #d inches in diameter1 and 
#f feet long2 and it  exposed a heating 
surface of #aag square feet4 ,there were
 two cylinders1  placed in a diagonal   
position1 with a stroke of #af inches1  

and each  worked a wheel #d feet #h     
inches diameter1 the piston-rod being   
attached  externally to spokes of the   
driving wheels4 ,the draught of the     
chimney1  aided by the escaping steam   
from the cylinders1 which was admitted  
into  it1 served to keep the fuel in    
active combustion4 ,the ,rocket weighed 
#da tons2 the tender1 with water and    
coke1 #c tons #d cwt42 and two loaded   
carriages attached1 #i tons2 so that the
 engine and train together  weighed     
about #ai tons4 ,the boiler evaporated  
#aad gallons of water in  the hour1 and 
consumed1 in the same time1 #bag pounds 
of coke4 ,the  average velocity of the  
train was #ad miles per hour4    ,the   
accompanying woodcuts represent an      
elevation of the ,rocket1  and a section
 of its boiler4 ,in these figures1 a is 
the fire-box  or furnace1 surrounded on 
all sides with water1 with the exception
  of the side perforated for the        
reception of the tubes2 b is the        
boiler2 d1 one of the steam cylinders2  

e1 the chimney2 h and i1  safety-valves2
 f1 one of the connecting rods for      
communicating motion  to the driving    
wheels4    ,illustration    ,three other
 engines competed with the ,rocket1 two 
of which had  attained great speed on   
previous trials4 ,these were the        
,novelty1  constructed by ,messrs4      
,braithwaite and ,ericsson1 which       
weighed only  #b tons2 and the ,sans    
,pareil1 manufactured by ,mr4 ,arkworth1
 which  weighed #d tons4 ,on the day of 
trial1 the #fth of ,october1 #ahbi1     
these  two locomotive engines were      
disabled by the bursting of some of     
their  pipes1 and thus the field was    
left clear to the ,rocket1 for the      
fourth engine had no chance of winning  
the prize4    ,the ,rocket1 indeed1 more
 than fulfilled all the conditions      
required  by the directors of the       
railway1 who thereupon decided on       
employing  locomotive engines for the   
traffic on the line4    ,the ,rocket has
 formed the model on which all          

subsequent locomotive  engines have been
 constructed2 for1 though numerous      
alterations and  improvements have been 
made in details1 and though the size of 
the  engines has been greatly enlarged1 
the principle of construction  remains  
essentially the same4 ,among the        
improvements that have been  introduced 
by different inventors1 is an increase  
in the number of  the tubes in the      
boiler1 so as to facilitate the         
generation of steam1  some of the       
engines now made having upwards of #ajj 
tubes1 though of  smaller diameter than 
those of the ,rocket4 ,the boilers have 
also been  elongated1 to enlarge the    
evaporating surface and economize fuel4 
,the  cylinders are placed horizontally1
 and they are generally fixed inside    
the boiler1 to prevent the cooling of   
the steam4 ,the piston-rods are         
attached to cranks on the axle1 placed  
at right angles to each other2  and the 
engines are generally mounted on six    
wheels1 four of which are  driving      

wheels1 made of larger size than the two
 others1 and they are  coupled together 
by connecting arms4 ,the large and      
powerful engines on  the ,great ,western
 ,railway have1 however1 only two       
driving wheels1 which  are #h feet in   
diameter4 ,these engines weigh as much  
as #ca tons1 which  is seven times more 
than the weight of the ,rocket4 ,they   
are capable  of taking a passenger train
 of #abj tons at an average speed of #fj
  miles an hour on easy gradients2 and  
the effective power1 as measured  by a  
dynamometer1 is stated to be equal to   
#gdc horses4    ,the accompanying       
engraving of one of the recently        
constructed engines  on the ,great      
,western ,railway presents a remarkable 
difference in  point of size and general
 arrangement to the original prototype1 
from  which1 however1 it does not       
materially differ in the principle of   
its  construction4    ,illustration     
,the complete success of the ,rocket    
having settled the question of the  mode

 of traction1 the ,directors of the     
,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway     
made increased efforts to complete the  
line1 and to open it for general        
traffic4 ,in ,september1 #ahcj1 all was 
ready for the opening1 which it  was    
determined should take place with a     
ceremony indicative of the  importance  
of the great event4 ,the principal      
members of the ,government  consented to
 take part in the inauguration of the   
railway1 and the  utmost interest was   
excited throughout the country for the  
success of  an undertaking that promised
 to be the commencement of a new era in 
travelling4 ,the #aeth of ,september was
 the day appointed1 and there  were     
eight locomotive engines provided to    
propel the same number of  trains of    
carriages1 which were to form the       
procession4 ,all along the  line there  
were crowds of persons collected to     
witness the ceremony4  ,the trains      
started from the ,liverpool end of the  
railway2 and1 as they  passed along1    

they were greeted by the cheers of the  
astonished and  delighted spectators4   
,on arriving at ,parkside1 seventeen    
miles from  ,liverpool1 the engines     
stopped to take in fresh supplies of    
fuel and  water4 ,the passengers        
alighted and walked upon the line1      
congratulating  one another on the      
delightful treat they were enjoying1 and
 on the  success of the great           
experiment4 ,all hearts were bounding   
with joyous  excitement1 when a         
disastrous event occurred1 which threw a
 deep gloom  over the scene4 ,the ,duke 
of ,wellington1 ,sir ,robert ,peel1 and 
,mr4  ,huskisson were among those who   
were walking on the railway1 when one of
  the engines was recklessly put in     
action1 and propelled along the line4   
,there was a general rush to the        
carriages1 and ,mr4 ,huskisson1 in      
trying  to enter his carriage1 slipped  
backwards and fell upon the rails4 ,the 
wheels of the engine passed over his leg
 and thigh1 and he was so  severely     

injured1 that he expired in a few hours4
    ,notwithstanding this lamentable    
occurrence1 the journey was continued   
to ,manchester1 and the carriages       
returned to ,liverpool the same         
evening4 ,on the following morning the  
regular trains commenced running1  and  
they were crowded with passengers1      
nothing daunted by the fatal  calamity  
on the opening day4    ,the immense     
advantages of this mode of travelling   
were at once  apparent1 and lines of    
railway in different parts of the       
country  were quickly projected4 ,the   
railway from ,london to ,birmingham was 
the first one commenced after the       
completion of the ,liverpool and        
,manchester line1 and a connecting link 
with ,manchester and ,liverpool  was    
also begun by a separate company4 ,the  
,birmingham ,railway was opened         
throughout on the #agth ,september1     
#ahch4    ,railway enterprise was not   
checked by the great cost of the        
undertakings1 nor by the miscalculations

 of the engineers1 who1 in the  first   
instance1 frequently greatly            
under-estimated the expenditure         
requisite for the cuttings1 embankments 
and tunnels1 which were thought         
necessary to attain as perfect a level  
as possible4 ,the original  estimate for
 the ,liverpool and ,manchester ,railway
 was #cjj1jjj1 but  the amount expended 
on the works at the time of opening was 
nearly  #hjj1jjj4 ,the original estimate
 of the ,london and ,birmingham         
,railway1  including the purchase of    
land1 and the locomotives and carriages1
  was #b1ejj1jjj1 whilst the actual cost
 amounted to #e1fjj1jjj1 the  cost of   
the works and stations being about      
#ch1jjj per mile4 ,the ,grand  ,junction
 ,railway1 from ,birmingham to          
,liverpool1 was more economically       
constructed1 because the difficulties to
 be surmounted were not so  great1 and  
less attention was paid to maintain a   
level line4 ,it was  estimated to cost1 
including all charges1 #ac1cjj per mile1

 though the  actual cost was #bc1bjj4   
,the plan adopted for laying down and   
fixing the rails on all the  railways in
 ,england1 with the exception of the    
,great ,western1 is  nearly similar to  
that on which the original coal-pit     
railways were  constructed4 ,pieces of  
timber1 called sleepers1 are laid at    
short  distances across the road1 and on
 to these sleepers are fixed cast iron  
chairs1 into which the rails are        
fastened by wedges1 the sleepers  being 
afterwards covered with gravel or other 
similar material1 called  ballast1 to   
make the timbers lie solidly1 and to    
keep the road dry4    ,the railway      
system of ,great ,britain was commenced 
without sufficient  attention to the    
determination of the best width apart of
 the rails4  ,in forming the ,liverpool 
and ,manchester ,railway1 the guage of  
the  railways in the collieries was     
adopted1 and the width between the rails
  was made #d feet #h inches4 ,the same 
width of rails was adopted on the       

,london and ,birmingham and ,grand      
,junction ,railways2 and as uniformity  
of  guage was essential to enable the   
engines and carriages on one line to    
travel on another1 the other railways   
connected with the grand trunk  line    
were made of the same width of guage4   
,mr4 ,brunel1 the engineer  of the      
,great ,western ,railway1 departed from 
that uniformity1 and laid  down the     
rails #g feet apart4 ,the increased     
width of guage possesses  many          
advantages1 of which greater steadiness 
of motion and greater  attainable speed1
 without risk1 are the most important2  
but1 at the  same time1 the additional  
space incurs a greater expense in laying
 out  the line4 ,as branches from the   
,great ,western ,railway spread into the
  districts where the narrow guage      
railways had been laid down1 much       
inconvenience has arisen from the break 
of guage1 as it occasions the  necessity
 for a change of carriages4 ,on some    
railways1 to avoid this  inconvenience1 

narrow and broad guage rails have been  
laid down on the  same line4    ,if the 
railway system of ,great ,britain were  
to be recommenced1 after  the experience
 that has now been acquired1 the medium 
guage would most  probably be adopted2  
and in commencing to lay down railways  
in ,ireland1  the ,irish ,railway       
,commissioners recommended #f feet #b   
inches as the most  desirable width1 and
 that standard has been advantageously  
adopted in  the sister country4         
,travelling experience tells greatly in 
favour of the broad gauge4 ,there  is no
 railway out of ,london whereon the     
carriages run so smoothly1 and  on which
 the passengers are so conveniently     
accommodated1 as on the  ,great         
,western4 ,the speed attained on that   
railway also surpasses that  on any     
other4 ,the express train runs from     
,london to ,bristol1 a distance  of #abj
 miles1 in less than three hours4 ,the  
author accompanied an  experimental     
train1 when one of the large engines was

 first put upon  the line1 and during   
some portion of the journey a rate of   
#gj miles an  hour was accomplished     
without any inconvenient oscillation4   
,it must be observed1 with regard to the
 action of locomotive engines1  that as 
the piston-rods are attached directly to
 cranks on the axle1  each piston makes 
a double stroke for every revolution of 
the driving  wheels2 consequently1 when 
the engine is running at great speed1   
the  movement of the piston is so rapid1
 that there is neither time for  the    
free emission of the waste steam1 nor   
for the full action of the              
high-pressure steam admitted4 ,there is1
 therefore1 a great waste of  power     
occasioned by the admitted steam having 
to act against the steam  that is       
escaping2 and an engine1 calculated to  
have the power of #gjj  horses1 will not
 exert a tractive force nearly equal to 
that amount4  ,with a driving wheel #f  
feet in diameter1 a locomotive engine   
will be  propelled #ah feet by each     

double stroke of the piston1 if there be
 no  slipping on the rails2             
consequently1 in the space of a mile1   
the piston  must make #cjj double       
strokes4 ,when running1 therefore1 at   
the speed of  #cj miles an hour1 the    
piston makes #aej double strokes per    
minute4    ,the success of the great    
experimental railway from ,manchester to
  ,liverpool not only stimulated similar
 works in this country1 undertaken  by  
private enterprise2 but the ,continental
 ,governments quickly  perceived the    
importance of that means of             
communication1 and commenced  the       
formation of railways at the national   
cost1 and placed them under             
governmental control4 ,belgium was      
peculiarly adapted1 by the general      
level state of the country1 for the     
formation of railways2 and long  before 
any connected system was completed in   
this country1 the chemins  de fer formed
 a complete net-work in that kingdom1   
and the system of  conducting the       

traffic was brought to a much higher    
state of perfection  than was attained  
in this country4 ,the rate of           
travelling1 however1 was  slower4    ,it
 is a question that has been often      
mooted1 whether it is better  to allow  
the system of communication throughout  
the country to be  conducted by         
independent companies of enterprising   
individuals1 or  to place it entirely   
under the control of the ,government4   
,the want  of system manifested in the  
formation of the railways in ,england   
has proved a serious inconvenience1 and 
has occasioned wasteful  expenditure1   
besides having led to a fearful         
destruction of life1  owing to the want 
of careful attention to the means of    
safety1 and to  ill-judged parsimony in 
the management of the traffic4 ,there   
can be  no doubt that if the ,government
 had undertaken the work zealously1  and
 with the view of establishing a        
complete system of railway              
communication1 many of the              

inconveniences now experienced might    
have  been avoided1 and the railways    
might have been laid down and worked  at
 considerably less cost1 and with a     
large addition to the national  revenue4
 ,there is1 however1 so strong a        
disinclination in this country  to the  
centralization of ,government power1 and
 to the extension of  ,government       
influence1 that the people generally had
 rather submit  to considerable         
inconvenience and expense1 than tolerate
 the system  of railway management which
 has been adopted on the ,continent4    
,the  necessity of interference1 to     
protect the interests of the public1 has
  nevertheless compelled the            
,government1 though late1 to adopt      
measures  for controlling the management
 of the railway companies1 and stringent
  regulations are now imposed with a    
view to prevent unnecessary danger  to  
railway passengers4    ,the railway     
system of ,great ,britain1 though       
established entirely by  private        

enterprise1 represents an amount of     
capital equal to one-third  of the      
national debt1 and nearly #ajj1jjj      
individuals are directly  employed in   
conducting the traffic on the various   
railways in this  kingdom4 ,an idea of  
the vastness of these undertakings1 and 
the  important interests involved in    
them1 may be formed from the following  
facts1 stated by ,mr4 ,robert           
,stephenson1 at the ,institution of     
,civil  ,engineers3--    ,the railways  
of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1        
completed at the beginning  of #ahef1   
extended #h1jed miles1 and more than    
enough of single rails  were laid to    
make a belt round the globe4 ,the cost  
of constructing  these railways had been
 #bhf1jjj1jjj4 ,the working stock       
comprised #e1jjj  locomotive engines and
 #aej1jjj carriages and trucks2 and the 
coal  consumed annually by the engines  
amounted to #b1jjj1jjj tons1 so that  in
 every minute #d tons of coal flashed   
into steam #bj tons of water4  ,in #ahed

 there were #aaa millions of passengers 
conveyed on railways1  each passenger   
travelling an average of #ab miles4 ,the
 receipts during  #ahed amounted to     
#bj1bae1jjj2 and there was no instance  
on record in  which the receipts of a   
railway had not been of continuous      
growth1  even where portions of the     
traffic had been abstracted by new      
lines4  ,the wear and tear of the       
railways was1 at the same time1         
enormous4 ,for  instance1 #bj1jjj tons  
of iron rails required to be annually   
replaced1  and #bf millions of wooden   
sleepers perished in the same time4 ,to 
supply  this number of sleepers1        
#cjj1jjj trees were felled1 the growth  
of which  would require little less than
 #e1jjj acres of forest land4 ,the cost 
of  running was about fifteen pence per 
mile1 and an average train will  carry  
#bjj passengers4 ,without railways1 the 
penny post could not have  been         
established1 because the old mail       
coaches would have been unable  to carry

 the mass of letters and newspapers that
 are now transmitted4  ,every ,friday   
night1 when the weekly papers are       
published1 eight or ten  carts are      
required for ,post ,office bags on the  
,north-,western ,railway  alone1 and    
would hence require #ad or #ae mail     
coaches4    ,adverting to other         
advantages derived from railway         
locomotion1 ,mr4  ,stephenson noticed   
the comparative safety of that mode of  
travelling4  ,railway accidents occurred
 to passengers in the first half of     
#ahed in  the proportion of only one    
accident to every #g1aid1cdc travellers4
  ,as regards the saving of time1 he    
estimated that on every journey1        
averaging #ab miles in length1 an hour  
was saved to #aaa millions of           
passengers per annum1 which was equal to
 #ch1jjj years1 reckoning eight  working
 hours per day2 and allowing each man an
 average of #cs4 a day  for his work1   
the saving of time might be valued at   
#b1jjj1jjj a year4  ,there were #ij1jjj 

persons employed directly1 and #dj1jjj  
collaterally1  on railways2 and #acj1jjj
 men1 with their families1 represent    
#ejj1jjj so  that #a in #ej of the      
entire population of the kingdom might  
be said to  be dependent for their      
subsistence on railways4    ,every year 
adds to the extent of the railway       
system1 and to the  increase of the     
traffic1 so that considerable addition  
should be made  to the amounts stated by
 ,mr4 ,stephenson to represent the state
 of  railway enterprise and railway     
traffic at the present day4 ,the traffic
  returns for the week ending the #beth 
of ,september1 #aheh1 amounted  to      
#ejb1gbj2 and the gross receipts of the 
railways in #aheg were  #bd1agd1faj4    
,the railways now open for traffic in   
,england1 ,scotland1  and ,ireland      
extended to upwards of #i1jjj miles1 and
 the lines reported  to be in the course
 of construction amount to one-ninth the
 length of  those completed4    ,in     
estimating the importance and advantage 

of railway travelling1 there  must not  
be omitted its cheapness and comfort1   
compared with travelling  by stage      
coach4 ,there are some persons1 indeed1 
who look back with  regret to the old   
coaching days2 and it must be admitted  
that railways  have taken away nearly   
all the romance of travelling1 and much 
of the  exhilarating pleasure that was  
experienced when passing through a      
beautiful country on the top of a       
well-horsed coach in fine weather4  ,the
 many incidents and adventures that gave
 variety to the journey were  pleasant  
enough for a short distance2 but two    
days and a night on the  top of a coach1
 exposed to cold and rain1 or cramped up
 inside1 with  no room to stir the body 
or the legs1 was accompanied with an    
amount of  suffering which those who    
have experienced it would willingly     
exchange  for a seat1 even in a         
third-class railway carriage4 ,in a     
national and  in a social point of view1
 also1 railways have produced important 

improvements4 ,they tend to equalize the
 value of land throughout the  kingdom1 
by bringing distant sources of supply   
nearer the points of  consumption2 they 
have given extraordinary stimulus to    
manufacturing  industry2 and by         
connecting all parts of the country more
 closely  together1 railway             
communication has concentrated the      
energies of the  people1 and has thus   
added materially to their wealth1 their 
comforts1  and to social intercourse4   
,nor must we1 in noticing the grand     
invention of locomotion on  railways1   
omit to mention some of the many        
subsidiary works which  have been       
created during its progress towards     
perfection1 and which  have contributed 
to its success4 ,tunnels1 of a size     
never before  contemplated1 have        
penetrated for miles through hard rocks1
 or through  shifting clays and sands2  
embankments and viaducts have been      
raised  and erected1 on a scale of      
magnitude that surpasses any former     

similar  works2 bridges of various novel
 kinds1 invented and constructed for    
the special occasions1 carry the        
railways over straits of the sea1       
through gigantic tubes2 across rivers1  
suspended from rods supported by        
ingeniously devised piers and girders2  
and over slanting roads1 on iron  beams 
or on brick arches built askew4 ,as to  
the locomotive engines1  though the     
principle of construction remains the   
same1 the numerous  patents that have   
been obtained attest that invention has 
been active  in introducing various     
improvements in the details of          
construction1  to facilitate their      
working1 and to increase their power4   
,the various  plans that have been      
contrived for improving the structure of
 the  wheels and axles1 for the         
application of breaks1 for deadening the
  effect of collisions1 for making      
signals1 for the forms of the rails1    
and for the modes of fastening them to  
the road1 are far too many to be        

enumerated4    ,in addition to the      
innumerable contrivances that have been 
invented  for the improvement of the    
working of ordinary railways1 several   
distinct systems of railway locomotion  
have been introduced to public  notice1 
some of which seemed very feasible1     
though they have nearly  all gradually  
disappeared4 ,of these1 the ,atmospheric
 railway was the  most promising1 and   
for a time it bid fair to supersede the 
use of  locomotive engines4 ,the        
propulsion of the carriages1 by the     
pressure  of the atmosphere acting on an
 attached piston working in a vacuum    
tube1 possessed many theoretical        
advantages1 and if it could be  applied 
economically1 railway travelling would  
become more pleasant  and more free from
 danger than it is4 ,on several lines of
 railway the  atmospheric plan was put  
into operation1 but owing to the expense
 of  working1 it was gradually          
abandoned4 ,the short line from         
,kingston to  ,dalky1 in ,ireland1 up a 

steep incline1 was favourable to the    
working of  the atmospheric railway1 and
 there it continued to linger for some  
time  after it had been abandoned       
elsewhere4    ,it is to be regretted    
that the atmospheric railway should have
 failed  in economical working1 for it  
possessed greater advantages for general
  traffic than the ordinary locomotive  
railway trains2 and it is probable  that
 if the same amount of inventive power  
and industry1 which have  been bestowed 
in improving locomotive engines1 had    
been directed to  overcome the          
difficulties of atmospheric traction1 it
 might have proved  economically        
successful4    ,the facility of         
travelling by railway has excited a     
spirit of  locomotion before undreamed  
of4 ,instead of the diminished demand   
for  horses which was apprehended when  
railways displaced stage coaches1       
public conveyances have increased a     
hundredfold4 ,we can now scarcely       
conceive the time when there was not an 

omnibus in the streets of  ,london1 yet1
 scarcely more than thirty years ago1   
they were unknown1  and travelling by   
stage carriages from one part of the    
town to another  was prohibited by law6 
,on their first introduction1 omnibuses 
were  considered absurdities1 and were  
ridiculed as painted hearses4 ,the      
present omnibus traffic in ,london alone
 amounts to nearly #bj1jjj per  week4   
,,the ,,air ,,engine4      ,numerous    
attempts have been made to supersede    
steam as a motive power1  with the view 
to avoid the loss of heat by its        
absorption in the steam  in a latent    
state4 ,mercury vapour and spirit vapour
 have been tried1  in the expectation   
that as they possess much less capacity 
for heat1  an equal pressure might be   
obtained1 with a diminished loss of     
heating  power4 ,several gaseous agents 
have been applied to the same purpose1  
of  which carbonic acid gas seemed to   
present the best prospect of success1   
because it becomes expanded with a      

comparatively small increase of         
temperature4 ,none of these attempts to 
produce a motive power superior  to     
steam have yet proved successful4 ,they 
have all1 after a short  season of      
promise1 dropped out of notice2 and the 
only one that is  still in the field1   
struggling for superiority1 is the air  
engine4    ,the first known air engine  
was invented by ,sir ,george ,cayley1 in
 #ahjc4  ,in his engine the air was     
heated by passing directly through the  
hot  coals of the furnace1 which some   
engineers yet consider to be the best   
mode of expansion2 but its operation did
 not answer expectations4 ,mr4  ,d4     
,stirling1 of ,dundee1 afterwards       
improved on ,sir ,george ,cayley's      
plan1 and introduced a method of        
regaining the heat from the expanded    
air1 after it had done its work in the  
cylinder1 and of applying it to  expand 
the air again4 ,engines on this         
construction have been for some  years  
working in ,scotland1 and in #ahej ,mr4 

,stirling took out a patent  for an     
improvement in the arrangement1 which is
 stated to have been  very successful4  
,though ,sir ,george ,cayley and ,mr4   
,stirling were the first in the field   
as inventors of air engines1 the name of
 ,mr4 ,ericsson1 an ,american1  is more 
closely associated with the invention1  
as he has for many  years been          
conducting experiments on a large scale1
 and has tried his  caloric engine on   
land1 and on a ship of large burthen1   
built for the  purpose4    ,the         
principle and the working of ,mr4       
,ericsson's caloric engine is  nearly   
the same as ,mr4 ,stirling's2 but as it 
has been brought most  prominently into 
notice1 we shall direct attention more  
particularly  to its construction and   
performances4 ,mr4 ,ericsson obtained a 
patent  for his caloric engine in this  
country in #ahcc1 and a subsequent      
patent  for improvements on it was taken
 out in #ahea4 ,during those years1 and 
to a late period1 he was indefatigably  

working out the principle1 and  numerous
 highly favourable reports have from    
time to time been made of  the results  
of the experiments2 but the advantages  
to be derived from  the air engine      
remain nevertheless very questionable4  
,the object attempted to be gained is to
 make the same heating power  do its    
work again and again4 ,atmospheric air1 
after being expanded by  passing over an
 extensive hot surface1 exerts the force
 thus acquired  to raise the piston of a
 large cylinder1 and it is then         
attempted  to abstract the heat as the  
air issues out1 and to apply it to the  
expansion of a further quantity4    ,the
 practicability of this plan has        
undergone much discussion2 its  friends 
and foes being equally confident in     
their opinions4 ,the  former pronounce  
it to be one of the most valuable       
inventions of  the age1 being calculated
 to economize heat1 and to give greatly 
additional impulse to navigation2 whilst
 its opponents declare that the         

calculations are erroneous1 the         
experiments fallacious1 and that the    
expanded air consumes more heating power
 than steam4    ,in one of the          
favourable notices of ,mr4 ,ericsson's  
engine in an  ,american publication1 it 
is thus described3--,two caloric engines
 have  been constructed in ,new ,york1  
one of #e-;horse power1 the other of    
#fj4  ,the latter has four cylinders2   
two of #f feet diameter1 placed side by 
side1 surmounted by two of much smaller 
size4 ,within are pistons1 so  connected
 that those in the lower and upper      
cylinders move together4  ,a fire is    
placed under the bottom of the large    
cylinders1 called the  working          
cylinders2 those above are called the   
supply cylinders4 ,as  the piston in the
 supply cylinder moves down1 valves at  
the top admit  the air4 ,as they rise1  
those valves close1 and the air passes  
into  a receiver and regenerator1 where 
it is heated to about #dej1 and         
entering the next working cylinder1 it  

is further heated by a fire  underneath 
to #dhe4 ,the air is thus expanded to   
double its volume2  and supposing the   
supply cylinder to be half the size of  
the other1  the air1 when expanded1 will
 completely fill the larger cylinder4   
,as  the area of the piston of the      
smaller cylinder will be only half that 
of the larger1 and as the air will be of
 the same pressure in both1  the total  
pressure on the piston of the large     
cylinder will be double  that on the    
small one4 ,this surplus furnishes the  
working power of  the engine4 ,after the
 air in the working cylinder has forced 
up the  piston within it1 a valve opens2
 and as the air passes out1 the piston  
descends by gravity1 and cold air rushes
 in1 and fills the supply  cylinder4    
,the most striking feature is the       
regenerator4 ,it is composed of wire    
net1 placed together to a thickness of  
about #ab inches4 ,the side  of the     
regenerator1 near the working cylinder1 
is heated to a high  temperature4 ,the  

air passes through it before entering   
the working  cylinder1 and becomes      
heated to #dej4 ,the additional heat of 
#cj is  communicated by the fire        
underneath to the large cylinder4 ,the  
expanded  air forces the cylinder       
upwards1 valves open1 and it passes from
 the  cylinder1 and again enters the    
regenerator4 ,one side of the           
regenerator  is kept cool by the air on 
its entering in the opposite direction  
at  each stroke of the piston2          
consequently1 as the air of the working 
cylinder passes out1 the wires abstract 
its heat so effectually1 that  when it  
leaves the regenerator1 it has been     
robbed of all except about  #cj4 ,in    
other words1 as the air passes into the 
working cylinder1 it  gradually receives
 from the regenerator about #dej of     
heat2 and as it  passes out1 this is    
returned to the wires1 and it is thus   
used over and  over again2 the only     
purpose of the fires beneath the        
cylinders being  to supply the #cj of   

heat which are lost by radiation and    
expansion4    ,the regenerator in the   
#fj-;horse engine measures #bf inches in
 height  and width4 ,each disc of wire  
composing it contains #fgf superficial  
square inches1 and the net has #aj      
meshes to the inch4 ,each superficial   
inch1 therefore1 contains #ajj meshes1  
and there are #fg1fjj in each  disc2 and
 as #bjj discs are employed1 the        
regenerator contains  #ac1ebj1jjj       
meshes1 with an equal number of small   
spaces between the  discs as there are  
meshes2 therefore1 the air is           
distributed into  #bg1jjj1jjj of minute 
cells4 ,the wire in each disc is #a1adj 
feet long2  and the total length of wire
 in the regenerator is #da miles1 or    
equal  to the surface of four steam     
boilers1 each #dj feet long and #d feet 
diameter4    ,the accounts received from
 ,america of the great success that had 
attended the working of ,mr4 ,ericsson's
 air engine1 on the ship  ,ericsson1    
attracted much attention in this        

country1 and formed  the subject of two 
evenings' discussion in the ,institution
 of ,civil  ,engineers4 ,the most       
prevalent opinion was1 that it is       
impossible to  regain the heating power 
without corresponding loss of mechanical
 force  or the addition of heat1 and    
that there must have been some fallacy  
in  the reports of the work done and of 
the quantity of fuel consumed4    ,it   
is1 indeed1 evident that nothing        
approaching the amount of heat  said to 
have been recovered could be regained by
 passing through  the regenerator2 for  
as the apparatus becomes heated by the  
first  portions of air passing through  
it1 the temperature of the quantity     
that afterwards passed must at least be 
equal to that of the heated  wires1 and 
the last portions of air would          
consequently scarcely part  with any    
caloric to the regenerator1 previously  
heated to nearly  its own temperature4  
,experience has since proved that the   
notion of  regaining the heat by the    

regenerator was fallacious1 for in the  
last improvements in ,mr4 ,ericsson's   
engine1 it is stated that the           
regenerator has been abandoned1 and the 
plan has been adopted of  cooling the   
air as it issues from the large         
cylinder1 by passing it  through tubes  
surrounded by cold water1 and then using
 the same air  over again4    ,one great
 practical inconvenience in the use of  
the air engine was the  necessity of    
having enormously large cylinders to    
attain the required  power1 with the low
 amount of pressure that can be procured
 by the  expansion of the air4 ,the     
consequent friction increased the loss  
of  power1 and the difficulty of        
lubricating the pistons added to the    
practical objections to the air engine4 
,to overcome these objections1  the air 
in ,mr4 ,stirling's engine is compressed
 before it is heated1 by  which means an
 equal amount of pressure is obtained on
 a smaller piston4    ,the air engine   
would in many respects possess          

advantages over the steam  engine1 if it
 could be worked economically4 ,the     
space occupied by the  boilers would be 
saved1 and the danger of explosions     
would be avoided2  for hot air does not 
scald1 and the quantity at any time     
expanded would  be too small to do much 
injury4    ,a patent has since been     
obtained by ,messrs4 ,napier and        
,rankine1 for  improvements in the air  
engine1 which they anticipated would    
remove  the objections that have been   
raised to the engines of ,stirling and  
,ericsson4 ,the heating surface has been
 greatly increased by employing  tubes2 
and other defects in the former engines1
 to which their want  of complete       
success is attributed1 have been        
remedied1 so that ,mr4  ,rankine1 in his
 description of the improvements at the 
meeting of the  ,british ,association at
 ,liverpool1 confidently anticipated to 
effect a  great saving of heating power1
 combined with the other advantages of  
the air engine4 ,he estimated the       

consumption of fuel by a theoretically  
perfect air engine on ,mr4 ,stirling's  
principle at #jcg lbs4 per horse  power 
per hour2 whilst a theoretically perfect
 steam engine would  consume #ahf lbs4  
,the actual average consumption of a    
steam engine  is1 however1 #d lbs4 of   
fuel per horse power per hour1 and the  
actual  consumption of ,stirling's      
engine is stated by ,mr4 ,rankine to    
have  been #bbj lbs1 and that of        
,ericsson's #bhj lbs4 ,it appears from  
this  statement1 therefore1 that the air
 engines of ,messrs4 ,stirling and      
,ericsson are superior in point of      
economy of fuel to steam engines2 and   
if ,mr4 ,rankine's anticipations of the 
superiority of his air engine be        
realized1 it will effect still greater  
economy4 ,in ,messrs4 ,napier and       
,rankine's engine1 the air is compressed
 before expansion1 so that the  size of 
the cylinders may be reduced to even    
smaller dimensions than  the cylinders  
of steam engines of equal power4        

,,photography4      ,the power we now   
possess of fixing the transient         
impression of the rays  of light1 and of
 retaining the beautiful images of the  
camera obscura1  is perhaps the most    
astonishing of the present age of       
wonders4 ,effects  similar to those of  
the electric telegraph1 of steam        
navigation1 of  dissolving views1 and of
 other wondrous realizations of         
inventive  genius1 had been anticipated 
in growing tales of ,eastern romance    
centuries ago2 but the most fanciful    
imagination had not conceived the       
possibility of making ,nature her own   
artist1 and of producing1 in the        
twinkling of an eye1 a permanent        
representation of all the objects       
comprehended within the range of vision4
    ,such an idea could scarcely have   
occurred until after the invention of   
the camera obscura2 but when looking at 
the beautiful pictures focused  on the  
screen of that instrument1 it became an 
object of longing desire  to fix them   

there4    ,to trace the history of      
,photography from its earliest          
beginnings1 we  must go back to the days
 of the alchemists1 who were the        
discoverers  of the influence of light  
in darkening the salts of silver1 on    
which  all photographic processes on    
paper depend4 ,that property of light   
was  noticed in #aeff1 and it induced   
the speculative philosophers of that    
day to conceive that luminous rays      
contained a sulphurous principle  which 
transmitted the forms of matter4        
,homberg1 more than a century           
afterwards1 misled by this action of the
 sun's rays1 supposed that they         
insinuated themselves into the particles
 of bodies1 and increased their  weight2
 and ,sir ,isaac ,newton also           
entertained a similar opinion4    ,the  
influence of the solar rays in          
facilitating the crystallization of     
saltpetre and sal ammoniac1 was shown by
 ,petit in #agbb2 and in #aggg1  the    
distinguished chemist ,scheele          

discovered that the violet rays of  the 
spectrum possess greater power in       
producing those changes than  any other4
 ,a solution of nitrate of silver1 then 
called the acid of  silver1 was known to
 be peculiarly susceptible to the action
 of those  rays4 ,the experiment by     
which it was illustrated consisted in   
pouring  the solution on chalk1 which   
became blackened by exposure to light4  
,these discoveries were made by ,scheele
 in his endeavours to find in  light the
 source of phlogiston--that ignis fatuus
 of the chemists  of the last century4  
,we thus perceive1 in the first steps   
towards the  invention of ,photography1 
one of the many instances of the        
discovery of  truth in the search after 
error4    ,at the beginning of the      
present century1 ,mr4 ,wedgwood1 the    
celebrated  porcelain manufacturer1     
undertook a series of experiments to fix
 the  images of the camera1 assisted by 
,mr4 7afterwards ,sir ,humphry7 ,davy4  
,they so far succeeded as to impress the

 images on the screen1 but              
unfortunately they had not the power of 
preserving the paper from  being        
blackened all over when exposed for a   
short time to the light4  ,nothing1 said
 ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 in his account of 
these experiments1  but a method of     
preventing the unshaded parts of the    
delineation from  being coloured by     
exposure to light is wanting to render  
this process  as useful as it is        
elegant4    ,it was in ,june1 #ahjb1    
that ,mr4 ,t4 ,wedgwood published an    
account of a  method of copying         
paintings on glass1 and of making       
profiles by the  agency of light2 with  
observations by ,h4 ,davy4 ,mr4         
,wedgwood made use  of white paper or   
white leather1 moistened with a solution
 of nitrate  of silver4 ,the following  
description of the process1 contributed 
to  the ,journals of the ,royal         
,institution by ,davy1 will be read with
  interest1 as showing how closely these
 experiments approximated to  the       

photogenic process1 invented by ,mr4    
,talbot thirty-six years  afterwards3-- 
,white paper or white leather moistened 
with a solution of nitrate  of silver   
undergoes no change in a dark place2 but
 on being exposed  to daylight1 it      
speedily changes colour1 and after      
passing through  different shades of    
grey and brown1 becomes at length nearly
 black2  the alterations of colour take 
place more speedily in proportion as    
the light is more intense4 ,in the      
direct rays of the sun1 two or three    
minutes are sufficient to produce the   
full effect4 ,in the shade1  several    
hours are required2 and light           
transmitted through different  coloured 
glasses acts on it with different       
degrees of intensity4  ,thus it is found
 that red rays1 or the common sunbeams  
passed through  red glass1 have very    
little action on it4 ,yellow or green   
are more  efficacious2 but blue and     
violet light produce the most decided   
and  powerful effects4    ,when the     

shadow of any figure is thrown on the   
prepared surfaced1 the  part concealed  
by it remains white1 and the other parts
 speedily become  dark4 ,for copying    
paintings on glass1 the solution should 
be applied on  leather1 and in this case
 it is more readily acted on than when  
paper  is used4 ,when the colour has    
been once fixed on leather or paper1 it 
cannot be removed by the application of 
water1 or water and soap1 and  it is in 
a high degree permanent4 ,the copy of a 
painting or a profile1  immediately     
after being taken1 must be kept in a    
dark place4 ,it may1  indeed1 be        
examined in the shade1 but in this case 
the exposure should  only be for a few  
minutes2 by the light of candles or     
lamps1 it is  not sensibly affected4 ,no
 attempts that have been made to prevent
 the  uncoloured parts of the copy or   
profile from being acted upon by light1 
have as yet been successful4 ,they have 
been covered with a coating  of fine    
varnish1 but this has not destroyed     

their susceptibility of  becoming       
coloured2 and even after repeated       
washings1 sufficient of the  active part
 of the saline matter will still adhere 
to the white parts  of the leather or   
paper1 to cause them to become dark when
 exposed to  the rays of the sun4       
,the woody fibres of leaves1 and the    
wings of insects1 may be pretty         
accurately copied2 and in this case it  
is only necessary to cause the  direct  
solar light to pass through them1 and to
 receive the shadows  on prepared       
leather4 ,images formed by means of the 
camera obscura  have been found too     
faint to produce1 in any moderate time1 
an effect  on nitrate of silver4 ,to    
copy those images was the first object  
of  ,mr4 ,wedgwood in his researches on 
this subject1 and for this purpose  he  
first used the nitrate of silver1 which 
was mentioned to him by a  friend as a  
substance very sensible to the influence
 of light2 but all  his numerous        
experiments1 as to their primary end1   

proved unsuccessful4    ,it will be     
seen1 from the foregoing account of the 
results of their  experiments1 that ,mr4
 ,wedgwood's process and the early      
processes  of ,mr4 ,talbot were nearly  
alike2 and if he had possessed the means
  which the compound salt hyposulphite  
of soda afforded to subsequent          
photographers1 of destroying the        
sensibility of the prepared paper to    
further impressions of the rays of      
light1 there can be little doubt  that  
the invention would have attained a high
 degree of perfection at  the           
commencement of the present century4 ,as
 it was1 the failure of ,mr4  ,wedgwood 
to accomplish the object he was so      
nearly attaining appears to  have       
discouraged attempts by others1 and     
twenty years elapsed without  any       
advance having been made towards its    
realization4    ,m4 ,niepce1 of ,chalons
 on the ,saone1 who was the first to    
succeed in  obtaining permanent         
representations of the images of the    

camera1  commenced experimenting on the 
subject in #ahad1 at least ten years    
before ,m4 ,daguerre directed his       
attention to ,photography4 ,in #ahbf    
these two gentlemen became acquainted1  
and conjointly prosecuted  the          
investigations which led to the         
beautiful result of the  ,daguerreotype4
 ,m4 ,niepce having previously succeeded
 in obtaining  durable representations  
of the pictures focused in the camera1  
he  came to this country in #ahbg1 and  
exhibited several of the results  of his
 process1 and communicated to the ,royal
 ,society an account of  his            
experiments4 ,these photographs1 which  
may be considered the first  durable    
ones that had been obtained1 were1 with 
one exception1 taken  on plates made of 
pewter4 ,one of the largest was #e      
inches long and #d  inches wide4 ,it was
 taken from a print #b feet in length1  
representing  the ruins of an abbey4    
,when seen in a proper light1 the       
impression  appeared very distinct4     

,another one1 which was stated to have  
been the  first successful attempt1 was 
a view taken from nature1 representing  
a court-yard4 ,its size was #g inches by
 #f inches1 but it was not so  distinct 
as the preceding one4 ,a third specimen 
was an impression on  paper1 printed    
from a photograph on metal1 the picture 
having been  etched into the plate by   
nitric acid1 and then printed from4 ,all
 these  specimens1 though extremely     
curious as the first successful attempts
  to preserve the images of the camera1 
were more or less imperfect1  and were  
far from presenting the beautiful       
results of ,photography now  attained4  
,it is remarkable1 however1 that the    
original process of  etching the picture
 on a metal plate1 and printing from it1
 has now1 in  the perfected state of the
 art1 become the most recent            
improvement2  and the prints from       
photographic plates present some of the 
most  beautiful effects hitherto        
produced4#b    ,m4 ,niepce communicated 

the particulars of his process to ,m4   
,daguerre  in ,december1 #ahbi4 ,they   
then entered into an agreement to pursue
 their  investigations jointly1 but it  
was not until ten years afterwards that 
the invention of the ,daguerreotype by  
,m4 ,daguerre was made known4  ,to ,m4  
,niepce must1 therefore1 be awarded the 
honour of having first  discovered the  
means of rendering permanent the        
transient images of  the camera obscura4
 ,the plan he adopted was to cover a    
plate of white  metal with asphalte     
varnish1 and expose it to the action of 
light in  a camera1 when the parts      
whereon the light was concentrated      
became  hardened1 and the other parts   
remained unaltered1 and could be washed 
away4    ,in ,m4 ,niepce's account of   
the process1 after describing the       
preparation  of the asphalte varnish1 he
 says3--,a tablet of plated silver1 or  
well-cleaned and warm glass1 is to be   
highly polished1 on which a  thin       
coating of varnish is to be applied     

cold1 with a light roll of  very soft   
skin4 ,this will impart to it a fine    
vermilion colour1 and  cover it with a  
very thin and equal coating4 ,the plate 
is then placed  on heated iron1 which is
 wrapped round with several folds of    
paper1  from which1 by this method1 all 
moisture has been previously expelled4  
,when the varnish has ceased to simmer1 
the plate is withdrawn from the  heat   
and left to cool and dry in a gentle    
temperature1 and protected  from a damp 
atmosphere4 ,the plate1 thus prepared1  
may be immediately  subjected to the    
action of the luminous fluid in the     
focus of the  camera2 but even after    
having been thus exposed a length of    
time  sufficient for receiving the      
impressions of external objects1 nothing
  is apparent to show that these        
impressions exist4 ,the forms of the    
future picture remain still invisible4  
,the next operation then is to          
disengage the shrouded image1 and this  
is accomplished by a solvent4    ,the   

solvent employed was a mixture of one   
part of oil of lavender1 and  ten parts 
of oil of petroleum4 ,the solvent was   
poured over the plate1  and allowed to  
remain4 ,m4 ,niepce continues3 ,the     
operator1 observing  it by reflected    
light1 begins to perceive the images of 
the objects  to which it has been       
exposed gradually unfolding their forms1
 though  still veiled by the supernatant
 fluid1 continually becoming darker from
  saturation with the varnish4    ,the  
time required for the exposure of the   
plates in the camera was six  or eight  
hours4 ,for the purpose of darkening the
 pictures1 ,m4 ,niepce  used iodine1 and
 it has been supposed that the use of   
iodine for that  purpose suggested the  
employment of it to his partner4    ,the
 process adopted by ,m4 ,daguerre was1  
to deposit a film of iodine on  a highly
 polished silver plate1 by exposing the 
plate to the vapour  of iodine in a dark
 box4 ,the prepared plate was then      
placed in the  camera1 and after an     

exposure of ten minutes or more1        
according to the  brightness of the day1
 an impression was made on the iodised  
silver1  but too faint to be visible4   
,to bring out the image thus invisibly  
impressed1 the plate was exposed to the 
vapour of mercury1 in a closed  box4    
,the mercury adhered to the parts on    
which the light had acted1  and left the
 other parts of the plate untouched2 and
 by this means a  beautiful             
representation was produced1 in which   
the deposited mercury  represented the  
lights of the picture1 and the polished 
silver the  shadows4 ,the iodised silver
 remaining on the plate not acted on by 
light1 was washed away by a solution of 
hyposulphite of soda1 and the  picture  
could then be exposed without injury4   
,nothing can exceed the delicacy of     
delineation by such a ,daguerreotype2   
for the fine surface of the highly      
polished silver seems to exhibit the    
impressions of the smallest objects that
 emit rays of light4 ,the length  of    

time required to produce an impression  
was1 however1 a serious  obstacle to the
 use of the process1 as originally      
invented1 for taking  portraits4        
,numerous attempts were consequently    
made to obtain a more  sensitive        
material4 ,bromine was tried1 in        
addition to iodine1 and with  such      
complete success1 that a few seconds    
were sufficient to effect an  impression
 on the plate1 which could be forcibly  
brought out by the  vapour of mercury4  
,it was in #ahdj that portraits were    
first taken by the ,daguerreotype       
process in this country4 ,in the first  
instance1 a concave mirror was  employed
 to concentrate the rays of light on the
 plate1 instead of a  lens2 and the     
author has now in his possession a      
portrait taken in  this manner1 by      
,wolcott's reflecting apparatus4 ,the   
object of using  a concave mirror was to
 be able to concentrate a greater number
 of the  rays of light than could be    
done by a lens1 and thus to form a      

brighter  image4 ,at the time that      
portrait was taken1 the means had not   
been  discovered of making the mercury  
adhere to the plate1 and a feather      
would brush it away4 ,soon afterwards1  
however1 ,m4 ,fizeau ingeniously        
contrived to fix the images on the plate
 by gilding it4 ,this was done  by      
pouring on to the plate a few drops of a
 diluted solution of muriate  of gold1  
and holding it horizontally over the    
flame of a spirit lamp2  by which means 
the gold was deposited and formed a     
thin1 beautiful film  of the metal over 
the surface1 and thus not only made the 
picture more  durable1 but gave it      
increased effect4    ,the ,french       
government1 fully appreciating the      
importance of the  invention1 determined
 to purchase it from the patentee1 and  
to throw it  open to the public4 ,an    
account of the invention was published  
in ,june1  #ahci2 and in the following  
month an arrangement was entered into1  
to  the effect that1 in consideration of

 ,m4 ,daguerre making the process  fully
 known1 a pension of #f1jjj francs      
should be granted to him for  life1 and 
a pension of #d1jjj francs to ,m4       
,isidore ,niepce1 the nephew of  the    
original inventor of ,photography1 his  
uncle having died before the  final     
success was attained4    ,it was        
generally supposed at the time1 that by 
the grant of those  pensions the        
invention was thrown open to the whole  
world1 as  represented by the ,french   
,minister2 but1 nevertheless1 ,m4       
,daguerre  patented the process in other
 countries1 and ,france alone reaped the
  benefit of a free use of the          
invention4    ,whilst ,m4 ,daguerre was 
thus successfully working out to        
perfection the  plan of producing       
beautiful naturally-impressed pictures  
on iodised  silver surfaces1 ,mr4 ,fox  
,talbot was at the same time nearly     
attaining  the same results4 ,the       
following is the account given by       
himself of his  researches3#c--;,having 

in the year #ahcd discovered the        
principles of  ,photography on paper1 ,i
 some time afterwards made some         
experiments on  metal plates2 and in    
#ahch ,i discovered a method of         
rendering a silver  plate sensitive to  
light1 by exposing it to iodine vapours4
 ,i was at  that time1 therefore1       
treading in the footsteps of ,m4        
,daguerre1 without  knowing that he1 or 
indeed any other person1 was pursuing1  
or had  commenced or thought of1 the art
 which we now call ,photography4 ,but   
as ,i was not aware of the power of     
mercurial vapour to bring out the       
latent impressions1 ,i found my plates  
of iodised silver deficient in          
sensibility1 and therefore continued to 
use in preference my photogenic  drawing
 paper4 ,this was in #ahch4 ,some time  
after--in ,august1 #ahci--,m4  ,daguerre
 published an account of his perfected  
process1 which reached  us during the   
meeting of the ,british ,association2   
and ,i took the  opportunity to lay     

before the ,section the facts which ,i  
had myself  ascertained in ,metallic    
,photography4    ,whilst to ,m4         
,daguerre must be awarded the honour of 
having first  brought to perfection the 
method of rendering permanent the images
 of  the camera on metal plates1 ,mr4   
,fox ,talbot may claim to be the first  
who perfected similar images on paper1  
which the comparative roughness  of the 
surface alone prevented from being as   
delicately beautiful  as the pictures of
 the ,daguerreotype4 ,he commenced his  
experiments  in ,photography in #ahcd2  
and on the #cast of ,january1 #ahci1 he 
read a  paper before the ,royal         
,society1 entitled1 ,some ,account of   
the ,art of  ,photogenic ,drawing2 or1 a
 process by which natural objects may be
 made  to delineate themselves without  
the aid of the artist's pencil4    ,mr4 
,talbot had not then succeeded in       
obtaining the impressions of  images    
focused in the camera2 what he had      
succeeded in doing was to fix  upon     

paper the shadows of objects placed upon
 it1 and exposed to the  light of the   
sun4 ,the paper was first dipped into a 
solution of common  salt1 and then wiped
 dry1 to diffuse the salt uniformly     
through the  substance of the paper4 ,a 
solution of nitrate of silver was then  
spread  over one surface with a soft    
brush1 and dried carefully before a fire
  in a darkened room4 ,the strength of  
the solution was regulated by first     
obtaining a saturated solution of the   
nitrate of silver1 and afterwards       
diluting it with six or eight times its 
volume of water4 ,the objects to  be    
copied1 such as leaves1 lace1 or other  
flat surfaces1 were pressed  against the
 prepared paper by a glass fixed in a   
frame1 and exposure  to light quickly   
darkened all the parts of the paper1    
excepting those  shaded by the objects4 
,the image thus impressed was what is   
termed a  negative1 the dark parts which
 excluded the light being left white on 
the paper1 and the parts through which  

the light passed being darkened4  ,to   
produce a picture corresponding with the
 natural lights and shades1  the process
 was repeated1 substituting the picture 
first obtained1 on  thin transparent    
paper1 for the original object1 by which
 means the  lights and shadows were     
reversed4    ,the chloride of silver1   
formed on the surface of the sensitive  
paper  by the combination of the common 
salt and nitrate of silver1 being       
insoluble in water1 great difficulty was
 experienced in washing it  away1 so as 
to prevent the whole surface from       
afterwards darkening  on exposure to    
light4 ,the application of hyposulphite 
of soda1 for  the purpose of making the 
pictures durable1 was suggested by ,sir 
,john  ,herschel1 and it answers        
remarkably well1 as it dissolves the    
chloride  of silver4 ,a solution of     
ammonia is nearly equally efficacious in
  removing the chloride4    ,the        
,calotype process1 by which the images  
of the camera can be  fixed upon paper1 

was invented by ,mr4 ,talbot1 in #ahdj4 
,it is thus  described3--,dissolve #ajj 
grains of crystallized nitrate of silver
 in #f  ounces of distilled water4      
,procure some fine writing paper1 and   
wash  one side of it with the solution1 
laid on with a soft brush2 then dry  the
 paper cautiously1 by holding it at a   
distance from the fire4 ,when  dry1 dip 
the paper into a solution of iodide of  
potassium1 containing  #ejj grains      
dissolved in #a pint of water1 and let  
it remain in the  solution two or three 
minutes4 ,then dip it into a vessel of  
water2  remove the water on the surface 
by blotting paper1 and dry it by a      
fire1 in the dark or by candle-light4   
,the paper thus prepared is called      
iodised paper2 it is not very sensitive 
to light1 and may be kept for  some time
 without spoiling4 ,next dissolve #ajj  
grains of crystallized  nitrate of      
silver in #b ounces of distilled water2 
add to the solution  one-sixth of its   
volume of strong acetic acid1 and call  

that mixture  ,a4 ,then make a strong   
solution of crystallized gallic acid in 
cold  water1 and let that solution be   
called ,b4 ,mix equal volumes of ,a and 
,b together in small quantities at a    
time4 ,that mixture ,mr4 ,talbot  calls 
gallo-nitrate of silver1 and with it    
wash over the surface of  the iodised   
paper4 ,allow the paper to remain half a
 minute1 and then  dip it into water1   
and again dry it lightly with blotting  
paper4 ,the  paper thus prepared is very
 sensitive1 and will receive an         
impression  in the camera in the        
shortest possible time4 ,the impression 
is at first  invisible1 but it may be   
brought out by laying the paper aside in
 the  dark1 or by washing it once more  
in the gallo-nitrate of silver1 and     
holding it at a short distance from the 
fire4 ,to fix the picture1 the  paper is
 first washed in water and lightly      
dried1 and then soaked in  a solution of
 hyposulphite of soda for a few minutes1
 by which means  the iodised silver is  

removed1 and after being again washed in
 water  and dried1 the process is       
completed4 ,the picture thus produced is
 a  negative one1 and requires to be    
transferred in the manner before        
stated4 ,the original ,calotype may1 by 
that means1 serve to produce a  great   
number of pictures4    ,mr4 ,talbot's   
patent was sealed on the #hth of        
,february1 #ahda4 ,in his               
specification1 he claimed the use of    
gallic acid1 and he succeeded  in       
enforcing his claim in a ,court of ,law1
 though it appeared that on  the #ajth  
of ,april1 #ahci1 photographs of objects
 taken in the solar  microscope in five 
minutes1 by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,b4 ,reade1   
were shown at  the ,london institution1 
which were described to have been       
produced by  an infusion of galls1 and  
fixed with hyposulphite of soda4 ,it    
must be  mentioned1 however1 to ,mr4    
,talbot's honour1 that on a             
representation to  him by the ,president
 of the ,royal ,society that the art of 

,photography  was impeded in its        
progress in this country by patent      
monopolies1  he generously made a       
present to the public of all his        
inventions  and discoveries1 reserving  
to himself only the privilege of taking 
portraits4    ,the transfer from one    
paper to another of the picture obtained
 in  the camera1 and the comparative    
roughness of the surface of the  paper  
itself1 prevent ,calotypes from         
exhibiting that sharpness and  delicacy 
of definition which are so admirable in 
a ,daguerreotype4  ,several attempts    
were therefore made to obtain a more    
smooth surface  for the reception of the
 image2 but without much success1 until 
glass  was adopted for the purpose4 ,to 
make that material available1 it is     
necessary to coat it with some substance
 that will absorb the sensitive         
solution4 ,in the first instance1 the   
white of eggs was employed  with        
considerable success4 ,albumen has1     
however1 been supplanted by             

collodion--a solution of gun-cotton in  
ether--which is found to be  peculiarly 
suitable for the reception of the       
sensitive preparation of  silver4    ,in
 conducting the collodion process1 the  
collodion is first iodised by  adding to
 it iodide of potassium and iodide of   
silver1 dissolved in  alcohol4 ,the     
iodised collodion is then poured over a 
plate of glass  that has been carefully 
cleaned1 and is moved about horizontally
  until a perfectly uniform film is     
spread over the surface1 to which  it   
adheres firmly4 ,the plate is afterwards
 dipped into a solution of  nitrate of  
silver1 which renders it so highly      
sensitive to impressions  of light1 that
 it will receive an image in less than a
 second4 ,the  image is latent1 until it
 is developed by pouring over the plate 
a  mixture of pyro-gallic acid in       
distilled water1 acetic acid1 and       
nitrate of silver4 ,the impression is   
fixed with hyposulphite of soda4    ,the
 pictures produced by the collodion     

process are negatives1 which  serve     
admirably for transferring positive     
pictures on to sensitive  paper4 ,but1  
if required1 the negative picture can be
 readily changed  into a positive one1  
by converting the darkened silver into  
white  metallic silver1 by a mixture of 
protosulphate of iron and pyro-gallic   
acid4 ,in a short time a white metallic 
image is obtained1 which1 when  relieved
 by a background of black velvet or     
black varnish1 equals in  delicacy of   
finish the most beautiful               
,daguerreotypes4    ,many attempts have 
been made1 but hitherto without success1
 to obtain  photographs coloured1 as    
well as shaded1 by nature4 ,the opinions
 of  those who have most studied the    
subject differ as to the possibility  of
 ever attaining that desired object4    
,sir ,john ,herschel has so far  shown  
that it is not impossible1 as to have   
impressed the colours of  the solar     
spectrum on paper1 by the mere action of
 light2 and parts  of the images of     

objects fixed on the screen of the      
camera are also  sometimes coloured4    
,these facts induce us to hope that in  
the progress  of discovery some means   
may be found of obtaining               
naturally-coloured  photographs1        
notwithstanding it has been pronounced1 
by good  authorities1 to be an absolute 
impossibility4    ,specimens of coloured
 photographs were exhibited by ,mr4     
,mercer at the  recent meeting of the   
,british ,association1 which showed that
 by the  use of various chemical        
preparations that are sensitive to      
light1  photographs may be shaded in    
colours4 ,the principal re-agents       
employed  were salts of iron1 and by    
immersing the paper in suitable         
menstrua1  after the image had been     
impressed in the camera1 the picture was
  developed in any colour required2 the 
same tint being spread over the  whole4 
,one purpose to which it was suggested  
this coloured photographic  process is  
applicable1 is printing on woven        

fabrics1 the action of  light serving as
 a mordant to fix the colours4          
,photography has been already applied to
 various uses1 and it is capable  of    
being rendered much more valuable4 ,to  
the meteorologist it affords  the means 
of registering the rise and fall of the 
mercury in the  barometer and           
thermometer1 and1 by a self-registering 
apparatus1 the  changes of temperature  
and of atmospheric pressure are marked  
upon  paper that records the time at    
which the changes occur4 ,it may also be
  applied1 in the same manner1 to       
register the directions of the wind1    
and the times of its changes4 ,the sun  
impresses his own image upon  paper2 and
 the spots on his surface1 thus         
correctly delineated1 can be  compared  
with those seen in pictures of the sun  
at other times2 and  the foundation is  
laid for more correct knowledge of the  
nature of  those appearances1 and of the
 motion of the sun himself4 ,photographs
 of  the moon and planets present exact 

representations of those heavenly       
bodies1 as seen through the most        
powerful telescope2 and1 with the       
assistance of the stereoscope1 the      
figure of the moon is shown in its  true
 globular form1 as it can be seen by no 
other means4 ,it has been  proposed1    
indeed1 by the aid of ,photography1 to  
extend our knowledge  of the stars far  
beyond the reach of telescopic vision2  
for as the  image focused on the screen 
of the camera is composed of rays from  
every object on the body of a star1 it  
might be possible to see those  objects 
by greatly magnifying the image4 ,it    
remains1 however1 for the  further      
progress of discovery and invention1 to 
arrive at so delicate a  delineation by 
photographic processes1 as to obtain    
landscapes of the  moon1 and portraits  
of the inhabitants of ,jupiter6    ,one 
of the latest advances in the art of    
,photography has been the  engraving on 
steel-plates by the action of light1 by 
which means more  forcible effects have 

been obtained than by the impressions of
 light  upon paper4 ,mr4 ,fox ,talbot   
has distinguished himself in thus fixing
 the  images on steel1 as he was the    
first to impress them upon paper4 ,in   
his method of doing so1 he covers the   
steel plate with a solution of          
isinglass and bichromate of potass1 and 
placing a collodion negative  picture   
upon it1 he exposes it to the action of 
light4 ,when the picture  is            
sufficiently impressed1 he etches it    
into the plate by means of  bichloride  
of platinum4 ,m4 ,niepce1 the nephew of 
the original inventor  of ,photography1 
has produced the same effect by reviving
 the first  processes adopted by his    
uncle2 using1 as he did1 bitumen1       
dissolved  in essential oil of lavender1
 to cover the plates4 ,two other foreign
  photographers1 ,m4 ,poitevin and ,m4  
,pretschi1 have also successfully       
directed their attention to engraving   
the images of the camera1 which  has now
 obtained a high degree of perfection4  

,it is well worth notice that these most
 recent improvements in  ,photography   
are but further developments of the     
original designs of ,m4  ,niepce1 who   
not only succeeded in etching the       
pictures impressed by the  light of the 
sun on his metal tablets1 but made use  
of a glass surface1  on which the now   
generally adopted collodion process     
depends4          ,,dissolving ,,views4 
,there are no optical illusions more    
extraordinary than those shown  in the  
exhibition of ,dissolving ,views4 ,the  
effects of the changes in  the diorama  
are only such as are seen in nature1 the
 same scene being  represented under    
different circumstances1 and the marvel 
in that case  is that such beautiful and
 natural effects can be produced on the 
same canvas4 ,but ,dissolving ,views set
 nature at defiance1 and exhibit        
metamorphoses as great as can be        
conceived by the wildest fancy4         
,whilst1 for instance1 the spectator is 
looking at the interior of a  church1 he

 sees the objects gradually assuming    
different appearances4  ,the columns    
that support the vaulted roof begin to  
fade away1 and their  places are        
occupied by other forms1 which gradually
 become better  defined and stronger1   
and a tree1 a house1 or1 it may be1 a   
rock1  thrusts the columns out of view1 
and the roof dims into blue sky1        
chequered with clouds4 ,the original    
view thus entirely disappears1 and  the 
scene is changed from the interior of a 
church to open country1 or  to a rocky  
valley4 ,this is done1 not by changing  
at once one scene  into another1 but by 
substituting different individual       
objects1 which  at first appear like    
faint shadows1 and then1 becoming more  
and more  vivid1 at length altogether   
supplant their predecessors on the field
 of  view1 and will1 in their turn1 be  
extinguished by others4    ,it sometimes
 happens that some strongly marked      
object resists  apparently the efforts  
made to dispossess it1 and in the midst 

of a  mountainous scene will be observed
 the form of a chandelier or of a       
statue1 that occupied a distinguished   
place in the church that has  just      
vanished4 ,in a short time1 however1    
these relics disappear1 and  the        
mountain1 the valley1 and the lake are  
freed from the incongruous  images of   
the former scene4    ,illustration      
,illustration    ,these effects are     
produced in a manner as simple as they  
are  extraordinary4 ,all that is        
requisite is to have two magic lanterns 
fitted on to a stand1 with their tubes  
inclined towards each other1 so  that   
both discs of light may exactly         
coincide1 and form on the screen  a     
single disc4 ,if paintings on glass1    
representing different views1 be  then  
placed in each lantern1 with the lenses 
adjusted to bring the rays  to a focus  
on the screen1 the two images will be so
 mingled together  as to present only a 
confused mixture of colours4 ,suppose   
one of the  views to be the interior of 

a church1 and the other to be a mountain
  scene2--the pillars of the church will
 be mingled with trees and rocks1  and  
in the midst of the confusion there may 
perhaps be discerned  a strongly painted
 chandelier or an altar piece4 ,when an 
opaque  shade is placed before the lens 
of either of the lanterns1 to prevent   
the light from reaching the screen1 the 
previous confusion becomes  instantly   
clear and distinct1 and the church or   
the landscape is seen  without any      
interfering images4 ,if the opaque      
screen be gradually  withdrawn from one 
lens1 and at the same time drawn in an  
equal degree  over the other1 the       
different objects will again be mingled1
 and those  in the one scene will       
predominate over those in the other in  
proportion  to the relative quantities  
of light permitted to issue from each   
lantern to the screen4 ,the two first of
 the accompanying drawings are  thus    
blended together in the third1 when the 
screen is half withdrawn  from each4    

,illustration    ,it is usual to fix the
 opaque shade1 which alternately covers 
and  exposes the two magic lanterns1 on 
to a central pin1 so that it may be     
moved vertically up or down4 ,the shade 
is so arranged1 that in raising  the end
 to cover the lens of one lantern1 the  
farther end descends1  and exposes1 in  
an equal degree1 the other lens4 ,during
 the time that  either of the views is  
altogether concealed1 the painting is   
changed2  and in this manner an         
unlimited number of metamorphoses may be
 effected4    ,it requires no expensive 
apparatus to show the effect of         
,dissolving  ,views on a small scale4   
,two common magic lanterns are quite    
sufficient  for the purpose of private  
exhibition1 and the angle at which they 
should be fixed on their stand may be   
readily ascertained after a few  trials4
 ,to make the transformation more       
extraordinary1 a man's face may  be     
painted on one glass and a landscape on 
the other2 and1 when the  change is made

 from the face to the landscape1 a      
strongly painted eye  or nose may be    
seen occupying the centre of the view1  
long after the  other features have     
disappeared1 until all the rays of light
 from that  painting have been excluded4
 ,the change from youth to age1 from    
beauty  to ugliness1 may also be shown  
with striking effect4    ,it will be    
observed that the principle1 on which   
the metamorphoses  of ,dissolving ,views
 depend1 is similar to that which       
produces the  variations in the diorama4
 ,in both cases there are two paintings 
on  the same space1 either of which may 
be shown at pleasure by different       
dispositions of the light2 the chief    
difference between them being  that the 
,dissolving ,views are seen altogether  
by reflected light1  whilst in the      
diorama the paintings at the back and   
front are shown  alternately by         
reflected and by transmitted light4     
,,the ,,kaleidoscope4      ,no          
invention1 on being first brought out1  

created so general a  sensation as the  
,kaleidoscope4 ,every person1 who could 
buy or make one1  had a ,kaleidoscope4  
,men1 women1 and children--rich and     
poor2 in houses  or walking in the      
streets2 in carriages1 or on            
coaches--were to be seen  looking into  
the wonder-working tube1 admiring the   
beautiful patterns  it produced1 and the
 magical changes which the least        
movement of the  glass occasioned4      
,it was in the year #ahad that ,sir     
,david ,brewster discovered the         
principle on which the effects of the   
,kaleidoscope depend1 whilst  he was    
engaged in experiments on the           
polarization of light by  successive    
reflections between plates of glass4    
,the reflectors were  in some cases     
inclined to each other1 and he remarked 
the circular  arrangement of the images 
of a candle round a centre4 ,in         
afterwards  repeating the experiments of
 ,m4 ,biot on the action of fluids on   
light1 he placed the fluids in a trough 

formed by two plates of glass  cemented 
together at an angle4 ,the eye being    
placed at one end1 some  of the cement  
which pressed through between the plates
 appeared to be  arranged in a circular 
figure4 ,the symmetry of this figure    
being very  remarkable1 ,sir ,david     
,brewster undertook to investigate the  
cause of  the phenomenon1 and the result
 of his investigations was the invention
  of the instrument to which he gave the
 name of ,kaleidoscope1 from the  ,greek
 words  kalos1 beautiful1  eidos1 a     
form1 and   skope1 to see4#d    ,the    
,kaleidoscope in its simplest form      
consists of two equal strips of  plate  
glass1 about #h inches long and #b      
inches wide1 silvered on one  side1 to  
act as reflectors4 ,these glasses are   
placed one over the other  exactly1 and 
then the edges on one side being        
separated1 whilst the  two other edges  
are kept close together1 they are fixed 
by means of  separating pieces of wood  
and string at the angle required4 ,the  

glasses  are then fitted into a metal   
tube1 which has an eye-hole at one end1 
and at the other end of the tube there  
is fixed a small cell of ground  glass1 
to contain pieces of differently stained
 glass or other objects1  that are to be
 multiplied by reflections into         
beautiful symmetrical  figures4 ,in the 
better kind of ,kaleidoscopes1 the cell 
containing the  objects may be turned   
round1 by which means the pieces of     
glass shift  their positions1 and the   
figures instantly change4 ,the same     
effect is  produced1 though in a less   
agreeable manner1 in the common kind of 
instruments1 by turning the tube4    ,to
 form by the combined reflections from  
the two glasses a perfectly  symmetrical
 figure1 the sector comprised between   
the inclined sides of  the glasses may  
consist of any even aliquot part of a   
circle4 ,in the  accompanying diagram1  
the ends of the flat silvered glasses a 
c1 b  c1 are inclined at an angle of #fj
 degrees2 therefore the circle is       

completed by the junction of six        
sectors4 ,in such a ,kaleidoscope1 the  
circular figure will be formed by three 
reflections from each glass4            
,illustration    ,illustration    ,to   
make the formation of the circular      
figure by repeated reflections  more    
intelligible1 we will consider it as    
composed of the smallest  possible      
number of equal divisions1 as in the    
second diagram1 in which  the circle is 
divided into quadrants4 ,in such an     
arrangement of the  reflectors1 the     
figure seen on looking through the      
central aperture  will consist of four  
parts4 ,in the first place1 the objects 
included in  the space a b c1 between   
the inclined glasses1 will be seen      
directly  by rays of light from the     
objects themselves2 viz41 the small     
cross  d1 and the triangle e4 ,the same 
field of view will be reflected  from   
both mirrors1 by which reflection the   
cross on one side will  seem to be      
doubled1 and the triangle on the other  

will have another  similar one added to 
it1 to make a complete rhomb4 ,the cross
 will also  be reflected by the mirror  
on the right side1 and the triangle by  
the  one on the left4 ,the images of the
 objects contained within the space  a b
 c1 being thus presented by reflection  
on both sides1 they become  the objects 
for further reflections from parts of   
the mirrors still  nearer the spectator4
 ,thus the images d on both sides are   
reflected  to form the single image d1  
and the images e are in the same  manner
 reflected to form the second image e4  
,when the angle formed by the           
inclination of the mirrors divides the  
circle into a greater number of sectors1
 the reflections of the images  are     
repeated1 from points nearer and nearer 
to the eye1 and the circle  is thus     
completed1 however numerous the sectors 
may be2 but at each  repetition of the  
reflection1 the images will become more 
dim1 since1  owing to the imperfection  
of reflecting surfaces1 a portion of the

  light is absorbed at each reflection4 
,in the first instruments that were     
constructed1 the objects were  fixed in 
the field of view1 therefore scarcely   
any change of pattern  was obtainable4  
,it was not until some time afterwards  
that the idea  occurred to ,sir ,david  
,brewster of producing endless changes  
of the  figures1 by making the objects  
movable in a cell of glass at the end   
of the instrument4 ,he afterwards       
introduced other improvements in the    
,kaleidoscope1 for extending its range  
of objects1 for varying the  angles of  
inclination1 and for projecting the     
figures on a screen4 ,in  the           
instrument1 as ordinarily made1 the     
objects to be seen properly  must be    
placed close to the end of the          
reflectors2 but by the addition  to the 
instrument of a tube containing a lens1 
the rays from distant  objects are      
brought to a focus near the mirrors1 and
 the image formed  there is repeated by 
the reflectors in the same manner as a  

solid  object4    ,the projection of the
 figures on a screen1 by an apparatus   
similar to  a magic lantern1 gives great
 additional pleasure to the effects of  
the ,kaleidoscope1 as the figures are   
not only seen by several persons  at the
 same time1 but they are presented in a 
magnified form4 ,the  projection of the 
figures also increases the use of the   
instrument in  designing patterns1 for  
which purpose it has been employed with 
great  advantage4    ,a patent for the  
,kaleidoscope was taken out in #ahag1   
but the high  prices charged by the     
opticians who were authorized by the    
inventor  to sell the instrument1 and   
the facility with which it could be     
made1 occasioned a general violation of 
the patent right1 and it was  not long  
before the claim of ,sir ,david         
,brewster1 as the original  inventor1   
was disputed4 ,in the indignant         
vindication of his claim1 he            
observes3--,there never was a popular   
invention which the labours of  envious 

individuals did not attempt to trace to 
some remote period2  and the            
,kaleidoscope was not an exception4 ,it 
was found that ,kircher  had described  
the effects of repeated reflections as  
far back as  #afcj2 and that ,mr4       
,bradley had1 in #agag1 made a          
philosophical toy1  consisting of two   
small mirrors1 that opened like a book1 
which1 when  partially opened1 repeated 
the reflections of objects placed near  
it  in the same manner as the           
,kaleidoscope4 ,but this instrument was 
so  different in its construction1 and  
in the effects it produced1 from the    
,kaleidoscope1 that ,sir ,david         
,brewster's claim to be the inventor may
  be freely admitted4 ,the fact that it 
took the world by surprise1 and  created
 a sensation greater than any other     
invention had done before1  is          
sufficient to establish its title as an 
original invention4          ,,the      
,,magic ,,disc4      ,there are several 
ways of illustrating the retention by   

the retina of  the eye of the images of 
objects after they have been withdrawn  
from  sight1 but none is so curious as  
the philosophical toy called the ,magic 
,disc1 which1 from the optical          
principles involved in its extraordinary
  effects1 deserves to be noticed as one
 of the remarkable inventions of  the   
present century4    ,one of the most    
striking methods of exhibiting the      
retentive property  of the retina1      
before the invention of the ,magic      
,disc1 was to paint  different objects  
at the back and on the front of a card1 
and by then  giving rapid rotation to   
the card1 both objects were seen        
together4  ,thus1 when the figure of a  
bird is painted on one side1 and an     
empty  cage on the other1 by rapidly    
turning the card1 the bird appears to be
  in the cage4 ,in the ,magic ,disc the 
objects are painted on the same side  of
 a circular piece of card-board1 and    
both are exposed to view during  their  
rapid rotation4    ,the disc is divided 

into eight or ten compartments1 in each 
one of  which the same figures are      
repeated1 though the positions of one   
or more of them are changed4 ,a         
favourite subject represented is a      
clown leaping over the back of a        
pantaloon1 which affords a simple       
illustration of the apparent relative   
movements of two bodies1 and will  serve
 to explain how the effect is produced4 
,illustration    ,the instrument        
consists of a disc of stiff card-board1 
about nine  inches diameter1 mounted on 
a horizontal pivot in the centre1 on    
which  it may be freely turned4 ,between
 each of the compartments of the disc   
there is an elongated aperture1 about   
one inch long and a quarter of an  inch 
wide1 for the eye to look through4      
,suppose the disc to be divided  into   
eight compartments1 by radial lines4 ,in
 the compartment ,no4 #a1  the pantaloon
 is represented in a stooping posture1  
and the clown is  on the ground ready to
 make a spring4 ,in ,no4 #b the         

pantaloon is in the  same attitude1 but 
the clown has commenced his leap1 and is
 raised a  little way from the ground4  
,in the third division he is shown still
  higher in the air2 and in the fourth  
he is mounted above the shoulders  of   
pantaloon1 who retains the same posture 
as at first4 ,the fifth  compartment    
represents the clown as having jumped   
over pantaloon's  head1 and coming down 
to the ground2 and in each succeeding   
division  his farther descent is shown1 
till1 in ,no4 #h1 he has reached the    
ground  again1 and is ready to          
recommence the leap4    ,when the disc  
is turned rapidly round on its pivot1   
the figures  painted upon it are mingled
 together1 and present a confused medley
 of  lines and colours1 in which no     
object can be distinctly defined4 ,this 
mingling of the objects is caused by the
 retention of the images by the  retina1
 so that if the eye be directed to any  
point1 the impression of  the lines and 
colours that pass rapidly before it is  

not effaced before  another and another 
appear to produce fresh impressions1 and
 they  mingle together in confusion4    
,if1 for instance1 there were a circle  
formed of dots marked on the disc1 the  
impression of each dot on the  retina   
would be prolonged2 and as1 by the      
rotation1 other dots would  come into   
the field of view before the impression 
of the first was  removed1 it would form
 an unbroken ring4 ,but if the disc were
 screened  from sight1 at intervals of  
nearly equal duration to that of the    
continuous impression1 so as to efface  
the image of one dot before the  rays of
 another were admitted to the eye1 then 
the ring would be seen  to be composed  
of dots1 as distinctly as when the disc 
was stationary4    ,the effect of       
screening the objects from the eye at   
short intervals  is produced by looking 
with one eye through the openings at the
 image  of the disc1 reflected from a   
mirror4 ,the figures are then seen only 
when the apertures come opposite the    

eye2 but as the impression of one  view 
remains till it is renewed by the light 
admitted through the next  aperture1    
there is continuous vision of the       
objects painted on the disc4    ,it is  
thus that the figures of pantaloon and  
clown become visible1 and  their        
apparent relative movements are         
occasioned4 ,for instance2 each  time   
that the impression of the figure of the
 pantaloon is renewed1  he is seen in   
the same place and in the same attitude2
 therefore he  appears to be stationary1
 though the successive pictures that    
compose  his figure to the eye are in   
rapid rotary motion4 ,the figure of the 
clown1 however1 is seen in a different  
position each time that he  comes into  
view1 therefore he appears to be in     
motion relatively to  pantaloon1 though 
stationary as regards his absolute      
position on the  disc4    ,the same     
effect would be produced if the disc1   
during its rotation1  were seen by      
successive electric sparks4 ,the        

electric spark is so  momentary in its  
duration1 that the most rapidly moving  
objects appear  stationary2 therefore   
each spark would show a seemingly       
stationary  disc1 on which the figure of
 the clown would appear in different    
relative positions2 and the illusion    
would be as perfect as when the  rays of
 light are interrupted at intervals4    
,the electric spark is so instantaneous 
that a cannon ball might be  seen in its
 rapid flight1 if illuminated by a flash
 of lightning1 and  would seem to be    
stationary4 ,professor ,faraday         
mentioned1 in one of his  lectures1 the 
extraordinary appearance which a man1   
who was jumping  over a stile1 presented
 when seen by lightning on a dark night4
 ,the man  seemed to be resting         
horizontally in the air1 with one hand  
touching  the stile4    ,the duration of
 the impression of an object on the     
retina is capable of  illustration by   
means of the ,magic ,disc in a great    
variety of designs1  each one of which  

may represent many movements4 ,the      
turning of the  wheels of machinery1 the
 tossing of balls1 the dancing figures  
of men  and women may thus be shown1 the
 designs for which afford ample scope   
for exercising the pencil of an         
ingenious artist4          ,,the        
,,diorama4      ,those who are old      
enough to remember the ,regent's ,park  
before there  were any houses northward 
of the ,new ,road1 may recollect that   
among  the first buildings erected1 on  
what is now called ,park ,square1 was a 
strange-looking1 partly semi-circular   
erection1 provided with ample  lighting 
space1 which attracted great attention  
during its progress1  and was the cause 
of much speculation as to its probable  
purpose4 ,that  building was intended   
for the exhibition of the ,diorama4     
,m4 ,daguerre1 the inventor of the      
,daguerreotype1 had1 in conjunction     
with ,m4 ,bouton1 a short time          
previously opened a similar exhibition  
in  ,paris1 where the beauty of the     

paintings1 aided by the extraordinary   
effects of newly contrived dispositions 
of the light1 had excited  a great      
sensation4 ,the ,diorama was opened in  
,london on the #fth of  ,october1 #ahbc1
 and for a long time it was equally     
popular in this  metropolis4    ,the    
visitors1 after passing through a gloomy
 anteroom1 were ushered  into a circular
 chamber1 apparently quite dark4 ,one or
 two small  shrouded lamps placed on the
 floor served dimly to light the way  to
 a few descending steps1 and the voice  
of an invisible guide gave  directions  
to walk forward4 ,the eye soon became   
sufficiently accustomed  to the darkness
 to distinguish the objects around1 and 
to perceive  that there were several    
persons seated on benches opposite an   
open  space1 resembling a large window4 
,through the window was seen the        
interior of a cathedral1 undergoing     
partial repair1 with the figures  of two
 or three workmen resting from their    
labour4 ,the pillars1 the  arches1 the  

stone floor and steps1 stained with     
damp1 and the planks  of wood strewn on 
the ground1 all seemed to stand out in  
bold relief1  so solidly as not to admit
 a doubt of their substantiality1 whilst
 the  floor extended to the distant     
pillars1 temptingly inviting the tread  
of exploring footsteps4 ,few could be   
persuaded that what they saw was  a mere
 painting on a flat surface4 ,this      
impression was strengthened  by         
perceiving the light and shadows change1
 as if clouds were passing  over the    
sun1 the rays of which occasionally     
shone through the  painted windows1     
casting coloured shadows on the floor4  
,then shortly  the brightness would     
disappear1 and the former gloom again   
obscure  the objects that had been      
momentarily illuminated4 ,the illusion  
was  rendered more perfect by the       
excellence of the painting1 and by the  
sensitive condition of the eye in the   
darkness of the surrounding  chamber4   
,whilst gazing in wrapt admiration at   

the architectural  beauties of the      
cathedral1 the spectator's attention was
 disturbed by  sounds underground4 ,he  
became conscious that the scene before  
him was  slowly moving away1 and he     
obtained a glimpse of another and very  
different prospect1 which gradually     
advanced until it was completely        
developed1 and the cathedral had        
disappeared4 ,what he now saw was a     
valley1 surrounded by high mountains    
capped with snow4 ,this mountain  valley
 seemed scarcely less real than the     
arched roof and columns of  the         
cathedral1 whilst a foaming cascade1    
dashing down the rocks1 and  the sound  
of rushing waters1 added to the         
illusion4 ,after looking for  some time 
at this beautiful valley1 the clouds    
were seen to gather on  the mountain    
tops1 and a storm impended4 ,a gleam of 
sun-light1 still  resting on the edge of
 the clouds1 exhibited a strange        
contrast between  the silvery brightness
 and the dense black vapour that        

shrouded the  hills1 and could almost be
 felt4 ,it was but a passing            
thunderstorm4  ,presently the dark      
clouds rose from the valley1 and        
dispersed2 the sun  again shone on      
cottage1 vineyard1 and mountain1        
charming the spectator  as much by the  
beauty of the scene as he was astonished
 by the  wonderful change4    ,such was 
the ,diorama as it was first exhibited  
in ,london to admiring  crowds4 ,in     
subsequent years greater changes were   
made in the variations  of light and    
shade2 and by the introduction of       
mechanical contrivances1  with more or  
less success1 the magical effects were  
increased1 without1  however1 adding to 
the apparent reality of the objects4 ,a 
church or  cathedral was always the     
subject of one view1 and sometimes of   
both4  ,the interior of an empty church 
would be shown by evening twilight4     
,the shades of evening gradually        
darkened into the obscurity of  night1  
and then the glimmer of candles would be

 seen spreading more  and more widely1  
until the church was lighted up1 and it 
was occupied  by a crowded congregation 
at midnight mass4 ,some views           
represented  the exterior of a ruin or  
of a cathedral after sunset1 and as     
night  advanced1 the stars twinkled in  
the blue sky1 and the moon rose and     
threw its silvery light on water1       
buildings1 and clouds1 contrasting  in  
some cases with the red glare of lamps  
from the windows of houses  and shops4  
,the disc of the moon exactly resembled 
that of the real  luminary1 and all     
around being so dark1 the rays from its 
surface cast  shadows of intervening    
objects4 ,in one picture a still more   
astonishing  appearance was produced1 by
 the change of the interior of a        
beautifully  painted and decorated      
church into a mass of charred ruins4    
,the means principally adopted for the  
production of these magical  changes in 
a painting on a flat surface1 and for   
giving such seeming  reality to the     

objects represented1 were for some time 
kept secret2  nor do we think they are  
even yet much known4 ,as in many other  
clever  inventions1 the effects are     
produced in a very simple manner4 ,the  
picture is painted on both sides of a   
transparent screen1 and the  change of  
scene is occasioned almost entirely by  
exhibiting the picture  at one time by  
reflected light1 from the surface       
nearest the spectator1  and afterwards  
by transmitted light1 after excluding   
the light from the  front4    ,let us   
take for illustration the interior of a 
church1 at first seen  empty1 and       
afterwards filled with people1 and      
illuminated by candles4  ,the empty     
church is painted on the front on fine  
canvas or silk1 in  transparent colours1
 and at the back are the figures and    
candles1  and other objects intended to 
appear with them4 ,the arrangements for 
illuminating the picture are so         
contrived1 that the light may be thrown 
entirely on the front or on the back1 or

 partly on both4 ,when the light  is on 
the front1 the empty church only is     
visible4 ,it is then gradually          
darkened1 and the back of the picture is
 illuminated1 by which means  the       
figures and candles are seen2 and the   
form of the building being  preserved1  
the same church1 which was before empty1
 becomes occupied by  a crowded         
congregation4    ,it may be mentioned1  
as an illustration of the perfect       
illusion of  the ,diorama1 that a lady  
who on one occasion accompanied the     
author  to the exhibition1 was so fully 
convinced that the church represented   
was real1 that she asked to be conducted
 down the steps to walk in the          
building4    ,illustration    ,the      
effect of changing the direction of the 
light may be readily  perceived by      
making a drawing on both sides of a     
sheet of paper1 as  shown in the annexed
 engraving4 ,the side backing this page 
represents  the interior of ,st4 ,paul's
 ,cathedral when empty1 and on the back 

several figures are drawn4 ,those       
figures are invisible until the  leaf is
 held up against the light1 and when the
 drawing is seen as a  transparency1 the
 objects on the back1 as well as those  
in front1 come  into view1 and the      
building appears to be occupied4        
,illustration    ,any one who has a     
taste for drawing1 and a little         
ingenuity1 may thus  produce many       
pleasing and astonishing effects4 ,it   
will be desirable  to procure1 in the   
first instance1 a box1 so contrived that
 it will  hold the painting1 and afford 
the means of throwing the light on the  
front or on the back at pleasure4 ,the  
diagram shows the form of such  a box4  
,the letters a1 b1 c1 d mark the        
outside2 the aperture1  at c d1 being   
enlarged to permit several persons to   
look into it at  the same time4 ,the box
 may be of any required dimensions1 to  
suit the  size of the drawing1 which is 
to be fitted into a groove at a b1  and 
the interior must be blackened4 ,the    

lid1 e1 when open1 as in  the diagram1  
admits the light to the front of the    
picture1 the back  being covered with an
 opaque screen4 ,as the lid is closed1  
the picture  becomes darkened1 and by   
the gradual removal of the screen at the
 same  time1 it is changed into a       
transparency4 ,this portable ,diorama   
can be  most conveniently shown by      
lamplight1 the flame of an argand lamp1 
the  wick of which can be heightened and
 lowered1 being best adapted for  the   
purpose4 ,the effect by daylight is1    
however1 superior1 but the  room must   
then be darkened1 and the admission of  
light confined to the  picture4         
,illustration    ,the moving water1 and 
the motion of smoke and clouds1 which   
were  frequently introduced in the      
,diorama1 were mechanical additions1 the
  effects being produced by giving      
motion to bodies behind1 the forms  of  
which were seen by transmitted light4   
,the introduction of such  mechanical   
aids1 however1 detract from the artistic

 character of the  ,diorama1 the        
principal merit of which consists in    
exhibiting the  changes occasioned by   
variations in the mode of throwing the  
light on  the two-faced picture4    ,it 
is to be regretted that exhibitions of a
 larger and more showy kind  should have
 superseded the ,diorama in public      
estimation2 and that1  from the want of 
support1 their charming and marvellous  
pictorial  representations1 which       
formed1 in days gone by1 one of the     
principal  sights of ,london1 should be 
now closed4          ,,the              
,,stereoscope4      ,one of the most    
beautiful as well as the most remarkable
 pictorial  illusions is produced by the
 combination of two views into one by   
the  recently invented instrument called
 the ,stereoscope4 ,in the ,diorama1 in 
the ,magic ,disc1 and in the ,dissolving
 ,views1 separate paintings combine  to 
produce different effects2 but in the   
,stereoscope the two pictures  unite    
into one to give additional effect to   

the same view1 and to make  that which  
is a flat surface1 when seen singly1    
appear to project like  a solid body4   
,the principle of the ,stereoscope      
depends on the different appearance     
which near objects present when seen by 
the right or by the left eye4  ,for     
instance1 on looking at a book placed   
edgewise1 with the right eye1  the back 
and one side of the book will be        
perceived2 and on closing  the right eye
 and opening the left1 the back and the 
other side of the  book will be seen1   
and the right-hand side will be         
invisible4 ,it is the  combination of   
both these views by vision with two eyes
 that produces  the impression of       
solidity of objects on the mind2 and if 
the different  appearances which the    
book presents to each eye be copied in  
separate  drawings1 and they can        
afterwards be placed in such a position 
as to  form a united image on the retin 
of the eyes1 the same effect is         
produced as if the book itself were     

looked upon4    ,illustration    ,this  
diagram represents the outlines of a    
near object1 as seen by each  eye       
separately4 ,the one on the right hand  
shows it as seen with the  right eye1   
and the other as it looks with the left 
eye2 and if both  drawings be combined  
into one image1 it stands out in bold   
relief4  ,this may be done without any  
instrument1 by squinting at them2 but   
the effect is more readily and far more 
agreeably produced by the  ,stereoscope1
 so named from the ,greek words  steros1
 solid1 and   skope1 to see4            
,professor ,wheatstone claims to be the 
first who contrived an instrument  to   
illustrate this effect of binocular     
vision1 and he also claims to be  the   
first who brought to notice the         
different appearances of objects  seen  
with each eye separately4 ,sir ,david   
,brewster1 however1 disputes1  on behalf
 of ,mr4 ,elliot1 of ,edinburgh1        
,professor ,wheatstone's claim to  the  
invention of the first stereoscopic     

instrument2 and he has shown  that the  
difference of vision with each eye was  
remarked by ,galen1  #a1gjj years ago2  
that it was noticed by ,leonardo da     
,vinci in #aejj1 and  formed the subject
 of a treatise by a ,jesuit1 named      
,francis ,aquilonius1  in #afac2 and    
that it was a well-known phenomenon of  
vision long before  it was mentioned by 
,professor ,wheatstone4#e ,mr4 ,elliot1 
though he  conceived the idea1 in #ahcd1
 of constructing an instrument for      
uniting  two dissimilar pictures1 did   
not carry it into effect until #ahci1   
the  year after ,mr4 ,wheatstone had    
exhibited his reflecting ,stereoscope to
  the ,royal ,society1 and at the       
meeting of the ,british ,association4   
,mr4 ,elliot's contrivance1 to which    
,sir ,david ,brewster is inclined to    
give precedence in point of date1 was   
very inferior in its effects  to the    
reflecting ,stereoscope4 ,it was without
 lenses or mirrors1 and  consisted of a 
wooden box #ah inches long1 #g inches   

broad1 and #d deep1  and at the end of  
it was placed the dissimilar pictures1  
as seen by  each eye1 that were to be   
united into one4 ,the view he drew for  
the  purpose comprised the moon1 a      
cross1 and the stump of a tree1 at      
different distances2 and when looked at 
in the box1 the cross and the  stump of 
the tree appeared to stand out in       
relief4    ,the accompanying woodcut    
represents the original stereoscopic    
pictures1  copied from ,sir ,david      
,brewster's book2 and by looking towards
 the  picture on the left with the right
 eye1 and on the right-hand picture     
with the left eye1 the two will be seen 
united1 and the cross and the  stump of 
the tree will appear to stand out       
solidly4    ,illustration    ,the       
arrangement of the apparatus1 as        
described by ,professor ,wheatstone1  in
 his paper read before the ,royal       
,society1 consists of two plane         
mirrors1 about #d inches square1 placed 
at right angles2 and the  drawings1 made

 on separate pieces of paper1 were      
reflected to the eyes  looking into the 
mirrors at their junction4 ,the diagram 
is a sketch of  this arrangement4 ,in   
the middle of a narrow slip of wood1 d  
e1 about  #ab inches long1 the two      
mirrors1 a b1 are fixed1 inclined at the
  required angle from their line of     
junction at c4 ,upright pieces of  wood1
 d h1 e f1 at each end1 are furnished   
with slides or clips to  hold the       
drawings1 which are reflected from the  
inclined mirrors1 and  seen in them by  
each eye separately4 ,thus1 the left eye
 sees only the  picture fixed on d h1   
and the right eye sees the one placed at
 e f2  and the two images1 being        
combined at the seat of vision1 produce 
the  same impression as a solid body4   
,illustration    ,it is almost          
unnecessary to describe the external    
appearance of the  lenticular instrument
 invented by ,sir ,david ,brewster1 and 
explained by  him at the meeting of the 
,british ,association in #ahdi4 ,in the 

best kind  of instruments the glasses1  
through which the pictures are seen1 are
  composed of a single large            
double-convex lens1 divided in the      
middle1  the thin edges being set       
towards each other1 about #b inches     
apart4 ,the  more improved instruments1 
indeed1 are made from lenses upwards of 
#c  inches in diameter1 which1 being cut
 into two1 and the thin parts being     
ground flat1 are set edge to edge1 and  
from an aperture sufficiently  large for
 both eyes to look through4 ,by this    
means the instrument  suits all eyes1   
without requiring adjustment1 and the   
field of view is  increased4 ,a         
diaphragm1 or partition1 placed at the  
junction of the two  lenses1 confines   
the vision of each eye to its           
appropriated picture1  and thus tends to
 prevent the confusion of images that   
might otherwise  arise4    ,the object  
of using semi-lenses is to facilitate   
the union of the two  pictures into one1
 by looking through the lens towards its

 edge1  instead of through the centre1  
the image being thus refracted to a     
different position4 ,this may be easily 
exemplified by looking at an  object    
steadily through different parts of the 
same lens4 ,after looking  at it with   
the right eye through the centre1 and   
whilst keeping the  axis of the eye in  
the same direction1 move the lens slowly
 towards the  right1 so as to bring the 
edge of the lens opposite the pupil4    
,this  movement of the lens towards the 
right hand will be accompanied by an    
apparent movement of the image towards  
the left1 so as to bring it to a  point 
between the two eyes4 ,if the experiment
 be repeated with the left  eye1 the    
image will be removed towards the right 
hand2 and thus1 by  looking at the two  
stereoscopic pictures through the thin  
parts of two  lenses1 the images are    
superposed and form a single one4       
,sir ,david ,brewster attached much     
importance to the semi-lenses1 which    
have the effect of prisms in refracting 

the rays of light2 but that  form of    
lens is not essential to give apparent  
solidity to the images2  and many of the
 commoner kind of instruments are now   
made with ordinary  double-convex       
lenses1 and without any partition4 ,with
 the semi-lens1  however1 there is less 
difficulty in uniting the two pictures  
into one  than when an ordinary lens is 
employed4    ,in taking photographic    
pictures for the ,stereoscope with a    
single  camera1 it is necessary to alter
 the angle of the instrument after      
having taken one picture1 to direct it  
to the same object in the  angle of     
vision as seen by the other eye4 ,this  
method of producing  stereoscopic       
pictures with the same camera is very   
objectionable when  any moving objects  
are in the field2 for they will be in a 
different  position in each1 and        
sometimes disappear altogether from the 
second  picture4 ,the plan adopted by   
the best photographers is to have two   
cameras set at the requisite angle to   

each other1 so that both pictures  or   
portraits may be taken at the same time4
    ,at the meeting of the ,british     
,association in #ahec1 ,m4 ,claudet     
endeavoured to establish some rules for 
the angle at which photographic         
pictures must be taken1 in order to     
produce the best effect of relief  and  
distance without exaggeration4 ,he      
observed1 that in looking at a  single  
picture with two eyes1 there is less    
relief and less distance  than when     
looking at it with one eye1 because in  
the latter case we  have the same effect
 we are accustomed to feel when we look 
at the  natural objects with one eye2   
while1 if we look at the single picture 
with two eyes1 we have on the two retin 
the same image with the same            
perspective1 which is not natural1 and  
the eyes have not to make the  usual    
effort for altering their convergence   
according to the plane on  which the    
object observed is situated4 ,this      
inaction of the convergence  of the eyes

 diminishes the illusion of the picture1
 because the same  convergence for all  
the objects represented gives an idea   
that they  are all placed on the same   
plane4 ,the photographic image being the
  representation of two different       
perspectives1 we must1 when we look  at 
them in the ,stereoscope1 as when       
looking at the natural objects          
themselves1 converge1 more or less1 the 
axes of the eyes4 ,therefore  we make   
the same effort1 and have the same      
sensation in regarding  the combined    
photographic pictures1 as when we look  
at the objects  represented4    ,sir    
,david ,brewster has suggested various  
applications of the  ,stereoscope2 viz41
 to painting1 to sculpture and          
engineering1 to  natural history1 to    
education1 and to purposes of amusement4
 ,the latter  is the principal purpose  
to which the instrument is at present   
applied2  and some of the many ways in  
which it may contribute to delight the  
spectator are pointed out in ,sir ,david

 ,brewster's book4    ,for the purpose  
of amusement1 he observes1 the          
photographer might  carry us even into  
the regions of the supernatural4 ,his   
art enables  him to give a spiritual    
appearance to one or more of his        
figures1  and to exhibit them as 'thin  
air1' amid the solid realities of the   
stereoscopic picture4 ,while a party are
 engaged with their whist or  their     
gossip1 a female figure appears in the  
midst of them with all the  attributes  
of the supernatural4 ,her form is       
transparent2 every object  or person    
beyond her being seen in shadowy but    
distinct outline4 ,she  may occupy more 
than one place in the scene1 and        
different portions  of the group might  
be made to gaze upon one or other of the
 visions  before them4 ,in order to     
produce such a scene1 the parties which 
are  to compose the group must have     
their portraits nearly finished in the  
binocular camera1 in the attitude which 
they may be supposed to assume  if the  

vision were real4 ,when the party have  
nearly sat the proper  length of time1  
the female figure1 suitably attired1    
walks quickly to  the place assigned to 
her1 and after standing a few seconds in
 the  proper attitude1 retires quickly1 
or takes as quickly a second1 or even  a
 third1 place in the picture1 if it is  
required1 in each of which she  remains 
a few seconds1 so that her picture in   
these different positions  may be taken 
with sufficient distinctness in the     
negative photograph4  ,if these         
operations have been well performed1 all
 the objects  immediately behind the    
female figure1 having been previous to  
her  introduction impressed upon the    
negative surface1 will be seen through  
her1 and she will have the appearance of
 an arial personage1 unlike  the other  
figures in the picture4    ,it is in the
 foregoing manner that the remarkable   
stereoscopic effect  of ,sir ,david     
,brewster's ghost is produced1 a        
representation of which  is given in the

 next page4    ,sir ,david ,brewster    
mentions many other curious applications
 of the  ,stereoscope1 among which are  
the dioramic effects of pictures seen   
alternately by reflected and by         
transmitted light2 a daylight view      
being apparently lighted up artificially
 in the night1 by seeing it at  one time
 with the light reflected from the      
surface1 and then excluding  the light  
from the front1 and viewing it as a     
transparency4    ,one of the most       
interesting effects of the ,stereoscope 
has been  recently produced by ,mr4 ,de 
la ,rue1 who has contrived the means of 
giving apparent rotundity to the surface
 of the moon1 as viewed  through a      
powerful telescope4 ,the disc of the    
full moon1 however  highly magnified1   
presents1 as is well-known1 the         
appearance of a flat  surface1 with the 
lights and shadows marked seemingly on a
 plane4  ,owing to the great distance of
 that luminary1 there is no variation   
in its appearance1 whether it be looked 

at with one eye or with the  other1     
therefore it seems removed beyond the   
operation of the ordinary  cause of     
stereoscopic effects4 ,nevertheless1    
,mr4 ,de la ,rue has taken  photographs 
of the moon which1 when placed in the   
,stereoscope1 combine  to form a        
solid-looking globe1 on which all the   
lights and shadows are  distinctly and  
beautifully delineated4 ,he has produced
 this effect by  taking his photographs 
at different periods of the year1 when  
there is  a slight variation in the     
direction of the moon's face to the     
earth2  and by combining these separate 
photographs into one image in the       
,stereoscope1 the form of the moon      
appears as convex as the surface of  an 
artificial globe4    ,illustration      
,m4 ,claudet1 who is one of the most    
successful photographers in  the        
metropolis1 has contrived an arrangement
 which he calls a  ,stereomonoscope1 by 
which the appearance of solidity is     
communicated  to a single image formed  

on a screen of ground glass4 ,the screen
 of  ground glass has a black back1 and 
is placed in the focus of a lens in  an 
ordinary camera obscura1 wherein the    
image may be seen by looking  down upon 
it4 ,the particles of the roughened     
glass reflect to each  eye different    
parts of the image focused on the       
screen1 and by this  means a similar    
effect is produced as when two          
dissimilar pictures are  looked at      
through a stereoscope instrument4 ,one  
great advantage of this  arrangement is 
that several persons may look at the    
image at the same  time4    ,mr4 ,john  
,sang1 of ,kirkaldy1 has very recently  
imparted stereoscopic  effect to copies 
of paintings and engravings1 the flat   
surfaces of  which were previously      
thought to defy any such application of 
the  ,stereoscope4 ,the means he employs
 of doing so are at present kept        
secret1 but he has shown its            
practicability by copying1 on wood      
engravings1 ,mr4 ,george ,cruikshank's  

series of ,the ,bottle4 ,in some        
respects this process seems almost more 
wonderful than the original             
,stereoscope1 for it gives solid form   
and apparent substantiality to the  mere
 creations of the artist's pencil4      
,,the ,,electric ,,telegraph4      ,no  
application of science has so completely
 realized the visions of  fancy as the  
,electric ,telegraph4 ,so closely1      
indeed1 does the real of  the present   
day approach to the ideal of ages past1 
that it might be  supposed the          
narratives in the tales of fary land    
were true records  of the inventions of 
former times1 and that the combined     
efforts of  inventive genius during the 
last half century were but imitations   
and  reproductions of what had been     
successfully accomplished once upon a   
time4 ,there is also an intermediate    
period--between the indefinite  of fary 
tales and the positive of scientific    
history--in which  sympathetic tablets  
and magical loadstones1 scarcely less   

mythical1 are  stated to have been      
invented2 and the individuals are named 
who thus  paved the way for             
instantaneous communication between all 
parts of the  world4    ,the ,jesuits of
 the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
 took the  place of the magicians of the
 ,middle ,ages4 ,in the seclusion of    
their  monasteries1 they speculated on  
the mysterious powers of ,nature1 then  
partially revealed to them1 and shadowed
 forth images of their possible         
applications4 ,it is to a vague         
speculation of this kind that we may    
attribute the notice given by ,strada1  
in his ,prolusiones ,academic1  of the  
sympathetic magnetic needles1 by which  
two friends at a distance  were able to 
communicate2 though the then fanciful   
idea has been  literally realized4 ,a   
still more extraordinary foreshadowing  
of one  of the most recent improvements 
of the ,electric ,telegraph was the     
transference of written letters from one
 place to another by electric  agency4  

,this is said to have been accomplished 
by ,kircher1 who1 in his  ,prolusiones  
,magnetic1 describes1 though very       
vaguely1 the mode of  operation4 ,but   
even admitting that there were          
substantial foundations  for these      
imaginary phantasms1 that would not in  
the least detract from  the merit of    
those who1 following closely the        
footsteps of scientific  discovery1 have
 successfully applied the principles    
unfolded by the  investigations of      
others1 and by their own assiduous      
researches4 ,thus1  whilst steam        
navigation was facilitating the means of
 intercourse over  rivers and seas1 and 
whilst railways and locomotive engines  
served to  bring distant cities within a
 few hours' journey of each other1      
another  source of power1 infinitely    
more rapid in its action than steam1 has
  been made to transmit intelligence    
from place to place1 and from one       
country to another1 with the speed of   
lightning4    ,the plan of making       

communications by signals has been in   
operation from  time immemorial2 the    
beacon lights on hills having served in 
ancient  as well as in modern times to  
give warning of danger1 or to announce  
tidings of joy4 ,such simple signals    
were not capable of much variety of     
expression2 but even beacon lights might
 be made to indicate different  kinds of
 intelligence1 by multiplying the number
 of the fires1 and  by altering their   
relative positions4 ,it was not1        
however1 till the  invention of         
telegraphs that anything approaching to 
the means of  holding regular           
communication by signals was attained4  
,the semaphore  of the brothers ,chappe1
 of ,france1 invented by them in #agid1 
was the  most perfect instrument of the 
kind1 and was generally employed for    
telegraphic purposes1 until it was      
supplanted by the ,electric ,telegraph4 
,the semaphore consisted of an upright  
post1 having arms on each side1  that   
could be readily extended1 at any given 

angle4 ,the extension of  these arms on 
one side or the other1 either separately
 or together1  and at different angles1 
constituted a variety of signals        
sufficient  for the purposes of         
communication4 ,the semaphores1 erected 
on elevated  points1 so as to be visible
 through telescopes1 signalled          
intelligence  slowly from one station to
 another1 till it reached its ultimate  
destination2 and thus--daylight and     
clear weather permitting--brief  orders 
could be sent from the ,admiralty to    
,portsmouth in the course of  a few     
minutes4 ,but the communication was     
liable to be interrupted by  fogs1 as   
well as by nightfall4    ,a remarkable  
instance of the imperfection of sight   
telegraphs occurred  during the         
,peninsular ,war4 ,a telegraphic        
despatch1 received at the  ,admiralty   
from ,portsmouth1 announced--,lord      
,wellington defeated2--and  then the    
communication was interrupted by a fog4 
,this telegraphic  message caused great 

consternation1 and the utmost anxiety   
was  experienced to learn the extent of 
the supposed disaster4 ,when1  however1 
the fog dispersed1 the remainder of the 
message gave a  completely opposite     
character to the news1 which in its     
completed form  ran thus3 ,lord         
,wellington defeated the ,french1 c4    
,some better means of transmitting      
important intelligence was evidently    
wanted2 for not only was the semaphore  
liable to frequent interruptions  by the
 weather1 but its action was very slow1 
and the frequent  repetitions from      
station to station increased the risk of
 blunders4    ,the instantaneous        
transmission of an electric shock       
suggested the  means of communicating   
with greatly increased rapidity2 and    
when  it was ascertained1 by experiments
 made by ,dr4 ,watson at ,shooter's     
,hill1 in #agdg1 that the charge of a   
,leyden jar could be sent through  a    
circuit of four miles1 with velocity too
 great to be appreciable1  the          

practicability of applying electricity  
for conveying intelligence  became at   
once apparent4    ,of the many means by 
which this object was attempted to be   
accomplished1 it will be only possible1 
in this general survey1 to  notice those
 that mark the first steps of the       
invention1 and the most  important of   
those that have accompanied its progress
 to the present  time4    ,the first    
method that suggested itself was to     
transmit signals by  means of pith-ball 
electrometers4 ,when1 for instance1 two 
pith-balls  are suspended from a wire   
that is made to form part of an electric
  circuit1 the electricity communicated 
to the balls causes them to  diverge1   
and when the electricity in the wire is 
discharged1 they  immediately collapse4 
,this action of pith-balls1 when        
electrified1  was the simplest mode     
known of making telegraphic signals1 and
 it was  accordingly adopted by several 
of the early inventors of ,electric     
,telegraphs4 ,the first person who      

proposed to apply it for that purpose   
was ,m4 ,lesage1 of ,geneva1 in #aggd4  
,his plan was to form #bd electric      
circuits by as many separate wires1     
insulated from each other in glass      
tubes2 and to place in the circuit1 at  
each communicating station1  an equal   
number of pith-ball electrometers4 ,each
 electrometer was to  represent a letter
 of the alphabet1 and they were to be   
brought into  action by an excited glass
 rod4 ,when a communication was to be   
made1  the wires connected with the     
separate galvanometers were to be       
charged  alternately with electricity by
 the excited rod of glass2 and the      
person at the receiving station1 by     
noticing which of the electrometers     
were successively put into action1 could
 spell the words intended to be         
communicated4    ,by the means thus     
proposed1 correspondence could have     
taken place at  only short distances1   
for the charge of an excited glass rod  
would have  been too feeble to produce  

any sensible effect on the electrometers
 had  the length of the circuit been    
considerable4 ,this difficulty might    
have been overcome by substituting the  
charge of a ,leyden jar for the  excited
 glass2 but the more serious obstacle to
 the use of such a  telegraph would have
 been the cost1 and the difficulty of   
insulating  the #bd wires required to   
work it4    ,most of the early          
telegraphic inventors encumbered their  
inventions  with the same obstacle1 as  
they seemed to consider it necessary to 
have a separate circuit for each letter 
of the alphabet4 ,it was not so         
however1 with all2 for ,m4 ,lomond1 a   
,frenchman1 who ranks second in the     
list of telegraphic inventors1 modified 
the principle of ,m4 ,lesage1 so  as to 
enable him to work with only two wires  
and one electrometer at  each station4  
,with the experience since gained in the
 application of  the needle telegraph1  
such an arrangement seems very simple1  
and we are  inclined to wonder that it  

was not generally adopted1 especially   
after  ,m4 ,lomond had shown the way4   
,to produce all the requisite signals   
with a single pith-ball  electrometer1  
it was necessary to vary the durations  
of each  divergence1 and to combine     
several to form a single symbol4 ,thus1 
suppose that a single divergence of the 
pith-balls for a second was  understood 
to signify the letter ,a2 one           
divergence1 followed by an  immediate   
collapse1 by discharging the            
electricity1 might signify ,b2  two     
prolonged divergences might signify ,c1 
and two short ones ,d2  and by thus     
increasing the number and varying the   
divergences of the  two pith-balls1 all 
the letters of the alphabet might be    
indicated4    ,a still more direct      
method of representing the letters of   
the alphabet  was proposed by ,m4       
,reizen in #agid1 by the application of 
the means  frequently adopted for       
exhibiting the light of the electric    
spark4 ,the  charge of a ,leyden jar was

 sent through strips of tin foil1 pasted
 on  to a flat piece of glass1 so as to 
form several lines1 joined at the  ends 
alternately into a continuous circuit4  
,interruptions were made  in the foil by
 cutting small portions away1 at which  
points brilliant  sparks appeared when  
the jar was discharged4 ,as the         
interruptions  were so contrived as to  
form letters1 and the strips of tin foil
 were  all arranged separately on a long
 pane of glass1 any letter required     
could be distinctly made visible by     
discharging the jar through that        
particular circuit4 ,to produce all the 
letters of the alphabet in this  manner1
 a separate circuit was required for    
each4    ,another plan1 far less        
feasible1 and scarcely deserving of     
notice1  excepting for its peculiarity1 
was proposed in the following year  by  
,m4 ,cavallo1 who suggested the setting 
fire to combustibles1 or  the explosion 
of detonating substances1 as the means  
of signalling  intelligence4 ,about the 

same time several attempts were made by 
electricians in ,spain to transmit      
signals by electricity1 but their  plans
 were not more practicable than those   
already mentioned1 and  depended for    
their effects on the discharge of       
,leyden jars4    ,the discovery of      
voltaic electricity at the beginning of 
the present  century was an important   
step in the progress of the ,electric   
,telegraph1 though several years elapsed
 before the applicability of  the       
discovery for that purpose became known2
 and it was not fully  appreciated till 
within the last twenty years4    ,the   
electricity generated by the voltaic    
battery is far greater in  quantity than
 the most powerful electrical machine   
can excite1 whilst  its intensity is so 
feeble that it cannot pass in a spark   
through the  smallest interval of air4  
,it presents1 therefore1 much less      
difficulty  in the insulation of the    
wires than frictional electricity1      
whilst  the rapidity of its transmission

 is for practical purposes equally      
efficient4 ,the electricity generated by
 the voltaic battery being great  in    
quantity and feeble in intensity1 it is 
capable also of effecting  chemical     
decomposition and of imparting          
magnetism1 both of which  properties    
have proved eminently useful in         
perfecting the ,electric  ,telegraph4   
,the first application of voltaic       
electricity to telegraphic purposes  was
 made by ,mr4 ,soemmering in #ahji4 ,the
 signals of his telegraph  consisted of 
the bubbles of gas arising from the     
decomposition of  water1 during the     
action of the electric current4 ,his    
apparatus  consisted of a small glass   
trough1 filled with acidulated water1   
through the bottom part of which were   
introduced several gold wires           
corresponding to the letters of the     
alphabet4 ,the instant that an  electric
 current was sent through any two of the
 wires1 by making  connection with a    
voltaic battery at the transmitting     

instrument1  bubbles of hydrogen gas    
rose from one of the gold wires1 and    
bubbles of  oxygen gas from another2 and
 as the volume of hydrogen gas1         
liberated  during the decomposition of  
water1 exceeds by sixteen times that of 
the oxygen1 it was easy to distinguish  
them4 ,in this manner all the  letters  
of the alphabet could be indicated by   
using #bd wires4 ,the  object of having 
gold wires in the decomposing trough was
 to prevent  the oxidation of the metal2
 for had copper1 or any other metal that
  combines with oxygen1 been employed1  
the points of the wires would soon  have
 become corroded4    ,this telegraph of 
,soemmering's1 though not adapted for   
practical  application in the form he   
presented it1 on account of the number  
of  wires required for the purpose1 was 
nevertheless superior to any that  had  
previously been invented2 and by a      
little modification it might  have been 
made a perfect instrument1 capable of   
transmitting messages  by means of only 

two wires4 ,such a modification of the  
instrument was  proposed by ,m4         
,schweigger1 twenty years afterwards2   
the only thing  required being the      
adoption of a code of symbols1 by means 
of which  all the letters might be      
indicated by combinations of the four   
primary  signals that are obtainable by 
two wires1 as is at present done by the 
needle telegraph in common use4 ,at that
 time1 however1 the discovery of  the   
magnetic properties of the electric     
current1 and other improvements  in the 
means of communicating1 superseded for  
some years the use of  signals made by  
electro-chemical decomposition4    ,the 
next important step in the progress of  
telegraphic invention1 after  that of   
,mr4 ,soemmering1 was made by ,mr4      
,ronalds1 who in #ahaf succeeded  in    
making a perfect apparatus1 that        
transmitted every requisite signal  with
 the use of only a single circuit4 ,in  
the agent employed1 however1  there was 
a retrogression to frictional           

electricity and the pith-ball           
electrometer1 for at that time the      
property which a voltaic current        
possesses of deflecting a magnetic      
needle had not been discovered4    ,mr4 
,ronalds's plan was to have1 at each    
communicating station1 a good  clock    
with a light paper disc fixed on to the 
seconds wheel1 on which  were marked all
 the letters of the alphabet1 and the   
ten numerals4 ,only  so much of this    
disc was exposed to view as to show a   
single letter  at a time1 through a     
small aperture1 as the seconds wheel    
revolved4  ,the clocks at the           
corresponding stations were set exactly 
together1 so  that the same letter was  
exposed to view at each instrument at   
the same  instant4 ,a pith-ball         
electrometer1 connected in a single     
circuit with  the transmitting station1 
was kept distended during the           
transmission  of a message by charging  
the wire from an electrical machine2 and
 when  the letter required to be        

indicated appeared at the aperture of   
both  instruments1 the operator at the  
transmitting instrument instantly       
discharged the electricity of the wire  
by touching it1 and thus  caused the    
pith-balls to collapse4 ,in this manner 
the person at the  receiving station1 by
 attentively watching the pith-balls1   
and noticing  the letter that appeared  
at the instant of collapse1 could read  
the  messages signalled4    ,mr4        
,ronalds so far perfected his invention1
 that it worked accurately1  though     
slowly1 through eight miles of wire     
insulated in glass tubes4  ,having thus 
succeeded in putting into action his    
single wire  telegraph1 ,mr4 ,ronalds   
sought the patronage of ,government for 
its  practical adoption1 such a notion  
as that of establishing a telegraph  for
 commercial purposes not being at that  
time entertained4 ,for a  length of time
 his application received no attention1 
and when at  length the ,lords of the   
,admiralty condescended to answer1 they 

sent ,mr4  ,ronalds1 as the reward for  
his ingenuity1 and as compensation for  
the  time and money bestowed in         
perfecting the invention1 the expression
 of  their opinion--that telegraphs are 
of no use in time of peace1 and  that   
during war the semaphore answered all   
required purposes6 ,this  reply1 so     
characteristic of the manner in which   
,government employs  generally regard   
anything new to which their attention is
 solicited1  completely disheartened    
,mr4 ,ronalds4 ,he abandoned the        
,electric  ,telegraph to its fate2 and  
having gone abroad1 he returned some    
years  later to find that1              
notwithstanding the dictum of the ,lords
 of the  ,admiralty1 telegraphs are of  
great use in time of peace as well as   
of war1 and that the old semaphore had  
been entirely superseded by  the means  
of transmission he had indicated twenty 
years before4 ,mr4  ,ronalds has since  
received a small pension1 not however as
 a reward  for his ingenious telegraph  

invention1 but for his services in other
  departments of science4    ,the       
discovery of the magnetic property of an
 electric current by  ,professor rsted1 
in #ahah1 was most important in the     
subsequent  progress of telegraphic     
invention1 though it was not applied in 
a  practical manner till nearly twenty  
years afterwards4 ,in #ahbj1 indeed1    
,m4 ,ampre submitted to the ,academy of 
,sciences at ,paris a telegraphic       
instrument for the transmission of      
signals by the deflection of  needles1  
but he adopted the impracticable plan of
 the earliest  inventors1 of having a   
separate wire for each letter of the    
alphabet4 ,a  much more important       
contribution to telegraphic invention by
 ,m4 ,ampre  was the discovery of       
electro-magnets1 which act an important 
part in  many recent electric           
telegraphs4    ,as the magnetic         
properties of a voltaic current are     
extensively applied  in electric        
telegraphs1 it is desirable briefly to  

explain the nature  of the action of    
voltaic batteries before proceeding     
farther with the  history of the        
invention4    ,to excite a current of   
voltaic electricity1 it is usual to     
employ a  series of zinc and copper     
plates1 arranged alternately in separate
  jars2 or1 what is now most common1 in 
cells of gutta percha1 separated  from  
each other in a gutta percha trough4    
,the cells are nearly filled  with      
diluted sulphuric acid1 and a wire is   
attached to each end of  the trough2 one
 being connected with the last zinc     
plate1 and the  other with the last     
copper plate of the opposite ends of the
 trough4  ,when these wires are brought 
into contact1 electricity is instantly  
generated by the action of the acid on  
the zinc plates4 ,the electricity       
excited by the action on the zinc in one
 cell is carried on to the  next1 and   
that again excites and transfers an     
additional quantity to  the third cell1 
thus increasing in intensity to the last

 pair of plates  in the series4 ,the    
electric current1 as it is called1      
passes along  the wire1 and whether the 
wire be one yard1 or whether it be a    
hundred  miles long1 the generation of  
electricity takes place the instant     
that the circuit is completed1 and ends 
the instant that the circuit  is broken4
 ,there is this difference1 however1 in 
the transmission of  electricity through
 a long and through a short circuit1    
that in the  former case the increased  
resistance offered by the length of the 
wire  greatly diminishes the quantity of
 electricity transmitted though it  does
 not perceptibly retard the velocity4   
,when a balanced magnetic needle is held
 above a short thick copper wire  whilst
 it is transmitting an electric current1
 the needle is deflected  from its      
natural position1 and inclines either to
 the right or to the  left1 according to
 the direction in which the current     
passes4 ,if1 for  instance1 the north   
pole of the needle be pointed towards   

the copper  pole of the battery1 it will
 be deflected towards the east1 but if  
the direction of the battery current be 
reversed1 the deflection will  be       
towards the west4 ,the effect instantly 
ceases when the current is  interrupted 
by breaking connection with either pole 
of the battery4 ,the  copper wire1      
though under ordinary circumstances     
incapable of being  rendered magnetic1  
thus becomes endowed with strong        
magnetic properties  when it is         
transmitting an electric current1 and   
acts on the magnetic  needle in the same
 manner as if there were an immense     
number of small  magnets placed along   
the wire across its diameter4    ,the   
magnetic property of an electric        
current1 first discovered by  rsted1 was
 applied by ,m4 ,ampre to impart        
magnetism to iron1 by  coiling a length 
of copper wire round a bar of iron1     
taking care to  cover the wire with an  
insulating substance1 so that when an   
electric  current was transmitted the   

electricity might not pass through the  
iron4 ,coils of copper wire1 covered    
with cotton or silk1 can thus  impart   
most powerful magnetism to a piece of   
soft iron2 but it loses  its magnetic   
power the instant that the electric     
current is interrupted4    ,the effect  
of a coil of insulated wire in          
increasing the magnetic  power of an    
electric current1 was applied by ,m4    
,schweigger in #ahcb  to increase the   
sensitiveness of a suspended magnetic   
needle4 ,by  surrounding a compass      
needle with several convolutions of     
covered wire1  it was found that the    
deflections of the needle were much     
greater  and more active2 and he thus   
showed the way to the construction of   
those delicate galvanometers1 which     
indicate by their deflections  the      
slightest disturbance of electrical     
equilibrium4 ,schweigger may1           
therefore1 be considered the original   
inventor of the ,needle ,telegraph2  and
 as he pointed out a method of          

impressing symbols on paper             
mechanically1 by means of               
electro-magnets1 he may be considered   
also as  the original inventor of       
,recording ,electric ,telegraphs4       
,the first near approach to the needle  
telegraph1 now used in this  country1   
was made by ,baron de ,schilling1 who1  
in #ahcb1 constructed  at ,st4          
,petersburg an electric telegraph       
consisting of five magnetic  needles4   
,this may be considered as the precursor
 of the five-needle  telegraph1 first   
patented by ,professor ,wheatstone in   
#ahcg4 ,by the  separate deflection of  
those needles to the right hand or to   
the  left1 by reversing the connections 
with the poles of the batteries1  ten   
primary signals could be obtained2 and  
by bringing two into  action at the same
 time1 many more signals might be made  
than were  required for indicating the  
letters of the alphabet1 and they could 
be appropriated to express several      
words4 ,for the action of this very     

efficient telegraph only five wires were
 required1 and the signals  being all   
primary ones1 the messages might have   
been transmitted very  quickly4#f ,in a 
subsequent modification of the          
telegraph1 he contrived  to make all the
 signals with one magnetic needle alone1
 by repeating  the deflections to the   
right and to the left1 as done in the   
needle  telegraph now generally used in 
,england4    ,another step made by      
,baron de ,schilling was the invention  
of an  alarum to call attention when a  
message was about to be sent4 ,some     
contrivance of this kind was considered 
essential in the early days of  the     
practical application of the ,electric  
,telegraph1 as no one then  contemplated
 that telegraphic communications would  
be so frequent as  to require a person  
to be always near the instrument1       
waiting for the  receipt of messages4   
,baron de ,schilling's alarum was very  
simple4 ,one of the magnetic  needles   
acted as a detent which held a weight   

suspended1 and when  the needle was     
deflected1 the weight fell upon a bell4 
,the alarums  subsequently invented were
 constructed on the same principle1 but 
instead of employing one of the magnetic
 needles as a detent1 an  electro-magnet
 was used for the purpose1 and clock    
mechanism was  introduced to sound a    
bell continuously1 as soon as it was set
 in  action by the withdrawal of the    
detent4 ,at the present time alarums are
  not used in the regular stations of   
the electric telegraph companies2  the  
sound of the needles1 as they strike    
against the ivory rests on  each side1  
being sufficient to call the attention  
of the clerks1 who  are in constant     
attendance4    ,we have hitherto been   
enabled to trace1 step by step1 the     
advances  made at intervals--years      
asunder--in bringing the ,electric      
,telegraph  into practical use2 but we  
are now approaching a time when it      
becomes  difficult to enumerate1 and    
impossible to describe within reasonable

  compass1 the numerous inventions that 
were patented and otherwise made  known 
for giving greater efficiency to that   
means of communication4    ,in the early
 part of the year #ahcg1 the electric   
telegraphs of ,mr4  ,alexander1 of      
,edinburgh1 and of ,mr4 ,davy1 were     
publicly exhibited  in ,london1 and     
excited much attention2 though1 at that 
time it was  not supposed that it would 
be possible to make use of that means of
  communication for general purposes4   
,mr4 ,alexander's telegraph was the     
same in principle as those of ,m4 ,ampre
 and of ,baron de ,schilling1  though in
 some respects not so efficient as      
either1 for its action was  slow1 and it
 required a separate wire for each      
letter of the alphabet4  ,it was        
considered a great advantage of this    
telegraph at the time1  that it         
exhibited actual letters of the         
alphabet1 instead of symbols4  ,this was
 effected by having the twenty-six      
letters painted on a board1  and        

concealed from view by a number of small
 paper screens1 which were  attached to 
magnetic needles4 ,when any of the      
needles was deflected  by sending an    
electric current through the surrounding
 coil1 the  screen was withdrawn and    
exposed the letter behind4 ,twenty-six  
keys1  resembling those of a pianoforte1
 were ranged in connection1 one with    
each wire1 and on pressing down any one 
of the keys1 contact was made  between  
the battery and the wire connected with 
its associated magnetic  needle2 and in 
this manner1 messages might easily be   
transmitted  and read4 ,the objections  
to this telegraph1 in the form in which 
it  was exhibited1 were not only the    
impracticability of laying down  and    
insulating so many wires1 but the paper 
screens attached to the  needles impeded
 their action1 and rendered the         
transmission a very slow  process4 ,it  
is questionable1 indeed1 whether that   
telegraph could have  been worked at all
 through a circuit of many miles4       

,mr4 ,davy's telegraph was similar to   
that of ,mr4 ,alexander's1 though  much 
more compact and better arranged4 ,the  
letters were painted on  ground glass1  
lighted behind1 so that when the screens
 were withdrawn  the letters were seen  
in transparency4    ,illustration       
,professor ,wheatstone1 who had for some
 previous years been endeavouring  to   
perfect a practical electric telegraph1 
took out his first patent  in #ahcg4 ,it
 closely resembled in general features  
the telegraph of  ,baron de ,schilling4 
,it consisted of five magnetic needles1 
ranged side  by side on a horizontal    
line that formed the diameter of a      
rhomb4 ,the  needles were suspended     
perpendicularly1 being kept in that     
position by  having the lower ends made 
slightly heavier than the upper4 ,the   
rhomb  was divided into thirty-six equal
 parts by ten cross lines1 and the      
needles were placed at the points where 
the lines intersected1 as shown  in the 
diagram4    ,at each intersection1 and  

along the boundary lines of the rhomb1  
letters were marked1 any one of which   
might be pointed at by the  combined    
action of two of the needles4 ,thus1 if 
the two extreme needles  were deflected 
inwards1 one towards the left and the   
other towards the  right1 they would    
point to the letter ,a at the top of the
 rhomb4  ,if the extreme needle on the  
left and the fourth one were similarly  
deflected1 they would point to the      
letter ,b2 and thus all the letters     
marked on the intersections of the lines
 could be pointed to4 ,a  telegraph that
 could be worked with five circuits came
 within the range  of practicability1   
and it was put into operation on the    
,great ,western  ,railway as far as     
,slough1 a distance of #ah miles4       
,when the work of actually making       
communication by insulated wires        
between places far apart came to be     
done1 much difficulty arose as to  the  
best and cheapest mode of doing it4 ,the
 plan first attempted was  to surround  

the wires with pitch1 and to bury them  
in a trench in the  ground4 ,but this   
was found to be attended with great     
inconvenience1 for  the pitch cracked1  
and electric communication was          
established between  the adjacent wires4
 ,the method of suspending the wires on 
posts was1 we  understand1 suggested by 
,mr4 ,brunel1 who had seen wires so     
suspended  for other purposes on the    
,continent1 and he recommended it to    
,mr4 ,cooke  for the ,electric          
,telegraph4 ,the plan was tried with    
success1 and  was generally adopted by  
the ,electric ,telegraph ,company in    
extending  their lines over the country4
 ,we shall have occasion to revert to   
this  practical part of the subject1    
when describing more particularly the   
means of making communication from one  
place to another4    ,in continuing the 
history of the invention1 as regards the
 different  modes by which              
communications are transmitted along the
 insulated  wires1 the next telegraphs  

that deserve notice are those of ,dr4   
,steinheil1 which became known also in  
#ahcg4 ,one of his telegraphs made  the 
signals by sounds1 produced by magnetic 
needles striking1 when  deflected1      
against bells of different tones4 ,by   
another telegraph  of his invention the 
symbols where marked upon paper by small
 tubes  holding ink1 fixed to the       
needles4 ,in this manner the letters of 
the  alphabet were indicated by dots    
upon a strip of paper1 kept slowly      
moving by clock mechanism4 ,this        
telegraph could be worked by a  single  
circuit2 and it appears that ,dr4       
,steinheil was the first who            
discovered1 or at least who practically 
applied1 the conducting power  of the   
earth for the return current4 ,each     
circuit1 therefore1 consisted  of only a
 single wire2 the wire that had been    
previously used to  complete the circuit
 being superseded by burying in the     
earth1 at each  terminus1 a small copper
 plate4 ,dr4 ,steinheil also introduced 

the use  of galvanized iron wire4 ,an   
electric telegraph of this construction 
was  put into operation at ,munich1     
through a distance of #ab miles4        
,illustration    ,in the following year 
,messrs4 ,cooke and ,wheatstone so far  
simplified  the arrangements of their   
needle telegraph as to make all the     
requisite  signals with two needles4    
,with a single combined battery and two 
wires  six primary signals are thus     
obtained2 and by repeating the          
deflections  and combining the action of
 the two needles1 all the letters can   
be readily and quickly indicated4 ,a    
single needle instrument was  invented  
by ,messrs4 ,cooke and ,wheatstone1 but 
as there are only two  primary signals1 
one to the right and one to the left1   
the deflections  are necessarily        
repeated more frequently1 and the       
transmission is  consequently more slow4
 ,the accompanying diagram represents   
the  alphabet of the single needle      
instrument4 ,the deflections for each   

letter commence in the direction of the 
short marks1 and end with  the long     
ones4 ,thus1 to indicate the letter ,r1 
the needle is first  deflected once to  
the left and then once to the right2 and
 the letter  ,d has the deflections     
reversed1 beginning with one to the     
right and  ending with one to the left4 
,in no instance does it require more    
than  four deflections to indicate a    
single letter1 yet the transmission     
with the double needle is found so much 
quicker that the single needle          
instrument is only rarely used4    ,at  
the end of each word1 it is customary   
for the clerk at the receiving  station 
to indicate1 by a deflection of the     
needle to the right1 that  he           
understands1 or by a deflection to the  
left1 that he does not  understand1 and 
in the latter case the word is repeated4
 ,in the early  days of the ,electric   
,telegraph1 the transmission of #dj     
letters a minute  with the double needle
 instrument was considered quick work2  

but the  practised clerks will now      
transmit one hundred letters in that    
time1  which is as fast as any person   
can write with pen and ink4    ,since   
the invention of the double and single  
needle telegraphs there  have been many 
modifications in the instruments1 to    
make them work  more promptly and with  
less vibration2 but in all essential    
parts  the telegraphs of ,messrs4 ,cooke
 and ,wheatstone remain unaltered1 and  
continue to be generally used in this   
country4    ,of the numerous other      
telegraph instruments that have been    
invented  since #ahcg1 that of ,mr4     
,morse is in most general use1          
especially on the  ,continent and in    
,america4 ,mr4 ,morse1 indeed1 claims to
 be the first  inventor of a practical  
,electric ,telegraph2 for1 according to 
his  statement1 he1 in #ahcb1 invented a
 telegraph1 which was in principle  the 
same as the one now in use4 ,it was not1
 however1 till ,september1  #ahch1 that 
he made his instrument known in ,europe1

 by sending a  description of it with a 
model to the ,academy of ,sciences at   
,paris4  ,mr4 ,jackson1 an ,american1   
disputed with ,mr4 ,morse for the honour
 of  the invention1 and when the latter 
asserted that he had described his      
telegraph in #ahcb1 to some passengers  
on board a packet-boat1 ,mr4  ,jackson  
affirmed that it was he who described it
 on that occasion1 and  that ,mr4       
,morse1 being present1 got the idea from
 him4 ,it is painful  and difficult to  
decide when we find two claimants thus  
directly  in opposition to each other1  
and mutually preferring charges of      
falsehood and fraud4 ,the only safe     
guide in such cases is to refer to  the 
earliest published and authentic        
descriptions of the inventions2  and1   
following that guidance1 the invention  
of what is called ,morse's  telegraph   
must be attributed to him whose name it 
bears2 but we must1  according to the   
same rule1 date it several years later  
than #ahcb4    ,mr4 ,morse's telegraph  

is a recording instrument1 that embosses
  the symbols upon paper1 with a point  
pressed down upon it by an              
electro-magnet4 ,the symbols that form  
the alphabet consist of  combinations of
 short and long strokes1 which by their 
repetitions and  variations1 are made to
 stand for different letters4 ,thus a   
stroke  followed by a dot signifies the 
letter ,a2 a stroke preceded by a  dot1 
the letter ,b2 a single dot1 the letter 
,e2 and in this manner  the whole       
alphabet is indicated1 the number of    
repetitions in no case  exceeding four  
for each letter4 ,the letters and words 
are distinguished  from one another by a
 longer space being left between them   
than  between each mark that forms only 
a part of a letter or of a word4 ,the   
annexed diagram represents the symbols  
for the whole alphabet4    ,illustration
    ,the mechanism of this telegraph    
instrument is very simple4 ,the         
transmitter is merely a spring key1 like
 that of a musical instrument1  which1  

on being pressed down1 makes contact    
with the voltaic battery1  and sends an 
electric current to the receiving       
station4 ,the operator at  the          
transmitting station1 by thus making    
contact1 brings into action an          
electro-magnet at the station he        
communicates with1 and that pulls down  
a point fixed to the soft iron lever    
upon a strip of paper that is kept      
moving by clockwork slowly under it4    
,the duration of the pressure on  the   
key1 whether instantaneous or prolonged 
for a moment1 occasions the  difference 
in the lengths of the lines indented on 
the paper4 ,a single  circuit is        
sufficient for this telegraph1 and a boy
 who is practised  in the use of the    
instrument will transmit nearly as many 
words in a  minute as can be sent by the
 double needle telegraph with two wires4
    ,the working of ,mr4 ,morse's       
telegraph1 it will be observed1 depends 
altogether upon bringing into action at 
the receiving station an  electro-magnet

 of sufficient force to mechanically    
indent paper4 ,now  the resistance to   
the passage of electricity along the    
wires diminishes  the quantity          
transmitted so greatly1 that at long    
distances it would  be almost impossible
 to obtain sufficient power for the     
purpose1  if it acted directly4 ,to     
overcome that difficulty1 an auxiliary  
electro-magnet is employed4 ,the        
electro-magnet which is directly in     
connection with the telegraph wire is a 
small one1 surrounded by about  #ejj    
yards of very fine wire1 for the purpose
 of multiplying as much as  possible the
 effect of the feeble current that is   
transmitted4 ,the soft  iron keeper1    
which is attracted by that magnet1 is   
also very light1  so that it may be the 
more readily attracted4 ,this highly    
sensitive  instrument serves to make and
 break contact with a local battery1    
which  brings into action a large       
electro-magnet1 and as the local battery
 and  the magnet are close to the place 

where the work is to be done1 any       
required force may be easily obtained4  
,by this means the marks may be         
impressed on the paper at distances of  
#djj miles or more apart4    ,this is a 
very efficient and remarkably simple    
telegraph1 and as it  operates with a   
single wire1 it has completely          
supplanted the needle  telegraph on the 
,continent2 though the liability to     
error1 common to  all manipulated       
telegraphs1 is considerably increased by
 this mode of  transmission1 nor can    
unintelligible signals be indicated and 
corrected  so readily as by the needle  
instrument4    ,there have been several 
modifications of ,mr4 ,morse's          
telegraph1 for the  purpose of          
increasing the rapidity of its action   
and the distinctness  of the marks4 ,the
 most important of these was made by    
,mr4 ,bain1 who  in #ahdg applied for   
this purpose the method of impressing   
the symbols  on paper by                
electro-chemical decomposition4 ,mr4    

,davy had1 in #ahdc1  taken out a patent
 for the application of electro-chemical
 marks to  telegraphic purposes1 but his
 method was not sufficiently practical  
to be brought into use4 ,mr4 ,bain      
adopted an alphabet of short and  long  
strokes1 similar to that of ,mr4 ,morse2
 but instead of making and  breaking    
contact by a key pressed down by the    
finger1 he punched holes  in a strip of 
paper1 corresponding in lengths and     
positions to the  marks intended to be  
transmitted4 ,a small metal spring1     
connected with  the voltaic battery1    
pressed upon a metal cylinder attached  
to the  telegraph wire1 and when the    
spring and cylinder touched1 an electric
  current was transmitted4 ,the strip of
 punched paper was placed upon the      
cylinder so as to interrupt the circuit1
 excepting in the parts where  the      
apertures allowed the spring to make    
contact2 therefore when the  strip of   
paper was moved along1 an electric      
current was transmitted  through the    

apertures1 and it was stopped when the  
paper intervened4  ,at the receiving    
station1 paper well moistened with a    
solution of  prussiate of potass and    
nitric acid was placed upon a           
corresponding  cylinder to receive the  
message1 and a piece of steel wire was  
kept  steadily pressed upon it as it    
moved along4 ,the action of the electric
  current at the parts where it was     
transmitted caused the acid to enter    
into combination with the steel1 and the
 consequent deposition of iron  on the  
paper was instantly converted by the    
prussiate of potass into  ,prussian     
blue4 ,on the parts where the electric  
current was interrupted  no action took 
place1 and thus numbers of short and    
long marks were  made on the paper1     
corresponding to the lengths of the     
apertures  on the prepared message4 ,a  
representation of the punched paper for 
transmitting the word ,bain is shown in 
this diagram4    ,illustration    ,as   
electro-chemical action takes effect    

much more rapidly than the  mechanical  
movement of an indenting point1 ,mr4    
,bain's telegraph could  work much      
faster than ,mr4 ,morse's4 ,we have been
 informed that as many  as #a1jjj       
letters per minute have occasionally    
been transmitted by  this means from    
,manchester to ,london4 ,the            
disadvantage attending that  mode of    
transmission arises from the tedious    
process of punching the  message        
preparatory to transmission2 and though 
circumstances may arise  in which it    
would be of great importance to adopt   
this rapid system  of transmission with 
a single wire1 it has been yet but      
little used  in this country by the     
,electric ,telegraph ,company1 who      
purchased ,mr4  ,bain's patent for      
#aj1jjj4    ,another modification of    
,mr4 ,morse's telegraph1 which has been 
more  extensively adopted in ,england1  
consists in merely substituting marks   
made on paper by electro-chemical       
decomposition for those indented  by    

pressure4 ,it has been found desirable  
in practice1 however1 to  introduce an  
auxiliary electro-magnet1 called a      
picker1 for making  and breaking        
contact1 by which arrangement the dotted
 marks can be  made by a local battery1 
and any required amount of electric     
power be  obtained4 ,the marks produced 
in this manner are more distinct1 and   
are more quickly made1 than by          
mechanical pressure4 ,by a more recent  
application of ,mr4 ,morse's system1 the
 marks are made on paper with ink       
flowing through a glass pen1 in the same
 manner as in the telegraph of  ,m4     
,schweigger1 already noticed4 ,as the   
strip of paper is moved along1  a       
continuous line is thus drawn on the    
paper4 ,when no signals are  being      
transmitted the line is straight1 but   
when an electric current  is sent       
through the wire1 it brings into action 
an electro-magnet1  which attracts the  
penholder on one side1 and alters the   
direction of  the mark4 ,the            

transmission is effected by making and  
breaking contact  with a key1 and the   
continuance of the divergence of the    
mark from  its normal direction is      
regulated by the duration of pressure on
 the  key4 ,the symbols are thus made by
 deviations from the straight line1  of 
different lengths and of varied         
combinations4 ,practical application    
alone can determine whether this mode of
 making the marks possesses any         
advantage over ,mr4 ,morse's original   
plan4 ,the patent for this telegraph    
was granted to ,mr4 ,wilkins in #ahed1  
but a similar instrument1 applied  to   
the notation of astronomical            
observations1 was shown in the ,american
  department of the ,great ,exhibition  
of #ahea4    ,the recording telegraph   
instruments hitherto noticed impress on 
the  paper only hieroglyphical symbols1 
which require long practice to  decipher
 readily4 ,it has1 from the first       
practical application of the  invention1
 been considered highly desirable that  

the letters of the  alphabet should be  
indicated and printed in their proper   
forms1 so that  the momentary           
transmission of an electric current     
should leave behind  a durable          
impression that could be read without   
difficulty4 ,professor  ,wheatstone and 
,mr4 ,bain separately attempted to      
accomplish this desired  object by the  
invention of ,printing ,telegraphs1     
which print messages  from types4 ,it is
 a question in dispute which of them was
 the first  to design a telegraph of    
this kind4 ,in #ahde1 ,mr4 ,bain had a  
printing  telegraph in operation        
experimentally on the ,south-,western   
,railway1  for a distance of seven      
miles1 and we are not aware that        
,professor  ,wheatstone ever succeeded  
in working his printing instruments when
  separated at a distance from each     
other4 ,in principle1 both inventions   
were similar4 ,a wheel1 into the        
periphery of which were inserted types  
of the twenty-six letters1 was made to  

rotate in close proximity to a  piece of
 paper1 over which was placed a         
blackened surface that would  leave a   
mark on the paper when pressed upon4    
,when the required letter  came opposite
 the paper1 the type-wheel was stopped  
and forced against  it1 so that the     
letter was impressed1 and the black from
 the interposed  surface marked the form
 of the type4 ,the paper was then moved 
forward  to leave space for the next    
letter1 and thus a continuous message   
could  be printed4 ,the objection to    
these instruments was the uncertainty of
  stopping the type-wheel at the proper 
point1 so as to avoid printing  wrong   
letters2 and when the instruments became
 thus irregular1 they  continued so till
 they were again adjusted4 ,this        
difficulty has since  been overcome2 and
 by the combined efforts of ,mr4 ,house 
in ,america1  and of ,messrs4 ,brett in 
this country1 the printing telegraph has
  attained a high degree of perfection4 
,the mechanical arrangements of  the    

instrument1 though very complex1 consist
 essentially1 like those of  ,mr4 ,bain 
and ,professor ,wheatstone1 in having a 
type-wheel1 which1 by  the action of the
 operator at the transmitting instrument
 in making and  breaking contact1 moves 
or stops at the required point1 and the 
letters  are printed by forcing the     
paper against the type by an            
electro-magnet4  ,the movements of the  
type-wheel are regulated by an          
electro-magnet1 and  one great          
improvement introduced by ,mr4 ,brett   
prevents the continuance  of error1     
should any be made during transmission1 
by bringing the  type-wheel to its first
 position after printing each letter1 so
 that  if a wrong letter be printed1 the
 subsequent letters will not continue   
erroneous4 ,this printing telegraph     
works with a single wire1 but its       
operation is rather slow4    ,the last  
recording telegraph we shall notice is  
the one invented by the  author1 which  
transmits copies of the handwriting of  

correspondents4  ,the communication to  
be transmitted is written upon tin foil1
 thinly  coated with varnish1 with a pen
 dipped in an ink composed of caustic   
soda and colouring matter4 ,the alkali  
detaches the varnish1 and when  the     
surface is washed over with a wet       
sponge1 the metal is exposed  on those  
parts written upon1 the writing         
appearing metallic on a  dark ground4   
,the message is then placed round a     
metal cylinder that  is connected with  
the line wire from the receiving        
station4 ,a brass  point1 in connection 
with the voltaic battery1 lightly       
presses on  the message as the cylinder 
rotates1 so that the electric circuit is
  made and broken through the message as
 it passes under the connecting  point1 
the coating of varnish on the foil being
 sufficient to interrupt  the electric  
current in those parts where the point  
is resting upon  it4 ,on a corresponding
 cylinder in the electric circuit1 at   
the  receiving station1 paper moistened 

with a solution of prussiate of  potass 
and nitrate of soda is placed to receive
 the message2 and it  is pressed upon by
 the point of a steel wire1 in          
connection with the  communicating wire4
 ,the accompanying diagram will assist  
in explaining  the arrangement4    ,the 
cylinder of the instrument is shown at  
a2 b is the metal  style connected by   
the wire g with one of the poles of the 
voltaic  battery2 o is the arm which    
holds the style and serves to insulate  
it from the rest of the apparatus2 c is 
a fine screw on which that  arm         
traverses as the cylinder revolves2 d d 
are cog-wheels to turn  the screw4 ,the 
speed of the instrument is regulated by 
the fan e2 f  is the impelling weight1  
and h the wire connected with the       
distant  instrument4 ,the receiving and 
the transmitting instruments are alike1 
the only difference between them being  
that the style of the copying           
instrument is steel instead of brass    
wire4    ,illustration    ,as the       

cylinder a is connected by the wire h   
with the distant  instrument1 and       
through it with one of the poles of the 
voltaic  battery1 the electric circuit  
is completed by passing from g  through 
the tin foil message1 or through the    
paper placed on the  cylinder4 ,this    
will be the case whenever the style of  
the transmitting  instrument is pressing
 on the metallic writing2 and at those  
times the  electro-chemical action of   
the voltaic current will produce a blue 
mark  on the paper of the receiving     
instrument1 by the deposition of iron   
and  its combination with the prussiate 
of potass4 ,the circuit will in like    
manner be interrupted whenever the point
 b presses on those parts  of the       
message where the varnish is not        
removed2 and thus1 as the two  cylinders
 revolve1 there will be a succession of 
small blue marks on  the parts where the
 writing allows the electric current to 
pass4 ,as the  arms that carry the      
points traverse on screws1 they are     

drawn along  as the cylinders rotate1 so
 as to press on fresh parts of the      
message  and of the paper at each       
revolution4 ,the steel point would      
therefore  draw a series of spiral lines
 on the paper1 if the electric current  
were not interrupted2 but the           
interposition of the varnish breaks     
those  lines1 and as the point passes   
over different portions of the letters  
at each revolution of the cylinder1 the 
marks and the interruptions on  the     
paper correspond exactly with the forms 
of the letters1 and thus  produce a copy
 of the writing placed upon the         
receiving cylinder1 in  blue characters 
on a yellowish ground4 ,or the message  
may be written  on unprepared tin foil  
with a pen dipped in varnish2 in which  
case the  writing will be copied in     
white characters on a ground of dark    
lines1  as in the accompanying specimen1
 ,a being the writing on tin foil1 and  
,b the message received4    ,it is      
essential to the perfect working of the 

copying telegraph that  the             
corresponding instruments should rotate 
exactly together4 ,this is  effected by 
an electromagnetic regulator1 which     
being put in action by  one instrument1 
governs the movements of the distant    
instrument with  the greatest exactness1
 as proved at a distance of #cjj miles4 
,it might be supposed1 as the points    
must traverse several times over  the   
same line of writing to copy it1 that   
the process is a slow one2  but in      
consequence of the rapidity with which  
the cylinders revolve1  this is not the 
case4 ,the ordinary speed is one        
rotation in two  seconds1 and at that   
rate three lines of writing1 containing 
sixty  words1 would be copied in one    
minute1 which is three times as fast as 
an expeditious penman can write4        
,illustration    ,the advantages        
proposed to be gained by the copying    
telegraph1  in addition to its increased
 rapidity of transmission1 are the      
authentication of telegraphic           

correspondence by the signatures of the 
writers1 freedom from the errors of     
transmission1 and the maintenance  of   
secrecy4 ,as a special means of         
obtaining secrecy1 the messages may  be 
received on paper moistened with a      
solution of nitrate of soda  alone1 in  
which case they would be invisible until
 brushed over with a  solution of       
prussiate of potass1 to be applied by   
the person to whom  the communication is
 addressed4    ,professor ,wheatstone   
has recently contrived an improvement in
 his index  telegraph1 which was        
described by ,professor ,faraday in a   
lecture at  the ,royal ,institution in  
,june last4 ,its chief merit1 however1  
consists  in the beauty of the          
mechanism1 for it is essentially the    
same as the  index telegraphs he and    
others have previously invented1 with   
the  substitution of magneto-electricity
 for the moving force4    ,having now   
traced the history of the invention of  
the instruments by  means of which      

messages may be transmitted1 it becomes 
necessary to  describe the methods      
employed for making the electrical      
connection from  one place to another4  
,this part of the electric telegraph    
system is1  after all1 the most         
essential to its efficient working1 and 
bears the  same relation to the         
transmitting instruments that the       
structure of a  railroad does to        
locomotive engines in the system of     
railway conveyance4    ,the fact that an
 electric current might be sent through 
a long circuit  had been established by 
,dr4 ,watson1 in conjunction with other 
,fellows  of the ,royal ,society1 in    
#agdg1 when they sent the charge of a   
,leyden  jar through two miles of wire1 
supported upon short sticks driven into 
the ground2 the wire at each terminus   
being connected with the earth  for the 
return current4 ,this method of         
insulation and conduction fully         
answered the purpose1 and served to     
determine the great velocity with  which

 electricity is transmitted1 for no     
perceptible interval occurred  between  
the discharge of the ,leyden jar at one 
end of the circuit1 and  its effect at  
the other extremity4    ,mr4 ,ronalds   
made the next experiment on an extensive
 scale1 by  insulating eight miles of   
wire in glass tubes1 the wire being     
carried  backwards and forwards for that
 distance on his lawn at ,hammersmith4  
,that mode of insulation was found very 
efficient4 ,it was1 indeed1 too         
perfect1 for the difficulty arose of    
discharging the electricity from  the   
wire after the charge had passed through
 it4    ,the length of telegraphic      
communication established at ,munich1 in
 #ahcg1  by ,dr4 ,steinheil1 was an     
important practical advance in the      
system of  extending and insulating the 
wires1 and deserves consideration1 not  
only from the extent to which it was    
carried into practical operation1  but  
from the circumstance that the earth was
 employed to form the  return circuit4  

,the wires appear to have been carried  
through the city  by extending them from
 the church towers and other elevated   
buildings4  ,that plan1 indeed1 presents
 so many facilities for passing         
telegraph  wires through towns1 that it 
is not improbable it may be ultimately  
adopted in this country4    ,though the 
conducting power of the earth was thus  
early made use of for  one-half of the  
circuit1 the fact seems to have been    
unknown in ,england  at the time of     
laying down the telegraph wires to      
,slough in #ahde1  for a separate wire  
was then used for the return current4   
,some years  afterwards1 indeed1 ,mr4   
,bain laid claim to the discovery2 but  
the fact  that the conducting power of  
the earth had been previously applied to
  the purpose by ,dr4 ,steinheil has    
been incontestably proved4    ,in the   
early stages of the practical           
application of electric telegraphs  in  
this country1 ,mr4 ,cook took an active 
part in overcoming the  numerous        

difficulties attending the proper       
protection and insulation  of the wires4
 ,in the first instance1 the plan of    
burying the wires in  trenches was      
tried1 but with very indifferent        
success1 as the asphaltum  and other    
resinous substances with which it was   
attempted to insulate  them were        
inadequate for the purpose1 and allowed 
the electricity to  escape from wire to 
wire4 ,the method of supporting the     
wires on tall  posts was then adopted by
 ,mr4 ,cooke1 the wires being insulated 
from  the posts at the points of        
suspension1 by passing them through     
quills4  ,various improvements have     
since been made in the insulators1 and  
the  plan most in favour at present is  
to pass the wires through globular      
earthenware or glass insulators1        
attached to the posts1 as shown in the  
annexed diagram4 ,the wires themselves  
are about one-sixth of an inch in       
diameter2 they are made of iron coated  
with zinc1 or galvanized1 as it  is     

termed1 to protect them from rust4      
,illustration    ,notwithstanding the   
great care taken to insulate the wires  
at the  posts1 a large quantity of the  
electricity escapes in wet weather1  and
 returns to the battery without having  
reached the most distant  stations1 and 
thus not unfrequently the communications
 are interrupted4  ,the author is of    
opinion that the loss of electricity in 
wet weather  is occasioned rather by    
communication from one wire to another  
through the moist atmosphere1 than by   
defective insulation at the  posts4 ,in 
confirmation of this opinion it may be  
stated1 that he has  experimentally     
determined that a working electric      
current might be  transmitted from      
,london to ,liverpool1 if all the points
 of attachment  were connected by water 
with the surface of the ground1 provided
 that  the rest of the wire were        
insulated4#g    ,the use of gutta percha
 as an insulating covering for wire has 
given  rise to a new era in telegraphic 

communication4 ,gutta percha is an      
excellent insulator1 and wire covered   
with two coatings of that  material1    
about one-sixteenth of an inch each1 is 
so far protected1  that #ajj miles of it
 immersed in water transmits an electric
 current  from a powerful voltaic       
battery with very trifling loss4 ,this  
perfection in insulation has greatly    
facilitated the establishment of        
telegraphic communication between       
,england and the ,continent4 ,the first 
attempt to establish a submarine circuit
 between ,dover and ,calais took  place 
on the #bhth of ,august1 #ahej4 ,a      
single copper wire1 about the  thickness
 of a common bell wire1 coated thickly  
with gutta percha1 was  laid across the 
,english ,channel experimentally1       
without any protection4  ,it proved     
sufficient for the transmission of an   
electric current1 and  several messages 
were sent through it between ,dover and 
,calais2 but  it was far too feeble to  
resist the action of the waves1 and the 

following day it was cut through by     
friction against the rocks1 and the     
communication was stopped4              
,illustration    ,the plan afterwards   
adopted for a permanent submarine line  
was to  enclose five similar wires in a 
hollow iron wire cable4 ,the wires  were
 first slightly twisted1 to prevent them
 from being broken when  stretched4     
,they were then covered with hempen     
yarn1 to protect the  gutta percha from 
attrition1 and they were thus introduced
 into the  hollow cable1 of which they  
formed the core4 ,the accompanying      
woodcut  represents this structure of   
the cable2 the five twisted wires are   
shown at ,c2 ,b represents the same     
covered with hemp yarn2 and  ,a a       
portion of the completed cable1         
constructed of thick iron wire          
galvanized4 ,this cable has now been    
laid down for seven years1 and with     
perfect success4 ,its strength has often
 been severely tested1 as it has  been  
sometime drawn up by ships' anchors1 and

 considerably strained2  but it has not 
been broken1 and the insulation is      
almost perfect4 ,the  success of this   
submarine cable has induced the         
extension of that means  of             
communicating with the ,continent1 and  
similar submarine telegraph  cables have
 been laid down from ,dover to ,ostend1 
from ,harwich to the  ,hague1 from      
,scotland to ,ireland1 and across the   
,mediterranean ,sea as  far as ,malta4  
,the weight and the cost of those cables
 present a serious  obstacle to their   
adoption in forming a telegraphic       
communication with  ,america2 and when  
it was determined to attempt to         
establish electrical  connection with   
the ,new ,world1 a different form of    
cable was adopted4  ,the conductor of   
the electric current in the ,atlantic   
cable is composed  of seven strands of  
fine copper wire twisted together1 the  
aggregate  thickness of which is not    
greater than the single copper wire of  
other  submarine cables4 ,this fine     

copper cord is covered carefully with   
gutta  percha2 it is then coated with   
tarred hemp1 and is protected externally
  by an iron wire rope1 composed of     
numerous strands of fine wire4 ,the     
form and exact size of the cable are    
shown in the accompanying drawing  and  
section4 ,the central dots in the       
section are the conducting wires  round 
which are the gutta percha and hemp1 and
 the outer rim represents  the iron wire
 casing4    ,illustration               
,illustration    ,the successful laying 
down of so frail a cable1 after many    
failures1  affords good ground for      
hoping that1 with the experience already
  gained1 subsequent efforts will prove 
more satisfactory and much  less        
expensive than this first attempt to    
establish telegraphic  communication    
with ,america4 ,the most questionable   
part of the problem  has1 indeed1 been  
already solved2 for the transmission of 
electric  signals1 through that length  
of submerged wire1 was at one time      

doubted2 and though the communication   
through the present cable has  ceased1  
it has sufficiently established the     
fact1 that telegraphic  communication   
with ,america is a practicable          
undertaking4    ,the excellent          
insulation obtained by means of gutta   
percha covered  wires has caused a      
return to the original plan of burying  
the wires in  trenches in the ground4   
,the ,british and ,submarine ,telegraph 
,company  make all their communications 
by that means2 the number of coated     
wires  required being enclosed in iron  
tubes1 and laid in the ground along  the
 common roads4 ,that plan is1 however1  
attended with considerable              
disadvantages4 ,in the first place1 the 
cost of the coated copper wire  is more 
than quadruple that of galvanized iron  
wire2 and though copper1  compared with 
iron1 offers only one-seventh part the  
resistance to the  transmission of      
electricity1 yet the thin wire employed 
is scarcely  equal in conducting power  

to the galvanized iron wire usually     
supported  on posts4 ,the quantity of   
electricity transmitted is therefore    
less1  and the comparative intensity of 
it is greater4    ,another difficulty   
attending the use of insulated wires    
buried in the  ground arises from a very
 peculiar condition of electrical       
conduction1  that could scarcely have   
been anticipated4 ,the wire1 coated with
  gutta percha1 and surrounded          
externally with water or with moist     
earth1 becomes an elongated ,leyden jar2
 the gutta percha representing  the     
glass1 the wire the inside coating1 and 
the water the conducting  surface       
outside4 ,thus1 when electricity is     
transmitted through such a  medium1 a   
portion of the charge is retained after 
connection with the  battery has been   
broken4 ,this effect increases with the 
length of the  wire and the intensity of
 the current2 and it materially         
interferes  with the working of many    
telegraph instruments4 ,in some         

experiments  with the copying telegraph 
at the ,gutta ,percha ,works in the     
,city ,road1  it was found that through 
a circuit of #ej miles of wire immersed 
in  water1 the mark made by             
electro-chemical decomposition on paper 
had  a tendency to become continuous2 so
 that instead of ceasing to mark1  when 
the varnish interrupted the current1 a  
line was drawn continuously  on the     
paper1 though the stronger marks where  
the current passed were  sufficient to  
make the writing legible4 ,the retention
 of the charge  was also shown still    
more remarkably by the explosion of     
gunpowder by  the electricity retained  
in the wire half a minute after         
connection  with the battery had been   
broken4 ,it is owing to the retention of
 the  electricity by the wire that the  
slowness with which the messages        
through the ,atlantic cable were        
transmitted is to be attributed1 and    
not to the length of the cable4 ,the    
rate of one word a minute was the       

average speed of transmission when the  
first messages were sent through  the   
wire4 ,the effect of the retardation of 
the electric current is  comparatively  
insignificant and were it not for the   
peculiar action of  the surrounding     
water1 the messages might have been     
transmitted twelve  times faster than   
they were4    ,the cost of constructing 
a telegraphic line has greatly          
diminished  with the increased          
facilities of insulating the wires1 and 
since the  expiration of patents1 which 
conferred a monopoly on certain plans of
  doing so4 ,the cost to the ,great     
,western ,railway ,company for a line of
  six wires to ,slough1 was #aej per    
mile1 with comparatively low and        
slender posts and very imperfect        
insulation4 ,the cost of the same       
number of wires at the present day would
 not be one-half that sum1 with  thicker
 wires and better insulation4    ,it is 
customary in ,england to restrict the   
suspension of telegraphic  wires to     

railways1 from the notion that the      
protection of railways is  necessary to 
prevent wilful damage to the wires2 and 
as the ,electric  ,telegraph ,company   
have made exclusive arrangements with   
all the railway  companies out of       
,london1 the competing telegraph        
companies have  preferred to lay their  
wires underground rather than incur the 
supposed  risk of damage to the wires if
 suspended from posts on common roads1  
though by this means the cost of        
construction is at least quadrupled4    
,the protection which railways afford   
is1 however1 more imaginary than  real1 
for any one inclined to interrupt the   
communication could easily  do so2 and  
if on common roads proper precautions   
were taken in fixing  the posts1 and a  
heavy penalty were imposed on wilful    
offenders1 the  common roads and open   
fields would1 there can be little doubt1
 offer  as safe a course for the        
telegraphic wires as railways4    ,the  
conducting power of the earth is now    

employed by all electric  telegraph     
companies for one-half of every circuit4
 ,thus1 whether a  communication be sent
 from ,london to ,liverpool1 to         
,edinburgh1 ,paris1  or ,brussels1 the  
moist earth serves to complete one-half 
of the  communication4 ,in the          
telegraphic circuit between ,london and 
,liverpool1  for example1 the insulated 
wire is connected at each end with the  
earth by being soldered to a copper     
plate1 which is buried a few feet       
underground1 so as to insure its being  
always surrounded with moisture4  ,to   
improve the connection of this plate    
with the earth1 it is customary  to bury
 with it a quantity of sulphate of      
copper1 the solution of which  surrounds
 the earth-plate with a better          
conducting liquid than water1  and thus 
extends the connecting surface4 ,the gas
 pipes or water pipes  are sometimes    
employed for the attachment of the wires
 instead of an  earth-plate1 but the    
latter is generally preferred4    ,in   

arranging a telegraphic circuit1 the    
voltaic batteries and the  instruments  
are introduced at breaks in the         
telegraph wire4 ,the course  of the     
electric current is from the copper end 
of the battery through  the transmitting
 instrument1 then along the wire to the 
receiving  instrument2 from that it     
passes to the earth and is thus returned
 to  the transmitting station1 where it 
completes the circuit by being          
conducted from the earth-plate to the   
zinc end of the voltaic battery4  ,the  
arrangement for completing the circuit  
will be more clearly  understood by     
reference to the accompanying diagram4  
,illustration    ,the wire from ,c1     
which is the copper pole of the voltaic 
battery1  is connected with the         
instrument ,a2 the electric current is  
then  transmitted along the wire ,d to  
the receiving instrument ,b2 thence  it 
is transferred to the earth-plate ,e1   
passes through the earth to  the        
corresponding plate ,e1 which is        

connected with ,z1 the zinc  pole of the
 battery4 ,when a communication is      
returned from ,b to ,a1  a similar      
arrangement is made2 the wires connected
 with the instruments  being so arranged
 as to bring into action a voltaic      
battery at ,b1 and  to throw out of     
circuit the one at ,a2 for the          
connection with the  battery is only    
made when the transmitting instrument is
 worked4    ,since all the electric     
telegraphs in different parts of the    
world are  connected with the earth1 as 
one portion of the circuit1 it might  be
 supposed that the various currents     
would mingle1 and occasion a  confusion 
of messages2 but it must be borne in    
mind that no electric  current is formed
 until a communication be made from one 
pole of a  voltaic battery to the other1
 and as such communication can only be  
completed through the insulated wire1   
the earth-currents cannot  mingle1 but  
each one passes to the proper terminus  
of its respective  battery4 ,the        

accompanying diagram and explanation may
 serve to remove  the difficulty of     
understanding why the two circuits are  
maintained  quite distinct4             
,illustration    ,the letters ,a ,b     
represent the wires making              
communications between  the batteries ,d
 and ,e1 and the telegraph instruments  
,i ,o at the  receiving station4 ,the   
electricity from the copper end of the  
battery  ,d would be conducted along ,a 
through the instrument ,i1 and by  the  
wire ,k to the earth-plate ,h4 ,it would
 be then transmitted  through the earth 
on its return to the battery1 in the    
direction of the  arrows1 to the other  
earth-plate ,g1 and thence it would find
 its way  to the zinc pole of the       
battery ,d1 and complete the circuit4   
,in the  same manner1 the electric      
current from the copper end of the      
battery  ,e would be transmitted through
 the wire ,b1 and would complete its    
current also by means of the            
earth-plates ,g ,h1 and would traverse  

the course indicated by the arrows1 and 
return to the zinc end of  ,e4 ,though  
both electric currents traverse the same
 wire from the  instruments ,i ,o to the
 earth-plate ,h1 and are thence         
transmitted  through the earth to a     
single plate1 ,g1 at the transmitting   
station1  there is no mingling of       
currents1 the electric current of each  
battery  being kept as distinct as if   
separate wires were used both for the   
transmitted and the return current4 ,it 
would1 indeed1 be as impossible  for the
 separate currents transmitted from the 
two batteries to be  mingled together1  
as it would be for the written contents 
of two  letters enclosed in the same    
mail-bag to intermix4#h    ,the length  
of telegraph lines at present laid down 
by the several  telegraph companies in  
,great ,britain1 exceeds #aj1jjj miles4 
,to complete  those lines required      
#dj1jjj miles of wire1 and there are    
#c1jjj persons  engaged in the          
transmission of telegraphic             

intelligence4    ,in ,north ,america    
there is a direct communication from    
,new ,york to ,new  ,orleans1 a distance
 of #b1jjj miles1 through the whole     
length of which  wires messages can be  
transmitted without any break4 ,wires   
have also  been suspended on lofty posts
 across the ,indian ,peninsula1 where no
  railways have been yet laid down4     
,lines of insulated wire1 partly        
submerged in the sea1 partly buried     
underground1 and partly suspended  on   
posts in the air1 place ,london and     
,vienna in direct communication2  and   
other telegraph lines are in the course 
of construction1 which will  unite      
,london with ,africa3 and a complete    
net-work of telegraph wires is          
spreading over the face of ,europe4     
,it will not be long before this system 
of communication is connected  with a   
similar one in ,america4 ,the failure of
 the cable already laid  down has       
confirmed the opinion of the author1    
expressed in papers  read at meetings of

 the ,british ,association for the      
,advancement of  ,science1 and in his   
work on ,electricity1 that the          
conducting wire  should be sufficiently 
strong to be self-protective1 without   
requiring  an external coating of iron  
wire rope4 ,a conducting copper wire1 a 
quarter of an inch in diameter1 covered 
with gutta percha and tarred  hemp1     
would be more flexible and stronger than
 the combined cable2  and it being a    
much better conductor of electricity1   
the rapidity of  transmission would be  
greatly increased4    ,the effect of the
 establishment of competing telegraph   
companies in  ,england has been to      
diminish the charge for transmitting    
messages1 in  some instances to         
one-fifth of the rate formerly demanded2
 and when  further experience in the    
construction of telegraphic lines1 and  
the  adoption of more rapidly           
transmitting instruments1 have          
facilitated  and improved the means of  
communication1 we may anticipate that   

correspondence by ,electric ,telegraph  
will in a great measure supersede  the  
transmission of letters by post4        
,,electro-,,magnetic ,,clocks4      ,the
 invention of ,electro-,magnetic ,clocks
 closely followed the  introduction of  
the electric telegraph2 and ,professor  
,wheatstone1  to whom the world is      
principally indebted1 in conjunction    
with ,mr4  ,cooke1 for the perfection   
and application of the needle           
telegraphic  instrument1 claims also to 
be the original inventor of             
,electro-,magnetic  ,clocks4 ,his claim 
is1 however1 disputed by ,mr4 ,bain1 who
 asserts that  he was the first who     
conceived the idea of applying the power
 of  electro-magnets to the regulation  
and movements of clocks1 and it must  be
 admitted that he brought the invention 
into a working state4    ,in the first  
stage of the invention1 the object      
attempted to be  attained was to        
regulate several clocks1 once an        
hour--or oftener1 if  required--so that 

they might all indicate precisely the   
same time4  ,for this purpose ,mr4 ,bain
 took for a standard time-keeper a clock
 of  the best possible construction1    
placed in circumstances favourable  to  
maintaining accuracy4 ,the minute-hand  
of his clock1 the instant  that it      
pointed to the hour1 made connection    
with a voltaic battery  that brought    
into action a series of electro-magnets 
attached to the  clocks to be regulated2
 one of them being fixed on the top of  
each  clock4 ,its momentary action was  
made to collapse a pair of clippers1    
which in closing seized the minute-hand 
of the clock to which it was  attached1 
and brought it to the hour point4 ,thus 
all the clocks in  the series could be  
regulated every hour1 for the collapse  
of the  clippers pushed the hand forward
 if it were too late1 or thrust it  back
 if it had gained4 ,mr4 ,bain           
contemplated the application of this    
contrivance to all the public clocks of 
a town1 by having wires laid  down in   

the streets to connect them in one      
voltaic circuit4 ,such a  plan would1   
however1 have involved greater expense  
and trouble in its  accomplishment than 
the object seemed to merit2 but the     
regulation  of any number of clocks in a
 large establishment might have been    
practicable by that means4 ,we are not  
aware1 however1 that this mode  of      
regulating clocks by electricity was    
ever adopted1 and it has since  been    
superseded by an arrangement made by    
,mr4 ,shepherd1 junior1 to be  presently
 noticed4    ,improving on this first   
application of electro-magnetism to the 
regulation of clocks1 ,mr4 ,bain        
afterwards employed the power to keep   
the clocks in action1 so that each clock
 might be propelled by magnets  alone1  
without any weight1 and without the     
ordinary train of wheels4    ,every one 
acquainted with the mechanism of a clock
 is aware that the  weight communicates 
motion to a train of wheels1 and that   
the movement  is regulated by the       

vibration of a pendulum1 which is acted 
on by  the last wheel of the train4     
,that wheel1 called the escapement1 is  
so formed1 that each tooth catches in   
succession into a detent fixed  on the  
pendulum near the point of suspension1  
which allows one tooth  to pass at each 
double vibration4 ,the pendulum1        
therefore1 governs  the movement of the 
train of wheels by checking the         
escapement1 and  allowing the teeth to  
pass one by one2 and as pendulums of    
given  lengths vibrate in given times1  
if their actions be not interfered      
with1 the clocks will keep regular time4
 ,but the pressure of the  escape-wheel 
against the detent1 and the consequent  
friction1 prevent  the pendulum from    
acting freely4 ,in the best made clocks 
there are  special contrivances to      
detach the pendulum as much as possible 
from  the wheels1 and likewise to       
compensate for variations in the length 
of  the pendulum by change of           
temperature4    ,in the clocks actuated 

by electro-magnetism1 the movement of   
the  pendulum is not maintained by      
repeated impulses of the escape-wheel1  
as  in ordinary clocks1 but by magnetic 
attraction2 an electro-magnet being  so 
arranged as to attract the bob of the   
pendulum in both directions             
alternately4 ,in ,mr4 ,bain's           
arrangement1 the bob of the pendulum  is
 formed of a hollow coil of covered     
copper wire1 which1 on the  transmission
 of an electric current1 becomes        
magnetic1 and it is then  attracted by  
several permanent magnets fixed in a    
hollow horizontal  bar1 over which the  
coil of wire moves4 ,the accompanying   
diagram will  serve to explain more     
clearly the parts of the clock on which 
the  movement of the pendulum depends4  
,the pendulum rod1 ,b1 is made of wood1 
and the bob1 ,a1 consists of a  hollow  
coil of thick copper wire covered with  
cotton1 through which the  hollow bar1  
,c ,c1 passes4 ,inside that bar there   
are several permanent  magnets1 packed  

on each side of the ends of the coil of 
wire1 the poles  of those on one side   
being the opposite of those on the      
other4 ,in the  diagram only one magnet 
on each side is represented1 n and s1 to
  prevent confusion4 ,the ends of the   
coil of wire are attached to the        
pendulum rod1 and they are conducted up 
it so as to form connection  with the   
wires of the voltaic battery1 which are 
connected with gold  studs inserted into
 a horizontal stage fixed to the        
clock-case4 ,a small  movable bridge1   
formed of wire1 and having the ends     
tipped with gold or  platinum1 rests    
upon the stage1 and is shifted from side
 to side by the  pendulum4 ,in these    
movements the gold points touch and     
slide over the  gold studs in the stage1
 and thereby make and break contact with
 the  voltaic battery1 and alternately  
send and interrupt an electric current  
through the coil of wire4               
,illustration    ,suppose1 for instance1
 that the pendulum is about to rise to  

the right  towards s1 at which time the 
voltaic circuit is completed4 ,the coil 
is1 therefore1 magnetic1 and is         
attracted by the permanent magnet in    
,c4 ,as the pendulum approaches the end 
of its swing1 it pushes the  movable    
bridge away from the gold studs on which
 it rests1 and thus  breaks connection  
with the voltaic battery1 and the       
pendulum descends  unrestrained by the  
attractive force of the magnets4 ,as the
 pendulum  descends towards its lowest  
point1 it shifts the bridge on to the   
metal  studs on the other side1 which   
are so disposed as to send a current    
through the coil in a direction opposite
 to the former1 so that the  poles of   
the voltaic battery are reversed1 and   
the attractive force  is exerted in     
drawing the pendulum towards the left   
hand4 ,in this  manner the power        
imparted to the coil1 as the pendulum   
vibrates to and  fro1 produces a        
continuous repetition of the attraction 
on each side  alternately1 and maintains

 a constant action4    ,the only wheels 
required in a clock of this kind are    
those which turn  the hands2 and the    
motion is communicated from the pendulum
 to the  seconds wheel by means of a    
small attached lever1 working on a      
ratchet  wheel4 ,the minute and the hour
 hands derive their movements from the  
seconds wheel in the usual manner4      
,the voltaic battery employed to work   
,mr4 ,bain's clocks consists of a  pair 
of large copper and zinc plates buried  
in the moist earth1 which  excite a     
sufficient amount of electricity to     
maintain the motion of the  pendulum4 ,a
 battery of this kind will remain in    
action a long time1 and  will serve to  
keep a clock going for several months4  
,it is1 indeed1 a  near approach to the 
attainment of perpetual motion1 since   
nothing but  the wearing away of the    
materials1 or the accumulation of dust  
on the  connecting points1 seems to     
prevent the realization of that         
mechanical  chimera4    ,there is a     

disadvantage attending the arrangement  
of ,mr4 ,bain's  clocks1 arising from   
the attachment of the pendulum to the   
wheels2  and as the moving force is     
derived directly from voltaic           
electricity1  any variation in the power
 of the battery causes variation in the 
lengths of the vibrations1 and produces 
irregularity4 ,for the purpose  of      
remedying these defects1 ,mr4 ,shepherd1
 junior1 has adopted an  arrangement    
which detaches the pendulum from the    
clock movement1 and  makes its          
vibrations altogether independent of the
 varying force of  voltaic batteries4   
,in ,mr4 ,shepherd's arrangement1 the   
impulse of the pendulum is given  by    
successive blows from a spring1 which is
 drawn back and then  liberated at each 
vibration4 ,the hands of the clock are  
also moved  by electro-magnets1 by which
 means the impelling forces and the     
resistances encountered by the pendulum 
are always constant4 ,by making  the    
pendulum thus independent of the works1 

and employing it merely to  make and    
break contract at regular intervals1 any
 number of clocks in  the same          
establishment may be set in motion1 and 
kept exactly together1  by a single     
pendulum4    ,the large clock over the  
principal entrance to the ,great        
,exhibition was  on this construction4  
,it would have been impossible1 with any
 approach  to regularity1 to have moved 
hands of that size1 exposed as they     
were to the wind1 unless the pendulum   
had been independent of such            
resistances4    ,electro-,magnetic      
,clocks have not yet come into general  
use1 partly  owing to imperfections in  
the battery connections1 which          
occasionally  put a stop to their       
movements1 but principally on account of
 the high  prices charged by the        
patentees4 ,as no trains of wheels are  
requisite  in an ,electro-,magnetic     
,clock1 it might be manufactured very   
cheaply2  and when the price is reduced 
to its proper standard1 and the trifling

  practical defects are remedied1 these 
clocks may possibly supersede  others4  
,,electro-,,metallurgy4      ,the       
electrotype1 electro-gilding and        
plating1 and the other  applications of 
the deposition of metals from their     
solutions1 by  the agency of voltaic    
electricity1 had their origin in the    
chance  observation of peculiarities in 
frequently repeated experiments4 ,in    
this1 as in most other inventions1 there
 are contending claimants for  priority2
 but there is little merit due to any of
 the first discoverers  of the process1 
who seem to have been guided altogether 
by accident4 ,it  seems strange1 now1 on
 observing the extensive use that is    
made of the  deposition of metals1 that 
it should have remained so long         
unapplied  after the principle had been 
known4    ,the revivification1 as it was
 called1 of metals from their solutions 
by voltaic electricity1 was known at the
 beginning of the present  century2 for1
 in #ahje1 ,brugnatelli1 an ,italian    

chemist1 gilded a silver  medal by      
connecting it with the negative pole of 
a voltaic battery1  when immersed in a  
solution of ammoniuret of gold4 ,it did 
not occur to  him1 however1 that any use
 could be made of that mode of gilding1 
and  the experiment had no result4      
,nothing further was done1 even         
experimentally1 towards advancing  the  
art of electrotyping1 until ,mr4        
,spencer1 of ,liverpool1 when           
experimenting with a ,daniell's battery1
 in #ahcg1 accidentally coated a  penny 
piece with copper2 and when the thin    
sheet of metal was removed1  he found on
 it an exact counterpart of the head and
 letters of the  coin4 ,even this did   
not suggest any useful application2 nor 
was it  until1 by a further accident1 a 
drop of varnish fell on the copper of   
the negative pole1 and showed that no   
deposition took place on the part  so   
covered1 that the idea occurred to him  
of turning the deposition of  the copper
 to account4 ,the method he adopted of  

doing so was to cover  a copper plate   
with varnish or wax1 and to etch a      
design through the  covering4 ,by then  
exposing the plate to the action of a   
solution of  sulphate of copper1 when in
 connection with the negative pole of a 
voltaic battery1 the metal was deposited
 in the lines drawn through the         
varnish1 and a design in relief was     
fixed to the copper4 ,this slight       
advance in the art was not made known   
until it was announced1 in #ahci1  that 
,professor ,jacobi1 of ,st4 ,petersburg1
 had made application of  the same      
process4 ,mr4 ,spencer1 indeed1 was     
forestalled1 even in this  country1 by  
,mr4 ,jordan1 a printer1 who published  
an account in the  ,mechanics' ,magazine
 for ,may1 #ahci1 of a method of making 
copper casts  by the deposition of      
copper from its solution4 ,in the autumn
 of the  same year1 however1 ,mr4       
,spencer exhibited to the ,british      
,association  several more perfect      
specimens of electrotyping1 that showed 

the  process might be rendered valuable2
 and from that time rapid progress  was 
made in bringing it into practical      
operation in a variety of ways4    ,the 
deposition of copper from its solution1 
when under the action  of voltaic       
electricity1 is not produced by the     
decomposition of the  sulphate of       
copper1 as might be supposed1 but by the
 decomposition of  the water that acts  
as the solvent of the metallic salt4    
,thus1 when  two platinum wires from the
 poles of a voltaic battery are         
introduced  into acidulated water1      
hydrogen gas is disengaged at the wire  
connected  with the negative pole1 and  
oxygen at the other2 but when a solution
  of sulphate of copper is substituted  
for water1 the hydrogen that is         
disengaged combines with the oxygen that
 held the copper in solution1  and the  
metal is liberated4 ,the copper thus    
liberated from its  combination with the
 oxygen is deposited1 in a pure metallic
 state1 on  the surface connected with  

the negative pole of the battery4       
,the simplest illustration of           
electro-metallic deposition is obtained 
by immersing a silver spoon and a strip 
of zinc into a solution of  sulphate of 
copper4 ,so long as the two metals are  
kept apart1 no change  takes place on   
the silver1 but on bringing them into   
contact1 voltaic  action immediately    
commences1 and a coating of copper is   
deposited  upon the spoon1 and adheres  
firmly to the metal4 ,if the action be  
continued1 and the supply of copper be  
maintained by the addition of  fresh    
crystals of the sulphate1 the coat of   
copper may be increased in  thickness to
 almost any extent4    ,the first       
applications of the discovery were      
directed to the copying  of medals and  
coins4 ,an impression of the metal was  
obtained in fusible  metal1 which is an 
alloy composed of tin1 lead1 and        
bismuth1 melted  together in the        
proportions of two of the latter to one 
each of the  former4 ,this alloy expands

 on cooling1 and thus affords a very    
sharp  impression of the medals2 and as 
it melts at a low temperature1 it may   
be easily removed after the copper      
coating has been deposited upon it4     
,an electrotype mould1 obtained directly
 from the medal1 is1 however1  more     
sharp in its definition than an         
impression1 and is therefore            
preferable1 when circumstances admit of 
its being so taken4 ,for that  purpose1 
the surface whereon the deposition is to
 be made is smeared  over with sweet    
oil1 or with black lead4 ,it is then    
carefully wiped  with cotton wool1 but a
 minute quantity of the oil will still  
remain1  sufficient to prevent the metal
 from adhering4    ,a simple form of    
apparatus for the electrotype process is
 shown in the  accompanying diagram4    
,an earthenware jar1 a1 serves to hold  
the solution of copper1 which  should be
 maintained in a saturated state by the 
addition of crystals  of the salt4 ,a   
porous tube1 b1 holds a rod of          

amalgamated zinc1 to  the top of which a
 binding-screw is soldered4 ,the copper 
mould or  medal1 c1 is suspended in the 
solution by a wire1 which is held  tight
 by the binding-screw1 d4 ,the porous   
jar is then filled to the  same height  
as the copper solution in the jar with  
diluted sulphuric  acid1 in the         
proportions of one of acid to twenty of 
water4 ,voltaic  action immediately     
commences1 and the copper will continue 
to be  deposited from the solution as   
long as the supply of fresh crystals  of
 sulphate of copper is continued4 ,in   
about twenty-four hours the  coating of 
copper will be as thick as a thin card1 
and it may be then  removed4 ,when      
detached from the medal1 it will be     
found to be an exact  counterpart1 in   
the minutest details1 of the original2  
those parts of  the medal which are in  
relief being1 of course1 the reverse in 
the  mould4    ,illustration    ,the    
extreme minuteness and delicacy of the  
electrotype process is  strikingly      

exemplified in its application to the   
transference of  engraved copper-plates4
 ,a highly finished engraved            
copper-plate  has a film of metal       
deposited over its whole surface1 which1
 when  detached1 exhibits all the lines 
that are cut into the copper-plate  in  
relief4 ,that electrotype cast then     
serves as the mould for further         
depositions1 in which every line in the 
original engraving is so  perfectly     
developed1 that it is impossible to     
detect a difference  in the impressions 
taken from the two plates4 ,by this     
means any  number of casts may be made  
and worked from1 whilst the original is 
preserved uninjured4 ,the objection to  
this application is that the  metal     
deposited is not so hard as the hammered
 plates1 and will not1  therefore1 bear 
the wear and tear of copper-plate       
printing so well as  the plates made by 
hand4    ,it was at one time supposed   
that the depositing of metal on         
surfaces1  by voltaic action1 might be  

applied to the manufacture of numerous  
kinds of copper articles without manual 
labour4 ,for this purpose1 casts  were  
made of plaster of ,paris1 which were   
covered with black lead1  to give them  
the property of conducting electricity1 
and the metal  was then deposited upon  
them4 ,but1 independently of the        
practical  difficulties attending the   
operation1 it was found that the metal  
was  not sufficiently hard1 and the cost
 of the requisite voltaic batteries     
rendered the economy of the process     
questionable4    ,one of the successful 
applications of ,electro-,metallurgy is 
founded  on the original application of 
it by ,mr4 ,spencer4 ,as already stated1
  he covered metal plates with wax1 and 
after scratching through the  coating1  
and exposing the metal1 he submitted the
 plate to voltaic  action in a solution 
of sulphate of copper1 and thus obtained
 a  representation1 in relief1 of the   
figures cut through the wax2 but  he    
does not seem to have thought of the    

application of this mode of  deposition1
 since adopted1 by which engravings in  
relief are obtained1  and printed from  
with the ordinary letter-press1 in the  
same manner as  woodcuts4 ,the name     
given to this new art is ,glyphography1 
and it is  used with great advantage    
when the effect of copper-plate         
engraving  is required2 for cross lines1
 which are difficult to cut in wood1 can
  be worked by this method with as great
 facility as in copper-plate  etching4  
,another application of                 
,electro-,metallurgy that promises to be
 useful1  is the coating of glass and   
earthenware vessels with copper1 so as  
to  enable them to be placed over the   
fire without being cracked4 ,a glass    
sauce-pan might thus be made1 which1    
protected by metal covering1  would     
neither break nor crack when placed upon
 the fire1 because the  metal would     
diffuse the heat over the whole surface1
 and prevent the  unequal expansion of  
the vessel1 which is the cause of the   

cracking of  glass and earthenware when 
placed upon the fire4 ,a patent was     
granted  last year for a mode of coating
 earthenware vessels with copper or     
iron by electro-chemical deposition4    
,the earthenware is first covered       
either with copper leaf or with bronze  
powder1 to obtain an electrical         
conducting surface on which the copper  
can be deposited1 and the  vessel is    
then placed in a solution of sulphate of
 copper1 and put in  connection with the
 negative pole of a voltaic battery4    
,the electrotype is frequently applied  
with advantage to the  preservation and 
multiplication of objects of art and    
natural  productions1 for even the forms
 of flowers may be in this manner       
rendered durable2 but the most important
 use that has been made of  the process 
is in plating and gilding4 ,to effect   
that object1 it is  necessary to employ 
a voltaic battery separated from the    
vessel in  which the decomposition takes
 place4 ,the annexed diagram shows an   

arrangement of this kind4 ,a single cell
 of a ,daniell's battery1 a1  is        
connected by wires from its positive and
 negative poles1 with metal  rods placed
 across the decomposition cell1 b4 ,the 
articles to be  plated are suspended by 
wires from the metal rod1 f1 and a plate
 of  silver is attached to the rod1 e4  
,thus1 when the vessel is filled  with  
the silvering liquid1 a voltaic current 
is established1 and the  deposition is  
effected on the articles connected with 
the negative pole4    ,illustration     
,the menstruum best adapted for         
electro-plating is a solution of silver 
in cyanide of potassium4 ,during the    
process of deposition1 the same         
quantity of metal that is deposited from
 the liquid on the objects  connected   
with the negative pole of the battery is
 restored to it1 by  dissolving an equal
 quantity from the silver plate         
connected with the  positive pole1 and  
in this manner the solution is          
maintained at the  same strength4 ,any  

thickness of silver may be deposited by 
continuing  the process1 but about one  
ounce and a half to a square foot of    
surface is considered a full quantity4  
,those parts on which no silver  is     
required to be deposited are covered    
with varnish or wax1 which  protects    
them from the voltaic action4    ,where 
the operation of electro-plating is     
carried on extensively1  decomposing    
troughs1 holding nearly #cjj gallons1   
are employed1 and the  silver plates in 
a single trough expose a surface of     
thirty square feet  to the dissolving   
action of the menstruum under the       
influence of the  voltaic battery4      
,by the aid of electro-plating the most 
elaborate designs of the artist  in     
metal can be covered with silver on     
every part2 and a group1 finely         
engraved in copper1 may be made to      
resemble in every particular a work  cut
 out of solid silver4 ,the metal is     
usually deposited in a granulated       
state1 resembling frosted silver1 and   

the parts required to be bright  are    
subsequently burnished2 but by the      
addition of a few drops of the          
sulphuret of carbon to the solution1 the
 silver may be precipitated  perfectly  
bright4          ,,gas ,,lighting4      
,the invention of ,gas ,lighting had its
 origin in the earliest times of        
history2 not1 indeed1 as we now see it1 
burning at the end of a pipe  supplied  
with gas made artificially1 and stored  
in gas-holders1 but  blazing from       
fissures in the ground1 supplied from   
natural sources in  the bowels of the   
earth4 ,the ,greek fire-altars are      
supposed to have  been supplied with    
gas1 either issuing from bituminous     
beds1 or made  artificially by the      
priests1 by pouring oil on heated stones
 placed  in cavities beneath4 ,fountains
 of naphtha1 and fires issuing from the 
earth at ,ecbatana1 in ,media1 are      
mentioned by ,plutarch in his life of   
,alexander1 and many other ancient      
historians record the knowledge of      

similar instances of natural gas        
lighting4    ,in later times1 the       
inflammable gas issuing into the        
galleries of coal  mines1 and either    
exploding when mixed with atmospheric   
air1 or blazing  as it issued from      
fissures in the coal1 afforded instances
 of the  natural production of gas1 the 
ignition of which too frequently proved 
fatal to those in the mines4    ,a      
remarkable instance of the issue of     
inflammable gas into the shaft of  a    
coal mine at ,whitehaven1 which produced
 a blaze about #c feet diameter  and #f 
feet long1 is noticed in the            
,philosophical ,transactions of  #agcc4 
,the part whence the gas issued was     
vaulted off1 and a tube was  inserted   
into the cavity and carried to the top  
of the pit1 where it  escaped in        
undiminished quantity for years1 and    
lighted the country for  a distance of  
several miles4 ,many experiments were   
made with this large  issue of gas1 and 
it was proposed to conduct it in pipes  

to ,whitehaven1  to light the streets of
 that town1 but the proposition was     
rejected by  the local authorities4     
,in ,china1 naturally produced gas is   
used on a large scale1 and was so  long 
before the knowledge of its application 
was acquired by ,europeans4  ,beds of   
coal1 lying at a great depth1 are       
frequently pierced by the  borers for   
salt water1 and from these wells the    
inflammable gas springs  up4 ,it        
sometimes appears as a jet of fire from 
#bj to #cj feet high2 and1  in the      
neighbourhood of ,thsee-,lieon-,teing1  
the salt works were formerly  heated and
 lighted by means of these fountains of 
fire4 ,bamboo pipes  carry the gas from 
the spring to the places where it is    
intended to be  consumed4 ,these canes  
are terminated by tubes of pipe-clay1 to
 prevent  their being burnt1 and other  
bamboo canes conduct the gas intended   
for lighting the streets1 and into large
 apartments and kitchens4  ,thus ,nature
 presents in these positions a complete 

establishment of  gas-light works4#i    
,though the production of illuminating  
gas from natural sources had  been thus 
long known1 the idea of distilling it   
artificially from  coal1 for the purpose
 of illumination1 did not occur until   
the end of  the last century4 ,dr4      
,clayton1 indeed1 nearly arrived at the 
practical  application of carburretted  
hydrogen1 in #agcg1 for he instituted   
experiments to prove that coal contains 
gas1 nearly similar to that of  the fire
 damp in coal mines1 and that it burns  
with a bright flame4  ,at that time1    
however1 the nature of gases was so     
imperfectly known1  that he was unable  
to do more than discover that coal      
possesses the  property of giving out1  
when heated1 gas that will burn with a  
bright  light4    ,in the ,philosophical
 ,transactions of #agci1 ,dr4 ,clayton  
thus  describes the effect of the spirit
 of coal1 obtained by destructive       
distillation in an iron retort4 ,i kept 
this spirit1 he says1 in  bladders for a

 considerable time1 and endeavoured     
several ways to  condense it1 but in    
vain2 and when ,i had a mind to divert  
strangers or  friends1 ,i have          
frequently taken one of these bladders1 
and pierced  a hole in it with a pin1   
and1 compressing gently the bladder near
  the flame of a candle till it once    
took fire1 it would then continue       
flaming till all the spirit was         
compressed out of the bladder2 which    
was the more surprising1 because no one 
could discern any difference in  the    
appearance between these bladders and   
those which were filled with  common    
air4    ,the first known application of 
coal gas to illumination was made1 in   
#agib1 by ,mr4 ,william ,murdoch1       
engineer at the ,soho manufactory1 to   
whose great ingenuity the world is also 
indebted for the invention of  the first
 plan of a steam locomotive engine4#aj  
,he was at that time  occupied in       
superintending the fitting up of steam  
engines for the  ,cornish mines1 and his

 attention having been directed to the  
properties  of gas issuing from coal1 he
 instituted a series of experiments on  
carburretted hydrogen1 the practical    
result of which was the lighting  of his
 house and offices1 at ,redruth1 with   
coal gas4 ,the mines at which  ,mr4     
,murdoch worked being some miles distant
 from his house1 he was in  the constant
 practice of filling a bladder with coal
 gas1 in the neck  of which he fixed a  
metallic tube with a small orifice1     
through which  the gas issued4 ,the     
lighted gas issuing through the tube    
served as a  lantern to light his way2  
and as he thus proceeded along the road 
with  the light issuing from the        
bladder1 the country people looked upon 
him  as a wizard4    ,the gas was       
generated by ,mr4 ,murdoch in an iron   
retort1 and collected  in a common      
gasometer1 from which it was conducted  
in pipes to the  rooms to be lighted4   
,he also1 in an early stage of the      
invention1  contrived a means for making

 the gas portable1 by compressing it    
into  strong vessels2 a plan which1 a   
few years since1 was adopted by the     
,portable ,gas ,company in ,london4     
,mr4 ,murdoch having proved the         
practicability of illumination by gas   
generated from coal1 he continued his   
experiments to facilitate the           
manufacture of the gas on a large scale1
 and for its more perfect  purification4
 ,the first public display of its       
illuminating power was  made at the     
rejoicings for the peace of ,amiens1 in 
#ahjb1 on which  occasion part of the   
work-shops of ,messrs4 ,boulton and     
,watt1 at ,soho1  was brilliantly       
illuminated with coal gas by ,mr4       
,murdoch4 ,in #ahje1  ,messrs4 ,phillips
 and ,lee1 of ,manchester1 had their    
extensive cotton  mill fitted up with   
gas apparatus1 under the superintendence
 of ,mr4  ,murdoch1 and the quantity of 
light given out by the burners in all   
parts of the cotton mill was equal to   
that of #c1jjj candles4#aa              

,notwithstanding these eminently        
successful trials of gas lighting1  the 
prejudice against innovation prevented1 
for several years1 the  extensive       
adoption of the plan4 ,as every         
establishment using gas had  to make it1
 and as the apparatus was costly and    
imperfectly managed1  the expense in the
 first instance1 the trouble1 and the   
noxious  smell1 presented great         
obstacles to the introduction of that   
mode of  illumination4 ,the popular     
notion1 also1 that streams of flame were
  rushing along the pipes produced an   
impression that gas lighting must  be   
very dangerous1 which it required time  
to disprove4 ,it was not1  therefore1   
till several years after the advantages 
and economy of gas  had been practically
 established1 that a public company was 
formed  for laying down pipes to light  
the streets1 and to convey the gas into 
houses for lighting shops4    ,the      
person to whom the world is chiefly     
indebted for the practical  application 

of gas lighting is ,mr4 ,winsor1 who had
 been a merchant in  ,london4 ,being    
very sanguine as to the advantages to be
 derived from  gas lighting1 and        
possessing an ardent temperament which  
no opposition  could quench1 he         
undertook to introduce it to public     
notice1 and to  form a company for      
lighting the whole of ,england with gas4
 ,he hired  the old ,lyceum ,theatre1   
which he lighted with coal gas1 and he  
there  delivered lectures and exhibited 
experiments to show the benefits that   
would arise from the universal use of   
gas light1 and coke fuel4 ,he  published
 an extravagant prospectus of a company 
to be formed1 with the  following       
title3--,a ,national ,light and ,heat   
,company1 for providing our  streets and
 houses with light and heat1 on similar 
principles as they  are now 7#ahaf7     
supplied with water4 ,demonstrated by   
the patentee at ,no4  #ig1 ,pall ,mall1 
where it is proved1 by positive         
experiments and decisive  calculation1  

that the destruction of smoke would open
 unto the empire  of ,great ,britain new
 and unparalleled sources of            
inexhaustible wealth  at this most      
portentous crisis of ,europe4 ,the      
serious perusal of this  publication1   
and an attentive observation of the     
decisive experiments1  will carry       
conviction to every mind4    ,in this   
prospectus ,mr4 ,winsor attempted to    
make it appear that by  adopting his    
plan there would be a grand balance of  
profit for the  whole realm of          
#aae1jjj1jjj1 and each shareholder of   
the company was  promised1 at the lowest
 calculation1 #egj for every #e deposit4
 ,he  entertained the notion of making  
the use of gas and coke compulsory1 by  
levying a tax on all who obstinately    
refused to adopt what would be so  much 
to their own advantage4 ,this tax1 he   
said1 cannot be oppressive  in the      
least1 because it falls on the obstinate
 only1 who shall resist  the use of a   
far superior1 cheaper1 and safer fuel4  

,not content with  the language of      
prose1 ,mr4 ,winsor vented his thoughts 
and feelings in  numerous poetical      
effusions4 ,the flights of his ,muse1   
however1 were not  into the regions of  
sublimity1 as may be perceived by the   
following  specimen3--          ,must   
,britons be condemned for ever to wallow
        ,in filthy soot1 noxious smoke1 
train oil1 and tallow1        ,and their
 poisonous fumes for ever to swallow8   
,for with sparky soot1 snuffs and       
vapours1 men have constant              
strife1--        ,those who are not     
burned to death are smothered during    
life4    ,mr4 ,winsor's absurd          
statements--in the truth of which he    
potently  believed--and the wild1 random
 manner of making them known1 excited   
much ridicule and opposition4 ,among his
 opponents was ,mr4 ,nicholson1  the    
editor of the ,chemical ,review1 who not
 only challenged ,mr4  ,winsor's        
estimates1 but the validity of his      
patent1 on the ground  that ,mr4        

,murdoch was the original inventor4 ,mr4
 ,winsor's plans and  calculations were 
burlesqued in a cleverly written ,heroic
 ,poem1  published in a quarto volume1  
which1 whilst professing to extol the   
virtues of gas and coke1 quizzed its    
hero most unmercifully4 ,the poem       
concluded with this address3--          
,and when1 ah1 ,winsor6--distant be the 
day6--        ,life's flame no longer   
shall ignite thy clay1        ,thy      
phosphur nature1 active still1 and      
bright1        ,above us shall diffuse  
post obit light4        ,perhaps1       
translated to another sphere1           
,thy spirit--like thy light1 refined and
 clear--        ,ballooned with purest  
hydrogen1 shall rise1        ,and add a 
,,patent ,,planet to the skies4         
,then some sage ,sidrophel1 with        
,herschel eye1        ,the bright       
,winsorium ,sidus shall descry2         
,the ,vox ,stellarum shall record thy   
name1        ,and thine outlive another 
,winsor's fame4    ,though we may smile 

at ,mr4 ,winsor's extravagant plans and 
calculations1 observes the ,journal of  
,gas ,lighting1 we cannot but  admire   
the enthusiasm with which he pursued his
 object1 and ultimately  succeeded in   
establishing the first gas company4 ,the
 lighting of ,pall  ,mall with gas1 in  
the spring of #ahjg1 gave increased     
stimulus to the  project1 and           
application was made to ,parliament to  
carry it into  effect4 ,the bill was    
opposed by ,mr4 ,murdoch and thrown out2
 but in  the following year 7#ahaj7 the 
application was successfully renewed4   
,the scheme1 however1 as sanctioned by  
,parliament1 was sadly shorn  of its    
magnificent proportions2 and1 instead of
 a ',grand ,national  ,light and ,heat  
,company1 for ,lighting and ,heating the
 ,whole ,kingdom1'  its operations were 
limited to ,london1 ,westminster1 and   
,southwark2  nor were any special taxes 
imposed on those who should obstinately 
refuse to use the light and burn the    
coke4 ,the ,chartered ,gas ,company1    

established by ,mr4 ,winsor's           
persevering efforts1 has served as the  
guiding star to all other gas companies 
in the world4    ,the illuminating      
property of coal gas depends on the     
quantity of carbon  it contains4 ,pure  
hydrogen gas burns with a pale blue     
flame that gives  scarcely any light1   
though it possesses intense heating     
power4 ,if1  however1 minute particles  
of a solid body--powdered charcoal1 for 
instance--be thrown into the flame1 they
 become white-hot1 and the              
incandescence of those solid particles  
produces a brilliant light4 ,the  same  
effect is caused by the combustion of   
the carburretted hydrogen  gas1 and in a
 more perfect manner4 ,that gas contains
 a large portion  of carbon in a state  
of vapour1 and when a light is applied  
to a jet  of the gas the hydrogen       
immediately inflames1 the carbon is     
deposited  in the flame1 and the minute 
particles into which it is disseminated 
become highly heated and ignite4        

,there are two distinct states of       
carbonization in illuminating gas4  ,the
 commoner kind--the ordinary coal       
gas--consists of two measures  of       
hydrogen mixed with one measure of      
carbon vapour4 ,the specific  gravity of
 such gas is about one-half that of     
atmospheric air1 and  it is eight times 
heavier than pure hydrogen4#ab ,the best
 kind of  gas for illumination is       
obtained from the distillation of oil4  
,it is  called olefiant gas1 and        
contains equal measures of hydrogen gas 
and  carbon vapour2 its specific gravity
 is #j4ihe1 being about fifteen times   
heavier than pure hydrogen4    ,the     
rationale of the process of making coal 
gas consists in expelling  the volatile 
matters from the coal by heat1 in closed
 vessels or  retorts1 and then          
separating the gas and purifying it on  
its passage  from the retort to the     
gas-holder1 where it is stored for use4 
,the retorts are usually made of cast   
iron1 and are about #g feet long1  #ad  

inches in depth1 and the same in width2 
the shape being that of  an arch4 ,the  
retorts will hold two hundredweight of  
coal each1 but  they are never filled1  
because during the process of           
distillation the  carbonaceous part of  
the coal expands1 and occupies more     
space than  the original quantity1 the  
proportion of expansion being as one and
 a  quarter to one4 ,there is a large   
aperture for the admission of coal  and 
the extraction of coke1 which aperture  
is covered with a lid1 and  screwed to  
make it air-tight4 ,a tube is inserted  
into the mouth of the  retort1 to carry 
off the products of the distillation4   
,that tube rises  about twelve feet1 and
 then dips into a large horizontal pipe1
 one foot  in diameter1 called the      
hydraulic main1 in which are collected  
the  tar and ammoniacal liquor that     
distil from the coal4 ,ten or fourteen  
retorts are usually set back to back in 
brickwork1 to be heated by one  fire2   
but the plan has been recently          

introduced of employing long clay       
retorts1 which are charged at both ends4
 ,these are found to possess            
considerable advantage over iron1 not   
only from their lower price1 but  from  
the facility with which the carbonaceous
 deposit is removed1 and  the full      
charges worked off4 ,coke is generally  
burned in the furnaces1  and the heat is
 continually maintained so as to keep   
the retorts  red-hot4    ,as atmospheric
 air cannot gain access to the coal in  
the retorts1 the  gases expelled do not 
inflame1 nor can the parts that are not 
volatile  be consumed without a supply  
of air4 ,it is entirely a process of    
distillation1 in which all the products 
can be collected4 ,the volatile  parts  
are carried off by the pipe1 and the    
solid carbonaceous matter1  or coke1 is 
left in the retort4    ,the first effect
 of heat on coal1 after it is put into  
the retort1  is to expel the moisture1  
which1 in combination with the air1     
issues  in the form of steam4 ,tar then 

distils1 with some portions of gas1     
consisting of hydrogen and ammonia4     
,when the retort has attained a  bright 
cherry-red heat1 the disengagement of   
the carburretted hydrogen  is most      
active2 and it is found that the more   
quickly the coal is  heated1 the greater
 is the quantity of illuminating gas    
generated4    ,the production of coal   
gas1 and the development of its         
properties at  different stages of      
distillation1 may be readily shown by   
means of  a common tobacco pipe4 ,fill  
the bowl of the pipe with small pieces  
of coal1 cover it over with a lump of   
clay1 and then put it into a  hot fire1 
with the stalk of the pipe projecting   
through the bars4  ,presently steam will
 be seen to issue from the pipe1 and    
afterwards  smoke1 and1 if a light be   
applied1 a jet of flame will issue      
forth1 the  brilliancy of which will    
increase as the bowl of the pipe becomes
 more  heated1 until the best part of   
the gas has been distilled from the     

coal4    ,the gas is mingled with       
various volatile products as it issues  
from  the retort1 and requires to be    
purified before it is fitted for        
illumination4 ,the most abundant matter 
that passes over with it is tar4  ,the  
vapour of that substance1 however1      
condenses when cooled1 and it  may thus 
be separated from the gas very          
effectually4 ,for that purpose  the gas1
 after having deposited a large portion 
of the tar in the  hydraulic main1 is   
made to traverse through a number of    
vertical pipes1  and in passing through 
them a further quantity of tar1         
accompanied by  ammoniacal liquor1 is   
deposited1 and collected in a reservoir 
at the  bottom4 ,the next process is the
 purification of the gas from carbonic  
acid and sulphuretted hydrogen4 ,this is
 commonly done by passing it  through   
water and lime2 the combination of the  
carbonic acid with the  lime being      
facilitated by agitation4 ,the method of
 purifying by lime  was introduced by   

,mr4 ,clegg2 and by a later process1    
oxide of iron is  used to absorb the    
sulphuretted hydrogen4 ,the gas1 when   
purified1 is  conveyed to the           
gas-holder1 whence it is forced by      
pressure into the  mains and pipes4     
,an apparatus for generating coal gas on
 a small scale for private              
establishments1 remote from sources of  
ordinary supply1 is represented  in the 
accompanying woodcut4 ,the retort1 ,a1  
is fitted in a small  furnace4 ,the coal
 is put in at ,f1 and the products of   
distillation pass  through the bent     
pipe1 ,e4 ,the more liquid portions of  
the tar pass at  once through the tube1 
,b1 into the receiver1 ,g2 and as the   
gas passes  along the bent tube1 ,c1 it 
becomes cooled1 and a further deposit of
 tar  and ammoniacal liquor is made4    
,the gas is then conveyed along another 
tube into the purifier1 ,h1 filled with 
lime and water1 and it thence  passes   
into the gas-holder4 ,tubes are inserted
 into the latter for  conveying the gas 

to the burners4    ,illustration    ,the
 quantity and the quality of the gas    
yielded by coal differ  materially      
according to the kind employed4 ,one ton
 of good ,newcastle  coal will yield    
#i1ejj cubic feet of gas1 which1 when   
burnt in the  best manner1 gives a light
 equal to that of #dbb lbs4 of          
spermaceti  candles4 ,one ton of ,wigan 
cannel coal yields #aj1jjj cubic feet1  
and  gives a light equal to #gdg lbs4 of
 spermaceti candles4#ac ,the price1  in 
,london1 of good gas from ,newcastle    
coal1 is #ds4 #f;d4 per thousand  cubic 
feet1 which gives a light equal to #gd  
lbs4 of spermaceti1 and  equal to #hi   
lbs4 of mould candles2 therefore1 when  
the latter are #h;d4  a pound1 the      
burning of gas is twelve times more     
economical than the  burning of candles4
 ,in ,liverpool1 gas from cannel coal is
 supplied at  the low price of #cs4     
#i;d4 per thousand feet2 and that gas   
gives at least  one-third more light    
than the ordinary ,london gas4    ,the  

cleanliness of gas1 as compared with    
candles or oil1 is a  further           
recommendation2 and for the purpose of  
lighting streets1  shops1 factories1    
public buildings1 and halls1 it presents
 important  advantages2 but it is not   
well adapted for small sitting rooms1   
because  the heat of the flame makes it 
unpleasant and injurious to the eyes    
when near1 and1 unless very pure1 it    
deteriorates the air of closed          
apartments4 ,in many parts of the       
country1 however1 where coals are       
cheap1 and the price of gas is          
consequently less than in ,london1 it is
  introduced into every room of nearly  
all private houses4    ,the best kind of
 gas made from mineral substances is    
produced by the  distillation of a      
bituminous shale1 called ,boghead coal1 
which was  discovered a few years since 
in ,scotland4 ,one ton of this material 
yields #ae1jjj cubic feet of gas1 which 
is equal in illuminating power  to      
#a1icj lbs4 of sperm candles4 ,boghead  

coal is now commonly used  for mixing   
its gas with that of inferior quality1  
to bring up the  illuminating power to  
the required standard4    ,olefiant gas1
 made from oil1 burns with a brighter   
and purer light  than common coal gas1  
but it is more costly4 ,it is made      
nearly in the  same manner1 by          
distillation in retorts2 the principal  
difference  consisting in the degree and
 regulation of the temperature4 ,a dull 
red  heat is the best1 and in order to  
keep the oil exposed to the action  of  
an invariable heat1 it is admitted      
gradually into the retorts1 into  which 
pieces of brick or coke are inserted to 
increase the heating  surface4 ,one     
pound of common oil yields about #ae    
feet of olefiant gas4  ,the same kind of
 gas may also be obtained in smaller    
quantities by the  distillation of tar1 
rosin1 or pitch4 ,twelve cubic feet of  
gas may be  obtained from one pound of  
tar1 and ten from the same weight of    
rosin4    ,the brilliancy of gas-light  

depends1 in some measure1 on the kind of
  burner employed4 ,to obtain a steady  
light1 an argand burner is usually      
adopted2 the gas being allowed to escape
 through a number of minute  holes      
pierced in a hollow ring of metal1 which
 admits a current of  air through the   
middle4 ,to increase the supply of air1 
the burner is  covered with a glass     
chimney1 which1 if not too long1 adds to
 the  brilliancy of the flame2 but a    
very long chimney produces so strong a  
current of air1 as to cool the flame1   
and diminish the light4 ,a plan  is     
sometimes adopted of placing a small    
metal disc a short distance  above the  
jets1 so as to spread the flame4 ,by    
this means the brightness  is increased1
 by exposing the flame more directly to 
the current of  air2 and the metal disc1
 by becoming heated1 also tends to aid  
the  combustion of the carbon4    ,one  
of the problems to be solved on the     
original formation of gas works  was the
 size of pipes1 and the amount of       

pressure required to force the  gas to  
the various burners4 ,it was at first   
supposed that the friction  against the 
pipes would oppose so much resistance to
 the passage of the  gas1 that it could 
not be transmitted to great distances4  
,it was found1  however1 that the       
perpendicular pressure of a few inches  
of water was  quite sufficient to force 
the gas through the mains and small     
pipes of  an extensive range of streets4
 ,a bold attempt was made at            
,birmingham1  in #ahbf1 to bring gas    
from the collieries1 at a distance of   
ten miles  from the town4 ,the plan was 
laughed at by many as impracticable1 but
 it  was attended with complete success4
 ,the gas being made near the mouth  of 
the coal-pit1 the cost of conveyance was
 saved by the additional  outlay in the 
first instance4 ,it must be observed1   
however1 that it  is extremely difficult
 in practice to avoid the escape of gas 
at the  junctions of the pipes2 and by  
increasing the length of the gas mains1 

the greater will be the leakage4 ,the   
loss from this cause1 in some gas       
works1 exceeds #bj per cent4 of the gas 
manufactured4    ,the volume of gas     
discharged from a pipe is directly      
proportional to  the square of its      
diameter1 and inversely as the square of
 its length4  ,thus1 if a pipe required 
to discharge #bej cubic feet of gas in  
an hour1  at a distance of #bjj feet1   
must have an internal diameter of #a    
inch2  to discharge #b1jjj feet in an   
hour1 at a distance of #a1jjj feet1     
would  require a diameter of #ddg       
inches4 ,the same quantity discharged at
  double the distance would require a   
pipe #ecb inches in diameter2 at a      
distance of #d1jjj feet the diameter    
must be increased to #fac inches2  and  
at a distance of #f1jjj feet the        
diameter should be #g inches4    ,on the
 first introduction of gas-light1 the   
companies who supplied  it charged a    
fixed sum for each burner of a given    
size4 ,this mode of  charging was1      

however1 very unsatisfactory1 for the   
size of the burner  is a very uncertain 
indication of the quantity of gas       
consumed4 ,persons  using gas desired to
 pay for the quantity they actually     
burned2 and  to enable them to do this1 
a special contrivance was invented by   
,mr4  ,clegg1 the engineer of the       
,chartered ,gas ,company1 called a      
gas-meter4  ,that instrument measures1  
with sufficient accuracy for practical  
purposes1 the volume of gas that passes 
through it to the burners1 and  thus    
each consumer of gas now pays only for  
the number of cubic feet  consumed4     
,the accompanying diagrams represent    
sections of a gas meter1 as seen  in    
front and edgewise4 ,the outer case of  
the instrument1 which is a  flat        
cylinder made of sheet iron1 is         
indicated by the letters c1 c4  ,inside 
it there revolves another cylinder1 made
 also of thin sheet  iron1 and divided  
into four compartments1 marked d1 d1 d1 
d4  ,this interior cylinder readily     

revolves on an axis1 g1 g1 shown in  the
 section of the instrument as seen      
edgewise4 ,the gas enters from  the     
street pipe through the opening1 a1 and 
it is forced out to the  burners through
 the pipe1 b1 the latter being seen in  
the narrow  section only4 ,in that      
diagram1 also1 there is shown a         
cog-wheel1 h1  fixed on to the axis1 and
 a small outer case1 in which that wheel
  rotates4 ,water is poured into that   
external case until the gas-meter is    
rather more than half filled1 the level 
of the water being shown at i4          
,illustration    ,the action of the     
instrument will be readily understood by
 examining  the two sections4 ,the gas1 
on entering the tube1 a1 presses against
  the upper surface of the compartment  
that happens to be then above it1  and  
tends to turn the inner cylinder round4 
,this pressure forces the  gas through  
the opening1 b1 to the burner2 and as   
the compartment  then in communication  
with that opening is emptied of the gas 

it  contains1 in the direction of the   
arrow1 it is gradually forced under  the
 level of the water1 and the other      
compartment1 which has in the  meantime 
been filling with gas1 continues the    
supply4 ,thus1 supposing  each division 
of the inner revolving cylinder to hold 
#ajh cubic  inches1 a complete          
revolution would indicate that the      
fourth part of a  cubic foot had passed 
through the pipe1 b1 to the burners4    
,several  cog-wheels1 arranged like     
clock-work mechanism1 are connected with
  the wheel1 g1 and by this means the   
number of cubic feet of gas  consumed is
 indicated by hands fixed to the wheels1
 and pointing to the  corresponding     
figures on a series of dials4    ,some  
inconvenience and irregularity having   
been experienced in the  use of the wet 
meter1 the correctness of which1 it is  
evident1 may be  affected by variations 
in the height of the water level1 dry   
meters  have been constructed for       
measuring gas1 by causing it to pass    

through  a small expanding chamber1     
similar in principle to a pair of       
bellows4  ,the objection to these       
instruments is that the leather1 or     
other  flexible substance that forms the
 sides of the expanding chambers1       
becomes rigid by use1 and the valves are
 liable to get out of order2  but in the
 last improvement of the instrument1 by 
,mr4 ,croll1 these  objections are      
stated to be effectually removed4       
,numerous attempts have been made to    
produce illuminating gas from other     
substances than coal1 but without       
advantage4 ,the plan that promised the  
most success was the production of      
hydrogen gas by the decomposition  of   
water1 which was passed over heated coke
 in retorts1 and by that  means the     
oxygen of the water1 combined with the  
incandescent coke and  the hydrogen1 was
 set free4 ,the gas thus collected      
possessed little  illuminating power1   
but it was afterwards mixed with the    
rich gas from  cannel coal1 and raised  

to the requisite illuminating standard4 
,it was  found1 however1 in practice1   
that the compound gas thus formed was   
more  costly than ordinary coal gas1 and
 the plan has been discontinued4        
,another method of giving illuminating  
power to water gas was to  surround the 
flame with platinum gauze1 which was    
rendered incandescent  by the heat1 and 
became highly luminous4 ,but it required
 twice the  quantity of gas burned in   
this manner to produce a light equal to 
that  of carburretted hydrogen1 and the 
combustion of so much hydrogen gas      
produced an amount of vapour and heat   
that were very unpleasant4 ,that  mode  
of gas illumination1 called the ,gillard
 light1 from the name  of the inventor1 
was also found more costly than the     
ordinary mode of  lighting with coal    
gas1 which has now no rival to compete  
with it in  economical illumination4    
,no ,act of ,parliament is now required1
 as originally proposed by  ,mr4        
,winsor1 to enforce the burning of coal 

gas4 ,its advantages1 in  point of      
economy1 cleanliness1 and even of       
safety1 are sufficiently  understood to 
spread the use of coal gas to every part
 of the kingdom4  ,in the metropolis    
alone there are twelve gas companies1   
who receive  for the sale of gas an     
average of #ajj1jjj per annum each1 thus
 making  the sum paid for gas lighting  
in ,london #a1bjj1jjj1 and it has been  
estimated as high as #b1jjj1jjj4 ,taking
 the average price to be #ds4  #f;d4 per
 thousand cubic feet1 the quantity of   
gas consumed amounts  to #e1cjj1jjj1jjj 
cubic feet2 and if we add to that       
quantity #bj per  cent4 for leakage     
through the mains and pipes1 the        
quantity of gas  manufactured in the    
metropolitian gas works is upwards of   
#f1jjj1jjj1jjj  cubic feet in a year4   
,it may1 perhaps1 give a clearer notion 
of this  immense quantity to say1 that a
 gas-holder1 capable of containing it1  
would require to be one mile in         
diameter1 and the height of ,st4 ,paul's

  ,cathedral4 ,the light produced by    
burning such a volume of gas would  be  
equal to that of #aej1jjj tons of mould 
candles1 which would cost  #ac1jjj1jjj4 
,the quantity of coals requisite for the
 production of the  gas manufactured    
annually in ,london is upwards of       
#fjj1jjj tons4          ,,the ,,electric
 ,,light4      ,the ,electric ,light is 
the brightest meteor that has flashed   
across the  horizon of promise during   
the present century4 ,when first        
exhibited  as a means of illumination1  
about twelve years ago1 the splendour of
  the rays emitted1 and the delusive    
representations of the small cost       
required to produce such a brilliant    
light1 led the public to believe  that  
the career of gas-lighting was drawing  
to a close1 and that night  would be    
turned into day by this wonderful       
demonstration of electrical  power4 ,the
 light produced by charcoal points1     
subjected to the action  of a powerful  
voltaic battery1 was1 however1 no       

novelty at that time2  for as far back  
as #ahaj1 ,sir ,humphry ,davy was       
accustomed to exhibit  that development 
of electrical force at the ,royal       
,institution1 and it  formed a standard 
experiment in most chemical lectures4   
,but it seems  not to have been thought 
applicable in those days to the purposes
 of  illumination2 and when ,mr4 ,staite
 brought it into notice1 and exhibited  
its effects on the tops of some public  
buildings1 it was considered one  of the
 most wonderful inventions of the age4  
,mr4 ,staite's patent1 taken out in     
#ahdg1 though commonly supposed to  be  
for the ,electric ,light generally1 was 
limited in its clauses to  the          
construction of a voltaic battery and   
apparatus1 adapted for  maintaining     
constancy1 and for giving steadiness to 
the light4 ,the  merely temporary       
continuance of the voltaic arc1 as it   
was formerly  called1 seemed indeed to  
preclude the possibility of its adoption
 as a  means of illumination2 it was    

therefore a great point gained to give  
stability and constancy to the light4   
,the difficulty of accomplishing  this  
will be perceived when it is known that 
the charcoal points1  between which the 
action takes place1 are constantly      
undergoing change1  the particles of    
carbon being transferred from one to the
 other4 ,there  is no actual combustion 
of the charcoal1 in the ordinary meaning
 of  the term2 the action is principally
 confined to the transfer of the        
charcoal connected with the positive    
pole1 to that connected with the        
negative pole of the voltaic battery1 a 
hollow being formed in one1 and  a      
pyramidical accumulation of particles in
 the other4 ,this action was            
beautifully shown by ,professor ,faraday
 at the ,royal ,institution last  year1 
by projecting the image of the charcoal 
points on to a screen1  by means of the 
,electric ,light itself4 ,the image1    
magnified by the  lenses of the electric
 lamp1 could thus be distinctly seen    

without  being too brilliant to dazzle  
the eyes4 ,the particles of carbon1     
heated  to whiteness1 were perceived to 
be in active motion1 and the piling  up 
of the pyramid in one1 and the hollow   
produced in the other1 were  continually
 varying the distances between them1 and
 thus tending to  cause unsteadiness in 
the light4    ,numerous contrivances    
have been adopted for the purpose of    
keeping  the points at exactly the same 
distance1 as the want of stability was  
supposed to be the only obstacle to the 
adoption of the ,electric ,light4       
,these contrivances have so far         
succeeded1 that a tolerably steady light
  can be maintained for some time1 but  
under the most careful management  the  
points occasionally approach too near or
 are too far apart to  maintain an      
equable light4    ,among other          
inventions to increase the steadiness of
 the light is one  that was patented in 
#ahef1 by ,mr4 ,way1 in which mercury is
 substituted  for charcoal1 but the     

steadiness of light to be thus acquired 
must  be attained with a great loss of  
illuminating power1 and the vapour      
arising from the combustion of the      
mercury would be extremely injurious  to
 health4    ,mr4 ,hearder1 of ,plymouth1
 has produced more brilliant effects    
with the  ,electric ,light than any     
other person4 ,some remarkable          
exhibitions of  the power of the light  
were made by him1 in ,april1 #ahdi1 from
 the top  of the ,devonport ,column1 and
 several scientific gentlemen undertook 
to  make observations at different      
localities to a distance of five miles4 
,at ,tremeton ,castle1 on the banks of  
the ,tamar1 a distance of nearly #c     
miles2 the light cast a strong shadow1  
and writing could be distinctly  read by
 it4 ,the space illuminated was at least
 three quarters of a  mile broad4 ,to   
aid the effect1 a reflector was         
employed1 and when the  rays were       
directed to the clouds1 they had the    
appearance of a huge  comet1 the        

reflector being the nucleus4 ,the       
intensity of the light was  ascertained 
to be equal to that of #cja1djj mould   
candles of six to the  pound1 whilst the
 light of the ,breakwater ,lighthouse   
was equal to only  #aej candles4 ,at a  
distance of five miles the light was    
sufficiently  powerful to enable persons
 to read a book4    ,the battery        
employed by ,mr4 ,hearder in these      
brilliant experiments  consisted of #hj 
cells of a ,maynooth battery1 #d inches 
square1 and  the carbon cylinders       
between which the light appeared were   
formed of  powdered coke1 mixed with    
tar1 and rammed into a tube three       
quarters  of an inch in diameter4 ,when 
these cylinders are about a quarter of  
an inch apart1 the ,electric ,light     
appears at the end of each for the      
space of more than half an inch4 ,the   
light1 during the experiments at        
,plymouth1 was maintained for three     
hours1 and the materials employed       
amounted to one pound and a-half of     

zinc1 #aad fluid ounces of sulphuric    
acid1 the same quantity of nitric acid1 
and six pounds of muriate of            
ammonia4#ad    ,the most serious        
practical objection to the introduction 
of the  ,electric ,light1 as a means of 
general illumination1 is its expense4   
,when the project was first brought into
 notice1 attempts were made to  show    
that the battery power required might be
 obtained at little cost1  and in this  
respect some deceptions were practised  
not creditable to  the parties engaged  
in promoting the scheme4 ,it has been   
proved by ,mr4  ,grove that the cost of 
ordinary batteries necessary to maintain
 the  light in full brilliancy would    
greatly exceed the price of an equal    
light from gas4    ,a plan was patented 
for generating the required voltaic     
power1 free  from cost1 by applying the 
residual sulphate of zinc as paint1 and 
an  ,electric ,power and ,light ,company
 was formed to carry out the project4   
,but the plan failed1 and the affairs of

 the company have recently been  wound  
up4    ,until some cheaper mode of      
generating electricity than is at       
present  known be invented1 there is no 
hope of the ,electric ,light becoming   
generally available1 but there are      
special circumstances in which  it may  
be applied with advantage4 ,it is       
peculiarly applicable for  lighthouses1 
as its rays would penetrate through a   
foggy atmosphere  that would obscure the
 light of ordinary flames1 and in such  
cases the  extra cost should not operate
 as an obstacle to its use4             
,,instantaneous ,,lights4      ,those   
who are not old enough to remember the  
time when flint-and-steel  were the     
implements employed to obtain a light1  
can have no sufficient  appreciation of 
the great convenience of ,lucifer       
matches4 ,in those  good old times1 it  
was a regular household care to provide 
a  sufficiency of tinder1 to see that it
 was kept dry1 and that there  was a    
proper flint with fire in it4 ,the      

striking of a light1 when  the          
tinder-box was adequately supplied1 was 
no mean accomplishment2  and the        
unskilful hand1 operating in the dark1  
would either get no  sparks at all1 or  
send them in a wrong direction1 and not 
unfrequently  strike the skin off the   
knuckles1 in the vain endeavour to set  
light  to the tinder4 ,or if the tinder 
were damp1 the sparks would fall upon   
it without igniting1 and minutes would  
be spent in holding a pointed  brimstone
 match to the delusive spark1 and       
blowing at it without  effect4          
,sometimes the incautious operator1     
tired with his fruitless  efforts1 would
 sprinkle gunpowder over the tinder1 to 
make it take  fire more readily1 and    
whilst puffing at a long-desired spark1 
the  gunpowder would explode in his face
 and nearly blind him4 ,such were  some 
of the annoyances1 attended by loss of  
time1 that were experienced  in         
obtaining the same result that is now   
produced instantaneously1 and  much more

 effectively1 by merely rubbing the     
match against any rough  surface4       
,several attempts had1 indeed1 been made
 many years ago to supplant  the        
flint-and-steel and tinder-box1 and some
 of the plans adopted so  closely       
approach the matches now in use1 that we
 wonder the inventors  did not succeed  
long since in contriving the very facile
 means of  striking a light that we now 
enjoy4 ,phosphorus and brimstone matches
  were first employed for the purpose4  
,the phosphorus was contained in a      
bottle placed within a tin case1 which  
also held the pointed brimstone  matches
 and a piece of cork4 ,the match was    
dipped into the phosphorus  bottle1 and 
then rubbed on the cork2 and the        
friction excited  sufficient heat to    
inflame the small quantity of phosphorus
 adhering  to the match and1 to set fire
 to the sulphur4 ,these phosphorus boxes
  answered the purpose very well1 but   
the apprehended danger of using so      
inflammable a substance prevented their 

coming into general use2 and  they were 
much more costly than a tinder-box4     
,in the next advance1 if it may be so   
called1 in the invention of             
instantaneous light-producers1          
phosphorus was altogether discarded1    
and a mixture of chlorate of potass1    
then called oxymuriate of potass1  and  
sugar was employed4 ,those substances1  
when combined1 inflame  explosively in  
contact with sulphuric acid4 ,in        
applying them for the  purpose of       
obtaining instantaneous light1 they were
 mixed together in  an adhesive         
menstruum1 into which the ends of small 
rectangular matches  were dipped4 ,these
 matches very nearly resembled the      
,lucifers of  the present day4 ,to      
ignite them1 a small bottle containing  
sulphuric  acid and asbestos was        
provided1 and they were arranged        
together in  an ornamental taper-stand  
for the chimney-piece4 ,this apparatus  
was  not received with much favour1     
partly on account of injury done by  a  

careless use of the sulphuric acid1     
partly because it failed to  act when   
the acid had absorbed moisture from the 
atmosphere1 but  principally because of 
its cost4    ,to obviate the objection  
arising from the use of sulphuric acid  
in  open bottles1 an ingenious          
contrivance was adopted1 by which each  
match contained its own reservoir of    
acid sufficient for igniting  the       
inflammable compound4 ,small glass      
globules1 containing sulphuric  acid1   
were introduced into the composition of 
chlorate of potass and  sugar1 which1   
when broken1 set fire to the mixture and
 lighted the  match4 ,these             
instantaneous lights1 which were called 
,prometheans1  were more ingenious than 
useful1 because the trouble of          
manufacture  rendered them expensive1   
and the sulphuric acid was more likely  
to  injure furniture in that form than  
when a bottle with asbestos was  used4  
,the ,prometheans1 however1 possessed   
the advantage of portability1  and for  

occasional purposes they were           
convenient4 ,in some of the forms  in   
which the ,prometheans were             
manufactured1 the glass globule of acid1
  surrounded by its inflammable         
compound1 was attached to the end of a  
small stick of sealing-wax1 sufficiently
 large to seal a letter2 but  this      
refinement in instantaneous lights was  
not much patronized4    ,notwithstanding
 these ingenious attempts to produce    
light by chemical  action1 the          
flint-and-steel retained possession of  
the field until  a match was made that  
ignited by friction alone4 ,the first   
kind of  friction match was invented in 
#ahcb4 ,it consisted of a thin splinter 
of dried wood1 the top of which was     
dipped in a mixture of one part  of     
chlorate of potass1 two of sulphide of  
antimony1 and one of gum4  ,to ignite   
the match it was necessary to draw it   
briskly through  sand-paper4 ,these     
matches required some address to light  
them1 because  much more friction was   

required than is sufficient to light    
,lucifers4    ,the next improvement was 
the ,congreve match1 in which recourse  
was had to the materials previously     
used1 separately1 for obtaining         
instantaneous lights4 ,congreve matches 
were composed of an emulsion  of        
phosphorus mixed with chlorate of       
potass1 into which the matches1         
previously tipped with sulphur1 were    
dipped4 ,these matches were of  the same
 size and form as the ,lucifers now in  
general use1 and they  ignited readily  
by friction on sand-paper or other rough
 surface4 ,their  explosive noise on    
inflammation1 which gave them their     
name1 was the  only apparent difference 
between ,congreves and ,lucifers1 and   
their  introduction completely          
supplanted the flint-and-steel4    ,the 
noiseless match1 or ,lucifer1 has1 in   
its turn1 driven the ,congreve  almost  
out of use1 though for practical        
purposes the latter was as  effective1  
and it was less dangerous4 ,the ,lucifer

 matches depend  altogether on          
phosphorus for their inflammability4    
,their composition  is an emulsion of   
phosphorus with glue1 nitre1 and some   
colouring  matters4 ,the sulphur        
matches1 after having been tipped with  
that  composition1 are exposed in a warm
 room until a sufficient quantity of    
the phosphorus is evaporated by slow    
combustion1 to leave a film of  glue on 
the surface to protect the remainder    
from the action of the  atmosphere4 ,the
 usual proportions for the compound are1
 phosphorus  four parts1 nitre ten1 glue
 six1 red ochre five1 and smalt two4    
,the  principle on which the action of  
,lucifer matches depends1 is the strong 
affinity of phosphorus for oxygen1 of   
which the nitre with which it  is mixed 
contains an abundant supply2 and by     
drawing the match across  sand-paper1   
sufficient heat is excited by the       
friction to ignite  the phosphorus1 and 
the nitre supplies the oxygen to        
maintain rapid  combustion4    ,the     

manufacture of ,lucifer matches is      
conducted on a very large scale  in this
 country and on the ,continent4 ,it     
requires several ship loads of  wood to 
supply the requirements of              
,lucifer-match makers2 and ingenious    
contrivances have been patented for     
cutting it up into splints of the       
proper size4 ,for that purpose1 after   
the wood has been reduced to  the       
required lengths by circular saws1 it is
 cut up into splints by  a number of    
lancet points1 separated from each other
 as far apart as  the thickness of a    
match1 which pass over the wood and     
divide it with  great rapidity4 ,the    
splints are collected into bundles of   
one thousand1  and each end having been 
dipped into melted sulphur1 they are    
divided  in the middle by a circular    
saw4    ,the ,reports of the ,juries of 
the ,great ,exhibition supply a variety 
of  statistical details respecting the  
manufacture of chemical matches1  from  
which it appears that the quantity made 

in ,austria1 in #ahdi1  amounted to     
#ej1jjj cwt42 and that in ,france1 in   
#ahej1 the phosphorus  consumed in the  
manufacture of matches1 amounted yearly 
to #eij cwt42  and the consumption has  
rapidly increased since that time4 ,in  
this  country1 it is calculated that    
eight tons of phosphorus are yearly used
  in making matches1 the number of which
 is stated to be #dj1jjj1jjj a  day4    
,large quantities are also imported from
 ,germany1 where they are  manufactured 
so cheaply1 that fifty boxes each       
containing #ajj matches1  are sold for  
fourpence4    ,the latest improvement in
 chemical matches is the ,vesta1 which  
consists of small wax1 or stearine      
tapers1 with an igniting composition  at
 the end1 consisting of chlorate of     
potass and phosphorus4 ,these           
,instantaneous ,lights are made without 
sulphur1 consequently the  disagreeable 
smell of the common ,lucifer is avoided4
 ,the convenience  of smokers has also  
been consulted in the manufacture of    

,instantaneous  ,lights4 ,the fusees1   
now so frequently used for lighting     
cigars1 are  composed of thin card-board
 cut half through1 steeped in nitre and 
with  a small quantity of phosphorus2   
and the tearing of the paper across     
produces sufficient heat to ignite the  
inflammable card4    ,thousands of      
persons1 principally children1 are now  
employed in  the manufacture of chemical
 matches4 ,the occupation1 as at present
  conducted1 is very unhealthy1 for the 
fumes of the phosphorus produce  a      
disease of a remarkable kind in the     
jaw-bone1 which often proves  fatal4 ,no
 cure has yet been found for this       
peculiar disease1 occasioned  by the    
phosphorus in the state in which it is  
commonly used4 ,a  preparation of that  
substance has1 however1 been made which 
may be used  without injury1 and which  
possesses the advantage also of being   
less  dangerously inflammable2 but as   
the red amorphous phosphorus1 as it  is 
called1 is rather more costly1 the      

manufacturers of ,lucifer matches       
object to use it4          ,,paper      
,,making ,,machinery4      ,cheap       
literature and the large development of 
newspapers are  principally attributable
 to the improvements in ,paper ,making1 
by the  aid of machinery4    ,in the    
former modes of making paper1 the       
workman held in his hands a  square     
frame covered with wires1 which he      
dipped into the prepared  cotton or     
linen pulp1 which was kept in suspension
 by being agitated in  water1 and taking
 up a quantity sufficient to cover the  
frame1 he moved  the pulp about         
horizontally1 to spread it evenly over  
the surface of  the wires4 ,another     
workman transferred the layer of pulp on
 to felt1  and in this manner one sheet 
was laid upon another1 with felt between
  each4 ,they were next subjected to    
great pressure1 for the purpose of      
making the fibrous particles cohere     
sufficiently to form sheets of  paper4  
,the felts were then removed1 and the   

sheets were piled upon one  another and 
again pressed1 after which they were    
dried1 sized1 and  finished4    ,paper  
,making1 by that process1 was a slow    
operation4 ,the thickness  and evenness 
of the sheets depended altogether on the
 judgment and  skill of the workman1 and
 their size was necessarily limited by  
the  dimensions of the frame4 ,by the   
improved methods1 nearly all the work   
is done by machinery4 ,the soft fibrous 
pulp1 which is to be converted  into    
paper1 enters the machine at one end1   
and in the course of two  minutes it is 
delivered at the other end of the       
machine in a continuous  sheet1 that may
 extend for miles4 ,by supplemental     
contrivances the  paper is cut into     
sheets1 piled together1 and presented in
 a salable  form4    ,the world is      
indebted to a ,frenchman1 named ,louis  
,robert1 for the  invention of the first
 machine for making paper4 ,he was a    
workman in  ,m4 ,didot's paper mill1 at 
,essones1 and for his contrivance of a  

method  for making continuous paper1 he 
obtained from the ,french ,government1  
in  #agii1 the sum of #h1jjj francs and 
a patent for the manufacture of the     
machines4 ,the political agitation in   
,france at that period prevented  much  
progress from being made with the       
invention1 but after the ,peace  of     
,amiens1 in #ahjb1 ,m4 ,didot1 jun4 came
 to this country1 accompanied by  his   
brother-in-law1 ,mr4 ,gamble1 for the   
purpose of making arrangements  to carry
 it into effect4 ,they induced ,messrs4 
,h4 and ,s4 ,fourdrinier to  engage with
 them in bringing the machinery to      
perfection1 and patents  obtained in    
this country by ,mr4 ,gamble were       
assigned to them in #ahjd4    ,the      
engineering establishment of ,mr4 ,hall1
 at ,dartford1 in ,kent1 was  selected  
as best adapted for the purpose of      
making the machinery and  for carrying  
the plans into operation4 ,mr4 ,bryan   
,donkin1 who was  engaged in the        
manufactory1 principally assisted in    

bringing the  machinery to perfection4  
,the difficulties attending the         
completion of  all the parts1 to get    
them to work effectually1 and the       
obstruction  encountered in introducing 
the machine-made paper1 rendered the    
enterprise a ruinous speculation to     
those who first engaged in it4  ,messrs4
 ,fourdrinier having expended #fj1jjj in
 perfecting the machine4                
,illustration    ,the apparatus1 of     
which a representation is given in the  
annexed  woodcut1 was very complicated1 
but the essential parts may be readily  
understood4    ,the rags from which the 
paper is made undergo a variety of      
processes  before they are properly     
reduced into a state of pulp4 ,they are 
sorted1  dusted1 boiled1 and torn into  
pieces by passing through cutting       
rollers2 they are then bleached and     
again submitted to the grinding  action 
of rollers1 which reduce them into a    
state of fine pulp1  resembling milk in 
appearance4 ,the pulp thus prepared is  

placed in a  large vat1 where it is kept
 constantly agitated1 to prevent the    
more  solid parts from being deposited4 
,from the vat the pulp is discharged    
into a cistern1 over the edge of which  
it flows in a continuous stream  upon an
 endless wire cloth1 the meshes of which
 are so fine that there  are as many as 
#f1jjj holes in a square inch4    ,the  
wire gauze1 on to which the pulp is     
poured1 is about #d feet wide1  and #be 
feet long1 and it is kept constantly    
moving onwards1 by rollers  at each end1
 over which it passes4 ,the gauze is    
stretched out perfectly  level1 and the 
pulp is prevented from flowing over the 
edges by straps  on each side1 which    
limit the width of the paper4 ,as the   
endless  wire cloth moves along1 an     
agitating motion is given to it1 by     
which  means the pulp is spread evenly  
over the surface2 the water is also     
drained off through the interstices of  
the gauze1 and this part of the  process
 is expedited in the improved machines  

by producing a partial  vacuum          
underneath4 ,before the sheet of pulp   
has arrived at the farther  extremity of
 the wire cloth1 it passes between two  
cylinders1 the under  one of which is of
 metal1 covered with felt1 and the upper
 one of wood4  ,a slight pressure given 
to the pulp in passing between those    
cylinders  imparts sufficient tenacity  
to it to enable it to be transferred    
from  the wire gauze on to an endless   
web of felt1 by means of a slice that   
clears the pulp from the wire gauze1 and
 deposits it on the felt4 ,the  latter  
is kept moving at exactly the same speed
 as the wire gauze1  otherwise there    
would be either a rent or a fold on the 
sheet4 ,the  paper1 still in a very wet 
state1 is carried between cast iron     
rollers1  and its fibres are forcibly   
pressed together1 which operation       
squeezes  out the water1 and so far     
gives tenacity to the pulp that it may  
be  handled without tearing4 ,the sheet 
then passes on to other rollers1 by     

which it is further compressed1 and its 
surface smoothened4 ,the paper  is1     
however1 still damp1 and requires to be 
dried4 ,this is done by  passing it over
 large metal cylinders1 heated by steam4
 ,the process of  making the paper is   
then completed1 and the continuous sheet
 may be  wound upon a reel to any       
length2 but it is now usual to cut it up
 into  sheets as soon as it leaves the  
drying cylinders4    ,the wire cloth    
moves at the rate of from #be to #dj    
feet per minute1 and  such a machine    
would consequently make at least #aj    
yards of paper in  that time1 which is  
equal to a mile in three hours4 ,the    
width of the  paper is usually about #d 
feet1 therefore each machine will make  
#aj1dej  square yards of paper in twelve
 hours2 and there are upwards of three  
hundred of such machines at work in this
 country4 ,the value of the  paper thus 
produced is calculated to exceed two    
millions sterling4    ,numerous         
improvements have been made in          

,fourdrinier's original machine1  but   
the principle of its construction       
remains essentially the same1  and it is
 by this means that most of the paper   
now used for writing  or printing is    
manufactured4 ,a paper-making machine1  
on a different  principle1 has1 however1
 been invented by ,mr4 ,dickinson1 and  
has been  carried by him to great       
perfection4 ,instead of allowing the    
pulp to  fall on to a flat surface of   
wire gauze1 a polished hollow brass     
cylinder1 perforated with holes and     
covered with wire cloth1 revolves  in   
contact with the prepared pulp1 and a   
partial vacuum being produced  within   
the cylinder1 the pulp adheres to the   
gauze1 and its fibres  cohere           
sufficiently1 before the cylinder has   
completed a revolution1 to  be turned   
off on to another cylinder covered with 
felt1 on which it is  subjected to      
pressure by rollers1 and is thence      
delivered to the drying  cylinders4     
,mr4 ,dickinson afterwards obtained a   

patent1 in #ahee1 for making a union    
paper1 consisting of a thin sheet of    
that made by his own machine1 and  a    
similar sheet made by a ,fourdrinier    
machine united together4 ,for  this     
purpose the two sheets were brought     
together1 as they passed from  the      
machines1 whilst still wet and in an    
unfinished state1 and were  pressed     
together between rollers1 by which means
 they were completely  incorporated4    
,the object of this contrivance was to  
combine1 in a  single sheet1 the        
different kinds of surface which paper  
made by those  two modes of manufacture 
present4 ,it is also employed           
economically  for engravings1 to give a 
fine surface to a thick sheet of coarser
  material4 ,the threads in postage     
envelopes and in bankers' cheques1 are  
introduced by this process of plating   
two surfaces together4    ,the greatly  
increased consumption of paper          
threatened to exhaust  the supply of the
 raw material1 notwithstanding the large

 import  from abroad and the enormous   
supply derived from the waste of the    
cotton mills1 which1 when mixed with    
rags1 produces good paper4 ,the         
quantity of old rags1 old junk1 and     
other fibrous materials imported  for   
the purpose of making paper1 in #ahej1  
is stated in the ,jury  ,reports of the 
,great ,exhibition to have amounted to  
#h1abd tons4  ,this large importation1  
added to the stock of rags supplied by  
the  country itself1 was1 however1      
inadequate to meet the consumption1 and 
search was anxiously made for other     
fibrous substances that could be        
converted into paper2--peat1 cocoa-nut  
fibre1 grass1 straw1 and even  wood have
 been used for the purpose4 ,of those   
substances1 straw has  been most        
successfully applied1 and straw         
paper--excellent to write  upon1 though 
not bright in colour--is now made at    
very low prices4  ,the straw is first   
cut up into short lengths1 of about half
 an inch1  by a chaff-cutting machine1  

and after undergoing various processes  
of  trituration and bleaching1 it is    
reduced into a pulp1 sufficiently       
adhesive to make a strong paper4    ,the
 plan of drying the paper as it leaves  
the rollers of the machine1  was        
introduced by ,mr4 ,crompton in #ahbj1  
and that gentleman was also the  first  
to introduce a machine for cutting the  
paper into sheets as soon  as it is     
dried4 ,the first invention of the kind 
was patented by ,mr4  ,crompton1 in     
conjunction with ,mr4 ,miller and       
,professor ,cowper1 in #ahbh4  ,the     
continuous web of paper was made to pass
 directly from the drying  apparatus to 
the cutting machine1 by which it was    
first slit into bands  of the required  
width by means of a series of sharp     
discs of steel1  adjustable on two      
parallel axes4 ,the bands of paper then 
passed on to  shears1 placed            
transversely1 that cut it into sheets of
 any required  length1 which were laid  
upon one another1 to be divided into    

quires4    ,several other cutting       
machines have since been invented1 the  
simplest  of which is the one patented  
by ,mr4 ,dickinson1 which is represented
 in  the woodcut4    ,illustration      
,the paper may be taken directly from   
the drying cylinders or from a  reel1 as
 shown in the diagram at a4 ,the sheet  
passes over a large  drum and through   
several guide rollers1 till it is       
carried across  the table a h1 where it 
is cut lengthwise by knives1 as it      
passes  along4 ,a series of chisel-edged
 cutters are placed at regulated        
distances beneath the table2 and whilst 
the paper is stretched over  it1 several
 circular knives1 f f1 fixed into a     
swing frame1 g g1  at corresponding     
distances with the knives beneath1 are  
swung across  the sheet1 and cut it in  
the manner of a pair of shears4 ,other  
kinds of  cutting machines are          
contrived1 by which sheets of writing   
paper1 when  collected in quires1 are   
squeezed tightly together1 and their    

edges are  smoothly and evenly cut4     
,we must not conclude this notice of    
,paper ,making ,machinery without       
alluding to the ingenious self-acting   
mechanisms for making envelopes4  ,in   
the ,great ,exhibition of #ahea there   
were three different machines  exhibited
 in action1 each one producing1 with    
great rapidity1 those  neat coverings   
for letters1 for which the penny postage
 system has  created so great a demand4 
,the paper1 cut into the desired form by
 a  separate machine1 was piled up on   
one side of the envelope folder4  ,it   
was taken1 sheet by sheet1 and stretched
 on a small table1 on the  middle of    
which there was a trap door1 held up by 
a spring to a level  with the rest of   
the table4 ,a plunger1 of the same size 
as the envelope  to be made1 pressed the
 trap down into a recess1 and raised the
 four  corners of the paper1 the edges  
of which were then gummed1 and small    
mechanical fingers folded them down4    
,the completed envelope was then  thrown

 out into a basket1 or it slided out of 
the machine on to those  before made4   
,each of those machines1 with a boy as  
an attendant1 will fold  #b1gjj         
envelopes in an hour1 which is nearly   
the same number that  an experienced    
workman can fold in a day with a folding
 stick4  ,notwithstanding the           
supplanting of manual labour to so great
 an extent  by these ingenious          
mechanisms1 the effect of increased     
facility of  manufacture has been to    
give increased employment1 and many more
  persons are now engaged in making     
envelopes than were so employed  before 
the invention of the machines4          
,,printing ,,machines4      ,the        
associated inventions of paper making   
and printing have progressed  hand in   
hand together2 the increased facility   
with which paper can  be made by        
machinery having been equalled1 if not  
surpassed1 by the  rapidity with which  
it can be printed4    ,the old wooden   
printing press1 that was in general use 

at the beginning  of the present        
century1 is now an object of curiosity1 
and a few  specimens of it are to be    
seen1 even in country printing offices4 
,the principal working part of the      
wooden press consisted of a block  of   
wood1 having a perfectly flat and smooth
 surface1 half the size of  an ordinary 
sheet of printing paper1 which was      
brought down upon the  types by means of
 a screw that was turned by a long      
lever4 ,the types1  placed upon a flat  
stone embedded in a movable table1 were 
inked with  large soft balls covered    
with pelts4 ,the damped paper was put   
into a  frame1 at the back of which     
blankets were placed1 and was laid      
lightly  on the inked types4 ,the       
movable table was then pushed under the 
block  of wood1 called the platten1 the 
long lever was pulled with great        
strength1 and the platten being thus    
brought forcibly upon the blankets  and 
paper1 one-half of the sheet was        
printed4 ,the lever1 on being  released1

 sprang back to its former position1 and
 the table with the  types upon it was  
pushed farther under the platten1 which 
was again  pulled down to print the     
other half of the sheet4 ,the table was 
then  pulled back1 and the sheet of     
paper1 printed on one side1 was removed4
  ,these operations occupied            
considerable time1 and the regular work 
of  two men1 with a wooden press1 was to
 print #bej sheets an hour on one  side4
    ,this original contrivance for      
printing was supplanted by the ,stanhope
  press1 one of the most admirable      
arrangements for the advantageous       
application of the lever that is to be  
found in the whole range of  mechanical 
contrivances4    ,the improved printing 
press1 invented by ,lord ,stanhope1 the 
first of  which was completed in #ahjj1 
is made altogether of iron4 ,the platten
 is  of the full size of the sheet of   
paper to be printed1 and the work is    
done at a single pull4 ,the requisite   
power is obtained by a combination  of  

levers1 so adjusted that the platten is 
brought down rapidly in the  first      
instance1 before any pressure is        
required1 and when it comes  to bear    
upon the types1 the levers act with the 
greatest possible  mechanical advantage1
 so that the handle moves through the   
space of a  foot1 whilst the platten    
descends only the twentieth part of an  
inch4  ,by this means a large sheet of  
paper can be printed off by a single    
pull1 and with more impression and      
greater sharpness than by two pulls     
with a wooden press4    ,great as was   
this improvement in the printing press1 
its action was  still very slow1        
compared with the rapidity of printing  
we are now  accustomed to1 it being     
considered quick work1 with a small     
,stanhope  press1 to print #ejj sheets  
an hour4 ,the author remembers to have  
seen  the ,globe newspaper printed by an
 old wooden press in #ahbj2 and1  about 
the same time1 the ,london ,courier1 by 
a ,stanhope press4 ,in  order to supply 

the large demand for the latter paper1  
it was then  customary to print off     
three pages early in the day1 and to set
 up  the types for the fourth page1     
containing the latest news1 three or    
four times1 and to print it at as many  
separate presses4 ,the pressmen  could  
thus1 by great exertion1 perfect the    
printing1 when three presses  were used1
 at the rate of #a1ejj an hour4 ,the    
,times newspaper1 which  greatly exceeds
 the size of the ,courier1 is now       
printed by a machine  at the rate of    
#ac1jjj an hour4    ,the invention of   
printing machines was preceded by the   
manufacture of  inking rollers1 to      
supersede the pelt balls for            
distributing the ink  over the types4   
,earl ,stanhope had endeavoured in vain 
to construct  inking rollers1 for which 
purpose he tried skins and pelts of     
various  kinds1 but the seam proved an  
obstacle that he could not overcome4 ,in
  #ahjh1 a new elastic composition ball 
for printing1 which consisted           

principally of treacle and glue1 to     
serve as a substitute for pelts1  was   
invented by ,mr4 ,edward ,dyas1 a man of
 great original genius1  the parish     
clerk of ,madeley1 in ,shropshire4      
,these balls were first  introduced into
 the extensive printing office of the   
late ,mr4 ,edward  ,houlston1 of        
,wellington1 where they were for some   
time exclusively  used1 and that        
printing-office consequently became     
celebrated for the  excellence of its   
work4 ,a similar composition was some   
years afterwards  cast in the form of   
rollers1 upon a hollow core of wood1 by 
the late  ,mr4 ,harrild2 and these      
rollers have proved a far more cleanly  
and more  expeditious mode of inking the
 types than the balls4 ,these inking    
rollers supplied an essential want in   
the working of ,printing ,machines4     
,the invention of ,printing ,machines   
underwent many changes before it  was   
brought to a practical form4 ,such a    
machine was first projected  in #agij1  

by ,mr4 ,nicholson1 who proposed to     
place the types and paper  upon         
cylinders1 and to distribute and apply  
the ink also by cylinders4  ,another    
plan1 more closely approaching that of  
the printing machines  afterwards       
perfected by ,mr4 ,napier and others1   
was to place the types  upon a table and
 the paper upon an impressing cylinder1 
and to move  the table backwards and    
forwards under it4 ,in #ahac1 ,messrs4  
,donkin and  ,bacon proposed placing the
 types upon a prism1 which was to       
revolve  against an irregularly shaped  
cylinder1 on which the paper was to be  
placed4 ,nothing1 however1 could be     
effectually done in producing a  proper 
working printing machine until the      
invention of inking rollers4    ,in     
#ahad1 ,messrs4 ,bauer and ,knig        
succeeded in constructing a machine1    
which was erected at the ,times office1 
that produced #a1hjj  impressions an    
hour2 and it continued in use till      
#ahbg4 ,this rapidity  of action1       

compared with that of the most improved 
printing press1  produced a revolution  
in the art of printing2 attention was   
then  directed almost exclusively to the
 further improvement of the machines1   
and the platten press was neglected4    
,in the form of printing machines       
generally used1 the types are laid  upon
 an iron table that is moved to and fro 
by the turning of a wheel  connected    
with a steam engine4 ,the paper is      
placed upon cylinders  covered with     
flannel1 and the impression of the types
 is produced by  the cylinders being    
fixed so closely to them that1 as the   
table passes  backwards and forwards1   
there is great pressure4 ,the types are 
inked by  a series of rollers1 by which 
the ink is distributed and evenly laid  
on  the face of the types without any   
manual labour4    ,the mechanical power 
gained by an arrangement of this kind   
arises from  the pressure being exerted 
on a small surface at a time2           
consequently  the power required for    

producing the impression of the types is
 not  nearly so great as when the whole 
surface of the types makes the          
impression at the same instant4 ,the    
force actually pressing on the  types1  
from contact with the cylinders1 is very
 much less than that  brought to bear on
 them by the platten of the ,stanhope   
press2 but as  it acts on a smaller     
surface at a time1 the amount of        
pressure on  each part1 successively1   
greatly exceeds that received by any    
similar  portion when it is impressed   
all at once4 ,the difference of the     
action  of the platten and of the       
cylinder may be compared to the         
different  effects produced by a knife  
when pressed with its edge and with its 
flat side against a yielding surface2   
the pressure on the flat surface  may   
not be sufficient to leave any          
impression1 whilst a much smaller       
pressure on the edge will produce an    
indentation4    ,illustration    ,the   
accompanying woodcut is a representation

 of one of ,messrs4  ,applegath and     
,cowper's machines for printing both    
sides of the paper at  the same time4   
,it consists of a cast-iron frame1 about
 #ad feet long and #d feet wide1  on    
which the iron table1 with the types    
upon it1 slides backward and  forward   
under two large cast-iron cylinders1    
covered with blankets1  whereon the     
paper is laid4 ,the pages of type to be 
printed on one side  of the paper1 and  
those pages that are to be printed on   
the back1 are  wedged into iron frames1 
called chases1 and these chases are     
fixed  on the table at such a distance  
from each other1 that they will pass    
under the two cylinders in the same     
relative positions4 ,the sheets of      
paper are held on to the cylinders at   
their edges by means of tapes1  and are 
so laid on by the workmen1 that the type
 may be impressed on  them with an equal
 margin all round4 ,at each end of the  
machine is  a supply of ink1 which is   
taken from long iron rollers1 about     

three  inches in diameter1 each of which
 turns in contact with a flat iron  bar1
 that only allows a small quantity of   
ink to pass4 ,a composition  inking     
roller is made to vibrate between the   
inking table1 where on the  ink is      
thinly and evenly spread1 and the iron  
feeding roller1 and thus  delivers the  
requisite quantity of ink on to the     
table4 ,several other  composition      
rollers are placed across the inking    
table1 with their  axes resting in      
notched bearings1 so that as the inking 
table moves  forward and backward1 those
 rollers distribute the ink evenly over 
it4  ,there are four other rollers 7none
 of which are shown in the diagram71    
which take the ink from the table2 and  
as the types pass from under  the       
cylinders1 after printing a sheet1 and  
return to them1 they pass  twice under  
the inking rollers4 ,each sheet of paper
 is laid by a boy on  a web of tapes1 by
 which it is carried round one paper    
cylinder1 and  then over and under two  

wooden drums to the other paper         
cylinder4 ,the  sheet of paper1 in the  
course of its progress1 is turned over1 
so as to  receive the second impression 
on the other side2 and as the tapes that
  carry it along leave the second       
cylinder1 they divide1 and the printed  
sheet falls into the hands of a boy4    
,in the printing machine which was shown
 at work in the ,great  ,exhibition1    
invented by ,mr4 ,applegath and made by 
,mr4 ,middleton1 for  printing the      
,times1 the arrangements differ         
materially from those of  the horizontal
 machines already described4 ,the types1
 instead of being  placed on a table1   
and moved to and fro under the          
impressing cylinders1  are fixed to a   
large vertical cylinder1 upwards of #af 
feet in diameter1  and there are eight  
impressing cylinders ranged vertically  
round it1  with their axes fixed4 ,by   
this arrangement there is no loss of    
time in  withdrawing the types from     
under the cylinder to be again inked1   

but  they move round from one fixed     
cylinder to another1 receiving their    
ink between each1 and thus producing    
eight impressions in succession  during 
one complete revolution4 ,at the ,times 
printing office there  are now three    
machines of that construction1 two of   
which1 with eight  cylinders1 print ten 
thousand an hour1 and the other one1    
which has  nine impressing cylinders1   
thirteen thousand4    ,the operations   
for printing that newspaper exhibit     
marvellous efforts  of human ingenuity  
and skill1 brought to bear in producing 
with the  requisite rapidity a          
sufficient number of impressions to     
supply its  enormous circulation4 ,after
 the types have been composed and       
corrected1  and ranged into columns and 
screwed up into their chases by upwards 
of  one hundred hands1 each page of type
 is attached to the large vertical      
cylinder--a curved form having been     
given to the type to adapt it to  the   
circular surface4 ,nine men1 standing   

each one beside a heap of  damped paper1
 feed the largest machine by separating 
the sheets singly  from the heap1 and   
present them successively to the action 
of small  rollers1 that give each sheet 
a forward impulse1 which brings it      
within  the grasp of a series of endless
 tapes4 ,these tapes catch hold of the  
sheets of paper1 and carry them down to 
the level of the types4 ,they  are then 
shot along horizontally to the pressing 
rollers1 covered with  blankets1 round  
which they are carried and pressed      
against the types2  after which the     
endless tapes carry them away1 and      
deliver them printed  to a man below1   
who spreads them one over the other4 ,a 
large reservoir  of ink at the top of   
the machine supplies the inking tables1 
from which  it is spread evenly over the
 inking rollers1 and1 at each revolution
  of the type cylinder1 nine sheets are 
printed on one side4 ,they are  then    
taken to a second machine to be printed 
on the back1 or1 as it  is called1      

perfected4 ,the accompanying engraving  
shows the general  arrangement of the   
machines4    ,few mechanical            
contrivances present so striking an     
illustration of  the application of     
human ingenuity to the production of    
important  results1 and to the saving of
 labour1 as these printing machines4 ,to
  see the sheets of paper travelling    
along the tapes--to see them shoot      
downwards1 carried sideways in one      
direction and back again1 and  delivered
 with half a million of words impressed 
upon them in less than  three seconds1  
seems like the work of magic4 ,to copy  
that number of  words1 thus printed in  
three seconds1 would occupy a rapid     
penman forty  days1 working ten hours a 
day4    ,illustration    ,great as are  
the printing powers of these machines of
 ,mr4 ,applegath's1  they have been     
surpassed more recently by one placed   
close beside them1  invented by ,mr4    
,hoe1 of ,new ,york4 ,in that machine   
the type cylinder  is placed            

horizontally1 by which means the paper  
is supplied directly  to it without     
altering its direction4 ,as many as     
twenty thousand  impressions in an hour 
have been produced by the ,american     
machine1 but  it is not yet sufficiently
 perfected to be brought into regular   
use4    ,in another part of the ,times  
establishment there is an ingenious     
machine for wetting the paper1 by which 
contrivance much labour and  time are   
saved4 ,the paper1 heaped in a pile at  
one end of a table1 is  presented in    
quires at a time to the action of a     
roller1 which drags  it on to a moving  
endless blanket1 that is kept wet by a  
stream of  water1 and the upper surface 
is wetted by a long brush1 placed over  
the blanket4 ,the wetted paper is heaped
 upon a truck1 which gradually          
descends1 to keep the upper sheets on a 
level with the table1 till  the paper is
 piled up a yard in thickness4 ,the     
truck is then raised1  by hydraulic     
pressure1 to the level of the floor1 and

 is wheeled away  and another one is    
loaded4 ,between nine and ten tons of   
paper are thus  wetted daily2 and the   
sheets of the ,times printed during a   
year1 if  spread out and piled one upon 
another1 would form a column as high  as
 ,mont ,blanc4 ,the quantity of ink     
daily consumed in the printing  is      
upwards of two hundredweight4 ,the      
machine is worked by two steam  engines1
 each of #af-;horse power2 and the noise
 of the numerous wheels  and rapidly    
revolving cylinders is almost deafening4
    ,the great rapidity and the         
comparative cheapness of printing by    
machines1 together with the greater     
facility of making paper by  machinery1 
have been the means of creating a demand
 for books which  it would be impossible
 to supply1 unless those means were at  
command4  ,thousands and hundreds of    
thousands of copies of publications1    
that  spread knowledge among the people 
of the highest interest to the  welfare 
of man1 and replete with useful         

information of every kind1  are now sold
 at prices which would be impossible1   
were it not for the  improvements that  
have been made in the manufacture of    
paper1 and in  the means of printing4   
,nor should we omit to notice1 as one of
 the causes that have  contributed to   
the production of cheap literature1 the 
art of  stereotyping1 which has been    
perfected during the present century4   
,earl  ,stanhope1 the inventor of the   
admirable press that bears his name1 was
  prominent in bringing that art to     
perfection4    ,numerous attempts had   
been made in the last century to produce
 casts  from pages of type4 ,so early1  
indeed1 as #agjj1 some almanacks and    
pamphlets were printed in ,paris from   
castings2 and an edition of  ,sallust   
was printed in ,edinburgh in #agci1 from
 stereotype plates  produced by ,mr4    
,ged1 a goldsmith4 ,the process1        
however1 was not  encouraged1 and on his
 death it was not further proceeded     
with4 ,the  most important advance in   

the art was made by ,m4 ,hoffman1 of    
,alsace1  who1 in #aghd1 succeeded in   
obtaining stereotype plates by casting  
them in moulds of clay mixed with       
gelatine in which the pages of  type    
were impressed1 with which he printed a 
work in three volumes2  but the castings
 were imperfect1 and the plan was soon  
afterwards  abandoned4 ,among the many  
plans tried to obtain perfect casts of  
the  types when set up1 was one         
contrived by ,m4 ,carez1 a printer of   
,toul1  who1 in #agia1 endeavoured to   
obtain casts in lead from a page of     
type1  by allowing it to drop on the    
fused metal when it was in a state of   
setting4 ,the matrices thus obtained    
were in like manner impressed on a      
fusible metal1 which melted at a lower  
temperature than the lead4 ,good  casts 
were often thus procured1 but the       
uncertainty of the process1  arising    
from the frequent fusion of the lead    
matrices1 caused it to  be discontinued4
 ,other plans were tried in ,france with

 more or less  success1 but nothing was 
done practically until ,lord ,stanhope  
directed  his attention to the subject  
in #ahjj1 and resorted to the original  
method of obtaining matrices1 by        
impressing the pages of type in a cold  
plastic substance4 ,he employed plaster 
of ,paris for his mould2 and when  they 
were thoroughly dried1 they were plunged
 in fused type-metal2 and  in this      
manner a perfect cast in metal of the   
original page of movable  type was      
produced4 ,the process has been still   
further perfected1 and  casts from      
movable types1 and from wood engravings1
 are now made with  great facility1 and 
the impressions from them are quite     
equal to the  originals4    ,when it is 
intended to stereotype a work1 the      
movable types used in  composing it are 
new1 and the spaces that separate the   
words from  each other are longer than  
is customary when the type is to be     
printed  from4 ,these elongated spaces  
reach nearly to the face of the letters1

  so that the plaster may not sink      
between them4 ,by this means the mould  
is easily removed from the face of the  
page of type4 ,the metal casting  of    
each page is very thin1 and when        
required to be used1 it is screwed  on  
to blocks of wood to the same height as 
ordinary types4    ,several attempts    
have been made to apply other substances
 than plaster  of ,paris and type-metal 
for stereotyping4 ,at the ,great        
,exhibition there  were specimens of    
gutta percha stereotypes1 that produced 
excellent  impressions1 and there were  
also fine stereotype castings of type in
  iron1 from which a copy of the ,bible 
had been printed4 ,papier mach has  been
 found to be a material peculiarly      
applicable for the purpose1 and  it is  
now superseding the use of plaster of   
,paris for taking casts of  the types4  
,by the application of the art of       
stereotyping1 casts in metal of         
valuable works can be kept ready at any 
time1 to be printed from when  more     

copies are required2 and the expense is 
saved of keeping on hand  large stocks  
of printed paper1 or of having a work   
recomposed when a  further edition is   
wanted4    ,the inventions of ,printing 
,machines and stereotyping were strongly
  opposed at first by pressmen and      
compositors1 as calculated to diminish  
the demand for their labour4 ,in        
,johnson's ,typographia1 published  in  
#ahbd1 the new-fangled articles are     
mentioned in a spirit of  great         
bitterness2 and the writer thus poured  
forth his lamentations  at the          
prospective ruin of the members of his  
profession3--,we are  much surprised at 
the apathy and supineness shown by the  
body of  master printers with respect to
 the subject under discussion2 they     
most assuredly had good and sufficient  
grounds for an application to           
,parliament for a tax1 that should bring
 the work so executed upon an  equality 
with that done by manual labour4--,we   
feel satisfied that the  above would not

 have met with encouragement from a     
,british public1 had  they been aware of
 the evils attendant on it2 they have   
not only to pay  a full price for the   
work1 but also extra poor's rates1 in   
consequence  of the men being thus out  
of employ2 likewise they are            
countenancing  the breaking up and      
destruction of all the energy and talent
 of that  art which was ,england's      
proudest boast1 and her shield against  
all the  threats of her foreign foes4   
,these predictions of ruin have been    
completely falsified4 ,it has been  with
 the ,printing ,machines as with most   
other improved machinery for  the saving
 of labour3 on their first introduction 
some hands1 no doubt1  were thrown out  
of employ1 but the advantages derived   
from the saving  of labour very soon    
reacted favourably in creating a greater
 demand for  labour than before4 ,the   
number of cheap periodicals1 and the    
extensive  issues of cheap literature in
 every form1 require a much larger      

number  of workmen to supply the demand1
 even with the aid of machinery1 than   
was needed in the best days of the      
manual printing press2 and at no  time  
were so many compositors and pressmen   
employed as at present4    ,in the      
,reports of the ,juries of the ,great   
,exhibition1 some interesting           
statistics are given1 showing the       
influence of the invention of  ,printing
 ,machines in extending the demand for  
books and periodicals4  ,the machine1 it
 is observed1 created a demand1 and     
called into  existence books which1 but 
for it1 would scarcely have been thought
  of4 ,as the machine-work from type and
 woodcuts was far better than  the      
ordinary printing of the day1           
booksellers were induced to print       
extensive editions1 because they saw the
 machine could accomplish all  they     
required4 ,one of the first booksellers 
who availed himself of this  power was  
,mr4 ,charles ,knight1 who projected the
 ',penny ,magazine1' on  a hint from    

,mr4 ,m4 ,d4 ,hill1 ,queen's ,counsel4  
,each number1 published  weekly1        
consisted of eight pages of letterpress1
 illustrated with  good wood engravings4
 ,the public was astonished at the      
cheapness and  good quality of the work1
 but it was its immense sale which      
rendered  it profitable2 for some years 
it amounted to #ahj1jjj copies weekly4  
,mr4 ,knight1 whose services in the     
cause of educational literature  entitle
 him to the highest praise1 expended    
#e1jjj a year in woodcuts  for this     
work4 ,the ,cowper machine has been the 
cause of the many  pictorial            
illustrations which characterize so     
large a portion of  modern publications4
 ,the ',saturday ,magazine1' ',chambers'
 ,journal1'  the ',magasin              
,pittoresque1' in ,france1 and numerous 
others1 owe their  existence to this    
printing machine4 ,the principle of     
cheap editions  and large sales soon    
extended to established works of a      
higher value4  ,a remarkable instance of

 this was the edition of ,sir ,walter   
,scott's  ,works1 with notes1 edited by 
himself2 instead of the old price #ajs4 
#f;d41 they were sold at #es4 a         
volume1#ae and the demand created by    
this reduction in price was so great1   
that1 though the printer had a  strong  
prejudice against machines1 he was      
compelled to have them1 the  presses of 
his large establishment proving totally 
unable to perform  the work1 which      
amounted to upwards of #a1jjj volumes   
per day for about  two years4 ,the      
,universities of ,cambridge and ,oxford 
have adopted ,mr4  ,cowper's machines   
for printing vast numbers of ,bibles1   
prayer-books1  c41 c4 ,a ,bible which   
formerly cost #cs4 may now be had for   
#as4 ,mr4  ,cowper recommended the      
,religious ,tract ,society to put aside 
their  coarse woodcuts1 to have superior
 wood engravings1 and to print with  his
 machine4 ,the ,society adopted those   
suggestions1 and the result is1  that by
 sending forth well-printed books1 it   

could now support itself  by their sale1
 without any aid from subscriptions4    
,as an illustration of the facilities   
afforded by the invention of  ,printing 
,machines in producing cheap editions of
 the writings of  popular authors1 the  
following curious facts relating to the 
,works of  ,sir ,walter ,scott1 in      
addition to those furnished in the      
,reports of the  ,juries1 may be found  
interesting4    ,in #ahdb1 a general    
issue of these ,works1 in weekly sheets 
or numbers1  at twopence each1 was      
commenced by the late ,mr4 ,robert      
,cadell1 of  ,edinburgh1 and completed  
in #ahdg4 ,of this edition1 up to the   
present  period 7#aheh71 the astonishing
 number of ,,twelve ,,millions ,,of     
,,sheets  have been issued1 the weight  
of which amounts to upwards of #cce     
tons6 ,another edition was published    
simultaneously by ,mr4 ,cadell in       
monthly volumes at #ds41 each containing
 about #cfj pages2 this series  has     
reached a sale of more than #ejj1jjj    

volumes4 ,a third cheap issue1  at      
eighteenpence a novel1 is now being     
published by the present  proprietors1  
,messrs4 ,adam and ,charles ,black1 of  
,edinburgh4 ,nearly  #cjj1jjj volumes   
have already been printed of this       
edition4    ,it may be mentioned here1  
although hardly coming within the scope 
of the present article1 but as affording
 a striking example of what  literature 
has contributed to the revenue of the   
country in the person  of a single      
author1 that upwards of #c1ejj tons'    
weight of paper#af  have been consumed  
in producing the various editions of    
,sir ,walter  ,scott's ,writings and    
,life2 and the duty paid to ,government 
on the  paper1 even at the present      
reduced rate1 amounts to no less a sum  
than  #ea1dej6    ,since the ,juries    
made their ,reports1 the development of 
cheap  literature has been greatly      
extended4 ,newspapers1 some of which    
contain  eight full-sized pages1 of six 
columns each1 printed in small type1 are

  sold for the marvellously low price of
 a penny1 and are stated to issue  as   
many as #ej1jjj copies daily2 and some  
of the newspapers and other             
periodicals1 printed on good paper1 are 
issued for a halfpenny4 ,among  the     
works of a standard character1 published
 at prices which nothing  but a very    
extensive scale could make remunerative1
 may be mentioned  the popular series   
which includes ,the ,reason ,why1 and   
,enquire ,within  upon ,everything4 ,of 
the eight volumes already issued1 each  
containing  about #cej closely printed  
pages for half-a-crown1 nearly #agj1jjj 
copies  have been sold within a period  
of less than three years4               
,,lithography4      ,the art of printing
 from stone was invented at the end of  
the last  century by ,m4 ,aloys         
,senefelder1 of ,munich2 but it was not 
brought to  such a state of perfection  
as to be practically useful until many  
years  afterwards4    ,the principle on 
which ,lithography depends is the       

different chemical  affinities of water 
for oily and for earthy substances1     
which cause  it to run off from the one 
and adhere to the other4 ,the drawing or
  writing is made in oily ink upon a    
smooth calcareous stone that will       
absorb water1 so that1 when the stone is
 moistened1 the water adheres  to it and
 leaves the lines of the drawing traced 
upon it dry4 ,an inking  roller1 charged
 with an oily ink1 is then passed over  
the stone and  inks the drawing1 but    
leaves all the other parts of the stone 
quite  clean4 ,a damped paper is next   
laid on1 and when subjected to great    
pressure1 an exact copy of the drawing  
or writing is produced4    ,this simple 
and ingenious process has been carried  
to such perfection1  that the most      
beautiful artistic effects can be       
produced by it far  more economically   
than by any other style of engraving2   
and further  improvements in the art are
 being continually made4 ,it is         
satisfactory1  therefore1 to be able to 

trace its history from its very         
beginnings1 of  which an interesting    
account has been published by the       
inventor himself4    ,m4 ,senefelder's  
father was an actor at ,munich1 and in  
his youth he  followed the same         
profession4 ,he turned his attention    
afterwards to  music2 and it was in his 
attempts to devise some means of        
printing  his compositions economically 
that he chanced to discover the art of  
,lithography4    ,he had previously made
 himself acquainted with the methods of 
copper-plate printing1 and he commenced 
his operations by etching the  notes of 
music on copper-plates1 covered with    
varnish in the ordinary  way4 ,he found1
 however1 that it would require much    
practice to enable  him to do this      
properly1 and not being able to buy     
copper-plates for  his rude essays1 he  
thought of practising upon stones4      
,fortunately for  the success of his    
efforts1 the quarries at ,solenhofen1   
near ,munich1  supplied him with slabs  

of stone admirably adapted for the      
purpose2 and  it is a remarkable        
coincidence1 that the material which    
,senefelder used  for his experiments is
 the best for the purpose of            
,lithography that  has hitherto been    
discovered4 ,his chief object in making 
use of these  slabs of stone was to     
practise himself in the manipulation of 
writing  the notes1 and of biting them  
in with aqua-fortis 7nitric acid71  as  
he supposed the slabs would be too      
brittle to bear the action of  the      
press4 ,he did not try1 therefore1 to   
have these etchings on stone  proved by 
the press1 but he contented himself with
 holding them up to a  mirror to observe
 the progress he was making in writing  
backwards4    ,having at length been    
supplied with much thicker slabs of     
stone1 to  bear the requisite pressure1 
he endeavoured to grind and polish them 
sufficiently for the purpose of being   
printed from1 in the same manner  as    
copper-plates4 ,he succeeded to some    

extent in doing so1 by means  of diluted
 nitric acid2 and he contrived to obtain
 about fifty good  impressions from the 
stone4    ,in all these attempts at     
,lithography1 the lines were etched into
 the  stone by the action of nitric     
acid1 and the only advantages professed 
to be gained by the process were the    
questionable ones of comparative        
cheapness of material1 and greater      
facility of working4 ,m4 ,senefelder    
admits that there was nothing new in    
engraving upon stone2 all that  he      
claims in that part of the invention is1
 the manner of polishing  the surface1  
and the composition of the ink adapted  
for printing  from it4 ,the most        
important step in the progress of the   
invention of  ,lithography1 as at       
present practised1 was made by accident1
 which he  thus describes3--    ,i was  
preparing a slab of stone for engraving1
 when my mother asked  me to write a    
memorandum of things she was about to   
send to be washed4  ,the washerwoman was

 waiting impatiently whilst we searched 
in vain for  a piece of paper1 and the  
common writing ink was dried up4 ,having
 no  other writing materials1 ,i wrote  
the washing bill on the stone ,i was    
about to prepare for engraving1 using   
for the purpose my ink made of  wax1    
soap1 and lamp-black1 intending to copy 
it afterwards on paper4  ,whilst looking
 at the letters ,i had written1 the idea
 all at once  occurred to me how it     
would do to cover the stone1 with the   
writing  upon it1 with aqua-fortis1 so  
as to leave them in relief1 and then to 
print from them in the same manner as   
woodcuts1 with a common letter  press4  
,the attempts ,i had hitherto made to   
engrave upon stone had  taught me that  
the relief of the letters thus obtained 
would not be  much4 ,nevertheless1 ,i   
made the attempt4 ,i mixed one part of  
aqua-fortis  with five parts of water1  
and poured it on the stone to the height
 of  two inches1 having previously      
walled it round with wax in the usual   

manner4 ,the diluted aqua-fortis was    
permitted to rest on the stone five     
minutes4 ,i then examined the effect1   
and ,i found that the letters were      
raised above the stone about the        
thickness of a card4 ,most of the lines 
were uninjured1 and retained their      
original size and thickness4 ,this  gave
 me the assurance that writing1         
sufficiently traced1 especially  if the 
letters were in printed characters1     
would have still greater  relief4#ag    
,though ,m4 ,senefelder had advanced    
thus far1 he had not yet made           
application of the chemical properties  
of ink and water1 which  constitute the 
distinguishing characteristics of       
,lithography4 ,that was  reserved for a 
further discovery1 also brought about by
 accident4 ,the  difficulty he          
experienced in writing words on the     
stone in the reverse  way1 induced him  
to adopt the plan of writing the letters
 on paper with  a soft black-lead       
pencil1 and then transferring them on to

 the stone by  pressure4 ,he            
subsequently used lithographic ink for  
the purpose2 and in  the course of his  
experiments he observed1 that when a    
paper written on  with lithographic ink1
 and well dried1 was dipped into water  
on which  some oil was floating1 the oil
 adhered to the writing1 and left the   
rest of the paper clean1 and that this  
effect was most striking when  the water
 contained some gum in solution4 ,this  
discovery induced him  to try the effect
 on printed paper2 and1 taking a printed
 page from  an old book1 he moistened it
 with gum-water1 and afterwards sponged 
the whole surface with oil colour4 ,the 
colour adhered to the letters1  and left
 the paper clean1 and after further     
experiments he succeeded  in printing as
 many as fifty copies from a page of    
printed paper2 the  letters1 of course1 
being reversed4 ,the idea then suggested
 itself of  transferring1 on to stone1  
letters written with lithographic ink   
upon  paper4 ,the plan succeeded1 and   

the principle of the art of ,lithography
  was thus applied to practice4 ,m4     
,senefelder1 in his subsequent          
improvements1 gave a slight relief to   
the letters by the original plan  of    
using diluted aqua-fortis1 by which     
means the impressions obtained  were    
blacker4 ,he also contrived the means of
 printing in colours from  stone1 by    
reversing the process of ordinary       
lithographic printing4 ,to  produce     
coloured prints1 he left uncovered all  
the parts that were to  receive the     
colour1 and the other parts of the stone
 were covered with  an oleaginous fluid1
 that quickly dried4 ,on applying any   
water-colour  to the stone1 it adhered  
to the uncovered surface1 and not to the
  covered parts1 and that colour was    
transferred to paper by pressure4 ,in   
this manner1 by using several stones    
properly prepared1 the different        
colours required were printed1 and the  
effect of a coloured drawing was        
produced4 ,thus we perceive1 that almost

 at the first invention of the  art of  
,lithography1 the ingenious inventor    
showed the way of applying  it to the   
production of coloured prints1 a process
 which has lately  been carried to great
 perfection4    ,senefelder lived to see
 his invention extensively adopted1 and 
to reap  benefit from his ingenuity4 ,he
 died at ,munich1 in #ahcd1 after having
  been many years the director of the   
,government lithographic office2  and1  
in the latter years of his life he      
received a handsome pension  from the   
,king of ,bavaria4    ,there is little  
to be added to the description of the   
process of  ,lithography1 beyond that   
given by the original inventor in #ahai1
 the  principal advances that have been 
made in the art having consisted  in    
improved methods of manipulating4 ,the  
ink now generally employed  for drawing 
on the stone consists of equal parts of 
tallow1 wax1  shell-lack1 and soap1     
mixed with about one-twentieth part of  
lamp-black2 but the composition is      

varied1 according to the kind  of design
 to be executed4 ,for writing or drawing
 upon paper1 to be  transferred to the  
stone1 more wax is added to the ink1 to 
give it  greater tenacity4    ,the      
drawing upon paper1 to be transferred to
 stone1 is not attended  with any       
difficulty1 and may be done by ordinary 
artists4 ,the ink  is applied with a    
pen1 or camel's hair pencil1 and when   
the effect  of chalk drawings is        
required to be imitated1 the ink is     
shaded by  means of stumps1 similar to  
those used in chalk drawings on paper4  
,some artists prefer to work directly on
 the stone with a camel's hair  pencil1 
or with a composition called            
lithographic chalk4    ,to transfer the 
drawing from paper on to the stone1 the 
paper is first  sponged with diluted    
nitric acid1 which decomposes the size1 
and  renders it bibulous4 ,after being  
placed for an instant between blotting  
paper1 to remove superfluous moisture1  
it is laid with the drawing  downwards  

on the stone1 which is slightly warmed4 
,the stone is then  passed through the  
press1 and the drawing adheres firmly to
 it4 ,to  remove the paper1 it is wetted
 at the back with water1 and1 when quite
  soft1 it is rubbed with the hand4 ,in 
this manner every particle of the       
fibrous pulp is cleared away1 and the   
drawing or writing in ink remains  as if
 it had been drawn directly on the      
stone4 ,to prepare the stone for  taking
 the ink1 gum water is poured upon it1  
and it is rubbed over with  a rag       
containing printer's ink1 which serves  
to blacken the writing and  prepares the
 lines for afterwards receiving the ink4
    ,the lithograph thus prepared is    
given to the printer1 who first etches  
it1 in the manner originally practised  
by ,m4 ,senefelder4 ,the nitric  acid   
employed for the purpose is diluted with
 about thirty parts of  water1 and it is
 poured over the stone whilst it is     
inclined on one  side4 ,this process is 
repeated several times1 the object of it

 being  not so much to give relief to   
the lines1 as to roughen the surface of 
the stone1 and thus facilitate its      
absorption of water4 ,the nitric  acid  
also removes the alkali from the drawing
 ink4 ,in printing1 gum is  added to the
 water with which the stone is          
moistened1 as an additional  preventive 
of the ink adhering to those parts not  
drawn upon4 ,the  printing ink is       
applied with large rollers1 and the     
damped paper having  been placed        
carefully upon the stone1 with blankets 
at the back1 it is  passed through the  
press4    ,the lithographic press       
somewhat resembles in form an iron      
printing  press1 but differs from it    
greatly in its mode of action4 ,instead 
of  the large flat plate that in a      
printing press is pulled down upon the  
whole surface of the types1 a long1     
narrow arm1 called a scraper1 is        
brought to bear upon the stone1 and the 
table whereon the stone is  laid is     
pushed forcibly under it1 by which means

 a great pressure is  exerted on a      
smaller surface at successive times1    
instead of being  brought to bear all at
 once4 ,in the principle of its action1 
indeed1 a  lithographic press is like a 
printing machine1 and steam lithographic
  presses have been invented to work in 
a similar manner1 though the  practical 
results have not generally been very    
successful4    ,among the many          
applications of lithography1 the        
transfer of  copper-plate engravings is 
one of the most useful4 ,an impression  
of  the plate is taken on paper that is 
coated with a compound of flour1        
plaster of ,paris1 and glue1 and from   
the paper it is transferred to  stone4  
,by this plan the original plate remains
 untouched1 and the  printing from the  
stone is much cheaper than from the     
copper4 ,tinted  lithography and        
chromo-lithography1 by which the        
beautiful effects  of coloured drawings 
are produced in the manner indicated by 
,m4  ,senefelder1 have recently been    

applied very successfully4              
,,aerated ,,waters4      ,the invention 
of soda-water1 in the state in which it 
is now known1  as an effervescing       
beverage impregnated with three or four 
times its  volume of carbonic acid gas1 
is of very modern date4 ,there are1     
indeed1  to be found in most of the old 
works on chemistry descriptions of      
,nooth's apparatus for impregnating     
liquids with carbonic acid2 but  all    
that was attempted to be done by that   
apparatus was to produce an             
impregnation of the water with little   
more than the quantity of gas it  will  
naturally absorb under the pressure of  
the atmosphere4 ,it was not  until about
 the year #ahae that mechanical pressure
 was applied to force  a larger quantity
 of gas into combination with water1 to 
imitate the  briskly effervescing       
medicinal waters of ,germany4    ,mr4   
,schweppe and ,mr4 ,paul were the first 
who introduced the manufacture  of      
artificial effervescing waters into     

,england1 and soda-water was then       
considered1 as tea was on its first     
introduction1 entirely medicinal4       
,indeed1 the quantity of soda which was 
at that time usually dissolved  in the  
water gave it a disagreeable taste2 but 
when the manufacturers  diminished the  
quantity of alkali1 and increased the   
volume of gas  forced into the water1   
they produced a pleasant beverage1 which
 soon  became in request for its        
refreshing1 wholesome qualities4    ,the
 apparatus for the manufacture of       
soda-water1 as it is usually  made on a 
large scale1 consists of a strong       
vessel1 furnished with a  safety valve1 
in which the water is impregnated with  
gas4 ,this vessel1  containing about    
nine gallons1 is made of thick wood1    
well seasoned and  nicely fitted1 and   
bound round with strong iron hoops1 the 
heads of the  cask being well secured by
 means of iron bolts and screw nuts4 ,it
 is  requisite that the receiver should 
be capable of bearing a pressure of  at 

least six atmospheres1 which is equal to
 #ij lbs4 to the square inch4    ,the   
carbonic acid gas is generated from     
chalk or whiting and diluted  sulphuric 
acid4 ,the materials are mixed together 
in a small closed  wooden or leaden     
vessel1 provided with an agitator1 that 
can be  worked by a handle fixed to a   
projecting axis at the top4 ,the gas1 as
  generated1 enters by a bent tube into 
a gas-holder1 the opening of the  tube  
being under water4 ,by this means the   
gas is freed from the fumes  of         
sulphuric acid vapour1 and from the fine
 particles of chalk that  become mingled
 with it during its sudden liberation4  
,the gas sometimes  undergoes a further 
purification1 by passing through a gas  
washer1  before it is forced into the   
water4    ,a small force-pump1 worked by
 a crank1 with the assistance of a      
fly-wheel1 draws the carbonic acid from 
the gas-holder1 and forces it  into the 
water4 ,the combination of the gas and  
water is facilitated by  an agitator1   

the axle of which projects through a    
stuffing box1 and it  is worked either  
by hand1 or is turned by means of a     
small cog-wheel1  that works into the   
teeth of a larger one fixed to the crank
 axle1 so  as to produce rapid rotation4
    ,it is found requisite1 in the first
 place1 to expel the atmospheric air  in
 the receiver2 for which purpose the    
safety valve is left open for a  short  
time after the gas is being forced in1  
otherwise it would retard  the          
impregnation of the water by the gas4   
,when the gas and water are  well       
incorporated1 the liquid will contain as
 many volumes of gas as  there are      
atmospheres of pressure in the air-space
 above it in a state  ready to          
effervesce1 and one other volume1 with  
water absorbs under  the pressure of the
 atmosphere4 ,thus1 when there are three
 atmospheres  of gas under pressure1    
each bottle of soda-water contains four 
bottles  full of gas1 which are absorbed
 without perceptibly increasing its     

bulk4 ,the perfect impregnation of the  
water with gas1 however1  requires time4
 ,the water will1 indeed1 become brisk  
almost as soon as  two or three         
atmospheres of gas have been forced in1 
but it will not  acquire the flavour of 
good soda-water until the gas and water 
have  been allowed at least half an hour
 to digest2 and it is improved by       
remaining in contact for several hours4 
,the temperature has considerable       
influence in the process of             
impregnation1 for in hot weather the gas
 will not combine so readily1  nor will 
the water absorb an equal volume of gas4
 ,in summer time1  therefore1 soda-water
 should be made before the heat of the  
day1 and  ice should be added to the    
water4    ,when the receiver is fully   
charged1 and the operation of bottling  
begins1 every bottle-full that is drawn 
off diminishes the pressure on  the     
water that remains2 and if no means were
 taken to add more gas1 the  soda-water 
would gradually become weaker and weaker

 as each bottle was  drawn off4 ,it is  
usual1 in the best arranged apparatus1  
to have two  tubes connected with the   
force-pump1 one of which feeds it with  
water1  the other with gas1 by which    
contrivance water and gas1 in their     
proper  proportions1 are continually    
forced into the receiver1 which may thus
  be always kept nearly full4    ,the   
process of bottling requires great      
manual dexterity4 ,the neck of  the     
bottle is pressed by a lever against a  
collar of leather fixed to  a flange on 
the tap1 so that1 when the soda-water   
rushes in1 no air  nor gas can escape4  
,the pressure inside the bottle         
therefore quickly  becomes equal to that
 of the receiver1 and the water ceases  
to flow  through the tap1 until some of 
the air is allowed to escape4 ,when the 
bottle is nearly full1 the operator     
quickly withdraws it with one hand1  and
 having a cork ready in the other1 he   
puts it in before the water  can rush   
out4 ,the cork is then forced in further

 by pressure1 and  fastened down by     
wires or strings4    ,a bottling        
apparatus has been invented for         
facilitating the process2  but a man    
accustomed to bottle by hand can do it  
more quickly1 and with  as little waste 
of gas and water as with a machine4     
,much depends1  however1 upon the state 
of the soda-water in the receiver2 for  
if the  gas be well digested1 and the   
temperature low1 it rushes into the     
bottle with much less force1 though the 
water may contain a greater  quantity of
 gas1 than when it is newly made1 and   
apparently more brisk4  ,the bottles    
very frequently burst during the        
operation with great  violence1 and     
unless they are enclosed in a guard1 the
 men are liable  to be severely injured4
 ,glass bottles have now generally      
supplanted  those made of earthenware1  
which were formerly used2 and though the
  glass bottles are much stronger than  
the earthenware ones1 the bursting  of  
them1 when it does occur1 is far more   

dangerous4    ,the process of forcing   
gas into the water by mechanical        
pressure1  in the manner described1     
requires great labour1 for the pump has 
to  be worked against a pressure        
exceeding fifty pounds on the square    
inch4 ,with a view to remove that       
inconvenience1 and to avoid the use  of 
costly machinery1 so that private       
individuals might manufacture           
soda-water1 the author contrived a      
modification of ,nooth's apparatus1  for
 which he obtained a patent in #ahca4   
,by that means1 the gas is  generated in
 a closed vessel1 and forces itself into
 the water by  its own elasticity4 ,any 
amount of pressure can thus be obtained 
by  chemical action alone4 ,the         
accompanying woodcut represents a       
section  of the apparatus in its        
improved form4 ,the vessel1 ,a1 is made 
of very  strong stone ware1 inside which
 is the gas generator b4 ,a few inches  
from the bottom of the generator is the 
partition1 a1 perforated  with holes1   

and near the top there is inserted the  
small tube1 c1  which conveys the gas   
down to a perforated expansion of the   
tube1  d1 through the apertures of which
 the gas issues into the water          
contained in ,a4 ,another tube1 e1      
reaches near the bottom1 and is         
connected with a stop-cock for the      
purpose of drawing off the aerated      
liquid4 ,in charging the apparatus1 the 
interior1 ,a1 is nearly filled  with    
water1 or other liquid1 through the     
opening1 f1 which is then  closed by    
cork1 which is kept in its place by a   
screw nut4 ,a few  ounces of carbonate  
of soda1 mixed with water1 are then     
poured into  the generator through the  
opening at g4 ,the mixture flows through
  the apertures in the partition1 and   
occupies the lower part of the          
generator4 ,a proportionate quantity    
7about three-fourths of the weight  of  
the soda7 of tartaric acid in crystals  
is then introduced through  g1 which    
lodge on the top of the partition       

without touching the soda4  ,the opening
 being then closed by a screw-nut1 the  
apparatus1 which is  mounted on pivots1 
with an appropriate stand1 is swung     
backwards and  forwards like a pendulum4
 ,the effect of this agitation is to    
force  a portion of the water saturated 
with carbonate of soda through the      
apertures at a1 where it comes in       
contact with the tartaric acid1  and    
instantly generates carbonic acid gas4  
,the gas1 having no other  escape than  
through the tube1 c1 is forced into the 
vessel ,a1 and  becomes mingled with the
 water by the same act of vibration that
 brings  the soda and tartaric acid     
together4 ,the continuance of the       
vibratory  action for a short time      
generates sufficient gas to aerate the  
water  or other liquid contained in the 
vessel1 ,a4 ,when the aeration is       
completed1 the soda-water may be drawn  
off1 as required1 through the           
stop-cock4 ,the apparatus is made of two
 sizes1 to hold one and two  gallons4   

,illustration    ,the tartaric acid and 
soda in the generator do not mingle with
 the  water1 and the tartrate of soda1  
resulting from the combination1 is      
emptied after the soda-water is drawn   
off1 before renewing the charge4    ,a  
,french modification of this apparatus1 
in glass vessels protected by  cane     
netting1 called a gasogene1 has recently
 been introduced1 and is  extensively   
used4 ,the materials for generating the 
carbonic acid gas  are put into the     
smaller vessels1 and kept separate until
 the apparatus  is inverted1 and then   
gas is rapidly generated1 and forces    
itself  through the water4    ,the      
powders that are sold for making        
soda-water1 by mixing them  together1   
consist of carbonate of soda and        
tartaric acid4 ,when brought  together  
in solution1 a violent effervescence    
ensues1 but the gas is  not combined    
with the water in the same manner as    
when it is forced  in and allowed to    
remain for some time with the liquid to 

be aerated4  ,there is the further      
disadvantage attending such powders1    
that the  tartrate of soda1 formed by   
the tartaric acid and the carbonate of  
soda1 employed to generate the gas1 is  
drunk with the water4                   
,,revolvers ,,and ,,minie ,,rifles4     
,is there anything whereof it may be    
said1 ,see1 this is new8 it hath  been  
already of old time1 which was before   
us4#ah ,this observation  of ,solomon1  
the correctness of which we have often  
seen verified in  this ,history of      
,inventions1 is applicable even to that 
great apparent  novelty the formidable  
,revolver--that death-dealing weapon1   
which  will fire six shots in rapid     
succession by merely pulling the trigger
  so many times1 as fast as it is       
possible4    ,the ,revolver was almost  
unknown in this country until #ahea1    
when it  was brought prominently into   
notice at the ,great ,exhibition1 by the
  specimens shown there by ,colonel     
,colt1 of the ,united ,states4 ,pistols 

with six barrels1 which might be fired  
successively with the same lock1  by    
turning them round1 were1 indeed1       
previously seen in gun-shops2  but their
 clumsy form and their great weight     
prevented them from  being used4 ,nor   
was ,colonel ,colt much more successful 
in his earlier  attempts to bring his   
,revolver into public notice4 ,he       
obtained his  first patent in ,america  
in #ahce1 and established a manufactory 
for  the pistols at ,paterson1 ,united  
,states1 where he expended #ce1jjj in   
attempting to bring the fire-arm to     
perfection1 but with no beneficial      
result to himself beyond gaining costly 
experience4 ,he made further            
improvements in #ahdi1 and so far       
perfected the weapon that it had been   
used extensively in ,america before it  
was brought into notice in this         
country4    ,when ,colonel ,colt came to
 ,england1 he undertook to investigate  
the  origin of repeating fire-arms1 with
 a view to ascertain how far he had     

been anticipated2 and the result of his 
researches was1 that repeating          
fire-arms1 similar in principle to his  
own ,revolver1 had been invented  four  
centuries before4    ,he found in the   
,armoury of the ,tower of ,london a     
matchlock gun1  supposed to have been   
made as early as the fifteenth century1 
which  very closely resembles1 in the   
principle of its construction1 the      
,revolver of the present day4 ,it has a 
revolving breech with four  chambers1   
mounted on an axis fixed parallel to the
 barrel1 and on  that axis it may be    
turned round1 to bring any one of the   
four loaded  chambers in succession in a
 line with the barrel1 to be discharged 
through it4 ,there are notches in a     
flange at the fore end of the  revolving
 breech to receive the end of a spring1 
which is fixed to the  stock of the gun1
 for the purpose of locking the breech  
when a chamber  is brought round into   
the proper position4 ,the hammer is     
split at the  end1 so as to clasp a     

match1 and to carry its ignited end down
 to the  priming powder when the trigger
 is pulled4 ,each chamber is provided   
with a priming pan that is covered by a 
swing lid1 and1 before firing1  the lid 
is pushed aside by the finger1 to expose
 the priming powder to  the action of   
the lighted match4 ,if the date of this 
gun be correctly  stated1 a very rapid  
advance in the art of gunnery must have 
been made  after the invention of       
gunpowder1 which took place only one    
hundred  years previously4 ,the want of 
a better mode of discharging the gun    
than  a lighted match was one of the    
chief obstacles to the introduction of  
the ,revolver four centuries ago4       
,there is also in the ,tower ,armoury a 
specimen of a repeating fire-arm  of a  
more recent date1 though still very     
ancient1 that presents  considerable    
improvement on the preceding one4 ,it   
has six chambers  in the rotating       
breech1 and is furnished with a barytes 
lock and one  priming pan1 to fire all  

the chambers4 ,the priming pan is fitted
 with  a sliding cover1 and a vertical  
wheel with a serrated edge projects     
into it1 nearly in contact with the     
powder in the pan4 ,to this wheel a     
rapid motion is given by means of a     
trigger-spring1 acting upon a lever     
attached to the axis of the wheel2 and  
the teeth of the wheel strike  against  
the barytes1 which is brought down1     
previously to firing1 into  contact with
 it1 and the sparks thus emitted set    
fire to the powder in  the priming pan1 
and discharge the piece4 ,in this       
instance1 also1 the  breech is rotated  
by hand4    ,a still further advance    
towards perfection in repeating         
fire-arms is  to be seen in the ,united 
,service ,museum1 where there is a      
pistol1  supposed to have been made in  
the time of ,charles ,i41 with the      
breech  rotated by mechanical means4 ,in
 this pistol1 the act of pulling back   
the hammer turns the breech1 containing 
six chambers1 one-sixth part  of a      

revolution1 and the priming powder is   
ignited by a flint hammer  striking     
against steel4    ,the manufacture of   
these fire-arms presented some practical
  difficulties which could only be      
overcome by great care and skill in  the
 construction2 and from the failure in  
this respect they were not  patronized4 
,it was necessary1 in the first place1  
that the loaded  chambers should be     
brought into an exact line with the     
barrel1 and be  firmly retained there   
during the discharge4 ,it also required 
great  nicety in the fitting of the     
breech to the barrel1 to prevent the    
fire  from communicating to the other   
chambers4 ,a further difficulty was to  
prevent the spindle1 whereon the breech 
revolved1 from becoming foul  by the    
explosion of the powder2 otherwise1     
after firing a few times it  would stick
 fast1 and the gun would become useless4
    ,the earliest patent for repeating  
fire-arms in this country was  obtained 
by ,james ,puckle1 in #agah1 for a gun  

with a rotating breech4  ,there were six
 chambers in the breech1 which was      
turned round by a  winch1 and1 when the 
six were fired1 there was an arrangement
 by  which the chambered breech could be
 removed1 and another loaded one        
substituted for it4 ,mr4 ,puckle appears
 to have been of a poetical  turn of    
mind1 and the specification of his      
patent is enlivened by the  following   
loyal couplet1 which deserves to be     
quoted as a novelty in  patent          
records3--          ,defending ,king    
,george1 our country and laws1          
,is defending yourselves and the        
,protestant cause4    ,the invention of 
percussion priming in #ahjj1 by the     
,rev4 ,a4 ,j4 ,forsyth1  was an         
important step towards the perfection of
 fire-arms generally1  and of ,revolvers
 in particular2 for until the chambered 
breech could  carry round with it in a  
compact form the priming for each       
chamber1 the  construction must have    
been clumsy1 and the action uncertain4  

,colonel ,colt1 as already stated1 took 
out his first patent in #ahce1  and in  
#ahdi he patented the improved          
,revolver1 which he has brought  into   
general use4 ,it has six chambers in the
 rotating breech1 and the  nipples to   
hold the percussion caps are sunk into a
 recess1 so that  the lateral fire1 if  
any1 cannot reach them2 and at the other
 end1 the  chambers are protected from  
lateral fire by chamfering their mouths4
 ,by  these means1 the danger of firing 
the gunpowder in the other chambers  is 
effectually provided against4    ,the   
demand for ,colt's ,revolvers became so 
great after the last  improvements were 
made1 that at his manufactory1 at       
,hartford1 in  ,america1 he made #ec1jjj
 of them in #ahec2 and at his           
manufactory at  ,vauxhall1 near ,london1
 he employs upwards of #cjj workmen1    
though by far  the largest portion of   
the work is done by machinery4          
,several improvements have been         
introduced in ,revolvers since ,mr4     

,colt's  patent of #ahdi1 among which is
 the arrangement1 made by ,mr4 ,adams in
  #ahea1 for causing the chambered      
breech to turn by the action of pulling 
the trigger1 which at the same time     
draws back the hammer4 ,by this         
arrangement1 the whole of the six loaded
 chambers may be discharged in  three   
seconds1 whilst the pistol continues    
presented4    ,the latest improvements  
in ,revolvers were contrived by ,mr4    
,josiah ,ells1  of ,pittsburg1 ,north   
,america1 as specified in a patent      
obtained for him  by the author1 in his 
own name1 in #ahee4 ,the annexed        
woodcuts show the  figure of this       
,revolver1 with the working parts round 
the lock exposed  to view1 together with
 the shape of the revolving chambered   
breech4    ,illustration    ,in this    
improved ,revolver1 the force required  
to pull back the hammer1  a1 is         
regulated by a double spring1 w1 so as  
to diminish as the  hammer is drawn     
back2 and at the moment of firing a     

slight pull of the  trigger is          
sufficient4 ,another improvement        
consists in the addition  to the        
chambered breech1 d1 of a projecting    
tube1 which prevents  the spindle on    
which it turns from becoming foul2 and  
there is also a  safety bolt added1 as a
 protection against accidental firing4  
,the plan of making the mere action of  
drawing the trigger turn the  chambered 
breech and pull back the hammer1 as     
originally contrived by  ,mr4 ,adams1   
required so much force to pull the      
trigger as to interfere  materially with
 the accuracy of aim4 ,there was danger1
 also1 in that  mode of turning the     
chambered breech1 arising from premature
 firing4 ,in  ,mr4 ,ells's ,revolver    
these objections are in a great measure 
obviated2  first1 by the action of the  
double spring1 by which the force       
required  is diminished as the trigger  
is pulled farther back2 and in the      
second  place1 by making the shoulder of
 the hammer catch into a small notch1   

which holds it at full cock1 until1 by a
 further pull of the trigger1  the      
pistol is fired4    ,an improvement in  
the art of war1 no less important than  
the ,revolver1  was introduced nearly at
 the same time4 ,the ,revolver affords a
  formidable means for attack or defence
 at short distances1 whilst the  ,mini  
,rifle extends the destructive range of 
fire-arms far beyond the  distance to   
which the ordinary musket ball could    
reach4 ,the principle  of rifling gun   
barrels was first made known in the     
specification of  an invention patented 
in #aghi1 by ,mr4 ,wilkinson1 the       
improvement he  effected being thus     
described3--,the gun1 or piece of       
ordnance1 after  being bored in the     
usual method1 hath cut therein two      
spiral grooves1  which run the whole    
length of the bore4 ,these curves1      
according to  their curvature1 will give
 a circular motion to the shot during   
its  flight4    ,the spiral grooves1    
when the bullets are rammed down1 cause 

the ball  to offer greater resistance1  
therefore the explosive force of the    
gunpowder is brought to act upon them   
more completely before they leave  the  
gun barrel2 and the rotary motion       
imparts greater steadiness to the  ball4
 ,rifled barrels1 therefore1 carry the  
balls farther1 and increase  the        
accuracy of the aim4 ,they1 however1    
require increased power and  longer time
 to ram down the ball in loading1 and   
the risk of bursting  the gun is        
increased if the ball be not rammed     
close upon the powder4  ,for these      
reasons1 they were considered unfit to  
be employed generally  by soldiers1 and 
they were entrusted only to select corps
 of rifle  shooters4 ,the object of     
,captain ,mini's invention was to       
facilitate  the loading of rifles1 by   
contriving a bullet which might be      
easily  rammed in1 and would expand in  
the act of firing1 so as to fill up the 
grooves4 ,what is commonly called the   
,mini ,rifle is1 in fact1 only a  ,mini 

,rifle ,ball1 for the barrels of the    
guns are nearly the same as  the        
ordinary grooved rifles4    ,the ball is
 an elongated one1 with a hollow cone at
 the bottom1 into  which is fixed an    
iron button4 ,when the gun is fired1 the
 button is  forced into the cone1 and   
expands the lead1 which thus fills up   
the  grooves and gives a spiral         
direction to the bullet4 ,the ,mini ball
  serves the purpose excellently for a  
short time1 but after firing  several   
rounds the iron button is forced through
 the lead1 leaving a  portion of it     
behind1 which clogs up the barrel1 and  
renders it unfit  for use4    ,several  
substitutes for iron were tried1 to     
remove that inconvenience1  and it was  
at length found that the button might be
 dispensed with  altogether1 for the    
hollow cone is of itself sufficient to  
expand  the lead4 ,the balls are1       
therefore1 now made in that manner at   
the  ,government gun manufactory at     
,enfield1 and the rifled guns now used  

in  the army1 which carry bullets to the
 distance of a mile and more1 are       
called the ,enfield ,rifle4 ,the cost of
 each of these rifles to the            
,government is stated to be #c #ds4     
#g;d4 ,as the balls are made to slip    
into the barrels easily1 they can be    
loaded as readily as the common  musket3
 and they will carry three times the    
distance1 with much more  certainty4    
,,centrifugal ,,pumps4      ,many       
ingenious men have vainly attempted to  
apply what has been  erroneously called 
centrifugal force as a motive power1    
conceiving  that the effort made by     
bodies to fly off when whirled round in 
a  circle was occasioned by a force     
generated by their rotation4 ,the       
experiment of the whirling table1 which 
is commonly shown to  illustrate        
centrifugal action1 tends to confirm the
 notion that force  is generated2 for it
 is there seen that1 when the velocity  
of rotation  is doubled1 the centrifugal
 force is quadrupled1 and that it       

continues  to increase in a geometrical 
ratio4 ,it has1 therefore1 been         
conceived  that a power might be        
generated of indefinite amount2 for as a
 double  velocity can be communicated by
 doubling the moving power1 whilst the  
tendency to fly off at the circumference
 is quadrupled1 there appeared  to be a 
creation of power which1 if properly    
applied1 would realize  perpetual       
motion4    ,a working engineer known to 
the author was so fully possessed with  
the notion that power might thus be     
created1 and that its application  would
 be of the utmost benefit1 that he      
imagined he had been specially          
appointed to reveal the principle to    
man1 as a boon of inestimable  value to 
the manufacturing arts4 ,the plan he    
adopted was to employ  what he called a 
generating engine1 consisting of a      
centrifugal pump2  and the force with   
which the water was projected from the  
ends of  two rotating horizontal arms   
was directed against pistons working in 

cylinders1 as the force of steam is in a
 steam engine4 ,having once  set this   
machine in action1 he expected to be    
able1 by means of the  self-creating    
centrifugal force1 to generate the power
 that worked  the generating engine1 and
 thus to have a reservoir of force of   
any  magnitude constantly at command4   
,so completely satisfied was he of  the 
practicability of the plan1 founded1 as 
he supposed1 upon one of  ,newton's laws
 of motion1 and he felt so happy in the 
thought of being  charged with an       
important mission for the benefit of    
mankind1 that it  was almost cruel to   
attempt to correct his notions of the   
power of  centrifugal force4 ,he spent  
all his money in endeavouring to realize
  this impossible project1 and even its 
failure did not convince him of  his    
error4    ,the simple kind of           
,centrifugal ,pump applied in that      
chimerical scheme  was known upwards of 
one hundred years ago4 ,it consisted of 
a vertical  hollow shaft1 into which    

were inserted two horizontal arms4 ,the 
shaft  was supported on a pivot at the  
bottom1 and was turned by a handle at   
the top1 as represented in the          
accompanying drawing4 ,the lower end  of
 the vertical shaft was immersed in     
water1 and when rotary motion  was given
 to the machine1 the centrifugal action 
propelled the water  from the ends of   
the arms1 and the water rose in the     
vertical shaft to  supply its place4    
,illustration    ,the effect in a pump  
of this construction is due to the      
pressure of  the atmosphere1 for the    
outpouring of the water from the        
rotating arms  tends to produce a vacuum
 in the shaft1 in the same manner as the
  lifting of the plunger in a common    
pump4 ,it is evident1 therefore1  that a
 ,centrifugal ,pump of that construction
 could not raise a column  of water     
higher than the pressure of the         
atmosphere would force it up1  which    
would be about thirty feet4             
,illustration    ,mr4 ,appold's         

,centrifugal ,pump1 which constituted   
one of the most  remarkable features of 
the ,machinery ,department of the ,great
  ,exhibition1 is constructed on a      
different plan1 though the principle  is
 the same4 ,the rotating arms are       
immersed in the water to be raised1  and
 to diminish the resistance which would 
be produced by the rotation  in water of
 two or more exposed arms1 they are     
enclosed within discs of  metal1 about  
one foot in diameter1 and three or four 
inches apart4 ,the  arms are formed by  
curved partitions between the discs1    
which radiate  from the centre to the   
outer rim1 towards which the space      
between the  discs is contracted4 ,this 
pump is fixed on an axis1 to which rapid
  rotary motion can be given2 and it is 
fitted into a case connected with  the  
pipe that conveys the water to the      
discharging orifice4 ,the water  enters 
the rotating disc through a large       
aperture in the centre1 and it  is      
forced through the spaces formed by the 

radical arms with increasing  velocity1 
until it escapes from the circumference4
 ,sections of ,mr4  ,appold's pump are  
shown in the accompanying diagrams1 in  
which ,a is the  central opening for the
 admission of water2 ,c1 ,c1 ,c1 the    
curved radical  partitions which form   
the arms by which motion is communicated
 to the  water1 and through the ends of 
which it issues into the external case1 
connected with the lift-pipe1 ,d4    ,in
 the ,great ,exhibition there were two  
other ,centrifugal ,pumps shown  in     
action1 one by ,mr4 ,bessemer1 and one  
by ,mr4 ,gwynne1 from ,america2  but    
neither of them exhibited such striking 
effects as ,mr4 ,appold's1  which was so
 arranged as to throw out a continuous  
cascade of water  from an aperture six  
feet wide1 at a height of twenty-six    
feet4 ,the  ,jury of ,class ,v41 who    
made numerous experiments to determine  
the  practical efficiency of            
,centrifugal ,pumps1 and the relative   
merits of  the three exhibited1 reported

 very favourably of that of ,mr4        
,appold1  to whom a ,council ,medal was 
awarded4 ,when rotating at the rate of  
#ghh  revolutions in a minute1 and      
lifting the water #aid feet1 the        
greatest  practical effect1 compared    
with the power employed1 was attained4  
,the  discharge of water per minute at  
that height1 with the pump rotating     
with a velocity of #ghh revolutions1 was
 #a1bcf gallons2 and with a  lift of #h 
feet1 #b1ajj gallons per minute were    
discharged1 when the  rotating velocity 
was #hbh revolutions per minute4 ,in    
,mr4 ,gwynne's and  ,mr4 ,bessemer's    
pumps1 which had straight vanes1 the    
ratio of power to  the effect did not   
exceed #jai4 ,one of ,mr4 ,appold's     
pumps1 only one  inch in diameter 7the  
exact size of the small diagram71 will  
discharge  ten gallons per minute4 ,the 
greatest height to which water has been 
raised by the pumps that are one foot in
 diameter is #fgg feet1 with a  velocity
 of #d1aec feet per minute4    ,the     

velocity with which the pump should     
revolve depends upon the  height to     
which the water is to be raised4 ,beyond
 a certain height1  the required        
velocity is practically unattainable1   
but long before  that limit is reached  
the waste of power becomes so great1    
that the  pump is of no value1 for the  
pressure on the circumference           
counteracts  the force with which the   
water is expelled4 ,it is1 therefore1   
only  at comparatively low levels that  
the ,centrifugal ,pump is a useful      
engine4 ,the absence of all valves      
renders it very suitable for draining   
marshes1 and for other similar purposes1
 as the muddy water and  suspended      
matters will not obstruct its action4   
,in the ,report of the ,jury the        
influence of the curved shape of the    
radial arms is considered very important
 in producing the effects4  ,if the     
vanes be straight1 the ,report observes1
 it is evident1 that  whatever may be   
the velocity of the water in the        

direction of a radius1  when it leaves  
the wheel its velocity in the direction 
of a tangent  will be that of the       
circumference of the wheel1 so that the 
greater  the velocity of the wheel the  
greater will be the amount of vis viva  
remaining in the water when discharged1 
and the greater the amount of  power    
uselessly expended to create that vis   
viva4 ,if1 however1 the  vanes be curved
 backwards as regards the motion of the 
wheel1 so as  to have nearly the        
direction of a tangent to the           
circumference of the  wheel at the      
points where they intersect it1 the     
velocity due to the  centrifugal force  
of the water carrying over the surface  
of the vane in  the opposite direction  
to that in which the wheel is moving1   
and nearly  in the direction of a       
tangent to the circumference1 will--if  
this  velocity of the water over the    
vane in the one direction be equal to   
that in which the vane is itself moving 
in the other--produce a state  of       

absolute rest in the water1 and entire  
exhaustion of vis viva4 ,it  is an      
interesting fact in the history of the  
invention1 that the curved  form was    
formerly adopted in some of the         
,american pumps1 and afterwards         
abandoned4    ,there are competing      
claims to the invention of ,centrifugal 
,pumps in  the form now adopted4 ,this  
kind of pump is stated to have been used
 in  ,america in #ahcj4 ,m4 ,charles    
,combe took out a patent in ,france for 
a  similar pump in #ahch2 but though    
,mr4 ,appold was later in the field with
  his more perfect machine1 he appears  
to have proceeded independently of      
previous inventors4          ,,tubular  
,,bridges4      ,no sooner had the      
formation of railways commenced for     
carrying  passengers in long trains of  
carriages drawn by heavy locomotive     
engines1 than the want was experienced  
of some different kind of bridge  from  
any then existing for crossing rivers1  
roads1 and valleys4 ,the  train could   

not be turned sharply round a curve to  
cross a road at  right angles2 and to   
make the requisite bend to enable it to 
do so  would have taken the railway     
considerably out of its direct course4  
,to  overcome this difficulty skew      
bridges were designed1 that crossed     
roads and canals in slanting directions4
 ,iron girder bridges were also         
constructed1 and thus the railway trains
 were carried across roads and  narrow  
rivers at any required inclination1     
supported on flat beams of  iron4       
,suspension bridges were found to be    
unfitted1 on account of their           
oscillation1 for the passage of         
locomotive engines2 therefore1 when  it 
became necessary to carry railways      
across arms of the sea1 or wide         
navigable rivers1 at heights sufficient 
to allow the largest ships to  pass     
underneath1 neither girder bridges nor  
suspension bridges were  suited for the 
purpose4 ,then arose the necessity of   
contriving some  form of bridge of      

extensive span that would be            
sufficiently strong and  rigid for      
railway trains to pass over them in     
safety4    ,the ,britannia ,bridge1     
across the ,menai ,straits1 was a       
triumphant  response to the call for a  
new kind of suspended roadway adapted to
  the requirements of railways4 ,the    
tubular principle of construction1      
designed by ,mr4 ,robert ,stephenson1   
was practically tested by ,mr4          
,fairbairn2 and the result of numerous  
experiments on the strength of  iron1 in
 different forms and combinations1      
established the soundness  of that      
principle4 ,the rigidity and strength of
 the ,britannia ,bridge  depend on      
cellular cavities at the top and bottom1
 which1 acting as so  many tubes1 give  
stability to the riveted plates of iron1
 and enable  the bridge to bear the     
immense pressure and vibration of a     
heavy  railway train without deflecting 
more than half an inch4    ,it was ,mr4 
,stephenson's original intention to make

 a circular or oval  tube1 suspended by 
chains1 for the trains to run through2  
but ,mr4  ,fairbairn's experiments      
proved that a rectangular shape is      
stronger1  provided the top and bottom1 
which bear the greatest part of the     
strain1 are made rigid1 either by       
additional plates of iron1 or by  tubes4
 ,the notion of a circular tube was1    
therefore1 abandoned1 and the           
rectangular form1 with cells at the top 
and bottom1 was adopted2 first  for the 
railway bridge at ,conway1 and          
afterwards for the much greater  work   
across the ,menai ,straits4    ,it has  
been stated by ,mr4 ,stephenson1 that   
the idea of forming a  tubular bridge   
was suggested by experience gained in   
constructing the  railway bridge at     
,ware1 which consisted of a wrought-iron
 cellular  platform2 but a more exact   
representation of the principle on which
  the ,britannia ,bridge is constructed 
had been long previously seen  across   
the ,rhine1 at ,schauffhausen1 where a  

rectangular tube1 or  hollow girder1    
made of wood1 was erected in #ageg4     
,that bridge1 though  of different      
material1 was in its principle of       
construction similar  to the iron       
tubular bridges at ,conway and at the   
,menai ,straits4  ,another similar      
bridge1 carried over the river ,limmat1 
at ,wettingen1  constructed in #aggh1   
had a span of #cij feet2 and that1 as   
well as the  former1 was raised to its  
position in one piece1 by means of      
powerful  screw-jaws4 ,these curious and
 interesting structures1 which may be   
considered the forerunners of the       
gigantic iron ,tubular ,bridges of the  
present day1 were burnt by the ,french  
in #agii4    ,in constructing the       
,britannia ,bridge1 ,mr4 ,stephenson    
took advantage  of a rock midway from   
shore to shore1 whereon to erect the    
central  pier4 ,two other piers1 at a   
distance1 on each side1 of #dfj feet1   
were  built without much difficulty in  
shallower water1 and between these  and 

the masonry on each side was a distance 
of #bcj feet4 ,there are  eight         
rectangular tubes resting on those      
piers1 to form two lines of  railway1   
each tube being #bh feet high and #ad   
feet wide1 exclusive  of the cellular   
cavities at the top and bottom4 ,these  
cavities are  rectangular1 and extend   
from one end of the bridge to the other1
 and  may be regarded as long tubes4    
,there are eight of them at the top1    
each  #a foot #i inches square1 and     
there are six at the bottom1 the latter 
being #b feet #d inches wide1 and the   
same depth as those at the top4  ,sound 
is conveyed through these cavities as   
readily as through speaking  tubes1 and 
conversation can be thus easily carried 
on across the  ,straits4    ,the height 
of the central pier of the ,britannia   
,bridge1 from the  foundation to the    
top1 is #bcj feet2 and the height of the
 roadway above  high water mark is #ajd 
feet4 ,the length of the large tubes1   
through  which the railway carriages    

pass1 on each side of the central pier1 
is  #dfj feet3 and the total length from
 shore to shore1 #a1eca feet4 ,the      
tubes are connected together at the     
piers to give the bridge additional     
strength1 and they are composed         
altogether of #ahf1jjj separate pieces  
of iron1 which were pierced with seven  
millions of holes1 and united  together 
by upwards of two millions of rivets4   
,the whole mass of iron  employed       
weighed #aj1edj tons4    ,the ,britannia
 ,bridge was commenced in ,may1 #ahdf1  
and the first of the  main tubes was    
completed in ,june1 #ahdi4 ,the work was
 carried on close  to the bridge1 on the
 ,anglesea shore2 and when the tube was 
ready to  be transported to its place on
 the piers1 which had been prepared to  
receive it1 eight flat-bottomed pontoons
 were provided to carry it1  which1     
being brought underneath1 floated the   
ponderous mass on the  water as they    
rose with the tide4    ,the floating and
 fixing in its place of the tube took   

place on the  #bgth of the same month1  
in view of an immense concourse of      
spectators4  ,after the preliminary     
arrangements for letting go had been    
completed1  ,mr4 ,stephenson1 and other 
engineers1 got on the tube1 with        
,captain  ,claxton1 ,r4 ,n41 to whom the
 management of the floating was         
entrusted4  ,a correspondent of the     
,illustrated ,london ,news thus         
describes the  proceeding1 and its      
successful result3--,captain ,claxton   
was easily  distinguished by his        
speaking trumpet1 and there were also   
men to hold  the letters which indicated
 the different capstans1 so that no     
mistake  could occur as to which capstan
 should be worked2 and flags1 red1      
blue1 and white1 signified what         
particular movement should be made4     
,about #g4cj p4m4 the first perceptible 
motion1 which indicated that  the tide  
was lifting the mass1 was observed1 and 
at ,mr4 ,stephenson's  desire1 the depth
 of water was ascertained1 and the exact

 time noted4  ,in a few minutes the     
motion was plainly visible1 the tube    
being fairly  moved forward some inches4
 ,this moment was one of intense        
interest1  the huge bulk gliding as     
gently and easily forward as if she had 
been  but a small boat4 ,the spectators 
seemed spellbound1 for no shouts or     
exclamations were heard1 as all watched 
anxiously the silent course of  the     
heavily freighted pontoons4 ,the only   
sounds heard were the shouts  of        
,captain ,claxton1 as he gave directions
 to 'let go ropes1' to 'haul  in        
faster1' c42 and 'broadside on1' the    
tube floated majestically  in the centre
 of the stream4 ,i then left my station1
 and ran to the  entrance of the works1 
where ,i got into a boat1 and bade the  
men pull  out as far as they could into 
the middle of the ,straits4 ,this was   
no easy task1 the tide running strong2  
but it afforded me several  splendid    
views of the floating mass1 and one was 
especially fine2 the  tube coming direct

 on through the stream--the distant     
hills covered  with trees1 two or three 
small vessels and a steamer1 its smoke  
blending well with the scene1 forming a 
capital background2 whilst on  one side1
 in long stretching perspective1 stood  
the three unfinished  tubes1 destined   
ere long to form1 with the one then     
speeding on its  journey1 one grand and 
unique roadway4 ,it was impossible to   
see this  grand and imposing sight1 and 
not to feel its singleness1 if we may so
  speak4 ,anything so mighty of its kind
 had never been before3 again it  would 
assuredly be2 but it was like the first 
voyage made by the first                
steam-vessel--something until then      
unique4 ,at #h4ce the tube was nearing  
the ,anglesea pier1 and at this moment  
the expectation of the spectators  was  
greatly increased1 as the tube was so   
near its destination3 and  soon all     
fears were dispelled1 as the ,anglesea  
end of the tube passed  beyond the pier1
 and then the ,britannia pier end neared

 its appointed  spot1 and it was        
instantly drawn back close to the       
recess1 so as to  rest on the bearing   
intended for it4 ,there was then a pause
 for a few  minutes1 while waiting for  
the tide to turn3 and when that took    
place1  the huge bulk floated gently    
into its place on the ,anglesea pier1   
rested on the bearing there1 and was    
instantly made fast1 so that it  could  
not move again4 ,the cheering1 till now 
subdued1 was loud and  hearty1 and some 
pieces of cannon on the shore gave      
token1 by their  loud booming1 that the 
great task of the day was done4    ,the 
tube1 when in position1 was lowered down
 upon its bearings on the  pier by      
opening valves in the pontoons1 which   
thus sunk sufficiently to  ease them of 
their load4    ,the work of raising the 
tube to its position1 #ajj feet above   
high  water mark1 was a much slower     
operation1 and was attended with serious
  difficulties4 ,hydraulic presses were 
used for the purpose1 placed at  the top

 of the piers2 two smaller ones1 which  
had served to raise the  ,conway        
,bridge1 being at one end1 and a much   
larger press1 made for  the occasion1   
being fixed at the other4 ,the immense  
tube was lifted  by chains fixed to the 
heads of the presses1 and two steam     
engines1  of #dj-;horse power each1 were
 employed to force the water into the   
cylinders4 ,the diameter of the ram of  
the largest hydraulic press  was #bj    
inches1 and the pressure upon it was    
equal to #b tons on each  circular inch4
 ,the tube was raised by successive     
lifts of #f feet each1  and1 as it was  
lifted1 the space was built in with     
masonry for its  ultimate bearing4      
,during the operation of lifting1 the   
bottom of the  cylinder of the large    
hydraulic press burst out1 and fell on  
the top of  the tube1 in which it made a
 considerable indentation4 ,mr4         
,stephenson  had provided against the   
possibility of such accident1 by having 
blocks  of wood1 an inch thick1         

introduced under the tube as it was     
elevated1  and these blocks arrested its
 fall1 or it would otherwise have been  
dashed to pieces4 ,even the small fall  
of an inch did considerable  injury4    
,this accident caused some delay1 but   
the other tubes were in  the meantime   
progressing1 and the completed bridge   
was opened for  public traffic on the   
#bast of ,october1 #ahej4    ,the       
strength of the bridge was tested before
 passenger trains were  allowed to pass 
through it1 by placing in the centre of 
the longest  tubes twenty-eight waggons1
 loaded with #bhj tons of coal1 and two 
locomotives1 and by afterwards sending  
those heavy trains through  the bridge  
at full speed4 ,the deflection of the   
tubes in the centre  amounted to only   
three-quarters of an inch in each cell2 
it being  rather less when the trains   
were at full speed than when stationary4
  ,the strongest gusts of wind to which 
the bridge has been exposed  have not   
caused a vibration of more than one     

inch4 ,the total cost of  construction  
was #fja1hfe2 of which sum #c1ihf was   
for experiments1 and  #aeh1gjd for      
masonry4    ,another ,tubular ,bridge of
 rival magnitude to the one across the  
,menai  ,straits is now in the course of
 construction by ,mr4 ,brunel across the
  ,tamar1 at ,saltash1 for the ,south   
,devon and ,cornwall ,railway4 ,as no   
rock presented itself conveniently      
halfway across whereon to erect  the    
central pier1 ,mr4 ,brunel was obliged  
to work at a great depth  below the     
surface of the water in making the      
foundation of the ,royal  ,albert       
,bridge4 ,in the plan of making the     
foundation1 as well as in the  structure
 of the bridge itself1 ,mr4 ,brunel     
adopted a course altogether  original4  
,instead of attempting to construct a   
coffer-dam by piles1  which would have  
been almost impracticable at such a     
depth1 and very  costly1 he caused a    
large iron tube to be put together1     
thirty-six feet  in diameter1 and       

ninety-six feet long1 to reach to the   
bed of the  river4 ,this monster tube   
was lowered perpendicularly in the      
middle of  the river1 and the water     
being pumped out of it1 the men could   
work at  the bottom in safety4 ,in this 
manner1 after much labour1 the rock was 
prepared to receive the blocks of       
granite1 which were laid one on the     
other1 till they rose above the surface 
of the water4 ,on that granite  pedestal
 a cast-iron pier was raised to a height
 of #ajj feet1 the level  of the roadway
 of the rails4    ,the cast-iron pier   
consists of four octagon columns1 #aj   
feet in  diameter4 ,they stand about #aj
 feet apart1 forming a square1 and they 
are bound together by massive           
lattice-work of wrought iron1 to prevent
  any lateral movement4 ,each of these  
columns weighs #aej tons2 and when  the 
full weight of the bridge rests on the  
foundation of the central  pier1 the    
pressure will be equal to #h tons on the
 square foot1 or  double the pressure of

 the ,victoria ,tower on its base4      
,in the structure of the bridge1 ,mr4   
,brunel availed himself of the  results 
of the experiments made by ,mr4         
,fairbairn on the strength of  iron     
tubes1 but he adopted a very different  
plan from that of ,mr4  ,stephenson4    
,instead of constructing a large tube   
for the trains to pass  through1 ,mr4   
,brunel made tubular arches1 consisting 
of iron plates  curved and riveted      
together1 to serve as rigid supports1   
from which the  roadway is suspended by 
chains and by connecting iron bars4     
,the placing of the first of the tubular
 arches in position between the  pier   
near the shore at ,saltash and the      
central pier1 which took place  on the  
#ast of ,september1 #aheg1 excited great
 interest1 and at least  #ej1jjj persons
 were assembled from places far and near
 to witness  the operation4 ,the tube1  
with the roadway and suspension chains1 
was  floated from the yard where it was 
put together on four pontoons2 and  it  

was thus conveyed1 and safely deposited 
on the piers at a height of  #cj feet   
above high water mark4 ,it was          
afterwards gradually raised by          
hydraulic presses to the top1 a height  
of #ajj feet4 ,the work of raising  it  
commenced on the #beth of ,november1 and
 was completed on the #aith of  ,may    
last4    ,the following lively          
description of the ,royal ,albert       
,bridge1 and  its surrounding scenery1  
extracted from a recent article in the  
,times1 gives a very good idea of the   
magnitude of the structure1 by          
comparison with well-known              
objects3--,though1 probably1 our readers
  may care little and have heard less   
about ,saltash proper1 it is  likely    
henceforth to receive a fair share of   
general attention1 and  we can safely   
say1 to those who will journey down to  
see the bridge1  that the viaduct       
requires indeed to be a fine one to     
attract their  attention from the lovely
 scenery of the valley of the ,tamar1   

which  it crosses4 ,the banks of this   
noble river narrow in considerably as   
the stream reaches ,saltash1 and1 hemmed
 in there to half a mile or so1         
suddenly widens out into as fine a sheet
 of water as any of its kind  in the    
kingdom1 its distant banks covered with 
cottages1 and fringed  with undulating  
woodlands down to the very edge4 ,across
 this narrow  part of the channel1 where
 ,saltash1 in picturesque dirt and      
disarray1  straggles up the banks on one
 side1 and a steep hill1 covered with   
rock and rock-grown underwood1 forms the
 other1 the viaduct stretches  high in  
air4 ,the briefest general way of       
describing it is to say that  it        
consists of nineteen spans or arches1   
seventeen of which are wider  than the  
widest arches of ,westminster ,bridge2  
and two1 resting on a  single cast-iron 
pier of four columns in the centre of   
the river1 span  the whole stream at one
 gigantic leap of #iaj feet1 or a longer
 distance  than the breadth of the      

,thames at ,westminster4 ,the total     
length of the  structure from end to end
 is #b1bdj feet1--very nearly half a    
mile1 and  #cjj feet longer than the    
entire stretch of the ,britannia        
,bridge4 ,the  greatest width is only   
#cj feet at basement2 its greatest      
height from  foundation to summit no    
less than #bfj feet1 or #ej feet higher 
than the  summit of the ,monument4 ,the 
,britannia ,bridge1 both in size1       
purpose1  and engineering importance1   
seems to offer the best comparison with 
that of ,saltash1 but the similarity    
between the structures is far from      
being as great as might be at first     
supposed4 ,the ,britannia tube is       
smaller1 and cost nearly four times the 
price of the ,saltash ,viaduct1  though 
the engineers had natural facilities    
which ,mr4 ,brunel1 for his  ,cornish   
bridge1 certainly had not4    ,the form 
of the tubes is an oval1 #ag feet in its
 longest diameter1  and #ab feet in its 
shortest4 ,they are bent into an        

elliptical curve1  with a rise in the   
middle of twenty-eight feet4 ,with the  
roadway and  suspension chains attached1
 each tube weighs #a1ajj tons4 ,the     
total  weight of wrought iron in the    
bridge1 when completed1 will be #b1fej  
tons2 of cast iron1 #a1bjj2 of masonry  
and brickwork there will be  about      
#ag1jjj cubic yards2 and of timber1     
about #ad1jjj cubic feet4    ,the second
 tube1 which is in every respect like   
the first1 was  completed on the #cjth  
of ,june last1 and on the #ajth of ,july
 was  successfully placed in position   
between the central pier and the        
,devonshire side of the river4 ,the     
operation of elevating it began on  the 
#ith of ,august1 and it has now reached 
nearly the level of the first  one1 the 
tube being raised six feet in a week4   
,the engraving on the other side is a   
view of this wonderful structure  in its
 completed form4 ,its appearance is far 
more light and elegant  than that of the
 ,britannia ,bridge1 but it remains to  

be seen whether it  will be equally     
steady under a gale of wind1 and whether
 any vibration  of the suspended roadway
 will interfere with the rapid motion of
 the  trains4 ,as the ,south ,devon     
,railway has only one line of rails for 
the  greater portion of its length1 but 
a single roadway is provided on the     
,royal ,albert ,bridge4    ,the progress
 of railway locomotion has not only     
given rise to the  construction of new  
kinds of bridges1 but it has directed   
mechanical  science to devise better    
means of applying the strength of       
materials4  ,on the ,south ,devon and   
,cornwall ,railways are to be seen      
wooden  viaducts1 carrying the line over
 valleys at great heights1 constructed  
with such slender timbers1 that1 to an  
inexperienced eye1 they seem            
frightfully frail for the support of    
heavy railway trains4    ,illustration3 
,,royal ,,albert ,,bridge1 ,,over ,,the 
,,tamar1 ,,at ,,saltash4    ,we must not
 omit to notice1 among the remarkable   

bridge erections  connected with        
railways1 the viaduct across the valley 
of the ,boyne1  which passes over the   
river close to the town of ,drogheda1 at
 a height  of #ie feet4 ,the central    
portion of the viaduct is supported on  
four  piers1 #ij feet above high water  
mark1 with a span in the centre of  #bej
 feet1 and on each side of #abe feet4   
,this elevated portion of the  work is  
approached on the southern side by      
twelve arches1 of #fj feet  span each1  
and on the north by three similar       
arches4 ,the viaduct is  constructed of 
limestone and iron lattice-work1 and is 
calculated to  bear #g1bjj tons4        
,during the erection of this viaduct the
 railway trains were carried  over the  
valley on a wooden platform1 without    
side railings1 supported  by            
scaffold-poles2 and the crackling of the
 timbers1 as the carriages  passed over 
it1 and the dizzy height at which they  
were carried through  the air1 produced 
a sensation of terror in nervous        

passengers1 that was  fully justified by
 the apparent danger4                   
,,self-,,acting ,,engines4      ,the    
manufacturing progress of this country  
has depended1 in a great  degree1 on the
 facility possessed of making machinery 
of all kinds by  the aid of powerful    
engines worked by steam power4 ,these   
engines1 most  of which appear to be    
self-acting1 forge and roll and cut and 
bore  beams of iron1 boiler plates1 and 
cylinders of immense size1 which  it    
would be impossible to make by hand2 and
 they do the work with a  rapidity and  
mechanical accuracy that would be       
otherwise unattainable4  ,in the        
progress of manufacturing invention1 the
 small steam engine  first made by      
manual labour created the power to make 
other steam  engines of large size2 and 
those more powerful engines supplied the
  means of making still larger shafts   
and cylinders for engines that were  to 
be employed in the construction of      
machines of various kinds1 to be  worked

 by the power thus accumulated4    ,the 
important advantages derived from the   
invention and application of            
self-acting machinery1 not only by the  
community at large1 but even  by the    
workmen whose labour they for a time    
superseded1 were forcibly  stated by    
,mr4 ,whitworth1 in his opening address 
at the ,institution of  ,mechanical     
,engineers1 in ,september1 #ahef3--;,i  
congratulate you1 he  observed1 on the  
success which in our time the mechanical
 arts have  obtained1 and the high      
consideration in which they are held4   
,inventors  are not now persecuted1 as  
formerly1 by those who fancied that     
their  inventions and discoveries were  
prejudicial to the general interest1    
and calculated to deprive labour of its 
fair reward4 ,some of us are  old enough
 to remember the hostility manifested to
 the working of the  power-loom1 the    
self-acting mule1 the machinery for     
shearing woollen  cloth1 the thrashing  
machine1 and many others4 ,now the      

introduction of  reaping and mowing     
machines1 and other improved            
agricultural machinery1  is not opposed4
 ,indeed1 it must be obvious1 to        
reflecting minds1 that  the increased   
luxuries and comforts which all more or 
less enjoy1  are derived from the       
numerous recent mechanical appliances   
and the  productions of our             
manufactories4 ,that of our cotton has  
increased  during the last few years in 
a wonderful degree4 ,in #ahbd1 a        
gentleman  with whom ,i am acquainted   
sold on one occasion #ajj1jjj pieces of 
#gd-reed printing cloth at #cjs4 #f;d4  
per piece of #bi yards long2 the  same  
description of cloth he sold last week  
at #cs4 #i;d4 ,one of the most  striking
 instances ,i know of the vast          
superiority of machinery over  simple   
instruments used by hand1 is in the     
manufacture of lace1 when  one man1 with
 a machine1 does the work of #h1jjj lace
 makers on the  cushion4 ,in spinning   
fine numbers of yarn1 a workman in a    

self-acting  mule will do the work of   
#c1jjj hand-spinners with the distaff   
and  spindle4    ,comparatively few     
persons1 perhaps1 are aware of the      
increase of  production in our          
life-time4 ,thirty years ago1 the cost  
of labour for  turning a surface of cast
 iron1 by chipping and filing with the  
hand1  was #abs4 per square foot--the   
same work is now done by the planing    
machine at a cost for labour of less    
than one penny per square foot3  and    
this1 as you know1 is one of the most   
important operations in  mechanics2 it  
is1 therefore1 well adapted to          
illustrate what our  progress has been4 
,at the same time that this increased   
production  is taking place1 the fixed  
capital of the country is1 as a         
necessary  consequence1 augmented2 for  
in the case ,i have mentioned1 of       
chipping  and filing by the hand1 when  
the cost of labour was #abs4 per foot1  
the  capital required for tools for one 
workman was only a few shillings2  but  

now1 the labour being lowered to a penny
 per foot1 a capital in  planing        
machines for the workman is required    
which often amounts to  #ejj1 and in    
some cases more4    ,notwithstanding the
 great economy of labour by the         
self-acting machines  now employed for  
doing all kinds of work1 it is          
gratifying to find  that it has not had 
the effect of throwing men out of       
employ2 for  the increased demand1      
consequent on the facility of           
production1 has  more than compensated  
for the substitution of automaton       
mechanism for  handicraft4    ,it is    
extremely interesting to visit a large  
engineering factory1 and  to witness the
 ease with which the masses of crude    
metal are wrought  in various ways1 and 
converted by a number of seemingly      
self-acting  engines into other engines 
and machines which are1 in their turn1  
to  become the agents of the further    
development of the skill and ingenuity  
of man4 ,in the new ,government factory 

at ,keyham1 near ,devonport1 which  we  
believe to be one of the largest        
establishments of the kind in the       
world1 most of those powerful engines of
 the best construction may  be seen in  
operation4 ,the completeness of the     
arrangements redounds  much to the      
credit of ,mr4 ,trickett1 the chief     
engineer1 under whose  supervision they 
were made2 and a walk through the       
factory1 which is  thrown open to public
 inspection1 will well repay a journey  
of many  miles4 ,a detailed description 
of all its machinery would fill a       
volume1  but we must now limit ourselves
 to a bare enumeration of some of the   
most remarkable features4    ,numerous  
machines of the largest size1 placed    
under the cover of an  extensive and    
lofty roof1 are employed in doing       
everything requisite  for the fitting   
out of the largest steam-ships in the   
,british navy4  ,shears1 put in         
continuous motion by steam power1 are   
seen moving  steadily up and down1 and  

cutting through the thickest boiler     
plates  without the least apparent      
effort1 the chisel-shaped knives that   
cut  the metal moving just the same     
whether they be dividing the air or     
shearing iron4 ,punching engines1 in    
like manner1 force holes through  iron  
plates an inch thick4 ,shaping and      
planing machines pare off the  tough    
iron as if it were not harder than      
cheese4 ,riveting machines  of different
 kinds bind together the plates of      
monster boilers with  marvellous        
rapidity2 whilst machines for boring1   
for drilling1 for  forging1 and for     
doing every variety of smaller work1 are
 to be seen  in operation in various    
parts of the factory4    ,among the     
smaller self-acting engines1 the forging
 machine for making  bolts attracts     
attention by the rapidity of its action4
 ,it consists of  a series of hammers   
placed side by side1 so constructed as  
to shape  small bars of iron into any   
required form1 according to the mould   

of the swages beneath them1 representing
 miniature anvils4 ,it is  interesting  
to watch how readily the hot iron       
receives its shape under  the action of 
the hammers1 which make about #gjj      
strokes per minute1  the work being     
transferred from one to another to be   
progressively  finished4 ,there is a    
circular saw that cuts through bars of  
iron  as thick as railway rails1 by     
making upwards of #a1jjj revolutions    
per minute4 ,a rivet-making machine     
forms the rivet1 and shapes the  head to
 the requisite size1 with great accuracy
 and quickness4 ,there  are compound    
drilling machines1 in which six drills  
are acting  simultaneously2 hydraulic   
presses1 that force parts of machines   
together1 and a great variety of other  
engines for the saving of time  and     
labour4    ,not the least curious of the
 smaller contrivances is an apparatus   
which  deserves notice as a useful      
application of magnetism to             
manufacturing  purposes4 ,several       

horse-shoe magnets are attached to two  
endless  chains1 moving over suitable   
wheels1 and inclined at an angle of #cj 
degrees4 ,these magnets at the lower end
 of the chain1 dip into a tub           
containing the mixed brass and iron     
turnings and filings from the  lathes   
and other tools1 and the pieces of iron1
 being attracted by the  magnets1 are   
carried away and brushed off into a box1
 leaving the brass  behind to be        
remelted4    ,in one department of the  
building are immense foundry furnaces1  
where  metals are melted and cast1 the  
blast of the fires being maintained  by 
large rotating fans1 kept in action by a
 powerful steam engine1  by which also  
the other machines are worked4 ,the     
foundry is most  conveniently contrived 
for casting works of any required size1 
fixed  and travelling cranes being so   
stationed and arranged as to carry the  
ladles of liquid metal to any part of   
the floor4    ,in another department is 
the smithy1 where the iron to be wrought

  into shape is heated in forges2 and   
near to the forges stand the            
,steam-,hammers--those gigantic ,cyclops
 of modern times1 that strike  blows1   
compared with the force of which the    
blows of the fabled ,cyclops  of        
antiquity were but as the fall of a     
feather4    ,ranged in a row there are  
four of these ponderous engines1 of     
various  sizes2 the largest hammer being
 so heavy as to require the power of    
four tons to lift it1 and when falling  
from a height of #f feet nothing  can   
withstand its crushing blow4 ,yet the   
force of this mighty giant is  so       
completely under control1 and may be    
brought to act so gently1 as  scarcely  
to crack a nut placed to receive its    
fall4    ,the invention of the          
steam-hammer was the result of          
necessity4 ,the  shaft of a steam engine
 having to be made larger than usual1 no
 hammer  then in action by water power  
was capable of forging it1 and ,mr4     
,james ,nasmyth was applied to1 to give 

his aid in contriving the means  of     
removing the difficulty4 ,it was then   
that the idea of lifting the            
hammer-block by the direct action of    
steam occurred to him1 and by a         
succession of extremely ingenious       
devices1 he at length perfected the     
steam-hammer1 which has been pronounced 
to be one of the most perfect           
artificial machines1 and one of the     
noblest triumphs of mind over  matter   
that modern ,english engineers have yet 
developed4    ,the accompanying woodcut 
represents the largest of the four      
steam-hammers in ,keyham factory4 ,the  
hammer-block1 a1 weighing four  tons1 is
 guided in its ascent and fall by       
grooves in two massive  uprights1 which 
hold the whole together4 ,the           
hammer-block is lifted  by the          
piston-rod of the steam cylinder above  
it1 which is made of  such diameter1    
that the pressure of the steam on the   
surface of the  piston may considerably 
overbalance the weight of the           

hammer-block1 and  overcome the friction
 of the connecting mechanism4 ,the      
cylinder of the  largest steam-hammer at
 ,keyham is #ah inches diameter1 which  
gives an  area of #bed square inches2   
and the pressure of the steam generally 
used  being fifty pounds on the square  
inch1 the total steam pressure tending  
to force the piston up1 when the whole  
of it is brought to bear1 is  equal to  
five tons and a half4 ,the force of the 
blow of the hammer1  when falling from  
its greatest height1 is equal to #add   
tons4    ,by the arrangements of levers1
 screws1 and pipes and valves1 shown in 
the engraving1 the steam is first       
admitted under the piston1 and thus     
acts directly in forcing it up1 with the
 heavy hammer-block attached to  the    
piston rod4 ,when the block has been    
raised to the required height1  it      
strikes against the end of a lever1     
which then shuts off the steam1  and    
allows it to escape2 whereupon the      
hammer falls with its full force        

vertically on the anvil4 ,the end of the
 lever which turns off the  steam may be
 adjusted at any height1 according to   
the required force of  the blow1 so that
 the hammer may fall from a height of   
six feet1 or be  merely raised a few    
inches4    ,illustration    ,the        
steam-hammer1 in the early stages of its
 invention1 required  an attendant to   
turn on the steam again at the end of   
each stroke1  but ,mr4 ,nasmyth         
ingeniously contrived the means of      
rendering the  engine altogether        
self-acting1 by causing the force of the
 collision  to release a spring that    
holds down the slide-valve2 and by this 
contrivance a continued and regular     
succession of blows is maintained       
without any assistance4    ,not only can
 the force of the blow be regulated by  
the height to which  the hammer is      
lifted1 but the ponderous mass may be   
arrested in its  descent by admitting   
the steam under the piston1 so that a   
skilful  manipulator can stop it within 

the eighth of an inch from the anvil4   
,the ,steam ,engine itself1 by which all
 the self-acting mechanisms of  a large 
factory are put in motion1 is1 perhaps1 
after all1 the most  wonderful of       
inventions2 but it does not strictly    
come within our  province1 for ,watt had
 perfected his great work before the    
close of  the last century4 ,it was1    
however1 not much used1 excepting for   
mining  purposes1 until after the       
commencement of the present2 and the    
inventor  himself had but a faint idea  
of the value and vast importance of the 
motive power he had placed at the       
command of man4 ,so little1 indeed1  was
 the value of steam power appreciated in
 the early years of its  application1   
that no notice is taken of the steam    
engine in ,beckmann's  ,history of      
,inventions1 though ,watt had completed 
his condensing engines  several years   
before that work was published2 and     
,newcomen's steam  engine had been at   
work at least sixty years4    ,the      

history of the steam engine affords a   
striking example of the  gradual        
development of an invention from vague  
and chimerical  notions1 into an        
accomplished fact of astonishing        
magnitude4 ,as in  the electric         
telegraph the dreams of the alchemist   
are fully realized  by the applications 
of scientific discovery1 so in the      
wonder-working  powers of the steam     
engine one of the visionary schemes     
sketched in  the ,century of ,inventions
 is practically extended far beyond the 
conceptions of its fanciful projector4  
,how little could ,beckmann have        
supposed that an invention1 which he    
considered too insignificant to be      
mentioned1 would1 in the course of fifty
 years1 have revolutionized the  world6 
,it may possibly be the same1 before    
this century is closed1 with  inventions
 that are now neglected or despised4    
99       99       99       99       99  
,the record in the preceding pages of   
some of the most remarkable             

applications of science during the      
present century1 exhibits an amount  of 
intelligence1 of skill1 and of power    
that seems1 when viewed in its          
completed form1 to be superhuman4 ,it is
 only by tracing each invention  to its 
source1 and by noting the step by step  
advances by which it has  arrived at its
 present state1 that we can bring       
ourselves to believe  that the great    
development of power and the display of 
ingenuity we  witness1 can have been    
accomplished by ordinary men4 ,this     
feeling of  admiration1 at the results  
of human industry and inventive genius1 
was  strongly excited on passing through
 the wonderful collection of the  works 
of all nations in the ,great ,exhibition
 of #ahea4 ,after walking  through the  
long avenues1 crowded with the most     
highly finished  manufactured goods1 and
 with works of art1 adapted to every    
purpose  and capable of gratifying every
 luxurious taste of highly civilized    
life1 we beheld1 in another part of the 

building1 the self-acting  machines by  
which many of those productions had been
 manufactured4 ,we  saw various         
mechanisms1 moving without hands to     
guide them1 producing  the most         
elaborate works2 massive steam          
engines1--the representatives  of man's 
power1--and exquisite contrivances1     
displaying his ingenuity  and           
perseverance2 and we felt inclined to   
exalt the attributes of  humanity1 and  
to think that nothing could surpass the 
productions there  displayed4 ,but as if
 to repress such vainglorious thoughts1 
there  stood in the transept of the     
building1 surrounded by and contrasting 
with the handiworks of man1 one of the  
simplest productions of ,nature4  ,every
 single leaf on the spreading branches  
of that magnificent tree  exhibited in  
its structure1 in its self-supporting   
and self-acting  mechanism1 and in the  
adaptation of surrounding circumstances 
for its  maintenance1 an amount of      
intelligent design and contrivance and  

power1 with which there was nothing to  
compare4 ,after examining the  intricate
 ramifications of arteries and veins for
 spreading the sap  throughout the leaf1
 and the innumerable pores for inhaling 
and exuding  the gases and moisture     
necessary for its continued existence2  
after  carrying the mind beyond the     
beautiful structure itself1 to consider 
the provisions of heat and moisture and 
air1 without which all that  mechanism  
would have been useless2 and having     
reflected on the presence  of the       
mysterious principle which actuated the 
whole arrangement of  fibres1 and gave  
life to the crude elements of           
matter1--we could not  fail to be       
impressed with the insignificance of the
 most elaborate  productions of man1    
when compared with the smallest work of 
the  ,omnipotent ,creator4      ,,the   
,,end4          ,,footnotes3      #a    
,british ,association ,report for #ahec4
    #b ,the original photographs        
produced by ,m4 ,niepce are still       

preserved  in good condition1 and were  
last year exhibited at the ,royal       
,institution4    #c ,philosophical      
,magazine1 ,february1 #ahdc4    #d      
,brewster's ,encyclopdia1 article       
,kaleidoscope4    #e ,the ,stereoscope3 
its ,history1 ,theory1 and              
,construction1 by ,sir  ,david          
,brewster4    #f ,primary signals are   
those in which the letter indicated is  
represented by a single deflection of   
the needles in either direction4  ,a    
single needle telegraph can have only   
two primary signals1 one to  the right  
and one to the left2 all the other      
letters being indicated  by repeated    
deflections4 ,in several instances four 
deflections are  required to signal a   
single letter4    #g ,manual of         
,electricity1 p4 #bea2 and ,reports of  
the ,proceedings of  the ,british       
,association for #ahea and #ahed4    #h 
,manual of ,electricity1 second edition1
 p4 #bdg4    #i ,treatise on ,coal ,gas1
 by ,samuel ,clegg1 jun4    #aj ,see    

article1 ,steam ,carriages1 page #ce4   
#aa ,it is stated in ,mr4 ,clegg's      
,treatise on ,coal ,gas1 that ,mr4      
,clegg1 sen41 lighted the cotton mill of
 ,mr4 ,henry ,lodge1 at ,sowerby        
,bridge1 near ,halifax1 a fortnight     
before the mill of ,messrs4 ,phillips   
and ,lee was so lighted4 ,a friendly    
spirit of emulation is said to have     
existed between ,mr4 ,murdoch and ,mr4  
,clegg in lighting those two mills  with
 gas1 each one endeavouring to complete 
the work before the other4    #ab ,the  
facility with which a supply of         
carburretted hydrogen gas can  be       
obtained from gas works1 induces        
aeronauts to fill their balloons  with  
it rather than be at the trouble and    
expense of making hydrogen  for the     
purpose2 but the ascending power of the 
balloon is thereby  greatly diminished4 
#ac ,journal of ,gas ,lighting1 vol4 ii4
    #ad ,mr4 ,hearder1 of ,plymouth1    
affords a remarkable instance of the    
successful pursuit of science under     

difficulties4 ,he lost his sight in  his
 youth by an accidental explosion during
 some chemical experiments1  but instead
 of being disheartened by that calamity1
 he has continued to  pursue his        
investigations with unabated vigour1 and
 has succeeded in  throwing much light  
on many of the recondite properties of  
electricity1  by admirably contrived    
experiments1 which were conducted with  
unremitting perseverance at great       
expense4 ,he has been in the habit of   
delivering lectures at the ,plymouth    
,institution1 and other ,institutions   
in ,devon and ,cornwall2 and those who  
witness the skilful manipulation  of his
 experiments can scarcely suppose that  
he is blind4    #ae ,this statement does
 not adequately represent the reduction 
in  price2 for each volume1 sold at     
#es41 contained a volume and a half as  
originally published1 besides ,sir      
,walter ,scott's notes2 and the cheap   
volumes were illustrated with steel     
engravings4    #af ,if the number of    

sheets of paper used in printing these  
works were  laid side by side1 they     
would extend nearly fifty thousand      
miles6    #ag ,l',art de la             
,lithographie2 par ,m4 ,aloys           
,senefelder1 ,inventeur de  l',art      
,lithographique4 ,munich1 #ahei4    #ah 
,book of ,ecclesiastes i4 #aj4          
,works on ,chemistry4      ,class-book  
of ,chemistry4    ,,by ,e4 ,l4          
,,youmans4    #abmo4 #cdj pages4 ,price 
#ge cents4    ,every page of this book  
bears evidence of the author's superior 
ability  of perfectly conforming his    
style to the capacity of youth4 ,this is
 a  merit rarely possessed by the       
authors of scientific school-books1 and 
will be appreciated by every            
discriminating teacher4 ,while          
,chemistry is  almost universally       
regarded by students as a dry and       
repulsive study  7owing to the rigid and
 technical manner in which it is        
presented71 ,mr4  ,youmans' work will be
 found pre-eminent in clearness and     

simplicity  of diction1 by which the    
subject is made at once interesting and 
attractive4 ,it is especially commended 
by the eminently practical  manner in   
which each subject is presented4 ,its   
illustrations are drawn  largely from   
the phenomena of daily experience1 and  
the interest of the  pupil is speedily  
awakened by the consideration that      
,chemistry is not a  matter belonging   
exclusively to physicians and           
professors4    ,from ,,prof4 ,,wm4 ,h4  
,,bigelow4      ,the eminently practical
 character of the ,class-book1 treating 
of    the familiar applications of the  
science1 is1 in my opinion1 its    chief
 excellence1 and gives it a value far   
superior to any other    work now before
 the public4    ,from ,,david ,,syme1   
,a4 ,m41 formerly ,principal of the     
,math4 ,dept4 and  ,lecturer in ,nat4   
,philosophy1 ,chemistry1 and            
,physiology1 in ,columbia  ,college4    
,,mr4 ,,youmans3 ,dear ,sir1--,i have   
carefully examined your ,class-,book    

on ,chemistry1 and1 in my opinion1 it is
 better adapted for use in    schools   
and academies than any other work on the
 subject that has    fallen under my    
observation4      ,i hope that the      
success of your ,class-,book will be    
proportionate    to its merits1 and that
 your efforts to diffuse the knowledge  
of    ,chemistry will be duly           
appreciated by the friends of education4
    ,from ,,prof4 ,j4 ,,mulligan1       
,principal of ,young ,ladies' ,school1  
,new ,york4      ,we have a large number
 of school-books for the purpose of     
giving    elementary instruction in     
,chemistry--possessing various kinds and
    various degrees of merit2 but of all
 which ,i have examined1 ,i    should   
prefer the ,class-,book of ,chemistry1  
as the most perspicuous    in style and 
method1 and as containing the happiest  
selection of    what is most            
interesting1 and most practically       
valuable in the vast    field of        
chemical science4    ,from the ,n4 ,y4  

,commercial ,advertiser4      ,either   
for schools or for general reading1 we  
know of no elementary    work on        
,chemistry which in every respect       
pleases us so much as this4    ,from the
 ,scientific ,american4      ,such a    
book1 in the present state of chemical  
science1 was    demanded2 but to present
 the subject in such a clear1           
comprehensive    manner1 in a work of   
the size before us1 is more than we     
expected4      ,the author has happily  
succeeded in clothing his ideas in plain
    language--true eloquence--so as to  
render the subject both    interesting  
and easily comprehended4 ,the number of 
men who can    write on science and     
write clearly1 is small2 but our author 
is    among that number4      ,chemical 
,chart3    ,,by ,e4 ,l4 ,,youmans4      
,on ,rollers1 #e feet by #f in size4    
,new ,edition4 ,price #e4    ,this      
popular work accomplishes for the first 
time1 for ,chemistry1  what maps and    
charts have for geography1 geology1 and 

astronomy1 by  presenting a new and     
valuable mode of illustration4 ,its plan
 is to  represent chemical composition  
to the eye by colored diagrams1 so that 
numerous facts of proportion1 structure1
 and relation1 which are the  most      
difficult in the science1 are presented 
to the mind through the  medium of the  
eye1 and may thus be easily acquired and
 long retained4  ,the want of such a    
chart has long been felt by the         
thoughtful teacher1  and no other       
scientific publication that has ever    
emanated from  the ,american press has  
met with the universal favor that has   
been  accorded to this ,chart4 ,in the  
language of a distinguished chemist1    
,its appearance marks an era in the     
progress of the popularization of       
,chemistry4    ,it illustrates the      
nature of elements1 compounds1 affinity1
 definite  and multiple proportions1    
acids1 bases1 salts1 the salt-radical   
theory1  double decomposition1          
deoxidation1 combustion and             

illumination1  isomerism1 compound      
radicals1 and the composition of the    
proximate  principles of food4 ,it      
covers the whole field of ,agricultural 
,chemistry1 and is invaluable as an aid 
to public lecturers1 to teachers  in    
class-room recitation1 and for reference
 in the family4 ,the mode of  using it  
is explained in the class-book4    ,from
 the late ,,horace ,,mann1 ,president of
 ,antioch ,college4      ,i think ,mr4  
,youmans is entitled to great credit for
 the preparation    of his ,chart1      
because its use will not only facilitate
 acquisition1    but1 what is of far    
greater importance1 will increase the   
exactness    and precision of the       
student's elementary ideas4    ,from    
,,dr4 ,,john ,w4 ,,draper1 ,professor of
 ,chemistry in the ,university of  ,n4  
,y4      ,mr4 ,youmans' ,chart seems to 
me well adapted to communicate to       
beginners a knowledge of the definite   
combinations of chemical    substances1 
and as a preliminary to the use of      

symbols1 to aid    them very much in the
 recollection of the examples it        
contains4 ,it    deserves to be         
introduced into the schools4    ,from   
,,james ,b4 ,,rogers1 ,professor of     
,chemistry in the ,university of        
,pennsylvania4      ,we cordially       
subscribe to the opinion of ,professor  
,draper    concerning the value to      
beginners of ,mr4 ,youmans' ,chemical   
,chart4                      ,,john     
,,torrey1        ,professor of          
,chemistry in the ,college of           
,physicians             ,surgeons1 ,n4  
,y4                     ,,wm4 ,h4       
,,ellet1        ,late ,professor of     
,chemistry in ,columbia ,college1 ,s4   
,c4                  ,,james ,b4        
,,rogers1        ,professor of          
,chemistry in the ,university of        
,pennsylvania4    ,from ,,benjamin      
,,silliman1 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,professor of    
,chemistry in ,yale  ,college4      ,i  
have hastily examined ,mr4 ,youmans'    
,new ,chemical ,diagrams or ,chart    of

 chemical combinations by the union of  
the elements in atomic    proportions4  
,the design appears to be an excellent  
one4          ,history of ,philosophy4  
,a ,history of ,philosophy3    ,,an     
,,epitome4    ,,by ,,dr4 ,,albert       
,,schwegler4    ,,translated ,,from     
,,the ,,original ,,german1 ,,by ,,julius
 ,h4 ,,seelye4    #abmo4 #cfe pages4    
,price #a #be4    ,this translation is  
designed to supply a want long felt by  
both  teachers and students in our      
,american colleges4 ,we have valuable   
histories of ,philosophy in ,english1   
but no manual on this subject so  clear1
 concise1 and comprehensive as the one  
now presented4 ,schwegler's  work bears 
the marks of great learning1 and is     
evidently written by  one who has not   
only studied the original sources for   
such a history1  but has thought out for
 himself the systems of which he treats4
 ,he has  thus seized upon the real germ
 of each system1 and traced its process 
of development with great clearness and 

accuracy4 ,the whole history  of        
speculation1 from ,thales to the present
 time1 is presented in its  consecutive 
order4 ,this rich and important field of
 study1 hitherto  so greatly neglected1 
will1 it is hoped1 receive a new impulse
 among  ,american students through ,mr4 
,seelye's translation4 ,it is a book1   
moreover1 invaluable for reference1 and 
should be in the possession of  every   
public and private library4    ,from ,l4
 ,p4 ,,hickok1 ,vice-,president of      
,union ,college4      ,i have had       
opportunity to hear a large part of     
,rev4 ,mr4 ,seelye's    translation of  
,schwegler's ,history of ,philosophy    
read from    manuscript1 and ,i do not  
hesitate to say that it is a faithful1  
clear1 and remarkably precise ,english  
rendering of this invaluable    ,epitome
 of the ,history of ,philosophy4 ,it is 
exceedingly desirable    that it should 
be given to ,american students of       
philosophy in the    ,english language1 
and ,i have no expectation of its more  

favorable    and successful             
accomplishment than in this present     
attempt4 ,i    should immediately       
introduce it as a text-book in the      
graduate's    department under my own   
instruction1 if it be favorably         
published1    and cannot doubt that     
other teachers will rejoice to avail    
themselves of the like assistance from  
it4    ,from ,,henry ,b4 ,,smith1       
,professor of ,christian ,theology1     
,union  ,theological ,seminary1 ,n4 ,y4 
,it will well reward diligent study1 and
 is one of the best works    for a      
text-book in our colleges upon this     
neglected branch of    scientific       
investigation4    ,from ,n4 ,,porter1   
,professor of ,intellectual ,philosophy 
in ,yale  ,college4      ,it is the only
 book translated from the ,german which 
professes to    give an account of the  
recent ,german systems which seems      
adapted to    give any intelligible     
information on the subject to a novice4 
,from ,,geo4 ,p4 ,,fisher1 ,professor of

 ,divinity in ,yale ,college4      ,it  
is really the best ,epitome of the      
,history of ,philosophy now             
accessible to the ,english student4     
,from ,,joseph ,,haven1 ,professor of   
,mental ,philosophy in ,amherst         
,college4      ,as a manual and brief   
summary of the whole range of           
speculative    inquiry1 ,i know of no   
work which strikes me more favorably4   
,moral ,philosophy4      ,elements of   
,moral ,philosophy3    ,,analytical1    
,,synthetical1 ,,and ,,practical4       
,,by ,,hubbard ,,winslow4    #abmo4 #dhj
 pages4 ,price #a #be4    ,this work is 
an original and thorough examination of 
the fundamental  laws of ,moral         
,science1 and of their relations to     
,christianity and to  practical life4   
,it has already taken a firm stand among
 our highest  works of literature and   
science4 ,from the numerous             
commendations of  it by our most learned
 and competent men1 we have room for    
only the  following brief extracts3     

,from the ,,rev4 ,,thomas ,h4 ,,skinner1
 ,d4 ,d41 of the ,union ,theol4 ,sem41  
,n4  ,y4      ,it is a work of uncommon 
merit1 on a subject very difficult to be
    treated well4 ,his analysis is      
complete4 ,he has shunned no question   
which his purpose required him to       
answer1 and he has met no    adversary  
which he has not overcome4    ,from     
,,rev4 ,l4 ,p4 ,,hickok1                
,vice-,president of ,union ,college4    
,i deem the book well adapted to the    
ends proposed in the preface4    ,the   
style is clear1 the thoughts            
perspicuous4 ,i think it calculated     
to do good1 to promote the truth1 to    
diffuse light1 and impart    instruction
 to the community1 in a department of   
study of the    deepest interest to     
mankind4    ,from ,,rev4 ,,james        
,,walker1 ,d4 ,d41 ,president of        
,harvard ,university4      ,having      
carefully examined the more critical    
parts1 to which my    attention has been
 especially directed1 ,i am free to     

express my    conviction of the great   
clearness1 discrimination1 and accuracy 
of    the work1 and of its admirable    
adaptation to its object4    ,from      
,,rev4 ,,ray ,,palmer1 ,d4 ,d41 of      
,albany4      ,i have examined this work
 with great pleasure1 and do not        
hesitate    to say that in my judgment  
it is greatly superior to any treatise  
,i    have seen1 in all the essential   
requisites of a good text-book4    ,from
 ,,prof4 ,,rousseau ,d4 ,,hitchcock1 ,d4
 ,d41 of ,union ,theol4 ,sem41 ,n4 ,y4  
,the task of mediating between science  
and the popular mind1 is    one that    
requires a peculiar gift of perspicuity1
 both in thought    and style2 and this1
 ,i think1 the author possesses in an   
eminent    degree4 ,i am pleased with   
its comprehensiveness1 its plainness1   
and    its fidelity to the ,christian   
stand-point4    ,from ,,prof4 ,,henry   
,b4 ,,smith1 ,d4 ,d41 of the ,union     
,theol4 ,sem41 ,n4 ,y4      ,it commends
 itself by its clear arrangement of the 

topics1 its    perspicuity of language1 
and its constant practical bearings4 ,i 
am    particularly pleased with its     
views of conscience4 ,its frequent      
and pertinent illustrations1 and the    
,scriptural character of its            
explanations of the particular duties1  
will make the work both    attractive   
and valuable as a text-book1 in         
imparting instruction    upon this vital
 part of philosophy4    ,from ,w4 ,d4   
,,wilson1 ,d4 ,d41 ,professor of        
,intellectual and ,moral  ,philosophy in
 ,hobart ,free ,college4      ,i have   
examined the work with care1 and have   
adopted it as    a text-book in the     
study of ,moral ,science4 ,i consider it
 not    only sound in doctrine1 but     
clear and systematic in method1 and     
withal pervaded with a prevailing       
healthy tone of sentiment1    which     
cannot fail to leave behind1 in addition
 to the truths it    inculcates1 an     
impression in favor of those truths4 ,i 
esteem this    one of the greatest      

merits of the book4 ,in this respect it 
has    no equal1 so far as ,i know2 and 
,i do not hesitate to speak of it    as 
being preferable to any other work yet  
published1 for use in    all            
institutions where ,moral ,philosophy   
forms a department in the    course of  
instruction4          ,transcribers'    
,notes3      ,punctuation and spelling  
were made consistent when a predominant 
preference was found in this book2      
otherwise they were not changed4        
,simple typographical errors were       
corrected2 occasional unbalanced        
quotation marks retained4    ,ambiguous 
hyphens at the ends of lines were       
retained4    ,this text spells gauge as 
guage in all but one instance2 none     
changed here4    ,page #cd3 by a break  
put on perhaps should be brake4    ,page
 #dj3 conveyed upwards fourteen probably
 should be conveyed  upwards of         
fourteen4    ,page #gj3 the prepare     
surfaced probably is a misprint for     
surface4    ,page #hc3 re-agents was    

printed that way4    ,page #aig3 distil 
was printed that way4    ,page #bjh3    
metropolitian was printed that way4