,,the ,,library ,,of ,,work ,,and ,,play ,,carpentry ,,and ,,woodwork ,by ,edwin ,w4 ,foster ,,electricity ,,and ,,its ,,everyday ,,uses ,by ,john ,f4 ,woodhull1 ,ph4,d4 ,,gardening ,,and ,,farming ,by ,ellen ,eddy ,shaw ,,home ,,decoration ,by ,charles ,franklin ,warner1 ,sc4,d4 ,,housekeeping ,by ,elizabeth ,hale ,gilman ,,mechanics1 ,,indoors ,,and ,,out ,by ,fred ,t4 ,hodgson ,,needlecraft ,by ,effie ,archer ,archer ,,outdoor ,,sports1 ,,and ,,games ,by ,claude ,h4 ,miller1 ,ph4,b4 ,,outdoor ,,work ,by ,mary ,rogers ,miller ,,working ,,in ,,metals ,by ,charles ,conrad ,sleffel4 ,illustration3 ,copyright #aiaa1 by ,underwood ,underwood ,even a ,boy ,can ,learn ,how to ,make a ,horseshoe ,,working ,,in ,,metals ,by ,,charles ,,conrad ,,sleffel ,wide ,experience in ,practical ,shop ,work and for #ab years ,instructor in ,metal ,work at the ,horace ,mann ,school1 ,teachers' ,college1 ,new ,york ,illustration ,garden ,city ,new ,york ,,doubleday1 ,,page ,,company #aiaf ,,all ,,rights ,,reserved1 ,,including ,,that ,,of ,,translation ,,into ,,foreign ,,languages1 ,,including ,,the ,,scandinavian ,,copyright1 #aiaa1 ,,by ,,doubleday1 ,,page ,,company ,,acknowledgment ,the publishers wish to acknowledge their indebtedness to the ,teachers ,college of ,columbia ,university for their courtesy in permitting certain of the photographs to be taken for this volume4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,introductory #c ,,ii4 ,tools #e ,,work ,,in ,,copper ,,iii4 ,how to ,make a ,copper ,bowl #ai ,,iv4 ,copper ,trays #bf ,v4 ,paper ,cutter and ,nut ,set #cd ,,vi4 ,hard and ,soft ,soldering #da ,,vii4 ,candlestick1 ,sconce1 ,rose ,jar1 and ,chalice #dg ,,viii4 ,how to ,make a ,hat ,pin #fd ,,ix4 ,how to ,rivet #gc ,x4 ,lamp 7for ,electricity71 with ,shade #ib ,,xi4 ,hinges in ,copper or ,silver #ajj ,,xii4 ,jewel ,box and ,desk ,set #ajg ,,brass ,,work ,,xiii4 ,finger ,bowl1 ,crumb ,tray1 ,tea ,caddy1 ,vase1 ,bell and ,bracket1 ,drawer ,pulls1 etc4 #acc ,,silver ,,work ,,xiv4 ,finger ,rings and ,scarf ,pins #aea ,,xv4 ,necklaces1 ,brooches1 ,bracelets #aff ,,xvi4 ,spoons and ,picture ,frame #agh ,,xvii4 ,watch ,fobs #ahg ,,xviii4 ,napkin ,rings1 ,silver ,comb1 ,belt ,buckles #aia ,,xix4 ,enamelling #aig ,,the ,,blacksmith',s ,,shop ,,xx4 ,blacksmithing and ,tools #bae ,,xxi4 ,first ,problems in ,forging #bcc ,,xxii4 ,welding #bdg ,,xxiii4 ,mild ,steel or ,soft ,steel #bfd ,,xxiv4 ,hardening and ,tempering4 ,tool ,making #bhi ,,xxv4 ,how to ,harden1 ,soften and ,stretch ,steel #cjg ,,xxvi4 ,forging ,hand ,hammers #caf ,,xxvii4 ,some ,general ,forging ,problems #cbg ,,ornamental ,,iron ,,work ,,xxviii4 ,processes1 ,andirons1 ,fire ,tools #cfa ,,xxix4 ,candlesticks1 ,hinges1 ,iron ,brackets #chj ,,xxx4 ,lamps1 ,lanterns1 ,iron ,kettle ,stand1 ,umbrella ,stand #cif ,,xxxi4 ,door ,knockers1 ,plates1 ,handles1 etc4 #daj ,,illustrations ,even a ,boy ,can ,learn ,how to ,make a ,horseshoe ,frontispiece ,,facing ,,page ,a ,boy's ,workshop #ad ,a ,group of ,boys at ,copper ,work #ff ,some ,problems in ,copper and ,brass ,work ,made by ,boys #adb ,boys from ,eleven to ,fourteen ,years of ,age ,doing ,metal ,work in the ,country #aid ,splitting and ,shaping the ,iron in the ,making of ,andirons #cfb ,finishing of an ,ornamental ,window ,grill1 and ,levelling up of an ,old ,dutch ,candlestick #chh ,making an ,iron ,lamp #cif ,ornamental ,work and the ,straightening and ,finishing of an ,umbrella ,stand #djh ,,working ,,in ,,metals ,i ,,introductory ,what a pretty copper box1 ,john4 ,where did you get it8 ,i made it4 ,you made it8 ,yes1 out of sheet copper in my room last night4 ,that's the way ,i spend my evenings4 ,and such fun as it is6 ,i enjoy every minute of the time4 ,mother says ,i'd work all night if she didn't stop me4 ,i'd like to do something like that4 ,do you think ,i could learn to do it8 ,i'm sure you could4 ,do you know the blacksmith around the corner8 ,he taught me how to do this work1 and ever so much more4 ,he got me the tools1 too4 ,he says every boy can learn to work with metals1 so ,i thought ,i'd try it4 ,i'll take you around to see him sometime4 ,come up to my room and ,i'll show my workshop and all the tools ,i use4 ,it would be mighty nice to know how to do something else besides running an elevator all day4 ,i get so tired of that4 ,how long would it take me to make a box like this one8 ,not very long if you begin in the right way4 ,i've worked at it only since ,i left school4 ,the manual training ,i got there helped me to know how to handle the tools4 ,you had that training1 too1 and ,i know it will help you4 ,here we are1 this is my workshop and bedroom4 ,let's work here together and ,i'll teach you all ,i know3 how to use the tools and just what to do4 ,so began two boys to do work that one had done--metal work which any boy can do if he will but take the trouble to get the tools and have the patience to learn the way step by step4 ,you don't need a large room for your workshop1 you see1 said ,john4 ,the table here is my work bench and all the tools can be put into a box out of the way when you are not using them4 ,here are my sketches of the tools one needs to make almost anything out of copper1 brass1 or silver4 ,the blacksmith made the drawings for me and taught me how to make some of the tools myself4 ,he says every boy should learn to make his own tools and ,i shan't be satisfied until ,i can make them all4 ,then ,i can make them as ,i need them and only those that fit the work best4 ,but ,i had to buy most of them to start with4 ,here they are4 ,,ii ,,tools ,these are my shears4 ,they are sometimes called jewellers' snips4 ,i use them for cutting copper1 wire1 and my designs4 ,you can buy them at any hardware store4 ,but be sure to get a good pair1 as they are needed for so many things4 ,illustration ,i do all my measuring with a steel square4 ,you see it takes the place of a two-foot rule4 ,it's useful for squaring up1 too4 ,see1 it has the #a_/af1 #a_/d1 #a_/b1 #c_/d1 and #a-;in4 spaces4 ,my dividers are my compasses4 ,i draw circles1 mark pieces1 and find centres with them4 ,the pliers are used to twist the binding wire and to hold the metal when it is to be heated1 or soldered1 etc4 ,illustration ,illustration ,you can get a wooden block like this anywhere4 ,hard wood is best4 ,this block is #f #d #d ins4 ,you see1 ,i cut out a hollow bowl-shaped place in the top4 ,when ,i want to work a flat piece of copper into a rough bowl shape1 ,i hammer it into the depression4 ,the opposite end of the block1 which is flat1 is useful in many ways1 too4 ,illustration3 ,bench vise ,i couldn't get along without my bench vise4 ,here it is2 made of metal4 ,it can be fastened to a table as well as to a bench4 ,it holds any tool used for shaping and also the metal when ,i wish to file it4 ,illustration ,this piece of #c_/h-;in4 hexagonal steel1 #e in4 long1 tapered at one end down to #a_/af-;in41 is a punch for making or pressing holes in copper or silver4 ,the size of the hole depends upon the length you drive the punch into the metal4 ,illustration ,the centre-punch is made like this one1 but the end is ground to a point4 ,illustration3 ,raising hammer ,here are my hammers4 ,i have three and a wooden mallet4 ,the raising hammer is used for many things which you will learn as you get on4 ,you see one end is somewhat rounded4 ,you can pound away on the copper with this hammer and have no fear of driving holes into the metal4 ,it's the first hammer ,i use to shape up the metal bowl with4 ,the shaping or driving hammer is flat at one end and rounded at the other4 ,its bent head is shaped so that you can use it in places where a straight headed hammer won't go4 ,it's the only hammer to use when you work on the outside of boxes or bowls to shape them up4 ,illustration3 ,shaping hammer ,sometimes lumps are left on the surface of the copper after the raising hammer has been used4 ,these are smoothed away with the planishing hammer4 ,its broad end flattens these rough places and makes the surface perfectly level before going on with the work4 ,illustration3 ,planishing hammer ,illustration3 ,wooden mallet ,a wooden mallet is often used in place of the heavier hammer4 ,if a light stroke is needed it can be used without danger of marring the metal1 as wood is so much softer than the metal itself4 ,you'll need some files to reduce the metal to certain sizes4 ,i have four3 a bastard1 #ab-;in42 a mill cut1 #h-;in42 a half round mill cut1 and one round #a_/b-;in4 mill cut4 ,then ,i have one half dozen jewellers' files of different sizes4 ,supply houses will always tell you the best kind to buy4 ,illustration3 ,cold chisel ,the cold chisel is used in many places for cutting off material1 especially for metals that are too heavy for the shears4 ,illustration3 ,gouge ,a carpenter's gouge chisel will be found useful for cutting impressions in wooden blocks4 ,illustration3 ,drill press ,the drill press is used to bore holes into the copper or silver when you wish to rivet or saw4 ,you will need a half dozen drills for your work4 ,the #a_/af-;in4 drills are the size ,i like best4 ,with a jewellers' saw frame like this you can cut any design out of copper or silver4 ,the fine saws are very cheap and one will last you a long time if you take care of it4 ,illustration3 ,jewellers' saw frame ,illustration3 ,round stake ,illustration3 ,round stake anvil ,here are the tools ,i use to finish shaping my bowls on4 ,this round top stake is put into my bench vise1 where it is held tight4 ,then ,i put my bowl on it after ,i have shaped it as much as ,i can on the hard wood block4 ,i can then go on shaping it as ,i choose1 but if the bowl is very deep you must use the anvil stake instead of the round top stake4 ,illustration3 ,combination stake ,here is a tool which is a combination of anvil stake and riveting tool4 ,i use it for drawing out pieces of copper into different shapes2 flattening round pieces1 rounding up flat ones1 and for riveting pieces of metal together1 as you must do when you make a piece of work like my box4 ,illustration ,here is a little fire screen ,i made myself4 ,you need one1 you know1 to put your metal in1 at times1 for annealing and soldering4 ,it's a safe way to prevent the blaze burning the table or setting fire to anything4 ,i take two pieces of board1 each #f #ab #g_/h ins4 7any kind of lumber will do74 ,nail the two #ab-;in4 edges of the boards together1 at right angles to each other4 ,nail this to a base and line the whole inside with asbestos4 ,you can place any piece of metal you wish to heat in this corner and direct a flame upon it with perfect safety4 ,all the heat ,i need comes from a gas burner4 ,here ,i have a bunsen burner1 and for such work as ,i do on rings1 scarf pins1 hat pins1 etc41 or for any work that doesn't need lots of heating in the process1 the bunsen burner will do4 ,but for annealing1 which you have to do when you make bowls1 or for soldering1 when you make boxes1 you must have a stronger flame4 ,then ,i use the gas range in the kitchen or the bellows blower and blow pipe4 ,if you happen to be where you can't get a gas flame1 an alcohol lamp with a mouth blow pipe can be used4 ,illustration3 ,bunsen burner ,illustration3 ,bellows ,illustration3 ,blow pipe ,fill the alcohol lamp with denatured alcohol 7bought at any drug store74 ,light it4 ,with the large end of the blow pipe in your mouth and the small end about #a_/d in4 above and a little to the right of the flame1 blow gently4 ,this little blue flame will give you heat enough to solder small pieces4 ,even a small wood fire would give you heat enough to anneal any size pieces you wish4 ,must ,i learn to make all these tools before beginning8 ,oh1 no1 you'd better buy your tools2 they don't cost very much4 ,then we can start to make something right away4 ,the first thing you must do is to design the piece of work you are going to make4 ,i made a bowl first4 ,but ,i can't design4 ,neither could ,i when ,i began4 ,you won't find it hard after you have once made a start4 ,let's begin now1 ,john1 ,i want to make something4 ,illustration ,i know you do1 said ,john4 ,that's the way ,i felt4 ,now1 ,i'm the teacher and you must do as ,i tell you until you can plan for yourself4 ,here are pictures of a lot of things we can choose from3 bowls1 boxes1 trays1 etc4 ,if a boy can make all these models he can go on and make nearly anything in copper1 or even silver1 he would like to make4 ,here are the bowl designs ,i have drawn4 ,of course there are bowls of different shapes1 and some have covers to them4 ,but we will try to get the shape that's most pleasing4 ,let's take this wrapping paper and draw a number of shapes on it1 keeping the diameter and depth of each bowl the same4 ,this model is #d ins4 in diameter and #a-a_/b ins4 deep4 ,let's make all our drawings of bowls that size4 ,illustration3 ,bowls ,which do you like best8 ,i like the first one4 ,now that we've decided on the size and shape of the bowl1 ,i must tell you something about the copper to be used4 ,all sheet copper is sold by number1 the higher the number the thinner the metal4 ,number #bj is a good size to use for most bowls and boxes4 ,i use size #bj for mine4 ,if you want a bowl to be lighter1 use size #bb or #bd4 ,you can buy the sheet copper at any hardware store4 ,illustration3 ,this ,boy ,has a ,well ,equipped ,shop--,he is ,just ,finishing a ,copper ,bowl4 ,you ,see ,his ,vise1 ,shears1 ,mallet1 ,hammers4 ,now you know how to make your design and you know something1 too1 about the tools and copper in general4 ,we are ready now to begin the bowl4 ,,work ,,in ,,copper ,,iii ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,copper ,,bowl ,here are the tools and the material that we need to make our first piece of work3 ,material3 #a ,sheet of copper1 #bj gauge4 ,powdered pumice stone4 ,tools3 ,hard wood block1 dividers1 shears1 round headed hammer1 planishing hammer1 round top stake1 mallet1 files4 ,illustration ,directions3 ,take the sheet of copper1 and with the dividers mark on the copper a circle having a diameter a little longer than the contour of your bowl design4 ,cut this circle out with your shears4 ,with the round headed hammer1 using the rounded end1 beat the metal disc into the hollow of the wooden block until it takes on a fairly even bowl shape4 ,keep turning the metal with the left hand while you hammer it with the right4 ,illustration3 ,wood block ,you soon have a rough shaped bowl full of bumps and wrinkles around the outer edge4 ,illustration3 ,the long even buckles are easily hammered out2 the short1 sharp ones are the kind that cause the cracks ,illustration ,these wrinkles must come because the circumference of the metal disc decreases as it takes on the bowl shape4 ,so long as these wrinkles are long regular curves1 they will work out all right4 ,if they should take short1 sharp shapes there is danger of the metal splitting4 ,in order to avoid this be sure to keep the wrinkles hammered out flat as you work along4 ,illustration3 ,smoothing surface of bowl with the planishing hammer ,if you went on hammering too long after your bowl is shaped1 the bowl would crack or perhaps break1 for hammering leaves copper hard and springy4 ,so you must soften it before you can safely hammer any more4 ,to do this ,i hold the bowl over a gas range until it is red all over1 then ,i plunge it into cold water4 ,this heating to soften up the copper is called annealing4 ,repeat the hammering until the bowl takes on the shape of the design4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,in this way one can get the shape desired ,now take your round top stake and put it into the vise4 ,place the bowl over the round top stake1 and with the planishing hammer1 beat the surface until it is perfectly smooth1 driving the metal just hard enough to flatten the bumps made by the hammering in the wooden block4 ,if carefully done the surface will be true and bright and covered over with brilliant facets4 ,a skillful hammer-man can really drive the metal in any direction he may wish4 ,in this way you make a bowl out of one piece of copper4 ,the top of the bowl will be ragged4 ,cut this rough edge with a pair of shears4 ,file the top with a smooth file until it is perfectly true4 ,a good test to make sure of this is to lay the bowl down on a plate of glass1 or hold it up against the window pane4 ,if there are still any tiny openings left in the edge the light will be easily seen through them4 ,more filing must be done until no light comes through from the smallest space4 ,this done1 take a piece of emery cloth and rub the edge of the bowl until the file marks disappear4 ,if you lap the cloth over the edge your rubbing will leave a rounded edge1 which is just the finish it should have4 ,illustration3 ,trimming off the top of the bowl ,illustration3 ,marking the edge of the bowl ,to flatten the bottom of a bowl3 ,turn the bowl upside down on a bench4 ,with a pair of dividers find the centre of the bottom of the bowl4 ,this is done by placing one leg of the dividers against the side of the bowl and with the other making a light scratch as near the centre as you can4 ,change the position of the dividers to the opposite side and do the same1 but be careful that the scratch is light4 ,repeat this until you have done it on the four sides4 ,where these lines cross is the centre4 ,with one leg of the dividers on the centre draw a circle having a diameter of about two inches4 ,take a wooden mallet and strike down on the centre of the circle4 ,this will flatten the bottom4 ,work from both sides of the circle and keep the rounding edge just touching the circle made by the dividers4 ,if the strokes are too heavy the bottom will bend in like the dotted lines in the sketch4 ,illustration3 ,flatten the bottom ,in that case1 turn the bowl up and hammer from the inside4 ,the bowl is now ready for polishing4 ,mix some powdered pumice stone with water4 ,with a woollen cloth that has been wet and then dipped into the mixture1 rub the bowl4 ,this both cleans and polishes and at the same time gives a beautiful lustre to the surface of the metal4 ,,iv ,,copper ,,trays ,how to make copper trays 7used for pins1 hair pins1 cards1 etc474 7#a7 ,round4 7#b7 ,square or oblong4 ,illustration3 ,,round ,,tray ,material3 ,piece of copper about #g ins4 square1 ,no4 #bj gauge4 ,a hard wood block1 #aj #aj #b ins4 thick4 ,tools3 ,carpenters' gouge chisel1 dividers1 steel punch1 shears1 round peg of wood1 #f ins4 long and #a in4 in diameter4 ,illustration ,design3 ,take a large sheet of plain paper4 ,draw on it a #c-;in4 circle4 ,using the same centre1 draw a #e-;in4 circle4 ,this gives you the plan or top view of the tray4 ,below this view on the same sheet1 draw the elevation1 or edge view of the tray4 ,you can make the tray as deep in the centre as you wish4 ,let's make this one #a_/b in4 deep1 that's a good proportion4 ,illustration3 ,hard wood peg ,this is what we call a working drawing4 ,if you are pleased with the design1 you can go right on with the work1 if not1 you can change it to suit4 ,you can see by the design that the tray is made by driving the centre of this square plate of copper down into a depression4 ,in order to do this we must make a mould the exact size and shape of the tray centre4 ,this is what the square hard wood block is used for4 ,illustration ,illustration ,take your hard wood block4 ,draw diagonal lines across one face4 ,where these lines intersect is the centre4 ,with your dividers1 using this centre1 draw a #c-;in4 circle4 ,place the carpenters' chisel anywhere on the circle and strike with a hammer1 driving the chisel down into the wood about #c_/h in4 ,do this all around the circle4 ,gouge out the loose wood until you have cleaned out the whole depression1 being careful not to go below #a_/b in4 in depth 7the depth of your design74 ,smooth this up nicely with sand-paper4 ,the mould is now ready for the metal plate4 ,with the steel punch1 make holes in each corner of the copper plate about #a_/b in4 from the edge and just large enough to fit the wire nails4 ,place this plate over the mould so that the centre of the plate comes right over the centre of the mould4 ,fasten the four corners down with the wire nails4 ,to drive the metal into the depression we must use something softer than a steel hammer4 ,a hard wood peg has been found to do this best4 ,cut a piece about #f in4 long from the end of a broom handle4 ,round one end up1 using a file or a carpenters' chisel to do so4 ,illustration ,place the rounded end of the peg on the circle of the copper plate and1 with a hammer1 drive the copper into the depression below it4 ,as constant hammering hardens copper so that it ceases to respond to the blows1 it is necessary to soften up the metal by annealing as the work goes on4 ,take the sheet off the block4 ,to do this1 place the point of the chisel under the copper sheet close to the nail head and pry the nails out1 lifting both copper and nail up at the same time4 ,after annealing1 nail the copper plate in the same place as before4 ,with the wooden peg continue driving until you fill the depression1 at the same time flattening all parts of the metal that may push up4 ,be careful not to mar the copper at any time4 ,when everything is perfectly flat and smooth take it off as before4 ,we are now ready to draw the #e-;in4 circle on the copper4 ,the centre for this circle is the centre of the depression2 and that is found with the dividers in the same way as you found the centre for the bottom of the bowl4 ,make the circle on the copper4 ,with the shears cut along a little on the outside of this line4 ,smooth up and round the edges of the tray with a mill file4 ,rub out file marks with a little piece of emery cloth4 ,if the hammering has been uneven some parts of the copper will have stretched more than other parts and the tray will not lie flat when placed on a table4 ,to level this up1 place the tray top side down upon a bench or table and strike gently with a mallet on the surface4 ,holding the mallet near the head one can control the blows and be able to strike gently4 ,but if it is held toward the end of the handle the blows will not be uniform4 ,this applies to all hammers1 whether of wood or steel4 ,you will notice as you do your hammering the high spots will settle down and gradually flatten4 ,the tray is now ready for cleaning and polishing4 ,this is done in the same way as you treated the bowl4 ,decoration3 ,round trays may be decorated in many simple ways by drilling holes in the rim1 and then sawing out designs to suit one's fancy1 or they may be notched at intervals4 ,nothing is more decorative though1 than the embossed or repouss design1 made by beating from the back and raising the metal on the face above the level4 ,one of the designs given here shows the embossed1 and the other shows a combination of the embossed and sawed out work4 ,the value of the mould3 ,it may seem to you like a lot of work to make a mould just for this round tray1 but it can be used many times for making this kind of tray and also for trays of similar shape1 like bowl covers1 etc4 ,most of the jewellery nowadays is made in moulds1 wood1 steel1 or lead4 ,copper1 silver1 and gold medals1 pins1 rings1 tea and dinner sets are all made by the mould or die method4 ,this mould you have just made is only a simple one2 however1 complex ones are made in the same way4 ,the skill all lies in making a very good design first and then in making a very smooth mould to fit the design4 ,after one or two trials it comes easy enough4 ,the chapter at the end of the book will explain die and mould making in modern copper1 silver1 and goldsmith shops4 ,,square ,,tray ,material3 ,copper1 #f-a_/b #d-a_/b ins4 ,no4 #bj gauge4 ,tools3 ,shears1 square1 bench vise1 round hard wood peg2 dividers1 copper vise jaws4 ,design3 ,determine first whether the tray is to be oblong or square4 ,this material makes a tray #f-a_/b #d-a_/b in4 ,draw this size oblong on a sheet of paper4 ,the rim of the tray should be #c_/h in4 wide4 ,draw an inner line all around1 #c_/h in4 from the outside4 ,below this draw your elevation1 or edge view1 showing the depth of the tray4 ,in this design it is #a_/d in4 deep4 ,illustration ,first see that your #f-a_/d #d-a_/b-;in4 piece of copper is squared4 ,now draw your inner rectangle on the metal4 ,to do this1 set the dividers #c_/h in41 and with one leg against the edge of the copper1 draw all around the four sides1 marking the lines on the metal4 ,you now have a flat sheet marked ready for bending4 ,place the sheet of copper between the vise jaws1 the inner line even and on a line with the vise4 ,illustration ,the hard wood peg should be cut to a flat tapered end4 ,this flat end of the peg is held at an angle of about #de against the copper plate1 just above the vise jaw and against the line of the rectangle4 ,with the mallet drive gently4 ,by doing this the body of the tray is pushed in1 but the rim is kept straight in the vise4 ,repeat this all around4 ,you'll have a tray like the sketch4 ,if the body of the tray is not deep enough put it into the vise again and keep driving it until you get the depth you want4 ,the inner corners will be found to be rounded1 as they should be4 ,round off the outside corners to match4 ,file the edges round and finish with an emery cloth1 clean and polish as explained before4 ,v ,,paper ,,cutter ,,and ,,nut ,,set ,let's make a paper cutter like this sketch4 ,we can draw the design on paper first and then cut it out4 ,here is what we need to make it4 ,illustration ,,paper ,,cutter ,material3 ,heavy copper1 ,no4 #h gauge1 #aj inches long by #a-a_/d inches wide4 ,tools3 ,drill press and drills1 jewellers' saw frame1 cold chisel1 files1 vise1 emery cloth1 few wire nails 7#a_/b in47 two blocks of hard wood1 one1 #aj #a-a_/d #a-a_/d ins41 and the other1 #f #b #a_/b ins4 ,illustration ,cut out the design and paste it on the copper plate4 ,if our shears could cut copper as heavy as this we would have little trouble to cut our design out4 ,but the shears can't do this work1 so we have to put the copper into the vise and cut the design out with a cold chisel and hammer4 ,place the copper into the vise with the line of design to be cut flush with the top of the vise4 ,with hammer and chisel1 cut along this line4 ,the back part of the vise will act as a shear and help in the cutting and will prevent the copper breaking away and leaving the edge rough4 ,when this is done1 place the paper knife in the vise and file all the edges smooth4 ,now that it's cut out and smoothed up we are ready to saw out the design in the handle4 ,to do this drill holes in the design as a starting point for the sawing4 ,take the drill press and put a #a_/af-;in4 drill into the chuck4 ,drill a hole in any part of the design4 ,take the jewellers' saw frame and fasten one end of the small saw into one of the legs of the frame2 push the loose end through the hole made by the drill4 ,fasten the loose end to the other leg of the saw frame so the saw is fairly tight4 ,in order to saw properly1 we must have something to support the piece while we are working on it4 ,this is best done by taking a block of wood #f #b #a_/b ins4 and cutting out a ,v-shaped notch in one end4 ,place this in the vise1 or nail one end of it to a bench so that the ,v-shaped end will extend over the bench or vise to be free to work upon4 ,put the handle to be sawed out on this block so that it will be supported on both sides of the parts to be sawed out 7see sketch of work in vise74 ,the saw will play freely up and down in the notch4 ,all sawed work is done in the same way4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,block for sawing metal ,to file the edges sharp3 ,take your hard wood block1 #aj #a-a_/d #a-a_/b ins42 fasten the cutter down tight by driving two short wire nails half their length into the wood at each end of the cutter4 ,place the cutter between these nails1 bend the ends over1 and fasten down 7see sketch74 ,place all into the vise jaw and tighten it up4 ,with a rough flat file1 file the edges down1 working from the centre line both ways4 ,when one side is filed about half the thickness of the copper1 bend the nails1 take off the cutter4 ,reverse it1 put it back1 and file as before4 ,do this until the edges become sharp4 ,illustration3 ,file the edges sharp ,to finish this piece of work as it should be done1 we must do some draw filing4 ,the draw filing is done in this way3 ,take hold of both ends of the flat file1 the handle in one hand and the end of the file in the other4 ,stand lengthwise of the piece4 ,place the file flat down on the blade with the teeth of the file pointing in the same direction as the blade4 ,push it from you and pull it toward you1 at the same time pressing down on the blade4 ,this is draw filing and it is the only way to make a piece of metal true1 and free from the marks of the cross filing which was done in the beginning4 ,repeat this on the other side until the whole paper cutter including the handle is smooth4 ,wrap a piece of emery cloth around a block and rub all over the surface4 ,polish and finish as before described4 ,,nut ,,set3 ,,bowl1 ,,plates1 ,,and ,,spoon ,illustration ,a very beautiful nut set consisting of a bowl1 four plates1 and a nut spoon or a shovel1 can be made out of copper4 ,one uses the same tools to make this set as were used for the copper bowl1 and the work of making it is done in much the same way4 ,material3 #i-;in4 disc of ,no4 #bj copper 7bowl74 ,four #e-;in4 discs 7for plates74 ,piece of copper #b #c ins4 7,no4 #h74 ,illustration3 ,flat-iron ,take the #i-;in4 disc and hammer it into the desired bowl shape1 on the hard wood block4 ,the plate should be hammered up in the same way1 keeping the depression in the centre of the plates about #a_/b in4 deep4 ,a very beautiful finish can be made on these bowls and plates by the use of the round end of the raising hammer and a flat-iron4 ,place the handle of the iron between your knees1 face up4 ,put the bowl or plate1 face up on the flat-iron and go over every part with the rounded end of the hammer4 ,this produces a surface covered with oval facets1 giving a mottled effect4 ,the edges of the bowl and plates may be left straight or they may be rounded1 according to the design4 ,,nut ,,spoon ,illustration ,draw the design on paper4 ,cut the design out and paste it on the copper4 ,this piece of ,no4 #h copper is too heavy to be cut with the shears1 so it must be placed in the vise4 ,see that the outline is even with the top of the vise jaws4 ,with the cold chisel and hammer cut along the top of the vise as you did when making the paper knife4 ,now you have a shovel-shaped metal of the same thickness all over4 ,where the handle joins the bowl the metal should be left thicker than in any other place1 otherwise the spoon will bend in the using4 ,to thin out the metal of the bowl1 hammer it4 ,begin where the handle joins the bowl and thin out to the edge4 ,the handle is shaped by working from the bowl out toward the handle end1 constantly widening and flattening it4 ,cut off the surplus metal1 keeping to the original design4 ,the handle may be left plain or some simple sawed out design may be put on4 ,file up1 rounding the edges off so that the spoon feels smooth and is comfortable to handle4 ,place the whole on a hard wood block and beat the bowl and handle into shape4 ,many nut spoons have designs sawed out in the bowl to lighten the weight4 ,illustration ,,vi ,,hard ,,and ,,soft ,,soldering ,soldering is a process of joining two metals together4 ,it is not hard to learn to do4 ,if you are careful when you do the work to have the materials to be used perfectly clean1 you may be sure of success1 for1 after all1 it's one of the easiest and simplest of all the operations done with metals4 ,,hard ,,soldering ,material3 #a4 ,borax3 bought in lumps1 wrapped in tin foil1 or pulverized4 ,illustration #b4 ,borax slate3 a square piece of slate with a small depression in one side4 ,any piece of clean slate will do4 ,this is used to grind the lump borax1 or to mix the pulverized borax to a pasty condition on4 #c4 ,solder3 silver solder1 sometimes called hard solder4 ,it can be bought by the sheet in large or small quantities4 ,bunsen burner1 or either one of the following3 blowpipe and foot bellows with gas flame1 a blacksmiths' fire with coke or charcoal4 ,directions3 ,the parts of the metals to be joined should1 first of all1 be scraped or filed bright4 ,this prepares them best for the solder4 ,take a lump of borax1 grind it up and mix with a little water1 on the slate1 until it is like a paste4 ,take a sheet of silver solder1 cut a number of slits lengthwise down the sheet and then cut them crosswise4 ,you will have a number of pieces about #a_/af in4 square4 ,these bits are dropped into the borax solution until they are completely covered with the paste4 ,with a camels' hair brush1 wash the edges of the metal to be joined1 with the solution of the borax4 ,tie the pieces together with an iron binding wire1 taking care to have the edges to be joined close together and in the proper position4 ,if you don't1 the solder will not fill up all the openings and cracks1 and parts will be left unsoldered4 ,now1 wash all around the joint with the borax solution4 ,place bits of solder at intervals along the joint1 fairly close4 ,warm the work gently in the flame4 ,this drives off the water in the borax solution4 ,when the borax is quite dry in the joint direct a stronger flame over the whole work4 ,heat it gradually1 but be careful that no part of the metal1 except that around the joint1 becomes red-hot1 and that both sides of the joint get red-hot at the same time4 ,if you don't guard this1 the solder will climb to the hotter side and leave the other1 and the edges will not unite4 ,cool it off in water and file the joint perfectly smooth4 ,,soft ,,soldering ,for mending teakettles1 tin cans1 tin cups1 or anything made of tin1 galvanized iron1 or lead4 ,material3 ,lead solder1 comes in small bars4 ,flux 7#a47 ,resin and sweet oil4 7#b47 ,muriatic acid4 7#c47 ,tallow candle4 ,tool3 ,soldering iron 7can be made out of a piece of half-inch round copper47 ,how to solder3 ,soft solder is a mixture of tin and lead in even proportions4 ,this solder melts at a very low temperature4 ,that is why we can do the work with the soldering iron4 ,i find ,i can solder many things at home with the soft solder1 and ,i'm going to tell you how ,i mended a leak in the teakettle the other day4 ,first1 ,i took a pocket knife and cleaned all around the hole or leak1 scraping the dirt off both inside and out4 ,then ,i mashed a little resin up fine and mixed a little sweet oil with it4 ,then ,i washed inside and outside of this leak with the mixture4 ,after heating my soldering iron in a stove 7any kind of fire will do7 ,i took a bar of solder1 held it over the leak1 and melted off a bit with the hot iron4 ,you can make the solder flow over the leak by pressing the iron right on the hole4 ,you see1 the heat of the iron melts the solder and at the same time it heats the tin hot enough to make the solder cling to it4 ,before the part got cold ,i rubbed off the oil and resin with a woollen cloth4 ,this left the work nicely cleaned4 ,you can mend any leak in anything made of tin1 in this way4 ,galvanized iron utensils are soldered in exactly the same way1 but you must use muriatic acid in place of the resin and sweet oil4 ,but if you wish to solder anything made of lead or pewter a tallow candle is rubbed over the place to be mended1 instead of resin and sweet oil or muriatic acid4 ,in every other way the work is just the same4 ,but lead1 you know1 melts at a very low temperature1 so you must be careful when working on it that your soldering iron is just hot enough to melt the solder and not hot enough to melt the lead4 ,and now ,i am going to tell you how you can make your own soldering iron out of copper4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,small ,,soldering ,,iron ,material3 ,a piece of #a_/b-;in4 round copper1 #c ins4 long1 a piece of ,no4 #h wire1 #ah ins4 long1 or a piece of light telephone or telegraph wire will do4 ,some soft solder4 ,resin and sweet oil4 ,small piece of clean tin4 ,manufactured fluid for soldering 7used sometimes in place of muriatic acid74 ,tools3 ,punch1 vise1 file1 hammer4 ,illustration3 ,soldering iron ,place the end of the copper rod in the fire and heat it red-hot4 ,take it out of the fire and punch a hole about #a_/b in4 from the end of the rod1 large enough to allow the ,no4 #h wire to go through4 ,push the wire through this hole until half is on one side and half is on the other4 ,bend the wire close up to the sides to form the handle4 ,in order to make this rigid1 place the rod into the jaws of the vise and pinch the wire into the copper rod4 ,this prevents any swinging motion4 ,take hold of both ends of the wire with the pincers and twist them close to the copper rod4 ,this makes a good handle4 ,heat the copper end of the rod red-hot1 and with a hammer flatten it to a four-sided tapering end about one inch long and ending in a blunt point4 7,see picture47 ,cool off in water and file the end of soldering iron smooth4 ,now it must be tinned4 ,on your piece of tin place some soft solder1 oil1 and resin4 ,heat the soldering iron hot enough to melt the solder1 rubbing it up and down on the tin1 mixing all together4 ,do this on all four sides1 and in a little while you'll find the solder has covered the end of the soldering iron4 ,when this is done the iron is ready to be used4 ,,vii ,,candlestick1 ,,sconce1 ,,rose ,,jar1 ,,and ,,chalice ,there are many forms of candle holders4 ,perhaps the one we are all most familiar with is the candlestick4 ,before the days of lamps and electricity the candle was everywhere4 ,many different designs of candlesticks have come down to us4 ,some were large1 some small1 some plain1 while others were highly decorated4 ,but however much the designs vary1 there are many points that all have in common4 ,there is the base1 large or small1 and a cylindrical shaft which rises from the centre of the base4 ,this holds the candle4 ,the drip pan is fastened to this shaft close to the top4 ,it catches the wax as the candle melts4 ,handles are sometimes soldered on1 and sometimes the candlestick is made without one4 ,they are attached to the rim or to the shaft4 ,,candlestick ,material3 ,disc of copper1 ,no4 #bj1 #e ins4 in diameter4 ,one piece #c #b-a_/b ins41 ,no4 #bj1 7for stem74 ,disc1 #b ins4 in diameter 7drip pan74 ,one piece1 #c_/d #f ins4 long1 ,no4 #af1 7for handle74 ,illustration ,tools3 ,hard wood block1 raising hammer1 smooth file1 dividers1 saw1 round wood peg1 #c_/d #f ins4 ,directions3 ,beat the copper disc into a saucer shape1 for the base4 ,take the sheet of copper for the stem1 fold it around the wooden peg till the edges come together4 ,scrape and solder the joint with silver solder4 ,illustration ,drip pan3 ,take the small disc2 with the raising hammer1 curve it slightly to make a drip pan4 ,with the dividers1 describe a circle #c_/d in4 in diameter in the centre of the drip pan4 ,cut out this centre circle and make it fit tightly on the stem4 ,push it down about one inch1 scrape the stem1 and solder the drip pan to it4 ,illustration3 ,shaping the base ,illustration ,handle3 ,a strip of copper #c_/d #f in4 long4 ,cut a tapering slip off each side so that one end will measure #c_/d in4 and the other #a_/b in4 ,shape with the fingers over the round peg 7place the peg in the vise to do this7 until you have the shape you wish 7see design74 ,the wide end of the handle should fit down on the outside of the rounding part of the base1 and the other end against the stem under the drip pan4 ,bore a hole in each end and rivet the handle in place4 ,if a round handle is desired1 take a strip of copper #c_/d in4 wide and #a-a_/b ins4 long1 shape round with the fingers4 ,scrape and solder at the joints1 and then solder on the edge of the base4 ,place and finish up each part as described4 ,this candle design can be greatly varied4 ,it can be made taller1 shorter1 with various kinds of handles1 or with no handle at all4 ,,designs ,,for ,,night ,,candle ,,holder ,illustration ,this kind of candle holder1 or night light1 is made to hold a short1 thick candle about #b ins4 in diameter1 which will burn from #f to #aj hours4 ,a round base supports the candle1 and a shade with a handle on the back is fastened to the base4 ,it can be adjusted so that the candle burns freely all night1 while the shade protects the eyes from the light4 ,nothing is more convenient than one of these holders1 for summer homes or for camping4 ,material3 ,brass1 ,no4 #bd1 #c-a_/b #d ins4 for reflector4 #f-a_/d #g_/h ins4 for cylinder4 #b-;in4 disc for base4 ,no4 #bj1 #f #a_/d ins4 for handle4 ,directions3 ,picture shows a small night candle made of brass4 ,cut out a #b-;in4 disc4 ,bend the #f-a_/d #g_/h-;in4 strip to fit it4 ,solder the two ends of the ring and make it perfectly round4 ,be careful when rounding it up not to stretch it larger than the disc4 ,push disc into the ring flush with the bottom4 ,solder the bottom into the ring4 ,draw the outline of the reflector on the #c-a_/b #d-;in4 piece and cut away the corners4 ,bend it to fit the holder4 ,it should cover about one half of the circle4 ,solder the reflector on4 ,soft solder is strong enough for this work4 ,now bend the handle piece according to the sketch4 ,rivet or solder it to the back of the reflector4 ,polish and finish4 ,,night ,,candle ,,holder ,the ordinary tallow or wax candle is used in this night candle holder4 ,you will notice from the sketch that the general style is much like that of the small holder4 ,however1 in this design1 a small cup or stand to fit the candle is soldered on to the base1 a little toward the front4 ,material3 ,no4 #bd brass--,a #d-;in4 disc4 #ab #a_/b ins41 for band to go around the disc4 ,reflector1 #g #g ins4 ,cup1 #g_/h #b-c_/d ins41 and handle piece1 #f #a_/d in4 ,illustration ,the reflectors are sometimes left plain1 though the facets made by a flat placed hammer reflect the light when the candles are lighted and soften the light by day4 ,the greater the reflecting power of the surface1 the better is the effect4 ,if each part is carefully filed and finished before they are all put together there will be nothing but the polishing needed4 ,,sconce 7,,with ,,one ,,candle7 ,illustration ,the sconce is a candle holder made to fasten upon any wall4 ,it is both useful and decorative4 ,some are made to hold but one candle2 they can be made1 however1 for two1 three1 or four candles4 ,all sconces should have a reflector1 a bowl1 shaft1 and drip pan4 ,but the designs vary to suit the individual taste and surroundings4 ,the design given here is a very simple one and one that works out well in copper or brass4 ,material3 ,one piece of ,no4 #bj copper1 #aj #c-a_/d ins41 for the reflector4 ,one piece of ,no4 #bj1 #b-a_/b #a in41 for candle socket4 ,one piece of ,no4 #bj copper1 #a-a_/b-;in4 disc4 ,one piece of #a_/d-;in4 round copper #d ins4 long4 ,directions3 ,make a drawing like sketch shown here4 ,place this drawing upon the #aj #c-a_/d-;in4 sheet of copper and cut the metal to fit the outline4 ,mark on this sheet of metal the embossed line shown in the sketch4 ,place the sheet of the copper on the hard wood block and with a chasing tool placed on the line1 strike with the planishing hammer on the end of the chasing tool4 ,this1 in turn1 will drive the metal into the wood4 ,repeat this till the outline stands out above the face of the reflector about #a_/cb in4 ,if this is done carefully the raised part will be a true smooth line4 ,the same tool will widen the line any width desired4 ,cut into a wood block a form like the impression you see back of the candle4 ,place the sconce over this impression and with a wooden peg drive the metal into it4 ,the dotted line on the sketch will show how deep this should be4 ,drive out any buckles that may have formed during the working of the metal4 ,this is done by placing the sconce face down on the bench and striking down on the raised parts until it lies flat4 ,candle holder3 ,bend the stock for the holder around a #c_/d-;in4 mandrel or wood peg till the two ends meet4 ,clean and solder these ends4 ,cut a #c_/d-;in4 disc to fit the inside of this and solder in4 ,place this on the #a-a_/b-;in4 disc and drill a hole through the centre of both4 ,bracket for candle3 ,take the #a_/d-;in4 round stock4 ,put it in the vise with one end projecting above1 about #a_/b in4 ,drive down on this end1 at the same time bend it as shown in the drawing4 ,file the end flat4 ,cut a piece of ,no4 #bj copper #a_/b in4 #c_/h in4 and solder it on the end just filed4 ,this plate is drilled with two #a_/h-;in4 holes1 and filed around4 ,bend the shape as shown in the drawing and on the other end file a shoulder and #a_/h-;in4 pin4 ,this is now placed through the hole of the disc and the candle holder1 and both riveted to the bracket4 ,the bracket now is placed on the bottom of the sconce 7see drawing71 and riveted on4 ,the whole sconce may now be nailed with round head nails to a flat #a_/d-;in4 board to give weight1 or there may be riveted to the back1 angles made of ,no4 #bj metal1 #e_/h in4 wide and bent #c_/h in4 one way and #a_/d in4 the other way4 ,these angle pieces are riveted on the sides and on the two ends4 ,rivets add much to the decoration of the work if they are placed at intervals and properly spaced4 ,they make a nice finish4 ,a hole can be drilled at the top of the reflector1 to hang it upon the wall4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,vase1 ,,or ,,rose ,,jar 7,,with ,,lid7 ,illustration ,material3 ,one piece of copper1 ,no4 #bj1 #g #g ins4 ,one piece #d #d ins4 7for lid74 ,one piece #c_/h in4 wide and long enough to go around the opening of the vase or jar4 ,tools3 ,round stake1 anvil stake1 driving and planishing hammers1 dividers1 and shears4 ,design3 ,vase1 having a base #b-a_/b ins4 in diameter1 height #c ins41 #c-a_/b-;in4 opening at the top1 and lid to fit4 ,the full height of the vase is #d-a_/b ins4 ,illustration3 ,first operation ,illustration3 ,second operation ,illustration3 ,third operation ,directions3 ,take the #g #g-;in4 piece of copper and draw a #g-;in4 circle4 ,with the dividers set #a-a_/d in41 using the same centre1 describe a circle4 ,this outlines the #b-a_/b-;in4 circle for the base4 ,drive up this disc as you did the one for the copper bowl on the wood block1 making it as deep as possible4 ,in the same way as you flattened the bottom of the copper bowl1 flatten the bottom of this piece of work4 ,place the bowl over the round head stake4 ,with your hammer drive on the outside4 ,this driving with the hammer on the outside decreases the diameter and increases the length4 ,you will remember that the copper bowl was driven up almost entirely by the use of the raising hammer on the inside and finished by work on the outside with the planishing hammer4 ,this vase or jar calls for the shaping hammer4 ,the vase is placed over the round stake and driven into shape by work on the outside with the shaping hammer4 ,when the rough bowl shape is on the round head stake1 drive the sides straight1 beginning the strokes at the line of the base circle4 ,repeat till the sides begin to straighten and take the shape of the design4 ,take it off the round stake and place it on the anvil stake4 ,when the sides are symmetrical1 mark with lead-pencil a line #c_/d of an inch from the top4 ,work the copper above this line1 over toward the centre1 until the opening of the vase is about #c-a_/b ins4 in diameter4 ,smooth the work up with a planishing hammer4 ,if the hammer marks made by driving the bowl into shape are carefully done they leave a very beautiful mottled surface of themselves4 ,illustration3 ,rim ,illustration3 ,binding the flange to rim to solder ,to make the rim for the lid to rest upon3 ,take the #c_/h-;in4 strip of metal4 ,bend it into a circle small enough to fit on the opening left at the top of the vase4 ,be careful to have this just to fit1 otherwise much filing will have to be done1 and in this position filing is almost impossible4 ,cut it the right length1 scrape both ends1 and solder4 ,make it perfectly level so that it lies flat when placed upon the bench4 ,test it by placing it upon the top of the vase4 ,file the top flat1 bind the rim in place4 ,wash1 then place bits of solder all around it and heat it until the solder runs4 ,cool off in water1 file off all rough edges left by the solder1 clean and polish4 ,illustration3 ,bending flange on the lid ,lid3 ,take the #d #d-;in4 piece4 ,cut a #d-;in4 circle4 ,place the bowl upside down upon this disc1 draw with a pencil all around the rim on this copper plate4 ,this marks the diameter of the rim on the plate1 also the line where the copper should be bent to form the lid to fit the rim4 ,with the anvil stake in the vise1 place the disc against the sharp end of the stake1 with the line on the edge4 ,drive with the raising hammer against the part projecting above the stake4 ,turn the disc1 keeping the circle line on the sharp edge of the stake4 ,repeat this till the sides are at right angles to the top4 ,place the lid upside down on a wooden block1 drive on the inside1 shaping it like the drawing4 ,make it fit the rim1 trim off the rough edges1 file up smooth1 and polish4 ,do not forget constant annealing1 for you know hammering always makes the metal hard4 ,,chalice ,illustration ,material3 #c pieces of copper1 #f #f ins41 ,no4 #bj4 ,one piece of round rod copper1 #a in4 long4 ,one piece of copper1 #ab #a_/d ins4 7for rim74 ,solder4 ,tools3 ,hard wood block1 round head and anvil stakes1 combination stake1 shears1 dividers1 planishing hammer1 raising hammer1 and shaping hammer1 files1 emery cloth4 ,parts3 ,bowl1 stem1 base1 lid1 ornamental top of the lid4 ,directions3 ,make a working drawing 7full size7 on drawing paper1 plan and elevation4 ,bowl3 ,take the #f #f-;in4 piece of copper4 ,cut out a #f-;in4 disc4 ,drive the bowl up as you did the copper bowl4 ,it should be the same shape as the copper bowl4 ,do not flatten the bottom4 ,the drawing shows that the bottom should be rounding1 to fit the stem4 ,illustration3 ,lid ,illustration3 ,bowl ,illustration3 ,stem ,stem and base3 ,take another piece of #f #f-;in4 copper4 ,cut #f-;in4 disc4 ,with the dividers make a #a-;in4 circle in the centre of the disc4 ,this inner circle must be beaten up until it becomes the stem4 ,to do this place the disc on the round top stake1 with the marked circle touching the edge of the round top4 ,strike with the raising hammer just above the circle line1 turning the disc each time4 ,when you have made one turn of the disc1 repeat this twice1 hammering just above the part driven up before4 ,keep repeating this until you have reached within an inch and a half of the outer edge of the disc4 ,illustration ,the drawings numbered #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 show the steps in the working up of the copper disc into the stem4 ,illustration ,illustration ,you now have a bell-shaped piece4 ,anneal the metal and repeat the hammering1 beginning at the same place and working up to the same place as before4 ,anneal whenever the metal seems springy and keep working until the stem is tapered about #c_/d in4 at the small end1 gradually widening into the vase4 ,place the bell-like stem on the table and flatten it so that it lies perfectly smooth1 with the stem perpendicular to the base4 ,find the centre of the bowl1 describe a #c_/d-;in4 circle4 ,scrape both the circle and the small end of the stem4 ,turn the bowl upside down1 place the stem end of the base on the bowl1 and solder in the usual way4 ,to make the lid3 ,take the #f #f-;in4 piece4 ,cut a #f-;in4 disc4 ,find the centre4 ,drive the centre down by using the small end of the planishing hammer4 ,this makes a cone-shaped centre1 with the sides gradually widening to the edge of the lid4 ,the highest point of the cone is one inch above the level of the lid4 ,place the lid on the table and tap gently on the outside until it lies flat4 ,take the small #c_/h-;in4 piece of round rod1 file a small shaped ornament 7to taste7 on one end of the rod and a shoulder on the other end4 ,drill a hole in the cone-shaped part of the lid1 push the rod #a_/h in4 through this hole and rivet it on the inside4 ,illustration3 ,russian coffee pot in copper ,rim3 ,strip of copper1 #ab #a_/d ins4 ,bend it into a circle just to fit the outside of the lid4 ,cut off the proper length and solder4 ,make it perfectly round and perfectly flat4 ,place the lid on the chalice bowl so that it overlaps a little all around1 evenly4 ,draw a pencil line all around the edge of the bowl on the under side of the lid4 ,this is where the rim is to go4 ,before soldering1 test1 by placing the rim on the face of the lid4 ,any openings seen must be closed by pressing the rim down to the lid4 ,bind tightly with binding wire1 scrape1 and solder4 ,file and finish4 ,,viii ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,hat ,,pin ,by this time you will have many pieces of scrap copper on hand4 ,these should be kept in a small box and used whenever suitable4 ,illustration ,illustration ,material3 ,a piece ,no4 #bj gauge1 #a-a_/b #a_/b ins41 is enough to make the head of a hat pin4 ,the pin part must be of steel1 copper is too soft4 ,buy any cheap hat pin in a dry goods store4 7,a cent apiece47 ,break the glass top or black top and use the pin for the copper head4 ,tools3 ,one chasing tool1 half moon2 shears1 dividers1 planishing hammer4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,designs for hat pin heads ,design3 ,hat pin with hexagonal top 7#f sides7 #a-a_/b ins4 across4 ,with your dividers draw a circle on the piece of copper1 having a diameter of #a-a_/b in4 ,with the radius of the circle1 mark off the circumference into #f equal parts4 ,draw lead-pencil lines from one point to another1 just touching the circle at these points4 ,with your shears cut along these straight lines4 ,now you have a #f-sided piece of copper #a-a_/b ins4 across4 ,place this piece of copper on the flat end of the hard wood block 7the grain end of the wood71 and make impressions on it with the half moon tool like your designs4 ,this tool you can make yourself4 ,take a piece of steel1 #e_/af in4 square or round1 heat one end to a red heat and flatten it1 like the flat end of a chisel4 ,file the end just flattened blunt and rounding4 ,this end should be hardened to prevent it from wearing rough4 ,to do this heat it to a dark red heat and plunge it into cold water4 ,place your tool on the upper sides of this plate and drive it with a hammer into the copper1 being careful not to drive it through into the wood4 ,if you drive the tool through you will spoil the design and have rough edges4 ,this makes a simple raised or embossed design and is quite easily done4 ,illustration3 ,hat pin4 ,driving the design ,when this pattern has been stamped in1 curve the piece of copper any shape you wish by placing it in the depression in the hard wood block4 ,place the embossed side down1 and with the round end of the planishing hammer1 drive with light blows so as not to flatten the design4 ,in this way1 you can shape it as you wish4 ,the top could now be soldered right on to the pin itself1 but that would not make a strong hat pin4 ,it would be weak and too easily broken from the head4 ,in order to have a strong hat pin we make a little mushroom shaped pin holder which is fastened on the under part of the head of the hat pin and in which the pin itself fits4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,group ,,of ,,boys ,,at ,,copper ,,work ,their ,shop is a ,barn1 and ,tree ,stumps ,furnish the ,hard ,wood ,blocks4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,the ,,pin ,,holder ,material3 ,copper1 ,no4 #bd1 #c_/h in4 square to make the flat disc4 ,copper ,no4 #bd1 #c_/h in4 length and about #e_/af in4 wide to make the cylinder4 ,illustration ,with a pair of dividers draw a circle #c_/h in4 in diameter4 ,cut out the circle4 ,place this little disc on the flat end of the hard wood block and with a punch make a hole #a_/h in4 in diameter in the middle of the disc4 ,on the same end of the block1 file 7using round file7 a groove right across the corner1 about #a_/h in4 deep4 ,place the small piece of copper 7#c_/d #e_/af ins471 over the groove4 ,take the steel wire belonging to the hat pin and place it on top of the copper and over the groove4 ,with the hammer1 strike so as to drive the pin1 and at the same time the copper1 into the depression4 ,the copper sinks into the groove and the two sides lap up on each side of the pin4 ,drive the two sides down until they lap around the wire1 the edges meeting4 ,this makes a copper cylinder which fits exactly around the wire of the pin4 ,take the cylinder off1 fit it into the holes of the small disc4 ,wash the two pieces with a borax solution1 place a little solder on1 and solder the disc to the cylinder4 ,after cooling the piece in water1 shape the disc so that it fits the under side of the hat pin top4 ,polish the end of the wire pin with an emery cloth1 also the top of the pin holder and the inside of the hat pin top4 ,push the wire into the little cylinder so that it comes flush with the disc4 ,illustration3 ,bending the cylinder ,now the pin is all ready to solder to the head1 but there is great difficulty in getting it in straight4 ,in order to do this ,i make a little device out of copper1 which helps me in getting things on straight4 ,take a piece of copper #a in4 wide and #e ins4 long4 ,bend each end1 one #b ins4 and the other #c_/d in41 both in the same direction at right angles4 ,with the shears cut a ,v-shaped piece in the short end4 ,this little stand is good for soldering any upright piece to a flat piece1 when they should be at right angles to each other4 ,place the top of the pin on the long leg of the stand and1 with the pin in the slot1 place in proper position and solder4 ,,hat ,,pin ,,holder ,illustration3 ,holder ,here is a good design for a hat pin holder1 a welcome addition to any dresser4 ,the design is very simple and the holder is easily made if one follows out the directions carefully4 ,material3 ,disc #c-a_/b ins4 of ,no4 #bj gauge1 for the base4 ,one piece of #c_/d-;in4 copper tubing1 #d ins4 long for the body4 ,solder4 ,tools3 ,iron rod1 #c_/h-;in4 round1 #h ins4 long4 ,hard wood block4 ,planishing hammer4 ,illustration ,directions3 ,bore a #c_/d-;in4 hole one inch deep in the wooden block4 ,place the #c-a_/b-;in4 disc over this hole and1 with the round end of the planishing hammer1 drive the centre of the disc into the hole #a_/d in4 ,be careful not to drive a hole through the copper disc4 ,turn the piece upside down4 ,place the iron rod in the vise4 ,put the bossed end of the disc on the end of the iron rod and flatten the boss down4 ,shape the base by rounding the edge down all around4 ,see that it lies flat on the table1 without rocking4 ,illustration3 ,shaping base for stem ,stem3 ,all copper tubing should be annealed before any work is done on it4 ,after annealing1 place the #c_/h-;in4 rod through the hole of the tube and with the wooden mallet drive down on the tubing1 beginning two inches from the end and using the hard wood block for an anvil4 ,this constant driving and turning reduces the copper to any size required4 ,we must make the end of this tubing fit the #c_/h-;in4 rod4 ,the tube must widen toward the other end1 which is beaten out4 ,place it on the small end of the anvil stake4 ,drive with the raising hammer1 turning it all the time4 ,in this way you constantly increase the diameter1 making the cup-shaped top like the design4 ,now the stem and base are ready for soldering4 ,file the ends perfectly smooth and level4 ,bind in places and solder1 as before4 ,the filing1 finishing1 and polishing must be done as with other copper pieces4 ,hat pin holders are usually filled with some soft material4 ,the hat pins are pushed down into this1 which helps to keep them in place4 ,some are covered on the top with a metal disc which has five or six holes bored through1 a little larger than the bar of the hat pin4 ,these holes are drilled into the disc and then the disc is soldered on to the top of the holder4 ,the pins cannot fall out with such an arrangement1 and they are not likely to gather on one side and tip the holder over4 ,,ix ,,how ,,to ,,rivet ,riveting is one of the processes of joining two pieces of metal together without the use of solder4 ,to rivet1 you must first punch or bore holes into the metals along the edges to be joined4 ,place a rivet through these holes1 and either with the hand hammer or rivet set1 flatten down the projecting end of the rivet1 forming a head similar to the head of the rivet itself4 ,be careful to have the rivet holes just large enough to let the rivet slip in and leave no extra space4 ,if the holes are too large the rivet will bend instead of flattening4 ,illustration3 ,punching metal ,use of the rivet set3 ,a rivet set is a piece of steel #e ins4 long1 #c_/d in4 wide and #c_/h in4 thick1 tapering a little toward the top end4 ,in the large end of this tool1 and to one side1 is a #a_/h-;in4 hole drilled about #c_/h in4 deep2 on the other side is a counter-sunk hole about #a_/d in4 in diameter and #a_/af in4 deep4 ,this hole is used for drawing the rivet up through and closing the openings between the parts to be riveted1 previous to flattening the end4 7,see picture of stove pipe47 ,the counter-sunk hole is made to shape the head after it is flattened4 ,tinners use it often for punching holes in thin metal1 such as tin and galvanized iron1 and it's one of the methods used for punching holes when making or mending stove pipes1 and similar shaped pieces4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,rivet set4 ,punching holes in a stove pipe and riveting ,to rivet a stove pipe3 ,place the rivet on the stake and put the iron pipe over the rivet about where the hole should be4 ,tip the pipe so it will rest on the rivet4 ,tap lightly over the rivet4 ,this will mark the spot where the rivet is to go4 ,drive down the rivet set over this mark and the rivet will be forced through the pipes into the hole of the rivet set4 ,the hole is made and the rivet placed at the same time4 ,flatten the projecting end1 put the counter-sunk hole on the top of this flattened end1 and you can shape it up like a round button4 ,,large ,,serving ,,tray ,,with ,,riveted ,,handles ,a tray as large as this one is most useful in the home for serving tea1 ice cream1 etc4 ,illustration ,material3 ,no4 #bj copper1 #ab #ah ins4 ,four pieces of copper1 #c-a_/b #b ins4 ,silver wire for rivets #d #a_/h in4 in diameter4 ,directions3 ,perhaps the easiest and simplest way to make this tray is to get a large block of wood1 like the end of a building joist1 a little longer and wider than the #ah #ab-;in4 copper sheet4 ,out of it make a mould the shape of the body of the tray1 by cutting the wood away4 ,this mould is made similar to the one you made when making the round tray4 ,if the mould is made carefully and according to the pattern it is a simple matter to nail the sheet of copper over the depression1 and drive it in with a wooden peg and mallet1 making it fit every part of the mould4 ,before this is done it may be necessary to anneal the metal two or three times4 ,do so as often as you need to1 it doesn't matter how often it must be done4 ,when the surface is smooth to the touch1 take the metal off the mould1 and turn up the edges like the design4 ,file off the outer edges perfectly smooth and rub them down with emery cloth4 ,if your wooden peg has made small dents or flat places1 leave them as a finish unless they seem too high or too low4 ,the marks made by any wooden tool usually make a beautiful finish4 ,handles3 ,the handles are hollow4 ,they are made by taking one piece of the #c-a_/b #b-;in4 and drawing on this the outline of the handle4 ,repeat this on the four pieces4 ,this makes four halves4 ,with a pair of shears cut along the sides4 ,cut the rest out with a chisel4 ,snip the corners4 ,put four pieces together and place between the jaws of the vise4 ,file into shape4 ,this makes each piece a duplicate of the others4 ,place each piece of copper on a hard wood block and with the round end of the raising hammer drive into the block1 hollowing it out4 ,make them in pairs so that when the two parts are put together they make the handles hollow on the inside and oval on the outside4 ,file the edges of the handle so that they meet close4 ,bind1 solder1 and file and round them up4 ,fastening handles on the tray3 ,saw the two ends along the soldered joints about #c_/h in4 ,open these out so that they fit over the edge of the tray4 ,finish the ends off either rounding or square4 ,now drill a hole through the handle about #c_/af in4 from the end4 ,place them again on the tray just where they should be and mark for the hole to be drilled through the tray4 ,rivets3 ,take a piece of silver wire the size of the hole4 ,place one end of it on the vise so it will stick up about #a_/h in4 above the surface4 ,with the planishing hammer1 hammer a small rounded head on the end of the wire4 ,cut it off #c_/h in4 from the head in length4 ,this makes a rivet4 ,you will need four4 ,place these rivets with the head toward the front part of the tray and fasten the handle on4 ,polish and finish as you did other pieces of work4 ,,dutch ,,bowl 7,,made ,,in ,,silver ,,or ,,copper7 ,this ,dutch bowl looks well made of either silver or copper4 ,it is worked up in the same way as the other bowls described here1 the little sawed out handle on the side being an addition which gives to the bowl its ,dutch characteristic4 ,illustration3 ,dutch bowls ,to make the handles3 ,if the bowl is made of copper select a piece of metal thicker than the copper used for the bowl4 ,this piece is #c #d ins4 long4 ,shape it as shown in the sketch4 ,mark the design and saw it out4 ,now bend it at right angles about #a_/b in4 from the end4 ,before the corners are squared up1 round the handle to fit the shape of the bowl4 ,this is best done on a round iron stake4 ,file into shape1 drill three holes1 and rivet the handles in place4 ,a soldered handle if desired makes a neater piece of work than one riveted in place4 ,material used is a piece of #c #c ins4 ,the design is sawed out and shaped as before4 ,however1 in place of bending the end down we file the circle to fit the bowl4 ,clean the parts to be soldered1 bind the handle in place1 wash with borax4 ,place bits of solder about the joint1 heat1 and finish4 ,if this soldering makes the bowl very soft stiffen it by hammering it lightly all over the surface4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,a ,,smokers' ,,set ,a smokers' set makes a very useful birthday gift or ,christmas present and is not hard to make4 ,all the principles involved in the making have been worked out in other problems that have been given4 ,the set consists of five pieces3 a large tray1 a tobacco jar1 match safe1 cigar box1 and ash tray4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,tray ,large tray 7copper or brass7 oblong3 ,this design shows a large oblong tray with handles sawed out of the sheet metal1 not riveted as the handles were on the large serving tray4 ,draw the design for this tray on a sheet of paper4 ,mark out the handles like those in the picture4 ,place the pattern on the copper or brass sheet1 and cut out the outline according to the drawing4 ,the handles are not sawed out until the tray has been shaped up and finished4 ,this tray is made out of a piece of ,no4 #bj copper or brass1 and is #aj #ab ins4 ,with the dividers make a half-inch line on the four sides of the sheet as shown by the dotted lines in the sketch4 ,place this sheet in the vise1 the dotted line even with the jaws of the vise4 ,with the wooden peg1 drive the sides up as you did the small square tray4 ,drill the holes in the slot and saw out for the hand-holds4 ,file all around and finish4 ,,match ,,safe ,this design shows a very simple arrangement of a match safe holding a match box and a tray to catch the burnt matches4 ,material3 ,copper or brass--,no4 #bj1 #e #e ins41 for the tray4 ,no4 #bj1 #a-c_/d #e ins41 for the holder4 ,no4 #bd1 #a_/b #c ins41 for the centre piece4 ,no4 #bj1 #a_/h #e-a_/b ins41 for the bar4 ,no4 #bd1 #a-a_/b #b ins41 for the stem4 ,this little holder is made up of five parts3 base1 stem1 holder1 band1 and centre piece for pushing up the matches when the box is pushed down into it4 ,the base is made by bending all four sides up #a_/d in42 corners are made rounding4 ,the stem piece is bent into a cylinder tapered by wrapping it around a #a_/b-;in4 tapered stick4 ,solder the edges1 when this is done4 ,illustration ,the holder itself is made by taking the #a-c_/d #e-;in4 strip and bending it up like the shape of a letter ,u1 so that it is a little longer than the match box itself4 ,the band holds the sides in place4 ,all is soldered together1 the stem in the base first1 then the holder on the stem1 etc4 ,hard solder is used4 ,the little centre piece is bent1 placed in position1 and soldered with soft solder4 ,polish and finish4 ,,tobacco ,,jar ,this straight-sided jar is made in three pieces4 ,a disc #e ins4 in diameter is needed for the bottom1 a cylinder1 #e ins4 deep1 to fit the disc1 and a lid made from a #e-;in4 disc turned over to fit the outside4 ,illustration ,the disc for the bottom is bent up like the base of the tea caddy4 ,fit the cylindrical piece around this base and solder where the edges meet4 ,the lid3 ,cut a disc out of ,no4 #bj copper1 #e ins4 in diameter4 ,find the centre4 ,with the small end of the planishing hammer drive a boss into a hollow wooden block1 about #c_/d in4 in diameter and #a_/b in4 deep4 ,out of this boss the knob is made in the following way3 ,take a piece of #e_/h-;in4 square iron and draw about #d ins4 of the end tapered to a #c_/h-;in4 round4 ,bend this up about #a_/d in4 as shown in the sketch4 ,this is the tool that the knob must be shaped upon4 ,place this tool in the vise and place the hollow of the lid on this tool4 ,with the thin end of the driving hammer work the knob in shape from the outside4 7,see sketch47 ,during the working of this metal it should be annealed three or four times so that it will yield to the extreme tension required to make the knob4 ,illustration ,the lid is rounded in the same way as the bottom piece was4 ,there is some shaping to be done on the top of the lid4 ,the picture here shows that plainly4 ,on the inside of the lid are two wires soldered crosswise to hold a damp sponge in place4 ,this sponge keeps the tobacco moist4 ,finish and polish4 ,,cigar ,,box ,any wooden cigar box may be decorated very effectively4 ,this picture shows an ordinary cigar box with copper 7or brass7 trimmings4 ,corners are sawed out and riveted hinges are placed on the top4 ,boxes decorated in this way make splendid ,christmas gifts4 ,a heavy sheet of brass or copper can take the place of the wooden lid4 ,,ash ,,tray ,illustration ,ash trays are of various shapes and sizes4 ,some are merely a square tray1 some are round1 while others are half-bowl shaped4 ,sometimes two or three half-round tube-shaped pieces for holding the cigar are soldered on to the rim of the tray4 ,all ash trays of this style are driven up in the same way as you drive up a square tray or a round one1 or a copper bowl4 ,to make the cigar holders1 cut a piece of thin copper or brass #a #b ins4 rounding on the ends4 ,place them on a block and round them up in a depression cut out of the wood with a gouge chisel4 ,these are soldered on to the rim of the bowl or tray with soft solder4 ,polish and finish4 ,,loving ,,cup ,,with ,,two ,,or ,,three ,,handles ,illustration ,material3 ,for bowl1 copper #ab-c_/d #f ins41 ,no4 #bj4 ,for base1 copper #d-a_/b #d-a_/b ins41 ,no4 #bj4 ,for handles1 #b pieces or #c pieces of copper #h #a in41 ,no4 #bj4 ,solder4 ,tools3 ,combination stake1 anvil stake1 shears1 drill press1 drills1 rivets1 shaping hammer4 ,directions--,bowl3 ,bend the #ab-c_/d #f-;in4 piece of copper into a cylinder over the combination stake4 ,the two edges should just meet1 and fit perfectly along the line4 ,scrape inside and outside the joint4 ,wash with borax1 bind with binding wire1 and solder4 ,be careful to heat it all over the fire till the solder runs freely and fills every part of the joint4 ,cool off1 then round it up again in the stake1 filing off the surplus silver solder inside and outside4 ,hammer the joint down till flat and true4 ,if carefully done this will show a thin even line of silver4 ,base3 #d-a_/b #d-a_/b ins4 ,cut a #d-a_/b-;in4 disc4 ,place the cylinder just made on the disc1 allowing the surplus to extend out evenly all around4 ,draw with a pencil the outline of the cylinder on the disc4 ,the rim must be turned up at right angles to the circle so that it fits exactly over the cylinder4 ,to do this1 place the edge of the disc on the sharp edge of the anvil stake1 driving the edge over4 ,anneal and repeat until the sides are at right angles to the base4 ,file off the top perfectly even1 rounding out the edges4 ,this makes a finish and border to the base4 ,push the cylinder into the bottom4 ,prepare1 as usual1 for soldering4 ,be careful to put bits of solder both around the edge of the turned up flange1 and on the inside bottom edge4 ,heat and finish4 ,handles3 ,copper pieces1 #h #a in4 ,cut a tapered slip off each side of the handle pieces1 until the large end is one inch wide and the small end #c_/d in4 ,with dividers draw #a_/h-;in4 line parallel to those sides4 ,bend each side back on this line4 ,shape the handle 7see design7 over the combination stake1 using the fingers or mallet to do so4 ,the top of the handles should fit up close against the top of the cylinder and should extend down about #b_/c of the depth of the bowl4 ,the ends may be rounded off nicely with the shears1 and filed4 ,a #a_/h-;in4 hole must now be drilled in each side4 ,place the handle in the proper position on the bowl4 ,mark the holes and drill them where the marks are made4 ,place rivets and rivet the handles on4 ,a touch of soft solder will help keep these handles in place and at the same time will prevent any possible chance for leakage through rivet holes1 for where you have rivets you are apt to have a leak4 ,clean1 polish1 and finish4 ,,copper ,,belt ,,buckle ,buckles may be made of copper1 silver1 or brass1 and the process of making them is very simple4 ,this design shows a buckle for a man or a boy4 ,material3 ,copper 7or brass or silver7 #e_/af in4 square #h ins4 long for the frame of the belt4 ,one piece #a_/h-;in4 round rod #a-c_/d in4 long for the cross piece4 ,one piece #c_/af-;in4 square #b in4 long 7pin74 ,borax and solder4 ,illustration ,tools3 ,mallet1 file1 pliers1 combination stake1 and vise4 ,illustration ,directions3 ,take the #e_/af #h-;in4 piece of copper4 ,put it into the vise and bend it into a rectangular frame like the design4 ,be careful to make rounding corners and the sides parallel to each other4 ,cut off the surplus metal4 ,make the joint in one corner4 ,solder and file the corner the same shape as the other three4 ,illustration ,cross bar3 ,take the piece of copper1 #a-c_/d #a_/h in4 ,bend the two ends down #a_/h in4 in the same direction4 7,see picture47 ,illustration3 ,cross piece ,solder this piece to the under side of the frame4 ,the projections throw the cross bar down low enough below the level of the frame to allow the leather strap to come flush with the buckle top4 ,pin or tongue3 ,take the metal set aside for making the pin4 ,flatten one end of this out to #a_/af of an inch thick and long enough to go around the cross bar4 7,see design47 ,illustration3 ,tongue ,flattening the end piece hardens it so that it must be annealed4 ,with the round pliers1 bend this end so it will loop over the cross bar4 ,shape over the whole buckle according to the design4 ,file1 finish1 and polish4 ,these buckles may be made very attractive by giving them a smooth finish1 or a mottled surface1 or by making a sawed out design around the frame4 ,x ,,lamp 7,,for ,,electricity7 ,,with ,,shade ,illustration ,material3 ,piece of copper1 ,no4 #af1 #h ins4 square 7base74 ,piece of copper1 ,no4 #bd1 #aj #e ins4 7post74 ,piece of copper1 ,no4 #bj1 #b-a_/d #b-a_/d ins4 7cap74 #c pieces of #a_/d-;in4 round copper1 #g ins4 long 7for shade holder74 ,solder4 ,borax4 ,tools3 ,raising hammer1 hard wood block1 anvil stake1 drill press1 piece of discarded broom handle1 dividers4 ,directions3 ,make a #b-a_/b-;in4 circle in the centre of the #h-;in4 square plate4 ,drive this centre up about #a_/b in4 above the level1 tapering on the top to about #a-a_/b in4 in diameter4 ,to do this1 place the centre over a hole in the wooden block #a-a_/b in4 in diameter and drive the metal into the hole to the required depth4 7,see design47 ,draw a line with the dividers #a_/b in4 all around the edge4 ,be sure the line is an equal distance from the centre4 ,bend the sides down #a_/b in4 all along this line at almost right angles to the surface4 ,this bending is done in the vise4 ,measure off #a_/b in4 in either direction from each corner for the feet1 file out a section #a_/d in4 deep and #g ins4 long1 as was done in making the feet for the square box4 ,illustration3 ,base of lamp ,illustration3 ,base ,illustration ,centre post3 ,take the #aj #e-;in4 piece and bend it around the piece of broom handle 7or any other piece of round wood the size you wish74 ,the two edges must meet4 ,scrape and solder1 being careful that the solder runs into the joint4 ,file it off flush with the top of the metal and make the column perfectly round4 ,place the column on the raised part of the base and mark around the column on the base with a pencil4 ,saw out a hole along the marked line4 ,push the end of the column in so that it is perpendicular to the base and perfectly true all around4 ,tie it in place for soldering1 with the binding wire1 by fastening the wire on the extreme top of the column1 and carrying it to the four corners of the base4 ,this centres the column ready for soldering4 ,wash the joint well1 place pieces of silver around the base and column1 and heat4 ,the base should be crowned from the centre to the outer edge4 ,to do this1 place the centre on any round top wood block4 ,strike on the outer edges with the wooden mallet until the desired crown is formed4 ,see that it stands plumb and does not rock4 ,if it does rock1 tap the base gently on the outer edges with the mallet until it stands firm4 ,file and polish until the surface is perfectly smooth and free from marks of all kinds4 ,the beautiful colours that form on the surface of copper depend much upon the finish4 ,the body of the lamp is now ready for the cap and arms that hold the shade4 ,illustration ,cap3 ,take a #b-a_/d-;in4 disc4 ,draw a circle in the centre of this disc1 having a diameter equal to the diameter of the top of the column4 ,place this disc on the edge of an anvil stake and drive the edges of the metal over1 forming a cap as described in the making of the lid of the rose jar4 ,divide this flange equally into three parts1 drilling a #a_/h-;in4 hole in each one of the three divisions4 ,take the three pieces of #a_/d-;in4 round copper4 ,file the ends of each one1 making a shoulder on the end #a_/h in4 and #a_/h in4 in diameter to fit the holes in the flange4 ,put the end of these rods into the vise with the shoulder close to the top of the vise4 ,put the cap on the projecting pin1 and rivet4 ,repeat this for all three rods4 ,wash the rivet joints with borax1 and solder4 ,file off any projecting parts so that the inside is flush1 as this cap must fit over the column4 ,place the cap over the column and between the projecting arms drill a small hole through both the cap and the column1 and rivet as before4 ,illustration ,shade1 #d-sided or #f-sided3 ,this design is for #f sides4 ,that gives a good proportion4 ,dimensions of each side3 ,side 7on a slant7 #i ins41 top1 #b-a_/b ins4 ,bottom1 #h ins4 7,see drawing47 ,cut out a pattern for one side4 ,use stiff card board4 ,lay this design on a piece of copper large enough to cut out the whole lamp shade4 ,mark around the pattern4 ,lay the same pattern against one side of the marked design4 ,make it fit exactly along the margin line4 ,repeat until you have done six sides4 ,you have now a fan shaped pattern with six divisions4 ,cut this along the top and bottom lines4 ,illustration ,if folded up along these division lines it would shape up into a lamp shade4 ,all lamp shades have glass for light4 ,we provide for the glass by cutting out a section of each of the six faces4 ,take your card board pattern4 ,mark a line all around from #c_/d in4 and parallel to the sides1 #a in4 from the top and #a in4 from the bottom4 ,cut out the inner section made by these lines4 ,place the pattern on the copper and mark each section4 ,cut it out with the cold chisel on the wooden block4 ,file up the rough places left1 make the edges square and smooth4 ,bend up each section along the centre line in the following way3 ,get two pieces of wood1 #b #a_/b #bj ins4 ,place the two pieces in a vise and slip the copper between the pieces down to the line where it should be bent4 ,tighten up on the vise1 press the copper over with the hands and tap gently along the lines with the mallet1 keeping the angles about #fj4 ,do this on each of the six sides4 ,if carefully done the shade will have a hexagonal shape4 ,the open parts should come together1 one side overlapping about #a_/d in4 ,hammer down the overlapping part and rivet4 ,illustration ,glass3 ,cut a piece of card board #a_/d in4 larger all around than the opening in the sections for the glass4 ,take this to a glazier4 ,tell the dealer just what is wanted and he will make suggestions as to colour1 kinds of glass1 etc4 ,cathedral or opalescent glass is very decorative4 ,illustration ,to set the glass3 ,place one of the panes of glass on the inside of the section1 over the open space4 ,mark all around it4 ,take #d pieces of copper 7#c_/d #c_/h in47 and bend them in a double angle4 ,these are to be soldered or riveted on the rim4 ,one is placed on either side1 one at the top and one at the bottom4 ,this glass rests in these brackets and keeps it in place4 ,repeat for the six sections4 ,push the brackets down against the glass after it is in place4 ,they hold it firm against the side of the shade4 ,the design for this shade lends itself to many variations4 ,it may be square1 five-sided1 six-sided4 ,the edges can be escalloped both top and bottom1 and a sawed out design may be made to fit over the glass4 ,,xi ,,hinges ,,in ,,copper ,,or ,,silver ,,tube ,,drawing ,,and ,,wire ,,drawing ,material3 ,copper or ,silver4 ,tools3 ,hardwood block1 #f #c #a in4 draw plate1 tongs1 sharp peen hammer1 saw frame and saw1 round file1 shears1 small piece of soap4 ,illustration3 ,stamp box1 or jewel box with tube hinge ,directions3 ,to make a good hinge for jewel boxes or jewellery requires some knowledge of how to make wire and tubes out of sheet metal4 ,in order to do this you must have a draw plate and that you can make yourself1 in the following way3 ,take a piece of iron #a_/d #a-a_/b #c ins4 or #d ins4 long4 ,drill a number of graduated holes through the piece along the centre4 ,the smallest hole should be about #a_/cb in4 in diameter and the largest1 about #a_/h in4 ,take your steel punch and file the end down1 tapering so that the point will go into the smallest hole4 ,drive the punch into the hole until it just goes through4 ,these holes take the shape of the tapered punch4 ,repeat this in each hole until the draw plate is made up of a number of graduated tapering holes4 ,your draw plate is used for reducing wires from a large size to any size you have holes for and for making hollow tubing for hinges4 ,to reduce wire3 ,you can always buy the wire any thickness you wish1 but many times a small piece of wire is needed quickly and can be made with little trouble4 ,if you should wish to reduce a piece of wire #a_/h in4 thick to any size smaller than #a_/h in41 file the end of the piece so it just goes through the hole far enough to grasp with the tongs4 ,rub a little soap over the surface of the wire1 draw it through the hole4 ,it is reduced to the size of the hole it goes through4 ,after the first or second operation the wire must be annealed1 as pulling it through the draw plate hardens it4 ,tubing for hinges3 ,cut a strip of ,no4 #bh1 copper 7or silver7 any length4 ,cut the width of it three times the diameter of the tube you wish to make1 and cut the end of this piece to a point4 ,place your #f #a #c-;in4 block in the vise4 ,with a round file1 file a groove across the block4 ,illustration3 ,shaping tube before drawing in plate ,place the strip of copper or silver over the groove and1 using the hammer1 drive the metal into the groove1 forming a gutter4 ,repeat this until you have driven the copper into a cylindrical shape4 ,put the pointed end through the largest hole in the draw plate4 ,rub well with soap4 ,clasp the end sticking through with the tongs and pull it through4 ,repeat as you did when drawing wire through4 ,anneal when necessary4 ,continue to put the tube in one reducing hole after another until the tube is the size you wish4 ,this tube with a small hole through the entire length is used for fine hinges4 ,illustration3 ,draw plate and tongs with tube going through ,illustration3 ,sawing off pieces of tubing for hinges ,fine hinges3 ,to make a hinge for a box1 bracelet1 or any small dainty article that requires hinges1 take a piece of the tube made as described4 ,after you have decided just how long the hinge must be to fit the article you are making1 saw the tube into three pieces1 or five pieces1 of equal length by placing the tube in a vise4 ,if it is to be a three-piece hinge1 two will be soldered on the one side and one on the other1 the two just far enough apart so that the one is in position to fit exactly in between them4 ,when the three pieces are in place1 a wire is pushed through the hole1 and the hinge is made4 ,illustration3 ,filing half round groove in hinge1 for tube ,to make the wings of the hinge3 ,take a piece of silver or copper1 ,no4 #aj1 the length and width to be determined by the size of the hinge4 ,place this copper plate in the vise1 file a groove through the centre1 just large enough for the copper or silver tube to fit in about half its depth4 ,saw the piece through the middle of the groove4 ,illustration3 ,bind in place with binding wire1 and solder ,take two of the three short tube pieces1 bind them on the groove ends of one wing4 ,bind the third piece of tubing in the middle of the groove end of the other wing4 ,place the two wings together and see that they fit closely4 ,do this with the greatest care1 as there is no possible chance for filing after the tubes are soldered on the wings4 ,wash with borax1 put some silver solder on the joints1 and solder as before explained4 ,when binding the tubes for soldering do not put the binding wire through the holes of the tubes4 ,this wire makes a good conductor for the solder which is apt to fill up the small holes in the tubes4 ,all binding should be done on the outside4 ,the wings of the hinges should be filed to a taper1 or any shape that will add to the appearance of the hinge4 ,the hinge lends itself very well for decorative purposes and can always be made so that it adds to the attractiveness of the piece of work4 ,lock plates can be made by the same method4 ,they1 too1 can be finished up to add to the ornamental side of the article4 ,cabinet hinges3 ,cabinet hinges are made either of brass or copper4 ,the hinge must be made in proportion to the design1 thus adding to the decoration4 ,illustration ,material3 ,strip of copper1 ,no4 #aj4 ,cut out according to the design4 ,the two ends of one are turned over a wire nail #a_/h in4 in diameter4 ,the one end of the other is treated in the same way4 ,test if they are true by placing a wire through the three tubes4 ,cabinet hinges may be finished by using the round head hammer and driving down a number of hammer marks1 going all over the surface of the hinge4 ,or they may be embossed from the under side4 ,the spacing of screws and rivets plays an important part in the design of the hinge4 ,,xii ,,jewel ,,box ,,and ,,desk ,,set ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,copper ,,jewel ,,box 7,,rectangular7 ,materials3 ,a narrow piece of ,no4 #bj copper1 #bj ins4 long #a-a_/d ins4 wide3 this is used for the sides4 ,one piece of ,no4 #bj copper1 #f-c_/h #d-a_/h ins4 for the lid4 ,one piece of ,no4 #bd copper1 #f-c_/h #d-c_/h ins4 for the bottom4 ,two pieces of copper ,no4 #bd1 #f #a_/b in41 for the hinges4 ,copper nails #a_/af in4 in diameter1 for rivets4 ,tools3 ,vise1 shears1 mallet1 hard solder1 borax1 rivet set 7steel tool71 dividers1 and centre punch4 ,illustration3 ,top view ,illustration3 ,front ,illustration3 ,sheet developed for sides and ends4 ,bend on division lines ,illustration ,directions3 ,make a working drawing of a box1 #f #d #a_/d ins41 7inside measurements74 ,the box is to have feet1 and a lid with hinges is to be fastened to it4 ,take the strip of copper1 #bj #a-a_/d ins41 measure it off into sections of #d ins4 and #f ins4 alternately4 ,beginning on one end mark a point #c_/h in4 from the end4 7,point ,g47 ,draw a line 7,e ,g7 #a_/h in4 long1 perpendicular to the base line4 ,with the dividers set #a_/h in4 apart1 and one leg placed against the base line1 draw a line #c-a_/d ins4 long paralleled to the base4 7,line ,e ,f74 ,draw ,f ,h4 ,in the section ,d ,c ,m ,s1 mark the point ,o #c_/h of an inch from ,d4 ,draw ,k ,o equal to #a_/h of an inch4 ,with the dividers set at #a_/h in41 draw a line #e-a_/d ins4 long 7,k ,l74 ,join ,l and ,n4 ,repeat this in the other two sections4 ,with the shears1 cut along lines ,g1 ,g ,e1 ,e ,f1 ,f ,h1 ,h ,o1 ,o ,k1 ,k ,l1 ,l ,n1 etc4 ,the projections left form the four feet for the box to rest upon4 ,to bend the corners1 mark with lead-pencil ,c ,d1 ,m ,s1 ,r ,t4 ,place these division lines1 in turn1 between the jaws of the vise1 and bend down at right angles4 ,you now have a rectangular box like the picture1 with one corner open4 ,illustration ,to close the side1 solder the open end4 ,clean thoroughly the parts to be joined4 ,place the parts in their proper positions and bind the corner with binding wire4 ,wash the joint with borax4 ,place some small pieces of silver solder on the inside corner4 ,hold it over a fire and heat until the solder runs into the joint4 ,cool off in water and take off the binding wire4 ,if the solder should run through and fasten the wire to the side of the box1 the wire can be peeled off and the solder filed down to the copper4 ,but care must be taken not to let the binding wire sink into the copper4 ,file up the corners smooth and square up the box with a steel square4 ,to make the bottom of the box3 ,take the piece of ,no4 #bd copper1 #f-c_/h #d-c_/h ins4 ,set the dividers #c_/af in4 wide4 ,with one leg on the edge of this plate1 draw lines on the four sides4 ,illustration ,illustration ,cut out the small square made in each corner by the crossing lines4 ,put the plate into the vise and bend the four sides up along these lines4 ,try it1 to see if it just fits the inside of the box4 ,it is the bottom and must be exactly right or the box will be out of square4 ,now take it out for drilling and riveting4 ,with the centre-punch prick points one inch apart and midway between the edge and the base4 ,holes are bored through these punch marks1 with the drill press and a #a_/af-;in4 drill4 ,the bottom is now ready to slip into the box and to place for riveting4 ,put it in1 the bent edge turned down and flush with the lower edge of the box4 ,it is necessary first to fix the bottom securely in place before all the rivets can be put in4 ,to do this we put one rivet on each side4 ,take a sharp-pointed instrument1 stick it into the centre hole on each of the four sides1 whirl it round1 and mark the place where the hole should be drilled through4 ,take the bottom out and prick punch these holes4 ,drill the four holes1 place the bottom back1 and push the copper nails through from the outside in1 leaving the head on the outside as decoration4 ,if the head should seem too large1 reduce it by filing before riveting4 ,cut the nail off1 leaving about #a_/af in4 of it projecting4 ,with the hammer strike on this projecting end1 flatten it down until it covers up the holes4 ,this is called riveting4 ,now the bottom is made firm so that any amount of drilling can be done without throwing it out of place4 ,drill all the rest of the holes and put a rivet in each one of them4 ,the heads of these nails add to the decoration if they are put in carefully and at regular intervals4 ,to make the lid3 ,if you look at your design you will see that the lid is raised a little in the centre and that the edges extend #a_/h in4 over the four sides of the box4 ,take the #f-a_/d #d-a_/d in4 piece of copper4 ,with lead pencil mark the #a_/h-;in4 lap over all around the lid4 ,place the lid on the end of the square block4 ,with the round end of the raising hammer drive down lightly all around the inside of the lead-pencil mark1 increasing the blows toward the centre4 ,this will make an oval-topped shape4 ,the hammering is bound to distort the edge of the copper4 ,turn the lid upside down on the bench2 with the mallet strike down on the top of the raised part until the edges flatten down on the bench4 ,if any kinks should come from the hammering flatten them by driving directly over them4 ,the lid should rest on the box without rocking4 ,illustration ,to make the hinges3 ,take the two pieces of copper #f #a_/b in4 7,no4 #bd74 ,lay a piece of ,no4 #h wire lengthwise in the piece of copper1 and1 using your fingers1 bend the copper up on each side of the wire1 keeping the two edges the same length4 ,place this between the vise jaws1 pressing the two open sides together1 forming a hinge right on the wire4 ,fix both pieces of copper this way4 ,draw the wire out4 ,you have two cylindrical pieces of copper #f ins4 long with wings attached4 ,divide one of the pieces into six one-inch sections4 ,put this between the vise jaws down to the rounding part4 ,with your jewellers' saw1 saw close to the vise and along the division lines1 cutting out sections #b1 #d1 #f4 ,illustration3 ,the copper is to be pressed together along dotted line ,illustration3 ,the copper cylinder must be sawn out in sections1 as where the arrow points ,illustration3 ,section of hinge ,illustration3 ,this sketch shows the method of riveting the hinge to the jewel box ,file up all open parts so that the joints will be at right angles to the hinge4 ,do this carefully or else they will not swing true when hinged together4 ,use the cut hinge to measure off the sections on the other hinge4 ,cut out sections #a1 #c1 #e on the second hinge1 allowing a little on each section for filing4 ,fit the two parts together and fasten by pushing a wire through4 ,try the hinge to see that it works true and snug4 ,select one of the sides as the back of the box1 put the lid on1 with the hinge in place4 ,you will notice that the thickness of the hinge prevents the lid from fitting down on the box4 ,file the side of the box down so the hinge sets flush with the top1 and file the wings of the hinge down to a taper4 ,the wings are to be riveted1 one flat to the under side of the lid1 and the other to the back1 after bending it down on the inside of the box4 ,see section view4 ,hinges are sometimes soldered in place4 ,to do this1 wash the joints with a little soft-solder fluid4 ,heat the box in the bunsen flame hot enough to make the solder run in between the joints4 ,file any rough edges off1 smooth down carefully1 and polish4 ,,cedar ,,chest 7,,with ,,brass ,,trimmings7 ,a plain cedar chest is much improved by the addition of copper or brass trimmings4 ,they add strength1 too1 to the box4 ,illustration ,the design shows a cedar chest with hinges1 corner plates1 handles1 and lock plate4 ,the screws can be bought with pyramid-shaped heads1 which resemble hand-made rivets4 ,they add very much to the general effect of the whole4 ,one must be guided by the size of the box in selecting the appropriate screw decorations4 ,this box is #ab #bj #cf ins4 ,the lid is #b ins4 deep4 ,hinges3 ,the hinges should be made of ,no4 #aj copper or brass1 #c ins4 wide1 and should extend two-thirds of the way across the top and half way down the back4 ,this tends to keep the lid straight and support the back of the box4 ,lock plate3 ,the plate is made of a piece of #h #c in4 metal1 the same thickness as the material used in the hinges4 ,the design should correspond to the design of the hinges4 ,the key way is in the lock plate1 toward the top4 ,handles and handle plate3 ,the handles are made of #a_/b-;in4 round copper or brass1 large in the middle1 tapering toward the ends4 ,these ends are turned up1 fitted into eye bolts and riveted into the handles4 ,the handles should be #aj #d ins41 with the design of the hinges and the lock plate carried out4 ,corner plates3 ,these plates go on the four corners of the chest4 ,they are made of ,no4 #ad metal4 ,perhaps the simplest way to make them is to take a piece of ,no4 #ad metal and cut a #f-;in4 square4 ,draw the diagonals4 ,cut out one of the four triangles from this square4 ,now bend the piece along the diagonal lines and you make a corner to fit on the box4 ,solder this open corner to the box4 ,in making corners for the lid1 make the same pattern and trim it down to suit the depth of the lid4 ,the trimmings on the box can be left smooth or they can be treated with the peen of the hammer and a facet surface put on1 which is done quickly and is very decorative in effect4 ,the hinge part of the hinge is made as explained in the article on hinge making4 ,the metal used here would be quite strong enough just to turn over in the pin without soldering it first to the body of the hinge piece4 ,put the lock on the chest before the lock plate is placed4 ,this fixes the place for the key-hole2 otherwise one might get the key way too close to the opening and find no lock that would fit it4 ,the handles are put in by means of screws1 but a much stronger one is made by using bolts and screws4 ,the bolts that hold the handle on the plate are carried through the box1 and a nut and washer fasten them tight on the inside4 ,,desk ,,set ,,in ,,copper ,ink well holder and pen tray4 ,book rack4 ,corners for desk pad4 ,letter file4 ,bill file4 ,stamp box4 ,paper cutter1 letter opener1 and book mark4 ,,ink ,,well ,,holder ,,and ,,pen ,,tray ,material3 ,no4 #af copper1 #aj-a_/b #e-a_/b ins41 for the tray4 ,no4 #af copper1 #a-a_/b #h ins41 for the box4 ,no4 #af copper1 #c ins4 square1 for lid4 ,illustration ,directions3 ,tray3 ,you will notice1 in the design of the tray given1 a #c_/h-;in4 ledge all around4 ,the inside of the tray is lowered #a_/d in4 except a square place in the centre toward the back large enough for the box to set upon4 ,the depression in the tray is made in the same way as described before in making the small square tray4 ,you put it into the vise and with a round wooden peg drive it in according to the design4 ,the ledge must remain parallel to the bottom of the tray4 ,round it off by placing the tray on the anvil stake and driving the proper curve in it with the wooden mallet4 ,illustration ,box or holder--,sides3 ,take the copper piece1 #h #a-a_/b ins4 and divide it into #b-;in4 spaces4 ,bend these at right angles to form a square box1 the open ends meeting at one side4 ,solder with hard solder4 ,lid3 ,take the #c-;in4 square piece4 ,over a square block the exact size of the inside of the box drive the piece for the lid4 ,the corners must be driven down even so that the lid will fit on the top of the box2 otherwise the ink will evaporate4 ,the hinge on the lid is made with a drawn tube in the same way as was described in the article on the making of hinges4 ,the box is now ready to be put on the tray4 ,file the surface of the projecting square flat1 so that the box will set level4 ,bind it down with binding wire1 and solder in the usual way4 ,ring and ring post fastened to the box3 ,the post is made of a piece of #c_/h-;in4 square copper4 ,at a distance of #e_/af in4 from the end a shoulder is filed on it1 with the stem long enough to go through the thickness of the lid4 ,a hole1 too1 is drilled through one end of this post large enough for a #a_/h-;in4 copper ring to be pushed through4 ,this copper ring is made by turning a piece of copper wire around a #a_/b-;in4 round rod in a spiral shape4 ,cut off the ring or rings as you need them4 ,this ring is opened out1 pushed into the hole1 and squeezed together4 ,it acts as a little handle to lift up the lid4 ,a piece of blotting paper the exact size of the lid is pushed into the inside of it4 ,this helps to keep the ink from evaporating4 ,if the piece of work has been carefully done there will be little finishing and filing to do4 ,you can readily see that the beauty of metal work depends as much upon the finish as upon the design4 ,,book-,,rack ,illustration ,book-racks are most useful for holding choice books on one's desk4 ,they are made of heavy copper4 ,this design is made so that one can place any number of books between them1 by pushing the side pieces out4 ,all book-racks are made in the same way4 ,the design on the side pieces can be sawed out 7or pierced7 or embossed1 or the facets left by the hammer will make a beautiful decoration4 ,any design work1 however1 must be done while the copper is in a straight piece1 otherwise the bending is apt to spoil the work4 ,material3 ,two pieces of copper1 ,no4 #ad1 #ab #f ins4 ,directions3 ,in the design shown here the edge of the upright ends are rounded4 ,some have just the corners rounded off4 ,decide upon the design you wish4 ,cut it out1 and file the copper sheet accordingly4 ,make the edges of the whole rack perfectly smooth and rounded4 ,mark off #f ins4 from one end4 ,bend this at the #f-;in4 line at right angles to the #h-;in4 piece4 ,it is well to do the bending over a wooden block in the vise1 using a mallet so as not to mar the metal4 ,polish and finish as before4 ,,metal ,,corners ,,for ,a ,,desk ,,pad ,illustration ,metal corners made of brass1 copper1 or silver are found very useful for protecting the corners of blotters upon desks4 ,they keep the corners from curling up and add much to the general appearance of any desk4 ,the designs are many1 but for all practical purposes the plain corners seem best1 as they are more sanitary4 ,illustration ,material3 ,the pieces of metal #f #b-a_/b ins4 ,no4 #bb4 ,illustration3 ,fold on dotted lines4 ,corners for blotter ,directions3 ,mark your copper sheet off like this pattern4 ,now get a piece of wood1 iron1 or copper about #c_/af in4 thick and just the shape of one of these corner designs4 ,this #c_/af in4 thickness will be about equal to the thickness of your blotter and the thickness of the card-board4 ,take your copper sheet and bend the ends along the lines marked on the pattern1 over the iron or wood form1 driving them down to fit the shape well4 ,you now have a triangular piece with an opening on one side4 ,this piece would slide over the corner of a card-board pad usually cut about #bd #ah ins4 ,solder the edges together4 ,it is necessary to rivet these corners to the card-board to prevent their slipping off easily4 ,to do this drill a small hole down through the under side close to the edge1 slip these corners on the card-board1 push the iron form in1 and drive the rivet through the hole1 through the card-board against the iron plate1 thus riveting the corners to the card-board4 ,take out the iron plate and repeat on the four corners4 ,if designs are to be made on metal1 they must be sawed out or pierced while the metal is in the straight piece4 ,polish free from all roughness4 ,a piece of soft flannel or woollen cloth is glued on the under side of these corners1 so that the metal cannot scratch the desk1 or any polished surface it rests upon4 ,,bill ,,file ,this is a useful article for filing notes or memoranda of things that need immediate attention4 ,there is very little variety in design4 ,the base can be made square1 circular1 six-sided1 etc41 and decorated in many ways4 ,it looks well either in copper or brass4 ,only heavy copper should be used1 in order to give weight to the base4 ,illustration ,material3 ,a #c-a_/b-;in4 square of ,no4 #aj copper4 ,rod of sharpened steel4 ,directions3 ,take a piece of iron #a_/b #b-a_/b #b-a_/b ins4 ,go to any scrap heap for this4 ,place the copper sheet over this block of iron1 letting the surplus metal extend evenly all around4 ,put it into the vise with the corner vertical4 ,tighten it up and drive the metal over the corner till it touches the sides of the iron4 ,do this on all the corners4 ,make the outside of the metal fit tightly over this iron1 acting as a shape or form4 ,if the metal should feel springy before driving it up close1 anneal it4 ,notice that in driving these corners down they are longer than the four sides1 and they suggest feet4 ,if filed flat and smoothed up you have a square box with a foot on each corner4 ,take it off the iron form and make the top rounding by driving it over the hollow block4 ,now drill a #a_/h-;in4 hole through the middle4 ,place the copper rod in the hole and solder with hard solder4 ,,paper ,,cutter1 ,,letter ,,opener1 ,,book ,,mark ,illustration ,paper cutter3 ,no article on a desk is more useful than a good paper cutter4 ,it may be one with a plain flat blade1 no marked handle and without decoration aside from that of the metal itself with its hammer marks left upon it4 ,again we may have one with blade and handle1 the blade either pointed 7sharp edged or blunt71 the handle plain or with sawed-out design4 ,those with pointed blades are serviceable as letter openers too4 ,then some designs have handles made long enough to turn the end over1 forming a raised handle4 ,material3 ,piece of ,no4 #bj copper1 #g_/h #i ins4 ,illustration3 ,paper knife4 ,cut on dotted lines ,directions3 ,if the blade is to be pointed1 take your strip of copper and draw a line right through the centre4 ,mark a point #a_/h in4 on the end1 either side of the centre line4 ,draw lines from these points to the extreme ends of the other side4 ,see dotted lines in the sketch4 ,file up the edges rounding1 and polish the whole4 ,select a piece of copper free from scratches and marks of any kind for this work4 ,this paper cutter can be left smooth1 or it can be decorated by the marks left by the planishing hammer4 ,these marks give a good finish and look well4 ,,paper ,,cutter ,,with ,,turned ,,handle ,material3 ,piece of ,no4 #bj copper1 #g_/h #af ins4 ,illustration ,directions3 ,mark off lines on the copper strip as you did to make the plain paper cutter4 ,carry the tapering lines back #g ins4 ,cut off these side pieces with shears4 ,file the edges for the whole length smooth4 ,if any decorating is to be done1 do it while the copper is in the straight piece1 as it can't be done easily after the handle is turned4 ,all filing1 too1 must be done before the handle is turned4 ,when filed and smoothed up or decorated as you wish1 bend half the remaining #i inches of the copper over and on to the blade1 in this way forming the handle4 ,the size of the handle will depend upon one's feeling of comfort or discomfort about it4 ,if the edges still feel a little rough a piece of emery cloth will smooth them down4 ,,letter ,,openers ,letter openers are really small paper cutters and are made in exactly the same way4 ,they are shorter and narrower than the paper cutter1 but almost always have a sharp pointed blade4 ,many scraps of copper left over after the making of large pieces can be used to make letter openers4 ,,book ,,mark ,illustration ,book marks are very handy to have on one's desk4 ,they are easily made and if very light copper is used need not be heavy or clumsy4 ,they should be made very smooth1 for they must slip easily into place in the book4 ,material3 ,no4 #cj copper1 #c #c_/d in4 ,directions3 ,this drawing can be used as the guide4 ,make it the required size and work just as you did when making the paper cutter4 ,the little tongue on the inside is sawed out4 ,it should swing easily to and fro1 as it must be pushed open to catch the pages of a book and clamp them down4 ,file and finish very smooth4 ,if it is left the least bit rough it would tear the paper as it is pushed in4 ,,brass ,,work ,,xiii ,,finger ,,bowl1 ,,crumb ,,tray1 ,,tea ,,caddy1 ,,vase1 ,,bell ,,and ,,bracket1 ,,drawer ,,pulls1 ,,etc4 ,brass3 ,brass is an alloy of copper and zinc4 ,the zinc colours the copper and gives it the yellowish or brassy look1 depending upon the amount of zinc melted with it4 ,while the operations are the same whether you are working with brass1 copper1 or silver1 the presence of the zinc in brass makes it less pliable than the pure metals4 ,that is why brass hardens so quickly under hammering1 making it necessary to anneal the metal very often in order to work it4 ,but zinc and copper combined melt at a lower temperature than copper or silver pure1 so that great care must be taken when preparing the metal for soldering or annealing that you do not heat it over a dull red heat before plunging it into water4 ,,to ,,make ,a ,,brass ,,finger ,,bowl ,finger bowls of brass are very ornamental and useful and can be made of the simplest designs4 ,a half dozen are a welcome addition to any table4 ,design the bowl and proceed exactly as you did with the copper bowl1 working the sheet of brass up into a rough bowl shape on the hard wood block4 ,using the same tools1 finish the bowl on the round stake4 ,the surface of the bowl may be left mottled1 or it can be smoothed up1 as one wishes4 ,illustration ,illustration ,these sketches suggest a number of articles that can be made out of brass4 ,,crumb ,,tray ,,and ,,scraper ,material3 ,one piece of brass1 #aj #f ins41 ,no4 #af4 ,one piece of brass1 #ab #d ins41 ,no4 #af4 ,illustration ,tools3 ,anvil stake1 mallet1 shears1 dividers4 ,directions3 ,with the dividers set at #e ins41 one leg of the dividers tangent with the top of the brass plate and the other in the centre lengthwise of the piece1 draw a circle4 ,cut around the circle with the shears4 ,beat over #c_/d in4 of the centre part of the circle1 tapering along the circle line toward each end4 ,round up this edge and curve it a little inward on wood block so that when grasped by the fingers it will be comfortable4 ,smooth off edge and make the flat part perfectly straight1 so that when placed on the table to receive the crumbs it will lie perfectly flat4 ,,crumb ,,scraper ,a very simple design is given here4 ,mark out the dimensions on a sheet of paper and lay the design on a sheet of brass4 ,cut the brass out to fit the design4 ,using the mallet1 drive up the rounding part on the anvil stake to match the rounding part on the tray4 ,illustration ,handle of scraper3 ,place the handle part on a hard wood block and with the small end of the raising hammer drive down on the handle1 embossing it from the outside toward the front4 ,give it a half hollow shape4 ,if the edge of the handle is smoothed off with a file and made rounding1 it makes a good handle for the scraper4 ,flatten the scraping edge so that it lies flat on the table and picks up all the crumbs on its way to the tray4 ,polish and finish as you did the tray4 ,illustration ,,tea ,,caddy ,material3 ,one piece #bd-;gauge soft brass 7yellow71 #aa #c-a_/d ins4 7for body74 ,disc #c-g_/h ins4 in diameter 7for bottom74 ,square3 #d-c_/d ins4 for lid4 ,two strips1 #aa #c_/d ins41 one for rim of lid and one for rim of body4 ,tools3 ,block used to make round tray 7copper71 drilling hammer1 mallet1 wooden peg1 iron stake1 silver solder1 steel stippling tool4 ,illustration ,directions3 ,take the piece of brass #aa #c-a_/d ins4 ,bend it till the edges meet to make a cylinder4 ,bind it round with a piece of binding wire4 ,see that the edges come together tight4 ,wash with borax4 ,use silver solder and proceed as before with soldering4 ,cool in water1 clean off the joint both inside and outside till the surplus silver is filed off smooth4 ,this leaves a fine joint line which will take on the colour of brass in time and will scarcely be noticed4 ,round the cylinder up by placing it on a round stake or on a round wood block4 ,tap gently with your mallet to do this4 ,bottom3 ,take the #c-g_/h-;in4 disc4 ,draw a circle on it equal to the bottom of the cylinder4 ,put the anvil stake into the vise4 ,with the edge of the circle on the square end of the stake1 drive the metal with the driving hammer1 so that the upturned rim is at right angles to the disc4 ,test this to see that the rim stands up all round and fits the outside of the cylinder close4 ,file the top edge of this smooth and a little rounding4 ,shape up and solder as you would a copper piece1 keeping in mind the low melting point of brass4 ,the heating of the bottom for soldering must heat the body of the caddy to a red heat and there is danger of unsoldering the part done4 ,to prevent this melting1 the soldered joint should be painted both inside and outside with rouge or ordinary clay wash4 ,mix a little clay in a saucer to a liquid and rub it over the joint4 ,if the soldering is carefully done there will be little filing to do afterward4 ,rim 7for the body73 ,take your #aa #c_/d-;in4 piece4 ,bend it into a circle to fit the inside of the body4 ,cut it off the right length1 bind and solder the two ends together4 ,clean off1 round up on the stake1 and make it just large enough to drive it into the top1 pushing it down until about #c_/h in4 extends above the cylinder4 ,this supports the rim of the lid4 ,if it is driven down tight it will hold of itself in place4 ,if not1 use a little soft solder to make it secure4 ,lid3 ,one square piece1 #d-c_/d ins4 ,take the mould used for your round tray4 ,punch holes in each corner of the brass plate1 and nail it right over the depression as you did when you made the round tray4 ,with your round peg drive the metal into the depression4 ,when the metal is perfectly smooth and fits the impression take it out4 ,place the body of the caddy over the top of this lid piece and mark around it4 ,make a second circle #c_/h in4 beyond the one just made4 ,cut out along the outer circle4 ,now draw a circle on the inside of the lid equal to the body of the tea caddy4 ,place the lid on the anvil stake and turn it up as you did the bottom piece4 ,this should be made the same size as the bottom1 as it must fit over the same diameter4 ,make the rim for the lid in the same way as you did the rim for the body4 ,round it up4 ,be careful that the rim of the lid fits over the rim of the body and that the diameter of the rim on the lid equals the diameter of the body of the caddy4 ,place the rim on the lid and soft solder it4 ,to decorate3 ,with the steel stippling tool mark any little design on the surface of the lid or body1 or both1 pricking up the design4 ,finish the work by polishing the same way as copper is polished4 ,you can prevent its tarnishing by the use of lacquer4 ,this lacquer can be bought at any paint shop4 ,it is put on with a brush and left to dry4 ,the lacquer being transparent does not cover up any of the design4 ,,vase 7,,in ,,brass7 ,material3 ,yellow brass1 ,no4 #bj4 ,one piece1 #g-a_/d #i ins4 7for the body74 ,one piece1 #e-;in4 disc 7for base74 ,handles1 #b pieces1 #e-a_/b #e_/af ins4 square4 ,illustration ,tools3 ,hard wood block1 shears1 anvil stake1 files1 raising hammer1 carpenters' gouge1 chisel4 ,design3 ,vase1 #g-a_/d ins4 high1 with a diameter at the top of #b-a_/b in4 ,the body tapers toward the base4 ,two handles1 one on each side1 to be designed according to taste4 ,the base is to be weighted in order to insure safety when in use for flowers1 etc4 ,directions3 ,make a pattern for the vase in the following way3 ,draw a #b-a_/b-;in4 circle4 ,using the same centre1 draw a #a-;in4 circle inside the #b-a_/b-;in4 ,illustration ,through the centre of these circles draw a line #i ins4 long2 #c_/d in4 below the outer circle1 over this centre line draw a line #a in4 long1 #a_/b in4 on one side and #a_/b in4 on the other4 ,seven inches below this #a-;in4 line draw a #b-a_/b-;in4 line1 #a-a_/d in4 on one side and #a-a_/d in4 on the other4 ,connect the inside points of each line with the top line 7see design71 drawing lines between the two points4 ,if the pattern is carefully developed from the drawing the metal will fold up in the right way for a vase4 ,to do this1 continue the tapering lines beyond the circle until the two lines intersect4 ,with the point of the compass on the point of intersection1 and the pencil point where the sides meet the #a-;in4 line1 draw an arc of a circle any length4 ,using the same centre1 open the compass until the pencil reaches the base lines4 ,draw an arc of a circle any length4 ,use your #cj and #fj angle and divide the half of the circle into #f equal parts4 ,take one of these #f divisions with your compass1 and step off their distance on the large circle #ab times4 ,you now have the exact circumference for the top of the vase4 ,draw lines from these points to the point of intersection4 ,this marks off the small circle or base4 ,connect the #ab-;in4 point on the top and bottom with solid lines4 ,cut this pattern out and lay it on the metal4 ,cut out the metal and fold up4 ,it should fit the drawing4 ,the edges should meet close4 ,clean1 bind1 and solder as you did with the copper work4 ,base3 ,use the hard wood block and drive up the #e-;in4 disc over the depression4 ,shape it as nearly as you can like the design1 using the same method as you did with the copper bowl4 ,keep annealing this brass whenever it feels springy4 ,place it on the anvil stake4 ,use the driving hammer and shape it4 ,illustration3 ,some ,problems in ,copper and ,brass ,work ,made by ,boys ,repeat the annealing and hammering until the desired shape is gotten4 ,notice in the design that the neck is a little smaller than the bottom of the vase4 ,place this small end on the point of the anvil stake and swell it out1 forming a little rounding collar so that the end of the vase will slip in and fit tight4 ,when the end of the vase is in position1 wash the joint with a little soft-soldering fluid1 place a little soft solder in the joint and heat until it melts4 ,be careful that the solder does not run over the collar4 ,it is so hard to file off the brass4 ,illustration3 ,drawn to scale #a_/b inch #a inch ,to weigh down the base3 ,turn the base upside down4 ,melt enough soft lead to fill up the opening level with the bottom4 ,a circular piece of brass is made to fit over the lead to hide it4 ,lap the edges of the base over the piece just enough to hold this and the lead in place4 ,handles3 ,handles are a matter of individual taste4 ,the vase can be left without handles if desired4 ,illustration3 ,suggestions for drawer pulls to be worked out in copper1 brass1 wrought iron1 or soft steel ,take two pieces of #e #e_/af ins4 square2 file into shape according to the design4 ,bind the handles on the body of the vase4 ,place a little silver solder wherever the handles touch4 ,be careful to guard the joint made by soldering the body of the vase with clay or rouge1 as was done when making the tea caddy4 ,now you are ready to solder the body of the vase and the base together4 ,push it in place1 see that it is perfectly straight1 bind and solder4 ,if not well soldered it will not hold water4 ,file off the surplus solder1 polish and lacquer as you did the tea caddy4 ,,bell ,,and ,,bracket ,,for ,a ,,wall ,,decoration ,this stationary bell is very useful for any purpose that a small bell serves4 ,it has the advantage of being always in one place4 ,material3 ,no4 #bj brass1 used for both the bowl and bracket4 ,the size of the design determines the amount of material used4 ,illustration ,directions3 ,make the bowl in the same way as you did the copper bowl1 raising hammer1 wood block1 etc4 ,the last work done on this bell should be of such a nature as to harden the metal so that the ring is clear4 ,this clearness of the sound depends upon the hardness of the metal4 ,the harder you can get the metal without splitting it1 the better the bell's tone4 ,illustration ,bracket3 ,the bracket is made of two pieces1 the plate and the hanger4 ,the plate can be made of any design or shape suitable--square1 oblong1 oval1 or round4 ,decide upon your design1 mark this on the plate1 and cut out4 ,drill small hole for the nails to fasten it1 either to the wall or to a small piece of hard wood #a_/d in4 thick for a backing4 ,hanger3 ,the hanger can be made of flat1 square1 or round material4 ,this picture shows a design made of ,no4 #bj brass4 ,it is cut tapering and shaped over a round wood block in the vise4 ,the slots are sawed out as shown4 ,the bell is fastened to the hanger by means of two or three links formed together in a chain1 one large enough to hook over the hanger1 and connected to the bell with a little eye bolt made of brass1 which is pushed through the bell and riveted on the inside4 ,the ringing of the bell is done by a small brass rod fastened to the hanger with a small chain4 ,the work is finished up by the use of pumice stone4 ,,silver ,,work ,,xiv ,,finger ,,rings1 ,,scarf ,,pins ,silver3 ,there is very little difference in the handling and working of silver from that of brass and copper4 ,the same operations are carried out and the same tools are used4 ,silver is more pliable than either one of the other metals1 though copper is softer4 ,however1 silver melts at a lower temperature than copper or brass1 and for that reason greater care must be taken during the process of annealing1 soldering1 and enamelling4 ,silver1 of course1 is the most precious metal you have worked with4 ,so then the cost of the material limits one to the working out of comparatively small problems4 ,when buying silver1 always buy sterling4 ,the sterling silver is made especially for silversmiths and is used in all silver work1 pure silver being too soft to stand the wear that is required4 ,while copper is sold by the pound1 silver is sold by the ounce1 and rolled out to any thickness you wish4 ,but the gauge is the same as that of copper1 a ,no4 #bj in silver being the same as ,no4 #bj in copper4 ,if the problems given here are carefully worked out1 enough practice in the handicraft of silver will be given to enable you to work out much larger problems in the metal4 ,selecting stones for rings1 pins1 brooches1 or bracelets3 ,choose the stones that are round or oval in shape1 and pick those that have a fairly level bed and are well bevelled4 ,this is necessary so that the bezel will hold tight when rubbed against the stone4 ,semi-precious and precious stones can be bought at any dealer in stones1 and one has his choice out of many to pick from4 ,,finger ,,rings ,bands for finger rings are all made1 practically1 in the same way4 ,but there is a great difference in the way stones are set in these bands4 ,perhaps the three ways most generally used are3 setting by means of a bezel1 or small band2 prong setting1 and setting the stone down in a cavity cut in the metal1 just large enough to hold the stone4 ,finger ring1 stone set with a bezel3 ,material3 ,one piece of silver1 #b-c_/h #a_/b ins41 ,no4 #bj1 for ring4 ,one piece of silver1 #a_/h #a-a_/b ins41 ,no4 #bh1 for bezel4 ,stone4 ,silver solder4 ,borax4 ,tools3 ,ring mandrel 7you can make one yourself71 small wood mallet1 drill press and #a_/af in4 drill1 saw frame and saw1 centre-punch1 small ,swiss files4 ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration ,directions--,pattern3 ,to make a ring of this kind first cut a piece of paper #a_/d in4 wide and long enough to go around the finger which the ring is to fit4 ,straighten this piece of paper out4 ,this gives the length of the piece of silver needed for a ring4 ,cut another piece of paper #a_/b in4 wide to this length4 ,draw with ink the pattern of the ring on this second paper4 ,cut the design out and paste it on the piece of silver4 ,with the centre-punch mark the centre of each spot4 ,drill holes into each one4 ,saw out the design4 ,with a pair of shears cut off the surplus metal4 ,be careful to save all the scraps4 ,they can all be returned and exchanged for silver plate4 ,file close to the design4 ,you now have the band ready for bending4 ,illustration ,to bend the ring3 ,a ring mandrel is needed4 ,this is merely a tapering rod4 ,one can buy steel mandrels which are graduated for all sizes of rings4 ,a small tapered square punch which you can make yourself1 will be found helpful4 ,take a piece of #c_/af-;in4 round or square steel4 ,file the end1 tapering to a square point1 #a in4 long4 ,harden it the same as you did the half moon punch used to make the hat pin4 ,this punch is used for design work4 ,round holes can be squared by driving the square punch into the hole to any depth4 ,this saves filing4 ,place the ring mandrel in the vise4 ,using a wooden mallet1 bend the ring in a circular shape over this mandrel till the two ends meet4 ,try the ring on the finger4 ,snip off the ends so that the ring fits rather tightly4 ,this will allow for stretching the ring after it is soldered4 ,to put on the bezel3 ,bend a piece of ,no4 #bh silver1 #a_/h #a-a_/b ins41 around the stone4 ,this can be done with the thumb and finger4 ,make the silver fit around the largest part of the stone4 ,snip off the ends4 ,bind the two ends with binding wire1 wash with borax1 put a little piece of silver on the inside and heat over the bunsen burner2 which is hot enough for this kind of work4 ,cool off in water1 remove the binding wire4 ,each end of this bezel must be filed to fit the circle of the ring4 ,illustration3 ,bezel for ring ,illustration ,illustration ,when this is done bind the bezel on1 and at the same time bind the lower part of the ring so that the open ends fit tightly together4 ,solder the bezel and the open part of the ring at the same time4 ,wash all the joints4 ,place silver solder on the inside of the bezel1 say one half-dozen pieces 7small71 round on the inside1 and also one or two small pieces on the joint of the ring itself4 ,place the whole ring in the bunsen flame4 ,it will all heat up about the same time4 ,watch the solder carefully4 ,see that it runs all around between the bezel and the body of the ring4 ,cool off4 ,take off all the binding wire4 ,file the inside and outside of the bottom part of the ring4 ,place the ring on the mandrel and go over it gently with a steel hammer1 shaping it around and making it to fit the finger4 ,file the edges around smoothly4 ,go over it all with a small square file and file out all imperfections in the slots4 ,place a piece of fine emery cloth on a tapered round wood peg4 ,by revolving it around this you polish and trim up the inside of the ring4 ,using the same emery cloth twisted around a flat stake or file1 go over the outside until the ring is free from scratches4 ,stone3 ,if the bezel has been carefully made the stone should drop right into place4 ,if by chance some of the solder should have filled up the bezel space and made it smaller1 take a sharp tool like a pocket knife blade and scrape the inside of the bezel till the stone fits4 ,place the stone4 ,with a smooth piece of steel or very hard wood press the bezel against the stone4 ,the bezel is thin enough to yield to this pressing process4 ,it will cling to the sides of the stone and prevent its falling out4 ,polish the ring by rubbing it with pumice stone and a piece of cloth4 ,this finishes the work4 ,finger rings1 silver cut away to set stone in3 ,material3 ,for this class of work we require much heavier silver than for the other rings4 ,illustration ,one piece of silver1 ,no4 #aj1 #a_/b #b-c_/h ins4 ,solder4 ,borax4 ,tools3 ,same as were used for the bezel setting4 ,in addition we shall need one or two small chisels1 which you can make yourself4 ,chasing tool4 ,directions3 ,make the pattern of your ring as you did before4 ,paste it on the silver piece1 and cut out4 ,bend the silver around the ring mandrel so that it will fit the finger it is intended for1 and solder4 ,place the stone in its proper position and mark the outline of it on the silver4 ,now you will need a small chisel to chip away the silver and make the space for the stone4 ,to make chisel3 ,take two pieces of #c_/af-;in4 round steel #e ins4 long4 ,one piece is to make a flat chisel and the other for an oval chisel4 ,file the ends to a chisel shape4 ,illustration ,this steel must be tempered before it can be used4 ,to do this place the ends just filed into the fire4 ,heat about #a in4 of the end red hot4 ,cool #a_/b in4 of this hot end in the water till quite cold4 ,take it out and rub the end with a piece of emery cloth till it shines4 ,the colour will begin to flow toward the end4 ,when the blue colour reaches the end plunge the whole piece into water4 ,the oval chisel is used for outlining the depression4 ,the flat chisel is used for levelling the bed to receive the stone4 ,with this chisel cut away the material inside the marked outline1 keeping a little inside the border line4 ,cut away the silver to about the depth of #a_/cb in4 ,you will find the opening a little smaller than the stone4 ,with your chasing tool drive around the inside of the oval1 undercutting until the stone fits in4 ,this undercutting drives up a little silver rim1 which does the work of a bezel on the stone4 ,when this rim is forced against the stone1 the stone is held in place4 ,the ring is now ready for the stone1 but the thickness of silver makes it large and clumsy4 ,before putting the stone in1 the ring should be filed down to the proper dimensions4 ,this requires a great deal of filing4 ,use a rough file at first and finish with a fine one4 ,when the ring is shaped as you wish polish up the inside and outside4 ,to place the stone3 ,with the ring mandrel on the vise1 put the stone in place and put the ring on the mandrel4 ,tap gently on the silver rim1 driving it against the stone4 ,do not drive it too hard or else you may crack the stone4 ,finish up and polish as explained before4 ,finger ring1 stone set with prongs3 ,material3 ,one piece of silver1 ,no4 #ad1 width and length the same as the others4 ,stone--in the design1 square4 ,illustration ,tools3 ,same as used in making the other rings4 ,directions3 ,draw design1 cut pattern1 place it on the silver1 and cut out as before4 ,bend the ring to fit the finger1 and solder4 ,after the silver band has been cooled off and the wire has been removed1 put the band back on the mandrel4 ,with the planishing hammer strike down1 flattening the top4 ,this reduces the thickness of the ring and gives us a flat surface1 to which the prongs are soldered4 ,to make the prongs3 ,place the stone on a ,no4 #bd piece of silver4 ,draw the outline of the stone on it4 ,the square piece of silver should be #a_/h in4 larger all round than the size of the stone4 ,a stone may be set with #d prongs1 or #f or #h1 according to one's taste4 ,in this setting we have the #d prongs4 ,mark the outline of the prongs on the square piece of silver according to this picture4 ,illustration3 ,drawings showing prongs1 unfinished1 and soldered on ring at point marked by arrow4 ,saw out on the dotted lines4 ,cut a piece of copper the exact size of the stone4 ,place the copper on the silver and bend up the prongs at right angles to the silver plate4 ,take away the copper1 and file the under part of the silver piece flat1 and prepare the upper part of the ring in the same way4 ,bind the flat part of the prong piece to the flattened part of the ring1 and solder4 ,if the flattening in the first place has made the ring too large for the finger1 cut a piece out along the soldered joint4 ,fit it to the finger and resolder4 ,file all joints perfectly smooth4 ,the prongs should be filed carefully and made perfectly even and of the exact size and shape4 ,place the stone in and push the prongs against it4 ,rub each separate prong down until it fits close against the stone4 ,this prevents their catching on anything like cloth1 etc4 ,polish and finish as explained before4 ,finger ring1 made of twisted silver wire3 ,illustration ,material3 ,no4 #cj fine silver wire2 length depends upon the design of the ring4 ,tools3 ,same as those used in making the other rings described4 ,illustration ,directions3 ,cut off a piece of ,no4 #cj wire about #f ins4 long4 ,bend it in the middle1 place the two ends in the vise and1 with a pair of pliers1 grasp the other end4 ,twist the wire into an even twist4 ,select the stone4 ,the round stones are best for this wire setting4 ,in making this wire ring it is best to make the setting for the stone first4 ,cut a piece of wood the exact shape of the largest part of the stone4 ,bend a piece of ,no4 #cj silver #a_/h in4 wide around the wood peg1 till the two ends just meet4 ,coil around this the twisted wire1 one strand upon the other1 until you have about three coils4 ,wash with a little borax2 place a little silver solder upon the under side of this coil4 ,heat and solder the strands together2 at the same time solder the band on the inside4 ,place it on the ring mandrel1 and curve it to fit the shape of the finger4 ,either press it with your fingers or use a mallet4 ,the setting is now ready for the ring3 ,the ring can be made either by twisting a piece of wire to fit the finger or by using just the plain wire itself for the ring band4 ,in either case1 the piece of silver used for the band1 plus the size of the setting1 must equal the size of the finger4 ,solder the two ends of the ring band to the sides of the setting4 ,file the inside opening of the setting to a level2 place the stone in as you did the others4 ,clean and polish up as usual4 ,,scarf ,,pin ,illustration ,material3 ,a piece of ,no4 #bj silver for the body of the pin2 the size is determined by the size of the stone to be set4 ,a piece of ,no4 #bd for the bezel4 ,a piece of ,no4 #bj silver wire for the pin4 ,the pin piece can be bought at any jewellery store1 if you do not wish to make your own4 ,they are better1 too1 than those you make yourself4 ,solder and borax4 ,tools3 ,shears1 files1 draw plate4 ,directions3 ,cut a piece of silver1 ,no4 #bj1 the size of any one of the above designs4 ,cut a piece of ,no4 #bd1 #a_/af in4 wide and long enough to go around the stone1 to make a bezel4 ,be sure that this bezel fits close and tight around the stone4 ,bind the bezel1 and solder4 ,after soldering1 fit the bezel again to the stone1 for the soldering is apt to change the shape4 ,file the bottom off perfectly flat2 clean the surface of that part to be used for the back of the pin4 ,bind the bezel on this piece1 wash with borax1 and solder it in place4 ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration ,pin3 ,this can be bought at any jewellery store4 ,however1 if you wish to make your own1 you can do so in the following manner3 ,place a piece of ,no4 #af wire in the draw plate and reduce it a little4 ,this drawing through the plate stiffens the wire1 and this is just what is needed in a pin2 otherwise it would bend when pushing it into the scarf4 ,when you think it is stiff enough1 file the end to a long needle point4 ,cut it off about #c ins4 long4 ,bend the blunt end down at right angles #a_/h in4 ,place this end against the back of the pin in such a way that the bent end will be against the plate and a little above the centre4 ,bind it in place and solder it on tight4 ,be careful to heat just as little of this pin as possible1 for you remember that heating a piece of silver red hot softens it1 and you must heat it red hot to solder4 ,so confine the heating to as small a space as possible4 ,sometimes ,i soak a piece of cloth in water and wrap it around the pin1 covering up all except the part to be soldered4 ,this prevents it from softening4 ,illustration ,to place the stone3 ,the stone is put in and the bezel is pushed against it and holds it in place4 ,this is a very plain scarf pin without any pretence at design4 ,scarf pins can be made in all shapes1 sizes1 and all sorts of cut out designs4 ,all silver should be polished smooth and made free from scratches4 ,the polishing hardens the surface of the metal4 ,this is why silver jewellery of all kinds becomes brighter and smoother the longer it is worn4 ,setting of stones in scarf pins3 ,there are many ways of setting stones for scarf pins4 ,the setting just described is called a box setting1 the bezel forming the box to receive the stone4 ,the open or prong setting is made in the same way as that kind of setting is made for the stone in the ring4 ,,xv ,,necklaces1 ,,brooches1 ,,bracelets ,,necklace ,illustration ,this necklace is made on the basis of a circle #g ins4 in diameter4 ,most necklaces having pendants are about this size4 ,the design of this necklace is very simple4 ,one stone is set in the pendant and this shows on both sides4 ,the whole is connected by silver links4 ,the stones1 one either side of the pendant1 between the links of the chain1 are set in the same way as you set the stones in the scarf pin and rings4 ,the only work to be done which is different from any you have done before is the making of chain links4 ,material3 ,no4 #bj or #bb round silver wire1 the amount depending upon the size of the chain4 ,stones1 carefully selected4 ,illustration ,directions3 ,draw the design of your necklace on a piece of paper4 ,place the stones at intervals4 ,when they seem well proportioned draw the chain links between them4 ,the length of the links will depend entirely upon your setting4 ,when you have decided just how many links go between the stones on your design1 measure off the length of one of those links4 ,round links do not hang as well as oval links1 neither do they look so well4 ,illustration ,illustration ,to make the links3 ,take a piece of iron #c_/af in4 in diameter and file the two sides oval in shape4 ,this is a bar on which you can bend the links4 ,one end of the silver wire is placed against this mandrel and both put into the vise and fastened4 ,bend the wire round and round this iron rod1 making the coils as close as you can get them4 ,count each revolution as one link4 ,you can easily count the number of links in your necklace4 ,when you get the number of turns needed1 unfasten it all from the vise and pull the rod out4 ,you have a spiral-shaped coil4 ,with a jewellers' saw1 saw the length of the spiral on the end of the links4 ,each one will drop off in the shape of a link4 ,this is the very best way to bend up a number of links that will be uniform in size4 ,you will notice that the ends of the link1 after it is sawed off1 are not opposite each other4 ,push these ends together1 using the fingers or a pair of pliers4 ,if the sawing is carefully done the links will be ready to solder4 ,solder first one link in the usual way4 ,hook the other link into it4 ,repeat until the chain is the desired length4 ,if the proper amount of solder is placed on the joint it will run in without making lumps to be filed off later4 ,pendant3 ,the pendant is made in the same way as the watch fob1 which is explained in a later chapter4 ,the setting of the stones in the chain is done as other stone setting1 except that the ends are filed into shape to receive the links for joining4 ,fastenings for the necklace can be bought at any jewellery store4 ,it is much better to buy them than to attempt to make them4 ,square silver wire can be used to mark out the design1 or any design1 instead of round wire1 and great variety can be secured merely by a change in the shape of the wire used for the links4 ,again1 you may have a necklace with or without the pendant2 the so-called bar necklace1 the dog collar1 or the chain may be lengthened until it becomes the watch chain4 ,in the group picture of necklaces there is one necklace made up of long flat links joined together by small links soldered on4 ,the design for the necklace is sawed out4 ,it is used for a necklace and watch chain4 ,this is only one of many suggestions for sawed out design work applied in this way4 ,,collar ,,slide ,illustration ,collar slides make very pretty pieces of jewellery4 ,three form a set1 and they are easily made4 ,these given here are all made of silver with turquoise setting4 ,the centre slide is usually a trifle larger than the other two4 ,a piece of ribbon is slipped through a little wire slot put on the back of each slide for that purpose4 ,any colour ribbon that blends with the silver and turquoise looks well4 ,material3 ,one piece silver1 #e_/h #a-a_/h ins4 7for centre slide74 ,two pieces silver1 #i_/af #a-a_/h ins4 7for other two74 ,three stones well matched4 ,piece of ,no4 #bj silver wire1 #e ins4 long4 ,directions3 ,cut out the shape as the picture shows and saw out the inside according to the design1 leaving a flat space at the top large enough for the stones you have selected4 ,set the stone the same as you did stones for rings1 scarf pins1 etc4 ,after the bezel is in place for soldering1 cut off a piece of ,no4 #bj wire1 and bend it in the shape of the sketch given here4 ,this is soldered on the back of the slides4 ,bind this on at the same time you bind on your bezel1 wash with borax1 and solder both4 ,do same on each one4 ,file down the bezel1 put the stone in place and push the bezel against the stone by rubbing4 ,polish and finish4 ,this design will no doubt suggest many ways of making slides4 ,illustration3 ,collar slide ,,brooches ,,and ,,bar ,,pins ,illustration ,brooches and bar pins are made in much the same way as scarf pins4 ,the bezel is soldered as to a flat bar of silver to receive the stone4 ,but1 in place of the stick pin1 brooches have a bar1 hinged on one end1 and a little catch hook on the other4 ,these bars and catch hooks can be bought very cheaply at almost any jewellery store1 and cheaper than one can make them4 ,however1 if you wish to make that part of the brooch or bar pin yourself you can do so in the following way3 ,take a piece of silver #b ins4 long and #a_/h in4 wide1 ,no4 #bj4 ,round this piece of silver up by driving on the wide side about one inch from the end4 ,keep doing this till the piece of silver is about #a_/af in4 square4 ,drive the four corners down1 and you have an #h-sided bar4 ,if these corners in turn are hammered down you have a #af-sided piece1 etc4 ,continuous hammering reduces this bar to a round piece of silver about one inch long4 ,the end should be flattened down according to the sketch 7#a74 ,illustration ,to make the hinge 7staple and hook73 ,take a piece of silver1 ,no4 #bd1 #a_/h in4 wide and #c_/h in4 long4 ,bend it up in the shape of a staple1 square at the end 7#b74 ,the piece for the hook can be made at the same time you make the piece for the pin4 ,use a piece of wire #a_/af in4 #c_/h in4 long4 ,after hammering1 bend it like the sketch 7#c74 ,illustration ,to put the staple and hook together3 ,drill a #a_/af-;in4 hole in the staple very close to the top4 ,drill one in the flat shank of the pin also close to the top4 7,see sketch47 ,put a silver rivet in and rivet the two together1 making a hinge4 ,place this on the bar pin or brooch and then put the hook in its proper position4 ,now you can get the exact length the pin should be4 ,cut it off long enough to let the end project through the hook about #a_/h in4 ,file this to a needle point and polish very smooth4 ,if it is rough it will not push through any kind of cloth easily4 ,to solder1 bind the pin and hook to the brooch or bar pin1 and solder as you would any other piece4 ,polish and finish up as you have done before4 ,,bracelet ,,with ,,sawed ,,out ,,design ,,and ,,stone ,,settings ,material3 ,one piece of ,no4 #bj silver1 #h #c_/h ins4 ,one piece of ,no4 #bd1 #a_/f in4 by any length needed for the number of bezels required4 ,three or five stones 7turquoises blend well with silver74 ,illustration3 ,bracelet with stone ,tools3 ,saws1 saw frame1 drill press and drills1 small files1 borax and solder4 ,directions3 ,secure small stones of uniform size and the same colour1 or colours that blend well together4 ,if the stones selected are too large the bracelet is apt to have a heavy or clumsy look4 ,bracelets should be fine1 and above everything else dainty looking4 ,take your #h-;in4 piece of silver and divide it into five equal parts if there are to be five stones1 and three equal parts if three stones are to be used4 ,lay each stone in its section and mark the outline with pencil on the silver4 ,the sawed out design is a matter of spacing between the stones4 ,the design shown here is a good one for this4 ,you will see that the spaces between the stones are cut away so that the stones stand out as the design rather than the bracelet itself4 ,illustration3 ,section of bracelet ,if you are working out the design given here1 drill holes and saw out the spaces4 ,do this while the silver is in a straight piece1 also file these slots or spaces true and straight1 rounding the edges both ways4 ,at the same time round the outside edges both ways1 too4 ,this makes the bracelet free from sharp edges and it will feel comfortable to the touch4 ,shape the bracelet1 bending it as you have bent other bands4 ,there is danger1 when bending this1 of the weak places1 where the open spaces come1 bending in sharp angles4 ,to avoid this put the greatest strain on the solid places and bend these first4 ,bring the two ends tight together1 then bind and solder4 ,when you have taken off the binding wire1 file down any thickness left at this joint flush with the silver band4 ,bracelets are both oval and round in shape4 ,choose one of the two shapes and round the bracelet up in that form4 ,now cut the silver for the bezels long enough to go around each stone4 ,these are all soldered in the usual way1 then filed to fit and lie flat on the bracelet4 ,place the bezels on the solid places and bind each one separately4 ,place a little bit of silver solder on the inside of each4 ,be careful to wash the joint made in the band with a little clay to prevent its melting during the soldering of the bezels4 ,if the bracelet during the soldering has lost its shape round it up again4 ,file all the bezels down so that the tops are perfectly smooth4 ,file off any rough spots in the circle or bracelet and polish it all inside and outside4 ,shape a soft piece of pine wood to fit the inside of the bracelet4 ,put this wood into the vise and put the bracelet on it4 ,now set the stones1 one by one1 and rub the bezels tight against them4 ,polish with rouge or pumice4 ,,the ,,indian ,,bracelet ,the open bracelet is really an ,indian design4 ,take a piece of silver wire1 #c_/af #h ins4 long4 ,hardened silver is best4 ,it can be gotten just as silver wire that has been softened can be bought4 ,cut a piece #c_/h in4 long from each end4 ,place these pieces on a piece of charcoal4 ,with the blow pipe melt these pieces4 ,each will run into a little silver ball4 ,solder the balls to the end of the silver wire1 one on each end4 ,bend the wire now in the shape of a bracelet4 ,you can make the two balls just touch or you can leave them about an inch apart4 ,polish in the usual way4 ,if the balls are carefully soldered on to the ends of the wire they make a very effective decoration4 ,illustration3 ,indian bracelet ,,xvi ,,spoons ,,and ,,picture ,,frame ,silver spoons3 7#a7 ,teaspoon1 7#b7 ,sugar tongs1 7#c7 ,mustard spoon1 7#d7 ,salt spoon and salt-cellar4 ,material3 ,no4 #h sterling silver #f #a-a_/d ins4 ,tools3 ,hard wood block1 drill press and #a_/af-;in4 drills1 jewellers' saw and frame1 files1 shears1 and raising hammer4 ,illustration ,directions3 ,examine carefully any teaspoons you have at home4 ,these will suggest ideas for designs4 ,they will give you a clearer notion of how teaspoons are made than any sketch you may see4 ,when you have decided upon your design1 draw it on paper and cut out your pattern4 ,paste this pattern upon the piece of silver4 ,you cannot cut this metal with a pair of shears4 ,put it into the vise and cut it out with a cold chisel as you did the paper knife1 or you can cut it out by placing it upon the flat stake and1 with the chisel held vertically1 driving the chisel into the silver4 ,you will find the vise best1 however4 ,now you have the outline of a spoon with the same thickness all the way through4 ,if you have examined a teaspoon carefully you will see that the bowl of the spoon itself is thinned toward the outer edge1 and that the handle is tapered toward the end4 ,the thickness of the metal is left at the short bend of the spoon where it meets the bowl4 ,now place the large end on the anvil stake and with the raising hammer 7round end7 drive down on the metal1 thinning it out and at the same time shaping it into a spoon bowl4 ,your silver widens out and makes the bowl larger than it should be4 ,cut off the surplus silver4 ,it is much better to have to cut down to the size than to be compelled to stretch the silver out1 as it were1 to a certain size4 ,in one case you can stop when you have the proper thickness1 but in the other you might make the metal too thin for practical purposes1 in order to get it wide enough4 ,handle3 ,handles should be tapered out from the thickest part to the end1 and left large enough on the end to saw out or file into shape any design you may wish to make4 ,don't work your problem too close so far as material is concerned4 ,any waste material in silver can be returned and exchanged for full value4 ,hammering any metal hardens it4 ,when this silver becomes hardened anneal it1 but just enough to allow you to shape it up4 ,however1 the last annealing should be done some time before the hammering is finished so that the last work on it will harden it sufficiently to prevent its bending when in use4 ,hand made spoons have a beauty about them not matched by those mechanically made4 ,if this handle is to have a sawed out design1 the drilling and sawing are done as before described4 ,the finishing should be carefully done4 ,round the edges so that they feel smooth and comfortable4 ,after polishing1 the spoon is ready for use4 ,,sugar ,,tongs ,,with ,,claws ,illustration ,material3 ,no4 #af gauge silver1 #i #c_/h in4 ,directions3 ,make your pattern and mark it off on the strip of silver4 ,either saw or cut off the surplus material4 ,drill two holes where the holes are shown1 for the claws4 ,saw down to these holes4 ,do this on either end4 ,you now have three prongs1 the middle one a little wider than the other two4 ,take the pliers1 grasp the points of the outer two and turn them outward1 forming a claw4 ,file them until they have the shape shown by the design4 ,do the same on both ends4 ,file the whole piece up1 rounding the edges nicely4 ,notice that the edge view given in the drawing shows the centre thinner than either side4 ,this is flattened down and the flattening of the silver hardens it1 so that when it is turned it acts like a spring4 ,when you have flattened the centre part out to the thickness of the drawing1 place it on a wood block and with a chisel-shaped wood peg drive in the centre1 making the inside slightly concave1 and rounding the top side a little4 ,this will bend the tongs like the design4 ,shape the claw ends to fit the sketch on a hard wood block1 using a mallet4 ,before bending the silver into shape take the wood peg1 place the claws on the wood block1 and with the wood peg drive down and slightly concave the centre of the claws4 ,all design work must be put in when the metal is in a straight piece4 ,,sugar ,,tongs ,,with ,,bowls ,these are made in the same way as the tongs with claws4 ,in the place of claws you make the bowl spoon shaped on the wooden block1 using a mallet4 ,the spoon bowl should not be larger than #a_/b #g_/h in4 ,finish and treat in the same way as the sugar tongs with claws4 ,,mustard ,,spoon1 ,,salt ,,spoon ,,and ,,cellar ,illustration ,material--,mustard spoon3 ,no4 #ad silver1 #c_/af #c ins4 ,directions3 ,to make a mustard spoon like the sketch given here1 measure #a_/b in4 off the end of the silver stock4 ,this makes the bowl of the spoon4 ,flatten the end down1 thinning it out toward the edge4 ,file the bowl round4 ,place it on a block and hammer it into a plain simple bowl shape very deep4 ,one inch from the handle end flatten it out1 thinning it out toward the end4 ,file to shape1 and bend as shown in the sketch1 similar to a teaspoon4 ,,salt ,,spoon ,,and ,,cellar ,illustration ,material--,spoon3 #c_/af #b-a_/b ins41 ,no4 #ad4 ,directions3 ,salt spoons are made in the same way as mustard spoons4 ,however1 the handle is shorter1 and the bowl is oval shaped and not quite so deep4 ,any little sawed out design may be placed on the handle1 same as the teaspoon design4 ,using the same design1 a set can be made to match4 ,illustration ,material--,salt-cellar3 ,silver ,no4 #bd1 disc #c ins4 in diameter4 ,directions3 ,take the #c-;in4 silver disc4 ,draw on it a #a-;in4 circle in the middle4 ,place it on an anvil stake and drive it into shape like the sketch given here4 ,this is done in the same way as the base of the chalice was hammered up4 ,hammer marks should be left4 ,they add to the design itself4 ,when you have driven it up1 see that the bottom is flat1 so that it sits level on the table4 ,trim the top off and file the edges round4 ,salt-cellars with fluted sides3 ,there are many ways of making salt-cellars4 ,some have straight sides1 some have tops bent over1 some are saucer shaped1 and some have fluted sides4 ,take the #c-;in4 disc1 and divide it into #ab equal parts4 ,file out in a hollow block a round depression and with the mallet and a wood peg to fit the depressions drive each of the divisions into the depression4 ,narrow the scallops toward the bottom1 both in width and depth4 ,keep within the angle formed by the divisions4 ,as you repeat one after the other you will notice the sides beginning to turn up and shape themselves into a cup similar to the first salt-cellar4 ,the base of this should be one inch in diameter4 ,finish up and file as you did the others4 ,illustration ,,small ,,silver ,,picture ,,frame ,material3 ,one piece ,no4 #bd1 #a_/d #ac ins4 ,one piece ,no4 #bd1 #c-;in4 disc 7#b-;in4 hole sawed out of centre74 ,one piece ,no4 #bd1 #a-a_/b #a_/b ins41 for feet4 ,illustration ,directions3 ,bend the strip of silver1 #a_/d #ac ins41 to fit the outside edge of the disc4 ,cut off the ends1 and solder4 ,push the disc into the ring made and solder the ring into the disc1 keeping the edges flush with the surface of the disc4 ,file off the soldered joints smoothly4 ,feet3 ,saw out the design for the feet according to the drawing1 and solder them on to the back edge of any part of the circle4 ,this must be done with hard solder4 ,before soldering the feet on1 paint the joints already soldered with clay1 wash and paint the opening where the heat is applied for soldering on the feet4 ,the edge of the #b-;in4 circle is bevelled slightly4 ,to do this place the edge on an anvil stake and with a very light hammer drive gently down1 bending inwardly4 ,if this is carefully done it will require no finishing except the polishing4 ,the frame is now ready for the glass4 ,any kind of window glass may be cut to fit the inside4 ,a little card board frame is made to hold the glass and picture into place4 ,take a strip of card board #a_/d in4 wide1 long enough to bend into a circle to fit the inside of the silver frame tightly4 ,cut a disc of card board to fit the card board circle4 ,glue the disc and circle together4 ,cover with velvet1 so as to hide the card board4 ,fasten to the back a little stand for holding the picture in proper position4 ,this1 too1 is made of card board and covered with the same material4 ,,xvii ,,watch ,,fobs ,,watch ,,fobs ,,of ,,silver ,,or ,,copper ,,background1 ,,with ,,silver ,,initials ,illustration ,the few designs shown here are easily worked out in either metal4 ,many handsome watch fobs of silver alone1 or copper plain1 or copper and silver lettering can be made from an elaboration of these designs4 ,college students delight in copper fobs with silver lettering1 symbols of their fraternities1 or figures representing their class year4 ,the white of the silver and red brown of the copper blend very well together4 ,the fobs may be set with a single stone1 or a number of stones1 and1 again1 symbols may be sawed out of the silver sheet4 ,illustration ,material3 ,silver1 ,no4 #af gauge4 ,copper1 ,no4 #ad gauge4 ,the size of the piece of metal depends upon the size you wish to make the fob4 ,tools3 ,solder1 rivets1 shears1 drill press and drills1 saw frame and saw4 ,directions3 ,after deciding upon the design1 draw it on paper and cut it out4 ,paste this pattern on the silver sheet and cut out along the outline4 ,if there is any cut out work to be done1 drill the holes and saw the design out4 ,if you are making a silver fob and you wish to enrich it by setting stones1 decide upon your stone1 make a bezel out of ,no4 #bd silver1 and proceed to set the stone as you did in the ring4 ,if the background is copper with silver initials riveted upon it1 saw out the slot for the strap to go through1 and polish the surface free from all scratches and lines4 ,file the slot round so it will not cut the leather strap4 ,polish by tearing a little narrow strip of emery cloth the length of the sheet and pushing it through the slot backward and forward1 pressing down on the top and bottom of the slot4 ,this tends to round it and to polish out the file marks4 ,mark the initials on the silver and saw them out4 ,be sure that the stems of the letters are wide enough to allow holes for riveting4 ,put only enough rivets in to hold the letters in place4 ,two are usually enough1 except with the letters ,v and ,w4 ,the more carefully you follow the lines of the letters1 the less filing you will have to do later4 ,however1 even with the greatest care some filing must be done and since these letters are the principal part of the decoration1 they should be filed square1 smooth1 and a little rounding on the edges of the face side4 ,keep the side to be riveted against the plate flat1 so it will fit snugly when fastened4 ,when the holes have been drilled in the letters1 place them on the copper plate in the proper position and scratch through one hole with a sharp instrument4 ,drill a hole through this point the same size as the holes in the letters4 ,rivet these on with silver rivets4 ,square the letters up on the plate1 drill the remaining holes1 and rivet4 ,if the rivet is driven down good and snug the end of the rivet can be filed flush with the top of the silver4 ,if one should wish to use rivets for decorative purposes they should be arranged in a definite way4 ,while riveting the ends be careful to round them up instead of making them flush4 ,,xviii ,,napkin ,,ring1 ,,silver ,,comb1 ,,belt ,,buckles ,,napkin ,,ring 7,,silver ,,or ,,copper7 ,materials3 ,no4 #bj gauge 7either material71 #e #a-a_/d ins4 ,individual napkin rings may be made either of silver or copper4 ,most rings are made of the silver1 but copper lends itself very well for them4 ,the design may be pierced1 or etched out with acid4 ,but the design work should always be done while the metal is in a straight piece4 ,all napkin rings are made in this way4 ,illustration ,directions3 ,take the silver or copper sheet and round the edges4 ,file the two ends that are to be soldered together perfectly flat so that they will meet with the least possible opening4 ,bend the metal in shape around a hard wood peg4 ,bind with binding wire1 wash with borax4 ,then place bits of silver solder along the inside and solder4 ,after soldering1 remove the binding wire and file the joint on the inside and outside1 until it is all perfectly smooth4 ,polish and finish4 ,make a copper napkin ring in the same way4 ,illustration3 ,napkin ring ,,cuff ,,links ,illustration ,cuff links may be made of gold1 silver1 copper1 or brass4 ,often the design is worked out in the metal alone1 again engraving is added1 or enamel or stones4 ,the designs given here are merely suggestions4 ,any one of them works out well in the metal4 ,you will notice that some have a ball on one end of the link and a plate on the other1 while some have the double plates4 ,again1 some are made with loose links joining the two heads4 ,the link is loosened and pushed through the hole in the cuff and then hooked on to the plate4 ,one must be careful to make the plates on a pair of cuff links small enough to go through the buttonhole of a cuff4 ,material3 ,for plain oval pair of cuff links4 ,two pieces of ,no4 #bj silver1 #g_/h #a_/b in4 ,two pieces of silver wire1 ,no4 #ad1 #c_/d in4 ,directions3 ,mark the design by drawing an oval on the two plates of silver4 ,keep length and diameter of both the same4 ,clip off the sides and shape to design4 ,save the small pieces of silver clipped off1 as they will be used to make the balls at the other end of the cuff link4 ,with the file1 bevel the edge and smooth all down4 ,place the plates on a wooden block and curve them a little4 ,take the scraps of silver you cut from the plates1 place them in two separate groups on a piece of charcoal1 and heat it until they melt4 ,when the pieces melt they form themselves into balls4 ,when these silver balls are cool enough to handle with a pair of pincers1 cool them off in water4 ,file away any part of the ball a little flat and solder the silver rod to the ball4 ,solder the other end of the silver rod to the curved side of the oval piece4 ,bend the connecting rod1 like the picture4 ,this forms the link4 ,do the same with the other link4 ,then file1 polish1 and finish4 ,if stones are to be set1 the bezels are made and put on the flat plates and soldered on at the same time the plate is soldered to the link4 ,the stone is placed in position after it is all finished4 ,,silver ,,comb ,the comb described here is of medium size4 ,it can be made larger1 or smaller1 as the working principle is the same4 ,illustration ,material3 ,no4 #bj1 silver1 #d-a_/b #b-a_/b ins4 ,three pieces of ,no4 #bd silver for the bezels4 ,the size of the pieces depends upon the size of the stones4 ,three turquoise stones4 ,illustration3 ,,boys ,,from ,,eleven ,,to ,,fourteen ,,years ,,of ,,age ,,doing ,,metal ,,work ,,in ,,the ,,country ,a ,great ,variety of ,work is ,going ,on4 ,some ,boys are ,making ,square ,copper ,trays1 ,some are ,working on ,bowls1 ,while a ,number are ,doing ,jewelry ,work4 ,directions3 ,take the silver plate1 #d-a_/b #b-a_/b ins41 and divide it across the shorter dimension into places corresponding to the number of teeth in the design4 ,be extremely careful about the spacing4 ,centre punch these divisions and drill holes about #a in4 from the edge through each one equal to the thickness of each tooth4 ,here the thickness would be about #a_/af in4 ,illustration3 ,suggestions for belt buckle for a lady4 ,can be worked in brass1 copper1 or silver stone setting ,with a sharp tool draw lines from these holes to the outer edge4 ,be careful to have all the lines running parallel to each other4 ,place the saw through the holes and saw the divisions out1 keeping as close to the line as possible4 ,when they are all sawed out1 file each tooth separately1 rounding each one a little4 ,do this filing most carefully1 for the least roughness left will pull the hair when the comb is put in place4 ,the extreme point of each tooth should be sharp1 after a gradual taper from about #a_/c the length of the tooth to the end4 ,this can all be done with a file4 ,the comb is now ready to bend in shape4 ,place it on the round stake and with a hammer curve it until it forms an arc of a #e-;in4 circle4 ,most combs are curved to that degree4 ,stones3 ,cut strips of silver for the bezels1 long enough to fit exactly around the stone4 ,set the stones on the same way as you did those for rings and pins4 ,polish and finish4 ,,xix ,,enamelling ,enamel is a glass fused to the surface of metals1 for decorative purposes4 ,it is bought in flat discs about #a_/d in4 thick and weighing from #e to #f ounces4 ,these discs are broken up so that one is able to buy enamel in small quantities4 ,it comes in any colour and when put upon the surface correctly the colour does not change and it is not affected afterward by atmospheric influences4 ,tools3 ,one needs few tools for this work4 ,a wooden mallet1 a mortar and pestle1 and a small spoon used to put the enamel on the metal when filling the design will be found sufficient4 ,the spoon may be made by taking a #a_/h-;in4 piece of silver or copper wire with about #a_/b in4 of the end flattened down spoon shaped4 ,file this end round and smooth so there will be no ragged edges4 ,process3 ,when you have decided upon the colour which you wish1 put as much enamel as you will need into the mortar and cover it with clear water4 ,the water washes the enamel and prevents it from flying out as it is broken up4 ,place the pestle on the pieces of enamel and tap gently upon the end of the pestle with the wooden mallet1 till the enamel is broken up into fine pieces4 ,while doing this the water will become discoloured4 ,drain the water off and pour fresh water on4 ,repeat this so long as the water becomes discoloured4 ,with the pestle grind the enamel to a fine paste4 ,press down upon the pestle1 at the same time give it a twisting movement with the wrist4 ,when the water remains clear and the enamel is pasty and free from lumps it is ready for use4 ,while using it keep it just covered with clear water4 ,this prevents its drying and in this dampened state it is in the best working condition4 ,how to place the enamel on the metal3 ,with the small spoon pick the enamel up out of the mortar1 place it on the metal and press it down into any depression4 ,keep it well moistened all the time4 ,repeat this until the whole depression is covered4 ,if any part is left uncovered1 that part will show black after firing4 ,then each black spot must be scraped clean1 covered with enamel again and refired1 which makes much unnecessary work1 so be careful at the first to place the enamel just where it should be on the metal1 and so avoid the extra work and firing4 ,the muffle furnace3 ,this is a small furnace made for the purpose of melting enamels by what is called a reflected heat4 ,the muffle is a half rounded1 shaped clay form open only at one end1 into which the piece to be fired is put4 ,the flame of the furnace plays on the outside of this muffle4 ,the temperature is raised to the required heat and the piece inside the muffle is fired without having any flame playing directly upon it4 ,the reflected heat does the work4 ,these furnaces can be bought in almost any general supply store4 ,they come in all sizes4 ,natural or artificial gas can be used for heating2 the regular hose or tube attachment is all that is necessary4 ,the piece in place for firing3 ,it is usually best to light the oven before you begin to place the enamel on the work to be fired4 ,the furnace heats up in the meantime4 ,place the piece on the top ledge of the furnace close to the chimney4 ,this is a good place to dry the moisture out of the enamel4 ,if this is not done the steam generated by the moisture and the heat causes explosions1 which in turn disturb the enamel surface and dislodge small particles of the enamel4 ,when the steam has stopped rising from the enamel--which you can tell by holding the piece between you and the light--the moisture has dried out and the work can be put into the muffle by use of a long pair of muffle tongs4 ,extreme care must be taken when placing the piece to be fired into the furnace4 ,the enamel is now very dry4 ,the particles are no longer held together by the moisture and the least jar will dislodge them4 ,the doors of the furnace are usually in two pieces1 so that the upper half can be lifted away from time to time4 ,one can look in and watch the process of melting4 ,when the enamel is first put into the furnace and the heat begins to melt it1 it rapidly changes colour4 ,as it begins to melt it settles down and takes on a glassy1 soft1 smooth surface4 ,at this point it is ready to take out4 ,it is placed again on the top of this furnace1 where it cools off slowly1 otherwise the difference in expansion between the metal and the glass would cause the surface to crack4 ,after one or two trials one easily recognizes the critical time when the enamel is well baked4 ,these directions are only for enamelling flat surfaces4 ,if one should wish to enamel both the inside and outside of a box lid rounded on the top and curved on the under side1 a few large drops of gum arabic should be mixed with the enamel used for the under side4 ,this prevents it from dropping off when in position for firing4 ,when the work has cooled off so that it can be handled1 it will show a surface every part of which is covered1 if carefully done4 ,if not the black spots will appear4 ,these are copper spots oxidized by the heat1 and must be thoroughly scrubbed and scraped4 ,the enamel edges around these spots must be scraped away1 covered with enamel1 and refired4 ,if there are no spots shown1 the work is ready for finishing4 ,you will find on the upper edge of the enamel line a black line caused by the impurities in the enamel which rise to the top edge4 ,scrape this off with a fine file until it entirely disappears4 ,the copper1 too1 usually takes on beautiful colours during the heating process4 ,many like to leave the colours just as they happen to come by the heat1 others prefer to polish the surface to bring out the real copper colours rather than the oxide colours4 ,to clean the oxide off one must put the piece into a pickling bath made up of one part of sulphuric acid to eight parts of water4 ,this softens the scum on the surface of the metal so that a soft rag dipped into any cleaning material like pumice stone will easily clean it off4 ,,two ,,methods ,,of ,,enamelling ,cloisonn3 ,in this work the design is done usually in coloured enamels1 which are separated one from another by means of ribs of metal bent so as to follow the outlines of the design4 ,these ribs are placed on the plaque1 and a drop of solder here and there keeps them in place4 ,the coloured enamels are filled in between these ribs and fired as before explained4 ,champlev3 ,in this method the partitions between one colour and another are formed by ridges of the base and not by separated ribs of metal4 ,these ridges are made by driving the metal with chasing tools from the under side up and raising it above the surface4 ,the spaces between these walls are filled in with enamel1 and it is all fired as explained before4 ,the lid on the rose jar as shown in the group is an example of this kind of enamelling4 ,,imitation ,,patina 7,,green ,,tint ,,on ,,copper7 ,the best method of obtaining a coating resembling patina is to immerse the article in a solution of nitrate of copper1 and then to place it while still wet in a chamber containing an abundance of carbolic acid4 ,in this case the development of the green incrustation may be observed from day to day4 ,if after a week the object has not yet obtained the proper colour1 it must be again dipped in the above solution1 and this operation is repeated till the desired shade has been acquired4 ,as the formation of this green colour proceeds in the same way as in the open air1 but more rapidly1 a handsome and permanent coating of green can be produced by this means4 ,,chemical ,,metal ,,colouring ,how to put a thin coating of colouring on the surface of metals by chemicals3 ,a great variety of shades may be obtained simply through heat4 ,the colours ordinarily produced on copper articles by means of heat come through the polishing4 ,any metal whose surface is highly polished will take on a number of different colours1 beginning at a straw colour and changing to a dark straw1 purple1 dark blue1 light blue1 and steel or gray1 by heating the piece to be coloured to a temperature of #fcj ,f4 ,barium sulphide and water 7a very good composition for colouring metal73 ,immerse object until it assumes desired tint from light brown to violet to black4 ,heat gently over bunsen flame until a rich deep violet appears4 ,after it is cool rub with soft cloth4 ,patina imitation 7a very good composition for the greening of copper73 #a part sal4 ammoniac1 #c parts cream tartar1 #f parts salt1 #ab parts hot water1 #b parts nitrate of copper4 ,saturate soft cloth and rub or sprinkle the solution on the copper4 ,let stand in the open air ten or twelve hours4 ,wash the colour off with clear cold water4 ,tone down to suit4 ,another way of colouring metal4 ,silver4 ,to oxidize silver3 ,the following is a solution commonly used for oxidizing silver3 ,potassium sulphide1 #e grains1 ,water1 #aj fluid ounces4 ,the variety known as liver or sulphur is generally used1 and imparts a reddish brown colour to the silver1 the colour being darker the darker the solution4 ,it should be worked at #fj or #gj per cent4 ,the stronger the solution the blacker the colour4 ,if ammonium carbonate 7#bj grains7 is added to the above formula and is worked hot1 a black colour appears upon rubbing with a very fine wire brush4 ,it takes on the colour of black lead4 ,colouring of brass3 ,copper sulphate1 #b ounces2 ,water1 just sufficient to dissolve the copper sulphate2 ,ammonia1 to neutralize and make slightly alkaline4 ,this will turn brass a very beautiful blue-black colour4 ,copper assumes a very beautiful tint from this solution4 ,cement for engravers3 ,melt best pitch in an iron pot and when completely liquid stir in a mixture composed of two thirds of raw pitch and one third plaster of paris4 ,make a lot of ten pounds4 ,add one half pound mutton tallow1 boil and mix thoroughly4 ,should this be too soft1 add plaster of paris until you get the desired hardness3 #e lbs4 black raw pitch1 #e lbs4 plaster of paris1 #a-a_/b lbs4 mutton tallow4 ,to polish enamel3 ,after rubbing it down with the corundum file1 take a small rod of tin or pewter and after anointing it with fine ,tripoli or rotten-stone1 grind the surface of the enamel evenly with the tin or pewter rod4 ,next take a stick of lime wood and use that with the rotten-stone in the same way and finish with putty powder and stick covered with chamois skin4 ,to unsolder a piece of work3 ,paint those joints which are not to be unsoldered with a mixture of clay water1 to which add a little common salt4 ,when dry1 scrape the part to be unsoldered and paint it with borax4 ,now heat till solder melts1 pick off with pliers or knock it off with a gentle tap4 ,the borax adds flux1 thus helping the solder to run at a melting temperature4 ,,machinery ,,in ,,metal ,,work3 ,,die ,,making ,most of the jewellery that we see nowadays and also much of the metal work is made under presses or drop hammers4 ,as was shown in the making of the mould for the round copper tray1 the skill lies in the making of the design and the making of a mould to fit the design4 ,the description of the making of a match safe by means of die sinking will explain how all die work is done3 ,the design for the match safe is made by the artist1 who turns it over to the die sinker4 ,he1 in turn1 chisels out of a steel block1 about #g ins4 square1 a depression in which the design fits4 ,if the match safe has an embossed design1 this is all chiselled out carefully with small chisels and filed up smoothly so that when a piece of soft lead is driven into the depression it will take the shape of the match safe as designed by the artist4 ,the lead is so soft that it takes the print readily4 ,this lead reproduction shows to the die sinker any imperfection in the die4 ,the imperfections1 if there are any1 are smoothed down4 ,the driving in of the lead into the depression is repeated from time to time1 until the mould is the exact reproduction of the artist's design4 ,the die is now hardened by heating it red hot and cooling in water4 ,when taken out of the water it is placed in the hammer or press4 ,on the ram of the hammer is keyed1 directly above this die1 a square block of lead4 ,when the hammer falls1 the impact of the lead upon the impression produces a reproduction of the impression4 ,this lead piece makes the top die4 ,a piece of thin silver is placed in the steel die over the impression4 ,if the ram is now dropped upon the silver plate it will force the plate into the impression and will stamp the design on the silver4 ,one half of the match box is made in this way4 ,when two of these are made1 put together1 and soldered1 they make a whole match box4 ,thousands of match boxes would be made from this one die4 ,that is the reason why this class of work can be sold so cheaply4 ,the principle explained here is used for the making of tea sets1 dinner sets1 etc4 ,the same thing is true of the round wood mould you made to make the copper tray in4 ,it can be used to make dozens of trays1 all the same size and shape4 ,,glossary ,alloy3 ,base metal added to silver or gold for hardness or colour4 ,also any combination of different metals by fusion4 ,annealing3 ,softening metal by making it red-hot and cooling slowly2 for steel1 brass1 copper1 silver1 cooling quickly in water4 ,backing3 ,the coating of enamel on the back surface of box lids1 to neutralize expanse and contraction1 thus preventing top enamel from cracking4 ,basse-taille3 ,low cutting of metal beneath the line of the surface1 used in enamelling4 ,the drawing or modelling of the subject is given by the different depths of cutting4 ,beck iron3 ,t-shaped anvil or stake used in hammer work4 ,the arms of the ,t are long2 one is round and slender1 and tapering2 the other has a flat upper surface4 ,bossing up3 ,beating out sheet metal in the back into rough forms required4 ,champlev3 ,a process of enamelling on metal in which the ground of the pattern is cut away with a chisel into a series of shallow troughs into which the enamel is melted1 the surface being afterward ground smooth and polished4 ,chasing3 ,surface modelling of metal with hammer and punch or chasing tools4 ,cloisonn3 ,an enclosing ribbon wire1 which being soldered edgewise on a metal ground makes a trough into which enamel is melted1 the ribbon making the division4 ,thus the design is separated4 ,collar3 ,a ring made of stout leather filled with sand or some other soft material used to support the pitch block4 ,draw ,plate3 ,a flat plate of steel or iron with rows of graduated holes1 used for drawing or reducing wire4 ,face ,plate3 ,a square thick iron plate with the surface perfectly smooth and level to test work on4 ,flux3 ,any material used to protect the surface of metal from oxidation when exposed to heat4 ,borax and water mixed1 etc4 ,graver3 ,a kind of small chisel used for cutting metal1 or lines on surfaces4 ,mandrel3 ,a rod of wood or iron of any section used either for coiling wire for chains or the making of rings4 ,matt tool3 ,a punch1 flat and graduated on one end1 used for making groined surfaces on metal4 ,pickle3 ,solutions of various acids in water used for removing the film of oxide and sulphide surface of metal4 ,the acids used are nitric acid1 hydrochloric acid1 and sulphuric acid1 about #h to #a4 ,this is strong enough for ordinary work4 ,pin3 ,the hard wood peg fixed in the bench to hold work against to file and fit4 ,pitch block3 ,some iron blocks and wood blocks covered with pitch used as a support for metal in repouss work or chasing4 ,planishing3 ,beating a plane or level surface to a sheet of metal by the use of a broad smooth-faced hammer on a stake or anvil4 ,also used to give smoothed face to a bowl or cup or other object in sheet metal4 ,repouss3 ,the method of beating out sheet metal from the back with hammer and punches4 ,sand bag3 ,a flat circular or square bag of leather filled with sand used for bossing up metal upon4 ,scraper3 ,a tool made from an old file by sharpening the point on a stone to a three-sided pyramid2 used for scraping clear edges and surfaces to be soldered and for cleaning up work generally4 ,snarling iron3 ,long ,z-shaped bar of iron fixed in a vise and used for bossing out the surface of vessels from the inside4 ,they act by rebounding from the blow of the hammer near the end fixed in the vise4 ,tracer3 ,a chisel-shaped punch used for cutting for any design or work that requires deep lines4 ,,the ,,blacksmith',s ,,shop ,,xx ,,blacksmithing ,,and ,,tools ,let's go to the blacksmith's shop and tell the blacksmith what we have done4 ,you see ,i've shown you all he taught me about copper1 brass1 and silver4 ,i promised to take you there when we got through4 ,come on4 ,here we are6 ,this is his shop4 ,mr4 ,blacksmith1 this is my friend4 ,i've shown him how to do work in metal and he can do all that you taught me4 ,we both want to learn how to make things out of steel and iron4 ,are you ready to take us on8 ,yes1 boys1 you are just in time to help me out4 ,and while you are lending a hand ,i can show you how to make many things that every boy can learn to do with iron and steel4 ,come into the shop4 ,first ,i'll tell you about the blacksmith shop equipment4 ,this is my forge and bellows1 with the coal heap at the side2 here is the anvil and here are my tools4 ,you see it doesn't take a blacksmith long to name the things he needs to equip his shop4 ,but you must know how each thing is used and what it is used for4 ,let me draw you a picture of the forge on this board and explain to you how it is built4 ,illustration ,a is the chimney4 ,you see it has an opening in the bottom to let the smoke go up4 ,b is a leather bellows4 ,it is placed back of the chimney out of the way of sparks from the forge fire4 ,the nozzle of the bellows goes through a hole ending on the hearth of the forge4 ,c is the hearth where the coal is placed4 ,d is a nest in the centre of the hearth1 called a tuyere4 ,through this opening the blast from the bellows enters the coal heap4 ,the whole forge is built of brick and mortar4 ,modern forges are made of iron and steel and have a sheet iron hood in place of a brick chimney4 ,but the principle of the tuyere1 where the blast enters the forge1 is the same as we blacksmiths have always used4 ,now ,i'll build the fire in the forge4 ,here in this box are some shavings4 ,i save all my shavings and put them here to start my fire with4 ,place the shavings over the tuyere and light them4 ,let them burn for a little while1 then cover the whole with this soft bituminous coal4 ,this kind of coal is free from sulphur and phosphorus1 and it cokes very nicely when the gas and tar are burnt out4 ,now it's time to use the bellows4 ,you can take hold of this handle and pull down4 ,the weights on the bottom pull the handle up again4 ,sometimes weights are placed on the top board4 ,this helps to increase the air pressure4 ,notice that the bellows hang in a frame and the centre axis is fastened to the upright1 allowing the upper and lower half to rise and fall4 ,when the lower half falls it sucks the air in through a little trap door on the bottom1 and when raised the trap door closes and the air is forced through the nozzle into the tuyere on the forge4 ,this alternates1 first taking the air in and then forcing the air out4 ,pump gently at first1 then the coal will not smother the fire4 ,that volume of smoke coming up is mostly from the burning shavings and it goes right up the flue4 ,this blue flame that you see now shows that the gases are burning in the coal4 ,when they are burnt out the coals give a red glow4 ,now the bright fire is shown through the coal4 ,put your poker into the coal heap and raise it gently4 ,the opening made on the top is a vent for the heat to escape and prevents the fire blowing into the shop4 ,an opening like this should always be left at the top1 on account of the oxygen which is being pumped in constantly4 ,sprinkle a little water on the coal around the outside of the fire4 ,this helps to pack the coal down tight and keep the fire in a confined space1 for it is apt to spread and use up much more coal than is needed4 ,you see1 boys1 this is an old-fashioned blacksmith shop4 ,most of the work done here is horseshoeing1 though we have many complex things brought in for us to repair1 none of which can be turned away4 ,all these shoes hanging on the rafters are for horses and mules4 ,the mule's shoe1 you see1 is a different shape from the horse's shoe4 ,i make these in my spare moments and we call them stock shoes4 ,notice that the stock shoes have no heels or toes on them4 ,these are put on when the shoe is made to fit the horse's foot4 ,shoes are now made by machinery and ,i buy them when ,i haven't time to make them4 ,but they1 too1 must be fitted to the foot1 for they come only in stock form4 ,now ,i'm going to show you how to make a horseshoe4 ,i'll make it out of this piece of steel tire from a wagon wheel4 ,we use all this kind of scrap to make the stock shoes4 ,that's why our made shoes can be sold cheaper than the manufactured shoes1 if we have the time to make them4 ,steel is being used in place of iron in all branches of industry4 ,a steel shoe weighing half a pound will wear as long as an iron shoe weighing one pound4 ,this piece of steel tire which ,i am using is #a in4 wide and #a_/b in4 thick4 ,i want to keep the thickness #a_/b in41 but reduce the width to #c_/d in4 ,to do this the end of the piece of metal is put into the forge fire4 ,as soon as it is hot enough1 ,i take it out and place it1 edge up1 on the anvil1 and with the hand hammer draw it out any length ,i wish4 ,you see that driving down on the edge of the hot bar thickens it4 ,now turn it over and drive on the flat side4 ,you must keep driving first on the edge and then on the side until it is the right size4 ,this is called stretching the metal out4 ,now the bar is long enough to bend in the shape of a letter ,u4 ,heat about #f ins4 of this bar and then place it on the largest part of the anvil horn4 ,strike on the projecting end with a hand hammer4 ,it bends easily into the shape4 ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration ,take the chisel-shaped tool4 ,the edge of this tool makes the groove to fit the nail heads4 ,every horseshoe has eight rectangular holes for nails1 four on each side4 ,these are punched through with this punch1 and are made just large enough to fit the horseshoe nail heads4 ,now you see a stock shoe1 and it is just like the dozens ,i have hanging on the rafters4 ,but before the shoe is placed on the horse's foot it must have the front piece1 called the toe calk1 welded on and the ends of the shoe turned up for heels4 ,to make the toe calk ,i take a piece of iron or steel about #b #c_/d #a_/b in4 ,the end of this piece is prepared like this3 ,illustration ,the little projection is made very sharp so that it can stick into the hot iron4 ,in this way it is kept in place during the process of welding4 ,when the calk is made ,i heat the shoe and place the calk in the proper position4 ,the calk is cold and the little projecting point is easily driven into the hot iron4 ,now that it is held in place it must be welded on4 ,iron and steel are welded together only by the use of a flux4 ,there are many kinds of fluxes used4 ,for this ,i shall use borax4 ,i buy it by the pound and it comes in boxes like this4 ,sprinkle a little on the calk1 heat it in the fire1 watch the fire4 ,when the metal is hot enough to weld you will notice a brown smoke coming from the fire4 ,that tells you the borax is burning4 ,there1 see the smoke6 ,now ,i must take the shoe out quickly and place it on the anvil4 ,a few quick1 light blows upon the calk and the welding is done6 ,the hammering must be done quickly after the shoe has been taken out of the fire1 or the cold air will lower the temperature and prevent the metal from uniting4 ,there1 it's welded6 ,now ,i shape it and fit it to the horse's foot4 ,the heels can't be bent up until ,i know just how long the horse's foot is4 ,i measure by placing it on the hoof4 ,then the two ends of the shoe are bent and driven down so that the height of the heels equals the height of the calk4 ,now1 boys1 this is a hand made shoe4 ,when you know how to use the fire and the tools it is an easy problem to make a horseshoe4 ,illustration3 ,the modern forge4 ,an ideal forge for use when electric power is available ,illustration ,so it is with all blacksmiths' work4 ,there is not anything about it you can't do4 ,any boy can build his own blacksmith shop if he has a shed or shelter large enough to keep the rain from a forge1 anvil1 and some tools4 ,you needn't have the big1 old-fashioned brick forge like mine4 ,here is a picture of a portable forge that ,i can recommend4 ,it can be bought at almost any store that deals in hardware supplies4 ,it is small and handy and can be easily taken from place to place4 ,you can buy any size anvil you wish4 ,they come in all sizes1 weighing from five pounds to five hundred pounds4 ,here is a list of tools which will do all the work1 both ornamental and plain1 which you may wish to do4 ,get this equipment1 then build your shop4 ,,blacksmiths' ,,tools ,some of these tools you have used in your copper1 brass1 and silver work4 ,you will need your vise1 files1 your various punches1 dividers1 hand cold chisel1 and square4 ,in addition1 you should have the following3 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,position of fullers ,illustration3 ,top fuller ,illustration3 ,bottom fuller ,illustration3 ,bottom swage ,illustration3 ,top swage ,illustration3 ,swages in position ,hand hammer3 ,a hand hammer is used more than any other tool in the shop4 ,the flat face is used for shaping material and the round plain for riveting1 etc4 ,the top and bottom fullers are used for making depressions in iron and steel4 ,this process is called fullering4 ,the top and bottom swages are used for rounding square iron or steel or reducing large sizes to smaller ones4 ,hot and cold chisels are both used for cutting iron4 ,as the name shows1 one is used for hot iron and one for cold iron4 ,gouges are for cutting ornamental shapes on sheet iron or steel1 hot or cold4 ,calipers are used for measuring diameters4 ,the broad flat surface of the flatter smoothes rough places4 ,the set hammer is used to make square shoulders4 ,it is a small hammer and does the work in narrow places which larger tools cannot reach4 ,this sledge weighs about eight pounds4 ,it is used where heavy hammering or driving is needed1 and in conjunction with such tools as swages1 fullers1 set hammers1 etc4 ,the hardie is a sharp cutting tool used to cut small pieces of iron and soft steel while hot or cold4 ,tongs are of all sizes4 ,those most called into use have the following shapes3 ,the shovel for the fire must be small and strong so the clinker formed on the bottom can be shoveled out without carrying too much coal with it4 ,a poker1 rake1 and dipper also are needed for use about the fire4 ,illustration3 ,hot chisel ,illustration3 ,cold chisel ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration3 ,set hammer ,you know now all the tools needed to equip a shop4 ,i want to tell you about the fuels1 such as coal and charcoal1 which you will use1 and something about pig iron and wrought iron which ,i think you ought to know4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,hardie ,illustration3 ,tongs ,the smoke is the most troublesome thing in a blacksmith's shop4 ,the old-fashioned forge is perhaps the best made to draw the gases and smoke out1 except when exhaust fans are used for that purpose4 ,hoods are fitted to pull down over the fire1 completely covering the smoke area1 and the suction made by the fan will draw all the smoke from the fire4 ,this1 of course1 is possible only in modern equipped shops4 ,the portable forges that we use have none of this drawing-out system1 except through a natural draft chimney1 made either of bricks or by extending an iron pipe from the hood through the side of the shed or through the roof4 ,the down-draft system is a hood placed to one side of the fire4 ,it falls over the fire by means of a hinge placed on the hood4 ,this is not as effective as the overhead system on account of the smallness of the hood4 ,the pipes are all underground1 otherwise the system is the same as the overhead system4 ,illustration3 ,water dipper ,illustration3 ,fire tools ,danger of explosion3 ,coal gases leak into the tuyere when the blast is shut off4 ,when the blast is put on these gases are blown up into the hot fire and they explode from the heat4 ,they do no harm1 except the noise made by the explosion4 ,fuels3 ,the coal used in a blacksmiths' shop is a soft coal called bituminous coal4 ,it is supposed to have less phosphorus and sulphur than any other kind of coal4 ,coal containing either of these ingredients should not be used4 ,sulphur makes iron hot short and phosphorus makes the iron cold short that is1 the iron is made brittle while hot by means of the sulphur1 and brittle when cold through the effect of the phosphorus4 ,when this soft coal is heated the coal tar is burned out and the coal burns into a coke4 ,charcoal3 ,charcoal is a solid fuel and the very best fuel for heating purposes4 ,it is free from the impurities mentioned here4 ,it is made by burning hard wood in a closed oven or kiln4 ,this kiln in turn burns the wood into lumps of charcoal4 ,the cost makes the only real objection to the use of charcoal as fuel4 ,,pig ,,iron ,iron ore is an oxide of iron containing from #ce per cent4 to #fe per cent4 iron4 ,the rest is oxygen1 phosphorus1 sulphur1 silica1 and other impurities4 ,iron ore is charged into a blast furnace1 mixed with limestone as a flux1 and melted down1 with coke as fuel4 ,the metal which results from this melting is known as commercial pig iron4 ,,wrought ,,iron ,wrought iron is made from pig iron4 ,the pig iron is remelted in a so-called puddling furnace by charging about half a ton at one time into the furnace4 ,while in a molten state it is stirred up with large iron hooks by the puddler4 ,it is kept boiling so as to expose every part of the iron bath to the action of the flame in order to burn out the carbon4 ,the other impurities will separate from the iron and run out of the furnace as slag4 ,the temperature in the puddling furnace is high enough to melt pig iron but not high enough to keep wrought iron in a liquid state4 ,so1 as soon as the small particles of iron become purified the partially congealed portion forms a spongy mass1 in which small globules of iron ore are in a semi-plastic state4 ,these are gathered up by the puddler and his helper and are formed into a ball on the bottom of the furnace by means of long rabble bars used for this purpose4 ,the ball is about #aej to #bjj pounds in weight4 ,these lumps of iron are taken to a large hammer or squeezer4 ,there they are shaped into long blooms to fit the rolls4 ,they are taken right from the squeezer to the rolling mill and rolled out into bars #d ins4 or #e ins4 wide and #c_/d in4 thick4 ,these bars are called muck bars owing to their spongy-like appearance and the large quantity of cinders which they contain4 ,the muck bars are now cut into lengths of #c ft4 and #d ft4 and are piled on top of each other in blocks of #bjj lbs4 ,the blocks are put into a heating furnace and heated to a welding heat4 ,while at this heat they are put through the rolls1 thus welding the whole mass together1 at the same time reducing the pile to sizes required by the market4 ,when cold these are cut into lengths for use4 ,this is the iron used in most blacksmiths' shops4 ,,xxi ,,first ,,problems ,,in ,,forging ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,stake ,,pin ,stake pins are used for holding ropes in place1 such as those on tents1 etc4 ,material3 #a_/b in4 round #ah ins4 long of wrought iron4 ,tool3 ,hand hammer4 ,illustration3 ,stake ,pin ,directions3 ,this sketch is made full size and it shows a round stake pin with a four-sided tapering end about #c ins4 long4 ,place one end of the bar of iron into the fire4 ,it should be placed so that the iron will be parallel to the bottom of the hearth4 ,all the heating done for this kind of work must be done in a reducing fire4 ,there are two kinds of fires1 the oxidizing fire and the reducing fire4 ,the oxidizing fire is one where the quantity of air blown in is not all consumed by the fire4 ,there is an excess of air and an oxide is formed on the iron4 ,this prevents it from heating sufficiently4 ,the reducing fire is one where the blast is in proportion to the consuming power of the fire--that is1 just enough air is blown in to be used up by the fire4 ,the greater the temperature the more coal and likewise the more blast required4 ,so that a temperature of #bejj ,fahrenheit can be easily gotten on an ordinary forge fire4 ,while the iron is heating it should be drawn out of the forge fire once in a while to be examined4 ,when it has reached a white heat1 not sparkling1 place it on the anvil1 and with a hand hammer begin at the end and drive it into shape according to your sketch4 ,hammer this until the iron begins to darken4 ,place it again in the fire and repeat as before until the thing is finished4 ,a piece of iron may be heated a dozen times while working it into shape4 ,all depends upon the skill and experience of the worker4 ,you will probably learn in this problem that metal will burn in this high temperature the same as a piece of wood and very much quicker4 ,it does not smoulder like wood2 it just melts away4 ,it would be well to have the point of the iron stake melt or burn off in this particular case so that you can learn all about the heating1 melting1 and burning of iron4 ,the fine point on the stake is made by keeping the metal on the extreme outer edge of the anvil1 so that the outer half of the hammer face will project over the anvil edge1 thus reducing any metal between the two into a very small space4 7,see position of hand hammer in the article on tools47 ,when the work is finished the temperature of the metal should be low4 ,this prevents the metal from scaling and gives an opportunity for a smooth finished surface4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,staple ,staples are small ,u-shaped pieces of iron with pointed ends4 ,they are driven into wood for the purpose of holding some attachment in place4 ,we have staples for barn doors1 to catch the gate hook1 to fasten chains1 etc4 ,material3 ,one piece of #a_/d-;in4 round iron #d-a_/b ins4 long4 ,directions3 ,heat one end of the iron piece4 ,draw it to a square point as was done on the staple pin4 ,flatten this point as shown in the drawing4 ,cut it off square at the extreme end so that it will be quite sharp when finished4 ,repeat on the other end4 ,the piece will now be about #f-a_/d ins4 long1 about #a_/d in4 round in the middle1 with square1 tapering points4 ,the centre is now heated and the piece is bent over the horn of the anvil to the shape shown in the drawing4 ,in bending this over the horn of the anvil strike with light blows so that the two ends will be the same length4 ,if it is warped or twisted1 flatten it out again on the anvil till the flat sides lie in the same plane4 ,,gate ,,hook ,this hook is used for fastening doors as well as gates4 ,the drawing shows a gate hook twisted in the middle4 ,material3 ,one piece of #e_/af-;in4 square iron about #f-a_/d ins4 long4 ,illustration3 ,gate hook ,directions3 ,mark off with the centre punch #a-a_/h ins4 on one end and #a-e_/h ins4 on the other4 ,put the short end into the fire and draw it out until it is #a_/d in4 square4 ,hammer the corners down1 thus rounding the end until it measures #a_/d in4 in diameter and is about #b-a_/h ins4 long4 ,repeat on the large end and draw this out until it measures #b-c_/d ins4 long4 ,bend the end as shown by the drawing4 ,when both ends are bent in shape put the piece into the fire and heat it red hot between the eye and the hook4 ,place it in the jaws of the vise about #a in4 from the eye1 and with a pair of tongs and a wrench grasp the piece about #a in4 from the hook and give it one complete turn4 ,this twists the hook in the centre like the drawing4 ,if it has become bent while twisting it may be straightened by hammering it between two blocks of hard wood4 ,this prevents bruising the sharp edges of the twist4 ,illustration3 ,,harness ,,hook ,these large hooks are most useful around a stable and are used to hold harness1 bags1 etc42 in short1 they are general utility hooks4 ,they are simply and quickly made4 ,material3 ,stock #c_/h #f ins4 long round iron4 ,directions3 ,flatten the iron down by heating it red hot4 ,with the hand hammer flatten out one end #d ins4 long1 #a_/b in4 wide #a_/h in4 thick4 ,one inch from the shoulder made by the flattening begin to draw out the end to a round straight taper1 #c-a_/d ins4 long4 ,bend the flat part over the flat end of the anvil1 to fit a joint or any wooden beam 7as shown by the sketch71 and hook it over the horn4 ,this hook may be made any size according to the purpose for which it is to be used4 ,,two-,,pronged ,,fork ,illustration ,this two-pronged fork is found useful for pitching hay1 fishing1 etc4 ,stock3 #c_/d #a #e ins4 long1 soft steel4 ,directions3 ,two inches back from the end of the bar punch a small hole in the middle of the iron4 7,see method of punching74 ,split the piece with the chisel up to this hole4 ,open the part split and spread at right angles to the shank4 ,heat the piece up at the crotch4 ,with a fuller1 fuller down to #a_/b in4 back of the spread arms4 ,draw the stem out #a_/b in4 round4 ,now the fork is blocked out ready for finishing4 ,this is done by following the drawings for the dimensions and size4 ,notice that the two ends of the fork are drawn out to a sharp round taper4 ,the stem is drawn out to a sharp square taper1 which is to be driven into a wood handle4 ,illustration3 ,fish spear ,fish spear3 ,if this two-pronged fork is meant for a fish spear1 used so often in rivers where the current is very swift1 the extreme ends are flattened down to a spear point as shown in the drawing4 ,,bolts ,a bolt consists of a stem and a head4 ,bolt heads are of all shapes--square1 hexagonal1 round1 flat1 etc4--while the stem is always round4 ,as a rule1 the thickness of the head equals the thickness of the stem1 and the diameter of the head is about #a-a_/b times the thickness of the stem4 ,this proportion is generally kept for square and hexagonal bolts4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,bolt ,directions3 ,out of the piece of iron used enough of the end is upset to make the head4 ,to do this1 heat #b-a_/b ins4 from the end of the bar to a bright red heat4 ,take the piece out of the fire1 place the hot end on the anvil1 and with the bar in a vertical position hammer upon the cold end4 ,the cold end is driven into the hot end1 thus shortening or upsetting the bar4 ,this is repeated4 ,the end is heated again and the hammering is continued until the enlarged end has the right proportion for the head of the bolt4 7,see drawing47 ,heat the enlarged end again and pass the cold end of the stem through the heading tool4 ,place the heading tool upon the anvil in such a position that the stem passes through the hole in the anvil4 ,the upset end is hammered down against the heading tool until the head is the required thickness4 ,take it off the heading tool and square it up with the hand hammer4 ,if1 after squaring up1 the head is found to be too small in diameter and too thick1 it is again put into the heading tool and hammered down4 ,this is repeated until the head is finished according to the drawing shown4 ,illustration3 ,bolt in heading tool ,all hand-made bolts are made on this principle1 whether they are very large or very small4 ,illustration3 ,collar ,illustration3 ,bolt heads ,if a six-sided bolt is desired the same method is used4 ,the head is made six-sided instead of being squared as was done in the first case4 ,the bolt is finally cut to the required length and the end is bevelled off ready for threading4 ,bolts may be made without going through the process of upsetting the stock4 ,in that case the bars used are of any diameter1 depending upon the size of the stem needed4 ,bend a piece of iron for a collar to give you the amount of stock required for the bolt head4 ,heat the end of the iron bar4 ,put this hot end into the collar4 ,upset it so that it fills the space in the collar4 ,put it into the fire1 then weld and finish as you did in making the head with the end upset4 ,all bolts that are on the market except special bolts are made by bolt heading machines4 ,up to #c_/h in4 in diameter all bolts are made without the use of heat4 ,those above that size are all heated red hot and the principle is exactly the same as you used when you made the bolt by hand4 ,the machine upsets the head and at the same time shapes it into any desired shape4 ,,nuts ,illustration ,nuts are used in conjunction with bolts for fastening things together or tightening up parts of machines4 ,there are two ways of making nuts2 one is to cut a piece of metal off the right length1 punch a hole in the middle1 and finish it by shaping it on the end of a mandrel or punch4 ,the second way is to weld a collar and shape this on a mandrel4 ,though the second method involves welding and is the more difficult of the two1 it is the better method4 ,however1 the grain of the metal in the second method runs around the nut1 while in the former case it runs lengthwise4 ,for this reason the nut is apt to split when tightened up too tight on the bolt4 ,the method explained here is the easier one of the two3 it is the simple process of making the nut by punching the hole4 ,material3 ,stock #a #e_/h in4 of wrought iron1 any length4 ,tools3 ,hammer1 punch1 hot chisel1 pair of calipers4 ,illustration ,directions3 ,the drawing here shows each step in the process of making the square nut4 ,measure off #a-a_/af in4 on the bar and with the hot chisel nick on each side almost through4 ,find the centre of the piece and1 with the punch1 punch a hole through it after heating it red hot4 ,place it on the anvil4 ,place the punch in the centre and drive down from one side until the impression of the punch shows through on the other side4 ,withdraw the punch and turn the piece upside down4 ,place the punch upon the impression shown through1 driving down till the centre piece is loosened4 ,it is now put over the hole of the anvil and this loosened centre piece driven out4 ,this leaves a hole in the hot iron4 ,all holes made in hot iron are punched through in this way whether they be large or small4 ,the size of the hole is determined by the size of the punch4 ,illustration ,re-heat the iron1 push the punch into the hole made1 and by a bending motion break the piece off where it is nicked4 ,the piece now is sticking on to the end of the punch4 ,place them on the anvil and square up the nut while the punch is still in the hole4 ,this prevents the hole from changing its shape while the nut is being driven into shape4 ,it is now taken off the punch and flattened down to the desired thickness4 ,repeat this edging up and flattening down till the nut is finished4 ,hexagonal nuts are made in the same way1 except for the squaring up4 ,when the piece is ready for shaping it is made round while on the punch and then made six-sided4 ,it is flattened and edged up in the same manner until the desired size is reached4 ,,xxii ,,welding ,it is often necessary to join together two pieces of iron1 or the ends of the same piece1 as in forming a circle1 so that the joint will form one solid mass4 ,when this is done the pieces are said to be welded together4 ,most of the problems treated so far have had to do with single pieces of iron4 ,often many pieces are welded together to make one forging1 as in making the horseshoe4 ,this is called built up work4 ,it is possible to weld any iron surfaces provided no oxide of iron is formed upon the surface4 ,if such a coating occurs welding is impossible4 ,iron heated in the air absorbs oxygen1 which results in the oxide formation4 ,there are two ways of guarding against this difficulty3 7#a7 ,suitable fluxes1 and 7#b7 reducing fires4 ,the best flux is a sharp sand1 usually beach sand4 ,this is sprinkled over the ends to be welded4 ,the sand fuses on to the ends of the iron and excludes the air4 ,the reducing fire is one that consumes all the oxygen that is forced into it by the blast4 ,this is obtained by having a thick bed of fire for the air to pass through before coming into contact with the iron and by keeping the blast pressure low enough to enable the fire to burn all that is admitted4 ,a thick fire1 so to speak1 should always be kept4 ,,to ,,make ,,an ,,iron ,,ring ,illustration ,the simplest problem for a first weld is a flat iron ring4 ,this drawing shows a ring #c ins4 in diameter on the inside and #e ins4 on the outside4 ,stock3 ,flat piece of iron #ac-a_/b #a #c_/af ins4 ,directions3 ,the making of this ring involves the processes of bending and welding4 ,before the bending is done the two ends are upset and made about #a-a_/af in4 thicker than they were1 for about #a in4 back from either end4 ,to do the upsetting1 place the hot end on the anvil vertically and strike on the cold end with the hammer until the required thickness is obtained4 ,if the end which is being upset was not heated more than #a-a_/b in41 it will probably upset without bending4 ,if heated more than this the probabilities are that it will bend during the process4 ,if it does so1 it should be laid upon the anvil and the bend hammered out4 ,when the desired thickness has been obtained scarf the ends as shown in the drawing1 using the round end or peen of the hammer to do so4 7,see scarfing47 ,do the same to the other end1 putting the scarf on the opposite side to the first one4 ,now heat the piece1 about half its length1 quite hot4 ,place it upon the thickest part of the horn of the anvil1 strike upon the end that projects beyond the anvil1 and bend it into a ring4 ,the scarfs1 being opposite1 will now fit and come together4 7,see drawing47 ,bend over till the two edges lap4 ,this gives plenty of material where the joint comes1 to allow for the waste of the material from the high welding heat and also that needed for the hammering of the metal during the welding4 ,the upsetting is done to allow for this waste1 and to give opportunity to reduce the pieces to the required thickness4 ,all welds should be a trifle large at the joint4 ,the driving down edgewise on the horn of the anvil bends the material1 but prevents one shaping it to its proper dimensions4 ,that is why in flattening down the weld care must be taken not to widen the iron at that place so that it is too thin4 ,a few trials will make this perfectly clear4 ,a finish on the iron depends upon how skilfully one can use the hammer without unduly marking the metal4 ,,small ,,chain ,illustration ,most chains are made by hand1 especially those used for the purpose of lifting heavy loads4 ,small chains1 where no special strain is called for1 are welded by electricity4 ,there are special factories for the making of chains4 ,most of these factories have rolling mills attached4 ,the material is here rolled out to suit the different size chains that are made4 ,machinery forms the bars of iron into special shapes the size of the links4 ,these in turn are cut by machinery4 ,these links are all of the same size and are cut off on an angle1 thus making the scarf4 ,they are taken by the workmen1 the ends lapped over slightly1 then put into the fire and welded4 ,within the last few years the ,navy ,department has taken up the method of welding the large anchor chains by machinery4 ,stock3 #c_/h in4 round1 #f ins4 long4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,scarf for chain welding ,illustration3 ,link ready to weld the end ,directions3 ,the drawing shows the size of each link in this chain4 ,heat the #f-;in4 piece in the middle4 ,place it on the horn of the anvil and bend it ,u-shaped1 as you did the piece for the staple4 7,see articles in welding for chains47 ,the two ends are the same length4 ,this is perhaps the only weld that is made without upsetting4 ,when the scarfs are made like the drawing1 bend the ends so that the scarfs overlap4 ,now it is ready for welding4 ,place the link in the fire4 ,be careful to have the link well covered both above and below with hot coals4 ,let there be just enough blast to increase the heat of the fire4 ,in a little while the sparks will flow up from the iron4 ,at this time the link should be turned upside down in the fire without changing its position4 ,the hottest part of the fire being underneath1 the iron will heat there quickest4 ,this turning it upside down finally brings all the parts to be welded in the hottest part of the fire4 ,when these iron sparks begin to show1 it is time to take the piece out4 ,place it on the anvil and lightly tap upon the joint4 ,the iron is very soft on account of the intense heat and if the blows are too heavy the iron will flatten out until it is too thin4 ,in that case it would be impossible to finish the piece and make the weld the size it should be when done4 ,if you examine the links of any chain you will have difficulty to find the welded end4 ,the process of welding is not easy at first1 but a few trials with the heating of the iron and handling the tools at the critical moment will prove encouraging4 ,chains are usually made by making first one link1 then putting the stock for the next link into the first1 before bending the second end4 ,all hooks1 swivels1 or shackles are put on the chain when made1 in the same way that you add a link in order to lengthen the chain4 ,,welding ,illustration3 ,axle ,welding ,illustration3 ,flatten the ends out2 split and push together ,illustration3 ,ring ,welding ,welds are named according to the manner in which the pieces are put together4 ,the principal welds are3 7#a7 flat welds1 7#b7 butt welds1 7#c7 lap welds1 7#d7 cleft welds1 and 7#e7 jump welds4 ,the selection of the kind of weld to be used in any problem depends upon the form of the pieces of metal to be worked upon4 ,illustration3 ,hammer peen ,flat welds3 ,for flat welds the ends of the pieces of metal are first upset4 ,use the peen of the hammer and draw the metal out thin at the end1 flatten it out and narrow it up edgewise at the extreme end4 ,the metal is forced first forward and backward by the hammer strokes4 ,large scarfs are sometimes made by using a fuller4 ,this is a very much quicker way for large work than the one just explained1 but one requires a helper to handle the sledge hammer in this case1 to strike down on the fuller4 ,illustration3 ,use of fuller in making scarfs ,illustration3 ,scarfing on edge of anvil ,most smiths use the edge of the anvil for making scarfs4 ,place the edge of the metal1 after it has been upset1 on the edge of the anvil and strike down on the top with a hammer or sledge4 ,this moves the metal with each blow and the end of the bar is increased1 making1 as it were1 a series of steps4 ,it is a process much the same as fullering except in place of the fuller you use the edge of the anvil4 ,this is the quickest way to make a scarf1 and the weld depends wholly upon how the scarfs are made in any one of the operations spoken of here4 ,if the scarf is well made it will be a little higher in the middle than at the sides1 so that when the pieces are placed together the slag that forms will squeeze out4 ,the welding is done as follows3 ,place the scarfs of both pieces separately in the fire1 the scarfs downward4 7,when we speak of scarfs we refer to the bevelled edge of the roughest part of the scarf47 ,this prevents any impurities melting on the scarf surface4 ,when the scarf begins to get hot enough to weld1 iron sparks will blow out with the blaze4 ,this is the sign to get things in readiness4 ,one cannot linger for a moment when the iron is hot enough to weld4 ,see that the anvil is clean4 ,have the hammer ready in hand4 ,if one has a helper he will handle one piece while the smith handles the hammer and the other piece4 ,if there is no helper a hammer is placed conveniently near the anvil4 ,the two pieces of iron are grasped by the smith1 one in either hand1 drawn out of the fire and given a sharp rap on the edge of the anvil or forge to remove any dirt or pieces of coal clinging to the scarfs4 ,one piece is placed on the anvil and the other piece is put on top of this4 ,the weight of the second piece holds the first piece in place until such time as the smith can get his hammer ready to strike4 ,as soon as the pieces stick together the ends of the scarfs are welded first4 ,they are the thinnest and will cool the quickest4 ,the body of the piece welds while you are welding the scarfs4 ,both sides are worked upon1 first on one and then on the other1 till the piece is hammered down to the required size4 ,in trial work it is best for one to use pieces of iron long enough to avoid the use of tongs4 ,illustration3 ,butt welds ,butt welds3 ,if the butt weld is carefully made it is perhaps the safest weld of all4 ,this method is used mostly in welding round iron bars1 #a-a_/b ins4 in diameter up to #b-a_/b ins4 ,they are made as follows3 the ends of two bars are heated to a welding heat4 ,then they are brought out of the fire1 put in a swage1 end to end1 and struck on the ends with a sledge hammer4 ,while driving upon the ends the iron upsets when the contact takes place and at the same time the smith is driving the weld down4 ,two processes are acting here1 one lengthwise and one downward4 ,this makes the best weld1 from the fact that the two ends that come together have a welding heat on the whole surface of each1 a condition hard to get in any other kind of weld4 ,illustration3 ,flat ,scarf ,lap weld3 ,two flat pieces are laid face to face1 as shown in picture1 and are welded4 ,one must be careful that the two pieces have the same temperature1 otherwise the colder piece would cut into the hotter and make a defect4 ,illustration3 ,split scarf1 cleft weld ,cleft weld3 ,if the weld is required to stand much strain1 such as in parts of a locomotive frame1 pieces are generally joined by the cleft weld4 ,one piece is upset and split with a chisel4 ,the two sides are spread apart4 ,the other piece is scarfed on both edges to fit into this opening4 ,if the pieces are very large much of the welding can be done while in the fire4 ,the two pieces are placed together1 in the proper position1 in the fire4 ,when the heat is hot enough to weld they are driven endwise4 ,this drives the point of the one piece into the crotch of the other4 ,take them out of the fire and place upon an anvil or under a hammer4 ,small pieces are welded in the same way1 except they may be driven with a hand hammer on the end just before driving upon the surface4 ,the piece is reduced to the proper size and finished4 ,illustration ,jump weld3 ,when one piece of metal is to be welded at right angles to another piece1 a jump weld is made4 ,many are made by using a bob punch1 making a hollow depression in a flat piece1 and a rounded or button head shape on the end of the upright4 ,heat the end of the upright and also the flat piece around the bob punch hole to a welding heat4 ,take them out of the fire and drive the button head down into the hole made by the bob punch4 ,illustration3 ,jump weld ,illustration3 ,corner plate ,another jump weld can be made in the following way3 when square iron is to be welded to square iron1 one end is upset and flattened4 ,the other end is simply upset a little when the upright is to be welded to it4 ,these ends are brought to a welding heat1 and the work is finished as in the first jump weld4 ,the hammer plays an important part in these jump welds1 for the scarf projecting at the base must be welded by the hand hammer4 ,,work ,,involving ,,flat ,,welds ,illustration ,illustration ,making a corner plate3 ,this corner plate shows two pieces of metal1 #a_/d #a #f ins4 welded in the corners1 upset4 ,the ends of the pieces to be joined are scarfed as explained in the flat weld4 ,both pieces are heated1 then one placed on the other1 driven down1 and welded4 ,they are shaped upon the edge of the anvil1 and the ends are cut off to the length shown by the drawing4 ,illustration3 ,t ,weld ,t weld3 ,this is used in making a ,t plate4 ,the cross piece is upset in the middle and scarfed by using the peen of the hammer as shown4 ,the upright piece is upset on the end and scarfed1 same as was done on the corner weld4 ,both pieces prepared are then heated and welded as described in the making of the corner plate4 ,the sketch given here shows fairly well the different steps4 ,illustration3 ,detail of ,t weld ,,xxiii ,,mild ,,steel ,,or ,,soft ,,steel ,mild steel1 or soft steel1 is supplanting wrought iron in many shops4 ,any smith who has worked with this metal will always prefer it to wrought iron4 ,it is much stronger and can be bent1 forged1 and twisted in all manner of shapes1 without cracking or splitting4 ,this cannot be said of wrought iron4 ,therefore1 when mild steel is used one is sure of finishing his problem1 provided he understands the process of heating it4 ,the matter of heating mild steel is the vital thing4 ,it should never be worked at a welding heat or below a red heat4 ,if worked either above or below this point it will show it by splitting or cracking before the problem is finished4 ,large crystals formed by working at or above the welding heat will cause the breaks1 and internal fractures when working at the low heat will cause the cracks4 ,however1 this can be worked at a black red heat if the blows delivered affect only the surface and do not penetrate to the centre4 ,this metal lends itself to forging better than wrought iron does4 ,it is very good for most kinds of forging and particularly good for making weldless rings4 ,one of the best problems to illustrate one of the many uses to which soft steel may be put is the making of a weldless ring4 ,illustration3 ,weldless rings ,a piece of soft steel #a in4 wide1 #a_/d in4 thick1 #d ins4 long1 is the stock used for this ring4 ,with a centre-punch mark off #c_/d in4 from each end4 7,see sketch47 ,in each centre-punch mark punch a #a_/d-;in4 hole through the piece4 ,with a hot chisel cut between these holes half way through on one side4 ,turn it upside down and finish cutting through from the other side4 ,now drive the chisel through1 widening the slot out4 ,trim up the inside of the slot4 ,cut away all rough edges4 ,upset the piece on the anvil after heating and drive down on the ends4 ,this will increase the size of the hole by shortening the length and bulging the sides out4 ,the piece is now put on the horn of the anvil and rounded into a ring4 ,the ends are now trimmed off or driven down into the thickness1 as shown in the drawing4 ,this is the method of making a weldless ring4 ,it is easily made out of soft steel4 ,it would require a very fine grade of wrought iron to do a piece of work of this kind1 for wrought iron is fibrous and unless great care is exercised in forging it will split at the ends along the grain when opening it after the slot is cut in4 ,steel is much cheaper than wrought iron1 another good reason for its use4 ,for the making of nuts1 too1 it is better than wrought iron4 ,all one needs to do is to cut a piece off the end of a square bar1 the proper thickness1 punch a hole in it1 and square it up4 ,if wrought iron were used1 to get the same strength one would need to bend the iron around a mandrel in the shape of a ring so that the grain of the iron would run around the hole of the nut4 ,then it should be welded and shaped into a square nut4 ,,chain ,,hook ,,of ,,soft ,,steel ,illustration3 ,a chain hook ,up to the present time our work has been with wrought iron entirely4 ,this hook is to be made out of soft ,bessemer steel1 which of course is very different from high carbon steel4 ,it is the cheapest of the steels4 ,all building material1 railroad rails1 boiler plates1 steel cars1 etc41 are made of this cheap soft metal4 ,the process of manufacture is quite simple4 ,molten cast iron1 taken from the cupola1 or blast furnace1 is poured directly into a so-called ,bessemer converter--a pear shaped vessel4 ,air is blown through the mass of molten metal4 ,the air adds oxygen to the bath1 and increases the heat to a temperature high enough to burn out all the impurities from the cast iron4 ,this converts it into steel4 ,it requires no more than nine or ten minutes to convert fifteen tons of cast iron into soft steel4 ,the air is shut off and a sufficient amount of ferro-manganese is added so as to give the proper amount of carbon4 ,the liquid steel is poured into ingots and these ingots while still hot are rolled into the shape used for the market4 ,a piece of this kind of steel you are going to use to make a hook4 ,soft steel can be worked in the same way as you work wrought iron4 ,it is not fibrous like wrought iron and is not apt to split unless worked at a low temperature4 ,illustration ,stock3 ,soft steel1 #e-a_/d ins4 long1 #c_/d #a_/b in4 ,directions3 ,the drawing gives all the steps necessary for the making of this hook4 ,notice in the drawing when the stock is given it is fullered down #a-a_/h ins4 from one end4 ,this is the amount needed to make the eye4 ,after fullering the stock it is placed on the anvil and squared up4 ,illustration3 ,stock for hook ,illustration3 ,rounding ,illustration3 ,finishing ,illustration3 ,punching hole ,these square corners are knocked down1 making it round4 ,when the body of the hook itself is drawn out1 like the drawing1 a hole is punched through the eye1 using the same kind of punch as you did to make the nut4 ,while using the punch keep cooling it off in cold water to prevent its getting hot2 if you do not1 the end is apt to burr and rivet itself into the iron4 ,it also prevents its sticking into the hole4 ,place the ring of the eye on the point of the anvil and round up carefully with light blows from the hammer4 ,illustration3 ,rounding the eye of hook ,when rounded up drive the punch in again to the required size4 ,this finishes the eye4 ,the body of the piece is now gone over carefully with calipers and square to get the diameters and length4 ,bend the small point at right angles to the axis of the hook1 like the drawing4 ,now it is ready for bending in the middle4 ,heat the middle very hot4 ,cool off the point about #a_/b in4 ,place the middle on the horn of the anvil and strike upon the small turned up cold nib to bend the hook from this point4 ,by striking upon the cold end to bend it one can do so without destroying the shape4 ,it will stand a lot of work upon it when cold4 ,when the hook is bent around as nearly like the drawing as you can1 flatten it out at its widest part by laying it upon the anvil and striking with the hammer4 ,the cross section of the drawing shows the shape that this flattened part should be4 ,illustration3 ,shaping the hook ,this is what we call a solid eye hook4 ,another way of making an eye is to take round material of sufficient length to bend an eye on the end by placing the piece over the horn of the anvil4 ,the body of the second hook can be made out of round iron1 pointed down at the end and finished up the same as the first4 ,illustration ,bending a corner in iron and upsetting while bending3 ,in this problem we bring in the making and bending of iron1 so that the thickness at the corner must be sharp on the top side and rounding on the inside--without flaws or cold-shut4 ,this bending method applies to all metals1 whether of square iron or wide flat iron4 ,illustration3 ,corner plate ,stock3 ,piece #f-a_/b #c_/h in4 square4 ,directions3 ,heat the metal in the middle and bend it over the rounding edge of the anvil4 ,when the piece is bent we still have to make it square on the outside and rounding on the inside4 ,the bend just made should be placed in the fire and re-heated4 ,cool the stems off in the water to within one inch of the bend4 ,place the point of the cold stem on the anvil and strike on the hot corner4 ,this is repeated on both outside corners until the piece assumes the shape of the drawing4 ,this same result can be obtained by upsetting the metal in the centre before bending1 as shown in the drawing4 ,,flat ,,wrenches ,illustration ,wrenches are used for screwing nuts on bolts4 ,they can be made in two ways3 7#a7 ,one known as the solid wrench is made without welding1 7#b7 the other1 is made of wrought iron and is welded4 ,s wrench of soft steel3 ,the sketch here is of a wrench made from soft steel #a_/b #a #e ins4 ,fuller down the stock edgewise as shown4 ,draw out the centre #a_/d in4 thick and taper it from #c_/d to #e_/h #e ins4 long4 ,cut the corner off1 as shown by the dotted lines1 and round the two ends up to the size given4 ,punch a #a_/b-;in4 hole in the large end and a #c_/h-;in4 hole in the small end of the bar4 ,with a sharp chisel cut a ,v-shaped plug out of each end1 tangent to the circles4 ,illustration3 ,wrench hardie ,jaws3 ,the jaws of the wrench are finished with a tool called a wrench hardie1 placed usually on the anvil for the purpose of finishing up work of this kind4 ,finish up both ends in the same way4 ,heat the wrench at the nick and cool the jaws off in water4 ,place the nick on the horn of the anvil and bend it as shown4 ,repeat on the other end4 ,if the wrench is carefully made it will require no filing to fit the nut4 ,these wrenches are sometimes polished and case hardened to prevent the jaws from wearing while in use4 ,large flat wrench3 ,a quick way to make a large wrench is to make it of wrought iron4 ,a piece of iron #a #a_/b #d ins4 is bent at almost a right angle4 ,the inside corner is the corner made by the natural bend the metal takes when shaping it4 ,illustration3 ,wrenches ,scarf this corner by placing the peen of the hammer on the corner and striking the face of the hammer with the sledge or by using a bob punch if one is available1 or it may be made by using the peen of the hammer without the use of a helper4 ,select a piece of round iron #g_/h in4 in diameter4 ,upset the end of this and scarf it to fit the scarf made in the angle piece4 ,heat both pieces to a welding heat4 ,place them on the anvil and weld the handles to the jaws4 ,the inside is rounded up at the same time the scarfs are being welded into place4 ,draw the points out to a short taper and bend them up in the shape of a wrench on the heel of the anvil4 ,this is a simple way of making a large wrench that can be used for all kinds of work4 ,illustration3 ,alligator wrench ,alligator wrench3 ,stock #a #a_/b #e ins4 steel4 ,the alligator wrench is one of the handiest tools to have in a home or shop4 ,for general repair work it is indispensable and is easily made4 ,mark off #a-a_/b ins4 from the end of the stock4 ,this is the jaw part4 ,place the other end of the stock in the fire4 ,take it out and from the centre-punch mark draw the handle out #c_/d in4 wide1 #c_/h #h ins4 long1 and tapering to #c_/h #a_/d in4 at the extreme end4 ,the edges of the handle should be rounding4 ,place the jaw ends in the fire and heat red hot4 ,punch #a_/d in4 hole back #a-a_/b in4 from the end4 ,draw out the end and shape as shown in the drawing4 ,with a three-cornered file1 file the teeth on a slant and close together4 ,this slanting will allow the wrench to let go of the work better than those filed at right angles to the axis of the piece4 ,the teeth should slant backward and should be put only on one side of the jaw4 ,both jaws should be hardened and tempered a blue colour4 ,to do this1 heat the body of the steel back of the jaw to a red heat and plunge the whole into water one inch beyond the depth of the jaw4 ,when cold take it out and polish4 ,draw the temper in the same way as you would for a knife blade4 7,see article on tempering and hardening47 ,,socket ,,wrenches ,illustration ,socket wrenches are useful for tightening nuts in places that are difficult to reach4 ,it is most convenient when many nuts of the same size are used1 as bolting shaft irons for vehicles1 etc4 ,some are made to fit an auger brace2 some have solid handles with a cross bar1 and some have holes punched in the shanks to place the iron bars in while twisting the nut on the bolt4 ,this drawing shows a style of wrench in general use4 ,it can be made in two different ways4 ,one is called the welding method1 the other is the solid method4 ,welding method3 ,cut a piece of metal #a_/d #a in4 of ,norway iron4 ,the length of this bar must be determined by the size of the nut it is to be used for4 ,heat one end of the piece of iron and scarf it4 ,repeat on the other end4 ,bend the piece into a collar or ring1 weld the two ends together1 forming a cylinder about #a in4 deep--any diameter4 ,select a piece of round iron for the shank1 the size depending upon the size of the socket4 ,upset one end of the round iron to fit the collar made4 ,illustration3 ,weld collar1 then put stem in1 and weld ,illustration ,drive the shank into the collar about one half the depth of the collar1 place it in the fire1 and at a welding heat weld the collar to the shank4 ,if the wrench is to be for a hexagonal nut1 make a hexagonal drift pin 7a square one for a square nut71 and drive the pin into the collar4 ,place it all on a swage and round up with a top swage4 ,drive the collar down until it takes the shape of the drift pin4 ,to do this successfully requires many heatings1 and it can be done only while the metal is hot enough to yield always under the hammer blows4 ,should the drift pin stick after the collar is driven into it1 place the pin on the anvil1 giving it a slanting blow4 ,this will loosen the pin and it will come out easily4 ,the shank should now be driven down as shown in the sketch1 and two holes punched in at right angles to each other4 ,these are holes to place iron bars for turning the wrench4 ,these holes can be made in two ways3 one1 by forming lugs or bosses on the shank and punching holes in each one1 or1 a sharp tapered round punch1 flat and sharp on the end1 can be used to split the metal and force the sides out as the punch is driven in4 ,if the cross bar is to be used in place of the holes1 a cleft scarf made in one end of the shank and a #c_/h-;in4 bar of iron welded to this about #d or #f inches long on either side of the shank will act as a handle4 ,illustration ,open-sleeve or socket wrench3 ,the wrench given here is for practically the same use as the one just described4 ,it is lighter than the other4 ,the opening is longer and allows the bolt to protrude through the nut without forcing the wrench off4 ,this wrench is made of machine steel1 and the size must be determined by the size of the nut4 ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration3 ,socket wrench for square nuts ,for a small wrench take a bar of #c_/h #a-a_/d #f in4 soft steel4 ,mark off on the bar #b ins4 from each end and on these centre-punch marks fuller down on the top and the two sides so that the bottom of the fuller will measure #a_/b #a_/d in4 ,draw these ends out to #a_/b #a_/d in4 any length4 ,cut the four corners off and make the centre round4 ,bend the two arms as shown and punch #a_/b in4 hole through the boss4 ,be careful to prevent cold-shuts while doing this4 ,drive a drift pin into the hole and forge the shape as shown4 ,bend the two arms as shown and weld together4 ,these should be worked down to a #a_/b-;in4 round4 ,the ends can be made into a brace shank by squaring the end and tapering it to fit the jaws of the brace4 ,or weld a piece of #a_/b-;in4 round iron long enough to bend it into the shape of a brace1 putting a round knob on the end for a hand hold4 ,this makes a simple wrench and one that can be used in many places where flat wrenches are not convenient4 ,illustration ,,open ,,wire ,,rope ,,socket ,illustration ,illustration ,these sockets are made for wire cables1 ropes1 etc41 and are best made of mild steel4 ,place the end of a #a-a_/b-;in4 square bar in the fire and reduce it as shown in the sketch4 ,cut two outside corners off1 as shown by the dotted lines4 ,round the ends up4 ,punch a #a_/b-;in4 hole #b ins4 from the rounded end in the centre of the piece4 ,then cut a piece out with a sharp chisel1 equal to the width of the hole4 ,with the fuller1 open the jaws out4 ,now cut the socket off #d ins4 from the rounded end and drill a #a_/b-;in4 hole through this end of the socket4 ,a drift pin #c_/d in4 on one end and tapered to #c_/h in4 on the other is now driven into the #a_/b-;in4 hole at the jaw side4 ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration ,forge the shank as shown in the drawing while the drift pin is in4 ,while forging keep driving the drift pin into the hole4 ,when finished the hole should measure #c_/d in4 at the large end and #a_/b in4 at the small end4 ,when the socket is finished cut the ends square and smooth up4 ,during all the time the steel should never be worked below a red heat and most of the time at a high heat1 below welding heat1 until it is ready for finishing4 ,now the jaws are ready to be closed4 ,this is done by placing a piece of flat iron1 #c_/d in4 thick and the width of the jaw1 in between the opening1 and close the jaws on this either with the hand hammer or a flatter4 ,drill a #a_/b-;in4 hole in the middle of the end4 ,this is made for the pin4 ,make a pin to fit this hole out of #a_/b-;in4 round stock4 ,upset the end of the bar a little and place it in a heading tool1 driving down and forming a head #a_/h in4 thick and #c_/d in4 in diameter4 ,take it out of the heading tool1 cut the bolt off #a_/b in4 longer than the width of the jaws4 ,this allows for a #c_/af-;in4 hole and pin4 ,a small #c_/af-;in4 hole is now drilled in the shank of the bolt and a split pin is put into the hole to prevent its falling out4 ,the split pin is made by flattening down a piece of #a_/h-;in4 wire in a small swage to a half round4 ,now double over to form an eye on one end of the two flat planes coming together4 ,when this is put in through the hole1 a chisel put in the opening will widen out the ends1 thus preventing them from falling out4 ,illustration ,,hinge ,,and ,,butt ,the hinge and butt are used on doors and gates4 ,this fastening is made similar to the other hinges1 except the eye is welded1 instead of being a solid eye4 ,stock3 #a_/d #a #g-a_/b ins4 wrought iron4 ,illustration3 ,hinge ,directions3 ,the end of this piece of stock is bent around a drift pin as shown in the drawing and welded along the dotted lines4 ,this is done by scarfing the end of the bar into a short tapered point4 ,bend it down at right angles about #c in4 from the end4 ,bend it in the opposite direction about #b_/c of the way around4 ,put in the drift pin4 ,this now forms a hook shape4 ,continue the driving over until the scarf lies flat on the straight side4 ,take out the drift pin and weld the scarf to the body of the hinge4 ,drive the drift pin into the hole1 shaping it up4 ,the back of the hinge is perfectly straight so that it will lie flat upon the wooden door4 ,the other end is drawn out1 tapered and the end rounded up1 and #a_/d in4 holes punched in as shown4 ,the butt is made in the same way as you made the ornamental butt and hinge4 ,illustration3 ,welded hinge eye ,illustration3 ,turned eye ,illustration ,bent hinges1 such as are used on tail boards for wagons1 railroad cars1 etc41 are simply ends of the iron piece bent around at a given diameter1 with the under side flat1 and the stock rolled up on one side4 ,these hinges may be used in pairs4 ,in that case a long rod is pushed through1 connecting the two hinges4 ,,tongs ,tongs are used by blacksmiths to hold pieces of hot metal while working upon them4 ,stock3 ,two pieces iron1 #g_/h #g_/h #ah ins4 ,two pieces iron1 #c_/h #c_/h #ab ins4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,tongs ,directions3 ,mark off #b ins4 from one end of the #g_/h #g_/h #ah in4 piece and heat it quite hot4 ,this marked end is now placed on an anvil and flattened down to #a #b #g_/af in41 leaving the shoulder as shown4 7#a7 ,heat the piece again4 ,place it upon the anvil1 with the flattened piece extending beyond the anvil1 and1 with the shoulder on the outer edge of the anvil1 flatten this down #a in4 wide1 and #g_/h in4 thick4 7#b7 ,then the shoulders should be at right angles to each other1 as shown in the sketch4 ,re-heat the piece #a in4 from the last shoulder made4 ,reduce the shoulder 7#b71 the iron to #i_/af #g_/af in4 7#c7 ,notice that this shoulder is directly opposite the other4 ,this completes the jaw of the tong4 ,draw out the end to about #c ins4 in length4 ,it is now cut off the bar and another piece made just like it for the pair4 ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration ,the reins or handles are welded to the small ends and tapered down as shown in the drawing1 then rounded #d-a_/b ins4 on the ends to #c_/h ins4 in diameter4 ,a hole is now punched through the eye of the jaw and a #c_/h-;in4 rivet inserted4 ,the little groove which you see in the jaw is put there with a fuller4 ,this is done so that you can use it to hold small round iron as well as flat iron4 ,the two parts are now riveted together4 ,this is done either by making a head on a rivet and cutting it off1 allowing about #c_/h in4 for a head on the end that goes through the tongs1 then heating the tongs and completing the riveting1 or1 as many smiths do1 by putting a piece of straight #c_/d-;in4 iron in1 allowing #a_/b in4 on each end plus the thickness of the parts of the tongs for riveting4 ,this piece of iron is made very hot1 put into the hole1 and both heads are riveted on at the same time4 ,it frequently happens that the rivet bends in the holes while hammering on the ends4 ,this prevents the tongs from opening easily4 ,if such is the case1 put the rivet and jaws into the fire and heat red hot4 ,hold the handle1 open and close the jaws while cooling4 ,this not only centres the rivet but prevents sticking4 ,the tongs should work smooth and free when cooled off in water4 ,illustration ,,xxiv ,,hardening ,,and ,,tempering3 ,,tool ,,making ,,effects ,,of ,,carbon ,,on ,,steel ,what is commonly known as carbon steel is a metal composed of iron containing varying amounts of carbon4 ,steels containing much carbon are called tool steels to distinguish them from the low carbon steels4 ,tool steel1 when heated red hot and plunged into cold water1 will harden1 while low carbon steel treated in the same way will not do so4 ,this is an excellent way of testing two bars of steel for carbon when one is not able to distinguish grades of steel accurately4 ,it is carbon that gives the hardening quality4 ,when steel is heated it becomes red at #ajjj ,f4 ,at #acjj ,f4 it passes a point at which it absorbs considerable heat without any increase in the temperature1 showing that some change in the structure of the metal must be taking place4 ,if the steel is heated above this point and allowed to cool slowly1 a brightening of the colour may be noticed as it passes this point1 known as the point of recalescence4 ,the brightening is due to a liberation of the heat previously absorbed4 ,method of heating steel in forge fires3 ,all steel work1 including tool dressing1 hardening1 and tempering1 was formerly done in an ordinary forge fire4 ,now we have special furnaces for that purpose4 ,however1 in using a forge fire1 care must be taken to insure good work4 ,the fire must be very deep--that is1 a large body of coke must be put between the tuyere1 and the tool1 so as to prevent the blast reducing the carbon on the surface of the steel4 ,sulphur will injure the quality of any steel tool4 ,hence1 a fuel low in sulphur should be used4 ,charcoal is the best for this purpose1 but the cost and the difficulty in maintaining the heat prevent its general use in blacksmith shops4 ,if the coal does contain sulphur a great deal of it can be extracted or reduced by one making his own coke4 ,this is done by burning the green coal to a coke and in this way driving off much of the sulphur4 ,gas furnaces or oil furnaces are used4 ,this is much better than coal1 for a uniform heat can be kept and an oxidation of the steel prevented4 ,whether natural or artificial gas is used1 all that is necessary is to adjust the supply of gas in such a way that there will be a very slight excess of gas present beyond the proper amount for combustion4 ,the presence of this gas excludes all air from the steel and therefore prevents its oxidizing the surface of the metal4 ,heating in lead3 ,in order to prevent oxidation molten lead makes a most satisfactory bath4 ,the lead is melted in a cast-iron pot and heated in the forge4 ,the steel must be left in the bath until it has all been heated to the required temperature4 ,as the steel will float in the molten lead it must be weighted down to keep it submerged4 ,hardening solutions3 ,in many cases clear cold water is used in hardening steel4 ,some use soft or rain water4 ,the temperature of the water for general work should not fall below the temperature of the shop2 otherwise it would extract the heat too quickly from the steel and cause cracks or breaks in the work4 ,salt solution3 ,salt is often added to water which is to be used as a hardening solution4 7#a7 ,it increases the rate at which the bath will extract the heat from the steel2 7#b7 it prevents the formation of steam on the surface of the water4 ,put as much salt in rain water as it will dissolve4 ,this is considered one of the best and easiest made solutions for hardening steel4 ,oil solution3 ,linseed oil1 lard1 cotton seed oil1 whale oil1 and melted tallow make good hardening solutions4 ,they are used mostly for fine work4 ,the oil prevents the sudden chilling of the steel and lessens the chances of cracking and breaking4 ,springs are mostly tempered in oil4 ,metallic hardening baths3 ,for very delicate tools mercury is sometimes used4 ,it has a greater heat conductivity than any solution mentioned4 ,however1 the fumes given off are poisonous and for this reason it is not extensively used4 ,,tempering3 ,,the ,,part ,,colour ,,plays ,when you buy steel for tools from a merchant he will assure you that the steel he sells you will harden at a cherry-red heat4 ,this is true provided the metal has not been spoiled either by overheating it or working it at too low a heat during the making4 ,this causes cracks or internal fractures4 ,if these directions for working steel are followed out a tool should harden at a cherry-red heat when plunged into water4 ,when the steel is heated to the proper temperature1 usually a cherry red1 and plunged into a hardening solution1 it will be very brittle1 so that a file will not cut it4 ,one test often used is to take a fine mill cut file and try to cut the hardened part of the tool4 ,if it slips over the surface without cutting1 the steel is considered hard2 if the file cuts1 the steel is not hard enough4 ,re-heat the steel hotter than before1 cool it off in water1 and test again4 ,all cutting tools should possess a certain amount of hardness or toughness4 ,when the steel has been plunged into cold water it is too hard for use4 ,it is necessary to then reduce this hardness so that one can use the tool for the particular kind of work it is made to do4 ,this process of reducing the hardness is commonly called drawing the temper1 and the colour scheme plays a very important part in this operation4 ,perhaps the steps will be clearer if the process of drawing the temper on a cold chisel is explained3 ,after the chisel is forged the proper shape1 place the body of the tool in the fire1 heat it red hot back of the point4 ,now heat the point to a uniform cherry-red heat1 plunge #a-a_/b in4 of this hot point into the water and hold it there until it is quite cold4 ,this is determined by water clinging to the point when the chisel is taken out4 ,polish the part cooled off with a piece of emery stone1 an old brickbat1 or any rough polishing material4 ,you will notice a group of temper colours starting from the point where the tool came into contact with the water4 ,the heat in the body of the tool gives rise to these colours as it is conducted through the cold point of the steel4 ,in this group of colours the first will be 7#a7 pale yellow1 7#b7 a full straw colour1 7#c7 brown1 7#d7 purple1 7#e7 dark blue1 7#f7 full blue1 7#g7 light blue1 7#h7 gray4 ,this colour scheme corresponds to varying temperatures in the metal4 ,the first colour 7pale yellow7 accompanies a temperature of #dcj1 while the last colour1 gray1 means a temperature of #gjj4 ,the colours show1 too1 a varying in the hardness or toughness of the steel4 ,a cold chisel should be tempered a blue2 so when the blue reaches the cutting end of the tool the end should be plunged immediately into water and cooled off4 ,this is the principle of hardening and tempering all common tools4 ,illustration3 ,colors1 left to right3 pale yellow1 straw color1 brown1 purple1 dark blue1 full blue1 light blue1 gray ,however1 these colours mean nothing so far as tempering is concerned unless the cutting edge of the steel has been thoroughly hardened4 ,then the colours have a real value4 ,to prove that these colours are no test unless hardening precedes1 take a piece of brass1 or copper1 or soft iron4 ,polish1 then heat the piece in the fire to the temperature given here4 ,you find the same set of colours1 but you cannot use any of these metals for cutting tools4 ,the table of temper colours given in this book shows the colour required for tempering tools most commonly used4 ,tempering of springs3 ,under the head of springs we may include every variety1 from the small spring used in locks and fire-arms to the largest springs in use4 ,they are made of spring steel of the required thickness1 forged into shape1 then hardened and tempered4 ,this hardening and tempering of springs is done in some cases by polishing and heating over a fire and drawing them to a blue colour4 ,then they are plunged into oil to fix the temper4 ,sometimes springs are heated red hot and cooled in oil1 then held over the fire until the oil burns with a bright flame on the spring4 ,it is then allowed to cool in the air4 ,if the spring is found too hard1 more oil is put on it and the operation is repeated until the desired spring movement is obtained4 ,,tool ,,making ,it is possible for you to learn to make all of the tools you may need to use1 including hammers4 ,and not only will you be able to make blacksmiths' tools1 but such as are used by carpenters1 bricklayers1 stone-masons1 machinists1 etc4 ,you must not expect to be able to do this work at first1 but in a little while you will be able to replace your first working tools with those of your own make4 ,from time to time1 as the tools break or wear out1 you can repair them or replace them with new ones4 ,this gives excellent practice in forging and handling steel1 and prepares you for more and more advanced work1 an experience necessary for doing any work well4 ,steel3 ,there are many different grades of steel1 depending upon the percentage of carbon contained in each4 ,steel low in carbon can be easily welded but cannot be tempered4 ,carbon steel is very difficult to weld and it can be done only by the use of borax or some other flux4 ,high carbon steel or so-called tool steel1 can be tempered4 ,it is used for making cold chisels1 files1 drills1 cutting tools1 etc4 ,crucible steel3 ,all tools are made from crucible cast steel4 ,the cast steel is made by placing in a graphite crucible a certain amount of wrought iron and soft steel1 and carbon is added in the form of manganese4 ,these are all melted in furnaces4 ,when melted they are poured into ingots and drawn or shaped to sizes for the market under different kinds of power hammers4 ,these various size bars are used for the making of all kinds of tools4 ,the tools we are going to make are 7#a7 centre-punch1 7#b7 cold chisel1 7#c7 cape chisel1 and 7#d7 lathe tools4 ,there are five lathe tools2 7#a7 round nose1 7#b7 diamond point1 7#c7 side tool1 7#d7 cutting off or parting tool1 7#e7 inside or boring tool4 ,illustration3 ,centre-punch ,centre-punch3 ,you will find the centre-punch a most useful tool to have on hand4 ,it is used for marking centres before drilling holes1 starting points in work1 etc4 ,a small one is made out of a piece of #c_/h-;in4 hexagonal tool steel1 #c ins4 long4 ,put one end into the fire and taper it #c_/h in4 long to #a_/d in4 in diameter1 as shown in the sketch4 ,make this end flat4 ,put the other end into the fire and draw it into a sharp tapered round point to about #a_/af in4 on the end4 ,this extreme point is ground to a very sharp point4 ,the angles of the extreme should be about #de4 ,this is hardened and tempered a blue colour4 ,then it is ready for use4 ,illustration3 ,cold ,chisel ,cold chisel3 ,cold chisels are usually made out of #e_/h-;in4 hexagonal tool steel1 #f in4 long4 ,the form and dimensions are given here4 ,heat one end of the bar and place it upon the anvil4 ,draw it out for the short end4 ,this is the part upon which the hammering is done when the tool is finished4 ,the surplus stock is cut off with a hot chisel and the short end is flattened4 ,when cutting tool steel of any kind the chisel should be very sharp and the steel red hot4 ,put the other end of the bar into the fire1 beginning back about #b-a_/b ins4 from the end4 ,flatten it down to a chisel shape1 as shown in the drawing4 ,cut the surplus stock off1 harden and temper as explained before for the cold chisel4 ,illustration3 ,cape chisel ,cape chisel3 ,the drawing gives the form and the dimensions4 ,the small end of this tool is forged out in the same way as you forged the small end of the cold chisel4 ,reverse the bar and heat the other end4 ,two inches back from the end fuller the metal down as shown in the drawing4 ,draw it out tapering4 ,this end1 too1 is cut off1 hardened and tempered as you did the cold chisel4 ,cape chisels are used mostly for cutting key ways in shafting4 ,the point being wider than the rest of the blade gives clearance while cutting4 ,,lathe ,,tools ,round nose3 ,the drawing gives the form and the dimensions4 ,illustration3 ,round nose ,stock3 ,a piece of #g_/af #g_/h #g in4 tool steel4 ,this size best fits the tool post of the lathe4 ,you see by the sketch that one end is bevelled4 ,this end is always made first4 ,it is done by heating and chamfering the edges down with a hand hammer4 ,place the other end in the fire and draw it out to a sharp point in both directions4 ,throw the bevel on one side by placing the tool on the anvil and driving one side of the metal down to the other side4 ,the point is now cut off on a bevel for clearance4 ,the drawing shows a cross section view of the tool4 ,notice that it is smaller on the bottom than on the cutting edge4 ,this is done by reducing one side more than the other4 ,the cutting edge of the tool should extend about #a_/cb in4 above the common level4 ,hardening and tempering3 ,all lathe tools of this type are hardened and tempered in the same way as you did the cold chisel4 ,the temper colour of this tool is a very light straw4 ,when this colour reaches the extreme point plunge the tool into water4 ,the slight change of temperature does not materially lessen the degree of hardness1 but it does toughen the tool so that it will do more work4 ,illustration3 ,diamond point ,diamond point3 ,the form and dimensions are given4 ,stock3 #g #g_/af #g_/h ins4 ,illustration3 ,side tool ,heat one end and bevel it off as you did when making the round nose tool4 ,place the other end in the fire1 #e_/h in4 from the end1 and fuller down to one half the thickness of the bar4 ,this fullering is done on the bottom fuller1 which is placed on the anvil4 ,re-heat this end1 place it again on the fuller in the depression made1 and with the hand hammer draw this end out and at the same time square it up into a diamond point by turning the tool at an angle of #de with the anvil4 ,turn again1 in exactly the opposite direction4 ,repeat this until the point of the tool is drawn out as shown by the sketch4 ,the clearance should not be more than that shown4 ,it is now cut off by placing the face of the diamond on the outer edge of the anvil4 ,place the cold chisel above this edge1 strike the chisel with the sledge hammer and cut it off4 ,if this is carefully done it will cut the proper bevel for the cutting edge4 ,the drawing shows the slope of the cutting edge to be parallel to the top of the tool4 ,the tool is hardened and tempered the same as the round nose tool4 ,side tool 7right hand73 ,the form and dimensions are given here4 ,stock3 #g #g_/h #g_/af in4 ,to make a tool of this kind bevel off the end of the stock1 place the other end in the fire1 and heat about two inches to a red heat4 ,take it out and place about one inch of this on the round edge of the anvil4 ,with the hand hammer reduce the thickness of this steel1 driving on the edge nearest you 7see sketch marked ,a74 ,the hammering reduces the thickness of the edge1 which will be the cutting edge when finished4 ,the part opposite to where you are working will be reduced very little4 ,a chisel is now used for cutting the cutting edge on the tool 7see ,b74 ,place the tool on a piece of soft iron1 place the chisel along the line and cut through to the soft iron below4 ,this gives not only a clear cut but prevents the chisel from driving in if it should strike the hard anvil4 ,the clearance is cut off along the other lines4 7,c7 ,the cutting edge is now offset4 ,to do this use a set hammer4 ,push the part made beyond the anvil #a_/d in4 ,place the set hammer in this shoulder1 drive down until the offset is driven down about #a_/h in4 7,d74 ,the method of tempering this tool is a little different from the way you have tempered other tools1 on account of the length of the cutting edge1 which should be hardened its full length4 ,place the end just finished in the fire and heat to a red heat4 ,plunge the whole tool into water4 ,take it out and polish the cutting edge with emery stone4 ,now place in the fire a piece of any kind of iron2 #a in4 square will do4 ,heat it red hot1 then place it upon the anvil1 and lay the part of your tool that has been hardened on the hot bar4 ,it will draw enough heat from the hot bar to produce the temper colours4 ,this is one way to give a piece of hardened steel the heat to temper it when the body of that piece does not contain heat enough to do so4 ,illustration3 ,boring tool ,boring tool3 ,boring tools are made for the purpose of enlarging holes in cylinders1 or any hole which should be enlarged after it has been drilled4 ,the work to be done must determine the size and length of the boring tool4 ,this is not true of any other one of the lathe tools4 ,stock3 #g #g_/af #g_/h in4 ,bevel one end4 ,place the other end in the fire and heat about #c ins4 of it4 ,draw it out to a tapering octagonal shape1 as shown in the sketch4 ,the end is pushed over the anvil about #a_/b in4 ,drive it down at right angles4 ,the clearance for the cutting edge is cut off with a hot chisel and made ready for hardening and tempering4 ,illustration3 ,cutting-off tool ,cutting-off or parting tool3 ,this tool is made for dividing bars of metal into different lengths4 ,the form and dimensions are here shown4 ,stock3 #g #g_/h #g_/af in4 tool steel4 ,bevel one end4 ,place the other end in the fire and heat about #a in4 ,place the fuller on the anvil4 ,put the top fuller on this1 then put the steel between the two fullers about #a_/b in4 from the end4 ,using the sledge hammer1 drive down so that the centre thickness will measure #a_/h in4 ,draw the lump left on the end to #a_/h in4 thickness1 the same width as the tool4 ,the drawing shows that the clearance on this tool is one half the thickness of the cutting edge1 or #a_/af in4 ,this clearance must be put on as shown in the drawing1 otherwise the tool will not clear while doing the cutting4 ,finish up as shown in the sketch4 ,harden and temper in the same way as you did the round nose tool4 ,cutting off tools are made with the shoulder all on one side4 7,see sketch and see article on tempering steel47 ,,xxv ,,how ,,to ,,harden1 ,,soften1 ,,and ,,stretch ,,steel ,,annealing ,,or ,,softening ,,of ,,steel ,all steels that are worked under hammers and heated to any degree of temperature1 when finished should be softened by heating1 so that the unequal strains caused by the working of the metal may be neutralized4 ,when the work is entirely finished it is placed in a furnace or forge fire and heated red hot4 ,then the fire is either withdrawn from the furnace1 or the blast is shut off from the forge1 and the metal is allowed to cool off as the fire goes down4 ,this softens the metal and saves it from the danger of unequal strains4 ,hard or high carbon steels are treated in a different way4 ,the metal is heated red hot1 then it is placed in a box filled with slack lime4 ,the lime completely covers the piece4 ,the cold air is prevented from striking it and cooling it off too quickly4 ,when no lime is at hand wood ash can be used4 ,sometimes the steel is heated red hot1 then held until the red entirely disappears4 ,then it is plunged into cold water4 ,this process is known as water annealing and is a process used for tool steel when quick work is required4 ,it softens the metal so that it can be filed and worked quite easily4 ,,case ,,hardening ,we have learned that carbon gives the hardening quality to steel4 ,since there is little carbon in soft steel and none in wrought iron1 they will not harden as carbon steel does when heated red hot and plunged into water4 ,but there are many small articles which are best made of this soft steel and iron and which must be hardened in some way to make them useful4 ,in order to supply the lacking carbon the metal is put through a process known as case hardening4 ,there are two methods of case hardening4 ,the first method is to heat a piece of soft steel or iron red hot and cover the part to be hardened with cyanide of potassium4 ,the metal will absorb the carbon out of the cyanide and when cooled in water will have taken on a hardened surface4 ,if this is repeated two or three times the hard surface deepens4 ,any drug store will sell you some cyanide of potassium4 ,it comes in cakes4 ,the cakes are broken up into small pieces4 ,be careful to keep the hands as much as possible from contact with the cyanide4 ,,set ,,screw ,set screws are made of soft metal1 but the points must be hardened to resist the wear4 ,this is done by heating the set screws red hot1 then sticking the point into the cyanide until it cools off4 ,re-heat and repeat the work4 ,during this time the iron is absorbing carbon4 ,heat again1 plunge into cold water4 ,the carbon forms a case on the end of the screw4 ,now you have a screw hard on the outside but of soft material in the inside4 ,it is able to resist any shock that carbon steel itself could not stand4 ,the second method calls for the use of pulverized charcoal and bone4 ,the principle is the same as in the first method4 ,the iron articles to receive a case hardening are placed in a cast-iron box with a layer of charcoal above and a layer of bone dust below1 alternating in this way until the box is filled to the top4 ,the box is then placed in a heating furnace and heated to a temperature #abjj ,f4 ,it is kept at this temperature from three to four hours4 ,the articles all this time are absorbing charcoal from bone dust4 ,the box is taken out of the furnace and plunged into a bath of cold water4 ,from this cold bath it is plunged into a bath of boiling water1 then taken out and dried4 ,the pieces are oiled over slightly to bring out the colours4 ,they have not only a hard exterior after this process1 but they have a beautiful mottled surface of grays and blues1 colours one often sees in parts of small guns1 wrenches1 etc4 ,surgical instruments1 guns1 small wrenches1 etc41 are hardened in this way4 ,the equipment for the second method is much more expensive than that for the first2 however1 the principles involved are the same in both cases4 ,,brazing ,brazing is a process of joining two pieces of metal by the use of another metal1 such as brass or copper4 ,the use of solder has been explained in the article on soldering4 ,this article will tell about brazing of wrought iron1 cast-iron1 and steel in the forge fire4 ,one must bear in mind that when a forge fire is used for brazing1 the fire should be free from green coal on account of the presence of sulphur4 ,a reducing fire is best for that purpose4 ,it is well to mention here that a forge fire that has been used for brazing must be thoroughly cleaned before it can be used again for any welding purposes4 ,the brass will run down and clog the tuyere4 ,if the least bit of smelter is left on the forge it is apt to mix with the coals4 ,in that case it would find its way into the fire1 melt1 and collect on any iron that may be in the fire heating4 ,the success of any of these operations depends absolutely upon a clean fire and a clean piece of work to be done4 ,to prepare the pieces to be brazed3 ,all parts to be brazed should be free from any foreign matter4 ,they should be filed or polished with emery cloth or sand-paper4 ,this refers not only to the parts that come into contact with each other1 but both sides of the contact edge for the depth of at least #a_/b in4 ,when the parts are clean1 put them together4 ,see that the joints fit4 ,paint the joints with a flux made of boracic acid4 ,mix one part boiling water with one part borax and two parts boracic acid4 ,keep it pasty so that it can be handled with a brush4 ,ordinary borax can be used if the other is not at hand4 ,the smelter 7brass7 can be bought at supply stores4 ,however1 brass filings1 common sheet brass1 or brass wire is just as good4 ,if brass filings are used these should be mixed with the flux4 ,any old tin can will do for the mixing4 ,a spoon for dipping the flux out when wanted can be made on the end of a rod #a_/d in4 in diameter1 about #bj ins4 long1 by flattening out an inch of the end1 drawn out quite thin and fashioned spoon shaped4 ,place the parts to be brazed in the fire and heat till they are red hot4 ,dip the spoon into the brazing material and put a little of the smelter on the joints4 ,increase the heat4 ,when the smelter begins to run add more4 ,when it shows a bright streak all around the parts to be joined shut off the blast and let it cool before removing it from the fire4 ,when it is black hot remove it from the fire and file into shape4 ,be very careful to see that the pieces to be brazed are so fastened together that they will not move apart when once put into place4 ,this can be done by packing brick or clay around them or by clamping them in place4 ,do not put any weight that would cause any strain upon them1 for when heated this would change the position and might cause a bend in the brazed parts4 ,brazing of cast-iron3 ,cast-iron is prepared for brazing in the same way as steel or iron is prepared4 ,the flux1 however1 is not the same4 ,it is made up of boric acid1 #h oz42 pulverized chlorate of potash1 #d oz42 carbonate of iron1 #c oz4 ,mix these together thoroughly1 breaking up all lumps that may be there4 ,keep this mixture in a glass jar4 ,place the pieces to be brazed in a fire as you did the iron and steel4 ,heat it all red hot4 ,mix the flux with the smelter and put it on4 ,do not put this on at any time before the metal is red hot4 ,increase the heat and add more flux and smelter4 ,when the brass has flowed into the joints1 shut off the heat and let the metal cool off in the fire4 ,cast-iron requires a higher temperature for brazing than iron or steel4 ,if a brass rod is used in place of the smelter1 push the end of the rod in the joint to be brazed4 ,it will melt off as fast as it is pushed in4 ,when brazing some cast-iron1 the break should be reinforced on the unexposed side by a plate of wrought iron or steel4 ,if this is cleaned off thoroughly and placed against the break the smelter will not only fill up the break but it will hold this piece of metal fast4 ,brazing steel band saws3 ,band saws break very often while in use4 ,they can be repaired only by brazing the broken ends together4 ,do so by filing each end of the broken pieces1 tapering to a very sharp edge #c_/d in4 in length for lapping over4 ,the length of this lapping depends upon the width of the teeth of the saw4 ,when the ends are filed1 place them in a vise that can be bought for this purpose4 ,if no vise is at hand two wood clamps1 or iron clamps1 or an ordinary shop vise will answer the purpose4 ,put the two ends overlapping in place1 and clamp close enough to these ends to keep them in a straight line and1 also1 for shifting while brazing4 ,paint the joint with flux1 using the first flux mentioned in the article4 ,put a piece of silver solder between the laps4 ,now heat the jaws of a pair of close tongs white hot1 and grasp the joints between the hot jaws1 and pinch them together4 ,the heat in the tongs will melt the silver and braze the two parts4 ,hold the tongs steady2 if not1 they will bend1 and the saw will be rather hard to straighten when the tongs are removed4 ,do not remove the tongs until they are black hot4 ,now place the saw in a vise and file the teeth to correspond to those on either side of the joint4 ,smooth the roughness from the joint4 ,the value of brazing3 ,a knowledge of how to braze is most useful to any one working with the metals4 ,many things break that can be repaired only by this process4 ,for instance1 tubing1 automobile parts1 very complex parts of machinery1 etc41 when broken cannot be welded2 they must be mended by brazing4 ,the success of the process depends upon the care taken to make the parts perfectly clean and well fitted together4 ,if this is well done the brazing material will find its way to the closest joints and fix them4 ,,processes ,,of ,,stretching ,,iron ,,or ,,steel 7#a7 ,drawing3 ,stretching a piece of metal in one or more directions either by hammering1 or pulling1 or rolling1 is called drawing4 ,in the blacksmiths' shop the term drawing always means a decrease in the size of a cross section of the piece and an increase in the length4 7#b7 ,bending3 ,bending means making the metal take a shape from a straight line4 ,it may be made into a circle or curved or bent at right angles4 7#c7 ,twisting3 ,in the process of twisting no change is made in the axis of the piece4 ,the faces of the piece are changed2 as for instance1 when you twist a piece of paper holding one end fast and turning the other in the direction of its axis4 ,upsetting3 ,upsetting means increasing the thickness of a piece of iron by shortening its length4 ,forming3 ,forming is the process of giving a piece of iron shape1 either by hammering or by using some forming machine2 for example1 the bulldog4 ,welding3 ,welding means joining two pieces of iron together by heating them to the right temperature and hammering or pressing them together4 ,,xxvi ,,forging ,,hand ,,hammers ,cross peen hammer3 ,the sketch shows the form and gives the dimensions of this hammer4 ,stock3 #g_/h in4 square1 #b-a_/b ins4 long4 ,illustration3 ,cross peen hammer ,it is best to make this hammer on the end of a bar4 ,in this way you dispense with the handling of tongs1 and you are able to get the best control of your material4 ,mark with a centre-punch1 the centre of the #b-a_/b in4 piece4 ,through this1 punch a hole with an eye punch4 7,see eye punch in tool list47 ,the hole will be a little less than the finished size4 ,draw the face end slightly tapering4 ,drive the four corners down and make the face of hammer octagonal in shape4 ,the sketch will show just where to begin this knocking down4 ,the hammer is now cut off and the face squared up4 ,the centre of the face should be a little higher than the outer edges4 ,now drive into the eye a drift pin4 ,this pin is made of #c_/d #c_/h #d in4 steel4 ,it is tapered for the whole length down to #a_/b #c_/h in41 and oval in shape4 ,it is driven into the hole4 ,this gives the real shape to the eye of the hammer4 ,take the pin out and re-heat the hammer4 ,draw the cross peen out to a taper as you would if you were making a cold chisel4 ,be careful to keep all within the dimensions given4 ,the hammer may now be filed and polished if one wishes a bright hammer2 otherwise1 it needs only to be tempered3 then it is ready for use4 ,to temper the hammer3 ,place the whole hammer in the fire and heat it red hot4 ,grasp it with a pair of pick-up tongs through the eye4 ,dip the face in water half way up to the eye1 and hold it there until the face is chilled off4 ,reverse by placing the peen end into the water4 ,while this is cooling dip up enough water with the hand to keep the face of the hammer cold4 ,take it out and polish both ends with a piece of emery cloth wrapped around a piece of wood4 ,the colours now are beginning to run from the middle toward the ends4 ,when the purple colour reaches either end plunge that end into water1 holding it in the water until the purple colour reaches the other end4 ,then plunge the whole hammer in water4 ,this tempering darkens the hammer if it has been previously polished4 ,rubbing well with emery cloth again will restore the brightness4 ,the hammer is ready for the handle4 ,a hammer of this kind can be made without the help of a second person4 ,illustration3 ,processes in making peen hammer ,round peen hammer3 ,the form and dimensions for this hammer are given here4 ,illustration3 ,step in making hammer ,stock3 ,a piece of #a-a_/b-;in4 square tool steel4 ,this hammer1 too1 is best made on the end of a bar about #bj ins4 in length4 ,with a centre-punch mark off #b ins4 from the end4 ,this spot marks the centre of the eye4 ,place this end in the fire4 ,one inch from the end fuller down on the four sides of the bar 7#a74 ,this makes a neck one inch in diameter and having eight sides4 ,place it back in the fire and heat again4 ,now put the bar again on the fuller #b ins4 from the first fuller 7#a74 ,this time fuller only two sides1 the two sides opposite the centre-punch mark4 ,fuller so that the thickness measures #a-a_/d ins4 ,this means only #a_/h in4 depression on the two sides4 ,put again into the fire and draw the first end out so that it measures #a in4 octagonal1 any length4 7,see sketch #b47 ,heat again1 this time the whole body of the piece4 ,punch a hole with the eye-punch where the centre-punch was made4 ,the hole will be a little less in size than the finished hole will be 7see sketch7 to allow for the increase in size while working the metal into shape4 ,put the drift pin into the hole4 ,drive it through until the small end just shows through on the other side4 ,place a fuller over the hole and work the metal out sidewise by striking on the top of the fuller with a sledge hammer4 ,this requires a helper to do the heavy work4 ,while the heavy work is being done the steel must be heated many times1 but always without the drift pin4 ,keep the drift pin in water while the hammer is being heated1 as the pin must always be cold when driven into the eye4 ,drive it in a little farther each time1 so that by the time the centre is finished the hole will be the proper size 7#c74 ,the thickness of the metal around the eye should be about #a_/h in4 on the outer edges and #c_/af in4 in the centre4 ,this tapers a little from the centre outward1 as is shown in the drawings4 ,put the #c_/d-;in4 bottom fuller on the anvil and place the neck of the hammer on this and a top fuller above that4 ,strike on the fuller and reduce the neck until it measures about #c_/d in4 in diameter1 keeping the octagonal shape all the while4 ,illustration ,heat the hammer again where the face should be1 and fuller down between the body and the face so that this will measure about #a-a_/h in4 square1 using the same large fullers as before and making it octagonal4 ,this finishes up completely the body of the hammer between the face and the peen4 ,with a sharp chisel cut the hammer off an inch and a half from the body4 ,you will then have enough stock for the face of the hammer4 ,illustration ,the surplus stock on the peen allows for holding with the tongs1 and the face of the hammer is rounded up to about #a-e_/h in4 in diameter4 ,bevel the edges down #a_/af in4 back of this face and1 with a sharp chisel1 trim the face off flat or square with the axis of the hammer4 ,the centre of the face should be a little higher than the outside edges4 ,grasp the face with the tongs and place the peen in the fire4 ,take it out and cut it off #a in4 in length and make the edges rounding4 ,to shape the peen1 place the neck on a large fuller and round up as shown in the picture4 ,be careful each time to give it one eighth of a turn so that the octagonal shape will not be lost4 ,if the hammer has been carefully forged it will require little finishing in the way of filing1 unless one wishes to make a fancy polished hammer4 ,if such a one is desired some draw filing and polishing must be done4 ,this makes the hammer look better1 but it doesn't increase its efficiency4 ,the tempering is done in the same way as the tempering for the cross peen hammer was done4 ,however1 this hammer is larger and heavier than the cross peen hammer and is more difficult to temper4 ,while the same principle is involved in the tempering of both hammers1 greater care must be taken in tempering this one4 ,the handle is placed4 ,you will find that the driving of the drift pin into the eye1 first on one side and then on the other1 makes both outside openings larger than the centre4 ,this should be so1 as it helps to hold the handle firmly in place4 ,,tool ,,steel ,,and ,,the ,,making ,,of ,,tools ,here are a few problems which deal with the making of your own tools4 ,when buying steel for this work always tell what the steel is to be used for4 ,the merchant will probably recommend to you a grade of steel from which you can make tools that will last4 ,hardie3 ,take a piece of #a-a_/h-;in4 square tool steel4 ,make this tool on the end of a bar if the bar is long enough4 ,it is easier handled in that way4 ,the dotted lines on the drawing show the amount of material required to make the shank4 ,this should be made to fit the hole in the anvil2 #c_/h in4 from the shank fuller down on the two sides of the steel1 leaving #e_/h-;in4 thickness between the fuller marks4 ,draw the end out to a #c-;in4 taper on one side and widen it out to #a-c_/d-;in4 taper on the other4 7,see drawing47 ,illustration3 ,hardie ,illustration3 ,set hammer1 second process ,set hammer3 ,a set hammer is made with a piece of #a-a_/h-;in4 square steel2 #a-e_/h in4 from one end mark the hole4 ,put one end of the bar into the fire and heat it4 ,take it out and punch a hole with the eye punch in the piece of steel when it is marked4 ,knock the four corners down1 bevelling them as shown in the sketch1 and trim the end off rounding for the head4 ,cut it off #d ins4 long2 fuller the four corners #a-a_/d ins4 from the face as shown in the sketch4 ,the end view of the drawing shows the depth of the fuller marks4 ,illustration3 ,set hammer1 completed ,illustration3 ,set hammer1 first process ,hot chisel3 ,this tool is made much as you make the set hammer4 ,however1 where the set hammer is fullered on the corners the hot chisel is fullered on the two sides1 and the end is drawn out tapering4 ,used to cut hot iron4 7,see drawing74 ,illustration3 ,cold chisel ,illustration3 ,hot chisel ,illustration3 ,hot chisel1 details ,cold chisel3 ,this tool is made out of #a-;in4 square stock4 ,the punching of the eye and head part of this chisel is made in the same way as the other tools described here4 ,a blade is tempered from the centre to #b-c_/d ins4 in length1 and the cutting edge is finished a little rounding4 ,this tool is made to cut cold iron1 hence its name4 ,illustration3 ,another cold chisel ,,xxvii ,,some ,,general ,,forging ,,problems ,ice shaver3 ,ice shavers are useful as shavers1 breakers and choppers of ice4 ,they are made out of a piece of low carbon steel for the blade and a piece of #e_/h-;in4 round iron for the handle4 ,illustration3 ,ice shaver ,directions3 ,take a piece of #a_/b #f #d ins41 and cut along as shown by the lines4 ,when these two corners are cut out1 point the centre piece for a cleft weld4 ,slit the end of the rod1 scarfing its points thin1 and slip this point into the crotch of the scarf1 and weld with borax4 ,this now gives you a piece that looks like a shovel4 ,on the other end of the handle bend a ring about #d ins4 in diameter4 ,place the flat end in the fire1 heat it up1 and taper this flat end down very thin1 about #a in4 long4 ,with a file1 file four teeth in the end1 the same shape as shown here4 ,it is now ready for tempering4 ,this is done by heating all the teeth well back toward the handle red hot4 ,plunge the whole thing into water to cool it off4 ,take it out and polish4 ,heat a piece of large iron in the fire red hot4 ,on this piece of metal place the teeth of the pick4 ,when the blue colour appears on the point and cutting edges of the teeth1 cool in water4 ,it is now ready for use4 ,illustration ,grub hoe3 ,the form and dimensions of this tool are given1 also the different steps in the process of forging4 ,stock3 #a-a_/d #c_/d #e in4 steel4 ,directions3 ,mark off with a centre-punch the middle of the piece of stock1 and then mark off #a in4 from the middle in either direction4 ,fuller1 as shown in the sketch1 on the first end1 to a depth of #a in4 ,heat the piece and fuller the other end to a depth of #a_/b in4 7,a74 ,the centre lug is now #b ins4 long4 ,to make this #b ins4 long it is necessary that the fuller be placed on the piece on the outside of the centre-punch marks4 ,draw out the two ends1 as shown by the sketch1 one being directly opposite the other4 ,punch a hole with the eye punch in the middle of this lug almost through on one side4 ,take the punch out1 turn the piece upside down1 and finish punching the hole4 ,the punch used for doing this part of the work should be straight and tapered and quite thin on the end4 ,the problem is not to cut out a large piece but rather to split the metal4 ,it's only #c_/d in4 wide and will not allow for the cutting away of any material4 ,a punch of this kind will heat up on the end while driving1 when it is apt to bend4 ,to avoid this keep it cold by dipping it into water from time to time4 ,place a little green coal in the hole after you have started the punch in4 ,this prevents its sticking in the hole and it also prevents the end of the punch from getting hot4 ,a very deep1 narrow slot can be punched successfully in this way4 ,illustration ,the drift pin used to shape the eye upon should be made the size of the finished hole--that is1 #a-a_/b #c_/d in4 and #f ins4 long--oval-shaped1 and tapered on the small end to #c_/h #a_/d in4 ,this taper should be the whole length of the drift pin4 ,drive the pin into the hole about half way down4 ,this widens the hole so that it can now be placed on the horn of the anvil and fullered to the required thickness1 which should be #a_/h in4 on the extreme edge of the eye4 ,drive the drift pin again about #d ins4 or #e ins4 ,at the same time work the metal down on the outside4 ,repeat this till the hole fits the drift pin4 ,the pin is now driven in through from the other side1 thus making both outside openings of the eye the same size4 ,the hoe is now finished up as shown in the sketch and ready for hardening and tempering4 ,illustration ,illustration ,this is done in the same way as you did the chisel and the same temper colour is used for both4 ,five pounds is considered about the right weight for a hoe of this kind4 ,the problem of working out the eye for this is the same as for making the eyes of picks1 hatchets1 and tools of similar design4 ,,turnbuckles ,turnbuckles1 made either of steel or iron1 are used for truss rods4 ,there are many ways of making turnbuckles4 ,out of all1 three methods are here given3 7#a7 ,solid forged buckle1 7#b7 welding up1 7#c7 pipe method4 ,illustration ,illustration ,solid forged buckle3 ,this is made of soft steel4 ,select a piece of #a-a_/b-;in4 square stock #f ins4 long4 ,mark off #b ins4 with a centre-punch on each end4 ,draw the ends out #a in4 round4 ,bend the ends down as shown at ,b4 ,forge the buckle part to #a-a_/d in4 round at the end1 as shown at ,c4 ,make the other end just like this one and weld the two ends together so that the total length will be #aj ins4 ,now drill holes in each end for a #c_/d-;in4 tap4 ,tap a right-hand thread in one end and a left-hand thread in the other end1 or you can put a swivel hook in one end in place of the thread4 ,to do this the hole should be drilled #g_/h in4 without a thread4 ,select a piece of #g_/h-;in4 round soft steel #aj ins4 long4 ,upset the end and work a tapered round head on as shown at ,d4 ,the head should be #a in4 long and large enough to work loosely in the slot4 ,put this into the hole with the head between the wings and point the end forming it into a hook4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,welded turnbuckle3 ,to be welded at arrow point ,second method3 ,this is done by welding the two rods to collars4 ,make two collars out of wrought iron1 the size depending upon the size of the turnbuckle4 ,scrape the ends of this flat iron1 bend each into a circle1 and weld on the horn of the anvil1 thus making two collars4 ,the arm should be drawn out of a piece of flat iron and made half round by a swage on the anvil4 ,this leaves the original thickness of the bar on each end of the piece drawn out4 ,these ends are now flattened and scraped as shown at ,a and should be wrenched to lap on the inside of the collars4 ,place one collar on one end and the wings opposite each other4 ,push a bar of iron into the opening within an inch of the collar4 ,this bar prevents the tongs from squeezing the two wings out of shape and loosening up the collar while welding4 ,grasp the turnbuckle with a pair of tongs and place the end in the fire4 ,take a welding heat and weld this down on the horn of the anvil4 ,at the same time shape it as shown at ,b4 ,draw out the piece of iron1 place the other collar in the open end1 and weld it as you did the first4 ,this is finished up in the holes made4 ,threads can be cut or swivel hooks can be placed in4 ,third method3 ,take a piece of pipe1 length and size desired4 ,heat one end and upset it1 enlarging and thickening it slightly4 ,cut a round iron plug to fit this end tightly4 ,heat the plug and drive it into the pipe4 ,place it on the fire and weld the pipe to the plug4 ,at the same time forge the end square or hexagonal4 ,drill a hole in this end1 pin the swivel hook same as explained in the second method4 ,select the iron1 make the head on the rod1 and put it through the pipe into the hole1 head inside1 before the plug is welded in the other end4 ,be sure that this rod will turn freely4 ,shape the hook before the plug is welded in the #b-;in4 end4 ,this gives one an opportunity to push a rod into the pipe and hold the head of the hook while shaping it in the form of a hook or eye as required4 ,now weld a plug in the other end the same as you did in the first4 ,drill a hole in this end and cut a thread to receive the truss rod end4 ,this last method is much simpler than the other two4 ,it has this advantage1 that the thread will not rust so quickly1 since it is always enclosed in the pipe4 ,however1 there is danger of a very weak spot right back of the plug1 because you know when two pieces of metal are welded together the temperature should be the same4 ,if not1 the cold one will cut into the hot one and form cold shuts4 ,in this case it is impossible to get the plug the same temperature as the outside4 ,as a consequence there is a defect in the forging4 ,illustration3 ,eccentric strap ,eccentric strap3 ,the principles applied in the working out of this problem are used in making many articles of wrought iron4 ,eccentric straps are much used in foundries1 machine shops1 and general shop work4 ,stock3 ,bar of wrought iron or soft steel #a-a_/h ins4 square1 #af ins4 or #bj ins4 long4 ,round the bar down on one end to #a in4 in diameter4 ,split the other end up the length of the bar #h ins4 to within #a in4 of the shoulder made by the rounding down of the stock4 ,these two arms are now thrown at right angles to the stem1 forged down to #a_/b #a in4 the entire length4 ,the arc of the circle made by the arms is determined by the size of the thing the eccentric strap is meant to fit when it is finished4 ,the ends are now turned up at right angles and are bent to fit the circle4 ,a gouge chisel will cut the end off rounding4 ,all ladle handles can be made in this way4 ,garden hoe3 ,the drawing shows the form and dimensions of the hoe1 a garden tool very simple in construction and very useful4 ,stock3 #f #d #a_/b in4 steel4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,hoe ,directions3 ,mark off #b ins4 at one end and cut down #a in4 deep on both edges4 ,cut out a wedge-shaped piece as shown in the sketch4 ,draw out the piece #a_/b in4 in diameter and #f ins4 long4 ,this forms the handle4 ,fuller down on each side of the handle where it joins the body as shown by the full lines4 ,with the fuller spread out the metal on either side of the handle until it forms a blade #h #e ins4 ,this blade should be #c_/af in4 thick at the top and #a_/h in4 at the cutting edge4 ,bend the handle into shape4 ,file or grind the edges of the blade to make it smooth4 ,this should be tempered by heating it red hot4 ,plunge into oil4 ,take it out when cold and hold it over the fire until the oil flashes off4 ,then allow it to cool in the air4 ,grind it and polish if a bright finish is required4 ,if not it is now ready for the wood handle4 ,wood chisel3 ,chisels for cutting wood can be made from a piece of gas pipe and a piece of steel1 or from old cold chisels too short for use4 ,if no piece of old tool steel is at hand take a new piece1 #e_/h #d ins41 hexagonal4 ,if a piece of gas pipe is used1 #a_/b in41 heat one end and place it on the point of the horn of the anvil4 ,with the peen hammer thin the point down around the end4 ,this thinning stretches the metal and gives you a funnel-shaped opening1 and a scarf to use for welding4 ,the short chisel end should be pushed into this for about #a in4 and the scarf should be tapped down gently on this chisel4 ,sometimes it is necessary to upset the end of the chisel in order to make it fit the scarf4 ,if required to do this1 put it into the fire and heat it red hot1 and upset it on the end where the weld is to be4 ,now put it into the pipe1 put borax on the scarf1 and heat it hot enough to weld4 ,take it out and weld it up in a bottom swage and reduce the weld to #a_/b in4 in diameter4 ,cut the shank off about #c-a_/b ins4 from the weld and heat this end again4 ,stretch it on this end so as to enlarge it to fit the wood handle which will be placed in later4 ,heat the steel end4 ,flatten it down to the shape of a wood chisel1 the width to be according to the size needed4 ,out of this piece of steel a chisel #a_/b in41 #c_/d in41 or #a in4 can be made4 ,it should be tapered down #c_/d in4 on the cutting edge4 ,file the cutting edge on the chisel4 ,it gives a much better finish4 ,the chisel is hardened and tempered almost the length of the whole blade1 a blue colour1 by heating it red hot1 plunging it into water1 polishing1 and drawing the temper on a hot piece of iron4 ,the handle is made by using what is known as a hollow auger4 ,this shapes the wood to fit the pipe4 ,a piece of the same pipe can be sawed off with a hack saw about #c_/h in4 wide4 ,this makes an iron ring1 which should be driven in the end of the wood handle to prevent it from splitting4 ,these chisels make the best kind of tools for rough1 heavy work4 ,door hasp3 ,door hasps are found most commonly on barn doors and gates1 and in conjunction with a staple and lock form a complete fastening4 ,the drawings make clear the different steps in the work4 ,stock3 #a_/d #a #f ins4 ,illustration ,illustration ,directions3 ,the eye is made first4 ,heat the piece red hot4 ,fuller down the stick #e_/h in4 from one end1 and #b ins4 from the fullered mark put in another4 ,the distance between the fullered marks should be #b ins4 ,draw out the space between the fullered marks to #e_/h in4 in width1 #b-a_/b ins4 long4 ,cut the corners off the piece left on the end1 as shown by the drawing4 ,round this up with the hammer on the anvil4 ,punch a hole in the middle of the eye1 but keep the thickness the same during all the work4 ,to make the body of the piece1 where the slot is1 #b ins4 from the shoulder fuller the end down to #e_/af in4 from the end4 ,draw out this end to #a-e_/af in4 in length4 ,this forms the loop1 and at the same time it tapers to a sharp end4 7,see drawing47 ,the piece is now ready for punching4 ,mark places for the punch holes1 then cut between the holes with a hot chisel4 ,in this way the centre piece is cut out1 forming the slot4 ,if this is carefully done little work will be required to finish it4 ,the slot is filed out if any rough places are left4 ,the end is bent up4 ,sometimes a ring is put in it1 as a door pull1 and sometimes the latch itself is used for the pull4 ,illustration3 ,dividers ,pair of dividers3 ,perhaps the simplest way to make a pair of dividers is to get a pair of buggy top joint butts1 #a_/b in4 size4 ,weld to each of the legs a piece of steel to form the two legs for the dividers4 ,begin about #a in4 back of the weld and draw the legs out tapering1 octagonal in shape and rounding toward extreme sharp points4 ,place a washer on each side of the joint1 and rivet the ends together with a steel rivet4 ,if carefully done the dividers will require no wings4 ,if wings are required they can be made by punching a slot #a_/b #a_/h in4 in each of the legs1 #b ins4 from the joint4 ,in each of these slots drill holes1 in one a #a_/h-;in4 hole and in the other a hole for a #c_/af-;in4 tap4 ,drill both sets of holes through the legs4 ,tap out the one and make a thumb screw to fit4 ,this is done by drawing out a #c_/h-;in4 stem on the end of a #c_/h-;in4 rod and cutting off #c_/h in4 of this to form the head of the thumb screw4 ,heat this end and flatten down4 ,finish up with a few strokes of the file4 ,cut a #c_/af-;in4 thread on the end4 ,screw it into the dividers4 ,draw out a wing #c_/h in4 wide1 #a_/h in4 thick1 to fit the slot4 ,bend it into a semicircle and place it into the slot4 ,open the dividers4 ,see that it swings round on this circle4 ,drill a small hole in the end of the wing to fit the #a_/h-;in4 hole drilled into the leg and rivet it into the slot4 ,this makes a pair of dividers that can be used for all classes of work4 ,illustration3 ,thumb nut ,,stone ,,chisels ,,and ,,picks #a4 ,stone chisels3 ,stock3 #a_/d1 #a_/b1 #e_/h1 #c_/d-;in4 octagonal steel1 #e ins4 long4 ,stone chisels are made out of the above sizes of steel1 in sets1 for the cutting of marble1 sandstone1 granite1 etc4 ,directions3 ,put one end of the stock in fire4 ,heat about #a in4 ,draw this hot end to a taper #a_/d in4 at the small end and #a-a_/b in4 long4 ,place the extreme end again in the fire1 take it out and strike it on the end by placing it upright on the anvil4 ,upset this end and form the round top shown in the drawing4 ,if this top is not completed in one heating1 heat it again and repeat the hammering on the end4 ,all stone chisels are made with this rounding end so that wood mallets can be used for driving purposes4 ,the ones shown here are the shapes used on most stone chisels4 ,illustration3 ,stone chisels ,illustration3 ,stone chisels ,the size of the teeth depends upon the hardness or softness of the material to be cut4 ,the large teeth are used for hard stone cutting and the small teeth for soft stone cutting4 ,place the other end of the tool in the fire and flatten it down as shown in the sketch given here4 ,notice the dotted lines show that the extreme cutting edge of this tool is narrower than the body4 ,this is an allowance made for the spreading out of the tool while cutting the teeth4 ,space off the teeth with a #c-;cornered file as shown in the same sketch1 and cut the teeth with a chisel made in the following way3 ,take a piece of #a_/b-;in4 octagonal steel4 ,draw it out in the shape of a cape chisel4 7,see sketch47 ,heat the end of the steel tool1 then place it in the vise4 ,with the end projecting up place the chisel on the mark made by the file1 strike down sharply on the chisel1 and drive it down to the required depth4 ,this is repeated until the teeth are all cut4 ,flatten the cutting edge carefully on the anvil1 and all teeth that may have been driven out of a straight line by the cutting4 ,heat the tool to soften it4 ,file between the teeth the roughness made by the forging of the tool4 ,a small flat jewellers' file will be found best for this purpose4 ,harden the tool as you did the cold chisel1 and temper it at the purple colour sign4 #b4 ,pick3 ,stock3 #a_/b-;in4 square tool steel1 #h ins4 ,illustration ,directions3 ,mark the middle of the bar with a centre-punch4 ,punch the hole through with the eye punch4 ,put in a drift pin and flatten down the bulged sides of the bar made by punching the hole4 ,draw the two ends out to a sharp square point4 ,this should make the pick not more than #aj ins4 long4 ,the drawing should show the shape it will be when finished4 ,these picks are hardened the same as cold chisels1 and tempered at the purple colour4 ,,rock ,,drills 7,,used ,,with ,,machinery7 ,as the name indicates1 these drills are used for making holes in rocks when blasting is to be done4 ,the form and shapes most in use are shown here4 ,the double drill1 used so much in power drilling machines1 is made in the following way3 ,take a #a-;in4 octagonal bar of steel1 any length4 ,heat one end1 and upset it to #a-a_/d in4 in diameter4 ,put a small #a_/b-;in4 fuller on the anvil and place the end of the bar lengthwise on the fuller4 ,put the top fuller directly above this and strike with a sledge hammer4 ,the result is two fuller marks driven down within #a_/b in4 of meeting4 ,reverse this and do the same on the other two sides4 ,this marks a cross4 ,illustration3 ,tools for rock drills used in machines ,illustration3 ,machine drill ,place the forming tool in the anvil1 and with a set hammer forge out the wings as shown in the sketch4 ,the diameter of the drill depends upon the size of the hole to be drilled and is made accordingly4 ,use a sharp chisel for cutting the cutting edges of the drill4 ,it is now ready for tempering4 ,drills are made in this way from the raw material4 ,when once made they are kept in shape by what is known as the drill dressing tool shown here4 ,these rock drills wear out on the sides1 thus reducing the diameter4 ,when re-dressing they are always upset to the required diameter4 ,the re-dressing is done in the following way3 ,heat the end of the drill in the fire and place the dressing tool so that the cross impression fits the end of the drill4 ,drive on the end lengthwise of the bar1 upsetting the drill to the required diameter1 at the same time retaining the original shape of the cutting edge of the drill4 ,to temper rock drills3 ,take two small tubs of cold water1 one clear and the other made soapy by cutting up a bar of cheap soap into bits4 ,heat the end of the drill to be tempered to a dull red and put it into the tub of clear water1 the cutting edge only under water until it is cooled off4 ,take it out to polish4 ,when the straw colour appears plunge it into the tub of soapy water4 ,this does away with any red heat that might be in the bar when the temper colours appear4 ,soapy water is a poor conductor of heat and it allows the steel to cool off without suddenly chilling it4 ,,drill ,,for ,,hand ,,drilling ,illustration ,these drills are used for drilling holes in rocks where it is impossible to place machines or where machines are not available1 such as on farms1 where great rocks and nigger heads are to be removed by drilling and blasting out4 ,they are made as you would make a cold chisel4 ,the taper1 however1 is much shorter and the ends are usually either rounded or diamond shape4 7,see sketch47 ,the cutting edges are ground1 but in many cases they are forged and filed to shape4 ,they are tempered in the same way as cold chisels are treated4 ,illustration3 ,round and flat hand drill ,illustration3 ,pipe drill ,round and flat hand drill3 ,take a piece of octagonal steel1 the size and length depending upon the size and depth of the hole to be drilled4 ,these should not be over #bj ins4 in length1 for the blow would have little effect upon the cutting edge of the drill4 ,put one end into the fire1 take it out and finish it up as you would the short end of a cold chisel4 ,reverse the piece of steel1 and heat this end1 for about two inches1 red hot4 ,place it on the side of the anvil face and flatten it down tapering4 ,make it very short and just wide enough for the size hole to be drilled4 ,with a hot chisel cut the end into the proper shape1 either round or diamond shape4 ,with the hand hammer work the cutting edge on the end4 ,this end should be from #a_/h in4 to #c_/af in4 in thickness4 ,either file or grind the bevel which forms the cutting edge sharp4 ,harden and temper it the same as you would a cold chisel4 ,if it is found1 on trial1 to be too soft1 re-heat1 harden1 and temper at a higher colour4 ,one of the best hand drills for drilling holes in soft material like bricks or sandstones is a piece of gas pipe any length4 ,file teeth in the end1 like a saw tooth4 ,case harden the end4 ,this drill will go through a wall almost as quickly as a twist drill and with much less labour4 ,,shackle ,shackles are used for connecting chains1 wire1 ropes1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,shackle4 ,stock3 ,one piece of #c_/d-;in4 round iron1 #ab-a_/b ins4 7for shackle74 ,one piece of #a_/b-;in4 round iron1 #d ins4 7for pin74 ,one piece #a #a_/h-;in4 flat iron1 #a-c_/d ins4 7for key74 ,one piece #c_/af-;in4 round iron1 #b-a_/d ins4 7for ring74 ,directions3 ,heat the #c_/d-;in4 round iron bar two inches1 then bend this end on the anvil at right angles to the rest of the bar4 ,place the heel on the anvil1 with the end sticking up4 ,strike on the end with the hand hammer and drive it down into the heel of the piece4 ,repeat on the other end of the bar4 ,as one can always force the metal into any shape one desires by first driving it one way or the other1 skill in making the two ends of the bar depends upon one's way of using the hammer4 ,this method of making the eye on the end of the bar does away with welding and upsetting of the metal4 ,a round finished eye is the result of the natural bending of the metal4 ,this holds good not only for the shackles like this one but for many other tools1 such as hand holds for cars1 wagons1 etc4 ,bending3 ,the shackle should be bent as shown in the sketch4 ,first bend it right back of the eye1 each one at about #de4 ,heat the body of the piece and shape it around the horn of the anvil until the opening measures #a in4 wide4 ,the sledge and swage are best used for this purpose4 ,place the swage on the metal and have the helper strike the swage4 ,the shape is not apt to be changed or the metal marred if these tools are used4 ,pin3 ,take the #a_/b #d in4 piece of stock4 ,the end is heated and upset about #a_/b in4 ,place this end in a heading tool and work a button head on the end with either the cupping tool or a hand hammer4 ,the pin should have a slot cut through it #b ins4 from the head4 ,to do this make a punch to cut the slot the shape required4 ,after the piece is marked punch the slot by driving the punch half way through on one side4 ,turn the piece over and drive the hole through on the other side4 ,this enlarges the metal a little4 ,reduce it to the #a_/b-;in4 size to fit the hole in the shackle4 ,cut a little piece of iron the thickness and width of the key1 #a_/b in4 long4 ,heat the end with the hole in and drive this drift into the slot4 ,with #a_/b in4 top and bottom swage and the drift in the slot1 reduce the pin to fit the hole4 ,drive the drift out4 ,you now have a nice rounded pin with a hole in1 #c_/h #a_/h in4 ,key3 ,take a piece of #a #a_/h in4 flat iron or steel4 ,mark the shape of the key4 ,cut it out and file to fit the slot4 ,drill holes in the small end of this to prevent it falling out of the pin4 ,ring3 ,bend the piece of #c_/af-;in4 wire around a #e_/h-;in4 rod in the shape of a spiral and saw off each ring as required4 ,the ring should fit the hole in the key4 ,this method of making a shackle is the same whether the material is #a_/d in4 in diameter or any size up to #b ins4 in diameter4 ,,crow-,,bars1 ,,and ,,welding ,,of ,,tool ,,steel ,,to ,,wrought ,,iron ,illustration3 ,crow-bar ,crow-bars are made by welding a piece of round ,no4 #b flat steel into the end of a wrought iron bar any length or any size1 depending upon the use to which the bar is to be put when made4 ,this drawing shows a bar for shifting rails for railroads4 ,when the size is determined1 select the wrought iron to be used4 ,upset the end and split it with a chisel #c_/d in4 for a cleft weld4 ,re-heat the end to a white heat4 ,place it upon the edge of the anvil nearest you and with the peen of the hammer work the scarf out to a sharp point4 ,repeat on the other side4 7,see picture47 ,place the piece of steel selected for welding1 in the fire2 shape this end down to a sharp point at an angle of #de4 ,with the edge of the chisel placed on this scarf1 strike on the top of the chisel with a sledge hammer4 ,this will cut a nick and at the same time it raises up a sliver which will help hold the piece of steel in the iron between the cleft4 ,cool this scarf off in water until it is black hot4 ,heat the piece of iron 7scarf end74 ,place the end of the steel scarf between the cleft and close the scarf on to the steel by striking gently4 ,the steel will now stay in the end of the piece until it is welded4 ,place the scarf in the fire and when it is red hot cover it with borax4 ,get a welding heat on the wrought iron close to the joint first4 ,gradually work this heat toward the steel till the borax begins to burn1 emitting a dark brown smoke4 ,take it out of the fire and place it on the anvil4 ,one or two sharp blows on the end of the steel will drive it up into the crotch of the scarf4 ,now strike gently on the top of the scarf4 ,increase the force of the blows when you are sure the two pieces are welding together4 ,if the pieces are not welding1 which will be readily seen by the points of the scarf opening while working them down1 place them again in the fire1 put on borax and re-heat4 ,a few trials will teach you how hot to get it for welding4 ,flatten down the end and shape it as shown in the drawing4 ,harden and temper the crow-bar as you would a cold chisel4 ,if the point is not quite sharp enough grind it on the stone4 ,,nail ,,puller ,,or ,,claw ,,tool ,this tool is made in much the same way as you make a crow bar4 ,however1 before bending the end up into a crow-bar shape1 cut a slot in the end1 as shown in the picture4 ,now bend it into shape4 ,the handle should not be over #bj ins4 in length and tapered usually from #c_/d in4 at the large end to about #c_/h in4 at the smaller end4 ,the end is now flattened and a hole punched in it to hang it up when not in use4 ,this is one of the handiest tools to have around any shop1 not only as a nail and a bolt puller1 but it may be used in place of the crow-bar4 ,the drawing explains the various steps in the making of the tool4 ,illustration3 ,nail puller ,,butcher ,,knife ,stock3 ,spring steel1 #g_/h #a_/af in4 #i ins4 long4 ,illustration3 ,butcher knife detail ,the spring steel used for carving knives or any steel used for that purpose should be a grade that will harden in oil just hard enough to feel a mill-cut file cut the steel4 ,cut the stock off #i ins4 and forge the shank first4 ,on this size steel this forging of the shank consists in reducing the thickness of the material and widening it about #a_/af in4 to #b ins4 in length4 ,this tends to toughen the steel1 and it makes a better knife by this extra work4 ,illustration3 ,butcher knives ,to forge the blade1 heat #g ins4 and bend it a little edgewise before reducing the one side for cutting edge4 ,allow the stretching and thinning out of this edge to straighten the blade1 and the curve on the back will form itself1 naturally1 by the extra length of the cutting edge4 ,do not try to forge the exact shape of the knife4 ,it is much better to reduce it to the required thickness1 outline the shape1 and cut it with a hot or cold chisel4 ,at this thickness the knife can be worked either hot or cold when doing this particular kind of work4 ,cut along the outline1 thus giving it shape4 ,a fine file will finish the roughness on the outline and trim up any uneven spots caused by the shaping4 ,when the knife is finished1 so far as the forging is concerned1 anneal it by heating the whole blade and allowing it to cool in slaked lime4 ,this relieves any strain due to forging4 ,handles are made of bone1 birch1 or beech1 and can be shaped to suit one's taste4 ,they should measure about #a #e_/h #e ins4 ,rivets hold them in place4 7,see cut47 ,these are of brass wire1 easily made by cutting off the length required to go through the wood to hold the blade in place4 ,place the blade in the slot of the wood handle and drill four holes through the wood and through the blade4 ,do not make the holes more than #a_/af in4 in diameter4 ,take the blade out1 harden1 and temper4 ,all drilling of holes and fitting should be done before the blade is tempered1 while it is in the soft state4 ,it is difficult to drill the holes after the tempering has been done4 ,to temper the blade3 ,the blade is tempered by heating it on a coke fire4 ,place the back of the blade down1 on a piece of flat iron4 ,the iron will heat red hot4 ,the iron under the knife prevents the flame striking the blade and heating it unevenly1 in spots1 as it were4 ,when the blade is red hot plunge it into a bath made of linseed oil4 ,take it out of the oil and polish it4 ,use the piece of iron the blade was heated on to draw the temper4 ,this hot iron is put on the anvil1 the back of the knife edgewise is placed on the iron and moved forward and backward to insure a uniform heat4 ,as soon as the straw colour appears take out any buckle or bend caused by the hardening4 ,place the other side of the blade on the anvil4 ,a few quick1 sharp blows with the peen of the hammer will straighten the blade4 ,continue the tempering until the purple colour shows4 ,the blade should be tempered so that a very smooth1 sharp file will just cut it when rubbed over the surface4 ,place the blade in the handle and rivet it in place1 polish it1 and then grind4 ,,ornamental ,,iron ,,work ,,xxviii ,,processes1 ,,andirons1 ,,fire ,,tools ,illustration ,the handling of wrought iron when making ornamental work often brings in1 besides the usual smithing operations1 the processes of embossing1 impressing1 engraving1 etching1 inlaying of copper or brass1 grinding1 and polishing4 ,embossing is done by heating the piece and raising the metal from the back into an iron above the surface4 ,impressing is done by cutting an impression in an iron block and driving the metal into it4 ,engraving consists of putting the design upon the iron with a diamond point chisel or any sharp tool1 with the aid of a hammer4 ,when the design is cut out by means of acid the process is called etching4 ,it is done in this way3 ,the surface to be etched is first covered with a layer of wax4 ,the design to be left is scratched through the wax into the metal by using a very sharp tool4 ,this lays bare the surface of the metal to be etched4 ,the acid or etching fluid is then applied4 ,when sufficiently etched the acid is removed from the surface of the metal by means of turpentine4 ,this stops the action of the acid immediately4 ,inlaying is hammering one metal into the surface of another4 ,it is done by cutting a groove in the surface of one metal and hammering the other metal into this groove4 ,impressing1 engraving1 etching1 inlaying1 etc41 are used on fine pieces of ornamental work1 such as door knockers1 drawer pulls1 door handles1 sword blades1 ornamental hinges1 fire sets1 etc41 or on small pieces of work such as initials or coats of arms1 etc4 ,splitting of iron or soft steel3 ,splitting iron or soft steel is done for many pieces of work4 ,all solid rings1 rings without welds1 handles for carrying ladles in foundries of all kinds are made in this way4 ,most of our ornamental work1 where we require two pieces of iron running from a stem in opposite directions1 calls for this process4 ,illustration3 ,copyright1 #aiaa1 by ,underwood ,underwood1 ,n4 ,y4 ,splitting and ,shaping the ,iron in the ,making of ,andirons4 ,we are now going to make a pair of andirons4 ,the process of splitting iron comes in with this problem4 ,illustration ,pair of andirons3 ,it is always best to make a sketch of the large pieces of ornamental work to be made1 in order that they may have the proper proportion to their setting and bear the right relation to their surroundings4 ,for instance1 a grill made from either wrought iron or soft steel must fit the opening when finished1 iron gates must fit space for which they are intended1 yet not be too tall or too short to be in good proportion to their setting1 etc4 ,andirons must fit into the fireplace and occupy the space so as to give the eye a sense of fitness and proportion to the whole hearth4 ,this sketch shows a pair of andirons that can be made suitable for any size hearth4 ,no inlaying1 etching1 etc41 is used upon this work1 the only decoration being the hammer marks left by the peen of the hammer4 ,andirons are much used in country homes where log fires are in use4 ,they can be made of iron or brass1 and coal or wood may be used on a hearth fitted out with a pair4 ,stock3 ,one piece soft steel1 #a-a_/b #a-a_/b #bj ins4 ,two pieces1 #g_/h in4 square1 #i ins4 long4 ,two pieces1 #g_/h in4 square1 #ad ins4 long4 ,two pieces1 #g_/h in4 square1 #bj ins4 long4 ,one piece #c_/d-;in4 square iron4 ,one piece #a #a_/d #f ins4 flat iron4 ,illustration3 ,bend in this way to form the legs ,directions3 ,take the #bj-;in4 bar and split it #aj ins4 ,to do this rub a piece of chalk on the two faces of the bar4 ,this makes clear any marking put on the surface4 ,with the square mark off #aj ins4 from one end4 ,now with a pair of dividers set at #c_/d in4 run along the bar with one leg of the dividers on the outer edge to the #aj-;in4 mark4 ,do this on both faces4 ,now mark on this centre line with a cold chisel4 ,put the bar into the fire and heat the end of it4 ,take it out when red hot and put it on the anvil4 ,the marks made by the cold chisel will show plainly4 ,with the hot chisel cut along the lines made by the cold chisel1 cutting from both sides of the piece until the bar is divided into two equal parts4 ,this will require a number of heatings to do4 ,the last inch should be cut from the top down4 ,to cut this1 up-end the bar on the anvil or any solid base1 placing the hot chisel in the crotch of the piece and striking it with the sledge hammer4 ,this cuts the last inch down square with the axis of the bar4 ,the sledge hammer work is heavy and one requires a helper here4 ,the bar is now divided into two wings4 ,before shaping these two wings into the base for feet the upper part of the bar should be drawn out according to the drawing and the end rounded or squared as suits the taste4 ,the wings are now shaped up and form the two feet on the bar4 7,see drawing47 ,illustration3 ,shape legs should be before bending ,to shape the feet of the andiron3 ,the drawing shows the shape and length the legs should be4 ,to do this heat the bar at the crotch1 and flatten both sides out almost straight4 ,this prepares for shaping according to the drawing4 ,measure off #c ins4 from the extreme end of each leg and mark off with a centre-punch4 ,the #c-;in4 lengths form the feet4 ,taper the iron between the centre-punch mark and the crotch so that when finished the leg should measure #a-a_/b #e_/h in4 close to the crotch1 and #a #a_/b in4 at the centre-punch mark4 ,repeat this on the other leg4 ,flatten out the feet so that they will measure #c-a_/b #b-a_/d ins4 ,these feet are slightly impressed4 ,to do this place the feet over a hollow iron block and force the metal down so that the under side is raised up about #a_/b in4 above the level of the foot4 7,see dotted lines on the drawing of the feet47 ,repeat on the other side4 ,the leg is now ready to be bent into shape4 ,heat up at the crotch and then bend both legs back toward the top end at an angle of #fj4 ,heat again and bend the legs forward1 shaping them like the drawing4 ,back part of the andiron3 ,the drawing shows a short upright piece placed so as to prevent the logs rolling out in front4 ,the #ad-;in4 piece is welded on to the upright1 as shown in the drawing1 and fastened on to the andiron4 ,the #bj-;in4 piece is welded on to the andiron and forms the leg on which the wood is placed4 ,these pieces are welded upon short uprights by what is called jump welds4 7,see description of jump welds47 ,the end of the iron is bent on the anvil as square bends are always made4 7,see description of square bends47 ,the end that fastens to the andiron proper is also bent square1 but tapered slightly to make a nice fit4 ,fastening the frame to the andiron is done with a stud and bolt4 ,the stud is screwed into the andiron and into the frame as shown by the dotted lines4 ,a square headed bolt fastens the upper part1 thus preventing any twisting out of place4 ,the only finish given to the andirons is that left by the marking of this peen hammer4 ,this leaves a mottled surface1 which gives an old look to the finished piece4 ,chain ring bolt3 ,ring bolt is made from a #c_/d-;in4 square iron piece4 ,this is drawn down at one end until it is #a in4 long and #a_/b in4 round4 ,a thread is cut on this end4 ,drill a hole through the centre of the square head #c_/h in4 in diameter4 ,illustration3 ,ring ,illustration3 ,ring bolt ,illustration3 ,andiron with riveted wood rest ,ring3 ,take the #a #a_/d #f in4 piece of flat iron4 ,draw it out so that it tapers toward each end4 7,see drawing47 ,on the extreme end of each is a #a_/d-;in4 pin #c_/h in4 long4 ,bend ring into shape4 ,the lower centre of the ring has a knob4 ,this knob is made out of a piece of #c_/d-;in4 square iron pulled down #a_/d in4 in diameter and #a_/d in4 back from the end4 ,the fullered end makes the pin and should be cut long enough to project through the ring #a_/h in4 to allow for riveting4 ,you have sufficient stock to round up on the edge of the anvil into a ball shape4 ,drill a hole in the centre of the ring and fit the pin on the end of the knob into the hole in the ring4 ,rivet tight4 ,the design you see on the ring may be put on with a diamond pointed chisel4 ,the ring is now heated1 opened out1 and pushed into the hole made in the ring bolt so that it swings easily into place4 ,two rings of course should be made4 ,the chain fastened from one ring to another is used as a guard against fire4 ,the chain rings are made out of #a_/d-;in4 square iron which is cut #aj ins4 long4 ,then they are bent square and welded as chain links are usually welded4 ,notice that the last two links show an opening just wide enough to allow them to be slipped into the rings of the andiron4 ,this completes the set4 ,the finish is made by the indentations left by the peen of the hammer4 ,on page #cfi is shown another pair of andirons4 ,they are made in the same way as the pair just described1 splitting it down to form the legs4 ,the wood rests are riveted through the body of the piece1 forming a large rivet head in front to hold it in place and at the same time adding to the decoration4 ,,fire ,,tools ,,and ,,stand3 ,,poker1 ,,shovel1 ,,tongs ,illustration ,fire tools form part of the andiron set and are used for grate fires or open hearth fires of either coal or wood4 ,they are always in evidence in country homes where open fireplaces are still in use4 ,they can be made of brass1 iron1 or soft steel4 ,if an andiron is in place the fire tools are usually made of the same metal and finished in the same way so as to match4 ,illustration ,poker3 ,stock3 ,one piece of #g_/h-;in4 round iron or soft steel #h ins4 long 7for handle74 ,one piece #a_/b in4 round4 ,one piece #bj ins4 long 7for rod74 ,these drawings show a simple design in fire tools4 ,all have handles after the same design1 slightly curved1 with a ball as an end decoration4 ,the making of the handle is described below1 and this method1 of course1 applies to the making of all the handles of this set4 ,handle3 ,stock3 ,one piece #g_/h in4 of round stock fullered down #g_/h in4 from the end to a thickness of #e_/h in4 ,knock the four corners down and round up into a ball4 ,five inches from this1 fuller the piece to #e_/h in4 thickness4 ,draw the piece out any length1 keeping the thickness #e_/h in4 ,weld the #a_/b-;in4 rod to the small end4 ,the extreme end of the poker may be finished in various ways4 ,it is sometimes turned at right angles to the rod4 ,it may be pointed1 flattened1 etc4 ,the centre of the handle is slightly curved4 ,to do this heat the rod and reduce it1 then place it upon the largest part of the horn of the anvil4 ,with the hand hammer1 hammer until the thinnest part in the centre measures about #c_/d in4 in diameter4 ,in this way the handle is reduced #a_/h in4 at that point1 and curved in slightly4 ,illustration ,shovel3 ,stock3 ,handle1 #g_/h #h in4 round iron or soft steel4 ,rod1 #a_/b #aj ins4 long1 iron or soft steel4 ,shovel blades1 rectangular piece of ,no4 #bj1 soft steel1 #f #i ins4 ,directions3 ,handle is made in same way as you made the handle of the poker4 ,rod3 ,the rod is welded at one end to the handle4 ,the other end is flattened out to be riveted on to the shovel blade4 ,to do this1 upset the extreme end of the rod back about #a in4 and about #c_/d in4 in diameter4 ,flatten this out and shape it up as shown by the sketch4 ,holes are drilled in for #a_/h in4 rivets4 ,shovel blade3 ,cut a paper pattern just the shape of the blade4 ,mark on the inside of the pattern the width of the edges to be turned up4 ,place the paper pattern on the metal and cut out the outline with a cold chisel4 ,now mark off the inside line for the turned up edges4 ,heat the metal in the forge fire1 a little at a time1 beginning at the centre part of the round4 ,bend it upon a round stake1 tapping gently with the hammer until the blade is well shaped1 according to your design4 ,this size metal will buckle up the same as the copper did4 ,give as much care in rounding up the iron as you did to the copper4 7,see copper bowl47 ,when the piece has taken on the shovel shape place the end of the handle to be riveted on the blade1 and mark the holes4 ,drill and rivet the handle and the blade with #a_/h-;in4 round head iron rivets4 ,notice that the shovel blade is not in an exact line with the handle and rod4 ,it forms an angle with them4 ,this bend is made after the riveting is done4 ,heat the piece where the blade joins the rod and bend it back gently either with the hand or by tapping it with a hammer1 keeping the hot part of the shovel1 all the time1 on the horn of the anvil4 ,illustration ,tongs3 ,stock3 #g_/h #ab in4 round1 for handle4 ,two pieces #a_/b #af in4 round rod4 ,illustration ,illustration ,directions3 ,make handle as for poker and shovel4 ,look at the detail drawing and you will see by the dotted lines that #b ins4 from the lower end of the handle the stock is bent out at right angles to the axis of the handle4 ,take one of the #a_/b #af in4 round rods1 place it in the swage1 using the top swage on this4 ,shape the piece between the two swages4 ,form it to an oval shape by striking with a sledge hammer on the top swage4 ,this makes one half of the rounded part of the tong4 ,if this is done without turning the piece while working it1 the cross section will be oval4 ,bend it rounding1 as shown by the drawing4 ,it is now ready to weld to the rod1 but before doing this it is best to finish the hinge4 ,draw out the stock between the shoulder and the bend1 #b #e_/h ins4 in diameter4 ,leave the stock heavy near the handle on account of the weight of the tongs4 ,to form the hinge3 ,place a round #c_/d-;in4 punch1 flattened on the end1 on the corner and drive down half way4 ,this makes a circular depression1 just large enough to accommodate the #a_/b-;in4 hinge4 ,two of these wings of the tongs are to be made to complete the tongs4 ,the second piece is far simpler than the first to make1 and it is really the only part of the tong that moves4 ,draw out the stock and make the same size oval as you made with the other piece under the swages4 ,bend it the same shape4 ,repeat the work with the punch on the end1 thus making the other half of the tong hinge4 ,file these halves to fit perfectly4 ,when that is satisfactory1 drill a hole through the middle4 ,put a round-head rivet through1 and see whether the hinge now works perfectly free4 ,remove rivets4 ,the parts are now ready to be welded to the rods4 ,upset the ends of the small rods1 scarf both for a regular lap weld 7see ,lap ,weld71 and finish by welding4 ,the end of the tongs are flattened down4 ,flatten out the material and at the same time round it up4 ,if the material is not thick enough to give enough for this rounding part1 upset the end a little1 or double the end over and weld4 7,see ,welding47 ,tongs are now ready for riveting together4 ,place the hinge in position4 ,push the round-head rivet through the hole made4 ,let it push through far enough to allow material for a rivet head of exactly the size of the round head4 ,the head may be rounded up if not too large1 while it is cold4 ,since only a #a_/d-;in4 rivet is called for here1 this work can be done without any heating4 ,tongs are made1 as you know1 for the purpose of picking up pieces of wood or coal to place them in a stove or open fire4 ,one must keep their use in mind when making the ends of the tongs fitted to do this work1 so the ends may be flat1 round1 claw shaped1 concaved1 etc4 ,the finish will be the same as the finish on the andiron1 without any attempt at ornament4 ,the surface should show the hammer marks1 but be quite free from lumps4 ,stand3 ,sometimes hooks are fastened in the fireplace for holding the fire tools4 ,a tool stand1 however1 is most convenient and may be made easily4 ,the drawing shows a plain design1 with base1 feet1 upright1 arms for receiving the tools1 and handle4 ,stock3 ,base1 ,no4 #bj sheet iron1 #ah #ad ins41 oblong piece4 ,feet3 #c pieces1 #a in4 square1 #b ins4 long4 ,upright1 #c_/d in4 round1 #bf ins4 long4 ,arms1 #b pieces1 #a #a_/d #ae ins4 ,handle1 #a #a_/b #bj ins4 ,directions3 ,the drawing shows the stand as it should look when finished4 ,base is made first4 ,cut out a pattern of an ellipse1 long diameter #ah ins41 short diameter #ad ins4 ,place this pattern on the oblong piece and cut it out with shears or a cold chisel4 ,on the inside mark off #a-a_/d ins4 parallel to the outside edge4 ,on that line turn the metal up as you turned up the rim of the copper bowl4 ,this can be done while the metal is either hot or cold4 ,perhaps it is a little easier to work up most of the bend while the metal is hot and finish up while it is cold4 ,do not cool the metal off in water1 though4 ,this tends to harden it a little4 ,let it cool off gradually1 and when necessary anneal or soften it4 ,feet3 ,the #a-;in4 square iron is fullered down #a in4 from the end4 ,the ball is rounded out of this end piece same as was done in making the balls for the door knocker4 ,this leaves part of the metal with which to make a pin for riveting4 ,cut off this rivet pin the length required4 ,rivet holes are made in the base large enough to receive the rivet pins on the iron feet4 ,divide the base into three equal parts4 ,drill rivet holes the right size1 put the iron balls in place1 and rivet4 ,arms3 ,the two pieces of #a_/d #a #ae ins4 are bent and scarfed4 ,the two scarfed edges are welded together4 ,then the end is welded to one end of the upright post4 ,handle3 ,the handle is made separate and is then welded on to the arms4 ,take the #a_/b #bj in4 piece and bend it at right angles #e ins4 from each end4 ,heat it in the middle and bend so the two ends come together4 ,this forms a loop4 ,make this loop the same shape as is shown by the handle4 ,weld the two #e-;in4 ends together1 shape1 and then weld this to the crotch of the arms4 ,this forms the handle4 ,the arms are now bent wide enough to receive the fire tools4 ,the upright3 ,cut it off #cj ins4 from the top of the arms4 ,upset one end large enough to make a foot #d ins4 long and about #b ins4 wide4 ,this is flattened down and shaped as shown1 for three #a_/d-;in4 rivets4 ,push the rivets in and rivet the upright to the base4 ,if the base should not be strong enough to hold the upright firm it can be strengthened by placing a brace from the long ends and fastening it to the centre of the upright4 ,this adds to the decoration as well as the strength4 ,use a #a_/b #a_/h in4 flat bar of iron or steel4 ,place it in a vise and twist it about two thirds of its length4 ,bend the ends to fit the curved sides of the base and also to fit the post4 ,a small #a_/h-;in4 rivet on each side and one through the post will hold it sufficiently4 ,the stand is finished to correspond with the andiron and fire tools4 ,in this design the hammer marks seem more suitable than any special decoration4 ,a little machine oil spread over the surface1 the whole thing heated in the forge fire until the oil flashes off1 gives a natural iron finish1 which is most pleasing4 ,,xxix ,,candlesticks1 ,,hinges1 ,,iron ,,brackets ,,candlestick ,this wrought iron candlestick is made up of three pieces welded together4 ,stock3 ,three pieces of #c_/h-;in4 round iron #d ins4 long4 ,illustration ,directions3 ,the detail drawings show the steps in the making of this piece of work4 ,notice that the rod used to make the leg and foot also forms part of the holder or socket4 ,take one of the #c_/h #d in4 rods4 ,mark off #c_/d in4 from one end4 ,draw this out as shown by the sketch4 ,mark off #a_/b in4 from that point4 ,from this #a_/b-;in4 mark draw the material out #d-a_/b ins4 long4 ,this should be made square and tapered slightly toward the foot4 ,you will then have #c_/d in4 for the foot4 ,foot3 ,the drawing shows a conventional flower shaped foot4 ,spread the #c_/d in4 wide enough to shape a foot as shown in the sketch4 ,shape it by cutting it out with a chisel and then filing4 ,the embossing is done in the same way1 as has been explained4 7,see ,embossing47 ,socket3 ,the socket is tulip or cup shaped4 ,flatten out the opposite end of the #d-;in4 bar and shape up as shown in sketch4 ,make the other two legs to match this one4 ,weld the three pieces together at ,a in the following way3 ,put the three parts together and bind in place with a piece of binding wire4 ,place it in the fire and heat it to a welding heat4 ,weld the three pieces close to the socket and for about #a in4 below4 ,shape a round neck 7see sketch7 and at the same time reduce it to #c_/h in4 in diameter4 ,the small iron collar is put on and welded about #a in4 below the socket4 ,this addition is for ornamental purposes entirely4 ,shape socket for the candle3 ,heat the top at a low heat and with a pair of round-nosed pincers shape up as shown4 ,the legs are now twisted4 ,this can be done the last thing and while the metal is cold4 ,wrought iron candlestick3 ,take a piece of soft steel or wrought iron #a_/d #d #d ins4 ,heat the bar4 ,emboss the centre by driving it in a hole in a swage block4 ,the centre should be about #a-a_/b ins4 above the surface of the feet4 ,cut out the four pieces as shown in the sketch4 ,file up and finish the base4 ,illustration ,post3 ,select a piece of #e_/h-;in4 square iron4 ,taper the ends to #c_/h in4 square by #g-a_/b ins4 long4 ,the small end swells out #a_/b in4 as shown in the sketch4 ,forge a small pin1 #a_/d #a_/d in41 on the end of this post4 ,now swell the base of the post so that it will measure #g_/h in4 square4 ,the length from end to end minus the length of the pin should measure #h ins4 ,forge a #c_/h-;in4 pin #a_/b in4 long at the base end4 ,heat the centre of the post2 place it in the vise and give it a complete twist to the right4 ,drill in the centre of the base a hole to fit the pin on the end of the post4 ,heat the pin red hot and rivet the base to the post4 ,candle socket3 ,this socket is made in a conventional design4 ,take a piece of ,no4 #bj soft sheet steel or iron and cut a disc #b-a_/b ins4 in diameter4 ,divide this piece equally into six parts and cut out as shown on the drawing4 ,bend these leaves up to form a socket4 ,now cut a piece of sheet metal #b-a_/b ins4 square1 and cut out as shown for the little ornament fastened on the top4 ,bend the four wings down as shown here4 ,drill a small hole through the centre of each to fit to the piece on the end of the post4 ,place these pieces in position and rivet in place4 ,this work is to be done cold4 ,a candlestick of this design is easily made and very attractive when finished4 ,,decorative ,,iron ,,work ,next to the scroll1 the twist is perhaps the most characteristic detail of decorative treatment in iron4 ,twists relieve the plain effect of the straight lines made by the hard edges of the metal1 by introducing short curves into the design4 ,the twists are easily made and lend themselves largely for decoration on such things as fire escapes1 brackets1 grills1 gates1 fences1 and smaller articles1 such as umbrella stands1 door knockers1 fire tools1 etc4 ,the twisting is done best while the iron is cold4 ,if done while the iron is hot great care must be taken to check up when the lines begin to run too close together4 ,take a bar of square iron1 fasten one end in the vise1 and with a monkey wrench on the other end give the metal a twist4 ,only square bars show a change in the shape after twisting4 ,round stock when placed in the vise and twisted shows no change in shape4 ,however1 two pieces of round stock twisted give a very pleasing effect4 ,a braided strand is made 7#a7 by welding the ends of two pieces of round iron together side by side and twisting them1 7#b7 welding ends of two more pieces of the same size and length together and twisting them1 7#c7 by welding these two twisted bars together on both ends and twisting them in the opposite direction4 ,this gives a braided effect which is most decorative4 ,however1 the square stock gives the most satisfactory result in all of this twisted work4 ,handles can be made by reducing square stock1 leaving the centre larger and drawing the ends out to a taper and twisting this tapered part4 ,begin the twist in the middle and let it rise gradually toward each end4 ,great care must be taken with this work1 as the smallest sizes are also the weakest and naturally bend first4 ,to do this work successfully the metal must be heated and driven a little each time until the whole taper is twisted4 ,spirals3 ,spirals are made by drawing a long taper on the end of a round or square bar of small iron4 ,turn the end of the bar up #a_/b in4 at right angles4 ,grasp the turned up end in the vise2 coil the end up as you would a coil of rope4 ,slip one end under the other when they come together4 ,when the first coil reaches the centre of the piece repeat on the other end until the two coils meet in the middle4 ,heat it all evenly4 ,grasp both ends in the tongs and pull the spiral out4 ,stop when the openings equal the size of the iron of which the coil is made4 ,illustration ,ornamental bulbs3 ,bulbs are used in the same way as spirals and twists1 for decorative purposes1 on andirons1 grills1 fences1 etc4 ,the form shown here in the sketch is a very simple one4 ,the principle1 however1 is the same as that applied to the forging of more complex bulbs4 ,select a rod of iron for a core4 ,reduce the thickness to about #a_/b in4 for about #f ins4 long1 leaving the required thickness at the ends2 #a_/b in4 from the shoulder nick the bar around1 cutting it almost through4 ,leave about #a_/af in4 to hold it to the body of the piece4 ,cut the core off #a in4 from the #c-;in4 cut4 ,the picture shows the method of making the core in order to work out the problem4 ,select a number of pieces of #c_/af-;in4 round soft steel the length of the reduced piece and place these around the core1 each one fitting close to the next one4 ,if the space is too small or too large when the last piece is put in make the core larger or smaller4 ,these rods should just touch when they lie around the core4 ,now with a pair of tongs bind all the rods tightly around the core and with the same tongs put one end in the fire and heat red hot4 ,cover with borax4 ,take on a welding heat and weld it in a swage1 confining the length of the welding to as short a space as possible4 ,illustration ,illustration ,the core prevents the rods from sinking while welding and it also keeps them in place4 ,reverse the piece4 ,put the other end in the fire and weld as before4 ,weld the neck as short as possible4 ,heat the body of the piece uniformly4 ,grasp one end of the bar in the vise and with a pair of tongs twist the other end toward the right slowly4 ,while doing so tap lightly on the end with a hammer4 ,this tends to loosen up the rods and help the twisting4 ,be careful not to twist so much that the rods will break away from the welds4 ,heat all again4 ,place it again in the vise and twist in the opposite direction1 at the same time driving on the ends4 ,this forces the centre out and gives it a bulb shape4 ,the core should bend up where the cutting is done4 ,now the core should be driven out4 ,a punch driven in against the core should break it easily where the cut marks are made4 ,these short ends are forced out through the openings between the rods1 and any uneven buckles or bends in the rods should be bent or straightened as the case requires4 ,the bulb can be trued up while cold4 ,a punch driven through from the opposite side will help straighten any of the rods bent from the outside in4 ,the rods can be plied apart with a pair of pliers or a pair of tongs4 ,the surplus metal on the top end is now cut off and trued up4 ,,spiral ,,candlestick ,illustration ,this old ,dutch candlestick is made of #c_/af-;in4 round wire in spiral form4 ,the spiral stem is made so that1 as the candle burns down1 an inner socket is moved around the spiral4 ,this travels up and down and keeps the point of the candle above the holder4 ,illustration3 ,copyright1 #aiaa1 by ,underwood ,underwood1 ,n4 ,y4 ,finishing of an ,ornamental ,window ,grill1 and ,levelling ,up of an ,old ,dutch ,candlestick4 ,stock3 ,base1 #e-;in4 disc of sheet steel or iron4 ,legs1 #a_/h #a #e ins4 7makes the #c74 ,spiral1 #c_/af-;in4 round wire1 #dj ins4 ,directions 7base or pan73 ,divide the disc into sixteen equal parts4 ,flute these parts by cutting out a little hollow in a hard wood block and driving the flutes in by the use of a round cross peen hammer4 ,fluting reduces the diameter of the disc and forms it into a pan shape4 ,legs3 ,the three legs are in one piece4 ,the #a_/h #a #e in4 piece is split down half way2 #a in4 from where the split ends the piece is fullered down4 7,see sketch47 ,draw out this end #c_/h in4 wide4 ,draw out the split ends to this width1 and all pieces to #a_/h in4 thickness4 ,this forms a tripod1 the three legs at an equal distance apart4 ,the ends of the feet are made very thin by flattening down4 ,turn these up as shown by the sketch and shape the three feet4 ,spiral stem3 ,this candle stem is #c_/d in4 in diameter4 ,if you wind up a piece of #c_/af-;in4 wire on a #c_/d-;in4 iron rod while the metal is cold you will have a spiral stem like the one shown here4 ,to do this make a mandrel out of a #c_/d-;in4 bar not less than #bj ins4 in length4 ,drill a #a_/d-;in4 hole in the end4 ,into this hole drive a #a_/d-;in4 iron plug4 ,place this mandrel in the vise4 ,bend a small loop on the end of this wire to fit the #a_/d-;in4 pin4 ,bend the wire and begin to wind around the bar4 ,make as many turns as are shown in the drawing4 ,take the wire off4 ,the small loop end will stick out below the spiral and prevent it standing on a base level4 ,this end must be driven back4 ,to do this place it upon the other end of the rod1 strike it with the hammer1 and flatten it out so that the base will stand flat4 ,insert a sharp-pointed chisel between the coils2 open them out so that the distance between them will be #a_/d in4 ,do this while the metal is cold4 ,the handle may be made any design4 ,it can be bent over1 extended at right angles to the top1 etc4 ,rivet the legs to the base with a #a_/d-;in4 bolt4 ,with a nut on the end rivet tightly to prevent the nut loosening up4 ,socket to fit the spiral stem1 for raising and lowering the candle3 ,stock3 ,one piece of #a_/h #a #c in4 ,one piece of #a #b-a_/b in4 flat iron or soft steel1 ,no4 #bj4 ,directions3 ,the ,no4 #bj piece is bent around a #c_/d-;in4 mandrel to give it a cylindrical shape4 ,the two edges just come together4 ,the handle of this socket is made by fullering down #a_/h #a #c ins41 #a in4 back from the end1 and drawing this out #c_/af in4 round1 #b ins4 long4 ,the end is turned over as shown in the sketch2 the other end is filed round to fit the inside of the socket cylinder4 ,the two pieces are now brazed together4 ,file the parts that come into contact with each other perfectly clean1 and cover with borax4 ,heat it red hot and touch the parts to be brazed with the end of a piece of brass wire4 ,at a certain temperature the brass wire will melt and fill up the spaces between the bottom and the cylinder4 7,see ,brazing47 ,this makes a tight joint3 it is like soldering wrought iron together4 ,this method of joining is used where welding would be impossible1 as it would be in this case4 ,file the base off smooth4 ,the candle can now be slipped between the coils of wire4 ,it should travel in its socket up and down the spiral4 7,see drawing47 ,,iron ,,and ,,steel ,,hinges ,ornamental hinges are used on doors1 wall cabinets1 chests1 gates1 etc41 or wherever suitable4 ,there are three methods of making hinges3 7#a7 ,solid eye1 7#b7 welded1 7#c7 turned or bent eye4 7,see article on ,plain ,hinges47 ,solid eye3 ,the first drawing shows the solid eye split ornamental hinge4 ,illustration3 ,ornamental hinge ,stock3 ,one piece of soft steel or wrought iron1 #g_/h #g_/h #f ins4 long4 ,take a bar of iron #ah ins4 long with the above dimensions as to width and thickness2 #e ins4 from the end of the bar fuller down to #c_/h in4 thick4 ,these #e ins4 are flattened down to #a_/d in4 thick and #b ins4 wide1 any length4 ,split the flattened part to within #b-a_/b ins4 of the shoulder4 ,the two ends are now thrown out1 tapered1 and bent into shape4 ,cut the piece from the bar #a in4 back of the fullered part4 ,round the piece up1 thus forming the eye4 ,the body of the piece between the split and the eye is now widened out to #b-a_/b ins4 ,to do this use the peen of the hammer on the under side of the metal1 thus thinning out the metal in the centre in order to increase the width4 ,shape it up and curve it about #a_/d in4 ,this1 in turn1 gives a nice rounded finished surface similar to the drawer pull4 ,the chased design on the hinge is made in the same manner and with the same tools as are used in work in chasing4 7,see chapter on ,chasing47 ,the butt for the hinge is made of #a #a_/b in4 flat wrought iron4 ,fuller down the end of the piece1 round it up to fit the diameter of the eye of the hinge4 ,a hole is punched in the middle of the piece4 ,a #b-a_/b #a_/b in4 piece of iron is drawn and is pushed into the hole1 riveted down on the short end1 and welded4 ,the other end is drawn out to a square tapered point4 ,nick the four edges at intervals with a sharp chisel1 thus throwing up little projections to prevent it from slipping out of the wood when driven in to hold the hinge4 ,this kind of hinge is used mostly for doors4 ,the upper part of the pin that sticks through the eye of the hinge is ornamented by a fuller mark and a round top4 ,,iron ,,bracket ,this bracket is made of three pieces3 back piece1 hanger1 and support3 ,stock3 ,back plate1 #c_/h #a in4 of soft steel or ,norway iron4 ,hanger and support1 #a_/d in4 square4 ,back plate3 ,the drawing shows the back plate as a conventional leaf design and is made as follows3 ,take the #c_/h #a in4 of soft steel and shape it according to the drawing4 ,with the peen of the hammer widen out the top enough to cut out the design shown here4 ,when cut out as shown1 boss up the centre of the leaves by using the peen hammer on a round hole4 ,this bossing is a matter of taste4 ,the lower part is now flattened out1 trimmed1 and shaped as shown4 ,the thickness is of no importance4 ,on the end of the top bar forge a pin about #c_/af in4 in diameter to fasten into the back by riveting4 ,illustration3 ,iron bracket ,hook3 ,the hook is made in the same way as you made the gate hook4 ,the bar is twisted in the middle4 ,support3 ,select a bar the right length and twist it in the middle4 ,flatten the ends down and bend the little curves as shown4 ,this is drilled for a #a_/h-;in4 rivet1 then placed in position4 ,holes are marked in the hanger and in the back4 ,rivet the support in place4 ,be careful to have the hanger at right angles to the back4 ,if you do not1 the effect is spoiled1 no matter how good the rest of the workmanship may be4 ,,xxx ,,lamps1 ,,lanterns1 ,,iron ,,kettle ,,stand1 ,,umbrella ,,stand ,,wrought ,,iron ,,lamp ,illustration ,the sketch shows a wrought iron lamp with square base1 four feet1 round hollow post1 shade holder and shade4 ,base3 ,no4 #af soft sheet steel1 #aj ins4 square4 ,illustration3 ,copyright1 #aiaa1 by ,underwood ,underwood1 ,n4 ,y4 ,making an ,iron ,lamp--,bending the ,parts of the ,base ,make a #b-a_/b-;in4 circle in the centre of the #aj-;in4 square piece4 ,drive this up #a_/b in4 above the level by placing it over a #b-a_/b-;in4 hole in a wooden block or a swage block4 ,if this piece of iron is placed over a hole any diameter and struck on the opposite side with the peen of the hammer it will sink into the hole and take the rounding shape4 ,this can be done while the metal is cold4 ,with a pair of dividers find the centre of boss and describe a faint circle #a in4 less than the diameter of the base4 ,tangent to those lines draw lines along the edge of the base4 ,the dotted lines on the sketch show how the base should be cut out4 ,the stock left on the corners forms the feet when the sides of the base are bent into shape4 ,cut out the piece of metal as described and bend the sides over #a_/b in4 ,the corners must be heated red hot and formed separately4 ,this is best done over the heel of the anvil4 ,after placing the heated corners on the heel of the anvil drive quickly with a light hammer first on one side and then on the other1 forming and upsetting the metal into shape at the same time4 ,the flare on the bottom of the feet is worked in after the corners and shaped as shown in the sketch4 ,repeat this on the four corners4 ,now flare out the feet on the horn of the anvil4 ,out of the centre of the boss cut a circle a little less than the base of the post1 to receive the post4 ,post3 ,take a #aj #e in4 piece and bend it around a piece of round iron so that the two edges will fit close together4 ,the inside and outside of these are filed for brazing4 7,see ,brazing47 ,this post is now bound with good strong wire to keep the joint close4 ,cover with flux1 place in the fire and add the smelter to the joint on the inside of the pipe4 ,when the smelter runs into the joint take it out of the fire and allow it to cool in the air4 ,the joint is now filed up on the outside and if properly brazed should show only a very fine line made by the smelter4 ,the upper part of the post is now swelled out as shown in the sketch1 by heating at a low heat and spreading the metal out all around the end4 ,a cap is placed on top of the post to hold the arms that support the shade and to hold1 too1 the electric light bulb1 or gas pipe1 or oil well1 according to the light to be used4 ,the cap is made by rounding the end of a #a-;in4 bar to #a_/b in4 in diameter1 #b ins4 long4 ,the other end is cut off about #a_/b in4 to allow for the flattening down to make the cap4 ,place the #a_/b-;in4 stem into a heading tool and flatten this bar down quite thin4 ,spread it out so that the edges can be turned over at right angles to form a cap to fit the top of the post4 ,this cap can be either brazed or riveted on to the post4 ,either will look well4 ,if used for gas or electric light a hole should be drilled through the centre of the cap and through the post to receive the wire4 ,if used for gas the lower side can be tapered out so that #a_/h-;in4 gas pipe can be screwed in4 ,now cut a thread on the top of the post to fit an electric light socket4 ,the same thread acts as a holder for the bracket of the shade holder4 ,place the cap on the post1 rivet and braze4 ,file the lower part of the post and the inside of the hole on the base perfectly clean4 ,the bottom of the post should be filed a little tapering so it will fit into the base of the hole tight4 ,wire it in for brazing so that the post will stand perpendicular to the base4 ,carry your binding wires from the top of the post to the four corners of the base1 using heavy wire for this work of binding4 ,cover the joint with flux4 ,place the centre on the fire and put the brazing material on the joint around the post4 ,with a slow heat1 heat till the smelter runs into the joint4 ,close off the blast1 let it remain in the fire until cold1 then remove it4 ,shade holder3 ,this is made of a piece of #a #a_/h #aj in4 soft steel4 ,fuller down #c ins4 from the end to #c_/h #a_/h in4 ,draw this out any length4 ,split the other end to within #a-a_/h ins4 of this fuller mark4 ,throw these arms out and draw each down the same size as the other1 #a_/h #c_/h in4 ,place the crotch on a small bottom fuller and with the top fuller spread each arm out so that it will measure an equal distance from the other arms4 ,at the same time this will shape the centre4 ,drive the end out tapering #c_/h in4 wide at the base1 tapering to #a_/h in4 square at the ends4 ,the length of the arms depends upon the size of the shade4 ,tip ends of the arms should be bent up #a_/h in4 to hold the shade in place4 ,drill a hole in the centre of the tripod and tap a thread in the hole to fit the thread on the end of the cap1 so that this will screw on4 ,these arms can be bent down or up to suit the height of the shade4 ,shade3 ,the shade pattern is developed in the same way as the shade described in the copper article on lamp shades4 ,in this case1 however1 each unit is cut out separately and riveted to the next2 all put together and filed2 #a_/h-;in4 soft iron rivets are used for riveting the parts4 ,glass3 ,the glass can be bought at any glazier's4 ,cathedral opalescent glass is best4 ,place a piece of card-board on one of the units and mark the outline of the opening4 ,cut about #c_/h in4 larger than this outline4 ,this pattern taken to the glazier can be cut out from any kind of glass1 according to the size wanted4 ,,lamp ,this lamp may be used for gas1 oil1 or electricity4 ,the difference between this and the preceding lamps lies in the construction of the base4 ,the full page illustration shows lamp described here4 ,illustration ,base3 ,soft steel #a_/h #e #bd ins4 ,mark off the design shown by the full lines on the #a_/h #e #bd in4 piece4 ,this is for one leg of the lamp4 ,cut with a sharp cold chisel along the outline about two thirds of the way through the thickness4 ,place the cut line in the jaws of the vise4 ,with a pair of tongs grasp the waste material1 then with a prying motion break off these pieces4 ,file up the rough edge left by the cutting4 ,with this piece as a pattern cut in like manner three more pieces1 making four in all4 ,this makes the stock for the four legs4 ,place the foot end of one piece into the fire and bend about #a in4 of this end into a small circle having a radius of not more than #c_/d in4 ,about #e ins4 back from this heat the metal to a length of #e ins4 ,place it on the anvil as shown and with the hand hammer drive it into a circle4 ,illustration ,while bending this into shape keep the circle a little larger than the drawing calls for4 ,the circle is very easily reduced1 while if it was made too small in the beginning one would have to straighten the whole piece out to increase the size4 ,therefore1 it is best to work it large until finished4 ,wide stock like this is easily twisted out of shape1 so that it is very difficult to bend it up in a circle of this kind4 ,it is hard1 too1 to change any twist that may be worked in4 ,illustration ,bend the other three legs in the same way1 as nearly like the first one as you can4 ,be sure to make the four legs the same height when finished4 ,drill three holes for #c_/h-;in4 bolts1 as shown in the sketch4 ,seven inches below the top drill one hole in each leg for a rosette or some form of decorative treatment4 ,these four legs are held in place by means of a tapered square plug #d ins4 long4 ,the small end should fit the smallest width on the lamp legs and the taper #d ins4 below this width4 ,drill a hole through the centre of this plug for a #a_/h-;in4 gas pipe1 if to be used for gas4 ,the same opening can be made for electric wires1 etc41 and a lamp well1 placed at the end for a lamp4 ,to put the lamp together3 ,place one leg on the square plug and mark through the holes on the plug4 ,centre-punch these holes and drill for a #c_/h-;in4 top4 ,the hole should be drilled through the plug4 ,tap out the holes and bolt the two legs1 one on either side4 ,while drilling these holes be sure they are at right angles to the centre axis of the plug4 ,this means a little blocking up on the tapered end4 ,bolt the two legs to the plug by using any short #c_/h-;in4 bolts for this purpose4 ,if all work so far has been carefully done these two legs will stand vertically to the plane of the table4 ,if not they can be made to do so by taking out a little of the curve in the legs1 thereby lengthening the side that might be a little short4 ,place one leg up on the third side and with a scratch awl mark the holes through on to the plug and drill these three holes through the plug4 ,tap out as you did before and put the other two feet on4 ,square up all the work done4 ,bolts are used for this purpose4 ,take #c_/h-;in4 square bolts1 #a_/b in4 long4 ,reduce the thickness of the head to #a_/h in41 flattening and rounding the top slightly4 ,put these in place of the temporary bolts4 ,they will hold the sides of the lamp in place4 ,a decorative piece can be made out of a bolt head by placing it in the heading tool and forming a pyramid shaped head4 ,this is pushed through the hole and riveted on the other side4 ,cut off a piece of gas pipe short enough to extend about #a in4 above the top of the lamp and to come within #b ins4 from the base4 ,this is now forced through the hole in the plug4 ,if any of the bolts should have screwed into this hole1 preventing this pipe from going through1 they should be filed off4 ,to fill up the interval caused by the four scrolls bending outward on the top of the lamp1 forge a round ball on the end of a square bar to fit this opening4 ,cut off the ball and drill a hole in through the ball to slip over the pipe4 ,the thread on the end of the pipe should fall below the top of the ball4 ,make a tripod as explained in the description of the preceding lamp4 ,screw it in the end of this pipe tight against the ball4 ,the end of the pipe is used for the fixtures needed4 ,illustration3 ,forge ball #a-b-c ,drill hole #d ,,lanterns ,illustration ,the lantern shown here is of a simple design and can be made out of material without putting in any bends or twists4 ,the material for the making of the uprights is #a_/b #a_/h in4 steel4 ,the top and bottom should be made of ,no4 #af soft steel4 ,the design shows that all pieces are riveted together on a framework4 ,the top can be of one piece and shaped as shown in the sketch4 ,bottom is of one piece and is made for electric light1 candle1 or oil lamp4 ,fixtures for any one of the above ways of lighting must be placed in the bottom of the lantern4 ,for the candle1 a small socket can be riveted to the bottom4 ,a cup to receive the oil lamp may be put in place4 ,if candle or oil is used the bottom of the lantern must be fastened with a hinge1 so that it will open to receive the lamp or candle4 ,if it is adjusted for using electric light the cluster sockets can be fastened to the bottom1 or they can hang from the top4 ,these lanterns can be made in all sizes1 from one small enough for a cozy corner to one large enough for a lodge keeper's gate4 ,they may be hung on ornamental brackets1 as shown in the sketch here1 or they may hang directly from the ceiling1 with ring or chain fastenings4 ,they are made square1 round1 hexagonal1 and so forth4 ,,iron ,,kettle ,,stand ,the sketch here shows a simple design of a kettle stand4 ,the parts are 7#a7 upright stand1 7#b7 alcohol lamp holder1 7#c7 hook4 ,material3 ,one piece #e_/af-;in4 square iron1 #bj ins4 ,two pieces #e_/af-;in4 square iron1 #i ins4 ,one piece #e_/af in4 square iron1 #g ins4 ,one piece #c_/af-;in4 round iron1 #h ins4 ,one sheet ,no4 #bj iron1 #f in4 in diameter4 ,illustration3 ,kettle stand ,directions3 ,flatten one end of each piece of the three pieces1 #e_/af #bj in41 #b pieces of #e_/af #i in4 ,weld these three together4 ,weld the #e_/af #g in4 piece to the three pieces as shown by the sketch4 ,bend the two #i-;in4 legs out equal distances from the front leg4 ,this forms the tripod4 ,bend the ends of the three short pieces into a scroll to form the feet4 ,now1 bend the centre rod up as shown in the sketch4 ,when this is done catch it in the vise close to the bend4 ,with the monkey wrench grasp it about two thirds of the way up and twist the centre piece to the right a sufficient number of turns to give it a regular bend between the two points4 ,reduce the end of this upright post to #c_/af in4 round and #f ins4 in length1 leaving on the end a small boss about #c_/h in4 ,this boss is to be rounded up by flattening and rounding on the edge of the anvil4 ,through the centre of this boss punch a #c_/af-;in4 hole and drive into it a piece of #h #c_/af in4 round wire4 ,when half of the wire is pushed through the hole bend the ends forward and at the same time drive them into the boss4 ,this prevents the bent piece of iron from working up and down4 ,it is now opened out as shown by the sketch and bent into a hook shape4 ,the end of the post is turned so that the centre of this hook will hang over the centre of the tripod4 ,illustration ,illustration ,lamp holder3 ,mark on the #f-;in4 disc a flower form similar to the one shown in the sketch4 ,cut out the design with a sharp chisel4 ,file all rough edges and bend the shape up so that it will fit around the outside of the alcohol lamp1 to hold it in place4 ,punch a hole through the centre for a #a_/h-;in4 rivet and drill a #a_/h-;in4 hole directly under the centre of the hook4 ,place the lamp holder on and rivet in place4 ,when the kettle is placed on the hook it should hang directly over the lamp4 ,if it does not do so the post may be changed and the position of the kettle made to correspond4 ,illustration3 ,copyright1 #aiaa1 by ,underwood ,underwood1 ,n4 ,y4 ,ornamental ,work and the ,straightening and ,finishing of an ,umbrella ,stand ,,umbrella ,,stand ,the umbrella stand in the accompanying illustration shows a splendidly shaped design4 ,you will notice that the four uprights are curved and twisted1 fastened to two rings #aj ins4 in diameter4 ,the pan in the bottom of the stand1 placed there to catch the drippings from the umbrellas1 is made of copper and is beaten into shape in the same way as you would drive any pan into form4 ,this is made to fit in the base of the stand4 ,to make this stand1 take four pieces #a #a_/h in4 flat soft steel1 #dj ins4 long4 ,two pieces #a #a_/h in41 #ca ins4 long1 are needed for the rings2 four pieces #a #c_/h #ab ins4 for legs4 ,the copper pan should be #ab ins4 in diameter4 ,,xxxi ,,door ,,knockers1 ,,plates1 ,,etc4 ,,door ,,knocker ,sketches given here show two different designs of door knockers4 ,in the first design the knocker itself is made of round iron and twisted to form part of the design4 ,it is made of very heavy stock4 ,illustration3 ,door knocker ,stock3 ,escutcheon plate3 #a #a_/d in4 flat iron4 ,bolt3 #c_/d #a_/b in4 iron4 ,knocker3 #a_/d #a #d ins4 long4 ,directions3 ,take the piece of metal intended for the escutcheon plate and thin the ends out according to the dimensions of the drawing4 ,draw out the end of the #c_/h #a_/b in4 piece until it is #c_/h in4 in diameter and #b ins4 long4 ,the thickness of the door must determine the length of this bolt4 ,since the door knocker fastens on to the door1 the bolt should go through and fasten on the inside with a washer and nut4 ,the other end of the bolt is rounded to the dimensions given and a #a_/d-;in4 hole is drilled through the centre4 ,knocker3 ,taper the #a_/d #a #d in4 piece of iron down as shown in sketch1 retaining the thickness1 #a_/d in41 throughout the whole length4 ,the two small pins on the end of the knocker are now made #a_/d in4 in diameter and #a_/d in4 long4 ,this whole piece is bent into shape1 the pins touching and the sides filed parallel to fit the bolt4 ,when it is fastened into the bolt it should fit up snug and close4 ,ball for end of knocker3 ,take a piece of #e_/h-;in4 round iron any length4 ,fuller in as shown by the sketch4 ,rivet this to the centre of the knocker1 the pin on the end of the ball projecting far enough through to make a rather large rivet head on the other side4 ,the rivet head acts as a knocker4 ,the bolt is pushed through the escutcheon plate1 then the knocker is ready to be placed on the door4 ,sometimes these balls are made long enough to go through the door and fasten in the same way as the bolt4 ,second door knocker3 ,the design and dimensions given here show the general scheme of this knocker4 ,the escutcheon plate is made with a piece of #a_/h #e-a_/b #g in4 soft steel4 ,the corners of this piece are clipped off and filed rounding or square4 ,knocker3 ,the knocker is made in the same way as the knocker was made in the first design4 ,you use a piece of very heavy material about #a-c_/d in4 in diameter4 ,the ends are drawn down to #a_/b in4 in diameter4 ,if the stock is #a in4 in diameter1 the piece may be upset large enough in the middle for the centre4 ,this lessens the work of drawing out and is perhaps a much quicker way of making a knocker4 ,the length of the knocker ring before it is bent is about #ae ins4 ,this is pushed into the eye bolt4 ,this knocker is placed on the door with wrought iron nails1 one in each corner4 ,the bolts that hold the knocker are riveted flush to the back of the plate4 ,this finishing work should be done by the peen end of the hammer while the metal is cold4 ,escutcheon plates3 ,escutcheon plates are used for lock plates and fancy key ways4 ,some are plain1 while others lend themselves to elaborate decorations4 ,they are forged out while hot4 ,two designs are here given4 ,the simpler one explains itself4 ,illustration ,decorated ,plate3 ,stock3 #a_/h #a #f in4 soft steel4 ,directions3 ,mark off #a-a_/b in4 each way from the centre of the plate and centre-punch4 ,this allows about #a-a_/b in4 on each end for drawing-out purposes4 ,draw ends out4 7,see sketch74 ,split the metal down to the centre-punch mark as shown in the sketch4 ,these small ends are now bent out1 and the long ends are bent in a circle1 thus forming the design4 ,the key way is made by drilling two #a_/d in4 holes #a_/b in4 apart about the middle of the piece4 ,chisel out a piece between the two holes according to the design4 ,drill four holes as shown4 ,these are for screws or wrought iron nails1 used to fasten plates to doors4 ,many escutcheon plates are used for wall cabinets1 cedar chests1 doors1 etc4 ,,door ,,knockers ,stock3 ,piece of soft steel #a_/h in4 thick1 #c #g ins41 for the escutcheon4 ,knocker1 #c_/d #a_/d #e-a_/b ins4 ,eye bolt #c_/d #a_/b bar any length4 ,strike pin1 #c_/h in4 round1 #c_/d in4 long 7on bar74 ,illustration ,directions3 ,mark off on a thin sheet of metal the outline of the drawing4 ,cut the escutcheon plate same shape as the drawing 7using cold chisel74 ,file it up so that the edges are perfectly smooth4 ,with a #a_/h-;in4 drill1 drill holes for the screws4 ,knocker3 ,split the #e-a_/b-;in4 piece of stock1 leaving #a in4 square for the eye bolt and eye untouched4 ,round up the wings to #a_/d in4 in diameter4 ,twist the two wings according to the design4 ,bring the two loose ends together and weld up #a-a_/b in4 from the end4 ,the same heat will enable you to draw and shape the loop4 ,spread out the parts between the weld and the twist1 forming in this way the loop4 ,eye bolt3 ,this is best made by working the end of a bar any length of the size stock given4 ,the drawing shows a jaw-shaped holder to receive the eye of the knocker4 ,punch a hole about #c_/d in4 from the end of the bar about #a_/d in4 in diameter4 ,cut out the piece between the hole and the end of the bar with a chisel4 ,this forms the jaw4 ,the small pin end is fullered down and drawn out the same as you did on the boss of the ring for the andiron1 then it is riveted on to the escutcheon plate 7see drawing7 in place to receive the knocker4 ,a #a_/h-;in4 hole is drilled through this and through the eye of the knocker for the rivet to fasten the two together4 ,the strike pin is made in the same way as the eye bolt1 except that there is no jaw1 just the plain piece of iron4 ,the sketch shows a simple projection for the knocker to strike on4 ,door knockers were used formerly in place of door bells1 but to-day they are merely used for ornamental purposes4 ,,door ,,pulls ,door pulls are used as knockers1 too4 ,in general they take the place of door knobs1 and are used in conjunction with a door plate4 ,they are made of soft steel or iron4 ,stock3 ,soft steel or wrought iron1 #a_/h #c #f-a_/b ins41 made same way as the door knockers4 ,illustration ,,door ,,handles ,stock3 #e_/h in4 round1 #f ins4 long1 of soft steel or wrought iron4 ,illustration ,directions3 ,the piece of stock is drawn from the centre #b-c_/d ins4 both ways to #e_/af in4 in diameter4 ,this will leave a piece of the full size material on each end of the rod4 ,flatten this out from the wide ends4 ,heat the iron very hot and flatten it down so that the width will be not less than #a-a_/b in4 to #b ins41 to #a_/h in4 thick4 ,cut the design out4 ,any one of the designs shown can be used4 ,the bosses are drawn up from the under part by using the peen of the hammer and driving it into a hard wood block1 or on an iron stake1 as explained in the article on embossing4 ,a very blunt chisel1 like a fuller1 will give the centre effect4 ,the handles are now bent into shape4 ,some handles are twisted out of flat stock4 ,illustration ,,drawer ,,pulls ,illustration ,drawer pulls are made in much the same way as door knockers4 ,there are the escutcheon plate1 bolt1 and ring4 ,they may be made to push through a drawer of any kind4 ,the design depends much upon the use the drawer pull is put to4 ,they can be made out of round iron1 flat iron1 twisted iron4 ,stock3 ,escutcheon plate1 #a_/h in4 soft steel1 #b-a_/d ins4 round4 ,bolt1 #a_/b in4 square on the bar4 ,ring1 #a_/d #f-a_/b ins41 all of soft steel4 ,directions3 ,with a cold chisel cut a piece of flat soft steel #b-a_/d ins4 round and make a disc4 ,divide the disc as shown by the drawing4 ,file out the escalloped edges and with a small hand chisel chase the lines so as to form the design4 ,the small half-round chisel will form the ovals and a centre-punch will form the dots4 ,the ring is made by drawing each end of the #f-a_/b-;in4 piece to a taper1 leaving about one third of it for a centre4 ,the ends should be tapered to #a_/d in4 round4 ,these ends fit into the bolt4 ,bend the ring into a circle4 ,engrave the design as you did on the escutcheon plate1 using the same tools4 ,the eye bolt is made from the #a_/b-;in4 square bar by drawing out the end of the bar #b ins4 or less in length1 #a_/d round1 the length depending upon the thickness of the drawer4 ,this bolt is to go through the drawer and be screwed tight in place with a nut4 ,the large part is now cut off #a_/b in4 in length and the four corners knocked down4 ,a #a_/d-;in4 hole should be drilled through the bolt to receive the ring4 ,heat the ring red hot at the heavy part and with a pair of tongs open it out just wide enough to receive the eye bolt4 ,then the ring is pushed into place4 ,bossing up3 ,place the disc while cold on the hollow wood block and drive down from the under side with the hammer1 bending in the inside4 ,this makes the outside slightly oval1 so that the bearing will be on the outer surface4 ,the depth of this concave should not exceed #a_/d in4 ,a few designs are here given4 ,,the ,,country ,,life ,,press1 ,,garden ,,city1 ,n4 ,y4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,spelling appears to be evolving between ,,us_/,,uk e4g4 ,,acknowledgment1 galvanized1 practice1 calipers1 wagon1 mold4 ,both color and colour are used in the text4 ,obvious punctuation errors repaired4 ,obvious typos repaired3 p#ib4 ,,electricty - ,,electricity p#ajd4 place-ing - placing4 p#age4 ,when you have taken off the bending - binding4 p#agf4 braclet - bracelet4 p#bgi4 it will come on - come out4 p#bid4 a temperature of #dcjj - #dcj;,f4 p#cjj4 champering - chamfering p#cba4 cut if - cut off4 p#ccb4 orginal - original ,the text contains some inaccuracies which have been left but are noted here3 p#cf4 ,this piece of wood is quoted on p#cd4 as being #aj #a-a_/d #a-a_/d ins4 p#cji4 ,the articles all this time are absorbing charcoal should be carbon4