,established by ,edward ,l4 ,youmans ,,appletons' ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly ,,edited ,,by ,,william ,,jay ,,youmans ,,vol4 ,,lv ,,may ,,to ,,october1 #ahii ,,new ,,york ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company #ahii ,,copyright1 #ahii1 ,,by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company4 ,illustration3 ,,thomas ,,egleston4 ,,appletons' ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly4 ,,june1 #ahii4 ,,new ,,method ,,of ,,estimating ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,niagara ,,falls4 ,,by ,g4 ,,frederick ,,wright4 ,both the interest and the importance of the subject make it worth while to follow out every clew that may lead to the approximate determination of the age of ,niagara ,falls4 ,during this past season1 in connection with some work done for the ,new ,york ,central ,railroad upon their branch line which runs along the eastern face of the gorge from ,bloody ,run to ,lewiston1 ,i fortunately came into possession of data from which an estimate of the age of the falls can be made entirely independent of those which have heretofore been current4 ,the bearing and importance of the new data can best be seen after a brief rsum of the efforts heretofore made to solve this important problem4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,looking north from below the ,whirlpool1 showing the electric road at the bottom of the east side of the gorge1 and the steam road descending the face about halfway to the top4 ,in #ahda ,sir ,charles ,lyell and the late ,prof4 ,james ,hall visited the falls together2 but1 having no means of determining the rate of recession1 except from the indefinite reports of residents and guides1 they could place no great confidence in the guess1 made by ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 that it could not be more than one foot a year4 ,as the length of the gorge from ,lewiston up is about seven miles1 the time required for its erosion at this rate would be thirty-five thousand years4 ,the great authority and popularity of ,lyell led the general public to put more confidence in this estimate than the distinguished authors themselves did4 ,mr4 ,bakewell1 another eminent ,english geologist1 at about the same time estimated the rate of the recession as threefold greater than ,lyell and ,hall had done1 which would reduce the time to about eleven thousand years4 ,but1 to prepare the way for a more definite settlement of the question1 the ,new ,york ,geological ,survey1 under ,professor ,hall's direction1 had a careful trigonometric survey of the ,horseshoe ,fall made in #ahdb1 erecting monuments at the points at which their angles were taken1 so that1 after a sufficient lapse of time1 the actual rate of recession could be more accurately determined4 ,in #ahhf ,mr4 ,woodward1 of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 made a new survey1 and found that the actual amount of recession in the center of the ,horseshoe ,fall had proceeded at an average rate of about five feet per annum4 ,the subject was thoroughly discussed by ,drs4 ,pohlman and ,gilbert1 at the ,buffalo meeting of the ,american ,association in #ahhf1 when it was proved1 to the satisfaction of every one1 that1 if the supply of water had been constant throughout its history1 the whole work of eroding the gorge from ,lewiston to the ,falls would have been accomplished1 at the present rate of recession1 in about seven thousand years4 ,but the question was immediately raised1 ,has the supply of water in ,niagara ,river been constant8 ,it was my privilege1 in the autumn of #ahib 7see ,bulletin of the ,geological ,society of ,america1 vol4 iv1 pp4 #dba-dbg71 to bring forth the first positive evidence that the water pouring over ,niagara had for a time been diverted1 having been turned through ,lake ,nipissing down the valley of the ,mattawa into the ,ottawa ,river1 following nearly the line of ,champlain's old trail and of the present ,canadian ,pacific ,railroad4 ,the correctness of this inference has been abundantly confirmed by subsequent investigations of ,mr4 ,f4 ,b4 ,taylor and ,dr4 ,robert ,bell4,a ,the occasion of this diversion of the drainage of the ,great ,lakes from the ,niagara through the ,ottawa ,valley was the well-known northerly subsidence of the land in ,canada at the close of the ,glacial period4 ,when the ice melted off from the lower part of the ,ottawa ,valley the land stood five hundred feet lower than it does now1 but the extent of this subsidence diminished both to the south and the west1 making it difficult to estimate just how great it was at the ,nipissing outlet4 ,a subsidence of one hundred feet at that point1 however1 would now divert the waters into the ,ottawa ,river4 ,that it actually was so diverted is shown both by converging high-level shore lines at the head of the ,mattawa ,valley and by the immense delta deposits at its junction with the ,ottawa1 to which attention was first called in my paper referred to above4 ,footnote ,a3 ,see article by ,mr4 ,taylor on ,the ,scoured ,bowlders of the ,mattawa ,valley1 in the ,american ,journal of ,science1 ,march1 #ahig1 pp4 #bjh-bah4 ,the indeterminate question which remained was1 ,at what rate did this postglacial elevation of land which has brought it up to its present level proceed8 ,dr4 ,gilbert1 ,professor ,spencer1 and ,mr4 ,taylor have brought forth a variety of facts which1 according to their interpretation1 show that this rate of elevation was so slow that from twenty thousand to thirty thousand years was required to restore to the ,niagara ,river its present volume of water4 ,their arguments are based upon the varying width and depth of the ,niagara gorge1 proving1 as they think1 the presence of a smaller amount of water during the erosion of some portions4 ,dr4 ,gilbert has also brought forward some facts concerning the extent of supposed erosion produced by the diverted waters of ,niagara when passing over an intermediate outlet between ,lake ,simcoe and ,lake ,nipissing4 ,but the difficulty of obtaining any safe basis for calculation upon these speculative considerations has increased the desire to find a means of calculation which should be independent of the indeterminate problems involved4 ,that ,i think ,i have found1 and so have made a beginning in obtaining desired results4 ,the new evidence lies in the extent of the enlargement of the mouth of the ,niagara gorge at ,lewiston since the recession of the falls began4 ,it is evident that the oldest part of the ,niagara gorge is at its mouth1 at ,lewiston1 where the escarpment suddenly breaks down to the level of ,lake ,ontario4 ,the walls of the gorge rise here to a height of three hundred and forty feet above the level of the river4 ,it is clear that from the moment the recession of the falls began at ,lewiston the walls of the gorge on either side have been subject to the action of constant disintegrating agencies1 tending to enlarge the mouth and make it ,v-shaped4 ,what ,i did last summer was to measure the exact amount of this enlargement1 and to obtain an approximate estimate of the rate at which it is going on4,b ,as this enlargement proceeds wholly through the action of atmospheric agencies1 the conditions are constant1 and it is hoped that sufficiently definite results have been obtained to set some limits to the speculations which have been made upon more indefinite grounds4 ,footnote ,b3 ,for opportunity to do this work ,i am indebted to the interest of ,president ,s4 ,r4 ,callaway1 of the ,new ,york ,central ,railroad4 ,the measurements were made by ,mr4 ,george ,s4 ,tibbits1 engineer of the western division4 ,the photographs were taken by ,mr4 ,c4 ,f4 ,dutton1 of ,cleveland4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,view looking east across the gorge near the mouth1 showing the railroads and the outcrops of ,clinton and ,niagara limestones above the steam road4 ,the face on the east side of the gorge presents a series of alternate layers of hard and soft rocks1 of which certain portions are very susceptible to the disintegrating agencies of the atmosphere4 ,the summit consists of from twenty to thirty feet of compact ,niagara limestone1 which is underlaid by about seventy feet of ,niagara shale2 which in turn rests upon a compact stratum of ,clinton limestone about twenty feet thick1 which again is underlaid by a shaly deposit of seventy feet1 resting upon a compact stratum of ,medina sandstone twenty feet thick1 below which a softer sandstone1 that crumbles somewhat readily1 extends to the level of the river4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,looking up the gorge from near ,lewiston1 showing on the left the exposed situation of the eastern face of the gorge at the extreme angle1 where the measurements were made4 ,the present width of the river at the mouth of the gorge is seven hundred and seventy feet4 ,it is scarcely possible that the original width of the gorge was here any less than this1 for in the narrowest places above1 even where the ,niagara limestone is much thicker than at ,lewiston1 it is nowhere much less than six hundred feet in width4 ,nor is it probable that the river has to any considerable extent enlarged its channel at the mouth of the gorge at the water level4 ,on the contrary1 it is more probable that the mouth has been somewhat contracted1 for the large masses of ,niagara and ,clinton limestone and ,medina sandstone which have fallen down as the shales were undermined have accumulated at the base as a talus1 which the present current of the river is too feeble to remove4 ,this talus of great blocks of hard stone has effectually riprapped the banks1 and really encroached to some extent upon the original channel4 ,we may therefore assume with confidence that the enlargement1 under subarial agencies1 of the mouth of the gorge at the top of the escarpment has been no greater than the distance from the present water's edge to the present line of the escarpment at the summit of the ,niagara limestone4 ,this we found to be three hundred and eighty-eight feet--that is1 the upper stratum of hard rock on the east side of the gorge had retreated that distance1 through the action of atmospheric agencies1 since the formation of the gorge first began4 ,the accompanying photogravures and diagram will present the facts at a glance4 ,the total work of enlargement on the east side of the gorge has been the removal of an inverted triangular section of the rock strata three hundred and forty feet high and three hundred and eighty-eight feet base1 which would be the same as a rectangular section of one hundred and ninety-four feet base4 ,from this one can readily see that if the average erosion has been at the rate of one quarter of an inch per annum1 the whole amount would have fallen down in less than ten thousand years2 while if the time is lengthened1 as some would have it1 to forty thousand years1 the rate would be reduced to one sixteenth of an inch per year4 ,fortunately1 the construction of the railroad along the face of the eastern wall of the gorge affords opportunity to study the rate of erosion during a definite period of time4 ,the accompanying photogravures will illustrate to the eye facts which it is hard to make impressive by words alone4 ,the course of the road is diagonally down the face of the gorge from its summit for a distance of about two miles1 descending in that space about two hundred feet to the outcrop of hard quartzose ,medina sandstone4 ,the lower mile of this exposure presents the typical situation for making an estimate of the rate at which the face is crumbling away4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,nearer view of the upper portion of the face near the mouth1 showing the exposure of the situation at that point4 ,beginning at what used to be known as the ,hermit's ,cave1 near the ,catholic ,college grounds1 where the ,niagara shale is well exposed1 and extending to the outer limit of the gorge1 the height of the face above the railroad averages one hundred and fifty feet4 ,now1 the crumbling away of the superincumbent cliffs gives continual trouble to the road4 ,three watchmen are constantly employed along this distance to remove the dbris which falls down1 and to give warning if more comes down than they can remove before trains are due4 ,the seventy feet of ,niagara shale1 and the equal thickness of shaly ,medina rock which underlies the ,clinton limestone1 are constantly falling off1 even in fair weather1 as any one can experience by walking along the bank2 while after storms1 and especially in the spring1 when the frost is coming out1 the disintegration proceeds at a much more rapid rate4 ,sometimes two or three days are required by the whole force of section hands to throw over the bank the result of a single fall of material4 ,at a rate of one quarter of an inch of waste each year the amount of dbris accumulating for removal on the track along this distance would be only six hundred and ten cubic yards per annum--that is1 if six hundred and ten cubic yards of material falls down from one mile of the face of the wall where it is a hundred and fifty feet high1 the whole amount of enlargement of the mouth of the gorge would be accomplished in less than ten thousand years4 ,exact accounts have not been kept by the railroad2 but even a hasty examination of the face of the wall makes it sure that the actual amount removed has been greatly in excess of six hundred yards annually4 ,this estimate is based partly on the impression of the railroad officials as to the cost of removal1 and partly on the impressions of the watchmen who spend their time in keeping guard and in the work of removing it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,showing extent of erosion at base of the ,niagara shale since #ahed4 7,see description in the text47 ,but that is not all4 ,the accompanying photogravures indicate an actual amount of removal over a part of the area enormously in excess of the rate supposed4 ,fig4 #e shows a portion of the precipice1 a hundred feet high1 where the road first comes down to the level of the ,clinton limestone1 and where1 consequently1 the whole thickness of the ,niagara shale is accessible to examination4 ,fortunately1 ,patrick ,mac,namara1 the watchman at this station1 was a workman on the road at the time of its construction in #ahed1 and has been connected with the road ever since1 having been at his present post for twelve years4 ,we have therefore his distinct remembrance1 as well as the appearance of the bank1 to inform us where the face of the original excavation then was4 ,in the picture he is standing at the original face1 while the other figure is nearly at the back of the space which has been left empty by the crumbling away of the shale4 ,the horizontal distance is fully twenty feet1 and the rocks overhang to that amount for the whole distance exposed in the photograph4 ,all this amount of shale has fallen down in forty-four years1 making a rate many times larger than the highest we have taken as the basis of our estimate4 ,of course1 this rate for the crumbling away of the ,niagara shale on its fresh exposure is much in excess of the average rate for a long period of time2 but it is clear that the rate of erosion at the base of the ,niagara limestone at the mouth of the gorge can never have been sufficiently slow to reduce the total average much below the assumed rate of a quarter of an inch a year4 ,to impress the truth of this statement it is only necessary to follow the progress1 in imagination1 of the crumbling process which has brought the side of the gorge to its present condition4 ,at first the face of the gorge was perpendicular1 the plunging water making the gorge as wide at the bottom as at the top4 ,at successive stages the strata of shale on the side would crumble away1 as is shown in our photograph1 and undermine the strata of hard rock4 ,the large fragments would fall to the bottom1 and1 being too large to be carried away by the current1 would form the talus to which we have already referred1 which would grow in height with every successive century4 ,the actual progress of the enlargement would thus be periodic1 and not capable of measurement by decades2 but after centuries the progress would be clearly marked1 and especially whenever there was a falling away of the lower stratum of compact ,medina sandstone1 which is about two hundred feet below the top1 would a new cycle of rapid disintegrations in the superincumbent strata follow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,section1 drawn to equal vertical and horizontal scale1 showing enlargement of ,niagara gorge on the east side at its mouth at ,lewiston3 #a1 ,niagara limestone1 #bj to #cj feet2 #b1 ,niagara shale1 #gj feet2 #c1 ,clinton limestone1 #bj to #cj feet2 #d1 ,clinton and ,medina shale1 #gj feet2 #e1 ,quartzose ,medina sandstone1 #bj to #cj feet2 #f1 softer ,medina sandstone1 #abj feet above water level4 ,an important point to be noticed1 and which is evident from two of the reproduced photographs 7,figs4 #c and #d71 is that the talus has never reached up so high as to check the disintegration at the mouth of the gorge of the ,niagara shale and limestone which form the upper one hundred feet of the face1 and which exhibit the maximum amount of enlargement which has taken place4 ,the thickness of the ,niagara limestone is here so small that it has not been so important an element in forming the talus as it has been farther up the stream1 where it is two or three times as thick4 ,now1 while our original supposition was that one quarter of an inch annually was eroded from the upper two hundred feet1 this would involve the erosion of a half inch per annum over the top of the gorge to bring the calculation within the limit of ten thousand years4 ,it certainly is difficult for one who examines the facts upon the ground to believe that the crumbling away of this exposed ,niagara shale could have been at any less rate than that2 so that the estimate of about ten thousand years for the date of that stage of the ,glacial period in which ,niagara ,river first began its work of erosion at ,lewiston 7an estimate which is supported by a great variety of facts independent of those relating to the ,niagara gorge7 is strongly confirmed by this new line of evidence4 ,so far as ,i can see1 the only question of serious doubt that can be raised respecting this calculation will arise from the possible supposition that1 when the eastern drainage over the ,niagara channel began1 the land stood at such a relatively lower level as would reduce the height of the fall to about half that of the present escarpment at that point2 when it might be supposed that a protecting talus had accumulated which would interrupt the lateral erosion for the indefinite period when the drainage was being drawn around by way of the recently opened ,lake ,nipissing and ,mattawa outlet4 ,then1 upon the resumption of the present line of drainage1 with the land standing at nearly its present level1 the talus may have been undercut1 and so fallen down to leave the upper strata exposed as at present4 ,but there does not seem to be sufficient warrant for such a supposition to make it necessary seriously to entertain it1 while the objections to it are significant and serious4 ,first1 the present narrowness of the river at the water level is such that it does not give much opportunity for enlargement after the first formation of the gorge2 secondly1 the ,niagara limestone at the mouth of the gorge is so thin 7stated by ,hall to be twenty feet thick7 that it would not form a protecting talus1 even at half its present height4 99 99 99 99 99 ,p4 ,s4--,since the above was written there has been reported in the papers an immense fall of rock from the east side of the gorge1 near the head of the ,whirlpool rapids4 ,the estimate made of the amount is one hundred thousand tons4 ,if that estimate is correct1 it is a very impressive illustration of how the average fall of material from the side of the gorge is occasionally increased by a single instance4 ,in making our calculations above1 the total amount of material annually falling off from the portion of the side of the gorge under consideration amounted only to #a1bcg tons1 while the amount of material was #faa cubic yards4 ,but the #ajj1jjj tons which came off in a single slide a few weeks ago would be equal to twenty inches in thickness from the whole face of the cliff1 where our estimate was only a quarter of an inch4 ,n4 ,b4--,in the diagram 7,fig4 #f7 extend the ,niagara shale 7#b7 up to occupy lower two layers of 7#a71 thus making ,niagara limestone 7#a7 half as thick as now4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a piece of skin which the authors maintained to be of great antiquity and to have belonged to the extinct mylodon or ground sloth1 found in a cave in ,patagonia1 was recently exhibited to the ,london ,zological ,society by ,mr4 ,a4 ,smith ,woodward and ,dr4 ,f4 ,p4 ,moreno4 ,,abuse ,,of ,,public ,,charity4 ,,by ,,bird ,s4 ,,coler1 ,,comptroller ,,of ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,new ,,york4 ,ten per cent of all the human beings who die in ,new ,york city are buried in ,potter's ,field at public expense2 but the records of organized charity1 official and semiofficial1 show that less than one per cent of the living are paupers or dependent persons4 ,there are two explanations of the difference between the number of living poor and penniless dead4 ,the chief one is that abuse of public charity has grown to such proportions that the city has become the ,mecca of the chronic idlers and tramps of the entire country4 ,it is easier for an industrious and shrewd professional beggar to live in luxury in ,new ,york than to exist in any other city in the world4 ,no magic wand of ancient fable was ever more potent to unlock the gates of castle or prison than the name of charity is to open a way to the public treasury4 ,the liberal and well-nigh indiscriminate giving of the money of the taxpayers for the relief of sickness and poverty has been commanded by law1 sanctioned by custom1 and approved by public opinion until the possibility of checking or reforming the abuse grows more and more remote as the burden increases and the evil results multiply4 ,the city of ,new ,york gives annually to public charity more than #e1jjj1jjj1 and contributes indirectly #b1jjj1jjj more4 ,of the money raised by taxation for city purposes proper 7,state taxes1 interest1 and county expenses eliminated71 almost twelve per cent is properly chargeable to relief of poverty and sickness4 ,of this expenditure more than #c1jjj1jjj is paid to private institutions and societies over which the city authorities have no control or supervision4 ,the payments are made in compliance with the provisions of acts of the ,state ,legislature4 ,the only provision in these laws that enables the city officers to protect the treasury from fraud is a clause under which the comptroller is permitted to verify the bills of the institutions for the care of committed persons4 ,there is a constitutional safeguard against outright swindling of the city1 in the requirement that charitable institutions shall be inspected and their bills approved by the ,state ,board of ,charities1 but the system is open to many abuses where the public officers are powerless4 ,the present comptroller of the city has found that a number of alleged charitable institutions and societies receiving money from the city apply nearly all their funds to the payment of salaries of officers and employees1 while their relief work is very limited and of doubtful character4 ,other societies1 he found upon investigation1 really encourage professional beggars without in any case relieving deserving poor4 ,a few cases were so flagrant in their abuse of public charity that the further payment of city money to the societies was refused4 ,in one case he found that a society which claimed a board of directors and numerous officers was really managed by one person1 who in one year had received #a1ejj from the city and #gj from all other sources1 and had expended #a1cjj of the amount for salaries and #dj for the relief of the destitute4 ,the ,department of ,public ,charities1 for the maintenance of which the sum of #a1ida1bae is appropriated for the year #ahii1 is controlled entirely by the city4 ,the balance of the #e1jjj1jjj appropriated annually for the same general purpose is divided among more than two hundred societies and institutions managed by corporations or private individuals4 ,in theory none of these private institutions is supported by the city1 the municipality merely paying to them a fixed sum1 which is supposed to be supplemented by private donations4 ,in reality nine tenths of them could not exist six months without the money they receive from the public treasury4 ,very few of these semipublic charities have an income from all other sources equal to the appropriation from the city4 ,the city pays for the support of a child in a private institution the sum of #aaj a year1 and the average allowance for the maintenance of an adult is #aej4 ,the percentage of children among the dependent persons is almost three to one1 so the #e1jjj1jjj public charity fund would feed and clothe more than forty thousand persons each year if applied directly to that purpose4 ,in the distribution of this great sum of public money1 however1 fully #b1jjj1jjj of the amount is absorbed in the payment of salaries and expenses1 and therein exists an abuse of public charity so great that the present comptroller of the city some months ago appealed to the ,legislature for relief in the form of legislation which would enable the local authorities to stop payments to many societies4 ,there are numerous small institutions1 some of them having the indorsement and moral support of leading citizens1 that spend from sixty to eighty per cent of all the money they receive in the payment of salaries1 and in one case discovered by the comptroller the expenses absorbed ninety-four per cent of the total income of the society6 ,there is no evidence that any of these societies are deliberately dishonest in their dealings with the city and the public4 ,they are as a rule conducted by men and women whose motives are good1 but who have no experience or practical knowledge to fit them for the management of a charitable institution4 ,they are easily imposed upon by professional beggars1 and in most cases fail in their well-meant efforts to reach and relieve the deserving who are in actual need4 ,most of the small organizations that waste public money in misdirected charity are controlled by women of eminent respectability1 but with no knowledge whatever of the details of the work they have undertaken4 ,the result in many cases has been that they employ enough help to absorb the bulk of the money received without realizing that they are doing more harm than good4 ,the city does not spend its own money cheaply4 ,of the appropriation of #a1ida1bae for the support of the ,department of ,charities for the current year the sum of #ebi1fbf is allowed for the payment of salaries of commissioners and employees4 ,no private business could long endure if conducted on such a basis4 ,some of the institutions where hundreds of homeless waifs from the streets are cared for--institutions semipublic in character1 managed by men of more than local reputation as experts in such work1 societies founded by men and women whose lives have been devoted to doing good--show by their annual reports that more than half their income is paid out in salaries4 ,one institution that received #cj1jjj from the city in #ahih and #bj1jjj from all other sources1 reported a salary account of #ca1jjj4 ,another1 receiving #ajj1jjj from the city and #abj1jjj in donations1 had a salary account of #aae1jjj4 ,for every five persons supported by public charity there are three persons employed on salary in the work of relief4 ,of every five dollars paid out by the city treasury to relieve the sick and destitute1 two dollars is absorbed by the salary and expense accounts4 ,the theory of the law under which city money is paid to private charitable institutions is that they relieve the municipal authorities of the care of a certain number of persons who would otherwise become public charges to be maintained in the hospitals1 asylums1 or homes owned by the city4 ,it is also a popular theory that young children who have become a public charge will receive better care and training in a home controlled by a private society than they would in a public institution4 ,appropriations and legislation are also obtained by private organizations on the representation that for every dollar paid to them by the city or ,state an equal amount will be contributed by founders and subscribers4 ,this representation is not always true1 and in many cases it happens that when a society begins to receive money from the city private contributions fall off4 ,when the city authorities first took up the question of caring for homeless and destitute persons and found that they had to deal with a grave problem1 some of the private charitable institutions were already in existence and came forward with offers to share the burden4 ,at that time it was considered a good business arrangement for the city to use private societies in the work of relief4 ,this plan1 it was expected1 would save the city considerable money1 because the officers of the societies would contribute their services1 and the cost of applying public charity to necessary relief would in that way be reduced to a minimum4 ,that expectation has not been realized4 ,with the rapid increase of necessity and demand for public relief the expenses of administration of the societies have increased out of all proportion to the work accomplished4 ,in the beginning the city authorities shirked a public duty1 and by giving city money to private persons who were willing to relieve them of a burden they invited the creation of new societies and a steadily increasing demand for more funds4 ,of the two hundred and twenty charitable societies that receive money from the city more than one hundred have been organized during the past ten years4 ,the records of the finance department and the annual reports of these new organizations show that many of them have received from the city sixty to ninety per cent of all the funds they have handled1 and that almost the same percentage of their total income was charged to expenses1 the chief item of expense in every case being the payment of salaries to officers4 ,year after year the promoters and officers of these small organizations appear before the city authorities when the annual budget is to be passed1 and1 attempting to excuse the poor showing they make1 say1 in pleading for a larger appropriation1 ,we hope to do better next year4 ,the most liberal-minded defender of indiscriminate public charity would find it difficult to excuse the existence of some of these societies4 ,there are scores of small organizations helping to spend public money that are unknown to the general public4 ,in fact1 some of them are never heard of except when their officers appear before the ,board of ,estimate once a year to ask for more money4 ,there is a society1 organized for the purpose of supplying clothing to shipwrecked sailors1 which for several years obtained a small appropriation from the city4 ,when the officers requested an increase of the amount allowed1 the city authorities asked for some particulars of the work done4 ,the report submitted in reply showed that the society had received1 in addition to the money obtained from the city1 several donations of second-hand clothing and one box of wristlets 7knit bands to be worn on the wrists72 had sent to a sailor shipwrecked on the coast of ,oregon a suit of underwear1 a pair of hose1 and a rubber coat2 to a crew wrecked on the reefs of ,florida some shoes and oilskin caps4 ,there was no report of relief or clothing supplied to a sailor or any other person in the city or ,state of ,new ,york1 but there was a charge for salaries that almost balanced the amount received from the city treasury4 ,another of the minor institutions is a society that is engaged in an original method of charitable work4 ,the agents of this society1 or the members themselves1 go out into the slums of the city on ,sunday mornings and gather in a number of tramps4 ,the homeless wanderers are assembled in a room hired for the purpose and supplied with a warm breakfast1 after which they are compelled to listen to a sermon and a lecture4 ,they are then allowed to depart and live as best they can until the following ,sunday4 ,for a number of years this society has received a small appropriation from the city on the ground that it is a useful public charity4 ,to all of these small societies1 no matter what may be their alleged field of charitable work1 city money is appropriated without specific knowledge of the exact purpose to which it is applied4 ,by legislation or petition1 backed by the influence of prominent citizens1 scores of these petty organizations1 some of them merely a fad or whim of an idle man or woman1 have been placed on the list of semipublic charities to be aided at the expense of the taxpayers1 and there they remain year after year without so much as a serious inquiry as to their merits or the work they accomplish4 ,the city authorities who grant the appropriations do not and can not know how the money they give to such societies is to be expended1 because they have no legal authority to investigate the conduct of such institutions4 ,the city officers1 therefore1 are not to blame4 ,the fault seems to rest primarily upon that condition of public opinion that is cheerfully tolerant of any fraud committed in the name of charity1 and secondly upon the members of the ,legislature who vote without question or investigation for all legislation asked for by any benevolent person or society4 ,to the large charitable and correctional institutions of established reputation1 to which children or pauper adults are committed by the local authorities1 city money is appropriated on a business basis4 ,a fixed sum is paid for the support of each committed person1 and the taxpayers may know what they are getting for their money4 ,while the city authorities can not regulate the expenses or salaries in these institutions1 they know that the city is paying for a specific service and that the work is performed4 ,that it might be done better or more cheaply need not concern them4 ,but to the institutions and societies that do not undertake to support dependent persons1 but engage in indiscriminate charitable work1 the giving of city money is as doubtful a method of relieving the deserving poor as throwing coin in the streets4 ,the appropriation of city money made for #ahii direct to two hundred and fifteen charitable and correctional institutions and societies amounts to #a1ghd1hdf4 ,the appropriations from the excise funds to institutions that support pauper children and adults will slightly exceed #a1jjj1jjj4 ,the county of ,new ,york pays to ,state and private charitable institutions for the same period the sum of #aah1fhb2 ,kings ,county1 #hb1ffi2 and ,richmond ,county1 #d1hde2 all of which comes out of the general treasury4 ,the money received for licenses for theaters1 concert and music halls1 amounting to #ej1jjj a year1 is divided among eighty-two private societies and institutions4 ,this makes an aggregate of #c1jjj1jjj paid out of the city treasury annually and expended under the direction of private organizations4 ,with the exception of less than #ajj1jjj it is all appropriated under the provisions of special acts of the ,legislature1 or sections of the city charter1 and the city officers have no control whatever over the methods of expenditure or the work undertaken by the societies that receive the money4 ,under such a system the possibilities for abuse of public charity are well-nigh unlimited4 ,these direct appropriations of money do not represent all of the city's contribution to the cause of charity4 ,the property of all the charitable institutions and societies is exempt from taxation and from assessments for public improvements4 ,the tax commissioners report that the assessed value of the property of such organizations is #gj1gha1iij4 ,at the present rate of taxation this means a loss to the city of more than #a1djj1jjj a year4 ,the assessments upon the same property for public improvements exceed #ajj1jjj a year1 which is paid by the city4 ,these exemptions materially affect the tax rate as well as the bonded indebtedness and annual interest charges of the city1 so that the yearly contribution of the taxpayers of ,new ,york to charity is nearly if not quite #g1jjj1jjj1 or about fifteen per cent of the direct expenses of the city government4 ,some figures from the budget for #ahii will show the relative cost of caring for the poor4 ,the city will pay for public education #ac1jdj1jeb2 for police1 #aa1gig1eif2 for the fire department1 #d1ddc1ffd2 for the health department1 #a1aaj1ech2 for lighting1 #b1jjj1jjj2 for water1 #a1dej1hag2 for cleaning the streets1 #d1ege1hjj2 for parks1 #a1gbi1bce2 for paving and repaving streets1 #b1ebj1jii2 and for charity direct and indirect1 #g1jjj1jjj4 ,the chief abuses of the present system of public charity are the extravagant expenditures for salaries and the steady and rapid increase of pauperism due to the misdirected efforts of the inexperienced persons who control so many of the smaller societies that receive city money4 ,one of the oldest and most important charitable organizations in the city is the ,children's ,aid ,society4 ,the report of the treasurer for #ahih shows the following expenditures3 ,industrial schools-- ,salaries of superintendent and teachers #ajf1bfe4ga ,rent of schoolrooms #e1aai4bf ,books and school supplies #e1agh4ed ,provisions #h1eji4gj ,clothing and special relief #e1eab4ef ,fuel1 gas1 repairs1 etc4 #bj1dig4hh --------- ,sick ,children's ,mission #fee4dh ,children's ,summer ,home #i1dje4cg ,health ,home #h1cjg4de ,farm for ,boys--,summer ,charities #b1gai4ei ,brace ,memorial ,lodging ,house #ab1iad4ac ,elizabeth ,home for ,girls #aj1cff4cc ,tompkins ,square ,lodging ,house #g1edf4ch ,west ,side ,lodging ,house #i1jgi4bf ,east ,side ,lodging ,house #a1hdh4jf ,forty fourth ,street ,lodging ,house #g1idh4ef ,fogg ,lodging ,house #a1idb4bf ,brace ,farm ,school #ab1aej4fd ,reading rooms #djb4if ,medical examinations #cab4jj ,salaries1 executive officers #h1fei4ib ,immigration1 fares1 food1 clothing1 etc4 #cj1afb4fi ,reinvestment1 bonds sold #bi1ijb4ej ,amount due treasurer1 ,november #a1 #ahih #dce4ga ,printing1 stationery1 car fares1 and incidental expenses #c1eea4he -------- #cji1cid4gi ,this shows a total salary account of #aad1ibe4fc1 or about thirty-seven per cent of the expenditure4 ,the society received from the city #ajj1gfd1 and from general subscriptions and donations #aai1gfh4 ,the balance of the income was derived from legacies1 endowments1 special trust funds1 and sale of bonds4 ,one of the private institutions in the city for the instruction of deaf-mutes receives city1 ,state1 and county pupils under the provisions of special acts of the ,legislature4 ,the report of the treasurer for the fiscal year ending ,september #cj1 #ahih1 shows the following receipts3 ,balance on hand1 ,october #a1 #ahig #b1hhe4jc ,new ,york ,state #dd1baf4gd ,new ,york ,county #bg1agi4ed ,kings ,county #ab1fig4je ,queens ,county #a1bag4ai ,westchester ,county #a1jfj4id ,various other counties #b1gbg4jb ,paying pupils #gia4ge ,donations #aa1ged4df ,all other sources #fac4hi -------- #aje1adc4fa ,the expenditures for the same period were #ajb1egj4fd1 of which #cc1fac4ef was for salaries and wages4 ,this is a private institution exempt from city or ,state control1 subject to no governmental supervision except examination by the ,state ,board of ,charities1 yet ninety per cent of its income is public money1 and almost one third of the cost of maintenance is charged to salaries and wages4 ,these two cases are mentioned not in criticism of the work or methods of the institutions1 but as representing a fair average of the salary account of all the larger private charitable societies4 ,they also fairly represent the two extremes in the source of their income1 one receiving ninety per cent of public money1 the other a little more than thirty per cent4 ,recent investigations conducted by the city comptroller and supplemented by the agents of the ,state ,board of ,charities disclose abuses in the expenditure of public money by certain small societies so flagrant that the appropriations for the current year have been withheld4 ,in these cases the salary account was always the chief expenditure1 but it was also discovered that whatever relief got beyond the headquarters of the societies went to professional beggars1 who had no difficulty in deceiving the persons in charge4 ,it was found that persons in good health had lived comfortably for months1 perhaps for years1 on public charity dispensed through private organizations4 ,these professional beggars would obtain food at one place1 clothing at another1 coal at a third1 small sums of money from all three perhaps1 then reverse the order of application or appeal to newer organizations if detection threatened4 ,relief was extended in many instances with little or no effort on the part of the societies to ascertain the merits of a case or the honesty of an applicant4 ,one small society was found to have expended practically all of the money received from the city in the payment of the living expenses of the person who had the entire management of the organization4 ,the charitable work of a year consisted in the distribution of a small quantity of cast-off clothing and a few bushels of potatoes4 ,the reports of the society contained the names of directors who had never served and knew nothing of the true condition of the organization4 ,they had merely consented that their names might be used as a guarantee of reliability and to aid in the work of soliciting contributions4 ,one case has been found where a mother and daughter lived comfortably by selling coal given to them by charitable societies4 ,one private institution1 now abolished1 boarded committed children and received two dollars a week from the city for each child4 ,the children were fed on fish and potatoes at a cost of forty-four cents each per week4 ,after these facts were discovered the city authorities could not remove the children until the ,board of ,health condemned and closed the building under the provisions of the sanitary code4 ,the minor abuses in the way of aiding undeserving persons extend to nearly all the private societies that receive city money4 ,those that exercise care and have been long established are often deceived by professional beggars4 ,after his investigation of the subject the city comptroller established in his office a bureau of examination for the purpose of placing a check on the many small societies that indulge in indiscriminate charity at the expense of the city1 but he soon found that he was powerless to correct all abuses4 ,the present condition can not be corrected and public charity placed upon a practical basis and limited to the real necessities of the deserving poor until the city government begins to deal with each society and institution upon its merits4 ,changes and reforms to the present system will come in time1 but progress will be slow because charity is a valid excuse at the bar of public opinion for the reckless expenditure of city money1 and for that reason it appeals strongly to the average politician and lawmaker4 ,charity will cover with a mantle of commendation a multitude of abuses and crave pardon for gross frauds4 ,it is the pastime of the rich and their gratuity to the poor4 ,the magic of the word seems to move a ,legislature and open the treasure vaults of city and ,state4 ,,alaska ,,and ,,the ,,klondike4 ,a ,,journey ,,to ,,the ,,new ,,eldorado4 ,,by ,,angelo ,,heilprin1 ,,professor ,,of ,,geology ,,at ,,the ,,academy ,,of ,,natural ,,sciences ,,of ,,philadelphia1 ,,fellow ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,geographical ,,society ,,of ,,london4 ,,ii4--,,san ,,francisco ,,of ,,the ,,north4 ,illustration3 ,,dawson ,,and ,,klondike ,,city 7,,south ,,dawson7 ,,in ,,september1 #ahih4 ,a first impression of ,dawson1 in ,august1 #ahih1 could not be other than one calculated to bring up comparisons with strange and foreign lands4 ,as we saw it1 approaching from the water side1 it persistently suggested the banks of the ,yang-tse-kiang1 or of some other ,chinese river1 on which a densely apportioned population had settled4 ,hundreds--one is almost tempted to say thousands--of boats were lined up against the river front1 and so packed in rows back of one another that exit from the inner line was made possible only by a passive accommodation from the outside4 ,there were steam craft1 house-boats1 scows1 and a variety of minor bottoms1 ranging from the hay-packed raft to the graceful ,peterboro canoe4 ,many had canvas spread over them1 giving house quarter to those who preferred the economy of an owned estate to the high-priced cabins of log huts and hotels1 and the purity of the open air to what was at least considered to be the polluted atmosphere of the stable city4 ,it would be far from the truth to assume that this floating population was composed exclusively of men1 women1 and children2 there were dogs galore1 abundant by both presence and voice1 horses and mules1 and an occasional goat betrayed itself munching among hay-packs and the usual combination of simple and hard things which make up goat food4 ,one canvas bore the tempting inscription ,hot and ,cold ,river ,baths1 several carried legends of variously designated laundries1 and a few even invited to ,board and ,lodging1 ,cheap4 ,of course1 the word cheap had here a special etymologic significance1 and bore little relation to the same form of word which is current in lexicons4 ,illustration3 ,,some ,,mud ,,in ,,the ,,main ,,street--,,first ,,avenue4 ,the first favorable impression of dry land in ,dawson was tempered by a knowledge that even here were many moist spots4 ,the mud lay in great pools along the main street--,first ,avenue or ,front ,street--but hardly in sufficient depth to make walking dangerous4 ,dogs and goats could alone drown in it4 ,it is true that an occasional wading burro or even a mule would find a dangerously low level1 but ,i am not aware that any in this condition had added to a list of serious casualties4 ,no mention is made in this connection of cats1 for1 in truth1 only two specimens of the feline family had up to this time reached ,dawson--one1 a blue-ribboned kitten1 which was endearingly received as the mascot of the ,yukon ,mining ,exchange4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,main ,,street ,,in ,a ,,spring ,,freshet4 ,the ,dawsonites are not entirely oblivious to the discomforts of mud1 for an effort is being made to block it out with sawdust1 of which the three or four sawmills in the town furnish a goodly supply4 ,in some parts a rough corduroy has been attempted1 but the price of lumber1 two hundred dollars per thousand linear feet1 renders this form of construction too expensive for general use1 especially in a community all of whose members1 female as well as male1 are prepared to stem the tide with high-top boots4 ,about one half the street length shows the pretense of wooden sidewalks1 but no one has yet recognized a special responsibility for repairs1 or seemingly considered that a continuous walk requires a continuous support4 ,walking is a succession of ups and downs2 boards are missing here1 other are smashed elsewhere1 and the whole walk gives the impression of having been in existence for centuries rather than for the period of a short twelvemonth4 ,it was not difficult to determine what1 perhaps1 the majority of the sixteen thousand inhabitants of ,dawson were doing at the time of our arrival4 ,they were simply loitering1 and the streets were packed with humanity4 ,this was not strange1 either1 for it must have been difficult to resist the enjoyment of that open sunshine1 that soft1 warm atmosphere which is the delight of the summer climate of the far ,north4 ,never had ,i experienced anything comparable1 and others who had traveled much agreed with my experience4 ,on my way to the hotel1 the ,fair ,view1 which had been strongly recommended for its cuisine and the circumstance that it was brand new in its appointments--having only come into existence a few days before--,i caught a good general glimpse of the town1 the dominant features of which were registered in the two sides of the main thoroughfare along the river front4 ,a nearly continuous row of one-story1 or at the utmost two-story1 frame shacks or booths1 many of them still in canvas form1 and most of them supported over the river's bank by pile proppings1 built up the river side of this ,first ,avenue4 ,all manner of articles1 both serviceable and unserviceable1 for the ,klondike business were displayed1 mostly in cramped quarters4 ,the variety of things that had in so brief a period found their way to this region was truly astonishing1 and one marveled at the mental ingenuity which spirited some of these articles to a champ de vente4 ,surely nothing but manifest destiny could have placed a mammoth's molar on sale for a hundred dollars1 when it was thought that a period of starvation was reigning in the town4 ,and yet almost alongside of it were posters announcing that four loaves of bread could be purchased for one dollar--in another place six loves for the same price--and that half an ounce of gold dust1 the equivalent of eight dollars1 would gain admission to the best seat witnessing a boxing and wrestling contest4 ,in addition to the booths doing a regular merchandise business1 there were those whose masters ministered to a specialty--druggists and doctors1 photographers1 auctioneers1 and brokers of one kind or another4 ,bartlett ,bros41 ,packers served the inner core of the gold regions by means of long trains of pack-mules1 but they were not the only ones to whom the cargador was an officer militant4 ,dog teams there were as well as mule teams1 and the majesty of the law was hardly considered invaded when the former effected a junction with man in the capacity of common carriers4 ,one of the most interesting sights was to me the large number of letters awaiting ownership which were tacked up to the fronts and sides of different buildings1 in the most public way petitioning for rapid delivery4 ,my first letter in ,dawson was obtained by stripping it from a door-jamb1 but it was three weeks before my attention had been directed to it by a friendly discoverer4 ,to obtain anything from the post office was a most exhaustive process1 and usually required a long wait1 sometimes of a day1 or even of two days1 before entry could be obtained into the small room where the sorting1 distribution1 and dispensation of mail matter were being effected4 ,even when finally issued1 this matter was usually of several weeks' antiquity of arrival1 the sorting of tons of substance being much beyond the capacity of the few official hands that were engaged in the work4 ,illustration3 ,,dog-,,team ,,express--,,dawson4 ,by far the most imposing side of the street was that which faced the river4 ,here1 at least1 were real buildings4 ,the stately depots of the ,alaska ,commercial and ,north ,america ,trading and ,transportation ,companies1 with their outer casing of corrugated iron1 would have done credit to a town of larger capacity than ,dawson1 and in regions much more accessible to civilization than the ,northwest ,territory4 ,farther on1 the signs of a number of well-built saloons--,the ,dominion1 ,the ,pioneer1 etc4--attract attention1 not by the supposition that they are alone in the business1 since they are supported by probably not less than two or three score others of their kind1 but by their specially distinctive interiors2 one of these is embellished inside by a series of four mural decorations in oil or distemper1 representing a range of subject from ,morro ,castle1 ,havana1 to a ,moonlight on the ,yukon1 for which a resident artist of promise1 whose work was done in an open lot1 received the handsome compensation of eight hundred dollars4 ,they were befitting the place which they graced4 ,illustration3 ,,junction ,,of ,,the ,,klondike ,,with ,,the ,,yukon4 ,a more intimate acquaintance with these saloons made it plain that they were patronized both for the drinks which were sold over the bar for fifty cents or more and for the gaming tables which in open evidence betrayed a surpassingly strong interest in faro1 rouge et noir1 and roulette4 ,crowds were watching the fortunes of the play at every turn4 ,from the front entrance quite to the rear some of the more favored halls were packed1 but with an element that seemed little disposed to disturbance of any kind4 ,while the drinking of spirituous liquors is very largely indulged in1 ,i believe that during all my stay in ,dawson only three cases of obtrusive drunkenness were brought to my attention2 and of riotism my experience was wholly negative4 ,life and property are considered safe even in the most doubtful establishments1 and it is not uncommon for a man to pass hours in a crowded dance hall with virtually all his possessions1 possibly a few hundred dollars1 or it may be thousands1 carried in the form of gold dust in his trousers pockets4 ,two main factors are involved in this condition of security or in the feeling that it exists4 ,the first of these is1 perhaps1 a wholesome dread of the ,canadian ,mounted ,police1 whose efficiency in the direction of controlling order is conceded by every one2 and the second1 the circumstance that the inhabitants of ,dawson and of the adjoining ,klondike region are not1 as is so largely supposed1 a mere assortment of rough prospectors1 intent upon doing anything for the sake of acquiring gold1 but a fair representation of good and indifferent elements borrowed from all professions and stations of life1 and not from one country alone1 but from nearly all parts of the civilized globe4 ,during my brief stay ,i stumbled upon counts1 sirs1 military and naval officers1 scientists1 lawyers1 newspaper men1 promoters1 and others of broad and liberal standing2 and if some of these were undistinguishable in external garb from their brethren in mustard-colored mackinaws whose sole resource was digging for gold1 their polished and intellectual method was evidence enough that civilization was present in good quantity along the upper ,yukon4 ,the fact that there are three weekly newspapers published in ,dawson--the ,nugget1 ,midnight ,sun1 and ,dawson ,miner1 the first two selling for fifty cents a copy and the last for twenty-five cents--can hardly be considered to prove this condition1 although favoring it2 for1 though the substance and especially the typography of the journals are quite good1 the demand for reading matter is such that almost anything could realize a subscription list4 ,the long-belated ,new ,york journals seem to command a steady sale on the news stands1 where one also sees displayed the small and 7in our country7 gratuitously distributed scenic book of the transcontinental railways put up for fifty cents4 ,the ,argosy1 ,strand1 ,munsey's1 and ,cosmopolitan were the ruling magazines during my visit1 and each of these could be had for seventy-five cents a number4 ,regretfully must it be said that the female portion of the population does not sustain the male either in character or diversity4 ,i tried in various ways to ascertain the number of women who represented the community1 but failed to obtain a satisfactory accounting4 ,a large proportion of those who are in evidence1 and perhaps even by far the greater number1 belong to the red aristocracy1 or at least to that side where steady principles are treated with little consideration and respect4 ,i use the word aristocracy advisedly1 for it is a notorious fact that an amount of deference is paid to these creatures of shame which is not given to the virtuous or self-respecting woman2 and that they themselves1 recognizing their standing1 are apt to look down upon the rest of their kin1 and to even question their proper privileges4 ,a large part of the broadly capacious ,second ,avenue1 together with equally conspicuous sections of the town elsewhere1 is given up to the public display of the inmates of neatly constructed log cabins bearing such devices as ,saratoga1 ,bon-,ton1 ,the ,lucky ,cigar ,store1 ,green ,tree1 etc4 ,the number of open houses is probably less than in most mining camps1 and far below what it is in some places4 ,in deference to a demand tax of fifty dollars1 levied on each member of the profession to pay part costs of two fire engines which had been brought to the town1 there was a response of only sixty-nine1 and this was considered a sufficiently close representation not to press the matter any further4 ,a community of this kind must necessarily have its dance halls and places of amusement4 ,the latter consisted at the time of my arrival of four theatres or opera houses--the ,combination1 ,monte ,carlo1 ,mascot1 and ,pavilion1 two of which suspended or closed up before the season had fairly opened4 ,ordinarily1 the price of a drink at the bar of entrance paid for admission to the performance with seat1 and many will agree with me in believing that the admission was fully paid4 ,the acting need not be worse at any theater1 and the singing could hardly be surpassed in its eccentricities2 yet the performances appeared to satisfy a general demand1 as ordinarily the houses were packed to their full capacity evening after evening4 ,needless is it to say that the performances are not intended for women in good standing1 and few such are ever present1 unless heavily screened behind the curtains of the boxes4 ,the plays are all of a low order1 but the worst is not much worse than some of the plays that are tolerated in all their nastiness in some of our own legitimate theaters4 ,it is singular and interesting as showing the influence of necessity that a sacred ,sunday concert in aid of the fire department was successfully carried through in the capacious halls of one of the most notorious dancing resorts4 ,there are now two banks in ,dawson--the ,bank of ,british ,north ,america and the ,canadian ,bank of ,commerce4 ,in the early days of ,august the first of these was still housed in a tent1 and before the end of the month a stately wooden structure with flagstaff1 and with commodious quarters for the representing officers and accountants1 gave dignity to the institution1 while it lent style to the corner upon which it was erected4 ,adjoining it now is the architecturally most imposing but by no means largest building in ,dawson--the three-storied1 bow-windowed log cabin of ,alexander ,mc,donald1 the recognized ,king of the ,klondike--intended primarily as an office building4 ,it is a truly fine expression of the art of log-cabin building4 ,in many ways one of the most interesting buildings1 if such it can be called1 was the air space1 with canvas top1 which adjoined one of the theaters and was used by ,signor ,gandolfo for a fruit store4 ,there was no architectural quality to commend this space2 nor1 indeed1 was there anything else in its favor1 except that it was in the right place and brought both lessor and lessee fortunes4 ,for the privileges of this space of five feet width the occupant paid the handsome rental of one hundred and twenty dollars a month1 or twenty-four dollars per single foot of frontage2 his profits were1 however1 such as to justify this payment1 and before leaving he confided to me his plan of renting one half of the establishment4 ,conceive of the character of a store five feet wide1 the opposite sides of which are devoted to quite distinct interests6 ,other sites rent for very little less1 and the singular part of it is that much of the rental goes to the pockets of certain assumed owners1 whose actual rights are largely in the nature of a grab or of squatter sovereignty alone4 ,illustration3 ,,arrival ,,of ,,the ,,susie ,,from ,,down ,,the ,,river4 ,dawson extends up the river for about two miles1 virtually coalescing with and taking in what has been euphoniously called ,lousetown and also ,klondike ,city4 ,these more southerly parts carry with them certain characteristics which are either wanting in the main city or are there but feebly represented4 ,the closely packed tents remind one of an army gathering or of the furniture of some religious camp meeting2 walking between them might almost be considered to be a branch of navigation4 ,inscriptions on the canvas tell us of certain brothers from ,st4 ,louis being occupants here1 and of the ,jolly ,four from---- occupants elsewhere4 ,representatives of the press1 physicians1 and attorneys all have their inscriptions4 ,but the most interesting constructions1 picturesque as much as they are instructive1 are the elevated platform caches1 diminutive log cabins1 which on high stilts store a multitude of articles in safe keeping and beyond reach of the army of hungry dogs which are everywhere prowling about and carousing upon all manner of odds and ends4 ,their appearance1 especially where they are placed among trees and bushes1 is such that the observer can hardly resist the feeling that he is traveling in a region of primitive pile-dwellings--it may be the interior of ,new ,guinea or the forest tract of one of the ,guianas4 ,dawson1 which now owns the right to celebrate its third anniversary1 is destined before long to assume a modern garb4 ,it already has its electric plant1 and before many months have passed electric illumination will lift the burden of the dark winter night4 ,it is believed1 too1 that an electric railroad for freight and passenger service will be constructed in the course of the present year into the heart of the adjoining gold region4 ,the tiresome accounts of bad trails will then be a thing of the past4 ,in its business aspects ,dawson does not materially differ from the majority of the boom towns of the ,united ,states1 though of course it has its peculiarities4 ,in the period of little more than a year it has gathered to itself1 besides the usual class of merchants1 representatives of a number of professions1 such as doctors1 lawyers1 chemists1 and assayers1 most of whom1 especially of the first two classes1 appeared to be doing at least fairly well4 ,mine brokers1 or simply venders of claims1 are numerous1 but their service does not in most cases sustain confidence2 the display of posters announcing bonanzas in mining properties may be effective at times1 but ordinarily the investor turns either to the ,mining ,exchange1 a reasonably well-conducted private enterprise1 or to claim-holders on the ground4 ,the auction of claims at the ,exchange was always largely attended at the times of my visits1 and the bidding was frequently very spirited4 ,the allowance of a time limit of ten days in which to make an examination of properties purchased and of the titles thereto before payment1 beyond a forfeit of ten per cent1 was exacted1 naturally inspired confidence in the method of the transaction1 and there is no question that a considerable number of good properties were parted over the boards here1 and with eminent satisfaction to the purchasers4 ,the practice of medicine is necessarily governed by the laws which are in effect in the ,dominion of ,canada1 and it requires the possession on the part of the practitioner of a diploma properly accredited from some recognized college of medicine in ,canada4 ,graduation with diploma from the best medical schools in the ,united ,states is not considered to meet the requirement--nor1 for that matter1 is the diploma of any but a ,british school4 ,this restriction also applies in the case of professional trained nurses4 ,a number of cases closely bordering on litigation1 and at one time even threatening to bring about international complications1 have arisen in connection with practice violating this law2 but despite the overwhelmingly large number of foreigners who are resident in the region1 and who1 it was thought by some1 had the right to consult practitioners of their own nationality or choice1 there is now a peaceful submission to the reading of the statute4 ,the exaction is in no way intended to legislate against foreigners1 but is simply a provision of the ,dominion laws1 similar to that which requires a ,dominion surveyor who intends doing official survey work in ,british ,columbia to be properly accredited with a special paper of that section of ,canada 7as distinguished from the ,northwest ,territory1 etc474 ,like the physicians1 all surveyors giving out work under their names must be officially licensed from the ,dominion1 although those not thus certificated are permitted to do office or field work for others who are4 ,a field of labor that has already been entered upon by women is stenography and typewriting4 ,there has been considerable demand for this kind of work1 and there will continue to be much more1 but it may be doubted if profits arising from it will ever equal what has been attained in millinery and the sale of fancy dress goods4 ,one of the earliest milliners to come out of ,dawson told me at ,bennett that she had disposed of a hat which brought her two hundred and eighty dollars 7in ,april1 #ahih71 and its only ornamentation was two black ostrich feathers6 ,such prices are to-day a thing away in the past1 but fur capes or circulars are still marketable for three hundred dollars and upward4 ,toward a more intimate acquaintance with the methods and lines of business now followed in ,dawson we subjoin a facsimile of portions of the advertising page of the ,yukon ,midnight ,sun1 bearing date of ,september #c1 #ahih4 ,illustration3 ,,facsimile ,,of ,,part ,,of ,,yukon ,,midnight ,,sun1 ,,september #c1 #ahih4 ,,the ,,negro ,,question4 ,,by ,j4 ,l4 ,m4 ,,curry1 ,,ll4,d41 ,,general ,,agent ,,of ,,the ,,peabody ,,education ,,fund ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,john ,f4 ,,slater ,,education ,,fund2 ,,late ,,minister ,,to ,,spain4 ,the negro question is not of recent origin4 ,the ,iliad of our woes began in #afbj1 when negroes were first brought to the colony of ,virginia and sold as slaves4 ,slavery antedates history4 ,the traffic of ,europeans in negroes existed a half century before the discovery of ,america4 ,the very year in which ,charles ,v sailed with a powerful expedition against ,tunis to check the piracies of the ,barbary states1 and to emancipate enslaved ,christians in ,africa1 he gave an open legal sanction to the ,african slave trade4 ,when independence was declared in #aggf all the colonies held slaves4 ,slavery1 said the late ,senator ,ingalls1 disappeared from the ,northern ,states by the operation of social1 economic1 and natural laws1 and the ,north did not finally determine to destroy this system until convinced that its continuance threatened not only their industrial independence but their political importance4 ,in course of years the peculiar institution assumed a sectional character4 ,the war between the ,states precipitated a crisis4 ,president ,lincoln began then the work of emancipation4 ,as commander-in-chief of the army and navy in time of war1 ,i suppose ,i have the right to take any measure which may best subdue the enemy4444 ,i view the measure the ,proclamation as a practical war measure according to the advantages or disadvantages it will offer to the suppression of the rebellion4 ,senator ,ingalls's testimony is as follows3 ,it may be admitted that the emancipation of the slaves was not contemplated by any considerable portion of the ,american people when the war for the ,union began1 and it was not brought to pass until the fortunes of war became desperate1 and was then justified and defended upon the plea of military necessity4 ,the ,southern ,states ratified the amendments to the ,constitution under penalty of otherwise remaining out of the ,union and in political and military vassalage4 ,the abolition of slavery has the assent of all sane men4 ,apart from ethical considerations1 the subjection of the will1 thought1 or labor of a mature human being to the whim1 caprice1 or legal right of another is a gross political and economical blunder1 unwise and indefensible4 ,after emancipation came citizenship and enfranchisement of the freedmen1 and the punitive measures of reconstruction1 which were the outcome of hatred1 revenge1 desire for party ascendency1 and which no good man can now approve4 ,no conquering nation ever inflicted on a conquered people more cruel injustice than the disfranchisement of the most capable citizens and the enfranchisement of liberated slaves4 ,certain great civil rights are the necessary and proper consequences of freedom4 ,suffrage is not a natural right1 nor a legal1 political1 or general result of freedom or citizenship4 ,the large majority of citizens do not and can not vote4 ,the liberation of millions of slaves was the most gigantic and1 in itself1 one of the most beneficent acts of this century4 ,nothing is comparable to it as a triumph of the inalienable rights of man4 ,humanity and justice demanded emancipation4 ,re-enslavement no one proposes or desires4 ,all would rejoice in the prosperity and progress of the ,afro-,american1 but with freedom came citizenship and suffrage1 and these revolutionized our ,government4 ,elements undreamed of were introduced as constituents4 ,when the ,constitution and the resulting ,union were formed1 such a citizenship with franchise was not proposed1 and if proposed would not have been listened to for a moment4 ,the most infatuated negrophilist would not stultify himself by asserting that the ,union of ,states would or could have been consummated with the present incongruous1 heterogeneous citizenship4 ,from these and other facts has been evolved what has been called the negro problem4 ,in the discussion1 it is best to eliminate all extraneous considerations1 all issues which1 as the lawyers say1 are dehors the record4 ,government is a very practical business4 ,the end is the securing and preserving the peace1 safety1 and well-being of the ,state4 ,civil government has no mission of general philanthropy4 ,this problem1 while of terrific importance in the ,south1 where the black population is persistently congestive1 is not1 in its ramifications or direct effects1 local or sectional4 ,it affects every community and every section4 ,it is of paramount national importance1 complex1 and involving social1 moral1 and political considerations4 ,its gravity can not be exaggerated4 ,it compels the attention and demands all the resources of patriots1 philanthropists1 statesmen4 ,it thrusts itself1 uninvited and unwelcomed1 into religious and social assemblies and legislative councils4 ,it is pervasive1 continuing1 vital4 ,it is better to look it full in the face and give it dispassionate thought4 ,it need scarcely be said that in this discussion no hostile reference is made to individuals4 ,some negroes are men of intelligence1 integrity1 patriotism1 and stand on a plane with our best citizens in virtues and mental qualifications4,c ,the gist of this contention is not based on special exceptions1 but on the race in the aggregate4 ,footnote ,c3 ,such an extraordinary man as ,booker ,t4 ,washington is an honor to any country and worthy of unlimited confidence and regard4 ,we find in the ,south the presence of two distinct peoples1 with irreconcilable racial characteristics and diverse historical antecedents4 ,the ,caucasian and the negro are not simply unlike1 but they are contrasted1 and are as far apart as any other two races of human beings4 ,they are unassimilable and immiscible without rapid degeneracy4 ,ethnologically they are nearly polar opposites4 ,with the ,caucasian progress has been upward4 ,whatever is great in art1 invention1 literature1 science1 civilization1 religion1 has characterized him4 ,in his native land the negro has made little or no advancement for nearly four thousand years4 ,surrounded by and in contact with a higher civilization1 he has not invented a machine1 nor painted a picture1 nor written a book1 nor organized a stable government1 nor constructed a code of laws4 ,he has not suppressed the slave trade1 which1 according to recent testimony1 was never more flourishing4 ,he has no monuments nor recorded history4 ,for thousands of years there lies behind the race one dreary1 unrelieved1 monotonous chapter of ignorance1 nakedness1 superstition1 savagery4 ,all efforts to reclaim1 civilize1 ,christianize1 have been disastrous failures1 except what has been accomplished in this direction in the ,united ,states4 ,it need not be disguised1 for it is the ever-present1 indisputable fact1 that while there are alleviations of the unpleasantness1 the relations between the negroes and their co-citizens of the ,caucasian race are strained and unsatisfactory4 ,the friction1 the prejudice1 the cleavage1 is not between ,teutonic and ,latin on the one side and ,semitic on the other1 nor between ,saxon and ,celt2 it lies deeper1 yields less readily to palliatives and remedies1 and seems a matter of adjustment for the remotest future4 ,it may help to understand the situation if we analyze its causes4 ,the great revolution suddenly transformed the customs1 traditions1 and conditions of the two races4 ,ownership gave way to freedom2 compulsory and wage-unrewarded labor to absolute control of person2 inequality1 inferiority1 subjection1 to equality in the eye of the law2 restrained locomotion to license of movement2 kindness1 interest in life1 wealth1 and physical welfare1 to suspicion1 distress1 alienation4 ,with property in man1 regulated and enforced by laws in the interest of the master1 labor was organized1 directed by intelligent control to the development of agricultural resources and to the building up of a society which for refinement of manners1 hospitality1 and administrative capacity1 has elicited praise from disinterested travelers and investigators4 ,the negro1 whatever he may have attained from the discipline of slavery1 was not cultivated in intelligence1 in manual skill1 in forethought1 power of initiative1 in thrift1 and the comforts and graces of home life4 ,when freed1 many were deluded by deceptive promises4 ,they construed freedom to mean a division of property4 ,release from bondage led to intemperance and extravagance4 ,accustomed to control1 unaccustomed to self-reliance1 having others to think1 plan1 buy1 and sell for them1 to supply wants1 to watch over them from the cradle to the coffin1 many1 when left to themselves1 reverted to primitive habits1 and became idle and worthless4 ,slavery had cursed the ,south with ignorant1 unskilled1 uninventive labor4 ,freedom did not change its character4 ,the war1 liberation of slaves1 the sudden extinguishment of millions of property1 bankrupted the ,south4 ,subsistence1 recovery of means of living1 rehabilitation1 reorganization of those agencies1 which are1 with intelligent work1 the chief means of the wealth of civilized peoples1 became the first duty after hostilities ceased4 ,this demanded steady1 persistent industry1 the change of former methods of agriculture1 subdivision of farms1 diversification of pursuits1 opening of academies and colleges1 and establishment of public schools for free and universal education4 ,the contrast between the wealth and prosperity of the ,north and ,south presents an appalling picture4 ,naturally1 the ,southern people were in despair1 and too often they vented their dissatisfaction1 their rage1 upon the irresponsible and unoffending negro4 ,slavery per se is not conducive to self-restraint of the enslaved1 to high ethical standards1 and the best types of human life4 ,when the interest and authority of owners were removed and former religious instruction was crippled or withdrawn1 the negroes fell rapidly from what had been attained in slavery to a state of immorality1 and1 in some cases1 to original fetichism4 ,some remained immovable in their former faith1 but many1 especially of the younger generation1 of both sexes1 gave proof of what degeneracy can accomplish in a quarter of a century4 ,it is very common for them to divorce religion and piety4 ,artificial excitement1 passionate emotion1 was substituted for a faith which should be the product of a knowledge of and deep reverence for the ,word of ,god4 ,the danger of doing harm1 or injustice1 restrains my pen from disclosing a mass of disgusting material which could only shock sensibilities and stagger credulity4 ,it is1 besides1 very easy to magnify our own virtues and others' vices4 ,it is a prevalent mode of religiousness to repent of other people's sins1 and to get superfluous merit by showing how others fall short of our attainments4 ,lowell said1 ,everybody has a mission 7with a capital ,m7 to attend to everybody else's business1 and to make his own whim the law1 and his own range the horizon of the universe4 ,we have all read of the philanthropic ,mrs4 ,jelliby neglecting home and children to sweeten the lot of the unregenerate natives of ,borrioboola ,gha4 ,still1 testimony1 to satisfy the most skeptical1 could be adduced ad nauseam1 from men and women doing educational and missionary work among the colored people1 to show the deplorable depths into which multitudes have sunk4 ,under the ,reconstruction ,acts there was a deliberate1 predetermined attempt and purpose to put the freedmen in control of the ,southern ,states4 ,the late slaves were enfranchised2 the best class of white men were disfranchised4 ,the law presumes that a man or a ,state intends the logical consequence of acts done4 ,in ,south ,carolina1 ,mississippi1 and ,louisiana a majority of the voters1 under the coerced policy1 were negroes4 ,in other ,states they were so numerous that a combination with a small fraction of white voters would give the ascendency4 ,in ,virginia1 a coalition between non-taxpaying white people and negroes1 under skilled and bold leadership1 accomplished partial repudiation of the ,state debt4 ,superadd to this undisguised ,federal intent the hungry adventurers who1 as governors1 judges1 marshals1 district attorneys1 etc41 flocked like vultures around the carcass1 the horde of persons whose object was to pilfer and plunder1 who played upon the ignorance1 the superstitions1 and gratitude of the negro and made the credulous victims believe that their former masters were not to be trusted in elections1 and you have a picture which imagination fails to realize4 ,the negroes1 neither by apprenticeship1 nor political education1 not intellectual culture1 were prepared for the boon1 and their unscrupulous friends organized them into secret societies and inflamed hopes and expectations of wealth and dominancy4 ,casper ,hauser transferred from a dungeon to a throne would be a fit illustration of this defiance of all the teachings of the past4 ,suffrage was a wrong to the nation1 to the ,states1 to the white and black races1 and especially to the negro4 ,negro suffrage is a farce1 a burlesque on elections1 and only evil4 ,the negroes generally vote as puppets1 as machines1 and have not the remotest conception of the character or effect of the act they are ignorantly performing1 or of the issues involved in the contest1 or of the functions or duties of the officers voted for4 ,huxley says1 ,voting power as a means of giving effect to opinion is more likely to prove a curse than a blessing to the voter1 unless that opinion is the result of a sound judgment operating upon sound knowledge4 ,this premature investiture of the negro with suffrage reciprocally provoked alienation1 bitterness1 strife1 and a resolute purpose on the part of the white people not to submit to the misrule and tyranny of ignorance and pauperism1 but to resort to all necessary methods to defeat such a result4 ,it is needless to recapitulate the facts of many thousand years in order to raise the inference of racial difference between the ,caucasian and the negro4 ,the immigration to our country is the proof of antagonism of races4 ,the foreigner stays away from the ,south2 so in a large degree does the ,northern man4 ,notwithstanding the unsurpassed climate1 the rivers and gulf and mountains1 the fertile soil1 the varied products1 the hospitable welcome1 the territory occupied by the negro is persistently avoided4 ,by the census of #ahhj the proportion of foreign-born in all the former slave ,states was #c4e per cent2 in the ,northern ,states about twenty per cent2 in eight ,southern ,states1 where the negroes abound1 there was in #ahhj only one and a third per cent who were of foreign birth4 ,mr4 ,lincoln1 in #aheh1 in accounting for the repulsion1 said3 ,there is a physical difference between the two races which will probably forbid their living together upon the footing of perfect equality4444 ,i am not1 or ever have been1 in favor of making voters or jurors of negroes1 nor of qualifying them to hold office1 nor of intermarrying with white people4 ,absorption1 assimilation1 is not to be dreamed of4 ,the negro is no nearer common fellowship1 equality of association1 than he was in #ahfe4 ,reconstruction measures1 constitutional amendments1 sword and bayonet1 ecclesiastical anathemas1 fulminations of press and pulpit1 all power of church and state and public opinion1 have not altered1 can not alter1 what seems ineradicable4 ,race antagonism reaches deeper than political affiliation4 ,if every negro at the ,south were to vote the ,democratic ticket in every subsequent election1 the race division would remain the same4 ,can these differences be effaced1 alienations be healed1 and overshadowing perils be averted8 ,what concerns the patriot is to find a solution for this gigantic and appalling problem4 ,the statesman has not yet arisen1 disposed to grapple with the problem1 or capable of suggesting a feasible and efficacious remedy4 ,with the least hardship to the negro1 proper recognition of his rights as a man1 due regard to the just ends of our ,government1 and the purposes of its founders1 some scheme1 if possible1 wise1 adequate1 and comprehensive1 should be devised4 ,whatever hitherto has been suggested has been met with opposition and is justly liable to criticism4 ,the most obvious remedy1 and which has been tried with some success1 is to uplift the race by means of public schools and proper religious instruction4 ,all honor to the schools that train the youth into self-respecting manhood and womanhood6 ,all honor for the efforts that are making to correct the debasement of slavery1 to unite faith and practice1 to infuse religious life with an ethical ,christianity1 and to form a moral basis for life and character6 ,the crimes of both races in the ,south1 pushed within the last few years to most brutal atrocities1 show that there can be no safety for free institutions1 no guarding against savage degradation1 if either race be kept in crass ignorance4 ,both must suffer4 ,it would be some relief from ballot-box evils and perils if the examples of ,new ,england and of ,louisiana1 ,mississippi1 and ,south ,carolina were followed by all the ,states4 ,as universal suffrage has no anchorage except in the people's intelligence1 ,massachusetts requires of voters a prepayment of taxes1 and voting and office-holding are limited to those who can read the ,constitution in the ,english language and write their names4 ,what has been done by ,states1 denominations1 and individuals through schools is not discouraging to larger and better efforts1 but is a stimulus to and an assurance of excellent results4 ,the plantation system of the ,south1 when land was in the hands of a few territorial magnates1 was of very doubtful utility4 ,a bold peasantry is a country's pride1 and a small farmer should take the place of the large landed proprietor4 ,if the negroes should acquire and hold more real estate1 they would be of more value as citizens1 and would have increased interest in the stability of laws1 enforcing of contracts1 and the preservation of ,state honor4 ,an enlargement of the number of those who have a solid stake in the well-being of the country would be adding to the ranks of natural supporters of law and honor1 and strengthening the true foundations on which the stability of a republican government must rest4 ,the congestion of the negroes aggravates the difficulties and dangers of the problem4 ,the area of the ,states holding slaves in #ahfj was #ija1gdj square miles1 and of the ,northern ,states1 excluding ,alaska1 #b1abc1hfj square miles4 ,by the census of #ahij1 the total population of ,alabama1 ,arkansas1 ,florida1 ,georgia1 ,louisiana1 ,mississippi1 ,north ,carolina1 ,south ,carolina1 ,tennessee1 ,texas1 ,virginia1 and ,west ,virginia1 was #cg4c per cent of negroes and #fb4g per cent of whites2 or1 including ,delaware1 ,maryland1 ,kentucky1 and ,missouri1 #cj4g per cent of negroes and #fi4c per cent of whites4 ,the ,african citizens are localized within a narrow area4 ,a ,french statesman said1 ,cross the ,pyrenees and ,africa begins4 ,cross ,mason and ,dixon's line1 or the ,ohio and ,potomac ,rivers1 and in a truer sense ,africa begins1 for south of that line the negroes are massed4 ,it has been nearly forty years since slavery existed1 for no one born since #ahfj was ever practically a slave1 and yet freedom has not diffused the seven million and a half of ,africans4 ,despite all the traditions of bondage1 all the misrepresentations of modern literature1 all the exaggerated accounts of intimidation and cruelty1 the ,south remains the home of the negro4 ,when he is told that equality1 friendship1 political sympathy1 and good wages may be secured by passing an invisible geographical line1 he persistently refuses to be seduced across4 ,senator ,windom1 of ,minnesota1 advocated a plan for distributing by assisted emigration1 but nothing came of it4 ,senator ,edmunds1 in discussing the ,chinese question1 said3 ,the people of ,massachusetts would not be hungry for an eruption of a million of the inhabitants of ,africa1 444 because they believe1 either by instinct or education1 that it is not good for the two races to be brought into that kind of contact in that place4444 ,the fundamental idea of a prosperous republic must be a homogeneity of its people4 ,colonization as a remedy has had many strong advocates4 ,as early as #ahjj the ,assembly of ,virginia1 in secret session1 instructed the ,governor to correspond with the ,president with the object of procuring a colony to which the negroes could be sent4 ,jefferson began the correspondence4 ,the ,legislature resumed the question1 and expressed its preference for ,africa or any of the ,spanish or ,portuguese settlements in ,south ,america as the place to which free negroes or mulattoes1 and such negroes or mulattoes as may be emancipated1 might be sent or choose to remove4 ,in #ahje the members of ,congress were instructed to endeavor to procure suitable territory in ,louisiana4 ,in #ahaa1 being asked his opinion as to a settlement on the coast of ,africa1 ,jefferson replied that nothing is more to be wished than that the ,united ,states would themselves undertake to make such an establishment on the coast of ,africa4 ,in #ahac the ,legislature openly and almost unanimously adopted1 for the third time1 resolutions similar to those of #ahjj4 ,the same year the ,colonization ,society was formed1 out of which grew the ,republic of ,liberia4 ,president ,lincoln1 in his first annual message1 ,december1 #ahfa1 referring to the two classes of liberated persons that might be thrown upon ,congress for their disposal1 recommended that in any event steps be taken for colonizing both classes at some place or places in a climate congenial to them4 ,it might be well to consider1 too1 whether the free colored people already in the ,united ,states could not be included in such colonization4 ,congress responded by voting one hundred thousand dollars for the voluntary emigration of freedmen from the ,district of ,columbia to ,haiti or ,liberia1 and later1 in ,july1 #ahfb1 gave five hundred thousand dollars for the colonization of negroes in some tropical country beyond the limits of the ,united ,states4 ,mr4 ,lincoln continued to favor the policy of removal to another country1 and five days after signing the above act he read to his ,cabinet a proposed order for the colonization of negroes in some tropical country4 ,burdened with this great question1 amid the exigencies of the mighty war1 he continued to push the matter1 and had ,secretary ,seward send a circular letter to ,england1 ,france1 the ,netherlands1 and ,denmark1 with regard to colonizing the negroes in some of their tropical possessions4 ,offers came from the ,danish ,west ,indies1 ,dutch ,surinam1 ,british ,guiana1 ,honduras1 ,haiti1 ,new ,granada1 and ,ecuador4 ,mr4 ,lincoln considered the offers from ,new ,granada and an island off ,haiti1 and even sent a colony to the latter4 ,again1 in his annual message in #ahfb1 he argued for colonization1 and asked for an appropriation1 but1 under the passions of the terrible conflict then raging1 the ,congress1 instead of heeding the request1 repealed the former act appropriating five hundred thousand dollars4 ,the ,indians1 against their will1 were transported1 by coercive measures1 to allotted lands beyond the ,mississippi1 but that was before the modern discovery that the ,united ,states should grant fraternity and assistance to all people under other than republican governments1 and that universal suffrage was the infallible expedient for civilizing semibarbarous peoples4 ,president ,harrison1 in his letter of acceptance1 writing on another subject1 says1 ,we are already under a duty to defend our civilization by excluding alien races whose ultimate assimilation with our people is neither possible nor desirable4 ,remedies1 strong and adequate and feasible1 may not be found readily1 but there are gentler and quieter agencies which may be used by both races to mutual advantage4 ,the white people1 in accepting the legitimate consequences of defeat1 in vigorous efforts to restore antebellum prosperity1 in establishing schools1 in reconstructing shattered society1 have done nobly1 but they are not without sin4 ,laws1 general and wise and impartial1 on the statute-book need for their enforcement a sustaining public opinion1 but this has not always been forthcoming4 ,lawless and violent proceedings1 always unnecessary and demoralizing1 sometimes as brutal as the crimes which excited horror2 harsh and unjust contracts2 interferences in elections2 false registration and counting of votes1 and other acts which the plea of self-preservation did not justify1 have evinced the harshness and injustice of dominant power1 and have not tended to soften prejudices or make the situation more tolerable4 ,each race is fortunately improving in intercourse and in dealings with the other1 and time and sober judgment are1 in a sensible degree1 removing causes of alienation which are not inherent and incurable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what a blessing1 said ,president ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 at the late meeting of the ,international ,congress of ,zologists1 it would be for mankind if we could stop the enormous expenditure on engines for the destruction of life and property1 and spend the tenth1 the hundredth1 even the thousandth part on scientific progress6 ,few people seem to realize how much science has done for man1 and still fewer how much more it would still do if permitted4 ,more students would doubtless have devoted themselves to science if it were not so systematically neglected in our schools2 if men and boys were not given the impression that the field of discovery is well-nigh exhausted4 ,we1 gentlemen1 know how far that is from being the case4 ,much of the land surface of the globe is still unexplored2 the ocean is almost unknown2 our collections contain thousands of species waiting to be described2 the life-histories of many of our commonest species remain to be investigated1 or have only recently been discovered4 ,,the ,,philippine ,,islands ,,and ,,american ,,capital4 ,,by ,j4 ,,russell ,,smith4 ,that the ,philippine ,islands are of value as a place for investment is an unexplained generalization that is now being used to tempt business men4 ,the object of this article is to discuss this generalization4 ,the idea that the ,philippine ,islands are of importance to us1 as a new field for our industrial developments1 depends upon two assumptions3 ,first1 that we need to go beyond the bounds of the ,united ,states2 second1 that the ,philippines offer the best available field for the satisfaction of that need4 ,as to the first assumption1 the occasion and origin of the demand for the retention of the ,philippines furnish presumptive evidence that it represents no real economic want of the ,american people4 ,no one ever thought of it until we heard the boom of ,dewey's guns at ,manila4 ,the demands that then arose for ,eastern territory were the natural result of a just pride in the amazing triumph of our navy4 ,before the battle of ,manila a suggestion that we should take the ,philippines and ,,receive #bj1jjj1jjj as a bonus we would have deemed preposterous4 ,before that battle1 one idea was uppermost in the minds of the ,american people--namely1 the development of the ,american continent4 ,and yet1 along with the enthusiasm over the accomplishments of our army and navy1 the idea has crept into some minds that we are in need of more land to develop1 and that we must find it in the ,eastern ,hemisphere4 ,examination of the internal condition of the ,united ,states does not seem to indicate such need4 ,our exports are an index to our condition4 ,in #ahgb we exported merchandise to the value of #ebb1jjj1jjj2 in #ahih the amount had swelled to #a1bcj1jjj1jjj1 an increase of two hundred and thirty-five per cent4 ,no ,european nation has shown such progress4 ,despite their colonial empires1 their armies and navies1 their chartered companies1 their spheres of influence1 and all their elaborate paraphernalia1 we are competing with them in their own markets4 ,we have pursued a policy the opposite of theirs and are outstripping them in the race for a share of the world's trade4 ,it is not compatible with industrial wisdom to change and adopt the policy of our less successful rivals just as the success of our own policy is being fully demonstrated4 ,a nation's commercial supremacy rests upon the same principles as a business man's leadership in his trade--namely1 superiority of production4 ,it does not require a citation of evidence to say that the producers of ,europe are staggering under the burden of their armies and navies4 ,while they are thus handicapped1 we have nothing to fear unless we inflict upon ourselves a similar burden4 ,we have succeeded by attending to our own industries1 by developing our natural resources1 by producing things that the people of other nations must have4 ,that development is but begun4 ,even ,england1 the ruler of the greatest colonial empire the world has ever known1 the greatest manufacturing nation1 the mistress of the seas1 stands with almost stationary exports4 ,the ,united ,states1 the nation with a small navy1 the nation that never really had a colony1 the so-called isolated nation1 has come by rapid strides to the point where she is the leading exporter of the world4 ,there is no reason why the progress of the ,united ,states should be checked4 ,england has demonstrated the fact that the nation that has the iron and coal is the commercial mistress of the world4 ,the ,united ,states is continuing1 and will continue the demonstration4 ,england has but #ijj square miles of much-used coal lands1 and she gets her iron ore from ,spain4 ,we have over #bjj1jjj square miles,d of untouched coal lands2 an almost continuous bed of iron ore1 reaching from ,lake ,ontario to ,alabama4,e ,beside this great ore bed is the ,appalachian coal field1 with coal mines in every ,state between ,new ,york and ,alabama4 ,there are mountains of iron ore in ,missouri and ,michigan4 ,by the special lines of lake steamers the iron ore of ,lake ,superior is taken to ,chicago and ,cleveland1 and thence carried by rail to ,pittsburg4 ,there the eastern coal completes the conditions for the most economical production of iron and steel4 ,that gives the ,united ,states the basis for our export trade in iron1 steel1 and machinery4 ,we are capturing the iron markets of the world1 and1 judging by our supplies1 can hold them for ages4 ,as our iron and coal are the basis of all manufacturing industry1 continued attention to them will give us the control of the world's trade4 ,footnote ,d3 ,the last ,united ,states census puts our coal lands at something more than #bbe1jjj square miles4 ,footnote ,e3 ,this deposit occurs as far north as the southern shores of ,lake ,ontario1 and thence extends in an almost continuous manner through ,pennsylvania1 ,virginia1 ,kentucky1 and ,tennessee to central ,alabama4--,n4 ,s4 ,shaler's ,the ,united ,states of ,america1 vol4 i1 p4 #dcb4 ,there are many other lines of our internal development that are yet barely begun4 ,irrigation is an example of this4 ,the report of ,john ,w4 ,noble1 ,secretary of the ,interior for #ahia1 said1 ,one hundred and twenty million acres that are now desert may be redeemed by irrigation so as to produce the cereals1 fruits1 and garden products possible in the climate where the lands are located4 ,that is an area nearly twice as large as the ,philippine ,islands1 and it is open to the ,american settler1 while there is an indication that the ,philippines may be inaccessible on account of their climate4 ,moreover1 they are four times as densely populated as is the ,united ,states2 and while we deem the ,chinese so undesirable that we exclude him from our shores1 all authorities agree that his race is superior to that of the ,malays1 ,tagals1 and ,negritos who inhabit the ,philippines4 ,the irrigable area is much larger than the ,states of ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 ,illinois1 and ,massachusetts combined4 ,those ,states at the present time are supporting a population of over seventeen millions1 and many authorities claim that they will in the future support at least fifty millions4 ,the regions of scanty rainfall that can be irrigated are fairly crusted with potash and other soluble mineral ingredients that nourish plant life1 and give to the valleys already irrigated their astonishing fertility4 ,this enables the farmers to support themselves on such small areas that the life is almost a communal one4 ,the irrigated ,west can sustain a population as great as that sustained on an equal area in the ,east1 or even greater4,f ,for years that dry climate has been a health restorer to the sojourner there4 ,this is not claimed for the ,philippine ,islands4 ,the building up of this ,western empire with its canals and irrigating ditches1 its railroads and cities1 will absorb a vast amount of capital1 and it is a natural and easy line of development for us4 ,mr4 ,irwin has said1 ,to capital seeking investment in a large way1 irrigation enterprises in the ,west offer a most solid1 lucrative1 and tempting field4,g ,secretary ,noble has said1 ,no one can now compute the money value that will concentrate in these reservoirs and canals and ditches1 carrying water to the fields of the husbandman1 and upon which the people must depend for their prosperity4,h ,footnote ,f3 ,if we accept the reclaimable area given above as approximately correct1 and apply a system of irrigation1 it can be cultivated1 and made the happy home of an industrious people more than equaling in number the inhabitants of the ,united ,kingdom of ,great ,britain and ,ireland4--,j4 ,n4 ,irwin1 in ,forum1 vol4 i1 p4 #gdb4 ,footnote ,g3 ,forum1 vol4 xii1 p4 #gej4 ,footnote ,h3 ,report of the ,secretary of the ,interior1 #ahia4 ,five centuries ago large parts of eastern and western ,england were impenetrable morasses4 ,these have entirely disappeared before the skill of the engineer4 ,n4 ,s4 ,shaler says1 ,the total area of the inundated lands of the ,united ,states probably exceeds #aae1jjj square miles1 counting only those flooded areas which are at present unsuited by their excessive humidity for agricultural use1 but which may be won to the service by engineering devices such as have been applied in the regions occupied by older civilizations4,i ,this is more than #gc1jjj1jjj acres of drainable swamps and marshes4 ,lands more easy of access have1 in the past1 so occupied our attention that these lowlands have thus far been almost entirely neglected4 ,they are located along our northern1 eastern1 and southern borders in close proximity to water transportation and to the large cities of the seaboard4 ,they can be drained1 as were the swamps of ,england4 ,their fertility will make this profitable1 and they will support a large population4 ,footnote ,i3 ,the ,united ,states of ,america1 vol4 i1 p4 #chb4 ,the public highways of the ,united ,states are1 on the whole1 in anything but a desirable condition1 and their improvement is a good investment for the commonwealth4 ,we have railroads to build1 harbors to deepen1 and canals to dig4 ,the ,united ,states is young yet1 and tremendous tasks await her labor and capital4 ,in this country1 so full of promise for the future1 we are still using borrowed foreign capital4 ,in ,the ,forum for ,february1 #ahie1 ,mr4 ,alfred ,s4 ,lauterbach said1 ,that the people of the ,united ,states require ,european capital for the full development of the great resources of our country there can be no doubt4 ,the same author made a very conservative estimate1 and said that we owed to ,europe annually3 ,for dividends and interest upon ,american securities still held abroad1 minimum #ge1jjj1jjj ,for profits of foreign corporations doing business here1 and of non-residents1 derived from real estate1 investments1 partnership profits1 etc41 about #ge1jjj1jjj ------------ #aej1jjj1jjj ,that is to say1 we were paying a five-per-cent interest on #c1jjj1jjj1jjj of foreign money4 ,as to the second assumption3 ,it is claimed by some that we should have the ,philippines because they will furnish us the tropical products that we are using in ever-increasing quantities4 ,two things are revealed in the examination of our needs of tropic products and a comparison of the ,philippines with the ,american tropics3 #a4 ,that the ,philippines are at a great disadvantage in location4 #b4 ,that ,america is of sufficient area and natural wealth to meet all our needs1 and more4 ,as to location3 ,it is a first principle of commerce to get supplies where they are most accessible4 ,it is about ten thousand miles from ,new ,york to ,manila1 twelve hundred to ,havana1 and eighteen hundred to the continent of ,south ,america4 ,under these conditions the freight rates must always discriminate in favor of tropic ,america4 ,the disadvantage of the ,philippines is increased by the fact that the ships going from ,san ,francisco or ,panama to ,manila are compelled to carry their coal three thousand four hundred miles at one stretch--from ,honolulu to ,yokohama1 the most available route4 ,then1 again1 a large part of our tropic trade1 and one that shows promise of the most growth1 is in the green fruits1 such as cocoanuts1 pineapples1 lemons1 oranges1 and bananas4 ,of the last article our imports have doubled every five years since #ahfe4 ,on account of distance it is not practicable to bring any of these fruits from the ,philippines1 but there is no limit to the amount of trade that can grow up on the lines that are now beginning to form between us and our southern neighbors4 ,as to the fitness of tropic ,america to supply our needs3 ,there are ,central ,america1 ,south ,america1 and the ,west ,indies4 ,an examination of their area and productiveness shows that there is little to induce ,american industry to control any part of the ,eastern ,hemisphere4 ,of the #ag1jjj1jjj square miles that make up the ,western ,continent1 the tropics make up #e1jjj1jjj square miles--an area sufficient to make more than one hundred ,states as large as ,pennsylvania2 an area nearly fifty times as great as the ,philippines4 ,the variety of its productions is scarcely excelled even by the ,east ,indies4 ,there are only two important tropic products imported into the ,united ,states that are not already largely produced on this continent4 ,they are ,manila hemp and tea1 and it would appear that the reason they come from the ,east is because of present labor conditions there4 ,manila hemp is a sort of half-wild product that may yet have an introduction to our rich tropics just as the potato was introduced into ,europe1 and many of our crops have been introduced from ,europe4 ,even the tea plant thrives in the warm regions of ,america as far north as ,tennessee4 ,small quantities of tea are now grown in various parts of ,america1,j but the cheap labor of the ,east has made it unprofitable here4 ,we are at the present time getting nine tenths of our tea from ,india1 where ,anglo-,saxon care has developed the industry and is fast driving ,china out of the tea market of the world4 ,footnote ,j3 ,united ,states ,report on ,commerce and ,navigation for #ahig4 ,there is a difference when it comes to the two great tropic staples of coffee and sugar4 ,our imports of these two articles in #ahig were valued at #ahj1jjj1jjj1 while the imports of tea were less than one twelfth as much4 ,at the present time nearly all the coffee used in the ,united ,states comes from ,central and ,south ,america1 whence also comes the greater part of the world's supply4 ,the declining price of coffee indicates that we shall get it under more favorable terms in the future4 ,we import about #ajj1jjj1jjj worth of sugar per annum4,k ,approximately two fifths of it is beet sugar and comes from the continent of ,europe1 and the rest is cane sugar from scattered sources in the tropics4 ,only one sixth comes from the ,eastern ,hemisphere4 ,we are getting sugar from ,europe1 not because it is the natural development of the industry1 but because those countries are willing to give an export bounty on all that is exported4 ,this makes exportation possible4 ,meanwhile the ,american sugar industry is left to unprogressive and slovenly methods1 but it needs only a reasonable addition of capital and labor to enable it to supply the markets of the world4 ,an ,englishman of much experience in the sugar-growing colonies of ,great ,britain says that by the introduction of improved methods all the sugar that we use in this country could be grown on one half of the little island of ,porto ,rico4,l ,this would cause heavy complaint from the sugar-cane region of ,louisiana1 and from those sections of our country that are beginning to hope for a future in the beet-sugar industry4 ,certainly ,america can supply herself in this particular4 ,footnote ,k3 ,ibid4 ,footnote ,l3 ,w4 ,allyne ,ireland1 in an address before the ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,india rubber is another of our tropic imports that promises to increase in importance with improvements in our ability to use it4 ,nearly the whole supply comes from the ,american tropics4 ,there it thrives everywhere4 ,we are importing it from almost all of our sister republics1 and although it responds readily to cultivation and yields a profitable crop1,m the main supply is yet taken from the wild trees of the forests4 ,like the other products it waits for the capital which it will well repay4 ,footnote ,m3 ,see ,coffee and ,india-,rubber ,culture in ,mexico4 ,by ,matias ,romero1 late ,mexican minister to the ,united ,states4 ,by a comparison of the average yields per acre of the leading tropic imports with the amounts of those imports1 we shall find the area of the territories that are in cultivation to meet our present needs4,n ,in #ahig we imported into this country from all sources the crops that would be yielded by #a1djj square miles of coffee1 #cj of bananas1 #dj of cocoa beans1 #fj of ,india rubber1 #aj of oranges2 a total of #a1edj square miles4 ,add to that the area that will be needed for our sugar1 and the result does not equal the whole of ,porto ,rico4 ,the area of ,porto ,rico is less than #d1jjj square miles4 ,multiply these crop areas by ten1 to make allowance for crop rotation and for the time taken for new plantations to come into bearing4 ,the result will be less than #dj1jjj square miles1 a territory not half as great as the area of the ,west ,india islands4 ,they in their turn do not comprise the fiftieth part of the area of tropic ,america4 ,footnote ,n3 ,the average yields of tropic produce were made out with the assistance of the ,cyclopdia ,britannica1 ,coffee and ,india-,rubber ,culture in ,mexico 7,romero71 and statistics obtained at the ,philadelphia ,commercial ,museums4 ,the amounts of the imports were taken from the ,united ,states ,report on ,commerce and ,navigation for #ahig4 ,when the time comes that ,american industry needs to develop more lands1 there they lie4 ,they are our opportunity4 ,they have an almost virgin soil1 because we have been too busy with our own internal development to give them needed attention4 ,they need capital1 and we have been borrowing money abroad to meet our needs at home4 ,their inhabitants are idle for lack of employment2 they will respond to our capital4 ,the ,united ,states is the natural market for the ,west ,indies2 they lie close to our shores1 and when the ,nicaragua ,canal comes they will be but islands in an ,american lake--parts of the industrial unit of ,greater ,america4 ,they can give us the things that are needed to round out our consumption1 and we can do the same for them4 ,it is illogical and unlike ,american shrewdness to go seven thousand miles for tropic lands when an equally valuable1 a more valuable1 area is within seven hundred miles of us4 ,the comparison becomes even more striking when it is remembered that the control of the ,philippines brings to us a burden of problems from which industrial development in this country is free4 ,the ,government at ,washington may spend our millions and establish government in the ,philippines1 but will ,american capital go there8 ,will our citizens invest their money seven thousand miles away while tropic ,america is so much nearer1 and is1 moreover1 an equally rich and far more extended field8 ,this does not assume the conquest of ,american regions4 ,it is not necessary to have governmental control in order to profit by the industries of a country4 ,the conditions of modern industry prove this most conclusively4 ,but for this fact the progress of the world would have been much less rapid4 ,we have an example of this in ,american railroads3 they have been largely built by ,english capital2 the same is also true to a greater or less degree of many of our other industries4 ,what ,england has done in ,north ,america without governmental control1 we can do in ,central and ,south ,america when our industrial condition demands new areas to work over4 ,by the modernized ,monroe doctrine our supremacy in this hemisphere is assured1 and we have the guarantee of a clear field4 ,our interests are also furthered by our friendly relations with the ,american peoples and by our nearness to them4 ,the ,american policy of our forefathers is the one for us1 even from the industrial point of view4 ,america is an industrial unit1 an economic unit1 full of undeveloped possibilities that await the hand of ,american enterprise4 ,our resources can abundantly provide for our material needs4 ,the continent is controlled by the most ingenious of all the races1 and is dominated by the highest political ideals known to man4 ,what need have we to reach out across seven thousand miles of ocean to take lands populous with millions of barbarians8 ,,the ,,physical ,,geography ,,of ,,the ,,west ,,indies4 ,,by ,f4 ,l4 ,,oswald4 ,,iii4--,,reptiles ,,and ,,fishes4 ,the present fauna of our planet includes many varieties of mammals and reptiles1 and a few kinds of birds1 that are found only on certain islands--a fact which seemed rather to justify the once universal belief in the origin of species by separate acts of creation4 ,a different theory of explanation has1 however1 been suggested by the discovery of fossil remains1 proving the former existence of closely allied forms on continents where their battle for existence had to be fought against beasts of prey and competitors for a limited food supply4 ,the supposed products of an island genesis by the fiat of supernatural agencies1 demanding recognition in mental penance and the payment of tithes1 may thus be simply animal ,crusoes1 favored by the positive or negative advantages of their surroundings4 ,the dodo1 in its struggle for survival1 would have had no chance against ,south ,american tiger-cats4 ,not one of the twenty-odd species of ,madagascar lemurs could have held its own against the competition of the ,african daylight monkeys4 ,yet there was a time when night apes and large ground birds seem to have had things all their own way1 the world over1 and ,central ,america may have afforded a chance for existence to several species of reptiles which at present are found only on the ,west ,indian islands4 ,the ,cuban bush tortoise 7,emys nigra7 is found only in the forests of ,santiago and ,puerto ,principe1 and there only on the south coasts4 ,it is the most sluggish creature of its genus1 and does not seem to have had enterprise enough to crawl around the sand belt of ,cape ,maysi and colonize the jungles of the north side provinces4 ,it is as helpless as a hedgehog1 minus its bristles4 ,the darkeys of the ,cuban planters crack its armor with home-made hammers1 and the tortuga prieta1 or prieta1 as they call it for short1 forms a factor of holiday menus as frequently as 'possum pie in southern ,georgia4 ,swift-flowing rivers bear it away as they would a floating log1 and it is wholly incredible that its ancestors should have crossed the ,caribbean ,sea in quest of a more congenial home2 but it is possible enough that its eggs may have been ferried across on one of the driftwood islands which the ,sumasinta ,river often tears from the coast swamps of southern ,mexico and carries into the current of the ,gulf ,stream4 ,the evolution of the ,south ,american giant cats was probably the death warrant of its continental relatives1 but in ,cuba it had no four-footed enemies except the hutia1 or jungle rat1 that now and then destroys its eggs4 ,an equally favored islander is the grayish-yellow rock lizard1 abounding in the uplands of ,cuba and ,hayti4 ,the lizard-killing cranes of ,honduras have not found their way to the ,antilles1 and the lagartilla still basks in the sun that once smiled upon the indolence of the naked ,lucayans4 ,the toco1 or ,cuban hornbill1 however1 devours small reptiles of all sorts1 and the ,west ,indian tree lizards have become almost as nimble as squirrels4 ,they dodge behind branches and wait to ascertain the origin of every flitting shadow1 but from imminent danger save themselves by a swift descent1 followed by a bold leap into the thickets of the underbrush4 ,their courtship is quite as grotesque as that of the strutting bush pheasants4 ,the males will swing their heads up and down and puff up their throat-bags till their skin seems on the point of disruption1 while the objects of their rivalry sit blinking1 reluctant to risk an open manifestation of preference4 ,some gorgeously beautiful varieties are found in ,jamaica3 greenish-blue1 with a metallic luster1 and rows of bright crimson spots1 as if the design of protective colors had been patterned after the flower shrubs of the tropics4 ,illustration3 ,,iguana4 ,the word iguana is of ,mexican origin1 and rarely used in the ,spanish ,west ,indies1 but the animal itself is--for culinary purposes1 though the ,haytian negroes do not go quite as far as the mongrels of ,yucatan1 where iguana farmers fatten the defenseless reptiles with cornmeal1 in wickerwork baskets1 that are brought to market as a ,new ,england poultry fancier would fetch in a crateful of spring chickens4 ,but1 prejudice aside1 there is no harm in an iguana fricassee2 the meat is white and insipid1 but takes the flavor of every spice1 and is far more digestible than such hyperborean delicacies as fried eels and pork fritters4 ,there are two species--one in eastern ,cuba1 with spines all the way down to its tail-tip1 and in ,hayti a smaller one1 with a smoother tail1 but with an exaggerated throat-bag and wattles like a turkey gobbler4 ,lagartos vastecos1 or tree alligators1 the ,cuban creoles call the scampering forest dwellers1 that attain a length of four feet1 and can stampede foreigners by leaping to terra firma with an aplomb that scatters the dry leaves in all directions4 ,if chased1 they will take to water like frogs4 ,they are first-class swimmers1 their throat-bag serving the purpose of a float1 and once in the ripple of the stream are hard to keep in sight1 as they have a trick of keeping their legs close to the body and navigating by means of their submerged tails4 ,like the rainbow hues of the coryphene 7miscalled dolphin71 the bright colors of the iguana soon fade after death1 and the shriveled greenish-brown specimens of our taxidermists give no idea of the appearance of the living animal in the sunlight of its native land4 ,the ,iguana tuberculata 7eastern ,cuba7 is velvet-green above1 with saffron flanks1 ringed with blue1 black1 and brown stripes1 and the pet specimens1 basking on the porch of a coffee planter1 can challenge comparison with the paroquets that flutter about the eaves of the outbuildings like swifts around a martin box4 ,cuba has also acclimatized a horned frog1 and one species of those curious half-lizards whose shapes may have suggested the dragon fables of antiquity4 ,the basilisk 7,cyclura carinata7 is only half a yard long1 but can erect its crest and raise its pronged tail in a manner that will make a dog leap back in affright4 ,it has no goiter-bag1 but the skin of its throat is elastic1 and can be made to swell out like that of the ,east ,indian cobra1 while its multiplex spines vibrate ominously4 ,the little monster is1 nevertheless1 one of the most harmless reptiles of the tropics1 and subsists on succulent leaves1 with occasional entremets of small grubs and insects4 ,in that case1 however1 ,nature has rather overdone its efforts at protective ugliness1 and the creoles kill the poor simulator of terrors as the ,mexican rustics would a horned toad4 ,a plurality of the zological immigrants of the ,west ,indies seem to have come from ,mexico1 and it is a suggestive fact that the number of reptiles steadily decreases from west to east4 ,cuba1 with its western headland approaching the east coast of ,yucatan1 thus came in for a lion's share of lizards1 tortoises1 and ophidians4 ,hayti1 though only one fourth smaller1 experienced a seventy-five-per-cent discount1 and all natives and travelers agree on the curiosum that there is not a single species of serpent on the island of ,porto ,rico4 ,trinidad1 with an area of only fifteen hundred square miles1 but laved by the giant current of the ,orinoco1 boasts twenty-eight species of land serpents1 besides several pythons and swamp vipers4 ,the ,trinidad museum of venomous ophidians does not1 however1 include the dreaded fer-de-lance1 which infests the woods near ,samana ,bay on the south coast of ,san ,domingo4 ,the ,bothrops lanceolatus is larger than a rattlesnake1 and its bite1 though not always fatal1 causes fearful inflammation1 but its aggressive disposition has been greatly exaggerated4 ,like most venomous serpents1 it is a sluggish brute1 relying on its ability to crouch motionless till its prey comes in range1 then get in a snap bite and shrink back to wait till the virus begins to take effect1 and the victim1 in its fever spasms1 betrays its helplessness by those eccentricities of conduct which are apt to be misinterpreted by the dupes of the serpent-charm superstition4 ,illustration3 ,,fer-,,de-,,lance4 ,the fer-de-lance is found also on the islands of ,martinique and ,santa ,lucia1 where the natives counteract its virus with a decoction of jungle hemlock1 and the basis of its grewsome reputation seems to be the fact that it does not warn the intruders of its haunts1 after the manner of the cobra or the rattlesnake1 but flattens its coils and1 with slightly vibrating tail1 awaits events4 ,if the unsuspecting traveler should show no sign of hostile intent he may be allowed to pass unharmed within two yards of the coiled matador1 but a closer approach is apt to be construed as a challenge1 and the vivoron1 suddenly rearing its ugly head1 may scare the trespasser into some motion of self-defense--he may lift his foot or brandish his stick in a menacing manner4 ,if he does he is lost4 ,the lower coils will expand1 bringing the business end1 neck and all1 a few feet nearer2 the head points1 like a leveled rifle1 then darts forward with electric swiftness1 guided by an unerring instinct for the selection of the least-protected parts of the body4 ,and the vindictive brute is ready to repeat its bite4 ,for a moment it rears back1 trembling with excitement1 and1 if felled by a blow of its victim's stick1 will snap away savagely at stumps and stones1 or even1 like a wounded panther1 at its own body4 ,a very curious adaptation of means to ends in the modification of the virus is its swiftly fatal effect on birds4 ,a stricken child1 though half crazed with fear1 may run a distance of three miles before paralysis begins to impede its motions2 a squirrel will escape to its nest in the top of the tree1 only to come forth again and topple down in its delirium2 but a bird drops as if he had swallowed a dose of prussic acid4 ,serpent virus is specifically a bird poison2 in other words1 it acts instantaneously in cases where a few moments' delay would defeat the purpose of the snap bite4 ,wounded rodents will not run very far and can be relied upon to come out of their holes2 but a bitten bird1 unless promptly paralyzed1 would fly out of sight and drop in distant thickets1 beyond the ken of its destroyer4 ,and of all bird-killing reptiles the fer-de-lance is the most destructive4 ,the ,spaniards have varied its bill of fare by importing the wherewithal of an occasional rabbit stew1 but during the preceding ages it had to subsist on poultry1 like a popular circuit preacher--the hutia rat having developed a talent for avoiding its haunts4 ,the alleged horror naturalis of serpents is perhaps not more deep-rooted than the aversion to cats2 at all events1 the ,west ,indians have overcome it sufficiently to prefer rat-killing snakes to tabbies4 ,in thousands of rancho cabins a pet serpent of the genus coluber may be seen gliding noiselessly along the rafters1 or slip through the crack of a floor plank to reach the penetralia of the basement1 where the death shriek of rodents soon after announces the result of its activity4 ,aristocratic ,creoles relegate it to their stables1 but the tenants of numerous backwood casuchas furnish it a cotton-stuffed bed box1 and reward its services with a weekly dish of milk4 ,there are several species of large river serpents1 and one true boa1 the ,cuban matapollos1 or chicken-killer1 that attains a length of eighteen feet1 and has been known to use its supernumerary coils for the purpose of cracking the ribs of a hound flying to the assistance of the barnyard rooster4 ,in addition to the above-mentioned jungle tortoise there are several land turtles of the genus chlemmys1 and thousands of chelidonians are annually caught on ,samana ,bay1 southern ,porto ,rico1 ,st4 ,vincent1 the ,isle of ,pines1 and the north coast of ,matanzas1 ,cuba4 ,those of ,santiago ,bay have gradually been exterminated1 but a large number of ,west ,indian fishing waters are practically inexhaustible4 ,a specialist like ,agassiz might haul nondescripts from scores of ,haytian coast rivers1 and the angle fishers of the ,cuban sierra brooks can hook an equally interesting reproduction of an ,appalachian species4 ,some of our companions had to eke out a haul with crawfish1 says the traveler ,esterman1 but our own string of sundries included a puzzle for naturalists4 ,we had caught some twenty brook trout1 absolutely indistinguishable from the species found in the head waters of the ,tennessee ,river4 ,where did they come from8 ,had they crossed the ,gulf of ,mexico and ascended the rapids of half a hundred rivers1 or had ,nature copied her own handiwork in such details as the small dark dots below each red spot1 and the occasional breaks in the lines of the silver-white keel streaks8 ,the perch of the forest rivers include several nest-building varieties1 and the sportsmen of ,kingston1 ,jamaica1 often amuse themselves with target practice at a species of rock fish that come clear out of the water and bask1 like coots1 on the harbor cliffs4 ,with every mile farther south the number and variety of the finned aborigines become more infinite1 and the fishermen of the estuary of ,san ,juan de ,porto ,rico alone catch pompanos1 mullets1 cavalli1 red snappers1 chiquillos 7a kind of sardelles71 sea bass1 dorados1 skip-jack1 angelfish1 skate1 ray1 sheepshead1 garfish1 torpedo-fish1 devilfish or giant ray1 cobia1 hogfish1 croakers1 shark1 and coryphenes4 ,illustration3 ,,flying ,,fish 7,exocoetus volitans72 ,,flying ,,gurnard ,,or ,,flying ,,robin 7,cephalacanthus volitans74 7,from ,baskett's ,story of the ,fishes47 ,the tiger of the sea1 the great white shark1 occasionally visits the harbor waters of ,cuba1 and has been known to seize barefooted peons1 surf-bathing horses in the next neighborhood of ,morro ,castle1 and drag them under so suddenly that their companions were unable to account for their disappearance till the foam of the breakers became flecked with blood4 ,illustration3 ,,butterfly ,,fish4 ,that champion of marine man-eaters is as smooth as a hypocrite1 and hides its double row of horrible fangs under a slippery nose1 while the little butterfly fish tries its best to disguise its helplessness with a crest of spiny fins4 ,its length rarely exceeds four inches1 and it can be handled with impunity1 but its spines are just rigid enough to entangle it in tufts of gulf weed1 and in company of equally tiny sea horses and goldfish1 it can often be seen in the aquariums of the ,jamaica seaport towns4 ,to be continued4 ,a ,,study ,,of ,,luigi ,,luccheni 7,,assassin ,,of ,,the ,,empress ,,of ,,austria74 ,,by ,,cesare ,,lombroso4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,luigi ,,luccheni4 ,there is not an enlightened person in the world who does not deplore the anarchist crime committed last summer by ,luccheni in ,geneva upon the unfortunate ,empress of ,austria4 ,with grief is associated the duty of inquiring what could have been the origin of a misdeed which besides being cruel had the vice of being absurd1 falling as it did upon a poor woman near the tomb1 who was ready to welcome death1 and who had no political influence1 by an assassin who had not suffered any offense from her or from her government1 and who further had the impudence to boast of his crime as if it had been a heroic act4 ,we begin our inquiry by seeking for an explanation of the act by means of a study of the person of the murderer in conformity with the rules of the anthropological school4 ,luigi ,luccheni is the illegitimate son of a ,parmesan servant now living in ,america1 and her master1 who lived in the ,parmesan territory1 a priest1 unbalanced and intemperate1 who sent her when she was pregnant to ,paris to be confined4 ,there she abandoned her newborn babe to a foundling asylum4 ,the child was sent thence to his native country and placed1 till he was nine years old1 with a ,parmesan family named ,monici1 of whom the father was a shoemaker1 very poor and intemperate1 and the mother immoral4 ,after he was nine years old he was put with a family named ,nicasi1 good people1 but very poor--peasants1 or rather mendicants1 so that he too became a mendicant1 wandering with his comrades through the streets and pilfering till he was thirteen years old4 ,it appears from what ,dr4 ,guerini1 of ,parma1 writes me that during this time he had epileptic fits4 ,when twelve years old he went to school1 where he appeared bright but impulsive1 and on one occasion in his anger destroyed the portrait of the king4 ,from the age of fourteen to that of nineteen he was a servant1 and had two masters1 and wandered in ,liguria1 ,switzerland1 and ,austria1 where he was arrested1 sent back to his country1 and prohibited from showing himself in the east4 ,he then entered the military service1 where he conducted himself very well1 incurring only light punishments for assaulting a comrade and for helping a sergeant get out of the barracks at night4 ,he was so liked by his superiors and comrades that when1 three years afterward1 in #ahig1 he left the army1 ,captain the ,prince de ,vera engaged him as his servant4 ,in this service he exhibited great affection for children1 and1 what is strange1 he was so good a monarchist that he was scandalized that at the commemoration of the deceased ,cavolotti1 in ,naples1 the orator was permitted to praise him as a political man without interruption from the delegate4 ,one day1 irritated because he had been denied some permission1 he abruptly took his leave1 declaring that he was not born to be a servant1 and returned to ,switzerland to work as a marble polisher4 ,but even from ,switzerland he kept continually imploring his old employer to take him back1 declaring in a letter which revealed symptoms of a persistent delirium that he probably would not receive him again because he did not go to mass2 which indicates substantially that he had not that repugnance for the anti-anarchical life of a servant which he manifested previously and afterward4,o ,footnote ,o3 ,it appears that he afterward made the strange request for an anarchist to be appointed guard of the prison1 and was irritated when it was denied4 7,see ,a4 ,gautier1 ,le procs ,luccheni4 ,vienna1 #ahii47 ,whether all at once or not he became an extreme anarchist4 ,he signed and composed anarchist hymns4 ,suspected by his comrades of not being zealous enough1 and also perhaps of being a spy1 he decided to strike a blow against some prince2 he chose the empress as his victim possibly because he had suffered his first annoyance in ,austria4 ,he1 who had never killed a fly1 had a rude instrument prepared--a file2 practiced for a considerable time1 perhaps a month1 at striking with it1 and having committed the crime1 tried to escape4 ,when stopped by two citizens he did not resist1 and behaved in a very different way from common criminals1 therein exhibiting a tinge of insanity4 ,he1 for example1 although he knew ,french very well1 denied it and demanded an interpreter in the interrogations4 ,he sang and laughed continually1 and was glad that he had dealt his victim a good blow1 and that he had struck deep with the instrument1 boasting that he had used a file instead of a dagger4 ,he was1 besides1 solicitous of publicity1 declaring to the reporters and the judges that he had done the deed all alone1 that he had left his captain to accomplish his idea1 that he had been an anarchist for thirteen years1 etc4 ,in two ungrammatical and very long letters to the journal ,don ,marzio1 in ,naples1 chosen evidently because he had seen it at his master's1 he declared that he was not a criminal born1 as ,lombroso would have it1 nor a madman1 and that he had not been incited by misery but by conviction1 because1 if all would do as he had done1 middle-class society would soon disappear4 ,he knew that this single assassination would be of no avail1 but he had1 nevertheless1 committed it for an example4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,extract ,,from ,a ,,letter ,,by ,,luccheni4 ,he wrote to the ,president of the ,swiss ,confederation that he would rather be tried at ,lucerne1 because the death penalty was in force there1 and repeated the statement to the judges2 he wrote to his master that he was more worthy of him than ever2 he replied to the reporters and the judges who reproached him with having killed a helpless woman1 that as for that1 if she had been a child1 but a prince1 he would have killed her all the same4 ,at another time he said1 in a wild way3 ,i killed her because she did not work2 whoever does not work should not eat1 and ,i was not going to work for her--a reason which would be as good for the slaughter of several million persons4 ,curious and important is the remark of ,luccheni that ,crispi would not have killed her because he was a thief2 an evident proof of the complete lack of moral sense in anarchists1,p who like primitive men confound the crime with the deed1 and regard criminality as a sort of merit1 a seal of fraternity2 which demonstrates that the anarchistic practice1 if not its theory1 is an equivalence of crimes4 ,footnote ,p3 ,see my ,delitto politico1 ,part ,,iii1 and ,gli ,anarcici1 second edition4 ,when asked if he had never committed blood-crimes1 he replied that he had never had anything to do with courts1 not even as a witness--which was found to be true--but ,i entertained the idea this time1 and acted upon it4 ,luccheni is a man of medium stature1 about #a4fc metre1 with very thick1 light chestnut hair1 stout1 with dark-gray1 half-closed eyes1 roundish ears1 heavy eyebrows1 voluminous cheek bones and jaw prognatic1 low forehead1 very brachycephalic 7cephalic index #hh74 ,he has1 therefore1 a number of characteristics of degeneration common to epileptics and insane criminals4 ,on the other hand1 his handwriting1 with its minute characters1 especially in the writing of past years1 indicates a mild feminine disposition1 with little energy of character4 ,this is especially seen in an autograph of #ahif1 which was procured for me by ,dr4 ,guerini1 who got it from his patient 7see ,fig4 #b74 ,this characteristic1 which was extremely conspicuous in ,caserio when he was near his crime1 was also apparent in the assailant of ,general ,rocha4 ,i have likewise observed it to be very conspicuous in epileptics and hysterical persons2 and it corresponds1 according as they are in their psychical spasm or out of it1 with a real double personality provoked by their disease4 ,in one1 as ,i have shown in ,l',uomo ,delinquente1 they write signatures that cover a whole page in their larger diameter1 while the signature in the normal state is often smaller than the average 7see ,fig4 #c74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,macrographic ,,and ,,micrographic ,,writing ,,by ,,the ,,same ,,epileptic4 ,the same double personality that is apparent in the writing is attested in the psychology4 ,we have seen that ,luccheni was kind to children1 that he was a good servant1 characteristics quite opposed to the anarchistic nature1 and a genial companion2 a man who in ,africa was enthusiastically fond of military life2 who1 a little while before1 when he was in the service of the captain1 had expressed extreme monarchical sentiments2 and finally1 when he had become an anarchist1 again asked his master to be restored to his service4 ,this double personality is another of the essential characteristics of hysteria and epilepsy4 ,i have recently studied an epileptoid degenerate who has a sound mind1 and1 at least in his normal state1 is quiet and gentle4 ,but as soon as he has taken hardly more than ninety grammes of alcohol 7#if proof7 he becomes a wild anarchist1 with fierce impulses and hallucinations1 of which he has no recollection two hours afterward1 or even charges them to his comrades4 ,in this case a double personality is revealed1 the demonstration of which is completed by alterations of the visual field and of the touch4 ,we have1 then1 in ,luccheni a degenerate and probably epileptic person descended from an alcoholic father4 ,although he affirms that he is not insane or a criminal born1 he is a little of both1 for he is epileptic and hysterical1 so that his denial is already a beginning of a proof of disease4 ,luccheni also confirms what ,i have tried to demonstrate in my ,delitto politico--that the most frequent organic cause of similar morbid impulses of a political character is hystero-epilepsy2 for not only do the declarations of some of his countrymen point to epilepsy1 and the characteristics of degeneration in the skull confirm it1 but his inheritance from an alcoholic father and that impulsiveness and that double personality1 which make him pass from the gentlest of men to the cruelest1 and which is reflected in the macrography alternating with the micrography of the intervals between the spasms1 are accumulative evidence of it4 ,i have demonstrated the hysterical and epileptic basis in the anarchists and regicides ,felicot1 ,monges1 and ,caserio1 and particularly in a vagabond anarchist1 full of cranial anomalies1 who told me1 when ,i questioned him concerning political reforms1 ,do not speak to me of them1 for as soon as ,i begin to think about them ,i am taken with a vertigo and fall down2 so that it seems to me possible to establish a psycho-epileptic equivalent in extreme political innovators1 an equivalent which is further manifest in their vanity1 rising sometimes to megalomania1 in their intermittent geniality1 and especially in their great impulsiveness4 ,there was also latent in ,luccheni an indirect disposition to suicide1 which ,i have found in other political criminals1 like ,oliva1 ,nobiling1 and ,passananti1,q who1 having conceived a dislike for the king1 made an attempt on his life2 and especially in ,henry1 who rejected the defense of his advocate and his mother based on the insanity of his father1 remarking that it was the advocate's business to defend1 his to die2 and in that ,roumanian who was photographed in a portrait that ,i have reproduced1 in the act of committing suicide4,r ,luccheni1 too1 believed he would be condemned to death1 and was much disappointed when he learned that there was no such penalty in the canton where he committed the crime4 ,footnote ,q3 ,see my ,delitto politico1 #ahij4 ,footnote ,r3 ,ibid4 ,it may have been morbid vanity that prompted the exclamation he was heard to make1 ,i wanted to kill some great person1 so as to get my name in the papers 7,gautier74 ,but while an organic1 individual cause was good for a third in ,luccheni's crime1 he was much more influenced by the atmosphere in which he lived4 ,an illegitimate child1 left in one of those nurseries which are real nests of crime and graver disorders1 then consigned to a very poor and not always moral family of mendicant habits1 having learned nothing except to beg and wander1 he found such modes of subsistence as he could 7notice the uncertainty and plurality of his occupations1 indicating lack of assiduity--servant1 soldier1 marble polisher1 and in the beginning peasant72 he found1 we might say1 as the most constant condition the infelicity which radiated around him from every quarter1 and1 reflecting the worst1 urged him to this way of suicide4 ,we should recollect1 too1 what ,frattini said3 ,was it hunger brought me to this8 and the anarchist whom ,hamon speaks of3 ,when ,i began to question the unfortunates of the hospital1 it had a frightful effect on me2 ,i comprehended the need of solidarity and became an anarchist2 and as another one said to the same ,hamon3 ,i became an anarchist when ,i saw my comrades begging for work with their faces bathed in tears1 and was indignant over it4 ,caserio wept when he thought of the lot of his ,lombard companions in misery4 ,these criminals by passion1 by altruism1 are1 as ,burdeau wrote1 veritable philanthropic assassins4 ,they kill recklessly for the love of men4 ,epilepsy and hysteria in ,luccheni are explained by his abrupt passage from one condition to the other1 and by the conversion of factional passion in him into a criminal act4 ,but there are epileptics and criminals everywhere2 yet persons thus disordered in ,norway and ,sweden are not transformed into anarchists2 nor in ,switzerland and ,england1 whither people resort from all parts of the world1 and where1 when anarchy shows itself1 it is like a meteor falling to the earth from the extra-planetary regions--wholly isolated and opposed to the world around it4 ,the most important cause of this transformation is the misery that weighs upon our unfortunate country1 evidence of which comes in from every side even upon those who are not miserable themselves4 ,if even in the latest days ,luccheni had been living comfortably1 he could not1 with the excessively morbid altruism that dominated him1 have failed to feel this misery1 which is so profound and general in ,italy4 ,not much erudition is required to demonstrate the immense economical embarrassment of ,italy as contrasted with other countries when it is known that we pay about five hundred times its value for salt1 that bread is growing dearer every day1 and that the amount consumed diminishes one tenth every year in these lands4 ,it was1 therefore1 with justice that ,scarfoglio said in explaining the origin of anarchism1 ,a good fifth of the population of ,italy are still living in a savage state1 dwelling in cabins that the ,papuans would not live in1 accommodating themselves to a food which the ,shillooks would refuse1 having a vision and an idea of the world not much more ample than that of the ,kaffirs1 and running over the land desiring and seeking servitude4 ,it may be added that it is because of this condition--that is1 of the defective civilization that results from it--that there is everywhere a weakened revulsion and diminished horror at blood-crimes1 so that there are now sixty homicides for every one hundred thousand inhabitants4 ,we may learn from this what the true remedies should be4 ,the idea of conquering anarchy by killing anarchists is not valid1 because every epileptic has another ready to take his place1 because anarchistic crimes are to a great extent simply indirect suicides1 and because anarchists think as little of their own lives as of the life of another4 ,it is rather necessary to change the direction of the disease by changing the miserable conditions in which it originates4 ,not for humanity1 therefore1 not for exalted social theories1 but in our direct interest1 we ought to make a complete change4 ,the suppression of a dozen anarchists is like killing a thousand microbes without disinfecting the surroundings that contain milliards of them2 it is that we should look1 if we want to be better1 to breaking up the large estates1 and ameliorating the conditions of agriculture and operative industry1 and this in the interest of the governing classes4 ,typhus1 cholera1 and plague1 it is true1 attack chiefly the poor1 but from these the contagion extends also to the rich2 and from the unhealthy habitations in which the rich man permits beggars to crowd and suffer1 the miasm1 as if in revenge1 is propagated to marble palaces4 ,that imbecile idea of some ,european nations1 who1 instead of disinfecting the medium1 find it better to put down the doctors who propose remedies1 can not make itself at home except among peoples who are destined to perish4,s--,translated for the ,popular ,science ,monthly from the ,archives di ,psichiatria4 ,footnote ,s3 ,to the charges made against me by ,m4 ,gautier 7,le procs ,luccheni1 #ahii7 of having formulated a diagnosis without seeing the patient1 which was therefore inexact1 and of having described characteristics of degeneration which did not exist1 ,i answer with the pages of ,forel1 certainly the most eminent alienist of our time1 who had him under his eyes during the whole process1 and whose diagnosis differs but little from mine4 ,,tendencies ,,in ,,french ,,literature4,t ,,suggested ,,by ,,professor ,,dowden',s ,,recent ,,book4 ,,by ,,pelham ,,edgar1 ,,ph4 ,d4 ,footnote ,t3 ,a ,history of ,french ,literature4 ,by ,edward ,dowden1 ,d4 ,lit41 ,,ll4 ,d41 etc4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 #ahig4 ,to present ,victor ,hugo in a few pages is to carve a colossus on a cherry stone4 ,thus ,professor ,dowden prefaces his ten admirable pages on the great ,french poet2 and with equal appropriateness we might assign the phrase as a motto for the whole undertaking4 ,the subject is too vast to cope with adequately in the limits of a slender volume1 the tendencies too complex2 and the appeal from human interest1 which since the days of ,sainte-,beuve and ,taine has formed such an important element in scientific criticism1 had to be abandoned in favor of generalized views of literary conditions and tendencies necessarily abstract or impersonal in character4 ,yet1 despite these evident restrictions which the requirements of his task imposed upon him1 ,professor ,dowden has produced a work of extraordinary merit1 a masterpiece indeed in its kind4 ,if we were not assured that everything which the eminent critic writes is its own sufficient justification1 we might be inclined to question the necessity of the present volume1 in view of the painstaking and conscientious treatise that ,mr4 ,saintsbury gave to the public some sixteen years ago1 and which has deservedly remained until the present time the most reliable ,english text-book upon the subject of ,french literature4 ,with no desire to disparage ,mr4 ,saintsbury's scholarly contribution1 the present work does in truth supply a need which the earlier book1 in spite of its abundant merit1 failed to satisfy4 ,it is not harsh criticism to state that ,mr4 ,saintsbury's volume1 crammed as it is with a plethora of dates and titles1 is at best a compendium for convenient reference1 and consequently quite unreadable as a book4 ,professor ,dowden1 on the other hand1 has conquered the dry-as-dust problem with admirable skill1 and the charm of his diction and the easy sequence of his ideas lead the reader insensibly on to the close of a delightful volume4 ,nor is the book lacking in instructive value of a highly reliable kind1 for1 in addition to an intimate knowledge of ,french criticism1 ,professor ,dowden is evidently familiar at first hand with all the more important works of which he treats1 and not infrequently proffers fertile suggestions upon debated questions4 ,having avowed1 therefore1 a genuine admiration of ,professor ,dowden's book1 will it be thought a graceless task if1 with the proverbial perversity of critics1 ,i endeavor to point out here and there questions of importance that may seem to have merited more attention than the author was perhaps able to afford to them within his restricted space8 ,the medival portion of ,professor ,dowden's book is valuable not for its originality1 but rather as the reflection of advanced modern criticism in ,france4 ,therefore1 in this brief review the medival period may be neglected1 and turning to the second book1 which deals with the sixteenth century1 the first writer of capital importance whom we encounter is ,clment ,marot4 ,the author has justly indicated the decrepit conditions of poetry in ,marot's youth in the degenerate hands of the ,rhtoriqueurs1 and also the powerful attraction which the allegorizing mania exercised on the poet's early work4 ,his later manner is justly emphasized1 and his prowess in the lighter familiar forms of verse2 but it is only by inference that we apprehend the comparative neglect of his work until the later classical reaction restored him to favor4 ,professor ,dowden1 indeed1 throughout his book has hardly conveyed a proper idea of the reactionary shocks by which ,french literature has invariably advanced4 ,thus the ,pliade1 in the enthusiasm of their rupture with middle-age traditions1 were blind to the ,renaissance elements in ,marot's work1 and seeking as they did to elevate poetry to nobler themes and a nobler manner1 his easy familiar grace was distasteful to them4 ,rabelais1 of course1 is another colossus on a cherry stone1 and the purport of his message is epitomized in a few luminous sentences4 ,the elements of contrast in the man1 and his full-blooded joy in living1 which was the sign-manual of the ,renaissance upon him1 are indicated as follows3 ,below his laughter lay wisdom2 below his orgy of grossness lay a noble ideality2 below the extravagances of his imagination lay the equilibrium of a spirit sane and strong4 ,the life that was in him was so abounding and exultant that it broke all dikes and dams2 and laughter for him needed no justification1 it was a part of this abounding life4 ,after the medival asceticism and the intellectual bondage of scholasticism1 life in ,rabelais has its vast outbreak and explosion2 he would be no fragment of humanity1 but a complete man4 ,proceeding to the ,pliade1 we find its doctrine admirably enunciated1 and one point of literary history is well brought out--namely1 that to the ,pliade1 and not to ,malherbe alone1 belongs the honor of establishing the bases of classicism in ,france1 the difference chiefly residing in the fact that the programme of the ,pliade was one of expansion in matters of language and prosody1 whereas it is precisely in these points that ,malherbe and ,boileau are concerned with restrictive refinements4 ,again ,professor ,dowden1 following perhaps in the wake of ,m4 ,brunetire1 characterizes the conditions of the time as being unfavorable to lyrical expansiveness4 ,ronsard's genius was lyrical and elegiac1 but the tendencies of a time when the great affair was the organization of social life1 and as a consequence the limitation of individual and personal passions1 were not favorable to the development of lyrical poetry4 ,these words are ripe with suggestiveness1 and duly weighed1 they afford the true solution of the oratorical and impersonal character of ,french literature for two long centuries1 when the social genres in prose and poetry usurped dominion over the national mind4 ,with our eye then upon the social conditions in ,france1 the often-quoted words ,malherbe a tu le lyrisme mean nothing more than that he struck a prostrate body4 ,before turning from the sixteenth century it should perhaps be observed that in discussing the comedy of that period the author might have amplified his statement of ,italian influences by at least a reference to the ,commedia dell' ,arte which we find established in ,france in #aegf1 with its traditional repertory of stock characters1 whose antiquity ascends to the venerable times of the early ,latin farces1 and whose survival the work of ,molire1 nay1 even of ,beaumarchais1 will adequately attest4 ,the last great figure that greets us in the sixteenth century is ,montaigne1 and we feel a sense of disappointed curiosity when he is relentlessly dismissed at the end of the five pages to which he is entitled here4 ,this singularly modern doubter still smiles inscrutably at us through the misty centuries that flow between us1 and we would prefer to loiter with him by the way rather than pass him with a curt nod of recognition4 ,but ,montaigne is more important in the history of thought than in the history of literature1 so1 crossing the threshold of the sixteenth century1 we meet the great lawgiver ,malherbe1 a ,moses who really entered the promised land4 ,professor ,dowden is eminently just and appreciative in his judgment of this pedantic and unsympathetic figure1 estimating his merits and impartially noting his defects without presuming in his character as literary historian to stamp them as such4 ,malherbe undeniably eliminated personality from poetry4 ,shall we regard this as a defect8 ,a century's masterpieces of objective art survive to say us nay1 and if the critic's personal sympathies sway him to the side of lyric eloquence1 the historian of literature observing without prejudice judges without rancor4 ,the processes of ,malherbe's art were essentially oratorical2 the lyrical cry is seldom audible in his verse2 it is the poetry of eloquence thrown into studied stanzas4 ,but the greater poetry of the seventeenth century in ,france1 its odes1 its satires1 its epistles1 its noble dramatic scenes1 and much of its prose literature1 are of the nature of oratory2 and for the progress of such poetry1 and even of such prose1 ,malherbe prepared a highway4 ,and now in the wake of ,malherbe so thick do the great names throng that ,i must perforce touch swiftly only on what seems to demand amplification rather than dwell at length1 as it would be much less difficult to do1 on the many admirable views the book contains4 ,and first as regards the literary significance of ,ren ,descartes4 ,professor ,dowden places himself in accord with the customary views of criticism in assigning to ,descartes a preponderating influence on the literary art of his century4 ,the spirit of ,descartes's work was in harmony with that of his time1 and reacted upon literature4 ,he sought for general truths by the light of reason2 he made clearness a criterion of truth2 he proclaimed man a spirit2 he asserted the freedom of the will4 ,the art of the classical period sought also for general truths1 and subordinated imagination to reason4 ,it turned away from ingenuities1 obscurities1 mysteries2 it was essentially spiritualist2 it represented the crises and heroic victories of the will4 ,this sounds reasonable1 and is indeed in large measure in accordance with the actual conditions observable in the seventeenth century4 ,yet there is no doubt that the literature of ,louis ,,xiv is more intimately penetrated by the ascetic spirit of ,jansenism as conveyed in the famous doctrines of ,port-,royal1 and it is to ,jansenism1 and emphatically not to ,cartesianism1 that the literature of the seventeenth century owes that aspect of grandeur and moral serenity which characterizes it4 ,to quote ,brunetire3 ,pendant plus de cinquante ans1 la conscience franaise1 si l'on peut ainsi dire1 incarne dans le jansnisme1 et rendue par lui elle-mme1 a fait contre la frivolit naturelle de la race le plus grand effort qu'elle eut fait depuis les premiers temps de la rforme ou du calvinisme4 ,indeed1 the tenaciously religious ,jansenist spirit of the grand sicle would have been universal were it not that ,molire and ,la ,fontaine were apathetically indifferent1 nay1 sometimes actively hostile1 to the general enthusiasm4 ,let us1 however1 examine in all brevity the fundamental doctrines of ,cartesianism4 ,the terms are familiar enough4 ,the identity of being and of thought4 ,the objectivity of science4 ,the all-powerfulness of reason4 ,progress to infinity4 ,optimism at all times4 ,we can not fail to observe the significance of these categories1 and how they contain the germs of almost every great subject debated by the leviathians of the eighteenth century4 ,yet the nation struggled long before it had strength to shake the incubus of ,jansenism from its back1 and the stimulating work of ,bayle had to be supported by events of actual political significance before the stringent and constraining dogmas of catholicism relaxed their grasp on thought and conduct4 ,the revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes1 the ,quietistic movement with its unseemly attendant episcopal quarrels1 and finally the actual persecution of the ,jansenists1 all pointed inevitably in one direction1 and stimulating the anti-religious sentiment and opening the flood gates to immorality1 induced a potent reaction of ,cartesianism in the fundamental theories of the eighteenth century4 ,in his treatment of ,corneille1 ,professor ,dowden opens his hands only sufficiently to let out a portion of the truth he holds1 but what he says is admirable to a degree4 ,of his diction he writes3 ,his mastery in verse of a masculine eloquence is unsurpassed2 his dialogue of rapid statement and swift reply is like a combat with ,roman short swords2 in memorable single lines he explodes1 as it were1 a vast charge of latent energy1 and effects a clearance for the progress of his action4 ,this is well said1 but hardly indicates how ,corneille soared so often in the region of ,spanish bombast1 or crept among the insipid flowers of ,italian preciosity2 defects from which ,racine's severer ,greek taste held him free4 ,it is refreshing when we come to ,boileau to find an ,english mind impartial enough to do justice to the much-abused lawgiver of ,parnassus4 ,criticism has for so long deplored his narrowness that we relish an encomium on his good sense4 ,but beyond this there is an opinion which the general reader would be reluctant to admit1 but which ,professor ,dowden has had the courage and the discernment to enforce1 when he writes as follows3 ,but for ,paris itself1 its various aspects1 its life1 its types1 its manners1 he had the eye and the precise rendering of a realist in art2 his faithful objective touch is like that of a ,dutch painter4 ,let the incredulous merely turn to the satires to appreciate the scope and truth of the remark4 ,it is difficult to imagine that a more brilliant and effective account of ,boileau's work and influence could be presented within so limited a space2 yet might not the author have added that whereas ,malherbe is the representative of the aristocratic element in literature1 ,boileau is the first great incarnation in modern times of the bourgeois spirit8 ,with regard to ,la ,fontaine it need only be observed that ,professor ,dowden recognizes what ,french critics with repeated insistence emphasize1 the cunning harmonies of his verse4 ,much space is of right devoted to ,molire1 who with ,la ,fontaine has ever been a stumbling-block to ,english criticism4 ,professor ,dowden voices our national feeling in refusing to consider him as a poet1 preferring to emphasize his profound and healthy philosophy of life4 ,tartufe he considers to be an attack on religious hypocrisy merely4 ,is not the interpretation perhaps correct which regards it as an attack on the intolerance and ,puritanism of all religion1 even the most sincere8 ,once again1 in dealing with ,racine1 the author shows that subtle discernment in which his criticism abounds4 ,he penetrates to the heart of the secret reason for the cabals that harassed ,racine in the later years of his dramatic activity1 and which doubtless had their influence in enforcing his retirement4 ,have we ever sufficiently realized that ,boileau1 ,molire1 and ,racine were waging constant war against a rebirth of the prcieux spirit which threatened not only society with ridiculousness but literature with ruin8 ,such1 indeed1 was the case1 and in the eyes of the super-refined coterie that grouped itself round the ,duchesse de ,bouillon1 ,boileau and his fellow-workers were innovators of a dangerous and revolutionary order4 ,does not this idea carry us far from our preconceived notions of the narrow conservatism that dominated the leaders of classical thought8 ,referring to the disastrous check of ,racine's ,phdre1 the author writes3 ,it is commonly said that ,racine wrote in the conventional and courtly taste of his own day4 ,in reality his presentation of tragic passions in their terror and their truth shocked the aristocratic proprieties which were the mode4 ,he was an innovator1 and his audacity at once conquered and repelled4 ,the point of view may seem extreme to us1 and this vaunted realism may show pale and weakly when contrasted with the grossness of much of the realism that prevails at the present day1 or with the graphic directness of the best examples of the type4 ,but the words ring true if we are willing to accept the refined psychological realism of ,racine as equally worthy to the title with the physiological naturalism of our more scientific age4 ,our whole conception of ,racine's art falls into line with this view1 and his constant solicitude for an easy and natural intrigue in the structure of his tragedies may be brought home to the same healthy impulse of his mind4 ,was it not ,faguet who maintained that so natural indeed were the processes of his plots that a happy ending would have alone been needed to make any of his tragedies1 with some added modicum of wit1 in all essential features a comedy that ,molire might have penned8 ,mr4 ,saintsbury1 on the other hand1 in dealing with ,racine is seemingly swayed by some innate prejudice1 or he could hardly have denied the poet a high moral character1 merely granting him the possession of great shrewdness and discernment4 ,true passion1 he remarks1 was not popular with the crowd1 but love-making1 on the contrary1 would draw1 and love-making accordingly is the staple of all his plays4 ,it is against this view1 and against ,mr4 ,saintsbury's further opinion that the tragedy of ,racine is at the furthest remove from an imitation of ,nature1 that ,professor ,dowden makes a strong and timely protest4 ,while applauding1 however1 the value of such novel opinions in ,english criticism at least1 we may suspect that in his desire to clinch his arguments the author may have driven the nail too ruthlessly home4 ,and so it would appear when we seek in vain for any statement which contains the shadow of a justification for the existence of that powerful prcieux spirit against which the greater classicists rebelled4 ,we are too inclined to take ,molire's word for it that they were solely ridiculous1 forgetting the explicit reserve of his preface--aussi les vritables prcieuses auraient tort de se piquer lorsqu'on joue les ridicules qui les imitent mal4 ,so let us then give the ,prcieuses credit for what they did confer to the advantage of letters amid so much folly1 and1 weighing the matter carefully1 their gift to literature amounts to this3 ,first1 amid much linguistic and metaphorical pedantry they were free from the equally damaging and ridiculous pedantry of a labored erudition which pervaded the literature of the day4 ,in the second place1 whether we regard it as an advantage or the contrary1 their influence made directly against the licentiousness of the esprit gaulois1 and for politeness and decency in expression2 and as a third count in their favor can we doubt that straining as they did to express the nuances of sentiment and gallantry1 they were instrumental in stimulating that ardor of mental analysis which is of all things the distinguishing mark of the century8 ,a word finally might have been said with a view to elucidating the inherent divergence of the prcieux spirit from our own ,euphuism1 from the ,marinism of ,italy1 or the ,gongorism of ,spain2 a divergence due certainly to the fact that the prcieuses allied themselves to1 and accordingly strengthened1 that spirit of social coherence so characteristic of the life and letters of the time in ,france1 whereas the influences of similar movements abroad were more transitory1 inasmuch as in some degree more isolated and tentative4 ,the chapter devoted to the seventeenth century closes with a critical review of the series of great preachers and theologians who have left their mark more or less upon the development of thought1 while their literary significance can be comparatively slighted in a history of this kind2 and the chapter which discusses the transition to the eighteenth century broaches questions of such large issue that an exhaustive treatment of them was not to be expected4 ,such are the memorable quarrel of the ,ancients and the ,moderns1 and the philosophe idea of perfectibility and human progress4 ,the chapter closes with an account of the great protagonist and pioneer in the warfare against ,christianity1 the patient1 plodding1 dangerous ,pierre ,bayle4 ,so effectually was his teaching absorbed by ,voltaire and the encyclopedists that he is read no longer2 but low as his flame has sunk1 he remains one of the beacons lighting us over the lurid threshold of the century of strife4 ,we are in safe hands when it is ,professor ,dowden who guides us on the highways and bypaths of the eighteenth century1 but by very reason of his accurate knowledge of the ground whereon he treads we are disappointed when he fails to point out to us some special feature of the landscape4 ,beauties we could hardly hope to meet with on our journey4 ,there was not sap enough in that arid soil to nourish flowers1 or send a flush of living green over hill and valley4 ,the most serious omission is to have left entirely out of account the exceedingly interesting reactionary influences that leaped back and forth across the ,channel when ,marivaux's romances were devoured in ,england1 and ,richardson's ,pamela was in every ,french pocket large enough to hold it4 ,it is in itself still an open question which of these two authors exerted the initial influence on the other1 although eighteenth-century criticism invariably held that in ,marianne ,richardson found his inspiration4 ,a great deal of interest attaches to an explanation of the causes of ,le ,sage's decline in popularity1 and this question likewise ,professor ,dowden has not adequately presented4 ,le ,sage saw the imperative need of mediating between the stilted heroic romances la ,scudry and the grotesque travesties of ,scarron and ,furetire4 ,inspired by the picaroon romances of ,spain1 he produced1 amid much inferior work1 ,gil ,blas1 a masterpiece in its kind4 ,the plot is loose-jointed1 the composition nil1 but the book teems with such verve and vigor that it still pulses with an abounding life when ,marivaux and ,richardson slumber on our shelves4 ,yet we must admit that the characters are vagabonds1 and the sentiment not without coarseness4 ,love when not slighted is ridiculed1 and metaphysical analysis and moral disquisitions are both refreshingly absent from the book4 ,hence ,le ,sage's claims on our consideration as the progenitor of naturalism in romance1 but on this account also the reactionary wave against which he had to buffet in his declining years4 ,marivaux1 on the other hand1 saw the need of mediating between the stilted heroics of ,scudry and what he deemed the ignoble realism of ,le ,sage4 ,in this resolve he elevated the characters to bourgeois rank1 and abandoning the empty love rhetoric of the old romances1 he brought the acuteness of an analytic mind to bear on the exploitation of the tender passion2 and a conscientious though desultory effort is made to study subtle phases of character in the light of surrounding circumstances4 ,despite the artificial prcieuse qualities of his style1 and the unfinished condition of his novels1 ,marivaux enjoyed an extraordinary popularity in his day4 ,the same problem repeats itself on a larger scale when we transfer our attention to ,richardson1 whose works1 translated and popularized by ,prvost1 were read with the greatest avidity in ,france4 ,were not these such influences as ,professor ,dowden's profound knowledge of ,english literature would have qualified him to illustrate with more precision than has yet been brought to bear upon them2 and was it not in point of fact almost imperative for him to deal seriously with such an important theme in the international literary history of nations8 ,the pages which ,professor ,dowden devotes to ,voltaire1 although brilliant1 are not sufficiently suggestive of the extraordinary influence which that most celebrated of writers exercised4 ,it was in no uncritical spirit that ,mr4 ,morley wrote3 ,the existence1 character1 and career of this extraordinary person constituted in themselves a new and prodigious era4 ,the peculiarities of his individual genius changed the mind and spiritual conformation of ,france1 and in a less degree of the whole of the ,west1 with as far-spreading and invincible an effect as if the work had been wholly done1 as it was actually aided1 by the sweep of deep-lying collective forces4 ,a new type of belief1 and of its shadow1 disbelief1 was stamped by the impression of his character and work into the intelligence and feeling of his own and modern times4 ,nor will ,villemain be accused of rapt enthusiasm when he writes1 ,c'est le plus puissant renovateur des esprits depuis ,luther1 et l'homme qui a mis le plus en commun les ides de l',europe par sa gloire1 sa longue vie1 son merveilleux esprit et son universelle clart4 ,the strangest fact to contemplate with regard to this unrivaled popularity1 this astonishing range of influence1 is that it truly constitutes an apotheosis of superficiality4 ,and this in no disparaging spirit of ,carlylese disdain for clear ideas around which hang no mists of oracular obscurity1 but rather by way of tribute to a heart that beat responsively to human suffering1 to a mind keenly sensible of human wrongs4 ,voltaire rejected the subtleties of metaphysical thought1 was indeed incapable of attaining to the heights of speculative contemplation2 he was only preternaturally sensitive to the moral defects of this imperfect world1 and determined to bend all his efforts to the alleviation of injustice and of crime4 ,as a further concession to his superficiality as a thinker we may frankly admit his incapacity to originate new ideas4 ,his mind indeed was extraordinarily receptive1 his intellectual curiosity unlimited1 and hostile critics have availed themselves of this very receptivity as a medium of attack upon his originality4 ,they are free to pursue him on that score1 but it does not appreciably detract from his greatness in the eyes of posterity to recognize that ,bayle before him had preached the doctrine of toleration2 that ,montesquieu had advocated the abolition of torture and of slavery1 and the sanctity of social institutions1 or that ,boileau forsooth had upheld the dignity of classical formulas in matters literary4 ,it is rather in the mobility of his mind and in the impressionability of his temperament that we should seek for an explanation of a philosophical disturbance in his ideas4 ,it is not an actual mental confusion that ,i refer to1 for his diction is never more limpid than in the expression of his easy personal beliefs2 but a certain intellectual inconsistency in his habits of thought makes it impossible for us to hold him down to any definite set of opinions which we can regard as a genuine confession of faith4 ,and this is a vital characteristic of skeptical minds of his stamp1 swiftly receptive1 and as open as the day to each new intellectual impulse as it arises4 ,thus we must attribute to his capacity for mental development1 as well as to the narrowness of his philosophical range1 the many contradictions which his writings exhibit in such matters of intellectual belief as are wont to give a permanent bias of thought to minds less volatile and alert4 ,are we to regard him as an optimist or a pessimist8 a believer in immortality or devotee of annihilation8 a fatalist or spiritualist in history8 an advocate of free will or determinism8 ,we can not say1 and ,m4 ,faguet has amused himself with supporting each of these opinions in turn upon its appropriate text1 whose clearness is beyond dispute4 ,if there was one set of opinions to which ,voltaire may be said to have somewhat consistently adhered ,i may instance his vague and insipid deism1 which relegated to ,god the rle of an absentee landlord in this poor world which he created and governs by absolute law1 but in whose affairs he only intervenes when the death rent is to be collected4 ,he infers a creative ,god from the argument of the clockmaker and the clock1 but takes extreme pleasure in showing how sadly the poor machine is out of order4 ,his idea of the social utility of an avenging and rewarding ,god must of course be regarded as a freak of intellectual caprice1 and yet his timid political instincts made him regard the terrorizing influence of the doctrine of hell with some complacency as a restraining force upon the unthinking masses4 ,the story is well known of the atheistic conversation between ,d',alembert and ,condorcet at ,voltaire's table1 who summarily dismissed the servants from the room with the remark3 ,maintenant1 messieurs1 vous pouvez continuer4 ,je craignais seulement d'tre gorg cette nuit4 ,the ,dictionnaire philosophique confirms the flippant utilitarian point of view1 which we must beware of regarding as a personal conviction4 ,i insist particularly on the immortality of the soul1 because there is nothing to which ,i hold more than the idea of hell4 ,we have to do with a host of rogues who have never thought2 a crowd of petty people1 brutes and drunkards and thieves4 ,preach to them if you will that there is no hell and that the soul is mortal4 ,as for me ,i will cry in their ears that they are damned if they rob me4 ,it is needless to add that convictions of this eminently practical nature did not seriously hamper ,voltaire in his anti-religious crusade4 ,to every branch of letters ,voltaire brought the same splendid qualities of mind1 and need ,i add the same defective qualities of conscience and carelessness of the truth when his personal glory or his material advancement were concerned8 ,the sordid pages of his life would weary us in the turning1 yet his native generosity and sympathy incline us to charity2 and it is wonderful how his never-failing wit can temper his vindictiveness for us1 now that the sting has lost its living poison4 ,i have referred to ,professor ,dowden's unsatisfactory treatment of the international reactions which characterize the literary history of the eighteenth century4 ,there is another omission which ,i have remarked in the book on a reperusal of the pages devoted to ,rousseau and the encyclopedists4 ,it might have been easily within the scope of a literary story of even moderate dimensions to have more explicitly accounted for the crumbling of the old classical ideal1 to have shown that the once impregnable citadel of classical art was rotten at the base1 and that those who still defended the imaginary stronghold were themselves the unconscious agents of its destruction4 ,with reference to the irreligious influences of ,cartesianism and the philosophical system of ,bayle ,i shall say no more1 save that the evident loss in prestige of the traditional religious faith1 combined as it was with the rapid decentralization of the sovereign power in the state1 must perforce make impossible the survival of literature on the old national basis4 ,again1 in point of pure art a decline was inevitable in connection with the revival of ,cartesianism among writers of the stamp of ,fontenelle2 for their prestige was synchronous with the triumph of the modern party in the famous quarrel2 and no student of the ,art ,potique will fail to appreciate the sthetical significance of an abandonment of classical standards of taste as an unimpeachable canon of art4 ,defending as ,boileau did the supreme value of reason and good sense1 what justification could he have found for poetry unless he had proved to the satisfaction of his generation that poetry better than any other mode of expression could render permanent the promptings of the diviner reason1 as witness the eternal monuments of ancient art in the domain of poetry8 ,the triumph of the moderns then turned men's faces in other directions1 and whether literary art should henceforward advance or decline1 it must at least strike root in a newer soil4 ,the inroads of sensibility into ,french literature1 as exemplified in ,marivaux and ,prvost in the thirties1 followed swiftly by the rank and file1 also wrought havoc in the old classical method1 though this fact may not without further reflection be conceded4 ,but in the broad realm of psychological observation1 where classic art had reigned supreme1 the influx of a certain morbid sensibility strangely warped the mental vision of the observer4 ,diderot1 a veritable sinner himself in this respect1 admits as much in an unguarded moment3 ,l'homme sensible est trop abandonn la merci de son diaphragme 444 pour tre un profond observateur et consquemment un sublime imitateur de la nature4 ,every one knows ,voltaire's nave statement which bears condemnatory evidence to the bluntness of his psychology4 ,la nature est partout la mme4 ,and is it not1 we ask1 this enigmatical typical man1 out of space and out of time1 for whom the chimerical theories of universal perfectibility were soon to be woven8 ,it is incontestably true1 then1 that the character of human observation undergoes a sensible alteration in the course of the century1 and that whereas the individual man had been heretofore studied inasmuch as he was in himself of typical value1 henceforward not man the individual will be the object of study1 but the observation of human relations will usurp the field1 and psychological analysis will yield to social investigation4 ,i would add a word or two by way of conclusion to illustrate how the encyclopedists in their propaganda1 aided in part by the coincident influence of ,rousseau1 established ideals of thought and conduct which were in the most violent contrast to the ideals cherished in the preceding century4 ,of course1 we readily understand that the encyclopedists threw to the four corners of heaven the outworn respect of religious and political tradition4 ,furthermore1 we may ask ourselves what it is which in a sense makes ,molire and ,la ,fontaine isolated in their century2 and the answer will not be far to seek when we realize that these two alone of all their fellows urged the suspected authority of instinct as a sufficient guide for conduct4 ,yet how far were not even these bolder spirits from the natural man of ,rousseau or of ,diderot8 ,the views of the two centuries concerning the authority of reason seem at first sight to coincide1 yet1 while bearing ,boileau in mind1 we can confidently assert that the doctrine of the sovereignty of reason was not established as a principle of thought until the culminating years of the eighteenth century4 ,pascal's taisez-vous raison imbcile indicates how attempered and attenuated by spiritual faith were the dictates of pure reason in his day1 and the reason of ,boileau1 as ,i have already observed1 was strongly tinged with stheticism4 ,i need not1 with reference to eighteenth-century reason worship1 go further than to refer the curious of enlightenment on the subject to the masterly works of ,morley on the period in question1 in which it is precisely this unflinching devotion to reason or unreason 7if the sage of ,chelsea will have it thus7 which stimulates his calm and logical temperament to positive enthusiasm4 ,a last element of contrast between the centuries is of interest in connection with the habitual mode of thought which ,godwin and his political disciple ,shelley borrowed from eighteenth-century ,french sources with reference to the true relations subsisting between laws and morals4 ,the seventeenth-century mind held tenaciously enough to the theory that it is the moeurs of a nation that inspire the laws1 but the encyclopedists were inspired in their undying hope of amelioration and human progress to perfectibility by the contrary theory that men1 after all1 are only bad because the laws have made them so4 ,it may be conceded1 then1 that these broad relations of literary movements one with the other1 the conflict of converging tendencies1 and the more evident causes of the growth and decay of powerful manifestations of a nation's thought1 are of quite sufficient moment to have merited fuller treatment at the hands of the eminent critic who has in all other respects fulfilled his task so admirably1 that having regard to the necessary conditions of the subject1 it would be above criticism if anything could be4 ,,the ,,botany ,,of ,,shakespeare4 ,,by ,,thomas ,h4 ,,macbride4 ,the universality of ,shakespeare is the common remark of critics4 ,other great men have been versatile2 ,shakespeare alone is universal4 ,he alone of all great men seems to have been able to follow his own advice1 to hold as it were the mirror up to ,nature4 ,on the clear surface of his thought1 as on a deep ,alpine lake1 the whole shore lies reflected--not alone the clouds1 the sky1 the woods1 the castles1 the rocks1 the mountain path by which the shepherd strolls2 not alone the broad highway by which may march the king in splendor the peasant with his wain2 but even the humbler objects by the still water's edge1 the trodden grass1 the fluttering sedge1 the broken reed1 the tiniest flower1 all things1 all ,nature in action or repose finds counterpart within the glassy depths4 ,hence it is that no man1 at least no ,english-speaking man1 reads ,shakespeare wrong4 ,everybody understands him4 ,here is a sort of ,anglo-,saxon ,bible in which1 so far as the world goes1 every soul finds himself1 with all his hopes1 his doubts1 his whims1 depicted4 ,we are therefore not surprised that everybody claims a share in ,shakespeare2 rather claims the poet as his own4 ,the ,protestant is sure that ,shakespeare despised the hierarchy2 the ,romanist is quite as certain that he loved the ,church4 ,there exists an essay to prove him a ,presbyterian2 another to show that the great dramatist was a ,universalist4 ,a volume has been written to prove the man a soldier2 another that he was a lawyer1 a printer1 a fisherman1 a freemason2 and here are five or six articles to show that ,shakespeare was a gardener4,u ,footnote ,u3 ,in preparation of this article the author has consulted chiefly the following3 ,john ,gerarde1 ,the ,herball or ,general ,historie of ,plants1 #aeig2 ,shakspere1 ,edward ,dowden1 #ahgb2 ,william ,shakespeare1 ,works1 ,globe edition1 #ahfg2 ,natural ,history of ,shakespeare1 ,bessie ,mayou1 #ahgg2 ,shakespeare's ,england1 ,william ,winter1 #ahid2 ,the ,plant lore and ,garden-craft of ,shakespeare1 ,h4 ,f4 ,ellacombe1 #ahif2 ,the ,gardener's ,chronicle1 sundry pamphlets1 and shorter articles4 ,all this simply means that the poet had a marvelous faculty for close observing2 that his vision was accurate1 his instinct wonderfully true4 ,it may be therefore worth our while to study for a little this remarkable man from the standpoint of a naturalist1 to see how he who so vividly paints a passion can paint a flower2 how the man who limns a character1 till beyond the photograph it starts to actuality1 will catch the essential feature of some natural truth4 ,we shall nowhere lack for material4 ,the plays are full of references to plants and flowers of every sort4 ,england in ,shakespeare's day1 as now1 was a land of bloom1 and the poet but reflects the loveliness of beauty and color spread about him4 ,but he does something more4 ,he is not content with flashes of color and breathings of odor1 he goes into detail and gives us the individual plant unmistakably4 ,in his description he shows an exactitude1 a discriminating perception that1 had it been turned to ,nature's problems seriously at all1 must at once have transformed the science of his age4 ,but ,shakespeare was not a man of science2 he was a poet4 ,in his views of ,nature he resembles the great poets of the world1 notably ,goethe2 and1 like ,goethe1 he not infrequently outruns the science of his time1 uses his imagination1 divining things invisible4 ,moreover1 ,shakespeare's plants are living things2 they form a garden1 not a herbarium4 ,they stand before us in multitudes1 so that it is difficult for the present purpose to know what to select4 ,we must be content with a few specimen forms brought out in quotations no more extensive than seems necessary to the argument4 ,of course1 there are many plants to-day discussed of which ,shakespeare never heard4 ,he does not speak of many sorts of fungi1 of slime molds1 microbes2 he knew nothing about these4 ,the microscope had hardly been invented1 and the unseen world was as yet largely personified4 ,and yet ,shakespeare has not failed to note the visible signs of some of our microscopic forms4 ,critics have wasted their time and the patience of mankind in an effort to identify ,hebona1 the leperous distilment poured into the porches of the royal ear4 ,almost profitless are such discussions4 ,yet we may note that we have here to do with an effect2 the means of producing it need not be too closely questioned4 ,before the rush of action1 the weird setting1 the voice of an apparition1 the excited audience cares not what the mysterious vial may contain--ebony1 henbane1 yew1 or whether it were entirely empty4 ,what is called for is a speedy and mysterious taking off4 ,had the scene been laid in ,italy1 the effect had been reached by the fateful prick of a jeweled pin1 some ring upon a ,borgian finger whose pressure was the paralysis of death4 ,but the king died of no such curari4 ,note the symptoms 7,hamlet1 i1 #e1 #fd-gc73 ,the leperous distilment2 whose effect ,holds such an enmity with blood of man ,that swift as quicksilver it courses through ,the natural gates and alleys of the body1 ,and with a sudden vigour it doth posset ,and curd1 like eager droppings into milk1 ,the thin and wholesome blood2 so did it mine2 ,and a most instant tetter barked about1 ,most lazar-like1 with vile and loathsome crust1 ,all my smooth body4 ,these are the symptoms of blood-poisoning1 vividly portrayed2 of some contagion1 communicable by infection4 ,in foul old ,london ,shakespeare had doubtless seen endemic1 zymotic diseases of every description1 and drew his picture from the life4 ,royal blood is notoriously unsound1 royal habit leaves the porches of royal ears especially exposed4 ,on our supposition the vial need not have contained very much1 not even ebony4 ,the dramatist had plenty of mystery ready to his hand1 and the ,hebona is perhaps intentionally ambiguous4 ,bacterial diseases were of old called plagues2 they fell from heaven4 ,listen to ,king ,lear3 ,now1 all the plagues that in the pendulous air ,hang fated o'er men's faults1 light on my daughters6 ,or ,caliban3 ,all the infections that the sun sucks up ,from bogs1 fens1 flats1 on ,prosper fall and make him ,by inch-meal a disease6 ,or they were attributed1 as already intimated1 to unseen personal agencies3 ,this is the foul fiend ,flibbertigibbet3 he begins at curfew1 and walks till the first cock2 he gives the web and the pin1 squints the eye1 and makes the hare-lip2 mildews the white wheat1 and hurts the poor creature of earth4 ,i quote this latter rather also to show the accuracy and compass of ,shakespeare's vision4 ,how many people1 not farmers1 have seen wheat whitened by the blight6 ,and that is exactly the description1 white not to the harvest1 but whiter still to sterility and death4 ,but leaving aside all microscopic forms which may or may not be incidentally touched upon everywhere1 we may turn our attention next to cryptogamic plants which are positively defined4 ,the sudden springing of mushrooms1 for instance1 especially at night1 so unreal and yet realities withal1 made their creation a suitable trick for ,prospero3 ,you demi-puppets that ,by moonshine do the green sour ringlets make1 ,whereof the ewe not bites1 and you whose pastime ,is to make midnight mushrooms1 that rejoice ,to hear the solemn curfew4 ,the green sour ringlets on the fields whereof the ewe not bites are fairy rings4 ,the same thing appears in the speech of ,dame ,quickly3 ,and nightly1 meadow-fairies1 look you sing1 ,like to the ,garter's compass1 in a ring2 ,the expressure that it bears1 green let it be1 ,more fertile-fresh than all the field to see4 ,fungi1 toadstools1 mushrooms1 and so forth1 are fructifications only2 the vegetative part of the plants permeates the soil1 feeds on its organic matter1 and spreads almost equally1 we may assume1 in all directions from the point of starting4 ,when now this vegetative growth has accumulated energy to form fruit1 the sporocarps or mushrooms rise all around at the limits of activity2 hence1 in a circle4 ,the fungi cut a small figure in ,shakespeare--i4 e41 considering their numbers and almost omnipresence4 ,but we must remember that they were at that time studied by few1 their significance and interest little suspected4 ,they formed part of the realm of the world unseen2 they came and went at the instance of powers unknown1 mostly personified1 imaginary1 a misty population1 the thought of which kept for long ages the childhood of our race in terror4 ,shakespeare saw the forms of unstudied plants1 everything visible to the naked eye1 and really omitted very little4 ,he speaks of mosses--the lichens were included with them--chiefly as indicative of age in the object in which they rest3 ,under an oak1 whose boughs were mossed with age ,and high top bald with dry antiquity4 ,then again he simply touches them1 but in such a way as to reveal his full appreciation of their beauty1 as in ,cymbeline1 iv1 #b4 ,for the decoration of ,imogen's grave the ruddock would bring flowers-- 444 bring thee all this2 ,yea1 and furr'd moss besides1 when flowers are none1 ,to winter-ground thy corse4 ,the furred moss to winter-ground thy corse is exquisite4 ,ferns1 though so much larger1 so handsome1 and in our day so all-attractive1 failed generally to impress our fathers4 ,butler1 writing in #afgj1 has this to say3 ,they spring like fern1 that infant weed1 ,equivocally without a seed1 ,and have no possible foundation ,but merely in th' imagination4 ,now1 as far as ,shakespeare was concerned1 ferns answered his purpose without seed just as well as with such visible means of perpetuity4 ,his only reference is ,i ,henry1 iv1 where ,gadshill says3 ,we have the receipt of fern-seed1 we walk invisible2 and ,chamberlain replies3 ,nay1 by my faith1 ,i think you are more belonging to the ,night than to fern-seed for your walking invisible4 ,in this connection ,ellacombe suggests the doctrine of signatures4 ,the ,god of ,nature had written for us his human children prescriptions all over the leafy world4 ,the remedy indicated by its form its own application4 ,thus a heart-shaped leaf was good medicine for cardiac troubles1 a lung-like leaf was good for consumption1 a lungwort in fact1 and so a liverwort1 a spleenwort1 and the like4 ,gerarde1 and1 in fact1 all the old medical writers throughout the centuries1 are full of this4 ,now1 what more natural than that a plant which could thus perpetuate itself age after age by means invisible should be able to confer the much-sought gift of invisibility1 the power to disappear and reappear at pleasure8 ,many people so believed4 ,shakespeare appears to have been skeptical4 ,turn we now to the flowering plants3 the amount of material at our disposal1 as already indicated1 is immense4 ,shakespeare was evidently a great lover of flowers simply as such4 ,his pages from first to last are ornate with color1 almost redolent of roses1 lilies1 eglantine1 with every conceivable metaphor and trope--the bud of love1 the nettle of danger1 the flower of safety4 ,their lovely shapes are ever before him2 he is spellbound with their beauty4 ,england itself is a sea-walled garden4 ,grammatical forms may vanish1 if only the flower may live4 ,compare ,cymbeline1 ii1 #c3 ,hark1 hark6 the lark at heaven's gate sings1 ,and ,phoebus 'gins arise1 ,his steeds to water at those springs ,on chaliced flowers that lies4 ,the image of the morning flowers1 the fiery steeds that drink them dry1 shall fascinate us so that we forget the grammar4 ,it will not do to say lie2 the word must rhyme with arise1 and further on with eyes3 ,and winking ,mary-buds begin ,to ope their golden eyes3 ,with everything that pretty is1 ,my lady sweet arise4 ,for the ,queen of the ,fairies he spreads this sort of a couch3 ,i know a bank where the wild thyme blows1 ,where oxlips and the nodding violet grows1 ,quite over-canopied with luscious woodbine1 ,with sweet musk-roses and with eglantine3 ,there sleeps ,titania sometime of the night1 ,lulled in these flowers with dances and delight1 etc4 ,such cases reveal the impress1 the healthy1 happy impress which ,nature could exercise on this the foremost man of all the world1 the harmony between ,nature and ,nature's child4 ,all the plants in the last quotation are wild flowers1 except the musk-roses1 and these are so common in ,england as to be almost wild4 ,the eglantine was the sweetbrier1 said to be wild in all the southern part of the island and popular in the literature of all recorded centuries4 ,gerarde describes as follows3 ,the leaves are glittering1 of beautiful green color1 of smell most pleasant4444 ,the fruit when it is ripe maketh most pleasant meats1 and banqueting dishes1 as tarts and such like1 the making whereof ,i commit to the cunning cook1 and teeth to eat them in the rich man's mouth4 ,the sweetness of the leaf of the eglantine is referred to by ,shakespeare in another passage which ,i venture to quote now for another purpose1 to show the accuracy of his description as applied to simple flowers4 ,the lines are from the scene quoted before4 ,arviragus and ,guiderius would bury the swooning ,imogen4 ,they think her dead 7,cymbeline1 iv1 #b73 ,i'll sweeten thy sad grave3 thou shalt not lack ,the flower that's like thy face1 pale primrose2 nor ,the azured harebell1 like thy veins2 no1 nor ,the leaf of eglantine1 whom not to slander1 ,out-sweetened not thy breath4 ,primroses when pale are the palest of all withering plants4 ,the flowers change color with maturity1 especially after fertilization4 ,the paleness of the primrose is the pallor of decay4 ,but the azure harebell--behold it waving on its slender stipe beneath the shade of some great rock--who can look into its delicate cerulean cup again and not bethink him of the blue-veined eyelid sleep that falls upon our human flowers6 ,the same accuracy of detail is evinced in many other places4 ,take1 for instance1 ,shakespeare's description of the violet all the way through4 ,it moves him chiefly by its odor 7,king ,john1 iv1 #b73 ,to gild refined gold1 to paint the lily1 ,to throw a perfume on the violet1 ,to smooth the ice1 to add another hue ,unto the rainbow1 or with taper-light ,to seek the beauteous eye of heaven to garnish1 ,is wasteful and ridiculous excess4 ,nevertheless1 we have violets dim1 and violets blue1 and purple violets1 and more particularly blue-veined violets1 as if the poet looked with a lens into the very throat of the flower which ,frenchmen call a thought4 ,and there is pansies--that's for thoughts4 ,his description of the elm is equally exact 7,midsummer-,night's ,dream1 iv1 #a1 #dg-di73 ,so doth the woodbine the sweet honeysuckle ,gently entwist2 the female ivy so ,enrings the barky fingers of the elm4 ,there is nothing better than that1 as you may prove by examining the twigs of even some of our ,american species2 the cork elm1 for instance4 ,the hawthorn1 the cedar1 and the pine and the oak especially1 are most naturally treated4 ,these are ,shakespeare's familiar trees4 ,the cedar of ,shakespeare is the cedar of ,lebanon1 commonly planted throughout ,europe since the time of the ,crusades4 ,shakespeare had probably seen specimens in ,england4 ,he uses it as the type of all that is great and fine4 ,one author thinks he copies ,ezekiel1 chapter xxxi4 ,the pine was beside him all the while4 ,he knew the secret of the pine knot1 and well describes it 7,troilus and ,cressida1 i1 #c73 444 checks and disasters ,grow in the veins of actions highest reared1 ,as knots1 by the conflux of meeting sap1 ,deflect the sound pine and divert his grain ,tortive and errant from his course of growth4 ,any one who has ever examined the case1 or even one who has handled knotty lumber1 has seen the wood fiber run around the persistent base of some dead limb1 and can appreciate these lines4 ,all these quotations show that ,shakespeare used his own eyes and used them well4 ,he saw the real distinctions of things1 the hoariness on the willow leaf4 ,he found character in the oak as in the king1 and beauty in both4 ,in many of his notices of natural objects1 however1 the poet is not the original observer4 ,he often uses current opinions1 fancies1 dreams1 for these also were the realities in his day1 quite as much sometimes as oaks and forests4 ,there is concerning plants a sort of orthodox mythology1 and thousands of years have sometimes contributed to the reputation born by a single species4 ,a curious illustration is found in what ,shakespeare has to say about the mandrake 7,antony and ,cleopatra1 i1 #e73 ,give me to drink mandragora4 ,why1 madam8 ,that ,i might sleep out this great gap of time4 ,othello1 iii1 #c3 ,not poppy1 nor mandragora1 ,nor all the drowsy syrups of the world1 ,shall ever medicine thee to that sweet sleep ,which thou owedst yesterday4 ,juliet1 reflecting on her proposed entombment in the dark grave of the ,capulets1 exclaims 7,romeo and ,juliet1 iv1 #c73 ,alack1 alack6 is it not like that ,i1 ,so early waking1 what with loathsome smells1 ,and shrieks like mandrake's torn out of the earth1 ,that living mortals1 hearing them1 run mad3 ,or1 if ,i wake1 shall ,i not be distraught1 ,environd with all these hideous fears8 ,the mandrake ,atropa officinalis belongs to the ,solanace1 and1 like others of the family1 has narcotic properties4 ,this was doubtless known to ,shakespeare1 as in the passage cited he compares the mandrake with the poppy4 ,the groaning and shrieking are1 of course1 the purest superstition4 ,the root of the mandrake was supposed to resemble the human form4 ,the favorite habitat assigned to the plant was the foot of the gallows1 and men believed that in some way the bodies of criminals were reproduced in the growing plant2 their very pains and cries renewed1 especially for him who profanely dared to pull the mandrake from the earth4 ,the curious may consult ,gerarde4 ,these ideas1 it is needless to say1 are very old2 ,pliny refers to them1 and1 if ,i recollect well1 ,vergil has his hero pull up some plant amid the strangest of sights and sounds4 ,with these old myths are tied up1 perchance1 the mandrakes of ,king ,james's version4 ,nay1 the superstition still survives2 look at the woodcut in ,webster's ,unabridged1 and you will discover that the artist who set out to illustrate the word mandrake for that somewhat venerable authority was by no means able to free himself from the ancient spell4 ,credulity is evermore a factor in the compound called human nature4 ,men love to be fooled1 or to find some support for belief in manifest absurdity4 ,there is nothing so silly but has its advocates among men who ought to know better4 ,a year or two since1 a man brought from ,ohio to the ,university of ,iowa an innocent five-parted1 digitate1 black fungus4 ,it was treasured in alcohol4 ,why8 ,because of its origin4 ,an honest mechanic meeting with accident lost his fingers under the surgeon's knife4 ,the amputated members were neglected1 but presently discovered and duly buried in the garden4 ,the following spring from the identical spot uprose a swarthy hand1 black without1 white within4 ,the hand was a perfect main-de-gloire for that sensation-loving community4 ,the matter was discussed in newspapers4 ,a long and careful account of the wonder was prepared1 put in print and circulated among the friends of the deceased--fingers6 ,what fools we mortals be6 ,for sheer superstition and crass stupidity who may say that the nineteenth century may not yet discount the days of the virgin ,queen8 ,but ,i said at the outset that ,shakespeare had in some instances anticipated modern scientific teaching4 ,to illustrate this in its most striking instance1 ,i am compelled to offer a somewhat long quotation 7,winter's ,tale1 iv1 #d1 #gf-ajf73 ,,polixenes4 ,shepherdess1 ,a fair one are you1 well you fit our ages ,with flowers of winter4 ,,perdita4 ,sir1 the year growing ancient1 ,not yet on summer's death1 nor on the birth ,of trembling winter1 the fairest flowers o' the season ,are our carnation and streaked gillyvors1 ,which some call nature's bastards3 of that kind ,our rustic garden's barren2 and ,i care not ,to get slips of them4 ,,polixenes4 ,wherefore1 gentle maiden1 ,do you neglect them8 ,,perdita4 ,for ,i have heard it said ,there is an art which in their piedness shares ,with great creating nature4 ,,polixenes4 ,say there be2 ,yet nature is made better by no mean1 ,but nature makes that mean3 so1 over that art ,which you say adds to nature1 is an art ,that nature makes4 ,you see1 sweet maid1 we marry ,a gentler scion to the wildest stock1 ,and make conceive a bark of baser kind ,by bud of nobler race3 this is an art ,which does mend nature1 change it rather1 but ,the art itself is nature4 ,,perdita4 ,so it is4 ,,polixenes4 ,then make your garden rich in gillyvors1 ,and do not call them bastards4 ,here we have brought out very distinctly the effect of cross-fertilization in flowers1 the result of grafting and the development of varieties4 ,better than that1 we have here the recognition of that tendency in organisms to vary that lies at the very root of the development of species4 ,natural selection1 survival of the fittest1 were impossible were it not true that ,nature is made better by no mean but ,nature makes that mean2 or1 as it is more broadly stated a few lines further on1 ,this is an art which does mend ,nature1 change it rather1 but the art itself is ,nature4 ,i consider these very remarkable statements when we reflect on the time in which they were written4 ,darwin1 in #ahfj1 does but unfold the thought4 ,the selection which ,shakespeare notes as practiced by gardeners1 and a similar selection seen in the world of domestic animals1 gave ,darwin his cue of natural selection4 ,the beauty of ,darwin's thesis lies in the fact that the process is natural1 and such is ,shakespeare's dictum4 ,later on1 lines #aab-abh1 ,perdita brings out another remarkable observation that has only lately been confirmed by the conclusions of science3 444 ,now my fairest friend1 ,i would ,i had some flowers o' the spring that might ,become your time of day2 and yours2 and yours2 ,that wear upon your virgin branches yet ,your maidenheads growing3 ,o ,proserpina1 ,for the flowers now1 that frighted thou let'st fall ,from ,dis's wagon6 daffodils1 ,that come before the swallow dares1 and take ,the winds of ,march with beauty2 violets dim1 ,but sweeter than the lids of ,juno's eyes ,or ,cytherea's breath2 pale primroses1 ,that die unmarried1 ere they can behold ,bright ,phoebus in his strength--a malady ,most incident to maids2 bold oxlips and ,the crown imperial2 lilies of all kinds2 ,the flower-de-luce being one6 ,primroses are dimorphic--i4 e41 on the same species we find flowers of different sorts4 ,these are complete1 but in any particular flower the essential organs fail of adaptation to each other--the style in one too long1 in another too short1 to receive pollen from the stamens of its own flower4 ,for fertilization such flowers are absolutely dependent upon the assistance brought by insect visitors4 ,perdita's primrose is ,primula veris1 the early primrose1 that takes the winds of ,march with beauty1 and dies ere it beholds bright ,phoebus in his strength1 and it is precisely this species that forms the basis of one of ,darwin's earliest and most fruitful studies in the cross-fertilization of flowers4 ,the styles in one form of the early primrose are three times as long as in the other1 the stigmas differ1 and the coadaptation of the parts of the different flowers extends even to the grains of pollen4 ,such flowers in the absence of insects are entirely unproductive4 ,insects are rare so early in the year1 and accordingly many of the primroses die1 as ,perdita says1 unmarried4 ,of course1 it is not pretended that ,shakespeare knew anything of this2 but that he should have discovered the fact that the early primrose bears little or no seed1 and that he should have been impressed by the truth that this is due to lack of fertilization1 is wonderful4 ,this circumstance might well lead to the suspicion that the poet was a gardener4 ,we must not forget to notice1 too1 in this connection1 that carnations--i4 e41 pinks--are remarkable for the great number of their varieties4 ,we have1 if ,i may so say1 pinks of every color1 from crimson to white1 even brown it is said4 ,this was true in ,shakespeare's time1 if one may trust ,gerarde again2 he says1 ,a great and large volume would not suffice to write of every one at large considering how infinite they are1 and how every year the climate and country bringeth forth new sorts and such as have not heretofore been written of4 ,another passage in which the poet has instinctively hit upon a scientific truth is found in ,sonnet ,,iv1 the last ten lines4 ,the beauty of the passage as a whole is so remarkable that the delicate touches in particular lines are apt to be overlooked3 ,for never-resting time leads summer on ,to hideous winter and confounds him there2 ,sap checked with frost and lusty leaves quite gone1 ,beauty o'ersnowed and bareness everywhere3 ,then1 were not summer's distillation left1 ,a liquid prisoner pent in walls of glass4 ,beauty's effect with beauty were bereft1 ,nor it nor remembrance what it was3 ,but flowers distilled though they with winter meet1 ,lose but their show2 their substance still lives sweet4 ,no botanist can read the line ,a liquid prisoner pent in walls of glass and not recognize the exact portrayal of the living vegetable cell4 ,the living protoplasm is a liquid prisoner sure enough1 hemmed in by walls transparent4 ,there could be no more striking image4 ,and when in herb and tree1 in every living plant1 the summer's work is ended and hideous winter falls1 the new cells1 summer's distillation left1 do in all perennials actually survive1 lest of the effect of beauty1 beauty be bereft4 ,there is no more marvelous picture in all the vegetal world than that of a great tree with all its myriad cells1 in summer so filled with the rush of life's activity and change that we might hear its music1 in autumn sinking to quiescence1 and the winter's silent chill where liquid prisoners sleep 'neath walls of glass4 ,the poet did not understand it2 he simply prophesied better than he knew4 ,he makes us think of ,goethe1 of ,lucretius4 ,these men made happy guesses4 ,lucretius especially surprises us by his views of the constitution of matter--unverified1 so far as we can know4 ,goethe lived in the age of science and went on laboriously to verify his surmises4 ,the only natural science which ,shakespeare knew was gardening--if that may be called a science4 ,his ,sonnets are supposed to have been written about #aeij1 and the first scientific glimpse of the prisoner pent in walls of glass came about #afgj1 through the lenses of ,nehemiah ,grew1 a ,puritan physicist and botanist4 ,i am aware that it is said by some that in a critique like this we are apt to read much into the writings of our author4 ,the quotations ,i have submitted show1 it seems to me1 that this is unnecessary in the present case at least4 ,the words are generally unequivocal4 ,of course1 the language is poetical1 metaphoric1 but the metaphor has reference to something else2 the description is not the metaphor4 ,but1 in fact1 ought we to expect in ,shakespeare very exact or complete description8 ,his whole art lies in the power of suggestion4 ,the deep impressions a man of genius makes upon our minds lie often1 if not always1 in what he does not say4 ,a word or two and the vision rises1 whether in ,nature or in life1 a passion or a landscape4 ,take the broken phrases of ,ophelia depicting her broken heart1 her no more but so2 or the picture of the winter woods in ,sonnet ,,lxxiii3 ,that time of year thou mayst in me behold ,when yellow leaves or none or few do hang ,upon those boughs which shake against the cold1 ,bare ruined choirs where late the sweet birds sang4 ,does any one pretend that we are reading into the lines when we appreciate the marvelous sorrow of the one picture or the exquisite truthfulness and splendor of the other8 ,shakespeare's natural eye was clear indeed1 but none the less he seems to have seen everything with the eye of his mind4 ,faraday so saw the world of force1 ,newton of mathematical law1 and ,tyndall's scientific use of the imagination lies in the same direction4 ,and so the man of science and the poet have much in common4 ,both use the natural world1 and the imagination is for each an instrument of effort4 ,the poet's generalization is a splendid vision in a world ideal1 suggested1 no doubt1 by what is actual and liable here and there to coincide with truth2 the generalization of the scientific man is likewise a vision1 but it rests upon the actual1 upon the ascertained fact at the greatest number of points possible1 and disappoints us only that it is not everywhere coincident4 ,the poet dreams of ,atlantis1 the lost continents1 the islands of the blest1 and builds us pictures that vanish with his song2 the man of science too beholds the continents rise2 scene after scene he likewise makes to pass across our startled vision2 but his are history1 his tapestries are wrought in the loom of time4 ,the poet writes the book of ,genesis1 with the herbs bringing forth fruit after their kind2 the man of science figures fossil leaves and cones and fruit4 ,only at the last do poetry and science possibly again agree3 ,the cloud-capped towers1 the gorgeous palaces1 ,the solemn temples1 the great globe itself-- ,yea1 all which it inherit shall dissolve1 ,and like this insubstantial pageant faded1 leave not a rack behind6 ,and when the man of science gathers all his data1 and collates fact with fact1 and builds the superstructure of his vision1 with him1 too1 all things fade and vanish in the infinity of the future4 ,,american ,,industrial ,,expositions--,,their ,,purposes ,,and ,,benefits4 ,,by ,,marcus ,,benjamin1 ,,ph4 ,d4 ,industrial expositions are a natural development of the fairs of the middle ages4 ,the latter are believed to have originated in the religious gatherings which afforded an opportunity for the sale of wares to large numbers of people4 ,such fairs still persist in northern ,europe1 and the best known of them is probably that held three times a year in ,leipsic1 to which1 it is said1 some twenty-five or thirty thousand foreign merchants are still attracted each year4 ,in course of time international exhibitions at which specimens of the arts and industries of the great nations of the world were contrasted came into vogue4 ,these began with the ,international ,exhibition held in ,london in #ahea1 and of them three have been held in the ,united ,states1 as follows3 ,the first in ,new ,york1 in #ahec2 the second in ,philadelphia1 in #ahgf2 and the third in ,chicago1 in #ahic4 ,the great magnitude of such expositions has led in recent years to their specialization or subdivision into expositions at which only a specialty was presented4 ,notable among such have been the following1 which were for the most part international3 ,of articles connected with the leather industry1 held in ,berlin1 in #ahgg2 of all kinds of paper and pasteboard1 held in ,berlin1 in #ahgh2 of fisheries1 held in ,berlin1 in #ahhj2 of electricity1 held in ,paris1 in #ahha2 of geography1 held in ,venice1 in #ahha2 of cotton1 held in ,atlanta1 ,georgia1 in #ahha2 of early data in ,american history1 held in ,madrid1 in #ahha2 of fisheries1 held in ,london1 in #ahhc2 of historical matters pertaining to ,columbus and the discovery of ,america1 held in ,madrid1 in #ahib2 and of hygiene1 including chemical1 pharmaceutical1 and sanitary objects1 held in ,naples1 in #ahid4 ,similarly there has been a development in the ,united ,states from local fairs1 such as those of the various mechanics' institutes1 typical of which is the one held annually since #ahbh in ,new ,york city under the auspices of the ,american ,institute1 into interstate expositions4 ,of these1 since #ahhj1 the following have been held3 ,cincinnati ,industrial ,exposition1 ,cincinnati1 ,ohio1 ,september #cj to ,october #d1 #ahhc2 ,southern ,exposition1 ,louisville1 ,kentucky1 ,august #af to ,october #be1 #ahhc2 ,world's ,industrial and ,cotton ,centennial ,exposition1 ,new ,orleans1 ,louisiana1 ,december #af1 #ahhc1 to ,june #cj1 #ahhd2 ,central ,exposition of the ,ohio ,valley and ,central ,states1 ,cincinnati1 ,ohio1 ,july #d to ,october #g1 #ahhh2 ,california ,midwinter ,fair1 ,san ,francisco1 ,california1 ,january #a to ,july #d1 #ahid2 ,cotton ,states and ,industrial ,exposition1 ,atlanta1 ,georgia1 ,september #ah to ,december #ca1 #ahie2 ,tennessee ,centennial ,exposition1 ,nashville1 ,tennessee1 ,may #a to ,october #ca1 #ahig2 and ,trans-,mississippi ,international ,exposition1 ,omaha1 ,nebraska1 ,june #a to ,november #a1 #ahih4 ,of the foregoing1 the more important were those held in ,new ,orleans1 in #ahhd2 in ,san ,francisco1 in #ahid2 in ,atlanta1 in #ahie2 in ,nashville1 in #ahig1 and in ,omaha1 in #ahih2 especially so from the fact that all of these received recognition by the ,government2 and1 with the exception of that held in ,san ,francisco1 liberal appropriations were made for their support by ,congress4 ,moreover1 at each of them1 excepting again that held in ,san ,francisco1 a special ,government building was erected in which the national ,government made exhibits of the workings of the several executive departments1 together with the ,smithsonian ,institution and its dependencies and the ,fish ,commission4 ,the first named1 that of ,new ,orleans1 was held as a celebration of the centenary of the cotton industry in the ,united ,states4 ,the first record of cotton as a factor in the foreign trade of this country appeared in the shipment in #aghd of six bags1 amounting to about one bale1 from ,charleston1 ,south ,carolina4 ,audubon ,park was the site on which the buildings were erected4 ,the exposition held in ,san ,francisco1 in #ahid1 had for its purpose the affording of an opportunity to foreign exhibitors at the ,world's ,fair to further display their goods in the ,united ,states1 and in consequence a great number of exhibits were shipped direct from ,chicago to the ,pacific coast4 ,the exposition was located in ,golden ,gate ,park4 ,the ,atlanta ,exposition had its inception in a belief that the agricultural1 mineral1 and manufacturing resources of the ,south were not adequately represented in ,chicago in #ahic4 ,it was believed that a better exhibit of the products of the ,southland would tend to foster greater trade relations between that section of our country and other parts of the ,united ,states1 as well as with foreign countries1 especially those to the south1 such as ,mexico4 ,the ,cotton ,states ,exposition was held in ,piedmont ,park4 ,the exposition in ,nashville was designed primarily to celebrate the one hundredth anniversary of the admission of ,tennessee into the ,federal ,union4 ,recognizing the commercial and educational advantages to be derived from such a demonstration1 it was deemed wise to characterize the celebration as an exhibit of the matchless resources of ,tennessee1 and at the same time to lead to their greater development4 ,the old ,west ,side ,park was chosen as the site of the ,centennial ,city4 ,the exposition held last year in ,omaha had for its purposes to do for the ,trans-,mississippi ,states what the more local exhibitions had done for ,atlanta and ,nashville4 ,it was claimed that it would for the first time fully illustrate the wealth-producing power and the extent of productive industries of the ,greater ,west1 and it did4 ,the exposition grounds were included within what was called the ,kountze tract and the old fair grounds4 ,each of these expositions has been projected for distinct commercial reasons4 ,they have had for their immediate purposes the presentation of the products of the region in which they were located to their neighbors1 to the nation1 and to the world4 ,in this sense they have been simply the offspring of the fairs of the middle ages1 differing from them only in that the feature of sale has been largely eliminated4 ,that they have been successful in accomplishing the results desired is beyond doubt2 indeed1 the expositions in ,nashville and ,omaha were even financial successes4 ,but they have done more than this2 they have accomplished a world of good in the way of education4 ,let us consider some of these benefits4 ,beginning with the grounds1 these have been given over to the charge of some competent landscape architect under whose skillful supervision the desert has been made to blossom like a rose4 ,the sand hills of ,san ,francisco became the beautiful ,palm ,city1 which since the close of the exposition has become one of the most attractive spots in the ,golden ,gate ,park4 ,at ,nashville the landscape effects were claimed by many to excel in beauty those of the ,world's ,fair in ,chicago4 ,evergreens1 vines1 and shrubs are everywhere1 and three lakes break this vista of green1 was the opinion of one visitor4 ,besides the general architectural effect of the buildings1 which can not but impress those who are so fortunate as to visit these expositions1 there is a special value in the reproductions of historical buildings4 ,at ,atlanta the ,massachusetts ,building was a representation of the ,craigie ,house1 the headquarters of ,washington when in ,cambridge at the beginning of the ,revolution1 and later the home of the poet ,longfellow4 ,it was a fortunate inspiration of the late ,dr4 ,g4 ,brown ,goode that led to its presentation by the ,state of ,massachusetts to the local ,society of the ,daughters of the ,american ,revolution4 ,the architectural feature of the ,nashville ,exposition was the replica of the ,athenian ,parthenon in all its artistic beauty4 ,every detail was true to the original in design and coloring4 ,it was the chief glory of the centennial1 and as it was a permanent structure it will long remain to the ,athens of the ,south a memorial of its exposition4 ,of less conspicuous interest were the reproductions of the ,rialto of ,venice and the ,alamo of ,san ,antonio4 ,the only architectural feature of historic character announced for ,omaha was that the ,arkansas ,building will be a reproduction of the mansion of ,general ,albert ,pike in #ahdc4 ,the long oval waterway around which the buildings were grouped afforded1 however1 excellent opportunity for studying the architecture of the buildings1 which1 it was claimed with much justice1 approached those of the never-to-be-forgotten ,white ,city in their beauty of design4 ,from the exterior to the interior is a natural method of progression4 ,let us therefore pass to a brief consideration of the educational features that are to be derived from an examination1 no matter how cursory1 of the displays that are to be seen within the buildings4 ,first of all1 and indeed frequently the most important1 is the exhibit made by the national ,government4 ,in the special building devoted to that purpose are shown the exhibits of the several executive departments1 including also that of the ,smithsonian ,institution and its dependencies1 and the ,fish ,commission4 ,as a result of the years of accumulated experience there has been in each of the expositions previously mentioned1 except that in ,san ,francisco1 a distinct improvement in the installation of the exhibits in the ,government ,building1 until it was recognized in ,atlanta that the display was superior to that in ,chicago1 and in ,nashville the best exhibit ever made was the verdict of those who had seen the successive expositions previous to that in ,omaha4 ,therefore the telling of a story by means of objects in the best manner possible is the result sought for and attained most perfectly by those who installed the ,government exhibits4 ,it is1 of course1 understood that the purpose of the ,government exhibit is to familiarize the public with the methods of carrying on the functions of the different departments4 ,thus1 in the post-office exhibit there is shown the entire sequence of postage stamps1 both of the ,united ,states and foreign countries1 the various kinds of mail bags1 figures of the mail carriers in their different uniforms1 and finally models or pictures of the methods of transportation4 ,the ,treasury ,department shows the working of the mint by the striking of commemorative medals1 while a full series of the existing medals and coins of the country are displayed in cases on the wall4 ,the functions of the ,department of the ,interior are shown by exhibits of a series of models of some important invention1 as1 for instance1 a sequence showing the development of the sewing machine4 ,in this way--for of course the blanks and other documents are shown--the working of the ,patent ,office is demonstrated2 while the ,geological ,survey1 also of the ,department of the ,interior1 presents a series of minerals1 showing the economical wealth of the country1 together with its maps and reports1 results of work accomplished4 ,everything can not be shown1 but a most excellent idea of what each department does can be had from a study of the exhibits of the ,government4 ,next in importance to the ,government ,building is the one devoted to commerce1 and here are usually to be found the weak points of our ,american expositions4 ,in lieu of a series of exhibits showing the progress in a given industry or trade1 we find too frequently a collection of nondescript articles without much if any relationship to each other4 ,this is due primarily to a lack of proper organization in soliciting exhibits1 and also because the awards or medals of the jurors are so often of no relative value4 ,the second condition is an outcome of the first4 ,to be more specific1 in ,nashville there were no exhibits from any one of the larger and well-known silver firms1 and yet ,american silverware has a recognized status as one of the most successful of our ,american art industries4 ,cut glassware is another branch in which our artisans or art workmen have achieved splendid results1 and still there were no exhibits from art glassmakers in ,nashville4 ,certain varieties of art pottery and art glassware1 such as the ,rookwood pottery and the ,tiffany glass1 are seldom seen at these smaller expositions4 ,in consequence the juror makes an award to the best article of its kind on exhibition1 which may be but a third-rate article compared with others2 still it is the best shown in the exposition1 and therefore worthy of recognition4 ,another unfortunate feature must be mentioned at this point4 ,it is the decorative feature4 ,at the last ,world's ,fair held in ,paris there was a colossal figure of ,george ,washington in chocolate exhibited by an ,american manufacturer of that article4 ,while it might be considered as a laudable attempt to make known to the ,french nation the features of the ,father of his ,country1 and from that point of view worthy of recognition1 still it was no evidence of the superiority of the chocolate1 and therefore could not be considered in connection with the giving of an award4 ,this condition of affairs prevails at every exposition1 and too frequently an exhibit of a meritorious article is made in such a modest manner that its claims are overshadowed by the pretentious display of something quite inferior4 ,two conditions thus present themselves--namely1 the lack of proper exhibits and the improper presentation of certain exhibits4 ,the first condition may be overcome by a more perfect canvass of the industries of the country4 ,in nearly every one of these there is a national organization1 and it should be the duty of that body to consider the matter4 ,by the appointment of committees and working among the representatives of the industry1 either a good exhibit from the leading firms could be secured1 or else a collective exhibit of the best from many firms could be obtained4 ,typical of the last named was the exhibit made by the potters of the country at the ,world's ,fair in ,chicago4 ,by the adoption of such a method of displaying the products of manufacturers the possibility of the second condition would be entirely eliminated4 ,after all1 the value of these expositions is chiefly educational1 and surely no more perfect way of educating the visitor or sightseer could be found than by placing before him a historical series of products1 beginning with the one made first in point of time1 continuing with better specimens1 showing the improvements that have resulted from increased experience and knowledge1 and culminating with the finest product now made4 ,the contrast between the first and the last would be indeed most striking4 ,it must not be thought from the foregoing remarks that these interstate expositions have been lacking in the presentation of the products of their own home industries4 ,far from it4 ,in ,san ,francisco1 in ,atlanta1 in ,nashville1 and in ,omaha the local manufacturers did themselves great credit by the admirable way in which their goods were shown1 but it was just in this particular feature that the weak point indicated previously made itself most conspicuous4 ,a local silversmith could hardly be expected to compete with the more famous manufacturers in the same line in larger cities1 and yet in the absence of an exhibit by the better known firm an award would naturally be given to the smaller manufacturer1 thus creating a false impression to the world at large4 ,it must not be assumed that the educational value of the exhibits in the ,commerce ,building is without commendation4 ,next to making a thing1 the seeing of it is most important1 and surely no one can pass along the aisles of any exposition without noticing much that is new or unusual1 no matter what his previous experience may have been4 ,it is in this connection that the foreign section is frequently most instructive4 ,warm furs from ,russia and the north1 rich fabrics and strange metal ware from the ,orient1 rare porcelains from ,copenhagen1 and brilliant glassware from ,bohemia and ,hungary1 tell the story with striking vividness of the special products of the ,old-,world nations4 ,as has been shown1 the finished products of manufacturers are those that are housed in the building devoted to commerce and manufacturing1 but the raw materials require a building or two for themselves4 ,that in which the products of the earth are exhibited is usually designated the ,minerals and ,forestry ,building4 ,this requires but brief mention1 and has its chief interest for the expert4 ,geological specimens1 including paleontological and lithological exhibits1 show the age and character of the soil1 while the rocks further indicate the possibilities of the territory1 for they show the geological horizon4 ,in natural order are shown the minerals of the country4 ,at ,atlanta and ,nashville the richness of the mineral wealth of the ,southern ,states was fully demonstrated4 ,not only ores such as those of iron and manganese1 but the combustible minerals1 as coal1 lignite1 and petroleum1 were exhibited4 ,more striking1 perhaps1 are the great numbers of economic minerals that these expositions show4 ,the materials--phosphate rock1 sulphur1 and nitrates--used in making artificial fertilizers2 the marbles2 the pigment-yielding minerals1 including ochres1 umber1 and barite2 the clays1 with their products of earthenware and pottery1 bricks1 and tiles2 and even mineral waters are among the different minerals to be seen4 ,it is from such exhibits that something of an idea is obtained of the enormous wealth that is contained in the earth1 waiting only to be excavated and fashioned into articles of beauty and utility4 ,while such exhibits are frequently to be seen in museums1 still the average mind is more impressed by the casual examination of these things in expositions1 and one's pride of home increased by the rich stores of mineral wealth attractively installed4 ,it is customary also to show models of the machinery used in mining1 and even books1 maps1 and drawings are not uncommonly seen4 ,a similar arrangement is followed in regard to the forest products4 ,logs and sections of trees1 as well as samples of wood and timber of all kinds1 are shown4 ,then come the finished products--boards1 shingle1 and moldings--and finally the manufactured articles1 such as pails1 tubs1 and then furniture4 ,barks1 as for tanning or dyeing1 seeds and gums1 and the wood pulp for paper are on exhibition4 ,among the miscellaneous products deserving mention are fibers1 as used in basket-making or cane work4 ,forestry as a science is made the basis of a series of exhibits4 ,these include timber culture1 tools used1 and methods employed in planting and caring for trees4 ,and finally lumbering as a science finds a place in the scheme followed in this department4 ,this includes the tools used in lumbering and the methods employed1 as well as exhibits illustrating the tan-bark industry1 the turpentine industry1 and the charcoal industry4 ,so it happens that there is much that can be learned by the student who will devote a little time to the analysis of the exhibits in the building devoted to the products of the mines and the forest4 ,a visit to the ,agricultural ,building reveals to the interested observer those products of the soil that are for the most part the result of cultivation1 and so we find exhibits of cereals--wheat1 oats1 barley1 and the like--and then their immediate products3 bread1 pastes such as macaroni1 and starches4 ,the sugar-yielding plants1 together with honey and the manufactured product1 as candy and other confections1 come next in order4 ,the root crops1 such as potatoes or beets1 and the vegetables1 are of much importance4 ,preserved meats and food preparations1 dairy products1 spices1 tea1 and tobacco are among the articles on exhibition4 ,then come the plants yielding fibers1 as cotton and the like2 but we hasten on to make mention of the exhibits of implements used in agriculture and its special subdivisions1 such as horticulture1 viticulture1 floriculture1 and arboriculture4 ,who will gainsay the fact that the farmer can not do otherwise than learn much from a visit to the home of the products of the soil8 ,it it also customary to include a live-stock exhibition during some period of the exposition4 ,mention has been made of the building devoted to the finished products of manufactures and of the buildings in which the crude materials are displayed4 ,besides these there are usually several buildings devoted to the exhibition of the means by which the original substances1 whether from the mine1 forest1 or farm1 are made up into the commercial product for the merchant4 ,one of these is called the ,transportation ,building1 and in it we find the various means by which the raw materials are conveyed to the factory4 ,from the lower forms of transportation of which man is the motive power1 such as the wheelbarrow1 upward through the various forms of vehicles of which the power comes from horses and other animals1 until as the topmost member of the series is shown the magnificently equipped train of railway cars1 provided with all the conveniences that modern luxury can devise4 ,if the visitor is not content with land locomotion1 more than likely he can find an exhibit in which transportation on water is possible1 as by means of a naphtha or steam launch4 ,machinery is the active means by which the immediate transposition of the crude material into the finished article is accomplished4 ,and in a building where the ceaseless belt moves with the rapidly revolving pulley may be seen the many forms of machinery which the active brain of the ingenious mechanic has devised to cheapen labor and increase production4 ,the change of the cotton fiber into cloth1 or the passage of the silken thread into the finished handkerchief2 the revolving cylinder on which the virgin sheet of white paper becomes the printed purveyor of news2 or the many and varied appliances by which the piece of leather is fashioned into a covering for the foot2 or again the means by which the strip of steel is made into a pin or needle1 are among the interesting things that may be seen in ,machinery ,hall4 ,conspicuous among the many interesting wonders of science that were shown at the ,centennial1 in #ahgf1 were the few1 insignificant1 blue1 flickering1 and unstable lights that ushered into existence a new era in the history of electricity4 ,in ,atlanta1 in ,nashville1 and in ,omaha a building was necessary to hold the appliances and products of the latest of our sciences4 ,telephones no longer impress us by their newness1 and the appliances of electricity to heating and lighting are now household necessities4 ,to those who treasured the memory of the beauty of the lighted ,court of ,honor at the ,white ,city in ,chicago there was given a greater joy when the entire grounds of the beautiful ,centennial ,city in ,nashville were illuminated with more than seventeen thousand incandescent lamps4 ,daylight had faded into darkness only to emerge into an electric day of brilliancy unsurpassed4 ,thus was told the story of the progress of the science which as a result of the studies of ,franklin1 ,henry1 ,morse1 and ,graham ,bell may well be regarded as the ,american science4 ,a parting word must be given to the amusement features4 ,how the ,streets of ,cairo1 now so hackneyed1 linger in one's memory6 ,the ,enchanted ,swing was one of the novel features of the ,midwinter ,fair in ,san ,francisco1 and of weird interest was the ,night and ,morning in ,nashville4 ,the ,mexican and ,japanese villages were excellent features in ,atlanta1 and so was the ,chinese village in ,nashville1 although the ,old ,plantation was more popular4 ,panoramas such as that of the ,battle of ,gettysburg1 or pyrotechnic spectacular shows such as ,the ,storming of ,wei-,hai-,wei1 are of value4 ,the musical features must not be forgotten1 even if popular fancy leans toward ,dixie1 for the occasional ,gems from the ,operas help to leaven the mass4 ,at ,nashville the military drills by the national and ,state troops were of considerable interest1 and much had been hoped for in ,omaha in this respect1 but the war prevented4 ,in this analysis1 incomplete1 it is true1 of these ,american interstate expositions something has been shown of their design and more of their benefits4 ,they have had for their purpose the exhibition of the materials1 processes1 and products of manufacture1 but their ultimate benefit has been that of education4 ,to the thoughtful an opportunity has been afforded of following the crude material through the processes of manufacture until the finished product has been exhibited4 ,the variety of crude materials was shown him1 the different processes were contrasted1 and finally the completed article was exhibited which possessed this merit or that advantage according to the process followed4 ,for the mere pleasure-seeker there were the delights of attractive surroundings1 the beauty of the exhibits1 and the delights of music or other entertainments4 ,indeed1 all the influences are for good4 ,let it then be the effort of every one1 whether official1 exhibitor1 or visitor1 to use his influence to improve and elevate these expositions so that only the most desirable localities shall be chosen in which to hold them1 and let the selection of exhibits be made so as to include the most worthy2 for then1 and only then1 will the visitor derive the greatest benefit4 ,and so from time to time and in various places we shall have these interstate expositions1 which will show to the world the advancement made in the development of the resources of our great country4 ,,bookworms ,,in ,,fact ,,and ,,fancy4 ,,by ,,willard ,,austen4 ,what is a bookworm8 ,tell me if you can2 ,i merely mean the insect1 not the man-- ,a reptile whom a wit like ,hood might dub ,a grub that grubs in ,grub ,street for its grub4 ,,robert ,,rockliff4 ,so much mystery has gathered around the term bookworm1 so much imagery has been employed in depicting the appearance and devastations of this mythical creature1 that many have been prepared to accept almost anything1 no matter how fabulous1 that might be said about this unknown enemy of literature4 ,reaction against these weird and fantastical accounts is indicated by the question1 not infrequently asked1 ,are there such things as bookworms8 ,few are aware that in this creature we encounter another case of masquerading1 that these destroyers of the ,muses are common enough pests playing other rles than those in which they are familiarly known4 ,some of them are met with daily in the house and elsewhere1 and arouse no unusual interest1 while the world goes on wondering what a bookworm is like4 ,insects injurious to books and bindings are not a new subject4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans observed and wrote about them1 but notwithstanding1 their knowledge of zology1 comparatively speaking1 was so meager1 they do not seem to have felt any of the mystery or wonderment about these creatures which we have felt4 ,the terms blatta1 tinea1 silphe1 are frequently met with in the works of classical writers1 and1 while we can not be sure of the particular species they intended to allude to by these terms1 we do in many instances know from the context that the creatures known to them had like characteristics with those known to us1 and that they were given to literary depredations as are their descendants4 ,the earliest allusion to a book-destroying worm which has come down to us from classical lore was rescued from oblivion by the lad ,salmasius in #afjf1 when he discovered the manuscripts of the anthology of ,cephalas in the library of the ,counts ,palatine at ,heidelberg4 ,among the fragments in this collection is one attributed to ,evenus1 the sophist-poet of ,paros1 who wrote about #dej ,b4 ,c41 in which the foul destroyer is thus berated3 ,o worst enemy of the ,muses1 devourer of the pages of books1 ,foul destroyer that lurkest in a hole1 ever feeding on what thou hadst stolen from learning1 ,tell me1 black-colored bookworm1 why dost thou lie in ambush to injure the sacred decrees while fashioning thy envious image8 ,aristotle1 in his ,history of ,animals1 mentioned the little scorpionlike creature found in books2 a characterization which obtains to-day for the little creature which ,leunis calls the ,bcherscorpion4 ,horace addresses his finished book1 to which he imputes an unbecoming haste to be displayed on the booksellers' stalls1 thus3 ,when thumbed by the hands of the vulgar1 you begin to grow dirty1 then you will in silence feed the groveling bookworm4 ,ovid1 in his exile at ,tomi1 likens the external remorse of its cares which his heart feels to the gnawing of the tinea4 ,considering the fact that ,pliny is said to have comprised in his ,natural ,history all the knowledge of the natural sciences then known1 it is a little surprising that he had not more to say regarding book insects4 ,here and there in his writings1 however1 he speaks of worms in connection with books and papers in the same casual way as other classical writers1 causing you to feel that he was conversant with their destructive tendencies4 ,the epigrammatist ,martial in the first century1 and ,lucian in the second1 both use the term bookworm2 ,martial1 in much the same way as did ,horace1 warning his book of the fate awaiting it2 ,lucian1 in his well-known dialogue1 ,the ,dream2 or1 ,the ,cock1 as a symbol of the condition to which miserly man may descend4 ,sufficient has been said to show the attitude of the ancients toward these little pests1 that had no more regard for their precious thoughts than for the utterances of modern statesmen1 whose speeches are read by title and ordered printed4 ,crossing the cloistered period of the ages called dark1 when books were so few and so constantly used by the jolly monks that these little creatures must have had a difficult time getting a living unobserved1 we come down to the sixteenth century1 by which time books had begun to multiply and worms to propagate4 ,in the last quarter of this century we find ,pierre ,petit1 who is numbered among the celebrated pleiade of ,latin verse writers along with ,rapin1 ,commire1 and others1 addressing these impudent creatures in a thirty-four-line ,latin poem titled ,in ,blattam4 ,a curious and interesting characterization of some species of book insects has come to us in the writings of ,christian ,mentzel1 the ,german naturalist and philologist1 who lived in the seventeenth century4 ,when one reads that he heard the bookworm crow like a cock1 and said1 ,i knew not whether some local fowl was clamoring or whether there was but a beating in my ears1 one can not help wondering if there was not something defective in his ear drums2 but further on he says1 ,i perceived1 in the paper whereon ,i was writing1 a little insect that ceased not to carol like very chanticleer1 until taking a magnifying glass ,i assiduously observed him4 ,from this one concludes that if the fault were not with his hearing1 by which some well-known sounds made by book insects seemed to him like the crowing of a cock1 an altogether different cock from the kind we know must have lived in his day4 ,the earliest observations on the subject possessing any scientific value were made by ,robert ,hooke in his ,micrographia1 published in ,london in #affe4 ,in many respects this work was a curious medley of facts and fancy4 ,the registers of the ,royal ,society1 of which he was a member1 testify to the eagerness with which ,hooke hurried from one inquiry to another with brilliant but inconclusive results4 ,among the many objects which engaged his attention was an insect which he described in a chapter entitled ,of the ,small ,silver-colour'd ,bookworm4 ,his description shows it to have been the fishtail1 by naturalists called ,lepisma1 well known as one of the pests that not infrequently is found in the library as well as other parts of the house4 ,many interesting instances of the discovery of bookworms are found in the literature on the subject1 showing the keen interest felt in the search for specimens of the destroyer1 many of them revealing the fact that some unique and curious creature which stands alone in its taste for literary food was sought4 ,mr4 ,blades reported in #aheh that he found specimens in some black-letter fragments at the ,bodleian ,library1 that were recognized by the librarian1 ,dr4 ,bandinel1 who crushed them with his thumb1 saying1 as he wiped his thumb nail on his coat sleeve1 ,o yes1 they have black heads sometimes4 ,the librarian of ,hereford ,cathedral1 the ,rev4 ,f4 ,s4 ,havergal1 contributes his observations1 covering a period of eighteen years1 during which time he reports that he found two distinct species4 ,from his description1 however1 it appears that he failed to recognize that the two were the larva and imago of the same species4 ,many cases of the finding of bookworms reported in ,england and ,america are not accompanied with sufficient data to determine just what they were4 ,these contribute to the general impression that many have sought but few have found what were thought to be genuine bookworms1 while on every hand are those creatures which under the right conditions become book destroyers4 ,research among the literature concerning library pests reveals the fact that no less than eleven different groups have members that are directly or indirectly accused of injuring books and bindings4 ,the number of species in each group ranges from one to eleven1 making a total of over thirty different species4 ,in addition to these there are others against which the evidence is at best only circumstantial4 ,it is not necessary to say that none of these bear any resemblance in any period of their existence to worms1 and that the term bookworms is a misnomer4 ,the word has become so firmly fixed in literature1 both in its figurative and literal sense1 that its misuse will no doubt continue4 ,the larger number of these are included in the class ,hexapoda1 or insects4 ,two species belong to the class ,arachnida1 which embraces the scorpions1 spiders1 mites1 etc4 ,one of these1 ,chelifer cancroides1 known as the book scorpion1 although not a true scorpion1 belongs to the order ,pseudoscorpiones1 and is probably what ,aristotle had in mind when speaking of the little scorpionlike insects found in books4 ,the other species is known as ,cheyletus eruditus1 of the order ,acarina1 or cheese mites4 ,these two are known to be carnivorous in their habits1 and there is some question as to whether they haunt books for the purpose of feeding on them or on other creatures to be found there4 ,of those in the class ,hexapoda1 which comprises all the other known book pests1 there can be no question as regards their destructiveness4 ,many are known about the house by the name of the article they are most frequently found in1 and unless driven by a lack of those things more to their liking1 they do not invade the literary sanctum4 ,some are so cosmopolitan in their tastes that they seem to take whatever is most convenient1 whether it be books or boots1 pepper or poison4 ,as has been said1 the earliest observation of value was made by ,hooke on ,lepisma1 commonly known as fish moth or silver fish1 from its resemblance1 in shape and coating1 to a fish2 also as bristle tail1 from its caudal appendages4 ,they are found in closets1 cupboards1 and clothes baskets4 ,opinions have differed as to its destructiveness to books1 but the weight of evidence is against the insect4 ,it seeks the paste and sizing used about books1 and this leads it to attack bindings and labels4 ,there is a theory that paste made from pure starch is not to their liking1 but this is not substantiated by observation4 ,termites or white ants1 another misnomer1 since they are not true ants1 are also well-known ravagers whose deeds of destruction assume a serious aspect1 especially in the tropics4 ,humboldt1 according to ,shimer1 informs us that in all equinoctial ,america1 where the white ants abound1 it is infinitely rare to find papers or books that go back fifty or sixty years4 ,their destruction to timber has been the cause of serious accidents1 at one time so weakening the supports of a dwelling that a whole dinner party was precipitated from the third floor to the basement4 ,these pests belong to the order ,isoptera4 ,the ,american species is known as ,termes flavipes1 and several well-authenticated cases of their having done serious injury to books and bindings in this country are recorded4 ,as the chief sustenance of these insects seems to be dead wood1 it may be that the increased use of wood in paper will make modern books1 which bookworms are said to scorn1 more tempting than ever to them4 ,by opening quickly some old book which has lain long unused1 one may see tiny pale creatures with knowing black eyes scurrying across the pages4 ,these insects are known as book lice1 or by the ,germans as ,staublaus 7dust louse74 ,entomologists have given them the high-sounding name ,atropos divinatoria4 ,they belong to the family ,psocid1 of the order ,corrodentia4 ,some writers1 beginning with ,william ,derham1 in #agja1 are of the opinion that this delicate little creature makes a noise like unto that of the coleopterous insect called death-watch4 ,these little fellows are said to have stout jaws with which they do damage to books1 dried plants1 etc41 nibbling away the leaves and covers of the former4 ,of all the insects that injure books perhaps the best known are the cockroaches1 scientifically called ,blattid1 of which there are five species whose bookish habits are unquestioned4 ,many instances of serious damage done by them to the bindings of books are on record1 the most important1 perhaps1 being that of the ,natural ,history ,museum ,reports1 at ,albany1 where ,mr4 ,j4 ,a4 ,lintner found a hundred volumes or more so badly damaged by roaches that they could not be moved without coming to pieces4 ,the ,united ,states ,senate ,reports1 bound in cloth and leather1 some fresh and new1 have been badly damaged at ,washington1 in the efforts of these pests to get at the paste with which the covers were fastened to the volumes4 ,the species known to commit these depredations are the ,croton bug 7,blatta germanica71 smaller than the others1 but considered by some writers as the worst pests of the family2 a little larger species1 called ,periplaneta orientalis2 and a large species1 known as ,periplaneta americana1 or ,kakerlac4 ,against two other species1 ,blatta australasi and ,blatta gigantea1 there is not so much evidence4 ,among the moths1 or millers1 order ,lepidoptera1 are found several species which injure books1 the best known being the ,aglossa pinguinalis1 commonly called grease moth4 ,the larva of this species is at first a pale1 flesh-colored grub1 but as it matures it becomes quite black4 ,it injures bindings by constructing long silken tubes1 in which it remains until full fed4 ,sometimes they spin a web between the volumes1 gnawing small portions of the paper with which to form their cocoons4 ,this species belongs to the family ,pyralidid4 ,of the family ,oecophorid two species are known to injure books3 ,acompsia pseudospretella1 and an undetermined species of ,depressaria4 ,under the name ,oecophora1 ,william ,blades describes the ravages of the former on two leaves of a ,caxton1 and accompanies his remarks with a photographic illustration of the damaged leaves1 from which it is at once seen how irregular is the gnawing of this species4 ,the newspaper account of the finding of bookworms in the ,lenox ,library not long ago classed the larv found with this species4 ,the largest number of book-destroying insects are found among the beetles1 of the order ,coleoptera4 ,to this group belong the book borers4 ,the species thus far considered have been more or less dilettantes in literature4 ,the beetles1 however1 seem possessed with a true spirit of investigation1 and when they undertake a piece of work in a serious fashion they go to the bottom of it1 sticking close to the line laid down4 ,this characteristic distinguishes these insects from all others1 and makes it comparatively easy to determine when they have been at work in a worm-eaten volume4 ,no less than sixteen different species of this order have been either detected in this work1 or such strong circumstantial evidence has been found against them1 that there is little doubt as to their guilt4 ,some insects seem to destroy books for the sheer want of something better to do2 some do so in seeking the paste and sizing used in and about the books2 others because the leather bindings are desirable material in which to undergo transformation2 and1 again1 others haunt book shelves and books in search of prey in the form of living creatures4 ,but among the beetles are found tiny little grubs that seem to have a genuine intent to destroy2 that set out deliberately to wreak vengeance on man's record of his thoughts1 deeds1 and discoveries1 and1 as if knowing the means which man uses to destroy1 have sought to imitate him in the effects produced4 ,as a result we find books filled with small1 round1 shotlike holes strongly suggesting the results which might follow from the use of the family ,bible by the restless boy as a target for his first shotgun4 ,the book-destroying beetles are all grouped under three families3 ,dermestid1 ,scolytid1 and ,ptinid4 ,the ,dermestid include the flower beetles and the well-known carpet bug4 ,the species of which there can be no doubt as to its disposition to pierce book bindings is ,anthrenus varius1 which ,glover says is a very pretty insect when examined under a magnifying glass1 being beautifully marbled or variegated with black and gray4 ,another member of this family1 against which there is less evidence1 is ,dermestes chinensis1 so named by ,dr4 ,l',herminier1 of ,guadeloupe1 who reported a loss of nearly four hundred volumes from its ravages4 ,erichson believes this to have been the well-known ,anobium paniceum4 ,dermestes lardarius and ,attagenus pellio are others of this family mentioned in the same category4 ,the family ,ptinid includes two groups1 ,anobium and ,ptinus1 the first being generally known as the death-watch1 from the peculiar sound1 like the tick of a watch1 which is produced by striking against a hard substance with their tiny jaws4 ,superstitious persons have long considered this noise an omen of death1 hence the name4 ,instead of an ill omen1 this noise proves itself to be a love-call between the sexes1 and may be imitated accurately enough to elicit a response4 ,one of the best known of these beetles is called ,sitodrepa panicea1 generally known in ,europe as ,anobium paniceum4 ,it is a cosmopolitan feeder1 having a reputation in several different fields of activity1 commercial and scientific as well as literary4 ,to druggists it is known as the worm1 and their stock of ginger1 rhubarb1 ,cayenne pepper1 nux vomica1 and belladonna root all appear to be equally to its liking1 tin foil being no formidable barrier to its persistent search4 ,leather dealers have suffered from the destruction wrought by this little fellow to such an extent that whole cases of boots and shoes1 carriage trimmings1 etc41 have been ruined4 ,to this species belongs the insect found a few years ago at work in a volume of ,dante's ,divine ,comedy1 which had been sent to ,cornell ,university library from ,florence4 ,the larv are about three to four millimetres in length1 of a dirty-white color1 head tinged with brown1 and black mouth parts1 with the abdomen strongly curved4 ,the adult is a small1 cylindrical1 brown beetle from two to three millimetres in length1 with head bent down and wing covers marked with fine punctate stri4 ,professor ,poey made extensive observations of an insect in ,cuba which had destroyed about four thousand volumes4 ,he called it ,anobium bibliothecarum1 and ,schwartz thinks the injury reported by ,herminier from ,guadeloupe should be attributed to the same species4 ,anobium striatum and pertinax have long been known to injure books by their gnawing and burrowing1 not only in and through the bindings1 but also entirely through the volumes4 ,nicobium hirtum1 a native of southern ,europe1 where its larv have been found doing like injury1 is only locally abundant1 and for this reason has never been considered a serious library pest4 ,schwartz says1 ,in one way or another the insect has found its way to ,north ,america1 but has always been regarded as a great rarity with us4 ,the ,ptinus group embraces ,ptinus fur1 ,ptinus mollis1 ,ptinus brunneus1 and ,ptilinus pectinicornis1 called by ,leunis ,bcherbohrer4 ,according to ,butler1 a peculiarity of this genius--that of dissimilarity of shape between the sexes--is well illustrated by the ,p4 fur1 the male being almost cylindrical1 the female inflated or rounded at the sides2 so much variation that they might be taken for two different insects4 ,ptinus brunneus1 although similar to ,p4 fur1 is distinguished from it by being wholly of a light-brown color and destitute of whitish bands on the wing covers4 ,some writers speak of this species as the book beetle1 while ,sitodrepa is spoken of as the spice beetle4 ,dr4 ,henry ,shimer makes the following statement regarding their method of boring3 ,they usually operate in leather-bound or half-bound volumes by boring galleries along in the leather4444 ,they usually bore along quite under the surface of the leather1 cutting it almost through2 occasionally a small round hole penetrates through the leather to the outer surface4 ,one of the most famous cases on record of insects boring through books is that reported by ,m4 ,peignot1 in which he states that twenty-seven folio volumes were pierced through in so straight a line that a cord might be passed through them and all the volumes raised by means of it4 ,different writers give the credit of this feat to different members of this group1 so that the most that can be said is that it was the work of some member of the ,ptinid4 ,in the family ,scolytid only one species belongs to the book ravagers4 ,it is known as ,hypothemus eruditus1 and was described by ,westwood in #ahcf as pitchy black1 the head of the same color1 entirely concealed from above by the front thorax4 ,it is very minute in size1 being about one twentieth of an inch in length4 ,so far as its depredations have been observed it confines its work to the bindings of books1 making furrows in all directions much as it does in the sap wood of dead trees4 ,the strong resemblance of its burrowing to the gouging done by an engraver's chisel has given to this family the name of engraver beetles4 ,a review of the different families of insects whose habits under favorable conditions lead them to infest books and bindings will show them to be more or less well defined according to their feeding habits4 ,the book scorpions and mite1 ,cheyletus eruditus1 which1 as we have seen1 do not come under the head of insects1 are primarily carnivorous1 and their presence in books may be due to the fact that they find there animal as well as vegetable food4 ,this is certainly true of the book scorpion1 which feeds on mites1 book lice1 and other small insects4 ,the fish moths or silver fish1 the book lice1 and the cockroaches can have no other reason for infesting books than their liking for farinaceous substances such as are used in and about the bindings and labels of books4 ,for this reason the damage done by them is largely confined to the exterior or interior of the bindings1 and only so much of the book itself is injured as comes in their way in their search for food4 ,the white ants feed principally on wood1 and in and about books there is more or less wood fiber which would be to the liking of these voracious feeders4 ,the moths and beetles are the burrowers and borers4 ,they seek retired places in which to lay their eggs where the larv will be surrounded with food for their growth4 ,the moths and some of the beetles are more given to burrowing in the bindings1 keeping close to the outer surface for the purpose1 it is thought1 of making it easy for the imago to emerge after the change is completed2 while others bore straight tunnels often from cover to cover4 ,a natural conclusion for one who has gone over the literature of book-injuring pests to reach is that the many persons that have been industriously looking for the bookworm1 as well as those that have reported the finding of isolated specimens1 some dead1 some alive1 have had in mind the one creature which bored holes in books4 ,the frequent use of the terms genuine bookworm1 the real bookworm1 etc41 reveals the fact that the users of these phrases approached the subject with a preconceived idea of the kind of creature they should find to account for the ravages only too apparent on scores of volumes which pass through the hands of booksellers and book keepers4 ,to many the boring beetles are the only creatures which are rightfully called bookworms1 and in their search other book pests have not been taken into account4 ,,hydrophobia ,,in ,,baja ,,california4 ,,by ,,dane ,,coolidge4 ,when1 in #ahhd1 ,pasteur discovered the true nature and cure of hydrophobia1 he dispelled the accumulated superstition of centuries regarding this mysterious and dreaded disease4 ,but in some countries where hydrophobia exists his cure is not yet known1 and the old superstitions remain4 ,while collecting mammals near ,san ,jos del ,cabo1 in the cape region of ,lower ,california1 two summers ago1 ,i found the country people very fearful of wild animals1 especially of skunks and coyotes4 ,my ,mexican boy1 whom ,i had sent on an errand1 remained perched half the afternoon in a thorny mesquite tree because he had seen a coyote and was afraid it was rabioso4 ,but they fear the skunks most of all because of their habit of approaching men in the night while they sleep1 and biting them on the toe or ear1 or any exposed part4 ,in defense1 unusual precautions are taken to exclude them4 ,the windows of the houses are barred with iron1 and the doors are made in halves1 horizontally1 so that the lower part may be closed to keep out animals and snakes without interfering with free ventilation4 ,the common people1 who live in brush houses1 blockade their doorways at night1 and rely on their cur dogs to attack any animal which may come near4 ,notwithstanding all this evidence1 and innumerable ghastly stories1 ,i remained a month in the country1 at the rancho of ,francis ,pazik1 a very intelligent and well-educated ,bohemian1 without seeing any rabid animals4 ,then1 one evening just at sundown1 a crowd of men came up the path1 leading one of ,pazik's mules and dragging the carcass of a skunk4 ,they said that it had come out into the open field where the mule was picketed and bitten it on the hind foot4 ,all of them insisted that it was rabid1 and cited its extreme emaciation as a proof4 ,the young man who dragged it showed me his great toe1 half burned off with blue vitriol1 and told me that a skunk had bitten him there two months before1 and the doctors had burned it4 ,these native doctors are uneducated men who live on the superstition of the people4 ,in the case of hydrophobia their methods are characteristic4 ,there are in the cane fields little insect-eating animals called shrews which1 in that country1 give off a scent so like that of a skunk that ,pazik has hunted them out with his dogs in the night by mistake4 ,the doctors pay as much as two dollars apiece for shrews on urgent occasions1 and1 mixing their bodies with herbs and roots1 form a concoction which they claim will ward off hydrophobia4 ,besides this1 they also bleed the patient and cauterize the wound4 ,according to the ,mexicans1 there are two kinds of rabies3 that affecting the head and that affecting the stomach4 ,when animals have rabia in the head they become stupid and move about slowly1 biting at everything they see or touch4 ,they are not violent1 and become very thin4 ,but when they have rabies in the stomach it gives them great pain1 and they bark and howl and race about frantically1 chasing other animals and tearing them4 ,mr4 ,cipriano ,fisher1 of ,santa ,catarina1 told me of his experience with a coyote which had rabies in the stomach4 ,he was hunting deer at ,cape ,san ,lucas1 and had killed two4 ,carrying the smaller one and his gun to camp1 he returned unarmed1 except for the knife which every one wears in that region1 to bring in the other4 ,as he went down a deep caon he heard a coyote ahead1 howling in the peculiar way which he knew to be characteristic of the rabioso4 ,all the hunters claim they can recognize the howling of a rabid coyote1 and they say that no other animal will answer it or go near it4 ,the howling approached rapidly4 ,knowing that he could not escape by running back uphill1 nor kill it with his knife without being bitten1 he stepped quickly into the brush and cut a long green club4 ,as he turned back into the open place he saw the coyote down the caon1 leaping up and snapping at the air4 ,when the coyote saw him it broke into a furious run up the trail1 and when1 as he says1 about thirty feet away1 made a flying leap at his face4 ,he jumped to one side1 struck the rabid animal in the back of the head as it passed1 and killed it with the one blow4 ,skunks are particularly dangerous to persons who sleep out at night4 ,j4 ,ellis ,mc,lellan1 a field collector of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 whom ,i met at ,san ,jos del ,cabo1 told me of an unpleasant experience he had with a skunk while coming down from ,la ,paz4 ,on account of the heat he had ridden in the night as far as ,agua ,caliente1 where he stopped near a ranch house to sleep till morning4 ,although the night was warm1 he covered his head with a serape for protection from insects and wandering animals4 ,early in the morning he was awakened by a twitching at his blanket and1 raising the serape1 saw a skunk biting and jerking at it4 ,realizing the gravity of the situation1 he reached for his heavy knife1 and then1 suddenly throwing aside the serape1 he leaned forward and put his whole force into one blow4 ,as he ducked under the blanket again1 for protection1 the dogs from the house rushed out in a body and pounced upon the dying skunk1 which they worried on top of ,mc,lellan until the ranch people beat them off4 ,when skunks bite at men's toes and ears1 or at blankets in this way1 it is taken as an indication that they are rabid4 ,shortly after this ,i saw a young man at ,miraflores who had just been seized with hydrophobia4 ,two months before he had been bitten on the great toe by a skunk as he lay asleep in his house at ,agua ,caliente1 but had shown no symptoms of the disease until that day1 when he suddenly began to bite at the door jamb in the store at ,miraflores4 ,they put him into the brick jail1 where he soon became very violent4 ,when ,i went down to the jail the next morning ,i found a group of ,mexicans about the huge wooden door1 which was chained fast and tied with riatas in addition4 ,from the inside there came a succession of thumps and blood-curdling groans and strangles4 ,i peered in through the barred window1 and saw the unfortunate man lying on his back in a corner1 spasmodically kicking out his legs from his chest and rolling his dilated eyes4 ,suddenly he leaped to his feet and1 grasping the iron bars1 shook the great door violently1 chained and tied as it was4 ,then he seemed to leap against the walls1 and at last fell down1 groaning4 ,he soon became rational again1 and began to talk through a crack in the door to an old man whom ,i took to be his father4 ,he asked for water1 but they would not give him any1 and while he was pleading for a knife or pistol another spasm seized him4 ,presently the judge came over with two policemen4 ,they said they were going to take the rabioso out and tie him to a tree1 because he was getting the jail too dirty1 and might not die for a week4 ,as soon as the spasm passed1 and the man lay weak and moaning1 the burly policemen loosed the riatas1 and1 stepping in quickly1 seized him from behind4 ,he protested pathetically against going into the hot sunshine1 but they pushed him out and started toward the corral to tie him up4 ,but when the fierce sun struck him he was racked by horrible convulsions4 ,he kicked and struggled1 bit at his shoulders1 and blew spittle into the air when he threw his head back4 ,the policemen breathed hard1 and the old man1 his father1 hugged himself in agony as he walked behind4 ,there was a desperate struggle1 then1 with a final paroxysm1 the rabioso suddenly collapsed and hung limp in their arms4 ,at first they thought that he was dead1 but when he showed signs of life they carried him to the corral and tied him to a tree before he became conscious4 ,two days later he died4 ,pasteur himself does not undertake to cure patients who have been seized with spasms2 but the judge told me that1 fifteen years before1 an ,italian doctor had come through their country making marvelous cures4 ,when he arrived at ,miraflores there was a rabioso in the jail who was so badly afflicted and so long-lived that the judge had ordered him to be shot4 ,when the ,italian doctor heard this1 however1 he asked permission to try an experiment on the man4 ,this being granted1 he had the patient lassoed1 dragged to the river1 and held under water until he was apparently drowned4 ,after the rabioso was full of water1 the doctor rolled him on a barrel and resuscitated him2 then he gave him some medicine which cured him4 ,cipriano ,fisher told me that he had cured a valuable bulldog of rabies by this same method1 using the bitter juice of the pitahaya1 a species of cactus1 for medicine4 ,this crude means of alleged cure is unique1 and seems based on the theory that the antipathy of rabid animals to water1 implied in the name hydrophobia1 is the cause of their death1 and partial drowning1 therefore1 a cure4 ,rabies is extremely prevalent at times in certain districts of the ,cape region4 ,mc,lellan says it does not occur north of the tropic of ,cancer--that is1 of ,la ,paz and ,todos ,santos--and it is hardly known in the thickly populated district about ,san ,jos del ,cabo1 but at ,cape ,san ,lucas1 and especially also along the base of the mountains near ,miraflores and ,agua ,caliente1 where it is very hot and dry1 rabid animals are greatly to be feared4 ,while collecting in these mountains ,i passed several good ranches which had been deserted because1 as my guide said1 stock could not be raised there successfully on account of the rabia4 ,this man had worked as a ranchero or stock herder for two years on one of these ranches1 and had been obliged at one time to kill eleven cattle and seven sheep and goats in two weeks on account of their having rabies4 ,it was part of his duty to follow up rabid coyotes1 foxes1 skunks1 and wild cats when he saw them or heard their peculiar cry1 and shoot them before they bit the stock4 ,but he assured me very gravely that he preferred to work in the valley for less wages rather than have charge of ,chollalito rancho2 and when we camped there for a night he slept on top of the pack boxes1 with his bare feet wrapped in blankets and a serape over his head1 and reverently pulled out the blessed rag he wore around his neck1 in order to more surely protect himself against the rabid skunks and coyotes4 ,there is1 however1 very little danger in traveling through this interesting country4 ,cases of hydrophobia are comparatively rare1 and some scientists who have collected in ,baja ,california have even denied its existence there4 ,but with the traveler1 as with the native1 there remains the vague1 constant1 but unrealized expectation of seeing some raging coyote come tearing through the cactus1 or of having his toe bitten in the middle of the night as he sprawls in the heat and darkness4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,professor ,,welldon1 in the ,british ,association1 expressed his sense of the intellectual insolence of those who presume to say1 notwithstanding our ignorance of animal characters1 that because a characteristic seems to us minute and without importance1 it is therefore without importance to the animal4 ,until we know the function of the animal throughout1 and can picture its physiological processes thoroughly1 we have no right to say1 a priori1 that this or that feature is of no use4 ,,the ,,sense ,,of ,,color4 ,,by ,m4 ,,andr ,,bracchi4 ,when the different rays of the solar spectrum strike the eye separately they each produce a particular characteristic and subjective impression1 which is called color4 ,ingenious theories have been set forth by physiologists1 like ,young1 ,helmholtz1 ,hering1 and others1 to explain the perception of colors by our eye1 but the problem still awaits solution1 and is not likely to be explained from that side1 because it is rather psychical4 ,the laws regulating the perception of colors are not physiological2 we perceive only relations4 ,we know that the sense of color may be modified independently of that of light and of space4 ,two phases may be distinguished in its evolution4 ,every light1 whether chromatic or not1 produces a simple luminous impression on the retina--a simple excitation of the optic nerve1 without being analyzed by it4 ,in the second phase the brain1 the psychic center of color1 intervenes4 ,there may obviously be considerable differences between persons in the interpretation of what we call colors1 and we may judge that there is an education of this psychical center1 and that it is an important matter4 ,different as the ways of interpreting a sensation of color may be1 there are still some fundamental ideas in the matter which painters1 for example1 do not all observe4 ,some1 like the impressionists1 exaggerate them1 and others neglect them4 ,which of these are wrong8 and which right8 are questions we are not concerned with1 our purpose being to show that many of the phenomena of color1 shade1 sources of light1 etc41 escape a large proportion of persons unless they are attentive observers4 ,if we visit the exhibitions of the impressionists we shall be entertained at the criticisms we hear over the canvases of such painters as ,renoir and ,monet2 youths who have just come out of the drawing school declaring that their master never taught them to put blue on a face1 and that in ,nature all shadows are gray or black1 and none red or violet2 and we should astonish a great many people if we should say that a white robe should never be painted in a portrait picture with white lead alone4 ,all skies are blue1 all trees are green1 all pantaloons are red1 said a celebrated painter who was trying to show how the habit of seeing a colored object in a certain way prevented one from perceiving the different colors that might be applied to it4 ,we recollect the trouble of a brave youth who1 having sat for his portrait to a celebrated painter1 was distracted at perceiving green in the reflections of the hair of his likeness4 ,yet there are in ,nature shadows that are blue and reflections that are green1 and if we do not see them habitually it is because we do not give sufficient attention to them4 ,a common division of the spectrum is into warm and cold colors4 ,the warm colors are red1 yellow1 orange1 and yellow-green2 the cold colors are violet1 blue1 green1 and blue-green4 ,this is not an arbitrary division1 but answers to a fact of experience which passes from our physical to our moral impressions1 and may cause in us feelings of comfort or uneasiness1 joy1 sadness1 or moral depression4 ,some persons are influenced by the gray-colored sky1 others are gay when the day is bright4 ,it is a current expression that the color of the southern landscape is warm4 ,goethe said that blue caused him to feel cold4 ,the terms warm and cold are technical expressions in the arts4 ,a color tone is cooled by putting blue in it1 and warmed by adding red or yellow4 ,this practice is not arbitrary1 says ,m4 ,f4 ,bracquemond in his book on ,design and ,color2 it copies the colored aspects which natural light imposes on all imitation that seeks to realize the colored and factitious light of painting4 ,to reach this1 art observes the order according to which the natural lights distribute their various colored elements1 and classes luminous aspects--a process which it has always observed--into the two categories of warm and cold4 ,hence1 so far as examples come to us1 this contrast is easy to verify2 at the ,louvre1 for example1 in works from ,pompeii1 and in those of all the masters4 ,preyer relies upon this division of colors into warm and cold for a comparison of chromatic sensations with thermic1 and for supposing that the color sense is developed from the sense of temperature4 ,chromatic sensitiveness to this author is only a special case of thermic sensitiveness limited to the retina4 ,darwin's ideas were evidently the same2 the whole human body was a sort of retina capable of improvement2 we may1 it is true1 suppose with ,lord ,kelvin that there is absolute continuity between the perception of heat by the retina of the eye and its perception by means of the tissues and nerves4 ,a very elementary experiment will easily enable us to recognize these different qualities of colors4 ,set a lighted candle on a table near a window2 there are then two sources of light--the daylight1 blue and cold1 and the light of the candle1 orange-red and warm4 ,cast a shadow on the white paper by holding a pencil straight up4 ,the shadows cast by the candle will be blue to a degree that no one can mistake it1 a greenish blue4 ,placing the pencil between the window and the candle and looking at the shadows1 we have1 first1 the blue shadow of the candle1 and then the shadow projected by the cold daylight4 ,the color of the last1 though perhaps less evident than the other1 is an orange-yellow1 of rich1 warm tone4 ,from this little experiment we may conclude that a warm light provokes a cold shadow1 a cold light a warm shadow1 and that the color of the shadow is complementary to that of the light4 ,in the experiment1 daylight was the source of the cold light4 ,let us now take a third source of light1 warmer than that of the candle1 the flame produced by burning alcohol and salt--a very warm1 deep orange light1 which makes the light of the candle seem cold and its blue shadows appear yellow1 while its own shadows are blue4 ,we recently observed a very striking example of these warm and cold appearances of light2 it was at the theater3 a beam of red light shone brightly upon an actor1 whose shadow was absolutely green4 ,some of the people around us were astonished at the phenomenon1 which they could perceive very plainly4 ,phenomena of this kind are produced every instant in a nature illuminated by the sun2 nearly all the shadows are colored in hues which we can distinguish with a little attention where the unpracticed eye sees nothing but gray4 ,thus in a mountainous country1 exposed to the warm light of the sun1 the mountains in the horizon appear blue through the haze2 then1 as evening draws on1 the sun appears a deeper orange1 more reddish1 while the sky seems green by contrast1 and the red rays of the sun falling on the mountains turn them violet1 in those beautiful tints which give so much glory to those countries of large shadows and bright lights4 ,however intense the light of day may be1 it is therefore always colored1 and gives those colored shadows which painters do not always observe4 ,the painter1 in fact1 should make an analysis of the complex light around him1 and should repeat the result in synthesis on his canvas4 ,upon hardly any other condition can he represent the transparency of the atmosphere1 or the luminosity of a subject or a landscape4 ,these colored shadows are not1 therefore1 false colors1 as often seems to be believed1 or optical illusions2 they are really existent1 but our eyes are hardly ever practiced enough to discern them2 we are deficient in education of the color sense4 ,this education is not hard to attain4 ,there are persons who have special aptitudes and are consequently remarkable colorists1 just as some persons have an admirably organized ear for music2 but1 besides these1 it is possible for all persons endowed with the faculty of observing and capable of attention to acquire with considerable rapidity the faculty of discerning colors1 where they at present hardly see anything but confused gray masses4 7,the epithet gray1 we may observe1 is used as applied to many things the color of which is not susceptible of exact determination47 ,such attentive observation of colors is1 however1 attended with some danger to painters4 ,every person prefers some one color1 is influenced by a particular shade4 ,when we examine the works of the painters we see that there are many differences in the way of seeing4 ,some see blue1 red1 green2 others see clear1 others obscure4 ,in the analysis of a complex color it happens that there is sometimes an auto-suggestion4 ,where there is a hardly defined violet1 the painter will exaggerate it on his canvas1 and will be obliged1 in order to keep up the right tone1 to increase the intensity of the colors next to it4 ,hence arises a common error with painters1 who start with a true principle1 but are not able to apply it properly1 and give their picture a tonic violet1 green1 or yellow1 beyond all reason4--,translated for the ,popular ,science ,monthly from the ,revue ,scientifique4 ,,sketch ,,of ,,thomas ,,egleston4 ,,by ,,prof4 ,,daniel ,s4 ,,martin4 ,as a general rule1 the work of the scientist is not of a kind to attract conspicuous notice from the public1 especially in great cities1 filled and thrilled with commercial and political activity2 and so it comes to pass that men of rare attainments and untiring energy1 in the highest walks of life and thought1 may spend their whole life-time in such an environment1 and be scarcely known outside of a limited circle of kindred minds4 ,they may confer lasting benefits on the community1 render important services to the whole country1 and be widely known and honored in other lands1 and yet receive but little general recognition in the place of their abode4 ,such a man1 in such a community1 is ,prof4 ,,thomas ,,egleston1 of the city of ,new ,york4 ,he has been too busy and too modest to seek prominence in the public eye1 and his scientific work has been of a kind that does not lend itself readily to popular lectures or startling announcements2 but as a mineralogist1 a metallurgist1 and a mining engineer1 and as the planner and founder of the great ,school of ,mines of ,columbia ,university1 he has made a deep and permanent impress on the history of science in the ,united ,states4 ,professor ,egleston is of ,new ,england stock1 his ancestors having been among the first settlers of ,dorchester1 ,massachusetts1 in #afce4 ,thence they came by a toilsome and perilous journey to ,connecticut1 and founded ,windsor1 which was thenceforward their home1 and whence his father came to ,new ,york4 ,the removal to ,connecticut arose from a desire for greater freedom of life and worship than they found in ,massachusetts2 and ,professor ,egleston has been deeply interested in studying the little-known records of this movement1 and the influence which it exerted1 as an almost unwritten chapter in ,american history4 ,he proposes to publish these researches1 together with much other material relating to our colonial history1 in which he is an enthusiastic student4 ,he was born in ,new ,york1 on ,december #i1 #ahcb4 ,as a boy he took considerable interest in certain aspects of science1 and at the age of thirteen had gathered a collection of minerals and rocks4 ,he attended ,yale ,college1 and in the later years of his course took special elective work in chemistry4 ,after graduating there in #ahed1 he was for a time an assistant to ,prof4 ,benjamin ,silliman1 ,jr4 ,subsequently he went abroad1 partly for his health1 and was advised to spend some time in ,paris4 ,with no special professional purpose1 but from a general desire to improve his time1 he began attending lectures on geology and chemistry at the ,jardin des ,plantes1 under ,d',orbigny 7a brother of the eminent writer7 and ,hilgard1 and he worked with much energy in the laboratories of those departments at the ,jardin4 ,he thus attracted the attention of some of the faculty of the cole des ,mines1 who offered him larger facilities in that institution1 which he at once accepted4 ,after much very interesting study in the paleontological laboratory there1 he decided to go regularly through the entire course1 and accomplished that purpose with notable success and honor1 graduating in #ahfj4 ,he had worked as an assistant in every laboratory of the school1 and in the summers had traveled through much of ,france1 becoming familiar with its geology1 mineral resources1 mining works and processes1 and gaining a mastery at first hand of all branches of those subjects4 ,those years were to him full of interest and enjoyment2 friendships were formed that have enriched his whole life2 and in it all the man was being remarkably prepared for the work of developing those forms of science and of industrial progress in our own country4 ,professor ,egleston has always retained a strong feeling of attachment toward the cole des ,mines1 which has likewise been warmly reciprocated4 ,he has shown his interest by two gifts to the institution1 of five thousand dollars each4 ,returning hither in #ahfa1 just as the war cloud was darkening over the land1 he received almost immediately an appointment at ,washington1 to take charge of the mineralogical collections and laboratory of the ,smithsonian ,institution4 ,after two years there he conceived the purpose that determined his whole career1 and has so greatly influenced both ,american science and ,american mineral development--that of a school of mines at ,new ,york4 ,at that time there were1 indeed1 in this country schools of science1 well organized and well equipped--the ,sheffield ,school at ,yale1 the ,lawrence ,foundation at ,harvard1 the ,rensselaer ,polytechnic ,institute at ,troy1 and others4 ,but their scope was rather general in character1 and there was no institution planned and arranged with distinct reference to mining and metallurgy as its main subjects4 ,mr4 ,egleston1 as he was then known1 saw and felt this lack1 and planned to supply it4 ,there is not space here to detail the circumstances under which he was led to prepare1 in #ahfc1 the ,plan for a ,school of ,mines in ,new ,york2 but the modest little outline then drawn up and printed has been exceedingly rich in results4 ,it was taken up with interest by certain leading trustees of ,columbia ,college1 as it was then called1 especially by the late ,george ,t4 ,strong4 ,the president1 the late ,dr4 ,charles ,king1 and a majority of the board1 favored the experiment1 for so it was regarded1 and arrangements were finally made to begin it in the autumn of the next year1 in limited quarters in the old college building on ,forty-ninth ,street1 and with provision for but a small number of students--not over twenty4 ,part of the instruction was to be given by members of the existing college faculty2 and three new professors were appointed to special chairs for the school1 to be compensated wholly by fees therefrom4 ,these were1 ,professor ,egleston1 mineralogy and metallurgy2 ,prof4 ,francis ,vinton1 mining engineering2 and ,dr4 ,c4 ,f4 ,chandler1 chemistry4 ,meanwhile1 in ,june1 #ahfd1 ,president ,king was succeeded by the late ,dr4 ,barnard1 whose strong interest in science made him a warm supporter of the school4 ,already some prominent people were impressed with the value of such a movement1 and disposed to aid it4 ,a fine collection of minerals was purchased and presented by ,mr4 ,strong1 and another was given by ,mr4 ,gouverneur ,kemble4 ,on the opening day1 ,november #ae1 #ahfd1 the number of applicants was far beyond expectation and provision2 the school was found to respond to a need and a demand that had not been suspected2 it was a success from the first4 ,in a year or two it had become an institution of recognized importance2 ample quarters were provided for it in a large building1 formerly a manufactory1 on the ,fourth ,avenue side of the college block1 and important additions were made to its corps of instructors--particularly the eminent geologist1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,newberry1 of ,cleveland1 ,ohio1 whose noble geological collection was deposited and used in the ,school of ,mines1 and whose breadth and power and personal magnetism so profoundly influenced scientific interest and progress in the city of ,new ,york for more than twenty years4 ,such was the beginning of the school2 its career has been one of unbroken growth and increasing influence4 ,after some ten years it was found needful to take down the plain old transformed factory and erect a new building on its site1 with larger space and improved facilities4 ,fifteen years later ,columbia ,college was removed to its new site on the ,morningside ,heights1 where now the ,school of ,mines is installed in stately fireproof structures1 wherein its great accumulated treasures of collections1 apparatus1 models1 and varied appliances of instruction are safely and permanently housed4 ,the influence of this school upon science in ,new ,york city has been incalculable4 ,only those who have lived in touch with the scientific life of the metropolis during the period since the close of the civil war can appreciate the change that has taken place in public feeling regarding science1 or can recognize how largely that change is due to the existence of such an institution1 and to the presence of such a body of strong and able professors1 in constant and active co-operation in the interest of science4 ,the school attracted notice from the first1 abroad as well as throughout this country4 ,in #ahga1 seven years from its opening1 a writer in the ,north ,american ,review characterized it as already more scientific than ,freiberg1 more practical than ,paris1 and emphasized its influence both upon science and upon mining interests in the ,united ,states1 pointing out that the literature pertaining to mines and their working had been very limited in the ,english language1 and that the instruction in the school had to be chiefly given by lectures2 but that these courses would gradually develop into a literature4 ,these suggestions have been fully justified by the results of the last quarter century4 ,the vast development of our mineral resources has been largely under the direction of graduates of this school4 ,hundreds of them are to-day in important positions of scientific trust1 not only throughout our own country but in ,south and ,central ,america1 ,australia1 ,china1 ,japan1 and even ,europe itself4 ,the lectures of the professors1 and the articles constantly published in the ,school of ,mines ,quarterly1 have indeed given us a literature of the subject in ,english4 ,the local influence in the city has been great1 upon scientific education in secondary schools1 and upon general public sentiment2 while in ,columbia ,university the experiment has become one of its finest departments and an element of its greatest strength4 ,rarely is it given to a man to see in his life-time so great a result from the plans and the labors of his earlier years4 ,of the many forms of scientific activity which have engaged ,professor ,egleston during his busy life1 only the briefest mention can be made4 ,he was one of the founders of the ,american ,institute of ,mining ,engineers1 was thrice its vice-president1 and was chosen president in #ahhf2 and he has published over one hundred articles in its ,transactions4 ,he was one of the founders of the ,american ,metrological ,society1 and of the societies of ,mechanical ,engineers and of ,electrical ,engineers1 and a member of the society of ,civil ,engineers and of the ,iron and ,steel ,institute of ,great ,britain4 ,in the ,new ,york ,academy of ,sciences he was active for many years1 and held the vice-presidency from #ahfi to #ahha4 ,in #ahff ,professor ,egleston was associated with the ,agricultural and ,geological ,survey of the ,union ,pacific ,railroad2 in #ahfh was appointed a ,united ,states ,commissioner to examine the fortifications of the coast2 and in #ahgc was one of the jurors for the ,international ,exposition at ,vienna4 ,from ,princeton and ,trinity ,colleges he received1 in #ahgd1 the degrees of ,ph4 ,d4 and ,,ll4 ,d41 respectively1 and from the ,government of ,france the rank of a ,chevalier of the ,legion of ,honor in #ahij1 and the exceptional rank of ,officier in #ahie4 ,his papers1 published either separately or in the proceedings of the several engineering societies above mentioned1 the ,annals of the ,new ,york ,academy of ,sciences1 the ,school of ,mines ,quarterly1 etc41 cover a wide range of subjects connected with mineralogy1 metallurgy1 and mining operations4 ,in mineralogy he was especially devoted to crystallography1 and his noble private collection was gathered and arranged with relation to that department4 ,besides his strictly metallurgical articles and treatises1 he has dealt with such topics as rails1 in relation to accidents2 furnaces and their construction2 fire-brick and refractory substances2 slags and their utilization1 etc42 the decay of building stones1 in connection with the ,obelisk2 technical education1 manual training1 and improvement in the conditions of workingmen in mining and metallurgical occupations4 ,his chief published works are ,the ,metallurgy of ,gold1 ,silver1 and ,mercury in the ,united ,states1 two large volumes1 #ahhg and #ahij1 and his ,lectures on ,mineralogy1 to which may be added his ,tables for the ,determination of ,minerals1 ,metallurgical ,tables on ,fuels1 ,iron1 and ,steel1 diagrams and comparisons of crystals and crystal notation1 tables of production of many of the metals1 report on the ,union ,pacific ,railroad survey of #ahfh1 and many others4 ,within the past two years ,professor ,egleston has withdrawn from active work in the ,school of ,mines1 and bears now the title of ,professor ,emeritus2 his health has been a good deal impaired1 and his work has passed largely into the charge of younger men who have grown up under his direction as students and assistants4 ,during the last winter he has presented to the school his entire scientific library and his private collection of minerals above referred to1 some six thousand specimens4 ,these1 in addition to the great mineralogical treasures already possessed by the institution1 all gathered and arranged under his supervision1 will make the ,school of ,mines collection certainly one of the finest in the country4 ,although devoted to his own special branches1 ,professor ,egleston had given a striking example of broad interest in other departments of science in his labor of love in connection with the monument to the memory of the great ornithologist ,audubon4 ,the present writer was closely associated with him in this work1 and can testify to his energy1 enthusiasm1 and perseverance therein4 ,the later years of ,audubon's life had been spent on ,manhattan ,island1 in a modest but beautiful suburban home on the ,hudson1 above ,harlem1 known as ,audubon ,park4 ,he died in #ahea1 and was buried in a family vault in ,trinity ,cemetery1 then far out of town1 now lying between ,one hundred and ,fifty-third and ,one ,hundred and ,fifty-fifth ,streets1 ,amsterdam ,avenue1 and the ,hudson4 ,the spot was remote and almost unknown1 and with the death and removal of most of the family1 it had fallen into neglect4 ,when ,one ,hundred and ,fifty-third ,street was to be opened through to the river1 the vault1 which was close to the street line1 was in danger of injury2 and then ,professor ,egleston took up the matter and proposed to the trustees of the cemetery that if they would grant another plot in a better location1 he would endeavor to have a handsome monument erected by national subscription4 ,the trustees responded warmly1 and ,professor ,egleston undertook the work4 ,before going abroad in #ahhg he broached the subject to the writer1 and suggested that he present it during the meeting of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 which was to be held during that summer in ,new ,york4 ,the writer gladly responded to the plan1 and in ,august of that year laid the facts before a general meeting of the association4 ,much interest was expressed1 but no action was taken1 as had been hoped4 ,at the first regular meeting of the ,new ,york ,academy of ,sciences1 in ,october1 the writer again presented the subject1 with better result2 and a committee was appointed by the academy1 consisting of ,professor ,egleston as chairman1 ,dr4 ,n4 ,l4 ,britton1 and the writer4 ,on the return of the former from ,europe the work was taken up in earnest2 and under the indefatigable efforts of the chairman and of the secretary1 ,dr4 ,britton1 although with many delays and discouragements1 it was carried to a triumphant success4 ,before the end of the year 7#ahhg7 the committee had held numerous meetings1 prepared and issued a circular1 and engaged the co-operation of several other organizations with the ,academy of ,sciences1 including the ,american ,ornithologists' ,union1 the ,agassiz ,association1 and the ,audubon ,society 7for the protection of our native birds74 ,a design was proposed by the academy's committee1 and adopted by the joint committee of the several societies2 this design originated with ,professor ,egleston1 and was a striking combination of the religious1 scientific1 and artistic elements appropriate to the purpose4 ,the scheme was that of a ,runic cross1 the only form of that ,christian symbol which can properly bear ornamental devices1 according to the canons of artists and architects1 and this was to be covered with reliefs of the birds1 quadrupeds1 and flowers that ,audubon so loved and studied1 and that have given him his fame as the artist-naturalist of ,america4 ,the general design being approved1 the selection and arrangement of the animals and birds was given to a subcommittee of specialists1 consisting of ,dr4 ,j4 ,a4 ,allen1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,b4 ,sennett1 and ,dr4 ,n4 ,l4 ,britton1 whose duty was to secure accurate representation and artistic grouping of the forms4 ,in all these combined aspects this monument is doubtless unique4 ,as it stands to-day over the grave of him whom it commemorates--graceful1 dignified1 and altogether peculiar--it is an honor to our city1 as well as a fitting tribute to the memory of ,audubon1 the ,nature-lover1 the artist1 and the ,christian believer4 ,for this beautiful thought1 so nobly carried out1 both ,american science and the city of ,new ,york are indebted to ,thomas ,egleston4 ,the progress of the effort was slow2 it was not until #ahia that sufficient subscriptions were secured1 and not until the spring of #ahic that all was ready for the formal ceremonies4 ,during all this time ,professor ,egleston and ,dr4 ,britton were untiring in their endeavors and unfaltering in their purpose to succeed4 ,on ,april #bf1 #ahic1 the monument was dedicated with suitable exercises1 of great interest1 at ,trinity ,cemetery1 and a memorial address upon the life and work of ,audubon was delivered by ,mr4 ,daniel ,g4 ,elliott1 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 ,e41 of the ,ornithologists' ,union1 at a public meeting at the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,professor ,egleston has also laid the citizens of ,new ,york under enduring obligation to him in another and even more important matter1 the preservation of one of the most valuable of our smaller parks from the clutches of the speculator and spoiler4 ,it is known to but few of the residents of the city that a series of determined attempts was made1 some years ago1 to destroy and obliterate ,washington ,square1 in the same way in which the ,st4 ,john's ,park outrage was perpetrated ten years before4 ,the method pursued in that case was by interested parties buying up property around the park and colonizing the houses with tenants who would either favor or consent to the vandal obliteration of that beautiful spot of rest and shade for the erection thereon of the ,hudson ,river ,railroad freight depot4 ,st4 ,john's ,park1 however1 was the property partly of a corporation1 partly of individuals1 and the job was comparatively easy4 ,washington ,square belonged to the city2 but the same process was begun by a great real-estate magnate1 and was going on toward a similar result1 when the death of the arch-conspirator checked the scheme for a time4 ,a little later1 however1 it was revived1 under the notorious ,tweed rgime1 and would have succeeded but for the keen insight and vigorous action of a few public-spirited citizens1 led by ,professor ,egleston4 ,washington ,square had been dug over and torn up1 under the pretext of remodeling and improvement1 and the unsightly mounds and piles of earth were left for many months1 not only to offend the eye1 but to generate malaria4 ,the ground had been originally a ,potter's ,field1 and the opening and upturning of the soil1 frequently unhealthy in its effect1 was markedly so in that case4 ,the south side of the square had been worked already1 in the first attempt1 and had largely lost its population of old residents2 but the north side was still occupied by a select class of old ,new-,yorkers4 ,now1 however1 between the desolate aspect of the park and the malaria that began to be felt1 an exodus of the owners on the north side was imminent4 ,then began to be hinted some schemes for which all this was preparatory4 ,a great militia armory was to be erected on the western end1 and other projects vaguely loomed up1 involving the ruin of the park as such4 ,a bill to legalize these schemes was quietly introduced at ,albany1 and had been brought nearly to its passage1 by influences no less potent for their careful concealment4 ,professor ,egleston and a few other gentlemen of the vicinity were anxious about these rumors1 but could get no information4 ,inquiries from city officials were met with positive denial of any such intentions1 and it was only within a few days of the time set for the passage of the bill that they succeeded in discovering its real meaning4 ,at this late juncture the ,public ,parks ,protective ,association was quietly and quickly organized by a small body of public-spirited men1 of whom the late ,john ,jay was president and ,professor ,egleston secretary4 ,this association set itself to work most earnestly to reveal the danger1 to arouse public sentiment and public protest1 and to make these felt in the ,capitol at ,albany4 ,circulars and petitions were prepared and widely disseminated1 at the cost of great labor1 within the brief time left ere the bill should come up for passage4 ,the ,new ,york ,academy of ,sciences1 speaking in the interest of public health1 passed strong resolutions of remonstrance2 and various other bodies took similar action1 including the ,academy of ,medicine4 ,the result was that legislators were aroused1 some to the real character of measures that they had not fully understood1 and others to the existence of a public sentiment upon which they had not counted1 and the bill failed to pass4 ,nor was this all3 a resolution was adopted1 prepared by the association1 guaranteeing the ground occupied by the square to be kept forever as a park for purposes of public health and recreation4 ,that ,washington ,square remains to-day1 an oasis of beauty in the desert of brick and stone1 and a breathing place in that densely built portion of the great city1 is due principally to the watchfulness and energy of ,professor ,egleston4 ,he it was who saved that park to the people of ,new ,york1 and a debt of lasting gratitude therefore is owing him from them4 ,this is an unwritten episode in the history of our city1 and the present writer1 who knew something of the facts at the time1 is gratified to be able to put them on record now4 ,but let us not fail to note the lesson that they convey4 ,eternal vigilance is the price of all that is valuable in a community like ours1 where the demands of business greed and the devices of political schemers and bosses may at any time unite again1 as in the past1 for acts of profitable vandalism1 and dismiss as sentimental all considerations of beauty1 health1 or historical association4 ,the sanitary importance of our smaller parks is now better understood2 and the city is buying property for such purposes at heavy cost1 in localities where fifty years ago parks could have been laid out at little expense1 and maintained at a vast saving of human health and life4 ,such articles1 also1 as that of ,dr4 ,stephen ,smith1 in the ,february number of this monthly1 are educating the intelligent community as to the sanitary value of vegetation in cities4 ,but nothing is safe or sacred where the evil trinity of the boss1 the speculator1 and the soulless corporation may combine their forces2 and the call is for ceaseless watchfulness4 ,professor ,egleston has been all his life in active association with the religious and benevolent work of the ,episcopal ,church4 ,he became president of the ,bible and ,common ,prayer-,book ,society in #ahga2 was vice-president of the ,protestant ,episcopal ,city ,mission ,society from #ahgj to #ahig2 a trustee of the ,general ,theological ,seminary1 and a member of the corporation of ,trinity ,church from #ahgh4 ,in connection with the last-named body some of his relations have an interest wider than his own denomination1 and may fittingly be mentioned in a sketch relating chiefly to his scientific career4 ,two points may here be noted3 the schools among the poorer classes maintained by the ,trinity corporation2 and the unique jeweled chalice in memory of his wife1 presented by him to ,trinity ,church4 ,aided and controlled more or less by ,trinity corporation1 though in different parts of the city and in connection with different ,episcopal churches1 are now eight schools1 with about one thousand pupils4 ,in these are taught careful and scientific methods of training along modern lines1 of eye and hand development1 hygiene1 economy1 and thrift1 to children and youth of the neediest classes4 ,already for years much interested in these schools1 ,professor ,egleston has1 since his withdrawal from professional activity1 given much of his time to their advancement1 and has found intense gratification in observing the results of this training among a class of children that1 from their general environment1 would grow up to be a burden or a menace to the city4 ,the intelligent culture of hand and eye1 the mental quickening and moral uplifting1 the capacity and purpose of honorable self-support1 and the protection from moral and social perils1 that are imparted and secured through the agency of these schools1 are to him a constant source of enthusiasm4 ,the jeweled chalice above referred to is of scientific interest from the great variety and rarity of the gems with which it is set4 ,during years of travel to and from many parts of ,europe1 ,professor ,egleston had remarkable opportunities1 in his visits to mining regions and his intercourse with mineralogists1 to obtain fine and choice specimens of gems2 these he had mounted in elegant forms as presents to his wife1 ,mrs4 ,augusta ,mc,vickar ,egleston4 ,her death1 in #ahie1 was a very great blow to her husband1 as their married life had been extremely happy2 and the only satisfactory use to which this beautiful treasure of jewelry could be put seemed to him to be in the services of divine worship in the church4 ,it is not possible in brief compass1 without a figure1 to describe the arrangement of these jewels on the base1 stem1 and cup of the golden chalice2 but it must suffice to say that there are one hundred and eighty stones set in1 with embossed work1 on a cup and pedestal nine inches high and half that width4 ,the species and varieties number fifteen1 many of them in rare shades of color2 among them are the ruby-colored ,siriam garnets1 green demantoid garnets of the ,ural 7,uralian emerald71 ,ceylonese moonstones1 colored diamonds1 sapphires1 both yellow and green 7,oriental topaz and emerald71 rubellites1 red zircon1 moldavite 7the rare green obsidian of ,moravia71 green tourmaline1 chrysoberyl1 the rich purple amethysts of the ,urals1 etc4 ,considered either mineralogically or as a work of art1 this chalice is almost unique2 while the conception and designing1 which are wholly of ,professor ,egleston's own1 reveal the same union of artistic and scientific qualities that was shown in the ,audubon monument above mentioned1 joined with a religious and a personal sentiment almost too sacred to dwell upon in a sketch like the present4 ,in all these aspects of his life and work1 as we said at the beginning1 ,professor ,egleston has been little known to the general public2 but among scientific and engineering circles he has been highly honored4 ,in these pages he may become more widely known1 and the people of the metropolis and of the country at large may learn something of the manner of man that has lived and labored so honorably among them1 and has done so much for science and his fellow-men4 ,editor's ,table4 ,,science ,,and ,,the ,,ideal4 ,we have had frequent occasion in these columns to refer to the tirades against science indulged in by writers who1 because they can not quite make ends meet in their philosophy of the universe1 strangely allow themselves to think that science must be at fault4 ,at one moment it is ,m4 ,brunetire1 at another ,tolstoi1 at another it is a ,harvard professor or a ,western school superintendent2 but no very long time elapses before we find somebody in very unnecessary trouble1 as it seems to us1 over the shortcomings of science4 ,the last sufferer to whom our attention has been drawn is ,dr4 ,john ,beattie ,crozier1 the author of two able works--,civilization and ,progress1 and ,history of ,intellectual ,development--who has lately written a history of his own intellectual development under the title of ,my ,inner ,life4 ,this writer describes the effect upon his mind of a study of ,mr4 ,spencer's ,principles of ,psychology4 ,then it was1 he says1 that the ideal within me1 struck to the heart1 shriveled and collapsed4 ,this sad result was due to the discovery1 forced on him by a study of the work in question1 that all our mental experiences have equally a material basis1 and that from a material point of view or1 as we may say1 seen from below1 one thought or feeling is as much justified as any other4 ,previously he had considered that such higher faculties as veneration1 benevolence1 conscientiousness1 and the like1 were quite distinct in essential nature from low ones1 like revenge1 lust1 vanity1 cowardice1 and deceit2 but now all this was changed1 and all the faculties alike1 the high and the low1 the noble and the base1 the heroic and the self-indulgent1 lay on a dead level of moral and spiritual equality 444 all alike being but vibrations1 vibrations1 vibrations1 nothing more4 ,consequently1 the dethroned ,ideal fell prone and headlong like a false and usurping spirit2 and my mind1 bereaved of that which had been its life1 settled into a deep and what1 for a year or two1 threatened to be a permanent intellectual gloom4 ,it is a great pity that at this critical moment a very simple consideration did not occur to this troubled spirit4 ,when we read the ,sermon on the ,mount we read words1 words1 words2 when we read some horrible piece of profanity or indecency it is again words1 words1 words2 when we read the demonstration of a proposition in ,euclid it is words1 words1 words2 and1 again1 when we take up ,tennyson's ,in ,memoriam we find that its whole tissue is words1 words1 words4 ,but would it tend in the least to lessen one's reverence for the ,sermon on the ,mount to be reminded that it was constructed out of the same verbal elements as the piece of profanity8 or would it diminish our admiration for ,in ,memoriam to be told that it was constructed of words just like the dullest piece of prose8 ,if not1 then why should one be so terribly disconcerted and depressed to find that all our mental life finds its basis in vibrations8 ,or why should the inference be drawn that1 because the basis is one1 all that reposes on it must also be one in character and meaning8 ,is our delight in the lily or the rose impaired by the reflection that it springs from the same soil that produces noisome weeds2 or do we gaze on the humming bird with less admiration because it flies in the same atmosphere as the bat8 ,why should vibrations not be the condition of existence of one mental phenomenon as well as of another8 ,surely the very fact that ,dr4 ,crozier classes all the feelings he mentions as mental affections should prepare him to believe that they have a common basis4 ,but how feelings shall be classified and ranked after they have taken form is a question precisely similar to the question how the various combinations of words should be classified and ranked4 ,in the latter case words are the basis of them all1 but we say3 ,this is an epic poem2 this is a moral essay2 this is an immoral novel2 this is a silly joke2 this is a market report4 ,are these distinctions illusory because words are the basis and substance of all these various forms of composition8 ,does the poem lose anything of its beauty1 or the essay anything of its ethical value1 because each was not composed of elements altogether peculiar to itself8 ,the solid globe itself was once a diffused nebula1 but we do not on that account find a less varied beauty in flower and tree1 in hillside and running brook and grandly flowing river4 ,in his sad condition of mental disarray our author betook himself1 he says1 to the counsels of ,thomas ,carlyle4 ,that sage1 when he heard that his visitor had been reading ,spencer1 made some uncomplimentary remarks about the latter which we hardly think the visitor was justified in repeating4 ,apart from this1 ,carlyle told him in effect that1 as he was in the world1 he had just to make the best of it1 and that in time he would find work that he could do with benefit to himself and others4 ,finally1 our author made what he calls a discovery and offers as a contribution to modern philosophy--namely1 that in the mind of man there is a scale1 according to which thoughts and feelings are appraised4 ,some are high up on the scale and some are low down4 ,he found that there is that in the mind which is not of the mind1 and which sits in judgment on all the contents of the mind--something which smiles on every right action and frowns on every wrong one1 and yet which he does not care to speak of as conscience4 ,here was the antidote he required to the pure and undiluted materialism which had so paralyzed his moral being in the ,principles of ,psychology2 and1 having obtained it1 he has been living happily1 as we gather1 ever since4 ,we have tried to do justice to the originality of ,dr4 ,crozier's conception1 but really with indifferent success4 ,that there is a scale by which we are all accustomed to measure the varying values of our thoughts1 feelings1 and actions hardly needs to be stated2 and that there is substantial agreement between men on the same plane of civilization as to the relative values of different mental products is also unquestionably true4 ,what our author has not shown is how this conflicts with the strict scientific position taken in the ,principles of ,psychology4 ,he does not tell us that he has repudiated the teachings of that work2 indeed1 he gives us distinctly to understand that1 so far as it affirms the dependence of thought upon physical organization1 he adheres to it still4 ,if so1 he has only built upon it a superstructure which it was always open to him to build2 so1 why he should find fault with the foundation it is not easy to see4 ,science goes as far as she can see her way to go in setting forth the relations between the mind of man and the environing universe4 ,it studies also the human mind in its historical manifestations1 and tries to unfold the laws of human conduct4 ,it confines itself to facts which are believed to admit of verification and to inferences which have been tested by experience4 ,this is the contribution of ,science to the theory of human life4 ,but because ,science stops here she does not lay any veto on thought1 desire1 or hope4 ,she lays a foundation2 it is for us to build thereon gold1 silver1 precious stones1 wood1 hay1 stubble1 each of us according to our own impulse and upon our own responsibility4 ,the fire of experience will try every man's work of what sort it is4 ,but not only may we build1 we must build2 no one can live upon another man's philosophy4 ,we may adopt this creed or that1 but it means nothing to us till we have worked it over in our own mind and made it our own--with modifications4 ,there is nothing whatever in science that conflicts with the ideal4 ,strictly speaking1 science brings us to the threshold of the ideal1 and leaves us there4 ,these are the facts of life1 it says2 such has been the course of human history4 ,the human race has risen from humble origins to its present commanding position in the world2 and to-day the standards of human conduct and the conditions of human happiness are very different from what they were in the distant past4 ,social ties have multiplied and strengthened4 ,domestic affections have grown in depth and tenderness1 and individual happiness is now bound up to a very large extent in the happiness of other individuals4 ,the cruel superstitions of the past have given way in many minds to a reverent regard for a power which is felt to rule in the universe4 ,of such a power ,science can not render any exact account2 but before all the ultimate questions of existence ,science is dumb2 nor can it attempt to reconcile the antinomies which assert themselves in all phenomena4 ,it is for you1 the individual1 entering upon life1 to make your choice of the course you shall hold and the principles by which you shall be governed4 ,the senses are the guides to immediate pleasure1 but the experience of the ages has settled with considerable approach to certainty the conditions on which enduring happiness is to be won4 ',choose well2 your choice is ,brief and yet endless4' ,to the man who insists on being knocked down with a club before he will yield to persuasion there is nothing in such a mode of address that will be convincing4 ,this is a case in which1 as ,pascal says1 there is enough light for those who desire to see1 and enough obscurity for those who want a pretext for not seeing4444 ,perfect clearness might help the understanding1 but it would injure the will4 ,there is1 therefore1 room on the scientific foundation for the idealism of ,dr4 ,crozier1 and for many other forms of idealism4 ,it is for each one of us to construct his own ideal1 and1 having constructed it1 to live by it4 ,if any man's work abide he shall receive a reward4 ,,racial ,,geography4 ,the interesting papers contributed to this magazine by ,prof4 ,william ,z4 ,ripley1 which1 we are glad to say1 will soon be published in a more permanent form1 indicate very clearly the remarkable progress that has been made of late years in the scientific study of human origins4 ,formerly legend and tradition were the only sources of light upon prehistoric times2 and the sagacious ,thucydides dismissed all speculation respecting those ages with the curt remark that he did not think the people who lived then amounted to much1 any way4 ,no doubt he was nearer right in this opinion than were those who peopled antiquity with demigods and heroes2 still there was much of interest to be gleaned respecting the prehistoric past if only right methods of research had been used4 ,this was too much to expect in his day2 and1 indeed1 it is only in very recent times that the study of human origins has been placed upon anything like an adequate scientific basis4 ,a reference to ,mr4 ,ripley's work will show how numerous are the lines of investigation now pursued4 ,language1 which at one time was considered an all-important test of origin1 has fallen from its high position2 and theories which1 on the strength of linguistic evidence1 were very widely entertained1 have lost their authority4 ,particularly has this been the case with the so-called ,aryan theory4 ,it was simple and beautiful and interesting1 but as observations accumulated it became more and more untenable1 until finally it had to be discarded4 ,the problems which the anthropologist and ethnologist attack are indeed of the highest degree of complexity4 ,if our predecessors went astray therein1 we ourselves are only feeling our way very cautiously and somewhat uncertainly4 ,we have not yet reached an era of victorious generalizations4 ,professor ,ripley well indicates the difficulties of the research4 ,things will go well for a considerable time along certain lines of observation until the facts come to be gleaned in some special field1 and then the result will perhaps be just the opposite of what theory required4 ,in a brachycephalic region1 for example1 where craniological and other tests call for a population of short stature1 the stature will reveal itself as much above the average4 ,in a region where1 looking at race characteristics as elsewhere established1 the tendency1 say1 to suicide should be particularly low1 it is found by statistics to be particularly high4 ,the ethnologist finds his path strewn with endless difficulties of this nature1 and yet he is not discouraged4 ,the truth lies somewhere1 and he knows that a vigorous and courageous sifting of the facts will be sure to bring it to light1 if not to-day1 to-morrow4 ,we gather from ,professor ,ripley's pages a strong impression of the confident patience with which the true man of science attacks his problems2 he is sure that his methods are right1 and that in the end they must triumph4 ,the interesting points of view which the study of racial geography presents are numberless4 ,this is particularly shown in ,professor ,ripley's chapter on ,modern ,social ,problems4 ,in this chapter the writer acknowledges1 as he does elsewhere1 that theories of race and of heredity have sometimes been pushed too far4 ,he demands a due recognition of the influence of environment1 and cites cases where environment will explain divergences from what are recognized as race characteristics or tendencies4 ,an example of this is afforded by the case of ,brittany1 in connection with separateness of home life4 ,the population of ,brittany belongs to a race that is particularly prone to such separateness1 and yet in ,brittany there is an unusual intermingling of families under one roof4 ,we can not enter into the explanation here1 but ,professor ,ripley shows how the physical geography of the country may account for the variation from type4 ,in the same chapter the writer shows very interestingly how the ,celtic parts of ,france manifest almost invariably conservative tendencies3 how they shun divorce1 afford a very low rate of suicide1 and1 in the matter of crime1 tend rather to deeds of violence than to acts of dishonesty4 ,the general impression which the intelligent reader will gather from the whole work is that racial geography has all the interest of a rapidly growing science2 but that1 while much has been accomplished1 much more remains to be done4 ,the lines of research are many1 and we may reasonably hope that before long the combined labors of anthropologist1 ethnologist1 and sociologist will give us a coherent body of knowledge and theory which shall not only illuminate the past but be of the very highest value for the comprehension of the problems of our own day4 ,scientific ,literature4 ,,special ,,books4 ,in a study of what constitutes the foundations of zology we know of no one better equipped to discuss the various problems than ,professor ,brooks4,v ,as an original investigator in many groups of invertebrate zology1 as a student of animal life in temperate and tropical seas1 as a special teacher of embryology and zology for a quarter of a century1 and1 above all1 as a profound student of the philosophical literature of the subject1 his equipment is thorough and complete4 ,a fair review of this work would be difficult without voluminous quotations from its pages4 ,footnote ,v3 ,the ,foundations of ,zology4 ,a ,course of ,lectures delivered at ,columbia ,university on the ,principles of ,science as illustrated by ,zology4 ,by ,william ,keith ,brooks1 ,ph4 ,d41 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,professor of ,zology at ,johns ,hopkins ,university4 ,pp4 #cci4 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,the reader will find here the soundest1 healthiest acceptance of the ,darwinian theory of natural selection4 ,he penetrates the mists and fogs of philosophical vagaries and follows the dictum of ,tyndall1 who1 in presenting the essentials of a discussion1 says1 ,not with the vagueness belonging to the emotions1 but with the definiteness belonging to the understanding we are to study these matters4 ,it is fact1 fact1 fact4 ,the honest ,i do not know inspires the reader with a confidence that obscure points are not to be juggled with4 ,he insists that the principles of science are physical1 that a mechanical interpretation of ,nature is reasonable and just4 ,referring to ,huxley1 he remarks that faith and hope are good things1 no doubt1 and 7quoting from ,huxley7 expectation is permissible when belief is not1 but experience teaches that expectation or faith of a master is very apt to become belief in the mind of the student1 and 7again from ,huxley7 ,science warns us that the assertion which outstrips evidence is not only a blunder but a crime4 ,in the chapter of ,nature and ,nurture he brings many potent facts and arguments against the idea of the transmission of acquired traits4 ,without copious extracts it is impossible to do justice to this masterly presentation of the subject4 ,the chapter abounds in aphorisms1 as indeed do other portions of the work2 and these alone1 if serially collated with their contexts1 would make a valuable little handbook for the student of biology4 ,his chapter on ,lamarck is equally strong1 and the fallacies of ,lamarckianisms have never been so clearly shown4 ,the contrast between what we may call the solicitude of ,nature to secure the production of new beings1 and the ruthlessness with which they are sacrificed after they have come into existence1 is a stumbling-block to the ,lamarckian1 and the crowning glory of natural selection in that it solves this great enigma of ,nature by showing that it is itself an adaptation and a means to an end1 for the sacrifice of individuals is the means for perfecting the adjustments of living things to the world around them and for thus increasing the sum of life4 ,whole books have been written on the marvelous fitness of the structure1 the instincts1 and the habits of the worker of the honeybee for its life of active industry--a life in which the male has no share1 and from which the female is cut off by her seclusion in the depths of the hive1 and by her devotion to her own peculiar duties4 ,while the queen and the drones are well fitted for their own parts in the social organization of the hive1 these duties are quite simple1 and very different from the duties of the workers2 and as these latter do not normally have descendants1 and as they never under any circumstances have female descendants1 all the workers are the descendants of queens and not of workers4 ,their wonderful and admirable fitness for their own most necessary part in the economy of the hive must1 therefore1 be inherited from parents who have never been exposed to those conditions to which the workers are adapted2 and this adaptation can not be due to the inheritance of the effect of these conditions1 nor can we believe that they are inherited from some remote time1 when the workers were perfect females or when the queens were also workers2 for the sterile workers of allied species differ among themselves1 thus proving that they have undergone modification since they became sterile4 ,here we have a most complicated and perfect adjustment of marvelous efficacy to external conditions which are of such a character as to prove that the inheritance of the effect of these conditions has had no part in the production of the adaptation4 ,his views of bird migration1 based on the matter of ovulation and not on food supply1 are extremely interesting4 ,he says3 ,as their eggs are very large and heavy1 a high birth rate is incompatible with flight1 and the preservation of each species imperatively demands that every egg shall be cared for with increasing solicitude2 for while in other animals increased danger to eggs or young may be met and compensated by an increase in the birth rate1 the birth rate of birds can not be much increased without a corresponding restriction of the power of flight4 ,every one knows how quickly birds may be exterminated by the destruction of their eggs or young1 and the low birth rate of all birds of powerful flight is a sufficient reason for migration1 for at the same time that their fitness for flight limits the birth rate1 it permits them to seek nesting places beyond the reach of their enemies4 ,his critical estimate of ,huxley is tersely presented4 ,he says3 ,his evolution is not a system of philosophy1 but part of the system of science4 ,it deals with history--with the phenomenal world--and not with the question what may or may not lie behind it4 ,the cultivation of natural science in this historical field and the discovery that the present order of living things1 including conscious1 thinking1 ethical man1 has followed after an older and simpler state of ,nature1 is not 'philosophy' but science4 ,it involves no more belief in the teachings of any system of philosophy than does the knowledge that we are the children of our parents and the parents of our children2 but it is what ,huxley means by 'evolution4' ,dr4 ,brooks credits ,galton with employing simple terms to express new and abstruse truths1 and we trust those who are continually wrestling with the dead languages to pick out new and distracting words to express their conceptions will profit by ,galton's method4 ,the lecture on ,natural ,selection and the antiquity of life is replete with original and pregnant suggestions based upon the results of his own profound investigations on pelagic life4 ,here again only ample quotations from his pages would convey an adequate idea of their value and importance4 ,in his chapter on ,louis ,agassiz and ,george ,berkeley he gives this just tribute to ,agassiz3 ,the writer was a man of transcendent genius for scientific discovery1 with intense earnestness and enthusiasm for the pursuit of truth1 and rare eloquence and literary skill4 ,if any man was devoted to the cause of truth and determined to accept it1 whatever it might prove to be1 that man was ,agassiz2 for while his impulses were notably devout and reverential1 he proved1 on many occasions1 that he was fearless and independent in the search for truth4 ,it is no disparagement to ,buckland and ,bell and ,chalmers and the other authors of the ,bridgewater ,treatises to assert that ,agassiz far surpassed them all in acquaintance with the methods which lead to success in the interpretation of ,nature1 and in ability to treat the problems of natural theology from the standpoint of the zologist4 ,he dedicates his book to ,bishop ,berkeley1 and throughout the lectures his references indicate a thorough acquaintance with the writings of this eminent scholar4 ,paley's old watch comes in for renewed consideration1 and one wonders if the mainspring of this device will ever be broken4 ,his apt references to classical authors indicate wide and judicious reading4 ,the book is overburdened with thought and clear1 concise reasoning1 and his final advice should be followed when he urges his readers to do double duty by reading the book again4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the ,april number 7#ahih7 of this magazine we had occasion to review the first two volumes of this work4,w ,a perusal of the third volume does not permit us to modify the expressions and criticisms there made4 ,we then said the work is a compact storehouse of facts1 a veritable ethnological museum1 and this feature alone renders the book indispensable to ,american students4 ,the author shows no evidence of ever having seen the magnificent series of volumes issued by the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,ethnology4 ,the author in several instances confounds ,japan and ,china4 ,his treatment of the ,african races is by far the most exhaustive4 ,these extracts will apply most particularly to the present volume4 ,the negro races of the interior of ,africa and those of ,west ,africa1 as well as the cultured races of that continent1 are exhaustively treated4 ,in that portion treating of the history of the civilization of eastern ,asia the ,japanese and ,chinese are considered together and many mistakes in generalization follow as a result of this confounding4 ,long before we get to this portion of the work an illustration is given of ,japanese agricultural instruments1 in which only one plow of the many types in ,japan is presented1 and this is evidently taken from a model4 ,not only has he confounded the ,japanese with the ,chinese1 but the southern ,malays are brought in when he speaks of the ,malay and ,japanese love of the cockfight--a practice which is unknown in ,japan4 ,he refers to the ,japanese latrine as being built over running water1 whereas the record of this custom is found only in an ancient ,japanese classic of the seventh century4 ,he is in error in stating that the stage is essentially the same in ,china and ,japan4 ,his description of the music of ,japan applies to ,china only4 ,the statements that pearls play a large part in the ornaments of the ,japanese1 that the fireproof buildings are of stone1 that the ,japanese tobacco is moistened with opium1 that the ,japanese street dress is full of color1 are all erroneous4 ,his description of the sash worn by men is the description of the woman's sash4 ,he says the ,japanese currency before the change to dollars and cents was like that of the ,chinese4 ,had he consulted ,snowden's description of ancient and modern coins1 etc41 he would have found this correct statement in regard to ,japanese coins3 ,in their shape1 composition1 and relation to each other they present some striking features which set them apart from every other system of coinage in the world4 ,footnote ,w3 ,the ,history of ,mankind4 ,by ,prof4 ,friedrich ,ratzal4 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #eii4 ,the illustrations are badly distributed4 ,through pages of description of the ,japanese and ,koreans1 in which little is said about the ,koreans1 are scattered illustrations of the inhabitants of ,yeso--the ,ainu4 ,the illustration of ,japanese table furniture depicts only utensils for smoking and wine-drinking1 and some of these are erroneously labeled1 as are those of certain ,chinese utensils4 ,we trust that the ,asiatic portion of this valuable work will be written over again1 and in doing it the author will realize that he is dealing with four or five hundred million people widely separated in language1 modes of writing1 customs1 and manners2 that he will consider the ,ainu1 ,korean1 ,japanese1 ,chinese1 ,thibetan1 and ,indo-,chinese with the same thoroughness that he has given to the separate groups of the ,african continent2 that he will draw his information from modern sources and collections properly labeled and up to date4 ,even with the defects pointed out the work will prove of great value to the ,american student1 as it brings before him the richness of the ethnological museums of ,europe4 ,,general ,,notices4 ,the ,development of ,english ,thought,x is an attempt to present a theory of history through concrete illustrations4 ,the book does not deal with the facts of history--a knowledge of these is assumed--it throws into relief certain salient features of each epoch which were instrumental in forwarding the social consciousness4 ,it may1 indeed1 be called a philosophy of economics4 ,it has a theory to propound3 ,survival is determined and progress created by a struggle for the goods for which men strive1 or the means by which they may avert evil4 ,these goods change1 together with the environment dependent on them4 ,hence arise new activities2 the race is modified1 new modes of thought come forward1 and finally the characteristics of the civilization are reconstructed4 ,these changes are subject to a definite law of evolution1 repeated in each new environment4 ,england has been chosen for this economic interpretation of history2 because of its insular position1 its development has been more normal and indigenous1 less subject to foreign influences since the ,reformation1 than any continental country4 ,an explanation of the psychological theory underlying the book serves as general introduction4 ,the antecedents of ,english thought are found among the early ,germans1 and the ,early ,church4 ,the fifteenth century1 with its inventions and discoveries1 revolutionized men's ways of living and thinking4 ,then the ,calvinists and ,puritans imposed their standards of good and evil4 ,these are followed by the great ,english thinkers3 ,locke1 who marks the beginning of ,deism in ,england2 ,mandeville1 ,hume1 and ,smith1 developing the economic side2 ,whitefield and ,wesley leading the religious revival4 ,later on1 ,malthus1 ,ricardo1 and ,mill formulated the ,economic ,philosophy1 whereas ,darwin1 the first of the biologists1 imposed biologic habits of thought on economic inquiry4 ,the concluding chapter1 while cautious in the discussion of current problems1 attempts1 assisted by the lessons of the past1 to indicate the probable future movement of thought1 springing out of present economic conditions4 ,footnote ,x3 ,the ,development of ,english ,thought4 ,a ,study in the ,economic ,interpretation of ,history4 ,by ,simon ,n4 ,patten1 ,ph4 ,d4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 #ahii4 #c4 ,mr4 ,wilbur ,s4 ,jackman has sought in preparing his manual of ,nature ,study for ,grammar ,grades1,y to propose a few of such problems arising in a thoughtful study of ,nature as are within the comprehension of grammar-school pupils1 and to offer suggestions designed to lead to their solution4 ,directions may perhaps be given by the teacher--that is1 by some teachers1 but very few--but even if he knows how1 it is hardly possible for him to make them as systematic to so large an extent as would be required by a school of inquiring pupils2 and such a plan as the author offers may be accepted as a valuable help4 ,take1 for instance1 the first lesson on the mutual relations of plants and insects--as to plants4 ,the student is told what equipment to take1 what places to visit2 is reminded of seven kinds of evidence in the shape of galls1 stings1 eaten leaves1 etc41 to be considered2 and is given a list of queries to be recollected in studying the phenomena1 in their general aspect1 as to the benefit or injury received by the plant from insects1 the attractions it offers1 and the defenses it possesses1 with number work relating to the extent of the depredations1 and methods of representing the results of the study in picture4 ,the book contains forty-five such lessons on different aspects of ,nature4 ,footnote ,y3 ,nature ,study for ,grammar ,grades4 ,a ,manual for the ,guidance of ,pupils below the ,high ,school in the ,study of ,nature4 ,by ,wilbur ,s4 ,jackman4 ,danville1 ,ill43 ,the ,illinois ,printing ,company4 ,pp4 #djg4 ,in the preparation of his book on ,fertilizers,z it has been the aim of ,mr4 ,voorhees to point out the underlying principles and to discuss1 in the light of our present knowledge of the subject1 some of the important problems connected with the use of fertilizing materials4 ,while the author recognizes the lack of definite knowledge on many vital points1 he considers it desirable1 when the investigations of the experiment stations are becoming so important and they are so well prepared to study the fundamental principles of plant nutrition1 for the practical man to have a clear understanding of what is now known4 ,the book treats of the natural fertility of the soil and the sources of the loss of the elements of fertility1 the functions of manure and fertilizers and the need of artificial ones1 the different classes of fertilizers1 the chemical analysis of them1 and the methods of using them with their special application to various crops4 ,footnote ,z3 ,fertilizers4 ,the ,source1 ,character1 and ,composition of ,natural1 ,home-made1 and ,manufactured ,fertilizers2 and ,suggestions as to their ,use for ,different ,crops and ,conditions4 ,by ,edward ,b4 ,voorhees4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #cce4 ,price1 #a4 ,we have received1 with only a short interval between them1 the first volume of a third edition and the fourth or last volume of the second edition of ,alfred ,h4 ,allen's ,commercial ,organic ,analysis4,,aa ,the former volume is first to reach us4 ,it is a high testimony to the value of the work in itself that the publication of a rival issue of the edition of #ahhe had been begun by another house1 although its age1 as suggested by the date1 would indicate that it had much need of revision4 ,during the thirteen years since the publication of this edition later research has thrown new light on many features of the science and processes1 and has corrected many of the old conceptions1 and the author's views on some points have changed in the light of the more recent results1 so that the preparation of a new edition had become necessary4 ,mr4 ,allen has found it now impossible for him to undertake the continuous labor which would be imposed by such a task1 and the work of revision has been undertaken by ,henry ,leffmann1 of ,philadelphia4 ,for this new edition ,mr4 ,allen has furnished material on the subjects of the ,kjeldahl process1 proteids of wheat flour1 vinegar1 brewing sugars1 malt substitutes1 hop substitutes1 and secondary constituents in spirits4 ,information has been added by the ,american reviser1 partly from suggestions by ,mr4 ,allen on the subjects of specific gravity1 formaldehyde1 vinegar1 methyl1 alcohol1 acetone1 fusel oil1 argol1 starch1 glucose1 invert sugar1 lactose1 and wine1 and brief notes on other topics4 ,processes of the ,american ,association of ,official ,agricultural ,chemists have been reprinted4 ,the revision of ,vol4 ,,ii is well in hand1 and will be much more extensive than that of ,vol ,i4 ,footnote ,,aa3 ,commercial ,organic ,analysis4 ,a ,treatise on the ,properties1 ,proximate ,analytical ,examination1 and ,mode of ,assaying the ,various ,organic ,chemicals and ,products employed in the ,arts1 ,manufactures1 and ,medicine4 ,by ,alfred ,h4 ,allen4 ,third edition4 ,illustrated4 ,with ,revisions and ,appendix by the author and ,henry ,leffmann4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,introduction4 ,alcohols1 ,neutral ,alcoholic ,derivatives1 ,sugars1 ,starch and its ,isomers1 ,vegetable ,acids1 etc4 ,philadelphia3 ,p4 ,blakiston1 ,sons ,co4 ,pp4 #eeg4 ,price1 #d4ej4 ,the same work4 ,second edition4 ,revised and enlarged4 ,proteids and ,albuminous ,principles1 ,proteids or ,albuminoids4 ,same publishers4 ,pp4 #ehd4 ,price1 #d4ej4 ,on the other hand1 the revision of the second edition has extended over fourteen years1 and is only just completed with the fourth volume1 which appears a few weeks later than the volume noticed above4 ,the earlier volumes have been long out of print1 and are destined1 of course1 to be supplanted by those of the new revision4 ,the present fourth volume1 being newer and of the present date1 will serve as the latest till the last volume of the new revision is reached2 and1 besides1 the author hopes to publish an appendix to each volume1 containing the more important of the later results4 ,the meaning of the term ,commercial ,analysis has been somewhat extended1 and matter has been included that in closest strictness does not belong under it1 it being thought better1 the author says1 to include all facts possessing an analytical or practical interest to him1 in the belief that what he finds useful himself will be of value to others4 ,in ,the ,porto ,rico of ,to-day,,ab a traveler's view of that interesting island and its people is presented by ,mr4 ,a4 ,g4 ,robinson1 who went there and remained during ,august1 ,september1 and ,october1 #ahih1 as correspondent of the ,new ,york ,evening ,post4 ,while the book can not be regarded1 as it does not profess and is not intended to be1 as a source of geographical or statistical information1 it admirably fulfills the design of the author to present a picture of the people and of the country as he saw them2 and it is a very living picture too4 ,he looked with a sharp eye1 and has recorded what he saw in graphic style4 ,in the author's story of his early days of the island we are made acquainted with the various names it has had1 of which ,porto ,rico1 or ,puerto ,rico1 is only the latest4 ,the oldest of the ,european names appears to have been ,buriquin1 in some one of the dozen or more spellings it has had1 one of them being ,bo4 ,it has also been called ,la ,isla de ,carib1 ,san ,juan ,bautista1 etc4 ,after the account of the author's first general impressions and experiences he describes the city of ,ponce1 his visit to a coffee district1 a number of typical towns and villages1 the journey from ,ponce to ,san ,juan1 the highways1 railways--of which there are one hundred and forty-three miles in operation and one hundred and seventy-five miles under construction--and a fairly effective telegraph system1 views of the industrial possibilities and commerce of the island1 with some experiences of military campaigning4 ,footnote ,,ab3 ,the ,porto ,rico of ,to-day4 ,pen ,pictures of the ,people and the ,country4 ,by ,albert ,gardner ,robinson4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons4 ,pp4 #bdj1 with maps4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,the publication of the revision which ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer is making of his ,synthetic ,philosophy in order to incorporate in it as far as may be the results of more recent advances begins with the first volume of ,the ,principles of ,biology4,,ac ,the advance during the last generation1 ,mr4 ,spencer thinks1 has been more rapid in the direction of this science than any other1 and though the hope of bringing a work on biology at large up to date could not be rationally entertained at the author's age and under the existing conditions of his physical strength1 a similar service to a work on the principles of the science did not seem impossible4 ,numerous additions have been needful4 ,what was originally said about vital changes of matter is supplemented by a chapter on ,metabolism4 ,a chapter is added on ,the ,dynamic ,element in ,life4 ,the insertion of some pages on ,structure fills a gap in preceding editions4 ,the revelations of the microscope on cell life and multiplication are set forth4 ,a supplementary chapter on ,genesis1 ,heredity1 and ,variation gives the results of further evidence and further thought in that line1 qualifying and developing certain views enunciated in the first edition4 ,various modern ideas are considered under the title ,recent ,criticisms and ,hypotheses4 ,the chapter on ,the ,arguments from ,embryology has been largely rewritten4 ,smaller additions appear in the form of new sections incorporated in pre-existing chapters4 ,the assistance needed in the work of revision has been given by ,prof4 ,w4 ,h4 ,perkin in ,organic ,chemistry and its derived subjects2 ,prof4 ,a4 ,g4 ,tansley in ,plant ,morphology and ,physiology2 ,prof4 ,e4 ,w4 ,mac,bride and ,mr4 ,j4 ,t4 ,cunningham in ,animal ,morphology2 and ,mr4 ,w4 ,b4 ,hardy in ,animal ,physiology4 ,in all sections not marked as new the author desires it to be understood that the essential ideas set forth are the same as they were in the original edition of #ahfd4 ,footnote ,,ac3 ,the ,principles of ,biology4 ,by ,herbert ,spencer4 ,in ,two ,volumes4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,revised and enlarged edition4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,pp4 #gjf4 ,price1 #b4 ,prof4 ,silas ,w4 ,holman attempts the presentation1 in ,matter1 ,energy1 ,force1 and ,work1,,ad of some of the fundamental ideas and definitions of physics in a plain and logical manner4 ,his purpose is not to set forth the experimental side of the subject or to describe phenomena or laws4 ,he rather assumes a slight knowledge of these1 and proceeds to develop the concept and definitions4 ,the author regards a clearer thinking on these subjects as of special importance to engineers and members of the other technical professions1 because correct views upon them have become essential in those professions through the progress of the applications of science to the industrial arts4 ,these applications are likewise of considerable interest to the untechnical members of the community4 ,professor ,holman has composed his book with the principle of presenting the subject of physics in logical sequence1 and has divided it into two parts1 the first of which contains the matter immediately proper to the subject1 with discussions of substance or matter1 motion2 energy and its forms2 force2 kinetic energy1 force-measurements1 work1 potential energy1 and matter again1 as distinguished from substance4 ,the second part comprises summaries of the chief theories of the nature of matter1 force1 and energy1 including the kinetic theory of gases1 ,le ,sage's theory of gravitation1 the vortex-atom theory1 and a discussion of the nature of energy and matter1 with observations on chemical energy and the ether4 ,footnote ,,ad3 ,matter1 ,energy1 ,force1 and ,work4 ,a ,plain ,presentation of ,fundamental ,physical ,concepts1 and of the ,vortex-,atom and other ,theories4 ,by ,silas ,w4 ,holman4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #beg4 ,price1 #b4ej4 ,the ,short ,course in ,music1 prepared for use in schools where a complete course is not thought necessary1 by ,f4 ,h4 ,ripley and ,thomas ,tappen1 is embraced in two books1 of which we notice the second 7,american ,book ,company74 ,familiar songs are made the basis of instruction1 some of those which appear as melodies in ,book ,one being repeated here in full score4 ,all other material has been prepared especially for this book4 ,the music and directions are adapted equally for unchanged and changed voices4 ,voice training and the elements of phrasing and expression are furnished in a group of solfeggios at the close of the book4 ,theory is given in condensed form1 but one that1 it is claimed1 embraces all the essential elements of vocal music4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,e4 ,marr has prepared his exposition of ,the ,principles of ,stratigraphical ,geology 7,cambridge ,university ,press2 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 ,new ,york1 #a4fj71 under the belief that an idea of the subject can be obtained most satisfactorily if a large number of the details connected with the study of the stratified rocks are omitted4 ,he has accordingly given very brief accounts of the strata of the different systems1 paying more attention to the bearings of the facts than to their enumeration4 ,the history of the earth is presented as a connected one1 in which one period is linked on to the next1 every event that occurs introducing a new complication into the conditions1 which are consequently never quite the same--the changes showing an advance from the simple to the more complex4 ,the study proves that an enormous period elapsed subsequent to the formation of the earth and previous to the deposition of the stratified rocks1 of which we have only the slightest1 if any1 knowledge4 ,the stratigraphical geologist has to establish the order of succession of the strata for the chronology1 and to ascertain as far as he can the conditions existing during the deposition of the several strata or groups of strata4 ,after an account of the growth and progress of stratigraphical geology1 the nature of the stratified rocks and the law of superposition are discussed2 the test of included organisms and the methods of classification are explained1 the evidences of conditions under which strata were formed1 and other theoretical points are considered1 and the several geological systems or periods are enumerated under the ,english nomenclature4 ,finally1 the various estimates of geological time and the bases on which they are made are reviewed4 ,the ,american ,book ,company publishes as a part of the ,eclectic ,system of ,industrial ,drawing an excellent manual of the ,elements of ,perspective1 by ,christine ,gordon ,sullivan1 of the ,cincinnati public schools4 ,it consists of explicit directions and rules on the general principles of the art1 with applications in ,isometric ,projection and ,oblique ,perspective1 given in concise form and simple1 clear language1 amply illustrated1 and supplemented by problems1 in solving which the rules are made practical4 ,a convenient manual on ,gas and ,petroleum ,engines has been prepared by ,a4 ,g4 ,elliott from the ,french of ,henry de ,graffigny for ,whittaker's ,electro-,mechanical ,series1 in recognition of the interest that has been awakened in the application of such engines to supply the place now occupied by horses in drawing vehicles4 ,one chapter deals exclusively with the theory of the gas engines4 ,other topics treated of are the history of the gas engine1 the description of existing gas engines1 carbureted air engines1 petroleum engines1 gas-generating plants1 engines for use with poor gases1 and the maintenance of gas and oil engines4 7,the ,macmillan ,company1 #ge cents47 ,laboratory ,exercises in ,anatomy and ,physiology 7,new ,york3 ,henry ,holt ,co41 #fj cents7 have been prepared by ,james ,edward ,peabody for practical application4 ,the precept is emphasized that the pupil should be led to see that most of the materials required for observation and experiment are furnished by the organs and tissues of his own body4 ,directions which have been found in the author's experience necessary to guide the pupil in his observations and experiments are given at the beginning of each topic4 ,the questions following them contemplate the student's seeking the facts from the material itself1 and he is expected to be trained to distinguish observed results from the inferences that may be drawn from them4 ,some home study is contemplated1 the results to be afterward reported in class4 ,the book consists almost entirely of directions for experiments1 and is interlined with blank sheets for recording observations4 ,geographical ,nature ,studies 7,american ,book ,company7 is intended by the author1 ,frank ,owen ,payne1 to assist the teacher1 and by pointing out the relations1 often unrecognized1 between familiar phenomena and home geography to guide the study of the class to definite and practical ends4 ,the lessons are intended to fit the comprehension of the youngest pupils1 to promote the cultivation of habits of accurate observation1 and to stimulate a desire for more knowledge and broader views of the world4 ,they lead directly up to the point where the more formal study of geography from a text-book begins4 ,the lessons may be used as reading exercises and for topical recitations1 and exercises are introduced which may assist the cultivation of the power of correct verbal expression in the statement of facts4 ,the exercises concern weather1 animals1 physical phenomena1 and objects about us1 and are very various4 ,impressions of ,medus have been observed on the ,jurassic lithographic limestones of ,solenhofen1 and some problematic fossils on the ,lower ,cambrian rocks of ,sweden have been regarded as derived from ,medus4 ,certain nodules1 bearing what looked like flattened-out starfishes--star-cobbles they were called--have been found among the fossils of the ,coosa ,valley1 ,alabama4 ,director ,charles ,d4 ,walcott1 of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 concluded that these also represented ,medus1 and began an investigation of them which involved a comparison with the ,swedish and ,bavarian specimens1 and was at last enlarged so as to embrace all fossil ,medus4 ,his work is now published as a separate memoir1 ,fossil ,medus1 as one of the ,monographs of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey 7,vol4 ,,xxx74 ,the ,middle ,cambrian ,medus are first described1 and then1 in order1 the ,lower ,cambrian of the ,united ,states and of ,sweden and ,bohemia and the ,jurassic of ,bavaria4 ,the text is illustrated by forty-seven excellent plates4 ,a new edition1 revised and with additions1 of the ,mechanics and ,heat of ,edward ,l4 ,nichols and ,w4 ,s4 ,francis is published by the ,macmillan ,company 7#a4ej74 ,the book is the first volume of the ,elements of ,physics of the authors1 which is complete in three volumes4 ,we find in it no explanation of the nature and extent of the revisions and additions4 ,the publication of such a book as ,catering for ,two--,comfort and ,economy for small ,households 7,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons1 #a4be7--;has been suggested to ,alice ,l4 ,james by the difficulty of reducing the average rules of the cook-book to meet the wants of a family of two or three4 ,the work embodies the results of sixteen years' experience in labor and study1 and the author hopes that with it the way may be made easier for others whose bills of fare may be made for two4 ,the directions are claimed to be throughout exact and reliable1 and the dishes to be nourishing1 appetizing1 and inexpensive4 ,the author's plan is to take a bill of fare with a comfortable variety of dishes1 and direct explicitly how each is to be prepared4 ,the manual on ,testing ,milk and its ,products1 prepared for dairy students1 creamery and cheese factory operators1 food chemists1 and dairy farmers1 by ,e4 ,h4 ,farrington and ,f4 ,w4 ,noll1 has reached a fourth edition1 the first three editions having been exhausted in about a year4 ,the present edition has been thoroughly revised1 and such additions have been made to it as have been necessary to bring it up to date4 ,it has been adopted as a text-book or reference-book in the dairy schools of twelve ,states of the ,union and in a number of schools in ,canada4 7,published by the ,mendota ,book ,company1 ,madison1 ,wis4 #a47 ,the ,silver ,cross1 or the ,carpenter of ,nazareth 7,international ,publishing ,company1 ,new ,york71 is a short story selected and translated from ,the ,mysteries of the ,people of ,eugne ,sue1 and published for the sake of the illustrations it is supposed to afford of the tyranny of the ruling class and the oppression of the working people and the poor and their suffering thereby which prevailed in the grand days of the ,roman ,empire1 as well as always before1 and is assumed to have continued down to the present4 ,it is the story of the life and sufferings of ,jesus of ,nazareth1 told in the thrilling style of the great ,french novelist4 ,,publications ,,received4 ,agricultural ,experiment ,stations4 ,bulletins and ,reports4 ,delaware ,college2 ,no4 #dd4 ,sorghum in #ahih4 ,by ,charles ,l4 ,penny4 ,pp4 #af4--,michigan ,state ,agricultural ,college4 ,special1 ,no4 #aa4 ,frozen ,trees and their ,treatment4 ,pp4 #d2 ,nos4 #aff and #afg4 ,dairy ,matters4 ,by ,c4 ,d4 ,smith and ,g4 ,h4 ,true4 ,pp4 #cj2 ,no4 #afh4 ,michigan ,fruit ,list4 ,by ,l4 ,h4 ,taft4 ,pp4 #af2 ,michigan ,bulletin of ,vital ,statistics1 ,february and ,march1 #ahii4 ,pp4 #bj each4--,new ,hampshire ,college3 ,no4 #eh4 ,the ,cost of raising ,calves4 ,by ,fred ,w4 ,morse4 ,pp4 #ab2 ,no4 #ei4 ,tenth ,annual ,report4 ,by ,charles ,s4 ,murkland4 ,pp4 #ef2 ,no4 #fj4 ,green ,corn under ,glass4 ,by ,f4 ,william ,rane4 ,pp4 #fj2 ,no4 #fa4 ,the ,inspection of ,fertilizers in #ahih4 ,pp4 #ab2 ,no4 #fb4 ,forcing ,pole ,beans under ,glass4 ,by ,f4 ,william ,rane4 ,pp4 #h4--,new ,jersey3 ,report of the ,botanical ,department for #ahih4 ,by ,byron ,d4 ,halsted4 ,pp4 #hd2 ,no4 #ace4 ,the ,poisonous ,plants of ,new ,jersey4 ,by ,byron ,d4 ,halsted4 ,pp4 #bh4--,new ,york3 ,no4 #aej4 ,two ,small ,fruit ,pests4 ,by ,f4 ,h4 ,hall and ,v4 ,h4 ,lowe4 ,pp4 #e4--,ohio3 ,no4 #ii4 ,sugar ,beet ,investigations in #ahih4 ,by ,a4 ,d4 ,selby2 ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture4 ,some ,insects ,injurious to ,garden and ,orchard ,crops4 ,by ,f4 ,h4 ,chittenden4 ,pp4 #ii2 ,north ,dakota ,weather and ,crop ,service for ,december1 #ahih4 ,by ,w4 ,l4 ,moon and ,b4 ,h4 ,bronson4 ,pp4 #h4 ,american ,economic ,association4 ,the ,federal ,census4 ,critical ,essays by ,members of the ,association4 ,pp4 #eaf4 ,paper4 #a4 ,american ,public ,health ,association4 ,the ,bertillon ,classification of ,causes of ,death4 ,lansing1 ,mich4 ,pp4 #dj4 ,badenoch1 ,l4 ,n4 ,true ,tales of the ,insects4 ,london3 ,chapman ,hall4 ,pp4 #bee4 ,barber1 ,edwin ,atlee4 ,anglo-,american ,pottery4 7,old ,english ,china1 with ,american ,views47 ,indianapolis1 ,ind43 ,press of the ,clay-worker4 ,pp4 #agj4 #a4ej4 ,bauer1 ,l4 ,a4 ,the ,physical ,decomposition of the ,earth's ,magnetic ,field1 ,no4 #a4 ,pp4 #bj4 ,is the ,principal ,source of the ,secular ,variation of the ,earth's ,magnetism within or without the ,earth's ,crust8 ,pp4 #f4 ,bridges and ,framed ,structures4 ,an ,illustrated ,monthly ,magazine4 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #a4 ,april1 #ahii4 ,chicago3 ,the ,d4 ,p4 ,rauck ,publishing ,company4 ,pp4 #ib4 #cj cents4 ,campbell1 ,w4 ,w4 ,the ,elements of ,practical ,astronomy4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #bfd4 #b4 ,fairchild1 ,h4 ,l4 ,glacial ,waters in the ,finger-,lake ,region of ,new ,york4 ,pp4 #cf4 ,glacial ,lakes1 ,newberry1 ,warren1 and ,dana1 in ,central ,new ,york4 ,pp4 #ad4 ,fiske1 ,john4 ,through ,nature to ,god4 ,boston and ,new ,york3 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co4 ,pp4 #aid4 #a4 ,greinger1 ,s41 ,m4 ,d4 ,a ,case of ,abnormally ,high ,temperature subsequent to ,attack of ,tertian ,ague4 ,pp4 #e4 ,hague1 ,arnold4 ,presidential ,address to the ,geological ,society of ,washington1 #ahih4 ,abstracts of ,minutes1 etc4 ,pp4 #dh4 ,hollick1 ,arthur4 ,notes on ,block ,island4 ,pp4 #bj1 with plates4 ,the ,relations between ,forestry and ,geology in ,new ,jersey4 ,parts ,i and ,,ii4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,additions to the ,palobotany of the ,cretaceous ,formation on ,staten ,island4 ,no4 ,,ii4 ,pp4 #ab1 with plates4 ,hunter1 ,s4 ,j4 ,alfalfa1 ,grasshoppers1 ,bees3 ,their ,relationship4 ,university of ,kansas4 ,pp4 #aeb4 ,jackman1 ,wilbur ,s4 ,nature ,study for ,grammar ,grades4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #djg4 #a4 ,jenks1 ,josephine1 ,translator4 ,friedrich ,froebel's ,education by ,development4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,international ,education ,series4 ,pp4 #cdg4 ,kemp1 ,james ,furman4 ,preliminary ,report of the ,geology of ,essex ,county1 ,new ,york4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,geology of the ,lake ,placid ,region4 ,pp4 #bj1 with map4 ,marot1 ,helen4 ,a ,handbook of ,labor ,literature4 ,philadelphia3 ,free ,library of ,economics and ,political ,science4 ,pp4 #if4 #a4 ,mason1 ,otis ,tufton4 ,aboriginal ,american ,zotechny4 ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons4 ,pp4 #cg4 ,new ,england ,anti-,vivisection ,society ,monthly4 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,no4 #d4 ,april1 #ahii4 ,pp4 #bj4 ,boston4 #aj cents4 #a a year4 ,pennwitt1 ,w4 ,c4 ,memorial to the ,united ,states ,senate concerning a ,national ,university4 ,pp4 #af4 ,peck1 ,f4 ,w41 ,commissioner ,general4 ,the ,united ,states at the ,paris ,exposition in #aijj4 ,pp4 #aa4 ,internationale ,exposition ,universelle1 ,paris1 #aijj4 ,regulations1 ,classification4 ,chicago4 ,pp4 #aaj4 ,roosa1 ,d4 ,b4 ,st4 ,john1 ,m4 ,d4 ,defective ,eyesight4 ,the ,principle of its ,relief by ,glasses4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #aic4 #a4 ,russell1 ,frank4 ,explorations in the ,far ,north4 ,university of ,iowa4 ,pp4 #aij4 ,sargent1 ,frederick ,leroy4 ,corn ,plants4 ,their ,uses and ,ways of ,life4 ,boston and ,new ,york3 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co4 ,pp4 #ajf4 ,smith1 ,d4 ,t41 ,m4 ,d4 ,the ,philosophy of ,money1 and other ,essays4 ,louisville1 ,ky43 ,john ,p4 ,morton ,co4 ,pp4 #bjc4 #a4be4 ,smith1 ,edgar ,f4 7authorized translator74 ,victor von ,richter's ,organic ,chemistry1 or ,chemistry of the ,carbon ,compounds4 ,edited by ,prof4 ,r4 ,anschtz4 ,third ,american from the eighth ,german edition4 ,philadelphia3 ,p4 ,blakiston ,co4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,the ,aliphatic ,series4 ,pp4 #fbe4 #c4 ,smithsonian ,institution 7,u4 ,s4 ,national ,museum74 ,cook1 ,o4 ,f4 ,the ,diplopod ,family ,striariid4 ,pp4 #h1 with plates4 ,african ,diplopoda of the ,family ,gomphodesmid4 ,pp4 #fd1 with plates4 ,swift1 ,morrison ,i4 ,anti-,imperialism4 ,los ,angeles1 ,cal43 ,public ,ownership ,review4 ,pp4 #fd4 ,united ,states ,commissioner of ,fish and ,fisheries4 ,report to ,june #cj1 #ahih4 ,washington4 ,pp4 #cej4 ,woodman1 ,j4 ,edmund4 ,studies in the ,gold-bearing ,slates of ,nova ,scotia4 ,boston ,society of ,natural ,history4 ,pp4 #db1 with #c plates4 ,fragments of ,science4 ,the ,new ,zealand ,experiment in ,woman ,suffrage4--,the right of suffrage was given to all the women of ,new ,zealand in #ahic without any concerted action or aggressive demonstrations on their part by the free1 almost unsolicited1 vote of the men4 ,the general election took place in ,november of the same year1 and is described in the ,saturday ,review as having been a warm contest1 with several questions on which public opinion was sharply divided2 but on the whole1 the women took matters wonderfully coolly4 ,they flocked in thousands to the public meetings1 where1 by common consent1 the front seats were given up to them4 ,contrary to expectation1 they displayed little emotion1 and even had to be coached to make a pretense of enthusiasm4 ,polling day was awaited with dread by the electioneering agents and returning officers1 with doubt by veteran politicians1 and with pleasurable excitement by the women4 ,they all voted1 and what did it all lead to8 ,it left things very much as they were4444 ,gradually but irresistibly the conviction forced itself upon the ,new ,zealand mind that the women knowing little and caring as little about political details1 had voted almost always with the men of their family and class4 ,sharing to the full the prejudices1 hopes1 and interests of their fathers1 brothers1 husbands1 and lovers1 they had cheerfully doubled the voting power of these4 ,where1 as in the case of schoolmistresses and factory girls1 they had some special bond of union other than domestic they had voted very much as schoolmasters and male trade-unionists had voted4444 ,with one accord colonists ceased to be afraid of what the suffrage might do1 and began instead to complain of it for not doing more4 ,only here and there careful observers note that groups of women are studying politics1 and foresee that1 as years go by1 these will supply a new and intelligent force with distinct and logically reasoned aims of its own4 ,the ,metric ,system 7a ,letter to the ,london ,times74--,,sir3 ,i see that on ,wednesday next1 the #bb;d inst41 the ,president of the ,board of ,trade is to receive a deputation from the ,decimal ,associations and others to urge on the ,government1 not merely the adoption of the decimal system of notation1 but the compulsory application within two years of the metric system of weights and measures in its entirety4 ,i have been hoping to see a letter in the ,times from some person of importance calling attention to this deputation4 ,i fervently trusted ,i should notice one from your correspondent1 ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 who1 a year or so back1 contributed a series of thoroughly well-thought-out and logical articles1 exposing the fallacy of the metric system2 but if any such letter has appeared ,i have1 unfortunately1 missed it4 ,i believe this agitation to be largely due to scientific professors who have been brought up on foreign books1 and have found it too much trouble to convert foreign measurements into ,english2 further1 due to the promptings of a number of foreign merchants1 forming 7happily1 or unhappily7 now so large a portion of our traders-men who1 also1 do not wish to take the trouble of converting foreign weights and measures into ,english4 ,as regards the suggestion1 made time after time1 that the metric system is one giving the greatest simplicity to calculations1 ,i say unhesitatingly1 from very considerable experience1 that it is one absolutely subversive of mental arithmetic1 and ,i appeal to anybody who has ever had the misfortune to wait at the guichet of a ,french railway station while the clerk inside has been calculating the total amount to be paid for two first-class and one second-class from ,a to ,b with a piece of chalk1 or pencil and paper1 to compare the speed and the certainty of this process with the answer that he would get at ,euston1 or at any such station in ,great ,britain1 and say which system shows by results the advantages in point of time and in accuracy4 ,the ,french themselves1 as has been pointed out on more than one occasion1 find the metric system too irksome1 and they evade it4 ,according to the metric system1 one of its great merits is that you can state every required quantity by multiples or submultiples of ten--metre1 #a2 decimetre1 #j4a2 centimetre1 #j4ja2 millimetre1 #j4jja4 ,but no ,frenchman thinks of expressing himself in this way4 ,instead of #j4ja1 he says cm4 #a4 ,for a millimetre1 he says mm4 #a4 ,when he comes to large weights1 does he not commonly abjure the #a1jjj kilos and write one tonne8 ,when he comes to domestic weights the kilogramme is found too large2 the half of this1 the practical equivalent of the pound1 is wanted4 ,he ought to write #ejj grammes4 ,he does not4 ,he abjures his decimals1 and writes one half kilo4 ,but ,i feel ,i must not take up your space by multiplying instances1 so well known to many who have studied the subject1 of the unbearable burden of the decimal plus metrical system compulsorily carried out4 ,i well know the value of decimals1 and the indispensable need of their use in many circumstances2 but ,i object to being compelled to use them when they are not needed and are in the way4 ,i find it easier to state seven eighths1 and to deal with it mentally1 than to put it into the form of 4#hge4 ,i do not wish to be restricted by law in the use of my tools4 ,what would be thought of the law which compelled a shipwright on all occasions to use a chisel1 and never to employ the adze4 ,i1 with1 ,i believe1 every upholder of ,english weights and measures1 and of the use of fractions1 am quite willing that the metric system should be made legal in its entirety throughout ,great ,britain2 but we are not willing that the useful weights and measures which we can employ with so great facility and accuracy should be made illegal4 ,let the two exist together1 and experience will prove which is the one preferred by the community4 ,i am1 sir1 your obedient servant1 ,,frederick ,,bramwell4 #e ,,great ,,george ,,street1 ,,westminster1 ,s4 ,w41 ,march #ah1 #ahii4 ,p4 ,s4--,very probably the old stalking-horses will be trotted out on ,wednesday1 and the ,president of the ,board of ,trade will be told of the confusion created by the existence of mere local weights and measures4 ,i believe that if those who cite these anomalies were asked to give instances at various dates it would be found that these local weights and measures were dying out4 ,in any event they are illegal1 and are not obligatory upon anybody4 ,every man can claim to deal according to the standards of length1 of weights1 and of capacity4 ,most certainly the introduction of the metric system would largely add to the use of illegal weights and measures1 not only locally1 but generally4 ,if the inquiry were made in ,france1 even no farther off than ,boulogne1 it would be found that1 in the markets there1 dealings are frequently carried out on a local system unconnected with the metric4--,f4 ,b4 ,variations in ,african ,religious ,ideas4--,miss ,kingsley observes1 in her ,west ,african ,studies1 that when you are traveling from district to district you can not fail to be struck by the difference in character of the native religions you are studying1 and that no wandering student of the subject in western ,africa can avoid recognizing the existence of at least four distinct forms of development of the fetich idea4 ,they have every one of them the same underlying idea1 and yet they differ4 ,and ,i believe1 ,miss ,kingsley says1 much of the confusion which is supposed to exist in ,african religious ideas is a confusion only existing in the minds of cabinet ethnologists from a want of recognition of the fact of the existence of these schools4 ,for example1 suppose you take a few facts from ,ellis and a few from ,bastian and mix1 and call the mixture ,west ,african religion4 ,you do much the same sort of thing as if you took bits from ,mr4 ,spurgeon's works and from those of some eminent ,jesuit and of a sound ,greek churchman and mixed them1 and labeled it ,european religion4 ,the bits would be all right by themselves1 but the mixture would be a quaint affair4 ,of the four main schools of fetich predicated by ,miss ,kingsley1 the ,tshi and ,ewe school 7,ellis's school7 is mainly concerned with the preservation of life2 the ,calabar school with attempting to enable the soul successfully to pass through death2 the ,mpongwe school with the attainment of material prosperity2 and the school of ,nkissi with the worship of the mystery of the power of evil4 ,a ,natural ,history ,society as a ,school4--,among the agencies employed by the ,boston ,society of ,natural ,history for making itself a vehicle of instruction to the public has been the employment of an educated man and teacher as guide to the museum1 who should also give lectures there4 ,the salary of this officer has heretofore been provided by the bounty of ,miss ,harriet ,e4 ,freeman1 but she has been obliged to discontinue her contribution1 and the curator is now seeking other means of maintaining a suitably qualified assistant4 ,the guide1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,w4 ,grabau1 delivered a course of lectures in ,april and ,may1 #ahig1 on ,the ,surface of the ,earth3 ,its ,rocks1 ,soil1 and ,scenery1 in which special attention was given to the scenery in ,new ,england2 and1 whenever it was practicable1 excursions were made to localities which could be used as illustrations4 ,a similar course1 delivered in #ahif1 resulted in the formation during the summer of the same year of a class of thirty persons1 summer residents of ,kennebunkport1 ,maine1 who were under ,mr4 ,grabau's daily instruction for two weeks4 ,the awakening of interest in local scenery further led to his giving lectures in ,belmont and ,arlington1 and he thereby became instrumental in a movement intended to preserve the local frontal bowlder moraine on ,arlington ,heights--a valuable geological movement4 ,a course of lectures on the ,animals of the ,shores of ,new ,england was given by ,mr4 ,grabau to a class of from forty to seventy-five persons1 in the ,teachers' ,school of ,science1 with excursions on ,wednesday and ,saturday afternoons4 ,in a similar fall course attention was given specially to the study of animals in their various habitats4 ,a course by ,mr4 ,grabau on the use of the microscope and the preparation of specimens was followed by ten days' laboratory work in ,limekilns ,bay1 ,maine4 ,one of the results of a winter course on zology1 to a class of twenty teachers1 was the formation of the ,hale ,house ,natural ,history ,club1 in connection with which field meetings are held1 classes for children are formed1 and papers upon elementary subjects are read and discussed4 ,other courses of lectures are mentioned in the report of the curator of the society--the field lessons in geology1 by ,professor ,barton1 with a winter course in historical geology2 the course of ,dr4 ,r4 ,w4 ,greenleaf1 on the elementary structure and function of the parts of flowering plants2 the course of the curator 7,alpheus ,hyatt71 on elementary zology2 and the lectures on geography1 by ,prof4 ,w4 ,m4 ,davis4 ,glacier ,water4--,an analysis of two samples of water from the ,illecilliwaet ,glacier1 in ,british ,columbia1 was recently made by ,f4 ,t4 ,shutt and ,a4 ,t4 ,charron4 ,the water was collected a few feet from the glacier's irregular face1 about a mile and a half from the glacier station on the ,canadian ,pacific ,railway4 ,the following is abstracted from an account in the ,chemical ,news3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,no4 #a4 ,no4 #b4 ---------------------- ,parts per million4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,free ammonia #j4jah #j4jah ,albuminoid ammonia #j4jbg #j4jcg ,nitrogen as nitrates and nitrites #j4jbdf #j4jddb ,oxygen absorbed in fifteen minutes #j4jcif #j4jfgb ,oxygen absorbed in four hours #j4ajef #j4agdd ,chlorine #j4aj #j4aj ,total solids at #aje ,c4 #cj4h #ab4j ,solids after ignition #cj4h #h4j ,loss on ignition ,none4 #d4j ,phosphates ,none4 ,none4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,the authors go on to say3 ,from the above data we may unhesitatingly conclude that the glacier water is one of great organic purity4 ,the samples are not identical1 due no doubt to the fact that they were collected twelve days apart1 and probably from different parts of the foot of the glacier4 ,both analyses1 however1 show that1 judged by the standards used in the diagnosis of ordinary potable waters1 it is a water possessing a high degree of purity1 and one perfectly wholesome and eminently suited for drinking and household purposes4 ,as received1 both samples were quite murky1 almost milky1 in appearance4 ,on allowing them to stand1 perfect subsidence took place1 leaving the supernatant water colorless and brilliant4 ,a microscopic examination of the sediment showed it to consist of very fine rock matter1 chiefly fragments of quartzite4 ,protection of ,plants and ,birds in ,france and ,italy4--,organized efforts for the protection of native plants and birds from further destruction are multiplying in ,europe4 ,botanical stations for ,alpine plants have been established at several places in ,france and ,switzerland1 and now ,italy has come into line with the association ,pro ,mortibus1 which1 founded in ,july1 #ahig1 has already more than five hundred adherents4 ,italy is probably the country where work of this kind is most needed1 for nowhere else is the destruction1 particularly of birds1 so systematically1 persistently1 and industriously carried on4 ,pro ,mortibus will also interest itself in the preservation and replantation of the forests4 ,among other efforts looking in a similar direction1 ,m4 ,j4 ,corcelli tells in ,la ,nature of the establishment of shelters in connection with the schools in ,saxony where birds are fed in the winter1 and of lessons given to the children inculcating regard for them4 ,a great deal has been accomplished in ,france without much noise in rewooding the devastated slopes of the mountains and erecting efficient safeguards against ravage by torrents--largely by restraining the torrents at their sources2 and the ,alpine forests of the country1 ,m4 ,corcelli says1 are again rising from their ashes4 ,reserves of ,alpine plants have been established by the ,belfort section of the ,french ,alpine ,club on the ,ballon of ,alsace2 the central section is creating an extensive botanical garden in the ,vosges1 to serve as a place of refuge and propagation and multiplication of species threatened with extinction4 ,the city of ,annecy1 in ,savoy1 has recently voted the money required for establishing a similar garden on the verdant ridges of the ,semnoz4 ,two local societies in ,italy are engaged in a similar work1 one of which has established the garden museum ,chamousia on the slopes of the ,saint ,bernard1 where plants from the ,pyrenees and the ,himalaya are also collected4 ,switzerland is not behind either of these countries in this work4 ,tortoise ,shell4--,the following interesting account of the tortoise-shell industry is taken from ,nature3 ,the tortoise shell of commerce is obtained from the horny superficial plates overlying the bony case of the great majority of tortoises and turtles4 ,turtles differ from tortoises in the heart-shaped form of the upper half of the shell1 and the conversion of the limbs into paddles adapted for swimming4 ,the upper part of the shell carries a median row of five large superficial horny plates1 flanked on either side by a row of four or five still larger flat plates2 these thirteen or fifteen large plates affording some of the most valuable commercial tortoise shell in the particular species whose shell is in most demand4 ,on the front and hind edges of the upper bony shell and the portion connecting the latter with the plastron1 or lower shell1 are a series of smaller horny plates1 generally twenty-four in number1 which are sharply bent in the middle and are known in the trade as hoof4 ,the under surface of the shell of a turtle carries six pairs of large1 more or less flat1 horny plates1 for which the trade term1 derived from their uniform color1 is yellow belly4 ,in value they sometimes exceed all but the very finest of the large upper plates1 generally known simply as shell4 ,of the host of land and fresh-water tortoises1 most of which are of comparatively small size1 the horny plates 7which1 by the way1 are altogether wanting in the so-called soft tortoises of tropical rivers71 on account of their thinness and opacity1 are now of no commercial value1 at least in ,england4 ,moreover1 it is by no means all species of marine turtles which yield commercial tortoise shell4 ,of these marine turtles1 exclusive of the great leathery turtle1 there are three well-marked and perfectly distinct types1 severally represented by the green or edible turtle1 the hawksbill1 and the loggerhead4 ,the hawksbill furnishes the most valuable shell4 ,the largest and best plates1 which are in the middle of the back1 are about a quarter of an inch thick in the center1 and measure about thirteen by eight inches1 their weight being from about half a pound each to as much as one pound4 ,the length of the carapace 7the upper shell7 in the hawksbill is about forty-two inches4 ,it is found in all tropical and subtropical seas4 ,from a dead turtle the plates of tortoise shell can be readily detached by beating4 ,the highest price realized during #ahih in the ,london market was about #aabs4 #f;d4 7about #bh7 a pound for the very best selected shell4 ,it is stated that #gf1gfj pounds of hawksbill shell were sold in ,london in #ahih4 ,the shell is very readily workable1 being made partially plastic by immersion in hot water4 ,poison in ,wild ,cherry ,leaves4--,instances having been brought to the notice of the directory of the ,new ,hampshire ,college ,agricultural ,experiment ,station of cattle presumably fatally poisoned by prussic acid from eating wild cherry leaves1 the subject has been investigated by ,fred ,w4 ,morse and ,charles ,d4 ,howard4 ,five species of wild cherry grow in ,new ,hampshire1 of which the red cherry and the horse plum are not regarded as dangerous1 and the dwarf cherry has not been examined1 but is strongly suspected4 ,the wild black cherry is the most noxious species1 and the chokecherry is not far behind it4 ,the poisonous principle in these cherries is hydrocyanic or prussic acid1 which1 however1 does not exist in the leaves as such1 but is derived from the amygdalin they contain4 ,the popular opinion that only the wilted leaves are specially dangerous is not borne out4 ,the authors found both wilted and fresh leaves poisonous1 and the dried leaves worthy to be regarded with suspicion4 ,vigorous1 succulent leaves from young shoots1 which are the ones most likely to be eaten by cattle1 are far more poisonous than the leaves from a mature tree or stunted shrub4 ,the largest amounts of prussic acid were derived from leaves wilted in bright sunlight to about seventy-five per cent their original weight1 or till they began to appear slightly limp and lose their gloss4 ,leaves wilted in the dark were much less dangerous4 ,dr4 ,brinton's ,contributions to ,american ,linguistics4--,at the suggestion of the late ,james ,constantine ,pilling1 ,dr4 ,d4 ,g4 ,brinton has prepared an analytical survey of his contributions in the field of ,american linguistics1 which have now extended over forty years4 ,the list includes seventy-one titles of books and papers1 of which sixteen are classed as general articles and works4 ,the first four of these are occupied with the inquiry whether the native ,american languages1 as a group1 have peculiar morphological traits that justify their classification as one of the great divisions of human speech4 ,dr4 ,brinton finds a feature--incorporation--which1 under the form polysynthesis1 is present in a marked degree in nearly all of them4 ,another paper shows that the various alleged affiliations between ,american and ,asiatic tongues are wholly unfounded1 and another pleads for more attention to ,american languages4 ,a volume of nearly four hundred pages--,the ,american ,race--was the first attempt at a systematic classification of all the tribes of ,north1 ,central1 and ,south ,america on the basis of language4 ,it defines seventy-nine linguistic stocks in ,north ,america and sixty-one in ,south ,america1 pertaining to nearly sixteen hundred tribes4 ,other volumes in the list include writings1 preferably on secular subjects1 by natives in their own languages4 ,one contains a list of native ,american authors1 and notices some of their works4 ,another vindicates the claim of native ,american poetry to recognition4 ,these works were followed by the ,library of ,aboriginal ,american ,literature1 of which eight considerable volumes were published1 each containing a work wholly of native inspiration1 in a native tongue1 with a translation1 notes1 etc4 ,fourteen other publications relate to ,north ,american languages north of ,mexico1 thirty-two to ,mexican and ,central ,american languages1 and ten to ,south ,american and ,antillean languages4 ,many of these articles were collected in #ahij and published in a volume entitled ,essays of an ,americanist4 ,it was arranged in four parts1 relating respectively to ,ethnology and ,archology1 ,mythology and ,folklore1 ,graphic ,systems and ,literature1 and ,linguistics4 ,the value of ,dr4 ,brinton's labors will be realized by all persons who know how rapidly things purely native ,american are passing away4 ,metallic ,alloys of ,rich ,colors4--,a remarkable alloy of gold seventy-eight parts and aluminum twenty-two parts1 discovered by ,messrs4 ,roberts-,austen and ,hunt1 has a characteristic purple color which can not be imitated2 for if the designated proportions of the constituents are varied from1 the base is entirely changed4 ,the compound lacks somewhat in the qualities of resistance and malleability4 ,the color is abnormal in that it partakes of none of the color features of its constituents1 as is the case in most combinations of metals4 ,thus1 the colors of copper alloyed with zinc or tin pass gradually from red to white1 according to the proportions of the constituent metals4 ,in the union of two metals of white or bluish-white color1 like zinc1 tin1 silver1 and aluminum1 the color of the alloys is not perceptibly different from that of the components--that is1 it continues white4 ,the purple of the gold aluminum alloy is not1 however1 the only exception to this rule4 ,aluminum gives highly colored compounds with several other metals1 even when the second metal is clearly white4 ,in the experiments of ,charles ,marcot1 of ,geneva1 in alloying aluminum with platinum1 palladium1 nickel1 and cobalt1 combination took place abruptly at red heat1 with the development of an intense temperature and a partial combination of the aluminum2 and when platinum is the second metal1 an explosion is liable to occur4 ,an alloy of seventy-two parts of platinum and twenty-eight of aluminum had a bright golden or yellow color1 which varied under slight changes in the proportions of the elements to violet green or coppery red4 ,the alloy is hard and brittle and of crystalline structure4 ,the yellow form is stable1 while the other forms decompose in a short time4 ,an alloy of seventy-two parts palladium and twenty-eight aluminum is of fine coppery rose color1 crystalline texture1 hard and brittle1 and suffers no change with time4 ,an alloy of from seventy-five to eighty parts cobalt and twenty to twenty-five aluminum is straw-yellow1 inclining to brown2 when just formed it is externally hard and scratches glass1 but is easily broken with a hammer1 and falls to a powder in a few days4 ,an alloy of eighty-two parts nickel and eighteen aluminum has a pronounced straw-yellow color1 is as hard as tempered steel1 and resists the blow of a hammer4 ,the fracture1 close-grained1 is that of steel or bell metal4 ,it is susceptible of a fine polish1 is stable1 and keeps its color4 ,though interesting on account of their colors1 these alloys1 except that of nickel1 are not suitable for any use4 ,the ,chemistry of ,sausages4--,the ,lancet is authority for the following3 ,the composition of the sausage is not only complex1 but it is often obscure4 ,it is supposed to be a compound of minced beef and pork4 ,abroad1 however1 the sausage is compounded of a much wider range of substances4 ,these include brains1 liver1 and horseflesh4 ,occasionally they do not contain meat at all1 but only bread tinged with red oxide of iron and mixed with a varying proportion of fat4 ,horseflesh is rich in glycogen1 and this fact enables its presence in sausage meat to be detected with some amount of certainty4 ,the test1 which depends on a color reaction1 with iodine has recently been more carefully studied and with more satisfactory results1 so that the presence of five per cent of horseflesh can be detected4 ,at present there is no legal provision for a standard in regard to the composition of sausages1 but clearly there ought to be4 ,limitations should be laid down as to the amount of bread used1 as to the actual proportion of meat substances present1 and as to the coloring matters added to give an attractive appearance of fresh meat4 ,sausages are extremely liable to undergo decomposition and become poisonous1 owing to the elaboration of toxic substances during the putrefactive process4 ,bad or rancid fat is very liable to alter the character of a sausage for the worse4 ,thus in some instances the use of rancid lard has rendered the sausage after a time quite phosphorescent1 an appearance which indicates1 of course1 an undesirable change4 ,the smoked sausage is a much safer article of diet than the unsmoked1 since the curing process preserves the meat substance against decomposition by reason of the empyreumatic bodies present in the wood smoke which is used for this purpose4 ,photographing ,papuan ,children4--,many savages dislike to have their pictures taken1 some being restrained by motives of superstition2 but in ,new ,guinea ,professor ,semon found being photographed a great joke for all the boys and girls4 ,he had much trouble in isolating a single individual1 so as not to get thirty or forty persons into his picture instead of the one he wished to immortalize4 ,wishing1 he says1 to portray one young girl of uncommonly good looks1 ,i separated her from the rest1 gave her a favorable position1 and adjusted the lens1 surrounded all the while by a crowd of people behind and beside me1 the children cheering1 the women most ardently attentive1 the men benevolently smiling4 ,evidently my subject was proud of the distinction she enjoyed and the attention vouchsafed her4 ,quite suddenly1 however1 this simple savage1 untaught as she was and innocent of the laws of reticence and prudishness1 became convulsed with shame1 covered her eyes with her hands1 and valiantly resisted every attempt to make her stand forward as before4 ,at the same time ,i noticed that the hue of her features changed1 the brown of her face becoming darker and deeper than before1 a phenomenon easily explained by the fact of the blood rising into her head4 ,had she been a brown girl we would have said that she blushed4 ,at all events1 the physiological process was the same as that which forces us to blush4 ,at another time1 when the author had got two little girls into position to be photographed1 their mothers came up and forbade his taking them that day1 but promised to present them on the morrow4 ,on the next day both the little angels were solemnly brought to meet us nearly smothered in ornaments1 their hair decorated with feathers and combs1 their ears with tortoise-shell pieces1 their little throats surrounded by plates of mother-of-pearl and chains of dingo teeth1 legs and arms hung with rings and shells1 teeth1 and all sorts of network4444 ,here1 again1 one may see that mothers are made of the same stuff all over the world1 ,papuan mammas being equal to any of our peasant women or fine ladies in the point of vanity as far as concerns their children4 ,meat ,extracts4--,an interesting account of the history and preparation of meat extracts was recently given as a lecture before the ,society of ,arts 7,english7 by ,charles ,r4 ,valentine4 ,the idea of concentrating the body of an ox into a thimbleful of elixir seems to have been a very old one4 ,until the work of ,justus von ,liebig1 about fifty years ago1 however1 little progress of practical value was made toward this end4 ,liebig macerated finely divided beef in cold water1 or in water not above #aej ,f4 ,the water dissolved from sixteen to twenty-four per cent of the weight of the dry flesh4 ,this infusion was heated1 the albumen and red coloring matter of the blood coagulated1 and was separated as a flocculent precipitate4 ,the remaining solution has the aromatic taste and all the properties of soup made by boiling the flesh4 ,the infusion was then evaporated at a gentle heat4 ,the residue amounted to about twelve or thirteen per cent of the original 7dry7 flesh4 ,this is in rough outline the process of meat-extract making4 ,this extract is simply an evaporated beef tea1 containing the extractive matters of beef1 and in virtue of these possesses medicinal and dietetic properties of value4 ,but it is in no sense a substitute for beef1 as the latter's most important food constituent--albumen--it does not contain4 ,,minor ,,paragraphs4 ,it appears from tables of ,some ,statistics of ,engineering ,education1 compiled by ,president ,m4 ,e4 ,wadsworth1 of the ,michigan ,college of ,mines1 that such education has been1 in the ,united ,states1 on the whole a thing of comparatively recent date1 the oldest school1 the ,rensselaer ,polytechnic ,institute1 having been established in #ahbd2 the next1 the ,lawrence and ,sheffield ,schools1 in #ahdf and #ahdg2 and the ,columbia ,school in #ahfc4 ,civil engineering has led in this country1 and has had various periods of advance1 as in #ahhg-'hh1 and depression1 as in #ahif-'ig4 ,mechanical engineering progressed till #ahhf-'hg1 when the number of students fell off1 and the same happened with electrical engineering1 which further suffers a natural reaction from having been greatly overdone4 ,as a rule1 most of the schools in the ,united ,states seem to run to specialties1 one or two of the courses being usually more conspicuous than the others4 ,the importance of some arrangement by which vessels may be informed of each other's approach in fog and darkness has given rise to many devices2 the only one1 however1 which has as yet proved practical is the fog-horn or siren1 and this has many disadvantages4 ,several fatal collisions at sea during the past year have given rise to renewed interest in the subject1 and a number of new methods have been suggested4 ,m4 ,branley1 a ,french physicist1 in a note presented to the ,french ,academy suggests that each vessel be provided with a number of extremely sensitive magnetic receivers1 or coherers1 and a powerful magnetic transmitter4 ,periodical signals being made with the transmitter1 corresponding impressions would be made upon the receivers of approaching vessels4 ,the principal difficulty with this scheme lies in the fact that the receivers of a vessel will be affected by its own transmitter4 ,there are several methods by which this difficulty may be overcome1 however4 ,different signals may be employed1 or the interval between signals may be regularly varied4 ,m4 ,branley calls attention to the influence of a metallic envelope surrounding a coherer1 and shows that when the coherer is thus completely surrounded it is unaffected by the influence of a transmitter4 ,by thus inclosing the receiver on a ship at the instant of the operation of the transmitter of the same vessel1 the above difficulty might be avoided4 ,while we can not collect roses from our gardens in ,january and maple blossoms from the woods in ,february1 yet1 as ,prof4 ,w4 ,j4 ,beal shows in a bulletin of the ,michigan ,agricultural ,college ,experiment ,station1 our trees and shrubs in their winter garb furnish excellent lessons for the profitable employment of pupils during many weeks at that season in true botanical study4 ,let each member of a class be provided with a branch1 a foot or two long1 from a sugar maple1 and then spend some ten to twenty minutes or more quietly looking at the buds and the bark1 with its scars and specks1 and then tell what he has discovered1 venturing to explain the object or meaning of some of the things he has seen4 ,in a similar manner let each look over a branch of beech and then point out the difference between the two kinds4 ,opening buds of trees may be obtained at any time during the winter by placing the lower end of the stem in water for a week or two while in the schoolroom4 ,eivind ,astrup1 in his book ,with ,peary near the ,pole1 gives admiring pictures of the natural innocence of the uncontaminated ,eskimos of northern ,greenland1 where are communities in which money is unknown1 and love of one's neighbor is a fundamental rule of action2 where theft is not practiced4 ,all things are held in common1 and falsehoods are told only to spare the feelings of the listener4 ,among the instances of the native kindliness of these people is one where a dog had eaten up a reindeer coat1 yet was only remonstrated with by its owner4 ,when the author suggested that a hungry dog should be punished for stealing a piece of blubber1 the owner said that it was himself who deserved the thrashing for not having obtained sufficient food for the dog4 ,the operations of the ,illinois ,state ,laboratory of ,natural ,history during #ahig and #ahih were almost wholly connected with the work of the ,state ,entomologist or with that of the ,biological ,station4 ,the former work related to various insects injurious to crops4 ,the operations of the ,biological ,station were carried on with more reference to completing a formal report upon the fishes of ,illinois4 ,the work is conducted with a view to the acquisition of correct ideas of the relative abundance and local distribution of species1 their haunts1 habits1 regular migrations1 and irregular movements1 their building times and places1 rate of growth1 food1 diseases1 and enemies--and1 in short1 the whole economy of each kind represented at the station and of the whole assemblage taken together as a community group4 ,extensive studies of aquatic entomology were made1 and a paper on ephemerids and dragon flies is nearly ready for the press4 ,no part of the work of the station1 however1 attracts more attention among scientific men1 or is likely to lead to more interesting and important results1 than the plankton work1 or the systematic study of the minute forms of plant and animal life suspended in the water4 ,water analyses have been extensively made in connection with these studies1 which1 combined with the continuous biological work1 will1 when generalized1 furnish a substantial and authoritative body of knowledge of the conditions of the waters of the middle ,illinois previous to the opening of the ,chicago drainage canal1 useful for comparison with the results of similar studies made after that event4 ,a summer school was conducted1 with fifteen pupils1 in #ahih1 and publications were issued4 ,,notes4 ,the ,pasteur monument was dedicated at ,lille1 ,france1 the city in which the subject of the memorial performed his earlier more important researches1 ,april #ith4 ,the ceremony was witnessed by a large assembly1 which included many eminent scientific men of ,france and foreign countries1 among whom men engaged in similar researches to ,pasteur's were especially represented4 ,the monument1 the fruit of a public subscription1 represents ,pasteur standing on the summit of a column of ,soignies stone1 holding in his right hand an experimental flask4 ,at the foot of the column a woman presents her child1 which has been bitten by a mad dog1 for treatment4 ,to the left is a group representing inoculation--a woman1 personifying science1 injecting serum into a child she holds on her knees4 ,three bas-reliefs represent respectively ,dr4 ,roux inoculating a sheep for anthrax1 ,pasteur studying fermentation1 and the first antirabic inoculation of the young ,joseph ,meister1 who is held by his mother1 wearing the broad-flapped ,alsatian bonnet4 ,the statue is in light bronze1 and with the gilded bas-reliefs harmonizes well with the gray of the stone4 ,addresses were made by ,m4 ,armand ,gautier and ,m4 ,duclaux1 who said that the improved laboratories now enjoyed by scientific institutions in ,paris were largely due to ,pasteur's efforts4 ,the minor planet recently discovered by ,witt1 remarkable as having an orbit that comes within that of ,mars1 and provisionally known as ,,dq1 has been named ,eros4 ,an examination by ,professor ,pickering and ,mrs4 ,fleming of the ,harvard photographs has revealed traces of this body on twelve plates taken in #ahic and #ahid1 and on four plates of #ahif4 ,by the aid of these plates it has been possible to determine its elements with greater accuracy than would otherwise be possible4 ,its mean distance from the sun is #a4dehaj1 its shortest distance #a4acccd1 and its greatest distance #a4ghbhf that of the earth2 the eccentricity of its orbit is #j4bbbgbi1 and its period is #fdc4aj days4 ,its synodical period is such that it has three oppositions in seven years4 ,the next opposition will be in the last months of #aijj1 and will be a moderately favorable one for observation4 ,the courses in pure science of the ,new ,york ,university include undergraduate1 graduate1 and summer courses in mathematics1 physics1 chemistry1 geology1 and biology1 with laboratory privileges and provision for special students and independent work in chemistry4 ,the university last year was attended by #a1gag students in its three faculties and six schools1 and #gbj non-matriculant students and auditors4 ,a new feature this year is the inauguration of the ,charles ,f4 ,deems lectureship of philosophy1 under an endowment of #ae1jjj by the ,american ,institute of ,christian ,philosophy1 with ,prof4 ,james ,iverach1 ,d4 ,d41 of the ,free ,church ,college1 ,aberdeen1 ,scotland1 as the first lecturer4 ,a feature of the university organization is the institution of a woman's advisory committee co-operating with the council4 ,a woman's law class is supported by the ,woman's ,legal ,education ,society1 the purpose of which is to make business women and women in private life acquainted with existing law4 ,the new ,science ,building of the ,city ,library1 ,springfield1 ,mass41 recently completed1 is being inaugurated by a ,geographical and ,geological ,exhibition4 ,it includes the best and latest maps1 models1 globes1 charts1 relief maps1 and photographs1 special attention being paid to the most effective modes of teaching4 ,one of the most attractive features of the exhibition is the work from the ,springfield public schools4 ,an ingenious method for thawing out frozen water pipes has been used by ,prof4 ,r4 ,w4 ,wood1 of the ,university of ,wisconsin4 ,it consists simply of passing a current of electricity through the pipe4 ,in one case it is said that one hundred and fifty feet of frozen pipe was thawed out in eighteen minutes4 ,the ordinary street current was used1 the voltage being reduced to about fifty4 ,in a summary of inspectors' reports of the ,hartford ,steam ,boiler ,inspection and ,insurance ,company for #ahih it is stated that of #gh1cdi boilers1 inspected both internally and externally1 during the year1 there were #aa1gbg dangerous defects discovered and #fjc entire boilers were declared unsafe for further use4 ,the recent death list of men known in science includes the names of ,charles ,naudin1 an eminent ,french botanist1 ,dean of the ,botanical ,section of the ,academy of ,sciences and author of a book on ,hybrids in the ,vegetable ,kingdom1 at ,antibes1 ,france1 ,march #aith1 aged eighty-four years2 ,dr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,leitner1 an eminent ,orientalist and linguist1 ,lecturer on ,oriental ,language at ,king's ,college1 ,london1 ,principal of ,lahne ,college1 and ,registrar of ,punjaub ,university1 where he introduced the use of their own language and literature in teaching ,indian students1 founder of the ,anglo-,indian ,institute at ,woking1 ,england1 and author of works in ,education1 the ,races of ,turkey1 ,the ,races and ,languages of ,dardistan1 ,grco-,buddhist ,discoveries1 and other ,oriental subjects1 at ,bonn1 ,march #bdth1 in his sixty-ninth year2 ,dr4 ,angelo ,knorr1 ,docent in the ,veterinary ,school of ,munich1 ,february #bb;d2 ,elizabeth ,brown1 astronomical observer and author of papers on solar phenomena1 at ,cirencester1 ,england1 ,march #fth2 ,dr4 ,wilhelm von ,mller1 ,professor ,general ,chemistry in the ,institute of ,technology1 ,munich2 ,dr4 ,friedrich von ,lhmann1 mathematician1 at ,straslund1 ,prussia2 ,dr4 ,charles ,fortuun1 mineralogist1 in ,london2 ,alfred ,feuilleaubois1 author of researches on ,fungi1 at ,fontainebleau1 ,france2 ,dr4 ,heinrich ,kiefert1 a geographer and cartographer whose fame was world-wide1 whose maps and atlases are everywhere recognized as authorities1 at ,berlin1 ,april #bast1 aged seventy years2 and ,prof4 ,sophus ,lie1 of the ,university of ,christiania1 an eminent mathematician1 ,february #ahth1 in his fifty-seventh year4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,words surrounded by are italicized4 ,words surrounded by are bold4 ,obvious printer's errors have been repaired1 other inconsistent spellings have been kept1 including inconsistent use of hyphen 7e4g4 tortoise-shell and tortoise shell71 and proper names 7e4g4 ,shakspere and ,shakespeare74 ,some illustrations were relocated to correspond to their references in the text4