,,collecting ,,and ,,preserving4 ,,notes ,,on ,,collecting ,,and ,,preserving ,,natural-,,history ,,objects4 ,,by ,j4 ,e4 ,taylor1 ,f4,l4,s41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,e4 ,f4 ,elwin4 ,thos4 ,southwell1 ,f4,z4,s4 ,dr4 ,knaggs4 ,e4 ,c4 ,rye1 ,f4,z4,s4 ,j4 ,b4 ,bridgman4 ,professor ,ralph ,tate1 ,f4,g4,s4 ,jas4 ,britten1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,professor ,buckman1 ,f4,g4,s4 ,dr4 ,braithwaite1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,worthington ,g4 ,smith1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,rev4 ,jas4 ,crombie1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,w4 ,h4 ,grattann4 ,,edited ,,by ,j4 ,e4 ,,taylor1 ,ph,d41 ,f4,l4,s41 ,f4,g4,s41 c4 ,,new ,,edition4 ,,london3 ,w4 ,h4 ,,allen ,,co41 #ac ,,waterloo ,,place4 ,s4,w4 #ahhc4 7,all rights reserved47 ,,preface4 ,the following ,essays were originally contributed to the pages of ',science-,gossip1' by the various writers whose names they bear4 ,from the constant queries relating to subjects of this kind1 it was deemed advisable to furnish young or intending naturalists with such trustworthy information as would enable them to save time1 and gain by the experience of others4 ,for this purpose1 the articles have been collected in their present portable form as a ,handbook for beginners4 ,may1 #ahgf4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,preface v ,,chapter ,i4 ,geological ,specimens1 by ,j4 ,e4 ,taylor1 ,f4,l4,s41 ,f4,g4,s4 #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,bones1 by ,e4 ,f4 ,elwin #af ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,birds' ,eggs1 by ,t4 ,southwell1 ,f4,z4,s4 #bg ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,butterflies and ,moths1 by ,dr4 ,knaggs #dd ,,chapter ,v4 ,beetles1 by ,e4 ,c4 ,rye1 ,f4,z4,s4 #fg ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,hymenoptera1 by ,j4 ,b4 ,bridgman #ie ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,land and ,freshwater ,shells1 by ,professor ,ralph ,tate1 ,f4,g4,s4 #ajb ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,flowering ,plants and ,ferns1 by ,j4 ,britten1 ,f4,l4,s4 7,first ,part7 #aag ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,flowering ,plants and ,ferns1 by ,j4 ,britten1 ,f4,l4,s4 7,second ,part7 #aca ,,chapter ,x4 ,grasses1 c41 by ,professor ,buckman1 ,f4,g4,s #aci ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,mosses1 by ,dr4 ,braithwaite1 ,f4,l4,s #ade ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,fungi1 by ,worthington ,g4 ,smith1 ,f4,l4,s #aei ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,lichens1 by ,rev4 ,james ,crombie1 ,f4,l4,s #aha ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,seaweeds1 by ,w4 ,h4 ,grattann #aie ,index #bji ,,collecting ,,and ,,preserving4 ,i4 ,,geological ,,specimens4 ,by ,j4 ,e4 ,taylor1 ,f4,l4,s41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,the great end of natural-history reading should be the development of a love for the objects dwelt upon1 and a desire to know more about them4 ,this can only be brought about by such practical acquaintance as collecting and preserving them induces4 ,at the same time we should be sorry to see our young readers degenerate into mere collectors6 ,it is a great mistake to suppose1 that because you have a full cabinet of butterflies1 moths1 or beetles1 therefore you are a good entomologist2 or that you may lay claim to a distinguished position as a geologist1 on account of drawers full of fossils and minerals4 ,but this is a mistake into which young naturalists frequently fall4 ,we have seen people with decided tastes for these studies never get beyond the mere collecting4 ,in that case they stand on a par with collectors of postage-stamps4 ,nor is there much gained1 even if you become acquainted with ,english1 or even ,latin1 names of natural-history objects4 ,many people can catalogue them glibly1 and never make a slip1 and yet they are practically ignorant of the real knowledge which clusters round each object1 and its relation to others4 ,both ,latin and ,english names are useful and even necessary2 but when you have simply learnt them1 and nothing more1 how much wiser are you than before8 ,no1 let the learning of names be the alphabet of science--the means by which you can acquire a further knowledge of its mysteries4 ,it would be just as reasonable to set up for a literary man on the strength of accurately knowing the alphabet1 as to imagine you are a scientific man the moment you have learned by heart a few scores of ,latin names of plants1 fossils1 or insects6 ,let each object represent so much knowledge1 to which the very mention of its name will immediately conjure up a crowd of associations1 relationships1 and intimate acquaintances1 and you will then see what a store of real knowledge may be represented in a carefully-arranged cabinet4 ,the heading of the present articles will have indicated the subject chosen for brief treatment4 ,we shall never forget the influence left by reading such charming and suggestive books as ,mantell's ',medals of ,creation1' many years ago4 ,our mind had been prepared for the enthusiasm which this little book produced by the perusal of ,page's ',introductory ,text-book1' ,phillips's ',guide to ,geology1' and several others of a similar character4 ,but we know of none which impels a young student to go into the field and hammer out fossils for himself1 like ,dr4 ,mantell's works4 ,it is impossible not to catch the enthusiasm of his nature4 ,the first place we sallied out to1 on our maiden geological trip1 was a heap of coal-shale1 near a pit's mouth1 in the neighbourhood of ,manchester4 ,our only weapon was a common house hammer1 for we then knew nothing of the technical forms which geological fancy so often assumes4 ,we had passed that same heap of coal-shale hundreds of times1 without suspecting it to be anything more than everybody else considered it viz4 a heap of rubbish4 ,why that particular spot was selected1 we cannot now say4 ,we had seen illustrations of carboniferous plants1 shells1 c41 in books1 but we seemed to imagine their discovery could only be effected by scientific men1 and that it required a good deal of knowledge before one should attempt to find them4 ,suffice it to say we made the pilgrimage to the coal-shale heap in pretty much the same mind as we should expect to get the head prize in some fine-art drawing4 ,the humble hammer was put into use1 for a brief time without much effect1 as we could hardly have commenced on a more barren kind of shale than we had chanced to hit upon4 ,we imagined we could perceive traces of leaves and slender stems1 but were afraid to trust our eyes4 ,at any rate1 there was nothing definite enough to raise our enthusiasm4 ,but by-and-by1 as the hammer kept cleaving open the thin leaf-like layers of shale1 there appeared a large portion of that most beautiful of all fossil plants1 the ,lepidodendron4 ,those who are familiar with this object1 with its lozenge-shaped markings running spirally up the stem1 will readily understand the outburst of pleasure which escaped our lips6 ,that was the first real fossil--a pleasure quite equivalent to that of landing the first salmon4 ,how carefully was it wrapped in paper1 and carried home in the pocket6 ,there never was1 and never will be1 another fossil in the world as beautiful as that insignificant fragment of ,lepidodendron4 ,we have seen a good many converts made to geology in a similar manner1 since first we laid open to the light this silent memorial of ages which have passed away4 ,let a man have ever so slight acquaintance with geology1 and give him the chance of hammering out a fossil for himself1 and the odds are you thereby make him a geologist for life4 ,there is something almost romantic in the idea that you are looking for the first time1 and have yourself disentombed the remains of creatures which probably lived scores of millions of years ago6 ,we would strongly advise our readers1 therefore1 not to fall into the error of supposing that fossil-hunting belongs to highly-trained geologists4 ,on the contrary1 it is by fossil-hunting alone that you can ever hope to be a geologist yourself4 ,another mistake often made1 is that of supposing these rich and interesting geological localities are at a distance4 ,it seems so hard to suppose1 after reading about typical sections1 c41 that under your very feet1 in the fields where you have so often played1 there occur geological phenomena of no less interest4 ,but it is actually surprising what evidences of our earth's great antiquity1 in the shape of fossils1 c41 may be studied and obtained in the most out-of-the-way and insignificant places4 ,you say you have no rocks in your neighbourhood--nothing but barren sands1 or beds of brick-earth or clay4 ,well1 go to some section of the latter1 exposed1 perhaps1 in some tarn or stagnant pond in a turnip-field4 ,you examine the sides1 and what do you see8 ,nothing1 but here and there a boulder-stone sticking out4 ,well1 be content with that4 ,you said you had no rocks in your neighbourhood2 how1 then1 has that boulder1 which is a rounded fragment of a rock broken off from somewhere--how has it come there8 ,here is a poser at once4 ,examine it1 and you will perhaps see that its hard surface is polished or scratched1 and then you remember the theory of icebergs1 and feel astonished to think that you hold in your hand an undeniable proof of the truth of that theory4 ,those very scratchings could have been produced in no other way2 that foreign fragment of a rock now only to be found on some distant mountain-side could have been conveyed in no other manner4 ,not content with the exterior examination1 you break the boulder-stone open1 when you may chance to find it is a portion of silurian1 carboniferous or oolitic limestone1 and that it contains fossils belonging to one of those formations4 ,here is a find--an object with a double interest turning up where you never expected to discover the slightest geological incident6 ,you examine other boulders1 and find in them general evidences of ice-action in their present re-deposition1 and most instructive lessons as to the nature of rocks of various formations1 from the granite and trap series to the fossiliferous deposits4 ,in fact1 there is no place like one of these old boulder-pits for making oneself acquainted with petrology1 or the nature of stones4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,pocket ,trimming-hammer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,duck's-head ,hammer4 ,and now1 as to the tools necessary to the young geologist4 ,first of all1 he cannot take too few6 ,it is a great mistake to imagine that a full set of scientific instruments makes a scientific man4 ,the following hammers1 intended for different purposes1 ought to be procured4 ,fig4 #a is an exceedingly useful weapon1 and one we commonly use1 to the exclusion of all others4 ,it is handy for breaking off fragments of rock for examination2 and1 if fossils be included in them1 for trimming the specimens for cabinet purposes4 ,as a rule1 however1 field geologists are always divided over the merits of their hammers1 some preferring one shape and some another4 ,fig4 #b is generally used for breaking up hard rocks1 for which the bevel-shaped head is peculiarly adapted4 ,it is usually much heavier than the rest1 and is seldom used except for specific purposes4 ,if our readers are inclined to study sections of boulder clay1 and wish to extract the rounded and angular boulder from its stiff matrix1 they cannot do better than use a hammer like ,fig4 #c4 ,this is sometimes called the ,platypus pick4 ,both ends can be used1 and the pick end is also good for working on soft rocks1 like chalk4 ,a little practice in the field will teach the student how to use these tools1 and when1 much better than we can describe on paper4 ,the hammers can be obtained from any ,scientific instrument manufacturer1 or from any of the dealers in geological specimens4 ,we have found that the best hammers for usage1 however1 were to be made out of an old file1 softened and well welded1 rolled1 and then hammered into a solid mass4 ,if properly tempered a hammer made in this fashion will last you your life4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,platypus ,pick for clay1 c4 ,so much for the rougher weapons of geological strife4 ,next1 be sure and provide yourself with thick-soled shoes or boots4 ,geological study will take you into a good many queer places1 wet and dry1 rough and smooth1 and it is absolutely necessary to be prepared for the worst4 ,patent leather boots and kid gloves are rarely worn by practical geologists4 ,and we have heard it remarked at the ,british ,association meetings1 that they could always tell which members belonged to the ,geological ,section by their thick-soled boots4 ,a similar remark applies to clothes4 ,the student need not dress for the quarry as he would for the dining room4 ,good1 strong1 serviceable material ought to be their basis4 ,secondly1 as to the student's comforts and necessaries4 ,these are generally the last thing an ardent naturalist thinks about4 ,for ourselves1 however1 we give him ample leave to provide himself with pipe and tobacco1 should his tastes lie in that direction4 ,we never enjoyed a pipe half so much as when solitarily disinterring organic remains which had slumbered in the heart of the rock for myriads of ages4 ,as to the beer1 we can vouch that it never tastes anything like so good as during a geological excursion4 ,we have found the leathern bags sold for school-book purposes to be as handy to deposit specimens in1 during a journey1 as anything else4 ,they have the merit of being cheap1 are strong1 and easily carried4 ,if not large enough1 then get a strong1 coarse linen haversack1 like that worn by volunteers on a field day4 ,paper1 cotton wadding 7not wool71 sawdust for fragments of larger fossils1 intended to be repaired at home1 wooden pill-boxes1 and a few boxes1 which may be obtained from any practical naturalist1 with glass tops1 are sufficient stock-in-trade for the young geologist4 ,the wadding does not adhere to the specimens as wool does1 and the glass-topped boxes are useful1 as it is not then necessary to open a box and disinter a delicate fossil from its matrix in order to look at it4 ,add a good strong pocket lens1 such as may be bought for half-a-crown1 and your equipment will be complete4 ,if you intend to study any particular district1 get the sheets published by the ,geological ,survey4 ,these will give you1 on a large scale1 the minute geology of the neighbourhood1 the succession of rocks1 faults1 outcrops1 c4 ,in fact1 you may save yourself a world of trouble by thus preparing yourself a week or so before you make your geological excursion4 ,the pith of these remarks applies with equal force if you purpose1 first of all1 to examine the neighbourhood in which you live4 ,don't do so until you have read all that has been written about it1 and examined all the available maps and sections4 ,this advice however1 applies more particularly to geological examination of strata4 ,if you are bent chiefly on palontological investigation1 that is1 on the study of fossils1 perhaps it will be best just to read any published remarks you may have access to1 and then boldly take the field for yourself4 ,in addition to a hammer1 we would advise the young student to take a good narrow-pointed steel chisel1 and a putty-knife4 ,the former is very useful for working round1 and eventually obtaining1 any fossil that may have been weathered into relief4 ,the latter is equally serviceable for clayey rocks or shales4 ,in arranging the spoils of these excursions for the cabinet1 a little care and taste are required4 ,we will suppose you to possess one of those many-drawered cabinets which can now be obtained so cheaply4 ,begin at the bottom1 so that the lowest drawers represent the lowest-seated and oldest rocks1 and the uppermost the most recent4 ,if possible1 have an additional cabinet for local geology1 and never forget that the first duty of a collector is to have his own district well represented6 ,a compass of a few miles will1 in most cases1 enable him to get a store of fossils or minerals which cannot well be obtained elsewhere4 ,supposing he is desirous of having the geological systems well represented1 he can always do so by the insertion of such paragraphs as those which appear in the ,exchange columns of ',science ,gossip4' ,it is by well and thoroughly working separate localities in this fashion that the science of geology is best advanced4 ,you hear a good deal about the missing links1 and it is an accepted fact that we1 perhaps1 do not know a tithe of the organic remains that formerly enjoyed life4 ,who knows1 therefore1 but that if you exhaust your district by the assiduous collection of fossils1 you may not come across such new forms as may settle many moot points in ancient and modern natural history8 ,the genuine love of geological study is always pretty fairly manifested in a student's cabinet4 ,science1 like charity1 begins at home4 ,it impels a man to seek and explain that which is nearest to him1 before he attempts the elucidation of what really lies in another man's territory6 ,it is not necessary that the student should waste time in the field about naming or trying to remember the names of fossils1 c41 on the spot4 ,that can be best done at home1 and the pleasure of collecting can thus be spun to its longest length4 ,box them1 pack them well 7or all your labour is lost71 and name them at home4 ,or supposing you do not possess books which can assist you in nomenclature1 carry your fossils or minerals1 just as you found them1 to the nearest and best local museum1 where you will be sure to see the majority of them in their proper places and with their proper names4 ,copy these1 and when you arrange your specimens in the cabinet1 either get printed cards with the following headings-- ,genus ,species ,formation ,locality 7which can always be obtained at a cheap rate from the ,london dealers71 or else set to work and copy them yourself in a good plain hand1 so that there is no mistaking what you write4 ,as far as possible1 in each drawer or drawers representing a geological formation1 arrange your specimens in natural-history order--the lowest organisms first1 gradually ascending to the higher4 ,by doing so1 you present geological and zoological relationship1 so that they can be taken in at a glance4 ,you further make yourself acquainted with the relations of the fossils in a way you never would have done1 had you been content to huddle them together in any fashion1 so that you had them all together4 ,glass-topped boxes1 again1 are very useful in the cabinet1 especially for delicate or fragile fossils1 as people are so ready to take them in their hands when they are shown1 little thinking how soon a cherished rarity may be destroyed1 never to be replaced4 ,pasteboard trays1 made of stiff green paper1 squared by the student according to size1 can also be so arranged as that the drawer may be entirely filled1 and so the danger of shaking the contents about may be removed4 ,each tray of fossils ought to have the above-mentioned label fastened down in such a way as that it cannot by accident get changed by removal4 ,the spring and summer time are fast approaching1 and we know of nothing that will so much assist in their rational enjoyment as the adoption of some study in natural science4 ,botany1 entomology1 ornithology1 geology1 are all health-affording1 nature-loving pursuits4 ,we have passed some of the very happiest moments of our lives in solitary quarries1 or on green hill-sides1 ,the world forgetting1 by the world forgot6 ,there1 amid the wreck of former creations1 and with the glory of the present one around us1 we have yielded to the delicious sense of reverie1 such as can only be begotten under such circumstances4 ,the shady side of the quarry has screened us from solar heat1 and1 whilst the air has been melodious with a thousand voices1 we have made personal acquaintance with the numerous objects of ,god's creation1 animals and plants4 ,how apt are the thoughts of the poet ,crabbe1 and how well do they convey the feeling of the young geologist in such places3 ,it is a lonely place1 and at the side ,rises a mountain rock in rugged pride2 ,and in that rock are shapes of shells1 and forms ,of creatures in old worlds1 and nameless worms2 ,whole generations lived and died1 ere man1 ,a worm of other class1 to crawl began4 ,,ii4 ,,bones4 ,by ,edward ,fentone ,elwin1 ,caius ,college4 ,why is it that the students of ,osteology are so few in number8 ,it is a branch of science which offers a wide field for original research1 and one in which at every step one's interest must get more and more engrossed4 ,it is a branch of science in which a sufficient portion of its elements may be rapidly learned1 in order to set the student fairly on his road4 ,the barriers which surround it are few3 that is to say1 the technical barriers are few4 ,many people who want to occupy themselves with scientific study are deterred1 because of the feeling that there are so many laborious preliminaries to be gone through before they can begin to take any real pleasure in the pursuit4 ,now1 in ,osteology it is true that a wide and really almost unexplored field lies open before one1 but the equipments necessary to fit one for one's journey are easily attained4 ,the first step is to get thoroughly acquainted with some one typical specimen1 as a standard of comparison for all future work4 ,it matters little what species is taken2 whichever comes most convenient4 ,some familiar mammal of fair size is the best4 ,the dog is as good as any1 and easy to obtain4 ,there ought never to be any real difficulty in getting a suitable specimen4 ,if expense is no object1 the simplest way is to get a preparation1 set up so as readily to take to pieces1 at any of the bone-preservers' shops in ,london4 ,one like this costs only a moderate sum1 and is1 of course1 the least trouble1 although the manner in which professionals prepare their bones is not altogether satisfactory4 ,but we may regard this as something in the light of a luxury2 and it is not hard to prepare one's own specimens1 provided we do not mind a little manipulation with unsavoury objects4 ,i have given hints as to the best method by which this may be done in various pages of ',science-,gossip4',a ,of course1 as one's work gets on1 one needs further specimens1 but ,i do not think that anyone who keeps his eyes open need be at a loss in this matter4 ,i have picked up several admirable bones ready cleaned by the wind and weather1 and many slightly damaged ones may be got at naturalists' shops for small sums1 which are almost as good as the perfect ones for an observer's purposes4 ,even single and isolated bones are often very instructive4 ,a ',science-,gossip' for #ahgc1 p4 #ci2 for #ahgd1 p4 #bbf4 ,but the first main point is that of getting the forms1 peculiarities1 names1 and positions of the bones of one skeleton fully impressed on the student's mind4 ,as to the books which are to help him to do this1 it is very hard to know what to recommend4 ,as far as ,i know1 there is no really luminous book on osteology in existence4 ,so far as learning the names and peculiarities of the bones1 nothing could be better or more to the purpose than ,flower's ',osteology of the ,mammalia'2 but this treats only of one class1 and does not get beyond technical description4 ,the first and second volumes of ,owen's ',comparative ,anatomy of ,vertebrates' fill the gap the best of any1 and yet these are by no means what we really want4 ,there is a good deal about bones in ,huxley's ',anatomy of ,vertebrated ,animals1' but in such a fragmentary and scattered form as to be of little use4 ,the fact is1 the field is yet open for an ,osteological ,manual4 ,much has been written on the subject4 ,pages of precise and accurate description1 beautiful and artistic sheets of plates of bones without number1 can be seen in any scientific library4 ,but this is only half the matter4 ,we want to advance a step farther4 ,it is the relation between structure and function which needs working out4 ,when a new bone finds its way into the student's hands1 he observes some peculiarity in shape or structure in which it differs from the bones he is already acquainted with2 the question naturally occurs to him1 ,why does this bone assume one shape in one animal1 and in another is modified into a different form8 ,he may look in vain in his books for an answer to his query4 ,and yet it is points like these which1 in my opinion1 make up the true science of ,osteology4 ,it is through careful1 constant1 and intelligent observation1 that these enigmas are to be solved4 ,observation1 indoors and out2 close attention to the habits of the animal in question1 on the one hand1 and careful consideration of its anatomical peculiarities1 on the other4 ,let me give an instance of this1 first of all taking it as an axiom that everything has been done with a purpose4 ,take1 then1 the skull of a crocodile4 ,what do we find8 ,the orbits of the eyes1 the nasal orifice1 the passages leading to the auditory apparatus1 all situated on a plane1 along the upper flattened surface of the head4 ,what1 then1 is the cause of this8 ,palpably to allow the crocodile to remain submerged in the water1 with its nose1 eyes1 and ears just above the surface to warn him of the approach of enemies or prey1 and the rest of his carcase securely hidden beneath the waters4 ,take another instance4 ,observe the habits of a mole4 ,with what rapidity it burrows underground1 shovelling away the earth with its fore feet4 ,then look at its skeleton4 ,we find just what we should have expected4 ,the bones of its fore legs of astounding strength and breadth1 furnished with deep grooves1 which1 together with its sternum or breastbone1 which is furnished with a keel almost like that of the sternum of a bird1 afford attachment to the powerful muscles4 ,its hind legs1 being simply needed for locomotion1 are of the normal size4 ,so1 also1 with the birds4 ,the size of the keel of the sternum varies in proportion to the powers of flight which each species requires1 for it is to the broad surfaces of the sternum that the great wing-muscles are attached4 ,take the skeleton of a hummingbird1 which spends its life almost upon the wing4 ,we find there a keel of so vast a size1 that the remainder of the skeleton is reduced to insignificance in comparison4 ,of course1 these instances that ,i have given are all of the most obvious nature1 but they serve to show my meaning2 and the same line of reasoning can1 ,i am sure1 be extended to all the more minute points in osteological structure4 ,in these researches1 one is soon struck by the fact that in the modifications in various bones1 or sets of bones1 in accordance with the habits of each animal1 the original type is never departed from1 only modified4 ,see1 for example1 the paddle of a whale4 ,more like the fin of a fish in general appearance1 and yet the same set of bones which are found in the arm of a man1 are again found in an adapted form in the paddle of the whale4 ,so1 also1 the fore leg of a horse preserves the same general plan4 ,what is generally called its knee is in reality its wrist4 ,it is there that we find the little group of bones which forms the carpus4 ,all below it answers to our hand--a hand consisting of one finger4 ,take even a wider instance4 ,compare the arm of a man and the wing of a bird4 ,still greater adaptations have taken place1 and yet the plan remains the same4 ,we still find the clavicle or collar-bone1 the scapula or shoulder-blade1 the humerus1 ulna1 and radius1 answering to the same bones of our arm1 a small carpus or wrist1 and finally the phalanges or fingers1 simplified and lengthened and anchylosed to form but one series of bone1 with the exception of a rudimentary thumb4 ,it is not uncommon to find a rudimentary bone like this which in some allied species is fully developed4 ,the leg of the horse again gives us a very striking example of this4 ,there is1 so to speak1 only a single finger1 but we find1 one on each side of this single finger1 two small bones1 commonly known only as splint-bones4 ,these are the rudimentary traces of the same finger-bones1 which in the rhinoceros are fully developed4 ,now ,osteology abounds in wonderful forms of structure like these4 ,it is a study pregnant with pleasurable results1 and is a real profitable study1 and one in which each fresh student may do real solid work4 ,it is all the little facts observed by naturalists from time to time all over the world1 which on being collected together form the nucleus of knowledge2 for indeed all the scientific knowledge which we possess is little more than a nucleus1 with which we are supplied4 ,the mere collector of curious objects in no way furthers science4 ,plenty of people have amassed beautiful collections of insects interesting in their way1 but of very transient interest if it goes no farther4 ,the collector possibly knows nothing at all of the wonderful internal structure of the animals he preserves4 ,his insects are to him simply a mosaic--a collection of pretty works of art4 ,so also the shell-collector--for ,i cannot call such a one as ,i describe a conchologist--has often1 ,i believe1 the most vague ideas of what kind of animals they were that dwelt in the cases he so carefully treasures1 and his collection is consequently of a dubious worth to him4 ,now1 to those who study the anatomy of the mollusc as well as its shell1 such a collection is full of the deepest interest4 ,he has learnt from his dissections that the habits of every variety of mollusc are accompanied by a variety of structure1 which occasions a variety in the shape of the case which envelopes it4 ,it all blends together1 and forms a harmonious whole4 ,with a real love for science1 as doubtless some of these collectors have1 one is sorry to see so much time and money wasted on a pursuit which in their hands yields no fruit of any worth4 ,the work of the mere collector can only be classed with that of the compiler of a stamp-album4 ,whereas1 collections of natural objects1 combined with intelligent study1 are invaluable and almost indispensable to the naturalist4 ,in ,mr4 ,chivers's note on ,preserving ,animals1 ,no4 #aag of ',science-,gossip1' the following passage occurs3--,the skeleton must be put in an airy place to dry1 but not in the sun or near the fire1 as that will turn the bones a bad colour4 ,i cannot comprehend how this idea should have arisen4 ,perhaps the most indispensable assistant to the skeleton preparer is that very sun which ,mr4 ,chivers warns him against4 ,the bleaching power of the rays of a hot summer sun is astounding1 and bones of the most inferior colour can rapidly be turned to a beautiful white by this means4 ,it is for want of time and care in following out this method that the professional skeleton preparers in ,london resort to the aid of lime1 which1 although it makes them white1 is terribly detrimental to the bones themselves4 ,in a smoky city like ,london1 the principle of sun-bleaching would be hard to follow2 but so great is its value1 that more than once ,i have had valuable specimens sent down to me in the country1 by a comparative anatomist in ,london1 to undergo a course of sun-bleaching2 and a specimen which ,i have received stained and blotched1 ,i have returned of a beautiful uniform white1 a change entirely due to that sun which we are told to beware of4 ,the question1 ,how are skeletons to be prepared8 is one which is repeatedly asked4 ,people desire a method by which with little trouble the flesh may be removed from a specimen1 and a beautiful skeleton of ivory whiteness left standing in its natural position4 ,i can assure all such inquirers that this cannot be accomplished by any method at all4 ,the art of preparing bones is a long1 elaborate1 and difficult one1 and he who wishes to become a proficient in it must be alike regardless to the most unpleasant odours1 and to handling the most repulsive objects4 ,mr4 ,chivers's receipt for the maceration of specimens is about the best which one could have1 only ,i should not advise so frequent a change of the water4 ,what is needed is as rapid a decomposition of the flesh as is possible1 and then the cleaning of the skeleton just before the harder ligaments have also dissolved4 ,but this requires very careful watching1 and with the utmost pains it is almost impossible to get a skeleton entirely connected by its own ligaments4 ,another point which must be taken into consideration is this3 ,what use is to be made of the specimens after they are prepared8 ,are they for purposes of real study1 or simply as curious objects to look at8 ,if the latter is the purpose1 ,i must confess ,i do not think they are worth the trouble of preparing4 ,if the former is the object for which they are intended1 then ,i think no care or pains are thrown away4 ,but for the real student of ,osteology the separated bones1 as a rule1 are far more valuable than those which are connected4 ,he needs one or two set up for purposes of reference1 but the great bulk of his specimens should be separate bones4 ,osteology is one of the most delightful branches of comparative anatomy1 and one not very hard to master4 ,let anyone try the experiment by getting together a few bones--and those from the rabbit or the partridge we have had for dinner are by no means to be despised--and then1 by purchasing ,flower's ',osteology of the ,mammalia1' which is a cheap and first-rate book1 he will learn what the study of the skeleton really is4 ,and then let him be on the look-out for specimens of all kinds on all occasions1 bringing home all suitable objects he meets with in his walks1 however unsavoury they may be1 and he will be astonished to find how many specimens he will get together in the course of a year4 ,i have now myself upwards of seventy skulls of various kinds1 with often the rest of the skeleton as well1 the greater part of which were gradually collected1 by keeping constantly on the watch for them1 within a year and a half4 ,,iii4 ,,birds' ,,eggs4 ,by ,thomas ,southwell1 ,f4,z4,s41 etc4 ,i can imagine no branch of natural history more fascinating in its nature1 or more calculated to attract the attention of the young1 than the study of the nests and eggs of birds2 the beauty of the structure of the one1 and of the form and colour of the others1 cannot fail to excite wonder and admiration2 and the interest thus excited1 if rightly directed1 may1 and indeed has1 in many instances1 led to the development of that passionate love for all nature's works1 that careful and patient spirit of investigation1 and that deep love for truth which should all be characteristics of the true naturalist4 ,who can look back upon the days1 perhaps long passed away1 when as a school-boy he wandered through the woods and fields1 almost every step unfolding to him some new wonder1 some fresh beauty--glimpses of a world of wonders only waiting to be explored--who can look back to such a time without feeling that in those wanderings there dawned upon his mind a source of happiness which in its purity and intensity ranks high amongst those earthly pleasures we are permitted to enjoy1 and which has influenced him for good in all the changes which have since come upon him1 lightening the captivity of the sick room1 and adding fresh brightness to the enjoyments of health4 ,between the true naturalist and the mere collector there is a wide gap1 and ,i trust that none for whom ,i am writing will allow themselves to drift into the latter class2 the incalculable mischief wrought by those who assist in the extermination of rare and local species by buying up every egg of a certain species which can be obtained1 for the mere purpose of exchange1 cannot be too much deprecated1 and ,i hope that none of my readers will be so guilty2 to them the pleasures of watching the nesting habits of the bird1 the diligent search and the successful find are unknown2 the eggs in such a cabinet are mere egg-shells1 and not objects pregnant with interest1 recalling many a happy ramble1 and many a hardly-earned reward in the discovery of facts and habits before unknown4 ,every naturalist must be more or less a collector1 but the naturalist should always be careful of drifting into the collector1 his note-book and his telescope should be his constant and harmless companions4 ,when the writer first commenced his collection1 the mode of preparing the specimens for the cabinet was very rude indeed1 and the method of arranging equally bad2 he is sorry to say the popular books upon the subject which he has seen do not present any very great improvement2 in giving the results of his own experience1 and the plan pursued by the most distinguished oologists of the day1 who have kindly allowed him to explain the methods they adopt1 he will1 he trusts1 save not only much useless labour1 but many valuable specimens4 ,before saying a word as to preparing specimens for the cabinet1 ,i wish to impress upon the young oologist the absolute necessity for using the greatest care and diligence in order satisfactorily to identify1 beyond possibility of doubt1 every specimen1 before he admits it to his collection4 ,without such precautions1 what might otherwise be a valuable collection is absolutely worthless2 and it is better to have a small collection of authentic specimens than a much larger one1 the history of which is not perfectly satisfactory2 in fact1 it is a good rule to banish from the cabinet every egg which is open to the slightest doubt4 ,there are some eggs which1 when mixed1 the most experienced oologist will find it impossible to separate with certainty1 and which cannot be identified when once they are removed from the nest4 ,the difficulties in the way of authentication are by no means slight1 but space will not allow me to dwell upon them2 the most ready means1 however1 is that of watching the old bird to the nest1 although even in this1 as the collector will find by experience1 there is a certain liability to error4 ,in collecting abroad it will be found absolutely necessary 7however reluctant we may be to sacrifice life7 to procure one of the parents with the nest and eggs4 ,as we are writing for beginners at home1 we trust such a measure will rarely be necessary2 but that an accurate knowledge of the appearance of the bird1 its nesting habits1 the situation1 and the materials of which the nest is composed1 will be found amply sufficient to identify the eggs of our familiar birds4 ,this knowledge of course is only to be obtained by patient and long observation2 but it is just by such means that the student obtains the practical insight into the habits and peculiarities of the objects of his study1 together with the careful and exact method of recording his observations1 which eventually enables him to take his place amongst the more severely scientific naturalists whom he desires to emulate4 ,i will first describe the tools required1 and then proceed to the mode of using them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,fig4 #e4 ,drills for perforating ,birds' ,eggs4 ,figs4 #d and #e are drills used for making the hole in the side of the egg1 from which the contents are discharged by means of the blowpipe1 ,fig4 #f4 ,fig4 #d has a steel point1 brass ferrule1 and ebony handle1 and may be used for eggs up to the size of the wood-pigeon's2 ,fig4 #e is all steel1 the handle octagonal1 to give a firm hold to the fingers in turning it1 and may be used for eggs from the size of the wood-pigeon's upwards4 ,the points of both are finely cut like the teeth of a file1 as shown in the woodcut4 ,the blowpipe1 ,fig4 #f1 is about #e-a_/b inches in length 7measured along the curve71 and is made of ,german silver1 which from its cleanliness1 lightness1 and freedom from corrosion1 will be found the most suitable3 it should be light and tapering1 and with a ring at the upper end to prevent it from slipping out of the mouth when used4 ,a piece of thin wire1 ,fig4 #g1 should be kept in the tube when not in use1 to prevent it from becoming stopped up by any foreign substance4 ,a common jeweller's blowpipe may be used for large eggs1 such as those of gulls and ducks4 ,fig4 #h is a small glass bulb-tube1 which may be used for sucking out the contents of very delicate eggs1 and other purposes1 which will be explained hereafter4 ,the small drill and blowpipe may be carried inside the cover of the note-books4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,german-silver ,blowpipe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,wire for unstopping ditto4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,glass ,bulb-tube1 for sucking eggs4 ,the sooner a fresh egg is emptied of its contents after it is taken from the nest the better4 ,this should be done by making a hole in the side with the drill 7choosing the side which is least conspicuously marked7 by working it gently backwards and forwards between the forefinger and thumb1 and taking great care not to press too heavily1 or the egg will burst with the outward pressure of the drill3 a very small hole will generally be found sufficient4 ,when this is done1 take the egg in the left hand with the hole downwards1 introduce the blowpipe1 by blowing gently through which1 the contents may soon be forced out4 ,water should then be introduced by means of a syringe or the bulb-tube1 which may be filled and blown into the egg4 ,after shaking1 blow the water out again by means of the blowpipe2 repeat this till the egg is free from any remains of the yolk or white3 should the egg not be quite fresh1 it will require more washing4 ,care should be taken to wet the surface of the egg as little as possible4 ,after washing the interior1 lay the egg1 with the hole downwards1 on a pad of blotting-paper to drain till it is quite dry4 ,should the eggs be much incubated1 ,i should recommend that the old birds be left to complete their labour of love2 but a valuable egg may be made available by carefully cutting a piece out of the side1 extracting the young one1 and1 after replacing the piece of shell with strong gum-water1 covering the join with a slip of very thin silk-paper1 which may be tinted so as to resemble the egg1 and will scarcely be noticed4 ,this is a very rough way of proceeding1 however1 compared with ,professor ,newton's plan of gumming several thicknesses of fine paper over the side of the egg to strengthen it1 through which the hole is drilled3 the young chick is then cut into small pieces by means of suitable instruments1 and the pieces removed with others3,b the paper is then damped and removed from the egg4 ,b ,suggestions for forming ,collections of ,birds' ,eggs4 ,by ,professor ,newton4 ,written for the ,smithsonian ,institution of ,washington1 and republished by ,newman1 #i1 ,devonshire ,street1 ,bishopsgate4 ,the old plan of making two holes in the side of the egg is very objectionable3 a hole at each end is still worse4 ,many eggs would be completely spoiled by washing2 none improved4 ,there is no necessity for washing at all1 except such as are very filthy1 and these eggs 7which you may be sure are not fresh7 are not such as should be willingly accepted as specimens3 a little dirt only adds to the natural appearance of the egg2 washing in most cases certainly does not4 ,never use varnish to the shell2 it imparts a gloss which is not natural3 all eggs should not have a polished appearance like those of the ,woodpecker4 ,should the yolk be dried to the side of the egg1 a solution of carbonate of soda should be introduced3 let it remain till the contents are softened1 then blow out and wash well4 ,great care must be taken not to allow the solution to come in contact with the outside of the egg4 ,having blown the egg1 and allowed the inside to become quite dry1 procure some thin silk-paper gummed on one side1 and with a harness-maker's punch cut out a number of little tickets suitable to the size of the hole in the egg1 moisten one of these1 and place it with the gum side downwards over the hole1 so as to quite cover it2 cover the ticket with a coat of varnish1 which will render it air-tight and prevent its being affected by moisture4 ,the egg thus treated will have all the appearance of a perfect specimen1 and if kept from the light will suffer very little from fading4 ,the note-book has been mentioned4 ,this should be a constant companion2 nothing should be left to memory4 ,when an egg is taken1 a temporary pencil number should at once be placed upon it1 and this number should correspond with the number attached to an entry in the note-book1 describing the nest 7if not removed71 its situation1 number of eggs1 day of month1 and any other particular of interest4 ,when the egg is ready for the cabinet1 as much of this information 7certainly1 name1 date1 and locality7 should be indelibly marked upon it as conveniently can be done 7neatly1 of course1 and on the under side72 also the number referring to the collector's general list of his collection1 into which the important parts of the entry from the note-book should be copied4 ,never trust to gummed labels1 which are always liable to come off2 by writing the necessary particulars upon the egg itself there can be no confusion or mistake4 ,most collectors have their own plan of cataloguing their collection4 ,i have adopted the following1 which ,i find to answer very well4 ,obtain a blank paper book the size of common letter-paper1 rule a horizontal line across the centre of each page1 and make a complete list of ,british birds1 placing only two names on each page1 one at the head of each division1 prefixing a progressive number to each name3 this number is to agree with that marked on the egg of the species named4 ,then follow the locality whence the egg came1 by whom taken 7if not by myself71 or how it came into my possession1 with any other particular worthy of note4 ,with all eggs received in exchange or otherwise1 this note should1 if possible1 be obtained in the handwriting of the person from whom they are received1 and the slip on which it is written be affixed in the book under the number4 ,when specimens of the eggs of the same species are obtained from various localities1 those from each locality should be distinguished by a letter prefixed to the number4 ,the plan will be better understood by referring to the following extract3 #fb4 ,great ,sedge-warbler 7,sylvia turtoides1 ,meyer74 #fb4 ,received of ----1 from the cabinet of ,mr4 ----4 a#fb4 ,taken by ----1 a servant of ----1 on the banks of the river ,tougreep1 near ,valkenswaard1 in the south of ,holland1 on the #ith of ,june1 #ahee4 ,the birds may be heard a long way off by their incessant ,kara1 ,kara1 ,kara4 ,a few years ago not one was to be found near ,valkenswaard4 ,a4 ,b---- b#fb4 ,bought at ,antwerp in ,august1 #ahfe4 ,x_/ 99 99 99 99 99 #aah4 ,mealy ,red-pole 7,fringilla borealis1 ,tem474 #aah4 ,nyborg1 at the head of ,msk ,fjord 7one of the two branches into which ,varanger ,fjord divides71 ,east ,finmark1 ,norway1 ,july1 #ahee4 ,the birds were very plentiful1 and only one species seen1 which appears quite identical with that which visits ,england every winter4 ,c4 ,d4 ,e---- ,by means of these entries1 and the corresponding number on the egg1 mistakes are impossible1 and the name and history of each egg would be quite as well known to a stranger as to the possessor4 ,it needs not to be said that this catalogue is replete with the deepest interest to its compiler4 ,in it he sees the record of many a holiday trip and many a successful find4 ,some of the entries in my own register--the earliest date back five-and-twenty years--are memorials of companions long since dead1 or separated by rolling oceans1 but on whose early friendship it is a pleasure to dwell4 ,nothing can be more vexatious and disappointing than the receipt of a box of valuable eggs in a smashed or injured condition from want of care or knowledge of the proper method of packing4 ,a simple method is recommended by ,professor ,newton1 which1 from experience1 ,i can confidently recommend3--,roll each egg in tow1 wool1 or some elastic material1 and pack them closely in a stout box1 leaving no vacant place for them to shake2 or a layer of soft material may be placed at the bottom of the box1 and upon it a layer of eggs1 each one wrapped loosely in old newspaper2 upon this another layer of wool or moss1 then again eggs1 and packing alternately until the box is quite full4 ,bran1 sawdust1 c41 should never be used2 and it should be ascertained that the box is quite filled1 so that no shaking or settlement can occur4 ,almost every collector has his own plan for constructing his cabinet1 and displaying his collection4 ,the beginner1 if left to himself1 will find it a matter of no small difficulty1 and many will be the changes before he arrives at one at all satisfactory4 ,mr4 ,osbert ,salvin has invented a plan which ,i think as near perfection as it is possible to arrive at1 and through his kindness ,i am enabled to give a brief description of it4 ,in the first place1 his cabinets are so constructed that the drawers1 of different depths1 are interchangeable4 ,this is effected by placing the runners1 which carry the drawers1 at a fixed distance from each other and making the depth of each drawer a multiple of the distance between the runners4 ,for example3 if the runners are three-quarters of an inch off each other1 then let the drawers be #a-a_/b1 #b-a_/d1 #c1 #c-c_/d1 #d-a_/b1 c41 inches deep4 ,all these drawers will be perfectly interchangeable1 and a drawer deep enough to hold an ostrich's egg can in a few moments be placed amongst those containing warblers'3 every requirement of expansion and rearrangement will be vastly facilitated1 involving none of those radical changes so worrying to a collector4,c ,mr4 ,salvin's plan of arranging the eggs is equally simple1 and admits of any amount of change with very little trouble4 ,each drawer is divided longitudinally by thin slips of wood into three or more parts1 about #d to #f inches across1 as may be convenient2 a number of sliding stages are then constructed of cardboard1 by cutting the cardboard half through1 at exactly the width of the partition1 and bending the sides down to raise the stage to the required height4 ,a section of one of these stages will be seen in ,fig4 #i1 and the arrangement in the drawer at ,fig4 #aj4 ,a number of oval holes are then to be cut by hand1 or with a wadding-punch of suitable size 7altered in shape by hammering71 and a thin layer of cotton-wool gummed on the upper surface of the stage3 the holes1 of course1 should be suitable in size to the egg they are intended to receive4 ,between these stages sliding partitions must be placed3 these should be made of just sufficient height that the horizontal part may fit closely on the wool1 as shown at ,fig4 #i4 ,these partitions should be made of thin wood for the upright part1 along which a horizontal strip of cardboard is to be fastened with glue1 on which is to be placed a label bearing the name of the species of egg displayed on the stage1 as seen in ,fig4 #aj4 ,all this will be better understood by referring to the figures4 ,c ,of course1 cabinets thus constructed will be found equally convenient for collections of bird-skins1 fossils1 c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,section of ,sliding ,stage4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,cabinet ,drawer on ,mr4 ,salvin's plan4 ,fig4 #i represents a longitudinal section of one of the stages in its place1 with the ends of the two next2 #a1 showing the cardboard stage2 #b1 the cotton-wool2 #c1 the sliding partition2 and #d1 the horizontal slip of cardboard to carry the label4 ,fig4 #aj represents one of the drawers on ,mr4 ,salvin's plan3 it is divided into three parts 7#a1 #b1 #c7 by fixed partitions4 ,no4 #a is represented empty2 ,no4 #b with the specimens arranged2 ,no4 #c with two stages and two of the movable partitions4 ,this may appear very complicated at first sight1 but a few trials will be sufficient to master the details1 and the result will be very beautiful if neatly carried out4 ,the eggs are well shown1 not liable to fall out of their places1 and it is very little trouble to alter the arrangement1 every part being movable4 ,each drawer should be covered by a sheet of glass to exclude dust4 ,mr4 ,salvin's cabinet is an excellent one for holding the nests of birds1 which should be removed with as little damage as possible1 and placed in the drawers1 under cover of glass4 ,great care must be taken to keep them free from moth1 to which they are very liable2 for this purpose they should be dressed with the solution of corrosive sublimate4 ,the young collector should remember that what is worth doing at all is worth doing well1 and that the care bestowed upon his cabinet is not labour in vain2 habits of exactness and precision of arrangement are absolutely necessary if he would make the best use of the materials which come in his way2 and1 above all1 never let him degenerate into the mere collector3 his collection should be for use1 and not merely ornamental4 ,,iv4 ,,butterflies ,,and ,,moths4 ,by ,dr4 ,henry ,knaggs4 ,the collector of ,lepidoptera who aspires to success must read the book of nature as he runs4 ,if he have not the wit to note and turn to account each little fact which may come under his observation1 neither he nor science will be the better for his collecting4 ,he should1 whenever he makes a capture1 know the reason why1 or he will never make a successful hunter4 ,he should be ever on the alert3 his motto1 nunquam dormio4 ,some collect for profit1 others for pastime2 but the aim of our readers1 ,i take it1 is not only to acquire a collection of really good specimens1 but also at the same time to improve their minds2 and the best way of effecting this purpose is to hunt the perfect insect1 not so much for itself as for the sake of the golden eggs1 which1 with proper care and attention1 will in due course yield the most satisfactory results in the shape of bred specimens4 ,this being the case1 and space being limited1 it seems best to simply touch upon the preliminary stages of insect existence1 pointing out as we go those methods of collecting and preserving which experience has shown to be the most successful4 ,there can be no doubt but that egg-hunting is a very profitable occupation1 and far more remunerative than most people dream of1 particularly as a means of acquiring the ,sphinges1 ,bombyces1 and ,pseudo-bombyces4 ,eggs1 speaking generally1 are to be found on the plants to which the various species are attached2 and a knowledge of the time during which the species remains in the egg state1 as well as the appearance of the eggs as deposited in nature1 should if possible be acquired previous to proceeding to hunt4 ,the most practical way of ascertaining the food and time is to watch the parent insect in the act of depositing her ova2 but when the plant has been thus discovered1 the best way is to capture her1 and induce her to lay at our home4 ,when eggs are inconspicuous1 of small dimensions1 or artfully concealed1 the use of a magnifying glass is invaluable4 ,eggs may be preserved by plunging them in boiling water or piercing them with a very fine needle1 or they may have their contents squeezed out and be refilled by means of a fine blowpipe1 with some coagulable tinted fluid2 but the shells themselves1 after the escape of the larv1 form1 when mounted1 beautiful objects for the microscope4 ,the three most successful plans of obtaining caterpillars are searching1 beating1 and sweeping4 ,the first requires good eyesight and a certain amount of preparatory knowledge2 the others are a sort of happy-go-lucky way of collecting1 useful enough and profitable in their way1 but affording a very limited scope for the exercise of the wits4 ,in searching for larv1 the chief thing is to observe the indications of their presence4 ,a mutilated leaf1 a roughened bark1 a tumid twig1 a sickly plant1 an unexpanded bud1 an abortive flower1 or a windfall fruit1 should at once set us thinking as to the cause2 or1 again1 the webs1 the silken threads1 the burrowings and trails1 or the cast-off skins of larv1 may first call our attention to their proximity4 ,of course1 larv may be found on almost all plants1 as well as in the bark1 stems1 or wood of many2 but the collector should fortify himself with a knowledge of what each plant is likely to produce1 and hunt accordingly2 for though indiscriminate collecting may sometimes be successful1 it does not tend to improve the intellectual powers4 ,beating is the more applicable method of working trees and bushes4 ,it is carried out by jarring the larv from their positions by the aid of a stick or pole1 in such a manner that they will fall into an inverted umbrella1 or net2 or a sheet may be spread beneath for their reception4 ,sweeping with a strong net1 passed from side to side with a mower-like movement1 is better adapted for working low ground-herbage4 ,the umbrella net1 shown in ,fig4 #aa1 is1 perhaps1 the best for the purpose4 ,it is constructed by hinging two lengths of jack-spring on two pieces of brass1 and adapting them to the stick of the net1 the upper piece of brass being fixed1 the lower movable4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,umbrella ,net4 ,when captured1 larv should be transferred to chip boxes1 or else to finely and freely perforated tins1 the latter better preserving the food4 ,a very handy box for the purpose is formed by fitting a second lid on to the bottom of a chip box1 and then cutting from the second lid and bottom a hole1 as shown in ,fig4 #ab 7#b72 larv may then be inserted through the hole2 but when the lid is shifted round1 and the holes are not opposite1 of course there will be no opening1 as in ,fig4 #ab 7#a71 and the contents are secured from escape4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,collecting ,box for ,larv4 ,larva preserving is carried out by first killing1 and then squeezing and extracting the contents through the anal orifice by means of a crochet hook4 ,when this has been done1 the skin is inflated1 but not to such an extent as to distend the segments1 and is kept thus inflated while it is being dried in a heated metal chamber4 ,afterwards1 if the colours are observed to have faded1 they may be cautiously restored by the application of paint4 ,these objects1 mounted on suitable artificial leaves1 are then ready for the cabinet4 ,chrysalis collecting is conducted according to the situation of the object sought4 ,some are to be found in the chinks of bark or under loose bark1 which may be detached by means of a powerful lever4 ,some are suspended from trees1 bushes1 copings1 hanging head downwards1 or girded by silken threads to low plants or walls2 others are to be found in the stems or trunks of their food-plants2 many are concealed in cocoons of more or less perfect construction1 others again amongst fallen leaves1 but the majority are to be met with under the surface of the ground2 in which case we shall have to dig for them by the aid of a trowel or broad chisel4 ,the best situations for subterranean pup are open park-like fields1 borders of streams1 open spaces in fir woods1 and they are usually situated within a foot or so of the tree trunks1 at the depth of two or three inches1 though sometimes considerably deeper4 ,of course both larv and pup of aquatic species will have to be sought for in their element1 among the plants they frequent4 ,chrysalis preserving is a simple matter3 the pup may be killed by plunging them into hot water or by baking2 frequently1 however1 we find that the natural polish disappears with death1 and this may be restored by varnishing4 ,it is advisable that the cocoons also1 where practicable1 should be preserved1 to give a notion of their appearance in nature4 ,moths and butterflies may be sought for at rest or on the wing4 ,they may be disturbed from their hiding places or they may be attracted by various alluring baits4 ,at rest on stems of grasses and other plants butterflies may be taken on dull1 sunless days2 but it requires some experience to detect a butterfly with its wings raised up over its back3 the little ,blues may thus be freely boxed in their localities4 ,again1 such butterflies as hybernate may be found in old sheds and outhouses1 or under stacks4 ,moths may be taken at rest on tree trunks1 palings1 and walls1 or amongst foliage and ground herbage4 ,some species are to be freely captured in this way after their evening flight is over4 ,of course1 for evening work1 a lantern to assist our vision will be indispensable4 ,on the wing1 some butterflies are exceedingly active1 others comparatively sluggish2 some fly high1 others low4 ,in hunting them1 the chief points to be remembered are not to alarm1 but rather cautiously to stalk our game1 and strike1 when we have an opportunity1 with precision4 ,it is important also to avoid throwing a shadow over them1 and it is a good plan to get to windward of them--anything like flurry will be fatal to success4 ,moths which fly by day may be chased in the same manner1 but some may be observed disporting themselves round trees2 these must be watched1 and netted as they now and then descend4 ,others fly at a very low altitude1 and are only brought into the field of vision by our assumption of the recumbent position4 ,at night again1 though we watch for anything stirring the air1 among the trees or the herbage1 our tactics are somewhat modified2 for1 if the insect be of whitish colour1 we should so place ourselves that its form will stand boldly out against a mass of dark foliage1 whereas1 if it be dingy in hue1 we must take the sky for our background4 ,disturbing insects1 and thus causing them to start forth1 and so render themselves visible1 is another method of collecting4 ,this is carried out in various ways4 ,first1 the occupants of high trees may be expelled by jarring the trunk with a heavily loaded mallet1 or by thwacking the trunk with a long hazel stick2 but a sharp look-out must be kept1 for some sham death1 and fall plump down1 while others make off as fast as they can4 ,other plans are to pelt the trees with stones1 or pump on them with a powerful garden engine1 or beat them with a long pole2 and of all tress the most profitable for this purpose is the yew2 though firs1 oaks1 beeches1 and other trees are not to be despised4 ,for beating bushes there is nothing better than a walking-stick1 and for low herbage a long switch passed quickly from side to side with a tapping movement is best adapted4 ,the tenants of tree trunks may be disturbed by brushing the surface with a leafy little bough1 or1 better still1 by the use of a strong fan1 with which a powerful blast may be driven1 the net being held in such a position as to intercept such insects as are blown off4 ,thatch-beating in the autumn is a very profitable employment1 particularly in the matter of ,depressari4 ,sweeping need only be mentioned here1 for moths collected by the process are anything but perfect insects4 ,there are various methods of attracting moths and butterflies4 ,the first is effected by confining a virgin female in a muslin cage1 the frame of which may be very readily formed by bending three pieces of cane into circles1 and fixing these together at right angles1 as shown in ,fig4 #ac4 ,when this baited cage is placed in a favourable position1 and the weather is propitious for the flight of the males1 the latter will1 in some cases1 congregate1 and may be freely captured4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,frame of ,cage for ,virgin ,lepidoptera4 ,then1 the food-plant of the species is an attraction at which we stand the best chance of procuring impregnated females4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,lantern and ,net4 ,various kinds of blooms possess alluring qualities for insects3 of these1 sallow and ivy are the greatest favourites with collectors4 ,they should be worked after dusk by means of a lantern and net2 but the combination of a lantern fixed to a long stick1 with a shallow net beneath and a little in advance of it1 as shown in the cut1 is the apparatus best adapted for the purpose2 the object of the net being to intercept any insects which may happen to fall under the stimulus of light4 ,these attractions should be first well searched over1 and afterwards1 a sheet 7split if necessary7 having been carefully spread below the bushes1 a gentle shaking should be administered4 ,besides these blossoms1 heather1 ragwort1 bugloss1 catchfly1 bramble1 various grasses1 and a vast number of other flowers1 are wonderfully attractive4 ,in working patches of bloom we should remain stationary and strike as the visitors arrive4 ,again1 over-ripe fruit1 the juicy buds of certain trees1 sap exuding from wounds in trees1 are all more or less attractive4 ,the secretion of aphides1 commonly called honeydew1 observable in hot seasons on the leaves of nettles and various other plants and trees1 is also well worth attention1 and is at times very productive of insects4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,net for sugaring4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,box with linen joints4 ,sugaring is the next attraction1 and a very important one it is4 ,sugar may be prepared by boiling up equal quantities of coarse foots sugar and treacle in a sufficient quantity of stale beer1 a small quantity of rum being added previous to use1 and also1 if considered advisable1 a flavouring of jargonelle pears1 anise-seed1 or ginger-grass4 ,this mixture should be applied by means of a small paint brush to the trunks of trees1 to foliage1 flowers1 tufts of grass1 or indeed to any object which may present a suitable surface2 for in some localities we are put to shift to know where to spread our sweets4 ,this operation should be performed just before dusk1 and soon afterwards the baited spots should be visited and1 by the aid of a lantern gently turned on them1 examined1 a net being held beneath the while4 ,the best form of net for the purpose is formed by socketing two paragon wires into a ,y-piece and connecting their diverging extremities by a piece of catgut1 as shown in ,fig4 #ae4 ,the catgut1 being flexible1 will adapt itself 7see the dotted line7 to the surface of a tree trunk when pressed against it4 ,with regard to insects captured at sugar1 they are usually remarkably quiet1 and may be boxed without difficulty1 and1 with a few exceptions1 may be conveyed home in the boxes1 care being taken to let each have a separate apartment4 ,the boxes should be strengthened with strips of linen pasted round the joints1 as shown in ,fig4 #af1 otherwise accidents may occur1 particularly on wet evenings or on rough ground4 ,the skittish individuals may be best captured by means of the sugaring drum1 of which a cut is given in ,fig4 #ag4 ,this apparatus consists of a cylinder1 one end of which is covered with gauze1 the other provided with a circular valve1 which works in a slit4 ,for use1 the valve is opened and the cylinder placed over the insect1 which naturally flies towards the gauze2 then the valve is closed1 the corked piston1 shown at the upper part of the cut1 placed against it1 the valve re-opened1 the piston pushed up to the gauze1 the insect pinned through the gauze1 and the piston withdrawn with the insect transfixed to it4 ,illustration3 ,fig #ag4 ,sugaring ,drum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,cyanide ,bottle and ,ferrule4 ,light is another most profitable means of attracting4 ,the simplest way is to place a powerful moderator lamp upon a table in front of an open window which faces a good locality1 and then wait net in hand for our visitors1 which usually make their appearance late in the evening1 and continue to arrive until the small hours4 ,those who prefer it can use the ,american moth-trap1 which is self-acting1 detaining such insects as may enter its portals1 or those who can afford the space may fit up a room on the same principle4 ,street lamps are very profitable certain localities1 and amply reward the collector who perseveringly and minutely examines them4 ,the apparatus depicted in ,fig4 #ah is very useful for taking off such insects as may be on the glass of the lamp3 it consists of a cyanide bottle attached by a ferrule to the end of a sufficiently long stick4 ,when placed over an insect1 stupefaction is quickly produced4 ,a net of the shape represented in ,fig4 #ai is also very useful for getting at the various parts of the lamp4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,lamp ,net4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,chloroform ,bottle4 ,the best methods of stupefying and killing insects on the field is the cyanide bottle1 prepared by placing alternate layers of cyanide of potassium and blotting-paper in the bottom of a wide-mouthed bottle1 the mouth of which is accurately stopped with a cover1 which is better for the purpose than a bung4 ,the chloroform bottle1 which is generally made with a little nipple1 through which the fluid flows slowly out1 and covered with a screw-tap1 as in the cut #bj1 is also handy4 ,the chloroform should be dropped over perforations in the box containing our patient1 these perforations having been previously made by a few stabs of a penknife4 ,after the fluid is dropped1 our thumb should cover it1 when the vapour will quickly enter1 and the inmate speedily become insensible4 ,afterwards the coup de grce may be given to the insect by pricking it under the thorax with the nib of a steel pen dipped in a saturated solution of oxalic acid4 ,if we are smokers1 a puff of tobacco may be blown into the box with like result4 ,if we are destitute of any apparatus1 and brimstone lucifers for the purpose of suffocating our captures under an inverted tumbler cannot be obtained at some roadside inn1 we must fall back on the barbarous practice of pinching the thoraces of such as cannot be carried home in boxes4 ,at home we shall find the laurel jar and ammonia bottle the most useful4 ,the former is made by partially filling a large wide-mouthed bottle or jar with cut and bruised dry leaves of young laurel3 if any dampness hang about them1 we shall have the mortification of seeing our specimens become mildewed4 ,the latter consists in adding a few lumps of carbonate of ammonia1 or some drops of strong liquid ammonia1 on a sponge1 to the bottle in which our captures1 with each box lid slightly opened1 have been placed4 ,but it must be borne well in mind1 firstly1 that ammonia is injurious to the colours of most green insects2 and secondly1 that if the specimens be not well aired after having been thus killed1 the pins with which they are transfixed will become brittle and break4 ,insects should be left in the ammonia for several hours1 and are then in the most delightful condition for setting out4 ,to pin an insect properly is a most important procedure4 ,the moth1 if of moderate dimensions may be rested or held between the thumb and fore finger of the left hand1 while the corresponding digits of the right hand operate by steadily pushing a pin through the thorax1 bringing it out between the hind pair of cox until sufficient of the pin is exposed beneath to steady the insect in the cabinet ,the direction of the pin should be perpendicular when the insect is viewed from the front1 as in ,fig4 #ba2 but a lateral view should show the pin slightly slanting forwards1 as in ,fig4 #bb4 ,pins made for the purpose in numerous sizes are sold by ,mr4 ,cooke1 of ,new ,oxford ,street4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,front ,view of properly pinned ,insect4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,side ,view of ditto4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,cork ,saddle for setting out ,insects4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,braces for setting out4 ,setting out moths and butterflies is an operation which1 if skilfully performed1 adds much to the beauty of the future specimens4 ,the method of setting most popular is carried out by means of saddles and braces4 ,these so-called saddles are pieces of cork rounded as in the sectional figure1 a groove being cut out for the reception of the bodies of the insects3 they are generally strengthened by a strip of wood1 upon which they are glued4 ,braces are wedge-shaped pieces of card or thick note-paper1 the thick end strengthened1 if necessary1 with a disc of card fixed by shoemakers' paste1 and pierced with a pin through it1 as shown in ,fig4 #bd4 ,the mode of application of these appliances is beautifully shown in ,fig4 #bf;,d4 ,but before these straps can be applied1 the wings must first be got into position by means of the setting needle and setting bristle1 which are thus manipulated 7the setting bristle1 by the way1 being formed by fixing a cat's whisker and a pin into a piece of cork1 at the angle shown in ,fig4 #be73--;,after the insect is straightly pinned upon the saddle1 and the legs1 antenn1 and1 if necessary1 the tongue1 got into position1 the left fore-wing is to be pushed or tilted into its place by means of the setting needle1 which is merely a darning needle with a handle2 and simultaneously it is to be held down by the bristle2 then a small brace should be applied to the costa of the fore wing4 ,next the hind wing should in like manner be adjusted1 and as many braces as are considered necessary to keep the wings in their place should be added4 ,lastly1 the right side of the insect should be treated in a similar way4 ,d ,figs4 #bf and #bg have been kindly lent by ,messrs4 ,reeve ,co4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,setting ,bristle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,moth set out on ,cork ,saddle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,four-strap setting4 ,a very useful mode of setting1 invaluable when we are destitute of saddles1 is known as four-strap setting1 and is well explained in ,fig4 #bg4 ,in this case the lower straps are first put into such a position1 that when the insect is placed over them the middle of each of the cost will rest upon them2 then the wings are got into position1 and the second pair of straps are applied over the wings1 the latter retaining their position through the elasticity of their cost3 two more straps are generally added to secure the outer borders of the wings1 as shown in the drawing2 but these1 though advantageous1 are not absolutely necessary4 ,the saddles1 with their contents1 should be kept in a drying house1 which is a box adapted for their reception1 and freely ventilated1 until the specimens are thoroughly dry1 when the latter may be cautiously removed1 and transferred to the collection4 ,to preserve our collection from decay1 considerable care and attention is necessary4 ,in the first place no insect which is in the least degree suspected of being affected by mites1 or mould1 or grease1 should on any account be admitted to our collections4 ,it is best to be on the safe side and submit every insect received from correspondents1 whether mity or not1 to quarantine1 by which is meant their detention for a few weeks in a box the atmosphere of which is impregnated with some vapour destructive to insect life2 such as that of benzole4 ,our own specimens we should kyanize by touching the bodies of each with a camel's-hair brush dipped in a solution of bichloride of mercury of the strength six grains to the ounce of spirits of wine1--no stronger4 ,as for mould1 it is best destroyed by the application of phnic or carbolic acid1 mixed with three parts of ether or spirit4 ,as preventives1 the specimens should be kyanized as above4 ,caution in the use of laurel as a killing agent must be exercised1 and the collection must be kept in a dry room4 ,grease may be removed by soaking the insects in pure rectified naphtha or benzole1 even by boiling them in it if necessary4 ,when the bodies only are greasy1 they may be broken off1 numbered1 and treated as above4 ,after the grease is thoroughly softened1 the insects should be covered up in powdered pipeclay or ,french chalk1 which may be subsequently removed by means of a small sable brush4 ,as a precaution against grease1 it is advisable to remove the contents of the abdomina by slitting up the latter beneath with a finely pointed pair of scissors before they are thoroughly dry1 and packing the cavities with cotton wool4 ,the males1 especially of such species as have internal feeding larv1 should be thus treated4 ,some prefer to keep their collections in well-made store boxes1 which possess many advantages over the cabinet2 for example1 they may be kept like books in a bookcase1 the upright position rendering the contents less liable to the attacks of mites2 they are more readily referred to1 and are more portable1 and they admit of our gradually expanding our collections to any extent4 ,cabinets1 on the other hand1 are preferred by many1 for the reasons that they are compact and generally form a handsome article of furniture2 moreover1 good cabinets are made entirely of mahogany1 which is the best wood for the purpose2 deal1 and other woods containing resinous matter1 having a decidedly injurious effect on the specimens4 ,as a preservative1 there is1 after all1 perhaps nothing better than camphor2 but it should be used sparingly1 or its tendency will be to cause greasiness of the specimens4 ,v4 ,,beetles4 ,by ,e4 ,c4 ,rye1 ,f4,z4,s41 etc4 ,the general rules1 so ably expounded by ,dr4 ,knaggs in his instructions for collecting ,lepidoptera1 as to constant alertness and making the reason why the starting-point of investigation1 apply with equal force to the collector of ,coleoptera1 and need not be here recapitulated4 ,but they do not1 in the instance of the latter1 require generally to be observed1 except as to the perfect state of beetles2 for1 owing to the hidden earlier conditions of life of most of those insects1 and to the long period during which these conditions exist1 it is but seldom that the pursuit of rearing them1 so universally and profitably adopted by the ,lepidopterist1 is found of much use to the collector of beetles4 ,and this is very much to be regretted2 because1 in the majority of cases1 if the latter succeed in rearing a beetle from its earliest stage1 and keep proper notes of its appearance and habits1 he will probably be adding to the general stock of knowledge1 as the lives of comparatively few1 even of the commonest species1 are recorded from the beginning4 ,it may be1 also1 in addition to the reasons above mentioned1 for the usual want of success attending the rearing of beetle larv1 that the fact of bred specimens being frequently 7from the artificial conditions attending their development1 and from their not being allowed that length of time which1 in a state of nature1 they require after their final change before they are ready to take an active part in their last stage of life7 not nearly so good as those taken at large1 militates considerably against the more general use of this method of adding to a collection4 ,in this respect1 of course1 the ,lepidopterist is actuated by precisely opposite motives2 as for him1 a bred specimen is immeasurably superior to one captured4 ,and the fact of so few beetle larv being known at all1 or1 if known1 only to the possessor of somewhat rare books1 renders it very likely that a mere collector1 finding a considerable expenditure of patience and trouble result in the rearing of a species of which he could at any time readily procure any number of specimens1 may very probably abandon rearing for the future4 ,these observations1 however1 are not in the least intended to dissuade anyone from breeding or endeavouring to breed beetles4 ,on the contrary1 it is obvious from them that it is precisely by attending to these earlier stages that the earnest student 7novice or expert7 has the most chance of distinguishing himself1 on account of the more open field for discovery4 ,and in the instance of many small1 and especially gregarious1 beetles1 breeding from the larv is frequently very easy1 if only the substances 7fungus1 rotten wood1 roots1 stems of plants1 c47 containing them be carefully left in precisely the state as when found1 and be exposed to the same atmospheric or other important conditions4 ,in fact1 to ensure success and good specimens1 it is best that in their early stages beetles should be let alone severely4 ,it may be here observed that we have been lately in this country indebted to the minute observations and great tact of some of our best students of ,micro-,lepidoptera 7in which branch of entomology we are second to none in ,europe7 for some most interesting additions to our knowledge of habits1 and for long series of beetles usually rare in collections4 ,dismissing then the earlier stages of beetles1 the following observations will apply only to the imago1 or beetle proper4 ,and here ,i would repeat how evident it is that the knowledge of the reason why is especially indispensable to the beetle collector1 judging from the extreme rarity of the occurrence of any new or valuable insect in the stores of a mere random collector or a beginner4 ,for him1 no old hand detects an equivalent to ,daplidice or ,lathonia in his duplicate boxes2 whereas1 among ,lepidopterists1 school-boy's luck is proverbial4 ,i can give no reason for this statement1 founded on my own 7by no means trifling7 experience in the way of examining specimens4 ,and in this idea ,i think ,i am corroborated by the very great rarity in old collections and records of many species now universally common2 the directions in older manuals1 as to looking under stones1 on walls1 paths1 c41 pretty clearly showing that the majority of captures in the olden time were what are now irreverently designed as flukes4 ,still1 it is astonishing to what good account a sharp observer may turn these casual meetings1 often to him resulting in the discovery of the reason why as to the particular species accidentally found1 and to the correlative increase of his collection4 ,and1 apart from captures during collecting expeditions1 good things will at times occur to the alert entomologist3 one1 for instance1 who will startle his friends in the streets by suddenly swooping with his hat after an atom flying in the sunshine1 or who is not too proud to pick up another1 racing on the hot pavement1 during those days of early spring1 when the insect myriads1 revelling in warmth and light1 after their long winters durance1 may be seen madly dashing about1 even in towns3 on such a day1 for instance1 as that whereon a certain well-known doctor among the beetles found that living carabideous gem ,anchomenus sexpunctatus1 far from its native ,sphagnum and heath1 wandering on the flagstones of the ,w4,c4 district4 ,but1 before referring to special modes of hunting1 it may be as well to mention the instrumenta belli required for the equipment of the ,coleopterist in this country4 ,these are but few1 and of the simplest kind2 indeed1 in entomology1 as in the gentle art of angling1 it is often the most roughly accoutred that secures the best basket4 ,the umbrella net1 figured at p4 #dg1 used both for beating into and sweeping1 cannot be dispensed with1 and a beating stick can be cut out of the nearest hedge4 ,the net itself should be of fine cheese cloth1 or some strong fabric that allows the passage of air1 but not of beetles2 otherwise1 if of too close a fibre1 it is apt to bag with the inclosed air1 and reject its contents during the operation of sweeping4 ,the net being of course used with the right hand1 its left top edge especially bears the brunt of the attendant friction1 and gets soon worn2 it is consequently advisable to have an outer strip of stout leather-cloth sewn strongly over the rim there for some little distance1 extending that protection also to the right top edge1 though not for so long a space4 ,the curved handle of the stick should be sawn off as soon as possible2 it frequently catches in the pockets of the sweeper1 causing a jerk to the net1 and dispersal of its contents4 ,for a similar reason1 the ferruled apex may well be removed4 ,some collectors keep the sharp cutting edge of the spring sides of the net uncovered1 sewing the net itself to holes drilled at intervals on the lower side of the springs3 a net of this kind cuts very close1 and where there is much herbage soon gets full of fragments1 taking a long time to examine4 ,it will be found handy if the bag of the net be cut to a point from the front towards the handle side3 this causes the contents to gravitate to the bottom1 as far as possible from the point where the rim meets the substance swept4 ,a common umbrella 7easily slung by a stout string over the back when not in use7 is an admirable 7some think1 superior7 substitute for this net1 as it can be held up higher by the ferrule1 and tall bushes and trees 7of which the branches nearer the top are usually most productive7 can be beaten into it with more certainty of their beetle contents being caught4 ,the steel frames will be found in the way when the beetles are being bottled2 consequently1 a good large gingham may be consecrated to collecting1 and its inside 7not merely the outer ribs7 covered all over up to the middle 7leaving no aperture there if possible7 with thin white calico1 stitched over the frame4 ,another good form of net for sweeping or dragging in long grass or herbage1 is of the common fishing landing-net description1 made of very stout wrought-iron or steel wire1 either in a simple hoop1 if a moderate size only be required1 or with a single hinge to fold into two1 or with three such hinges1 folding into four1 as may be desired4 ,i have used one of these four-folding nets for years1 and never found it fail4 ,one end is hammered out flat and perforated1 the other forming a male screw 7#a-a_/b inch long71 bent at right angles with the body of the frame1 passes through the hole1 and fits into a female screw in a strong and long ferrule1 fixed in the usual way to the end of a stout oaken walking-stick4 ,as the power exerted in sweeping with such a net is great1 and the action continuous1 the simple screw is not enough1 and a small screw hole is drilled right through the ferrule and the screw end of the net2 a small thumb-screw1 in shape like an old-fashioned clock key1 going transversely through both1 and effectually hindering lateral displacement4 ,the framework of the net and the ferrule are better made of the same metal1 because1 if made of two metals of different density1 the stronger soon wears away the weaker2 and the stick must be inserted deeply into the ferrule1 and held on with two deep pins or small screws on opposite sides 7not on the same level1 however1 as the wood is in that case weakened71 one being insufficient to stand the strain4 ,the net1 of the same substance as that above mentioned1 is made with a loose hem to slip on the frame before screwing it in the ferrule4 ,a leather-cloth edging all round is advisable1 and the bag should be cut long enough to prevent the possibility of the contents jerking out4 ,another very good plan for securing the frame to the ferrule is to have both ends of it soldered together into a deep square-sided plug1 fitting into a corresponding square hole in the ferrule4 ,the small cross-screw or pin is here also to be used2 but the angles of the plug naturally keep a much tighter hold than the worm of a screw4 ,such a frame as this cannot1 of course1 be folded4 ,for water beetles1 a similar net to that last mentioned is effective1 but it should be stouter and with a flat front1 for dredging closely against the sides and bottoms of ponds4 ,the best substance for its bag is fine sampler canvas2 and a very large1 stout bamboo cane is at once light and strong for its stick4 ,to avoid friction the bag may be affixed to small wire rings let into holes on the lower edge of the frame1 or running on the frame itself4 ,a sieve is one of the most remunerative implements1 and may be procured either simple or folding4 ,it consists of a stout wire-framed circle1 connected by a strong linen band1 six inches deep1 with the bottom of an ordinary wire sieve1 the meshes of which are wide enough to allow any beetle to pass through4 ,leaves1 grass1 flood refuse1 ants' nests materials1 cut grass1 seaweed1 haystack and other dbris1 are roughly shaken in this over a sheet of brown paper1 which should invariably form part of a ,coleopterist's apparatus4 ,a stout piece of double waterproof material may be substituted2 and1 in marsh collecting1 must be used as a kneeling pad4 ,for ordinary bark collecting1 a strong ripping chisel 7of which the blade is well collared1 so as not to slip7 is as useful a tool as can be procured2 but for real tree working1 no ordinarily portable instrument is thoroughly effective4 ,light steel hammers with a lever spike may delude the collector2 but a woodman's axe1 a saw1 a pickaxe or crowbar1 will often be found not too strong4 ,for cutting tufts1 c41 a strong garden pruning-knife is good1 and an old fixed-handled dinner-knife 7carried in a sheath7 better4 ,for holding the results of the operation of these instruments1 the collector needs but one or two collecting bottles--one rather small and circular1 of as clear and strong glass 7not cast7 as can be got1 with a wide mouth and flat bottom4 ,its neck should not slope1 but be of even width1 or the cork will often get out of itself4 ,this cork should be a deep one1 and be perforated longitudinally by a stout and large round quill1 the bottom of which should be level with the bottom of the cork1 the top projecting some inch and a half1 with the upper orifice not cut off straight1 but slightly sloped diagonally1 so as more easily to scoop up beetles from the net or hand4 ,it is closed with an accurately fitting1 soft1 wooden plug1 rather longer than the quill1 reaching exactly to the bottom of it1 but with its top projecting above the top of the quill1 and broader than it1 so as to be easily pulled out by the teeth when the hands are occupied4 ,the bottle should be secured by stout twine to the buttonhole1 enough play being left for it to reach the net in any ordinary position4 ,i usually secure the external junction of quill and cork with red sealing-wax1 and have more than once found the bright red catch my eye when ,i have lost my bottle4 ,n4,b4 ,this loss will always happen to every collector2 generally after a peculiarly lucky day's work3 so use the string-preventive4 ,the body of the bottle may usefully be half covered with white paper gummed on4 ,a few stout1 plain glass tubes1 papered in like way1 and with plain corks1 should be carried for special captures2 and a cyanide bottle1,e as mentioned at p4 #eg1 or one containing bruised and shredded young laurel shoots1 will be found useful for safely bringing home larger species1 or such as would devour their fellow-captives4 ,when put into these1 beetles almost instantly die and become rigid1 needing a stay of two days or so to become relaxed1 in which condition they will then safely remain for a considerable period4 ,in the first collecting bottle a piece of muslin should be put1 to give the contents foothold3 these are brought home alive1 and killed by bodily immersion in boiling water1 after which they are placed on blotting paper to drain off superfluous moisture4 ,e ,killing bottles1 containing cyanide of potassium under a layer of gypsum1 may be bought at most natural-history apparatus dealers1 and are useful as relaxing dpts4 ,good things should always1 when practicable1 be set out at once1 as the pubescence is apt to get matted if they are consigned for too long a period to the laurel or cyanide bottle2 but such as remain unmounted can be put in a little muslin bag1 and deposited in laurel until a more convenient opportunity4 ,beetles also1 when taken in large numbers during an expedition into a productive locality1 may be collected indiscriminately into a bottle containing sawdust 7sifted to get rid both of large pieces and actual dust71 slightly alcoholized1 or with a small quantity of carbolic acid or cyanide of potassium in it4 ,each night1 on reaching home1 these will be found to be dead1 and they can then be transferred to a larger bottle or air-tight tin can1 partially filled with the same materials and a little carbolic acid to check undue moisture4 ,filled up with sawdust1 this will travel in safety for any distance1 and almost any time4 ,species of moderate size1 say up to that of an ordinary ,harpalus1 are in this country usually mounted on card4 ,much is to be said both for and against this practice3 it enables the proportions and formation of limbs to be well appreciated1 and it preserves the specimens securely2 but there can be no doubt that it prevents an inspection of the under side1 except at the slight trouble of extra manipulation in floating off in cold water and reversing1 and that the gum used clogs the smaller portions of the insect that come in contact with it4 ,specimens larger than those mentioned should be pinned through the centre of the upper third of the right wing-case 7never through the scutellum or thorax71 and the limbs extended in position with pins on a setting board1 made of a flat strip of cork glued on deal4 ,both these and the mounted examples must be left to dry1 for a week at least1 in the open air3 if the boards are fitted in a frame1 they can be reversed 7as soon as the gum is dry in mounted specimens71 so that the specimens are bottom upwards--dust cannot then collect on them1 and there is less chance of mites attacking them4 ,specimens dry more rapidly in spring and summer than at any other time1 and of course more readily in dry weather4 ,for mounting specimens1 five or six small pieces of the finest and most transparent gum tragacanth1 or gum dragon1 with rather less than the same number of pieces of clear gum arabic1 are to be put in a wide-mouthed bottle with about a large wine-glassful of cold water4 ,in a short time 7twenty-four hours at most7 the gum absorbs the fluid and swells2 then add half as much more water1 and stir the mixture1 which1 on being left for another twenty-four hours at most1 will be ready for use4 ,the mixture should be dull white1 of even texture1 and not quite fluid4 ,never make a large quantity at one time1 or be persuaded to put anything else into it4 ,card for mounting should be the whitest1 smoothest1 and best that can be procured4 ,four-sheet ,bristol board for large specimens1 and three-sheet for ordinary use1 are about the proper degrees of thickness4 ,robersons1 of ,long ,acre1 artists' colourmen1 have promised the writer to turn out cardboard of this kind with an extra milling1 to ensure a good surface4 ,upon strips of this card1 pinned on a setting board1 the insects to be set out are mounted1 one at a time1 and not too close to each other1 each on a separate dab of the gum1 the limbs being duly set out with a fine pin or needle mounted in a paint-brush stick4 ,a pin with the point very finely turned1 so as to form a minute hook1 is very useful2 and for extremely minute work a bead-needle is valuable4 ,the gum-brush should not be used in setting1 but one or two very fine-pointed camel's-hair brushes may be found of advantage4 ,before mounting1 reverse the specimen on the blotting-paper1 and brush out its limbs as far as practicable with a damp flat brush4 ,very refractory individuals may require to be gummed on their backs2 as soon as the gum is dry1 their limbs can be more easily got into position1 and they can then be gently damped off their temporary mount1 and treated as above4 ,a small pair of brass microscope-forceps1 ground or cut to a minute point1 will often materially assist in getting refractory limbs into position4 ,french white liquid glue 7not made of shell-lac7 is useful for fastening down larger specimens1 as it is very strong and dries readily2 and with a very small quantity of it rows of specimens can quickly and securely be roughly mounted1 in the ,continental way1 which is preferable in many cases to leaving the insects for a long time in laurel before setting them out4 ,such specimens can afterwards1 if desired1 be relaxed by leaving them on damp sand1 or in the cyanide or laurel bottle1 and be then set in the way above indicated4 ,care must be taken1 in setting1 not to put the specimen lop-sided on the card1 or to distort its segments unnaturally by pulling them out of position1 c41 and not to allow gum to lodge anywhere on the upper surface4 ,it is easy1 soon after a specimen is securely mounted1 to remove with clean water and brush any superfluous gum4 ,in preparing such insects as are liable to run up in drying 7e4g4 the ,staphylinid71 the abdomen should be duly pulled out by a bead-needle inserted at its apex2 and to prevent the contraction of the internal muscles in drying1 this part may be held with the liquid glue above mentioned4 ,usually1 by putting these insects as soon as mounted into a box and keeping it closed for a few hours1 while the first drying takes place1 the proper dimensions of the abdomen may be preserved1 and thus the natural facies of the insect retained4 ,the contents of the bodies of very large insects may well be removed1 either by the anal orifice1 or by an incision on the lower side of the abdomen4 ,the ,oil-beetles 7,melo7 alone require careful stuffing4 ,this is best done by separating the entire abdomen from the metathorax1 beneath the elytra1 and close to their point of insertion3 the body is then easily emptied and washed out1 and may be filled with cut-up wool1 which packs closely2 when gummed on again1 the junction is not visible1 and the entire insect preserves its wonderfully obese appearance4 ,to save time1 in mounting many specimens1 it is better to merely gum straight on the strip of card as many specimens as can be managed at a sitting4 ,the left side of each of these can then be slightly damped with clear cold water1 and its left limbs set out3 when all are thus done1 the first one will be nearly1 if not quite1 ready to have its right side treated in like manner2 and so on to the end4 ,very refractory specimens will sometimes require to be even held down with little braces of card on pins1 and to have each limb damped and set out by a separate operation4 ,the card of large specimens will often curl upwards in drying1 owing to the amount of damp3 to counteract this1 the lower face of the card may be washed with a wet brush1 just before gumming its surface4 ,before putting insects away1 when dry1 the individual specimens should be cut off the strips of card by a straight cut on each side1 one at right angles to the sides in front1 and another behind1 all 7except the last7 close to the tips of the limbs as set out1 so that the whole card forms a parallelogram4 ,a very little practice will enable the operator to do this both certainly and quickly4 ,no two individuals 7save perhaps a male and female1 of whose sexual relations there can be no doubt1 or an example mounted on its back1 to show its under side1 along with a member of the same species7 should be allowed to continue on one card2 much less should a row be left together4 ,the reason of this is1 that in many cases species closely resembling each other often get confused2 and it is1 moreover1 difficult to get a glass of anything but a very low power to bear upon all parts of the individuals without injuring some of them4 ,each specimen should have sufficient card left behind it to allow of a glass of high power being passed between it everywhere and its pin4 ,the pin should perforate the card in the middle of1 and close to1 its hinder margin2 and the whole card be lifted three-fourths up the pin1 to keep it from mites and dirt as much as possible4 ,proper entomological pins can be obtained of all sizes at the agents of ,edelsten1 #ag1 ,silver ,street1 ,st4 ,martin's-le-,grand2 also 7with all other apparatus7 of any natural-history agent or dealer in ,london2 such as ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,janson1 #bh1 ,museum ,street1 or ,cooke1 ,new ,oxford ,street4 ,no4 #h pin is1 perhaps1 the most useful size4 ,in removing many specimens1 proper insect forceps will be found handy3 these can be obtained at the two last addresses2 or of ,buck1 cutler1 ,tottenham ,court ,road4 ,specimens will occasionally become discoloured with grease1 usually from defective drying1 though many water beetles and internal feeders1 and most autumn-caught specimens1 are specially liable to this defect4 ,benzine is an effectual remedy for it and for mites1 and can be liberally applied with a brush4 ,carbolic or phnic acid1 dissolved in that fluid 7or alone1 see p4 #fd71 is an effectual safeguard against mould from damp2 and when in solution with water1 this acid has been found useful as a wash for card and boxes1 which then are not attacked by mites4 ,to re-card a specimen that has become discoloured 7whether from either of these causes1 or from age71 it is only necessary that it should be floated in cold water for a few minutes2 the insect can then be dried1 well saturated with benzine1 and again mounted1 looking as fresh as ever4 ,but1 in re-carding specimens1 it is necessary to be very careful with such as were originally kept too long in a laurel or cyanide bottle1 as they are apt to become so rotten that a little damp will cause a solution of continuity4 ,as to storing the specimens when quite dry1 ,i can add nothing to the excellent observations of ,dr4 ,knaggs1 at p4 #fe2 the same remarks applying with equal force to ,coleoptera2 except1 perhaps1 that1 even when the collector has 7and is satisfied with7 a cabinet1 he is likely1 in proportion to the real work done by him1 to establish type-boxes of all the difficult groups4 ,for the examination of insects1 readily manipulated by being pinned singly on a square1 flat1 thick piece of cork or bung1 a pocket glass is1 of course1 necessary4 ,in this case1 the best instrument is the cheapest in the long run1 whatever its cost2 and one by a good maker1 such as ,ross1 with modifications of four powers1 will suffice for any ordinary work4 ,for very small species1 a ,coddington1 of the clearest definition and highest power attainable1 is of immense help4 ,but when the collector finds that he needs a compound microscope to separate species1 it is the firm opinion of the present writer that that collector had better take to some other pursuit than studying ,coleoptera4 ,to anyone1 however1 whose researches entail an examination of the minute cibarian and other organs of beetles1 whether for purposes of classification or otherwise1 the compound is absolutely necessary2 though even then the lower powers are usually sufficient4 ,for rough dissection1 all that is needed are an oculist's very small lance-headed dissecting-knife and a stout and fine needle4 ,with these1 under a lens mounted on a little stage to allow the free use of both hands1 much may be done4 ,the writer1 however1 has seen and used a very pretty 7and comparatively inexpensive7 dissecting-stand1 with various powers and much latitude of motion1 by ,ross4 ,after mentioning that1 in sending mounted beetles by post to correspondents1 it is far more practical to use a strong box1 not too deep1 to fasten the pins securely1 with a layer of manufactured wool in the lid 7glazed side towards the beetles1 so as not to catch limbs71 and to put more wool outside1 and write the address and affix the stamp on a label attached1 than it is to pack carelessly1 write ,with care outside1,f and then grumble at the post-office because the insects are broken1--,i think ,i cannot1 with use1 say anything more upon beetles in their preserved condition2 and ,i will therefore now give some hints as to their haunts when alive4 ,f ,it is1 however1 always as well to write ,insects1 signifying contents that are caviare to the million1 and therefore not likely to be appropriated en route4 ,to exhaust the accidental-capture system above alluded to1 mention must first be made of sand-pit collecting1 a most profitable employment1 especially in spring and early summer4 ,a clean1 straight-sided silver-sand pit is the best1 and if in or near a wood its attractions will be at their highest4 ,beetles1 flying of an evening and by night1 dash against the pit sides and fall to the bottom2 others merely crawl in for shelter1 or tumble over the sides1 and many seem attracted by the mere damp at the bottom or in the corners4 ,old collectors used to recommend a sheet spread out to attract insects2 and there is no doubt that a certain number can be found by such means1 just as they can be picked up floating on horse-troughs or on ponds4 ,artificial traps exist in the corridors of the ,crystal ,palace1 some half-inclosed country railway stations1 and such places2 crawling up the windows of which many specimens are to be found4 ,but these can only be considered as indications of what species occur in the district1 as they are mere stragglers4 ,deliberately laying traps in sand pits1 on commons1 c41 will be found most productive4 ,small dead animals1 fir branches1 dead leaves1 c41 can be examined time after time with profit in such situations4 ,burying a stout branch with the bark on1 leaving the top above the soil1 and periodically examining it when damp and nearly rotten1 has been found effective2 many insects collecting beneath the loose wet bark4 ,after heavy floods1 as during severe droughts1 beetles may be found in great profusion2 in the former case1 by sifting the refuse left by the water2 in the latter1 by diligently examining the damp residuum of former ponds1 and if no damp be found1 by even searching below the surface where it last occurred4 ,the wet hay1 often decayed and mouldy1 at the bottoms of stacks1 which bad farmers have placed directly on the ground1 will be found to teem with beetle-life2 as will the margins of dung and vegetable-refuse heaps1 wood-stacks1 cut grass1 c42 and many good things may be taken by gently waving a light gauze net to and fro1 just before sunset1 close to such places1 whither the instinct of nature impels the flight of myriads4 ,in winter1 isolated tufts of grass in wet places1 on the margins of streams1 the crests of banks1 c41 must be cut close to the ground1 and gently torn in pieces over brown paper4 ,wherever many insects seem to be found1 it will in most of these cases be found advisable to sift the fragments1 and bring home the beetles and small stuff unexamined in a bag with a string at the neck to prevent their escape4 ,moss should be treated in this way1 and the layers of black and rotting leaves found in woods1 especially at their outskirts4 ,beech leaves usually produce many species1 and the autumn and spring are the best times for hunting for them4 ,in winter1 also1 many species will be found hybernating in grass at the roots of trees1 under bark1 c41 in conditions not usual with them at other times4 ,in autumn1 fungi1 in woods especially1 will be found most productive4 ,general sweeping1 except during the winter1 will always be more or less remunerative4 ,no general rules can be laid down for this2 in a good neighbourhood 7on chalk or sand1 or1 better still1 in a district where both these soils are found7 beetles will swarm almost anywhere in due season1 and the most unlikely-looking spots will frequently be found the best in the end4 ,in luxuriant herbage1 among low shrubs1 in the close-growing vegetation of hill-sides1 the sweeping net may be plied with success2 but the best way1 with all ,phytophaga at least1 is to start with a fixed idea as to catching certain definite species1 and then1 at the right time1 to hunt for such plants as these are known or supposed to frequent2 and1 such failing in the district1 to try their allies4 ,of course1 the collector will not fail to sweep flowers in woods and lanes1 whereon1 in the hot sunshine1 many showy beetles bask4 ,many good things will be found by sweeping under fir trees1 especially towards evening1 and even by night2 in many places1 especially marshes1 nocturnal feeders may be secured by the vague use of this net4 ,by night1 also1 many species may be found at sugar put on trees for moths1 and on ivy or sallow-blossom4 ,beating is most productive in early summer1 especially in the second year's growth of young cuttings in woods2 and the oak1 hazel1 and poplar will generally yield many species to the tap of the stick4 ,good thick1 and especially old hedges1 must also be always carefully thrashed into the net2 very many good things1 otherwise not procurable1 will reward this toil4 ,another scheme for getting rare species is to beat the tops of trees with a long pole1 placing beneath a sheet or tent covering4 ,breaking away the extreme edges of banks1 throwing water on them1 treading heavily on the margins1 diligently examining grass and roots close to the water1 reeds 7especially if cut and on the ground in heaps71 c41 will bring to light great numbers of wet-loving beetles4 ,water beetles1 pure and simple1 must be dragged and dredged for1 especially round water plants beneath the surface1 and along the sides of ponds1 in eddies of running streams1 in the moss on stones in them1 and on the stones themselves1 c4 ,the ,coprophaga will be found readily in the droppings of various ,mammalia1 and also in holes bored in the ground beneath1 often to a great depth4 ,an easy and clean way to secure them is to throw droppings1 ground and all1 into water1 the beetles coming to the surface4 ,as to wood beetles1 they must be sought for under and in bark1 in solid wood1 in decaying branches1 and such places2 a rule to be remembered is1 that most of these occur at the tops of trees3 hence the paucity of so many species in collections4 ,indeed1 to properly hunt for the majority of them1 it is necessary to obtain carte blanche and a ladder1 if any success be hoped for4 ,felled trunks are1 of course1 easy to manipulate2 and their freshly-cut stumps1 exuding either resin or a peculiar and often sweet mucor1 are very attractive to many beetles1 as is freshly-cut sawdust1 and most especially the 7to us7 fetid and acrid juice resulting from the attacks of the larva of the ,goat-moth4 ,rotten fruit1 c41 are also not to be passed by without examination4 ,many small species occur in1 or can be obtained from1 the topmost twigs of trees blown down by the wind4 ,dead animals1 as before mentioned1 must be examined1 as must the vegetation and soil near them4 ,a keeper's tree in a wood will always produce something for the collector1 who need only hold his net beneath the gibbeted fer and bang their hides and bones with his beating-stick4 ,during different stages of decomposition and desiccation1 beetles of widely varied affinities will result from this method of collecting4 ,ants' nests would require a special notice1 so productive are they3 their material can be sifted and their neighbouring runs or paths examined1 traps laid near or on them1 and periodically cleared out1 c4 ,bees' and wasps' nests also produce good1 though fewer species1 and are1 moreover1 not quite so easy of access4 ,the nests of birds1 especially if the latter are gregarious1 and1 indeed1 the habitations of any animals1 will be found to harbour many beetles1 amongst other insects4 ,in gardens1 the beetle collector should lay cunning traps of cut grass1 twigs1 planks1 bones1 c42 by a periodical examination of which he will secure many good things4 ,if there be a hothouse about the premises1 it and its belongings will always act as a bait4 ,large tracts of waste land and commons1 though superficially apparently unproductive1 often contain congregations of good species1 in some little oasis of damp or vegetation2 moreover1 on them several peculiar beetles occur4 ,hills and mountains will often suddenly repay the toil of the collector1 who has despondently worked his way up1 turning over stones1 and finding comparatively nothing4 ,the moss1 c41 attending the channels of any streams in such places should be carefully searched1 and the stones on the top especially not neglected4 ,river banks and salt marshes are invariably frequented by good insects1 and the very heaps of seaweed1 dry or wet1 on the shore harbour countless beetles4 ,in such places small sand-loving plants should be pulled up by the roots1 and1 with the neighbouring soil1 shaken over brown paper4 ,the sand itself may in many instances be scraped1 and burrowing beetles brought to light2 but if the hunter comes upon a dead fish or bird1 a full bottle will be his4 ,thus it will be seen that almost every locality contains beetles1 if the collector can only detect them 7and it may be as well here to impress on him that it is better to bottle a dubious insect and examine it at home1 than to reject it for being apparently common74 ,still there can be no doubt that certain soils and districts are much more productive than others2 for instance1 most of the midland and western counties1 and some of the south-western1 are not by any means so prolific as the eastern1 southern1 and many parts of the northern districts of ,great ,britain2 clay being the worst of all soils for the ,coleopterist4 ,the collector will do well1 after a first hurried burst at all beetles that come in his way1 to select a special group1 and lay himself out to work it carefully1 buying or borrowing the works of authorities upon it1 and making himself master of the botany connected with it1 if it be a group of plant-frequenting habits4 ,by such a way of working1 he will more quickly1 though step by step1 acquire a good collection1 and a stock of useful knowledge1 than by any other4 ,he will of course keep a register of the date and place of capture1 and any peculiarity of habit of each insect he takes4 ,figures of the date of the year 7usually the last two are sufficient71 followed by another set1 commencing with #a1 will generally be quite enough2 corresponding entries being made in the first column of a ruled diary4 ,these figures may be written in ink on the under side of the card of a mounted specimen1 or on a circular disc of paper1 pierced by the pin of one too large to be carded4 ,,vi4 ,,hymenoptera4 ,by ,john ,b4 ,bridgman4 ,having been asked to give some instructions as to the method of setting and preserving the aculeate ,hymenoptera1 it is with great pleasure ,i comply1 and ,i hope it may be the means of inducing others to collect these insects4 ,to begin at the beginning1 it is almost needless to state that the females of all of them 7a few of the ants excepted7 are furnished with stings1 but with very little care one need never be stung4 ,as ,mrs4 ,glass says1 ,first catch your hare3 so first ,i shall give a few instructions where to look for and how to catch these insects4 ,all the apparatus necessary is a gauze ring-net1 a cyanide bottle1 and a pocket full of small card pill-boxes2 the cyanide bottle is best made by wrapping a small piece of cyanide of potassium in two or three thicknesses of blotting-paper1 tying it round with cotton to prevent it shaking out1 then fixing it to the bottom of a wide-mouthed flat bottle with sealing-wax1 which is made to adhere firmly to the glass by heating the glass carefully over a lamp1 and then corking it up4 ,the pill-boxes ought to have the tops and bottoms fastened in with liquid glue 7a preparation of shell-lac74 ,these are all that are required to catch and bring home the game2 which is to be looked for at the flowers of trees1 bushes1 and plants--one season's experience will teach the best1 as some species frequent one1 some another1 and some almost all4 ,the flowers ,i have found the greatest favourites are sallows1 willows1 sycamore1 holly1 blackthorn1 bramble1 hawkweeds1 ragwort1 thistles1 and umbellifer4 ,some bore in putrescent wood1 and must be looked for on or in the neighbourhood of old posts and palings2 some are to be found flying about dry banks1 hard-trodden pathways1 on heaths1 while old sand pits are favourite places2 but they should be sought for in any warm1 rough1 weedy spot2 and some may be obtained by digging them out of their burrows with a trowel4 ,my plan of proceeding1 after having got one in the net1 is to catch hold of the net so that the insect is inclosed in a sort of sack1 ,i then uncork the cyanide1 and introduce that into the sack1 holding the net firmly round the neck of the bottle1 so that there is no other escape for the insect from the net but into the bottle1 then gradually work the insect into the bottle and close the mouth with several folds of the net1 watch my opportunity and insert the cork3 when the insect is stupefied1 which happens in a few seconds if the bottle is slightly warm1 ,i turn it into the pill-box4 ,a word of caution3 it is necessary to be methodical in carrying the boxes4 ,i always keep the empty ones in my right-hand pocket1 and the filled ones in the left-hand one1 as1 if they are carried sometimes one way1 sometimes another1 sooner or later a previously filled one will be opened to put an insect in1 which will result in the former tenant speedily making room for the new comer2 and my experience has been1 if you do lose anything it is generally your best capture4 ,having got home with the left-hand pocket more or less filled1 turn the boxes out1 preparatory to killing the contents1 which must be done with burnt sulphur4 ,my mode of proceeding is as follows3--,i stupefy the contents of each box with chloroform1 in a manner ,i will describe farther on4 ,having stupefied them1 ,i empty them all into a short1 wide-mouthed1 round bottle1 having a piece of glass tube put through the cork2 the mouth of the tube is plugged with cotton wool1 not too tight1 to act as a strainer4 ,i then put this in a ,nabob pickle-bottle 7any other bottle will do as well71 through the stopper of which ,i have drilled a hole about a sixteenth of an inch in diameter1 in which is fixed a copper wire1 having a shallow tin cup at the end4 ,in this tin cup is placed the sulphur4 ,the tin cup is then held over the flame of a lamp1 gas1 or candle1 till the sulphur is burning1 then put it into the bottle and press it down4 ,when all the oxygen is consumed the sulphur goes out4 ,leave them for about three hours1 take them out1 and put them into a damp box for twelve or more hours3 they will then be in a splendid condition for setting4 ,to stupefy the insects ,i tip the lids on one side1 put them into the sulphur bottle1 pour a drop or two into the tin cup1 and put it into the bottle4 ,be careful not to chloroform them too much1 as if killed so they become so rigid that it is with difficulty they can be set4 ,having killed them1 there only remains to pin and set them4 ,there are various sizes of pins used2 most collectors have fancies of their own on this subject2 ,i shall therefore only say what is my practice4 ,the pins ,i use are ,d4 ,f4 ,tayler ,co4's1 ,new ,hall ,works1 ,birmingham2 ,no4 #ae for bumble-bees only2 the other sizes ,i find most useful are #ae1 #aj1 and #ah4 ,some pin the insects straight1 and some with the pin inclining forward4 ,having pinned them1 the next thing is to set them4 ,there are two ways of doing this2 one is1 cut an oblong square of stout cardboard1 and put a pin through one end2 after the legs are stretched out1 this is put into the cork1 one on each side1 till the upper surface of cork is just below the level of the wings1 which are then laid out on the card1 and held there by a brace the same shape as the table 7see ,fig4 #bh74 ,if the insect has been properly killed1 the legs and antenn will keep set out without the aid of pins2 if not1 this is done with bent or straight pins1 as may be necessary4 ,the other way is a hymn of my own composing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh ,insect set with ,table ,braces4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi ,wood1 with the ,strips glued on4 ,first take one of the strips of cork as sold at the shops1 paper it on both sides with thin soft paper2 then take a piece of wood a little larger than the cork1 about half an inch thick2 on this ,i glue strips of cardboard1 or thin wood1 according to the size of the insect1 side by side1 and as far apart as necessary 7see ,fig4 #bi74 ,these being dry1 ,i glue the sheet of cork on to the top of the strips1 which leaves it looking like a succession of bridges4 ,when this is dry the cork must be cut through between the pieces first fastened on the wood4 ,these pieces are then taken out and glued to the wood 7see ,fig4 #cj72 this leaves many setting boards1 something similar to the single rounded ones used by ,lepidopterists2 but these are flat--they want to be just deep enough for the insect and wide enough to allow the legs to be stretched out4 ,a little practice will soon determine the size4 ,the wing ,i hold down with small triangular braces4 ,each board will hold about seventy or eighty insects2 beneath ,i put the date they were set1 and leave them on the board about a month to dry1 as if taken off too soon the wings spring4 ,always put a label to each specimen1 either with the date or a number corresponding to one in a book1 in which enter the date and locality4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,ditto1 side view4 ,a1 the same with the cork glued on2 ,b1 cork2 ,c1 the same with the cork cut through at the dotted lines in ,a1 and fastened down4 ,one more observation and ,i have done4 ,sometimes one comes across an insect whose rigid wings seem to defy all attempts to set2 in such cases just press firmly at the back part of the thorax1 between that and the abdomen1 towards the pin1 and the wings will sometimes fly open of their own accord1 or will allow of their being easily set in the required direction1 which should always be set well forward4 ,,vii4 ,,land ,,and ,,freshwater ,,shells1 ,,etc4 ,by ,professor ,ralph ,tate1 ,f4,g4,s41 etc4 ,a young friend1 desirous of entering upon one of the most accessible natural history pursuits1 that of the study of ,land and ,freshwater ,molluscs1 begged of me some practical hints on the collection and preservation of these objects of our woodlands1 waysides1 and watercourses4 ,believing that this kind of work offers a good stepping-stone to the study of nature in its more extended forms and complicated relations1 ,i was most anxious to help my tyro naturalist1 and that beyond his utmost expectations1 as ,i made a few initiatory trips with him in a search for the coveted treasures4 ,our equipment was simple and inexpensive1 consisting of a block-tin saucepan finely perforated at the bottom1 about six inches across1 and having a hollow handle of a size to receive firmly the end of a common walking-stick--such a dredge or a sifter will cost ninepence or a shilling at a tinman's2 secondly1 of a pocket lens2 and lastly1 of a variety of boxes1 and a bag to contain specimens of different sizes4 ,thus provided1 our first excursion had for its object an examination of certain neighbouring ponds and streams4 ,my pupil1 guessing the use of the perforated saucepan1 makes his way to the nearest pond1 fixes the improvised handle1 dashes in the sifter with impatient ardour1 and having brought up a quantity of mud from the bottom1 looked upon the oozy mass with despair4 ,patience1 my lad6 ,remember that the pleasure of success in science is the higher the greater the labour expended in obtaining the objects of our search4 ,expect failure now and again1 but do not be disheartened4 ,ohne ,hast ohne ,rast1 should be the motto of every naturalist4 ,now1 shake the tin in the water1 keeping its rim just out of the water1 dipping it down now and then4 ,that is well2 thus you see that you have cleared off the mud1 and what you want is probably left behind along with the rubbish4 ,what1 nothing6 ,come1 try again2 but this time scrape the sifter along the surface of the mud1 and ,i am confident that you will find something to reward you1 and with much less trouble and display of temper4 ,in this way1 after repeated trials1 a number of shells were secured and transferred to the boxes4 ,then1 after the first gush of excitement is over1 we retire to an adjoining bank to con over the spoils1 and ,i to make mention of the various habits of freshwater snails1 and consequently of the different modes of search4 ,my young friend's enthusiasm is aroused by the mention that a few large mussel-like shells are inhabitants of our fresh waters1 and great is his haste to be up and again doing1 in the hope of adding some of them to his stock4 ,but in vain were his many attempts to find them in the pond which had already yielded us such a variety4 ,do they live here8 is at last the anxious question4 ,no2 but let us away to yon sluggish brook1 for it is in such that we may expect to meet with them4 ,now ,i see them4 ,are not those their ends just peeping above the mud8 ,and full of eagerness he dashes in the dredge1 but with little result1 excepting that of a dead shell or two4 ,oh6 how can ,i get them8 ,shall ,i take off my shoes and socks and wade for them8 ,well1 you might secure them that way1 and sometimes it is the only way1 but on this occasion ,i do not think it necessary4 ,come1 we will move a little higher up1 where the stream is clear1 and the shellfish undisturbed4 ,observe the gaping ends of the shell1 and thus ,i push the end of the stout rod between the partially-open valves2 now they close upon the stick1 and so we bring our prize holding on to the stick to the bank4 ,you will recollect1 addressing my companion1 that in the muddy pond we have just left1 we chiefly got small bivalves and only a few snail shells4 ,i have already told you that water shells differ much in their habits1 and that consequently our search for any particular species1 or set of species1 can only be successfully carried on when that knowledge is our guide4 ,those little bivalves1 and a few of the snails that we have gathered1 habitually live at the bottom1 and will of course be brought up in the dredge when that implement is dragged over it2 but there are many shells which live at or near the surface1 and which feed on the submerged and floating plants4 ,therefore we must seek out a weedy pool if we would increase the variety of our collection4 ,such a spot is reached2 and the dredge is brought into requisition1 anon to snatch up a floating snail1 or again to sweep over and through the plants1 varying our occupation by dragging to the margin the tangled masses of weeds2 by all of which means a considerable number of the class of air-breathing water snails was obtained--admonishing my young friend that this last plan does very well when the plants grow in dense masses1 because when thus interlaced they form a natural net to catch those snails which on the slightest disturbance lose their hold upon the weeds1 and which would otherwise fall to the bottom4 ,yet another plan remains to be pursued1 one by which the few small shells hiding among the roots of the plants may be secured4 ,obviously the dredge misses such2 but by pulling up the plants by their roots1 and well shaking them in the half-sunken sifter1 we yet after all obtain them4 ,from causes which need not be explained here1 the shells living in some ponds are all much eroded1 or coated with a ferruginous deposit2 it will be desirable therefore to find out the localities where specimens are in the best condition1 so that you may have typical specimens for comparison before an extensive collection is made4 ,our experience is1 that though a considerable number of species may be obtained from a ditch or pond1 yet a few are found as the sole molluscan tenants of particular sheets of water2 that lakes exhibit a dearth of life1 and that the greatest variety is often to be met with in canals2 but should a search be carried on in them1 avoid the towpath side1 for reasons that a little thought will readily suggest4 ,living near the sea1 and within a short distance of wooded hill-sides1 we had within a limited area such a variety of physical features that we were led to infer the existence of a rich molluscan fauna for the neighbourhood4 ,our second excursion was devoted to a search for snails along the sea margin and shores of the estuary4 ,proceeding along the low sand-dunes--at first sight a most uninteresting spot--,helix caperata1 ,h4 virgata1 ,bulimus acutus1 and a few other snails1 were found clustering upon the low stunted vegetation in such numbers1 that handfuls might have been gathered within an area of a few square feet4 ,leaving the seashore1 our way led us over the foreshore of the mouth of the river1 crushing under our feet at every step shells of ,cardium edule1 ,scrobicularia piperata1 and a few other bivalves which find a congenial habitat in such situations4 ,gaining the muddy margins of the higher part of the estuary1 ,conovulus was looked for1 and found under the stones along the high-water mark4 ,higher up the river the rejectamentum on its banks was carefully turned over1 and we were successful in securing a number of land shells4 ,the animals1 of course1 do not live in such places2 but their empty shells1 which alone were found1 had been brought down from the land surface by the agency of the streams and tributaries of the river4 ,nevertheless such an omnium gatherum should demand attention1 as its contents give an insight into the character of the land and freshwater forms within the area of drainage of the river4 ,the number of estuarine species which have a place in our works devoted to ,british land and freshwater snails is very few1 and the majority1 moreover1 are confined to the margins of the tidal rivers in the south of ,england4 ,thus ,assiminea ,grayana1 ,hydrobia ventrosa1 and ,h4 similis1 live on the mud banks beneath the shade of sedges and rushes1 skirting the ,thames below ,greenwich4 ,to gather these small shells singly is a tedious operation2 but if a thin piece of flat wood1 or other substitute as the ingenuity of the collector suggests1 be used to scrape lightly over the surface of mud1 transferring the mass to the dredger1 and washing in water1 a number of specimens sufficient to stock every private cabinet in the country may be obtained in a short space of time4 ,for the third initiatory excursion our steps were directed inland1 and as we proceeded the hedgerows1 mossy banks1 and margins of watercourses were diligently searched1 finding a ,helix here1 a ,pupa or a ,succinea there4 ,gaining the woods1 we turn over the damp leaves1 grub under the clumps of ferns and wood-rushes for small ,helices1 ,pup1 and the like2 scan the trunks of the trees for the climbing ,clausili1 ,bulimi1 and ,helices1 not unmindful that each little dirt-like mass is probably a ,bulimus obscurus1 which1 by covering its shell with mud1 thus exhibits a protective faculty1 and often escapes detection4 ,raise the rotting bark for ,balia2 lift the stones at our feet1 or roll away a log for ,helicella1 and other small shells which usually live in such situations4 ,from all this we learn that each species affects certain stations1 and therefore1 with the knowledge of the circumstances in which they are found1 we may set out with some definite idea as to what we are likely to meet with2 and1 in consequence1 when to collect and where to collect are regulated by the unvarying habits of the objects of our search4 ,now1 a large portion of the life of most land snails is passed in a state of sleep4 ,those living in open situations are inactive during the heat of a summer's day1 and when there is continued drought2 but on the first shower1 or after the fall of dew at night1 they recover and move about in search of food4 ,cold acts much in the same way as heat1 and with the fall of the leaf they retire to winter quarters in crannies of rocks1 crevices of walls1 under heaps of decaying vegetation1 c41 or bury themselves in the soil1 there to hybernate till the genial showers of spring awaken them4 ,the best time of the year for collecting is in the autumn1 when the shells are full-grown4 ,those collected in spring have lost much of their original beauty by exposure to the rains and cold of the winter months4 ,as regards the particular time of day to collect with advantage1 it has already been implied that a search in an open country should be prosecuted after a shower of rain1 or during early morn4 ,in damp woods1 where throughout the day the air is sufficiently moist to maintain the animals in full activity1 no such considerations determine the best time for collecting4 ,in such places1 light is usually the desideratum1 and consequently ,i have found that a search conducted at midday in a clear sky has been amply rewarded4 ,land snails exhibit a partiality for calcareous soils1 not only by those living on downs and hill-sides1 but also by the woodland species4 ,having spent the forenoons of three days in gathering slugs and snails as before detailed1 one evening was devoted to the preparation of the specimens for the cabinet4 ,the first step was to remove the animals1 and1 as all know1 it is neither an easy nor a clean task to separate the living snail and its house2 but kill your snail1 and the muscular connection with the shell being severed1 its whole body is readily taken out by means of a pin--why1 it is just like picking periwinkles2 and if the proclivities of our childhood's days are not entirely obliterated1 cleaning out larger snails from their shells will be a task requiring no teaching4 ,but1 with regard to the smaller kind1 it is another matter1 and it will be my duty to show you how to set about the work4 ,now pick out those shells1 the apertures of which are wide enough1 as it seems to you1 to permit the removal of the dead body of the snail by a pin4 ,you may also place with them the larger bivalves4 ,all these we will boil to kill the animals2 then strain off the water1 and wash with cold water4 ,by this means the bodies contract1 and being firmer are not so liable to be broken in the process of removal4 ,shake the water out of the empty shell1 and place them before the fire to dry2 do not rub them1 but particles of dirt may be gently flicked off by the aid of a camel-hair brush4 ,thus we treat the larger snails4 ,now for the mussels4 ,doubtless most of the dead bodies will have fallen out between the open valves while in the water2 should any remain1 a slight shaking of the shell held by the hand in the water will remove the contained body4 ,taken from the water1 the valves gape widely2 dry the inside and outside with a cloth1 and having tape or cotton at hand1 close the valves by the pressure of the thumb and fingers of the one hand1 and with the end of the thread between your teeth1 wind the thread two or three times around the shell with the other2 now tie the thread as tight as you can4 ,yes1 ,i have done so1 but still the valves are not closed4 ,true1 this is because of the elasticity of thread4 ,if1 however1 you will take the precaution to wet the thread before tying1 you will find that the tie is more secure1 and that there is less difficulty in making the second knot4 ,with patience and a little skill1 bivalves as small as ,cyclas cornea may be treated in this way4 ,but the smaller ,pisidiums1 and some of the minute snails1 as ,carychium minimum1 may be prepared for the cabinet by gently drying them in sand2 too great a heat causes a transfusion of the carbonaceous matter of the animal into the substance of the shell1 which is thereby discoloured4 ,there still remain for treatment such shells as ,clausilia1 ,bulimus1 ,helicella1 some ,helices1 c41 the animals of which retreat1 on the least irritation1 beyond the reach of a pin1 and whose shells1 indeed1 will hardly bear the rough handling almost necessary when a pin is used4 ,their bodies might be dried within the shells1 but if it be possible to remove some portion only of the animal1 an attempt should be made to do so4 ,land snails1 when placed in water1 do their best to effect an escape from a medium so fatal to them2 their efforts are usually exhibited by stretching out their bodies to the utmost1 swaying them to and fro as if in search of a foothold4 ,taking advantage of this propensity1 the snails should be immersed in tepid water1 because the majority1 after a day or two's confinement in the collecting boxes1 will be in a dormant condition1 and warm water has a greater resuscitating effect than cold4 ,when all the snails are struggling to find a way out of their unpleasant situation1 gradually add hot water so as to kill or paralyze them while in an extended state4 ,they may now be thrown into boiling water1 the better to relax the muscular attachments1 and the bodies1 or so much as will come away1 dragged out by forceps1 or a pin passed through the foot4 ,the shells may now be dried in sand1 as before mentioned4 ,in cleaning the shells of some species1 great care is needed1 so as not to remove the hairs or bristles which clothe the surface of the epidermis4 ,the shells of such snails as ,paludina1 ,cyclostoma1 c41 c41 would be imperfectly illustrated without the opercula or lids which close the apertures of their shells4 ,each one should be detached from the foot of the snail1 the interior of the shell plugged with cotton wool1 and the specimen gummed down in its natural position4 ,the preservation of slugs requires separate treatment1 and ,i can give but little additional information to that published in my ',british ,land and ,freshwater ,molluscs' an extract from which is subjoined3-- ,as regards the internal shell1 it may be obtained by making a conical incision in the shield1 taking care not to cut down upon the calcareous plate1 which can then be removed without difficulty4 ,the animals can only be conserved by keeping them in some preservative fluid2 but the great object to keep in view is to have the slug naturally extended4 ,most fluids contract the slugs when they are immersed in them4 ,the slugs should be killed whilst crawling1 by plunging them into a solution of corrosive sublimate1 or into benzine4 ,models in wax or dough are sometimes substituted for the animals4 ,a writer in the ',naturalist' gives a process for the preservation of slugs1 which he states to answer admirably1 and to be very superior to spirit1 glycerine1 creosote1 and other solutions3--',make a cold saturated solution of corrosive sublimate2 put it into a deep wide-mouthed bottle2 then take the slug you wish to preserve1 and let it crawl upon a long slip of card4 ,when the tentacles are fully extended1 plunge it suddenly into the solution2 in a few minutes it will die1 with the tentacles fully extended in the most life-like manner2 so much so indeed1 if taken out of the fluid it would be difficult to say whether it be alive or dead4 ,the slugs thus prepared should not be mounted in spirit1 as it is apt to contract and discolour them4 ,a mixture of one and a half parts of water and one part of glycerine1 ,i find to be the best mounting fluid4 ,it preserves the colour beautifully1 and its antiseptic qualities are unexceptionable4 ,a good-sized test-tube answers better than a bottle for putting them up1 as it admits of closer examination of the animal4 ,the only drawback to this process is1 that unless the solution is of sufficient strength1 and unless the tentacles are extruded when the animal is immersed1 it generally1 but not invariably1 fails4 ,some slugs appear to be more susceptible to the action of the fluid than others2 and it generally answers better with full-grown than with young specimens4 ,but if successful1 the specimens are as satisfactory as could be desired2 and even if unsuccessful1 they are a great deal better than those preserved in spirit2 for1 although the tentacles may not be completely extruded1 they are more or less so'4 ,the ,testacell ,i have treated in the following manner3 by partially drying them in sand1 and removal of the soft parts through a cut in the length of the foot1 filling up with cotton wool and a renewal of the drying4 ,our land and freshwater snails have other structures besides their shells which should claim our attention4 ,these1 which include their jaws1 tongues1 and some other minute parts1 are not so inaccessible as one is at first too apt to consider1 and are deservedly in favour as microscopic objects requiring a low power4 ,i shall assume that the collector has preserved the bodies or the heads of the snails in spirit1 which he has removed from their shells in the process of preparing them for his cabinet4 ,he will take care to keep separate the animals of each species4 ,a last word upon the mode of displaying the shells in the cabinet4 ,here one has considerable choice1 as they may be kept in open card trays1 or in glass-topped boxes1 or gummed on cards1 papered boards1 or glass tablets4 ,loose specimens admit of ready examination1 whilst the method of mounting permits an arrangement of individuals according to size and locality1 and is much to be preferred4 ,,viii4 ,,flowering ,,plants ,,and ,,ferns4 ,by ,james ,britten1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,,part ,i4 ,the kindred subjects of the collecting of plants and their arrangement in the herbarium have been treated of over and over again1 and it might almost seem as though nothing further need be said upon the matter4 ,but in spite of all that has been written1 it cannot be said that anything like uniform excellence has been attained1 either in the collecting or drying of specimens3 on the contrary1 much carelessness is still exhibited in both particulars1 and the following remarks on the subject may therefore be useful to some1 at any rate1 among the readers of ',science ,gossip4' ,it has been found impossible to treat both points adequately in one paper1 so1 on the present occasion1 we shall devote ourselves to collecting1 leaving the arrangement and matters connected therewith for another occasion4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,young ,plant of ,ipoma ,quamoclit 7from ,decandolle's ',organographie'74 ,the great aim to be kept in view in collecting is to obtain as perfect and comprehensive a specimen as possible2 that is1 one showing every part of the plant--root1 leaves1 flowers1 and fruit4 ,it is not always practicable to show all these upon one specimen1 and in such cases such a number must be selected as will carry out this plan4 ,the wretched scraps with which some collectors content themselves are not only useless to their owners1 but annoyances to everyone who has to do with them1 or who is requested to pronounce an opinion upon them4 ,anyone who has had anything to do with naming plants for ',science ,gossip' or any other journal1 which in this manner supplies information to its subscribers1 will be able to testify to the large number of persons who do not scruple to send for determination single leaves1 or a terminal shoot of a flowering plant1 or a pinnule of a fern without fruit2 a proceeding which is unfair to those to whom they are submitted1 inasmuch as they either have to risk their reputation for accuracy1 or to appear uncourteous by refusing to have anything to do with such specimens4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,lime 7,tilia ,europa74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,beech 7,fagus sylvatica74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,sycamore 7,acer pseudo-platanus71 showing cotyledons and first and second pair of leaves4 ,to begin at the beginning1 ,how rarely do we find the embryo of any species represented in a collection of dried plants8 ,it ought to be there1 not only as essential to the complete presentment of the history of the species1 but as in certain cases indicating relationships which are not apparent when the plant is more advanced4 ,those who have not observed them would be surprised to find how much variety of form exists in the cotyledons alone1 from the fleshy cotyledons of many of the ,leguminos1 the horse-chestnut1 c41 to the foliaceous ones1 or seed-leaves1 of other plants4 ,among the latter may be noted and compared the lobed or palmate cotyledons of the lime 7,fig4 #cb72 the glossy dark green1 somewhat kidney-shaped ones of the beech 7,fig4 #cc72 and the pinnatifid ones of the common garden cress 7,lepidium sativum72 the obcordate ones of the mustard or radish2 the long1 narrow1 thin ones of the sycamore 7,fig4 #cd72 the sinuous or corrugated and bilobed ones of the walnut1 and many more which will occur to the observant reader1 or which may be collected by anyone who will take the trouble to watch the germination of plants4 ,and by making such collections1 unexpected discoveries may arise1 which will yet further confirm what has been said about the variety in form and structure even in these beginnings of growth4 ,plants which are1 on account of their general affinities1 reckoned among the dicotyledons1 may be found on investigation to have but one cotyledon1 as ,dr4 ,dickson observed to be the case with two of our butterworts1 ,pinguicula vulgaris and ,p4 grandiflora1 the third species1 ,p4 lusitanica1 being dicotyledonous2 or even to be acotyledonous1 as is the case with the dodder 7,cuscuta74 ,in the latter-named genus1 it is of importance to collect young specimens1 as showing that the plant1 although parasitic as soon as it comes in contact with a suitable foster-plant1 is of independent origin4 ,a search among young plants will no doubt lead to the discovery of some abnormalities1 such as tricotyledonous embryos and other irregularities4 ,of some plants1 such as the furze1 the true leaves can only be found at an early stage of growth2 in others1 much variation may be noted in many points between the first leaves and the more perfect ones which succeed them2 some1 as the holly1 at once developing leaves similar to those which are produced throughout the life of the plant1 and others going through many modifications before the ultimate shape is attained1 as in the ash1 elder1 ivy1 maple1 c4 ,the roots or rhizomes also require to be much more fully represented and carefully collected than is usually the case4 ,in every instance where the size of the plant does not prevent1 the subterranean and subaqueous parts should be carefully procured and preserved4 ,dr4 ,trimen has lately directed attention to the corm-like tubers of the water plantain 7,alisma71,g closely resembling those of the arrowhead 7,sagittaria71 which have been described and figured by ,nolte1 but do not seem to have been observed1 or at least properly understood1 in this country4 ,they are buds remaining dormant through the winter1 and containing a store of nutriment1 to be employed in the development of the new plant from the tuber in the next year4 ,similar bulbs are developed by the frogbit 7,hydrocharis74 ,in determining many grasses and rushes1 it is of importance to ascertain whether the rhizome is creeping or cspitose1 and it is therefore essential to collect good specimens4 ,in the case of such plants as the coral-wort 7,dentaria bulbifera7 and toothwort 7,lathra squamaria71 the root-stocks are eminently characteristic4 ,of such parasites as the broomrapes 7,orobanche71 some care is requisite in obtaining specimens in which the connection between the parasite and its foster-plant may be preserved and shown4 ,the absence or presence of tubers should also be noted1 and if present1 they must be represented4 ,g ',journal of ,botany1' #ahga1 p4 #cjf4 ,passing on to the leaves1 we may note the importance of obtaining in every case the root-leaves of each species4 ,these are often very different in form from the stem-leaves1 as in such species as the harebell 7,campanula rotundifolia71 ,pimpinella saxifraga1 the earth-nut 7,bunium flexuosum71 and many more2 in some instances1 as in the ,jersey bugloss 7,echium plantagineum71 they at once characterize the species4 ,still more important are these lower leaves in the case of water-plants3 in the arrowhead 7,sagittaria71 for example1 they are narrow1 and resemble those of the bur-reed 7,sparganium72 and in the water plantain 7,alisma plantago71 the submerged leaves are equally different from those which rise out of the water4 ,this difference is still more noticeable in the case of the aquatic ,ranunculi1 where a knowledge of the submerged leaves is essential to the discrimination of the various forms or species4 ,where practicable1 the whole plant should be collected for the herbarium2 but when1 from its size1 this cannot be accomplished1 leaves from the root1 the centre of the main stem1 and the lateral branches1 should be taken4 ,as to the stem itself1 that must be represented3 in the ,rubi1 indeed1 it is essential4 ,to judge properly of a bramble from a preserved specimen1 says ,professor ,babington1 we require a piece of the middle of the stem with more than one leaf2 the base and tip of the stem are also desirable1 likewise a piece of the old stem with the flowering shoot attached to it2 the panicle with flowers1 and the fruit4 ,we likewise want to know the direction of the stem throughout1 of the leaflets1 and of the calyx2 also the shape of the petals and the colour of the styles3 a note of these should be made when the specimen is gathered4 ,passing on to the flowers1 we shall find it necessary to represent them in almost every stage1 from the bud to the perfecting of the fruit4 ,it is of course in most cases possible to select an example in such a state as to show upon the same plant buds1 flowers1 and fruits2 but where this is not the case1 each of these particulars must be supplemented by additional specimens4 ,the turn which botanical investigation has recently taken towards the study of the phenomena connected with fertilization has given the collector another subject to which his attention may be profitably directed4 ,it has been observed that in some plants the stamens are developed before the pistils2 in others1 the pistils are matured before the stamens2 while in yet a third set1 stamens and pistils are simultaneously perfected4 ,these three groups of plants are termed respectively protandrous1 protogynous1 and cynacmic1 and a very little observation will show that examples of each are sufficiently common4 ,then in dioecious and monoecious plants1 both male and female flowers must be collected1 and in some cases1 as in the willows1 four specimens are necessary to the complete presentment of the species1 showing respectively the male and female catkins1 the leaves1 and the fruit4 ,some plants produce two distinct forms of blossom1 as is noticeable in the violets and the woodsorrel1 one being conspicuous and usually barren1 the other insignificant and often apetalous1 but producing perfect fruit4 ,the pollen will afford occupation to the microscopist3 the researches of ,mr4 ,gulliver and ,mr4 ,charles ,bailey have demonstrated that important distinguishing characters are in some instances furnished by it4 ,while on this point it may be suggested that it is convenient in many cases to collect several specimens of the flowers alone1 which1 when dried1 should be placed in a small envelope or capsule1 and attached to the sheet on which the plant is represented4 ,in the event of any examination which may be requisite after the plant is dried1 these detached blossoms will be found very useful1 and will prevent the necessity of damaging the specimen4 ,in the case of such plants as shed their corollas very readily1 as the speedwells1 it is as well to put them in press as soon as collected2 and the colour of many may be retained by the same means4 ,the fruits and seeds of plants are too generally neglected by amateur collectors1 but are essential to the completeness of a specimen4 ,it may be found practically convenient to keep these in a separate place1 and detached from the plant2 and in many cases of dried fruits it is advisable to sort them into their places without previous pressing4 ,by this means the modes of dehiscence will readily be seen3 pulpy and succulent fruits should be preserved in spirit4 ,in such plants as the species of sea sandwort 7,lepigonum71 and some ,chenopodia1 important specific characters are drawn from the seed2 as they are from the pods of ,melilotus and the fruits of ,agrimonia4 ,in collecting ferns1 well-fruited fronds must be selected1 as it is impossible to determine specimens without fructification4 ,grasses should be selected when in flower and fruit1 but must not be allowed to attain too great an age before they are collected4 ,we have been speaking so far of the things to be collected1 and space will not allow us to dilate at any length upon the apparatus necessary to that end4 ,nor indeed is this necessary2 a good-sized vasculum1 with one or two smaller boxes for the pocket1 in which the more delicate plants may be preserved2 a strong pocket-knife or small trowel1 for procuring roots1 and a hooked stick wherewith to fish out water-plants1 or pull down branches1 are the principal things required4 ,to anyone residing for any length of time1 or even only for a few days1 in a district1 a ,london ,catalogue is an important acquisition1 in which should be marked off all the species met with2 by this means the flora of the neighbourhood is ascertained at a very slight expenditure of time and trouble4 ,it is not advisable to collect too many plants at once1 or to crowd the vasculum1 unless under exceptional circumstances2 nor should the desire to possess rare plants tend1 as is too often the case1 to the neglect and exclusion of commoner ones4 ,a careful and observant collector will frequently meet with forms which deviate more or less from the accepted type of a species4 ,when these appear to offer any marked characters1 they should be noted2 and in all cases it is well to preserve any forms which1 from external circumstances1 have a different appearance from the normal state4 ,the differences produced by soil and situation alone are very considerable2 and though the essential characters are usually to be discerned1 the interest and value of a herbarium are very much increased by a selection of examples showing the range of a species4 ,campanula glomerata offers a good example of this4 ,in damp meadows it is from one to two feet high1 with a large spreading terminal head of blossoms1 while on chalk downs it does not attain more than as many inches1 with only one or two flowers2 in this state it was described by ,withering as a gentian1 under the name of ,gentiana collina2 and the same author gives as ,campanula uniflora a one-flowered mountain state of the harebell 7,c4 rotundifolia74 ,the collector will also do well to keep a look-out for deviations in structure1 which are often of great interest4 ,in short1 nothing should be neglected which can tend to the perfect presentment of a species in the herbarium3 its utility is commensurate with its completeness4 ,the mere collector may be satisfied with scraps of a rare plant and the absence of commoner species2 but the real worker will pride himself rather upon the possession of instructive examples1 which may be of assistance to himself1 as well as to all those who may consult them4 ,,ix4 ,,flowering ,,plants ,,and ,,ferns4 ,by ,james ,britten1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,we will assume that our collecting for the year has come to a close2 that the long evenings are beginning1 and that our dried plants have been brought together from their temporary resting-places to be revised and selected from1 so that they may be intercalated in their places in the herbarium1 if we already possess one1 or1 if we are as yet quite novices1 that they may form a nucleus around which the whole ,british flora shall be gathered in due course4 ,first of all1 we must make all necessary preparation for-- ,mounting1 the first essential to which is paper4 ,much of the neatness of a herbarium depends upon its uniformity1 so that it is desirable to lay down a definite plan at the beginning and to act up to it consistently4 ,amateurs often spoil specimens which they have collected and preserved with considerable care by transferring them from one sheet to another2 from books--but it is only very amateur botanists who keep their plants in this way6--to loose sheets1 from small paper to large1 and so on2 each change being attended with some slight damage to the specimen so treated4 ,it is1 ,i believe1 the common practice on the ,continent to keep the specimens loose in folded sheets of paper2 but this plan is not followed in ,england1 and although advantageous1 as permitting the fullest examination of the plant1 it is attended with much risk to the specimens in the way of breakage2 so that we may consider it settled that we are going to fasten our plant down upon a sheet of paper4 ,this must be rather stout1 and large enough to admit the full representation of the species4 ,the sheets used at the ,kew ,herbarium are #af-a_/b inches long by #aj-a_/c inches wide2 those employed at the ,british ,museum are #ag-a_/b inches by #aa-a_/d inches2 but the former will be found amply sufficient for our purpose4 ,the next consideration is the means by which the specimens are to be secured1 which are more various than might at first be supposed4 ,some persons sew them to the paper2 others place straps over them1 which are secured with small pins2 but the choice practically lies between fixing the whole specimen to the paper with gum1 paste1 or glue1 or securing it with straps of gummed paper4 ,the former plan1 which is that adopted at our great public herbaria1 is certainly better for specimens which are likely to be much consulted2 but the latter is in some respects more satisfactory1 if somewhat tedious1 as it admits the removal of the plant to another sheet if necessary1 and delicate portions1 such as thin petals or leaves1 are not injured as they are when gummed down4 ,at the ,british ,museum and ,kew a mixture of gum tragacanth and gum-arabic 7the former dissolved in the latter71 in about equal parts1 is used for this purpose2 but very coriaceous specimens are secured with glue at the last-named establishment1 while in the former the stems and ends of branches are usually also secured with straps4 ,when the specimen is entirely gummed down1 it is a good plan to keep a few extra flowers or fruits in a small capsule attached to the sheet3 these will be useful if it is required to dissect such portions1 and the specimen need not be injured for such purpose4 ,poisoning4--,some persons are in the habit of employing a solution of corrosive sublimate for the purpose of washing over their plants when mounted1 and so preventing the development of animal life4 ,the solution in use at the ,kew ,herbarium is composed of one pound of corrosive sublimate1 and the same quantity of carbolic acid to four gallons of methylated spirit2 this fulfils the purpose for which it is intended very well1 but is somewhat disagreeable to use4 ,at the ,british ,museum it is found that the presence of camphor1 frequently renewed in each cabinet1 is sufficient to prevent the attacks of insects4 ,it will soon be discovered that some plants1 such1 for example1 as the ,umbellifer and ,grossulariace1 are peculiarly liable to such attacks2 and these orders must be inspected from time to time1 so that any insect ravages may at once be checked4 ,damp is to be avoided in the situation of the herbarium1 as it favours the development not only of insects but of mould1 and renders the specimens rotten4 ,the question of labelling is of some importance1 especially to those who value neatness and uniformity in the appearance of their herbarium4 ,one or two sets of printed labels for this purpose have been issued1 but they cannot be recommended4 ,they give more than is necessary1 e4g4 the ,english1 or1 more correctly1 the book-,english names1 the general habitats1 and definite localities of rare species1 and allow very insufficient space for filling in the date and place of collecting1 the name of the collector1 and such remarks as occasionally occur4 ,the plan of writing all necessary information upon the sheet itself is a good one2 but those who prefer a uniform series of labels will find that a form like the following is as useful as any which they can adopt1 and includes all necessary information4 ,the size here given will be adequate for almost all requirements1 and is a happy medium between the small tickets upon which we have animadverted1 and the enormous ones with which some botanists think it necessary to accompany their specimens4 ,care should be taken to avoid the possibility of a misplacement of labels2 many serious blunders have arisen from the neglect of due precaution in this matter4 ,herb4 ,john ,smith4 ,ranunculus acris1 ,l4 ,r4 ,steveni1 ,reich4 ,loc4 ,meadows near ,barchester4 ,date1 ,june #cj1 #ahgd4 ,coll4 ,john ,smith4 ,arrangement4--,the plants1 being now affixed to their respective sheets and duly labelled1 are ready to be placed in covers1 and rendered available for ready reference4 ,each genus will require a separate cover1 which may well be of somewhat stouter paper than that on which the plants are mounted2 the name of the genus should be written at the left-hand corner1 followed by a reference to the page of the manual by which the plants are arranged1 or to the number which it bears in the ,london ,catalogue1 if that be employed in their arrangement--a purpose for which it is very suitable4 ,should the species be represented by more than one sheet1 it is convenient to inclose each in a cover of thinner paper1 which may bear the number assigned to the plant in the right-hand corner2 and it is also convenient to write the name of the plant at the bottom of each sheet1 and to number it also in the right-hand corner4 ,these details may appear trivial1 but they in reality affect in no small degree the readiness with which any species may be referred to4 ,should the plants be arranged in accordance with the ,london ,catalogue1 a copy should be kept with the herbarium1 in which the plants should be ticked off1 so that it may serve as a catalogue of the species represented4 ,cabinets4--,it will of course be necessary to provide some accommodation for our specimens1 and for this purpose we shall find no better model than the cabinets in use in the ,botanical ,department of the ,british ,museum4 ,the accompanying figure 7drawn to scale7 is an exact representation of one of these4 ,the measurements can of course be modified so as to suit the size of the herbarium sheets4 ,each shelf is a separate drawer1 which with its contents can be taken out and replaced at will4 ,two cabinets such as that figured will be found amply sufficient to contain a very good ,british herbarium4 ,at ,kew the cabinets employed are somewhat similar1 but their height is greater and the shelves are fixed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,cabinet for ,herbarium ,sheets4 ,the above are the principal points connected with the arrangement of a herbarium1 considered as distinct from the work of collecting4 ,it is possible that ,i may have omitted to touch upon certain details which may occur to the amateur2 should such be the case1 ,i may add that ,i shall be happy to supply any additional information1 either by letter or by word of mouth2 or to show the system adopted at the ,british ,museum to anyone who may call upon me there for further hints upon the subject4 ,x4 ,,grasses1 ,,etc4 ,by ,professor ,buckman1 ,f4,g4,s41 etc4 ,grasses form such a distinct group of plants1 and their study is so often undertaken for special purposes1 that a few remarks upon their collection and preservation can hardly be considered as out of place in this little manual4 ,delicately as grasses are formed1 yet it cannot be said that their tissues are so liable to injury1 or their colours so evanescent1 as those of the flowering plants which the botanist ordinarily delights in4 ,nor indeed are the grasses so succulent as many other herbs4 ,in this respect they may be said to hold a place between ferns and those plants which usually are called flowers4 ,again1 in the dried state their organs are generally so well preserved as to present all that a botanist can wish for1 for identification as well as arrangement2 and the student of grasses ever finds his collection to contain beauties not only in point of rarity1 but as regards delicacy of structure and grace of outline4 ,viewing them in this light alone1 we have often been astonished that so many students of plants pay so little attention to them1 and this feeling is enhanced when the great value of the grasses is considered4 ,if then a few simple directions for preserving these plants shall have the effect of winning a convert to these views1 we shall be delighted2 and to this end we shall make our descriptions as plain as our process has ever been easy and simple1 and yet complete4 ,in collecting grasses1 as in other tribes of plants1 it will be necessary that our specimens should be chosen with the view to exhibit every feature of interest4 ,with this aim1 then1 it will be best in the general way to obtain as much of the plant as possible1 so that it may be necessary to get them up by the roots4 ,still1 in many species the root is not of much importance3 but there are a few which possess rhizomata1 or underground stems2 such as the ,triticum repens1 ,poa pratensis1 ,p4 compressa1 ,holcus mollis1 ,agrostis stolonifera1 and others4 ,these should always exhibit these parts2 and as such examples are usually agrarian1 it is easier to mark down desirable specimens and seek a fork at the neighbouring farm-buildings wherewith to completely get them out1 than to carry any substitute in a smaller and less perfect implement4 ,haying made these remarks1 we will suppose that we are now about to sally forth in search of grasses2 in which case we make the following preparations4 ,as we do not file our copy of the ',times' we make use of it as collecting-paper as follows3--,each side of the paper is cut in two1 or1 as a ,cockney would say1 in half4 ,each half is then folded into a double collecting-sheet1 and as many of these are taken as are likely to be useful4 ,in each of these papers is put a small slip of writing-paper1 on which to note the locality and any other noteworthy fact connected with a specimen when put in the paper4 ,these papers1 separately folded1 are placed with the open ends inwards in a convenient portfolio1 and the collector is ready to take the field4 ,of course there will be those who will advocate ,bentall's drying-paper1 blotting-paper1 and so on1 and we would not have it supposed that we despise these luxuries2 but as we have found the plan advocated always to answer the purpose for grasses1 we have felt independent of the more refined collecting-papers4 ,now let us suppose that we have gathered fifty specimens1 and have returned home4 ,the next thing will be to put them as soon as may be in a position for drying4 ,our drying apparatus then consists of half-a-dozen smoothly planed deal boards1 and for our first collection we take two of these1 and upon one we lay some few folds of our old ',times' then a specimen in their papers 7having previously improved their arrangement1 when necessary71 and then some more folds of paper1 and proceed as before1 until all the specimens have been placed2 then put a board on the top sheet1 and upon that a stone1 or a #g or #ad lb4 weight1 according to the size and quantity of the specimens4 ,if another day's collection of specimens be made before the foregoing are dry1 they may be arranged in the same way on the top board1 and another board used and the weight replaced4 ,the object of this is to keep partially dried from fresh specimens1 the putting together of which is a fertile source of mildew and decay4 ,in arranging our specimens for the herbarium1 we procure sheets of cartridge paper #ah inches long by #aa inches wide1 using a folded sheet for each species4 ,in these papers the specimens are fastened down in the following manner3 ,gum over a portion of the cartridge paper 7so as to have the same colour7 with two consecutive coats of a clean solution of gum-arabic4 ,this can be cut into slips of any length and breadth1 making them as narrow as possible for the sake of neatness1 and when the specimen is placed in its paper1 a few of these slips may be made to confine it in the desired position4 ,each example is then to be labelled at the bottom of the sheet1 and each label should set forth--a1 ,its botanical name2 b1 its trivial or local name2 c1 the locality whence it was obtained2 d1 the date when gathered2 added to which1 if presented1 the donor's name4,h ,h ,printed herbarium labels may be got at ,messrs4 ,hardwicke and ,bogue's1 the publishers4 ,the sheets so prepared may be arranged in groups or genera1 each being folded in convenient paper or cloth wrappers1 and the whole arranged in volumes of stiff covered portfolio4 ,this1 then1 is all that seems to us necessary in the collection and preservation of grasses2 but we would recommend the student1 if an artist1 to make a typical specimen of each sit for its portrait4 ,in this way we have made drawings of all the species and varieties that have come in our way4 ,our drawings are life-size1 usually lined in with ,indian ink with a fine lithographic pen4 ,these we partially colour on the spot4 ,the anatomical details are much enlarged and always fully coloured4 ,to this end our impedimenta for a day among the grasses consist of1 besides the collecting portfolio1 a sketching block1 large octavo size1 and a small box of soft colours4 ,armed with these we have made many a drawing of a grass under the shade of a tree1 or in the parlour of some contiguous inn4 ,lastly1 we would venture to remark1 if1 besides the interest which grasses should have for the student of botany1 these plants be viewed1 as they have ever been by us1 as indicators of the nature of soil and the value and capabilities of the land on which they grow1 the collector should not fail to make notes connected with the soil1 situation1 and other practical facts connected with the habitats of ,grasses4 ,,xi4 ,,mosses4 ,by ,dr4 ,braithwaite1 ,f4,l4,s41 etc4 ,in making a collection of the vegetable productions of a country we find considerable differences in the structure of the various groups of plants1 and in the tissues of which they are composed2 and hence special manipulation is requisite in dealing with certain orders4 ,some are of so succulent a nature1 or have a framework so easily disintegrated1 that they contain within themselves the elements of destruction1 and present the greatest difficulty in satisfactory preservation1 while others are so slightly acted on by external agents1 that little trouble is required to prepare specimens of permanent beauty4 ,the ,ferns and ,lycopods1 being generally appropriated by the collector of flowering plants1 will be treated on with the latter1 and following these come the ,mosses1 to which we will now direct attention1 taking the alliance in its broadest sense1 as including the three groups of ,frondose ,mosses1 ,bog ,mosses1 and ,liver ,mosses1 or ,hepatic1 all of which are readily collected and preserved1 and yield an endless fund of instructive entertainment to the microscopist4 ,but it may be asked1 ,where is the game to be found8 ,where are the pleasant hunting-grounds in which they most do congregate8 ,we answer1 everywhere may some species or other be met with2 yet1 though many are cosmopolitan1 the majority have their special habitats1 and some their special seasons1 both being considerably influenced by the presence of moisture4 ,collecting4--,the bryologist has one advantage over the phnogamous botanist1 for it is not imperative that mosses should be laid out and pressed immediately2 and hence less care is required in collecting them1 than is bestowed on flowering plants2 the necessary apparatus is confined to a pocket-knife1 to remove specimens from stones or trees1 a stock of stout waste paper1 and a vasculum1 or1 better still1 a strong bag1 in which to carry the packets4 ,when collecting the plants1 it is well to remove any superfluous earth or stones1 or to squeeze out the water from those found in bogs2 and then each is to be wrapped separately in paper1 and the locality marked outside2 or the more minute species may1 for greater safety1 be placed in chip boxes4 ,on reaching home1 if we do not prepare the specimens at once1 we must not leave the parcels packed together in their receptacle1 or mould will soon attack them and spoil the whole2 but we must spread them out on the floor until quite dry1 and then reserve them to a convenient opportunity to lay out2 as in the dry state they may be kept for years unchanged4 ,it often happens that our line of study is developed by some fortuitous circumstance4 ,a neglected flowerpot in the corner of the garden attracts attention by its verdant carpet of moss1 or1 peeping over the wall1 we see the crevices between the bricks bristling with capsules of ,tortula muralis1 the red twisted peristome freshly brought to view by the falling away of the lid1 and1 taking a bit indoors to submit to the microscope1 we are so captivated therewith that we then and there determine to become a bryologist4 ,nor is this all that a journey round the garden will disclose3 the neglected paths yield other species not less worthy of examination1 and old apple-trees are not unfrequently tenanted by mosses4 ,extending our walks to the commons1 lanes1 and woods1 we may find on the ground and banks1 in bogs and on the stumps and trunks of trees1 a number of species greatly extending our list2 while others again are only met with on the clay soil of stubble-fields1 as various species of ,pottia and ,ephemerum3 appearing in ,october1 their delicate texture is developed by the constant moisture of winter1 and with it also they vanish1 to appear no more until the succeeding season4 ,travelling yet farther away1 we find that each locality we visit yields some novelty3 old walls and rocks of sandstone or slate1 limestone districts1 and1 above all1 a mountainous country1 are rich in species we seek in vain elsewhere4 ,here peat bogs1 and rocks dripping with water1 ever supplied by the atmosphere1 or the tumbling streams everywhere met with1 are the chosen homes of these little plants1 and thither must the collector resort1 if he would reap his richest harvest4 ,winter and spring in the lowlands1 and a later period in the elevated districts1 will be found most productive of fruiting plants4 ,preparation of ,specimens4--,so rapidly does the cellular texture of the mosses transmit fluid1 that1 when soaked in water1 we see them swell up and expand their little leaves1 and in a short time look as fresh as when growing2 hence a basin of water1 a towel1 and drying-paper are all we require to prepare our specimens for the herbarium4 ,if the tufts are large1 we must separate them into patches sufficiently thin to lie flat1 and by repeated washing1 get rid of adherent earth1 mud1 or gravel4 ,this is conveniently accomplished by holding the tuft in the palm of the hand1 under a tap1 and allowing a stream of water to pass through it2 then by pressure in the folding towel we remove superfluous moisture and immediately transfer to paper1 arranging the plants as we wish them to lie permanently1 and placing with each a ticket bearing the name3 a moderate weight is sufficient to dry them1 as with great pressure the capsules split1 and thus the value of the specimen is decreased4 ,it not unfrequently happens that two or three species grow intermixed3 these must be carefully separated at the time of soaking1 and any capsules required to show the peristome must also be removed before the plants are submitted to pressure4 ,examination of ,specimens4--,we have very much to learn about a moss before we can become masters of all the characters that pertain to it as a specific individual4 ,we must observe its branching1 the mode of attachment of the leaves to the stem1 and their direction2 the form and structure of a separate leaf1 the position of the male flowers1 and1 lastly1 the position and structure of the fruit4 ,for the efficient determination of these we require a microscope 7the simple dissecting microscope is amply sufficient71 a couple of sharp-edged1 triangular needles fixed in handles1 and a few glass slides and covers4 ,having soaked our specimen in water1 we lay it on a slide1 and by cutting through the stem with one of the needles1 close to the attachment of a leaf1 we can readily remove the leaf entire1 and two or three may be transferred to another slide1 and placed in a drop of water under a cover3 the same thing may be roughly accomplished by scraping the stem backwards with one of the needles2 but in this way the leaves are often torn4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,tortula muralis4 a4 ,leaf and its areolation4 b4 ,capsule4 c4 ,calyptra4 d4 ,lid4 e4 ,male flower4 f4 ,antheridia and paraphyses4 ,by examination of a leaf we notice its form1 the condition of its margin1 whether entire or serrated or bordered2 the presence and extent of the nerve2 and lastly1 and most important of all1 the form and condition of its component cells2 and for this a higher power is required4 ,with a #b_/c-;inch object-glass and ,c eyepiece we can observe their form1 and whether their walls are thickened so as to render them dot-like2 their contents1 whether chlorophyllose or hyaline2 and their surface1 whether smooth or covered with papill2 for often these points are so characteristic1 that by them alone we can at once refer a barren specimen to its proper family or genus4 ,preservation of ,specimens4--,this may be discussed under two heads3 #ast1 as microscopic objects2 #bnd1 for the herbarium4 #a4 ,the parts required for microscopic examination are the capsules and peristome1 entire specimens of the smaller species1 and detached leaves4 ,the capsules having to be viewed by condensed light1 must be mounted dry as opaque objects2 and for this purpose ,i use ,piper's wooden slides1 with revolving bone cover2 and in one of these we may fix a capsule with the lid still attached1 another laid on its side1 but showing the peristome1 and a third with the mouth of the capsule looking upward1 a position very useful for the species of ,orthotrichum1 as we are thus enabled to see the inner peristome2 and with them also may be placed the calyptra3 should the cost of these be an object1 a cheaper substitute may be found in shallow pill-boxes1 blackened on the inside4 ,to preserve the leaves in an expanded state we may employ the fluid media used for vegetable tissues1 or1 when time is of consequence1 ,rimmington's glycerine jelly is a convenient material in which to mount them1 a ring of dammar cement being first placed on the slide1 and within this the liquefied jelly1 to which the expanded specimen is quickly transferred1 and the cover securely sealed by gold size4 ,preparations of this kind are of the highest value as types for comparison with actual specimens we may have for determination4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,ceratodon purpureus4 a4 ,male plant4 #a4 ,leaf and its areolation4 #b4 ,capsule4 #c4 ,calyptra #d4 ,two teeth of the peristome4 #b4 ,in mounting specimens for the herbarium we must be guided by the limits which we have fixed on for the extent of the same2 and ,i may first describe the method adopted for my own collection4 ,every species has a separate leaf of cartridge-paper measuring #ad-a_/b #aj-a_/b inches1 and on this the specimens are fixed1 each mounted by a little gum on a piece of toned paper2 thus #d or #f to #ab specimens1 according to size1 are attached to each leaf1--varieties have one or more additional leaves2 and to each is also fixed a triangular envelope1 inclosing loose capsules and leaves for ready transfer to the microscope1 and also a label indicating the name1 habitat1 and date of collection4 ,a pink cover for each genus includes the species1 and a stout millboard cover embraces the genera of each family1 with the name of which it is labelled outside1 the whole shutting up in a cabinet4 ,another form is that seen in ,rabenhorst's ,bryotheca ,europa1 quarto volumes of #ej specimens1 one occupying each leaf1 and so arranged that the specimens do not come opposite to each other4 ,others again use loose sheets of note-paper1 within each of which a single specimen is mounted2 but this1 from their size1 is very cumbersome4 ,or we may take a single well-chosen typical specimen and arrange many species on a page1 as is seen in the beautiful volume of ,gardiner's ',british ,mosses' or ,mc,ivor's ',hepatic ,britannic4' ,whatever plan we adopt1 our specimens1 once well dried and kept in a dry place1 are unchangeable1 and are always looked upon with pleasure1 each recalling some pleasing associations1 or perchance reminding us of some long-lost friend1 in companionship with whom they were collected or studied4 ,a stock of duplicates must also be reserved1 from which to supply our friends1 or exchange with other collectors for desiderata in our own series3 these may be kept in square cases of various sizes1 cut so as to allow the edges of the top and sides to wrap over the other half folded down on the specimens4 ,the ,hepatic of the family ,jungermanniace are treated precisely as mosses1 the capsules1 however1 show but little diversity1 and will not require separate preservation2 but the elaters1 or spiral threads accompanying the seeds1 are elegant microscopic objects4 ,the ,marchantiace must be pressed when fresh1 as they do not revive with the same facility as other species1 owing to their succulent nature and numerous layers of cells4 ,classification4--,on this ,i have fully treated elsewhere 7,the ,moss ,world1 ',popular ,science ,review1' ,oct41 #ahga71 and it may suffice here simply to indicate the families of ,british mosses and their mode of arrangement4 ,the cell-texture of the leaf takes an important place in the characters1 and in accordance with this principle the ,cleistocarpous or ,phascoid group is broken up and distributed in various families4 ,we have two orders2 one indeed1 comprising only the genus ,andrea1 is distinguished by the capsule splitting into four valves united at apex2 the other1 including the bulk of the species1 has in most cases a lid1 which separates transversely1 and usually discloses a peristome of tooth-like processes4 ,the structure of these teeth again enables us to form three divisions4 ,in the first they consist of a mass of confluent cells2 in the second1 of tongue-shaped processes1 composed of agglutinated filaments2 and in the third1 of a double layer of cells1 transversely articulated to each other1 the outer layer composed of two rows of firm coloured cells1 the inner of a single series of vesicular hyaline cells1 on which the hygroscopic quality of the tooth depends4 ,sub-,class ,,sphagnin4 ,bog ,mosses4 ,fam4 #a4--,sphagnace4 ,sub-,class ,,bryin4 ,frondose ,mosses4 ,order #a4--,schistocarpi4 ,fam4 #a4--;,andreace4 ,order #b4--,stegocarpi4 ,div4 #a4--;,elasmodontes4 ,fam4 #b4 ,georgiace4 ,div4 #b4--,nematodontes4 ,fam4 #c4--;,buxbaumiace4 ,fam4 #d4--,polytrichace4 ,div4 #c4--;,arthrodontes4 ,subdiv4 #a4--;,acrocarpici4 99,distichophylla4 ,fam4 #e4 ,schistostegace4 ,fam4 #f4 ,fissidentace4 9999,polystichophylla4 ,fam4 #g4 ,dicranace4 ,fam4 #ab4 ,splachnace4 #h4 ,leucobryace4 #ac4 ,funariace4 #i4 ,trichostomace4 #ad4 ,bryace4 #aj4 ,grimmiace4 #ae4 ,mniace4 #aa4 ,orthotrichace4 #af4 ,bartramiace4 ,subdiv4 #b4--,pleurocarpici4 ,fam4 #ag4 ,hookeriace4 ,fam4 #bj4 ,leskeace4 #ah4 ,fontinalace4 #ba4 ,hypnace4 #ai4 ,neckerace4 ,sub-,class ,,hepaticin4 ,liver ,mosses4 ,fam4 #a4 ,jungermanniace4 ,fam4 #c4 ,anthocerotace4 #b4 ,marchantiace4 #d4 ,ricciace4 ,among species which may be generally met with by beginners on the look-out for mosses1 we may enumerate the following3 ,on ,walls4--,tortula muralis and revoluta1 ,bryum capillare and cspiticium1 ,grimmia pulvinata1 ,weisia cirrhata4 ,in ,clay ,fields4--,phascum acaulon1 ,pottia truncatula and ,starkeana4 ,on ,waste ,ground and ,heaths4--,ceratodon purpureus1 ,funaria hygrometrica1 ,campylopus turfaceus1 ,bryum argenteum1 nutans1 and pallens1 ,pleuridium subulatum1 ,dicranella heteromalla and varia1 ,physcomitrium pyriforme1 ,pogonatum aloides1 ,polytrichum commune1 piliferum1 and juniperinum1 ,tortula unguiculata and fallax1 ,bartramia pomiformis1 ,jungermannia bicuspidata1 ,lepidozia reptans1 ,ptilidium ciliare1 ,frullania tamarisci4 ,shady ,banks and ,woods4--,catharinea undulata1 ,weisia viridula1 ,tortula subulata1 ,mnium hornum1 ,dicranum scoparium1 ,hypnum rutabulum1 velutinum1 cupressiforme1 prlongum1 purum1 and molluscum1 ,plagiothecium denticulatum1 ,pleurozium splendens and ,schreberi1 ,hylocomium squarrosum and triquetrum1 ,thuyidium tamariscinum1 ,fissidens bryoides1 ,plagiochila asplenioides1 ,jungermannia albicans1 ,lophocolea bidentata4 ,in ,bogs4--,sphagnum cymbifolium and acutifolium1 ,gymnocybe palustris1 ,hypnum cuspidatum1 stellatum1 aduncum1 and fluitans1 ,jungermannia inflata4 ,rocks and by ,streams4--,grimmia apocarpa1 ,tridontium pellucidum1 ,hypnum serpens1 filicinum1 commutatum1 and palustre1 ,scapania nemorosa1 ,metzgeria furcata1 ,marchantia polymorpha1 ,pellia epiphylla1 ,fegatella conica4 ,on ,trees4--,ulota crispa1 ,orthotrichum affine and diaphanum1 ,crypha heteromalla1 ,homalia trichomanoides1 ,hypnum sericeum1 ,isothecium myurum1 ,frullania dilatata1 ,radula complanata1 ,madotheca platyphylla4 ,small as this list is1 it will be found to yield ample store for investigation1 and if true love for the study be thereby excited1 the circle of forms will be found to widen with every new locality visited4 ,if we have contributed in any way to facilitate the pursuit1 then is our object fulfilled1 and we may conclude with the words of ,horace3 ,vive1 vale6 si quid novisti rectius istis1 ,candidus imperti1 si non1 his utere mecum4 ,,xii4 ,,fungi4 ,by ,worthington ,g4 ,smith1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,with the fogs and rains of autumn the fungologist's harvest begins4 ,a few fungi 7large and small7 appertain to the spring1 and some species may be found in every month of the year2 but it is not till ,september has well set in1 or ,october is reached1 that the glut of fungi is really upon us4 ,fungi may generally be met with in abundance for three months of the year2 viz4 from the latter half of ,september till the middle of ,december1 the month of ,october taking pre-eminence for producing the greatest abundance of species4 ,a season of moderate heat and rain is the most productive1 for an excessive amount of either dryness or moisture appears to destroy the fecundity of the mycelium1 which it must always be remembered is alive and at work 7underground7 the whole of the year2 for1 as a matter of course1 this year's fungi is produced from last year's spores4 ,these spores are set free in autumn1 and at once vegetate and form masses of mycelium1 from which next years crop must spring2 just as the seeds of our wild annuals are self-sown at the fall of each year and first germinate at that season4 ,it is a great mistake to suppose that ,agarics and ,boleti wait till the leaves fall1 so that they may prey upon them2 for1 as a rule1 the larger fungi never live upon the leaves of the same year as that in which they 7the fungi7 come up2 fungi live upon the fallen leaves of the previous autumn4 ,the spring and summer months will sometimes prove very productive1 especially after stormy weather2 but the collector must always bear in mind that fungi1 like all other things1 have their seasons4 ,i have known the fungus harvest quite over by the end of ,august1 and ,i have also known it not come in before ,december3 it depends entirely upon a certain amount of atmospheric heat and moisture4 ,a damp summer and stormy ,august will produce the crop at the beginning of ,september2 but a dry autumn1 without much rain till ,november1 will delay the fungus crop till ,christmas4 ,some species appear regularly twice a year from the same mycelium2 once after the rains of ,march and ,april1 and again in ,october4 ,this is the case with ,coprinus atramentarius1 which ,i have growing 7originally from spores7 in a bed of my own garden4 ,it is useless to go out specially to collect fungi1 either during the dry hot weather of summer or the frosts of winter2 it sometimes1 however1 happens that odd fungi may be found here and there1 in out-of-the-way places1 such as the sides of open cellars and sawpits1 under bridges1 on prostrate logs in streams1 in damp outhouses1 or about old water-butts1 c42 therefore ,i never go out without two or three old seidlitz-powder boxes1 some thin paper1 and a strong knife1 in case any waifs and strays should fall in my way4 ,i have sometimes found good species in a friend's dustbin or cistern1 or upon the sides of the open cellar of a public-house4 ,i once found an agaricus on the cornice of ,london ,bridge1 to secure which ,i had to get over the parapet1 and was nearly being taken into custody as one tired of life2 another time ,i found a colony of ,coprinus domesticus upon a friend's scullery wall1 and a ,peziza upon my brother's ceiling4 ,moral3 ,fungologists' pockets should1 at all times1 contain one or two small boxes for securing stray and erratic members of the fungus family4 ,the equipment for a fungus foray differs with the nature of the fungi to be collected4 ,if the plants sought for are wholly microscopic1 a small vasculum1 knife1 pocket-lens1 and package of thin paper will be found sufficient2 but if ,agarics1 ,boleti1 the larger ,polyporei1 c41 are to be brought home1 a more complete set of things will be required1 which should include a very small garden-trowel or carpenter's gouge 7any saddler or bootmaker will make a suitable leather case for the blades for a shilling or two71 a strong knife--such as gardeners use for pruning trees1 a few sheets of thin paper1 a lens1 pocket-compass1 and some string4 ,if truffles are desired1 a rake is necessary1 and the best plan is to carry the iron-toothed end separately in a leather case1 and made to screw on to the end of a walking-stick2 when not in use1 this end can be carried in the pocket with the trowel1 c4 ,it is requisite that the vasculum be large1 with straps to carry it over the shoulders2 and the collector should be provided with a set of cardboard boxes1 large and small1 to go inside the vasculum1 and to contain the more delicate or choice spoils of the day4 ,leather gloves and a thin great-coat are good things for the chilly days of early winter--this coat should be provided with at least four large pockets2 and1 if the weather is inclement1 strong boots and waterproof leggings will be found serviceable4 ,an old felt hat and large cotton umbrella are also desirable1 for it is only a piece of folly to go into the wet dripping woods with good clothes4 ,as for the umbrella1 it should be one of the ,mrs4 ,gamp pattern1 of good size1 and with a 7removable7 ring at the end farthest from the handle1 so that it may be suspended from branches of trees1 c41 whilst the fungi are sorted or examined below1 or a frugal luncheon is discussed 7perhaps during a passing storm of rain74 ,the string will be found useful for tying up the larger ,polyporei2 these are frequently of great size1 and often weigh many pounds4 ,in collecting1 all ,agarics should be kept separate as much as possible2 for this purpose thin paper1 such as is used by stationers and milliners1 is indispensable2 every specimen should be wrapped very lightly in a piece of thin paper before boxing1 as the elasticity of the paper not only prevents breaking and bruising1 but it also prevents the spores of one species being scattered over another4 ,in carrying fungi about1 or sending fresh specimens from one place to another1 nothing is so good as this thin paper interspersed here and there with fronds of the common bracken4 ,sawdust1 hay1 or wool1 should never1 on any account1 be used3 such things totally destroy the plants2 but with careful packing with paper and bracken-fronds1 fungi may be transported for any distance1 by rail or otherwise1 perfectly intact and undamaged4 ,in packing the vasculum1 see that the heavier plants are at the bottom and the lighter ones at the top2 for if packed otherwise any fragile species will be certainly destroyed4 ,i have known a good collection of ,agarics rendered worthless by a loose puff-ball being placed with them1 which has rolled about with every movement of the collector's body1 and damaged big and little species alike1 when a piece of paper or a fern-frond or two1 to prevent rolling1 would have kept all quite safe4 ,it is hardly necessary to specify localities1 because fungi abound everywhere4 ,if leaf fungi are sought for1 hedge-sides will produce an abundant crop2 if the ,agaricini and ,polyporei1 forests and woods must be ransacked2 if the edible species are wanted1 rich open pastures 7with few exceptions7 must be traversed3 the various species of truffles must be looked for principally in leafy glades--many prefer a calcareous subsoil1 but at times they may be met with even in hedge-sides1 town parks1 or elsewhere4 ,when the collection of the day is complete1 no species must be allowed to remain in the collecting-cases all night2 for if the boxes are not carefully opened and the contents laid out1 it will probably be found in the morning that some will have dissolved into an inky fluid1 others will have got into the treacle state1 whilst a third lot will be overrun with mould1 or the smaller ones perhaps entirely eaten up by slugs or larv4 ,few things decompose so rapidly as fungi1 especially the full-grown ,boleti2 these1 though apparently perfectly sound one day1 will sometimes be a horrible mass of foetid treacle the next4 ,i have sometimes received large parcels by rail or post when this horrible stinking matter has been dripping out1 perhaps all over the carter's hands or down the postman's trousers2 for ladies always will send ,boleti in bonnet-boxes1 tied with thin twine4 ,should any extra charge be demanded1 on the ground of the insufficiently prepaid postage1 or the parcels be unpaid1 ,i invariably refuse to take them in1 to the disgust of the parties bringing them4 ,i shall not soon forget an ill-tempered postman who brought me two of these dripping treasures at the same time last autumn1 with a demand for extra postage1 and his look of silent disrelish as he walked off with one twine-suspended bonnet-box in each hand1 the fragrant ,boleti-treacle meanwhile manifesting itself upon the pavement4 ,even when quite fresh1 the odour of some species is disgusting in the extreme2 for instance1 a single specimen of ,phallus impudicus in the collecting-box will affect a whole railway carriage with the most horrible and sickening stench2 whilst the curious truffle ,melanogaster ambiguus is perhaps worse still1 for its abominable odour is perfectly insufferable4 ,to dry and preserve a collection of fresh fungi is at times a very difficult task2 for instance1 some species are so entirely covered with a tenacious gluten that if they were at once put between drying-papers1 it is certain they would never come out again with the least chance of being recognized by even the most acute fungologist2 others are so deliquescent that in an hour or two they would dissolve into a watery mass1 soak through all the paper1 and leave a mere dirty stain between the sheets where the plant was originally placed4 ,as a contrast1 some of the ,polyporei 7as the young state of ,polyporus igniarius7 are so hard that nothing but a steam-hammer would have any chance of flattening them4 ,there is considerable difficulty in ridding the plants from the larv with which they are often infested4 ,a few drops of the oil of turpentine will1 however1 generally drive them from ,agarics and other fleshy fungi2 and1 in regard to the woody ,polyporei1 a good plan is to place the plants in an oven1 or on a hob for a short time1 where the heat is not too powerful to destroy the plants1 but still sufficiently potent to drive the larv from their holes4 ,if this is not done1 the collector's experience will probably be the same as mine has more than once been2 viz4 on opening a package 7which should contain some choice dried fungus71 to find only a stain1 a few skins of dead maggots1 and a little dirt--in fact1 some of the species in my herbarium1 though mostly poisoned with corrosive sublimate1 get entirely devoured by rapacious and poison-proof larv1 mites1 and minute beetles4 ,in addition1 however1 to the mere drying1 certain notes and particulars are required1 without which the best dried specimens are worthless2 and1 again1 for the larger fungi to be of real service1 the spores of each species must be separately preserved4 ,as regards the drying of the fleshy fungi themselves1 the process to observe is as follows3--,lay all ordinary ,agarics out separately in a dry place1 or in a current of dry air from six to twelve1 or even twenty-four hours1 according to the species1 so that they may part with their superfluous moisture1 and thus facilitate drying4 ,in the case of species with glutinous pilei1 it will be found that the gluten will more or less set1 if carefully attended to1 in a dry warm place4 ,if the larger fleshy fungi are inadvertently placed under a propagating-glass1 or left on a lawn or grassy place1 or kept in damp air from over-night till next morning1 the chances are that they will never properly dry at all4 ,when the superfluous moisture has evaporated they may be put gently between drying-papers1 but the weight put upon them must at first be of the slightest kind2 ordinary books1 more or less light1 will be found quite sufficient2 and few1 or perhaps no other plants1 require such frequent changing as ,agarics4 ,an hour1 or often less1 suffices for the first pressure1 when care must be taken to supply them with fresh and perfectly dry paper1 or they will immediately mould4 ,it is a good plan1 when the plants are half dry1 to take them out of the papers and put them in dry air1 or in a sunny place for a short time 7the length of time being determined by experience and the nature of the species71 to part with more of their moisture3 so1 with constant attention and frequent changing of the papers1 very presentable specimens may at last be obtained4 ,these dried fungi will now be found very useful for showing the more superficial characters of the plants2 but without sections1 spores1 and proper notes1 they will be next to useless4 ,in ,agarics it is of the first importance to show the nature of the attachment of the gills to the stem3 and should the stems be furnished with a volva or annulus1 this must be preserved with the greatest care--young specimens1 too1 in different stages of growth1 are often of great value4 ,if possible1 it is well to have a series of dried specimens of each species2 one1 as in ,fig4 #ch1 ,a1 to display the nature of the tubes in ,boletus and the gills in the ,agaricini1 whether they are thick or thin1 crowded together or distant from each other1 plain or serrated1 free or annexed2 another1 as at ,b1 to show the pileus1 whether smooth or floccose1 plain1 warted1 or zoned1 and the nature of the margin1 whether striate1 bullate1 or plain2 a third1 as at ,c1 to show the attachment of pileus to stem in infancy2 and1 fourthly1 a section or thin slice removed from the exact middle of the young plant from top to bottom1 as at ,d3 this will show the nature of the veil 7if present71 and whether universal or not2 and if absent1 whether the margin is at first straight1 incurved1 or involute4 ,a similar section through the mature plant is also required1 ,e and ,f 7,fig4 #ci73 this will give the attachment of gills to stems 7a character of great importance71 and the nature of the stem itself1 whether solid1 stuffed1 or hollow4 ,great care and experience are required to cut a thin and perfect slice from the middle of a tender ,agaric or ,boletus2 for there is often a sort of articulation at the point ,g1 which causes the slice to fall in two4 ,as for preserving fungi in fluids1 ,i think it in all ways undesirable4 ,it may more or less answer for single or unique specimens1 or for large museums1 where space is of no consequence2 but for all purposes of constant reference and private study1 any process of this sort is worthless4 ,few persons1 ,i imagine1 would care to have hundreds 7or ,i might say thousands7 of tolerably large glass bottles of fluids in their houses4 ,it is essential that the spores should be secured1 as their colour and size are very important4 ,they may be preserved in various ways3 if coloured1 they are best kept on white paper1 and if white1 on black glazed paper1 such as is supplied to photographers2 or they may be at once deposited and kept on glass slides and covered1 or between thin sheets of mica1 such as photographers use4 ,i prefer the spores free on paper1 as they can easily be transferred to glass for examination by breathing on a corner of a glass slide and just touching it on to the dry spores2 thousands will attach themselves to the glass1 and1 moreover1 the supply from one fungus appears to be perfectly inexhaustible4 ,to secure a good batch of spores1 it is not sufficient to let the ,agaric merely rest in the position shown at ,h 7,fig4 #dj71 for the spores will not properly fall when this plan is adopted2 a far better one is to cut a small hole1 about the size of the diameter of the stem of the fungus1 in the centre of the paper on which the spores are to be deposited3 slip the stem through the hole1 carefully draw up the paper collar1 and support the fungus in a small pot1 glass1 or dry phial 7placed under a propagating-glass to keep the plant fresh7 as shown in ,fig4 #da4 ,if it is wished to fix the spores1 let the paper be first washed with a thin solution of gum-arabic1 which must be allowed to get perfectly dry2 the spores may now fall upon the dry gummed paper2 and after the deposition the gummed surface must be breathed upon to moisten the gum1 and when it has dried for the second time the spores will be fixed1 and not readily rubbed off4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,specimens showing the gills1 rings1 and stages of growth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,section cut through ,agaricus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,agaric placed to catch spores4 ,it is necessary to prepare the woody specimens in a different manner4 ,they must first be perfectly dried before the fire1 or in the sun1 and then a thin slice must be sawn 7or cut with a powerful knife7 out of the middle4 ,this slice may be poisoned1 as described hereafter1 and mounted on the herbarium sheets at once4 ,if the ,polyporus is very thin1 it may be mounted in company with the slice1 but more than one specimen is desirable1 as it is indispensable to have both surfaces handy for examination4 ,if the specimens are very large1 they are best kept in wooden boxes1 and labelled according to the genera and sub-genera they contain2 or they may be kept in drawers1 the drawers being divided by partitions if large1 and labelled outside4 ,if boxes are used1 they should all be the same depth2 the height and width may be doubled or halved according to the nature of the plants3 the plan will be better understood by reference to the diagram1 ,fig4 #db4 ,if this plan is adopted1 there will be no waste space1 and the boxes will stand evenly upon a sideboard or against a wall4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,cabinet for ,fungi4 ,before the specimens are transferred to the herbarium they may or not be poisoned1 according to the wish or convenience of the collector4 ,some of my plants which have never been poisoned remain perfectly uninjured1 whilst others1 which have been treated with a strong solution of corrosive sublimate1 have been devoured by larv1 c41 introduced1 ,i presume1 since the plants were put away4 ,a solution of corrosive sublimate in pyroligneous naphtha1 carefully washed over the specimens1 has been recommended2 but the ordinary poison is oil of turpentine1 mixed with finely-powdered sublimate1 well shaken before applied4 ,if the specimens are to be glued down1 they should be mounted as shown in ,figs4 #ch and #ci1 so as to display all their characters1 and fixed with poisoned gum tragacanth2 but some botanists1 and myself amongst the number1 prefer to have the specimens free4 ,for this purpose ,i have envelopes gummed to the herbarium sheets1 and the specimens 7including a small paper containing the spores7 are free within the envelopes4 ,some mites are very fond of the spores of certain fungi1 whilst they will not touch the spores of others3 therefore1 if the specimens are to be kept perfectly intact1 gummed paper must be used1 or they may be kept between little slips of mica4 ,as to the labelling of the herbarium sheets1 ,i shall not touch upon that1 as the plan universally followed is similar to the one used for flowering plants1 and described in this volume4 ,some sub-genera of ,agaricus1 however 7as ,tricholoma71 are so numerous in species that it will be found requisite to have several wrappers for one sub-genus4 ,now as to the necessary notes to be made on the sheets3 the points in discriminating fungi differ considerably from those used in naming flowering plants4 ,it is presumed the spores have been preserved by the collector4 ,now1 if he has time1 the next best thing is to measure and note them at once1 in decimals of an inch and millimetre3 a second and essential thing is a note as to the taste of the fungus1 whether it is mild1 acrid1 bitter1 c4 ,this point will be found very useful1 as some species are tasteless1 insipid1 or extremely acrid1 bitter1 or poisonous3 it is only necessary to taste a small piece2 but as so little is really known of the qualities of fungi1 unless this is done no advance will be made4 ,i invariably taste every fungus new to me1 and have notes to this effect of all the species which have passed through my hands3 in some species the effect is very peculiar1 sometimes 7as in ,agaricus melleus7 it causes a cold sensation at the back of the ears1 and swelling of the throat2 at others 7as in ,marasmius caulicinalis71 the taste proves to be intensely bitter2 some are so fiery 7as in ,lactarius turpis1 blennius1 and acris71 that the smallest piece placed upon the tongue resembles the contact of a red-hot poker4 ,often1 when ,i have been out botanizing with young men and amateurs1 when a dubious ,russula or ,lactarius has been shown me to name1 ,i have requested the inquirer to taste it1 as1 if mild or pungent1 the taste might at times decide the species2 ,i have generally found1 however1 that though certain persons are anxious enough to acquire names1 they will not burn their tongues to secure them4 ,no fungi that ,i am acquainted with are really pleasant raw1 unless it is ,hydnum gelatinosum1 though many are very good when cooked4 ,a very important thing to note is the odour in the larger fungi3 many are very pleasant1 like meal2 a few are sweet2 some resemble stinking fish 7as ,agaricus cucumis72 one1 mice 7as ,a4 incanus72 another1 camphor1 whilst ,marasmius foetidus and impudicus are like putrid carrion2 others are like burnt flannel1 garlic1 rotten beans1 and almost every imaginable disagreeable thing4 ,the habitat is of great importance3 if the plant grows upon trees1 the tree should be named2 or if parasitic upon any other material1 the matrix should be named with the place4 ,the viscidity1 dryness1 or bibulosity must be given1 and in the ,agaricini1 any notes that may suggest themselves as to the presence or absence of a veil1 volva1 or trama1 and whether the gills have a habit of separating from the stem1 as at ,j 7,fig4 #ci71 must be carefully noted4 ,the study of the larger fungi has been to me one of the greatest pleasures of my life3 when all things else have failed1 this has never failed2 it has taken me into the pleasantest of places and amongst the best of people4 ,had it not been for fungi1 ,i should have been dead years ago2 often tired1 jaded1 and harassed with business matters1 a stroll in the rich autumn woods has given me a renewed lease of life4 ,in these favourite haunts ,i never tire or flag2 rain1 fog1 and mud1 never detract from the pleasures of the woods to me--,i am only depressed in the hot1 dry weather of midsummer4 ,in the autumn ,i constantly visit the forests1 with all my collecting paraphernalia2 ,i sometimes take a saw to cut off the big1 woody1 fungus excrescences of trees4 ,i was once fortunate enough to find a ladder in a wood1 which proved invaluable for ascending the beeches in search of ,agaricus mucidus1 c4 ,i1 however1 find fungi everywhere3 ,i only go round the corner1 and there they are4 ,i often visit a neighbouring builder's yard1 and descend the sawpits1 to the amazement of the operatives3 some of the rarest species of our ,flora1 and many new ones1 ,i have found within a few minutes' walk of my own house4 ,i once found a rare ,lentinus on a log as it was being carted down ,king ,william ,street1 and a year or so ago an undescribed ,peziza flourished inside my cistern4 ,collecting fungi is not without its humours as well as its pleasures1 as the following will show4 ,i once saw a portly1 well-dressed gentleman walking along the high road1 with his vasculum over his shoulders1 and carrying home 7one in each hand7 a pair of cast-off1 rotten boots1 discarded by some vagrant2 the rotting leather having produced a crop of rare microscopic fungi4 ,at times abominable cast-off foetid gipsy rags will be lovingly taken from out a ditch1 and choice pieces cut out and consigned to the vasculum of the cryptogamic botanist2 at other times some rare species will be seen up a tree1 and it has several times happened in my presence that one enthusiastic botanist has got on to the shoulders of another to secure a prize1 or even waded into a pond to get at some prostrate fungus-bearing log4 ,the humours of truffle hunting are manifold4 ,i have seen a gentleman trespass1 on hands and knees1 through a holly hedge1 on to a gentleman's lawn1 and there dig up the turf in some promising spot1 risking an attack from the house-dog1 or a few shots from the proprietor2 the said trespasser meanwhile armed with a rake1 gouge1 and dangerous-looking open knife4 ,country labourers are often sorely puzzled by the acts of cryptogamic botanists2 they stand agape in utter amazement to witness poisonous frog-stools bagged by the score4 ,ofttimes one gets warned that the plants are deadly pisin2 but collectors are usually looked upon as harmless lunatics1 a climax in this direction generally being reached if a gentleman in search of ,ascoboli and the dung-borne ,peziz1 sits down1 and after making a promising collection of horse or cow-dung1 carefully wraps these treasures in tissue paper1 and puts them in his sandwich-box4 ,one word of warning to the beginner--never1 on any account1 amass and put away a lot of imperfect materials with insufficient notes1 for in the end they will prove worse than useless4 ,to name fungi with certainty the fullest notes and most complete materials are indispensable3 without these nothing whatever can be done4 ,it is far better to laboriously make out twenty species1 and know them in all their aspects for certain1 than to amass imperfect materials of two thousand without any sound botanical knowledge4 ,if the former course is pursued1 the study of fungi will prove a never-failing source of pleasure to the mind and of health to the body4 ,in conclusion1 ,i cannot do better than quote a few words written by the illustrious ,fries 7now more than eighty years of age7 in the preface to a recent work of his on ,fungi4 ,he says3 ,now in the evening of my life1 ,i rejoice to call to mind the abundant pleasures which my study of the more perfect fungi1 sustained for more than half a century1 has throughout this long time afforded me4444 ,therefore1 to botanists1 who can wander at will the country side1 ,i commend the study of these plants as a perennial fountain of delight and admiration for that ,supreme ,wisdom which reigns over universal nature4 ,,xiii4 ,,lichens4 ,by the ,rev4 ,jas4 ,crombie1 ,f4,l4,s41 etc4 ,much as it is to be regretted1 it cannot be questioned that of those who have devoted themselves to the study of botany1 lichenists have always been few and far between4 ,while flowering plants have had their hosts of enthusiastic students1 and while other classes of cryptogamics have had due attention paid to them1 the study of lichens has1 up even to the present time1 been but too much neglected4 ,to many indeed the term conveys only some faint and confused idea1 and though they know that there are plants so called1 they are at the same time utterly ignorant of their nature4 ,with flowering plants1 ferns1 mosses1 seaweeds1 and even fungi1 they have at least some acquaintance1 more or less accurate2 but lichens they generally pass by with indifference1 regarding them merely as time-stains on the trees1 the walls1 and the rocks where they grow4 ,nay1 we have even met with some professed1 and otherwise well-informed botanists1 who1 while recognizing certain of the larger and more conspicuous species as lichens1 yet fancied that many of the smaller and more obscure species were merely inorganic discolorations4 ,it is certainly very difficult to account for such a state of matters at the present day1 when so much attention is being paid to almost every other class of plants4 ,vainly have ,i sought either in the nature of the case itself or in my conversations with botanists1 for any intelligible solution of such apathy and neglect3 though many good and sufficient reasons have presented themselves to my mind why they should be regarded in a very different light4 ,it cannot with any show of propriety be objected that lichens are an uninteresting class of plants1 and consequently undeserving of serious study4 ,so far from this1 they are in various respects as interesting not only as any other class of cryptogamics1 but also as many other plants1 which occupy a higher and more conspicuous place in the scale of vegetation4 ,being as it were the pioneers of all other plant life1 for which they serve to prepare the soil on the coral islet and the barren rock1--constituting the most generally diffused class of terrestrial plants on the surface of the globe1 from arctic lands to tropical climes1--presenting essential simplicity of structure1 being composed entirely of an aggregation of cells1 though at the same time this is amply compensated for by endless variety of form1--adorning as they do1 with their variously coloured thalli and apothecia1 the most romantic and the most dreary situations1--affording in some cases valuable material for the dyer and the perfumer1 nay1 even for medicinal purposes1--supplying1 as some of them do1 more or less1 nutritious food for man and beast1 under circumstances and in regions where no other can be had1--it is very evident that the prevailing neglect of them cannot arise from their being in any way uninteresting1 and destitute either of beauty or utility4 ,nor does this1 as might be inferred1 result from any peculiar difficulty attending their study4 ,there indeed seems to be a notion prevalent1 not only amongst the students of phnogamic1 but also amongst those of cryptogamic plants1 that there are1 somehow or other1 almost insuperable difficulties connected with the pursuit of ,lichenology4 ,now1 it is quite true that the correct study of these plants is by no means an easy one1 and that an accurate knowledge of them is not to be obtained in a day or an hour2 but the same may1 with equal truth1 be said of any other branch of ,phytology1 which requires minute research and microscopical examination4 ,here1 as elsewhere1 there is no royal road to learning1 and the difficulties which lie in the way must be boldly faced4 ,if the student can only muster up sufficient courage to cross the threshold and prosecute his investigations with zeal and steady perseverance1 he will find in this1 as in other cases1 that the difficulties which looked so formidable at a distance1 will1 one by one1 be successfully surmounted4 ,but to whatever cause the paucity of lichenists1 both in our own and other countries1 is to be attributed1 it certainly does not originate in any difficulty connected with their collection and preservation4 ,in fact1 there is no other class of plants1 where these1 and more especially the latter1 can be so easily effected1 at a little expenditure of time and trouble4 ,a few simple directions are1 therefore1 all that are necessary to be given on these points4 ,as to the collecting of lichens1 it has already been intimated that they are almost universally distributed1 though of course in this respect subject to the same laws as the higher orders of vegetation4 ,in our own country we have now a list of about eight hundred species1 constituting by far the greater proportion of the ,lichen ,flora of ,europe4 ,in most parts of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 a very fair number of these may readily be gathered1 capable1 as they are1 of existing in almost every situation where they can derive requisite nourishment from the atmosphere4 ,on the rocks and boulders of the seashore and the mountain-side1 on the trunks and branches of trees in woods and forests1 on peaty soil of bare moorlands1 and on stone fences in upland tracts1 nay1 even on old pales and walls in suburban districts1 a goodly harvest may generally be reaped4 ,few localities indeed there are1 within the area of these islands 7,london and its environs1 where the atmosphere is so impregnated with smoke1 being the chief exception71 in which the lichenist will find his occupation gone4 ,true1 it is only in some more favoured tracts1 chiefly maritime and montane1 that he can expect to meet with many of our rarer species2 but even in most lowland districts1 especially such as are well wooded1 he may1 with profit1 pursue his researches1 and collect various of the more common species4 ,these will just be as useful in making him acquainted with the structure and physiology of lichens as though he had gathered the rarest that grow on ,ben ,lawers or by ,killarney's lake4 ,the apparatus requisite for collecting is neither complicated nor expensive4 ,a tin japanned vasculum1 or what is perhaps better still1 a black leather haversack1 of larger or smaller dimensions as the case may be1 suspended over the shoulder by a strap1 is of course indispensable for holding the specimens gathered4 ,the latter of these we have found to be more generally convenient1 as we can take it with us also for a short ramble1 without its attracting so much attention from curious rustics1 as the less-known and more singular-looking vasculum4 ,two sets of instruments are also necessary for removing the plant from the substratum on which it grows1 as well as for breaking off in many cases a thin portion of the latter along therewith4 ,these are a geologist's hammer and chisel for such as grow on rocks1 boulders1 and stones2 a gardener's pruning-knife for such as grow on trees1 pales1 and the ground2 as also an ordinary table-knife for detaching1 by insertion under them1 such foliaceous species as can thus be separated from the substratum4 ,to these must be added several sheets of soft and moderately thick paper1 cut into different sizes 7some newspapers suit remarkably well71 in which to wrap up the individual specimens and prevent them rubbing against each other2 a few card-boxes also1 of various sizes1 in which for greater safety to place any of the more brittle species1 or fragments of the rarer ones1 by themselves2 and a pocket-lens of good magnifying power1 by which we may be able to detect on the spot those minuter species which the naked eye can with difficulty distinguish4 ,with these the lichenist is fully equipped for an excursion1 whether near at hand or far away1 and1 with waterproof and umbrella1 is ready to take the field even in threatening weather4 ,a good deal of discrimination must be used in the selection of specimens for removal1 which1 in all cases where such can be obtained1 ought to be fertile1 with both apothecia and spermagones fully developed4 ,hence1 such as are too old or too young1 may be passed by1 as neither the spores nor spermatia1 by which alone1 in many instances1 they can be determined1 will be found in a normal condition1 any more than the thallus itself4 ,the specimens gathered ought in every case to be of sufficient size to show distinctly the character of the thallus and of the fructification4 ,where1 however1 the thallus1 as it frequently does1 spreads very extensively over the substratum1 it will be sufficient to break off such a portion from the circumference towards the centre1 as will give an adequate idea of the more important characteristics of the plant4 ,this is a point of considerable consequence2 for should a portion be taken off from the circumference alone1 or from the centre alone1 it will often be entirely unsuitable for showing the real nature of the plant1 and be quite useless for purposes of description4 ,a little experience1 however1 will serve to prevent the commission of a mistake1 into which1 judging from the number of imperfect specimens which are sent me to be named1 beginners are very apt to fall4 ,practice will also in time enable the tyro to use the hammer and chisel in such a way as to obtain neat specimens of saxicole species--a matter of importance with respect to their subsequent mounting4 ,as to the best season for collecting1 ,i need scarcely remind the reader that lichens are perennial plants1 remarkable for their longevity1 and that during the whole year round they may be found in fruit4 ,the lichenist has not to wait for any particular month or months1 as other botanists have to do1 before he can collect the objects of his search in a fully-developed condition4 ,spring1 summer1 autumn1 and even winter1 except when the snow conceals all vegetation beneath its white mantle1 are all alike to him1 and in each he will find every species of lichen in perfection4 ,at the same time1 he will be most successful after a shower of rain or a slight frost has fallen1 inasmuch as1 becoming swollen with the moisture then imbibed1 many of the minuter species which might otherwise be overlooked1 are more readily perceived1 and the foliaceous species more easily removed from the substratum to which they are more or less closely affixed4 ,nothing more need be said on the collecting of lichens1 as a short experience will be more useful than further details4 ,we proceed1 therefore1 to give a few hints on their subsequent preservation4 ,this is a very easy process1 presenting no difficulty whatever1 and occupying but little time4 ,we shall suppose that the collector has returned from a successful expedition1 with his vasculum or haversack well filled with specimens from all sorts of habitats4 ,opening the papers in which they have been wrapped up1 he will take them out one by one1 and place them separately upon a table1 over which a newspaper has previously been spread4 ,if gathered in wet weather1 they ought not to be left long in the papers1 as in this case they are very apt to become covered with mould4 ,after allowing them to remain in this position till they are thoroughly dry1 he may at once proceed with hammer and chisel1 or with knife and scissors1 to reduce to a suitable size such of them as he could not conveniently thus manipulate in the field4 ,when this is done1 they may then be affixed with gum1 of a rather thick consistency1 to slips of white paper1 with the locality and date of their collection written beneath4 ,there will be no difficulty felt in thus affixing saxicole1 corticole1 and lignicole species1 though where the nature of the stone or wood is more absorbent1 several applications of the gum may be necessary before they properly adhere4 ,with terricole species1 however1 a somewhat more lengthened process is necessary1 owing to the brittle nature of the substratum1 in consequence of which1 if not properly preserved1 they often crumble into dust in the herbarium4 ,to prevent this1 ,m4 ,norman1 of ,trmsoe1 ,norway1 has recently prescribed a solution of isinglass in spirits of wine1 which1 when liquefied in a vessel plunged in water of the temperature of #be-cj;,c41 is greedily imbibed by the earth1 and becomes inspissated into a solid gelatine at a temperature below #ae4 ,this solution may be applied until the earth becomes thoroughly saturated1 and after it is perfectly dry1 the specimens will possess sufficient hardness and tenacity1 and may then be mounted like the others4 ,so far1 however1 as my own experience goes1 ,i have found a weak solution of gum-arabic1 frequently repeated1 and applied to the under surface and edges of the specimens1 to be quite as efficacious2 and if after becoming thoroughly dry1 they be first affixed by a thicker solution to slips of thin tissue-paper1 they will be equally ready for being mounted as above4 ,either of these two methods may also with advantage be applied to such species as grow upon decayed mosses4 ,slight pressure may be applied to the thallus of fruticulose1 filamentose1 and foliaceous species1 in order that they may lie better in the herbarium2 but this should be done only to a very limited degree1 so as not to obliterate the normal appearance of the branches or lobes4 ,as the character of the under surface of the thallus is frequently of great importance1 at least in foliaceous and fruticulose plants1 a portion of this1 not necessarily detached1 should be turned over1 for facility of inspection1 and pressed down on the paper1 before the specimens have become quite dry and rigid4 ,in order to destroy any insects that may be upon the plants when gathered1 or by which they may afterwards be infested1 lichenists at one time were in the habit of poisoning them with corrosive sublimate4 ,frequent exposure1 however1 to the air in dry weather1 and the presence of a little camphor1 will be quite sufficient to prevent any mischief from this source4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,section of ,physcia parietina4 a4 ,paraphyses4 b4 ,asci with spores4 c4 ,hypothecium4 d4 ,section of apothecium4 e4 ,spore4 ,but having thus arranged1 though the arrangement is but temporary1 the specimens gathered1 on slips of white paper1 the next and most important point is their due examination and determination4 ,this1 in the present advanced state of ,lichenology1 is unquestionably1 in many cases1 a task of considerable difficulty1 and in the short space at our disposal it would be quite impossible to give anything like an adequate explanation of the mode in which this is to be effected4 ,suffice it at present to say that sections must be made of the thallus to ascertain the character of its different layers1 as also sections of the apothecia and spermagones to ascertain the nature of the spores and spermatia4 ,for both purposes a good microscope1 with #a_/d-;inch object-glass1 is absolutely indispensable to the student4 ,the examination of the spores1 upon which1 in so many cases1 the determination of the species chiefly depends1 should present little or no difficulty1 at least to the fungologist4 ,it may be readily effected by moistening the apothecium with water1 and then1 with a dissecting-knife1 making a thin vertical section through its centre4 ,putting this on a glass slide1 or in a compressorium1 in a drop of hydrate of potash1 and then placing it under the microscope1 a view will be obtained of the asci1 spores1 paraphyses1 hypothecium1 c41 each of which may afterwards be insulated and examined more minutely in detail4 ,take1 for example1 the well-known beautiful yellow lichen 7,physcia parietina71 so common everywhere on walls1 rocks1 and trees1 and treat a very thin section of the mature apothecium as before mentioned4 ,under the microscope it will appear as represented in ,fig4 #dc4 ,in the same way the spermagones may be examined1 when the nature of the sterigmata and spermatia will be apparent4 ,by cutting across the thallus of the above species1 we can perceive even by the naked eye that it consists of three different layers1 which when microscopically examined present the appearance shown in the above figure4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,section of ,physcia parietina4 a4 ,cortical stratum4 b4 ,gonidic stratum4 c4 ,medullary stratum4 ,but in addition to this microscopical examination1 it is also requisite to observe the different chemical reactions produced on the asci or the hymeneal gelatine with iodine 7,i71 which will tinge these either bluish or reddish wine-coloured1 or else leave them uncoloured4 ,similarly the thallus1 including both the cortical layer and the medulla1 may be tested with hydrate of potash 7,k71 and hypochlorite of lime 7,c71 the latter being applied either by itself or added to ,k when wet4 ,in some cases no reaction will be produced by these either upon the cortical stratum or the medulla2 in others they will be tinged yellowish or reddish4 ,the formul for the preparation of these reagents are3 for iodine1 iodine1 gr4 j2 iodide of potash1 gr4 iij1 distilled water1 #a_/b oz42 for hydrate of potash1 equal weights of caustic potash and water2 for hydrochlorite of lime1 chloride of lime and water of any strength4 ,after correctly ascertaining the specific name of the specimens collected1 this is to be written on the slips of paper to which they are affixed1 above the locality and date1 and the best of them1 including all varieties and forms1 selected for subsequent mounting in the herbarium4 ,this may be effected either in the same way as the mounting of phanerogamic plants1 or by affixing the specimens to pieces of millboard covered with white paper1 and arranging them according to the order of the genera and species in the system of classification which may be adopted4 ,for facility of reference the latter is undoubtedly the preferable method2 and if the cards are disposed in a cabinet with shallow drawers1 they will not1 so far at least as our ,british species are concerned1 be found to occupy too much space4 ,,xiv4 ,,seaweeds4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,grattann4 ,in some articles published in ',science-,gossip' a few years ago1 ,i gave some directions for collecting and preserving ,marine ,alg1 or seaweeds1 and although1 ,i think1 it will be difficult to simplify those directions1 or even to add much that would be really serviceable to young beginners in this delightful pursuit1 it is my intention1 in going over the ground once more1 to be as explicit as ,i possibly can2 and here1 on the threshold of the subject1 ,i have a few words to say to one or two occasional contributors to that journal1 who1 in calling attention to the beauty of marine vegetation1 and urging young persons to collect and preserve ,alg1 have advised them to ignore books on the subject1 and go to the shore1 use their own eyes1 and collect for themselves1 c4 ,i am sorry very greatly to differ from such advice4 ,collecting in this way may be amusing enough to those who care not for science1 but when it leads to parcels of seaweeds1 picked up at random1 being sent to botanists with a request that the names of such plants should be sent to the writer1 it is the reverse of pleasure to the scientific botanist1 for it gives him infinite trouble1 and enables him to convey but very imperfect information to his applicant4 ,the editor of that journal has often been thus appealed to1 and packages of decayed rubbish have frequently been sent to me for examination1 containing species or rather fragments of plants1 which1 for the most part1 were utterly worthless and defied identification4 ,almost all collectors commence by mounting plants which a little experience proves to be really what the old poet termed alga projecta vilior2 but as seaweed-gathering1 like everything else1 requires practice1 beginners must not be disappointed because they do not find rarities or fine specimens whenever and wherever they may seek for them4 ,when ,i think of the difficulties ,i experienced at the outset of my study of marine botany1 especially in the collecting and drying of seaweeds1 ,i feel strongly inclined to urge all beginners to obtain some information concerning ,marine ,alg before they go to the shore to collect for themselves4 ,a very few hours of study with an experienced algologist1 or even a perusal of some illustrated work on ,british alg1 will save much trouble and materially assist the unpractised eye in selecting specimens for the herbarium4 ,i may here mention as highly useful to incipient algologists ,dr4 ,landsborough's ',british ,seaweeds' and ,professor ,harvey's ',manual1' either of which may be obtained for a few shillings2 but if my readers are resident in ,london1 ,i advise them to pay a few visits to the ,library of the ,british ,museum1 and there inspect ,dr4 ,harvey's ',phycologia ,britannica4' ,in this magnificent work they will find coloured figures of nearly every ,british seaweed1 with drawings from magnified portions1 and various structural details of the highest value to students2 and ,i once more impress on all collectors the importance of some degree of book-learning ere they sally forth1 bag or vasculum in hand1 to cull the lovely flowers of the ocean1 or gather what best may please them from the rejectamenta on the shore4 ,if the collector wishes to learn1 not merely the names of plants1 but to distinguish species1 he will do well to provide himself with a copy of ,harvey's little volume the ',synopsis of ,british ,seaweeds1' and a ,stanhope or ,coddington lens1 by means of which he can examine portions of delicate plants as he finds them1 and compare them with the descriptions given in the ',synopsis'2 in this way1 if he have any success during his excursions1 he will quickly become familiar with most of the plants which are cast ashore or grow within tide-marks4 ,time will not admit of1 neither is space at present available for1 a single line beyond what may be practically serviceable to my youthful readers2 therefore ,i will hasten to describe the course of action in seaweed-collecting as ,i have practised it for many years4 ,at once1 then1 to the shore1 but not to the sandy shore1 for only useless decayed rubbish1 or here and there some straggling plants of ,zostera marina1 or grass-wrack1 will be met with there4 ,the collector must away to the rocks1 and search carefully every pool he meets with1 from a little distance below high-water mark1 and so on down to the water's edge1 always remembering that it is better to collect while the tide is receding than as it is coming in4 ,presuming that few persons will think of collecting seaweeds much earlier than the month of ,may1 let me observe that most of the accessible species of olive and green plants which grow on rocky shores and in tide-pools1 will be found from ,may to ,june in pretty fair condition1 but very few red plants1 except those which grow on the shady sides of rock-pools1 or under the shelter of the larger olive weeds1 will be met with until a considerable space is laid bare by the receding water at the low spring tides1 about a day or two before and after the full moon4 ,as nearly all the rare red weeds grow in deep water1 they are seldom taken in any degree of perfection unless they are dredged2 but in the summer months1 say from ,june to the end of ,august1 many fine plants are occasionally thrown up from deep water1 and others are found growing on the stems of the great oar-weeds1 portions of which are cast ashore1 beautifully fringed with one or more species of ,delesseria and other rare ,rhodosperms--in fact1 during the rising tide1 diligent collectors may secure many a lovely deep-water plant as it comes floating in1 but which1 if allowed to remain long exposed to the action of sunlight1 will fade in colour and decompose before it can be mounted4 ,this is especially the case with all the soft gelatinous red plants1 such as the ,callithamnia1 and all the ,gloiocladi1 as well as a few of the softer olive weeds2 and here ,i may observe that there is one genus of beautiful olive plants1 the ,sporochnace1 which must on no account be put into the vasculum with any of the delicate red plants1 for they not only very rapidly decompose1 but injure almost all others with which they are placed in contact4 ,the species are not numerous1 and they may be easily recognized1 after having been previously studied from the coloured figures either in ,harvey's ',phycologia1' or in ,bradbury and ,evans's ',nature-printed ,seaweeds4' ,it is also a curious fact respecting this genus1 that while they are all of a beautiful olive tint in the growing state1 they invariably change to a fine verdigris-green in drying2 and indeed this is very generally the case with the filamentous olive weeds1 the ,fuci1 or common rock-weeds1 as constantly turning quite black after mounting3 whence the term1 that of ,melanosperm1 which is given to the subdivision to which all the olive weeds belong4 ,as there are so few seaweeds which have generally known common names1 ,i shall make no apology for using the names by which they are known to science1 presuming that all intending collectors will1 as ,i have already suggested1 gain some knowledge of ,terminology ere they go out seaweeding4 ,beginners should be cautioned against the very natural error of bringing home too many plants at a time2 they must be moderate in their gatherings1 or be content to risk the loss of some choice specimens1 which will decompose unless they are attended to before night4 ,the first thing to be done upon arriving at home1 is to empty the collecting-bag into a white basin of sea-water1 and to select the best and cleanest plants as soon as possible1 giving each a good swill before placing it in another vessel of clean water1 and getting rid of rejected plants at once1 so that the basin first used will be available for rewashing the weeds before they are severally placed in the mounting dish4 ,when a day is fixed on for seaweeding1 the collector should order a large bucket of clean sea-water1 which1 after being left to settle1 should be strained through a towel1 so as to be as free as possible from sand and dirt4 ,two or three large pie-dishes will be necessary1 the deeper the better1 and white1 if such can be obtained4 ,place these on a separate table with towels under them1 and reserve a table specially for the mounting dish and the parcels of papers1 calicoes1 and blotting-papers4 ,the large white bath used in photography is very well adapted for mounting seaweeds2 the lip at one corner is convenient for pouring off soiled water1 and its form--that of an oblong--is most suitable for receiving the papers on which the plants are to be mounted4 ,beside this vessel should be placed the following implements--a porcupine quill1 two camel-hair pencils 7one small1 the other large and flat71 a pair of strong brass forceps1 a penknife1 a pair of scissors1 a small sponge1 an ivory paper-knife1 and two thin plates of perforated zinc somewhat less in length and breadth than the inside of the mounting dish4 ,smooth drawing paper1 or fine white cartridge paper1 is generally employed for mounting4 ,the operator should be provided with three different sizes of paper1 and these should have each a piece of very fine calico and four pieces of blotting-paper to correspond4 ,the process of mounting one of the filamentous or branching species is as follows3--,the specimen being cleaned and placed in the mounting dish1 a piece of paper of suitable size is laid on one of the perforated zinc plates1 and both are then slipped quickly under the floating weed4 ,the root or base of the specimen is then pressed down on the paper with a finger of the left hand1 while the right hand is employing the forceps or porcupine quill in arranging the plant in as natural a position as possible1 ere the zinc plate is gently and gradually raised at the top or bottom1 as may be necessary1 to ensure a perfect display of every portion of the plant2 but if1 upon drawing it out of the water1 it should present an unsightly appearance from too thick an overlapping of the branches1 the whole must be reimmersed1 and a little pruning of superfluous portions may be employed with advantage to the specimen and satisfaction to the operator4 ,care should be taken that the water be drained off the paper as completely as possible before the calico is laid over the plant1 and this is accomplished by raising the paper containing the plant as it still lies on the zinc plate1 and transferring it to a thin board placed in an inclined position against one of the basins1 and with the large camel-hair pencil paint off the water as it runs away from the specimen1 and absorb what remains1 when the paper is laid flat1 with the sponge4 ,delicate species may be left to drain for a few minutes1 while the operator is arranging other specimens4 ,when the water is sufficiently drained off1 the paper is then laid on the blotter1 and the piece of calico is placed upon the plant--a sheet of blotter being laid upon the calico4 ,care should be observed in subjecting plants to pressure1 which1 in the first instance1 should be sufficient only to help the absorption of water4 ,the first set of blotting-papers should be changed in half an hour after the whole batch of specimens have been placed in the press1 and these must be thoroughly dried before they are used again4 ,after the second or third change of blotters1 the plants should remain under strong pressure for two or three days2 but the pieces of calico must not be removed until it is pretty certain that the papers and plants are quite dry4 ,with the exception of the ,fuci or common rock-weeds1 ,i never place seaweeds in fresh water3 with these1 especially ,fucus serratus1 ,f4 nodosus1 ,f4 vesiculosus1 and ,f4 canaliculatus1 a few hours' immersion in fresh water is an advantage1 as it soaks the salt out of their fronds and renders them more pliable4 ,as all the ,fuci turn black in drying1 and few of them adhere well to paper1 ,i arrange my specimens in single layers between the folds of a clean dry towel1 and keep them under pressure until they are quite dry2 they may then be put away loosely1 or gummed on sheets of paper4 ,the foregoing directions for mounting filamentous seaweeds are applicable to all the branching species of ,olive1 ,red1 and ,green plants2 but in each of the three subdivisions there are a few species which are so gelatinous--in fact1 so soft and spongy1 that they require the utmost care during pressure1 otherwise they adhere to the calico and break off in fragments as it is drawn away4 ,such plants must be left to dry in a horizontal position for an hour or so before the calico and blotters are placed over them1 and pressure must be very slight until they have adhered closely to the paper4 ,among the ,chlorosperms1 or green plants1 there are the various species of ,codium1 young plants of which only are manageable or indeed desirable4 ,in the ,melanosperms1 some species of the genus ,mesogloia will require care and patience in mounting1 as well as the long string-like plant1 known as ,chorda filum2 and again1 the spreading tuberous mass called ,leathsia tuberiformis1 portions of which should be cut from the rock1 the sand scraped and washed out1 then laid on the wet paper1 and allowed to shrink for some hours ere calico blotters and pressure be applied4 ,these difficulties are much more numerous among the ,rhodosperms1 or red seaweeds1 experience only teaching the best method of treatment4 ,i will1 however1 mention the names of some very troublesome plants1 the fronds of which1 if subjected to pressure too soon1 burst and discharge their carmine contents2 not only presenting an unsightly appearance1 but destroying the specimen4 ,these are ,griffithsia corallina1 ,dudresnaia coccinea1 ,naccaria ,wigghii1 all the ,chylocladia1 and the rare ,gloiosiphonia1 as well as the slimy worm-like plant known as ,nemalion multifidum4 ,in addition to these troubles among the red plants1 there is an opposite difficulty connected with several ,rhodosperms which must be pointed out2 and that is owing to an absence or scarcity of gelatine in their substance1 which is in some of a stout1 leathery1 or horny nature1 and in others is due to a coating of carbonate of lime1 which completely envelops the vegetable structure4 ,among the former may be mentioned the several species of ,phyllophora1 and several among the genera ,gigartina1 ,chondrus1 and ,sphrococcus2 and in the latter1 all the calcareous ,alg1 especially the well-known ,corallina officinalis and ,jania rubens4 ,all these1 and several others of a membraneous nature1 among the olive as well as the red weeds1 must be first mounted in the ordinary manner1 and when they are tolerably dry and begin to shrink away from the paper1 fill the mounting-dish with stale skimmed milk2 refloat the plants on their papers in the milk1 and indeed go through the same process as before with the sea-water1 but be careful to absorb all the milk from off the surface of the plants and the back of the papers1 and then1 after the usual time for drying and pressing1 the most obstinate seaweed will be found adhering perfectly to the paper1 and will remain so permanently4 ,one more difficulty must be referred to for the benefit of young beginners1 who1 in mounting some of the ,laminaria and that peculiar olive weed called ,himanthalia lorea1 may wish to preserve the thick-branching roots and stems4 ,first wash the roots as clean as possible1 and then1 with a sharp penknife1 make a clean cutting horizontally of the whole root and some little distance up the thick round stem2 then1 after having removed the cut portions1 place the inner surface of the root and stem on the paper1 and the gelatinous matter which oozes from the plant will cause the roots to adhere firmly to the paper1 and in drying1 the usual olive tint of the various species of ,laminaria will be finely preserved4 ,some botanists employ a mixture made of isinglass1 dissolved in alcohol1 to fix some of the horny or robust species on paper2 but if gum be made use of1 it is better to employ gum tragacanth than gum-arabic1 because1 in drying1 the former has none of that objectionable glare which is peculiar to gum arabic4 ,as regards the best method of pressing seaweeds1 ,i think ,i can hardly do better than refer my readers to the figure of a ,seaweed ,press 7,fig4 #de71 which ,i invented for myself many years ago1 in which ,i have pressed many thousands of beautiful seaweeds4 ,almost any degree of pressure can be obtained in it3 first1 by the thumb-screws on the iron rods at each corner1 and1 finally1 by means of the clamp which is strapped on the top of the press4 ,any intelligent cabinet-maker or ironmonger could provide such a press from an inspection of the figure2 the cost1 of course1 varying with the dimensions and the number of boards4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,seaweed ,press4 ,with respect to localities favourable to seaweed-gathering1 ,i may specially mention the south coast of ,devon2 from ,exmouth1 where ,bryopsis and ,padina pavonia grow in perfection1 to ,torquay and the coves of ,torbay1 and down the coast to ,plymouth1 ,cawsand ,bay1 and finally ,whitsand ,bay1 the happy hunting-grounds of the enthusiastic algologist4 ,on the north-east coast1 ,filey and ,whitby must be mentioned1 as well as the shores upwards from ,tynemouth to ,whitley4 ,peterhead is also a good locality1 the rare ,ectocarpus ,mertensii1 ,odonthalia dentata1 and ,callithamnion floccosum being found there in abundance4 ,other favourable stations in ,scotland1 well known to me1 are ,lamlash ,bay and ,whiting ,bay2 nor must the ,isle of ,wight be forgotten1 for in the rock-pools1 at ,shanklin especially1 the most magnificent form of ,padina pavonia may be found growing during the summer months in the utmost profusion4 ,in conclusion1 ,i beg leave to inform my readers that ,i have recently published a volume on ,british ,marine ,alg1 in which every species that is likely to be met with by ordinary collectors is described1 and every ,british seaweed that is capable of illustration in a work intended for popular information1 is figured from plants in my own possession1 and1 in addition1 diagrams and figures from drawings of magnified portions1 illustrative of structure and fructification1 appear throughout the pages of my work4 ,,index4 ,a ,,page ,adventures of fungus hunters1 #agh ,advice to fungus collectors1 #agi ,affixing lichens1 #ahi ,agaric placed to catch spores1 #agb ,agaricus cucumis1 #agf ---- melleus1 #age ---- mucidus1 #agg ,agrostis stolonifera1 #adj ,american moth-trap1 #eg ,ammonia for insects1 #ei ,anatomy of molluscs1 #bb ---- of vertebrates1 #ah ,anchomenus sexpunctatus1 #ga ,ants' nests for beetles1 #ia ,apothecia1 #aia ,apparatus for taking insects1 #eg ,arm of man1 #ba ,arrangement of eggs1 #ci ---- of fossils1 #aa1 #ac ---- of plants1 #ace ---- of shells1 #aaf ,arranging grasses1 #adb ---- lichens1 #aia ,artificial beetle-traps1 #hg ,assiminea ,grayana1 #ajh ,attracting insects1 #eg ,b ,beating for beetles1 #hi ---- for larv1 #dg ,beech1 #aba ,beetles1 #fg ---- by post1 #hf ----1 where to find them1 #hf-id ,bentall's drying-paper1 #ada ,best season for lichens1 #ahh ---- trees for insects1 #ea ,birds' eggs1 #bg ---- nests1 #db ,bivalves1 #ajd ,bleaching bones1 #bc ,blooms for attracting insects1 #ec ,blowing eggs1 #cj ,blowpipe for eggs1 #ca ,bog mosses1 #ade ,bombyces1 #de ,bones1 #af ---- of dog1 #ag ,bone-preservers' shops1 #ag ,books on seaweeds1 #aif-g1 #bjh ,boring holes in eggs1 #cc ,bottle for beetles1 #gf ,boulders1 #e ,box for carrying insects1 #ee ,braces for insects1 #fa ,breeding beetles1 #fh-i ,bulb-tube1 #ca ,bulimus acutus1 #ajg ,butterflies and moths1 #dd ---- at rest1 #ej ,butterworts1 #abc ,buying eggs1 #bh ,c ,cabinet for fungi1 #agc ,cabinets for insects1 #ff ---- for plants1 #acf ,cage for virgin lepidoptera1 #eb ,callithamnion floccosum1 #bjh ,campanula glomerata1 #abi ---- rotundifolia1 #acj ---- uniflora1 #acj ,cardboard for mounting beetles1 #gi ,cataloguing of eggs1 #cf ,caution in carrying boxes1 #ig ,ceratodon purpureus1 #aeb ,chemical testing of lichens1 #aid ,chip boxes1 #dh ,chloroform bottle1 #eh ,chorda filum1 #bjd ,chrysalis collecting1 #dh-i ---- preserving1 #di ,classification of mosses1 #aed ,cleaning the inside of eggs1 #cc ---- shells1 #aac ,coal-shale1 #c ,collecting and preserving insects1 #dd ---- birds' eggs abroad1 #cj ---- fungi1 #afj ---- mosses1 #adf ,collecting plants and ferns1 #aag ---- seaweeds1 #aie ',comparative ,anatomy of ,vertebrates'1 #ah ,construction of egg cabinet1 #ch1 #dj ,conovulus1 #ajg ,converts to geology1 #d ,coprinus atramentarius1 #afj ---- domesticus1 #afa ,coprophaga1 where to find1 #ij ,corallina officinalis1 #bje ,cork saddle for insects1 #fa ,corrosive sublimate1 #acc ,cortical stratum of lichens1 #aic ,cotyledons1 #abj ,cure for mould on insects1 #fd ,d ,decomposition of fungi1 #afd ,description of eggs1 #cg ,difficulties in seaweed mounting1 #bjf ,dioecious plants1 #abg ,directions in mounting beetles1 #hb-c ,discoloured beetles1 #hd ,discriminating fungi1 #age ,dissection of beetles1 #he ,distribution of lichens1 #ahb ---- of mosses1 #aef ,dried yolk1 #ce ,drying fungi1 #aff ,drying-paper for grasses1 #ada ,duck's-head hammer1 #g ,dudresnaia coccinea1 #bjd ,e ,economy of lichens1 #ahd ,ectocarpus ,mertensii1 #bjh ,egg collector's note-book1 #ce ---- drills1 #cj ,eggs of moths1 c41 #de ,embryo of plants1 #aai ,english names of plants1 #acd ,entomological pins1 #hc ,equipment of coleopterist1 #ga ---- for fungus hunting1 #afa ---- for gathering plants1 #abh ---- of geologist1 #i ---- of hymenopterist1 #ie ---- for procuring land and freshwater shells1 #ajb ---- for seaweed collecting1 #bjj ,examination of lichen spores1 #aib ---- of mosses1 #adi ,f ,fading of eggs1 #ce ,favourable spots for shells1 #ajh ,fertilization of plants1 #abf ,flowers frequented by hymenoptera1 #if ---- of plants1 #abf ,flowering plants and ferns1 #aag ,fluid for mounting slugs1 #aae ,fore leg of horse1 #ba ,fossil hunting1 #e ---- plants1 #d ,fossils in boulders1 #f ,french chalk for insects1 #fe ,fries' ',fungi'1 #ahj ,fruits of plants1 #abh ,fuci1 #bjc ,fungi1 collecting of1 #agh ,furze1 #abc ,g ,gardiner's ',british ,mosses'1 #aec ,gathering lichens1 #ahg ,gentiana collina1 #acj ,geological cabinets1 #aa ---- enjoyment1 #ad ---- equipment1 #i ---- examination of strata1 #aj ---- hammers1 #g ---- maps1 #aj ---- specimens1 #a ,geology in fields1 #e ,glass-topped boxes1 #ac ,gloiosiphonia1 #bjd ,gonidic stratum of lichens1 #aic ,grasses1 when to select1 #abh ----1 collecting of1 #aci ----1 preserving of1 #adj ,griffithsia corallina1 #bjd ,grossulariace1 #acd ,gum for mounting beetles1 #gi ,gumming down plants1 #acc ,h ,habitats of grasses1 #add ,habits of mole1 #ai ---- of snails1 #aji ,half-hatched eggs1 #cc ,harvey's ',phycologia'1 #aig ,helix caperata1 #ajg ---- virgata1 #ajg ,hepatic1 #ade ,herbaria1 #acb ,herbarium sheets1 #acf ,himanthalia lorea1 #bjf ,holcus mollis1 #adj ,how to get fungus spores1 #aga ,how to prepare skeletons1 #bc ,hybernation of butterflies1 #ej ,hydrobia ventrosa1 #ajh ---- similis1 #ajh ,hymenoptera1 #ie ,hypothecium of lichens1 #aib ,i ,identification of eggs1 #bi ,insect forceps1 #hc ,j ,jania rubens1 #bje ,jungermanniace1 #aed ,k ,kew herbarium1 #acb ,killing hymenoptera1 #ig ---- insects1 #eh-i ---- snails1 #aaa ,l ,labelling eggs1 #cf ---- fossils1 #aa ---- specimens1 #acd ,labels1 #ace ,lactarius turpis1 #agf ,laminaria1 #bjf ,land and freshwater shells1 #ajb ,landsborough's ',british ,seaweeds'1 #aif ,lantern for catching insects1 #ec ,larv on fungi1 #aff ,leathsia tuberiformis1 #bjd ,leaves of plants1 #abe ,lens for examining beetles1 #he ,lepidodendron1 #d ,lepidoptera1 #dd ,lichen flora of ,europe1 #ahe ,lichens1 collecting of1 #aha ,lime 7,tilia ,europoea71 #abj ,liver mosses1 #ade ,localities for fungi1 #afd ---- seaweed gathering1 #bjg ---- obtaining shells1 #ajf-aaj ,london ,catalogue1 #abi ,luck in capturing beetles1 #gj ,lycopods1 #ade ,m ,maceration of specimens1 #bd ,mc,ivor's ',hepatic ,britannic'1 #aec ,mantell's1 ,dr41 ,works1 #c ,marasmius caulicinalis1 #agf ---- foetidus1 #agf ---- impudicus1 #agf ,materials for beetle preserving1 #hj ,medals of creation1 #c ,medullary stratum of lichens1 #aic ,melanogaster ambiguous1 #afe ,melanosperms1 #bjd ,membraneous seaweeds1 #bje ,method of setting out insects1 #fa ,microscopical examination of lichens1 #aic ,microscopical examination of mosses1 #aej ,missing links1 #ab ,mode of securing hymenoptera1 #if ,modelling slugs1 c41 #aad ,monoecious plants1 #abg ,mosses1 #ade ,mosses in bogs1 #aeg ---- in fields1 #aef ---- on heaths1 #aef ---- on rocks1 #aeg ---- on shady banks1 #aeg ---- by streams1 #aeg ---- by trees1 #aeg ---- on walls1 #aef ---- on waste ground1 #aef ---- in woods1 #aeg ,moths at rest1 #ej ,mounting beetles1 #gh ---- mosses1 #aeb ---- plants1 #aca ---- seaweeds1 #bja ,mussel shells1 #ajd ,mussels1 how to prepare1 #aaa ,n ,naccaria ,wigghii1 #bjd ,neglect of lichens1 #ahb ,net for beetle catching1 #gb-gc ---- for sugaring1 #ee ---- for water beetles1 #gd ,o ,obtaining caterpillars1 #df ,odonthalia dentate1 #bjh ,odour of fungi1 #agf ,oil-beetles1 #ha ,olive-coloured seaweeds1 #aii ,osbert ,salvin1 #ci ,osteology1 #af1 #bb ---- of the mammalia1 #ah ,p ,packing eggs1 #ch ---- fungi1 #afc ---- lichens1 #agd ,paddle of whale1 #ba ,padina pavonia1 #bjh ,page's ,introductory ',text-book'1 #c ,paraphyses of lichens1 #aib ,paper for grasses1 #adj ,petrology1 #f ,peristomes of mosses1 #aee ,phallus impudicus1 #afe ,phillips's ',guide to ,geology'1 #c ,physcia parietina1 #aib ,pinning insects1 #fj ,pins for setting hymenoptera1 #ih ,pisidium1 how to prepare1 #aab ,plants for herbarium1 #abe ,platypus hammer1 #g ,poa compressa1 #adj ---- pratensis1 #adj ,poisoning fungi1 #agd ,pollen of plants1 #abg ,polyporus1 #agb ---- igniarius1 #aff ,precaution against grease1 #fe ,preparation of mosses1 #adh ,preparing shells for cabinet1 #aaj ,preservation of fungus spores1 #aga ---- of lichens1 #ahh-ij ---- of mosses1 #aea ,preserving animals1 #bc ---- cocoons1 #di ---- eggs for cabinet1 #bh ---- fresh fungi1 #afe ---- fungi in fluid1 #agj ---- insects' eggs1 #de ---- insects from decay1 #fd ---- slugs1 #aaj ,pressing seaweeds1 #bjf ,pseudo-bombyces1 #de ,public herbaria1 #acb ,q ,quarantine for insects1 #fd ,r ,rare fungi1 #agh ,rearing beetles from larv1 #fh ,re-carding beetles1 #hd ,red seaweeds1 #aih ,removing bodies from shells1 #aab ---- grease from insects1 #fe ,repairing eggs1 #cd ,rhinoceros bones1 #bb ,rhizomes1 #abc ,rhodosperms1 #bjd ,s ,sand pits for beetles1 #hf ,searching for larv1 #df ,season for collecting shells1 #aji ,seaweed gathering1 #bjg ---- press1 #bjg ,seaweeds1 collecting of1 #aie ,section cut through agaricus1 #agj ,seeds of plants1 #abh ,setting bristle1 #fa ---- moths for cabinets1 #fb1 #fc ,setting out hymenoptera1 #ii ,skeleton of mole1 #bj ,skeletons of birds1 #bj ,skull of a crocodile1 #ai ,sliding stages for egg cabinets1 #dj ,snail shells1 #ajd ,solution for killing slugs1 #aad ,specimens showing gills1 c41 of fungi1 #afi ,spermagones1 #aia ,sphinges1 #de ,sterigmata of lichens1 #aic ,study of the larger fungi1 #agg ,stupefying insects1 #ig-h ,subterranean pup1 #di ,sugaring1 #ed ---- drum1 #ef ,sweeping for beetles1 #hi ,sycamore1 #abb ,t ,table for hymenoptera1 #ii ,thallus of lichens1 #aic ,thatch beating1 #eb ,tools for fungus collecting1 #afb ---- for lichen collecting1 #ahf ,tortula muralis1 #adg1 #aej ,trimming hammer1 #g ,triticum repens1 #adj ,u ,umbellifer1 #acd ,umbrella net1 #dg ,use of camphor1 #ff ---- of osteological specimens1 #be ,v ,varieties of species1 #abi ,varnishing eggs1 #ce ,vasculum for lichens1 #ahe ,w ,washing eggs1 #cd ,where to find caterpillars1 #df ,where to find chrysalis1 #di ---- ---- fungi1 #afj ---- ---- lichens1 #ahd ---- ---- mosses1 #adg ---- ---- seaweeds1 #aii ---- to sugar1 #ed ,woody specimens of fungus1 #agb ,london3 ,printed by ,w4 ,h4 ,allen ,co41 #ac1 ,waterloo ,place1 ,s4,w4 ,transcriber's ,note ,illustrations were moved to paragraph breaks4 ,the chapter number 7,,xiv47 for ,seaweeds was added to the title page of that chapter4 ,on page #aee1 ,georgince was changed to ,georgiace4 ,cover image modified from image obtained from ,the ,internet ,archive and placed in the ,public ,domain4