file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #dejcb-;h4htm or #dejcb-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu b_/#dejcb_/pg#dejcb-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#de jcb_/dejcb-;h4zip7 ,images of the original pages are available through ,internet ,archive_/,american ,libraries4 ,see https3_/_/archive4org_/details_/principa lspecies#jjsnowrich ,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 ,text that was in bold face or small capitals was converted to all upper case4 ,the original page numbers are enclosed in square brackets 7example3 p#jbc7 to facilitate the use of the index4 ,illustration3 ,live ,oak 7,quercus virginiana71 ,louisiana4 ,,the ,,principal ,,species ,,of ,,wood3 ,,their ,,characteristic ,,properties4 by ,,charles ,,henry ,,snow1 ,c4,e41 ,sc4,d41 ,dean of the ,school of ,applied ,science1 ,new ,york ,university2 ,member of the ,american ,society of ,civil ,engineers1 etc4 ,,first ,,edition4 ,first ,thousand4 ,new ,york3 ,john ,wiley ,sons4 ,london3 ,chapman ,hall1 ,limited4 #aijc4 ,copyright1 #aijc1 ,by ,charles ,henry ,snow4 ,robert ,drummond1 ,printer1 ,new ,york4 ,,preface4 ,the following is a brief untechnical presentation of general features characterizing economically important species of wood4 ,it is the result of notes originally brought together from many already existing sources and later augmented1 and verified so far as possible for the present use1 by personal observation4 ,the work of preparation has not been as simple as the result would indicate1 and although great care has been taken to check each fact1 errors do no doubt exist1 although it is not believed that there are important ones4 ,engineers while writing upon woods have1 save exceptionally1 emphasized strength beyond most other properties4 ,other works for expert foresters or botanists are of necessity too special1 voluminous1 fragmental1 or technical for the casual student4 ,some popular books on trees1 as distinct from woods1 are available4 ,the present form is distinct from these and is intended for those who are not foresters or botanists1 but who use woods or desire knowledge of their distinguishing properties4 ,allusions to trees1 historical and other references1 aside from those directly regarding woods1 are made for completeness and in order to mark1 distinguish1 or separate the species4 ,acknowledgments are particularly due to the publications of the ,u4 ,s4 ,division of ,forestry1 to ,prof4 ,sargent's studies as set forth in ,vol4 ,,ix of the ,tenth ,u4 ,s4 ,census1 to ,dr4 ,b4 ,e4 ,fernow1 to ,mr4 ,raphael ,g4 ,zon for suggestions and for technical revision1 to the ,northwestern ,lumberman and other trade journals1 to many dealers1 who have been uniform in their courtesy1 and incidentally to ,mr4 ,morris ,k4 ,jesup1 whose magnificent collection of woods at the ,new ,york ,museum of ,natural ,history has been available to the writer as to others4 ,these1 with other sources of information acknowledged by the writer1 and suggested to others1 are suitably arranged in the following list4 ,of the #aee illustrations1 #ach are original1 the drawings having been prepared under the supervision of the writer from actual specimens by ,mr4 ,irving ,t4 ,worthly of ,cornell ,university and several students of ,new ,york ,university1 and the photographs by ,mr4 ,john ,hopfengartner1 ,jr41 of ,westchester1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,other illustrations are1 so far as possible1 acknowledged in place4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,part ,i4 ,,introduction4 ,,page ,section #a4 ,wood4 ,definitions4 ,structure4 ,weights4 ,coefficients4 ,uses4 ,botanical and ,common ,nomenclatures4 ,general ,information1 etc4 #a ,,part ,,ii4 ,,exogenous ,,series4 ,section #b4 ,definitions4 ,cellular ,structure4 ,annual ,rings4 ,medullary or ,pith ,rays4 ,pith ,cavities4 ,sapwood and ,heartwood4 ,cross1 ,radial and ,tangential ,distinctions4 ,quarter ,sawn ,surfaces1 ,common and ,botanical ,subdivisions1 etc4 #g ,,broadleaf ,,or ,,hardwoods4 ,section #c4 ,distribution4 ,distinguishing ,characteristics4 ,general ,information1 etc4 #aj ,,oak 7,quercus74 ,section #d4 ,distribution4 ,historical4 ,structural and ,physical ,properties of ,wood4 ,commercial ,divisions4 ,botanical ,characteristics of ,trees1 etc4 #aa a4 ,white ,oak 7,quercus alba7 #ac b4 ,cow ,oak 7,quercus michauxii7 #ad c4 ,chestnut ,oak 7,quercus prinus7 #ae d4 ,post ,oak 7,quercus minor7 #af e4 ,bur ,oak 7,quercus macrocarpa7 #ag f4 ,white ,oak 7,quercus garryana7 #ah g4 ,red ,oak 7,quercus rubra7 #ai h4 ,pin ,oak 7,quercus palustris7 #bj i4 ,spanish ,oak 7,quercus digitata7 #ba j4 ,black ,oak 7,quercus velutina7 #bb k4 ,live ,oak 7,quercus virens7 #bc l4 ,california ,live ,oak 7,quercus agrifolia7 #bd m4 ,live ,oak 7,quercus chrysolepis7 #be n4 ,english ,oak 7,quercus robur var4 pedunculata7 #bf ,,ash 7,fraxinus74 ,section #e4 ,distribution4 ,historical4 ,general ,properties4 ,commercial ,divisions4 ,botanical ,characteristics of ,trees1 etc4 #bg a4 ,white ,ash 7,fraxinus americana7 #bi b4 ,red ,ash 7,fraxinus pubescens7 #cj c4 ,blue ,ash 7,fraxinus quadrangulata7 #ca d4 ,black ,ash 7,fraxinus nigra7 #cb e4 ,green ,ash 7,fraxinus viridis7 #cc f4 ,oregon ,ash 7,fraxinus oregona7 #cd ,,elm 7,ulmus74 ,section #f4 ,distribution4 ,structural and ,physical ,properties of ,wood4 ,uses4 ,landscape ,value of ,trees1 etc4 #ce a4 ,white ,elm 7,ulmus americana7 #cf b4 ,cork ,elm 7,ulmus racemosa7 #cg c4 ,slippery ,elm1 ,red ,elm 7,ulmus pubescens7 #ch d4 ,wing ,elm 7,ulmus alata7 #ci ,,maple 7,acer74 ,section #g4 ,distribution4 ,structural and ,physical ,properties of ,wood4 ,uses4 ,maple ,sugar4 ,botanical ,characteristics of ,trees1 etc4 #dj a4 ,sugar ,maple1 ,hard ,maple 7,acer saccharum7 #db b4 ,silver ,maple1 ,soft ,maple 7,acer saccharinum7 #dc c4 ,red ,maple1 ,swamp ,maple 7,acer rubrum7 #dd d4 ,oregon ,maple 7,acer macrophyllum7 #de e4 ,boxelder1 ,ash-leaved ,maple 7,acer negundo7 #df ,,walnut 7,juglans74 ,section #h4 ,historical4 ,black ,walnut in ,gun ,stocks4 ,structural and ,physical ,properties of ,woods4 ,burl4 ,white ,walnut4 ,english ,walnut4 ,botanical ,characteristics of ,trees1 etc4 #dg a4 ,black ,walnut 7,juglans nigra7 #di b4 ,white ,walnut1 ,butternut 7,juglans cinerea7 #ej ,,hickory 7,hicoria74 ,section #i4 ,distribution4 ,structural and ,physical ,properties of ,wood4 ,uses4 ,second-growth ,hickory4 ,pecan4 ,botanical ,characteristics of ,trees1 etc4 #ea a4 ,shagbark 7,hicoria ovata7 #eb b4 ,pignut 7,hicoria glabra7 #ec c4 ,mocker ,nut 7,hicoria alba7 #ed d4 ,pecan 7,hicoria pecan7 #ee ,,chestnut2 ,chinquapin 7,castanea74 ,section #aj4 ,distribution4 ,structural and ,physical ,properties of ,wood4 ,uses4 ,famous ,trees4 ,nuts4 ,botanical ,characteristics of ,trees1 etc4 #ef a4 ,chestnut 7,castanea dentata7 #eh b4 ,chinquapin 7,castanea pumila7 #ei ,,beech1 ,,ironwood 7,fagus7 7,carpinus1 ,ostrya1 etc474 ,section #aa4 ,distribution4 ,early ,uses of ,beech4 ,structural and ,physical ,properties of ,woods4 ,uses4 ,enumeration of ,species ,affording ,ironwood4 #fj a4 ,beech 7,fagus atropunicea7 #fb b4 ,ironwood1 ,blue ,beech 7,carpinus caroliniana7 #fc c4 ,ironwood1 ,hop ,hornbeam 7,ostrya virginiana7 #fd ,,sycamore 7,platanus74 ,section #ab4 ,confusion of ,names4 ,historical1 ,structural and ,physical ,properties of ,wood4 ,uses4 ,botanical ,characteristics of ,trees1 etc4 #fe a4 ,sycamore1 ,buttonball 7,platanus occidentalis7 #ff b4 ,california ,sycamore 7,platanus racemosa7 #fg ,,birch 7,betula74 ,section #ac4 ,distribution4 ,history and ,uses of ,bark4 ,structural and ,physical ,properties of ,wood4 ,uses of ,wood4 ,commercial ,divisions of ,wood4 ,botanical ,characteristics of ,trees1 etc4 #fh a4 ,white ,birch 7,betula populifolia7 #gj b4 ,paper ,birch 7,betula papyrifera7 #ga c4 ,red ,birch 7,betula nigra7 #gb d4 ,yellow ,birch 7,betula lutea7 #gc e4 ,sweet1 ,cherry ,birch4 7,betula lenta7 #gd ,,locust2 ,,mesquite 7,robinia1 ,gleditsia1 ,prosopis74 ,section #ad4 ,confusion of ,names4 ,structural and ,physical ,properties of ,wood4 ,uses4 ,structural ,value of ,black ,locust4 ,durability and ,peculiarities of ,mesquite4 ,botanical ,characteristics of ,trees1 etc4 #ge a4 ,black ,locust1 ,yellow ,locust 7,robinia pseudacacia7 #gg b4 ,honey ,locust 7,gleditsia triacanthos7 #gh c4 ,mesquite 7,prosopis juliflora7 #gi ,,whitewood ,,or ,,tulip-,,tree ,,wood2 ,,poplar ,,or ,,cottonwood2 ,,cucumber-,,tree ,,wood2 ,,basswood 7,liriodendron71 7,populus71 7,magnolia71 7,tilia74 ,section #ae4 ,structural ,relations4 ,peculiarities and ,uses of ,wood4 ,confusion of ,names4 ,botanical ,characteristics of ,trees1 etc4 #hj a4 ,whitewood1 ,tulip-tree or ,yellow ,poplar 7,liriodendron tulipifera7 #hb b4 ,poplar1 ,large ,tooth ,aspen 7,populus grandidentata7 #hc c4 ,cottonwood 7,populus deltoides7 #hd d4 ,black ,cottonwood 7,populus trichocarpa7 #he e4 ,cucumber-tree 7,magnolia acuminata7 #hf f4 ,basswood1 ,linden 7,tilia americana7 #hg ,,willow 7,salix74 ,section #af4 ,distribution4 ,historical4 ,properties and ,uses of ,wood4 ,botanical ,characteristics of ,trees1 etc4 #hh a4 ,black ,willow 7,salix nigra7 #hi ,,catalpa 7,catalpa74 ,section #ag4 ,structural ,values4 ,properties of ,woods4 ,botanical ,characteristics of ,trees1 etc4 #ij a4 ,catalpa 7,catalpa speciosa7 #ia b4 ,catalpa 7,catalpa catalpa7 #ib ,,sassafras2 ,,mulberry 7,sassafras71 7,morus74 ,section #ah4 ,historical4 ,properties of ,sassafras ,wood4 ,properties of ,mulberry ,wood4 ,botanical ,characteristics of ,trees1 etc4 #ic a4 ,sassafras 7,sassafras officinale7 #id b4 ,mulberry1 ,red ,mulberry 7,morus rubra7 #ie ,,buckeye2 ,,horse ,,chestnut 7,aesculus74 ,section #ai4 ,structural and ,botanical ,relationship4 ,localities4 ,properties and ,uses of ,wood4 #if a4 ,horse ,chestnut 7,aesculus hippocastanum7 #ig b4 ,ohio ,buckeye 7,aesculus glabra7 #ig c4 ,sweet ,buckeye 7,aesculus octandra7 #ih ,,gum 7,liquidambar1 ,nyssa74 ,section #bj4 ,botanical and ,structural ,relationships4 ,general ,properties and ,uses of ,woods4 ,botanical ,characteristics of ,trees4 #ii a4 ,sweet ,gum 7,liquidambar styraciflua7 #ajj b4 ,sour ,gum 7,nyssa sylvatica7 #aja c4 ,cotton ,gum1 ,tupelo 7,nyssa aquatica7 #ajb ,,holly2 ,,boxwood2 ,,lignumvit 7,ilex71 7,buxus ,cornus71 7,guajacum1 etc474 ,section #ba4 ,structural and ,physical ,properties2 also ,uses of ,holly1 of ,boxwood1 and of ,lignumvit ,woods4 ,sources4 ,substitutes for ,boxwood1 i4e41 ,flowering ,dogwood1 ,mexican ,persimmon and ,rose ,bay4 ,botanical ,characteristics of ,trees1 etc4 #ajc a4 ,holly 7,ilex opaca7 #aje b4 ,dogwood 7,cornus florida7 #ajf c4 ,lignumvit 7,guajacum sanctum7 #ajg ,,laurel 7,magnolia1 ,rhododendron1 ,arbutus1 etc474 ,section #bb4 ,application of ,name ,laurel4 ,structural ,peculiarities and ,uses of ,several ,products4 #ajh a4 ,mountain ,laurel 7,umbellularia californica7 #aji b4 ,madroa 7,arbutus menziesii7 #aaj ,,persimmon2 ,,osage ,,orange2 ,,cherry 7,diospyros71 7,maclura71 7,prunus74 ,section #bc4 ,range4 ,structural ,peculiarities and ,uses of ,persimmon ,wood1 of ,osage ,orange ,wood1 of ,cherry ,wood4 #aaa a4 ,persimmon 7,diospyros virginiana7 #aab b4 ,osage ,orange 7,maclura aurantiaca7 #aac c4 ,cherry 7,prunus serotina7 #aad ,,teak2 ,,greenheart 7,tectona71 7,nectandra74 ,section #bd4 ,asiatic ,teak4 ,african ,teak4 ,structural ,peculiarities and ,uses of ,teak ,wood4 ,structural ,peculiarities and ,uses of ,greenheart #aae a4 ,teak 7,tectona grandis7 #aaf b4 ,greenheart 7,nectandra rodiali7 #aag ,,mahogany 7,swietenia1 ,khaya1 ,soymida1 ,cedrela1 etc474 ,section #be4 ,applications of ,name ,mahogany4 ,sources of ,supply4 ,structural and ,physical ,peculiarities4 ,also ,uses of ,wood1 ,veneers1 ,spanish ,cedar1 ,white ,mahogany #aah a4 ,mahogany 7,swietenia mahagoni7 #abj b4 ,white ,mahogany 7,tabeuia ,donnell-,smithii7 #aba c4 ,spanish ,cedar1 ,mexican ,cedar 7,cedrela odorata7 #abb ,,eucalyptus 7,eucalyptus74 ,section #bf4 ,localities4 ,common ,names4 ,great ,size4 ,rapid ,growth and ,sanitary ,properties of ,trees4 ,structural ,properties of ,jarrah1 ,karri and ,tuart ,woods4 ,botanical ,characteristics of ,trees1 etc4 #abc a4 ,jarrah 7,eucalyptus marginata7 #abe b4 ,karri 7,eucalyptus diversicolor7 #abf c4 ,tuart 7,eucalyptus gomphocephala7 #abg d4 ,blue ,gum1 ,fever ,tree 7,eucalyptus globulus7 #abh ,,needleleaf ,,or ,,soft ,,woods4 ,section #bg4 ,localities4 ,historical4 ,structural and ,physical ,properties4 ,uses4 ,botanical ,characteristics4 ,general ,information #abi ,,pine 7,pinus74 ,section #bh4 ,structural and ,physical ,properties4 ,uses4 ,botanical ,characteristics #acj ,soft ,pine4--,structural and ,physical ,properties4 ,importance4 ,sources of ,supply1 etc4 #aca ,hard ,pine4--,structural and ,physical ,properties4 ,importance4 ,source of ,supply1 etc4 #acb a4 ,white ,pine 7,pinus strobus7 #acd b4 ,white ,pine 7,pinus flexilis7 #ace c4 ,sugar ,pine 7,pinus lambertiana7 #acf d4 ,white ,pine 7,pinus monticola7 #acg e4 ,georgia1 ,hard1 ,yellow or ,longleaf ,pine 7,pinus palustris7 #ach f4 ,cuban ,pine 7,pinus heterophylla7 #aci g4 ,shortleaf ,pine1 ,yellow ,pine 7,pinus echinata7 #adj h4 ,loblolly ,pine 7,pinus tda7 #ada i4 ,bull ,pine1 ,yellow ,pine1 ,western ,pine 7,pinus ponderosa7 #adb j4 ,norway ,pine1 ,red ,pine 7,pinus resinosa7 #adc k4 ,pitch ,pine 7,pinus rigida7 #add l4 ,northern ,pine1 ,scotch ,pine1 ,dantzic ,pine 7,pinus sylvestris7 #ade ,,kauri ,,pine 7,dammara74 ,section #bi4 ,descriptive4 ,structural and ,physical ,characteristics4 ,kauri ,gum1 etc4 #adf a4 ,kauri ,pine 7,dammara australis7 #adg ,,spruce 7,picea74 ,section #cj4 ,localities4 ,structural and ,physical ,peculiarities4 ,commercial ,divisions4 ,botanical ,characteristics #adh a4 ,black ,spruce 7,picea nigra7 #aej b4 ,red ,spruce 7,picea rubens7 #aej c4 ,white ,spruce 7,picea alba7 #aea d4 ,white ,spruce 7,picea engelmanni7 #aeb e4 ,sitka ,spruce 7,picea sitchensis7 #aec ,,douglas ,,spruce 7,pseudotsuga74 ,section #ca4 ,great ,size of ,trees4 ,localities4 ,structural and ,physical ,peculiarities of ,wood4 ,botanical ,characteristics #aed a4 ,douglas or ,red ,spruce or ,fir 7,pseudotsuga taxifolia7 #aee ,,fir 7,abies74 ,section #cb4 ,sources of ,supply4 ,structural and ,physical ,characteristics4 ,confusion of ,names4 ,botanical ,characteristics #aef a4 ,balsam ,fir 7,abies balsamea7 #aeg b4 ,great ,silver ,fir 7,abies grandis7 #aeh c4 ,white ,fir 7,abies concolor7 #aei d4 ,red ,fir 7,abies magnifica7 #afj e4 ,red ,fir4 ,noble ,fir 7,abies nobilis7 #afa ,,hemlock 7,tsuga74 ,section #cc4 ,distribution4 ,structural and ,physical ,peculiarities of ,wood4 ,botanical ,characteristics #afb a4 ,hemlock 7,tsuga canadensis7 #afc b4 ,western ,hemlock 7,tsuga heterophylla7 #afc ,,larch2 ,,tamarack 7,larix74 ,section #cd4 ,historical4 ,sources4 ,structural and ,physical ,peculiarities4 ,botanical ,characteristics #afd a4 ,larch1 ,tamarack 7,larix americana7 #afe b4 ,larch1 ,tamarack 7,larix occidentalis7 #aff ,,cedar 7,cedrus1 ,thuya1 ,chamcyparis1 ,libocedrus1 ,juniperus74 ,section #ce4 ,confusion of ,names4 ,historical4 ,structural and ,physical ,peculiarities of ,wood4 ,uses4 ,commercial ,divisions1 etc4 #afg a4 ,red ,cedar 7,juniperus virginiana7 #afi b4 ,juniper 7,juniperus occidentalis7 #agj c4 ,white ,cedar1 ,arborvit 7,thuya occidentalis7 #aga d4 ,canoe ,cedar1 ,arborvit1 ,giant ,arborvit 7,thuya plicata7 #agb e4 ,white ,cedar 7,chamcyparis thyoides7 #agc f4 ,port ,orford ,cedar1 ,lawson ,cypress 7,chamaecyparis lawsoniana7 #agd g4 ,yellow ,cedar1 ,yellow ,cypress1 ,sitka ,cypress 7,chamcyparis nootkatensis7 #age h4 ,incense ,cedar 7,libocedrus decurrens7 #agf ,,cypress 7,cupressus1 ,taxodium74 ,section #cf4 ,confusion of ,names4 ,sources4 ,historical4 ,structural and ,physical ,peculiarities4 ,commercial ,divisions4 ,fungus ,disease #agg a4 ,cypress1 ,bald ,cypress 7,taxodium distichum7 #agi ,,redwood 7,sequoia74 ,section #cg4 ,locality4 ,peculiarities of ,trees4 ,structural and ,physical ,qualities of ,wood4 ,uses4 ,mammoth ,trees #ahj a4 ,redwood 7,sequoia sempervirens7 #ahb b4 ,giant ,redwood 7,sequoia washingtoniana7 #ahb ,,part ,,iii4 ,,endogenous ,,series4 ,section #ch4 ,definitions4 ,cellular ,structure4 ,structural and ,physical ,peculiarities of ,endogenous ,wood4 ,uses4 ,general ,information #ahc ,,palm 7,,palmace74 ,section #ci4 ,localities4 ,structural and ,physical ,peculiarities of ,wood4 ,uses4 ,botanical4 ,characteristics #ahe a4 ,cabbage ,palmetto 7,sabal palmetto7 #ahf b4 ,washington ,palm 7,washingtonia filifera7 #ahg ,,yucca 7,yucca74 ,section #dj4 ,localities4 ,structural and ,physical ,peculiarities of ,wood4 ,uses1 etc4 #ahh a4 ,joshua ,tree1 ,yucca 7,yucca arborescens7 #ahi ,,bamboo 7,bambus74 ,section #da4 ,botanical ,characteristics4 ,structural and ,physical ,peculiarities of ,wood4 ,growth4 ,uses in the ,orient4 ,possibilities in ,america1 etc4 #aij a4 ,bamboo 7,bambus vulgaris7 #aib ,,list ,,of ,,plates4 ,frontispiece4 ,live ,oak 7,quercus virginiana74 ,plate #b4 ,,exogenous ,,structure ,,in ,,wood--,yearly ,rings or ,layers4 ,plate #c4 ,,exogenous ,,structure ,,in ,,wood--,medullary or ,pith ,ray4 ,plate #d4 ,,exogenous ,,structure ,,in ,,wood--,cross-sections ,enlarged4 ,plate #e4 ,oak 7,quercus alba74 ,plate #f4 ,ash 7,fraxinus americana74 ,plate #g4 ,elm 7,ulmus americana74 ,plate #h4 ,maple 7,acer saccharum74 ,plate #i4 ,walnut 7,juglans74 ,plate #aj4 ,hickory 7,hicoria ovata74 ,plate #aa4 ,chestnut 7,castanea dentata74 ,plate #ab4 ,beech 7,fagus74 ,plate #ac4 ,sycamore 7,platanus occidentalis74 ,plate #ad4 ,birch 7,betula74 ,plate #ae4 ,locust 7,robinia1 ,gleditsia74 ,plate #af4 ,whitewood 7,liriodendron tulipifera74 ,plate #ag4 ,black ,willow 7,salix nigra74 ,plate #ah4 ,catalpa 7,catalpa74 ,plate #ai4 ,sassafras 7,sassafras officinale74 ,plate #bj4 ,horse ,chestnut 7sculus hippocastanum74 ,plate #ba4 ,sweet ,gum 7,liquidambar styraciflua74 ,plate #bb4 ,holly1 ,boxwood1 ,lignumvit 7,ilex71 7,buxus1 ,cornus71 7,guajacum74 ,plate #bc4 ,persimmon1 ,osage ,orange1 ,cherry 7,diospyros71 7,maclura71 7,prunus74 ,plate #bd4 ,teak1 ,greenheart 7,tectona71 7,nectandra74 ,plate #be4 ,mahogany 7,swietenia mahagoni74 ,plate #bf4 ,eucalyptus 7,eucalyptus74 ,plate #bg4 ,pine 7,pinus74 ,plate #bh4 ,kauri ,pine 7,dammara australis74 ,plate #bi4 ,black ,spruce 7,picea nigra74 ,plate #cj4 ,douglas ,spruce 7,pseudotsuga taxifolia74 ,plate #ca4 ,hemlock 7,tsuga74 ,plate #cb4 ,larch1 ,tamarack 7,larix74 ,plate #cc4 ,cedar 7,cedrus1 ,thuya1 etc474 ,plate #cd4 ,cypress 7,cupressus1 ,taxodium74 ,plate #ce4 ,redwood 7,sequoia74 ,plate #cf4 ,,endogenous ,,structure ,,in ,,wood4 ,plate #cg4 ,palm 7,palmace74 ,plate #ch4 ,yucca 7,yucca74 ,plate #ci4 ,bamboo 7,bambus74 ,,bibliography4 ,,names ,,and ,,localities4 ,check ,list of ,forest ,trees of the ,united ,states1 their ,names and ,ranges1 ,sudworth4 7,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,bulletin ,no4 #ag47 ,,features ,,of ,,trees1 ,,botanies4 ,prof4 ,sargent's ,silva of ,north ,america2 ,michaux and ,nuttall's ,north ,american ,silva2 ,apgar's ,trees of ,northern ,united ,states2 ,publications ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,division2 ,our ,native ,trees1 ,keeler2 ,familiar ,trees1 ,mathews2 ,timber ,trees and ,forests of ,north ,carolina1 ,pinchot ,ashe 7,n4 ,c4 ,geological ,survey ,bulletin ,no4 #f72 ,report on ,trees and ,shrubs of ,massachusetts1 ,emerson2 ,manual of ,botany1 ,gray2 ,plants1 ,coulter2 ,illustrated ,flora of ,u4 ,s41 ,britton and ,brown2 etc41 etc4 ,botanical ,gazette2 ,guide to ,trees and ,shrubs of ,new ,england by their ,leaves1 ,bradley ,whidder1 ,boston4 ,,color1 ,,appearance ,,or ,,grain ,,of ,,wood4 ,jesup ,collection at ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,new ,york ,city2 ,hough's ,american ,woods 7sections74 ,,structural ,,qualities ,,and ,,uses ,,of ,,woods4 ,timber1 ,roth 7,bulletin ,no4 #aj1 ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div472 ,vol4 ,,ix1 ,tenth ,u4 ,s4 ,census2 ,prof4 ,sargent's ,catalogue ,jesup ,collections2 ,prof ,j4 ,b4 ,johnson's ,materials of ,construction2 ,prof4 ,thurston's ,materials of ,engineering1 ,part ,i2 ,dr4 ,f4 ,e4 ,kidder's ,inspection of ,materials and ,workmanship4 ,allusions in numerous publications ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,division4 ,,weights ,,and ,,moduli4 ,circular ,no4 #ae1 ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,division2 ,prof4 ,j4 ,b4 ,johnson's ,materials of ,construction2 ,mr4 ,s4 ,p4 ,sharpless' ,tables for the ,u4 ,s4 ,census 7,vol4 ,,ix1 ,tenth ,census2 also ,executive ,document ,no4 #e1 #dhth ,congress1 #ast ,session1 and also ,sargent's ,catalogue ,jesup ,collection72 ,prof4 ,lanza's ,applied ,mechanics4 ,,american ,,species4 ,see foot-notes to species in question4 ,,foreign ,,species4 ,thos4 ,lazlett's ,timber and ,timber ,trees2 ,report on ,forests of ,western ,australia by ,j4 ,ednie ,brown2 ,catalogue ,kew ,botanical ,gardens1 ,london2 ,works ,baron ,ferd4 von ,mueller2 ,american ,lumber in ,foreign ,markets 7,special ,consular ,reports1 ,vol4 ,,xi1 ,u4 ,s4 ,state ,dept472 ,stevenson's ,trees of ,commerce2 also see foot-notes1 species in question4 ,,general4 ,forestry for ,farmers1 ,fernow1 and other ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,division ,publications1 ,vol4 ,,ix1 ,tenth ,u4 ,s4 ,census2 ,hough's ,american ,woods 7text72 ,the ,forester2 ,the ,northwestern ,lumberman2 ,the 7,new ,orleans7 ,lumber ,trade ,journal2 ,the ,new ,york ,lumber ,trade ,journal2 ,the ,timber ,trades ,journal 7,london72 ,lumber ,trade of ,u4 ,s4 7,bureau ,statistics ,u4 ,s4 ,treas4 ,dept472 ,trees in ,winter1 ,huntington4 ,,historical4 ,brockhaus1 ,konversations-,lexikon2 ,pliny1 etc4 ,,medicinal ,,properties4 ,u4 ,s4 ,dispensatory4 ,books particularly useful to beginners are in italics4 ,names are repeated when books could not be particularly classed under one heading4 ,also see foot-notes under subjects in questions4 ,,the ,,principal ,,species ,,of ,,wood4 ,,introduction4 ,a tree has been defined as a woody plant that produces naturally and in its native place one principal erect stem with a definite crown of foliage4 ,a plant thus attaining to the dignity of a tree is said to be arborescent4#a ,there are nearly five hundred distinct species of trees growing in the ,united ,states1#b as well as many others peculiar to other countries1 yet the great mass of wood everywhere utilized is derived from comparatively few of them4#c ,many woods will be more generally employed as their valuable properties become more familiar or as the supplies of wood now utilized continue to diminish4 ,the same tree is often called by different common names in different places4 ,nearly thirty names are thus applied to the longleaf pine 7,pinus palustris74 ,such confusion can be avoided only by regarding the recognized botanical nomenclature4 ,the botanical name of a plant consists of two principal terms denoting genus and species4 ,quercus1 for example1 is p#jjb the generic name including all species of oak4 ,alba1 rubra1 and others are specific names denoting the said species4 ,quercus alba and ,quercus rubra are completed terms4 ,genera are not fixed but differ with authorities1 so that the abbreviated name of the botanist responsible for the classification adopted is often added1 as ,quercus alba ,linn4 and ,ulmus fulva ,michx4 ,a species is a collection of individuals that might well have sprung from some single root4 ,a genus is a collection of related species4 ,genera are gathered into families4 ,families and genera differ with authorities4 ,a variety includes individuals differing slightly from accepted species4 ,its name when existing is part of the specific name4 ,quercus robur var4 pedunculata specifies a variety 7pedunculata7 of red or strong 7robur7 oak 7,quercus74 ,a variety of one botanist is sometimes a distinct species of another4 ,the size and character of the trunk1 and the range1 locality1 or distribution of the tree1 have much to do with the utility of the wood1 since large or perfect timbers cannot be derived from species characterized by small or crooked trees1 and since wood is always more used if it is widely distributed so as to be easily available4#d ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,some ,,wood ,,elements4 ,wood is made up of cell-structures2 as1 the true fibre1 which originates from several cells2 the tracheid 7tra-ke-id71 which originates from one2 the vessel1 which is a short1 wide tube joined vertically end to end with others of its kind2 the pith-ray2 the resin-duct1 and others1--all of which are often popularly referred to as fibres4 p#jjc ,the character and the arrangement of cell-structures differ with species4 ,wood is hard1 soft1 light1 heavy1 tough1 porous1 elastic1 or otherwise1 because of these differences4 ,appearance is affected1 and woods may be distinguished from one another1 because of this fact4#e ,most wood is used in construction1 that is1 in mines1 railways1 houses1 and ships1 where demand is for size or quantity1 and where finish and appearance amount to but little4 ,much wood is used in decoration and furniture1 where appearance1 appropriateness1 and finish are called for2 but these woods1 although much in evidence1 are infinitely less in quantity than those employed in construction4 ,some wood is required for implements1 turnery1 carvings1 and small-piece work1 where size is secondary and where qualities such as hardness1 fine grain1 and uniformity1 controllable in small pieces1 are primary4 ,some wood is used indirectly1 as in the manufacture of paper-pulp1 gunpowder1 and chemicals4 ,there are also by-products of trees1 such as tanbark1 turpentine1 resin1 nuts1 and sugar4 ,the weight1 strength1 and other measurable properties of wood are variable4 ,weight varies from day to day as water is absorbed and evaporated4 ,strength differs with grain1 age1 moisture1 specific gravity1 and many other things4 ,two pieces from different portions of the same tree differ from each other4 ,the proportions of sap and heart wood are seldom constant4 ,results from small specimens may differ from those obtained from larger ones4#f ,the botanical accuracy of a specimen is not always certain1 therefore figures relating to the physical properties of wood should be employed with greater caution than those relating to the more homogeneous metals4 ,many of the experiments conducted to establish statements regarding the physical properties of wood have been defective p#jjd in that while the conclusions were correct as applied to the specimens immediately studied1 such specimens did not stand for the species at large4 ,the recognition of difficulties1 the selection of specimens1 the scientific standardizing of methods so that results could be generally utilized1 as distinct from the simple manipulation of specimens in testing-machines1 have not been exhaustively attempted until recently4#g ,the experiments that have been made to determine the strength of woods may be grouped into the four following divisions3 7#a7 ,experiments conducted by the ,u4 ,s4 ,division of ,forestry 7,dr4 ,b4 ,e4 ,fernow1 ,chief71 under the direction of ,professor ,j4 ,b4 ,johnson4 ,about forty thousand tests were made1 distributed over thirty-one ,american species1 the results1 so far as obtained1 being undoubtedly the most valuable in existence4 ,the detail considered and methods evolved have in a way reclassed the testing of woods and must influence all future efforts1 but results are disappointing in that they have been obtained for so few species1 and some of these of commercially secondary importance4 ,these experiments are characterized as follows3 ,completeness and ,reliability of ,records4 ,large and ,small ,test ,pieces4 ,moisture ,conditions ,standardized at #ab ,dry ,weight4 ,samples from ,representative ,portions of ,tree4 ,selection of ,representative ,trees4 ,uniformity of ,methods4 ,large ,number of ,individual and ,total ,tests4 ,small ,number of ,species ,covered4 ,specific ,gravity ,determinations4 ,soil and ,forest ,conditions ,indicated4 ,botanical ,accuracy ,assured4 ,these experiments are originally described in ,circular ,no4 #ae and other publications of the ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,division1 also in ,materials of ,construction1 by ,professor ,j4 ,b4 ,johnson4 7#b7 ,experiments conducted for the ,tenth ,u4 ,s4 ,census by ,mr4 ,j4 ,p4 ,sharpless at the ,watertown 7,mass47 ,arsenal upon specimens botanically selected by ,professor ,sargent4 ,these experiments are less complete in detail1 and averages are based upon infinitely p#jje fewer tests for each species4 ,so far as known most specimens were from butts4 ,nothing is known of moisture conditions save that specimens were carefully seasoned4 ,tests were upon about twelve hundred specimens divided over four hundred and twelve species1 allowing but a small number for each4 ,the series is most valuable in that the species attempted were so numerous as to present an almost complete ,american series2 in that the botanical identity of the specimens was beyond question1 and because it gives a general idea of relative values4 ,the results are frequently quoted and appear on the accompanying pages in spaces immediately following those occupied by1 or set apart for1 ,forestry figures or their alternates4 ,the tests are characterized as follows3 ,botanical ,accuracy ,assured4 ,specific ,gravity ,determinations4 ,uniformity of ,methods4 ,limited ,number of ,individuals and ,total ,tests4 ,large ,number of ,species ,covered4 ,small ,test ,pieces ,only4 ,selection and ,moisture ,conditions ,indefinite4 ,they are originally described in ,vol4 ,,ix1 ,tenth ,u4 ,s4 ,census2 ,executive ,document ,no4 #e1 ,forty-eighth ,congress1 ,first ,session2 in ,catalogue of the ,jesup ,collection1 by ,professor ,c4 ,s4 ,sargent1 and elsewhere4 7#c7 ,experiments conducted upon full-sized pieces4 ,the most reliable investigations under this head were either conducted by ,professor ,lanza1 of the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology1 or else are noted by him in his work1 ,applied ,mechanics 7ed4 #ahie1 pp4 #fgc-gaa74 ,they are valuable in that specimens were selected on a commercial rather than on a scientific basis4 ,professor ,lanza claims that such actual pieces are less perfect and show approximately one half the unit strength developed by the more carefully selected smaller specimens4 ,these experiments are characterized as follows3 ,life-sized ,specimens4 ,miscellaneous ,selections as if for ,practical ,construction4 ,moisture and ,other ,data ,indefinite4 7#d7 ,all other experiments4 ,many experiments have been made from time to time which1 while valuable1 are not distinguished by any particular method or principle1 such as separate the investigations noted in the preceding articles4 ,data as to selection of specimens1 moisture1 and other conditions are either incomplete or else absolutely lacking4 ,such tests are referred to as are noted in works of ,hatfield1 ,trautwein1 ,lazlett1 ,rankine1 ,thurston1 and others4 ,some of these series are exceedingly valuable comparatively4 ,professor ,rankine and ,mr4 ,lazlett experimented principally upon foreign woods4 p#jjf ,the figures established by the ,united ,states ,division of ,forestry and alluded to in item #a1 page #d1 appear1 so far as they exist1 upon the following pages4 ,where they do not exist1 the leading spaces set apart for them are left vacant for other insertions as preferred4 ,all coefficients are in pounds per square inch4 ,fractions of pounds in weight and lower figures in coefficients have been omitted as superfluous4 ,it is not always easy to determine the species of living trees1 because forms in the forest differ from those in the open1 because bark varies with age1 and because fruit and leaves of many trees are lacking in the winter4 ,it is easier to tell genus than species--that a tree is an oak1 than whether it is a red or a pin oak4 ,experience is required in this connection4 ,trees are divided into two general divisions known as ,exogens and ,endogens4#h p#jjg ,,footnotes ,footnote #a3 ,fernow1 ,introduction to ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,bul4 ,no4 #ag4 ,footnote #b3 ,dr4 ,fernow credits #die trees to ,united ,states 7,introduction to ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,bul4 ,no4 #ag72 ,prof4 ,sargent1 counting species only and excluding varieties1 gives #dbb 7,silva of ,north ,america74 ,footnote #c3 ,the principal timbers of commerce in the ,united ,states are the species known popularly as pine1 fir1 oak1 hickory1 hemlock1 ash1 poplar1 maple1 cypress1 spruce1 cedar1 and walnut4 7,the ,lumber ,trade of the ,united ,states1 ,treas4 ,dept41 ,bureau of ,statistics47 ,footnote #d3 ,fossils show that many species covered wider ranges than at present4 ,footnote #e3 ,roth1 ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,bul4 ,no4 #aj1 pp4 #fd-ga4 ,also von ,schrenk1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agriculture1 ,bureau ,plant ,industry ,bul4 ,no4 #ad1 pp4 #ab-af4 ,footnote #f3 ,only because imperfections are more likely in larger pieces4 ,large and small pieces of equally perfect wood are equally strong4 7,see ,publications ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div4 and ,j4 ,b4 ,johnson's ,materials of ,construction1 p4 #dfb47 ,footnote #g3 ,it should be noted that the selection and preparation of specimens require the exercise of more judgment than the simple testing of specimens1 if the conclusions are to be such that they can be generalized from4 ,footnote #h3 ,this division coincides with that by which they are separated into ,dicotyledons and ,monocotyledons4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #b4 ,,exogenous ,,structure ,,in ,,wood4 ,,yearly ,,rings ,,or ,,layers4 ,a section of a ,longleaf ,pine ,tree4 ,a section of ,oak showing porous structure in yearly layers4 7,natural size47 ,a section of ,hard ,pine showing solid structure in layers4 7,natural size47 ,,exogenous ,,trees4 7,dicotyledons47 ,exogenous trees are those the trunks of which are built up by rings or layers1 each deposited consecutively upon the outside of the others4 ,a section exhibits first a central point or canal known as a pith-cavity1 next and consecutively the annual layers1 and finally the bark4 ,the woods of this series are familiar to all4 ,the oaks1 pines1 and practically all of the merchantable lumbers are among them4 ,the forests are widely distributed1 and the species are so numerous as to present an almost infinite range of possibilities4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,section ,,boxelder1 ,,showing ,,pith-,,cavity ,,at ,,centre4 ,the young wood of exogenous trees is porous4 ,it permits the passage of sap and is known as sapwood 7,alburnum74 ,as a layer is enclosed by others and retreats from the surface of the tree1 it becomes denser1 its canals are filled with gums or tannin1 color changes1 and the result is heartwood 7,duramen74 ,this change goes forward rapidly in some trees1 such as locusts1 so that their sections appear to be almost wholly heartwood2 other species require longer time1 and sapwood then predominates4 ,heartwood gives stability to the tree1 but is not needed in its physiological processes4 ,it is tougher1 heavier1 stronger1 and more valued in construction4 ,sapwood is vitally essential to the life of the tree1 but is lighter1 weaker1 less durable1 and less valued in construction4 ,sapwood is pliable1 and the sapwoods of several trees are valued for this reason4 ,wood-making varies as it takes place in the springtime and in the summer4 ,consequent differences in the densities p#jjh of the deposits serve to mark the limits of the yearly rings4 ,some species1 as the oaks and hickories1 show pores throughout their spring woods which thus contrast with denser summer growths4 ,others1 as ,southern pines1 change sharply1 and their spring and summer growths appear as solid bands4 ,in even climates1 where seasons are not pronounced1 growth is more regular and layers correspondingly less definite4#i ,the cellular structure of wood is principally vertical1 a fact that explains the ease with which wood is split up and down4 ,beside the vertical1 there are horizontal cells1 that cross the tree1 strengthen and bind the vertical cells1 and assist in the life-processes of the tree4 ,these horizontal cells form what are known as medullary or pith-rays and appear as simple lines or glistening plates according to the way in which the wood is cut4 ,woods differ in the size and number of these rays1 which are by no means always visible to the eye 7see plate #c74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,woods are easy or difficult to work in proportion as their fibres are arranged in a simple or a complicated manner4 ,this is shown in the figures on plate #d4 ,a knife pressed upon the oak must crush or cut into the fibres themselves1 whereas with the pine it finds some natural passage between the cells4 ,wood may be cut so as to develop cross-sections 7,c1 ,fig4 #c71 radial sections 7,r71 or tangential sections 7,t74 ,the respective p#jji markings are in a general way indicated on the boards in the figure4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #c4 ,,exogenous ,,structure ,,in ,,wood4 ,,medullary ,,or ,,pith ,,ray4 ,actual appearances of pith ray1 ,,pp4 ,microscopic enlargement of a tangential section of ,white ,oak showing large pith ray1 pp4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #d4 ,,exogenous ,,structure ,,in ,,wood4 7,,cross-,,sections1 ,,enlarged47 ,two yearly layers of ,white ,oak4 ,the larger pores were formed in spring1 the smaller ones in summer4 ,the small circles are ends of fibres4 ,a knife pressed upon this surface would crush or cut into the cells4 ,the mass would not split or separate evenly4 ,two yearly layers of ,white ,pine4 ,the space in the outer or darker one is a resin-duct2 the circles are ends of fibres 7tracheids72 pith rays are noticeable4 ,a knife pressed upon this surface would find easy passage4 ,the mass would separate easily4 ,logs are sometimes sawn into quarters and then into pieces crossing and exposing the yearly rings4 7,see ,fig4 #d47 ,these quarter-sawn surfaces are structurally stronger and better1 but are1 by reason of waste or small pieces1 more costly than others4 ,the pith-rays of some woods1 such as oaks1 are very prominent when split as they are in quarter-sawing1 and the appearance of such woods is consequently improved4#aj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,exogenous trees are divided into broad-leaved trees and needle-leaved conifers4 ,the broad1 flat leaves of trees such as oaks and chestnuts gave rise to the former term1 while the narrow resinous leaves of the pine and hemlock gave rise to the latter4 ,the woods of the former group are usually referred to as hard woods1 although some of them are very soft2 those of the latter group are referred to as soft woods1 although some of them are very hard4 ,most1 but not all1 of the broadleaf trees are deciduous1 that is1 they change their foliage every year2 and most1 but not all1 of the needleleaf trees are evergreen1 that is1 the foliage is persistent4 ,needleleaf trees are also known as conifers1 that is1 cone-bearers4 ,it is usual to associate the terms broadleaf1 deciduous1 and hard wood2 and likewise the terms needleleaf1 conifer1 evergreen1 and soft wood4 ,while generally correct1 this is1 as seen1 not always so4 ,a better division is into broadleaf trees or woods1 and needleleaf conifers4 p#jaj ,,broadleaf ,,woods4 ,the trees affording these woods are found in natural forests and under cultivation in nearly every portion of the globe4 ,the histories of some of them extend back to very remote periods4 ,their woods were the principal ones in construction until the advent of ,american soft woods4 ,the oaks1 elms1 maples1 and other so-called hard woods are of this group4 ,broadleaf woods are characterized by complex fibre conditions1 absence of resins1 and greater weights4#aa ,they are composed of several kinds of cells and fibres1 arranged without the regularity so noticeable in the conifers4 ,cross-sections exhibit numerous1 often easily visible pores1 arranged in zones or scattered throughout the rings 7see plate #b74 ,pith-rays are numerous and more or less conspicuous1 save in softer hard woods such as poplar4 ,woods are difficult to work in proportion as they are complicated in structure4 ,the numerous members of the group vary from one another and present an extensive range of properties4 ,trees do not usually afford large pieces4 ,woods for cabinet work1 implements1 and other fine purposes are from this group4 ,the total requirement is less than for needleleaf woods4 ,the leaves of broadleaf trees are easily distinguished from the resinous1 usually evergreen ones of the conifers4 ,most of them are deciduous1 that is1 shed every season1 although some are persistent1 that is1 evergreen4 ,broadleaf1 deciduous1 and hardwood trees are the same4 p#jaa ,,footnotes ,footnote #i3 ,circular ,no4 #af1 ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,division4 ,footnote #aj3 ,some woods1 as birdseye maple1 are well developed by the rotary cut4 ,a revolving log is advanced against a tool which pares a broad thin ribbon suitable for veneered work4 ,footnote #aa3 ,neither resin-ducts nor resin exists in these woods1 save sometimes in buds and leaves4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #e4 ,,white ,,oak 7,quercus alba74 ,,oak4 7,quercus47 ,the oaks are found on all of the continents of the northern hemisphere1 as well as at high altitudes just south of the equator4 ,their woods stand pre-eminent among those of the broadleaf series and have been highly prized from early periods4 ,formerly relied upon for all purposes of house and naval architecture1 they did not give way to the so-called soft woods for houses1 and to iron for vessels1 until comparatively recent periods4 ,they were supplanted for the former purposes upon the opening of the soft-wood forests of ,north ,america and of the ,baltic1 and for vessels subsequent to the conclusions of the ,american ,civil ,war4 ,the historical importance of oak is founded upon the reputation of the ,english ,oak as derived from two trees1 ,quercus robur var4 pedunculata and ,quercus robur var4 sessiliflora1 usually taken as sub-species of ,quercus robur4#ab ,it is said that these trees once formed large forests over ,northern and ,central ,europe4 ,live-oak has always been highly esteemed1 but is now very scarce4 ,it is one of the hardest1 heaviest1 and most durable of constructive woods and was once largely employed in ship-building4 ,the wood of the ,white ,oak 7,quercus alba7 is at present preferred for most purposes for which oak is now employed1 and is one of the most valuable of the ,american hard woods4 ,oak is tough1 durable1 easily obtained1 liable to warp and check in seasoning1 often hard to nail without splitting1 susceptible of high polish1 and not greatly liable to attack by insects4 ,it contains gallic acid1 causing peculiar taste and odor and attacking iron1 the solutions staining the wood4 ,experiments#ac indicate that iron fastenings are shortly protected by an insoluble scale of resulting salt1 and that the wood1 although p#jab darkened1 remains practically uninjured4 ,the later oaken vessels were iron-fastened1#ad and cabinet-makers now employ that metal in joining oak4 ,the barks of all species are also so charged with acid as to be used in the tanning of leather4 ,the several kinds of oak are commercially divisible into three general groups1 white oak1 red or black oak1 and live oak4#ae ,the principal species affording woods under each head are as follows3 ,white ,oak4 ,white ,oak 7,q4 alba74 ,cow ,oak 7,q4 michauxii74 ,chestnut ,oak 7,q4 prinus74 ,post ,oak 7,q4 minor74 ,bur ,oak 7,q4 macrocarpa74 ,pacific ,post ,oak 7,q4 garryanna74 ,red or ,black ,oak4 ,red ,oak 7,q4 rubra74 ,pin ,oak 7,q4 palustris74 ,spanish ,oak 7,q4 digitata74 ,yellow or ,black ,oak 7,q4 velutina74 ,live ,oak4 ,live ,oak 7,q4 virginiana74 ,california ,live ,oak 7,q4 agrifolia74 ,live ,oak 7,q4 chrysolepis7 ,illustration3 ,,white ,,oak 7,quercus alba74 ,illustration3 ,,red ,,oak 7,quercus rubra74 ,oak trees are characterized by oblong1 thin-shelled kernels1 protruding from hard scaly cups and called acorns4 ,the foliage is sometimes deciduous and sometimes evergreen4 ,most oaks require many years to reach maturity1 but are then long-lived4 ,fifty of the nearly three hundred known species of oak are natives of the ,united ,states and ,canada2 all but four become trees under favorable conditions4 ,quercus is from two ,celtic words1 quer1 signifying fine1 and cuex1 a tree4 p#jac ,illustration3 ,,live ,,oak 7,quercus virginiana74 ,,footnotes ,footnote #ab3 ,thought by some botanists to be distinct species1 namely1 ,quercus pedunculata and ,quercus sessiliflora4 ,footnote #ac3 ,havemeyer ,chemical ,laboratory1 ,n4 ,y4 ,university4 ,footnote #ad3 ,communication4 ,mr4 ,chas4 ,h4 ,cramp1 ,president ,cramp ,ship-building ,co41 ,philadelphia4 ,footnote #ae3 ,this division is also a botanical one based not only on differences in anatomical structure of the wood itself1 but on the time required by fruit in attaining maturity1 and on persistence of foliage 7evergreen or deciduous71 etc4 ,,white ,,oak4 ,quercus alba ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 ,white ,oak 7general74 ,stave ,oak 7,ark474 ,locality4 ,widespread1 north-central and eastern ,united ,states4 ,features of ,tree4 ,seventy-five to one hundred feet in height4 ,three to six feet in diameter1 fine shape and appearance4 ,grayish-white bark4 ,comparatively sweet ovoid oblong acorns in rough shallow cups4 ,rounded lobes or projections to leaves4 ,color1 ,grain1 or ,appearance of ,wood4 ,heartwood brown with sapwood lighter4 ,annual layers well marked4 ,medullary rays broad and prominent4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,tough1 strong1 heavy1 hard1 liable to check unless seasoned with care4 ,durable in contact with the soil4 ,receives a high polish4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,ship-building1 construction1 cooperage1 cabinet-making1 railway ties1 fuel1 etc4 ,bark is rich in tannin4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ej 7,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#af #df4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #b1jij1jjj 7average of #bah tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#af #a1chj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ac1ajj 7average of #bah tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#af #ab1hjj4 ,remarks4 ,a tree of the first economic importance4 ,the most widely employed of all ,american oaks4 ,name refers to appearance of bark4 ,the supply diminishing because of value of timber1 also the sweetness of nuts cause them to be eaten by animals4 p#jad ,,footnote ,footnote #af3 ,see page #f4 ,,cow ,,oak4 ,quercus michauxii ,nutt4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,cow ,oak 7local and common name74 ,basket ,oak 7,ala41 ,miss41 ,la41 ,tex41 ,ark474 ,swamp ,white ,oak 7,del41 ,ala474 ,swamp ,chestnut ,oak 7,fla474 ,locality4 ,southeastern ,united ,states1 ,delaware and ,florida1 westward along ,gulf to ,texas4 ,also southern ,indiana and ,illinois to ,gulf4 ,best on rich bottoms in ,arkansas and ,louisiana4 ,features of ,tree4 ,seventy-five to one hundred feet in height4 ,three to six feet in diameter1 rough1 light-gray bark with loose scaly ridges4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light brown1 light buff sapwood1 conspicuous medullary rays1 close-grained4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,hard1 heavy1 very strong1 tough1 durable1 easily split4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,construction1 agricultural implements1 wheel stock4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #df 7,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#ag #ej4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1faj1jjj 7average of #bef tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#ag #a1cgj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aa1ejj 7average of #bef tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#ag #ae1hjj4 ,remarks4 ,the principal white oak of ,southern ,states2 edible acorns devoured by cattle1 whence its name4 p#jae ,,footnote ,footnote #ag3 ,see page #f4 ,,chestnut ,,oak4 ,quercus prinus ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,chestnut ,oak 7local and common name74 ,rock ,oak 7,n4 ,y41 ,del41 ,pa474 ,rock ,chestnut ,oak 7,mass41 ,r4 ,i41 ,pa41 ,del41 ,ala474 ,tanbark ,oak 7,n4 ,c474 ,swamp ,chestnut ,oak 7,n4 ,c74 ,mountain ,oak 7,ala474 ,locality4 ,maine to ,georgia1 westward intermittently to ,kentucky and ,alabama4 ,best development in southern ,alleghany ,mountain region4 ,features of ,tree4 ,seventy-five to eighty feet in height1 three or four feet in diameter4 ,leaves resemble those of chestnut4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood dark brown1 sapwood lighter1 close-grained1 medullary rays conspicuous4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 tough1 hard1 strong1 and durable in contact with soil4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,largely used for railway ties4 ,bark rich in tannin4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #df4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1ghj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ad1fjj4 ,remarks4 ,prinus is a ,greek name applied to a species of oak4 p#jaf ,,post ,,oak4 ,quercus minor ,sargent1 ,quercus obtusiloba ,michx4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,post ,oak 7local and common name74 ,iron ,oak 7,del41 ,miss41 ,neb474 ,box ,white ,oak 7,r4 ,i474 ,chne toil 7,quebec74 ,overcup ,oak 7,fla474 ,white ,oak 7,ky41 ,ind474 ,box ,oak 7,md474 ,brash ,oak 7,md474 ,locality4 ,east of ,rocky ,mountains--,massachusetts to northern ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,nebraska and ,gulf ,states4 ,features of ,tree4 ,fifty to seventy feet in height1 two to three feet in diameter4 ,low shrub in ,florida4 ,blunt lobes or projections to leaves4 ,leaves clustered at ends of branches4 ,fine tree with rounded top4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light or dark brown with lighter sapwood4 ,close-grained1 annual rings well marked4 ,numerous and conspicuous medullary rays4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 hard1 strong1 checks badly in drying4 ,durable in contact with soil4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,largely used1 particularly in ,southwest1 for fencing1 railway ties1 and fuel2 also for cooperage1 construction1 etc4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ej 7,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#ah #eb4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #b1jcj1jjj 7average of #di tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#ah #a1ahj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ab1cjj 7average of #di tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#ah #ab1ijj4 ,remarks4 ,most common and widely distributed oak in ,gulf ,states west of the ,mississippi ,river4 ,obtusiloba1 the ,latin for blunt-lobed1 refers to the shapes of the leaves4 ,wood seldom commercially distinguished from white oak4 p#jag ,,footnote ,footnote #ah3 ,see page #f4 ,,bur ,,oak4 ,quercus macrocarpa ,michx4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,bur ,oak 7local and common name74 ,overcup ,oak 7,r4 ,i41 ,del41 ,pa41 ,miss41 ,la41 ,ill41 ,minn474 ,mossycup ,white ,oak 7,minn474 ,mossycup ,oak 7,mass41 ,pa41 ,del41 ,miss41 ,la41 ,tex41 ,ark41 ,ill41 ,iowa1 ,neb41 ,kan474 ,scrub ,oak 7,neb41 ,minn474 ,overcup ,white ,oak 7,vt474 ,locality4 ,new ,brunswick1 ,new ,england1 westward intermittently to ,montana and ,texas4 ,features of ,tree4 ,seventy to one hundred and thirty feet in height1 five to seven feet in diameter4 ,deep opposite depressions to leaves4 ,mossy1 fringed border at top of acorn-cup4 ,corky wings on young branches4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood rich brown1 sapwood lighter1 close-grained1 broad conspicuous medullary rays4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 hard1 strong1 tough1 very durable in contact with ground4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,similar to those of ,quercus alba4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #df4jj4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1cbj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ac1ijj4 ,remarks4 ,extends farthest west and northwest of any other ,eastern oak4 ,especially recommended for prairie planting4 p#jah ,,white ,,oak4 ,quercus garryana ,douglas4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,white ,oak 7,cal41 ,oreg474 ,pacific ,post ,oak 7,oreg474 ,western ,white ,oak 7,oreg474 ,oregon ,white ,oak 7,cal474 ,california ,post ,oak4 ,locality4 ,pacific coast1 ,british ,columbia into ,california4 ,features of ,tree4 ,sixty to ninety feet high1 one and one half to two and one half feet in diameter4 ,a small shrub at high elevations4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light brown or yellow4 ,sapwood lighter1 often nearly white4 ,compact structure4 ,distinctly marked annual rings4 ,medullary rays often conspicuous4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 strong1 hard1 tough4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,ship-building1 carriages1 furniture1 indoor decoration1 fuel4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #df4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1aej1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ab1djj4 ,remarks4 ,locally important4 ,the best substitute for ,eastern ,white ,oak produced on ,pacific coast4 p#jai ,,red ,,oak4 ,quercus rubra ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,red ,oak 7local and common name74 ,black ,oak 7,vt41 ,conn41 ,n4 ,y41 ,wis41 ,ia41 ,neb41 ,so4 ,dak41 ,ont474 ,spanish ,oak 7,pa41 ,n4 ,c474 ,locality4 ,east of ,rocky ,mountains1 ,nova ,scotia to ,georgia1 westward intermittently to ,nebraska and ,kansas1 best in ,massachusetts4 ,features of ,tree4 ,ninety to one hundred feet in height4 ,three to six feet and over in diameter1 brownish-gray bark smooth on branches4 ,leaves have sharp-pointed lobes1 very large acorns in flat shallow cups4 ,a fine complete tree4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light brown or red1 sapwood darker1 coarse-grained1 well-marked annual rings1 medullary rays few but broad4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 hard1 strong1 inclined to check in drying1 acid1 inferior to white oak4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,works of secondary importance1 clapboards1 cooperage1 fuel4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #de 7,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#ai #dj4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1igj1jjj 7average of #eg tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#ai #a1fjj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aa1djj 7average of #eg tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#ai #adj1jjj4 ,remarks4 ,grows more rapidly than other oaks4 ,bark used in tanning4 p#jbj ,,footnote ,footnote #ai3 ,see page #f4 ,,pin ,,oak4 ,quercus palustris ,muenchh4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,pin ,oak 7local and common name74 ,swamp ,spanish ,oak 7,ark41 ,kan474 ,water ,oak 7,r4 ,i41 ,ill474 ,swamp ,oak 7,pa41 ,ohio1 ,kans474 ,water ,spanish ,oak 7,ark474 ,locality4 ,minnesota to ,kansas1 eastward intermittently to ,massachusetts and ,virginia4 ,features of ,tree4 ,fifty to eighty feet in height1 two to four feet in diameter4 ,full-rounded or pyramidal top1 smooth thin bark1 numerous small pin-like branches4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood variegated light brown1 sapwood nearly white1 coarse-grained1 medullary rays numerous and conspicuous4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 hard1 strong1 checks badly in seasoning4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,shingles1 clapboards1 construction1 interior finish1 cooperage4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #dc4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1ejj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ae1djj4 ,remarks4 ,palustris1 the ,latin for swampy1 refers to favorite location of tree4 ,the numerous slender secondary branches suggesting pins cause tree to be easily recognized1 particularly in winter4 p#jba ,,spanish ,,oak4 ,quercus digitata ,sudworth1 ,quercus falcata ,michx4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,spanish ,oak 7local and common name74 ,red ,oak 7,n4 ,c41 ,va41 ,ga41 ,fla41 ,ala41 ,miss41 ,la41 ,ind474 ,spanish ,oak 7,la474 ,locality4 ,new ,jersey and ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,illinois and ,texas4 ,features of ,tree4 ,thirty to seventy feet in height1 two and one half to four feet in diameter4 ,variable foliage4 ,globular to oblong acorns4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light red1 sapwood lighter1 coarse-grained1 annual layers strongly marked1 medullary rays few but conspicuous4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,hard1 heavy1 strong1 not durable1 checks badly in drying4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,somewhat used for cooperage1 construction1 etc4 ,bark very rich in tannin4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #dc4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1ijj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #af1ijj4 ,remarks4 ,dry barren soils4 ,grows rapidly4 p#jbb ,,black ,,oak1 ,,yellow ,,oak4 ,quercus velutina ,lam4 ,quercus tinctoria ,barti4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,black ,oak1 ,yellow ,oak 7local and common names74 ,yellow ,bark1 ,yellow-bark ,oak 7,r4 ,i41 ,minn474 ,dyer's ,oak 7,tex474 ,tanbark ,oak 7,ill474 ,spotted ,oak 7,mo474 ,quercitron ,oak 7,del41 ,s4 ,c41 ,la41 ,kans41 ,minn474 ,locality4 ,east of longitude #if degrees1 ,maine and ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,minnesota and ,texas4 ,best in ,north ,atlantic ,states4 ,features of ,tree4 ,ninety to one hundred and thirty feet in height1 three to five feet in diameter4 ,dark gray to black bark1 yellow inner bark4 ,acorns have bitter yellow kernels4 ,foliage turns handsomely in autumn4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light reddish brown1 sapwood lighter1 coarse grain1 annual layers strongly marked1 thin medullary rays4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 hard1 strong1 liable to check in drying1 not tough4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,cooperage1 construction1 furniture1 and decoration4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #de 7,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#bj #dd4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1gdj1jjj 7average of #dj tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#bj #a1dgj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aj1hjj 7average of #dj tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#bj #ad1hjj4 ,remarks4 ,yellow inner bark affords yellow dye4 p#jbc ,,footnote ,footnote #bj3 ,see page #f4 ,,live ,,oak4 ,quercus virginiana ,mill4 ,quercus virens ,ait4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,live ,oak 7,va41 ,n4 ,c41 ,s4 ,c41 ,ga41 ,fla41 ,miss41 ,ala41 ,tex41 ,la41 ,calif474 ,chne ,vert 7,la474 ,locality4 ,southern ,states--coast from ,virginia to ,florida1 westward to ,texas and ,lower ,california1 southern ,mexico1 ,central ,america1 and ,cuba4 ,best in south ,atlantic ,states4 ,features of ,tree4 ,fifty to sixty feet high1 diameter three to six feet4 ,general resemblance to apple-tree4 ,evergreen foliage4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light brown or yellow1 sapwood nearly white1 close-grained1 compact structure1 pronounced medullary ray1 annual layers often hardly distinguishable4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 strong1 tough1 hard1 difficult to work1 splits easily4 ,receives high polish1 very durable4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,ship-building4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ei4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1fjj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ad1jjj4 ,remarks4 ,trunk and branches furnish small straight pieces1 but principally knees1 crooked or compass timbers4 ,virens refers to evergreen foliage4 ,splits so easily that it is better fastened with bolts or trenails than spikes4 ,now scarce1 grows rapidly4 p#jbd ,,california ,,live ,,oak4 ,quercus agrifolia ,nee4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,coast ,live ,oak 7,cal474 ,california ,live ,oak 7,cal474 ,encena 7,cal474 ,evergreen ,oak 7,cal474 ,locality4 ,california4 ,features of ,tree4 ,forty to seventy-five and occasionally more feet in height1 three to six feet in diameter4 ,evergreen foliage1 leaves spiked like those of holly4 ,shape resembles that of apple tree4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood creamy white1 but darkens on exposure4 ,compact structure1 annual layers hardly distinguishable4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 hard1 but brittle4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,fuel4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ea4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1cej1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ac1bjj4 ,remarks4 ,agrifolia is from the ,latin acer1 sharp1 and folium1 leaf1 alluding to the spinous toothed leaves4 p#jbe ,,live ,,oak4 ,quercus chrysolepis ,liebm4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,live ,oak 7,cal41 ,oreg474 ,canyon ,live ,oak1 ,black ,live ,oak1 ,golden-cup ,oak 7,cal474 ,canyon ,oak1 ,iron ,oak1 ,maul ,oak1 ,valparaiso ,oak 7,cal474 ,locality4 ,west of ,rocky ,mountains1 canyons1 and high elevations4 ,features of ,tree4 ,fifty to eighty feet in height1 three to six feet in diameter4 ,often low shrub4 ,impressive appearance4 ,evergreen foliage4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light brown1 sapwood lighter1 small pores in wide bands parallel to conspicuous medullary rays4 ,close-grained4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,hard1 heavy1 strong1 tough1 difficult to work4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,implements1 wagons1 tool-handles4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #eb4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1gjj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ah1jjj4 ,remarks4 ,said to be the most valuable of the ,california oaks4 ,grows at elevations of #bjjj to #ejjj feet4 ,highland ,oak 7,quercus wislizeni7 is an evergreen and a ,pacific ,coast variety4 p#jbf ,,english ,,oak4 ,quercus robur var4 pedunculata4 ,nomenclature4 ,english ,oak4 ,british ,oak4 ,common ,oak4 ,locality4 ,widespread throughout northern and central ,europe4 ,features of ,tree4 ,seventy to one hundred feet in height1 eight to ten feet in diameter4 ,crooked branches1 stalkless leaves1 long-stalked acorns4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light brown1 darker spots frequent1 sapwood lighter4 ,compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,hard1 tough1 strong1 durable1 difficult to work1 liable to warp in seasoning4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,ship-building1 beams1 cabinet-work1 formerly carpentry4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ea 7,laslett74 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1agj1jjj 7,thurston74 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aj1jjj 7,thurston74 ,remarks4 ,the ,english1 ,chestnut1 ,durmast1 or ,red ,oak1 ,q4 robur var4 sessiliflora1 distinguished by long leaf stalks and short acorn stalks1 affords practically similar but lower-rated wood4 ,the two varieties supply the ,british ,oak of commerce4 ,dantzic1 ,rigi1 and some other ,european oaks take names from port of shipment4 ,rubrus is red1 but robur is a noun meaning strength2 the adjective robustus means oaken or vigorous4 p#jbg ,illustration3 ,,plate #f4 ,,white ,,ash 7,fraxinus americana74 ,,ash4 7,fraxinus47 ,ash is widely distributed over the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere1 and occurs in the tropics1 on the island of ,cuba4 ,the tree has occupied a position second only to that of oak4 ,our ,teutonic forefathers relied upon its wood for boats and weapons4 ,their ancient faith connects it with the creation of the original man4 ,it is often associated with oak in country proverbs4#ba ,europeans regard the trees for ornamental purposes1 but ,americans value them for wood4 ,illustration3 ,white ,ash 7,fraxinus americana74 ,ash and oak woods resemble one another in that there are bands of open pores in both woods1 but the pith-rays of the ash are thinner and scarcely discernible4 ,ash is coarser1 less attractive1 easier to work1 tough1 elastic1 and somewhat lighter than oak4 ,it seasons well1 but does not last when exposed to the weather4 ,lumbermen separate the woods into white and black ash1 the former including the lighter-colored and more desirable pieces4 ,this commercial division is also a botanical one in the ,north1 where the only species of any note are the white ash and black ash 7,f4 americana and ,f4 nigra74 ,the ,southern green ash 7,f4 lanceolata7 is usually classed as white ash4 ,the trees that grow up after the cutting of the virgin forest afford tougher1 more pliable1 but not necessarily stronger pieces1 known as second-growth ash4 ,although not relied upon for out-of-door construction1 ash is one of the most important of the cheaper cabinet woods and is used in stairs1 furniture1 and similar works4 p#jbh ,one half of the thirty known species of the genus ,fraxinus inhabit ,north ,america4 p#jbi ,,footnotes ,footnote #ba3 ,a tradition1 old in ,pliny's time1 is that serpents avoid ash trees2 another is that ash is particularly liable to be struck by lightning4 7,keeler47 ,the name ash is also applied to several species of the genus ,pyrus or ,sorbus1 to which the apple1 pear1 quince1 and some other trees belong4 ,mountain ,ash is either ,pyrus americana or ,pyrus sambucifolia4 ,both species1 with their bright red berries1 are to be classed as shrubs rather than trees2 their light1 soft1 weak1 close-grained woods having no economic importance1 save perhaps for fuel4 ,the series is partially as follows3 ,pyrus malus 7,common apple74 ,pyrus coronaria 7,american crab-apple74 ,pyrus communis 7,common pear74 ,pyrus vulgaris 7,common quince74 ,pyrus americana 7,mountain ash74 ,pyrus sambucifolia 7,mountain ash74 ,pyrus ancuparia 7,rowan tree1 ,european ,mountain ash74 ,the ,toothache ,trees1 ,xanthoxylum americana and ,xanthoxylum clava-herculis 7,linn471 are known as ash and prickly ash4 ,the gopher wood1 ,cladrastis tinctoria1 is yellow ash4 ,these woods are not important4 ,,white ,,ash4 ,fraxinus americana ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,white ,ash 7local and common name74 ,ash 7,ark41 ,ia41 ,wis41 ,ill41 ,mo41 ,minn474 ,cane ,ash 7,ala41 ,miss41 ,la474 ,american ,ash 7,ia474 ,locality4 ,nova ,scotia to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,minnesota and ,texas4 ,greatest development in the ,ohio ,river basin4 ,features of ,tree4 ,forty-five to ninety feet in height1 occasionally higher4 ,three to four feet in diameter4 ,usually smooth leaves1 have whitish under surfaces4 ,gray furrowed bark1 long-winged seed4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood reddish brown1 usually mottled2 sapwood much lighter or nearly white4 ,coarse-grained1 compact structure4 ,layers clearly marked by large open ducts4 ,medullary rays obscure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 hard1 strong1 elastic1 becoming brittle with age1 not durable in contact with soil4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,agricultural implements1 carriages1 handles1 oars1 interior and cheap cabinet-work4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ci 7,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#bb #dj4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1fdj1jjj 7average of #hg tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#bb #a1ddj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aj1hjj 7average of #hg tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#bb #ab1bjj4 ,remarks4 ,economically valuable4 ,rapid growers1 preferring low1 rather moist soil4 ,not apt to form in forests1 but found mingled with other varieties4 ,large trees sometimes have large heart-cracks4 p#jcj ,,footnote ,footnote #bb3 ,see page #f4 ,,red ,,ash4 ,fraxinus pennsylvanica ,marsh4 ,fraxinus pubescens ,lam4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,red ,ash 7local and common name74 ,river ,ash 7,r4 ,i41 ,ont474 ,brown ,ash 7,mo474 ,black ,ash 7,n4 ,j474 ,ash 7,nebr474 ,locality4 ,new ,brunswick to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,dakota and ,alabama4 ,best developed in ,north ,atlantic ,states4 ,features of ,tree4 ,a small tree1 rarely over forty-five feet high1 one and one-half feet in diameter4 ,downy-covered young twigs and leaves4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood rich brown1 sapwood light brown streaked with yellow1 coarse-grained compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 hard1 strong1 brittle4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,agricultural implements1 handles1 boats1 oars1 paper-pulp4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ch4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1aed1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ab1cjj4 ,remarks4 ,grows on borders of streams and swamps in low ground4 ,often confused with and substituted for the more valuable white ash4 ,pubescens is in allusion to the downy covering of the new twigs 7those of white ash usually smooth74 ,pennsylvanica refers to locality in which it is well developed4 p#jca ,,blue ,,ash4 ,fraxinus quadrangulata ,michx4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,blue ,ash 7,mich41 ,ill41 ,ky41 ,mo41 ,ala474 ,locality4 ,central ,states1 ,mississippi ,valley1 ,michigan1 and southward1 cultivated in ,pennsylvania4 ,best in low ,wabash ,valley4 ,features of ,tree4 ,fifty to seventy-five feet in height1 occasionally higher1 one to two feet in diameter4 ,slender4 ,blue properties in inner bark1 smooth square twigs4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light yellow1 streaked with brown1 sapwood lighter1 close-grained1 compact structure satiny4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,hard1 heavy1 brittle1 not strong1 most durable of ash woods4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,largely used in floorings1 carriage-building1 pitchfork-and other tool-handles4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #dd4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1ajj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aa1ejj4 ,remarks4 ,has no superior among ash woods4 ,blue ,ash pitchfork-handles are very fine4 ,prefers limestone formations4 ,inner bark colors water blue1 whence name4 p#jcb ,,black ,,ash4 ,fraxinus nigra ,marsh4 ,fraxinus sambucifolia ,lam4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,black ,ash 7local and common name74 ,water ,ash 7,w4 ,va41 ,tenn41 ,ind474 ,swamp ,ash 7,vt41 ,r4 ,i41 ,n4 ,y474 ,brown ,ash 7,n4 ,h41 ,tenn474 ,hoop ,ash 7,vt41 ,n4 ,y41 ,del41 ,ohio1 ,ill41 ,ind474 ,locality4 ,northern and ,northeastern ,states--,newfoundland to ,virginia1 westward intermittently to ,manitoba and ,arkansas4 ,features of ,tree4 ,seventy to eighty feet in height1 one to one and one-half feet in diameter4 ,leaves resemble those of ,elder4 ,a thin tree4 ,excrescences or knobs frequent on trunk4 ,dark1 almost black1 winter buds4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood dark brown1 sapwood light brown1 often nearly white1 coarse-grained1 compact structure1 medullary rays numerous and thin4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,separates easily in layers1 rather soft and heavy1 tough1 elastic1 not strong or durable when exposed4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,largely used for interior finish1 fencing1 barrel-hoops1 cabinet-making1 splint baskets1 chair-bottoms4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ci4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1bcj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aa1djj4 ,remarks4 ,excrescences known as burls2 their distorted grain causes them to be prized for veneers4 ,the most northerly of ash-trees2 one of the most slender of trees4 p#jcc ,,green ,,ash4 ,fraxinus lanceolata ,borkh4 ,fraxinus viridis ,michx4 f4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,green ,ash 7local and common name74 ,blue ,ash 7,ark41 ,iowa74 ,white ,ash 7,kans41 ,neb474 ,ash 7,ark41 ,iowa74 ,swamp ,ash 7,fla41 ,ala41 ,tex474 ,water ,ash 7,iowa74 ,locality4 ,east of ,rocky ,mountains4 ,vermont and northern ,florida intermittently to ,utah and ,arizona4 ,features of ,tree4 ,forty to fifty feet in height1 one to two feet in diameter4 ,bright green upper and lower surfaces of smooth leaves4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood brownish1 sapwood lighter1 rather coarse-grained1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities4 ,hard1 heavy1 strong1 brittle4 ,representative ,uses4 ,similar to those of ,white ,ash4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ci 7,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#bc #dd4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #b1jej1jjj 7average of #aj tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#bc #a1bhj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aa1fjj 7average of #aj tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#bc #ab1gjj4 ,remarks4 ,sometimes considered a variety of ,red ,ash4 p#jcd ,,footnote ,footnote #bc3 ,see page #f4 ,,oregon ,,ash4 ,fraxinus ,oregona ,nutt4 ,nomenclature4 ,oregon ,ash 7,calif41 ,wash41 ,oregon74 ,locality4 ,pacific coast1 ,washington to ,california4 ,best developed in bottom lands1 southwestern ,oregon4 ,features of ,tree4 ,fifty to occasionally seventy-five feet in height1 one to one and one-half feet in diameter4 ,dark grayish-brown1 bark exfoliates in thin scales4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood brown1 sap wood lighter1 coarse-grained1 compact structure1 numerous thin medullary rays4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,rather light1 hard1 not strong4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,manufacture of furniture1 carriage-frames1 cooperage1 and fuel4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ce4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1bjj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #idjj4 ,remarks4 ,one of the valuable deciduous trees of the ,pacific coast4 ,thrives only on moist soils and in moist climates4 p#jce ,illustration3 ,,plate #g4 ,,elm 7,ulmus americana74 ,,elm4 7,ulmus47 ,the different species of elm are distributed over the cold and temperate portions of the northern hemisphere1 save western ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,a high degree of perfection is attained in eastern ,north ,america1 where trees are greatly prized for their form and appearance4 ,the foliage of the elm is concentrated at the top1 and the absence of lower branches causes it to be a good tree to plant near houses or along streets4 ,much of the wood is tough1 fibrous1 durable1 strong1 hard1 heavy1 and1 because it is so often cross-grained1 difficult to split and work4 ,the large pores of the spring wood arranged in one or several rows mark the annual deposit1 while the minute pores of the summer wood arranged in concentric wavy lines are so peculiar as to distinguish this wood from all others4 ,the tall1 straight trunks afford pieces of considerable size4 ,elm piles sustain constant and severe shocks for long intervals4 ,the grain arrangement of elm is often very beautiful1 so that it is increasingly used for decoration4 ,it is more commonly employed in the construction of cars1 wagons1 boats1 agricultural implements1 machinery1 and furniture4 ,illustration3 ,,elm 7,ulmus americana74 ,the shape of the trees is so marked as to cause them to be easily noted4 ,fifteen or sixteen species have been recognized4 ,five are known to exist in the eastern ,american forests1 and all of them furnish good wood of commercial importance4 ,ulmus was the ancient name of the elm4 p#jcf ,,footnote ,geo4 ,b4 ,emerson's ,trees and ,shrubs of ,massachusetts4 ,,white ,,elm4 ,ulmus americana ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,white ,elm 7local and common name74 ,water ,elm 7,miss41 ,tex41 ,ark41 ,mo41 ,ill41 ,ia41 ,mich41 ,minn41 ,neb474 ,elm 7,mass41 ,r4 ,i41 ,conn41 ,n4 ,j41 ,pa41 ,n4 ,c41 ,s4 ,c41 ,ia41 ,wis474 ,american ,elm 7,vt41 ,mass41 ,r4 ,i41 ,n4 ,y41 ,del41 ,pa41 ,n4 ,c41 ,miss41 ,tex41 ,ill41 ,ohio1 ,kans41 ,neb41 ,mich41 ,minn474 ,locality4 ,east of ,rocky ,mountains1 ,newfoundland to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,dakota1 ,nebraska1 and ,texas4 ,features of ,tree4 ,ninety to one hundred feet in height1 three to seven feet in diameter4 ,characteristic and beautiful form1 smooth buds2 leaves1 smaller than those of ,slippery-elm1 are rough only when rubbed one way4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light brown1 sapwood yellowish white1 rather coarse-grained1 annual rings clearly marked4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,strong1 tough1 fibrous1 difficult to split4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,flooring1 wheel-stock1 cooperage1 ship-building1 flumes1 piles4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #cd 7,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,division47#bd #dj4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1edj1jjj 7average of #ah tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#bd #a1jfj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aj1cjj 7average of #ah tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#bd #ab1ajj4 ,remarks4 ,the concentration of foliage at top1 together with the form of the tree1 renders it valuable in landscape work4 ,it does not cause dense shade4 ,elm and silver-maple trees are among the first to show life in spring4 ,discarded brownish scales then cover ground in vicinity4 p#jcg ,,footnote ,footnote #bd3 ,see page #f4 ,,cork ,,elm4 ,ulmus racemosa ,thomas4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,cork ,elm 7local and common name74 ,hickory ,elm 7,mo41 ,ill41 ,ind41 ,ia474 ,rock ,elm 7,r4 ,i41 ,w4 ,va41 ,ky41 ,mo41 ,ill41 ,wis41 ,ia41 ,mich41 ,nebr474 ,white ,elm 7,ont474 ,cliff ,elm 7,wis474 ,locality4 ,quebec and ,vermont1 westward intermittently to ,nebraska and ,tennessee4 ,best developed in southern ,ontario and ,michigan4 ,features of ,tree4 ,seventy to ninety feet in height1 two to three feet in diameter4 ,thick1 corky1 irregular projections give bark a shaggy appearance and mark the species4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light brown1 often tinged with red2 sapwood yellowish or greenish white4 ,compact structure1 fibres interlaced4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 hard1 very strong1 tough1 difficult to split1 susceptible of a beautiful polish1 elastic4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,heavy agricultural implements1 wheel-stocks1 railway ties1 sills1 bridge-timbers1 axe-helves1 etc4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #de4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #b1eej1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ae1ajj4 ,remarks4 ,cork ,elm is the best of the elm woods4 p#jch ,,slippery ,,elm1 ,,red ,,elm4 ,ulmus pubescens ,walt4 ,ulmus fulva ,michx4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,slippery ,elm1 ,red ,elm 7local and common name74 ,rock ,elm 7,tenn474 ,redwooded ,elm 7,tenn474 ,moose ,elm 7occasional74 ,locality4 ,ontario and ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,nebraska and ,texas4 ,best developed in ,western ,states4 ,features of ,tree4 ,forty-five to sixty feet in height1 one to two feet in diameter4 ,characteristic shape1 mucilaginous inner bark4 ,buds hairy4 ,leaves1 larger than ,american ,elm1 are rough when rubbed either way4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood dark brown or red1 sapwood lighter1 compact structure1 annual layers marked by rows of large open ducts4 ,heartwood greatly preponderates4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 hard1 strong1 and durable in contact with soil4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,largely used for fence-posts1 rails1 railway ties1 sills1 sleigh-runners1 and wheel-stocks4 ,mucilaginous bark1 employed in medicine4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #dc4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1cjj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ab1cjj4 ,remarks4 ,mucilaginous inner bark renders this species unmistakable4 ,this bark is used in medicine4 p#jci ,,wing ,,elm1 ,,winged ,,elm4 ,ulmus alata ,michx4 ,nomenclature4 ,wing ,elm1 ,winged ,elm 7local and common names74 ,wahoo1 ,whahoo 7,w4 ,va41 ,n4 ,c41 ,s4 ,c41 ,la41 ,tex41 ,ky41 ,mo474 ,cork ,elm1 ,corky ,elm 7,fla41 ,s4,c41 ,tex474 ,mountain ,elm1 ,red ,elm 7,fla41 ,ark474 ,elm1 ,witch ,elm 7,w4 ,va474 ,water ,elm 7,ala474 ,small-leaved ,elm 7,n4 ,c474 ,wahoo ,elm 7,mo474 ,locality4 ,southern ,united ,states1 ,virginia and ,florida westward intermittently to southern ,illinois and ,texas4 ,features of ,tree4 ,forty feet or more in height1 one to two feet in diameter4 ,corky wings on branches4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,color brownish1 sapwood lighter1 close-grained1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,hard1 heavy1 tough4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #df4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #gdj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aj1bjj4 ,remarks4 p#jdj ,,maple4 7,acer47 ,the maples grow on all of the continents of the northern hemisphere4 ,nearly one half of the known species belong in ,china1 ,japan1 and the ,orient4 ,the principal ,european species 7,acer pseudo-platanus7 is the ,european sycamore4#be ,the hard or sugar maple 7,acer saccharum7 is one of the principal deciduous trees of ,north ,america4 ,maple wood#bf is characterized by its appearance and by its fine compact texture4 ,the first quality is so marked that selected pieces take rank among the most beautiful of cabinet woods2 the last is so pronounced as to fit it for carvings and even for type4 ,birdseye1 blister1 and curly maples are not from different species1 but are the results of fibre distortions1 possible in some form in any tree of any species1 but peculiarly liable to occur in the maple2 birdseye and blister effects for the most part in the hard maples1 curly effects in the hard1 but generally in the softer1 species4 ,the distortions do not occur in all trees1 and it is seldom possible to tell whether the woods are thus figured until after the trees have been cut4 ,maple wood shrinks moderately1 stands well in protected places1 is strong1 tough1 but not durable when exposed4 ,pores are not arranged in circles1 but are scattered irregularly throughout the layers4 ,maple is used for ceiling1 flooring1 panelling1 car and ship construction1 shoe-lasts1 shoe-pegs1 furniture1 school supplies1 implements1 and machinery4 ,sugar is principally1 although not exclusively1 present in the sap of the sugar maple4#bg ,the softer species are sometimes p#jda tapped1 and sugar is also present in the sap of other trees1 such as the butternut and birch4 ,a sugar maple will1 on an average1 produce about twenty-five gallons of sap1 containing a total of about six pounds of sugar1 in a season4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #h4 ,,sugar ,,maple 7,acer saccharum74 ,illustration3 ,curly ,maple ,wood 7dissection74 ,the ,boxelder 7,acer negundo7 is a true maple1 remarkable in that it is widely distributed from ,canada to ,mexico and from the ,atlantic to the ,rocky ,mountains1 on low bottom lands1 and at elevations of five thousand and six thousand feet4#bh ,the trees are beautiful and1 like other maples are valued for ornamental purposes4 ,the soft1 light wood is not particularly noted1 although occasionally used for woodenware1 interior finish1 and paper-pulp4 ,small quantities of sugar are present in the sap of this tree4 ,illustration3 a1 ,box ,elder4 b1 ,hard or ,sugar ,maple4 c1 ,soft or ,red ,maple4 d1 ,soft or ,silver ,maple4 ,the maples may be told by their leaves of characteristic shape1 but chiefly by their two-seeded fruit or keys1 the two wings of which spread differently in different species4 ,the leaves of some species change in autumn from green to red and other brilliant colors4 ,those of other species change to yellow without trace of red4 ,sixty to seventy species have been distinguished1 nine of which occur in ,north ,america4 p#jdb ,,footnotes ,footnote #be3 ,see ,sycamore1 page #fe4 ,footnote #bf3 ,these notes apply to the ,american product4 ,footnote #bg3 ,vermont1 ,new ,york1 and ,michigan produce the larger portion of the about fifty million pounds of sugar and three million gallons of syrup annually manufactured in the ,united ,states4 ,third ,annual ,report of the ,fisheries1 ,game1 and ,forestry ,commissioners1 ,new ,york1 #ahig1 p4 #cjh4 ,footnote #bh3 ,sargent4 ,,sugar ,,maple1 ,,hard ,,maple4 ,acer saccharum ,marsh4 ,acer saccharinum ,wang4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,sugar ,maple1 ,hard ,maple 7local and common names74 ,black ,maple 7,fla41 ,ky41 ,n4 ,c474 ,sugar ,tree 7frequent74 ,rock ,maple 7,me41 ,vt41 ,n4 ,h41 ,conn41 ,mass41 ,r4 ,i41 ,n4 ,y41 ,tenn41 ,ill41 ,mich41 ,ia41 ,kans41 ,wis41 ,minn474 ,locality4 ,best development ,maine to ,minnesota2 range extends southward to ,florida and ,texas4 ,features of ,tree4 ,seventy to one hundred feet and more in height1 one and one-half to four feet in diameter4 ,the fruit or maple-key with wings less than right angles ripen in early autumn2 one seed-cavity is usually empty4 ,foliage turns to brilliant reds and other colors later4 ,large impressive tree4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood brownish1 sapwood lighter1 close-grained1 compact structure1 occasional curly1 blister1 or birdseye effects4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,tough1 heavy1 hard1 strong1 susceptible of good polish1 wears evenly1 not durable when exposed4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,furniture1 shoe-lasts1 piano-actions1 wooden type for showbills1 pegs1 interior finish1 flooring1 ship-keels1 vehicles1 fuel1 veneers1 rails1 etc4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #dc4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #b1jgj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #af1cjj4 ,remarks4 ,birdseye1 blister1 and to a less extent curly and landscape effects pronounced in this species4 ,saccharum refers to sugar manufactured from the sap4 ,hard maple is because of hardness of wood4 p#jdc ,,silver ,,maple1 ,,soft ,,maple4 ,acer saccharinum ,linn4 ,acer dasycarpum ,ehr4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,silver ,maple1 ,soft ,maple 7local and common names74 ,swamp ,maple 7,w4 ,va41 ,md474 ,water ,maple 7,pa41 ,w4 ,va474 ,river ,maple 7,me41 ,n4 ,h41 ,r4 ,i41 ,w4 ,va41 ,minn474 ,white ,maple 7,me41 ,vt41 ,r4 ,i41 ,n4 ,y41 ,n4 ,j41 ,pa41 ,w4 ,va41 ,n4 ,c1 ,s4 ,c41 ,ga41 ,fla41 ,ala41 ,miss41 ,la41 ,ky41 ,mo41 ,ill41 ,ind41 ,kans41 ,nebr41 ,minn474 ,locality4 ,new ,brunswick to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,dakota and ,indian ,territory4 ,best development in lower ,ohio ,river basin4 ,features of ,tree4 ,forty to ninety feet in height1 occasionally higher4 ,three to five feet in diameter4 ,fine shape1 sometimes suggests elm4 ,fruit or maple-key with long1 stiff1 more than right-angled wings ripens in early summer4 ,leaves whitish beneath1 turn showing yellow1 but little or no red1 in autumn4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood reddish brown1 sapwood ivory-white1 fine grain1 compact structure4 ,fibres sometimes twisted1 waved1 or curly4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 brittle1 easily worked1 moderately strong2 receives high polish4 ,not durable when exposed4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,woodenware1 turned work1 interior decoration1 flooring1 fuel4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #cb4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1egj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ad1djj4 ,remarks4 ,waved1 spiral1 or curly figure pronounced in this species1 very real resemblance to lights and shadows on planed surfaces4 ,small quantities of sugar present in sap1 occasionally utilized4 p#jdd ,,red ,,maple1 ,,swamp ,,maple4 ,acer rubrum ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,red ,maple1 ,swamp ,maple 7local and common names74 ,soft ,maple 7,vt41 ,mass41 ,n4 ,y41 ,va41 ,miss41 ,mo41 ,kans41 ,neb41 ,minn474 ,water ,maple 7,miss41 ,la41 ,tex41 ,ky41 ,mo474 ,white ,maple 7,me41 ,n4 ,h474 ,red ,flower 7,n4 ,y474 ,locality4 ,new ,brunswick and ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,dakota and ,texas4 ,wide range4 ,features of ,tree4 ,sixty to eighty feet and more in height1 two and one-half to four feet in diameter4 ,red twigs and flowers in early spring4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood brown tinged with red1 sapwood lighter1 close-grained1 compact structure4 ,red blossoms1 twigs1 and stems4 ,leaves turn scarlet in autumn4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,easily worked1 heavy1 hard1 not strong1 elastic1 qualities between those of silver and sugar maple4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,largely used in cabinet-making1 turnery1 woodenware1 gun-stocks1 etc4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ch4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1cdj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ae1jjj4 ,remarks4 ,occasionally shows curly figure4 ,trees are occasionally tapped and small quantities of sugar are obtained from the sap4 p#jde ,,oregon ,,maple4 ,acer macrophyllum ,pursh4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,oregon ,maple 7,oreg41 ,wash474 ,white ,maple 7,oreg41 ,wash474 ,maple 7,calif474 ,broad-leaved ,maple 7,central ,calif41 ,willamette ,valley1 ,oreg474 ,locality4 ,alaska to ,california4 ,best in rich bottom lands of southern ,oregon4 ,features of ,tree4 ,seventy to one hundred feet in height1 three to five feet in diameter4 ,beautiful appearance4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,reddish brown1 sapwood whitish1 close-grained1 compact structure1 occasionally figured4 ,structural ,qualities4 ,light1 hard1 strong2 receives polish4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,locally used for tool-handles1 turned work1 and furniture4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #cj4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1ajj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #igbj4 ,remarks4 ,ornamental tree has been introduced into ,europe4 ,said to be one of the most valuable ,pacific coast broadleaf woods4 p#jdf ,,boxelder1 ,,ash-,,leaved ,,maple4 ,acer negundo ,linn4 ,negundo aceroides ,moench4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,boxelder1 ,ash-leaved ,maple 7local and common name74 ,red ,river ,maple1 ,water ,ash 7,dak474 ,cut-leaved ,maple 7,colo474 ,stinking ,ash 7,s4 ,c74 ,negundo ,maple 7,ill474 ,three-leaved ,maple 7,fla474 ,black ,ash 7,tenn474 ,sugar ,ash 7,fla474 ,locality4 ,atlantic ,ocean westward intermittently to ,rocky ,mountains1 ,mexico4 ,features of ,tree4 ,forty to seventy feet in height1 one and one-half to three feet in diameter4 ,wings to keys are straight or incurved4 ,leaves sparingly and coarsely toothed1 show yellow but little or no red in autumn4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,thin heartwood1 cream-white2 sapwood similar2 close-grained1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 not strong1 soft4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,woodenware1 cooperage1 etc41 paper-pulp 7largely71 occasionally interior finish4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bf4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #hb1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #gejj4 ,remarks4 ,a rapid grower4 ,withstands severe climatic changes4 ,a good tree to plant in naturally treeless sections4 ,sugar is sometimes obtained from the sap of this species4 ,the ,boxelder is a true maple4 p#jdg ,illustration3 ,,plate #i4 ,,walnut 7,juglans74 ,black ,walnut ,tree 7,juglans nigra74 ,black ,walnut ,trunk 7,juglans nigra74 ,black1 ,white1 and ,english ,walnuts4 ,black ,walnut ,wood 7,juglans nigra74 ,,walnut4 7,juglans47 ,the ,english or ,royal ,walnut 7,juglans regia71 a native of ,persia1 was the only available species of this genus until the introduction of the nearly similar ,black ,walnut of ,north ,america4#bi ,as oak gave way first to soft woods for construction1 so it gave way first to walnut for cabinet purposes4 ,the wood soon became very fashionable1 and exorbitant prices were paid for it4 ,walnut was extremely popular in the ,united ,states until about #ahhj1 when oak began to resume its place as the popular cabinet wood4 ,the nuts of the ,english or ,persian walnut are better than those of the ,american species1 but the wood of the latter is superior4 ,the use of walnut wood for gun-stocks began in ,europe1 the demands early becoming so great that1 until the general peace following the battle of ,waterloo1 the greater part of the ,french product was diverted for that purpose1 while prices rose in ,england so that six hundred pounds sterling is reported to have been paid for a single tree4 ,in spite of the innumerable woods that have since been introduced1 this one is yet regarded as best for gun-stocks4#cj ,walnut is a firm1 hard1 chocolate-colored wood1 with pores not arranged in rings but scattered somewhat irregularly4 ,the sombre1 although rich1 color has been objected to for some positions4 ,large excrescences or burrs are common on foreign trees1 particularly those near the ,black ,sea and in ,italy4 ,the grain in such growths is beautifully irregular1 and the wood1 known as burl1 is prized for veneers4 ,trees are very scarce1 and walnut is now seldom seen save in cabinet work or gun-stocks4 ,the related ,white ,walnut or ,butternut 7,juglans cinerea7 affords a less-prized and p#jdh lighter-tinted wood4 ,the nuts of the walnuts are a source of profit4 ,black walnut trees seldom form forests by themselves1 but occur generally in mixed growth4 ,they grow quickly1 but the heartwood for which the tree is valued begins to form only when the tree is at a considerable age1 so that a number of years must elapse before a tree can produce wood of the desired quality4 ,trees one hundred years old furnish the best quality of wood4 ,walnut trees may be known by their nuts1 the husks or pods of which adhere unbroken1 instead of loosening1 completely divide into four sections1 as with the hickories4 ,juglans is from ,jovis1 signifying ,jove's1 and glans1 signifying acorn4 ,this nut1 not the fruit of the oak1 was the acorn of the ancients4#ca p#jdi ,,footnotes ,footnote #bi3 ,about the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,footnote #cj3 ,france used twelve thousand trees in #ahjf4 7,stevenson's ,trees of ,commerce1 p4 #gg47 ,footnote #ca3 ,the ancients considered the shade of the walnut as harmful to all life4 ,it is certain some vegetation is affected1 probably by properties in fallen leaves4 ,,black ,,walnut4 ,juglans nigra ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,black ,walnut 7local and common name74 ,walnut 7,n4 ,y41 ,del41 ,w4 ,va41 ,fla41 ,ky41 ,mo41 ,ohio1 ,ind41 ,ia474 ,locality4 ,ontario and ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,nebraska and ,texas4 ,features of ,tree4 ,ninety to one hundred and twenty-five feet in height1 three to eight feet in diameter4 ,a tall handsome tree with rough brownish1 almost black1 bark4 ,large1 rough-shelled nuts4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood dark1 rich1 chocolate-brown4 ,thin sapwood much lighter1 rather coarse-grained4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 hard1 strong1 easily worked1 durable1 susceptible to high polish4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,cabinet-making1 gun-stocks1 also formerly furniture and decoration4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ch4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1eej1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ab1ajj4 ,remarks4 p#jej ,,footnote ,the ,english1 ,royal1 or ,persian ,walnut 7,juglans regia7 affords nearly similar wood4 ,widely distributed over ,europe4 ,italian trees furnish best1 ,french next1 and ,english least desirable1 paler and coarser wood4 ,occasional trees in ,eastern ,united ,states1 as ,new ,york2 very plentiful in ,california4 ,,butternut1 ,,white ,,walnut4 ,juglans cinerea ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 ,butternut1 ,white ,walnut 7local and common names74 ,oil ,nut 7,me41 ,n4 ,h41 ,s4 ,c474 ,walnut 7,minn474 ,white ,mahogany4 ,locality4 ,new ,brunswick to ,georgia1 westward to ,dakota and ,arkansas4 ,best in ,ohio ,river basin4 ,features of ,tree4 ,medium size1 sometimes seventy-five feet or over in height1 two to four feet in diameter4 ,branches widespread2 large-sized oblong edible nuts4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light gray-brown1 darkening with exposure2 sapwood nearly white1 coarse-grained compact structure1 attractive4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 not strong1 easily worked4 ,susceptible of high polish4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,interior finish1 cabinet-work4 ,inner bark furnishes yellow dye4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #be4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1aej1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #hdjj4 ,remarks4 ,the sap contains sugar and is occasionally mixed with maple-sap in the manufacturing of maple sugar4 p#jea ,illustration3 ,,plate #aj4 ,,hickory 7,hicoria ovata74 ,,hickory4 7,hicoria or ,carya47 ,the ,hickories occur only in the eastern part of ,north ,america4 ,they produce woods in which the qualities of toughness1 elasticity1 and resilience are unusually pronounced1 and since these qualities are greatest in the sapwood1 hickories are peculiar in that the sapwood is more valuable than the heart4 ,second-growth wood is much prized1 since1 being younger1 it contains more of the pliable sapwood4#cb ,hickory is not durable when exposed and is more or less subject to attack by boring-insects4 ,it is used for implements1 machinery1 carriages1 and the like2 hickory axe-helves have no superiors4 ,the nuts of the shagbark or white hickory are a source of considerable profit4 ,the pecan 7,hicoria pecan7 affords wood so inferior as to be little used in construction1 although it makes an excellent fuel4 ,pecans are planted in many of the ,southern ,states because of the nuts1 for which a considerable demand exists4 ,the ,hickories are known by their nuts1 the husks or pods of which loosen completely from the nut in four pieces1 instead of adhering unbroken as in the case of the walnuts4 ,the nine species are ,american trees1 eight of them being natives of the ,united ,states4 ,carya was the ,greek name of the common walnut4 ,hickory is said to be derived from the ,indian powcohicora1 a liquor once obtained from the nuts of the hickory4 p#jeb ,,footnote ,footnote #cb3 ,see ,second-growth ,ash4 ,,shagbark ,,hickory1 ,,shellbark ,,hickory4 ,hicoria ovata ,mill4 ,carya alba ,nutt4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,shellbark or ,shellbark ,hickory 7local and common name74 ,scalybark ,hickory 7,w4 ,va41 ,s4 ,c41 ,ala474 ,shellbark 7,r4 ,i41 ,n4 ,y41 ,pa41 ,n4 ,c474 ,shagbark 7,r4 ,i41 ,ohio74 ,hickory 7,vt41 ,ohio74 ,upland ,hickory 7,ill474 ,white ,hickory 7,ia41 ,ark474 ,walnut 7,vt41 ,n4 ,y474 ,sweet ,walnut 7,vt474 ,shagbark ,walnut 7,vt474 ,locality4 ,maine to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,minnesota and ,texas4 ,wide range1 best in ,ohio valley4 ,features of ,tree4 ,seventy-five to ninety feet in height1 occasionally higher2 two and one-half to three feet in diameter4 ,shaggy bark1 thin-shelled edible nuts4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light brown1 sapwood ivory- or cream-colored4 ,close-grained1 compact structure4 ,annual rings clearly marked4 ,medullary rays numerous but thin4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,very heavy1 very hard1 strong1 exceptionally tough and flexible1 not durable when exposed4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,largely used for agricultural implements1 wheels1 and runners1 axe-handles1 baskets1 fuel4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ea 7,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#cc #eb4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #b1cij1jjj 7average of #acg tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#cc #a1ijj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #af1jjj 7average of #acg tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#cc #ag1jjj4 ,remarks4 ,the nuts form an important article of commerce4 ,shagbark refers to the shaggy appearance of the bark4 p#jec ,,footnote ,footnote #cc3 ,see page #f4 ,,pignut 7,,hickory74 ,hicoria glabra ,mill4 ,carya porcina ,nutt4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,pignut 7local and common name74 ,black ,hickory 7,miss41 ,la41 ,ark41 ,mo41 ,ind41 ,ia474 ,brown ,hickory 7,del41 ,miss41 ,tex41 ,tenn41 ,minn474 ,bitternut 7,ark41 ,ill41 ,ia41 ,wis474 ,white ,hickory 7,n4 ,h41 ,ia474 ,broom ,hickory 7,mo474 ,hardshell 7,w4 ,va474 ,red ,hickory 7,del474 ,switchbud ,hickory 7,ala474 ,locality4 ,ontario to ,florida1 westward intermittently to southern ,nebraska and eastern ,texas4 ,features of ,tree4 ,seventy-five to one hundred feet in height1 occasionally higher2 ,two to four feet in diameter4 ,rather smooth bark4 ,large thick-shelled nuts1 kernels often astringent or bitter4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light and dark brown1 thick sapwood1 lighter1 nearly white4 ,close-grained4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 hard1 flexible1 tough1 strong4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,similar to those of shagbark hickory4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ef 7,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#cd #ea4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #b1gcj1jjj 7average of #cj tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#cd #a1dfj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ah1gjj 7average of #cj tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#cd #ad1hjj4 ,remarks4 ,nuts are devoured by pigs1 whence the name porcina4 p#jed ,,footnote ,footnote #cd3 ,see page #f4 ,,mocker ,,nut 7,,hickory74 ,hicoria alba ,linn4 ,carya tomentosa ,nutt4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,mocker ,nut1 ,whiteheart ,hickory 7local and common names74 ,bullnut 7,n4 ,y41 ,fla41 ,miss41 ,tex41 ,mo41 ,ohio41 ,ill41 ,minn474 ,black ,hickory 7,tex41 ,miss41 ,la41 ,mo474 ,hickory 7,ala41 ,tex41 ,pa41 ,s4 ,c41 ,neb474 ,big-bud1 ,red ,hickory 7,fla474 ,common ,hickory 7,n4 ,c474 ,white ,hickory 7,pa41 ,s4 ,c474 ,hickory ,nut 7,ky41 ,w4 ,va474 ,hog ,nut 7,del474 ,hard bark ,hickory 7,ill474 ,locality4 ,ontario to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,missouri and ,texas4 ,wide range4 ,features of ,tree4 ,seventy-five to one hundred feet in height1 two and one-half to three and one-half feet in diameter4 ,a tall slender tree with rough1 but not shaggy1 bark4 ,thick shell1 edible nut4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood rich dark brown1 thick sapwood nearly white1 close-grained4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,very heavy1 hard1 tough1 strong1 and flexible4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,similar to those of shellbark hickory4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ec 7,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#ce #ea4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #b1cbj1jjj 7average of #ge tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#ce #a1fcj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ae1bjj 7average of #ge tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#ce #af1jjj4 ,remarks4 ,the most generally distributed species of the genus in the ,south4 ,mocker nut or moker nut is said 7,britton7 to be from a ,dutch word meaning hammer1 or else 7,keeler7 from disappointing quality of nuts4 p#jee ,,footnote ,footnote #ce3 ,see page #f4 ,,pecan1 7,,hickory74 ,hicoria pecan ,marsh4 ,carya olivformis ,nutt4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,pecan 7local and common name74 ,pecan ,nut1 ,pecan-tree1 ,pecanier 7,la474 ,locality4 ,valley of ,mississippi1 southward to ,louisiana1 ,texas1 and ,mexico4 ,features of ,tree4 ,ninety to one hundred feet in height1 sometimes higher4 ,two and one-half to five feet in diameter4 ,a tall tree1 smooth-shelled oblong edible nuts4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light brown1 tinged with red1 sapwood lighter brown4 ,close-grained and compact1 medullary rays numerous but thin4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 hard1 not strong1 brittle4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,fuel1 seldom used in construction4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #di 7,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#cf #dd4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #b1ecj1jjj 7average of #cg tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#cf #idj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ae1cjj 7average of #cg tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#cf #h1bjj4 ,remarks4 ,grows on borders of streams in low rich soil4 ,largest and most important tree of western ,texas4 ,the sweet edible nuts form an important article of commerce4 p#jef ,,footnote ,footnote #cf3 ,see page #f4 ,,chestnut1 ,,chinquapin4 7,castanea47 ,the chestnut is found in the temperature regions of central and southern ,europe1 northern ,africa1 ,china1 ,japan1 and eastern ,north ,america4 ,the wood is valued in construction1 and the much-prized nuts are regarded as a food rather than a confection4 ,european chestnut wood was once high in favor1 although examination of structures in which it was supposed to have been used indicates that in some instances oak had been mistaken for it and had been employed in its place4 ,the ,north ,american chestnut affords a weak1 brittle1 but easily worked and very durable wood1 such as is admirably adapted for beams1 ties1 and sills1 where lightness and durability rather than much transverse strength are required4 ,trees in ,europe have attained to great size and age4 ,micheaux mentions one thirty feet in circumference six feet from the ground and said to have been standing for a thousand years4 ,the famous ,mt4 ,etna chestnut#cg is reported to have measured two hundred and four feet in circumference4 ,large trunks are apt to be hollow1 affording brittle1 useless wood4 ,the botanical relation between the ,american and ,european chestnuts is not distinct4 ,some consider the former a distinct species1 others a variety only4 ,the name ,chinquapin applies to two distinct botanical species1 one1 the ,castanea pumila1 closely related to the common chestnut2 the other1 ,castanopsis chrysophylla1 belonging to the same family 7,cupulifer71 but to quite another genus4 ,both afford woods resembling1 but heavier than1 chestnut4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #aa4 ,,chestnut 7,castanea dentata74 7,courtesy ,n4 ,c4 ,geological ,survey47 ,the chestnut may be known by its large prickly burr1 p#jeg containing from one to three thin-shelled1 triangular1 wedge-shaped nuts4 ,both chinquapins have prickly burrs containing one1 or sometimes two1 sweet edible nuts4 ,three of the four known species of the genus ,castanea grow in ,north ,america1 one the common chestnut 7,castanea vulgaris72 another the ,chinquapin 7,castanea pumila72 the third a plant never attaining to the size of a tree4 ,the ,chinquapin 7,castanopsis chrysophylla7 is the only ,north ,american representative of a genus including twenty-five species4 ,keeler says that ,castanea is from a town of that name in ,thessaly1 or from another town of that name in ,pontus4 p#jeh ,,footnote ,footnote #cg3 ,castagno di cento cavalli1 so called from having sheltered #ajj mounted cavaliers1 measured by ,brydon in #aggj4 ,it had the appearance of five distinct trees1 but was probably one trunk4 7,g4 ,b4 ,emerson1 ,trees and ,shrubs of ,massachusetts1 ,vol4 ,i1 page #aib47 ,,chestnut4 ,castanea dentata 7,marsh7 ,borkh4 ,castanea vesca var4 americana ,michx4 ,castanea vulgaris var4 americana ,a4 de ,c4 ,nomenclature4 ,chestnut 7local and common name74 ,locality4 ,new ,england1 ,new ,york to ,georgia1 ,alabama1 ,mississippi1 ,kentucky1 ,missouri1 ,michigan4 ,best on western slope of ,alleghany ,mountains4 ,features of ,tree4 ,seventy-five to one hundred feet in height1 five to twelve feet in diameter4 ,fine characteristic shape1 not easily distinguished from ,red ,oak in winter4 ,blossoms in midsummer4 ,prickly burrs contain three thin-shelled nuts4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood brown1 sapwood lighter1 coarse-grained4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 not strong1 liable to check and warp in drying4 ,easily split4 ,very durable in exposed positions4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,cabinet-making1 railway ties1 posts1 fencing1 sills4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bh4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1bjj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ihjj4 ,remarks4 ,the nuts of the foreign species 7,c4 vesca7 as well as those of the domestic species are much prized4 ,the former are larger and the latter sweeter4 ,one of the latest trees to blossom4 p#jei ,,chinquapin4 ,castanea pumila 7,linn47 ,mill4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,chinquapin 7,del41 ,n4 ,j41 ,pa41 ,va41 ,w4 ,va41 ,n4 ,c41 ,s4 ,c41 ,ga41 ,ala41 ,fla41 ,miss41 ,la41 ,tex41 ,ark41 ,ohio1 ,ky41 ,mo41 ,mich474 ,locality4 ,pennsylvania to ,florida1 ,mississippi1 ,louisiana1 ,texas1 ,arkansas1 ,ohio1 ,kentucky1 ,missouri1 ,michigan4 ,features of ,tree4 ,a small tree1 sometimes forty-five feet in height1 one to two feet or over in diameter4 ,sometimes reduced to low shrub4 ,small prickly burr with single small chestnut-colored nut4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood dark brown1 sapwood hardly distinguishable4 ,coarse-grained1 annual layers marked by rows of open ducts4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,rather heavy1 hard1 strong4 ,durable in exposed positions4 ,liable to check in drying4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,posts1 rails1 railway ties1 etc4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #cf4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1fbj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ad1jjj4 ,remarks4 p#jfj ,,footnote ,the ,chinquapin ,castanopsis chrysophylla1 is a tree with characteristics between oak and chestnut4 ,its wood is nearly similar to that of the ,chinquapin ,castanea pumila1 and is sometimes used for implements4 ,,beech4 ,,ironwood4 7,fagus47 7,carpinus1 ,ostrya1 etc47 ,beech is well known on the eastern continent4 ,the common beech 7,fagus atropunicea7 is the only ,american representative4 ,eastern species have figured in literature since the time of ,virgil4 ,the northern nations early wrote upon thin tablets of beechwood1 and boc1 bok1 and buche1 the northern names for beech1 finally gave origin to the word book4#ch ,american ,indians believed that the beech was proof against lightning4 ,illustration3 ,,beech 7,fagus atropunicea74 ,beechwood is hard1 heavy1 strong1 not durable when exposed1 and somewhat subject to attack by insects4 ,european engineers employ it to a considerable extent in construction1 but it is seldom used in ,america save for indoor finish1 furniture1 handles1 flooring1 and the like4 ,the small edible nuts1 known as beech-mast1 are pressed abroad for a fixed oil1 resembling and used in place of that from the olive4 ,they are seldom gathered in this country1 but are devoured by animals4 ,beech-trees have smooth1 light-colored bark1 and are very attractive in their winter appearance4 ,they may be recognized earlier in the season by their small prickly burrs1 each containing two triangular1 sharp-edged nuts4 ,there are fifteen or more species known to belong to this genus4 ,fagus is from phago1 to eat1 and refers to the nut4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ab4 ,,beech 7,fagus74 ,the name ,ironwood has been applied to ,blue ,beech 7,carpinus caroliniana71 to the ,hornbeam 7,ostrya virginiana71 and to at least eight other ,north ,american species affording unusually hard and heavy woods1 such as are used for handles p#jfa and implements4#ci ,trunks of trees affording these woods are generally small and the weight of the woods is so great as to prevent their use in construction4 p#jfb ,,footnotes ,footnote #ch3 ,liber1 the ,latin for book1 is from liber1 the inner bark of a tree1 while papyrus1 the ,latin for paper1 is from an ,egyptian reed of that name4 ,the words book1 library1 and paper are thus drawn from trees and plants4 99 ,keeler notes experiments made to prove resistance on part of beechwood4 ,footnote #ci3 ,prosopis juliflora1 ,olneya tesota1 ,guajacum sanctum1 ,cliftonia monophylla1 ,cyrilla racemiflora1 ,exothea paniculata1 ,bumelia tenax1 ,bumelia lycioides4 7,sudworth47 ,,beech4 ,fagus atropunicea 7,marsh47 ,sudworth4 ,fagus ferruginea ,ait4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,beech 7local and common name74 ,red ,beech 7,me41 ,vt41 ,ky41 ,ohio474 ,white ,beech 7,me41 ,ohio41 ,mich474 ,ridge ,beech 7,ark474 ,locality4 ,nova ,scotia to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,wisconsin and ,texas4 ,features of ,tree4 ,sixty to eighty feet1 occasionally higher2 two to four feet in diameter4 ,small rough burr contains two thin-shelled nuts4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood reddish1 variable shades1 sapwood white4 ,rather close-grained1 conspicuous medullary rays4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,hard1 strong1 tough1 not durable when exposed4 ,takes fine polish4 ,liable to check during seasoning4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,shoe-lasts1 plane-stocks1 ship-building1 handles1 and fuel4 ,carpentry 7abroad71 wagon-making1 etc4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #db4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1gbj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #af1cjj4 ,remarks4 ,the nuts are seldom gathered in the ,united ,states1 nor is the wood there often utilized in carpentry4 ,this is sometimes divided commercially into ,red and ,white ,beech1 according to color of wood4 ,such division has no botanical basis4 p#jfc ,,ironwood1 ,,blue ,,beech4 ,carpinus caroliniana ,walt4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,ironwood1 ,blue ,beech 7local and common name74 ,water ,beech 7,r4 ,i41 ,n4 ,y41 ,pa41 ,del41 ,w4 ,va41 ,ohio1 ,ill41 ,ind41 ,mich41 ,minn41 ,nebr41 ,kans474 ,hornbeam 7,me41 ,n4 ,h41 ,mass41 ,r4 ,i41 ,conn41 ,n4 ,y41 ,n4 ,j41 ,pa41 ,del41 ,n4 ,c41 ,s4 ,c41 ,ala41 ,tex41 ,ky41 ,ill41 ,kans41 ,minn474 ,locality4 ,quebec to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,nebraska and ,texas4 ,features of ,tree4 ,thirty to fifty feet in height4 ,six inches to occasionally two feet in diameter4 ,a small tree1 dark bluish-gray2 bark resembles that of beech save in color4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light brown1 thick sapwood nearly white1 close-grained4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,very hard1 tough1 strong1 heavy1 very stiff1 inclined to check during seasoning1 not durable when exposed4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,levers1 tool-handles1 etc4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #de4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1fcj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #af1cjj4 ,remarks4 ,prized by wheelwrights in ,europe4 ,resemblance of bluish bark to light-gray bark of beech gave rise to name4 p#jfd ,,ironwood1 ,,hop ,,hornbeam4 ,ostrya virginiana ,willd4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,ironwood1 ,hop ,hornbeam 7local and common names74 ,leverwood 7,vt41 ,mass41 ,r4 ,i41 ,n4 ,y41 ,pa41 ,kans474 ,hornbeam 7,r4 ,i41 ,n4 ,y41 ,fla41 ,s4 ,c41 ,la474 ,hardhack 7,vt474 ,locality4 ,nova ,scotia to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,dakota and ,texas4 ,features of ,tree4 ,thirty to forty feet in height1 one foot or less in diameter4 ,the bark exhibits long vertical rows of small squares4 ,small fruit resembles hops4 ,leaves resemble those of birch4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood reddish brown1 sometimes white1 sapwood lighter or white4 ,close-grained1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,very strong1 hard1 heavy1 tough1 durable when exposed4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,posts1 levers1 tool-handles1 axe-helves1 mill-cogs1 wedges4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ea4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1iej1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #af1jjj4 ,remarks4 ,trees over twelve inches in diameter are often hollow4 p#jfe ,illustration3 ,,plate #ac4 ,,sycamore 7,platanus occidentalis74 ,quartered ,sycamore ,wood4 ,,sycamore4 7,platanus47 ,the name ,sycamore applies to a maple 7,acer pseudo-platanus7 in ,europe1 to a fig-tree 7,ficus sycomorus7 in the ,orient1#dj and to the buttonball or plane tree 7,platanus7 in ,north ,america4 ,of the plane trees 7,platanus7 the common or ,oriental plane 7,platanus orientalis7 is a native of ,europe2 the plane1 buttonball1 or sycamore tree 7,platanus occidentalis7 is a native and common tree in eastern ,north ,america2 and the ,california plane1 buttonball1 or sycamore 7,platanus racemosa7 is a native of western ,north ,america4 ,the sycamore stands for curiosity1 because of its ,biblical association with ,zaccheus4 ,many ,european sycamores were planted by religious persons during the middle ages because of the belief that they were the trees thus referred to in the ,bible4 ,illustration3 ,,sycamore 7,platanus occidentalis74 ,the woods afforded by the ,american sycamores have unusually complicated1 cross-grained1 but beautiful structures1 difficult to work1 but standing well and valued for cabinet work and small articles4 ,american trees are often very large4 ,american buttonball or sycamore trees are distinguished by rough balls which remain hanging on long stems throughout the winter4 ,the bark also is shed to an unusual extent2 flakes of the outer cover drop away1 exposing smooth inner surfaces so white as to appear as if painted4 ,six or seven species are included in the genus2 three occur in ,north ,america4 ,platanus is from platus1 signifying broad1 and refers to the shape of the leaves4 p#jff ,,footnote ,footnote #dj3 ,brockhaus1 ,konversations-,lexicon 7,b4 #ae1 p4 #ecf74 ,,sycamore4 ,,buttonwood4 ,,buttonball-,,tree4 ,platanus occidentalis ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,sycamore1 ,buttonwood1 ,buttonball ,tree 7local and common names74 ,buttonball 7,r4 ,i41 ,n4 ,y41 ,pa41 ,fla474 ,plane ,tree 7,r4 ,i41 ,del41 ,s4 ,c41 ,kans41 ,nebr41 ,ia474 ,water ,beech 7,del474 ,platane cotonier1 ,bois puant 7,la474 ,locality4 ,maine to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,nebraska and ,texas4 ,best in bottom lands of ,ohio and ,mississippi ,river basins4 ,features of ,tree4 ,ninety to over one hundred feet in height1 six to sometimes twelve feet in diameter4 ,inner bark exposed in white patches4 ,large rough balls or fruit4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood reddish brown1 sapwood lighter1 close-grained1 compact structures1 satiny conspicuous medullary rays4 ,attractive when quartered4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 hard1 difficult to work1 not strong1 stands well when not exposed4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,tobacco-boxes1 ox-yokes1 butcher-blocks1 cabinet-work4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ce4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1bbj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ijjj4 ,remarks4 ,some specimens rank among the largest of ,american deciduous trees4 ,these are usually hollow4 ,the remarkably rigid bark does not stretch to accommodate the growth and is thus discarded to an unusual degree4 p#jfg ,,california ,,sycamore4 ,platanus racemosa ,nutt4 ,nomenclature4 ,sycamore1 ,buttonwood1 ,buttonball ,tree1 ,buttonball 7,california74 ,locality4 ,california4 ,features of ,tree4 ,seventy-five to one hundred feet in height1 occasionally higher2 three to four feet in diameter4 ,the bark exfoliates in irregular patches4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light reddish brown1 sapwood lighter1 close-grained1 compact structure1 medullary rays numerous and conspicuous4 ,beautiful when quartered4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,brittle1 very difficult to split and to season4 ,qualities similar to those of ,p4 occidentalis4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,decoration1 furniture1 similar to ,p4 occidentalis4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #cj4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #hjj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #gijj4 ,remarks4 ,hough mentions#da a tree twenty-nine feet seven inches in circumference4 p#jfh ,,footnote ,footnote #da3 ,american ,woods1 ,part #f1 p4 #cf4 ,,birch4 7,betula47 ,the birches grow in ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,north ,america1 their ranges on the latter continent extending far into the north4#db ,their history is remote and probably began with attention to the bark rather than to the wood4 ,birch-bark is smooth1 pliable1 water-tight1 and by reason of its resinous oils so durable that it often remains intact long after the wood inside of fallen trees has disappeared4 ,it is separable into thin layers and was early employed as a writing material4#dc ,houses have been covered by it and it has been used for cordage1 utensils1 damp courses1 and even rude clothing4 ,the ,american ,indians employed it for canoes1 tents1 troughs1 and buckets4 ,the wood is hard1 heavy1 strong1 fine-grained1 and beautiful4 ,it shrinks in seasoning1 works easily1 stands well when not exposed4 ,it is used for spools1 woodenware1 and other small articles1 as well as for interior finish and cabinet work4 ,figured birch is one of the most beautiful of ,american cabinet woods4#dd ,birch is often stained so as to imitate cherry and mahogany2 the best imitations of the latter wood are of birch4 ,birch is commercially divided1 according to the quantity of heartwood present1 into white birch and red birch4 ,the wood is white when the amount is small1 and as heartwood increases with age the same tree might at one time afford white and at another red wood4 ,birch trees may be known by their more or less laminated bark with its peculiar long horizontal lenticles or dashes4 ,the p#jfi leaves of the several birches differ but little1 but the decided colors exhibited by their barks give names and serve to distinguish the species4 ,nine of the twenty-four known species of birch occur in ,north ,america2 six are trees and the others low shrubs4 ,betula is said to be derived from bitumen4 p#jgj ,,footnote ,footnote #db3 ,birch forms large forests in the ,north4 ,footnote #dc3 ,pliny and ,plutarch agree that the famous books of ,numa ,pompilius1 written #gjj years before ,christ1 were upon birch-bark4 7,keeler47 ,footnote #dd3 ,the banquet-hall of the famous ,auditorium ,hotel in ,chicago is finished in birch4 7,kidder47 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ad4 ,,birch 7,betula74 ,yellow ,birch ,tree 7,betula lutea74 ,white ,birch ,bark 7,betula populifolia74 ,yellow ,birch ,foliage 7,betula lutea74 ,birch ,wood4 ,,white ,,birch4 ,betula populifolia ,marsh4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,white ,birch 7local and common name74 ,gray ,birch 7,me41 ,r4 ,i41 ,mass474 ,oldfield ,birch1 ,poverty ,birch 7,me474 ,poplar-leaved ,birch1 ,small ,white ,birch 7,vt474 ,locality4 ,atlantic coast1 ,canada to ,delaware4 ,features of ,tree4 ,twenty to forty feet in height1 about one foot in diameter4 ,durable1 laminated1 smooth1 white bark on large branches and on trunk1 save near ground2 is not very easily detached from tree4 ,tremulous leaves4 ,color1 ,grain1 or ,appearance of ,wood4 ,heartwood light brown1 sapwood lighter1 close-grained4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,soft1 light1 not strong or durable4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,clothes-pins1 shoe-pegs1 tooth-picks1 paper-pulp4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ce4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1jcf1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aa1jjj4 ,remarks4 ,the white bark is distinct from that of the paper birch in that it does not cover the whole trunk and in that it remains more perfectly intact4 p#jga ,,paper ,,birch1 ,,white ,,birch4 ,betula papyrifera ,marsh4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,paper ,birch1 ,white ,birch 7local and common names74 ,silver ,birch 7,minn474 ,large ,white ,birch 7,vt474 ,boleau 7,quebec74 ,canoe ,birch 7,me41 ,vt41 ,n4 ,h41 ,r4 ,i41 ,mass41 ,n4 ,y41 ,pa41 ,wis41 ,mich41 ,minn474 ,locality4 ,northern ,united ,states1 northward into ,canada1 valley of the ,yukon in ,alaska4 ,features of ,tree4 ,fifty to seventy feet in height1 one and one-half to two and one-half feet in diameter4 ,smooth white exterior bark on large limbs and trunks away from ground4 ,brown or orange inner surfaces of bark4 ,splits freely into thin paper-like layers4 ,color1 ,grain1 or ,appearance of ,wood4 ,heartwood brown tinged with red1 sapwood nearly white4 ,very close-grained1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,strong1 hard1 tough1 not durable4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,spools1 shoe-lasts1 pegs1 paper-pulp1 fuel1 bark used in canoes4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #cg4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1hej1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ae1jjj4 ,remarks4 ,starch is said to be manufactured from inner bark by ,northern ,indians4 ,reaches higher latitude than any ,american deciduous tree4 ,forms forests4 ,the name ,white ,birch is because of the color of the bark4 p#jgb ,,red ,,birch4 ,betula nigra ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,red ,birch 7local and common name74 ,black ,birch 7,fla41 ,tenn41 ,tex474 ,river ,birch 7,mass41 ,r4 ,i41 ,n4 ,j41 ,del41 ,pa41 ,w4 ,va41 ,ala41 ,miss41 ,tex41 ,mo41 ,ill41 ,wis41 ,ohio74 ,birch 7,n4 ,c41 ,s4 ,c1 ,miss41 ,la474 ,water ,birch 7,w4 ,va41 ,kans474 ,blue ,birch 7,ark474 ,locality4 ,massachusetts to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,minnesota and ,texas4 ,best development in south ,atlantic and lower ,mississippi valley regions4 ,features of ,tree4 ,thirty to eighty feet in height1 one to three feet in diameter1 sometimes larger4 ,dark red brown scaly bark on trunk4 ,red to silvery-white bark on branches4 ,bark separates in thin paper-like scales curling outward4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light brown1 sapwood yellowish white4 ,close-grained1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 rather hard and strong4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,furniture1 woodenware1 shoe-lasts1 ox-yokes4 ,inferior cask-hoops from branches4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ce4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1ehj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ac1ajj4 ,remarks4 ,dark brown bark1 whence name ,red ,birch4 ,prefers moist bottoms1 whence name ,river ,birch4 p#jgc ,,yellow ,,birch4 ,betula lutea ,michx4 f4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,yellow ,birch 7local and common name74 ,gray ,birch 7,vt41 ,r4 ,i41 ,pa41 ,mich41 ,minn474 ,swamp ,birch 7,minn474 ,silver ,birch 7,n4 ,h474 ,merisier1 ,merisier ,rouge 7,quebec74 ,locality4 ,newfoundland to ,north ,carolina1 westward intermittently to ,minnesota and ,texas4 ,best developed north of the ,great ,lakes4 ,features of ,tree4 ,sixty to eighty feet or more in height1 two to four feet in diameter4 ,a medium-sized tree4 ,bark on trunk silvery gray to silvery yellow1 branches green to lustrous or dull brown4 ,bark exfoliates1 causing a rough1 ragged appearance4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light reddish brown1 sapwood nearly white1 close-grained1 compact structure1 satiny4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 very strong1 and hard1 tough1 susceptible of high polish4 ,qualities suggest those of maple4 ,not durable when exposed4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,furniture1 buttons1 tassel-moulds1 pill-boxes1 spools1 and wheel-hubs4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #dj4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #b1bij1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ag1gjj4 ,remarks4 ,occasional trees have thin outer bark ruptured1 and exhibit inner bark of almost metallic yellow4 ,lutea1 signifying yellow1 alludes to color of bark4 ,inner bark has pungent1 pleasant flavor4 p#jgd ,,sweet ,,birch1 ,,cherry ,,birch4 ,betula lenta ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,sweet ,birch1 ,cherry ,birch 7many localities74 ,black ,birch 7,n4 ,h41 ,vt41 ,mass41 ,r4 ,i41 ,conn41 ,n4 ,y41 ,n4 ,j41 ,pa41 ,w4 ,va41 ,ga41 ,ill41 ,ind41 ,mich41 ,ohio74 ,mahogany ,birch 7,n4 ,c41 ,s4 ,c474 ,river ,birch 7,minn474 ,mountain ,mahogany 7,s4 ,c474 ,locality4 ,newfoundland intermittently to ,illinois1 southward intermittently along ,alleghanies to ,kentucky1 ,tennessee1 and ,florida4 ,features of ,tree4 ,fifty to eighty feet in height1 three to four feet in diameter1 dark reddish-brown bark1 resembling that of cherry2 does not separate into layers as paper-birch4 ,leaves1 bark1 and twigs sweet1 spicy1 and aromatic4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood dark brown tinged with red1 sapwood light brown or yellow1 close-grained1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 very strong1 hard1 receives stains and high satin-like polish4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,woodenware1 furniture1 ship-building 7,canada71 fuel4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #dg4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #b1jaj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ag1jjj4 ,remarks4 ,a common tree in ,northern ,states4 ,wood often stained so as to resemble cherry and mahogany4 ,essences suggest wintergreen1 contain much salicylic acid1 and are used in medicine4 ,the name cherry is because bark resembles that of cherry4 ,sweet is because of essences4 p#jge ,illustration3 ,,plate #ae4 ,,locust 7,robinia1 ,gleditsia74 ,black ,locust ,tree and ,bark 7,robinia pseudacacia74 ,honey ,locust 7,gleditsia triacanthos74 ,locust ,wood4 ,,locust1 ,,mesquite4 7,robinia1 ,gleditsia1 ,prosopis47 ,the name ,locust applies to species of three distinct genera1 all of which belong to the family ,leguminos4 ,the black locust 7,robinia pseudacacia71 the honey locust 7,gleditsia triacanthos71 and the ,mesquite or honey locust 7,prosopis juliflora7 are principal representatives of their respective kinds4 ,the first-named genus is ,north ,american1 the other two have species on both continents4 ,illustration3 ,,black ,,locust 7,robinia pseudacacia74 ,black locust wood is tough1 durable1 unequalled for torsional strength and resilience1 and is in every way in the first rank of ,american woods4 ,it is fitted not only for exposed constructions1 but for finer articles2 hubs1 pins1 bolts1 and trenails having no superiors4 ,trees develop rapidly when young1 heart wood forming as early as the third year4 ,later growth and ultimate commercial value in the ,united ,states are much affected by insect borers1 which practically limit the usefulness of the species4 ,the black locust may be known by its clusters of large pea-blossom-shaped flowers1 its bean-shaped pods1 three to six inches in length1 and by the prickles on the bark4 ,the genus has six species1 four of which are natives of the ,united ,states4#de ,robinia is from ,robin1 the name of an early ,french botanist4 p#jgf ,the black locust has been extensively introduced into ,europe1 both for ornamentation and for wood4#df ,the wood of the honey locust resembles that of the black locust1 but is seldom used or appreciated save for fencing and similarly unimportant purposes4 ,trees grow rapidly and are not subject to the attacks of insects1 so that they frequently attain to normal proportions4 ,the flowers are much smaller than those of the black locust1 but the pods are several times as long 7twelve to eighteen inches74 ,these often curl in drying and are thus rolled to some distance by the wind4 ,thorns or spines are present on some individuals and are often from three to six inches in length4 ,the foliage resembles but is more delicate than that of the black locust4 ,there is at least one other ,american species4 ,gleditsia is from ,gleditsch1 the name of a botanist4 ,mesquite1 also called honey locust1 affords wood that is hard1 heavy1 and almost indestructible in exposed positions4 ,the tree grows in the desert where vegetation would often seem to be impossible4 ,the roots are developed to great size by their search for water1 and are gathered and burned in the absence of other fuel4 ,the trunks are small1 but afford posts and ties4 ,there are pods filled with rich edible pulp4 ,sixteen or more species belong to this genus1 prosopis1 of which one other1 the screw-pod mesquite 7,prosopis odorata71 is found in the ,united ,states4 p#jgg ,,footnotes ,footnote #de3 ,three of the four ,united ,states species are trees2 the other species of this genus grow in ,mexico4 ,no one is approximately as important or well known as the ,black ,locust4 ,footnote #df3 ,black ,locust was introduced into ,europe early in the seventeenth century1 being first cultivated by the son of ,jean ,robin1 for whom the genus is named4 ,few ,american species have received such attention abroad4 ,,locust1 ,,black ,,locust1 ,,yellow ,,locust4 ,robinia pseudacacia ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,locust1 ,black ,locust1 ,yellow ,locust 7local and common names74 ,false ,acacia 7,s4 ,c41 ,ala41 ,tex41 ,minn474 ,pea-flower ,locust1 ,post ,locust 7,md474 ,red ,locust1 ,green ,locust 7,tenn474 ,honey ,locust 7,minn474 ,white ,locust 7,r4 ,i41 ,n4 ,y41 ,tenn474 ,acacia 7,la474 ,locality4 ,southern ,alleghany region1 widely cultivated in ,united ,states east of ,rocky ,mountains4 ,features of ,tree4 ,fifty to seventy feet in height1 two to three feet or over in diameter4 ,leaves curl or close at night4 ,long spikes or briers on young branches4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood brownish1 thin sapwood1 light-greenish yellow4 ,close-grained and compact4 ,annual layers clearly marked4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 very hard1 strong1 and durable under extreme conditions of wet and dry4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,long wooden bolts or pins called treenails4 ,posts1 ties1 construction1 turnery1 ship-ribs1 ornamentations1 fuel4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #de4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1hcj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ah1ajj4 ,remarks4 ,often a low shrub4 ,extensively planted1 particularly in ,west1 but subject to attack by borers4 ,one of the most valuable of ,american timber trees4 ,heartwood is formed very early in this species4 ,pseudacacia means false acacia or imitation of acacia4 p#jgh ,,honey ,,locust4 ,gleditsia triacanthos ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,honey ,locust 7local and common name74 ,thorn or ,thorny ,locust ,tree or ,acacia 7,n4 ,y41 ,n4 ,j41 ,ind41 ,tenn41 ,la474 ,three-thorned ,acacia 7,mass41 ,r4 ,i41 ,la41 ,tex41 ,neb41 ,mich474 ,black ,locust 7,miss41 ,tex41 ,ark41 ,kans41 ,neb474 ,honey or ,honeyshucks 7,r4 ,i41 ,n4 ,j41 ,va41 ,fla41 ,iowa74 ,honeyshucks ,locust 7,ky474 ,sweet ,locust 7,s4 ,c41 ,la41 ,kans41 ,nebr474 ,piquant ,amourette 7,la474 ,confederate ,pintree 7,fla474 ,locust 7,nebr474 ,locality4 ,pennsylvania to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,nebraska and ,texas4 ,best in lower ,ohio ,river basin4 ,features of ,tree4 ,seventy to ninety feet or more in height1 two to four feet in diameter4 ,frequent long thorns4#dg ,light thin foliage4 ,brown pods contain sweet pulp4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood bright brown or red1 sapwood yellowish1 annual layers strongly marked1 coarse-grained1 medullary rays conspicuous4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 hard1 strong1 very durable in contact with soil4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,fence-posts1 rails1 wagon-hubs1 rough construction1 etc4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #db4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1edj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ac1ajj4 ,remarks4 ,widely cultivated for landscape effect4 ,young trees used for forming hedges4 p#jgi ,,footnote ,footnote #dg3 ,thorns plentiful on some individuals1 but absent on others4 ,,mesquite4 ,prosopis juliflora 7,swartz7 de ,c4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,mesquite 7,tex41 ,n4 ,m41 ,ariz41 ,cal474 ,algaroba 7,tex41 ,n4 ,m41 ,ariz41 ,cal474 ,honey ,pod or ,honey ,locust 7,tex41 ,n4 ,m474 ,ironwood 7,tex474 ,locality4 ,texas1 west to ,san ,bernardino ,mountains1 ,california4 ,also ,colorado1 ,utah1 and ,nevada and northern ,mexico4 ,features of ,tree4 ,forty to fifty feet in height1 one to two feet in diameter4 ,sometimes low shrub4 ,roots often very large4 ,pods with sweet pulp4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood rich dark brown1 often red4 ,sapwood clear yellow4 ,close-grained1 compact structure1 distinct medullary rays4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,weak1 difficult to work1 heavy1 hard1 very durable4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,posts1 fencing1 ties1 house-beams1 fuel1 charcoal4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #dg4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #hbj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #fhjj4 ,remarks4 ,a locally important tree4 ,trees sometimes stunted by fires have numerous roots4 ,large roots used for fuel4 p#jhj ,,footnote ,holsinger1 ,forestry and ,irrigation4 ,vol4 ,,viii1 ,no4 #aa1 p4 #ddg4 ,,whitewood ,,or ,,tulip-,,tree ,,wood1 ,,poplar ,,or ,,cottonwood1 7,liriodendron47 7,populus47 ,,cucumber-,,tree ,,wood1 ,,basswood4 7,magnolia47 7,tilia47 ,these trees are not related1 but are all noted for woods with soft1 fine qualities1 such as fit them for carvings1 woodenware1 and paper-pulp4 ,no one of the woods is durable when exposed1 and all are used for boxes because they nail without splitting4 ,the names are commercially interchangeable4 ,the whitewood or tulip tree 7,liriodendron tulipifera7 is a native of ,america and an acclimated tree in ,europe4 ,it is the sole surviving species of its genus4 ,the wood is soft1 stiff1 clean1 fine1 straight-grained1 and obtainable in large-sized pieces4 ,much whitewood is made into lumber1 the wood standing among those of the broadleaf series as white pine does among the conifers4 ,whitewood is particularly suitable for carvings4 ,in spite of its name it is largely greenish yellow4 ,it is often divided commercially1 according to color1 into white poplar and yellow poplar4 ,trunks often attain to a very large size4 ,matthews mentions a specimen#dh thirty-three feet in circumference4 ,the species may be known by its large tulip-shaped flower4 ,liriodendron is from two ,greek words meaning lily and tree4 ,illustration3 ,,whitewood 7,liriodendron tulipifera74 ,illustration3 ,,plate #af4 ,,whitewood ,,or ,,tulip ,,tree 7,liriodendron tulipifera74 ,the poplars1 sometimes called cottonwoods because of their seeds covered with a cotton-like down1 are represented on both continents4 ,the wood was made into shields by the p#jha ancients1 because it was light and tough and would indent without breaking4 ,the wood is often substituted for whitewood1 but is less desirable1 although valuable as a basis for paper-pulp4 ,the trees may be known by the long drooping catkins that appear early in the spring before the leaves1 and that are followed by white downy seeds that soon escape to whiten the surrounding ground4 ,the poplars are noted for foliage more or less constantly in agitation4 ,this peculiarity1 so pronounced in the aspen 7,populus tremuloides71 is due to the very long petioles or leaf-stems4 ,the cottonwoods abound in many otherwise arid regions of ,american ,western deserts4 ,the cucumber trees are of the magnolia family and grow in many of the ,eastern ,states4 ,the wood resembles and is probably often mistaken for whitewood1 for which it is a fair substitute4 ,the trees may be known by their fruit1 which resembles vegetable cucumbers4 ,magnolia is from ,magnol1 a botanist of the seventeenth century4 ,basswood is a name applied to trees known in ,europe and ,america as limes1 lime trees1 lind1 linden1 tiel1 tiel trees1 bass1 and basswood trees4 ,the trees and their wood were early esteemed1 the first for their shade and appearance1 and the last for their working qualities1 which resemble1 but are inferior to1 whitewood4#di ,the trees are characterized by their dense foliage and clusters of small cream-colored fragrant flowers1 so attractive to bees as to have originated the further name bee-tree4 ,tilia arises from the ancient name for these trees4 p#jhb ,,footnotes ,footnote #dh3 ,f4 ,schuyler ,matthews1 ,familiar ,trees 7,appleton1 #aija71 p4 #ci4 ,footnote #di3 ,the carvings of ,gibbons1 a famous ,english artist1 are said to have been made entirely of linden1 no other available wood being so even-grained and free from knots4 7,keeler47 ,,tulip ,,tree1 ,,whitewood1 ,,yellow ,,poplar4 ,liriodendron tulipifera ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,tulip ,tree1 ,whitewood1 ,yellow ,poplar 7local and common names74 ,poplar 7,r4 ,i41 ,del41 ,n4 ,c41 ,s4 ,c41 ,fla41 ,ohio74 ,tulip ,poplar 7,del41 ,pa41 ,s4 ,c41 ,ill474 ,hickory ,poplar 7,va41 ,w4 ,va41 ,n4 ,c474 ,blue ,poplar 7,del41 ,w4 ,va474 ,popple 7,r4 ,i474 ,cucumber ,tree 7,n4 ,y474 ,canoewood 7,tenn474 ,locality4 ,new ,england to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,michigan and ,mississippi4 ,features of ,tree4 ,ninety to one hundred and fifty feet in height1 six to twelve feet in diameter4 ,tulip-shaped flowers in spring4 ,greenish cones dry and remain after leaves have fallen4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light yellow or greenish brown1 thin sapwood1 nearly white4 ,close1 straight-grained1 compact structure1 free from knots4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 moderately strong1 brittle1 easily worked1 durable4 ,hard to split1 shrinks little1 resembles white pine1 stands well4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,lumber1 interior finish1 shingles1 boat-building1 pumps1 woodenware1 shelves1 the bottoms of drawers4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bf4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1cjj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #icjj4 ,remarks4 ,very large trees formerly common4 ,indians hollowed logs into boats4 ,some large enough to carry twenty or thirty persons 7,hough71 whence name canoewood4 ,tulipifera1 signifying turbans and to bear1 refers to flowers4 ,one of the largest as well as most useful of ,american deciduous trees4 p#jhc ,,poplar1 ,,largetooth ,,aspen4 ,populus grandidentata ,michx4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,poplar1 ,largetooth ,aspen 7local and common names74 ,largetooth ,poplar 7,n4 ,c474 ,large ,poplar 7,tenn474 ,white ,poplar 7,mass474 ,popple 7,me474 ,large ,american ,aspen 7,ala474 ,locality4 ,nova ,scotia and ,delaware1 westward intermittently to ,minnesota1 ,alleghany ,mountains to ,kentucky and ,tennessee4 ,features of ,tree4 ,sixty to eighty feet high1 two feet or more in diameter4 ,irregular points or teeth on margins of leaves4 ,smooth gray bark4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood brownish1 sapwood nearly white1 close-grained1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,soft1 light1 weak4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,paper-pulp and occasionally woodenware4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bh4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1cfj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aj1bjj4 ,remarks4 ,the several poplars are much prized for paper-pulp4 ,the quaking aspen 7,p4 tremuloides7 has long leaf-stalks flattened vertically to the leaf-surface1 so that leaves tremble in slight winds4 p#jhd ,,cottonwood4 ,populus deltoides ,marsh4 ,populus monilifera ,ait4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,cottonwood 7local and common name74 ,carolina ,poplar 7,pa41 ,miss41 ,la41 ,n4 ,m41 ,ind41 ,ohio74 ,yellow ,cottonwood 7,ark41 ,ia41 ,neb474 ,big ,cottonwood 7,miss41 ,neb474 ,whitewood 7,ia474 ,cotton ,tree 7,n4 ,y474 ,necklace ,poplar 7,tex41 ,col474 ,broadleaved ,cottonwood 7,colo474 ,locality4 ,canada to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,rocky ,mountains4 ,features of ,tree4 ,seventy-five to one hundred feet in height1 four to five feet in diameter1 occasionally much larger4 ,long catkins distribute cotton-like fibres4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,thin heartwood1 dark brown1 sapwood nearly white1 close-grained1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 weak1 liable to warp1 difficult to season4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,greatly valued in manufacture of paper-pulp1 also packing-boxes1 fence-boards1 fuel4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bd4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1djj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aj1ijj4 ,remarks4 ,monilifera is from the ,latin monolinum1 a necklace1 and fero1 to bear1 and refers to the long necklace or catkin4 p#jhe ,,black ,,cottonwood4 ,populus trichocarpa ,torr4 and ,gr4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,black ,cottonwood 7,oreg41 ,cal474 ,balsam ,cottonwood1 ,balm 7,oreg474 ,cottonwood 7,oreg41 ,cal474 ,balm ,cottonwood 7,cal474 ,locality4 ,pacific coast region1 ,alaska to ,california4 ,features of ,tree4 ,a large tree sometimes one hundred and fifty feet in height and four to six feet in diameter4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light dull brown1 sapwood nearly white1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 weak4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,staves1 woodenware 7local74 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bc4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1ehj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #hdjj4 ,remarks4 ,largest deciduous tree of ,puget ,sound district 7,sargent74 p#jhf ,,cucumber ,,tree4 ,magnolia acuminata ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,cucumber ,tree 7,r4 ,i41 ,mass41 ,n4 ,y41 ,pa41 ,n4 ,c41 ,s4 ,c41 ,ala41 ,miss41 ,la41 ,ark41 ,ky41 ,w4 ,va41 ,ohio1 ,ind41 ,ill474 ,mountain ,magnolia 7,miss41 ,ky474 ,black ,lin1 ,cucumber 7,w4 ,va474 ,magnolia 7,ark474 ,locality4 ,new ,york to ,illinois1 southward through ,kentucky and ,tennessee to ,gulf 7intermittently74 ,features of ,tree4 ,fifty to occasionally one hundred feet in height1 two to four feet in diameter4 ,a large1 handsome1 symmetrical tree1 with cones resembling cucumbers4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood brownish yellow1 sapwood nearly white1 close-grained1 compact structure4 ,satiny1 thin medullary rays4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 not strong1 durable4 ,qualities similar to whitewood4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,cabinet-making1 cheap furniture1 flooring1 pump-logs1 troughs1 crates1 packing-boxes4 ,used similarly to ,l4 tulipifera4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bi4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1caj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #iejj4 ,remarks4 ,wood resembles and is often sold for tulip-tree wood4 p#jhg ,,basswood1 ,,linn1 ,,linden4 ,tilia americana ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,basswood1 ,linn1 ,linden1 ,american ,linden 7local and common names74 ,limetree 7,r4 ,i41 ,n4 ,c41 ,s4 ,c41 ,ala41 ,minn41 ,la41 ,ill474 ,black or ,smooth-leaved ,limetree 7,tenn474 ,whitewood 7,vt41 ,w4 ,va41 ,ark41 ,minn474 ,yellow ,basswood1 ,lein 7,ind474 ,beetree 7,vt41 ,w4 ,va41 ,wis474 ,white ,lind 7,w4 ,va474 ,wickup 7,mass474 ,locality4 ,new ,brunswick to ,georgia1 westward intermittently to ,nebraska and ,texas4 ,wide range4 ,features of ,tree4 ,sixty to ninety feet in height1 two to four feet in diameter1 occasionally larger4 ,large smooth leaves4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light or reddish brown1 thick sapwood nearly similar1 very straight and close-grained1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 easily worked1 tough1 not strong nor durable4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,sides and backs of drawers1 bodies of carriages1 woodenware1 paper-pulp4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bh4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1aij1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #hcjj4 ,remarks4 ,basswood refers to the inner bark or bast1 sometimes utilized for cordage4 ,the flowers attract bees1 whence the name bee-tree4 ,white ,basswood1 7,tilia heterophylla17 is not distinguished commercially4 p#jhh ,,willow4 7,salix47 ,the willows are very widely distributed over both continents1 and their history extends back over a very considerable period4 ,pliny states that ,britons used to make voyages in boats of willow4 ,the willow mentioned in the ,bible was the ,salix babylnica1 or weeping willow1 later acclimated in this country4 ,the principal experience with the tough1 light1 workable1 elastic wood has been in ,europe4 ,the ancients used it for shields1 because it was one of the woods that would indent without breaking4 ,lazlett states that it is used for cart-linings because it will not splinter when struck by stones4 ,it has been used for lap-boards1 cricket-bats1 keels1 paddles1 and water-wheels4 ,it resists heat and friction and is therefore used for lining friction-brakes4 ,willow charcoal ignites readily and is highly esteemed in the manufacture of the finer kinds of gunpowder4 ,the bark is used in tanning4 ,the little branches have long been associated with baskets and woven work4 ,american trees are seldom cut up into lumber1 but are valued for shade and appearance1 and are often planted along the banks of streams to prevent erosion4 ,willows grow very rapidly and have a characteristic and attractive appearance4 ,they usually prefer low moist places4 ,there are so many hybrids and peculiar species as to render classification in all cases difficult4#ej ,black willow is the native species1 oftenest attaining to tree size in ,north ,america4 ,the ,white1 ,crack1 ,bedford1 and ,goat ,willows 7,salix alba1 ,s4 fragilis1 ,s4 russeliana1 and ,s4 caprea7 are said to afford good wood4 ,salix is said to be from the ,celtic sal1 meaning near1 and lis1 water4 ,salicylic acid is abundantly present in the bark of some species4 p#jhi ,,footnote ,footnote #ej3 ,about #adj species and varieties of the willow family have been enumerated4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ag4 ,,black ,,willow 7,salix nigra74 ,,black ,,willow4 ,salix nigra ,marsh4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,black ,willow 7local and common name74 ,swamp ,willow 7,n4 ,c41 ,s4 ,c474 ,willow 7,n4 ,y41 ,pa41 ,n4 ,c41 ,s4 ,c41 ,miss41 ,tex41 ,cal41 ,ky41 ,mo41 ,neb474 ,locality4 ,new ,brunswick to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,dakota1 ,arizona1 and ,california1 ,mexico4 ,features of ,tree4 ,forty to fifty feet in height1 two to four feet in diameter4 ,long narrow leaf1 characteristic appearance4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood brown1 sapwood nearly white1 close-grained4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,soft1 light1 weak1 checks badly in drying1 readily worked4 ,dents without splitting4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,lap-boards1 basket-making1 fuel1 charcoal4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bg4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #eej1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #fjjj4 ,remarks4 ,prefers borders of rivers and bottom lands4 ,many varieties of willow grow in the ,united ,states4 ,no one is used to any extent in construction4 p#jij ,,catalpa4 7,catalpa47 ,many kinds of wood that were formerly plentiful are now much less so4 ,attention is being turned to trees that give best results under artificial conditions4 ,catalpa1 formerly but little known1 now bids fair to become of some importance in this connection4 ,the catalpa grows rapidly and produces a coarse1 brittle1 weak1 but durable and desirable1 lumber1 well fitted to meet the requirements of railways and other branches of construction where the annual consumption is the largest4 ,fifty thousand catalpa trees have recently been planted by a ,western railway at a cost of one cent apiece4 ,catalpas at ,hutchison1 ,kansas1 were large enough to cut for posts at the end of six years4#ea ,a sample tie recently removed from a ,western railway was found to be perfect after fifteen years of service4 ,mr4 ,john ,brown#eb mentions specimens sixteen inches in diameter seventeen years after planting4 ,the species ,catalpa speciosa is said to be much the more desirable in that it is hardy and reaches a tall upright form4 ,the catalpa may be known by its showy flowers1 suggesting those of the horse chestnut4 ,these are succeeded by long pods filled with many-winged seeds and often used by children as cigars4 p#jia ,,footnotes ,footnote #ea3 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture1 ,div4 of ,forestry1 ,bulletins #bg and #cg4 ,footnote #eb3 ,the ,forester1 ,october1 #aijj1 and ,november1 #aijb4 ,kansas ,agricultural ,college ,experiment ,station1 ,bulletin #ajh4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ah4 ,,catalpa 7,catalpa74 ,,catalpa1 ,,hardy ,,catalpa4 ,catalpa speciosa ,warder4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,catalpa 7,r4 ,i41 ,n4 ,y41 ,la41 ,ill41 ,ind41 ,mo41 ,wis41 ,ia41 ,neb41 ,minn474 ,hardy ,catalpa 7,ill41 ,ia41 ,kan41 ,mich474 ,western ,catalpa 7,pa41 ,ohio1 ,kans41 ,neb41 ,ill474 ,cigar ,tree 7,mo41 ,ia474 ,indian ,bean1 ,shawneewood 7,ind474 ,bois ,puant 7,la474 ,locality4 ,central ,mississippi valley1 naturalized in many localities4 ,features of ,tree4 ,forty to sixty feet or more in height1 three to six feet in diameter2 well-formed trunks4 ,large1 white1 faintly mottled flower1 long pod or bean4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,thick heartwood brown1 thin sapwood lighter1 nearly white1 coarse-grained1 compact structure1 annual layers clearly marked4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 not strong1 durable in contact with soil4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,railway ties1 fence-posts1 rails1 adapted for cabinet-work and interior finish4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #be4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1afj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ijjj4 ,remarks4 ,hardier and better formed trunks than afforded by ,c4 catalpa4 ,a rapid grower2 sprouts vigorously from stumps4 ,a valuable tree1 promising to become better known4 ,foliage subject to attack by insects4 p#jib ,,footnote ,john ,p4 ,brown 7,the ,forester1 ,october1 #aijj74 ,,catalpa4 ,catalpa ,catalpa 7,linn47 ,karst4 ,catalpa bignonioides ,walt4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,catalpa 7local and common name74 ,indian ,cigar ,tree 7,pa474 ,smoking ,bean 7,r4 ,i474 ,cigar ,tree 7,r4 ,i41 ,n4 ,j41 ,pa41 ,w4 ,va41 ,mo41 ,ill41 ,wis41 ,ia474 ,indian ,bean 7,mass41 ,r4 ,i41 ,n4 ,y41 ,n4 ,j41 ,pa41 ,n4 ,c41 ,ill474 ,catawba1 ,catawba ,tree 7,del41 ,w4 ,va41 ,ala41 ,fla41 ,kans474 ,bean ,tree 7,n4 ,j41 ,del41 ,pa41 ,va41 ,la41 ,neb474 ,locality4 ,naturalized in many localities east of ,rocky ,mountains4 ,features of ,tree4 ,thirty to fifty feet in height1 one to two or more feet in diameter4 ,trunks not well formed4 ,a low1 wide tree1 large heart-shaped leaves1 characteristic flower4 ,long slender pod or bean4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,thick heartwood is light pink brown2 thin sapwood is nearly white4 ,coarse-grained1 compact4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 not strong1 durable in contact with soil4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,fence-posts1 railway ties1 etc4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bg4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #ifj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #hcjj4 ,remarks4 ,grows rapidly4 ,pods remain on tree after leaves fall4 ,sometimes used as cigars by children4 ,wood is less desirable than ,c4 speciosa4 p#jic ,illustration3 ,,plate #ai4 ,,sassafras 7,sassafras officinale74 ,,sassafras4 ,,mulberry4 7,sassafras47 7,morus47 ,the sassafras was one of the first ,american trees to be described in ,europe1#ec where many fictitious properties were early credited to its aromatic essences4 ,the wood is not distinguished by unusual qualities1 but trees are cut for lumber as encountered with other and more valuable species in the forest4 ,the mucilaginous leaves are of three separate shapes4 ,some have lobes on both sides of the central surface1 others have one lobe at one side so as to resemble mittens1 while yet others on the same branch have simple oval shapes4 ,the dark-blue berries on bright-red stems are so eagerly devoured by birds as to be seldom seen4 ,the characteristic flavor is most pronounced in the bark of the root4 ,the ,red1 ,white1 and ,black ,mulberries are named from the color of their fruits4 ,the former1 which is the ,american species1 has wood resembling that of the sassafras1 only in that it is not distinguished by unusual qualities4 ,its leaves1 like that of the sassafras1 are of several shapes on the same tree4 ,the very sweet fruit resembles blackberries in form4 ,the leaves used in silkworm-culture are from the ,russian mulberry1 a cross between the white mulberry and black mulberry 7,m4 alba and ,m4 nigra74#ed p#jid ,,footnotes ,footnote #ec3 ,monardes1 a ,spanish writer1 described the sassafras about half a century after the landing of ,columbus4 ,footnote #ed3 ,annual ,report ,chief ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,division1 #ahhg2 also ,bulletins on ,silk1 published by ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agriculture4 ,,sassafras4 ,sassafras officinale ,nees and ,eberm4 ,sassafras sassafras 7,linn47 ,karst4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,sassafras 7local and common name74 ,saxifrax1 ,sasifrax ,tree 7,fla41 ,tenn474 ,sassafac1 ,sassafrac 7,w4 ,va41 ,del474 ,gumbo file 7,la41 negro74 ,locality4 ,vermont to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,michigan and ,texas4 ,features of ,tree4 ,thirty to fifty feet in height1 one to three feet in diameter1 sometimes larger1 often low shrub1 characteristic odor and leaves4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,thick heartwood1 delicate brown1 thin sapwood yellowish white1 coarse-grained1 annual rings clearly marked4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 not strong1 brittle1 checks in drying1 very durable in contact with soil4 ,slightly aromatic4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,pails1 buckets1 ox-yokes1 fence-posts1 and rails4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ca4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #gcj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #hejj4 ,remarks4 ,leaves and shoots mucilaginous4 ,bark of root rich in highly aromatic essences4 ,sassafras often forms thickets4 p#jie ,,red ,,mulberry1 ,,mulberry4 ,morus rubra ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,red ,mulberry1 ,mulberry 7local and common name74 ,black ,mulberry 7,n4 ,j41 ,pa41 ,w4 ,va474 ,virginia ,mulberry ,tree 7,tenn474 ,murier ,sauvage 7,la474 ,locality4 ,massachusetts to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,nebraska and ,texas4 ,best in lower ,ohio and ,mississippi ,river basins4 ,features of ,tree4 ,fifty to sixty feet in height1 two and one half to three feet in diameter4 ,sweet edible fruit4 ,dark brown broken bark1 smooth gray branches4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,thick heartwood1 light orange yellow1 thin sapwood whitish1 coarse-grained1 compact structure1 annual layers clearly marked4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 not strong1 very durable in contact with soil1 receives good polish4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,local ship-building1 agricultural implements1 fencing1 cooperage4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #cf4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #aa1gjj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aa1jjj4 ,remarks4 ,an ornamental tree4 ,the leaves of this species are not adapted to silkworm culture4 p#jif ,,buckeye4 ,,horse ,,chestnut4 7sculus47 ,the buckeye and horse chestnut are species of the same genus4 ,the common horse chestnut 7sculus hippocastanum7 was once thought to have been a native of ,asia1 but it is now quite certain that it originated on the mountains of northern ,greece4 ,trees have been cultivated in ,europe for at least three centuries and are now extensively grown over the ,united ,states4 ,the name buckeye is generally applied to such species as are natives of ,north ,america4 ,illustration3 ,horse ,chestnut 7sculus hippocastanum74 ,the woods resemble one another in that they are soft1 straight-grained1 easily worked1 and decay rapidly when exposed4 ,they are employed to some extent in woodenware1 artificial limbs1 and paper-making4 ,the trees may be known by their round prickly pods1 containing smooth chestnut-colored bitter nuts4 ,the leaves of the buckeye are arranged in groups of five1 while those of the horse chestnut are in groups of seven4 ,the horse chestnut produces showy spotted flowers4 ,there are thirteen species of this genus1 eight of which are ,north ,american4 ,the name horse chestnut may refer ironically to the coarse nuts1 or may arise from the fact that they are occasionally eaten by cattle1 or from a horseshoe marking seen on young twigs4 ,hippocastanum is from hippos1 a horse1 and castanea1 a chestnut4 ,the name buckeye refers to the appearance of the brown nut through the paler husk partly separated when ripe1 suggesting the eye of the common deer4 p#jig ,illustration3 ,,plate #bj4 ,,horse ,,chestnut 7sculus hippocastanum74 ,,ohio ,,buckeye1 ,,fetid ,,buckeye4 sculus glabra ,willd4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,buckeye1 ,ohio ,buckeye 7local and common names74 ,fetid ,buckeye 7,w4 ,va474 ,stinking ,buckeye 7,ala41 ,ark474 ,american ,horse ,chestnut 7,pa474 ,locality4 ,ohio ,river basin to ,alabama1 portions of ,iowa1 ,kansas1 and ,indian ,territory4 ,features of ,tree4 ,twenty-five to forty-five feet in height4 ,one to one and one-half feet in diameter4 ,yellowish-white flower1 succeeded by round prickly pod or fruit4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood white1 sapwood a little darker1 close-grained1 frequent dark lines of decay4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,weak1 light1 soft1 hard to split4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,artificial limbs1 woodenware1 paper-pulp1 rarely lumber4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bh4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #iaj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #gjjj4 ,remarks4 ,,footnote ,the nearly similar horse chestnut 7,a4 hippocastanum7 is forty to fifty feet or more in height and two to four feet in diameter4 ,the light1 weak wood is seldom used4 ,the name horse may be applied to the coarse nuts ironically1 or may refer to their occasional use by cattle1 or a horseshoe marking seen on young twigs4 p#jih ,,buckeye1 ,,sweet ,,buckeye4 sculus octandra ,marsh4 sculus flava ,ait4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,buckeye 7,n4 ,c41 ,s4 ,c41 ,ala41 ,miss41 ,la41 ,tex41 ,ky474 ,sweet ,buckeye 7,w4 ,va41 ,miss41 ,tex41 ,mo41 ,ind474 ,yellow ,buckeye 7,s4 ,c41 ,ala474 ,large ,buckeye1 ,big ,buckeye 7,tex41 ,tenn474 ,locality4 ,alleghany ,mountains1 ,pennsylvania to ,georgia1 westward intermittently to ,iowa and ,texas4 ,features of ,tree4 ,forty to seventy feet in height1 one to three feet in diameter1 sometimes low shrub4 ,large mahogany-colored seed4 ,color1 ,appearance1 and ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood1 creamy white1 sapwood similar1 compact structure1 close-grained1 difficult to split4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,similar to those of ,ohio ,buckeye 7,a4 glabra74 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bf4fd4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 ,remarks4 p#jii ,illustration3 ,,plate #ba4 ,,sweet ,,gum 7,liquidambar styraciflua74 ,,gum4 7,liquidambar1 ,nyssa47 ,this name is applied to two unrelated ,american trees--the ,sweet or ,red ,gum 7,liquidambar styraciflua71 a member of the witch-hazel family1 and the ,sour or ,black ,gum 7,nyssa sylvatica71 which is one of the dogwoods4 ,the woods afforded by these two trees are also distinct from one another1 although both are referred to by the one name1 gum4 ,the softer ,sweet ,gum figures in carpentry4 ,selected pieces so resemble black walnut as to be cut into veneers and made up into furniture4 ,sour ,gum is harder1 it splits with difficulty1 and is fitted for small work and implements1 such as wagon-hubs and tool-handles4 ,both woods are close-and often cross-grained1 besides being strong1 heavy1 tough1 and difficult to season4 ,illustration3 ,,sweet ,,gum 7,liquidambar styraciflua74 ,the ,sweet ,gum tree is characterized by rough1 round balls1 resembling those of the sycamore1 by pointed star-like leaves1 suggesting those of the sugar maple1 and by corky ridges on the bark of younger branches4 ,these latter cause the bark to resemble alligator-skin and give rise to the name alligator-wood4 ,liquidambar refers to gums excreted by the tree and sometimes used in medicine4 ,the ,sour ,gum bears ovoid bluish-black sour drupes1 or fruit containing single roughened seeds4 ,the thick oval leaves are dark green above and dull or hairy below4 ,the foliage of both species becomes brilliant in autumn4 p#ajj ,,sweet ,,gum4 ,liquidambar styraciflua ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,sweet ,gum 7local and common name74 ,liquidambar 7,r4 ,i41 ,n4 ,y41 ,del41 ,n4 ,j41 ,pa41 ,la41 ,tex41 ,ohio1 ,ill474 ,red ,gum 7,va41 ,ala41 ,miss41 ,tex41 ,la474 ,gum1 ,gum ,tree 7,va41 ,s4 ,c41 ,la474 ,alligatorwood1 ,blisted 7,n4 ,j474 ,locality4 ,connecticut to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,illinois and ,texas1 ,mexico4 ,greatest development in basin of ,mississippi ,river4 ,features of ,tree4 ,eighty to one hundred feet or more in height1 three to five feet in diameter4 ,tall straight trunk1 corky ridges frequent on branches4 ,star-shaped leaves turn to brilliant scarlet in autumn1 round balls on long stems4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood rich brown suggesting black walnut1 sapwood nearly white1 close-grained1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 rather soft1 strong1 stiff1 not durable when exposed1#ee shrinks and warps badly in seasoning1 receives high polish4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,veneers1 cabinet-work1 substitute for black walnut1 shingles1 clapboards1 paving-blocks1 wooden plates4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #cg 7,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#ef #cf4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1gjj1jjj 7average of #aah tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#ef #a1bbj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #iejj 7average of #aah tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#ef #ibjj4 ,remarks4 ,wood sometimes commercially known as satin walnut and sometimes as star-leaved gum4 ,large specimens often have hollow butts4 p#aja ,,footnotes ,footnote #ee3 ,e4 ,c4 ,woodward1 ,c4 ,e4 ,division ,engineer ,texas ,pacific ,ry4 reports gum ties good after #e years' service4 ,they hold spikes well4 ,footnote #ef3 ,see page #f4 ,,sour ,,gum1 ,,black ,,gum1 ,,tupelo4 ,nyssa sylvatica ,marsh4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,sour ,gum1 ,black ,gum1 ,tupelo 7local and common names74 ,pepperidge 7,vt41 ,mass41 ,r4 ,i41 ,n4 ,y41 ,n4 ,j41 ,s4 ,c41 ,tenn41 ,mich41 ,ohio1 ,ontario74 ,wild ,pear ,tree1 ,yellow ,gum ,tree 7,tenn474 ,gum 7,md474 ,stinkwood 7,w4 ,va474 ,tupelo ,gum 7,fla474 ,locality4 ,maine to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,michigan and ,texas4 ,features of ,tree4 ,forty-five to one hundred feet high1 one and six inches to occasionally four feet in diameter4 ,ovoid1 bluish-black1 sour fruit1 with seed4 ,horizontal branches1 short spur-like lateral branchlets4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light brown or yellow1 often nearly white1 sapwood hardly distinguishable1 fine grain4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 not hard1 fibres interlaced1 therefore hard to work1 strong1 tough1 checks unless carefully seasoned1 not durable in contact with soil4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,wagon-hubs1 rollers1 ox-yokes1 bowls1 and woodenware4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ci4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1afj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aa1hjj4 ,remarks4 ,limited usefulness because difficult to work4 ,larger specimen in ,south4 ,large trees often hollow at butts and sometimes higher4 p#ajb ,,cotton ,,gum1 ,,tupelo ,,gum1 ,,large ,,tupelo4 ,nyssa aquatica ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,cotton ,gum1 ,tupelo ,gum1 ,large ,tupelo 7local and common names74 ,sour ,gum 7,ark41 ,mo474 ,tupelo1 ,swamp ,tupelo 7,n4 ,c41 ,s4 ,c41 ,la474 ,olivetree1 ,wild ,olivetree 7,miss41 ,la474 ,locality4 ,virginia and ,kentucky1 southward4 ,features of ,tree4 ,sixty to eighty feet high1 two to three feet in diameter4 ,blue oblong fruit one inch or more in length4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light brown1 often nearly white1 sapwood nearly the same4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 not strong1 soft1 compact1 difficult to work4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,turnery1 woodenware1 roots used as net-floats instead of corks4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #cb4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #gcj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #icjj4 ,remarks4 ,butts of large trees are usually hollow4 ,parts above are usually sound4 p#ajc ,illustration3 ,,plate #bb4 ,,holly1 ,,boxwood1 ,,lignumvit 7,ilex1 ,buxus1 etc474 ,box ,tree 7,buxus sempervirens74 ,holly ,foliage 7,ilex opaca74 ,lignumvit ,foliage 7,g4 sanctum74 ,dogwood ,foliage 7,cornus florida74 ,dogwood ,bark 7,cornus florida74 ,dogwood ,wood4 ,lignumvit ,wood4 ,,holly4 ,,boxwood4 ,,lignum ,,vit4 7,ilex47 7,buxus1 ,cornus1 etc47 7,guajacum47 ,the woods afforded by these trees are all demanded in small and very perfect pieces to fill needs for which no others appear to be perfectly fitted4 ,the holly 7,ilex7 grows in ,europe and ,america1 where the brilliant evergreen foliage and red berries have long been associated with the ,christmas season4 ,the name holly is probably a subversion of ,holy4#eg ,the true boxwood 7,buxus sempervirens7 attains to some size in ,europe and ,asia1 but remains a small shrub in ,america1 where it is seldom if ever cut for wood1 but is placed as a decoration along the borders of walks and gardens4 ,the wood called boxwood in ,america is not therefore derived from the box4 ,the ,lignumvits grow in ,florida1 the ,west ,indies1 and on the northern coast of ,south ,america4 ,holly-wood is noted for its fine1 even grain1 but chiefly for its smooth1 ivory-white color1 fitting it for the white of inlaid work1 for carvings and other decorations where white color and fine qualities are required4 ,the principal ,european source is the ,ilex aquifolium1 while in ,america it is the ,ilex opaca4 ,boxwood is1 as stated1 the name applied to several woods1 all noted for their fine compact structure1 rendering them suitable for very fine carvings such as are required in wood-engraving4 ,the ,eastern product as cut from the true box is so highly prized as to be sold by the pound4 ,american boxwood is chiefly derived from the ,flowering ,dogwood1 the ,mexican ,persimmon1 and the ,rose ,bay4 ,in ,australia several species of ,eucalyptus are said to be used4 ,lignumvit is noted for great strength and hardness4 ,layers of fibres alternately cross one another so that the wood may be said to crumble rather than split4 ,it has no superior for implements that must be p#ajd fine1 true1 and strong1 such as the sheaves of pulleys and handles of tools4 ,the supply is obtained from two species 7,guajacum sanctum and ,guajacum officinale74 ,holly may be known by its foliage and berries4 ,box 7,buxus7 has small1 smooth1 ovate1 dark1 evergreen leaves joining the stem so as to be opposite one another4 ,the ,dogwood is known by its flowers2 the ,lignum-vit is a low gnarled tree4 p#aje ,,footnote ,footnote #eg3 ,the ,german name ,christdorn1 the ,danish name ,christorn1 and the ,swedish name ,christtorn seem to justify this conjecture4 7,keeler1 quoting ,loudon47 ,,holly1 ,,american ,,holly4 ,ilex opaca ,ait4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,holly1 ,american ,holly 7local and common names74 ,white ,holly 7,va474 ,locality4 ,massachusetts to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,indiana and ,texas4 ,features of ,tree4 ,occasionally fifty feet in height and three feet in diameter1 frequently much smaller1 particularly in ,north4 ,foliage is evergreen4 ,bright red berries remain until spring4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood cream-white1 darkening or spotting on exposure4 ,sapwood similar or lighter4 ,very close-grained1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,tough1 moderately hard and heavy1 easily worked4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,inlaid work1 carvings1 scrollwork1 turnery1 moderately for furniture and decoration4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #cf4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #iaj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #igjj4 ,remarks4 ,the wood resembles ivory4 p#ajf ,,dogwood1 ,,flowering ,,dogwood4 ,cornus florida ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,dogwood1 ,flowering ,dogwood 7local and common names74 ,boxwood 7,conn41 ,r4 ,i41 ,n4 ,y41 ,miss41 ,mich41 ,ky41 ,ind41 ,ont474 ,false ,box-dogwood 7,ky474 ,new ,england ,boxwood 7,tenn474 ,cornel1 ,flowering ,cornel 7,tex41 ,r4 ,i474 ,locality4 ,new ,england to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,minnesota and ,texas1 ,sierra ,madra ,mountains1 ,mexico4 ,features of ,tree4 ,twenty-five to thirty-five feet in height1 one foot or more in diameter4 ,often low shrub1 large white flowers precede foliage1 red berry in fall4 ,rough blackish bark4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood rich brown1 changing to green and red4 ,sapwood lighter1 close-grained4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 strong1 tough1 hard1 receives high polish4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,wood-carving1 engraving1 bearings of machinery1 turnery4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ej4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1afj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ab1hjj4 ,remarks4 ,the ,mexican or ,black ,persimmon and the ,great ,laurel 7,rhododendron maximum7 afford substitutes4 ,yellowwood 7,schaefferia frutescens7 is also known as boxwood4 ,the names ,dogwood and ,poison ,dogwood are often applied to the sumach4 ,cornus signifies horn and refers to hardness of wood4 p#ajg ,,lignumvit4 ,guajacum sanctum4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,lignumvit 7,fla474 ,ironwood 7,fla474 ,locality4 ,semitropical ,florida1 ,bahamas1 ,san ,domingo1 ,cuba1 ,puerto ,rico4 ,features of ,tree4 ,twenty-five feet high1 one foot in diameter1 a low gnarled tree4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood rich yellow-brown in younger specimens and almost black in older ones4 ,sapwood light yellow4 ,close-grained1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,very heavy and exceedingly hard1 strong1 hard to work1 brittle4 ,lubricated by water4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,sheaves of ship-blocks1 rollers1 pulleys1 tool-handles4 ,bearings for journals rotating in water4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ga4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1bbj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aa1ajj4 ,remarks4 ,two other species1 ,guajacum officinale and ,guajacum arborium1 afford similar woods not commercially distinguished from the above4 p#ajh ,,laurel4 7,magnolia1 ,rhododendron1 ,arbutus1 etc47 ,the name ,laurel applies locally or botanically to a number of ,american plants1 several of which attain to the dignity of trees4 ,the ,big ,laurel or ,magnolia 7,m4 grandiflora7 is an ornamental tree of the highest rank1 extensively planted in parks and gardens of ,american cities as far north as ,washington1 and also grown in ,europe4 ,the wood is suitable for interior finish and is also used for fuel4 ,the ,california ,laurel 7,umbellularia californica7 and the ,madroa or ,madroa ,laurel 7,arbutus menziesii7 are ,pacific coast species of beautiful appearance1 the strong1 heavy1 hard woods of which are of economic importance4 ,professor ,sargent considers#eh that the former is the most valuable interior or cabinet wood produced by the forests of the ,pacific coast4 ,the wood of the ,madroa has little or no place in construction1 but its charcoal is used in the manufacture of gunpowder4 ,the wood of the ,great ,laurel or ,rose ,bay 7,rhododendron maximum7 has been used as boxwood4 ,the gnarled roots of the ,mountain ,laurel or calico bush 7,kalmia latifolia7 are used for rustic hanging-baskets1 seats1 and the like4 ,all of the kinds here noted have evergreen foliage4 p#aji ,,footnote ,footnote #eh3 ,page #fi1 ,catalogue ,jesup ,collection1 ,sargent4 ,,california ,,laurel1 ,,mountain ,,laurel4 ,umbellularia californica ,nutt4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,california ,laurel1 ,mountain ,laurel 7,cal41 ,nev474 ,california ,bay ,tree1 ,spice ,tree 7,cal41 ,nev41 ,oreg474 ,laurel1 ,bay-tree1 ,oreodaphne 7,cal474 ,myrtle-tree1 ,cajeput1 ,california ,olive 7,oreg474 ,californian ,sassafras4 ,locality4 ,california and ,oregon4 ,features of ,tree4 ,seventy-five to one hundred feet in height1 three to five feet in diameter4 ,evergreen foliage1 beautiful appearance4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light rich brown1 sapwood lighter brown4 ,close-grained1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 hard1 strong1 receives beautiful polish4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,ship-building1 cabinet-work1 cleats1 crosstrees4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #dj4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1eaj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aa1djj4 ,remarks4 ,a valuable ,pacific coast cabinet wood4 p#aaj ,,madro,a1 ,,madro,a ,,laurel4 ,arbutus menziesii ,pursh4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,madroa1 ,madroa ,laurel 7,cal41 ,oreg474 ,laurel1 ,laurelwood1 ,madrone4 ,madrone-tree1 ,manzanita 7,oreg41 ,cal474 ,madrove 7,cal474 ,locality4 ,pacific coast from ,british ,columbia to southern ,california4 ,features of ,tree4 ,fifty to seventy-five feet in height1 occasionally higher4 ,two to four feet in diameter4 ,straight well-formed trunk4 ,evergreen foliage4 ,a shrub in the ,south4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,thick heartwood reddish1 thin sapwood slightly pink4 ,close-grained2 numerous and conspicuous medullary rays4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 hard1 strong1 checks badly in seasoning4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,largely for gunpowder1 charcoal1 also furniture4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #dc4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1aij1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ab1jjj4 ,remarks4 ,a beautiful ornamental tree4 p#aaa ,illustration3 ,,plate #bc4 ,,persimmon1 ,,osage ,,orange1 ,,cherry 7,diospyros71 7,maclura71 7,prunus74 ,osage ,orange ,trunk 7,m4 aurantiaca74 ,wild ,black ,cherry ,trunk 7,p4 scrotina74 ,cherry ,wood4 ,osage ,orange ,wood4 ,persimmon ,wood4 ,,persimmon4 ,,osage ,,orange4 ,,cherry4 7,diospyros47 7,maclura47 7,prunus47 ,the ,persimmon 7,diospyros virginiana7 grows in many of the central and southern ,united ,states and affords a hard1 tough wood1 resembling fine-grain hickory1 that is used for implements and other small work4 ,the plum-like fruit is remarkably astringent when green1 but is sweet1 rich1 and palatable when ripe4 ,the persimmon is a member of the ebony family 7,ebenace71 and the extremely close-grained heartwood is almost black4 ,the ebony of commerce is derived from tropical species of this genus4 ,the ,osage ,orange or ,bois ,d',arc 7,maclura aurantiaca7 is found in the ,gulf and neighboring ,states1 and has been cultivated in the ,north4 ,the wood is unusually hard and strong1 and is of a yellow color1 which1 however1 darkens with age4 ,it is in many ways a unique and serviceable product1 widely utilized locally in the ,south1 but almost unknown in the ,north1 and nowhere sufficiently appreciated4 ,the aborigines made bows and arrows of it1 whence the name ,bois ,d',arc4 ,the tree affords a useless fruit somewhat resembling the common orange in appearance4 ,the widely distributed ,wild ,cherry or ,wild ,black ,cherry 7,prunus serotina7 supplies the cherry wood of commerce4 ,this wood is strong1 hard1 fine-grained1 red-colored1 and one of the most popular decorative woods of the ,american forests4 ,sweet or ,cherry ,birch 7,betula lenta7 is often stained so as to imitate it1 while it of itself is stained so as to resemble mahogany4 ,the wood of the cultivated cherry is not used in the ,united ,states4 ,the wild cherry bears purplish-black fruit somewhat larger than peas1 sweetly bitter when ripe4 ,the bark is also bitter4 ,it should be noted of these woods that the thin heart of the persimmon is black1 that of the ,bois d',arc is yellow1 and that of the cherry is red4 ,each receives a high polish4 p#aab ,,persimmon4 ,diospyros virginiana ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,persimmon 7local and common name74 ,date ,plum 7,n4 ,j41 ,tenn474 ,simmon1 ,possumwood 7,fla474 ,plaqueminier 7,la474 ,locality4 ,connecticut to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,missouri and ,texas4 ,features of ,tree4 ,occasionally seventy feet in height1 one to two feet in diameter4 ,soft plum-like fruit1 astringent when green1 sweet when ripe4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood dark-brown or black1 sapwood light-brown1 often with darker spots4 ,very thin heartwood4 ,very close-grained1 compact structure4 ,medullary rays conspicuous4 ,resembles hickory4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,hard1 heavy1 strong4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,plane-stocks1 shoe-lasts1 etc4 ,prized for shuttles4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #di4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1aaj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ab1djj4 ,remarks4 ,the astringency of unripe fruit is due to tannic acid4 ,the dried and roasted seeds have been used for coffee4#ei ,heartwood is not greatly developed in trees under one hundred years of age4 p#aac ,,footnote ,footnote #ei3 ,u4 ,s4 ,dispensatory4 ,,osage ,,orange4 ,maclura aurantiaca ,nutt4 ,toxylon pomiferum ,raf4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,osage ,orange 7local and common name74 ,bois ,d',arc 7,la41 ,tex41 ,mo474 ,bodark1 ,bodock 7,kans474 ,yellow-wood1 ,osage ,apple ,tree 7,tenn474 ,hedge1 ,hedge-plant1 ,osage 7,ill41 ,ia41 ,neb474 ,mock ,orange 7,la474 ,bow-wood 7,ala474 ,locality4 ,southern ,arkansas1 ,indian ,territory1 and ,texas4 ,cultivated elsewhere1 as in ,massachusetts1 ,pennsylvania1 and ,michigan4 ,features of ,tree4 ,twenty to fifty feet in height1 rarely beyond one and one-half feet in diameter4 ,fruit resembles orange4 ,long thorns4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood bright orange1 turns brown on exposure4 ,sapwood light yellow1 close-grained1 annual rings clearly marked4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,hard1 heavy1 very strong1 flexible1 durable in contact with soil4 ,receives beautiful polish4 ,shrinks in seasoning4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,fence-posts1 piles1 telegraph poles1 railway ties1 paving-blocks1 occasionally indoor decoration4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #dh4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1cjj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #af1jjj4 ,remarks4 ,indians used wood for bows1 thus the name ,bois ,d',arc1 corrupted into ,bow ,dark or ,bodark4 ,a valuable wood not enough appreciated4 ,often planted as hedges4 ,the fruit is useless4 p#aad ,illustration3 ,,osage ,,orange4 ,,wild ,,black ,,cherry1 ,,wild ,,cherry4 ,prunus serotina ,ehrh4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,wild ,black ,cherry1 ,wild ,cherry 7local and common names74 ,black ,cherry 7,me41 ,n4 ,h41 ,vt41 ,r4 ,i41 ,n4 ,y41 ,miss41 ,ky41 ,mich41 ,wis41 ,ind41 ,neb474 ,rum ,cherry 7,n4 ,h41 ,mass41 ,r4 ,i41 ,miss41 ,neb474 ,whiskey ,cherry 7,minn474 ,choke ,cherry 7,mo41 ,wis41 ,ia474 ,locality4 ,eastern to ,central ,united ,states4 ,features of ,tree4 ,forty to eighty feet in height4 ,two to three or more feet in diameter4 ,bitter bark1 pea-sized fruit4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood reddish brown1 sapwood yellow1 fine straight grain1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 hard1 strong1 easily worked4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,cabinet-work1 interior finish4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #cf4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1bjj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aa1gjj4 ,remarks4 ,the bitter bark contains medicinal properties valued in bronchitis and other troubles4 ,the fruit1 agreeable when ripe1 is also used in medicines and cordials4 p#aae ,illustration3 ,,wild ,,black ,,cherry 7,prunus serotina74 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bd4 ,,teak ,,and ,,greenheart 7,tectona1 ,nectandra1 etc474 ,greenheart 7,nectandra rodiali74 ,teak 7,tectona grandis74 ,teak ,tree4 ,teakwood4 ,lignumvit ,wood4 ,,teak4 ,,greenheart4 7,tectona47 7,nectandra47 ,there are two ,teaks2 the principal one 7,tectona grandis71 a native of ,asia1 has been called the ,oak of the ,indian forests1 the other 7,oldfieldia africana7 is an ,african tree4#fj ,the ,greenheart 7,nectandra rodiali7 is of the laurel family and grows in ,south ,america4 ,the woods1 although foreign1 are of such nature as to have widely established reputations1 and each has at some time been used in construction4 ,teak suggests oak1 save that it is lighter and has a more uniform structure4 ,it is very durable1 and an oily secretion repels insects and preserves iron fastenings4 ,during the supremacy of wooden vessels it was regarded as one of the best ship-building woods in existence4 ,the grain fits it for carvings1 and it is now known in ,north ,america chiefly because of this fact4 ,indian teak is the wood usually referred to4 ,greenheart was early placed among the first class of ship-building woods by ,lloyd's ,register1 and is yet taken to ,europe to some extent for dock-and ship-building and for implements1 but is seldom found and but little known in the ,united ,states4 ,it is strong1 hard1 durable1 and extremely heavy1 the latter quality being so pronounced as to limit its field of usefulness4 p#aaf ,,footnote ,footnote #fj3 ,it was long supposed that ,african teak was supplied by the species ,swietenia senegalensis4 ,it is now known that the source is ,oldfieldia africana1 of the family ,euphorbiace4 ,it is not impossible that wood passing as teak may be derived from yet other species4 ,,teak4 ,tectona grandis4 ,nomenclature4 ,teak4 ,indian ,oak4 ,teek4 ,sagwan4 ,locality4 ,india1 ,burma1 ,siam1 ,ceylon4 ,features of ,tree4 ,eighty to one hundred feet in height1 three to four feet in diameter1 sometimes larger4 ,straight trunk1 large drooping deciduous leaves4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,variable1 brownish-yellow1 straight1 even-grained4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,moderately hard1 strong1 easily worked1 stands well1 oily1 fragrant1 resists termites1 preserves iron4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,furniture1 ship-building1 timbers1 backing for armor-plates4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ej 7,laslett74 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1cch1jjj 7,lazlett74 #b1ajj1jjj 7,thurston74 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ae1jjj 7,thurston74 ,remarks4 ,the oil is thought to preserve iron and repel termites4 ,burma1 ,malabar1 ,rangoon1 and other teaks take names from districts producing them4 ,the distinct ,african teak 7,oldfieldia africana7 affords wood sometimes marketed as ,african mahogany and sometimes as ,african oak4 7,forestry methods1 see ,burma ,teak ,forests1 ,sir ,dietrich ,brandis1 ,garden and ,forest1 ,vol4 ,,ix1 ,forestry and ,irrigation1 ,vol4 ,,ix1 ,no4 #c1 p4 #aci47 p#aag ,,greenheart4 ,nectandra rodiali4 ,nomenclature4 ,greenheart 7local and common name74 ,locality4 ,british ,guiana and adjacent portions of ,south ,america and the ,west ,indies4 ,features of ,tree4 ,twenty-five to sometimes seventy feet in height1 two to four feet in diameter4 ,a straight tree4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood dark green to chestnut or nearly black1 sapwood similar4 ,clean1 straight1 compact structure1 free from knots4 ,numerous pores1 annual layers hardly distinguishable4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,exceptionally heavy1 strong1 and durable1 tough1 hard1 elastic1 receives high polish1 breaks suddenly4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,ship-keels1 frames1 rollers1 turnery1 also beams1 planks1 and piles 7,europe74 ,in ,america tops of fishing-rods and very occasionally veneers4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #gb 7,lazlett74 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1jij1jjj 7,lazlett74 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aj1jjj 7,thurston74 ,remarks4 ,excessive weight unfits it for many purposes4 ,placed in first class of ship-building woods by ,lloyd's ,register4 ,formerly supposed to repel teredo4 ,generally exported through ,demerara to ,england4 p#aah ,,mahogany4 7,swietenia1 ,khaya1 ,soymida1 ,cedrela1 etc47 ,there are three principal mahogany trees3 the ,central ,american or true mahogany 7,swietenia mahogani71 the ,african mahogany 7,khaya senegalensis71 and the ,indian mahogany 7,soymida febrifuga74 ,there are also minor species called mahoganies4#fa ,american mahogany was originally divided by dealers into ,spanish and ,honduras wood1 the former from the then ,spanish-,american possessions4 ,a considerable supply now comes from ,mexico1 taking name from port of shipment2 as1 ,frontera1 ,laguna1 ,santa ,ana1 ,tecolutla1 ,minatitlan1 and ,tonala1 desirability being much in the order named4 ,the ,african field is the latest and probably most important1 very large quantities of its wood being distributed through ,english markets4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #be4 ,,mahogany 7,swietenia mahagoni74 ,two ,specimens of ,wood4 ,mahogany1 placed among the second class of ship-building woods by ,lloyd's ,register1 was once used to some extent in place of oak in naval architecture1 but is now so greatly valued for decoration as to be employed for little else1 save occasionally the hulls of small pleasure craft4 ,the decorative value is due to a combination of beauty1 working qualities1 and durability4 ,beauty is influenced by both grain and warm red color4 ,the latter is generally light1 and although it subsequently darkens1 in most cases1 to a characteristic and rich reddish-brown1 is usually induced immediately by stains4 ,the grain is not only beautiful of itself1 but is such as to receive those stains and finishing processes thus demanded4 ,different localities produce woods varying in tint and grain4 ,individual p#aai trees also differ in desirability4 ,no two are alike4 ,beautiful grain effects are often obtained in crotches or junctions between trunk and branch1 and such pieces bring high prices4 ,mahogany is generally used as a veneer4 ,layers are glued either to some central piece or core or else to one another4 ,the layers are arranged so as to cross one another's grain1 and results are usually thought to be more desirable than those obtained from solid wood4 ,few woods glue better1 and few shrink or distort less when in place4 ,spanish ,cedar 7,cedrela odorata7 is a broadleaf wood1 and not a conifer as is usually supposed4 ,it is nearly related to1 and usually found and cut with1 true mahogany4 ,lindley#fb divides ,cedrelec into two sub-orders3 ,swieteni1 including the true mahoganies1 and ,cedrel1 with nine genera and twenty-five species distributed over tropical ,asia and ,america4 ,prima vera or white mahogany belongs to ,bignoniace1 which also includes the catalpas4 p#abj ,,footnotes ,footnote #fa3 ,mahogany and mountain mahogany are names applied in the ,united ,states to ,rhus integrifolia1 a native of ,lower ,california and the coast islands1 and to the following species of the ,rocky ,mountain ,region 7,idaho to ,arizona73 ,cercocarpus ledifolius1 ,used for fuel4 ,cercocarpus parvifolius1 ,used for fuel4 ,cercocarpus breviflorus1 ,heavy1 hard1 not common4 ,footnote #fb3 ,john ,lindley1 ,treasury of ,botany1 p4 #bdc1 ,part ,i2 also see ,gifford1 ,forestry and ,irrigation1 ,vol4 ,,viii1 ,no4 #d1 p4 #agd2 also ,correspondence ,messrs4 ,wm4 ,e4 ,uptegrove ,brother1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,,mahogany4 ,swietenia mahogani ,jacq4 ,nomenclature4 ,mahogany 7local and common name74 ,spanish ,mahogany 7,cuba1 ,san ,domingo1 ,west ,indies74 ,mexican ,mahogany 7,frontera1 ,laguna1 ,santa ,anna1 and other ,mexican ports74 ,honduras ,mahogany 7,honduras74 ,baywood1 ,madeira1 ,redwood4 ,locality4 ,florida ,keys1 ,bahamas1 ,west ,indies1 ,mexico1 ,central ,america1 ,peru4 ,features of ,tree4 ,florida specimens forty-five feet in height and two or more feet in diameter4 ,foreign trees larger4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,light1 rich reddish brown4 ,thin sapwood yellow4 ,smooth1 fine uniform texture1 inconspicuous rings1 conspicuous pores1 sometimes filled with white substance4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,strong1 brittle1 durable1 holds glue1 takes stains and high polish1 small distortion in seasoning1 stands well4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,cabinet-work1 veneers2 formerly ship-building4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #de4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1eaj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ad1jjj4 ,remarks4 ,desirability varies with locality4 ,spanish mahogany ranks first1 and harder ,mexican woods next4 ,mahogany is usually stained4 ,african mahogany is now successfully rivaling the ,american product4 p#aba ,,white ,,mahogany4 ,prima vera4 ,tabeuia ,donnell-,smithii 7,rose74 ,nomenclature4 ,white ,mahogany1 ,prima vera 7local and common names74 ,locality4 ,mexico and ,central ,america4 ,features of ,tree4 ,fifty to seventy-five feet in height1 two to four feet in diameter4 ,tall1 slender1 a beautiful tree4 ,numerous golden-yellow flowers precede the leaves4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,cream-white4 ,beautiful1 fine grain1 resembles mahogany4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,works and stands well4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,cabinet-work1 fine furniture1 veneers4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 ,remarks4 ,many twelve-foot logs imported through ,san ,francisco and west4 ,higher-priced than ,red ,mahogany4 ,named after discoverer4 ,the wood of the ,butternut or ,white ,walnut is sometimes sold as ,white ,mahogany4 ,,footnote ,see ,botanical ,gazette1 ,vol4 ,,xvii1 #ahib1 p4 #dah2 ,contribution ,u4 ,s4 ,national ,herbarium1 p4 #cdf1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #i1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agriculture1 ,division of ,botany4 p#abb ,,spanish ,,cedar1 ,,mexican ,,cedar4 ,cedrela odorata ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 ,spanish ,cedar1 ,mexican ,cedar1 ,cuban ,cedar 7local and common names74 ,locality4 ,mexico1 ,cuba1 ,west ,indies4 ,features of ,tree4 ,fifty to eighty feet in height1 two to five feet in diameter4 ,pale-yellow flowers4 ,pods resemble pecan-nuts4 ,tree suggests ,english walnut 7,j4 regia74 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,brownish red1 straight1 even1 compact grain4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,soft1 fragrant1 porous1 durable4 ,resembles cedar woods derived from coniferous trees 7page #afg72 also resembles mahogany4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,cigar-boxes1 boats1 fine cabinet-work4 ,may be used in place of mahogany4 ,the figured ,australian ,red ,cedar 7,c4 australis7 is locally used for furniture1 joinery1 carriages1 ceilings1 door-frames1 etc4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 ,remarks4 ,used for cigar-boxes1 because its porous structure assists cigars to season1 and its odor improves their flavor4 ,the ,cuban supply is practically exhausted4 ,mexico is now the chief ,american source4 ,trees grow rapidly4 p#abc ,,footnotes ,the ,toon ,cedar 7,cedrela toona ,roxburgh7 of the ,orient is the same as the ,red ,cedar 7,cedrela australis ,f4 v4 ,m47 of ,australia4 ,the ,cedar 7,cedrela odorata ,blanco7 is thought to be distinct ,philippine species4 ,forestry and ,irrigation1 p4 #agc1 ,vol4 ,,viii1 ,no4 #d2 ,writings ,dr4 ,gifford2 ,correspondence ,wm4 ,e4 ,uptegrove ,brother1 and others4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bf4 ,,eucalyptus 7,eucalyptus74 ,blue ,gum ,tree 7,e4 globulus7 ,california4 ,blue ,gum ,bark 7,e4 globulus7 ,california4 ,jarrah ,trunk1 7,e4 marginata7 ,australia4 ,jarrah ,wood 7,e4 marginata74 ,karri ,wood 7,e4 diversicolor74 ,,eucalyptus4 7,eucalyptus47 ,these trees1 locally known as ,stringy-barks1 ,iron-barks1 and ,gum-trees1 are natives of ,australia and the neighboring islands4 ,some of the nearly four hundred species have been widely transplanted1 although none have thus far succeeded in this country outside of ,florida and ,california4#fc ,the ,blue ,gum 7,e4 globulus7 is the species commonly referred to when ,eucalyptus is mentioned in ,north ,america4 ,the ,eucalypts are noted for their great size1 rapid growth1 tough1 durable wood1 and alleged effect upon health4 ,size is illustrated by the species ,eucalyptus amygdalina1 specimens of which have reached a height of four hundred and eighty feet and are thus the tallest1 although not the largest1 trees known to man4 ,growth is shown by specimens of the ,eucalyptus gunnii1 which have grown in excess of two feet a month during the first year4#fd ,the working qualities of ,jarrah1 ,karri1 and ,tuart woods 7,e4 marginata1 ,e4 diversicolor1 and ,e4 gomphocephala7 are such as to cause them to take high rank in local construction4 ,the first two have been preferred beyond all other species for paving the streets of ,london and of ,paris4 ,some improvement in health is said to have followed the introduction of the ,blue ,gum 7,eucalyptus globulus7 in malarial districts1 such as those around ,rome4 ,it is not certain whether these results are due to the presence of essences in the foliage1 although medicinal properties are ascribed to them and they are used in the preparation of listerine and similar compounds1 or p#abd whether they are due to the fact that the leaves evaporate unusual quantities of water drawn by the roots from the soil4#fe ,the trees are characterized by leathery evergreen foliage of many shades1 such as blue1 gray1 and green4 ,the leaves of young and old trees differ widely in some species4 ,those of young blue gums are bright blue1 oval1 and stalkless1 while leaves of older trees have stems1 are dark green and sickle-shaped4 ,the characteristic odor is the only point in common between the foliage of the old and young of this species4 ,there are1 as stated1 nearly four hundred species4 p#abe ,,footnotes ,footnote #fc3 ,first introduced in #ahef2 #a1jjj1jjj specimens thought to be in ,california1 #ahgd4 ,a4 ,kinney1 ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,bulletin ,no4 #aa4 ,footnote #fd3 ,eucalyptus globulus is said to have grown in ,california at the rate of two feet a month during the first year4 ,works of ,baron von ,mller2 ,report ,j4 ,ednie-,brown1 ,forest ,commissioner1 ,western ,australia2 ,correspondence ,m4 ,francis ,chapman1 ,esq41 ,london2 ,the ,forester1 ,jan4 #aijj2 ,abbot ,kinney1 ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,bulletin ,no4 #aa4 ,footnote #fe3 ,the writer has seen long rows of ,california blue gums cut down because they dried the soil4 ,the general form of a blue gum tree suggests that of large black ,locust4 ,mc,clatchie1 ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,bulletin ,no4 #ce4 ,,jarrah4 ,eucalyptus marginata4 ,nomenclature4 ,jarrah 7local and common name74 ,mahogany ,gum 7,australia74 ,locality4 ,western coast of ,australia4 ,features of ,tree4 ,ninety to one hundred or more feet in height1 two to five feet in diameter4 ,fifty or more feet to lowest branch4 ,dull1 sombre appearance4 ,branches concentrated at top4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,reddish1 resembles mahogany1 also ,kauri wood4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 non-absorbent1 somewhat oily1 durable in contact with the soil1 receives good polish4 ,characteristic odor1 wears thin evenly1 not easily inflammable4 ,said to repel teredo and termite4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,marine work1 exposed positions1 ship-building1 bridge timbers1 street-paving 7,london and ,paris74 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #fe 7,ednie-,brown74#ff ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #b1jhj1jjj 7,ednie-,brown74#ff ,modulus of ,rupture4 #hijj 7,ednie-,brown74#ff ,remarks4 ,chief timber tree of southwestern ,australia4 ,preferred by ,australian ship-builders4 ,often confused with ,karri4#fg ,specimen forty years old two feet in diameter4 ,mller calls it the least inflammable of woods4 ,marginata refers to thick-edged leaves4 p#abf ,,footnotes ,footnote #ff3 ,report ,forests ,western ,australia1 ,presented to ,parliament1 #ahif4 ,footnote #fg3 ,the ,melbourne ,argus1 ,december #ca1 #ahib1 states that the woods may be distinguished by the fact that the ashes of ,jarrah are white and those of ,karri black4 ,specimens of ,jarrah wood seen by the writer were dark1 suggesting black walnut1 those of ,karri were red1 resembling mahogany4 ,,karri4 ,eucalyptus diversicolor4 ,nomenclature4 ,karri 7many localities74 ,white ,gum 7,australia74 ,locality4 ,australia1 ,new ,zealand4 ,features of ,tree4 ,two to three hundred and fifty feet in height1 four to eighteen feet in diameter4 ,a straight graceful tree1 lower branches often one hundred and fifty feet from ground4 ,smooth yellow white bark4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,reddish brown1 fibres interlaced1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,hard1 heavy1 tough and elastic1 non-absorbent1 durable1 difficult to work1 wears evenly1 characteristic odor4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,construction1 railway ties1 piles1 marine work1 pavements 7,london and ,paris74 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #fc 7,ednie-,brown74#fh ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #b1hij1jjj 7,ednie-,brown74#fh ,modulus of ,rupture4 #hjjj 7,ednie-,brown74#fh ,remarks4 ,once named ,eucalyptus colossea because of great size4 ,rich in essential oils4 ,grows rapidly1 one specimen thirty-five years old1 having reached a height of one hundred and thirty-five feet4 ,distinct from ,kauri ,pine 7,d4 australis7 of ,new ,zealand4 ,diversicolor refers to leaves the upper and lower sides of which differ in color4 p#abg ,,footnote ,footnote #fh3 ,report ,forests ,western ,australia1 ,presented to ,parliament1 #ahif4 ,,tuart4 ,eucalyptus gomphocephala4 ,nomenclature4 ,tuart 7local and common name74 ,tewart 7,australia74 ,tooart 7,australia74 ,white ,gum 7,australia74 ,locality4 ,australia4 ,features of ,tree4 ,one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet in height1 four to six feet in diameter4 ,lower branches forty or more feet from ground4 ,bright1 cheerful appearance1 straight trunk1 gray-white bark4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light yellow1 compact appearance1 fibres interlaced4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,very hard1 heavy1 strong1 tough1 rigid1 durable1 seasons well4 ,difficult to split or work4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,keels1 buffers1 stern-posts1 frames1 wheel-hubs1 shafts4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #fg 7,ednie-,brown74#fi ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #b1cjj1jjj 7,ednie-,brown74#fi ,modulus of ,rupture4 #icjj 7,ednie-,brown74#fi ,remarks4 ,highly prized locally4 ,one of the strongest of woods4 ,gomphocephala refers to peculiarities in lid of calyx-tube4 p#abh ,,footnote ,footnote #fi3 ,report on ,forests ,western ,australia1 ,presented to ,parliament1 #ahif4 ,,blue ,,gum1 ,,fever ,,tree4 ,eucalyptus globulus4 ,nomenclature4 ,blue ,gum 7local and common name74 ,fever ,tree 7,australia74 ,balluck 7,australia74 ,locality4 ,native of ,australia acclimated in southern ,california and elsewhere throughout the world4 ,features of ,tree4 ,two hundred to sometimes three hundred or more feet in height4 ,three to six feet in diameter4 ,loose1 shaggy1 exfoliating bark4#gj ,leaves sometimes twelve inches in length4 ,color varies with age4 ,characteristic odor4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,straw color4 ,sapwood lighter4 ,indistinct annual rings4 ,fibres interlaced4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,hard1 heavy1 durable1 difficult to split4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,rollers1 paving-blocks1 ship-building1 fuel4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #dc to #fi 7,mueller74 #eg to #fi 7,lazlett74 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 ,remarks4 ,the ,eucalyptus of ,california4 ,the species planted in malarial districts4 ,sanitary powers due to evaporation from large leaves or presence of essential oils1 which are thought to have medicinal qualities4 ,grows very rapidly4 p#abi ,,footnote ,footnote #gj3 ,the bark is variable4 ,some trees of nearly #a foot diameter have smooth green bark resembling that on young willow saplings2 most others have the shaggy bark1 while from some this has dropped away1 exposing a smooth grayish interior suggesting that of the sycamore4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bg4 ,,pine 7,pinus74 ,white ,pine ,foliage 7,p4 strobus74 ,hard ,pine ,trunk 7,p4 palustris74 7,photograph by ,edward ,j4 ,davison47 ,white ,pine ,tree 7,p4 strobus74 7,courtesy ,n4 ,c4 ,geol4 ,survey47 ,hard ,pine ,wood 7,p4 palustris74 ,soft or ,sugar ,pine ,wood 7,p4 lambertiana74 ,,needleleaf ,,woods4 ,the trees affording these woods cover large areas in the natural forests of the ,northern ,hemisphere4 ,they exist1 but to an unimportant extent1 in the ,south4 ,cedar1 larch1 and cypress figure in ancient history1 but woods generally were not employed until recent times4#ga ,pine1 spruce1 hemlock1 and other so-called soft woods are of this group4 ,needle-leaved woods are characterized by uniform fibre-conditions1 presence of resins1 and lighter weights4 ,the vertical structure consists of simple1 similar1 elongated tubes or cells1 tapering and finally closing at their ends1 known as tracheids4 ,these are arranged with more or less regularity1 and woods are correspondingly easy to work4 ,pith-rays are scarcely visible1 and sections do not show pores4 ,cavities known as resin-ducts1 and which are not real vessels but rather simple intercellular spaces1 secrete resins so important in making these woods durable and elastic4 ,trees afford large1 straight pieces4 ,woods are used in carpentry and heavy constructions4 ,the total requirement greatly exceeds that for hard woods4 ,the resinous1 usually evergreen1 leaves and the cones are sufficient to identify these trees4 ,needleleaf1 softwood1 conifer1 and evergreen trees are the same4 p#acj ,,footnote ,footnote #ga3 ,see ,oak1 pages #aa et seq4 ,the woods have always been important in the ,united ,states4 ,,pine4 7,pinus47 ,these trees were not regarded seriously until about the latter half of the eighteenth century4 ,their woods are now the principal ones in carpentry and construction1 and are more used than any others4 ,they are to the soft woods what the oaks are to the hard woods1 and they stand at present with reference to all woods much as iron does to all metals4 ,pine is prized because of a combination of strength1 elasticity1 light weight1 working qualities1 and availability1 such as fits it for those constructions requiring the largest quantities of wood4 ,the pines have smooth1 straight1 solid trunks1 usually destitute of branches for many feet from the ground4 ,there are needle-shaped1 more or less cylindrical1 evergreen leaves from one to many inches in length1 gathered in clusters of two1 three1 or five1 their number and the fact that they are thus clustered being important bases of classification4 ,there are also cones of woody overlapping scales4 ,they reproduce with difficulty1#gb and mature so slowly that ultimate survival of modern conditions must probably be as cultivated trees4 ,thirty-nine of the seventy known species of pine are found in the ,united ,states4 ,these with their woods are separated into two groups known as hard and soft pines4 ,the ,dantzic or ,northern pine 7,pinus silvestris7 is the principal ,european species4 p#aca ,,footnote ,footnote #gb3 ,the roots of most species die with cutting of trees4 ,there is no power of producing new shoots4 7,the pitch pine 7,pinus rigida7 is an exception to this rule47 ,seeds also have short-lived vitality4 ,trees are easily raised from fresh seeds4 ,,soft ,,pine4 ,soft pine is soft1 clean1 light1 uniform1 easily worked1 not strong1 free from knots and resins1 and obtainable in large and perfect pieces4 ,the wood is whitish and the yearly rings are not pronounced4 ,the supply is divided1 as obtained from the white pine on the one hand1 and from the sugar-pine and all other species on the other4 ,white pine 7,pinus strobus7 grows in the north1 central1 and eastern ,united ,states and was formerly the important tree of ,north ,america4 ,it emphasized the forest industries of ,maine and of ,michigan1 and methods connected with harvesting it have influenced logging practices in many fields4 ,it was long the only softwood seriously considered by ,northern lumbermen4 ,thirty per cent of the sawn timber and lumber used in this country in #ahii was drawn from this species4#gc ,white pine is diminishing so rapidly as to be already practically unobtainable in many places4 ,the ,sugar ,pine 7,pinus lambertiana7 of the ,western ,states is a tree growing at high elevations and is so large as to take rank with the redwoods and other of the world's greatest trees4 ,some material is derived from the ,western white pine 7,pinus flexilis7 and one or more minor species4 ,sugar pine resembles1 but is not as desirable as1 white pine4 ,the sweetish exudations from this tree are sometimes used in medicine4 p#acb ,,footnotes ,footnote #gc3 ,roth1 ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,bul4 ,no4 #bb1 p4 #gc4 ,white ,pine ,timber ,supplies4 ,u4 ,s4 ,s4 ,doc4 #ee-a1 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,,hard ,,pine4 ,hard pine differs from soft pine in that it is hard1 resinous1 heavy1 harder to work1 and very strong4 ,it also is obtainable in large pieces4 ,the orange-yellow wood is more or less figured4 ,the annual deposits are pronounced and are separated into two sharply divided rings4 ,the supply is chiefly derived from the longleaf1 shortleaf1 ,cuban1 and loblolly pines of the ,south ,atlantic ,states4 ,the longleaf pine 7,pinus palustris7 is distinctly the most important of its group4 ,the wood is ideal for heavy constructions4 ,beams1 docks1 trestles1 and frames of cars are formed of it4 ,the trees afford the greater bulk of turpentine1 tar1 and resin1 or naval stores1 produced in this country4#gd ,cuban1 shortleaf1 and loblolly pine woods 7,p4 heterophylla1 ,p4 echinata1 and ,p4 tda7 are nearly similar4 ,longleaf and ,cuban pines are seldom separated1 while shortleaf and loblolly pines are also mixed4 ,longleaf pine usually affords finer structure and more heartwood than ,cuban pine4 ,strength and weight averages of both woods are in excess of those of shortleaf and loblolly pines4 ,no method of invariably telling these four woods apart has as yet been determined4 7,roth47 ,any or all of them are practically liable to be delivered in response to a demand for ,southern pine4 ,johnson considers shortleaf pine as good as longleaf pine of equal weight1 and suggests environment as a means of identification4 ,palustris1 signifying swampy1 is misleading1 since long leaf pine prefers dry1 sandy soil and tracts known as pine barrens4 ,mitis refers to the soft1 delicate foliage of shortleaf pine4 ,tda signifies torch4 ,the trees may be told by differences in their leaves and cones4 p#acc ,longleaf 7,p4 palustris7 ,leaves ,number in ,cluster #c ,length1 in4 #aj to #ae ,cones ,diameter 7open71 in4 #d to #e ,length1 in4 #f to #aj ,cuban 7,p4 heterophylla7 ,leaves ,number in ,cluster #b or #c ,length1 in4 #h to #ab ,cones ,diameter 7open71 in4 #c to #e ,length1 in4 #d to #g ,shortleaf 7,p4 echinata7 ,leaves ,number in ,cluster #b or #c ,length1 in4 #b to #e ,cones ,diameter 7open71 in4 #a to #b ,length1 in4 #b ,loblolly 7,p4 tda7 ,leaves ,number in ,cluster #c ,length1 in4 #e to #aj ,cones ,diameter 7open71 in4 #b to #c ,length1 in4 #c to #d ,a confusion exists in the naming of the pines4 ,american white pine is known as yellow or ,weymouth pine in ,europe1 and all ,american hard pines are there often known as pitch pines4 ,the ,european1 ,dantzic1 or ,northern pine has also many names1 principally depending on port of shipment4 ,georgia1 ,southern1 ,yellow1 ,hard1 and even ,pitch pine1 are interchangeable names in this country4 ,the species palustris has thirty local names4 p#acd ,,footnote ,footnote #gd3 ,manufacture of tar1 pitch1 etc4 7,see ,report ,chief ,u4 ,s4 ,div4 ,forestry1 #ahib1 p4 #cef2 also ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,bulletin ,no4 #ac47 ,,white ,,pine4 ,pinus strobus ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,white ,pine 7local and common name74 ,weymouth ,pine 7,mass41 ,s4 ,c474 ,soft ,pine 7,pa474 ,northern ,pine 7,n4 ,c474 ,spruce ,pine 7,tenn474 ,pumpkin ,pine4 ,locality4 ,north-central and northeastern ,united ,states1 northward into ,canada1 southward to ,illinois1 and along the ,alleghanies into ,georgia1 intermittently4 ,features of ,tree4 ,seventy-five to one hundred and fifty feet in height4 ,three to six feet in diameter1 sometimes larger4 ,erect impressive form4 ,tufts of five soft1 slender1 evergreen leaves in long sheath4 ,cones four to six inches long1 one inch thick1 slightly curved4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood cream-white1 sapwood nearly white4 ,close1 straight grain4 ,compact structure4 ,comparatively free from knots and resin4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,soft1 uniform1 seasons well1 easy to work1 nails without splitting1 fairly durable4 ,lightest and weakest of eastern ,united ,states pines4 ,shrinks less than other pines4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,carpentry1 construction1 matches1 spars1 boxes1 numerous uses4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bd 7,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#ge #bd4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1cij1jjj 7average of #acj tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#ge #a1baj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #gijj 7average of #abj tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#ge #hijj4 ,remarks4 ,formerly the chief lumber tree of the ,united ,states4 ,the supply is rapidly diminishing4 p#ace ,,footnotes ,footnote #ge3 ,see page #f4 ,the ,white ,pine4 ,spaulding4 ,u4 ,s ,forestry ,bul4 ,no4 #bb4 ,white ,pine a ,study4 ,mr4 ,gifford ,pinchot4 7,century ,co47 ,white ,pine ,timber ,supplies4 ,u4 ,s4 ,doc4 #dj ,senate1 #ee-a1 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,,white ,,pine4 ,pinus flexilis ,james4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,white ,pine 7,cal41 ,nev41 ,utah1 ,col41 ,n4 ,m474 ,pine 7,utah1 ,mont474 ,bull ,pine 7,col474 ,western and ,rocky ,mountain ,white ,pine 7,cal474 ,locality4 ,rocky ,mountains1 ,montana to ,mexico4 ,features of ,tree4 ,forty to fifty feet in height1 one to three feet in diameter4 ,tufts of five rather short1 rigid leaves in sheaths4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light1 clear yellow1 turning red from exposure4 ,sapwood nearly white4 ,close-grained1 compact structure1 numerous and conspicuous medullary rays4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,construction4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bg4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #ifj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #hhjj4 ,remarks4 ,this tree forms mountain forests of considerable extent4 ,valued locally4 p#acf ,,sugar ,,pine4 ,pinus lambertiana ,dougl4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,sugar ,pine 7local and common name74 ,big ,pine1 ,shade ,pine 7,cal474 ,little or ,great ,sugar ,pine4 ,gigantic ,pine4 ,white ,pine4 ,locality4 ,oregon and ,california4 ,best at high altitudes 7above #djjj feet71 central and northern ,california4 ,features of ,tree4 ,one hundred to occasionally three hundred feet in height1 fifteen to sometimes twenty feet in diameter4 ,cones ten to eighteen inches in length1 edible seeds4 ,sweetish exudations4 ,a great tree4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood pinkish brown1 sapwood cream-white4 ,coarse1 straight-grained1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 easily worked1 resembles white pine 7,pinus strobus74 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,carpentry1 interior finish1 doors1 blinds1 sashes1 etc4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bb4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1abj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #hdjj4 ,remarks4 ,grows at as high elevations as five thousand feet or more above tide-water4 ,forms extensive forests with ,balsam ,fir 7,abies concolor74 p#acg ,,white ,,pine4 ,pinus monticola ,dougl4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,white ,pine 7,cal41 ,nev41 ,oreg474 ,mountain ,pine1 ,finger ,cone ,pine 7,cal474 ,little ,sugar ,pine1 ,soft ,pine 7,cal474 ,western ,white ,pine4 ,mountain ,weymouth ,pine4 ,locality4 ,montana1 ,idaho1 ,pacific ,states1 and ,british ,columbia4 ,features of ,tree4 ,eighty to one hundred feet in height4 ,two to three feet in diameter1 sometimes larger4 ,foliage resembles1 but is denser than1 white pine4 ,long smooth cones4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light brown or red1 sapwood nearly white4 ,straight-grained1 compact1 suggests white pine 7,pinus strobus74 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 not strong4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,lumber4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bd4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1cej1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #hfjj4 ,remarks4 ,found at elevations of seven thousand to ten thousand feet4 ,common and locally used in northern ,idaho4 p#ach ,,georgia ,,pine1 ,,hard ,,pine1 ,,yellow ,,pine1 ,,longleaf ,,pine4 ,pinus palustris ,mill4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,turpentine ,pine4 ,rosemary ,pine4 ,n4 ,carolina ,pitch ,pine4 ,southern ,pine4 ,longleaved ,yellow ,pine4 ,longleaved ,pitch ,pine4 ,long ,straw ,pine4 ,pitch ,pine4 ,fat ,pine4 ,heart ,pine4 ,brown ,pine4 ,florida ,yellow ,pine4 ,florida ,pine4 ,florida ,longleaved ,pine4 ,southern ,pitch ,pine4 ,southern ,hard ,pine4 ,southern ,heart ,pine4 ,southern ,yellow ,pine4 ,georgia ,pitch ,pine4 ,georgia ,longleaved ,pine4 ,georgia ,heart ,pine4 ,georgia ,yellow ,pine4 ,texas ,yellow ,pine4 ,texas ,longleaved ,pine4 ,locality4 ,south ,atlantic and ,gulf ,states1 ,virginia to ,alabama1 intermittently4 ,features of ,tree4 ,fifty to ninety feet or more in height1 one to three feet in diameter4 ,tufts of three leaves1 ten to fifteen inches long1 in long sheath4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood orange1 sapwood lighter4 ,coarse-grained1 compact structure1 conspicuous medullary rays4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,hard1 heavy1 tough1 strong1 elastic1 durable1 resinous4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,heavy constructions1 ship-building1 cars1 docks1 beams1 ties1 flooring1 house-trim1 many uses4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ch 7,u4 ,s4 ,division of ,forestry74#gf #dc4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #b1jgj1jjj 7average of #abcj tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#gf #b1aaj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ab1fjj 7average of #aafj tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#gf #af1cjj4 ,remarks4 ,finer and has less sapwood than ,cuban pine4 ,one of the best woods for car-building4 ,principal lumber tree of the ,southeast4 p#aci ,,footnotes ,footnote #gf3 ,see page #f4 ,southern ,pine4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,circular ,no4 #ab4 7,dr4 ,b4 ,e4 ,fernow1 ,chief47 ,timber ,pines of ,southern ,states4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,bul4 ,no4 #ac4 7,dr4 ,b4 ,e4 ,fernow1 ,chief47 ,,cuban ,,pine4 ,pinus heterophylla ,sudw4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,cuban ,pine1 ,slash ,pine 7local and common names74 ,pitch ,pine1 ,she ,pine1 ,she ,pitch ,pine 7,ga41 ,fla474 ,swamp ,pine 7,fla41 ,miss474 ,bastard ,pine1 ,meadow ,pine1 ,spruce ,pine4 ,locality4 ,coast region1 ,south ,carolina to ,florida and ,louisiana4 ,features of ,tree4 ,fifty to eighty feet in height1 one to two feet in diameter4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,resembles longleaf pine4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,similar to those of longleaf pine1 from which it is seldom separated4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ci 7,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#gg ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #b1cgj1jjj 7average of #daj tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,div4 of ,forestry74#gg ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ac1fjj 7average of #daj tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,div4 of ,forestry74#gg ,remarks4 ,resembles and is marked longleaf pine 7,pinus palustris74 p#adj ,,footnotes ,footnote #gg3 ,see page #f4 ,southern ,pine4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,circular ,no4 #ab4 7,dr4 ,b4 ,e4 ,fernow1 ,chief47 ,timber ,pines of ,southern ,states4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,bul4 ,no4 #ac4 7,dr4 ,b4 ,e4 ,fernow1 ,chief47 ,,shortleaf ,,pine1 ,,yellow ,,pine4 ,pinus echinata ,mill4 ,pinus mitis ,michx4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,common ,yellow ,pine1 ,hard ,pine4 ,spruce ,pine 7,del41 ,miss41 ,ark474 ,bull ,pine 7,va474 ,shortshat ,pine 7,del474 ,pitch ,pine 7,mo474 ,poor ,pine 7,fla474 ,shortleaved ,yellow ,pine 7,n4 ,c474 ,rosemary ,pine 7,n4 ,c474 ,virginia ,yellow ,pine4 ,north ,carolina ,yellow ,pine4 ,north ,carolina ,pine4 ,carolina ,pine4 ,slash ,pine4 ,old ,field ,pine4 ,locality4 ,connecticut to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,kansas and ,texas4 ,features of ,tree4 ,sixty to sometimes ninety feet in height1 two to sometimes four feet in diameter4 ,a large erect tree2 small cones have minute weak prickles4 ,leaves usually in twos from long sheaths4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,resembles longleaf pine4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,variable1 usually hard1 tough1 strong1 durable1 resinous1 lighter than longleaf pine4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,lumber1 construction1 similar to longleaf pine4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #cb 7,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#gh #cj4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1fhj1jjj 7average of #ccj tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#gh #a1iej1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aj1ajj 7average of #ccj tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#gh #ad1gjj4 ,remarks4 ,affords considerable pitch and turpentine1 and is the principal species of ,northern ,arkansas1 ,kansas1 and ,missouri4 p#ada ,,footnotes ,footnote #gh3 ,see page #f4 ,southern ,pine4 ,mohr ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,circular ,no4 #ab4 ,timber ,pines of ,southern ,states4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,bul4 ,no4 #ac4 7,dr4 ,b4 ,e4 ,fernow1 ,chief47 ,,loblolly ,,pine4 ,pinus tda ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,old ,field ,pine4 ,torch ,pine4 ,rosemary ,pine4 ,slash ,pine4 ,longshat ,pine4 ,longshucks4 ,black ,slash ,pine4 ,frankincense ,pine4 ,shortleaf ,pine4 ,bull ,pine4 ,virginia ,pine4 ,sap ,pine4 ,meadow ,pine4 ,cornstalk ,pine 7,va474 ,black ,pine4 ,foxtail ,pine4 ,indian ,pine4 ,spruce ,pine4 ,bastard ,pine4 ,yellow ,pine4 ,swamp ,pine4 ,longstraw ,pine4 ,locality4 ,delaware to ,florida and westward intermittently to ,texas4 ,features of ,tree4 ,fifty to one hundred feet or more in height1 two to sometimes four feet in thickness4 ,leaves in twos and threes4 ,scales or cones have short straight spines4 ,a large tree4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,resembles longleaf pine4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,resembles longleaf pine4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,resembles longleaf pine4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #cc 7,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#gi #cc4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #b1jej1jjj 7average of #ffj tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#gi #a1fjj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aa1cjj 7average of #fej tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#gi #ab1ejj4 ,remarks4 ,grows naturally on deforested land1 whence the name of ,old ,field ,pine4 p#adb ,,footnotes ,footnote #gi3 ,see page #f4 ,southern ,pine4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,circular ,no4 #ab4 7,dr4 ,b4 ,e4 ,fernow1 ,chief47 ,timber ,pines of ,southern ,states4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,bul4 ,no4 #ac4 7,dr4 ,b4 ,e4 ,fernow1 ,chief47 ,,bull ,,pine1 ,,yellow ,,pine1 ,,western ,,yellow ,,pine4 ,pinus ponderosa ,laws4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,big ,pine4 ,longleaved ,pine4 ,red ,pine4 ,pitch ,pine4 ,southern ,yellow ,pine4 ,heavy-wooded ,pine4 ,western ,pitch ,pine4 ,heavy ,pine 7,calif474 ,foothills ,yellow ,pine4 ,montana ,black ,pine4 ,locality4 ,rocky ,mountains1 westward intermittently to ,pacific ,ocean4 ,features of ,tree4 ,one hundred to sometimes three hundred feet in height1 six to sometimes twelve feet in diameter4 ,thick1 deeply furrowed bark4 ,leaves in tufts of threes4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,thin heartwood is light red1 sapwood nearly white4 ,rather coarse grain1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,variable1 heavy1 hard1 strong1 brittle1 not durable4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,lumber1 railway ties1 mine timbers1 fuel1 etc4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bi4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1bfj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aj1bjj4 ,remarks4 ,ponderosa1 signifying heavy1 refers to great size4 p#adc ,,norway ,,pine1 ,,red ,,pine4 ,pinus resinosa ,ait4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,norway ,pine1 ,red ,pine 7local and common names74 ,hard ,pine 7,wis474 ,canadian ,red ,pine 7,eng474 ,locality4 ,southern ,canada1 northern ,united ,states from ,maine to ,minnesota1 ,pennsylvania4 ,features of ,tree4 ,sixty to ninety feet in height1 one to three feet in diameter4 ,reddish blossoms and bark on branchlets4 ,leaves in twos from long sheaths4 ,a tall1 straight tree4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,thin heartwood light red1 sapwood yellow to white4 ,numerous pronounced medullary rays4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 hard1 elastic1 not durable1 resinous4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,piles1 telegraph poles1 masts1 flooring1 and wainscoting4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ca 7,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#hj #cj4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1fbj1jjj 7average of #ajj tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,division74#hj #a1fjj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #i1ajj 7average of #ie tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#hj #ab1ejj4 ,remarks4 ,sometimes commercially handled with white pine4 ,unimportant as regards turpentine and resin1 in spite of specific name1 which signifies resinous4 ,long sheaths enable children to make chains of leaves4 p#add ,,footnote ,footnote #hj3 ,see page #f4 ,,pitch ,,pine4 ,pinus rigida ,mill4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,pitch ,pine 7local and common name74 ,longleaved ,pine1 ,longschat ,pine 7,del474 ,hard ,pine 7,mass474 ,yellow ,pine 7,pa474 ,black ,pine 7,n4 ,c474 ,black ,norway ,pine4 ,rigid ,pine1 ,sap ,pine4 ,locality4 ,atlantic coast1 ,canada to ,georgia1 ,kentucky4 ,features of ,tree4 ,forty to sometimes eighty feet in height1 one to sometimes three feet in diameter4 ,rigid flattened leaves in threes from short sheaths4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light brown or red1 thick sapwood yellow to nearly white4 ,coarse conspicuous grain1 compact structure1 very resinous4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 not strong1 brittle4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,coarse lumber1 fuel1 charcoal4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #cb4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #hbj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aj1ejj4 ,remarks4 ,rigida refers to rigid leaves4 ,the name ,pitch ,pine is sometimes applied to all of the ,southern pines4 ,the name is yet more widely applied in foreign markets4 ,sometimes called ,fat ,pine4 p#ade ,,northern ,,pine1 ,,scotch ,,pine1 ,,dantzic ,,pine4 ,pinus sylvestris ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 ,dantzic ,fir 7from place of shipment74 ,rigi ,fir 7from place of shipment74 ,memel ,fir 7from place of shipment74 ,stettin ,fir 7from place of shipment74 ,swedish ,fir4 ,scots or ,scottish ,fir4 ,northern ,fir4 ,redwood1 ,yellowwood4 ,deal 7,local74 ,locality4 ,widespread in ,europe1 as ,scotland1 ,germany1 and ,russia2 also ,asia4 ,naturalized in ,united ,states4 ,features of ,tree4 ,fifty to one hundred feet in height1 two to five feet in diameter2 sometimes larger4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood reddish white to yellowish white1 sapwood similar4 ,even straight grain 7varies with locality74 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,moderately light1 hard1 tough1 and elastic1 easily worked 7varies with locality74 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,carpentry1 construction1 planks1 beams1 masts1 heavy timber4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #cd 7,lazlett#ha7 7varies with locality74 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1fhj1jjj 7,lazlett7 7varies with locality74 #a1hjj1jjj 7,thurston74 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #gjjj 7,thurston7 7varies with locality74 ,remarks4 ,principal soft wood of ,europe4 ,widely distributed2 local peculiarities once thought to denote different species4 ,fields tributary to ,dantzic and ,rigi afford best wood4 ,wood equal to ,dantzic ,fir sometimes specified4 p#adf ,,footnote ,footnote #ha3 ,table ,,clxvii1 p4 #dah4 ,,kauri ,,pine4 7,dammara47 ,this ,new ,zealand tree affords one of the best substitutes for northern pine4 ,although not true pine1 it belongs to the same family as the pine and other conifers4 ,the light1 strong1 durable1 elastic wood is obtainable in large-sized pieces suitable for masts4 ,the species is universally noted for its resin1 which possesses the quality of uniting more perfectly than others with linseed oil4#hb ,kauri gum is thus one of the most valuable constituents of good varnish4#hc ,the best gum occurs as a fossil1 and is collected by digging over areas known to be fruitful but from which trees have long since disappeared4 ,the pieces1 varying in size from small pebbles to lumps as large as eggs1 are scraped and otherwise cleansed by natives in the fields4#hd p#adg ,,footnotes ,footnote #hb3 ,it unites with linseed oil at lower temperatures than other gums of its kind4 ,footnote #hc3 ,fossil ,kauri gum has sold for one thousand to fifteen hundred dollars per ton4 ,footnote #hd3 ,one mass of two hundred and twenty pounds has been reported 7,r4 ,ingham ,clark1 ,f4,r4,g4,s43 ,notes on ,fossil ,resins1 published by ,c4 ,letts ,co41 ,london74 ,correspondence ,professor ,alvah ,h4 ,sabin1 ,new ,york ,city2 ,messrs4 ,pratt ,lambert1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bh4 ,,kauri ,,pine 7,dammara australis74 ,from ,r4 ,ingham ,clark1 by courtesy of ,messrs4 ,pratt ,lambert4 ,fragments of ,gum one-quarter natural size4 ,fossil gum at right and centre4 ,,kauri ,,pine4 ,dammara australis4 ,nomenclature4 ,kauri ,pine 7local and general74 ,cowdie ,pine 7,new ,zealand and many localities74 ,locality4 ,new ,zealand4 ,features of ,tree4 ,ninety to one hundred feet in height1 three to four feet in diameter1 occasional specimens much larger4 ,small leaves resembling those of box4 ,a tall handsome tree4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood straw-colored1 fine1 close1 straight grain4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,moderately hard1 light1 elastic1 strong1 seasons well1 works readily1 receives high polish4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,carpentry1 masts4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #cc 7,lazlett#he7 7varies with locality74 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1haj1jjj 7,lazlett74 ,modulus of ,rupture4 ,remarks4 ,the species is widely known by reason of its gum4 p#adh ,,footnote ,footnote #he3 ,table ,,clxxi1 p4 #dbf4 ,,spruce4 7,picea47 ,the spruces form forests in ,europe and ,north ,america4 ,the black spruce 7,p4 nigra7 and the white spruce 7,p4 alba7 predominate in eastern ,united ,states1 while the white spruce 7,p4 engelmanni7 is important in the ,west4 ,the ,norway spruce1 or white fir 7,p4 excelsa71 is the chief ,european species4 ,american trees prefer ,northern ranges characterized by short summers and long winters4 ,the soft1 light1 clean woods resemble and are probably the best substitute for soft pine4 ,they are apt to warp and twist in seasoning and so are not good for posts and trusses4 ,spruce is the principal wood in ,new ,england for studding and floor-joists4 ,the product is divided commercially and according to appearance1 but irrespective of species1 into white and black spruce4 ,these terms depend sometimes1 at least1 on the wide and narrow rings of the black spruce 7,p4 nigra74 ,it should be remembered that spruce and fir woods are often confused with one another1 and that there are trees1 as the ,douglas spruce and ,kauri pine or spruce1 that are called1 but are not1 true spruces4 ,european spruce is often locally known as white deal4 ,spruce trees have single1 sharp-pointed1 short leaves1 pointing everywhere1 and keeled above and below so as to appear four-sided2 the cones hang down4 ,spruce may be distinguished from the pines1 firs1 and hemlocks by the fact that pine leaves are longer and in clusters1 that hemlock leaves are flat1 blunt1 and two-ranked1 and that fir cones point upward4 ,the genus picea has twelve species1 five of which are ,north ,american4 ,the resins of the black and red spruce are used as confections4 p#adi ,illustration3 ,,plate #bi4 ,,black ,,spruce 7,picea nigra74 ,the following table sets forth the primary distinctions between the spruces and the pines1 firs1 and hemlocks3 ,pines 7,pinus7 ,arrangement of ,leaves4 ,in tufts or clusters4 ,shape of ,leaves4 ,comparatively long4 ,cones4 ,spruce 7,picea7 ,arrangement of ,leaves4 ,single1 scattered1 point in all directions4 ,shape of ,leaves4 ,short1 sharp ends1 keeled above and below4 ,somewhat four-sided4 ,cones4 ,hang down1 #a to #f inches long4 ,fir 7,abies7 ,arrangement of ,leaves4 ,single1 scattered1 appear somewhat as in two ranks4 ,shape of ,leaves4 ,short1 blunt ends1 flat4 ,cones4 ,stand erect1 #b to #d inches long4 ,hemlock 7,tsuga7 ,arrangement of ,leaves4 ,single1 scattered1 appear as in two ranks4 ,shape of ,leaves4 ,short1 blunt ends1 flat4 ,cones4 ,hang down1 #c_/d to #a inch long4 p#aej ,,black ,,spruce4 ,picea nigra ,link4 ,picea mariana ,mill4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,spruce 7,vt471 ,yew ,pine1 ,spruce ,pine 7,w4 ,va474 ,double ,spruce 7,me41 ,vt41 ,minn474 ,blue ,spruce 7,wis474 ,white ,spruce 7,w4 ,va474 ,he ,balsam 7,del41 ,n4 ,c474 ,water ,spruce 7,me474 ,locality4 ,pennsylvania to ,minnesota1 ,alleghany ,mountains to ,north ,carolina4 ,best in ,canada4 ,features of ,tree4 ,forty to eighty feet in height1 one to two feet in diameter4 ,conical shape with straight trunk4 ,dark foliage4 ,cones remain for several years1 being thus distinct from white spruce4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood reddish1 nearly white2 sapwood lighter4 ,straight grain1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 not strong1 elastic1 resonant4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,lumber1 flooring1 carpentry1 ship-building1 piles1 posts1 railway ties1 paddles1 oars1 sounding-boards1 paper-pulp4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bh4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1efj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aj1fjj4 ,remarks4 ,a substitute for soft pine4 ,resin is used as a confection4 p#aea ,,footnote ,it is often difficult to distinguish between black and white spruce trees4 ,the foliage of the former is darker as a whole1 and there are differences in shape and persistence of cones4 ,the names double spruce and single spruce are without evident foundation4 ,woods exhibit similar qualities and are classed together by lumbermen4 ,red ,spruce 7,picea rubens7 resembles1 and is sometimes considered a variety of1 black spruce4 ,,white ,,spruce4 ,picea alba ,link4 ,picea canadensis ,mill4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,single ,spruce 7,me41 ,vt41 ,minn474 ,bog ,spruce1 ,cat ,spruce 7,n4 ,eng474 ,skunk ,spruce 7,wis41 ,new ,eng474 ,spruce1 ,double ,spruce 7,vt474 ,pine 7,hudson ,bay74 ,locality4 ,northern ,united ,states1 ,canada to ,labrador and ,alaska4 ,features of ,tree4 ,fifty to one hundred feet in height1 one to two feet in diameter1 occasionally larger4 ,compact1 symmetrical1 conical shape4 ,foliage lighter than black spruce4 ,cones fall sooner than those of black spruce4 ,whitish resin4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light yellow1 sapwood similar4 ,straight-grained1 numerous prominent medullary rays4 ,compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 not strong 7similar to ,black ,spruce74 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,lumber1 flooring1 carpentry1 etc4 7similar to ,black ,spruce74 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #be4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1dej1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aj1fjj4 ,remarks4 ,notable as resident of high latitudes4 ,chief tree of arctic forests4 ,wood1 used similarly to black spruce1 is substituted for white pine4 p#aeb ,,white ,,spruce4 ,picea engelmanni ,engelm4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,white ,spruce 7,ore41 ,col41 ,utah1 ,idaho74 ,balsam1 ,engelmann's ,spruce 7,utah74 ,white ,pine 7,idaho71 ,mountain ,spruce 7,mont474 ,locality4 ,rocky ,mountain region1 ,montana to ,mexico1 ,washington1 ,oregon1 and ,british ,columbia 7high elevations74 ,features of ,tree4 ,frequently seventy-five to one hundred feet in height and sometimes higher1 two to three feet in diameter1 sometimes low shrub4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood pale reddish yellow1 sapwood similar4 ,close1 straight grain1 compact structure1 conspicuous medullary rays4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 not strong4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,lumber1 charcoal1 fuel4 ,bark rich in tannin1 sometimes used for tanning4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ba4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1adj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #hajj4 ,remarks4 ,notable as resident of high altitudes1 extensive forests occurring at eight to ten thousand feet above sea-level4 ,a valuable tree of the central and southern ,rocky ,mountain region4 p#aec ,,sitka ,,spruce4 ,picea sitchensis ,trautv4 and ,mayer4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,sitka ,spruce 7local and common name74 ,tideland ,spruce 7,cal41 ,oreg41 ,wash474 ,menzies ,spruce4 ,western ,spruce4 ,great ,tideland ,spruce4 ,locality4 ,pacific coast region1 ,alaska to central ,california4 ,extends inland about fifty miles2 prefers low elevations4 ,features of ,tree4 ,one hundred and fifty feet or more in height1 three feet or more in diameter4 ,flat-pointed pyramidal needles1 oval cylindrical cones1 thick scaly reddish-brown bark4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light reddish brown1 sapwood nearly white4 ,coarse-grained1 satiny4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 not strong4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,construction1 interior finish1 fencing1 boat-building1 cooperage4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bfbf4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aj1djj4 ,remarks4 ,a giant among spruces4 ,forms an extensive coast-belt forest4 p#aed ,,douglas ,,spruce4 7,pseudotsuga47 ,the ,douglas or ,red ,pine1 ,spruce1 or ,fir1 of the ,pacific coast is neither true pine1 spruce1 nor fir1 but a sort of bastard hemlock4 ,the name pseudotsuga is from pseudo1 or false1 and tsuga1 or hemlock4 ,the trees are among the greatest known4 ,the wood resembles larch or hard pine in properties1 appearance1 and applications4 ,trees have been successfully planted in the ,adirondacks4 ,the species was earlier classed as ,pinus taxifolia and as ,abies taxifolia4 p#aee ,illustration3 ,,plate #cj4 ,,douglas ,,spruce 7,pseudotsuga taxifolia74 ,,douglas ,,spruce1 ,,douglas ,,fir4 ,pseudotsuga taxifolia ,lam4 ,pseudotsuga ,douglasii ,carr4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,oregon ,pine 7,cal41 ,wash41 ,oreg474 ,red ,fir1 ,yellow ,fir 7,oreg41 ,wash41 ,idaho1 ,utah1 ,mont41 ,col474 ,douglas ,tree1 ,cork-barked ,douglas ,spruce4 ,spruce1 ,fir 7,mont474 ,red ,pine 7,utah1 ,idaho1 ,col474 ,puget ,sound ,pine 7,wash474 ,locality4 ,pacific coast region1 ,mexico to ,british ,columbia4 ,best in western ,oregon and ,washington4 ,features of ,tree4 ,one hundred and seventy-five to sometimes three hundred feet in height1 three to five and sometimes ten feet in diameter4 ,older bark rough-gray1 often looking as though braided4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light red to yellow1 sapwood nearly white4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,variable1 usually hard1 strong1 difficult to work1 durable4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,heavy construction1 dimension timbers1 railway ties1 piles1 fuel4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #cb 7,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#hf #cf 7average of #bj specimens by ,soul74#hg #cb4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1fhj1jjj 7average of #da tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#hf #a1hfb1jjj 7average of #ba specimens by ,soul74#hg #a1hbd1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #g1ijj 7average of #da tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#hf #i1ccd 7average of #ba specimens by ,soul74#hg #ab1ejj4 ,remarks4 ,used similarly to hard pine4 ,lumbermen divide into red and yellow woods1 the former dark and coarse1 the latter fine1 lighter1 and more desirable4 ,these distinctions probably due to age4 ,one of the world's greatest trees4 p#aef ,,footnote ,footnote #hf3 ,see page #f4 ,footnote #hg3 ,professor ,frank ,soul1 ,university of ,california4 ,trans4 ,am4 ,inst4 ,m4 ,e41 p4 #eeb1 ,vol4 ,,xxix4 ,,fir4 7,abies47 ,several of the fir-trees of the western ,united ,states attain to very great size4 ,the silver fir 7,abies grandis7 and the white fir 7,abies concolor7 supply much wood in the section in which they grow4 ,the balsam fir 7,abies balsamea7 of the ,eastern ,states is of some commercial importance4 ,fir wood resembles spruce in appearance and in structural qualities4 ,it may be told from spruce as well as from pine and larch by the fact that fir has no resin-ducts4 ,the balsam fir is distinguishable by clear liquid resin which appears in blisters in the bark4 ,the coarse1 weak wood is cleaner than the bark would indicate4 ,spruce and fir woods are often confused in the ,united ,states1 while pine1 spruce1 and fir are similarly confounded in ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,balsam ,,fir 7,abies balsamea74 ,fir trees have flat1 scattered1 evergreen leaves1 and cones that stand erect 7see footnote under spruce74 p#aeg ,,balsam ,,fir1 ,,common ,,balsam ,,fir4 ,abies balsamea ,mill4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,balsam 7,vt41 ,n4 ,h41 ,n4 ,y474 ,fir ,tree 7,vt474 ,balm of ,gilead 7,del474 ,canada ,balsam 7,n4 ,c474 ,balm of ,gilead ,fir 7,n4 ,y41 ,pa474 ,blister ,pine1 ,fir ,pine 7,w4 ,va474 ,single ,spruce1 ,silver ,pine 7,hudson ,bay74 ,locality4 ,minnesota to ,virginia1 northward intermittently into ,canada4 ,features of ,tree4 ,fifty to seventy feet in height1 one to two feet in diameter4 ,sometimes low shrub4 ,blisters in smooth bark contain thick balsam4 ,erect cones4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood white to brownish1 sapwood lighter4 ,coarse-grained1 compact structure1 satiny4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,soft1 light1 not durable or strong1 resinous1 easily split4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,occasionally used as inferior lumber4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bc4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1afj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #gcjj4 ,remarks4 ,scattered throughout ,northern pineries4 ,cut when of sufficient size and sold with pine or spruce4 ,cultivated in gardens4 ,exudations known as ,canada ,balsam used in medicine4 ,the poplar 7,p4 balsamifera7 is also called ,balm of ,gilead4 p#aeh ,,great ,,silver ,,fir1 ,,white ,,fir4 ,abies grandis ,lindl4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,silver ,fir 7,mont41 ,idaho74 ,oregon ,white ,fir1 ,western ,white ,fir 7,cal474 ,yellow ,fir 7,mont41 ,idaho74 ,lowland ,fir4 ,locality4 ,vancouver region1 northwestern ,united ,states4 ,best in west ,washington and ,oregon4 ,features of ,tree4 ,two hundred to sometimes three hundred feet in height1 two to five feet in diameter4 ,leaves deep green above1 silvery below1 usually curved4 ,a handsome tree4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light brown1 sapwood lighter4 ,coarse-grained1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 not strong4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,lumber1 interior finish1 packing-cases1 cooperage4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bb4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1cfj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #gjjj4 ,remarks4 ,forms important part of local mountain forests and furnishes much lumber locally4 p#aei ,,white ,,fir1 ,,balsam ,,fir4 ,abies concolor ,parry4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth74 ,silver ,fir1 ,balsam 7,cal474 ,california ,white ,fir 7,cal474 ,black ,gum1 ,bastard ,pine 7,utah74 ,white ,balsam 7,utah74 ,balsam ,tree 7,idaho74 ,colorado ,white ,fir1 ,concolor ,white ,fir4 ,locality4 ,rocky ,mountains and coast ranges1 high elevations4 ,features of ,tree4 ,seventy to one hundred and fifty feet in height1 three to five feet in diameter4 ,pale green or silvery foliage4 ,bark blisters filled with clear pitch4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light brown to nearly white1 sapwood same or darker4 ,coarse-grained1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 not strong1 without odor4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,butter-tubs1 packing-boxes1 lumber4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bb4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1bij1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #iijj4 ,remarks4 ,not always distinguished from the species ,abies grandis4 p#afj ,,red ,,fir4 ,abies magnifica ,murr4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,california ,red ,fir1 ,california ,red-bark ,fir 7,cal474 ,magnificent ,fir1 ,golden ,fir 7,cal474 ,shasta ,fir 7,cal474 ,locality4 ,california1 vicinity of ,mount ,shasta4 ,features of ,tree4 ,one hundred to two hundred and fifty feet in height1 six to ten feet in diameter4 ,large erect cones4 ,beautiful form4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood reddish1 sapwood distinguishable4 ,rather close-grained1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 not strong1 durable when exposed1 liable to injury in seasoning4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,construction1 sills1 lumber1 fuel4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bi4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #idj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #iijj4 ,remarks4 ,magnifica or magnificent refers to appearance and size of tree4 p#afa ,,red ,,fir1 ,,noble ,,fir4 ,abies nobilis ,lindl4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,noble ,silver ,fir1 ,noble ,red ,fir4 ,larch 7,oreg474 ,bigtree1 ,feather-cone1 ,red ,fir 7,cal474 ,locality4 ,northwestern ,united ,states4 ,cultivated in ,east4 ,features of ,tree4 ,one to two hundred feet in height1 six to nine feet in diameter4 ,leaves curved4 ,large1 beautiful tree4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood reddish brown1 sapwood darker4 ,rather close-grained1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 hard1 strong1 elastic4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,fitted for house-trimmings4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bh4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1hjj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #bb1bjj4 ,remarks4 ,grows at high elevations 7#cjjj and #djjj feet74 ,with other fir forms extensive forests4 ,sold as larch4 p#afb ,,footnote ,peters1 ,forestry and ,irrigation1 ,vol4 ,,viii1 ,no4 #i 7,sept4 #aijb71 pp4 #cfb1 #cff4 ,,hemlock4 7,tsuga47 ,the hemlocks are distributed over northern ,united ,states from ,maine to ,michigan1 in the ,rocky ,mountains1 and on the ,pacific coast4 ,they generally mingle with broad-leaved and other needle-leaved species1 but occasionally form pure forests by themselves4 ,the wood is coarse1 often crossed-grained1 perishable1 brittle1 liable to wind-shakes1 hard to work1 and apt to warp and splinter4 ,it holds nails firmly and is used for coarse lumber1 dimension pieces1 paper-pulp1 and latterly for cheap finish4 ,it should not be relied upon to receive shocks4 ,the bark is used in tanning4 ,hemlock trees may be known by their blunt1 flat1 evergreen leaves1 appearing two-ranked and whitened beneath 7see foot-note under ,spruce74 ,red inner bark4 p#afc ,illustration3 ,,plate #ca4 ,,hemlock 7,tsuga74 ,hemlock ,tree 7,tsuga canadensis74 ,western ,hemlock ,tree 7,t4 heterophylla74 7#fejj feet above sea-level47 ,hemlock ,foliage 7,tsuga canadensis74 ,hemlock ,wood 7,tsuga canadensis74 ,,hemlock4 ,tsuga canadensis4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,hemlock 7local and common name74 ,spruce 7,pa41 ,w4 ,va474 ,hemlock ,spruce 7,vt41 ,r4 ,i41 ,n4 ,y41 ,pa41 ,n4 ,j41 ,w4 ,va41 ,n4 ,c41 ,s4 ,c474 ,spruce ,pine 7,pa41 ,del41 ,va41 ,n4 ,c41 ,ga474 ,locality4 ,eastern and central ,canada1 southward to ,north ,carolina and ,tennessee4 ,features of ,tree4 ,sixty to eighty or more feet in height1 two or three feet in diameter4 ,short leaves1 green above and white beneath4 ,straight trunk1 beautiful appearance4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood reddish brown1 sapwood distinguishable4 ,coarse1 pronounced1 usually crooked grain4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 not strong or durable1 brittle1 difficult to work1 retains nails firmly1 splintery4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,coarse lumber1 joists1 rafters1 plank walks1 laths1 railway ties4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bf4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1bgj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aj1djj4 ,remarks4 ,canadensis refers to ,canada1 the locality where tree excels4 p#afd ,,footnotes ,the ,southern or ,carolina ,hemlock 7,t4 caroliniana7 resembles ,hemlock4 ,the ,western ,hemlock 7,t4 heterophylla1 ,alaska to ,california7 attains height of #ahj feet1 diameter of #i feet1 and is said to afford heavier and better wood4 ,this tree is known by the following names 7,sudworth73 ,western ,hemlock1 ,hemlock ,spruce 7,cal474 ,hemlock 7,oreg41 ,idaho1 ,wash474 ,alaska ,pine 7,northwestern ,lumberman74 ,prince ,albert's ,fir1 ,western ,hemlock ,fir1 ,california ,hemlock ,spruce 7,england74 ,the ,western ,hemlock4 ,allen1 ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,bureau ,bulletin ,no4 #cc4 ,,larch4 ,,tamarack4 7,larix47 ,larch was well known in the older time1 and was prized in ,europe and the ,orient4 ,the two principal ,american species are also called tamarack and hackmatack4 ,the ,eastern larch or tamarack 7,l4 americana7 prefers peculiar low1 wet areas known as tamarack swamps4 ,the ,western tree 7,l4 occidentalis7 resembles the ,european species and prefers dry places4 ,larch wood has always been regarded as very durable4 ,it is noted by ,pliny and other ancient authors4#hh ,vitruvius mentions a bridge that1 having burned1 was replaced by one of larch1 because that wood would not burn as readily4#hi ,the foundation-piles of ,venice are said to be of larch4#ij ,it should be remembered that the identities of ancient woods are not always beyond question4 ,american larch resembles1 if it does not equal1 true foreign wood4 ,the trees are tall and straight1 but so slender as to be seldom cut into lumber1 almost the entire supply being demanded for posts1 ties1 and poles4 ,the exceedingly durable wood resembles spruce in structure1 and hard pine in weight and appearance4 ,larch trees are marked by the fact that their foliage is deciduous4 ,the little leaves1 gathered in tufts or bundles1 are of a bright pea-green when fresh in the springtime4 ,the appearance of tamarack trees when divested of foliage in the winter is very gloomy4 ,,footnotes ,footnote #hh3 ,pliny1 ,,xvi1 #dc-di and ,,xvi1 #cj4 ,footnote #hi3 ,vitruvius1 ,,ii1 #i4 ,footnote #ij3 ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 ,vol4 ,,xiv1 p4 #caj4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #cb4 ,,larch 7,larix74 ,larch ,trees in ,winter4 ,,tamarack1 ,,larch4 ,larix americana ,michx4 ,larix laricina 7,du ,roi7 ,koch4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,tamarack1 ,larch1 ,american ,larch 7local and common names74 ,hackmatack 7,me41 ,n4 ,h41 ,mass41 ,r4 ,i41 ,del41 ,ill41 ,mich474 ,black ,larch1 ,red ,larch 7,minn41 ,mich474 ,juniper 7,me41 ,canada74 ,locality4 ,northern ,united ,states and southern ,canada1 east from ,great ,lakes4 ,features of ,tree4 ,seventy to ninety feet high1 one to three feet in diameter4 ,short pea-green deciduous leaves in tufts4 ,a slender tree1 winter aspect gloomy4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light brown1 sapwood nearly white4 ,coarse conspicuous grain1 compact structure1 annual layers pronounced4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,heavy1 hard1 very strong1 durable1 resembles spruce4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,railway ties1 fence-posts1 sills1 ship timbers1 telegraph poles1 flagstaffs1 etc4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ch4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1gij1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ab1hjj4 ,remarks4 ,practically all 7tall thin7 trunks required for railway ties1 posts1 masts1 etc4 ,seldom cut into lumber in consequence4 ,grows in light swamps often extensive and known as tamarack swamp4 7,trans4 ,am4 ,inst4 ,mining ,engineers1 ,vol4 ,,xxix1 page #aeg74 p#aff ,,tamarack ,,larch4 ,larix occidentalis4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,tamarack1 ,larch 7local and common names74 ,hackmatack 7,idaho1 ,wash474 ,western ,larch1 ,great ,western ,larch1 ,red ,american ,larch4 ,western ,tamarack 7,cal474 ,locality4 ,washington and ,oregon1 intermittently to ,montana4 ,features of ,tree4 ,ninety to one hundred and twenty-five feet high1 two and one-half to four feet in diameter4 ,a large tree4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light red1 thin sapwood lighter4 ,coarse-grained1 compact structure1 annual rings pronounced4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,hard1 heavy1 strong1 durable4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,posts1 railway ties1 fuel1 limited quantity of lumber1 similar to ,l4 americana4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #df4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #b1cjj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ag1djj4 ,remarks4 ,a valuable tree of the ,columbian basin4 ,differs from ,l4 americana in that it grows on dry ground1 often at high elevations4 p#afg ,illustration3 ,,plate #cc4 ,,cedar 7,cedrus1 ,thuya1 etc474 ,cedar of ,lebanon 7,cedrus libani74 ,foliage of ,white ,cedar 7,t4 occidentalis74 ,red ,cedar ,bark 7,juniperus virginiana74 ,foliage of ,red ,cedar 7,j4 virginiana74 ,white ,cedar ,wood 7,thuya occidentalis74 ,tree of ,red ,cedar 7,j4 virginiana74 ,,cedar4 7,cedrus1 ,thuya1 ,chamcyparis1 ,libocedrus1 ,juniperus47 ,cedar was a name first applied to the true or ,lebanon cedars 7,cedrus7 of the ,eastern continent1 but later to certain ,arborvits 7,thuya71 ,junipers 7,juniperus71 and ,cypresses 7,chamcyparis71 and other trees 7see ,spanish ,cedar1 page #abb7 from which durable1 fine-grained1 more or less fragrant woods1 known as cedar1 are obtained4 ,cedar was highly prized by the ancients1 who employed it in costly constructions1 such as the temples of ,solomon and of ,diana at ,ephesus4#iaib ,woods known as cedar are divided into so-called ,red and ,white ,cedars4 ,red ,cedar is very fine-grained1 soft1 light1 durable1 fragrant1 and of a pinkish-red color4 ,much wood is derived from the ,red ,cedars1 ,juniperus virginiana1 ,juniperus scopulorum1 and ,juniperus barbadensis1 of the ,eastern1 ,western1 and ,southern ,states respectively4 ,although seen in construction1 red cedar is chiefly used in chests1 closets1 lead-pencils1 and cigar-boxes4 ,one hundred and twenty-five thousand trees 7#abe1jjj7ic are annually required for lead-pencils alone4 ,the waste is often converted into shavings and used instead of camphor to protect woolens4 ,the demand is greater than the supply4 ,trees are easily grown on almost any soil4 ,trees and wood are subject to fungus diseases which apparently cease after trees have been felled2 the wood is then durable4#id ,white ,cedar is best defined as all cedar that is not red cedar1 p#afh and is obtained from several valuable trees4#ie ,the arborvits 7,t4 occidentalis7 vary in size from large bushes used in hedging and ornamentation to small-sized trees gathered for wood4 ,they are most vigorous on cold1 wet areas known as cedar swamps4#if ,the giant arborvit 7,t4 gigantea71 noted for its great girth1 and the yellow and ,lawson ,cypresses1 are important ,pacific coast species4 ,the incense cedar1 while much subject to fungus trouble1 is also prized4#ig ,white cedar wood is durable1 plentiful1 and employed in exposed positions as ties and shingles4 ,arborvits 7,thuya7 have very small overlapping leaves that form flat rods or fan-like sprays4 ,the cones are oblong1 less than one-half inch in length1 and all of their six or eight scales separate or open when ripe4 ,the cypresses 7,chamcyparis7 exhibit similar foliage1 but their tiny cones are simple1 roughened1 close1 or solid globules4 ,the ,junipers 7,juniperus7 often1 but not always1 bear bluish-black berries powdered with a whitish-blue bloom4 ,the true cedars 7,cedrus7 differ from the others in that they have simple needle leaves1 an inch1 more or less1 in length1 together with cones erect and several inches in length4 ,the ,deodar or cedar of ,india is of this genus4 ,the principal ,american red and white cedars are as follows3 ,red ,cedar4 ,red ,cedar 7,juniperus virginiana74 ,red ,cedar 7,juniperus scopulorum74 ,red ,cedar 7,juniperus barbadensis74 ,spanish ,cedar4 7,see page #ii47 ,white ,cedar4 ,arborvit 7,thuya occidentalis74 ,canoe ,cedar 7,thuya gigantea74 ,white ,cedar 7,chamcyparis thyoides74 ,port ,orford ,cedar 7,chamcyparis lawsoniana74 ,yellow ,cedar 7,chamcyparis nutkaensis74 ,incense ,cedar 7,libodecrus decurrens74 p#afi ,,footnotes ,footnote #ia3 ,it is probable that the ancients also used the word ,cedar somewhat generally4 ,footnote #ib3 ,pliny1 #af1 #bac and #af1 #baf4 ,footnote #ic3 ,notes on ,red ,cedar1 ,mohr4 ,bul4 #ca1 ,u4 ,s4 ,division ,forestry 7,gifford ,pinchot1 ,forester74 ,footnote #id3 ,several of the fungoid parasites cause swellings known as cedar apples4 ,the branches usually die4 ,professor von ,schrenk recognizes two diseases of the wood1 white rot 7,polyporus juniperus ,schrenk7 and red rot 7,polyporus carneus74 7,bulletin ,no4 #ba1 ,division ,vegetable ,physiology and ,pathology1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agriculture47 ,footnote #ie3 ,heartwood often light grayish brown4 ,footnote #if3 ,trunks of considerable size often grow surrounding1 but apart from1 such swamps4 ,vigorous lower branches impede progress through swamps1 which are often as thick as to resemble immense cultivated hedges4 7,trans4 ,am4 ,inst4 ,m4 ,e41 ,vol ,,xxix1 p4 #aeg47 ,footnote #ig3 ,von ,schrenk1 ,contribution ,no4 #ad1 ,shaw ,school of ,botany1 ,st4 ,louis4 ,,red ,,cedar4 ,juniperus virginiana ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,red ,cedar 7local and common name74 ,cedar 7,conn41 ,pa41 ,n4 ,j41 ,s4 ,c41 ,ky41 ,ill41 ,ia41 ,ohio74 ,pencil ,cedar1 ,cendre 7,la474 ,savin 7,mass41 ,r4 ,i41 ,n4 ,y41 ,pa41 ,minn474 ,juniper1 ,red ,juniper1 ,juniper ,bush 7local74 ,locality4 ,atlantic coast1 ,canada to ,florida1 westward intermittently to ,mississippi ,river in the ,north1 and ,colorado ,river in the ,south4 ,features of ,tree4 ,fifty to eighty feet in height1 two to three feet in diameter4 ,sometimes low shrubs4 ,dark-green foliage1 loose ragged outer bark4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood dull red1 thin sapwood nearly white4 ,close1 even grain1 compact structure1 annual layers easily distinguishable4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 weak1 brittle1 easily worked1 durable1 fragrant4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,ties1 sills1 posts1 interior finish1 pencil-cases1 chests1 cigar-boxes4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #cj ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #iej1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aj1ejj4 ,remarks4 ,fragrance of wood utilized as insecticide4 ,the ,western ,red ,cedar 7,j4 scopulorum7 and the ,southern ,red ,cedar 7,j4 barbadensis7 afford similar wood4 p#agj ,,juniper4 ,juniperus occidentalis ,hook4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,juniper 7,oreg41 ,cal41 ,col41 ,utah1 ,nev41 ,mont41 ,idaho1 ,n4 ,m474 ,cedar1 ,yellow ,cedar1 ,western ,cedar 7,idaho1 ,col41 ,mont474 ,western ,red ,cedar1 ,western ,juniper 7local74 ,locality4 ,california1 ,washington1 and ,oregon4 ,features of ,tree4 ,twenty-five to fifty feet in height1 two to four feet in diameter1 often smaller4 ,long straight trunk in ,west4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood reddish-brown1 sapwood nearly white4 ,very close-grained1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 durable1 receives high polish4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,fencing1 railway ties1 posts1 and fuel4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ce4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 ,remarks4 ,rarely found below an altitude of #fjjj feet4 ,fruit said to be eaten by ,indians4 p#aga ,,white ,,cedar1 ,,arborvit4 ,thuya occidentalis ,linn4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,white ,cedar1 ,arborvit 7local and common names74 ,cedar 7,me41 ,vt41 ,n4 ,y474 ,atlantic ,red ,cedar 7,cal474 ,vit 7,del474 ,locality4 ,northern ,states eastward from ,manitoba and ,michigan4 ,northward1 also occasionally southward1 as in mountain region of ,north ,carolina and eastern ,tennessee4 ,features of ,tree4 ,thirty to sixty feet high1 one to three feet or more in diameter1 often smaller4 ,bruised leaves emit characteristic pungent odor1 rapidly tapering trunk4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood light brown1 darkening with exposure1 thin sapwood1 nearly white4 ,even1 rather fine grain1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,soft1 light1 weak1 brittle1 durable1 inflammable4 ,permits spikes to work loose4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,railway ties1 telegraph poles1 posts1 fencing1 shingles1 and boats4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #ai4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #gej1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #gbjj4 ,remarks4 ,trunks so shaped as to be seldom sawn for lumber4 ,often used for telegraph or other poles1 or else thin upper ends are used for posts1 and lower section flattened into ties4 p#agb ,,canoe ,,cedar1 ,,arborvit4 ,,giant ,,arborvit4 ,thuya plicata ,don4 ,thuya gigantea ,nutt4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,canoe ,cedar1 ,giant ,arborvit 7local and common names74 ,red ,cedar1 ,giant ,red ,cedar1 ,pacific ,red ,cedar 7,wash41 ,oreg41 ,cal41 ,idaho74 ,cedar1 ,giant ,cedar1 ,western ,cedar 7,oreg41 ,cal474 ,shinglewood 7,idaho74 ,locality4 ,coast region1 ,california to ,alaska1 ,idaho to ,montana4 ,features of ,tree4 ,one hundred to two hundred feet in height1 two to eleven feet in diameter4 ,four-sided leaves closely overlapping in sprays4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood dull reddish brown1 thin sapwood nearly white4 ,coarse-grained1 compact structure1 annual layers distinct4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,soft1 weak1 light1 brittle1 easily worked1 very durable4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,shingles1 fencing1 cooperage1 interior finish1 canoes 7coast ,indians74 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bc4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1dfj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aj1fjj4 ,remarks4 ,large trees are often hollow at the bottom4 p#agc ,,white ,,cedar4 ,chamcyparis thyoides ,l4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,white ,cedar 7local and common name74 ,post ,cedar1 ,swamp ,cedar 7,del474 ,juniper 7,ala41 ,n4 ,c41 ,va474 ,locality4 ,maine to ,florida1 ,gulf coast to ,mississippi1 best in ,virginia and ,north ,carolina4 ,features of ,tree4 ,sixty to eighty feet in height1 three to four feet in diameter4 ,shaggy rugged bark4 ,a graceful tree4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood pinkish to darker brown1 sapwood lighter4 ,close-grained1 compact structure1 conspicuous layers4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,very light1 soft1 not strong1 extremely durable in exposed positions1 fragrant1 easily worked4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,boats1 railway ties1 fencing1 poles1 posts1 shingles4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bc 7,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474 #bj4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #iaj1jjj 7average of #hg tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474 #egj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #fcaj 7average of #hg tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474 #fdjj4 ,remarks4 ,grows chiefly in swamps4 ,white cedar posts last many years4 ,thyoides is from ,thuya meaning arborvit and eidos1 the ,greek for resemblance4 p#agd ,,port ,,orford ,,cedar1 ,,lawson ,,cypress4 ,chamcyparis lawsoniana ,murr4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,white ,cedar1 ,oregon ,cedar 7,oreg41 ,cal474 ,ginger ,pine 7,cal474 ,locality4 ,pacific coast1 ,california and ,oregon4 ,features of ,tree4 ,one hundred to sometimes two hundred feet in height1 four to twelve 787 feet in diameter4 ,leaves overlapping in sprays1 very small cones one-fourth inch in diameter4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood yellowish white1 sapwood similar4 ,very close-grained4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 hard1 strong1 durable1 easily worked1 fragrant1 resinous4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,lumber1 flooring1 interior finish1 ties1 posts1 matches1 ship-building4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bh4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1gcj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ab1fjj4 ,remarks4 ,resin employed as insecticide4 p#age ,,yellow ,,cedar1 ,,yellow ,,cypress1 ,,sitka ,,cypress4 ,chamcyparis nootkatensis 7,lamb7 ,spach4 ,chamcyparis nutkansis ,spach4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,nootka ,cypress1 ,nootka ,sound ,cypress 7local74 ,alaska ,cypress1 ,alaska ,ground ,cypress 7local74 ,locality4 ,oregon to ,alaska4 ,features of ,tree4 ,one hundred feet or more in height1 three to five feet or more in diameter4 ,sharp-pointed1 overlapping leaves1 small globular cones4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood clear light yellow1 thin sapwood nearly white4 ,close-grained1 compact structure4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 not strong1 brittle1 hard1 durable in contact with soil1 easily worked1 receives high polish1 fragrant4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,ship-building1 furniture1 interior finish4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bi4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1dfj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #aa1jjj4 ,remarks4 ,valuable ,alaska timber tree4 ,commercially not distinguished from ,pacific ,arborvit4 p#agf ,,incense ,,cedar1 ,,white ,,cedar4 ,libocedrus decurrens ,torr4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,post ,cedar1 ,california ,post ,cedar 7local74 ,bastard ,cedar1 ,red ,cedar1 ,california ,white ,cedar 7local74 ,juniper 7,nevada74 ,locality4 ,california and ,oregon4 ,features of ,tree4 ,ninety to one hundred and twenty-five feet in height1 occasionally higher1 three to six feet in diameter4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood brownish1 sapwood lighter4 ,close-grained1 compact structure4 ,heartwood often pitted4 ,fragrant4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 brittle1 soft1 durable4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,flumes1 shingles1 interior finish4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #be4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1bjj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #ifj1jjj4 ,remarks4 ,subject to attack by fungus1 causing the large oval pits in the heartwood4 ,disease ceases upon the felling of trees4 7von ,schrenk ,contribution ,no4 #ad ,shaw ,school ,botany1 ,st4 ,louis47 p#agg ,illustration3 ,,plate #cd4 ,,cypress 7,cupressus1 ,taxodium74 ,monterey ,cypress 7,cupressus macrocarpa74 7,courtesy ,doubleday1 ,page ,co47 ,cypress 7,taxodium distichum74 7,photograph by ,edward ,j4 ,davison47 ,peggy ,cypress ,wood4 ,,cypress4 7,cupressus and ,taxodium47 ,the name cypress has been chiefly applied to trees of the genera ,chamcyparis1 ,cupressus1 and ,taxodium4 ,most species of the genus ,chamcyparis are now called cedars 7see page #afg74 ,the ,cupressus1 while true cypresses and important in ,europe1 have no significance in ,america4 ,the single species of the genus ,taxodium is not a cypress1 but supplies the cypress wood of ,american commerce4 ,it is perhaps best to confine the name cypress to the true cypress 7,cupressus7 and to the commercial cypress 7,taxodium74 ,the true cypress 7,cupressus7 was once important in the ,east1 and is thought by some to have given the gopher wood of which the ,ark was built4#ih ,pliny mentions cypress doors good after four hundred years1 and a statue good after six hundred years4 ,herodotus and other ancient authors#ii speak of it4 ,authorities in the middle ages thought that it would never decay4 ,the cypress gates of the early ,st4 ,peter's1 removed after one thousand years of service1 were found to be in perfect condition4#ajj ,cypress was much prized for mummy-cases4 ,living trees long figured as funeral emblems1 and are yet planted over graves in ,italy and ,turkey4#aja ,the common or evergreen cypress is the chief ,european species4 ,the eight or nine ,american representatives are of little note save as they are sometimes used for hedges and ornamentation4 ,the ,monterey and ,gowan cypresses 7,cupressus macrocarpa and ,cupressus goveniana7 are thus employed4 ,there are small evergreen scale-like leaves4 p#agh ,illustration3 ,,bald ,,cypress 7,taxodium distichum74 ,the ,american or ,bald ,cypress 7,taxodium distichum7 is a tree of considerable importance4 ,it grows in the ,south ,atlantic and ,gulf ,states1 on submerged lands or in deep swamps where unusual logging methods are necessitated4 ,the seasoned wood resembles white cedar in that it is soft1 light1 and very durable4 ,it has been called by many names4 ,pieces were once called black or white cypress according as they sank or floated4 ,all dark pieces are now called black cypress4 ,the tinted woods of some localities are called red or yellow cypress4 ,the name bald cypress was caused by the leafless appearance of the trees in winter4 ,the living trees are subject to a peculiar fungous disease1 causing numerous cavities in the wood4 ,these so resemble perforations made by small pegs that the wood is termed peggy4 ,the trouble ceases as the trees are cut1 and the wood is then as durable as that from perfect trees4 ,about one third of the standing supply is thus affected4#ajb ,the roots frequently project upward above the surface in what are known as cypress knees4 ,the single species of this genus may easily be recognized by its deciduous foliage2 the little leaves are separated and are not in tufts as with the tamaracks4 p#agi ,,footnotes ,footnote #ih3 ,funk ,wagnalls' ,standard ,dictionary1 quoting ,horace ,smith1 ,gayeties and ,gravities1 ,chapter ,,vii1 p4 #eg4 ,footnote #ii3 ,pliny #af1 #bad and #af1 #bae2 ,herodotus #d1 #af2 ,virgil1 ,georgics1 #b1 #ddc4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 ,b4 #f1 p4 #gde4 ,footnote #aja3 ,brockhaus1 ,konversations-,lexikon1 ,b4 #d1 p4 #fed4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,circular ,no4 #ai 7,dr4 ,b4 ,e4 ,fernow1 ,chief74 ,,cypress1 ,,bald ,,cypress4 ,taxodium distichum ,rich4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,white ,cypress 7,n4 ,c41 ,s4 ,c41 ,fla41 ,miss474 ,black ,cypress 7,n4 ,c41 ,s4 ,c41 ,ala41 ,tex474 ,red ,cypress 7,ga41 ,miss41 ,la41 ,tex474 ,swamp ,cypress 7,la474 ,deciduous ,cypress 7,del41 ,ill41 ,tex474 ,southern ,cypress 7,ala474 ,locality4 ,south ,atlantic and ,gulf ,states1 ,maryland through ,florida to ,texas1 ,mississippi ,valley from southern ,illinois to the ,gulf4 ,occasional in ,north1 as ,new ,york4 ,forms forests in swamps and barrens4#ajc ,features of ,tree4 ,seventy to one hundred and fifty feet in height1 four to ten feet in diameter4 ,knees on roots often hollow in old age4 ,flat deciduous leaves4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,heartwood brownish1 sapwood nearly white4 ,close1 straight grain4 ,frequently pitted by disease4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 not strong1 durable4 ,green wood often very heavy4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,carpentry1 construction1 cooperage1 railway ties4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bi 7,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#ajd #bh4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #a1bij1jjj 7average of #fee tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#ajd #a1dfj1jjj4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #gijj 7average of #fee tests by ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,div474#ajd #ifjj4 ,remarks4 ,wood commercially divided into white and black cypress because of differences in age and environment4 ,fungus disease pits much wood1 but stops with felling of trees4#aje p#ahj ,,footnotes ,footnote #ajc3 ,see ,trans4 ,am4 ,inst4 ,m4 ,e41 ,vol4 ,,xxix1 page #aeg4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,see page #f4 ,footnote #aje3 ,von ,schrenk1 ,contribution ,no4 #ad1 ,shaw ,school ,botany1 ,st4 ,louis2 also ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,circular ,no4 #ai4 ,,redwood4 7,sequoia47 ,these trees grow only in ,california4 ,there are two species3 the common redwood 7,s4 sempervirens71 noted for its lumber1 and the big or mammoth tree 7,s4 washingtoniana71 so remarkable for its great size4 ,geological evidence indicates that the genus was once represented by many species on both hemispheres1 but that all disappeared during the glacial period save the two here noted4 ,the common redwood is a large and perfect tree and supplies a wood suggesting good red cedar4 ,this soft1 light1 clean1 reddish-brown1 durable wood works and stands well1 is not easily inflamed1 and is obtainable in large-sized pieces for use in large constructions4 ,coffins and shingles are made of it1 also large quantities of wooden water-pipe employed for irrigation purposes4 ,the average wood is seen in cheaper forms of indoor finish1 while occasional pieces1 in which the grain is distorted1 are classed as curly redwood and used for costlier decorations4 ,big or ,mammoth trees have been measured up to three hundred and twenty feet in height and thirty-five feet in diameter 7,sargent74 ,they are thus the largest of ,american trees and the most massive1 although not the tallest1 of all trees4 ,specimens twenty-five feet in diameter have been estimated as thirty-six hundred years old1 and it is thought that under favorable conditions trees can survive for five thousand years1 or even longer4 ,the oldest trees are sound throughout4 ,the almost incombustible bark is nearly two feet in thickness2 the wood is brittle1 but otherwise resembles ordinary redwood4 ,it should be noted that large exceptional trees are all known1 and that most of them have names such as the ,pride of the ,forest1 the ,grizzly ,giant1 and the ,u4 ,s4 ,grant4 ,these1 with younger trees1 are grouped in p#aha the ,mariposa1 ,calavaras1 and other groves4 ,many sawmills are unfortunately engaged on the trees of this species4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ce4 ,,redwood 7,sequoia74 ,redwood ,foliage 7,sequoia sempervirens74 ,giant ,redwood ,tree 7,s4 washingtoniana74 7,courtesy ,doubleday1 ,page ,co47 ,curly ,redwood ,wood 7dissection74 ,redwood trees may be known by their size1 locality1 and fine1 dull1 evergreen foliage4 ,the name ,sequoia is that of an ,indian chief4 p#ahb ,,footnote ,references3 ,the ,big ,trees of ,california1 ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,division ,bulletin ,no4 #bh4 ,also ,mr4 ,jas4 ,horsburgh1 ,jr41 ,southern ,pacific ,railway4 ,,redwood4 ,sequoia sempervirens ,endl4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,redwood 7local and common name74 ,sequoia1 ,california ,redwood1 ,coast ,redwood 7local74 ,locality4 ,central and ,north ,pacific coast region4 ,features of ,tree4 ,two hundred to three hundred feet in height1 sometimes higher1 six to eight and sometimes twenty feet in diameter4 ,straight1 symmetrical trunk4 ,low branches rare4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,thick heartwood red1 changing to reddish brown when seasoned2 ,thin sapwood nearly white4 ,coarse1 straight grain1 compact structure1 very thick bark4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 not strong1 soft1 very durable1 not resinous1 easily worked4 ,does not burn easily1 receives polish4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,timber1 shingles1 flumes1 fence-posts1 coffins1 railway ties1 water-pipes1 interior decoration4 ,bark made into souvenirs4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bf 7census figure1 see page #f74 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 #gij1jjj 7average of #h ,humboldt specimens74#ajf #a1adj1jjj 7average of #g ,humboldt specimens74#ajf #ifj1jjj 7census figure1 see page #f74 ,modulus of ,rupture4 #dibj 7average of #i ,humboldt specimens74#ajf #gach 7average of #g ,mendocino specimens74#ajf #hdjj 7census figure1 see page #f74 ,remarks4 ,pacific coast chief construction wood4 ,curled or distorted grain adds value for cabinet purposes4 p#ahc 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,big or ,mammoth ,tree or ,giant ,redwood 7,s4 washingtoniana ,sudworth and ,s4 gigantea7 is the largest tree known4 ,the wood resembling that of ,s4 sempervirens is used locally1 see ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,bul4 ,no4 #bh4 ,,footnote ,footnote #ajf3 ,professor ,frank ,soul1 ,trans4 ,am4 ,inst4 ,m4 ,e41 ,california ,meeting1 #ahii4 ,there are several trees of this species near ,new ,york ,city4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #cf4 ,,endogenous ,,structure ,,in ,,wood4 ,a section through a ,palm ,tree4 ,a cross-section of ,palm wood4 7,natural size47 ,,endogenous ,,trees4 7,monocotyledons47 ,endogenous trees are those that increase from within4 ,their elemental parts are similar to those of exogenous trees but the arrangement of such parts differs in that the newer fibres of the ,endogen intermingle with the old1 pass through a pith-like tissue1 and cause cross-surfaces to appear as dotted1 whereas the new material of the ,exogen is deposited altogether and upon the outside of the old1 their sections exhibiting rings or layers4 ,the ,palms1 ,yuccas1 ,cornstalks1 and ,bamboos are of the endogens4 ,bark is unusual on trees of the series4 ,endogenous woods are hardest and most compact at circumferences4 ,the stems of palm trees are solid1 but those of some of the grasses1 particularly those that grow quickly1 are hollow4#ajg ,the tube or canal1 when existing1 is due to sluggishness on the part of the central pith1 which1 developing more slowly than the outer tissues1 finally ruptures and disappears at the center4 ,there are also more or less permanent joints or knots1#ajh such as are made familiar by the canes and bamboos4 ,the stems of ,endogenous plants are seldom cut up into lumber1 but are used in segments1 or else entire1 as for troughs or piles4#aji ,the use of ,palm wood must be more or less p#ahd limited to the neighborhoods in which such trees flourish1 but it is probable that the ,bamboo can be much more generally employed4 ,the ,endogens include numerous families and many thousand species4#aaj ,the grasses1 including wheat1 rye1 and ,indian corn at the ,north and sugar-cane and bamboo at the ,south1 belong to this group4 ,most ,endogens are herbs2 comparatively few furnish material for structural purposes4 ,the ,palms1 including the palmetto1 rattans1 cane palms1 and others1 the ,yucca1 including the ,joshua tree1 ,spanish bayonet1 and others1 and the ,bamboos1 representatives of the grasses1 are thus useful4 ,endogens are also known as ,monocotyledons4 p#ahe ,,footnotes ,footnote #ajg3 ,the ,bamboo1 which is a grass1 is hollow1 while the cornstalk1 which is also a grass1 is not4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,the knots of endogens correspond to the nodes of exogens4 ,spaces between the nodes1 known as internodes1 mark the annual lengthening4 ,knots are places whence leaves have emerged4 ,footnote #aji3 ,palm in marine work appears to repel the teredoe4 ,this is probably because of the porous character of the wood4 ,see ,marine ,wood ,borers1 ,trans4 ,am4 ,soc4 ,c4 ,e41 ,vol4 ,,xl1 pages #aie and #bjd4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,bastin 7,college ,botany1 p4 #cgi7 divides into about fifty natural orders distributed among seven divisions4 ,warming 7,systematic ,botany1 pp4 #bgg1 #bgh7 divides into seven families corresponding with ,bastin's seven divisions4 ,a4 ,gray divides into twenty-one orders or families4 ,coulter 7,plants1 p4 #bcg7 divides into forty families1 including twenty thousand species4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #cg4 ,,palm 7,palmace7 ,cabbage ,palmetto4 7,courtesy ,n4 ,c4 ,geological ,survey47 ,washington ,palm 7untrimmed74 7,messrs4 ,doubleday1 ,page ,co474 ,washington ,palm 7trimmed74 7,los ,angeles ,chamber ,commerce47 ,,palm4 ,,palmace4 ,this is one of the largest and most important orders of plants known to man4 ,the one thousand#aaa or more known species are distributed over the tropical and semitropical regions of the entire world4 ,only a few species1 including the palmettos of the ,gulf ,states and the fan palms of ,california are native in the ,united ,states4 ,palms have tall1 columnar trunks without branches1 but with crowns of large leaves at their summits4 ,their forms and proportions are often magnificent4 ,the wood is soft1 light1 more or less porous1 difficult to work1 and not strong4 ,the shapes of trunks sometimes cause them to be locally prized for piles1 while the porous qualities of the wood are such as to repel teredo4#aab ,there are many by-products1 as fruit1 nuts1 oil1 etc4 ,the rattan or cane palms of ,india and the ,malayan ,islands sometimes grow to a height of two hundred feet and are imported into ,europe and ,america for chair-bottoms and the like4 ,sudworth#aac enumerates the following as attaining to the dignity of trees in the ,united ,states3 ,cabbage ,palmetto 7,sabal palmetto74 ,silvertop ,palmetto 7,thrinax microcarpa74 ,silktop ,palmetto 7,thrinax parviflora74 ,mexican palmetto 7,sabal mexicana74 ,sargent ,palm 7,pseudophoenix sargentii74 ,fanleaf ,palm 7,washingtonia filifera74 ,royal ,palm 7,oredoya regia74 p#ahf ,,footnotes ,footnote #aaa3 ,coulter1 ,plants1 p4 #bda4 ,footnote #aab3 ,marine ,wood ,borers1 ,snow ,trans4 ,am4 ,soc4 ,c4 ,e41 ,vol4 ,,xl1 pp4 #aie and #bjd4 ,footnote #aac3 ,check ,list1 ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,bul4 ,no4 #ag4 ,a4 ,l4 ,wallace1 ,palm ,trees of ,amazon and their ,uses1 ,london1 #ahec4 ,,cabbage ,,palmetto4 ,sabal palmetto ,walt4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,cabbage ,palmetto1 ,palmetto 7,n4 ,c41 ,s4 ,c474 ,cabbage ,tree 7,miss41 ,fla474 ,tree ,palmetto 7,la474 ,locality4 ,southern ,atlantic and ,gulf coast1 ,united ,states 7intermittently74 ,features of ,tree4 ,medium size1 thirty to forty feet in height1 one to two and one-half feet in diameter4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,light-brown tint4 ,characteristic coarse fibre arrangement4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 difficult to work2 durable in marine work2 repels teredo4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,piles1 wharf work1 etc4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bg4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 ,remarks4 ,scrubbing-brush bristles are made in considerable quantities in ,florida from the sheath of young leaves4 ,the inner part of young plants is edible4 ,it is said 7,n4 ,y4 ,evening ,post1 ,april #bj1 #aija7 that paper is being manufactured from the leaves of the ,palmetto4 p#ahg ,,washington ,,palm4 ,,fanleaf ,,palm4 ,washingtonia filifera ,wendl4 ,neowashingtonia filamentosa ,wendl4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,fanleaf ,palm1 ,washington ,palm1 ,desert ,palm 7,cal474 ,california ,fan ,palm1 ,arizona ,palm1 ,wild ,date 7,cal474 ,locality4 ,california4 ,features of ,tree4 ,thirty to sixty feet in height1 one and one-half to three feet in diameter4 ,fan-shaped leaves rising yet farther in tuft from summit2 edible fruit4 ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,light greenish yellow to dark red1 conspicuous grain4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,soft1 light1 shrinks in seasoning1 difficult to work4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,ornamental purposes4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #cb4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 ,remarks4 ,the largest of the ,united ,states ,palms4 ,much used for landscape effects in ,california4 p#ahh ,,yucca4 7,yucca47 ,the eighteen species constituting this genus are all ,american4 ,twelve of them are found in the southern and western ,united ,states1 and eight of these are mentioned by ,sudworth#aad as arborescent4 ,several of the ,yuccas are cultivated because of their beautiful lily-like flowers4 ,the ,tree ,yucca or ,joshua-tree affords wood4 ,this last named species produces a short stout trunk1 peculiar in that it is covered by thick bark4 ,the soft1 spongy wood is sometimes sawn into lumber1 made into souvenirs and lately into artificial limbs4 ,an attempt to manufacture it into paper-pulp#aae is said to have failed because of high cost made necessary by the remote position of the industry4 ,hough notes#aaf that trees are sometimes attacked by borers that impregnate the walls of their tunnels with hardening antiseptic solutions1 causing such parts to remain after the disappearance of the others4 ,and that these parts are described as petrified wood1 and are prized for fuel since they burn with little smoke and great heat4 ,the eight species noted by ,sudworth are as follows3 ,yucca arborescens 7,joshua tree74 ,yucca treculeana 7,spanish ,bayonet74 ,yucca gloriosa 7,spanish ,dagger74 ,yucca mohavensis 7,mohave ,yucca74 ,yucca aloifolia 7,alo-leaf ,yucca74 ,yucca macrocarpa 7,broadfruit ,yucca74 ,yucca brevifolia 7,schott ,yucca74 ,yucca constricta4 p#ahi ,,footnotes ,footnote #aad3 ,check ,list1 ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,bul4 ,no4 #ag4 ,footnote #aae3 ,south of ,mohave ,desert in ,california about twenty years ago4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,american ,woods1 ,part ,,vii1 p4 #eg4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ch4 ,,yucca 7,yucca arborescens74 ,by courtesy of ,messrs4 ,doubleday1 ,page ,co4 ,photograph by ,conaway4 ,wood of ,yucca4 ,,joshua-,,tree1 ,,yucca4 ,yucca brevifolia ,engel4 ,yucca arborescens ,torr4 ,nomenclature4 7,sudworth47 ,joshua-tree1 ,the ,joshua1 ,yucca1 ,yucca ,tree 7,utah1 ,ariz41 ,n4 ,m41 ,cal474 ,yucca ,cactus 7,cal474 ,locality4 ,central and lower ,rocky ,mountain region4 ,features of ,tree4 ,twenty-five to forty feet in height1 six inches to two feet in diameter4 ,thick outer cover or bark4#aag ,color1 ,appearance1 or ,grain of ,wood4 ,light brown to white1 porous grain4 ,structural ,qualities of ,wood4 ,light1 soft1 spongy1 flexible in thin sheets4 ,representative ,uses of ,wood4 ,paper-pulp1 souvenirs1 boxes1 book covers1 and other small articles4 ,weight of ,seasoned ,wood in ,pounds per ,cubic ,foot4 #bc4 ,modulus of ,elasticity4 ,modulus of ,rupture4 ,remarks4 ,bark is unusual in the case of endogenous trees4 ,arborescens refers to fact that it is a tree4 p#aij ,,footnote ,footnote #aag3 ,see paragraph ,bark1 ,endogenous ,trees1 page #ee4 ,,bamboo4 7,bambus47 ,the bamboos are giant members of a group 7grasses#aah71 the other individuals of which1 while widely distributed1 valued1 and very numerous1 are for the most part insignificant as to bulk1 height1 and structural characteristics4 ,the canes and bamboos are exceptions in that they form what may well be called forests1 and produce woods used in construction4 ,the ,bamboos 7,bambus71 including about twenty genera and two hundred species1#aai are distributed unevenly over the tropical zone4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ci4 ,,bamboo 7,bambus74 ,bamboo ,grove1 ,philippines4 ,by the courtesy of the ,manila ,p4,o4 ,forestry ,bureau4 ,bamboo ,grove1 ,china4 ,bamboo sections1 #e-a_/d inches diameter4 ,the bamboo plant with its numerous stalks and delicate foliage resembles a plume of giant ostrich feathers4 ,the stems attain heights of seventy feet and diameters of four and six inches 7see ,fig4 #c plate74 ,knots or joints are at first close together1 but are later one or two feet apart4 ,growth is surprisingly rapid4 ,a ,philippine specimen1 which when measured was eighteen inches high and four inches in diameter1 grew two feet in three days4#abj ,florida stalks have reached heights of seventy-two feet in a single season4#aba ,the plants are apt to take complete possession of the ground on which they grow4 ,those who use bamboo value it highly4 ,it is employed entire or else split into segments4 ,some can be p#aia opened and flattened into rough boards1 splitting everywhere but holding together4#abb ,for vessels it is cut off with reference to the partitions4 ,the subject is thus summarized by ,dr4 ,martin3#abc ,the ,chinese make masts of it for their small junks1 and twist it into cables for their larger ones4 ,they weave it into matting for floors1 and make it into rafters for roofs4 ,they sit at table on bamboo chairs1 eat shoots of bamboo with bamboo chop-sticks4 ,the musician blows a bamboo flute1 and the watchman beats a bamboo rattle4 ,criminals are confined in a bamboo cage and beaten with bamboo rods4 ,paper is made of bamboo fibre1 and pencils of a joint of bamboo in which is inserted a tuft of goat's hair4 ,the manipulation of this valuable material is not yet understood in ,america4 ,prof4 ,johnson notes#abd that the wood of bamboo is just twice as strong as the strongest wood in cross-bending1 weight for weight1 when the wood is taken in specimens1 with a square and solid cross-section4 ,dr4 ,fernow considers the bamboo worthy of extensive trial throughout the ,gulf region4#abe p#aib ,,footnotes ,footnote #aah3 ,grasses1 one of the largest and probably one of the most useful groups of plants4 4 4 4 ,if grass-like sedges be associated1 4 4 4 there are about #fjjj species1 representing nearly one third of the ,monocotyledons4 7,coulter1 ,plants1 pp4 #bdj-bda47 ,the various pasture-grasses1 cereals1 and sugar-canes are here included4 ,bamboos and canes are distinct in that they afford structural materials4 ,footnote #aai3 ,b4 ,e4 ,fernow notes 7p4 #bi1 ,forestry ,bulletin ,no4 #aa73 ,in addition to the genus bambusa1 the genera ,arundinaria1 ,arundo1 ,dendrocalamus1 and ,guadua are the most important4 ,all of tribe ,bambusae4 ,footnote #abj3 ,frederic ,h4 ,sawyer4 ,memb4 ,inst4 ,c4 ,e41 ,inhabitants of the ,philippines1 ,chas4 ,scribner's ,sons4 #aijj 7p4 #e74 ,footnote #aba3 ,page #bi1 ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,bulletin ,no4 #aa4 ,footnote #abb3 ,prof4 ,isaac ,f4 ,holton1 ,new ,granada1 ,harper ,bros41 ,new ,york1 #aheg 7p4 #aji74 ,footnote #abc3 ,cycle of ,cathay1 ,fleming ,h4 ,revell ,co41 #ahii 7p4 #agb74 ,footnote #abd3 ,materials of ,construction1 #ahig1 p4 #fhi4 ,footnote #abe3 ,henry ,g4 ,hubbard1 ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,bulletin ,no4 #aa1 ,a4 ,b4 ,mitford4 ,the ,bamboo ,garden1 ,macmillan1 #ahif4 ,kurz1 ,bamboo and its ,uses1 ,calcutta1 #ahgf4 ,bamboo as substitute for ,wood1 ,fernow1 p4 #bjc1 #fth ,annual ,report4 ,,bamboo4 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#ace heterophylla1 #acb1 #acc1 #aci lambertiana1 #aca1 #acf mitis1 #acb1 #adj monticola1 #acg palustris1 #acb1 #acc1 #ach1 #aci ponderosa1 #adb resinosa1 #adc rigida1 #add strobus1 #aca1 #acd sylvestris1 #ade tda1 #acb1 #acc1 #ada ,piquant armourette1 #gh ,pith cavity1 #g ,pith ,ray1 #b1 #h ,plane ,tree1 #fe1 #ff ,platane ,cotonier1 #ff ,platanus1 #fe occidentalis1 #fe1 #ff orientalis1 #fe racemosa1 #fe1 #fg ,plaqueminier1 #aab ,plum1 ,date1 #aab ,poplar1 #hj1 #hb1 #hc1 #aeg ,blue1 #hb ,hickory1 #hb ,large1 #hc ,large ,toothed1 #hc ,necklace1 #hd ,tulip1 #hj1 #hb ,white1 #hc ,yellow1 #hb ,popple1 #hb1 #hc ,populus1 #hj balsamifera1 #aeg deltoides1 #hd grandidentata1 #hc monilifera1 #hd tremuloides1 #ha1 #hc trichocarpa1 #he ,powcohicora1 #ea ,possumwood1 #abb ,prima vera1 #aai1 #aba ,prosopis1 #ge juliflora1 #fa1 #gi odorata1 #gf ,prunus1 #aaa serotina1 #aaa1 #aad ,pseudophoenix sargentii1 #ahe ,pseudotsuga1 #aed douglasii1 #aef taxifolia1 #aee ,pyrus1 #bh americana1 #bh ancuparia1 #bh communis1 #bh coronaria1 #bh malus1 #bh sambucifolia1 #bh vulgaris1 #bh ,q ,quarter ,sawing1 #i ,quercitron1 #bb ,quercus1 #aa agrifolia1 #ab1 #bd alba1 #ab1 #ac chrysolepis1 #ab1 #be digitata1 #ab1 #ba falcata1 #ba garryana1 #ab1 #ah macrocarpa1 #ab1 #ag michauxii1 #ab1 #ad minor1 #ab1 #af obtusiloba1 #af palustris1 #ab1 #bj prinus1 #ab1 #ae robur1 #ab robur var4 sessiliflora1 #ab1 #bf robur var4 pedunculata1 #ab1 #bf rubra1 #ab1 #ai tinctoria1 #bb velutina1 #ab1 #bb virens1 #bc virginiana1 #ab1 #bc wislizeni1 #be ,quince1 #bg ,r ,radial ,section1 #h ,red ,flower1 #dd ,redwoood1 #abj1 #ade1 #ahj1 #ahb ,california1 #ahb ,coast1 #ahb ,giant1 #ahb ,resin1 #acb ,resin ducts1 #b1 #aj ,rhododendron maximum1 #ajf1 #ajh ,rhus integrifolia1 #aah ,robinia1 #ge pseudacacia1 #ge1 #gg ,rose ,bay1 #ajh ,rotary ,cut1 #i ,rowan ,tree1 #bg ,s ,sabal mexicana1 #ahe palmetto1 #ahe1 #ahf ,salicylic ,acid1 #gd1 #hh ,salix1 #hh alba1 #hh babylonica1 #hh caprea1 #hh fragilis1 #hh nigra1 #hi russeliana1 #hh ,sapwood1 #g ,sargent 7,prof4 ,c4 ,s47 ,experiments1 #d ,sassafac1 #id ,sassafrac1 #id ,sassafras1 #ic1 #id ,californian1 #aji ,sassafras1 #ic officinale1 #id sassafras1 #id ,savin1 #afi ,saxifrax1 #id ,tree1 #id ,schfferia frutescens1 #ajf ,sequoia1 #ahc ,sequoia1 #ahj gigantea1 #ahb sempervirens1 #ahj1 #ahb washingtoniana1 #ahj1 #ahb ,shagbark1 #eb ,sharpless 7,j4 ,p47 ,experiments1 #d ,shawneewood1 #ia ,shellbark1 #eb ,shinglewood1 #agb ,simmon1 #aab ,smoking-bean1 #ib ,,soft ,,woods1 #i1 #abi ,sorbus 7see ,pyrus71 #bh ,soymida1 #aah febrifuga1 #aah ,spanish ,bayonet1 #ahh ,spanish ,dagger1 #ahh ,species1 #b ,specific ,gravity1 #d ,specific ,name1 #b ,spice-tree1 #aji ,spruce1 #adh1 #adi1 #aej1 #aed1 #aee1 #afc ,black1 #adh1 #aej ,blue1 #aej ,bog1 #aea ,california ,hemlock ,spruce1 #afc ,cat1 #aea ,cork-barked ,douglas1 #aee ,double1 #aej1 #aea ,douglas1 #aed1 #aee ,engelmann1 #aeb ,great ,tideland1 #aec ,he ,balsam1 #aej ,hemlock1 #afc ,menzies'1 #aec ,mountain1 #aeb ,red1 #aej ,single1 #aeg ,sitka1 #aec ,skunk1 #aea ,water1 #aej ,western1 #aec ,white1 #aej1 #aeb ,stinkwood1 #aja ,strength of ,woods1 #c ,stringy-bark1 #abc ,sugar1 #da1 #db1 #dd1 #df1 #ej ,sugar ,tree1 #db ,swietenia1 #aah mahagoni1 #aah1 #abj ,sycamore1 #dj1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg ,california1 #fg ,t ,tabeuia ,donnell-,smithii1 #aba ,tamarack1 #afd1 #afe1 #aff ,western1 #aff ,tanbark1 #b ,tangential ,section1 #h ,tar1 #acb ,taxodium1 #agg distichum1 #agh ,teak1 #aae1 #aaf ,african1 #aae ,indian1 #aae ,teek1 #aaf ,tectona grandis1 #aae1 #aaf ,tewart1 #abg ,thorn1 #gh ,thrinax microcarpa1 #ahe parviflora1 #ahe ,thuya1 #afg gigantea1 #afh1 #agb occidentalis1 #afh1 #aga plicata1 #agb ,tiel1 #ha ,tiel-tree1 #ha ,tilia1 #hj americana1 #hg heterophylla1 #hg ,tooart1 #abg ,toothache ,tree1 #bg ,toxylon pomiferum1 #aac ,tracheid1 #b ,tsuga1 #adi1 #afb canadensis1 #afc caroliniana1 #afc heterophylla1 #afc ,tree1 #a ,tree ,yucca1 #ahh ,tuart1 #abc1 #abg ,tulip-tree1 #hj1 #hb ,tupelo1 #aja1 #ajb ,large1 #ajb ,swamp1 #ajb ,turpentine1 #acb ,u ,ulmus1 #ce americana1 #cf alata1 #ci fulva1 #ch racemosa1 #cg pubescens1 #ch ,umbellularia californica1 #ajh1 #aji ,u4 ,s4 ,census ,experiments1 #d ,u4 ,s4 ,forestry ,division ,experiments1 #d ,v ,veneer1 #db1 #dg1 #aai ,vessel1 #b ,vit1 #aga ,w ,wahoo1 #ci ,whahoo1 #ci ,walnut1 #dg1 #di1 #ej1 #eb ,black1 #dg1 #di ,english1 #dg1 #di ,persian1 #dg1 #di ,royal1 #dg1 #di ,shagbark1 #eb ,sweet1 #eb ,white1 #ej ,washingtonia filifera1 #ahe1 #ahg ,watertown ,arsenal ,experiments1 #d ,weights of ,woods1 #c ,white ,mahogany1 #ej ,whitewood1 #hj1 #hb1 #hd1 #hg ,wickup1 #hg ,wild ,date1 #ahg ,wild ,olive ,tree1 #ajb ,wild ,pear ,tree1 #aja ,willow1 #hh1 #hi ,bedford1 #hh ,black1 #hi ,crack1 #hh ,goat1 #hh ,swamp1 #hi ,weeping1 #hh ,white1 #hh ,x ,xanthoxylum americana1 #bg clava-herculis1 #bg ,y ,yellowbark1 #bb ,yellow ,gum ,tree1 #aja ,yellowwood1 #ajf1 #aac1 #ade ,yucca1 #ahd1 #ahh1 #ahi ,aloe-leaf1 #ahh ,broadfruit1 #ahh ,cactus1 #ahi ,mohave1 #ahh ,schott1 #ahh ,tree1 #ahh1 #ahi ,yucca1 #ahh1 #ahi aloifolia1 #ahh arborescens1 #ahh1 #ahi brevifolia1 #ahh1 #ahi constricta1 #ahh gloriosa1 #ahh macrocarpa1 #ahh mohavensis1 #ahh treculeana1 #ahh 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,original spelling and grammar have usually been retained4 ,each footnote has been moved from the bottom of a page to the end of its section4 ,illustrations have been moved from within paragraphs to nearby locations between paragraphs4 ,plates were originally printed on unnumbered pages and followed by a blank page4 ,pages #bf and #aaf3 the name ,laslett1 retained1 probably refers to ,lazlett4 ,page #ce3 ,some paragraphs of the original printed book appear to be footnotes1 but lack an anchor in the text4 ,for example1 the one on page #ce is likely a general reference for the ,genus ,ulmus 7,elm74 ,pages #abc-abd contain a particularly interesting example4 ,this ,chapter on ,eucalyptus contains five footnote paragraphs4 ,the third and fifth are not anchored4 ,it may be that either3 7#a7 the third paragraph was meant to be part of the second footnote1 or 7#b7 the third paragraph was meant to be a general reference for ,eucalyptus1 or 7#c7 the anchor for the third paragraph was simply not printed due to typographical error4 ,since such ambiguity is rather common in this book1 the footnote paragraphs1 both anchored and not1 have been retained in the order printed1 but relocated to the end of the immediate containing section4 ,page #eg3 chrysaphylla changed to chrysophylla4 ,page #fj3 the original second footnote1 99 ,keeler notes experiments made to prove resistance on part of beechwood4 had no anchor in the text1 and in the #aijh edition 7the ,second ,edition1 ,first ,thousand71 this footnote was omitted entirely from the corresponding chapter4 ,herein1 it is retained4 ,page #fd3 virginina changed to virginiana4 ,page #hh3 the names ,salix babylnica1 and ,salix babylonica 7the latter in the index71 are both retained4 ,there are several other retained instances of spelling inconsistencies in the use of accents1 or -ligature versus ae4 ,page #abj3 ,santa ,anna on page #abj and ,santa ,ana on page #aah are both retained4 ,pages #acc1 #adi3 these two data tables were recast in a different shape to achieve shorter line length4 ,page #afh3 ,the table says ,spanish ,cedar4 7,see page #ii474 ,this may be a misprint1 referring to page #aai4 ,page #aih3 ,index entry ,nectanara1 #aae changed to ,nectandra1 #aae4 ,also1 ,negunao to ,negundo4 ,page #bja3 ,caliofrnia 7under ,sassafras7 to ,californian4