,cascadia ,gardening ,series ,gardening ,without ,irrigation3 or without much1 anyway ,steve ,solomon ,,contents ,chapter #a ,predictably ,rainless ,summers #b ,water-,wise ,gardening ,science #c ,helping ,plants to ,need ,less ,irrigation #d ,water-,wise ,gardening ,year-,round #e ,how to ,grow ,it with ,less ,irrigation3 ,a-,z #f ,my ,own ,garden ,plan #g ,the ,backyard ,introduction ,starting a ,new ,gardening ,era ,first1 you should know why a maritime ,northwest raised-bed gardener named ,steve ,solomon became worried about his dependence on irrigation4 ,i'm from ,michigan4 ,i moved to ,lorane1 ,oregon1 in ,april #aigh and homesteaded on #e acres in what ,i thought at the time was a cool1 showery green valley of liquid sunshine and rainbows4 ,i intended to put in a big garden and grow as much of my own food as possible4 ,two months later1 in ,june1 just as my garden began needing water1 my so-called #ae-;gallon-per-minute well began to falter1 yielding less and less with each passing week4 ,by ,august it delivered about #c gallons per minute4 ,fortunately1 ,i wasn't faced with a completely dry well or one that had shrunk to below #a gallon per minute1 as ,i soon discovered many of my neighbors were cursed with4 ,three gallons per minute won't supply a fan nozzle or even a common impulse sprinkler1 but ,i could still sustain my big raised-bed garden by watering all night1 five or six nights a week1 with a single1 #b-a_/b gallon-per-minute sprinkler that ,i moved from place to place4 ,i had repeatedly read that gardening in raised beds was the most productive vegetable growing method1 required the least work1 and was the most water-efficient system ever known4 ,so1 without adequate irrigation1 ,i would have concluded that food self-sufficiency on my homestead was not possible4 ,in late ,september of that first year1 ,i could still run that single sprinkler4 ,what a relief not to have invested every last cent in land that couldn't feed us4 ,for many succeeding years at ,lorane1 ,i raised lots of organically grown food on densely planted raised beds1 but the realities of being a country gardener continued to remind me of how tenuous my irrigation supply actually was4 ,we country folks have to be self-reliant3 ,i am my own sanitation department1 ,i maintain my own #hjj-;foot-long driveway1 the septic system puts me in the sewage business4 ,a long1 long response time to my #iaa call means ,i'm my own self-defense force4 ,and ,i'm my own water department4 ,without regular and heavy watering during high summer1 dense stands of vegetables become stunted in a matter of days4 ,pump failure has brought my raised-bed garden close to that several times4 ,before my frantic efforts got the water flowing again1 ,i could feel the stressed-out garden screaming like a hungry baby4 ,as ,i came to understand our climate1 ,i began to wonder about complete food self-sufficiency4 ,how did the early pioneers irrigate their vegetables8 ,there probably aren't more than a thousand homestead sites in the entire maritime ,northwest with gravity water4 ,hand pumping into hand-carried buckets is impractical and extremely tedious4 ,wind-powered pumps are expensive and have severe limits4 ,the combination of dependably rainless summers1 the realities of self-sufficient living1 and my homestead's poor well turned out to be an opportunity4 ,for ,i continued wondering about gardens and water1 and discovered a method for growing a lush1 productive vegetable garden on deep soil with little or no irrigation1 in a climate that reliably provides #h to #ab virtually dry weeks every summer4 ,gardening with ,less ,irrigation ,being a garden writer1 ,i was on the receiving end of quite a bit of local lore4 ,i had heard of someone growing unirrigated carrots on sandy soil in southern ,oregon by sowing early and spacing the roots #a foot apart in rows #d feet apart4 ,the carrots were reputed to grow to enormous sizes1 and the overall yield in pounds per square foot occupied by the crop was not as low as one might think4 ,i read that ,native ,americans in the ,southwest grew remarkable desert gardens with little or no water4 ,and that ,native ,south ,americans in the highlands of ,peru and ,bolivia grow food crops in a land with #h to #ab inches of rainfall4 ,so ,i had to wonder what our own pioneers did4 ,in #aihg1 we moved #ej miles south1 to a much better homestead with more acreage and an abundant well4 ,ironically1 only then did ,i grow my first summertime vegetable without irrigation4 ,being a low-key survivalist at heart1 ,i was working at growing my own seeds4 ,the main danger to attaining good germination is in repeatedly moistening developing seed4 ,so1 in early ,march #aihh1 ,i moved six winter-surviving savoy cabbage plants far beyond the irrigated soil of my raised-bed vegetable garden4 ,i transplanted them #d feet apart because blooming brassicas make huge sprays of flower stalks4 ,i did not plan to water these plants at all1 since cabbage seed forms during ,may and dries down during ,june as the soil naturally dries out4 ,that is just what happened4 ,except that one plant did something a little unusual1 though not unheard of4 ,instead of completely going into bloom and then dying after setting a massive load of seed1 this plant also threw a vegetative bud that grew a whole new cabbage among the seed stalks4 ,with increasing excitement ,i watched this head grow steadily larger through the hottest and driest summer ,i had ever experienced4 ,realizing ,i was witnessing revelation1 ,i gave the plant absolutely no water1 though ,i did hoe out the weeds around it after ,i cut the seed stalks4 ,i harvested the unexpected lesson at the end of ,september4 ,the cabbage weighed in at #f or #g pounds and was sweet and tender4 ,up to that time1 all my gardening had been on thoroughly and uniformly watered raised beds4 ,now ,i saw that elbow room might be the key to gardening with little or no irrigating1 so ,i began looking for more information about dry gardening and soil_/water physics4 ,in spring #aihi1 ,i tilled four widely separated1 unirrigated experimental rows in which ,i tested an assortment of vegetable species spaced far apart in the row4 ,out of curiosity ,i decided to use absolutely no water at all1 not even to sprinkle the seeds to get them germinating4 ,i sowed a bit of kale1 savoy cabbage1 ,purple ,sprouting broccoli1 carrots1 beets1 parsnips1 parsley1 endive1 dry beans1 potatoes1 ,french sorrel1 and a couple of field cornstalks4 ,i also tested one compact bush 7determinate7 and one sprawling 7indeterminate7 tomato plant4 ,many of these vegetables grew surprisingly well4 ,i ate unwatered tomatoes ,july through ,september2 kale1 cabbages1 parsley1 and root crops fed us during the winter4 ,the ,purple ,sprouting broccoli bloomed abundantly the next ,march4 ,in terms of quality1 all the harvest was acceptable4 ,the root vegetables were far larger but only a little bit tougher and quite a bit sweeter than usual4 ,the potatoes yielded less than ,i'd been used to and had thicker than usual skin1 but also had a better flavor and kept well through the winter4 ,the following year ,i grew two parallel gardens4 ,one1 my insurance garden1 was thoroughly irrigated1 guaranteeing we would have plenty to eat4 ,another experimental garden of equal size was entirely unirrigated4 ,there ,i tested larger plots of species that ,i hoped could grow through a rainless summer4 ,by ,july1 growth on some species had slowed to a crawl and they looked a little gnarly4 ,wondering if a hidden cause of what appeared to be moisture stress might actually be nutrient deficiencies1 ,i tried spraying liquid fertilizer directly on these gnarly leaves1 a practice called foliar feeding4 ,it helped greatly because1 ,i reasoned1 most fertility is located in the topsoil1 and when it gets dry the plants draw on subsoil moisture1 so surface nutrients1 though still present in the dry soil1 become unobtainable4 ,that being so1 ,i reasoned that some of these species might do even better if they had just a little fertilized water4 ,so ,i improvised a simple drip system and metered out #d or #e gallons of liquid fertilizer to some of the plants in late ,july and four gallons more in ,august4 ,to some species1 extra fertilized water 7what ,i call fertigation7 hardly made any difference at all4 ,but unirrigated winter squash vines1 which were small and scraggly and yielded about #ae pounds of food1 grew more lushly when given a few #e-;gallon1 fertilizer-fortified assists and yielded #ej pounds4 ,thirty-five pounds of squash for #be extra gallons of water and a bit of extra nutrition is a pretty good exchange in my book4 ,the next year ,i integrated all this new information into just one garden4 ,water-loving species like lettuce and celery were grown through the summer on a large1 thoroughly irrigated raised bed4 ,the rest of the garden was given no irrigation at all or minimally metered-out fertigations4 ,some unirrigated crops were foliar fed weekly4 ,everything worked in #aiia6 ,and ,i found still other species that ,i could grow surprisingly well on surprisingly small amounts of water--or none at all4 ,so1 the next year1 #aiib1 ,i set up a sprinkler system to water the intensive raised bed and used the overspray to support species that grew better with some moisture supplementation2 ,i continued using my improvised drip system to help still others1 while keeping a large section of the garden entirely unwatered4 ,and at the end of that summer ,i wrote this book4 ,what follows is not mere theory1 not something ,i read about or saw others do4 ,these techniques are tested and workable4 ,the next-to-last chapter of this book contains a complete plan of my #aiib garden with explanations and discussion of the reasoning behind it4 ,in ,water-,wise ,vegetables ,i assume that my readers already are growing food 7probably on raised beds71 already know how to adjust their gardening to this region's climate1 and know how to garden with irrigation4 ,if you don't have this background ,i suggest you read my other garden book1 ,growing ,vegetables ,west of the ,cascades1 7,sasquatch ,books1 #aihi74 ,steve ,solomon ,chapter #a ,predictably ,rainless ,summers ,in the eastern ,united ,states1 summertime rainfall can support gardens without irrigation but is just irregular enough to be worrisome4 ,west of the ,cascades we go into the summer growing season certain we must water regularly4 ,my own many-times-revised book ,growing ,vegetables ,west of the ,cascades correctly emphasized that moisture-stressed vegetables suffer greatly4 ,because ,i had not yet noticed how plant spacing affects soil moisture loss1 in that book ,i stated a half-truth as law3 ,soil moisture loss averages #a-a_/b inches per week during summer4 ,this figure is generally true for raised-bed gardens west of the ,cascades1 so ,i recommended adding #a #a_/b inches of water each week and even more during really hot weather4 ,summertime ,rainfall ,west of the ,cascades 7in inches799 ,location ,april ,may ,june ,july ,aug4 ,sept4 ,oct4 ,eureka1 ,,ca #c4j #b4a #j4g #j4a #j4c #j4g #c4b ,medford1 ,,or #a4j #a4d #j4ih #j4c #j4c #j4f #b4a ,eugene1 ,,or #b4c #b4a #a4c #j4c #j4f #a4c #d4j ,portland1 ,,or #b4b #b4a #a4f #j4e #j4h #a4f #c4f ,astoria1 ,,or #d4f #b4g #b4e #a4j #a4e #b4h #f4h ,olympia1 ,,wa #c4a #a4i #a4f #j4g #a4b #b4a #e4c ,seattle1 ,,wa #b4d #a4g #a4f #j4h #a4j #b4a #d4j ,bellingham1 ,,wa #b4c #a4h #a4i #a4j #a4a #b4j #c4g ,vancouver1 ,,bc #c4c #b4h #b4e #a4b #a4g #c4f #e4h ,victoria1 ,,bc #a4b #a4j #j4i #j4d #j4f #a4e #b4h 99,source3 ,van der ,leeden et al41 ,the ,water ,encyclopedia1 #bnd ed41 7,chelsea1 ,mich43 ,lewis ,publishers1 #aiij74 ,defined scientifically1 drought is not lack of rain4 ,it is a dry soil condition in which plant growth slows or stops and plant survival may be threatened4 ,the earth loses water when wind blows1 when sun shines1 when air temperature is high1 and when humidity is low4 ,of all these factors1 air temperature most affects soil moisture loss4 ,daily ,maximum ,temperature 7,f799 ,july_/,august ,average ,eureka1 ,,ca #fa ,medford1 ,,or #hi ,eugene1 ,,or #hb ,astoria1 ,,or #fh ,olympia1 ,,wa #gh ,seattle1 ,,wa #ge ,bellingham1 ,,wa #gd ,vancouver1 ,,bc #gc ,victoria1 ,,bc #fh 99,source3 ,the ,water ,encyclopedia4 ,the kind of vegetation growing on a particular plot and its density have even more to do with soil moisture loss than temperature or humidity or wind speed4 ,and1 surprising as it might seem1 bare soil may not lose much moisture at all4 ,i now know it is next to impossible to anticipate moisture loss from soil without first specifying the vegetation there4 ,evaporation from a large body of water1 however1 is mainly determined by weather1 so reservoir evaporation measurements serve as a rough gauge of anticipated soil moisture loss4 ,evaporation from ,reservoirs 7inches per month799 ,location ,april ,may ,june ,july ,aug4 ,sept4 ,oct4 ,seattle1 ,,wa #b4a #b4g #c4d #c4i #c4d #b4f #a4f ,baker1 ,,or #b4e #c4d #d4d #f4i #g4c #d4i #b4i ,sacramento1 ,,ca #c4f #e4j #g4a #h4i #h4f #g4a #d4h 99,source3 ,the ,water ,encyclopedia ,from ,may through ,september during a normal year1 a reservoir near ,seattle loses about #af inches of water by evaporation4 ,the next chart shows how much water farmers expect to use to support conventional agriculture in various parts of the ,west4 ,comparing this data for ,seattle with the estimates based on reservoir evaporation shows pretty good agreement4 ,i include data for ,umatilla and ,yakima to show that much larger quantities of irrigation water are needed in really hot1 arid places like ,baker or ,sacramento4 ,estimated ,irrigation ,requirements3 ,during ,entire ,growing ,season 7in inches799 ,location ,duration ,amount ,umatilla_/,yakama ,valley ,april-,october #cj ,willamette ,valley ,may-,september #af ,puget ,sound ,may-,september #ad ,upper ,rogue_/,upper ,umpqua ,valley ,march-,september #ah ,lower ,rogue_/,lower ,coquille ,valley ,may-,september #aa ,,nw ,california ,april-,october #ag 99,source3 ,the ,water ,encyclopedia ,in our region1 gardens lose far more water than they get from rainfall during the summer growing season4 ,at first glance1 it seems impossible to garden without irrigation west of the ,cascades4 ,but there is water already present in the soil when the gardening season begins4 ,by creatively using and conserving this moisture1 some maritime ,northwest gardeners can go through an entire summer without irrigating very much1 and with some crops1 irrigating not at all4 ,chapter #b ,water-,wise ,gardening ,science ,plants ,are ,water ,like all other carbon-based life forms on earth1 plants conduct their chemical processes in a water solution4 ,every substance that plants transport is dissolved in water4 ,when insoluble starches and oils are required for plant energy1 enzymes change them back into water-soluble sugars for movement to other locations4 ,even cellulose and lignin1 insoluble structural materials that plants cannot convert back into soluble materials1 are made from molecules that once were in solution4 ,water is so essential that when a plant can no longer absorb as much water as it is losing1 it wilts in self-defense4 ,the drooping leaves transpire 7evaporate7 less moisture because the sun glances off them4 ,some weeds can wilt temporarily and resume vigorous growth as soon as their water balance is restored4 ,but most vegetable species aren't as tough-moisture stressed vegetables may survive1 but once stressed1 the quality of their yield usually drops markedly4 ,yet in deep1 open soil west of the ,cascades1 most vegetable species may be grown quite successfully with very little or no supplementary irrigation and without mulching1 because they're capable of being supplied entirely by water already stored in the soil4 ,soil's ,water-,holding ,capacity ,soil is capable of holding on to quite a bit of water1 mostly by adhesion4 ,for example1 ,i'm sure that at one time or another you have picked up a wet stone from a river or by the sea4 ,a thin film of water clings to its surface4 ,this is adhesion4 ,the more surface area there is1 the greater the amount of moisture that can be held by adhesion4 ,if we crushed that stone into dust1 we would greatly increase the amount of water that could adhere to the original material4 ,clay particles1 it should be noted1 are so small that clay's ability to hold water is not as great as its mathematically computed surface area would indicate4 ,surface ,area of ,one ,gram of ,soil ,particles ,particle type ,diameter of ,number of particles particles ,surface area in mm per gm in sq4 cm4 ,very coarse sand #b4jj-a4jj #ij #aa ,coarse sand #a4jj-j4ej #gbj #bc ,medium sand #j4ej-j4be #e1gjj #de ,fine sand #j4be-j4aj #df1jjj #ia ,very fine sand #j4aj-j4je #ggb1jjj #bbg ,silt #j4je-j4jjb #e1ggf1jjj #ded ,clay ,below #j4jjb #ij1bfj1hec1jjj #h1jjj1jjj ,source3 ,foth1 ,henry ,d41 ,fundamentals of ,soil ,science1 #hth ed4 7,new ,york3 ,john ,wylie ,sons1 #aiij74 ,this direct relationship between particle size1 surface area1 and water-holding capacity is so essential to understanding plant growth that the surface areas presented by various sizes of soil particles have been calculated4 ,soils are not composed of a single size of particle4 ,if the mix is primarily sand1 we call it a sandy soil4 ,if the mix is primarily clay1 we call it a clay soil4 ,if the soil is a relatively equal mix of all three1 containing no more than #ce percent clay1 we call it a loam4 ,available ,moisture 7inches of water per foot of soil7 ,soil ,texture ,average ,amount ,very coarse sand #j4e ,coarse sand #j4g ,sandy #a4j ,sandy loam #a4d ,loam #b4j ,clay loam #b4c ,silty clay #b4e ,clay #b4g ,source3 ,fundamentals of ,soil ,science4 ,adhering water films can vary greatly in thickness4 ,but if the water molecules adhering to a soil particle become too thick1 the force of adhesion becomes too weak to resist the force of gravity1 and some water flows deeper into the soil4 ,when water films are relatively thick the soil feels wet and plant roots can easily absorb moisture4 ,field capacity is the term describing soil particles holding all the water they can against the force of gravity4 ,at the other extreme1 the thinner the water films become1 the more tightly they adhere and the drier the earth feels4 ,at some degree of desiccation1 roots are no longer forceful enough to draw on soil moisture as fast as the plants are transpiring4 ,this condition is called the wilting point4 ,the term available moisture refers to the difference between field capacity and the amount of moisture left after the plants have died4 ,clayey soil can provide plants with three times as much available water as sand1 six times as much as a very coarse sandy soil4 ,it might seem logical to conclude that a clayey garden would be the most drought resistant4 ,but there's more to it4 ,for some crops1 deep sandy loams can provide just about as much usable moisture as clays4 ,sandy soils usually allow more extensive root development1 so a plant with a naturally aggressive and deep root system may be able to occupy a much larger volume of sandy loam1 ultimately coming up with more moisture than it could obtain from a heavy1 airless clay4 ,and sandy loams often have a clayey1 moisture-rich subsoil4 ,because of this interplay of factors1 how much available water your own unique garden soil is actually capable of providing and how much you will have to supplement it with irrigation can only be discovered by trial4 ,how ,soil ,loses ,water ,suppose we tilled a plot about ,april #a and then measured soil moisture loss until ,october4 ,because plants growing around the edge might extend roots into our test plot and extract moisture1 we'll make our tilled area #ej feet by #ej feet and make all our measurements in the center4 ,and let's locate this imaginary plot in full sun on flat1 uniform soil4 ,and let's plant absolutely nothing in this bare earth4 ,and all season let's rigorously hoe out every weed while it is still very tiny4 ,let's also suppose it's been a typical maritime ,northwest rainy winter1 so on ,april #a the soil is at field capacity1 holding all the moisture it can4 ,from early ,april until well into ,september the hot sun will beat down on this bare plot4 ,our summer rains generally come in insignificant installments and do not penetrate deeply2 all of the rain quickly evaporates from the surface few inches without recharging deeper layers4 ,most readers would reason that a soil moisture measurement taken #f inches down on ,september #a1 should show very little water left4 ,one foot down seems like it should be just as dry1 and in fact1 most gardeners would expect that there would be very little water found in the soil until we got down quite a few feet if there were several feet of soil4 ,but that is not what happens6 ,the hot sun does dry out the surface inches1 but if we dig down #f inches or so there will be almost as much water present in ,september as there was in ,april4 ,bare earth does not lose much water at all4 ,once a thin surface layer is completely desiccated1 be it loose or compacted1 virtually no further loss of moisture can occur4 ,the only soils that continue to dry out when bare are certain kinds of very heavy clays that form deep cracks4 ,these ever-deepening openings allow atmospheric air to freely evaporate additional moisture4 ,but if the cracks are filled with dust by surface cultivation1 even this soil type ceases to lose water4 ,soil functions as our bank account1 holding available water in storage4 ,in our climate soil is inevitably charged to capacity by winter rains1 and then all summer growing plants make heavy withdrawals4 ,but hot sun and wind working directly on soil don't remove much water2 that is caused by hot sun and wind working on plant leaves1 making them transpire moisture drawn from the earth through their root systems4 ,plants desiccate soil to the ultimate depth and lateral extent of their rooting ability1 and then some4 ,the size of vegetable root systems is greater than most gardeners would think4 ,the amount of moisture potentially available to sustain vegetable growth is also greater than most gardeners think4 ,rain and irrigation are not the only ways to replace soil moisture4 ,if the soil body is deep1 water will gradually come up from below the root zone by capillarity4 ,capillarity works by the very same force of adhesion that makes moisture stick to a soil particle4 ,a column of water in a vertical tube 7like a thin straw7 adheres to the tube's inner surfaces4 ,this adhesion tends to lift the edges of the column of water4 ,as the tube's diameter becomes smaller the amount of lift becomes greater4 ,soil particles form interconnected pores that allow an inefficient capillary flow1 recharging dry soil above4 ,however1 the drier soil becomes1 the less effective capillary flow becomes4 ,that is why a thoroughly desiccated surface layer only a few inches thick acts as a powerful mulch4 ,industrial farming and modern gardening tend to discount the replacement of surface moisture by capillarity1 considering this flow an insignificant factor compared with the moisture needs of crops4 ,but conventional agriculture focuses on maximized yields through high plant densities4 ,capillarity is too slow to support dense crop stands where numerous root systems are competing1 but when a single plant can1 without any competition1 occupy a large enough area1 moisture replacement by capillarity becomes significant4 ,how ,plants ,obtain ,water ,most gardeners know that plants acquire water and minerals through their root systems1 and leave it at that4 ,but the process is not quite that simple4 ,the actively growing1 tender root tips and almost microscopic root hairs close to the tip absorb most of the plant's moisture as they occupy new territory4 ,as the root continues to extend1 parts behind the tip cease to be effective because1 as soil particles in direct contact with these tips and hairs dry out1 the older roots thicken and develop a bark1 while most of the absorbent hairs slough off4 ,this rotation from being actively foraging tissue to becoming more passive conductive and supportive tissue is probably a survival adaptation1 because the slow capillary movement of soil moisture fails to replace what the plant used as fast as the plant might like4 ,the plant is far better off to aggressively seek new water in unoccupied soil than to wait for the soil its roots already occupy to be recharged4 ,a simple bit of old research magnificently illustrated the significance of this4 ,a scientist named ,dittmer observed in #aicg that a single potted ryegrass plant allocated only #a cubic foot of soil to grow in made about #c miles of new roots and root hairs every day4 7,ryegrasses are known to make more roots than most plants47 ,i calculate that a cubic foot of silty soil offers about #cj1jjj square feet of surface area to plant roots4 ,if #c miles of microscopic root tips and hairs 7roughly #af1jjj lineal feet7 draws water only from a few millimeters of surrounding soil1 then that single rye plant should be able to continue ramifying into a cubic foot of silty soil and find enough water for quite a few days before wilting4 ,these arithmetical estimates agree with my observations in the garden1 and with my experiences raising transplants in pots4 ,lowered ,plant ,density3 ,the ,key to ,water-,wise ,gardening ,i always think my latest try at writing a near-perfect garden book is quite a bit better than the last4 ,growing ,vegetables ,west of the ,cascades1 recommended somewhat wider spacings on raised beds than ,i did in #aihj because ,i'd repeatedly noticed that once a leaf canopy forms1 plant growth slows markedly4 ,adding a little more fertilizer helps after plants bump1 but still the rate of growth never equals that of younger plants4 ,for years ,i assumed crowded plants stopped producing as much because competition developed for light4 ,but now ,i see that unseen competition for root room also slows them down4 ,even if moisture is regularly recharged by irrigation1 and although nutrients are replaced1 once a bit of earth has been occupied by the roots of one plant it is not so readily available to the roots of another4 ,so allocating more elbow room allows vegetables to get larger and yield longer and allows the gardener to reduce the frequency of irrigations4 ,though hot1 baking sun and wind can desiccate the few inches of surface soil1 withdrawals of moisture from greater depths are made by growing plants transpiring moisture through their leaf surfaces4 ,the amount of water a growing crop will transpire is determined first by the nature of the species itself1 then by the amount of leaf exposed to sun1 air temperature1 humidity1 and wind4 ,in these respects1 the crop is like an automobile radiator4 ,with cars1 the more metal surfaces1 the colder the ambient air1 and the higher the wind speed1 the better the radiator can cool2 in the garden1 the more leaf surfaces1 the faster1 warmer1 and drier the wind1 and the brighter the sunlight1 the more water is lost through transpiration4 ,dealing with a ,surprise ,water ,shortage ,suppose you are growing a conventional1 irrigated garden and something unanticipated interrupts your ability to water4 ,perhaps you are homesteading and your well begins to dry up4 ,perhaps you're a backyard gardener and the municipality temporarily restricts usage4 ,what to do8 ,first1 if at all possible before the restrictions take effect1 water very heavily and long to ensure there is maximum subsoil moisture4 ,then eliminate all newly started interplantings and ruthlessly hoe out at least #ge percent of the remaining immature plants and about half of those about two weeks away from harvest4 ,for example1 suppose you've got a a #d-;foot-wide intensive bed holding seven rows of broccoli on #ab inch centers1 or about #ba plants4 ,remove at least every other row and every other plant in the three or four remaining rows4 ,try to bring plant density down to those described in ,chapter #e1 ,how to ,grow ,it3 ,a-,z ,then shallowly hoe the soil every day or two to encourage the surface inches to dry out and form a dust mulch4 ,you water-wise person--you're already dry gardening--now start fertigating4 ,how long available soil water will sustain a crop is determined by how many plants are drawing on the reserve1 how extensively their root systems develop1 and how many leaves are transpiring the moisture4 ,if there are no plants1 most of the water will stay unused in the barren soil through the entire growing season4 ,if a crop canopy is established midway through the growing season1 the rate of water loss will approximate that listed in the table in ,chapter #a ,estimated ,irrigation ,requirement4 ,if by very close planting the crop canopy is established as early as possible and maintained by successive interplantings1 as is recommended by most advocates of raised-bed gardening1 water losses will greatly exceed this rate4 ,many vegetable species become mildly stressed when soil moisture has dropped about half the way from capacity to the wilting point4 ,on very closely planted beds a crop can get in serious trouble without irrigation in a matter of days4 ,but if that same crop were planted less densely1 it might grow a few weeks without irrigation4 ,and if that crop were planted even farther apart so that no crop canopy ever developed and a considerable amount of bare1 dry earth were showing1 this apparent waste of growing space would result in an even slower rate of soil moisture depletion4 ,on deep1 open soil the crop might yield a respectable amount without needing any irrigation at all4 ,west of the ,cascades we expect a rainless summer2 the surprise comes that rare rainy year when the soil stays moist and we gather bucketfuls of chanterelle mushrooms in early ,october4 ,though the majority of maritime ,northwest gardeners do not enjoy deep1 open1 moisture-retentive soils1 all except those with the shallowest soil can increase their use of the free moisture nature provides and lengthen the time between irrigations4 ,the next chapter discusses making the most of whatever soil depth you have4 ,most of our region's gardens can yield abundantly without any rain at all if only we reduce competition for available soil moisture1 judiciously fertigate some vegetable species1 and practice a few other water-wise tricks4 ,would lowering plant density as much as this book suggests equally lower the yield of the plot8 ,surprisingly1 the amount harvested does not drop proportionately4 ,in most cases having a plant density one-eighth of that recommended by intensive gardening advocates will result in a yield about half as great as on closely planted raised beds4 ,internet ,readers3 ,in the print copy of this book are color pictures of my own irrigationless garden4 ,looking at them about here in the book would add reality to these ideas4 ,chapter #c ,helping ,plants to ,need ,less ,irrigation ,dry though the maritime ,northwest summer is1 we enter the growing season with our full depth of soil at field capacity4 ,except on clayey soils in extraordinarily frosty1 high-elevation locations1 we usually can till and plant before the soil has had a chance to lose much moisture4 ,there are a number of things we can do to make soil moisture more available to our summer vegetables4 ,the most obvious step is thorough weeding4 ,next1 we can keep the surface fluffed up with a rotary tiller or hoe during ,april and ,may1 to break its capillary connection with deeper soil and accelerate the formation of a dry dust mulch4 ,usually1 weeding forces us to do this anyway4 ,also1 if it should rain during summer1 we can hoe or rotary till a day or two later and again help a new dust mulch to develop4 ,building ,bigger ,root ,systems ,without irrigation1 most of the plant's water supply is obtained by expansion into new earth that hasn't been desiccated by other competing roots4 ,eliminating any obstacles to rapid growth of root systems is the key to success4 ,so1 keep in mind a few facts about how roots grow and prosper4 ,the air supply in soil limits or allows root growth4 ,unlike the leaves1 roots do not perform photosynthesis1 breaking down carbon dioxide gas into atmospheric oxygen and carbon4 ,yet root cells must breathe oxygen4 ,this is obtained from the air held in spaces between soil particles4 ,many other soil-dwelling life forms from bacteria to moles compete for this same oxygen4 ,consequently1 soil oxygen levels are lower than in the atmosphere4 ,a slow exchange of gases does occur between soil air and free atmosphere1 but deeper in the soil there will inevitably be less oxygen4 ,different plant species have varying degrees of root tolerance for lack of oxygen1 but they all stop growing at some depth4 ,moisture reserves below the roots' maximum depth become relatively inaccessible4 ,soil compaction reduces the overall supply and exchange of soil air4 ,compacted soil also acts as a mechanical barrier to root system expansion4 ,when gardening with unlimited irrigation or where rain falls frequently1 it is quite possible to have satisfactory growth when only the surface #f or #g inches of soil facilitates root development4 ,when gardening with limited water1 ,china's the limit1 because if soil conditions permit1 many vegetable species are capable of reaching #d1 #e1 and #h eight feet down to find moisture and nutrition4 ,evaluating ,potential ,rooting ,ability ,one of the most instructive things a water-wise gardener can do is to rent or borrow a hand-operated fence post auger and bore a #c-;foot-deep hole4 ,it can be even more educational to buy a short section of ordinary water pipe to extend the auger's reach another #b or #c feet down4 ,in soil free of stones1 using an auger is more instructive than using a conventional posthole digger or shoveling out a small pit1 because where soil is loose1 the hole deepens rapidly4 ,where any layer is even slightly compacted1 one turns and turns the bit without much effect4 ,augers also lift the materials more or less as they are stratified4 ,if your soil is somewhat stony 7like much upland soil north of ,centralia left by the ,vashon ,glacier71 the more usual fence-post digger or common shovel works better4 ,if you find more than #d feet of soil1 the site holds a dry-gardening potential that increases with the additional depth4 ,some soils along the floodplains of rivers or in broad valleys like the ,willamette or ,skagit can be over #bj feet deep1 and hold far more water than the deepest roots could draw or capillary flow could raise during an entire growing season4 ,gently sloping land can often carry #e to #g feet of open1 usable soil4 ,however1 soils on steep hillsides become increasingly thin and fragile with increasing slope4 ,whether an urban1 suburban1 or rural gardener1 you should make no assumptions about the depth and openness of the soil at your disposal4 ,dig a test hole4 ,if you find less than #b unfortunate feet of open earth before hitting an impermeable obstacle such as rock or gravel1 not much water storage can occur and the only use this book will hold for you is to guide your move to a more likely gardening location or encourage the house hunter to seek further4 ,of course1 you can still garden quite successfully on thin soil in the conventional1 irrigated manner4 ,growing ,vegetables ,west of the ,cascades will be an excellent guide for this type of situation4 ,eliminating ,plowpan ,deep though the soil may be1 any restriction of root expansion greatly limits the ability of plants to aggressively find water4 ,a compacted subsoil or even a thin compressed layer such as plowpan may function as such a barrier4 ,though moisture will still rise slowly by capillarity and recharge soil above plowpan1 plants obtain much more water by rooting into unoccupied1 damp soil4 ,soils close to rivers or on floodplains may appear loose and infinitely deep but may hide subsoil streaks of droughty gravel that effectively stops root growth4 ,some of these conditions are correctable and some are not4 ,plowpan is very commonly encountered by homesteaders on farm soils and may be found in suburbia too1 but fortunately it is the easiest obstacle to remedy4 ,traditionally1 ,american croplands have been tilled with the moldboard plow4 ,as this implement first cuts and then flips a #f-or #g-;inch-deep slice of soil over1 the sole--the part supporting the plow's weight--presses heavily on the earth about #g inches below the surface4 ,with each subsequent plowing the plow sole rides at the same #g-;inch depth and an even more compacted layer develops4 ,once formed plowpan prevents the crop from rooting into the subsoil4 ,since winter rains leach nutrients from the topsoil and deposit them in the subsoil1 plowpan prevents access to these nutrients and effectively impoverishes the field4 ,so wise farmers periodically use a subsoil plow to fracture the pan4 ,plowpan can seem as firm as a rammed-earth house2 once established1 it can last a long1 long time4 ,my own garden land is part of what was once an old wheat farm1 one of the first homesteads of the ,oregon ,territory4 ,from about #ahfj through the #aicjs1 the field produced small grains4 ,after wheat became unprofitable1 probably because of changing market conditions and soil exhaustion1 the field became an unplowed pasture4 ,then in the #aigjs it grew daffodil bulbs1 occasioning more plowing4 ,all through the '#hjs my soil again rested under grass4 ,in #aihg1 when ,i began using the land1 there was still a #b-;inch-thick1 very hard layer starting about #g inches down4 ,below #i inches the open earth is soft as butter as far as ,i've ever dug4 ,on a garden-sized plot1 plowpan or compacted subsoil is easily opened with a spading fork or a very sharp common shovel4 ,after normal rotary tilling1 either tool can fairly easily be wiggled #ab inches into the earth and small bites of plowpan loosened4 ,once this laborious chore is accomplished the first time1 deep tillage will be far easier4 ,in fact1 it becomes so easy that ,i've been looking for a custom-made fork with longer tines4 ,curing ,clayey ,soils ,in humid climates like ours1 sandy soils may seem very open and friable on the surface but frequently hold some unpleasant subsoil surprises4 ,over geologic time spans1 mineral grains are slowly destroyed by weak soil acids and clay is formed from the breakdown products4 ,then heavy winter rainfall transports these minuscule clay particles deeper into the earth1 where they concentrate4 ,it is not unusual to find a sandy topsoil underlaid with a dense1 cement-like1 clayey sand subsoil extending down several feet4 ,if very impervious1 a thick1 dense deposition like this may be called hardpan4 ,the spading fork cannot cure this condition as simply as it can eliminate thin plowpan4 ,here is one situation where1 if ,i had a neighbor with a large tractor and subsoil plow1 ,i'd hire him to fracture my land #c or #d feet deep4 ,painstakingly double or even triple digging will also loosen this layer4 ,another possible strategy for a smaller garden would be to rent a gasoline-powered posthole auger1 spread manure or compost an inch or two thick1 and then bore numerous1 almost adjoining holes #d feet deep all over the garden4 ,clayey subsoil can supply surprisingly larger amounts of moisture than the granular sandy surface might imply1 but only if the earth is opened deeply and becomes more accessible to root growth4 ,fortunately1 once root development increases at greater depths1 the organic matter content and accessibility of this clayey layer can be maintained through intelligent green manuring1 postponing for years the need to subsoil again4 ,green manuring is discussed in detail shortly4 ,other sites may have gooey1 very fine clay topsoils1 almost inevitably with gooey1 very fine clay subsoils as well4 ,though incorporation of extraordinarily large quantities of organic matter can turn the top few inches into something that behaves a little like loam1 it is quite impractical to work in humus to a depth of #d or #e feet4 ,root development will still be limited to the surface layer4 ,very fine clays don't make likely dry gardens4 ,not all clay soils are fine clay soils1 totally compacted and airless4 ,for example1 on the gentler slopes of the geologic old ,cascades1 those #ej-million-year-old black basalts that form the ,cascades foothills and appear in other places throughout the maritime ,northwest1 a deep1 friable1 red clay soil called 7in ,oregon7 ,jori often forms4 ,jori clays can be #f to #h feet deep and are sufficiently porous and well drained to have been used for highly productive orchard crops4 ,water-wise gardeners can do wonders with ,joris and other similar soils1 though clays never grow the best root crops4 ,spotting a ,likely ,site ,observing the condition of wild plants can reveal a good site to garden without much irrigation4 ,where ,himalaya or ,evergreen blackberries grow #b feet tall and produce small1 dull-tasting fruit1 there is not much available soil moisture4 ,where they grow #f feet tall and the berries are sweet and good sized1 there is deep1 open soil4 ,when the berry vines are #h or more feet tall and the fruits are especially huge1 usually there is both deep1 loose soil and a higher than usual amount of fertility4 ,other native vegetation can also reveal a lot about soil moisture reserves4 ,for years ,i wondered at the short leaders and sad appearance of ,douglas fir in the vicinity of ,yelm1 ,washington4 ,were they due to extreme soil infertility8 ,then ,i learned that conifer trees respond more to summertime soil moisture than to fertility4 ,i obtained a soil survey of ,thurston ,county and discovered that much of that area was very sandy with gravelly subsoil4 ,eureka6 ,the ,soil ,conservation ,service 7,,scs71 a ,u4,s4 ,government agency1 has probably put a soil auger into your very land or a plot close by4 ,its tests have been correlated and mapped2 the soils underlying the maritime ,northwest have been named and categorized by texture1 depth1 and ability to provide available moisture4 ,the maps are precise and detailed enough to approximately locate a city or suburban lot4 ,in #aihg1 when ,i was in the market for a new homestead1 ,i first went to my county ,,scs office1 mapped out locations where the soil was suitable1 and then went hunting4 ,most counties have their own office4 ,using ,humus to ,increase ,soil ,moisture ,maintaining topsoil humus content in the #d to #e percent range is vital to plant health1 vital to growing more nutritious food1 and essential to bringing the soil into that state of easy workability and cooperation known as good tilth4 ,humus is a spongy substance capable of holding several times more available moisture than clay4 ,there are also new synthetic1 long-lasting soil amendments that hold and release even more moisture than humus4 ,garden books frequently recommend tilling in extraordinarily large amounts of organic matter to increase a soil's water-holding capacity in the top few inches4 ,humus can improve many aspects of soil but will not reduce a garden's overall need for irrigation1 because it is simply not practical to maintain sufficient humus deeply enough4 ,rotary tilling only blends amendments into the top #f or #g inches of soil4 ,rigorous double digging by actually trenching out #ab inches and then spading up the next foot theoretically allows one to mix in significant amounts of organic matter to nearly #bd inches4 ,but plants can use water from far deeper than that4 ,let's realistically consider how much soil moisture reserves might be increased by double digging and incorporating large quantities of organic matter4 ,a healthy topsoil organic matter level in our climate is about #d percent4 ,this rapidly declines to less than #j4e percent in the subsoil4 ,suppose inches-thick layers of compost were spread and1 by double digging1 the organic matter content of a very sandy soil were amended to #aj percent down to #b feet4 ,if that soil contained little clay1 its water-holding ability in the top #b feet could be doubled4 ,referring to the chart ,available ,moisture in ,chapter #b1 we see that sandy soil can release up to #a inch of water per foot4 ,by dint of massive amendment we might add #a inch of available moisture per foot of soil to the reserve4 ,that's #b extra inches of water1 enough to increase the time an ordinary garden can last between heavy irrigations by a week or #aj days4 ,if the soil in question were a silty clay1 it would naturally make #b #a_/b inches available per foot4 ,a massive humus amendment would increase that to #c #a_/b inches in the top foot or two1 relatively not as much benefit as in sandy soil4 ,and ,i seriously doubt that many gardeners would be willing to thoroughly double dig to an honest #bd inches4 ,trying to maintain organic matter levels above #aj percent is an almost self-defeating process4 ,the higher the humus level gets1 the more rapidly organic matter tends to decay4 ,finding or making enough well-finished compost to cover the garden several inches deep 7what it takes to lift humus levels to #aj percent7 is enough of a job4 ,double digging just as much more into the second foot is even more effort4 ,but having to repeat that chore every year or two becomes downright discouraging4 ,no1 either your soil naturally holds enough moisture to permit dry gardening1 or it doesn't4 ,keeping the ,subsoil ,open with ,green ,manuring ,when roots decay1 fresh organic matter and large1 long-lasting passageways can be left deep in the soil1 allowing easier air movement and facilitating entry of other roots4 ,but no cover crop that ,i am aware of will effectively penetrate firm plowpan or other resistant physical obstacles4 ,such a barrier forces all plants to root almost exclusively in the topsoil4 ,however1 once the subsoil has been mechanically fractured the first time1 and if recompaction is avoided by shunning heavy tractors and other machinery1 green manure crops can maintain the openness of the subsoil4 ,to accomplish this1 correct green manure species selection is essential4 ,lawn grasses tend to be shallow rooting1 while most regionally adapted pasture grasses can reach down about #c feet at best4 ,however1 orchard grass 7called coltsfoot in ,english farming books7 will grow down #d or more feet while leaving a massive amount of decaying organic matter in the subsoil after the sod is tilled in4 ,sweet clover1 a biennial legume that sprouts one spring then winters over to bloom the next summer1 may go down #h feet4 ,red clover1 a perennial species1 may thickly invade the top #e feet4 ,other useful subsoil busters include densely sown ,umbelliferae such as carrots1 parsley1 and parsnip4 ,the chicory family also makes very large and penetrating taproots4 ,though seed for wild chicory is hard to obtain1 cheap varieties of endive 7a semicivilized relative7 are easily available4 ,and several pounds of your own excellent parsley or parsnip seed can be easily produced by letting about #aj row feet of overwintering roots form seed4 ,orchard grass and red clover can be had quite inexpensively at many farm supply stores4 ,sweet clover is not currently grown by our region's farmers and so can only be found by mail from ,johnny's ,selected ,seeds 7see ,chapter #e for their address74 ,poppy seed used for cooking will often sprout4 ,sown densely in ,october1 it forms a thick carpet of frilly spring greens underlaid with countless massive taproots that decompose very rapidly if the plants are tilled in in ,april before flower stalks begin to appear4 ,beware if using poppies as a green manure crop3 be sure to till them in early to avoid trouble with the ,,dea or other authorities4 ,for country gardeners1 the best rotations include several years of perennial grass-legume-herb mixtures to maintain the openness of the subsoil followed by a few years of vegetables and then back 7see ,newman ,turner's book in more reading74 ,i plan my own garden this way4 ,in ,october1 after a few inches of rain has softened the earth1 ,i spread #ej pounds of agricultural lime per #a1jjj square feet and break the thick pasture sod covering next year's garden plot by shallow rotary tilling4 ,early the next spring ,i broadcast a concoction ,i call complete organic fertilizer 7see ,growing ,vegetables ,west of the ,cascades or the ,territorial ,seed ,company ,catalog71 till again after the soil dries down a bit1 and then use a spading fork to open the subsoil before making a seedbed4 ,the first time around1 ,i had to break the century-old plowpan--forking compacted earth a foot deep is a lot of work4 ,in subsequent rotations it is much much easier4 ,for a couple of years1 vegetables will grow vigorously on this new ground supported only with a complete organic fertilizer4 ,but vegetable gardening makes humus levels decline rapidly4 ,so every few years ,i start a new garden on another plot and replant the old garden to green manures4 ,i never remove vegetation during the long rebuilding under green manures1 but merely mow it once or twice a year and allow the organic matter content of the soil to redevelop4 ,if there ever were a place where chemical fertilizers might be appropriate around a garden1 it would be to affordably enhance the growth of biomass during green manuring4 ,were ,i a serious city vegetable gardener1 ,i'd consider growing vegetables in the front yard for a few years and then switching to the back yard4 ,having lots of space1 as ,i do now1 ,i keep three or four garden plots available1 one in vegetables and the others restoring their organic matter content under grass4 ,mulching ,gardening under a permanent thick mulch of crude organic matter is recommended by ,ruth ,stout 7see the listing for her book in ,more ,reading7 and her disciples as a surefire way to drought-proof gardens while eliminating virtually any need for tillage1 weeding1 and fertilizing4 ,i have attempted the method in both ,southern ,california and western ,oregon--with disastrous results in both locations4 ,what follows in this section is addressed to gardeners who have already read glowing reports about mulching4 ,permanent mulching with vegetation actually does not reduce summertime moisture loss any better than mulching with dry soil1 sometimes called dust mulching4 ,true1 while the surface layer stays moist1 water will steadily be wicked up by capillarity and be evaporated from the soil's surface4 ,if frequent light sprinkling keeps the surface perpetually moist1 subsoil moisture loss can occur all summer1 so unmulched soil could eventually become desiccated many feet deep4 ,however1 capillary movement only happens when soil is damp4 ,once even a thin layer of soil has become quite dry it almost completely prevents any further movement4 ,west of the ,cascades1 this happens all by itself in late spring4 ,one hot1 sunny day follows another1 and soon the earth's surface seems parched4 ,unfortunately1 by the time a dusty layer forms1 quite a bit of soil water may have risen from the depths and been lost4 ,the gardener can significantly reduce spring moisture loss by frequently hoeing weeds until the top inch or two of earth is dry and powdery4 ,this effort will probably be necessary in any case1 because weeds will germinate prolifically until the surface layer is sufficiently desiccated4 ,on the off chance it should rain hard during summer1 it is very wise to again hoe a few times to rapidly restore the dust mulch4 ,if hand cultivation seems very hard work1 ,i suggest you learn to sharpen your hoe4 ,a mulch of dry hay1 grass clippings1 leaves1 and the like will also retard rapid surface evaporation4 ,gardeners think mulching prevents moisture loss better than bare earth because under mulch the soil stays damp right to the surface4 ,however1 dig down #d to #f inches under a dust mulch and the earth is just as damp as under hay4 ,and1 soil moisture studies have proved that overall moisture loss using vegetation mulch slightly exceeds loss under a dust mulch4 ,west of the ,cascades1 the question of which method is superior is a bit complex1 with pros and cons on both sides4 ,without a long winter freeze to set populations back1 permanent thick mulch quickly breeds so many slugs1 earwhigs1 and sowbugs that it cannot be maintained for more than one year before vegetable gardening becomes very difficult4 ,laying down a fairly thin mulch in ,june after the soil has warmed up well1 raking up what remains of the mulch early the next spring1 and composting it prevents destructive insect population levels from developing while simultaneously reducing surface compaction by winter rains and beneficially enhancing the survival and multiplication of earthworms4 ,but a thin mulch also enhances the summer germination of weed seeds without being thick enough to suppress their emergence4 ,and any mulch1 even a thin one1 makes hoeing virtually impossible1 while hand weeding through mulch is tedious4 ,mulch has some unqualified pluses in hotter climates4 ,most of the organic matter in soil and consequently most of the available nitrogen is found in the surface few inches4 ,levels of other mineral nutrients are usually two or three times as high in the topsoil as well4 ,however1 if the surface few inches of soil becomes completely desiccated1 no root activity will occur there and the plants are forced to feed deeper1 in soil far less fertile4 ,keeping the topsoil damp does greatly improve the growth of some shallow-feeding species such as lettuce and radishes4 ,but with our climate's cool nights1 most vegetables need the soil as warm as possible1 and the cooling effect of mulch can be as much a hindrance as a help4 ,i've tried mulching quite a few species while dry gardening and found little or no improvement in plant growth with most of them4 ,probably1 the enhancement of nutrition compensates for the harm from lowering soil temperature4 ,fertigation is better all around4 ,windbreaks ,plants transpire more moisture when the sun shines1 when temperatures are high1 and when the wind blows2 it is just like drying laundry4 ,windbreaks also help the garden grow in winter by increasing temperature4 ,many other garden books discuss windbreaks1 and ,i conclude that ,i have a better use for the small amount of words my publisher allows me than to repeat this data2 ,binda ,colebrook's i,winter ,gardening in the ,maritime ,northwesti 7,sasquatch ,books1 #aihi7 is especially good on this topic4 ,fertilizing1 ,fertigating and ,foliar ,spraying ,in our heavily leached region almost no soil is naturally rich1 while fertilizers1 manures1 and potent composts mainly improve the topsoil4 ,but the water-wise gardener must get nutrition down deep1 where the soil stays damp through the summer4 ,if plants with enough remaining elbow room stop growing in summer and begin to appear gnarly1 it is just as likely due to lack of nutrition as lack of water4 ,several things can be done to limit or prevent midsummer stunting4 ,first1 before sowing or transplanting large species like tomato1 squash or big brassicas1 dig out a small pit about #ab inches deep and below that blend in a handful or two of organic fertilizer4 ,then fill the hole back in4 ,this double-digging process places concentrated fertility mixed #ah to #bd inches below the seeds or seedlings4 ,foliar feeding is another water-wise technique that keeps plants growing through the summer4 ,soluble nutrients sprayed on plant leaves are rapidly taken into the vascular system4 ,unfortunately1 dilute nutrient solutions that won't burn leaves only provoke a strong growth response for #c to #e days4 ,optimally1 foliar nutrition must be applied weekly or even more frequently4 ,to efficiently spray a garden larger than a few hundred square feet1 ,i suggest buying an industrial-grade1 #c-;gallon backpack sprayer with a side-handle pump4 ,approximate cost as of this writing was #hj4 ,the store that sells it 7probably a farm supply store7 will also support you with a complete assortment of inexpensive nozzles that can vary the rate of emission and the spray pattern4 ,high-quality equipment like this outlasts many1 many cheaper and smaller sprayers designed for the consumer market1 and replacement parts are also available4 ,keep in mind that consumer merchandise is designed to be consumed2 stuff made for farming is built to last4 ,increasing ,soil ,fertility ,saves ,water ,does crop growth equal water use8 ,most people would say this statement seems likely to be true4 ,actually1 faster-growing crops use much less soil moisture than slower-growing ones4 ,as early as #ahhb it was determined that less water is required to produce a pound of plant material when soil is fertilized than when it is not fertilized4 ,one experiment required #a1ajj pounds of water to grow #a pound of dry matter on infertile soil1 but only #ege pounds of water to produce a pound of dry matter on rich land4 ,perhaps the single most important thing a water-wise gardener can do is to increase the fertility of the soil1 especially the subsoil4 ,poor plant nutrition increases the water cost of every pound of dry matter produced4 ,using foliar fertilizers requires a little caution and forethought4 ,spinach1 beet1 and chard leaves seem particularly sensitive to foliars 7and even to organic insecticides7 and may be damaged by even half-strength applications4 ,and the cabbage family coats its leaf surfaces with a waxy1 moisture-retentive sealant that makes sprays bead up and run off rather than stick and be absorbed4 ,mixing foliar feed solutions with a little spreader_/sticker1 ,safer's ,soap1 or1 if bugs are also a problem1 with a liquid organic insecticide like ,red ,arrow 7a pyrethrum-rotenone mix71 eliminates surface tension and allows the fertilizer to have an effect on brassicas4 ,sadly1 in terms of nutrient balance1 the poorest foliar sprays are organic4 ,that's because it is nearly impossible to get significant quantities of phosphorus or calcium into solution using any combination of fish emulsion and seaweed or liquid kelp4 ,the most useful possible organic foliar is #a_/b to #a tablespoon each of fish emulsion and liquid seaweed concentrate per gallon of water4 ,foliar spraying and fertigation are two occasions when ,i am comfortable supplementing my organic fertilizers with water-soluble chemical fertilizers4 ,the best and most expensive brand is ,rapid-,gro4 ,less costly concoctions such as ,peters #bj-bj-bj or the other ,grows1 don't provide as complete trace mineral support or use as many sources of nutrition4 ,one thing fertilizer makers find expensive to accomplish is concocting a mixture of soluble nutrients that also contains calcium1 a vital plant food4 ,if you dissolve calcium nitrate into a solution containing other soluble plant nutrients1 many of them will precipitate out because few calcium compounds are soluble4 ,even ,rapid-,gro doesn't attempt to supply calcium4 ,recently ,i've discovered better-quality hydroponic nutrient solutions that do use chemicals that provide soluble calcium4 ,these also make excellent foliar sprays4 ,brands of hydroponic nutrient solutions seem to appear and vanish rapidly4 ,i've had great luck with ,dyna-,gro #g-i-e4 ,all these chemicals are mixed at about #a tablespoon per gallon4 ,vegetables ,that3 ,like foliars ,asparagus ,carrots ,melons ,squash ,beans ,cauliflower ,peas ,tomatoes ,broccoli ,brussels sprouts ,cucumbers ,cabbage ,eggplant ,radishes ,kale ,rutabagas ,potatoes ,don't like foliars ,beets ,leeks ,onions ,spinach ,chard ,lettuce ,peppers ,like fertigation ,brussels sprouts ,kale ,savoy cabbage ,cucumbers ,melons ,squash ,eggplant ,peppers ,tomatoes ,fertigation every two to four weeks is the best technique for maximizing yield while minimizing water use4 ,i usually make my first fertigation late in ,june and continue periodically through early ,september4 ,i use six or seven plastic #e-;gallon drip system buckets1 7see below7 set one by each plant1 and fill them all with a hose each time ,i work in the garden4 ,doing #ab or #ad plants each time ,i'm in the garden1 it takes no special effort to rotate through them all more or less every three weeks4 ,to make a drip bucket1 drill a #c_/af-;inch hole through the side of a #d-to-#f-;gallon plastic bucket about #a_/d-;inch up from the bottom1 or in the bottom at the edge4 ,the empty bucket is placed so that the fertilized water drains out close to the stem of a plant4 ,it is then filled with liquid fertilizer solution4 ,it takes #e to #aj minutes for #e gallons to pass through a small opening1 and because of the slow flow rate1 water penetrates deeply into the subsoil without wetting much of the surface4 ,each fertigation makes the plant grow very rapidly for two to three weeks1 more ,i suspect as a result of improved nutrition than from added moisture4 ,exactly how and when to fertigate each species is explained in ,chapter #e4 ,organic gardeners may fertigate with combinations of fish emulsion and seaweed at the same dilution used for foliar spraying1 or with compost_/manure tea4 ,determining the correct strength to make compost tea is a matter of trial and error4 ,i usually rely on weak ,rapid-,gro mixed at half the recommended dilution4 ,the strength of the fertilizer you need depends on how much and deeply you placed nutrition in the subsoil4 ,chapter #d ,water-,wise ,gardening ,year-,round ,early ,spring3 ,the ,easiest ,unwatered ,garden ,west of the ,cascades1 most crops started in ,february and ,march require no special handling when irrigation is scarce4 ,these include peas1 early lettuce1 radishes1 kohlrabi1 early broccoli1 and so forth4 ,however1 some of these vegetables are harvested as late as ,june1 so to reduce their need for irrigation1 space them wider than usual4 ,spring vegetables also will exhaust most of the moisture from the soil before maturing1 making succession planting impossible without first irrigating heavily4 ,early spring plantings are best allocated one of two places in the garden plan3 either in that part of the garden that will be fully irrigated all summer or in a part of a big garden that can affordably remain bare during the summer and be used in ,october for receiving transplants of overwintering crops4 ,the garden plan and discussion in ,chapter #f illustrate these ideas in detail4 ,later in ,spring3 ,sprouting ,seeds ,without ,watering ,for the first years that ,i experimented with dry gardening ,i went overboard and attempted to grow food as though ,i had no running water at all4 ,the greatest difficulty caused by this self-imposed handicap was sowing small-seeded species after the season warmed up4 ,sprouting what we in the seed business call big seed--corn1 beans1 peas1 squash1 cucumber1 and melon--is relatively easy without irrigation because these crops are planted deeply1 where soil moisture still resides long after the surface has dried out4 ,and even if it is so late in the season that the surface has become very dry1 a wide1 shallow ditch made with a shovel will expose moist soil several inches down4 ,a furrow can be cut in the bottom of that damp valley and big seeds germinated with little or no watering4 ,tillage breaks capillary connections until the fluffy soil resettles4 ,this interruption is useful for preventing moisture loss in summer1 but the same phenomenon makes the surface dry out in a flash4 ,in recently tilled earth1 successfully sprouting small seeds in warm weather is dicey without frequent watering4 ,with a bit of forethought1 the water-wise gardener can easily reestablish capillarity below sprouting seeds so that moisture held deeper in the soil rises to replace that lost from surface layers1 reducing or eliminating the need for watering4 ,the principle here can be easily demonstrated4 ,in fact1 there probably isn't any gardener who has not seen the phenomenon at work without realizing it4 ,every gardener has tilled the soil1 gone out the next morning1 and noticed that his or her compacted footprints were moist while the rest of the earth was dry and fluffy4 ,foot pressure restored capillarity1 and during the night1 fresh moisture replaced what had evaporated4 ,this simple technique helps start everything except carrots and parsnips 7which must have completely loose soil to develop correctly74 ,all the gardener must do is intentionally compress the soil below the seeds and then cover the seeds with a mulch of loose1 dry soil4 ,sprouting seeds then rest atop damp soil exactly they lie on a damp blotter in a germination laboratory's covered petri dish4 ,this dampness will not disappear before the sprouting seedling has propelled a root several inches farther down and is putting a leaf into the sunlight4 ,i've used several techniques to reestablish capillarity after tilling4 ,there's a wise old plastic push planter in my garage that first compacts the tilled earth with its front wheel1 cuts a furrow1 drops the seed1 and then with its drag chain pulls loose soil over the furrow4 ,i've also pulled one wheel of a garden cart or pushed a lightly loaded wheelbarrow down the row to press down a wheel track1 sprinkled seed on that compacted furrow1 and then pulled loose soil over it4 ,handmade ,footprints ,sometimes ,i sow large brassicas and cucurbits in clumps above a fertilized1 double-dug spot4 ,first1 in a space about #ah inches square1 ,i deeply dig in complete organic fertilizer4 ,then with my fist ,i punch down a depression in the center of the fluffed-up mound4 ,sometimes my fist goes in so easily that ,i have to replace a little more soil and punch it down some more4 ,the purpose is not to make rammed earth or cement1 but only to reestablish capillarity by having firm soil under a shallow1 fist-sized depression4 ,then a pinch of seed is sprinkled atop this depression and covered with fine earth4 ,even if several hot sunny days follow ,i get good germination without watering4 ,this same technique works excellently on hills of squash1 melon and cucumber as well1 though these large-seeded species must be planted quite a bit deeper4 ,summer3 ,how to ,fluid ,drill ,seeds ,soaking seeds before sowing is another water-wise technique1 especially useful later in the season4 ,at bedtime1 place the seeds in a half-pint mason jar1 cover with a square of plastic window screen held on with a strong rubber band1 soak the seeds overnight1 and then drain them first thing in the morning4 ,gently rinse the seeds with cool water two or three times daily until the root tips begin to emerge4 ,as soon as this sign appears1 the seed must be sown1 because the newly emerging roots become increasingly subject to breaking off as they develop and soon form tangled masses4 ,presprouted seeds may be gently blended into some crumbly1 moist soil and this mixture gently sprinkled into a furrow and covered4 ,if the sprouts are particularly delicate or1 as with carrots1 you want a very uniform stand1 disperse the seeds in a starch gelatin and imitate what commercial vegetable growers call fluid drilling4 ,heat one pint of water to the boiling point4 ,dissolve in #b to #c tablespoons of ordinary cornstarch4 ,place the mixture in the refrigerator to cool4 ,soon the liquid will become a soupy gel4 ,gently mix this cool starch gel with the sprouting seeds1 making sure the seeds are uniformly blended4 ,pour the mixture into a #a-quart plastic zipper bag and1 scissors in hand1 go out to the garden4 ,after a furrow--with capillarity restored--has been prepared1 cut a small hole in one lower corner of the plastic bag4 ,the hole size should be under #a_/d inch in diameter4 ,walk quickly down the row1 dribbling a mixture of gel and seeds into the furrow4 ,then cover4 ,you may have to experiment a few times with cooled gel minus seeds until you divine the proper hole size1 walking speed and amount of gel needed per length of furrow4 ,not only will presprouted seeds come up days sooner1 and not only will the root be penetrating moist soil long before the shoot emerges1 but the stand of seedlings will be very uniformly spaced and easier to thin4 ,after fluid drilling a few times you'll realize that one needs quite a bit less seed per length of row than you previously thought4 ,establishing the ,fall and ,winter ,garden ,west of the ,cascades1 germinating fall and winter crops in the heat of summer is always difficult4 ,even when the entire garden is well watered1 midsummer sowings require daily attention and frequent sprinkling2 however1 once they have germinated1 keeping little seedlings growing in an irrigated garden usually requires no more water than the rest of the garden gets4 ,but once hot weather comes1 establishing small seeds in the dry garden seems next to impossible without regular watering4 ,should a lucky1 perfectly timed1 and unusually heavy summer rainfall sprout your seeds1 they still would not grow well because the next few inches of soil would at best be only slightly moist4 ,a related problem many backyard gardeners have with establishing the winter and overwintered garden is finding enough space for both the summer and winter crops4 ,the nursery bed solves both these problems4 ,instead of trying to irrigate the entire area that will eventually be occupied by a winter or overwintered crop at maturity1 the seedlings are first grown in irrigated nurseries for transplanting in autumn after the rains come back4 ,were ,i desperately short of water ,i'd locate my nursery where it got only morning sun and sow a week or #aj days earlier to compensate for the slower growth4 ,vegetables to ,start in a ,nursery ,bed ,variety ,sowing date ,transplanting date ,fall_/winter lettuce mid-,august early ,october ,leeks early ,april ,july ,overwintered onions early-mid ,august ,december_/,january ,spring cabbage mid-late ,august ,november_/,december ,spring cauliflower mid-,august ,october_/,november #ast ,winter scallions mid-,july mid-,october ,seedlings in pots and trays are hard to keep moist and require daily tending4 ,fortunately1 growing transplants in little pots is not necessary because in autumn1 when they'll be set out1 humidity is high1 temperatures are cool1 the sun is weak1 and transpiration losses are minimal1 so seedling transplants will tolerate considerable root loss4 ,my nursery is sown in rows about #h inches apart across a raised bed and thinned gradually to prevent crowding1 because crowded seedlings are hard to dig out without damage4 ,when the prediction of a few days of cloudy weather encourages transplanting1 the seedlings are lifted with a large1 sharp knife4 ,if the fall rains are late and_/or the crowded seedlings are getting leggy1 a relatively small amount of irrigation will moisten the planting areas4 ,another light watering at transplanting time will almost certainly establish the seedlings quite successfully4 ,and1 finding room for these crops ceases to be a problem because fall transplants can be set out as a succession crop following hot weather vegetables such as squash1 melons1 cucumbers1 tomatoes1 potatoes1 and beans4 ,vegetables that must be heavily irrigated 7,these crops are not suitable for dry gardens47 ,bulb ,onions 7for fall harvest7 ,celeriac ,celery ,chinese cabbage ,lettuce 7summer and fall7 ,radishes 7summer and fall7 ,scallions 7for summer harvest7 ,spinach 7summer7 ,chapter #e ,how to ,grow ,it with ,less ,irrigation3 ,a-,z ,first1 a ,word ,about ,varieties ,as recently as the #aicjs1 most ,american country folk still did not have running water4 ,with water being hand-pumped and carried in buckets1 and precious1 their vegetable gardens had to be grown with a minimum of irrigation4 ,in the otherwise well-watered ,east1 one could routinely expect several consecutive weeks every summer without rain4 ,in some drought years a hot1 rainless month or longer could go by4 ,so vegetable varieties were bred to grow through dry spells without loss1 and traditional ,american vegetable gardens were designed to help them do so4 ,i began gardening in the early #aigjs1 just as the raised-bed method was being popularized4 ,the latest books and magazine articles all agreed that raising vegetables in widely separated single rows was a foolish imitation of commercial farming1 that commercial vegetables were arranged that way for ease of mechanical cultivation4 ,closely planted raised beds requiring hand cultivation were alleged to be far more productive and far more efficient users of irrigation because water wasn't evaporating from bare soil4 ,i think this is more likely to be the truth3 ,old-fashioned gardens used low plant densities to survive inevitable spells of rainlessness4 ,looked at this way1 widely separated vegetables in widely separated rows may be considered the more efficient users of water because they consume soil moisture that nature freely puts there4 ,only after1 and if1 these reserves are significantly depleted does the gardener have to irrigate4 ,the end result is surprisingly more abundant than a modern gardener educated on intensive1 raised-bed propaganda would think4 ,finding varieties still adapted to water-wise gardening is becoming difficult4 ,most ,american vegetables are now bred for irrigation-dependent ,california4 ,like raised-bed gardeners1 vegetable farmers have discovered that they can make a bigger profit by growing smaller1 quick-maturing plants in high-density spacings4 ,most modern vegetables have been bred to suit this method4 ,many new varieties can't forage and have become smaller1 more determinate1 and faster to mature4 ,actually1 the larger1 more sprawling heirloom varieties of the past were not a great deal less productive overall1 but only a little later to begin yielding4 ,fortunately1 enough of the old sorts still exist that a selective and varietally aware home gardener can make do4 ,since ,i've become water-wiser1 ,i'm interested in finding and conserving heirlooms that once supported large numbers of healthy ,americans in relative self-sufficiency4 ,my earlier book1 being a guide to what passes for ordinary vegetable gardening these days1 assumed the availability of plenty of water4 ,the varieties ,i recommended in i,growing ,vegetables ,west of the ,cascadesi were largely modern ones1 and the seed companies ,i praised most highly focused on top-quality commercial varieties4 ,but1 looking at gardening through the filter of limited irrigation1 other1 less modern varieties are often far better adapted and other seed companies sometimes more likely sources4 ,seed ,company ,directory99 ,abundant ,life ,see ,foundation3 ,p4,o4 ,box #ggb1 ,port ,townsend1 ,,wa #ihcfh 7,,abl7 ,johnny's ,selected ,seeds3 ,foss ,hill ,road1 ,albion1 ,maine #jdiaj 7,,jss7 ,peace ,seeds3 #bcde ,,se ,thompson ,street1 ,corvallis1 ,,or #igccc 7,,pea7 ,ronninger's ,seed ,potatoes3 ,p4,o4 ,box #ahch1 ,orting1 ,,wa #ihcfj 7,,rsp7 ,stokes ,seeds ,inc4 ,box #edh1 ,buffalo1 ,,ny #adbdj 7,,stk7 ,territorial ,seed ,company3 ,p4,o4 ,box #bj1 ,cottage ,grove1 ,,or #igdbd 7,,tsc7 99,throughout the growing directions that follow in this chapter1 the reader will be referred to a specific company only for varieties that are not widely available4 ,i have again come to appreciate the older style of vegetable--sprawling1 large framed1 later maturing1 longer yielding1 vigorously rooting4 ,however1 many of these old-timers have not seen the attentions of a professional plant breeder for many years and throw a fair percentage of bizarre1 misshapen1 nonproductive plants4 ,these off types can be compensated for by growing a somewhat larger garden and allowing for some waste4 ,dr4 ,alan ,kapuler1 who runs ,peace ,seeds1 has brilliantly pointed out to me why heirloom varieties are likely to be more nutritious4 ,propagated by centuries of isolated homesteaders1 heirlooms that survived did so because these superior varieties helped the gardeners' better-nourished babies pass through the gauntlet of childhood illnesses4 ,plant ,spacing3 ,the ,key to ,water-,wise ,gardening ,reduced plant density is the essence of dry gardening4 ,the recommended spacings in this section are those ,i have found workable at ,elkton1 ,oregon4 ,my dry garden is generally laid out in single rows1 the row centers #d feet apart4 ,some larger crops1 like potatoes1 tomatoes1 beans1 and cucurbits 7squash1 cucumbers1 and melons7 are allocated more elbow room4 ,those few requiring intensive irrigation are grown on a raised bed1 tightly spaced4 ,i cannot prescribe what would be the perfect1 most efficient spacing for your garden4 ,are your temperatures lower than mine and evaporation less8 ,or is your weather hotter8 ,does your soil hold more1 than less than1 or just as much available moisture as mine8 ,is it as deep and open and moisture retentive8 ,to help you compare your site with mine1 ,i give you the following data4 ,my homestead is only #be miles inland and is always several degrees cooler in summer than the ,willamette ,valley4 ,washingtonians and ,british ,columbians have cooler days and a greater likelihood of significant summertime rain and so may plant a little closer together4 ,inland gardeners farther south or in the ,willamette ,valley may want to spread their plants out a little farther4 ,living on #af acres1 ,i have virtually unlimited space to garden in4 ,the focus of my recent research has been to eliminate irrigation as much as possible while maintaining food quality4 ,those with thinner soil who are going to depend more on fertigation may plant closer1 how close depending on the amount of water available4 ,more irrigation will also give higher per-square-foot yields4 ,whatever your combination of conditions1 your results can only be determined by trial4 ,i'd suggest you become water-wise by testing a range of spacings4 ,when to ,plant ,if you've already been growing an irrigated year-round garden1 this book's suggested planting dates may surprise you4 ,and as with spacing1 sowing dates must also be wisely adjusted to your location4 ,the planting dates in this chapter are what ,i follow in my own garden4 ,it is impractical to include specific dates for all the microclimatic areas of the maritime ,northwest and for every vegetable species4 ,readers are asked to make adjustments by understanding their weather relative to mine4 ,gardeners to the north of me and at higher elevations should make their spring sowings a week or two later than the dates ,i use4 ,in the ,garden ,valley of ,roseburg and south along ,i-#e1 start spring plantings a week or two earlier4 ,along the southern ,oregon coast and in northern ,california1 start three or four weeks sooner than ,i do4 ,fall comes earlier to the north of me and to higher-elevation gardens2 end-of-season growth rates there also slow more profoundly than they do at ,elkton4 ,summers are cooler along the coast2 that has the same effect of slowing late-summer growth4 ,items started after midsummer should be given one or two extra growing weeks by coastal1 high-elevation1 and northern gardeners4 ,gardeners to the south should sow their late crops a week or two later than ,i do2 along the south ,oregon coast and in northern ,california1 two to four weeks later than ,i do4 ,arugula 7,rocket7 ,the tender1 peppery little leaves make winter salads much more interesting4 ,sowing date3 ,i delay sowing until late ,august or early ,september so my crowded patch of arugula lasts all winter and doesn't make seed until ,march4 ,pregerminated seeds emerge fast and strong4 ,sprouted in early ,october1 arugula still may reach eating size in midwinter4 ,spacing3 ,thinly seed a row into any vacant niche4 ,the seedlings will be insignificantly small until late summer4 ,irrigation3 ,if the seedlings suffer a bit from moisture stress they'll catch up rapidly when the fall rains begin4 ,varieties3 ,none4 ,beans of ,all ,sorts ,heirloom pole beans once climbed over considerable competition while vigorously struggling for water1 nutrition1 and light4 ,modern bush varieties tend to have puny root systems4 ,sowing date3 ,mid-,april is the usual time on the ,umpqua1 elsewhere1 sow after the danger of frost is over and soil stays over #fj;de,f4 ,if the earth is getting dry by this date1 soak the seed overnight before sowing and furrow down to moist soil4 ,however1 do not cover the seeds more than #b inches4 ,spacing3 ,twelve to #af inches apart at final thinning4 ,allow about #b;f#a_/b to #c feet on either side of the trellis to avoid root competition from other plants4 ,irrigation3 ,if part of the garden is sprinkler irrigated1 space beans a little tighter and locate the bean trellis toward the outer reach of the sprinkler's throw4 ,due to its height1 the trellis tends to intercept quite a bit of water and dumps it at the base4 ,you can also use the bucket-drip method and fertigate the beans1 giving about #be gallons per #aj row-feet once or twice during the summer4 ,pole beans can make a meaningful yield without any irrigation2 under severe moisture stress they will survive1 but bear little4 ,varieties3 ,any of the pole types seem to do fine4 ,runner beans seem to prefer cooler locations but are every bit as drought tolerant as ordinary snap beans4 ,my current favorites are ,kentucky ,wonder ,white ,seeded1 ,fortrex 7,,tsc1 ,,jss71 and ,musica 7,,tsc74 ,the older heirloom dry beans were mostly pole types4 ,they are reasonably productive if allowed to sprawl on the ground without support4 ,their unirrigated seed yield is lower1 but the seed is still plump1 tastes great1 and sprouts well4 ,compared to unirrigated ,black ,coco 7,,tsc71 which is my most productive and best-tasting bush cultivar1 ,kentucky ,wonder ,brown ,seeded 7sometimes called ,old ,homestead7 7,,stk1 ,,pea1 ,,abl7 yields about #ej percent more seed and keeps on growing for weeks after ,coco has quit4 ,do not bother to fertigate untrellised pole beans grown for dry seed4 ,with the threat of ,september moisture always looming over dry bean plots1 we need to encourage vines to quit setting and dry down4 ,peace ,seeds and ,abundant ,life offer long lists of heirloom vining dry bean varieties4 ,serious self-sufficiency buffs seeking to produced their own legume supply should also consider the fava1 garbanzo bean1 and ,alaska pea4 ,many favas can be overwintered3 sow in ,october1 sprout on fall rains1 grow over the winter1 and dry down in ,june with the soil4 ,garbanzos are grown like mildly frost-tolerant peas4 ,alaska peas are the type used for pea soup4 ,they're spring sown and grown like ordinary shelling peas4 ,avoid overhead irrigation while seeds are drying down4 ,beets ,beets will root far deeper and wider than most people realize--in uncompacted1 nonacid soils4 ,double or triple dig the subsoil directly below the seed row4 ,sowing date3 ,early ,april at ,elkton1 late ,march farther south1 and as late as ,april #cj in ,british ,columbia4 ,beet seed germinates easily in moist1 cool soil4 ,a single sowing may be harvested from ,june through early ,march the next year4 ,if properly thinned1 good varieties remain tender4 ,spacing3 ,a single row will gradually exhaust subsoil moisture from an area #d feet wide4 ,when the seedlings are #b to #c inches tall1 thin carefully to about #a inch apart4 ,when the edible part is radish size1 thin to #b inches apart and eat the thinings1 tops and all4 ,when they've grown to golfball size1 thin to #d inches apart1 thin again4 ,when they reach the size of large lemons1 thin to #a foot apart4 ,given this much room and deep1 open soil1 the beets will continue to grow through the entire summer4 ,hill up some soil over the huge roots early in ,november to protect them from freezing4 ,irrigation3 ,probably not necessary with over #d feet of deep1 open soil4 ,varieties3 ,i've done best with ,early ,wonder ,tall ,top2 when large1 it develops a thick1 protective skin and retains excellent eating quality4 ,winterkeepers1 normally sown in midsummer with irrigation1 tend to bolt prematurely when sown in ,april4 ,broccoli3 ,italian ,style ,italian-style broccoli needs abundant moisture to be tender and make large flowers4 ,given enough elbow room1 many varieties can endure long periods of moisture stress1 but the smaller1 woody1 slow-developing florets won't be great eating4 ,without any irrigation1 spring-sown broccoli may still be enjoyed in early summer and ,purple ,sprouting in ,march_/,april after overwintering4 ,sowing date3,without any irrigation at all1 mid-,march through early ,april4 ,with fertigation1 also mid-,april through mid-,may4 ,this later sowing will allow cutting through summer4 ,spacing3 ,brocoli tastes better when big plants grow big1 sweet heads4 ,allow a #d-;foot-wide row4 ,space early sowings about #c feet apart in the row2 later sowings slated to mature during summer's heat can use #d feet4 ,on a fist-sized spot compacted to restore capillarity1 sow a little pinch of seed atop a well-and deeply fertilized1 double-dug patch of earth4 ,thin gradually to the best single plant by the time three or four true leaves have developed4 ,irrigation3 ,after mid-,june1 #d to #e gallons of drip bucket liquid fertilizer every two to three weeks makes an enormous difference4 ,you'll be surprised at the size of the heads and the quality of side shoots4 ,a fertigated ,may sowing will be exhausted by ,october4 ,take a chance3 a heavy side-dressing of strong compost or complete organic fertilizer when the rains return may trigger a massive spurt of new1 larger heads from buds located below the soil's surface4 ,varieties3 ,many hybrids have weak roots4 ,i'd avoid anything that was held up on a tall stalk for mechanical harvest or was compact or that didn't have many side-shoots4 ,go for larger size4 ,territorial's hybrid blend yields big heads for over a month followed by abundant side shoots4 ,old1 open-pollinated types like ,italian ,sprouting ,calabrese1 ,de,cicco1 or ,waltham #bi are highly variable1 bushy1 with rather coarse1 large-beaded flowers1 second-rate flavor and many1 many side shoots4 ,irrigating gardeners who can start new plants every four weeks from ,may through ,july may prefer hybrids4 ,dry gardeners who will want to cut side shoots for as long as possible during summer from large1 well-established plants may prefer crude1 open-pollinated varieties4 ,try both4 ,broccoli3 ,purple ,sprouting and ,other ,overwintering ,types ,spacing3 ,grow like broccoli1 #c to #d feet apart4 ,sowing date3 ,it is easiest to sow in ,april or early ,may1 minimally fertigate a somewhat gnarly plant through the summer1 push it for size in fall and winter1 and then harvest it next ,march4 ,with too early a start in spring1 some premature flowering may occur in autumn2 still1 massive blooming will resume again in spring4 ,overwintering green ,italian types such as ,,ml#dbc 7,,tsc7 will flower in fall if sown before late ,june4 ,these sorts are better started in a nursery bed around ,august #a and like overwintered cauliflower1 transplanted about #b feet apart when fall rains return1 then1 pushed for growth with extra fertilizer in fall and winter4 ,with nearly a whole year to grow before blooming1 ,purple ,sprouting eventually reaches #d to #e feet in height and #c to #d feet in diameter1 and yields hugely4 ,irrigation3 ,it is not essential to heavily fertigate ,purple ,sprouting1 though you may ,g-,r-,o-,w enormous plants for their beauty4 ,quality or quantity of spring harvest won't drop one bit if the plants become a little stunted and gnarly in summer1 as long as you fertilize late in ,september to spur rapid growth during fall and winter4 ,root ,system ,vigor in the ,cabbage ,family ,wild cabbage is a weed and grows like one1 able to successfully compete for water against grasses and other herbs4 ,remove all competition with a hoe1 and allow this weed to totally control all the moisture and nutrients in all the earth its roots can occupy1 and it grows hugely and lushly4 ,just for fun1 ,i once ,g-,r-,e-,w one1 with tillage1 hoeing1 and spring fertilization but no irrigation2 it ended up #e feet tall and #f feet in diameter4 ,as this highly moldable family is inbred and shaped into more and more exaggerated forms1 it weakens and loses the ability to forage4 ,kale retains the most wild aggressiveness1 ,chinese cabbage perhaps the least4 ,here1 in approximately correct order1 is shown the declining root vigor and general adaptation to moisture stress of cabbage family vegetables4 ,the table shows the most vigorous at the top1 declining as it goes down4 ,adapted to dry gardening ,not vigorous enough ,kale ,italian broccoli 7some varieties7 ,brussels sprouts 7late types7 ,cabbage 7regular market types7 ,late savoy cabbage ,brussels sprouts 7early types7 ,giant field-type kohlrabi ,small market-garden kohlrabi ,mid-season savoy cabbage ,cauliflower 7regular1 annual7 ,rutabaga ,turnips and radishes ,italian ,broccoli 7some varieties7 ,chinese cabbage ,brussels ,sprouts ,sowing date3 ,if the plants are a foot tall before the soil starts drying down1 their roots will be over a foot deep2 the plants will then grow hugely with a bit of fertigation4 ,at ,elkton ,i dry garden ,brussels sprouts by sowing late ,april to early ,may4 ,started this soon1 even late-maturing varieties may begin forming sprouts by ,september4 ,though premature bottom sprouts will blow up and become aphid damaged1 more1 higher-quality sprouts will continue to form farther up the stalk during autumn and winter4 ,spacing3 ,make each spot about #d feet apart4 ,irrigation3 ,without any added moisture1 the plants will become stunted but will survive all summer4 ,side-dressing manure or fertilizer late in ,september 7or sooner if the rains come sooner7 will provoke very rapid autumn growth and a surprisingly large yield from plants that looked stress out in ,august4 ,if increasingly larger amounts of fertigation can be provided every two to three weeks1 the lush ,brussels sprouts plants can become #d feet in diameter and #d feet tall by ,october and yield enormously4 ,varieties3 ,use late ,european hybrid types4 ,at ,elkton1 where winters are a little milder than in the ,willamette1 ,lunet 7,,tsc7 has the finest eating qualities4 ,were ,i farther north ,i'd grow hardier types like ,stabolite 7,,tsc7 or ,fortress 7,,tsc74 ,early types are not suitable to growing with insufficient irrigation or frequent spraying to fight off aphids4 ,cabbage ,forget those delicate1 green supermarket cabbages unless you have unlimited amounts of water4 ,but easiest-to-grow savoy types will do surprisingly well with surprisingly little support4 ,besides1 savoys are the best salad material4 ,sowing date3 ,i suggest three sowing times3 the first1 a succession of early1 midseason1 and late savoys made in mid-,march for harvest during summer2 the second1 late and very late varieties started late ,april to early ,may for harvest during fall and winter2 the last1 a nursery bed of overwintered sorts sown late in ,august4 ,spacing3 ,early-maturing savoy varieties are naturally smaller and may not experience much hot weather before heading up--these may be separated by about #cj inches4 ,the later ones are large plants and should be given #d feet of space or #af square feet of growing room4 ,sow and grow them like broccoli4 ,transplant overwintered cabbages from nursery beds late in ,october1 spaced about #c feet apart2 these thrive where the squash grew4 ,irrigation3 ,the more fertigation you can supply1 the larger and more luxuriant the plants and the bigger the heads4 ,but even small1 somewhat moisture-stressed savoys make very edible heads4 ,in terms of increased yield for water expended1 it is well worth it to provide late varieties with a few gallons of fertigation about mid-,june1 and a bucketful in mid-,july and mid-,august4 ,varieties3 ,japanese hybrid savoys make tender eating but may not withstand winter4 ,european savoys are hardier1 coarser1 thicker-leaved1 and harder chewing4 ,for the first sowing ,i suggest a succession of ,japanese varieties including ,salarite or ,savoy ,princess for earlies2 ,savoy ,queen1 ,king1 or ,savoy ,ace for midsummer2 and ,savonarch 7,,tsc7 for late ,august_/early ,september harvests4 ,they're all great varieties4 ,for the second sowing ,i grow ,savonarch 7,,tsc7 for ,september-,november cutting and a very late ,european hybrid type like ,wivoy 7,,tsc7 for winter4 ,small-framed ,january ,king lacks sufficient root vigor4 ,springtime 7,,tsc7 and ,,fem#bah 7,,tsc7 are the only overwintered cabbages available4 ,carrots ,dry-gardening carrots requires patiently waiting until the weather stabilizes before tilling and sowing4 ,to avoid even a little bit of soil compaction1 ,i try to sprout the seed without irrigation but always fear that hot weather will frustrate my efforts4 ,so ,i till and plant too soon4 ,and then heavy rain comes and compacts my perfectly fluffed-up soil4 ,but the looser and finer the earth remains during their first six growing weeks1 the more perfectly the roots will develop4 ,sowing date3 ,april at ,elkton4 ,spacing3 ,allocate #d feet of width to a single row of carrot seed4 ,when the seedlings are about #b inches tall1 thin to #a inch apart4 ,then thin every other carrot when the roots are f#c_/h to f#a_/b inch in diameter and eat the thinnings4 ,a few weeks later1 when the carrots are about #c_/d to #a inch in diameter1 make a final thinning to #a foot apart4 ,irrigation3 ,not necessary4 ,foliar feeding every few weeks will make much larger roots4 ,without any help they should grow to several pounds each4 ,varieties3 ,choosing the right variety is very important4 ,nantes and other delicate1 juicy types lack enough fiber to hold together when they get very large4 ,these split prematurely4 ,i've had my best results with ,danvers types4 ,i'd also try ,royal ,chantenay 7,,pea71 ,fakkel ,mix 7,,tsc71 ,stokes ,processor types1 and ,topweight 7,,abl74 ,be prepared to experiment with variety4 ,the roots will not be quite as tender as heavily watered ,nantes types but are a lot better than you'd think4 ,huge carrots are excellent in soups and we cheerfully grate them into salads4 ,something about accumulating sunshine all summer makes the roots incredibly sweet4 ,cauliflower ,ordinary varieties cannot forage for moisture4 ,worse1 moisture stress at any time during the growth cycle prevents proper formation of curds4 ,the only important cauliflowers suitable for dry gardening are overwintered types4 ,i call them important because they're easy to grow and they'll feed the family during ,april and early ,may1 when other garden fare is very scarce4 ,sowing date3 ,to acquire enough size to survive cold weather1 overwintered cauliflower must be started on a nursery bed during the difficult heat of early ,august4 ,except south of ,yoncalla1 delaying sowing until ,september makes very small seedlings that may not be hardy enough and likely won't yield much in ,april unless winter is very mild1 encouraging unusual growth4 ,spacing3 ,in ,october1 transplant about #b feet apart in rows #c to #d feet apart4 ,irrigation3 ,if you have more water available1 fertilize and till up some dusty1 dry soil1 wet down the row1 direct-seed like broccoli 7but closer together71 and periodically irrigate until fall4 ,if you only moisten a narrow band of soil close to the seedlings it won't take much water4 ,cauliflower grows especially well in the row that held bush peas4 ,varieties3 ,the best are the very pricy ,armado series sold by ,territorial4 ,chard ,this vegetable is basically a beet with succulent leaves and thick stalks instead of edible1 sweet roots4 ,it is just as drought tolerant as a beet1 and in dry gardening1 chard is sown1 spaced1 and grown just like a beet4 ,but if you want voluminous leaf production during summer1 you may want to fertigate it occasionally4 ,varieties3 ,the red chards are not suitable for starting early in the season2 they have a strong tendency to bolt prematurely if sown during that part of the year when daylength is increasing4 ,corn ,broadcast complete organic fertilizer or strong compost shallowly over the corn patch till midwinter1 or as early in spring as the earth can be worked without making too many clods4 ,corn will germinate in pretty rough soil4 ,high levels of nutrients in the subsoil are more important than a fine seedbed4 ,sowing date3 ,about the time frost danger ends4 ,being large seed1 corn can be set deep1 where soil moisture still exists even after conditions have warmed up4 ,germination without irrigation should be no problem4 ,spacing3 ,the farther south1 the farther apart4 ,entirely without irrigation1 ,i've had fine results spacing individual corn plants #c feet apart in rows #c feet apart1 or #i square feet per each plant4 ,were ,i around ,puget ,sound or in ,b4,c4 ,i'd try #b feet apart in rows #cj inches apart4 ,gary ,nabhan describes ,papago gardeners in ,arizona growing individual cornstalks #aj feet apart4 ,grown on wide spacings1 corn tends to tiller 7put up multiple stalks1 each making one or two ears74 ,for most urban and suburban gardeners1 space is too valuable to allocate #i square feet for producing one or at best three or four ears4 ,irrigation3 ,with normal sprinkler irrigation1 corn may be spaced #h inches apart in rows #cj inches apart1 still yielding one or two ears per stalk4 ,varieties3 ,were ,i a devoted sweetcorn eater without enough irrigation1 ,i'd be buying a few dozen freshly picked ears from the back of a pickup truck parked on a corner during local harvest season4 ,were ,i a devoted corn grower without any irrigation1 ,i'd be experimenting with various types of field corn instead of sweet corn4 ,were ,i a self-sufficiency buff trying earnestly to produce all my own cereal1 ,i'd accept that the maritime ,northwest is a region where survivalists will eat wheat1 rye1 millet1 and other small grains4 ,many varieties of field corn are nearly as sweet as ordinary sweet corn1 but grain varieties become starchy and tough within hours of harvest4 ,eaten promptly1 pig corn is every bit as tasty as ,jubilee4 ,i've had the best dry-garden results with ,northstine ,dent 7,,jss7 and ,garland ,flint 7,,jss74 ,hookers ,sweet ,indian 7,,tsc7 has a weak root system4 ,successfully ,starting ,cucurbits ,from ,seed ,with cucurbits1 germination depends on high-enough soil temperature and not too much moisture4 ,squash are the most chill and moisture tolerant1 melons the least4 ,here's a failure-proof and simple technique that ensures you'll plant at exactly the right time4 ,cucumbers1 squash1 and melons are traditionally sown atop a deeply dug1 fertilized spot that usually looks like a little mound after it is worked and is commonly called a hill4 ,about two weeks before the last anticipated frost date in your area1 plant five or six squash seeds about #b inches deep in a clump in the very center of that hill4 ,then1 a week later1 plant another clump at #ab o'clock4 ,in another week1 plant another clump at #c o'clock1 and continue doing this until one of the sowings sprouts4 ,probably the first try won't come up1 but the hill will certainly germinate several clumps of seedlings4 ,if weather conditions turn poor1 a later-to-sprout group may outgrow those that came up earlier4 ,thin gradually to the best single plant by the time the vines are running4 ,when the first squash seeds appear it is time to begin sowing cucumbers1 starting a new batch each week until one emerges4 ,when the cucumbers first germinate1 it's time to try melons4 ,approaching cucurbits this way ensures that you'll get the earliest possible germination while being protected against the probability that cold1 damp weather will prevent germination or permanently spoil the growth prospects of the earlier seedlings4 ,cucumbers ,sowing date3 ,about ,may #e to #ae at ,elkton4 ,spacing3 ,most varieties usually run five about #c feet from the hill4 ,space the hills about #e to #f feet apart in all directions4 ,irrigation3 ,like melons4 ,regular and increasing amounts of fertigation will increase the yield several hundred percent4 ,varieties3 ,i've had very good results dry-gardening ,amira ,,ii 7,,tsc71 even without any fertigation at all4 ,it is a ,middle ,eastern-style variety that makes pickler-size thin-skinned cukes that need no peeling and have terrific flavor4 ,the burpless or ,japanese sorts don't seem to adapt well to drought4 ,most slicers dry-garden excellently4 ,apple or ,lemon are similar novelty heirlooms that make very extensive vines with aggressive roots and should be given a foot or two more elbow room4 ,i'd avoid any variety touted as being for pot or patio1 compact1 or short-vined1 because of a likely linkage between its vine structure and root system4 ,eggplant ,grown without regular sprinkler irrigation1 eggplant seems to get larger and yield sooner and more abundantly4 ,i suspect this delicate and fairly drought-resistant tropical species does not like having its soil temperature lowered by frequent watering4 ,sowing date3 ,set out transplants at the usual time1 about two weeks after the tomatoes1 after all frost danger has passed and after nights have stably warmed up above #ej degree ,f4 ,spacing3 ,double dig and deeply fertilize the soil under each transplant4 ,separate plants by about #c feet in rows about #d feet apart4 ,irrigation3 ,will grow and produce a few fruit without any watering1 but a bucket of fertigation every three to four weeks during summer may result in the most luxurious1 hugest1 and heaviest-bearing eggplants you've ever grown4 ,varieties3 ,i've noticed no special varietal differences in ability to tolerate dryish soil4 ,i've had good yields from the regionally adapted varieties ,dusky ,hybrid1 ,short ,tom1 and ,early ,one4 ,endive ,a biennial member of the chicory family1 endive quickly puts down a deep taproot and is naturally able to grow through prolonged drought4 ,because endive remains bitter until cold weather1 it doesn't matter if it grows slowly through summer1 just so long as rapid leaf production resumes in autumn4 ,sowing date3 ,on irrigated raised beds endive is sown around ,august #a and heads by mid-,october4 ,the problem with dry-gardened endive is that if it is spring sown during days of increasing daylength when germination of shallow-sown small seed is a snap1 it will bolt prematurely4 ,the crucial moment seems to be about ,june #a4 ,april_/,may sowings bolt in ,july_/,august13 after ,june #a1 bolting won't happen until the next spring1 but germination won't happen without watering4 ,one solution is soaking the seeds overnight1 rinsing them frequently until they begin to sprout1 and fluid drilling them4 ,spacing3 ,the heads become huge when started in ,june4 ,sow in rows #d feet apart and thin gradually until the rosettes are #c inches in diameter1 then thin to #ah inches apart4 ,irrigation3 ,without a drop of moisture the plants1 even as tiny seedlings1 will grow steadily but slowly all summer1 as long as no other crop is invading their root zone4 ,the only time ,i had trouble was when the endive row was too close to an aggressive row of yellow crookneck squash4 ,about ,august1 the squash roots began invading the endive's territory and the endive got wilty4 ,a light side-dressing of complete organic fertilizer or compost in late ,september will grow the hugest plants imaginable4 ,varieties3 ,curly types seem more tolerant to rain and frost during winter than broad-leaf ,batavian varieties4 ,i prefer ,president 7,,tsc74 ,herbs ,most perennial and biennial herbs are actually weeds and wild hillside shrubs from ,mediterranean climates similar to that of ,southern ,california4 ,they are adapted to growing on winter rainfall and surviving seven to nine months without rainfall every summer4 ,in our climate1 merely giving them a little more elbow room than usually offered1 thorough weeding1 and side-dressing the herb garden with a little compost in fall is enough coddling4 ,annuals such as dill and cilantro are also very drought tolerant4 ,basil1 however1 needs considerable moisture4 ,kale ,depending on the garden for a significant portion of my annual caloric intake has gradually refined my eating habits4 ,years ago ,i learned to like cabbage salads as much as lettuce4 ,since lettuce freezes out many winters 7#ai-ba degree ,f71 this adjustment has proved very useful4 ,gradually ,i began to appreciate kale1 too1 and now value it as a salad green far more than cabbage4 ,this personal adaptation has proved very pro-survival1 because even savoy cabbages do not grow as readily or yield nearly as much as kale4 ,and kale is a tad more cold hardy than even savoy cabbage4 ,you may be surprised to learn that kale produces more complete protein per area occupied per time involved than any legume1 including alfalfa4 ,if it is steamed with potatoes and then mashed1 the two vegetables complement and flavor each other4 ,our region could probably subsist quite a bit more healthfully than at present on potatoes and kale4 ,the key to enjoying kale as a salad component is varietal choice1 preparation1 and using the right parts of the plant4 ,read on4 ,sowing date3 ,with irrigation1 fast-growing kale is usually started in midsummer for use in fall and winter4 ,but kale is absolutely biennial--started in ,march or ,april1 it will not bolt until the next spring4 ,the water-wise gardener can conveniently sow kale while cool1 moist soil simplifies germination4 ,starting this early also produces a deep root system before the soil dries much1 and a much taller1 very useful central stalk on oleracea types1 while early sown ,siberian 7,napa7 varieties tend to form multiple rosettes by autumn1 also useful at harvest time4 ,spacing3 ,grow like broccoli1 spaced #d feet apart4 ,irrigation3 ,without any water1 the somewhat stunted plants will survive the summer to begin rapid growth as soon as fall rains resume4 ,with the help of occasional fertigation they grow lushly and are enormous by ,september4 ,either way1 there still will be plenty of kale during fall and winter4 ,harvest3 ,bundles of strong-flavored1 tough1 large leaves are sold in supermarkets but are the worst-eating part of the plant4 ,if chopped finely enough1 big raw leaves can be masticated and tolerated by people with good teeth4 ,however1 the tiny leaves are far tenderer and much milder4 ,the more rosettes developed on ,siberian kales1 the more little leaves there are to be picked4 ,by pinching off the central growing tip in ,october and then gradually stripping off the large shading leaves1 oleracea varieties may be encouraged to put out dozens of clusters of small1 succulent leaves at each leaf notch along the central stalk4 ,the taller the stalk grown during summer1 the more of these little leaves there will be4 ,only home gardeners can afford the time to hand pick small leaves4 ,varieties3 ,i somewhat prefer the flavor of ,red ,russian to the ubiquitous green ,siberian1 but ,red ,russian is very slightly less cold hardy4 ,westland ,winter 7,,tsc7 and ,konserva 7,,jss7 are tall ,european oleracea varieties4 ,winterbor ,f#a 7,,jss1 ,,tsc7 is also excellent4 ,the dwarf ,scotch kales1 blue or green1 sold by many ,american seed companies are less vigorous types that don't produce nearly as many gourmet little leaves4 ,dwarfs in any species tend to have dwarfed root systems4 ,kohlrabi 7,giant7 ,spring-sown market kohlrabi are usually harvested before hot weather makes them get woody4 ,irrigation is not required if they're given a little extra elbow room4 ,with ordinary varieties1 try thinning to #e inches apart in rows #b to #c feet apart and harvest by thinning alternate plants4 ,given this additional growing room1 they may not get woody until midsummer4 ,on my irrigated1 intensive bed ,i always sow some more on ,august #a1 to have tender bulbs in autumn4 ,kohlrabi was once grown as ,european fodder crop2 slow-growing farmers1 varieties grow huge like rutabagas4 ,these field types have been crossed with table types to make giant table varieties that really suit dry gardening4 ,what to do with a giant kohlrabi 7or any bulb getting overblown78 ,peel1 grate finely1 add chopped onion1 dress with olive oil and black pepper1 toss1 and enjoy this old ,eastern ,european mainstay4 ,sowing date3 ,sow giant varieties during ,april1 as late as possible while still getting a foot-tall plant before really hot weather4 ,spacing3 ,thin to #c feet apart in rows #d feet apart4 ,irrigation3 ,not absolutely necessary on deep soil1 but if they get one or two thorough fertigations during summer their size may double4 ,varieties3 ,a few ,american seed companies1 including ,peace ,seeds1 have a giant kohlrabi of some sort or other4 ,the ones ,i've tested tend to be woody1 are crude1 and throw many off-types1 a high percentage of weak plants1 and_/or poorly shaped roots4 ,by the time this book is in print1 ,territorial should list a unique ,swiss variety called ,superschmeltz1 which is uniformly huge and stays tender into the next year4 ,leeks ,unwatered spring-sown bulbing onions are impossible4 ,leek is the only allium ,i know of that may grow steadily but slowly through severe drought2 the water-short gardener can depend on leeks for a fall_/winter onion supply4 ,sowing date3 ,start a row or several short rows about #ab inches apart on a nursery bed in ,march or early ,april at the latest4 ,grow thickly1 irrigate during ,may_/,june1 and fertilize well so the competing seedlings get leggy4 ,spacing3 ,by mid-to late ,june the seedlings should be slightly spindly1 pencil-thick1 and scallion size4 ,with a sharp shovel1 dig out the nursery row1 carefully retaining #e or #f inches of soil below the seedlings4 ,with a strong jet of water1 blast away the soil and1 while doing this1 gently separate the tangled roots so that as little damage is done as possible4 ,make sure the roots don't dry out before transplanting4 ,after separation1 ,i temporarily wrap bundled seedlings in wet newspaper4 ,dig out a foot-deep trench the width of an ordinary shovel and carefully place this earth next to the trench4 ,sprinkle in a heavy dose of organic fertilizer or strong compost1 and spade that in so the soil is fluffy and fertile #b feet down4 ,do not immediately refill the trench with the soil that was dug out4 ,with a shovel handle1 poke a row of #f-;inch-deep holes along the bottom of the trench4 ,if the nursery bed has grown well there should be about #d inches of stem on each seedling before the first leaf attaches4 ,if the weather is hot and sunny1 snip off about one-third to one-half the leaf area to reduce transplanting shock4 ,drop one leek seedling into each hole up to the point that the first leaf attaches to the stalk1 and mud it in with a cup or two of liquid fertilizer4 ,as the leeks grow1 gradually refill the trench and even hill up soil around the growing plants4 ,this makes the better-tasting white part of the stem get as long as possible4 ,avoid getting soil into the center of the leek where new leaves emerge1 or you'll not get them clean after harvest4 ,spacing of the seedlings depends on the amount of irrigation4 ,if absolutely none at all1 set them #ab inches apart in the center of a row #d feet wide4 ,if unlimited water is available1 give them #b inches of separation4 ,or adjust spacing to the water available4 ,the plants grow slowly through summer1 but in autumn growth will accelerate1 especially if they are side-dressed at this time4 ,varieties3 ,for dry gardening use the hardier1 more vigorous winter leeks4 ,durabel 7,,tsc7 has an especially mild1 sweet flavor4 ,other useful varieties include ,giant ,carentian 7,,abl71 ,alaska 7,,stk71 and ,winter ,giant 7,,pea74 ,lettuce ,spring-sown lettuce will go to large sizes1 remaining sweet and tender without irrigation if spaced #a foot apart in a single row with #b feet of elbow room on each side4 ,lettuce cut after mid-,june usually gets bitter without regular1 heavy irrigation4 ,i reserve my well-watered raised bed for this summer salad crop4 ,those very short of water can start fall_/winter lettuce in a shaded1 irrigated nursery bed mid-,august through mid-,september and transplant it out after the fall rains return4 ,here is one situation in which accelerating growth with cloches or cold frames would be very helpful4 ,water-,wise ,cucurbits ,the root systems of this family are far more extensive than most people realize4 ,usually a taproot goes down several feet and then1 soil conditions permitting1 thickly occupies a large area1 ultimately reaching down #e to #h feet4 ,shallow feeder roots also extend laterally as far as or farther than the vines reach at their greatest extent4 ,dry gardeners can do several things to assist cucurbits4 ,first1 make sure there is absolutely no competition in their root zone4 ,this meansione plant per hill1 with the hills separated in all directions a little farther than the greatest possible extent of the variety's ultimate growth4i ,common garden lore states that squashes droop their leaves in midsummer heat and that this trait cannot be avoided and does no harm4 ,but if they've grown as described above1 on deep1 open soil1 capillarity and surface moisture reserves ensure there usually will be no midday wilting1 even if there is no watering4 ,two plants per hill do compete and make each other wilt4 ,second1 double dig and fertilize the entire lateral root zone4 ,third1 as much as possible1 avoid walking where the vines will ultimately reach to avoid compaction4 ,finally1 ido not transplant them4i ,this breaks the taproot and makes the plant more dependent on lateral roots seeking moisture in the top #ah inches of soil4 ,melons ,sowing date3 ,as soon as they'll germinate outdoors3 at ,elkton1 ,may #ae to ,june #a4 ,thin to a single plant per hill when there are about three true leaves and the vines are beginning to run4 ,spacing3 ,most varieties will grow a vine reaching about #h feet in diameter4 ,space the hills #h feet apart in all directions4 ,irrigation3 ,fertigation every two to three weeks will increase the yield by two or three times and may make the melons sweeter4 ,release the water_/fertilizer mix close to the center of the vine1 where the taproot can use it4 ,varieties3 ,adaptation to our cool climate is critical with melons2 use varieties sold by our regional seed companies4 ,yellow ,doll watermelons 7,,tsc7 are very early and seem the most productive under the most droughty conditions4 ,i've had reasonable results from most otherwise regionally adapted cantaloupes and muskmelons4 ,last year a new hybrid variety1 ,passport 7,,tsc71 proved several weeks earlier than ,i'd ever experienced and was extraordinarily prolific and tasty4 ,onions_/,scallions ,the usual spring-sown1 summer-grown bulb onions and scallions only work with abundant irrigation4 ,but the water-short1 water-wise gardener can still supply the kitchen with onions or onion substitutes year-round4 ,leeks take care of ,november through early ,april4 ,overwintered bulb onions handle the rest of the year4 ,scallions may also be harvested during winter4 ,sowing date3 ,started too soon1 overwintered or short-day bulbing onions 7and sweet scallions7 will bolt and form seed instead of bulbing4 ,started too late they'll be too small and possibly not hardy enough to survive winter4 ,about ,august #ae at ,elkton ,i sow thickly in a well-watered and very fertile nursery bed4 ,if you have more than one nursery row1 separate them about by #ab inches4 ,those who miss this window of opportunity can start transplants in early ,october and cover with a cloche immediately after germination1 to accelerate seedling growth during fall and early winter4 ,start scallions in a nursery just like overwintered onions1 but earlier so they're large enough for the table during winter1 ,i sow them about mid-,july4 ,spacing3 ,when seedlings are about pencil thick 7,december_/,january for overwintering bulb onions71 transplant them about #d or #e inches apart in a single row with a couple of feet of elbow room on either side4 ,i've found ,i get the best growth and largest bulbs if they follow potatoes4 ,after the potatoes are dug in early ,october ,i immediately fertilize the area heavily and till1 preparing the onion bed4 ,klamath ,basin farmers usually grow a similar rotation3 hay1 potatoes1 onions4 ,transplant scallions in ,october with the fall rains1 about #a inch apart in rows at least #b feet apart4 ,irrigation3 ,not necessary4 ,however1 side-dressing the transplants will result in much larger bulbs or scallions4 ,scallions will bolt in ,april2 the bulbers go tops-down and begin drying down as the soil naturally dries out4 ,varieties3 ,i prefer the sweet and tender ,lisbon 7,,tsc7 for scallions4 ,for overwintered bulb onions1 grow very mild but poorly keeping ,walla ,walla ,sweet 7,,jss71 ,buffalo 7,,tsc71 a better keeper1 or whatever ,territorial is selling at present4 ,parsley ,sowing date3 ,march4 ,parsley seed takes two to three weeks to germinate4 ,spacing3 ,thin to #ab inches apart in a single row #d feet wide4 ,five plants should overwhelm the average kitchen4 ,irrigation3 ,not necessary unless yield falls off during summer and that is very unlikely4 ,parsley's very deep1 foraging root system resembles that of its relative1 the carrot4 ,varieties3 ,if you use parsley for greens1 variety is not critical1 though the gourmet may note slight differences in flavor or amount of leaf curl4 ,another type of parsley is grown for edible roots that taste much like parsnip4 ,these should have their soil prepared as carefully as though growing carrots4 ,peas ,this early crop matures without irrigation4 ,both pole and bush varieties are planted thickly in single rows about #d feet apart4 ,i always overlook some pods1 which go on to form mature seed4 ,without overhead irrigation1 this seed will sprout strongly next year4 ,alaska 7soup7 peas grow the same way4 ,peppers ,pepper plants on raised beds spaced the usually recommended #af to #bd inches apart undergo intense root competition even before their leaves form a canopy4 ,with or without unlimited irrigation1 the plants will get much larger and bear more heavily with elbow room4 ,sowing date3 ,set out transplants at the usual time4 ,double dig a few square feet of soil beneath each seedling1 and make sure fertilizer gets incorporated all the way down to #b feet deep4 ,spacing3 ,three feet apart in rows #c to #d feet apart4 ,irrigation3 ,without any irrigation only the most vigorous1 small-fruited varieties will set anything4 ,for an abundant harvest1 fertigate every three or four weeks4 ,for the biggest pepper plants you ever grew1 fertigate every two weeks4 ,varieties3 ,the small-fruited types1 both hot and sweet1 have much more aggressive root systems and generally adapt better to our region's cool weather4 ,i've had best results with ,cayenne ,long ,slim1 ,gypsie1 ,surefire1 ,hot ,portugal1 the cherries both sweet and hot1 ,italian ,sweet1 and ,petite ,sirah4 ,potatoes ,humans domesticated potatoes in the cool1 arid high plateaus of the ,andes where annual rainfall averages #h to #ab inches4 ,the species finds our dry summer quite comfortable4 ,potatoes produce more calories per unit of land than any other temperate crop4 ,irrigated potatoes yield more calories and two to three times as much watery bulk and indigestible fiber as those grown without irrigation1 but the same variety dry gardened can contain about #cj percent more protein1 far more mineral nutrients1 and taste better4 ,sowing date3 ,i make two sowings4 ,the first is a good-luck ritual done religiously on ,march #agth--,st4 ,patrick's ,day4 ,rain or shine1 in untilled mud or finely worked and deeply fluffed earth1 ,i still plant #aj or #ab seed potatoes of an early variety4 ,this provides for summer4 ,the main sowing waits until frost is unlikely and ,i can dig the potato rows at least #ab inches deep with a spading fork1 working in fertilizer as deeply as possible and ending up with a finely pulverized #bd-;inch-wide bed4 ,at ,elkton1 this is usually mid-to late ,april4 ,there is no rush to plant4 ,potato vines are not frost hardy4 ,if frosted they'll regrow1 but being burned back to the ground lowers the final yield4 ,spacing3 ,i presprout my seeds by spreading them out in daylight at room temperature for a few weeks1 and then plant one whole1 sprouting1 medium-size potato every #ah inches down the center of the row4 ,barely cover the seed potato4 ,at maturity there should be #b;f#a_/b to #c feet of soil unoccupied with the roots of any other crop on each side of the row4 ,as the vines emerge1 gradually scrape soil up over them with a hoe4 ,let the vines grow about #d inches1 then pull up about #b inches of cover4 ,let another #d inches grow1 then hill up another #b inches4 ,continue doing this until the vines begin blooming4 ,at that point there should be a mound of loose1 fluffy soil about #ab to #af inches high gradually filling with tubers lushly covered with blooming vines4 ,irrigation3 ,not necessary4 ,in fact1 if large water droplets compact the loose soil you scraped up1 that may interfere with maximum tuber enlargement4 ,however1 after the vines are a foot long or so1 foliar feeding every week or #aj days will increase the yield4 ,varieties3 ,the water-wise gardener's main potato problem is too-early maturity1 and then premature sprouting in storage4 ,early varieties like ,yukon ,gold--even popular midseason ones like ,yellow ,finn--don't keep well unless they're planted late enough to brown off in late ,september4 ,that's no problem if they're irrigated4 ,but planted in late ,april1 earlier varieties will shrivel by ,august4 ,potatoes only keep well when very cool1 dark1 and moist--conditions almost impossible to create on the homestead during summer4 ,the best ,august compromise is to leave mature potatoes undug1 but soil temperatures are in the #gjs during ,august1 and by early ,october1 when potatoes should be lifted and put into storage1 they'll already be sprouting4 ,sprouting in ,october is acceptable for the remainders of my ,st4 ,pat's ,day sowing that ,i am keeping over for seed next spring4 ,it is not ok for my main winter storage crop4 ,our climate requires very late1 slow-maturing varieties that can be sown early but that don't brown off until ,september4 ,late types usually yield more1 too4 ,most of the seed potato varieties found in garden centers are early or midseason types chosen by farmers for yield without regard to flavor or nutrition4 ,one1 ,nooksack ,cascadian1 is a very late variety grown commercially around ,bellingham1 ,washington4 ,nooksack is pretty good if you like white1 all-purpose potatoes4 ,there are much better homegarden varieties available in ,ronniger's catalog1 all arranged according to maturity4 ,for the ultimate in earlies ,i suggest ,red ,gold4 ,for main harvests ,i'd try ,indian ,pit1 ,carole1 ,german ,butterball1 ,siberian1 or a few experimental row-feet of any other late variety taking your fancy4 ,rutabagas ,rutabagas have wonderfully aggressive root systems and are capable of growing continuously through long1 severe drought4 ,but where ,i live1 the results aren't satisfactory4 ,here's what happens4 ,if ,i start rutabagas in early ,april and space them about #b to #c feet apart in rows #d feet apart1 by ,october they're the size of basketballs and look pretty good2 unfortunately1 ,i harvest a hollow shell full of cabbage root maggots4 ,root maggots are at their peak in early ,june4 ,that's why ,i got interested in dry-gardening giant kohlrabi4 ,in #aiia we had about #b surprising inches of rain late in ,june1 so as a test ,i sowed rutabagas on ,july #a4 ,they germinated without more irrigation1 but going into the hot summer as small plants with limited root systems and no irrigation at all they became somewhat stunted4 ,by ,october #a the tops were still small and a little gnarly2 big roots had not yet formed4 ,then the rains came and the rutabagas began growing rapidly4 ,by ,november there was a pretty nice crop of medium-size good-eating roots4 ,i suspect that farther north1 where evaporation is not so severe and midsummer rains are slightly more common1 if a little irrigation were used to start rutabagas about ,july #a1 a decent unwatered crop might be had most years4 ,and ,i am certain that if sown at the normal time 7,july #ae7 and grown with minimal irrigation but well spaced out1 they'll produce acceptably4 ,varieties3 ,stokes ,altasweet 7,,stk1 ,,tsc7 has the best flavor4 ,sorrel ,this weed-like1 drought-tolerant salad green is little known and underappreciated4 ,in summer the leaves get tough and strong flavored2 if other greens are available1 sorrel will probably be unpicked4 ,that's ok4 ,during fall1 winter1 and spring1 sorrel's lemony taste and delicate1 tender texture balance tougher savoy cabbage and kale and turn those crude vegetables into very acceptable salads4 ,serious salad-eating families might want the production of #e to #aj row-feet4 ,sowing date3 ,the first year you grow sorrel1 sow mid-,march to mid-,april4 ,the tiny seed must be placed shallowly1 and it sprouts much more readily when the soil stays moist4 ,plant a single furrow centered in a row #d feet wide4 ,spacing3 ,as the seedlings grow1 thin gradually4 ,when the leaves are about the size of ordinary spinach1 individual plants should be about #f inches apart4 ,irrigation3 ,not necessary in summer--you won't eat it anyway4 ,if production lags in fall1 winter1 or spring1 side-dress the sorrel patch with a little compost or organic fertilizer4 ,maintenance3 ,sorrel is perennial4 ,if an unusually harsh winter freeze kills off the leaves it will probably come back from root crowns in early spring4 ,you'll welcome it after losing the rest of your winter crops4 ,in spring of the second and succeeding years sorrel will make seed4 ,seed making saps the plant's energy1 and the seeds may naturalize into an unwanted weed around the garden4 ,so1 before any seed forms1 cut all the leaves and seed stalks close to the ground2 use the trimmings as a convenient mulch along the row4 ,if you move the garden or want to relocate the patch1 do not start sorrel again from seed4 ,in any season dig up a few plants1 divide the root masses1 trim off most of the leaves to reduce transplanting shock1 and transplant #a foot apart4 ,occasional unique plants may be more reluctant to make seed stalks than most others4 ,since seed stalks produce few edible leaves and the leaves on them are very harsh flavored1 making seed is an undesirable trait4 ,so ,i propagate only seed-shy plants by root cuttings4 ,spinach ,spring spinach is remarkably more drought tolerant than it would appear from its delicate structure and the succulence of its leaves4 ,a bolt-resistant1 long-day variety bred for summer harvest sown in late ,april may still yield pickable leaves in late ,june or even early ,july without any watering at all1 if thinned to #ab inches apart in rows #c feet apart4 ,squash1 ,winter and ,summer ,sowing date3 ,having warm-enough soil is everything4 ,at ,elkton ,i first attempt squash about ,april #ae4 ,in the ,willamette1 ,may #a is usual4 ,farther north1 squash may not come up until ,june #a4 ,dry gardeners should not transplant squash2 the taproot must not be broken4 ,spacing3 ,the amount of room to give each plant depends on the potential of a specific variety's maximum root development4 ,most vining winter squash can completely occupy a #aj-;foot-diameter circle4 ,sprawly heirloom summer squash varieties can desiccate an #h-or #i-;foot-diameter circle4 ,thin each hill to one plant1 not two or more as is recommended in the average garden book4 ,there must be no competition for water4 ,irrigation3 ,with winter storage types1 an unirrigated vine may yield #ae pounds of squash after occupying a #aj-;foot-diameter circle for an entire growing season4 ,however1 starting about ,july #a1 if you support that vine by supplying liquid fertilizer every two to three weeks you may harvest #fj pounds of squash from the same area4 ,the first fertigation may only need #b gallons4 ,then mid-,july give #d2 about ,august #a1 #h2 ,august #ae1 feed #ae gallons4 ,after that date1 solar intensity and temperatures decline1 growth rate slows1 and water use also decreases4 ,on ,september #a ,i'd add about #h gallons and about #e more on ,september #ae if it hadn't yet rained significantly4 ,total water3 #db gallons4 ,total increase in yield3 #de pounds4 ,i'd say that's a good return on water invested4 ,varieties3 ,for winter squash1 all the vining winter varieties in the ,c4 maxima or ,c4 pepo family seem acceptably adapted to dry gardening4 ,these include ,buttercup1 ,hubbard1 ,delicious1 ,sweet ,meat1 ,delicata1 ,spaghetti1 and ,acorn4 ,i wouldn't trust any of the newer compact bush winter varieties so popular on raised beds4 ,despite their reputation for drought tolerance ,c4 mixta varieties 7or cushaw squash7 were believed to be strictly hot desert or humid-tropical varieties1 unable to mature in our cool climate4 ,however1 ,pepita 7,,pea7 is a mixta that is early enough and seems entirely unbothered by a complete lack of irrigation4 ,the enormous vine sets numerous good keepers with mild-tasting1 light yellow flesh4 ,obviously1 the compact bush summer squash varieties so popular these days are not good candidates for withstanding long periods without irrigation4 ,the old heirlooms like ,black ,zucchini 7,,abl7 7not ,black ,beauty67 and warty ,yellow ,crookneck grow enormous1 high-yielding plants whose extent nearly rivals that of the largest winter squash4 ,they also grow a dense leaf cover1 making the fruit a little harder to find4 ,these are the only ,american heirlooms still readily available4 ,black ,zucchini has become very raggedy2 anyone growing it should be prepared to plant several vines and accept that at least one-third of them will throw rather off-type fruit4 ,it needs the work of a skilled plant breeder4 ,yellow ,crookneck is still a fairly clean variety offering good uniformity4 ,both have more flavor and are less watery than the modern summer squash varieties4 ,yellow ,crookneck is especially rich1 probably due to its thick1 oily skin2 most gardeners who once grow the old ,crookneck never again grow any other kind4 ,another useful drought-tolerant variety is ,gem1 sometimes called ,rolet 7,,tsc74 ,it grows an extensive winter-squash-like vine yielding grapefruit-size1 excellent eating summer squash4 ,both ,yellow ,crookneck and ,black ,zucchini begin yielding several weeks later than the modern hybrids4 ,however1 as the summer goes on they will produce quite a bit more squash than new hybrid types4 ,i now grow five or six fully irrigated early hybrid plants like ,seneca ,zucchini too4 ,as soon as my picking bucket is being filled with later-to-yield ,crooknecks1 ,i pull out the ,senecas and use the now empty irrigated space for fall crops4 ,tomato ,there's no point in elaborate methods--trellising1 pruning1 or training--with dry-gardened tomato vines4 ,their root systems must be allowed to control all the space they can without competition1 so allow the vines to sprawl as well4 ,and pruning the leaf area of indeterminates is counterproductive3 to grow hugely1 the roots need food from a full complement of leaves4 ,sowing date3 ,set out transplants at the usual time4 ,they might also be jump started under cloches two to three weeks before the last frost1 to make better use of natural soil moisture4 ,spacing3 ,depends greatly on variety4 ,the root system can occupy as much space as the vines will cover and then some4 ,irrigation3 ,especially on determinate varieties1 periodic fertigation will greatly increase yield and size of fruit4 ,the old indeterminate sprawlers will produce through an entire summer without any supplemental moisture1 but yield even more in response to irrigation4 ,variety3 ,with or without irrigation or anywhere in between1 when growing tomatoes west of the ,cascades1 nothing is more important than choosing the right variety4 ,not only does it have to be early and able to set and ripen fruit when nights are cool1 but to grow through months without watering the plant must be highly indeterminate4 ,this makes a built-in conflict3 most of the sprawly1 huge1 old heirloom varieties are rather late to mature4 ,but cherry tomatoes are always far earlier than big slicers4 ,if ,i had to choose only one variety it would be the old heirloom ,large ,red ,cherry4 ,a single plant is capable of covering a #i- to #aj-;foot-diameter circle if fertigated from mid-,july through ,august4 ,the enormous yield of a single fertigated vine is overwhelming4 ,red ,cherry is a little acid and tart4 ,non-acid1 indeterminate cherry types like ,sweetie1 ,sweet #ajj1 and ,sweet ,millions are also workable but not as aggressive as ,red ,cherry4 ,i wouldn't depend on most bush cherry tomato varieties4 ,but our earliest cherry variety of all1 ,,osu's ,gold ,nugget1 must grow a lot more root than top1 for1 with or without supplemental water1 ,gold ,nugget sets heavily and ripens enormously until mid-,august1 when it peters out from overbearing 7not from moisture stress74 ,gold ,nugget quits just about when the later cherry or slicing tomatoes start ripening heavily4 ,other well-adapted early determinates such as ,oregon ,spring and ,santiam may disappoint you4 ,unless fertigated1 they'll set and ripen some fruit but may become stunted in midsummer4 ,however1 a single indeterminate ,fantastic ,hybrid will cover a #f-to #g-;foot-diameter circle1 and grow and ripen tomatoes until frost with only a minimum of water4 ,i think ,stupice 7,,abl1 ,,tsc7 and ,early ,cascade are also quite workable 7and earlier than ,fantastic in ,washington74 ,chapter #f ,my ,own ,garden ,plan ,this chapter illustrates and explains my own dry garden4 ,any garden plan is a product of compromises and preferences2 mine is not intended to become yours4 ,but1 all modesty aside1 this plan results from #bj continuous years of serious vegetable gardening and some small degree of regional wisdom4 ,my wife and ,i are what ,i dub vegetablitarians4 ,not vegetarians1 or lacto-ovo vegetarians because we're not ideologues and eat meat on rare1 usually festive occasions in other peoples' houses4 ,but over #hj percent of our calories are from vegetable1 fruit1 or cereal sources and the remaining percentage is from fats or dairy foods4 ,the purpose of my garden is to provide at least half the actual calories we eat year-round2 most of the rest comes from home-baked bread made with freshly ground whole grains4 ,i put at least one very large bowl of salad on the table every day1 winter and summer4 ,i keep us in potatoes nine months a year and produce a year's supply of onions or leeks4 ,to break the dietary monotony of ,november to ,april1 ,i grow as wide an assortment of winter vegetables as possible and put most produce departments to shame from ,june through ,september1 when the summer vegies are on4 ,the garden plan may seem unusually large1 but in accordance with ,solomon's ,first ,law of ,abundance1 there's a great deal of intentional waste4 ,my garden produces two to three times the amount of food needed during the year so moochers1 poachers1 guests1 adult daughters accompanied by partners1 husbands1 and children1 mistakes1 poor yields1 and failures of individual vegetables are inconsequential4 ,besides1 gardening is fun4 ,my garden is laid out in #abe-;foot-long rows and one equally long raised bed4 ,each row grows only one or two types of vegetables4 ,the central focus of my water-wise garden is its irrigation system4 ,two lines of low-angle sprinklers1 only #d feet apart1 straddle an intensively irrigated raised bed running down the center of the garden4 ,the sprinklers ,i use are ,naans1 a unique ,israeli design that emits very little water and throws at a very low angle 7available from ,,tsc and some garden centers74 ,their maximum reach is about #ah feet2 each sprinkler is about #ab feet from its neighbor4 ,on the garden plan1 the sprinklers are indicated by a circle surrounding an ,x4 ,readers unfamiliar with sprinkler system design are advised to study the irrigation chapter in ,growing ,vegetables ,west of the ,cascades4 ,on the far left side of the garden plan is a graphic representation of the uneven application of water put down by this sprinkler system4 ,the #d-;foot-wide raised bed gets lots of water1 uniformly distributed4 ,farther away1 the amount applied decreases rapidly4 ,about half as much irrigation lands only #f feet from the edge of the raised bed as on the bed itself4 ,beyond that the amount tapers off to insignificance4 ,during summer's heat the farthest #f feet is barely moistened on top1 but no water effectively penetrates the dry surface4 ,crops are positioned according to their need for or ability to benefit from supplementation4 ,for convenient description ,i've numbered those rows4 ,the ,raised ,bed ,crops demanding the most water are grown on the raised bed4 ,these include a succession of lettuce plantings designed to fill the summer salad bowl1 summer spinach1 spring kohlrabi1 my celery patch1 scallions1 ,chinese cabbages1 radishes1 and various nursery beds that start overwintered crops for transplanting later4 ,perhaps the bed seems too large just for salad greens4 ,but one entire meal every day consists largely of fresh1 raw1 high-protein green leaves2 during summer1 looseleaf or semiheading lettuce is our salad item of choice4 ,and our individual salad bowls are larger than most families of six might consider adequate to serve all of them together4 ,if water were severely rationed ,i could irrigate the raised bed with hose and nozzle and dry garden the rest1 but as it is1 rows #a1 #b1 #g1 and #h do get significant but lesser amounts from the sprinklers4 ,most of the rows hold a single plant family needing similar fertilization and handling or1 for convenience1 that are sown at the same time4 ,row #a ,the row's center is about #c feet from the edge of the raised bed4 ,in ,march ,i sow my very first salad greens down half this row--mostly assorted leaf lettuce plus some spinach--and six closely spaced early ,seneca ,hybrid zucchini plants4 ,the greens are all cut by mid-,june2 by mid-,july my better-quality ,yellow ,crookneck squash come on1 so ,i pull the zucchini4 ,then ,i till that entire row1 refertilize1 and sow half to rutabagas4 ,the nursery bed of leek seedlings has gotten large enough to transplant at this time1 too4 ,these go into a trench dug into the other half of the row4 ,the leeks and rutabagas could be reasonably productive located farther from the sprinklers1 but no vegetables benefit more from abundant water or are more important to a self-sufficient kitchen4 ,rutabagas break the winter monotony of potatoes2 leeks vitally improve winter salads1 and leeky soups are a household staple from ,november through ,march4 ,row #b3 ,semi-,drought ,tolerant ,brassicas ,row #b gets about half the irrigation of row #a and about one-third as much as the raised bed1 and so is wider1 to give the roots more room4 ,one-third of the row grows savoy cabbage1 the rest1 ,brussels sprouts4 ,these brassicas are spaced #d feet apart and by summer's end the lusty sprouts form a solid hedge #d feet tall4 ,row #c3 ,kale ,row #c grows #abe feet of various kales sown in ,april4 ,there's just enough overspray to keep the plants from getting gnarly4 ,i prefer kale to not get very stunted1 if only for aesthetics3 on my soil1 one vanity fertigation about mid-,july keeps this row looking impressive all summer4 ,other gardens with poorer soil might need more support4 ,this much kale may seem an enormous oversupply1 but between salads and steaming greens with potatoes we manage to eat almost all the tender small leaves it grows during winter4 ,row #d3 ,root ,crops ,mostly carrots1 a few beets4 ,no irrigation1 no fertigation1 none needed4 ,one hundred carrots weighing in at around #e pounds each and #bj-some beets of equal magnitude make our year's supply for salads1 soups1 and a little juicing4 ,row #e3 ,dry-,gardened ,salads ,this row holds a few crowns of ,french sorrel1 a few feet of parsley4 ,over a dozen giant kohlrabi are spring sown1 but over half the row grows endive4 ,i give this row absolutely no water4 ,again1 when contemplating the amount of space it takes1 keep in mind that this endive and kohlrabi must help fill our salad bowls from ,october through ,march4 ,row #f3 ,peas1 ,overwintered ,cauliflower1 and ,all ,solanaceae ,half the row grows early bush peas4 ,without overhead irrigation to bother them1 unpicked pods form seed that sprouts excellently the next year4 ,this half of the row is rotary tilled and fertilized again after the pea vines come out4 ,then it stays bare through ,july while capillarity somewhat recharges the soil4 ,about ,august #a1 ,i wet the row's surface down with hose and fan nozzle and sow overwintered cauliflower seed4 ,to keep the cauliflower from stunting ,i must lightly hand sprinkle the row's center twice weekly through late ,september4 ,were water more restricted ,i could start my cauliflower seedlings in a nursery bed and transplant them here in ,october4 ,the other half is home to the ,solanaceae3 tomato1 pepper1 and eggplant4 ,i give this row a little extra width because pea vines run1 and ,i fertigate my ,solanaceae1 preferring sprawly tomato varieties that may cover an #h-;foot-diameter circle4 ,there's also a couple of extra bare feet along the outside because the neighboring grasses will deplete soil moisture along the edge of the garden4 ,row #g3 ,water-,demanding ,brassicas ,moving away from irrigation on the other side of the raised bed1 ,i grow a succession of hybrid broccoli varieties and late fall cauliflower4 ,the broccoli is sown several times1 #bj row-feet each sowing1 done about ,april #ae1 ,june #a1 and ,july #ae4 ,the late cauliflower goes in about ,july #a4 ,if necessary ,i could use much of this row for quick crops that would be harvested before ,i wanted to sow broccoli or cauliflower1 but ,i don't need more room4 ,the first sowings of broccoli are pulled out early enough to permit succession sowings of arugula or other late salad greens4 ,row #h3 ,the ,trellis ,here ,i erect a #abe-;foot-long1 #f-;foot-tall net trellis for gourmet delicacies like pole peas and pole beans4 ,the bean vines block almost all water that would to on beyond it and so this row gets more irrigation than it otherwise might4 ,the peas are harvested early enough to permit a succession sowing of ,purple ,sprouting broccoli in mid-,july4 ,purple ,sprouting needs a bit of sprinkling to germinate in the heat of midsummer1 but1 being as vigorous as kale1 once up1 it grows adequately on the overspray from the raised bed4 ,the beans would be overwhelmingly abundant if all were sown at one time1 so ,i plant them in two stages about three weeks apart4 ,still1 a great many beans go unpicked4 ,these are allowed to form seed1 are harvested before they quite dry1 and crisp under cover away from the sprinklers4 ,we get enough seed from this row for planting next year1 plus all the dry beans we care to eat during winter4 ,dry beans are hard to digest and as we age we eat fewer and fewer of them4 ,in previous years ,i've grown entire rows of dry legume seeds at the garden's edge4 ,row #i3 ,cucurbits ,this row is so wide because here are grown all the spreading cucurbits4 ,the pole beans in row #h tend to prevent overspray2 this dryness is especially beneficial to humidity-sensitive melons1 serendipitously reducing their susceptability to powdery mildew diseases4 ,all cucurbits are fertigated every three weeks4 ,the squash will have fallen apart by the end of ,september1 melons are pulled out by mid-,september4 ,the area is then tilled and fertilized1 making space to transplant overwintered spring cabbages1 other overwintered brassicas1 and winter scallions in ,october4 ,these transplants are dug from nurseries on the irrigated raised bed4 ,i could also set cold frames here and force tender salad greens all winter4 ,row #aj3 ,unirrigated ,potatoes ,this single long row satisfies a potato-loving household all winter4 ,the quality of these dry-gardened tubers is so high that my wife complains if she must buy a few new potatoes from the supermarket after our supplies have become so sprouty and_/or shriveled that they're not tasty any longer4 ,chapter #g ,the ,backyard ,water-,wise ,gardener ,i am an unusually fortunate gardener4 ,after seven years of struggling on one of the poorest growing sites in this region we now live on #af acres of mostly excellent1 deep soil1 on the floor of a beautiful1 coastal ,oregon valley4 ,my house and gardens are perched safely above the #ajj-year flood line1 there's a big1 reliable well1 and if ,i ever want more than #bj gallons per minute in midsummer1 there's the virtually unlimited ,umpqua ,river to draw from4 ,much like a master skeet shooter who uses a 4#daj to make the sport more interesting1 ,i have chosen to dry garden4 ,few are this lucky4 ,these days the majority of ,north ,americans live an urban struggle4 ,their houses are as often perched on steep1 thinly soiled hills or gooey1 difficult clay as on a tiny fragment of what was once prime farmland4 ,and never does the municipal gardener have one vital liberty ,i do3 to choose which one-sixth of an acre in his #ad-;acre back yard he'll garden on this year4 ,i was a suburban backyard gardener for five years before deciding to homestead4 ,i've frequently recalled this experience while learning to dry garden4 ,what follows in this chapter are some strategies to guide the urban in becoming more water-wise4 ,water ,conservation ,is the ,most ,important ,first ,step ,after it rains or after sprinkler irrigation1 water evaporates from the surface until a desiccated earth mulch develops4 ,frequent light watering increases this type of loss4 ,where lettuce1 radishes1 and other shallow-rooting vegetables are growing1 perhaps it is best to accept this loss or spread a thin mulch to reduce it4 ,but most vegetables can feed deeper1 so if wetting the surface can be avoided1 a lot of water can be saved4 ,even sprinkling longer and less frequently helps accomplish that4 ,half the reason that drip systems are more efficient is that the surface isn't dampened and virtually all water goes deep into the earth4 ,the other half is that they avoiding evaporation that occurs while water sprays through the air between the nozzle and the soil4 ,sprinkling at night or early in the morning1 when there is little or no wind1 prevents almost all of this type of loss4 ,to use drip irrigation it is not necessary to invest in pipes1 emitters1 filters1 pressure regulators1 and so forth4 ,i've already explained how recycled plastic buckets or other large containers can be improvised into very effective drip emitters4 ,besides1 drip tube systems are not trouble free3 having the beds covered with fragile pipes makes hoeing dicey1 while every emitter must be periodically checked against blockage4 ,when using any type of drip system it is especially important to relate the amount of water applied to the depth of the soil to the crops1 root development4 ,there's no sense adding more water than the earth can hold4 ,calculating the optimum amount of water to apply from a drip system requires applying substantial1 practical intelligence to evaluating the following factors3 soil water-holding capacity and accessible depth2 how deep the root systems have developed2 how broadly the water spreads out below each emitter 7dispersion72 rate of loss due to transpiration4 ,all but one of these factors--dispersion--are adequately discussed elsewhere in ,gardening ,without ,irrigation4 ,a drip emitter on sandy soil moistens the earth nearly straight down with little lateral dispersion2 #a foot below the surface the wet area might only be #a foot in diameter4 ,conversely1 when you drip moisture into a clay soil1 though the surface may seem dry1 #ah inches away from the emitter and just #c inches down the earth may become saturated with water1 while a few inches deeper1 significant dispersion may reach out nearly #bd inches4 ,on sandy soil1 emitters on #ab-;inch centers are hardly close enough together1 while on clay1 #cj-or even #cf-;inch centers are sufficient4 ,another important bit of data to enter into your arithmetic3 #a cubic foot of water equals about #e gallons4 ,a #ab-;inch-diameter circle equals #j4ge square feet 7,a ,pi x ,radius squared71 so #a cubic foot of water 7#e gallons7 dispersed from a single emitter will add roughly #af inches of moisture to sandy soil1 greatly overwatering a medium that can hold only an inch or so of available water per foot4 ,on heavy clay1 a single emitter may wet a #d-;foot-diameter circle1 on loams1 anywhere in between1 #e gallons will cover a #d-;foot-diameter circle about #a inch deep4 ,so on deep1 clay soil1 #aj or even #ae gallons per application may be in order4 ,what is the texture of your soil1 its water-holding capacity1 and the dispersion of a drip into it8 ,probably1 it is somewhere in between sand and clay4 ,i can't specify what is optimum in any particular situation4 ,each gardener must consider his own unique factors and make his own estimation4 ,all ,i can do is stress again that the essence of water-wise gardening is water conservation4 ,optimizing ,space3 ,planning the ,water-,wise ,backyard ,garden ,intensive gardening is a strategy holding that yield per square foot is the supreme goal2 it succeeds by optimizing as many growth factors as possible4 ,so a raised bed is loosened very deeply without concern for the amount of labor1 while fertility and moisture are supplied virtually without limit4 ,intensive gardening makes sense when land is very costly and the worth of the food grown is judged against organic produce at retail--and when water and nutrients are inexpensive and_/or available in unlimited amounts4 ,when water use is reduced1 yield inevitably drops proportionately4 ,the backyard water-wise gardener1 then1 must logically ask which vegetable species will give him enough food or more economic value with limited space and water4 ,taking maritime ,northwest rainfall patterns into consideration1 here's my best estimation3 ,water-,wise ,efficiency of ,vegetable ,crops 7in terms of backyard usage of space and moisture7 ,,efficient ,,enough ,early spring-sown crops3 peas1 broccoli1 lettuce1 radishes1 savoy cabbage1 kohlrabi ,overwintered crops3 onions1 broccoli cauliflower1 cabbage1 favas beans ,endive ,kale ,garden sorrel ,indeterminate tomatoes ,giant kohlrabi ,parsley--leaf and root heirloom summer squash 7sprawly7 ,pole beans ,herbs3 marjoram1 thyme1 dill1 cilantro1 fennel1 oregano ,root crops3 carrots1 beets1 parsnips ,,marginal ,brussels sprouts 7late7 ,potatoes ,determinate tomatoes ,rutabagas ,eggplant ,leeks ,leeks ,savoy cabbage 7late7 ,peppers1 small fruited ,,inefficient ,beans1 bush snap ,peppers1 bell ,broccoli1 summer ,radishes ,cauliflower ,scallions1 bulb onions ,celery ,sweet corn ,lettuce ,turnips ,have fun planning your own water-wise garden6 ,more ,reading ,about the ,interlibrary ,loan ,service ,agricultural books1 especially older ones1 are not usually available at local libraries4 ,but most municipal libraries and all universities offer access to an on-line database listing the holdings of other cooperating libraries throughout the ,united ,states4 ,almost any book published in this century will be promptly mailed to the requesting library4 ,anyone who is serious about learning by reading should discover how easy and inexpensive 7or free7 it is to use the ,interlibrary ,loan ,service4 ,carter1 ,vernon ,gill1 and ,tom1 ,dale4 ,topsoil and ,civilization4 ,norman1 ,okla43 ,university of ,oklahoma ,press1 #aigd4 ,the history of civilization's destruction of one ecosystem after another by plowing and deforestation1 and its grave implications for our country's long-term survival4 ,cleveland1 ,david ,a41 and ,daniela ,soleri4 ,food from ,dryland ,gardens3 ,an ,ecological1 ,nutritional and ,social ,approach to ,small-,scale ,household ,food ,production4 ,tucson3 ,center for ,people1 ,food and ,environment1 #aiia4 ,world-conscious survey of low-tech food production in semiarid regions4 ,faulkner1 ,edward ,h4 ,plowman's ,folly4 ,norman1 ,okla43 ,university of ,oklahoma ,press1 #aidc4 ,this book created quite a controversy in the #aidjs4 ,faulkner stresses the vital importance of capillarity4 ,he explains how conventional plowing stops this moisture flow4 ,foth1 ,henry ,d4 ,fundamentals of ,soil ,science4 ,eighth ,edition4 ,new ,york3 ,john ,wylie ,sons1 #aiij4 ,a thorough yet readable basic soil science text at a level comfortable for university non-science majors4 ,hamaker1 ,john4 ,d4 ,the ,survival of ,civilization4 ,annotated by ,donald ,a4 ,weaver4 ,michigan_/,california3 ,hamaker-,weaver ,publishers1 #aihb4 ,hamaker contradicts our current preoccupation with global warming and makes a believable case that a new epoch of planetary glaciation is coming1 caused by an increase in greenhouse gas4 ,the book is also a guide to soil enrichment with rock powders4 ,nabhan1 ,gary4 ,the ,desert ,smells like ,rain3 ,a ,naturalist in ,papago ,indian ,country4 ,san ,francisco3 ,north ,point ,press1 #aifb4 ,describes regionally useful ,native ,american dry-gardening techniques ,russell1 ,sir ,e4 ,john4 ,soil ,conditions and ,plant ,growth4 ,eighth ,edition4 ,new ,york3 ,longmans1 ,green ,co41 #aiej4 ,probably the finest1 most human soil science text ever written4 ,russell avoids unnecessary mathematics and obscure terminology4 ,i do not recommend the recent in-print edition1 revised and enlarged by a committee4 ,smith1 ,j4 ,russell4 ,tree ,crops3 a ,permanent ,agriculture4 ,new ,york3 ,harcourt1 ,brace and ,company1 #aibi4 ,smith's visionary solution to upland erosion is growing unirrigated tree crops that produce cereal-like foods and nuts4 ,should sit on the family bible shelf of every permaculturalist4 ,solomon1 ,stephen ,j4 ,growing ,vegetables ,west of the ,cascades4 ,seattle3 ,sasquatch ,books1 #aihi4 ,the complete regional gardening textbook4 -------------------------4 ,backyard ,composting4 ,portland1 ,ore43 ,george van ,patten ,publishing1 #aiib4 ,especially useful for its unique discussion of the overuse of compost and a nonideological approach to raising the most nutritious food possible4 ,stout1 ,ruth4 ,gardening ,without ,work for the ,aging1 the ,busy and the ,indolent4 ,old ,greenwich1 ,conn43 ,devin-,adair1 #aifa4 ,stout presents the original thesis of permanent mulching4 ,turner1 ,frank ,newman4 ,fertility1 ,pastures and ,cover ,crops ,based on ,nature's ,own ,balanced ,organic ,pasture ,feeds4 ,san ,diego3 ,rateaver1 #aige4 ,reprinted from the #aiee ,faber and ,faber1 edition4 ,organic farming using long rotations1 including deeply rooted green manures developed to a high art4 ,turner maintained a productive organic dairy farm using subsoiling and long rotations involving tilled crops and semipermanent grass_/herb mixtures4 ven der ,leeden1 ,frits1 ,fred ,l4 ,troise1 and ,david ,k4 ,todd4 ,the ,water ,encyclopedia1 ,second ,edition4 ,chelsea1 ,mich43 ,lewis ,publishers1 #aiij4 ,reference data concerning every possible aspect of water4 ,weaver1 ,john ,e41 and ,william ,e4 ,bruner4 ,root ,development of ,vegetable ,crops4 ,new ,york3 ,mc,graw-,hill1 #aibg4 ,contains very interesting drawings showing the amazing depth and extent that vegetable roots are capable of in favorable soil4 ,widtsoe1 ,john ,a4 ,dry ,farming3 ,a ,system of ,agriculture for ,countries ,under ,low ,rainfall4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 #aibj4 ,the best single review ever made of the possibilities of dry farming and dry gardening1 sagely discussing the scientific basis behind the techniques4 ,the quality of ,widtsoe's understanding proves that newer is not necessarily better4